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Weidner, Revere Franklin,

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An introduction to dogmatic

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SYSTEM

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

BASED ON LUTHARDT AND KRAUTH.

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER.

Doctor of Sacred Theolog^y, and Professor of Exegesis and Dogmatics in the Theological

Setninary of the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod, at Roch

Island, III ; Author of " Commentary on Mark" , "Theological

Encyclopaedia" , "Biblical Theology of (Hf Qld

Testament" , etc

I. PROLEGOMENA.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL.:

AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

1888.

INTRODUCTION

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY,

BASED ON LUTHARDT.

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER, S. T. D.

rtofessor of Theology in Augnstana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, III.; Member 0/

the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis; Member of the American

Oriental Society, etc.

ROOK ISLAND, ILL.:

AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN.

1888.

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER.

DEDICATED

TO THE MEMORY OF

CHARLES PORTERFIELD KRAUTH,
HIS TEACHER AND FRIEND,

THE AUTHOR.

EkRAfA.

Page 101 , second line iiom bottom, tor 1673 read i57.*{.
" 184, eighth " " " , VQ-dd eclectic.
" 137, line 6, for strict read stricter.
" 139, " 18, for 380 read 370.
" 163, last line, for member, read number.
" 195 , line 10 , read Dannhauer,
" 224, " 7, " Bollngbroke.
The few other errors are of such a character that they can easily be corrected.

PREFACE.

Revealed Theology naturally divides itself into four
main departments, exegetical, historical, systematic,
and practical. Under Exegetical Theology we com-
prise all the sciences that relate to the exposition and
elucidation of the Holy Scriptures; Historical Theol-
ogy begins with Sacred History and includes what has
been developed in the Church in the shape of Church
History and the History of Doctrine ; Practical Theol-
ogy embraces the theory of the activities of the Church,
as exercised by the pastor and teacher in particular;
but in Systematic Theology we have the highest form
of theological science. It is the scientific and connected
presentation of Christian doctrine, in its relation to
both faith and morals, and comprises the sciences of
Apologetics, Dogmatics, and Ethics.

Our later theologians distinguish between Biblical
Theology and Dogmatics. Biblical Theology has for
its aim to represent the religious ideas and doctrines
which are contained in the Bible, and is a purely his-
torical discipline, and as such belongs to the depart-
ment of Historical Theology. Christian Dogmatics or
Dogmatic Theology, on the other hand, is a historico-
philosophical science, in which the results of historical
exegesis are unified and systematized. It uses the re-
sults of Biblical Theology as the material with which

it builds. It is the sum of the truths embraced in the
Christian faith in their organic connection with the
facts of religious truth. It is the science of that, of
which the Christian affections and the Christian life
are the great art. It has no other aim than the teach-
ing of the Christian religion, as this is established in the
experimental consciousness of the believer, to reproduce
it spiritually and to bring it into a scientific, system-
atic form, for the delineation and development in every
direction of its divinely wrought facts in Jesus Christ.

Of late. Dogmatic Theology has been somewhat neg-
lected in certain parts of the Protestant world, and
indeed has fallen into disrepute, more stress being laid
upon the results of Biblical Theology. We are told
that in Dogmatic Theology we have the deductions
and speculations of men while in Biblical Theology we
have the pure teaching of the Word of God. But let us
not forget that the man who takes up the Bible now
without reference to what has been done toward its
elucidation in the past, and without being guided by
the development of doctrine is unwise and will fall into
error, for the faith and doctrinal thinking of the present
is conditioned by the intellectual labors and the devel-
opment of Church doctrine in the past, and must con-
sequently assure itself of its essential harmony with it.

This work does not present a System of Christian
Theology, but is simply an Introduction to such a Sys-
tem. It is the door and the vestibule which leads to
the sacred edifice. It only treats of the definition, con-

7
tents, method, and history, of Dogmatics. The attempt
has been made to give a concise and yet complete his-
tory of Dogmatics, including even a brief sketch of the
most prominent recent writers in this department. The
book itself is the outgrowth of work in the class-room,
and has been prepared to meet the wants of my stu-
dents, and is published in the hope that it may be of
some service not only to other theological students,
and to the English-speaking ministers, of the Evangel-
ical Lutheran Church, but may be of interest even to
those who are not of the same Confession of Faith.

He who watches the horizon of German Lutheran
Theology, will always discover some new star of great
brilliancy, just coming into range above it. One of the
latest of distinguished living conservative theologians
is Christoph Ernst Luthardt, since 1856 professor
of theology at Leipsic, and renowed as a university
lecturer and pulpit orator. His Compendium der Dog-
matik appeared in 1865, and in 1886 had already
reached the seventh edition. This work is not strictly
speaking the development of a system, but rather a
compendious presentation of carefully selected mate-
rial. It is by far the best manual of the Dogmatics of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church we possess. On ac-
count of its comprehensiveness, brevity, and succint-
ness, my own teacher, Charles Porterfield Krauth,
late Professor of Dogmatic Theology in the Evangelical
Lutheran Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, took
it as a general guide in a large part of his own lectures,
and especially recommended it to his students. This

work has been the basis of my own lectures during the
last six years, my students using a Swedish translation
of the fifth German edition. In this Introduction we
closely follow the outline of Luthardt, but though we
follow his outline and plan, it is not a translation,
nor a condensation, nor simply an adaptation, but
we have made an attempt to rewrite the work for the
special wants of the Church in this country.

The writer would also record his great indebtedness
to the Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth, which have
been freely used, and from which he has derived con-
stant stimulus and suggestion. He would also express
his great obligations to his venerable colleague, Dr.
Hasselquist, whose rich scholarship was constantly
at his command, and, who with a kindness which the
writer cannot adequately acknowledge, has done him
the great favor of reading the whole book aloud in his
presence, during its passage through the press.

R. F, W.

AUGUSTANA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,

Easter Monday, April 2, 1888,
Rock Island, III.

CONTENTS.

Sec.
1.

Page.

The Object of the Introduction, . . . .13

I. The Definition of Dogmatics.
The Definition of Theology, . . . . 17

1. Usage of the word Theology, ... 17

2. Divisions of Theology, . . . . . . 17

3. Definition of Revealed Theology, . . . .19

4. Means of Theological Study, . . . . 19

5. Aim of Theology, , . . . . . .20

The Claims of Theology , .... 20

1. It is a Biblical Science, ...... 21

2. Its necessity, 21

3. Its possibility, .... . . . .23

4. In harmony with a genuine Philosophy, ... 25
The Organism of Theology, 26

1. The Departments of Theology ^ .... 27

2. The Relation of Dogmatics and Ethics, . . .28
The Definition of Dogmatics, . . . .29

1. Definition of Dogma, ... . . .29

2. The Name of this Science, .... . 30

3. Definition of Dogmatics, ...... 30

II. The Contents of Dogmatics.
The Definition of Religion, . . . . 32

1. The Word Religion, 32

2. Definition of Religion, . 32

The Essential Character and Truth of Religion, 34

1. Religion in its subjective sense, ....

2. Religion in its objective sense, ....

3. The Origin of Religion,

4. The Truth of Religion,

The Divisions of Religion, ....

1. True and False, • .

34
37
37
38
39
39

2. Natural and Positive, 44

Sec. I'age.

9. The Essential Character of Cbristianity, . 46

1. The Relation of Christianity to Heathenism and Judaism, 46

2. The Essential Character of Christianity, ... 46

3. The Historical Conception of Christianity, . . . 46

4. The Truth of Christianity, 47

10. Romanism and Protestantism contrasted, . 47

1. False explanations of the difference, . . . . 47

2. A general statement of the difference, ... . 48

3. The Essential Character of Romanism, .... 48

4. Romanism criticised, 49

5. The Essential Character of Protestantism, ... 51

11. Lutheran Protestantism, 58

1 . The Difference between Lutheran and Reformed Protes-

tantism 59

2. The Material and Formal Principle, .... 62

3. The Material Principle of Lutheranism, ... .62

4. The Formal Principle of Lutheranism, ... 65

5. The Historical Character of Lutheran Protestantism, . 67

6. The Internal Assurance of Salvation, . . . . 70

III. The Method of Dogmatics.

12. The Formation of a Dogmatic System, . 72

1. The Material Principle of Dogmatics, .... 72

2. The Holy Scriptures as the Normative factor of Dogmatics, 73

3. The Canon of Scripture, ' 74

4. The Interpretation of Scripture, 82

13. The Church Doctrine and the Subjective Con-

sciousness of Faith, 87

1. The Churchly Character of Dogmatics, .... 88

2. The Confessions of the Church, 88

3. The Church Doctrine as consisting of Articles of Faith, 109

4. The Fundamental Principles of Faith of the General Coun-
cil of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of North America, 116

5. The Consciousness of Faith, 120

14. The Disposition of Dogmatics, . . . .120

IV. The History of Dogmatics.

15. The Dogmatics of the Ancient Church, . 132

Seo. Page.

16. The Dogmatics of the Middle Ages, . . 154

1. The Essential Character of Scholasticism, . . 154

2. Tke Beginnings of Scholasticism, .... 156

3. The Period of the highest Uoom of Seholasiieism, . . 162

4. The Period of its Decline, 167

5. Mysticism and Pre- Reformatory Theology, . . .169

6. The Humanists, 173

17. The Dogmatics of the Century of the Reforma-

tion, 174

1. The Dogmatics of Melanehthon, 174

2. The Melanehthonian School of Dogmatics, . . .177

3. The Reformed Dogmatics, 180

18. The Orthodox Dogmatics of Seventeenth Cen-

tury, 184

1. Characteristic of this Dogmatics, .... 185

2. The divers Tendencies of this Period, . . . 188

3. The Dogmaticians of this Period, .... 189

4. The Reformed or Calvinistic Dogmatics of this Period, . 198

19. The Dogmatics of tlie Period of Transition, 210

1. The Dogmatics of Pietism, 210

2. The Biblical Tendency, . 214

3. The Historical Tendency, 217

4. The Philosophical Tendency, 219

5. The History of Dogmatics outside of Germany, . . 221

20. The Dogmatics of Rationalism and Suprana-

turalism, 223

1. The Period of Illumination, 223

2. Rant, 227

3. Vulgar Rationalism, ' 228

4. Supranaturalism, 230

21. The Dogmatics of the Most Recent Time, . 233

1. The Renewal of Religious Faith, 233

2. The Philosophy of this Period, 234

3. The Emotional Theology of this Period, ... . .237

4. The Dogmatics of the Mediating Theology. ... 240

5. Confessional Dogmatics, . • . . . . 245

Index 258

INTRODUCTION

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION I.

THE OBJECT OF THE INTRODUCTION.

In the Introduction or Prolegomena to a Sys-
tem of Christian Theology we treat of the Defini-
tion, the Contents, the Method, and the History,
of Dogmatics.

The more ancient dogmatic systems have no proper
Introduction. In Melanchthon's i^ociV which is the
first great Protestant system of Dogmatics, the locus Z)e
Deo follows immediately after the preface. Selnecker
(d. 1592), who wrote a commentary on the Loci of
Melanchthon, was the first to introduce the practice of

I. First published in 1521, enlarged and altered especially in the editions of
1535 and 1543. Before the death of Melanchthon in 1560, this book had been re-
printed nearly eighty times in various editions (17 editions of the text of 1521, 14
of that of 1535, and 34 of that of 1543). For almost an entire century these Loct
served as the basis and model of the dogmatic teaching of the Lutheran Church.

14 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

prefacing works in Dogmatics with Prolegomena'^.
Chemnitz {d. 1586), who also wrote a commentary on
the Loci of Melanchthon, his teacher, prefixes to his
system^ a brief dissertation on '* The use and utility of
theological /oci." Gerhard* {d. 1637), after a short
preface on "The Nature of Theology," begins with a
locus of 230 closely-printed quarto pages on ''The
Holy Scriptures " as the only Source of Theology. In
QuENSTEDT^ {d. 1688) there are five introductory chap-
ters: 1) Of Theology in general; 2) Of the general
subject of Theology, /. e.. Religion ; 3) Of the source of
Theology; 4) Of the Holy Scriptures ; 5) Of the Arti-
cles of Faith. This plan is also followed by Heinrich
ScHMiD ^ in his Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church, exhibited and verified from the orig-
inal sources," a work which is of invaluable aid to the
English student who wishes to become acquainted with
the Theology of the Lutheran Church.

The material of Introduction continued to enlarge.
Our later Dogmaticians give special prominence to the
apologetic questions concerning Revelation, Miracles,
Prophecy, the Doctrine of Holy Scripture, Inspiration,
Faith and Knowledge. Carl Hase^ in his Hutterus Re-
divivus (a marvel of condensation) in his Prolegomena
of 27 sections discusses 1) Religion, 2) Dogmatic The-

2. In his Institutiones Christianae Religionis. 1,563.

3. In his Loci Theologici, published after his death, by Polycarp Leyser, 1591.

4. In his great work Loci Theologici, begun in 1610 and completed in 1621.
The best edition is that of Cotta (Tuebingen, 1762 — 87, 22 vols,). For practical pur-
poses we recommend the edition of Preuss (1863 — 1875), in 9 vols. A very full index
lately published (1885) greatly enhances the value of this edition, which also pres-
erves in the margin the paging of Cotta's edition.

5. His Theologia didactico-polemica appeared in 1685.

6. Translated from the fifth edition by Hay and Jacobs. Philadelphia, 1876.
A new revised edition will shortly appear.

7. Reference will always be made to the eleventh edition, I.eipsic, 1868.

THE OBJECT OF THE INTRODUCTION. 15

ology, and 3) History of Dogmatic Theology. Philippis
(d. 1882) devotes his first volume of 346 pages to Pro-
legomena. He discusses at length the topics of Religion
and Revelation, Faith and Doctrine, Holy Scripture and
Canon, Inspiration and Exposition. ThomasiuS'' {d.
1875) touches only the most essential preliminary ques-
tions, and postpones to the Dogmatic system itself, even
the discussion of the doctrine concerning Holy Scripture.
LuTHARDT,io whose system we closely follow devotes
21 out of 79 sections to his Prolegomena and History
of Dogmatics.

BjORLiNGi 1 in his system devotes his First Part of
597 pages to his Introduction or Prolegomena. After
a general introduction (pp. 1—22) he discusses the top-
ics of Religion (pp. 22—72), Faith (pp. 73—94), Rev-
elation (pp. 94—179), The Historical Development of
Religion and of Special Revelation (pp. 179—272), The
Holy Scriptures (pp. 272— 334), Tradition and the Con-
fessions of the Church (pp. 335—350), The Dogmatic
System (pp. 350—363), and History of Dogmatics (pp.
364—597).

8. Reference will be made to the third edition of his Kirchliche Glaubens-
lehre, as far as it has appeared. Guetersloh, 1883. 6 Parts in 9 vols.

9. In his Christi Pe?'son und Werk. Second edition. 3 vols. Erlangen,
1856—63.

10. See his Kompendhnn der Dogmatik. 7 verb, und verm. Aufl. Leipsic, 1886.

11. In his Den Christ eliga Dogmatiken enligt Lutherska Kyrkans Bekan-
nelseskrifter. Second revised and enlarged edition, Orebro, 1866.

F6rra delen: Den Christeliga Dogmatikens vetenskapliga grundlaggning (Vol.
I. pp. I — 597). Andra delen: Porsta afdeln. — Den Ursprungliga Foreningen med
Gud (Vol. II. pp. I — 300); Andra afdeln. — Storandet af den Ursprungliga FOre-
ningen med Gud (Vol. III. pp. i — 94); Tredje afdeln. — Cm det objektiva S.terstal-
landet af den genom Synden sterda FOreningen med Gud (Vol, IV. pp. i — 248);
Fjerde afdeln. — Tillampningen af den objektiva, genom Jesus Christus forv^rfvade
Fralsningen eller Aterforeningen med Gud (Vol. V. pp. i — 371); Femte afdeln. —
Den Christeliga Eskatologien (Vol. VI. pp. 1—77).

16 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

S. L. Bring! - in his well-known work gives us a very
brief introduction of 69 pages.

Of the Reformed Systems of Theology published in
this country, Charles Hodge ^ ^ {d. 1878) (Presbyterian)
in his Introduction of 188 pages discusses 1) Method, 2)
Theology, 3) Rationalism, 4) Mysticism (Quietism, Quak-
ers), 5) Roman Catholic doctrine concerning the Rule
of Faith (Tradition, Infallibility), 6) Protestant Rule
of Faith, (Canon, Inspiration, Rules of Interpretation).
VANOosTERZEEi*((i. 1882) (Dutch Reformed) prefaces his
System with an Introduction (1. Character, 2. Sources,
3. History, 4. Claims, of Christian Dogmatics) of 74
pages, followed by Part I. The Apologetic Foundation
(pp. 75 — 228), in which he discusses Religion, Revelation
and Holy Scripture. Strong^^ (Baptist) in his Pro/e^o-
mena treats of 1) The Idea, 2) The Material, 3) The
Method, of Theology. Henry B. Smitri^ (^z. 1877)
(Presbyterian) in six chapters discusses 1) The Idea of
Christian Theology, 2) The Sources of Christian The-
ology, 3) Natural Theology, 4) Revelation, 5) Divine Au-
thority of Revelation (Canon, Inspiration), 6) Divisions
of Theology.

12. \n\As,Grunddragen af den ChristeligaTroslaran. Forsta delen: Inled-
ning (pp. I — 69) — I. Gud s^som uppenbarelsens princlp (pp. 69 — 94); 2, Guds
inre uppenbarelse (pp. 95—126); Guds yttre uppenbarelse (pp. 127—276). Lund,
1869. Andra delen: Forsta haftet— Christi Person och verk (pp. i— 149). Lund,
1876. Andra haftet — L^ran om Anden och hans verk (pp. i — 200), 4. Uppen-
barelsens fuliandning (pp. 201 — 257). Lund, 1877.

13. See his Systematic Theology. 3 vols. New York, 1883.

14. See his Christian Dogmatics. 2 vols. New York, 1874.

15. Systematic Theology by Augustus Hopkins Strong. Rochester, 1886.

16. See his Introduction to Christian Theology. New York, 1883. A work
published separately from his System of Theology.

DEFINITION OF THEOLOGY. 17

I. DEFINITION OF DOGMATICS.
SECTION II.

DEFINITION OF THEOLOGY.

Theology is the churchly science of Christian-
ity.

1. The usage of the word.

According to its derivation, theology is the discourse
about God and divine things. In the usage of the Church
theologia primarily referred to language and reasoning
concerning divinity ^ It was more especially and by pre-
eminence given to the doctrine concerning the Trinity,
or concerning the Godhead of the Logos, on which ac-
count the Apostle John was called by pre-eminence the
Divine, the Theologian. For the same reason Gregory
Nazianzen (d. 389), because of his defence of the deity
of the Logos against the Arians, was called the Theolo-
gian. Some Dogmaticians (Hase, Hodge, Vilmar, etc.)
still use the word in this narrow sense as designating
the Doctrine concerning God {De Deo).

The word obtained that ^de sense in which we now
use it, as a scientific statement of the discussion of the
whole body of doctrine, in the twelfth century, when
Abelard (1079—1142) named his manual of doctrine
Theologia Christiana.

2. Divisions of Theology.

Theology may be considered 1) as a) general and
b) special; 2) as a) false and b) true; 3) as a) arche-
typal and b) ektypal.

I. "By the Greek word theologia we understand to mean an account or ex-
planation of the divine nature." Augustine in his " City 0/ God,'' VIII. I. Vol.
2, p. 144 of Schaff's edition of "The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers." First
Series. Buffalo, 1887.

18 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

1) As general theology it is the knowledge of God
of whatever kind, even natural knowledge, provided it
be true. As special it is that knowledge of God and the
divine mysteries which is revealed in the Scriptures and
through them delivered to man.

2) Theolog3^ can only be called false by a sort of per-
version of the word, asv^rhen v^e speak of heathen, Jew-
ish and Pseudo-Christian theology. True theology is the
pure emanation of God's teaching, in nature or in his
Word.

3) Archetypal {i.e., original) theology is that infinite
wisdom of God itself whereby God knows himself in
himself, and knows all things external to himself through
himself^. Matt. 11: 27; 1 Cor. 2: 10, '' for the Spirit
searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God. ^^ This
archetypal theology belongs to Christ essentially, and
by virtue of his nature, inasmuch as he is the eternal
God ; it belongs to him personally according to his hu-
man nature, by virtue of the communicatio idiomatuza,
in consequence of the personal union (Hollaz,^ Quest.
8, p. 4). Col. 2: 9, '' For in him (Christ) dwelleth all
the fullness of the Godhead bodily.''

Ektypal (i. e., derived) theology is an image and
shadow of that infinite and essential knowledge which
God has of himself. It is communicated to intelligent
creatures by God after the model of his own theolog3^,
as a pattern. 1) It belongs, first of all, to Jesus as a
man. Luke 2: 40, ^^ And the child grew, and waxed
strong, Riled with wisdom : and the grace of God was
upon him.'' 2) It belongs to angels. Matt. 18: 10;
Eph. 3 : 10 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 12, " which things angels desire

2. Ipsa infinita Dei sapientia, qua Deus se ipsum cognoscit in se ipso; et
extra se omnia per se ipsum.

3. See his Exame?t Theologice Acroamaticce. Edition of 1741.

DEFINITION OF THEOLOGY. 19

to look into.'' 3) Finally, it belongs to man, revealed
to him through the Word and taught by the Holy
Ghost.

3. Definition of Revealed Theology.

Theology, strictly so called, is that exalted practical
science, revealed through God's Word, which teaches all
things which sinful man, capable of eternal salvation,
must know and do, in order to acquire true faith in
Christ and attain holiness of life {Hollaz, 1, p. 1.).

The true theologian must of necessity be a regener-
ate man, firmly believing the divine Word, adhering to
it with unshaken confidence, apt in teaching others, and
skilful in confuting opponents. Even to a deep theoret-
ical comprehension of theology, over against a mere
external (philological) knowledge, supernatural grace
is necessary.

Theology, viewed as a system, and in a secondary
sense, is that doctrine or teaching drawn from the Word
of God, by which men are instructed in the true faith
and in a pious life unto eternal salvation.

The subject-matter of theology consists of theological
truth, i. e., of facts or conclusions known or deduced
from the supernatural revelation of God.

Since the eighteenth century the word theology has
been objectively used as the body of the teachings of the
Christian religion, learnedly and accurately set forth,
and arranged in accordance with an artificial form.
Theology, according to this view, is the science of relig-
ion. Kahnis^ defines theology as "the scientific self-
consciousness of the Church."

4. The Means of Theological Study.

There are three means : 1) Prayer, 2) meditation, and
3) experience. ''Prayer begins the study of theology,
meditation continues it, and experience confirms it."

4. In his Lutherische Dogmatik, Second edition. 2 vols. 1874—75.

20 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

As Christian theology is the science of divine things,
it cannot be mastered without profound study. Whether
a man has really mastered his profession or not will
soon be found out. They who belittle theology, perhaps
because they have never studied it and thus do not
know its rich contents, are simply dishonoring their
profession.

There are therefore certain requisites to the successful
study of theology. Among others we may mention:
1) natural endowments; 2) a disciplined mind; 3) a
well-balanced mind ; 4) thorough preparatory training ;

5) a knowledge of the original languages of the Bible ;

6) an acquaintance with mental and moral science;

7) an inward vocation ; 8) a holy affection toward God ;
9) spiritual mindedness ; 10) professional zeal; 11) the
enlightening influence of the Holy Spirit; 12) a diligent
use of the means of theological study.

5. The Aim of Theology,

The aim of theology, as a science, is to set forth, in a
systematic way, the truths of the Christian religion.
" Its immediate aim is true faith in Christ, and this faith
operates in a two-fold way: 1) internally, embracing
Christ with his benefits, and 2) externally, producing
good works. The ultimate aim of theology is eternal
happiness, which consists not only in intuitive knowl-
edge of God, but also in the enjoyment of him " (Hollaz).

SECTION III.

THE CLAIMS OF THEOLOGY.

