The International Trade in Marine Shells
A Report to TRAFFIC (International)
by Susan M. Wells
1980
Species Conservation Monitoring Unit
219c Huntingdon Road
Cambridge UK
AIN aatsS I
- oF
LAD CA (Ce ~ i S OC)
INTRODUCTION
UNWORKED SHELLS - EXPORTING COUNTRIES
USA
Philippines
Mexico
Indonesia
Japan
Haiti
South Korea
Solomon Islands
Australia
Other Countries
UNWORKED SHELLS ~- IMPORTING COUNTRIES
Japan
France
USA
South Korea ot °
West Germany
Hong Kong
Spain
Other Countries
oon
UNWORKED MOTHER-OF-PEARL
Pearl Shell
Trochidae or top shell
Green snail shell
Other species
WORKED SHELLS
Exporting Countries
Importing Countries
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND DISCUSSION
Countries involved
Mother-of-pearl
Other species
'Rare' shells
Legislation
Conclusion
LIST OF TABLES
1.
26
36
i
De
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
lilie
WE
Exports of Unworked Coral and shells
Imports of Unworked Coral and shells
Exports of Worked Coral and shells by weight
Exports of Worked Coral and shells by value
Imports of Worked Coral and shells by weight
Imports of Worked Coral and shells by value
Exports of unworked shells
Estimated exports of shells
US Exports of marine shells
US Re-exports of shells
Philippines - Exports of ‘other shells!
Philippines - Exports of 'scrap shell'
13a. Exports of shells from Mexico
13b. Estimated exports of shells from Mexico
1h,
Indonesia - Exports of ‘other shells'
15a. Japan - Exports of shells of shell fishes
15b. Japan - Exports of similar substances to coral and shells
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
and powder and waste
Estimated exports from Haiti
Soloman Islands - Exports of ‘other sea shells'
Australia - Exports-of shells other than mother-of-pearl
Tanzania - Exports of corals, shell, their powder and waste
Kenya - Exports of corals, shells, their powder and waste
21a. India - Exports of marine shells
21b. India - Exports.of other corals and_shells
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
a7.
28.
29.
30.
31.
52
55.
34,
5.
55),
aT.
Malaysia - Somestic Exports or Uoral and shells
Malaysia - Re-exports
Imports of unworked shells
Japan - Imports of ‘other shells'
Japan - Imports of substances similar to coral and shells;
powder and waste
France - Imports of unworked shells
US - Imports of unworked shells
South Korea - Imports of ‘other shells'
West Germany - Imports of 'other shells’
Hong Kong - Imports of Mollusc Shell
Spain - imports of ‘other shells'
Italy - Imports of unworked coral and shells
Australia - Imports of coral and shells
Singapore - Imports of coral and shells
Malaysia - Imports of coral and shells
Kenya - Imports of coral and shells
Exports of unworked pearl shell
Indonesia - Exports of unworked mother-of-pearl
Philippines - Exports of unworked mother-of-pearl
Australia - Exports of unworked pearl shell
Imports of unworked pearl shell
Japan - Imports of Pinctada margaritifera
Japan - Imports of Pinctada maxima
US - Imports of mother-of-pearl and Trochus
Exports of unworked Trochus
Indonesia - Exports of ‘troca or lola!
Solomon Islands - Exports of 'trocas'
Philippines - Exports of 'trochea' shell
Imports of unworked Trochus
Japan - Imports of 'Tectus niloticus'
Indonesia - Exports of ‘Burgos’ or Green snail
Solomon Islands - Exports of Green snail
Papua New Guinea - Exports of unworked shells
55. South Korea - Imports of Abalone Shell
56. Philippines - Exports of capiz shells
57. India - Trade in cowries and chanks
58a. Exports of worked mother-of-pearl by weight
58b. Exports of worked mother-of-pearl by value
59a. Imports of worked mother-of-pearl by weight
59b. Imports of worked mother-of-pearl by value
60. Philippines - Exports of worked shell
61. Taiwan - Exports of worked mother-of-pearl
62. South Korea - Exports of worked mother-of-pearl
63. Japan - Exports of worked mother-of-pearl
64a. Hong Kong - Exports of pearl buttons
64b. Hong Kong - Re-exports of pearl buttons
65a. Japan - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
65b. Japan - Imports of mother-of-pearl for button making
66a. West Germany - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
66b. UK - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
66c. France - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
66d. Spain - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
66e. Italy - Imports of worked mother-of-pearl
67. US - Imports of articles of shells
68. US - Imports of shell or pearl buttons
69. Hong Kong - Imports of shell buttons
70. FAO statistics for catches and lAndings of shells
Figures
1. US exports of marine shells 1960-1978
2. Philippine exports of ‘other shells' 1970-1978
3. Japan - Imports of ‘other shells! 1970-1979
4, US imports of marine shells 1960-1978
5. US Imports of Articles of shell 1961-1978
International Trade in Marine Shells
INTRODUCTION
One of the main characteristics of the Mollusca, the second
largest invertebrate plylum, is the presence in most species of
a protective shell into which the animal can withdraw as a
defence against predation, dessication or wave action. The
shell, secreted by the mantle which is a sheet of skin covering
all or part of the body, is composed mainly of calcium carbonate
with a small percentage of a protein-like material called
conchiolin,.
Molluse shells come in an infinite variety of colours,
patterns, shapes and sculpturing, which usually reflect the life
style of the species,Gastropdds have a simgle coiled shell with a
small aperture. Shells with low spires are most stable and tend
to be found in species which move on the vertical surfaces of rocks
and vegetation. Long spires are usually dragged along and are
found in species living in soft sediments. Many species have
developed spines for strengthening, protecting or stabilising the
snell; others such as abalones and limpets have become secondarily
straightened out and can be clamped tightly to wave-swept rocks,
Bivalves have a shell in two parts which fit together tightly to
enclose the animal completely. Their shape is less variable than
gastropod shells, although burrowing forms tend to have very
stream-lined shells.
Many shells have an inner layer of nacre or mother-
of-pearl which is made up of tiny blocks of crystalline calcium
carbonate arranged in layers. Pearls are formed when sand grains
or other particles get lodged between the mantle and the shell,
and concentric layers of nacre build up around them, Although
pearls can be produced by many species, only certain molluscs
aa
produce commercially valuable ones, such as Pinctada margaritifera
and P. mertensi.
Prehistoric man discovered that the soft parts of
molluscs provided an easily accessible, nutritive source of food,
and since then this group of animals has been exploited heavily.
The shell part also gradually came to be valued for a
number of reasons, not least of which was its beauty. Shells have
been used by many races and cultures as holy objects,
currency, jewelry and to decorate clothing and household articles.
Calcined shells make the finest lime which is used for pottery
glazes and betel chewing, and also for toothpaste and poultry
food. Dead shells washed ashore in large quantities or dredged
if they occur in large banks may be used for these purposes and
include oysters, Meretix, Arca, Vellorita, Katelysia (Durve,
1975: Saul, 1974). Building blocks are made from crushed shells
and coral, bound together with cement, and where large quantities
of empty shells can be dredged they are used in road-making. A
detailed history of man's use of shells is provided by Saul (1974).
This report however is concerned mainly with the extensive and
escalating trade in tropical shells which are sold as curios and
souvenirs to decorate homes, ee jewelry and fer
other ornamental articles. These come mainly from tropical coral
reefs, now recognised as among the most highly productive marine
ecosystems. The large scale commercial collection of shells in
many areas has led to fears that populations may be being depleted
and coral reefs damaged during collection.
Unfortunately foreign trade statistics do not record
tropical shells for the curio trade under a separate tariff
heading from those which are dredgedor mined for industrial uses.
They also do not separate shells collected from the wild from
those obtained from shell fish culturing enterprises or from molluscs
collected from food. The statistics used in this report are taken
from two tariff headings: unworked or raw coral and shells (05.12
BIN (Brussels Tariff Nomendature); 291.15 SITC (Standard International
Trade Classification)] and worked or carved coral and shells (95.05
BIN; 899.11 SITC). Some countries lump coral and shells together
in each section under one tariff heading; other countries separate
them under different tariff headings and in the unworked section
may have a further heading for "powder and waste of coral and
shells; and similar substances", A few countries break their
ss =
statistics down according to different species or types of shell;
for example mother-of-pearl is often recorded separately under the
BIN heading 95.02.
In view of the problem of shells not always being recorded
separately in trade statistics, an overview of world trade in both
corals and shells is given in the following paragraphs. The rest
of this report is concerned with the shell trade only, and the
coral trade is analysed and discussed in Wells (1980).
Tables 1-6 list all the countries which according to
foreign trade statistics were involved in the international coral
and shell trade between 1976 and 1978. In these tables figures for
corals and shells have been added together for the countries where
they were recorded under separate tariff headings. In Table 1
i rS
the export figure given by a country was used where this could be
obtained; for countries where statistics were not available exports
were estimated from figures produced by importing countries. Tables
2-6 list only those countries recording their own imports and exports.
Denmark and the Netherlands recorded the highest exports
ot unworked coral and shells. These were probably mainly shells
for industrial uses, dredged in the North and Baltic Seas, and will
not therefore be discussed further in this report. The Philippines
and the US were the second major exporters; many of their exports
include shells and corals from, tropical reefs. Other major
exporters include Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Haiti, Australia and
a number of Pacific islands. _Apart from the European countries,
the major exporting countries are in the tropics.
The main importers of unworked coral and shells are the
northern European countries, Singapore, Japan, South Korea and the
US. Imports into Europe and Singapore are probably mainly shells
for industrial purposes (the bulk of Singapore's imports come
from Malaysia (Table 35)).
Trade figures for worked coral and shells can be misleading
as the items recorded under these tariff headings may include
other materials such as wood, metal etc. However it is clear that
the Philippines is the major exporter, in terms of both weight
and value, followed by Taiwan. Exports from Italy have a high value;
this country is traditionally the centre of the cameo and coral
carving industry. Japan, West Germany and Thailand are also
major exporters of worked coral and shells. The main importers are
W. Germany, the US, Japan, Spain and Italy.
Pricesof shells are very variable and are not discussed
in this report. Abbott(1980) reviews current trends.
UNWORKED SHELLS-EXPORTING COUNTRIES
Countries recording exports of shells are given in Table 7 with a
breakdown according to species. Table 8 gives the 'estimated'
exports from all countries involved, calculated from figures
produced by importing countries, and including all types of shell.
This latter table shows that the Netherlands and Denmark are the
main exporters (see p.4 ), and, are followed by the US, the Philippines
Mexico and Indonesia, which are discussed below in more detail.
Exports of shells from the US increased rapidly in the
1960s reaching a peak in 1966 (Table 9 and Fig. 1). Subsequently
exports dropped, averaging about 5,000 tonnes between 1970 and
1978. Between 1960 and 1967 over 50% of exports went to Japan
and a large proportion continues to do so; (these are probably
freshwater mussels (Abbott,1980) although since 1965 the tariff
heading has specified marine shells). Large quantities also went to
Canada. Since 1970 exports to South Korea have been increasing};
these are probably mainly abalone shells (see p. 14).
