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INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
THE OLD TESTAMENT
BY
F. V. N. PAINTER, D.D., LITT.D.
'/
PROFESSOR IN ROANOKE COLLEGE
AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF EDUCATION," "HISTORY OF
ENGLISH LITERATURE," " INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN
LITERATURE," " GREAT PEDAGOGICAL ESSAYS,"
"HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP," ETC.
SIBLEY .& COMPANY
BOSTON CHICAGO
COPYRIGHT, 1911,
BY SIBLEY & COMPANY.
J. S. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
As every one knows, the number of books on the Bible
is very great. No other volume, not even Shakespeare,
has called forth so large a body of literature. But of all
that has been written there are very few books that have
been prepared with pedagogical insight to meet the wants
of young students. It is in view of this need that the
present work not fruitlessly, the author hopes has
been prepared.
The purpose of this book is to set forth the literary,
historical, and ethical value of the Bible. It aims to pre-
sent the principal facts that every intelligent person ought
to know. It directs the students' attention chiefly to the
Bible itself; and as a literary, historical, and ethical study,
the Scriptures will be found, in the case of many readers,
to be a book of unsuspected interest and value.
There is, at the present time, a wide and somewhat in-
sistent demand for Bible study in our schools. It has
been shown by actual test that a large majority of the
students in our colleges are lamentably ignorant of the
incidents and characters of sacred history. Yet the facts
and truths of the Bible are wrought into the very texture
of modern civilization, and ought, therefore, as a matter of
culture, to be carefully studied.
The restricted purpose of the present volume as a text-
book naturally determines its method. After an intro-
ductory chapter showing the relation of the Bible to
modern life, the historic conditions, in which the Old
iii
'225288
iv PREFACE
Testament originated, will be considered. The' discoveries
of recent years have greatly enriched this field of inquiry.
The several books will then be classified and studied in
some detail. Their character and purpose, with an analy-
sis of their contents, will be given, after which the student
will be in a position to read intelligently the passages
indicated for research work.
The author has tried to make a subject that is usually
regarded irksome interesting and instructive. From the
standpoint of modern scholarship, the Bible has acquired
a new and surpassing interest. Instead of being, as some
are led to believe, an obsolete book, it is seen to possess
a meaning and message for the modern world. Its funda-
mental ethical and religious truths are suited to every age.
It will be observed that a considerable number of foot-
notes have been introduced. In nearly all cases, these
notes are from the pens of eminent biblical scholars, and
serve either to reenforce the statements of the text or to
open up new aspects of the subject. It is hoped that they
will prove, not an encumbrance but a valuable addition.
The research work, which approaches the subject from
a different standpoint in each chapter, will be found to
have the force of a cumulative method. It may be safely
claimed that a reasonably faithful use of the book will give
both a comprehensive and a particular acquaintance with
the Scriptures. Should the book at the same time con-
tribute something to the revival of a vigorous moral sense
in our country, it would have a still higher excellence.
F. V. N. P.
ROANOKE COLLEGE,
Feb. 15, 1911.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE i
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 24
CHAPTER III
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL <;i
CHAPTER IV
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 73
CHAPTER V
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 92
CHAPTER VI
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON . . . . . 109
CHAPTER VII
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 123
CHAPTER VIII
STUDIES IN THE POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS . . 135
CHAPTER IX
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON . . . 153
V
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
PAGE
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS ISAIAH AND JEREMIAH . 170
CHAPTER XI
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL . . . . ." .193
CHAPTER XII
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS . . . 214
CHAPTER XIII
STUDIES IN JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK . .231
CHAPTER XIV
STUDIES IN ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI . 246
INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
CHAPTER I
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE
Modern Civilization. Our modern civilization is drawn
chiefly from three great historic sources. The refine-
ment of our literary and artistic taste is due chiefly to
the ancient Greeks. They have taught us the beauty of
form. Our legal system has descended to us, in large
measure, from ancjent Rome. The city of the Tiber
has bequeathed us law. Our religion has come from the
ancient Hebrews. They have taught us the great truths
of God and personal righteousness.
It may be justly claimed that the Hebrew or religious
element in modern life is the most valuable contribution
of the ancient world. An enlightened conscience counts
for more than does a cultivated taste or legal forms.
It is the religious element that distinguishes Christian
from pagan civilization that exalts individual life, and
begets the highest national welfare. The sacred Scrip-
tures of the Old and the New Testament are the sources
of this important element in modern life.
Culture Value. The chief elements of culture, are
breadth of knowledge and delicacy of feeling. With this
truth in mind, it will be readily seen that the Bible is
a potent means of culture. On many subjects it is a
2 ' AN- INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
storehouse of information. It is our principal source book
for the history of the ancient Hebrews. It contains the
biographies of great personages Moses, Jesus, Paul
who have left a permanent impress upon the history of
mankind. It is filled with the noblest moral and reli-
gious sentiment ; and our race has only to live up to
the great principle of loving God with all the heart, and
our neighbors as ourselves, in order to realize the king-
dom of heaven on earth.
Carlyle's Testimony. The great Scotchman, Thomas
Carlyle, had a keen insight into the edueational value of
the Bible. He regarded books, particularly the sacred
Scriptures, as the great educators of to-day. " In the
poorest cottage," he says, "are books; is one Book,
wherein for several thousands of years the spirit of man
has found light, and nourishment, and an interpreting
response to whatever is deepest in them ; wherein still, to
this day, for the eye that will look well, the mystery of
existence reflects itself, if not resolved, yet revealed, and
prophetically emblemed ; if not to the satisfying of the
outward sense, yet to the opening of the inward sense,
which is the far, grander result." 1
Experience of Ruskin. Among the masters of Eng-
lish prose in the nineteenth century was John Ruskin.
In his autobiography he traces his literary culture, in
large measure, to his early study of the Bible. " My
mother forced me," he says, " by steady toil, to learn
long chapters of the Bible by heart ; as well as to read
it every syllable through, aloud, hard names and all,
from Genesis to the Apocalypse, about once a year ;
and to that discipline patient, accurate, and resolute
I owe, not only a knowledge of the book, which I
i Carlyle's Works, Vol. XVI., p. 125.
RELATION OF THE^' BIBLE: TWMQDEKX* LIEE 3
find occasionally serviceable, but much of my general
power of taking pains, and the best part of my taste in
literature." 1
Fundamental View of the World. The greatest ques-
tion that can engage the thoughts of men is the origin
and purpose of the world. Whence came the globe
upon which we live, and all the shining hosts of the
sky? Whence came man, with all his wondrous facul-
ties, and what is the purpose of his being? These ques-
tions have engaged the attention of all thoughtful peoples,
and called forth various answers. Thus we have the pan-
theism of the Brahman, the materialism of the Greek,
and the agnosticism of modern times.
But the most rational and most satisfying philosophy
of life is found in the Scriptures. It is the prevailing
view of all Christian nations. According to this funda-
mental view, which is distinguished as theism, we believe
that " in the beginning God created the heaven and the
earth " ; 2 or, as Paul expresses it, that " of Him, and
through Him, and to Him are all things." 3 Behind the
visible world is an omnipresent personal Being, who
orders all things in wisdom and love. " In Him we live
and move and have our being." 4
Source of Christianity. Christianity, which is the
faith of about one-fourth of the population of the globe, is
one of the great world religions. Though it is perhaps
out-numbered by Buddhism, Christianity is the religion of
the most enlightened and most powerful nations of the
earth. It is making more rapid progress to-day than
any other religion ; and if the visions of its prophetic
seers are to be realized, it is destined to become the re-
ligion of all peoples. In the language of the second
l Ruskin's " Praeterita," ch. i. 2 Gen. i : i. 3 Rom. II : 36. * Acts 17 : 28.
O BIBLE STUDY
Psalm, the heathen will become His inheritance, and the
uttermost parts of the earth His possession. 1
The source of this advancing and triumphant religion
is found in the facts and truths of the Bible. Old Tes-
tament history laid the foundation by substituting a pure
monotheism for the polytheistic idolatry of surrounding
nations. On this foundation there arose, in the fulness
of time, the gospel of Christ, with its reclaiming truth
and power. Since his brief ministry in the world, the
new religion has continued to extend its influence until
to-day the whole world feels its power.
Ecclesiastical Organizations. Though Christianity is
essentially a religion of the soul, it has naturally assumed
an outward form. The individual followers of Christ have
felt the invisible bonds of a divine brotherhood ; and in
the interests of their own religious life, as well as for the
propagation of their faith, they early associated themselves
in congregations. These congregations, moved by the same
impulse, gradually grouped themselves in larger bodies,
which had their limits set by national boundaries or by
considerations of administrative efficiency. At a later
time differences of theological belief created new divisions.
In these various ways originated the national churches of
to-day, and the great divisions of Protestantism and Roman
Catholicism. Unfortunately these ecclesiastical organiza-
tions have in many cases failed to exemplify the pure and
unselfish precepts of the gospel.
But however great the differences in other respects, all
parts of the Christian church agree in their profound
reverence for the sacred Scriptures. The Bible is regarded
by them all as the original source of the articles of faith
and of the rules of life. It is made prominent in all as-
iPs. 2:8.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 5
semblies of worship ; and week after week without ceasing,
it is officially expounded to deepen the spiritual life and to
sanctify the daily conduct. It is multiplied by great pub-
lication societies, and systematically scattered among all
nations and tongues.
Modern Democracy. For more than a hundred years a
great democratic movement has been going forward through-
out Christendom. At the close pf the eighteenth century
that movement strongly manifested itself in the popular up-
rising of the American and the French revolutions. Its
fundamental principle, as stated in the Declaration of In-
dependence, is equality in civil rights. With the adoption
of this principle, all artificial distinctions, such as master
and slave, nobles and commons, kings and subjects, are
forever done away.
Whatever may have been the immediate agencies that
led to a recognition of the principle of civil equality, there
can be little doubt that it rests ultimately on a great truth
of the New Testament. That truth is the fatherhood of
God, and the consequent brotherhood of man. When
Jesus declared " all ye are brethren," He broke down once
for all the barriers of caste, and nullified the arrogant as-
sumptions of a privileged nobility and absolute sovereigns
by divine right. In its fundamental teachings the Bible is
unquestionably democratic.
Relation to Education. Though there was much in the
education of pagan antiquity that was admirable, it re-
mained for Christianity to extend the blessings of culture
to all classes of society. As we have just seen, it rec-
ognizes the endless worth of the individual as a child of
God. The faculties with which men are endowed are
regarded as talents which are to be improved and employed
in the service of righteousness. As a logical consequence
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
of these truths, no one, whether high or low, rich or poor,
male or female, is to be excluded from the blessings of
education. The obligation of universal education is thus
seen to be involved in the fundamental teachings of the
Bible.
It is a notable fact that popular education to-day 'is due
to a movement originating in the need of Bible study. It
was a fundamental principle of the Protestant reformation
of the sixteenth century that the Scriptures are the only rule
of religious faith and life. This principle brought with it
the obligation to place every one in a position to read the
Bible ; and thus, by a logical necessity from its principles,
Protestantism became the mother of popular education.
Luther and the other great Protestant reformers became
earnest and successful advocates of public schools.
An Interesting Example. The relation of Bible study
to public schools is that of cause and effect. This fact is
clearly brought out in the remarkable action of the General
Court of Massachusetts in 1647. I R promulgating an order
for the establishment of primary schools, the Court explained
its action as follows : " It being one chief project of the old
deluder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the
Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an un-
known tongue, so in these latter times by persuading from
the use of tongues, that so at least the true sense and mean-
ing of the original might be clouded by false glosses of
saint-seeming deceivers ; that learning may not be buried
in the grave of our fathers in the church and common-
wealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors,
"It is therefore ordered, that every township in this juris-
diction, after the Lord hath increased them to the number
of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within
their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 7
to write and read, etc." l This was the beginning of popu-
lar education in our country.
Position of Woman. The fundamental teachings of
the Bible have contributed immensely to the social elevation
of woman. Though parts of the Scriptures reflect the
Oriental customs of the time, as in the polygamy of Abraham
and the harem of Solomon, the statement of underlying
principles is altogether in favor of woman's elevation and
independence. In the first chapter of Genesis it is clearly
announced that woman, no less than man, is created
in the image of God. Through many centuries the
feeling, often obscure and unrecognized, that woman is a
child of God has combated and gradually overcome many
of the prejudices and wrongs descending from barbarous
ages and Oriental countries. It is chiefly due to the influ-
ence of Scripture teaching that woman is no longer a
slave or chattel, as in ancient times and in non-Christian
lands to-day.
In recent decades the moral sense of Europe and
America a sense developed through Christian teaching
- has accomplished very much in securing for woman
her natural rights. The same sense of justice that swept
away caste and abolished African slavery, also moved for
the liberation of woman. She now has a large measure of
legal independence. Her property and earnings are her
own ; they cannot, against her will, be appropriated by
her husband. Nearly all occupations are now open to her
as a means of earning an honest livelihood.
Though woman is generally excluded from political life,
she shares in the larger social and intellectual interests of
our time ; and through various organizations, as in local
leagues and national unions, she has wrought mightily for
1 Painter's " History of Education," p. 383.
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
the moral betterment of the nation. In place of being
kept in ignorance, as in ancient Athens, she has the same
educational advantages as man, and her sphere of useful-
ness is vastly enlarged. Thus, though the fundamental
teachings of Scripture have not yet found complete ex-
emplification, they have achieved much for the freedom
and social elevation of woman.
Marriage. In no other particular, perhaps, has the
Bible accomplished more for the elevation of woman and
the welfare of society than in its teachings about marriage.
In the midst of the polygamous Orient, the Bible made
marriage consist in the union of one man and one woman
for life. The wife is not to be the slave of her husband ;
she is to be " a help meet for him," 1 and the two are to
work together in the most intimate bonds of love and help-
fulness in fulfilling the destinies of life. "Therefore shall
a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave
unto his wife ; and they shall be one flesh." 2
The teachings of Jesus in regard to marriage and di-
vorce are very explicit and forcible. The author of the
book of Deuteronomy, influenced by Oriental custom, had
permitted the husband on a slight pretext to divorce his
wife. 3 This procedure was at once a degradation of
woman and a danger to society. The attempt of the
Pharisees to entrap Jesus in His teachings led Him to re-
pudiate the easy Deuteronomic method of dissolving the
marriage tie. He concluded His interesting and profound
discussion in these words : " Moses because of the hardness
of your hearts suffered you to put away your wives ; but
from the beginning it was not so. And I say unto you,
whosoever shall put away his wife, except it be for forni-
cation, and shall marry another, committeth adultery ;
1 Gen. 2:18. 2 Gen. 2:24. 3 Deut. 24:1.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 9
and whoso marrieth her which is put away doth commit
adultery." 1
It is the Scriptural view of marriage that prevails
throughout Christendom to-day. It is commonly cele-
brated by a clergyman as a religious rite. It is made a
union for life ; and according to Scripture teaching, its
celebration is generally attended with emphatic admoni-
tions to love and fidelity. Under the influence of the
Bible, we have outgrown the loose polygamous notions
and practices of the Orient, and now punish bigamy or
polygamy as a crime.
Slavery. The Bible does not directly prohibit slavery.
In accordance with ancient and Oriental custom, slavery
is permitted in the Old Testament. Both in Exodus and
Deuteronomy, we find laws for the regulation of slavery,
and for the mitigation of its barbarity. Unlike the prac-
tice elsewhere in the ancient world, the old Hebrew master
did not have the power of life and death over his slaves,
but was required to treat them with humanity, and to give
them freedom after six years of service. Only by the
choice of the slave himself did he become, by special
ceremony, a bondman for life.
But in the case of slavery, as in some other important
interests, it is the fundamental principle or spirit of the
Scriptures that has been effective in overcoming wrong.
The slave, no less than the master, is a child of God, who
is "without respect of persons." 2 The equality of all
classes in sharing the blessings of the gospel is explicitly
and repeatedly set forth. As Paul declares, "there is
neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free,
there is neither male nor female; for ye are all one in
Christ." 3
1 Matt. 19 : 8, 9. ^ i Pet. i : 17. Gal. 3 : 28.
10 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
A beautiful illustration of the spirit of the gospel is
given in the case of Onesimus, a slave who had robbed his
master Philemon at Colossae and fled to Rome. There he
came under the influence of Paul, by whom he was con-
verted to Christianity. By the advice of the apostle, the
converted slave consented to return to his former master.
He bore with him a letter from Paul to Philemon, in which
we recognize at once the soul of courtesy and the depth of
Christian love. The apostle calls Onesimus, not a slave,
but "my own son"; and he tenderly entreats Philemon
to receive the runaway " not now as a servant, but above
a servant, a brother beloved, both in the flesh and in the
Lord." 1 Thus, without any formal denunciation of slavery,
Paul dissolves it in the riches of a Christian love and
brotherhood.
Economic Questions. Though the Bible is not a book
on political economy, it announces ethical principles that
bear upon all the industrial and commercial relations of
life. On the one hand, it denounces the spirit of avarice,
dishonesty, and oppression, out of which have grown all
the wrongs that have disturbed the industrial conditions
of the past and that lie at the basis of the industrial con-
flicts of the present. Thus Paul, after speaking of the
temporary character of wealth, continues : " They that
desire to be rich fall into a temptation and snare and
many foolish and hurtful lusts, such as drown men in
destruction and perdition. For the love of money is a
root of all kinds of evil ; which some reaching after have
been led astray from the faith, and have pierced them-
selves through with many arrows." 2
On the other hand, a positive and all-embracing princi-
ple, which has been well designated the Golden Rule, has
1 Phil. 1:16. 2 i Tim. 6:9, 10 (R.V.).
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE n
been laid down for the guidance of all social life. " What-
soever ye would that men should do to you," said the great
Master, " do ye even so to them." l On another occasion
Jesus emphasized this positive principle still more strongly.
When a Pharisee, wishing to put him to confusion, inquired
which was the greatest of all the commandments, Jesus
answered : " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy
heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This
is the first and great commandment And the second
is like unto it, thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.
On these two commandments hang all the law and the
prophets." 2
The tendency to substitute a religion of forms for a re-
ligion of righteousness has existed in every age. This ten-
dency manifested itself among the ancient Hebrews as it is
to be seen in many parts of the church to-day. It was this
tendency which permitted a man at the same time to be
religious and unjust in his social relations, that evoked some
of the most eloquent denunciations of the Old Testament
prophets. " Bring no more vain oblations," exclaims Isaiah,
as he speaks in the name of Jehovah ; " incense is an
abomination unto me ; the new moons and Sabbaths, the
calling of assemblies, I cannot away with ; 3 it is iniquity,
even the solemn meeting. Wash you, make you clean ;
put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes ;
cease to do evil ; learn to do well ; seek judgment, relieve
the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow." 4
Literature. The literature of Europe and America
may be fairly characterized as a Christian literature. The
ethical and religious principles that pervade its warp and woof
are drawn more or less directly from the Bible. The serious
1 Matt. 7 : 12. 2 Matt. 22: 37-40.
8 That \s,put up with, or endure. 4 Is. i : 13-17.
12 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
intellectual activity of the Middle Ages an activity char-
acterized by rare acuteness was devoted chiefly to a
discussion of dogmas or truths originally derived from the
Scriptures. At the present time a considerable part of our
voluminous publications deals with historical, ethical, or
theological questions started by the Bible.
It is notable that some of the greatest poems of modern
times treat of biblical themes. Dante's " Divina Commedia "
records the incidents of an imaginative visit to hell, pur-
gatory, and heaven as these localities were conceived of in
the fourteenth century. Milton's great epic, based on the
opening chapters of 'Genesis, thus states its theme in the
opening lines :
" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, heavenly Muse."
Likewise Goethe's great poem of " Faust " sets forth
Scriptural truth. It teaches, as does the book of Ecclesiastes,
the insufficiency of knowledge, self-indulgence, power, and
aesthetic culture, to satisfy the deep longings of our nature.
It reaches the conclusion that only the spirit of love and of
unselfish labor for others can bring deep-seated peace and
joy. The great tragedies of Shakespeare King Lear,
Hamlet, Macbeth are only illustrations of the biblical
principle that " the wages of sin is death." l
Lyrical Poetry. In addition to these long and cele-
brated poems, the number of which might be indefinitely
extended, the Scriptures have inspired an incalculable
quantity of lyrical verse. There is scarcely a prominent
l Rom. 6 : 23.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 13
poet of Europe or America who has not somewhere treated
of biblical truth or biblical incident. The writers of religious
lyrics, many of which find a place in our hymn-books, are
literally to be numbered by the hundred. Even the less
serious poets, like Thomas Moore and Lord Byron, some-
times turn aside from their mocking, satirical, or secular
subjects to dwell on Scriptural truths. Thus Moore, expand-
ing a passage from one of the psalms, beautifully sings :
" Thou art, O God, the life and light '
Of all this wondrous world we see ;
Its glow by day, its smile by night
Are but reflections caught from Thee.
Where'er we turn, Thy glories shine,
And all things fair and bright are Thine." l
In like manner Byron, in his " Hebrew Melodies," cele-
brates various themes drawn from the Old Testament.
In " Saul " he describes the spectral visitation of the
prophet Samuel; 2 in the "Vision of Belshazzar" he
portrays the frightful apparition of a hand as it traced
mysterious and ominous words on the palace wall ; 3 in
" By the Rivers of Babylon " he paraphrases a psalm of
the captivity; 4 and in " The Destruction of Sennacherib"
he versified an incident of Hebrew history in the well-
known lines beginning :
" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 11 5
Poets of Truth and Righteousness. It is hardly too
much to claim that the great poets of the nineteenth century
1 Compare Ps. 74 : 16, 17. See also Moore's paraphrase of Miriam's song in
Ex. 15:20,21. 2 i Sam. 28:7-25. 8 Pan. 5. 4 PS. 137.
5 2 Kings, 18 and 19.
14 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
in England and America were, like the ancient Hebrew
prophets, preachers of truth and righteousness. In the
presence of a materialistic philosophy, which denied the
high spiritual truths of God, and providence, and immor-
tality, they steadfastly clung to the invisible and eternal.
Wordsworth felt the mystery of that unseen Presence which
pervades all things and which the psalmist of Israel had
celebrated millenniums ago. In " Tintern Abbey " we
read:
" And I have felt
A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts : a sense sublime
Of something far more deeply interfused,
Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean and the living air
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man;
A motion and a spirit, that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
And rolls through all things." 1
In the closing stanzas of " The Ancient Mariner " Cole-
ridge declares the supremacy of love. This is the truth
which Paul, in the famous thirteenth chapter of I Corin-
thians, had eloquently proclaimed many centuries before.
Here are the words of the English poet : -
" He prayeth best who loveth best
All things both great and small ;
For the dear God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all. 1 '
One of the precious truths of the Scriptures is the fact
of divine providence. It was repeatedly and beautifully
presented by Jesus Christ. " The very hairs of your head,"
He said, "are numbered." Now listen to Robert Brown-
1 Compare Ps. 139 : 7-10.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 15
ing's expansion of this conception of the divine love and
care :
" God smiles as He has always smiled ;
Ere suns and moons could wax and wane,
Ere stars were thundergirt, or piled
The heavens, God thought on me His child ;
Ordained a life for me, arrayed
Its circumstances every one
To the minutest ; ay, God said
This head this hand should rest upon
Thus, ere He fashioned star or sun." l
Nearly three thousand years ago David, " the sweet
singer of Israel," celebrated the goodness of God. 2 Else-
where in the Old Testament, as in the New, the same
divine attribute is dwelt upon. In describing the divine
nature John declares that " God is love." 3 Many of our
modern poets have been inspired by the same exalted theme,
and have found comfort and strength in its truth. Thus
Whittier, as he thinks of death, gives admirable expres-
sion to his sense of trust :
" And so beside the Silent Sea
I wait the muffled oar;
No harm from Him can come to me
On ocean or on shore.
" I know not where His islands lift
Their fronded palms in air ;
I only know I cannot drift
Beyond His love and care. 1 ' 4
An endless life beyond the gates of death this is one
of the great truths of Scripture. It is not clearly revealed
in the Old Testament, but it is made prominent in the
New. In comforting His disciples in view of His approach-
1 Browning's " Johannes Agricola in Meditation." 2 Ps 25.
4 Whittier's " The Eternal Goodness." 3 i John 4: 16.
16 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
ing death, Jesus said to them in a passage of exquisite
tenderness : " In my Father's house are many mansions :
if it were not so, I would have told you. I go to prepare a
place for you. And if I go and prepare a place for you, I
will come again and receive you unto myself ; that where
I am, there ye may be also." 1 This has been the faith of
Christendom for nearly two thousand years. In spite of
the doubts which a materialistic philosophy and the critical
spirit of the present age have sometimes started, the belief
in immortality a belief that confers infinite dignity upon
mankind is held to-day by our ablest thinkers and our
noblest poets. Tennyson has convincingly voiced this
belief in his " In Memoriam " :
" Thou wilt not leave us in the dust :
Thou madest man, he knows not why,
He thinks he was not made to die ;
And Thou hast made him : Thou art just."
In our sense of need and helplessness, the soul often
cries -out intuitively to the Invisible and Eternal. The
Scriptures teach that human prayer is heard and answered.
The great Teacher has given us a form of prayer, and en-
couraged us by the assurance that God is more willing than
earthly parents to bestow good gifts upon His children. 2
This same truth finds expression in many of our modern
singers, particularly in Tennyson, who in his " Passing of
Arthur " declares :
" More things are wrought by prayer
Than this world dreams of. Wherefore let thy voice
Rise like a fountain for me night and day.
For what are men better than sheep or goats
That nourish a blind life within the brain,
1 John 14 : 2, 3. 2 Matt. 7 : n.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 17
If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer
Both for themselves and those that call them friend?
For so the whole round earth is every way
Bound by gold chains about the feet of God."
Architecture. The Scriptures have influenced art
scarcely less than they have influenced literature. This
is particularly true of the Middle Ages and the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. Though the church is relatively
less prominent to-day than during the periods just men-
tioned, the truths of the Bible are still a potent influence in
the realm of art. Great cathedrals are still erected, and
great paintings are still devoted to Scripture scenes.
Among the architectural wonders of Europe are the
mighty mediaeval cathedrals, which have been happily
called " miracles in stone." They sprang from a deep
religious spirit. Their fundamental plan represents the
figure of the cross, on which the founder of Christianity
was put to death ; the nave, flanked with aisles, corre-
sponds to the base of the cross, the transepts to the arms,
and the choir to the top. This simple plan was subject
to numberless modifications, which produced the variety to
be seen to-day in those imposing mediaeval structures.
Ornamentation and Significance. The ornamentation
o'f these cathedrals is as admirable as it is astonishing.
In the hands of the mediaeval masons stone seems as
plastic as wood or clay. Foliage forms abound in the
minor ornaments ; and entire facades, as in the cathedrals
of Notre Dame, Westminster, and York, are wrought
into forms of elaborate beauty. Statues of saints abound ;
and the most striking incidents of the Old and New
Testaments are frequently portrayed in bas-relief. The
walls are generally adorned with Scriptural frescoes ; and
from the tall windows flame in beautiful colors the charac-
l8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
ters and scenes of sacred history. In all the large towns
and cities these massive piles of speaking stone, towering
above the surrounding buildings and looking far away into
the country, remind the toiling population of the preemi-
nent claims of spiritual things.
Painting. For a thousand years throughout the
Middle Ages and longer painting was the servant of reli-
gion. It subserved a twofold purpose : first, it was used to
decorate cathedrals and other ecclesiastical buildings ; and
second, it was employed to teach biblical and theological
truths. As we run over the history of painting, it is astonish-
ing to note the preponderance of religious motive through
many centuries. There is scarcely any historic scene of
importance in either the Old or the New Testament that
has not been portrayed on cathedral walls or made to flame
from cathedral windows.
With the Renaissance of the fifteenth century, painting
started upon a new era of development. Since that time
almost every country in Europe has had its world-famed
artists. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italy
had Raphael, Michael Angelo, Titian, Correggio, Andrea
del Sarto, Paul Veronese ; Germany, Wolgemut, Diirer,
Cranach, Holbein ; France, Nicolas Poussin and Claude
Lorrain ; Spain, Murillo and Velasquez ; Flanders, Rubens
and Van Dyck ; and Holland, Rembrandt. All these
artists employed their extraordinary gifts, to a greater or
less degree, in illustrating biblical scenes. 1
1 Among the noteworthy paintings by these artists maybe mentioned Raphael's
"Transfiguration" and " Sisline Madonna"; Michael Angelo's "Last Judg-
ment"; Titian's "Scourging of Christ"; Andrea del Sarto's "Abraham offering
Isaac" ; Paul Veronese's " Adoration of the Wise Men "; Durer's " Descent from
the Cross " ; Murillo's " Thirsting Israelites in the Desert " ; Poussin's " Adoration
of the Magi," and "Rebecca and Eliezer " ; Rubens' "Presentation in the
Temple," and " Descent from the Cross " ; and Van Dyck's " Christ on the Cross. "
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 19
Though art has naturally shared in the expanding knowl-
edge of the nineteenth century, and has immeasurably en-
larged the scope of its work, great painters of recent years
have not disdained to exercise their genius upon Scripture
themes. Many will recall Munkacsy's " Christ before
Pilate," which was exhibited in different parts of the
world. The same artist's " Christ on Calvary " is likewise
a masterful production. The American painters, Charles
Sprague Pearce and Frank V. du Mond, have wrought in
the same field ; and the former's "Annunciation " and the
latter's " Christ and the Fishermen " are worthy of men-
tion. To these admirable productions might be added
Leroy's " Christ healing the Blind," Uhde's " The
Announcement to the Shepherds," and Julius Schmid's
"Suffer Little Children to come unto Me," and many
others.
Ethical Ideals. The high ethical ideals of the present
day are directly or indirectly traceable to the teachings of
the Bible. The Scriptures declare that our lives, lifted
above the insignificance of a brief material existence, are
brought into immediate and imperishable relations with the
Governor of the universe. The Old Testament enthrones
Jehovah as a God of righteousness, who demands the same
moral integrity of man. This fellowship in righteousness
is the law of divine harmony. In Leviticus the Lord is
represented as saying to the Hebrews whom He has deliv-
ered from the bondage of Egypt : " Ye shall therefore be
holy, for I am holy." 1 This same principle is inculcated
again and again in the Scriptures.
The type of character thus demanded of us embodies
every virtue and excludes every vice. Jesus distinctly set
up this ideal when He said, " Be ye therefore perfect, even
1 Lev. ii 145.
20 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
as your Father which is in heaven is perfect." : The duties
and prohibitions involved in the biblical conception of what
human life should be are summarily set forth in the Ten
Commandments ; they are declared with still greater clear-
ness and fulness in the Sermon on the Mount; last of all,
they are exemplified in the purity, truth, and love of the
great Master Himself. Christ is the incarnation of the
highest manhood the realized ideal of the human race.
Philanthropic Movements. Through the propaganda of
the pulpit and the press, this noble Christian ideal has
made its way into the hearts and lives of men. Though
it may not at present be fully adopted as a working prin-
ciple, it has the respect and confidence of all right-thinking
people. In an increasing degree, it is coming to dominate
the personal and social life of Christendom. If at any time
it is temporarily obscured by the spirit of greed, it sooner
or later asserts itself with renewed vigor.
The Christian ideal of life has awakened a strong sense
of social obligation. Relentless war is being made upon
every evil that tends to degrade or disorganize social life.
It is a noteworthy fact that the most powerful temperance
organization to-day calls itself the Woman's Christian Tem-
perance Union. Men of wealth are feeling more and more
the obligation of stewardship. Never before were there
such munificent gifts for education, libraries, and missions.
Institutions for the care of the helpless and the needy
orphan homes, hospitals for the insane, schools for the deaf
and blind are multiplied on every hand. Every city has
its charitable organizations for helping the poor. And any
widespread calamity, like the distress of pestilence or> the
destruction of earthquake, calls forth a magnificent display
of unselfish munificence.
1 Matt. 2 : 48.
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 21
Hopefulness for the Future. The teachings of the
Bible have begotten a hopeful outlook for the future. It
is assumed throughout the Scriptures, as it is declared in
Revelation, " the Lord God omnipotent reigneth." 1 The
sacred writers recognize a forward movement in humanity,
"first the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in
the ear." 2 The national turnings and overturnings narrated
in the Old Testament are presented as preparatory to the
nobler Christian era. " When the fulness of time was
come," says Paul, "God sent forth His Son, made of a
woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were
under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons." 3
Jesus expected His gospel gradually to make its way
among men, and ultimately gain general acceptance. He
compared His work in founding the kingdom of heaven to
a grain of mustard seed, which afterwards grew into a wide-
spreading tree ; and also to " leaven which a woman took, and
hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened." 4
The prophet Isaiah looked forward to a time of peace
among all peoples. " They shall beat their swords into
ploughshares," he predicted, "and their spears into pruning-
hooks ; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither
shall they learn war any more." 5 Moved by the same uplift-
ing thought of universal peace, Tennyson sang in well-
known lines of a time,
"When the war-drum throbs no longer, and the battle-flags
are furled
In the parliament of man, the federation of the world."
What our seers and poets, with a divine hopefulness,
have thus dreamed of, seems to have the beginning of its
fulfilment in the Peace Conference of the Hague.
l Rev. 19:6. 2 Mark 4: 28. Gal. 4:4, 5. * Matt. 13:33. 615.2:4.
22 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Conclusion. The relation of the Bible to modern life is
thus seen to be all-pervading. It has moulded our ways of
thinking; it has supplied our fundamental views of the
world ; it has developed our institutions ; it has inspired
our movements of reform ; it has exalted us with its
noble ideals, and cheered us with its bright hopes
of the future. No one can enter into the spirit of the
modern world or understand its deep ethical movements
without an acquaintance with the Scriptures. The utility
of a knowledge of Greek and Roman history and literature
is generally recognized ; but a fair consideration of the
matter shows that an acquaintance with the facts and
truths of Scripture is of still higher importance. It may
be justly claimed that such a knowledge, by far too much
neglected at the present time, is an indispensable element
of liberal culture.
RESEARCH WORK
The students should carefully look up the following
passages, which may be made the basis of comment and
discussion by the teacher. Many of these passages will
show that the Bible still has a message for our age.
The origin of the world, Gen. I : I ; Neh. 9:6; Ps. 33 : 6 ; Is. 42 : 5 ;
Heb. 3:4; Rom. 11 : 36.
The biblical view of man's origin, Gen. i : 26-29 ; 2: 7i Mai. 2: 10;
Acts 1 7 : 24-29.
The right use of our talents, Matt. 25 : 14-30 ; Lu. 19 : 12-27.
Marriage, Gen. 2:18; Matt. 19 : 3-9 ; Mark 10 : 2-12.
Bondmen or slaves, Ex. 21:2-6; Lev. 25:39-46; Dent. 15: 12-19;
Philemon.
Ill-gotten and ill-used riches, Jer. 17:11; Mic. 2 : 1-3 ; Lu. 12 : 13-21 ;
Jas. 5 : 1-6.
Commercial and social relations, Lev. 19:35, 36; Deut. 25: 13-16;
Is. I : 13-17; Matt. 7: 12; 22: 37-40; Lu. II : 37-44-
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 23
The omniscience and omnipresence of God, Ps. 139: 1-12.
The nature and supremacy of love, I Cor. 13 ; I John 3 : 14-24.
Divine providence, Ps. 34 ; Matt. 6 : 25-34 ; 10 : 28-31.
Immortality, John 14: 1-3; I Cor. 15 : 53-58; 2 Tim. 4: 6-8.
Prayer, Matt. 6 : 5-15 ; 7 : 7-1 r ; Lu. 18 : 1-8 ; Jas. 5 : 14-18.
Ethical conduct and ideals, Ex. 20 : 2-17 ; Matt. 5:2-16; Gal. 5 : 14-26;
Eph. 5 : 1-18.
The goal of national changes, Dan. 2 : 19-45 ; Rev. 21 : 1-27.
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY
New Sources of Information. Until a few decades ago
the Bible contained the oldest trustworthy records of
ancient history. In recent years new and numerous
sources of information have been brought to light ; and
we are now acquainted with great world-empires .that form
a vast background for Hebrew history. The people of
Israel are antedated by the empires of Mesopotamia and
Egypt by thousands of years. Before Moses led his
people from Egyptian bondage or Abraham had left the
city of Ur in Chaldea, a high degree of civilization existed
on the banks of the Nile and the Euphrates. We cannot
fully understand the history and the literature of the
Hebrew people without a knowledge of these anterior
nations, with whom at times the Hebrews stood in close
political and commercial relations, and whose culture they
inherited and in some particulars developed. 1
Explorers and Excavators. For these new and invalu-
able sources of information we are indebted to the labors
of enthusiastic explorers and excavators. The French-
1 " In the age to which the migration of Terah belonged, Canaan and Babylonia
were in connection one with the other. Babylonian kings claimed rule over
Canaan, and Canaanitish merchants were established in Babylonia. The language
of Canaan was heard in the Babylonian cities, and even the rulers of the land were
of foreign blood. Between Babylonia and Canaan there was a highway which had
been trodden for generations, and along which soldiers and civil officials, merchants,
and messengers, passed frequently to and fro." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of
the Hebrews," p. 134.
24
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BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 25
man Botta in 1842 and the Englishman Layard in 1845
opened the way with excavations at Khorsabad and
Nimrud, which brought to light long-buried records and
monuments of Assyrian civilization. A new interest in
archaeological research was awakened in Europe and
America. Many other explorers Rawlinson, George
Smith, De Sarsec, Peters, Hilprecht were despatched
to the Orient, whose excavations at Nippur, Babylon,
Nineveh, and elsewhere have uncovered buried temples
and palaces, and restored to the world great libraries
founded by enlightened monarchs. Explorers have been
no less active and successful in Egypt. As a result of
these investigations, we are able, in large measure, to re-
produce the wonderful historic drama that for thousands
of years before our era was enacted on the plains of Meso-
potamia and Egypt.
The Behistun Inscription. The key to the language of
Babylonia and Assyria was furnished by the Behistun in-
scription which, about 515 B.C., was cut on the polished
surface of a limestone cliff in the Zagros Mountains by
Darius, King of Persia. This inscription, which contains
a laudatory account of the king's numerous conquests, was
copied by Henry C. Rawlinson in 1835. When his labori-
ous and dangerous task was finished, he found that he had
not one but three languages in his possession. After years
of study, he succeeded in translating the five columns
nearly 400 lines of the old Persian writing.
The Median and Babylonian inscriptions were forced
later to yield up their secrets. And to-day Assyriologists
in Europe and America, developing the work thus begun,
are busy deciphering the small clay tablets of cuneiform
writing which have been dug up from the ruins of buried
and sometimes forgotten cities. The literary and his-
26 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
toric treasures already translated into English fill many
volumes.
The Rosetta Stone. What the Behistun inscription did
for the language of Babylonia was accomplished by the
Rosetta stone for the language of Egypt. Unlike the
wedge-shaped characters of Mesopotamia, the writing of
Egypt was hieroglyphic. At first the hieroglyphs con-
sisted of pictures of objects; but at a later time they
acquired, to some extent, a phonetic or syllabic force. A
simplified form of this writing, which was current among
the people, is known as demotic.
The means of solving the mystery of this writing, which
had remained unread for more than 2000 years, was fur-
nished by the famous Rosetta stone, which was discovered
in 1799 during Napoleon's expedition into Egypt. This
stone, now an object of interest in the British Museum,
contains a trilingual inscription, the first part of which is
in hieroglyphics, the second in demotic characters, and the
last in uncial Greek. The Greek was easily read; and
finally, through the labors of Dr. Young, of England, and
Champollion, of France, the enigma of Egyptian writing
was solved, and the ancient records, which covered the
monuments and temple walls of that country, were opened
to the world.
i. MESOPOTAMIA
Mesopotamian Region. Though etymologically re-
stricted to the plain lying between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, the word Mesopotamia is loosely used to desig-
nate the entire region that stretches from the Zagros
mountains on the east to the Syrian mountains on the
west. On the north it is bounded by the mountains of
Armenia and on the south by the deserts of Arabia. This
THE ROSETTA STONE
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 27
extended region the principal scene of the world's his-
tory for thousands of years is drained by two great
rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which rise among
the snow-capped mountains of Armenia. Though now a
desolate and arid region, the home of Arabian nomads, it
once Blossomed as "the garden of the Lord."
Its natural fertility was increased by a vast system of
irrigation, which carried the fruitful waters of the Eu-
phrates and the Tigris to distant parts of the lowland
plains. Traces of the great irrigating canals, some of
which are named in the Scriptures, are still discernible,
while the lofty mounds, which rise in every direction and
conceal the ruins of once splendid temples and palaces,
bear melancholy testimony to the former wealth and
grandeur of the country.
In the southeast lay the district of Chaldea; farther to
the north was Babylonia ; and northeast of the Tigris
stretched Assyria. To the east of these districts, each of
which was successively the seat of a monarchy, lay Elam,
Media, and Persia. All these countries were more or less
intimately associated with Hebrew history.
Chaldea. The southeastern part of the Mesopotamian
region, called in Genesis " the land of Shinar," was prob-
ably the cradle of human civilization. Though the be-
ginnings are lost in the darkness of antiquity, authentic
records, as carved on palace and temple walls, take us
back some five or six thousand years before the Christian
era. In the tenth chapter of Genesis, with its remarkable
ethnological traditions, Nimrod is made the founder of
" Babylon, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the
land of Shinar " ; and the language of the inscriptions in
the most ancient parts of the ruins shows that the original
occupants of the territory were not of Semitic origin.
28 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Various Dynasties. The earliest glimpses we get of
Chaldean history, as derived from explorations, reveal to
us the rivalries of neighboring cities and* petty kings.
A parallel is found in the condition of Canaan at the time
of the Israelitish invasion. The tablets and monuments
recently exhumed at Telloh, Nippur, and Mugheir ac-
quaint us with various dynasties that had their capitals in
these and adjacent cities. Sargon I. (about 3800 B.C.)
was a great conqueror, and ultimately extended his empire
from Elam to the Mediterranean. He had a worthy suc-
cessor in his son Naram-Sin, who in the proud conscious-
ness of his power assumed the title of " king of the four
quarters of the world."
The city of Ur, called in Genesis " Ur of the Chaldees "
and interesting as the birthplace of Abraham, was at
intervals the centre of three dynasties. 1 Ur-gur, whose
reign is placed 3200 B.C., a thousand years or more
before the migration of Abraham to Canaan, was fa-
mous as a builder of temples, among which was a pyrami-
dal structure at Nippur.
Hammurabi (2250 B.C.). In the fourteenth chapter
of Genesis there is a brief account of a war between four
kings of the east with five kings of the west. It was
not the first time, as we have seen, that monarchs of
lower Mesopotamia had extended their arms toward the
Mediterranean. The most important of these allied in-
vading kings was "Amraphel, King of Shinar," who has
been identified with Hammurabi. He reigned at Babylon
1 " Great as is the place which Babylon has occupied in the world's history
beyond all the cities in the land of Shinar, its glory in those far-back' times was
eclipsed by the famous city of Ur. Its very name, signifying city, marks its pre-
eminence. It was a great emporium of trade : the ships of Ur brought the prod-
ucts of southern Arabia "to Babylonia, and, it may be, even traded with the land
of Egypt." THOMAS NICOL, " Recent Archaeology and the Bible," p. 112.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 29
about 2250 B.C. ; and his martial prowess extended his
dominion in all directions.
Code of Laws. Hammurabi was not only a victori-
ous warrior, but also a beneficent ruler. His code of laws,
discovered at Susa in 1902, throws an interesting light
on the social conditions of Chaldea in the age of Abraham,
the progenitor of the Hebrew people. It is inscribed on
a pillar of black diorite nearly eight feet high.
The prologue to the code reveals the upright spirit in
which Hammurabi wished to rule. He recognized a
divine call " to cause justice to prevail in the land, to de-
stroy the wicked, and the evil, to prevent the strong from op-
pressing the weak, to enlighten the land, and to further the
welfare of the people." This code, which consists of two
hundred and eighty-two paragraphs, shows an elaborate
social organization. Besides miscellaneous laws, it con-
tains sections relating to the treatment of slaves, to leasing
and tillage, the management of irrigating canals, commer-
cial transactions, and divorce and inheritance. Through-
out the code the sense of responsibility and justice is
made very prominent. The general character of the
code makes good the king's claim that he desired to be
" like a father to his subjects."
The Assyrian Monarchy. As stated in the tenth chap-
ter of Genesis, Assyria was first colonized by emigrants
from Babylon. When the migration took place, it is im-
possible to say, but the city of Nineveh was already
in existence 3000 B.C. The relations existing between
Assyria and the mother-country were always intimate.
Their language and culture were substantially the same ;
and for the greater part of their history, they were polit-
ically united. At first Assyria was naturally a depend-
ency ; but it gradually grew in population and political
30 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
power, and about 1290 B.C. its king, Tukulti-Ninib I., in-
vaded Chaldea, captured Babylon, and reduced that early
and powerful monarchy to a tributary relation.
The capitals of Assyria were at different times Asshur,
Calah, and Nineveh, all of which were adorned with mag-
nificent temples and palaces. In the Old Testament
Nineveh is described as " an exceeding great city of three
days' journey." 1 We have a tolerably complete list of
Assyrian kings from about 1800 B.C. to the fall of the
empire in 606 B.C., and ample means to recognize the
high state of civilization to which the empire attained.
Tiglathpilezer I. (1120 B.C.). One of the most vigor-
ous of Assyrian monarchs was Tiglathpilezer I., who
reigned about 1 1 20 B.C. He extended his empire abroad,
and as a wise ruler developed its strength at home. He
carried on many campaigns of conquest. In one great
battle on the confines of Asia Minor he is said to have
defeated twenty-five kings.
On a prism found at Calah Tiglathpilezer I. proudly enu-
merates his conquests. " In all," he says, " forty-two coun-
tries and their kings from the Lower Zab and the border
of the distant mountains to beyond the Euphrates and to
the land of the Hittites and the Upper Sea of the setting
sun [Black Sea], from the beginning of my sovereignty
until my fifth year my hand has conquered." It is thus
seen that he fixed the wide limits of the Assyrian empire
about the time the judges were ruling in Israel.
Later History. From the ninth century before
our era the western campaigns of Assyrian conquerors,
who came in contact with Israel and Judah, are frequently
mentioned in the second book of Kings. Asshurna-
zirpal III. (885-867 B.C.), who carried his victorious arms
i Jonah 3 : 3.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 31
in all directions, conquered Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia,
and probably overran Palestine. He was vindictive
and cruel ; and in describing the capture of Bit-Uru, he
affords us a glimpse of the barbarities frequently practised
in war in those distant ages. " My warriors," he says,
" fell upon the city like vultures. I took the citadel, put
eight hundred men to the sword, and cut off their heads.
I made a mound with their corpses before the city gate ;
the prisoners were beheaded, and I put seven hundred of
them to the cross. The city was pillaged and destroyed ;
I transformed it into a heap of ruins."
Conquest of Israel. His successor, Shalmaneser II.
(858-824 B.C.), compelled Jehu, King of Israel, to pay trib-
ute. On a black obelisk containing the story of Shal-
maneser's wars, the payment of this tribute is depicted in
an interesting bas-relief. Tiglathpilezer III. (745-727 B.C.)
received tribute from Menahem, King of Israel, and
later from Ahaz, King of Judah, whom he supported
against a hostile alliance of northern Syria. A few years
later Hoshea, King of Israel, who had formed an alliance
with Shabak of Egypt, refused further tribute to Assyria.
Accordingly his territory was invaded by a formidable
army. After a siege of three years Samaria was captured
by Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.), who, according to a com-
mon custom, " carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed
them in Halah and in Habor, on the river Gozan, and in
the cities of the Medes." 1 The captives were replaced in
the land of Israel by settlers from the eastern part of the
Assyrian empire.
Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). The empire of Assyria
was now at the zenith of its power. Sennacherib, the son
of Sargon II., was a great builder and great warrior. His
1 2 Kings 17:. 6.
32 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
palace at Nineveh is, perhaps, the most magnificent of
Assyrian ruins. He subdued Babylon, carried on a tri-
umphant campaign in Phoenicia and Syria, and was pre-
vented from overcoming Hezekiah, whom he " had shut
up like a caged bird within Jerusalem," only by a sudden
pestilence that swept away 185,000 of his army. 1
But, if we may trust Sennacherib's own account, his ex-
pedition against Judah was by no means so disastrous as
might be inferred from the Hebrew chronicle. It will be
noted that he omits all mention of the disaster at Jerusa-
lem. " I then besieged Hezekiah of Judah," he says,
" who had not submitted to my yoke, and I captured
forty-six of his strong cities and fortresses and innumer-
able small cities which were round about them, with the
battering of rams and the assault of engines, and the at-
tack of foot-soldiers, and by mines and breaches made in
the walls. I brought out therefrom 200,150 people."