Although the Bible is not a system of theol-
ogy, still God reveals to us in his Word the
truths which, if properly understood and ar-
ranged, constitute the Science of Theology. Such

CLAIMS OF THEOLOGY. 21

a science is necessary to satisfy the intellect, to
direct the affections, and to develop the practical
life of the minister and of the Church. It is possible
because God has revealed himself to man, and
the relation of faith to knowledge, and of Theol-
ogy to Philosophy is such, as not to preclude the
possibility of a theological science.

Theology claims our regard and prayerful study :

1. Because it is a Biblical Science.

It has its origin in the Word of God, and is distinctly
recognized in the artless yet specific language of Scrip-
ture. It calls our attention to the value of skill over
against unskilfulness, of learning over against ignor-
ance, of system over against confusion, of the mastery
of knowledge over against the feebleness of a novice.
And all these are the marks of a genuine theology.
There is a scribe thoroughly furnished for the kingdom
(Matt. 13: 52), implying that there are scribes not
thoroughly furnished. Paul was, relatively, what would
now be called a great dogmatician ; Apollos would be
styled a biblical theologian ; Luke would be considered
a master in historical theology.

The pastors, as shepherds, must also be teachers,
(Eph. 4: 11) ; the bishop must be apt to teach (1 Tim.
3 : 2 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 24) . The teacher must be '' a workman
that needeth not to he ashamed, handUng aright the
word of truth " (2 Tim. 2 : 15), ''holding to the faithful
word which is according to the teaching, that he maybe
able both to exhort in the sound doctrine, and to convict
the gainsay ers^^ (Tit. 1:9).

2. Because of its scientific necessity.

The science which traces the doctrinal claims of
Christianity, in their relation, their mutual dependenc^^,
and their harmonious organization is necessary :

22 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

1) To satisfy the intellect. To edify is to build ; build-
ing requires order, harmony, and proportion. The more
perfect a religion is the more does it tend to a scientific
system. The science of theology meets the deepest want
of man's rational nature. Nature rises into Science,
Revelation into Theology.

2 ) To give the wisest direction to the affections. Truth
systematically presented promotes the development of
Christian character, a) It enlightens the understanding
with sound knowledge, so that men have clear views of
truth ; b) it awakens emotion through that truth and
by truth strengthens and purifies emotion ; c) it directs
the will and conscience, b3^ the power of that emotion,
to activity in making man holy, and in impelling him to
do good to others. That piety that can be injured by
the systematic presentation of the great doctrines oi
Christianity must be weak, mystical, spurious, or mis-
taken.

3) To develop perfectly the practical life of the min-
ister, and his uselulness as a teacher of religion. The
minister must have all the knowledge which adapts him
to the wants of the Church. He must know her history
and practical needs, the need of the altar, the need of the
pulpit, the need of the pastor, and of the people. All
this can only be obtained by the diligent study of the
science of theology. Nothing more certainly destroys a
minister's influence for good than confusion and incon-
sistency in his doctrinal statements. To mutilate or to
misrepresent truth is not only a sin against God, but it
ma}^ also prove the ruin of men's souls. The function of
the minister is to proclaim the truth of God to men, and
his first duty is to learn it ; and he will be a traitor to
himself and to his high calling if he does not resolve, so
far as he has the power, above all things, to be a theo-

CLAIMS or THEOLOGY. 23

logian. He may be something besides, but this he must
be. Spurgeon truly says : ''We shall never have great
preachers until we have great divines."

4) To develop the practical life of the Church. There
is a close connection between purity of doctrine and pu-
rity of life. For a misrepresentation of the truth, or a
defective understanding of the truth, sooner or later, re-
sults in defects of organization, and in errors of opera-
tion and of life. There is a foundation on which the
Church rests, and other foundation can no man lay
than that which is laid, which is Jesus Christ. The min-
ister must know the development of the Church in faith
and creed, he must be enriched by the lessons of the
Church's past, for his labor in preparing the way for the
Church of the future. The science of theology is neces-
sary for the upbuilding of the Church.

3. Because it is possible.

The objection has been made that theology can not
be regarded as a science, because the truths that are
therein contained are not proper objects of knowledge,
because they are to be apprehended only by faith. But
faith and knowledge do not stand in such relation to
each other, as to preclude the possibility of theological
science. Faith is only a higher sort of knowledge. By
faith we apprehend what is beyond our knowledge. The
three elements of faith are knowledge, assent and confi-
dence ; the first two are acts of the intellect, and the
third an act of the will. Faith is therefore the joint act
of the intellect and the will. So Gerhard and Philippic .
This intimate coherence of faith and knowledge is con-
stantly and expressly referred to in the Bible itself (1
Cor. 13: 12; 14: 20; 1 John 2: 20).

I. " Der Glaube is ein Act des ganzen erkennenden und wollenden Menschen-
geistes in seiner untheilbaren Einheit." Philippics Kirch. Gl. I. 54.

24 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

There has been, indeed, even in the Church, a disposi-
tion to exalt one over the other. The Alexandrian tend-
ency was to give ^'gnosis'' or knowledge a higher place
than ^^plstis'^ or faith, while the principle of Augustine,
adopted by the Scholastics, was: crede ut intelligas ;
tides prsecedit intellectutn, — ''believe that thou mayest
understand; faith precedes understanding." But the
question is not which precedes, but what is their rela-
tion to each other. Jacobi {d. 1819) confessed that to
him the dualism of faith and knowledge was hopeless.
The Hegelian philosophy resolved faith into knowledge.
ScHLEiERMACHER (d. 1848) maintained "that under-
standing and emotion are the two foci of our ellipse,
and that oscillation is the universal form of all finite
being."

In this whole discussion we must lay stress upon the
fact, that faith itself, as such, is already a knowledge ;
— that it is an immediate and remains the immanent
presupposition throughout the unfolding of this knowl-
edge ; that the antithesis of faith is not knowledge, but
sight and mathematical demonstration.

Christlieb^ : "All knowledge is, in the last instance,
conditioned by faith ; and faith is the preliminary and
the medium of every act of intelligence. He who
believes nothing, knows nothing. The antithesis is
not that of faith and knowledge, but that of faith and
unbelief. ' '

Strong : " The possibility of theology has a threefold
ground : 1) In the existence of a God who has relations
to the universe ; 2) In the capacity of the human mind
for knowing God and certain of these relations; and 3)
In God's revelation of himself to man."

9. See his Modern Doubt and Christian Belief, pp. 124 — 135.

CLAIMS OF THEOLOGY. 25

4. Because its results are in harmony with those of a genuine
philosophy 1.

There are those who maintain that philosophy and
theology are irreconcilable. Hence some repudiate phil-
osophy, considering theology as the fixed point, — while
very many repudiate theology, denying its claims on the
ground that it cannot be in harmony with philosophy.
It is very true, that within the domain of theological
thinking, even in the Christian Church, very different
philosophical schools have risen and flourished. The
stiniggle between Realism and Nominalism ran through
generations. Aristotle and Plato have alternated as
masters of Christian philosophy. Plato represents, in
general, the idealistic tendency, and Aristotle, the prac-
tical and positive. Almost all philosophy is in some
sense a development of one or the other of these tenden-
cies, or an attempt to unite them. Luther spoke with
special violence against the Aristotelian philosophy and
perverted reason, and barren speculation in general.
Melanchthon, who was more profoundly learned in
Greek philosophy than Luther, thought better of Ari-
stotle, and indeed advocated a sober Aristotehanism.
The later orthodox theologians of our Church come
more in contact with logic as one of the philosophical
sciences, than with metaphysical speculation. Philo-
sophical sobriety and caution are eminently character-
istic of the Lutheran Theology, and very few of its
arguments and none of its doctrines rest on philosoph-
ical "data," which latter are ever likely to be subjects of
dispute among men of solid thought.

Hollaz truly says : '' Philosophy is not contrary or
contradictory to revealed theology."

The words of St. Paul (Col. 2 : 8) imply no condemn-

I. Compare Krauth's Manuscript Lectures.

26 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ation of a true philosophy, but the very contrary. He
implies that there is a true philosophy which is no
empty deceit, is not after the tradition of men, and is
according to Christ. But philosophy must be regarded
only as a handmaid to theology.

Caloyius says : " Philosophy is not opposed to The-
ology": 1) because the true agrees with the true, and
does not antagonize it, for what is known by the light
of nature is no less true than that what is revealed in
Scripture ; 2) because natural and philosophical knowl-
edge has its origin also in God ; 3) because philosophy
leads to a knowledge of God." But Quenstedt truly
says : " Although Philosophy and the principles of Rea-
son are not indeed contrary to Theology, nor the latter
to the former, still there is a very great diiFerence be-
tween those things that are divinely revealed in Scrip-
ture, and those which are known by the light of
nature."

Theology does not condemn the use of Philosophy,
but its abuse and its affectation of directorship as norm-
ative and decisive in divine things.

Luthardt: " Philosophy is the science of the natural
consciousness, Theology of the renewed Christian con-
sciousness ; the former has to do with the world of crea-
tion and the general principles of Being, the latter treats
of the world of Redemption and of Salvation ; the former
busies itself with theoretical issues, the latter with the
practical issues of life."

SECTION IV.

THE ORGANISM OF THEOLOGY.

Positive Theology by its own nature divides
itself into four main departments: 1) Biblical or

ORGANISM OF THEOLOGY. 27

Exegetical, 2) Historical, 3) Systematic, and 4)
Practical. There can be no question as to the
general correctness of this division, though there
maybe some in regard to the order of succession.
Every division, however, is only relative, for in
every single department of theological study all
the others are involved. Each takes the hand of
the other, and affords an outlook into the other.

I. Fuller Definition.

1) Exegetical T/zeo/o^^ comprises all that relates to
the exposition and elucidation of the Holy Scriptures. It
consequently embraces Exegesis as an art, and all the
branches of knowledge auxiliary to that art. To it
belong the sciences of a) Sacred Philology, b) Biblical
Archeology, c) Isagogics or Biblical Introduction and
Canonics, d) Biblical Criticism (Textual and Higher),
e) Hermeneutics, and / ) Exegesis, as the practical ap-
plication of Hermeneutics.

2) The result of the application of Exegetical Theo-
logy to the Bible lays the foundation of Historical The-
ology. It begins with Sacred History, and includes
what has been developed in the Church in the shape of
Church History and the History of Doctrine. Conse-
quently it reaches back in its beginning into Exegesis
and ends by throwing a bridge over into Systematic
Theology. To Historical Theology belong the sciences
of a) Sacred History, b) Biblical Theology (Old and
New Testament), c) Church History, d) Ecclesiastical
Archaeology, e) History of Doctrines, f) Patristics,
g) Symbolics and h) Statistics.

3) Systematic Theology is the highest form of theol-
ogical science. It is the scientific and connected presen-
tation of Christian doctrine in its relation to both faith

28 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

and morals. For its successful study a previous culture
is demanded, of an exegetical, historical and philosoph-
ical character. It naturally comprises the sciences of
a) Apologetics, b) Dogmatics and c) Ethics. Although
we accept the fact of Christianity as a divine fact, this
presupposition must be justified by science to the religi-
ous consciousness . Hence Apologetics properly precedes
the treatment of purely dogmatic topics.

4) Practical Theology embraces the theory of the ac-
tivities of the Church as these reveal themselves in the
Church as a whole, and in the individual members and
representatives of it, acting in the name of the Church.
It presupposes all those branches of knowledge through
which religion, in general, and Christianity, in partic-
ular, attain their scientific establishment and shape. To
Practical Theology belong the sciences of a) Catechet-
ics, b) Liturgies, c) Homiletics, d) Pastoral Theology,
e) Evangelistics (Foreign Missions), /") Diaconics (Home
Missions), and ^) Gybernetics (Church Polity).

2. Dogmatics and Ethics.

The attempt was first made to treat these topics
separately by the Reformed divines. Calixtus (c/. 1656)
was the first who introduced the change into the Luth-
eran Church, and the convenience and satisfactory char-
acter of this change have led to its almost universal
adoption. Dogmatics and Ethics have usually been re-
garded as parallel sciences. The first gives an answer
to the question, What thinkest thou of Christ ? The
second to the question. What thinkest thou of the true
character of a Christian upon earth ? The two sciences
are so interlaced that Dogmatics cannot wholly leave
Ethics untouched, and Ethics would become a small
science indeed, if it were fully sundered from Dogmatics.
There have not been wanting eminent theologians of

DEFINITION OF DOGMATICS. 29

recent date, who have been disposed to return to the
old union in the treatment of these departments. The
division, in fact, of Dogmatics and Ethics, is rather one
of convenience, resulting from the vast range of their
subjects, than one made necessary by the nature of the
case. Such a division, however, is favorable to the full
and clear handling of both, and it is easy for the stu-
dent, who masters them both, in separate treatises, to
combine both in his heart, mind, life and labor.

SECTION V.

DEFINITION OF DOGMATICS.

Dogmatics is the science which presents in
their connection and mutual relations, the doc-
trines or dogmas, which it is its aim to reproduce
from the religious faith of the Christian himself,
in harmony with the Scriptures and the teach-
ing of the Church.

I. Definition of the word Dogma.

The Greek word occurs first in the writings of Xeno-
phon and Plato, and its primary meaning is decree, a
conclusion of a popular assembly. In this sense of a
decree, an ordinance, it is used in the New Testament.
In a secondary sense in classical usage, the word dogma
designates a philosophical proposition, and it is applied
to the authoritative and categorical ' sentences ' of the
philosophers. Cicero speaks of the ^'decreta'' (tenets),
''which philosophers call dogmata.'^ The word easily
passed over to the meaning of doctrine " or '' doctrinal
statements." Ignatius speaks of ''the Jo^znata of the
Lord and his Apostles." Origen styles the Apostles as
"teachers of dogmas." Since the fourth century the
word has come to be more and more limited to "doc-

30 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

trine," articles of faith, in opposition to the doctrines
of Ethics, and in distinction from preaching, as the
popular presentation of truth.

2. The Name of the Science.

The name of this department of Theology has been
various. Melanchthon calls his work ^'Loci." It has
also been called "Corpus Doctrinae; " Calvin called his
work ''Institutio; " Baier calls his "Positive Theol-
ogy;" Quenstedt, "Systematic and Thetic Theology."
In the 17th century the name Dogmatic Theology was
introduced, and since Buddeus {d. 1729), this name has
been the predominant one. No other name so accurately
expresses what this branch of Theology proposes to it-
self. In English usage we have the terms — " Systematic
Theology," "System of Theology," "Christian Dog-
matics, "System of Christian Doctrine," etc.

3. The Definition of Dogmatics.

The Scholastics and our own older Dogmaticians re-
garded Dogmatics as a historico-apologetic science, — a
systematically arranged delineation of the doctrine of
the Church, with confirmation of it drawn from Holy
Writ. According to Quenstedt {d. 1688) "it sets forth
the theological commonplaces or topics in order, per-
spicuously explains them, accurately defines the dogmas
or doctrines of faith, and divides them, deducing them
from the Holy Scriptures, which is their primary place
and in which they are grounded, demonstrating them
from the same." Luthardt says that in this definition
there is wanting the systematic development from a
material principle, inasmuch as the matter, is supposed
by it to be already finished by the existing Church doc-
trine.

At a later period Dogmatics came to be conceived
of as an historical science. Schleiermacher defines Dog.

DEFIXITION OF DOGMATICS. 31

matic Theology *'as the science of the doctrines accepted
in a Christian Church at any particular time."

Philippi says : '* Systematic Theology has no other
aim than the teaching of Christian religion, as this is
established in the experimental consciousness of the
believer, to reproduce it spiritually and to bring it into
a scientific, systematic form, for the delineation and
development in every direction of its divinely wrought
facts in Jesus Christ."

Kahnis defines Christian Dogmatics as having for its
aim the unfolding of the articles of faith from the mate-
rial principle of justification by faith, and the dem-
onstration of them from the formal principle of the
absolute authority of Scripture. Yet more decisive in
demanding purely reproductive treatment, Hofmann*
designates the Christian doctrinal system as the scien-
tific self-expression of the theologian, i. e., of his personal
self-dependent relation to God.

Dogmatics is not a bare philosophy of religion, nor a
bare history of dogmas , nor is it simply biblical or merely
symbolico- biblical, but it is a historico - philosophical
science, in which the results of historical exegesis are
unified and systematized. It must thus be distinguished
from the Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testa-
ments, as well as from the so-called speculative theol-
ogy. It is the sum of the truths embraced in the
Christian faith in their organic connection with the facts
of religious consciousness. It apprehends divine truth
primarily on its intellectual side. It is the science of that,
of which the Christian affections and the Christian life,
are the great art. We can only sunder it from them the-
oretically, practically it should never be sundered from
them. ^__.^

I. In his Schriftbeweis, I. pp. 9— ii. Reference will be made to first edition
3 vols. 1852—55.

32 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

II. CONTENTS OF DOGMATICS.
SECTION VI.

THE DEFINITION OF RELIGION.

Eeligion is the relation of the fellowship of
man with God, a relation grounded in the nature
of man and actualized in Christianity.

1. The Word Religion.

The derivation of the word religion has been much
discussed, a) Some would derive it from '^ relinquere,^^
as designating a separation from the world ; h) Lactan-
tius derives the word from '' religare,^' to bind back, as
indicating that bond of piety with which we are united
to God. So Augustine and our older Dogmaticians;
c) But the true derivation is from relegere, ^^ to ponder
over a thing,'' thus designating a diHgent attention to
those things which pertain to the worship of God. So
already Cicero and the later grammarians ; also Phil-
ippi and the later Dogmaticians.

2, The Definition of Religion,

In the word religion, and in the related Greek words
used in the New Testament (threskeia, latreia, and the
original for ''superstitious" in Acts 17: 22), is expres-
sed a relation of man to God, the particular character
of which cannot be known from the words themselves.
The most wide-reaching, broad, yet definite, expression
of the relation to God, which is involved in the true use
of the word religion, is expressed by Augustine in the
first passage of his '' Confessions " : " Thou, O God, hast
made us for thyself, and our heart is at unrest, until it
rests in thee." The universal religious tendency demands
as a postulate, communion with God, in some shape or

DEFINITION OF RELIGION. 33

other. This feeling is common to all forms of faith, how-
ever dim it may be, and however obscured by supersti-
tion. It springs from the innate yearning of the creature
for pardon, love, and fellowship with the Creator. It
is the aspiration of the intellectual and moral being to-
wards its source, — as St. Paul expresses it,— it is a
feeling and seeking after God, if haply they might find
him (Acts 17: 27). Christianity is the actuality of this
fellowship, and at the same time is also the actualizing
of the ideal of religion. Beck^ says : '' Christianity as
the religion for the whole world, must of necessity em-
brace all the genuine elements of all religion ; and just
as necessarily must present in itself the essence of all
religion, as it judges and rejects all that conflicts with
the essence". Philippi remarks ^ ''that it has become
a pretty general proposition of the New Theology, in its
various forms and tendencies, so far as it can yet claim
the name Christian, to define Christianity, the Chris-
tian religion, as a fellowship of man with God, mediated
through Christ, or to speak more accurately, restored
through Christ. This principle, which has become a
dogmatic presupposition, is in fact sufficiently strict in
the distinction it draws, to exclude every unchristian
and antichristian point of view, and yet again in its
simplicity and comprehensiveness, broad enough, to em-
brace every Christian point of view, properly such, how-
ever diverse may be the forms of that view".

1. In his Etnleitung in das System der christlichen Lehre. Stuttgart, 1838.
Page 49.

2. In \\\'s> Kirchliche Glaubenslehre, I. i.

34 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION VII.

THE ESSENTIAI. CHARACTER AND TRUTH OF RELIGION.

Religion is not merely a matter of a single side
of the life of a soul, but is a fact of the entire in-
ternal life. It is faith which shapes itself to, and
demands external religious fellowship. Religion
consists of 1) knowledge, but not mere knowl-
edge; 2) of activity, but not mere activity; 3) of
emotion, but not mere emotion. All definitions
which present one of these three to the exclusion
of both the others, or two of these to the exclu-
sion of the third, are defective, if not absolutely
false. Mere knowledge is rationalism or dead or-
thodoxism ; mere activity is legalism or morality ;
mere emotion is fanaticism or mysticism; but
heavenly knowledge, applied by the Holy Ghost
to the renewal of the affections and the produc-
ing of an earnest spirit, whose fruits are deeds
of love, is the basis, and in its connection, the
completion of true religion.

I. Religion in the subjective sense.

Religion is a universal fact. This universality is a
proof of its intrinsic necessity. It has its grounds, its
cause, and its necessity in the very constitution and es-
sence of the human spirit ^ The very existence of man
presupposes the religious craving, the seeking after God.
God is the deepest need of man, his highest aim, and
that for which he is incessantly striving. All the pow-

1. Compare Luthardfs Apologetic Lectures on the Fiindamental Truths of
Christianity. Edinburgh, 1869. This whole paragraph has been condensed from
Lecture 6.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTER AND TRUTH OF RELIGION. 85

ers of our mind do not find their aim till they find God.
Communion with God is the truth of man, religion his
true life. Without religion he can not truly be called
man. There is a tie between us and God — a tie of rela-
tionship. This tie, this attraction of the soul toward
God, this craving for love, for personal fellowship, for
intimate familiar intercourse, is the foundation of all
religion, all revelation.

Such is the cause of religion in man, and its dwelling-
place is his inmost soul.

Religion has been variously contemplated as a mat-
ter of knowledge, a matter of will, or a matter of emo-
tion ; but in fact it is not a matter of isolated points in
the spiritual life, — it is each one of these, and all of these,
and more than all. Religion is a matter of knowledge,
for to know the only true God and Jesus Christ is life
eternal (John 17: 3). But religion is not a mere sub-
ject of knowledge, for knowledge does not make a man
pious, nor does orthodoxy constitute him a believer. It
is a matter of the will, for it must be a moral act, and
Jesus himself says : "If any man willeth to do his will,
he shall know of the teaching" (John 7: 17). But re-
ligion is not a mere willing and doing, it is also a mat-
ter of the feelings, for it is ''peace and joy in the Holy
Ghost" (Rom. 14: 17). But neither is it this alone; it
is at once knowing, willing, and feeling, because it is the
matter of the whole inner man, of the root of his per-
sonal life, — of the heart, as Scripture designates the cen-
tre of the personal life of the inner man. For the Bible
transfers the abode of religion, and the transactions of
the religious life, to the heart. The Word must pierce the
heart (Acts 2 : 37) ; the heart must be open to the Word
(Acts 16 : 14) ; with the heart man believeth unto right-
eousness (Rom. 10: 10).

36 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Our Lutheran Dogmaticians do not discuss this point
till after the time of Gerhard, when Quenstedt {d. 1688)
and HoLLAZ (cf. 1713) define the Christian Religion *' as
that mode of worshiping the true God, which is pre-
scribed in his Word." Baier (d. 1695) defines religion
as ''the acts of the mind and of the will, which are oc-
cupied concerning God, in which acts God is rightly
acknowledged and rightly worshiped." Buddeus (d.
1729) says: "It is usual to separate religion into two
parts, the true knowledge of God, and the worship
which is due to him." He observes in this connection
that in his day the greater stress was laid upon the
knowledge of God, "for," says he, "it is most common
to distinguish the religions into which the world is
divided by the doctrines or opinions which men cherish
concerning God and divine things." Since the time of
Buddeus, the ordinary definition of religion has been "a
mode of knowing and worshiping God."

Rationalism and supematuralism regard religion as
a knowledge, and regard cultus or worship as the exer-
cise of religion.

Schleiermacher defines religion as "as a determina-
tion of emotion." But religion is not to be regarded as
a mere determination, i. e., as something passive, and
consequently is not the mere feeling of a bare condition
in which the man himself is, as it were, put out of the
question, but it is a personal relation. In consequence
of this truer view and over against Schleiermacher,
Beck says: " The psychological primal shape of relig-
ion cannot lie in an isolated fact of the spiritual life, nor
in one isolated activity, as, for example, emotion, for
religion embraces in its very origin all factors and acti-
vities of the spiritual life in their unity." He says in
another place, " the essence of all actual religion rests

ESSENTIAL CHARACTER AND TRUTH OF RELIGION. 37

Upon and contains, both as to its form, and objective
and subjective reality, faith ; this is true also of its basis
and its contents " (2 Cor. 5:7; Heb. 11) . Similar views
are expressed by Philippi and Kahnis.