The US records re-exports of small quantities of marine shells
(Table 10), and since 1971 an increasing number have been destined
for South Korea. According to Abbott(1980) the US re-exports
Haitian shells, especially conches, to the Bahamas. The Bahamas
recorded imports of 3 555 conch shells from the US in 1976 and
FAO, Sma pbbableney)y
The Philippines
Philippine exports of pearl shells and trochus are
discussed later in the section on mother-of-pearl. The main
shell exports from the Philippines are recorded under the tariff
heading ‘other shells'(Table 7) which covers species destined
for the curio trade. From 1970 to 19735 exports rose rapidly
to a peak (Table 11 and Figure 2) and they have remained fairly high
since then. Between 1974 and 1978 the average annual export was
3 451 tonnes. Just under 50% went to the US; about 600 tonnes
were exported to Japan annually, and other important countries
of destination were Hawaii, Italy, Spain, the UK, the Netherlands
and' Hong Kong. A small but variable quantity of scrap shell was
exported, most of which went to Taiwan and the US. In 1978
» —_
exports were considerably higher than in previous years (Table 12),
Mexico
Shells from Mexico are probably used mainly by the curio
trade since they are recorded by importing countries under the
category ‘other shells'. Actual recorded exports are slightly
lower than estimated exports, and were destined mainly for Japan
and the US in 1976. (Table 13a). Imports from Mexicowlo South Korea,
Japan and the US increased between 1976 and 1978 (Table 13b).
Indonesia
Most of Indonesia's shell exports are of mother-of-pearl
and are discussed later. Exports of 'other shells' reached a peak in
1973 but have declined since then (Table 14). They were destined mainly
for Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong.
Japan
Exports of 'shells of shell-fishes' probably includes th
shells of cultured pearl oysters. Exports increased six-fold
between 1976 and 1979 (Table 15a), the biggest increase being in
exports to South Korea. Exports to the US declined, Japan also
exported powder and waste of shells and coral to a number of
countries including Taiwan, W. Germany, the US and the Netherlands
(Table 15b).
Haiti .
Between 1976 and 1978 imports from Haiti were recorded
by the US, Japan, Spain and Taiwan (Table 16). They were recorded
under the tariff heading for "other shells', and so were probably
destined for the curio trade. Estimated annual exports averaged
925 tonnes.
South Korea
Most of South Korea's exports of shells are oysters and
are discussed in the mother-of-pearl section, Exports of other
shells were recorded in 1977 and 1978 (Table 7), and went to
Japan, with a small quantity to Hong Kong (7 300 kg) in 1977.
Powder and waste of shell was also destined for Japan (Table 7).
Solomon Islands
Most exports were for the mother-of-pearl trade, A small
quantity of 'other shells' was exported between 1976 and 1978
(Table 17).
Australia
Exports of shells other than mother-of-pearl were destine@
mainly for Hong Kong and South Korea (Table 18),
Other Countries
It has not been possible to carry out detailed analyses
for each country.
A number of countries are known to be important
exporters of shells but trade statistics do not separate shells from
corals, e.g. Kenya, Tanzania, India and Singapore. Between 1974
and 1978 Tanzania recorded higher exports of coral and shells
than Kenya (Tables 19 and 20), and most were destined for the WSs
Europe (especially the UK and Italy) and Japan. Kenya's exports
were also destined mainly for, the US, Italy and the UK. In 1978
exports from Kenya were the highest since 1974; this may have been
in anticipation of the ban on shell exports in 1979 (see discussion).
Japan recorded imports of 'other shells' from both countries,
imports from Tanzania being higher than those from Kenya (Table 25).
The US recorded more imports from Tanzania in the early 1970s but
between 1976 and 1978 recorded more from Kenya (Table 28). No
countries recorded imports of mother-of-pearl from East Africa,
Indian exports of cowries and chanks (Turbinella pyrum)
are described later, Indian exports of marine shells have increased
since the beginning of the 1970s and by 1979 reached almost 500
tonnes (Table 21s). Exports to the US increased noticeably,
Bram shale in 1969 to nearly 105 tonnes in 1979. Other countries
of destination were Hong Kong, Japan and Europe and in 1979 large
quantities went to Oman, Bahrein and Kuwait. Foreign trade
statistics record exports under the heading ‘other corals and shells’.
Most were destined for the USA and Europe, and in 1977 large
quantities went to Nepal as well (Table 21). <A number ot countries
recorded imports ot shells from India; for example in 1978 Japan
imported Tectus niloticus, Pinctada maxima and other shells from
India; South Korea and the US imported shells; and Spain imported
mother-of-pearl.
Malaysia recorded huge domestic exports of coral and
shells to Singapore (Table 22) and smaller quantities to other
countries. The former were probably for building or industrial
purposes. Malaysia also re-exports corals and shells (Table 23).
UNWORKED SHELLS~IMPORTING COUNTRIES
Countries recording imports of shells are shown in Table 24, Other
major importers are Canada, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium,
Australia and other European countries (see Tables 9 and 11). A
number of countries increased their imports of shells between
1976 and 1978 (see below).
Japan
Japanese imports of mother-of-pearl are discussed in
the next section. Over three quarters of imports of shells into
Japan come under the heading ‘other shells! (Table 24), and imports
increased nearly two-fold between 1970 and 1979 (Table 25 and
Fig. 3). Over 50% came from the US and were presumably
freshwater pearly mussels (see p.25). South Korea became an
increasingly important supplier throughout the 1970s. Imports from
Mexico also increased up to 1978 but in 1979 were half those of
previous years. Other major suppliers were the Philippines, Indonesia,
==
Taiwan and Haiti.
Japan also records imports under the tariff heading
"substances similar to coral and shells; and powder and waste of
shells', These came mainly from the Philippines, South Korea
and Taiwan (Table 26) and averaged 402 tonnes a year between
1970 and 1979.
France
French imports came mainly from the Netherlands and
Denmark (see p. 4), Turkey and other European countries. In 1976
and 1978 nearly 100 tonnes came from Madagascar (Table 27).
USA
Imports into the US have increased noticeably since the
1960s when average annual imports were 1 483 tonnes (Table 28,
Fig 4). The biggest increase has been in imports from Mexico,
which became the major supplier in 1977 and 1978, having usually
supplied less than 100 tonnes a year in the 1960s. The Philippines
was the main source between 1970 and 1976, imports from this country
also having increased since the 1960s. Haiti is now the third major
supplier; imports from this country increased rapidly at the end
of the 1960s but decreased between 1977 and 1978. In the 1960s there
were major imports from the Bahamas and Jamaica (Table 28), but
although a detailed breakdown of countries of origin is not available
for the years 1974-1977, there is evidence that imports from these
countries have declined. In 1978 only 3 tonnes came from the Bahamas
compared with an annual average of 25 tonnes between 1970 and 1973.
Imports from Jamaica totalled 12 tonnes in 1973 compared with an annual
average of 323 tonnes between 1960 and 1964,
Imports from Australia have decreased slightly since the
Ae
1960s. Imports from Japan have also decreased; these figures parallel
the decrease in exports to the US recorded in Japan's trade
statistics (Table 15) (although the actual quantities do not agree).
No imports were recorded from Taiwan until 1968 but in 1978 this
country was the fourth major supplier; highest imports from Taiwan
were in 1976. East Africa (i.e. Kenya and Tanzania) was an
important sup; lier most years. Since 1964 imports from the two
countries have been recorded separately. Until 1971 higher exports
were recorded from Tanzania than from Kenya, but between 1976
and 1978 imports from Kenya were higher.
South Korea
South Korea's imports of oyster, pearl and abalone shell
are discussed in the following section. In 1977 and 1978 large
quantities of ‘other shells' were also recorded (Table 24).
Over 90% of these came from Japan, with smaller amounts from
Indonesia, the Philippines, India, the US and other countries
(Table 29).
West Germany
West Germany imported large quantities of 'other shells!
in 1976 and 1977. Most came from Denmark and the Netherlands (Table
30, see p. 4).
Hong Kong
Imports into Hong Kong increased between 1976 and 1978,
the main increase being in imports from Australia (Table 31).
Spain
70% of Spanisn shell imports came from the Philippines
(Table 32) and 10% from Haiti. Italy, Madagascar and the US were
also regular suppliers.
Other Countries
A number of countries which do not separate coral and shells in
their foreign trade statistics are also major importers.
Italy imports from a very large number of countries;a detailed
breakdown of countries of origin is available for 1976 (Table 33). A
large proportion came from Denmark but the main suppliers of tropical
corals and shells were Indonesia, the Philippines, the Sudan, the US,
Malaysia, Haiti, Australia and New Caledonia. Many of these imports
were probably mother-of-pearl and helmet shells or conches for the
carving and cameo industry. The US, ye) Ea A upamest: Indonesia and
Australia all recorded exports of shells to Italy (see Tables 9, 11,
14 and 18).
Australian imports of coral and shells increased between 1976 and
1978, and about 50% came from the Philippines. Japan, Taiwan, Mexico and
the US were also major suppliers, and in 1978, Haiti and the Solomon
Islands as well. (Table 34). The Philippines and the Sotomon Islands
recorded exports of 'other sea shells' to Australia, and Japan recorded
exports of 'shells of shell fishes'.
Singapore imported large quantities of coral and shells from Malaysia
(Table 35 and see p.4), and imports also came from the Philippines,
New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea and a number of other countries.
Malysian imports came mainly from Taiwan, the Philippines and Singapore
(fable 36). Kenyan imports of coral and shells fluctuated between
1974 and 1978, but came regularly from Somalia. In 1977 and 1978
imports also came from Tanzania (Table 37).
UNWORKED MOTHER-OF-PEARL
Some countries record all types of mother-of-pearl shell under a
single heading; others separate 'pearl shell' (i.e. pearl oyster
shells) from green snail shells and trochus or top shells (Table 7).
Pearl Shell (Pinctada)
Although this section refers mainly to pearl oyster
shells the figures given may include green snail shell and trochus
as from some countries it is not known exactly which species are
recorded under the tariff. heading 'pearl shell'. Between 1976
and 1978 the main exporters were Indonesia, Australia and the
Philippines (Table 58). Exports from Indonesia increased markedly
between 1970 and 1978 (Table 39), and were destined largely for
Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and South Korea. Exports from the
Philippines fluctuated and went mainly to Japan and South Korea
(Table 40). Exports from Australia were destined for the US and
Europe (Table 41).
The main importers of pearl shell between 1976 and 1978
were Spain, Japan, South Korea and West Germany (Table 42). Many
more countries are probably involved but their trade is recorded
under the general heading of coral and shells. Japan gives details
of imports for two particular species, Pinctada margaritifera and
P, maxima. Japanese imports of P, margaritifera came mainly
from the Philippines and Indonesia and smaller quantities have
come regularly from the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Fiji and
a ity
more recently the Cook Islands (Table 43). Imports of P. maxima
have also come mainly from the Philippines and Indonesia, although
at the beginning of the 1970s comparatively small quantities were
coming from the latter. Australia and Burma have supplied this
species to Japan regularly and Papua New Guinea was another
important source up until 1973 (Table 44),
Until 1963, the US recorded imports of mother-of-pearl
and trochus under a separate tariff heading from other shells.
Between 1960 and 1963 most imports came from Australia (c. 60%),
and from Japan (20-30%) (Table 45). Since 1963 these imports have
been included in 'marine shells',
.