Fall of Assyria (606 B.C.). The end, however, was not
long delayed. Cruelty, pride, luxury these were the
vices of that warlike people which prepared the way for
their overthrow. In alliance with Nabopolassar, King of
Babylon, the Scythians and Medes invaded Assyria and
laid siege to Nineveh. When hard pressed and hopeless,
the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-ishkum, set fire to his palace
and perished in the flames. The city fell 606 B.C.
From this disaster the empire of Assyria never recovered ;
and henceforth that great power, which had dominated
western Asia for centuries, was lost in the movements of
still mightier nations.
In this destruction was fulfilled the remarkable predic-
tion of the Hebrew prophet Zephaniah a few years be-
fore. "The Lord," he said, " will stretch out His hand
1 2 Kings 19 : 35, 36.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 33
against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will make
Nineveh a desolation, and dry like a wilderness. And
flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of
the nations ; both the cormorant and the bittern shall
lodge in the upper lintels of it ; their voice shall sing in
the windows ; desolation shall be in the thresholds ; for
He shall uncover the cedar work. This is the rejoicing
city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am,
and there is none beside me ; how is she become a desola-
tion, a place for beasts to lie down in ! every one that
passeth by her shall hiss, and wag his hand." 1
Renaissance of Babylon. With the destruction of Nine-
veh and the overthrow of the Assyrian empire, Babylon once
more became the dominant power of the Tigris-Euphrates
plain. Nabopolassar, who had taken part in the campaign
against Nineveh, was succeeded by Nebuchadnezzar (605-
562 B.C.), whose long reign was the most splendid period of
the new but short-lived monarchy. A picture of his grandeur
is given in the opening chapters of the book of Daniel.
Nebuchadnezzar made numerous military campaigns, in
one of which he subdued the whole of Syria. Not long
afterwards Zedekiah, King of Judah, backed by an alli-
ance with Egypt, rebelled. Jerusalem was captured by
the Babylonians 587 B.C., and all the people, except such
laborers as were absolutely necessary for the cultivation
of the soil, were deported to Babylon. A detailed account
of the event is given in the last chapter of 2 Kings ; and
in the 13/th Psalm there is a pathetic picture of the He-
brew captives in their foreign home :
" By the rivers of Babylon
There we sat down, yea, we wept,
When we remembered Zion."
i Zeph. 2 : 13 -15.
34 A N INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
At this time Babylon, with its towering, many-colored
temples, its sculptured palaces, its verdant hanging gar-
dens, and its lofty castellated walls, was the most splendid
city of the world.
Fall of Babylon (538 B.C.). The successors of Nebu-
chadnezzar did not partake of his greatness. Of Amil-
Marduk, known in the Old Testament as Evil-Merodach,
but few records have descended to us. A pleasing
glimpse of him is given in the closing verses of the second
book of Kings, where his humane treatment of Jehoiachim,
King of Judah, is particularly mentioned.
The last king of Babylon was Nabonidus (555-538 B.C.),
who was distinguished for his interest in the archaeology
of his country. Unfortunately his interest in its early rec-
ords led him to neglect its welfare during his own reign.
It is particularly charged that he let the fortifications of
Babylon fall into ruin, and that he neglected the worship
of Marduk. A deep dissatisfaction laid hold of the peo-
ple. As a result, when Cyrus, King of the Persians, in-
vaded the country, he was received into Babylon without
a struggle. This event, which occurred 538 B.C., reduced
Babylonia to a province of the Persian empire.
Belshazzar, whose impious feast is the subject of the
fifth chapter of Daniel, appears from several inscriptions
and tablets to have been the son of Nabonidus, the last
king of Babylon. As prince regent or as heir to the
throne, he may have been properly called by the author of
Daniel " King of the Chaldeans." The Darius mentioned
as the victor and governor of Babylon was probably a
general or viceroy of Cyrus.
Civilization. Though three monarchies, as we have
seen, successively occupied the Mesopotamian region,
there was but one civilization. The Babylonians and As-
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 35
Syrians were of Semitic origin. The Semitic peoples are
highly endowed; and whether Babylonian, Hebrew, or
Arab, they are characterized by a glowing imagination,
quick invention, and restless impatience of control.
Whether in discourse or in architecture, they conceive
beautiful forms. The civilization of Babylonia and As-
syria, at which we marvel to-day, was a product of Semitic
genius.
The form of government, as in all Oriental countries, was
an absolute monarchy. The will of the sovereign was law.
As despotism depends ultimately on physical force, the
monarchies of Mesopotamia rested on a military basis.
While many of the sovereigns were humane and devoted
to the welfare of their realm, the majority, perhaps, were
chiefly concerned with their own pleasure and glory.
They were often ambitious, tyrannical, and cruel.
Science. Babylonia may be regarded as the original
home of astronomy, which was associated with the rites of
religion and the superstitions of astrology. Observatories,
which were built in connection with the temples, existed
in all the principal cities. The signs of the zodiac were
marked out, maps of the stars were made, and eclipses
were recorded. The year was divided into twelve lunar
months. The week consisted of seven days, and included
a day of rest, like the Hebrew Sabbath, in which ordinary
occupations were suspended. The mathematical sciences
reached an astonishing development. A tablet found
at Larsa contains a table of squares and cubes from one
to sixty ; and the plot of an estate lying outside the walls
of Babylon shows that the art of surveying was understood.
Architecture. The architecture of Babylonia and As-
syria was determined in large measure by the character of
the building materials at hand. As there were no stone
36 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
quarries in the wide alluvial plains, the people were forced
to the use of bricks, which were either dried in the sun or
burned in kilns.
The temples and palaces were built on immense plat-
forms from twenty to forty feet high. The palaces, which
often covered several acres of ground, consisted of narrow
halls and large open courts. But little use was made of
the arch and column. At the principal entrances to
the halls stood colossal winged bulls or lions with human
heads, figures that seem to have symbolized the
swiftness, strength, and intelligence of the national
character.
The interior of the halls was decorated with elaborate
panels from nine to twelve feet high, which were covered
with inscriptions and bas-relief sculptures representing
martial events, hunting scenes, or mythological characters.
The space above this sculptured wainscoting, together with
the entire ceiling, was decorated with paintings, gildings,
and richly carved mouldings, the whole resulting in impres-
sive splendor.
Sculpture. The Babylonians and Assyrians excelled
in sculpture. Whether carving seals or gigantic symbolic
figures, they exhibited an admirable skill. We find at once
freedom of conception and carefulness of execution. The
dignity, strength, and conscious power of their human-
headed bulls witness to high artistic gifts. The Babylo-
nian sculptor was not hampered, as was the Egyptian artist,
by a rigid conventionalism. He understood anatomy and
studied the forms of nature ; and as- a result, there is often
a surprising realism in his portrayal of animals and the
human form. Through his fidelity to life we are made
acquainted with the physiognomy, the dress, and the
customs of Babylonia and Assyria thousands of years ago.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 37
Manufacture. The Babylonians excelled likewise in
the manufacture of textile fabrics of linen, wool, and cotton.
They were renowned for the superior fineness and brilliant
colors of their garments. It is a significant fact that in
the conquest of Canaan under Joshua in the fifteenth
century before Christ, Achan fell into a mortal trespass
through the alluring beauty of " a goodly Babylonish gar-
ment." l Delicate perfumes, rich carpets, and precious
stones of various kinds ministered to the luxury of domestic
and social life at home, and furnished the materials of
commerce, which was carried on, by land and sea, with the
rest of the world. The description of Belshazzar's feast
in the fifth chapter of Daniel gives us a glimpse of the
voluptuous customs of Babylon at the period of its fall.
Religion. The religion of Babylonia and Assyria was
a complicated polytheism. At the head of the celestial
hierarchy was a triad of major deities called Ilu or Ana,
Bel or Baal, and Anu. There was also a second triad
associated with the visible world; namely, Shamash, god
of the sun, Sin, god of the moon, and Bin, Ramman, or
Abad, god of the higher regions of the atmosphere. A
series of divinities presided over the planets : Adar over
Saturn, Marduk over Jupiter, Nergal over Mars, Ishtar
over Venus, and Nabu over Mercury. Each city had its
tutelary deity, and vied with its neighbors in the erection
of imposing temples. Bel was worshipped at Nippur,
Shamash in Larsa, and Marduk in Babylon.
Though the religious rites of the Babylonians and As-
syrians contained licentious and degrading elements, the
people were not lacking in piety. In addition to the solemn
pomp of great annual festivals, the priests offered in the
temples daily sacrifices, which usually consisted of a ram
1 Josh. 7: 21.
38 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
or kid. The people recognized the operation of a divine
providence in human life ; and while they practised magi-
cal arts and believed in the superstitions of astrology, they
often showed in their hymns and prayers a marked degree
of religious fervor. Some of their hymns, in sentiment and
expression, are comparable to the Psalms.
Tradition of Creation. Among the literary remains of
Babylonia is a remarkable tradition of creation, which has
points of striking resemblance with the narrative of Genesis.
It is preserved in a series of tablets, most of which have
been translated. The record of the first tablet describes
a chaotic condition of the world. " There was a time," so
reads the tablet, " when what is overhead was not called
heaven, and what is beneath was not yet called earth."
Afterwards, as other tablets record, the gods " created the
living creatures, the cattle of the field, the wild beasts of
the field, and creeping things."
Along with the points of resemblance between the Baby-
lonian and the Hebrew account of creation, there is one
fundamental difference. While the Babylonian tradition
is frankly polytheistic, the biblical narrative rises to a
monotheistic conception of God. Whether both narratives
sprang from a common source, or whether the record in
Genesis is drawn from the Babylonian tradition, the Scrip-
tural account bears the impress of an insight or inspiration
that lifts it far above the story of the cuneiform tablets. 1
The Deluge. The Babylonian account of the deluge is
a still more notable tradition. It is contained in the
1 " The early traditions of the Semitic race were yoked to the service of the
spiritual religion of Israel. The essential teaching of Jehovah respecting the
Divine nature, the universe, and man's nature, was conveyed in the outline of a
cosmogony, which, if it had its roots in the early Assyrian traditions, was finally
expressed in all the dignified simplicity of Hebrew monotheism." H. E. RYLE,
" Early Narratives of Genesis," p. 23.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 39
Babylonian epic of Gilgamish, which was first dis-
covered and translated by George Smith, of the British
Museum, in 1872. It has points of remarkable agreement
with the story of the deluge in Genesis. Sit-Napishtim,
the Babylonian Noah, built a ship ; then, in anticipation of
the flood foretold by the gods, he says : " With everything
that I had of the seed of life I filled it. I embarked with
my whole family, my servants, the cattle of the field, the
wild beasts of the field, and the workmen, all of them I
embarked."
Then followed a violent storm of rain so that " the gods
crouched down like dogs." " Six days and seven nights,"
says the narrator, "the storm raged, the flood, and tem-
pest ... I looked out over the sea, crying aloud, but all
mankind had turned to earth again. . . . The seventh day
at dawn I sent out a dove ; she left, she flew hither and
thither, there being no lighting place she returned. . . .
Then I sent out a raven and let her go. The raven flew
off and saw the diminishing waters ; she came near and
croaked, but did not return." These incidents will be
recognized as remarkably like the narrative in Genesis.
But here, again, the biblical story is exalted by its deep
moral purpose and its monotheistic idea of God. 1
2. EGYPT
Introductory. The northeastern part of Africa, known
as Egypt, occupies a very prominent place in the ancient
world. Its people, who probably migrated from Asia in
1 " The narrative of the flood records to us some terrible but local cataclysm
which overtook the original seat of the Semitic race. The Hebrew and Assyro-
Babylonian accounts are two parallel versions of it, transmitted, by the two strangely
different branches of that stock, in literature so varied as the clay tablets of Nineveh
and the Scriptures of the Jews." H. E. RYLE, "Early Narratives of Genesis,"
p. 113.
40 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
prehistoric times, belonged, as the sculptures of ancient
temples and tombs clearly show, to the white race. For
a long time the civilization of Egypt was thought to be the
oldest in the world ; but, as we have already learned, that
of the Mesopotamian region probably antedated it by some
centuries. A conservative estimate places the beginning
of the first dynasty at 4400 B.C., more than 2000 years
before Abraham left Ur of the Chaldees to become founder
of the Hebrew people.
The Nile. As Herodotus long ago observed, Egypt is the
gift of the Nile. But for this mighty river, that country,
famous in ancient as in modern times for its fertility, would
form a part of the great Sahara Desert. The Nile, whose
sources remained for ages a mystery, takes its rise in
equatorial Africa. The heavy rainfall of that tropical
region and the melting of the mountain snows of Abyssinia,
cause a yearly overflow, which makes portions of .the
valley like a sea. The numerous towns and cities, as the
Greek historian remarked, rise above the waters like
beautiful islands. This annual inundation, which begins
about the first of July, covers the river plain with a dark
muddy sediment, which renews the fertility of the soil.
Physical Features. Egypt extends from the first cata-
ract of the Nile to the Mediterranean Sea a distance of
about 570 miles. The fertile portion of the valley has a
width varying from five to twenty miles. As the river
approaches the sea, it divides into two main branches
which form a wide triangular plain known as the Delta.
On the west the Nile valley is, in -a measure, protected
against the encroachments of the desert by a range of
hills ; on the east it is bounded by a range of mountains,
which separate it from the sea. The fertile portion of
this valley, embracing about 12,000 square miles, became
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 41
in very ancient times the centre of a dense population,
which, largely cut off from contact with other nations,
developed a peculiar literature, religion, and art.
Influence of the River. The Nile may be regarded as
the controlling factor in Egyptian civilization. It not
only created the fertile valley, but it also determined, in
large measure, the pursuits and intellectual development of
the people. The fertility of the soil, annually enriched by
the overflow of the river, invited to agriculture, in which
wheat, millet, barley, and rice rewarded the husbandman a
hundred fold for his industry. The need of irrigation de-
veloped a mechanical ingenuity ; and the repeated efface-
ments of landmarks made mensuration a necessity.
The growing population led to the building of cities and
the enactment of laws for the maintenance of social order.
Even the deep religious sense of the people, which in the
course of time created an all-powerful priesthood, may be
traced, in some measure at least, to the beneficence of the
river. In its annual overflow, without which the country
was in danger of desolation by famine, the people learned
their dependence upon a higher power than their own.
Different Classes. The Egyptians were divided into
several well-defined classes or castes. The priests, who
constituted the highest caste, possessed immense wealth and
influence. They were supported by the state, and held
one-third of the land free of tax. They were the chief
representatives of learning, and the intellectual leaders of
the people. The king was regarded as a high priest,
whose absolute power rested on his character as represen-
tative of the gods. The military class ranked next to the
priests. The rest of the population was divided into three
general classes, of which the first included the farmers
and boatmen ; the second, the mechanics and tradesmen ;
42 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
and the third, the herdsmen, fishermen, and common
laborers.
Old Memphis Empire. The history of Egypt before the
conquest of Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., includes three
empires, the old Memphis empire (4700-2700 B.C.), the
old Theban or Middle empire (2700-1635 B.C.), and the
new Theban empire (1635-332 B.C.). Ten dynasties belong
to the long period of the old Memphitic empire. Many of
the sovereigns of this remote empire have left monuments
of various kinds, which throw much light on the state of
society. For example, Zeser (3866 B.C.), a king of the
third dynasty, built the step pyramid of Saqqarah, of which
it has been said that " it is certainly the oldest of all the
large buildings which have successfully resisted the action
of wind and weather, and destruction by the hand of man."
The great Sphinx of Gizeh, which was sculptured at this
period, exhibits the high degree of intelligence and artistic
skill to which the Egyptians had attained. Khufu, or
Cheops (3733 B.C.), built the great pyramid that bears his
name.
The Middle Empire. The Middle or old Theban empire,
which includes the dynasties from the eleventh to the seven-
teenth, lasted about a thousand years(27OO-i635 B.C.). The
capital was transferred from Memphis to Thebes in upper
Egypt. The successive sovereigns of this empire have
left their names in notable monuments, literary productions,
or public works. Amenemhat I. (2466 B.C.) displayed
great vigor as a ruler, and made conquests in Asiatic terri-
tory. In describing his beneficent reign he says, " I caused
the mourner to mourn no longer, and his lamentation was
no longer heard."
Usertsen I. (2446 B.C.) extended his authority into the
Sinaitic peninsula, and built the temple of Karnak, which
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 43
was enlarged and enriched by subsequent sovereigns.
Usertsen III. (2340 B.C.) conquered Ethiopia, and fixed the
southern boundary of Egypt at the second cataract, where
he built two strong fortresses. He was succeeded by
Amenemhat III. (2305 B.C.), who constructed Lake Moeris
as a storage reservoir for the waters of the Nile, and built
the celebrated Labyrinth palace, which Herodotus says
surpassed all the architectural works of Greece.
The Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos or Shep-
herd Kings were an Asiatic people who during the thir-
teenth dynasty, about 2100 B.C., established themselves in
Egypt. They probably came from Syria or Arabia, and
are characterized by Manetho as " men of ignoble birth
out of the eastern parts." Their conquest, according to
the Egyptian historian, was characterized by ruthless de-
struction and cruelty. " They burnt down our cities,"
Manetho says in a passage preserved by Josephus, " and
demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the in-
habitants after a most barbarous manner." The royal
residence of the conquerors was fixed at Pelusium, or Avaris,
a border stronghold, and at Tanis, a populous city of the
eastern Delta. The dominion of the Hyksos was confined
chiefly to lower Egypt ; only for a brief period did their
sovereignty extend over upper Egypt.
Whatever may have been the life of the Hyksos prior to
their invasion of Egypt, it is certain that they adopted the
higher civilization of the conquered territory. They
assumed the titles of Egyptian sovereigns, and erected
temples to the Egyptian gods. The monuments that have
descended to us from their time prove that they fully
adopted the culture, art, and religion of Egypt. The
length of the Hyksos domination is estimated by Manetho
at 5 1 1 years.
44 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Relation to the Hebrews. The presence of these
Arabian or Syrian conquerors in Egypt throws an interest-
ing light on early Hebrew history. When Abraham was
driven from Canaan by a famine, he was kindly dealt with
by the Egyptian king, 1 who recognized in him, not an alien,
but a compatriot. This kindly attitude toward Syrian
immigrants explains the rapid advancement of Joseph in
the house of Potiphar, captain of the king's guard, and his
subsequent advancement, as related in the closing chapters
of Genesis, to the office of prime minister of the realm.
It explains, likewise, the courtesy with which Pharaoh re-
ceived Jacob's numerous household, and the readiness
with which he assigned them a home in the fertile dis-
trict of Goshen. The native Egyptians, to whose caste
prejudice "every shepherd is an abomination," 2 would
have shown themselves intolerant to the Hebrew
immigrants.
New Theban Empire (1635-332 B.C.). At length the
Hyksos kings were driven from their stronghold at Pelusium
by a vigorous king of upper Egypt, Aahmes I. (1635 B.C.),
and the new Theban empire was established. Egypt
speedily rose to the rank of a world power. Tehutimes I.
(1590 B.C.), for example, pushed his conquests in Asia as
far as the Euphrates ; and Tehutimes III. (1530 B.C.) made
no fewer than fifteen campaigns into Syria.
The eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, extending from
1635 to 1235 B.C., was a period of great national develop-
ment. Art, literature, and commerce flourished in a high
degree. Among the memorable achievements of this
period may be mentioned the temple of Luxor, the famous
avenue of the sphinxes between Karnak and Luxor, and
the palace and tomb of Tel-el-Amarna. An active corre-
1 Gen. 12 : 10. 2 Gen. 46 : 34.
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 45
spondence was maintained in cuneiform characters with
princes in Syria and Mesopotamia. The discovery of three
hundred cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna in 1887 has
thrown much light on the relations existing between
Egypt and western Asia.
Ramses II. (1345 B.C.). There is one king of the nine-
teenth dynasty who deserves particular notice. It is
Ramses II., whose warlike prowess has earned for him the
title of "the Great." He is well known to us through the
account contained in the first chapter of Exodus. He was
"the Pharaoh of the oppression," who regarded it as a
measure of wise public policy to prevent the multiplication
of an alien race in the midst of Egypt. " Now there arose
up a new king over Egypt," says the sacred record, " which
knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people, behold,
the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier
than we : come on, let us deal wisely with them ; lest they
multiply, and it come to pass that, when there falleth out
any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against
us, and so get them up out of the land." 1
During his long reign of sixty-seven years, Ramses II.
busied himself with building cities and creating works of
art. Through the enforced labors of the Israelites, he
built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Ramses, in which he
stored grain to provide for his people in case of famine or
invasion. The city of Pithom was excavated in 1883, and
the treasure-chambers themselves, with brick partitions
from eight to ten feet thick, were discovered. Ramses II.
constructed temples, palaces, and tombs, and erected tall
granite obelisks, one of which now adorns the Place de la
Concorde in Paris. The war poem of Pentaur, a produc-
tion of vigorous thought and expression, describes his
1 Ex. i : 8-10.
46 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
heroism at the battle of Kadesh. A bust of this king, pre-
served in the British Museum, shows a countenance of
calm dignity, and resourceful intelligence.
Subsequent Relations with Israel. The cruel oppression
of the Hebrews, who had grown to be a numerous people,
was not to go on indefinitely. Under Meneptah II., who
lacked the martial genius of his father, Ramses II., there
were uprisings on all sides against the despotism of Egypt.
These revolts, which taxed the energies and military power
of the king to the utmost, afforded a favorable opportunity
for the Israelites to escape from their bondage. The
troubles of the Egyptian monarch were aggravated by a
series of national calamities described in Exodus as the ten
plagues. At length, under the able leadership of Moses,
the enslaved Hebrews rose in a body, and began a long
and toilsome march toward the home of their ancestors in
Canaan. The Egyptian army that went in pursuit of the
fugitives was overwhelmed in the waters of the Red
Sea.
During the later dynasties, Egypt frequently came into
touch with the Hebrews after their settlement in " the
Promised Land." As we learn in the third chapter of I
Kings, " Solomon made affinity with Pharaoh, King of
Egypt, and took Pharaoh's daughter, and brought her into
the city of David," where he built for her a magnificent
palace. The Egyptian king bestowed upon' his daughter
as dowry the city of Gezer, which he had captured from
the Canaanites.
The division of the Hebrew kingdom in 930 B.C. made
the people of Israel an easy prey. Accordingly, as we
read in 2 Chronicles, Shishak invaded Canaan 925 B.C. with
" twelve hundred chariots and threescore thousand horse-
men." He attacked Jerusalem, and "took away the
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 47
treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of
the king's house." l
Culture and Art As indicated in the preceding sketch,
the Egyptians excelled in culture and art. The ancient
Greeks looked upon Egypt as a school of wisdom. Long
before the Greeks were known to history, the dwellers on
the Nile had developed a high civilization. Grecian phi-
losophers and lawgivers Pythagoras, Plato, Solon, Lycur-
g us visited Egypt to increase their store of learning. It
is said in praise of Moses that he " was learned in all the
wisdom of the Egyptians." 2
The temples and tombs of Egypt were ornamented with
paintings and sculpture, which were in large measure con-
ventional and symbolic. Though Egyptian artists, as a
rule, did not follow nature, we have what seem to be excel-
lent likenesses of many sovereigns belonging to the Middle
empire. The Egyptians excelled in the mechanic arts.
Great perfection was attained in spinning and weaving;
glass was manufactured, and some of the secrets of color-
ing it have baffled modern ingenuity ; iron and the common
mechanical and agricultural implements made from it
were in general use. Mighty pyramids and majestic tem-
ples witness not only to lofty artistic conception, but to a
high order of mechanical skill. The temple 'of Karnak
has been pronounced the proudest architectural achieve-
ment of man.
Literature. The literature of Egypt, as it has been
preserved, represents almost every species of writing. The
inscriptions contain invaluable historical records. The
Prisse Papyrus, which was written in the fifth dynasty
(about 3400 B.C.), is said to be the oldest book in the
world. In subject-matter it resembles the book of Prov-
l 2 Chron. 12 : 9. 2 Acts 7 : 22.
48 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
erbs. " If thou art become great," the author, Ptah-Hotep,
says, " after thou hast been lowly, and if thou hast heaped
up riches after poverty, being because of that the chiefest
in the city ; let not thy heart be puffed up because of thy
riches, for it is God who has given them unto thee. De-
spise not another who is as thou wast ; be towards him as
towards thy equal."
The " Book of the Dead " is a work of religious and
funeral rites. Its value is enhanced by illustrations. Its
moral code embraced all the prohibitions contained in the
Mosaic decalogue. Though parts of the " Book of the
Dead " are of far greater antiquity, the papyrus copy in
the British Museum dates from the eighteenth dynasty
(about 1500 B.C.).
In the literature of Egypt we find lyric and epic poems,
some of which seem quite modern in their heroic or tender
sentiment. What seems still more remarkable, there are
romantic tales, such as "The Shipwrecked Sailor" and
"The Story of the Two Brothers," that have the merit of
literary skill and personal interest.
Religion. The Egyptians were preeminently a religious
people. Their gods, among whom may be mentioned Ptah,
Amen, Ra, Osiris, Horus, and Isis, were almost innumer-
able. This extraordinary polytheism finds its explanation,
perhaps, in the divided state of the country in prehistoric
times, when every community or tribe had its patron deity.
In later times, with the establishment of a single govern-
ment, their various divinities were united in a single hier-
archy, in which their functions were often confused and
contradictory.
In honor of the various gods great temples were reared,
some of which, resisting the corroding power of centuries,
still excite a profound admiration. There were numerous
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 49
festivals, which made the life of the Egyptians, in large
measure, a round of religious ceremony. A strange feature
of Egyptian religion was its animal worship. The cat, ibis,
hawk, and beetle were universally recognized as sacred.
Apis was the sacred bull worshipped at Memphis as an in-
carnation of Osiris. A reminiscence of Egyptian polythe-
ism and animal worship is found among the Hebrews at
Sinai, who, impatient at the prolonged absence of Moses,
gathered about the molten calf, and exclaimed, " These be
thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of
Egypt." i
RESEARCH WORK
See remark, under this heading, at the close of the
preceding chapter.
Hebrew ethnological traditions, Gen. 10.
Migration of Abraham, Gen. n : 27-32 ; 12 : 1-9.
The war between Mesopotamian and Canaanite kings, Gen. 15.
A description of Nineveh, Jonah 3.
The deportation of Israel into Assyria, 2 Kings 17.
The invasion of Sennacherib and his disaster at Jerusalem, 2 Kings 18 :
13-37; 19 : 1-36-
The character and destruction of Nineveh, Nahum ; Zeph. 2: 13-15;
Ezek. 31 : 3-17; Is. 10:5-19.
A description of Nebuchadnezzar's court and empire, Dan. 1-5.
The conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kings, 24 and 25.
As foretold by the prophet, Jer. 21 : 2-14
The lament of the captive Hebrews in Babylon, Ps. 137.
The destruction of Babylon as predicted by the prophets, Is. 13 : 1-22 ;
21 : i-io; 47: 1-15 ; Jer. 50: 1-46; 51 : 1-64. As accomplished,
Dan. 5.
The story of creation, Gen. I : 1-31 ; 2 : 1-25.
The story of the flood, Gen. 6, 7, and 8.
Abraham in Egypt, Gen. 12 : 10-20.
The biography of Joseph, Gen. 37-50.
i Ex. 32 : 4.
50 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
The migration of Jacob into Egypt, Gen. 46, 47.
The oppressive measures adopted by Ramses II. against the flourishing
Hebrews, Ex. i : 7-22.
The childhood of Moses, Ex. 2 : i-io.
The migration of the enslaved Hebrews from Egypt, Ex. 3-14.
A beautiful triumphal ode, Ex. 15 : 1-22.
The expedition of Shishak, King of Egypt, against Jerusalem, 2 Chron.
12 : 2-12.
The worship of the golden calf at Sinai, Ex. 32 : 1-24.
CHAPTER III
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL
Historical Position. In many respects the people of
Israel were insignificant. They made no contribution to
art ; they were lacking in high intellectual culture ; and
for the most part, their political power was comparatively
feeble. Except for a brief period under David and Solo-
mon, the Hebrews were unable to resist a formidable
invasion from Babylonia or Egypt. Their national life
was developed in the presence of a much older civilization.
In comparison with the mighty empires of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, they counted for little.
Contribution to Human Progress. Nevertheless they
occupy a prominent place in the history of the ancient
world. On the moral and spiritual side of life, the He-
brews did far more for human progress than either the
Babylonians or the Egyptians. In the midst of a universal
polytheism, the rites of which were often cruel and im-
pure, Israel developed a spiritual monotheism, which
has since been generally accepted by the most enlightened
nations of the modern world. The Hebrew prophets and
lawgivers were the first to magnify the existence of one
Supreme Being, who in the beginning "created the heaven
and the earth."
Above all other peoples of antiquity the Hebrews empha-
sized the necessity of personal and civic righteousness ;
and in the fulness of time they brought forth the great
Teacher of our race. Religion, though with many back-
5 1
52 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
slidings and perversions, was the central and controlling
influence in Hebrew life. Through the spiritual insight
of their greatest leaders, and through their strong empha-
sis^ji_lli_.mQraI.._elements of life, the people of Israel
achieved a distinct place in universal history, and placed
all subsequent ages under a deep and permanent obli-
gation. 1
Land of Canaan. The land of the Hebrews was a part
of Syria. From Mt. Hermon on the north it extended
southward for a hundred and fifty miles to the Arabian
desert. Its width, stretching from the Mediterranean on
the west to the desert region on the east, was about one
hundred miles. From the narrow strip of coast plain rose
a table-land, which was cut by numerous well-watered
vales and marked by the famous summits of Tabor, Car-
mel, and Gerezim. The country from north to south was
divided by the deep valley of the Jordan, beyond which
fertile highlands again stretched away to the desert of
Arabia.
In ancient times this land of the Hebrews, known as
Canaan, was exceedingly fertile " a land flowing with milk
and honey." 2 In Deuteronomy it is characterized as "a
good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and
depths, springing forth in valleys and hills ; a land of
wheat and barley, and vines and fig trees and pome-
granates; a land of olives and honey; a land whose
stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig
brass." 3
1 " It is the marvel of history that this little people, beset and despised by all the
earth for ages, maintains its solidarity unimpaired. Unique among all the peoples
of the earth, it has come undoubtedly to the present day from the most distant
antiquity. Forty, perhaps fifty, centuries rest upon this venerable contemporary
of Egypt, Chaldea, and Troy." J. K. HOSMER," The Jews," p. 4.
2 Numb. 13 : 27. 3 Deut. 8 : 7.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 53
Native Tribes. From prehistoric times Canaan was
occupied by various tribes of Semites, among whom may be
mentioned the Philistines, the Jebusites, and Ammonites,
the Amorites, and the Hivites. These tribes were not
uncivilized ; and at the time of the Hebrew invasion,
presently to be noticed, they lived in cities, carried on
agriculture and trade, and maintained regal forms of
government. Situated between the great monarchies
of the Euphrates and the Nile, to which they were at
times in subjection, the Canaanites shared in the
culture, customs, and superstitions of Babylonia and
Egypt.
They were skilled in the arts of war. The name of one
of their cities, Kirjath-sepher, "the city of books," seems
to indicate the cultivation of literature. Their chief divin-
ities were Baal and Astarte, which were worshipped with
licentious rites ; and the people resorted to divination and
augury, consulted " familiar spirits," and practised other
superstitions which the sacred writer stigmatizes as "an
abomination unto the Lord." At various times the people
of Israel were contaminated by the corrupt teaching and
vile rites of their Canaanitish neighbors.
National Beginnings. According to the records in Gen-
esis, which constitute our principal source of information,
the progenitor of the Hebrew people was Abraham who
migrated some 2000 years before our era, from " Ur of
the Chaldees " to Canaan. His descendants, Isaac and
Jacob, led a patriarchal and nomadic life, which was dis-
tinguished alone for an unshaken faith in Jehovah. Many
interesting traditions of their early life in Canaan do-
mestic tragedies as well as romantic idyls have fortu-
nately been preserved to us. The wooing of seven years |
to gain the hand of Rachel, the reconciliation of Jacob and I
54 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Esau, and the tragedy of Joseph these are delightful
pictures of that distant patriarchal life. 1
A famine in Canaan led to the removal of Jacob and
his numeroiiS-hQusehold into Egypt, where his son Joseph,
under afHyjcsos kin& had risen to high dignity and power.
In the course of several centuries, these Hebrew immigrants,
who had settled in Goshen a district in the northeastern
part of Egypt became so numerous as to excite fears
at the Egyptian court. Accordingly, as we have already
seen, Ramses II., "a Pharaoh who knew not Joseph,"
adopted cruel measures of repression. The Hebrews were
enslaved and burdened with cruel tasks. At length, after
a period of extreme hardship and suffering, they migrated
in a body, about(749O B.3 according to the usual chronol-
ogy, toward the " .Promised Land " of Canaan. Their
number is given at " about 600,000 that were men, beside
children." The Egyptian army that pursued the fleeing
host met with irreparable disaster at the Red Sea.
In the Wilderness. But the Hebrews were not destined
to enter at once upon their promised inheritance. They
were to spend many years in the wilderness region south
of Canaan, where their religious and national life was to
assume definite shape. The bonds of racial sympathy,
which naturally drew the Hebrews together during the
trials of their Egyptian bondage, were to be further
strengthened by the common dangers and hardships of the
wilderness. The books of Exodus and Numbers relate many
interesting events of this migratory period, events that
1 " If criticism, with the help of archaeology, has failed to establish the literal
truth of these stories as personal biographies, it has, on the other hand, displayed
their utter fidelity to the characters of the peoples they reflect, and to the facts of
the world and the Divine guidance in which these peoples developed. The power
of the patriarchal narratives on the heart, the imagination, the faith of men can
never die ; it is immortal with truthfulness to the realities of human nature and
God's education of mankind." GEORGE ADAM SMITH, "Modern Criticism and
the Preaching of the Old Testament," p. 109.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 55
subsequently embedded themselves in the history of the
Hebrew people and in the thought of the Christian church.
The hero of this national movement was Moses, the law-
giver and prophet of Israel. He is deservedly regarded
as one of the great figures of history. His work was two-
fold in its character. He gave the multitudes under him
a complete civil administration. He not only_drew up_a
code of laws, which his Egyptian culture easily enabled
him to do, but he also appointed able and upright men to
be rulers and judges under him. "And Moses chose able
men out of all Israel," so runs the record, "and made
them heads over the people, rulers of thousands, rulers of
hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens. And they
judged the people at all seasons : the hard causes they
brought unto Moses, but every small matter they judged
themselves." l
But more significant still were the religious institutions
which, under divine guidance, he established for his people.
A special covenant was entered into between Jehovah and
the people, by which the polytheistic idolatries of Egypt
were completely swept away. Monotheism became the
official faith, as it had long been the traditional belief, of
the Hebrews. A comprehensive moral code r including
both religious and social duties, was promulgated. It is
known as the Ten Commandments, and is held in high
honor to-day. 2 An elaborate ritual of worship, suggestions
for which may have been borrowed from the temple cere-
1 Ex. 18 : 25, 26.
2 " The grand distinction of the Decalogue is that it deals only with that which is
fundamental in religion and morals. ' Love God with all your heart, and your
neighbor as yourself is its sum. There is no ritual, but only the ethical, the
universally important and perennially valid. Even the fourth commandment is
ethical at the core, a humane statute securing a resting-time for labor drudges,
slaves, and even for the beast of burden. " R. S. MOULTON, " The Bible as Litera-
ture," p. 39.
56 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
monies of Egypt, was established, and a hereditary line of
priests was ordained to have charge of the services of the
tabernacle, a portable sanctuary suited to the migratory
life of Israel in the wilderness.
Conquest of Canaan. After wandering forty years in the
wilderness, the Hebrews turned northward and approached
Canaan from the eastern side of the Jordan. From the
summit of Mt. Pisgah, Moses, the strong and faithful
leader of Israel, caught a splendid glimpse of the Promised
Land, which he was not himself to enter. After his death,
at an advanced age, Joshua became his successor, and
pushed his conquests to the west of the river with tireless
energy and unsparing thoroughness. He displayed the
barbarous cruelty that was only too common in the military
campaigns of that age. In the capture of Jericho, for ex-
ample, it is stated that the Hebrew invaders " utterly de-
stroyed all that was in the city, both man and woman,
young and old, and ox, sheep, and ass, with the edge of the
sword." *
The twelfth chapter of Joshua the book that describes
the conquest gives a list of thirty-one kings, whom the
Hebrew leader subdued. Every town and city in the land
had its local prince or king. Sometimes these princes
formed extensive alliances against the invaders ; but the
Hebrews, hardened by their wanderings in the wilderness,
proved themselves irresistible conquerors. After the com-
pletion of the conquest, which still left here and there con-
siderable communities of the Canaanitish races, the country
was divided among the twelve tribes of Israel. Each tribe
constituted a province under its own elders or rulers.
The Hebrews were distinguished from the native popula-
tion of Canaan by the purity and exclusiveness of their
/ '
1 Josh. 6: 21.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 57
monotheistic religion. The religious element dominated
the life of Israel. Extraordinary precautions were exer-
cised to prevent idolatry. Intermarriage was prohibited ;
and all the monuments of idolatrous worship were de-
stroyed. "Ye shall destroy their altars," it is commanded
in Deuteronomy, " and break down their images, and cut
down their groves, and burn their graven images with fire." 1
The first and supreme duty of the Israelites is expressed in
these words : " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all
thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might." 2
Period of the Judges. After the conquest there followed
a long period the usual chronology makes it some three
hundred years in which the twelve tribes were without
political organization and unity. The only bon,d JiQjt al-
ways a strong one, was a common religious faith. 3 It was
a period of confusion, tumult, and bloodshed, for " in those
days," to quote the book of Judges, our chief authority,
" there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which
was right in his own eyes." 4 The children of Israel, for-
getful of the solemn admonitions of Moses and Joshua,
frequently apostatized from the religion of Jehovah to
engage in the alluring worship of Baal and Ashtaroth,
which they adopted from the older tribes of Canaan.
In addition to intertribal conflicts of the Hebrews, there
were frequent wars with the native races of Canaan,
and the Israelites were often brought into subjection.
Various Deliverers. These times of national trial and
disaster naturally brought strong, capable leaders to the
1 Deut. 7:5. 2 Deut. 6:5.
8 " In virtue of their common religion the Israelites of the north and the south
retained a sense of essential unity in spite of political separation and repeated
wars ; and it was felt that the division of the tribes was inconsistent with the true
destiny of Jehovah's people." W. R. SMITH, "The Prophets of Israel," p. 48.
4 Judges 17 : 6
58 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY .
front, who, in the original records, are called Judges. 1
Several of them have become well known. Ehud, by an
act of treachery, slew Eglon, the king of the Moabites,
and summoning the tribe of Ephraim to his standard, he
threw off the Moabite yoke. Deborah and Barak deliv-
ered the northern tribes from the galling oppression of
the Canaanites a victory that is celebrated in a martial
song of exultant and pious fervor. The victory of Gideon
over the Midianites by means of a stratagem ; the narra-
tive of Samson's slaughter of the Philistines and of his
ignominious capture and death ; the triumph of Jephthah
over the Ammonites and his fatal vow leading to the
sacrifice of his only daughter, these are interesting stories
made familiar to many in childhood.
The Hebrew Monarchy. The time of the Judges was
essentially a formative, period. Through bitter experience
the Hebrew tribes, not unlike the American colonies, were
brought to recognize the need of closer union. Their only
security against internal anarchy and alien subjugation
was found in a national organization, such as existed
among the peoples about them.
When the Hebrew elders demanded a king, the aged
and saintly Samuel, the last of the Judges, endeavored to
dissuade them from their purpose. Accordingly, in an
interesting discourse, he portrayed the tyrannous rule of
an Oriental despot. " He will take your sons," he said,
" and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be
his horsemen ; and some shall run before his chariots.
And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and
captains over fifties ; and will set them to ear his
ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instru-
ments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he
1 Judges 2: 16-19.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL
59
will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be
cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields,
and your vineyards, and your olive-yards, even the best of
them, and give them to his servants." 1
Saul. But the monarchical movement was not to be
checked. Accordingly Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, was
selected as the first Hebrew king at a national assembly
held at Mizpelffr62O B.c.Jj' His tall and handsome person
delighted the multitude, who hailed the new sovereign
with the spontaneous acclaim, "God save the king." Im-
portant events speedily confirmed the royal power. Saul
waged a vigorous and successful campaign against the
haughty Ammonites a triumph that silenced the mal-
content opponents of the monarchy. A little later he
overcame the Philistines and the Amalekites. These
victories, which restored the independence of Israel,
amply vindicated the establishment of the kingdom.
But Saul, though a brave patriotic leader, was deficient
in statesmanlike ability. The latter years of his reign
were saddened by the alienation of the priestly class and
by his violent jealousy of David, whose heroism had won
him great popular favor. At last, in a battle with the
Philistines, in which three of his sons had been slain, Saul
himself was sorely wounded, and fearing torture at the
hands of the enemy, he fell upon his sword.
David (1002 B.C.). The second king of Israel was
David, a man of fearless courage, of large 'experience,
and of regal ability. His triumph over Goliath r the
Philistine champion, had made him a national hero.
Though the jealousy of Saul had for several years made
him an outlaw and driven him into exile, he tactfully cul-
tivated the favor of the tribal leaders. He was especially
1 Sam. 8: 11-20.
60 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
strong in the favor of the influential priestly class. Ac-
cordingly, after a brief period of rivalry and confusion,
he was chosen king by "all the elders of Israel," and at
once he adopted thoughtful measures to strengthen the
royal power.
A National Capital. Unlike Saul, he recognized , the
utility of a national capital and princely court; and to
this end he forcibly took possession of the city of the
Jebusites, which was subsequently to be known through-
out the earth as Jerusalem, or the city of David. Here,
through the cooperation of Hirajn, King of Tyre, he built
a palace, and surrounded himself with all the ceremony
and insignia of regal authority.
Furthermore, he brought the ark of the covenant from a
private house at Kirjath-jearim, where it had long remained
in comparative neglect, and in the midst of" great national
festivities he installed it in a splendid tabernacle at Jeru-
salem. No wiser steps could have been taken. By
fixing the seat of government at Jerusalem, and by
making it, at the same time, the centre of the national
religion, David immeasurably strengthened his influence
and power.
A Strong Nation. In his long reign of forty years, he
raised the Hebrew people to a dignity and might which
they had not previously known. He overcame the Philis-
tines, the hereditary enemies of Israel; he defeated the
Moabites ; he established strongholds in Edom, an
Arabian district southeast of Canaan. For a brief period
he realized the, ambitious dreams of the people, and made
the Hebrew monarchy a formidable power in southwestern
Asia.
Personal Traits. Not wholly taken up with his regal
duties, he delighted in music and poetry. He wrote nu-
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 6 1
merous psalms or hymns, which have earned for him the
proud title of " sweet singer of Israel." But, in spite of his
high and varied endowments, there was a darker side to
his character. He was sometimes cruel and licentious ;
and the later years of his reign were disturbed by the
formidable rebellion of ,his favorite, uncontrolled son,_Ab-^
salom. But in his darker deeds he never became entirely
"hardened, and every transgression was followed by heart-
felt penitence and humility.
Solomon (970 B.C.). In order to thwart the ambition
of his eldest suTvFvmg son, Adoni).ah. David, a short time
before his death, had Solomon proclaimed king. The
young sovereign entered upon his reign with a high sense
of responsibility, and in a notable prayer he asked, not
for riches or long life, but for " an understanding heart
to judge the people." 1
He was inclined to peace rather than to war. He
improved the civic administration of the kingdom ; and
for this purpose, without regard to the ancient tribal
limits, he divided the kingdom into twelve districts, over
each of which he placed an imperial officer. Each prov-
ince was required to provide in turn for the maintenance
of the court. This requirement was not a light burden, for
every day the king's household demanded, according to
the ancient record, " thirty measures [80 barrels] of fine
flour, and threescore measures [160 barrels] of meal, ten
fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pasture, and an hun-
dred sheep, besides harts, and gazelles, and roebucks,
and fatted fowl." 2
A Great Builder. Solomon was preeminently the build-
ing king of Israel. As his people were not skilled in the arts
of architecture, he concluded a treaty with Hiram, King
1 i Kings 3:9. 2 i Kings 4 : 22, 23.
62 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
of Tyre in Phoenicia, by which, in return for grain, oil, and
wine, he was to receive lumber from Lebanon and skilled
workmen in wood and stone. In addition to the royal
palaces, the most famous of all his structures was the
temple at Jerusalem, which, in its rich gildings and furnish-
ings, displayed extraordinary splendor.
To carry out his vast building plans, which covered a
period of twenty years, Solomon imitated the kings of
Babylonia and Egypt, and kept a great army at work in
the forests and quarries. Influenced by the example of
Phoenicia, the most energetic and most daring maritime
nation of antiquity, he encouraged commerce, which had
previously been neglected by the Hebrews. An active
trade sprang up between the cities of Phoenicia and
Joppa, the seaport of Jerusalem ; and at Ezion-
geber, on the Red Sea, Solomon maintained a fleet of
vessels, which skirted the coasts of Arabia, India, and
Africa.
Decadence. The later years of Solomon's reign showed
signs of decadence. Though gifted with preeminent
wisdom, the report of which had drawn the queen
of Sheba to Jerusalem, he was led astray by the
voluptuousness of his splendid court. His harem con-
tained, if we may trust the figures of the record, seven
hundred princesses as wives and three hundred con-
cubines.
Through their influence, many of whom came from the
courts of surrounding nations, he was betrayed into an
idolatry that outraged the religious sense of his people.
In spite of the external splendor he had introduced into
his capital a period when "silver was as plentiful on the
streets as stones" the wisest of kings, as Jewish tradi-
tion regarded him, stirred up profound discontent among
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 63
the people, and effectually undermined the stability of the
monarchy. 1
The Kingdom Divided. The catastrophe, for which the
folly and oppression of Solomon had prepared the way,
was not long in coming. At his death, _Rehob.Q.am f .-hi_s_
son by an Ammonite princess, ascended the throne. At
a national assembly convened at Shechem, the people
petitioned for an alleviation of their grievous burdens. A
spirit of patriotism and concession on the part of the new
king would have established his sovereignty. Unfortu-
nately, brought up in an atmosphere of luxury and abso-
lutism, Rehoboam, disdaining the wise advice of his aged
counsellors, and lending a willing ear to his young, inexperi-
enced courtiers, returned a haughty and exasperating
answer. " My father chastised you with whips," he said,
"but I will chastise you with scorpions."
This tyrannical spirit was immediately met by a general
revolt. Under the capable leadership of Jeroboam, who
had stirred up an unsuccessful rebellion under Solomon,
ten of the tribes at once set up a rival monarchy, known
henceforth as the kingdom of Israel (Q.^O B.C.). Only
two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, remained loyal to Reho-
boam, and form^rl rhf> Vinpfdnm of Judah. This unfortu-
nate breach between the tribes was never healed ; and
weakening the force of the Hebrew people, it led to their
early and inevitable overthrow.
1 " However great the splendor of Israel in Solomon's reign, this advance was
not without a darker side. The new paths in which Solomon led his people
brought the Israelites comfort and opulence, the advantages and impulses of a
higher civilization and more active intellectual life. But with the splendor and
luxury of the court, and the increasing wealth, the old simplicity of manners dis-
appeared. The land had to bear the burden of a rule which was completely as-
similated to the forms of court life and the mode of government established in
Egypt and Syria, in Babylon and Assyria." MAX DUNCKER, " History of Antiq-
uity," Vol. II., p. 192.
64 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Social Conditions. It is not necessary to follow the his-
tory of the two kingdoms in detail ; it is largely a record
of hostility and war a period of confusion and decadence.
The worship of Jehovah declined, particularly in the king-
dom of Israel. As a matter of state policyjerobjcxani_had
introduced idolatry into his kingdom in order to weaken
the influence of the temple service at Jerusalem. " If the
people go up to do sacrifice in the house of the Lord at
Jerusalem," he argued, " then shall the heart of this peo-
ple turn again unto their lord, even to Rehoboam, King of
Judah." 1
From time to time there arose brave, pious, and patriotic
men, known as prophets, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah,
and others, who rebuked, in words of glowing eloquence,
the idolatry, luxury, and vices of the people. In the time
of Ahab, about 870 B.C., who had formed an alliance with
Tyre and introduced the worship of Baal, Elijah stands
forth as a prophetic hero. Hosea, a little later, is sharp
and unsparing in denouncing the degenerate state of soci-
ety : " There is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God
in the land. By swearing, and lying, and killing, and steal-
ing, and committing adultery, they break out, and blood
toucheth blood." 2 These are representatives of the prophets
who in this period exerted a great influence, and at times
determined the course of Hebrew history.
Fall of Israel and Judah. The divided and weakened
condition of the Hebrew people invited foreign invasion.