The fellowship, however, of the individual with God
involves and is followed by the common life of religion,
or as Kahnis^ expresses it, — "is not a mere knowing,
not a mere feeling, not a mere willing, but rather a con-
sciousness (knowledge combined with conviction) of
God on the ground of emotion, accompanied by moral
surrender."

2. Religion in the objective sense.

In its objective sense religion is the common religious
life presenting itself in doctrine, constitution and wor-
ship, and is, consequently, in one aspect, the sequel
as it is in another, the presupposition, of subjective
religion. Its self - presentation is a thing of internal
necessity. Thus the subjective religion which we call
Lutheranism, is the result of the subjective faith of the
great restorers of the pure faith ; but once established,
it becomes the presupposition to the subjective faith of
those who hold it in its pure form. The renewed Chris-
tianity of the sixteenth century, the Reformation, was
the result of the faith of the Reformers, and our faith is
the result of the Reformation^. Man is not merely an
individual, an isolated intellectual being, but a being of
history and fellow^ship.

3. The Origin of Religions.

Religion is not the invention of statesmen and intri-
guing rulers, a view advocated by some of the Deists,

1. See his Dogm, L 142.

2. Compare Maittiscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth.

3. Compare Fisher's ''■Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief pp.
i^_25 ; De Pressens&s "-Study of Origins,'' pp. 453—466 ; LuthardVs Fun-
damental Truths, Lecture \'I.

38 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Atheists and Materialists of the last century ; nor is it to
be traced to the phenomena of nature, or the perception
of marks of design in nature ; neither are we to regard
the intellectual tendency of the mind as the root of religi-
ous faith and devotion, thus making religion the fruit of
an intellectual curiosity ; neither did it take its origin in
fetich - worship of ancestors ; neither are we to regard it
simply as the result of divine instruction, as the older
dogmaticians, — but religion is an inner necessity of
man. Its origin is found in the aspirations of the hu-
man soul. It is as essential for man to have a religion
as it is for man to love. As man cannot live without
his fellow-men, so can he not live without God. It can
as little be called an invention as eating, drinking,
sleeping, or talking. It is a thing natural, intrinsically
necessary, rooted in man^s very being. It is the tie of
personal relationship between us and God. It is that
remains of the divine image through which all external
self - attestation of God enters. Man is a religious being
and has a capacity for this divine life. He is only actu-
ally religious when he enters into a living relation with
God.

4. The Truth of Religion.

The truth of religion reveals itself in this, that it is
the truth of man, that truth which brings man to the
great goal of his being, in whatever respect we consider
it, for God is the goal of man, of man's individual life,
and of man in society, and all man's advance is condi-
tioned by religion. Christianity is not only a religion,
but the religion.

DIVISIONS OF RELIGION. 39

SECTION VIII.

THE DIVISIONS OF RELIGION.

The judgment in regard to the particular
forms of religion depends upon the truth of
that consciousness of God which forms their
contents and matter, and of that divine revela-
tion, or that which claims to be such, which
forms their basis. Religion is divided 1) into
true and false, and 2) into ncitural and positive.

I. True and False Religion.

a) When we speak of false religion we use the word
religion improperly, for that is only properly religion,
which involves the true worship of the true God. The
true religion is that which is conformed to the Divine
Word. A false religion either gives worship to a false
god or gives false worship to the true God (Hollaz).

The marks of the true religion are thus stated by
Hollaz 1 :

1) It is the most ancient religion. Error may be old,
but truth is always older, inasmuch as God is older
than the devil. Paganism is old, but revealed religion
is older ; Polytheism is old, but Monotheism is the old-
est religion. The first enunciation of false religion in
the world is recorded in the words of the serpent, '*ye
shall not surely die" (Gen. '^: 4). The earliest record of
the true religion is in the first two chapters of the same
book. If Satan and his host fell early, they were holy
still earlier.

2) It was approved by the Fathers even of the Old
Testament, It is a mark of the true religion, that it has

I. And developed by Dr. Krauth in his Manuscript Lectures, from which I
have adapted this paragraph.

40 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

always had an unbroken life in the history of the world,
from the earliest patriarchs to the present hour. We
worship in this late day of our fallen world the same
God whom Adam and Eve worshiped in their sinless
hours of their fresh life in Paradise. All other systems
are unhistorical ; all have begun later, and the most of
them have vanished ; those that still exist give evidence,
that they too must pass away. The religion of the
Bible alone abides.

3) It illustrates the glory of God. False religion
obscures that glory and utterly sets it aside. " They
change,^'' says St. Paul, '' the glory of the incorruptible
God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man^^
(Rom. 1 : 23). Even Mohammedanism, which is but a
cunning plagiarism of revelation, has but a personal
fate enthroned as God.

4) True religion rightly teaches faith in Jesus, the
author of salvation. It solves the great problem of re-
demption ; it tells us what redemption is, who our Re-
deemer is, even Jesus Christ, shows us how we are
united to him, and rightly teaches that faith. It alone
meets the deepest ^^eamings of our human being ; other
religions either obscure man's desire after redemption,
or deepen his sense of misery, or drive him to useless and
cruel modes, in which he attempts to propitiate God.

5) True religion earnestly inculcates holiness of life.
It furnishes the power by God's grace of perfecting holi-
ness in the fear of the Lord. False religions, on the other
hand, are immoral, either by positive teaching favorable
to vice, or by lack of power to bring forth holy living.

6) True religion alone gives a peaceful conscience.
The sense of disturbed relation between God and the
sinner, with the pang which it brings, has found relief in
nothing but the religion of the Bible. Other religions

DIVISIONS OF RELIGION. 41

leave the conscience either in perfect torment, lull it
into false security, sear it into apathy, or abandon it
to despair.

7) True religion alone produces joy and peace in the
hour of death. False religion may produce a spiritual
torpor, or a defiant and fierce attitude of the soul in dy-
ing, but true religion alone gives pure trust and hope,
which knows its own reason, and a calm and some-
times triumphant departure from this world. It alone
robs death of its sting and the grave of its victory.

The difiicult^^ indeed is not to find manifold marks
to distinguish the true religion from the false, but to
select from the vast number. The great danger of pre-
senting the Evidences of Christianity is that of confus-
ing the mind and weakening the impression by dwelling
on too many. Quenstedt^ describes the characteristics
of the true religion as follows: 1) Divine sublimity
(divine in its origin) ; 2) Unity; 3) Truth; 4) Perfection
(contains perfectly and sufficiently all things necessary
to faith and Christian life) ; 5) Holiness (it teaches a
knowledge of a holy God, the cultivation of a holy life,
it communicates holy precepts, reveals holy mysteries) ;
6) Necessity; 7) Utility; 8) Antiquity; 9) Invincibility;
10) Perpetuity; 11) Spontaneity (is not compulsory,
but seeks to be taught, and calls for unconstrained as-
sent) ; 12) Varied treatment (exposed to various per-
secutions, obscured but not extinguished, oppressed but
not suppressed) ; 13) Efficacy (in illustrating the glory
of God, in soothing the conscience, in converting men,
in cherishing growth in piety, etc.).

b) The Perversions of Religion. The perversions of
religion arise out of the perversions of the relation of
the consciousness of God and the consciousness of the
world.

I. Quoted by Schmid, Chap. 2, § 3. 3.

42 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

LuTHARDT classifies this perversion in a fourfold
way:

1. The mingling or identification of the two, God
and the world, leading to Pantheism when the universe
is regarded as a whole with God, and to Polytheism
when it is regarded in its separate constituents. Pan-
theism does away with the idea of God, of spirit, and of
moral freedom. It so blends God and the world, that
God is the world and the world is God, and there is
neither true world nor true God. The philosophic tend-
ency of Pantheism has moved under two opposite im-
pulses. Under the first it merges God in the world, and
thus falls into Materialism ; in the other it merges the
world into God, and thus becomes Absolute Idealism.
Over against this tendency theology can only link it-
self with the philosophy which acknowledges a living,
personal God.i Polytheism is the theory which as-
sumes the existence of many gods. It had its origin in
nature worship and in the principles of pantheism.
Whenever it appears as a philosophy it appears as the
exoteric counterpart of pantheism.

The superstition, which is connected with the errors
of Pantheism and Polytheism, mistakes or ignores the
moral nature of the relation between God and man,

2. The second perversion results from the false sepa-
ration of these two spheres of consciousness, leading to
Deism and a mechanical view of the world. Deism ac-
knowledges the personality of God, believes him to be
Creator of all things, but separates him from the world,
so far as all continuous and sympathetic relation is
concerned. To Deism the world is a great clock, made,
wound up, and set going, and then left by its Creator.
God makes the world and then forsakes the world. He

I. See my Theological Encyclopaedia^ Part i. Exegetical Theology^ pp. 51, 52.

DIVISIONS OF RELIGION. 48

is the creator of man, but not his father, he has put
forth his hand to make us, but he never opens his mouth
to speak to us. Deism, therefore, denies a particular
providence, a supernatural revelation, miracles, prophe-
cies, redemption, and the work of the Spirit. As it is the
vice of Pantheism that it makes God immanent in the
world so as to be confounded with it, so it is the char-
acteristic vice of Deism, to deny that relative imma-
nence of God in the world, by which he conserves it,
guides it, and controls it for the highest ends of his wis-
dom and love^.

3. The third perversion of religion is that, in which
the consciousness of the world is unduly suppressed by
the consciousness of God, as in Mysticism. The word
comes from the Greek '' mueisthai,'' literally to close the
eyes, then to initiate into mysteries. Mysticism sets aside
the cosmical, because it is finite, allows it no validity
over against the divine. It strives to rise to direct com-
munion with God, but loses itself in the infinite fulness.
It is antithetical to reception on authority (pistis,
"faith"), and to the recognition of truth by the or-
dinary use of the faculties {gnosis, "knowledge") ; but
in its soberer forms it takes both into its service, holding
them in a relative subservience "^ Dispensing with the
means of grace, often beginning in a pure, deep piety, it
has run out in dangerous extravagances. Often it has
been a reaction against the externalism of a dead church.
The grades of mysticism were purification, illumination,
ecstatic union, and absorption. It was generally the-
istic, but in no small number of cases pantheistic. Of
Mysticism as a "perversion" we have illustrations in
the old Anabaptists, in Paracelsus, Boehme, Sweden-

1. Compare Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth.

2. See Article on Mysticism in Johnson's Cyclopaedia by Dr. Krauth.

44 INTRODtrCTlON TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

borg, and among the Quakers and Swedenborgians.
There is a pure internalism to which the name Mysti-
cism is sometimes given, which is not to be confounded
with it as we here use the term.

4. The fourth perversion of religion rises from the
suppression of the consciousness of God by the con-
sciousness of the world. This looks so steadily at the
work that it forgets the w^orker, — it is so absorbed in
the motion, that it does not think of the mover. It re-
gards the beautiful harmony of the world as if it were
self -caused. This perversion is Atheism, and in philos-
ophy, Materialism. Atheism may be either speculative
or practical ; the former consists in denying the exist-
ence of God ; the latter in living as if there were no God.

2. Natural and Positive Religion.

Religion is divided into natural and positive. When
we speak of Natural Religion, we do not mean precisely
what is generally called ''The Religion of Nature," nor
the philosophical abstraction of English Deism since
the seventeenth century. We mean rather the religion
correspondent with what we call Natural Theology. The
Religion of Nature generally means a system developed
in professed independence of Revelation and often in an-
tagonism to it. It is the religion, for the most part, of
infidels. By Natural Religion we here mean those prin-
ciples which are involved in the very structure of human
thinking, the psychological basis of Positive Religion.
All positive religion assumes certain things as fixed. It
does not prove them, but accepts them and builds on
them, as the first verse of the Bible takes God for
granted and begins with his work.

Lord Herbert of Cherhury (1581—1648) in his
work De Veritate (1624) lays down five fundamental
principles, which he maintains have been received at all

DIVISIOKS OF RELIGION. 45

times and in all places, independent of revelation, and
which are sufficient for salvation. These five proposi-
tions are: 1. There is a God; 2. The Supreme Being
ought to be worshiped; 3. Virtue and Piety are the
chief parts of the worship of God ; 4. The abhorrence
of what is criminal ought always to be in the soul;
5. There are rewards and penalties after this life. — It
is manifest that Lord Herbert has borrowed very
largely from the Revelation he proposed to supersede.
The work of Herbert was answered in 1667 by the
great divine, John Musaus of Jena, in his Dissertation on
" The light of nature and the Natural Theology which
rests on it are insufficient for salvation." Baier in his
C ompend ^ , ioWowmg Musaeus says: " Natural Theol-
ogy can be thus defined : It is a practical science, drawn
from the principles of nature, concerning God, prescrib-
ing to man, who is a pilgrim, a w^orship fitting the char-
acter of God, and explaining, confirming, and defending
it, in order to secure that eternal blessedness, which is
to be obtained in God and from God." Inasmuch as sin
has obscured natural religion, it, as a consequence, is
prevented from knowing anything of that propitiation
which sin itself has made necessary, and hence Baier in-
fers that natural religion is insufficient for salvation.

Positive Religion, in accordance with the new usage
of language subsequent to Kant and Schleiermacher, is
a product of history, rests upon the institution of Relig-
ion, and appeals for its doctrines and precepts to Divine
authority, and has its truths and actuality in Chris-
tianity.

I. Edition of Preuss, 1864. P. 18.

46 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION IX.

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTER OF CHRISTIANITY.

Christianit}^ is the personal fellowship of sal-
vation on the part of man with God, in the Holy
Qhost, — a fellowship mediated through Jesus
Christ, and hence Christianity embraces whatever
is true in all antecedent religions.

1. The Relation of Christianity to Heathenism and Judaism.

According to Philippi (1.4): '' Heathenism seeks but
fails ; Talmudic Judaism and Mohammedanism seeks
but disdains ; the Old Testament Judaism has sought
and has not yet found, moving upon the right path,
but not attaining to the goal ; Christianity alone has
found, because in Christ the true and actual fellowship
of man with God has been founded again."

2. The Essential Character of Christianity.

This lies in the fellowship of salvation with God
through Jesus Christ. That which is most pecuHar in
Christianity is the attitude taken by the Person of
Christ, not as an idea simplj^ but a fact, — God and
man in personal unity. Our Lord is not merely the
founder of Religion, but is the subject and center of it.
What Christ was is more completely essential to Chris-
tianity than what he taught.

3. The historical modes of apprehending the essential character
of Christianity.

The Greek Church regarded the manifestation of the
Logos as the absolute divine reason, and hence it con-
ceived of Christianity as the true Philosophy. The
Roman Catholic Church laid stress upon the churchly
organism, as containing the truth and the life-control-
ling power. The Reformation proceeds from the sinner's
need of salvation and places the essential character of

ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 47

Christianity in salvation through justification by faith
alone : solus Christus, sola fides.

4. Christianity is the true Religion,

That Christianity is the true religion can be proved :
1) by the history of the different religions, comparing it
with the other so-called religions ; 2) psychologically,
as it alone can satisfy the deepest want of man and
bring peace to his soul; 3) practically, because it alone
furnishes the power by God's grace of perfecting holi-
ness in the Church, and in the heart of the individual.

SECTION X.

THE ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM.

Romanism makes the truth dependent on the
guarantees of the Cliurch, hierarchically consti-
tuted, i. e,, the Roman Church, and thus exalts
ecclesiastical legitimacy to the principle which
alone is decisive. Protestantism contemplates
the essence of Christianity in the truth of salva-
tion by the grace of God in Jesus Christ alone,
of which truth the Holy Scriptures give witness
with a normative authority, the Church only with
conditional authority. The Christian is to attain
an individual assurance of this truth.

I. False or at least inadequate explanations.

The opposition of Protestantism and Romanism has
often been explained in a manner either totally false or
entirely inadequate. The opposition has been made to
result from purely external, natural and even fortuitous
diversities,— from the ardent imagination of the South
and the cool reflectiveness of the North. The attempt
has also been made to reduce it to formal categories,
such as authority, freedom, and the like.

48 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

2. The general statement of the Antithesis.

ScHLEiERMACHERi says : '' Protestantism makes the
relation of the individual to the Church dependent on
his relation to Christ ; Catholicism makes the relation
of the individual to Christ to depend on his relation
to the Church." Twesten^ says: ''The Catholic doc-
trine holds more firmly to the first, Protestantism more
firmly to the second part of the utterance of Irenasus,
' Where the Church is, there is also the Spirit of God, and
where the Spirit of God is, there is the Church and all
grace.'" Moehler"^ {d, 1838, Roman Catholic) says:
"Catholic doctrine considers the visible Church as the
prius, the first thing, the invisible Church as the post-
er/ns, the second thing; the Protestant Church con-
siders the invisible as the prius and the visible as
the posterius.'' Martensen* says: "Catholicism has
developed itself into a great system o^ guarantees of
Christianity ; but Christianity, the thing itself, which
was thus to be guaranteed, has been thrown into the
the shade. The opposition between genuine and spuri-
ous Christianity has been gradually reduced to the
affirmation and the negation of the validity of these
guarantees. To attack the infallibility of the Pope and
of the Church is the prime heresy."

3. The essential character of Romanism.

The essential character of Romanism is the iden-
tifying of Christianity with that outward hierarchical
Church which culminates in the primacy of the Bishop
of Rome, the Church, the organism of which claims to be
inspired, the infallible bearer and guarantee of the truth,

1. Glaubenslehre I, § 24.

2. In his Dogmatics I, p. 74.

3. See his Symbolik^ p, 425 ff. Seventh edition, 1864. The sixth German
edition (1843) was translated into English. 2 vols. London, 1843. A work
vi'orthy of careful examination.

4. Compare his Christian Dogmatics^ p. 30 (English Translation).

ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 41)

— to be subject to which, therefore, is the siapremest duty
of the Christian.

The Church is, therefore, by necessary consequence, a
visible and palpable state, the vicar of Christ, represent-
ing his three offices of Prophet, Priest and King, the
continuation of his Incarnation, the mediatrix of salva-
tion. It divides itself into the Church teaching and the
Church hearing, the Church commanding Sind the Church
obeying. Its essence is of a legal, not of an evangeUcal
kind. It is to the individual the supremest judicial and
saving authority; obedience to it is so unconditional
that there can be no justification or an assurance of
faith and of the Christian conscience resting in the Word
of God, over against this Church (Luthardt) .

So in substance also Martensen (pp. 25—30) : " The
Catholic Church holds to a living apostolate in the
Church, perpetuating itself through all time — an inspi-
ration constantly kept up in the representatives of the
Church. She claims to possess in the decisions of the
councils and of the pope a divine utterance invested
with apostolic authority, as infallible as the word of the
first apostles which was spoken in the world ; and she
claims to have in these decrees the infallible interpreta-
tion, an infallible continuation, of that apostolic word."
.... ''The Catholic Church for the most part regards
faith as a new law, and Christ as a new lawgiver."

4. Romanism criticized.

The antithesis of Protestantism consequently con-
sists primarily in the results which are reached by the
overthrow of the theory just characterized. Boniface
YIII says: "To be subject to the Pope of Rome, we
declare, say, and define, to be altogether necessary to
salvation, on the part of every human creature." Pek-
RONE, the most distinguished Roman Dogmatician of

50 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

this century {cl 1876), whose system of Dogmatics is
now most widely used in the Roman Catholic Church,
and which comes up most fully to its standard of or-
thodoxy, says: ''Outside of or beyond the Catholic
Church (i. e., the Roman Church) there is no salvation."

1) Over against the identifying of the true Catholic
or Universal Church with the Church of Rome, on which
all these claims to supremacy rest, together with the
right of putting heretics to death. Protestantism main-
tains that the Catholic or Universal Church exists also
outside of the Roman Church, and that the utmost she
can claim is that within her bounds are some members
of that one Holy Catholic or Christian Church, which is
the Communion of Saints, and that in it alone her
members can find salvation.

2) The Roman Church lays claim to Inspiration and
Infallibility. Moehler says: "The Church must be
without error, for the believer who commits himself to
her dare not be led astray."

Over against this. Protestantism shows that there
are heresies of the Bishops of Rome, which Romanists
themselves are constrained to acknowledge. Thus, for
example. Pope Liberius in 358 set forth an heretic creed
and condemnation of Athanasius ; Pope Honorius I {d.
638) maintained Monotheletism, and was condemned
by the sixth oecumenical Council held at Constantin-
ople (681), as one possessed by demons, who sowed the
seed of pernicious heresies, and he was excommunicated,
and his successor on the papal throne confirmed the
decree of the Council. Another great historical fact,
overthrowing such claims, is the schism of the fifteenth
century, rival Popes, and the conflict with the general
Councils of that century, with the Popes, and with each
other. The history of the Council of Trent (1545— 1563),

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

Theological Encyclopaedia and MetMology.

Based on HAGENBACH and KKAUTH.

Part I. Exegetical Theology.

By KEVERE franklin WEIDNER, M. A.,

Professor of TheoW^--tn^teficst(rrm^^ftmtogtcbf^ Island, 111

F. H, REVELL, 148 and 150 Madison Street, Chicagro.

" This work bears testimony of the author's fitness for the important under-
taking- of giving- the Eng-lish Church a safe Encyclopedia of Theolog-y."— Ou/-
Church Paper.

" This work will be a valuable aid to the pastor, the students in the theo-
logical seminary, and to those who may be prosecuting the study of theology
without the living teacher."— r/ie National Baptist, Philadelphia.

"It is rich in its literature of the topics of which it treats, and thus will be
of special value to theological students. On the points of recent agitation, the

author is pronouncedly orthodox The author has mastered his subject,

and is clear and compact in his statements."— Presbyterian Journal, Pliiladelphia.

•' Exegetical Theology is the first volume of a series which promises to be

of marked value to many readers The work is a marvel of suggestive-

ness, while its complete lists of the best works on each subject mentioned are
alone worth the price of the book. We shall look for the remaining volumes
with interest."— T/ie Interior, of Chicago.

" Professor Weidner's book will not only prove very serWceable to theolog-
ical students, in giving them a summary presentation of the subjects embraced
in it, but it will be of great value to all ministers who study, in that it gives
under each head the most important books on this subject, and these lists are
brought down to the most recent publications."— 27!c Lutheran, Philadelphia,

"■ It implies on the part of the author a wide knowledge of books, and evi-
dence of this abounds in the volume. It is, of course, not meant for continu-
ous perusal, but for students— for those who want to scan the whole field ot
theology and to mark the divisions thereof. For this class this book will be
found useful, and for any one who wishes to know where a peculiar question
is discussed, the volume will be very useful."— T/fe Presbyterian, Philadelphia.

52 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

faith. The history of the origin of the name Protestant
(1529 at the Diet of Spires) shows that it was more
than this. Its essence supremely consists in the position
on which that protest rests. It answers the question
put to the sinner who yearns for salvation, answers
with the truth, that salvation is in Christ alone, " solus
Christus, sola gratia,'^ Christ the onlj^ one, grace the
only thing. Subjectively stated, this is the doctrine of
justification by iaith alone. This is the material prin-
ciple of Protestantism, i. e., it forms the great central
matter about which it gathers.

The question now arises : By what principle of cogni-
tion does Protestantism reach this principle in results ?
The answer is, on the grounds that the only secure, au-
thentic, and consequently, absolutely authoritative wit-
ness in regard to this salvation of Christ, is given in the
Scriptures and nowhere else. This is the formal princi-
ple of Protestantism, i. e., that which pertains to the
form, shape, or manner, in which the matter or material
principle is reached.