Trochus or top shell (Tectus niloticus and Trochidae)
The main exporters of Trochidae shells are Indonesia,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and a number of the small
South Pacific islands: viz Solomon Islands, Marshall, Mariana, and
Caroline Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, New Hebrides. (Table 46),
90% of all Indonesian shell exports are Trochidae, over
1 000 tonnes being exported annually (Table 47). Exports have
fluctuated but slightly fewer were being exported annually at the
end of the 1970s than at the beginning, mainly due to a decline in
exports to European countries. Exports went mainly to Japan and
Singapore in 1978.
Exports from the Solomon Islands were destined mainly for
Japan; exports decreased between 1976 and 1978 (Table 48).
Philippine exports of Trochidae decreased between 1970 and 1978; most
were sent to Japan (Table 49).
=AiB=
The main importers of Trochus are Japan and Singapore
(Table 50). Japanese imports come mainly from Indonesia and the
South Pacific islands (Table 51).
Green snail shell (Turbo marmoratus
This species is recorded separately only by Indonesia,
the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea. Exports went mainly
to Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore and West Germany (Tables 52, 53
and 54).
UNWORKED SHELLS-OTHER SPECIES ,
§.Korea records imports of abalone shells. Imports increased
from just over 1000 tonnes in 1976 to nearly 2 000 tonnes in
1978, and 50% came from Mexico. Other major suppliers were the
US, Australia and Japan (Table 55).
The Philippines recorded exports of Placuna placenta,
the window pane oyster or capiz shell until 1972. Between 1970
and 1972 exports decreased drastically (Table 56).
India recorded trade in cowries and chanks (Turbinella
pyrum) in 1976 and 1977 (Tables 57). Cowries were imported from
the Maldives and were exported (domestic exports) to the US,
Exports of chanks were lower in 1977 than in 1976; they were
destined for Italy and other European countries and in 1y/7/, tor
the US.
The Bahamas recorded imports and exports of conches in
1976 and 1977. In 1976, 3 535 conch shells were imported from the
A416
US and in 1977, 710. Exports were not recorded in 1976 but in
1977 13 575 were exported of which 11 180 went to Italy and
2 395 to the US (Bahamas Foreign Trade Statistics).
WORKED SHELLS
The only worked shell recorded regularly in trade statistics is
mother-of-pearl. Quantities recorded under the tariff heading
for worked materials include other materials which may be part
of the items concerned and so the weights give only a rough
estimate of the actual quantities involved,
The main exporters of worked mother-of-pearl are the
Philippines, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan ane Thailand (Tables
58 a and b). The Far East has traditionally been the centre of
the carving industry for a number of wildlife products including
coral, shells, ivory and tortoiseshell. In Europe, Italy and
West Germany are the only countries which record substantial
exports; Italy is famous for its carved cameos and corals.
Trade statistics show the main importers of worked shell,
including articles made of shell,to be the US, Japan and Europe
particularly France, West Germany, Spain, Italy and the UK.
(Tables 59 a and b).
Mainland China is also an important exporter; a number of
countries imported from there, and estimated exports for Mainland
China in 1976 were 20 517 kg.
Exporting Countries
The Philippines record worked shell and articles made
-17-
of shell under a number of headings which include handbags,
lampshades, buttons, capiz shell, mother-of-pearl and ‘other
hehween 726 aud 1492
shells' (Table 60), The main destinations,were the US, Mawali,
Japan, Australia and Europe but exports went to many other
countries as well. Taiwan also exported a variety of types of
worked mother-of-pearl (Table 61) which went to many countries.
Exports from South Korea went mainly to Japan and the
US, although exports to these two countries decreased between
1976 and 1978; exports to Hong Kong and Middle Eastern countries
increased however (Table 62). Japanese exports increased
between 1976 and 1978 and went mainly to Spain and the US (Table 63).
Exports from Thailand also increased (Table 58a). Hong Kong recorded
exports and re-exports of pearl vatednetpetn increased rapidly between
1976 and 1978 particularly to Australia and Taiwan (Table 64 a and b).
Importing countries
Most Japanese imports of worked mother-of-pearl came from
South Korea, the Philippines and Mainland China (Table 65a). Large
quantities of mother-of-pearl for buttons wer imported from South
Korea (Table 65b). Imports into France, West Germany and the UK
of worked mother-of-pearl came primarily from the Philippines
(Table 66 a, b and c). Spanish and Italian imports came from a
number of countries of which Japan was the main source (Tables
66d and e).
US imports of worked shell were recorded under two
tariff headings: "Cut cameos and coral for jewelry" and "Articles
of shell". MImports of the former increased dramatically in the
1970s and are discussed in Wells (1980). Values of annual imports
VBix
of articles made from shells also increased rapidly between
1972 and 1976, mainly as a result of increased imports from the
Philippines, which is the major supplier (Table 67 and Fig. 5).
The US imports shell or pearl buttons but statistics were only
obtained for 1969 and 1975; in 1969 the Philippines was the
main supplier and in 1975, Japan (Table 68).
Imports of shell buttons into Hong Kong increased
three-fold between 1976 and 1978. Over 75% came from Japan
(Table 69).
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND DISCUSSION
Countries involved
The trade statistics analysed in the preceding sections
suggest that the demand for tropical sea shells and articles made
fromthem increased throughout the 1970s. The US and Japan, the
two major consumers of ornamental shells have shown marked increases
in imports of unworked shells, as has South Korea. The US in
particular has shown a huge increase in imports of worked shell.
The extent to which these statistics refer to ornamental tropical
shells can be gauged from information available on the retail
and wholesale end of the trade.
Abbott (1980) carried out a detailed analysis of the
shell trade in Florida, which has a greater number of shell dealers
than any other state in the US. He found that 85% of the whole-
salers obtained their shells in bulk from overseas, and according
to the dealers, the main countries of origin (in descending order
of importance) are the Philippines, Mexico, Haiti, India, Taiwan,
Japan and East Africa, with fewest coming from domestic waters and
other countries. The trade statistics confirm this (ignoring
European sources which almost certainly provide shells for
industrial purposes).
Abbott identified some 300 species on sale in Florida,
with another 4 700 species likely to appear from time to time.
The most popular selling species are: the Pink Conch (Strombus
gigas), the tiger cowrie (Cypraea tigris), the Pink Mexican
murex (Phyllonotus erythrostomus), the Chambered Nautilus
(Nautilus pompilius), scallops, large clam shells (Hippopus and
Tridacna) and large showy gastropods such as Voluta, Tonna,
Syrinx and Pleuroploca. Other studies (e.g. Evans et al.,
1977) have also shown that the most popular species are the large
colourful ones found on tropical reefs, which explains the major
trade which has developed with tropical countries such as the
Philippines, Mexico and Haiti.
Mexico has recently become one of the main suppliers of
shells, especially for the US, Japan and South Korea. FAO
statistics show that it was a major producer of shells other than
mother-of-pearl between 1974 and 1977 (Table 70c). (FAO statistics
are included for comparison but their figuresclearly do not include
all the countries involved in shell exploitation). It was also
shown to have exported large numbers of abalone shells to South
Korea (see Table 55), which may be a by-product of the abalone
meat industry. There is little information on the areas in
Mexico where shells are collected, but the increase
in exports may be due to stepped up off-shore fishing for Murex,
Oliva, Strombus and abalone (Abbott, 1980).
~- a
-2A-
in the mid 1970s the Philippines was easily the major
supplier and it is still one of the main exporters. Philippine
collectors tend to collect anything and sell in bulk without
discriminating between species (Webster, 1977 in litt.).
Haiti's large export trade is due to organised wholesalers on La
Gonave island, where labour is cheap; the meat is used for food
(Abbott, 1980).
There is clear evidence that exports of shells from
India are increasing rapidly. Recently some of its off-shore
beds have been exploited for the first time (Abbott, 1980).
Large specimens of ciraiainentell shells were being collected round
Rameshwaram and the Andaman and Nicobar islands at the beginning
of the 19'/0s (Durve, 1975). Currently large quantities are being
collected along the south Indian coast, especially off Tuticorin,
south of Madras and Rameshwaran. Nearly two dozen species are
involved and they are exported through Bombay, (Kannan 1980 in litt.).
There is little information on the export trade from
East Africa although both trade statistics and FAO figures confirm
that Kenya and Tanzania are important producers. Studies on the
souvenir shell trade within Kenya showed that the main collecting
areas are now the more inaccessible areas on the north and south
coasts, such as Lamu and Shimoni; popular species are relatively
rare near the tourist resorts, probably as a result of over-
collecting. At least one firm is known to export shells from
Mombasa, (the Naushad Trading Co). including Cassis rufa destined
for the cameo industry in Italy (Evans et al., 1974; Wells, 1978).
Ornamental shells are generally sold in seaside curio and
oe | }
and souvenir shops, which in the past probably sold souvenirs decorated
with local shells. In many placeshowever, colourful local species
may now be hard to find, especially in tourist resorts bordered by
coral reefs such as Florida, Hawaii and the Caribbean islands,
and because of their relative Be ie also be more expensive
than exotic shells imported in bulk. In Hawaii, where tourism
has increased rapidly since 1972, nearly 60% of several hundred
shops in Lahaina on Maui had some trade in molluscs in 1977,
most of which were imported from all over the Indo-Pacific,
especially from the Philippines and India (Mills, 1977). The
Philippines exported over..115 tonnes of shells to Hawaii in 1978
(Table 11). The largest wholesale enterprise for shells in Hawaii
in 1976 was 'Exotic Shells' and most of their stock was imported
from countries including Taiwan and Mauritius. Shells were imported
by the crateload in such quantities that the owner, Bremont, had
little idea ot the size of his stock or the species involved at
any one time (Taylor, 1976).
In the UK in 1977, Leslie Sarogny-Frye was importing 10
tonnes of assorted corals and shells from the Philippines every two
months, his main sales being to hotels and sea side gift shops
(Anon, 1977). In 1978 Barry Lonsdale of Tropical Sea Shells in
Rochdale in the UK was selling about 3 tonnes of shellsa week.
imported from the Philippines, East Africa and the Seychelles
(Anon, 1978).
Mother-of-Pearl
Mother-of-pearl is one of the few types of shell for which
fairly detailed trade statistics are available. Four species are
commonly fished for their nacre, and provide the best mother-of-pearl.
Pinctada margaritifera Black-lip pearl shell
Pinctada maxima Gold-lip pearl shell
Tectus niloticus Trochus or top shell
Turbo marmoratus Green snail or turban shell
A number of other Pinctada species, abalone shells, chanks and
freshwater mussels are also used. Mother-of pearl has been used
for centuries for decorative inlay work, buttons and jewelry as it
is hard and can be cut precisely and polished to a rich sheen,
The pearl button industry reached a peak in the late 19th century
when the UK alone imported at.least 2 OUU tons ot pearl shell a year
(Saul, 1974). Pearl buttons have to be made by hand and with the
escalation of labour costs in Europe and the US, and the development
of the plastics industry the trade declined (Saul, 1974: Travis,
1959). There now appears to be a revival of interest in mother-
of-pearl as a fashionable material for buttons and jewelry,
probably as part of the general trend away from plastics and
the return to the use of natural products in the developed
countries; the tortoiseshell trade has undergone a similar revival
(Mack, Duplaix and Wells, 1980). Export statistics show that most
manufacture qd articles come from the Far East where labour is
still cheap.