Rehoboam had occupied the throne but five years when he
was attacked by/ShisTia^'of Egypt, who captured Jerusa-
lem and despoiled the temple a victory portrayed on the
walls at Karnak. The kingdom of Israel lasted about two
hundred years, during which there was a succession of nine-
1 1 Kings 12 : 27. 2 Hosea 4 : 2.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 65
teen kings. Finally, as we learned in the last chapter, it
was destroyed by Sa^qriJJ^_whojn ^22 B.C. captured Sa-
maria, the capital, and deported the people into the eastern
part of the Assyrian empire.
The kingdom of Judah lasted about three hundred and
fifty years ; and among its nineteen sovereigns there were
men of distinguished ability and_ character. Worthy of
special mention are[josiah and HezekiahJ under whom a
religious reformation was effected. Finally, like its rival
in the north, the kingdom of Judah fell a prey to foreign
invaders, and 586 B.C. the people were carried in captivity
to Babylon.
The Babylonian Exile. The Hebrews remained in
captivity, as their prophets had foretold, for seventy
ye_ars. It was a period of great significance. It
wrought a national transformation. With the extinction
of the political power of the Hebrews, there came in some
measure a spiritual regeneration. Never afterwards did
the Jews, as they are henceforth called, show any ten- <
dency to polytheism. Their adherence to Jehovah, the
one Supreme Being, remains unsullied by the frequent
lapses into idolatry that characterized their previous life
in Canaan.
Through contemporary prophets and a few of the psalms
we obtain glimpses of the period of exile. In the brief
chapter of his prophecy, Obadiah reveals the violence of
the Edomites toward his subjugated and enfeebled coun-
trymen who had been left in the land of Judah. The book
of Lamentations, as its name indicates, is a threnody over
the ruin of Jerusalem. " How doth the city sit solitary,"
exclaims Jeremiah, " that was full of people ! how is she
become as a widow ! She that was great among the na-
tions, and princess among the provinces, how is she be-
Li
66 .47V INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
come tributary!" 1 In the 13 7th Psalm there is a pathetic
picture of the sorrow of the exiles: " By the rivers of Baby-
lon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remem-
bered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows in
the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away
captive required of us a song; and they that wasted us re-
quired of us mirth, saying, sing us one ot the songs of
Zion."
But in this period of humiliation and sorrow, the leaders
of the Jews were upheld by a great religious and patriotic
faith. They encouraged the people with hopes of a com-
ing deliverance. "Build ye houses," wrote Jeremiah to
the captives in Babylon, " and dwell in them ; and plant
gardens, and eat the fruit of them. . . . For thus saith the
Lord, that after seventy years be accomplished at Babylon,
I will visit you, and perform my good word toward you, in
causing you to return to this place." 2 , And^EzekieJ^b}^
the startling vision of the valley of dry bones, revived the
dead hopes of his people. He represents God as saying,
" Behold, O my people, I will open your graves, and cause
you to come out of your graves, and bring you into the
and of Israel." 3
The Restoration. After the capture of Babylon (538
B.C.) , Cyrus, the king of Persia, granted the Jews permission
to return to their native land. According to the proclama-
tion preserved in the first chapter of Ezra, the Persian con-
queror felt an obligation to restore the temple at Jerusalem.
He may have been moved to this remarkable step by the
friendly welcome he received from the Jews in Babylon.
A great Hebrew prophet had called him the anointed of
the Lord, and predicted his mighty conquests 4 an official
recognition that may well have conciliated his favor.
lLam. 1:1. 2 j er . 29 : 5, 10. 3 z. 37 : 12. 4 Is. 45 : i.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 67
The first expedition of the exiles was under the leader-
ship of Zerubbabel, who led about fifty thousand of the
Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem and neighboring cities.
The splendid vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar
had carried away and consecrated to his gods, were mag-
nanimously restored to the Jews. In a few years the re-
building of the temple was completed, and the worship of
Jehovah solemnly reinstated. In promoting this work,
the prophets Haggai and Zechariah were especially ac-
tive.
There were other expeditions from Babylon under Ezra
and Nehemiah. After nearly a hundred years, the walls
of Jerusalem, in spite of the plottings of enemies, were
completed. Important social reforms were inaugurated.
A full account of the restoration is found in Ezra and Ne-
hemiah. Canaan did not regain its independence, but re-
mained a Persian province until that famous empire was
overthrown by Alexander the Great (333 B.C.).
The Controlling Factor. Throughout the long and H
varied course of Hebrew history, covering about a thou-
sand years, its central and unifying factor is the religion of
Jehovah. 1 The literature of this Old Testament, which re-
flects the inner life of the people, makes this, truth very
clear. In almost every book the presence and providence
of Jehovah are recognized. His hand was recognized alike
in the joys and the sorrows that came to the people of Is-
rael. In Exodus we read that "He relaxed the gripe of
cruelty by sore visitations in Egypt, and that He guided the
fleeing multitude by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of
fire by night. He established a covenant with them at
1 "The peculiarity of the biblical religion is that in it this idea of the connection
of religion with morality is the all-dominating one." JAMES ORR, "Problem of the
Old Testament," p. 43.
68 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Sinai in the midst of imposing splendors. He provided
for their needs in the wilderness, and gave them victory
over the tribes of Canaan.
For a long time after -the settlement in the Promised
Land, the worship of Jehovah was the chief bond of unity
among the separate tribes. After the building of the tem-
ple, its splendid ceremonial sacrifices and the great annual
festivals at Jerusalem helped to centralize and strengthen
the monarchy. National disasters were regarded as puni-
tive acts of Jehovah on account of the sins of the people.
Their sacred poetry, particularly the Psalms, is filled with
the praises of Jehovah ; and the eloquent discourses of the
prophets set forth the character, sovereignty, and righteous-
ness of God with a fervor and insight that have never been
surpassed. Above all the other nations of antiquity, re-
ligion was the great factor of Hebrew life ; and their
thoughts of God have become a part of the religious treas-
ures of the modern world.
RESEARCH WORK
i. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD
The separation of Abraham and Lot, Gen. 13 : 5-13.
An instance of Oriental hospitality, Gen. 18 : 1-8.
Abraham's intercession for the city of Sodom, Gen. 18 : 23-33.
The destruction of two wicked cities, Gen. 19: 1-29.
The offering of Isaac in the land of Moriah, Gen. 22 : 1-14.
The wooing of Rebecca, Gen. 24.
A villanous act of deception, and its consequences, Gen. 27.
A remarkable vision, Gen. 28 : 10-22.
A long period of loving service, Gen. 29: 1-20.
The flight of Jacob, Gen. 31.
Wrestling with a mysterious stranger, Gen. 32 : 24-32.
The reconciliation of a family feud, Gen. 33 : 1-17.
A case of family jealousy, and its results, Gen. 37.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 69
2. THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT
Joseph in the house of Potiphar, Gen. 39 : 1-20.
The dreams of two Egyptian prisoners, Gen. 40.
The striking dream of Pharaoh, and its interpretation, Gen. 41.
Joseph's brethren in Egypt, and his conduct toward them, Gen. 42-45.
The reception of Joseph's father in Egypt, Gen. 46, 47.
The measures of oppression adopted by Ramses II., Ex. i : 7-22.
The rescue of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter, Ex. 2 : i-io.
The call of Moses to be Israel's deliverer, Ex. 3, 4.
The increased oppression of the Hebrews, Ex. 5 : 1-19.
The various plagues sent upon Egypt, Ex. 7-12.
The institution of the Passover, Ex. 12 : 3-28.
The departure of the Israelites from Egypt, Ex. 13 : 17-22.
The pursuit and disaster of the Egyptians, Ex. 14 : 5-31.
A vigorous triumphal ode, Ex. 15 : 1-23.
3. IN THE WILDERNESS
The marvellous supply of quails and manna, Ex. 16 : 2-26.
A victory over Amalek, Ex. 17 : 8-16.
An improved civil administration, Ex. 18 : 13-27.
The giving of the Ten Commandments, Ex. 20 : 1-22.
Various civil regulations, Ex. 21-23.
The worship of the golden calf, Ex. 32 : 1-25.
The setting up of the tabernacle, Ex. 40 : 17-38.
~The various kinds of sacrifices, Lev. 1-4.
Regulations in regard to animal food, Lev. 1 1 : 1-47.
The blessings of obedience and curses of disobedience, Lev. 26.
The sedition of Miriam and Aaron, Numb. 12.
The expedition and report of the spies, Numb. 13 : 17-33.
A rebellion and its severe punishment, Numb. 16: 1-35.
The visitation of fiery serpents, and the remedy, Numb. 21 : 4-9.
The story of Balaam, Numb. 22-24.
The appointment of cities of refuge, Numb. 35 : 9-34.
An interesting summary of Israel's life in the wilderness, Deut. 1-3.
Severe measures to guard against idolatry, Deut. 13.
The death of Moses on the mountain, Deut. 34.
70 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
4. THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN
Two spies in the city of Jericho, Josh. 2.
The crossing of the Jordan toward the west, Josh. 3.
The capture and destruction of Jericho, Josh. 6.
The craft and bondage of the Gibeonites, Josh. 9 : 3-27.
War with the five kings, Josh. 10 : 1-28.
The distribution of the land among the invading tribes, Josh. 13-19.
Farewell discourse of Joshua, Josh. 23.
A brief summary of Hebrew history, Josh. 24: 1-28
5. THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES
Two national deliverers, Judges 3 : 5-30.
The victory of Deborah and Barak, Judges 4.
A song of victory, Judges 5.
Gideon's stratagem and victory, Judges 7.
The fatal vow of Jephthah, Judges I r : 29-40.
The story of Samson, Judges 13-16.
The defeat of Israel and loss of the ark, I Sam. 4 : 1-18.
The ark of God among the Philistines, I Sam. 5.
Its subsequent return to Israel, i Sam. 6, 7.
6. THE MONARCHY ESTABLISHED
The demand for a monarchy, I Sam. 8.
The anointing and selection of Saul as king, I Sam. 10.
A great victory of the new king, I Sam. 2.
Incidents of Saul's reign, i Sam. 13-15.
The duel between David and Goliath, i Sam. 17: 1-54.
The jealousy of Saul, i Sam. 18: 5-27.
The famous friendship of David and Jonathan, i Sam. 20.
A magnanimous act of David, i Sam. 24.
The incident of Nadab and Abigail, i Sam. 25.
An instance of spiritualism, i Sam. 28 : 7-25.
The death of Saul, i Sam. 31 : 1-6.
David's elegy over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. i : 17-27.
Civil war between- David and Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 71
The murder of Abner by Joab, 2 Sam. 3 : 22-39.
A treacherous murder and its reward, 2 Sam. 4: 5-12.
The establishment of the ark of God in Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6: 12-19.
Expansion of the kingdom by conquest, 2 Sam. 8.
The famous oarable of Nathan, 2 Sam. 12 : 1-14.
David's psalm of penitance, Ps. 51.
The conspiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15.
The death of Absalom and the king's lament, 2 Sam. 18 : 6-33.
A psalm of thanksgiving for deliverance, 2 Sam. 22.
Solomon made king, I Kings I : 32-49.
His celebrated choice, I Kings 3: 5-15.
A famous judgment of Solomon, I Kings 3 : 16-28.
His wide kingdom and magnificent court, I Kings 4: 20-34.
Preparation for building the temple, i Kings 5.
The construction of the temple, i Kings 6.
The dedication of the temple, i Kings 8.
The wisdom, commerce, and splendor of Solomon, i Kings 10.
The idolatry of Solomon, i Kings 11 : 1-13.
7. THE DIVIDED KINGDOM
The folly of Rehoboam and revolt often tribes, i Kings 12 : 1-20.
The prophet Elijah marvellously provided for, i Kings 17.
A famous contest with the prophets of Baal, i Kings 18 : 17-40.
The flight and vision of Elijah, i Kings 19: 4-18.
A victory over Benhadad, King of Syria, i Kings 20 : 1-34.
The murder of Naboth by Ahab and Jezebel, i Kings 21 : 1-24.
The translation of Elijah in a chariot of fire, 2 Kings 2 : i-i i .
The defeat of the Moabites by three allied kings, 2 Kings 3 : 4-27.
Various miracles wrought by Elisha, 2 Kings 4.
The prophet heals Naaman the Syrian of leprosy, 2 Kings 5.
The Syrians frightened away from Samaria, 2 Kings 7.
Jehu anointed king, and his reign, 2 Kings 9, 10.
The cruelty and overthrow of Queen Athaliah, 2 Kings 2 : 1-16.
8. THE PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY
The kingdom of Israel overthrown by Shalmaneser, 2 Kings 17.
The invasion and defeat of Sennacherib, 2 Kings 18, 19.
72 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY -
The life of Hezekiah miraculously prolonged, 2 Kings 20: i-n.
The great religious reform under Josiah, 2 Kings 22, 23.
The overthrow and captivity of Judah, 2 Kings 24, 25.
The condition of Jerusalem after its fall, Obadiah I.
The pitiable condition of the exiles, Ps. 137.
Lament over the downfall of Jerusalem, Lam. 1-5.
The destruction of Babylon foretold, Jer. 50, 51.
Judgments denounced against Babylon, Is. 47.
Daniel at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. i : 3-21.
Interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2.
The incident of the golden image and fiery furnace, Dan. 3.
A second dream and its interpretation, Dan. 4.
The impious feast of Belshazzar, Dan. 5.
Official jealousy and its consequences, Dan. 6.
The story of Esther and Ahasuerus or Xerxes, Esther i-io.
9. THE RESTORATION
The proclamation of Cyrus for the restoration of the Jews, Ezra i,
A*list of those returning under Zerubbabel, Ezra 2.
The worship of Jehovah restored, Ezra 3.
The decree of Darius, and completion of the temple, Ezra 6.
The expedition of Ezra at a later time, Ezra 7.
The agitation in regard to mixed marriages, Ezra 9, 10,
Nehemiah despatched to Jerusalem by Artaxerxes, Neh. 2.
The manner of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, Neh. 4.
Important social reforms of Nehemiah, Neh. 5.
The reading and expounding of the law of Moses, Neh. 8.
A solemn fast and confession, Neh. 9.
CHAPTER IV
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE
Nature of Literature. Literature is the written expres-
sion of human life. It embodies the thought, emotions,
and achievements of man. When the intellectual element
predominates, the result is philosophy ; when the emotional
element is uppermost, we have poetry ; and when the
statement of events is supreme, we have history. When
the imagination is the principal faculty at work, the result
is fiction in some of its forms of parable, allegory, or tale.
In most books, however, these different elements are not
kept entirely distinct ; and hence we are apt to find in the
same book a combination of thought, feeling, imagination,
and fact.
We may take the book of Exodus by way of illustration.
It is chiefly, as its name indicates, a narrative of the deliv-
erance of the children of Israel from the bondage of
Egypt. Its statement of actual occurrences makes it
chiefly historical. But the author reflects upon the causes
of the mighty events that claim his attention. He traces
the deliverance to the direct interposition of Jehovah
a fact that renders the book at once philosophical and
religious. Furthermore, the soul of the old Hebrew writer
is deeply moved by the incidents of the Red Sea ; and
accordingly, his kindled feelings burst forth in a song of
triumph. Thus, in all the books of the Old Testament,
we may recognize, to a greater or less degree, the various
elements that enter into the life of man.
73
74 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Hebrew Literature. In the Old Testament we have an
invaluable remnant of the literature of the Hebrew people,
a faithful reflection of their outward and inner life.
There are other writings extant, known collectively as the
Apocrypha, which are not usually included in the Old
Testament ; and many treatises the book of Jasher,* the
Wars of the Lord, 2 the Acts of Solomon, 3 and various
royal chronicles 4 have unfortunately been lost.
An examination of the Old Testament will show that it
is composed of thirty-nine separate books or pamphlets of
varying length. The prophecy of Obadiah, for example,
consists of a single chapter, while Isaiah contains sixty-six
chapters. The authors of many of these books are un-
known. If, following the usual view, we hold Moses to
be the author of the earliest writings, and Malachi the
author of the latest, then the literature of the Old Testa-
ment covers a period of a thousand years, a period longer
than the life of Grecian or Roman literature.
But however widely separated in time and place the
books of the Old Testament may be, they form a consist-
ent unity through their common religious faith and purpose.
With varying clearness and fulness they reveal the exist-
ence, righteousness, and providence of Jehovah. This
profound religious element distinguishes the Old Testa-
ment from all the contemporary writings of Babylonia and
Egypt 5
Influence of Environment. No literature can be fully
1 Josh. 10:13. 2 Numb. 21 : 14. 3 i Kings n : 41. 4 2 Kings 12 : 19.
5 " It records the history and the institutions of a most remarkable people. It
gives an insight into their character and usages, into their domestic, social, and
political life ; particularly it exhibits their religion in its spirit and its outward
forms, a religion altogether unique in the ancient world, and the influence oi
which has been deep and widespread in later times." W. H. GREEN, " Higher
Criticism of the Pentateuch," p. 172.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 75
understood without an acquaintance with the circumstances
under which it originated. Hebrew literature was born in
the presence of a much older and highly developed civili-
zation. Abraham carried with him from Chaldea a knowl-
edge of Babylonian literature, and Moses was " learned in
all the wisdom of the Egyptians." At the time of the
migration the Hebrew people as a whole shared the
Egyptian culture, in the presence of which they had dwelt
for more than four hundred years. Hence we need not
be surprised at the perfection of form which belongs even
to the earliest productions of Hebrew genius. The evolu-
tionary hypothesis adopted by Wellhausen and some other
German scholars seems to lose sight of the advanced civil-
ization that prevailed, long before the days of Moses, from
the Tigris to the Nile.
Race and Epoch. In a national literature race and
epoch are recognized as moulding influences of great po-
tency. It is important to remember that the Old Tes-
tament is an Oriental book, the product of a race of
imaginative temper and deep religious feeling. The He-
brews magnified the religious side of life, and poured
forth their religious emotions in fervent poetry and glow-
ing eloquence. It might almost be said of them that they
were a God-intoxicated people. The fulness and ardor
with which their poets have expressed every phase of re-
ligious feeling faith, penitence, praise, joy have made
the book of Psalms a devotional treasury for thousands of
years.
The ardent nature of the Hebrew sometimes manifested
itself in malevolence, and then it burst forth in cruel
hatred and unholy imprecation. In war he did not rise
above the barbarities of his Assyrian contemporaries, and
even his prayers to Jehovah sometimes breathed an im-
76 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
placable vengeance. In the io8th Psalm, for example, we
find a pitiless hate of an enemy : " Let his children be
fatherless, and his wife a widow. Let his children be
continually vagabonds, and beg ; let them seek their bread
also out of their desolate places. Let the extortioner
catch all that he hath ; and let the strangers spoil his
labor. Let there be none to extend mercy unto him ;
neither let there be any to favor his fatherless children."
This merciless imprecation, so foreign to the teaching of
Christ, is an outburst natural to an offended Oriental.
Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that the age, in
which the scriptures of the Old Testament were written,
was lacking in the scientific spirit. The Hebrew writers,
like their contemporaries in Babylonia and Egypt, looked
on events with a childlike credulity. Ignorant, in large
measure, of the laws of nature, they attributed any un-
usual event to the immediate agency of Jehovah. Victory
was always ascribed to divine favor ; defeat was always a
proof of divine displeasure. This lack of a scientific spirit,
which took no account of secondary causes, was at once
a source of weakness and of strength. If it sometimes
presents us with a childlike conception of events, it em-
phasizes the divine element in history. One of the dis-
tinguishing and edifying features of the Old Testament
is its recognition of the hand of God in individual and
national life. It is Jehovah who personally calls Abra-
ham, chooses Moses, controls the destinies of Israel, and
directs the turnings and overturnings of the nations.
Personal Element. It is a mistake to suppose, as some
writers have done, that surroundings, race, and epoch
explain everything in history and literature. There is a
personal factor of great importance. From time to time
men of exceptional gifts appear, and rising above the level
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 77
of their age, become centres of a new and mighty influ-
ence. These are providential men the subjects of a
special inspiration, and the leaders of great movements.
Hebrew history, beyond that of any other people, is
filled with these inspired men. They stand at the begin-
ning of each era ; they lead every significant movement.
Abraham becomes the founder of the Hebrew people by a
divine vocation ; Moses is the chosen agent to lead his
people from bondage and give them a national organiza-
tion ; Joshua is the divinely appointed captain to direct
the conquest of Canaan ; and the judges and prophets
were raised up, according to the need of the times, to free
the nation from oppression or to call it to righteous-
ness. These providential men are the heroes of Hebrew
literature.
Formation of the Old Testament. From the long period
of time covered by its various books, it is evident that
the Old Testament is a growth. *At first there existed
only the law of Moses. In successive periods, as men
were moved to write or the events of Hebrew history made
it necessary, new books were added to the sacred collec-
tion. In some cases, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and a
few others, the name of the author and the date of writing
are given ; but unfortunately, in most instances, these de-
tails have been omitted. This fact has given rise to differ-
ences of opinion as to the age of certain books ; but all
biblical students recognize a gradual development of the
Old Testament collection of writings. But two or three
centuries before Christ the Old Testament had assumed
substantially its present form, as is shown by the Greek
translation, called the Septuagint, which was made at that
time.
Its Careful Preservation. The careful preservation of
78 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
the Old Testament was due to the profound reverence of
the Hebrews for their sacred writings. This reverence was
a part of their education. A copy of the Mosaic law was
preserved in the ark of the Lord as a precious treasure. 1
It was made the religious duty of every head of a family to
teach the law to his children. 2 At the end of every seven
years it was read in the hearing of all the people, and
every king was required to make a copy with his own
hand. 3
There is a striking instance of this reverence for the
Scriptures in Nehemiah. All the people of Jerusalem had
assembled to hear " the law of Moses, which the Lord had
commanded Israel. . . . And Ezra opened the book in the
sight of all the people ; and when he opened it, all tlie
people stood up." * In the iQth Psalm there is a fine eulogy
of the law, which is pronounced " perfect, converting the
soul "; and in the first Psalm the man is called blessed,
whose " delight is in th law of the Lord."
This reverent regard, which was first felt for the law of
Moses, was later extended to all the writings of the Old
Testament, and led to a painstaking and even superstitious
care in their preservation. " How firmly we have given
credit to these books of our nation," says the Jewish his-
torian Josephus, "is evident by what we do; for during so
many ages as have already passed, no one hath been so
bold as either to add anything to them, to take anything
from them, or to make any change in them." 5
Classification of Writings. A very superficial exami-
nation of the thirty-nine books of the Old Testament, espe-
cially in the Revised Version, reveals points of likeness and
difference, which enable us to divide them into several
i Deut. 31 : 26. 2 Deut. 6:7. Deut. 17 : 18. 4 Neh. 8:5.
5 Josephus, "Against Apion," i. 8.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 79
clearly marked classes. There are books that are plainly
historical in their character. They are chronicles of lead-
ing events in the life of the Hebrew people. As we have
already seen, Exodus narrates the escape of the Hebrews
from Egyptian servitude. Joshua tells of the conquest of
Canaan, and Judges sets forth the social and political con-
dition of Israel prior to the establishment of the monarchy.
The books of Kings and Chronicles are narratives of events
during the long regal period.
There are other books that are as plainly poetical in
their character. In the Revised Version they are printed
in poetic form. In Job several persons carry on a de-
bate or dialogue in verse, a fact that gives the book the
character of a drama. The Psalms are brief lyrics or hymns.
The book of Proverbs is made up of didactic verse, which
appeals to the judgment rather than to the emotions. In
the Song of Solomon, as it is called, we have a lyrical
drama of love.
The closing books of the Old Testament, beginning
with Isaiah, bear still a different character. Their main
purpose is neither historical nor poetical. They are col-
lections of brief sermons or addresses, which urge the
people to righteousness, and foretell approaching disaster
or blessing. Thus, in a general way, we may classify the
various books of the Old Testament as historical, poetical,
or prophetic.
Hebrew Historical Writing. The historical writing of
the Hebrews, as contained in the Old Testament, is unlike
the historical writing of the present day. It is not the
purpose of Hebrew history to exhibit the manifold life of
the people or to trace the political development of the
nation. Hence there is no effort to record the customs
and occupations of the people, and to present their artistic
80 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
and scientific culture. There is no elaborate study of
social conditions. What we learn of these things is
merely incidental to the main purpose.
Hebrew history has a distinctly religious aim. Its
main purpose is to exhibit the dealings of Jehovah with
His people, and to establish His character as a covenant-
keeping God. It is a commentary on the principle stated
in Deuteronomy : " Know therefore that the Lord thy
God, He is God, the faithful God, which keepeth covenant
and mercy with them that love and keep His command-
ments to a thousand generations ; and repayeth them that
hate Him to their face, to destroy them ; He will not be
slack to him that hateth Him, He will repay him to his
face. Thou shalt therefore keep the commandments, and
the statutes, and the judgments, to do them." 1
This underlying principle of Hebrew history is clearly
brought to light in the book of Judges. National disaster
is there presented as a judgment of Jehovah on account of
the wickedness of the people. Accordingly we find it re-
peatedly stated that " the children of Israel did evil in the
sight of the Lord ; and the Lord delivered them into the
hand of Midian," 2 or the Philistines, or other enemies.
On the other hand, deliverance and blessing are presented
as acts of Jehovah in recognition of the repentance of the
people. " When the children of Israel cried unto the
Lord, the Lord raised up a deliverer to the children of
Israel who delivered them. 3 " This vibration between sin
and righteousness imparts a unique undulatory movement
to all Hebrew history.
Sources of History. The writers of Hebrew history fol-
lowed the methods of other historians. All history, as will
be seen on a moment's reflection, ultimately depends
!Deut. 7: 9-11. 2 Judges 6: 2. 3 Judges 3: 9.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 8 1
on testimony or records contemporary with the events de-
scribed. When the Hebrew historian was not contempo-
rary with the events that he narrated, he naturally made use
of oral tradition, official documents, and other earlier writ-
ings. This is made evident by an examination of the his-
torical books themselves.
The author of Genesis, whether Moses or some later
writer, probably utilized an oral tradition of creation and
the flood that Abraham had brought centuries earlier from
Babylonia to Canaan. In Hebrew history there are ex-
tracts from writings the book of Jasher and the Wars
of the Lord which are specifically named. 1 The Chron-
icles of the Kings of Israel and Judah are frequently cited
as sources; and documents like Sennacherib's blasphe-
mous letter to Hezekiah 2 and the decrees of Cyrus and
Darius 3 in reference to the rebuilding of the temple, were
probably taken from the royal archives of Judah and
Persia.
But whatever may be the nature of the material that is
used or the sources from which it is taken, the Hebrew
historian, with a deep spiritual insight, fitted it into the
great religious argument he was constructing. Through it
all we discern the agency of Jehovah the God of right-
eousness who exacts obedience from His children. 4
Interesting Biographies. There is, perhaps, no other
part of history that is more interesting than biography,
1 See Josh. 10 : 13 ; 2 Sam. i : 18 ; Numb. 21 : 14, 15.
2 2 Kings 19 : 9-13. 8 Ezra 6 : 1-12.
4 " The story of the campaign of Chedor-laomer must have been derived from a
cuneiform tablet ; the story of Joseph seems to have been taken from a hieratic
papyrus. The account of the deluge had made its way from Babylonia to Canaan
in the days when the culture of Chaldea extended to the Mediterranean. We
thus have narratives which presuppose an acquaintance not only with Babylon and
Egypt, but also with Babylonian and Egyptian documents." A. H. SAYCE,
" Early History of the Hebrews," p. 130.
82 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
which traces the facts of individual life. We have a
natural desire to know the lives and characters of the men
who have in any way risen above their fellows, and taken
a prominent part in great social, political, or religious
movements. While great men are in large measure the
creatures of mighty movements, they at the same time give
direction to historical development. They act as divine
agents. There is truth in Carlyle's idea that general his-
tory "is at bottom the history of the great men who have
worked there."
The Old Testament contains a large number of interest-
ing biographical sketches. They are not, indeed, elaborate
studies, but brief outlines of salient facts. They are in-
cidental to the main purpose of Hebrew history. But in
many cases they present the facts with sufficient fulness to
enable us to form a just estimate of the leading spirits of
the Hebrew people. In their treatment there is a singular
and surprising impartiality ; and the frailties of even the
most illustrious characters Abraham, Moses, David
are not concealed or extenuated.
It is to be noted that in Hebrew biography, as in Hebrew
national history, there is a great ethical and religious pur-
pose. We there meet with the same inexorable law, that
sin brings suffering and punishment. When Jacob, for
example, deceives his father and wrongs his brother, he
pays the penalty in fear and flight ; when Moses forgets
his station and disobeys the divine command, he loses the
high privilege of leading his people into the Promised
Land; l and when David is too indulgent to a favorite son,
he is driven from his capital by rebellion and plunged
into the woes of bereavement. On the other hand, Hebrew
biography teaches, to use the words of the first Psalm,
1 Numb. 20 : 10-12.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 83
that " blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel
of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor
sitteth in the seat of the scornful. But his delight is in
the law of the Lord, and in His law doth he meditate day
and night." A
Hebrew Poetry. The essential nature of poetry is /
the same in all languages. It is fundamentally the
literary expression of emotion. It presupposes an exalta-
tion of soul, which sometimes suffuses the objects of nature
and the scenes of human life with a beauty and glory of
its own,
"The light that never was on sea or land."
It is this exaltation of soul, in which the feelings are
deeply moved, that distinguishes poetry from prose. In
the latter the intellect is dominant. When the psalmist
breaks forth
" The heavens declare the glory of God,
And the firmament showeth His handiwork,"
we realize at once that we are above the realm of prose.
While the essence of poetry is everywhere the same, its
form is different. English poetry usually requires both
metre and rhyme. The presence of a regular rhythm or
metre distinguishes poetry from poetical prose. The
principle of Anglo-Saxon poetry is alliteration. In Hebrew
literature it is not rhythm or rhyme or alliteration that
distinguishes poetry from prose, but parallelism, the
repetition of the same thought in different words. Take,
for example, the words of Balaam as he stood on the hill
overlooking the camp of Israel :
" How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed ?
And how shall I defy, whom the Lord hath not defied?
84 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
For from the top of the rocks I see him,
And from the hills I behold him :
Lo, it is a people that dwell alone,
And shall not be reckoned among the nations.
Who can count the dust of Jacob,
Or number the fourth part of Israel?
Let me die the death of the righteous,
And let my last end be like his." 1
By omitting the alternate or parallel lines a process
that does not alter the sense this splendid outburst of
poetry is turned into prose.
Variations of Parallelism. Hebrew poetry is varied
in two ways: (i) by the number of parallel ideas;
and (2) by the relation of these ideas. In the example
just given, there is a single parallelism, the second line
of each couplet corresponding to the first. Sometimes
the parallelism is triple or compound ; and in that case it
gives a stanzaic structure to the poem. The looth Psalm
furnishes a beautiful illustration :
" Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all ye lands.
Serve the Lord with gladness ;
Come before His presence witli 'singing.
" Know ye that the Lord He is God ;
It is He that hath made us, and we are His ;
We are His people, and the sheep of His pasture.
<" Enter into His gates with thanksgiving,
And into His courts with praise ;
Give thanks unto Him, and bless His name.
" For the Lord is good ;
His mercy endureth forever ;
And His faithfulness unto all generations."
Sometimes there is a double parallelism extending
through four lines a combination that results in quatrain
1 Numb. 23 : 8-10.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 85
verse. Take this example from the third chapter of Prov-
erbs :
"My son, despise not the chastening of the Lord ;
Neither be weary of His reproof;
For whom the Lord loveth He reproveth,
Even as a father the son in whom he delighteth.
" Happy is the man that findeth wisdom,
And the man that getteth understanding ;
For the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of
silver,
And the gain thereof than fine gold.
" She is more precious than rubies ;
And none of the things thou canst desire are to be
compared unto her ;
Length of days is in her right hand ;
In her left hand are riches and honor."
Antithetic Parallelism. Sometimes the parallelism
takes the form of coordination, as in the preceding ex-
amples ; at other times it takes the form of antithesis or
contrast, one member expressing the idea positively and
the other negatively. This antithetic parallelism will be
made clear by the following example from the tenth chap-
ter of Proverbs :
" A wise son maketh a glad father ;
But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother.
"Treasures of wickedness profit nothing;
But righteousness delivereth from death.
" The Lord will not suffer the soul of the righteous to famish ;
But He thrusteth away the desire of the wicked.
" He becometh poor that dealeth with a slack hand ;
But the hand of the diligent maketh rich."
86 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Elaborated Forms. By a combination of these various
forms of parallelism, Hebrew poetry exhibits a great
variety of structure. Sometimes, instead of using coup-
lets or quatrains, the Hebrew poet elaborated his thought
through a greater number of lines ; and in this case, the
result is an irregular ode-like stanza. The following will
serve as an illustration, though forms still more compli-
cated are met with :
" A worthless person, a man of iniquity ;
He vvalketh with a froward mouth ;
He winketh with his eyes, he speaketh with his feet,
He maketh signs with his fingers :
Frowardness is in his heart,
He deviseth evil continually,
He soweth discord.
Therefore shall his calamity come suddenly ;
On a sudden shall he be broken, and that without remedy." 1
Preachers of Righteousness. The third great division
of the Old Testament scriptures is the prophets. Their
writings form more than a fourth part of the entire collec-
tion, a fact that gives an idea of their importance.
Though little read and still less understood, the prophet-
ical books are full of interest and instruction. They are
contemporary documents of great historical value ; and the
moral and religious principles they embody are applicable
to the social and political conditions of the present day.
The prophets were not, as is commonly supposed, fore-
tellers of future events. They were preachers of right-
eousness, the bearers of a divine message to a rebellious
people. In setting themselves against the iniquitous ten-
dencies of their age, they often assumed the character
of reformers, and sometimes suffered cruel persecution.
1 Prov. 6 : 12-15.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 87
Elijah had to flee from the murderous Jezebel, 3 and the
faithful Jeremiah was cast into a dungeon. 2 The prophets
were patriotic and courageous men ; their vision penetrated
beneath the surface of things ; and with a strong con-
sciousness of the truth they were proclaiming, they im-
pressively spoke in the name of the Lord. Very often
their discourses begin with " thus saith the Lord." 3
Style of Discourse. The discourses of the prophets are
generally brief. The major prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah,
and Ezekiel contain many separate discourses, which
were delivered at different times, and called forth by dif-
ferent circumstances. Like other orators who appeal to
the people, the Hebrew prophets employed all the arts of
eloquence. Their earnestness as the conscious represent-
atives of Jehovah suffused their addresses with a large
emotional element. Isaiah, for example, begins his proph-
ecy with a bold apostrophe : " Hear, O heavens, and give
ear, O earth, for the Lord hath spoken."
Their thought moves on a high level, and their language
is often glowing and imaginative. Thus, to the imagina-
tion of Isaiah, the advancing hosts of Assyria appear like
a tidal wave of the ocean. " Ah, the uproar of many
peoples," he exclaims, " which roar like the roaring of the
seas ; and the rushing of nations, that rush like the rushing
of mighty waters. The nations shall rush like the rushing
of many waters ; but He shall rebuke them, and they shall
flee far off, and shall be chased as the chaff of the moun-
1 Kings 19 : 1-18. 2 Jer. 37 : 11-21.
8 "All these men have the consciousness of not acting in their own personal
capacities, of not pronouncing the sentiments of their own minds, but as the in-
struments of a Higher Being, who acts and speaks through them ; they feel them-
selves to be, as Jeremiah expresses it once in a remarkably characteristic verse,
'the mouth of God."' CARL HEINRICH CORNILL, "The Prophets of Israel,"
p. ii.
88 .4 TV INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
tains before the wind, and like the whirling dust before
the storm. At eventide behold terror; and before the
morning they are not." 1
In their effort to make the truth impressive and effec-
tive, they exhaust the resources of figurative speech.
They not only use parable and allegory, but they, also
employ symbolical action. Thus when Ezekiel desired to
proclaim the overthrow of Jerusalem, he made a model of
the city, and in the presence of the people conducted a
mimic siege against it. 2 In like manner Jeremiah, to
emphasize the utter destruction of Jerusalem, dashed to
pieces a potter's vessel as he spoke. " Thus saith the
Lord; even so will I break this people and this city, as
one breaketh a potter's vessel, that cannot be made whole
again." 3
Foretelling Events. The prophets frequently foretold
coming events as impressive warnings. They based their
predictions on the character of God who rewards the
righteous and punishes the wicked. They were keen ob-
servers of moral and social conditions ; and in pride, dis-
honesty, and immorality they recognized the signs of
national decadence, the conditions that invited the divine
judgments. Thus, in predicting the overthrow of the
kingdom of Israel, Hosea says : " Hear the word of the
Lord, ye children of Israel : for the Lord hath a contro-
versy with the inhabitants of the land, because there is
no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the land.
There is nought but swearing and breaking faith, and kill-
ing, and stealing, and committing adultery ; they break
out, and blood toucheth blood. Therefore shall the land
mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein shall languish,
with the beasts of the field and the fowls of heaven ; yea,
Is. 17 : 12-14. 2 Ezek. 4 : 1-3. 3 Jer. 19 : 10, II.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 89
the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away." l The same
principle underlies all the predictions of national disaster
found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the other prophets.
The predictions of coming good or ill were always con-
ditional. As an upright nation might invite disaster by
turning to iniquity, so a wicked nation might secure pros-
perity by turning to righteousness. The people of Nineveh,
for example, escaped the doom predicted by Jonah through
their prompt repentance. The conditional character of
prophecy is clearly set forth by Jeremiah. " At what in-
stant," says Jehovah, "I shall speak concerning a nation,
and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up and to break down
and to destroy it ; if that nation, concerning which I have
spoken, turn from their evil, I will repent of the evil that
I thought to do unto them. And at what instant I shall
speak concerning a nation, and concerning a kingdom, to
build and to plant it ; if it do evil in my sight, that it obey
not my voice, then I will repent of the good, wherewith I
said I would benefit them." 2
Spirit of Hope. The prophets were men of strong faith
in Jehovah. In a review of the marvellous history of their
people and in their surpassing knowledge of the character
of God, they found the basis of an inextinguishable hope.
Nearly all their predictions of coming disaster to Israel
are associated with a promise of blessing. It is their
ineradicable belief that God will ultimately rescue His
chosen people and make them a blessing to all the nations.
" It shall come to pass in the latter days," says Isaiah,
" that the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established
in the top of the mountains, and shall be exalted above the
hills ; and all nations shall flow unto it. And many peoples
shall go and say, Come ye, and let us go up to the
1 Hos. 4 : 1-3. 2 Jer. 18 : 7-10.
go AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
mountain of the Lord, to. the house of the God of Jacob ;
and He will teach us of His ways, and we will walk in His
paths; for out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the
word of the Lord from Jerusalem. And He shall judge
between the nations, and shall reprove many peoples ; and
they shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
spears into pruning-hooks : nation shall not lift up sword
against nation, neither shall they learn war any more." J
RESEARCH WORK
An extract from the Wars of the Lord, Numb. 21 : 14, 15.
A song from the book of Jasher. 2 Sam. i : 19-27.
The Hebrew spirit in imprecation, Ps. 109; also Ps. 35.
The call of Abraham, Gen. 12 : 1-9.
The call of Moses from the burning bush, Ex. 3.
Reverence for the law instilled and exemplified, Deut. 17: 18-20; and
Ezek. 8.
A poetic contrast between the beauty of nature and the perfection of
the divine law, Ps. 19.
Sennacherib's blasphemous letter, 2 Kings 19: 9-13.
The decrees of Cyrus and Darius, Ezra 6: 1-12.
Contrasted condition of the righteous man and the wicked, Ps. I.
An outline sketch of Isaac, Gen. 21-35.
Principal events in the life of Jacob, Gen. 25-49.
A sketch of Joseph's varied career, Gen. 30-50.
An outline of the life of Moses, Ex., Numb., and Deut.
A biographical sketch of Joshua, Josh. 1-24.
The story of Gideon, Judges 6-8.
A sketch of Samson's career. Judges 13-16.
The Life of Samuel, the last of the Judges, i Sam. 1-25.
A study of Saul, i Sam. 1-31.
A sketch of David's career, i Sam. 16-31 ; 2 Sam. ; i Kings i, 2.
The life of Solomon, i Kings i-ii.
The career of Jeroboam, i Kings 11-14.
The life of Elijah, i Kings 17-2 Kings 2.
The story of his successor, Elisha, i Kings 19-2 Kings 13.
1 Is. 2 : 2-4.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 91
A notable psalm of penitence, Ps. 51.
An example of didactic verse, Prov. 2.
The persecution of Jeremiah, Jer. 37 : 11-21.
An arraignment of Jerusalem for its sin, Ezek. 22.
The corrupt character of the leaders of the people, Hos. 5, 6.
The brief opening discourse of Isaiah, Is. I.
The parable of the vineyard, Is. 5 : 1-7.
The allegory of the vine, Ezek. 15.
The destruction of Jerusalem in symbols, Ezek. 4, 5, and 12.
The conditional character of prophecy, Jer. 18 : 1-12.
A message of hope, Is. n, 12.
CHAPTER V
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH
Historical Books. The historical books naturally stand
at the beginning of the Old Testament. They are seven-
teen in number, 1 and constitute more than half of the Old
Testament writings. They are widely different in character,
and, as in Kings and Chronicles, often contain duplicate
accounts of the same events ; but, as we have seen in pre-
vious chapters, they present collectively a pretty full account
of Hebrew life.
The authorship and credibility of some of these books have
in recent years been much discussed. But, in spite of the
conclusions of some recent critics, the historical books of
the Old Testament are here regarded as essentially trust-
worthy documents. Though they may sometimes fail in
absolute historical accuracy, though they may in part be
composed of earlier documents and in some cases employ
oral traditions containing imaginative elements, they are
immovably true in their great purpose of exhibiting the
agency of God in human, and especially in Hebrew, history.
They are rich in their lessons of truth for all time.
The Pentateuch. The first five historical books Gene-
1 Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
i Samuel, 2 Samuel, i Kings, 2 Kings, i Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Esther.
92
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 93
sis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy are
often called the Pentateuch, a Greek word signifiying the
fivefold book. It gives the history of the Hebrew people
from the creation of the world to the death of Moses. It
contains the Mosaic law, which is given in connection with
the Hebrew migration from Egypt. In view of this im-
portant element, which lies at the basis of the civil and re-
ligious institutions of the Hebrew people, the Pentateuch
is frequently referred to as "the law" or "the law of
Moses."
According to the traditional view, the author of the
Pentateuch is Moses. Whether he wrote it or not in its
present form, it obviously contains Mosaic elements that
justify us in associating it with the great lawgiver's name.
It is difficult to believe that later Hebrew writers were mis-
taken in referring to " the law of Moses," 1 or that a tradi-
tion running through Hebrew history for hundreds of
years was utterly without foundation. But while we accept,
in part at least, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch,
we recognize obvious additions by a later hand. Moses
could hardly have written the account of his death in the
lastchapter of Deuteronomy; and the statement made more
than once in Genesis that " the Canaanite was then in the
land," 2 was evidently written long after the conquest.
The Mosaic athorship makes the Pentateuch a very old
book. According to the usual chronology, it dates from
about 1450 B.C. Written by a man "learned in all the
wisdom of the Egyptians," it reflects a high degree of
culture. There is not so much a creation of new laws as
an adaptation of old ones ; for seizing upon codes and
customs already prevailing in Egypt and Babylonia, Moses
1 Josh. 8 : 32; i Kings 2:3:2 Kings 23 : 25 ; Ezra 3 : 2; and elsewhere.
2 Gen. 12: 6; 13: 7. See also Gen. 36: 31.
94 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
purified and exalted them, and thus made an addition to the
ever growing revelation of God to man. 1
Genesis. A noteworthy unity, as will presently be seen,
runs through the whole Pentateuch, which originally formed
a single book. Genesis a Greek word signifying genera-
tion makes an appropriate introduction to the following
books, and indeed to the entire Old Testament. Without
it the rest of the Pentateuch would in large measure be
obscure.
Genesis is arranged on a definite plan, a knowledge of
which is important for a clear understanding of the book.
It consists of two sharply marked but unequal divisions or
parts. ) The first part, which includes the first eleven
chapters, is devoted to a very brief sketch of the human
race as a wholej^ Its brevity leaves unfilled many gaps
that have given rise to difficult or captious questions. It
opens with the sublime statement, carrying us back un-
measured ages, that "in the beginning God created the
heaven and the earth." Then follows the order of creation,
the story of the fall, the growing wickedness of the world,
the narrative of the flood, and a list of the nations descend-
in gjfrom No v ah > )
\The second part of Genesis extends from the beginning
of the twelfth chapter to the end of the book. It is con-
cerned not with the history of mankind at large, but_with
the beginnings of Hebrew history. It tells of Abraham, who
1 " The Pentateuch substantially belongs to the Mosaic age, and may therefore be
accepted as, in the bulk, the work of Moses himself. But it is a composite work,
embodying materials of various kinds. Some of these are written documents,
descriptive of contemporaneouse vents, or recording the cosmological beliefs of
ancient Babylonia ; others have been derived from the unwritten traditions of nomad
tribes. The work has passed through many editions ; it is full of interpolations,
lengthy and otherwise ; and it has probably received its final shape, a.t the hands of
Ezra." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of the Hebrews," p. 134...
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 95
is selected to become the founder of the Hebrew race, and
of his immediate descendants, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.
It is filled with interesting pictures, sometimes romantic
and sometimes tragic, of those far-off patriarchal days,
ending with glimpses of the mighty kingdom of the Nile.
A Unique Book. It will be recognized that Genesis is
a unique book. It presents, in a connected narrative, the
beginnings of our race and the progenitors of the Hebrew
people. l It places back of all things a personal and right-
eous God. It brings before us in a childlike and concrete
form the eternal relations of the Supreme Being to the world,
out of which grows the fact that righteousness, whether in-
dividual or collective, is in some way attended with blessings,
and wickedness is followed by evils.
In the presence of this high truth, which is attested by
all history, we may well dismiss the mistaken criticism and
injudicious defence, of which Genesis has long been the
subject. It matters little whether or not its opening chap-
ters, as is sometimes claimed, contradict the results of
science or the researches of archaeology. Science and
absolute historic fact are apart from its general scope. In
its main purpose of revealing the being and providence of
God, in the expression of these great truths in delightful
incident and story, it remains impregnably true. It presents
in varied, concrete form what human experience and philo-
sophic insight recognize to-day as truth.
Exodus. The last chapters of Genesis, as we have
seen, end with the migration of Jacob and his family,
aggregating seventy souls, into Egypt, where they were
111 The Old Testament opens very impressively. In measured and dignified
language it introduces the story of Israel's origin and settlement upon the land of
Canaan by the story of creation, and thus suggests, at the very beginning, the far-
reaching purpose and the world-wide significance of the people and religion of
Israel." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 3.
g6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
assigned a home in the northeastern part of that fertile land.
This region, known as the land of Goshen, was nearest to
Canaan. Under the blessing of Jehovah, the Hebrew im-
migrants enjoyed a marvellous prosperity, and gradually
passed from their shepherd habits to the higher plane of
an agricultural and artisan life. " The children of Israel,"
says the sacred record, " were fruitful, and increased abun-
dantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty ;
and the land was filled with them." 1
After several centuries the reign of the kindly Hyksos
kings was overthrown. " There arose up a new king over
Egypt, who knew not Joseph." 2 Ramses II., as we have
seen in a previous chapter, adopted cruel measures to
check the increase and power of the Hebrew aliens. He
ordered all the male children to be put to death. But the
purposes of God cannot be thwarted by the devices of
men ; and in the fiery trials of their bondage, the Hebrews
were forging the bands of national unity and strength.
The story of their bondage and subsequent deliverance
is the subject of Exodus, a Greek word meaning departure.
The hero of this great national movement was Moses,
whose rescue by Pharaoh's daughter, as told in the second
chapter, contains more than one beautiful touch of nature.
Though reared in the royal palace, Moses did not lose his
racial sympathy ; and when he one day found an Egyptian
smiting a Hebrew laborer, he wrathfully slew the cruel
taskmaster. This crime led to his flight ; and he spent
the following forty years in Midian as a shepherd. It was
among the wild, inspiring scenes of the mountains of
Horeb scenes that naturally beget a spirit of freedom
that the call of God came to him from the burning bush
to become the deliverer of his people.
i Ex. i : 7. 2 EX. i : 8.
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 97
Period of Preparation. The book of Exodus, though
consisting of a continuous narrative, may be divided, for
the sake of clearness, into three parts. The first part, ex-
tending from the first to the twelfth chapter, describes the
condition of the Hebrews and their preparation for re-
volt. It contains numerous glimpses of Egypt, which
have been illustrated or confirmed by recent discoveries. 1
When Moses, accompanied by his brother Aaron as
chief spokesman, appeared before Pharaoh, and demanded
that the Hebrews be permitted to retire to the wilderness
to " hold a feast unto the Lord," he was met with a
prompt refusal. The king no doubt fathomed and re-
sented the purpose of the two presumptuous or seditious
leaders. He felt that the labor of the Hebrew slaves, who
had already built great treasure-cities, was too valuable to
the state to be willingly surrendered. Then followed in
rapid succession nine plagues the Nile turned to blood,
frogs, lice, flies, murrain, boils and blains, hail, locusts,
and darkness which were intended to show the weak-
ness of the Egyptian deities and the vanity of Egyptian
worship. But in spite of all these sore visitations, the
heart of the king, notwithstanding his promises, remained
at the last moment obdurate.