We ask, what comes, what is the matter that comes ?
The answer is, Christ, faith, justification, is the matter.
We ask, in what form and how it comes? The answer
is, in revelation. When the formal principle of Protes-
tantism is asserted without its material principle, it
runs into Sectarianism, Negativism, Rationalism and
Pseudo-pro testant heresy in general. The assertion of
the /brma/ principle, without reaching the material -prin-
ciple of Protestantism, may run out into abuses which
genuine Protestantism would consider worse than Ro-
manism itself. No men assert the formal principle of
Protestantism more vigorously, and indeed with the
claim that they alone assert it consistently, than the
very men who use the /oriTia/ principle to overthrow the

ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 53

material, men who abuse the rule of faith, to undermine
faith itself.

The material principle is the end, the formal principle
is the means, and it is the end alone which gives value
to the means. The man who so uses his Bible as to fail
to reach its material, i. e., its faith, is worse off than if
he never had opened the Bible, and the sincere, ignorant,
deluded Romanist will rise up in judgment against him.

When as Lutherans we call ourselves Protest ant s,wg
use a name which belonged exclusively to us originally,
and it continued to be the diplomatic name of our
Church till the peace of Westphalia, 1648, — and in fact,
in European usage, is to a large extent, still confined to
our Church. We are Protestants in the historical sense
of thew^ord in which it asserts not a mere negation of a
false rule of faith, nor the mere theoretical acceptance of
a true rule of faith, but two conjoining things,— the
formal rule of the faith and the material faith of the
rule. This is the Protestantism we defend over against
the Church of Rome. This is the only Protestantism
that can successfully be so defended, and the argument
of Rome over against a great deal that calls itself Pro-
testantism is as much our argument as hers^. On the
most vital points, the very center of the life of Chris-
tianity, such as the doctrine of the Trinity, of the true
Deity of Christ, of the Incarnation, the Atonement, the
objective character of the two Sacraments, true Prot-
estantism stands with Romanism, or rather, with the
Church Universal, over against the spurious systems
which call themselves Protestant, but which are erro-

I. In the Canons of the Council of Trent (1545—1563), in which the so-called
Protestant views are condemned, the Protestant doctrines are almost always pre-
sented in an exaggerated form, and mixed up with real heresies, which true Pro-
testantism condemns as emphatically as the Church of Rome.

54 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

neous in various degrees, till they sink in their lowest
grade to what is essentially Pagan.

Martenseni says: ''Inasmuch as both confessions
(Catholic and Protestant) profess a general belief in
God as Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; inasmuch as both
reject the ancient and modern forms of Naturalism and
Rationalism, both recognize the truth that the Chris-
tian Church rests upon a Divine Word, derived from the
Founder himself, and delivered to the Church through
the apostles. For it is only through the apostles that
we have received Christianity, and that Christianity
only is genuine, which can show itself to be apostolic.
The difference between the confessions does not consist
merely in the difference of the relation which they assign
to the oral and written word of the apostles (tradition
and Scripture), but in their different views respecting
the scope of the apostolate. The Catholic Church holds
to a living apostolate in the Church, perpetuating itself
through all time, — an inspiration constantly kept up in
the representatives of the Church The Evange-
lical Lutheran Church, like the Catholic, confesses that
the Spirit of the Lord is with the Church unto the end
of the world, leading it into all truth ; but that perfect
union of the Spirit of God and man, which is called In-
spiration, and which constitutes the essence of the apos-
tolate, it assigns exclusively to the beginning of the
Church, to the period of its foundation ; and, although
it admits the relative validity of tradition, it yet regards
the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament as the only
perfect, authentic, and absolutely canonical expression
of the original fulness of the apostolic spirit.

But the difference here indicated rests on another
which lies still deeper— a difference in the conception of

I. See his Dogmatics^ % 20, pp. 25, 26.

ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 55

the essential character of Christianity itself. The Evan-
gelical Lutheran Church views Christianity as a Gospel;
as glad tidings of the new life and the new creation in
Christ, offered to men as a free gift of heavenly grace ;
whereas the Catholic Church for the most part regards
faith as a new law, and Christ as a new lawgiver, repre-
senting the Gospel merely as an external authority to
which the believer must yield."

Again 1 : '^ It has often been said that the principle of
Protestantism is that of subjectivity — a proposition
which, expressed in this indefinite, general form, is liable
to misconception. The aim of the Reformation was as
much to regain objective Christianity, to separate the
true tradition from the false or at least human tradi-
tions, as to revive subjective, personal Christianity.
What the Reformation desired was neither exclusively
the objective nor the subjective; it was the free union of
the objective and subjective, of the thing believed, and
the person believing, of divine revelation and the religi-
ous self-consciousness. This free union of the objective
and the subjective the Evangelical Church claims to
have secured through its so-called formal and material
principles, which express the two sides, the objective
and the subjective side, of the same truth. By the term
formal principle, is meant the Holy Scriptures as the
only source of doctrine; by the term material principle,
is meant justification by faith. On a correct apprehen-
sion of these principles, often misunderstood and often
feebly stated, depends a correct understanding of Prot-
estantism."

Martensen further remarks 2 : ''Where there is free-
dom, there are also abuses of freedom. The Roman

1. Dogmatics^ % 21, pp. 30, 31.

2. See § 24, pp. 48, 49.

56 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Church seemingly knows of no such state of disintegra-
tion and confusion as do the Protestant Churches. The
principle of authority throws a veil over the secret ini-
quity, the secret unbelief and doubt, that shelter them-
selves within the Church under the forms of external
acquiescence.

In the Protestant Churches, on the contrary, all
these defects are manifest. Many members of the Pro-
testant Churches, weary of the abuses of the principles
of freedom, are seized with a longing for a tradition
which shall have absolute authority. This security they
seek sometimes in the consensus of the first three cen-
turies, sometimes of the first five or six centuries. 'A
Catholic current' says Geiger (d. 1843), 'is passing
through the world.' This Catholic current will become
more and more noticeable, the nearer the time of the
great religious movements and crises approaches. But
to lay down a tradition which shall make superfluous
all internal struggles for freedom is impossible. The
various manifestations of sympathy with Romanism,
exhibited of late, may be of use in awakening what in
many has been slumbering, viz., an appreciation of the
importance of the Church and what has been handed
down in the Church, as the natural connecting link
between faith and the Bible. But, whenever these sym-
pathies have turned in antipathy to the principles and
inmost essence of the Reformation, they lead, as various
facts have within a few years shown, to Rome, and to
a repose in the spurious guarantees there offered."

In this connection Dr. Krauth remarks ^ : '* If it be
true, as Geiger says, ' that a Catholic current is passing
through the world,' it is no less true, that under this
current, at the surface, there is a deep swell of Protes-

l. See his Manuscript Lectures.

ANTITHESIS OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 57

tantism which is upheaving Romanism itself, and para-
doxical as it may seem, we do not hesitate to state our
conviction, that the current of Catholicism is set in mo-
tion by the current of Protestantism. How else can we
account for it, that just in the most thoroughly prot-
estant of protestant countries, England and the United
States, the tendency shows itself most strongly, and
next to these countries, in the most intensely protestant
parts of Germany. Protestantism is so essentially a
quickener, that it whips into activity its own antagon-
its. It is so scientific, that it teaches its enemies ; it is
so progressive, that it sets even false conservatism *in
motion. Hence we see the anomaly, that in Italy, the
most Romish of countries, Romanism is torpid, ig-
norant, and so hampered with its own traditionary
abuses, that it is at once powerless and detested, while
in the United States it is vigorous, decisive, aggressive
and prosperous. The secret of it is, that Romanism is
compelled to be protestantized, as far as its nature
allows, and its greatest defenders in our own times,
have defended it with the stolen weapons of Protestant
science, and the thing they defend is Romanism purified
of some of its worst features by the mighty work of
Protestant ideas. The Reformation did not carry out
of the Church of Rome the entire reformatory tendency.
As the Reformation was the result of tendencies which
grew within the Church of the West, side by side with
Papacy, so did the leaven which revealed itself in it, still
in some measure remain in the Church of Rome. Two
tendencies have worked without interruption within the
Romish Church ever since. We see their struggles at the
council of Trent, we see it in the conflicts of the Jansen-
ists and Jesuits, we see it in Ultramontanism and its an-
tagonistic force ; we see it in noble men who in time of

58 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

apostasy of nominal Protestants in the great rational-
istic defection, gave illustration of the truth that even
in Rome God preserves his witnesses. The Church of
Rome is destined, we believe, in the flight of ages, for
one of two consummations. She is destined either by
the grace of God to purge off her corruption as a body,
and thus give historic completeness to the Reformation ;
or to see a second schism produced by her own obsti-
nacy, which will again, as in the sixteenth century, rob
her of her noblest children and her most glorious lands."

SECTION XI.

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM.

The nmterial principle of Lutheran Prot-
estantism is the saving truth of Christianity as
it lies in the fundamental doctrine of justifica-
tion by faith alone. The formal princij)le is the
sole authority of Holy Scripture. With these is
connected the historic testimony of the Church
as the living witness of the truth. This testimony
is united with the material and formal principle,
and the resultant of the union is the individual
Christian assurance of faith.

The Protestantism of the Keformed or Calvin-
istic Churches, on the other hand, has laid as its
fundamental doctrine, the absolute and sole pri-
mary causality of God, and holding with the
Lutheran Churh, that Holy Scripture alone is
normative, has yet isolated Scripture from the
historic development of the Church {lAithardt).

Lutheran protestantism. 59

r. The distinction between Lutheran and Reformed Protestant-
ism.

This distinction has, in recent times, been stated in
manifold ways. Goebel, Nitzsch, and Heppe stated
it as this : In Reformed Protestantism more stress is
laid on the intellect, in Lutheranism on the emotions ;
in Reformed Protestantism the formal principle is pre-
dominant, and Scripture is regarded more as the ex-
clusive source of doctrine ; while in Lutheranism the
material principle rules, and the formal principle is re-
garded more as merely the norm of the doctrine which
grows out of the analogy of faith, in consequence of
which the pure tradition possesses in Lutheranism a
greater validity, i. e., the tradition which involves the
handing down of truth in the Church.

While the Lutheran Church concedes no authority to
opinions which have been transmitted from generation
to generation, it values them as witnesses of the ob-
vious and true sense of God's Word. That Word is the
sole authority, but there is always a moral weight of
presumption, which needs to be distinctly met and
accounted for, if its validity be denied in the general
understanding of that Word — the impression which it
made at the beginning and has made through all time.
The Romish tradition, i. e., the authority outside of the
Word, and often really opposed to it, our Church rejects ;
but exegetical tradition and the doctrines which rest
upon it,if they bear the test of the just interpretation of
God's Word, our Church greatly esteems ; she does not
believe that God has forsaken his Church, that for ages
together there has been no witness to the truth in her,
— that would be to acknowledge that the gates of hell
have prevailed against her. Whenever a new interpre-
tation, opposed to one universally received, has been

60 iNTRODt^CTlON tO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

oifered, our Church has regarded it as necessary for the
discoverer or inventor of the view^, not only to shov^
that it is as probable theoretically as the older one, but
that it is more probable (Krauth).

Herzog says : '' Lutheran Protestantism is the anti-
thesis of the Judaism of the Romish Church, w^hich has
imparted to her doctrine a gnosticizing tincture ; the Re-
formed Protestantism -is in opposition to the Paganism
of the Church of Rome, by which the doctrine obtained
a Judaizing, ethical character. ' ' Schweizer says : ' ' Re-
formed Protestantism is the protestation against all
deification of the creature, and is, consequently, the em-
phasizing of the absoluteness of God and of the exclu-
siveness of his will ; this forms its material principle,
with which is connected its positive normal principle,
viz., the exclusive maintenance of Scripture as the Rule
of faith." In a similar strain Dorner says : " The mate-
rial principle of Zwingli is the glory of God ; his formal
principle is the Scripture, but accepted in such a sense as
to make the internal word independent of the external,
and so as to deny all creaturely causality on the part ot
the creature in salvation." Baur says : *' The Reformed
system goes from above downward, the Lutheran from
below upward, /. e., the one begins with God and reasons
out and down to man, the other begins with man and
reasons up to God." On the other hand Schnecken-
BURGER says: "The distinction between the systems
consists, not in the predominance of theology or an-
thropology, of the absolute idea of God or of the subjec-
tive consciousness of salvation, but in the diverse form
of the consciousness of salvation itself, in consequence of
which the Reformed theology went back to the eternal
decree ; the Lutheran Church, on the other hand, being
satisfied with justification by faith." Stahl approx-

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM. CI

imating more closed with the view of Schweizer, finds in
the "sole causality," which is the notion of the God-
head, the controlling principle of the Reformed doctrine,
and its character he finds in the mode of thinking, which
is adverse to mysteries. " The whole Reformed Church
development is, on the one side, determined by this im-
pulse against mysteries, which impulse concedes no in-
strumental distribution of grace, (an aspect derived from
Zwingli) ; on the other side, it is distinguished by the evan-
gelical theocratical tendency, the glorifying of God in
the congregation (an aspect proceeding from Calvin) ".
Martensen says: "The Sw^ss Reformation started
primarily from the formal principle, that of the author-
ity of the Scriptures ; whereas the Lutheran originated
more especially in the material principle, in the depths
of the Christian consciousness, in an experience of sin

and redemption." " The Lutheran Reformation

manifested the greatest caution in regard to tradition,
and observed the principle of rejecting nothing that
could be reconciled with Scripture ; w^hereas the Swiss
Reformation introduced in many respects a direct op-
position between the biblical and ecclesiastic, and in
several particulars followed the principle that all eccle-
siastical institutions should be rejected unless they
could be deduced from the letter of the Bible." . . , .
" The Reformed Church, although vigorously protesting
against the legal Church of Rome, is nevertheless in-
fected with the legal spirit, w^hereas the germ of the ful-
ness of the Gospel is found in Lutheranism."

LuTHARDT says: "All these diverse definitions in-
volve the common theor^^ that the difference between
the Churches is not merely an external one, does not
turn merely upon different doctrines, e. g., the doctrine
of the Lord's Supper, but is a difference running com-

62 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

pletely through them, a difference in principle. An essen-
tial element of the difference consists in the momenta,
or elements, of the Reformed doctrine reciprocally con-
ditioning each other, — on the one side, the absolute
causality and sole primary causality of God, which ex-
cludes the means of grace in the proper sense ; on the
other side, the assurance of a condition of salvation,
grounded in an inscrutable decree, an assurance reached
by the individual's actual life as the result of the divine
operation."

2. The material and formal principle of Lutheranism.

This, according to Dorner, expressed in 1841 and in
a somewhat different shape and in a more correct one
in his ''History of Protestant Theology " in 1867, is
another way of expressing "the distinction between
Christian subjectivity and Christian objectivity." "The
Scripture presents the objective original Christianity" ;
" the material principle is that faith in which the truth,
set forth in Scripture, obtains a free internal existence."

"But," says Luthardt, "the material principle is
not the subjective assurance of salvation, or the con-
sciousness of faith, or anything of that sort, but des-
ignates the actual substance of the salvation itself, a
salvation testified of in Scripture, acknowledged by the
Church, assured to believers in faith. The formal prin-
ciple, on the other hand, designates the authentic wit-
nessing of salvation as it has actualized itself in the
historical revelation, and is, consequently, the norm oi
every announcement of salvation made to the Church."

3. The Material Principle of Lutheranism,

The material principle of our Church is the doctrine 01
justification by faith regarded on its two sides : 1) That
salvation or justification is in Jesus Christ, the Media-
tor; 2) That faith is the way of salvation. This forms

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISBI. 63

the soul of the Lutheran Confession, and may be ex-
pressed indirectly or directly.

1. Indirectly. It may be expressed either in the ob-
jective or subjective form. In the indirect objective form
the statement of the sole mediatorship or sole glory of
Christ is made prominent. Over against the Romish
doctrine,which lessens the glory of Christ, the Apology
says^ : ''We are disputing concerning a great subject,
concerning the honor of Christ, and whence good minds
may seek for sure and firm consolation, whether it is
to be placed in confidence in Christ, or in our works "
(p. 109, 35). Again : " The adversaries teach that men
merit the remission of sins by love to God, prior to
grace. But this also is to remove 'the foundation,' /. e.,
Christ" (p. 166, 21).

In the indirect subjective form the statement is, that
faith is the only possible mode of appropriating salva-
tion. The Apology says : " The promise cannot be re-
ceived, unless by faith" (p. 92, so); "The promise of
Christ is necessary. But this cannot be received except
by faith" (p. 95, to); "For the promise of God's mercy,
reconciliation and love towards us, is not apprehended
unless by faith" (p. 158, seo); "Christ is not appre-
hended as a Mediator, except by faith. Therefore, by
faith alone we obtain remission of sins, when wg comfort
our hearts with confidence in the mercy promised for
Christ's sake " (p. 97, s o ) . This faith is defined as " the
special faith (by which an individual believes that, for

I. See BooJi of Concord, or the Symbolical Books of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church, with Historical Introduction, Notes, Appendices. Indices. Translated
and edited by Henry E. Jacobs, D. D. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1882—83. We al-
ways quote from this edition, giving paging of first volume. All quotations from
A. C. (/'. ^., Augsburg Confession), Apol. (z". <f., Apology), Smal. Art. (t. e., Smalcald
Articles), Smaller or Larger Catechism, and F. C {i. e., Formula of Concord), ar^
from this edition,

64 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Christ's sake, his sins are remitted him, and, that, for
Christ's sake, God is reconciled and propitious), which
obtains remission of sins and justifies us " (p. 91, 45 ).

II. Directly. Directly the doctrine of justification by
faith is regarded as the principal and fundamental arti-
cle. "It is necessary that the chiefest point of all the
Gospel should be holden fast, that we do freelj- obtain
grace, by faith in Christ" (A. C.^ xxviii, p. 66,52);
"Who does not see that this article, that by faith we
obtain remission of sins, is most true, most certain,
and especially necessary to all Christians?" {Apol. p.
160, 3 T. ) . The Smalcald Articles emphatically say :
"Of this article nothing can be yielded or surrendered,
even though heaven and earth and all things should

sink to ruin And upon this article all things

depend, which, against the Pope, the devil and the whole
world, we teach and practice. Therefore we must be
sure concerning this doctrine, and not doubt ; for other-
wise all is lost, and the Pope and devil and all things
against us gain the victory and suit" {Book of Concord,
p. 312, O-

Consequently all the particular doctrines are judged
of from this, as the central point. We will quote a few
passages from the Smalcald Articles: "It (the doc-
trine of the Mass) directly and powerfully conflicts with
this chief article" (p. 312, 313, 1); " For it (the doc-
trine of purgatory) conflicts with the first article which
teaches that only Christ, and not the works of men, can
help souls " (p. 314, 315, 12); " All of which (the grant-
ing of indulgences) is not to be borne, because it is
without the word of God, and without necessity, and
is not commanded, but conflicts with the chief article
(p. 316, 24). In the Formula of Concord we find this

?. 1 hat is A {u^^sdurg) C(pn/ession).

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM. 65

statement: ''This article concerning Justification by
Faith is the chief in the entire Christian doctrine, with-
out which no poor conscience has any firm consolation,
or can know aright the riches of the grace of Christ, as
Dr. Luther also has written : ' If only this article remain
in view pure, the Christian Church also remains pure,
and is harmonious and without all sects ; but if it do
not remain pure, it is not possible to resist any error or
fanatical spirit'" (p. 571, e).

4. The Formal Principle of Lutheranism.

The doctrine of the exclusive normative authority of
the Holy Scriptures is not distinctly expressed in a dis-
tinct article, either of the Augsburg Confession or of the
Apology, but it is presupposed throughout and is in-
deed actually asserted incidentally in various places. In
the Preface to the Augsburg Confession we read: *' We
now oifer in the matter of religion this Confession ....
the doctrine of which is derived from the Holy Script-
ures and the pure Word of God " {Book of Concord, p.
34, 8). In the Apology it is laid down as a thing beyond
appeal that as the Scripture does not teach the invoca-
tion of saints, the conscience can have nothing to assure
of the propriety of such invocations, and the question
is asked, "How do we know that God approves of this
invocation ? Whence do we know without the testimony
of Scripture, that the saints perceive the prayers of any-
one ? " And the statement is made, "since the invoca-
tion does not have a testimony from God's Word, it
cannot be affirmed that the saints perceive our invoca-
cation " ; " there ought to be a Word of God " {ApoL, p.
236, 11, 12 ; p. 237, n). The same principle is distinctly
asserted in the Smalcald Articles {p. 315, 15) : "It is
of no consequence that articles of faith are framed from
the works or words of the Holy Fathers." .... "We

fW INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. I

have, moreover, another rule, viz., that the Word of ,
God should frame articles of faith ; otherwise no one, \
not even an angel." !

Nowhere, however, is the formal principle more dis- '
tinctly and clearly asserted than in the Introduction to \
the Formula of Concord (p. 491, i ) : '^ We believe, teach <
and confess that the only rule and standard according ;
to which at once all dogmas and teachers should be .
esteemed and judged are nothing else than the prophetic
and apostolic Scriptures of the New Testament, as it is ;
written (Ps. 119 : 105) : ' Thy Word is a lamp unto m^^
feet, and light unto my path ' ; and St. Paul (Gal. 1:8): ;
' Though an angel from heaven should preach unto you j
any gospel other than that w^hich w^e preached unto ;
3^ou, let him be anathema.' " At the close of this same ■
Introduction (p. 492, t) it says: "The Holy Scriptures |
alone remain the onlj^ judge, rule, and standard, accord-
ing to which, as the only test-stone, all dogmas should i
and must be discerned and judged, as to whether the3^ ;
be good or evil, true or false." In the Formula of Con- .
cord {p. 535, s) the Holy Scriptures are called '*the
pure and clear fountains, which are the only true stand-
ard whereby to judge all teachers and doctrines."

With reference to the relation of the "Confessions" '■
themselves to Scripture, this distinct statement is made i
in the Introduction to the Formula of Concord {p. \
491, 2) : " Other writings, of ancient and modern teach- |
ers, whatever reputation they may have, should not be |
regarded as of equal authority with the Holy Script- I
ures, but should altogether be subordinated to them, I
and should not be received other or further than as wit- j
nesses, in what manner and at what places, since the |
time of the apostles, the purer doctrine of the prophets
and apostles was preserved." |

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM. 6?

5. The Historical Character of Lutheran Protestantism 1 .

Lutheran Protestantism is pre-eminently historical.
It approves of the connection with the traditions of the
Church, i.e., of the visible transmission of doctrines and
usages, so far as they are not in conflict with the letter
or spirit of God's Word. Pseudo-Protestantism starts
practically with the assumption that everything in the
visible Church, both of doctrine and of practice, is to be
regarded as wrong, till it shall be proved by direct testi-
mony of Scripture to be right. True Protestantism, /.
e., Lutheran Protestantism, starts on the assumption,
that everything in the visible Church, both of doctrine
and of practice, is to be regarded as right, until it shall
be proved by testimony of Scripture, or by sanctified
reason, to be wrong. The Augsburg Confession and
Apology, therefore, frequently present the testimony of
the Church {tota ecclesia) together with the testimony
of Scripture, and seek to establish the harmony of the
pro test ant doctrine with the scriptural tradition, or
transmission of the Church universal, and of the pure
Roman Church or Western division of the Universal
Church. Thus in the Augsburg Confession, at the close
of the Doctrinal Articles, it is said : " This is about the
sum of doctrine among us, in which can be seen that
there is nothing which is discrepant with the Scriptures,
or with the Church Catholic, or even with the Roman
Church, so far as that Church is known from the writ-
ings of the Fathers " {Book of Concord, p. 47, i ). At
the close of the Articles on Abuses we also have this
statement: '* These things have been enumerated . . . .
that it might be understood, that in doctrine and cere-
monials among us there is nothing received contrary to
Scripture or to the Universal Christian Church, inas-

I. Compare Manuscript Lecttires of Dr. Krauth.

68 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC TttEOLOQY.

much as it is manifest that we have diligently taken
heed that no new and godless doctrines should creep
into our Churches" (p. 67, 5).

