International language and science; considerations on the introduction of an international language into science

UC-NRLF

B M 020 IDS

AND SCIENCE

• O.JESFERSEN R.LORENZ
H|H L. PFAUNDLER
F. G. DONNAN

GIFT OF
JANE K.SATHBR

INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
AND SCIENCE

INTERNATIONAL
LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

Considerations on the Introduction of an
International Language into Science

BY

L. COUTURAT O. JESPERSEN R. LORENZ

Formerly Professor at the Professor at the University Professor at the Federal

University of Caen. of Copenhagen. Polytechnicum of Zurich.

W. OSTWALD L. PFAUNDLER

Professor emeritus of the University Professor at the University

of Leipzig. of Graz.

TRANSLATED BY

F. G. DONNAN

Professor at the University
of Liverpool.

LONDON

CONSTABLE & COMPANY LIMITED
10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C

1910

KV, AQ:\K\V. & CO.
LONDON A^D -io

,s

L3

VYlft

PREFACE

THE question of a so-called world-language, or better
expressed, an international auxiliary language, was during
the now past Volapiik period, and is still in the present
Esperanto movement, so much in the hands of Utopians,
fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is difficult to form an
unbiassed opinion concerning it, although a good idea lies
at its basis. Both the Volapiikists and Esperantists con-
fused the linguistic aspect of the question with so many side
issues that, not only was it difficult to see the former in its
true light, but also the leaders of the various movements
were unable to guide them in the right direction. For this
reason discussions concerning an international auxiliary
language appeared with good reason to many people to be
unpractical, impossible, or indeed even ridiculous. Matters
have, however, changed since the Delegation pour ^adoption
d'une langue auxiliaire Internationale has taken the matter
up. This International Commission, with its headquarters
in Paris, and consisting of literary and scientific men of
eminent reputation, was entrusted with the task of investi-
gating the general question of an international auxiliary
language. The Delegation has, in the course of an activity
extending over seven years, succeeded in showing that a
sound idea lies at the root of the various movements for a
universal language. Freed from all extraneous considera-
tions, this idea involves the purely linguistic question of the
introduction of an international auxiliary language. On the
other hand, the Delegation has found that neither Volapiik
nor Esperanto have succeeded in solving the problem. As,
however, Esperanto was found to contain a number of good

476514

VI

PREFACE

principles, the Commission finally resolved to work out on
purely scientific principles an international auxiliary lan-
guage on the basis of Esperanto. The whole question of
the introduction of an international auxiliary language has
thus arrived at a stage in which it appears worthy of serious
discussion. Under these circumstances, the writers of this
brochure considered it their first duty to draw the attention
of scientific and literary men to the matter, and so initiate
discussion.

The object of this book will have been attained, should
they have succeeded in explaining the present state of the
question, and in showing that it is already possible to
discuss the introduction of an international auxiliary lan-
guage into science, and indeed even seriously to make the
attempt to carry it out. It may be remarked that the five
authors of this book live in five different countries, and
belong to three different languages. The very considerable
correspondence required for the production of their book
was carried out with the greatest success in the Lingua
Internaciona, whenever any two of the correspondents
possessed different mother-tongues.

Paris, Copenhagen, Zurich, Gross-Bothen, Graz.

L. COUTUEAT, 0. JESPERSEN, E. LORENZ,

W. OSTWALD, L. PFAUNDLEB.
March, 1909.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE

THE scientific attitude of mind is necessarily critical,
but never sceptical without proper investigation and know-
ledge. The Translator hopes, therefore, that English-
speaking men of science will not judge the question of
international language before they have quietly and dis-
passionately examined the arguments so ably set forth in
the following pages. It is not a question of " another
language " ; it is a question of the final solution by the
methods of science of one of the greatest of scientific
problems.

Internationalisation of thought is the motto of the
twentieth century, the device on the banner of progress.
Science, the Super-Nation of the world, must lead the way
in this as in all other things. Amidst the clangour and the
clamour of political and commercial strife, the quiet empire
of knowledge grows, noiseless and unseen. Let all those
who believe that this peaceful empire is destined to become
the controlling force of the world assist in the attunement
of its common language.

The Translator wishes to thank his friend and colleague,
Professor J. P. Postgate, for having very kindly revised the
translation of Chapters III. and IV.

F. G. DONNAN.

UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL,
March, 1910.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface v

CHAPTER

I. The need for a common scientific language, by L. Pfaundler 1

H. The Delegation pour V adoption d'une langue auxiliaire

Internationale, by R. Lorenz . . . . . .11

in. Linguistic principles necessary for the construction of an
international auxiliary language, with an appendix on
the criticism of Esperanto, by 0. Jespersen ... 27

IV. On the application of logic to the problem of an interna-
tional language, by L. Couturat 42

V. The relationship of the international language to science,

by R. Lorenz ......... 53

VI. The question of nomenclature, by W. Ostwald . . .61

VII. Conclusion ; Reading, Writing, and Speaking, by L.

Pfaundler .... 69

APPENDIX I. Linguo Internaciona di la Delegitaro ; grammar,

word-formation, list of grammatical words . 75

,, II. Specimen pages from the International-English

Dictionary 82

„ III. An experiment in double translation ... 84
,, IV. Uniono di I'amiki di la linguo internaciona ; extracts
from the provisional statutes, and membership
form 86

I.L.

INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
AND SCIENCE

CHAPTEE I

THE NEED FOE A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE

ALL who are occupied with the reading or writing of
scientific literature have assuredly very often felt the want
of a common scientific language, and regretted the great
loss of time and trouble caused hy the multiplicity of
languages employed in scientific literature.

The remarkable and regrettable feature of this state of
affairs is that we once possessed, and have now lost, such a
common language, namely, Latin. Even in the first third of
the last century Gauss wrote a portion of his mathematical and
physical papers in Latin, and up to the middle of the last
century the dissertations of the scientific candidates at the
German universities were translated into Latin by their
philological colleagues, since the former were no longer
sufficiently conversant with that language. The fall of Latin
as the language of scholars and men of science could not,
however, be prevented, nor does there exist the faintest
chance of its ever recovering its lost position. The reasons
for this are known to all. The rise and development of
science, for the expression of whose ideas the language of
Cicero no longer sufficed, the fall of scholasticism, with its
Church Latin, the diffusion of knowledge amongst people
not possessing a university training, the foundation of
technical high schools, and, finally, the growing national

I.L. B

. V INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

.and jealousy of nations who sought to further
the spread of their national languages by using them in
the works of their scientific men — all this has contributed
to displace Latin by the modern national languages. The
result is that, instead of one common language for scholars
and men of science, we now possess three.

It is required or supposed that every scholar or man of
science should know at least German, French, and English.
For the majority of German scholars and men of science
this may hold good, but in the case of the French it is less
true, and in the case of the English least of all. The
knowledge of these three languages is, however, no longer
sufficient, and that for the following reasons.

In the first place, several other languages must be taken
into account, for many Italians write only Italian, many
Dutchmen only Dutch, whilst numerous Russians, Poles,
Czechs, Hungarians, Scandinavians, and Spaniards employ
only their national languages. In this way much escapes
general knowledge and recognition, or is only accessible in a
belated or mutilated form.

In the second place, the difficulty of a quick mutual under-
standing is great, even for those who can command these
three chief languages. If one is possessed of a little natural
talent, one can by dint of industry and much loss of time
easily get so far as to read or understand a paper or a letter
in a foreign language, but when it comes to writing (replying)
the task is incomparably more difficult. One can, however,
not assume, when a German scholar or man of science replies
in German to a letter written in French or English, that he
will be always understood.

The matter is much worse in the case of oral intercourse,
especially at scientific congresses. At these the three chief
languages mentioned above are usually now declared to be
official, that is to say, permissible for the delivery of papers.
As a matter of fact, however, the language of the country in

THE NEED FOR A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE 3

which the congress is held usually dominates. The German
speaks French in Paris, but the Englishman mostly only
English, and demands, as occurred at the recent Refrigeration
Congress in Paris, the translation into English of the papers
read at the sectional meetings. Only very few can take part
in the discussions, and many must be well content if they
are able to understand the usually rapidly delivered papers.
Many an important criticism is not made because one does
not possess the expertness necessary for discussing a question
in a foreign language, and does not wish to expose oneself to
the chance of a rebuff, caused not so much by ignorance of
the matter in hand as by want of facility in expression.

Every member of a congress has noticed that whenever
the language employed in the papers changes, a consider-
able number of the audience leave with more or less noise,
in order to avoid being compelled to listen to a paper which
they do not understand. Congresses would be certainly
much better attended were it not that these difficulties keep
many away.

One cannot hope that an increasing diffusion of the
knowledge of the three chief languages will cause these
difficulties to diminish, still less to disappear. They will,
rather, increase still more, since the number of national
languages desiring to take part in the work of civilisation
is constantly growing. Already, at the present time,
Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and the Scandinavian and Slavonic
languages must be taken into account, besides the three
chief languages. National sentiment forces the scientific
men of these countries to use the national languages, even
when they perceive that this procedure does not conduce to
mutual understanding. Even if the scientific men them-
selves were completely free from national amour propre, they
would be obliged by their fellow-countrymen to employ their
own languages, not so much for the purpose of advancing
scientific knowledge and learning as in order to contribute

B 2

4 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

by means of their literary and scientific works to the diffusion
of their languages and the advancement of their nations.
Whoever has observed this phenomenon will he forced to
the conclusion that amongst scientific men, at least in
Europe, this state of affairs is getting worse rather than
better.

The increase of the participating languages involves an
increase of the periodicals, just at a time when a concentra-
tion of the periodical literature is most desirable. The cost
of subscriptions, translations, storing, and registration, and
the labour and time spent thereon, increase from year to
year. Above all, there is a want of translators ; ordinary
interpreters are not sufficient, since a special knowledge of
each subject is required. Where are such persons to be
found in sufficient numbers ? And how few and far between
are those who, when they possess the requisite training, are
willing to content themselves with the poorly paid remunera-
tion of a translator !

Bad or erroneous translations and faulty abstracts are
very harmful ; it would be better in such cases that no
translation should exist, as then the original would have to
be consulted. These difficulties, many more of which could
be mentioned, are well known to all scientific men, since
each has suffered more or less from them.

The question then is, What remedy can we apply ? One
proposal is to introduce into secondary schools the teaching
of modern instead of classical languages, in order to render
the students, after matriculation at the universities, capable
of taking part in international scientific intercourse.
This proposal has arisen from the view that the learning
of modern added to that of the classical languages would
overburden the secondary schools, whilst the learning of
modern languages at the universities would cause equal or
greater difficulties.

Few young people possess, during their years at the

THE NEED FOE A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE 5

university, sufficient keenness and moral courage to subject
themselves to the ordeal of linguistic studies, from which
they have joyfully escaped on their entrance into the
university. Few possess at that age a full conception of
the usefulness and necessity of a knowledge of languages.
And it is just those young people who wish to devote them-
selves to the professions of literature or science who ought
to devote their whole time and full powers to their pro-
fessional work, and not be obliged to break up their time
with linguistic studies.

The proposal to exclude the classical languages from the
secondary schools has encountered, however, from many
quarters very weighty objections, the force of which cannot be
denied, even by the opposite side. We shall, however, not
enter into this much-debated question, contenting ourselves
with the remark that at the present day insuperable
obstacles stand in the way of a complete or partial substi-
tution of modern for classical languages. Experience shows
also that the teaching of modern languages in schools seldom
leads to a practical result, although it must be conceded that
nowadays, with newer methods, much better results are
obtained than formerly, when the grammar, but not the
practical use, was taught. If, therefore, the teaching of
modern languages cannot well be carried out either at the
universities or in the schools, there remains only the time
before school studies. It is, in fact, possible (as is done in
many well-to-do families), by means of a French or German
governess, to teach a child, besides its mother tongue, one
of these languages, in so far as its mental development
permits. It is probably inadvisable to teach more than one
new language in this way, in order to avoid injury to the
child's own mother tongue. Such a knowledge, however, is
quite insufficient for the needs of the young scientific man,
and so the acquaintance with a language gained in this way
requires constant extension and development.

6 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

But even assuming that the young man continues the
study of the language that he has learnt as a child, or even
indeed learns another during his school days, he will pos-
sess at best that approximate knowledge of the three chief
languages which we have characterised above as being
neither qualitatively nor quantitatively sufficient, because it
does not suffice for oral intercourse, and because other
languages must be taken into account.

The proposal has, therefore, been made to choose, by
international agreement, one of the national languages as a
universal intermediary language. If everybody learnt this
language, then the difficulty would be surmounted.

This proposal is, however, still-born. Every attempt to
realise it is bound to be shipwrecked on the rock of national
jealousy, as has been often shown before, for it is evident
that the nation whose language was chosen would receive a
very great advantage. The widely spoken English language
possesses, it is true, a very simple grammar, but it would be
very unsuitable for this purpose on account of its extremely
difficult pronunciation.

Just as science has succeeded in giving to the world a
uniform system of weights and measures by choosing
instead of a national unit of length one common to all
nations, namely, the length of an earth quadrant, so only
that language could find general acceptance which was based
on the common possession of those peoples for whom it was
intended. By that we mean the stock of words common to
the three great families of languages, the Germanic, Romance,
and Slavonic.

Against this the objection will be raised : " An artificial
language ; in other words, a Utopia ! How could one think
of artificially creating a language, which, after all, is a living
and spontaneously developing organism ? One might as
well think of artificially creating a live horse ! "

It is true that one cannot make a live horse, but one can

THE NEED FOE A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE 7

make an automobile, which under certain circumstances may
replace the horse, and even excel its performance. But no
one would think on that account of totally doing away with
horses. In a similar manner the partisans of an artificial
language have no wish to displace the natural languages.
In poetry and imaginative literature, wherein the soul of a
nation finds its highest expression, the mother-tongue will
always be supreme.1

"But it is unthinkable," one will say, "that an artificial
language would ever be generally accepted."

Such statements must be received with caution, for they
have turned out more than once to be wrong. The intro-
duction of a common system of weights and measures was
also declared to be impossible at one time, nevertheless it
has since been carried out in science. The construction of
a system of telegraph wires connecting the whole civilised
world and a telegraph alphabet common to all nations was
declared seventy years ago to be an impossibility. Now it
is ancient history.

The maritime nations have agreed upon a common code
of signals. When the English sailor arrives at the Japanese
coast, he translates the sentences he wishes to transmit into
numbers, which he signals by means of flags, and the Japanese
port official translates the signalled numbers by means of the
code into Japanese sentences. Why should it therefore be
impossible to introduce instead of this intermediary numerical
language an intermediary word language, which would give
expression to thought in a better and more direct manner ? 2

" Quite so, but such an intermediary language would be
much more difficult to create than a code of signals arranged
for a limited number of words and phrases."

1 We do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of Zamenhof, or
the dramatic representation of Goethe's IpJiigenia.

2 For other comparisons, such as musical notation, chemical formulae, etc.,
compare the excellent brochure of W. Ostwald, Die Weltsprache. Compare
also L. Couturat, Pour la Langue Internationale.

8 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

How would it be if this difficulty had been already over-
come, and the intermediary language already created and
proved to be serviceable ?

" But that would amount to adding a new language to be
learnt to the ones we already have to learn ; there would be
no advantage in that ! "

If, however, this " new " language was really not " new,"
consisting mostly of words known to every educated person ;
if its grammar was so simple that its principles could be
learned within an hour ; and if, therefore, any educated
person who knew a single Romance language could learn the
whole language in an incredibly short time, would it not be
an advantage to acquire it ?

To prove this is a simple problem of permutations and
combinations, and the proof possesses all the certainty of
mathematical reasoning. We shall demonstrate that by an
example.

Suppose a large town contains ten districts, each possess-
ing a pneumatic post-office. In order to connect each district
with all the others, one could lay from each of the ten post-
offices nine tubes to the remaining nine post-offices. That

10 X 9
would require » = 45 tubes. The problem could,

however, be solved much more easily and cheaply by con-
necting each of the post-offices by means of a single tube
with a central post-office, which would receive and distribute
all the letters, as is actually the case in practice. We
should then require only ten tubes.