Pinctada margaritifera, which purportedly produces the
world's finest pearls, was formerly not in demand for its nacre
(Major, 1974). Japan now imports large quantities of this species
from the Philippines and Indonesia. In 1931 it was common and
widely distributed in the Sulu Archipelago, and the Philippines
exported about 20 000 kg of shell a year (Talavera, 1931); in 1979
Japan imported 209 805 kg a year -(Table 30a.)
ea =
P. maxima has always been in demand for its shell,
particularly for the button industry. Japanese imports in 1979
were coming mainly from the Philippines and Indonesia although
Australia used to be a major supplier. In 1931 this species
was reported to be very abundant in the Philippines and almost the
whole of the Sulu Archipelago was said to be one extensive pearling
bank, 35 OOO km. The aeons rate of this species is rapid, it is
sexually mature in two years, and most va able when 3-4 years
old and so it may be able to support a fairly large take. The
Philippines exported just over 200 OOO kg a year in 1927 and
1928 to the US, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan and the British East
Indies (Talavera, 1931). In 1979 Japan imported 169 O46 kg
of this species from the Philippines.
FAO records catches and landings of Pinctada spp. (Table
70a)+ Between 1974 and 1977, highest catches were recorded for
Australia, Japan and Fiji were also recorded but not the
Philippines or Indonesia.
Traditionally there has been an extensive pearl
oyster fishery in the Red Sea (Harrison Matthews, 1975). Few
countries have recently recorded imports specifically of unworked
pearl shell from this area (39 000 kg were imported from the Sudan
in 1978 by Spain ), but the Sudan, Somalia, Saudia Arabia
and North and South Yemen are known to be involved in the coral
and shell trade (see Table 1). Between 1960 and 1963 the US
regularly imported pearl shells from Aden and Arabia (Table 45).
Tectus niloticus is the largest of the top shells
-2h-
and is most in demand for its mother-of-pearl although other
top shells such as I. maximus may also be used (Talavera 1931,
Saul 1974). The main exporters of Pe ea to be Indonesia
and the South Pacific islands (Table 46), (according to FAO
statistics highest catches are obtained in the Solomon Islands
and Fiji (Table 70b)). According to Dance (1976) the principal
(Trewaus)
Tectus , beds are off the coasts of New Caledonia and Queensland and
amongst the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The trade statistics suggest
that exports from Indonesia, the Philippines and the Solomon
Islands are declining. Unlike pearl oysters, this species never
occurs in large numbers over a, limited area, but is usually
found scattered singly near the outer edge of coral reefs.
| Over fishing of this species peat recorded a number
of times as the following figures giving the tonnage fished legally
may indicate (Dance, 1976).
Queensland New Caledonia Andamans and Nicobar
1916 1 048 Sse 1 004 1930 450
1922 265 1930 180 1935 50
(figures in tons)
According to Dance (op. cit), approximately 4 000 specimens
comprise a ton and it takes more than 3 years to grow to a
marketable size. Dance believed that had the plastics industry
not replaced the need for thisspecies it would have been on the
verge of extinction,
In Papua New Guinea legislation had to be introduced to
control fishing for Tectus niloticus. At the beginning of this
century production dropped substantially from 1 000 tonnes in
19135 to 358 tonnes in 1928. During the Second World War,
fishing stopped and the stocks had a chance to recuperate. 800
agi
tonnes were taken in 1954 when fishing was resumed, but by 1956
the catch had already decreased to 402 tonnes. A moratorium was
introduced for a year and since then commercial fishing has been
permitted, provided a minimum size limit of 10 cm. diameter is adhered
to and fishing zones are rotated (Barletta, 1976). In 1978 Papua
New Guinea was about the fourth largest exporter of Tectus, In
1927 and 1928, the Philippines exported about 100 OOO kg annually
to China, Japan and the British East Indies; in 1978 the Philippines
exported nearly 127 000 kg mainly to Japan, Spain and Italy (see
Table 49). It is not clear what controls exist currently in
this and other exporting countries to prevent over exploitation,
Green snail shells Turbo marmoratus were once used as
festive drinking cups in Scandinavian countries, and they have
also been used for buttons and other decorations, The surface
can be treated and polished to reveal a greenish pearly nacre
(Saul, 1974). This species is found at greater depths than other
pearl shells, on the edges of reefs and it is usually collected
by skin divers. Currently the Solomon Islands and Papua New
Guinea are the major suppliers. In 1931 the Philippines exported
11 666 kg (Talavera, 1931) and in 1930 it was being fished off the
Seychelles and Chagos (Travis, 1959). FAO recorded production
of 400 tonnes a year between 1974 and 1977 in Sabah.
The mother-of-pearl trade is subject to the influence of
trade in mother-of-pearl from fresh water molluscs
(Unionidae) which in the US have provided a major source of mother-
of-pearl since the last century. Pearl buttons began to be
manufactured from them on a commercial scale in 1891, but by
early this century depletion of the mussel beds was apparent, and
aGi<
production declined. During and after the Second World War many
of the commercial beds underwent a mild recovery as a result of
the low level of exploitation along with attempts to clean up
the rivers and decrease pollution.
In the 1950s the Japanese turned to North America for
supplies of freshwater mussels as these are crushed and used to seed
cultured pearl oysters. Previously they had been able to obtain
supplies from the Yangtse River in China. Since the export trade
with Japan has been opened up, North American rivers have been
successively depleted as boats,move on to new ones having
exhausted others. In 1971 it was stated that it seemed unlikely
that the industry could continue for another decade at the same
rate of exploitation (Stansbery, 1971), and a symposium on rare
and endangered molluscs in the US recommended that trade should
be restricted to licensed collectors (Jorgensen and Sharp, 1971).
However, according to FAO statistics an average of 1 436 tonnes were
caught annually between 1974 and 1977. Trade statistics show that
exports of shells to Japan from the US are still high, although
lower than in the 1960s. A number of the rare Unionidae species
are now listed on the US Endangered Species Act and are on Appendix I&II
of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Fauna and Flora). Clamming is forbidden in some areas
to allow stocks to build up and some species are protected by state
as well as federal laws (Fitzpatrick, 1963) but detailed up to date
information on current legislation has not been obtained.
Other species
Capiz shell or the window pane oyster (Placuna
placenta) has been used in the Far East, especially in China,
for many years as glass for windows as its valves are thin and
translucent. In the Philippines they have been used for the same
purpose during the past 100 years. The pearls produced by this
species are small and soft and are used only for medicinal
purposes. The shells are found in large beds which may yield
substantial crops regularly. They are collected by wading
and many of the shells taken are in fact dead. They need a muddy
or sandy substrate and are most successful in shallow water,
although they may occur as deep as 4O m.
In 1931 the shells were still used in Philippine houses,
but were increasingly used for shell crafts which is their main
use now. Artificial cultivation was being successfully carried out
in 1931, in combination with oyster farming, and since only large
shells were of real value it was thought that wild populations
were unlikely to be fished out, Manufactured articles were
exported to Europe, China, the US, Hong Kong and the British and
Dutch East Indies, and it was presumed that the export trade would
continue. Raw shells were also exported in small quantities to
the US and Hong Kong: 552 kg in 1927, 612 kg in 1928 and exports
increased three-fold in 1929 (Talavera, 1931).
At the beginning of the 1970s unworked capiz shell was
still being exported from the Philippines but there was a big
drop in exports in 1972 and subsequently exports were not recorded.
An apparently unknown ecological disaster may have caused the
failure of the beds (Kline, 1977). Worked capiz shells are still
exported in large quantities however, and capiz shell articles
from the Philippines can be seen in gift shops and department
stores in the UK used in lampshades, boxes and aolian harps
(pers. obs). A sizeable fishery for capiz shells existed in
India along the Bombay and Goa coasts (UVurve, iy/5).
India recorded exports of cowries (Cypraea) and chanks
(Turbinella pyrum) under separate tariff headings. An average
tiger cowry (C. tigris), which, is one of the most popular species,
probably weighs no more than 100 gms; Indian exports in 1977
therefore represented well over 45 million specimens, and probably
many more as other species such as the tiny ring and money
cowries (C. moneta and C. annulus) were probably included in
these export figures. A dealer in the UK supplied three quarters
of a million cowries to a firm in 1977 which was marketing a game
which required cowries, (Anon, 1977). Cowries are now frequently
carved, or sliced and turned into knapkin rings, or used in
jewelry; money elton necklaces are sold in most major cities of
the world.
The Sacred Chank has a special holy significance in
India and has been collected for centuries for use as trumpets and
libation vessels in temples, and they are also used for buttons and
bangles. Chank beds are Aoi on the west coast, in the Gulf of
Kutch and the Arabian Sentyon the east coast, The most productive beds
are mainly in the Gulf of Mannar near Tuticorin, Kilakari and in
the Palk Bay area. Durve (1975) recommended that they should be
carefully monitored to ensure that depletion does not occur
~29-
through over fishing. A survey of the chank has also been carried
out in Sri Lanka (Abbott, 1980).
The valves of the Giant clam (Tridd@cna and Hippopus)
have been much in demand and have been used as fonts in churches, salad
bowls in restuarants and wash basins in hotels among other things. One
shell shop in London has them in stock but a pair may cost £300. The
main threat to clams is not collection for the shell, but the
Taiwanese who fish them for the meat of the adductor muscles, and throw
the valves away. Considerable depletion has occured in Australian
waters but a 200 mile economic. zone has been enforced and Taiwanese
fishing vessels are no longer seen (Pearson, 1977).
The Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus po.mpilius) has been
collected in large numbers although it is a deep sea rather than a
reef species. Their use is very varied and apart from being used
whole as ornaments (usually sectioned), 800 pearly nautilus were
used in the chandelier of the Senate chambers in the State Capitol in
the US (Taylor, 1976); currently there is a vogue for handbags inlaid
with pieces of pearly nautilus, imported from the Philippines, and
Abbott (1980) recommends that a survey should be carried out to see if
this species is being overfished in Philippine waters. A number of
scientists are studying Nautilus at present and so such research would
not be too difficult to implement.
"Rare" shells
Certain species have been greatly sought after over the
centuries for their rarity alone. These generally command very
high prices and are collectors items. In many cases their rarity
is due to the fact that they are deep water species and in the past
were difficult to obtain. With the development of new techniques
of deep sea fishing and diving, such species are becoming more
common, and their value will naturally drop as more come onto the
market. However, there are fears that populations
could be damaged, as demand is still high.
A business has recently started in London under the name
of Rare Shell Investment Services which advises people on investing
in rare shells (TRAFFIC (International) files). Their brochure
maintains that values have increased with remarkable consistency
and that shells are a better investment than, for example, carpets,
firearms or Chinese ceramics, as 'there is little that can go
wrong when investing in-a disappearing rare commodity'. Investing
in rare shells is particularly popular in the US and is becoming
increasingly so in the Middle East. In 1980 it was recommended that
investment in the following species would be profitable: Lambis
violacea (Mauritius), weena costata (Mauritius), Cypraea nivosa
(Indian ocean) and some of the Australian volutes (Lee, Rare
Shell investment Services, in litt., 1980). These species are listed
among the fifty rarest shells in the world (Dance, 1969). The ;
Australian volutes could be threatened by over collection (Taylor,
1980 in litt.) and although many specimens of H. costata are now
in collections large fine specimens are still rare (Dance, 1969).
