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The instructor
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OR,
Young Man's best Companion;
CONTAINING
SPEi«l.iNGy R&adingy Writing y
ftnd Arithmetic, in an easier Way
than any yet published; with lu>
structions to qualify any Person
for Business without the Help of
a Master ; to write a Variety of
Hands, with Copies both in Prose
and Verse; Letters on Business
«r Friendship ; Forms of Receipts,
Indentures, Bonds, Bills of Sale,
Wills, Leased, Releases, ^c.
Also MerchantsAccompts, and a
vhort aqdeasy method ois/iop and
Jiook' keeping ; with aii accurate
Description of the Counties and
Market - Towns in England and
Wales, and tbeir Product.
Together with the Rfethod
of measuring Plumben, Joiners^
Carpenters, Sawyeri, Bricklayers^
Plasterers, Masons, QloiierS and
Painters Work, &c. The Mode
of undertaking each Work, and
at what Price; Rates of each
Commodity and Wages of Men j
a Description of Gunter^B Line,
and CoggeskaWs Sliding Rule.
Likewise Receipts for Dying,
Colouring, and making of Colours-,
the Practical Ganger made easy;
the Art of Dialling, and fixing
Dials; and some general Ob-
servations for Gardening through
every Month in the Year.
IN THIS WORK IS ALSO GIVEN
A COMPENDIUM OF THE SCIENCES
OF
GEOGRAPHY & ASTRONOMY,
CONTAININO
A brief Description of the different Parts of the Earth, and Svivwef
of the Celestial Bodies*,
And some usefnt Interest-Tables.
By GEORGE FISHER, Accomptant. .
The Thirty- Second Edition, corrected and improved throughout.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY AND FOR
JOHN BAILEY, ll6, CHANCERY- LANE,
3811.
rilCB TBBSB ftfiILX.INGS AND SlXnUtQU
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'- PREFACE.
LITTLE needbesaids by way ofPreface^ respecting
the usefulness of this Booky as its Contents are fully set
fbrth in the Title Page; yet, as something by way of Pre*
face is generally expected ^ a few remarks in regard to its
utility may not be Unnecessary, The first thing respect $
the forming the Young Mind for Business^ by being made
acquainted With the Mother Tongue ^ viz. Ehglish, which
being a necessary an4 principal qualification is t hereof e
the first thing to be considered in that behalf.
In the next place, to write a good ^ fair , free, and com*
mendahle Hand, is equallynecessury in the Affairs of Lifs
and the Occurrences of Business, and also relative to the
inditing Epistles or Letters in familiar Style, on vari*
otts Subjects and Occasions^ with the proper Directions
to subscribe or conclude Letters, according to^the differ^'
ent Ranks of the Persons to whom they are directed.
The next necessary Acquirement^ t^nd which . j*
- amply treated of in this ^ook^ is the excellent Science of
Arithmetic, both Vulgar and Decimal: leading, by
easy gradations, through its whole Course,
Next is set forth, ike ingenious. Method of Book'*
keeping after the Italian Manner, by way of Doutfh
Entry^ which is very necessary to capacitate the Youth •
for Business,^ lie is atsQ, in/bri^ed how to draw out
or make the various Accompts or WfUings rehting to
Mercantile Affairs; as Bills: of Lading,, Inpaices, Ac*
cQmpts of Sales, togetktr^th Examples pf Bills of
Excliange, with Noi€& concirniiig^^^em; and Bills of
• Parcels of divers Kinds^; it^h varionsforms of Receipts,
ifc. ^c. and instructions f^lating to Business at the
Water^side, as to Shifff&vgoffund Landing Goods,: kc.
' ' ASt t4>gHher
dbyGqpgle
IV PREFACE.
together with a Geographic Description of England and
Wales, each County being particularfy noticed with
respect to its Extent y SoiU nnd Product, with the
Names of the several Market^Towns.
Also easy, plain^ and useful Directions for Measure-
ing all sorts of Planes and Solids {Arithmetically and
Instrumentallyjysuch as theWorks of Carpenters ^Joiners^
Sawyers y Bricklayers, Masons, Plasterers, Painters,
Glaziers, &c. with the Prices of their different Works*
Likewise the Methods of extracting the Square and
Cube Roots, and their Uses in Measuring, &c*
Also Practical Gauging of divers Kinds of Vessels,
Tuns, &c. and also Didlling in various ways, with the
Representation of several Sorts of Dials, <ind directions
for beautifying and adorning them.
Next are Precedents of Law- Writings, as Bonds,
, Bills, Indentures, Wills, Letters of Attorney, &c. and.
Lastly, some Directions relative to the pleasant and
delightful Art of Gardening, with general Observations
for every Month in the Year, .
In the Course of the Work is given a compendious
System of Geography and Astrqnomy : The first is of
great Utility to the trading Part of Mankind, and others
who would form an adequate Idea of what they read, in
History, or otherwise, relative to the Transactions in
different Parts of the World; and the second is also ne»
cessary to those whose inclinations shall lead them to coji^'
template the Heavenly Bodies ; being purposely designed
to give (he Youthful Reader some small Idea of that
vast Number of Bodies fmost of them greatly superior
in Magnitude to out System), which the Almighty in his
infinite Wisdom and Power has created, and exhibited to
ilie observation and contemplation qf Mankind*
TABLE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS^
Pag€
ENGLISH GRAMMAR - - - - ^
Useo/LeiterSy Vowels^ Consonants^ Diphthongs;
their Number^ how pronounced and written ib»
loiters great and smalls and when to be used lO
Of the Sound of Letters - - -11
Syllables 9 and the Art of Spelling - 16-
Of Stops^ nnd other Marks used in Reading
and Writing - - - --27
Of Abbreviations - - - 29
/ Directions to Beginners in Writing - 31
-Inks, Receipts for making - - 35
Familiar Letters on various Subjects - 3^
Superscriptions and Secret Writing - 39, 40
ARITHMETIC - n - -41
Notation and Numeration • \ 4'z
Numerical Letters • • -44
Addition m • « » 4S
■ of Monet/ - * • 47
■ Avoirdupoise Weight * » 48
■ " Troy Weight • .49
Tables of various Measures m • . 50
Subtraction • « • .52
— -= of Money, &c. • .64
Multiplication « « « 56
■ ' ' ' ■ Compound • • 58
■ ^ " — = of Money • ^ €«
Division . , » « 69
of Money. • . . 7^
Reduction Descending . ^ .81
■ Ascending « . .85
Q/" reducing Foreign Coins to Sterlinir Money 8f
Rule of Three Direct » . .90
•;- • Inverse - ^ . p5
Double Rule of Three Direct • - $6
" Reverse • « . a®
Practice . . ^ .99
Tare and Tret « ^ -v1Q4
' Fit/gar awd Decimal Fractions, ^r. 107, 1 i 9^
A 3 BOOK-
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131
133
134
^i TABLE of CONTENTS.
' . Page
BOOK-KEEPING - - - - - i^
Waste Booh described r - " *
Journal and Ledger
Receipts of different Forms
Promissory JSotes -
Bills of Parcels - ^-
Bills of Exchange - - - - J*;^
^ Indorsing and Protesting of • - J^i
BiUof Lading, Form<>f - r,n' . '
Exporting and importing Goods, Ifharja^e
. , and Lighterage -^ 137, 148
MENSURATION - " ^ . , " ^ ! M?
• 0/P/«we*, So/i(f6-, awdSwpcr/ciaZ Measure lb.
Directions for Joiners, Painters, and Glaziers 154
Painters Prices^ - " ' 157
Joiners ditto * - - " 1 ^o
Sawyers mid Bricklayers Work - - J^^,
Britklayers Prices - - ' , #?q
^' Slaters-Work and Prices - - ^^^^
Plasterers ditto - * ifii
Masons and Plumbers ditto - " " 1^5
Land Measure - " ,-^ ' "1^-7
To r4?rfwre 5/a<t/f e #a Customary Measure . - J^/
iSVic^ Measure - - - ' ,*:«
. . of Timber - " . " 11^?
. ,, , ^a 6?/ofte, &c. iwVA Examples - l/^
Regular Figures - - " " IZ«
Of Circles -^ - " '
J/oirii) measure a Cube, or a Cone - . 1^0
., ^ ^ r- a Pyramid - .181
GAUGING, Rules md Examples in - - 182
EXTRACTION OF ROOTS - -186
Examples of the Square Root - - 187
. 1 1— Cube Root . - 1*,0
Application of the Square and Cube Roots 194
GEOMETRICAL PROHLEMS - -197
Line of Chords, how to make - - 199
INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC ... SCO
Ca9'pent€rs plain rule ■ - - - - ib.
Gunter's Line - - - - £02
Coggeshalis Sliding Rule . - '.04
GEO.
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TABLE of CONTENTS. vii
Page
(5E0GRAPHY . . - -206
Mariner* s Compass * • - 211
Table of Climates - • - -212
EUROPE - • - - - 213
Spain and Portugal • . - ib,
France - - • - 2l6
Germany . - • ^219
Austrian Dominions - • 220
Switzerland - - - 221
Denmark and Norway - - ib.
Sweden - « ' - - ib.
l/ni/^d Kingdom of Great Britam, &c» - 22t
. ASIA . . . - 230
AFRICA . . . * 234
AMERICA ib.
ASTRONOMY . . . .237
Copemican System • « - ib.
Solar System, Laws of • • 240
Fixed Stars . » « . 248
Constellations . » • • 250
DIALLING . . . • 253
Quadrant^ Description of m . ib,
j}i<i/» Horizontal ^ ^ ^ 254
JSrcc/ 5ow/A - • . 2511
Frect North • ^ . 257
- Erect East . . • . . 259
■ Erect West • . , . 259
COLOURS & DYING • . .261
OF MONEY - . . .263
Tables of Interest- . . - . . qq^
Gold and Silver, value of . , . 265
Table-for buying and selling -' - ib.
Mercantile, Memoranda - . . 26O
Table of Stamps - - - - . 267
Bonds, Bills, Indentures, &c. * - 209
Letter of Attoimey . ^ -971
^Ki//, ybrm of . . . \, . 273 ^
— — Codicil to • . . ^ ^-74
OF GARDENING - • ;. .277
ADVERTISEMENT*
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ADVERTISEMENT.
THE Editor of this new Edition has carefully revised the
whole, and made throughout considerable Improvements and
Additions. — He trusts it witt be found worthy of Public
' Attention^ as a better or n)ore useful Book can scarcely be
pnt into the Hands of all those young Persons wha are dc«
Mtgnti for the more active Scenes of Life; the Instructions
therein contained being laid down and explained in so familiar
9 Manner as to render the Acquirement of Knowledge aa
Amusement rathef than a Task*
The Patrons of Schools devoted to the Instruction of
Young Persons in the inferior Ranks of Society would very
much increase the Utility of their Institutions, if to each
Pupil, upon leaving the School, were presented,^ with a Bible
•nd other religious Books, a Work so judicious and in.
Uructive as the ** Young Man's best CompimionJ*
' By Means of it the Youth, already instructed in reading
his Mother Tongue, might, and, if of an inquisitive and
active Disposition, would, gradually and effectually advance
to the acquirement of every Species of Knowledge necessary
to render him a respectable Member of Society.
January, 1819.
Instructioni
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Instructions for Youths
TO SPELL, READ, AND WMITE,
TRUE ENGLISH.
^e Use of Letters ; which are Vowels and which
Consonants; what Diphthongs are, their Number,
and how pronounced and written.
THE design of this .book being to instruct mankind^,
especially ibose who are young, in the methods of con-
verstDg and transacting business in the world ; therefore
those accomplishments^ of spelling and writing good and
proper English claim the first notice ^ for let a peT8O0>
write ever so good a hand, yet if he be defective in spel-
ling he will be ridiculed, and held in contempt, because-
fai^ writing &ir will render hjs orth(^raphical faults moF«
eonspicaous. — Therefore,
First, Syllables are made of letters, words of syllables,,
and sentences of wordsi t^c.
There arc 26 letters j viz: a, h, c, d, e,f, g, h, i,j, k, /, «i>
«* 0, pi f , r, s^ t, u, V, w^ X, y,'and z. In these letters we are
to observe their names, their form, and their /orcej their
nances, by which to know them ; their form, whether
great or small ; their force, in pronunciation or utterance.
Letters are distinguished, according to their sound^ in*
to vowels and consonants: a t^oz^e/ is a letter that sounds
by itself, and these are six in number, viz, a, c, i^ o, w,
and y is also an Engilsk vowel, when it cortieth after a con-
sonant, and hath the sound of i; as in hy, sly, reply,
syllahle, &c, but they is nevet used in words not jderived
from a foreign language, otherwise than at their end. A
consonant is a letter that hath no sound except it be joined
with a vowel, for without one of the vowels no syllable
can be made 5 as b, c, d, &c. without the aid of a vow*
el, cannot be sounded. Though we have 2(5 letters, and
six of them vowels ^ yet we have 21 consonants : for y, whea
let before any vomi io the same syllnbie, becoraeiJ a conso-
A4, . . . nast^
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lb YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
nant; Sism youth, yonder, liyond, &c. Note, that j htis
the sound of g, as in join, jingle, &c. IF is a vowd at the
etid of a word, as law, now.
When two vowels come together in a syllable, and are
not parted in the pronunciation, but united in one sound,
they are called Diphthongs; of these there are 13, vz. ai,
ei, oi, ui, au, eu, ou, ee, oo, ea, eo, oa, and ie ; as in maid,
faith, either, join, aut^ eunuch, stout, feed, seed, food, broad,
stealth, wealth, people, steeple, boat, oat, heat, beat, feat,
friend^ field, &c. Note, In the first seven words both
vowels are sounded; but in the other 15, one of tbeai U
scarcely beard.
There are also those that are called Triphthongs, where
three vowels meet in one sound, as in beauty, beau, Heu,
and quaint: Likewise ay, ey, uy, aw, ew, and ow, be*
come Dipthongs at the end of words, but are called iift«
proper Dipthongs: as in say, key, joy, saw, bow, &c.
Note, aw, ew and ow, are Gommonly sounded as au, eu,
and ou*
Of Letters great and smdlU and when to he used.
Great Letters are not to be used in the middle or latter
end of a word, except the whole word be so written, as in
JEHOVAH LORD, or titles of books, &c. For it would
be very absurd to write thus : To Mr. geoRge RoGeRs, in
tbaMES street ; instead of. To Mr. George Rogers, in
Thames-street.
Great Letters are to be written at the beginbing of sen*
lences : as Know when to speak, and when to he silent.
At the beginning of all proper names of places, ships^
rivers, &c. as London, the Lion, Thames, Severn: Also
the Christian names and surnames, of women and men
inust begin with great letters : as, Samuel Sharp,
At the bes|inning of the more eminent words in a sen-
tence, as. Faith is the Foundation of the Christian Religion ;
or, if a word that we have a particular regard or deference,
for, as, God, Christ, King, Queen, &c. At the beginning
of every line in poetry i and at the beginning of the names
of arts, sciences, and trades; as Writing, Arithmetic, Geo^ .
fnetry, J^usic, Carpenter, Smith, &c.
Ihte, The personal pronoun 1, and the interjection O,
xnust always be written in capitals ; for it is ridiculous to
write thus : On Monday last i came to your house, but y<m
-was mt at home : o how mwh U grieved me I
> The
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, . U
The small letters is commonly written/at the beginning
and in the middle of a word, and s at the end ; but if two
of them come together in the middle of a vrord, they majr
be written thus^ ssfs.
Observations concerning the sound of Letters, and
which are omitted in Pronunciation.
A is not sounded in Pharaoh, nor in Sabaoih, but as
if written Pharo, or saboth ; neither in marriage, but a»
mar-rige ; also^ parliament as pariiment, and chaplain as
ckapUn, &c. In some proper names it is dropped in the
pronunciation : as in Aaron, Isaac, Canaan, Balaam :
lirhich are pronounced as if written Aron, Jsac, Canan,
Balam: but we must except Ba*al and Ga^aL A is
sounded broad^ like aw, in words beford Id and //; as ii^
hold, scald, hall, wall, fall.
J? is not sounded in iMi^m^*, dumb, plumb, lamb, douli,
debt, subtle, &c. but sounded as if written^ thum, dum^
plum, lam, dout, det, suitle, &c.
C is sounded hard like K, before a, o and u, and before
/ and r; as in these words, cane, came, comb, cub, (lay,
frane, crab ; and soft in cement, city, and tendency, €
loses its sound in scene, science, and victuals ; likewise ia
indict, indictment j also before k, as stack, rack, stick, thick,
brick. In wordfr of Greek and Hebrew derivation^ C is
sounded like K, as in sceptic, Cis, Aceldema, &c.
• Ch is sounded like K in many foreign words^ some of
which occur in the Holy Scriptures, as in chorus, Chymist,,
ChrysQStom, Christ. In the word schism, the sound of ch is
Ipst^ it beiiig sounded as if it were sism, and in the words
Bachel, Cherubim, and Archbishop, it is sounded in the
English manner. Ch in French words sounds like sh, as iii
chevalier, pronounced shevalier, ; mareschal, marshal } ma^*
chine, masheen y capuchin, capusheen ; chaise, chaize.
D is not sounded in Ribband, nor in Wednesday, which
are pronounced Ribbon and Wensday ; the termination e,
is often shortened into t ; as burrted, burnt ; choked, chokt,
ripped, ript ; passed, past} chopps,chopt, StC.
£ is not sounded in hearth,- &ic. IL fnal is that placed
at the end of a word 5 and is seldom heard but in Mono^
syllables^ as in me, Ke, she, ye^ thee, &c; where it bath
the souud of ee: And in Words derived frorti foreiga
Lan|;u9ge5 in wbichie.bas its perfect sound > as Jesse„
... JuliU^,
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It YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION-.
Jubilee, Mamre, Nineve, Candace, Cloe, Unice, Penelope^
Salmone, Phehe, Epitome, Caiastropke, Gethsemane,' Simi".
h, Pramunire, &c. In all other cas^s E final serves
only to lengthen the sound, and to. distinguish it fironi
other words of a different meaning, which are written with*
out e, and are sounded short , as in these examples fol-
lowing, vi%, cane, can; hate, hat. Hie, lit : fare, fari
hope, hop; made, mad; scrape, scrap; stare, star ; tune,
iun ; write, writ, &c. In Words of more than one
Syllable it strengthens the sound of the last Syllables, but
does not increase the number of Syllables; as admire,
demise, blaspheme, &c. E lengthens the Syllable also in
some foreign words, such as Eve, Tyre, Crete, ode, scheme.
£ is seldom written after two consonants ^^ as in pass,
ium, black. Yet after rs it is used as horse, nurse, purse.
.. Also the words 'ending in ere, gre, and tre, sound the e
before the r, as in these words, acre, lucre, centre, sepuU
chre, mitre, lustre ; which are sounded as if written aker,
ktker, center, sepulcher, miter, and luster, E final also
•erves to soften c and g, as in ace, place, lace, spice, , truce,
oblige, huge, age, &c. If nouns in e final take s after
them, with an apostrophe before it, it stands for hi'sy as the
Pope*s eye, or the. eye of the Pope^ the tablets foot, or the
foot of the table. If without an apostrophe, it makes the
plural number, as Popes, tables. Words derived frotti
those written with e final seldom retain it, as in writing,
loving, doing, &c. not writeing, loveirig, or doeing 5 ex«-
eept in the termination ^€ and ce, before able, as in change^
able, peaceable, &c.
E should not be written after a diphthong in these wt)rd8 1
vain, main, gain, fear, know, &c. not vaine, maine, gavne,
&c. E final is annexed, but not sounded, in thoso words
which would otherwise end with i, 0, or u; as in die, foe^
sloe, true, virtue, &g. but there are some exceptions, as
do, so, to, &c.
Lastly, there are some words in which the final E does
not lengthen the sovmdj as^it;^> live, some, one, done, &c.
F in plurals is changed into vj as wife, wives ^ staff,
staves; knife, knives, *
G is not sounded in sign, reign, gnaw, gnat, assign,
design, seignior, seraglio, phlegm, &c. ' G is sounded'soft
in gender, ginger, and gipsey ; but hard in Gibeon, Gi*
lerah, Gilboa, Geth-se-mane ; and hard also in these pro-
per names> Gibson, Gilman, and Gilbert^s and likewise
in
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR. li
in these common words, gelt, geld, girt, gimp, geese,
gander, gamble, gather, gild, &c. Observe, that if G be
hard with a Jong voweJ, un is joined and pronoanced in the
same syllable j as in Plague, Prague, Hague, Rogue,
League, Dialogue, Catalogue, &c.
Gk in the End of some words, where au or ou goes be*
fore, hath the sound of^', as in tough, rough, cough ^ laugh ^
souiKled as tuff^ ruff, coff, laff; but buff, cuff', srfuff) and
huff, must be so written — Gh is not sounded in mighty,
though, through, daughter, and Faughan.
• II has place, but no sound, in Chronicle, Christ, Ghost,.
John, Rhine, Schedule, and Schism, &c. H is not sounded
fit the end of words if it be alone, but with tc before it> it li
sounded as snatch, watch, &c.
/is not sounded in adieu, juice, venison, fruit, bruise, Sa'^
Usbury : it is Rouuded like ee va oblige. Magazine, and Afcr-
chine, &c. / is not sounded long in proper names ending
in iah, as Jeremiah, Hexekiah; but short in A-ri-el, and
Miri-dm, — /issouniiedlike u m first, dirt, bird, &c.
K is nearl. allied in sound to e, but to know when to
use one, and when the other. Note, that C has the force of
Kowlj before a, a, oo, and u, and these two consonants /
€nd r \, and therefore we must not write kare for care, how
for cow, krown for crown .• And the use oFiTis only befbre
c, i, and u : wherefore we must write keep, key, knight,
kill, not ccepe, cey, cnight, nor cill. But the words (7a-
lendar and Catharine are written sometimes Kalendar ox
Katharine, K is written after c only in pure English words,
su(ih as hack, deck, sick, &c. for the best authors have
omitted it in word's derived from the Greek and Latin, sucb
^9 public, music, physic, &c.
L is not sounded in calf, half, chalk, stalk, walk, those
words being pronounced as if written caff, hqff, chauk,
stank, waukn Neither is / sounded in Holbom, Lincoln,
salmon, or chaldron : these are sounded as if wrkten Ho-
born, Lincon, samrnon, chadron ; nor in colonel,, where the ,
first ^has the sound of r, as cornel,
• In the word accompt, mp is sounded like un,
N is scarcely heard in autionn, lime-kiln, solemn, limn,
hymn, column^ and condemn.
O is not sounded in people, feoffe, righteous, jeopardy, O
'gometimes sounds like oo, as ia doing, moving, proving, &c,
-'^jO is sometimes sounded like i, as in wtmen, pronounced
^immin. And sometimes O is sounded as »^ as'mmmeii,
conduit.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
M ' f YOUI^G MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
conduii, eonjure, attornejf, Monmouth, as if written mtm-
neif, cunduit, ci^njure, attumey, Munmuih^ &c. and it i&
sounded like 00^ mdo, to, prove, move, &c.
P is written, but not sounded> in empty, presumptuous,,
pSQ>lm, and symptom, &c*
Pk have the sound of /, when together in one syllable ;
as in p hilosophy, physician, Asaph, and elephant ; but we
oiust not v/YiieJilosophy, Jisician, nor Asaf, or elefant.
After ,Q always follows u in all words; and in some
tVench and Latin words they have, the sound of ^ j as ia
risque, liquor, catholique, conquer, masquerade, chequer $
pronounced as m^, likker., catholic, &c. to which add ohr
lique, relique, antique, &l6. which are sounded as if written
ollike, relik, ant eke, &c.
S is not sounded in island, viscount, isle, and Lisle ^
which are pronounced as if written iland, vicount, He, an4
Lile. .
Ti before a vowel or a diphthong have the sound of si
ov sh, as in patience, d/ctionary^ oblation, nation, transla*
tion : except when s goes just before it^ as In these words,
question, fustian, bastion, combustion, celestial, &c. But ia
some words of Hebrew and Greek > it retains its natural
sound, as in Shealtiel, Phaltiel, and the like ; and la the
English derivaiives mightier, emptier, pitiable, kc.
U is spunded like e in bury, berry ; like-* in busy, bixzy-f
27 is sometimes written after ^ without being sounded, as in.
guide, guard, &c. It is also silent in the words buy, built,
conduit, circuit, labour, favour, honour, &c^ but it is sound-
ed in others, as anguish, languish, Montague, &c,>
/f^is.not sounded in answer, sword, &c. neither is it heard
befoye r in wrap, wrath, wrong, wretch, wrangle, umgr
gle, &c.
IFh belongs to words purely English $ as what, when,
where, and wheel.
X is sounded as x in Xenophon, Xerxes, Xenocrates, and
Xantippe,
Y is either a vowel or consonant, as hinted before : A
vowel in my, by,Jiy, thy. In derivative English words, hav-
ing the termination ing, y is used in the middle of the word^
as in buying, dying, burying, marrying, &c,
, . «The diphthongs ai and ay have the sound of a in air, fair,
ipair, may, stay, play i. but a is lost in Calais (a town in
,. 'jfrance) and pronounced separately in Sinai (a mountain in
Arabia).
Digitized by CjOOQIC
ENGUSH GRAMMAR. 1*
Ei and ^i/ are sounded like a in eight, str eight, net^hhtmr,
heir, veil, and conveif ; like e in key ; and like i in sleight,
Oi and oy have a sound peculiar to themselves ; as ia
fti/y and oyster.
All and au; commonly keep' a proper ^und« as in augur,
daw, saw, kc, but u is lost in aunt and ganger, being
Siunded as an/ andgager; they make no dfphtboiag in Em-*
ma-mus and Ca'per-na-um, . ,
Eu and eii; have a united sound in most vvords^ as in
tunuch, brew, new, grew, but eu is no diphthong in Zac-cke*
us and Bar-ti'me-us,
Ou are expressed in foul, soul, proud, hud, and ow ia
1u>w^ cow, and now ; but ou sounds like oo in ^oup.
Ee is.no diphthong in Be-er- she-la, and in words begin^
hing with re, ox pre; asreen-terfpre'e-mi-nence; in BeeU
ce-huh one of the e*s is not sounded.
Oo is properly sounded in cool, fool, pool, root, and tooli
bin have the sound of u in foot and ioo^ .* they- make uo
diphthong in Co-os, co-o-pe-rate, &c.
Ea sound like e in 5eflr, pea, ream, seam, Iread, head,
lead, dead, leather, feather, heaven, leaven, nnd creature; it
is no diphthong in Ce-sa-re-a, i-de-a, re^al, be-a-ti-tude,
crea-lor; nor in words beginning with pre, us pre-am*
lie, &c.
Eo is no diphthong in dun-ge-on, hi'de'Ous,;me-'te''or, pu
ge^on, the-o-ry, &c.
Oa are sounded as o in goat, boat, coat; and sounded
broad as au,\n broad and groat, but rfre no diphthong in
Go-a (a city in India) or in the Hebrew word Zo-ar, and'
Gil'lo-a.
le before a single consonant sound like ee, as^.in brief,
chief, and thief -, but if before two consonants, sound like
e, as in fiend, Jield; but at the end of English words the e.
» not heard, as die, or lie ; are no diphthong in A-bi-e^zer,'
R-li-e-zer ; nor in the English words car-ri-er, clo-thi-er ;
nor in words derived from the Latin, as client, orient,,
quiet, and sci-ence,
Ui are sounded as u, in juice, fruit, and suit ; but u is
lost in con-duit, ^;uilt, and guise, ^Viud is no diphthong injfe-
sU'it, ge-nu'irvj, and fru-i-tion,
jE and (E are not English diphthoags, they an» used m
jEsop, CcBsar, CEdipus, and sound like e: but io; common
words they are neglected, as \rn equity, f€mak,iind tragedy ^
though derived of <equUtu$,f<emtna and ttagcedia^
Q
Digitized by CjOOQIC
16 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Of Sylhjhles and thdr Division, being the Art of Spelling,
A SYLLABLE is a sound pionouaced by a single im-
pulse of the voicei. as vtr-tud, so tha4 virtue being thus di*
vided, or taken asunder, makes two syllables, viz. vir-
and tue; which put together, ioxm the word virtue. And
rnany limes a vowel, or a diphthong of itself makes a sylj-
lable, as in a-bate, e-vt^ry, i-dle, and in au^gur, aid-ery
eyst-er, oak-en.
No ^y liable can be made, be there many or few conso^
Hants, without the aid of a vowel or diphthong.
The longest monosyllables we have' in English are length,,
strength, and straight ; which could not be sounded with*
out the vowel e or i.
The Art of Spelling may be reduced to the four follow*,
ing general rules or heads :
1st. When a consonant comes between two vowels, ia>
^ividijjg the words into syllables, the consonant is joined to
. tlie. latter vowel ^ as in sta-ture, na-ture, de-li-ver, a-mi*
tyfijkc. except compound words, which terminate in - ed,
en, est, etk, er, ing, ish, and ous ; as coast-ed, goid-en,
know-esf, know-eth, bear-er, bar^bar^ousj fool-ish, ra-ven^
bus, and sub-urbs.
2dly. When two consonants come together in the mid*-
die of a word they are to be parted, if not proper to begin-
a wordj as num-ber, strun-ger, for-tune, &c. not num»
her, strang-er, .fort-une. When the same consonant is
doubled in a word, the first belongs to the foregoing, and
the latter to the following syllable, as in the rule above^ .
and in these words, Ab-ba, aocord, ad-der, &c.
3dly. Consonants that begin words must not Jbe parted in
the^middl^e^ as, a-^ree, bestow, re-frain, not ag-ree, bes-^
tow, ref-rain. — These consonant? may begin words, viat,
bl, br, cr, dr, dw,Ji,fr, gh, gl, gr, kn^ &c, ?& blunt,. break,,
chaw, dry, draw, dwelt, Jiesh, ghost, &c.'
4tlUy. When two words come together, not making a
diphthong, they niust be divided, as in vi-al^ va^li-ant,
Li'O-nel, du-el, cru-el^ me-te-or, and La-o-di^ce-a.
Some particular Notes.
.. L is doubled in words of one syllable, as well, tell, swell,,
hall, tOailjfall, will, hill, mill, &c. But in words of more
than one svllable the word always terminates with single I,.,,
a? angel. Babel, hurtful, beautifuly and dutiful. 'Neither
must / be doubled in' o/M/oj^f, also,althovgh} notallways,:
Digitized by Google
City
Citroo
Cell
Censor
€ivet X
Ceruse
Circle
Centre
Cease
Cipher
Centurion
EWGLKH GRAMMAR. 17
mllso, aliiheugk, &c. bat words accented pn the last syllable
intBt be excepted from the above rule> viz. install, recall,
inroH, rebeU, and repell.
Y must be used before the termination ing, as buying,
lying, carrying, paying, slaying, burying, &c. ,
Jf you Gfinnot write, out the whole word at the end of
the line, you break it off at the end of a syllable, thus, con-
, ■ demn.
Cmust not be put between two consonants j as think,,
rot tkinck; thank, not thanck ; but if a vowel goes before
c, you raust write c before k, as brick, thick, stick, &c.
Of S and C, some people may easily drop into error by
mistaking S for C, as in the beginning of the following^
words, where Chas the perfect sound of 5, though Cmust
be undoubtedly written 5 viz. in
Cellar Ciellng "Censure
Censor Certain Cypress
Cinque * Cymbal Circuit
Cistern Cymon .Celestial
Cen:ient Celerity Celebrate
Cinnamon Ceremony. , '
These words must he written with S and C, viz.^
Science Sceptre Scarcity Sciatica
Schedule Scheme Schism Scythiad.
The following words should be written
unth^ - ivith-^
Contentioi^ Confusioa
Action Occasion
Contradiction' Contusion
Attention Oppression
Benediction Allusion
Apparition Ascension
Concoction Aversion
Declaration Aspersion
Ambition Commission
Contrition Comprehension
Oration Circumcision •
Oblation Conclusion
The following words should be spelled thus:.
Passion, not Pashon Salisbury, not Salsbury
Fashion, not Fation ^ Leicester, not Lester
Cushion, not Cution Shrewsbury, not Shrusburjf •'
Gloucester, not Gloster Carlisle^ not Oarlile
Worcester, not Worster Westminster, not Westmistef-
Another
d by Google
U YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Anotbfir qualificatidn 4n Spelling is, rightly to distingolslft
M^ordft of tlie same sounds or nearly the ^ame sounds thpugU
"widely different in their sense and signification > such asth#
following : ^
jixe, to cut with
Acts, of Parliament
B !
Bacon, Hogs Flesh
Baken, in the Oven
Beckon, to make a Sign
ABEL, Cain's Brother
Able, to do a Thing
Accidents, Chances
Accidence, in Grammar
Acre, of Land
AckoT, a Valley of tliat NameJ5eaco», a Fire on a Hill
Advice, Counsel
Advise, to counsel
Account, £steem
Accompt, or Reckoning
Ale, a Drink
Ail, Trouble
All, every one
Awl, for Shoemakers
Alku^, to give Ease
Alloy, base Metal
Altar, for Sacrifice
Alter, to change
Alehoof, an Herb
Aloof, at a Distance
Alhwed, approved
Aloud, to speak so
Ant, a Pismire
, Auni, a Father's Sister
Anchor, of a Ship
Anker, a Runlet
Are, they be
Air, we breathe
Heir, to an Estate
Arrant, notorious
Errand, a Message
Arras, Hangings
Harass, to fatigue
Ascent, a going up
Assent, Agreement
Assistance, Help
Assistants, ^flpers
Augur, a Soothsayer
Augre, to bore with
£ai/, a Security
5a/e, of Goods
Bald, without Hair
BawVd, cried out
Ball, to- play with
Bawl, to cry aloud
Barbara, a Woman's Nam#
Barhary, in Africa
Barberry, a Fruit _
-Bare, naked
£car, a Beast, or to bear
Bat/s, of Bay-trees , :
Batze, slight woollen dotk
Base, vile
JBa^^, tn Music
^e, they are
Bee, that makes Honey
^eer, to drink
Bier, to carry the Dead oa
JB^//, to ring
- Bel, an Idol
Berry, a small Fruit i
Bury, to inter
^Ztte, a Colour
Blew, as the Wind
Board, a Plank
Bored, a Hole
£oar, a male Swine '
Bore, to make hollow
Boor, a country Fellow
BoW, confident
Bowled, at the Jack
Bolt, to fasten
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I»
Boult, to sift Me»l
Beau, a Fop
Bow, to bend^ or the Bow
Bough, of a Tree
Boy, a Lad
^2/oy, of an Anchor
Bread, to eat
Bred, brought .trp
Breeches, to wear
Breaches, broken Places
Bruit, a Noise
Brute, Beast
Burrow, for Rabbits
Borough, a Corporation
By, near ~ -
Btty, wih Money
Brews, he breweth
Bruise, a Hurt
£z^55, a fishing Vessel
Buz, the Noise of a.Fl/
C
Cain, that killed his Brother
Cune, to walk with
Caen, in Normandy
Calais, in France
Chalice, a Cup .
Call, by Name
Cawl, Suet
Cannon^ a great Gan
(7aso7i, aRule
Canon, of a Cathedral
Capital, great or chief
Capitol, a Tower in Rx)neie
Career, full Speed
Carrier, of Good*
- Cellar^ for Liqudrs
5e//tfr, that selleth
Censer, for Incense
Censor, a Reformer
Censure, to Judge
Centaury, an Herb
Century, an Hundred Years^
Sentry, a Soldier on Guard
CAair, to sit on
Chare, a Job of Work
Champaigne, Wine of France
Campaigne, a wide Field or
military Expedition
Choler, Rage or Anger
Collar, of the Neck
Coller, of Beef or Brawn
deling, of a Room
Sealing, with a Seal
Cittern, Musical Instrument
Citron, a Fruit
Clause, Part of a Sentence
C/^2t'5, of a Beast or Bird
Coat, a Garment
Cote, for Sheep '
Commit, to do
Comet, a blazing Star
Condemn, to Death
Contemn, to despise
Council, of the King
Counsel, take Advice
' Coarse, not fine
-Cowrie, ta.be run
Co«'rf, or could
. Oud, to chew as Beasts
Current, a ruttping Stream
Courant, a Messenger or
News-paper
Currants, Fruit
C7r/c;fe, in the Neck
Creek, of the Sea or River
Cousin, a Relation
Couzen, to cheat
Cymbal, , a Musical Instni*
mcfnt
^Symbol, a Mark or Sign
Cypress a Tree
Cypi'us, an Island
Cruse, for Oil
Cruise-, a Voyage
Cygnet, a yousg Swan
Signet, a Seal
I>
J)ame, a Mistress
Digitized by VhOOQIC
w
YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Danig to stop Water Hearth, of a Chimney
Damn, to condemn Easter, the FestivsU
Deign, to vouchsafe Esther, a Woman's Name
Dane, an InbabitaDt of Den^Enter, to go in
mark
Dear, in Price
Deer^ m a Park
Deceased, dead
Diseased, sick
Decent, becoming
Descent, going down
Dissent, to disagree
Dee^ low in Earth
Di^pe, a Tawn in Franq^
Dejer, to put off
Differ, to disagree
Derby, a. City of Asia.
Derby, a Town in England
Desert, Merit
Desart, Wilderness,
Z)e2£;^ falling Mist
Do', to make
X)oe, a Female Deer
Dough, Paste
JDon, a Spanish Lord* *
Done, performed '
Dun, a Colour
Devices, Inventions-
Inter, to bury
Elder-, not the Younger
Elder, a Tree
Eaten, or swallowed
Eaton, a Town's Name
Eminent, famous
Emminent, ovet Head
Enow, in Number
Enough, in Quantity
JSarn, to deserve
Yarw, Woolleia Thread
Yearn, to pity
J5tf5/, the Wind
Yeast, used in making Bread
Envy, or Hatred
Envoy, a Mebj»enger
Exercise, Labour ©r Practic*
Exorcise, to conjure
Err, to mistake
£r. Brother to Onan
Extant, in being
Extend, Distance
i^t»> desirous
Devizes, a Town in WiUshireFeign, ^o dissemble
Doer, that doeth
Dodr, of a House
Dragon, a Serpent
DragQofi, 2L Soldier
Dolor, Grief or Pain
Dollar, 2L Piece of Money
Demure, sober
Demur, a Pause or Doubt
E
Ear, of the Head
jETer, ever
year, twelve M^tl»
Yearly, every Y^Tr
Early, betimes ' '
JEarth, the Ground
t'air, beautiful^ or a Market
Fare, Victuals
Faint, weary
Feint, a Pretence
Fourth, in Numbec
Forth, to go out
jP-ftrf, to eat
Feed, rewarded
Fir, Wood
Fur, or Ha i
^ehn, 2l Criminal
^Melon, a Whitlow
File, of Sieel
Foil, put to the wbrst
Fly, as a Bird
Digitized by CjOOQIC
ENGUSH GRAMMARw
St
Tty, an Insect
FMp, with the Fingers
Pkilip, St Man's Name
Flower, of the Field
Flour, Meal
Floor, of a Room
Follow, to come after
Fallow, Ground not
ploughed
Find, to find any Thing
Fined, amerced
Fiend, Devil
Flea, to take oflf the Skin^
also an insect
Flee, to escape
Flue, of a Chimney
Flew, did fly
Fowl, a Bird
Foul, dirty
Francis, a Man's Name
Frances, a Woman's Name
Fray.«, Quarrels
Fraize, Pancake with Bacon
Frieze, a Sort of Cloth
Freeze, with Cold
G
Gall, of a Beast
Gtfi//, France
Garden, of Herbs
Guardian, an Overseer
Genteel, gracefal
Gentile, Heathen
Gentle, mild
Gesture, Carriage
Jester, z merry Fellow .
Groan, with Grief
Grown, greater
Guilt, oi^m
Gi//, with Gold
Greater, bigger.
Grater, for Nutmegs
Grave, for the Dead
Glutinous, sticking as Pitch
Great, Urge
Grate, for Coals, tt^c.
Greet, to salute
Graze; to eat Grass
Grays, a Town
Groat, Four-pence
Gro/, a Cave
Galiies, Ships with Oars
Gallows, for Criminals
H ,
Hare, in the Field
//air^ of the Head v
Heir, to an Fstate I
HarsK, severe
Hoj^, mrnced Meat
Haven, 2i Harbour
Heaven, a Place of Happi-»
ness
Heart, of the Body
Hart, in the Woods, or an
over-grown Buck
Herd, of Cattle
Heard, did hear
Hard, not soft or diificult
Here, in this Place
J/iear, with the Ears
High, lofty
Hie, awBj, make haste
//by, a small Ship
Him, that Man
Hymn, a spiritual Song
Hail, congealed Rain
Hail, to call or hail
Hall, in the House
Haul, pull
Hfe/, of the Foof *
//tffl/, to cure ~
He7/, he will '-.
':MHj^htr, taller*
Mfire, Wages
^ife;;ofHirT4 \ . ,
Oreaw, Armour for the I-eg Hiss, as a Sofeke^ or to deride
Gkttonmis, greedy jf/oar, a Frost
y-Google
YOUN&MAN's BEST COMPANIOiSr.
IVkore, a lewd Womaa
Hole, or Hollow
JVhole, emire
Hallow, to make holy
Hollow, h?iv'mg a cavity
Laid, pJaced
Lade, to throw but Water
Lane, a narrow Street
Lain, did fie
jFZb/y« pious^ ^AoZ^^ entirely Latin, a Language
i^o%, a Tree
Home_, one's House
JVhom? What Man?
Holme, Holly
Hoop, for a Tab
/^oop, or ho! lo!
Hugh, a MaQ*8 Name
/fwe, a Colour
Hew, with an Axe
I
/, I myself
J^e, to see with
Jdk, lazy
Idol, an Image
fJl, I will
Aisle, of a Church
Isle, £^n Island
Oi/, of Olives
Inn, for Travellers
Incite, to stir up
Insight, Knowle^lge
Ingenious, of quick Parts
Ingenuous, candid
/^cA, a Distemper
Hitch, to catch hold
K
Ketch, a small.Ship
Catch, to lay hold of%^
^i//, to slay ^l^
, Kiln, for Lime >
JfCind, g^d-natured
Coined, made into Men^ .
Knave, dishonest ' *
Nave, of a Wheel v
Knight, by honour
Night, darkness
iC^ne/, for Do^
Channel, for Water
Latten, Tin
Ladder, to ascend
Lather, made with Soap
, Letlice^ a Woman's Name
Lettuce, a Salad
Z/tfa^e, of a House
Leash, Three
jL^e^, of Wine
Leese, an old Word for lose
Leaper, one who jumps
Leper, one leprous
Lessen, to make less
Lesson, to read
I/ro^^ smallest
Xes^, for fear
Lethargy, Sleepiness
Liturgy, Church Service
Lier, in wait
Liar, that tells Lies
Limb, a Member
Limn, topatnt ^
Line, Length
Loin, of Veal
Liquorish, fond of Dainties
Liquorice, a Plaht^ or its Root
Low, humble
Lo I behold .
Lose, lo suffer Loss
Loose, to let go
Lower, to let down
Xottr, a Frown
Loathe, to abhor
Loth, unwilling
M-
Made, finished
Maid, a young WomaD
Main, Chief
Jkfawe, of Horse
Male,
■"Dijgitized by CjOOQIC
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
Jfofe, tbe He of any Species Neither ^ none of lihe twa
n
Mail, Armour
Manner, Custom
Manor, a Lordship
Market, to buy or sell in
Marked, noted
Marsh, low Ground
Mask, for a Horse
Martin, a Man*8 Name
Marten, a Bird
Jifipac^ » a Meadow
Mede, one of Jlfe^fia
JkTean^ of low Value
Mien, Caniage or Aspect
Meat, to eat
Meet,^t . -
Mete, to measure
Message, Business
Messuage, a House
Mews, for Hawks or Horses
Muse, to meditate
Mighty, powerful
Jf02e/y^ Half
Mile, Measur«e
Moil, to labour
Might, Strength
Mke, in Cheese
Moat, a Ditch
Mote,2L small Particl*
Moan, to lament
Mourn, cut down
More, in Quantity
Jfoor, a Black
Mower, that moweth
Moor, barren Ground
Mortar, made of Lime
Mortar, to pound la
Jifo/e^ a little Animd
Mould, to cast in
Jlfttsd^, a Shell Fish
Muxxle, to cover the Mouth Pear, a Fruit
N Pain, Anguisk .
^o^^ denial Pane^ of Glass
fittghf as a Hone . 'Tatten, for a Woman
Nether, lower
iV<?M', not old
Knew, did know
Naught, bad
Nought, nothing
JVf ce^ curious ; also a Tow9
Niece, a Brother's Daughter
Not, denying
Knotf to tie
Note, Mark
Note, ofone*sHand
Nose, of the Face
Knows, understands
No, Denial
Know, to understand
Nealfto harden Glass
Kneel, on tlie Knees
None, not one
Known, understood
News, Tidings r. '
Noose, a Snare ^ ^
O >.
Oar, of a Boat
Ore, crude Metal
0*er, over
0#, cast off
O/, bjBlonging to
Our, belonging to ut
Hour, of the Day
Oh ! Al'as !
Owe, in Debt
One, in Number
^o«, atPJay
Own, to acknowledge
Order, Rule
Ordure, Dung
P
Pair, a Couple
Par<?, cut off ' -.
fdi^en^
Digitized by Cj009 IC
:K young MAN'S BEST CCMMPANION.
Patent, ? Grant
Peer, a Lord
Pier, of Dover
Peier, a Man*f Name
Peire, Salt
Pail, for Water
Pak, of Countenance
Paie^ a Fence
Pa/Z, for a Funeral
Pdtt/j a Man's Name
Plaii, the Hair
Plate, Meial
Place, Room
Plaice, a f «h
Parson, of the Parish
P/eoSj Excuses or Defeao€N»
Precedent, an ExamplQ
President, Chftef
Principal, Chief
Principle, the first Rulp
Q
Qttire, of Paper
C/AwV, of Singers "
Queen, the King's Wifo
Quean, a bad Wamaa
R
/2ac^, to torment
^ /fVecife, of a Ship
Arrack, a strong Liquor
Rain, Water
Person, any Man or Wom^n Reign, of the King
Pole, for. Hops Rein, of a Bridle
Poll, of the Head « Rays, of the Sua
Poo/, of Water Raise, Vift \^p
Pore, witl^ the Eyes> or of Raisin, a Fruit
the Skin
Poor, necessitous •
Palate, of the Mouth
Pallet, Bed
Palliate, to cover or hide
Point, a Stop
Pin/, Half a Quart
Posy, a Nosegay
Poesy, Poetry
Power, might
PoKr, as Water
Prey, a Booty ^
Pray, to beseech
Pro/?/, Gain
Prophet, a Foreteller
Prophecy, a Foretelling
Prophecy, to foretell
Practice, Exercise
Practise, to exercise
Presence, being here
Presents, Gifts
Prince, the King's Son
Prints, Drawings
Please, to content
. Reason, Argument,
jf?ace, to run . '
/?a5e, to demolish
i^ice. Grain
Rise, to get up
,/?««</, the Book
fieed, growing in the Water
Relic, a Remainder
Relict, a Widow
i?o^,of a Fish, or Deec
Row, the Boat
Right, not wrong
Rite, a Ceremony
IVrite, wi>h a Pen
JVright, a Wheelwright,
Reddish^ Colour
Radish, a Root
jR«/, Quiet^
Wrest, to prevent
i?or>/; the Top of a House
jR//#; for the Neck
Rough, not smppth
J2iye, Corn
^>%^, a Towii in SQi^;«eipc
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Cnolish grammar.
2$
Wry, crooked
Sleight, of Hani
Ming, the Bells
mTng, the Harfds
Shoai^, a Prop
Shor^, the Sea Coast
Bime, a Fog or Mist
Sewer, a common Draia
Rhyme, Verae
Shown, viewed
Mode, did ride
Shone, did shine
Road, the Higfhwafjr
iS/atc'^ not quick
^JRowed, did row
Sloe, a sour Fruit-
iZooni, Part of a House
Sew, with a Necdlt
Home, the Narae of a Citj
Sue, at Law
iZoaw, to wander
,S<w£^, Seed
Rheum, a Humour
Soj thus
iJo/ff, got by Heart
5omf^ a Part
JVrote, did write
Sum, of Mpney
JVrought, did work
5'oa/, or Spirit.
' S
5o/£, a Pish
Salary, Wages
Soal, of a Shoe or Foot
Celery, an Herb
Son, of a Father
Savour, Taste or Smell
Sun, in the Firmameqt
Saviour, that saves
JSortf/ painful
&rie/y. Fulness
' Soar, aloft
Society, Company
Swore, did swear >
Sheep, Si nseful Animal
Sivord, a Weapon
iS^^, for the Sea
6'oare</> did soar n
Sight, View
' 5/artf^ to look earnestly at
. die, to summon
Stair, a Step
iSi?^, Situation
Stile, to get over
Sail, of a Ship
Style, of Writing
£a/«, of Goods
^02£«(£^ whole, firm; ali#
Sea, the Ocean
Noise
See, with the Eyes
Swoon, to faint awaj
y Seam, in a Coat
Soon, quickly
Seem, appear
Statue, an Imagt
^ip«i, behdd
Statute, a Law
A««^, in a Play
Stature, Height •
JSpo^, great Watert
5/fa</, in Place
Seisin, to lay hold of
Steed, a-Horse
Sease, to leave off.
Straight, not crooked
Sent, did send
Strait, narrow
&^^ a Smell
Succour, Help
Show, to make appear
Sucker, a young Sprig
Shoe, for the Foot
iSpear, a Weapon
<Siii^, sink down
Sphere, a Gbbe
Stnque, five
T
^lif ^^ ^ ^^V^
Then atihat Tinur ^
Digitized by Google
26 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Than, in coraparisou
Tame, genie, not wild
Thame, a Town in Oxon.
Tear, to rend
Tear, of tbe Eye .
Fiai,. a Bottle
rtol, a Fiddle
U
Your, of you
Ewer, a Basin
Tare, an Allowance in weight 6^56, Practice
Tare, Vetch
TafV^ofaBeast
Tale, a Story
Tiles, for the House
Toil, to labour
Toil, a net
TAere, in that Place
Their, of them
Thorough, complete
Throw, a Stone
Throne, of the King
Thrown, as a Slone.
Ttt/e, a flowing Water
Tied, made fast
Time, of the Day
Thyme, an Herb
Team, of Horses
Tifewi, whh Child
To, the Preposition '
Toe, of the Foot .
Tow, to be spun, to draw
Too, likewise
Two, a Couple
Told, as a Story
Tolled, :'s a BeU
Tour, a Journey
jro2i;er, of a Church
V
Vacation, Leisure
. Vocation, a^Calling
Veil, a Covering
Vale, between two Hills
Vain, foolish
Vein, of tbe Body
Vane, a Weathercock
Value, .WorXh.
Valley, z. Vale
Use, to be wont
Ewes, Sheep
W
. Wages, pay for service
fVagers, Bets
JVcule, in Water
Weighed, in the Scales
IVliaie, a great Fish
^i^i/, to lament
^f^i5/, the Middle
Waste, to spend
Wail, to stay for
Weight, Heaviness
Wear, the act of Wearing
Ware, Merchandise
Were, was
Where, what Place
' Weighed, to poise
^^, five Quarters
/f%^y, ofMilk
Tfield, a Sword
Weald, of Sussex or Kent
/^(?n, in the Neck
When, at what Time
Witch, that conjures
Which, who or what
Whist, Silence
Whist, a Game
Wist, knew
/Toot/, of Tjees
Woud, or would
Y
yiefl, yes
Ye, yourselves
Yew, 2L I'ree
You, yourselves
Yam, made of Wool
Ytarn^ to pity
d by Google
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,- Hi'
Of Sipps and other Marks, used in Reading arid' W^ridng,
THESE are of absolute necessi^; and great regard
ought to be had to tbeoi for the better understanding of
what we read s^nd write ourselves ; they are likewise of use .
to others who shall bear us read, or see our writing. '
. Stops^ or P^uses^^considered as intervals in reading, are
no more than four $ though there are other marks to be ta<«
JKen notice of. The names of the four Stops are, a Comma,
Semicolon, Colon, and Period, or Full Stop : and tbes*.
bear to each other a kind of progressional proportion of
time^ for the Comma signifies a stop of leisurely telling
«ne, the Semicolon two, the Colon three; and th^ Period
four — And are made or marked thus : .
Comma (,) at the foot of a word.
Semicolon (;) a point over the Comma.
Colon (:) two points.
Period (.) in single point at the foot of a word.
, Example of the Comma (,) : There is not any thing m
tbe World, perhaps, that is more talked of, and less under-
stood, than the business of a happy life.
; Example of a Semicolon (;) : The orator niakes the
truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them j he excites
them to action ; he shows them their impending danger.
: Example, of the Colon (:) A sound mind is not to be
shaken with popular applause : but anger is startled at every
accident.
. Example of the Period (.) : It is a shame, says Fabiui,
for a commander to excuse himself by saying, " I was not
aware of it." A cruelty that was only fit for Marius to suf«»
fer, Sylla to, command, and Catiline to act.
By the foregoing Examples we may easily note, tbat t
Comma is a note of a short pause between words in the
sentence 5 and therefore the tenor of the voice must still b«
kept up. — The Semicolon is a little longer, and the tone of
the voice very little abated. —The Colon signifies perfect
tense, though not the end of a sentence j and the voice sojne-
what abated. — The Period denotes perfizct sense, and tbe
end of the sentence.
? When the Question is asked, there is a crooked mark
made over the period, thus? and is ^Ued a Note of In-
terrogation. ' Example, What could be happier than tfa«
state of mankind, when people lived without either nyrnkm
S2 #r
digitized by CjOOQIC
1» YOOKQ IflASTf BEST COMPANION.
m etxvf } The true time of paose for this top is the ame at
with the ScvaicoloiH
! If a sudden crjNOUt, or wondertfig be expressed^ thW
this mark is made over the Full Stop, thus ! and caffed a
Note of Admiration or Exclamation. Example; Oh the
Jttonishing. wonders (hat are in the Starry Heai'ens ! -
( ) If one sentence be within another, of which it is na'
,part^ then it Is plaqed between two Semicircles orFaren*
theses^ made thus ( ). Example, Pompey, on the otbet'
eidei vfho hardiy «ver spoke in public, without a blush, had
a wonderful sweetness of nature. Again : Of authors be
aure to n^ake choice of the best, and (as I said before) stick
adose to them. In reading a Parenthesis, the tone must be
aomewhat low^ , as a thing or matter that comes in by the
1>ye^ The time is equal to a Comma, and ought to be read
pretty quicks lest it detain the ear tookuig from the sense of
she more important matter.
' Aposfrophe, u a Comma at the bead of letters, signify*
ing some letter or letters left out in poetry, ^ wtadd^sl for
tvauldest, ne'er for never^ Uis for it is, aV for over. Or te
denote a Genetive Case ; as my Father's House, my Uncle*a
Wife,«co.;
" Accent is placed over a vowel, to denote that the slresa
«r sound in pronunciation is on that syllable.
" Breve, or crooked mark over a vowel, signifies it miist
Ise sounded short or quick.
A Caret signifies something is wanting, and is placed un#
demeath the line, just where any things omitted should b«
brought in. -
A Circuffiflex is of the same shape with a Caretj but ia
placed over some vowel, to show that the syllable is long^
as Eu'phrd'tes.
" Dicer esis, two points placed over vowels, to signify they
are parted, being no diphthong, as a-e-ri-al.
- Hyphen or Note of Connection, is a straight line, which
ahowsthat the syUables of a word are parted, and the re-
mainder of it is at the begioninjg of the next line. Some*
times the hyphen is used in compound words, as heart*
breaking, book-keeper. When you have not room. to write,
the whole word at the end of a line, but are obliged to finish
it at the beginning of the next, such words oaost be truly <£-
vided, according to the rules of spelling.
ft:r Index is a note like a baad^ ^pointing to lometbiPS
yery rainarkabte.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1:N6LISH grAmmak. :^
* Asterism or Star, directs to some remark in the mar-
pa« or at the foot of tbe page. Several of them together
denote something; defective in that passage of the author.
f Obelisk is a marltlike a dagger; and refers to the mar-
giO) as the Asterism : and in dictionaries it signifies the
word tQ be-ol^kte ot; old> and out of use.
^ Paragr<ipk denotes a division^ Gomprehending. aeyeral^
senCencea. under one head.
§ Section signHieS' the begmning of a new head of dti«-^
course, and it is used in sub-diyiding a chapter, or book,
into lesser parts or proportions. ^
[ ] Brackets or Crotchets, generally incfude a-word or
aentlHuie, explanatory of what went before ) or words of the
same sense, which may be usedin their stead.
*' Quotation, or double ebmma inverted, is used at the
beginning of the line, and shows what is quoted from aii
author to be his own words, as an excellent Poet says,
'• The pibper Study of Mankind i^ Man."
Off Ahhrevia^ns*
To be ready in these shows a Dexterity in Writing, and
rs YWy necessary for Dispatch ; for by these we expedi-
tiously express, or set down a Word, shortening it by mak-
ing sotpe initial Letter, or Letters, belonging to tlie Word/
to express it, as in the Table following :
A. B. Bachelor •€ Arts €enU Centam
A. Bp. Arehbisop Chron, ChronkM'
d- P'iAnoo JQbmiiii, Tear of (he Capt, Captaio
Lord Cfl/. GAki8Si«a»
d. Jir4AaD0 Umadii YmS of the CL Clericas
World Col. Colonel '
Admrs. ildministraitors- Cor Corintluaas or Corvniv^
A^M. Artium Magister, Alakter of Cr Creditot
Ai^ C.C C. Corpus Ghriati Colleft
Ana, of each a like Quaotitj C. 8. Gustos SigiUi, Keeper of the
44«d.Atim\n\ Seal
Aug. August C P. S Costos Frivati SigUlV
A.R. Anno Regni, in the Year Keeper of the Privy Seal
oftheReifv 2V. Doctor or Debtor
Asi.P. O. Astronomy Profeesor at Da Ditto, or the sama^
Greaham College IhtU. Deuteronomy
B. A. Bachelor of Arts Dee Deceased
£. D. Bachelor of Divinitf D. D Doctor of Difinity*
J. r.Blefied Virgin " £.,Earl ,
Barf. Baronet Sarld Earldom
JS^JliPb^ ' £» gr ore.^ £xtvp)i|rmtia»ilw
CmU. Caatic)ea» or Caaterfanry Example
^^ Sa ^ M4d^
Digitized by Google
.3a YOUNG MAN^s BjPST COMPANION;
£ecL EcclesiMtes
Ex, Exodas or Example
' E8q.Eaf[mre
Excn. Exeter
. J'Vi. Februnry
E. R S Fellow of tbe Royal So-
ciety
. Gal. Galatiani
Oen. Geuesif
Genmo. Geueralissimo
O. A. Georgiiu Rex, George tbe
King
Gen. General
Gent. Gentlemaii
Neb. Hebrews
i. e. i<)« efll, that ii
/. II. S.Jesvi HominiMii Salvatpr,
■ Jesin Savi9ur of Men
lb. (bidem, in the same Place ^
Id. Idem, the same
Jan. January
Jer. Jeiemiah
Judg. Judg^es
J. D. Jurium D(ft:tor, Doctor of
Laws
Jos. Joshua
Knt. Knifcbt
i. Libei'y a Book
X- Librae, Pouudi
Zieut Lieutenant
LL D. Lfgum Doctor, Doctor
of Lawi
Lam, LaiuentatioiM
Lev. Ueviticus
L. C. J. Lord Chief Jiuticc
Jlf. One Thousand
Mnt. Matthew
m l\fymptUuSy a Handful
A/. A Master of Art!
M*n9. Monsieur
iJ^Ir. Master
Mrs. Mi^treas »
.Jtf. D Medicine Doctor, Doc-
tor of Physic
M S. Memorie Sacrum, Sacred
to tUe Memory
MS. Maiiu6ci*ij)t
MSS Manusrripts
Mich. Michael, or Mkbaelmat
N B. Kola Bene, Note, or
mark well
JN^. S. New Stylt
JSo, M umber
^ov. November
O. S. Old Style
Oct' October
Ox«a. Oxford
PugHy a Hundfni
P<f. Paid , ..
Pari. Parliament
PhUo Math. Philo Mathemalicui^
a Lorer of the Mathematics
P. M. a Profe^isor of Muaic «t
Gre»ham College
Ps. Psalm
P. S. Postscript
Penult. last save on^e
Q. Query
q. d. quasi dicat, as if he sbouM
say
g. I. qifantum libet, as mucb aa
you please
q. s. quantum sufficit, a sufficieat
quantity
qr. Quarter, or a Farthinj;^
Rev: Reverend, or Revelation
Reg. Pr^. Regius Professor
Rmn. Romans
Rt. Honble. Right Honourable
Rt Worpl. Right Worohij^fal
St.. Saint, or Street
Sect. Scctiou ' • ,
Sept. September
Serj Serjeant
Salopy Shrop8bii«
ss. SemissiH, half a Pound
8. T. P. a Professor or Doctor W
Divinity *
Thesf. Thessaloniant
V. Virgin, or Verse >
Vll. UlHmMy the last
.Firf. see
Viz. Videlicet, to wit, or tbet is te
" say '
V. gr. Verbi Gratia, for Exoisp^le
Xn Christian
Xt. Christ ,
Xtopher. Christopher'
yejthe ' ' ••£«
yn, then
y»w, (bem
yty that
^r, your
4, et, and - ' ~"'
^c. et cetera, end the re«t, oiy eiWI '
eo Ibrth. ' '
DUI&CriQHl
d by Google
OF WRITING. 31
DIRECTIONS TO BEGINNERS ly WRITING.
FIRST, it is necessary to be provided with the followinjj
Implements, viz. good Pens, and Ink and Paper; likewise
a flat Ruler for .exactness j and a roniKi one for Dispatch j
with a Plummet or Pencil to rule lines.
How to hold the Pen.
THE Pen must be held somewhat sloping, with th«
Thumb and. the two Fingers next to it ; the Ball of th*
Middle-finger must be placed straight, just against tbe'tipper
part of the Cut or Cradle, to keep the Pen steady ; the fort
finger lying straight on the Middle-finger } and ihe Thumb
must be fixed a little higher than the end of the fore finger
bendiug in the joint ; and the Pen so placed as to be held
easily without griping it. The Elbow must be drawn to-
wards the Body, but not too close. You must support your
Hand by leaning on the Table-ed^e, resting it half-way be-
tween your Wrist and Elbow, not suffering the Ball or
fieshy part of your Hand to touch the Paper ; but resting
. your Hand on the end of your little finger, that and your
fore-finger bending inwards, and supported on the Table.
So fixed, and sitting pretty upright, not leaning your Breast
against the Table, proceed to the making the small a, c, tj,
t, ffi, r, s, IV and x ; which must be all made of equal sizt
and height ; tbd distance or width between the two stroket
of the n must be the same with the distance or width in th«
three strokes of the m ; the same proportion or width must
be observed in the v, w, and o. The Letters with Sterns^
or Heads, most be of equal height ; as the I, dyf, h, I, an J
f, and those with tails must be of equal depth, as the^, g,
p, y. and/. The Capitals must bear the same proportion
to one anotlier with respect to size and height, as J, B, C,
D; E, F, G, Hy and /, &c. All upright strokes, and those
leaning to the left hand, must be fine or hair strokes, and
all downright strokes must be fuller or blacker. Due care
must be taken, that there be an equal distance between
Letter and Letter, and also between Word and Word. Th»
Distance between Word and Word may be the space the
small fft takes up 5 but between Letter and Letter not quite
fo much. Sit not long at writing, especially at the first.
Jest it weary you^ and you grow tired of learning. Imitate
B.4 • ^h*
Digitized by CjOOQIC
32 YOUNG MAN'S BIST COMPANION.
the best Examples ; have a constant eye tb yoor Copy ^ asd
be not ambitions of wf Uing fast, before you write well : £x«
pedition will follow naturally when yoQ have gained a habit
l»f writing faif and free ^ for it is macli more commendable
lo be an hour in writing six Lines well, than to be able to
writy sixty Lines in the same time^ which perhaps will be
unintelligible. And beside by a slow and fair procedure
you will learn in half the time, and therefore it is in vam in
a Learner to desire to be quick before he has acquired Expe-
rience, and a Freedom of Writing by frequent practice,
^ever overcharge your Pen with Iok| but shake what m
^)o much into the Likstand again.
How to make a Pen.
THIS IS gained sooner by Experience and Observation
from others who can make a Fen well^ than by verbal Di-i
l^ections. But before you begin to cut the Quill^ scrape <^
the superfluous Scurf with the Back of y«ur Penknife |
scrape most on the Back of the Qxiill, that the Slit may b^
the finer. After }ou have scraped the Quilt, cut it at tb<i
End, 6alf through, on the back Part, ami then turning up
the Belly, cut the other Part, or Half, q^ite tbroughi tfi««
9bout a quarter or almost half an Inch, at the end of the
Quill, which will then appeiar forked. Enter tbe^ Penkuifli
a little in the back Notch, and the? putting the peg of the
l^enknife-haft into the back notch (holding your Thumb
pretty hard on the Back of the Quill, as high as you intend
the sFit to h^\ with a sudden or quick Twitch force up tho
slit; it must be sudden and smarts that the slit may bo
' clearer. Then by severaV cuts on each side bring the QuiU
into eqiTal shape or form on bath sides ; and having brought
it to a fine point, place the inside of the Nib on the Nail of
your Thumb, and enter the Knife at the Extremity of the
|^JLb> and cut it through a little sloping, then with ail almost
downright cut of the Knife cut off the Nib. The breadth of
Ihe Nib must be proportioned to tl^e breadth of the Body^
or downright'back-strokes of the Letters, in whatever han<l
you write, whether small or Tei^t. Note, In sitting to write,.
place yourself directly against a fore-right Light, or elsQ.
have it on your left Hand> but by no means have the ligbt
on the right Hand« because the;sha4ow of your WritiDt-biio4
viir obstruct your Sight.
A
d by Google
OF WRITING.
^9
^^ l» (t> ^^^
•-•ft
II-
8L
•a
9
PT*
94^ CoriM.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
M YOtJNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Copies in Alphabetical OADSft.0<«t/l ^
;4« Art IS gained by great Labour aod Ipdustrf.
A covertons Man is always, as hp fancies^ in Waot.
i^ Beauty is coaiinendable in somej but it ruins othen.
' By Peltght and some Carg^ weettaiivto wiite (w^ »
C. ContenUo^nt is preferable to lUcbes and Haaoutv
Can they be tdeemed wise who Counsel Despise ?
D. Deride xuil InfirniiiUes, nor tritioiph oyer Injuries^
Delight^^ Virtue's Ways, ahd Uien you*li merit Vnkfim.
X. J)very Plant and Flower displays to us God*4 Powers
* Example oft' doth rule the wise Man aod'tbe fjopii .?
P. Fair Words are often used to, hide bad De^ds» I''
Pew do Good with what they have gotten ill. '^
G^, (Jodliness with Con*«»*4&-^ea^Gain; •.
' Grejit-Mitids and small Means ruin^awny Men. :
H. Hasty Resolutions^re seldpitifortuoarel ^
Haste makes Wast^ of Pj4)er, Ink and Time.
J. Instruction and a good Educa^oa are d <)orable Porti^^
V " ignorance is ^he greatest Enemy to LMrstng*
K. Keep a close Mouiii if you-cl have a wise Head. ^^ ^
Kings as 4rell as m^an Men totialt die. - ^ ^
li. liearn to live as you wpuld ^lsl| to die.
^r'^ Leara to unlearn uibat you have learntd amiss* ^
St. Modesty has more CharmCtbsKi iBeaut}'. ' ' ►' '
^ .iWake;^ of* Tim^ now av hilst yiou're ttf?ybtrisPrii»r»,
K. Ne^dsiiiy js comitionly the Itic^erof Invention.
;, * Next to a^ckid Coiiscience prefer a good TvTarae. ..
ip. OppbTtnnlty neglected brl^ severe Sep^^iance^
' Of Jtil Profligalky Aat of Time is the worst.'
I*. Poof' Mea want m$ny Things, but cqteoiis^Men^iriL
Patieoc«^,^d ..Tiqp^run thtlQlU^ -the rdogtiest D^^
i2. ^nick Pfomisers are commonly slow Peribrnaers.;
Cluajijfy «&orb;tant Passions with Quietness and Patience.
JR. Rendember your Duty to God, your' NeighbouTj a»d-
^ yonr^self. ^* \ ;' -^ ;•
JRepentance csome$^^ late when all is cohsisnaed; ''
II,, Sm and Sorrow areTnseparatsle Companions. :
Self Love IS the greatest FlattctiQr in tfie World. . i
T. The End of Mirth is often the Beginning of Sorr^^
Time is so swift of Foot that notje can overtake it*^
V. Vain an?! transitory is all wordiy Glory. -^
i Virtue and Foruinevwork Wonders in the Wmlil,
!JV. Wisdom is more valuable than Riches*
Wbat pleases Qod mu^ b^ ngne ^tto bis Decree. .
>^' ^ < - ' ^ X. mmosh^
Digitized by Google
OF WRITING. S5
X. Xenophon was a great Captain as well as a Philosopher.
Xerxes whipped the Sea Hot not obeying his Commaad*
Y. Young Men lament your mis-spent Time;
Z. Zeal mixed with Love is harmless as a Dore.
Zealously strive with Emulation to wiite.
Shqrt Limes ybf Text Havz>.
Abandon whatsoever is ill — Be wise betiroe».
Care destroys the Body — Do the things that are justr
Expect to receive as you give — Frequent good Company.
Give what you give ^iheerfully — ^ Hold good Men in Esteem..
Inaitate that which is good -—Keep Goas Commandments.
Learn to be wise — Make a right Use of Time,
Nothing get, nothing have— -Observe Modesty.
Pleasures jare very short— Pains are very Ibngi
duk all Revenge—Cluit yonr Passions. ^ f
Recompense a ^ood Turn — Repent of your Sins.
Silent gives Consent-^Sin not at all.
..Time is more precious than G«ld — ^Turn from your Siaf#
Use moderate Pleasure — Use no bad Company.
Vain are some Pleasures — Vice-is detestable. . . , ,
Wisdom is the principal Thing — ^Wise Men are scarce.
Xenophon, Xenocrafes. <
Yesterday cannot be recalled— Zeno. and ZenoKia.
As good Irrk is essential to good Writing, I here, give »•
Receipt pr two for making some of the best Black Ink in
the WorU> viz. .
A Receipt for making hlack IvtK, ^
T9 six Quarts of Rain or River- Water, .put one Pound
and a Half of fresh blue Galls of Aleppo, bruised pretty
awiall 5. six. Ounces of Copperas 5 also eight Ounces of qlean>
bright, and clear Gum Arabic. Let these stand toadB|r ia
a large Stone Bottle near ^Fire, with a narrow MoSm, tg^
keep It free fronx Dust ;. snake^ or stir it well, pace ev«rf
i)ay, and you will |^ave excelleat Ink in abot(t a Month t
TimCj, and the olcje^it grows the better it will b^ for ILTse. .
.•'"'. j^kredknis for a Quart,
£lne Qtiart Q^H|,<^Water, foar Ounces of GaKsi,
Oa^ce of Copp^^Rand two Ounces of Gum> mix^ed ^
(birred a ^ aboveflpie Galls m^t be hnmi^
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35 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
How to make Red Ink,
Take three Pints of stale Beer (ratker than Vinegar), an<f
four Ounces of gi^ound Brazil Wood ; sioiroer them toge«
ther for an hour ; dissolve half an Ounce of Gum Arabiia
in ir^ then strain U throngha Flannel, and bottle K up (\rQll
•topped) for Use.
To keep Ink from Freezing or turning Mouldy.
In very severe Weather Ink will be apt to freeze, whicl%
takes away all its Blackness and Beauty. ToprevejQt which^
pat a Wine Glass of Brandy or other Spirit into a Quarts
and it will not freeze. And to hinder its turning mouldy^
.pQtalittld Salt in it.
FAMILIAR LETTERS,
#N 8XyXRAI» OCCA3IOKa ANB ON DIVBSS SUBJECTS,
^ LETTERS are variously worded^ and ought properly t»
express the desires, thoughts^ &c. of the writer to the reader^
by which the receiver of the letter may fully understand the
wants or intentions of the sender. Of these I here give sun«
4fy examples.