Substitute now for the districts imagined above the
languages, German, French, English, Italian, Russian,
Spanish, etc., with the condition that every person speaking
one language should be able to correspond with everybody
speaking a different language. In the case of ten languages
we should require for every correspondent nine dictionaries,
or altogether ninety dictionaries.

THE NEED FOE A COMMON SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE 9

Every correspondent would have to know nine languages
besides his own. If, however, we employed an intermediary
language, each person would only require to know this
language hesides his own. The matter is so simple and the
advantage so exceedingly obvious that one can only wonder
why it has not been recognised and carried out long ago.

It is quite self-evident that, if one wishes to become
acquainted with the imaginative literature and the inner
thoughts and feelings of a foreign nation, one cannot content
oneself with translations, but must study a language in its
own country. But how many people learn French in order
to become acquainted with its literature ? The existence of
an intermediary language would interfere with such linguistic
studies just as little as the invention of the automobile
prevents anybody from using a riding or carriage horse.
There is no necessity, therefore, for philologists or pro-
fessional linguists to be hostile to the project, since their
sphere of work and influence will not be in any way
diminished thereby. On the contrary, the creation of an
artificial language has led to so many interesting questions
relating to the structure, and to such a deeper insight into
the nature of language, and has attracted so many to its
study, that this beautiful department of knowledge will only
derive advantage therefrom.

It is also remarkable that the original work of Dr. Zamenhof,
which in its principles was characterised by genius, but in
its execution was imperfect and therefore insufficient, has
only through the reforming labours of distinguished philo-
logists attained to that perfection of form and principle
required to make it the international auxiliary language of the
civilised world. The difficulty of the undertaking no longer
lies in the language itself, but, rather, in the task of inspir-
ing all concerned, and especially the leading thinkers, with
the conviction that it is practically realisable. If this con-
viction can be sufficiently spread, the introduction of the

10 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

auxiliary language will only be a matter of a few months.
In order, however, to form an opinion on the possibility of
this realisation, it is, in the first place, necessary to become
acquainted with the main principles, structure, and origin of
the language which we recommend.

L. PFAUNDLER.

CHAPTER II

THE " DELEGATION POUR L' ADOPTION D'UNE LANGUE AUXILIAIEE
INTERNATIONALE "

ONE of the most important problems of present day
civilisation is the introduction of an international auxiliary
language.

We boast of our international intercourse. The civilised
world has extended to new nations and has embraced whole
regions of the earth, and yet, in spite of the magnificent
means of material communication, nothing of a similar
nature has been done for the purpose of uniting minds
together in an equally practical manner. Recently, how-
ever, an event has occurred at Paris which brings us a step
further in this direction. The Delegation pour V Adoption
d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, which was formed in
1900 as a result of the Paris Exhibition, has, after an
activity of seven years, arrived at a definite decision.

The very fact that modern international relations have
brought about such a delegation and entrusted it with work
should be sufficient to emphasise the importance of the
problem. It is not true that the need for an international
auxiliary language disappears with the knowledge of several
national languages, as has been asserted by many who, on
account of their personal knowledge, have not experienced
it. This is especially true of some philologists who overlook
the fact that languages form the object of their special
studies, and draw conclusions from themselves concerning
the needs of others. Expertness in the use of languages
does not come so readily to the scientific investigator and the
technologist, whose work lies in other directions, and so it

12 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

is in these quarters that the movement for the introduction
of an international auxiliary language receives the greatest
support. To this must he added the fact that, as Ostwald
has aptly remarked, the scientific investigator regards
language only as a means of making himself understood.
Language is not for him something " which thinks and
poetises," but rather an instrument for conveying his know-
ledge and wishes to other people, much after the fashion
whereby the musician is enabled to convey his feelings by
means of musical notation and the instruments of the
orchestra. The question of the suitability of a language is
important in this connection ; and so it does not appear so
very strange that it is just the scientific investigators,
technologists, and philosophers who have never been quite
satisfied with living or dead languages. How otherwise can
we explain the fact that it is just they who are constantly
solving philological problems and constantly occupied with
the invention not only of new signs and symbols (mathe-
matical, chemical, crystallographic), but also new words?
The fact is that science, philosophy, and technology are
constantly waging a fierce battle with existing languages.
What they want is a language as simple and clear as the
fundamental laws of nature, as logical as the precision of
experiment, and as many-sided as the complexity of the
facts which it has to describe. And so they are constantly
working at the creation of this language, all the words
invented by science finding their way unceasingly through
the channels of technology into the general vocabulary.
These words possess the special property of being inter-
national, that is to say, understood by all civilised
nations, including the Japanese. We do not wish, however,
to stop at this stage of development ; we wish to be able to
internationalise not only single ideas, but also the whole
train of thought. For this purpose it is impracticable to
make use of any of the national languages, since they are all

THE "D&L&GATION" 13

so unsuitable, illogical, capricious, and complicated that the
student must learn to steer clear of thousands of difficulties
before he is able to express himself fairly correctly. It is
possible to construct an artificial language with such a regular
structure that it can be employed at once without making
mistakes.

In accordance with these ideas, the programme of the
Delegation was as follows : —

" (1) It is desirable that an international auxiliary language
should be introduced which, though not intended to replace
the natural languages in the internal life of nations, should
be adapted to written and oral intercourse between persons
of different mother-tongues.

" (2) Such an international language must, in order to fulfil
its object, satisfy the following conditions : —

" (a) It must be capable of serving the needs of science
as well as those of daily life, commerce, and general
intercourse.

" (b) It must be capable of being easily learnt by all

persons of average elementary education, especially

those belonging to the civilised nations of Europe.

" (c) It must not be any one of the living national

languages.

" (3) The decision as to the choice of a language is to be
referred in the first place to the International Association of
Academies, but if the latter should refuse to consider the
matter or come to no decision, to the committee of the
Delegation.

" (4) Circulars are to be sent to learned, commercial, and
legal societies requesting them to signify their approval of
the above programme."

The success of this appeal was extraordinary. It was
now evident for the first time how many thousands of
people of all nations were enthusiastically in favour of the
introduction of an international auxiliary language. The

14 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

de la Delegation, which the latter published yearly,
included on October 1st, 1907, in the list of corporate
bodies alone, the names of 310 clubs, societies, and con-
gresses, not a few of which possessed a membership exceed-
ing 1,000. It is interesting to rapidly pass in review the
extremely varied character of the societies included therein.
We find, for example, commercial schools, chambers of
commerce, merchants' clubs, stenographers, the printing
trade, correspondence bureaus, photographic clubs, associa-
tions of municipal and other officials, societies of shipping
employes, legal clubs, pedagogic and religious societies,
officers' clubs, institutes for the deaf and dumb and for the
blind, sociological, medical, and health societies, peace
clubs, political and graphological societies, touring, bicycle,
and automobile clubs, sport clubs, bibliographic societies
and library staffs, and finally all sorts of special scientific
societies and congresses. Arranged according to nationality,
we find representatives of France, England, Germany,
Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, Greece, Italy, Belgium,
Norway, Sweden, Holland, Eussia (including Poland),
Koumania, Austria (including Bohemia and Hungary),
Mexico, Peru, the Argentine, Algeria, Tunis, the United
States, Chili, etc. There is also the " academic list,"
which contains the names of no less than 1,250 professors,
belonging to 189 universities, technical high schools, and
academies of science, and coming from 110 parts of the
globe, extending as far as India and Japan. It may be
stated without exaggeration that the programme of the
Delegation found an enthusiastic response in all parts of
the world and from people of nearly every occupation and
profession, many persons and societies expressing themselves
in favour of the introduction of an international auxiliary
language on the condition that it should not be one of the
living languages.

During the seven years of its existence the Delegation

THE "DELEGATION" 15

has carried out the duties entrusted to it in an exemplary
manner, and has performed a gigantic amount of work.
In May, 1907, the Delegation considered the time had
come to lay the matter before the International Associa-
tion of Academies. At that time the report was very
wide-spread that the Association had altogether refused
to consider the matter. In reality the Vienna Academy, as
President of that year, decided to bring the question before
the Association, but the latter declined to take the matter
up (twelve votes to eight, one member not voting). At this
point the Delegation had the right and the duty to speak
out. It obtained an expression of opinion from the repre-
sentatives of all the associated societies and clubs. The
result of this was the formation of a working committee,
consisting of sixteen members, almost entirely scholars and
men of science of reputation and members of the different
scientific academies. With the representatives of natural
science and mathematics were associated philologists and
linguists. The committee began to sit on October 15th,
1907, and, after eighteen sittings held in the College de
France, arrived at a decision.

Before we enter into this matter more fully it will be
desirable to give a brief sketch of the historical development
of artificial language.

Anyone desiring to go more deeply into the history of this
question (already three hundred years old) and the practical
attempts at its realisation may be referred to the masterly
work of L. Couturat and L. Leau, Histoire de la Langue
Universale (Paris, 1903). In what follows only a few of the
most important points will be mentioned.

The oldest extant reference to the problem of an inter-
national language appears to be contained in the letter
written by Descartes on November 20th, 1629, to his
friend Mersenne. The great philosopher here explains the
principles which convinced him that it would be possible to

16 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

construct an artificial language which could be used as an
international auxiliary language. As for Leibnitz, who was
attracted throughout his whole life by this problem, his
language projects have been recently investigated by L.
Couturat by means of documents, many of which have never
before been published (La Logique de Leibnitz and Opuscules
et Fragments Inedits de Leibnitz). There may further be
mentioned the Ars signorum Vulgo Charakter Universalis et
Lingua Philosophica (London, 1661) of George Dalgarno,and
the recently discovered memoir of an unknown author
entitled Carpophorophili Novum inveniendte Scripture (Ecu-
menica Consilium (Leipzig, 1734). The last-mentioned
system in particular strikes one as highly modern in
principle.

It was only, however, at the end of the last century that
the era of practical things began with the Volapiik of
Schleyer. The success of this language was very consider-
able. It possessed about thirty journals, published in the
most different countries, even in Japan, and its literature has
been estimated at from 800 to 400 works. The official lists
published in 1889 contained the names of 255 local groups
belonging to the " Universal Language Society," some of
which possessed a very considerable membership. The
teaching of the language was highly organised, there being
900 teachers, 200 head teachers, and 50 "professors."
This great linguistic experiment was very instructive, and
its significance cannot be underrated. Important con-
clusions concerning the theory and practice of artificial
language can be drawn from it, and especially from ft
consideration of the circumstances which finally led to the
downfall of Volapiik. It turned out that this was due to
the errors which Volapiik itself contained, showing us that
in these matters, as in others, practical experience is the best
teacher. The fate of Volapiik was sealed when its sup-
porters, in the year 1889, made the experiment of organising

THE " DELEGATION." 17

a congress at which Volapiik should be spoken. Although
a few Volapiikists succeeded in speaking the language, it
was only too painfully evident that such a goal could not be
reached with this system. Almost simultaneously with
Volapiik another artificial language had been invented. The
Russian medical man Dr. Zamenhof published his system
in 1887 under the pseudonym of " Doktoro Esperanto."
But as Esperanto arrived while Volapiik was at its zenith,
it failed at first to attract general attention. It found,
however, in France, an enthusiastic supporter in the
Marquis de Beaufront, who had himself worked out an
international language called " Adjuvanto." He gave this up
as soon as he came to know about Esperanto, and founded
the Societe Frangaise pour la Propagation de VEsperanto
and the journal L'Esperantiste (now in its tenth year).
France soon became the centre of the new movement, and
indeed almost the whole existence and magnitude of the
Esperanto movement was due to the influence of this man.
Since then Esperanto has extended to all countries. The
Esperanto journals appear mostly in a bilingual form, the
number of them being, as in the Volapiik movement, about
forty-five, whilst there exist a few journals and periodicals
published exclusively in Esperanto. A special significance
attaches to the international congresses organised by the
Esperantists, at which only Esperanto is spoken. In 1905,
at Boulogne-sur-Mer, there assembled 600 members, belong-
ing to about fifteen different nationalities. The differences
of pronunciation which, on account of certain peculiarities
of construction in Esperanto, must necessarily appear
amongst the Romance nationalities and the English, were
not, we are told, sufficiently marked to prevent mutual
comprehension. The second congress took place at Geneva
in 1906. At the third congress, in Cambridge, in 1907, there
were present about 1,400 members, whilst at the fourth
congress, in Dresden, in 1908, there assembled also 1,400

I.L. C

18 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

members. Whatever opinion one may hold about these
congresses, at which much confusion and misunderstanding,
and indeed even much that was ridiculous, took place, they
represent, without doubt, a great and remarkable philological
experiment, and one which demonstrates the possibility of
synthetically constructing a language that can be spoken.
On the other hand, however, the Esperanto congresses
showed, according to the concordant testimony of all persons
of unbiassed opinion, that the Esperanto language in no
wise represents the final solution of the problem. All far-
sighted leaders of the Esperanto movement have been for a
long time the more fully conscious of this state of affairs
the more profound their knowledge of the Esperanto
language. Chief amongst them may be mentioned M. de
Beaufront himself, who has come forward as one of the
leaders of reform, a reform which in many important
respects was recognised as necessary by Dr. Zamenhof
himself in a series of interesting memoirs. The recom-
mendations of Dr. Zamenhof were, however, rejected in
1894 by the so-called " Fundamentists " (157 votes to 107),
who were supported by a few great publishing firms
interested in the preservation of Esperanto. By reason
of the fact that the Esperanto alphabet contains no fewer
than six special letters to be found in no ordinary printing
fount, the firms referred to possess the monopoly of the
very considerable trade in this literature. The Funda-
mentists hold the view that, in spite of a few errors in the
auxiliary language, its success can only be assured by
absolute conservatism. They have, therefore, declared the
grammar, together with the reading book and vocabulary,
published by Zamenhof under the title of Fundamento de
Esperanto, to be sacrosanct, and go so far in this matter
as to revere as " correct " and " classical " Esperanto the
infringements of his own rules, the grammatical errors, and
even the misprints to be found in the Fundamento.

TVn

THE " DELEGATION." 19

The idea of a powerful organisation has undoubtedly at
first sight something very attractive about it. One must,
however, not forget, even in the case of an international
language, that no organisation in the world can arrest the
progress of a necessary development. Every human con-
trivance and invention is subject to change, errors and
deficiencies being corrected. Especially is a rational
development inevitable in the case of things, such as an
international language, which are subject to the control of
our intelligence. Conversely it is not difficult to reply to
the question, How is it then possible, when a system has
once been chosen, to carry it out and preserve it ? For
there are two fundamental qualities which, happily for us,
are apparent in the history of inventions, and each of which
confers stability quite apart from any conventions, namely, a
high degree of rational development based on the most pro-
found knowledge and an extraordinary empirical perfection.
As examples of the latter may be mentioned the notation of
music, which since Guido d'Arezzo (born in 990), or at
any rate since Johann Sebastian Bach, has not appreciably
changed ; the division of time into twenty-four hours and of
the hour into sixty minutes, which is at least three hundred
years old ; the face, mechanism, and hands of a watch, which
date, with unimportant changes, from the Renaissance ; and,
finally, the violin, which retains up to the present day the
characteristic form which the ancient Italians gave it. Is
it not wonderful that this strangely carved piece of wood
must possess just that particular form in order to yield its
harmonious tones ?

As examples of the former may be quoted almost all
modern achievements. The metric and decimal systems
have come to stay. The bicycle, the motor car, and the
typewriting machine have undergone successive improve-
ments till finally they have attained to their more or less
definite form. We see from this that when inventions have

c 2

20 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

once reached a certain degree of suitability they are not
afterwards easily replaced by others. There is, therefore,
only one adequate criterion of the stability of an inter-
national language, namely, that of suitability or adaptation
to its purpose, and we maintain that it is only by means of
continuous reforms and improvements that it will succeed in
satisfying this criterion and so finally attain to stability.
In the work of Couturat and Leau, referred to above, there
are described about ten artificial languages which have
sprung up during and after the period of Volapiik and
Esperanto, and in which the experience of their pre-
decessors has been more or less made use of. A study of
these attempts leads to the surprising result that they often
differ amongst themselves less than, for example, the
Romance languages. If, then, one were to choose any one
of these languages and to direct its systematic development
according to the principles which experience and knowledge
have shown to be requisite for the construction of an inter-
national language, one would in each case arrive finally at
approximately the same result.