In consonance with this it is said ''the Mass is re-
tained still among us, and celebrated with great rev-
erence; yea, and almost all the ceremonies are in use"
(A. C. xxiY. p. 50. 1,2). By the " Mass " is here meant
the administration of the Lord's Supper, or the Com-
munion Service, and by the customary ''ceremonies in
use ' ' are meant those ceremonies which have been used
in the Church. Whenever, over against the corruption
of predominant doctrinal practice, our Church receives
the scriptural doctrine, she declares that in this she
brings forth "nothing new." In the Apology it is said :
"For this reason, our preachers have diligently taught
concerning these subjects, and have delivered nothing
that is new, but have set forth Holy Scripture and the
judgment of the Holy Fathers " (p. 83, 5 0). The Cata-
logue of Testimonies added in the best editions of our
Symbolical Books ^ to Article vm of the Formula 01
Concord, shows that the Christian Church has contin-
ually held the doctrine set forth in that article.

The judgment of our Church in regard to pure trans-
mission of tradition is of the highest importance. It is
sustained by the scripture view of the Church. The
Church is the pillar and ground of the truth ; she is as
really God's work, as God's Word is, and as the defects
of particular parts of the Church are no evidence against
the infallibility of the Word of God, as a rule of faith, so
also these defects are no evidence against the infallibil-
ity of the Church of God. We maintain as inflexibly as
the Church of Rome does, the infallibility of the Church
Catholic, that is to say, we hold that there has been

I, See Bool 0/ Concord (Jacobs). Vol. 2, //. 272— 29^.

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISIif. fi9

and always will be upon earth a commtinion of saints,
in which the pure faith which makes the Christian
foundation, abides. We hold, also, that there never has
been a time, when in every part of the visible Church a
man was bound in conscience to false doctrine, — that
even in the Church of the West, the Romish Church in
her darkest hour, — the official creeds of the Church to
which her children were bound in conscience, set forth
only pure truths. When Luther grasped the great
truths out of which the Reformation arose, he found
and grasped them in the creed which had been from
time immemorial in the Church, — '*! believe in the for-
giveness of sins." The Reformers within the Church of
Rome set forth no doctrine which they could not con-
scientiously, as faithful children of that Church, set
forth. When we now take up the Confessions of the
Church of Rome, we find, that until the Council of
Trent (1545—63), which was not held till after the Re-
formation was established, the only creeds of the Church
were the Apostles\ the Nicene, and the Athanasian
Creeds, to which our Reformers inflexibly held. Up to
the time of the Reformation the doctrine confessed in
the oecumenical or general creeds was the same through-
out the Church Catholic, east and west. The Augsburg
Confession is the oldest distinctive creed used in any
large portion of Christendom. So far as the Roman or
Greek Churches have creeds older than the Augsburg
Confession, they set forth none other than the doctrines
we hold in common with them. Luther well argues,
then, that we are the true old Church, because we hold
to the true old Creeds. When the Augsburg Confession
was set forth in 1530, it was an ampler statement and
larger development of the same old doctrine of the
Church. We do not contend that all its specifications

70 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

are in the older creeds any more than we pretend that
all specifications of the Nicene Creed are in th^ Apostles'
Creed, or that all the specifications of the Athanasian
are in the Nicene. But the Augsburg Confession is a
pure statement of the doctrine of the Church Catholic,
in its legitimate development for more than fifteen hun-
dred years, and is related logically to the purified Prot-
estantism of the sixteenth century as the Apostles' and
Nicene Creeds are related to the Catholic doctrine of the
Middle Ages.

6. The Internal Assurance of Salvation.

The truths of salvation concerning justification by
faith, such as the Holy Scriptures testify, and the pure
Church of all ages has confessed, are sealed by the Holy
Spirit internally in Christians, especially in that comfort
of conscience which the Word of God brings with it.

This element is made very prominent, especially in the
^po/o^j^, where the thought is often repeated that ''Jus-
tification by faith " brings '' a sure and firm consolation
to pious minds." In Art. lY. {On Justification) we read
(p. 98, 8 5): ''Wherefore let not good minds suffer them-
selves to be forced from the opinion, that we receive re-
mission of sins for Christ's sake only through faith. In
this, they have sure and firm consolation against the
terrors of sin, and against eternal death, and against all
the gates of hell." Again (p. 103, in, 1 1 s) : '* We have
shown with sufficient fulness, both from testimonies of
Scripture, and arguments derived from Scripture, that
by faith alone, we obtain the remission of sins for Christ's

sake, and that by faith alone we are justified But

how necessary the knowledge of this faith is, can be
easily judged, because, in this alone, the office of Christ
is recognized, by this alone we receive the benefits of
Christ ; this alone brings sure and firm consolation to

LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM. 71

pious minds. And in the Church it is necessary that
there should be doctrine, from which the pious may re-
ceive the sure hope of salvation." Again in Art. vi. {On
Love and the FuWHng of the Law) (p. 109, 35): ''We
are disputing concerning a great subject, concerning the
honor of Christ, and w^hence good minds may seek for
sure and firm consolation, v^hether it is to be placed in
confidence in Christ, or in our works." Again (p.
120, 96): ''Conscience cannot be pacified before God,
unless by faith alone, which is certain that God for
Christ's sake is reconciled to us according to Rom. 5:
1 : ' Being justified by faith, we have peace ; ' because
justification is only a matter freely promised for Christ's
sake, and therefore is always received before God by
faith alone." And so in many other places in the Apo-
logy. In the Smalcald Articles we have this clear testi-
mony {p. 346, 44): "The doctrine of repentance has
been utterly corrupted b^^ the Pope and his adherents.
For they teach that sins are remitted because of the
worth of our works. Then they bid us doubt whether
the remission occur. They nowhere teach us that sins
are remitted freely for Christ's sake, and that by this
faith we obtain remission of sins. Thus they obscure
the glory of Christ, and deprive consciences of firm con-
solation, and abolish true divine services, viz., the exer-
cises of faith struggling with unbelief and despair
concerning the promise of the Gospel."

Here belongs also the testimony of the Holy Spirit,
which is an internal (personal) assurance of salvation,
wrought in the believer by the Holy Ghost, through the
Word.

72 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

III. THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS.
SECTION XII.

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM.

The Material Principle of Protestantism in
the unity of its objective and subjective sides,
forms the genetic principle of the unfolding of
the Dogmatic System, and the Holy Scriptures,
as the original record of the revelation of sal-
vation, forms the argumentative proof for the
single statements of Dogmatics.

I, The Material Principle of Dogmatics.

As Dogmatics is designed to be a systematic state-
ment of the Christian Faith, it must genetically unfold
the entire Christian Doctrine, out of a fundamental
unity. By a genetic unfolding we mean one that pre-
sents the process of originating, the natural mode of
development, in which, as it were, the secondary truths
grow out of the primary. There must be someone germ,
which grows and expands into all that follows. As such
a genetic principle, Luther designates the article ofjus-
tiBcation by faith : "In it we have the sum of the whole
Christian Doctrine and the bright and lovely sun, which
illumines the Christian communion. If this article be
embraced and retained with a sure and firm faith, all
the others gradually come from it and follow it, as for
example, the doctrine of the Trinity and others." . . . .
"While this doctrine stands, the Church stands." And
the meaning of Luther's expression that it is "the ar-
ticle of a standing or falling church," is, that while this
doctrine stands, the Church stands, when it falls, the
Church falls.

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 73

The Dogmaticians subsequent to Luther did not al-
ways carry out this thought completely. They designate
the Scripture as the only principle of knowledge, and the
later Dogmaticians, who pursued the analytic method,
regarded the idea of salvation as a controlling point of
view, but beyond this regarded the analogy or rule of
faith, only as a material canon.

The most recent Dogmaticians, for the most part,
start with the idea of fellowship with God through
Christ (Thomasius, Hofmann), or with the idea of
Atonement (Philippi).

LuTHARDT says : The material principle of Dogmat-
ics must be the essence of Christianity itself, i. e., the
fellowship with God through Christ,which is actualized
in the righteousness of faith as a righteousness of life.
This material principle is to be exhibited in accordance
with its entire contents through the conjoined opera-
tion of the three factors of Dogmatics : 1) The Script-
ures; 2) The Doctrine of the Church; 3) The personal
consciousness of faith.

2. The Scriptures as the Normative factor of Dogmatics.

The Holy Scriptures as the normative factor in the
Dogmatic System imparts to it its biblical character.
Since the time of Gerhard the Dogmaticians present in
their Prolegomena, the complete doctrine of Scripture,
as the only principle by which we become cognizant ot
heavenly truth. Inspiration forms the basis for the
authority of Holy Scripture, which witnesses of itself
through the testimony of the Holy Spirit, i. e., the in-
ternal actual assurance which the matter of Scripture
itself imparts. In the later Dogmaticians we have pre-
sented in place of the testimony of the Holy Spirit, the
credibility of the authors. In this way all attacks upon
the Bible become in their actual working, attacks upon
religion itself.

74 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Lessing appealed to the self assurance ot Christian
experience. Schleiermacher, in his views, follows
Lessing, inasmuch as he makes a primary point of the
Christian's internal consciousness, and consequently
does not treat the doctrine of Scripture in his Prolego-
mena, but in the body of his work, in which he says
{Glhsl § 128) : '' The authority of the Holy Scriptures
cannot be the basis of faith in Christ ; on the contrary,
this faith, must previously exist before we can concede
to the Holy Scriptures a special authority." Twesten
says (I, 283) : " It should not be maintained that in the
Christian consciousness, faith in the Holy Scriptures is
that foundation which is fixed in itself as the founda-
tion of all other convictions, — since faith in the Holy
Scriptures is rather only one constituent of the Chris-
tian conviction, which is to be apprehended only by
faith, and just as much requires to be stayed and sup-
ported by the other doctrines, as they require to be
stayed and supported by it."

A system of Dogmatics assumes Scripture and its
authority as matter of fact, (just as it takes the Church
and her doctrines), to justify both within its system, as
it does the other facts of faith.

3. The Canon of Scripture.

The body of the sacred writings is comprehended in
the Canon, and hence they are called "the Canonical
Scriptures." The word kanon in classical Greek meant
1) properly a straight rod, or a carpenter's rule. 2) Then
a testing rule in ethics, or in art, or language. The eccle-
siastical usage of the word offers a complete parallel
to the classical. In the New Testament it occurs four
times (Gal. 6: 16. 2 Cor. 10: 13—16). In the first pas-
sage (Gal. 6 : 16) it is used in its literal sense of rule, and
in the second passage the change from an active to a

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 75

passive sense is worthy of notice. In patristic writings
the word is commonly used both as ''a rule" in the
widest sense, and especially in the phrases "the rule of
the Church," "the rule of faith," "the rule of truth." In
the fourth century, when the practice of the Church
was systematized, the decisions of synods w^ere styled
"Canons." As applied to Scripture the derivatives of
the word Canon are used long before the simple word.
The first direct application of the term kanon to the
Scriptures seems to be b3^ Amphilochius, bishop of Ico-
nium, a contemporary of Gregory of Na^ianzus, who
concludes his v^ell-known Catalogue of the Scriptures
(about 380 a. d.), with the words, "this will be the
most truthful Canon of the inspired Scriptures." Among
Latin writers the word is commonly found from the
time of Jerome ^

a) The Old Testament Canon ^. The formation of the
Old Testament Canon was a matter of internal neces-
sity when the Old Testament time of Revelation came
to an end. According to the Rabbinical tradition it
was the work of Ezra and the great Synagogue. It
first appears as a finished whole in the prologue to the
Greek translation of the Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesias-
ticus), the date of which is somewhat doubtful, but cer-
tainly lies between 250—130 b. c. Not only does the
prologue expressly refer to the Old Testament according
to its three divisions, "the law and the prophets, and

1. For a fuller discussion of the use of the word Canon see Westcott's Article
on the Canon in Smith's Bible Diet. (Amer. Ed., 4 vols.). The same author in his
work On the Canon of the New Testament (Fifth Ed„ 1881), in Appendix D {pp ^
556, 557) gives the original text of the Catalogue of Amphilochius.

2. Compare Westcott's Art. on Canon in Smith's Bible Diet, already cited
(Vol. I, pp. 357—368), a most valuable summary of the whole subject; also the
Article in Herzog's Real-Eneykl. (Ed. I, by Oehler ; Ed. II, by Strack) ; see also
Schaff-Herzog's Encyel.ydi. i, pp. 385—389, and the well-known works of Bleek,
Home (Fourteenth Ed.), Keil and Reuss.

If) INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

the other books of our fathers," "the rest of the books,"
but also in the book itself it is manifestly assumed as a
thing well known. The definite article, '' tize other books
of the fathers," and ^^ the rest of the books,^^ presup-
poses a definite class of writings well marked off, and
involves the close of the Canon.

The Canon of the Old Testament lay in its present
compass before our Lord and his Apostles, just as we
have the enumeration of its parts in Josephus (40 — 100
A. D.). In his book Contra Apion, 1, 8, he enumerates
twenty-two books "which are justly believed to be in-
spired." And he adds: " They have suffered no addi-
tion, diminution, or change. From our infancy we learn
to regard them as decrees of God ; we observe them, and
if need be, we gladly die for them."

In the New Testament, these Old Testament writings
are regarded as one complete whole as in John 5 : 39,
" Search the scriptures,^' or in John 10 : 35, " The script-
ure cannot he broken.'' Matt. 23 : 35 and Luke 11 : 51
(''from the blood of Abel unto the blood ofZachariah,''
i. e., from Genesis to 2 Chronicles) are a witness to the
arrangement and compass of our present Hebrew Bible;
Luke 24: 44 is evidence of the division into three parts,
** the law," "the prophets," and "the psalms;" 2 Tim.
3 : 15, 16 looks to the fact that the scriptures were col-
lected together. In the New Testament, with the excep-
tion of some of the Minor Prophets, all the books of the
"first" and "second" division are cited. From the
third division, Psalms, Proverbs, and Daniel are cited.
The Old Testament Apocryphal Books are never cited
in the New Testament, and if there be allusions to them,
as there probably are, they are of such a nature, as in
no degree to imply a recognition of them as inspired
books. Thus in Heb. 11 : 34, 35 it has been claimed (see

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 77

Stier's Die Apokryphen, pp. 148, 1853, who professes
to find 102 references in the New Testament to the
Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament) that there is
an allusion to the times of the Maccabees ; but, if this
be granted, it simply, at the most, recognizes the histor-
ical truth of a statement, and involves no more than
St. Paul's quotations of the Greek poets. From a care-
ful study of all the evidence there can be no reasonable
doubt that at the beginning of the Christian era the
Jews had a Canon of Sacred Writings distinctly defined,
and that this Canon was recognized by the Lord and
his Apostles, and that this Canon was the same as we
now have in our Hebrew Bibles, and accepted by all
Protestant Churches as the Canonical Books of the Old
Testament.

The authority of Augustine occasioned the reception
of the Old Testament Apocrypha into the Canon, by the
Council of Hippo, 393, and of Carthage, 397, but there
was no churchly sanction of a general kind to this, until
the Council of Trent, in its fourth session, gave it its
sanction. But the establishment of the Old Testament
Canon properly belongs to Israel, not to the Christian
Church, which received it from Israel. We find the true
view of the matter therefore in Jerome, who limits the
Canon to the Hebrew writings, as these alone were ac-
cepted and appealed to, by our Lord and his Apostles.

The more recent critics have attempted to put the
book of Daniel into the time of Antiochus Epiphanes
(175—164 B. c), an era which had lost the conscious-
ness of possessing the spirit of revelation (1 Mace. 4:
46 ; 9 : 27 ; 14 : 41) . But that the Book of Daniel forms
an integral part of the Canon is clear, 1) from the im-
portance of its relation to the New Testament, in which
it is fully accepted as canonical (Matt. 24 : 15) ; 2) from

78 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

its wonderful internal witness, its prophecies, many of
which were demonstrably fulfilled long after the period
ofAntiochns Epiphanes, and many of which are now
fulfilling; 3) from the evidences which many of the best,
ripest recent scholars, in conjunction with the older
ones, have brought to show that there is no reason for
departing from the ancient and received view as to the
time of its origin ; 4) the latest results of Assyriolog3^
and the evidence of the monumental remains, all con-
firm those statements of Danid which were denied by
critics.

b) The New Testament Canon ^. The collection of
the New Testament Canon was relatively late in its
origin, and slow in its progress. The history of its
formation conveniently divides itself into three periods :
1. The era of the separate circulation and gradual col-
lection of the Apostolic writings, to 170 A. d. (There
can be no doubt whatever that at the close of this period
the four Gospels occupied the position which they have
always retained as the fourfold Apostolic record of the
Saviour's ministry. The testimony of Justin Martyr
{d. 146?) and of Papias {ab. 150) is decisive. For the
New Testament as a whole we have, in the West, the
important testimony of the Muratorian Canon, and in
the East, the Peshito. From a careful sifting of all the
evidence it seems that at the close of the second century,
2 Peter is the only book which is not recognized def-

I. Compare Westcott's Article in Smith's Bi'b/e Diet. (Amer. Ed. 4 vols.),
vol. I, //. 368 — 376 ; the Article in Herzog's Real-Encykl. (Ed. I, by Landerer ;
Ed. II, by Wold. Schmidt) ; the latest introductions by Bleek, Reuss, Weiss, Holta-
mann, etc. See also Charteris' Canonicity : a collection of early testimonies to the
Canonical Books of the New Testament, based on Kirchhofer's Qtiellensammlung.
Edinburgh, 1881. The standard work on this subject in English is Westcott's On
the Canon 0/ the New Testament. Fifth Edition. Pp. LVI, 593. Cambridge and
London, 1881. As a concise summary Mitchell's Critical Handbook (Andorer,
1880), can be recommended.

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 79

initely as an Apostolic and authoritative writing).

2. The period marking the separation of the books of
the New Testament from the remaining Ecclesiastical
literature (170 a. d. — 303 a. d., to the persecution of
Diocletian). During this period the books common to
the Muratorian or Roman Canon and the Peshito or
Syrian Canon, were regarded as a whole, authoritative
and inspired, and were used as of equal value with the
Old Testament. This can be proved by the testimony
of contemporary Fathers of the Churches of Asia Minor,
Alexandria, and North Africa. Of this testimony West-
cott says^ : '' This comprehensive testimony extends to
the four Gospels, the Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, 13 Epistles
of St. Paul and the Apocalypse; and with the exception
of the Apocalypse, no one of these books was ever after-
wards rejected or questioned till modern times." (With
reference to the '^ antilcgomena^^ or ''disputed" books
it may be said, that the Apocalypse was universally
received by all the writers of the period, with the single
exception of Dionysius of Alexandria ; that the Epistle
to the Hebrews was accepted by the Churches of Alex-
andria, and Syria, but not by those of Africa and Rome ;
that the Epistles of James and Jude were little used ;
and that 2 Peter was barely known. But our whole
testimony is but the evidence of use and not of inquiry).

3. The third period ends with the third council of
Carthage (397), in which a catalogue of the books of
Scripture was formally ratified by the action of the
Council (303—397 a. d.). (Of great importance is the
testimony of Eusebius {H. E. iii, 25), because he gives
us a fair summary of the results which follow from a
careful examination of the extant Ante-Nicene literat-
ure. 2)

1. Article on Canon in Smith's Bibl. Diet. Vol. i, p. 370 b.

2. See A Comprehensive General Index to the .Anfe^'Nicene Fathers, By
Pemhard Pick, Pqffalo, jcSSy,

80 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Luther at one time (previous to 1525), expressed
doubts in regard to the Epistle to the Hebrews, James,
and the Apocalypse. He found doctrinal difficulties in
Heb. 6: 4—6; 12: 17; and his objection to the Epistle
of James was based upon the seeming contradiction of
that Epistle to Paul's doctrine of justification by faith.
But the real harmony between Paul and James is now
universally conceded. Both teach really that we are jus-
tified by faith ; but St. James to meet a specific perver-
sion which had ignorantly or wickedly been made of
that doctrine, shows that the faith which justifies is the
one which also works out righteousness. We are jus-
tified by faith, and faith is demonstrated before the eyes
of men to be a just and true faith, by works. Luther
continued to regard the Apocalypse, because of its pro-
phetic shape and consequently obscurity, of less value,
than the other books of the Canon.

Chemnitz, by his admirable historical investigation,
established in the conviction of the Church, the thorough
canonicity of all these books. Gerhard limits the ques-
tion to the author of the books, and turns the dog-
matic question into an historical one. In Quenstedt the
whole matter is reduced to little more than an historical
notice. Hollaz says: ''We judge of the canonical au-
thority of Scripture with reference to its doctrines, by
the same proofs and arguments by which we decide in
regard to its divine origin It is proved by exter-
nal and internal criteria, but especially by the internal
testimony of the Holy Spirit illuminating the minds of
men, through the Scriptures attentively read or heard
from the mouth of a teacher. ... It is indeed distinctly
proved by the testimony of the primitive Church, but
not by this alone .... We add to the testimony of the
primitive Church, Jthe testimony of Scripture, its con-

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 81

tinned preservation for the profitable use of men, and
the character of its style."

Chemnitz says : The Scriptures derive canonical
authority 1) mainly from the Holy Spirit, by whose
impulse and inspiration they v^ere written ; 2) from the
writers themselves, to whom God gave clear and pecu-
liar proofs of their truth, and 3) from the primitive
Church, as a witness, in whose day these writings were
published and approved.

Gerhard says: 1) There is, indeed, some difference
to be made between the books that are contained in the
New Testament. For it cannot be denied that some of
them were, at times, objected to by some in the Early
Church. 2) But these '' disputed books " are not apoc-
ryphal : a) Because the doubts concerning them in the
primitive Church did not so much relate to their canon-
ical authority as to their secondary author (the Holy
Spirit being regarded as the original Divine author);
h) Because even this doubt was not entertained con-
cerning them by all the churches or ministers, but onl^^
by some, c) The fathers who rejected the Apocrypha of
the Old Testament did not exclude any book of the New
Testament from the Canon. 3) For the sake of accuracy
we may distinguish between the canonical books of the
New Testament of the £rst and second rank. Those of
the hrst rank are those concerning whose authors or
authority there has never been any doubt in the Church,
of the secoi2c/ rank those concerning whose authors there
have sometimes been doubts.

So likewise Quenstedt : We call those books of the
New Testament protocanonical, or of the first rank,
concerning whose authority and secondary authors
there never was any doubt in the Church ; and those
deuterocanonical, or of the second rank, concerning

82 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

whose secondary authors (not their authority, how-
ever) there were at times doubts entertained by some*.

Among recent critics this distinction between proto-
canonical and deuterocanonical books of the New Tes-
tament has been renewed by Philippi, Kahnis, and
Voigt.

The disposition of our later theologians has been to
decide the canonicity of the books not so much from the
transient hesitation of the Early Church, nor from the
theory of different degrees of inspiration, as from their
internal character and contents.

The historical character of Scripture determines its
application in the service of Dogmatics. The doctrinal
contents of the particular biblical books always stands
in connection with the historical matter which pertains
to these books. The citation of the Old Testament by
older dogmaticians rests upon the supposition that
there is an essential unit3'' in the matter of Scripture. In
modern Dogmatics the Old Testament proof passages
are adduced with far greater caution, and their force is
considered as modified by the point of histor^'^ at which
they occur. It is felt that as Revelation grows in the
intensity of its brightness, it is necessary to avoid bring-
ing a mode of conception which belongs to the relative
twilight, into the purer and fuller light of the New Tes-
tament.

4. The Interpretation of Scripture.

The biblical interpreter must not only possess certain
intellectual and moral qualifications, but his first quali-
fication must be a living faith, and in all his attempts
to expound Scripture he must be guided by the central
truth of all Revelation, salvation in Christ, which is the

I. The quotations from Chemnitz^ Gerhard^ Quef^stedt^ and HoUaz liaye;
been condensed from Schmid.

THE F'ORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 83

very essence of Christianity and the material principle
of Dogmatics. Moreover in the setting forth of the doc-
trines of the Bible he must recognize the general devel-
opment which Revelation passes through in Scripture
itself. And though the Church doctrine may be of great
service in the interpretation of the Scriptures, still his
guide must be Scripture itself as his only norm.

The doctrine of the Sacred Scriptures, of Inspiration,
and of the Attributes of the Sacred Scriptures, will be
presented in the dogmatic system itself. But in speaking
of the interpretation of Scripture we must also speak of
its perspicuity.