The Shell Collector magazine in Florida noted that deep
water gill nets of Philippine fishermen had now made a number of
rare species available such as Conus gloriamaris(Glory of the Sea -
once thought to be extinct, but over 100 specimens now known
Dance, 1969), C. dusaveli (Mauritius, but according to Dance (1969)
only one specimen ever found) and Augaria sphaerula. An article
in the'Carfell Philippine Shell News' (Anon, 1979) mentioned that
high monetary returns for rare shells have encouraged fishermen
to give up fishing for shelling. A fine nylon net is used,
about 1m wide and 150m long, which is cast to lie 60-120
fathoms or deeper overnight and then pulled in. Obtaining rare
shells is still a difficult business, so the fact that it is more
worthwhile than fishing further emphasizes a big boom in collecting.
Legislation
Many countries have legislation to control fishing for
edible molluscs. In the US alJl coastal states have some form
of control limiting size, quantities taken or times of the year
that fishing may be carried out (Abbott, 1980), and many
European countries have similar controls (Barletta, 1976). In
many cases such legislation was drawn up only after it was realised
that local depletion of populations was taking place.
A number of countries now indirectly protect. molluscs
through the establishment of marine parks, within the boundaries
of which collection of marine organisms is usually forbidden.
Such parks exist off the coasts of Australia, Florida, Kenya,
Sri Lanka and many other countries (SS Coral Reef Group, 1979).
These areas p:ovide protected populations from which migration may
occur to repopulate depleted areas.
Relatively few countries specifically control trade in
ornamental shells, Japan and Australia have apparently recently
implemented restrictions on commercial shell collecting (Abbott,
1980). In Kenya export of shells was previously permitted provided
a license or permit was obtained. This legislation was poorly
enforced though and shells could be freely taken out of the country
(Wells, 1978). In 1979 however, a complete ban on export was
introduced (Anon, 1979); the increase in exports in 1978 (see
Table 20) may have been due to traders getting rid of their
stocks in anticipation of the ban, However apparantly the
legislation is confusing and poorly understood and shells are
probably still leaving the country (Burton, 1980 pers. comm.)
In Papua New Guinea commercial shell collecting is
controlled by the government. Collectors are instructed as to
which species will sell well, and how they should be packaged to
avoid damage and consequent wastage, and collecting areas are
changed at regularly intervals (Anon, 1977a). No information is
available on the effectiveness of this system,
A few countries have legislation for particular species.
In Bermuda collection of the following species is prohibited:
Queen and harbour conches (Strombus gigas), Bermuda cone,
Bermuda and Calico scallops (Acquipecten gibbus), Atlantic pearl
oyster, netted olive (Oliva reticularis) and all helmet and
bonnet shells (Cassidae) (Anon, 1976). There has also been
a curb on the export of conch shells from the Bahamas (Anon,
1977) although they were still being exported in 1977 (see p.14).
This curb has forced dealers to find new suppliers in Hawaii
(Anon, 1977). The export of the Golden cowry (Cypraea aurantium),
one of the most sought after and valuable rare shells, is
forbidden from Fiji (Platt, 1949). Florida limits the collection
of the Queen conch (Strombus gigas) to 10 per person per day to
prevent commercial exploitation (Abbott, 1980). In 1971,
legislation was introduced in South Australia to control exploit-
ation of Cypraea thersities since populations had been considerably
~33-
reduced by collectors (Coleman, 1972).
Conclusion
A great many observers including biologists, amateur shell
collectors and conservationists are concerned about the possible
decline of molluscs particularly on coral reefs and the damage
which may occur through careless methods of collection, but further
studies must be carried out to determine quantitatively the effect
that collecting on a commercial level has on shell populations.
It is unlikely that human exploitation could lead to the
extinction of any one species pf marine mollusc in view of their
life history. Most marine molluscs have a huge reproductive
capacity and produce planktonic larvae which may ensure wide
dispersal, and account for the fact that many of the species in
the ornamental shell trade have very wide distributions through-
out the Indo-Pacific. Furthermore, for many species, it would
be very difficult to find and collect every single specimen in
a given area. Abbott (1980) points out that habitat disturbance,
pollution and dredging are just as damaging as over collecting.
A study by Rao in 1937 (Abbott, 1980) showed that the living
population of Trochus in the Andaman Sea could number 300
million specimens; if this is correct, and Trochus reaches
maturity and a collectible size in 4-5 years, it might be feasible
to collect 10-20 million specimens a year.
However, in a number of cases there is evidence that
over collection has led to local depletion and on occasions to
economic » if not biological, extinction. In the
Caribbean and off the coast of Florida a number of species are
now uncommon through over collecting including the Pink Conch
(Strombas gigas), the Queen Helmet (Cassis madagascariensis), the
Florida Horse Conch (Pleuroploca gigantea), Triton's Trumpet in
Haiti (Charonia variegata), the Angel Wing (Cyrtoplenra costata),
the Flamingo Tongue (Cyphoma gibbosum), and the King's Crown
(Melongena corona), although they cannot be considered as
endangered (Abbott, 1980). A number of dealers have mentioned that
they are making money less easily than previously (Abbott, 1980)
and a dealer in the UK was losing deals as a result of Philippine
traders sending poorer quality shells that he had paid for
(Anon, 1977). However demand for shells seems to be as high
as ever, and with the increase in controls on coral exploitation,
a number of dealers are expanding the shell side of their businessses
to counteract the anticipated decline in the coral business (CNA,
1979).
Data from a preliminary study to look at the effect of
shell collecting on molluse populations in Kenya suggests that
shell populations in unprotected areas may have a smaller mean
which acd prutecteel
length and less variation in size than those, within marine
ke
parks (McClanahan and Muthigo, 1979). Since experience has
shown that overcollection can have serious effects on edible
mollusc populations, it is to be expected that the same may apply
to the ornamental species.
At a preliminary meeting of the proposed Indian Ocean
Alliance for Conservation in the Seychelles it was recommended
that the problem of sea shell collecting should be considered at
a national level and that protected areas should be established to
provide breeding nuclei of marine molluscs (Anon, 1980). The
Pacific Science Association at the XIV Congress in Khabarovsk
(USSR) in 1979 went further and included in their second
resolution an appeal to all nations to stop the international
trade in reef corals and molluscs for ornamental purposes.
Barletta (1976) recommended that trade in the species used for
the cameo industry (Cassis madagascarensis, Cypraecassis rufa,
and Stombus gigas) should be restricted by law.
Molluscs are an important economic resource in many
countries, and a well organised ornamental shell trade could
provide much needed income in developing countries. As pointed
out by Abbott (1980) trade data can tell one little about the
extent of over exploitation unless the ecology of the species
is understood. Field studies urgently need to be carried out on
species heavily ssaollens in the trade to cee optimum
yields or conservation measures that should be taken. In the
Philippines such a programme is being undertaken for corals
which are being collected for ornamental purposes, and since this
country is one of the main shell exporters the programme should be
extended to include molluscs as well. Abbott (1980) suggests a
survey of the Pearly Nautilus should be carried out in these waters
to determine if it is being overfished. Data is also needed on
the extent to which both the meat and shell of different species
are utilised; in a number of countries the meat of Cassidae,
Stombidae and abalone is eaten and the shells exported but there
are possibly a number of other species which could be used in this
Waye
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Newletter 2:8-16
Stansbery, D.H. 1971 Rare and Endangered Molluscs in the Eastern
United States in: Jorgensen and Sharp
Talavera, F. and Faustine. L.A. 1931 Industrial shells of the
12hoak LS panes The Philippine Journal of Science
LS (iS) s Se2T= 350
Taylor, L. 1976 He sells sea shells Star-Bulletin, Honolulu 23/7/76
Travis, W. 1959 Beyond the Reefs Allen and Unwin London
Wells, S.M. 1978 The Kenyan Shell Trade Unpub Report to TRAFFIC
(International)
Wells, S.M. 1980 The International Trade_in Corals Unpub. Report to
TRAFFIC (international)
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Table 2
Imports of Unworked coral and shells
Europe
Sweden
Belgium
France
West Germany
Netherlands
Italy
UK
Switzerland
Spain
Portugal
Norway
Denmark
Yugoslavia
Greece
Asia
Singapore
Japan
Rep. Korea
Hong Kong
Taiwan
India
Peninsular Malaya
Sabah
Sarawak
Thailand
Indonesia
Philippines
Other Countries
USA
Mexico
Barbados
Brazil
Colombia
Guyana
Australia
Tunisia
Kenya
Source:
aah Fuso
(eo)
ne)
—
4 690 671
S522
43 694
7 368
|. 229
190
80 797
0
72 900
Published government statistics
a
a FOW
I
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ax
kg.
4
EAM FEU DWOWD
a «a
=
wa
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ro)
Oo
5 053 290 |
21 336
152 461
41 700
31 400
Table 3
Exports of Worked Coral _and Shells by Weight kg
Philippines
Taiwan
South Korea
Japan
Italy
West Germany 6 560
Thailand 4 239
Belgium VZS3OO ”
UK 3 742
Mexico 15 106
Netherlands je, HOO
France 2 445
Spain 2 099
Denmark 1 200
Indonesia 710
India 199
Norway
Switzerland 235
Brazil
* Jan-Nov
Source: Published government statistics
Table 4
Exports of Worked Coral and Shells by Value US
Philippines
Taiwan
Italy
Japan
South Korea
West Germany
Thailand
France
Netherlands
Belgium
Switzerland
Spain
UK
Mexico
Denmark
Norway
India
Sabah
Indonesia
Malay. Penin
Singapore
Brazil
Source: Published government statistics
Table 5
Imports of Worked Coral _ and Shells by Weight kg
Japan
Fed. Rep. Germany
France
Spain 44
Italy
Netherlands 26 000 3 000
Norway 19 000 18 000
Belgium dd, 700 16 400
UK 30 064 3 949
Sweden not recorded
Switzerland not recorded
Thailand 2 208
Denmark 3 200
Taiwan 804 2 NS
South Korea 148 252
Finland not recorded
Philippines 30
Indonesia 244
Portugal
Yugoslavia
Barbados
Brazil
Mexico
Source: Published government statistics
* Jan-Nov
Table 6
Imports of Worked Coral and Shells by Value US Z
1976
USA 14 776 000
Japan 2 488 473
West Germany 3 481. 250
France 2 302 400
Italy 556 264
Spain 912 845
Netherlands 402 400
Belgium 169 617.
Denmark 85 690
Norway 25 192
UK gD. Se.
Switzerland o7, 839
Sweden 89 756
Yugoslavia 73 O74
Greece 49 351
Sabah 30 659
Portgual i, 305
Australia 23) DAD
Taiwan O
Indonesia O
Thailand 12 484
New Zealand 14 481
Malay Penin, 6 344
Mexico 558
S.Korea 1- S15
Finland 2 598
Barbados 5 662
Singapore 570
Brazil 1 147
Philippines
Sarawak 80
Source: Published government statistics
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Table 8
Estimated Mxports of Shells li
1976 1977
if
Netherlands 800 6 775 500
Denmark 200 4h A806 400
Us 4907 Ty Bye aitlies
Mexico 571 5 952 896
Philippines WAS 9 19) BAS
Indonesia 5 080 1 76% 200
South Korea 595 WEN) Maz)!