Departure from Egypt. The second part of Exodus,
which extends from the twelfth to the nineteenth chapter,
describes the departure of the children of Israel from
Egypt. The passover had been solemnly celebrated in
the homes of the Hebrews. The death-angel had passed
over the land, and in every Egyptian household there was
mourning over the loss of the first-born. In some way
1 " The history of Joseph is marvellously true in all its details to what archae-
ology has informed us were the facts of Egyptian life." A. H. SAYCE, " Early
History of the Hebrews," p. 87.
98 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
connecting their calamity with the Hebrew bondmen, the
Egyptians with one consent urged the departure of the
Israelites.
The vast multitude of Hebrews, not less than two mill-
ions in number, moved eastward with their flocks and
herds to Succoth, not far from the present line of the Suez
Canal. Instead of marching directly toward the land of
Canaan a route that would have brought them into con-
tact with the frontier fortresses of Egypt they turned to
the southeast, and encamped on the head waters of the
Gulf of Suez. A miraculous pillar of cloud led the He-
brew hosts by day, and by night it was transformed into a
pillar of fire.
Meanwhile, divining the purpose of the Hebrews to es-
cape from Egyptian tyranny, Pharaoh hastened in pursuit
with a formidable army. When the Hebrews saw them-
selves caught between the forces of Egypt and the waters
of the sea, they were filled with terror; nevertheless, at
the command of their brave and confident leader, they
moved forward. The waters were driven back by a strong
east wind ; and along the marvellous highway thus opened
to them, the Hebrew armies crossed to the other side.
When the heedless Egyptians followed, they were sud-
denly overwhelmed by the returning waters, and the deliv-
erance of the Hebrew people was accomplished. No
wonder that Moses burst forth in a song of martial tri-
umph ! 1
. The great throng now proceeded toward Sinai. Their
1 " What is the Roman arch of triumph, or the pillar crowded with sculpture
compared, as a memorial, to the Hebrew song of victory, which, having survived
so many ages, is still fresh and vivid as ever, and excites the same emotions of awe
and piety, in every breast susceptible of such feelings, which it did so many ages
past in those of the triumphant children of Israel ? " H. H. MlLMAN, " History of
the Jews," vol. i, p. 140.
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 99
long march was not without incident. The people suf-
fered for water; and when their supply of food was
exhausted, they were marvellously fed on quails and
manna. Through the prolonged intercession of Moses,
whose hands were upheld by Aaron and Hur, the
Hebrews, after a fierce battle, won a signal victory over
Amalek. At the suggestion of his father-in-law, Jethro,
who visited him in the wilderness, Moses gave the mul-
titude a thorough political organization by the appoint-
ment of " rulers of thousands, and rulers of hundreds,
rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens." l
At Sinai. The third part of Exodus, extending from
chapter nineteen to the end of the book, is devoted to the
significant events at Sinai. It narrates the imposing cir-
cumstances under which the Mosaic law was promulgated,
and the special covenant which Jehovah, in continuation
of His promise to Abraham, made with the Chosen People.
The Ten Commandments and the various civil laws, drawn
to a greater or less extent from the institutions of Egypt,
are full of interest. It is here that the strange apostasy
of the people in their worship of the golden calf a
reminiscence of Egyptian idolatry is narrated ; and
here we learn of the construction of the tabernacle or
sanctuary, of the munificent offerings of the people for
this work, and of the establishment of the Levitical
priesthood.
Thus it is evident that Exodus contributes an essential
part to the political and religious history of the Hebrew
people. From now on, for nearly a thousand years, they
are a separate and independent nation.
Leviticus. The book of Leviticus a word that sig-
nifies pertaining to the Levites is a natural continuation
1 Ex. 18: 21.
100 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
of Exodus. At first glance, it might seem an obtrusion
that interrupts the historical narrative ; but after the
tabernacle had been set up, it was fitting to give the laws
of sacrifice and the ritual of worship. Leviticus contains
the ceremonial law, as contrasted with the moral law of the
Decalogue. It prescribes the various kinds of offerings,
the ceremonies relating to purity and impurity, and the
several religious festivals that were to be observed.
Throughout the book the prophetical or ethical side of
religion is entirely subordinate to the priestly or ritual
side ; hence, Leviticus is sometimes known as the law or
code of the priests. 1
Leviticus may be divided into two parts. The first part,
including chapters I to 16, is devoted to the funda-
mental laws of sacrifice, purification, and atonement.
The sacrifices were of two kinds, namely, animal and
vegetable, or bloody and unbloody. There were five prin-
cipal types of sacrifice the burnt-offering, the meat-
offering, the peace-offering, the sin-offering, and the
guilt-offering which are successively described in the
opening chapters.
In chapters 8 to 10, the consecration of the priests and
their solemn entry upon their office are narrated. Here
we have the tragedy of Nadab and Abihu, brothers of
Aaron, who for an act of sacrilege are miraculously con-
sumed by fire. The remaining chapters of part first
(n 1 6) are taken up with the laws of purification and
atonement. The distinction is made between clean and
unclean animals ; directions are given for the diagnosis
1 " It is the deliberate expression of the priestly mind of Israel at its best, and it
thus forms a welcome foil to the unattractive pictures of the priests, which confront
us in the pages of the prophets during the three centuries between Hosea and
Malachi." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 3.
SOME STUDIES IN T&M PENT^'EJUCfl ,1,91
of leprosy ; regulations relating to purity and impurity
are laid down ; and last of all, the solemn services of the
day of atonement are prescribed.
Law of Holiness. The latter half of Leviticus (chap-
ters 17-26) is devoted to what has been called "the law of
holiness." It prescribes that all animal sacrifices shall be
offered at the door of the tabernacle a regulation that
formed a stanch bulwark against idolatry. It prohibits
unlawful marriages, and the debasing lusts that were com-
mon among the surrounding nations. It condemns the
cruel worship of Molech. The twenty-third chapter con-
tains a list of the sacred seasons the Sabbath, the pass-
over, pentecost, the feast of trumpets or New Year, the
day of atonement, and the feast of tabernacles which
were to be observed. To these are added, in chapter 25,
the seventh or sabbatical year, and after " seven times
seven years " the feast of Jubilee, which are associated
with some noteworthy civil regulations.
In the next to the last chapter there is a remarkable
statement of the divine philosophy that underlies all He-
brew history. "If ye walk in My statutes," Jehovah is
represented as saying, " and keep My commandments, and
do them, then I will give you rain in due season, and the
land shall yield her increase, and the trees of the field
shall yield their fruit. And your threshing shall reach
unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sow-
ing time ; and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and
dwell in your land safely. And I will give you peace in
the land, and ye shall lie down, and none shall make you
afraid : and I will rid evil beasts out of the land, neither
shall the sword go through your land. And ye shall
chase your enemies, and they shall fall before you by the
sword." On the other hand, a violation of the laws of
IS* AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Jehovah is to be attended with a corresponding train of
evils.
Numbers. The book of Numbers derives its name
from the enumeration of the people narrated in the first
chapter. It records the journeyings of the Hebrews from
Sinai to the eastern borders of Canaan. The first' ten
chapters, which relate chiefly to priestly duties and cere-
monies, form a kind of supplement to Leviticus.
The Israelites had now spent about a year at Sinai in
the great task of completing their religious and civil ad-
ministration. The time had come for an advance. Ac-
cordingly, " on the twentieth day of the second month in
the second year," the cloud rose from the tabernacle, and
the well-ordered march of the multitude began. When,
after a few days, the people murmured over their monoto-
nous fare, a wind " brought quails from the sea." The
sedition of Miriam and Aaron met with a severe rebuke.
From the wilderness of Paran spies were prudently de-
spatched into Canaan to ascertain the character of the
country. When the spies, except Joshua and Caleb, re-
ported that the land, on account 6f its walled cities and
stalwart population, was impregnable, the Hebrews broke
forth in loud complaints. For this exhibition of ingrati-
tude and cowardice, which showed that they had not yet
learned to trust Jehovah, they were condemned to perish
in the wilderness.
Subsequent Wanderings. Now followed a period of re-
newed and penitential wandering, which extended through
thirty-eight years, and witnessed the death of the mur-
muring multitude. But few events are narrated of this
sorrowful time. The rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and
Abiram brought a pitiless retribution; for "the earth
opened her mouth, and swallowed them up." l
1 Numb. 16: 32.
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 103
Finally, as the forty years of wandering drew near an
end, the Israelites came to the wilderness of Zin, south of
the Dead Sea. Important events followed in rapid suc-
cession. Moses and Aaron, by their impatience and dis-
obedience, forfeited the privilege of entering the Promised
Land. Aaron met a pathetic end on Mt. Hor. When
the king of Edom refused the Israelites passage through
his land, they were forced to make a wide circuit around
his territory. The difficulties and dangers of this long
march excited an outburst of discontent among the
people, whereupon "the Lord sent fiery serpents among
them." 1
After a series of victories over Sihon, King of the
Amorites, and Og, King of Bashan, the Hebrew host at
last arrived on the east side of Jordan, opposite Jericho.
Here the interesting events connected with Balaam took
place. The Israelites were betrayed into idolatry by " the
daughters of Moab," and were mercilessly punished.
With the great task of Moses nearly ended, Joshua was
formally installed as his successor. After the conquest of
the Midianites, the territory east of the Jordan was divided
among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of
Manasseh. 2
Deuteronomy. The last book of the Pentateuch is
called Deuteronomy, or, as the name indicates, a repetition
of the law. It is so called because it repeats and enforces
many of the laws previously given in Exodus, Leviticus,
and Numbers. It is made up chiefly of three discourses
1 Numb. 21 : 6.
2 The book of Numbers " contains the earliest theory or tradition of the Hebrews
as to the nomadic period of their history ; through it (and other biblical data) the
life and fortunes of the Hebrews under Moses before they settled in Canaan must
be read, if any attempt is made to read them at all. " GEO. B. GRAY, " Critical
and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers," p. xliii.
104 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
which Moses, at the end of the forty years' wandering,
delivered to the Hebrew people. It contains a large
element of exhortation, and breathes a lofty religious
spirit, which is reechoed in the fervent words of the
great prophets. It is, therefore, one of the most inter-
esting and edifying books of the Old Testament.
The first four chapters rehearse in brief the history of
the people. The discourse ends with an exhortation to
obedience, based on the supremacy of God in all the
universe. " Know therefore this day," says the great
leader and lawgiver, "and consider it in thine heart, that
the Lord He is God in heaven above and upon the earth
below : there is none else. Thou shalt therefore keep His
statutes, and His commandments, which I command thee
this day, that it may go well with thee, and with thy
children after thee, and that thou mayest prolong thy
days upon the earth, which the Lord thy God giveth thee,
for ever." l
Second Discourse. The second discourse begins with a
repetition of the Ten Commandments, which is followed
by an exhortation of fervent piety and deep spiritual in-
sight. Its central thought is obedience to God springing
from supreme love to Him. " Thou shalt love the Lord
thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and
with all thy might." 2 In view of this love, the idolatry of
the surrounding nations is to be sternly avoided. The
idolatrous nations are to be exterminated ; for " they will
turn away thy sons from following me, that they may
serve other gods." 3 Various precepts of the law, some-
times with slight modifications, are repeated, among which
may be mentioned the release of the poor every seventh
year, the observance of the three great annual festivals
1 Deut. 4 : 39, 40. 2 Deut. 6:5. 8 Deut. 7:4.
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 105
the passover, pentecost, and tabernacles and the ap-
pointment of six cities of refuge.
Third Discourse. In the third division of Deuteronomy
we have the blessings and curses of the law impressively
set forth. Ready to depart, Moses once more affection-
ately and solemnly exhorts the people to obedience. This
is the burden of his farewell discourses. " See," he ex-
claims, " I have set before thee this day life and good,
and death and evil, in that I command thee this day to
love the Lord thy God, to walk in His ways, and to keep
His commandments, and His statutes, and His judgments." 1
The remainder of the book is occupied with words of
Encouragement to the people, and particularly to Joshua,
with two poems, and an account of the death and burial of
Moses on the lonely mountain of Nebo. 2
Conclusion. As Genesis forms a notable introduction
to the Pentateuch, so Deuteronomy forms a no less notable
conclusion. The children of Israel now stand upon the
verge of their conquest of Canaan. They constitute a
well-compacted nation, in which every citizen is a freeman.
Their worship of Jehovah, who is adored as God of
heaven and earth, distinguishes them from surrounding
peoples. 3 The laws by which they are governed include
-an elaborate ethical and civil code ; and under the severe
training of the wilderness, the Israelites have attained to
1 Dent. 30 : 15, 16.
2 " Deuteronomy is one of the epoch-making books of the world. It not only
profoundly affected much of the subsequent literature of the Hebrews, but it left a
deep and abiding mark upon Hebrew religion, and through it upon Christianity."
JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 51.
3 " The demand which Jehovah makes upon his people are moral demands.
They are continually repeated with the greatest emphasis and earnestness; the
transgression of these commandments by the large majority of Israel, especially by
the leaders and men of distinction, is the theme of most of the prophetic ad-
dresses." A. KUENEN, " The Religion of Israel," p. 58.
106 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
an extraordinary religious development, a high sense of
their position as a divinely chosen people. As Moses
sang :
" The Lord's portion is His people ;
Jacob is the lot of His inheritance.
He found him in a desert land,
And in the waste howling wilderness ;
He compassed him about, He cared for him,
He kept him as the apple of His eye." l
But more than religious development had been attained.
The forty years' wandering in the wilderness had produced
a race of hardy, independent, and fearless men. Their
victories over Sihon and Og had kindled their courage.
As they stood on the eastern banks of the Jordan, we
may well believe that, while a well-founded fear seized
upon the tribes of Canaan, the Hebrews were confidently
eager for the conquest.
RESEARCH WORK
GENESIS
The account of creation, Gen. i, 2.
The story of the fall, Gen. 3.
The tragedy of Cain and Abel, Gen. 4: 1-18.
The cause and incidents of the flood, Gen. 6-9.
The call and journey of Abraham, Gen. 12.
The rescue of Lot, Gen. 14.
Renewal of the covenant with Abraham, Gen. 17.
The story of Sodom and Gomorrah, Gen. 18, 19.
Banishment of Hagar and Ishmael, Gen. 21.
The offering of Isaac, Gen. 22.
The death and burial of Sarah, Gen. 23.
Romantic story of Rebecca, Gen. 24.
A domestic conspiracy and deception, Gen. 27.
1 Deut. 32 : 9-10.
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 107
Flight and vision of Isaac. Gen. 28.
Seven years of loving service, Gen. 29.
The flight of Jacob, Gen. 31.
Meeting of Jacob and Esau, Gen. 32, 33.
Parental partiality and its consequences, Gen. 37.
Joseph cast into prison, Gen. 39.
An interpretation of two dreams, Gen. 40.
Joseph as prime minister of Egypt, Gen. 41.
Buying corn during a famine, Gen. 42-45.
Migration of Israel into Egypt, Gen. 46.
A cruel state policy, Gen. 47 : 13-26.
A paternal blessing, Gen. 49.
EXODUS
The oppression in Egypt, Ex. i.
The early life of Moses, Ex. 2.
The call of Moses, Ex. 3.
The appointment of Aaron as spokesman, Ex. 4.
Increased oppression of the Israelites, Ex. 5.
An interview with the king, Ex. 7.
The visitation of plagues, Ex. 8-10.
Institution of the passover, Ex. 12.
The escape of the Israelites, Ex. 13.
The passage of the Red Sea, Ex. 14.
Moses' song of deliverance, Ex. 15.
The murmuring multitude fed, Ex. 16.
The defeat of Amalek, Ex. 17.
The appointment of civil rulers, Ex. 18.
The giving of the law at Sinai, Ex. 19-24.
The plan of the tabernacle, Ex. 25-31, 35-40.
The worship of the golden calf, Ex. 32.
LEVITICUS
Various offerings, Lev. 1-7.
Consecration of Aaron and his sons, Lev. 8, 9.
The death of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 10 : 1-7.
The distinction of clean and unclean animals, Lev. n.
Io8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Regulations relating to leprosy, Lev. 13, 14.
The high priest in the holy place, Lev. 16.
The centralization of sacrifices. Lev. 17.
Sundry regulations relating to holiness, Lev. 18-22.
Various religious festivals, Lev. 23.
The septennial Sabbath and year of Jubilee, Lev. 25.
A notable exhortation to obedience, Lev. 26.
NUMBERS
The numbering of the Israelites, Numb. I.
Various Levitical regulations, Numb. 2-9.
The multitude departs from Sinai, Numb. 10.
Renewed murmuring and its results, Numb. n.
The sedition of Miriam and Aaron, Numb. 12.
The mission of the spies, Numb. 13.
Murmuring and condemnation of the Israelites, Numb. 14.
Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, Numb. 16.
Anger and disobedience of Moses, Numb. 20.
Visitation of fiery serpents and the remedy, Numb. 21.
The story of Balaam, Numb. 22-24.
Joshua appointed Moses 1 successor, Numb. 27: 12-23.
Fierce war against the Midianites, Numb. 31.
The assignment of land east of the Jordan, Numb. 32.
Cities of the Levites and of refuge, Numb. 35.
DEUTERONOMY
Moses briefly rehearses Israel's history, Deut. 1-3.
A forcible exhortation to obedience, Deut. 4.
Repetition and enforcement of sundry laws, Deut. 5-26.
The tribes on Gerizim and Ebal, Deut. 27.
Blessings and curses of the law, Deut. 28.
Words of encouragement, Deut. 31.
A song of Moses, Deut. 32.
A poetical blessing of the twelve tribes, Deut. 33.
The death and burial of the great lawgiver, Deut. 34.
CHAPTER VI
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON
Relation to the Pentateuch. As we have seen, the
Pentateuch records the origin and development of the
Hebrew people prior to the conquest of Canaan. It de-
scribes the patriarchal age, the protracted sojourn of the
Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from tyrannical
oppression, and their weary wanderings on their march to
Canaan. It recounts the giving of the moral and cere-
monial law, and the gradual organization of the Hebrews
into a theocratic commonwealth.
The remaining historical books, which now come under
consideration, record a continuation of Hebrew history.
They complete the story of Jehovah's dealings with the
Chosen People. After the rapid conquest of Canaan,
there followed the period of the Judges. At length the
monarchy was established under Saul, reached its culmi-
nation under David and Solomon, was disrupted under
Rehoboam, and then passed into a period of decadence,
until at last the Hebrews were carried in captivity to
Assyria and Babylonia. After a captivity of seventy
years, a part of the people returned under patriotic leaders,
and rebuilt the temple and walls of Jerusalem.
In our studies of Hebrew history we must not forget
that it is the divine rather than the human element that is
made prominent. It sets forth the blessings of righteous-
ness and the evils of iniquity. Kings and courts and state
policies are viewed only from the religious side. This
109
110 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
dominant religious purpose of the Hebrew historian makes
his records incomplete and fragmentary. His principal
aim is to exhibit the continual divine agency in human
affairs an omnipresent factor generally neglected in
other historical writings.
Book of Joshua. The book of Joshua, which is named
after the heroic leader of the Hebrews, describes the con-
quest of Canaan and its division by lot among the tribes
of Israel. 1 It falls naturally into two well-marked divisions.
The first part, including twelve chapters, briefly describes
the conquest of the territory west of the Jordan. The
second part, extending from the thirteenth to the twenty-
second chapter, describes the allotment of land among the
various tribes. The book concludes with a brief farewell
address by Joshua. It covers a period of about seven
years, and leaves many events untouched.
The author of the book is unknown. According to
Jewish tradition it was written by Joshua himself. But
this can hardly be true ; for the book contains references
and incidents referring to a later time. The conquest of
Hebron, for example, which is related in chapter 15,
did not occur till the time of the Judges. 2 On the other
hand, it contains materials furnished by a contemporary
writer, who had crossed the Jordan. 3 Moreover, it is stated
that Rahab, who had been saved in the destruction of
Jericho, " dwelleth in Israel even unto this day." 4 Who-
ever the author may have been, it is evident that he wrote
in the true prophetic spirit.
1 " The crossing of the Jordan and the entry into this territory [of Canaan]
were destined to become of the utmost importance to mankind. The land of which
the shepherd tribes possessed themselves became the arena of great events, so en-
during and important in their results, that the country in which they took place be-
came known as the Holy Land" H. GRAETZ, " History of the Jews," p. I.
2 Judges i : 12-15. 3 Josh. 5 : i. * Josh. 6: 25.
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON in
The Conquest. After the death of Moses, Joshua had
assumed command of the invading host of Hebrews. After
the signal victories on the east of the Jordan, the Hebrew
armies were eager to conquer the fairer and more populous
districts lying to the west of that famous stream. Though
the west Jordanic territory was occupied by many kings
and filled with strongly fortified towns, a dread of the vic-
torious Hebrews preceded their invasion.
As a precautionary measure, Joshua despatched two
spies to survey the city of Jericho, whose strong position
made it the key to the land. The spies were concealed by
Rahab, who in return was promised protection in the
approaching siege. After the spies had made a favorable
report, Joshua prepared to advance. The waters of the
Jordan, which were swollen by the spring freshets, divided
before the approaching ark, and the Hebrew multitude
passed through on dry ground. Joshua established his
headquarters at Gilgal; and not unmindful of his dependence
on Jehovah, he renewed the rite of circumcision and cele-
brated the feast of the Passover. Both of these rites had
fallen into abeyance during the long period of wandering
in the wilderness.
In a short time Jericho was besieged, captured, and de-
stroyed. The trespass of Achan, who had appropriated "a
goodly Babylonish garment " and a large amount of silver
and gold, led to an unexpected and humiliating defeat.
At length Ai was taken by stratagem ; and afterwards
the blessings and curses of the Mosaic law were solemnly
proclaimed on Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal. The Gibeon-
ites entrapped Joshua into a treaty of peace, and for this
act of deception were condemned to perpetual bondage.
The southern part of Canaan was conquered first; and
it was during a severe battle with the Amorites that,
112 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
according to a poem in the book of Jasher, Joshua
exclaimed :
" Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon ;
And thou, Moon, in the valley of Aijalon.
And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed,
Until the nation had avenged themselves of their enemies. 1 '
Unfortunately this fine poetic passage has too often been
translated into sober prose. The conquest of northern
Canaan was practically completed with the defeat of a
formidable Canaanitish coalition " at the waters of Merom."
Allotment of Land. After a war lasting some seven
years and the overthrow of thirty-one kings, Joshua found
himself complete master of the fertile and populous land
of Canaan. The promise made to Abraham centuries be-
fore was at last fulfilled. It only remained to assign the
conquered territory to the various tribes. To prevent
jealousy and murmuring, the distribution was made by lot.
Judah occupied the territory between the Dead Sea and
the Mediterranean, including Jerusalem, the future capital
of the nation. The location of the other tribes is indicated
in the accompanying map.
When his work was ended, Joshua, like Moses, delivered
a farewell address, and renewed the covenant between the
people and God. The discourse has the fine prophetic
character of Deuteronomy. It recapitulates the blessings,
promises, and threatenings of Jehovah, and ends with a
fervent exhortation to obedience. " Now therefore fear
the Lord, and serve Him in sincerity and truth : and put
away the gods which your fathers served on the other side
of the flood, and in Egypt, and serve ye the Lord." 1
The deep religious spirit pervading the book of Joshua,
1 Josh. 24: 14,
THE HOLY LAND
as divided among:
THE TWELVE TRIBES
HAN
Hay^th jair
H (A ' SL 3 . E HI
HA
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 113
as well as the Hebrew view of the conquest, is well ex-
pressed in the 44th Psalm :
" We have heard with our ears, O God, our fathers have told us,
What work Thou didst in their days, in the days of old.
Thou didst drive out the nations with Thy hand, and planted them in ;
Thou didst afflict the peoples, and didst spread them abroad.
For they gat not the land in possession by their own sword,
Neither did their own arm save them :
But Thy right hand, and Thine arm, and the light of Thy countenance,
Because Thou hadst a favor unto them."
Judges. The book of Judges is named after the rulers
whose heroic achievements form its principal theme.
These judges were not so much ministers of justice as
warriors of heroic spirit, who arose from time to time to
deliver the Israelites from heathen oppression. To the
mind of the Hebrew historian, they were providential men.
" The Lord raised up judges," he says, " which delivered
them out of the hand of those that spoiled them." 1
Though tradition ascribes the authorship of the book to
Samuel, the writer is not positively known. From the
remark that "in those days there was no king in Israel," 2
it is evident that the book was not composed till after the
establishment of the monarchy. As many of the events
described occurred two or three centuries earlier, the
author must have made use of oral traditions and written
documents in arranging his narrative. The chronology is
attended with difficulties. Though the successive periods
of prosperity and oppression make a total of four hundred
and ten years, it is probable that some of the judges were
contemporary. In this way the period may be reduced to
harmonize with I Kings 6: I, where it is stated that four
1 Judges 2 : 16. 2 Judges 18 : i.
114 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
hundred and eighty years elapsed between the exodus and
the building of Solomon's temple.
Division of the Book. The book of Judges is divided
into three parts. The first part (chapters 1-3 : 6) con-
stitutes an introduction. It supplements the narrative in
Joshua, and shows that the conquest was neither so com-
plete nor so thorough as might have been supposed from
the statements of the preceding book. Many of the
native tribes had been spared ; as the sacred writer tells
us, "the children of Israel dwelt among Canaanites,
Hittites, and Amorites, and Perizzites, and Hivites, and
Jebusites : and they took their daughters to be their wives,
and gave their daughters to their sons, and served their
gods." 1
This failure relentlessly to exterminate the population
of Canaan was in direct contravention of the instruction
of Moses in Deuteronomy. The evils that the great law-
giver had foreseen were not slow in coming. After the
older generation had passed away, and the people had
settled down to a comfortable agricultural life, they relaxed
in their devotion to Jehovah. " They forsook the Lord
God of their fathers," says the narrator, " which brought
them out of the land of Egypt, and followed other gods, of
the gods of the people that were round about them, and
bowed themselves unto them, and provoked the Lord to
anger." 2 For this apostasy Jehovah withdrew his favor,
and " sold them into the hands of their enemies round
about them." But when the Hebrews recognized their
error and cried unto the Lord, He raised up a succession
of heroic deliverers.
Part Second. The second part of Judges (chapters 3 :
7-16) narrates the exploits of the dozen leaders who at
1 Judges 3:5,6. 2 Judges 2 : 12.
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 115
various times became national heroes and liberators. The
history is written in the characteristic Hebrew spirit. Its
purpose is not secular knowledge but religious instruction ;
and hence each narrative of deliverance begins with the
statement that "the children of Israel did evil in the sight
of the Lord. . . . Therefore the anger of the Lord was
kindled against Israel ; and he sold them into the hand of
their enemies. And when the children of Israel cried
unto the Lord, the Lord raised up a deliverer to the chil-
dren of Israel who delivered them." 1
The first of the judges was Othniel, who delivered the
people from the tyranny of a king of Mesopotamia.
Ehud broke the oppression of the Moabites by the assas-
sination of their king. The victory of Deborah and Barak
was followed by a triumphal song of great exaltation of
spirit. Gideon by means of a stratagem overthrew the
power of Midian. Through conspiracy and murder
Abimelech for a time assumed regal authority. Jephthah
gained a decisive victory over the Amorites, and then, in
fulfilment of a foolish vow, put his daughter to death.
Last of all we have the well-known story of Samson with
its strange exhibition of weakness and strength.
Part Third. The third part of Judges (chapters 17-22)
is in the nature of an appendix. It relates, first, a bit of
private history belonging to the early period of the Judges,
and secondly, the story of the civil war that came near
1 " It is a work of edification. This form, however, is reached by a redactional
process, and we are able to distinguish between the material which the editor
found ready to hand, and the additions which he made. The substance of the
book is a series of stories about Israel's deliverance. They are fitted into a frame-
work which makes them teach the uniform lesson that backsliding from Yahveh is
followed by punishment, in the form of war and defeat, while repentance is re-
warded by deliverance and victory." H. P. SMITH, "Old Testament History,"
p. 87.
Il6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
exterminating the tribe of Benjamin. Both narratives are
valuable for the light they throw on religious and social
conditions. 1 It was a time of social degeneracy ; a spirit
of lawlessness prevailed so that, as the song of Deborah
informs us, " the highways were unoccupied and the
travellers walked through byways ; " in short, " in .those
days there was no king in Israel, and every man did that
which was right in his own eyes." 2
Book of Ruth. The book of Ruth is a charming
Hebrew idyll. It gives us delightful glimpses of domes-
tic and social life ; and unlike the lawless conditions de-
picted in parts of the book of Judges, it breathes a beautiful
spirit of courtesy, affection, and piety.
The scene of the narrative is laid " in the days when
the judges ruled." 3 This statement indicates that the
author, who is unknown, lived in the time of the monarchy.
The main purpose of the book is to supply the lineage of
David ; it could, therefore, hardly have been written before
that monarch's accession to the throne.
The main facts of the book, which possesses the interest
of a romance, are well known. Elimelech, a citizen of
Bethlehem, is led by a famine to remove, with his wife
Naomi and his two sons Mahlon and Chilion, to the land
of Moab. He dies there ; and his two sons marry Moabitish
wives named Orpah and Ruth. After a time Mahlon and
Chilion die, and Naomi is left alone with her two daugh-
ters-in-law. On learning that the famine is broken in
1 " It was a period of anarchy and perpetual war. Without a head, and with-
out cohesion, it seems strange that the Hebrews did not perish utterly or become
absorbed by the older population of the land. That the nation should have sur-
vived, admits of only one explanation. It possessed a common faith, a common
sanctuary, and a common code of sacred laws." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of
the Hebrews," p. 272.
2 Judges 17 : 6. 3 Ruth i : i.
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 117
Judah, Naomi resolves upon returning to Bethlehem, but
urges her daughters-in-law to remain in their own country.
Orpah follows her mother-in-law's advice; but Ruth ex-
presses her determination to accompany Naomi. " Whither
thou goest," she says affectionately, " I will go; and where
thou lodgest, I will lodge ; thy people shall be my people,
and thy God my God."
After the return of the two women to Bethlehem, Ruth
makes the acquaintance of her kinsman Boaz, " a mighty
man of wealth," and finally becomes his wife. The fruit
of this union was a son, tenderly cherished by Naomi and
destined to be the progenitor of the royal line of Judah.
" They called his name Obed ; he is the father of Jesse,
the father of David." 1 It is a significant fact that a
Moabite woman should be incorporated into the most dis-
tinguished genealogical line of Israel, a promise of the
day when the Gentile world was to share the faith of the
Hebrew people.
i and 2 Samuel. Among the ancient Jews i and 2
Samuel constituted a single book. The division was made
by the Greek translators of the Septuagint as a matter of
convenience ; accordingly, the first book closes with the
death of Saul, and the second book is devoted to David.
The work is not inappropriately named after Samuel, who
is the central figure in its earlier events.
The author of I and 2 Samuel is not known, nor can
the time when the books were written be definitely fixed.
They were evidently composed after the death of David,
for, in 2 Samuel 5 : 5, we find that the entire length of his
reign is given. They appear to have been written after
the division of the kingdom and before the capture of
Jerusalem; hence, according to the usual chronology, be-
1 Ruth 4 : 17.
IlB AN INTRODUCTION- TO BIBLE STUDY
tween 976 and 588 B.C. This is the natural conclusion
from i Samuel 27 : 6, in which the writer tells us that the
Philistine prince Achish gave Ziklag to David, and then
adds, "wherefore Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah
unto this day." But whatever the date, the sacred author
probably had access to the contemporary documents men-
tioned in i Chronicles 29 : 29, namely, " the book of
Samuel the seer, and the book of Nathan the prophet, and
the book of Gad the seer," which contained " the acts of
David the king."
Divisions of the Book. The books of Samuel, which
form a continuation of Judges, maybe conveniently divided
into three parts. The first part, including chapters i to 7,
narrates the history of Israel under its last two great judges,
Eli and Samuel. It describes the birth and education of
Samuel, the disorders arising from the wickedness of Eli's
ill-governed sons, the invasion of the land by the Philistines,
the capture of the ark of the Lord, the misfortunes it
brought upon the Philistine cities, the manner in which
after seven months it was returned to Israel, and finally
the overthrow of the Philistine army under the adminis-
tration of Samuel. All this is merely introductory to the
more important events that are narrated in the rest of the
books.
The second part, extending through the remainder of
the first book, describes the establishment of the monarchy
and the career of the first king. It is filled with stirring
events. The people had long felt the inadequacy of the
government of local judges; and when Samuel's sons
showed themselves unscrupulous and self-seeking men, the
people made a formal demand upon Samuel for the ap-
pointment of a king. Samuel reluctantly yielded assent.
Accordingly Saul was anointed as the first king of Israel ;
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 119
and after the defeat of the Ammonites, the previous luke-
warm attitude of many of the people was transformed into
an enthusiastic support.
But Saul lacked the elements of a great ruler ; and after
repeated acts of transgression, he was rejected, and David
was anointed in his stead. After David had become a
popular hero by the slaying of the Philistine champion
Goliath, Saul became insanely jealous ; and a large part
of the remaining chapters of I Samuel are taken up with
the king's efforts to have his imaginary enemy captured
and slain. At length, desperate and forsaken of the Lord,
Saul was defeated in battle, and threw himself upon his
own sword.
The Second Book. The third part includes the whole of
2 Samuel. It gives the history of David's reign, during
which the Hebrew monarchy reached the culmination of
its power. His reign began with civil war ; but after the
death of Ishbosheth, whom Abner had set up as a rival
king, David became the acknowledged sovereign of all
Israel and established his capital at Jerusalem. In nar-
rating the important events of David's reign, the sacred
historian exhibits great impartiality of judgment ; and ac-
cordingly he tells of the king's outrageous crimes as well
as of his brilliant victories over the surrounding nations.
Notwithstanding the wide extent of his regal power,
David's life was saddened by domestic tragedies, among
which the most crushing was the rebellion and death of his
favorite son Absalom. His brilliant but troubled reign
covered a period of forty years.
Noteworthy Poems. The books of Samuel contain
several noteworthy poems, which are interesting both for
the occasion inspiring them and for the lofty Hebrew spirit
embodied in them. The first is the exultant song of
120 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Hannah, the mother of Samuel, in which a strong, trium-
phant faith finds expression :
" They that strive with the Lord shall be broken to pieces ;
Against them shall He thunder in heaven :
The Lord shall judge the ends of the earth ;
And He shall give strength unto the king, .
And exalt the horn of His anointed." l
The second poem is called the Song of the Bow, which
the compiler of I and 2 Samuel extracted from the book
of Jasher. It is David's elegy over Saul and Jonathan, to
the latter of whom he pays a tender tribute :
" I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan ;
Very pleasant hast thou been unto me ;
Thy love to me was wonderful,
Passing the love of women." 2
The song of thanksgiving in the twenty-second chapter
of 2 Samuel abounds in sublime description. It is repeated
with some variations in the i8th Psalm. The poem at the
beginning of the twenty-third chapter is said to contain the
last words of David, in which " the sweet psalmist of
Israel " recognizes the divine presence in his life :
" The spirit of the Lord spake by me,
And His word was upon my tongue."
RESEARCH WORK
JOSHUA
The mission and report of the spies, Josh. 2.
The marvellous passage of the Jordan, Josh. 3.
The memorials of the crossing, Josh. 4.
The capture of Jericho, Josh. 6.
The defeat at Ai, and Achan's sin, Josh. 7.
1 Sam. 2:10. 2 2 Sam. 1:26.
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 12 1
The capture of Ai, Josh. 8.
The craft and punishment of the Gibeonites, Josh. 9.
War with five kings, Josh. 10.
The location of the various tribes, Josh. 13-19.
The cities of refuge, Josh. 20.
Joshua's farewell addresses, Josh. 23, 24.
JUDGES
Further wars of conquest, Judges i.
Wickedness of the next generation, Judges 2.
The exploits of the first three judges, Judges 3.
The work of Deborah and Barak, Judges 4.
Their song of triumph, Judges 5.
The story of Gideon, Judges 6-8.
The conspiracy of Abimelech, Judges 9.
The story of Jephthah, Judges II, 12.
The career of Samson, Judges 13-16.
The introduction of idolatry, Judges 17, 18.
Crime and civil war, Judges 19-21.
RUTH
The story of Ruth in detail, Ruth 1-4.
i AND 2 SAMUEL
Hannah's song of thankfulness, i Sam. 2: i-io.
The story of Eli and his sons, I Sam. 2 : 12-4 : 18.
The ark among the Philistines, i Sam. 4-6.
Samuel as judge of Israel, i Sam. 7.
The Israelites ask for a king, i Sam. 8.
Saul anointed and established as king, i Sam. 9-11.
Various incidents in Saul's reign, i Sam. 13-16.
The duel of David and Goliath, i Sam. 17.
Friendship of David and Jonathan, i Sam. 18, 19.
The king's violent jealousy, i Sam. 18-22.
David spares Saul in a cave, i Sam. 24.
Incident with Nabal, i Sam. 25.
122 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Saul and the witch of Endor, i Sam. 28.
Death of Saul, i Sam. 31.
David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. i : 19-27.
Civil war between David and Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2-4.
Jerusalem made the capital city, 2 Sam. 5.
The ark of the Lord brought to Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6.
David's purpose to build a temple, 2 Sam. 7.
War with the Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10.
Infamous conduct of David, 2 Sam. 11, 12.
Domestic crime and sorrow, 2 Sam. 13, 14.
The conspiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15-18.
Amasa murdered by Joab, 2 Sam. 20 : 4-13.
A psalm of thanksgiving by David, 2 Sam. 22.
David's farewell poem, 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7.
The punitive visitation of the plague, 2 Sam. 24.
CHAPTER VII
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION
1 and 2 Kings. Like i and 2 Samuel, the two books of
Kings originally formed a single volume. They contain a
sketch of the Hebrew monarchy from the accession of
Solomon to the overthrow of the kingdom of Judah by
Nebuchadnezzar. They extend over a period of 427
years ; or, if we include the mention of Jehoiachin's eleva-
tion by Evil-Merodach, we must add about twenty-six
years more. Hebrew history is thus brought down to
about 562 B.C.
The author of I and 2 Kings is not certainly known.
By tradition the authorship has been assigned to Jeremiah
or Ezra. But whoever the compiler may have been, he
adopted the prevailing Hebrew or Deuteronomic view of
history. Accordingly, he traced national well-being to
loyalty to Jehovah, and national disaster to the worship of
idols. The standpoint of the writer is clearly shown in
the divine words addressed to Solomon : " If thou wilt
walk before Me, in integrity of heart, and in uprightness, to
do according to all that I have commanded thee, and
wilt keep My statutes and My judgments : then will I estab-
lish the throne of thy kingdom upon Israel forever. But
if ye shall at all turn from following Me, ye or your chil-
dren, and will not keep My commandments, and My statutes
which I have set before you, but go and serve other gods,
and worship them : then will I cut off Israel out of the
land which I have given them." 1
1 1 Kings 9 : 4, 5.
123
124 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Sources and Treatment. The author wrote during the
seventy years' captivity or later. Thus many of the events
he narrates occurred centuries before his time. Like other
writers, both sacred and profane, he made use of earlier
works and contemporary documents, which he nearly al-
ways names. For additional facts about the reign of Solo-
mon, he refers to the book of the Acts of Solomon. In
treating of the rulers of the northern kingdom, he fre-
quently mentions the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel as
his authority ; and in discussing the rulers of the southern
kingdom, he refers fifteen times to the Chronicles of the
Kings of Judah. These chronicles were the official rec-
ords, or works based on them, prepared by the royal
recorder or historian.
But the compiler makes only brief extracts from the
larger works, and arranges them in an order or scheme to
demonstrate his main contention true now as then
that righteousness exalts a nation, and iniquity debases it.
Whenever a king " did that which was right in the eyes of
Jehovah," he was prosperous in his reign ; and whenever
he did evil, he met with disaster. It is remarkable that all
the kings of Israel are pronounced evil ; and of the kings
of Judah only a few Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoash, Amaziah,
Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, and Josiah command the ap-
proval of the pious historian. 1
Threefold Division. The books of Kings naturally fall
into a threefold division. The first eleven chapters are
devoted to the reign of Solomon, and present to us his
wisdom and power and final lapse into idolatry. There are
1 The writer's " aim is to apply to the past history of his race, from the time of
Solomon and onward to his own day, the Deuteronomic standard, and to exemplify
the view that prosperity is to be traced to a faithful regard for this standard, failure
and catastrophe to its deliberate repudiation." C. B. BARNEY in Hasting's
" Dictionary of the Bible."
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 125
not a few interesting details. His choice of " an under-
standing heart " rather than happiness or power, displays
a royal soul. His decision in the case of the contending
women has become famous. His building of the temple
was a fine exhibition of wisdom and piety ; and the splendor
of his court and the extent of his commerce surrounded
him with a magnificence which no other Hebrew monarch
ever enjoyed.
The second part, extending from the twelfth chapter of
i Kings to the seventeenth chapter of 2 Kings, relates the
history of the divided kingdom. Rehoboam's insolence
and folly led to a revolt of ten tribes under Jeroboam,
who, as a matter of state policy, introduced an idolatrous
worship. The evil results were seen in all his successors.
The fearless words and deeds of Elijah and his successor,
Elisha, were not able to stay the flood of iniquity. The
climax of wickedness was reached under Ahab and Jezebel.
At length, after 387 years, the kingdom of Israel was
destroyed by the Assyrian monarch Sargon (722 B.C.),
who captured Samaria and replaced the deported popula-
tion by colonists from the east. During all this time the
history of the kingdom of Judah is carried along with that
of the kingdom of Israel, and the contemporaneous sov-
ereigns are always given.
The third part of the books of Kings includes the last
eight chapters. It is devoted to an outline history of the
kingdom of Judah after its rival of the north had been
destroyed. The most notable event is the discovery of
the book of the law in the temple during the reign of
Josiah, and the thorough-going religious reform which he
inaugurated. But in spite of his efforts and the piety
of his predecessor Hezekiah, whose life was miraculously
lengthened, the Hebrew people as a whole had broken
126 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
the covenant of Jehovah. By their irreclaimable idolatry
and wickedness, they finally forfeited the favor of the
Lord, and in 588 B.C. one hundred and thirty-four years
after the destruction of Samaria Jerusalem fell a prey
to the conquering power of Nebuchadnezzar. The He-
brews were carried away into a long captivity ; the threatened
wrath of Jehovah had fallen upon His people.
1 and 2 Chronicles. The books of Chronicles, together
with Ezra and Nehemiah, originally formed a single book.
It is noteworthy that the last two verses of the Chronicles
are identical with the first two verses of Ezra. The present
division of this continuous historical record dates from the
Septuagint version, which was made two or three centuries
before our era.
The traditional view ascribes the authorship to Ezra;
but from the list of the descendants of Zerubbabel men-
tioned in I Chronicles 3: 19-22, the leader of the first
body of captives returning to Jerusalem from Babylon,
it seems probable that the writer belongs to a later time.
Some biblical scholars place the author as late as 330 B.C.,
a date subsequent to the time when Alexander had started
on his conquering career in western Asia. At all events,
it is perfectly clear that the book was written after the
Babylonian exile ; for it contains the proclamation of
Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem.
Character and Sources. In the Chronicles, as in the
other historical writings of the ancient Hebrews, pros-
perity is represented as a reward of righteousness, and
adversity as a punishment of sin. Accordingly, David
admonishes Solomon to be faithful to Jehovah : " If thou
seek Him, He will be found of thee ; but if thou forsake
Him, He will cast thee off forever." l And when a king
1 i Chron, 28: 9.
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 127
of Judah meets with disaster, it is ascribed to the fact
that he "forsook the law of the Lord."
The Chronicles briefly cover the period extending from
Adam to the restoration of the Jews in Jerusalem. The
author was therefore dependent on previous and, in many
cases, ancient records. 1 He drew freely from the earlier
historical books of the Old Testament, especially from
Samuel and Kings; but in addition to these works, he
makes mention of a small library of sources, which are
now unhappily lost. Among these new sources may be
mentioned the book of the Kings of Israel and Judah
(2 Chron. 16: 11), Commentary of the book of the Kings
(2 Chron. 24: 27), the book of Samuel the Seer, the book
of Nathan the Prophet, the book of Gad the Seer (i Chron.
29: 29), the Prophecy of Ahijah, and the Visions of Iddo
the Seer (2 Chron. 9 : 29).
Distinctive Features. The books of Chronicles have a
few distinctive features, which it is important to note.
First of all, there are nine chapters devoted to gene-
alogies. These were taken, as we are told, from the book
of the Kings of Israel, 2 and were no doubt useful, not only
in reminding the returning exiles of the antiquity of their
race, but also in assigning them a proper place in the land
of Canaan.
A second peculiarity is the prominence given to the
temple service. The writer, whoever he was, appears to
have been a priest or Levite, a fact that seems to have
given a priestly aim or bias to his work. The whole of
1 " His belief in God was intense, as one actively governing the world, punishing
the evil and rewarding the good, demanding obedience and worship, but long-
suffering and gracious to His people in spite of their sin. There is at times some-
thing mechanical in His conception, but it is strong and effective." FRANCIS
BROWN in Hastings' " Dictionary of the Bible."
2 I Chron. 9: i.
128 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
chapter 6 is devoted to Levitical genealogy ; and many
chapters are given to the temple and its services. In
addition to this, the chronicler makes prominent the re-
formatory labors of Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah,
making mention of Passover services not elsewhere
referred to.
The third distinguishing feature of the books of Chroni-
cles is the prominence given to the kingdom of Judah.
The kingdom of Israel receives only occasional mention,
and then in connection with its rival kingdom. The reigns
of the good kings those who did " that which was right
in the sight of the Lord " are made especially prominent.
Saul is dismissed with brief notice ; and in the lengthy
sketch of David there is no mention of his adulterous
crimes. Solomon's idolatry is passed over in silence.
" The object of the writer," as Dillmann well says, " was
not so much to retell the story of Israel, as, from the rich
historical stores at his command, to select those portions
which related more particularly to the history of worship,
in order to demonstrate to his compatriots how precious
this legacy was, and how fundamental to the existence and
prosperity of the new state arising from the ashes of
the old."
Fourfold Division. The books of Chronicles may be
readily divided into four parts. The first part (chapters
1-9) contains the genealogical lists. The second part
(chapters 10-29) narrates the history of David, dwelling in
particular upon his preparation for the building of the
temple and his arrangements for maintaining its public
service. The third part (2 Chron. 1-9) tells the history of
Solomon, making prominent the building and dedication of
the temple. The fourth part, including the rest of the book,
is occupied with the history of Judah from the division of
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 129
the kingdom under Rehoboam to the destruction of Jerusa-
lem and Cyrus' permission for the rebuilding of the
temple.
Ezra. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which nar-
rate the most important events connected with the resto-
ration of the Jews to their native land, formerly constituted
one work. They are simply a continuation of the narra-
tive begun in Chronicles, to which they bear a striking
resemblance in style and spirit. There can be little doubt
that all four books are the work of a single historian or
compiler. Ezra and Nehemiah are our only sources for
an important period of Jewish history ; and without the
information they supply, the subsequent developments in
the life of the Hebrew people would be unintelligible.
The seventy years' captivity had accomplished one not-
able result. It permanently cured the Jews of their fatal
tendency to idolatry. We hear no more of the worship
of Baal or other heathen divinities ; henceforth they are
loyal in their outward observance of the Mosaic law.
Twofold Division. The book of Ezra is divided into
two parts. The first part, consisting of chapters I to 6,
describes the return of 42,360 Jews to Jerusalem. This
movement, led by Zerubbabel, followed a favorable procla-
mation by Cyrus (536 B.C.). The rebuilding of the temple,
which had been interrupted by a decree of Artaxerxes,
was completed a little later under Darius (516 B.C.), and
dedicated with magnificent ceremonies.
The second part, which begins with chapter 7, describes
the return and administration of Ezra, who is character-
ized as " a ready scribe in the law of Moses." It is sepa-
rated from the events of the preceding chapter by about
sixty years. As a Jew of zealous piety, Ezra lamented
the intermarriages of his people with surrounding nations ;
130 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
and accordingly he started an agitation that led to the
putting away of " strange wives."
Nehemiah. The book of Nehemiah continues the
history of the restoration of the Jews and the rebuilding
of Jerusalem. It is named after the pious and patriotic
leader, who gave up his honorable post as cupbearer to
Artaxerxes L, King of Persia, to undertake the arduous
labor of rebuilding the walls of the sacred city. The
events narrated in this book took place some twelve or
fourteen years after the mission of Ezra.