By the perspicuity of Scripture we mean that Script-
ure sets forth all things necessary for faith, holiness, and
salvation in such clear terms, that an earnest, unprej-
udiced mind may easily understand them. Its m3^steries
are in the nature of the things jUotm the obscurity of its
phrases. It is its own interpreter in all things needful.

The clearness of Scripture is two-fold :

Luther says: "One kind of clearness is external,
lying in the ministry of the Word, the other in the
knowledge of the heart. If you speak of the internal
clearness, no man understands a single iota in the
Scriptures by the natural powers of his own mind, un-
less he have the Spirit of God ; all have obscure hearts.
The Holy Spirit is required for the understanding of the
whole of Scripture and of all its parts. If you allude to
the exteriza/ clearness, there is nothing left obscure and
ambiguous, but all things brought to light by the Word
are perfectly clear." Again: **The things of God are
obscure; the things of Scripture are perspicuous. The
doctrines in themselves are obscure ; but in so far as
they are presented in Scripture they are manifest, if we

84 tNTRODUCTION TO DOOMATIO THEOLOGY.

are willing to be content with that knowledge which
God communicates in the Scriptures to the Church."

The Lutheran Church has always laid the greatest
stress upon the Analogy of Faith as an inspired means
of interpretation 1 .

Quenstedt: " Obscure passages, which need explana-
tion, can and should be explained by other passages
that are more clear, and thus the Scripture itself fur-
nishes an interpretation of obscure expressions

From no other source than the Sacred Scriptures them-
selves can a certain and infalHble interpretation of
Scripture be drawn. For Scripture itself, or rather the
Holy Spirit speaking in Scripture or through it, is the
legitimate and independent interpreter of itself"

Gerhard : "All interpretation of Scripture should be

according to the analogy of faith This signifies

that the interpretation of Scripture should be instituted
and carried on in such a manner as to accord with the
usual line of thought which is con vej^ed in Scripture con-
cerning each leading doctrine. For, since all Scripture
was given by the immediate suggestion of the Holy
Spirit, and is inspired, all things in it are harmonious
and perfectly consistent with each other, so that no dis-
crepancy or self-contradiction occurs in it. . . . Nothing
is ever to be broached in the interpretation of Scripture
that conflicts with the rule of faith ; and hence, if we be
not exactly able at all times to ascertain the exact sense
of any passage, as designed by the Holy Spirit, we should
nevertheless beware of proposing anj^thing that is con-
trary to the analogy of faith."

The Lutheran Church has also always opposed the
theory of a multiple sense in Scripture. There is no founda-

I. For an explanation of the principles that underlie this method of interpre-
tation see my TAeo/. Hncy.^ Part I. Exegetical Theology, pp. 142 — 145.

THE FOEMATION OF THE DOGMATIC) SYSTEM. 85

tion whatever for the position, held by some, that each
passage, or certain passages, can be understood in dif-
ferent ways, all equally conformed to the divine thought.
No wonder, with such views, that the Bible becomes a
changeable, doubtful rule of faith, flexible at the will of
the fancies or passions of men, or fluctuating with the
tendencies of the times. If w^e would grant such a mul-
tiple or double sense in Scripture, then, indeed, the pro-
blem of interpretation would become indeterminate, the
Bible would become a field for the display of the wit and
vanity of the theologian, instead of being the simple,
clear, and edifying guide to salvation which it professes
to be.

Gerhard : *' There is but one proper and true sense
of each passage, which the Holy Spirit thereby intends,
and which is drawn from the proper signification of the
words, and only from this literal sense available argu-
ments may be derived. . . . All interpretation of Script-
ure should be literal, and there should be no departure
from the letter in matters of faith, unless the Scriptures
themselves indicate the figurativeness and explain it."
Again: "Allegories, tropes, analogies, are not difierent
senses, but different adaptations of the same sense and
subject designated by the letter."

This does not prevent the application of the literal
sense of a passage in a spiritual way. The literal sense
of Scripture may be used as an allegory, a type, or a
parable.

Caloyius : " It is called the allegorical sense, when a
Scriptural historical narrative of things, that really
occurred, is applied to a certain mystery or spiritual
doctrine, by the intention of the Holy Spirit, in an alle-
gorical manner ; it is called typical, when under exter-
nal facts or prophetic visions, things hidden, either

86 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

present or future, are prefigured, or especially matters
relating to the New Testament are shadowed forth;
and parabolical, when something is described as having
really occured, and yet applied to designate something
spiritual."

Gerhard^ states the principles that underlie all true
interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures as follows :

1) Our mind is blind without the light of the Holy
Spirit ;

2) In addition to this natural blindness, some are
blinded by singular wickedness and an unyielding hard-
ness of heart ; but neither of these kinds of blindness,
makes or proves the Scriptures obscure ;

3) Because our mind is blind we must pray for the
light of the Holy Spirit;

4) Our mind is not now immediately illuminated by
the Holy Spirit, but by means of the Word heard and
meditated upon ;

5) The doctrines necessary to be known by every one
for salvation are taught in Scripture in clear and per-
spicuous language ;

6) The remaining passages of Scripture receive light
from these important doctrines ;

7) From the clear passages of Scripture a rule of faith
is deduced to which the exposition of the more difficult
passages must be conformed ;

8) If we cannot definitely and exactly ascertain the
precise meaning of all difficult passages, it is sufficient
that we do not propose any interpretation contrary to
the analogy of faith ;

9) But the more obscure passages may be rightly
and accurately interpreted, if we apply the means cal-
culated to remove the difficulties ;

5. The quotations from our older Dogmaticians are condensed from Schmid's
Doctrinal Theology.

THE FORMATION OF THE DOGMATIC SYSTEM. 87

10) To find out these means, we must seek the causes
of the obscurity ;

11) Some passages are obscure in themselves, others,
when compared with other passages ; if they merely
seem to be in conflict with other passages, this obscur-
ity may be removed by reconciling the passages ;

12) Those passages that are obscure in themselves,
are so, either as to their subject-matter or as to their
words. The obscurity in regard to the subject-matter
is removed by the analogy of faith, and bj^ those settled
axioms in individual articles of belief, which are to be
regarded as the unfailing guide ;

13) The obscurity in regard to the words is removed

a) by the grammatical analysis of sentences,

b) by the rhetorical exposition of tropes and figures,

c) by the logical consideration of the order and the
circumstances,

d) by an acquaintance with physical science,

e) but the greatest assistance is afforded by a pru-
dent and diligent collation of Scripture passages.

SECTION XIII.

THE CHURCH DOCTRINE AND THE SUBJECTIVE CON-
SCIOUSNESS OF FAITH.

A system of Dogmatics must have a churchly
as well as a biblical character. Its harmony
with the doctrine of the Church should not, how-
ever, be a mere external one, but one produced
through the fellowship of the faith which the
dogmatician himself has with the doctrine of the
Church, and which he seeks to express in his dog-
matic system.

88 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

1. The Churchly Character of Dogmatics,

The faith and doctrinal thinking of the present is
conditioned by the intellectual labors and the develop-
ment of Church doctrine -in the past, and must conse-
quently assure itself of its essential harmony with the
past ; for there are no absolute breaks in human knowl-
edge. Truth may be obscured but not annihilated, and
the sciences which seem least historical are nevertheless
historical.

The man who takes up the Bible now without refer-
ence to what has been done toward its elucidation in
the past, and without being guided by the development
of doctrine is exactly as foolish as the man who would
undertake to take up any branch of science without re-
gard to what has been done before.

Great connecting links in the continuing develop-
ment of the Church doctrine are furnished by the Con-
fessions, ^which, as they were occasioned by the historical
necessity of their times, and conditioned by those con-
nections as to the mode in which they present doctrine,
are to be interpreted and vindicated by their history,

2. The Confessions of the Church.

Faith makes men Christians, but Confession alone
marks them as Christians. The Rule of Faith (the Bible)
is God's voice to us ; faith is the hearing of that voice,
and the Confession is our reply of assent to it. As the
Creed is not, and cannot be the Rule of Faith, but is its
Confession merely, so the Bible, because it is the Rule of
Faith, is of necessitj^ not its Confession.

Fidelity to the Rule of Faith (the Bible), fidehty to
the faith it teaches, demands that there shall be a Con-
fession of the faith^ .

Confessions are necessary 1) to establish the unity of

I. Compare Krauth's Conservative Reformation, pp. i66, 167.

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 89

the faith, and 2) to ward off error. This necessity is
both psychological and historical. It is not an absolute
necessity, but what may be called one '' of expediency."
For by her confessions a Church gives evidence of the
faith she teaches and shows in what she differs from
other Churches, and also bears continual testimony
against those who would introduce error.

On the i2ecessit7 of Confessions the Formula of Con-
CORD^ expresses itself very clearly: ''Because directl3^
after the times of the Apostles, and even in their lives,
false teachers and heretics arose, and against them, in
the Early Church, symbols, i. e., brief, plain confessions,
were composed, which were regarded as the unanimous,
universal Christian faith, and confession of the ortho-
dox and true Church, namely the Apostles^ Creed ^ , the

2. See Book of Cottcord p. 492, 3.

3. It is called the Apostles Creed not because it was composed by
the Apostles, but because it is a brief summary of the doctrine taught
by the Apostles. It gradually grew out of the confessions recorded in
the Scriptures (Mark. 12 : 29 ; John 17 : 3, " Thee, the only true God" ;
I Cor. 8 : 4, " There is no God but one "; Gal. 3 : 20, ''God is one "; i
Tim. 2 : 5, ''For there is one God"; John i : 49, " Thou art the Son of
God" (Nathanael) ; John 6 : 68, 69, " Lord, to whom shall we go ? thou
hast the words of eternal life. And we have believed and know that thou
art the Holy One of God " (Peter) ; Matt. 16 : 16, " Thou art the Christ,
the Son of the living God" (Peter) ; John 20 : 28, " My Lord and my
God" (Thomas). St. Paul gives us his confession in i Cor. 8:6; i
Tim. 3: 16; Heb. 6: i, 2; 5: 12; i Cor. 15: 3, 4; 2 Tim. i: 13, 14;
St. John in i John 4 : 2 ; 2 John 10) and out of the baptismal formula
(Matt. 28 : 19 : 20), which last determined its Trinitarian order and ar-
rangement. In the churches of the West a distinction soon arose be-
tween the baptis7nal confessions and the Rules of Faith. The latter
became more explicit and were more particularly directed against false
doctrine. The former, the baptismal confessions, finally took the form
of the Apostles Creed, while the latter, the Rules of Faith became sub-
stantially the same as the Nicene Creed. The creed confessed at bap-

90 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Nicene Creed ^ , and the Athanasian Creed ^ ; we confess
them as binding upon us, and hereby reject all heresies

tism, at first, was not precisely the same. In different congregations
different forms were used, some shorter, some longer. The most com-
plete forms of the baptismal creed in use in the West were found in
the Churches of Rome, Aquileia, and Milan in Southern Europe, and
in the African Churches of Carthage and Hippo. The form used in
the Church at Rome gradually gained acceptance in the West on ac-
count of its intrinsic excellence and the commanding position of the
Church. The Latin text of the Creed of the Church at Rome is first
given by Rufinus (about 390, A. D., d. 410), and the Greek text, which
is probably older than the Latin, we have from Marcellus of Ancyra,
who lived about 340 A. D. The Roman Creed was gradually enlarged
by the addition of several articles, and it was not until the close of the
fifth century that the present text of the Apostles' Creed came into
use, and not until the eighth that it was generally accepted in the
Churches of the West. (For a fuller presentation see Schaff's Creeds
of Christendo7n, vol, \,pp. 14 — 23; especially Casparz's Quellen zur
Geschichte desTauf symbols und der Glaubensregel. 3 vols., Christiania,
1866— 1875).

4. As the Apostles' Creed had its origin in the baptismal confes-
sions used in the Western Churches, so likewise the Nicene Creed had
its origin in the baptismal formula used in the Eastern Churches. As
the Eastern Church was continually in conflict with heresy, the bap-
tismal confessions used in their churches, even before the Council of
Nicaea (325 A. D.), were more metaphysical, more definite and explicit
than the Apostles' Creed, especially in the statement of the divinity of
Christ. This can be seen from the Creed of Eusebius, on which the
Nicene Creed was based. The Nicene Creed can be distinguished in
three forms : i) The original Nicene Creed was adopted at the first
General Council, held at Nicsea in Bithynia, not far from Constantinople,
in 325 A. D. This council was attended by 318 bishops and was called
to settle the Arian controversy. The Creed, however, abruptly ended
with the words " and in the Holy Ghost." 2) At the second General
Council, held at Constantinople in 381 A. D., consisting however of only
1 50 bishops, a few additions were made to the first two articles, but to
the last article, treating of the Holy Ghost, important additions were
made, especially directed against those who denied the Deity of the Holy

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 91

and dogmas which, contrary to them, have been intro-
duced into the Church of God,"

Ghost. This enlarged Creed is known as the Nicasno-Constantinopoli-
tan Creed of 381, but there is no evidence that it was accepted by a
council, before the fourth General Council, held at Chalcedon, 451 a.
D. 3) The final change made in the Nicene Creed took place in the
Western Church, by the addition of the little word '' filioque " {" and
in the Son "), the occasion of the greatest schism in Christendom, for
that one word, together with the question of the Jurisdiction of the
Pope of Rome, divides the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches of the
present day. This expression *'filioque " was put into the Creed by
the Latin Church, without consulting the Church of the East. The
first trace of this word in the Nicene Creed we find in the proceedings
of the third Council of Toledo in Spain, 589 A. D., but by the close of
the ninth century it was generally accepted in the West, and at the
Reformation passed over into the Protestant Churches (See Literature
already cited).

5. The origin of the Aihanasian Creed like that of the Apostles
is involved in obscurity. It is called Athanasian, not because he wrote
it, but because it is a noble exposition and defence of the doctrine of
the Trinity, of which Athanasius {d. 373) was the great champion. Of
its authorship nothing is known for certain. It arose in the Latin
churches of Gaul, North Africa, and Spain, drawn up originally no
doubt, by a follower of Augustine. It borrows some passages from
Augustine and other Latin Fathers, and first appears in its full form
about the beginning of the ninth century. The Creed consists of two
chief parts, preceded by a prologue of two verses, and followed by an
epilogue of one verse. The first part, verses 3 — 26, sets forth the or-
thodox doctrine of the Holy Trinity to the exclusion of every kind of
subordination of essence. The second part, verses 27 — 39, contains a
very clear statement of the orthodox doctrine concerning the Person of
Christ, as settled by the Council of Chalcedon, 451 a. d., and in this
respect it is a valuable supplement to the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds.
The Athanasian Creed acquired great authority in the Western Church,
and during the Middle Ages it was almost daily used in the morning
devotions. In the Greek Church, however, it never obtained formal
ecclesiastical sanction, and is to this day only used for private devo-
tion, — the clause of the double procession of the Spirit, however, being

92 TNTRODtTCTlON TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

The aMti2or/t7 of the Confessions is internal and ex-
ternal. Their internal authority consists in their con-
formity with Scripture. Just as men are in duty bound
to believe the Scriptures, when their divine origin is
known, so are they bound to believe and accept the Con-
fessions when their conformity with the Holy Scripture
is seen. Their external authority consists in their ap-
proval by the Churchy

With reference to the Confessions of our own Evan-
gelical Lutheran Church th^Formulaof Concord'' says :
" As to the schism in matters of faith which has occured
in our time, we regard the unanimous consensus and dec-
laration of our Christian faith and confession, especially
against the Papacy and its false worship, idolatry, su-
perstition, and against other sects, as the Symbol of our
time, viz.. The First Unaltered Augsburg Confession^,

omitted. The Reformers accepted the Athanasian Creed, and Luther
says of it : " It has been so composed that I do not know whether,
since the days of the Apostles, anything more important and glorious
has been written."

6. Compare Dr. Jacobs' Historical Introduction to Book of Concord, vol.

2, p. 12.

7. See Book of Concord^ p. 492, 4 — 8.

8. I ) On Oct. I — 3, 1529, a Conference took place at Marburg
between Luther and the Saxon divines upon the one side, and Zwingli
and the Swiss divines on the other side. Luther in conjunction with
Melanchthon, Jonas, Osiander, Brenz and Agricola, prepared the xv.
Marburg Articles. These Articles were meant to show on what points
the Lutherans and Zwinglians agreed and also to state the point on
which they did not agree, — and as a fair statement of the points dis-
puted, and undisputed, were signed by all the theologians of both par-
ties. (A translation of these Articles is given in Jacobs edition of
Book of Concord, vol, 2, pp. 69 — 74).

2) On the basis of these xv. Articles of Marburg, Luther with the
advice and assistance of the the other theologians prepared xvii Arti-
cles, which were presented at the Conference held at Schwabach, Oct.

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 93

delivered to the Emperor Charles v. at Augsburg in

16, 1529, and hence known as the xvii. Articles of Schwabach. (For
translation see Jacobs' edition of Book of Concord, vol. 2, pp. 69 — 74).

3) These xvil. Articles of Schwabach are mainly doctrinal, and in
a revised form are the basis of the xxi. Doctrinal Articles of the Augs-
burg Confession. But as they had been presented at Smalcald, Nov.
29, 1529, they have sometimes been called the Smalcald Articles, and
were also known for a long time as the Torgau Articles, because in a
revised form Luther had sent them to Torgau, Mar. 20 — 27, 1530.

4) Charles V. finally summoned a Diet of the German Empire to
convene at Augsburg, April 8, 1530; and he directed the friends of the
Evangelical faith to prepare, for presentation to the Diet, a statement
on the doctrinal points of division. This summons reached the Elector
John of Saxony at Torgau on March 11, 1530. On March 14, a letter
was sent to Luther, Jonas, Bugenhagen and Melanchthon at Witten-
berg, summoning them immediately to lay aside all other work and
devote all the time that was left to the preparation of a paper covering
all the articles, both of faith and of external usages and ceremonies,
that were involved in the conflict. The theologians were instructed to
deliver the result of their deliberations in person to the Elector at
Torgau on the following Sunday, March 20. This special writing, of
which Luther was the chief author, assisted by the other theologians
at Wittenberg, was sent to the Elector at Torgau, March 20 — 27, 1530,
and are the Torgau Articles proper. These Articles are on abuses, and
form the basis of Articles xxii— xxvill. of the Augsburg Confession,
its articles on Abuses. In addition to these articles, Luther, however,
also sent a revised copy of the xvii. Articles of Schwabach, as stated
above. (For translation of the Torgau Articles see Jacobs edition of
Book of Concord, vol. 2, pp. 75—98).

5) These two sets of Articles sent to Torgau, March 20 — 27, 1530,
form the basis of the Augsburg Confession, and are mainly from the
hand of Luther, — the xvii. Articles of Schwabach forming the basis
of the XXI. Doctrinal Articles, and the Torgau Articles proper form-
ing the VII. Articles on Abuses. But as the Diet of Augsburg was not
opened until June 20, time was given for Melanchthon to elaborate the
Confession and give to it its matchless form. Melanchthon himself in
his Corpus Doctrines (German, 1559, Latin, 1560), gives a brief history
of the composition of the Augsburg Confession, how " in the presence
of the Elector and princes and legates who subscribed it, with the

94 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

the year 1530, in the great Diet, together with its

counselors and preachers, all the articles were discussed and deter-
mined upon in regular course, sentence by sentence," how " the com-
plete form of the Confession was subsequently sent to Luther, who
wrote to the princes that he had both read this Confession and appro-
ved it." (See especially the historic presentation by Dr. Krauth in his
Conservative Reformation, pp. 216 — 248).

6) Dr. Krauth in his Conservative Reformation, pp. 219, 220: " In
six instances, the very numbers of the Schwabach Articles correspond
with those of the Augsburg Confession. They coincide throughout,
not only in doctrine, but in a vast number of cases word for word, the
Augsburg Confession being a mere transcript, in these cases, of the
Schwabach Articles. The differences are either merely stylistic, or are
made necessary by the larger object and compass of the Augsburg
Confession ; but so thoroughly do the Schwabach Articles condition
and shade every part of it, as to give it even the peculiarity of phrase-
ology characteristic of Luther."

" To a large extent, therefore, Melanchthon's work is but an elabo-
ration of Luther's, and to a large extent it is not an elaboration, but a
reproduction. To Luther belong the doctrinal power of the Confession,
its inmost life and spirit, and to Melanchthon its matchless form. Both
are in some sense its authors, but the most essential elements are due
to Luther, who is by pre-eminence its author, as Melanchthon is its
composer."

7) The Confession, in Latin and German, was presented to the Diet
of Augsburg on Saturday, June 25, 1530. "Both texts are originals ;
neither text is properly a translation of the other ; both present precisely
the same doctrine, but with verbal differences, which make the one an
indispensable guide in the understanding of the other ; both texts have,
consequently, the same authority. The German copy was the one se-
lected, on national grounds, to be read aloud. Both copies were taken
by the Emperor, who handed the German to the Elector of Mentz, and
retained the Latin. It is not now known where either of the originals
is, nor with certainty that either is in existence. In addition to seven
unauthorized editions in the year 1530, the Confession was printed,
under Melanchthon's own direction, both in Latin and German while
the Diet was still sitting." (Z>r. Krauth in Conservative Reformation,

pp. 242, 243).

8) Melanchthon's varied edition of the Latin Confession is of three

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 95

Apology^ , and the Articles composed at Smalcald ^ ^ in

kinds : i) The edition of 1531, 8vo. The variations are slight and of a
verbal nature. It has never been pretended that they affect the mean-
ing. This edition has often been confounded with the original quarto
edition of 1530. 2) The quarto edition of 1540, known as the Variata,
because in it Melanchthon has elaborated anew some of the articles,
and has made many important changes. 3) The octavo edition of 1542,
the Variata varied. This last has been frequently reprinted, and is
sometimes confounded with the Variata of 1 540.

Of the edition of 1 540, known as the Variata, Dr. Krauth in his
Conservative Reformation says {pp. 245, 246) : " It is not to be dis-
puted that in various respects, as a statement of doctrine, the Variata
has great beauty and great value, and that where it indisputably is in
perfect harmony with the Confession, it furnishes an important aid in
its interpretation. Had Melanchthon put forth the new matter purely
as a private writing, most of it would have received the unquestioned
admiration to which it was well entitled. But he made the fatal mistake
of treating a great official document as if it were his private property,
yet preserving the old title, the old form in general, and the old signat-
ures." (For a translation of the Variata of 1 540 see Jacobs edition
of Book of Concord, vol. 2, pp. 103 — 147 ; for the chief divergences of
the Variata of 1542 from that of 1540, see//. 147 — 158).

9) Of the structure and contents of the Augsburg Confession Dr.
Krauth says {Conservative Reformation, pp. 253 — 255) : " It contains,
as its two fundamental parts, a positive assertion of the most neces-
sary truths, and a negation of the most serious abuses. It comprises :
\. The Preface ; \\. Twenty-one Principal Articles of Faith ; 111. An
Epilogue- Prologue, which unites the first part with the second, and
makes a graceful transition from the one to the other ; IV. The Second
Great Division, embracing Seven Articles on Abuses ; V. The Epilo-
gue, followed by the Subscriptions."