At the present day the rapid development in every
department of life has made us only too ready to regard
everything around us as transient. We forget, however,
that the rapidly accumulating inventions and discoveries
which startle and surprise us always refer to new things.
One must bear in mind that there also exist things which
in their essential features can only be invented once, and
that the international language in its final form is one of
these.

An excellent means of convincing the incredulous is to
demonstrate the absence of arbitrariness in the character of
an invention or improvement, and the degree of general
consent which a given system has already obtained. When-
ever one has recognised the natural and logical basis of a
discovery one perceives relationships which restrict the

THE "DELEGATION." 21

ideas of chance and haphazard originally associated with it
in one's mind. It is, therefore, quite unnecessary in the
case of an international language to be afraid of " the
arbitrary action of private persons who possess neither the
right nor the authority to introduce reforms into Espe-
ranto," as Dr. Zamenhof has recently stated. One ought
rather to feel sure that the best means of defending an
international language against arbitrary changes is the
degree of its concordance with sound theoretical principles.
Wilhelm Ostwald has given us an account of the work of
the Delegation. The commission consisted of representatives
of the English, German, Italian, Scandinavian, and Slavonic
languages. Famous philologists such as Otto Jespersen, of
Copenhagen, and Baudouin de Courtenay, of St. Peters-
burg, as well as the philosopher L. Couturat, of Paris,
rendered priceless services. The proceedings, which were
held in the College de France, began with the interviewing
of a number of the inventors of artificial languages or their
representatives, all such people having been invited to the
conference. Where this procedure was not possible the
corresponding writings and documents were examined and
discussed. Concerning this work Ostwald writes, " Although
these labours were very fatiguing, they proved all the more
effective for the progressive elucidation of the problem in
hand. From the very multiplicity of the attempts at a
solution and their discussion there arose in the minds of
the workers, in a manner never to be forgotten, a clear con-
ception of the main conditions required for a successful
solution of the problem, and a recognition of the errors
which a disregard of one or other of these conditions had
produced in the existing systems." Whilst an account of
the nature of these principles and of their application to the
construction of an international auxiliary language will be
given by competent authorities in the following chapters, we
may here mention that the Delegation decided that none of

22 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

the existing systems satisfied the conditions necessary for
an international auxiliary language, but that the widely
known Esperanto could serve as a basis for the working out
of such a language, although it would require to undergo
a certain number of changes.

A standing committee was elected, including Ostwald,
Couturat, De Beaufront, and Jespersen, which was entrusted
with the task of determining the new forms of the inter-
national auxiliary language on the basis of the principles laid
down in the sittings mentioned above.

The changes carried out by the committee of the Delegation
are embodied in the form of new grammars and dictionaries.
The Delegation succeeded not only in recognising, but also
in correcting in a competent manner, the errors of Esperanto,
with the result that we are to-day in possession of a language
which in respect of facility, lucidity, variety, and elegance
of expression, represents the high-water mark of international
speech.

The success which this reform achieved amongst the public
and also in Esperantist circles immediately after the publica-
tion by the Delegation of the first specimen of the new
language was astonishing. That which the Esperantists had
scarcely succeeded in doing during six years of their existence
took place with astonishing rapidity before our eyes, and in
scarcely as many months there were formed in sixty towns
of Europe and America local groups of enthusiastic people
affiliated to the Delegation.

Unfortunately the Fundarnentists persist in their obstinacy
and continue to manifest their discontent. Although the
new language has sprung from Esperanto and is based upon
it, the Esperantists have forbidden that the name Esperanto
should be used. The conventional name Ido (i.e., a
descendant) has therefore been given to it. There exist
already some periodicals in the linguo internaciona. The
chief organ of the new movement is the periodical

THE " D^L^GATION." 23

Progreso (pronounced Progresso), " oficiala organo di la
Delegitaro por adopto di linguo helpanta internaciona." It
is edited by Professor L. Couturat in Paris, and owes its
name, programme, and policy to the advice and initiative of
Ostwald.

The superiority of Ido over Esperanto is so striking and
is so incontestably borne out by practical experience that
one can now really speak, after the Volapiik and Esperanto
periods, of a third world-language movement which has
started off with a reaction-velocity hitherto unknown in this
department of knowledge. It is characteristic of the new
language that it has been taken up by the English and
Americans, whilst an introduction of primitive Esperanto
amongst the Anglo - Saxons encountered insuperable
obstacles, for, as was pointed out with good reason, the
English language, especially in regard to its grammar, was
superior to Esperanto on account of a number of clumsy
constructions and errors which the latter contained. But,
apart from the regularity of pronunciation, Ido excels the
English language both in regard to grammar and, what is
of great importance, brevity, a printed Ido text being even
briefer than the corresponding English one.

For the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the
nature of international language and who still regard an
artificial language as an impossible monstrosity, we may
remark that the new vocabulary contains in round numbers
5,400 stems, and that, in spite of the Romance character
which the international language necessarily possesses, 40
per cent, of these are common to the following six
languages : German, English, French, Italian, Russian,
Spanish (and to many others). Moreover, there are
naturally innumerable other stems which occur simul-
taneously in five or four of the great languages. In the
face of this overwhelming evidence, no one can contest the
possibility of an international language, for the above

24 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

numbers tell their tale with unmistakable clearness. They
prove the existence of the international language apart from
every theory. It is only necessary to select judiciously the
words common to the living languages, that is to say, by an
artificial process, in order to construct the international
language.

Besides the purely linguistic standpoint, the Delegation
considered the whole question of an international auxiliary
language from another and an essential point of view. It is
natural, and sufficiently well known, that in both the Volapiik
and Esperanto movements the linguistic issue was mixed up
with a large amount of disorder, error, misunderstanding,
and illusion. This was due to the fact that these move-
ments were largely directed by scientifically untrained
persons, and partly also fell into the hands of fanatics and
Utopians. Added to this was the desire to soar to the
summits of literature instead of confining themselves to
practical matters, and the truly childish confidence which
led them to spoil the classics of different nations by trans-
lating them into a language intended for other purposes.
This latter trait was even more markedly pronounced in the
Esperanto than in the Volapiik movement. The Delegation,
as a commission of serious men of science, has steadily
laboured to free the question from all extraneous considera-
tions, of which we have mentioned only the best known, and
the standpoint which is taken in the periodical Progreso
is in all respects a serious and scientific one. In this way
it has been possible to attain finally to a stage at which the
whole question can be discussed on its merits. The action
of the Delegation marks, therefore, without doubt the
beginning of a rational period in the history of the
movement for a universal language. Henceforth he who
comes to mock will have nothing to say, and the sceptic
will have to search for serious and competent reasons if he
wishes to maintain his case.

THE "DELEGATION." 25

The point of view which the Delegation has taken is that
the solution of the problem of an international auxiliary
language is a purely scientific and technical question.
Scientific in a douhle sense of the word : in the first place,
because the living germ of an international language is
already to be found in science and as an expression of the
civilisation of Europe and America, requiring only an
artificial development to bring it to maturity and to give us
the international auxiliary language in its final form ; in the
second place, because the method of artificial development
of the international language forms itself the object of a
science, and that indeed a new one, namely, the philology
of auxiliary language. The question is also a technical
one because the result obtained by theory is destined
for a practical purpose, namely, the daily use of mankind.
Our modern civilisation is signalised by the application of
science to practice. We are no longer pure empiricists.
Science penetrates into every department of daily life, and
all enlightened people are aware that the age of pure
empiricism is over.

The movement for a universal language possesses its
epochs, like other things, but we may rest assured that the
era of the attempts to solve the problem of auxiliary language
in a purely empirical, or even indeed romantic, manner has
passed away with the Volapiik and Esperanto periods.

The work of the Delegation has also been in a high degree
an organising one. The beginning of the year 1909 gave
birth to a Uniono di I'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona,
extending over all parts of the world. From this union are
derived by election two directing bodies : firstly, the Komitato,
a commission which looks after matters of organisation and
business ; and secondly, an Academy, entrusted with the
scientific investigation of the international auxiliary language,
which sees to its steady progress, corrects the errors and
deficiencies which are sure to make their appearance, decides

26 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

in doubtful cases, and regulates the introduction of new
words and constructions.

The carrying out of this scientific and technical programme
has now become the duty of all who feel the necessity for an
international means of communicating thought.

RICHARD LORENZ.

CHAPTER III

THE LINGUISTIC PEINCIPLES NECESSARY FOB THE CON-
STRUCTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE,
WITH APPENDIX : CRITICISM OF ESPERANTO

THERE exist more than sixty systems or attempts at an
artificial universal language, and considering the great
diversity of these languages, it might appear hopeless to
arrive at unanimity concerning any one of them. When,
however, one considers the question more closely, it appears
that matters are not so bad as one might imagine. Whereas
twenty years ago the systems which appeared were as different
as day from night, at the present day one perceives great
lines of convergence, pointing to the time when mankind
shall have added to the other triumphs of civilisation that
of an auxiliary language recognised and used by everybody,
to the great advantage of all whose horizon is not limited by
the boundaries of their mother country.

Is it possible in a single formula to express everything
that is requisite for a practical international language ? I
think so, and a brief consideration of the two reasons which
prevent us from choosing one of the natural languages as an
international language will enable me to arrive very quickly
at this formula. The first reason is, that such a procedure
would unfairly benefit one nation at the expense of all the
others and would infringe the fundamental principle of
neutrality, which is necessary in all international affairs.
The second reason is, that every language is too difficult for
foreigners. All existing languages swarm with difficulties of
pronunciation, spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and especially
idiom. It is very seldom that a foreigner succeeds, even

28 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

after years of study, in learning a language sufficiently well
to avoid occasionally making one of those mistakes which
instantly betray his origin to the natives ; it may be a false
stress, or a word employed with an almost imperceptibly
different shade of meaning, or placed in a position in a
sentence where the native would never place it, or, finally, a
phrase which, though logically correct, is nevertheless not
permitted by the usage of the language. On account of
their innumerable relationships and associations, which is
indeed what makes them so dear to the nations that employ
them, all natural languages are extraordinarily difficult, and
therefore unsuitable for the purpose of international inter-
course. We require, accordingly, a language which shall be
not only neutral, but also as easy as possible : easy to learn,
easy to use, and easy to understand.

These considerations bring me to the sought-for formula,
which we may express in a form similar to the celebrated
ethical dictum of Hutcheson and Bentham (" That action is
best which accomplishes the greatest happiness for the
greatest number ") : —

That international language is best which offers the greatest
facility to the greatest number.

It may be objected, however, that facility is a subjective
idea : what is easy for one is not always easy for another.
Quite so, and it is exactly that observation which will serve
us as a guide in the investigation of the important conclusions
which may be drawn from our fundamental principle.

In the first place, as regards the alphabet and the pro-
nunciation, our fundamental principle leads to the choice of
the Latin alphabet, with the exclusion of all accented or
otherwise specially modified letters ; neither a, 0, d, a, a, g,
nor the circumflexed c, g, h, j, 4, especially invented by
Dr. Zamenhof for Esperanto, can be tolerated, for they
hinder, and sometimes even render impossible, writing,
printing, and telegraphing. I have shown in the Introduction

INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE 29

to the international dictionaries of De Beaufront and
Couturat how our fundamental principle leads to the following
alphabet and the following sound values : a (as in father),
b, c (like ts), d, e (like e in net or like a in fate),/, g (always
hard, as in go), h, i (like ee in sweet), j (either like E.1 or like
F.,1 as in journal), k, I, m, n, o (as in go or as in not),p, q (qu,
as in G. or as in E.), r, s (always unvoiced), t, u (always like
oo, as in too), v, x (as in G. or as in E. F. in the words
exist, exister), y (as in E. F., and therefore like G.j), z (as
in E. F., and therefore like the voiced North German s in
rose), further the two double letters ch (as in E., for
example church) and sh (as in E., G. sch).

The strict phonetic canon " One symbol, one sound," is
therefore followed in so far as the same sound is never
arbitrarily written one way in one word and another way in
another word, and the same letter is never pronounced
differently in some words compared with the majority. The
small exception that sh and ch are not equivalent to 8 -{- h
and c + h respectively cannot cause the least difficulty to
anyone, and the use of qu and x enables us to retain the
international spelling of many words, and, moreover, permits
two different pronunciations which cause no difficulty of
comprehension and simplify the pronunciation for several
nations. Otherwise we should be faced with the difficult
problem of choosing between kwala and kvala, eksistar and
egzistar. It must not be forgotten, too, that for our purposes
the purely theoretical canon " One symbol, one sound," must
be subordinated to the fundamental principle of greatest
facility, of which phonetic simplicity is itself only a conse-
quence. Practical considerations must, in fact, overrule
theoretical objections whenever a small deviation from the
fundamental principle " One symbol, one sound," produces
greater facility.

1 Here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be used : —
G. = German, E. = English, F. = French, I. = Italian, B. = Russian,
and S. = Spanish.

30 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

There remains to be discussed a matter of very great
importance for the phonetics of international language.
Whilst all nations pronounce without difficulty a series of
sounds in which the vowels alternate with single consonants,
and almost all nations have no objections to certain groups
of consonants which are easily pronounced (such as tr, sp,
blf etc.), the pronunciation of other heavier groups, especi-
ally at the end of words, presents the greatest difficulty to
many nations. The French usually simplify too complicated
groups by inserting an unwritten vowel (as, for example, in
Felix(e) Faure), Italians who speak English do almost the
same thing in the case of such groups as kstr (Greek Street)
or ksp (sixpence), and the phonetic usages of other nations
do not permit even as many successive consonants as the
Italians. In order to make matters as easy as possible for
everybody, one must avoid the mistake of Neutral Idiom,
many of whose words contained very heavy groups of final
consonants, endeavouring rather to follow the example of
Esperanto, which succeeded very cleverly by means of its
predominance of vowel terminations in producing not only
grammatical clearness, but also as easy and flowing a pro-
nunciation as possible. In this way the language becomes
musical and pleasant to the ear.

We shall now proceed to the question of a vocabulary.
In choosing the majority of his stems, Dr. Zamenhof had
already followed the principle of maximum internationality,
but the authors of Neutral Idiom were the first to carry
out this principle scientifically for the whole language.
Their procedure was, however, somewhat superficial, since
in each particular case they calculated the number of
languages to which a given word was common. One must
not count the languages (and Latin especially must not be
counted along with the living languages), but the people who
use them, for languages are not organisms which possess an
individual existence independent of those who speak them.

INTEENATIONAL AUXILIAEY LANGUAGE 31

The proper rule, therefore, for determining the internation-
ally of a word or stem is to count the number of people
who understand it through their mother tongue. This
definition of the principle of maximum intern at ionality is
simply a necessary consequence of the fundamental principle
of the greatest facility for the greatest number. It is natural
that each person would prefer the use of the greatest number
of words which are familiar to him, and so, to be impartial,
we must attach the same value to the individual preferences
of the 120,000,000 who speak English as to those of the
75,000,000 Germans, the 70,000,000 Kussians, or the
50,000,000 French or Spanish, etc. Even the languages
spoken by the smaller nations must be taken into account
in proportion to their numbers.

The choice of the words for our neutral language is,
therefore, a pure question of arithmetic. Statistics of the
number of people who speak the different languages will not,
however, furnish us with a complete solution of the problem.
In the first place, there are to be found in the dictionaries
technical words and special terms which are only known to a
minority of each nation. In the second place, there occur
cases where a word, though it does not belong to a language,
is, nevertheless, known through one or more derivatives.
For example, 100 is in English hundred, in German
hundert, in Danish hundreds, and yet the root cent (zeni)
has been long familiar to the world through the terms
per cent. (G. prozent), centesimal, centimetre, centennial,
century, centenary, G. zentner, Danish centner. In the
third place, even when " the same word " belongs to
several languages, it very often possesses different forms,
due mostly to a different phonetic development, with the
result that the choice of a proper form is very often a
delicate matter. The sounds of the word " change," which
the English and French write in the same way, are very
different ; but as we can employ neither the nasal vowel of

32 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

the French nor the diphthong (ei) of the most usual English
pronunciation, chanj would appear to he the most convenient
form for all. In very many cases it is possible to find a
common denominator for the different forms. Had not in
English and German the external form of many etymo-
logically closely related words diverged so much that it is
impossible to find a middle form (for example, water,
wasser ; tooth, zahn ; speak, sprechen ; soap, seife ; week,
woche), the Germanic element would have been the dominat-
ing one on account of the great number of those speaking
these two related languages. Such being the case, the
Romance element in English usually decides the matter in
the majority of instances, since it coincides with the French,
Spanish, and Italian, or at least with one of these languages,
the result being that our language necessarily possesses a
Romance form in a much higher degree than one might have
thought. Another very important circumstance (which I
have hinted at previously) acts in the same direction, the
circumstance, namely, that numerous Latin derivatives have
passed over into the Germanic languages even when the
stem does not occur there. For example, German possesses
the words absentieren, abstinent, artist, dentist, dental, moral,
popular, which greatly facilitate for a German the under-
standing of the words absenta, abstenar, arto, dento, moro,
populo, although he does not possess them in his own
language (with the exception of p'obel = populacho).