Japan 961 9 450 Ott
Naiti 723 1 100 174
Turkey 000 895 000
Australia 181 BOO 789
France | 897 564 452
Solomon Tslands 4S 410 962
Marshall, Mariana, Caroline Islands 280 204% 398 185
New Caledonia 213 O86 112 UHL
Greece 178 000 195 600
Taiwan 195 200 162 555
Fiji 163 660 119 151
Papua New Guinea 116 975 187 392
Belgiun 173 200 659 100
Singapore 95 525 108 510
New Hebrides 95 321 139 165
India bf 93 728 98 879
Madagascar 169 400 8 600
Thailand 10 946 113 935
Kenya 154 59% 83 666
Tanzania 152 385 13 306
Malaysia 178 574% 74 OO1
Italy = = 83 380 65 917
Yugoslavia Bh 000 59 000
Hong kong 72 696 80 081
Mainland China hh 153 165 899
Uk 43 290 52 020
Syria 39 000 37 000
Portugal 18 510 52 595
Mozambique 49 700 32 700
Bulgaria 32 000
Macau 4O 642 95 795
Cook Islands 27 332 21 269
United Arab Imirates 25 000
Maldives 17 780 5 080
New Zealand 13 050 998
Ecuador S555 1 140
North NKorea 2 015
Afars Issas 13 000
Federal Republic of Germany 6 240 5 968
Spain 108 787 100
Angola 2 700 36 800
Yemen 3 000 8 100
Central Africa 1 000
South Africa 4 252
Austria 1 250
Bahawas
Greentand
Canada
Costa Rica
Panana
Turks & Caicos Islands 6
Cayman Islands
Qatar
Tonga
Mauritius
Reunion
Comoros
French Oceanic Territories
Burma 7 536
Romania
Tunisia
Chile
Vietnam
Sudan
Guinea
Saudi Arabia 5 100
US Pacific Islands 50 000
British Pacifie Islands 25 702 40 200
Argentina 96
Uganda
Paraquay
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Table 13 a
Exports of shells from Mexico
(Obtained from official trade statistics (1976) and British Embassy in
Mexico (1978-79))
ge — |} tore || — tar
not
obtained
* Imports went mainly to the US, secondly to Japan
and also to West Germany, Italy and Hong Kong
Country of
Destination
USA 280 277
Japan 971 463 -
China 6 000 +
2 17> 319
Table 13b
Estimated Exports of Shells from Mexico kg
Importing
Countries
USA marine shells} 1 134 415 1 648 273 1 670 545
Japan other shells 929 300 1 471 193 1 296 670
Hong Kong shells 12 095 26 129 6 120
Portugal 1 000
S. Korea pearl, 603 561 781 399 959 122
oyster, abalone &
other shells
|
Spain other shells
Taiwan
Thailand
Figures from official statistics of importing countries
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Table 15a
Japan Exports;Shells of Shell Fishes (kg)
Country of
Destination 1976 1977 1978 1976
South Korea 819 036 2 328 526
Taiwan 206 784 178 529
USA 122 492 117 449
Canada 2A 284 24 731
Portugal 16 000 000
Egypt
Spain 14 272 057
Hong Kong 2 500 150
West Germany 16 876 564
Italy 11 504 7944
South Africa 6 846 950
Australia 9 881 865
Other countries 20 223 3 790
Total 1 267 695 2745 405 — 4 430 508 7 603 344
Sources Published Government statistics
Table 15b
Japan Exports of Similar Substancesto Coral and
shells; powder and waste (kg)
Country of
Destination
Taiwan
West Germany 42 618
Netherlands 25 245
USA 17 084
Italy did 305
Australia 10 405
Other countries 26 085
Source: Published Government statistics
Table 16
Estimated Exports from Haiti kg
Figures taken from statistics for
importing countries
Importing
Countries
765)495
6A, 533
49 O00
578 718
124 738
88 000
10 824
964 798
44 373
92 000
Japan
Spain
873 728 TehOOmel fal 802 280
Table 17
Solomon Islands - Exports of ‘other sea shells' kg
Countries of
Destination
Australia
Papua New Guinea
New Zealand
Japan
USA
Source: Published government statistics
Table 18
Australia Exports of Shells other than Mdcher-of-Pearl
(kg)
Countries of
Destination
Hong Kong 391 349
South Korea 193 859
Japan
UK 4 205
Italy
USA 26
West Germany LO
Spain
France
Papua New Guinea
New Caledonia 84
Indonesia
North Korea
Taiwan
Singapore
Netherlands 18
Mauritius 266
South Africa
Polynesia
Belgium 1
Pr. Atl. Territs.
New Zealand
Total
437 165
1 547 536 592 595
Source: Published government statistics
Table 19
Tanzania - Exports of Corals, Shells, their Powder and Waste ke
USA
‘Canada
‘UK
|France
Italy
\Netherlands
\Fed.Rep.Germany
|Spain
|Belgium
|Greece
| Israel
Norway
|Australia
| Japan
Pakistan
;Singapore
i\India
Mauritius
‘Total
e ntry of deskinakion
[1974
| 4b 900
600
| 70 000
27 700
34 400
44 500
8 400
3 600
cl OOF
2 400
2 700
2h O00
34 600
4 000
| 266 700
r
150
800
200
000
900
400
900
300
“9751
300
}
900
eye)
700
900 |
200
400
300
100
Source: published government statistics
1976 |
1644
3
57
18
18
11
20
|
2
x4
4
4 900
300
800
200
900
400
600
500
900
300
400}
4OO}
400
100
000
300
800
500
|
600
Table 20
Kenya — orts of Corals, Shells, Powder and Waste
3 = + a Za ’ T pC | T = a a Re: | Ps me |
E teu ef, destination | eigak <3 1975 4976 | 4977 4978 |
ie | | 20400 | 25 500]
|Italy esa OO4...$4..300 44 600 | 29 800}
UK | 46 200 4 000 | 1 900 235 700)
Fed. Rep. Germany lt) AE OOOR| 1 225900 4 500 8 500!
Netherlands 2 300 | 2 000}
|\France | 400 | 500}
Belgium poke . 200}
Spain { 2 200}
iGreece | 400)
\Norway 400) |
‘Australia : . me 800 800)
Japan 3 200 | 3 400 4 700)
‘Pakistan 9 000 | 2 000 6 000
Singapore 4 600)
\India 300
\Saudi Arabia | 900 3 800|
‘Uganda | | 400 | 200)
Zaire 200}
| otlaty Comntis bt
‘Total I
Source: Published Government statistics
UBATE
uepemg
pueTery
ACMION
oqmo[o9
pueT teqy
avn
7 TeANy
uloryeg
ueug
ertqery Tpnes
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et Terysny
ertske ley
arodesutg
ppeur)
unt aT og
aoue.Ly
ps 19}
uteds
Ae qT
spur [19y79N
Aueutay ‘day ‘pay
uede pr
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Wolf Som]
VTpuy FO JUeuuteaAon e Aq poysttqnd ,Q767, sqyaodxy syonporg ouTseyy Fo SOTISTZeYIS,
S[Tpeug surrey FO 84.10 BTS 2T9PL
Table 21b
India - Exports of other Corals and Shells kg
Gountry of | 41976 1977
destination | a Chane tieit |
Spain | 20 744 52 625
Italy P apraso} 8 427
Fed-Rep-Germany | 2 257 | 11 866)
France be 56a 8 a8
UK hoe 595. | 9 200 |
Netherlands 98 | 6 885]
Czechoslovakia | 5 090 |
Norway 4 655
Belgium tpmmereeqpl SDB) igs) | -
USA 20 O47 21 328 |
Canada | 195 200 |
Nepal | 6 450 | 108 695 |
Japan 7 495 |
| Korea Rep. | 4 000
Hong Kong | 14 908 9 567 |
i = | ig) |
ct 3 600)
| Saudi Arabia | 250 |
Oman 50 | 45 Gla
Kuwait 99 667 |
pais | | __1 900 |
‘Total | 90 405 | 375 810| :
Source: Published government statistics
Table 22
Malaysia Domestic Exports of Coral and Shells kg
Countries of
Destination
Singapore 1 180 759
Hong Kong 184 807
Japan 10
Australia
S. Korea 1 615
Philippines
346
1 M7 5357
Table 23
Malaysia Re-Exports of Coral and Shells kg
Countries of
Destination
Sinsapore
Hong Kong
Philippines
All re-exports are recorded from Sabah and Sarawak
Source: Published government statistics for West Malaya,
Sabah and Sarawak
Table 24 Juports of Unworked Shells lye
———_-—
Country Ty pe/Speeies 1978
Japan Pinctada marygarilifera 502 ASL 27h NBO
P. maxima 297 692 245 906
Tectus niloticus 1 615 810 1 805 595
Other shells 5 Ah bo 7 105 295
S
Total 7 657 ALO Q A51 285 10 288 724
— — ————_————_——__—_—_——
Prance | Shells 7 G04 000 7 AL OVO 8 764 000
r
USA Marine Shells 4 O14 489 4h 621 237 4 297 096
S Korea Oyster 187 929 162 217 153 737
Pearl shell 374 774 986 572 960 463
Green abalone 1 C96 280 1 300 475 1 990 016
Other shells - 10457) 579 3 282 439
Total 1 658 985 5 886 645 6 386 660
West Gerwany Mother of pearl 800 2ht 100 not given
Other shells 7 800 7 5381 500
600 7 622 600
1 061 095
639 000
Nong Kong Shell 1 505 791
Spain Mother of pearl
Other shells
(could include coral)
821 000
820 843 561 236
Switzerland Shells 2 550 68h
Other (could include coral) not broken down 86 750
Potal 2 057 Nk
Portugal Shells 783 400 895 300 not available
Other (could include coral) 890 400 643 200
Taiwan Shell 276 466 2135 692 285 295
Shell waste 272 090 Qhh 3578 270 410
Yugoslavia Shells 24 229
Mexico Shells 21 055
India Cowries not available
Chanks
Total
Brazil Shells not available
Thailand Shells N GAD
Powder & waste 502
Total 2 542 2 O49 4 O45
Indonesia Shells 2 475 none recorded 10
Powder & waste of shells 20 000
Total 20 910
Philippines Shell 10 And
Serap & waste of sheil 15