A Letter from a Son to bis Father. i
Hon. Father/
AS I have not bad a letter from yoa since your favour of
the 8th of October last> which I answered by the next post«
I take this opporlaorty. of enqotfing after your health, 'and
l^at of my Sister. Kray gtvemy love to my Sister, and b*
Ikleascd to aocept of n^ duty 'to yourself^ who am,
Sir,
Lnuhn, Dec. 6, . Your dutiful Son,
lp09^ Anthony AddleUn*
TkeA>V^wer.
Dear Sod, ' fepetueji, 28M De^. lSpg>,
1 received your letter of the 6th instant, and thank yoo^
Jbr ksqutrilog after my health, wlikh, I thank God, 1 per«r
ff^Iy enjoy at present, as I with and* hope you do. Toi:^r
Sister senils lier love to you, and with it a turkey and a chin^
«f Ittcon, to which I wish you 9&d your friends (if yon in*
jrite any) a good appetitt^. . Fcayers to God for your welfiue,
' liiDiH&rai aood eteniaV are coa$luin^
• ', ' "■"- ^' '- 3(oasJof^ lather,
\^ JtoditwAddfc]^
Digitized byCjOOQlC
LErraa wnrriNtt \
From a Niece to her Aunt. '^^
Dear Aunt,
TB£ tfopble I bav^ already given yon pots me lo tbe
hlixsh when I think of intruding again on your goodness f
bat necessity, which frequently obliges us to such actions a»
are contrary to our inclination, is the motive that induce*
xne to be again troublesome. I pray you to excuse me if f
ODce more beg your assistance, which i do not doubt but yoi»
very well know I stand greatly in. need of at this time $ and
I shall ever have a grateful remembrance of your, goodness
tome; and I hope 1 shall be, one time or other, in a ca-
pacity of making some returns for tlie ipany obligation your
goodness has conferred upon me.
JLondoUi May g. Your afiectionate Niec^t
1811. aod very humble Servant,
Fenek^Fioch,,
From a Brother to his Sisten
Dear Sister,
MY great distance and long absence from you makes mii
Tery solicitous concerning yeur welfare : natural afifectioa
inclines me strongly to have you in remerobrance, tendering
yonr health, and welfare in every respect, as dearasmyownj,
and there is Nothing at. my* copamand^ but, if you re^est^
it shall be freely yours. Notwithstanding the distance,
I purpose to Qpake you a visit very shortly, and I had done it
b^ore MOW, but an urgent occasion interposed, the particu-
lars of which being too long for a letter, I shall acquaint
you with when I see you. Pray give my due respects to all
Friends. I am.
Dear Sister,
London, May 6, Your afiectioiiate Brother,
, WJ. Jienry Hearty.
A Letter from a Youtl^ at School to bis Paren^^*
Honoured Father and Mother, . , '
. 1 AM very much obliged to you for. all your favouis : all
I have to hope is, that the progress I ina^ in my learning
will be no disagreeable return for the aaxne, Gratitode,
duty, and a view to future advants^es, all' conspire So maka
me fully sensible how temch.I ought tq. labour for myo^n
im^Qvement and -your satislai^iloo, io order to show mysell
iipoo all occasions, to b^ • . ,
Jkl^n School, Majf 8^ tpvfi dftiful Squ,
1%IU panici Di%Bt.
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r— *fll^^5^^^
mmmm
YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANIOW.
A Letter of Recomiiiendation.
Sir,
THE Bearer, Francis Bashful, I send to you as one
irbose honesty you may rely on ; and my experienpe of his
conduct and fidelity gives me a certain kind of confidence
in recommending him to you ; for you knour. Sir, that I
would not recommend any one to you of whose probity I
had the least shadow 'of doubt or sttspicion. I am^ witb
due respect. Sir, yoqr real Friend,
May 6, 1811. and humble Servant,
George Generous*
A Letter of Thanks. -
Sir,
I Received your Favour, with the kind present which ac*
comjKinied it : I have no other way of expressing my grati«
tude at present than by my hearty, thanks 5 every thing yoa
do has a peculiar excellence, and the manner of doing it is as^
agreeable as the' action itself j but I must stop, lest I should
offend that delicacy which I would commend, and which it
tonstdntly admired by,
MaTf 10, 1811, Sir, your most obliged and
humble Servant,.
George Grateful,
A letter in Manner of Petition to a Friend, ,
Honoured Sir, -.
. I AM uncertain whether my late misfortniies have come
to your knowledge ; however I will presume on your good*
nature, being assured, from many examples of your com-
passion, that you will think of and take pity.on the distress*
.ed ', therefore, as an object truly deserving compassion, I
most biinlbiy implore arid petition you to consider the maay
I losses and disappointn^ents that I liave lately met with, which
Ifaave reduced nie to such, necessitous circumstances, that I
cannot possibly proceed in my affairs : you was pleased once-
[ ,to style nie your Friend, and so I was indeed : I doubt not,.
Sir, butyour generosity and goodness are great 3 and I hope,,
with ail humility, you will be pleased to interpose your good
offices between r^in and.
Sir,
Your unfoi^opate bumble Servant,
Laurence Luckless. ^
It is as' proper to know how to subscribe, and how to d}»
[ ft<;tj as H is to write a Letter^ - '
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ENGLISH OSAMMAK, H
Superscriptions. . . ,
To the King*$ Most Excellent Majesty.
■ To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, &c» .
To the Prince, To his Royal Highness, itc.
To the Princess, To her Royal Highness, &c.
To Afcbbwhopfti
. To his Grace the Lord ArchUshop of Canterbury, or
To the Most Reverend Father in God, &c.
To Bishops.
Toihe Right Reverend Father in God, &c.
To Deacons, Archdedcons, &c.
To the Reverend k.^. D. D. Dean ofW. ,
'. - ^ To the Inferior Clergy, >
To the Rev. Mr. A- &c. or To the Reverend Doctor, &a ■
To the great Offices ol g.( ate.
To the Risht Honourable A. Lord L, Lord High C/ian*
aelior of Great Britain. — Lord President of the Council, -^^
Lord Privy Seal,— One of his Majesty* s principal Secretariei
of State, kc.
To Temporal Lords, '
His Grace the Duke of, bcc. The most Hon, the Marquis
of, &c. The Right Hon.. the' Earl of, kcThe Right Hon^
the Lord Fiscounl, Sec. The Right Hon. the Lord^ &c.
Tlie eldest Sons of DuRes, Matquisses, and Eaijs, en^ojr
by the Courtesy of England, the second Title belonging to
their Father: thus the eldest son of a Duke of Bedford is
called Marquis of Tavisiock', the Duke of <Pra//(?f/, JSar/ of
Euston ; of the Earl of Macclesfield, Lord Viscount Parker^
&c. and tlreir Daughters are called Ladies, with the Addi-
tion of their Christian and Surnames thus. Lady Carolinat
Mussel, ^Augusttk FiUroy-, Lady Betiy Parker, &c.
The younger Sons of Dukes are also called Ix)rds: and
those of MftFquisses and Earls, together with all the Child-
ren of Viscounts and Barons, are styled Honourable,
To a ^^vonei Hanpurahle ', a Knight, Right Worshipful^
and to an Esquire,. /i^ri^i;)/i//—Every Privy Councillor,'
thougn not a Nobleman, hath the Title of i?i^6^ /iof/awra^/^.
AU Ambassatior* have the Style oij. Ex,c^llency , a$]f)ath aho
the Lord Lit^u tenant of /re/(/nrf, anxl the Captain Genera) of
his Majesty's Forces. The Lord Maj^r of London, during
his Mayoralty, hath th^ Title of Right Honourvhle, Apd,
the Sheriffs, during that Office, have the Title of Rigkl JVor--
shipfuL All Mayors of Corpowlkm* Jhave.liie Title ©f £j-
fmes^iuxiag tkeir o£ee«
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4^ YOUNG Sf AN^i BBSt COMPANION*
For ihe Beeinning of Letters,
To the King 3 Sire, or May il please your Majesty/
To the Queen ^ Madam, or May il phase your Majesty
To tbe Prince j Sir, or May it please your Royal HighnHt,
To tbe Princess; Madam^ or May it please your Royat
Highness.
To a Duke j My Lord, or May if please your Grace,
To a' Duchess ; Madam, or May it please your Grace,
To an Archbishop ;' May it please your Grace.
To a Marquis ; My Lord, or May ii please your l/^dship^
To a Marchioness } Madam, or May it please your Ladyships
To an Earl, Vi^^tount^ or Baron ; My Lord, or may^ it plesum
your Lofdship.
To their Consorts ; Madam, or May it please your Ladyship^
To ia Bishop \ My Lord, or May it please your Lordsmp,
"To a Knight ; Sir, or Moy it pfease your Worship,
To hi!) Lady ; Madam, or May it please your Ladyship,
To a Mayor* Justice of Peace^ Esq. &c. Sir, or May it please'
your Worship,
To tbe Clergy 5 Reverend Sir ; Mr. Dean ; Mr. Achdeacon^
Sir, ^s Circumstances may require.
At subscribing your NahnV, conclude with the 8aneT^U#'
yon began with ; as. My Lord, your Lordship* s, dstc.
To either House of Parliaoient^ and to Commissioners^
Bodies corporate :
To ihe Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Tern*
poral in Parliament assembled.
To the Honourable the Knights, Citizens and Burgesses f$^
Parliament assembled,
7b ihe Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the"
Treasury or Admiralty.
To the Honourable the Commissioners of his Majesiy*r
Customs ; Revenue of the Excise^ &:c.
To the (f^rshipful the^Governors of Chrisfs Hospital.
To the Master, Hardens, and Court of Assistants of tke^
Worshipful Company of Stationers,
Of Secret IFriting^
First, If yon dip your pen in the Juice pf a Lemon or mt
tm Onion, or in yonr own Urine, and write on clean paper
whatever yoa intend, it will not be discerned till y«si faolAt
it to the fire, and then it wiil appear legibly.
Another way j when yoa write a letter the contents of
vittch^ott intend shaU'Aftid^ diicoYcrsd but br iho^e you
«.
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or ARITHMETIC. 41
think at, first write yoor thoughts on one side of jour Let-
ter with black ink, as usual, and then, on the contrary side
fp over the said matter that you would have secret, with a
clean pen dipped in Mi}k> and that writing cannot be read
without holding it to the fire, when it will appear legible kl
a bluish colour. ^ -
A third Method is, to have two pieces of paper equal in
size, and the uppermost cut in chequered holes or squares
big enough to contain any Word of six or seven Syllableij
and in those squares write your mind in regular sense'; ana
then take off the said chequered paper, and fill up the Va-
cancies with words of any kind, which will render it pterfect
nonsense, and not capable of being read to any pprpose»
and transmit and send the said up;:}ermost, or chequered
paper, or another exactly of the sarrje form, to your corres-
pondent : whereby he shall, by laying it nicely on your said
letter, read your intended sense, without toeing perplexed
with the words of amusement, intermixed, which n^ke it
altogether ui^inteUigible.
. Or again, you may write to your friend in proper sens©
with common Ink^ and let the lines be at so commodious 9
distance, that what you intend to be secret may be written
between them with water, in which galls have" been steeped
a little time, but not loug enough toltiacture the water, and
- when dry, nothing of the writing between the said lines can
be seen ; but when it is to be read, you inust, with a £nq
h9tr-pencil dipped, in copperas- water^, go between the sal^
lines, and so you make it legible.
Note. This way will excite no suspicion, becausd^tha
Letter seems to cany proper sense in those Htiea that «^ 9e<(
at a proper Distance.
0» ARlTHMETia^
AFTER Writing, the next necessary step towards qua^
lifj.n^ a Person for Business isi the undrrstauding the nobic^
Science of ArUhmelic, a Knowledge so necds&^iry iQ aU thc^
J^arts of Life and BudinLss, that searcel/ any thing is dona
without it.
In my Directipns for its Atts^inment I shall proceed witk
such Plainness of Method^ apd Familiai.ity of Style, a%
shall render it easy to be understood and conspicpous to the
amaeiU Capacity. AodlBEst ei N^kidim and Nu^trnti&n.
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« YOUNG MAN*! BEST COMPANION.
Of notation and NUMERATION.
In Notation we must note, or observe, that all Numbcr#
•re expressed by, or composed of, these ten Figures, ot
Characters following, viz.
OnCy ■ Tico, Three, Four^ Five, Si>, Seven, Eight, I^ne, Cipher*
12345(57890
' Nine of these are called significant figures, to distingnisb^
them from the Cipher, which of itself signifies nothing : but
as it is placed in whole Numbers, serves to increase the Va-
lue of the next Figure or Figures that stand before it j as 3 ia
but three; but before the Cipher, thus, 30, the 3 become*
thirty, &c.-~ But in Decimal Fractions O decreases the Va- ,
lue of Figures behind it^ for there, 3 is three-tenths of any
thing ; but by placing O before it, thus, 03, it is decreased
from 3 tenth Parts to 3 hundred Parts of any thing, &C.
We are to observe, that every one, or any of the above-
mentioned nine Figures, or Digits, have two Values; one
certain, and another uncertain ; the certain Value is when
It stands by isself ; the uncertain is, when joined or placed
with other figures or Ciphers : for when any one of these
Figures stand alone, they signify no more than their owa
simple Value ; as 5 is but five, 4 but four, 6 but six, and 3
no more than three, &c. And this is the certain Value of a
Figure ; But when another Figure or Cipher is annexed,
they then are increased in their Value ten Times j as 5, or 5
.Units or Ones, to 5 tens, or fifty > 4 to 4 tens, or forty ; 6
to 6 tens, or saty j and 3 to 3 tens, or thirty 5 as thus, 51^"
iSft^-^e; 42, forty-two; 63, sixty-three ; 34, thirty-four,,*
&c, A^ain, if any of the said Figures stahd in their Place
towards the left hand,-they signify so many Hundreds as
they expressed Units or Ones ; as 500 is five Hundreds,
400 four Hundreds, 600 six Hundneds, and 30O three
Hundreds, &c. If any of them possess the 4th Place to-
wards the left h^nd, they are so many I'bousands- as they
Contain Units: and so any or every Figure increases by a
fen-foW Proportion, from the right hand to the left, accord-
i^ig to the Place it is found or stands in; no that 5 may be;
either {\ve or fifty ; five Hundred, or five Thousand ; in il>e
first-Place, 5; in the second, 50; in the third, 500; ia
the fourth place, 5000, &c. .
The-trjuie'y^ue.of Figures in conjiinctiqti may befbljjr. ;
learned and understood by the following tabled
Digitized by CjOOQIC
•-^5: .2
OF ARITHMETIC.
Th« Numeration Tabii.
43
.-a
•a c
-?!
• v> O
3 ^
« O
O f^. H (J h SC? H hS ?- »
^ J2
3 '■
1 2
2 S
1 2
(J 7
5 ()•
4 5
8 <>
7 8 9
6 7
5 G
4 5
3 4
8
7
6
5
2 3 4
1 23
1 2
1
1 2
1
9
8 9
c
i
133
\
a
o
345
234
123
12
1
X3
7B9
678
5^7
456
34^
.234
123
12
I
t
Q
019
go I
7^9
67g
567
450
345
234
123
12
1
.For tbe easier., reading of any Number, first get tiMi .
Words at ihe Head of the Table by Heart ; ^ Unii^
tens, hundreds thousands,^ &c. and apply them thns^
75, five units, ^^Q\ and seven tens^, seventy j that ia«
seventy-^ve. Again 678 ; 8 Units, Eight 5 7 l^na, ^
levemy 5 aiid 6 Hundi^eds, six Himdreil; that 'is six
Hundred se^'enty -eight. Once more, 3456 j Unks, six 4
5 tens^ fifty ; 4 Hundreds, four Hundreds j 3 thou-
sands, three thousands > together, three Ihousand four
Hundred Fifty-six. The 4th Line of the Table, via.
12345^89, amy be read thus: One Hundred twenly-threo
Millions^ four Hundred Fifty-six Thousand seven hiuidretj
3Eighty-nfne. But the Manner of readipg any Number niijy
J)e r^ndtred more inlelltglble by Sfopi> thus: make %
coainja. aiier<jv«ry^ third t'jgure or 'cipher, beginumg al
tkeftig^t hand, and so on .towards the. LefV, thereby xirs-i
tiftgHisbing every third Piate into Hundreds, as Hundred^
of Units, Hundreds of Thousands, Hundreds of Millions,
• and Hundred Thousands • 6f Millions, &c. And for trial
read the 'flrst Line of the table ; where the. last place ia
Valuatioa \^ llundred 7)^9^80^ of MiUioiiSA And being '
pointed
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44 YOUNO MANV BEST COMPANION.
potnted into Periods, will stand thw 123,456,789,012,
and is to b« read thus, One Hundred, twenty-three thou-
•aod, four Hundred fifty-six MiHioDS, Seven Hundred
.«ighty-nine thousand, (no Hundreds) and twelve, Again;
the following Number, viz. 276,245,678,921,460, is to be
read thus ; '£J^ Million of Millions, 245 Thousand of
Millions, 678vMillions; 921 thousands, 46o Units or Ooei^
that is, two hundred ^d seventy-six Million of Millions,
two Hundfed forty-five Thousand six Hundred sev^oty-
eight Millions, nine Hundred twenty-one. Thousand four
Hundred and Sixty. The A>regotng Tahh of Numeration
js on the right hand distinguished into such periods for th«-
easier reading thereof, and the like is frequently done in tht .
Public Offices,, and by Men of Business.
Numbers to be read or written, viz.
96, Nmety'sia:.
242, Two hundred forty-two, '
7924. Seven thousand 9 hundred 24, ,
64006i Fifty 'four thousand and six.
524707, Five hundred 24 thousand *J^7,
47O6240, Four millions 706 thousand 240.
02700472, Sixty-two millions 700 thousand 472.
4749^0204, Four hundred 74 jnilliofis 96O thousand 204%
#214007042, Four thousand 214 million^ 7 thousand A2^
#4214800240, Forty-four thousand 2l4rmilH(ms 8 kundrett
thousand 24(fe . . !
QfNum^tricaiLittiers^ ]
NttQibers iverc aocientlf. ex|Ht^s^ by Letters : a4i4 It i«^iiecei«pi|r
to understanid ikem for readijig th« dates to yc;ars,.iir Title- pagjey
•f bookw^ on Fuiierai Monuments, and In Rom&n History, &c.
I 8i^ni6es^ One,. CCCC 13303 A Hundred ThovT'
V Five, sand, [sand^
X Ten, IDD300 ^^« Haudrcd Thou*
I. Rfly €CCCCl3f)333 T«n Hundfed
C An Hundred, TItousand or a Miliion,
CC TwoHimitred, ' MLDCCCXl expre»es the Date of
D or l3 Five Hundred^ the present Year IS J I,
H or Cf3 A Thousand, M being one Thousand, D. fir*
I33 Fire Thousand, Hundred, C€C three Handred
CI33 Ten Tboosand, ana X ten 5 together, one Thou*
C1333 Fifty Tl9oi4«n|4» «wmI, «% h* Hwndeed and 1 >»• ;
When A i^ter of inferior Value alands after cm of sufifrior, Iftt
Talwe is to be added themtoj thus VI, VII, and VIII, signify. si%
•even and eight ; but when a Letter Of inferior Value is placed be^
fcre oneof superior,^ then its Value u to be talten therefrom, tbuf
JV^ IX, XL, Mid XC, signify Iwtf, miut^ forty, wd «i»etf ,-
L
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OF ARITHMETia 46
ADDITION,
IS the pQtt(i% together two or more Nafiob^n or Sqidi^
to as their total Value may be discovered orknown.
He]?ein we must always observe to set the Nooibers to be.
added, orderly ooe onder the other; that \s, Uoits under
Units, Tens under Tens, Hundreds under Hundreds, &c. as
in the subsequent £xaniples.
AddUkm of Numbers of one Denontinaiion.
Yards.
GalUmt,
Pfnntd,.
T. U.
H. T. U-
XefTh.
. Th
. H. T.U.
« 4
7 5 6
S
7
y 6 t
4 2
4 3ft
3
9
744
€ e
5 7 8
6
7
2 2 2
e 6
696
7
9
674
t 4
4 S 2
5
2
4 9 2
4 S
678
7
2
3 9 d
« 8 6
3562
T
6
u
4 8 4
In addition of simple Numbers, whether it t>e Yards,
Gallons, Pounds, or any Jbing else, remember to carry 1 for
every 10 that you find in the Right hand Row, or Rank of
-iigues, being Units, to the next row of Tens ; and the like
from the Rank of TejDS to the Row of Hundreds,, kc. and
whatever it makes io the last Row, you must set down,
amount to wba| it will.
Tb6 numbers above are ^t down in order, as before di«i
rectedi that is. Units under Units, Tens under Tens, Stc,
as may be plainly understood, by being indicated at the
Head of each Row or Rank, by U. T. H. ,&c. signifying
Units, T^ns, Hundreds, &c. Then in casting up each
Example to know its Total, I begin at the Right h^nd,
i'or Units Rank of the first Example, and say 2 and 4
is 6, and 6 is 11, and 8 is 20, and 2 is 22, and 4 is 26 j
" in which Row there We two Tens, and 6 over j wherefore
I set down 6 just under its own Rank, and carry 2 to the
next Row^ and say 2 that. I carry and 4 makes 6, and 2
is 8, and 8 is \6, and 6 is 22, and 4 is 26, and 2 is 28 ;
and this being the last Row, I set down the Amount, ^iz.
28; to that the 'total Number of Yards is found to be
3186, And the amount of the next or 2d Example is found
by the same Method to.be 3562 Gallons. And 10 the'
third and last Example, the total Number of Pounds is
^ouod by the same way to be 369484. And so tlie total
<«f my oiher Bxeo^le ^ die sme Kiad, tiz. stople Num.
hers
' ' Digitized by CjOOQIC
45 YOU^G MAN'S BEST COMJANION.
bers of one Denomination ma/ bo found. iNo/e,That when.-
awyof the Ranks amfeont to jabt 10, ^, 30, 40, 50, ^c.
then you mint set down the O nnder' tt« propeir Rank> aad .;
carry either 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, according to the Numl»er of
Ten« that you find to thi next Row. ;
We come now to AddUion of Money,
In England, or Great Briiain, Accounts are kept in
founds. Shillings, Fencej and Parts of a Penny i so you ate
taobserve^ that
4 Farthings make 1 P^ny
12 Perice \ Shilling
; * 20 Shillings 1 Pound.
In adding of these together, you are with the samo.puoc-
tuality to mind that Pounds b^ set directly under Ppunds,
Shillings upder Shillings, Pence under Pence^ and F^tbings
under Farthings 5 as in the following Example.
But before you proceed, it will be necessary to have the
following Tables by memory^ for the readier remembrance
of how fxnany Shillings there are in a giyen Number of
Pence, and bow many Pounds ar^ contained in a given
Nvmber of Shillings, &c.
' Nota, that I stands for Pounds^ s fur shillings^ d for
Bence, and ^r for farthiiiga, those being the initial Letters
of Librax Solidusy, Denarius, and Quadrans, latin Wor4e<-
of the same signification.
TABLES.
Penoe. s.
d.
*. L
*.
20 is 1
8
20 is 1
30-2
6
, 3(> '. I
16
40 - 3
4
\^- .46' - 2
6
60 * 4
2
' 5d . 2
.16
60 - 5
6
''3
6
70 • S
10
76 '* . 3
16
80 - is
8
80.,.- 4
6
, 90-7
6
96 ^ 4
X6
300-8
■.4 .
loa - 5
e
xm - 9
2
1X6 - 5
1^
120 "- JO
^^n6 . 6
6
' The Use of the^ Tables is this : whenever yM am c^U
idg ap »^J Sum-of Mofiey you begin at tlie ngift h^
(as before ia Sums of one DenominaliQn) supfsOMfr at tfcH».
Pjacciiof Pence, then if the Rank or Denomintitton of Pt^sifeee'
emoqntSs from ti^e bottom to the top^ &6y yoor tuble of
peoce t^fOa, t&ai.SOd. is 4r. 2d. if> WUcb adding 6d. tlies
\ . '■ Sun»
'J' --
Digitized by CjOOQIC
/ OF ARITHMETIC. - ^
Sum Is As. 8rf. If to 92rf. the Tabb tells you, that gOcf. is 7f .
<frf. which with2f/. oyer, is 7^- 8^- And if to ^\d, the tablo
ibows that 8orf. rs 6*. %d, and \d. more makes 65. 9</. Sec. .
The Shilling Table serves to lead you to a quick RecoU
lection of how many pounds are in so many Shiilingii 3 as»
admit the Rank of Shillings arises to 57s. the Table say*
that 505. is 21. lO^. and 7. over make 2L 175. If to 84s, the,
Table shows that 8O5. are just 4/. and 4s» over, make 41. 45,
If to 112j. the table shows that lOOf. are 5l, and 12^. more
make 5/. I2s. kc^
ADDITION OF MONEY- n
Money oiving.
£, ».
d .
Money received.
£: ». d.
To Mr. Uroplebj
f 4 12
6
For Paper
46 10 9
Mr. Olding
7 6
9
Pea»
79 i<5
Mr. Worth
4 12
0.
Indigo
42 18 3
Mr. Sandle
6m7
7
Broad Cloth
66 12 4
Mr DaltoD,
5 6
6
Canary
90 16
Mr. Howit
4 12
3
Wine
84 .7 '
Mr. Craig
6
0*
Quills
24 12
^ Mr. Flewel
5 15
4
Logwood
60 10
":
45 2
11
496 2 10
I begin with the right hand Rank, that is the Pende in
the Example of Money owing, and say 4 and 3 are 7, and 6
is 13, and 7 is 20; and 9 is 29, and 6 makes 35 Pence ; now
30 Pence, according to the Table, is 2s. 6d. and 5d. more
makes 2s. and lid, I set down 11 exactly under the Rank-
of Pence, and say, 2 Shillmgs that I carry (which I do to
the Rank of Shillings) and 5 is 7, and 2 is 9, for I take first
only the Units Rank of Shillings) and 6 is 15, and 7 makes
^2, and 2 ts 24, and 6 is 30, and 2 makes 32 : and now be-
iag come to the top of the Sam, and it making 32, I come
4own with the Tens of Shillings, saying 32 and 10 is^, /
and 10 is 52, and 10 is 62, and iO is 72, and 10 makes 89
Shillii^sj and the Table showing me that 80 Siiillings k
4 Ponn^Sy I then knew 82 Shillings is 41. 2s. then I set down
Jt- jthe odd 2s. just un^jj^er row of Shillings and carry 4
Pounds to the Pounds ; saying 4 that I carry and 5 is 9, and
€ i$ 15, and 4 is 19, and 5 is 24, and 6 is 30, and 4 Is 34>
mi 7 ia41, and 4 makes 45 Pounds ; so that the total of
those several Sums of Jfoney due to the several Person*
amounts to 4^/. 2j. .1 1</.
Ill the- Example of Money received, 1 b«?gin al'theRiibt-
JaKg4 Bask.as' before^ ^nd say^ 6 and 4 are i^ aad 3 is 13»
Digitized by Google
4S YOUNG MAN'S BEST COAlPANION,
and 9 mnke% 22^ and 22 Pence being 1^. lOd, I set dowft
10 and carry li. to the Shillings; saying, 1 tiiat I carnr and
-2 is 3, and 7 is 10, and 6 is I6, and 2 is 18» and 6 is 20, and
€ makes 32 ; then I come to the Tens, saying, 3.2 and lO
makes 42, &c. and£nd at thf Bottom it conyesto 102 Shil-
lings, which makes 5i. 2$, I set down 2s. and carry 5L to
the Founds, saying, 5 that I carry aiKl 4 is Q, ice, I find
chat at the Top it amocmts to 35, whereof I set down 6ex<«
actly under its own Rank, viz. the Rank ofUnits of Pounds^
and carry 3 for the 3 Tens that are in 39, for at all Times ia
tlie Addition of the Left-hand Denommntion, whether it be
Money, Weight, or Measure j that is in the I>enoroinatioii
of Pounds^ Tons, or Yards, you must for every Ten carrf
one to the next Row> &c. saying, 3 that I carry and 6 is 9,
and 2 is H, and 8 is 19, ice. and 1 find that at tlie Top it
comes to 49 ; wherefore I set down 49 to the Left-band of
the 6 $ and the Total Amount of the Money received for
those particular 'Goods or Wares sold is 496/. 2i. lOd,
MORE £X AMPLES FOR PH ACTICR
Mr. Money
Mr. GauAt ->
]Mr« Heme
Mr- James
Mr. King
Mr. Long
Mr. Monk
%iu Napper
£. #. d.
£, *. If.
£. s. If.
17 12 H
146 1:2 3i
4 10 6
26 10 2i
S87 10 9
079
$0
46 16 6
i
44 12 1
100
1 1
<60 14 0|
72 12 1
046
99 16 6
69 16 6|
10 1
16 100
460 12 9
4 14 4
20 4|
45 10
074
Total 265 16 9 1233 10 lOj 12 15 «
ADDITION OF AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
By this Weight are weighed all kinds of .Grocery Goods or
Wares, or Goods subject to waste ; as Tobacco, Sugars,
Fruit and Drags ; as also Flesh, Butter, Cheese, Alum,
Tallow, Iron, Brass, Copper, Lead, Tift/Piewter, P^ch^
Tar^ Bosin, Hemp, Flax, Soap, &c.
A TtMe qftkis Weight it asfollom:
4 Quarters make 1 Dram, niarked - n rfn
16 Dranjs I Ounce - . • •«.
' . 16 Ounces 1 Found - - W. .
28 Poupds 1 "Quarter of a Hundred Weight <rrs.
4 Quarters 1 Hundred Weight - CwU
, 30 Hundred Weight I Ton - • . T.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF AWTIHMETIC. 4f
!• 4 ^ . 10 4 8ft »• 4 as . |» I6 16
e. fM. tt. C. yr#- W. C. ^* ». /4. ». dr<
5 — l-^l^ 24-~:-a-r-l2 S—l— 16 24—11—12
4— 2— ?4 42— '2—. p 4-r<J— ?() 42— 14— j 5
0—3?— 6 16-^0—12 7—1— ()4— 10-11
7—1—12 25-*-3^-24 5—3—12 (?9~ Qt-IO
9— Ur-?20 ig.— 0— 20 4—3— 2 16—12—13
6-^2 — 26-r-] — 22 g— 2— 2 27—13 — 14
89— 3— 2^ 154*--3— 6 34—3 — 17 206~ 9— H *
In these Examples die Manner of proceeding is the same
as in the former, observing, that the Number of Units of
each lesser Denomination, which make an Unit of the next
greater, found by the preceding Table, is placed above each
Rank of Numbers 5 that is to say, in the first Example^ 28
the Number of Pounds contained in a quarter of a Hundred
Weight, is placed over the Column of Pounds : now th*t Co-
lumn, when added up, makes 78> which contains two 28 »
and 22 over, wherefore I set down 22 under the Column of
Pounds, and carry 2 to the Column of Qiuarters,. and so on.
Note. That in weighing at the Waters-side, or elsewhere,
they do not weigh by the Ton, though some Goods are sold
by iti as Iron, Logwood, Cheese, &c. but by llie Buodred,
Quartet's, and Pounds, which are afterwards xeduced to sM
computed by Tons. - . . _
Addition of Troy Weight.
By this Weight are weighed Jewels, Gold, Silver, Pearls
and Medicines ; and the usual denominations are Pounds,
Ounces^ Penny -weigfits, and Grains^ as. in the following
Table, viz*
' 24 Grains make 1 Pcnny^toeighty
20 Penny'rweights 1 Ounce^ and
12 Ounces 1 Pound Troy-weight. ' s
Examples of Troy Weight.
Ingots c
>fSi
V. wt. viz.
10
12 20 24
IS QQ 94
lb
ox. pv>, gr
lb.
ctt. pw. gr.
cz. pto gr.
iWt.
4
5 12 10
14
6 10 11
204 10 14
2
5
4 16 17
24
10 11 12
96 7 17
3
3
11 19 20
21
6 4 17
100 11 12
4
4
6 7 12
22
10 12 14
56 16 20
5
6
1 11 12
16
11 U 13
212 10 23
€
4
11 12 13
22
7 6 17
96 19 12
28 6 O 14—123 4 18 12-— 767 i7
Digitized by CjOOQIC
M^ YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
HOW TO PROVE ADDITION.
IN all examples of Jdiiiion, w^iether of simple Numbers,
that is. Numbers of one Denomination ; or in Examples
compound, that is of divers Denominations, zs Pounds, Skil"
lings. Pence, Farthings, &c.'the readiest Method of Proof
. is to cast the same downwards, beginning at the Top as you
did the same upwards, beginuing at the bottom, and if that
IS the same the Work is right. I might here give Examples
of other kinds of Addition, as ^apothecaries Weight, Cloth,
Liquid, Dry and Long Measure, Time, &c. but this Method
serves for any of them, having respect to the Tables that
belong to those several Denominations, as follow, viz.
A Table of the Parts of Apothecaries Weight.
20 Grains I Scruple 9 a Scruple
3 Scruples 1 Dran\ 5 a Dram
^ Drams 1 Ouikc f an Ouncd
I'
12^0unces 1 Pound ' fo a Pound
By tbete Weights A px>lhecaries compound their Medicines, bst
they buy and sejl by Aroirdnpois Weight.
Note, Physicians make use of the following Characters :
ft - Recipe, take gutt. a Drop.
4 of each ingredient an /"Such a Quantity as
* ( equal quantity. V maybe taken between
lb -I. a Pound. Pj "the Thumb and twcT
5 -* an Ounce, \- fure Fingers.
5 - a Dram. M- a Handful. .
9 - a Scrupie. Cong a Gallon.
gr. . a Grain. Ss. - Half.
a Spoonful, or half Q. s. a sufficient Quantify,
J an Ounce of Sy- Q. 1. as much as you please,
Cochl, < rups, or three c a. i According to the
J Drams of disiill- ( Rules of Art.
ed Waters.
Cloth Measure. .
4 Nails, or 9 Inches, 1 qr. of a Yard,
4 qrs. or 36 inches^ 1 Yard.
5 qrs or 45 Inches, I Ell Wide,
irqrs. or 27 Inches, 1 Ell Flemish.
6 qss, or 64 Inches, 1 E I French.
A Table of Wool Weight.
Note, 71b. make l Ciove 5 2 Cloves, or 14lb. 1 Stone 5 2
StOBes, or 281b. 1 Todd j 6 Todd and | l Wey or IS'ilb.
*i Weys; or 3641b. 1 Sack ; and 12 Sacks Jl Last, Qr4368lb«
2401b. 1 Pack of Wool. Mir.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. 5^
NoU, That lib. 2oz. I2pu;. Troy. U eqoal to a Pound
Amrdupois ; and a Foand Troy is about ISox, 2 Dramt
9nd i half Jvoirdupois. ' L s. d.
A Pound weight Troy > ^|r<j;i..«, ;« „,^^k f 3 2 2
APoaiHiwt.^i;oir(£i/po*5j°"'^^^'^^^^^^^l4 15 a
in Silver I "^"^6"' | 2§ 04
A Pound Avoirdupois is heavier than a Pound 7V«y ; bnt
an Ounce Troy is heavier than an Ounce Avoirdupois : i.e.
IHlb, Avoirdupois Bve equal to X75 Pounds TVo^j but 17S
Ounces Troy are equal to 192 Ounces Avoirdupois.
A Table of Liquid Measure.
Liquid Measure is of two sorts, viz. onefor Wine, Brandy,
kc. and the other for Beer and Ale.
Wine, &c. ;
c 2 Pints 1 Quart, 84 Gallons 1 Puncheon,
4 Quarts 1 Gallon^ 2 Hogsheads 1 Pipe or Butt,
42 Gallons 1 Tierce, 2 Pipes' or Butts I Tun, or
65 Gallons 1 Hogshead, 252 Gallons.
• Salad-Oil hath 236 Gallons to the Tun j but OWfxom
'Greenland hath 252 Gallons to the Tun. . ^
\ The Wine Gallon contltins 231 Cubic or solid Inches, by.
which ail Liq'uids are measured, except Beer and Ale.
Beer Measure.
2 Pints 1 Quart, 2 Kilderkins 1 Barrel, or 3^
4 Quarts 1 Gallon, Gallonsi
\ 9 Gallons 1 Firkin, 1 Barrel and half, or 54 Gal-
18 Gallons 1 Kilderkin, Ions, 1 Hogshead.
Ale Measure^
2 Pints 1 Quart, 2 Kilderkins 1 Barrel, or 32
^ 4 Quisrts 1 Gallon, ' Gallons,
8 Gallons 1 Firkin of Ale, 1 Bari:el and half, or 48 G?l-
2 Firkins 1 Kilderkin, Ions 1 Hogshead. /^
The Beer and' Ale Gallon art the same, viz. 282 solid
Inches, but with this Difference, i.e. the Barrel of Beer
contains 4 Gallons more than the Barrel of Ale.
Dry Measure.
2 Pints 1 Quart, 5 Quartern 1 Wey,
. 2 Quarts 1 Pottle, 2WeyslLast,
2 Pottles 1 Gallon, 36 Bushels of Sea Coal I Chal-
2 Gallons l Peck, dron ; and 21 Chakiron is
^ 4 Pecks 1 Bushel Land- accounted a * Score in the
Measure, Biv^i Thames^
• Boshelf 1 Quarter
C 2 th*
Digitized by CjOOQIC
32 YOUNG MAN'a BEST COMPANION-
The Chaldron of Coals at London containg 38 heape4
Winch^stj^r Bvisbels> and weighs about 28 and a half cwt.
according to the Quality of the Coals. A Newcastle Glials
djron weighs 53 cwt. and 8 chaldron, or 21 tons 4 cwt. make
ai^eeL A ship-load contains 80 keels^ or l60 Cbaldroos*
Long 'Measure*
3 Barley Corns 1 Inch 5 Yards and a Half 1 Pole^
4 Inches I Hand. Used in Perch, or Rod,
naeasuring Horses. 6 Peet I Fathom, or 2 Yds.
12 Indies 1 Poot 40 Poles, or 220 Yds. 1 Fur.
3 Feet 1 Yard' 8 Furlongs 1 Mile> or 1/60
3 Feet 9 Inches 1 Ell Eng. Yards
5. Feet a Geometrical Pace 3 Miles 1 League.
Land Measure,
144 Square Inches make 1 Square Foot.
9 Square Feet 1 Square Yard.
3(^ Yards ] Square Pole or Perch.
40 Perches 3 Rood or Quarter of an Acre.
160 Poles in Length, and X in Breadth is I Acre,
60 Poles in Length, and 2 in Breadth, 1 Acre.
40 Poles in Length, and 4 in Breadth, 1 Acrel
4 Poles in Length make 1 Chain, or 22 Yards.
16 Perches 1 Square Chain, and
10 Chains in Length, and 1 in Breadth, m^ke I Acre.
Time. ' ' '
CO Seconds 1 Minute 4 Weeks 1 Month
.60 Minutes J Hour 13 Months, . 1 Day, and 6
24 Hours 1 natural Day Hours, J Soliir Year.
7 Days 1 Week.
The common Day begins with us at 12 o'clock at Night:
, the Astronomical Day begins at 12 o'clock at Noon.
The Solar Year is divided into 12 Calendar MonthSi
which contains 365 Days, as in the following Versp :
Thirty dap have September, A pri!, June, and November,
February hath 28 alone, and ail ike rest have Thirty-one.
Note, Leap Year, which happens every fourth Year, consitti of
966 Day>^ on this occasion Febiniary contains 29 I>aya.
SUBSTBACTION.
THE next Rule in Arithmetic is Sublraciwn, which
teaches to take a lesser Number out of a greater^ and shows
the Reofialnder or Differs oc^.
Place
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETrC. IS
?kce the less. Number accurately under the greater, dravr .
t line under them^ and beginning at the right hrind tak#
each Figure in the lower Line from the Figure urtder whicfl -
it stands. If the Figure in the lower Line is greater ttwn
that in the upper, then, in Numbers of one Denomination,
ten must be borrowed and added to the Figure in lh6 up-
per Line; take the Figure in the lower Line from the Sum^
and write down the JRemainder, but for evefy ten thu*
borrowed, one must be paid or ^dded to the next Left-
hand Figure in the lower Li'ne. Example: Suppose Mr,
Andrews owes to Mr. Baker 323/. of which Mr. A-^ hallfc
paid to- Mr. B, the sum of 146/. in part, what remains du^
to Mr. ^a^er.^ Amtler'j7]l , •
Here the lesser number 146 stands under the greater 323 y
and to find the Remiiinder, or Sum remaining due, I say
from 3 I cannot, but 6 from 13 (for I borrow lO and add
it to the Figure that stands directly over the Figure 6) and
ihere remains 7 ; then 1 that I borrowed and 4 is 5, for as
I borrowed 10 in the inferior Place,, which is equal to one-
in the superior, so I must now pay the same; therefore I
lay, 5 from 2 I cannot, but 5 from 12 (borrowing lO, and
adding it to the Figure 2, as above directed) and there re-
main 7 5 then 1 that 1 borrowed and 1 are 2, from 3, the
Figure above it, and there remains 1, aiK) so the Example
is done ; and by it shown that Mr. A, still owes Mr. B, \7f
Pound's ; for a Proof oif ha Truth, add 177 the Remainder^
to 146, the lesser of the two given Numbers, and it will
make 323. being the same with the greater Number or
Sum of Money first due ; attd therefore it is a sure Proof oif
«be Truth and Certainty of the Rule.
All Examples in Sultraelion of Numbers of one denomi-
nation are perfc^med as above 5 but, for the better Explana-^'
tion, admit a great Sheep Master has iri all 69O4 Sheep, and
takes; out of them 2490 to dispose of at Market, how many
does he leave behind ? To know this set them down that :
From ^7904 the greater Number,
. Take 2490 the less Number,
Answer 4414
Here I say O from 4, and there rem«in« 4) then Qitoxm
Botbing (or 0) I cannot ; but 9 from 10 (adclfng 1 to tfe^e O),
and there remains 1 ; and I that I botrowed and|4 mi^ke 5,
ind 5 from 9, and there remain 4 ^ aud lastly^ % ftoti^ 6> and
. Ca tlicr^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
B4 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
there remain also 4 ; so thai 4414 are left bebiDd ; which
put to the Number he takes to Market, makes the Nunrrber
he had^ viz. 6904, and shows the Deduction to be true^ and
the Answer right. - >
More Examples^for Practice,
Firom
Take
Yards.
37009
1P7()5
Gallons.
47200
31976
/.
479652
292949
Pounds,
1479672.
97094.
Rem.
17244
^ 15224
1 86703
i3ai978
Proof
37009
47200
479632 .
1479^7^*
The distance of Time since any Remarkable Event may
be found \^y subtracting the date thereof from the iiate of
the present year.
Examples,
L— 1810 II.—1810
1666 the fire of London, 1588 the Spanish loTasion.
Since 144 Years. Since 222 Years.
III.— 1810
1605 Gunpowder Treason*
Since 205 Years.
Suhtraction of different Denominations
Here if the Figure or Figures^ placed in the lower Line
txceed those in the upper, then as many Units must be bor-
rowed, as made a Unit, or one, of the next superior Deno-
mination ; and one must be carried to the next left baud
Place in the lower Line, as before.
Of Money,
L s.^. Suppose Mr. Cai^e owes Mr. Day, gi. 2t.
Due— 9 2 6 ed, and Mr. C. hath paid Mr. D. in part
Paid— 6 16 4 5/. 165. 4d, what remains due to Mr. Day ?
Balan. 262 Answer, there is due to Mr. Day 2/. 6s. 2d.
I. •s. d. Again, Mr.. Coy sells to Mr.
Sold for 242 16 sj Joy, Spanish Wool to the Value of
Paid in Part. 174 12 6^ 242/. 165. 3d^. find pays present
Answer ^ ^8 ^ Qi "'T^Vr''' '""" ""^ ^^'^^' ^' m ^^'
'^ ^ What Money remams unpaid from
Proof 7A2 16 3^ Mr. Joy ? Answer, 63/. 3f . Gd^.
la
d by Google
OF ARITHMETIC. $i
In the first of ihese £xainples say 4d. from 6d, and there
remains 2di then l6s. from 2^. I cannot^ but borrowing one
Integer of the next Denomination^ or 1 Pound which is Tjds,
I say 16 from 20 and there remains 4, and a Iding thereto '
the Number 2 it makes 6j wherefore I put down 6 in the
Place of Shilliiigs, and say, 1 that I borrowed and 6 is 7; now
7L from gl. and there remains 2/. so-tbe Money due to Mr.
Datf is 21, 6s, 2d. as in the Example.
In the second Example 1 say 2 Farthings or ^ from 3
Farthings, and there remains 1 or ^, which I set down in its
Place, viz. under tl^e Farthings ; then 6 from 3 I cannot, but
6 fr«m 16, (I borrow I*, or I2d, to make it J 5c/.) and there
remains gd. which I place under the Line of Pence -, then
Is, that I-borrowed and 12 is J3 5 135. from \()s, there re-
mains 3, which I set down under its own-Rr.nk j then 4 from
21 cannot, but 4 from 12, (borrowing 10) and there is 8;
then 1 that I borrowed and 7 makes 8 ; 8 from 4 I cannot
bat 8 from 14, there remains 6 ; so that the Sum due is
68/. 3s, gd^. For its proof add the remainder 68/. 35. Qdi.
to the lesser Sum, 1 74/. 12^. 6</|. it makes 242/. l6s. 3d^,
the Sum first due^ and is a proof of the work being right*
More Examples for J^ractice.
I. 8, d. I. s, d, I. t, d.
Due 174 16 6J 74 10 4 2471 7 «
Paid —97 12 ^j 29 12 9 1976 ig ^j
Remain —77 4 l|
Proof. -174 16 (>|
/. t, d,
\$t. Due—^y^ O
Paid -»46-12 10
44 17
7
74 10
4
/. *.
274 16
197 19
d.
6
4
76 17
2
274 16
6
494
10
4
2471
7
/.
796
279
11
d.
7
6l(>
8
5
7.^t>
Owing 353/. ^ , f^O
* Paid a* I 41
Sometimes a Sum owing different times^ 84
may be paid at several times, — 1 70
then the several payments must (^76*
be added together, then add p^ui in aU slTrf^duce
their total and deduct it from the ,> . , ««?«•»<-•
Sum first due, a& in the follow^ Kemams due 22
ing examples. Proof 353
C4 jl/ore
Digitized by CjOOQIC
36 YOUNG idAl<th EltST COMPANION.
9.
10
o
Received at
24
18
13
23
12
14
16
'
12
6
Q
6
Paid to .5ct;e.
ral Persons ^
fT-
15
O
|I6
o
1 ^
12
6
9
10
o
6
8
4
23
13
^
lUctived in all U>t> 12
jRemotn^ dke 143
Proo/ je24y u
Paid in all 6i> 19: O
C(Z6i& en jU<inc2 33 11 O
irUM) 10 o
Amirdupoise Weight
10 120 4
Sii^
Ton*. C. jrj.
/*.
From
44 .12 1
10
Take
39 14 2'
(>
Remain
4 17 3
4
Proof
44 )2 1
10
Troy Weight
. /
10 12 22
24
lb. az. pwt.
^^•
From
4t)2 4 10
11
Take
196 9 6 ,
16
Remain
2().) 7 3
Ij)
Proof
4<>2 4 1 »
i 1
rSce Table, p. 54.)
lu
4
28
# I —
10^
W
-ife
c.
yrj.
/6.
/>.
o«.
rfr.
246.
2
12
I4t)
2
10
164
3
22
97
10
la
81
2
8
48
7
14
24()
2
12
1.6
2
la
.1
/<5c'<? Table, p. 55.)
10
2«
24
02!.
pwt.
^'•-
1247
10
13
.076
16
17
270
13
<:Qr
1247 .10 13
"y^^-Tttis Method of Subtraction ivill serve for any lienomivation whatetf^^
^^ Having respect to the several- Tables of Quantity in Additibft^
/ Wultiplicafwn is a compendious Method of perforralny
, Addition, and teaches to find wlaat a given Number will
amount to when repeated a certain niinnber of Times. >•
It Serves like vise to bring gi^eat Denominations iii^o
•mall, as Pounds intoShiUings, Pencej or Farthings j and
havVngthe Length and Breadth of a plain Suiiace, we find
. vit« Cortrents in superficial or square Measure.
By Multiplication, iiaving the Value of one Tbi«g, qt the
.^^''agjBs of one Person, vve find the value of many audji
ttiu)^!^^ or the Wages of giaay such Persons^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
--• '^ ■ ^ ^-
^H^Jd
Of ARITHMETIC. Sf \_
► Tb Multiplicattan we are particularly to take notice of
^ese three tenns^ viz. the muUipUcand, the multiplier, an4
^ ^a prod ct,
1. The Multiplicand (generally the greater of th^ two
sumbeFs^ is the number to be nTiultiplied*.
I 2. The MufiipUer is the number by which the former i$
ib be muhipljed. '
d. The product. \ii\A result or answer. The multiplief'
aud multiplicand are colJeciively called factors,
But> before we enter upon this Rule, it is o^essary t^
l«ve the following Table perfectly by heart-
The^MultiplieutioTk Table,
1
^
3
4
6\ 6
7
8
9
10
50
11
- ■
21
33
]2
24
3
4
5
a
4
1
6
9
S
10*12
! _
14
21
16
24
32
40
1€
27
36
45
si 12
!: ■
1015
^ 1
1^2^^24 28
20 25 3035
44
55
48
60
1218 24 30304248
54
60
77
88
99
72
84 "
96
108
12b
132
14 2r28 35 42 4^
56
03
70
60
C;0
8
i6'24 32 4Q4S5d
64
72
9l8j273a45 5463
72
81
10^20'a0 4050 60/0
80
90
100
110
JJi2,3344 55 6677
86
99
110
121
i2
'24
34^
•48
^7.2
1
84
9a
108
120
132
144
Thi$ t^bUs is so pl^b and easy, th?t there is scarcely need ,
.rf direction i iar the product of any two iif^ures ulU h^
found in that square, which i» on a ine with the one, ^nd
under the other : thus 54 the product of 6 times 9 wip be
found on a line wi h 6, and under g ; or in a line with 9,
^ Wider 63 «o 7 times 8 is 56, and 8 times 7 is ^c>^ ^<^>
C.5 , ' An4
Digitized by CjOOQIC
5S YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
and thus the table ought to be got by heart for the mor^
ilexterous readiness irr multiplying.
/
Now for the Application,
Example I. How many is 3 times 472? Which 472t
being set down in the margin ; I say, 3 times 2 is 3
(5, which place under 3 the multiplier ; then 3 times
i7 is 21, set down 1 under 7, and carry 2 for the two 141^
tens, as in Addiiion of one Denomination, then 3 times .
4 is 12, and 2 carried is 14; whrch set down, and the pro-
duct is 1416 : 'that is 3 times 4/2 make so much : which may
be proved by Addition, by setting down 47% three times in
additional order, and casting it up, which shows that this
rule performs compendiously the office of addition.
Rxample 2. Again, how many are produced by malti«
plying 742 by 4 ?
742 Multiplicand ) ^^^^ ^ ^V ^ *»«^«^ ^ »s ^* ^"^ ^
4 Multiplier, > ^'^nes 4 is id 5 6 and carry I 5 and
\ ^ times 7 is 28, and 1 is 29. which
29<)8 5 set down ; so tU- whole product is
~ 2968, as appears by the work.
More exampjes of one figure in thte Multiplier are these :
Multiplier 7420 4444 7460 g0704 56789
Multiplier. '567 8 9
Product 37100 26664 52220 725632 sTTlOl^
Compourid Multiplication;
Is when the nadiiplier consists of two, three, or more fi-
gures or ciphers.
And here yoa must l^gin with that figure which is in
the place of units of (lie multiplier, and go through the
whole multiplicand, by muhiplying edch figure of it first
by the said unit figure, then by the next, Daraely, by the
figure In the place of tens of the multiplier; then with the
the thiid, &c. to the last 5 always remembering to place
the first figure of every product or line exactly and perpen-
dicularly under the figure you multiply by ; and then $dd the
several line« or /products together,' which so collected give
the total product required^ as in the examples followiog^ vm.
laampitl
y Google
OF -ARITHMETIC. $9
Example 1.
How many are 23 limes 7426 ? First, I begin 742S
vitb the unit figure 3 in the muUiptier, saying, 3 23
tiaies6is,l8 ; 8 (which I set directly under 3, by ■ ■ .«
which I multiply) and carry 1 5 then 3 limes 2 is 22273
6, and one is 7^; then 3 times 4 is 12 ; 2 and ^4852
carry 1 j then 3 times 7 is 21, and 1 is 22 > and ^
so I have done with the first figure of the Multi^ 17079S
plier, viz, 3. Then I go to the next, that is 2, and
twice 6 is 12 ; 2 and carry 1 (which 2 is placed, in a di-
rect line under 2 the multiplying figure) then twice 2 is 4,
and 1 is 5; then twice 4 is 8; and lastly, twice 7 is 14^
which I set down ; then I add the two products together^
saying 8 is 8, 2 and 7 are 9, Vc. and the total is (he trua
product or result of the multiplication, vi%, 170798. Again,
Ex. 2. What is the prodbctof — ■ ■■.■ i — ' 527527
Multiply by 285
It will be prolix and unnecessary to give 2637635
more verbal directions ; and therefore the 42202 iS
learner is referred to the observations of 105^054
the example, as also to those two that fol- - ^J'
Jow, vix» 1 50345 J95
527535
15728
275827
4220280
, 1055070
3692745
2637^75
527535
1379135
551654
1930789
2482443
275827
8297070480 5440687575
[ When ciphers are intermixed with figures in the multi^
pher, then multiply the figures as above $ and when yoa
come to a cipher in the multiplier, then set down another
cipher exactly and perpendicularly under it, then begin the
mtiUiplicand again with the next figure to the cipher in tli«
muUipi^y and go through it in the same ikie, placing the
first fignre of that product next the cit>her towards the left
band, but Iben care must be taken that the next figure or
cipher of the next line must be set down one degree farther
towards the left band^ sod not immediately under the last
fig«rf
d by Google
6d YOUNG MAN^ft BESt COWlPANION.
figure set down to the cipher j us in the foUowiDg exampfoi^
may be fully understood.
2^693
'^84371
327586
402
23tm'
00^
" 4^'7^6
3137484
9827580
975720
47062260 '
235311^
I&65516O
98059S6
15*68742
185141^3084
197534^58a
' When yon have a cipher or cipher* m tte inullipUer, at
tire beginnii^g towards ttie right-hand, then set it, or them,,
biekward from the place of units towards the right hand j.
and when you have multiplied by the figure or figures, an-
»ek the cipher or ciphers.
M M then Eg^mfO^
76
, 47962
400
4632-
2«0O
a3«34d
. 19184S0O '
9264
12043200;
if you have ciphers both in the wuliipUeand and mulH-
plier, then neglect ihfe ciphers in both, and mttltiply by the
figures, and ani)^x the ciphers at l^t.
i^ in these Examf^s.
42600
220
42300
42000
«4<)
423
37€40a
. . 2400
852
852
' lr5056
i^28
9372000
507tJoao(X>
963360000
When you are to miakiply by l^, UMi 1^9^ or 10,000^
k ^s only adding or anneKing so many i^ip<iera ^ the «/««iMk
piicamt, that is, eitht%- i, 2> a, <)r 4 cisphers-, and timivm^k
ii done. Eoeumph, Stippose I am^tio iniiiH]^y afrd by tW
Bunribers above; if I niuitif)ly it by lO, thien I jnln 6tm
$75, and it makes, or the product is, 3^dO; kf hy 109^ tlle»
3 annex 00> and it makes 37500; if by X€08v I pAt to i*
GOO, and it produces 3/5000 ; and h»tlyy tf by $O,t)0d: £-
ih&D a^d OCOO, and it majces .37^0000, i9c. Atid tbus ttKHp.
my tvttxnbei be multipled Wh«n th« muUipli&t co»»^ of a
mait
Digittzed by Google
\^
A
OV ARITHMETIC. 1
. WM #^th rfny finflaber of ciphers, and done by inspection
only, without any foinial sttiing down tire mullipHcand
with a line drawn under it, it^c.
Our next business will be to show the use o( multiplication
IB real life, and how to appiy it on proper occasion-*, vix.
1. Sup^se you want to know bow many half crownft
diere are in 246/. yoa . know thftt 8 baif-cvowiH make \L
wlief^re set tbem ck»^n thus:
246/.
"Multiply by 8_
Answer I968
Again, in 19^8 half-crown», how many pedcef
^ 30
5go4d
And tbts serves to show^ that great denominations are
brought into smaller by this rule, according to the defini-
tion, p. 54.
2. Admit that you want to kiiow the square contents ctf
a large tabl^ 34 feet long, and 4 feet wide, muhiply 34. the
length by 4 the breadth, and the answer will be 136 square
feet for the true contents of such a table. And this agrees
with anoflier definition of this rule.
3. If 1 know the value of a yard of broad cloth to be 1%
itidlings, what is the value of 220 yards of the said cloth i&
$hiilin^s ?
220
Muhiply by 12
'^40 shillings^ or 1^ potUHb^
If thtf wages of 1 seaman be 23 shillings a month,
what is the wages of 2dO seatld^n ibr the same time J
Multiply by 23
750 '
500
Answer, 5750 shilH<ig»>.' or 5^8??. 10*^
And these two examples accord with the other delfii-
lion, or use of this rule.
I 9MI io the next place^ say fometbing concerning
muliipliQo*'
Digitized by Google
0S YOUNG MANs BEST COMPANION.
muUlplicatkn of Money, and a little of its use, and so coii«
elude tills rule.
Multiplication of Money,
Multiplication of money has a great aiHnily to addition
if money f the same method being taken in carrying from
one denomination to the next, vi%. i'rom farthings topence>
from pence to shillings, and from shillings to pounds.^— A.nd
as in Addition^ and other Multiplications, you begin at the
right hand, and proceed towards the left, so here you begta
at the least denomination, which is also at the right hand.
This method of accompting is the most apt and expedi'*
tious of all others, for small quantities, and therefore ex?*
tremely necessary in making bills of parcels, ^c. and is^
beyond all contradiction, as sure and certain as any waj
whatsoever.
The general Rule,
Is always to multiply the price by the guantity.
The first step is, for quantities from 2 to 12 } and this is
done by one multiplier^ as in the examples following :
Example I, L s, d.
Multiply • 7 12 6
(or 6 pieces of cloth at 7/. 125. M, per piece) by 6
45 15
Here I say 6 times 6 is 36 pence, which is just 3*. I
set down in the place of pence, and carry 35. to the place
of shiUings, (exactly tlie same as in Addition ofMoneyJ
then 6 times 12 is 72, ^nd 3 is 75s, or 3/. 1^5. wherefore I
set down 15 in the place of shillings, and carry three to the
pounds ', then 6 times 7 w 42, and 3 is 45/. So the whole;
amount of ihe pieces of clotb> at 71. 125. Qd, per piece, is^
45/. 155.
Example 2.
Again, How much is g times 135. 4d, or what is the
amount of 9 marks. 9
In this example I say, g — — —
times 4 is ^6d, or 35. I set 6 O O
down 0, and carry 3 ; then
9 tim^s 13 is 117, and 3 makes 120 ^ but 120 shOIiiigf
tndke just Gl, and so much is the value of 9 marks.
£;camplt
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OP ARITHMETIC. , fit
Example 3,
Once more: What is the value of 12 gallons of w'me at
55. 4d. per gallon > s. d.
5 4
Here I say 12 times 4 is 48 ; and J 2
carry 4 ; then 12 times 5 is 60, and 4 ->-
is 64j. or 3/. 45. tff c. 3 4 O
The next degree of reckoning is of quantities exceeding
.12, even to 12 times 12, or 144 ; all which, as far as
144> are found in the Tattle of Multiplication, which is a
ready help to all purposes of leckoning^ and that yon may
proceed with dexterity, you must be very ready in the said
table, that yoa may immediately see what component parts
suit the quantity proposed, or is pretty near it, and then
work accordingly.
If the quantity be IJ yards, I readily know that 3 times 5
is 15 3 and therefore 3 and 5, or 5 and 3, are to be my
multiplier: If the quantity were 21, then 3 and 7> ^ 7
and 3, would be multipliers ; it 30, then 5 and 6, or 6 an4
5 ; also 3 and 10, or 10 and 3 ; if 45, 48, 56. 66, 7i, 96,
tSfc, were the quantities, then 5 and 9, 6 and .8, 7 and. 8, 6
and 11, 6 and 12, and 8 and 12, tsfc, are to be my muhipli*
ers, and exactly hit the several quantities of which they
are component part's $ and examples of this kind have twa
multiplications for their solution.
I shall now show sotno examples of regular quantities
that exceed 12, and are precisely answered at two maltipli*
cations, such as mentioned above, vi»>
s. d.
What comes 15 yards of mnslia to, at 3 5
per yard ? 3
Here 3 times 5 is I5d. or l5. and Bd, — — — —
- 8 and carry Is. then 3 times 3 is 9, and 1 10 3
is 105. so the first product is IO5. and 3d. 5
which multiply by 5 saying, 5 times 3 is '
I5rf. or 15. and3<f. 3 and carry 1 -, then 2 113
§ tiroes 10 is 50, and 1 is 515. or 2/. 115. ■■■
So the amount of 15 yards, at 35. 5d. per yard, is. 2k 11*
3d. And demonstrable thus, viz,- If 105. 3d, be the value
of 3 times 35. and 5d. then 5 times the value of IOj. 3d,
must of necessity be 15 times the value of 3;. 3d. because.
S times 3 is 15 : And its truth may be proved by Addition
aiid
Digitized by VjOOQIC
m YOUNG MAN'S BESJT CORfPANIOIf.
and Multiplicaiion, thus: set down 35. 5(i, three times, is'
Additional order, and put the three lines logetLer, and the
total of ih«i> nauhipiy by 3, as tk-fore, and the answer will
be tlie sanfie. Or set down 17^. Id. (ihe product of 3s. 5dy
multiplied by 5) three times also, and add them together^
and the total will be exactly the same with the result of
■kttltipiication : as in the following specimi^s of work.
(1)
(2)
(3>
*. d.
5. d.
s. d.
3—5
3--5
17— r
^—&
5
17—1
S— 5
17— r
17—1
2— n--g
a_ii_3
Here the first of ihese tvro prtoU is worked bf a^diiiom
Imd muliipHcotion, and the second by muhipiicatkn ani.
eddilian. Also,
By this we see, that in all examples tinder thfe head we-
are to pitch on two uum hers (for muJtipliixsJ in the tabla^^
HX^hich multiplied together make the quantity proposed ; .
and then we are to multiply the price by one of the nuni«»
•bers (it matters not by whifch first) and then that produot
h to be ra alt i pled by the other number^ and the second or^
hist product will be the answer.
Example 2.
^gain, what is the value of 21 gallons of brandy ?
5* d. In 4 his example I s$y ^ >
^t 7'-'g per Gallon*. ' time« 7 »* ^^d. or 5s. Zd, I
7 and 3' set down 3 and carry 6, t^^n
-*— . 7 tinrvos 7 is 49, and 5 is $4^
J;— 14*— 3 or 2l. t4s. So tfiiiJrtt proi.
3'. duct is 2/. 14s. 3^. which J
■ . multiply by 3, and that pro^
^w- 2—9 diices the last product or
— »— answer, vk. 8^. 2s » gd.
' Now foHow a few more Examples of this sort, witboot
imy verb:! directions^ because I thlDk tlKlie ik«a4y gtvoii
lo be sttfficienti
Maamph.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC.
Example 3.
What is the value of 30 elk
Holland s, d, ■
at A ^3 TperelL
:t J rf J^Oanda
EsmmpU 4.
S6 bushels of wheat,
*. d,
at 4 9
7 and S
I
r 'I
19 15 10
1 13
ji ns. 576
Example 5.
46 pounds of rav» silk'
at 155. 64. per lb,
5 and 9
Jfu. 13 6 o
Example 6,
72 broad pieces *. rf.
at 13 (> each
12 and
3 17
6
9.
14 2
^n. 34 17 g
ExartipleJ; ,
108 f55. of indlgD> Ltfaora^
at 7^. 8^/.
9 and 12
390
12
S4 12 G-
M. 41 8 O
Eaample 8.
8J/fo. of tea.
». d.
at 7 9
9
3 9
9
9 and.p
44n5. 31 7 9
Example 8;
iJflOfllrt.ofeunrattts/at £a 13 eperewt.
SandlZ'
21
8 O
12
Answer 256 l6 O
f -,— ^ .
The next step is of quantities, or nuftibers ihat are not to
be answered precisely at two muilij;lications : In this case>
you will h.ive an addition of one line more, occasion, db/
bring ng down ll^e price of one to be added to the last pro-
duct 5 ^>r elst* & line more raadb by multtpiy^ng the price by
wb«t is defective or wanting in the nurnKtr by two molti-
plications, to make "«p the proposed quaatity complete ; aa
d by Google
16
1
6
96
8
6
6
104
6
6
§6 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
It may be of 2, 3, 4, 5, &cc, as by the subsequent examples
may be Seen and understood.
Example I. What is the product of 2l. 135. 6d, muIiN
plied by 39 ?
i: 2 13 6 Here I find that 6 multiplied
6 and 6 by 6, makes 36 > which is with-
^ in 3 of the quantity proposed 5
wher'efore I multiply by 6, and
that product again by the otli^r
6 ; the last product is g6L 6s.
which is the value, of 36 ; but
we want to know the value of
39 ; wheretbre I multiply the price of one, vi«. 2/. 13*. 6d.
by 3 to make up 36 to 39, saying 3 times 6 is I8d. ^c.
And finding that 3 times 2/. 135. 6d. is 8/. Os. 6d. which
added xa'gdL 6s, od, the total gives the complete value of 39 >
for 36 and 3 make 39.
Ex, 2. What comes 7g cwt, of cheese to at 28*. per cwt.
In this example I say, 7
times O is O ; then i times 8 it
56"^ which is 7,1. l6s, set dowa
16, and carry 2 ; then 7 time*
1 is 7, and 2 carried make 9*
So the first product is 9/. iQs, Od.
which multiplied by 11, pro-
duces 107/. 165. Qd, or the value
_^ of 77 cwt. then for the 2 want-
ing, I multiply the price by it, and that gives 2Z« \6s. Od.
which added to IQ7/. l6^. Od, makes the whole value of 79»
«ix. 110/. I2s. Od. as in the work.
Ex, 3. 1 12 pounds of sugar at 5i per lb. set down thaa ;
$* d,
5| per pound
10 and 10
10
/.
s.
d.
1
8
7 and U
9
16
11
107
16
2
16
110
12
OAns.
2 5 10
g 6 th e product of 5|<f, by 12 defective.
g 11 4 th e Answer. ^ He^tt
Digitized by VjOOQIC
OF ARlTHMETICf. 67
Here, after I have multiplied by 10 and 10, th« parts of
100, there want 12; wherefore 1 mw\\\^\y 5\i, by 12,
and it gives 5s, 6d, for 12/^. at 5^rf. which added to 2/. 5s.
lOd. the vahie of 100, makes 2/. llj. 4d. the irae value of
112/^. at S^d. per pound.
Ex. 4. 64 stone of beef at 22rf. or Is. lOd. per stone.
Is. lOd.
10 and 9
18
4
9
10
8
5
7
4
Here what is wanting aft^f
the two multiplications 18 4;
wherefore I multiply Is. 10</.
(the price) by 4, wliich pro-
duces 7s. 4d. to be added, b'c.
8 12 4 Answer.
£r. 5. 97 cwt. I raisins, After I have multiplied by f
/. 8. rf. and 10, I multiply the price,
at 15 6 per cwt. 25s. (5d. by the quantity want-
9 and 10 ing, and it produces 8/. 18t,
6d, then for the half cwt. I
take half of. the price, which
IS 125. gd. and then collect
the three lines, the total of
which is 1241. 6s. 3d. for tho
6 for the J C. answer.
From the last example it may be observed, that there it
no need of much solicitude about coming so very near by
two multiplications, for there 7 is wanting to make up the
true quantity; nay, if the two multiplications be short by
10 or 11, it is near enough ; for it is as easy to multiply the
price by 10 or 11, as by 2 or 3^ and the addition is the
same.
Example 6. Once more : What comes 110 cwt. | of
-kops to, at 4/. 105. per cwt. ?
^ Afl«r
11 9
6
10
114 15
8 18
12
6
9
124 6
3
d by Google
#8
/.
4
YOUNG M
5. d,
lO 6
lOand 10
45
5 O
10
452
45
3
1
10 O
5
5 3
2 7\
501
2 10|An«.
YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Aftea* having multiplied by I^
and 10, which makes 100,1 mul-
tiply the price 4/. lOf. Qd. by iO,
that is wanting, which gives the
same with the firr.t product, viz.
45/. 5s. Od. which stands nnder
the product by lOOj and for the
f of a cwt. 1 take J of the price,,
iriz. first the half, and then the
half of that half^ that is 2/. 5j.
3ci. and \i,2s.y\cL\ which four
lines added together make 50 iL
2s, lO^d, for the answer.
Ta prove Multiplication.
Whether of simple numbers, or of money, it is mo«t
•urely done by Dwwiow ; hut before that is known, take
this method, viz. As you multiply ihe multiplicand by iho^
multiplier, so contrariwise multiply the multiplier by. the
multipUcand y and if the products are alike, the work ir
right s or otherwi^ one of them iSi wioDg^ and must b*^
^n^ over again tib they both agree.
Example 1.
3^5 days in a yean
24 hours ID a.da7». .
1460
730
6^60 hours in a year.
Here (reversely) I say, 5 times. 4 is iOj and carry 3^^
6 times 4 i^ 24, and 2 is 26 ^ 6 and carry 2 ; and 3 timqs.
4 is 12 and 2 Is 14. Then d times 2 is 10; and carrjr
1.^ 6 times 2 is 12 j and I is 13; 3 and carry i j, and 3
times 2 is 6, and j isjTfWhirh products added together mak^
8760, the hours in a year, without taking In the odd 6.
bourii which the year consists of, more than 365 dajrs.
Example
\
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. €f
Example.
56 gallons of spirits I say here, twice 7 is 14; 2 and
at s, d. carry 15. and 3 times 7 is 21, and 1
3 2 per gall on. is 225. or 1/. 2s, Agairr, twice 8
7 and 8 is sixteen, 4 and carry Is. and twice
. 2 — 5^ ' ® *8 sixteen, and 1 is 17, 17 and car-
g ry J and once 8 is 8/. Thas botk
: tiese examples are the same in con-
I ^ ^' ^ ^^' sequence as if yon proceeded in the
common and regular method of Mnltiplication, and shows
AYiQ tmth of the operation.
' DIVISION. '
THIS "Rule, thongh accounted the hardest lesson hi
uiriihmelic, may be made easy and intelligible to the mean«
est capacity.
The use of this rule Js to know how many times one linm-
ber orstim.i* contained in another, as if it were asked ho\^
often is 9 contained in 54 ? the answer is 6 times 5 or how
xpany times 12 is there in 144 ? Answer, 12 times
As by Multiplication great denominations are broug^ht
into small, so contrariiy by D'wislon small denom inn t ions
are brought into greater 5 as farthings (from one gradation
to another) into, pounds, pounds weight into tons, and gal-
lons liquid into hogsheads, &c.
In this rule we are to take particular notice of the three
following terms, viz.
1"^ rDzvffl^f'Hrf, or number tt) be divided^ '
2 >The < Divisor, or number by ^ which we divide.
3J {^Quotient, or answer to the work ; which shows
bow often the divisor is contained in the dividend.
4. The Remainder ; which is an uncertain branch of this
rule, because there is sometimes a remainder, and some-
times not. The remainder is always of the same name with
the div.den3, and is less than the divisor, for if it be greater
than, or equal to, the divisor, the work is wrong.
To djvide any number of one denomination by a number
not exceed iiig 12.
Rule — Write the divisor on the left hand side of the di-
/vidend, making a curve line, thus), between them, and find
bow many times it is contained in a certain number of fi-
gures of the dividend, and place the result below.
Multiply the divisor by the quotient figure, subtract the
product from that part of the dividend, and carry the re-
mainder
Digitized by CjOOQIC
70 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
maincler> if any, aa so many tens to the next figure of the.
dividend.
Then find how cnany times the divisor is contained in
that number ^ place 4he result in the quotient, multiply the
divisor, subtract the product, and carry the remainder, as
so many tens^ to the subsequent figure of the dividend.
Divide again this number, as before, and so on, to the end.
of the dividend.
If the divisor consist of a number not greater then 12*
and the dividend of a number not higher than 144, the an-
swer is gained at once by the multiplication table ; thus if
63 is to be divided by 9 ; the answer will be 7 times. Hfere
63 is the dividend, 9 the divisor, and 7 the quotient j and
the operation will stand thus : 9)63
~7
If 78 is to be divided by 9, the operation will be 9 )78
Here the answer is 8, and 6 is the remainder, be- " gTJJ
cause in 78 there are eight nines and 6 over.