Sometimes there exists a very troublesome rivalry between
two words. In order to render the substantive " arm " (limb)
the proper word would seem to be the German, English, and
Scandinavian " arm," until one makes the discovery that the
same root " arm " in the sense of " weapon " is still more
international (E., F., I., S., supported by armee G., E., F., R.,
armata I., armada S., armieren G., etc.), which compels us
for " arm " (limb) to have recourse to a Romance form. In
other cases a more or less arbitrary change of one of the

INTEENATIONAL AUXILIAEY LANGUAGE 33

series of words appears to be the only means of avoiding
confusing homonyms (namely, for door pordo instead of
porto, on account of port = carry), hut this procedure must
be employed with great caution. Before everything else it
is necessary to avoid all disguising of words, which makes
them unrecognisable, aptly described by M. Blondel as a
masquerade. This was set up as a general principle in
Volapiik, and Esperanto is by no means free from it.

As an example of the conflicts which occur now and then
may be quoted the expressions for the idea of " soul."
" Soul " is the word which would be immediately under-
stood by the greatest number of people, but we cannot
employ the English diphthong ou, as we must be very
sparing in the use of diphthongs, since they cause very great
difficulties in pronunciation. We cannot take over the word
in the form sol, because we require this for the word " alone "
(I. S. solo, internationally used in music, E. sole, F. seul).
G. seele, supported by the Scandinavian sjdl, is not familiar
to a sufficient number of people, and, besides, we require the
word Bel for " saddle " (F. I. S.). The French word dme will
not do either, because it is not sufficiently well known
outside France, and, besides, there is a difficulty here too, for
am- is absolutely required for the idea of "love" on
account of F. I. S. and many derivatives in E., not to
mention the god Amor. The use of the Latin anim-, which
is the basis of the Eomance forms, is impossible, since we
cannot do without the adjectival termination -al, and
animal would then mean partly "relating to the soul,"
partly "animal," which cannot be permitted in an inter-
national language. We must resort to the device of
changing anim- a little, whereby we get anmo. This
example will show how complicated the task frequently is of
finding an international word which will give rise to no con-
fusion or misunderstanding.

The degree of internationality of the language of the

I.L. D

34 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

Delegation will be evident from the statistics of Couturat ;
he counted the roots of the first dictionaries (5,379 in all)
and found that of these the following numbers occur in the
national languages : —

French 4,880, i.e. 91 per 100
Italian 4,454 „ 83 „ „
Spanish 4,237 „ 79 „ „
English 4,219 „ 79 „ „
German 3,302 „ 61 „ „
Russian 2,821 „ 52 ,, „

For all these languages the above numbers are relatively
higher than in the case of Esperanto.

One of the most effective means of simplifying the
vocabulary of a language is a carefully worked-out system
of word formation, which enables everyone, by means of a
series of regular prefixes and suffixes, to form with the
greatest ease a large number of new words, which are
immediately intelligible to all who know the rules.

When one has judiciously chosen the roots which occur
under different forms in the various natural languages and
also selected the derivative terminations with all possible care,
it is astonishing to observe how great a number of words
derived with perfect regularity agree with the forms occurring
in living languages.

With regard to grammar, the fundamental condition to be
required of every system claiming to be an international
language is that of perfect regularity. Every exception to
the rules only serves to produce complications and to render
the employment of the language difficult and uncertain. If
one 'knows the conjugation of one verb, one must know the
conjugation of all verbs, and so on.

In the choice of grammatical terminations the statistical
method, which served us for the purpose of the vocabulary,
cannot be strictly applied, because living languages diverge

INTEENATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE 35

too much in this matter. Nevertheless it does not leave us
entirely in the lurch.

Such cases as the dative and genitive and also the
ablative, etc., must be expressed by prepositions in con-
formity with the tendency of Western European languages.
It is advisable to have an inflection for the accusative,
although this is only intended for occasional use, because in
the great majority of instances there is no necessity to
distinguish it from the nominative. As neither the Komance
languages nor English and Scandinavian possess any accusa-
tive inflection, and as the Slavonic languages do not give us
any help here, we are obliged to fall back on German, which
in the feminine and neuter has no inflection. The masculine,
however, in many cases has an -n (den guten knaberi). The
fact that this termination is also mostly used for the dative,
as well as for the infinitive, need not prevent us employing
it in our language for the accusative. It necessitates the
use, however, of forms ending in a vowel for the nominative
of substantives (and adjectives and pronouns). It may be
remarked that -n as an accusative inflection is also found in
Greek and Finnish.

The only vowels that can be employed in this connection
are o and a, which, as a matter of fact, occur very frequently
as the terminations of substantives and adjectives in the
Slavonic languages, as well as in I. and S. Since gram-
matical gender, as distinct from sex, cannot be permitted in
an artificial language, it is not possible to employ o and a as
in natural languages, where the former is often, though not
exclusively, used for the masculine (I. S., but in R. and
Polish for the neuter), and the latter similarly for the
feminine. One might be inclined to employ o for the male
and a for the female sex, with the result that one would
have no termination for inanimate things, abstract ideas, or
living beings whose sex is not a matter of importance at the
moment. The carrying out of this rule, however, leads to

D 2

36 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

considerable difficulties which would take too long to enter
into here. (This is one of the points which led to most
discussion in the Delegation Committee.) As a matter of
fact, a very great deal can be said in favour of the Esperanto
usage of o for the substantive and a for the adjective, and,
as Couturat has remarked, la bona viro is not any stranger
than the Italian il buono poeta.

We need have no compunction in leaving the qualifying
adjective without inflection, as is done, for instance, in
English. The ending -i is very suitable for the plural of
substantives, being used for this purpose in Italian, in
Russian and the other Slavonic languages, as well as in
modern Greek ; it is also tolerably familiar to the English
in foreign words, such as banditti. The only termination
which might dispute the honours with -t is -s (F., although
usually silent, S., E., G. partly, and Dutch), but -* cannot
be used if we employ the accusative termination -rc, as
neither virosn nor virons could be permitted.

As regards the inflections of verbs, we are bound, if we
want a termination for the infinitive, to choose, according to
our fundamental principle, the -r of all the Romance lan-
guages, because neither the German -n, which we have used
for other purposes, nor the palatised Slavonic -t (or -d), can be
employed, and English possesses no inflection. We require
a vowel before the -r, the choice of which will be evident
from what follows. For the active and passive participles
we need only consider -nt and -t respectively, the vowels
being also left undecided for the present. The greatest
difficulty, however, is caused by the finite tenses, in which
we must distinguish present, past, and future. In this
respect living languages differ so much amongst themselves
that the principle of maximum internationality does not
suffice, especially as the inflections of tense are inextricably
mixed up with those of person and number, which for our
purposes are quite unnecessary. The Delegation Committee

INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE 37

have, therefore, for the moment been unable to find anything
better than the Esperanto usage of -as for the present, -is
for the past, and -os for the future. The same series of
vowels may also be employed for the infinitive and partici-
ples, so that the normal forms are -ar, -anta, and -ata (the
final vowel a here being the adjectival termination), whilst
-ir, -inta, -ita, and -or, -onta, -ota, respectively may be retained
for the less frequent cases where one wishes to indicate
expressly another tense in the infinitive or participle. A
few a priori inflections will not cause much harm in a
grammar which is so easy that it may be mastered in half
an hour.

I have now arrived at the end of my investigation, in
which I have endeavoured to show the method whereby the
language of the Delegation has been constructed. The
result is a language that everyone can easily master, and
which possesses the advantage over other languages that it
is based on rational scientific principles and, therefore, need
not fear that some fine day it will be replaced by another
and sensibly different language. Naturally improvements
will be effected in details where the fundamental principles
have not been sufficiently worked out, but the foundation is
sound, and the common auxiliary language of mankind
cannot differ very much from our " Internaciona linguo,"
or, to give it a shorter name, " Interlinguo," or, still shorter,
"Ilo " (from the initial letters).

OTTO JESPERSEN.

APPENDIX

CRITICISM OF ESPERANTO

IN connection with the foregoing some critical remarks
on Esperanto may be made, from which one will readily
perceive the reasons which made it impossible for the
Delegation pour V Adoption d'une Langue Internationale to

88 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

adopt Esperanto in its present form as the international
auxiliary language.

Dr. Zamenhof has given us an interesting account of the
way in which his language gradually developed in his mind
while he was at the Warsaw Gymnasium. Before he arrived
at the conviction that the material for the vocabulary must
be obtained from the Romance and Germanic languages,
and that the already existing stock of international words
must be used, he had " simply invented " his words, that is
to say, chosen them quite arbitrarily, but with as much
regard to system and brevity as possible. Although he
himself noticed that such words are difficult to learn and
still more difficult to remember, he has unfortunately
retained in the finished language a whole series of such a
priori formations, which appear in words of such frequent
occurrence as who, how, where, never, everywhere, etc.
The nul tempe and pro quo chosen by the Delegation agree,
however, much better with the general character of language
than the neniam and kial of Dr. Zamenhof.

Some peculiarities may be accounted for by the Slavonic
mother tongue of the author : for example, his preference
for sibilants and diphthongs, which is especially evident in
the invented words (e.g., chi, here ; chiu, each ; ech, even ; ghi,
that; ghis, until, gh and ch being pronounced as E.^'and
ch). In an article in Zamenhof 's Krestomatio I find, for
example (p. 288), chiuj tiuj senantaujughaj kaj honestaj
homoj, kiuj, anstatau filizofadi pri ghi, and (p. 293) tion
chi ankorau antau la apero de la unua arta lingvo antauvidis
kaj antaudiris chiuj tiuj eminentaj kapoj, kiuj, etc. The
method of writing x is also Russian : ekzameni, ekzemplo,
etc., and also ekspedi, eksplodi ; also kv for qu. French
words with oi take ua in Esperanto when they are spelt in
this way in Eussian, e.g., trotuaro, tualeto, vuala ; otherwise
they are spelt with oi or oj, e.g., foiro, fojo,foino. Nacio,
tradicio, etc., instead of -iono, is also Russian. Russian

CRITICISM OF ESPEKANTO 39

usage has doubtless also inspired such word formations as
elparoli and senkulpigi instead of the international pronuncar
and exkuzar (R. vygovarivat' and izvin'af, corresponding to
G. aussprechen and entschuldigen). The peculiarity of using
the adverb instead of the adjective in such cases as estas
necese vidi, "it is necessary to see," is probably to be
ascribed to the correspondence of the Russian adverb with
the neuter predicate adjective. This rule cannot be per-
mitted, however, in an international language, because, with
a free word order, it wouldbe impossible to say whether
estas vere necese means "it is really necessary " or "it is
necessarily true." The compound perfect (mi estas aminta,
" I have loved " = " I am having loved ") reminds one of
the Polish kochal-em. Finally, the frequent use of the
adjective (in -a) instead of the genitive (Zamenhofa lingvo)
and of the two sorts of action expressed by ek and ad
(ekvidi and vidadi used in many cases where the simple vidi
would be sufficient) are to be accounted for by Russian
usages.

Naturally I do not object to the importation of national
peculiarities into the international auxiliary language when
the latter is enriched thereby. For example, one must
make use of the facility for forming compound words common
to the Germanic and Slavonic languages in preference to
the poverty of Romance languages in this respect, and
combine it with the more Romance characteristic of forming
new words by means of derivative syllables. But peculiari-
ties of national language which render mutual comprehension
and international usage difficult must be most carefully
avoided.

The unpractical nature of the circumflexed letters has
been indicated previously. It may be remarked here, how-
ever, that in point of system Zamenhof 's letters are very
inferior to the similar ones employed in the Czech language,
since the parallelism in sound between 8 and s} z and j, dz

40 INTEBNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

and y, is disguised by the choice of letters. This produces
a very amateurish effect.

Besides the familiar parts of speech which are indicated
by special terminations, Zamenhof invented a new class
characterised by the termination -au (kontrau, almenau) ; but
the limits of this class, which includes some, but not all,
adverbs and prepositions, are not clearly denned.

Many words taken from existing languages are disguised,
almost after the fashion of Volapiik : boji, F. aboyer ; parkere,
F. par cceur ; shvit, G. schwitzen, E. sweat; char, F. car;
faruno instead of farin ; lerta, F. alerte (with a changed
meaning) , etc. In this category is to be classed the astonish-
ing nepre (entirely) which is derived from the Kussian
nepremenno, just as if one were to take from the German
word unbedingt the two first syllables and propose unbe as
an international word instead of absolute. The economy in
the use of stems was carried much too far in Esperanto,
necessitating the employment of all sorts of compound words,
the discovery of whose meaning requires much racking of
one's brains. The employment of all the derivative syllables
also as independent words is very ingenious, but produces a
very strange impression on the uninitiated.

The method of word formation is greatly wanting in
precision, the limits of the so-called direct derivation in
particular being not sufficiently clearly indicated. One
example will suffice. Starting out from kroni = to crown,
krono ought properly to mean crowning, instead of which it
signifies crown, so that one is forced to use kronado for
crowning, whereas, according to the rules of Esperanto,
kronado must mean continuous or repeated crowning, as if a
king were being constantly or repeatedly crowned.1

1 Concerning the criticism of Esperanto, cf. also Zamenhof, Pri Reformoj
eti Esperanto, 1894, represita per zorgo de E. Javal, 1907 (containing many
important suggestions which the Esperantists have now unfortunately
forgotten) ; A. Liptay, Wine Oemeinspraclie der Naturvolker, 1891 ; E.
Beermann, Die Internationale Hilfisprache JNovilatin, 1907 ; K. Brugmann

CEITICISM OF ESPEEANTO 41

I have brought together here the most important defects
in Esperanto, the removal of which formed one of the tasks
of the Delegation Committee. The knowledge of these
imperfections does not prevent me from recognising the
meritorious services of Zamenhof, who, at a time when the
question of the best construction of an international language
was not seriously discussed, succeeded in producing one
which was in many respects superior to the attempts of that
time, and which has proved in practice a serviceable, though
very imperfect, means of international communication.

OTTO JESPERSEN.

and A. Leskien, Zur Kritik der Kiinstlichen Weltspractien, 1907; Couturat and
Leau, Conclusions du Rapport, 1907 ; L. Couturat, Etude sur la Derivation
en Esperanto, 1907 ; Ido, Les Vrais Principes de la Langue Auxiliaire, 1908 ;
many articles in the periodical Progreso, 1908 ; F. Borgius, Warum, ich
Esperanto verliess, 1908.

CHAPTER IV

ON f THE APPLICATION OF LOGIC TO THE PROBLEM OF AN
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

THE problem of an international language has a theoretical
as well as a practical importance. I have no intention of
discussing the latter here and of explaining once more the
necessity of an auxiliary language for international relations
of every sort, and the practical possibility of making oneself
understood by means of an artificial language, a possibility
which has been proved by experience. But an international
language is also, according to the words of the celebrated
philologist H. Schuchardt, a desideratum of science, in
which connection it raises at once problems of philology
and logic. That these problems are worthy of the study of
scientific men is proved by the discussions of Professors Diels
and Gomperz, the reports made to the Academy of Sciences
of Leipzig by Professors Brugmann and Leskien, and,
finally, the labours and decisions of the Committee of the
Delegation pour VA doption d'une Langue Internationale. The
latter, composed of highly competent scientists and linguists,
has determined the principles necessary for an auxiliary
language, and has practically realised them.