Total
Bahanas Conch shells (No. )
EEE ei
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ST }10qTTYN tli Te) Mon eueuey 2990 *puy enbtquezoy puepTuae.ty Tay Ay semeyeg Un) Many 20.18
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9% TAP LL
Table 27
France Imports of Unworked Shells kg
Countries
of Origin 1976 1977 1978
Netherlands 2 157 000 2 142 000 2 901 000
Denmark 3 301 OOO 2 898 O00 2 632 000
Turkey 684 000 893 O00 1 155000
Greece 178 O00 195 OOO 171 OOO
Yugoslavia 84 000 59 000 74 000
Madagascar 91 000 89 000
Philippines 55 000 65 000
Syria 39 O00. ~ 37 000 51 000
New Caledonia 135 O00
Bulgaria 32 000 49 O00
Indonesia j , 37 O00
Japan 20 000
UK 251 000
Austria 7 000
Italy 28 000
Tunisia 52 O00
Romania 21 OOO
Other countries 903 000 1_106 000 1. 220 900
Total 7 604 000 7 442 000 8 764 000
Source: Published government statistics
wortyy *S
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ae e pens is ioe 4 3 - Ag ix 236 09 9f% $6 190 GtT 950 "8 vrinciiny
Sige a S Po Gh Lt 926 Ler tho Son | 4ug cle | C16 Cos boyranp
"OL C& | une ot £66 Ct SL 086 90T me ne | oon Cr | Sea te | og HD Beare
“ gan igh waenee 193 Lo 69 120 oft coo &8 21a €6 IST 1c a wars inp
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as Se ee 608 As aha GUT "0 Bat ROT 496 IGT SOL Lt Gcz of =| G6" faz Tc! 66E T9l OLE wre
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Table 29
South Korea Import of ‘other shells' kg
Country
of origin 1977 1978
Japan 1 066 992 2 580 190
Indonesia 194 416 229 691
Philippines 24 802 72 939
India 31 O00 44 783
USA 44 827 32 909
Thailand 27 248 7 500
Singapore 15 000 162. 357
New Hebrides 10 OOO ° 1 000
Australia 7 954 30 760
Papua New Guinea 5 000 6 500
Malaysia 4 838) 10 098
South Africa 4 252
Central Africa 1 000
Solomon Islands 2 000
Mainland China 39, 900
Hong Kong 6 820
Burma 3) 200
UK 3 000
Mexico 10 900
Guinea 2 000
Other countries 13 920
Total 1 457 379 3 282 439
Source: puolishedad government statistics
Table 30
West Germany Imports of ‘other shells'
Country
of origin
Netherlands
Denmark
France
Belgium
Philippines
Japan
Italy
Taiwan
Other countries
Source: Published government statistics
Table 31
Hong Kong Imports of Mollusc Shell kg
Country
or origin
Australia
Indonesia
Singapore
Philippines
Fiji
Macau
Mainland China
Solomon Islands
Malaysia
Mexico
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
USA
Japan
India
South Korea
South Africa
Burma
Other countries
Total 1 061 095
Source: Published government statistics
Table 32
spain Imports of ‘other shells' kg
Country
of origin
Philippines
Haiti
Madagascar
Italy
USA
France
Portugal
Japan
Taiwan
UK
Mozambique
Mexico
Kenya
Tanzania
Netherlands
Indonesia
India
Australia
Fed. Rep. German
Other countries
Italy Imports of Unworked Coral & Shells k
Country of Origin
Denmark 2 239. 226
Japan 545 503 301 300 14% 800
Indonesia 426 677 405 800
Philippines 419 47
Sudan 512 022
USA 178 269
Malaysia 167 762
Netherlands 124 350
Haiti 117 495
Australia 115 692
New Caledonia 115 O40 814 000
UK Oi, 519
France 95 002
Fiji 58 607
Mozambique 46 706
New Zealand 45 740
Portugal 37 415
W. Germany 30 594
Kenya 23 916 ~
India 26 306
Singapore 25 237
Papua New Guinea 22 O07
Tanzania 2d 17.0,
Mexico 20 000
Taiwan 17 316 315 600 55 000
Ecuador 1105595
Madagascar 10 000
Tunisia 751 6 700 3 600
Algeria 3 765 5 100
Spain 5) BSS) 8 200
Other countries 168 4 376 900 3.519 900
411 400 4 415 500
Other countries in 1976 were:
Ireland Somalia Honduras
Austria Seychelles Bahamas
Yugoslavia S. Africa Colombia
Greece N&S Yemen Thailand
Romania Polynesia China
Albania S. Korea Turkey
Source: Published government statistics
Table 34
Australian Imports of Coral and Shells kg
Country
of origin
Philippines
Japan
Taiwan
Indonesia
Mainland China
India
Thailand
Hong Kong
Singapore
Mexico
USA
Haiti
Solomon Islands
New Hebrides
Fiji
Polynesia
Papua New Guinea
New Zealand
France
Italy
Denmark
UK
South Africa
Tanzania
Kenya
Sudan
\
Sources Published government statistics
Table 35
Singapore Imports of Coral and Shells kg
Country
of origin
Malaysia tO Sar tS2 13 134 340 10 670 289
China 20 679
Philippines 30 900 qa Sas
Papua New Guinea 9 473 10 160
Burma 5 082 138
Thailand 3 726
India jee 912
Japan 000
Mozambique 500
New Caledonia 5 aS 000
Kenya 370
Australia
Other Countries 496
10 685 781
Source: Published government statistics
~<a
Table 36
Malaysia Imports of Coral and shells kg
Country
of origin
Philippines
Taiwan
France
Fed, Rep. Germany
India
Singapore
Indonesia
Thailand
USA
Source: Published government statistics for West Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak
Table 37
Kenya Imports of Corals and Shells kg
Country of origin
Somalia
Tanzania
Madagascar
South Yemen
Saudi Arabia
France
UK
Italy
USA
Other countries
Total 61 000
23 100 72 900 71 900
Source: Published government statistics
Table 38
Exports of Unworked Pearl Shell kg
1976 1977
Indonesia 504 598 446 223
Australia 338 441 417 960
Philippines 202 062 214 TVS
Malaysia (161 819) (57 000)
Taiwan (125)
Fr. Oceanic Terr. (100 000) (197 000)
Madagascar (57 000)
India (40 000) , (19 000)
Cook Islands (27 332) (17 097)
Fiji 18 388 8 064
Spain io. OOO 76 000
Solomon Islands 14. O57 6 466
Japan (110 122) (565 431)
Papua New Guinea 10 191 x (7 168)
New Zealand (10 056)
Hong Kong (10 002) (1 250)
Thailand (9 000) (2 000)
W. Germany 82 500 130 900
Afars Issas (13 000)
Singapore G5 2267) 125257)
Sudan
USA
Burma
Mexico
UK Ocean Terr. (10 000)
Source: Published government statistics
Figures in brackets are estimated from other countries imports.
* 1975-1976
SOTUSTLEYS JUSMMIeAOD P2EYST[TqnG s:a0mog
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OF 9TIFL
Table 41
Australia Exports of Unworked Pearl Shell kg
Country of
Destination
USA
W,. Germany
UK
Italy
Japan
Hong Kong
S. Korea
Source: Published government statistics
Table 42
Imports of Unworked Pearl Shell kg
Spain
Japan
W. Germany
S. Korea
Hong Kong
Singapore
USA
Israel
Italy
UK
Taiwan
Haiti
France
Source: Published government statistics
Figures in brackets estimated from export statistics
of other countries
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Table 45
USA Imports of Unworked Mother of Pearl and Trochus
Country Tan/ aug |
of origin 1960 1963 |
|
Australia B72 OA 2135 107 140 070 |
Japan 141 894 135 785 11 006 |
New Zealand 17 085 14 284 3 048 |
Fr. Pac. Islands 17 020 826 3 061 |
Arabia 28 565
Aden 9 868 6 095 |
Panama 746
Saudi Arabia 9 095
W. Germany 2 a5 *
Italy 932 3 999 |
Burma 6 095
Philippines 21 896 676
Hong Kong 1 288
Br.« We Pac. Is. 5 761
Sudan 9 $98
Fr. Somalia 2 000
Br. Somalia 2 032
India
Iran
Thailand
Singapore 2 055
Indonesia
New Guinea
Total 646 521 609 717 406 515 170 010
Source: Published government statistics
Table 46
Exports of Unworked Trochus kg
Indonesia
Solomon Islands
M.M.Car.*
Papua New Guinea
Fiji
Philippines
New Caledonia
New Hebrides
Taiwan
Australia
Mainland China
Thailand
Hong Kong
India
Singapore
Fr. Oceanic Terr,
* M.M.Car. = Marshall, Mariana & Caroline Islands
** 1975-1976
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i | | 2Gb ob | | | | 259 9 vsa
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Table 48
Solomon Islands - Exports of ‘Trocas' kg
Country of
Destination
Hong Kong
Singapore 14 079
Japan 341 116 211 197
UK 4 072
Fed. Rep Germany 50° 710
566 497 400 576 265 979
Published
Source: Government statistics
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| 000 +4 SpueTreyieN
Sd } OOO 9 *wtey*dey* pay
(000 & {004 4 000 Z Tesny tog
00S © G26 6 | OS4 + wn
Oecd 22 | Geb Lb 000 S souedy
294 O2 | 486 6S | Odd 92 | | OOO Ob -| |O@L QL OG4 4 ATe41
646 OL | 20d GL | ZhHO LH | OSH &h | 428 Lo | SHS Gy [+20 LO | Ged SEL | 90g Z utedg|
000 2 | 000 Sk} | | UeNTeL,
Oz 6 1.000 2 ‘ Bo Netley
64h 000 O02 | S46 6E } 066 dS aarodesutg
OLS + :| 229 | 000 2 Ord S 000 €2 suoy Suoy
ObT OSL skate!