The general method of proving the truth of division i«
-this *' multiply the answer by the divisor, and take in the.
remainder, if any, and the result wiTl be equal to the divi-
dend, when the operation is right." — ^The following examples
illustrate the foregoing rules.
Jl)78906 5)34567 2)29 702
Quotient 19726-2 6913-2 4950-2
4 5^ 6
Proof 7990 ^ 34567 29702
In the first of these examples I say, the 4's in 7 once,
and there remain 3, which considered as tens, and placed
before 8, the next figure in the dividend, make ZB ;. then
the 4's in 38, 9 times j 9 times 4 is 36 ; 36 from 38, there
remains 2 3 or two tens, which carried to the 9, the next
figure in the dividend, make 29; then the 4*s in 29, 7
times ; 7 times 4 is 28 : 28 from 29, there rests I ; which
makes the 0, the next of the dividend, 10, and the 4*8
in 10 twice; twice 4 is 8; 8 from 10, there remains 2 j
which make 6, the last figure of the dividend, 26 j lastly,,
the 4's in 26, 6 times, and 6 times 4 is 24 ; 24 from 26, *
leaves 2 the remainder : and so for the other two ex-
amples. And for proof of the work multiply the quoti-
ent by the divisor, and take in the remainder in the place
©f
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. 71
rfoDits; and if the product be the tame vUh the dividend,
the dividend is right j for 1 say, 4 tinoes 6 is 24, and 2 th«
lemainder^ makQ 26 ; 6 and carry 2, tS^c.
AftM
re Examples.
3)54321
' Qaotient I8107
i - 3
Proof 54321
7)279060 9)234567
39865 26063
7 9
279060 234567
8) 5987654
Quotient 748456-6
8
11) 9578651 12)8955674
870786-5 7463o6.a
11 12
Proof 5987654
P578651 8955674
11)72646206 12)76677240
ttuotieat 6604200—6 6389770
11 12
. Proof 726-I6206
.s 76677240
^ 11)47627000
' Quotient 4329727-
^ - 11
12(42007400
-3 3500616-8
12
Proof 47627000
420074CX)
By being ready and dexterous in the above examples you
may expeditiously divide by these numbers, viz. 110, 120,
1100, 1200, &c. for it is but cutting off, or separating the
ciphers from 11 and 12, and cutting off and separating the
like number of figures or ciphers from the right hand of the
dividend, and then divide the other trgures or ciphers to-
wards the left hand, by 1 1 or 12, . as it shall happen 3 as in
the following examples, viz.
Divide 34567 by 110, and 890123 by 120, and 98765
by 1100, and 678901 by 1200.
11, 0)3456,7
Quotient
<!luotient
314-27
ll,O p)987,65
89—865
12, 0)890123
7417-63
12,0 0)6789^01
When
Digitized by CjOOQIC
7^ YOUNG MABTg BEST COMBANION.
When you divide by XO, 100, or 1000, leOQO,. kc.j^m..,
have nothing; more to do than to cut off, or separate so
manv figures or ciphers of the dividend towards the right .
bana, as you have Ciphers in the divisor, and those figures
toward the left make yout quotient 5 and those cat off to-
ward the right hand the remainder.
Examples.
Divide 123456789 by IX), 100. 1000, 10000
By 10 the Quotient is 12345678, and the Remainder is gL
By 100 tlie Quotient is 123456*7, and Remainder is 89.
By 1000 the Quotient is 123456, and Remainder is 789.
By tOOOO the Quotient is 12345, and Remainder is 6789.
When the divisor consists of several figures, then there
arises a little- more difficulty in the work j but if the fol-
lowing directions are attended to it is easily overcome 7 as
will be evident from the following example, via.
Suppose I am to divide 78901 pound? among 32 pa-
rishes ; or suppose an assessment of so much money was
laid on so many parishes ; what must each parish pay by aa
equal proportion towards raising such a supply ?
Divisor 32)78901 (. . . . Quotient.
The example thus set out, 1 begin at the left hand, seek-
ing how often I can take 32 out of 78 ; or more easily, how
many times 3 are in 7, and tlie answer is 2 times 5 which I
place in the quotient thus 32)78901 (2, and then according
to the General Rule, I multiply the divisor 32, by the 2
placed in the quotient, saying, twice 2 is 4, and twice 3 is
6 f so there is 64 to be taken out of 78, which should stand
thus :
32)78901(2
46IJ •
I4
Then I make a point nnder 9, the third figure of. the di-
vidend, and bring it down to the /emaioder 14, and t|ie«
the work appears thus ;
32)78901(2
64-
149
Then I seek flgain, asking how many times 32 in 149,
which is not readily to be answered; but how m^any timet
3, the first figure of the divisor, is there in 14, the two first
figures of the dividual 149^ and the answer is 4 timesi;
vherefora
d by Google
OF ARITHMETIC. 7^
wkerefoie, after placing 4 in the quotient^ I naultiplj (e»
directed in the General Rule) the divisor 32 by the said 4,
saying 4 tiroes 2 is 8, placing it under 9 in the^ividaal;
then 4 times 3 is 12, which set down under 14 ; so there it
128 to be taken out of 149, and then the work appears thus ;
.32)78901(24 And alter subtraction there remains 21 ;
64. . . then I makea point under O in the dividend
j^Q and bring it dow n to the right of the re-
128 inainder21> and then there is 210 for A
new dividend; then I seek again, saying*
__^9 how many times 32, the divisor, is therein
210 ? Or easier, bow many times 3 in 21 ? But observe.
That whenever you have a place more in the dividend than
in the divisor, then always try how often you can take
the first figure of the divisor out of the two first of thq
dividend, ^nd the answer is 7 times ; but it will not bear
7 times, for 7 times 32 is 224, and you cannot take 224 .
out of 210 J or rather you cannot take- 22 out of 21 ;
-wherefore try in your mind before you set down the an-
swer, or figure' of the quotient, whether it will go to the
number of times as is most 'easily suggested; as here* the
^uestioii or demand is readily answer^ 7 times 3 and, s»
xnany times 3 may be taken in 21 ; but when you come
to multiply the whole divrsor by the times you place in
the quotient, you begin at the right hand $ and gc up-
wards the left, carrying the tens that ariie to the next
•place, which so increases the product, that sonoetimes sub-
traction cannot be made, because the under line is greater,
than the upper ; wherefore first try in your mind, as has
been said ; and since it will not bear 7 times, try if it will
go 6 times ; saying, 5 times 2 if 12, 2 and carry ] ; and
6 Utiles 3 is 18, and 1 is 19; and 19 may be taken out of
21 ; therefore set down 6. in the quotient, next to the 4,
and multiply the divisor 32 by it^ and the work will stand
thus:
32)78901(246 Here the divisor 32, mijltiplied by
6, gives 192 to be taken out of 210, ani,
the remainder is 18 ; to which, after a point
made under it, I bring down the 1, the last
figui^ of the dividend, and then there is 181
for a new dividend ; tberi according to tho
. rule, I seek ag^in how many time^ 32, the
divisor, may be taken out of IBl, or how
■ " D many
d by Google-
■ "> f •
YOUKG MAN'i BEST COMPANION,
nany tfdies 3 in 18, and the ready aoswer [s G imtt : but
on the triallfind it wninotgoQjiav»; 32)73901(2465
wherefore I try a quQtient figi^re less by 64 ,
I, via5. 5 t'^mes, and find it will bear it j
and setting 5. in the qootient nei^t to the
6, 1 multiply the divisor 32 by it, and it
produces 1605 .which subtractcid from
181, the last remainder is. 21, and the
quotient or answer is 2465 } which shows
that 32 ,is contained in 78gOi, 2465
times, and 21 over. ^ ,
Again, If a nobleman hath 30,000/« per annum, what is
bis daily income?
If you divide' 30,000 by 3,65 (the days in the year) the
quotient will be the answer. Set it down for worleing thus :
365)3O,O0O(
, l^rst, seek how many time^ 365 can be taken in 300 ?
(an equal number of places with the divisor) answer O
times j wherefore I, go to a place farther to the right hand
jn the dividend (fqr must never begin the quotient^ as
"was said beifore) and make a^pqint under it^ viz, under the
bst but one, as may be seen in the example ; and there
l^heing a place more in this dividual than in the divisor, I try
boHr often the first figure of the divisor, viz. 3, is contained
in the two first figures or places of the. dividend, viz, 30,
^nd the answer is 10 times; but you are never to take
above 9 times at once, in any of these examples of divi-
^ajon J wherefore trj' in yo^i- mind whether it 'will be^ir g
.times, before you set it down in the quotient (as noticed
before) saying^to yourself, 9 times 5 is 45, 5 and go 4 ^ I9
times 6 is ^4, and 4 is 58 5 fi( and go 5 ; and, 9 times is 27,
,and>5 is' $2 f\ now 32 cannot be laken out of 30, wherefore
takeaftgure less by 'an unit or one, viz. 8 times j; and
•finding it will go 8 times ; set down 8 in the qiu)Uent -, and
/then say B times 5 is 40 ^ and carry 4 ; and 8 times 6 is
.48, and 4 is 52 ; 2 and carry 5, and 8 times 3 is 24, and 5
is 29 J and then there is 292O to be taken from 3000j and
after subtraction the work will appear tlms .
365J30000(«
.2920.
SO
Then
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OF ARITHMETIC. 75
Then to the remainder 80 I bring down O, (he last figurii
•f the dividend, and then there 18 600 for a new dividual;
then you muit fry how oft you can take 3^ out of the said
dividaal-800, and the number of places being equal in both
divisor and dividual, to wit, 3> try how ofl 3 in 8 ; answer
2 ; so put in the quotient, and aay twice 5 is 10, O and
carry 1 ; and twice 6 is 12, and 1 is 13 ; .3 and carry J )
and twice 3 is 6, and 1 is 7 ; so there is 730 to be deducted
from 800, andtheiematndepi9 70, vie.
!S65)30000;S2 Thus it appears that the npblcman batk
2820. eighty-two pounds per diem, and 70/,
_ over 5 which; if multiplied by 20^ the
®^ shillings iri a pound, would pfoduc»
7^^ 1409 shillingg y and this divided by the
" ~r drvisor, 356, there would come out Ss.
v/O; 3 ^gy mere, and there will be a remain-
der of 305, which multiplied by 12, the pence in a shil-
ling, produces 3660; which divided stil! by 365, givea
lOd. a day more : so 30000/.. a. year is 82/. .9.J. lOd. a day.
Once more: divide 46242 gallons by. ^52, the gallons
in a tun, thus set down !
252)46242(183 Xn this example, after inqu^, I firid
-_?'.! ^^^' *^ ^^^^ "°^ g^ twice, therefore I set
2104^ down 1 in the quotient,' and place 252 un-
2016 der462 of tlie dividend, and after subtrac*
gg^ tion the remainder is 210 ; to w|iich. bring
756 ' ^^^^^ from the dividend, which makea
1— 2104; and then I find it will bear 8 times
(^^^) which put in the quotient, and* the drvisor
252 multiplied by it, the product is 2016 to be subtracted
from 2104; which being done, the t«mainder i& 88 ; to
which 2, the last figure of the dividend, being brought
down, there is 882, and then trying again, I find it will
go 3 times; and the product of the divisor piultiplied by
3, is 756; which subtracted from 882, there remains 120
for the true remainder : So that by ibis division I find thert
are 183 tuns in 44262 gallons^ and 126 gallons remaining,
or over and above, which being half of 252 the divisor, .
the remainder is h;alf a ttin more.
When you have a cipher or ciphers on the right hand
>^ the divisor^ in the first, second, or third |dace, &c. ae«
parate such cipher or ciphers, with a dash of the pen^
D % fre»
'S,g^?e<^by Google
76 YOUNG MAN'« BEST COMPANION.
from the rest of the divisor; and also c.t ofias many fi-
gures or ciphers from the right of the dividend as yo^ cut
off ciphers from the divisor, and divide ihe remaining fi-
gures towards the left hand, by the remaining significant
figures of the divisor.
Example.
Divide 42952 square poles of land by iCO, the square
poles in an acre of land.
16^0)4295^2(268 Here the cipher is cut off from the di-
32. • visor, and tlie 2 from the dividend ;
jQQ then I ask how oft \6 in 42 ; answer
qq twice ; then the l6's in 109, answer 6
' ■ — times 5 then the Ida in 135, answer
irtf ® t4mes. So there are 268 acres, and
almost half, on acre iu 42952 square
128
(7) poles.
Divide 27,00)62746,20)2323.
54..
87
81
64
54
In this example two ciphers a e
separated from the divisor, and
also two places from the divi-
dend, and then 62746 is divided
only by 27»
lOtf
81
25
When the divisor is$, 4, 5, 6, or more figures, there is
a sure and easy way of performing the work truly, by mak-
ing a table of the divisor ; which may be done by addition,
or by multiplying the divisor by 2, 3, 4, &c.
Suppose you are to divide 987654321 by 123456.
123456)987644321(8000 times. I 1234 56
987 648 . . . 2 ' '- 2<6p2r
(6321) 3 3/0308
Here having noted the ^ y ^03824
number of figures in the " ^ ^ 1^
divisor, which here is 6, ;: . 017280
I make a point under the ^ 740730
sixth figure, or place of 7 86^192
the dividend, ' whereby Q 98764
987654 becomes the first 9 iiiil04
dWiduaL
d by Google
OF ARITHMETIC. 7?
The foregoing table is made by doubling the first line,
which makes 246912; this added to the first or apper-
luost line, gives the third line 370368 \ which also added
to the said first line^ makes 493824 for the 4th line, or
product, and so of the rest : stilt remembering to add
the subsequent line or product to the first of uppermost
line, till you come to the last line of 9 times, which is
111 1104.; the truth of which maybe proved by multi-
plying the first or uppermost line by 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and
if you commit an error by Adduion it may be found or
^rrected by Multiplication.
The Use of the said Table.
When yon have pointed put your number of places in
the dividend, ca t your eye on the table, and at the first view
you may know how many times you can take, as in this
example 7 times are too little, and 9 times^ too much ;
wherefore I set down 8 in the quotient, and place 987648,
the tabular number, which stands against 8 un.^er the di-
vidend ; then I subtract that number from it^ and the re-^
roainder is 6, to which I bring down 3, and place O in the
quotient ; then to the 63 I bring down 2, and plaoe O in
the quotient ; then to 632 I bring down 1, the last figure
of the dividend ; but still it will not bear any times or
time, wherefore I put another O in the quotient, and so
the work is done, and the quotient is 8CXX>, and the re-
mainder 6321, as in the work.
• Thus having plainly, fully, and pertinently shown by
verbal -directions, the method of working Division> I think
it unnecessary to give any more examples in tbat manner^
but shall leave son^ few examples for practice sake, whose
quotients and remaffnders are expressed, but the operation
. omitted, to save room, and for trial of the ingenuity of ,
practitioners^
-7400690042 divided by 987, the quotient is 7498X66, and
the remainder 200.
479679002742 divided by 4689 the quotient is 1022^8784,
and the remainder 4566.
7969767002 divided by 97^294, the quotient is 8l63, and
the r'-mainder 279O8O.
456789012345 divided by 9876543, the quotient is 46249*
• ind the remainder 8775138.
^76469749 by 4500, quotient 16993, and the remainder
1249. And 8O9232OOOO by 345000, quotient 23456,
and remains (0). D3 The
.^ Digitized by CjOOQIC
r " •
I
>f TOUNG MAN'i BEST COMPANION.
The Proof of Multiplication and Division.
These two rules reciprocallj prove each other j for in
proving multiplication, if you divide the product by the
iDultiplier, the quotient will he like the multiplicand 3 or
if by the multiplicand^ the quotient will be the same with
Uie multiplier.
Ex. No. I. 345 Ex. No. II. Or thur,
24 345)8280(24
1380
690
690..
1380
24)8280(345
72..
108
96
1360
(0)
12 a
(O)
To prone Division.
XH^Isidn^ikiajbe proved by Divtaioo thus :
If yoa divide the dividend by the qiMtieat^ th» qiiotieol
will be your former divisor.
£r. Dnrtde 8280 by 34d.
, " 345)S(280<24
Hevedheivorkingagaift is needless, it beiiij| jiast done,
«nd s1k>v» the rralb o£ the asier-i^oB, that Division may b«
.ffovedr by Divbioa. '
But Hie moat aaaal way of proving DtvisioA is by MuJk
tipltett^oop, ID this maanet, v'o. mukiply the quotieoc by
the divisor^ and the product wiU be equal ta the dividend.
— See the preceding examples. No. 1.
$45 ^MU€Ht,
24 Divisor.
■ | - ^ — Noie, That when there is any
. i ?^ remainder, such remainder must
Q?- be taken in pr added to the
8280 Proof. product.
As I have given some examples of the utility of MaUU
SUcalion in Money, I shall here give a few examples^ in
yiviwm of Moneif $ whereby may be seen bow expedi-
tipusly tbinga may be done without having Recourse to Be-
faction, the Rule of Three, &c. Ex,
Digitized by CjOOQIC
5)26
12
d.
6
5
6
6
5
Proof 26
12
6
OP ARITHMETIC. 7»
Ex, I, Divide 26/. I £5. 6</. eqnally araoog five men.
For disposition of working set it down as fono\^s :
In tbe Working of this I say, the
5*s in 26, 5 times ^ 5 times 6 is 25 ;
25 from 26 there remains 1, that is'
1 ponnd, or 20 shillings } which, with
the l2i. in the place of shillings, maket
325. then the 5's in the 82, 6 times ;
>6 times 5 is 30 -, 30 from 32, there re-
main 25. 6r 24d, which with 6d. in the place of ipence,
makes 30 j then the 5s. in 30, 6 times, and so the work
is done, and the. answer is, that each man must havi^ -
i. 5 6 6, for his eqnal-bhare in the said division of
'/. 26 12 6 among 5' persensj and the truth of it is
proved by Multiplication of Money, snfficientl)^ sho^n in
the rule of Multiplication; as here, 5 times 6 is 30, 6 and
carry 2 ; and 5 times 6 is 30, and '^ is 32 ; 12 and carry
1 ', and 5 limes 5 is 25, and 1 is 46, kt.
Ex.' 2. Divide the charges of a country feast, amounting
toj, 246 13 4 equally atfabng l4 ^tew^rjds, ti) know'what
wch steward niust pay; "• ' - <" ' ' • - ; ^'
/. s. d ' "^ere I say the 12*8 in 24 twice,
%r\\nAR to 'i *"^ ^^*s in D, 0'tim6s, and there re-
UJ^4PJ3_4. riiaiiis6/.6r 1^5. arid 135. make 133,
Ans. — 20 1 1 1 — 4 and then the 12*s in' 133 are* 1 1, and
' ^ — ^ ' there temalhs 15: or i2rf. and theu
.12. arid 4 is 16^; and the 12*5 \U }§ (toc^j atid 4 remain ;' io
that each steward, must pay /. 2p 1.1 1, bnd* soriiething;
more than a farthing j and this may be proved as above.
When any quantity is such a number that any two digits
of the Multiplication Table niultiplied tpgetl^r make the
©id quantity or number, then the quotient may be very ei,-
g' sditiously found at t>yo divisions, and sooner than 9l:,one.
sample: Divide 7872 by 32. In this example the cofn-
ponent parts, which, multiplied together, make the divisor
32, are 4 and 8, or 8 and 4 5 for it matters noi which of
them you divide by first j for either way will give a true
and the same quotient, as may be seen by the diibren( me-
thods of the following work.
^m72 Or thus : 8; 7872
8yi968 ' " 4)984
'"34<) Quotleni 246 Quotieni.
D4 Hof
Digitized by CjOOQIC
90 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Here though the operations are different, yet the quo«^
tieots are the same. Again^ divide 44184 by 56.
Example 3.
7)44184
8) 6312
789 Quoiient.
Here the Divisors are 7 and 8, or 8 and 7^ for either
will give the same quotient.
And thus may a great number of examples be wrought
by numbers oiit of the Multiplication Table, with great
dispatch and expedition^ as by 15, 18, 25, 35, 64, 12, g^,
and by inany other numbers/
When it appears that there is any remainder jn the first
divisioin^ or the last, or both, to know the true remainder
as if divided by the common way, take this method, viz^
mukiply the first divisor by the last remainder, and take in,
or add the first remainder, if there be any, and the product
will be the true or same remainder, as if you divided by the
long way. Example: divide 1567, by 15.
3)4567 Here I multiply 3, the first divisor, bj
5)1522 i ^» *^® ^^* remainder, and take in 1, the
Q04. — 7. ^"* remainder, and it makes 7 for the true
- — Remainder, as may be proved at leisure' by
(7) the other way.
The same method maybe taken with respect to coni-
ponent parts in division of money, as in division of 'slaipie
numbers: thus /. s. d*
Divide 3)463 18 6 into 18 equal parts.
6)154 12 10
jinswer 25 15 5
By this method of Division of Money you may, by have*
ing the price of several things, know the price or j^alue of
one thing, at the said rate, as well as by the Rule of Three ;
go doth Multiplication of Money answer questions in the
Rule of Three, when the first number is a unit, or I.
Thus, If 84 lb. of coffee cost 31/. lOs.Od. A;rhat costs ill.
Here 7 tnultiplied by 12, gives 84 j therefore^ proceed as
follows: /. s, d,
7) 31 10
12) 4 10 O
Answer 7 6
An
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. fJ
As in tbe MoltiplicatioD of Money, to have an antwer^
yott multiply tbe price by the quantity, so in Division of
Money you divide tbe price by the quantity, to have yoor
answer. . ^ ^
The various uses of Multipiicaiion and Division will be
better understood by their application in the following
Rule oiAriihmetic called
REDUCTIO Ni
WHICH shows bow to reduce numbers of one denomi*
nation to another, thereby discovering the same value^
though in di0erent terms.
I. As iirst, all great numbers are brought into smaller
by Multiplication, as pounds into shillings, pence^ or far-
things, by multiplying by 20, 12, or 4.* Or hundreds
weight into pounds weight, by muhiplying by 4 and by 28,
or by ] 1 2 > or lower^ into ounces or drams, by multipj^ing
tbe pounds by l6 and \Q,
II. And on the contrary, all small names are brought lOf-
to greater by Division,* as farthings into pounds, by divi-
ding by 4, 12, and 20: and pounds weight into hundreds
weight, by dividing by 28 and 4 \ the drams into pounds
by dividii^ 16 and 16. .
But note. That pounds are brought into pence by multi- "
plying by 240; or into farthings by multiplying by 900$
and just the contrary by Division.
Ex. 1. In 240/. Sterling how many pence ?
20 shillings 1 pound.
4600 shillings in 240/. Or thus ;
12 pence 1 shilling. 240/.
^«*. 57600 pence in 240/* ^40d. in I/.
9600
480
Answer57GQO
£r. 2» In 226 tons of copper, how many pounds wt.
,20c wt. 1 ton. Or thus:
4520 cwt. in 226 tons. 226 tons,
4 qrs. 1 cwt, 20
18080qrs. of 1 cwt. in 226 tons. 4520
28 lb. 1 qr. of a cwt. 112
I4ft640 54240
36160 ' 452Q
^06240 poonds wt. in 226 tons. 506240 pds.
D5 Th
Digitized byCjOOQlC''
*2 YOUNG MAN*i BEST COMPANION-
Thfde foregoing examples are great names to be broiigfat
lAtd mimII (as may eattly be observed and . understood)
Ulefefere as tbe role directs, it is done by Muitiplicatioo,
%y mDltiplying the greater name by the number of the next
lesser name that makes one of the said greater ; as in the
first exon^ tbe lesser name to pounds Isshiilings : where«
fore I multiply by 20^ because 20 of that ksser mme makes
one of the said greater name, i.e. 20 shillings make a pound.
And tbe same regard is had, .and method observed, in the
exatnpk of weight, as is very i^ain to be seen in the work,
and is called Reduction Descending^ becaose it brings higher
I3f gt^ater denominations into lower or lesser.
Jtr. 3« Bring 4)4g44QO f^things into pounds.
■ 'Or thus: y
n) 123600 pence gd J 0)49440 l<>{5isi.
—^ 480. .
_ 2 1 0) 1O30 ] O sbilUngft "J^ In this way I
'^■■ " 96 divide by 960,
515 pounds. ' ^iio *'^ fertbingi
— — arc,
(O)
In the first way I divide the farthings by 4» bacaoie 4
make a penn3r> aed the quotieot is pence ^ tiien the pence
I divide by 12, because 12 make a siiilHng, and that quo-
tient is sl>illji^ ', these I divide by 20 to bring them into
pounds^ thus ^ I cut o^.the cipher in the dividend towards
the rights for the cipher that is in the divisor 20, which if
also separated from 2 with a dash of tbe pen; then I halve
the figures one by one, as they are united with the i;^main-
der in the dividend ; which half is pounds, and is a short
way of dividing by 20; in the example I say the half of 10
(because I must notaet down Oat the b^ginniiig) is S, and
tWhalf of 3 is 1, but there remains 1, which makes the
-aext, which is O, lOj and the half ctf 10 is 5; ao that
10300 shillings make 515 pounds, or there are so many j
pounds in 494400 farthings.
iVa(f, In dividing by 20, as above, if an/ thing remain |
it must be joined or annexed to the figure or cipher cut off; ^
as suppose there had in tbe halving The last figure (except-
Jh)g wi^tyoucut od).i:emdined I, then :tiiat a must have
¥c€a
Digitized by CjOOQIC
(HrARnHMEnc. «i
been 9dd^ to the cipher lepprat^ cgr cot qITj «lrii tbfl9
would have been 10 gbtilings.
Hi. 4. Hedace 27$52 lK)ttQds weight into cwtt.
• • '4y
28)27552(984 Or thus:
252 . . lb. CWt.
* 2^ CWt. Answer. 112)27552(246 ^ns.
235 224. .
?^ "515 ^
112 448
£1^ - 672 * '
(0) J672
(0)
Jri Ibe ^xH pf |be two foregoing ^xanap)^ I divide tbt
pojunds \fy 2B, to bring theai into QuarJ:ers ; then I divide
those quarters by 4, to bpng tbeip into bandied^ wdght^ ^jf
fbove.
In the se^opd w9y«. I divide tibe pounds wdg^t by 112,
ibe ponnds in 1 cwt. and it brings the pounds w'ei^t into
bundred? we%ht at once.
The said examples are of small denominations to p§
broaght into greater ^ and therefore it is done by Division,
by dividing the lesser name* by as many of nbem as make
tbe greater name : that is by 29> because 29 of them mak«
one of the next greater pame, vix, a quarter of an hundred^
and this reduction is called fiedncfion jiscemHng, because It
brings low or small names to higher of greater denomina-
tions ; by which may be observed/ that ^1 questions in Re*
duction^ whether ascending or descending, slrie answered et»
ther by Multiplication or Division, or by both 5 as will
plainly apf)ear iu the examples. «
When it is required to reduce numbers of several deno-
giin^,tion> by ^eiuction Ascending, or by Muldplkafionp
yon^re to work as before ; but you must always remember
jto take in such numbers as stand in/the place of the riexi);
inferior denomination, ^s when you multiply ^he pounds by
20, \f ih^re be any shiliings to the denpnbination, or place
irf ilhillings, you mpst take them in j so likewise when
yoi^ multiply tjie shillings by 12, iff there bc^'any^^^cnce in
the place of pence, you must also take them in $ and so
when )ou inultiply the pcnceby 4, to bring them into far-
^^ngs^ you must take in the farthings, if £ere be itfiy in
th#
L..
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U YOUNG MASPs BEST COMPANION.
the place of farthings, as in the folio wing work.
I. s. d.
Xj, 5, In 346 l6 9 J how many farthings ?
20 sbilliogs I pound.
6936 shillings in 346/. l6s.
12 pence 1 shilling..
83241 pence in 346Z. 165, gd.
4 farthings 1 penny.
332966 farthings in 346/. l6s. g^d.
The above example is so plain that it hardly need«
;iny explication 5 but I begin to say is O^ but 6 in the
units of shillings is 6 ; then twice 6 is 12, and one in the
tens of shillings is 13, 3 and carry 1 j and twice 4 is 8
and 1 is 9, and twice 3 is 6: then by \2, saying 12 ticnesi
^ is 7^1 and gd, (in the place of pence) is 81, 1 and carry
S; and ]2 times 3 is 36, and 8 is 44, 4 and carry 4 ; and
12 times 9 is 108, and 4 is 1 12, 2 and carry 11; and 12
times 6 is 72, and 11 is. 83: then by 4, saying 4 times
1 is 4, and 2 (in the place of farthings) is 6 5 4 times 4 is
16, andvso on. -
C. qrs, lb,
E^,6, In 56 2' 16 of tobacco how many pounds wt ?
4 qrs.
226 qrs. in 56 C. 2 qrs
28 lbs. 1 qr. ofaC.
1814
453
J m* 6344 p ounds wt. in 56 C. 2 qrs, 16 IL .
In the foregoing example I multiply the 56 C, by^ 4,
and take in 2 quarters j then I multiply the 226 qrs. by
28, saying 8 times 6 is 48, and 6 (the unit figure in the
odd pounds) is 54, 4 and Sarry 5> &c. Then. 1 multiply by
2, saying twice 6 is twelve, and 1 (that stands in the place
•f tens in the odd pounds) is 13-, 3 and carry 1, &c. Th«i
adding the two products tc^ether, thiey make 6344 pounds
contained in 66 C. 2 qn. \6 lb, as above stated.
Reduclion
Digitized by Google
OF ARITHMETIC. £5
Rjduciion Ascending,
Is the bringing numbers from a smaller denomination to
a greater, and is the reverse of Reduction Descending $
and each may serve as a proof to the other, one being per«
formed by 3/u//ip/ica/iri7i.andthe other by Division.
If at any time in Reduction Descending you take in, or
add to, the odd money, weight, or measure, as ynu multi-
ply the several denominations, such quantities will be the
remainders in Reduction Ascending,
4) Examples, (See £x. 5 and 6.)
In 332966 farthings, how many pounds ? Divide by 4, by
12)8 3241—^ 4. remains. t^'^ and by 20.
2,6X693,6-— 9^. remains.
346 — i6i. remains.
So that in 332966 farthings there are 346/. l6y. 9rf|.
Again, in 6344 pounds weight, how many hundreds
weight ? Here divide by 28, and then by 4.
4)
28)6344 (226 qrs. .
^^" 56 a 2 qrs.
74
56
184
169
(16) lbs. remain.
^o that in 6344 pounds wt. there are 56 C, 2 qrs, 16/I.
and these instances prove the preceding examples bf de*
acending to be right.
The following are promiscuous examples of both kind*
•f Reduction, one proving the other.
In 276/. 125. how many pencei
20
^ 12
5532 I n 66384(/. how many pounds ^
. 12 2|0)553t2
Ans. 663S4d. ^ns, I. 276 | 12 and Proof.
U
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16 YOUNG MAN'I. BEST COMPANION.
In 47964 grains, liow many poonds Trot/ f
3|0)
24)47964 (1991?
- 24.. . 12)99 ^8 pwtg. jins.Blh. 3o«. lOpwU. 12jr*.
230 lo 8 lb. ^•7. IS tiff ts. 12 gr, Howo^jT graini ?
210 " 12' ' t • r
^236 99
21(? 20
204 1998
192 24
Gr- (ia) 79ft*
3^97
Anmer 47964 and i»roq/*.
Ja 34 C. 3 ^rj. of wool^ how many ponnda ?
34 3 ^9»
4 CwU
139 J 12)3892(34 3 ffs.
28 33i
J 112 53.?
278 448
3892 «4«'^. o;r 3 qn.
In 456 cwt. 3 ^fi. 27 Ih. of copper, how cnanj poandp '
a|)d what is the amount at 21 pence per pound ?
Cwt, qrs. Ih.
456 3 72
4
1827
14623
3656
51183 /*,
21
51183
102366
1074843 penqcj which diyide by 12 and by 20,
giye4478/. lOf. 3(2. the vaiae of 456(7. 3qrs.2Zlh. of
Copperat 21 pence per /^. " •
Bring
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OF ARlTHMETia n^
Bring 479^ e]ls Flemish into elis English', multiply
3 bjr 3 and divide by 5, because 3 quarteia
5) 14388 make an ell Flemish, and 5 m ell English.
Eeduce 456 ells EngUsh into yards; multiply by 5^ and
divide by A, thus
456 English ells.
5 qrs, 1 Eatgf. ell. In 570 yds. bow many Eng. e.
4)2280 qrs. 4 qrs. 1 yd.
Yds. 5"'0 Answer. 5)2280
English ells 456^ Anstver and proo/l
Bring 130 tuns of wine into gallons.
4 hogsheads 1 tun.
520 Orthus:^
63 gallons 1 hogshead 252 galloni 1 tuQ^
1560 130 tuns.
3I2Q/^ 7560
Ans. 32760 gallons. ^^^
"" 32760
Lfls^. Quflriers. Bushels. Pecks.
Reduce 42 3 5 2intopeck0.
_l?qrs. I last. Here multiply by 10.
42? and take in 3 qrs. ami
8 bwibejs 1 qr. then by 8, and take in^J
3389 ^ti^eUi and lastly hy/4,
J 4 pecks 1 bush. «o^ ^^^^^ ''^ ^ pecks. .
13558 pecks in 42 lasts, 3, qm. 6 bushels^ and
4) 2 pecks.
In 13558 pecks how many lasts, &c.
' 8)3389 2 pecks taken in.
1 j 0)12 I 3 5 bushels taken in.
Lasts 42 3 quarters taken in.
^SIU^ 49 lasls^ 9 quarters, 5 bushels^ #Dd 2 pecka.
By Reduction also
^•veigo' coiot or esohanges may be reduced to Sterling
miv^y, 9ipd OQ the «oatcs(ry Sterling money to foreign;
Examph
" ^ ■_ Digitized by Google ,
r
88 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANIONT.
Example.
Reduce 246 Venetian Ducats de Banco into Sterling mo*
ney, the n^xchaoge at 52d. Sterling per ducat, thus : -
246
• 52
492
1230
32)12/92
2 I 0)106(6
i:. 53 — 6 to be paid in London,
for the 246 ducats drawn in Fenice.
Heduce 53/. 6s, sterl. into ducats at 52d. sterl. per du*
20.
1060
12
52)12792(246 ducats to be paid in Fenice for 53/. 6s.
104 drawn in London,
23, &c.
To reduce Flemish money into Sterling money divide
fhe pence Flemish by the course of exchange, suppose 33*.
Ad. and the quotient will be the Sterling money j and what
Temains, multiply by 20, tsfc.
Example.
In 242/. 13s. Ad. Flemish, how manjr.
20 pounds Sterling, kgc^
335. Ad. Flemish. 4853
1^^ ^ 12
400 • 4 I 00)582 [ 40
145 remains' 240
30
4 I 0)48 I 00
12
Answer 145/. 12^.
By the Above it appears that 145/. l%s. Sterling is
•quiralcnt to 242/. 135. Ad. Flemish, at 33s. 3d. Flemish
per pound Sterling.
Thus Flemish money maybe reduced to Sterling ihoney,
though the coarse of exchange may be at any other rate
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. . 89
•f shillings and pence Flemish; but when the rate above,
VIZ. 335. 4(/. then the answer is. sooner found by mnhiply-
ing by 3, and dividing by 5 ; for 400d, FL'mish is the same
to 240d. Sterling y (each bein;^ a pound) as 5 is to 3, for if
yoa divide 400 by 5, it quotes SO; so 240, divided by 3,
quotes the same.
Th^ above Example done by the last proposed way.
/.242 13 4 FkmUh.
3
5)728 O O
1.145 12 O
In 426 French crowns, each 54d.^- Sterling, how many
pounds Sterling?
426 In this Example the num-
54:^ berof crouns is multiplied by
1 704 54CL an^l for the ^cL I take the
2180 ^^ P^^^ ^^ '^^^^ which is lOt?
106-2 * °^ ^ penny, or a halfpenny,
^ ^ which added to the other
12)23110^ pgj^j,Q gl^.^g fpr jQjgl 231 10c?,
a I O ) 192 I 5 lO/. whi h divide by 1 2, quotes 1925, ,
Ans. I Q§: 5: lOdi ^"^^ ^^^' remains: so the an-
^ ^ wer is 96/. 5*. 10<i. ^ Ster^
ling.
Note. To multiply a number by J, ^, f , J, &c. is the
same as to divide, the number by 4, 2, 3, 8, &c.
Again^ bring 16OO pieces of eight, at 54d. J Sterling into
pounds. iS/er/i^g.
1600
54^
6400 Here the 16OO pieces of eight
8000 are multiplied by 54, to bring
400 them into pence, and for the J
12)86800 pence, ^^ke the J of 1600, &c. as in
the work 5 and the answer is
2 I 0)723 I 3-4 ^30j. 13; 4^
/.36l: 13: 4.
This method is of use in reducing the exchanges of
Cadiz, LeghoTHy and Genoa. Or when the exchange is at
so many pence and eights of a penny, (as often th6
exchange&
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§0 YOUNG MAN*8 BEST COMPANION.
excihanges run) then multiply the given number to re-
duce it into pence, by the pence contained in a piece of
eight; and also multiply the said given number apart,
by the numerator or upper figure of the fraction, and di*
vide by the denominator or under figure of the fractuinj
and the quotient will be pence 3 which add to the other,
pence produced by multiplying the given number by the
pence contained in one of the pieces for exchange, thcB
divide the total pence by 12/ &c.
Example.,
Bring 296 dollars at 52d. f Sterling into pound*
Sterling. 296
52
592
]480
296 dollars.
5
15392
185
8)H80
12)15577 •
2,| 0)129 1 8:
1
Answer/. 64: 18:
1 Sterling n:
mooey for
20(5, doil^r^ Jit 'S2d. ^
Sterling per dollar.
But ducatf, Mhrs, crowns, &c. are more expeditioasly
east up by rules of Practice, hereafter to be shown. Thii
SitxX r\i]em Ariikmetic h
The GQLDEN RULE, ovUvLM or Tnvm.
It is called the Golden Rule from its excellent use
lA. Arithmetic, and in other parts of Mathemaifcal learn«
ing. .
And also denominated the liule of Three, because by
three numbers given, proposed, or known, we find out a
fourth number required, or unknown, which bears the same
proportion to the third which the second does to the first
cumber : whence also the Rule of Proportion,
Of this Proportion there ane two sorts; one named
Direct y and the other Indirect^ or "Revetse. V
Direct Proportion is when the second and third numbers
are to be miftUiplied'together, dnd their product divided by
^be first. Indirect^
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OF ARITHMETIC. 91
Indireci, or Reverse Proportion, is when the first and
secoud numbers are to be multiplied together, and their
product divided by the third.
In Direct Proportion, the fourtfi number, or answer to
(be question, contains the third number as often (or at
many tinoes) as the second contains the first.
Bnt^in Indirect Proportion the greater the third number
is the less is the fourth -, and the smaller the third number
15, the greater is the fourth.
Of the right placing of Numbers,
The chief difficulty that occurs \ni\i& Rule of Three is
the right placing the numbers, or stating the question ;
for when that is^ done, you have nothing more to do, but to
multiply and divide, and the work is done.
And to this end, we are to remember, that of the three
given numbers, two of them are always of one denomina-
tion, and the other number is of the same name with \h%
foarth number or answer I'equired 3 and must always be
the second or middle number. And the number that
asks the question must possess the third or last place^
and the. other number of the same n^me with, the third
must be the first number f for the first and third nunibers
most always l>e of one name, viz. both money, both weighty
l>oth time, or both measure. And thoqgh ihey be of one
kind, yet if one of them is altered by Reduction from a
-higher to a lower name, then the other njiust be reduce^
to the same name. That is, if either the first or third numr
ber consist of several denominations, that is, of pounds and
ihillings J or pounds, shillings and pence \ or of pounds^ .
•hillings, pence and farthings ; or of tods, hundreds, quar«
ters, and pounds, &c. then must they be reduced to the
lowest name mentioned. And if any one happens to be
of; divers denominations, and the other but of one name,
then the number of one name must be reduced as low, or
into the same name with the other. As suppose the tirst
number is. brought into farthings, the third number also,
though but pounds, must be bro'ijjht into fanhings. , Then
you are to multiply the second and third numbers together,
(when the Proportion is Direct) and divide the product
by the first number, and the qiotienl tl.ence arising will
he the answer to the question, and in the s^ me name V'ith
the middle number: and if in t!)e small deiiomination, it
must be brought by Division to the highest name for the
better
dbyGoogk
92 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COJIPANION.
better understanding the answer. If the middle number
be of several denominations, it must be brought into the
lowest mentioned.
Example 1.
If 12 gallons of brandy cost 4/. lOy. what will 134 gal>
Ions cost at that rate }
GalL
If 15
4 10
20
90
Gall
134
90
15)12060
2 1 0)80 1 4
^AO 1 4
Here the first and third numbers are oi like names, tiz.
both gallons; and 134 being the number that asks the
question, it hath the third place, as it always must, as be*
fore asserted ; and 4/. iOs, the second number, being of two
denominations, viz. pounds and shillings, it is reduced into
the lowest mentioned, viz. shillings, as before directed, and
then the three numbers are these, viz. 15—90- 134; and
134 the third number being multiplied by 90, the second
number produces 12060; which divided by J 5, the first
number quotes 804, which are shillings, because 90, the
middle number, were shillings ; and 804 shillings, divided
l^y 20 give 40/. As. for the answer : for the proof of \t%
truth, state it backward thus :
Gall I s. Gall.
If 134 cost 40 4 what cost 15
0,0
804
15
4020
804
134)1206o^90j. Answer, ot41\0s, the cost
1206 of 12 gallons, and this Is a
b proof of the first work; and
. . * ' * the back stating apd working
the proof is as much a question in the Rule of Three as the
'first.
By the foregoing rule and directions, and these exam*
pies, the iiaiure of the rule, and method of working may
be
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OF ARITHMfiTIC. gs
be anderstood j I shaU therefore on\y give some few ex-
smples with a little of the work, and answers. to the ques-
tions, leaving part of the operations to b^ performed by liie
ingexiious praciiiioner.
Ex. 3. If56/^. of indigo cost ill. 4s. what will 1008/^.
cost at that fate^
1(56 224 1008 ? Answer 4033tf, or 201 /. 12^.
Ex. 4. If half an Cwt. of roj per cost 4/. lbs, wlint
quantity will I4s. buy at that rate ?
s. IL s.
If 98 buy 56, what 14 ? Answer S^h. of copper.
Ex.5, If 4 C. 3 ^r5. sugar cost 5l. 15j. 7(i. what will 4
hogsheads come to, weighing 4 C, I ar, 14 lb. '
lb. d. lb.
If 532 13874 746 ? Arts. 12373 pence, or5l/. U,c. \d.
And tl\e remainder, 22(), multiplied by 4j gives a halfpenny
more; so the whole is 51/. Hi. lc/|.
Either of ihese examples, or any other, may be proved
by back-stating, according as the first ex..mple was proved ;
and each proof becomes another que-jtion in the Rule of
Three, "as stated before.
JEr. 6. If I have 50/. a year salary, bow much is due to
me for 1 44 days service at that rate r
Dnys. I. Days, I, s. d.
If 365 50 144? hnswer ig \4 6 parts ,Vt of a
penny.
In this example, the product of the tliird by the second
number is 72CO j which divided by the first ^65 (accord-
ing to the rule) quotes \g pounds, the name of the middle
number, and there is a remainder of 265 ; which rauiti-
plied by 20, acc«;rding to Reduction, the product still
divided by ^65, there comes out 14 shillings; and yet there
is a remainder of jpO: which, multiplied by 12, and the
product divided by. 365, gives 6d. and there is a remainder
ofgO: which if moltiplied^by 4 (the last inferior,, name)
ind divided by 365, yet would' not come to a farthing
more ; so that the answer is as above, igL I4s, 6d. -jYt
When the first of the three given numbers is an unit or
one, the work is performed, or answer tbund, by Multi-
plication only.
Ex\
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94 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
JSr. 7. If lam to give 17*. for lib. of Ofganxine gijk^
what must I give for 264/^. at tliat rate ?
/*. s, lb.
If 1 17 264
Answer 44885« or 224/. 8i.
Ex. 8. If I bu^ 49 bags of hops at III. 12$ i 6d,per ba^>
what come they to at that rate ?
Bag L jr. d. Bags.
I 12 12 6 49
Multiply by * 7 and by 7
88 7 ^
7
618 12 6
The foregoing work is performed by the compoBent parts
as taught in Muliiplicaiion, because 7 times 7 h 49.
When the third, or last of the three given numbers is an
«nit, or one, the work is performed by Diviswn^
Ex. 9. If 12 ells of Holland cost 3/. 6s. what is the price
•fl ell at that rate ? - '
Ells. 12) s. Ell.
If 12 66 1 Answer 5s: 6d.
/ 56 -f^ of Is. or 6d.
Hx. 10. If 56 yards of broad cloth cost 40/. 12^. what h
the price of a yard at that rate ?
Yds. 7) /. s. Yd. -
If 56 —40 12 ■ 1 Atis. 14#. 6d. pet yard.
8 ) 5 16
O 14 6d. Answer.
This example is wrought by Division of Monet/, and by
7 and 8, the component parts ; as shown inf5\he rule of
Division,
Ex. 11. If A. owes B. 296/. I7j.vand compounds at
7s. 6d. io the pound ; what must J5. take for his debt ?
*. d, s.
If 20 ^90 5937. Answer /.111 6s. 4^1.
Ex. 12. If a gentleman's income be 500/. a year, what
may he expend daily, and yet lay up 12/. I5s. per month ?
first multiply 12^. I5s. by 12, the moaths in a year,
an^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. 9I
and it makes 153/. which is deducted from 500/. the r«-
jnaiader is 347/. Then say.
Days, /.
If 365 347, what 1 day ? Arts-. \gs. ^Jy
After you have reduced the pounds into shillings, which
make 6^0, you divide them by 365, and the quotient is
195. per day, and 5 remains over,' which being placed over
the divisor 365, gives \gs» -j^
The Rule of Threb, Inverse or Indirect Proportion,
In Indirect Proportion, the product of the third and
fourth numbers is equal to the product of (he fisst and
•econd.
But the m^hod of stating any question in tliis rule is the
same with that of the direct rtile.
For the first and third numbers must be of 'one name,
and so reduced, as in that rule ; and the number that asks
the question must possess the third place -, and the middle
number will be of the same name with the answer as it is
there.
To know when the question lelongs to the < Direct, and
when to the Inverse rule. -
When the question is stated as aforesaid, consider whe-
ther the answer to the question ought to be mote 01 less
than the second numbti :^ if aiore, then the lesser of the
first and third numbers must be your divisor.
And if the first number jof the three is your divisor,
then the Proportion is Direct ; but if the last of the three is
your divisor, the Proportion is Indirect or Inverse,
Or without regard to Direct or Inverse,
.If more is required, the lesser > .^ ^^^ j^.^^^^^
If less, the greater )
Examples for Explanation.
Ex, 1. If 4 men plane 250 deal boards in 6 days, how
nany men will plane them in 2 days ?
U 6 days require 4 men, what 2 days ? Ans. 12 men.
2)24
12 Ans,
^Ex. 2.' If a board be 9 inches broad, bow much in
feojth will make a sqaarw foot ? hk
Digitized by VjOOQIC
9G YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
In B. In L.
If 12 12, what 9 inches broad ?
12
9)[li \ . .
jimwer Id inches in length.
In these examples, the first and second numbers are
roullipHed together, and iLe product is divided by the
third; for, in the first example, it is most certain, that
2, days will require more hands to perform the vork than
6 days; therefore the' lesser of the extreme numbers it
the Divisor ; and declares the question in the Indirect Pro^-
portion. • u
Likewise, in the second exaraplcrp inches in breadth,
roust needs require more in length to make a foot than 12
^ inches in breadth; wherefore it is the same Proportion
whh the first example, because the Divisor in the third
number.
Ex. 3. How many yanis of sarcenet, of 3 qrs. wide, will
line 9 yards of clotli of 8 qrs, wide ?
Qrs. wide, yds: long. qrs. wide.
if 8 9 what— 3
8 Here the narrower the silk, the
more in length is required, of course
3)72 8 must be the multiplier, and 3 the
divisor.
Yards 24 Answer.
Ex. 4. If .a loaf weigh All. | when wlieat is^ 5s. 6J. the
bushel, what must it weigh wlwn wheat is As. the bushel ?
d.' Half lb. d. Ih.
liQQ ->^ • -»18 Answer Q\
Ex. 5. If in 12 months 100/. principal gains 5 pounds
interest, /what piincipal will gain the same interest id 5
months ?
Months. Principal. Months.
12 100 5
.12 . ^ . ^
5)1200
Answer 240/. principal.
The BouUe Rule of Three Direct.
. In this Rule 4here are five numbers given to iind out
Ml sixth, which is to be in proporliori to the product of
the
Digitized by CjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC.
Ibe £iarth and fifth numbers^ as the third oomber is 16 th^
product of the first and secoxMi numbera.
Questions in this kind of proportion are wroBght dther
bjT two operations in the SmgU Rule of Three Direct, or
1^ the role composed of the fivd given numbers, and tb«
one may be a proof to the other : as may be seen in tha
following example :
Ex. 1. If 100 pounds principal in 12 months, gain S
peuods interest, what will 246 pounds principal gain is
7IllODtbs^
If 100 gain S, what will 246
^ ■ . ?
1 |oo;id I 30
20
1 I 00) 6 ) 00 Answer 121. th.
M. I s. M.
Then say again, if 12 gain 13 6 what 7
248
^ I
12)J722
2l0y 14 t 8 d d.
I 7 ^ Qd.
In th« first stating, the answer i&, that if 100/. gain &
pounds, then 246^. wUl gain 12 pounds ^ sbtUtngs.
Then I say in the next stating, if 12 mouths gain 12/.
65. what will 7 months? and the answer is 7^* 3'* dd.
And so much will 246 pounds gain in 7 months, if 100
pounds gain 5 pounds in 12 months.
You must particularly note, that in all operations
where the answer to the question is found by two statings
of the. Rule of Three, the answer of the first stating is the
middle number'of the second stating 3 as in the precedmg
example.
This mark x when it stands between two nuBAbevs de-
notes that the numbers are to be multiplied into one another :
thos 9X5 signifya that 9 is to be multiplied into 5, and
the product is 45.
S Th#
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96 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
The foregoing question may be aoswered by 'a stating
composed of the five gunsn numbers thus :
- (1) (2) (3) (4) ' (5)
L., M. L. L. M.
. If 100X12 5 24(5 X 7
12 7
1200 • \7'%i
5 .
12,06)857ib
In this work, in statin? the -^•7- 210
question, .the first and fourth ' '^^ *
cumbers are made of one n^iir^ J.2,00)42,00
as are' the second and fifth j then ^ J^4joo
the two first numbers are multi- 22
plied together for a divisor, and •- — -
the last three numbers are mul- ^ 2,00 )72,00
tiplied together for a dividend, d. 6
and the quotient, or answer, is of the same name with the
middle numbers, viz. pounds, interest. In the work I
find the first quotient 7 pounds interest ; and so I proceed .
from one denomination to another, till I find the same
answer as in the work at twostatings, viz. JL 3s. 6d,
This method of operatiop serves to answer all questions
in the Double Rule of Three Di/^ct.
The Double Rui.e of Theee Reverse.
IN this Rule you must place your' numbers in such order
that your second and fourth number may be of one name
or denomination, and your third and fifth.
JEa:. If 100/. principal, in 12 months gain 6L interest,,
wliat principal will gain 20/. interest in 8 mfonths ^
0)
Pr'mcipal.
JflOO X
12
1200
20
Stated thus :
(2) (3) <4) (5)
Mo. Interest. Mo. Interest.
12 6 X 8 20
6
^ 8 tl^ divisor.
48)24000(500/. principal, Anmer.
240 .
(0)
Digitized by Google
la
OF ARITHMETIC. 9f
In this work> the third and founh namben are. mui*
tiplied together for a divisor; and tbea the first is iniilti*
piled by the setoDd> and that product by the fifth Qumber,
and the prodact, 2400O, is divided by 48^ and the quotteot
is 500/. principal ; which is the answer to the qoestioiij ai
before shown.
Rules o/Pkacticb.
THESE Rules are so called from their frequent use
and brevity in finding the value of most sorts of goods or
merchandise} for any question in the Rule of Three, when
the first tiucnber in the stating is 1,. is more briefly done by
these rules, called Practice. .
But previously to these rules, it is necessary to have th#^«
folbwing tables by heart : >,
?trtt oja Shilling.
Of a Pound.
Parts qfa Pound.
d.
8. d.
6iii
-
J.
4 •
10 Ois|
t 1
"
1
00
6 • i
5 1
3 i^
-
tIt
4 f
Ih i
•
tK
^ i ^
1 .tV
-
tH
2 6 i
2 tV
1 8 /^
, /
1 Vt
^urts of a Shilling.
.6d. is X 1 Ex.
I.
426 pounds of
sugar^ at 6d per li.
of Is. 1 ~
2|0)21|3
/. 10 13 Answer,
Here 6d. being the price of each lb. and the half qf a
. shilling; therefore the half oi 496 is^ taken^ and gives
2135. or 10/. 13^. for tire value of the sugar.
Ad. is J j Ex. IL 5\2lh. of cheese^ at Ad. per lb.
'^^^^^ I 2|0>17:o 8d .
/. 8 10 8 Answer.
KtreAd. is -J^ of a shilling 5 therefore the third part of
J12 18 170*. and f of a shilling, or 6d. remains.
The remainder is always of the same name with the di-
vtdend> which here .is groats, for the pounds of cheese are
at'agroatcBch,
E2
Digitized by Google
100 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
i^'^M i I J ar. III. 24g yards of ribband, at 3d. per yard.
•ft** I 2|0) 6 I 1 6d.
*/, 3 1 6 Answer.
Here tbe yards are divided by 4, becaux^ 3d. is llie 4th
of a sbilliog, and it quotes 61 shillings, and 2 remains, or
twos pences : so the answer is d/. Is, 6d.
And thus nviy any proposed question be ansMPered, be*
loneUig to the first table, or parts of a shilling -, that »«
by dividing the given number by the denominator of the
^caction^ and tbe quotient will be always shillings, whick
(the remainders being known as above) bring into pounds,
by dividing by 20, SfC,
When the price of the integer is at a &rthing, a half-
penny, or three farthings more than the value of the
pence mentioned, then for those farthings take a proper
part of the foregoing quotient found for the pence^ and add
themtog^er.
E». 24g ells of canvas, at Ad.^ per ell.
4</. 18 <
of4i.
83
10 i or 4d. \.
2|0) 9|3 41-
1.4 13 4 i Answer,
In this example I divide by 3 for the groats, as being
the third of one shilling, and it quotes 83^. tlien consider
that ff halfpenny is the eighth oi 4d, therefore take the
eighth part of the groat line, 'or 83s. and that produces
105. ^nd f of a shilling, or 4|«/. ; i^nd tlie two lines being
added together, makegSi. A\d. or Ai\3s. A^. as in the work.
Parts of a Pwnd.
XQs. is ^ I 254 yards of cloth, at lOs, per yard.
/. 127 Answer.
Here tbe half of 254 is taken -, because Ids. h the half
•f a pound.
s. d,
6 Sis i \ 9/2 gallons^ at 6s, Sd. per gallon.
i, 324 Jnstuer.
Here the third part is taken, because 6s. and Sd. is the
third of a pound ; and the Answer is /. 324. . ^
And thus may any question proposed be answered, be-
longing
Digitized by CjQOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. lOl
longing to the ^cond table, or parts of a pouDd ^ that iB,
by dividing the given tianiber by the denominator of the
iraction, and the quotient will always be pounds ; and if
any things remains, it is always so many halves, thirds,
fourtlis^ or fifths^ bfc. of a pound, according to the deno-
minator that you divide by.
If the price be shillings and pence, or shillings, pence,
and farthings, and no even part of a pound, then multiply
ibe given number of the shillings in the price, and take even
parts for the pence, pr pence and ^rthings, and add the
several lines together, and they will be shillings} which
shillings bring into pounds as before.
Examples;-
lb, s, d,^ Ells, s, d.
426 at 4 9 . 216 at 2 3^
4 2 per ell.
6d, i I 1704 Zd. i 7432
3£/. I 213 K.-I 54
x^6d. i 106| or 6d. of3rf. ] 9
2|0)202|13 6 2|0)49 \ 6s,
L 101 3 6 Answ, 1. 2 4 15 Answ.
396 gal. of brandy, at 7s, gd. per gal.
7
27
6d.l of Is, \
3d.iofQd.
2,0)306|9
L^53\gAnsw.
When the price is lOd. only; ^nsex O to the right of the
given number (which is multiplying by 10) and they art
pence ; which divide by 12 and 20.
Example : 42Glh, of hops, at lOd. peril. ,
* 12)42to^
2J0) 35 15
/. 17 15 Answer.
When the price is 1 id, set down the quantity twice io the
form of Multiplication, and add the two Hoes together, then-
divide by 12 tind 20, -
£2 Example,
Digitized by CjOOQIC '
10f YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Example,
426 Ih, of copper> tXWd, per It.
426
12)46^ pence.
2| 0)'"39 I 6 . ' \
I, 19 10 6 Answer.
If the price be 1 1 {/.^proceed as before^ and take half the
uppermost liDe, tf c.
Example. ■ ,
942/^. of tobacco at 1 Ic^. | per Vj,
942
471
12 )1083^ '
a| 0).90|^ 9
/. 45 2 9 Ansfju.
When the price 18 If. only/ divide by 20« and you have
the answer at dnce.
Example,
2|0)96 I 4lh. of tobacco, at I2d. per lb.
1.48 4 Answer.
When the price is 2s. it is done at sight, by doubling
tbe last figure townrds your right hand, and setting it
apart for shillings 5 .and the figures towards the left are
pounds.
Example^
596 gallons of spiritjs at lis, p^ gallon,
/. 39 12 Answer, Here the double of 6- is 12, and'tbe SQ
are pounds.
From this/tnetbod of working by 2s. a multitude of ex-
amples may be most expeditiously wrought, m%
}s.\ of 25.
6^.^ of is.
3^.|of6i.
444
Els.
Cambric at
5s, 9d.
44
44
22
11 2al6c^.
5 1 1 at 3(1
8 at 2s.
8 at 2s. \'s.^2s.
4 at Is. 6d. \ Is.
Yards.
426 at 3s. 6d. pet
yard.
42
21
10
12 at 2s.
6 at 1.-P.
13at6rf;
74 1 1 at 3s. 6d.
Answer 1. 127 13 at 5s. gd.
ITie
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05 ARITHMETIC. tt3
11]e operation of these two examples is so plainly sl^n
(bat tliere is no neeB of further explanatioti.
Again, 548 yards broad cluth, at I2s. 6d, per y^rd.
Tsi l6at2s.
6 times 2 is ]2«.
6d, IS ^28 16 at 12j. Note> TAa/ 13/, 14^. is the
^of25. 13 14 at 6d fourth part of 54L l6s. thg
L342 lO ^njei;er. ^^ ^Ai//i«gj //w.
Or multiply by 125. take half of the given number for
tbe 6d. thas^ and divide by 20^ the answer is in poands,
.548 yards,
G576
i) 274 . , .
210)685 [O . . ,
/.34a 10 j^nswer,
' When the price, is an even number of shillingSj'moUiply
these numbers of integers by half the price, and double thm
first figure of the product for shillings, and cany, as is usual
in Multiplication, and the other figures towards the left will
be pounds.
Example.
296 yards of cloth, at I4s. per yard.
7 the half of 445.
/. 207 45. Answer, .
Here 7 times 6 is 42 5 the double of 25. is 45. bfct
When the price is an odd number of shillings, workfof
the even number as above, and for the odd shillings t^a
tbe ^7 of the given number, and add them toge^er.
Erample.
4g6 gallons of citron water, at Ifs. per gallon,
^ 8 half of 165.
L3g6 \6s.
24 165.
/.421. \2s. Answer*
. In ibis example I say, 8 times 6 is 48, then twice 8 is
\Qs, and carry 4 ; then 8 times 9 is 72, and 4 is J6, 6 and
carry 7 ,- and 8 times 4 is 32, and 7 is 3g j then the half of
4 is 2, ^c^
I have nof here room to speak of the various and almost
£ 4 infinite
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
IM VoUNGf MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
iniinlte nic.hods and roles of Practice^ but I shall leavt
some general rules, which, ifcarefully noticed, will be irf
the greatest u^ to learoers, these are
1. When the price is parts of a farthiiig, or of a pennj^
and f , |> |, &c. then multiply the integers by the numera-
tor, and divide by the denominator, and the result will be
either farthings or pence 5 which reduce to pounds, &c.
2. When Uie price is pence, and no even part of a shil-
ling i as suppose 5d. 7d. Sd, or Qd, th^i it may be done
by taking their parts, as 3d, and 2d. is i5d. and 4d. and 3d.
is 7d, and 4d, and 4i.is &d* and 6d. and. 3^. is gd. but it
is an easy and sure way to multipjly the given number by
' 5, 7, 8, or g, then the product is pence, which bring to
pounds by Reduction,
3. WIhii The price is pence and parts of a penny; as
Id, ^, 2d,!,y or<ir/ ^, then work for the penny by taking the
-',, ; for 2d. \he I ; and far 6d. the j-: then for the fer-
tbing take a ^ of the penny line, and for J, J, of the
twa*penny line 5 and for i take i of the six-penny linei
then ibdd the results together, and the total wi|l be shil"
Sngs, which reduce to pounds by dividing by 20. Or by
^e tore way of bringing the mixed number into the lowest
daoomination : as loj, into 5 iaithings 2d^, into 5 half-
fCDce, and 6cff , into 27 £irthings ; then multiply the inte-
fers by 5, and the fnroduct is ftrthings ^ or by 5 halfpence,
and the product will be halfpence] or by 27 farthings, and
tbe product will be farthings $ which, whether farthings, or
pence, reduce to pcmoida, Arc.
4. When fbe price is shillings and pence, or ahiniDgs,
pence, and fiutbings ; mulu{rfy the int^ers by the shiU*
Kngs of the pricie» mid take parts of Ifae pence, or pence
and farthiogi, he. [
5. If the price be pounds and shilling, or pounds, sbiU
Kngs, pence, and farthings, multiply by the killings in the
price, that b in the puundsand" shillings, and take parts of
the pence and ^things.
6. When the number of integers liath a fraction an-
nexed, or belonging to them, ^, |, ^ &c. then take ^,
%, f, of the price of one of the integers, and add tliat tb the
other results.
TARE * TRETT, *c.
GrcH itreiglu is the weight of thie goods in hundreds,
quarters.
d by Google
6f AftttHMETICi- 10#
Qaarters^ and Pounds, with the weight of the Hogshead,
Cask; .Chest, Bag, Bttle^ &c.,that contains the 6oods«
Tare is allowed to the Buyer for the Weight of the Hogs*
head. Cask, Chest, Bag, Bale, &c.
Treti is an Allowance made for Waste, Dust^ Src. in san*
dry sorts of Goods, as Tobacco, Cotton, Pepper, Apices, &c.
and is -always lib. in ear^l04/^. Subtile, and found by di«
▼iding the Subtile Pounds by 26, because 4 times 26 make
104/?. When the Gross weight is brought into Pounds,
and before the Tare iff deducted, they are edkd Poitndt
Gross, and after the Tare is substracted the lemainiBg
Pounds are called Pounds Suhtih, which divided by 2& (aa
before stated) quotes Pounds Trett, &c.
Tare ai so much per Casi, Hogshead; Bag, Vc»
The allowances for Tare f arioUsly wrought, as by the
ibllowing examples :
In 12 Casks of Indigo, containing 45 Cwi, 1 qr, l^h
Gross, Tare SOlb.per Cask, how many Pounds net ?
SOU. Cwi. qr.)lb.
J2 AS 1 i4
3f O P ounds Tare ^
181
1462
362
5082 ' ,
Subtract - 360
Answer 4722
In this Example, the Us, Tareof'one Cask'are multiplied
by the Number of Casks, and the Product is 860 Pounds
Tare j and the Gross Weight is reduced into Pounds by the
method shown in Reduction of. Weight ; and then the
Pounds Tare deducted from the Potmds Gross, and the re-
mainder is Pounds net, vi%, 4722, as above.
When the Tare is at so much per Cwt, multiply the
Number of Hundreds by the Tare, and take parts for the
-odd Weighty adding to it the Tare found by Multiplication,
and dividing by 112 to bring it into Gross Weight in order
for Subtraction.
£5 Mxamplt
Digitized by CjOOQIC
10$ YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Example.
What ii the net Wt. of 12 Casks of Argol, Grois Wr.
84 CwL 2 qrs. I4lb ?
14 Tare per Cwt. C. qrs., lb.
336 • 84—2—14
84 10—2— 8f Tare,
7 for half Cwi. Adsw. 74— O— 5A net Wt.
1 i for 141b. '
l\2) I XOmiO Cwt.
112
64lb. or half a CwL and 8/^.
The Tare in this example is to be found by the foregoing
JDirectio(», 10 C, 2 grs, Qlb, I, which subtracted as in th«
work, leaves 74 C. qrs. 5lb. ^ for the Net Wt.
But this may be beiter performed by Practice, thus :
Cwt. qrs. lbs.
14lhr. i8|ofCwt. 84 2. 14 Gross.
S ub. 10 2 8 i Tare
74 O 5| net.
In this cnethod the Gross Weight is divided by 8,becauM
14/6. is one Eighth of 112/6. and the remainder is reduced
into the next inferior Name, still divided by 8 to the end,
and then deducted as above, and the net Weight is the same
as by the other way. And so may any Tare per Cwt, be
found, if the Tare be an even part of 112/6. as 14^1$ one
Eighth, and Jib. the Half of that, &c. that is, if the Tare be
at 7\b.per C. find it for 14/6. as before, and then take the
Half of that for Jld, per C. Tare, the same for 8/6. per Ctvi.
Tare ; taking one Seventh for l6/6. and then the Half or
that for a/6, per Co;/. Tare.
Of TRETT, Example.
What Tretl is, and how found, having been said already ;
now I shall give an Example for explanation, vfz.
Bought six Hogsheads of Tobacco, containing Gross and
Tare as follows, viz.
No.
C. qrs. lb.
lb.
/
I
Mt 4 1 20 Tare
1 80
2
5 2 19
100
3
6 3 18
102
'
4
7 3 12
104
5
8 2 13
106
Subtile
. 6
9 1 14
110
26)4J98(l6l/6. Trett
42 3 12
602
Digitized-by Google
OF ARTTHMETIG- ' W7
56(4198(161/^. Trett 42. 3 12 «» *
26 1
171
28
1380
342
4800 Pounds Gross.
Subtract ' 602 P ounds Tare
4198 pounds Subtile.
Deduct . i6l 7 Pounds Trett.
"403(7" 9 Pounds Net.
There are a few other Rules, such as Barter, or exchange
of Goods forGaodsj for Coin, &:c. but these bew% per-
formed tiither by the Pu.le of Three, or by Practice, it if
needless to enlarge upon them.
Of FRACTIONS, Fvlgar and Decimal
Fraction is a Term for a part or parts of an Unit.
A VuLCAK FRACTION is written with two Figures, or
Numbers one above jinother, aud a. short line drawn be-
'tweeu them. The loutr number is called the Denoniinator,
and this shows in how many equal parts the unit is supposed
to be divided. The Jiiohir number is the Numerator, which
shows how many of those parts are meant by the Fraction*
Thus if I want to express 7d. as part of a Shilling, I write
f^. The Denomjruitor 12 shows the number of Pence in a
ShiH'ng, and the Numerator 7 is the number given. If I
%onki express 13 Shillings as a part of t» pound, I write |^ ;
or if 35/^. as part of a Hvibdred Weight, I write -tVt* be-
cause in the first case 20 Shillings make 1 pound, and in
the second 112/^5. make 1 CwL
Fractions are thUsset dowaand read, vh, |, one fourth;
{> one half j ^, one third 5 i one fifth; ^, one sixth; |,
two thirds; f, two fourths; |-, five sixths; ^J, fiVe se-
▼enths, &c.
Fractions are either proper or improper : A proper Frac-
tion hath its Numerator less than the Denominator, as 1,
fi?e eights J f|^, twenty-four fifty-sixth8> &c.^
An improper Fraction hath its Numerator greater than
(he Denominator; ■ J, seven thirds; if, forty.ei|ht fif-
teenths, &c.
Agai»
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10§ YOUNG M AN's^EST COMPANION.
Vraetioos are either Simple or Compoand ; Simple, whea
SI Bsrt of an Unit or Inlre|ger> or thing, hath but one Na^
merator, and one Denominator ; a» ^ of a Pound Sterling*
i of Cwi. i of 8 Tun, of a Gallon, kc. Compoand is a
Fraction of a Fraction, as the | of a | of a Pound Sterling,
^ich is eqnal to Haifa Crown j or when one is divided
into any noinber of parts, and those parts again subsided
intopartojlrc.
Again Fractions are of two kinds, Pulg<tr and DeeimaL
Vulgar Fractions are as before stated. Decimal Fractions are
artificially exptessed^ by setting down the Numerators, on-
jly, the Nominators being understood ; and are always an
unit, with as many Ciphers annexed as these are places in
the Numerator; and therefore may be either 10, or aoaac
power of 10, as 100, 1,000, 10,000, or 100,000, ^c.
Dticimo? Fractions appear, and are worked as whole num*
feers, but are distinguished from them by a point or com-
ma prefixed thus { ,S is read fiv^ tenths i ,32 thirty- two
Hundredths ; and ,256 two hundred fifty-six Thousandths ;
but o{ decimal fi:actioti8, and their use, we shall treat here*
aften
Reduction of Vulgar Fractions is to prepare them for
Addition, Subtraction, &c.
%. 7b reduce a mixed Number to an improper Fractimi.
Multiply the Intregerby the Deoominatorj^ takii^ ia th»
Num^^tor.
Ex. Reduce 12 Gallons f to an improper Fraction, tbns :
4
51 Nciw Numerator. '
Answer *^ , or 51 Quarts.
Divide the Numerator by the Denominator.
Ft. Reduce the above to a whole or mixed Number,
thus 51 • ' 4)5
4 12 — 3 remainder equal to J
Here 12 Gallons is the whole Number^ | the Fraetion^
ihe same with three Quarts.
^Google
OF ARrrHMEtia icj^ ^
3. To reduce Fractions io a common Denotninaitir.
Multiply (be Nttmerator of each Fracttoo- into all the
DenomiaatDrs except ib own, and the Product will be a
NbmeratDtr to that Fraction > and so on by the others : The
common Denomtnatoi is found by multipfymg all the Dei
nominators together.
Ejp. Beduce |, |, and ^ of any integer to a common De»
nominator 5 thus; twice 4 is 8, and 6 times 8 is 48, for a*
aew Nufnerator to f ; then 3 times 3 is g, and 6 tim^g 9 is
54; for a new Numerator to f ; lastly^ 5 times 4 is 20,
and 3 times 20 is 60, tbe Numerator to | : Then to find
the common Denominator, say 3 times 4 is 12, and '61 times
12 is 7^9 the common Denominator; so that ^|- is eqoid
to i, f f is equal to |, and f f is equal to |. Which may be
thus proved :
72>l62 (2Hi«^v
144
+ ofa Pound is 13
4 48'
f ditto . 15
O 54
f ditto 16
8 60
}
ill. /;>•
18 (: I
But 2/. ^=s2L 5s. or 45 O Commpn Denominate
Here the several Numerators are added together, ^n3
they make 162 J which placed over the common Denomi-
nator 72^ make the improper Fraction y^ ; and its valoe is
found as before shown in the Rule for reducing an improper
Fraction to a whole or mixed Number.
4. To reduce a Fraction into its lowest Terms,
Ruie. If fhey are even Numbers, take half of the Nume*
rator and Denominator as long as you can \ then divide
them by any digit Number (%. e. 3,4, 5, 6, ^c.J that will
leave no remainder in either.
Ex. Reduce \\ inte its lowest terms ^ thus the half of
56 is 28, and the ^ of 84 is 42 ; then the half of 28 is 14,
and the | of 42 is 21 : So the Fraction l-f is reduced to if.
And since these cannot be halved ^ny further, for though
you can halve 14, yet you cannot 21, withbut Remainder j
try therefore to divide them by some other digit Number :
you will there find, that 7 will divide both Numerator and
Denominator without any remainder 5 then say the 7'» in
14 twice, and the 7*3 in 21, three times :. So the Fraction
ij reduced ioto its lowest terms, will be 4-5 which is of the
same value as i\, Tha working is performed in the fd-
lowing manner.