My desire in what follows is to show briefly the connection
of the international language with logic, and its claims on
the attention and interest of philosophers. In the words of
Leibnitz, " Languages form the best mirror for the human
spirit, and an exact analysis of the meaning and relationship
of words would be the best means of disclosing the operations
of the mind " (N. Essais, III., VII., end). But the majority
of philosophers (with some distinguished exceptions, e.g.,

LOGIC AND INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE 43

Professor Wundt) and the majority of linguists (also with
some distinguished exceptions, e.g., M. Breal) have given
little attention to the study of language from the point of
view of psychology and logic. Now this study is particularly
easy and interesting in the case of an artificial language,
since the latter presents a structure analogous to that of our
existing languages, but much simpler and more regular.

The words of the international language consist of
invariable elements (morphemes) of three sorts : stems,
derivative affixes (prefixes and suffixes), and grammatical
inflections which, as in the case of European languages, are
always final letters or final syllables. The stems themselves
can be divided into two categories : verb stems, which
express a state, action, or relation, e.g., dorm, parol, frap ;
and non-verbal or nominal stems, which denote an object
(living being or thing), or express an aspect of it, e.g., horn,
dom, bel, blind. The latter can produce directly only names
(substantives or adjectives): man, house, beautiful, blind (in
Ido, homo, domo, bela, blinda) ; the former, on the contrary,
produce directly verbs : to sleep, to speak, to strike (in Ido,
dormar, parolar,frapar), but they can also give rise to nouns :
sleep, word, blow (in Ido, dormo, parolo, frapo). The
proper r6le of the grammatical terminations is to determine
the grammatical function of a stem word and to indicate the
category to which the word belongs, whether verb, substantive,
or adverb. Thus parol-ar = to speak ; parol-o = (spoken)
word ; parol-a = oral ; parol-e = orally. The same idea,
namely, that expressed by the stem word, always runs through
the various categories. This follows from a principle which
dominates the whole structure of the international language :
"Every word element" (morpheme) "represents an elemen-
tary idea, which is always the same, so that a combination
of elements has a meaning determined by the combination
of the corresponding ideas." This principle is only a
corollary to the general principle of uniqueness so clearly

44 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

enunciated by Ostwald : " There exists a unique and
reciprocal correspondence between the ideas and the
morphemes which express them." This principle represents
evidently the ideal of all language, for a language, being
essentially a system of symbols, is only theoretically perfect
(and useful and convenient in practice) when there exists a
unique correspondence between the symbol and the idea
symbolised.

Now it follows from this principle that it is quite incorrect
to say, as is often done, " Being given a stem, it suffices to
add to it -ar to form a verb, -o to form a substantive, -a to
form an adjective"; we require to define the sense possessed
by this verb, substantive, and adjective. In other words, to
every derivative of form there must correspond a derivative
of sense which is in no wise arbitrary, but determined by
general rules. If dorm-ar =: to sleep, dorm-o cannot mean
indifferently the sleeper, the dormitory, or the desire to
sleep ; if blind-a = blind, blind-o cannot signify at pleasure
either blindness or the act of blinding. The rule which must
guide us here is the principle enunciated above, namely,
that a stem always preserves the same sense and expresses
the same idea ; if one wishes to express another idea related
to the former in a definite way, it is necessary to add to the
stem a morpheme expressing this relationship. The
morphemes which denote the relations of our ideas are
the affixes of derivation, which permit us to express a whole
family of ideas by the aid and as the function of one
fundamental idea, and to form correspondingly a family of
words all derived from the same stem, as occurs, as a matter
of fact, in natural languages. Certain of these affixes are
wrongly classed amongst the grammatical inflections, such
as, for example, the participial suffixes which serve to derive
an adjective or a substantive from a verb, denoting him who
performs the action, or is affected by (subject to) the state or
relationship expressed by the stem : dorm-ant-a = sleeping,

LOGIC AND INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE 45

parol-ant-a = speaking, whence, by simple change of the
final letter, dorm-ant-o = sleeper, parol-ant-o = speaker.
One will perceive thereby the difference between direct
derivation, which is effected by means of the grammatical
inflections, and indirect derivation, which is effected by means
of the addition of affixes. There is nothing arbitrary about
this distinction, for it rests on the logical principles
enunciated above, which determine the theoretical and
practical value of the international language.

From these principles follow at once the rules of direct
derivation. If one starts from a verbal stem, what must be
the sense of the substantive directly derived from it ? This
sense can be none other than the state or action expressed
by the verb : dormar = to sleep, dormo = sleep ; parolar =
to speak, parolo = a word ; frapar = to strike, frapo = a
blow. In these derived words we perceive the sense of the
verb stem, and the proof of that is that in our natural
languages we often employ the infinitive for this purpose :
le manger, le boire, le dormir, le rire ; das rennen (in English
the verbal in -ing is employed with the sense of the
infinitive). Indeed, one might completely identify the verbal
substantive with the infinitive.

If one starts from a substantival stem, what must be the
relation between the adjective and substantive derived from
it ? They must necessarily have the same sense, whichever of
the two one considers the primary word : ifavara = avaricious,
avaro = an avaricious person ; if blinda = blind, blindo = a
blind person. This rule is all the more necessary in practice
as there are a crowd of substantival stems concerning which
one could not say whether they produce at first a substantive
or an adjective : vidva = widowed, vidvo = widower ; nobela
= noble, nobelo = nobleman ; santa = holy, santo = a saint.
This is particularly true of the names of followers of this
or that doctrine : katoliko, katolika ; skeptiko, skeptika, etc.
No one would think of using any suffix to derive one of these

46 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

words from the other. There is only a very slight difference of
meaningbetween a katolika skeptiko and a skeptikakatoliko, the
substantive indicating in each case the primary and funda-
mental idea to which the other is superadded.

This brings us to the enunciation of the principle of
reversibility, which maybe formulated as follows: "Every
derivation must be reversible ; that is to say, if one passes
from one word to another of the same family in virtue of a
certain rule, one must be able to pass inversely from the
second to the first in virtue of a rule which is exactly the
inverse of the preceding." That is an evident corollary of
the principle of uniqueness, for otherwise one would be led
to give two meanings to the same word. Let us suppose, for
example, that from the noun krono, = a crown, one imagines
it possible to derive directly (as is the case in certain
languages) the verb kronar = to crown. From this verb
one could deduce inversely in virtue of the general rule the
substantive krono =• coronation, so that the same word krono
would then mean both crown and coronation. That would
be, however, a logical error inadmissible in the international
language, however numerous may be the examples of it which
occur in living languages. On the contrary, thanks to the
principle of reversibility, one can proceed from any word
whatsoever of a family and arrive at any other word of the
same family, or return to the initial word, in an absolutely
unique manner, whereas if one did not observe this principle
one would inevitably obtain two meanings for the same
word.

The principle of reversibility fixes the rules of direct
derivation for the cases which are the converse of those
we have studied. Just as the substantive directly derived
from a verb denotes the state or action expressed by this
verb (or, more strictly, by its root), so a verb can be derived
directly from a substantive only if the latter expresses an
action or a state. For example, paco = peace ; can one

LOGIC AND INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE 47

form the verb pacar, and if so what will he its meaning ?
This verh can only signify one thing, to be in the state oj
peace, and not to pacify or make peace, for in that case paco
would mean pacification or conclusion of peace, and not the
state of peace. Similarly, if one can and must convert an
adjective into a noun by the simple substitution of -o for -a,
the adjective immediately derived from a substantive can
only mean " what is — " If homo = a man (a human being),
homa can only mean human in the sense of which is a man
(human being) ; homa ento = a human being. But if one
wishes to obtain an adjective signifying " which belongs
to — ," " which relates to — ," " which depends on — ," it is
necessary to employ a suffix (-al) : homala manuo = a human
hand. One might equally well say manuo di homo — the
hand of a man (human being). But just as the preposition
di is indispensable for indicating the relationship between
two ideas which are not simply juxtaposed, but depend on
each other, so, if we wish to express one of the ideas in
adjectival form, we require a suffix which also expresses
this relation or dependence. Besides, a suffix of this nature
exists under different forms in all our languages : G. isch ;
E. -ic, -al, -ical; F. -ique, -al, -el; I. -ico ; S. -ico. The
choice of -al rather than -ik was determined by reasons of
euphony and also internationality, the derivative adjectives
employed in science (the most international of all) ending
often in -al : mental, vocal, spatial ; rationnel, universel,
fonctionnel, etc.

In this connection we shall make a general remark. The
international language borrows its stems from the European
languages according to the principle of maximum inter-
nationality, i.e., adopts for each idea the most international
stem, namely, that which is familiar to the greatest number
of men. But it cannot, and must not, borrow their deriva-
tives from living languages without losing all its theoretical
and practical advantages, because the natural derivatives

48 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

are too irregular. Sometimes the same affix has several
different meanings ; sometimes the same relationship is
expressed lay different affixes. In virtue of the principle of
uniqueness, it is necessary to unify and regularise the mean-
ing and employment of the affixes, assigning to each one a
perfectly definite significance and function. Undoubtedly
one must endeavour to adopt for the affixes forms which are
international (as much as possible), or at least known in
some language (like the suffix -in of the feminine, borrowed
from the German, e.g.. konigin, and the prefix mal-, denoting
" a contrary," borrowed from the French, e.g., malheureux),
so as to reproduce as much as possible international deriva-
tives. But it is chimerical to endeavour to reproduce them
all, since they are irregular and consequently incompatible
with that logical regularity of the language on which is based
not only its fertility, but also its simplicity in practical use
and its facility for all nationalities (even for non-European
peoples who are not familiar with the anomalies and caprices
of European languages). The international language must
be autonomous in its formation of words ; when the elements
which it borrows from our languages have been once chosen
(in the best possible manner), it must combine them freely
according to its own rules, preserving their form and sense
rigorously invariable. It is by virtue of this condition that
it becomes a true language, richer in certain respects than
our own, since it can form all the useful derivatives which
are often wanting in one or the other, and not merely a
simple imitation or copy of our languages, which would be
as difficult as they, and which would require a previous
knowledge of them.

AVe shall not explain here all the forms of indirect
derivation, or enumerate the forty-seven affixes used for
this purpose. We shall quote only a few of them for the
sake of example, in order to show the application of the
principles enunciated above. If there is one suffix which

LOGIC AND INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 49

is particularly useful to philosophers, it is that which enables
one to derive from an adjective the name of the correspond-
ing abstract quality ; that is the Greek suffix -otet and the
Latin suffix -itat (-itud), whence have come the French -iU,
the English -ity, the Italian -ita, the Spanish -itad ; and the
German suffix -heit or -keit, etc. We perceive here a logical
relation well known and made use of in all our languages.
It must find a place in the international language, but by
what suffix ought it to be represented ? Now, if one
analyses the idea involved in this suffix, one will find that
beauty, health, blindness, are simply the states or facts of
being beautiful, healthy, blind. The idea involved in this
suffix is then the idea of being, not the idea of existence, but
the idea of being such and such, the idea of attribution
which is expressed by the copula est. It is natural, there-
fore, to represent it by the Indo-European stem of the verb
to be, namely, es ; bel-es-o = beauty ; san-es-o = health ;
blind-es-o = blindness. The fact that this suffix recalls
a French suffix (richesse), an Italian suffix (bellezza), and
an English suffix -ness (happiness) employed in the same
sense can only serve as an accessory confirmation of the
above choice, which was dictated by logical motives. More-
over, this agrees perfectly with our general rules ; to be well
will be translated by esar sana or san-esar, and the fact of
being well will be saneso = health. Conversely, if we start
from saneso — health, we can form the verb sanesar = to
be in (good) health. Whatever may be the point of departure,
there is no fear of making a mistake or "going off the rails"
in forming these derivatives, if we observe the principle of
reversibility. It would, therefore, be not only arbitrary,
but absurd, to express health by sano, which latter can only
mean a healthy being. For one must not imagine, as is
often stated, that an adjective expresses a quality ; it
expresses precisely he who, or that which, possesses the
quality in question. That is why all our languages employ

I.L. E

50 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

a suffix for the purpose of deriving from an adjective the
name of the corresponding quality.

But our languages often require to express the inverse
relation, namely, that of the individual possessing a quality
to that quality. For just as there are names of qualities
which are derived from, adjectives, as beaute, gaiete, bellezza,
tapferkeit, gleichheit, so there are others which are primary
and from which, therefore, the corresponding adjectives are
derived: courage, courageux; joie, joyeux ; beauty, beautiful;
gliick, gl'dcklich ; freude, freudig. And, as one sees, our
languages employ in these cases a series of analogous
suffixes. The international language must evidently imitate
them, for it cannot decree that all the names of qualities
shall be derivative, nor that they shall all he primary ; that
would amount to an arbitrary uniformity contrary to the
spirit of our languages and probably also to our logical
instincts. The international language must, therefore, have
a suffix which will serve to derive from the name of a quality
the name of the possessor of that quality. That will be oz,
a Latin suffix (formosus, generosus, etc.), occurring very
frequently in the Romance and even Germanic languages
(jnysterib's, mysterious, mysterieux, misterioso}. This suffix
is the logical inverse of the preceding one (-es) and is quite
as indispensable as it. It is a curious fact that our languages
exhibit examples of the superposition of these two suffixes
considered in respect of their sense, if not their form : gliick,
glucklich, glucklichkeit ; beauty, beautiful, beautiful-ness. Latin
has derived formosus from forma ; Spanish in its turn has
derived hermosura from hermoso, etc. Languages also provide
us with frequent examples of the reciprocity of these suffixes.

On the one hand, On the other hand,

yaie gives gaiete ; joie gives joyeux ;

gay ,, gaiety,- joy „ joyful;

allegro ,, allegrezza, ; gioja ,, giojoso;

froJdich ,, frb'ldichkeit ; freude „ freudig.

LOGIC AND INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 51

The international language is, therefore, faithful not only
to logic, but to the spirit of our languages, in admitting at
the same time the two inverse derivations : gay a, gayeso ;
joyo, joyoza. A language which contained the suffix -es, and
not the suffix -oz, would be lame or one-armed.

Besides, this lacuna would manifest itself very quickly in
further derivations, for the latter would violate the principle
of reversibility and therefore that of uniqueness. If from
joyo were derived joya, from this adjective, analogous to gaya,
one could derive inversely joyeso = joyo, thus producing
two names for the same quality (just as above sano would
have been synonymous with saneso). If from kurajo (courage)
were derived kuraja (courageous), one could derive from the
latter kurajeso, synonymous with kurajo. And, on the other
hand, kurajo being the substantive of kuraja, this word would
signify both courage and a courageous person. From want
of a single suffix the whole series of derivations would
become confused and illogical, just as in a chain of reason-
ing a single error, or in an algebraical calculation a single
false equation, would lead to the most absurd conclusions.

To sum up, one must take care not to derive a word
directly from another, except when they both express the
same idea (apart from the difference of their grammatical
role in the sentence). Consequently, whenever the sense
changes, a word element must be added or disappear, in
order to translate the modification of the idea. It is by
virtue of this condition that the language will become the
exact and faithful expression of our thoughts, and will con-
form to that indwelling and instinctive logic which, in spite
of all sorts of irregularities and exceptions, animates our
languages. In its system of derivation as well as in the
rest of its structure, the international language is nothing
but a purified and idealised extract, a quintessence of the
European languages. The logic which holds sway there is
not the Aristotelian logic of genus and species, but rather

E 2

52 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

that logic newly constituted under the name of the logic oj
relationships, which is, however, as old as the world, since
it lies, though obscurely, at the basis of the formative pro-
cesses in our natural languages. That is the reason why
the international language offers to philosophers a particu-
larly instructive field of study. It is worthy of their
interest in other respects. Not only does it offer to them,
as it does to all men, a medium of communication between
all countries, but it furnishes them also with an instrument
of precision for the analysis and exact expression of the
forms of thought, which is very superior, from the point of
view of logic, to our traditional languages, encumbered as
these are with confused and ambiguous expressions. It is
their duty to contribute to the development and perfecting
of a language which, without losing anything of its practical
qualities, can and must realise by degrees the ideal of human
language ; if it is true that there does exist an ideal in our
languages, though hidden and irremediably disfigured by all
sorts of anomalies. To quote a saying of Schuchardt,
Was die Sprache gewollt halen die Sprachen zerstort.1

L. COUTURAT.

1 " What language aimed at languages have destroyed." The remarks
contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to the criticism
of Esperanto in my fitude sur la Derivation (1st edition, unpublished, 1907,
2nd edition in French and in Ido, 1909).