Nehemiah rallied the rulers of the Jews at Jerusalem to
a cordial cooperation. Though he was opposed by en-
vious enemies, he heroically persisted in his work. For
fear of attack, his workmen wielded the trowel with their
swords girded at their sides. He persuaded the wealthy
citizens of Jerusalem to surrender their claims against their
poorer brethren, and thus deliver them from the oppression
of debt. In fifty-two days he accomplished the great work
of restoring the fallen walls of the city.
The next important event narrated in Nehemiah
(chapters 8-10) is the solemn reading of the law by Ezra.
The people recognized their sin ; and " entered into a curse,
and into an oath, to walk in God's law, and to observe and
do all the commandments of the Lord our Lord, and His
judgments and His statutes." l Afterwards Nehemiah
instituted various religious and social reforms, and gave
to revived Judaism the zealous and exclusive spirit which
it was long to retain.
Esther. The book of Esther possesses the interest of
a historical romance. The author is unknown ; but the
incidents, which are drawn in part at least from the
Chronicles of the Kings of Media and Persia, 2 are handled
1 Neh. 10 : 29. 2 Esther 10 : 2.
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 131
with consummate art. When Racine came to fashion the
story into a masterful drama, he had no occasion to change
its essential features or arrangement. Esther is at once a
queenly and heroic character. 1
The facts narrated in Esther may be regarded as an
episode in Hebrew history. The evident purpose of the
book is to explain the origin of the Jewish feast of Purim.
The scene is at Susa, the capital of Persia. Esther, a
Jewish maiden of fascinating personality, was selected as
queen in place of Vashti, whom the wilful and despotic
Ahasuerus had deposed for disobeying the royal mandate.
In her exalted position, the new queen overthrew the
prime minister, Haman, whose wicked plottings had aimed
at the destruction of the Jews throughout the vast extent
of the Persian empire. It was in commemoration of the
escape of the Jews from this threatened destruction that
the feast of Purim was instituted.
Peculiar Features. In several respects Esther differs
from every other book in the Old Testament. We miss
that strong sense of the divine agency which is elsewhere
usually made so prominent. It is a remarkable fact that
the name of God is not once mentioned. Moreover, it
presents the Jewish character in an unfavorable light ; for
the decree of Mordecai, as well as the slaughter by the
Jews, breathes a spirit of national hate and revenge. Yet
a characteristic Hebrew faith underlies the work ; for,
without specifically stating the fact, the book undoubtedly
presents the deliverance of the Jews as the act of a favor-
ing Providence.
1 " One has, it seems to me, but to read this story to feel the life of a romance
in it. The contrasted characters the sensual monarch, the unscrupulous min-
ister, the proud Puritan, the brave woman, brave with true womanly courage are
drawn in few lines, but with marvellous skill." LYMAN ABBOTT, " Life and
Literature of the Ancient Hebrews," p. 191.
132 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Historic Interest. The book is not without a general
historical interest. Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, is
usually identified with Xerxes (485-465 B.C.); and the
capricious and self-indulgent temper of the monarch, as
depicted in Esther, corresponds to his character as pre-
sented in Herodotus. The description of Persian customs
is regarded as accurate. The Jews who had been carried
away to the East by Assyrian and Babylonian conquerors
most of whom never returned to Canaan are repre-
sented as retaining their distinctive national customs and
exclusiveness. " There is a certain people," so Haman
tells Ahasuerus, " scattered abroad and dispersed among
the people in all the provinces of thy kingdom ; and their
laws are diverse from all people ; neither keep they the
king's law." 1
The book of Esther has given rise to much discussion.
There are some biblical scholars who question its right to
a place in the sacred canon. But the book has always
been held in high honor by the Jews ; and for its literary
art and general historic interest, as well as for its underly-
ing religious faith, we may well be thankful that it has
been retained in the Old Testament collection of writings.
RESEARCH WORK
i AND 2 KINGS
The circumstances of Solomon's appointment as king, I Kings i.
The final charge and death of David, i Kings 2:1-11.
The punishment of various evil-doers, i Kings 2 : 12-46.
The celebrated choice of Solomon, i Kings 3 : 5-15.
His famous judgment between two women, i Kings 3 : 16-28.
The magnificent court of Solomon, i Kings 4.
i Esther 3:8.
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 133
His relations with Hiram of Tyre, i Kings 5.
The building of the temple, i Kings 6.
Other works of architecture, i Kings 7.
The formal dedication of the temple, i Kings 8.
The visit of the queen of Sheba, i Kings 10.
The closing years of Solomon's reign, i Kings n.
Revolt of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, i Kings 12.
Reign of Jeroboam, i Kings 13, 14.
The story of Elijah, I Kings 17-19; 2 Kings i.
The criminal seizure of Naboth's vineyard, i Kings 21.
The story of Elisha, 2 Kings 1-9.
The healing of Naaman, the leper, 2 Kings 5.
Destruction of Baal worshippers by Jehu, 2 Kings 10: 18-28.
The wicked reign of Athaliah, 2 Kings 1 1 .
Overthrow of the kingdom of Israel, 2 Kings 17.
Notable reign of Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18-20.
Finding the book of the law, 2 Kings 22.
Religious reform under Josiah, 2 Kings 23.
The overthrow of Jerusalem, 2 Kings 24, 25.
i AND 2 CHRONICLES
Various genealogies, i Chron. 1-9.
A brief account of Saul, i Chron. 10.
The career of David, i Chron. 11-22.
Elaborate provision for the temple services, i Chron. 23-26.
Solomon's choice of wisdom, 2 Chron. 2.
The construction of the temple, 2 Chron. 2, 3.
Solomon's prayer at the dedication, 2 Chron. 6 : 12-42.
Other religious ceremonies, 2 Chron. 7.
Visit of the queen of Sheba, 2 Chron. 9 : 1-12.
Revolt of the ten tribes, 2 Chron. 10.
Reign of Rehoboam, 2 Chron. n, 12.
Reign and reforms of Asa, 2 Chron. 15, 16.
Righteous reign of Jehoshaphat, 2 Chron. 17-20.
The cruelty and death of Athaliah, 2 Chron. 22, 23.
The religious reforms of Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 29-31.
His relations with Sennacherib, 2 Chron. 32.
The upright reign of Josiah, 2 Chron. 34, 35.
The fall of Jerusalem, 2 Chron. 36.
134 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
EZRA
The proclamation of Cyrus and its results, Ezra I, 2.
The rebuilding of the temple, Ezra 3.
Opposition and delay, Ezra 4.
The completion of the temple, Ezra 5, 6.
Ezra's visit to Jerusalem, Ezra 7, 8.
Religious reforms inaugurated by Ezra, Ezra 9, 10.
NEHEMIAH
Nehemiah's removal to Jerusalem, Neh. i, 2.
The rebuilding of the walls, Neh. 3, 4.
A social reform relieving the poor, Neh. 5.
The plottings of enemies, Neh. 6.
A religious revival, Neh. 8, 9.
Distribution of the returning Jews, Neh. II.
Religious reforms, Neh. 13.
ESTHER
The feast of Ahasuerus or Xerxes, Esther i.
The Jewish maiden chosen queen, Esther 2.
The vengeful decree obtained by Haman, Esther 3.
The queen agrees to attempt a rescue, Esther 4.
The king and Haman at a banquet, Esther 5.
The reward of Mordecai, Esther 6.
Haman hanged on his own gallows, Esther 7.
The Jews defend themselves, Esther 8, 9.
Institution of the feast of Purim, Esther 9 : 20-32.
CHAPTER VIII
STUDIES IN THE POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS
Introduction. The principle of Hebrew poetry, which
is found in a varied parallelism, has been considered in a
previous chapter. We now enter upon a study of the dis-
tinctly poetical books, which include Job, Psalms, Prov-
erbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon. The ancient
Hebrew race did not produce a great epic. It did not
create a theatre for the representation of dramatic master-
pieces ; yet it produced a moral drama that deserves to be
compared with the greatest literary productions of antiq-
uity. Its didactic poetry embodies deep practical wis-
dom, while its lyrical verse is to-day a source of delight
and spiritual strength to multitudes in Europe and America.
The poetic literature of the ancient Hebrews reveals to
us a new aspect of their life and culture. For the most
part their poetry is of a deep religious tone; yet the re-
ligion embodied in it is chiefly spiritual. In place of
the external and ritual ceremonies of the tabernacle and
temple, we find the soul of the sacred poet standing in
close personal relations with his Maker. Without the in-
tervention of a mediating priesthood, he boldly says, as in
the 23d Psalm : " The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not
want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures ; He
leadeth me beside the still waters."
Furthermore, the literary culture and art exhibited in
the poetry of the Old Testament is surprising. Its sus-
tained excellence of thought and its admirable artistic
form must be regarded as the fruitage of a long period of
136 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
intellectual development. It was no sudden growth ; it
sprang from a vigorous culture that was rooted for cen-
turies in Babylonian and Egyptian civilization.
The Book of Job. The book of Job, though not intended
for representation on the stage, is nevertheless a dramatic
poem. It has its dramatis per s once ; namely, the patriarch
hero after whom the work is named, his three well-meaning
but narrow-minded friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar ;
the young, gifted, and irrepressible Elihu ; and last of all
the Lord Himself, who sublimely speaks from the midst of
a whirlwind. In place of outward action, we have the move-
ment of thought, and the excitement and conflict of de-
bate.
The book is devoted to a discussion of the great prob-
lem of human suffering in its relation to God's government
of the world. We are constantly astonished at the sweep
of knowledge, particularly of natural phenomena, which
the speakers in turn display. The drama is recognized by
the ablest critics as a masterpiece of human genius. 1 Car-
lyle, in characteristic phrase, calls it " a noble book ; all
men's book! It is our first, oldest statement of the never
ending problem, man's destiny, and God's ways with him
here in this earth. And all in such free, flowing outlines ;
grand in its sincerity, in its simplicity ; in its epic melody,
and repose of reconcilement." 2
General Outline. Though there are minor points of dif-
ficulty in the arrangement of the book, its general plan is
very simple. It consists of five parts.as follows :
1 " Job, like Spenser, should be the poet of poets ; but though Goethe has imitated
him in royal fashion, and here and there other poets such as Dante may offer allu-
sions, yet Milton is the only poet who seems to have absorbed Job. " Paradise Re-
gained ",is in both form and contents a free imitation of the book of Job." T. K.
CHEYNE, "Job and Solomon ; or, the Wisdom of the Old Testament," p. 112.
2 Carlyle, " Heroes and Hero- Worship," Sect. 2.
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 137
1. The prologue in prose (chapters i, 2).
2. The debate of Job and his three friends in poetic
form (chapters 3-3 1 ) . This discussion is divided into three
rounds or cycles (chapters 3-14; 15-21 ; 22-31).
3. The interjected discourses of Elihu in poetic form
(chapters 32-3?).
4. The discourses of Jehovah in poetic form (chapters
38-42).
5. The epilogue in prose, recounting the subsequent
prosperity of Job.
In the prologue, the hero, Job, is presented as a man of
extraordinary piety, whose faithfulness is commended by
Jehovah Himself. When Satan, in a celestial council, sneer-
ingly suggests that Job's piety springs from a calculating
selfishness, he receives permission of the Lord to deprive
the patriarch of prosperity and happiness. The response
of the heroic saint to the swift succession of disasters that
rob him of his riches and his children is found in the sub-
lime words of resignation, " The Lord gave, and the Lord
hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord."
At the second celestial gathering, Satan receives per-
mission to tempt the steadfast patriarch further through
physical suffering. Accordingly, he " smote Job with sore
boils from the sole of his foot unto his crown." ' The saint
thus finds himself suddenly plunged into the depths of
misery. But when he is tempted by his sceptical wife to
renounce his religious faith, the strong-hearted hero again
replies, " What ? shall we receive good at the hand of God,
and shall we not receive evil ? "
Visit of his Friends. Though clinging to his faith in
God, Job is nevertheless overwhelmed with suffering. In
his deep wretchedness, he curses the day he was born. In
his despair he cries out,
138 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
"Wherefore is light given to him that is in misery,
And life unto the bitter in soul ? "
Ch. 3 : 20.
To this cry of anguish, which touches the mystery of
human suffering and God's government of the world, Eli-
phaz, with a delicate Oriental courtesy, presents the 'com-
mon Hebrew view of retributive punishment. According
to this view, with which we are already familiar, suffering
is simply a punishment for sin. " Remember," says Eli-
phaz, -
" Remember, I pray thee, who ever perished being innocent ?
Or where were the upright cut off ?
According as I have seen, they that plough iniquity,
And sow trouble, reap the same.
By the breath of God they perish,
And by the blast of His anger are they consumed."
-Ch. 4:7-9.
The following discourses of Bildad and Zophar pursue
the same 'line of thought. This view of human suffering,
though it contains an element of truth, is by no means an
adequate explanation of the sorrow of the world, and in
the light of the prologue we see that it has no application
to Job. Accordingly the sufferer stoutly maintains his in-
nocence, and in his great perplexity of soul is ready boldly
to question God Himself :
" I will say unto God, Do not condemn me ;
Show me wherefore Thou contendest with me.
Is it good unto Thee that Thou shouldest oppress,
That Thou shouldest despise the work of Thine hands,
And shine upon the counsel of the wicked ? "
Ch. 10 : 2, 3.
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 139
It is not difficult for Job to point out the fallacy of his
friends. When the appeal is made to experience, it is seen
that the wicked, instead of being outwardly punished, fre-
quently continue in the enjoyment of prosperity to the end
of their days. Accordingly he asks,
" Wherefore do the wicked live,
Become old, yea, wax mighty in power?
Their seed is established with them in their sight,
And their offspring before their eyes.
Their houses are safe from fear,
Neither is the rod of God upon them."
Ch. 21 : 7-9.
But the friends of Job refused to be convinced; and ob-
stinately maintaining their position, they proceed to charge
him with various iniquities :
" Is not thy wickedness great ?
Neither is there any end to thine iniquities.
For thou hast taken pledges of thy brother for nought,
And stripped the naked of their clothing.
Thou hast not given water to the weary to drink,
And thou hast withholden bread from the hungry."
Ch. 22:5-7.
Elihu's Discourses. All this, as we know from the pro-
logue, is wide of the mark. In place of confession and
repentance, to which Job is urged by his friends, he re-
fuses to compromise, in any way, his conscious integrity of
soul:
" My righteousness I hold fast, and will not let it go :
My heart shall not reproach me so long as I live."
Ch. 27 : 6.
In chapters 29 and 30, he presents a beautiful and touch-
ing contrast between his former prosperity, when his chil-
140 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
dren were about him, and his present misery, when he has
become a byword. In his heart there is no stubbornness
of pride. He expresses a willingness, if he has sinned, to
bear his punishment :
" If my land cry out against me,
And the furrows thereof weep together ;
If I have eaten the fruits thereof without money,
Or have caused the owners thereof to lose their life :
Let thistles grow instead of wheat,
And cockle instead of barley."
Ch. 31:38-40.
At this point, when Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar are
silenced, the young Elihu, who has listened to the debate
with passionate interest, takes up the discourse. Against
Job he reaffirms the retributive relation between sin and
suffering. This relation seems to him to follow necessarily
from the justice of God :
" Far be it from God, that He should do wickedness ;
And from the Almighty, that He should commit iniquity.
For the work of a man shall He render unto him,
And cause every man to find according to his ways."
Ch. 34: 10, ii.
But Elihu does not stop with this traditional view. He
emphasizes another aspect of human suffering, namely, its
disciplinary or redemptive character. Apart from its puni-
tive purpose, suffering is often mercifully intended, so he
rightly argues, to reclaim the wicked from their iniquity :
" Then He showeth them their work,
And their transgressions, that they have behaved themselves
proudly.
He openeth also their ear to instruction,
And commandeth that they return from iniquity.
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 141
If they hearken and serve Him,
They shall spend their days in prosperity,
And their years in pleasures.
But if they hearken not, they shall perish by the sword,
And they shall die without knowledge."
Ch. 36: 9-12.
Voice from the Whirlwind. The mystery of suffering
in human life, whatever light may have been thrown upon
it, is not yet solved. Then the Lord speaks out of the
whirlwind, and by a marvellous series of questions about
the universe exhibits the majesty of divine goodness and
power, and the insufficiency of human wisdom to fathom the
ways of Providence. In many particulars the ways of God
are shown to be inscrutable ; and in the presence of
mystery on every hand, it is vain for man to expect to
fathom, in all its extent, the government of the Almighty.
And where the short plummet of human penetration fails
to sound the mysteries of God, a supreme faith in His
goodness and mercy must come to our aid.
In the epilogue, the Lord condemns Eliphaz and his two
companions, and commends the uprightness of Job. The
trial of the faithful patriarch was followed by a double
measure of prosperity. " And after this Job lived an hun-
dred and forty years, and saw his sons, and his sons' sons,
even four generations."
Various Lessons. This brief analysis leaves many points
of interest untouched. In his sore trial Job does not fully
grasp the truth of a future life. For a time he surrenders
this belief entirely :
" As the waters fail from the sea,
And the river decayeth and drieth up ;
So man lieth down and riseth not :
Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake,
Nor be roused out of their sleep."
Ch. 14: ii, 12,
142
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
But the strong-souled patriarch cannot rest in this
gloomy view ; and later in the argument, there is a splendid
outburst of faith which lays hold for a moment on immor-
tality :
" But I know that my vindicator liveth,
And that He shall stand up at the last upon the earth :
And after my skin hath been thus destroyed,
Yet without my flesh shall I see God ;
Whom I shall see for myself,
And mine eyes shall behold, and not another."
Ch. 19: 25-27.
In the twenty-eighth chapter there is a splendid discus-
sion of wisdom. Though it is hid " from the eyes of all
living,"
11 God understandeth the way thereof,
And He knoweth the place thereof.
For He looketh to the ends of the earth,
And seeth under the whole heaven ;
To make a weight for the wind ;
Yea, He meteth out the waters by measure.
And unto man He said,
Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;
And to depart from evil is understanding."
Apart from interesting incidental discussion and the main
problem of the poem, which is not clearly and fully solved,
the book of Job is rich in its spiritual instruction. It
teaches that the suffering of the righteous man has its
origin in the councils of Heaven, and that it may come, not
as a penal retribution, but as a beneficent test of character.
It shows us, in the face of Satanic cynicism, that there is
such a thing as disinterested piety ; for Job, notwithstand-
ing his overwhelming agony of body and soul, still remains
unshaken in his integrity and loyal devotion to God. It
X
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 143
sets forth an exalted conception of God, who, instead of a
petty dispenser of rewards and punishments, is presented
in the grandeur of a wise and beneficent ruler of a bound-
less' universe. It thus rises above the narrowness which
too often characterized the ancient Hebrew conception of
Jehovah.
Locality and Date. The land of Uz, which is named as
the home of Job, was probably in northern Arabia. The
hero was an Arabian emir or chieftain, who was distin-
guished in Hebrew tradition for his upright character.
Accordingly we find Ezekiel referring to " Noah, Daniel,
and Job " as preeminent in righteousness. 1 These facts
give the drama a historic foundation.
Neither the date nor the authorship of the poem can be
definitely fixed. It was once thought to be the oldest book in
the Bible ; and it is evident that the Arabian hero belongs
to the patriarchal period. This is shown by the extraordi-
nary age to which he is said to have attained.
But the patriarchal character of the central figure does
not prove the contemporary authorship of the drama.
Shakespeare wrote his Hamlet and Macbeth long after the
age of those well-known characters. A little reflection will
show that the book of Job belongs to the later period of
Jewish development. The central problem of the poem
could hardly have engaged such serious attention during
the troublous times of the conquest or the lawless period of
the Judges. Its finished literary character and its breadth
of thought place the poem in the post-exilic age. It prob-
ably dates from 400 B.C.
The Psalms. In the book of Psalms we have a large
collection of the lyric poetry of the ancient Hebrews. Its
one hundred and fifty psalms or hymns reach a height of
1 Ez. 14 : 14.
144 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
lyrical attainment unsurpassed in antiquity. Lyric poetry
gives intense expression to thought and emotion; and in
the Psalms the hymn-book of the Hebrews there
is a marvellous utterance of all the varied religious
feelings.
The lyric poetry of Israel is unlike that of Greece 'and
Rome ; for, in place of martial verse and songs of love, it
is devoted to religion. In this great sphere of human
thought and feeling, the Psalms have never been sur-
passed or superseded ; and to-day, in all Christian lands,
they are employed to voice the praises, prayers, and
thanksgiving of reverent spirits. The Psalter is a spir-
itual treasury with which the world could ill afford to
dispense.
Growth. As the Psalms were composed at intervals
throughout Hebrew history, the present collection is the
result of an age-long growth. The QOth Psalm is as-
cribed to Moses, and the 13/th clearly belongs to the
period of the captivity ; thus the book of Psalms is seen to
represent the fruitage of Hebrew inspiration for nearly a
thousandjrears.
In the Revised Version the collection is divided into
five books, each of which, as will be found on examina-
tion, concludes with a doxology. The first book includes
Psalms 1-41 ; the second, Psalms 42-72; the third, Psalms
73-89; the fourth, Psalms 90-106; the fifth, Psalms 107-
150. These books were arranged at different times and
by different editors or compilers. This is proved by the
repetition of psalms, 1 and by the different words used to
designate the Supreme Being. In the first, fourth, and
fifth books God is called Jehovah in the Hebrew ; in the
second and third, Elohim.
i Compare Ps. 53 with Ps. 14, and Ps. 70 with Ps. 40 : 13-17.
Y-i
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 145
Titles. It will be observed that most of the Psalms
are provided with titles, which contain various items of
information. For one thing, they usually indicate author-
ship. Accordingly, seventy-three psalms are assigned to
David, two to Solomon, twelve to Asaph, eleven to the
sons of Korah, one to Moses, one to Heman the Ezrahite,
and one to Ethan the Ezrahite. Thirty-four are without
any indication of authorship, and hence are known among
the Jews as "orphans."
But unfortunately the question of authorship is not so
easily settled. The titles do not form a part of the origi-
nal Psalms, but are a later and, as many believe, an un-
trustworthy addition. For this reason modern scholarship
has greatly reduced the number of Psalms to be ascribed
to David. However, the uncertain question of author-
ship does not affect the intrinsic excellence of the
Psalms.
Musical Directions. The titles frequently give direc-
tions for the musical rendering of the Psalms. In some
cases the Hebrew is obscure, and in the Revised Version
is left untranslated. Sometimes the title indicates the
nature of the instruments that are to accompany the vocal
rendition of the Psalm. The fourth Psalm, for example,
is to be accompanied by stringed instruments, and the
fifth by wind-instruments. In other cases, as in the ninth
Psalm, the title seems to indicate the melody or chant to
be used.
The musical rendering of the Psalms in connection with
the tabernacle and temple service must have been often
elaborate and impressive. From the record in I Chroni-
cles, we have already learned of the extensive arrange-
ments made by David for bringing the ark from the house
of Obed-edom to Jerusalem, and for the later services of the
146 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
temple. The great choir was supported by a large orches-
tra of instruments, consisting of psalteries, and harps, and
cymbals, and trumpets.
A Processional Hymn. It has been supposed that the
24th Psalm was used as a kind of processional hymn
when the ark was brought to Jerusalem. Its liturgical char-
acter is sufficiently obvious. As the great procession, led
by King David in a robe of white linen, reached the city,
it seems to have paused outside the massive and ancient
gates. Suddenly the full choir and orchestra broke forth
in a united ascription of praise to the Almighty :
" The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof;
The world, and they that dwell therein.
For He hath founded it upon the seas,
And established it upon the floods."
After this splendid outburst in full symphony, a powerful
priestly voice continued as a solo :
"Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord?
And who shall stand in His holy place? "
To this solemn question another priestly voice replies :
" He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart ;
Who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity,
And hath not sworn deceitfully.
He shall receive a blessing from the Lord,
And righteousness from the God of his salvation. 1 '
This solo is followed by the full symphony of singers and
instruments, whose harmonies, like the voice of many
waters, fill the mountain and valley : -
" This is the generation of them that seek after Him,
That seek Thy face, O God of Jacob."
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 147
For a moment there is an impressive silence indicated by
the word Selah. Then the full choir, conscious of its
mighty mission in bringing the ark of the Lord to the
capital of the kingdom, turns to the closed and barred
gates of the city :
" Lift up your heads, O ye gates ;
And be ye lifted up, ye everlasting doors :
And the King of glory shall come in."
The warden stationed on the wall above the gates an-
swers in loud antiphony :
" Who is the King of glory? "
And the full chorus responds :
" The Lord strong and mighty,
The Lord mighty in battle."
But the watchword has not yet been given, and the gates
remain closed. Once more the full choir sings :
" Lift up your heads, O ye gates ;
Yea, lift them up, ye everlasting doors :
And the King of glory shall come in."
Again the warden demands :
" Who is this King of glory?"
And the full choir triumphantly replies :
"THE LORD OF HOSTS
He is the King of glory."
This is the mighty watchword of the day ; and instantly
the gates are flung open wide, and the long procession moves
with its sacred charge to the doors of the tabernacle.
148 ,4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Historic Setting. It is always interesting to know the
occasion that called forth some admirable literary pro-
duction, and often this knowledge enables us to enter more
fully into its spirit. In a number of cases the titles of the
Psalms indicate the occasion of the poem, and by this his-
toric setting impart to them a new depth of meaning. If
we think of the QOth Psalm, for example, as written by
Moses near the close of the forty years' wandering in
the wilderness, we can better understand the gloomy view
of life it presents. After having seen an entire generation
pass away in the midst of the hopeless hardships of the
wilderness, it was but natural for the great leader, in an hour
of depression, to say :
" For all our days are passed away in Thy wrath :
We bring our years to an end as a tale that is told.
The days of our years are threescore years and ten,
Or if by reason of strength fourscore years ;
Yet is their pride but labor and sorrow ;
For it is soon gone, and we fly away."
We may take, again, the third Psalm, which was written,
as the title informs us, when David was fleeing from Ab-
salom. This fact enables us to read a deeper meaning into
the opening, burdened cry of the poem :
"Lord, how are mine adversaries increased!
Many are they that rise up against me.
Many there be which say of my soul,
There is no help for him in God."
At the same time, the later verses of the poem show us
the strength of David's faith in the Lord.
It is to be regretted that in some cases the titles are mis-
leading as to the circumstances of the Psalm, and fail, there-
fore;* to throw any light upon it.
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 149
Varied Themes. The wide range of themes found in the
Psalms cannot be otherwise than astonishing. There is
scarcely any phase of the religious or spiritual life that re-
mains untouched. These sacred lyrics deal with the funda-
mental truths and experiences of true religion ; and hence
they have little to say about ritual observances, and much
about the relation of the soul to God. They are prophetic
rather than priestly. Hence David, in his great penitential
Psalm, says :
" Thou delightest not in sacrifice ; else would I give it ;
Thou hast no pleasure in burnt offering.
The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ;
A broken and a contrite heart, O God, Thou wilt not despise." 1
Perhaps no other fact is more characteristic or more
fundamental in the Psalms than their strong, pervading
consciousness of God. Nowhere else do we find a more
beautiful statement of His omnipresent and providential
care than in the i3Qth Psalm:
"Whither shall I go from Thy spirit?
Or whither shall I flee from Thy presence?
If I ascend up into heaven, Thou art there ;
If I make my bed in Sheol, behold, Thou art there.
If I take the wings of the morning,
And dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea;
Even there shall Thy hand lead me,
And Thy right hand shall hold me."
This strong sense of the divine presence and goodness
was attended with a corresponding trust, which imparted
to the psalmist at the same time force of character and
serenity of mind. This is shown in the opening verses of
the 46th Psalm :
l Ps. 51 : 16, 17.
150 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
" God is our refuge and strength,
A very present help in trouble.
Therefore will not we fear though the earth do change,
And though the mountains be moved in the heart of the seas ;
Though the waters thereof roar and be troubled,
Though the mountains shake with the swelling thereof."
The first Psalm is a fitting introduction to the entire col-
lection. It teaches the blessedness of the righteous, and
the judgment of the wicked. Though the outward con-
trasts in this life are by no means so striking and invariable
as the Hebrew poet imagined, the truth he presents is
necessarily universal. When the ways of God are under-
stood in all their wide reach and results, there can never
be any ground to impeach His justice and goodness. It
will always remain true that,
" Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the wicked
Nor standeth in the way of sinners,
Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful.
But his delight is in the law of the Lord ;
And in His law doth he meditate day and night."
The whole circuit of religious emotion joy and sorrow,
faith and doubt, confidence and repentance, righteousness
and sin, triumph and failure, love and hate finds full
and repeated expression in the Psalms. So varied are the
subjects treated that no effort at classification has been
entirely satisfactory. Often a single Psalm breathes forth
many phases of spiritual experience. 1
1 " To be sincere, simple, genuine, transparent with God, to dare to show Him
our worst as well as our best, to dare to ask Him to search us and see if there be
any evil way in us, to treat Him as we treat the physician, pointing out to Him every-
thing in us that He may teach us what is evil and what is good, and how to abhor
the evil and to cleave to the good, to treat Him as our best and most intimate
friend, from whom we wish to conceal nothing, this is one of the lessons which
the unreserved candor of these ancient lyrics teaches, and which the church still
has need to learn." LYMAN ABBOTT, " Life and Literature of the Ancient
Hebrews," p. 315.
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 151
RESEARCH WORK
JOB
The prologue, 1,2.
Job curses the day of his birth, 3.
The first speech of Eliphaz, 4, 5.
Job's desire of death, 7.
The first speech of Bildad, 8.
Job's complaint to God, 10.
The first speech of Zophar, 1 1 .
Job's defence against his friends, 12-14.
Prosperity of the wicked, 24.
A tribute to wisdom, 28.
Job's contrast of prosperity and adversity, 29, 30.
The discourses of Elihu, 32-37.
Jehovah's addresses from the whirlwind, 38-41.
The epilogue, 42.
PSALMS
A contrast of the righteous and the wicked, Ps. I.
David's Psalm when fleeing from Absalom, Ps. 4.
Insignificance and greatness of man, Ps. 8.
A citizen of Zion, Ps. 15.
A story of deliverance from enemies, Ps. 18.
Nature and the law of God, Ps. 19.
An expression of confidence, Ps. 23.
A processional song, Ps. 24.
A hymn of faith, Ps. 27.
God manifested in a thunderstorm, Ps. 29.
Blessedness of forgiveness, Ps. 32.
A hymn of praise, Ps. 33.
Admonition to patience and confidence, Ps. 37.
The brevity of life, Ps. 39.
A marriage hymn, Ps. 45.
A song of triumphant trust, Ps. 46.
David's penitence and prayer, Ps. 51.
David's prayer when fleeing from Saul, Ps. 57.
A song of exile, Ps. 63.
152 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
A hymn of praise, Ps. 65.
A Psalm of Solomon, Ps. 72.
A historical contemplation, Ps. 78.
A prayer of Moses, Ps. 90.
A song for the Sabbath day, Ps. 92.
An exhortation to praise God, Ps. 103.
A meditation on the power of God, Ps. 104.
A national anthem, Ps. 105.
The blessing of righteousness, Ps. 112.
An alphabetic Psalm, Ps. 119.
Pilgrim songs, or songs of degrees, Ps. 120-134.
An elegy of the captivity, Ps. 137.
David's Psalm of praise, Ps. 145.
Exhortations to praise, Ps. 146-150.
CHAPTER IX
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON
Wisdom Literature. In Job we have had a spiritual
drama ; in Psalms, a splendid collection of lyrics ; and
now, in the book of Proverbs we have an admirable body
of didactic poetry. The couplets and more elaborate
forms of verse that enter into Proverbs belong to what is
called the Wisdom literature of the Hebrews. This lit-
erature takes the place of philosophical writing among
other peoples. It is indeed a kind of philosophy, based
not on abstract speculation, but on practical observation.
It is utilitarian in spirit; but like nearly all the other writ-
ings of the ancient Jews, it rests on a religious foundation,
and is pervaded by a religious tone. As is stated in the
first chapter,
"The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge."
But while the Wisdom literature is essentially religious,
it is not concerned, as are the Psalms, with spiritual emo-
tions and High theological truths. It deals with the every-day
affairs of life ; and accordingly we find practical directions
for individual conduct, social duties, and commercial trans-
actions. If fully exemplified in individual life, the teach-
ings of Proverbs would result in a noble type of manhood,
in which a profound piety would be joined to the virtues
of purity, sobriety, diligence, generosity, and prudence.
The book is therefore well worth a careful study.
154 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Division and Authorship. A brief examination of the
book of Proverbs will show that it is not an organic or
connected unity. It is obviously a compilation, which is
readily divided into six parts as follows :
1. The praise of Wisdom (chapters 1-9).
2. Proverbs of Solomon (chapters 10-22 : 16).
3. Words of the Wise (chapter 22 : 17-24).
4. Additional proverbs of Solomon (chapters 25-29).
5. The words of Agur (chapter 30).
6. The words of King Lemuel, including the beautiful
description of a virtuous woman (chapter 31).
It is thus seen that the book of Proverbs is a composite
work. But the second part, which constitutes the body of
the book, is attributed to Solomon ; and there seems to be
no sufficient reason for discarding this ancient belief. We
know from I Kings 4:32 that Solomon "spake three
thousand proverbs " ; and in the work before us it is
highly probable that some of these wise sayings have
been preserved.
The introduction to the fourth part tells us that " these
also are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah,
King of Judah, copied out." Though many of the proverbs
are of different authorship and of much later date, tradi-
tion has probably made no mistake in associating the book
with the name of the wise king of Israel.
Part First. The purpose of the book of Proverbs is
clearly stated in the opening verses. Its aim is altogether
practical :
"To give subtilty to the simple,
To the young man knowledge and discretion :
That the wise man may hear and increase in learning ;
And that the man of understanding may attain to sound counsels."
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 155
The general theme of part first is the praise of wisdom,
the excellence of which is celebrated in elaborate verse :
" Happy is the man that findeth wisdom,
And the man that getteth understanding.
For the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of silver,
And the gain thereof than fine gold.
She is more precious than rubies ;
And none of the things thou canst desire are to be compared unto her.
Length of days is in her right hand ;
In her left hand riches and honor.
Her ways are ways of pleasantness,
And all her paths are peace.
She is a tree of life to them that lay hold of her ;
And happy is every one that retaineth her."
Ch. 3: 13-18.
While earnestly commending wisdom, the writer, speak-
ing in the character of a father, warns his imaginary son
or disciple against various evils to which he is likely to be
exposed. Crimes of violence are to be avoided ; the snares
of the " strange woman " are clearly pointed out ; the im-
prudence of becoming surety for another is dwelt upon ;
and several sins especially hated of the Lord are woven
together in an elaborate stanza. Here is what Professor
Moulton calls a " Sonnet on the Sluggard " : l
"Go to the ant, thou sluggard ;
Consider her ways, and be wise :
Which having no chief,
Overseer or ruler,
Provideth her meat in the summer,
And gathereth her food in the harvest.
How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard?
When wilt thou arise out of thy sleep?
' Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,
A little folding of the hands to sleep : '
l R. G. Moulton, " Literary Study of the Bible," p. 281.
156 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
So shall thy poverty come as a robber,
And thy want as an armed man."
Ch. 6:6-11.
Part Second. The second part is made up, as the title
informs us, of "the proverbs of Solomon." These are
brief, sententious sayings in the form of couplets. The
antithetic form of parallelism is the prevailing type. The
proverbs treat of a great variety of subjects, and observe
no distinguishable order. Though a dominant religious
spirit underlies the collection, the proverbs deal almost
exclusively with the ordinary secular relations of life.
They are as applicable to life to-day as in the reign of the
great king of Israel.
Out of this store of practical wisdom only two or three
extracts, by way of illustration, can be taken. In the pres-
ent day, when wealth is so often acquired in unscrupulous
ways, it is well to remember that
" Better is a little with righteousness
Than great revenues with injustice."
Ch. 1:8.
Every thoughtful man is conscious of the fact that there
is a power over, him that, in large measure, controls his
destiny. This fact was recognized ages ago ; and so we
are told that
"A man's heart deviseth his way ;
But the Lord directeth his steps."
Ch. 16:9.
In sympathy with the prophetic spirit of Israel, the
Proverbs teach a religion, not of ritualistic ceremonies, but
of practical ethics. Thus they declare that
" To do justice and judgment
Is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice."
Ch. 21:3.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 157
Part Third. The third part of Proverbs is composed
of "the words of the Wise." 1 Like the preceding parts,
it deals with the usual duties and ills of life. In place of
antithetic couplets, it uses various elaborated forms of
parallelism. It warns against the oppression of the poor ;
against friendship with a man given to anger; against
the removal of landmarks; and against gluttony, envy,
and sloth.
Drunkenness seems to have been a common vice in the
writer's day, and accordingly he utters repeated and vig-
orous warnings against it :
"Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions?
Who hath complaining? who hath wounds without cause?
Who hath redness of eyes?
They that tarry long at the wine ;
They that go to seek out mixed wine.
Look not thou upon the wine when it is red,
When it giveth its color in the cup,
When it goeth down smoothly :
At the last it biteth like a serpent,
And stingeth like an adder."
Ch. 23 : 29-32.
Other Parts. Of the remaining parts there is not room
to speak at any length. " The words of Agur," as con-
tained in the thirtieth chapter, are embodied in a series
of lengthy verse forms, in which the number four is con-
spicuous. We find in them a warning against slander,
the marks of an evil generation, four insatiable things,
the fate of the disobedient son, four incomprehensible
things, four intolerable things, four wise animals, four
things stately in their going, and a warning against strife.
1 Ch. 22 : 17-24.
158 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
The poet's prayer for the golden mean of fortune is as
follows :
" Two things have I asked of Thee ;
Deny me them not before I die :
Remove far from me vanity and lies :
Give me neither poverty nor riches ;
Feed me with the food that is needful for me :
Lest I be full, and deny Thee, and say, Who is the Lord?
Or lest I be poor, and steal,
And use profanely the name of my God."
The last chapter of Proverbs contains the praises of a
virtuous woman. Perhaps no greater tribute has ever
been paid to faithful, diligent, wise, and upright woman-
hood :
" She openeth her mouth with wisdom ;
And the law of kindness is on her tongue.
She looketh well to the ways of her household,
And eateth not the bread of idleness.
Her children rise up, and call her blessed ;
Her husband also, and he praiseth her, saying,
Many daughters have done virtuously,
But thou excellest them all."
Ecclesiastes. The book of Ecclesiastes sounds a strange
note in the harmonies of the Old Testament. Its view of
life, in spite of a fundamental trust in God, is depressing.
Its theme throughout is the emptiness of life. Wherever
the writer turns his eyes, he finds that " all is vanity."
" I have seen all the works," he declares, " that are done
under the sun ; and, behold, all is vanity and vexation of
spirit. That which is crooked cannot be made straight;
and that which is wanting cannot be numbered." 1
This morbid and depressing view of life has caused
devout scholars no end of perplexity. Many are the con-
1 Eccl. i : 14, 15.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 159
tradictory views which have been entertained. Yet the
explanation seems near at hand. In Ecclesiastes we have
a matchless utterance of the sense of world-weariness
that is apt at times to come to us all. When our store
of vitality runs low, when our hopes have been repeatedly
shattered, and the course of the world seems all awry,
then with the ancient Preacher we are apt to feel that " all
is vanity."
It is this full expression of a mood, felt at times by
most men, that invests Ecclesiastes with a peculiar interest.
It has been called the most modern book of the Old Tes-
tament. Certainly its mood is often felt in the midst of
modern competitive life, and sometimes embodied in mod-
ern literature. Thackeray understood its burden when
in his Vanitas Vanitatem, he wrote :
" Though thrice a thousand years have passed
Since David's son, the sad and splendid,
The weary king Ecclesiast,
Upon his awful tablets penned it,
" Methinks the text is never stale,
And life is every day renewing
Fresh comments on the old, old tale
Of fortune, folly, glory, ruin." 1
Authorship and Date. The traditional view ascribes
the authorship to Solomon. This view is based on the
opening statement, which assigns the authorship to "the
son of David, King of Jerusalem." Furthermore, the mag-
nificence, wealth, and power displayed in the experiments
1 " Ecclesiastes needs a certain preparation of the mind and character, a certain
' elective affinity,' in order to be appreciated as it deserves. To enjoy it, we must
find our own difficulties and our own moods anticipated in it. We must be able
to sympathize with its author either in his world-weariness and scepticism, or in his
victorious struggle (if so be it was victorious) through darkness into light." T. K.
CHEYNE, "Job and Solomon," p. 242.
160 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
of the second chapter are in keeping with the regal station
and historic achievements of David's illustrious son.
But the prevailing view among biblical scholars of the
present day makes Solomon the hero rather than the author
of the book. A later writer, in accordance with a common
custom, placed his reflections on life in the mouth of the
ancient king of Israel. This view is based chiefly on two
facts : first, the sentiments and political conditions reflected
in the poem are often out of keeping with the character
and reign of Solomon; and, second, the language of the
original, in its use of foreign words and idioms, betrays a
corruption of the older classic Hebrew. Accordingly, the
probable date is indicated as about 200 B.C., which makes
Ecclesiastes one of the latest books of the Old Testament.
Search for Happiness. The book of Ecclesiastes is not
a logically developed treatise. It seems to consist of a
succession of essays or observations, which are separated
by interludes of brief or proverbial comments on life.
The greater part of the book is in prose; but now and
then, as in portions of the seventh, tenth, eleventh, and
twelfth chapters, it rises into the region of poetic thought
and expression. We may, therefore, regard Ecclesiastes
as a prose poem.
The most clearly defined portion of the book is Solomon's
search for happiness, as related in the first two chapters.
After dwelling on the wearisome round of the world, which
entombs successive generations in the depths of oblivion,
the royal preacher recounts his fourfold experiment to as-
certain "what it was good for the sons of men that they
should do under the heaven all the days of their life." He
first tried wisdom ; but at last it seemed to him "a striving
after wind. For in much wisdom is much grief : and he
that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow."
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 161
The disappointed seeker then turns to pleasure. He
builds magnificent houses and lays out splendid parks.
He accumulates great treasures of gold and silver, and
surrounds himself with every form of artistic and sensual
delight. "Whatsoever mine eyes desired," he tells us, " I
kept not from them ; I withheld not my heart from any
joy." And what was the result? It might well stand as
a warning to all those who to-day are following in the foot-
steps of the voluptuous king : " Behold, all was vanity and
a striving after wind, and there was no profit under the
sun."
In his renewed and bitter disappointment, the king pro-
ceeds to study the wisdom and. folly of human nature, and
finds that "one event happeneth" alike to wise men and to
fools. The acquisition of riches likewise failed to bring
him peace of mind ; for, apart from the strenuous toil of
accumulation, which prevented his heart from taking rest,
he could not tell who would inherit his wealth.
As a result of his search after the supreme good of life,
the royal investigator reaches a conclusion. It is the con-
clusion of the faithful, prosaic man in every age, who,
through bitter disappointments, has still retained his hold
on God. It is the deep lesson of duty. "There is nothing
better for a man," says the royal preacher, " than that he
should eat and drink, and make his soul enjoy good in his
labor. This also I saw, that it is from the hand of God."
Contradictory Views. As in the case of most men
who take morbid views of life, we recognize in the author
of Ecclesiastes changing moods and contradictory sen-
timents. Sometimes a gleam of light breaks through the
gloom. At one time, with a triumphant pessimism, he
roundly declares that life is an evil. " I praised the dead
which are already dead," he says, "more than the living
T 62 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
which are yet alive ; yea, better than them both did I
esteem him which hath not yet been, who hath not seen
the evil work that is done under the sun." l
At other times the royal ecclesiast takes a more cheerful
view of life. He declares " a living dog is better than a
dead lion " (9:4); and during a brief rift in the clouds he
finds that " truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it
is for the eyes to behold the sun. Yea, if a man live many
years, let him rejoice in them all" (i i : 7, 8).
A Fixed Principle. Rarely has any man more clearly
perceived the various ills of life than the author of this in-
teresting book. He has discovered the insufficiency of
intellectual attainments, royal splendor, and boundless
wealth to still the imperious longings of the soul. He
has seen wrong usurping .the place of justice; he has
recognized the trials, disappointments, and sufferings of
life; he has keenly felt the limitations of human knowl-
edge and the impossibility of fully understanding the
ways of God ; he has discerned the frequent pros-
perity of the wicked and the ofttime adversity of the
righteous.
But through it all he has held fast to one anchor of the
soul. Righteousness is not in vain on the earth. "Though
a sinner do evil an hundred times," he says, " and prolong
his days, yet surely I know that it shall be well with them
that fear God, which fear before Him ; but it shall not be
well with the wicked." 2 In this truth we recognize the
1 Eccl. 4 : 2, 3. Compare this with a stanza in Byron's " Euthanasia " :
" Count o'er the joys thine hours have seen,
Count o'er thy days from anguish free :
And know, whatever thou hast been,
Tis something better not to be."
2 Eccl. 8 : 12, 13.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 163
unconquerable Hebrew faith in the sovereignty and justice
of God. 1
The Epilogue. There is not space to dwell upon the
well-known " philosophy of times " as presented in the
third chapter, nor upon the beautiful symbolic poem on
life in the last chapter, beginning
" Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth,
While the evil days come not, nor the years draw nigh,
When thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them ;
While the sun, or the light, or the moon, or the stars, be not
darkened,
Nor the clouds return after the rain."
It only remains to give the final conclusion to which the
author comes after all his contemplation of life. This con-
clusion reveals to us the deeply religious character of the
author, and, in spite of its gloom, the religious aim of the
book. Though its reception into the canon was late, there
was no mistake made in giving it a place in the Old Testa-
ment scriptures. Whatever errors of judgment may have
escaped the writer in his moments of deepest gloom, there
can be no doubt as to the truth of the final outcome:
" Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter ; fear
God, and keep His commandments; for this is. the whole
duty of man. For God shall bring every work into judg-
ment with every secret thing, whether it be good, or
whether it be evil."
Song of Solomon. Like the book of Ecclesiastes, the
Song of Solomon strikes a new and strange note in the
1 " Single passages, taken apart from their connection, might seem to express
a frank Epicureanism and the grossest materialism, a frivolous scepticism and deso-
late despair of every thing ideal ; but we should do the author bitter injustice, if we
saw therein his final word and his true meaning. No, he has not given up his
faith in God and a moral order of the world." CORNILL, " Einleitung in das Alte
Testament," p. 250.
1 64 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Old Testament writings. It does not mention the name
of God; it is destitute of any clear ethical motive. As
Cornill remarks, " No unprejudiced reader can for a
moment doubt that love, the love of man for woman and
the love of woman for man, is the sole and uniform theme
of the Song." 1
But this unethical character of the book was not readily
accepted by the biblical scholars of the early and mediaeval
church. On the basis of its celebration of human love,
its place in the sacred Scriptures could not easily be justi-
fied. Accordingly, the Song of Songs was considered an
allegory, which represented the mutual love existing be-
tween Christ and the church. This allegorical view, which
lifts the poem into the realm of religion, is indicated in
the headings of the chapters in the King James version.
Literary Form. It has long been a difficult problem to
master the literary form of Solomon's Song. A cursory
reading shows that in part at least the poem is in the form
of dialogue. In the first chapter, for example, it is clear
that a man and a woman a bridegroom and a bride
are expressing to each other their mutual admiration and
love :
"Bridegroom. I have compared thee, O my love,
To a steed in Pharaoh's chariots.
Thy cheeks are comely with plaits of hair,
Thy neck with strings of jewels.
We will make thee plaits of gold
With studs of silver.
Bride. While the king sat at his table,
My spikenard sent forth its fragrance.
My beloved is unto me as a bundle of myrrh,
That lieth betwixt my breasts.
My beloved is unto me as a cluster of henna-flowers
In the vineyards of Engedi."
l Cornill, " Einleitung in das Alte Testament," p. 253.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 165
But there are no stage directions; King Solomon and
a Shulammite maiden are only incidentally indicated as
dramatis persona ; and the divisions of the work are only
occasionally indicated by a refrain, as in the second and
third chapters :
" I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem,
By the roes, and by the hinds of the field,
That ye stir not; up, nor awaken love,
Until it please. 1 '
A Lyrical Drama. In the presence of these obscurities
of structure, critical ingenuity has been severely taxed to
make out the precise form that was in the mind of the
original writer. As might be expected, there has been
great divergence of view. Fortunately, the solution of
the problem has been found in our recent acquaintance
with Oriental marriage customs, and we are amply justified
in pronouncing the Song of Songs a sort of lyrical drama.
In Syria the wedding festivities, known as " the king's
week," continue for seven days. The bridegroom and
bride, as king and queen, occupy improvised thrones in
the presence of many neighborhood guests ; and the oc-
casion is enlivened by songs, dances, and plays. In the
work before us we probably have a collection of songs
arranged for such a wedding festival. With this fact in
mind, the general plan and spirit of the piece become con-
vincingly clear.
Dramatic Analysis. Accordingly, the characters are
the king, his bride, and a chorus of the daughters of
Jerusalem. We may distinguish seven lyrical scenes
which collectively round out a beautiful work of art.