2
Digitized by CjOOQIC
110 YOUNG MAN'f BEST COMPANION.
2
53
I
2^
[ 14
f 2
84
t 42 I 21 I 3
And the Proof that f is of equal value wkb |f appears bf
muhiplying any Integer by the Numerator of each Fraction^
and by dividing by the Denominator of each Fraction.
Ex, Let the Integer be £ 1. Sterling, or 20s
The Fraction i^.
20
J.
20
5(5
2
3^40
84)1120(135.
84
13—4^.
280
252
^8
12
336(4^
3'3d '
13* 4<f.
(0)
Here it is manifest, that by working by a Fraction in iH
lowest terms, much time and figures are saved. In one
operation, 20 the Integer is nniUiplied by 2, and the Pro-
,duct 40 divided by 3, and there remains 1) or ^ of a Siul-
ling, o^ a Groat, as in the other work.
There are other Methods of reducing a Fi-aclipn into Ua
lowest terms ; but none so i^ady as the foregoing, whfere
it can be used.
5. 7o reduce u Compound Fraction into a Simple one oftk^
same Value,
Rule. Muhiply the Numerators together for a pew Nu-
merator, and the Denominators for a new Denominator.
Ex, Reduce f of 7 of ^ a Pound Stealing into a simple
Fraction. Thus twice 3 is Cj, and & times 6 is 30, the Nu-
merator ^ then three times 4. is 12, and limes 12 is 72,
the Denominator : so ^^ of a Pou^d ise(juivalent to i of ^ of .
>^ of a /A. Thus proved, ^of a lb, 165. ^d, and ^of iQs. Qd,
is 125. Gd. and \ of 125. Qd, is 85. 4</. the Answer. Aujl
multiplying 2O5. by 30, and dividing by 72, gives the saiBe
Answer, as is seen in the following Work*
Digitized by VpOOQlC
OF ARITHMETIC. ui^
20
_ 30
72)600(Ss.
24 Remains
■ 12 M ultiply
72)288(4^,
288
(0)
)''&$. Ad.
6. To find the Falue of any FracUori, whether ofCotm^
^ Weights or Measures,
Multiply the Integer hy the Numerator, and divide by
the Denominator ; and if any thing remains, multiply it by
the Number of Units of the next inferior Denomination;
*£*?. 1. What is 3f of a Pound, or20j.? The OperatJo!)
of the foregoing Example of Proof to the Compouud Frac-
tionfof iof|, answers this Question, and need not re-
petition. * .
J5. 2. What is the amount of a of a Ton Weight I
2b Integer. ^ .
' 5 Numeratorr
Denominator (})io6
It) 2 18 10 ^
Cuyt. qrs, lb. o%,
Answ, l6 2 18 10 ♦
Here the Integer 20 (7. is multiplied by the Numerator 5 i
and the Product 100 divided by the Denominator 6, and the
Remainder 4 is multiplied by the parts of the next inferior
Denbniination, &c. thfc Answer is l6 Cwt. 2qrs. ISlifS*
lOox. ^ or « o( an Ounce Weight as above.
.\
AbDlTIQN O/VULGAB FRACTION.
IF the Fractions to be* added have a common Denomina-
tor, add the Numerators together for a J^iuraerator, which
place overthe common Denominator, and the work isdqne.
Ex. Add «, f, and i of a Pound Sterling togeihelr. Thus
2 and 3 is 5, and 4 is 9, the Numerator^ whiclr place over
5 the common Denominator, thus f, and this improper
Fraction |, is in Value 36s, for 9 times 4s. (the 5th of a
|Pou»d^
d byGoogle
1 12 YOUNG MAN'f BEST COMPANION.
pound) is 36$. for if the number 9 be divided by . ^
the Denominator 5, I say the 5*i in g once^ and !^
4 remains, which is |^ of a Pounds or l6s* ' 1
But if the Fractions to be added have unequal Deoomi*
nators, they must be first reduced to a common Denomiaa-
ior, by the Rale before shown^ beforeaddition can be made ;
and then proceed as abo\re.
2. When mixed Numbers are to be added, work with'
the fractional parts as before, ai^l carry the fracttqpal value
to tlie whole Numbers.
Eafampki
Add TSl i to 12 |, thus 26|
j^s 38 Answer. .
Here 1 and 3, the Numerators^ make 4 5 and J is 1, and 2
k 3, and 5 makes 8 3 and l and 2 is 3^ the Answer is 3S.
Or they may be reduced to improper Fractions, tbus^ -
25} i2| 103
4 4 49
103 49 4)152
4 4 38 Pounds.
Here the Numerators are added, and their Total is 152 j ,
which divided by 4, the common Dent)minator, quotes 38
Pounds, as above.
3. When compound Fractions are to be added to simple
ones, reduce (he compound Fractions to a simple one, as
before directed 5 and then proceed as above.
Ex, 1 . Add I and f to i of f a Pound ; thus once 2 is ^,
add twice 4 is 8, therefore f is equal to the compound Frac-
tion. Then saying, 2 and 3 is 5, and 2 is 7, the new Ntt-
merator; and |, equal to \^s. 6d. will be the Answer.
Ex. 2. Add itof of i of a Shilling. The work willlje |
added to ^V, but these must be brought to a comifion De-
nominator, and the Fractions will then be f J added If,
which will beM, or when brought to the lowest Terms |
of a Shillingj the 8th of a Shilling is U^. therefore | is74-
That this Answer is right is thus proved ; I am to add |
of a Shilling, or 4^i. to | of i of a Shilling, now the third
of a Shilling is 4^. and | of 4<i. must be 3d. of course .4</|
added to 3d, 7</|. according to the Answer as above.
' Subtraciion
Digifeed by Google
OF ARITHMETIC. - US
Subtraction of Vulgar fractions,
IN this Rule the Fractions must have a common Deno-
minator, or be reduced to one, before any deduction can bt
made.
Ejp,' What is thedifFerence between f nnd {-? Answer J
which may be proved by Addition, for ^ and -} make f .
Note. The difference between the Numerators is the dif-
ference of the Fractions.
Again -, from f of a Pound take r\ ' Here -the Fractiont
are to be reduced to a common Denominator ; 36 is tb#
first Numerator, and 20 the second Numerator, their dif-
ference is 16 J and 48 is the common Denominator : so that
Jt ori, in its lowest terms, is the difference between J of
a Pound, and V'^ of a Pound.
To suhtract a compound Fraction from a smple one.
Rule. Reduce a compound Fraction to a simple one, sad
work as before.
Ex. From +*. takef off . say twite 8 is 16^ and 3 times
9 is 27, therefore ^ is equal to a compound Fraction.
Then the -f | and -^f must be leduced to a common Deno-
minator, thus: 13 times 27 is 3515, the first Numerator|i I6
times 14 is 224, the second Numerator 5 and 4 limes. 27 »»
878s. the common Denominator. Subtract 224 tlie second
Numerator, from 35 ; the first Numerator, and the remain-
der is 127, which place over 378, the common Denominar
tor, thus m Answer,
When a simple Fraction is to le deducted from a whole
Numler.
' Rule. Subtract the Numerator of the Fraction from the
Denominator, and place the remainder over the Denomina*-
tor, carrying 1 to subtract from the whole Number, &c.
Example :
From 12/. take |of a Pound ^ thus: 5 (the Numerator)
from 8 (the Denominator) and there remains 3, which place
•over the Denominator 3, thus \ ; then 1 from 12 and there
remains 11. So the Answer is, /. 11 4, or h. 11. 7. 6.
Multiplicaticn of Vulgar Fractions.
Ba/«?— Multiply the Numerators into one another for the
Numerator of the Product j and then do the same by the
Denominators, for the Denominator of the Product.
Ex.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
114 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
£x. Multiply J of a Pound by {. of ditto : s^y 3 times 5 i»
15, the Numeiator -, and 4 Tunes 6 is 24, the Denominator i
So the Answer is -l^, or 1n tlie lowest term J. , • '
ybw arc /oo/-5^ri'e, ilTatMnlfiplK'cUloii in Frnctions lessens
the product, though in who!.^ numbers it augments it ; ar«
above |, or 125. Od. is less thrn.^, or 105. Srfrand also les»
than the other Fiad'on I, or 155.
2. To multiply a whole Numher lif a Ffatlwn,
Rule, Multiply the lntea;er by the Nuaaerator of the
Fraction, and place the product over the Deuocninator.
Note. Multiplication by a Fraction implies the taking
away some part or parts of the Multiplicand, Rnd 4herefore,
may be truly expressed by a Compound Fraction. Thus ^
multiplied by ^, is the same as ^ of ^ or ^ t and therefore
though the rule is called Multiplication, it productti contra-
ry efiectfl from Muliiplication in whole numbers.
Example: Multij>ly «£" 56 by f . 56
4 J Facii.
This improper Fraction -^^ reduced,, according to rul^^
makes but 42lb. which is less than 56: and confirms what
has been asserted, vix, that MultiplicatioD of Firactions !«»• ,
sens the Pioduct, &c.
To multiply a Simple ly a Compouni> Fraction.
Rule. Reduce the Compound Fraction to a Simple one,
according to the foregiong rules, and work as above.
Ex, Multiply I of a Pound, by f of J of a Puuud r say 6
times 6 is 30, and 8 times -12 is 96. So that the answer is
b.h ^^i '" '^* lowest terms ; equal to Js. 6d,
Division of YvLGAR Fractions.
MULTIPLY the Numerator of the Divisor into the De-
nominator of the Dividend, and the Product.is the Denomi-
nator of the Quotient j then niultiply the Denominator of
the Divisor into the Numerator of the Dividend, and the
product will beihe Numerator of the Quotient.
« EX' Divide i^ by -}, The work will stand thus ;
DifUjCluolieiU.
Hrra
Digitized by VsiOOQIC
OP ARITHMrnC. 115
Here 16, multiplied by 2, gi\r.; 32; nnd 15 by 3, givei
45 : So the Quotient is ^} equal to 1 -^J, as in the work.
Again, suppose -Ji wns divided by J, ihe Quotient will
be ^-i^, equal to 1 Integer, or whole thing. And so for any
other Example.
Rsduction o/'DRCiMAJL Fkaction&. '
What n Decimal Fraction is, has been already shown.
The next thing is how to r^^duce a Vu!gar Fraction into a
Decimal, which is no more than to annex Ciphers at discre*
tion, (that is 2, 3, or 4, &c,) to the Nunnerator, and then
dividing by the Denominator.
A\^Qnk ^^' ^ tlednce f of a Pound Sterling to a Decimal
-i—i i that is, 75 liUuilivdJhs, equal to3qrs. of any
75 J thing, vhetlier Money, AVeiglit, Measure, &c.
at being ^}, and is writien 75 of 100: snd au 25 hundredihs
J8j in ticcimals, the Quarter of any thing, as being the J of
a 100 ; and is expressed ,25 ; and five tenths expresses the
half of any,thii^, as being the ^ of 10, «s, this, ,5.
In Keduction of Decimals it someiinies happers that a
cipher or ciphers must be placed on the itft hand ot the
Decimal, to supply the defect of the want of places in the
Quotient of Division. In this case always remember that so
many ciphers as you annex to the denominator oM lie Vulgar
Fraction, so many places you must -point otf in the quotient
towards the left band ; but if there be not so many places to
point off, then you must supply the defect by placing a ci-
pher to the left of the Decimal.
Ex, %. Reduce Qd. or ^\ to the Decimal of a Shilling, thus :
12)9,00 equal to J 5 or 75 hundredths of a Shil-
^jj" ling, or to gd.
£r. 3. Reduce Qd. to the Decimal of a Pound Sterling.
In this case the Denominator of the Fraction will be 240,
as 240 Pence make d Found : and the work will stand thus :
' 24O)9,O00O(,O375 Here are but three places in theQuo^
720 - tient, i//a.375 J and therefore I cannot
TsOO point off 4 for the four ciphers annex-
1680 ed to 9 ; wherefore I prefix O to the left
of the Quotient 375, thus, ,0375, and
A hen it is 375 ten thousand parts of an
• integer 5 and in Vulgar Fractions it
would stand thus tvHt
The
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Il6 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
The more ciphers are annexed, when the Answer ts not
' exact, the nearer will it bring the Decimal to the truth \ in
most cases, hcrwever, four, ciphers annexed are snf&ctent*
Bat when you are to reduce J, i, or f (as above) of ao In-
teger to a Decimal, or any Nunaber of JS hillings to aDeci-
itial of a Pound, two ciphers are sufficient.
£r. 4. Reduce ?, Farthings to the Decimal of a Poond,
that is the Vulgar Fraction ^^^^ Farthings in a Pound.
9()|0)3,OC0OiO(,0O3i25. The Work being performed
according to the Division, with two ciphers prefixed,
quotes >003125, or 3 125 Ten Hundred Thousandth Partft
of a Pound 5 and in Vulgar Fractions it would stand thusj
w«' TTrVo'innr
Ex, 5, How is 12 Pounds Weight expressed in the De-
cimal of 1 Ctvt. Avoirdupois, or 112/^? The Vulgar Frac-
tion is yV^, and the Decimal ^1071> found as before thus :
112)12,0000(,1071
112 The Remainder, 48, is not worth
go &c. Noticing, being less than the lOOOOD
part of a Unit, or 1.
£r. 6. How is 73 Days brought to tlie Decimal of a Year ?
vulgarly thus expressed i-g-g 36,5
365)730(,2 Ans. 2 tenths or ,2. Thus proved 36^5
730 73^
(O)
Here 355, the Days of the Year, are divided by 10, tvice,
and the Quotients added together make 73 Days.
Fahutium of Dividends.
TO find the value of a Decimal Fraction whether of
Corn, Weight, Measure, &c.
Rule, Multiply the Decimal given, by the Units contain-
ed in the next inferior Denomination, and point off as many
places from the right hand as you have in your Decimal ;
those figures towards the left of the point are Integers, or
Whole Numbers 5 and those <in the other side towards the
right hand, are parts of X. or Unity j that is, so many
Tenths, Hundredths, Thousandths, or Ten Thousandths, of
one of those Integers, whether a Pounds a Shilling, or a
Penny, kc. of a Ton, a Hundred, a Quarter, or a Poiaiid
weight, &c. And so many 6f any other Integer, of what
quality gr kind soever.
Ex.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
OF ARITHMETIC. m;
Ex. 1. ,476 Parts of a Pound Sterling.
23 Shillings a Pound,
9,520
12 Pence one Shilling.
0,240 Answer Qs. 6d. ,240 .
Ex. 2. ,47s Parts of a Ton.Wt.
M Cwt. 1 Ton.
9,52T
4 qrs. 1 Ctui
Answer 2,080
9 C. 2 /^. 2 /«• 240 Parts ^ /^, 1 ryr. of a Cut,
2,240
In the Example of Money multiply the Fraction by 20,
and pofnt ofi' 520 for the three places in the Decimal, &lc.
and the Answer is 95. 6d, and 240 over, or ,'gVV which is
nearly equal, to a Farthing.
In the Example of Weight, proceed as in that of money,
but ditferently with respect to the inferior Denominatorii,
9jad the Answer is 9 Cwi. 2 qrs. 2U\ yVW ^^ ^ ^^•
To find the vaJue of a Decimal in Money by a sliort me-
thod, viz.
Rule, Always account the double of the first figwe (to
the left hand) for shillings j and if tlie next to it is 5, rec-
kon one shilling more : ttnd whatever is above 5, call every
one ten; and the next figure so many ones as it contains^
which Tens and ones call Farthings ^ and for every 24, abate
• one. As in <he last Example of Money, vh, 4^6, the double
of 4 is 8, .and there being one 5 in 7, (the next figure)
reckon Is, more, which makes Qs. and there being 2 (in the
7) above 5, they are to be accounted two Tens, or 20^
which with the next figure 6 being so many Ones, making
26 Farthings 5 and abating 1 for 24, they give. 6J. and. a
Farthing more.. '
Mdition 0/ Decimals.
IS the same iu Practice as jn whole Numbers, only in
setting down, care hiust be .taken tlfat the Decimal Parts
stand respectively under like Parts ; that is, Prmes under
Primes, Seconds under Seconds, Thirds uuder Thifds, &c.
and the Integers stand as iu whole Numbers.
Example,
Digitized by CjOOQ IVC
li« YpUNG MAN'« BEST COMPANION.
Example,
g o .t; ^5 3
£ c3i H fci fa
,4 7 9^2
,0^42
,0 6
>7
*9
437*7 05 1.4 7(>0 2, 14982
■■ ■ ■" ' ■■ ■■ ■•
Note. There must he as many Places pointed aff as there
are in that Sumber which has most Decimal Places.
^ The casting up of the foregoing Examples is the same with
addition of one Denomination in whole Numbers, The to-
tal of the first (supposing them Pounds Sterling) \% 437/.
and ,705 Parts. The second is 1/. and.4760 Parts.' And the
third is 2/. and ,H9?2 Parts,
Subtraction qf Decimals.
THE Number must be placed as before in Addition, ans
then pxQce^ ^ \vi Subtraction of Numbers of one Denom^ .
nation.
I. pts, I. pts. I. pts. ♦
4^.51 144,42 47^2,0
9.24 . ' 91,7462 0,472
37.27
42,6738
4761,528
X Multiplication of Decimals, '
HERE the placing the Numbers and the Operation is the
irery same as in- the whole Numbers j remember only to '
point off, towards the right hand, so many places for Deci-
mals as you have Decimal places in both Multiplicand and
Multiplier.
Example.
0)
24,6
2,5
' 1230
492
(2)
4602
075
23010
32214
(3)
,279^'
26
5592
61,50 345,150^ . 7,2696
(4)
d by Google
OP AalTHjUEnc.
"f
(4)
,07214
,00S
' (5)
,083
• ,16
498
093
,01338
m
4,25
,000432^4
32i.;
4250
4,6325
^ote, Thae when there are not a competent numher of
%ures, or places to point ofF, the defect is -supplied whh
ciphers, to the lefk hand, as in the 4th and 5(h examples
accordin j; to what has before been stated in reducing a Vul-
gar Fraction to a Decimal.
Division of Decimals.
IS «he sanrie in operation as in whote nunrjbers, the onlj ^
difficulty is to know how many Decimal places to point oflT,
towards the left hand of the Quotient, "to which end, re-
iTiember this nih; obs^erve how many Decimal places Ihere*
are, both in the Divisor and iii the Divid.*Lid, and find the '
difference ; and whatever It is, so many placet - must be
pointed off to the right hand of the Quotient.
Ex. 1/ Divide 12,345670 bv 6,780, and the work stands
as thus ; 6,789)12,345670(1,»18 Jn%t¥.
^,739 . . .
In this example, the Divi-
dend hath three Decimal places
more than the Divisor, where-
fore I point otF three places to
the right hand of the Quoti-
ent, viz. 1 18 ; so the Quotient .
is' 1 Integer, and ,813 parts.,
Ex. 2.Divide3,40OOOby 1,23 :
Here the difference between the
Decimal places in the Devisor and
Dividend is three places j as in the
foregoing Example, therefore 813
is pointed offfortheDecimal Frac-
tion j and the Quotient is 3 Inte-
gers, and ,813 Thousandths of an
Integer. '
555m
543 12
"^12547
6789 -
57380
.54313
3268
1,23)3,46000(2,8X3
246. /.
' 1000
'i"Sb
123
^370
369
W
Thfl
Digitized by CjOOQIC
ISO YOUNG MAN'^ BEST COMPANION.
The Reader> who has attended thus far, is recommetHled
to look through the whole from the beginning ; he ^ill find
but little difficulty, anil much satisfnction atid pleasure in
treading over the same ground again, and amusing^ himself
by working other examples which be may readily devise
under every Rul^.
OF BOOK-KEEPING.
"nOOK- KEEPING it the Art of recording Mercantile ;^ ^
. Transactions in a regular and systematic manner. '^ .
A Merchant's Books should exhibit the true State pf hi*V-i
AHairs. Tliey should show at first sight, as it were, thc^
particular Stal^ of each transaction, and exhibit also the ge-
neral result of the whole: and they should be so arranged,!
~as to afibrd correct and ready Information upon every sub« .
ject for which they may, be consulted. \
■ Books may be kept either by single or double Entry, 1
Single Entry is^biefly used in Retail Business 5 it is the '
roost concise and simple method of Book-keeping, but not'^iP
the most perfect. , ^ ' -I
Double Entry is generally used in Wholesale and Mercan--* ^
tile Affairs, wlience it is usually called by way of pr^-emi- ^
nence Mepehants Accounts. Of these we have now to give -
an Account: and it is not without good treason, that^ most
people of business and ingenuity are desirous to be ma&t^rs
of this art ; for if we consider tliesaiisfection that naturalfy ,.
arises from . an "acicount well k<^pt, the pleasure that accruen '
to a person by seeing what he gains, by the species of goodn
he deals in, and his whole profit by a year's trade j and •
thereby also td know the tiue state of 'his Affairs mrd Cir- .
cumstances, so that he may, according to discretion,, re-;
trench or eulai^ehisExpences, Sec. as he shall think fit, the
acqaireroeut of this knowledge. must surely l^e desirable.
The Books of principal use in the business of Double
Entry are the U^uste Book, (by some called the Memorial^. .
Journal, and Ledger.
Waste Book. ..
IN this Book must be tJaUy written in the order of ti{t|||j|V ^
in which it happens. Whatever Occurs iri the wajr of Uiadft;|:t^J
Buying, Selling, Receiving, Delivering, BargafnlngV sMj^ Jr
ping, 8cQ. without omission of any one tbifrg either Bou||^Ki.'<'^
Sold, Borrowed, &c. • - *
• ' ' Digitized by VjOOQIC
I-
BOOK.KElEPING. - tn
^bfi JPhsie Book i» ruled with one marsinai lidf^ ^4
three Lines for Pounds, Shillings, and Pence, andtheDaj
€3f the Month, and Year of our Lord, is inseited in* the
middle of tbepage.. In this Book any one may write, and
on oodasion, any thing may be blotted out, if not well ca-
tered^ or any Error be made.
JOURNAL.
"INTO this Book every article is brought out of the
If^sie Book, but in other terms, in a better style, and in a
fairer hand, without any alteration of Ciphers or Figures :
and'e%'ery item is promiscuously set down without inter*
' intssion, to make the Book, or the several Entries in it, of
more Credit and Validity in case 6f any Law dispute, or
any controversy that may happen between Merchant and
I' l^erck^nt. In this Book you are to distinguish the Debtor
and Creditor (or in other terms, the Debts and CreditsJ.
And to this Book you niust have recourse for the Particu-
lars, of an account which in the Ledger are^entered in one
Xine. In this Book alsQ, the day of the month is usually
pLaced in the middle of the puge : it is ruled with double
J^arginal Lines, for reference to the Ledger, and with
three Lines for ir. 5. c^. as the Waste Book.
, Of, the Ledger.
'Ffoixi the Journal or Day Book all matters- or things are
posted into the Ledger, which by the, ^pawiare/* is called
JEf JLiLro Grande, as being the largest Book, or chief of
Aocouuts. The left hand side of this Book is called the
JDebtor, and the right the Creditor sid^ 5 and the Numbers
"or [Folios of each side mu^t be- alike, as 45 Dehior, and also
-^5 Creditor, The day ©f the month (in this Book) is set in
^ narrow Column on the left hand, and the month on the
• left of that : But whpre I kept Books, the Number in the
: xiarrovv Column referred to the Journal Page, and the Month
f and Day were placed in the bVoad Column, to the right of
} ths^t^ and at tlie head of each Folio tlie name of the place
4>f residenc*, and the Year of oar Lord : as thus :
i ^ ' ' "' ■
I - London, Anno. . . . . • • . IdlO,
I ^ feot the Exampla of these several Books hereafter follow-
f 'io^v^iil make the foregding hints of them much more iVf
\ ^elligible. The following is a general Rule, upoa W^ich
saok of 4he Entries in Book-keeping depend^ viz.
F AH ^
d by Google
IM YOUNG MAN*s BEST COMPANION.
' AB things Received, or the Receivers, are Debtors to ihe
Delivered, or the Deliverer.
Waste Book Enir^.
Bought of John IVi/ks, of Norton Falgate,
120 Yards of while Sarcenet, as 2s. 3d.
per Yard, to pay in two Months
The Journal Entry of the same*
— {Wrought Silk, Debtor to John IFilks,
I. 13 10s, for 120 Yards of white Sarce
net at 2s. 3d, per Yard to pay in two
Months - . - - -
In this Example the wrought Silks are
received, and therefore Debtor to John
IVilh the Deliverer.
IV^iste Book Entry.
' January 4, 1810.
Sold James Chapman, 24611. nett of Indigo,
at 6s. 6d. per lb. lo pay in 3 Months -
' Journal Entry.
James Chapman Dr. to Indigo, for 24f)lb.
nett, at 6s. 6d, per lb. to pay in 3
Months - - ' -
Waste Book Entry.
Bought of George Goodinchl sen. vh.
Chesh. Cheese 430 Cwt. |.
at 235. M. per Cwt £ 502
Butler,50 Firkins, qt. nett?
28001b. at 3d. per lb. 5
lo pay at 6 Months
35
Journal Entry.
Sundry Accounts, Cr. to George Goodinch,
I 537 5
Chesh. Cheese, for 460 Cwt. ^ /> ^^^
i, at 23j. 4</. per Cwt. >
Butter, for 59 Firkins, qt. nett? 35
28001b. at 3rf. per lb. * *
to pay in 6 Months. — ^-^-'
537
Digitized by CjOOQiC
BOOK-KEEPING.
Waste Book.
Sold to James Jenkins, viz.
White Sarcenet, 50 Yards?
at 3f. per Yard. - >
Indigo, 50 Pounds, at 7^. }
per pound - - »
129
7
n
10
10
Journal Entry qfihe last
James Jenkins, Debtor to sundry Accounts^
viz.
To white Sarcenet, for 50 yards, at 3s,
per yard - - /. 7 10 O
To Indigo, for 50 lb. at 7
Js. per lb. - - >
25
17 10 O
25
From these few Examples of Entry, it may be observed^
that a person experienced in Accounts, and a good Writer,
may keep a Journal without a Waste Book, or a Waste
Book without a Journal, since they both import one and
the same thing, though they differ a little in words or ex*
-pression.
But, however, I shall give Methods of keeping each, ti
iax as room will allow.
(l>
^ The Waste Book.
London, Jmuary \tf^ 1810.
An Inventory i)f ail the Mvney, Goods, and Debts, belong
ing to me A, B. o/ Loudon, Merchant, vi%.
In cash
Jn Tobacco, 4726 H). at Qd. 7
per lb. 5
In Broad Cloth, CFiecesat
5Gtf . per Piece
Dowlas, lOOOElls, at 25.
Ad. fer £11
Canary Wines^ 9 V^^eB, at
gS 30 per Kpe
Due to me from Henry
JSioiw/, per Bond > 4l38ti7io
Fa
500— —
il7 4 6
15 — —
116 13 4
270
60 — —
4138
hr
Digitized by
Google
IM YOUNG MAN'S BEST OOMPANIOM.
( 1 ) £ :
Journal.
ItivtTiicry , fe'c, s£ s
Sundry Accts. Dr. to Stock— 4138 17 10
viz,
Cash-
3500 — —
Tobacco, for 47261b. at /
gd. ptr lb. S
Broad cloths for 6 Pieces J
at 5s, per Piece v
Dowlas, for 1000 £lls^ at?
2s. 4d. per £11. C
Canary Wines, forpPipesL 270
at £ 30 per Pipe, )
Hiftry Bland, due on Bond 60 — —
17; 4 6
15
161 13 4
(4138
I7i
d.
I shrill make one Page serve for Waste Book and Journal
Entries, to save room^ and also to have both Methods of
Entry unHerEye, to make them more intelligibly useftd to
the Reader, witjhgut bjeing obliged <o turn over to see thehf
differeuce of Entry.
Waste Book.
London, January 1st
[Owing to TPilliani Webb, by
Note of Hand
T^MtoXo Roger Ruff, the ba-
lance of his Account
Ditto to Henry Horn due the^
4th of May next
Journal.
Stock Debtor to Sundry Accounts,
£. 128 12 4. vi%.
To Henry Wehb by my Note )
of tiand \
To Roger Riiff, for the Ba- i
lance of ^lis Accoijnt >
To Henry Hern, due the 4(11;
of May next. \
-1810.
50
—
i
16
12
4
62
—
—
ats.
.50
—
—
1?
12.
'4
62
(
~
128
128
12 4
12' 4
Jfa^e
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Sold Th9mas Townshend, viz.
246 Ih. of Virginia Cut Tobac-
co,^ t 14/i per lb.
460 Ells of Dowlas, at.3j.
per Ell
BOOKKEEPING
Waste Book.
L&ndon, Feb. 2d,'-
1810.
ir.
14 7 -
69
Jeurnal.
Thomas Townshend , Debtor to Sundries,.
vi%.
To Tobacco, for 246 lb. at
lAd. per lb.
To Dowlas, for 460 Ells, at
Zs. per Ell
\ 14 7 ~
Waste Book.
Ditto 24th.
Bought o{ Leonard Legg, four Pipes of Ca-
nary, at ^. 28 per Pipe
1*0 pay in 6 Months.
Ditto 24th7^ """^
Journal,
Canary Wines, Debtor to Leonard' Legg,
for 4 Pipes, at.28 Pounds per Ptpe
To pay in 6 Months.
83
83
112
112
iM
d.
The short Lines ruled against the XournHl Entries are, or
.may be, teroped Posting Lines, and the Figure on the Top^
of ihe Lines denote the Folio of the Ledger where the Deb-
tor is entered j and the Figure under the Line shows the
Folio of the Ledger where the Credit is entered ; and the
other smaller. Figures against the sundry Debtors, or sundry
Creditors (whether Goods or Persons) show^lso ia what
Folios of the Ledger they are posted.
The Accounts of Persons and Things are kept in the Ledg-
er, on opposite Pages, in which those, which in the Jour-
nal are said to be Debtors, are entered on the Left Hand
Page, with the word To; and those, to which they are said
to be Creditors, ^re entered on the RighrHand Page, with
the word By. For instance, the last Journal Entry should
be posted on the Left Hand, or Debtor's Side,, of the Ac-
count «f C^anflry Wines, thus: .
' F S
Digitized by CjOOQIC
120 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
l810. Feb. 24. To Leonard Legg 4 Pipes— 1 12 O «
AncLthe same should be posted on the right hand;, or Crt-^
ditor Side^ of the' Account of Leonard Legg^ thus :'
Feb, 24. By Canary Wines to pay in 6 Months^ 112
There are several other Books used by MerchSnts^. be-,
sides the three before mentioned : as the Cash-Book, which
js ruled like the Ledger, and in this all Receipts of Money
«re entered on the left hand Folio, andT payments on the
right } specifying in every Entry the Day of the Month
(the Year being set on the Top) for what and for whosa
Account the Money was received, or paid j and the total
Debit or Credit -on each side is to be posted ibto the Ledger
to the account of cash therein, in one line of either side, vi»»
to, or by suiidry accounts, ^s.per Cash-book, FoUo, &c«
which is to be done once a month, or at discretion, and
the Particulars of each Side, Article by Article, are to be
posted into the Ledger to the proper Accounts to which
they belong: with references in the Cash-book to the se^
veral Folios in the Ledger: and carry the Balance over
leaf inte the Cash-book, by which you may know at my
time what cash you have, or ought to have by you.
Another Book» is a Book of Charges of Mercliandize,
whei;ein is to be entered the Custom and petty Charges ojf
any Goods shipped; as porterage, whar£ige, warehouse*
room, &c. which once a month is transferred into thjc Ca^
book on the Credit Side, making reference to the Book of
Charges of Merchandise ; and likewise 'the same in the
Debtor Side of the same Account in the Ledger for the
Amount thereof.
The next Book I shall name, is the Invoice-bookjr er
Book of Factories. In this Book is to be copied all Invoice
of Goods shipped, either for Accompts proper or portables
and also of Goods received from abroad, which must al»
ways be entered on the left side, leaving the right side
blankr^ and on the advice of the disposal of goods sent
abroad, and also on the sale of goods received fsoin abroad,
enter them on the blank or right side ; so at first view may
be seen how the accompt stands, &c.
The next is a Bill* book, in which are entered Bills of
Exchange accepted, and when they become due 3 and whet
paid, they should be made so in the margin.
The oe3L( is a Book of Household Expenses, for| the
monthly
Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KEEPING; 127
""QKHiihly Charges of Housekeeping! likewise Apparel
House-rent, Servants Wages, and Pocket Expences ; and
this may be monthly summed Up^ and carried to tfie Credit
of Cash.
Besides the above-mentioned, there must be a Book to .
copy all Letters sent Abroad, or beyond the Seas 5 in which
the Name of the Person or Persons to whom the Letter i«
sent must be written full, for the readier binding it.
Then next, (and what is very necessary) a Receipt-book^
wherein are given Receipts for Money, paid and expressed
for whose Account or Use, or for what it is received j to
which the receiving Person must set his Nanae for himself,
or some other, with the year and day of the month on the toi>.
Lastly, A Note, or Memorandum- book, to minute down
Affairs that occur, for the better help of memory, and Is of
^eat use^ where there is a multiplicity of Business.
Having given an account of the several books and their
use, the next thing will be to give some new Rules of Aid,
to enable the Book-keeper to make proper Entries -, and ta
distinguish the several Debtors and Creditors, vi%^
First, For Money received^ make Cash Dr. to the Party
that paid it (if for his own account) and the Party Cr.
Secondly » For Money paid, make the Receiver Dr. (if for
his own account) and Cash Cr..
- Thirdly i For Goods bought for ready Money, make the
Goods Dr. to Cash, and Cash Cr. by the Goods.
- FowrtUy^ Goods sold for ready Money just the contrary^
f. t. Cash Dr. and Goods Cr.
• Fifthly, Good» bought for Time ;. Goods bought are Dr.
to the Seller of them, and the Seller Cr. by the Goods. -
^ SixtJify, Good»sold for Time, just the contrary, i. e. the
Party that bought them is Dr. to the Goods, and the Goods
Cr. by the Party.
Seventhfy^ Goods bought, part for ready Money, |and
the rest for Time } First make the Goods Dr. to the Party
for tlie whole ;. Secondly, make the Party Dr. to Cash for
the money paid him in part of those goods.
Eighthly , Goods sold, part for ready Money, and the
rest for Time: First, make the Party Dr. to the Goods for
.the whole- ' Secondly, Cash Dr. to the Party received of
him in part of those Goods. — Or either of these ' two ht^t
Rajes may be made Dr. to Sundries; as Goods bou?Ht,
F4 I>r.
Digitized byCjOOQlC
128 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Dr. to the seller for so much as is left unpaid, and to Cftsh
for so much as is left unpaid, and to Cash for so much paid
in ready Money : And so on the contrary for Goods sold.
Ninlhty, When you pay money before it is due, and are
•to have discount allowed you, make the Person Dr. to Oasli
for so much as you pay him, and to Profit and Loss for ths
Discount 'y or make the receiver Dr. to Symdries as before.
Projtl and Loss is Dr. j
To Cash for what Money you pay and have nothing for
it, as discoi^nt of Mopey you receive before due, and faj:
.abatement by composition, household expences, &c.
Per contra Cr.
By Gash for all yop receive, and deliver nothing for it^ as
lOiscount for prompt Payment, any Legacy left you. Money
received with an Apprentice, ,and by the Profit of every
particular commodity you deal m, by Ships in CompaDy>
by Voyage, Wc.
To balance, or clear an Account when full wrifien.
FIRST, if the Dr. side be more than the Credit, make
the old Account Cr. by the new ; and if the contrary ,.mak^
the new Account Dr. to the old. But if the Dr. side be leas
than the Credit, then make the o\h Account Dr. to th#
o\ew> and the hjbw Account Cr. by the old, for such a Rest
or Sum as you shall find in the AecQunt.
. 3. An Account of Company, wherein you liave placed
more received of another tbau his Stock ; then add as rot,iGb
on ths debit side as you find on the credit side ; to the end
that in the new Account you have so much debid as yoQ
put in, and so much credit as you havet received.
3^. In Accounts of Merchandise you must enter the gain,
«r loss, before you make the old. Account Cr. by the new,
and the new Dr. to the old, for the remainder of the gooda
unsoldi
4. . In the Foreign Accompts, which you are to keep with ■
a double column for tlie Dollars, Crowns, or othep Foreign
Coins, as well as their Value in /. s, d. which have been re^
i;eived or paid, by Bills of Exchange for Goods sold by Fac-
tors or Correspondents, or bought by them for the Accompts
b«fbre : here you must first balance the said inward column •
ofDoilars, Crowns, ksfc.
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
BOOK-KEEPING. 199,
To remove an Jccomptfull unriUen io another FoHo,
Sum or add ap the Dr. and Cr. sides^ and see tlie dif*
ference, which plabe to its oppQSitc : admit the Cr. side
exceeds the Di\ then you are 10 write the lino in the old
Accompt to balance on the Dr. side^ to answer the Hue oa
the Cr. side of the new Accom pt.
How to balance at the Year's End, and therely^ to know the-
Staleof your J J) airs and Circumstances, '
YOU must make an Accompt, of balance on the uert
wid I^eaf or Folio of your Ledger to your other Accompts ;.
bat after so done, .do not venture to draw out the AccoBipt
•f Balance in the said Folio till you have made it exact on a
sheet o£ paper, ruled and titled for tikt purpose^ becaas*
"of mistakes or errors that may occur or happen in the course
of balancing your Ledger ; which are to be rectified, and
will cause erasements or alteration in that Accompt, which
ought to be very fair and exact | and after you have made
it to bear in the said sheets copy ^r the said accompt of
balance in the Ledger.
The Rules for balancing are these, viz.
1st. Even your account of cash^ and bear the net rest to
balance Dr.
2:!lj/. Cast up all your goods bought, and those sold, of
what kind soever, in each account of goods; and- see whe-
ther all Goods bought, be sold or not ^ and if any remaia
unsold, value them" as they cost you, or according to the
present Market Price, ready Money; and bear the net refet
to balance Dr.
3dly, SeewhatyourGoods or Wares severally post, and
also how much they were sold for, and bear the net Gain or
Loss to the accompt of Profit and Loss.
Atfily, Even all the personal Accompts with joixt Drs,
and your Crs. in order as they lie, and bear the net rest of
them severally to' balance.
dthly^ Even your Voyages, " your factors Accompts,
wherein is either Gain or Loss, and bear th4 net Gain or
Loss to the accompt of Pnoiit and Loss to the Goods unsold. '
to Balance.
feiA/y, Even the accompt of Profit and Loss, and bear the
net rest to Stock or Capital, as on advance to your Stock,
cr Capital.
7thly, Even your Stock, and bear the net refit to Ba«
Juice Cr.. Then cast up the Dr. a Ad Cr. sides of your Ba«
' • F 5. kaec
Digitized by CjOOQIC
ISO YOUNG MAN*f BEST COMPANION.
lance ; and if tbey come oQt both alike, then are yoin' ac«
compts well kept ; otherwise } on must find out your error
by pricking over your Books again to see whether you have
catered every Dr. and Cr. in the Ledger as you ought.
fioit. Bf pricking ocer the Book it mteant, an e^anUwng every ArA»
ele •fike Journal, against the Ledger , and marking it tfais * •r thus f;
9nd upon the teqond JSxamination thus X > «"<' *iHm a third Examina'
turn thus ^i or any other Mark,
Note also, In all Accompte qf Goods you $mut keep a Ceiumn in
the Middle of the Leaf, qfeach Sidoy forNumbery Weighty or Measure.
Though all that hath been said in relation to Book-keep-
ing, and the several Rules thereunto belonging, may seem
a little abstruse to the altogether unlearned therein, yet
there is no such mighty difficultjr to instruct them as they
may imagine : The following hints may render what hath
been already said intelligible to an ordinary capacity ;
1st. Stick close to the Text, or general Rules before-
mentioned, vix. That all things received, or the Receiver,
are Debtor to all things delivered^ or the Deliverer -, for this
Rule holds good in all Cases.
2d, When the Dr. (whether Person or Goods) is known,
' the Cr, is easily understood without mentioning it ; for if
ji, be Dr. to B, then B* is Cr. by A, for what Sum so^v^r
it be : Also, if Goods be Dr. to C, then C. is Cr. by those
Goods for the Sum they amount to.
' 3diy, This Art of Book-keeping, is called Book-keeping
by Double Entry, because there must be two Entries ; the
first being a .charging of a Person, Money, or Goods» and
. the second a discharging of a Person, Money, or Gdbds.
4thiy, strictly nole. That if the first £ntry be on the Dr.
or Loft-hand side of your Ledger, the next or second Entry
snust always be made on the right or Credit Side of your
Ledger; for when one Person or Thing is^ charged, then
always another Person or Thing is discharged for the said
Sum, let it be what it will.
And so it is in l^lanclug an Accompt, and carrying it to
another Folio ; for if the old Accompt be settled by the
-Balance on the Credit Side, then the new Accompt must
be debited or charged on tl>e Debit-side for the Sam^ that
. balanced the old Account.
Much more might be said on this Art of Bopk^keeptng, tf
1 had room ; but I have said what I hope may be sufficient
frr thaJnttroctiOQ ^nd improvement of any Reader. T
d by Google
BOOK-KEEPING. 131
The next Matter I shall go upon is^ to show^ or gire Ex-
amples of various Kinds of Receipts^ and Promisory Notes ;
. also Bills of Parcels in different Trades ; likewise Bills of
Book-debts, Bills of Exchange^ with Remarks on them 5 and
lome other Precedents of Writings in Trade and Mercantile
Affairs.
And first of Receipts of different Forms.
RECEIVED Septemher gth, 1 8O9, T)f Mr. Anthony Arch-
§r, the Sam of Six Pounds Nine Shillings } Ji say received for
my Master, Bryan Barry, p^ me
£ 6 g Calel Catchpenny.
London f Septemher 14, I8O9.
Beccived of Mr. Ktndiick Keeplouch, Ten Pounds EleveB
Shillings and Sixpence in full Payment, per me
jg 10 10 6 Henry Hasty.
Note. The Sum received must always be expressed in Words
M Length, and not in Figures, in the Body 0/ the Receipt ;
lui it may, and ought to be, expressed in Figures between two
lAnes on the L^Jkand of the Name at the Bottom of the Re*
eeipt, as well as in the Body of the Receipt,
When a Receipt is given in. a Book, there is no occasion
to mention the Man's Name of whom you receive the Mo-^
ney, because that is implied^ he being the Owner of the
Book.
' Beceived the 24th of Septemher, I8O9, of Mr. Timothy
Trucklittle, Fifly Pounds in part of Indigo sold him the 22d
Instant, per me
£ 5Q O O Lawrence Lovemoney*
A Receipt given in a Receipt" Book.
Received the 26th of September, 1 8O9, the Sum ef Forty-
five Pounds, by the Order, and for the account of George
Greedy, Esq. pe r me
^45 O O Timothy Trusty.
f Received the 27th of September, I8O9, of Mr. Daniel
Davenport and Company, One Hundred Pounds, on account
of Self and Partner, per me ^
- ^ 100 O O Jamcf Jenks.
,. ' r*— E6 ; Reoeiffd
Digitized by CjOOQIC
1S2 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION
Received the 28th ©f March, 1810, of Mr. Ptltr Pimc^
tual. Fifty Pounds sixteen Shillings and Nine-pence, in part
for Tobacco sold him the 24th of August last.
^50 It) 9~ Fahian Funk.
Received the 29th of March, 1810, of the Honourable
East India Coinpany, Three Hundred and Fifteen Pounds
Ten Shillings, per Order, and for the account of Fel€r
Tepper. ^
'^315 16 » ^^"^^ ^'^^•
Received March 31st, 1810, of the Governor and Com-
pany of the Bank of England, One Thousand six Hundr^
^ Pounds Ten Sh illings, for S«if and Conopany, per me
'■£ \&yO 10 b Leonard Lmgpurse.
Received the 4th of April, 1810, of the Worshipful
Company of Grocers, Forty-nine Pounds Fifteen Shillings,
in full Payment for my Father Peter Plumb, per me
' ^49 15 o" Peter Plumb, junior.
Receivedthe 6th of April, 1810, of Richard Cox, Esq.
Chamberlain of London, the sum of Sixty Pounds, for Uie
Use of the Worshipful Company of Joiners, per me
sB §0 6 o" Caleb CarefltL
A Rent'Gaiherer's Bill,
Received the 14ih of November, 1 8O9, of Mr. ^ro» yfra-
lle ip Money, Eighteen Pounds, and allowed him for Land-
Tax Five Pounds^ and for Repairs Two Pounds, in all Twenty-
five Pounds, in full for half a Year's Rent due at Michael-
luas last 5 I-say received for the Use of Lawrence Letland,
Xsq. by virtue of his Letter of Attorney, ' per me
^ 25 O O^ ' Robert RentrolL
Received of Mr. Timothy Tenant, this 25th Day of No-
vember, I8O9, SixPonnds for a Quarter's Rent due atMi-
cjKvelraas last, for my Master Lancelot Letfarm, per
2"§ O O Francis FaithfuL
Received August 24, I8O9, of Mr. Brook Bishop, Twenty-
nine Pounds Six Shillings, in Part of a Bill of Sixty Pounds
due the 3d of October next, to Mr> Samuel Shuffle.
^29 Q FranrisFiddL
Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KEEPING. Iffl
A Receipt on the Back of a Bill of Exchange.
. October 30, I8O9, received the full Contents of the with-
in mentioned, being Five Hundred Pieces of Eight.
500 Pieces of Eight ' Nalkan . Needy^
Pi omissory Note,
I Promise to pay to Mr, Timothy Tcaxer, or Order, Sixty
Pounds, on the 26ih of this Instant October, Witnesamy^
Hand this 15 th of October, I8O9.
,j£ 6Q O Daniel Dilatory,
18th October, I6O9.
I Promise to pay to the HonoGrnble the Directors of the
'South Sea Company, or Bearer on Demand, Font Hundred .
and Fifty Pounds, for my Father, James Jones.
^450 • Joshua^ Jones,
'■ ' • 24th October, IS09.
I Pfomise to pay to the Governor and Company of the Bank
of England, or Order, on Demand, Two Thousand Pounds.
^2000 0~*0 Nakum Neednothing.
^ Novewhr 24thy IBOg.
I Promise to pay to Mies Man, and Company, or Bearer
en Demand, Seven Hundred Fifty-six Pounds Ten SJwlJings
^nd_Nine-pence,'fDr my Master, Bohert Begular,
^ 756 10 O ^<»^* Martin.
■ Novemler 24th, I809.
I Promise to pay to the Honourable East India Company,
or Bearer, upon Demand, Five Hundred Pounds, for Henry
H udson. *
sS 500 Martin Moneylag.
' Novemb^ 26th, 1809.
I promise to pay to Mr. Christopher Cash, or. Order,
Three Mont lis after Date, FiA?e Pounds for -value received.
Witness my H and this 26tb Day of November, I6O9.
^"3 0~- Bohert Buck.
\ A Note given ly Two. '
WE, or either of us^ promise to pay to Mr. Matthew
'Mistrust, ox h\sOtdtY, Six Jfounds Sterling, on Demand,.
for Value received. Witness our Hands this 27tb of Sep-
tember I809 . Nathan Needy.
£6 : ScmuH Surety.
~ IFt^jiw Nicholw Nolic«^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
IM YOUNG MAN** BEST COMPANION.
A Bill of Debt.
Memorandum: That I IFilUam tVanly of London>.
Wpaver, do owe, and am indebted unto Mr. Ttmothy Trust,
of Westminster, Watch-maker, the Sum of Twenty-five
Pounds Six Shilings of lawful Money of Great Britain f~
vrhich Sum I promise to pay to the said Timo/Ay Trust, hi»:
Executors, Administrators, or Assigns, on or before the
igih Day of December next ensuing. Witness my Hand
this 22d Day of March, 1810.
Winess, Titas Testis. William WdnU
Bill of Parcels.
It is usual when Goods are sold for the Seller to'deliver to
the Buyer, with the Goods, a Bill of Parcels, which is .a Note
of I heir Contents and Prices, with a Total of their Value cast
. up, &c. These Bills ought to be handsomely written, and
in a methodical Order, according to the best and cas^mafy
Way of each particular Trade. ^
I shall therefore give the Forms of Bills of Parcels in some
Trades and Professions, with the shortest Methods of casting
up the several Articles in each Bill.
A Mercer's Bill.
Richard Jones, Esq. Londbn, September 26, I8O9.
Bought of 4lel Atlas and>5fi«- Burdett, viz.
12 Yds. 1 of rich Satin, at I2s. 6d. per Yd. .. 7 ^ ^9 ^
8 Yds. of sprigged Tabby, at 65. 3d. per Yd. 2 10 O'
5 Yds. I of Farrrogdon, at 6s. 8<i. p^ Yd. . . 1 15 O
6 Yds. of Mohair, at 4s. 2d. per Yd.' 1 5 O
17 Yds. I of Lustring, at 35. 4d. p^r Yd.. . . . 2 18 4*
^. 16 . 7 H
If the Money Js paid, then the Receipt is niade as follows :
Received the 26'th of September, 1810, Sixteen Pounds
' Seven Shillings and Eight-pence half-penny, for Abel Atlas
' and Company, Francis Fair spoken.
A Woollen Draper's Bill.
London, Septemler 24th, 1810s .
Bought of Benjamin Broadcloth, 22d of September, 1910.
7 Yds. of tine Spanish black, at 10 4 per YA
5 Yds. 4 of ditto, at. 12 4 ditto.
6 Yds. I of fine miked cloth, at. .... « US 4 ditto.
16 Yds. I of Frieze, at 3 6 ditto.
4 Yds. of Drap-de-berry, at 13 ' 5 ditto.
^ Yds» i of superfine SpaisUb doth, aU, 18 10 ditto.
, Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KEEPING. 4$$
The several articles of these Bills are purposely omitted
being; cast up, for the exerci«5e of the reader in the Rule of
Practice, or* in those of Multiplication of Money, before
shown ; which indeed is the best method of all for the
ready casting up tlie articles contained, in any Bill of Parcels
whatsoever. ^
"We will take the last article of the Woollen Draper's Bill,
vix, 5 yds. i, &v. at I8i. \Od, per yard.
51 18 la
i. 4 14 .2 . 71 \
\6 5\ 8) 12J 10
Fadl s£ 5 10 7f 1^ H
Tn this example the price is multipled by the quantity,
vi%. 5 |, according to the Rules delivered in MuUiplieatum-
of Mmey ; and the product by 5 is 4/. \45,2d: Then for
the f of a yard, multiply the price of the Integer, viz.
xBt, IQd. by the Numerator of the Fraction, viz. 7, and di-
vide by the Denominator 8, and the Quotient is l6s, 5d. },
agreeably to the ifule in the Uectrine of Fractions.—
Which i6s, 5d. \ added to At. 145. 2d. gives 5L 105. 7d%
l\ c foregoing operation. ^
A Hosier's Bill,
Mrs. James, Bought oi Abraham Sock,, OciolerS, lOOg^
To 5 Pairof Womens mixt Worsted Hose, at .• 55. 7d,
3 Pair of Womens SWk Hose, at gs. Ad.
22 Pfiir of Mens Woollen ditto, at 3s, 2d.
" 8 Pair of Womens ditto, at 25. 2d»
21 Yds, of Flannel, at l5. 11//.
8 Pair ofThread Hose, at 35. Ad.
A LeaiherseUer's Bill.
Mr. Lastf Bought of Henry Sideboard, the 17tb o£
October, 1809.
8. d.
To W Large oiled Lamb Skins^ at . . I Hper Skin.
13 Kippof Goat Skins, at 3 4
107 Alumed Sheep Skins, at 13
. 19 Calf Skins, at 4 3
. B5 Oiled Buck Skins, at 12 9
10 Russia Hides, at 12 9
§0 Dicker of Hidesj at 11 6
Digitized by CjOOQIC
13fl YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION:
Note. 50 Goai Skins make a Kipp ; and other skins art
Jlvf score to the hundred, A Dicker is 10 hides or skins ;andL
120 Dickers a Last,
A Pewterer's Bill.
3Ir. Johnson, Boujght of Andrew Antimony, October ike
7th,iS09. /. s, d.
To 9 Metal Dishes, wt. 42lb. at I4d, per lb. 2 g
1 Dozen oi' ditto Plates ......... ,^ .. . o 17 O
1 Standish of ditto O 4 O
2 Tankards of ditto ..,.;,.. ] q 5 iq
8 Best Spoons ', , , ^ , q 4 g
13 Hard Metal Porringers ...!!/ 3
1 Salt of ditto ....' !! O 1 10
i Set of Casters . 4- ^ * * q 10
£4 15 a
A Merar's Bill.
Madatn Dehoi^h Doughty, Dr. to Bryan Brocade.
Yds. s. d.
To 16^ of flowered Satin, at 14. 9 per Yd.
14 of Venetian Silk, at. . 1 1 8
99 of Mohair, at 6 z
14|offlowered Damask at 9 7..
5^of<;tf»oa Velvet, at .21 6
f of Lustring, at ... . 4 7
I8O9
March 16
April 14
^ 16
May 16
June 7
25
If part of the Bill only is paid, write thus:
Heceivedof Madatn Deborah Doughty, twelve pounds
ten shillings, on account, for my Marter, Bryan Brocade.
/^^^^OQ Henry Hunter.
J Stationer's Bill.
Mr. Samuel Scribe, Dr.' to Philip Pott, viz*
To 57 Reams Demy, at I 2 OperH.
igs do. 2d Foolscap, at l' 2 O
375 do. 2'd Demy, at 1 4
95 do. French Royal 1 15 O
26 Rolls Parchment, at O 2 t5
I8O9
July 12
31
August 24
September 6
October 26
^ Note. A Roll of Parchment is 60, Skins; a Ream (f
Faper 20 Qwrw ; and a Bundle 0/ Paper is 2 Reams.
Bills
Digitized byCjOOQlC
1809.
April20.
May 4
17
June 12
BOOK-KEEPING. r^
Bills on Book Debts,
A WaolUn Draper' Sr Bill
Mr, Frank Fustian, Dr. to George Gcose.
s. d.
To 16 Yds. I of Black Cloth, at 18 ,3 per Yd.
4 Yds^jof Drap-de-beHy,
at
35 Yds. of mixt Grey Cloth,
, at
9 Yds. of tine ditto, at
12 Yds. ^ of fine Broad
Cloth, at
15 6
10
I?
17 3
If thp whole Bill be paid, then make the Receipt thus
Received the igth of Ociot^^'r, 1809,' of Mr. Frank Fuf
Han, the sum of fifty-foOr pouuds^ for the ab©ve Bill, for
my Master;, George Goose.
' sB 54 Mark Coodmecsurr
A Bricklayer^ Bill.
Mr. Martin Topstone. Dr. to Pettr Pantile^
1809 viz. ,
March 2T To '25 Thousand Bricks, 35*. per M.
30 11 Thousand plain Tiles, at 50s^ per M;
Aprii I . 38 Cwt. of Lime» at I4s. per C wt.
9 20 Loads of Sand, tt 55. 6d, per Load*
May 20 140 Ridge Tiles, at ISf.pef Hundred.
June 24 90 Days of work myself, at 5s, per Day..
90 Days nay Man, at 4s, 6d.
90 Days another BTicklayer, at 4^
go-Days for 2 Labourers, at 2s, 6i, each,'.
Note. 1000 plain Tiles is a Load; and «5 BagH or
Buskcls ofLiwe 1 Cwt. A Brick wust he 9 Inchts lovg and
4 Inches \ hroctd. Bricks are of three Sorts, Place-Bricks,
/ Red, and Grey-Stock, Bricks.
Here it will be proper to give a genernl rule for casting
up any thing sold by the Thousand ; as Bricks, Tiles, &c.
and other things mentioned in the l^ook of Bates, viz.
Barrel Hoops, Goose Quills, Oranges and Leinont^
'Squirrel Skins, Billeis, &c. Which is as follows, viz.
Multiply the given number by the Shillings in the price
(if the price be at so many Shillings per 1000), a) way*
catting
Digitized by CjOOQIC
J3S YOUNG MANi BEST COMPANION,
cutting off three Figores or places on (he right hand ; ancf
the Figures towards the left hand are Shillings, which di-
vide by 20, to bring them into Pounds; and those Figures
•eparated toward the right hand multiply by 12, the next,
inferior denomination, and still cut off or sepai^te three
places towards the right hand, and the figures towards the
left are pence; and cutting the three last ^ures off, multi-
ply by 4 ; still separating three places toward the right
hand, and the Figures toward the left hand are Farthings.^—
If the price be Shillings and Pence, or Shilluigs, Pence, and.
Farthings p^ Thousand, multiply by the Shillings as before,
and take the parts for the Pence and Farthings, as in tbe
Rule of Practice ; add these together, and proceed as be--
fore directed.
Ex. I. 24650 Bricks, at I7i.p«r Thousand.
17
272550
24650
4191050 J^nswer 4ig^ 0|<2. or 20^ l^f. 0}<£
I
JEf . 2. 6d.^ 261324 plain Tiles» at lOv. 6d. pm TbtiMU.
L^l
1567944 1
261324 I
130662 1
43111846 K^^s^^ 4311*. lOd. xWtr/
12
or 215/. ISf. lOd.
608
When any thing is sold by the Hundred, . as Dutch and
English Pantiles, then observe the following Kule, viz.
Multiply the given quantity by the Shillings in the price,
lind take parts for the pence and* farthings (if there be any)
as before y then from the right hand of the sum cut off two
places, and proceed as in the last Rule.
E9.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KiEPiNO- laa
A^ 3. 1726 PanUles, at 7«- per Huiidred.
120t82 I
i£ \ Answer 120*. prf. i or 6/. 0*. 9rf. | and
9i^ f tVt of a Farthing.
£r;4. 6(/. I 2964 Stock-Brtcki> at 25. 6d. perC
5928 I
— ^ «^.^«. 74s. IJ. tVt/. or 3/.41J. !</•
2111? > &c.
1120
4
80
Of Bills o/'Excbakos.
BILLS of Exchange are either Inland or Forelgiu Th«
/ii^ni£ Bills are drawn by one trader in one city or town^
upon another of another city or town^ in the same kingdom ;
as London upon Bristol, or Exeter upon London, t^c, and
these chiefly concern Shop-keepers, and wholesale Traders^
either in town or countrj' 5 and the foreign more imme^
diacely concern the merchants.
Bills of Exchange, if handsomely drawn, must be writ«>
ten in a £al\r band, on a long piece of Papery about three
inches broad^ and written in form after the fallowing Fre«
cedents:
Form of a BiU payable at Sight, '
London, 5ih Aprils IBIO0
At Sight pay to Mr, Gregorius Grandy, or his Order^
the Sum of Fiity Pounds for Value received of Christopher
Cutpurse, and place it to account, as per advice from
To Mr, P«ter Palmer.' YOur humble Servant,
Ah'Street, David DrawtvelL
York,
Digitized by CjOOQIC
140 . YOUKG MAN'i BEST COMPANION.
York, Mafck 2«, FSW.
Seven Days after Sight pay to Mr. Nat, Needy, or hi»
Order; Twenty^four Pounds Ten Shillings for Value re-
ceived of Mr. Timothy Transfer^ andplac^ it to account^
as fier advice from
To Mr. S. Surety, Your Friend and Servant,
Cheapside, Lotidon. Mark Moneypenny,
If Mr. Needy send his servant, jihrahatn Honesty, to-
receive the Money, a^tef he has written his own nanae oa
the back of the BiJl, (whicl^ is his Order) the servant iiiust
write a Receipt to his master's name, thus :
Received, for Nat. Needy,
Aljrakam Honesty,
USANCE is a determined time fixed for payment of
Bills of Exchangej and reckoned either from the day of tkeir
being accepted, or from the day of their date. This is called
Usaucei because regulated by the Usage or Custom of pU^
ces on which they are drawn.
A Foreign Bill nf Erckange,
London, 28th December, 18:19, for 460 Crowns^,
at 56c?.| Sterling /;ffr Crown.
At Usance pay this my first Bill of Exchans^e, (my se-
Vendor third not beiiJg paid) unto Mr, Harry Fane, or Ot»
der. Four Hundred and Sixty Crowns, at 56d.\pei' Crown,
lor value received of Mr. Simon Thornhill, and place h to-
.acooant, as per advice from. Sir,
To Mr. Walter Watchful, Your humble Servant,
Merchant, Hamburgh. Edmmd SaveaU.
Note, It is usual to send two and sometimes three Bills of
the same kind, in case the first and the second should not
t'hrough.any accident, arrive at their destined place.
Anotfter.
London, l7Xlf Oct ler, 1800, for 480 Dollars^
at 55d. J- per Dollar.
At three Usance pay this my first -Bill of Exchange nnto
Mr. J^dllam Wealthy, or Order, Four Hundrr^d and Eight/
Dollars, at 55</.^ Sterling /)er Dollar, fbr value ieceived from
Lim, and place it to account, as per advice from
Tour humble Servant,
To Messrs. J. ^ J. D'Costa, Mark Mercator^
Merchojits, Alepj^o. ' Usan€fi-
Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KEEPING. Ul
Vsance between England and Fran€e, or Holland, is one
Calauder Month; between England and Spain, or Portu*
id, two Months; between England and //a/y, Thre^i
Months^ 4*0*
EiPample,
Bristol, IGth March, 1810, for 600 pieces of
Eight, at 53rf. I per Piece.
At double Usance pay this ray first Bill of Ejccbange
unto Mr. Lawrence de Lux, or his Order ^ Six Hundred
. Mexico Pieces, of Eight, at 5'dd, ^ Sterling, for value receiv-
ed of Henriques Gomes, and place it tQ account, as per ^d«
vice from yoin's, &c.
To Mr, Solomon Silvester, Henry Hunt,
Merchant J Leghorn.
Remarks on Bills 6f Exchange^
I 1. TBE Acceptor of any Bill is the absolate Debtor to '
the person to whom the <Bill is payable^ for the oantenta
thereof:
2. The person to whom the Bill is payable miist demand
the money the very day it becomes due, and if the Acceptor
dies before it becomes due it must be demanded of the £xe«
cutor or Administrator:
3. Tiie Drawer of any Bkll must always give his Corres-
poiident-a Letter of Advice^ that he hj|s drawn such a Bill
on him for such a particular Sura, &c. :
4. There is no obligation to pay a 611) without such Let-
-ter of Advice :
5. In England a Bill is due the third day after the expi-
ration of the time mentioned in the Bill.
Of Indorsing Bills and Notes.
IT fi-equently happens, that between the Acceptance
ef a Bill anji the time of Payment, the party to whom it
is first made payable has occasion to pay it away. In this
case he writes his name on the back of the Bill, which is
his Order, arid' gives it to the person to whom be is in-
debted ; he is then empowered to receive the Money :
And if the second person also wants to pay it away, then.
be likewise writes his name under the other, and delivers
it to a third person to receive the money j and it may
happen^ the ihifd does the fame, andddiven it tea fourth
perioaj
Digitized by CjOOQIC
142 YOUNG MAN-g BEST COMPANION,
person, Src. All that thas do are Indorsers } and be f&at
fast has the Bill, if the Acceptor will not pay it, may sue
him, or the Indorbers, or Drawer^ or any of tfaeixij for the
Money.
An Indorsement is sometimes in these word^, viz. Pay
ike contents of the wUhin'mentumed BUI to Henry Hasty.
George Greedy m
But generally the name only is accounted sufficient.
0/ Protestuig,
* WHEN a Bill is to he Protested, the party who is in po!u
•ession of the Bill must go to a Notary Public, (not a com-
mon Scrivener) whose business it is; and he goes to the
Acceptor's house and demands payment, C^c« He then
draws up a Protest according to Law ) which is to be re-
tamed to the Drawer, or the person from whom be received
it^ within the time limited, &c.
It is quite unnecessary to give &e form o£z Protest, as
BO person can do it for himself.
Charges of Noting and Protesting a BiU.
_ . C within the City 1 6 I Pro- within ^30
^^"^ J without the City 2 6 | testing without J 5
ABiUofDelU
KNOW all Men by these presents, TTbat I Lawrence
Luckless, of Southwark, Vintner, do owe and am indebted
unto XJ/audius Careful, Brewer, the Sum of One Hundred
and Fifty Pounds of lawful Money of Great Britain j whici
sum I promise to pay unto the said Claudius Careful, his
Executors, Administrators, or Ass'gns, on or before - tbe
24th of December next ensuing the Date hereof^ Witnesi
my hand and seal, this 6th Day of March, 1810.
Sealed and delivered ^ Lawrence Luckless,
in lAe Presence of
A.B.
A BUI for Money borrowed.
Received and borrowed of Oliver Forecast, of London/
Merchant, Fifty Pounds, which. I do hereby promise to paf.
on /lemand. Witness my Hand> this 6th Day of. Afr^t
1 810.
"jEloT Launcehi Ltttkfenuf
Digitized by CjOOQIC
book-keeping. lU
Form of a BiU of Lading.
Shipped by the Grace of God, in geod Order and
well-conditioned, by Edward Export, of London, Mer-
chant, in and upon the good Ship called the fGood
Adventure of London) whereof (Mariin Maintop, of
London, Mariner,) is Master, under God for this pre-
sent Voyage, and now riding at Anchor in the Port of
T B London, and by God's Grace, bound for (Cadiz), that
'^o, is to say, 1 (Bale of Stocking Baize, and I Trunks
1, 2 containing Five Hundred Pair of Silk Stocking, Con-
tacts, ^c, as per Invoice) being marked and numbered
as per Margin, and are to be delivered in the like good
Order at the aforesaid Port of Cadix, Jthe danger of
the Seas only excepted, under (Mr. Martin Mercat,
Merchant there), or to his Assigns, he or they paying
Freight fojr thevsaid Goods (three pieces of Eight per
Cvvt.) with Primage and Average accustomed. In
' Witness whereef the Master or Purser of the said Ship
hath affirmed to (three) Bills of Lading, all of this
tenor and date, one of which (three) Bills being accom-
plished, the other (two) to stand void. And so God
send the good Ship to her destined Port in safety. Jmen.
Dated Lom/o7i, the 6th March, 1810; inside and Contents
. unknown to Martin Maintop.
Note. The several words included in the Parentheses are
to be put into the several vacant places that are in a Blank
Bill of Lading.
Note ako. Average is the geiieral Allowance made to the
Master oi the Sliip, of id. or 2d. in every Shilling Freight
for Primage, as a small allowance to be distributed amoDg
the Sailors. \
The Form of an Invoice.
Port-Royal, Jamaiea, ife/y 10, I811.
In oice of five Barrels of Indigo, hsQ Hhd^. of Sugar, and
ike Hhds. of Pimento, shipped on board the Lufte, oi Low-
don, George JVright, Commander, for account and risk of
Messrs. John and James Jones, of London, Merchaats, being
fljirked and numbered as per Margin :
Contents,
Digitized by CjOO^IC
:'J'
144 YOUNG MAN'i BEST COMPANION-
750 lb. net. at 2s. Qd. per It.
Sugar 5
Hhds. Tare
C.pr.lb. C.qrJL
l2(5ll-3-:7— 1 2-19
to 12-9-19-1-3- O
13013-2-13—1-2-16
14-1-15—1-3-11
15-1-10—1-3-22
l.
ContcnU, Coete, and Charges, a» in the following Ex-
ample :
c^w.|[ndigo5 B.
>F. 143 • '
No. 143
Hi 146
to ' I5t
125 172
81
Cqr.lb.
Gross 68-0-
Tare 8-3-12
68 O- 0—8-3-12
No.
13]
to
135
Net 59-0-16
at 24^. p. C.
Pimento lb.
5 Hhds. Tare 2026 Grosf
16. lb. 389 Tare
432—84
396-72 net 1637 at llrf. ^ per lb.
410—61
376—70 Chirget.
412 — 80 To Cost of 5 Barrels and 10
Hhds 4-7-9
2026-389 To Storage l-0-o|
s.\ d
18
70
19
78
To CommWsion at 5 per C.
Errors excepted per 4* B;
236
1166
9i
9
14
8+
An Atcouni of Sales.
Part'Royal, Jamnica, July 11, I8O9.
Account of Sale of 2765 Ells of brown Osnaburghs,
1112 Yards of Blue Hartford, 2 Pieces of Grey Cloth,
qt. 39 ¥ards,.50 Pair of fine Worsted Hose, and 157 Ellf
of Bag HoUandi receired ftom on board the Ship Good
Success
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Suecess, 6aptaia Samuel Sharpe, ComMmior, £ae A^ommt
of Lawrence Lucky, of London, Merohan^, h Pf .
ToPortflgeof ditto I L O 17 G I. s.[d*
To Commission of Sales ........ 1^ 111
To Storage, at i per C. ^10 llf
To the net Product carried to the Credit of your
Account, bad Debts excepted •.••••.« ^
20
104|
Per Contra, Cr.
By 2?65 brown Osnaburghs, making 3456 Yds.
J at Qd. \ per Yd. sold Amhique Baker
Byin2 Yds. of blue Linen, sold at yd, } per
Yard.
By James Smart, for 39 Yds. of Cloth, at 15/.
per Yard . . ;
By Lawrence Monk, for 50 Pair of Hose, at
Js, lOd, per Paii *; . .,. .,..•.
By ditto for 175 Ells of Bag Holland, at Ss. Zd<
per EU
i(57
122
19
54
261
160
«>
35|l8i
29 --
1]
9
16 Ti
Errors excepted, July lltb, I6O9, per
Charles Careful,
Business on the Wkeirf, coneeming Exporting and Im-^
porting of Goods, ^c. Entering them at the Cushm-*
house, tS^c,
When there are Goods to export, and ready packed^ He
dieremust be first made a Bill of Entry, (as it is called) of
the contents, after this Form, vizi
In the L9yal Briton, Abraham Handy f for Barhadoen.
Edutin Export,
Three Cases of Haberdashery.
Five Tuns of Beer, &c.
Of these bOls there must be seren, one of which nrast b4
in words at leis^th, and the other may be expressed in , fi.
gores : These are by the Clerks of the Custom-house en*
tered into several books kept for that purpose. If some of
the articles pay Custom, and others not, then there must
two entries be made; one for those that pay Custom, jind
^amother for those that do not 1 and you most likewiso hav#
uro Cocketfw '
Digitized by CjOOQIC
, 146 YOUNG MAN^s BEST COMPANION.
A Cochet testifies the payment of all Duties ^ and is writ-
ten on a small piece of Parchment as follows :
• Know ye, ikat Edwin Export, Merchant, for three Co.-
ses if HalerdcLshery , and five Tuns (f Beer, in the
Loyal Briton, Abraham Handy, for Barbadoes, hath
paid all Duties* Dated the Qlh o/* November, I8O9..
On tht back of the Cocket rau^t be set down the Marks,
Numbers-, and Quantity of the articles expressed in the
Inside, Then on clean paper transcribe your Bill of
Entry, upon which a Shipping Bill will be made out, on
the back of which signify the Marks, Numbers, and
Contents, as before, on the Cocket -, both which being
thus indorsed, are to be delivered to the Searcher at the
Water-side, who deposits them in the Office till the going
away of the Ship ; they are then delivereil to the Captain or
Masterof the Ship.
If you have not knowledge or experience enough to
enter your Goods yourself, application must be made to
one of the clerks in the Long Room who make it their
business to enter Goods 5 they will write out Bills, and pass
your Entries, without any further trouble, or your running
a risk of making any false Entries, Sfc, for which you will
pay him one shilling.
Entry Inwards. ,
ON a Ship's arrival, search the Entry Book in the Long
"Room, and you will find the name of the Ship and Captain,
as also I he Waiters that are to attend the Delivery of the
Ship, and at what Wharf the Goods will be landed. The
Entry inwards runs thus:
In the Mercury, Jacob Keelson, from Antigua.
35 Hhds. of Sugar, &c.
56 Bijgs of Cetton, &G.
There must be eight, of these Bills, (thought but seven
Outwards) and one of these also must be in words at -
length, which is for the Warrant of Delivery, and must
'. be iigneii by the person in whose nam« the goods were en-
tered, and the mark also in the margin ;- which being done,
and the Fee for Entry and Custom paid, you wiij then have
froipthe Land -Waiters a Warrant for the landing atid re-
ceiving your Goods.
Whea Goods are to be exported by Certificate, vi%
ForeigB
Digitized by CjOOQIC
BOOK-KEEPING. l'47
foreign Goods formerly unf>orted : these Goods being t«
be sent abroad, or exported to another place or country
by a native of England within twelve, or a stranger «^ithiii
nine months after importation^ entitles the ejtporter to*
Drawbatkof part of the Custom paid on the Impoflation of
the said Goods, upou producing a certificate from tbeComp-
troUer that they have paid the Duties inw^ds. And th^
Debenture of Custom Drawback runs thus :
Debenture.