CHAPTEE V

THE EELATIONSHIP OF THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE TO

SCIENCE

WHILST the preceding chapters have sufficiently demon-
strated that the construction of an artificial international
language is not only possible, hut already in all probability
fixed as regards its fundamental principles, it will be
desirable here to give some account of the inner relations
between science and the auxiliary language.

Without doubt one of the most important conditions to
be satisfied by an artificial international language is, that it
should be capable of being employed in science. Consider-
ing the leading part which science plays to-day in the life
of nations, the system which this intellectual Great Power
will adopt cannot be a matter of indifference ; indeed, its
capability of serving the needs of science might well be
regarded as the test of an artificial language. It is, for
example, conceivable that a particular system, although
unsuitable for the purposes of science, might work quite
well so far as commercial relations are concerned.

Before we examine the relationship between science and
auxiliary language the question may be asked whether an
international language is at all necessary in science, and
whether it is likely to be introduced therein. We may con-
sider that this question has been settled by the discussions
contained in the previous chapters. The general question
of the introduction of an artificial auxiliary language having
been answered in the affirmative, the further question may
be raised as to why, in spite of the existence of different

64 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

artificial auxiliary languages, such as Volapiik, Esperanto,
Neutral Idiom, Novilatin, Universal, etc., science has not
long ago adopted and introduced one of them. Quite apart
from the actual circumstances which have prevented this, a
perfectly precise answer may he given to the ahove question.
There have not heen wanting experiments in this direction.
Already in the Volapiik period endeavours were made to
translate scientific works into Volapiik in order to prove
that this language could also be of service to science. In
particular the translations of Dr. Miess's Craniology, Dr.
Winkler's Petrification of Fishes, and the Eastern Travels
of the Crown Prince Rudolph were boasted of by the
Volapiikists. Esperanto has gone further, and is, as a
matter of fact, more capable of development in this direc-
tion. There appears a periodical, Scienca Revuo, which in
popular form conveys the most important results of different
sciences to Esperanto readers. Fechner's little book on life
after death and some others have also been translated. All
these attempts possess an extraordinary interest for the
great experiment in language on which mankind has been
engaged during the last twenty years, and the greatest
thanks are due to their authors. It is only, indeed, after
many attempts that an experiment can be successfully
carried through. But, without wishing to deny that very
remarkable things have been accomplished, all these experi-
ments prove one fact beyond question, namely, that the
languages mentioned do not even approximately, and cannot
indeed possibly, satisfy the requirements which science must
demand of the artificial auxiliary language. Science could
not, therefore, have chosen any of these languages as the
artificial auxiliary language even had she wished, nor could
she do so in the future without experiencing failure. An
examination of the reasons for this state of affairs will enable
us to arrive at the relation between science and the inter-
national auxiliary language. It can be shown what the

EELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE TO SCIENCE 55

nature of this relationship must be, and it follows there-
from whether any particular system will or will not be
serviceable to science. There are two necessary criteria,
namely, internationality of vocabulary and logical precision
of expression.

One might be inclined to emphasise the importance of the
second criterion without paying any attention whatever to
the first, and to regard a system constructed on a purely
logical basis as alone worthy of science. But this would
be a retrograde step, for indeed the question of artificial
language originated with the idea of a so-called philosophical
language in the mind of Leibnitz and afterwards. If one
takes the point of view that the scientific auxiliary language
should be constructed on an ideographic basis (that is to
say, a system of correlation between symbols and ideas,
which, however, as it is a language, must be capable of
being spoken), one arrives at an a priori system, as it
is called in the theory of universal language. Thanks to
the laborious and self-sacrificing work of the thousands
who during the last twenty years have devoted and still
devote themselves to the great experiments in language, we
are able nowadays to refer this question to the test of
experience. The latter has shown with absolute certainty
that a priori systems cannot be spoken. The learning of any
natural language, with all its irregularities, peculiarities,
and anomalies, is child's play compared to the learning
of an a priori system. All experiments in this direction
have failed and need no longer be seriously considered.
But even when an artificial language has not been con-
structed d priori another error, producing much the same
effect, may very greatly injure its facility in practice.
An otherwise so successful system as Volapiik came finally
to grief through an error of this sort. Although Volapuk
was constructed by a man of whom it is said that he
was master of, or at least acquainted with, fifty-five living

56 INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

languages, and although, according to its whole nature, it
appeared to be modelled very closely on natural languages,
nevertheless the abbreviations which Schleyer introduced
so often into the words he took over (for example, vol for
world, piik for speak, Mclop for America) produced the same
psychological effect as if his word-formations had been
a priori. Man is, in fact, a psychological as well as a
logical being. If there is to be any practical outcome, we
must, therefore, under all circumstances base our work on
the psychological principle of internationality. It is only
this which confers on the auxiliary language the quality of
being easily learnt and spoken, which is unconditionally
necessary for its practical use in science, as in other depart-
ments of life. Such systems are called a posterori, and
experience shows that the more a posteriori elements
are contained in an international language the more it con-
forms to Jesperaen's fundamental principle of the greatest
ease for the greatest number of people. But, one may argue,
does it not follow from this that the best solution would be
the introduction of a national language into science ?
Certainly not, for this would not offer the greatest facility
to the greatest number of people, because the formation of
the so-called idioms, which, apart from grammatical diffi-
culties, hinder the learning and use of a language, would
in the case of many national languages interfere with the
internationality of the vocabulary. These idioms have a
very similar effect to the d priori word formations, and
diminish the intelligibility, lucidity, and facility of logical
expression. The only international auxiliary language
which will be of practical use in science will be constructed
according to the a posteriori principle of maximum
internationality, and will be almost or entirely free from
idioms. If we add to this that it must possess that logical
clearness of expression which we have described above as
the second criterion, we have the general conditions which

RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE TO SCIENCE 57

must be satisfied by an international language suitable for
science.

Apart from the practical value of the principle of interna-
tionality, there exists in science another very special reason
for regarding it as a necessary condition to be satisfied by
an international auxiliary language.

We may inquire, in fact, from a purely scientific stand-
point, how far the systems which have been devised up to
the present have adjusted themselves to the international
language which already exists in science. For all the
thousands of words in scientific and technical nomenclature
which, apart from their nationality, the scientific men of all
countries have been inventing for centuries according to
very uniform principles, as well as the likewise largely inter-
national expressions of "unofficial" nomenclature, form a
possession of modern scientific civilisation of such magni-
tude, importance, and value, that it cannot on any account
be sacrificed. On the contrary, all these words, as well as
many similar ones derived from daily life, form the true,
natural, and practical basis of international language.

This international auxiliary language, which forms one of
the foundation stones of our general, scientific, and technical
culture, is so closely bound up with the life and existence of
science and has become so much the second nature of all
scientific men, especially investigators, that they have long
become accustomed to write and think in this language
apart from their nationality. It is an easily ascertained
fact, and one that is well known to the scientific men of all
countries, that the latter can read foreign scientific literature
much more easily than newspapers or novels written in the
same languages. The explanation of this is that the foreign
scientific works, on account of their technical vocabulary,
are written in a language which possesses a much more
international character than that of the novels or newspapers.
It cannot, therefore, be denied that there actually exist

58 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

already, particularly in science, the beginnings of an inter-
national (and largely artificially created) auxiliary language
which is written, spoken, and read. We find here ready
made the first provisional lexicon of the scientific inter-
national language. It cannot, therefore, be urged that
science should " select " any one of the proposed artificial
languages, because the selection of words is by no means an
arbitrary process. The only procedure possible to science
must be the construction of an international language on the
basis of the already existing foundations. Science can never
accept as an international language, one which destroys the
actually existing internationally of scientific nomenclature.

As we see, these considerations, like the former, lead us
to the conclusion that the auxiliary language must be based
on the principle of maximum internationality; that is to
say, its vocabulary must be taken d posteriori from the
international treasury, and must not be invented according
to any a priori system or special idiom. It follows from
this that the auxiliary language of the future must inevi-
tably be chiefly Romance in its character, for Latin is the
international auxiliary language which still lives and
flourishes for, and by means of, science.

The objection might be made here that the simplest
solution would be the reintroduction of Latin into science
as the auxiliary language. But this contradicts one of our
fundamental premises, for Latin fails just as much as all
other national languages to satisfy our second criterion,-
namely, that of complete logical precision. Besides, it is
too difficult.

Esperanto does not even approximately satisfy the
necessary conditions; it infringes, in fact, all three. On
the one hand, its vocabulary is very far from being con-
structed according to the principle of maximum internation-
ality ; on the other hand, the Esperantists are supposed to
make up for this defect by the famous principle of

EELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE TO SCIENCE 59

vortfarado (i.e., word manufacture !), with the result that
their language falls into the error of creating idioms. For
example, in Esperanto the beginning of the sentence "A
rotary transformer might he called a motor-generator, but the
latter name is usually applied to machines with independent
armatures," is translated in the following way : Turnighan
alispecigilon oni povas nomi motorproduktanto, which lite-
rally translated reads, "A self-turning otherwise-making
instrument can be called a motor-producer."

Apart from these fundamental errors of Esperanto, it
lacks a systematic method of word formation, the importance
of which has been demonstrated in a masterly and convinc-
ing fashion by Couturat in the previous chapter. Hundreds
of times the puzzled reader of an Esperanto text is in doubt
about the sense of an adjective, even such common expres-
sions as stony and made of stone being rendered in Esperanto
by the same word (shtona). A phrase such as "It is
perhaps possible " cannot be accurately translated into
Esperanto, since, on account of its " simplicity," the words
perhaps and possible are both rendered by the same d
priori word, eble. With regard to choice of vocabulary,
other systems, in particular "Neutral Idiom," are exceed-
ingly superior to Esperanto. In this last product of the
Volapiik movement the principle of internationality has
been finally recognised. A language academy was founded
which constructed a lexicon according to this principle.
Unfortunately, as Jespersen has very fully shown in
Chapter III., this principle was not interpreted in the right
manner, so that the language lacks logical clearness in spite
of the international character of its vocabulary.

We need not, therefore, be surprised that science has
hitherto been unable to adopt any of the artificial systems as
the international auxiliary language. That would have been
a false step, and would only have produced confusion.

It is only at the present time that one has arrived at a

60 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

clear recognition of the principles on which such a language
must be based. The only artificial system which can claim
that its " inventors " have endeavoured in its " construction "
to combine and consistently carry out the principles of
internationality and logical precision (namely, systematic
choice of stems and a regular system of derivation) is, as
will be sufficiently evident from the preceding chapters of
this book, the language of the Delegation. Without doubt
the internaciona linguo di la Delegitaro will have to undergo
changes and improvements, for one cannot expect that such
a gigantic task as the introduction of an international
auxiliary language can be accomplished all at once. We
hold, however, that " Ido " represents the first artificial
language concerning whose introduction into science
serious discussion is possible. We may state with full con-
fidence to-day that, so far as human calculation is possible,
the attempt to carry this out will be crowned with success.
On the other hand, this introduction will not be without
a useful reaction on science, not only in respect to the
development and extension of its external life as an inter-
national Great Power, but also with regard to the more
perfect unification and extension of its language and nomen-
clature on the lines of strict and complete internationality.
An expression of opinion on this point will be given in the
following chapter.

RICHARD LORENZ.

CHAPTER VI

THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE

IF we take up a book or a paper dealing with mathe-
matics (especially analysis) printed in a language, such as
Japanese, which is quite unintelligible to us, we shall,
nevertheless, soon succeed in finding out what it is about
and often in understanding its main contents. The reason
of this is, of course, that the mathematical formulas consist
of symbols which are intelligible to us because they are used
in the same manner by all civilised nations. The same thing
holds good in physics, and especially in chemistry ; chemical
formulae contain at the present day such detailed information
concerning the relationships of the substances symbolised,
that one might conceive the possibility of writing a chemical
paper with formulas alone.

In the case of the descriptive natural sciences, the Latin
names of the genera and species, the Latin nomenclature of
anatomy and other similar groups, form a common inter-
national possession. Physiology, biology, sociology, as well
as history and ancient philology, possess as yet, however, no
system of internationally intelligible terms. In modern
philology (phonetics) practical endeavours have already been
made to construct an international system of sound symbols.
All these sciences possess naturally the designation of
numbers by means of numerals which have a perfectly
international character. Since in mathematics not only
the quantities, but also the operations, are denoted by
universally understood symbols, it is already possible, with
comparatively few additions, to express long trains of

62 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

mathematical thought in a manner which is internationally
intelligible, that is, intelligible to those who are acquainted
with the science and its symbols. For a considerable time
Professor Peano, in Turin, has been publishing works written
in this manner. We perceive here the realisation of the
ideal of a purely ideographic language, which can be read by
the specialist without his requiring to translate it into the
words of any particular form of speech.

To quote a similar example from chemistry, J. H. van't
Hoff, in one of the publications of his youth, avoided assign-
ing names to the chemical substances with which he dealt, con-
sidering that his meaning would be much better conveyed by
the corresponding structural formulae. Such a text would be
quite intelligible to a trained chemist without the formulae
calling up in his mind any particular words, indeed without
any such words existing at all.

These well-known facts show that the problem of an inter-
national language has already been partly solved in science.
In so far as definite and fairly stable concepts have been
formed in science, they may be designated by arbitrary
symbols, which may if necessary be universally accepted and
understood. Hitherto such symbols have been mainly
employed for reading, that is to say intended for the eye, and
not for the voice and ear. For example, in different
languages quite different sounds are assigned to the
numerals, so that, whilst the written symbols are universally
intelligible, the spoken ones are not.

However, there are a considerable number of exceptions to
this statement. The word integral is quite as international
as the symbol j and the chemical symbol Tl is pronounced
everywhere thallium, or something very like it. On looking
through the table of the chemical elements one finds that
more than two-thirds of the names possess similar sounds in
the chief languages. Differences occur only in the case of
the well-known elements, where the words employed in daily

THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE 63

life have found their way into science, whilst the newly dis-
covered elements all possess international names. It follows
from this that the further problem of assigning an inter-
national system of sounds to scientific concepts has been in
certain departments of science already approximately solved.
It is true that the sound is still somewhat dependent on the
speech basis of the particular nation, so that, for example,
not inconsiderable deviations may occur in English. But,
as the written and printed word is always simultaneously
known, the recognition of a name as pronounced by a
foreigner does not cause any very great difficulty.

There exists here a field of work for those who are interested
in the idea of an artificial language which is as fertile as it
is interesting. As is well known, we scientific men suffer a
good deal from the fact that the same words are frequently
employed for the vague ideas of daily life as well as for the
perfectly definite concepts of science. This is indeed one of
the most important reasons why new designations for
scientific concepts should, as far as possible, be taken from
the dead languages, such designations being thereby already
international. It ought therefore to be a comparatively easy
task to devise by means of this international material and
the linguistic rules of the language of the Delegation a system
of international names for the clearly defined concepts of the
different sciences.

Such a system possesses a double purpose. In the first
place, it could, I think, be used in our present natural
languages. Certain English expressions occurring in
electrotechnics, such as shunt, extra current, are employed in
German and French just as if they were national words.
The international names in their international form might
be employed in every case where a precise scientific
terminology was required, without doing much violence to
our natural languages. The inflow of foreign words through
the channels of technology and science as well as those of

64 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

commerce and music lias alread}T shown itself to be irre-
sistible, so that a strict carrying out of the principle of
"purity" in our national languages has been a practical
impossibility. In literature properly so called one will
endeavour nevertheless to adhere to this principle, but
where the chief question is one of precision of concepts,
as in science, language must be regarded as a handmaiden,
whose first duty is to obey. For language stands only in a
secondary relationship to the independently developed and
determined concepts of science, which have been already
fixed by the symbols assigned to them, just in the same way
that language has fixed the concepts of daily life.