"The Articles may be classified thus : i) The Confessedly Catholic,
or Universal Christian Articles, — those which Christendom, Greek
and Roman, have confessed, especially in the Apostles' and Nicene

Creed 2) The Protestant Articles, — those opposed to the

errors of doctrine, and the abuses in usage, of the Papal part of the

Church of the West 3) The Evangelical Articles, or parts of

Articles, — those articles which especially assert the doctrines which
are connected most directly with the Gospel in its essential character

96 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

the year 1537, and subscribed by the chief theologians

as tidings of redemption to lost man, — the great doctrines of grace.
These articles are especially those which teach the fall of man, the rad-
ical corruption of his nature, his exposure to eternal death, and the ab-
solute necessity of regeneration (Art. Il) ; the atonement of Christ, and
the saving work of the Holy Spirit (in) ; justification by faith alone
(IV), the true character of repentance, or conversion (xil) ; and the im-
potence of man's own will to effect it (xviii). 4) The Conservative
Articles, the Articles which set forth distinctive biblical doctrines
which the Lutheran Church holds in peculiar purity, over against the
corruptions of Romanism, the extravagance of Radicalism, the per-
versions of Rationalism, or the imperfect development of theology.
Such are the doctrines of the proper inseparability of the two natures
of Christ, both as to time and space (Art. iii), the objective force of
the Word and Sacraments (v), the reality of the presence of both the
heavenly and earthly elements in the Lord's Supper (x), the true value
of private, that is, of individual absolution (xi), the genuine character
of sacramental grace (xill), the true medium in regard to the rites of
the Church (xv), the freedom of the will (xvii), and the proper doc-
trine concerning the cause of sin (xix). On all these points the Augs-
burg Confession presents views which, either in matter or measure, are
opposed to extremes, which claim to be Protestant and Evangelical.
Pelagianizing, Rationalistic, Fatalistic, Fanatical, unhistorical tenden-
cies, which, more or less unconsciously, have revealed themselves, both
in Romanism and in various types of nominally Evangelical Protestant-
ism, are all met and condemned by the letter, tenor, or spirit of these
articles."

9. A few days after the presentation of the Augsburg Confession,,
the Romish theologians were directed to prepare a paper as an answer.
This confutation was formally presented to the Diet on August 3. It
reviewed in regular order the Articles of the Augsburg Confession, en-
dorsing some and condemning others. The Evangelical princes and
theologians almost immediately resolved upon a formal reply. A con-
ference, however, of fourteen, seven representing the Lutherans, and'
seven representing the Romanists, was first held (August 13 — 21), in^
which the whole subject was discussed, but no satisfactory result was.
reached. The preparation of the Apology was entrusted to the evan-
gelical theologians in general, although circumstances afterward made
it the peculiar work of Melanchthon. It was fortunate that the Em--

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 97

of that time. And because such matters pertain also

peror refused to accept the first draught of the Apology offered on
September 22, for that refusal has substituted for Melanchthon's sketch
the Apology as we now have it. On September 23, Melanchthon left
Augsburg with the Elector of Saxony, and at once began to elaborate
still further the Apology upon the basis of his former draught. His
letters from November, 1530 to April, 1531, show how deeply he was
absorbed by it. Toward the close of April, 1 531, the first edition of
the Apology appeared, in quarto, bound with the Augsburg Confession.
This is the original Latin edition, the German text, translated by Justus
Jonas, under the supervision and with the co-operation of Melanchthon,
not appearing until in October, 1531. One year after its first publica-
tion, in April, 1532, at the Conference held at Schweinfurth, the Apol-
ogy was publicly approved by the Evangelical Estates as a Confession
of Faith. In 1537, at Smalcald, the Apology, at the request of the
Princes, was thoroughly compared with the Augsburg Confession by
the theologians, and then, as consonant with the Holy Scriptures and
the Confession,y(?r;;m//j/ subscribed by them with the declaration that
they " held and taught in their churches according to the articles of the
Confession and Apology."

And it deserves the place our Church has given to it. It is written
with an inimitable clearness, distinctness and simplicity which must
carry conviction alike to the learned and unlearned. It is more than a
polemical treatise. The doctrine of justification by faith alone, with-
out works, is established by Melanchthon in the Apology with greater
accuracy than anywhere else. In doctrine it is as pure as the Confes
sion to whose vindication it is consecrated. Dr. Jacobs, in his valuable
Historical Introduction to the Book of Concord truly says (vol. 2, pp.
41) : "To one charged with the care of souls the frequent reading of
the Apology is invaluable, on account of the manner in which it solves
difficulties connected with the most vital points in Christian experience ;
while the private Christian, although perhaps compelled to pass by some
portions occupied with learned discussions, will find in many — we may
say, in most — parts, what is in fact a book of practical religion."

Of the second and third chapters of the Apology (of Justification,
and of Love and the Fulfilling of the Law) Philippi says {Kirch. Gl.
V. I.,/, 36) : " If the Epistle to the Romans can be called the centre
and the crown, the very kernel and star, of the entire Scriptures, so
likewise we can affirm this of these two articles of the Apology in their

98 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC TttEOLOoV.

to the laity and the salvation of their souls, we confes-

relation to the entire contents of the confessional writings of our Church,
— so clearly are they grounded in Scripture and experience, so triumph-
ant, edifying, and consoling is their development."

lo. The Smalcald Articles were prepared in the expectation that a
free General Council would beheld in Mantua, May 23, 1537. This
council, however, did not convene until 1545, at Trent, and then was
an exclusive Roman Catholic Council, the famous Council of Trent
(1545 — 1563). The Elector of Saxony wished to have a new statement
of the great doctrinal principles of our Church, especially touching those
questions which would arise at the Council as matters of discussion
between Lutherans and Romanists. He, therefore, asked Luther to
prepare such articles as a basis, and to report before January 25, 1537.
These articles were prepared by Luther, and having been approved by
his colleagues, were sent to the Elector, January 3, 1537. The Articles
thus prepared were taken to the Convention of the Evangelical States,
held at Smalcald, February, 1537. There they were thoroughly exam-
ined by our great theologians and by them subscribed, February 15,
and from the place where they were signed, came to be called the
S77ialcald Articles. The reasons why this new Confession was pre-
pared are thus stated by Dr. Krauth in his Conservative Reform-
ation {pp. 281 — 283): \)'Y\it. Augsburg Confessio7t had too much ^
in some respects, for the object in view. The object in view, in
1537, was to compare the points of controversy between the Lutherans

and the Romanists The Augsburg Confession had done its

great work in correcting misrepresentations of our Church and

it was now desirable that she should the more clearly express

herself on the points of difference. 2) The Augsburg Confession has
too little for a perfect exhibition of the full position of our Church as to
the errors of Rome. 3) The Augsburg Confession was not in the right

key for the work now to be done The motion of the A. C. was

to the flute, the S. A. moved to the peals of the clarion, and the roll of
the kettle-drum. In the A. C. truth makes her overtures of peace, in
the S. A. she lays down her ultimatum in a declaration of war. 4) That
which was secondary va the A. C. \s primary in the Smalcald Articles.

In these Articles Luther presents directly the principles of the

Evangelical (Lutheran) Church, and of the Romish See. in their con-
flict."

At the request of the Elector, Melanchthon while at Smalcald, pre-

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH, 99

sionally acknowledge the Small and Large ^ ^ Cat-
echisms of Dr. Luther, as they are included in Luther's

pared an Appendix to the Smalcald Articles on " The Power and Pri-
macy of the Pope," about which the Augsburg Confession and Apology
are silent. Of this Appendix Dr. Schaff in his Creeds of Christe7ido7n
(vol \,p. 256) says : "The Appendix of Melanchthon is a theological
masterpiece for his age, written in a calm, moderate, and scholarly
tone, refuting, from the Bible and from the history of the Early Church,
these three assumptions of the Pope, as ' false, impious, tyrannical, and
pernicious in the extreme,' viz. : i) That the Pope, as the Vicar of
Christ, has by divine right supreme authority over the bishops and pas-
tors of the whole Christian world ; 2) That he has by divine right both
swords, that is, the power to enthrone and dethrone kings, and to reg-
ulate civil affairs ; 3) That Christians are bound to believe this at the
risk of eternal salvation. He also shows from Scripture and from Jerome
that the power and jurisdiction of Bishops, so far as it differs from that
of other ministers, is of human origin, and has been grossly abused in
connection with the papal tyranny."

Of the Smalcald Articles and Melanchthon's Appendix, Kollner in
his Synibolik says : " For our Church these writings must ever remain
very weighty, and the more because outside of them there is nowhere
else in the Symbols so ample a statement about the Papacy, and what
is to be noted well, so ample a statement against it " (Quoted by Dr.
Krauth in Conservative Reformation, p. 283).

I r. In chronological order, as writings, the two Catechisms, which
appeared in 1529, would have preceded the Augsburg Confession, fol-
lowing directly after the three General Creeds, but in the Book of Con-
cord they follow the Smalcald Articles because of their later symbolical
authority. During his visitation of the Churches of Saxony in 1528 and
1529, as one of a commission appointed by the Elector, Luther found
the religious wants of the people greatly neglected. To provide for this
want he prepared his two Catechisms. The question which of the two
Catechisms was published first, has been differently answered, but re-
cent criticism has established the fact, that the Larger Catechism ap-
peared about March or April, 1529, while the Smaller Catechisjn was
not pubhshed until about July or August, 1529. Ahhough these two
Catechisms are the private writings of Luther, composed by him on his
own authority and solely for the sake of instruction, they attained syrri'
bolical authority by their inherent worth,

100 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

works, as the Bible of the laity, wherein everything is
comprised which is treated at greater length in Holy
Scripture, and is necessary that a Christian man know
for his salvation."

'*In accordance with this direction, as above an-
nounced, all doctrines should be adjusted, and that
which is contrary thereto should be rejected and con-
demned, as opposed to the unanimous declaration of
our faith."

"In this way the distinction between the Holy Script-
ures of the Old and of the New Testament and all other
writings is preserved, and the Holy Scriptures alone re-
main the only judge, rule, and standard, according to
which, as the only test-stone, all dogmas should and
must be discerned and judged, as to whether they be
good or evil, right or wrong."

"But the other Symbols and writings cited are not
judges, as the Holy Scriptures, but only a witness and
declaration of the faith, as to how at anytime the Hoh^
Scriptures have been understood and explained in the
articles in controversy in the Church of God, by those
who then lived, and by what arguments the dogmas
conflicting with the Holy Scriptures were rejected and
condemned."

Our Confessions, however, are regarded as decisive
statements for that which is valid in the Church. Thus
the Solid Declnration, the second part of the Pormula
of Concord, says {Book of Concord, vol. l,p. 537, lo) :
"By what has thus far been said concerning the sum-
mary of our Christian doctrine we have only meant
that we have a unanimously received, definite, common
form of doctrine, which our Evangelical churches to-
gether and in common confess ; from and according to
which, because it has beei] derived from Gpd's Word, all

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 101

other writings should bejudged and adjusted as to how
far they are to be approved and accepted."

From the statement of the Formula of Concord^'-
that creeds '' are not judges, as are the Holy Scriptures,
but only a witness and declaration of the faith" (p.
492, 8 ), the inference has been drawn that we can set

12. The history of the preparation of the Formula of Concord may
be divided into three parts : I. The events which rendered necessary
the preparation of a new Confession, i. The first cause were the vacil-
lations of Melanchthon. He thought that peace could be restored by
ambiguous formulas, accepted indeed by both parties, but understood
in different senses. The three works of Melanchthon in which the
changes were most noted and most mischievous are a) the Augsburg
Confession ; b") the Apology ; and c) his Loci Conijnunes. 2. The sec-
ond cause was the conflict between the Philippists or adherents of '
Melanchthon, and the more consistent Lutherans. Unfortunately much
that Melanchthon wrote could be taken in two senses. We have 28
large volumes of Melanchthon's writings, and at this hour, impartial
and learned men are not agreed as to what were his views on some of
the profoundest questions of Church doctrine, on which Melanchthon
was writing all his life. 3. Another reason why a new Confession was
necessary arose from the controversy furnished by the Melanchthonian
Corpus Doctrines of 1 560, to which the adherents of Melanchthon de-
sired to give confessional authority, an effort which was resisted by the
consistent Lutherans on the ground a) that it was largely composed of
private writings on which no official action of the Church had been
taken ; b) that the texts of its most important parts were greatly
changed and corrupted ; and c) that it was ambiguous on some vital
points, and unsound on others. 4. Another reason lay in the fact that
the Wittenberg theologians embodied Crypto- Calvinistic doctrines in
their various writings. 5. This alarming state of things (1569) led to
various consultations on the part of our theologians, who were very
anxious to save the Church from internal discord. Chief among them
were James Andrese {d. 1590), Martin Chemnitz {d. 1586), David
Chytrceus {d. 1600), and Nicholas Selneccer {d. 1592), all of them great
theologians, moderate in spirit, earnest Christians, and intensely devo-
ted to the purity and peace of the Church. 6. In 1673 James Andrea?
prepared an exposition of the existing controversies. Taking this " Ex-

102 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

them aside at pleasure, and still be consistent Luther-
position " as a basis Chemnitz and Chytrseus elaborated it, and in 1575
it appeared as the Suabian-Saxon Formula of Concord. It was this
formula which became a general ground-work of the Formula of Con-
cord.

II. The second part of the history of the preparation of the Form-
ula of Concord treats of the events terminating in the preparation of the
Torgau Formula of 1576. i. In 1575 Elector Augustus asked for a
clear statement of the points at issue. This was furnished him in a
paper, which was simply an abridgment of the Suabian-Saxon Form-
ula, with proof passages from Scripture, and citations from Luther
added. 2. This document was submitted to a number of theologians,
delegates of the various princes, at a convention held at the cloister of
Maulbrunn, January 19, 1576. It was examined and approved by them
and is known as the Maulbrunn Formula, 3. In May, 1576 there was
a convention of 18 theologians, of different lands, at Torgau. The most
distinguished were Andrea?, Chytraeus, Chemnitz, Selneccer, Musculus,
and Koerner. They examined carefully the Suabian-Saxon Formula of
1 575, and its abridgment, the Maulbrunn Formula, and resolved to form
a new formula on the basis of the Suabain- Saxon Formula. Thus orig-
inated the Formula of Torgau, in 1576, after the toils and anxieties of
seven years.

III. The third period of the history of the Formula of Concord
opens with the sending forth of the Torgau Formula for examination
by the Churches (1576), and ends with the publication of the Book of
Concord, 1580. i. The Formula of Torgau was everywhere received
with interest. In the course of three months 20 conventions of theol-
ogians were held. The Formula was scrutinized in every part. The great
mass of the 25 responses testified to a general approval of the Formula,
but it was clear that the document had not yet reached the shape in
which It could fully meet the wants of the Church. 2. As soon as these
answers were received, the Elector Augustus called together the three
greatest of the co-workers, Chemnitz of Brunswick, Andreae of Tue-
bingen, and Selneccer of Leipsic, to revise the Torgau Formula in the
light of the expressed judgments of the Churches. They met at the
cloister of Bergen, near Magdeburg. Here the Torgau Formula was
submitted to its frsl revision, March i — 14, 1577. 3. The second and
yf«a/ revision took place at the same place. May 19—28, 1577. But to
the first Trii4mvirate,Chytraius, Musculus, and Koerner, had been added,

CHtTRCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 103

ans. On this point Dr. Krauth says i ^ ; " The setting
aside of a creed either involves setting aside its doc-
trines; or it does not. If the doctrines of a creed are ever
true, they are always true, and hence we cannot set
aside the doctrines of a true creed without setting aside
the truth itself. If it be said, we are going to set aside
the creed, while v^e retain its doctrines, w^e can only
justify ourselves in this by showing that we can make a
gain for the truth by a new statement of it. A new creed
must either embrace the same as the old, or something
conflicting with the old, or something less than the old,
or something more than the old. A creed to embrace
the same, is confessedly no gain as to the matter. A
new creed can only conflict with a true old one, by con-
flicting with the truth itself. A creed which has less than
a true one, has less truth than the old, and if we need
the creed to say more than the old, all experience has
shown that it is best to let the old stand and supple-
ment it with the new. Our Church has never prepared
a new creed to take the place of an old one. If the defi-
nition of our creeds, given in the Formula ot Concord,
stands, then the creeds themselves must stand, until
other creeds more happily stating the same doctrines,
shall be produced. But without exception, the men who
wish new creeds to take the place of old ones, reall3'
wish to have new doctrines to take the place of the old."

Though they examined the Formula with minute care, they found little
to change. 4.We now know it as the Bergen Formula, but it was to be
known in history as the Formula of Concord, for this it was. Between
this time and its publication in 1580, in the Book of Concord, no change
whatever was made in it. (On the history of the Formula of Concord,
see especially Ay^aiz^Z/^'i- Conservatz'ae Reformation, pp. 289 — 828, from
which this note has been condensed. Also Jacobs Book of Concord,
vol. lypp. 51 — 61, and the literature there cited).
13. See his Manuscript Lectures.

104 iNTRODtJCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Subscriptions to the Confessions are classified as quia
and quatenus,i.e., ** because they agree with Scripture,"
and '^so far as they agree with the Scripture." The latter
mode is an evasion, because men holding the most di-
verse views of doctrine might then subscribe our Confes-
sions.^* Fidelity to the Confessions is not inconsistent
with the right of private judgment. All we ask is, that
if a man's private judgment of the Word of God does
not make him believe the Lutheran doctrine as witnes-
sed by our Church in her Confessions, he should not
pretend to be a Lutheran, he should not apply for ordi-
nation in order to minister at her altars, and if as a
minister of the Church he have abandoned the faith of
the Church, he has no right to use her name as his shel-
ter in undermining the faith of those to whom he mini-
sters. It is not enough if such a one maintains that the
view he holds is clear to his private judgment. He has
no right to enter or remain in any Christian Church, ex-
cept as its terms of membership give him that right.

In these days of laxity of doctrine and protest
against Confessionalism it is well to consider the pointed
statements of Dr. Plitt^^ : ''It is as impossible for the
Church to be without a Confession as without preach-
ing and divine service ; and sooner or later the summons
must come to the entire Church or an individual part of
it to give to its Confession not only a clear, but also an

established and definite expression It is the facts

of her experience of salvation which the Church, so far
as she has become acquainted with them, brings into

expression The knowledge of these manifold facts

is only very gradually attained The particular

14. See Jacobs' Book 0/ Concord, vol. 2, /. 13.

15. In his Einleitung in die Augustatia, vol. i, pp. 3 — 16. 2 vols. Erlangen,
1867 — 68. We condense from the translation given by Dr. Jacobs in Book 0/
Coticordy vol. 2, pp. 313 — 321.

CHtJRCH DOCTRINE AND StJB JECTIVE CONSClOtSNESS OF FAITH. 1 05

agents of this work of attaining knowledge are persons
standing in the faith of the Church and constrained by
God's Spirit, as God generally effects all progress in
Church history, through persons filled with the Spirit.

Moreover, since the Church is no longer at the

beginning of her development and of her activity in the
framing of dogmas, these agents will enter into close
connection with the past of the Church, and, appropri-
ating what the Church has received from the labor of
the fathers as a permanent possession of knowledge,
will make still further inquiry

All progress in knowledge, if it be healthy, connects
itself with what has been learned before, and amplifies

or corrects it It is clear that the times, when the

life of the Church flows on in a calm, even current, are
not adapted to a further definition and settlement of the
Church's doctrine. This occurs when a fact of salvation
is called into question by adversaries, or even by mem-
bers of the Church, or is apprehended in such a manner
that Christian experience of salvation thereby sufiers
injury. Then the Church arises to defend her treasure
and repel the error, which is not so offensive to the un-
derstanding as it is dangerous to souls. It becomes
then the ofl&ce of persons full of the Spirit to enter into
the conflict, and with prayer and investigation to begin

the work The course of the controversy which

will claim the entire sympathy of the Church moves
only by means of antagonisms, for almost all Christian
facts of salvation have a double side, a divine and a
human, which are not to be made prominent only on the
one side, but their harmonious connection with each
other requires to be properly adjusted also on the part
of the understanding. Before this happens the Church
does not really attain tranquility

106 INTitODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGV.

Although the Church is constantly changing in her
members, she builds herself up by constantly sinking
deeper into these divine truths ; by instruction she im-
plants them into the hearts of the children growing up
within her, and makes confession of them also before
those who do not yet belong to her, that they may be-
come life-truths also to them. . . . This testimony is an
expression of the life of the Church, without which she
could not be conceived of. Just on this account she does
not commit to chance or to the inclination of an individ-
ual the issuing of such a testimony, but she herself un-
dertakes this task and fulfils it, through a permanent
office, through officially-appointed witnesses ; whereby
however, it is not meant that other members also of the
Church, whom the Spirit of Christ impels, could not be
qualified and would not be justified in acting as witnes-
ses. It is manifest, then, that the official witnesses, who,
in what comprises the fulfillment of the calling pertain-
ing to the entire Church, dare not exercise a work of
their own inclination, but they who stand there in the
service of the Church, have to act only in the sense of
the Church. As to what, therefore, concerns the doctrine,
they are throughout pointed to that which is firmty
established as the faith of the congregation and the doc-
trine of the Church, and which is delivered to them in this
capacity through the Confessions of the Church. The
Confessions are to them the norm of their official activ-
ity. . . . By this obligation required of the teachers no
violence is done them. For the Church has not compel-
led them to accept the doctrines, but they have offered
themselves to her for a service which the Church will
not prevent them from abandoning at any moment. If,
however, she has accepted their offer, she has done so
upon the presumption that they who desire her minister-

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 107

ial office are also one with her in the faith. . . . He who
in the true sense is chtirchly , and at the same time of a
sincere heart, will not complain of the constraint of the
symbols^ 6. But to him who in the heart does not stand
in the centre of the faith of the Church, or who in the
progress of knowledge has fallen into error, the symbol
becomes of course a law ; it is to him strange and more
or less incomprehensible. He experiences now constraint,
as he ought. No one can expect the Church to leave it
to the option of the individual as to how he should ex-
ercise his office of testimony and confession. ... As she
cannot know either whether all who apply for service
in her ministry do this from a sincere heart, or whether
all her teachers will in the future be preserved from er-
ror, she must at least maintain her rights and protect
the welfare of the whole, so far as it is possible, against
the subjective arbitrariness of the individual. The obli-
gation to the symbols becomes necessary, and just
those teachers of the Church who are the loudest in
their complaints of it as an intolerable constraint prove

thereby how necessary it is

The teacher who enters into the service of the Church
is actually free with respect to the symbols when he
truly shares the faith of the Church, and is thus in a full
sense a living member of it. This true freedom he may,
in case of necessity, exercise even with respect to the

symbols The teacher who is convinced that he

has discovered a more suitable form has not only the
right, but it is his duty, to bring this to the knowledge
of the Church ; and no intelligent person will see in his
activity, directed to the improvement of the Church's
doctrine, any opposition to the same That the

i6. '• No one who is true to the Augsburg Confession will complain of these
writings, but will cheerfully accept and tolerate them as witnesses of the truth" {F,
C, p. 538, ").

108 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

one making an innovation will act with great prudence
and forbearance is self-evident, provided he is at heart
in a right relation to the Church. Above all, he will re-
gard it a matter of great moment to investigate aright
the symbol itself before he comes forward with his op-
position. He will not only with all conscientiousness
read, but will also study it, in order, so far as it is pos-
sible, to grasp its true sense ; he will examine it accord-
ing to the not generally easily observed distinction
between what, on the one hand, belongs to the matter
concerned and its simple designation, and, on the other,
what may be a purely temporal addition. Such an in-
vestigation of the earnest labor of the fathers as would
be not merely scientific would itself admonish still more
humility and modesty.

Thus it is also clear that the current talk about the
insufficiency of the symbols cannot in the least be sup-
ported. This, too, often proceeds from those who them-
selves do not share in the faith of the Church, and, just
on that account, are incapable of comprehending the
true sense of her Confession ; and with their voice there
accords that of a large number of such as have scarcely
superficially read the Confessions, not to say studied
them It is manifest, therefore, of how great im-
portance it must be to the minister of the Church to
obtain the best possible understanding of her Confes-
sions. But it will certainly become clear likewise that
this knowledge is attained not so much by the study of
the later dogmatics, as by the investigation and study,
on all sides, of the period in which these documents or-
iginated. As they are the result of an historical develop-
ment, the attempt ought to be made to comprehend this
in all its tendencies."

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 109
3. The Church Doctrine as consisting of Articles of Faith,

Hollaz defines an article of faith as '*a part of the
doctrine revealed in the written Word of God, concern-
ing God and divine things, set forth to be believed by the
sinner to his salvation."

These Articles of Faith are divided, according to their
contents into ''pure" and ''mixed" articles.

Pure articles of faith treat of those divine mysteries
which transcend the capacity of unaided human reason,
which yet are divinely revealed in the Word of God and
are simply matters of faith, as the article concerning the
Trinity, the union of the divine and human natures in
Christ, etc.