Christopher Commerce, naiufal lorn, did on, &c. mait
an Entry with us of Two Thousand Ells of broad German
Linen, in the Amazon, Captain Steven Stoat, ybr Jamai- .
ca, the Subsidy, &c. was paid inu^ards hy^ &c. as appears *
per Certificate of the Collector inwards : And for further
Manifestation of' his just dealing therein, he hath also taken
Oath before us of the same *
Custom-house, London^ 12th November, I8O9.
The Oath.
Jurat. C. C. That Two Thousand Ells of broad Germany
Unen, abovementioned, was really- t^hipppd out, find hath
not been relandedin any Port or Creek in England or Wales
sinse last s'hipptd, Nov. 12, I8O9.
The Certificate Cocket.
London : Knou> ye, that C. C. far Two Thousand Ells
mf broad Germany Linen, paid per, &c. the Duty, &c.
iast, late unladen and.n^win the Amazon, Stephen^tout,
ybr Jamaica. Dat€dthel2thofNovecaber, I6O9.
This Certificate Cocktt is gained by applying lothe books
of the Importer, to know the day, &:c. when the Custom
inwards was paid, and by whom ; which carry to the Long
Robm in the Custom-house, and deliver it to the Compt
troUer's Clerk of the Subsidy inward and outward, with an
account of what you would export, &c;
As It has been mentioned that Goods must be landed ,
at some Wharf or (Key) Quay, it may be proi)er to name
them, viz.
Somers Key, Smart's Key, Wiggtn*s Key, Bear Key,
DiceKeff, Custom-house^ Key , Potter's Key, Wool Key, ^
Galley Key, Brewer's Key, Ralph's Key, Chester's Key,
Lyons Key; Cox's Key; Hammond's, Young's, and
Count's Key. And the Wharfs are. Fresh IVharf and
JBotolph IVharf ' '
C 2 • ^ Besid«t
Digitized by CjOOQIC
246 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Besides these, there are ceriato plaees csdied Docks, wbixfk
are barboors cut Jnto the land, where there ts no currervt,
but only a flow and ^an ebb, otfoasioned by the rise and faU
of the Tide iu the river ThaMes ; and these are convenient
Ibr the lying of Vessehi, Ho^s, Lighters, Barges and Boats;
jind are as follow, viz.
Billingsgate Dock, Sahh's Dock, Tower Dock, Si.
Catherine's Dock, fVapping Dock^ Hermitage Dock, Exe^
cution Dock, and Umehouse Dock, And above Bjidge,
4^ueenhilhe Dock, Puddle Dock, White Friar^s Dock, and
iStotland Yard Dock, And in Southwark, on the Surry-
- Side, are St. Saviour* s Dock, Clink Dock, and Savery'9
D^ck, below the Bridge Yard, and several others for private
Uses. But more particularly eminent on that Side of the
Water 18 the Bridge-Yard for landing sundry sorts of Mer-_
efaandises, but chiefly from the Ports of England.
OfJl^arfage and Lighterage.
- WHARFINGERS have several Managers over tbert*
aifd also a Committee to redress grievances, &c. and Clerks
of the Stations, with Lighter Managers, and have the letting
of many Warehouses,' Cellars, &c. they have the privilege
-alsoof keeping Lighters for the carriage of Goods to and
from Ships.
JVest^India D^cks,
THESE immense Works, situated at Blackwall, are in
tended to receive all The Ships that t^ade to the West-Iiidies.
The Northern Do^k for unloading inwards, covers a Space
of 30 Acres, and is capable of containing from 2 to 300
jShips. The smaller Dock contains an area of 24 Acres,
and is devoted solely to the business' of loading outwards.
The proprietors of these g^eat Works are styled the If^est"
Ikdia Dock Company. The Expenses have not been short
9f « Million of Money. To re-imburse thenwelves, they
lay a Tonnage of 6s. upon the burthen ^f every Ship which
• enters the Docks ; and for-Wharfage, Landing, A\ eighing.
Cooperage, Warehouse-i;oom, &c. they are entitled to ccr-
iain Rates upon all Goods that are discharged.
Thx Docks at Wapfimo ar« upon a still l^tger. Scale,.
KxA for more^neral purposes.
Of
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MENSURATION. 149
Of Husbands of Ships,
WHERE several, Persons are concerned in a Ship, tberi
19 usuHliy a Husbami chosen by them, to take an Account
of cv«ry Merchant's Goods. &*c. and pay the Wliarfage^
Lighterage, Porterage, tSfc, and these Husbands are to col-
lect every Mercfaant*8 proportion^ as also the Owners
Freight.
Of the MENSURATION of Planes and'SoMs.
THE several kioda of Measuring are three, viz.
\$t. Lineal, by some called Running Measure, and is ft»
ken t)y a line, and respects length without breadth ; tht
' paarts of which are,
12 Jlncbes 1 foot, 3 feet 1 yard, l6 feet and a half 1 rod^
pole, or perch.
All kinds of ornamental work, such as a Cornice^ Frlez9^
tec. are measured b^ Running Measure.
2dfy. Superficial or S<)uare Measure, is that which rispect#
length and breadth } and the parts are,
144 teches 1 foot, 7^ inches half a foot, 36 inches on»
quarter of a foot, 18 inches half a quarter of a foot, 272 feet
«nd a quarter 1 rod, 136 £eet haH a rod $ ITjgS inches, or 9
feet, one superficial, or square yard.
3dly. SoUdi cht Cube Measure, which respects lengtn,
breadth, and depth, or thickness ; and the parts are,
1728 Inches 1 foot, 121)6 inches three quarters of a foot,
^64 inches half % foot, 432 inches oxi^ quarter of a foot^
iind 27 feet oae solid yard.
Superpial Measure.
TO measure things that have length and breadth, sueli
•8 board, glass, pavement, wainscot, and land, is to take the
dimensions of the length tind breadth, according to the cus*
tomary methods used in each particular ; for instance, boarji
and glav are measured by die foot, the dimensions are takeii
. in feet^aod ijiohes, apd thecoateuts given in feet.
The dimensions of wainscoting ^nd paving, plastering, sinjL
paiotingj aretakea ia feet and iocW, wtdtht cgutentis givea
iRyardf.
GA or
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130 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
Of the Square and Superficial Contents or AretL,
The squaring of any number is multiplying it. into itself,
a!i 12 inches multiplied by 12 inches make 144 square inches.
The superficial content or area of any thing is found four
several wayr, viz. by whole Numbers, by Decimals, by Prac-
tice, and by Cross Multiplication \ 'in each of which me-
thods I shall give examples of operation.
A Rectangle hath its sides perpendipulai^, and tbose that
are opposite equal ^ but the adjacent sides are unequal .^
boards, wainscots, ceilings, windows, doors^ &c. are com*
monly of this figure.
When any thing is to be measured, it must be considered
what form or fashion it is of ; and then it must be mea-
sured according to the several Rules for each Figuie.
First. If it be a square or oblong, then the length and
breadth roust be multiplied one by the oth* r; which give*
the contents in square measure, and that Product must bo
divided by its proper. Divisor, according to the name in which
the content or area is to be given,
Ex. Admit.a board to be 12 inches broad, and 8 feet or
96 inches long> how many square or superficial feet doth iC
•oniaia? . '
L. 9ft
12
144)1152(8 Feet.
4152
(0)
Here the length in inches is midtrplied by the breadth
in inches, and the product 11 52 'divided by 144, the square
inches in a foot, quotes 8 feet square for the content ot the
board.
A Rule for Dispatch.
If the length of a board, or piece of glass, be given in
feet, and the breadth in inches,' multiply on« by the other,
(without any Reduction) andHivide the product by 12 j and
,the quotient will be the answer in feet, and the remainder
^ill be parts of a foot. So the foregoing Exan^ple might
have been done sooner by dividing 96 the length by 12 the
breadth, and it quotes 8 feet for the content, by the for-
»crway. ^ - ., ^^
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MENSURATION. 151
Ex. Suppose a board be 14 inches long, and 15 inches
broadj what is the content in iquare feet ? .
- 14 Feet long.
I 15 laches brOc.d.
I 12)210 Tlie Answer is 17 feet, and
^ Feet 17 y^^ or l h -^Jid so for any other
\ ^ *, - ■ ; ^. Example of this kind.
, ^^ Here 3 inches is the J of
' ^y ^"^^ a foot, wherefore ^ of 14
^^ in taken and added to 14,
■ 3 is j:3|orl • .^^^ -^ ^^^^^^ ^j ^^^^ ^^^ j
f Answer 17^ equal to ^,
Arfther Example worledfour different IFays,
If a Board be IQ f«et \, or 150 inches long, and 15 inches
broad^ bow many square feet doth it contain }
Vulgarly. Decimally.
\ Inches, 150 long. 12,5
15 broad. 1^25
750 "s^r
150 . 250
2250 125
Feet, I5fi25
144)2250(15 Feet Feet 15,625
144 12
810 Inches 7^500
702 4
Rem. 90 Quarters 2^000
Multiply by 12 Inch 1 Foot.
1 44)1080( 7 Inches.
1008
Rem. .72
Mu ltiply by .4 the Quarters in an Inch, '
144)288 (2 Quarters or |
288 '
G 4
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1« YOUNG MAN'S BB8T COMPANION.
By Cross Maltipliaition. ' By Practiea
Feet. In. , Fett. In.
12 6 12 6
1 3 1 3
12 6"
3 Inches is J ,3 i^
J5 7i
The four Diethods here tised are as follow : first, ly
tmiltiplying the inches together, and dividing by 144, kc
1 k-i second work is performed Decimally -, the third me-
Ihod is by Cross Multiplication 5 and the last and beat is bjr
Practice.
Any of thiese methods may be easily understood by th*
use of the Arithmetical part of this Book, except thd
metiiod by Cross Multiplication, which may be thus ex»
plained :
Ruie, Under the Multiplicand write the corresponding
Denomination of the Multiplier.— Multiply each Term io
the Muhiplcand, beginning at the lowest, by the Feet in
the Multiplier, write each Result under each respective
Term ; carry og an unit for every 12 from each lower
name to its next higher.
Note, Feet multiplied by feet give feet : — Feet mQlti|>lied
by inches giv9 inches: but inches naultiplied by inches give
seconds.
In the same way mutiply all the terms of the Multipli-
cand by the Inches in the Multiplier, writing the result of
each t^rm one place removed to the right hand of those in
the Mtrfriplicand. Do the same with the Seconds in the
Multiplier, getting the resuk of each term two places re-
moved to the right hand of those' in the Multiplicand.
"Thus in the Examples I say, once 6 is 6, arid once 12 Is
12; — ^then with the 3 inches I say, 3 timesQIs 18, that Is
6 and carry 1, (putting the ^ to the right hand of the lim
of inches) 3 times 12 are 36 and 1 are 37, but 37 idches
are 3 feet, 1 inch, which 1 put in tbeir proper places..
I now add the two rows together, which make' 1$ feet, J
inches, and 6 seconds.
• Jf a board be wider at one end than ' the otuer, then take
the breadth in the middle, or.add the measure of both endi
together, and take the hajf of the main breadth, which
»ultipJy by the length.
Examfh
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Sjp. 0oppoi0 a boaxd to be 120 inches long, and the ntr-
fewest end 10 inchM wide, the broadest end 34 inches videj
, %hat is its contents in superficial feet i
j^^ f S4bro«iesteDd.
**^ I 10 narrowest.
S um 44
fit tolf
is n the mednim tetween the leait tod ffjtmtmi^
;i20 the length feDgtb|»
144)2640(18 feet i Anm^r. 1%
144
Jtem. 4$
y4A)57^\ 4ittchet, «
^7^1 ipfdl»ot.
Or thus :
, Ffei. Jnches,
10 the length, equal 120 infcbei.
I 10 the meac breSidtb, or 22 ioctis
10 O
8 4
18 .4 Answ^.
If aboard or piece of glass be ever so irregular, it may
)>e measured very near, by taking the br^dth in five or sir
places, and adding the several breadths together, dividing »
the total by the number of places, and the quotient will bt
the main breadth ; which multiply by* the lengthy &c.
Having the breadth in inches of any board, or piece of
glass^ to know how much the lengtii of that board or piecu
ef glass will make a foot superficial.
Rule, Divide 144 by the inches in breadth/ and the quo«
lieDt will be the length ^f a board that will make a foot.
JEr, If one board be 9 inches broad, and another 24
Inches | what length of board will make each a superficial
ibot>
' 9)144^ a4)l44(§ ^wwfK.
^ 144'
Answer i6
flM mnK be i6 iocbcf loi¥» and the ofiier oxij 6:
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}54 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Pi oper Direclions for Joiners^ Painters^ G/azlerSs t^c.
Rooms being various in their forms^ take this general rule
in jail cases, vi%, /
Take a line, and apply one end of it to any corner of the
room I then measure the room, going into every comer
with th« line, till you come to the place where you first be-
gan ; then see how many feet and inchds the string cont^s,
and set it down for the compass or round ; ^then take the
height by the same method.
Glaziers are to take the depth and breadth of their work,
and multiply one by the other^ dividing by 144 3 glass being
measured a^ board*
Having ihos shown the methods of casting up dimensions,
I come now to particulars 3 and first of
Glaziers Work hy the Foot,
If the windows be square, or rectangular, multiply the
length by the breadth, which will produce the contents as
has already been shown, viz.
By Cross Mpltiplication. By Practice.
Feet. In. Feet. In.
8—9 high 8 — 9
. ^ y— 3 b road ^ 7 feet 3
61—3 61 — 3
g--2 3 3 inches J 2 — * 2 J
63— 5 3 63 — 5^ Answer.
Thus if the valae of a window be required whose height
is 8 feet 9 inches, and breadth ? feet 3 inches, at 20rf. per
foot square, I first find the numbev of feet in the window,
which in this case are 65 feet 5 inches, 3 seconds ; and to
avoid fractions I call this 65 feet 6 inches, or (55 | feet,
vhich 1 multiply by 20c?. for the value of each foot, and
divide bv 12 and by 20.
£0
I <-> ) 1 3 1 0,0 Here it is convenient to throw the
5^10,9. . 2 i into the decimal, 5, and work as
Ani*^^ J&. 5-— 9— -2 by the rule in dccinaals. • •
If the wiudows are arched, or havea curved form, no al-
lowance is made, by reason of. the extraordinary troutle,
and wii&te of time, expenses or waste of glass, &c. And
the dimension* taken frooi the highest part of tlie arch,
down
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MENSURATION. 15$
down to the bottcnn of the window^ from the height, or
lepgth J which muhiply by the breadth, and the product
will be the answer in feet, &c.
Glaziers are often so very nice as to take their dimensions,
and measure to a quarter of an inch.
Ex. How much does a window roeasnre whose height if
4— .3 J, and breadth 2— 7^; ? Perform by Practice.
4 Si long.
2 71 broad.
6 inches is ^ 8 —— 7
1 ^ is ^ of 6 inches 2 — ij
i'lsiofi i
14
The parts beyond the fraction of an inch are here omit-
ti»d 5 but the work may be performed with accuracy by Cross
Malti plication, or as it is usually called, by Duodecimals',
thus :
J'eet, 'In* Here we see the accurate an-
^ ^ 6 swer 5 for Cross Multiplication is
_7 9_ capable of being carried to thirds
and fourths : as inches multiplied
into inches give seconds, so Inches
by seconds giv« thirds, and se-
conds by seconds give fourths.
8 7
2 6
3,
2
7.-6
11 4
3
1 6
Glass is measured by the foot, and the
price of it is as fol-
lows, vh.
Newcastle crown, according to the size
S. d, f. d.
from
2 10 to 3 4
Sfcond, ditto •• ••
2 5 2 11
Green glass • • • • • .
. 16 18
Painters TFork ly the Yard.
When the wainscot of a room is painted you are to mea-
su e round the room with a line, as hinted before, and the
height is to be taken by girting a strmg over all the mould-
ings from the top of the cornice to the floor : then multiply
tiie compass by the height, and you have the contents
in feet and inches^ which may be reduced into square yardu
by dividing by 9.
Example
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«5« YOUNG MASafi BEST COMPANION.
Excaupk i.-^A room painted^
/><r/ In,
Being 45 — Sincompasi. W^at is the coatettU.iii
lO f. 6 hig h,- f^UDTtf jrardft ?
456 — 8
22 ~ 10
9)47 9—6
Yards 33 — 2—^ Anmver.
Example 2.^-'li the height effl foom painted be 12 feet
4 inches; and the compass 64 feet 11 inches} how p\my
•quare' yards does it cootain I Answer^ 116 yards 3 feet
3f inches.
jWrff . Double work is allow-
l^i In. ed in window shutters 3 sash
•M •^ iieompsfsfmnes afid xnabtfe- pieces are
12 -^ 4 high iKckoned separately unl^ the
M l. ■ «,^..^«^ iiMjitle^piecai itiand in the W8iii<*
1019 — O scot, in that case they are lack-
28 -^ 3;8 sured as plain work, nolhk>g t«-
pr'1047 •— 3^ ing deducted for ^he vacancies.
Yds, 116— 3 — 3>8~
Pi ice. of Painting In Common Colonfs,
V • $. d.
ClearcolB and once in oil . • •
vS. . . twice in oil . . ♦ .
I ■ three times in oil , , •
'Sash frails twice m oil, each • •
■ t hree times, each . .
——-Squares twice in oil, per dozen
Water trunk, gutters, &c. per foot running
(Iciniog, per ^ot running . • ' • . ' •
\ Joiners Work.
In wainscoting* the dimensions axe taken as m paiotwg»
. ¥«z. by measuring the height and then the compa«9 ; ipulti-
' plying oi>e into the otiier, and dividing tlie product bif 0;
ikte quotient is the answer in square yaicds«
^ £7. l.^-lVhat are the contenls of a fifce4»f wcuMPtiiC
^ fec%H»)che»]pi^^ and6£^i6 JMshts hceod ?
4
H
74
1
I
3
1
3
1- to 2«f.
i to 2<^.
IT.
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MSNSURA-nOK. isj
fit. £l The length aod breadth being uatdtiplied
9 — 3 together briagg it into sqo^i^ feet ; wbidi
r-^ — ^ divi Jed by 9. (i4ic »quare feet io a yard)
55 — 6 produces 6 yardtf two-thirds 6ar answer*
4— 7^^
9)6o— J i(d yd«. ^ feet Xf idche* answer.
54
£x, 2.— What aie the contents^f a wainscoted room
whose comp^ if 47 fetjt 3 inchei, and h«ight 7 feet fi
inches^ in square yards ? Ans, 39 yards i.
^ f>f^ /».
47 — ^3 compass
' 7—6 tbe Leight
330—9
23— 7 j *
9)354--4|
29 yds f or |,
MswerSg yds. 3'feet,4j in.
Prices of Joiners ff^ork, , I, $, g^
Slit deaVwrooght^ 2 sides pier foot O 05
J deal ditto O O 6
Inch deal diUo ..,■......, O O 8
li d^l ditto . . . . • O O gi"
l| deal ditto . . . . • O O 9
2 inch deal ditto « O Oil
4 deal boards for slating, per square 1 lO D
^ wrought weather-boarding ,..; 112 o
1^ wainscot ovolo sashes .^ . . . O ' O g
2 inch ditto , O O 10
1 J 2-pannel square door ••.....* q q g
l| 4 panjael ditto O OH
2 inch deal 6rpannel moulded 2 sides . . * I 3
1 1 square framed partition .••.,...,,, o O 6(
Lich deal keyed dado ./...•......., Qf o ra
"DgsH mouldings per fc>ot superficial ........... 1 3
Carpenters Wf^h.
Boofing;^ flooring, and paftit}oniBg> . the pimplpal f^SS^ <X
carpentery in mod^ buildup, 9j<e oaeasured by |^ fgniir^
af 10 kti each wajr^ Him ii UXK §^ffsmU^n
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158 YOUNG MAN** BEST COMPANION'.
For rooff^ing, multiply the depth and haif depth by 6\e
front, or tlfe front and half front by the depth, and you will
have the contents, if the roof is true pitch.
The dimensions are taken in feet and inches.
Ex. — How many squares are contained in a piece of work
measuring 199 feet 10 inches in length, and 10 feet 7 inches
in height? yins. 21 squares, 14 feet, 1 Of.
Operation. . Feet, It}. The divrsion is performed
199 — 10 long, by pointing off two places
10 — 7 towards the right hand,
- . "l(^^2 4 2nd the number on the left
.]ie — Q — 10 are squares.
^2,14 — 10 — 10 -^n. 21 squares, 14 f. lOin.
Agnxn.-^Tvi a floor of 49 fet 7 inches 4 parts long, aad
36 feet Q inches broad, ^how many squares ?
The Operaiion performed Ir/ Practice.
Fet't, In. Parts.
49 7: 4
,2^ .
^. , J1289 — 10 8
^ ^ 24^ 9 8
X3,i4— 8— ^^9 Ans. 13 squ. 14 feet, 8 in. i.
In me"iiburing rooting no deduction is made for sky -lights,,
chimney-shaf^, &c. " r- xi l i
In measuring flooring, from the contents of the whole
floor in feet, take i he contents of the vacancy for the stain
in/ftet,,and the rea3ainder is the true contents^ which
brin? into .«:qu.^res as before. . .
In partkioning, measure the doors, door-cases, and wm-
dows by themselves, ^nd deduct their contents out of the
, whole, except they are included by agreement, m that case
the doors, door-cases, and windows must be mentioned in
the written ngreement. - ti , 1 • .
There are various sorts of carpenters work belonging to a
building, viz. cornices, guttering, shelves, dreasers, &c. all
which are measured by superficial measure. There are also
doors and door-cases, lanferur lights with their ornaments,
cellar-doors, curbs, columns and pilasters, which are all va^
Jued by the piece, or superficial Hi^
Carpenters measure the frames rf any buildtng, (which
tbey calV the catcasi,) by the square of 10 superficial fliea-
•ure^ or 100 square feetv as hiated before-. .
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MENSURATION. I5f
Sdwijers Wbrlk,
It may not be improper here to add something relative
to the method used by sawyers in "measuring their work,
which when they perform by ihe<5reat, as they term it,
they most commonly measure by the superficial foot 5 so
that it is not difficult to take the dimensions j for they ac-
count the depth of the kerfs for the breadths, and the length
for the length. I'he dimensions being thus taken in feet\ the
contents of one superficia kerf may be found by multiplying
the length by the breadth^ then having found the number of
feet in otie. kerf, multiply it' by the number of kerfs of th4
tame dimensions, which gives the number of feet in them all.
. When they have thus cast up the whole contents of their
work in feet, they are paid for it by the 100 feet.
If the kerf be but six inches or less ii> depth, they hav»
1 custom to be paid for kerf and half, (as they express it,)
i. e. for half as much more as it comes to by measure j the
reason given for it is, that the trouble is so. mucli the more
on account of the often shifting, removing, and new binding
the timber, and therefore they insist on it as a customary
price.
The Prices of Sawyers Work, I, s, ct,
12 Feet De^ls sawed, per Dozen, cuts ...... 3 6
10 Feet do. do. * O 3 O
12 Feet battens do - . . O 2 4
10 Feet do. do O 2 9
Ends or half deals O 1 9
Fir timber, at pfr load, -50 feet-cube ....... O 6 6
{All extra cuts are charged at the rate of 35. 6d,
ppr 106 superficial feet
Oak timber pe/* load O 9 O
Elm, do. . do. .. , O 8 a.
Of If ailing.
Walling is measured by the rod statute- measure, being
272 feel and J superficial. The method of taking the di-
mensions for a wall round the orchard or tlie like, is by*
tneasuring the length by a line going over the buttresses :
-end for the height by measuring over the mouldings, (press-
ing the line into them,) even to the middle of the coping:
likewise in taking notice of the thickness of the wall, >. e,
liow many half bricks in length the wall is in thickness 5 for
three half bricks^ that is r brick in lengthy f nd one in
breadth^
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100 YOUNG MAlTsBISt COMPANION,
breadth, is standard thickness ; and all walls, whether mori^
or 1ms, must be. ^reduced to this . standard by this rule^ vix*
nmltiply the product of the length and height, bv the numiT
ber of half bricks that the wall U in thickness; which pro*
4uct being divided by 3, the quotient will be 272 (tbS ^
being generally negjecred,) and the quotient will be rodi^
^e bilck and half thick, standard measure.
JEr. — Admit the face of a' wall to measure 4085 feef, an^
Ibethickne^, two bricks andabal^ or 5 half brld^ tbicl|»
)ibw maiay tods dges it contain }
4085
£^
3)20425
262)()808)25 rod.
544
1368 rod.
8
When the work is wrought Decimally, divide by 273{^
«r 272,25, which gives the quotient somewhat less* But
the measuring of brick-work ma^" be shortened by haviac
tbe.rod of 16 feet | divided into 100 equal parts, wit^
which you take tbe dimensions, and length of the wall i|v
those rods ; and 100 parts multiplied by the height give thp
contents in rods of any wall that is a brick and half thick.
Deductionmustbe made for doors, windows, &c.
To reduce brick- work to st^dard-measure^ %?€, a bricts-
and a half thick. , ,
Brick,
I Subtract
2 Add ll
4i I Multiply by is 4
Redncei to a bnck and {
Example. -^i a garden wall be 254 feet roond^ I2.le«^
y inches high^ «Bd three tricki thick, bow floany rods da#
St€OD|aiQ^
9M
Digitized by CjOOQIC
' MENSURATION- . . lOi
fkei, 25\ O In, In this operation, thenggregate
12 7 or total is multiplied by 2, because
/«. 3048 twice 3 is 6, the number of half
6i 127 2 bricks; which reduces the work
^3 _ 2^ 2 to standard measllire^ as here shown,
iipe 2
2
272)639 2 4(a3> &C, .
, OfChsmmes,
This kind-of bnck-wcrk is ccunmoB^jr agreed for by th»
hearth, and sometioaes by the rod ; and tins method of
tailing dimensioDS thua : if the chimney stands not lean«
iog against^ or being in, a wall, and worked upriglxt over
the mantle-rtree to the next fioor^ it is g^rt about the breast
fer the length, and the height of the story Is taken for the
breadth, and the thickness of the jambs for the thickness.
But if the chimney stands against, or in a wall, which is
before measured with the rest of the building, then the
breadth of the breast or frontj^ together with tiie depth of
the two jambs, is the length / the height the story the
breadth, and thickness of the jatnbs the thicknes^. But if
the chimney stands m the corner of a room, and has 'n<k
jambs^ then the breadth of the breast is the breadth, the
beightof the story the length, and the thickness the thkk»
ness5 and for the shaft, it is commonly girt in the smallest
part for the length, and the thickness of )^\h sides for tha
thickness, in consideration of the widths, pargetting, 8caf«
folding, &c.
There is nothing to be deducted for the vacancy between
the hearth and the roantle-'tree, because of the width and
the thickening for the next hearth above.
Of Gable Ends.
Take half Abe perpendicular for the breadth ; the widtb.
of thef house for the length, or half the width of the hous©
for the breadth, and the perpendicu:ar for the length, which
brings the measure to au oblong, and the contents ar%
found by muliiplying the length by the breadth, 8cc.
Nvte. There are several other things in bricklayers. work,
aa cornice, facias, straight arches, scheme arches, hips an4
yaJlejrs ia tiling, aad water-counes :-»tt4Jsrhigh are niea-.
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162 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
iored by the foot. Also piers, pilasters, rustic work. Sec.
trhich are valued by the piece.
Prices of Bnchlayers Work, L s, d.
Brick- work, all grey stocks, in walling, &c./>er 1 ^ ^^
rod, including labour, materials, &c. J
Labour and morter only . . . - 4 10 O
Grey stocks, per thousand - .. .. 3 5 O
Plain liles, per thousand .. •• 2 10 O
Pantiles, per 100 .• .. "•• O 12 O
Bricklayer8,perday, froniMa. 25, toNov. Q, O 5 .O
Ditto do from Nov. g, to Ma. 25, O 4 O
Lflbourers, per day, frono Mardi 25, to Nov. 9, O 3 O
Ditto do frcm Nov. 9, to Mar. 25, O 2 9
Morter, per-hod . . . . . . O O 9
New plain tiling, per square, including all V 2 i(5 q
materials . - /
, . Of Paving.
Pavement for cellars, wash-hoases, &c. isL measured by
the square yard.
Exampk. If a cellar, wash-house, or court-yard be paved
with bricks, or pitched with pebble, being 9 yar4s 2 feiet
long, audfiyards 2 fiiet broad 5 how ma«y yards squaret
doth k contain-? Answer, 54 yards 1 and i feet, as ia tht,
following work, by Cross.Multiplication.
Ft. Yds.
9 a
6—2
58
6 ij-
4d H
Staling,
Is valued by the square of 100 feet, in some places by
the rod of 18 feet square : or 36 square yards, or 324 feet.
N. B. In tiling and slating, where there are gutters and
valleys, there is commonly an allowance, which is to take
tlie length of the roof all along the ridge, makii)g the gut-
ter double measure; this^is allowed in sonae places. Some-
times there is an addition for hollow ware, that is, ridge-
tiles, gutter- tiles, corner and .dor mar- tiles j and here
custom differ j for in some places one superficial foot i»
counted for every lineal foot or running measure ) then
100
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MENSURATION. l(5»
rOO feet lineal is reckoned a square. In other places> for
^very lOOofstich tiles is reckoned square.
Prices of Slating in London, 181Q,
Welch Slating, viz. /. s, d.
Common double Welch slating, />er square of 1 .
100 feet :. .. j 2 lO O
Ladies ditto . . . . . . 2 6 O
Countess ditto .. .. .. 2 2 O
Welch rags , . . . . . 3 10 O
Westmorland slating, with iron nails •. 3 l6 O
iJitto, with copper nails . . . . 3 10 O
Tavistock slating .. .. .• 2 l6 O
Labour and materials, ripping old slating, and 1 i 4 q
new laying com^plete, per square J
Plasterers Work,
Is of two kinds, viz. First, Work lathed and plastered,^
lometiroes called ceiling. Secondly, Plastering upon brick-
work, or between the quarters in partitioning, by some
called renderings both which are measured by the yard
square, as by the joiners and painters. In. taking dimen-
sions of a ceiling, if the room be wainscotled, consider how
i&r the cornice bears into the room, by putting up a stick
.perpendicular to the ceiling, close to the edge of tiie upper-
most part of the cornice; measuring the distance from the
perpendicular stjck to the wainscot, twice which distance
must be deducted from the length and breadth of the room
taken upon the floor, and^the remaining is the true length
and breadth of the ceiling," * As if a floor be 14 feet long
and 18 feet broad, and the cornice sho\.tsout 6 inches, de-
duct 1 foot for both ends, and the length of the ceiling is
23 feet; the same for the breadth, and it leaves 17 ^eet
broad; wtich multiplied together, gives the contents a*
391 feet; or 43 pards and a half, nearly thus:
Example.— 23 feet in lengtli.
17 feel broad.
4 feet.
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lU , YOGNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
If the ceiling of) a room be l^ibet 10 incbes cs»e. vrt^^
tnd IT feet 6 inches the other^ how mnnj nqmrr inrhilL
does it contain? ' ^
By Cross Multiplication, tb«s: j
19-^ — 10 ' 1
1? 6
337 2^
II
' 9)34^'-> 4( 38 yds. 5 ft. 1 !».
tfow^mmij yards square are in apiece of plastttrittg
Stei 4 iaclies 7 parts long> and 18 &et broad?
-F. /. Pis.
47-4-r
3 times 6^ ia 1/6
141— i—g
6
i
9)9>52 -JO--6 {94yda. g feet, 10 inches, Cpatts.
TAe Pricw. /. #.
Render! coat and sett, per yard .^., , O O
Ditto floated' ». o O
Lath plaster sett • • ' • . O 1
Ditto- floated ^, O 1
Wash, stop, irnd white •.• ^ ». O O
Straw colouring ♦* - *, Q f>
Lime whitening^ per yard , . O O
Wain cornice, ptr foot, superficial . . *0 1
Plasterer j^ per day . . . . O 4
Labourer pJ •• ». 3
Boy .. •• .. O 1
A bundle oflaths and nails •• 3
Lime and hair, per hod
Tine stuffy ditto
Of MoHmf Work.
Masons work consists of stonej, and is of two sorts, vix.
superficial and so^. Pavements and the face of stone
walls, houses, &c. are n)easo^ed as brick-work. If the
work have ornaments, as capitals, pilasters, rails, and bai-
Jiisters, &c. they are then valued^y the piece.
The Prices. s. I i
Portland stone, f^ foot cube ,. . •% 4 3 N
f Iain work;. super* ^^ - »• ^ ^^ \
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U 1 ^
e 3 8 J
o i ^A
^ MENSURATION. i6i
Sunk or moalded, eupcr. . . *. , ^ 1 I
Portland chimney pieces per foot gaper. * 1 lo
iPlre-stone, heartjis, and covering, per foot super ♦ i i
Vein marble chimney-pieces, set complete 6s,6(L 7 6
Porbeck paving in course, per foot super* 1 i
Ptirbeck steps, per foot running .. »♦ ^ ft
13 Inch York coping/ per foot running . . - 1 8
fork window sills, per foot running . , 13
Ubour and gravel, fo pebble pavliig, per yard O S
Clinker paving all materials <iitto 6 6^
New York paving, per foot ** , . 1 f
Did paving relaid, per foot , , , . 2
Sraithi work is done hj the 7^. viz. s. d.
phiraneybars, &c. .,. •. O 6
Ul frameil wOrk, as gates, 8cc. ., . . OS
ion bolts and nuts, &:c. , • . . 0.8
Sttt-iron rails, &c. per cwt. 148. to . . 18 O '
Prict<of Plumbers Work. L s. d
1 19 O
2 10
3 2.
• . 14
..025
3
2
10
4
h9et lead, per cwt.
lyiedlead
iBain pipes, per foot
ipitto, per foot
ifcints of solder
Joints
ii^'p« —
>lder per lb.
umber per day
Mem. Plumbers Tillow for old lead 45. per cwt. less than
e price of new cast lead; it is customary to deduct 2lb..
rcwt. for dirt,
tjand Measure,
Land is usually measured by the acr6. The dimetisront
i taken vyith a chain of four poles in length, which is di^
led into 100 parts, called Tinib, and 10 square chains make
acre. Let them be 10 in length, and 1 in breadth, or 5
length and 2 in breadth, &c. or l60 s quarepoles ; but to
d the conttntf , (if not regularly square,) it is generally di*
ed mto triangle : Thus a piece of land of 4 sides, (if not
i^ve,) may be divided into two triangles, pieces of 5 sidet
9 3, and A 6«8ided pie€« into 4 triangle^ aad so on.
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166 YOUNG -MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
To measure a Tridngle.
Admit the longest side of the following triangle,- wV
AD to be 76 poles; and the perpendicular or dotted line
B C to be 30 poles ; multiply 76 (the base) by 15, the half :
of the perpendicular B C, and it produces 1 140; or multl*!
ply the whole perpendicular by half the base, (or longest:
•ide,) it will produce the same ; which divided by I60, (the \
gquare poles in an acre,) the quotient gives the contents of ;
that piece of land in acres j multiply what remains by 4, di-.
Tiding by the same divisor, and it gives roods, &c.
The perpendicular is always drawn from the opposite angtejj
to the base, or longest tide, as in the following figure. )
Operation thus : 76 the base,
15 half the perpendicular. ,
16 I o; 114 1 0(7 acres ^J;^.
612
2
. AU pieces of land generally should be divided into trp
iingles, and when measured their contents added together.
If an oblong plot of ground contains 35 poles broad, ani
T65 poles I ng, how many acres does it contain ?
Rule. Multiply the length in poles by the breadth, dkI3
ing the product by 160, (the square poleis in an acre,).anl
the quotient will be the answer in acres, as follows.
185 the length.
35 the breadth.
^^ The cdnteiUs 40 acrt
160)6475(40 acre*. and 75 poles; or nearly
640 ^ ^cre« and a half.
'^7ii ' ^ ■ •
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MENSURATION. - id?
By the Four Pole Chain.
Example \, If a pole of ground contains l6 chains anil
^5 links in bread(b> and 57 chains and 30 links in lengthy
what are the contents tliereof ?
Ch. Link.
57,30 lepglh.
16,25 breadth,
28650
114(50
34« 30
A730
Ac. 93 j 1 1250 cut of 5 places.
4
No roods ,45000
40
Poles 11 j 00000 93 a. Or. 18 p. Ans.
Four roods or rods make I acre, 40 poles 1 rood or roJ;,
so that one rood or rod is a quarter of an acre.
The chnin, commonly called Gunter*8 chain, contains 4
statute poles in 100 links, so that any number of chains are
no more than so many 100 links, as 4 ciiainsare 400 links,
and 6 chains 600 links, &c^ l60 statute poles are an acre,
each pole being lOfeet and au half 5 therefoie, in a square
chain there are 16 sqoare poles ; and if you divide I60, the
square poles in an acre, by 1 6, the square poles in a chain,
the quotient is lO, the square chains in an acre.
A «quare diain contains 10,000 square links (or .100
multiplied by 100) hence it loUows that 1 acre contains
100,000 square 1 nks.
7'o redvce the Statute to jpustomary Measvre.
-According to a statute made in the 33d of Ediv. I. and
mother in the 25th of Q. Elizabeth, a statute pole is 16
feet and a half long, but in some parts of England poles of
18, others of 21, and some* of 24 feet lon<;, are used, call-
ed customary measure, being in use according to the custom
of the place where they are takes. Therefore to turn one
kind of measure into another, adndit statute measure to be
t'lrned into customary, as thus : multiply the number of
acres, roods, and poles, statute-measure, by the square half
yards, or square half fieet in a square pole of statute mea-
sure, dividing the product by the square half yards, or
square half ieet coBtained in the pole of the customarj
measure.
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i69 YOUNG MAN** BE8TCOMPANION.
nieasi re, and die qaotieat gives the answer in the latter* la
acres, &c.
Example. In 172 acres statute-measure, how manyacm
9il8 feet to tlie pole or perch"?
172 stairfle-measnre.
121 square half yards
144 )20812( 144 acres /^\ customary measure.
In a statute pole are 11 half yards, which squared, make
121 square half yards j and in a square pole of 18 iteX, or
' 6' yards, tljereare 144 square half yards, &c,' For the re-
mainder, work as before, vi%, by multiplymg by 4|^c.
and the next remainder by 40, &c. So that the answer is,
that 172 acres, statute- measure, make 144 acres, 2 roods^
and 4 poles of such customary measure.
An Example to the contrary.
In 548 customary acres of 18 feet to the pole, how mai^
«»rei of* statute-measure, of 16 feet anda half to the pole ?
-548 Customary.
144 Square half Yards in customary aeries
2173
543
121)78192(6^ ^^te«crei.
725
55, &C.
The remainder 26 Multiplied by 4 produces 104, whtdi
aot amounting to a food should, be mujtiplied by 40, the
product is 4160 : this divided by 121 quotes 31 perches,
40 remaining: So that 543 customary acres, of 11 feet to
the pole, make 646 acres 34 poles, and -^ of a pole,
Note» Customary acres, as well as statute acres, contain
160 squafb poles or perches; the excess of aize ia by th*
tizeof the pole.
Solid Measure^
Is that of timber, stone, digging, 3ec. and the role io
workmg is to multiply the length taken in inches> and tha
breadth together, and the product by the depth or thickness^
and the last product will be the contents in cubic inches,
which, if timber or stone, divide by 1728, (the cubic
inches in a solid foot) and the quotient gives the con ten ta 14^
9 solid foot
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]1aa (hii at tJw aid eC . Mfafuiing.
\
l^|r>««_« I
J'^.I.
— ~-U'
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MENSURATfON. i6§
Example, If a tree be 18 feet loilg, and 18 inchei squar«>
iiow many solid feet does it contain }
324 192 length in inches.
324 breadth and thickness,
384
576
1738)62208(3^ feet.
103(>8
G .
Sofid Measure.
40 feet of round ) . . , . ^ , -
50 of ile^vn ^ timber is atonor loaa
172s inches is a foot of stone or timber.
27 tti€t is a yard,
282 inches is a gallon of ale or beer.
231 inches is a gallon of wine.
In anoblon? piece of timber, whose breadth is 2,25 feet,
thickness 1,64 feet, and length 3j6,5 feet, how irriany solid'
feet:? .
. ^,25 breadth;
1,64 t ^nckness.
900 . V " '
1350 1
225 ' .
30900 •
30,5 le ngth.
184500
221400 .
110700
134,68500 Ans. 134,685 >?olid feet, or 134, f nearly.
Of limler Measure.
To know the cdntents of a piece of timber by common
or decimal arithmetic, observe as follows, vl%* I'he free
being girted, and one-foulth part taken for the side of tbf
square, multiply the length .of the side of the square in
inches into itself, and that pfoduct by the length in feet ;
which product divide by 144; bttt if you multiply by the
H len^tk
Digitized by CjOOQIC
170 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
length in inches, then your divisor nmstbe 1728, and if 'any
thing remains, divide by 12, and the -quotient will l^e tbt
odd inches.
£r. If a piece of timber be 15 feet long, and a quarter of
the girt 42 inches 5 what are the contents of that piece }
Thus : 42 inches in the side of the square.
42
J 764
■ 15 feet in length.
F, I.
144)26460(183-9 Answer.
^ 144
1206
1152
540
432
108
12
' 144) 1296(9 inches.
1296
In this example 1764 is multiplied by 15 in one line j bill
it may be worked shorter by decimals, tlms :
Squared \ ^'^ ^^^^ "^^ ®^ ^^^ square 42 Inches.'
f 3,5
105
12,25 ^^^e product are feet.
15 %t the" length,
183,75 the contents, or 183 feet, yV^9 <^ 1^
* ■ feet 9 inches.
l5ut this common way of taking I of the circumferenci
for the side of th^ square, wbiali is equal to the contents fli
the circle in round timber is erroneous, and gives the solidi^
somewhat less than the true contents 5 for the true way i
to multiply half th^ diameter into half the cilrcunifereivc^
and then multiply that product by the length, which ffin^
by 1728, and the quotient is the contents. If you canoOl
measure th^ end of the piece, you may* kno'^ its djaaaefiBl
by this proportion,^via;, as 22 is to 7, so is the circoODifcreBCl
x>f the diameter*
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•w
* MENStJRATfON. 17
Or you may find the side of 2821 ,
a square or a rdund piece of Inch. 6d the compasu
timber, thus : fntiltiply ^2821 '^ \miQ
by the inches of the circanr 100^6
ference^ and cut ofF4«fi^es Vd^JB/^ ^ /^c^io f« j^'
on the right hand for the , :^m^^ A nS\%^\.\ix.
product
Having the breadth 24 inches, and depth 18, ofapiec
©f timber or atone, to know how much in length will mak
a solid foot, rauhiply one* with the other, and let the pro
liuct be the divisor to 1728rthu»
24 broad.
18 thick.
24 ^ ^ .
432) 1728 (4 inches in length. .
1/28
Thus you ftiay make a table t6 serve * all breadths an<
^pths, by which much labour may be saved, and yet mea*
sure any piece of timber with accuracy.
In square timber yOu must make the indies squared \
divisor tQ 1728, and the quotient will be the' answer ia
inches of length, that will make a foot solid.
Ex. If a piece of timber be 8 inches square, what length
>fit will make a foot?
64)1728(27 Answer, 27 inches, or 2 feet 3
128 inches in length,
44S
441
(0) Here the square of 8 is 64, &c.
Again, if a piece be 18 inches square^ what length will
make a foot ? Answ. 5 inches and oine third.
The Square of 18 is 324(1728(5^^-4 equal to^one third.
,1620.
TT08)
The usual way of tapering timber is by taking the dimen-
sions in the middle, and mul.tiply\ng by the length ; which
is not accurate j but 'if thfe dimensions are taken in several
places, and properly worked, the contents tliuf found Vill
\% very near the truth.
H 2 Disstn^
■■ ' ■ - Dfgitized by Google
ly^ YOUNG MAN's BEST COMPANIOlf .
Digging,
la mcawired by .£be solid yard^f 2? feet , that i«, 3 times
^ is 9, and 3 times 9 is 27, by ^bicb are measured vaults or
cellars, clay for bricks, &c. Other things are measured by
the^oorof 324 solid feet.
Ex. If a vault or cellar be 9 feet deep, 4 feet i loag,
;>rod 3 feet j9 inches broad, what is its contents in solid
yards^
'FeeLH long
9 deep.
40?
3 F . broad
121 i
€ inches \ ^Oj
3 is i of « 10|
27)151^(5 Vards, 16 Feet J
135
JBx. 2 How many yards of digging xvill there be ki •
fault that is 25 f. 4 long, 15 f, 8 broad, and 7 f. i deep ?
Fi. In.
25—4
15»-8
386—0
396-
)6-10— 8
7^ _
2778- 2—8
98^ — 4
. \ Yd. ft. m.
27)2976-8—0(110—6—8
2W
' 6
Ans wer llOYds. 6 ft. 8 inches.
Ex.6. In a mote 648 feet long, 24 feet bYoad, and 9 feci
d^p, how many floors ?
C4$
d by Google . 1
MENSURATIOIt j?^
648 long.
24 b road..
2592
1296
15552
9
JUvide by 324 (139968( 432 floors. Answer,
(O)
Most^ solid bodies being generally painted, it is nece^r
»ary to know how to obtain the superficies. To- find th«
■uperficial contents of a square, or many-sided, or round
pillar, multiply the sura of tlie sides or circumference by th«
lieight in feety and the product divided by 9 will be sqpam
yards*
Of a Globe.
Multiply the circumference in feefe by itself, and the*:
~ the. product by. this decimal 0,0353678, and this last pro-
duct will be the contents in yards.
To find the superficial conttsnts cX a pyramid or cone,
(see plate fig. 7 and 8)' multiply for the pyramid, half the
sum of the sides, or for the cone half the circumference of
-;the base, by the slant height in feet; and the product di»
\ided by 9 will be square yards.
If the pyramid or cone be not complete, that is, if part
of the top be wanting, add together the eircumferences at
top and bottom, and half their sum being multiplied by the
slant height will be the superficial contents.
Note. A solid square yard of clay will make about 7 or
800 bricks: 3 bags (or bushels) and half of lime, and half
a load of sand will lay 1000 bricks*
500 bricks ").
1000 plain tile* >make a load.
25 bags 1 cwt. of lime. J
It may be proper here as well for refreshing the memory/
as for improving the undefstandir^ and storing the min4
with just notions and ideas of measuring, to give a short re-
petitidn by demonstrative geometrical figures, to explakk.
what has been before expressed.
And 1st for Planimetry, or superficial, ox fiat measure^.
loma parts pf which are measured by the square foot ; as
H ^ boards^.
Pigitized by CjOOQ IC
74 , YOUNG MAN^s BEST COMPANION.
coords, gliJss, marble, freestone, and pavpments. The dt-
nensions ore taken in feet and iiaches, and the contents .
dven in square feet. , , t. j
Ex. 1. In an oblon?, or long square, whether board,
rlass, or pavement, &c. and containing on the longest side
for lenglh) 24 feet and a half, and the shortest ^.ide or
:)readth, 14 feet i, as in the following. figure. Work a»
follows, viz. -^ .
F. 241
Area or contents
349 f- 125.
14,25 br^adtb. . .
24,5 l engths '
7125
570?
2850
319,135
Rule. Multiply the lengtli .by. the bcejad^bi SB^^,cn\ qf(,9B,
m^y plapea tq.lhe, rigjit han^ as there are depni.ajs.ili^the
length r.nd br^adt^.
Ex. 2. Suppose a board or. piece of glass, in th^ f%tn o£
fig. I plate, called a Rhomboid, that is in the shape, of a
common pane of glass, or diamond . square. To measiire
whicji let fall a perpendicular at B, aj^d mulliply by the
lengthof any of the sides (for, they are all eqQal) anji cut
off as maay places to tlie right hand as therp 'are deqimal^*
place* in both multiplicand. and multiplier, as berpr.e.hin^jd^
Suppose the perpendicular height, to be 8 feet 38 parts, and
the length of the side to.be 8, feet 52 parts, the4 thew'ork^
will be as under. .
Here the multiplication is as In whole
njimbers, and the contents or, answer
ifil foTimd to. b^ yi square, feet, and
8,5^
8,38
2556
6m6
fWA o^* a. ^oot^ or. something more
tbgi; 4.inches |.
3970 is separated by a comma, a$. above dir^t§d, aaft
are 90 many 10>DQO part* of a foot.
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MKlNbUKAilUiN. 175
Ex. 3. Again, suppose a feolid body be in the form of
Hg. 2, called a, Rhomboid ; its length C. D, 17 feet 25
parts^ and its breadth A. B. 8 feet 58 parts".
/ F.,P, The forementioned figure
17>25 length. hath its opposite sides equal,'
8>58 breadth. * and its opposite vangles a*
13800 ^*^6- ^
8025. . !
13800 .
148,0050 Answer y the contents are 148 feet;
Again, suppose a board, piece of glass, pavement, or piece
•f land, to represent, or be in the form of a triangle, or
three-cornered figure, expressed as in figure 3. Every tri-
ax^e.is half an oblpng, wh<?8e. length and breadth are equal
Uk the perp^di9ular»^^d ba^e.
The dotted line is the perpendicular, the bottom line the
base,. 9nd. ^he lineirom the.topof the perpendicular A to the
left angle of the base C, is called the hypotheneuse. If A 3
be 10 fept, andQ D.be Id feet> the superficies of the tri.
angle will be 80 feet. ,
Fig. 4. is called a trapezium, and consists of 4 sides : this
figure, before it can be measured, must be divided into two
triangles, thus : viz, by a line drawn from one angle or
corner, to the angle opposite. to^i^, ^ in the figure. — ^Tbe
line A B is called the dia^nal, ... ^
Rule. Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the' two
perpendiculars falling upon it, from the- opposite angles, and
the product will be );he aiea. - .4
uEa^. 4i Snppds^ tbertliaijsnsions of the trapezium before dc-
icrlbed to be,, >ii.-the diag^^i 4 Jt>4^ Fv:^r5 tjiebpe pecy
pewdknlar I)) z VI F.<^Q„,^iijJ the qther C xfl b. 68,Ja8 iij
fig. 5.) what are its contents? ...... , > ;, .-
T^ht Operation,
One perpendicular 12,50 1 ^j
The other - .. , - 9,68 j*^"
The sum is 22,18
The half sum is 1 1 ,09 which
multiply by the whole base 1^,67
produces 184,8703
which is 184 feet, and t^Wjt '^^ » ^ot^ eqcal to 16
inches and a half.
H4 U
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170 YOUNG M AN;s BEST COMPANION.
If two sides of a trapezium are parallel, equi-distant,
add I hern together, and half the sum multiplied by the
nearest distance, or a perpendicular between those two sides,
gives the contents, d- measure in the middle between
two sides or lines of equal length, and the answer wiir be
the same.
The painting, plastering, &c* of irregular pieces, in
forms of inanities or not, if divided as above, may be
measured as before j and brought into yards (if the con-
tents are to be so given) by dividing by Q, as befox«
fhown.
Of Regular Figures. - '
Figures having more than 4 sides are called polygons, and
those that have their sides and angles equal are called regu,<^
kr polygons.
Regular figwres have their names from the number of
their sides j thus a figure having
3"
f Triii on, or equihiteral triangle.
4
1 etragon, or square.
5
Pentagon.
6
Hexagon,
7
Equal sides, is^^ Heptagon.
* called a Octagon.
e
9
Nonagon. ^
lO
! Decagon.
1 Undecagon.
11
12 J L Dodecagon.
The area of a pentagon may be found by multiplying
the square of its side by the number 1,7204774. Thus if
the side of a pentagon be 1 1 feet, then the square thereof
wi.l be 11 times 11, or^^l feet.
Multiply 1,7204774
by 121
17244774
34409548
17204774
?08,1777654
Therefore the area of a pentagon will be upwards of 20S
square feet.
. In like manner, to find the area of the
Trigoa-
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Trigon,
Tetragon, .
Hexagon,
Heptagon^
Octagon,
Nonagon,
Decagon,
Undecagon,
Dodecagon,
r
i/y
Multiply the
^Square .of the«^
Side by
0,433012r
1,0000000
2,5900762
3,6339124
4,8284271
0,1818212
7,6942088
9,3656404
11,1961524
Note. The Multipliers in this Table are the Areas of thr
Poiygona to which they belong, when the Side is Unity or'
One. See Bonny castle's Mensuration, 2d. £d.t. p. 55, wberf
the demonstration is given at length.
Of a Circle. (FiguregJ
A Circle is contained under one line cal'ed the Circoni-'
ference or Periphery • as JBC. Plate Fig- 9. AU right
tines drawn from the centre £, to the circumference, ar#
equal, and called Radii, or half Diameters: And the lonj;
line through the centre from A io C\^ the Diameter.
To divide* a Circle into 6 equal parts extend the Compas*
ses to half the Diameter, as from A to the centre E, and
the extent applied to the Circumference will divide it inta
those f arts.
TheDtameter i^C^ divides the Circle into two equal parts,
each of which is called a Semicircle; and if a Semicircle be
divided into two ^quai parts, those parts are called Quad-
rants.
The Questions relating to the measuring of the CiroI#
indit& parts may be solved as hoUopws : >
1. The Diameter being given to find the Circumference* -
Jiute, Multiply the Number 3,141597, by the Diameter,
and the Product will be the Circiiaisference. iVo/e. The
Number 3,l4l6 will be exact enough in most Cases.
Example, The Diameterof a Circle being* 11 Inches^
what js its Circumference ? ,.
3,1410.
11 _ .
3,1416
a,14l6
Answer 345576 or something more Ihan 341 Inches.
H 5 2: T%
Digitized by CjOOQIC
2. To find tbtj A/ea of a given Diameter.
Rule. Multiply the Number 0,78539182 (or in commoit
eases 0,7854) by the Square of the Diameter, apd the Pro-
duct will be the Area.
Ex. \yhat is th^ Area of that Circle whose Diameter is
11 Incheis? 11 tiAaes 11 is 121 0,7854 ' -
121
7854
15708
7854
jfttstver^ 95,0334 Sqqa^e luch^^.
3. To find the Diameter of agiven Circutp/er^Q<:Q.
Rule. Multiply the Number 0,318^099 (or in commoa
0,318ai) by the Circumference, and the Product will be the
Diamieter.
Example. Wh»t is the Diameter of a Circle wh^se cir-
toafereqcc is 34 J Inches, or ^4,5
0,31831 '
34,5
159J55
127334
9459
/ns^er, 10,981695 (or alinp?^t) 11 Inches.
4. To find the Area ofa given Circumference.
"^^i; J^l^^P^y ^^^ Number o,07<>5775 (or in common,
0,0790) by the Square of the Circumference, the Product
will be the Area. ^ -
Example. What is the Area of a Circle whose Circum-
forence is 34 J Inches ?
^4,5 ;il90>2^
34.5 _ - 0,0796
■1725 "714150
1380 1074^W
1X)35 8^3175
1190,25 u^w^fWT 94,743900 (or almost 95.) sq. la.
5.The Area ofa Circle being given> tp.find its Diameter.
Rule, Multiply the square Root of the Area by the Num*
fcer 1,12837, and the Product will be the Diameter.
Xx^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
JXIJBfrv tSU-Ei; A X i^-rx^*-
Example. What is the Diameter of a Circle whose Ar«it
is 95,0334 square Inches* ?
, 95.0334)9,75 nearly- 1,12837
8.1 , 9,75
187) ^^3 564185
. \3Q^ 789859
1945)9434
1015533
.9725 11,001(>075
~- Answer, The Diaragter is 1 1 Inchcf .
6. To find the Circumference of an Acre of a Circle.
Rule. Multiply the Square Root of the Area by the Num-
ber 3,5449, the Product will be the Circumference.
Ex. What is the Circumference of a Circle whose Area
IS 95,0334 square Inches ? The Square Root of
95^334)9,75 3,5449
as before. ^ ' 9,75
■ ■' > * 177245 "^
248143
31904I ^
4,562775,
7
jins. Circumference .something: more than 34^ lit.
7 To measure the Sector of a Circle. (See Figure 10.) •
Case. I. If the length of the. Arc D E, aad the Semi-
rfiameter C JS be giveji, multiply the length of the Arc by
« the Semidiameter ; and the Product will be the Area.
Case 2. If the number of Degrees contained in the Arc
and the Semidiameter be given, multiply the Square of the
Semidiameter by the number of Degrees contained in the
Arc, and that Product by the Nuniber, 0,0087267, and the
result will be the Area required. .'
•Eupample. Let the Arc consist of QO Degrees, or i of the
Circumference, and the Semidiameter be 3|.
"* 3,5 / 12,25 * . . 0,0087207
' 3,5 ' 90 . 1102 5
175 1102,50 436335
105 * . . 174534
Wt ' "" .87^^670 -
1^^^ . 8.7267
9,6211867 5
» Problems relating to the ^vare Root shoaldbe deferred till af-
te^ tjie Reader l»f» proceeded to tk»t subject hereafter treated of.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
180 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Of Solid Measure.
SOLID or Cube Measure has been already defined, a*
well as superficial Measure, some of the Figures of which
are numbered 6, 7, and 8.
To measure a Solid In form of a Cube, which is in length,
breadth, and thickness equal, multiply these into themselves;
and the last Product will give the Solidity or Contents. A
Cube has six Sides, and is in Shape like a. 'Die.
jEt. What is the Solidity of a Cube whose Side is 12
Inches? 12 ,
12
1728 the Solid Inches in a solid Foot.
To measure a solid of unequal length, breadth, and thick-
ness, miiltiply the 4ength by the breadth, and the product
by the height -, the last product will be the Solidity,
Em, What is the Solidity of a block of marble whos*
length is 10 feet j breadth 5|-, ^nd depth 3 J feet ?
By Cross Mult. By Deciamls. By Practice.
5 (t. 9 In. 5,75 5 9
3 6 3,5 3
■ — "^ 6 is 4- ■
17 3 2875 '17 3 ,
2 — 10—6 17^5 2 — 10-^
'20- 1—6 20,125 20 1—6
10 10 10
201 3-^0 ^^ >^ the SoJ. 201 3— Q
The Cone is measured by finding the superficial Inches
9t the bottom or Base thereof; multiplied by one third of
the Inches in length, and that Product is the solid Quantity
in Inches -, which divided by 172S, the Quotient gives the
Answer in solid feet.
Example of finding the Soli(}ity of the Cone Decimally
without dividing by I728.
Let the Diameter of the Base be 2 Feet 6 Inches, and
^e Altitude 10 Feet 6 Inches. The Area of a Circle is the
Square of the Base muUiplied bjr ^7854.
2,5 th«
Digitized by CjOOQIC
MENSURATION. 18^
2,5the Diameter.
2.5
4^908750 Area of the Base*
3,5 Or third of ihcf
24543750 Height.
14720250
17,1800250 == The solidit/ ia
feet.
4375
4,908755
- This MetliocJ will serve for taperitog titnb^r, or for anf
Conical Figures.
To measure a Pyramid.
Multiply the Area or the Base or Bottom by one third of
the perpendicular height, and the last Product will be the
coMentsin solid feet : or one third part of the Area at th«
Base, multipjied by the whole Altitude,- gives tbecontenta
adso.
Examples of both Ways.
Suppose a square Pyramid (or figure resembling the spire
of a Steeple) the side of whose base is 4* feet, the perpendi-
cular height 18 feet, what are its ^olid contents ?
4,5 6,75 i of 20,250 the Area at the Base.
4,5 18 The whole Height.
"225 5400
180 __ i575
20,25 "~121,50 Answer, 121,50 as^ before.
^} of the Altitude..
1 2 1 ,50 Answer 121 Feet, and ^Vy <>»* h
When one Side of a Base is longer than the other, as sup-'
pose one to be 2F. 4^ and the other 1 F,i, then multiply tto
length of the Fase by the breadth, and that Product by thft
height as before.
If the Base be a Polygon find its Area by the Rule given
in page 168 ; multiplying it by -J of its height.
To measure the Frustum, or Segment, i, e. apiece or pari of a
Pyra mid whose Ends are similar regular Polygons,
Rule. To the Areas of the two Ends of the Frustrura add
the Square Root of their Product, and this Sum being mul*
tiplied hf^ of the Height willgive its Sdidity.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
loi -i^vi^i^vyiviAiNBuiiSi COMPANION.
To measure ttie Trustrum or Segment of a Cone.
Rule. Divide the Difference of the Cubes of the Diame-r
tersoftheiwo Ends by the Difference of the Diameters,
and this Quotient being tnuliipUed hyj7S54, and again by
i of the Height, will give the Solidity^
Ex: What is the SoFidity of tlie Frustrom of a Cone, the
Diameter of the greater End beiftg four Feet, and that of
tbe lesser End tvs^o Feet 5 and the Height nine Feet ?
4 • 2 -
J 2
J* J
Cube of 4. 64 Cube of 2. 8 -
Difference"^ ^
of the > 2) 56 Difference of Cubes of the Diameters,
diameters. J ^8 iVo/e. Multiply by 28.
,7854 ',...>
()2832
I57O8
21,9912
3 one third of the Cone's height.
Of Gauging.
THERE is some kind of Affinity between the Art of
Measuring Timber, and that of Gauging or Measuring Li-
quors ; both being performed by cube or solid Measure. For
as often as there is found 1728 solid or cubic Inches in a
piece of Timber, (of whatever form,) it is said to contain so
many solid feet ; so likewise in Gauging ; so xnany times
as 282 (the sdlid inches In a Beer or Ale Gallon) are found
-rn any vessel of such Liquor, that Vessel is said to hold so
many Gallons 5 so of Wine 5 only in thatthe Divisor alters,
it being '234 solid or Cubic Inches, insleiad of 282.
The Gal. of Dry Measure contains 272|: cubical Inches.
Every cubical Foot in Beer Qr-Ale-measure contains 6
Gallon^ and almost a Pint * ,
*• ""' The same in Wine Measure is 7 Qallons, and almost 2
Quarts; - .
*. A cubical Foot of Dry Measure contains 6 Gallons and
fomewhat above one third of a GalloDv
■>■'•■ Ullactcs
Digitized by CjOOQIC
MENSURATION. 18^
- 141 Inches make 2 Quarts of Beer or Ale, 76 Inches |',
one duart, and 35 Inches ^; a Pint.
Note. To find the Contents of any Vessel, as a Box, that
^3 the form of a Cube, that is, a Figure whose 'breadth,
depth, and length, are equal, and is well represented' by the
ll^ape of a pie. , / . . . . j
Multiply the Side into itself, and then again that Product
by the Side 5 which la^t Product, if for Beer or AIe> divide
by 282, the Inches in a Beer or Ale-G»llon y and for Wine,
Brandy, &c. by 231, the Inches contained in a Wine-
Gallon.
Ex. In a Cube, whose Side is 79 Inches, find the solid
contents in Beer and Wine-Gatlons. Answ, 1748 if | Beer
or Ale-Gallons, or 2134 ^^ Wine-Gall. ^
'79 282)493039(1748 Beer or Ale Gall.
' '79 282 • ' '
711^
21 10
231)493C
553
1974
462
0241
1363
310
79
1128
231
56l()9
2359
793
43687
2256
693
493039 Cube In. 103
1009
09 4.
85
To find the contents of a Parallelopipedon, or SpHd Fi-.
. gure, contained under six sides, of which the opposite are
parallel, and of the form of Figure 12th.
Rule. Multiply the length by the breadth, aiid that Pro-
duct by the depth ^ and then divide by 282 for Beer or Ale,
and 231 for Wine,
Er. If the l^ng^h of a Chest be gb Inches, the breadth
62 Inches^ and the depth 23 Inches, what is its contents iii
Bier and Wine Gallons ?
' Q5 Length.
62 Breadth 282)135470(480 \\% Beer-GalloDS,
190 .
570
5890
^ Dcpth23l)l25470(586 4H Wine-Gal,
17670 *' ' ' *^
1178O .
135470 solid Inchei .
Digitized by CjOOQIC
184 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
To gauge a Buck or Stfuare Tun,
Example, If im length be 112 Ihches, its breadth 72
Inches, and" its depth 48 Inches, what are the contents ia
•oridlncbes, and also the contents in Beer Gallons ?
112 Length 282)38072(1372 f|| Galls> Ans^.
72 Breadth. 2 82 .« .
22.4 1050
784 846
8064 2047
_ 48 Depth* 1974
64512 732-
32256 564
387172 solid Inches. ( I68)
To bring these Gallons into Barrels, divide them by 36^
the Gallons in a Bnrrel of Beer :
thusj 35)1372(38 Answer. 38 Barrels and ^^
108 or i of a Barrel : and the Re-
2Q2 mainder 168, is^ something m6r«
288 than hal£ a Gallon.
14)
How tor gauge a Copper, Tul, or Cask',
If it be of equal size bolh at top and bottom, find its con*-
tents in Cube inches, and bring it into Gallons as before..
But if it be wider at top than at bottom, or the contraiy,
then take jtlie Width or Diameter somewhat above the mid-
dle, next to the broadebt end, if it be taper j or find the
mean Diameter thus; itthe Bung Diameter be 26 incjies,.
and the Head Diameter be 23 inches* the difference between
which is 3 inches, two thirds of which make two inches;
this added to the smaller of the two Diameters makes 25 fbr
the mean Diameter sought. Having the mean Diameter^
proceed to find the contents in solid Inches, thus : square,
the mean Drameteo aiid multiply that square by 0^7854, and
the Product will give the Contents of the Liquor at one
Inch deep, and this multiplied by the length wilLgive the
- solid Inches in either Qopper, Tub, or Cask.
Er. Suppose the mean Diameter to be 72 inches^ and the
l«Dgth 56 iDclies :-
?4
Digitized by CjOOQIC
MENSURATION. la*.
72 4071,5130
72 56
144 244290816
504 20357568Q
5184 square. 28004,7'oid
,7854 ' '
20736
25920
41472
362.8
4071,5136 Contents at one Inch dte^.
The solid Inches as above found, 228004, brought inta-
Gallons, make 808, and 148 solid Inches remain, something
more than 22 ^*a Gallon 5 in all 22 Barrels, l6i Gallons
of Beer. Again 5
If the mean d'aineter of a cask of wine be 14 inches, th^
IfrBgth 72 inches, what is its contents in wine-gallons I
,7854
106
47124
70686
7854
153,9384
72
3078708
10775688
431)11803,5048(47, J
924;
1843
1617 Answer 48 Gal. nearlfw
2265
2079
1866
&c.
The contents o^ a Spheroid may be found by multiplying
the Square of the shortest Diameter by the longest Diame-
ter, and dividing by 538 for Beer-Gallons, and by 441 for
Wine-Gallons.
Ex, If a Spheroid in its shortest Diameter be 74 Inches,
and the longest 125 Inches, what is its contents in Beer and
Wine- Gallons^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
§86 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMFANIOJN, ,
74
_7i
290
518
54 76 the square of the shortest Diameter.
125 the longest Diameter. - .
27380*
*" 6.5712
538)084500(1272 14 J Gallons of Beef.
441)684500(1552 /jV Gallons of Wine.
To find the Contents of a Frustram of a Spheroid takt
twice the square of the Bong Diameter, and once the Square
of the Head, and multiply the same by the length : Thea
for Beer divide by IO77 3 and for Wino Gallons, divide by
882.
£r. In a Cask whose Bung Diaipeter h 23 Inches^ Head
Diameter 21 Incbet, and :L^g£b IfJ liiches,, what are tbt^
Contents in Beer and Wine gallons ?
23 > 21
-23 21
529 Sp- Bung. Diaro. 441 Sq. Head. Diam
2_ ,— :•' -
7058
441
1499 , '/ ^
27 Length.
•32)40473(45 iff 1077)40473(37 ASV
• 3528 ^— B231
5193 8163
4410 7539
■"783 ^ 624
Answ, 46 Wine Gallons nearly; and something more
than 37i Beer Gallons.
The Extraction of the Square and Cube Jioot, of great Use
in Measuring; OafUging, Of v.
Of the 'Square Root. "
Ut. 'A Square Number arises from the Multiplication
«f a Numbw into itself, the Number so miiitiplied being
. . callcq
Digitized by VjOOQIC
EXtRACTION OF ROOTS. IS?
Bed tbe Root; fhus 4 mnltiplied by 4 produces l6, for l6
■ 'gqaare Number, and 4 is the Root thereof; so also 4
the square of 2, for twice 2 is 4; aud 9 is the Root of
, for g times 9 is 81, &c.
illy. To extract the square Root of any Number, is to find
other Number, which multiplied into itself produces the
imber given j and after the Root is found, such a Multi-
cation is a proofof the work.
3dh/. Square Numbers are either single or compound.
4ihlif, All the single square Numbers, with their rcspec-
Roots, are contained in the following Table, viz,
•is h I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 I g i 7 I 8 ]~
^re.s\i I 4 I o I 16 1,2^ I 36 I 49 | 64 | 81
Sthly. When the Square Root of any Number less thaa
pis required^ and that Npmber is not expressed in tho
ifgoiflg. Table^ then take the Root of that Square Num-
in the Table which is the least nearest to the given
mber. Thtis if the Square Root of 50 be required, then
49 is the nearest Square Number in the Table, its Ro©t
will be the Root of the given Number, nearly.
6^A///« A fcomjpound square 'NumbeV is that which is pro«^
ped by a Number consisting ©f more places than 1, multi»
td by Itself, and is never less than IQOj so 709 is a com-
nnd square Number, produced by the multiplying 27 into
rff, an4 96J is the square of 31.
yUilif. Tbe Root of any Number under 100 may be easly
lown by the foregoing Table of single squares j but to ex-
ict the BfxJt of a compound Number of several places,
serve the following directions :
\Ex. To find the square Root of the Number 457g6.
i 1. Set a point over'lhe place of the Units thus, 45796,
p f-o successively 6ver evei-y second Figure towards tb#
K hand, as thus 45796 5 aqd thus, 45Jg6, But in De-
bals you must point from the place of Utiits toward tbe
^ht liand. omitting one place, as above j and if the
hces of Decimals are odd, put a cipher toward the right
^id of them to make them even. The Number thus
lepared, draw a crooked Line on the right of the Num-
►r, as in Division 3 (and, indeed, tbe operation of the
pare Root , not rnuch unlike Divisien, only there the
hrisor is fixed/ but in the Square Root we are to find a'
^w Divisor for feach Operation.) Having made a crooked
Lino
d by Google
168 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Line tlras^ 45796 (, seek in the foregoing Table for tbc
nearest sqaare to the first point on the left band, here h/L
the Root of which 16 2, whtdi Root place on the right ban
of the crooked Line, and set its square 4 aoder the said poinl
asundee:.
4579^' (2
4
(0)
Then subtract it> and O remains : To the Remainder^ brioi
dowa the n«&t point 57,. thus : ^
• 45796* ]
t 4
057__ J
Which call the Resolvend ; then doable tlie Root of ^e M^
pointy and place it on the left hand of the Resolvend, thos r
4579^' (2^
4
Q57^ ~
Cair the 4 the doubte of the Root 2, thus placed on the h
hand of the crooked Line, the Divisor, and seek how (
ten 4, . the Divisor, can be taken in 5, the first Ftgor^
^ Reso vend 57 (for vou are to omit the last Figure -fl
vards the right hand) which here is once, place 1 (
the right of the Root 2« and also to the- right of the Dil
sor^ tbll8^
45796 {H
4 '^
40)057
Then multiply the Divisor (now 41) by the Figure
placed in the Root, viz. 1^ place it under the Resolve
and subtract it theiefrom^ ....
45796(21
4
41)057
41
16
Then bring down the next pbtnt, vi3&% g6, and pla
on the right of the remainder 16, for a new Re
Qt Dividend : next double, the Quotient, or part of
Digitized by CjOOQIC
EXTRACTION OP ROOTS. I89
Jt, viz. 21, and place it for a new Divisor to the new
KolveodJdgO, thus-:
45796 (21
4
41) 057
j41
42) 1696
ben iry how often 42 be in 1G9, (still reserving or otmt-
»g the Ui)it. Figure of the ResoJvend or Dividend as afore-
id) and it will be found 4 times, which 4 place to the
aotient and in the Divisor^ ai)d proceeding as before, the
^ork will apj>eai; thus-:
45796 (214 Root.
4
A\) 037 Resolvend.
41
, 424) I6g6 Resolvend.