Independent of the above application, which one mayor
may not consider practical, is the intern ationalisation of
scientific publications by means of a universally understood
auxiliary language, which is becoming every day more
urgently necessary.

This problem, too, cannot be attacked until the concepts
of all the sciences in question have received their proper
designations. The existing dictionaries of international
auxiliary languages contain mostly the expressions of daily
life, so that at present these languages are mainly applicable
only for such communications. Some success can indeed
be obtained in the expression of the higher trains of
thought of philosophical reasoning, but here already con-
siderable uncertainty exists. It is clear, for instance, that
a paper in organic chemistry can only be successfully
written in the international language after the transla-
tions of the different names for substances occurring in
different languages have been mutually agreed upon.

Consequently the working out of the concepts of the
different sciences and the determination of their inter-
national designations is the very first task which must be
performed before the further objects, international litera-
ture and international oral intercourse in science, can be

THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATIVE 65

considered. It is the duty therefore of the representatives of
science who have joined the Uniono di VAmiki di la Linguo
Internaciona to apply themselves in the first place to this
problem, since the further success of the whole question
depends entirely on its at least provisional solution.

The first principle which must guide this work is
undoubtedly the general principle of maximum internation-
ally, which has been used in the construction of the
auxiliary language. Its application is rendered easy by the
fact that, owing to the use of Greek and Latin roots for the
designation of scientific concepts, there is already present
a far-reaching internationality, which must naturally be
retained.

In the second place, it will not always be possible to
employ in science the same expressions that are used in
ordinary speech, because the effect of the latter is to produce
a blunting of the precise connotation of concepts; whilst
science, on the other hand, requires clearly defined concepts,
to which must correspond equally distinct expressions.

In the third place, those words which occur frequently in
combinations must be chosen as short as possible. Here I
would not shrink from a very considerable mutilation of the
most international forms. Such long names as wasser-
stoff or " hydrogen " cannot be permitted, and must be
reduced to monosyllabic forms, Every chemical author
must have been times without number annoyed by the terms
of three and four syllables for the commonest elements, and
this defect is common to all languages. The objection
against such an artificial abbreviation, which is valid for the
language of daily life, namely, that it increases the difficulty
of the language for those of little education, does not hold
in the case of science, since it is a matter of indifference to
the beginner whether he learns the new name oxygen or oxo
(or any other similar abbreviation), because in any case he
must learn it by heart. Such a procedure satisfies also the

I.L.

66 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

second condition, as it facilitates most easily the giving of a
special form to scientific terms, which is different from that
of ordinary life.

In the fourth place, it will be advisable in cases where
universally known symbols exist, which consist of letters or
have been derived from these (such as certain mathematical
symbols), to choose the name so that it begins with the same
letter. For example, the constant of gravitation is now
universally denoted by g, and the corresponding inter-
national word should therefore begin with G. It appears
to me doubtful, however, whether this principle can be
generally carried out. I have examined the names of the
chemical elements with this intent, and have arrived at the
conclusion that it would not work without doing considerable
violence to general usage. For example, it would be scarcely
possible to find an international name for chlor (chlorine)
which, corresponding to the chemical symbol Cl, would begin
with (7, for the latter letter is pronounced ts, whilst the word
chlor (with corresponding terminations) is international,
and, according to its sound, must be written like kloro or in
some similar way.

These are the formal suggestions which I should like to
make with reference to the problem in hand ; they are only
intended to indicate how one might proceed, and are not
to be regarded as either exhaustive or infallible. There
arises now the second question as to how such work is to be
organised.

As the same concepts occur in several related sciences,
and must receive the same designations, it would not be
practicable to entrust the construction of the vocabularies
to special commissions for each particular science. It
would be more advisable to appoint a certain number of
persons to collect the material and to make out lists of the
concepts for which terms are required, and then to appoint
commissions representing a whole group of sciences to

THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE 67

discuss the necessary principles, after which the details
could be worked out and finally subjected to the examina-
tion and approval of the whole body. To make matters at
once more definite, I think the exact sciences ought to be
first taken into consideration, for in their case the fixation
of concepts is most highly developed. There is no need
for a replacement of the well-known Latin nomenclature
employed in the descriptive sciences, nor would any attempt
in this direction have any likelihood of success. We must
look rather to the distant future, when all other sciences
will have already adapted themselves to the international
idiom for the translation of the Latin names into the forms
of the international language (retaining the stems, however)
in order to produce for esthetic reasons a uniform system
throughout the whole of science.

On the other hand, I consider it absolutely necessary to
subject the concepts of logic and the theory of cognition to
the same process of scientific delimitation and fixation. In
the first place, these sciences belong, at least theoretically,
to the exact sciences ; and, in the second place, work in these
departments of knowledge is rendered extraordinarily difficult
by the fact that their concepts are expressed in the terms
used in daily life, whose elastic nature constantly frustrates
exact work.

Conversely, this great process of purification cannot fail
to bring to light much that is of value for the theory and
systematisation of scientific concepts. For one must be
quite clear on a subject oneself before one can make it clear
to others. Indeed, even a simple classified list of possibili-
ties, in which one has earnestly sought to omit nothing of
importance, constitutes in itself a scientific advance, which
is rendered all the more desirable by the fact that in general
people have troubled very little about questions of this sort.
It may be already foreseen, and indeed with pleasure, that
such problems are not to be solved offhand, and will

F 2

68 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

probably require for their final settlement an international
congress, at which the final decisions will be made. For
this congress will probably be the first scientific gathering
at which, instead of three, four, or five languages, only one,
and that the international auxiliary language, will be spoken.

WlLHELM OSTWALD.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION : READING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING

ANYONE who wishes to swim without the help of others
is faced by a " vicious circle." In order to swim he must
jump into the water, but before he entrusts himself to the
water he ought to be able to swim. In spite of this, many
people learn to swim without a teacher. How do they do that ?
They go at first only into shallow water, and splash about
there until they have become more or less familiar with
this element. Then, when they perceive that they can
propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper
water.

If we wish to get scientific men to use the international
language, we must probably recommend the same method
and advise them to move about in the shallower regions of
every-day language before they venture into the deeper
waters of science. The instruction concerning the move-
ments of swimming given by the swimming-master on dry
land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the
simple grammar of the international language. Further
progress, leading up finally to the introduction of the latter
into science, can be divided into three stages, which
we may describe by the words reading, writing, and
speaking.

I. Reading. — The extraordinary ease with which every
educated person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin
or one of the Romance languages, can read and understand
the language of the Delegation almost without any previous
study, indicates that the first stage will not be difficult of

68 INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

probably require for their final settlement an international
congress, at which the final decisions will be made. For
this congress will probably be the first scientific gathering
at which, instead of three, four, or five languages, only one,
and that the international auxiliary language, will be spoken.

WlLHELM OSTWALD.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION : BEADING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING

ANYONE who wishes to swim without the help of others
is faced by a " vicious circle." In order to swim he must
jump into the water, but before he entrusts himself to the
water he ought to be able to swim. In spite of this, many
people learn to swim without a teacher. How do they do that ?
They go at first only into shallow water, and splash about
there until they have become more or less familiar with
this element. Then, when they perceive that they can
propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper
water.

If we wish to get scientific men to use the international
language, we must probably recommend the same method
and advise them to move about in the shallower regions of
every-day language before they venture into the deeper
waters of science. The instruction concerning the move-
ments of swimming given by the swimming-master on dry
land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the
simple grammar of the international language. Further
progress, leading up finally to the introduction of the latter
into science, can be divided into three stages, which
we may describe by the words reading, writing, and
speaking.

I. Reading. — The extraordinary ease with which every
educated person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin
or one of the Romance languages, can read and understand
the language of the Delegation almost without any previous
study, indicates that the first stage will not be difficult of

70 INTEBNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

attainment. But one would require scientific reading
material in order to gain practice in scientific reading, and
there we are again faced by a vicious circle. For, in order
to create such reading material, we require authors who can
write it, and yet the latter can only learn to express them-
selves in the international language by means of already
existing reading material. We must therefore at first make
use of the language of daily life and carry over into science
whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes, after
which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to
the words. It has been indicated in the previous article
how the remaining special scientific nomenclature can be
determined. When this preliminary work is sufficiently
advanced the following way will lead quickest to the goal.

There will be founded an international journal, divided
into as many divisions as correspond to the groups of
sciences to be dealt with. We have here in view more
particularly the theoretical and practical sciences of nature,
because they have much more urgent need of an inter-
national auxiliary language than the " humanities," whose
representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient know-
ledge of languages. For example, mathematics, mathematical
astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematical physics,
geodesy, etc., might form one group ; general and experi-
mental physics, chemistry and physical chemistry, electro-
technics and applied chemistry, mechanics and mechanical
engineering, etc., a second group ; mineralogy, petro-
graphy, crystallography, geology, etc., a third group ;
biology, systematic and physiological zoology and botany,
morphology, etc., etc., a fourth group. Extensions of these
groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be
introduced.

The foundation at first of several separate periodicals
would not be advisable.

The following remarks may be made concerning the

CONCLUSION : BEADING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING 71

contents of this journal. In conformity with our plan, it
should not at first contain any original articles, for the
international language is not intended to replace the natural
ones, but only to act as an intermediary between them.
Besides, the journal must not contain any insignificant or
uninteresting articles if it is to attract and interest readers.
But eminent authors, even if they could command the
international language, would not publish important original
articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have
any very great circulation.

The journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of
interesting articles from all branches of science and from all
languages, and also extracts from the more important literary
productions. The editorial committee of this journal should
be independent of the Language Academy, but nevertheless
in close contact with it, in order, on the one hand, to
guarantee the correctness of the language by means of the
Academy, and, on the other hand, to help the latter by acting
as its scientific adviser. The gradual dissemination of this
periodical would have the effect that a considerable number
of scientific men, especially those of the younger generation,
would be induced to read and understand the international
language without any expenditure of trouble injurious to
their professional work.

II. Writing. — From reading a comparatively easy step
leads to writing. The number of scientific men would soon
increase who could either write directly in the international
language, or, at all events, translate a paper written in a
natural language into the international language. Owing to
the gradually increasing dissemination of the international
Review, a first-hand publication of such papers in the Review
would soon be very much in the interest of the authors,
as the acceptance of their papers would itself be a mark of
honour, whilst the rapid distribution amongst all nations
would be likewise advantageous.

72 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

III. Speaking. — The speaking of the international
language at first in small and then gradually amongst wider
circles and finally at international congresses can only be
attempted later. This attempt must not, however, he made
before its success is fully assured, and the language has
received a certain amount of consolidation through its
application to writing.

We have already remarked in another place that the
introduction of the international language is not nearly so
difficult as it appears at first sight, almost the only difficulty
being the establishment of the confidence that this goal con
be attained.

When one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if
one would never succeed. But when, after a few lessons,
one has seen one's comrades moving safely and merrily in
the water, courage comes, and with it success. . We shall
therefore show in an appendix by means of an example
that the language of the Delegation is already capable
of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity.

At a time when the language had only just been fixed and
when he had very little practice in its use, L. Couturat
translated into it a particularly difficult passage from the
work of Gomperz (the Viennese Academician) on Grecian
Thinkers. The present author, without having seen the
original, retranslated it at Graz from the international
language into German, and sent this to Gomperz at Vienna
with the request, that he would give his opinion on the
accuracy of the retranslated passage. Gomperz wrote
characterising the reproduction as " astonishingly exact,"
" the test as extraordinarily successful, and the result in a
high degree favourable to the possibility of employing the
international language." This test must certainly be
regarded as a very severe one, because the German language
is foreign to the first translator, whilst, owing to its philo-
sophical nature, the subject was not familiar to the second

CONCLUSION: BEADING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING 73

translator as a physicist. For the sake of English readers,
a similar experiment has just been made, the results of
which are given in Appendix III. A passage from Professor
W. James's Talks to Teachers on Psychology, dealing with
the laws of habit, was translated into Ido by Professor
Couturat, and the Ido text retranslated into English by
Mr. P. D. Hugon in London, who was unacquainted with
the original. A comparison of the two English texts demon-
strates the marvellous lucidity of Ido as a medium for the
transmission of thought without distortion.

Two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great
idea. In the first place, the idea must, as regards its nature
and value, have a rational foundation, and its possibility
must be demonstrated. In the second place, there must be
present courage, energy, and persevering devotion in order
to realise practically that which has been recognised to be
right and good. No amount of energy, however great, can
produce a lasting result from a mistaken idea ; but at the
same time nothing great has ever been accomplished by
doubters and pessimists. The readers of our brochure will
concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary
language and its realisation by means of the language of
the Delegation have in the foregoing chapters* been fully
examined in the cold light of reason and shown to be good
and practicable, whilst the appendices will enable'this opinion
to be experimentally tested and confirmed. Now that the
head has done its work, the heart, the source of courage
and devotion, must do its part. We have full confidence,
therefore, in calling upon the representatives of science, who
have followed us so far, to assist us in the work, in the first
place by joining the Uniono di I'Amiki di la Lingvo Interna-
ciona and by making its labours known. This step can
be taken also by those who do not see in the language as
at present constituted the final and best solution of the
problem, for before one can reach the topmost heights one

74 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

must traverse the intervening stages. We ourselves do not
consider that our language is the best possible, but we
regard it as one which is susceptible of continuous improve-
ment without its immediate and future use being injured
thereby.

LEOPOLD PFAUNDLER.

APPENDIX I.

"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO."

(IDO).

THE Delegation pour 1'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale,
founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support of 310 societies of many
countries and the approval of 1,250 professors and academicians. It elected
in 1907 an international committee, composed of eminent linguists and men
of science, which, after having studied all the projects for international
language, adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifica-
tions, whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. Zamenhof's
language, aim at a more logical and strict application of these principles
and the elimination of certain unnecessary complications. The following
are the principal modifications : —

(1) Suppression of the accented letters, thus permitting the language to be
printed everywhere, and at the same time preserving the phonetic and
frequently re-establishing the international spelling ;

(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are very
troublesome to many nations, and especially to persons possessing only an
elementary education (accusative, concord of the adjective) ;

(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the only means
of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing a solid foundation
for the working out of the scientific and technical vocabulary so indispensable
for the propagation of the language in the scientific world ;

(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems care-
fully chosen according to the principle of maximum internationality.

All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, that is
to say those which are common to the majority of European languages, with
the result that they are immediately recognised by everyone of medium
education. It is not necessary therefore to learn a new language ; the
international language is the quintessence of the European ones. It is,
however, incomparably more easy than any of them on account of its
simplicity and absolute regularity ; there are no useless rules, and no excep-
tions. It can be learnt by reading it ; as soon as one can read it one can
write it ; as soon as one can write it one can speak it. And experience has
proved that the differences of pronunciation amongst people of the most
diverse countries are insignificant and cause no trouble at all. To sum up,
the linguo internaciona is a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous
to primitive Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of
being immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become the interna-
tional language. Besides, it has already received the warm approval and
support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. It alone, thanks to

76 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

the support of the scientific and literary men of the Delegation and
Committee, has a chance of being adopted some day by Governments and of
being introduced into the schools of all countries.

The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text in
this language.

GRAMMAR.

Pronunciation. — All letters are pronounced, and have always the same
sound : a (as in father), c (like ts), e (like e in set, or a in fate}, g (always
hard, as in go), i (like ee in sweet}, j (either as in English, or like the French
j in journal), o (like o in not or like o in go), q (qu as in English, or like kv),
s (unvoiced), u (like oo in too), x (like Its or gz), y (as in English), z (as in
English), ch (as in church), sh (as in English), au (likeow in how), eu( = e-u).
It will be seen that a certain amount of latitude is permitted, in order to
suit the convenience of different nations. Stress (tonic accent) on the
penultimate syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last
syllable (-ar, -ir, -or). Since y is a consonant, it does not count as a separate
syllable (fluvyo).

Definite Article. — La, for all genders and numbers.

Substantive. — Ends in -o in the singular, in -i in the plural.

Adjective. — Is invariable, and ends in -a.