bea 24 056 Sh | 906 99 | 49 GG | 996 ELL! 6HO 262 26 O22 ZHL SHL 409 +0¢ uedep
ES EE SO ae | Dae, P| eb eae SRE carry) a oe aie a os ge eel
e46L | 226b F od6b | Ser | Heer Zeb euob | béob |; OdOb | axe ka
— 5S 4 i 4
TLeys ,Bveyoory, fo Sytodxq — sosurddrytyg
6% 9Tde DL
Table 50
Imports of Unworked Trochus kg
Japan
Singapore
Hong Kong
W. Germany
Italy
Spain
UK
Switzerland
France
Taiwan
New Zealand
W. Samoa
S. Korea
Malaysia
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Argentina
Source: published government statistics
Spue[S] euT[OIeD »? eueTIeW ‘TTeYystey = IeD*WN x
SOTJSTJeYS JUsMUIGAOS peysttqnd fao1mog
8Ts £68 T} TOS 6LG Z| G6S GOS T] OTS CT9 FT| £66 Loh T | OSS BAT T] CTE TRZ G} TSS OGG GB} 88% 790 G} OBS C8c G TePOL
uteds
nia
eulMg
"nh MON °4 TILA]
000 06 “qTateg °90 “Td
yoty yareus tg
866 GC eatoy ‘day
atodesuts
erske fey
eury) pue [Urey
G66 TT Suoy su0y
OGE Te erTperzsny
000 G ertpuy
O78 96 UBATRY,
9176 LG pue[reqL
"6% 3G sopraiqey MeN
L9G 16 eoutny May endeg
T6E LZt soutddtytyg
716 90T tlt
COL Bke eTuOpeTe) MoN
0S6 TOT spue[S[ wow0T0S
BST HLh x78) “WW
BLE c9F 009 OT6 etsauopuy
ES et = et . ees neo
fo Aryzun0)
SNoOT}O,[ mM sSujzooy, Fo Sqaoduy —- uedep
TG ATPL
86S THL |
468 66 | OL9 68 | 656 09
| |
(0003 | 2968
OSL gz | 969 ZL
(doy 2b | dO G2 4 4@2 SE
e498 OS | 004 6£ = =4db St
Gl6L | 426b || €26L
S_Tteusueedy 10
|
SOTISTIEIS JUOMMIIAAOS psystT[qug
:90.m0g
ce 49 | 226 GZ | LGe 44 T2901
| QLG ATe4T
Picea) uteds
gd¢ 6 | SpueTreyzeN
OSG L s0ue ry
660 2 00g © “wteH-dey-pag
eeroy *doy
626 HEL €9G 6L ezodesuts
24g ¢ 696 GF | Oleg L suoy Suoy
GQyu 66 |Gle d& + 92k & uedep
UOTFEUTISAD |
cdéb L2Z6b Od6L go £azun09 |
;sosang, fO S}10 = eltseuopuy
oS 9TdeL
Table 53
Solomon Islands - Exports of Green Snail kg
Country of
Destination
Hong Kong
Singapore
Japan
W. Germany
Source: Published government statistics
Table 54
Papua New Guinea Exports of Unworked Shells kg
July 1975 - June 1976
Country of Green Snail | Mother of
Destination Trochus Shell Pearl Others
Japan 024
Spain
W. Germany
Italy 349
UK
Taiwan 881
Singapore
Haiti
Australia 100
Belgium 5
Bulgaria 360
Netherlands 11
Total 227 600 60 125 10 191 2 550
Source: published government statistics
Table 55
South Korea Imports of Green Abalone Shell kg
Country
of Origin
Australia
Japan
Indonesia
Philippines
Hong Kong
Malaya
Austria
Source: Published government statistics
Table 56
Philippines Exports of Unworked Capiz Shells kg
Country of
Destination
Hong Kong
Japan
Switzerland
Spain
Belgium
Fed.Rep. Germany
Sweden
USA
Source: Published official statistics
Table 57
Cowries — Imports
Country of
origin
Maldives
Tanzania
Chanks — Imports
‘Country of
origin
Singapore
Total |
Source: Published government statistics
India Trade in Unworked Cowries and Chanks g
1976
17 780
22 15)S4|
15 290
56 291
1976
(Country of
| destination
Italy
Spain
Cowries — Exports
ke
[country of | 1976 | 4977
|destination
pores lees SE
USA 38 392 2 22k
UK 927 | _ 6th]
Netherlands 4 099 |
|Fed.Rep. -Germany | 936 |
Total 4o 246 145 073
Chanks — Exports
+. SEES eae =
|
|Malaysia
)rance
Fed.Rep.Germany
USA
H
2D 000 | 13 Bea
20 000
5 076 |
80
3 803
Table 58a
Exports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl by Weight kg
Taiwan
S Korea
Japan
Thailand
W. Germany
Italy
Spain
France
Netherlands
Denmark
Indonesia
Mexico
Switzerland
Belgium
UK
India
Brazil
* Jan-Nov
Source: published government statistics
461
1 ©
ANZ.
1978
609 355
59 324 *
34 686
38 326
5 724
Table 58b
Exports of Worked Mother-of—Pearl by Value US g
Taiwan
S Korea
Japan
Thailand
W. Germany
Italy
Spain
France
Netherlands
Denmark
Indonesia
Mexico
Switzerland
Belgium
UK
India
Brazil
Singapore
Hong Kong
4 260 167
1 832 950
1 198 032
131 866
404 396 HKZ | 1 134 199 HKS
Table 59a
Imports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl by Weight kg
Includin
Japan
France
W. Germany
Spain
Italy
UK
Switzerland
Thailand
Netherlands
Belgium
Norway
Denmark
Taiwan
Portugal
Finland
S Korea
Brazil
Barbados
Indonesia
Yugoslavia
* Jan-Nov
mother-of-=
1976
87° 259
71 667
48 995
29 582
24 682
14 623
10 498
8.927
000
200
000
400
RO: SN GE An
185
500
TA
180
25
11
searl for
BO GRO) i) | SE EON NO) EE
Source: published government statistics
button makin
TORT
560
092
236
081
400
000
595
fae
000
000
000
700
Tae
500
648
148
43
1978
108 552
40 946
2 208
2 695
2p2,, =
24h
Table 59b
Imports of Worked Mother of Pearl by Value US g
1976 TSE 1978
Japan 780 461 1 081 479 2 064 743
France 656 000 934 255
W Germany 505 417 TV Aer SH
Spain 318 138 820 550 815 350
Italy 236 535 395 856
UK Iie Sa 178 600
Switzerland 97 839 ° 84 691
Thailand 12 484 14 324 6 021
Netherlands 47 200 D565
Belgium Bey eae Sis tei)
Norway 25 192 23 462
Denmark 75 862 ay NOS
Taiwan 4 000 9 500 T 222
Portugal en 270 26 566
Finland gi) Si e250
S Korea 1 815 7 205 5 048
Barbados 5 662 556
Brazil 1 147
Indonesia - T7 A153
Yugoslavia - 13 978 252
Singapore 570 2 630 2 806
Greece (eae 243 -
Australia Dec)28 315 24 146 21 704
Malaysia 36 991 16 968
Hong Kong 1 611 549 HKZ| 4 024 159 HKZ | 9 427 894 HKg
Table 60
Philippines Exports of Worked Shell
Shell handbags (No)
2 363 422
545 057
63 465
968 561
Shell lampshades (kg)
Light fittings
Worked Capiz shells (No)} 1 219 432 2 349 484
Worked Mother of
Pearl (No)
5 750
3 323
140 140
Shell buttons (kg)
Shell lanterns (No) 85
Other worked shells (kg) 1 400 503
Source: Published government statistics
Table 61
Taiwan Exports of Worked Mother—of—Pearl kg
1976 1977 1978
Ornamental articles TORT 17 165 281 154 078
Rings, bracelets etc 49 986 45 866 87 620
Powder cases 6 221 16 856 30 030
Plates & rods 2.255 4 025 92 908
Unmounted beads 2 067 6 427 2° 675
Tobacconist sundries © 9 Se 3 304 T°257
Articles for religious use 614 1 238 4% 888
Others 205 129 213: 216 236 901
Total 461 487 456 213 609 355
Source: Published government statistics
Table 62
South Korea Exports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl kg
Country of
Destination
Japan
USA
Hong Kong
Singapore
W Germany
Indonesia
Spain
France
Kuwait
United Arab Emirates
Other Countries
109 214
Source: published government statistics
Table 64
Japan Exports of Worked Mother—of—Pearl kg
Country of
Destination
USA 14 480
Spain 11 089
France
Netherlands
Taiwan
Other Countries
Source: published government statistics
Table 64a
Hong Kong Exports of Pearl Buttons (1 O00 buttons
Country of
Destination 1976 1977 1978
Singapore 1 289
Australia 94
Taiwan 162
USA 260 P
UK
Mauritius 10
Portugal .
S. Kores
Thailand
Other countries
Total eS ie 4 956 14 405
Source: published government statistics
Table 64b
Hong Kong Re-exports of Pearl Buttons (1 OOO buttons
Country of
Destination
Taiwan
Australia
Singapore
Sources: Published government statistics
Table 65a
Japan Imports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl kg
Country of
origin
S. Korea
Philippines
Mainland China
Taiwan
Other countries
Table 65b
Japan Imports of Mother-of-Pearl for Buttonmaking kg
Country of
origin
S. Korea
Philippines
Source: pubdlished government statistics
Table 66a
W. Germany Imports of Worked Mother-of Pearl kg
Country of
origin
Philippines
Hong Kong
Italy
Japan
Other countries
Table 66b - o 8
UK Imports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl kg
Country of
origin
Philippines
Mainland China
Hong Kong
Italy
Thailand
S. Korea
Japan
Other countries
Source: Published government statistics
Table 66c
France Imports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl kg
Country of
origin
Philippines
Italy
Belgium
Singapore
Other countries
Source: Published government statistics
Table 66d
Spain Imports of Worked Mother-of-Pearl kg
Country of
origin
Japan
Philippines
Hong Kong
Taiwan
Italy
Switzerland
S Korea
Thailand
Mexico
USA
W. Germany
Mainland China
Other countries
Sources Published government statistics
Table 66e
Italy Imports of Worked Mother-of—Pearl kg
Country of
origin
Philippines
W. Germany
Mainland China
Japan
Thailand
Hong Kong
Other countries
Source: Published government statistics
BLYCAOTSoyIez9 Be Tsouopuy UMTS [oq
nesstg BeuTNy pure, reyy, aoue.Ly
eoTIfy YaNos ueys Tye wa
pd Aaq [eearst eBTquio,[ oO)
SpuelsT Yoop wet] FU TeH
pue[eez oN uteds spue[s] wemteg
etpTerysny pue [.19Z7 IMS epeue) =SeTI3un0d Iay}.O x»
8T8 9 Lon 9 C23 8 696 Z 628 G G66 T 96¢ T 9L6 208 TeFOL
0G OH % SatryzunN0) TaY10
G i OSTEO
Bury) puelureyy
c 3G ATeqI
g c erpuy
cL Gr AUBULIAH 1S384
ct 6TT Buoy Suoy
G Baioy YYNOS
coe 69% uedep
xe TT aeATe
cece RT sautddtprtyd
TL6T OL6T uTstIg Fo AtzuM0g
Sf TT94S FO Seporqay FO Syroauy =" Sh
Lg ®T9eL
Table 68
US Imports of Shell or Pearl Buttons (1 000 buttons
Country of
origin
Philippines 88 115
Japan 333 936
Italy
W. Germany
France
Mexico
Other countries
Table 6°
Hong Kong Imports of Shell Buttons (1 O00 buttons
Country of
origin
Japan
USA
Italy
W. Germany
Taiwan
Mainland China
Philippines
UK
Source: Published government statistics
Table 70
FAO Statistics for Catches and Landings of Shells
Metric Tonnes |
a) Pearl Oyster Shells Pinctada_ spp
Australia
Japan
Fiji
b) Trochus
Solomon Islands
Fiji
Australia
New Caledonia
c) Marine shells not elsewhere included
Mexico
Tanzania 400
Kenya 16
Yugoslavia
FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics Vol 44 Catches & Landings Table B,81
|
US Exports of Marine Shells 1960-1978
Fig 1.
ines
j 8 e Total exports
(29 152) @
\ K A Exports to Japan
ty
t
'
: ’
(23 308) 5
t
i
) 000
e >
i 000
A
Qesa=
9 bo
id Philippine exports of ‘other shells! 1970-78
rig .2 Se a ee oe _ Oe Ble tte 1970-78
BS
= Total exports
QO Exports to USA
Tonnes |
& 000
3 000
2 500
1 000
500
Fig 3.
Japanese Imports of ‘other shells! 1970-78
Tonnes a
n Total imports -
7 000 1,
Sn el Imports from USA
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
Tee a HR FO EP TB 798 BO
rig 4
US IMPORTS OF MARINE SHELLS 1960-1978
Total imports aaearenpcaraat
Imports from Mexico — Oo
Imports from Philippines A gay
es e aed
an Imports from Haiti QO
(data from published foreign trade
500 statistics)
900
500
900
500
@
000 aw
@
eo.
500 ss
000 a ie
vs ie A
A—— yy
O
a
500 po 6 x.
—_ (ae —oO—=-0
FO ed o ss 5 ™ oO
60 Gi G2. 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 «74 75 76
Vig 5
US Imports of Articles of Shell 1961-1978
s g 1 000
@ C) Total imports
Pn Imports from Philippines
. 000
000
000
: 000 C)
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