1690 Product.
(0)"~
In this last Operation 4 is placed in the Root, and like-
te in the Divisor 42, which makes the new Divisor 424,
tlie Resolvend 169(5 5 this Divisor ranltiplied by 4, the
}ure placed in the Root, produces l696j equal with the
vidend or Resolvend aforesaid, as in the Operation,
berefore the square Root of 45796, is 2J4; fop214 mul-
Med into itself produces 4579^* the Number whose square
mi was sought.
Example 2.
It is the square Root of 12299049 (35(^ the Root.
9
lstDivisor65) 329 Resolvend.
325 Product.
2d Divisor 700) 49O Resolvend.
fcre it is evident 49 cannot be divided by yO, of coorseput
bwD an in the Di^sor, and also in the Root> ai)d bring
bwn the next point.
I 3d Divisor 7007) 49049 Resolvend.
4 9649 Product.
fyampte
Digitized byVjOOQlC
190 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION*
Example 3, performed Decimally.
166,0000009(12,(549 RooL
1
lit Divisor 22) 000
44
, ad Divisor 246) 1000
1476
3d Divisor 2524)" 12400
100g (>,
4th Divisor 25289) 230400
2276OI
2799 .
When the Divisor cannot be had in (he Resolrend^ ti^
r p^ace a ciper in the Quotioot, and also on tbe right of I
i)ivisor, bringing down the next square, &c. as in the
cond Example.
If any Remainder happen after extraction, proceed by
Hexing pairs of ciphers to the right of the given.Nui
kad then come to what Exactness you please
Such Numbers given for Extraction that leave Remd
ders, are by some called Irrationals, because their Roots c
not be oKactly discovered, but still there will something
main, though you work by whole Numbers 'or Fractici
As ill the Example above, where tbe Remainder is 27
Ji'or here you may proceed for ever and not come to an
act Root, because no Figure 'raultipiied into itself 1
giveO. > '
The Extracdon of the Cube Root. j
TO extract the Cube Root of any number is to find
Other number, ^hen multiplied by itself, and that
duct by the number found, produces the number givea
Extraction
, . All single Cube.Numbers, Avith their respective Root»,
contained in the. following Table :
Moots.
Square,
1 I 2 L3.j:4. I 5 1 ^ \ 7i~^ i^
\ 4 I i9 I 16] 25 ['36^1 49 t ^ r -
( 8 [ 2f 104 t 125 I 216 | 343 f 512 { j
d by Google
BXTRACTION OP ROOTS. . 191
1st. To prepare any Number for Extraction, make a point
•ver Unity, and so successively over every third Figure to-
wards the left hand i a Integers, missing two bet we^ri each
point; but in Decimals point from the place of Units to the
right hand, &c.
Ex. Extract the Cube Root o£4Q656, prepared as abovo
directed^
, thus: 46656 '*.
Here are but two points^ therefore the Root will have but
two places. ^
2(//y. The Number being prepared, find in the foregoing
. Table the nearest Root to the first point or period 40,
which you will find lo be 3, which place in the Quotient
thus, 46656(3', the Cube whereof is 27> which place un-
• der your first period 46*» as in th^ Margin .j sub#- 4/5556/a
tract it from 46, and .there remains 19. 5 this is ^^ ^
your first Work, and no more tt^ be repeated. ~-L
Then to the Kemainder 19 bring down the next ^^
period, vi2. 656 (which is the last) and place it on the right
of the Remainder 19. - . .
. 4665(5(3
.J9^ Resolvend.
Then draw a Li tie under the Resolvend 5 next square the
b placed in the Quotient, which makes 9 -, which multi*
plied by 300 makes 2700 for a Divisor> which place accord-
ingly thus : i
46656(3
27_ ^
2700) 19^5 ^
Then try how often 2 may' be found in I9, which is only
6 times; because of the Increase that comes from the Cluoti-
ent, and place 6 in the Quotient : then multiply the Divisor
byd, and the .product will be 1^200; which place orderly
under the Resolvend thug; > «
46650(36.
V V_
2700)^9656
1600
Then proceed to find the Increase coming from th©
Ckuotient thus : Square your last Figure 6, and it makes 36;
Digitized by Vj»^*JV IC
tg2 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
which miiUiplied by three, the other Figure of the Quotient,
gires 108 ; which multiplied by 30 makes 3240. This place
aUo orderly under the last number set down, viz. 16200, and
the Work will appear thus;
46555 (36
27 :
2;oo) 19656
16200
3240
"Then cube the Figure last placed in the Quotient, viz. ft,
«nd it makes 21 6 j which place orderly likewise under the
Line 3240 ; add the three Lines together, and they make
19656 ; which is equal to the Hesolvend above, viz. 19656,
and there being no more periods to bring down, the Work
IS finished, and the Cube Root of 46656 will be found to
be 36.
This will appear to be right if the Root 36 be ipultiplied
by 36, and that product again by36> for then the Result
vill be 46656 as under.
36
36
108
1296
36
777^
38S8
46656 proof
Having separated the given Number into periods, and
from the first period subsn acted the greatest Cube it con-
tains, put the R»)ot as the Quotient, and to the Remainder
bring dpwo the next period for a Dividend.
Find a Divisor by multiplying the Sqiiareof the Root by
300 ^ try how often it is contained in the Dividend, the An-
swer is the next Figure in the Root.
Multiply the Divisor by tlie last Figure in the Root.
Multiply all the Figures in the Root by 30 except the!asti
and the product by the Square of the last. Cube the last
Figure in the Root. Add these three bst found Numberi
together, and subtract tbeir Sum from the Dividend : to the
Remainder bring down the next period, proceeding as before.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
EXTRACTION OF ROOTS, IQZ
To Extract the Cube Root of 523 1 3^24.
3
3
52313623(374 Root-
27 .
9
300
25313
23653
2700
7
1660624
1660624
I89OO
4410=3X30X49
343=7X 7X7
23^53
37 X 37X300=410700 Divisor.
1^42800
1776O:
64:
=37x30x
= 4tX 4X 4.
1660634
* Let the Reader try his Skill by answering the follcnrin^
Questions.
What is the Cube Root of 380017 ? Ans. 73'.
What is the Cube Root of 5735339 ? Ans. 179- .
. What is the Cube Root of 3246J 75g ?
What is the Cube Root of ,846045 19?
Uses of the Square and Cuhe-RooL
1 . To find a mean Proportional between two Numlert,
Rule. THE Square Root of the Product of the given
Numbers is the mean Proportional sougJht, so the mean Pro-
portional between 16 and 64, will be 32, for I6 multiplied
by 64 produces 1024, and the Square of 32 is also 1024.
This is the use in finding the side of a Square equal to an^
Parallelogram, Rhomb, Rhomboid, Triangle, or Regular
Polygon.
^. To find the' Side of a Square e^uaito the Area ofagive»
Superficies,
Rule. The Square Root of the contents of any given Sii»
pcriicies is the Side of the Square. So if tiie Content of g
. given Circle be 16O, the side of the Square equal will bt
1^>649, &c
5. The Ar^a rf a Circle Idng given, tofind thf Dia*
meter. See Page 178.
I The
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194 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
6, The ^rea of a Circle leing given, to Jind the Circwn*
ftrence. See Page 179.
Any two Sides of a Right-angled Triangle being given, f
Jind the third Side.
This depends upon a mathematical Proposition, in which
it is proved that the Square of the Hypotenuse, or longest
Side of a Right-angled Triangle, is equal to tlie Sam of the
Squares of the Base and Perpendicular, that is, of the other
two Sides,
1 . Let the Base or Ground B A, Fig. 1 3, represent the
Breadth of a Moat or JDilch, and the Perpendicular, BC. tha
Height of a Castle, Tosver, or Wall 5 and the Hypotenusd
A C. the Length of a scaling ladder.
f In this Figure the Base A B is supposed to contain 40
Yards; and the Perpendicular, or Height of the Tower or
Wall 30 Yards ; what Length will the Hypotenuse AC, or
Scaling Ladder be ?
Rule. The Square Root of the sum of the squares of th«
Base and Perpendicular is the Length of the Hypotenuse,
thas:
1600 the Square of the Base 40..
900 the Square of the Perpendicular30.
^eSum 2500 (50 Yards the Root or Length of tlie Scaling
25 Ladder.
Jo) ' .
2. If the Length of tbeBase or Breadth of the ditch be re-
quired, then the Square Root of the Difference of the Squares
of the Hypotenuse and Perpendicular is the lengtlr of ilii
base^ or breadth of the ditch or moat, thus :
2500 the Square of the Hypotenuse .^^C'.
900 t he Square of the Perpend. BC
' The Differ. I6c6(46 Yards the Root or Breadth of the
16 Ditch.
loT ' .
3. If tjie Height of a Tower or Perpcndiailar B were re-
quired, then the Square Root of the Difference of the
Squares of the Hypotenuse and Base is the height of tb«
JPerpendicular J3(7^ thus:
2500. §00 (30 Yards,
gck) ^
, , ^ • Digitized by Google
EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. fgs
^,Any Number of Men being given to be formed into «
Square Battalion, tojind the Number oj Rank and File.
Mute, The square Root of the Number of Men given will,
be the Number of Men to be placed in Rank and File.
'Example, If an Army of 32400 Men be formed into a
square Battalion, the square Root of 32400 will be found to
be 180^ and so many Men must be placed in Rank and
File.
8. To find the Side of a Square, Polygon, or the Diameter
afa Circle, which shall be to any other give/i Square, similar
Polygon, or Circle, in a given Proportion,
bule. Since similar surfaces are to each other in a dupli*
Ciite proportion of their like sides, therefore.
As the given Circle, Square or Polygon,^
Js to the required Circle, Square or Polygon ;
So is the Square of the Diameter, or Side of the fir^t.
To the Square of the Diameter, or Side of the second.
Then the Square Root of the Result of the above Propor-
tion will be the Diameter or Side required.
Ex. 1. In a Circle whose Diameter is 11, what will the
IWamfeter of that Circle be whose Area is four limes tfe»
Ana thereof?
Here 11 tiroes 11 is 121 : and
As 1 '. 4-- 121
484 (22 the Answer,
4
48)84^
• 84
Ex. 2. In two simflar Polygons, whose Areas are as (•
25. and the Side of the smaller is 12 Yards, what is the
Side of the larger ?
Here 19 Times 12 is 144 j artd
MQ 25 144
25
- - 720
288
9) 3600
400 (20 the Answer.
4
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196 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
9. The Uses of the Cube Root are to find the JOimenmns ^
fff similar Solids, as Globes, Cylinders, Cubes, ^c.
Rule, Since similar Solids are to- each other as the Cubes
of the like Sides or Diameters : therefore.
As the^Content o^ Weight of a given Solid,
I Js to the Content or Weight, of another like Solid ;
So is the Cube of the Side, or Diameter, of the one.
To the Cube of the Side, or Diameter, of the other.
Then the Cube Root of the Result will be the Length of
the Side or Diameter required.
Ex, 1. If a Ball weighs J2lbs. and is 6 Inches in Diame-
ter, what will be tfie diameter of a ball that weighs p/^s.
Here the Cube of 8 is 512 j and
As 72 9 512
9
72) 4608 (()4
432
288
286
' Then the Cube Root of 6'4, vi%. 4, is the Diameter re^
quired* ^ ^
Et, 2. If a Ship of 100 Ton<« be 44 Feet long at the Keel,
of what Length must the Keel of a Ship be that carries 220
Tons ?
Say as 100 is to 200, so is the Cube of 44, viz, 85 181 , to
187-^10 1,85 whose Cube Root is 57,226, the Lengi'h of the
Keel sought.
Ex. 3. A Cubical Vessel has its side 12 Inches, and it Is
required to find the Side of a Vessel tliat holds three times
as much. Here the Cube of 12" is J 728, vAixch
multiplied by '• < _— -^ ■ 3
Produces ■ — 5184
the Cube Root of which is l7,3d6 the Answer required/ or
Side sought. - * ,
An easy Rtile to find the Length of the Mast of a Ship.
The Mast always bears a certain Proportion to the BreadUi
of the Ship^' whaiover be the Breadth of the Vessel multi-
ply it by 12, and divide the Product by 5, which gives the
Length of the MaiTi-mast. Thus a Ship 30 Feet broad, in
the widest part, will have a Mast y% Fett long. And a Ship
40 Feet broad will have a M^t 96 Feet high, for 40 X 15U=
400, ^d 480 divided by 5<giyes gQ,
- - . Digitized by CjOOQIC
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS: i pjr
Tojind the thickness of Masts.
The Tliickness of Masts are estimated by allowing one
Inch for every three Feet in Length 5 . accordingly a Mast
Serenty-.twb Feet long must be Twenty-four Inches in Di-
ameter.
^OME USEFUL GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
At a given Point near the Middle of a Right Line, to necl
a Perpendicular,
Let C D (Fig. 14.) be the Linegiven j to have a Perpen-
dicular erected on it from the Point B, with the Compasses
(opened at a convenient distance*) place one Foot at the
point £, and with the other make the two marks E and F,
on each Side of JB, and at eqvial Distance from it ; then,
with the same, or any other Distanace in the Compasses, set
one Point on E, and with the other describe the Arc G G;
which being done, without altering the Compasses, set ono
Foot at F, and with the other describe the Arc H H,
crossing the former at the Point J -, through whkh In-
tersection with a Ruler draw a Line from j4 to B, which
will be^perpendiculartothe Line CD,
To rake a Perpendicular at or near the end of a Line.
This is effected several Ways -, but I shall instance only
two, which are very easy.
1st, Suppose the Line A B (Fig. 15.) be given to raise a
Perpendicblar near the End, A,
First open your Compasses to a convenient Distance, andset
• one Footoitthe Point A : and with theother describe the Atq
FE D 5 then with one Foot of the Compasses in D, (iheybe^*
ing kept to the sh me Distance) cross the Arc in E ; and then^'L^
setting one Foot in £, witlv the other m.ike the Arc A F<r, ^
crossing the first Arc in F. Again set one Foot in F, and
with the of her describe the small Arc H H, crossing the
former in the Point 6^; so the Line^ C being drawn, will
be the perpendlcjalar required.
2d. Let£ be the given point on which to draw the Per-
pendicular B L Open the Compasses to any convenient
Distance \ and setting one Foot on the Point B, pitch down
the other Foot at random, as suppose at Ky then the Foot
. resting in K, turn the other about till it cross the Line A B /
in L} then draw the Line i^X, and continne the same be-
yond JT, setting off the same distanced L, (al which the
Compasses already siand) from iT to ilf, soaLine drawn
from B, though ^/'will be the perpendicular required.
! ' 13 ti
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198 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANlOSf*
3. How to divide a Righl Line into two equal Parts.
^ Suppose the Line -r^ B (Fig, l6 ) be given to be divided
into two equal Parts, Take in the Compasses any Distance
above half the I.ength.of ^ B, and setting one Foot on the
Points, whh the other draw the Arc FDE; then (with the
Compasses unaltered) set one Foot in B, and with the other
cross the former Arc both above and be!ow the Line, in the
Points F and G, then a Line drawn from. F to G shall inter*
sect, oi* cut the given Line in if, and divide the Line A B
into equal Parts, A H aud D B,
4. A Line being given, how to draw another Line parallel
thereto, at any Distance required, or through any Poini
assigned.
Of parallel Lines there are two Sorts,' viz. Straight of
Circular, Arid all Circles drawn on the same Centre, whe-
ther greater or less one than the other, are said to be parallel
or concentric, that is, having one common Centre.
Iti this Figure the Circle A B CD (Fig. IJ.yis concentric
or parallel to the Circles E FG H, because both of them are
drawn from ihe same Centre. The Line^ C is the Diame-
ter of the greater Circle, and the Line E G of the lesser Circle.
And all right Lines drawn from the Centre to either of ti)«
Circumferences, pre equal with respect to their Periphery f
and such lines arecaHed half Diameters, and sometimes the
Radios of the Circle, and will divide the Circle into six equal
Parts, each containing 60 Degrees, and the whole Circlt '
360 ; into which all the great Circles of the Sphere are-sup-
posed to be divided.
Of Parallel Right Lines.
Righl-rmed Parallels are Lines drawn on a Plane of equal
length and distance; and though infinitely extended will
never meet, and in all Parts retain an equal dist^uce as uc-
dtu'ueath.
B —C
C D
To draw a Right Line parallel to another Right Line at a
Distance given,
- Take in your Compasses the given Distance G H (Fig. 18.).
then setting one Foot in jE, draw the Arc IK ; ^then moving
to F, describe the Arc L M ; then laying a Ruler on ijie Top
ofthe two Arcs, just touching them, draw, the Line NO,
Which will be parallel to the given Line E F,
5, Throtigh
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GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. jttg
5. Through any three Points (not in a straight Line) to de-^
scribe a Circle,
: Let the Points given be J, B, and C, (Fig. \g.) through
vhich it 'is required that a Circle be drawn First, set ore
foot of the Compasses in one of the given Points, as suppose
in /i, and extend the other Foot to B, another of the Points,
and draw the Arc of a Circle G FD ; then (the Compasses
- not altered) set one Foot in By and with the other cross th^
.said Arc with twosmall Arcs, in the Points Z)and £; and
draw the Line D E, Thirdly, set one Foot in C (the Com*
passes -being at the same distance) and with the other Foot
cross the first Arc G F D in the Points Pand G, and draw
the Line F G, crossing the Line D E innbe Point O, which
is the Centre sought for ; in which, place one Foot of the
Compasses, and describe the Circle at the distance O A , au4
/it will pass through all the given Points A, B, and C.
Another Method. Join the three Points, and bisect any
two Sides of the Triangle, and on the Points of Bisection
erect Perpendiculars crossing eoch other, and the Point of
Intersection is the Centre of the Circle sought.
Hew to make the Line of Chords geometricaUif to any aS"
signed Length or Radius*
As in the Art of Dialling frequent use is made of the Line^
•f Chords, it is proper here to show the making thereof. • . ^
A Line of Chords is 90 Degrees of the Arc of a Circle
transferred from the Li nth of the Circle/ to a straight Line ;
now every Circle, whether great or small, is divided (or sup-
posed to be divided) into 360 equal Parts, called Degrees 3 so
the Semi-cfrcle contains 1 80 ; the Quadrant or Quaiter 90, •
and the Radius or Semi-diameter (which is that Line with
which the Circle or Semi-circle is drawn or described) is al«
ways equal to 60 Degrees of that Circle which it describes,
and therefore 60 Degrees of a Line.
7^0 make the Line of Chords,
First draw a Line to any Length, CBD (Fig. 20.) and
on the Middle thereof erect ^he Perpendicular-^ B; next
open your Compasses to the Radius or Length that you '
would have your Line of Chords be, which admh A B, and
with that distance on B as the Centre, describe or draw the
Semi^cirde € A D, which is divided into twoeqaal Parti'
14 or
d by Google
ICD YOUNG MAK^s BEST COMPANrON.
or Quadrants bj the Perpeadicular Line A B ; thirdl7> di-
vide the Arc on Quadrant A Z), into 9 equal Parts, each of
"which will be 10 Degrees, according as the Num.bers are
geen and set apart to them. The Quadrant'^ D, being
thus divided into Paris of 10 Degrees each, set one. Foot of
the Compasses in D, and open the Foot to 90 and describe
the Arc 90 A, touching the L*me-6', D, in j4,so is the Point
A upon the right Line CD the Chord of '^8 Degrees.
Q^f6n the Compasses from' 2) to 80 Degrees, and describe
the Arc 80 ^ ; so shall the point b be the Chord of 80 Deg.
Open the Compasses from D to yo, describe the Arc 70 c,-
the Chord of 70 Degrees, and sp of the rest, and then you
. will have the Line D A divided into g Unequal Parts, called
Chords, as in Figure 20,' and if the Quadrant be large
enough, each of the Parts may be subdivided into ten others,
in the same manner, and then you have the Chords for 90
Degrees.
,Thus much for the Line of Chords, frequently made use
of in dialling, where there is not the Convenience of having
a Mathematical Instrument Maker near at Hand.
JNote. A Degrre is the SdOtk Part of the Globe, or of any
Circle, and eaek Degree is supposed io be divided into 6Q
Paris, called Minutes ; so that 46 Minutes is three Quar*
• , ters of a Degree, and 30 Minutes half a Degree, and 15
Minutes one 'Quarter (f a Degree.
Instrumental Arithmetic,
As ail Problems or Questions in Measurenmit, &c. art
solved or answered arithmetically by the Pen, so are they
instruinentally taken by the Compasses, from certain Lioes^
to. of Rules made for that Purpose, for the help of those
tltat are deficient in Arithmetic, or for a quicker Dispatch of
Business ; and such Performances are called Instrumental
Arithmetic; and of these Instruments, the most in use are
the three following: 1. The carpente/s Plain Rule: 2.^
Guntef^lAue : 3. Coggeshall'sSVi^iogtiwk^
' Description and Use of the Carpenter's Plaiu Rule.
This Rule is made use of in measuring 'Roads and Tim-
ber, being two Feet in Length, and divided into tweaty-
ibur Parts or Inches, and every one of thoie Parts 01
Inches
d by Google
INSTRtfMENTAL ARITHMETIC.
201
mches subdivided into half inches, and each of these halvct
into quarters, and each quarter into two parts ; so that every
inch is divided into eight parts, anil the whole length into
lp2 parts. —
As this rule is well known, it is not necessary to repre-
sent it J ^t, however, for the better understanding it, I
shall give one thus :
Under^board measure
'thus described:
l\2\3\4\5\6\ 1
7
12|^|4|3|8 12|
.
|o 1 &| o|o f o|
This line begins at 6, and goes on to 36, within 4 inchds
of the rule on the right hand. Its use as follows :
In.
If a board b«<
dp,
2
3
4
5,
16
Feet:
12
6
4
3
2
2
In.
O
O
O
O
4
P
Ph.
o
o
5
O
^ in length make a
^ foot square.
By this table it will be easily understood that a board of
4 inches requires 3 feet in length to make a foot square, and
a piece of 3 inches broad will require 4 feet in length to
make a square, &c. '
At the other end of the rule is a table called Under-tini-
ber Measure j and described thu* :
• 1
2 1 3
4 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 8 1
144
36 1 16
9|5|4| 2 |2|
1 0|9.|0| a |3h
This line begins at 8 J, going ou by divisions to 36.
SI
^ In length mak^
In. Square.
2
In a piece of
timber of
Feet.
144,
36,
9>
5,
4,
2, 11
2, 13
a solid foot
So that if a piece of timber be six inches squ^c> four StH
m length of such piece will make a solid foot.
15 It
Digitized by CjOOQIC
202 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
It is a common method with carpenters to add the brea<!tli
' and thickness of a piece of timber in irxhes ttgether, and
call the half thereof the side of the square of tluit piece y
bin this method gives the contents more than it 153 and
the greater the difference the larger the error. But the
true square may be found in Gunter'g Line, thus : plac»
one point of the compasses -upon the Jine at th^^ thickness,,
and the other at the breadth ^ then hatf of that extent will
reach, from either the breadth or thickness, to ^be side
of the true square in mches.
_ - 2. Gunter*s Line,
This Line is commonly set on the carpenters plain rule,
and consists of two lines, numbered 1, 2,"3, &c. one set at
the end of tbe other, and it is somewhat of the following
form :
Gunterss Line,
To prove th& line by the bom passes observe
hat the
fl to 2l is equal to r2\oA'\
Distance ^4 to 10 > the distances 4 to 8 >&c.
from (5(0 83 from. LstodJ
To Number on Gunters*s Line.
Observe, that the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
B, 9, sometimes signify themselves simply, or
alone 5 at other times 10, 20', 30, 40, &c»
Again, at other times 100, 200, 300, or 1000,.
To, find a Number on the Line, as suppose 134.
For the figure 1, account 1 on the line j and
for 3, take 3 of the largest divisipns ; and for 4,
take 4 of the smaller divisions ; and that is tbe
point : Again, to find 7^0 on tbe jine, for 7 take
7 on the line ; for 50 take 5 of the great divi-
sions, and that is the point.
To find a small Number on the Line, as
suppose 12.
For 10, take 1 as before, and for 2 take 2 of
the larger divisions, and^that is the point.
In measuring boards or timber it is best to
bave a line of two feet long, and compasses one
foot long.
Note,
.J ;
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mSTRUMBNTAL ARITHMETIC. 20g:
tJoie. — Let the measurement be by the inch, foot, jard,
pole, rod, &c. it 19 best to have it decimally divided, or so
supposed, that is, into 10th parts.
Note also. That if one point of the compasses reach be-
yond the line in the work, remove the other point to the
■ame figure or place on the other line.
Multiplication hy Gunter*8 Line.
To mnltiply 5 by 7> set one foot of the compasses on it
IB the left- hand line, and extend the other to 5 upwards^
or toward the right hand, and with the same extent place
one foot in T, and the other foot will fail on 35 in the rights
baud line, which is the answer.'
Division in Gunter's Line.
Example 1 . Divide 63 by 3 ; extend from 3 to 8 down-
wards, or towards the left hand, and the extent will reach
the same way from 63 to 21, the quotient.
N.B. /« multiplying you must always extend upwards,
that is, from 1 , to 2,3, 4, &c. and on the contrary y in divide
ing extend dowmuards.
Example 2. Divide 288/. equally among 16 men : ex-
tend from 1-6 to 1 downwards ; and that extent will reaqh
the same way, from 288/. to 18/. for each man.
Again :
Example, Suppose 750/. were to be divided among 25
men, extend from 25 to 1 downwards : and that extent will
reach the same way, from 750/. so 30/. each man's share.
Rule of Three direct.
Example 1. If 5 bushels of barley cost 11 shillings, what
will 40 bushels cost ^ Extend from 5 to 1 1 up\Vards $ and
that extent will reach the same way, from 40 to 88, the
Bfaillings required.
Example 2. If three ells of Holland cost 10s. 6c?. what
will 40 ells cost ? Extend from 3 t6 10^ upwards, and that
extent the same way will reach from 40* to 140s. the
answer.
The Use in Board- Measure,
l^umple. If a board be 9 jnches.broad, and 19 feet
^ long, what is the contents superficial square feet ? Extend
from 12 (the centre of foot measure) to 9 down^i'ards, and
that extent the same way wiU reach from 89 to 14 and |.
In
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aM YOUSTG MANTs ££ST COMPAKION.
In Umber-measure,
Fxample, In a piece gf timber 24 inches square, aftd
8 feet long, whrvt is the contents in solid feet ? Extend from
12 the centre, to 24 upwards, and that extent twice 4he
same way will reach fronn 8 to 32 feet the contents.
How nmoy rods of ^ojk are there in 4085 feet > £ftt^d
irooi 2/2 downwards to 2, and that extent the same way
from 4085 will reach 15 rodi^ tim answer.
3. Description nf Coggcshair s SUding-Rule.
This rule is framed three way^j sliding by on« another
as the glaziers rule ; sliding oft one side of a two-»feet joint-
rnle ; one part sliding on the other, in a foot of length ;
the b^ck part being flat, on which are sundry lines and
scales.
Upon the aforesaid sliding side of the rule are four lines
of numbers, lliree are double lines, and one a single line of
numbers, marked with A B C and D, the three marked
A B and C are called double lines of numbers, and figured
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Then 1, 12, 3, 4, 5, 6; 7,
8, 9, and 10, at the end. That marked D is the single
line of numbers, and figured 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20,30,
and ar the end 40, even with and under 10, in the double
line next to it; and that is called the Girt-line, and so mark-
ed in the figure.
The figures on the three double lines of numbers may be
increased or decreased at pleasure ; thus 1 at the beginning
may be c died 10, 100, or 1000 5 and 2 is 20, 200, or 200O j
ao that when 1 at the beginning, is 10, then 1 in theimiddle
is loo, and 10 at lhe«nd is 1000 j but if 1 at the Itegin-
ning is accounted for 1, then. 1 in the middle is lO, and
10 at the end is 100. .
And as tki figaies are altored, so must the strokes ordi-
Yisions between ihein be altered in th^eir value, aecording
to the number of the parts they are divided into; as thas,
from 1 to 2, it is divided into 10 parts, and each tenth .ift
divided into 5 parts $ and from 2 to 3 it fs divided into lO
parts^ and each lenth into 2 parts, and so on from 3 to 5 5
then from 5 to 6 it is divided in^o 10 parts only ; and so
on untp 1 in the middle of the rule, or at the end of (he
limtpart of the double line of numbers. Xhb second part
•f the double line is divided like the first.
Th«
Digitized by Google *
INSTRnMENTAL AI
The GVrt-line marked /) i» di'
' ^atts, aad each lOlh into 2 parts^
^SAd then from lO to 20 it is divid
tenth Into 4 parts ; and so on all
tte end^ which is right against 1
Hne of numbers.
The lines on the back-side of
tide, are these, viz. a line of th
12, each divided into halves^ qa
anmher line of inch-measure fron
to 12'eqttal parts, and a line of t
djvided into 100 equal parts, and
&>, 60, 70, 80, go, and 100,
laeasure.
And the back-side of the sli
inches, halves, quarters, and half-
12 to 24, so that it may be slid oi
length of a tree,' or any thing c
measure.
Example of tltfi Use of i
Suppose there is a geometrical
feet \ each : set 1 foot on the lin(
and then against 3^^ on the line B
Which is the contents of such a s
F. Pis.
» 3-6
3—6']
iO— 6
10—3 Proof.
Su{»poBe the side of a rhomb be
breadth of the line ABB feet 4;
Set one foot on tlie line B, to 8 fe
again 8 feet rVir 9" ^^^® ^'^^ ^* ^
CD ^the line A, and to 'know the
part of the foot, look for yV^ oh i
against it 4 incbes j, so that the
7 1 feet 4 inches | .
Agaiq, suppose the length of t
•r 17 sVt ^^^ the breadth 8 fo
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
20(5 YOUNG MAN-8 BEST COMPANION,
contents ? Set. one foot on the line B io 17, 25 on (be:
line A, then against 8; 58 on the line^, is 148 feet on the
line A. 1 he fi-ure has been reprejiented before, and work-
ed arithmetically, therefore it is here unnecessary.
Let the base of a triangle be 4 feet I inch |, and the
perpendicular 2 feet 1| j the half of the one, in 2 feet 7
parts ; -and of the other i foot 7 parts, f et one on the line
B, to 4, \5 oh the VneA', then against 1, 07 half the
perpendicular on the line-£, is 4 feet and almost half a foot
for the contents. Or, if you set 1 on the line B to 1^ 0?
on the hne A, against 4, \5 on- the line £, is 4, and almost
half a foot on the line A.
Again, another way : If you. set I on the line B to 4,
1 on the line A, then against 2, 25 on the Hne 5 is 8 feet
t\ ( which is about 1 1 inches) on the line A, the half
u'hereof is4 feet 5 mche& |, which is the contents of the
triangle.
Of GEOGRAPHY.
GeograpHy is the art of describing the surface of the earthy
the constituent parts of which are land and sea.
Many arguments may be produced to prove that the
earth and seas are of a spherical or globular figure j one of
them may be sufficient in this place, vi%. that ships in sail-
ing from high capes or headlands lose - sight of the lower-
parts first f and continue gradually also to lose sight of those
which are situate higher and higher, till at last the top dis-
appears, which couW not be unless the surface of the sea
were coxiVex ; now this convexity of the sea is found to be
uniform in all parts thereof, • therefore the surface of the
waters is spherical, which being granted, that of the land
must be nearly so, because its extremity sets limits to the
waters. '
The whole body of the earth and seas is therefore called
the Terraqueous Globe.
Since, as has been before observed, all circles are divided
into 36o Degrees, therefore any 'great circle surrounding*
the terraqueous globe is usually so divided. Our ingenious
countryman, Mr. Richard Norwood, about the year i635,
by an accurate measurement of the distance between
Lond^
Digitized by CjOOQIC
GEOGRAPHY. 207
London and York, found that a degree of a great circle was
about 6g\ statute miles in length, and Consequent'/ that
- the circumference of the terraqueous globe was 25,020
miles, whence its diameter will be 7g64 miles.
The sea covers the greater part of the terraqueous globe^
out of which the land rises with very slow ascents, the
height of theloftiest mountains being Cbimboraco in South
America, and this is not quite four miles perpendicular
. above' the surface of the sea.
Geographers have found it necessary to iriiagine certain
circles to be drawn on the surface of the earth, for the beti-
ter determination of the positions of places thereon. .
These are either greater or lesser circles ; great circles
divide the globe into two equal parts, the lesser circles di-
vide it into two unequal parts.
There are six kinds of great circles ; two o£ them, viz,
the Equator, or Eqtiitioctial, and the Ecliptic, are fixed -
but the otliers, vix. the Meridians, the circles of Longitude'
the Horizons, and the Vertical circles, are variable, accord-
ing to the part of the globe they are appropriated to.
There are two points on the surface of the terraqueous
globe, called the Poles of the Earth, which are diaftietri-
caily opposite to each other,- the one is caUed the North,
and the other the South Pole. '
The Equator is that great circle which is equally distant
from both the above-mentioned poles, and is so called from
its dividing the terraqueous globe into two equal parts,
named from the poles which are situated in each, the north-
ern and southern hemispheres. It is also called the Equi-
noctial, because when the sun enters it the days and nights
are of equal length in all parts of the globe. Seamen com-
monly call this circle the Line.
Meridians, or Circles of Terrestrial Longitude, are ^up^. .
posed to b^ drawn perpendicular to the equator, and to pass
through the poles : they are called Meridians, or Mid-day
Circles, because when the spn comes to the meridian of
any place it is noon, or mid-day, at that place.
Hence every particulur place on the surface of the terra-
qiifHsns globe hath its proper meridian, and consequently a
traveller who doth not directly approach to, or recede from
•ne of the poles, it continually changing hit meridian.
Witk
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-208 YOUNG, M ANti BEST COMPANION- .
With respect to the two circles above described, every;
place upon the earth is said lo have its particalar latitude
and longitude.
The latitude of any place apoo earth is its distance &om
the equatcNT, in a direct Jine towards one of the poles ; and
since the meridians proceed in such a direct line, therefore
latitude is reckoned in degrees, and parts of degrees, on the
'meridians of the place.
The longitude of any place opon earth is the east or west
'distance of the meridian of that place, from some fixed
•meridian, at which longitude is supposed to begin. No^^
aincfe ail tlie meridians pass through the poles, they cdncide
vith one another at those points^ and their greatest distance
iirom each other will \ie when they are £irthest from those
points of coincidence, viz, at the equator -y therefore, lon-
gitude is reckoned in degrees^ and parts of a degree, of th^
equator.
Geographers have differed very much in the meridian
from whence ihey have assumed the beginning of longi-
tude ; the ancients chose the meridian of the Caoarie^^
which they called the Fortunate Islands 5 others have
pitched upon the Azores, or the Western Islands ; bat the
most usual way is now to reckon longitude from the capital
of that counH'y in which an author writes, and accordingly^
ihe longitude is reckoned in this work from the meridian of
London.
Parallels of latitude are small circles drawn parallel to the
equator at any assigned distance therefirom ; theiretbre every
particular place on the surfiice of the terraqueous globe hath
its proper parallel of latitude.
There are four of these parallels of latitude that are
particularly remarkable, vix. the»two tropics, and the tw«
polar circles ; but for the better explanation of those pro- '
|»erties it will be necessary^ first, to define the ecliptic
The Ecliptic is that great circle in which the Sun seems
to perform its annual motion round the earth ; this circle
makes an angle with the equator of 23'' 29' ,• it intersects
it in two opposite points, c^led the Equinoctial Points j
and those two points in the ecliptic, which are ^rther
from the equinoctial pojnts, are called the Solstitial PointJ.
The Tropic of Cancer is a parallel of latitude 2Sp 29*
iktant firom the equator in the northein hemisphere^ pass*
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GEOGRAPHY. 309
ing through the iiorthem 'solstitial point of the ecliptic, at
be^re descFtbed : And,
The Tropic of Capricorn is a parallel of latitude, as far
distant in the southern hemisphere, passing through the
southern point. \
The Arctic Polar Circle is a parallel of latitude 23o 29*
distant from- the north pole : and the antarctic polar circle
is a parallel of latitude as far di ,tant from the south pole.
. The tropics and polar circles divide the globe into five
part«, called. Zones j that is to say. Girdles or Bells; one'
of them is called the Torrid 3 two temperate ; and two
frigid.
The Torrid Zone, so called from the great heat of the
Son, which passes directly over the heads of the inhabit-
ants twice in the year,, is situated between the two tropics,'
said is therefore about 47 degrees in breadth j the inhabit-
mits are calhd Amphisciansj that is, such as have their
sbado^ra cast both ways, the sun being seen at noon some-
times to the north, and at other times to the south of
them. ' *
The Northern temperate Zrone Js situated between the
tropic of Cancer,^ and the arctic polar circle j and the
southern temperate ^one, between the tropic of Capricorn,
and the antardtic polar circle ; they -ere each of them about
, 43 degrees broad : the inhabitants are called Heterosciaas,-
that is, such as liave their shadow but one way } for at noon
the shadows of the inhabitants of /the northern temperate'
2k>ne are al way's cast northward 5 andtl>ose of the inhabit*
ants of the southern, southward.
The Frigid Zones contain all that space between the'
polar cfrcles and the poles themselves j the northern frigid
zone being surrounded by the arctic circle, and the south*
em by the antarctic. The inhabitants are called Periscians,
because, when the snn is on the same side of the equator
as those inhabitants are, their shadows are, in the space of
24 hours, cast of all sides, or quite round them. The sun
does not act in the places within these «ones during
several successive revolutions or days in the summer : and
in the winter he doth not rise for a like space of time. ^0
the inhabitants of the poles, if there be any, the sun is v1-
*gible for one half the year, and invisible for the other half.
If any pl^ce on the globe, except the poles and equator, -
be partijpularly considered, there will be three other placet
on
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^10 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
on the same meridian which have more imnoediately 'st-
relation thereto, viz. 1 . That- place which has the same
latitude on the other side of the equator. The inbabitantsL
of this place are called ^ntiscii. They have mid-day and
Ttiid*night at the same time with those of the place assumed j
but the seasons of the year are different, the summer of thd
©ne being the winter of the other.
2. Ttiat place which is on the same parallel of latitude^
l>ut is 180 degrees different in longitude. The inhabitant*
of this place are called Periscii. They have summer and*
winter at the same time with those of the place assumed ^ '
bat the times of the day are different, the mid-day of the
one being the raid-night of the other.
3. That plate, which has the same latitude, on the other
side of the equator^ and is 1 80 degrees different in longitude.
This place is diametrically opposite to the place assumed t
its inhabitants ^re called Antipodes^ and their seasons of the
year, as well as times of the day> are totally opposite.
The Horizon is that great circle which divides the upper
©r visible hemisphere of the world, from^ the lower or
invisible, the eyes of the spectator being always in the centre
^the horizon. Hence every particular place on the terra-
queous globe hath a different horizon ; and xonsequentljr
a traveller, proceeding in any direction is continually change-
ing bis horizon.
The Circle is hy mariners divided into four quarters^
JK>ntaining 90 degrees : the four points quartering this circle-
are called • Cardinal Points, and are named East, West,
North, aod South : the East and West ^re those points oa
which the. Sun rises and sets when it is in the equinoctial ;
jmd the north and south points are those which coincido
with the meridian of the place, an 4 are directed to\vard tho '
Dorth and south poles of the world.
Each quarter of the horizon is further djvided into eight
points, which are very necessary to the geographer for dis-
tinguishing the limits of countries j but the use of those di-
visions is- much more considerable when applied to the
Mariners Compass.
Before the invention of this excellent and mast useful in-
strument it was usual, in long voyages, to sail by, or keep
along the coast, or at least to have it in sight ;-^s is mani-
fest and plainly evident by the voyages of St. Paul, Acts
%x, 13j and XXV iii* 2, whicli made their voyages long, and
very
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GEOGRAPHY. 211
very dangerous, by being so near the shore. 'But now, by
the help of a needfe, touched by the magnet, or load-stone,
which, by a wonderful and hidden quality, inclines its point
always northerly, the mariner is directed in his proper course
of sailing through the vast ocean, and unfathomable depths,
to his intended port ; and if the wind is ^vourable, can saH
more than 333 leagues, or 1000 miles, 4n a week, through
the darkest weather, or darkest nights, when neither land,
moon, nor stars, are to be seen, which before were the
only guides 5^ and, if not seen, the mariners were at a great
loss, and exi)Osed to the most imminent danger.
TThe following figure is a representation of the i^i
Compass, with the Cardinal aiid other Points.
The Mariners Compass.
The
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212 YOUNG MAN*s BEST COMPANION.
The Compass in die preceding page is a representation of
the Horizon on a circular piece of paper, called a Card,
which card being properly fixed to a piece of steel, called
the Needle, and placed so as to turn freely round a Pin that
supports it, will show the position of the Meridian, and
other points) and consequently towards which of them the
<hip sails.
Note. The letters N by E, NNE. NEhy N, &c. are
to be read^ North by East, North North-£ast, North-£ast
hy North, &c.
A Climate is a space of the terraqueous globe contained
between two such parallel^ of latitude, that the length of
the longest day iu the one exceeds that in the other by half
an hour.
There are sixty Climates, thirty to the North, and thirty
to the South of the Equator 5 twenty-four of each thirty
being situate between the Equator and tlie Polar Circle, dif*
fer in the length of their longest day by 24 hoars ; bat in
the remaining six, l)etween the Polar Circles and Poles, the
differences of the lengths of the longest sday are each a
month.
A Table of the Climates between the Eqp^afor and the
Polar Circles,
Climate.
Longest
BegiiTB
Ends
Bicadth.
Day.
Latitude.
Latitude.
1
12| Ho.
o«- 0'
8« - 34'
8*> - 34<
2
13
8-34
16 r 43
« r 09
3
13f
16 - 43-
24-11
7 - 28
4
14
24 - 11
30-45
6 - 34
5
144
30 - 45 '
36 - 30
5 - 45
6
15
36 - 30
41 - 22
4 - 52
7
I5i
41 - 22 .
41 - 31
4 - 09
8
JG
45- 31
49 - 01
3 - SO
9
16>
49 - 01
51-58
2 - 57
10
17.
51 - 58
54 - 29
2 - 31
11
J7t
54 - 29
46 - 37
2-08
12
, 18
56 - 37
58 - 26
1 -49.
13
18i
58 - 26
59 - 59
1 - 33
14
19
59 - 59
61 - 18
,1-19
15
I9i
61-18
62 - 25
1 - 07
16
20
62 . 25
63 - 21
- 49
17
20i
63 - 21
64 - 09
0-48
Q|lia!e
>
Digitized by Google
-'
GEOGRAPHY.
21^-
Crwnate.
Longest
Begins
Ends
Breadth.
' Day.
Latitude.
Latitade.
18
21 Ho.
640-09'
64^. 49'
0* . 40(
19
2H
64 - 49
65 - 21
- 32
20
22
65 - 21
65 . 45
,0-24
21
22|
63 -.45
66 . 06
0-21
22
23
66 - 06
66 .^20
- 14
23
23X
66 - 20
66 - 28
• 08
24
24
66 - 23
66 . 31
r 03
A Table of th&^ Climates between the Polar Circles and the
Poles.
"
Climate.
Longest
Begins
Ends
Bread! h.
Day.
Latitude.
Latitude,
25 '
1 Mo.
66^ , 31/
670-21'
80 - 50i
26
2
67 - 21
69 - 48
2 - 27
27
3
69 - 48
73 - 37
3 - 49 .
2a
4
73 - 37
78 - 30
4 - 53
29
5
78 - 30
84 - 05
5 - 35
30
6
84 - 05
90 -.90
5 -55
L
Tlie Terraqueous Globe, or Globe of the Earth and Water,
IS divided by Nature into continents, islands, peninsulas,
isthmuisses, mountains, promontories or capes, hills and val-
lies ; oceans, seas, lakes, gulphs or bays, streights, ports
0% harbours, and rivers j rocks, shelves, banks, marshes and
bogs.
A Continent, called sometimes the main -land, is a large
tract of land, containing sev'eral contiguous countries, em-
pires, kingdom is, or states.,
An island is a piece of land wholly surrounded by the
ocean, sea, or .other water, and so divided from ihe
Continent.
A Peninsula is a piece of land encompassed by water,
except on one side, where it is joined to the continent, or
other land. •
\^n isthmus is a neck, or narrow piece of land^ that joins
"ynsula to the continent.
. Mountain is a part of the earth which is considerably
,bjgher, or more elevated, than other lands near it. •
A Promontory is a mountain running oiit into the sea, the
•c&tcemity of which is called a Cape or Headland.
^ A Hill is a smaller kind of mounts ; and a: valley is
^-^W'- that
Digitized by CjOOQIC
itU YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
that land which is situate at the bottom of a mountaiq o^
hill, or between two or more hills or monntains.
The Ocean is a vast body of salt water, which separates
gome of the continents, and washes their borders or shores.
A Sea is a branch of the ocean flowing between some parts
of the continents,^ or separating islands from them.
A Lake is a body of water every where. surrounded by (he
land.
A Gulpb or Bay is a part of the ocean or sea contained
between two shores, and is encompassed by the land, ex-
cept on one side, wi)ere it communicates with -the other
waters.
A Strait is a narrow passage whereby seas, gulphs, and
baj's, communicate with the ocean, or with one another.
A Port or Harbour is a part of the ocean, or sea, so in-
closed by ih^ land that ships may fide in safety.
A River is a running water, descending in a narrow chan-
nel from the mountains, or high lands, and emptying itself
.into some ocean, sta, lake, or other river.
. Rocks are immense stony masses 5 shelves and banks are
eminences consisting of stones, sandi or other matter, which
obstructs the passage of ships at sea, and often prove fatal
to those who do not keep clear of them.
Mars!)e<; are lands lying low, and liable to be overflowed
by the sea or rivers ; and Bogs are mixtures of earth and
water, over or tlirough which it is dangerous to attempt a
pasbHge.
The known parts of the Earth are commonly divided into
four parts, vi%. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ; the first
three were known to the ancients, and are for that reason
called . the Old World : the fourth was discovered some*
thing- more than 300 years since,, and therefore called the -
New World. . .
The lands which lie toward the north and south poles are
very little known 5 that towards the north pole is called'
Terra Arctica, and that toward the south pole. Terra An-
tHrciica, or Terra Australis Incognita ; the latter is supposed
by somie to be nearly as large as Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The ocean assumes difterent names in different parts of
the earth 5 and the seas, gulphs, and bays, are named
mostly from the lands to which they adjoin; it is thought
therefore most conven^nt in this short sketch to describe
the iaud and waters together 5 and first.
^Digitizedby CjOOQIC
GEOGRAPHY. 214-
Of Europe, with the adjaceni Waters,
Europe is bounded on die north by the norlhern or frozen
<icean; on the west by the north Atlantic, or wesiern ocean,^
which separates it from America j on the south by the
Mediterranean sea, separating it from Africa 5 and on the
€ast by Asia, to which it joins, without any visible limir,
toward the northern parts j but on the southern it is sepa*
rated by vario'us 1 ivers, seas, &c.
The length of. Eijrope, from Cape St. Vincent to the
Uralian Mountains, is about 3,3po miles ; and the breadth
from Cape North in Lapland, to Cape Matapan in Greece,
may be about 2,350 miles. ^
Europe contains the following empires, kingdoms, re-
gions, or states, viz. Spain, Portugal,*' France, Italy, Turkey,
Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary, Poland,
Denmark, Sweden, and the Russian Empire.
Of Spain and Portugal.
Spain and Portugal are sar rounded by the sea on thre«
sidt!3 ^ on the south and south-east by the Mediterranean, -
which communicates with the Western or Ailaniic ocean,
by the Straits of Gibraltar ; on the west by the said ocean ^
and on the'horth by the same, or a part thereof, called the
Bay of Biscay : on the north-east by the Pyreneati mountains,
which, reaching from the Mediterranean to the Bay of
Biscay, separate it from France.
Porrugal is now a kingdom separate from Spain, to which
it was formerly subject : it is situated on the ocean, which
washes it on the west and south ; it is hardly 300 mries in
length from north to south, and about 100 in breadth.
The capital city is Lisbon, which was till lately in a ruinous
condition, having been almost totally desiroyed by an
earthquake, and a fire which succeeded it in November
1755. . The city of Oporto is also a place of great trade,,
particularly famous for its wine.'
Most of the provinces oT Spain were all formerly separate
kingdoms ; such were Andalusia, in which Gibraltar is
situated, as are the cities of Seville and Cadiz; Granada
' within the Straits, the principal <:1ty has the same name,
and on the Mediterranean are situated the ports of Malaga
and Almeria, Marcia more eastward m the Mediterranean,
in which, besides a city of the sanae mme, is the city and
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216^ YOUNG MAN*s BEST COMPANION.
port of Cnrthagena : Valencia, north-eastward of Murcia ;
this has a city and sea- port of the same name, and anotfier
port of great trade, called Alicadt.
Spain is divided into Fourteen Districts^ viz.
Afituria,
Biscay,
Navarre,
Galicia,
iLeon,
Old Castile,
Arragon,
Cataiunia,
Valencia, I ATurcia,
New Castile, I and
Cstramadura, { Granada.
Andalusia, |
Its chief towns are Madrid, the capital ; Barcelona 3
Seville] Corunna, and Cadiz, sometimes called Cales.
The principal rivers are the Ebro, the Tagus, and the
Douro, all of wliich have their rise in Spain.
On a promontory in the south of Spain stands Gibraltar,
which has been in the possession of the English for a cen-
tury, and is so defended by nature and art as to be consi-
dered impregnable. Not far from Spain are the Balearic
Isles, called Majorca, Minorca, and Yvica.
Proceeding eastward along the Mediterranean sea is the
kingdom of Fiance, which is bounded on the east, by Italy;
Switzerland and Germany, on the north by the ^nglish
channel, on the west by the Bay of Biscay, and on the
south by the Pyrenees, which separate it from Spain, and
a part of the Mediterranean sea.
France was anciently divided into provinces j but since
the revolution it has, with the Netherlands and various other
territories, acquired by the war, been divided into 120 de*
partroents, which^are as follow :
Jncient Provinces*
Provence
Bauphini
Fi'ancheCoinpti
Alsace
lA»rraiiio
Departments.
^Basses-Alpes,
jBouche-du-Rhone,
(Vauclns.
J Haiit«s Alpes,
} Drome, I fere,
( Doubs, Jura,
} Haute- Sdone.
5Ba€Rhin,
^ ^HautRhin.
I Moselle, Voages. j.
Chi^ToKks^
(Dignc, Aix,
( Toulon, Avignon*
SGap, Valence,
Grenoble.
CBesati^ou, Loin-lc
^Saunier, Yeaoul.
JColmar, Stras-
bourg.
r Nancy, Bas-0vr* ^
4i>ruai«),Mcla,
CBpiiMl.
Jncient
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Cfaftinpagne
i^s deux Flaodrei
kle de France
Kormandie
Bretagne
Haut & Bas Blaine
Poictou
OrleanH)is
Berri ^
Kiveinois
Valromey
Butirgogae
BourboDuoia
Marche
Angoumoia
Aunis
Piugord
Bordelois
Qoercy
Rouyergne
Bearii
Bigorre
Ciittserani
Roiuilloa
LtDguedoc
GEOGRAPHY.
Departments.
rArdeniteSy Aube,
4<Marne^ Haute-
( Marne.
^ 5 Nord, Pas-de-
^ I Calais.
SAisne, Oise,
Seme, Seine et
Oisc, Somme,
Seine et Mnrue.
(Calvados, Eure,
5 < Manche, Oriic,
f S«ine-lnferieure
rColes-du Nordy
Finisterre, lsle&
Vilaine, Loire*
> Inferienre, Mor*
^bihaa.
r Indre et Loire,
^Mayenne,
4 SiVfayeune et
I Loire, Sar the.
5 i>€ux Sevres,
/ Vendue, Vicnnc,
C Eure et lAtif,
8 -^ Loir et Cher,
Loiret.
^i
■?!
S< Indre, Cher
1 K ievve.
^ Aiti, Co^e-d'or,
4 -N Yonne, Sacne et
f Loire.
5 j Loit e, Rhone.
1 Allier.
S Corre^e, Creuse,
} Haute Vienue.
1 Charente
5 Cbarente-infc-
l rieuae.
] Dordogne.
^Gironde Landes,
4 < Lot eu Garoifeies,
fGers. •
1 Lot ^
I Aveyroil
1 Basses Pyrenees
] Hautes Pyrenees
1 Arriege
1 Pyren^esOriental
fArdeche, Ande,
Viar^, Haute
' ^Goronne Herault
(LozereTarn.
K
Chief Toums,
i Mezieres,
•< Troye8,Cha1oo9-8iir
^ Af arne, Chaumoat
Douai, Arras.
I Laon, Beaurais,
' Paris, Versailles,
[Amiens, Melur.
CCacn, Evreux,
^Coutunees, >||ea-
1 9ori, Rouea
i St. Brieux,
jQuimper, Kenncs,
C Names, Vannes.
5 Tours, Leral,
i Augers, Lc iVJana.
A Niort, Fontenoy.
< l6 Peuple, Poicticrs
S Charti cs, Blois
1 Orleans.
5 Chateauroun,
(^ Bourges.
Nevers.
5 Bourg, Dijoa,
I Auxtrre, Maeon^
5 Montbrison,
I Lyons.
Moulius.
C Tulle, Gueref,
I Limoge.
Angouleme*
< Saintes.
PerigueuK.
CBonrdeaux, Mont-
•<de-Mar8aii,
i Agen, AMcb.
Cahors.
Rhodes.
Pau.
Tarbe.
Tarascon.
Perpignan.
rPrivaa Carcassonne^
jNimes, T04ilouse, .
^M ontpclicj' Mede,
(Caetres.
yfnaenf.
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2ift^ YOUNG MAN*8 BEST COMPANION.
AnoutUProc, iMparimenis. Cki^fToHms^
C Caotalt Haate- § S(. Fleur, Le 1
Velay ^ ^ Loire, Poy-le- i Pujr, Claremont-
fDome. ^ . ..
Cone , Golo. Liamone, B«^"»» Ajacxw.
(Moftt-Blanc. > ^ Chambi^y,
Saroy ' 3 j Alpca MariUmei. . >Jicc, Geueva.
' ( LeaiaD. ''
rjDyle, Escaut, Fo- fBiiissels, Gand,
Hainault, Austrian I '/»8. Jeroapes, Luxembourg,
FlaHders, Brabant, 9 1 ^y^* ^'^"^ 'ijf*'- < ^ons, Bruges,
Ljp-e ' * ) ricure, Deux Ne- I Maestiicbft, Angert
*' I'lhes, Ouitbe, . L Liege, Nanaur.
(^Sambre et Meuse
Countries between >e ^ Roer, Sairc, C Aix-la-Chape]le»
»l€use and Kbiiie, the 4 } llbin et Moselle < Treves, Cobtenlz,
. K bine and Moselle f Mout- Tonnerre^ ^ Mayeuce.
102
Paris, the capital df v France, is, next to London, ibe
largest aad most considerable city in Europe. It contains,
at this time, immense ^collections of works of art, an-
cient and modern. The other principal towns of Franc*
are Lyons, MarseiHes, Bourdeaux, and Lisle.
The principal mountains in France are the Alps, which
ancien ly divided it from Italy j and the Pyrenees, which
divide it from Spain.
The pcincipal rivers are the Rhone, the Garonne, tht
Loire, the Seine, and the Sorame. The Rhine forms the
boundary between France and Germany.
The canals in France are very nunierous ; the chief work
of this kind is the canal of Languedoc^ about one hundred
and eighty o^iles in length.
Near Toulon are the isles of Hyeres, which are the
flame a^ Homer's Isle of Calypso. On the western coast
isthe IsleofOIeron. The Isle ofRhei^ opposite Rochelle.
Bellisle has been repeatedly attacked by the English.
The Isle of tJshant iiythe most westerly headland in
France. ^'
Italy is divided from France on the west by part of the,
Alps; from Germany on the north, by the same moun-
tains called the Alps j and is every where else surrounded
by the Mediterranean Sea^ and the Gnlph of Visnice, wbick
is a branch thereof* ^
It is divided into the Itajian Republic; the kingdom of
JBlruriai thie Roman states j and the kingdom of Naples.
d by Google
GEOGRAPHr. 219
The Appentnes form a grand cba'm of inoniitattiSj whick
runs through almost the whole extenf of Italy. iKoaaC
Vesuvius^ Dear Naples^ is a- celdbrated volcanic mountafn.
Bat Vesuvius^ compared with Etna in Sicily> U only a small
hitl 5 the circuit of Vesuvius is thirty miles^ that cf £lna'is'
one hundred and eiglity; llie ashes of Vesutios are some<* .
times thrown seven hiiles, but those of Etna arfe frequently
thrown thirty.
' Rome was the principal city of the Pope's dominions^
aqd the capital of Italy. Florence is the capital of Etruria,
; and is now regarded as the Athens of modern Italy. MitaR'
is the capital of the Italian States.
Sicily, thelargest of the Italian islands, is separated from
the south-west part of Naples by the Strait of Messina.
This, strait was fanious for me Scylla and Charybdis of the
ancients, the former being a rock, the latter a whirlpool,
both very dangerous ^o the navigators of that period. Th*
chief towns ai;e Palermo, Messina, and Syracuse. The ,
sovereign was soiTsetimes styled King of Naples, and some-
tipies the King of the Two Sicilies. Sardinia, another'
large island, is situated almost in the centre of the Medi-
tcjrranean; the principal town .is Cagliari* Corsica is se-
parated from thd northern parts 0/ Sardinia by the Strait
of Bonifacio ; its chief town is Bastia. The island ot Malta '
. lies about sixty miless south of the island of Sicily, and is
celebrated for the Strength of it's fortifications^ and is no\y
possessed by the English.
Candia, to the south of Greece, is famdus for Mount Ida j
and both Malta and Candia are renowned for withstanding
sieges by the Turks» who in the former lost thirty thousand*
me.n, and in the latter one hundred and <?ighty thousand. ^
Rhodes, N.E. of Candia, is famouA for its collossal statue,
between the legs of which ships sailed into the harboiir.^ In'
its right hand was alight-house for the direction of mariners.
It was destroyed by an earthquake^
The principal rivers are the Pa,* he Tiber, Uie Var, and
tbe^Vdige. •
* , Germany was formerly divided into 9 great divisions, cal--
l^d' circles : 3 northern, Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and
Upper Saxony : 3 in the micklle. Lower' Rhine, Upper
H^ine, and Francx)nia : and three southerri, Suabia, Bavaria
s^d Austria. These circlea were subdivided into principali-
t'wsi, dochles, electorates, bistouries, S^q, Be'sides theiscj
fiieiQ were a Qum'ber of free cities, whlobi Vere^sovereign
. - K 2^ . '' state*; .
' • Digitized by CjOOQiVC
2S0' YOLNG MAN'S BEST 'COMPANION.
•ttites; some* of them styled Imperial to\Vns, and quartered
the Imperial Eagle in their arms.
• The emperor wa« elected by ten electors, for life, under •
the title of £aiperor of Germany and King of the Romans.
The present emperor is also, in his own right, Archduke
of Austria, and king of Bohemia. The ten electors were
the kJHg or Elector of Bohemia ; the Elector of Bavaria ■;
the Elector of Saxony ; the Elector of Brandenbnrgh (king
of Prussia ) ; ihe Elector of Hanover ; the Eiector Arch-
Chancellor of the Kmpire, whose residence was Ratisbcn ;
the Elector of Sallzburgh ; the Elector of Baden ; the Elec-
tor of Wurtemburgh, and the Elector of Hesse.
The Electors of Saxony and Hanover were regarded as
the principal potentates in the north of Grermany : the
Elector of Bavaria, and the Elector of Wurtemburgh in
tlie south. Prussia and Austria were considered as iiide-
pendent powers. Almost every prince in Germany, of
which there were about 200, was arbitrary in the govern-
ment of his own estate; but together they formed a great
confederacy, governed by political laws. The head of those '
petty sovereigns was the emperor.
The chief towns are Vienna, the residence of the present
emperor : Dresden, the residence of the Elector of Saxony,
famous for its gallery of pictures, its various collection in the
£ne arts, and its porcelain manufactory ; Berlin, which is
the capital of the Prussian dominions j Hamburgh, situated
on the Elbe, and one of the first commercial cities m E«-,
rope ; lieipsic, and Frankfort, famous for their fairs i Got-
tingen, Jena, Lei|>sic, and Halle, celebrated lor their uni-
versities ; besides Hanover, Munich, Manheim, Wurtem-
|)ers;, Heidelberg, Augsburgh, Constance, and Prague.
. The principal rivers of Germany are the Danube^ th«
Bhine^ the Maine, and the Elbe.
The Jusfrian BominioTis,
The Austrian dominions comprehended Austria, Bohemia,
flungary, part of Poland, with the Venetian states. By the
partition of Poland, Austria acquired one sixth part of that
country, and four millions of subjects.
The capital of this empire is Vienna, where the emperor
t regarded as the successor to Augustus : in the other pro-
vinces he is ]iX}ked upon as the nominal king of Hungary
asd
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GEOGRAPHY; - 2n
and Bohemia. The other chief towns ai;? Venice, Prague,
Presburgh, Buda^ Cracow and Trieste.
The principal Mountains are the Tyrolese, the Alps, and
the Carpathian Mountains.
There were in Germany several free cities, which were
small commonwealths under the protection of the Germanic
body, such as Ratisbon, Frankfort, Hamburg, &c. And
among the Alps were several small commonwealths, com**
monly known by the name of the^Swiss Cantons.
Switzerland, remarkable for its mountains, is divided
into thirteen cantons,"* Zurich, Berne, Underwalden, Zug,
Scbwejtz, Basil, Glaris, Soleure, Uri, Appcnzel, Lucerne,
Fribourg, and Schaflf hausen. Th^ three principal towns are,
Basil, Berne, and Zurich.
The sources of the Rhine and the Rhone^ two of the grand-
est rivers In Europe, are to be found in the mountains of Swit-
zerland. I'he lakes of Constance and Geneva have been
long celebrated for their beauty. The Alps, which divide
Switzerland from Italy, the mountains of St. Gothard, in
the Canton of Uri, and Mont Blanc, on the borders of
Savojr, are the highest in Europe.
Denmark and Norway, two kingdoms under the same
lovereign, are bounded on the north and west by the ocean,
on the south by. part of Germany, and the Baltic Sea, and
on the east by Sweden : The capital of Denmark is called
Copenhagen, and that of Norway, Christiana.
On the coast of Norway is the Maelstrom, a whirlpool
of great extent, and \Qry dangerous to ships that approach
thereio.
Greenland and the Ferro Islands are subject to Denmark
and so is Iceland, celebrated for the burning Mount Heclq,
a volcano one mile in height.
Sweden has Denmark on the west, the Baltic Sea on th«
south, Russia on the east, and the ocean on the north.
It includes the greatest part of ancient Scandinavia, and is
divided into Sweden Proper, Gothland, Finland, Swedish
Laplaad, and the Swedish Islands.
The chief towns are Stockholm, the capital, which stands
on seven rocky islands, united by bridges; Upsal, Goiher>-
burg, Tornea, and Abo.
Russia ha^ part of Sweden and the Baltic Sea on the
K 3 v^egt
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422 YOUNG MAN*^ BEST COMPANION.
weit, Crim* Tartary on ibe south : Great Tartary in Ash
©n the east, a'nd the ocean on the north.
TJiis Viist empire comprehends in fact aU the northern
p.uti of Europe, and Asia, but only a small part of its in-
hnblunts are in a state of civilizatipn. By the partition
of Poland Russia has acquired two thirds of that country,
and six millions of inhabitants.
The principal towns are Petersburgh, the capital ;
Moscow ; Archangel j Chersorf ; Astracan, and Tobolsk.
The chief rivers, the VVolga, -the Don, Ihe Nieper, and
Neister,
More to the eastward is Turkey in Europe, which con-
fii:ts of many provinces, and includes ancient Greece, Con-
s?antinopJe in the eastern part thereof, being the residence
of the Grand Seignior, sovereign of the empire.
Tlie northern provinces are Moldavia, Bessarabia,
\Vallac{)ia, Servia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia 5 those in the
middle are Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Albania, and
Kpirus ; the southern parts, t;alled Greece, contain Thes-
sally, Achala, and theMorea. T^e famous cityofDelphos
was in .the district of Achaia, but it is now reduced to ^.
mean village called Castri. ^
The metropoli3 of Turkey, Constantinople, is 6nely
situated between the s^ of Marniora and the Black Se^ :
* Adriaqopje is the secptid city in the Turkish empire.
The principal rivers are the Danube, the Saa^e, and (he
Neister. The chief mountains are Pindus alid Olympiis,
vrhich separate Thessaly from Epir-us 5 Parnassus in Livadia,
Athos, ^nd Haemus. The islands are very numerous,, the
■chief are Rhodes, aind Caqdia, in the Medijerrane,an j
^here are also Zante, Cephialonia, Corfu, and others lyinj;
west of Turkey, forcing the rejpublic of the Seven
Islands,
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
This being our native country we shall be a little more
pariicular in ihe description of ir.
The island of Gi-eat Britain is divided into England!',
Wales, and Scotland. It is about six hundred miles in
length, andhalf as broad, "ai>d is known to contain above
twelve millions of inhalpitants. ,
England
d by Google
GEOGHAPHY. '^»
England contains forty Counties or Sbires, situated ia tb^
followiog order^ taken from north to south :
C<mntiet
Nortbumberlatid
Durham
•Cumberland
Westmorland
Yorkshire
Laiicnshire
Cheslni-e
Derbyshire
Shropshire
?JottiAghannsbire
lancohishire
But land
Leicestercbire
StaiFordshire
Warwickshire
Worcestershire
Herefordshire
MotiDiotttfashire
<x1oncc8ter»bire
Oxfordsbire
C^ef Towfiit.
Counties. i
Chief Towns.
Newcastle
l^uckinghamshire
Aylesbnry
Darham
Northamptonshire
Nortbamptott
Carlwie
Bedfoi dshire
Bedford
A ppleby
Huutin^donahire
H^ntiiii^doa
York
Cambridgeshire
Cambridge
•Lancaster
N04f)lk
Norwich
Chester
'Su^flToik
Bary
Derby .
Essex
Chelmsford
Shrewsbury
Hertfordshire
Hertford
Noitifrgham
Middlesex
London
' Liiicotii
Kent
Canterbury
Oakham
Surrey •
Guildford
Leicester
S«f»sex
Cbicbestec
Stafford
Berkshire
Reading
Warwick
Hampshire
Winchester
Worcester
Wiltshire
Salisbury
JHereford
Dorsetshire
Dorset
IVfonmxmth
Somersetshire
W^lls
Glotice:«tei*
DevonsbitHB
Excrer
Ovfiord
Cornwall
Lauuceston.
We shall give a brref acconnt of Some of the prmcipal
cities and towns in Englaud, without any particular regard
to the order of arrangement.
Xiondon/tbe mi^tropolis of Et7g1and, is perhaps' the most
populous, and richest, city on the face of tl>e earth : in*
eluding Westminster end Southwark^ it may perhaps be
deen^ three cities.
London, taken in this eiiient, present's 'almost (every va-
Hety which diversifies human ferfstence. Totvards th#
easi it is a sea-port, replete with mariners, and w th trades
connected with that profession. In the centre it is thb
teat of numerous manufactures, and prodigious commerce*
while the western, or fashionable, extremity,* present!
royal and noble splendour, amidst scenes of luxury and
dissipation. This city is supplied with water by tl>*
Thames, the water of Avhich is thrown into the houses by
machinery erected at London Bridge, and by the Nevr
River, wliich flows from Ware in Hertfo!rdsliire. Thl$
higher parts of London, towards Mary-le-bone, have ther*
Water from e number of Jarge ponds situdled on BampsteaA
Heatiu
K4 York
d by Google
U'H YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
York is the next city to the capital in dignity, thougtk
not in extent, or in opulence : it is regarded as the me-
tropolis of the north of England. The cathedral of this
city is greatly celebrated } the western front being pecu-
liarly rich, the chief spire very lofty, and windows of the
finest painted glass.
Liverpool approaches, now, the nearest to London in
wealth and commerce. It is only about a century since
this immense town was a mere village. In idQQ it was
constituted a parish. In 1 7 10 a dock was constructed,
and the chief merchants came originally from Ireland.
The infamous traffic in slaves was a drstinguishiog feature
of Liverpool, and it was there that from one hundred to
one hundred and fifty ships were employed in that trade.
In a single year during the American war Liverpool fitted
out 1/0 privateers.
Bristol is still a large and flourishing city, though much
of its commerce with the West Indies and America have
passed to Liverpool. Bristol is famous for its Hot Wells.
In the adjticent rocks are found beautiful crystals,^ called
Bristol Stones. The trade of Bristol is chiefly with Ireland,
the West Indies, or North America, Hamburgh, and the
Baltic. By the navigation of the two rivers Severn and
the Wye, Bristol engrosses most of the trade of Wales,
In 1737 Bristol employed one thousand six hundred coast*
ing vessels, and upwards of four hiindred ships engaged
in foreign commerce.
Manchester is celebraled for its cotton Manufactures,
wlvich are knowii and prized in every part of Europe.
Birmingham was originally a village, but is now a town
of immense manufactures in iron ware. The extension
of Birmingham originated, in a great degree, from Mr.
John Taylor, who introduced tine manufacture of gilt but-
tons, and japanned and enamelled works. The great
fabric of the arts, called Soho, belonging to Messrs.
Boulton and Watts, is situated about two miles fron^
Birmingham. - j , . j ^
Sheffield is f^imous for its cutlery and plated goods.
Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, and \yakefield, are the chief
centres of the manufactories of woollen cloth, &c. Leeds
is the principal mart for broad c oihs. The cloth-hall
appropriated to the sal§ is a vast edifice, and the whole
business
d by Google
^ GEOGRAPHY. 225
fcusmess is transacted within the space of an hour on the
market da^'S. ^ » ,
Hull is celebrated for its large Dock : and its trade with
America and the south of Europe is very important. The
Coasting traffic is extensive in coals, corn, wool, and va-
rious manufactures. .
Newcastle, so named from a fortress erected by Edward
tbe First, is a large and very populous town, in the centre
of the grand coal-mines in the counties of Durham and
Northumberland^ which have for many centuries supplied
London, and" most of the east and south of England with
that species of fuel. „ -:
In the west of Erifeland, Ex2ter, the ciapital of Devon-
shire, is an ancient and respectable city, the principal com-
merce of which is in coarse woollen goods, manufactured
in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall. They ar©
exported to Italy and other parts of the continent to a
very ^reat amount, and the East India Company purchase -
yearly a very large quantity. Some ships from Exeter ar^
engaged in the cod and whale fishery.
Salisbury is famous for its flannels^and cutlery, particu-
larly for the manufacture of scissors. Wilton is celebrated
for its carpets.
Wrncliester, the chief city of Hampshire, was for
centuries tbe metropolis of England : it still retains many
restiges of ancient fame and splendor* Besides a cat'he* «
dral, Winchester has a college- founded by William of
Wick ham, which has sent forth many illustrious cha-
racters.
Portsmouth, in the same county, is the grand naval ar^
senal of England^ The harbour is noble and capaciotis,
narrow at the entrance, but Spreading into an inland .
bay, five miles in length, and fi:om two to four miles iii
breadth. .... . .
Canterbury, the chief town in Kent, and the metropolis
*of the English church, is chiefly remarkable for ecclesias-
tical antiquities.
Norwich,' the capital of Norfolk, from tts size and con*
^ sequence, is justly styled a city. It is a place of great
trade, particularly in camblets, craped, stuffs, and- oihe^
-woollen manufactures, llie wool is chiefly from the
counties of Lincoln, Leicester, and Northampton, and the'
principal exports are to Holland, Germany^, and tl>e Me-
diterranefan,* -_....,,.. . ... *. ... .. :.
^ ' ^ X § Cambridr^ —
Digitized by VjOOQIC
080 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Cambridge is remarkable
colleges and 4 balls^ all well
Vb«n Ftumicd.
1284 Peter 'house,
1346 Corpus Christi, >
or Bennet. .)
1348 GonvU ajoA Caius
1441 King's . - - -
1448 Queen's . - • -
1497 JesuM - - . -
15Q6 Chrisfs - - - -*
1546 St, Johns - - -
1542 Magdalen ...
1M6 Trinity . - - -
1584 Emanuel - - -
1599 Sidney Sussex - -
I8O9 I>owning - - -
Halls.
1343 Clare - - -
1347 Pemhrole - -
1353 Trini/y - - -
1549 Catherine - -
for a noiversit^, contaioiag 12
endowed ^ and are as follow ;
By whom Fijunded*
Hugh de Bathan, Bp. of Ely;
Henry of Monmouth^ Duke of
I^aacasler.
So called fro^i its leycral
Founders.