Only the general character of the successive scenes can
be indicated :
1 66 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
1. The wedding day (i : 2-2 : 7).
2. The bride's reminiscences of the courtship (2 : 8-
3:5>
3. The day of betrothal (3 : 6-5 : i).
4. The bride's troubled dream (5 : 2-6 : 3).
5. The king's meditation on his bride (6 : 4-7 : 9). i
6. The bride's longing for her home in Lebanon (7 : 10-
8: 4 ).
7. The renewal of love in the vineyard of Lebanon
(8: 5 -i 4 y
In the first scene the bride is conducted, with an at-
tendant chorus of maidens, to the palace of her husband.
It closes with a refrain. In the second scene the bride
dwells upon the days of courtship, and recounts the happy
ending of a troubled dream :
" When I found him whom my soul loveth,
I held him and would not let him go. 1 '
The third scene describes the stately coming of the king,
and repeats his words of ardent admiration :
" Behold, thou art fair, my love ; behold, thou art fair ;
Thine eyes are as doves behind thy veil ;
Thy hair is as a flock of goats,
That lie along the side of Mount Gilead."
In the fourth scene the bride relates a troubled dream,
in which she loses her lover and seeks for him in vain.
Scene fifth contains the king's meditation on the per-
fections of his bride, with a reminiscence of their first
meeting. In scene sixth the bride expresses a longing
for her home in Lebanon :
1 These titles are taken from Professor Moulton, whose arrangement of the Song
of Songs in his " Literary Study of the Bible " is admirably worked out.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 167
" Come, my beloved, let us go forth into the field ;
Let us lodge in the villages.
Let us get up early to the vineyards ;
Let us see whether the vine hath budded and its blossom be open,
And the pomegranates be in flower :
There I will give thee my love."
In the last scene, there is. a renewal of the pledges of
mutual affection, and the bride pays an immortal tribute
to the might of love :
" Set me as a seal upon thine heart,
As a seal upon thine arm :
For love is strong as death ;
Jealousy is cruel as the grave :
The flashes thereof are flashes of fire,
A very flame of the Lord.
Many waters cannot quench love,
Neither can the floods drown it ;
If a man would give all the substance of his house for love,
It would utterly be contemned."
Love of Nature. In this brief analysis we have caught
a glimpse of the spirit of poetry and the intensity of pas-
sion which pervade the drama. There is a freedom of
description that is not in keeping with modern "taste ; yet
the poem breathes a blameless purity. Every part of it
rises far above the commonplace. The descriptions of na-
ture are especially beautiful. 1 Take, for example, a few
1 " It abounds in poetical gems of the purest ray. It breathes the bracing air of
the hill country, and the passionate love of man for woman and woman for man.
It is a revelation of the keen Hebrew delight in nature, in her vineyards and pas-
tures, flowers and fruit trees, in her doves and deer and sheep and goats. It is a
song tremulous from beginning to end with the passion of love; and this love it
depicts in terms never coarse, but often frankly sensuous so frankly sensuous
that in the first century its place in the canon was earnestly contested by Jewish
scholars." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 282.
1 68 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
lines from the bride's recollection of the days of court-
ship :
" My beloved spake, and said unto me,
Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away.
For, lo, the winter is past,
The rain is over and gone ;
The flowers appear on the earth ;
The time of the singing of birds is come,
And the voice of the turtle is heard in the land ;
The fig tree ripeneth her green figs,
And the vines are in blossom,
They give forth their fragrance."
Meaning of the Poem. Though the date and author-
ship are unknown, the meaning of this admirable lyrical
drama can hardly be mistaken. It is a celebration of the
beauty and sacredness of wedded love. Marriage the
union of one man and one woman for life is a divine
institution. It was consecrated by the presence of Jesus
at Cana of Galilee. 1 In an age when marriage was too
often despised or degraded by lust and polygamy, it was
fitting that this poem, with its purity of spirit and charm
of womanhood, should be sent forth on its regenerating
mission.
Though an allegorical interpretation was obviously
never intended by the poet, yet the drama in a measure
lends itself to that treatment. The relation between God
and His people is often compared to the relation of hus-
band and wife. Throughout the Old Testament, the idola-
try of the Hebrews is frequently stigmatized as adultery.
In view of these facts, the ardent and faithful affection
between the bridegroom and bride may be easily trans-
ferred, as in the King James version, to Christ and His
church.
1 John 2: i-n.
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 169
RESEARCH WORK
PROVERBS
Wisdom's words of warning, Prov. I : 20-33.
The blessings of wisdom, Prov. 2.
Various interesting exhortations of wisdom, Prov. 3.
Warnings against the strange woman, Prov. 5.
The snares of the adulterous woman, Prov. 7.
Proverbs of Solomon, Prov. 10-22.
The evils of wine-bibbing, Prov. 23 : 20-35.
Fools, sluggards, and meddlers, Prov. 26.
The proverbs of Agur, Prov. 30.
Praise of the virtuous housewife, Prov. 31 : 10-31.
ECCLESIASTES
Solomon's search for happiness, Eccl. I : 12-2.
Discussion of times and seasons, Eccl. 3-4: 8.
The vanity of desire, Eccl. 5 : 10-6: 12.
Symbolic poem on old age, Eccl. 12 : 1-7.
SONG OF SOLOMON
The wedding day, Song of Solomon, I : 2-2 : 7.
The bride's reminiscences of courtship, 2 : 8-3 : 5.
The day of bethrothal, 3:6-5:1.
The bride's troubled dream, 5 : 2-6: 3.
The king's meditation on his bride, 6 : 4-7 = 9.
The bride's longing for Lebanon, 7 : 10-8 : 4.
The renewal of love in the vineyard, 8 : 5-14.
CHAPTER X
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS ISAIAH AND JEREMIAH
Introduction. About one-fourth of the Old Testament is
filled with the writings of the prophets. The first four
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel are commonly
known as the greater or major prophets. They deserve
this distinction both for the quantity of their writings and
the importance of their message. In entering upon a
study of the prophets, it must be borne in mind that they
were not chiefly foretellers of events. They were earnest
preachers of righteousness in the presence of political
problems or religious decadence. They were the divinely
appointed agents to lead the Hebrew people in the paths
of righteousness.
They were gifted men who clearly grasped the funda-
mental truths of religion. They attached but little impor-
tance to its outward ceremonies; but they had a noble
conception of God, and eloquently enforced obedience to
truth and righteousness. To adopt the words of Duncker,
they declared that " the lips and the heart must be elevated to
His greatness ; His commands must be kept, and men must
make themselves holy as He is holy. The only service of
the Holy God is a holy and righteous life. Sacrifice is
not required, but recognition of God, simplicity, chastity,
and moderation." 1 The prophetical books are made up
^ principally of popular addresses, which are frequently
characterized by poetic imagery and masterful eloquence.
1 Max Duncker, " History of Antiquity," Vol. III., p. 27.
170
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 171
Isaiah. The first of the prophetic books is Isaiah.
This great prophet was a citizen of Jerusalem, a man of
distinction, and a preacher of impressive power. His con-
temporaries in the prophetic office were Hosea and Micah,
whose work will come under review later. As the intro-
duction to his prophecies tells us, he lived "in the days
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Kings of
Judah." 1
This statement enables us to reproduce the political and
religious conditions under which Isaiah received his pro-
phetic call. It was the second half of the eighth century
before our era (758-690 B.C.). As we learn from 2 Kings
and 2 Chronicles, as well as from the historical part of the
prophecy itself (chapters 36-39), it was a period of great
commotion. The kings of Judah warred against the
Philistines and the Ammonites. Ahaz suffered a severe
defeat at the hands of Israel. Though the temple worship
was kept up, abominable idolatries at times prevailed.
Furthermore, it was a time of world movements, of
restless and insatiable activity among the great empires of
the Orient. Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were continually
plotting or warring against one another. Assyrian con-
querors repeatedly swept over Syria; and in 722 B.C.
Sargon captured Samaria and forever put an- end to the
kingdom of Israel. Judah was henceforth left alone to
i CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS
B.C.
740. Call of Isaiah.
732. Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser.
727. Shalmaneser IV.
722. Samaria captured by Sargon.
701. Sennacherib's campaign against Judah.
607. Destruction of Nineveh by the Medes.
586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar.
538. Cyrus captures Babylon, and releases Jewish exiles.
172 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
be the bearer of the religion of Jehovah. Subsequently
its territory was invaded by the conquering arms of Sen-
nacherib ; and Judah was saved only by a fatal pestilence
that in a single night swept away a large part of the
Assyrian army.
Occasion of Prophecies. As already indicated, the proph-
ecies of Isaiah extended through the reigns of three
Kings of Judah. From first to last, .they covered a period
of about fifty years. The several discourses, which com-
pose the book of Isaiah, were called forth by particular
religious or political conditions. They were intended to
guide the thought and action of the Hebrew people in
particular exigencies. It is perfectly clear, therefore, that
a knowledge of the occasion will throw light upon the
words of the prophet.
It is unfortunate that the numerous separate discourses
are not arranged in a chronological order. They are, in
the main, grouped by subjects. They maybe conveniently
divided into seven groups as follows :
1. Discourses relating to Judah and Israel (chapters
1-12).
2. Discourses dealing with foreign nations (chapters
13-23).
3. Picture of a world judgment (chapters 24-27).
4. Discourses relating to Judah and Assyria (chapters
28-33).
5. Future of Edom and Israel contrasted (chapters
34, 35)-
6. Historical section based on 2 Kings (chapters
36-39).
7. Israel's restoration from exile in Babylon (chapters
40-66).
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 173
Isaiah's Call. The various conditions and emergencies
in the history of his people Isaiah met with a broad, patri-
otic, and righteous spirit. Like the other prophets of
Judah and Israel, he regarded himself as a messenger of
the Lord. In the sixth chapter he gives us an account
of his call to the prophetic office. He had a vision of the
Lord. In antiphonal songs of praise, the seraphim cried :
"Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of Hosts; the whole earth
is full of His glory. And the foundations of the thresholds
were moved at the voice of him that cried, and the house
was filled with smoke. Then said I, Woe is me ! for I am
undone ; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell
in the midst of a people of unclean lips: for mine eyes
have seen the King, the Lord of hosts.
" Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live
coal in his hand, which he had taken with the tongs from
off the altar : and he touched my mouth with it, and said,
Lo, this hath touched thy lips ; and thine iniquity is taken
away, and thy sin purged. And I heard the voice of the
Lord, saying, Whom shall I send, and who will go for us ?
Then I said, Here am I ; send me." The vision of the
King and the sound of his voice, that was the secret of
the prophet's preaching and power.
The Great Arraignment. It will not be practicable here
to follow each one of the discourses making up the book
of Isaiah. Such an undertaking belongs to a commentary
or a more extended work on the Old Testament. It will
be sufficient here to examine two or three typical discourses,
and to point out the spirit and manner of the prophet.
We begin with the first chapter, which has been called
the great arraignment of Judah. The time seems to be the
reign of Ahaz, who, as we learn from 2 Kings 16, " did not
that which was right in the eyes of the Lord his God, like
174 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
David his father. But he walked in the way of the Kings
of Israel, yea, and made his sons pass through the fire,
according to the abominations of the heathen, whom the
Lord cast out before the children of Israel. And he sacri-
ficed and burnt incense in the high places, and on the hills,
and under every green tree."
It was in the presence of this official and public idolatry
that Isaiah addressed his great arraignment to the Hebrew
people. His eloquent words are surcharged with emotion.
" Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth, for the Lord
hath spoken : I have nourished and brought up children,
and they have rebelled against me. The ox knoweth his
owner, and the ass his master's crib : but Israel doth not
know, my people doth not consider. Ah sinful nation, a
people laden with iniquity, a seed of evil-doers, children
that deal corruptly : they have forsaken the Lord, they
have despised the Holy One of Israel, they are estranged
and gone backward."
This indictment, which is more extended than here given,
the rulers are supposed to have met by referring to the
regularity and splendor of the temple service. They
brought forward their assemblies and sacrifices as a proof
of their loyalty to Jehovah. To these statements the
prophet, who takes his stand on the ethical character of
religion, replies in the name of Jehovah : " To what pur-
pose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me ? saith the
Lord : I am full of the burnt offerings of rams, and the fat
of fed beasts ; and I delight not in the blood of bullocks,
or of lambs, or of he-goats. , . . Wash you, make you
clean ; put away the evil of your doings from before mine
eyes; cease to do evil; learn to do well; seek judgment,
relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the
widow."
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 175
After this indignant rejection of a splendid ceremonial
service that was not associated with holiness of heart and
life, the Lord is represented, in the next paragraph, as
tenderly pleading with the people. " Come now, and let
us reason together, saith the Lord : though your sins be
as scarlet, they shall be white as snow ; though they be
red like crimson, they shall be as wool. If ye be willing
and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land ; but if ye
refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword : for
the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it."
When it quickly appears that this tender pleading is of
no avail, the prophet breaks forth in lamentation and re-
proach : " How is the faithful city become an harlot ! she
that was full of judgment! righteousness lodged in her,
but now murderers. Thy silver is become dross, thy wine
mixed with water. Thy princes are rebellious, and com-
panions of thieves ; every one loveth gifts, and followeth
after rewards ; they judge not the fatherless, neither doth
the cause of the widow come unto them."
This discourse, well ordered in all its parts, concludes
with a menace of judgment, by which the evil-doers of the
nation would be destroyed, and the people restored to
their former loyalty to Jehovah. This judgment probably
found its fulfilment, partly at least, in the war which the
allied kings of Syria and Israel waged against Ahaz.
Other interesting passages in part first will be found
indicated in the research work at the end of this chapter.
Discourses of Doom. The second division of the proph-
ecies of Isaiah is devoted, not to Judah and Israel, but
to neighboring nations. As we have already learned, the
Hebrew people belonged to a group of kingdoms which
extended from Ethiopia to Assyria. At one time or an-
other the children of Israel stood in close political or com-
176 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
mercial relations with them all. As the great prophet
studies their character, and discerns their elements of
weakness, he announces the destiny that severally awaits
them.
The first of these doom discourses, as we may call them,
is directed against Babylon. For its iniquity it is to be
destroyed by the anger of the Lord. It is to be given
over to utter desolation a prediction that has been long
since fulfilled. " And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the
beauty of the Chaldeans' pride, shall be as when God over-
threw Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation :
neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall
shepherds make their flocks to lie down there. But wild
beasts of the desert shall lie there ; and their houses shall be
full of doleful creatures ; and ostriches shall dwell there,
and he-goats shall dance there. And wolves shall cry in
their castles, and jackals in the pleasant palaces : and her
time is near to come, and her days shall not be prolonged." 1
This is a type of the dooms pronounced in succession
against Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Egypt, Arabia, and
Tyre.
Return from Exile. The next four sections are passed
over with mere mention. Their general character has
already been pointed out. The historical section (chapters
36-39) differs but little from the corresponding narrative
in 2 Kings (chapters 18-20), from which it was evidently
taken. It deals with Sennacherib's demand for the surren-
der of Jerusalem, Hezekiah's illness and cure, and other
events in which Isaiah was concerned.
The final section (chapters 40-66) is one of great in-
terest It is a single sustained discourse relating to Israel's
1 Is. 13 : 19-22.
TOWER OF BABEL
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 177
restoration from Babylonian captivity. The nature of the
prophecy, as well as its peculiarity of style, shows that it is
of later date than the preceding parts of the book.
Though formerly supposed to be the work of Isaiah, it is
now generally conceded by our ablest biblical scholars that
it comes from another and later hand. This later author,
whose extraordinary ability is recognized by all competent
students, is sometimes referred to as " the Great Unknown."
This lengthy discourse may be divided into three parts,
which together make one great forcible presentation of
truth. First of all the prophet emphasizes (chapters 40-
48) the certainty of the coming release from exile. This cer-
tainty is based on the power and promises of Jehovah.
Cyrus is named as the divine instrument of deliverance,
a fact showing that God has His agents, not alone among
the Chosen People, but also among the Gentile nations.
The second part (chapters 49-59) of this final discourse is
an exhortation to moral fitness for the restoration and future
glory of Israel. This exhortation is accompanied by glow-
ing passages of promise and encouragement. " Sing, O
Heavens," exclaims the prophet, " and be joyful, O earth ;
and break forth into singing, O mountains : for the Lord
hath comforted His people, and will have compassion upon
His afflicted." 1
The Servant of the Lord. Nowhere else in the prophet-
ical writings do we reach greater depths of spiritual insight
than in this part of Isaiah. For the first time we are
brought face to face with a marvellous divine law, which
has been operative in all ages of human history. That
law is the omnipresent fact of vicarious suffering, of
triumph through defeat, of blessings in the guise of sor-
rows, of the higher attained through the death of the
1 Is. 49 : 13-
I y8 .4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
lower. In the famous fifty-third chapter of Isaiah, which
stands out with startling distinctness in the writings of the
Old Testament, this law is clearly presented.
In the closing verses of the fifty-second chapter and
throughout the fifty-third chapter, Israel is individualized-
as the servant of the Lord. With a sublime play of t the
prophet's imagination, the nations are made to inquire, as
they dwell on Israel's history, " Who hath believed that
which we have heard ? and to whom hath the arm of the
Lord been revealed? For he grew up before Him as a
tender plant, and as a root out of a dry ground : he hath
no form nor comeliness ; and when we see him, there is
no beauty that we should desire him. He was despised
and rejected of men ; a man of sorrows, and acquainted
with grief : and as one from whom men hide their face he
was despised, and we esteemed him not."
But what is it that the servant of the Lord has accom-
plished in all his lowliness, deformity, and suffering ?
The nations are again represented as discerning the world
significance of Israel's redemptive mission : " Surely he
hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows : yet we did
esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted. But
he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for
our iniquities : the chastisement of our peace was upon
him; and with his stripes are we healed. All we like
sheep have gone astray ; we have turned every one to his
own way ; and the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of
us all."
And what is to be the ultimate outcome of all this
humiliation and suffering for Israel ? The Lord Himself
gives the answer, announcing the triumph of suffering :
" Behold, my servant shall prosper, he shall be exalted and
/ lifted up, and shall be very high. Like as many were as-
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 179
tonished at thee (his visage was so marred more than any
man, and his form more than the sons of men), so shall he
sprinkle many nations ; kings shall shut their mouths at
him ; for that which had not been told them shall they
see ; and that which they had not heard shall they under-
stand." l
All this has found its highest fulfilment in the gospel of
Christ. His life is a perfect exemplification of the law of
vicarious suffering of salvation through death. And
hence Christian writers have made no mistake in trans-
ferring the language of the great unknown prophet to the
Saviour of mankind. The fifty-third chapter of Isaiah is
the most perfect statement of evangelical truth to be found
in the Old Testament.
Triumphant Faith. In one point Isaiah and " the
Great Unknown " are alike. Whatever may be their
menace of righteous judgment for sin, there is always a
word of hope for the final results. Their faith in God is
always triumphant. In the midst of words of judgment
against Israel and Judah, we find this picture of the uni-
versal prevalence of Israel's religion: "And it shall come
to pass in the latter days, that the mountain of the Lord's
house shall be established in the top of the mountains,
and shall be exalted above the hills ; and all nations shall
flow unto it. ... And they shall beat their swords into
ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks : nation
shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they
learn war any more." 2
In like manner the nameless prophet closes his discourse
with a picture of Israel's future glory. Beyond the ap-
proaching restoration through the magnanimity of Cyrus,
there lies a golden age for Zion : " The nations shall see
i is. 52: 13-15. 2 is. 2:2,4.
180 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
thy righteousness, and all kings thy glory : and thou shalt
be called by a new name, which the mouth of the Lord
shall name. Thou shalt also be a crown of beauty in the
hand of the Lord, and a royal diadem in the hand of thy
God." 1
Poetic Gifts. The admirable intellectual gifts of Isaiah
have been shown in the passages quoted. No other writer
of the Old Testament surpasses him in mental vigor and
emotional power. His discourses often exhibit a rare elo-
quence, in which logical thought is enriched by poetic
imagery. In the words of Driver : " Isaiah's poetical gen-
ius is superb. His characteristics are grandeur and beauty
of conception, wealth of imagination, vividness of illustra-
tion, compressed energy and splendor of diction." 2 Al-
most any discourse of Isaiah may be cited in illustration.
Jeremiah. About seventy years after the death of
Isaiah, the prophetic call came to Jeremiah, the second of
the great prophets of Israel. As we are informed in the
opening statements of his prophecy, this call came to him
in the thirteenth year (626 B.C.) of King Josiah, and con-
tinued for nearly fifty years through the subsequent reigns
of Jehoiakim and Zedekiah. His heroic voice was not
silenced till the people whom he had tried to save were
carried away by Nebuchadnezzar. 3
1 IS. 62: 2, 3.
2 S. R. Driver, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 227.
3 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS
B.C.
626. Call of Jeremiah.
621. Discovery of Deuteronomy, and Josiah's reformation.
609. Jehoahaz.
608. Jehoiakim.
597. Jehoiachim, and first siege of Jerusalem.
596. Zedekiah.
586. Destruction of Jerusalem, and second deportation of Jewish exiles.
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 181
When the prophetic call came to him, his sensitive
nature recoiled from the heavy task laid upon him. " Ah,
Lord God ! behold," he exclaimed, " I cannot speak, for I
am a child." But divine preparation, as in every age,
came with the call. " Then the Lord put forth His hand,
and touched my mouth ; and the Lord said unto me, Be-
hold, I have put My words in thy mouth : see, I have this
day set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms, to
pluck up and to break down, and to destroy and to over-
throw; to build, and to plant." l
Heroic Character. Jeremiah was placed in an exceed-
ingly trying position ; but in the presence of difficulty and
danger he displayed a heroic spirit. It was his thankless
task to reprove the people of Judah for their sins, and to
announce to them, in the absence of repentance and refor-
mation, the impending destruction at the hands of their
enemies. This message he proclaimed with tireless faith-
fulness.
In the twenty-sixth chapter we have a graphic portrayal
of Jeremiah's preaching and its dangerous results. He
took his stand in the court of the temple ; and to the
crowds gathering there from all parts of Judah, he de-
clared, " Thus saith the Lord : if ye will not hearken
to Me, to walk in My law, which I have set before
you, . . . then will I make this house like Shiloh, 2 and
will make this city a curse to all the nations of the
earth."
1 Jer. i : 9, 10.
2 " Shiloh lay about thirty miles straight north of Jerusalem; and though once
the national sanctuary, famous from the memories of Eli and the great prophet
Samuel, had bgen in ruins for five hundred years. To predict a similar fate for
the magnificent building in whose courts they stood, was more than the priests and
prophets, or the crowd, could endure." GEIKIE, "Hours with the Bible," Vol.
V., p. 326.
182 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
This denunciation of the unfaithfulness of the people, and
this prediction of coming disaster, greatly enraged the
priests. They laid violent hands on the bold prophet,
dragged him before a court of the princes, and declared
him worthy of death. When Jeremiah was permitted to
speak a word in his own defence, the fearless heroism of
the prophet asserted itself. There was no shirking of re-
sponsibility, and no softening of his message. " The Lord
sent me," he said, " to prophesy against this house and
against this city all the words that ye have heard. There-
fore now amend your ways and your doings, and obey the
voice of the Lord your God ; and the Lord will repent Him
of the evil that He hath pronounced against you. But as
for me, behold, I am in your hand : do with me as is good
and right in your eyes." It is to the honor of the princes
that, closing their ^ears to priestly clamors, they pronounced
the prophet guiltless.
Human Weakness. Yet with all his heroism in the
presence of death, Jeremiah was only human. He was re-
peatedly persecuted, put in stocks, and cast into prison.
His message was unheeded, and he himself was made a
laughing-stock ; and if, under these discouraging circum-
stances, he attempted to keep silent, his conscience became
a torture. " And if I say," he complains, " that I will not
speak any more in His name, then there is in my heart as
it were a burning fire shut up in my bones." 1
In his sore tribulations within and without, he fell into
the gloom of Job. Life became a grievous burden ; and
like the Arabian chieftain, Jeremiah lamented his birth.
" Cursed be the day wherein I was born : let not the day
wherein my mother bare me be blessed." 2 Yet this de-
spair was only a passing mood ; and throughout his long
1 Jer. 20 : 9. 2 Jer. 20 : 14.
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 183
career as a public preacher, he never proved faithless to
his calling.
Prophecies Written. In the thirty-sixth chapter we
have an interesting account of the original writing of
Jeremiah's prophecies. There are few prophetical writ-
ings in regard to which this information is so definite. In
the fourth year of Jehoiakim (604 B.C.), after the prophet
had been preaching for nearly a quarter of a century, he
was moved to commit his discourses to writing. Their oral
delivery had not been attended with the reformation desired
and hoped for ; accordingly he conceived the idea that
they might be more effective in written form. " It may
be," the Lord is made to say, " that the house of Judah will
hear all the evil which 1 purpose to do unto them ; that
they may turn every man from his evil way."
Calling Baruch, his friend and disciple, to act as scribe,
Jeremiah dictated to him the substance of his long series
of discourses. The prophet then directed Baruch to read
" the words of the Lord " in the temple. When the matter
was reported to the princes, they summoned the scribe to
read the roll in their presence. The princes were touched
by the eloquent denunciations and affectionate pleadings
of the prophet, " and they told all the words in the ears of
the king."
The king ordered the roll to be brought ; but when it
was read in his presence, his proud heart was stirred with
anger, and seizing the roll, he slashed it with his knife and
cast it into the fire. He gave orders for the seizure of the
daring prophet and scribe ; but foreseeing danger, they had
prudently concealed themselves. But the prophet's tongue
could not be silenced ; and in spite of the king's anger, he
dictated his prophecies a second time ; " and there were
added besides unto them many like words."
1 84 47V INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
It is this second roll or book that no doubt forms the
basis of the present prophecies of Jeremiah. The arrange-
ment has been changed, and many other subsequent dis-
courses have been added. It is to be regretted that the
discourses are not arranged in chronological order ; but in
most cases, through direct statement or incidental historical
reference, we are able to determine the time and occasion
of the prophet's words.
Prophetic Message. Jeremiah is a fine embodiment of
the Hebrew prophetic spirit. His mission was definite and
limited ; but within the scope of his work he was faithful,
indefatigable, and courageous. Sin and judgment these
were the two principal themes of his discourses, which
were repeated, illustrated, and enforced in a great variety
of forms.
He was filled with the spirit of the book of Deuteronomy.
Indeed, after the discovery of the law in the temple and
the inauguration of reforms under Josiah, Jeremiah was
sent on a preaching tour throughout the cities of Judah.
In the eleventh chapter we have the burden of his preach-
ing, in which the spirit of the Deuteronomist will be readily
recognized : " And the Lord said unto me, A conspiracy
is found among the men of Judah, and among the inhabit-
ants of Jerusalem. They are turned back to the iniquities
of their forefathers ; and they are gone after other gods to
serve them ; the house of Israel and the house of Judah
have broken My covenant which I made with their fathers.
Therefore thus saith the Lord, Behold, I will bring evil
upon them, which they shall not be able to escape ; and
they shall cry unto Me, but I will not hearken unto them."
This is the substance of the message repeated again and
again.
Conditional Prophecy. Yet Jeremiah's denunciation of
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 185
woes upon Judah was never unconditional. Through re-
pentance and reformation there was always a way of escape.
This is made perfectly plain in the eighteenth chapter, in
which the relation of Jehovah to His people is compared to
that of a potter and his work. " At what instant," the
Lord is made to say, " I shall speak concerning a nation,
and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up and to break down
and to destroy it ; if that nation, concerning which I have
spoken, turn from their evil, I will repent of the evil that I
thought to do unto them."
Of course the reverse of this divine attitude is true.
" And at what instant I shall speak concerning a nation,
and concerning a kingdom, to build and to plant it ; if it
do evil in My sight, that it obey not My voice, then will I
repent of the good, wherewith I said I would benefit them."
It will be observed that this double principle is operative
to-day through the processes of natural law.
Captivity Predicted. For many years the evils predicted
for Judah remained somewhat indefinite. The prophet
went no farther than to name a foe from the north. But
after the great battle of Carchemish in 604 B.C., at which
Nebuchadnezzar won a decisive victory over Pharaoh-Necho
of Egypt, the clear-visioned prophet discerned the pre-
eminence which Babylon was to achieve. He' recognized
the sources from which the downfall of Judah was to come.
Accordingly, in the twenty-fifth chapter, Jeremiah
specifically predicts the coming overthrow of Judah. "Be-
cause ye have not heard My words," he represents the
Lord as saying, " I will send unto Nebuchadnezzar the
King of Babylon, My servant, and will bring them against
this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against
all these nations round about ; and I will utterly destroy
them, and make them an astonishment, and an hissing, and
1 86 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
perpetual desolations. Moreover I will take from them the
voice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of the
bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the sound of
the millstones, and the light of the candle."
Restoration. But the gaze of the prophet extended
beyond the captivity. He predicted the length of its, con-
tinuance. " These nations," he declared, "shall serve the
King of Babylon seventy years. And it shall come to
pass, when seventy years are accomplished, that I will
punish the King of Babylon and that nation for their
iniquity." 1
So confident was Jeremiah of the future restoration of
his people that even during the siege of Jerusalem he
bought a piece of land in his native town of Anathoth, and
took extraordinary precautions to preserve the title-deed
till the evil days might be passed. The whole transaction
is detailed in the thirty-second chapter, and affords a
pleasing glimpse of the business methods of that age.
After the terms of purchase had been agreed on with his
uncle, the prophet "subscribed the deed, and sealed it,
and called witnesses, and weighed him the money in the
balances." Afterwards the deed was placed in an earthen
vessel, that it might " continue many days."
The New Covenant What is still more remarkable, the
prophet discerned the spiritual regeneration that was to
follow the captivity. Through the fiery trials of defeat
and captivity, the people of Israel were to be purified and
lifted to a nobler spiritual life. The outward covenant of
the law was to be replaced by a new covenant of the
heart Of this new spiritual covenant, which consisted in
a love of truth and righteousness, there was to be no
end.
1 Jer. 25 : 12.
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 187
The new covenant is one of the mountain tops of pro-
phetic insight and inspiration. " Behold, the days come,
saith the Lord, that I will make a new covenant with the
house of Israel, and with the house of Judah : not accord-
ing to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the
day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the
land of Egypt ; which My covenant they broke, although
I was an husband unto them, saith the Lord.
" But this is the covenant that I will make with the
house of Israel after those days, saith the Lord : I will
put My law in their inward parts, and in their heart will I
write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My
people ; and they shall teach no more every man his
neighbor, and every man his brother, saying, Know the
Lord : for they shall all know Me, from the least of them
unto the greatest of them." l
Prophecies of Doom. Like the book of Isaiah, Jere-
miah contains a number of prophecies of doom (chapters
46-51). These prophecies are directed against the vari-
ous nations that were in some way related to the people of
Israel. Among these are Egypt, Philistia, Moab, Ammon,
and Babylon.
The prophecy against Babylon is particularly impas-
sioned. It is characterized by an implacable Hebrew
resentment. " And Babylon shall become heaps, a dwell-
ing-place for jackals, an astonishment and an hissing, with-
out inhabitant. . . . Her cities are become a desolation, a
dry land, and a desert, a land wherein no man dwelleth,
neither doth any son of man pass thereby." 2
Last Years. When, in 586 B.C., Jerusalem was cap-
tured by Nebuchadnezzar, the prophet Jeremiah was
treated with distinction. His prophecies were not un-
. l Jer. 31 : 31-34. 2 j er . 51 : 37, 43.
1 88 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
known to the Babylonian conqueror. He was granted his
freedom, and given permission to choose his place of
abode.
A little later he was forced by the leaders of the people,
who feared vengeance for the assassination of the Babylon-
ian governor Gedaliah, to accompany them to Egypt.
The prophet had opposed the expedition. During his so-
journ at Tahpanhes, he foretold the doom of Egypt.
Here he disappears from the sacred writings ; but an old
tradition relates that he was stoned to death.
The fate of Jeremiah was that of many other heroic
men since his day. His brave, unselfish life was met with
indifference, persecution, and suffering. It is probable, as
we have just seen, that he died a martyr's death. Yet he
had scarcely passed away, when the fulfilment of his proph-
ecies established the inspired greatness of the man, and
by a quick popular reaction he was exalted to a position of
high honor. His prophecies were diligently studied by
the exiles in Babylon ; and ever since he has been es-
teemed as one of the greatest of Hebrew seers.
Lamentations. The brief book of Lamentations is
commonly accredited to Jeremiah. Though his author-
ship of the book has been seriously questioned by some
recent scholars, it rests on a very old tradition. In 2
Chronicles (35 : 25) Jeremiah is referred to as the author
of an elegy or lamentation on Josiah, a fact showing
that this style of composition was not foreign to him.
The book dates from his age ; and in the absence of posi-
tive proof to the contrary, we may accept the ancient tra-
dition as probably true.
The general theme of Lamentations is the evil that be-
fell Jerusalem and Judah after their overthrow by Nebu-
chadnezzar. The contents of the book show that it was
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 189
written not long after that event. It is made up of five
separate poems, which are all notably artificial in structure.
The successive stanzas begin with the letters of the He-
brew alphabet in regular order, thus making acrostic or ab-
ecedarian poems. As the Hebrew alphabet consists of
twenty-two letters, each chapter, except the third, consists
of twenty-two verses. In the third chapter, three succes-
sive stanzas begin with each Hebrew letter in order, thus
making sixty-six in all.
The Separate Poems. Though constructed in this arti-
ficial manner, the successive elegies or lamentations
exhibit unusual literary excellence. We feel that the grief,
in spite of its artificial expression, is deep and genuine.
The poet has carefully wrought out, in artistic form and
pathetic metaphor, his overwhelming sorrow for the mis-
fortunes of Zion.
The first poem is a lament over the downfall and deso-
lation of Jerusalem. Listen to the piteous outcry of its
beginning r
" How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people!
How is she become as a widow! she that was great among the
nations,
And princess among the provinces, how is she become tributary.
" She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks :
Among all her lovers she hath none to comfort her ;
All her friends have dealt treacherously with her, they are become
her enemies.
u The ways of Zion do mourn, because none come to the solemn feasts ;
All her gates are desolate : her priests sigh,
Her virgins are afflicted, and she is in bitterness."
With the usual spiritual insight of the ancient Hebrew, the
poet traces the calamities of Zion to the sins of the people.
190 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
" Jerusalem hath grievously sinned," he declares, " there-
fore she is removed." l
The main theme of the second elegy is the anger of the
Lord. There is a graphic picture of the desolation of
Jerusalem, as if written by an eye-witness :
" The young and the old lie on the ground in the streets :
The virgins and my young men are fallen by the sword ;
Thou hast slain them in the day of thine anger ; thou hast killed,
and not pitied. 1 '
The third elegy laments the desolate condition of
Jerusalem, but finds a ground of consolation in the good-
ness and mercy of Jehovah. The poet speaks in the name
of the people :
" It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, because His
compassions fail not.
They are new every morning; great is thy faithfulness.
The Lord is my portion, saith my soul ; therefore will I hope in
Him.
"The Lord is good unto them that wait for Him, to the soul that
seeketh Him.
It is good that a man should both hope and quietly wait for the
salvation of the Lord.
It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth."
The remaining elegies are in the same mournful key.
The present sad condition of Zion is heightened by a
contrast with its former glory. The series of poems closes
with a prayer that Jehovah should return to His people,
and renew their former glory.
1 Lam. i ; 8.
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 191
RESEARCH WORK
ISAIAH
The great arraignment, Is. i.
The future preeminence of Jerusalem, Is. 2 : 2-4.
The parable of the vineyard, Is. 5 : 1-7.
Denunciation of woes and judgment, Is. 5 : 8-30.
The prophet's call, Is. 6.
Strophic denunciation of Israel, with refrain, Is. 9 : 8-10 : 4.
The ideal prince of David's line, Is. n : i-io.
The doom of Babylon, Is. 13, 14.
"The burden of Moab," Is. 15, 16.
The doom of Egypt, Is. 19, 20.
The overthrow of the city of Tyre, Is. 23.
Picture of a world judgment, Is. 24-27.
Various relations of Judah to Assyria, Is. 28-33.
An address to women at ease, Is. 32 : 9-20.
Eloquent contrast of Edom and Zion, Is. 34, 35.
Historical section from 2 Kings, Is. 36-39.
Israel's restoration from exile, Is. 40-66.
1. Its certainty, Is. 40-48.
2. Moral preparation for it, Is. 49-59.
Vicarious suffering, Is. 52 : 13-53.
3. Future felicity of Zion, Is. 60-66.
JEREMIAH
The call of Jeremiah, Jer. i.
The sins of Judah, and coming judgment, Jer. 2-6.
Eloquent sermon in the temple, Jer. 7-9.
Contrast between idols and Jehovah, Jer. 10.
Discourse after the finding of the law, Jer. n, 12.
A symbolical prophecy, Jer. 13.
Prophecy on the occasion of a drought, Jer. 14-17.
Lessons from the potter, Jer. 18-19.
Persecution and gloom, Jer. 20.
The prophet consulted by the king, Jer. 21.
Judgment of successive rulers, Jer. 22, 23.
Good and bad figs, Jer. 24.
The seventy years' captivity predicted, Jer. 25.
.4 TV INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Preaching and persecution, Jer. 26.
Yokes employed in emblem prophecies, Jer. 27, 28.
The prophet's letter to the captives in Babylon, Jer. 29.
Israel's restoration from Babylon, Jer. 30-33.
Prophecy and imprisonment, Jer. 37, 38.
Jerusalem taken, and Jeremiah released, Jer. 39, 40.
Murder of Gedaliah, Jer. 41 .
Enforced flight into Egypt, Jer. 42, 43.
Idolatry and judgment in Egypt, Jer. 44.
Various doom prophecies, Jer. 46-51.
Historical supplement describing the capture of Jerusalem, Jer. 52.
LAMENTATIONS
Desolation and misery of Jerusalem, Lam. i.
The Lord's anger against His people, Lam. 2.
The nation's complaint and comfort, Lam. 3.
The past and present of Zion, Lam. 4.
A prayer for Jehovah's mercy, Lam. 5.
CHAPTER XI
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL
Peculiar Circumstances. The circumstances under
which the prophecies of Ezekiel were written are
peculiar. The prophet was a captive in a strange land ;
for he had been deported with Jehoiachim in 597 B.C. He
resided at Tel-abib, on the river Chebar, in the midst of
a considerable community of Hebrew exiles. He was
married, as we learn incidentally, and resided in his own
house.
Ezekiel was a priest, and therefore belonged to the
aristocracy of his people. His office involved an extensive
and accurate knowledge of Hebrew history and Hebrew
law. He shared the deepest aspirations of the Chosen
People. With profound and anxious sadness he must
have dwelt on the former splendor of his nation, its
present humiliation and suffering, and its future destiny.
Prophetic Call. The prophetic call of Ezekiel came
in a sublime vision. As narrated in the first chapter, he
beheld the form of Jehovah enthroned on a firmament
upheld by flaming cherubim. When, at the sight of the
overpowering spectacle, he fell on his face, he heard a
divine voice, which said : " Son of man, I send thee to the
children of Israel, to a rebellious nation that hath rebelled
against Me ; they and their fathers have transgressed
against Me, even unto this very day. For they are impu-
dent children, and stiff-hearted." l
The date of this vision and call is fixed definitely in the
i 2.2:3,4.
IQ4 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
fourth month of the fifth year of Jehoiachim's captivity ;
hence in July, 592 B.C. It is the interval between the first
and second capture of Jerusalem. Jeremiah is still living
and preaching; and the course of political events is
uncertain and alarming both to the exiles and to the
residents of Judah. From this time, for twenty-two years,
Ezekiel, speaking in the name of the Lord, continues to
warn, instruct, and comfort his people.
Threefold Division. The book of Ezekiel naturally falls
into a threefold division. For a time the most significant
event for the Hebrew people, whether at home or in cap-
tivity, is the impending destruction of Jerusalem. The
first twenty-four chapters deal with this event in varied
and impressive forms.
The second division (chapters 25-32) is concerned with
other nations more or less closely associated with Israel.
The fall of Jerusalem filled the Hebrews for a time with a
paralyzing dejection. The fall of the capital and the
captivity of the people seemed like a triumph of heathen-
ism. But in the presence of this discouragement the
prophet shows them that the triumph is only temporary,
and that the proud nations about them are destined to fall
under the mighty hand of Jehovah.
In the third division (chapters 33-48) the future resto-
ration and glory of Israel are predicted with impressive
imagery and deep spiritual insight. The chastening re-
sults of sorrow are recognized, and the richer spiritual life
of the Hebrew people after the restoration is foretold in
poetic language. The closing chapters are devoted to an
imaginary reconstruction of the temple and to directions
for its services.
It is thus seen that the book of Ezekiel is arranged in
a systematic manner. Its authorship has never been
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 195
seriously questioned ; and though its frequent symbolism
is sometimes obscure, the book has had great influence in
the subsequent development of the religious life and
worship of the Jews.
Sense of Responsibility. Ezekiel entered upon his task
with a high sense of his responsibility. It is the responsi-
bility of every great religious leader. Though for a time
his dispiriting message was unwelcome to his fellow-exiles,
he did not allow himself to sink into a selfish or cowardly
silence.
It was a week after his call that he was made to under-
stand the responsibility of his position. " The word of the
Lord," he says, " came unto me, saying, Son of man, I have
made thee a watchman unto the house of Israel: therefore
hear the word at my mouth, and give them warning from
Me. When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die,
and thou givest him not warning, nor speakest to warn the
wicked from his wicked way, to save his life ; the same
wicked man shall die in his iniquity ; but his blood will I
require at thine hand. Yet if thou warn the wicked, and
he turn not from his wickedness, nor from his wicked way,
he shall die in his iniquity ; but thou hast delivered thy
soul." !
Judgment for Sin. Ezekiel clearly foresees the im-
pending doom of Jerusalem. He foretells it in plain
language ; he portrays it in symbolical acts. In the fourth
chapter he lays a mimic siege to Jerusalem ; and in the
fifth chapter, through the symbolism of his shaven hair,
he sets forth the destruction of the people.
Like the other Hebrew prophets, he traces the disasters
of Judah to the sins of the people. The past history of
Jerusalem is portrayed in very dark colors :
1 Ez. 3 : 16-19.
196 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
" I have set her in the midst of the nations
And countries are round about her.
And she hath changed my judgments into wickedness more than the
nations,
And my statutes more than the countries that are round about her ;
For they have refused my judgments and my statutes,
They have not walked in them."
And what is to be the result of this wickedness ? Here
is the declaration of judgment :
" Therefore thus saith the Lord God : Behold, I, even I, am against
thee,
And will execute judgments in the midst of thee
In the sight of the nations.
And I will do in thee that which I have not done,
And whereunto I will not do any more the like,
Because of all thine abominations.
Therefore the fathers shall eat the sons in the midst of thee.
And the sons shall eat the fathers ; and I will execute judgments in
thee,
And the whole remnant of thee will I scatter into all the winds." 1
Sometimes, as in chapter six, the coming destruction
of Israel is portrayed in language of poetic eloquence.
Heredity and Righteousness. The Jews of the cap-
tivity, it appears, were inclined to attribute their misfor-
tunes to the sins of their fathers. They were accustomed
to quote the proverb, " The fathers have eaten sour grapes,
and the children's teeth are set on edge." This was a self-
complacent assertion of their own righteousness ; for by
"the children" they meant themselves. The same
proverb had been used in connection with the preaching
of Jeremiah. 2
This proverb contains an important truth ; namely, that
children often suffer for the sins of their parents. This is
i Ez. 5 : 5-10. 2 See Jer. 31 : 29.
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 197
frequently seen in the transmitted taints of heredity. But
this law is not inevitable in its consequences, and cannot
be adduced as an impeachment of the justice of Jehovah.
It is only when children continue in the iniquity of their
parents that retribution follows in all its force. The evil
results of heredity may be counteracted by righteousness,
and every man, in spite of inherited evil, sustains a relation
of individual responsibility before God.
This truth Ezekiel announces very clearly and forcibly
to his self-complacent countryman :
" Ye say, why ? doth not the son bear the iniquity of the father ?
When the son hath done that which is lawful and right,
And hath kept all My statutes, and hath done them, he shall surely
live.
The soul that sinneth, it shall die.
The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father,
Neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son :
The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him,
And the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him.
But if the wicked will turn from all his sins that he hath committed,
And keep all My statutes, and do that which is lawful and right,
He shall surely live, he shall not die.
All his transgressions that he hath committed,
They shall not be mentioned unto him :
In his righteousness that he hath done he shall live.
Have I any pleasure at all that the wicked should die ? " x
A Picture of War. Among the doom prophecies those
against Tyre and Egypt are elaborate and striking. A
wealth of detail is made splendid by poetic imagination.
In the twenty-sixth chapter there is an instructive portrayal
of Oriental warfare: we behold its varied implements and
its unsparing cruelties. Nebuchadnezzar is to be sent
against the proud city of Tyre,
1 Ez. 18 : 19-23. See also 33 : 18-20.
198 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
"With horses, and with chariots,
And with horsemen, and companies, and much people.
And he shall slay with the sword thy daughters in the field ;
And he shall make a fort against thee, and cast a mount against thee,
And lift up the buckler against thee.
And he shall set engines of war against thy walls,
And with his axes he shall break down thy towers.
By reason of the abundance of his horses their dust shall cover thee :
Thy walls shall shake at the noise of the horsemen,
And of the wheels, and of the chariots,
When he shall enter into thy gates,
As men enter into a city wherein is made a breach.
With the hoofs of his horses shall he tread down all thy streets :
He shall slay thy people by the sword,
And thy strong garrisons shall go down to the ground.
And they shall make a spoil of thy riches,
And make a prey of thy merchandise ;
And they shall break down thy walls, and destroy thy pleasant houses :
And they shall lay thy stones and thy timber and thy dust
In the midst of the water."
It is a noteworthy fact that the destruction of Tyre, as
here predicted, did not take place a fact acknowledged
by Ezekiel in a later prophecy. 1 It was indeed besieged
by Nebuchadnezzar, as the prophet had foreseen, for thir-
teen years, and its inland trade was destroyed ; but having
no navy, the Babylonian monarch was not able to cut off
its supplies by sea. Tyre continued to be a great com-
mercial city till after its capture by Alexander the Great
in 331 B.C.
Restoration from Exile. The prophet's confidence in
Jehovah forbade him to think of the exile as a permanent
removal from the sacred soil of Judah. Even in the midst
of his proclamation of judgment and destruction, he has a
word of comfort for the people. He foresees a return of
l Ez. 29 : 18.
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 199
the exiles to the city of David. He quotes the Lord as say-
ing,
" I will even gather you from the people,
And assemble you out of the countries, where ye have been scattered.
And I will give you the land of Israel." l
In the third division of the prophecy the restoration is
treated at considerable length. The purifying effect of the
captivity is clearly announced ; and when the people of
Israel are thus healed of their idolatry, then they will be
restored to their native land, which will flourish again like
the garden of the Lord.
"Thus saith the Lord:
In the day that I shall have cleansed you of all your iniquities,
I will also cause you to dwell in the cities,
And the waste shall be builded.
And the desolate land shall be tilled,
Whereas it lay desolate in the sight of all that passed by.
And they shall say,
This land that was desolate and ruined is become like the garden of
Eden;
And the waste and desolate and ruined cities are become fenced,
And are inhabited. 1 ' 2
The prophet describes the regenerated Israel of the res-
toration. The religious life of the people will be some-
thing more than outward formalism ; it will be a religion
of the heart and life. Though, as a priest, Ezekiel
naturally attached importance to the ritualistic services of
the temple, he discerned, as a prophet, the essential need
of spiritual worship.
" A new heart also will I give you,
And a new spirit will I put within you ;
And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh.
lEz. 11:17. 2 Ez. 36 : 33-35,
200 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
And I will put My Spirit within you,
And cause you to walk in My statutes,
And ye shall keep My judgments, and do them.
And ye shall dwell in the land that I gave to your fathers ;
And ye shall be My people, and I will be your God." 1
A Remarkable Vision. More than any other of the
greater prophets, Ezekiel makes use of symbol and parable.
Perhaps the most striking of all the symbols he uses is
the vision of the valley of dry bones, 2 by which he seeks
to infuse hope and courage into the hearts of the dejected
exiles. With their kingdom destroyed and the people scat-
tered among the nations, it was difficult for them to believe
the glorious things predicted of their return to Jerusalem.
The prophet was carried in spirit to a valley which was
filled with bleaching bones, the relics of some fierce day of
slaughter. It seemed impossible that these ghastly relics
of mortality should live again. Yet, when the prophet
spoke in obedience to the divine command, there was a
mighty stir of life throughout the plain, and at length the
skeleton host stood clothed in all the attributes of life.
Then came the interpretation of the startling vision : "Son
of man, these bones are the whole house of Israel : behold,
they say, Our bones are dried, and our hope is lost : we are
cut off for our parts. Therefore prophesy and say unto
them,
" Thus saith the Lord God :
Behold, O My people, I will open your graves,
And cause you to come out of your graves,
And bring you into the land of Israel."