Personal Pronouns. — Me = I, tu = thou, vn = you (singular), il = he or
it (masculine), el = she or it (feminine), ol = it (thing) ; ni = we, vi =
you (plural), li = they (all genders). If distinction is necessary, ili = they
(masculine), eli = they (feminine), oli = they (neuter).

Possessive Pronouns. — Mea = my, mine, tua = thy, thine, vua = your,
yours (singular), sa = his, her, hers, or its ; nia = our, ours, via = your,
yours (plural), lia = their, theirs. In the plural the ending -i is substituted
for -a when the above words are used as true possessive pronouns.

Reflexive Forms. — Su is used as an objective (reflexive) personal pronoun
(for singular and plural) in the third person. The corresponding possessive
forms are sua and sui (plural pronoun). It may be remarked that the
possessive pronominal adjectives sa (singular) and lia (plural) may be made
to indicate sex in the following way : —

Singular. Plural.

Masculine lisa ilia

Feminine elsa elia

Neuter olsa olia

Demonstrative Pronouns. — lea = this, these ; ita = that, those. The plural
forms ici = these, and iti = those, are only used as true demonstrative
pronouns. The indeterminate (neuter) forms are ico = this, ito = that. In
all the above words the initial i is usually omitted, except where euphony
requires it.

If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, this may
be done as follows : —

This. That.

Masculine ilca ilta

Feminine elca elta

Neuter olca olta

Plural | ilci ilti

Pronoun J etc. etc.

APPENDIX I. 77

Belative and Interrogative Pronouns : qua = who, tvhich, what ; plural,
qui. Quo = what (indeterminate, general).

Accusative (objective case). — When the direct object of the verb precedes
the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion -n : la homo quan vu
vidis = the person whom you have seen.

Verb. — Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal
tenses : —

Passive
Infinitive. Indicative. Active participle, participle.

Present -ar -as -anta -ata

Past -ir -is -inta -ita

Future -or -os -onta -ota

Conditional, -us. Imperative, -ez.

The auxiliary verb esar, to be, is used for the passive, and for the com-
pound tenses of the active.

Passive.

Present esas amata, or amesas = lam (being) loved.

Past esis amata, or amesis = I was (being) loved.

Future esos amata, or amesos = I will be loved.

Conditional... esus amata, or amesus = J would be loved.

Imperative ... esez amata, or amesez = be loved.

Infinite esar amata, or amesar = to be loved.

Compound Tenses of the Active.

Perfect (me) esas aminta = (7) haveloved.

Pluperfect (me) esis aminta = (J) had loved.

Future perfect. . . (me) esos aminta = (7) shall have loved.
Past conditional (me) esus aminta = (7) should have loved.
The past tenses of the passive (indicating completed states) are formed by
means of the passive participle in -ita : —

(me) esis amita = (J) had been loved.
(me) esos amita = (J) shall have been loved.
(me) esus amita = (7) would have been loved.

Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending -e for the -a of
the adjective or the -o of the noun : bone = well ; nokte = at night. \

78 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

FORMATION OF WORDS.

All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable form
and meaning : stems, affixes (prefixes and suffixes), and grammatical
terminations.

Prefixes : —

-— ge-, the two sexes united : ge-patri = parents.

bo-, relation by marriage : bo-patro = father-in-law.
ex-, former, ex- : ex-oficero = ex-officer.
mal-, opposite, contrary : mal-bela = ugly.^
—> mis-, error, mistake : mis-komprenar = misunderstand.
mi-, half : mi-horo = half an hour.
re-, repetition : re-dicar = repeat', say again.
retro-, backwards : retro-sendar = return (send back").
ne-, negation : ne-utila = useless (but mal-utila = harmful).
sen-, want of : sen- anna = unarmed.

Suffixes : — ^ (

**» -in, female sex : frat-ino = sister.

-id, descendant : Sem-ido = Semite.

-estr, chief, director : urb-estro = mayor.'

-an, member of : senat-ano = senator.

-ism, system, doctrine : socialismo = socialism.

-ist, profession, occupation : dent-isto = dentist.
— -er, amateur : fotograf-ero = amateur photographer.

-nl, person who is characterised by : kuras-ulo-= cuirassier.

-aj, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of : lan-ajo = woollen goods.
— -ur, product, result: pikt-uro = a picture.

-ar, collection of a number of similar things : hom-aro = mankind.

-il, instrument, tool : bros-ilo = brush.

-ey, place for : kaval-eyo = stable; dorm-eyo = dormitory.

— > -uy, container, recipient : ink-uyo = inkpot.

-yer, that which bears or carries : pom-yero = apple tree.

-al, relating to : nacion-ala = national.

-oz, full of, provided with : por-oza = porous.

-atr, similar, like : spong-atra = sponge-like, spongy.

-iv, that which can, active possibility : instrukt-iva = instructive.
**»-em, addicted to: babil-ema = talkative, garrulous.

-ebl, passive possibility, that which can be : vid-ebla = visible.

-end, that which is to be, or must be : solv-enda = to be solved,

requiring solution.

-ind, worthy of being : respekt-inda = worthy of respect.

-es, state of being : san-esar = to be well, whence the substantives
expressing state or quality, e.g., san-eso = health.

-esk, to commence to do or to be : dorm-eskar = to fall asleep.

-ig, to make or cause to do or to be : bel-igar = beautify ; dorm-igar =
to send to sleep.

APPENDIX I. 79

-ij, to become : rich-ijar = to get rich.

-iz, to furnish or provide with : arm-izar = to arm.

-if, to produce, bring forth : frukt-ifar = to fructify.

-ad, repetition, continuation : dans-ado = dancing.

-eg, augmentative : bel-ega = very beautiful.

-et, diminutive : mont-eto = kill, hillock.

-ach, derogative : popnl-acho = populace, the mob.

-nm, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary).

-esm, ordinal number : un-esma = first.

-opl, multiplicative number : du-opla = double.

-on, fractional number : tri-ono = a third.

-op, distributive number : quar-ope = in fours.

80

INTEBNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

LEXIKO DI LA GBAMMATIZALA VORTI.

a, ad

to, towards

ja

already

ad mazime

at most

i»

just at the moment

ad minime

at least

kad

whether (general in-

altra, -i

other (s)

terrogative)

altru

another

kam

as, than (in com-

altro

another thing, some-

parisons)

thing elte

kande

when

anke

also

ke

that (conjunction)

ankore

still, yet

kelk-a. -i

some

ante

before (time)

kin

five

aparte

apart

kontre

against, opposite

apene

scarcely, with diffi-

kon

with

culty

lor

then, at that time

apnd

near, close by, at

malgre

in spite of

avan

before (place)

max (-ime)

most

balde

soon

mem

even, indeed

cent

hundred

mil

thousand

ceter-i, -o

the others, the rest

mill

less

che

at the house of

minime

least

cirke

around, about

morge

to-morrow

cis

an this side of

molt-a (-i)

much, many

da

by

nam

for, because

de

from, since, of

ne

not

dek

ten

nek

neither, nor

di

of

no

no

do

therefore, hence

nov

nine

dop

after (position)^ be-

nn

well! now!

hind

nnl-a (-a)

no, no one

da

two

nalo

nothing

dam

during

nan

now

e,ed

and

nor

only

ek

out, out of

o, od

or

en

in

ok

eight

exter

outside of, besides

olim

formerly

for

far from

omn-a (-i)

each, all

forsan

perhaps

omno

all, everything

frne

early

or

now (conjunction)

Mere

yesterday

per

through, by means of

hike

here

pin

more

ibe

there

plar-a (-i)

several

inter

between, among

po

for (the price of)

ips-a, -e

self, even

poke

a little

any (whatsoever)

por

for, to (in order to)

irg-a, -a

anyone (whatever)

pos

after (time)

irgo

anything (whatever)

precipae

especially

itere

again, anew

preske

almost, nearly

APPENDIX I.

81

preter

past, beyond

tal-e

thus, so, in such a way

pri

concerning, on

tarn

as (in comparisons)

pro

for, on account of

tamen

nevertheless, yet

proxim

next

tant-a (-e)

so much, as much, so

qual-a

what (sort of)

tarde

late

quale

how, as

til

until

quankam

although

tra

through, across

quant-a (-e)

how much, how many

trans

beyond, on the other

quar

four

side of

quaze

as if, so to speak

tre

very

quik

at once, immediately

tri

three

sama

the same

tro

too

same

similarly

ube

where, whither

sat (-e)

enough, sufficiently

ula- (-n)

some, any, someone,

se

if

anyone

sed

but

ulo

something, anything

segnn

according to

ultre

beyond, besides

sempre

always

nn (-u, -a)

one

sen

without

ve

alas !

sep

seven

vice

in place of, vice

singl-a (-e)

single, singly

ya

certainly,

sis

six

undoubtedly

sire

either, or

ye

preposition of inde-

sab

under, below

terminate meaning

super

above, over

yen

here is, there is,

snr

on, upon

behold

tala

such a, such

yet

yes

I.L.

82

INTEENATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE.

APPENDIX II.

Specimen page from the INTERNATIONAL-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.'

deskript-ar : to describe ; -o : descrip-
tion ; -iva : descriptive [EFIS].
deeper- ar : to despair ; -o : despair ;
-igar : to drive to despair [EFIS].
deipit-ar : to be vexed, to fret ; -o :
spite, despite ; -igar : to vex
[EFIS].
despot-o : despot ; -eso, -ismo :

despotism [DEFIES].
destin-ar : to destine ; -o, -eso :

destination, destiny [EFIS].
destrukt-ar : to destroy ; -o : destruc-
tion ; -iva, -ema : destructive
[EFIRS].

detal-o : detail ; -a, -oza : detailed ;
-e, -oze : in detail, retail [DEFIES].
detashment-o (military) : detach-
ment [DEFIES].
detektiv-o : detective [EFE].
determin-ar : to determine ; -o, -eso :
determination] (not decision) ; -anta,
-iva : determinative ; -ismo : de-
terminism [DEFIES].
detriment- ar : to cause injury or
prejudice to (a person) ; -o : detri-
ment, damage, injury (moral)
[EFIS].

dev-ar : to be obliged to, ought, have

to; -o : duty [PIS].
devast-ar : to devastate ; -o, eso :

devastation [EFIS].
deviae-ar (trans, and intrant?) : to

deviate ; -o : deviation [EFIS].
deviz-o : motto, device [DEFIES].
devlop-ar : to develop ; -o, -eso :

development [EFI].
devot-a : devoted ; -eso : devotion ;

•esar, -igar, -su : to devote oneself

[EFI].

dextr-a : right (Jiand^ side) ; -e : on
the right [is].

dezert-a : desert, deserted ; -o : a
desert, wilderness [EFIS].

dezir-ar : to wish, desire ; -o : wish,
desire [EFIS].

di : of (preposition).

di-o, day (twenty-four hours) ; -ala :
daily [EIS].

diabet-o : diabetes [DEFIES].

diablo : devil ; -ala : diabolical
[DEFIES].

diadem-o : diadem [DEFIES].

diafan-a: transparent; -eso: trans-
parency [FIS].

Specimen page from the ENGLISH-INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY.

to describe : deskriptar.
description : deskripto.
descriptive : deskriptiva;
to desecrate : profanigar.
a desert : dezerto.
to desert : desertar.
deserted : dezerta.
deserter : desert-anto, -into,
desertion : deserto.
to deserve : meritar.
deserving : merit-anta, -oza.

to desiccate (i\ trans.) : sikigar.

desiccated : sikigita.

design (= drawing) : desegno.

to desire : dezirar.

desire : deziro.

desk (writing) : pupitro.

„ (pulpit) : katedro.
to despair : desperar.
despair : despero.
despair, to drive to : desperigar.
a desperado : riskemo.

1 The letters D, E, F, I, K, S, are the initial letters of the names of the
six chief European languages, and those placed after any word indicate to
which of these languages the corresponding stem is common (D = Deutsch
(German)).

APPENDIX II.

83

despicable : mal-prizinda.
to despise : mal-prizar.
despite (#.), despite.

„ (prep.} ( = in spite of), malgre.
despot : despoto.
despotism : despot-eso, -isino.
desquamation : squamifo.
dessert : desero.
destination : destin-o, -eso.
to destine : destinar.
destiny: destin-o, -eso.

„ (= fate) : fato.
to destroy : destruktar.
destruction : destrukto.

,, , utter : nuligo.

deitructive : destrukt-iva, -ema.
detachment (military) : detashmento.
detail : detalo, mal-grandajo.

„ , in : detal-e, -oze.
detailed : detal-a, -oza.

detective : detektivo.

to deter : timigar, impedar.

determination (not decision) : deter -

min-o, -eso.

determinative : determin-anta, -iva.
to determine : determinar.

„ ,, (= decide): decidigar.
determinism : determinismo.
to dethrone : mal-tronizar.
detriment : detrimento.
to devastate : devastar.
devastation : devast-o, -eso.
to develop : devlopar.

„ „ (photo.) : rivelar.
developer (photo.) : rivelilo.
developing (photo.) : rivelo.
development : devlop-o, -eso.
to deviate (v. trans, and intrans.")

deviacar.
deviation : deviaco.

G 2

84

INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

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APPENDIX III.

86 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE.
APPENDIX IV.

"UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTE11NACIONA."

THE following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the Uniono is only
intended to give an indication of its nature. The full statutes will be
willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the authors of this brochure or
by the Secretary of the Uniono, Herr A. Waltisbiibl, 46, Bahnbof Strasse,
Zurich.

EXCERPT FROM THE PROVISIONAL STATUTES.

(1) The sole purpose of the Uniono di VAiniki di la Limjuo Internaciona is
to unite, for the purposes of common action, all persons who recognise and
approve of the idea of an international language in the form given to it by
the Delegation pour I' Adoption dune Langue Auxillaire Internationale.

(2) The Uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the
Lingvo internaciona di la Delegitaro resulting from the labours and
decisions of the commission and the working committee of the Delegation,
but expressly declares that this Innguage is not to be regarded as "perfect"
and "infallible." On the contrary, it takes the view that the language is
capable of continuous improvement according to the principles resulting
from the work of the Delegation.

(3) The Uniono consists of members of both sexes of all nationalities (at
least eighteen years old) who are willing to learn the language, to employ it
on all suitable occasions in intercourse with foreigners, and to take part
in its propagation.

(4) The yearly subscription amounts to T25 francs, 1 shilling, 1 mark, or
T20 krone (Austrian). Half of this sum goes to the Academy, the other
half to the credit of the " Komitato.'' Permanent membership is obtained
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single payment become mevtlri protelttanta.

(5), (6), (7) All members take part in the election of the two directing
bodies of the Uniono (the Academy and the "Komitato") according to a
specially arranged method of representation (in which account is taken of
tiie number of adherents belonging to each nationality).

(8), (9), (10) The Academ}' is concerned only with questions relating to
the development and improvement of the international language. It has to
reply within six months to all questions and suggestions emanating from at
least three elected representatives. The official organ of the Academy is the
journal Progreso (pronounced Progresso). The Komitato has the practical
direction and organisation of the Uniono which it controls and represents.
It is intended to found in the different countries language courses, offices for
the practical employment of the language in commerce and travel, and trans-
lation bureaus. The Academy and Komitato may unite for the purpose of
discussing general questions concerning the international language.

(11), (12), (1'5) deal with local groups, change of statutes, dissolution of
the Society, etc.

(14) All questions or proposals to be settled by the Academy or the
Komitato must be published in the journal Progreso three months before
the decision in order to allow of general discussion.

APPENDIX IV.

87

ENTRANCE FORM.

The undersigned declares
his (or her) adherence to
the "Association of Friends
of the International Lan-
guage," as constituted by
the provisional statutes,
and subscribes

for the year 19

or in one t life member,

payment •] protektanta

as I membro.

Signature .

Christian name
and surname.
(Please write clearly.)

Address.

Profession or occupation
(optional).

Natural language.
Age.

Send this form tilled up,
together with your sub-
scription (international
money order), to the Secre-
tary of the Society, Herr
A. Waltisbuhl, 46, Bahn-
hofstrasse, Ziirich, Switz-
erland.

UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO

INTERNACIONA.

ADHEBILO.

Me subskribanta deklaras adherar a 1'Uniono di
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rpor la yaro 19

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Adreso

Profesiono (ne obliga indiko)

Naturala lingua
Eco ..

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