Hqnry VJ.
Margaret his Queep.
John Alcocke^ JX. D, Bishop
of Ely,
Margaret, Coaote>s of ^tch-
inond.
Ditto.
Edward StraiFord, D^ke of
Buckingham.
King Henry VIII.
Sir Walter Mildmay. [Sassejc.
Frances Sidney, Countess of
Sir George Downing.
Richard Badew.
Mary> Countess of Pembroke.
W. Baseman, Bp. of Norwich,
Rt. W,ood, the Chancellor.
Oxford is famous for having the finest University in the
world, which consists of 20 colleges endowed, and five
hiills not endowed, viz.
B7^ University - - - The Saxon King Alfred-
1262 BaO^ <- - - - John Baljol, King of Scotland.
1274 Merton - - - - Walter die Merton, Bishop of
Rachesier.
l^l§ E^et^ .... Walter Stapletow, Bvih.op f4
' Exeter.
1325 Oriel - - . • - Kipg Edward II.
1^40 Queen's - - <• - Rot ert Egglesford^ B.p.
^375 New - - ^ - - William of Wickharo,
of Winchester,
li^^^ Uncqfn r* ... R. Fleming, .and T.RotbertwD,
Bwhop of hmcQin.
nar Ml SquI$ .. . • ^ H. ChicheJey, Abp. o£ Cant.
1459
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GIOORAPHY.
1439 Magdakn -
1511 Brazen Nose
1516 Corpus ChrM
1549 Christ Church
1555 Trinity • -
1557 Si.John*9r -
1571 Jesus - - - . .
IG09 Wadham - - -
1620 Pembroke - - -
1700 JVorcesier - - -
1740 Hartford « . -
St.JEdmund'sl Halls
St, Al ban's I
St. Mary's >beloaging
New Inn j
, Magdalen ' J
Win. of Waiufleet^ Bishop of
Winchestej.
Wnt). Smith, Bp. of Liocolx^y
and Sir R. Sutton, Kntp
R. Fox, Bp. of Winchester,
King Henry VIIl,.
Sir Thonoas Pope.
Sir T. White, Lord Mayor of
London.
Queen Elizabeth.
Nicholas Wadham, Esq.
T. Tesdale, Esq. ^nd Bich.
Whitwick, B. D.
Sir Thomas Cooke.
Dr. Newton.
f Queen's
I Merton
to<( Oriel ^College.
I New
L Magdalen
The PRINCIPALITY of WALES.
' Wales was originally ir^dependent of England, but in
the reign of King Henry the SevenUi it was incorporated
with it. Tiu3 countiy is very mountainous and barren, ex-
cept in the vallies and intervals, where it yields plenty of
grass and corn. The situation is westward, bordering on
the Irish Sea. The air bleak and sharp, but wholesome :
the cattle are numeToas, but s^j antall 5 and on th^ l>iJU .
are abundance t)f goats. This country is divided into NDrtU,
and South,
Wales is divided mto TweU«e Counties, as follow :
Counties, thaef Towns.
Counties. Chl^f Towns.
FHntBliirc Ftiat
Radnorshire Radnor
JDeabisfhshirc Denbigh
Brecknockshire ISreckisock
MontgfomerysfciriD M,o»itg©n)ery
Glamorganshire Cardiff
Anglesey Beanmaris '
Pembrokeshire Pembruke
Caeiuarvonshire CaerttniTon
Cardiganshire Cardigan
Mdf)oiiet1»«faire flarkch
Caroiarthenshire Carmarthen.
North Wales contains Anglesey, Carnarvonshire, Denbigh*
shire, Flintshire, Merionethshire, and Montgomery shii'e.
Anglesey is an island on the north-west part of the countryv
about 80 miles ija compass.' The common paswge to Ireland
k £rom Holyhead in this islaud to Dublin.
• • • S^mik
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228 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COBfPANION.
South l^ules contains Brec](nock5hire> Cardig^nsbirej^
Ciurmanhenshire, Glamorganshire^ Pembrokeshire,, and.
Radnorshire.
Pembrokeshire is a very pleasant and plentiful county,
for the most part surrounded by the sea. It is famous for a
Harbour called Milford Haven, whicji is justly esteemed to
be in all respects one of the best in the world,
SCOTLAND.
Scotland is the northern division of Great Britain,.
and is situated to the ^®x\hoi England -^ the capital city is
called Edinburgh J it is divided into thirty-three counties^,
as follow:
Shiret.
Edinburgh
Hadihngioo
Merse
Koxbnrgh
St^lkirk
Laactk
Dumfiies
Wigtown
I^rcudbright
Air
Dumharton
Forfar
Bailiff
Stitlierland
Ctacoianuttn
Chief T0WW,
Edinburgk
Dnnbar
Diinse
Jedburgh
Selkirk
P€ebte8
Glasgow-
Dumfries
Wiptowa
Kircudbright
Air
DnmbartoD
Montrose
Bamff
Stratby Darnoo
Clacoiaonao
Shires, ' Chief Totcns.
BiUe and.Caitboess Rothsay
Beufrew Kenfrew
Stirling Stirling
Liolitbgow Linlithgow
Argyle Inverary
Perth Perth
Kincardin Bervie
Aberdeen Aberdeen:
lnyern«ss' Inverness
Nairue and ^ Nairne and
Cromartie 5 Cromaitie
Fife
Kinross
K0S8
Elgin
Orkney
St. Andrews
Kinross
Taine
Elffin
Kirkwall.
Berwick upon Tweed lies between England and Scotland^
and is distinguished from botli^ by having its peculiar pri'^
vileges, and a small territory wiihin its jurisdiction.
The most consi(ierable towns in. Scotland next to Edin-
burgh, are Glasgow and Aberdeen, all of wh.ch are famous
for iheir nniversiiies y Glasgow is no> less so for its exten^r*
«ive commerce. ^
The Islands belonging to Scotland are the Shetland^ the
Orkney, and the Hebrides, or Western Islands-
The Hebrides, or Western Isles, are said to be above 300t
in number, the most coa'jiclerable of which are Arran, Sky,
and Mull ; and the Isles of Orkfley, and Shetland, to th^
oorthward of each of which, there are many in number, ; '
I'he principal rivers are the Forth, the Tay, the Dee,
j»nd ihe Don: and the most considerable Lakes, Loch'
•jTay^nd Loch Lomond, which contains' Beyei'al Islands r
•nd Loch Ness, m Inyerjaes^bire. .
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GEOGRAPHY
IRELAND,
229
IS a large Island to the west of England and Scotland,
the chief city of which \s Dublin; it is divided into four
provi^ce;^, viz. Ulster, nortfivi^ard > Leinster, eastward j
Mumter, southward 5 and Connought, westward. These
are again subdivided into the following Counties. '
Counties.
fDnblin
I Louth
Wicklow
Wexford
Congfonl
5 J East Meath
^< West Meath
Chief Towns,
Dublin
Drogheda
Wicklow
Wexford
Longford
Trim
Muliingar
King's C«iunt}rPbillip8town
Queen's CoamtyMarytiorougb
Kilkenny
Klldare
^Carlow
j''Down
Armagh
Mona4«;1ian '
^Cavan
The chief towns next to
Londonderry, and Belfast.
Ki>keniiy
Na:»8&At!iy
Carlour
Downpatrick
Armagh
Monaghan
Cavatt
Counties. Chief Towns.
. fAntrini Carrickfergua
5 I Londonderry Derry
5 ^ Tyrone Omagh
^ I Fermanagh Inniskilling
^ [^DoHegal LifFord
2 ri.eitriin Roscommon
^ I Roscommon Ballingr»be
2 ^ Mayo
§ t Sligo
^ LGulway
fciare
'i [<;oik
*" ■ Kerry
Carinc on Shan.
Sligo
Galway
Ennis
Cork
Tralce
Limerick
Clonmel
Waterford,
2 J
s ' Limerick
I? I Tipperary
I (j^Waicrford
Dublin, the capital, are Cork,
Cork is a flourishing, com-
rbercial City, and remarkable for its fine harbour. Th&
principal Rivers are the Shannon, the Blackwater, the
Boyne, and the LifFy.
' In St. Georges's channel, almost equally distant from
England, Scotland, and Ireland, is situated the Lslp of Man,
the Royalty of which, under the Kings of Great Britain,
was formerly in the' family of the Stanleys, Earls of Derby j
but the male issue of that family being exrinct^ it wa»
enjoyed by the Duke of Athol, descended from the Derby
Family by a female branch, till the Session of Parliament
37^5, when it was annexed'to the crown.
I'he Britannic Isles above described are separated from
France, on the South by the English ehannel ; and froia
Holland, Germany, Denmark and Norway, by the German
Ocean on the cast j the northern and western sides being
washed by oceans of tie same name.
Holland, or, as it is now called, the Batavian Repul*
kd, has Germany on rhe East and North, the German
ooeanto the west, and France to the south. It consists of
the seven folio wibgprovincefi* ,. >i
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aao YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
Provinces. •
GroniiiiuKen
Hullaiid
Chief Toivm.
Pwri«c«ff.
Gronin^en
iUrecht
L«wttrd««
GneldnUud
Deveiiter
Zealand
Aa»(rrdfttn
Chief Town$.
Ulrecht
Miiidlebargh.
The chief Towns, with regard to commercial purposes,
are A.mHterdaro> Leyden, Rotterdam, and Haarlem.
The Hague is the largest, and was the richest village in
the world : it is thirty miles from Amsterdam, and was,
before the revo1uliou» the seat of government, and the ye-
sidence of the principal people.'
Amsterdam, the capital, is curioasly buik upon woodefli
pile*^. Leyden is famous for its university. The streets
nave canals running .through them, the borders of which
aie planted with rows of trees. The principal rivers ar&
the Rhine, the Maese, and the Scheldt. The canals are ^
very numerous, and serve for the same purpose as ro^ds ia
other countries.
ASTA.
Asia is separated from Europe towards the north-we^ ;
towards the south-wesf by the eastern part of the Mediter*
r^neau Sea, and by the Istlimus of Suez and the Red Sea,
which divide it fronir Africa. It is bounded on the south
by the Indian Ocean, on the ea»t by the. Pacific, and on
the north by the Northern or Frozen Ocean ; its dimensions
may be conceived from what follows :
It seems most regular to divide. this large country ac-
cording to its present possessors, the Grand Seignior, or
Emperor of the Turks, the Ring of Persia, the Great
Mogul, and the xjther potenlatej^ of India j the Emperor
«f China, and the potentates of Tartary..
The Turkish possessions ia Asia are Anatolia, Syria^
' Arabia, . Arrnenia, or Turcoroania, Georgia, and Mesopo-
tamia, or Diarbeck, of which intlieir order.
Anatolia, formerly called Asia Minor, is encompassed
on the norths west, and south sides, by tlie Euxioe, the
Marmurian", the Archipelago, and fihe Mediterranean Seas;
it is separated froni Syriii on the south-east by the nK>ua-
tains called Taurus, and from Tarci;>maDia 4m the east by
the river Bupkhrates.
Syria, <alled*by the Turks Surijitaa, is siibdivided into
Syria proper, Phceocia^ and Palestjpe^ or Judea, who80
chief cities a^e Aleppo^ Dam9«9tM^ ood J^n^^aiteilB.
ArftbU
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\
Acftbia (a oaontry -which preserves ite atKiilcnt name^ asdo
the inhabitants their roaming disposition) istiownded on the
west bjr the.Red Sea and the Isthmus ofSiiez, on the north
by Palestine, Syria, and Diarbeck ; on ilie east by tha
Persian Gulpb, and on the souih-west.hytlie Arabian Sea,
and part of the Indian Ocean.
It is divided into three parts^ called the Desert, the
Stony, and the Happy 5 the two first lie to the nortliward;
the other to the south. '
There are very few towns in the dosert or stony parts of
this country ^ the Arabs living in tents, and removing with
their families from place to place, as profit or conveniencd
suggest. 'But in Arabia the Happy, (qne of the finest
coimtvies in the world) there are several of note, -snch as
Medina, where the sepulchre of Mahomet, tlie founder of
. the Turkish religion, isj Mecca, his birth-place, to which
iBvewtTurk or Mussulman is obliged by bis religion to come
in pl^image once in his life.time, or to send another in
hissteiid; -^f/en, a place of traffic 5 and Mocha, famQus for
its coffee.
Armenia, or Turcomania, is bounded on the West bf
Anatolia, on the South by Diarbeck, on the East and North
by Georgia and the Euxine Sea.
Georgia, formerly called Iberia, including Mingreli and
Gurgistan, is l/Oundedon the North by partof Russia, on
• the West by the Euxine sea, on the South by Turconwnia,
and part of Persia, and on the East by part of Persia.} the
cities W the greatest note are Fasso an<l Tefftis.
Mesopotamia, or Diarbeck, is bounded on the norfh bj
Turcomania, on the west by Syria, oh the south by Arabia
the Desert, and on the east by Persia 5 its principal cities
are Diarbeker and Bagdat.
Besides these large possessions on the Continent of Asia,
the Turks hold several island, in the Archipelago 5 with
Rhodes and Cyprus m the Mednerranean Sea, the last of
which is very considerable. ' ,
The next division of Asia, proceeding eastwai^ly, is Per-
^a, which has the Turkish dortiinions on the west^ the Per-
•ian Gulph and part of the Indian ocean on the so^jth ; the
Empire of the Great Mogul on the east, and on the north
part of Tatary, the Caspian sea, and part of the Russian
'Empire. This Is a Vi:ry large country, but at jM'eswit it it
torn to pieces b)' different competitors for the sovereign pow-
er ; the capital ckjr is ]spidi»ii| 4b9 msaH «^i4enble<4'
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332 YOUNG MAN'g BEST COMPANION.
the others are Derbent on the Caspian sea^ and Gombrooa
and Bassora on the Persian Gulph.
Proceeding still eastward, the next empire is that of the
Great Mogul, which has Persia on the west» the two In-
dian Peuinsuhis and the hay of iiengal on the souths China
on the east, and part of Tartary on the north.-
This is another large tract? with the inland parts of which
the Europeans are not much acquainted.
The principal cities are Agra, Labor, Delhi^ Cabul, and
Cas^tiinir ; but whetliw Agra or Labor Ls tbe capital, is dif-
ficult to determine, tbe Mogul haih a magnificent palace at
each of these cities.
The maritime parts of the continent of India are divided
by the Hay of Lengal, a branch of the Indian ocean, into
two Peninsulas anciently called India within, or on this
aide the Ganges and India, and without, or beyond the
Ganges: besides which two Peninsulas there are sex^nral
large Islands belonging to India, of which in their Or^r.
The Peninsula on tbis side tlie Ganges, contains several
distinct Territories or Kingdoms, mo-.t of which either are
or were subject, or at least tributary, to the Mogul j the
western side thereof is called the Coast of Malabar, the
eastern the Coast of Coramandel.
The Coast of Malabar contains several Europ.ean settle-
ments, such as Bombay, an isKind belonging to the Eng*
lish East- India company, and Goa, to the Portuguese, at
each of which they have the sovereignty ; and the English
trade at least, if they have not forts, at Guiurat, Surat, Ca-
licut, and Cochin.
1 The Island of Ceylon, by some called Zeloan, is situated
^ little to the east of Cape Coraorin, the most souther point
' of the Peninsula.
The Coast of Coromandel, which is washed by the Bay
of Bengal, tends towards the nortb and north-east from
Cupe Comorin, and extends to the mouth of the Ganges j
the principal settlements of tbe English on this coast are,
Madras or Fort St, George, and Fort S*. David, near which
ihe French had a settlement called Pondicberry 5 which
iieighbouriiig settlements were for several years at war with
.each other, with various success, the natives, headed by
their Princes, cajled Nabobs, havipg tiken part therein,
{•omeonone sid^, and some on the other; but the. English
were at Jast victorious, and have lately had large province*
yield^^i tpitbeip py ib^ Prinses of the.coufiJ;ry, .
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GEOGRAPHY. 233
The Peninsula on tlie other side of the Ganges, consists
•f the large Kingdoms of Bengal, having a capital of tlie
same ii^me 5 Pegu, whose chief cities are Pegu and Arra-
cauj Siam, having a capital of the sarae name 3 Malacca,
situated to the south, 1 s almost encompassed by the sea,
;md the city, so called, is situate near the southern extremi-
ty ; Cochin-China, whose chief city is Cambodia, and Tori-
quin, whose capital is of the same same.
South-west of Malacca is the Island of Sumatra.
South-east of this lies the Island of Java, separated by
.the St: aits of Sunda j the western point of which is called
'Java Head by English mariners, it being often the first land
made by them after they have doubled the Cape, of Gjood
,Hope 3 the principal cities are Bantam and Batavia, the lat-
ter of which till lately belonged to the Dutch East India
Company, who were sovereigns .over the greatest part ef
this large and fruitful Island. It tow belongs to England.
Eastward from Malacca and Sumatra is the Island of
Borneo, almost round, and near 600 miles in diameter.
The Island of Celebes is to the east of Borneo, but much
less than it. Proceeding eastward are the Molucca, or Spice
Islands; the Dutch having made themselves masters of
these, thereby engrossing the spice trade to themselves.
The Philippine Isles are very numerous, some authorg
have reckoned 10,000 of them; the most considerabe is
pLuconia, whose capital is Manilla. ^ ^
To the ncirth and north-west of these is situated the po-
tent Empire of China, reckoned by some to be as big as all.
Europe ; it hath the Pacific ocean on the east and soutl>-''
east J Cochin-Cbina and Tonquin on the south-west ; the
Mogul's Empire on the west, and on the north-west and
north a part of Tartary.
There are a great number of cities in this Empire, of
which Pekin, situated in the northern part of the countrr,
^3 the capital j the European trade to this country is chieftr
carried on at Canton,, a great seaport in one of the southern
provinces. ,
The most considerable Chinese Islands are those which
compose the Ehipire of Japan ; which ( onsists of several
large Islands, the largest of these is Niplion; an^d the
towns are Jeddo, Miaco and Nagasaki.
Thus we have ^aken a cursory survey of all the southern
parts of Asia; the northern hath one general name, viz,
Tartary, which has Persia, India, and China, on the ioutb^
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-.234 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMFANiaV.
*the Pacific ocean on the east, the northern or frozen ocean
on tiie nortir, and Russia on the west; this ^arge tract Is
•lubject to divers Potentates^ of wiiom little is known.
A F R i C A.
Africa is a large Peninsala, which is joined to the Con-
.tinent of Asia by the Isthmus of S«e^, a narrow desert be-
tween the Mediterranean and the Red Seas. The inland
parts of this Continent afe not much known to the Euro-
-,peans 5 so that only the sea coasts will be mentioned here^
beginning at the Isthmus of Suex, and coasting first along
the Mediterranean Sea.
Eg^pt is under thedominton of the Turks ; its present c»-
.pital is called Cairo; the piratical States of Tripoly, Tunis,
and Algiers, have capitals of the same name, and the capt*
ial of the Empire of Morocco is the city of Fez.
Along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean there arei^ ex-
^'tensive dominions, the inhabitants being mostly subject to
petty Princes of their own, who being almost continually at
war with one another^ sell their prisoners for slaves ; the
European nations have been induced, for tlie protection of
their trade therein, and other commodfties, to erect severil
tmall forts in different places, to enumerate which would be
; tedious : th» Madeiras, the. Canaries, and the Cape Verd
Jslands. jye the roost considerable on this coast > the only
one possessed by the English is a very small one, called Si
JHeWna, frequented by the East* India ships.
Atthe sottth«rn extremity of the Continent is situated thd
Capeof Grood Hof^e, wliere there is a tolerable town for th«
^convenience of shipping, buitt by the Dutdi East- India
iConipaay ; from hence along the easteni coast, both - on the.
ocean and in the Red Sea, vepy littlo remarkable offers rt^
jtelftor notice. At' seme distance, however,, from the part
jof this "Coast is situated one of the largest islands in tb0
-world, called Madaigascar, which has been dt dlfi^rettt
.times the Asylum of Euroi>ean Pirates.
AMERICA. ^
AMERICA, by some called: the New World, becatae di^
covered about 318 years ago, being, before that time un-
known to the inhabitants of Europe, Asia, and Africa, is di*
urided into tworetnarkable divisions, called North and South
America, \vhich are joined togetherfby the Isthmus of Da»
rkn or .Panama.
Nortk
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GEOGBAPHY. 235
North /A/nerica tnclude&the United States, Spanish arid
British America, and th^ independent Indian nations.
The inland s^-as of North America are the Gulphs of
•Mexico, California, and St. Lawrence, with Hudson's Bay,
and Davi&'s Straits. The Gulph of St. Lawrence is closed
by the Island of Newfound laild, and the great Sand Bank,
about four hundred miles in-length, celebrated for the Cod- -
•fiUhery.
The Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Winnipeg, ,and
£lav,eLake, are the greatest in the world, and may with
propriety be denominated. Seas. The rivers are also grand
features of North America. Of these, jthe principal are the
Missouri or Mississipi, the Ohio, and the St. Lawrence :
and the oiost celebrated nwuntains are the Apalacliian,
fiassittg through the territory of ttoe United States. Among
.ihttse tbe«Ohio has its rue.
. DheiU^i'CBD Statbb are. divided into northern, middle
.fmd; southern.
The northern States are Vermont, New Hampshire^
fMasaachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The raid«
:dle Staies.are New .Yoi'k, New Jersey, l^n^ylvania, Be-
JbM(ara»;and tb^ Territory on the northward, of the Ohio.
^Thesonlhem /States are Maryland, Virgi.j a, Kentuotef,
^North Caroiina* Georgia, and the coiuxtry south of £jea«
-tiicky. The chaef cities and .towns are Washington the
•capital, :PhiUdelphia> New Yoric, Boston, !Baltimore> and
:Cliarlest^ wn. .
' TJieiSpanish dojuiJiions were Loiasiana, (which have bem
lately^ ceded tf> the United States for. a certain sum of mo*
»cy,) Jlaftt and West .Florida, Niiw Mexico, and Old. Mex-
ico, or New Spain, Mexkp is 'the capital of all Spanish
/Anberfca. The chit^f river in Spanish America is ^io
JBravo, and * the .principal Late is Niqaragiia.
The British dominions are amazingly extensive, and in-
tcJjidejUpper and Lower Q^nadi,J^CQva Scotia, New Bruns-
wick,, tije Island of Cape BietQU, Newfoundland, the Ber^>
^nudas.or Scroiucr islands. ^
TJie Native Tribes end Indep^ndht Counivies, Tbesa
ore fGr^enlaod, iL^br^dur, the Regions around Hudson*! •
jBay, tl^ose NatiqaslatalydiscoYered by.fiir A. Mackenzie,
(and those on the westem/coaat.
:Q/ i/ieiff!kstj7Hiias^ThQ. imsi int)portanr of tliese Islandt
are Cuba, and Porto-Rico, Spanish ; St. Domingo^ aod
Jamaica, .Englith. North of Sti Domingo and Cuba are
* tb#
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23'j YOUXG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
tCc Bahama's, the principal of which is Providence Island*.
Ttio Caribbec Islands extend from 1 obago in the soath, t6
the Virgin Islands in the north. Those belonging to £ng*
land are Barbadoes, Anligiia, St. Chiistopher's, St. Vin«
cent, Dominica, Grenada, Trinidad, Montserrat, Nevis, and
the Virgin I&Ies, Guadaloupe, St. Lucie, and Tobago. The
Danes (onncrly possessed St. Croix, and St. Thomas. St.
Bartholomew belonijs to the Swedes^ and Eastatia to tb«
English.
From these Islands are procured sagar, rum, cotton, in-
digo, spices, cocoa, and coffee : in time of war tlte smaller
an i inferior islands are often changing their masters.
Souik America comprehends Terra Firma, Gniana, Ama«-
zonia, Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, Chili, and Patagonia.
Amazonia and Patagonia are not under the yoke of anf
European power | they are divided into sieveral ktngdomi,
each of which has its chief. Tiie inhabitants have no tem-
ples or priests, but worship images of their departed beroei.
South America has no inland sea, but the river Amazons^
^d that of La Plata are celebrated as the largest in the
.world. They both have their rise among the Andes. The
mountains of South America are the loftiest on the whole
face of the globe» and are intermixed with Volcanos of the
most sublime and terrific description. The Andes follow
the windings of the coast, and extend four thoussind six hun*
dred miles. The highest. are near the Equator, and ^re co«>
vered with perpetual snow. The Spanish dominions in
South America are Buenos Ay res, Piero, Chili, and New
Grenada. Peru and Chili are famous for their gold and sili-
ver mines. In Chili it never rains, the sky is seldom
cloudy, but the night dews supply the want of rain, i,
. The Portuguese territory of Brazil is perhaps equal in
extent to the Spaqish, compensating by its breadth for its
deficiency in length. Guiana belongs partly to the French
and partly to the Dutch. Cayeime consists of an extensive
territory on the Continent, and of ah island of that name.
The southern extremity of South America is Patagonia,
a desolate country, inhabited by a savage race, . some of
whom are of collossal stature. • The islands contiguons to
South America are Trinidad, the Falkland Islands, Terra
del Fuego, Chiloe, and Juan Fernandez. The Gallipago
Islands are near the equator^ and the Pearl Islands lie in the
Bay of Panama.
, ASTRONOMY.
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ASTRONOMY. 2.87
ASTRONOMY.
•AsTJRONOM^Y is 3 Sciencc which treats of the motions
imd distances of the heavenly bodies, and of the appearances
arising from them.
There have been a great variety of opinions, among
philosophers, concerning the disposition of the great bodies
of the universe, or the position of , the bodies which appear
in the Heavens : but the notion now embraced by the most
judicious astronomers is, that the Universe is composed of a
vast nvmiber of Systems or Worlds ; that in every system
there are certain bodies moving in free space, and revolving
at different distances around a SDn, placed in or near the
centre of the system, and that these Suns, or the other bo-
dies, are the Stars which are seen in the Heavens.
.That sytem to which our Earth belongs, is by astrono-
mers called the Solar Si/stem ; and the opinion, which sup-
poses the Sun to be fixed, in or m-ar the centre, with se-
veral bodies revolving round him, at different distances, ig
ccMifirmed by all the observations hitherto made.
This opinion is called the Copernican System: from Ni-
cholas Copernicus, a Polish Philosopher, wl)o, about the
year 1473, revived this notion from the oblivion it had been
buried in for many ages.
The Sun is therefore is placed in the midst of an immense
Space, wherein ten opaque spherical bodies revolve about
him as their centre. Seven of these wandering globes are
called the planets, who, at different distances, and in dif-
ferent periods, perform their revohitions, from west to east,
in the following order.
1. y Mercury * is nearest to the Sun of all the planets,
and performs its course in about three months or 87 d.
23h. II. $ Fenus, in about seven months and a halfi or
224d. 17b. III. # The Earth, in a year, 365d. Sh. iv.
^^ Mars, in about two years, or 6S6d. 23h. v. % Jupiter,
iii twelve . years, or 4232d. 12h. vi. Tj Saturn, s^nds
almost thirty years, that is 10759d. 8h. in one Revolution
round the Sun. A'jid the 1^ Herschel Planet, whose year
i* equal, to almost eighty -two of ours. The distances of the .
planets from the Sun are nearly in the following proportion,
* The Characters placed before the Names of the Planets
afejfor irevity^ssake, commonly made use of by Astromrmets
instead of the words at lengh,as 5 /o* Venus.
vix.
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298 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
vi%. supposing the distance of the Earth from the Sun to be
divided into 100 equal Parts ; that of Mercury will be about
37 of those Parts : of Fenus 66 5 of Man 155 ; of Jupifer
493 ; ofSaium g03 ; and that of the Herschei 1913.
The Orbits* of the planets are not all in tlie saoie planie/
but variously inclined to one another^ so that, snpposing
the orbit of the earth to be the standard, the others will
have one half above, and the other half below it; inter-
secting one another in a line passing through the Smi.
Besides th^se seven large planets, three smaller bodies
have been discovered revolving aboot the Sun between the
Orbits of jlflari and /tf/j/Va^. *
The plane of the £arth*s Obit is called the Ecliptic -, and
this the Astronomers make the standard, to which the planes
of ihe other orbits are judged to incline.
The right line passing through the Sun, and the com-
mon intersection of the plane of the Orbit of any planet
with the ellpiic, is called the Line of the Nodes of that
pliipxt, and the points themselves, wherein the orbits cut
the ecliptic, are called the nodes. The orbits of the planets '
are not circle^ but ellipsis or ovals.
What an Ellipsis is may be easily understood from the
following description : imagine two small pegs or pins fixed
upright on any plane, as a table, alid suppose them tied
with tlife ends of a thread, somewhat longer than their dis-
tance from one another 5 now if a pin be placed in the dou-
ble of the thread and turned quite round (always stretching
the th?ead with the same force) the carve described by the
motion will be an EUipfis; Tl^e two points where the pegs
stood, (about which the thread was turned) are called the
foci of that ellipsis ; and if: without changing the length of
the thread, we alter the position of the p&gs, we shall then ^
have an ellip<;isof a different kit^ from thfe^former ^ and th^^'
nearer the Foci are together,' the nearer will the curve de* ,
scribed be to the circle, until at last the two Fcfci- coiiicide/
and then the pin in the doubling of the thread will descr%#><
a perfect circle.
The orbits of all the- planets have the Stiti In one of ^
Iheii Foci, and half the distance bet>«^een the two Fct\ ir'
QidlHad the eccentricity -df the orbits. This eccentricJity'is'
, * By -the orbit of a Planet is understood the Track or Ritif^, de-
icribett by its circuit round llie Sun, but by the plane of tb« Orbit
is meant ti fl^t turface> escteijded- crcry wsiy thr0U|pli the Orblf in-
IknUely.
^iffertnl
^ Digitized by Google
ASTRONOMY. St>:
Afferent hi sXi the planets, but in the most of tfaera it is in
little scliemes or ki»truaients made to represent the planeta* '
ry orbit> and need not liere be noticed.
The ten planets above mentioned ih^e called primaries, or
primary planets, but beside these thei*e are 18 other lesser
planets, which are called Secondaries, Moons, or Satellites.
The^e moons always accompany their respective primaries,
siHd perform their revolutions round them, whilst both to*
geiher are also carried round the Snn.
Of ihe Primary Planets there are but four, as far as ob-
servation can assure i>s, that have these attendants, vix, the
Earth, Jupiter, Saiurn, awd the Herschel.
The Earth is attended by the Moon, who peaforms her
revolution in about 29^ Days, at the distance of about 30
'diameters of the Earth from it ; and once a year is carried
Tound' the Son along with the £orM. .
Jupiter has four Moons or SateUites j the first or inner-
most performs its Revolution in about one day and 18|
hours, at the distance of 5^ Semidiameters of /«/;i/er from
liis centre 5 the second revolves about Jupiter in 3 days and
18 hours, at the, distance -of 9 of his Semi-Diameters; the-
third in 7 days «nd 3 hours, at tbedistance of 14} Semi-
Diameters; the fourth and outermost performs- its course'
in the space of l6 d.'?ys 18 hours, and Us distance from Jw- -
piter'§ centre is 25 of his Sftmi-Diameters.
A'fl/Mr« has no less than sdven Satellites -5 the first or in-
nermost revolves about him in 1 day. and 21 hours, at the
distance of 4|' diameters of Saturn from his centre ; the se* -
cond completes his period in 2^ days, at the distance of -52
diameters ; thethifd, in about 4j days, at the distance of 8
diameters ; the fourth performs his coiwse in about 16 days,
at the distan^fc of 8 diameters ; the fifth takes 79 J days to
finish his course, and is 54 diameters of Sntarn dhia&t irom
Iris centre* The si*th performs ut* revolution in J Day ; •
and the seventh in little more than 22 hours, these two are^
nearest to the planet, but be'mg discovered last are caHed
the sixth and seventh instead of the first and second. The
Satellite*, as well as the primaries, perform their Revolu-
tions from West to East; the -planes of the 'Ort)it* of the*
Satellitea of the- same ' PI dno are variously inclined to one
^ another, and consequently « re inclined to the Planes ofljue-
Orbits or their primay.
Besides- these attendants, S^ium is eneompassad wHh a
tizin ring thatdoet ^OMrkefe tou(;h hi^ body j the Diame^
tcr
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240- YOUNG MAN*^ BEST COMPANION,
tqr of this ring is to the Diameter of Saturn, as 6 to 4 ; and
tbe void space between the ring and the body of Saturn is
equal to the breadth of the ring itself; so that in some si-^
tuations the Heavens may be seen between, the ring and
his body.
This surprising phenomenon of Saiurns Ring is a Mo-
dern discovery 5 neither were the Satellites of Jupiter and
Saturn known to the Ancients; the former ,were first dis-
covered by the famous Italian Philosopher Gallico, by a
Teleicope, which he first invented $ and the celebrated
Cijssiiii, the French King's Astronomer, was the first that
»aw the five Satellites of Saturn; which by reason of their .
great distances from the Sun, and the smaUaess of their
own bodies, cannot be seen by us, but by the help of very
good glasses.
The six Satellites of Herschel revolve about the Planet in .
the following times : The first in 5 d. 21 h. tlie second ia
10 d. 17 h. the thu:d in 1] "^ity^, the fourth in 18 d. 11 h.
the fifth in 38 Days; and tfie sixth in 107 d. lah.
The motion of the primary planets round the Sun, (as
also of the Satellites round their respective primaries) is
called their annual motion; because they have a year, or
the alteration of the seasons, to complete in one of those
revolutions. Kesides their annual motion, four of the
planets, yenus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn,
are known to revolve about their own Axis, from West to
East ; and this is called their diurnal motion. For, by this
rutition each point of their surface is carried successively
towards, and from the Sun, who always illuminates the
hemisphere which is next to him, the other remainining
obscure : And, whUe any place is in the hemisphere illu-
minated by the Sim, it is day 5 but when if is carried to
tbe obscure hemisphere, it becomes night ; and so conti-
nues until, by this rototion, the said place is again enlight*
ened by the ^un. "
The Earth performs its revolutions round its axis in 23
liours 5g minutes ; Fenus in 28 hours ; Alars in about 24-
hours and/; 8 minutes; and Jupiter moves round hi^ own
ax^s in g hours aiid 56 minutes.
. The Sun is also found to turn ronnd his axis from West
to East in 25 days ; and the Moon which is nearest to us of
all the planets, revolves about her axis in a month, , or in,
tiie space of time that she turns round the earth ; so that
the Lunarians have but one day. tturotjjghout their year*
The
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ASTROlSfaMY. t4t
The planets are all opaque bodies, having noligbt but >yhat
they borrow from the Sun ; for that side of them which it-
next towards thelSun has always- been observed to be illu-
minated in whatever position they be j but the opposite side,
which the solar rays do not reach, remains 5ark and obscure;
whence it is evident that they have no light but what pro-
ceeds from the Sun, for if they had, all parts of them would
be lucid, without any darkness or shadow. The planets ai^o.
likewise proved to be globular, because let what parr soever
of them be turned towards the Sun, its boundary, or the
line separating that part from the opposite, always appears to-
be circdlarj which could-not happen iftbey were not globular.
The Earth is placed betwixt the Orbs of Mars, and Fenuu
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jvpiler, Saturn, and the Herschel,,
all move^round the Sun ;^ both which may be proved jfroot
observations, as follow :
1 . Whenever Fenus is in conjunction with the Sun, that -
is, when she is in the same direction from the Earth, orto^
wards the same part of the heavens the Sun is in, she either
appears wit ha bright and roupd face, like a full Moon, or
else disappears ; or, if she is visible, she appears horned like
a new Moon ; which Phenomenon could never happen, il'
^enus did not" turn round the Sun, and was not betwixt he«
and the Earth; for since all planets bcftrow their light frpm
the Sun, it is necessary that F^nus^s lucid face should be to«
wards tiie Sun ; and when she appears fully illuminated, she ,
shows the same face to^the Sun and the Earth j whence, at
that time, she must be beyond the Sun, for in no other
position could het illumtnated face be wholly seen from the
Earth. Further, when she disappears, or, if visible, /ippeart
horned ; that face of hers, which is towards the San is either
wholly turned from the Earth, or only a small part of it can
be seen by the Earth 5 and in this case she must of necessity
be betwixt us and the Sun. Tiiese observations must b^
made with a telescope.
Besides the foregoing there is anpther argument to prove
that I^'«a5 moves round the Sun in an Orbit that is withia
the Earth; because she is always observed to keep near the
Sun, and iri the saiVie quarter of the Heavens that he is in>
never receding from him more than about ^of a whole cir-"
cle ; and therefore she can never come in opposition to him,
that is, the Earth never can be between the Son and Venu»| '
which would necessarily happen, did slie perform her course
roand the Earth either in a longer or shorter time than a
yw. . h. Anfl
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^2 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
And this is the reason why Venus is never to beseeanear
midnight^ but always either in the morning or evening, aud
at most not above three or four hours before Sun-rising, and
after Sun-setting from the time oiFenus's superior conjunc-
tion, or when she is beyond the Sun, she is more easterly
than the Sun, and therefore sets later^ and is seen after Suq«
letting; and then she is commonly called the Evening- Siar:.
but from the time of her inferior conjunction^ till she comes
again to the superior^ she then appears more westerly thaa
the Sun, and is only to be seen in the morning before Sun
rising; and is then callecl the Mornifig'Star.
After tlie same manner we prove that Mercury turns round
the Sun, for. he always keeps in the Sun's neighbourhood,
and never recedes from him so far as Fenus does; and there-
fore the Orbit of Mercury must lie within that of Fenus, and
on account of his nearness to the Sun he can seldom be seen
without a Telescope.
' Mars is observed to come in opposition, that is, the Earth
is sometimes between the Sun and Mars ; he always pre-,
serves a round, full, and bright face,, except when he is
pear his quarters, when he appeaw somewhat gibbous, like
the moon, three or four days before or after the full : There-
fore the Orbit oi Mars must include the Earth within it, and
also the Sun ; for if be were betwixt the Sun and us at the
time of his inferior conjunction, he would either quite dis-
appear, or appear horned, as Fenus and the Moon do in
that position.
Mars, when he is in opposition to the Sun, appears to us
almost sfeven times larger in diameter thari when he is in
conjunction with him; and therefore must needs be almost
seven times nearer to us in one position than in the other :
For the apparent magnitudes of distant objects increase or
decrease in proportion to their distances from us ; but Man
keeps always, nearly, at the same distance from the Sun,
therefore it is plain that it is not the Earth but the Sun that
is the centre of his motion.
It is proved, in the same way, that Jupiter, Saturn, and
the Herschel, have both the Sun and Earth within their
Orbits; and that the Sun, and not the Earth, is the centre
of their motiops; although the disproportion of the distances
frojn the Earth is not so great in Jupiter as in Mars, nor so
gr^at in Saturn as it is in Jupiter, because they are at a much
^eater distance from the Sun.
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ASTRONOMY. t4«
We have nov shown that all the planets torn round the
Sun, and that Mercury and Venus are included between
Inni and the Earth, whence they are called the inferior pla-
nets, and that the Earth is placed between the Orbits of
Mars and Fenus, and therefore included within the Orbits
of Mars y Jupiter, Saturn, and the Herschel Planet, whence
they are called the superior Planets * and since the Earth is
in the middle of these moveable bodies, and is of the samo
nature witl) thetii, we niay conclude, that she has the sam«,
tjOFtof motions : — but that she turns round the 5^n is pro-
ved thus :,
All the planets seen froitt the Earth appear to move very
unequally i as sometimes to go faster, at other thmes slower,
and sometimes to be^staiionary, or not to move at all 3 which
could not happen if the Earth stood still*.
The annual periods of the planets round'the Sun are deter-
mined by carefully observing the length of time from their
departure from a certain point to the Heavens (or from a
- fixed Star) until they arrive at the same again. By these
KinJs of observations the ancients determined the periodical
revolutions of the planets round the Sun ; and were so exact
in their computations as to be capable of predicting eclipses
of the Sun and Moon : But since the invention of telescopes
astronomical observations are made with greater accuracy^
and consequently our tables are far more perfect than those
of the ancients.
And, in order to be as exact as possible. Astronomers
compare observations made at a great distance of time from
one another, including several periods ; by which means the
error that might be in the whole, is in each period subdivi-
ded into such little parts, as to be very inconsiderable.' Thus
the mean length of a solar year is known even to S( conds.
The diurnal rotation of the planets round their Axis wa«
discovered by certain spots which appear on their surfaces :
these spots appear first on the margin of the planets
disks, or the -edge t)f their surfaces, and seem by de-
grees to creep towards their middle : and so on, going
•till forward, till they come to the opposite side or edge of
the Disk, where they set or disappear; and after they
have been hid for the same space of time that they were
visible, they again appear to rise m^ or neiar the -same plac^
• Thii subject, and whatever relates to the Science of Aslronomj
it made very inteUigibk in the 2nd. toL of Scientific Dialog aes.
L 2 m
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244 YOUNG MAN'a BEST COMPANION.
«8 they did at finti tbeQ to creep on progressively » t^ing
the same course as they did before. Spots of. this kind have
been observed on the surfaces of the Sun, Fenus, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saium, by which raeans it has been found
that these bodies tufa round their own axis la the times be-
fore menti<»ied.
It is very probable, that MtTCttry and the Herskel have
likewise a motion round their axis, that all the parts of their
turf(K:e may alternately enjoy the light and heal of the Sun,
and receive such changes as are proper and convenient for
their nature: but by reason of the nearness of Mercury \a
the Sun, and of the immense distance of the Hersch^l, from
him, no observation has hitherto been made, by which thett
spots (if they have any) could be discovered, and tberdfore
their diurnal motions have not been determined. The <iiur-
nal motion of the earth is concluded to exist from the appa-
rent revolution of the Heavens, and of all the Stars round it;
in the space of a natural day. For it is much easier to con-
ceive that this comparatively small Globe should turn round
its own axis, once in 24 hours, than that such a great num-
ber of much larger bodies, some of them so immensely dis-
tant, should revolve round it in so short a space of time. The
aolar spots do not always remain the same, but sometimes
old ones vanish, and afterwards others si>cceed in their roomj
Bomeiimes several small ones galherjtogether and make one
large spot, and sometimes a large six)t is seen to be divided
into many small ones. But notwithstanding these changes,
they air turn round with the Sun in the same time.
Each Planet'is observed always to pass through the con-
stellations ylries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Firgo', Lihraj
ScorpiQ, Sagittarius, Capricornus, jiquarius, Pieces, and it
also appears that every one has a track peculiar to itself ; by
■which the paths of the six Planets form among the Stars a
kind of road, which is called the Zodiac 5 the middle part
whereof, called the ecliptic, is the orbit described by the
earth, with which tlie orbits of the other Planets are compared.
As the ecliptic runs through twelve constellations it is
supposed to be divided into twelve equal parts, of 30 de-
grees each, called Signs, having the same names with th«
twelve constellations they run through. . '
The plane of the ecliptic is supposed^ to divide the ce-
lestial sphere in two equal partSj caiied the northero am)
southeiB
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ASTRONOMY. 3«
ieuthern bemispheres : and a body sitaated in either of
these beroispberes is said to have nortb or south latitude^
accor(jing to the hemisphere it is in : thus the latitude of •
celestial object is its distance from the ecliptic.
The planes of the other five orbits are observed to lie part-
ly in the northern and partly in the southern hemisphere >
so that every one cuts the ecliptic in two opppsite points
galled nodes ; one^ called the ascending node> is that through
which the Pknet passes, when it moves out of the southera
into the northern hemisphere 3 and the other called the
descending node^ is that through which the Planet must
pass in going out of the northern into the southern hemisr
phere. The right line joining the two nodes of any Planet
hi called the line of 'the nodes*
The n^raes^of^raost of the constellations were given by
the ancient astronomers, who recl^oned that star \u Aries,
liow marked cy^ (according to Bayer) to be the first point
in the ecliptic, this for being next the Sun when he entered .
the Vernal equinox ^ at that time each constellation was in
<tbe sign by which it was called : but observations show^
ihat the point marked in the Heavens by t^p vernal equinox
)ias been constantly going backwards by a small quantity
levery year 5 wherebiy the Stars appear to have advanced as
much forwards, so that the constellation Aries is now al-
iitost removed into the sign Taurus ^ the said first star in
^ries being got almost 30 degrees forward from the equinox ;
vbich dtfferehce is called the Prodesswn of the Equinox 9
^Thereof the yearly alteration is about ^0 seconds of a degree
or about a degree in Jl years. ^
All the Planets have one commoh focus, in which the
jSun is placed j for as nq ,other supposition can solve the
appearances that are observed in the motion of the Planets,
and as it (ilso agrees with the strictest physical and ma-
thematical reason 5 therefore it is now received as an ele-^
mentary princi|)le.
The line of the nodes of every Planet passes through
the Sun J for as the motion of every Planet is in a plane-
passing through the Sun, consequently the intersections of
these planes, ti)at is, in the lines of the nodes, must also
pass through the Sun.
All the Planets in their revolutions are sometimes nearer,
■ometimes farther from the Sun 5 this is a consequence of
the Sun not being placed la .the ceaLre of each orbit, the
arbitflbeing ellipses.
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246 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
The Aphelion, or superior Apsis, is that point of the
orbit which is farthest distant from the Sun : and the pe-
rihelion, or inferior apsis, is that point which is nearest the
Sun : And the transverse diameter of the orbit, or the line
joining the two apses, is called the line of the apses.
The Planets move faster as they approach the Sun, or
come nearer to the perihelion, and slower as .they recede
from the Sun, or come . nearer the aphelion. This is not
only a consequence from the nature of the Planets motions
about the Sun, but it is .confirmed by all good observations.
If a right line be drawn from the Sun, through any
Planet, (which line is called by some the Vector Radius)
and be supposed to revolve rotlnd the Sun with the Planet,
then this line will describe, or pass through, every^part of
the plane of the orbit, so that the Vector Radius may bt
said to describe the area of the orbit.
There are two chief laws observed in the Solar System,
which regulate the motions of all the planets ; namely.
I. The Planets describe equal areas in equal times 3 that
is, in equal portions of time the Vector Radius describes
equal areas or portions of the s^iace contained witnin tb«
Planet's orbit.
II. The squares of the periodical times of the Planets
are as the cubes of the mean distances from the Sun :
That is, as the square of the time which the Planet J takes
to revolve in its orbit, is to the square of the time taken by-
aiiy other Planet £, to run through its orbit, so is the cube
of the mean distance of A from the Sun, to the cube of the
jnean dislanceof£ from the Sun.
The mean distance of a Planet from the Sun is its
distance from him when the Planet is 'at either extremity
of the conjugate diameieo and* is equal to half ofthelrans-
verse diam. ter.
1 he foregoing are the two famous laws of Kepler, a great
astronomer, whp flourished in Gerntany about ihe begin-
ning of the j 7th century, and who deduced them from a
multitude of observations : but the first who demonstrated
these laws, was the incomparable Sir y^aoc JV>m7ow.
By the second law, the relative distances of the Planets
from the Sun are known j- and if the real distance of any
one be known, the absolute distances of all the others may
thereby be obtained.
Besides the Planets already mentioned, there are other
great bodies that sometimes visit our System,, \vbich are
; . - , a sort
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ASTRONOMY. p^^l
a sort of temporary Planets ; for they come and abide with
us for a while, and afterwards withdraw from iis for a cer-
tain space of time, after which th©>' again return. These
♦ wandering bodies are called Coraets.
The motions of the Comets in the heavens, according to
the best observations hitherto made, seems to be regulated
by the same immutable law with the Planets: for theit
orbits are elliptical, like those of the Planets 5 but vastly
narrower or more eccentric. Their orbits have different
' inclinations to ,the Earth's orbit j some inclining north-
-wardly, others southwardly, much more than any of th#
planetary orbits do. *
Although both the Comets and the Planets move in el-
liptic orbits, yet their motions seem to be vastly differenr,
for the eccentricities of the Planets orbits are so small
that they differ bat little from circles j but the eccenfricl ties
of the Comets ai^ so very great that, the motions of some
of them seem to be almost in a right line, rending directly
towards- the Sun. Now, since the oibits of the Com?ts
are«o extremely eccentric, their motions, when they are
in their perihelia, or nearest distance from the Sun, must
T)e Tmich swifter ths» wht;n they are in their e^r.elia, ot
fartJiest distance from him ; which is the reason why the
, Comets make jso short a slay in our System, and, when
♦ tbey disappear, are so long in returning.
Tlie figures of the Comets are observed to be very dif-
fereotj some of (hem send forth small beams, like hair,
every w^yiound them .; others are seen with a long fiery
tail, which is. always opposite to the Sun. Their magni-
tudes are^also very different, but in what proportion they
exceed each other, is as yet uncertain. Nor is it probable
that their numbers are yet known, for they have not beea :
observed wijh due care, nor their theories discovered, but
of late years. The ancients were divided in their opinions
.concerning them : some imagined that they were only a
kind or Meteors, -kUidled in our atmosphere, and were
theye again dissipated ; others took them to be some
ominous prodigies 5 but modern discoveries prove that
they are worlds, shbjectto the same laws of motion as
>the Planets are \ and they must be very hard and durable
bodies, else they could not bear the vast heat which some
of them, -w hen in their -perihelia, receive from the Sun,
without being utterly consumed. The great Comet whlcli,
.appeared in the Yc^r 1680, was within J part of the Sun*s
L'4 diameter
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246 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
dinmefer from hk surface -; and therefore its heat must te
intense bevond imagination, and when it is at its greatest
distance IVom the Sun, the cold must be as rigid.
• The fixed Stars are those bright and shining bodies which
tn a clear night, appear to us every where dispersed through
the boundless regions of space. They are termed fixed,
because they are i'lmnd to keep the same immutable dis-
tance from each other in all ages, without having the mo-
tions observed in the Planets. The fixed Stars are all pla-
ced af such immense distances from us, that the best of
telescopes represent them no Wgger than points, without
having any apparent diameter.
It is evident from hence, that all the Stars are luminous
bodies, and shine with their own proper and native light,
^Uct they could not be seen at such a great distance. For
the sateliites of J/'/'i/eT, Saturn, and the Heisckel, though
they appear under considerable angles through good tele-
scopes, yet are altogether invisible to the naked eye.
Although the dista. ce betwixt us and the Sun. is vastly
great, when compared to the diameter of the Earth, yet il
is nothing when compared with the prodigious distance of
Ire fiitrd Stars ; for the whole diameter of the Earth's an-
nual orbit appears /from the nearest fixed Star no larger
than a point, and the fixed Stars are at least 100,000 ttcnss
f rther from us than we are fro.u the Sun; as may be de-
monstrated from the observations of those who have en-
deavoured to find the parallax of the £arth's annual orbit,
or the angle under which the Earth's orbit appears fiom the
fixed Stars.
Hence It follows, that though we approach nearer to «
fixed Star at one time^f the year than we do at the oppo-
site, and that by the whole length of the diameter of the
Earth's orbit, or 19O millions of miles, yet this distance,'
being so small in comparison -with the distance of the fixed
Stars, their magnitudes or positions cannot thereby be sen-
sibly altered. Therefore we may always without error sup-
pose ourselves to be in the same centre of the heavens, since
we have always the same vlsibe [W'ospect of the Stars with-
out any alteration.
If a spectator were, placed as tiear to any fixed Stir as
we are to the Sun, he would there observe a body as large
as the San appears to us; and our Sun would appear to him
DO bigger than a fixed Stgr, and undoubti-dly he would
reckon the Sua as one of them, iu numbering the Stars.
. Wbeirelbre
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ASTRONOMY. 049
Wherefore since the Sun differeth in nothing fioma fixed
Stz%, the fixed Stars may be reckoned as so noany Suns.
It is nqt reasonable to suppose that all the fixed Stars are
placed at' the same distance from us ; but it is more probable
that they are every where interspersed through the vast
lindefinite space of the untverse^ and that there may be as
great a distance betwixt any two of them as there is betwixt
:Oar Sun and the nearest fixed Star. Hence it follows, why
.they appear to us of different magnitudes, not because they
.really are so, but befcause they are at diffeent; distances from
«s $ those that are nearest excelling in brightness and Icistre
those that are more remote, 'which give a fainter light, and
appear smaller to the eye. \
Astronomers distribute the Stars into several oi*dersor
classes ; those that ai:e nearest to us, and appear brighe3t
to the eye, are Cdlled Stars of the first magnitude 5 those
that are nearest to them in brightness and lustre are called
Stars of ^e secopd magnitude ; those of the third class ar^
atyled Stars of the third magnitude 5 and so on until ^^je
come to the Stars of the sixth magnitude, which are the
tniallest that can be discerned by the naked eye. There are
infinite numbers of smaller Stars that can be seen through.
telescopes 5 but these are not reduced to any of the six or-
ders, and are only called telescopic Stars. It may be here
observed, that though astronomers have reduced all the
Stars that are visible to the naked eye into some one or other
- of these classes, yet we are not thence to conclude that all
the Stars answer exactly to some or other of these orderp j
"but tb^re maybe in reality as many orders of the Stars as
there are numbera, few of them appearing of the same size
and lustre.
' The ancient astrononoers, that they might distinguish tjie
Stars in regard to their situation and position to each other^
'divided the who\e starry firmaaient into several asterisms,
• or systems ot Stars, consisFrngof those that are near to one
another. These asterisms a?e called constellations, and are
digested into the forms of some animals, as men, lio^s,
hcBTS, serpents, &c. or to the ima>:es of some known tbrings>
as a crown, a harp, a triangle, &:c.
The starry firmament was divided by the ancients into
48 images or constellations 5 twelve of these they placed
.in that part of the heaveBS in which the planes of ther pla-
netary orbits are ; tHis part is called the Zodiac, because the
constellations placed therein resemble «9me Uving crea-
tdre. ■ The two-regions of the Heavens on each side of the
Zodiac are called the north and south parts of the heavens.
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150 YOUNG MAN*a BEST COMPANION.
The cbnstellations within ihe Zodtac are, }.Arm<^, -
the Ram J 2. Taurus S, the Ball; S. Gtmini n, the
Twins; 4. Cancer gs, the Crab; 5. Leo. SI, the l-ion ;
6. Firgo, irji, the Virgin ; 7. Ltbra -&, the Balance 5 8.
Scorpio tri, the Scorpion; Q. Sagittarius f, the Archer;
10, Capricorniis Vf, the Goat, 1!. Aquaxins ZS, the
Water-bearer 5 and 12, Pisces, K the Fishes.
The con tellations on the north side of the Zodiac are
ihirty-six, vix, the Little Bear, the Great Bear, the DrO'
gon, CephmSj a king oi Ethiopia ; the Greyhounds ; Bootes,
the keeper of the Bear; Jlfon^ Menelaus ; Berenice* s Hair;
' Charles's Heart ; the Noi thern Brown ; Hercules with his
dub watching the Dragon; Cerberus i \\i^ Harp} the
SwaH ; I he Fox; the Goose ; the Lizard; Cassiopeia; Per*
sens ; Andromeda; the Gr^a/ Triangle ; the i/i///e Triangle^
Auriga ; Pegasus, or the Flying H^ij^ ; the Dolphin ; the
Arrow; the Eagle; Serpentarius/'^m^ Serpent ; SoMesH^s
Shield; Camelopardm ; Antinous ; ihe Colt ; the Lynxi
the Z#i/f/e Liow ; and Musca.
The constellations noted by the ancients on the south
•ide ofthe Zrtdiac, were the Wliales, the River Eridanus,
the Hare, Orion, the Greaif Dog, Little Dog, the Ship
Argo, Hydra, the Centaur, the Cwp, the Trozf;, the Wolf,
the Altar, the Southern Crow and the Southern Fish, To
these have been lately added the following, rix. The PAop-
nix, the Crane, the Peacock, Ni^h*s Dove^ the Indian, the
jBird q/* Paradise, Charleses Oak, the Southern Trianghj
t le F/y or /Jee, the Swallow, the CameUon^ the Flying
Fish, Teucan, or the American Goose, the ^/er Serpent,
and the Sword Fish. ' ^
The ancients feigned these particular constellatioiis or
figures in the heavens, either to commemorate the deeds of
some great mail, or some notable exploit or action ; or else
took tnem from the fables of their religion, kc. And
modern astronomers still retain them, to avoid the coa«-
fusion that would arise by nraking new ones, when^ they
compare the modern observations with the old ones.
' Some of the principal Stars have particular names given
them, as Syrius Arcturus, &c. There are also several Star$
that are not reduced into constellations^ and these are called
imformed Stars.
Besides the Stars vwible tothe n»ked eye, there is a veiy
remarkable space in the heavens, called th^ Galaxy, or
jr/i% IFay. This is a broad circle of a whitish hue, like
^ milk.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
ASTRONOMY, 251
milk, going quite round the whole Hea^rens, and consisting
of an infinite number of small Stars, visible through a ieTe-
scope, though not discernible by the naked aye, by reason
of their exceeding faintness ; yet^ wilh their light they com-
bine to illumine that part of the Heavens where they are>
and to cause that shining whiteness.
The places of the fixed Stars, or their relative s'tuationg
one from another, have been carefully observed by astro-
nomers, and digestedinto catalogues. The first among th«
Greeks, who reduced the Stars ini > i o?
parchus, who from his own observ •' • c
Jived before him, inserted 1022 Sm ':-
120 years before the Christian jt ■.
been since enlarged and improved •' ^
to the number of 3000, of which the .
telescopial, anti not to be discerned h.
these are all ranked in the catalogue • 5'
magnitude. -
'- Jt may seem strange to some, that dieie j
this number of Stars visible to the ij.skv.1
times, in a clear night, they seem to he
this is only a deception of our sight, i • >•.'
ment sparkling, while we look upon .
out reducing them into any order ; 1 .-
be seen above 1000 stars in the wli<
naked eye at the same time; and if .
view thehi, we shall not find many but
upon a good celestial Globe.
Although the number of star^ that can be discerned by
the naked eye are so few, yet it is probable ther-e are many
more which are beyond the reach of our optics ; for through
telescopes they appear in vast multitudes, every where
dispersed, throughout the whole Heavens J and the better
cur glassies are, the more of then) we shall discover. The
ingenious Dr. Hook has observed 74 stars in the Pleiades,
of Which the naked eye is never able to discern above 7 ;
and in the Orion, which has but 84 stars in the British
catalogue (and some of them telescopial) there has been
numbered 2000 stars.
Those who think that all these glorious bodies were
created for no other purpose than to give us a lillle dina
Kght must entertain a very slight idea of the Divlr.e Wis-
dom 5 for we receive more light from lljc MoOn itself
than frop all the stars put together
And
- Digitized by Google
arc. '
J '"■'I '
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, • J. .:
grrat r.v:-.
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J'- : ;
:j r. «)rct!ian
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iu V.
Ui \< 1'.}-. -.1 t-
2;^'
n:c inserted
%5% TOUNG'MAN'fl BEST CC«VfPANIOK.
And since tde Ptanets are subject to the same !b^ Of
motion with our Earth, and some of them not only eqoal to,.
hvA vastly exceed it in, magnitude^ It is not unreasonable
to suppose (hat they are nil habitable worlds. And since the
fixed Btaraare no way behind our sun^ either in sizeor lastre>
is it not probable that each of them have a S}Steni of
Planetary Worlds turning round theni, as we revolve about
th« Bun ? And if we ascend as fares the smallest star we can
0ee» fihall we not then discover innumerably more of the»
f^lorions bodies, wbichare now altogether invisible tonsj
• \ -i ' 'y\//?*r' ih«v>wh the boundless space oftheUni-
' -i : VN i . * I. rr .1 -It idea nmst this raise is us of tbs
3. ^* - r . vh . .N ry where, and at all times present
.! .VI . .'.r-j i'(^*«r. Wisdom^ and Grobdoess, to
.1 (.••<' :;t
] .nail proceed to is to say something in
j\ .^"vking Dials : but first it may be pro*
«;] V )k of the use. of a very necessary in*
: ..uranif the shape of which is iiere re-
*lt)is^€lvKulratit^ t)T tflOtritr df a circle, is useful for vari-
IMM purposes^ rns. to lake heights and distances^ whether
acc^8iibi« or inabcessible : iTeiwd tiie hoar cf the day, &a
Jkscriptm
Digitized JDy vJOOQ IC
DIALLING. 23$
' . Description ofihe Quadrant.
Th* outward Arc is divided into QO parts ordegrees(being
. the fourth part of the circle of the -sphere) and, figured from
10, 20, &c. to 90 ; above these figures are letters signifying
the 12 calendar months in the year ; as /. fo> January, F,
for February, &c. And again over those letters for th« ".
months are lines to know the hour of the day : and upoa
the line G D, are sights of tl^in brass to be looked through,
or for the sun to shine through. Lastly, in the middle or
pointof (he Quadrant, vix, z\ A, is a line or thread of silk,
fixed through a hole with a plummet of lead at the end of it,
and also a small bead in the middle. — Some of the many
uses of this instrument areas follow :
^0/ Heights.
Suppose you would know the height of a steeple, tower,
or tree ; hold up the Quadrant, and view 'hrough the sights
the top of the steeple, tower, or tree, and then step forward
or backward, till you find the filummet hang at liberty just
at 45 degrees, that is just in the middle of the Quadrant j
then the height of the steeple, tower, or tree, is equal to
the distance of your standing- place from the bottom of the
steeple, adding for the height that you hold the Quadrant
from the ground. /
Tojind the Hour of the Day .
Lay the thread just upon the day of the month, then hdd
it till you slip the small bead or pin's head to rest on one of
the 12 o'clock lines j then let the sun shine from the sight at
G to the other at D, the plummet hatiging at liberty, the
bead will rest ou the hour-line of the day.
Tojind the Latitude of a Place nearly.
Hold up the Quad raut, 'and through the sights observe,
in aclear star-light-uight the North-Pole Star; the plum-
met hanging at liberty, the thread will rest on the degrees
of latitude of the place you are in, or where you take your
observation. ^ • •
. OF DIALLING. ^
DIALLING is a very ancient art, even as old as the
"lime of King Hezekiah, where mention is ma^e of the
XMal QfAkax, in the 2d Book ef Kin^s, Chap. ±i. yer. 1 1 .^%
Digitized by CjOOQIC
354 YOUNG MAN*8 ?EST COMP^ysriON.
TheGonmon, or Sub-stile of a Post or Horizontal Diil
should point directly aouth, and its buck will be then di-
rectly north, the «outh may be truly known by a good watch
or clocks just at noon j for then the sun is always at the
meridian, and makes just 12 o'clock ; so that knowing the
toutb^ the north is then found, it bemg its opposite.
To fir a Dial North and South.
Fasten your board on the top of a post, and then witfi
your compass make 4, or 5, or Q circles, . one within the
other from the centre or, middle, where place a large pin per-
pendicular or upright, and nicelv observe when the sua
shines in the forenoon, on -whicii circle the head of the pin
fihadoweth} then make there a markj and do the same Ih
the afternoon, when the shade of the pin*8-head comes oa
the same circle ; and from the midway of the two marks
draw a line to the centre, on which place your meridian or
12 o'clock line) so will the post dial point north and, south.
By a meridian line you may also know when the tuoon^
era slarof magnituile, comes to the south j which when
they do, they are always at the highest, whether by night
or day.
The following Figure represeats a Horizontal Dial.
"First with a ruler draw tlie Ime A B, then cross it in
the centre with another line, as the hne C Dy which is
the meridian, or 12 o'Ciock line ; and the first line drawn.
Digitized by'CjOOQlC
.': DIALLING. 25«
. vi%. A S IS the six o'Clock iine : then open your compasses,
and pkce one foot at the beginning of thedegrees> or the arc
ecige of your Quadrant ; and extend the other foot to 6p
degrees, and with that extent place one foot in the centre
of the Dial at E, where the two first liness cross one another
and draw the semicircle A C B.
Next, having the 12 o'clock line jE C, to know what dis-
tance roust beset otffromit, for 1 o'clock and 11 o'clock,
being all one 5 be directed by the following small table, v%%^
52o
Lat.^
Hour.
D. M.
11 55
1 11
24 :26
2 10
38 13
3 9
53 44
4 8
71 9
5 7
In the first column «ngainst 1 hour and 11, you find If
degrees and 53 minutes ; which take off the 4?dge of the
Quadrant, by setting one foot of the compasses at the begin-
ning of the diyis'on under B, and the other foot toll de-
grees 55 minutes; the compasses so opened, set one foot in
the circle at the bottom of the 12 o'clock line, and with the
oth-rfobt of the compasses make a mark in the circle both
towards A and B, and from those two marks draw lines
towards the centre, which you may afterwards go over with
ink. Then to make the hour lines frqm 2 and 10 o'clock,
look on the table for 2 and 10 hours, where you will find
24 degrees and 26 minutes, which take off the degrees of
your Quad, ant, and mark as the other from the 12 o'clock
line both ways in the circle.
The same is to be done for 3 and 9 o'clock, and also for
4 and 6 o'clock 5 and the like for 5 and 7 o'cloc k ; and for
. 5 and 7, 4 and 8, above the 6 o'clock line, set off the same
distances as below it.
^ Then for the height of the Gnomon, or Stile, admit 52
degrees, take jtofFthe edge'ofthe Quadrant with the com-'*
passes as before, and with that extent set one foot at bot-
tom of the 12 o'clock line a> Ijefore, and extend the othy
foot in the circle, and make a mark, and then draw a line
from thmce to E the centre, for the upper ed^^e of the
«tile, {indso raise it directly over the ineridiaja of the 12.
o'clockline. ' Of
Digitized by CjOOQIC
§50 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
^ Of upright Planes,
Those Planes are said to be erect or upright which staild
perpendicular to the Horizon of the plaqe^ whose upper part
points to the 2^nith, and their lower part to the Nadir :
and such are the walls of houses, churches^ steeples, &c.
against which Dials are commonly made.
To draw the hour lines on a direct south plane, in the
latitude of ^1 deg. 32 min. as described by the following
Figure.
First, draw the circle ZKHN, representing 4in upright
direct south plane; next cross it with the diameters ZQN
for thr meridian or, 12 o'clock line 5 and IFQSior the
prime vertical circle, or hour-line of six.
Secondly, out»of your line of chords talie 38 degrees 28
minutes (the com; lement*of the latitude of fhe place) and
set that distance on the Dial Plane from Z to Q. and from
£ to b, and from N to e.
Tliirdly, lay a ruler from 7f^to Q, and k will - cut ^be
meridian Z Nin the point P, the pole of the world ; and
a ruler also laid from IVio h will cut the meridian iq jE,
which is ihe point through which the Equinoctial mtfst
pass ; for the drawing of which you have three pointsgii-eo
vi% E wdB and IV, and the centre will always be id the
imeridian line Z iV.
Foutthly, divide the semicircle ENJV'w^io VI equal partSj
as the poi'nis O 0,bLC. -
*Tht: Ci'inplement of any Are is what thst Arc w«Bts #f 9^
Thus the €«DPlejn«At of Si** as' is 38« its'.
Fifthly,
Digitized by CjOOQ IVC
DIALLING. . 25y
' Fithly, lay a ruter to Q in fhe centre, at each of those
points OOO, and the ruler will cross the equinoctial cirt:le
in the points *^* &c, dividing them mto 12 unequal parts.
Sixthly, lay a ruler to P (the poL* of 'the World) and
everyone of the marks *** &c.and the ruler will cross the
circle of the plane in the points j | | &c.
Lastly, if through the centre Q and the respective points
I I j &c. you lira w right lines, they wiU be true Hour-
lines on an erect 'south-plane. For tlie Gnomon or Stile,
take 38 deg. 2l8 min. out of the line of chords,' and set tbera
from N to e, drawing the line Q ^ for the axis of the Stile^
which must hang directly over the meridian or hour-line of
12, and point downwards to the south pole, because th»
plane beholds the soutbrpart of tlie meridian.
In making this Dial you make two Dials ; for the erect
direct North Dial is but the back-side of the so)ith, for a»-
tbis beholds the south plirt of the meridian, so the other
faces the north part of the meridian ; and as the meridian
line in the South Dial shows when it is 12-o'«lock at noon,
so the back-side thereof, viz) the noth side, represents the
iour-line of 12 O'clock at midnight, ^nd therefore not ex-
pressed, nor the hour-lines of 9, 10, 11 at night, or of 1^ 2,
or 3 in the morning, the Sun being never seen by us above
.the horizon at those hours : So the North Dial is capable of.
only receiving the hours of 4, 5, 6, 7> and 8 in the morn-
ing, and the same at -night, and (in this latitucje) not all of
ihem neither ; for it shines not in this plane at 8 in the morn-
.ing, nor at 4 in the afternoon 5 but it is best to put thena
down as in the following figure, to know how much it is
-past in the morning and what it want* of 5 in the afternoon*
An erect North DiaL
d by Google
2:,s YOUXG MAN*8 BEST COMPANION'.
To draw the liour-lines on an erect direct east or west
plane, -r — llour-llnes in these Dials must he parallel to on#
another, and the Dial not to have any centre, but drawi*
a:} fnllows ;
EuilJDifCcl Dial in the Latitude of 51 Leg, 32 Min,
Ijet JB C Dhe the Dial Plane, on which is to be drawn
a direct East Dial: upon the point D, if an East Dial, and
on the point C, if a West, with the Radius (or Chord of
60 degrees) describe the obscure arc £F; then from^our
Chords take 38 deg. 28 min, the complement of the lati-
tude of the place j and set them from Eio F; and draw
the line D F quite through the Plane ; then that you may
proportion the Stile to the Plane, so that you may bring on
all the hours from Sun-rising to II o'clock, assume two
points in the line FD, one towards the end Z>, (as the point
G) for the hour-line of 11, and another at H, for the honr
line of six j and through the point Gand H, draw the lines
11 G 11, and 6 i/6 on the point G, with the Chord of 60
degrees, describe the obscnre arc IK, and taking 15 de-
grees from the scale of Chords, in the compasses, set one foot
in /, and with the other cut the arc / K and E ; through G
and A" draw the line GKLf, cutting the line 6HQ in the
point L ; so shall L H be the height of a perpendicular stile
proportioned to this plane. ^
For the drawing of the hour-lines, set one foot of the
compasses (opened to 60 degrees of the Chords^ in L, and
with the other describe the arc MN, between the hour-
line of 6, and the line G L ; which divide five equal parts in
the points O O O O 9nd a ruler laid from the point L to
each of these i>oints0 Q O &c. will cut the Equinoctial
Line HV'in the points ***** j through which points draw
lines parallel tK)6 JHl 6, as the lines 7*7 » 8*7> &c» as may be
seen in the figure, . - And
Digitized by CjOOQIC
DIALLING, &c. 259
And thus you have made the Dials, viz. a West Dial as
well as an East ; onlv the arc E F, through which the Equi-
noctial passes in the East Dial, isdrawn on the right hand of
the Plane ; but in the West it must be drawn on the left j and
the hour-lines 4, 5, 6, 7,8,9, 10, and 11 in the forenoon,
on the East Dial, must be 8, 7, 6, 5,4,3,2, and 1, in the
afternoon, upon the West Dial>as in the figure.
An Erect and Direct West Dial.
The Stile of the East or West Dials maybe either a straight
pinofthe just length of the line // O in the other figure,
which is equal to i/Lfixtinthepointi/, on the hour-line of
6> and exactly perpendicular on the Plane, showing the hours
by the shadow of the Apex, or very near the topi hereof 5 or
it may be a plate of brass of the same breadth with the dis-
tance of the hour-lines of 6 and 3 j which plate must be set
perpendicular upon the hour-line of 6, and so it will show the
hour by tlie shadow of the upperedge thereof, as in the last
figure.
0/ heaulifying and colouring Dials^
Firsf , the boards are to be brushed over with Linseed Oil,
thinly ground with Spanish brown, done over three or four
times (drying between each time) a little thicker each time
with the colour 5 and this is called Pm«i77fl^,
To make the fat Oil for Dials.
Boil Red-lead, and Linseed Oil, and a little Htharge of
Gold, (about a penny worth) together, till almost as thick
$s syrup.; and when cold, and well settled, pour the cleare&t
into a bottle or bladder for use. ^
The Gold Size for Dials.
Mix fine ground yellow Ochre with the aforesaid fat Oil,
to such a consistency ^s when- used it may settle smooth of
il«el^. A mixture
Digitized 6y CjOOQIC
^0 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
A Mixture for Hour Lines. '
G.ind VerrollioD or Lamp-black with the fat Oi).
To draw Golden Leiteis or Figures for the Hours.- .
First draw them with a Pencil dipt in the Gold S^ze be-
ibri' mentioned) and when so dry as ju^t to stick to youf
fingers, then with a smooth-edged penknife shape your- leaf-
gold to your mind \ take it up witJia piece of cotton cloth
lixed to the end of a stick, and Jay it on the size, pressing it
down with the same cotton, and when dry brush ofT the
loose gold with a feather, and smooth the rough edges of th«^
letters with a pencil dipped in red or black colour.