Gog and Magog. The prophet's gaze, sweeping beyond
the approaching restoration, penetrates far into the future.
Under the mighty imagery of war (chapters 38, 39) he fore-
1 Ez. 36 : 28. See also n : 18-20. 2 Ez. 37.
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 20 1
tells the triumph of Jehovah over the assembled nations of the
earth. His graphic descriptions seem to be based on an
earlier Scythian invasion, the terrors of which still lingered
as a tradition in western Asia.
Under the leadership of Gog, a haughty prince, a mighty
host is represented as invading the peaceful and unprotected
land of Israel. In their greed for booty they come on
"like a storm," and cover the land "like a cloud." But
the Lord's people are not to be destroyed. In wrath
Jehovah rises against the enemy.
" And I will call for a sword against him
Throughout all My mountains, saith the Lord God ;
Every man's sword shall be against his brother.
And I will plead against him with pestilence and blood :
And I will rain upon him, and upon his bands, .
And upon the many people that are with him,
An overflowing rain, and great hailstones, fire, and brimstone.
Thus will I magnify Myself, and sanctify Myself;
And I will be known in the eyes of many nations,
And they shall know that I am the Lord." l
Characteristics. Some of the leading features of Eze-
kiel's genius have already been brought out. He was
not a great public preacher like Isaiah and Jeremiah ; his
prophecies were delivered chiefly to small groups of exiles
who assembled at his house at Tel-abib. His vigorous im-
agination made extensive use of symbol and parable and
vision ; yet he often lacked the poetic sensibility that im-
parts warmth and beauty to discourse. He was a patient
writer rather than fiery orator; and no other prophet
shows so great a familiarity with the earlier Hebrew writ-
ings. He borrows not only from various books of the
Pentateuch, but also from the writings of Isaiah, Hosea,
and Jeremiah.
202 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
He was not to be a part of the restoration, with hopes of
which he had comforted his fellow-captives. He was
destined to end his days in a strange land. He must have
lived much in memories of the past. In the words of
Geikie: " He could only betake himself to the regions of fancy
and memory, and call up a vision of the temple, and its
services he loved so well, now lost to him forever. Nor
did a general picture before his imagination content him.
With a passionate devotion to exactness in ritual that marks
the character of his mind, he almost anticipates Ezra in
the importance he attaches to the minutest ecclesiastical
details." l
Daniel. The book of Daniel, when viewed in a proper
light, is one of the grandest and most impressive in the
Old Testament. In its largeness of view, it comprehends
the rise and fall of empires, and clearly recognizes the
divine agency that reaches forth from the invisible world
to direct the destiny of nations. When Daniel, through
"a night vision," understands Nebuchadnezzar's dream of
the colossal image, he breaks forth in a psalm of praise :
u Blessed be the name of God forever and ever :
For wisdom and might are His :
And He changeth the times and seasons ;
He removeth kings, and setteth up kings." 2
This is his fundamental belief ; and on that foundation
he builds up his great message of encouragement to his
people. His faith is simply repeated by the American
poet who declares that,
" Behind the dim unknown
Standeth God within the shadow, keeping watch above His own." 8
1 Geikie, " Hours with the Bible," Vol. V., p. 428. 2 Dan. 2 : 20, 21.
8 Lowell, " The Present Crisis."
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 203
Authorship. In order to a right understanding of the
book of Daniel, it is important to know when and by whom
it was written. The prevailing view of modern biblical
scholarship places the author in the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.). The prophet was a devout and
faithful Jew of Palestine, who brought in this book a
mighty message of encouragement to his downtrodden and
suffering people. He placed his message in the mouth of
Daniel, an honored name in Hebrew tradition, 1 and ex-
pressed in the form of visions and historic incidents, as in
parables, the weighty spiritual truths, which it might have
been dangerous, under the dominion of a pagan tyrant, to
utter in an open manner.
When viewed in this light, the book of Daniel is found to
possess a new and deeper significance. It becomes one of
the most powerful prophetic appeals ever addressed to a
troubled and suffering age. " It is written," to use the
words of McFadyen, " at white heat amid the fires of per-
secution, and it is inspired by a passionate faith in God and
in the triumph of His kingdom over the cruel and powerful
kingdoms of the world. Its object was to sustain the tried
and tempted faith of the loyal Jews under the fierce assault
made upon it by Antiochus Epiphanes. Never before had
there been so awful a crisis in Jewish history. In 586 the
temple had been destroyed, but that was practically only an
incident in or a consequence of the destruction of the city ;
but Antiochus had made a deliberate attempt to extermi-
nate the Jewish religion. It was to console and strengthen
the faithful in this crisis that the book was written." 2
The Older View. The older view, which made Daniel
the author as well as the hero, and thus placed the date of
1 See Ez. 14 : 14.
2 McFadyen, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 329.
204 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
the book in the sixth century before Christ, is attended
with many and serious difficulties, only a few of which can
be here mentioned. This view, in large measure, destroys
the value of the book as a prophetic message to the
author's contemporaries. It is written in the language of
western Syria, a fact inconsistent with its composition in
Babylon. It contains a large number of Persian words,
which indicate a period subsequent to the Babylonian
monarchy. It contains also several Greek words herald,
harp, psaltery, symphony which point to a time following
the conquests of Alexander the Great.
But more important than these linguistic considerations
are several historical inaccuracies that would have been im-
possible to a contemporary author. It is tolerably certain-
for instance, that Nebuchadnezzar, contrary to the opening
statement of Daniel, did not capture Jerusalem " in the
third year of the reign of Jehoiakim " (605 B.C.). As we
have already learned from other parts of the Old Testa-
ment, the Babylonian conqueror first captured Jerusalem
and deported a part of its inhabitants in 597 B.C. in the reign
of Jehoiachim. Again Belshazzar is represented as the son
of Nebuchadnezzar and last king of Babylon. As a matter of
fact, Nabonidus was the last king of Babylon, and his son Bel-
sharusur, or Belshazzar, was in no way related to Nebuchad-
nezzar. Furthermore, the conqueror of Babylon was Cyrus,
and not " Darius the Median," as stated in chapter 5 : 3I. 1
1 " All these reasons force us to recognize in Daniel the work of a pious and faith-
ful Jew of the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, who wished to encourage and
strengthen his persecuted and suffering people through the promise that the king-
dom of heaven was near at hand. These admonitions and prophecies he placed
in the mouth of an inspired prophet of the time of the Babylonian exile, so that his
work is apseudepigrapha; but this course was an absolute necessity, if he was to
be heard and if his message was to be heeded, since his age was thoroughly con-
vinced that prophecy had ceased." CORNILL, " Einleitung in das Alte Testa-
ment," p. 215.
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 205
The Hero. Adopting the view, then, that the book of
Daniel dates from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (about
165 B.C.), we turn to the more pleasing task of discovering
its separate messages ; for its purpose is not historical but
spiritual and practical. The career of its princely hero,
as narrated in the first chapter, is a lesson in loyalty to
Jehovah.
As a handsome and promising youth, Daniel was set
apart, with three of his companions, to be educated in the
language and learning of the Chaldeans. Though willing
to be trained for the public service of the Babylonian mon-
archy, he remained faithful to the religion of Jehovah,
and hence resolved "that he would not defile himself with
the portion of the king's meat, nor with the wine which he
drank." And what was the outcome of this faithfulness ?
It was an edifying example at a time when Antiochus
was employing the fulness of his power to draw or drive
the Jews into apostasy. When, at the end of three years,
Daniel was brought before Nebuchadnezzar, he was found
" ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers."
Fidelity to the religion of Judah did not go unrewarded.
The Colossal Image. The book of Daniel is made up
chiefly of narratives and visions, which in the form of im-
pressive types or symbols are fraught with weighty lessons.
These lessons, though suited to all ages and peoples, were
peculiarly adapted to comfort and strengthen the Jews un-
der the persecutions of Antiochus.
In the second chapter we have a dramatic account of
Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a colossal image. Its head
was of gold, the breast and arms of silver, the body of
brass, the legs of iron, the feet of mixed iron and clay.
As the king gazed upon the Titanic figure, a marvellous
stone moved upon it, crushed it to powder, and after-
206 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
wards "became a great mountain, and filled the whole
earth."
This vision, which might have well troubled the mon-
arch's mind, the prophet interpreted before him. The
image symbolized four great monarchies the Babylonian,
Median, Persian, and Grecian which were to follow one
another in stately succession upon the great stage of Asia.
And the stone " cut out of the mountain without hands " ?
"In the days of these kings," explains the prophet, "shall
the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be
destroyed ; and the kingdom shall not be left to other peo-
ple, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these king-
doms, and it shall stand forever." To a people, whose
religion was threatened by a furious monarch, this near
approach and conquering power of the kingdom of heaven
was a comforting and glorious truth.
The Fiery Furnace. The third chapter contains an ac-
count of the marvellous deliverance of three faithful He-
brews Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego from a
fiery furnace. Nebuchadnezzar had set up in the plain of
Dura a huge image of gold. At its dedication, to which
all the officials of the empire had been summoned, the peo-
ple were commanded, when the music crashed forth, to fall
down in idolatrous worship.
When the three faithful Hebrews refused obedience to
the king's command, they were hurled into a furiously
flaming furnace. But they were not consumed, for an
angel walked at their side. At length the astonished mon-
arch called them forth from the flames ; and the lesson of
the incident the message which the author meant for his
persecuted fellow-countrymen is found in Nebuchad-
nezzar's own words, " Blessed be the God of Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abed-nego, who hath sent His angel, and de-
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 207
livered His servants that trusted in Him, and have changed
the king's word, and yielded their bodies, that they might
not serve nor worship any god except their own God."
Regal Pride Humbled. The fourth chapter teaches a
lesson that the impious Antiochus would have done well
to heed. But the truth embodied in Nebuchadnezzar's
second vision is of universal application. It is thus stated
by the author of Proverbs :
" A man's pride shall bring him low ;
But he that is of a lowly spirit shall obtain honor." 1
In his dream the king of Babylon beheld a mighty tree
in the midst of the earth ; its top reached to heaven, and
the birds found shelter in its widespreading branches. As
the royal dreamer was wondering at the majestic tree, he
heard a heavenly voice commanding that 'it be cut down.
When the magicians and astrologers had tried in vain, the
faithful Daniel made known the meaning of the vision.
The tree symbolized Nebuchadnezzar himself in his pride
and power; but he was to be brought low and driven for
a time from human habitations till he had learned the great
lesson " that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men,
and giveth it to whomsoever He will."
The fearful visitation of divine judgment came upon
Nebuchadnezzar at the supreme moment of his self-con-
scious and boastful pride. As he walked upon the roof
of his palace, and surveyed the grandeur of his capital, he
exclaimed, " Is not this great Babylon, that I have built
for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power,
and for the honor of my majesty ? " Scarcely had he
ceased speaking when his reason was taken from him.
For seven years his mania known as lycanthropy drove
1 Prov. 29 : 23.
208 A N INTRODUCTION" TO BIBLE STUDY
him among the beasts of the field. At length his reason
returned with a sense of his humble dependence on God.
"And at the end of the days I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted up
mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned
unto me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and
honored Him that liveth forever, whose dominion is an ever-
lasting dominion, and His kingdom from generation to gen-
eration : and all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as
nothing ; and He doeth according to His will in the army of
heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth ; and none
can stay His hand, or say unto Him, what doest Thou?"
Belshazzar's Feast. The story of Belshazzar's feast
brought a comforting message to the Jews of the second
century before Christ, who saw another impious monarch
desecrating the sanctity of their temple with idolatrous
worship. It assured them, in a narrative of tragic power,
that sacrilege is attended with divine judgment. They
were thus encouraged to look forward to the speedy hu-
miliation of a blasphemous king, who had forbidden the
worship of Jehovah and set up an altar to Zeus in the sa-
cred temple.
The incidents of the feast are known to all. While Bel-
shazzar, with a great company of courtiers, was drinking
wine out of the golden vessels taken from the temple at
Jerusalem, a mysterious hand reached forth from invisibil-
ity, and wrote strange words upon the wall of the palace.
No wonder that " the king's countenance was changed, and
his thoughts troubled him, so that the joints of his loins
were loosed, and his knees smote one against another."
Once more Daniel is the interpreter, and boldly rebukes
the king for his pride and sacrilege. After referring to
the judgment sent upon Nebuchadnezzar for his pride, the
prophet continues : " And thou his son, O Belshazzar, hast
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 209
not humbled thine heart, though thou knewest all this ;
but hast lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and
they have brought the vessels of His house before thee,
and thou, and thy lords, thy wives and thy concubines, have
drunk wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of
silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see
not, nor hear, nor know : and the God in whose hand thy
breath is, and whose ar.e all thy ways, hast thou not glori-
fied: then was the part of the hand sent from Him; and
this writing was written.
" And this is the writing that was written, MENE,
MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN. This is the interpreta-
tion of the thing : MENE ; God hath numbered thy king-
dom, and finished it. TEKEL ; Thou art weighed in the
balances, and art found wanting. PERES ; Thy kingdom
is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians." And
that same night, as the narrative concludes, Belshazzar, the
king of the Chaldeans, was slain.
In the Lion's Den. In the sixth chapter we have
another striking narrative that admirably teaches an im-
pressive lesson. While Antiochus was seeking to establish
the Greek religion throughout his dominions, there were
many defections from the Jewish faith. Apostasy from
Judaism was a necessary step toward political or religious
preferment. Under these circumstances the devout author
of the book presents Daniel's splendid example of fidelity.
For the purpose of ensnaring Daniel, of whose pre-
eminence they had become jealous, the Persian princes
secured a decree from Darius " that whosoever shall ask
a petition of any god or man for thirty days, save of thee,
O king, he shall be cast into the den of lions." As the
evil-minded princes had foreseen, Daniel disregarded the
decree ; and, " his windows being open in his chamber
210 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times
a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he
did aforetime." According to the decree, which was un-
changeable, the king, with great reluctance, ordered Dan-
iel to be cast into the den of lions.
As is well known, the faithful hero was saved, for
" God sent His angel, and shut the lions' mouths." The
king was " exceeding glad" of his preservation; and he
forthwith published a decree that contains the impressive
moral of the story. " I make a decree," he wrote, " that
in every dominion of my kingdom men tremble and fear
before the God of Daniel; for He is the living God, and
steadfast forever, and His kingdom that which shall not
be destroyed, and His dominion shall be even unto the
end. He delivereth and rescueth, and He worketh signs
and wonders in heaven and in earth, who hath delivered
Daniel from the power of the lions."
Various Visions. The first seven chapters of Daniel,
as we have seen, are narrative in form ; the rest of the
book is occupied with the prophet's own visions, which
deal with great national changes and the ultimate
triumph of the kingdom of God. The vision of four
beasts in chapter 7, which are explained to signify four
kingdoms, is commonly understood to be parallel with
Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the colossal image.
In chapter 8 a ram with two horns is furiously at-
tacked by a goat " with a notable horn between his
eyes." The angel Gabriel explains to the prophet that
the ram symbolizes the Medo-Persian empire, and the
goat the Grecian empire, its " notable horn " being clearly
Alexander the Great. Afterwards follow the four king-
doms into which the empire of the Macedonian conqueror
was divided. " And in the latter time of their kingdom,
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 211
when the transgressors are come to the full, a king of
fierce countenance, and understanding dark sentences,
shall stand up. And his power shall be mighty, but not by
his own power ; and he shall destroy wonderfully, and
shall prosper and do his pleasure : and he shall destroy
the mighty ones and the holy people. And through his
policy he shall cause craft to prosper in his hand ; and he
shall magnify himself in his heart, and in their security
shall destroy many ; he shall also stand up against the
prince of princes; but he shall be broken without hand."
This impious king, as is generally recognized, can be no
other than Antiochus Epiphanes.
The times and events of chapter 9 have given rise to
different interpretations. The last two chapters deal with
four kings of Persia, with Alexander the Great, and the
fourfold division of his kingdom. In the eleventh chapter,
from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth verse, the career of
Antiochus Epiphanes is described with remarkable fulness
and particularity. Though he is not named, there can be
no mistaking his person. " He shall have regard unto
them that forsake the holy covenant. And arms shall
stand on his part, and they shall profane the sanctuary,
even the fortress, and shall take away the continual burnt
offering, and they shall set up the abomination that
maketh desolate. And such as do wickedly against the
covenant shall he pervert by flatteries : but the people that
know their God shall be strong, and do exploits."
General Character. The book of Daniel, in some re-
spects, stands apart from the other prophetical writings.
The author does not speak in the name of Jehovah ; we
look in vain for his " thus saith the Lord." Yet, in the
highest sense he has the inspired insight of the prophet
and delivers the weighty message of the prophet. He
212 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
deals with great themes. From a lofty summit he sur-
veys the movement of great empires, as they fulfil their
age-long parts on the stage of history. " The prophets,"
as Driver says, " do not merely foretell history ; they also
interpret it. And the book of Daniel does this on a more
comprehensive scale than any other prophetical book. It
outlines a religious philosophy of history. It deals, not
with a single empire, but with a succession of empires,
showing how all form parts of a whole, ordained for pre-
scribed terms by God, and issuing in results designed by
Him." i
RESEARCH WORK
EZEKIEL
Vision and call of the prophet, Ez. 1-3.
Mimic siege and other symbols, Ez. 4, 5.
Discourse against the land of Judah, Ez. 6, 7.
Guilt and judgment of Jerusalem, Ez. 8-n.
An emblem prophecy, Ez. 12 : 1-16.
A condemnation of false prophets, Ez. 13.
Parable of the vine, Ez. 15.
Parable of an adulterous woman, Ez. 16.
Parable of the eagle and the cedar, Ez. 17.
Heredity and responsibility, Ez. 18.
Emblem prophecy of the sword, Ez. 21.
The guilt of Jerusalem, Ez. 22.
Parable of Aholah and Aholibah, Ez. 23.
Parable of the caldron, Ez. 24 : 1-14.
Death of the prophet's wife, Ez. 24: 15-27.
The doom of Tyre, Ez. 26-28.
A group of prophecies against Egypt, Ez. 26-28.
The selfish shepherds of Israel, Ez. 34.
Vision of the valley of dry bones, Ez. 37.
Prophecy against Gog of Magog, Ez. 38-39.
Vision of Jerusalem restored, Ez. 40-48.
1 Driver, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 512.
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 213
DANIEL
Faithfulness blessed and rewarded, Dan. I.
Dream of a colossal image, Dan. 2.
Deliverance from a fiery furnace, Dan. 3.
Dream of a mighty tree, Dan. 4.
Belshazzar's feast, Dan. 5.
The prophet in the lions 1 den, Dan. 6.
Vision of the four beasts, Dan. 7.
Vision of the ram and goat, Dan. 8.
The time of the restoration, Dan. 9.
The time of the end, Dan. 10-12.
CHAPTER XII
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS
Minor Prophets. The minor prophets Hosea, Joel,
Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zeph-
aniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi are twelve in
number. They are called minor prophets not because
their message is less weighty than that of the major
prophets, but because it is briefer. The combined writ-
ings of the minor prophets make a smaller volume than
the book of Isaiah.
It is unfortunate that the arrangement of the minor
prophets in our Bibles does not follow a chronological
order. Amos, whose career dates from the middle of the
eighth century before our era, is undoubtedly the oldest
of all the prophetical writers. He antedates Isaiah by
several years, yet he is placed third among the minor
prophets. Joel, though one of the latest of the minor
prophets, is placed second ; and Hosea, though prophesy-
ing after Amos, opens the list. There are, as we shall
discover later, still other departures from a chronological
arrangement.
Relation to the New Testament. The minor prophets,
with their varied messages, are frequently quoted in the
New Testament. In some cases there is no direct pre-
diction ; the New Testament writers merely adopt the
earlier statements as apt or interesting illustrations. 1 Our
1 " It is admitted that the sense put by the New Testament writers on much of
the Old Testament which they quote is not the true historical sense, i.e. not the
sense which the original writers, prophets, or wise men had in their mind."
DAVIDSON, " Old Testament Theology," p. 22.
214
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 215
Saviour sometimes used the spiritual truth announced by
the prophets, and by an apt quotation closed the mouths
of His antagonists. In other cases there is a claim of the
fulfilment of earlier predictions.
A few examples will make all this plain. In Hosea
(n : i) Jehovah, in recounting the early history of the
Hebrew people, is represented as saying, " When Israel
was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of
Egypt." It is not a prediction of a ftiture event, but a
statement of a past event. But the evangelist seizes
upon this statement of the prophet as furnishing an illus-
tration or parallel of the flight of Joseph into Egypt; and
accordingly he writes : " And he arose and took the young
child and his mother by night, and departed into Egypt ;
and was there until the death of Herod ; that it might
be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the
prophet, saying, Out of Egypt did I call My son." 1
In the sixth chapter of Hosea, the prophet rebukes
Israel for formalism and iniquity. With true spiritual in-
sight he declares in the name of Jehovah, " I desire mercy,
and not sacrifice ; and the knowledge of God more than
burnt offerings." This statement of truth Jesus employs
with irresistible effect against the carping Pharisees, who in
their excessive devotion to outward observances complained
of the violation of the Sabbath by the disciples. " If ye
had known," He answered, " what this meaneth, I desire
mercy, and not sacrifice, ye would not have condemned
the guiltless." 2
In foretelling the future glory of Israel, the prophet
Micah had said,
" But thou, Beth-lehem Ephratah,
Though thou be little among the thousands of Judah,
Yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel."
l Matt. 2 : 14, 15. 2 Matt. 12: 7.
2l6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
This prediction was understood among the Jews to refer
to the coming Messiah. Accordingly, when Herod in-
quired of the priests and scribes " where Christ should be
born," they answered without hesitation : " In Bethlehem
of Judaea : for thus it is written by the prophet, And thou
Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, art not the least among
the princes of Judah ; for out of thee shall come a Gov-
ernor, that shall rule My people Israel." l
Hosea. Hosea, of whom little is known further than
his father's name, was a prophet of Israel during the
period immediately preceding the fall of the northern
kingdom. He was married to a faithless wife ; and his
love and kindness to her he employed symbolically to set
forth the gracious attitude of Jehovah to Israel. From
the list of kings in the opening verse, we are able to fix
the date of his prophecies, which cover the long period of
about half a century.
As may be seen from the narratives in 2 Kings, par-
ticularly the fifteenth chapter, the prophet lived in a period
of anarchy. Murder repeatedly opened the way to the
throne. Shallum, who had obtained the kingdom by con-
spiracy and assassination, reigned but a month. He was
slain by Menahem, who maintained himself for ten years
through the support of Tiglathpilezer of Assyria. This
support was procured through the payment of a burden-
some tribute. 2 Under Hoshea, who ascended the throne
1 Matt. 2 : 6.
2 KINGS OF ISRAEL CONTEMPORARY WITH HOSEA
B.C. 786. Jeroboam II.
746. Zechariah.
745. Shallum.
745. Menahem.
737. Pekahiah.
735. Pekah.
733. Hoshea.
722, Fall of Samaria.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 217
about the time Hosea's prophecies ceased, the northern
kingdom came to its end (722 B.C.).
Religious Conditions. As might be expected, this
anarchic period was characterized by great moral and
religious decadence. In the seventeenth chapter of 2
Kings, we have a full statement of the transgressions and
idolatries of the people. Hosea's arraignment of Israel is
a strong, comprehensive indictment:
" Hear the word of the Lord, ye children of Israel :
For the Lord hath a controversy with the inhabitants of the land,
Because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the
land.
By swearing, and lying,
And killing, and stealing, and committing adultery,
They break out, and blood toucheth blood."
The mission of Hosea was to call his people to repent-
ance and reformation. He urged upon them the good-
ness of Jehovah ; he reminded them of the gracious
providences of their previous history ; but, at the same
time, he announced the woes that would certainly follow
'impenitent sin :
" My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge :
Because thou hast rejected knowledge,
' I will also reject thee, that thou shalt be no priest to Me :
Seeing thou hast forgotten the law of thy God,
I will also forget thy children.
As they were increased, so they sinned against Me :
Therefore will I change their glory into shame."
Two Parts. The book of Hosea naturally falls into two
parts. The first part (chapters 13) belongs to the reign of
Jeroboam ; the second part (chapters 4-14) contains a sum-
mary of Hosea's prophetic discourses under the reigns of
subsequent kings. The first part is devoted to a symboli-
2l8 A N INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
cal act, or, as some think, a symbolical vision, by which
Israel's unfaithfulness is represented. The unfaithful
spouse of the prophet is emblematic of Israel. But the
Lord will not cast off His faithless people forever, but
cleanse them from their iniquity :
" Therefore, behold, I will allure her,
And bring her into the wilderness, and speak comfortably unto her,
And I will give her her vineyards from thence,
And the valley of Achor for a door of hope :
And she shall sing then, as in the days of her youth,
And as in the day when she came up out of the land of Egypt." 1
In the second part there are various statements of Is-
rael's guilt and coming punishment. In the eleventh
chapter the prophet, speaking in Jehovah's name, ten-
derly sets forth the divine love, but at the same time
clearly announces the coming disasters at the hand of
Assyria :
" When Israel was a child, then I loved him,
And called My son out of Egypt.
As they called them, so they went from them :
They sacrificed unto Baalim, and burnt incense to graven images.
I taught Ephraim also to go, taking them by their arms ;
But they knew not that I healed them.
" He shall not return into the land of Egypt,
But the Assyrian shall be his king, because they refused to return.
And the sword shall abide on his cities,
And shall consume his branches, and devour them. 1 '
Message of Hope. Like the other prophets whom we
have studied, Hosea has a message of hope for his people.
The captivity is to bring a blessing ; for it will teach them
1 Hos. 2: 14, 15.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 219
not to worship " the work of their hands." In the last
chapter Jehovah declares :
" I will heal their backsliding, I will love them freely :
For Mine anger is turned away from him.
I will be as the dew unto Israel :
He shall grow as the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon.
His branches shall spread,
And his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon.
They that dwell under his shadow shall return ;
They shall revive as the corn, and grow as the vine :
The scent thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon."
But alas ! for the prophet's hopes. Though his faith in
God was beautiful and true, his confidence in Israel was
misplaced. The Ten Tribes, who were carried into As-
syria, abandoned their religion, and became absorbed
among the peoples around them. Like raindrops swal-
lowed up in the ocean, they have disappeared from the
field of history forever.
Joel. The brief book of Joel gives no direct indication
of the time when it was written. Accordingly a diversity
of opinion has arisen, and we find the different dates as-
signed to the book sometimes disagreeing by nearly five
hundred years. One thing is certain, the date is either
very early or quite late ; and for the solution of the prob-
lem we are wholly dependent upon internal evidence.
Though the reasoning is not absolutely conclusive, it
will be found interesting, as an example of historical criti-
cism, to consider some of the arguments in favor of a late
or post-exilic date. In the third chapter of Joel, second
verse, Jehovah declares his purpose to judge the nations
" for My people and for My heritage Israel, whom they
have scattered among the nations and parted My land."
This seems to be a clear reference to the captivity . in
220 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
586 B.C. The prophet appears to have had in mind the
capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar when he wrote
again, in the seventeenth verse, "there shall no strangers
pass through her any more."
Furthermore, there is no reference in the book to the
Ten Tribes, which seem to have disappeared entirely from
the prophet's range of knowledge. He speaks only of
Judah and Jerusalem ; and when he uses the designation
Israel, he gives it a restricted meaning. The Tyrians,
Zidonians, and Philistines are charged with selling " the
children of Judah and the children of Jerusalem unto the
sons of the Grecians." These facts are most readily ex-
plained on the theory of a post-exilic date.
Again, there is an absence of the prophetic denuncia-
tion characteristic of the early prophets. Joel makes no
reference to idolatry; the priests are held in honor; and
the services of the temple are conducted regularly. No
mention is made of king or princes ; on the contrary, the
elders are referred to as prominent in the public assembly.
All these conditions are apparently suited only to the
period after the restoration under Ezra and Nehemiah.
We are reasonably justified, therefore, in fixing the date
of Joel at approximately 410 B.C.
Plague of Locusts. The occasion of Joel's prophecy
was a plague of locusts. The visitation was exceedingly
destructive. Vineyards and harvest fields were left deso-
late ; and the ensuing destitution prevented the usual
meat and drink offerings in the temple. Here is a
part of the prophet's description of the work of
devastation :
" A nation is come up upon My land, strong and without number,
Whose teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the cheek teeth of
a great lion.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 221
He hath laid My vine waste, and barked My fig tree ;
He hath made it clean bare, and cast it away ;
The branches thereof are made white.
Lament like a virgin girded with sackcloth for the husband of her
youth.
The meat offering and the drink offering
Is cut off from the house of the Lord ;
The priests, the Lord's ministers, mourn.
The field is wasted, the land mourneth ;
For the corn is wasted ; the new wine is dried up,
The oil languisheth." l
Day of the Lord. But the prophet does not stop at the
sore visitation of locusts. The destruction about him sug-
gests "the day of the Lord," when the land will be threat-
ened with a still more terrible enemy. The descriptions
in chapter 2 sometimes touch the sublime :
" Let all the inhabitants of the earth tremble :
For the day of the Lord cometh, for it is nigh at hand ;
A day of darkness and gloominess,
A day of clouds and thick darkness,
As a morning spread upon the mountains ; a great people and a strong ;
There hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more after it,
Even to the years of many generations."
Deliverance. In view of the coming danger, the
prophet exhorts the people to fasting and prayer. The
exhortation contains a pleasing conception of the divine
character :
" Therefore also now, saith the Lord,
Turn ye even to Me with all your heart,
And with fasting, and with weeping, and with mourning ;
And rend your heart, and not your garments,
And turn unto the Lord your God ; for He is gracious and merciful,
Slow to anger, and of great kindness, and repenteth Him of the evil." 2
1 Joel i : 6-10. 2 Joel 2 : 12, 13.
222 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
The people were obedient to the exhortation to repent-
ance ; and beginning with the eighteenth verse of the
second chapter, we have a statement of the blessings that
were to follow. " Then was the Lord jealous for His land
and had pity on His people." The threatening invasion
was to be driven away, and the land was to rejoice in
returning abundance. This bounteous outward prosperity
was to be attended also with spiritual blessings :
" And it shall come to pass afterward,
That I will pour out My Spirit upon all flesh ;
And your sons and your daughters shall prophesy,
Your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions :
And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids
In those days will I pour out My Spirit.
And I will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth,
Blood, fire, and pillars of smoke.
The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood,
Before the great and terrible day of the Lord come.
And it shall come to pass,
That whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be deliv-
ered." J
At length the Gentile nations were to be destroyed " in
the valley of decision." " But Judah shall abide forever,
and Jerusalem from generation to generation."
Characteristics. As will have been observed, the style
of Joel is elevated and sustained. His prophecy is in
poetry, in which the parallelisms are well observed. His
descriptions are exceedingly graphic ; and his imagination
has a large movement. More than one passage reaches
the level of sublimity.
It can hardly be said that Joel has the breadth of view
belonging to Isaiah. With him the contrast between Ju-
dah and the Gentile nations is sharply drawn. Judah is
1 This notable passage is quoted in full in Acts 2 : 17-21.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 223
to be saved ; the other nations are to be destroyed. This
narrow view, which mistook the world mission of the
Chosen People, was a weakness of post-exilic Judaism.
We meet with it in the gospels, and it was a disturbing
factor in the early church.
Amos. Though placed after the major prophets and
third among the minor prophets, Amos is the earliest of
them all. As we learn from the opening statement of the
book, he prophesied "in the days of Jeroboam, the son of
Joash, King of Israel." He preceded Hosea, who also
began his prophecies under Jeroboam, by several years.
The date of his prophetic labors may be safely placed in
the neighborhood of 750 B.C.
As the earliest prophetic book of the Old Testament,
Amos possesses a peculiar interest. Though called from
the humble occupation of a shepherd, he became a model
for a long line of inspired teachers, in whose writings
we find the same ardent condemnation of wickedness,
the same denunciations of divine judgment, and the same
promises of ultimate redemption. 1 Furthermore, the book
of Amos has great historic value. By means of its graphic
and definite touches of description, we are able to re-
produce a tolerably complete picture of the social and
moral conditions of the kingdom of Israel in the eighth
century before Christ.
The Prophet's Call. In 2 Kings (14: 23-29) we have
a brief account of the reign of Jeroboam II., under whom
the northern kingdom reached a high degree of political
power. His armies recovered the territory that had been
lost under previous rulers. But " he did that which was
1 " Amos is one of the most marvellous and incomprehensible figures in the
history of the human mind, the pioneer of a process of evolution from which a
new eooch of humanity dates." CORNILL, " The Prophets of Israel," p. n.
224 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
evil in the sight of the Lord ; " and accordingly we see
idolatry flourishing at Bethel, and pride, luxury, injustice,
and oppression prevailing among the people.
It was these fatal conditions that led to the call of
Amos, as he tended his flocks and dressed sycamore trees
at Tekoa, a village of Judah some twelve miles south of
Jerusalem. Though he was no prophet, as he tells us, 1
nor the son of a prophet, the divine call came to the
gifted peasant, as he was faithfully pursuing his humble
duties. In his own words, "The Lord took me from
following the flock ; and the Lord said unto me, Go,
prophesy unto My people Israel." This unexpected and
extraordinary task the prophet performed, as we shall see,
with rare skill and fidelity.
^Admirable Tact. It is no light galling to rebuke a
nation for sin in the name of the Lord. When Amos
appeared at Bethel, the centre of idolatrous worship in the
northern kingdom, he was hardly a welcome guest. He
did not at once reveal the burden of his message ; but
with admirable tact portrayed the judgments that were to
fall upon the surrounding nations, Syria, Philistia, Tyre,
Edom, and others. Even Judah did not escape.
It was not till the favor of the people had thus been
conciliated that the prophet ventured to announce his
message to Israel. His words have a manly directness
and force ; Israel will no more escape the consequences of
iniquity than the neighboring nations :
" Thus saith the Lord : for three transgressions of Israel, and for four,
I will not turn away the punishment thereof;
Because they sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of
shoes ;
That pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor,
1 Amos 7 : 14.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 22$
And turn aside the way of the meek ;
And they lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge
By every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned
In the house of their god." *
These sins of bribery, oppression, and drunken idolatry
were aggravated by ingratitude ; for the people of Israel
had forgotten the destruction of the mighty Amorites and
their own marvellous deliverance from Egypt. Hence the
prophet announces, though somewhat darkly, the approach
of divine judgment :
" Behold", I will press you in your place,
As a cart presseth that is full of sheaves.
And flight shall perish from the swift,
And the strong shall not strengthen his force,
Neither shall the mighty deliver himself:
Neither shall he stand that handleth the bow ;
And he that is swift of foot shall not deliver himself;
Neither shall he that rideth a horse deliver himself;
And he that is courageous among the mighty
Shall flee away naked in that day, saith the Lord." 2
Morality and Ritual. In the second part of the book of
Amos (chapters 3-6), we have a series of three discourses,
in which the prophet's message is repeated in varied and
impressive form. Each discourse begins with the em-
phatic address, " Hear ye this word." In his strong
ethical sense we recognize the genuine prophetic spirit of
Amos. In place of the injustice, oppression, and iniquity
of Israel, he vigorously urges righteousness:
" Seek good, and not evil, that ye may live ;
And so the Lord, the God of hosts, shall be with you, as ye say.
Hate the evil, and love the good,
And establish judgment in the gate :
It may be that the Lord God of hosts will be gracious
Unto the remnant of Joseph." 3
1 Amos 2 : 6-8. 2 Amos 2 : 13-16. 3 Amos 5 : 14, 15.
226 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
When the prophet found that the people of Israel were
disposed to defend their piety by pointing to the splendor
and regularity of their assemblies and sacrifices, he breaks
forth with indignation in the name of Jehovah :
" I hate, I despise your feast days,
And I will take no delight in your solemn assemblies.
Yea, though ye offer me burnt offerings and your meat offerings
I will not accept them ;
Neither will I regard the peace offerings of your fat beasts.
Take thou away from Me the noise of thy songs ;
For I will not hear the melody of thy viols.
But let judgment roll down as waters,
And righteousness as a mighty stream." 1
A Picture of Luxury. In the pride of their wealth and
power, the people of the northern kingdom felt a sense of
security. They fancied that " the evil day " was far off ;
and in their self-complacent confidence, they gave them-
selves up to all the intoxication of Oriental luxury. In
denouncing their voluptuous self-indulgence, the prophet
gives us an illuminating picture of the social customs of
his day :
" Woe to them that are at ease in Zion,
And trust in the mountain of Samaria.
******
" Ye that put far away the evil day,
And cause the seat of violence to come near;
That lie upon beds of ivory,
And stretch themselves upon their couches,
And eat the lambs out of the flock,
And the calves out of the midst of the stall ;
That chant to the sound of the viol,
And invent to themselves instruments of music, like David ;
That drink wine in bowls
And anoint themselves with the chief ointments ;
But they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph." 2
1 Amos 5 : 21-24. 2 Amos 6: i, 3-6.
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 227
The consequences of this life of idleness, oppression,
and luxury were not difficult to foresee. No nation can
long survive under those conditions. Amos discerned the
ambition and might of Assyria ; and without naming the
conqueror, he plainly declares to Israel, " I will cause you
to go into captivity beyond Damascus, saith the Lord,
whose name is the God of hosts." 1
Part Third. The last three chapters of Amos, which
constitute a distinct section, consist of a series of visions,
with a historical interlude, and an epilogue of hope. In
the eighth and ninth chapters, the denunciation of woes
becomes more definite and more terrible :
" And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God,
That I will cause the sun to go down at noon,
And I will darken the earth in the clear day:
And I will turn your feasts into mourning,
And all your songs into lamentation ;
And I will bring up sackcloth upon all loins,
And baldness upon every head ;
And I will make it as the mourning for an only son
And the end thereof as a bitter day." 2
But " the house of Jacob " is not to be utterly destroyed.
With an immovable confidence in the goodness and favor
of God, the prophet foresees, beyond the days of evil, an
age of renewed prosperity and blessing. The Assyrian
captivity, as he believed, would not be perpetual; and
hence, speaking in the name of Jehovah, he declares :
" I will bring again the captivity of My people Israel,
And they shall build the waste cities, and inhabit them ;
And they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof;
They shall also make gardens, and eat the fruit of them,
And I will plant them upon their land,
And they shall no more be pulled up out of their land which I have
given them,
Saith the Lord thy God." 8
1 Amos 5:27; 6:7. 2 Amos 8 : 9, 10. 3 Amos 9: 14, 15.
228 .4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Literary Style. In view of the rural antecedents of
Amos, it has been customary to ascribe to his writings a
degree of homely rusticity. As we read over his prophecies,
we discover reminiscences of his earlier life. He speaks of
threshing instruments, of harvest carts loaded with sheaves,
of shepherds fighting with wild beasts, of the labors pf the
ploughman, and of other rural pursuits and objects as he had
observed them on the hills and in the vales of Tekoa.
But, as will have been observed from the extracts given,
the style of Amos shows no rustic uncouthness. His dis-
courses are skilfully put together ; his thought moves on a
high plane ; and his sentences exhibit a satisfying artistic
finish. Though he falls below Isaiah in grandeur of thought
and intensity of expression, he shows himself a vigorous
thinker and writer. It is evident that his earlier years were
not wholly taken up with tending sheep ; there must have
been days and nights given to studying the literature of his
people and to pondering the deep things of God.
Obadiah. The prophecy of Obadiah consists of a single
chapter, and has the distinction of being the shortest book
in the Old Testament. Its date has been a matter of dispute
among biblical scholars ; but the statements of the tenth
verse, which speaks of the capture of Jerusalem as a past
fact, seem to refer to the destruction of the city by Nebu-
chadnezzar in 586 B.C. The prophet may, therefore, be re-
garded as post-exilic.
Nothing whatever is known of the prophet ; the introduc-
tion merely announces " the vision of Obadiah." He voices
the age-long hostility of his people against Edom, whose
doom or judgment he declares in brief but striking terms :
" Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle,
And though thou set thy nest among the stars,
Thence will I bring thee down, saith the Lord."
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 2 29
The Occasion. The occasion that evoked the prophecy
is clearly stated. Edom had taken part with the Chaldeans
in the invasion of Judah, and had rejoiced at the downfall
of Jerusalem. This alien alliance of the children of Esau
seemed to the prophet to call for condemnation and judg-
ment :
" For thy violence against thy brother Jacob
Shame shall cover thee, and thou shalt be cut off forever.
In the day that thou stoodest on the other side,
In the day that the strangers carried away his forces,
And foreigners entered into his gates, and cast lots upon Jerusalem,
Even thou wast as one of them.
But thou shouldest not have looked on the day of thy brother
In the day that he became a stranger ;
Neither shouldest thou have rejoiced over the children of Judah
In the day of their destruction ;
Neither shouldest thou have spoken proudly in the day of distress."
Future of Zion. The prophet concludes his brief dis-
course in a triumphant tone. Though Edom and " all the
heathen " be destroyed, the glory of Israel shall be re-
vived :
" Upon mount Zion shall be deliverance,
And there shall be holiness ;
And the house of Jacob shall possess their possessions.
And the house of Jacob shall be a fire,
And the house of Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau for stubble."
The numerous parallels between Obadiah and the doom
prophecy against Edom in the forty-ninth chapter of Jere-
miah make it perfectly evident that one borrowed from the
other, unless both drew upon an earlier document. The
question has given rise to much critical discussion, which,
however, does not affect the truth of the message of
either prophet.
230 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
RESEARCH WORK
HOSEA
The unfaithfulness of Israel in symbol, Hos. 1-3.
A reproof of people and priests, Hos. 4.
An announcement of divine judgments, Hos. 5.
An exhortation to repentance, Hos. 6.
A reproof of Israel, Hos. 7.
Assyrian invasion foretold, Hos. 8.
Sin and judgment, Hos. 10.
Ingratitude and punishment, Hos. n.
Reproof of Ephraim and Judah, Hos. 12, 13.
Promises of blessing, Hos. 14.
JOEL
A plague of locusts, Joel i .
The coming day of the Lord, Joel 2 : 1-17.
Repentance and blessing, Joel 2 : 18-32.
The heathen destroyed, Judah saved, Joel 3.
AMOS
Judgments against various nations, Amos I,
The punishment of Israel, Amos 2 : 6-16.
Oppression and ruin, Amos 3, 4.
An elegy over Israel, Amos 5.
Luxury punished with captivity, Amos 6.
Visions and their explanations, Amos 7-9.
OBADIAH
The doom of Edom, Obad. I.
CHAPTER XIII
STUDIES IN JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK
Book of Jonah. The book of Jonah, though often made
a stumbling-block, is one of the most remarkable productions
in the Old Testament. As an artistic composition, it is
worthy of high praise ; but its .literary excellence falls into
insignificance in comparison with its spiritual message.
Unlike the other prophetical books, it is wholly narrative
in form ; but the framers of the Old Testament canon made
no mistake in placing Jonah, not among the historical writ-
ings, but among the prophets.
The hero of the book is " Jonah the son of Amittai, the
prophet, of Gath-hepher." 1 He lived in the early days of
Jeroboam II., and predicted the military successes of that
sovereign. He lived at a time when Nineveh was the cap-
ital of the world empire of Assyria. But it is safe to say
that Jonah was not the author of the book that bears his
name. The language of the narrative belongs to a later
period ; and, as we shall presently see, its message is
adapted to post-exilic times. It was probably written some
time in the fourth century before Christ.
The Story. The story of Jonah is well known. The
prophet was divinely commissioned to rebuke the great
city of Nineveh for its wickedness. The task was an un-
welcome one ; and to escape its responsibilities, the narrow-
minded prophet embarked at Joppa for the distant West.
But he was not permitted to escape the divine call ; and
1 2 Kings 14 : 25.
231
232 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
when a severe storm arose, of which he acknowledged him-
self the cause, he was hurled into the sea. He was swal-
lowed by a great fish, which after " three days and three
nights " cast him upon dry land.
Humbled by this extraordinary experience, Jonah now
proceeded, in obedience to a second divine call, to' fulfil
his prophetic mission. He entered the mighty capital of
Assyria, and began to proclaim aloud in its streets, " Yet
forty days, and Nineveh shall be destroyed." The city
was deeply moved, and promptly repented in sackcloth
and ashes. " And God saw their works, that they turned
from their evil way ; and God repented of the evil, which
He said He would do unto them ; and He did it not."
This act of mercy toward a heathen city displeased the
surly prophet. In his anger he made himself a shelter
east of the city, and took up his abode there to await re-
sults. A gourd sprang up in a night to afford him a
grateful protection from the heat. He rejoiced in its shade ;
but it withered as quickly as it came. The prophet was
vexed beyond measure, and thus gave an opportunity
to present the great lesson of the book. " And God
said to Jonah, Doest thou well to be angry for the gourd ?
And he said, I do well to be angry even unto death.
And the Lord said, Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for
the which thou hast not labored, neither madest it grow ;
which came up in a night, and perished in a night ; and
should not I have pity on Nineveh, that great city ;
wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that can-
not discern between their right hand and their left hand ;
and also much cattle ? "
Lesson of Tolerance. The book of Jonah is full of
moral lessons, which devout scholars have often pointed
out. It teaches, for example, that it is vain for a prophet
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 233
to try to escape from a duty which has been divinely laid
upon him. It illustrates, as Jeremiah had pointed out,
that all prophecy is conditional. It shows that the way
of salvation is through repentance and reformation.
But all these spiritual truths are to be viewed merely as
incidental. The great purpose of the book is revealed in
the closing verses, as quoted above. That purpose is to
show, in opposition to Jewish narrowness and intolerance
after the exile, that God's mercy and love include all
nations. The book has the breadth of the New Testa-
ment, and plainly teaches that all men, regardless of
nationality, may be saved through repentance and faith.
It is the clear perception of this truth, in the midst of
Jewish hostility and exclusiveness, that makes the great-
ness of the book of Jonah. 1
A Type of Israel. As already intimated, the book of
Jonah is to be regarded, like the story of the Prodigal Son
or the Good Samaritan, as a parable rather than as history.
It probably embodies traditional historic elements ; but
these have been freely fashioned by the inspired writer to
convey a great message to his people. The story of the
great fish, the sudden conversion of an imperial capital,
and the marvellous growth of the gourd are all happily
imagined incidents to carry forward the narrative to its
magnificent conclusion.
Jonah is a type of the narrow-minded Jews of the
author's day. He is unwilling to preach to heathen at all ;
and when they turn to Jehovah in repentance, a result at
1 " The real design of the narrative is to teach, in opposition to the narrow, ex-
clusive view, which was too apt to be popular with the Jews, that God's puiposes
of grace are not limited to Israel alone, but that they are open to the heathen as
well, if only they abandon their sinful courses, and turn to Him in true penitence.
. . . Jonah appears as the representative of the popular Israelitish creed."
DRIVER, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 323.
234 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
which he should have heartily rejoiced, he is profoundly
grieved. This narrow and selfish spirit is portrayed as in
direct opposition to the all-embracing compassion and love
of God. Viewed in this light, the book of Jonah is seen
to possess the character of a satire upon post-exilic Juda-
ism.
An Allegory. The book of Jonah has sometimes been
regarded as an allegory, in which is portrayed the history
of Israel. According to this view, Jonah symbolizes the
Hebrew nation. Like the prophet, the people of Israel
were intrusted with a divine mission to the world. They
proved unfaithful to the divine call, and were consequently
"swallowed up," like the prophet in the great fish, by the
mighty empire of Babylonia.
-"~Tn exile the Hebrew people turned unto the Lord, and
were restored, like the prophet, to their native land. But
they were not healed of their narrow and unsympathetic
spirit ; and, like Jonah, they were grieved that the divine
judgments, foretold by the prophets, were not at once ex-
ecuted upon the gentile nations. This allegorical interpre-
tation has the merit of ingenuity ; but it is difficult to
believe that the gifted author, in shaping his artistic nar-
rative, ever had it in mind.
Jonah in the Gospels. There is an interesting reference
to the narrative of Jonah in Matthew and Luke. The
Pharisees on one occasion requested a sign from Jesus.
He refused the miracle they desired ; and accordingly He
replied : " This generation is an evil generation : it seeketh
after a sign ; and there shall no sign be given to it but the
sign of Jonah. For even as Jonah became a sign unto the
Ninevites, so shall also the Son of man be to this generation.
The men of Nineveh shall stand up in the judgment with
this generation ; and shall condemn it ; for they repented
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 235
at the preaching of Jonah : and behold, a greater than
Jonah is here." 1
This incident shows our Saviour's familiarity with the
book of Jonah. He shared its broad views of God's love;
and in His own ministry of mercy He not only included
Gentiles, but also looked upon Himself as the Saviour
of the world. His final charge to His disciples was
to go " into all the world, and preach the gospel to
every creature." 2
Micah. As we learn from the introduction to the book
of Micah, the prophet lived in " the days of Jotham, Ahaz,
and Hezekiah, Kings of Judah." He was a younger con-
temporary of Isaiah ; and if he prophesied in the days of
Jotham and Ahaz, about which there is some doubt, he
was likewise a contemporary of Hosea. There is a notice
of his work in Jeremiah (26,: 18), which tells us that
" Micah the Morasthite prophesied in the days of Hezekiah,
King of Judah." As indicated in the sixth verse of the
first chapter, the destruction of Samaria belongs to the
future ; hence the date of the earlier prophecies at least
must be fixed before the year 722 B.C.
Like Amos, the prophet Micah was of rural origin. He
came from the village of Moresheth, which was situated in
the maritime plain not far from Gath. He was a man of
penetrating judgment and strong moral sense ; and he
pointed out, with masculine vigor, the various iniquities of
Judah and Israel. Though there are critical difficulties in
1 Luke ii : 29, 30, 32. In the parallel passage in Matthew there is this additional
statement : " For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the whale :
so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth."
This statement seems to be an interpolation the effort of some copyist or scribe
to throw light on the Master's meaning. This view is confirmed by the incorrect-
ness of the statement; for Jesus was not in the tomb for three nights. He was
crucified on Friday and rose on Sunday.
2 Mark 16 : 15.
236 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
parts of the book, the prophet's message is, in the main,
clear and strong.
Reproof and Judgment. The first three chapters, which
make a distinct section of the book, are chiefly concerned
with reproof and judgment. In Micah's denunciation of
the sins of Samaria and Jerusalem, we recognize the
genuine spirit of the Hebrew prophet. His prophecy
opens with a fine description of the coming of Jehovah in
judgment:
" Hear, all ye people ; hearken, O earth, and all that therein is :
And let the Lord God be witness against you,
The Lord from His holy temple.
For behold the Lord cometh forth out of His place,
And will come down, and tread upon the high places of the earth.
And the mountains shall be molten under Him,
And the valleys shall be cleft, as wax before the fire,
And as the waters that are poured down a steep place."
In the first three chapters the reproofs of iniquity
and the menace of judgment are repeated, always in
stronger and more definite terms. 1 In the third chapter
the ruling classes are particularly denounced for their
injustice, oppression of the poor, love of evil, and greed of
gain : -
" Hear this, I pray you, ye heads of the house of Jacob,
And princes of the house of Israel,
That abhor judgment, and pervert all equity.
They build up Zion with blood, and Jerusalem with iniquity.
The heads thereof judge for reward,
And the priests thereof teach for hire,
1 "A moral indignation, truly awe-inspiring, overpowers him at all he sees and
experiences. Especially the sins of the nobility of Jerusalem, those unscrupulous
bloodsuckers and despoilers of the people, who stopped at naught if they but had
the power, are so atrocious that they can only be atoned for by the destruction of
Jerusalem. CORNILL, " The Prophets of Israel," p. 69.
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 237
And the prophets thereof divine for money:
Yet will they lean upon the Lord, and say,
Is not the Lord among us ? none evil can come to us." *
. The result of this moral degeneracy, as the prophets
always and truly felt, could be only destruction. Hence
Micah, speaking in the name of Jehovah, declares :
" I will make Samaria as an heap of the field,
And as plantings of a vineyard :
And I will pour down the stones thereof into the valley,
And I will discover the foundations thereof.
Therefore shall Zion be ploughed as a field,
And Jerusalem shall become heaps,
And the mountain of the house as the high places of the forest." 2
A Vision of Glory. In chapters 4 and 5, which
make the second division of the book of Micah, we have
a picture of the future glory of Zion. Jerusalem is to
become the centre of true religion ; and as its beneficent
principles take possession of the nations, the implements
of war will be transformed to serve the arts of peace :
" But in the last days it shall come to pass,
That the mountain of the house of the Lord
Shall be established in the top of the mountains,
And it shall be exalted above the hills ; and people shall flow unto it.
And many nations shall come, and say,
Come, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord,
And to the house of the God of Jacob ;
And He will teach us of His ways, and we will walk in His paths :
For the law shall go forth of Zion,
And the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.
And He shall judge among many people,
And rebuke strong nations afar off;
And they shall beat their swords into ploughshares,
And their spears into pruning-hooks :
Nation shall not lift up a sword against nation,
Neither shall they learn war any more." 8
1 Mic. 3 : 9-11. 2 Mic. i : 6 ; 3 : 12. 8 Mic. 4 : 1-3.
238 ,4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
The town from which the future ruler of Israel was to
come is definitely indicated : it is not the proud metropolis,
but the humble village of Bethlehem. As we have already
seen, this statement of the prophet was understood by the
Jews, at the beginning of our era, to refer to the Messiah
or King of Israel:
" But thou, Beth-lehem Ephratah,
Though thou be little among the thousands of Judah,
Yet out of thee shall he come forth unto Me that is to be ruler in Israel ;
Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting." l
Dramatic Prophecy. The last two chapters of Micah,
which form the third division of the book, have a distinc-
tive character. They are in the form of a dramatic dia-
logue, in which the speakers are Jehovah and Israel. The
setting of the drama is magnificent, for the controversy
takes place in the presence of the mountains. Jehovah
speaks first, and recounts the mercies of the past :
"O My people, what have I done unto thee?
And wherein have I wearied thee? testify against Me.
For I brought thee up out of the land of Egypt,
And redeemed thee out of the house of servants ;
And I sent before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miriam.
O My people, remember now what Balak, King of Moab, consulted,
And what Balaam the son of Beor answered him."
In reply to this appeal of Jehovah, the people virtually
admit their ingratitude and sin, and ask what they shall
do to make atonement : -
"Wherewith shall I come before the Lord,
And bow myself before the high God?
Shall I come before Him with burnt offerings, with calves of a year old ?
Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams,
Or with ten thousands of rivers of oil ?
Shall I give my first-born for my transgression,
The fruit of my body for the sin of my soul ? "
l Mic. 5 : 2. See Matt. 2 : 3-6,
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 239
At this point the mountains, who are imagined to be sit-
ting in judgment, make known their decision, which is the
message of the prophet :
" He hath showed thee, O man, what is good ;
And what doth the Lord require of thee,
But to do justly, and to love .mercy, and to walk humbly with God? "
Beginning with the ninth verse of the sixjh chapter, and
extending to the sixth verse of the seventh chapter, we
have another dramatic prophecy, in which Jehovah and the
prophet are the speakers. The picture of the social con-
dition of the Hebrews presented in this dialogue could not
well be in darker colors. At the close of the book we have
one of the noblest portrayals of the divine character to be
found in the Old Testament :
" Who is a God like unto Thee, that pardoneth iniquity.
And passeth by the transgression of the remnant of His heritage?
He retaineth not His anger forever, because He delighteth in mercy.
He will turn again, He will have compassion upon us ;
He will subdue our iniquities ;
And Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the sea.
Thou wilt perform the truth to Jacob, and the mercy to Abraham,
Which Thou hast sworn unto our fathers from the days of old."
Nahum. The book of Nahum is a doom prophecy
directed against the city of Nineveh. Nothing further
is known of the author than his title, "the Elkoshite."
This designation is derived from the village of Elkosh in
Galilee, which was probably the prophet's 'native place.
If this supposition is correct, Nahum is the last prophet
of northern Israel.
There is no direct statement of the time when the proph-
ecy was written ; but the date may be approximately
determined by two events to which the prophecy refers.
240 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
In the third chapter there is a description of the destruc-
tion of No, or Thebes, in Egypt. Addressing the confident
city of Nineveh, whose destruction he has threatened, the
poet asks : -
" Art thou better than populous No,
That was situate among the rivers, t
That had waters round about it,
Whose rampart was the sea, and her wall was from the sea?
Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite ;
Put and Lubim were thy helpers.
Yet was she carried away, she went into captivity ;
Her young children also were dashed in pieces
At the top of all the streets ;
And they cast lots for her honorable men,
And all her great men were bound in chains."
The capture of Thebes, as thus described, took place
during the invasion of Egypt by Asshurbanipal about 660
B.C. The destruction of Nineveh, which is the subject of
Nahum's prophecy, took place in 606 B.C. Hence it is
evident that the prophet wrote between these two dates.
Purpose. The prophet probably had a twofold purpose
in declaring the approaching doom of Nineveh. In the
first place, he meant to comfort his people by the assur-
ance that the destroyer of Israel was himself to be de-
stroyed. In the second place, he wished to declare the
great truth that iniquity, even in the mightiest nation,
inevitably leads to divine judgment. He denounces Nin-
eveh as a " bloody city, full of lies and robbery." 1 For
this reason, speaking in the name of Jehovah, the prophet
declares :
'? Behold I am against thee, saith the Lord of hosts ;
And I will discover thy skirts upon thy face,
And I will show the nations thy nakedness,
And the kingdoms thy shame." 2
1 Nahum 3:1. 2 Nahum 3 : 5.
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 241
In Nahum we miss the fine spiritual quality belonging
to Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah ; yet, as Farrar remarks, the
prophet "forcibly brings before us God's moral govern-
ment of the world, and the duty of trust in Him as the
avenger of wrong-doers, the sole source of security and
peace to those who love Him."
Poetic Quality. The poetic quality of Nahum's proph-
ecy is unusually fine. Though sudden transitions of
thought, as in the first chapter, sometimes make his mean-
ing obscure, his descriptions are vivid and admirable. The
prophecy opens with a noble passage descriptive of the
Lord's coming in judgment :
"God is jealous, and the Lord revengeth ;
The Lord revengeth, and is furious ;
The Lord will take vengeance on His adversaries,
And He reserveth wrath for His enemies.
The Lord is slow to anger, and great in power,
And will not at all acquit the wicked :
The Lord hath His way in the whirlwind and in the storm,
And the clouds are the dust of His feet.
He rebuketh the sea, and maketh it dry, and drieth up all the rivers :
Bashan languisheth, and Carmel, and the flower of Lebanon lan-
guisheth.
The mountains quake at Him, and the hills melt,
And the earth is burned at his presence,
Yea, the world, and all that dwell therein."
The second chapter contains a description of the capture
of Nineveh by the allied Medes and Babylonians under
Cyaxares :
" The shield of his mighty men is made red, the valiant men are in
scarlet :
The chariots flash with steel in the day of his preparation."
The same subject is further elaborated in the third
chapter. As the enemy enter the fated city, we hear,
242 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
" The noise of the whip, and the noise of the rattling of wheels ;
And prancing horses, and jumping chariots ;
The horsemen mounting, and the flashing sword, and the glittering
spear ;
And a multitude of slain, and a great heap of carcases ;
And there is none end of the corpses ;
They stumble upon their corpses."
We may close this brief study of the prophet with the
appreciative words of McFadyen : " Poetically the little
book of Nahum is one of the finest in the Old Testament.
Its descriptions are vivid and impetuous : they set us be-
fore the walls of the beleaguered Nineveh, and show us
the war chariots of her enemies darting to and fro like
lightning, the prancing steeds, the flashing swords, the
glittering spears. The poetry glows with passionate joy
as it contemplates the ruin of cruel and victorious Assyria." 1
Habakkuk. Nothing is known of the personal history
of Habakkuk. The contents of his prophecy show that
he lived at the time when the Chaldean power was loom-
ing into prominence. Jerusalem had not yet been de-
stroyed, but its approaching doom was discernible. We
are safe, therefore, in fixing the date of Habakkuk's proph-
ecy in the neighborhood of 610 B.C.
The prophecy of Habakkuk is in the form of a dramatic
dialogue. The prophet complains of the corrupt state
of society in Judah (i : 2-4). He is answered by Jehovah,
who announces, as a divine judgment, the coming in-
vasion of the Chaldeans (i : 5-11). The prophet is not
satisfied with this answer, for he cannot understand how
it is possible for Jehovah to use a proud, idolatrous nation
to punish His people (i : 12-17). Once more Jehovah
speaks and assures the prophet that the Chaldeans, on
1 McFadyen, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 206.
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 243
account of their iniquity, will in their turn be destroyed.
The prophecy concludes with a magnificent ode, which is
called " a prayer of Habakkuk."
The Prophet Perplexed. After this brief analysis, it
will be found interesting to examine the several parts of
the prophecy more closely. The prophet beholds the wick-
edness prevalent in Judah, and is perplexed, as many have
been since his day, to see iniquity prosper and righteousness
trampled under foot. In the opening of the dialogue, the
prophet makes known his perplexity to Jehovah :
" O Lord, how long shall I cry, and Thou wilt not hear !
Even cry out unto Thee of violence, and Thou wilt not save !
Why dost Thou show me iniquity, and cause me to behold grievance ?
For spoiling and violence are before me :
And there are that raise up strife and contention.
Therefore the law is slacked, and judgment doth never go forth :
For the wicked doth compass about the righteous ;
Therefore wrong judgment proceedeth." l
In reply to tha prophet's complaint of unpunished
wickedness, Jehovah declares that judgment is coming :
" For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation,
Which shall march through the breadth of the land,
To possess the dwelling-places that -are not theirs.
They are terrible and dreadful :
Their judgment and their dignity proceed from themselves.
Their horses also are swifter than the leopards,
And are more fierce than the evening wolves:
And their horsemen shall spread themselves,
And their horsemen shall come from far ;
They shall fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat." 2
A Second Inquiry. The prophet, who recognizes the
holiness and eternal power of God, is troubled by another
doubt, which he lays before Jehovah. How can the proud,
l Hab. i : 2-4. 2 Hab. i : 6-8.
244 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
idolatrous Chaldeans be permitted to punish Judah, a
nation standing far higher in righteousness ?
" Thou art of purer eyes than to behold evil,
And canst not look on iniquity:
Wherefore lookest Thou upon them that deal treacherously,
And holdest Thy tongue when the wicked devoureth
The man that is -more righteous than he? " l
Then the prophet, in imagination, takes his stand upon
a watch-tower to await the answer of Jehovah. It is not
long delayed ; and the prophet learns that Babylon, too,
shall perish for its wickedness :
" Woe, to him that getteth an evil gain for his house,
That he may set his nest on high,
That he may be delivered from the hand of evil !
Thou hast consulted shame to thy house by cutting off many peoples,
And hast sinned against thy soul.
For the stone shall cry out of the wall,
And the beam out of the timber shall answer it." 2
A Notable Ode. The closing ode is commonly regarded
as one of the noblest poems in the Old Testament. After
praying that the Lord's work may be revived in Judah, the
prophet describes Jehovah's coming to punish the nations
and redeem His people :
" His glory covered the heavens,
And the earth was full of His praise.
And His brightness was as the light ;
He had rays coming forth from His hand :
And there was the hiding of His power.
Before Him went the pestilence,
And fiery bolts went forth at His feet.
He stood and measured the earth ;
He beheld, and drove asunder the nations :
And the eternal mountains were scattered,
The everlasting hills did bow." 3
1 Hab. 1 : 13. 2 Hab. 2 : 19-11. 3 Hab. 3 : 3-6.
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 245
Though the sublime manifestations of Jehovah's power
filled the prophet with trembling fear, he retained his
exultant faith :
" Yet I will rejoice in the Lord,
I will joy in the God of my salvation.
Jehovah, the Lord, is my strength,
And He maketh my feet like hinds 1 feet,
And will make me to walk upon mine high places." 1
It is well for us when, like the prophet, we can come
forth from our religious perplexities with this triumphant
faith.
RESEARCH WORK .
JONAH
The prophet's flight and punishment, Jon. I.
Jonah's prayer of faith, Jon. 2.
The repentance of Nineveh, Jon. 3.
A lesson of divine compassion, Jon. 4.
MICAH
Reproof and judgment, Mic. 13.
Future glory of Zion, Mic. 4.
Dramatic prophecy, Mic. 6, 7.
NAHUM
The burden of Nineveh, Nah. 1-3.
HABAKKUK
A prophet's perplexities, Hab. I, 2.
A prayer of Habakkuk, Hab. 3.
l Hab. 3 : 18, 19.
.,
CHAPTER XIV
STUDIES IN ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND
MALACHI
Zephaniah. All that is known of the prophet Zephaniah
is given in the introduction to his prophecy. There his
descent is recorded for four generations. In his genealogi-
cal line he mentions Hezekiah, who is supposed by some
scholars to be the king of that name ; in that case,
Zephaniah was a prince as well as prophet. He prophe-
sies "in the days of Josiah, King of Judah " ; and the
moral conditions he describes, evidently existed before the
reformation effected in the eighteenth year of that sovereign 1
(621 B.C.). The date of Zephaniah's prophecy may there-
fore be approximately fixed at 630 B.C.
This brief book of prophecy may be divided into three
parts: (i) the menace of judgment (chapter i); (2) the
admonition to reformation (chapters 2-3 : 7) ; and (3) the
promise of future glory (chapter 3 : 8-20). In this ar-
rangement we recognize the characteristic spirit of Hebrew
prophecy. Contemporary with Jeremiah, Zephaniah points
out substantially the same corrupt condition of individual
and social life. He charges Judah with idolatry, injustice,
oppression, hardened impiety, and pagan customs, 2 which
1 See 2 Kings 23.
2 " The prophets, being public teachers, occupy themselves with the life of the
people. And the standard which they apply is just, as a rule, the covenant relation,
i.e. the Decalogue. Hence Israel's sin is usually of two kinds : either forsaking of
Jehovah, God of Israel, or social wrong-doing of the members of the covenant
people to one another. But what gives its meaning to all they say is their vivid re-
ligious conception of Jehovah as a person in immediate relation to the people."
DAVIDSON, " Theology of the Old Testament," p. 213.
246
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 247
he foresees will end in judgment and disaster. As a whole
the prophecy of Zephaniah presents a picture of judgment
and desolation, which is lighted up only by the triumphant
paean at its close. " No hotter book," says George Adam
Smith, " lies in all the Old Testament. Neither dew nor
grass nor tree nor any blossom lives in it, but it is every-
where fire, smoke, darkness, drifting chaff, ruins, nettles,
saltpits, and owls and ravens looking down from the win-
dows of desolate palaces." l
A Picture of Judgment. The prophecy opens abruptly
with dire threatenings. The day of the Lord, which is
presented as an occasion of inexorable judgment, is pro-
nounced near at hand. The scenes of desolation, which
the prophet describes, seem to be drawn from the wide-
spread destruction wrought by the Scythians, who about
this time, as Herodotus tells us, " became masters of all
Asia." 2 Here is a part of the prophet's gloomy picture :
" The great day of the Lord is near, it is near, and hasteth greatly,
Even the voice of the day of the Lord :
The mighty man shall cry there bitterly.
That day is a day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress,
A day of wasteness and desolation, a day of darkness and gloominess,
A day of clouds and thick darkness,
A day of the trumpet and alarm
Against the fenced cities, and against the high towers.
And I will bring distress upon men, that they shall walk like blind men,
Because they have sinned against the Lord.' 13
Admonition to Repentance. The whole of chapter 2
and the opening of chapter 3 contain an earnest admoni-
tion to repentance and reformation. The conditional
character of prophecy is recognized ; and it is yet possi-
1 George Adam Smith, " Book of the Twelve Prophets," Vol. IT., p. 48.
2 *Herodotus, Bk. I., ch. 104.
8 Zeph. i: 14-17.
248 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
ble, the prophet declares, to escape the threatened de-
struction by a humble and righteous spirit :
" Seek ye the Lord, all ye meek of the earth,
Which have wrought His judgment ; seek righteousness, seek meek-
ness :
It may be ye shall be hid in the day of the Lord's anger. 11 1(
The destruction of the Philistines, of Moab, Ammon,
Ethiopia, and even Nineveh, is in succession foretold.
Their destruction is represented as a vain warning to
Judah: -
" I have cut off the nations : their towns are desolate ;
I made their streets waste, that nonepasseth by:
Their cities are destroyed, so that there is no man,
That there is none inhabitant.
I said, Surely thou wilt fear Me, thou wilt receive instruction ;
So their dwelling should not be cut off, however I punished them :
But they rose early and corrupted all their doings. 112
At the beginning of the third chapter we find an enu-
meration of the iniquities of which Jerusalem was guilty,
and from which the city was admonished to turn :
" She trusted not in the Lord ; she drew not near to her God.
Her princes within her are roaring lions ;
Her judges are evening wolves ;
They leave nothing till the morrow.
Her prophets are light and treacherous persons :
Her priests have polluted the sanctuary,
They have done violence to the law." 3
Future Glory. But the prophet does not let his address
end in the desolations of divine judgment. A pious rem-
nant of Judah, who " shall not do iniquity, nor speak lies,"
is to be saved. " They shall feed and lie down, and none
shall make them afraid." Therefore,
1 Zeph. 2:3. 2 Zeph. 3:6,7. 8 Zeph. 3 : 2-4.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 249
" Sing, O daughter of Zion ; shout, O Israel ;
Be glad and rejoice with all the heart, O daughter of Jerusalem.
The Lord hath taken away thy judgments,
He hath cast out thine enemy :
The King of Israel, even the Lord, is in the midst of thee :
Thou shalt not see evil any more.
In that day it shall be said to Jerusalem, Fear thou not ;
And to Zion, Let not thine hands be slack.
The Lord thy God in the midst of thee is mighty, He will save,
He will rejoice over thee with joy ;
He will rest in His love ; He will joy over thee with singing." 1
Post-exilic Prophecy. The three remaining prophets
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi all belong to the post-
exilic period. The destruction of the Hebrew monarchy
and the long sojourn of the Jews in captivity had profoundly
altered their thought and life. With the disappearance of
their political state, the Jews thought more of an ecclesi-
astical state. Their thoughts turned from present humil-
iation to future glory. The priesthood acquired a new
prominence in Jewish life, and the outward ceremonies of
worship received a new emphasis. 2
This revolution in the social and religious life of the
Jews is reflected, to a greater or less degree, in the writ-
ings of the post-exilic prophets. There is no longer the
deep ethical spirit that belonged to Amos, Hosea, and
Isaiah, and that made these men heroic in the service of
righteousness. In place of an irrepressible indignation
over individual and social wrongs, there is anxious concern
: 14-17.
2 " In the place of the monarchy rose the hierarchy. The old military and
royal aristocracy also vanished, and instead appeared a priestly nobility, with the high
priest at its head. Israel became literally ' a kingdom of priests and a holy
nation.' The radical change in the external organization of the Jewish race was
but an index of the deeper fact that its energies had been turned into entirely dif-
ferent channels. Ritual and religion, not politics, commanded the attention of its
leaders." KENT, " History of the Jewish People," Vol. III., p. 94.
250 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
for the outward forms of religion. In this post-exilic
period was laid the foundation of the Pharisaic formalism
that aroused the moral indignation of Christ.
Haggai. The short prophecy of Haggai deals with the
rebuilding of the temple under Zerubbabel. It consists of
a summary of four discourses which the prophet delivered
at brief intervals. It is partly in prose and partly in
poetry ; but nowhere does it reach a very high literary ex-
cellence. Still it is possible to undervalue it; and, as
Cornill remarks, " in its very simplicity and modesty, as
the utterance of a heart deeply moved by a striking situa-
tion, it has something uncommonly attractive, and even
pathetic." l As we are able to determine from the definite
statements of time in the prophecy, the several discourses
were delivered between September and December in the
year 520 B.C.
The occasion of the first discourse shows us the pious
spirit of the prophet, who appears to have been an old
man. It was now sixteen years since the Jewish exiles
had returned from Babylon ; and though many of them
possessed wealth, and lived in luxurious houses, the temple
remained unbuilt. The prophet reproaches the people for
their neglect, and at the same time interprets a failure of
crops as a mark of Jehovah's displeasure :
" Is it time for you, O ye, to dwell in ceiled houses,
And this house lie waste?
Now therefore thus saith the Lord of hosts : Consider your ways.
Ye have sown much and bring in little ;
Ye eat, but ye have not enough ;
Ye drink, but ye are not filled with drink;
Ye clothe you, but there is none warm ;
And he that earneth wages, earneth wages to put into a bag with
holes."
1 Cornill, " Einleitur.g in das Alte Testament," p. 198.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAL ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 251
This appeal of the prophet was not fruitless. The
governor and the high priest, supported by all the people,
diligently set about the work of completing the temple.
A Word of Encouragement. A few weeks later the
prophet found it necessary to speak a word of encourage-
ment to the people. There seems to have been a lack of
materials ; and the aged few, who remembered the splen-
dor of the former temple, were depressed by the sickening
contrast. But the prophet assures them of Jehovah's
favor, and declares that the munificence of the nations,
whom God will move, will give a surpassing glory to the
new structure :
"Who is left among you that saw this house in her first glory?
And how do ye see it now?
Is it not in your eyes in comparison with it as nothing?
Yet now be strong, O Zerubbabel, saith the Lord ;
And be strong, O Joshua, son of Josedech, the high priest ;
And be strong, all ye people of the land, saith the Lord, and work.
And I will shake all nations, and the desirable things of all nations shall
come,
And I will fill this house with glory, saith the Lord of hosts.
The silver is Mine, and the gold is Mine, saith the Lord of hosts.
The glory of the latter house shall be greater than of the former,
And in this place will I give peace, saith the Lord of hosts."
Last Discourses. Some two months later, the' prophet
again encourages the people with the promise of God's
blessing. On the same day Zerubbabel is assured that in
the impending catastrophe of the nations, he wilt be favored
and exalted of the Lord :
" I will shake the heavens and the earth ;
And I will overthrow the throne of kingdoms,
And I will destroy the strength of the kingdoms of the heathen ;
And I will overthrow the chariots, and those that ride in them ;
And the horses and their riders shall come down,
Every one by the sword of his brother.
252 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
In that day, saith the Lord of hosts,
Will I take thee, O Zerubbabel, My servant,
And will make thee as a signet ; for I have chosen thee,
Saith the Lord of hosts."
Zechariah. The prophet Zechariah was a contemporary
of Haggai, and united with him in exhorting the governor
and the high priest of Jerusalem to proceed with the re-
building of the temple. As we read in Ezra, " The proph-
ets, Haggai the prophet, and Zechariah the son of Iddo,
prophesied unto the Jews that were in Judah and Jerusa-
lem." l It was in consequence of their united labors that
Zerubbabel and Jos'hua " began to build the house of God
which is at Jerusalem."
As we learn from the introduction, the first discourse of
Zechariah was delivered just two months after Haggai had
entered upon his prophetical mission. It was "in the
eighth month, in the second year of Darius" ; that is, in
November, 5 20 B.C. The immediate occasion was probably
the discouragement which, as we know from Haggai, early
beset the people in their work. 2 In his first discourse the
prophet warns the people against imitating the sins of their
fathers, and exhorts them to turn in loyalty to Jehovah :
" Turn ye unto Me, saith the Lord of hosts,
And I will turn unto you, saith the Lord of hosts."
Twofold Division. The prophecy of Zechariah is
clearly divided into two parts. The first part, including
the first eight chapters, has to do with the people of Judah.
It is unquestionably the work of Zechariah, and arose out
of the circumstances of the restoration.
The second part, including the last six chapters, is of a
totally different character. There are new superscriptions ;
1 Ezra 5:1. 2 . See Hag. 2 : 1-9.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 253
there is no reference to Zerubbabel and Joshua ; and the
whole historic background is unlike that of the restoration
period. For these reasons, the second part has been as-
cribed to another and unknown author, 1 who is supposed
to have written at a much later period.
A Series of Visions. The first six chapters (chapters i :
7-6: 8) comprise a series of noteworthy visions, which are
evidently designed for the encouragement of the people at
Jerusalem. In the first vision the divine messengers, who
go to and fro through the earth, report a state of peace
among the nations. There are no signs of the crisis that
is to usher in the Messianic kingdom. Nevertheless, Jeho-
vah reassures the people of His favor :
" I am returned to Jerusalem with mercies :
My house shall be built in it, saith the Lord of hosts,
And a line shall be stretched forth upon Jerusalem." 2
In a second vision four horns, representing the world
powers hostile to Israel, are broken by four smiths. In
chapter 2 there is a vision of a man with a measuring
rod, who goes forth to lay out the boundaries of the
new Jerusalem. It is to be without walls ; for its popula-
tion will be unlimited, and its defence will be Jehovah :
" Jerusalem shall be inhabited as towns without walls
For the multitude of men and cattle therein :
For I, saith the Lord, will be unto her a wall of fire round about,
And will be the glory in the midst of her." 3
The fourth and fifth visions are intended for the special
encouragement respectively of the high priest Joshua and
the civil governor Zerubbabel :
1 Matthew quotes Zech. u : 12 as the words of Jeremiah. See Matt. 27 : 9.
2 Zech. i : 16. a z e ch. 2 : 4, 5.
254 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
"Not by might, nor by power,
But by My Spirit, saith the Lord of hosts.
Who art thou, O great mountain ?
Before Zerubbabel thou shalt become a plain ;
And he shall bring forth the head-stone thereof
With shoutings, crying, Grace, grace unto it." l
In the fifth and sixth chapters there are three other
visions, the flying roll, the ephah measure, and the four
chariots. These are followed by an appendix, in which
the prophet is commanded to make a crown for Zerubbabel
and Joshua. 2 The ceremony of coronation brings forth a
beautiful Messianic promise:
" Behold the man whose name is the Branch ;
And he shall grow up out of his place,
And he shall build the temple of the Lord :
Even he shall build the temple of the Lord *,
And he shall bear the glory,
And shall sit and rule upon his throne ;
And he shall be a priest upon his throne :
And the counsel of peace shall be between them both. 1 ' 3
Fasting and Righteousness. Some two years after this
series of visions, Zechariah delivered another discourse
which is recorded in the seventh and eighth chapters. The
occasion was an interesting one. A deputation from
Bethel came to Jerusalem to inquire whether the custom
of fasting, as it had been practised in captivity, was still to
be observed. Zechariah, in his answer, exhibits the spirit
1 Zech. 4 : 6, 7.
2 This appears, from the plural crowns and from verse 13, to be the meaning.
If this emendation be correct, the following beautiful passage is addressed
primarily to Zerubbabel and Joshua, the former the civil and the latter the ecclesias-
tical head of Jerusalem. But some biblical scholars, like Wellhausen, think that the
name of Joshua in the text has been substituted for that of Zerubbabel, a view
that does not seem to harmonize with what follows.
3 Zech. 6 : 12, 13.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 25$
of the older prophets, and places righteousness far above
fasting :
" Execute true judgment,
And show mercy and compassions every man to his brother ;
And oppress not the widow, nor the fatherless,
The stranger, nor the poor ;
And let none of you imagine evil against his brother in your heart." 1
Continuing the same discourse in the eighth chapter, the
prophet gives assurances of the lasting favor of God and
of the future prosperity of Zion. Even nations from afar
will come to worship at Jerusalem :
" Thus saith the Lord of hosts :
It shall yet come to pass, that there shall come people,
And the inhabitants of many cities :
And the inhabitants of one city shall go to another, saying,
Let us go speedily to pray before the Lord,
And to seek the Lord of hosts ; and I will go also.
Yea, many peoples and strong nations shall come
To seek the Lord of hosts, in Jerusalem, and to pray before the Lord." 2
Zion's King. In passing to the second part of Zechariah
we encounter difficulties. The prophet often veils his
meaning in symbolism. " The latter chapters," as Well-
hausen truly says, " soar far above the field of reality ; the
historical situation from which they start can hardly be
recognized ; and the future hope has very little connection
with the present. The fundamental difference between
the two parts of the book lies not in the subject but in the
nature of the prophecy, in the first part realistic and
almost prosaic, in the second vague and fantastic." 3
In chapter 9 there is apparently a description of
Alexander's conquests, which include the destruction of
1 Zech. 7 : 8-10. 2 Zech. 8 : 20-22.
8 Wellhausen, " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Zechariah.
256 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
Damascus, Tyre, and the cities of the Philistines. Then,
by the law of association, the prophet suddenly passes to
the victories of the Messiah :
" Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion ;
Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem;
Behold, thy King cometh unto thee :
He is just, and having salvation ;
Lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass.
And I will cut off the chariot from Ephraim,
And the horse from Jerusalem, and the battle-bow shall be cut off:
And he shall speak peace unto the heathen ;
And His dominion shall be from sea even to sea,
And from the river even to the ends of the earth."
The prophecy closes with a bright picture of the day
when all the nations shall acknowledge Jehovah :
" And it shall come to pass,
That every one that is left of all the nations which came against
Jerusalem
Shall even go up from year to year
To worship the King, the Lord of hosts,
And to keep the feast of tabernacles." *
Malachi. The book of Malachi, though not the latest
of the Old Testament writings, makes a fitting conclusion.
Its closing words speak of a messenger who is to prepare
the way for "the great and dreadful day of the Lord " :
" Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet
Before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord :
And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children,
And the heart of the children to their fathers,
Lest I come and smite the earth with a curse."
With these words of promise and hope, the book of
Malachi forms a natural transition from the Old to the
New Testament.
1 Zech. 14 : 16.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 257
As to the author, nothing is known. His very name is
a matter of doubt; for the word Malachi, which means
messenger, may designate an office rather than a person.
It was so understood by the translators of the Septuagint
version. There is no reference to the time when the
prophecy was uttered ; yet the subject-matter of the book
enables us to fix approximately its date. Its mention of a
governor 1 shows that Judah was a Persian province; the
temple has been rebuilt, and public worship is formally
celebrated. 2 These facts clearly place Malachi in the
post-exilic period.
But we are able to determine its date still more defi-
nitely. The prophecy particularly attacks the faithlessness
of the priesthood, the. intermarriage of the Jews with alien
women, and remissness in the payment of the temple dues.
These are precisely the evils that we meet with in the
days of Ezra and Nehemiah. It is evident therefore that
Malachi belongs to the period of these two distinguished
leaders ; but whether he preceded them or lived contem-
porary with them is a disputed question among biblical
scholars. A probable opinion is that he wrote during
Nehemiah's absence at the Persian court ; 3 and in that case
his prophecy is to be dated about 432 B.C.
Assurance of Divine Favor. The prophecy itself reveals
to us the social and religious condition that called it forth.
The brilliant expectations of the returning exiles had not
been realized ; a spirit of worldliness had seized upon the
ruling classes ; doubt and unbelief troubled the whole com-
munity. In the opening words of his prophecy, Malachi
assures them of the divine favor by dwelling on the con-
trasted destinies of Israel and Edom :
1 See Mai. i : 8. 2 Mai. 1:7,8. 3 See Neh. 13 : 6.
258 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
" I have loved you, saith the Lord :
Yet ye say, Wherein hast Thou loved us?
Was not Esau Jacob's brother? saith the Lord;
Yet I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau,
And laid his mountains and his heritage waste
For the dragons of the wilderness."
This passage shows us a peculiarity of Malachi's style.
It contains a large dialogue element. The prophet regu-
larly states a proposition ; then he repeats the objection or
inquiry that is supposed to be made ; and lastly he expands
or demonstrates his first proposition.
Sins of the Priests. Having established the fact of
Jehovah's love, which many of the people had come to
doubt, the prophet proceeds to his indictment of the
priesthood ; and because of their profanation of the altar
through unworthy offerings, he threatens them with divine
judgment :
"A son honoreth his father, and a servant his master;
If then I be a father, where is Mine honor?
And if I be a master, where is My fear?
Saith the Lord of hosts unto you, O priests, that despise My name.
And ye say, Wherein have we despised Thy name?
Ye offer polluted bread upon My altar ;
And ye say, Wherein have we polluted Thee?
In that ye say, The table of the Lord is contemptible." 1
In expressing the indignation of Jehovah at the polluted
service of the priests, the prophet for a moment casts his
eyes beyond the borders of Israel. He catches a glimpse
of that broader day when God will be honored among all
nations. Nowhere else in the Old Testament do we find
a more generous contemplation of the Gentile world. This
fact is all the more remarkable, because Malachi, like the
1 Mai. i : 6, 7.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 259
other post-exilic prophets, places great emphasis on Jewish
ritual. Listen to the words addressed to a sceptical and
careless priesthood :
" I have no pleasure in you, saith the Lord of hosts,
Neither will I accept an offering at your hand.
For from the rising of the sun, even unto the going down of the
same,
My name shall be great among the Gentiles ;
And in every place incense shall be offered unto My name,
And a pure offering :
For My name shall be great among the heathen, saith the Lord of
hosts." i
Alien Wives. The prophecy of Malachi is closely
wrought together. After reproving the unworthy priests,
the prophet arraigns the people for divorcing their Jewish
wives, and marrying heathen women. This was a violation
of the solemn covenant previously made under the influence
of Ezra, 2 and accordingly invited the utmost severity of
Jehovah's punishment :
" Judah has dealt treacherously,
And an abomination is committed in Israel and in Jerusalem ;
For Judah hath profaned the holiness of the Lord, which He loved,
And hath married the daughter of a strange god.
The Lord will cut off the man that doeth this,
The master and the scholar, out of the tabernacles of Jacob,
And him that offereth an offering unto the Lord of hosts." 8
In this connection the prophet gives a pathetic picture of
the wronged women of Judah. They cover the altar with
tears ; and in sympathy with their suffering, the Lord
turns away from the priestly offerings :
" And this have ye done again,
Covering the altar of the Lord with tears,
1 Mai. i : 10, ii. 2 See Ezra 10. 8 Mai. 2: n, 12.
260 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
With weeping and with crying out,
Insomuch that He regardeth not the offering any more,
Or receiveth it with good will at your hand."
A Day of Judgment. The prophet turns next to the
coming day of the Lord. In their moral decadence the
people lost their consciousness of a distinction between
good and evil. Though the older prophets had repeatedly
spoken of a day of judgment, the sensual and worldly
minded contemporaries of Malachi were outspoken in their
scepticism about its coming :
" Ye have wearied the Lord with your words :
Yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied Him?
When ye say, Every one that doeth evil
Is good in the sight of the Lord, and He delighteth in them ;
Or, Where is the God of Judgment?" l
In reply to this moral confusion and open scepticism, the
prophet declares that the Lord will suddenly come in
judgment. But the day of the Lord is not to be a great
day of battle ; it is to be a day of purifying, in which the
righteous will be winnowed from the wicked :
" And I will come near to you in judgment ;
And I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers,
And against the adulterers, and against false swearers,
And against those that oppress the hireling in his wages,
The widow, and the fatherless,
And that turneth aside the stranger from his right,
And fear not Me, saith the Lord of hosts." 2
In all this there is a momentary return of the fine ethi-
cal sense of the older prophets who exalt righteousness
above ritual.
Promise of Blessing. The prophet next charges the
people with robbing God by withholding their tithes and
1 Mai. 2 : 17. 2 Mai. 3 : 5.
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 261
offerings. For this reason the land had been visited by
drought and locust. The prophet exhorts the people to
reformation, and promises them illimitable blessings :
" Ye are cursed with a curse ;
For ye have robbed Me, even this whole nation.
Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse.
That there may be meat in Mine house,
And prove Me now herewith, saith the Lord of hosts,
If I will not open the windows of heaven,
And pour you out a blessing,
That there shall not be room enough to receive it." 1
Triumph of the Righteous. Once more, before he ends
his work, the prophet silences the voice of unbelief. The
people complained that "it is vain to serve God." They
asserted that the proud were happy and the wicked pros-
perous. In reply to this ever recurring complaint of un-
belief, the prophet declares that in due time God will
recognize His own, and that in the fires of that day " all the
proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be stubble" :
" And a book of remembrance was written before Him,
For them that feared the Lord, and that thought upon His name.
And they shall be Mine, saith the Lord of hosts,
In that day when I make up My jewels. 1 ' 2
Conclusion. We close our studies in the Old Testament
with the beautiful words of Kuenen : " As we watch the
weaving of the web of Hebrew life, we endeavor to trace
through it the more conspicuous threads. Long time the
eye follows the crimson; it disappears at length; but the
golden thread of sacred prophecy continues to the end.
The prophets teach us to live and to struggle ; to believe
with immovable firmness ; to hope even when all is dark
1 Mai. 3 : 9, 10. 2 Mai. 3 : 16, 17.
262 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY
around us ; to trust the voice of God in our inmost con-
sciousness; and to speak with boldness and with power." 1
RESEARCH WORK
ZEPHANIAH
A severe judgment of God, Zeph. i : 1-18.
An exhortation to repentance, Zeph. 2 : 1-15 ; 3 : 1-7.
Future glory of Israel, Zeph. 3 : 8-20.
HAGGAI .
A prophetic appeal and its result, Hag. I : 2-15.
A word of encouragement, Hag. 2 : 1-9.
Unacceptable offerings, Hag. 2 : 10-19.
A civil governor encouraged, Hag. 2 : 20-23.
ZECHARIAH
An exhortation to repentance, Zech. i : 1-6.
A series of visions, Zech. i : 6-6.
A vision of red horses, Zech. i : 8-17.
An angel with a measuring line, Zech. 2.
The crowns of Joshua (and Zerubbabel), Zech. 6: 9-15.
Righteousness better than fasting, Zech. 7.
A picture of future glory for Zion, Zech. 8.
A Grecian and a Messianic conquest, Zech. 9.
Prayer and promise, Zech. 10 : 1-12.
The destruction of Jerusalem, Zech. n.
Jerusalem an instrument of judgment, Zech. 12.
Final struggle with hostile world powers, Zech. 14.
MALACHI
The love of Jehovah, Mai. i : 2-5.
Sins of the priests, Mai. i : 6-2 : 9.
Marriage with alien women denounced, Mai. 2 : 10-16.
Approach of a day of judgment, Mai. 2 : 17-3 : 6.
Tithe-paying and outward prosperity, Mai. 3: 7-12.
God makes up His jewels, Mai. 3 : 13-4: 6.
1 Quoted in Farrar's " The Bible : its Meaning and Supremacy," p. 273.
INDEX
(Numbers refer to pages.)
Abbott, Lyman, quoted, 131, 150 (foot-
note).
Amos, 223-228; research work, 230.
Architecture, and the Bible, 17; in
Hebrew history, 35.
Assyrian monarchy, 29-32; biblical
references, 71-72.
Authorship, Daniel, 203; Ecclesiastes,
159; Proverbs, 154.
Babylon, 33-38; biblical references, 72.
Babylonian exile, 65.
Barney, C. B., quoted, 124 (footnote).
Behistun inscription, 25.
Belshazzar, 34 ; his feast, 208.
Bethlehem, 238.
Bible, The, 1-22.
"Book of the Dead," 48.
Brown, Francis, quoted, 127 (footnote).
Browning, Robert, quoted, 15.
Bryon, quoted, 13.
Canaan, land of, 52; conquest of, 56;
research work, 70.
Carlyle, Thomas, value of Bible, 2 ; on
Job, 136.
Chaldea, 27.
Cheyne, T. K., quoted, 136; 159 (foot-
note).
Christianity, source of, 3.
Chronicles, I. and II., 126-128; re-
search work, 133.
Church, organizations of, 4.
Civilization, modern, i.
Coleridge, quoted, 14.
Cortiill, C. H., quoted, 87; 163; 223;
236 (footnotes).
Creation, traditions of, at Babylon, 38.
Daniel, 202-211; research work, 213.
Dante's "Divina Commedia," 12.
David, 59.
Davidson, A. B., quoted, 246 (footnote).
Deluge, Babylonian account of, 38.
Democracy, modern, and the Bible, 5.
Deuteronomy, 103-105; research work,
108.
Driver, S. R., quoted, 233 (footnote).
Duncker, Max, quoted, 63 (footnote).
Ecclesiastes, 158-163 ; research work, 169
Economics, and the Bible, 10.
Education, relation to the Bible, 5.
Egypt, 39-49-
Esther, 130-132 ; research work, 134.
Ethical ideals, and the Bible, 19.
Exodus, 95-99 ; research work, 107.
Explorers and excavators, 24.
Ezekiel, 193-201 ; research work, 212.
Ezra, 129; research work, 134.
Flood, traditions of, at Babylon, 38.
Geikie, C., quoted, 181 (footnote).
Genesis, 94-95 ; research work, 106.
Goethe's "Faust," 12.
Graetz, H., quoted, no (footnote).
Gray, George B., quoted, 103 (footnote).
Green, W. H., quoted, 74 (footnote).
Habakkuk, 242-245 ; research work, 245.
Haggai, 250-251 ; research work, 262.
Hammurabi, 28.
Hebrew history, background of, 24-47 ;.
research work, 69.
Hebrew literature, 74-90; research
work, 90-91,
263
264
INDEX
Hebrew monarchy, 58-64; research
work, 70, 71.
Hosea, 216-218; research work, 230.
Hosmer, J. K., quoted, 52 (footnote).
Isaiah, 171-186; research work, 191.
Israel, conquest of, 31; relation with
Hebrew history, 46; people of, 51-68;
research work, 68-72; Jonah, type
of, 233.
Jeremiah, 180-187; research work, 191.
Job, 136-143; research work, 151.
Joel, 219-222; research work, 230.
Jonah, 231-234; research work, 245.
Josephus, quoted, 43, 78.
Joshua, 110-112; research work, 120.
Judah, 64.
Judges, period of, 57; book of, 113-115;
research work, 121.
Kent, Charles F., quoted, 249 (footnote) .
Kings, I., II., 123-124; research work,
132.
Kuenen, A., quoted, 105 (footnote).
Lamentations, 188-189; research work,
192,
Leviticus, 99-101 ; research work, 107.
Literature, and the Bible, n ; in Egypt,
47 ; nature of, 73 ; influence of en-
vironment, 74; influence of race and
epoch, 75 ; classification, 78 ; wisdom,
i53-
McFadyen, John E., quoted, 95 ; 100 ;
105; 167 (footnotes) ; 242 (text).
Malachi, 256-261 ; research work, 262.
Manufactures, at Babylon, 37.
Marriage, and the Bible, 8.
Memphis, Old, 42.
Mesopotamia, 26-39.
Micah, 235-238; research work, 245.
Milman, H. H., quoted, 98 (footnote).
Milton, quoted, 12.
Moore, Thomas, quoted, 13.
Moulton, R. S., quoted, 55 (footnote).
b
Nabonidus, 34.
Nahum, 239241 ; research work, 245.
Nehemiah, 130; research work, 134.
Nicol, Thomas, quoted, 28 (footnote).
Nile, 40; influence upon Egypt, 41.
Numbers, 102 ; research work, 108.
Obadiah, 228-229; research work, 230.
Old Testament as literature, 73-90;
research work, 90-91.
Orr, James, quoted, 67 (footnote).
Painting, and the Bible, 17.
Parallelism, in Hebrew Poetry, 83-85.
Pentateuch, 92-106; research work,
106-108.
Philanthropy, and the Bible, 20.
Poetry, Hebrew, 83 ; lyrical, in Bible, 12.
Poets of truth and righteousness, 13.
Post-exilic prophecy, 249.
Preachers of righteousness, 86-89.
Prisse papyrus, the oldest book, 47.
Prophets, studies in the major, 170-212;
studies in the minor, 214-262; re-
search work, 191; 212; 230; 245;
262.
Proverbs, 153-158; research work, 169.
Psalms, The, 143-149; research work,
Ramses II., 45.
Religion, of Babylonia and Assyria, 37 ;
in Egypt, 48.
Religious conditions, 217.
Research work, Amos, 230; Babylon,
72 ; the Bible, its relation to modern
life, 22; Chronicles, 133; conquest
of Canaan, 70; Daniel, 213; Deuter-
onomy, 108; Ecclesiastes, 169; Esther,
134; Exodus, 107; Ezekiel, 212;
Ezra, 134; Genesis, 106; Habakkuk,
245 ; Haggai, 262 ; Hebrew history,
69; Hebrew monarchy, 70; 71;
Hosea, 230; Isaiah, 191; Israel,
conquest of, 68-72 ; Jeremiah, 191 ;
Job, 151; Joel, 230; Jonah, 245;
Joshua, 120; Judges, 121 ; Kings, 132;
Lamentations, 192; Leviticus, 107;
Malachi, 262; Micah, 245; Nahum,
245 ; Nehemiah, 134 ; Numbers, 108 ;
Obadiah, 230; Old Testament as
literature, 90; 91; Pentateuch, 106-
108; Prophets, 191; 212; 230; 245;
262; Proverbs, 169; Psalms, 151;
INDEX
265
Ruth, 121 ; Samuel I. and II., 121;
Song of Solomon, 169; Zechariah, 262;
Zephaniah, 262.
Rosetta stone, 26.
Ruskin, quoted, 2.
Ruth, book of, 116; research work, 121.
Ryle, H. E., quoted, 38; 39 (footnotes).
Samuel, I. and II., 117119; research
work, 121.
Saul, 59.
Sayce, A. H., quoted, 24 ; 81 ; 94 ; 97 ;
116 (footnotes).
Science, at Babylon, 35.
Sculpture, at Babylon, 36.
Sennacherib, 31.
Slavery, and the Bible, 9.
Smith, George Adam, quoted, 54 (foot-
note).
Smith, H. P., quoted, 115 (footnote).
Smith, W. R., quoted, 57 (footnote).
Solomon, 61.
Song of Solomon, 163-168; research
work, 169.
Tennyson, quoted, 16; 21.
Theban Empire, the new, 44.
Tiglathpilezer, 30.
Wellhausen, quoted, 255.
Whittier, quoted, 15.
Wisdom literature, 153.
Woman, position of, 7.
Wordsworth, quoted, 14.
World, fundamental view of, 3.
Zechariah, 252-255 ; research work, 262.
Zephaniah, 246-248; research work, 262.
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