Ofthe Dial Plane.
Let the board be of the best seasoned, firmest, clearest
oak, one, two, or more feet square, and about three inches
thick. Take two boards, and get them planed on both
sides, and then laid in the sun-shine, or near a modeiate
fire, two or three days together, then plane them again,,
and fix them with good joints, and fasten them in gluing
with wooden pegs, as you may have seen coopers fix their
pieces of heading to their casks ) and when thus glued and
.dried, plane them again, and then fasten them, by nailing
two small pLites of iron or tin on the back. If you cannot,
get seasoned woodi but green, thcp boil it about an hour
in water to make it tough, and keep it from warping. In
the general, wood is accounted better than stone, because
it keeps the colouring more staunch or firm.
Before you colour your Dial-plate or board, fix your iroa
•tile of 38 degrees (which indifi^drently serves for all Eng^
Ainc/^and having maiked your hour-lines with ink, fasten a*
iiaiiat the end of each hotir-line, that the bead of each nail
tnay shadow or direct you to the centre when it is coloured^
And as it may happen that gokifin letters or figures may
decay in a few years, you may oh that account make them
with a white-lead paint painted with red in a black margin*
When your Dial is finished, n.d dr,', dip a feather in your
oil, and ano rit it thinly j for the finer you mix or grind the
colouring with the oW, the oaore beaufijful it appears, thoogll
not so lasting.
These hints of colouring Dials, and other very necessary
refiaarks reifying to mixtures of colours, dying of stufls.
Ice. aie coKected from Mr, SolmmCs Polngraphice.
- ^^
y
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
OF DYING COLOURS, &c. I6l
Of Colours,
ff7iUes,areCervise, Flake White, and White-lead
Blacks, are Lampblack, burnt Cherry-stones, and d4
ivory burnt.
Reds, zvQ Red-lead, yermllion, Red-Ochre and Iodia»
Lake.
Greens, are Verdtgrhse, Verdttore, and Sap-greeny
made of the Juice of Back-thorn Berries.
. Yellows, are Saffron, Yellow-pink, Oamboge.
^rown, is Umber burnt.
Gold Colour is Orpimept.
Again Verdigrise with a little Sap-green, malces a gcoA^
and bright green.
Blues, are Ultramarine, Smalt, Indigo, and blue Brice.*
Of mixing Colours,
Colours are mixed by being ground on a stone with ^ clear
water, severally, and dried and kept in paper bags for
use : except Lampblack, Saftron, Smalt, Gamboge, and
Sap-green.
Blue, to compound, tenaper -a little Indtgo and Smalt
with oil.
A light Blue, mix Srpalt and White-lead together.
Lead Colour, mix Lampblack and White-lead^ together
♦n a Marble.
A Pox Colour, is Umber burnt
Gold Colour, is Orpiment niixt with fal Oil, by a knife
t)n an earthen plate, or gally-tile rather.
To hinder colours from cracking put Oil of Walnuts to
•Ihem.
Yellow Colour, beat Saffron to powder, and steep it in
Vinegar. Or take the yellow Chives in White Lilies and
Gum-water mixt for writing.
Bed, Vermilion with Gum- Water mixt for writing.
Golden Letters, to write 5 mix Vermilion and Gum
Ammoniac with yolks of eggs. \
- Of dying floods, Stuffs^ kc.
To dye Blue, fake woad one pound, and mix it with
four-pints of boiling water, and steep whites in it 24 hours.
To dye red of a ,clear colour, take 60 pints of water
wherein bran has been stuped l4hovirs,aad when straiued
dissolve two pounds of alum, and one ]^n^qt^ tJirtar;
i»
/
Digitized by VjOOglC
t62 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
in which water boil what you have to dye for two hoard j
then take it out, and boil it in half as much fresh water
with bran ; viz, 30 pints j to which add madder 3 pounds,
and so perfect the colour with moderate warmth without
boiling.
To dye Green, First make a yellow by the direction
underneath ; then .take 60 pints of water whei^in bran hath
been soaked, aforesaid ; then strain it ; let 3 pounds of
alum be dissolved in it, and then boil what you have to
dye in it for two hours.
To dye Yeihw^ take woad, two pbunds of the said water
of bran, and boil, till the colour is good.
And if you would turn the said Yellow to Green, putth*
f tuff into the aforesaid Blue Dye,
To dye a Sand Colour, add Log-wood to the Black Dye
before mentioned. <
To dye linen or thread, &c. light red : Take powder of
Brazil and Vermilion, ot each one ounce, boiled in alum-
water.
To dye linen or thread yellow, dissolve gamboge in alum-
•water, &c.
To stain skins blue, boil elder-berries, and with the
liquor brush over the skins, and wring them -} then boil the
berries in alum-water, and wet them twice over.
Of Money.
' The' current coin of this nation is either made of Copper,
Silver, or Gold. Of Copper is made the Farthings, Half-
pence, Pence, and Two-pences. . Of Silver the Pennies,
Two-pences j Three-pences, Groats, Sixpences, Shillings,
.Half-crowns, and Crowns. But therein very little Silver
coined below the Six-pence. Of Gold is made the Quar-
ter-Guinea, the third of a Guinea, 'or Seven Shilling
Piece, the Half-Guinea, the Guinea and Five Guinea Pie-
ces. There are also some few ancients pieces of Gold of
a pale colour, as being alloyed with Silver, and therefore
raay be reckoned the best, and sometimes called Angel or
Crown Gold j but the Old Gold, or broad Pieces, are
mostly alloyed with Copper, which makes them of a reddish
colour.
Imaginary Money.
We appropriate several names to money of which thert
arenocoiqi as
The
Digitized byCjOOQlC
OF MONEY. 26i
The Pound — _ _ _ _ —of 205. Od.
The Mark __„___ 13 4
The Noble, or Half-Mark ~ _ _ _ 6 8
The Angel -— — — — — — 10 O
In England accounts are kept in Pounds, Sliillings, and
Fence Stei ling ; .lid their marks^ are derived from their
names in Lnnn L;. /. for Librae, or Pounds, s, for Solidi,
or Shillings, a. io» Denarii, or Pence, gr. for Quddrantes,
or Farthings, four making a Penny ; and expressed or set
down thus I, s. - d, qr,
4 16 8 2
but better thus 7.4—16—8 ^: The Mark for
pounds standing before the sum denominates the first num-
ber, and the others are kjiown of course ; for after pound*
follow shillings, and after shillings succeed pence, &c.
When the price of any thing is > shillings and pence, it is
set down thus -, ^ s. d,
4 6
. or thus 4^. 6: and when shillings and pence, and parts of a
penny, expressed thus, $. d,
4 61
or thus 45. 6|. The latter way by some Is accounted the
neater, and the, best method to express parts of a penny,
or farthings: thus,
J a farthing, or one fourth part of what it follows,
i a half-penny, or one half of what it follows.
-J three farthings, or 3-4tl>s orqrs. of what it follows.
And being thus set fraction- wise, the under figure shows
howmany parts of the quantity before it is divided into,
and the upper figure shows bow many of those under parts
the fraction stands for ; • as thus, ^ an ell, ^ of a foot, or 9
inches) and the same of a shilling is 9 pence ; of a pound
is 1 5s, Yds.
If you are to set down 6 yards and a half, write thus, 6^
C.
Nineteen Hundred three Quarters thus, 19|-
lb.
Sixteen Pounds and a Quarter, thus, l6i
or else thus, igC^, l&lb, |, 6 feet|, 14 days f. Here
the name is put between the whole nufnber and the frac-
tion, which I think is the plainer and better way : for ex-
ample, 6| Hhds. may, through ignorance or wilfulness, be
read^half Hbds. as well 9s 6 Hhds. and half.
InT£XE8T
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Gold,
Silver,
0/Mmey.
S65
Table of the Value of C^ld and Siher.
C 1 Pouod is wortb
jg48
O
i Ounce
4
Q
1 Pennyweight
O
4
t 1 Gr«mi - •
- , -
a «
•- 1 Pound is worth
- . 3
Q
1 1, Ounce
o
d
J 1 Pennyweight - -
- -
^
VI Grain
-» «
i
N.B.
The Prices of Hie Trecious Metals varies coif tin oally*
A Table for buying or seHitig anyCot.-modity by the Great Hun-]
dred,'. wbicfi 1b lie Poiinds.
•J
d.q.
1
/. s. d.
1
/. $. d.i
1
/. 8. d.
d.^.
/. s. d.
2 4
2 18 4
3 0^ 8
5 J4 4
1
8 IP 4
2
4 8
2
2
5 16 8
2
8 18 S
3
7
3
3 3
3
5 19
/s
8 ir*
1
094
7
3 5 4J
130
6-14
19
8 17 4
1
11 8
1
3. 7 81 1
6 3 8
J
a 19 8
d
14
i:
S 10 Oj
.2
6 6 .0
2
9 90
' 3
16 4
3
3 12 4
3
6 8 4
3
944^
9
IS 8
8
3 14 8|
t4
6 10 $
20
968
1
1 1 Of
* \
3 17 a
1
6 13
•1
990
s
1 3 4
^
3 19 4
«
6 15 4
2
9 n 4
3
15 8
3
4 1 8
3
6 17 8
8
9 13 8
30
1 8
9
4^0
15
700
21 ©
9 16
J
I 10 4
1
4 G 4
1
7 2 4
1
9 18 4
H
t IS 8
3
4** '8 8
2
7 4 8
2
8
3
1 15
8
4 11
3
770
3
3
4 0.
X 17 4
Id
4 13 4
16
794
29
10 5 4
1
1 19 8
.1
4 15 8
1
7 11 8
1
lA 7 tf
^
2 2 0-
2
4 18
8
7 14 U
«
10 10,0:
3
2 '4 4
. 3
504
3
7 16 4
3
10 12.4
5
2 6 8
11
5 2 8
17
7 18 8
23
14 8
1
290
i «
5 5 oj
1
8 I
V 1
17 '
2
3 11 4
2
5 74
2
834
9
19 4
3
2 13 8
3
5 9 8
5 13 01
3
9 a H
9
U 1 8 .
6 {)
2 16
12
18
8 8
24
11 4
• Firsts at S^. Sry^.the pound, \vhal is the Great Hundreifl^
Lpok in the:Tabte for 6d;Zq*\\\ the first cof'omo, ond
against it in the seeond you shall iind 2/. 13j. 9d. and i^o
utjich will 112 pouudv. cost, u Again, ifii hundred weiglit
oost AL Ss.6d. find 4i. %s. dd. and agai-nst it, in the Co^
]|iinn towar^.tbe.left'hand, you wiU iind Qd. ^. and so
much it is by the pouftd.
Ndt' F^ etr^fy farlbiag tlM|t ane pound doth C9%U reckon twoi
skillioipi and totr pffhce, and that is ihe price of tkegi^hnivdred.
. . '^M ' t'hingi
^ I
Digitized by CjOOQIC
l%ii^ proper to be kamrv mud rembered on partactt*
A Jle«« ^ Paper t 90^ Qmim.
'jt Aim ^ Aji^rrM ;Mcel«.
ji lHi$9fw PrinigrSf 2S.Skeeti,
A Bah of Papers \oRe9m$. A Bunih Diiio^lt Remmt^
A Boli of ParehmenU 6 tyogen, or 60 SArjru* .
A Dicker of Hides, 10 Skms.
Di§9o ^ Glovest 10 Dozem Pmir^
A i^'t ifHktts, to Dkisers.
A Loed of Tmher iNiAetiw, 40Fm».
■ ■ ■■ kewn^ 50 Feet.
A Ckuldron ofCoaU, M BmtMs.
A UogsheoAofWitLt^ 63 QoUmu* .
JOiitoofBoor^^iGMam*
A Barrel of Beer, 36 Gullon$.
Ditto of Ale, 39 Gallons.
A Gross 144, or 13 Dwiai*
A Weigh ^CkeeUf^56Pofmds.
JDa^ » tke Year, 36$ ; Weeks, 5t, and Hoars ^"66.
g^ee in the Pound, 940; Farthings, j^O.
An Acre ^Lani, l60 square Pom, or Petches.
A Load, or Comb 40 Bus^eli.
A Market t^oad^ 5 Bushels.
A Last i^ C^n or Rapc'seed, 9 Load, or 10 Quarters^
JHno ^ Pot' Ashes, Vodjish, WKifi-heriii^s, Heal^
Pitch, a»d Tar, \2Sarref$.
tHttos^PlMt and Feathers, 17 Cwt ofGuMpowder,^49
Barrels, or 9400/6. of 4S60/&
A Tan of Wme, 959 Gnihns : Oil of Greenland, 959 ffa^
tons ; and Sweet Oil of Genoa, 936 Galhns,
A Ton in Weighty ^> C. oflron^ &c* («| of Lead there is
but l^a.and a Half, called a Father.
A Tod of Wool, 98 Pounds.
d P^ch of Ditto, d64 Pounds.
A i^oad of Bricks^ 500; and of plain Tiles 1000.
A S^one qt Fish, M. aud of Wool I4ib. The same far
Uorsemam's Weight, amd also Han ; but PepperfiinMh
man, and Alum, have but I3lk, f to ike Sione.
AStone^GlasSfS^PoMnds; andmSeamofdUt^ 94 Sione*
A Tru^ lif ffuff^ 56 Poukds, mid a Load of dittOi 9
Trf^s^0^ But New Hay inJwne and August, ought
to he 60 Pounds to the Truss;
A; Cade of/RodidieMngSr »00; ^an^ of SprOis^ 100$.
tm$'^miJSHiiotl9flK4oilte$tonts^
Baireb
Digitized by CjOOQIC
Barrels of sundry Commodkief,
Anchovies, 30 lb,
A^Buhlf! Barrel, 6ollf,
Nutior apples, 3 Bv^heU.
PQi-msh w Barilla, aoo/^>
mi^ or Black Pkttes, 300.
(kndies, 10 doz. li^
Salmm or Eels, 42 Gtttt,
Flgs,3qrs. 14 lb. to2Ci
Raisins, I CwL .
Oil 31 Qaliovs.andaMaffi
Spanish TqImu^o,^. Cwi. 4»
3. Cwt.
Gunpowder il Cwt,
Soap, 240 It, ;.
Butter, 224 lb.
Herrings, ZXCaOons^
Things in wbalesaleTrade, bought and sold by the Thousand
Cuttk Bones
Oranges and Lemons
Chair Nails
Tqfiks and Tenter tfboks
Pwnegranates andTdzefs
Coose Quills and Thimbles
Bricks
Clinkers or Flanders Tiles
Biltels<ind Leaves of Horn
Barrel Hoops
Squirrel Shins
.Slate and HUlimg Stonoi.
Pinsandsmall Needles by the lOOOD<t%en.
Tbiqgs sold and bought at.Sb Soose ta die If iMfdned*:
Banks and Barlings .
Jksrrjgl and Pipe marda
BBon^pars and Bow^ay^t
Ctmspans and Caprevans-
Ihrrmgp and Deal Boards
Ifails, Eggs and Cod^sh
Cole,, Ling end Nni^foundU
land fkk, Siod^fitk ^
9ilSo^$s.
Elli iif Camasa, ^nd mitfl %
Foreign Linms
Hogshead Slavics.
Of Boads^ Bills, IndefttHrcs, Letters of Attorney, Wills,
anddtbertksefiil WHtiugs.
Precedents of these are vexif necessary, not only for the
understofidlng of them, itti to.kntnif &mu io nudetihem^ pn^
perlyiofe Occasion. ^
,.' .A Bor^^ frpxn 09e to. Anqt})er.
KNOIF aU Men: by ihue Pr^entk, thai /'Abraham
Darnj?!, of the Parish qf St Sepulcbr^,. in ihi City of
LQn4pn« Gentlemfln^ aimk bfilA emd^f^m^f bound ^<» John
Mdvil, of the seddCttsf, •/London, Esq. im the S^mof
F^yPorndsofgot^' awi^ imwfld Money if Qte^ Britain.
to be paid to the said Jabii Melvtl/ or his ctrtain Att^iiey,.
his E»ecu^s, Admmstra^fff w^ 4ss^ns; for the trten
Pa^m/mt Ufhtrejaf. IMndf^^ nAf Htirs, Executors
Md 4^inisJrqtors,J^4^y,/h U^ Presents, seaki <V
d by Google
^8
A TABLE OF STAMPS, Sec
For
Abore
Above
Above 100
Above aoo
Above 500
5
30
60
Notes paifmbU on Demand.
£ *.
«ii4 not cxceediiif 5 5
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
30 o
50
100 O
9m
60O
1000
£ s. i
o r
i 6
For
Above
Above
Above
Above loo
Above SOo
Above 500
5
30
50
BUl»t orVotes^ pa^ahU ofletDale^ or St^ht.
and not exceeding $ s
5 ditto « 30 o
o ditto . . • 50 o
ditto • 100
ditto . •« 900
ditto 500
ditto 1000 O
Kotes paydfAe on Demand^ 'and re-issumhU «^er Pi^ent,
For 1 1 and not'e&ceedinf
Above 1 1 ditto ft «
Above 11 diUo « 5 5
Above 5 5 ditto 90 o
Foreign Bills qf Exchange.
Whkm the Suai iliftli not exceed lOO o
Above 100 o ditto . soo o
AKove SOO b ditto . 500 o
Above 50Q tt ditto • . lofio
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
O 4>
o :
O 1
For
RECEIPTS, If in full of nil Demaadis,
10
so
50
100
50O
nod under
ditto . .
ditto
ditto
ditto , .
ditto
nnd npwai'ds
10 o
ft^
50
i6o
aoo
500
For any Sam ant esHSceding
Above 100 o and under
500 ditio
1000 ditto •••
SWh O ditto.. * '
dodo ditto" :
4000 Q- ditto
5000 « ditto ' . -
looo« ^ • ditto
ISOoo p^ . dilto < •
80000 . . ,*
Bonds* '
,. too
300
. - looo
« ' :?000
. • Uoop ,
4M>0
. 5oo0
. Ibobo'
» ISotto
. .• SpODQ
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
b
o
o
o
Q
O
o
o
1 o •
k ia •
a o o
4 o o
5 o o
6 6
700
o o
. o
o n
9
lit
i5.
SO
AgrpemeiiU < each fo. DekcntuBpa « je&CQ . ^^
Almannckii Is. Peed8&JhdeDtureMl.i<is.^u|».
Awardi - . ' * ih lot. lnvci|t;oite<' ... . 5».
miM of Lading i s$. {t»roi<8ta nnd Notarial Acta 4t.
d by Google
" BONDS, BILLS, 'Se. ^ 'Wfr
iAeJftieik Year of the Reign of our Sovereign Lord George
ihe Third, hy the Grace of God of the United Kingdom nf
iarestt Britain and .Ireland, Kiag^ Defmder tf the Faith^
and so forth, and in the Year of our Lord One Thousand
Eight Hundred and Ten,
The Condition of this Obligation is sveh. That if the above
Z'own/fe/i Abraham Darnel, his Heirs, Executors orAdmini"
straiors, do well and truly pay, or cause to be paid to the
above-named John Melvil, his Executors, Administrators, or
Assigns, the ftill Sum of twenty-Jive Pounds of good and
-lataful Money of Great Britain, on the twentieth Day of
Ajjgnstnext ensuing the Date hereof, with the lawful In^
iierest thereof, (hen this Obligation to be void, or else to re-
4nam, continue, and be in fM force aHd virtue.
^ Sealed 2nd Delivered
(being first duly stamped)
^ in the Presence of Abraham Darnel. O
GeorgeNeedy,
Thomas Trusty.
ABiUmihaPenaUff,
KNOW all men by these presents, that I, John Jenkins^
of the city of Chichester, in ths county of Sussex, Victual.
let, do, acknowledge myself indebted to Martin Moneyihan
of East Grinstead, in the county, albresaid^ Grazier, in the)
sum of twent}\ Pounds of good and lawful Money of Great
Britain, to be paid unto the said Martin Moneyman, his
Heirs, Executors, Administrators or Assigns, in or upop
the 2ath Day of September next ensuing the dAte bereoT,
.without IraiKi or further delay : for and in consideration of
which payment well and truly to be made and done, I bind
• myself, my Heirs, Executors, and Administrators, In th©
'penal sum of forty Pounds, of the like lawful money, firmly
'by these Presents ; In witness whweof I have hereunto set
Note. The Mark in this and the Form follounjig, repre--
sents the Seal, which in this itnd all thoe^in which it appears,
ought to be affisied: the person ^o e/sec^tes my^ifiifi^M (a
Will excepted t concerning wlich directions tvill be given inti^
place) is.in the Presence of the Witness^ to take^tJ^ ^eal
(that is, tlie Instrument witk.which the impression wilLS n^^/
and then taking the paper ^r parchment in his or hpr f^h$
. band, is to pronounce th^se words, I deliver this 99 my Agt
aud Deed for the Purposes within mentioned. >
M3 my
Digitized by CjOOQIC
mr BliWI dfid Setl, fhig tweotjr-fifth *if oT JlAnvJi; ttA
tlie 6&i«C% y6Mr tff th0 R«igti of our SoveiingQ Lord Ktn^
Gi^rge tlieTbir4ft Mki in the year of our Lead God, ItlO.
Signed^ SeaUi and Deli-
/Iftr0din thi Presence of John Jenhins. O.
r*i* Test' mony,
Andrew Affidavit.
J jhori BUI, or Note of Hand.
KNOW all Men by Ihote Presents, that I PetirPfmy^
ie$$, of the Piariailof Si.Swkur, Souikwmrk, in the county
«f Air r«y, Bhcksunth, de owe> aud ow« myself to siaiiil
indebted to JMcrt Miek, of tbe Pattsli of St. Jndrm, Ha^
lorn, in the county of Middlesex, Gent, in the juit ^nd
dae sam of five Pounds of Ja^K^ful money of 6rea/ Brilain^
whid) by fhtse Presents I promise to pay unto hun the «ai4
l^o^«rl JBc*, at or lipon the. ^xth day of October next cn-
aoiog the date, hereof: for the troe performance of which
payment well end truly to be made^ and in witness hereof
I have set my tlaai to Oies PhBiefeitl^'tfae 4th d^y ai Jufy,
1810. - ..^ . ,
Peier PennyUu.
Among men of bvsiness the fbibwiiq; fyirm h obrntsmn^
If iised» and ise<}tiatiy eflSectnaliR bW ;
jg^ LQnd<»>. Xfa^ VO, .W^.
Five Months af^er date, I promise to . pay to Mr. Roberi
Sti^h^ pi order, the sum of five Pounds, lor value received^
Pe$er Pmn^ieit.
: TThisNote is transferable to another, it Bffhn Bk^
IPfitci his name on the back of it i but then if Peler Pen^
^ess does not pay it^ JUiert jUkh is 4iaWe to ^ called 091
£r the money.
J pmd BiUfr<m Ti»»io Oim,
dlOiVn^l MftH by ttiMie Bf«Beftt», ^hM #^ Lawretteo
iMktoss and Poter FMper, both of th\s Parish of Saint
)MMMtt,tt6psey, ifl *« county of >fi*ltese*^ Weavers, do
ME«o«feige and a^tk our^vos «o st^nd tndi^MeS to Gabriel
Owody, of the PaHsh of St. Ols«*,Soulhwark,itt^h!? county
^Somy, fMt^aber, JUthejoM a^d\ie torn df ii^n Pounds
^f Eood and kmM mam of ^OreaVlritrii^ t^ bo patd^
iwtir'
Digitized byCjOOQlO
BONDS, WLLS, kc, Vfr
li»ti> him the md Gabriel Greedy, )i» Heift, SioeciitorBt
AdmlnistTAtors, or Asi^gm, at or upoo th» ihtrteBoyi d«f«
of €^tober ne&t easiuqg ihe 4aie hereof, without frtod «t
further delay; for and in coasideraiion of which pftymenlB
well and triUy to be madf^ we4o bisid our Heirs» £»ac«K
lors^ and Adaainistratoife, ia 4be pea^ tum of tweat^r
Pounds oi the like lawfial Money; firmly by theae Fresenti;
In witness whensofi we have h^feunto aet out Hmids and
Seiis, thi|si^t^enthdj7QfJ|%, ia the fiftieth Year of th^ '
lUeign of our Sovereign I,o|d K4qg G^cf^e ^mTbivd, Bctx
and in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred
and Ten.
vtiPti ifk ihf pre§eku v/ Lawr. latckleu*, &.
Winbleam Winaesa, l^rtfcr fte/w^.
Tin^Mi^ Testis.
KNOW all Meiki by these fk^ents, thut ttftartefft^al^
fid, t>f Lewes it) the County ef Sossei, Apothecary/ (fot
tKrers coftsideralfons isnd gt>od causes me hereunto mov-
ing) h«ye mitde, ordiunedy eonstttuted and app^nted, slndb
by these Ihrosents do make, pTdain, consritute, and appoint
niy thurty friend' Wiftiam WagaJteiF, of Pfemsey, in the
County fefbresaid. Gentleman, my true and lawful Attor-
ney; ifor tne, it) my name, and to tay use, to ask, demand,
tecover et fccfeiTe of or fttim A, B. ot Rye, in the said
County, the sum of fbttyRAmds; giving, and by theser
(yeseuts granting to m^ said Attorney, SDle dnd full Power
end Amht>rity^ to take, jputstie, abd fbllow such legal coursea
foirthe feebvery, lieceifittg;^ and bbtainiog thb same^ as t
tnyself mfght- vr tbuld db, were I petvanally present \ and
tipcm the Receipt of the sattie Acquittances, and olher sufr
lircient disAarg^, Ibrine, and in my ^drte to miake, sign,:
seal, and dtelivcr, as ahb, one tut mbre Attorney di- Attofneys
nnder bitn to subMitute or appoint, and again at bis pleasure
to revoke ; and further to do, perfofrtJ, and execute for tne, and*,
m my natae, all tuid singular thing dr things, which arc or
may be necessary touching and concerning the preniises, as.
fialfy, thorou^ljr, and entirely, as I the said Charles Care-
»N6te. AttOmigationsffiitst bein English, and the wards
in full length; also Bonds, ifotes of Hand, Bills , Letfers of
Atifrme^,indtnl»res, to. must he on stamped paper (See the
Table, p. 26&J f render them valid.
M4 fnl
Digitized by CjOOQIC
272 YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION,
fnt in tnyownperson^ oo^bt, or could do in and about the
BBine; ratityiag;, allowing, and ooofirmtng whatsoever toy
mid Altofney shaU lawfulty do, or cause to be done in and
abom tlio estecution of the Premises, by virtue of these
Presents. In witness whereof I have hereunto set mj
Hand and Seal the sixth day of July, in the fiftieth year of
Retgn of oar Sovereign Lord George the Third, by the
Grace of God of the Un'Ked Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, King, ic. and in the Year of oar Lord One
Thousand £ight Hundred and T^ .
A Letter of Attorney by a Seaman,
KNOW all Men by these Presents, that I Tlnwthy Tar-
pduiin, Mi^iner, now belonging to his Majesty's ship tbe
i2ye, .fiirdberB ^ood Causes and Cotisidemtions me there-
unto moving, have and by these Presents do make my
trusty Friend Henry Hear^, Gitizeo and Baker of London^
(or my beloved Wife Penelope Tarpaulin) my tiue. and law-
ful Attorney, for me, and in iiiy napie, eandfor my JLfse*
to ask, demand, and receive of and from the Right tipr.
iiourable. the Treasurer, or, Pavmaster of his Mjae9ty>
Navy, and the Commissionecs ot Prize-money, and whom
else it may concern, as well all sivch 'Wages and Pay,
Boanty-Vooney, Pri^e-money, and all ojher aum or sums
of money whatsoever,, as. now are, and which hereafter shall
4ud mny be due, or payable unto me i .also all such Pen-
sions, Salaries, Smart-money, brother money and things
whatsoever, which now are, or at any time hereafter shall
or inay be due to me, for j&y service, or otherwise, in any
one of bis Majesty's Ship or. Ships, FrigateJi or Vessels :
Giving and hereby grantii\g, unto- tbe s^id. Attorney, full
and whole Power, to take, /pursue> and follow such, legal
ways and courses, for the recovery, receiving, and obtain-
itig and discharging the said.suiii or suras of money, or any
ci them, as I myself might or could do were I personally
present j' and I do hereby ratify, allow, and confirm all and
whatever ray Attorney shall lawfully do or cause to be done
in and about the execution of tiie Premises, by virtue of iliese
Presents, .* In witness whereof I have hereunto set my Hand
and Seal, this twenty-seuon^i day of March, Que I'hou-
sand Eight Hui\dred audTen, hcc.
Timothy Tarpaulin., O
Digitized by CjOOQIC
wills; codicils, &:c. w^
A short TFiU in legal Form.
IN the Name of God, Amen. I, WiUlam JFeaUy, of ihQ
Qiy of London, Haderdasber, ' being very sick and weak
iii [or, in perfect health of]. Body, but [or^ and] of perfect
Slind and Memory of my Body, . and k-nowing that it i^
appointed for all Men once to die, do make and ordalp this
my last Will and Testament : lliat is to say principally,
and first of all, I give and recommend my Soul into the
Hand of Almighty God that gave it, and my Body I com-
inend to the Earth, to be buried in decent Christian Bu'-
rial, at the discretion . of my Executors; nothing doubting
but at the general " Resurrection I shall receive the sam&
again by, the knighly power of God. And as touching sucU
worldly Estate wherewith It hath pleased God to bless me
in this life, I gwe, devise, and dispose of the same in the.
following Manner and Form :
FirsL I give and bequeath to Ellxaheth, my dearly, be- ^
loved Wife, th<^ suin of Five Hutidred Pounds of lawibt
Motkey oi Great Britain^ to be raised and levied out of my
Estate, together with all my Household Goods, Debts, and
moveable Effects.
Also, I give to my well-beloved Daughter ERzalelH
JVeaJilyy whoni I likewise constitute, make, and ©rdain the
sole' Executrix of this ray last Will and Testament, all and
singular nay I^and^^ Messuages, and Xeneraents, by her
freely to be . pbstessed add enjoyed. And I do hereby ut-
terly disallow, revoke, and disannul air and every other
former Testaments, Wills, Legacies, Bequests, and Bxe* "^
cutors by me in any wise before named, willed, and be-
queathed, ratifying and confirming this, and no other, to b«
my last Will and Testament. In Witness whereof I have
hereunto set my Hand and Seal, this 12ih day of..May,.,ia
the year of dur Lord one thousand eight hundred and ten.
^' Sigped, sealed, published, pronounce^,
.: nnd declared by the said William WiUJFeakly > <X
., i Weakly as his last Will and Testa- ..
ment, in the Presence of as, .who, .
in his ProsenceV and in the Pre- , . / *
^ sence of each other, ^ have hereiinto , ,
• subscribed oj^r Naoaea.
. Henry Hardv^ . . .....
... f Samuel Short, . ' i
Wiiliiua Wortle. '
'Ma- ^ • ■ ■ Th© _
Digitized by CjOOQIC
YDUNO MAlTt HftST CDUTANIOK.
The Tettator, after taking off the Sea^ most, in the pre^
eeeoe of the Witnetaes, pronpimce these words, I (^obUiih
and dedare thit to be m^ last Will and Testament.
Note. If a Win be already made, and the Person bath
no mbd to alter it, but to add iemetbing more, theife ma]f
be afiixed the following Codicil or Schedule to it^ and U
will stand good in Law, as part of the Will.
ACodidtioamil,
B£ It known unto all Men by these PfesenU, that I W&^
Bam IPeakl^, of the City of London, Haberdasher, have
<iade and declared my Ust Will and TesUment in writing,,
bearing date the 12th day of May, One Thcmsand Eight
Hundred and Ten. I the said WilRavi WcMv by this pre-
sent Codicil do ratify and confirm my saiJ wst Will and
Testament; and do further give and bequeath onto mjr
loving Cousin and Godaon WilBam TTeqkly, junior, the
aum of fifty Pounds of good and lawful Money of Great
Britain, \6 be paid unto him the said WUlican Wi^aVy, by
my Ekecutrlx, out of my Estate. And my will aftd me^n*
itig is, that this Codicil be adjudged to be a part.and parpel
ofmy last Will and Testament; and that all things tbereui
mentioned and contained be fiolthfully anii truly performed,
and ai fully and aniply in every remct, as if the samewett^ so
declared and set down in n^ said last Will and TestatHent.
Witness Aiy Hand this 20th Day of May> Out Thousand
£ight Hundred and Ten.
Siffied in the Premeex^iu, WiWuim mahkc O
Jptedof&Jt.
•to all People to whem these Present* nbsdl, come : I .
George Generous jk> send Creeling. Know ye, that I the
said Gfwgg Genertm^ df the Parish of Pajwcrai, in tbd'Cttwi-
ty of Middlesex, Brick-maker, for and in const^OTtion of
theLove^ Good-wifl, andA&ction, wWchlhare and do
bear towawis my lo^ngSiuter Sarah Sfirrokfal, of'tfeeaame,
Pyish and County, Wi^Mf, have given a^ granted, aad
by these Presents do fret^ give and gr^ unto the said
Sarah iStirrowful, her Heirs, Exstaftpoj or Adfhfejstmtors,
all and singular my Goods and ChaKdla now being in my
ptesent Dweltlng-house in the Parish afbtesaid, known by
m Name of Fisherx Figgfruj of wfneh ^befwe &« a igning
of
d by Google
«r^A«e ftewiitt) 1 hiT* delivfcred tiet, the Said. SdrtkSor^
rowfiit, all Intentoty ^gned with my own Hdod, and bear*
vag eVBli iDatje, to havfe-ahd to hold all th6 iaicl GoodI aiic^
Chiattd^ Id the saia tremists or Dwelling-house, to h^r the
«id Sarah Sorrdwfiil, her Heirs, Jfexecutbrs, or Admihi-:
JtrAtOT, from hefidfefortli>.as her aod their proJ>er Gb6ds and
Chattels absolutely, without ahy raatSa^r of condition. In
ivitnesjt whereof, I have hereunto set tny Hand and Seal,ftig
loth Day of May, Ond Thousand Eight Hundred and Ten*
Signe^^ St«led^ i©* Bel}- • Gmg^ Gmimm^ Q
, v^friiin th^pjR^feiiCf of
Daniel. X>rayton. ,
A|r«n Afkiiis.
JV«/0« This F^eoed^til qao^ be ejttQnded to th^ S»^vnft.
jg^Kfi of C^Ue, GofH, Hoate or I^nd, if not cn^ed^^ &^*
b«^ tin? Pfliticuiais- i»u^t be vem^i &C.
Thi« Indenture witnessetii, that RickdrdRei/fioMsySm ot
Hot erf R&^nolds, Me of Pomse/, in the County of Sbssftx^
iath put himself, and By thele Vre66hii doth vbfbntafilf
is^ut himself Apprentice fo Charles Cai^etiter, Cifizert. affid
inen-draper of London, to leanj his Art, Tirade, ot Mys-
tery, and after the Mum^ df Mr A^pi>s;ntice, to serve him
ifiromtheDay of the Date hereof for and daring the iuU
termofsevfloa Years ne.Kt ensulne : Daring all wliich time^
i)e the satd Apprentice his sgid Master shall faithfully seVve,,
his Se(:ret»keep^hi^ lawful Ccpumands every where jjladly
^ii^Y* He shall do no Damage to his sdi4 IV^aster^ nor see
fttobedoneby others^ without letting or giving Iflbdce*
tfyefopdobi^ said Master* He sbaU neit waste Bta said &fas"^'
tfif ''s Gcoods, nor lend them ufila wfully t^ others* He shall^
nor commit J^omicatioi^ nor contract Matrimony. wiMn ther
a&id Term«. At Cards, Dice, oi; any nnlaiyful Game he shall
«ot pl*y> wherel^ his said M^er ma|r be danaagcd. Witl^
his owny or tlie QotxJs o( others^ during the said term,.
^ith^otliiSeiiceof his Master, be shall nekher. buy nprsell.^
Hp shaft not absent Jiim30lfda)( o^ night from his said. Mas-
ter's Servioe without his leay^; Nor hai;int. Alehouses,^ ,
Taverns, or J^yl^uses: but in all thin^ behave mj^^
afaitHiH Apprentices on^tr to do ^urmg; the ^d>tQfm.,
And the said: Master shaU use the ntmbst of his endeavour^ .
«» tMSh^»KS^^9P^.'^ betaoght and instructed tfae^ raid Ap^^
: prentice
Digitized by CjOOQIC
276 YOUNG MAN's BEST COMPANION.
preotke in the Trade and Mystery he now. profsfsetb/o^.-.
cuprelh, or followeth : and procure for him the said Apprea-'
tice sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Washing and Lodg-
ing, fitting for an Apprentice, during the said Tjsrm : and
for the true performance of ail and every the Covenants
and Agreements^ either of the $ald Parties bind themselves
UUto the other by these Presents.
In witness whereof they have interchangeably put their
Hands and Seals, this 16*th day o£ April, ih the forty-ninth
Year of the Reign of our Sovereign Lord Oeorge the Third,
by (heOraee of God of the United Kingdona oi Great Bri-
tain and Ireland^ King, &x. md in the.Yearof'O&r Lord
God, One Thousand Eight Hundred And Nincr
Note, If an Apprentice be inroUed before * a Jdstice of
the Peade or other proper OAicer, (the Chamberlain being
iittch ID Lo/^dbnJ he cannot sUe out bis Iiid«^ntur6, bat tipoo*
proof of unmerciful Usage, want of Vietisial^, or otherne-
cessanes, or \\U Maiiter'S' being incapable of teaching hioi
bis Trade, or not choosing it so to be done at his proper
charge by others. And the same holds good in relation to
a Mistress -, but there being no Inrolment, an Indenture
may be su^d out vvitbout showing cause, in Cities and
Corporations^ &c.
A General Release. . . - ^
KNOW all Men by these Presents, ihat J, Peter Peaces
alley of Hastings, in the County of Sussex, Tobacconisr,
have demised, released, and for ever quit Claim, toT^i-
Uam Winter, of Rye in the County aforesaid, Fiih-Chap-
inan, bis Heirs, Executors and Administrators, of all' and'
all mapner of Action ot Actions, Suits, Bills, Bonds, Writ-
ings, p^bts. Dues, Duties, Accoropts, Sum and Sums of
Money, Leases, Mortgages, Judgments by Confession; or
otherwise obtained. Executions, Extents, Quarrels, Con-
troversies, Trespasses, Damages and Demands wbatsoever,
which by 'Law or Equity, or olberwisef sOever, I ^he satd
Peter Peacealk against the said William Winter eVer had,
afnd which I, .my Heirs, Executors, or Administrators, shaH
or may claim, challenge or demand, for or by reason, or
means, colour of aiiy Matter, Cause or Thing whatsoever,
to t tie day of the date of these Presents, in ^witness where-
of Ih a ve* hereunto set tot Hand and }5ea}, thisljitH day of
j?>;//; A-c; - ' ■ ■ ' ' • • ....
* ' ' . ' Peter Pea^edUe* O
The
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L
'^he PMctice rf Gardeningin dllitsBrhU^h^^
^for the twelve Months, in the Year.
FROST is to. be expected aow^ .aad JiQtIaing is so hurtful
to tender Fl9>X'er-ro6ts, and their Shoots ibV Spring.
^ariarftduses, Anferiionles aiiid TuKps wiil'btt- in danger j
cbv€* tie Beds to guard tbem j lay on Pea*8tras«[, wher^
they are not come up, but wherd' the ShoOt appears^ place
Hoops >vhbMats'Sind-Ctl>th updn tbem. Thhidtfaecom-
tnbfr Pfactice'5 btit:' in tliat ^xcfellent Work, The ComplH^
Bf^y ofGardmhg, them ha Method pFepoied* madi
««si^ and^better. This* h to pl^ce behind tlieiA a Reed-
liedge,' sloping three Feet forward. A Mat is to -be lei
^own fr6m the Ibp In e<5vere Weather, and take&' up in
irifid. This preserved th^ii, and yet dot's not draw tfieQa
"weak, OTTnaketheai^flder. Cover the Bed$ and Bos«t
' of Seediing F!ov(rers, atfd t&ke off the Defence when^rtlte
Weather is milder. Cover Carnation Plant* from Wet^ and
defend them from Mice ^iad Spdtrow». -
- Clean the Auricula ^Imts^ pick off dead Leaves, and
scraipe away the Surface of the Mould 5 put fresh Mo^d ia
the pkiceof it, and set the Pots up to tivebrimin the Mould
of a dry Bed, and. place behind them a Reed-bedgis. :
Fir Me Kitchen Garden, Throw up some new Dung in
a heap to heat, that it may be ready to make Hot*beds botli
fcir the darly Cucumbers and Meleos 'in : this part of the
grotind, and for raising «eeds<©f Anrinaii in AeFlaweti-
%*!'den. Dig up thegraimd- that'll to be sown with the
• 'Sprixl^ Ctt>ps, that it may He and tnelkw. . m
Nurse the Caoltdbwer Pknts kept oi^er gfasses, car/s*
fully : shut out the Frost, bttt In the middle oi^' milder dayt
l^t in a'iitlle jtir j , -pick op ihe dead leaves, and •gather up
the dfdtiJd about theistalk«»i •
• Make' a slight Bot'^ed ki. ihe open ground, for yximag
S^laditig/ )ifid place hoops oietf it, tliat Jt xrcay be .covered
in bard weather. Plant out Endive for Seed into ^mxfk
•:bbiifers j: ettrtli ind bfancJb Celery. , So# ^ few Beans and
^ea^s,afidfteekaiiddesteoy' Snails and otb^riVermini. . I
• . Fruit-'^£V9e8,S wbetiieriia Orchards, or £a|«|iers,;«c against
*WatIs,:^in|uidithe seller geneiialifianagenriimt* - . ...;
Cut dtf^rdead Wood :aBd: inegula BibticbesT clean' the
.Utninps tsA BoUgh& from Moss . wit^a^iiMUaw. . iren^ ^nd
d by Google
^7* TDtTNO WaPi nam? e6lKPANlOK.
ftprir EfptlMfi/fintcaiiogtheSmtosiiaiHlMetwtAM^
&c. and tie the Shoots down wkk the twigs ofOsier.
Plac^ Stakes by all tiew-planted Trees; and cot' Grafts
toberead/i laydieftiiiiliMfiartii ttadar««armWai).
FEBVXJAXT.^Pl^asurf-Garden.
Make Hot-beds £>r annual flowers w\A the l>«iiig laid ap
ioK tbat pnipoae, and sow them tipon a good tofid of Mevdd,
laid regolarljr of er the dung,
TVansplaot perennial Ftowen and (laidy.Shrabs^ <kM^
UHnarj Betti^ LiUks, and tiM liku^ Break up and dew la^
mt GraveUw^ks. Weed» oika^ and cleam the bod boidet^.
Sow Auricida and Polyandiua seeds in boaea.; tbei#
dK)ttkl be made of touj^ boards six inches deep» with holak
at the bottom fac cairylng olT of water ^ tbey vnMt be filM
with Kght naoukl> and the seeds scatovd thial^r ibver th«
aMfiice^ then aome more n«>ald «Kut be silted «v«r them s
^wrter of an indi ^tbiek^ and be eat where ^ty am Ibve'*
the rooming Sm.
Plant out Carnations infee pott for 49eiitering«
t>\g mid kvel Beda for sewing itadiibe» aiid Otiioas^ Car«
lots and ParMM{u> and I>«lcb !Lettiftoe: ljeel(s and S^ioaehk
abonid also be sown new^ also B^t$» Cele^j^ Sorrei and
Marygolds, with any other of Che ^ardy kinds.
Make «p the Hot4)ed8 far early Cucun&bW, end low
Caolidower-ieeds and seeae otkfecs.
Plant Beans and sow Fead $ the beat w^ ia to sow »
Caop every Foitoogbt, that if one secceedi end iwether
M^ aa wittof^ be the ease, theremay atill b«| a constant
aiipply^ at the dneac a ae p » br Inbkv Plata: Xl4f»y Beana
«|)oii'aHot4Kd far an ^Hgr citop. The Dwarf* White^
mod Batienea Beetle are ^e beat sorts. They must have aircp
the oaiikUe of mild . day $ when th^ ate up^ and oafce ia two
days they must be gently watered! Tfrin^bni CaUwf e!|»
lAhuatpnt Sitesbrand Cm ijBtimtc,fy$miS^ beda where tgbey
l^rew in Wimar^ and plant Potatoea and Jexmnlem Art^
dbakes.
Most kinds of Trees may now lie fyrufted, but i| wSI he
better to do it In Autunooi} whatever hhs baea esihted mvil
tettaaeMw, tWhaiiiieatkioda being pfunedte^iMd »cb
nsare more tendn' at Uas is^aer end of theii»»nlfa« wbWl
there wai be kas dBnger eftiieit aafiM^t firbea frdat.
: Ttanq^laai^f^t««i^8 te|)]&:ea'«dieafeth^rknawf«ie^
-^ffmng a lai^e Me^ setUing the earth carefully about theif
Digitized byCjOOQlC
' '^ttSftfURavft art
tim^ teal orflkif tMn i« Mde t»dife.waU^ ^ &«leiiiDg
tlMBi tflijinig'Sttitau JMl Of ifaetM^nr Ilrt8»tNUi €ett^ >
Sow the kernels of Apples and Pears, and stones ^ FkHM
for stocks, smd kqepolf the binds.
Wfltch tli^BedsofMtider Ft^wevs, att<tcbrDW'MttUofet
them suptMDTMdtijr hbopS'ittr bdrd weather.
TrdttspJfimaU the 4i^dy peNnidal ^rou»-rocled Pl0\ir«
apt, 9iMei>^WiBkm», an4 GoMeiiTodft. i^ Bp the Eertti
B^oM dittfld whfek were {)iatttt4 in Aatttttin> and clean th* *
groond between.
All tlie i^tru of flMvfeiMbg ^Mttls imnt now be dressed.
Pick oi^ disad ietvies, yemdvetbeEairtbiit tiM top, and pot
iMk in 4^ place, give tlieiik a gwatle wBteiing, and set
dhem VB their piaees forfloweriog. T^ing care the Roots
ase tiot w«anded, vrpeat this ^oaee in three daj^s.
The third week in March is the tinie to sow sweet Fbaa»
Poppies, Catokiies, ami «}1 tke ^ardy amaittl plants.
The hst we^ is pfbper to tfansDlBmiBi £««fgreeiis| but
for tbis purpose a showery 4ay sliookl be cbasea. Ne^
Hot-beds must be made to recem the Seedlfegs of oinnxuA "
flow^iiB raised in the ibtiher.
Sow in the Beds of the Kitcben-^^aDden SBme Carrots toA
also the large Peas, Hoiittcefwals and Grey.
In better Ground sow Cabbages and Savoys^ a}so Gsrroti
and Parsnips for a fieciMletop, and tofWardssbe c»d ef 4be
BE2«iith put vh a large pari^el ^ Beans aod P^aae.
S&i^ Pbrsfoy and plant Mint; ato Cos mai Itnferitii
Lettuce; a^ transplant the isier ^kindir.
In the 6m week sow MM^fk Parsley foribe roBts.
In "dje }mt wedk if dry ^ys, msdoe Agpars^s^beds.
C^r op tke Artio^e-voots, slip off the weakest md
plant them out for a new crop, teavBig'ibor from cacb gONsd
rtoot to bear 5 and frotti ^acb as are weaker, two. Dig u^
a warm border, etid sow Mac* Btsma. Ixt them have al
dry jloil ; BtiA give «bein tny waaer till they appe«r«
The gialls whfi«b wese cot otf BBrfy and htid in tbs
ground to be ready for use, are mw tb be brengbt into ser-
vice, those of ite eatlier kinds are to be^ned first, and the
Ap^e last Bf liik Look to the StocksiBmoadBaed iait year;
and take off their heads. A hand4MmMkh ibould be M tai
«i«[feoe: TbMllold^tbe1>MM:«rBby^j^SBir> and the
4ap tkna «pt» §^ tm Its jjunrt s k— ft ^^ _
. > The
Digitized by CjOOQIC
$90 YOUNG Miai%.BBS£»aMPANION.
TboFrat-t/mpliAilad Jast Of/okrm^'bKli^
ihoold becttt dbirato aimost fbcur.Evfs^ the Bop ifaetLiisM
novefrMlx,
APKIL.— Pleasure-Garden: -
Tie up the Stalks of allr Flowers to sticks two feet lortg,
tbrustiog eight tncbes ioto the ground^ and let.th^kibe'hld
among the leaves, rak<$ the grovod between tiitsq, ...
Take off the slips of Auvtcukis^ and plant thmn out eare-
ftUy for an iucrease. Transplant . perennial .Fk^wcn and
Evergreens^ and take.up tbe.f otHS of Colchtcams, and oih^r
bulbous plants. ' ^
' Sow Ae7?eAHoiie3r6ockleSj,WaD**flowers> and other hardy
plants^ upon the natural ground i and tbe tenderar Hndi
on Hot-beds. Tcaasplant those sown last mtn^ Mxto t\»
second Hot-bed. Plant . sono^ . Ttiberoses in a mo&BVAto
Hot-bed^ and sow Carnauems and Finkii.on tiie natuiai
grouted on open borders. .
Plant a large crop of French BcAOftj choosing a dry warm
Itpr^er, Plant cuttings of Sageand^ otber aroinatic plants.
Sow Marrowfat Peas and plant soiue "Beans for a late crop;
also Thyme, Sweet-marjoracn* and Savory.
Prepare dung for making ridge§ |» receive Cucumber or
Melon-'plauts desi^^d-ior b^li or hand-Ngiasses.
Sow young Salading once in tend^ysi a]»> Co% anfd
Silesia Lettnpes. v ,
• The seeds of ^l kinds being in tlie ground, look to tbe
growing crops,, dear awiay the weeds among tbem, and dig
tip the eartjb between tbe rows pf Beans,. Peas, and all other
kinds that are planted at distances. This will give tfaem a
strong growth, andbr^ng th^i^ ¥OQin to perfeo^ion*
Draw uptheooouid'to the stalks of the Cabbages and
Gaalifiower-plants ; and in cold fights cover ' with glasses
early Cucnrobers and IVSelons.
Look to tbe J^r nit- trees against the walls and espalieiPsJ
Take pfFall fotetight sho<2ts,.and\t]^in such ^s riseJ^indlyA I
Thin Apricots, as tbire are usually lap^pre than: can ripei:^
thi3 sooner tliis is doao the better 4he otj^rer'^t^cceed^ ' «
- Water new-jdSaated trees. _ 7 : .• ' *
*' .Plant euttii^s iof V:\n^» and look; Over .tl^^ grown qnes;
Nip off impi^npevi shoots. Whi^ two^^ise^f ropix tbe sa{ne ey^
always take. o£ the weakest, . . ,. '
r Weed,Sta-awbefry'»beds;;CUt.<>fftt|id. filrit^; stir-; tba
earth between uien^^^aiwl j(>nc<$«iu tl^cQe ^d^. w^^ them* ,
*"i' . • ' MAY.
Digitized by CjOOQIC
GARDENING. ^^l
MAY. — Pleasure-Garden.
When the leaver of sow-breads are decayed take up tke
roots, and lay them carefully by till the time ef plaaling.
Take up the Hyacinth-roots which have doqe flowering,
and lay them sideways in a bed of rich dry mould, leaving
the stems and leaves out to die awaj^ this practice greatly
strengthens the roots; Clean all borders from weeds ; take
off all straggling branches from the large flowering plants,
and trim them up in a handsome shape.
Plant out French and African Marygolds, with other
Autumnajs, from the Hot- beds the last week of this month>
choosing a cloudy wacm day.
Tie up the ttal ks of Carnations. Plant cuttings of the Ly«
chinis, and Lycl^inideas, and sow the small annuals. Candy
tuf^, and Fenus' Looking-glass, in the open grQund.
Pot the tender annuals, as Balsams, Amaranths^ and the
like, and set them in a Hot-bed frame till Summer is monQ
advanced for planting them in the open ground.
Water opce in two days those plants that require it. De^
stroy weeds in ail parts of the groond, and dig op the earth
^between the rows, and about the larg^ kinds.
Sow small Saladiog once Jn ten days, as in the former
month : choosing a warn) border, aqd sow some Purslain ;
also findive^, and plant Beaps and Peas for a large crop, an 4
JFrench Beans to succeed the others. With care these kiri(b
may be had fresh and young throughout the season.
On a moist day^ an hour before Son-set, plant. »ome. Sa-
voys^ Cabbagies^ and red Qabbag^s, draw, the earth carefully
up the stems, and give them a few careful w«it^ciQga. . >
If any fresh shoots have sprouted upon the Fruit-trees^
ioip thei^ ofl*! 9^ trjMO the prppec opes to the wall or pcdei^
at due di&tancesj and in a regular manner.
Look over Vii)esy aisd stop every shopt that has fruit upon
it, to three eyes beyond the fruit. Train the branches regu-
larly to the walls ^ad let suph as aie designed for nej(t year's
fruiting, grow some time lougerx. as their leaves wil^ give a
proper shade to the fruit*
Water new- planted trees, and keep tl)e borders clean >
and pick off snails and otheir.veriQun.
\ 3\3^Z^leasure'0ardeny ,
Jnthe evening t)f a mild slmwvry^day plant oat inj|o the
open ground the tender annuals hitherto kept in pdls in the
Hot-
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AM YOUNG UAlTft BIST COMPANION.
Hot-bed frame ; they sn»t be cafefaUy Itosened firoin Ilie
•ides of the pot, attd sdiaken oat with all the mocdd about
the«i: a large Me luQit be opened fiMreadi; theynraitbe
pieced epright ia k> end wbea.fettkd bye gentle watermg;;
dedtoMicke.
Let Pi&kt^ CanttCioin, end Sepeet-WUfiemt, bc» letd Ihis
menth §» ee kicreeie. Let the layvti be corered l^tiyi
aod w etered every day a little at a thne.
The Spriftg Flimers being no^ orcr, and their leavei
faded, the roots mutt be titoi up and laid by fbt pbt^iag
again at a prt:>per ^eeaoo. Snow-drops, Wititer-acDnite, and
toe lU9e> are la be fhUft nunaged.
The Hvaeinth roots> bud flat in the gtH)en^ meatnow be
laid up, the dead ]tevea nipped off; and tM vaoM i and,
when 4:]eea> laM o^ovi a Inaft In im atiy itMiva to haritett^ eiid
then laid by. TbHp noela tnim now be takets ctpahK> as the
leaveadeoay; th^ lik&metbed aauat be ibBoiwed whb Atie«
aneeiai and ltaBinoeNnea»
Cut the enpter pedaof OMiMmh Aet«»e near blMingi
ifi three er Icm (toeea» tb«t tiMey ffiay blrirreg^^
I&eeelati a&toie eftlie fitie liiiids dfRl)«it.
Ji tk^ Kiichm Qdrdrnt, itaMplaiit tb^ OiiiiBiowerpiaiil*
WWtiXnMaifi givetiieittark:bt>edattd6^eqtteetweterittgi.
Plant cot Thyme afid Mher savery plants a6wn hHk^,
and in the aame manner shade and water tbesK Take the
vdneotage of ek>ady weather to bow turnips ; and if there
be no showefti, water the gmond oiiee iti two daiys.
Sow Brocoli upen a tieh b<(Mx]er, and plant out Gdety for
MbneMag. TbU itftait'be dene ki^ trench a jfoet atid a half
deep, and tb6p)atitft«rest be tet half albet asender in tb^
nsfi^. Endive shoekl alae be pktiled out Ibr bbkncb'mg ; but
in ihU the ptants sboeld be ^t ifleenlncheaeseiider, atidial
the same time some Esdi^^seed must ^*aewn jfbr # aeebnd
et«ip. Pick up snaite ; ^H^ ia the^ ^dai^ip evening kill the
audced du^. '
Pfiiil-Garden. Con4rn«etbe takihg elP £i)fe»nght abOela^
epon Wall and Espaiier^tTfiiea* Afec^ as in la^t aaontli.
Train propec branches to their $it«ntk)te, where they aim
granted ; once more thiti <tbe Wall-fmk^ lea^ Ne<iarhiea
at four inches distancei a«M Feaehei at fire, bet iH>r nearest
the fruit will be filler, and the. tree ^acQOgpr for next year.
Inoculate the Apricota, tod cbodae <br this ^ration a
cloudy eteeiag; Witer mm pteted met, and pitk c^
JtJLY.
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JVLY.—Pleasure^Garden.
Roll the gravel fireqaently^ and mow grass.
Clip Bdx-edgh^ ^ -c«i ^od iriita lie^ > iqpk oter aB the
borders, cfearing them froin wt«di; sttrriag ^ the mould
between thejplanti. 7
Inoculate Roses and Jessattimes of ail kilids that te^irt
this propagation 3 and any other flowering shrubs.
Take up tbtd rtwts of FrittaHaTias and Maragons, and
«i^ of th» sort ^battae pasttowermg time.
Gather the seeds of iBowetts you design to propagate, ani
lay them npm a shelf in an afry r6oWQ in the pods. Whefi
tliey tr#iNreli^hamietoed t«s them up in paper bags, and do
«ot take Uwmwt df the pcMis till they are 10 be used.
Lay Pinks. aai>S««et«Wmiaina, as the former, in earth.
Cac4(^9ni fSbmwt2kk» ^ thoie pBants wbich have done
^Qwemi;, Md.wineh yondl^ n^t k^ for seed ; and tie up
those now coming into flower to sticks, t% ikte^tiX for thb
Sow Lupines, Larkspurs, and this Kke> tfCk dry warm bor^
dcrs, to stand the whiter, Md flM«^ tieit y^ar.
Mtr dlcnpof 4FrMe4fiiM^.t<» cdAife hi late, ^\at thef
will be very acceptable. Clear all tlw git^nd fitjm weeds.
0ig batwemi iheF rowt of fieoitt and Fass, mow the
grovnd about tiiiB Ait!ebdiE«!>.
Water the crops i& dry we&th^.
Spmaeh aeed will tie D^w ready fbr fatb«Hng, as also
that of the Wtaldi Oal»t]> and soim others ; take thedl^
imtbDf off, aod dry thttti in ^h* shadd.
Taifee op large OolooBj atid spt«ad ^eiti upob mats tt> dr^
ibr the^Wlater. Clear away the sflalka of Beans And Pb^
ffa^t haee4tM beening.
r Whtcb thel^elaiis as thtt^ H{n»], iMd f ite them Imtlime
vRater, Water CacutilberS'tiioi^^^ttly.
( Inoculate Teabhes end Ntetarlnes. Take dff iill for^*
right sh<^s in the Bspatier iit»d Wi^lWfruit trees.
Hang pBiah of hon^ aod water tipon the fruit-tree.?,
imd look oarafoUy fm anails. K«e^ the bdrdere where the
Ihift^rees stand clear irom weeds, end stir the earth about
liiem. * This urall ignuitly aMfat the#afiv m ripening.
Look 40 theiritlt-^ceee'tiHit' bate been grafred and bwl««
4led the last season. See that tbete are no shebts freih tM
etflcksi Whaibfemh^ikBjtakrtbeiii^Cfor they will rob
Itie iniMldpd^dwlh <^ Sts oouFiiliflieot.
Lo9k
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1M YOUNG MAN*s BEST COMPANION.
Tjook carefully to the new planted trees, water Acm
often J and whatever shoots they properly make, fastea to
ibe wall or espalier. •
llepfat tbe.care of the Vine», take off improper shoots^
and nail any that are Ioom ro the wri!. Let no weeds rise
in the ground about them, for they will exhaust the nou-
rishment, and impoveriah the firttt.
. ' AUGUST,— Pleasure-Garden,
See whether the Layers of Sweet-Williams, Caraatiotir,
-and the like, be rooted ; transplant such as are, and give
frequent gentle waterings to the others to promote it.
Dig up A, mellow border, and draw lines ft live inches
distanre^ lengthwise and acrosa^ in the centre of these
squaies, plant the seedling Polyantboaoa, ctae m each.
In the same maOD^r plant out |b6 aeedling Anricalas.
^Shade them till they have taken root, raaul waivr tbeoa once
\m twenty-four hours.
Cut down the stalks of plants that banco done fioweriDg;
jSave the seeds, as they 'lipea.
Water the i^^der anauals pwey. evening. .
Sow Anemonies and Raiuuieoluses^ as also Fritillary,
Tulipand Narcissus sefsd. j . .' f
Dig up a border &r earfy Tulip roots, tfsd others forHya-
cinihs, Anemonies, and Ranjacculuies. 'Sow anaaaia ^tfi
atand the winter, and shift Aurieulaa into fireslx p«tt;
Sow Sfkla^h vpaQ^arich border, 'and upon socbanoiiher
aow Onions. Xh^aearops will live through tho winter, un^
less ver}' severe, and be vatopWe intbe Spring. Tbecatcond
•iveek in AugioAt sow Cabbi^e^seed of tbeeariy.kiods) and
a wec^ after sQW Caqliflower^s^.. Sonne Q£thQse'may'btt
also ventured in a very well defeiided opmi sitaatioo. Tba
Jaat.weekol this in^9iilh'90«F: iHK^ber crop to supply the
place of these in case of aecidepis^s for -if the season be 88«>
.vfiffe they "may be lost 5 and tt'«ery mild, they wiir run to
seed in Spring. These JW crops aiost be deeded by a
Hot-bed fra|u9. Saw Lettaces,. the, Clibbage, and brown
butch kinds, in a waioi and weH-slieiteced piece, of giouiid;
Transplant L^ttwcesi si^wn easier in warm ^nd well-sfad-
tered bordersi. Tal^i»p Garlici-aod spread it on a mat i»
barden s also Onions and RoepQ9bplei|- ]aod> at tiie latter
«Dd of the month, -^atpta. . .* •.
\Yatch the frnkoB yihar WalUtreea^apd keep off neraom
swarming about thepo. . JPick • up snails,* aad baug btttka of
. r, . • " sweet
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tweet water for flies and, wasps. Fastea loose brancke9> and
gather the fruit cai-efully as it ripens.
Go round the Vines, and pull oft' trailing branches so
very luxuriantly produced at tWs time. See that the fruit is
i!ot shaded by loose branche^i ^^ep the borders clear of
weeds. This tends gjreatjy to the ripening of the fruit.
SEPTEMBER.— P/ea5«re.Gffric72.
A new kind of work begins this month, which is, pre-'
paring for the next season. Tear up the annuals that have
done flowering i and cut down such Perennials as Ate pa«t
beauty; bring in other Perennials frooa the nursery beds,
and plant them with care at regular dia^taaces.
^Take up the Box-edgings where they have outgrown
their proper size, and part and plant them afresh*
. Plant Tulip and oilier flower roots.
Slip iPolyanthuses, and place them in rich shady borders.
$ow the seeds of Flower-de-luces and Crown Imperial, as
also, of Auriculas and Polyanthuses.
Also .part off the roots of Flower-Jb-luce, Piony, and
others \x5f tliese kinds. In ilie last week transplant hardy
flowering shrubs.
Sow Lettuces of yarioos kinds, Silesia, Cos, and Datch,
and wbenibey fome up shelter ibem carefnlly.
Make up fresh waim beds with the dung that has la^d a
month in the he^p. Plant ibe spawn in these beds upon
pasture, znogld^ the same they wilre fboiid!in, and raise tbe>
ipp of the bed la a ridgje,. to thro w oft* mdt.
Look to tJbcturaiji-beds^ad. thin tiem, leavetfae turnip*'
at six inches disVu3ce^,. '.....
Weed the Spinach, Onions, and other new-sown filants.
. Tr^pLs^^nSage,:.Laveiu^,(af]pd cSiveet'pl^^ £^rth up
Celery as it-giowsiin height,. ? r
Sow Salading uppn w^im, and vvell»sMlered borders. >
Clean Asparagus beds in Ibis manner : cut down the
tta}kv a^d^ plMr^'thfir^ftb^pff the svirfage^^f th^ alleya^. throw
^lift, up^p (1^. bedf j^lf afiinch thicks ai^ iprinkle over il
i|litt)^»^gfi:Qm««).oldMeloi^bed« • ,
Dig up the ground where Summer brpps have ripened j
and hy it i« Hdge* teiiie WJiijipr, The^e^iboiiild be ^-
posed SaMMd >^«;aKid torp^d^oj^c^ ialwoinoptbfl^ tbey*
have thus the advantage of a fa)W<. ; -
Plant some Be^gA and spyj^somp Peis^on warm and well-
•lj^ered^^grdf;r>;:ip;^n^^ .
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!I8^ YOUNG lb£49Pi BEST COUfPANtpN.
Tbelroif man now ba gatliered with arre every d^« aod
the best time is an hoar «fter Suit-rige. Theu It sbogid be
laid ia acool pluie till used.
Iweep btrdi fiiom the gtapet, fat as the^* now begin ifi
ripea ihey wiil be ia contiauat danger.
Traondant C aa i eba rr iet aiidCarranti, and plant St raw«
barrift and Raibernet ; tbejr vlil^be rooted before Winter
and flouriab the socoeeding season.
OCrtOBEti.^Fleasme^Gtirdem.
Let all the balbamroott fyr Spring floweriag be pat into
t^e groomL NaicisiBt lifa i e g a n , TuHps> and snch ^Raniin-
culases and Apfmenias^ as were not planted aooner/
: Transplant Columbines, Monksrhood, and all kinds af
fibrous-rooted parenaials. Plaee the Anrtenlas and Ganuu
tions, that are in pots, under shelter. The best way Is t^
sloping reed-hedge. Dig np a 4ry border, and If not drj
enovtgh naturally, dig in some saod. In this set pots op to
the brim. Piace the reed-hedge sloping behind them, and
ftsten a mat to its top that may b^ let down in bad wea«
then Take oif iba dead leaveft>f the Auricn^ before they
are thus planted.
, naat out th^ • Caaliilawier plaafts where tbey are to be
shekered } and it wiil be avoper to pbnt twb ftr each glass,
Mfliera titat tnethod rauaed, for foar ^ene Mlbg.
. Sow aooiher crop of Beas, and plant Beans ; choose a
diy ^MwaU Altered lir«faft theeold wUidof Wm«e^.
Transplant the Lattooes sowed last numth, where thay'
€fiM bedefiandad by a >aad» Kodg e, or qrider wags
Transplant Cabbage-plants aod Coleworts ^iHiere they ar6
taiYtnm.
. Take.fexat^eareof the CkdlMawerrplants aaM early in
SuoiT^ner ; they now begin to show their heads, so break in
tbelaaves t»pcMa tfeeaitoke^(^lha'S«oandrflSn$ it will
both ii2»rden''^d ^Vten' them.
PnUMr the Fteeh and Nectafliie iMea, anA thcF Vines.
TI)W ia a ver3^ ns^iM pl'actice^ fof it strengtbens iha hndg
for Spring. Cut Grapeaibr pras«rvJiig,'%riik a)dhit of the
viae to each bdnd^. '
Gather Ihitia for WiilMr4Beepbig«» the^f^ ripcii. Trana*
plant sdl OatdaDviMNiibr llcirweHng^i f>iMaCail«MM>aihas«
and pr^^erve seeds for aowiag.' •
NdviElMBfeil.— Pfea5ttre-0V«ftfa.
, Throw together a go6d hi^ of P^stbi«' tTrban^ii ilitfc
the tarf among it, to rot for mould on the borders.
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Tfttmfbn^'lWejF-tockkt md S^ieis^ With iitlierhardjr
-flowering slirolM.
. ftak<»0vcrthebed8of seadiog llowen, lod straw some
Pcft-atniw oMor ttiemto kei^ o«t tlie frost.
Cat4own the steniKof Pdremuaiswbich have doneflew^p
eitittg I iMI f^ «niusk dnt-Mespent. and mke asd clear
the ground. Placse hoops vyw the bods ^ Ranuncakisesi
aiwl ^LDMBKnies^ mi k^ raaisidv ^adiski readti»8» tedlt^w
, wtr lhem« in case of bard teHnor frost.
Chan Hf the henfers in ail parts of the Garden, and* Hike
«are to destroy the weeds^ and leek over the seeds/of thpse
4iewera which were gothfflped tit Summer. See tfaeykeep
dr)r aod sweat, and in aeehdl^a of gmwth, and drg a bor^
darortvn&r the hardier kkiids* Weed the crops of Spi«
nach, and such other kinds as were sown late, for the wild
growth will else sniaditeraQd stan^ th^erep.
Dig up a border under a warm wall, and sow soque Car-
rots tor Spring ; sow Radishes in such another place, and see
Ifie ground be well and deep di^ for both. Turn the mould
jthat was trenched and laid up for fallowing.
Prepare Het-beds fpr Safading i eover them fire inchea
i^ith mould, atid sow upon them Lettuces. ] and common
Jinan Saladiog, Miislard, Rape, Cresses, and Radish. Plant
Another crop of Beans, and sow more Peas for a succession,
. Trench the ground between the Artichoke^ and throw a
thick ri<i^ of earth over the rdots^
Take up Carrots and Parsnips, and lay t^em m sand to be
ready &r use. Gfve air at times to the plants upder hwlu?
glasses and in Hot-beds, or they will suffer as muph by
want of that , as they would have done by the frosts
Stake up sflt trees p^anted for sranitrds^pr the wiu^s wUJ.
rock them at the bottom, atid tjie irost, if it set io, will
destray tbem.
Throw a^ good quatftity of Pea-straw about them* and 1^
on it some brickbats or pebbles to keep it ^t j this will
ipellow the ground, 4nd Tceep opt frost,
Prutie the Wall-iruit trees, and at this time also the Apple,
and Pear kinds. ' ;
I>£CEMBJyi^J%wsim^abM2M.
Draw4heHnaa*sa«idd#tfcMvertheJltfn(!rtpulus and Ane-
roone beds in severe weather, whether frost or cold* rain ;'
but give them air in the middle of every tiderabltf day, and
«s soon as ppgsibb^mMvaa thaia all daj , Mrdraw oa the
mats agaian tu^jfiUui .^. • ^ -i . * > i . i . •
Digitized by VjOOQIC
2» YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION.
, Tlirow'vp tlie eai^ wbere ftawering.shniT^ii aw to' be
planted in i\\e Spring; and once in a fortnight toro it.
Dig up the tM»r(Jera that are to have flower-^roots planfed
in tliem in the Spring, and give them the advantage of a fid^
luw».by tiirowto'g up the.groond in a ridge. •' ^
> Scatter pver it a very little reltea duiig from a Melon-bed,-
apd after this turn it twice dnnng the Winter, '
. Look.^wwr the floweciiu; shrubs and prime them* Gott
away all the dead wood, sbortm luxdriant brancbesj find 16
aiij cross.e^h Qthifcr» takf5 away ooe. Leave them so that the
air can have free panoge between them.
, Strew good fresh mould over the roots of PeremuaVfiow*
mr% whose stalks have been cot down> and rake over jto^
borders. I'his will give the whole an air of caiturean^
znan^gemeot.
In the KUchen-Garden.
. ' Plaiit Cabbages and Savoys for seed. This is to beS
with great care j dig up a dry border, and break the mould.
well ; then take np some of the stoutest Cabbage and Savoy,
plants^ haug them up by the stalks five days, and then
I^ant them half way of thestaljc into the '^tound 5 draw up,
ar good qoantity 'of the mould abput the part of the stalk that
is out of the ground, and make it into a kind of hill round'
each, then leave them to Nature. .
^ Sow anotb* crop of* Pe^s, and planet another parcel of
Beans to take their chanc6 for succeeding the others.
• JViake another ijdt-bed for Asparagus, to yield a/supply.
when.the former :« exhausted. .Continue to earth up Celery>.
alid cover some Endive with a. good quantity of. Pea-straw.,
as it 18^ growing, that you may take up when wanted, which'
otherwise the frost will prevent, . , .^
• Preprsre tbr-pJanting trees where they will beVanted in
Spring, by digging the group duieep,v^cid tumiogltwcll in
the puses' wliereniey. are to. Wnd. .,.,., ^ ' ' 1 *
i Scatter over the ^borders, where the jfruit-tree^ are.plant«.
ed, some.fresh mould, atid,sorae old du'n^i and i^ a mild
Ay. digMt with a strong 'th*V6d-pronged fork. -
Look over the Orchard-trees, and cut away supei-fluous
and dead wootf. I^>th«ihraiibhcs'^staliil' clear vof one an-
other that ,tiie air.mayget b^wRep^.S^.^ef^fi^ jwiUhe
better flavoured. . .. .^ i, / • ; ,.; * '
[ .'.,' . -• :' / .\-,F5i'j; . 'f. -.'J! . ■» • • - ■' " ■
i, Bailby, Prmtcr, 116, Clumcery-Uklife L^iddtt. 'V
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