Mixed articles are those parts of Christian doctrine
which are known to some extent from the light of nat-
ure, as the being and attributes of God, etc. Quenstedt,
however, says of such mixed articles, that "they are not
believed so far as they are known by the light of nature,
but in so far as they are known by divine revelation."
The mixed articles coalesce with the so-called religion of
nature. " Rationalism," says Hase, " finds the source of
Christianity in the mixed articles, in the pure, only the
phenomenon."

According to their importance, articles of faith are
divided into "fundamental" and "non-fundamental"
articles.

The "fundamental" articles are those which are in-
timately connected with the foundation of the faith,
which cannot be unknown, or at least not denied, con-
sistently with faith and salvation.

" The foundation of the faith" is either substantial
or dogmatic. The "substantial" foundation of the faith
and salvation is Christ, since he is the meritorious cause
oi obtaining froni God forgiveness of sins and eternal

110 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

life. The " dogmatic " foundation of the faith is the col-
lection of doctrines divinely revealed, by v^hich Christ,
the substantial foundation of the faith, and the sources
and means of salvation necessarily connected therev^ith,
are set forth. But the substantial and the dogmatic
foundation of the faith are not two foundations essen-
tially contradistinguished from each other, nor do they
differ as to their subject-matter. For Christ is the
foundation, as to the subject-matter ; the doctrine con-
cerning Christ is the foundation, as to our knowledge
(Hollaz).

The "fundamental" articles are divided into "pri-
mary fundamental" articles, without the knowledge of
which no one can attain unto eternal salvation, or
which must be known in order for any one to hold the
foundation of the faith and secure salvation, and the
"secondary fundamental" articles, which one maybe ig-
norant of, but dare not deny, much less oppose, without
injury to the foundation of the faith {Quenstedt) .

The " primary fundamental " articles are subdivided
into 1) constituent, 2) antecedent, and 3) consequent
articles of faith.

The "constituent" articles of faith are those which
immediately and most nearly relate to our salvation,
and intrinsically constitute and cause faith, such as the
doctrines of the Trinity, of Sin, of the Word of God, of
Regeneration, of Conversion, of Justification, of the uni-
versal Atonement and Merits of Christ, of Faith, etc.

The "antecedent" articles are those which do not,
indeed cause justifying and saving faith, nor are abso-
lutely and immediately necessary to its existence, but
which are, nevertheless, necessary to the complete and
permanent establishment of those doctrines which pro-
duce and constitute faith, as the doctrines of the exist-

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. Ill

ence of God, of Divine Revelation, of the Divinity of
Christ, of the Sinfulness of Man, of the Divine and Hu-
man Natures of Christ, of the Resurrection of the Dead,
of the Last Judgment, etc.

The ** consequent" articles are those v^hich so neces-
sarily follow established faith, that if they be not held,
faith itself again is lost, as the doctrines of the Eternal
Duration of God, the Executive Justice of God, the Regal
Office of Christ, of Baptism, the Lord's Supper, the Mys-
tical Union, of Sanctification, of the Church, etc. (After
HoUaz).

The "secondary fundamental" articles are those, a
simple v^ant of acquaintance with which does not pre-
vent our salvation, but the pertinacious denial of, and
hostility to, will overturn the foundation of faith, as
the characteristic peculiarities of the Divine Persons, of
the Intercommunication of Attributes in Christ, of Orig-
inal Sin, of Predestination, etc.

The ''non-fundamental" articles of faith are parts of
the Christian doctrine which one maybe ignorant of, or
deny, and yet be saved, as the question of the Time of
Creation, of the Cause of the Fall of the Angels, of the
Character of Antichrist, of the Origin of the Soul, etc.
But at the same time we must be careful even in the
treatment of these articles, because under certain cir-
cumstances these non-fundamental articles may become
in their relation to other articles, fundamental.

This distinction between ''fundamental" and "non-
fundamental" articles has been drawn by our dogma-
ticians to make clear the doctrinal differences between
the Lutheran Church, on the one side, and the Reformed
and Roman Catholic Churches, on the other side.

To the true unity of the Church a hearty and honest
consent is required in the fundamental Articles of Faith.

112 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

But here the question arises what doctrines are funda-
mental? Philippi says^ : '' The expiatory death of the
God-man, through which the restoration of communion
with God is imparted, and upon which it is founded,
forms both the centre and the foundation of salvation.
. . . Dogmatic theology is nothing more than the devel-
opment, in its various directions, of this central funda-
mental doctrine The one fundamental ' doctrine

forming the centre sets forth in itself the various ideas
and doctrines of salvation that it contains ; and there-
fore everything thus developed by inner necessity from
this centre is just as fundamental as the centre itself
Thus, about the central fundamental doctrine (the con-
stitutive article, specially so called) the entire collection
of peripheral fundamental doctrines (consecutive ar-
ticles) is formed, which again, on their part, enclose the
centre in wider or narrower concentric circles. . . .There
is, therefore, a continuous series of divine fundamental
facts, and of divine fundamental testimonies correspond-
ing to these facts, which taken together extend back to
the centre, namely, the fact of redemption and the doc-
trine of redemption, and proceed therefrom But

we have to consider not only the distinction between
the central and the concentric or peripheral, but also the
distinction between that which is immediately Rnd that
which is mediately fundamental. To the ' immediately
fundamental' belong all such doctrines as relate to
divine facts v^rhich still continue to form the ground of
our salvation, — the facts of creation, of redemption,
and of sanctification. Here there is indeed that which

I. Kirchl. Glbslehre. I. (Third Edition), pp. 112 — 115. For a translation of
this whole discussion of Philippi on "What is a fundamental Doctrine ? " {pp.
112 — 124), see Jacobs' Book of Concord ^ vol. 2, pp. 321 — 327. On the general sub-
ject compare Rudelbach's Reformation^ Lutherthum tind Lhiion, Chap. 12, //.
540—608.

CHUllCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 113

is central and peripheral, but all is immediately funda-
mental.

On the other hand, the * mediate fundamental ' doc-
trines are such as either refer to divine facts, v^hich, if
they formerly constituted the foundation of our salva-
tion, constitute it no longer (as the original creation in
the divine image), or as are not properly acts pertain-
ing to salvation, but only acts preparatory to those
of salvation, or acts of judgment following the re-
jection of the acts of salvation ; or as refer to human
acts (as the original and continued fall of man from
God), to v^hich the divine facts of judgment and salva-
tion stand in the closest relation. But even these 'me-
diate fundamental ' doctrines still remain fundamental
doctrines, in so far as they not only are inwardly con-
nected with the immediate peripheral fundamental doc-
trines, but also have been organically developed with
them from the one central fundamental doctrine; so
that a holding in its purity of these doctrines, or an al-
teration of the same, must be reciprocal, as has actually
been found to occur."

On the other hand Frank ^ says, and in substance
with him agrees Luthardt: '^A new elaboration of the
doctrine of fundamental statements is certainly needed,
since the form of the same thus far presented from
Nicholas Hunnius to Philippi is objectionable from the
fact that it seeks mostly to draw the distinction ac-
cording to an entirely objective rule, according to the

knowledge necessary for salvation In fact, the

dogmaticians, in drawing the distinction between fun-

2. In his Theologie der Concordienformely vol. i, //. 17 — 20. Erlangen,
1858. This passage is also translated by Dr. Jacobs in Book of Concord, vol. 2,
pp. 327 — 329, (Philippi, in his third edition, in a foot-note (/. 124) remarks, that
as far as he can see, there is an essential agreement between Frank and himself,
and that the only difference is that his own presentation is developed further).

114 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

damentals and non-fundamentals, have not manifested
a very clear perception — not merely that they are everj^-
where in doubt as to whether to designate a doctrine as
non-fundamental, and evidently do not agree with each
other in the statement of the same, but even when they
have taken courage to name a doctrine as non-funda-
mental, — as, for example, that of the Immortality of
Man before the Fall, that of the Sin and Eternal Dam-
tion of the Wicked Angels, or of Antichrist, — they im-
mediately add one restriction to another, whereby the
denial of such article may be prejudicial to the condi-
tions of salvation

That which is absolutely fundamental is only one,
namely, faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. But this occurs
in an organic way. Jesus Christ is the living, all-pene-
trating centre, the kernel and star of the entire Holy
Scriptures. Every part of revelation depends organic-
ally, and after the manner of members, upon him. Thus
viewed, everything is fundamental, and just, as in refer-
ence to the law of the Lord he who sins in one point is
guilty of all, so also especially in reference to the revela-
tion of salvation, he who attacks a single member, offers
violence to the whole organism itself and to its Head.
And, thus considered, there still remains only one thing
that is fundamental ; for as love is the fulfilling of the
law, and all else is comprehended in this one thing, so
also he who believes in the Lord Jesus Christ, has the
entire organism of salvation, with all else comprised in
it which is necessary for blessedness.

The question, according to the change from that
which is relative in the fundamental to that which is
absolute, is, then, to be decided in accordance with the
position, at the time, of the believing individual to the
organism of salvation. If an individual Christian or a

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 115

Christian congregation has at any time learned to know
any part of the saving revelation as a member of the
organism, this part, whether it appear in itself large or
small, becomes to that individual or congregation for-
ever fundamental. For with the despising or rejection of
even the least matter there is a despising and rejection
of the organism itself, whose life supports and passes
through even those things which are least. The Church,
which in its course through the world has recognized,
and in its symbols has fixed as such, one portion of sav-
ing truth after another, can therefore consider none of
the same otherwise than fundamental.

For the Church, I say, everything is fundamental
that it has obtained, in reference to doctrine, from the
Scriptures and has fixed in its Confessional writings ;
and here is the point in which every union in doctrine
between two churches must be frustrated. But in the
Church there exists partly that which is equally, partly
that which is less, and partly also that which is more,
fundamental than that of the Church itself. Of the
shepherds and teachers of the Church such a degree of
knowledge must as a rule be required, that to them
everything, even to the least point, is fundamental
which is fundamental to the Church.

But of the laity only such a degree of faith is, as a
rule, to be demanded that, founded upon that which is
absolutely fundamental, they may gradually grow up,
under the training of the Church, to the heights of
Churchly knowledge.

Finally, in a still smaller number, whose personal
knowledge of salvation is more comprehensive than
that of the Church, the extent of that which is funda-
mental is increased in proportion as they have entered,
in a still greater degree than the Confession, into the
depths and remote places of the organism of salvation."

116 INTKODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

4. The Fundamental Principles of Faith of the General Council
of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of North America 1.

The growth of Church consciousness has been a
marked feature of the later Hfe of the Lutheran Church

I. The Lutheran Church in this country (1888) consists in round
numbers of 4,000 ministers, 7,000 congregations, and r, 000,000 of com-
muning members. It is divided into 58 Synods, and organized under
4 General bodies: i) General Synod, North, since 1821 ; 2) General
Council, since 1867 ; 3) Synodical Conference, since 1872 ; 4) United
Synod, South, since 1886.

The first, the General Synod is largely unionistic, but with growing
elements of a more churchly character in faith and practice. There are
two elements in it, the one laying a greater stress on the distinctive doc-
trines and usages of Lutheranism, and the other warmly encouraging
all syncretistic plans of union.

The second general body, the General Council, to which the Swedish
Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod belongs, is strictly Lutheran
in Confession, but in the practical application of its principles in dis-
cipline, especially on the " four points " in controversy (" pulpit and
altar fellowship, Chiliasm and Secret Societies "), has failed to satisfy the
Synodical Conference, and several independent Synods, as the Iowa
and Ohio Synods. Even among the nine Synods comprising the Gen-
eral Council there has been some difference in the application of the
principles involved in the " four points," some applying them more
strictly than others, but, in general, the great work of the General
Council has been and is, to educate the mind of the Church, and to
protest against all unionistic tendencies, secret associations, and all er-
rors in doctrine, endeavoring to solve the great problem of the Lutheran
Church, of this country, how to unite the various nationalities, speaking
different languages (English, German, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish,
Finnish, etc.), into one body, harmonious in faith and practice.

The Synodical C^/?/<?r<?«^<?, the outgrowth of the Synod of Missouri,
has been by pre-eminence the representative of Lutheran Orthodoxy,
and has been noted for its strong testimony against all unionistic ten-
dencies, for its unflinching stand against all errors in doctnne, and es-
pecially for its bold denouncement of all secret organizations.

The United Synod, South, the smallest of the four general bodies,
is churchly and conservative, strictly Lutheran in Confession, and in

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS OF FAITH. 117

in this country. Its outgrowth has been the organiza-
tion of the General Council in 1867, and of the Synod i-
cal Conference in 1872.

The strict confessionalism of the General Council can
be seen from its statements of the ' ' fundamental and
unchangeable " Princ/pyes of Fait h'^, which lie as the

practice more in harmony with the General Council than with the Gen-
eral Synod.

2. i) There must be and abide through all time, one holy Christian
Church, which is the assembly of all believers, among whom the Gospel
is purely preached, and the Holy Sacraments are administered, as the
Gospel demands.

To the true Unity of the Church, it is sufficient that there be agree-
ment touching the doctrine of the Gospel, that it be preached in one
accord, in its pure sense, and that the Sacraments be administered con-
formably to God's Word.

2) The true Unity of a particular Church, in virtue of which men
are truly members of one and the same Church, and by which any
Church abides in real identity, and is entitled to a continuation of her
name, is unity in doctrine and faith and in the Sacraments, to-wit :
That she continues to teach and to set forth, and that her true mem-
bers embrace from the heart, and use, the articles of faith and the
Sacraments as they were held and administered when the Church
came into distinctive being and received a distinctive name.

3) The Unity of the Church is witnessed to, and made manifest in
the solemn, public and official Confessions which are set forth, to-wit :
The generic Unity of the Christian Church in the general Creeds, and
the specific Unity of pure parts of the Christian Church in their specific
Creeds ; one chief object of both classes of which Creeds is, that Chris-
tians who are in the Unity of faith, may know each other as such, and
may have a visible bond of fellowship.

4) That Confessions may be such a testimony of Unity and bond
of Union, they must be accepted in every statement of doctrine, in
their own true, native, original and only sense. Those who set them
forth and subscribe them, must not only agree to use the same words,
but must use and understand those words in one and the same sense.

5) The Unity of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, as a portion of
the holy Christian Church, depends upon her abiding in one and the

118 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

basis of its Constitution. Krauth^ : ''Accepting these
principles, we stand upon the everlasting foundation
—the Word of God: believing that the Canonical Books
of the Old and New Testament are in their original

same faith, in confessing which she obtained her distinctive being and
name, her political recognition, and her history.

6) The Unaltered Augsburg Confession is by pre-eminence the Con-
fession of that faith. The acceptance of its doctrines and the avowal of
them without equivocation or mental reservation, make, mark and iden-
tify that Church, which alone in the true, original, historical and honest
sense of the term is the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

7) The only Churches, therefore, of any land, which are properly in
the Unity of that Communion, and by consequence entitled to its name,
Evangelical Lutheran, are those which sincerely hold and truthfully
confess the doctrines of the Unaltered Augsburg Confession.

8) We accept and acknowledge the doctrines of the Unaltered
Augsburg Confession in its original sense as throughout in conformity
with the pure truth of which God's Word is the only rule. We accept
its statements of truth as in perfect accordance with the Canonical
Scriptures. We reject the errors it condemns, and beUeve that all
which it commits to the liberty of the Church, of right belongs to that
liberty.

9) In thus formally accepting and acknowledging the Unaltered
Augsburg Confession, we declare our conviction, that the other Con-
fessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, inasmuch as they set
forth none other than its system of doctrine, and articles of faith, are of
necessity pure and Scriptural. Pre-emment among such accordant,
pure and Scriptural statements of doctrine, by their intrinsic excellence,
by the great and necessary ends for which they were prepared, by their
historical position, and by the general judgment of the Church, are these :
the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Smalcald Articles, the
Catechisms of Luther, and the Formula of Concord, all of which are,
with the Unaltered Augsburg Confession, in the perfect harmony of
one and the same Scriptural faith.

3. Condensed from Dr. Krauth's Conservative Reformation, pp. 165—169.
Dr. Krauth also was the author of "The Principles of Faith and Church Polity,"
which were adopted, as the basis of the Constitution of the General Council, at
Reading, Pa., 1866.

CHURCH DOCTRINE AND SUBJECTIVE CONSCIOUSNEvSS OF FAITH. 119

tongues, and in a pure text, the perfect and only rule of
faith. . . . Not any word of man, no creed, commentary,
theological system, nor decision of Fathers or of Coun-
cils, no doctrine of Churches, or of the whole Church, no
results or judgments of reason, however strong, mat-
ured, and well informed, no one of these, and not all of
these together, but God's Word alone is the rule of faith.
No apocryphal books, but the canonical books alone,

are the rule of faith

As the acceptance of the Word of God as a Rule of
Faith separates us from the Mohammedan, as the re-
ception of the New Testament sunders us from the Jew,
as the hearty acquiescence in the Apostles', Nicene and
Athanasian Creeds shows us, in the face of all errorists
of the earlier ages, to be in the faith of the Church Cath-
olic, so does our unreserved acceptance of the Augsburg
Confession mark us as Lutherans ; and the acceptance
of the Apology, the Catechisms of Luther, the Smalcald
Articles, and the Formula of Concord, continues the
work of marking our separation from all errorists of
every shape, whose doctrines are in conflict with the
true sense of the Rule of Faith— that Rule whose teach-
ings are rightly interpreted and faithfully embodied in
the Confessions afore-mentioned. Therefore, God help-
ing us, we will teach the whole faith of His Word,
which faith our Church sets forth, explains, and defends
in her Symbols. We do not interpret God's Word by
the Creed, neither do we interpret the Creed by God's
Word, but interpreting both independently, by the laws
of language, and finding that they teach one and the
same truth, we heartily acknowledge the Confession as
a true exhibition of the faith of the Rule,— a true witness
to the one, pure, and unchanging faith of the Christian
Church."

120 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

5. The Consciousness of Faith.

By the consciousness of faith we mean that internal
assurance and inner possession which the dogmatician
has of those saving truths of Christianity, which the
Scriptures reveal and the Church teaches. It is this inner
consciousness of faith which is the starting-point and
the source of the reproduction of doctrine in a dogmatic
system, but such a presentation of doctrine must be
based on the Word of God as the Rule of Faith, and
compared with the doctrine of the Church.

SECTION XIV.

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS.

The division of the material is suggested by
the contents and the aim of Dogmatics, namely,
the delineation of that fellowship with God on
the part of man, which has come into historic
being in Christ. The arrangement has been made
sometimes synthetically, sometimes analytically,
sometimes in accordance with the three articles
of the Apostles' Creed, and sometimes in the
historic order of the development of its great
leading parts.

LuTHARDT, after his "Prolegomena" (§ 1—14) and
"History of Dogmatics" (§ 15—21) presents his sys-
tem under six heads :

1) The Establishment of the Fellowship of God in
the Will of God's Eternal Love (§ 22—32) ;

2) The Creation of Man and of the World which has
been given to him, as the beginning of the historical
Actualizing of the Divine Love and Purpose (§ 33—39) ;

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS. 121

3) The Disruption of the Original Fellowship of God
through sin, and the Preparation for its Restoration
(§ 40—45) ;

4) The Restoration of the Fellowship of God in
Christ Jesus (§ 46—56) ;

5) The Appropriation of the Fellowship of God re-
stored in Christ Jesus (i^ 57—74) ;

6) The Completion of the Fellowship of God or
The Last Things (§ 75—79).

Martensen, Marheineke and Kahnis follow the order
of the articles of the Apostles' Creed :

1) The Doctrine of the Father;

2) The Doctrine of the Son ;

3) The Doctrine of the Spirit.

Philippi divides his system into five parts and fol-
lows the order of the historical actualizing of the Fel-
lowship of Man v^ith God :

1) The Original Fellowship of God;

2) The Disruption of the Fellowship of God;

3) The Restoration of the Fellowship of God ;

a) Of Election and the Person of Christ.

b) Ofthe Work of Christ.

4) The Appropriation ofthe Fellowship of God;

a) The Order of Salvation.

b) The Means of Grace.

c) The Doctrine of the Church.

5) The Completion ofthe Fellowship of God.

And so in substance the systems of Thomasius and
Frank, though otherwise formulated.

In our own system w^e will follov^ the order of
Luthardt's Kompendium, but instead of his main divis-
ions as given above, we will employ the technical ex-
pressions generally used in the synthetic method. In
order to present the whole system of Dogmatic Theol-

122 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ogy before the eye of the student, we herewith give an
diitline, according to which the subject-matter of Dog-
matics will be treated.

PROLEGOMENA OR INTRODUCTION (§ i— 21).

§ I. The Object of the Introduction.

I. Definition of Dogmatics (§ 2—5).
§ 2. Definition of Theology.

1. Usage of the word Theology.

2. Divisions of Theology.

3. Definition of Revealed Theology.

4. Means of Theological Study.

5. Aim of Theology.
§ 3. The Claims of Theology.

1. Its historical existence.

2. Its necessity.

3. Its possibility.

4. Relation of Theology and Philosophy.
§ 4. The Organism of Theology.

1. The Departments of Theology.

2. The Relation of Dogmatics and Ethics.
§ 5. The Definition of Dogmatics.

1. Definition of Dogma.

2. The Name of this Science.

3. Definition of Dogmatics.

II. Contents of Dogmatics (§ 6— 11).

§ 6. Definition of Religion.

1. The word Religion.

2. Definition of Religion.

§ 7. The Essential Character and Truth of Religion.

1. Religion in its subjective sense.

2. Religion in its objective sense.

3. The Origin of Religion.

4. The Truth of Religion.

§ 8. Divisions of Religions. *

1. True and False.

2. Natural and Positive.

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS. 123

"§ 9. The Essential Character of Christianity.

1. The Relation of Christianity to Heathenism and Judaism.

2. The Essential Character of Christianity.

3. The Historical Conception of Christianity.

4. The Truth of Christianity.

§ 10. Romanism and Protestantism contrasted.

1. False explanations of the difference.

2. A general Statement of the difference.

3. The Essential Character of Romanism.

4. Romanism criticised.

5. The Essential Character of Protestantism.
^11. Lutheran Protestantism.

1. The Difference between Lutheran and Reformed Protes-
tantism.

2. The Material and Formal Principle.

3. The Material Principle of Lutheranism.

4. The Formal Principle of Lutheranism.

5. The Historical Character of Lutheran Protestantism.

6. The Internal Assurance of Salvation.

III. Method of Dogmatics (§ 12 — 14).
§ 12. The Formation of a Dogmatic System.

1. The Material Principle of Dogmatics.

2. The Holy Scriptures as the Normative factor of Dogma-
tics.

3. The Canon of Scripture.

4. The Interpretation of Scripture.

§ 1 3. The Church Doctrine and the Subjective Consciousness of Faith.

1. The Churchly Character of Dogmatics.

2. The Confessions of the Church.

3. The Church Doctrine as consisting of Articles of Faith.

4. The Fundamental Principles of Faith of the General
Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of North America.

5. The Consciousness of Faith.
§ 14. The Disposition of Dogmatics.

IV. The History of Dogmatics (§ 15—21).
§ 15. The Dogmatics of the Ancient Church.

§ 16. The Dogmatics of the Middle Ages.

I. The Essential Character of Scholasticism.

124 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

2. The Beginnings of Scholasticism.

3. The Period of the highest bloom of Scholasticism.

4. The Period of its Decline.

5. Mysticism and Pre-Reformatory Theology.

§ 17. The Dogmatics of the Century of the Reformation.

1. The Dogmatics of Melanchthon.

2. The Melanchthonian School of Dogmatics.

3. The Reformed Dogmatics.

§ 18. The Orthodox Dogmatics of the Seventeenth Century.

1. Characteristic of this Dogmatics.

2. The divers Tendencies of this Period.

3. The Dogmaticians of this Period.

4. The Reformed or Calvinistic Dogmatics of this Period.
§ 19. The Dogmatics of the Period of Transition.

1. The Dogmatics of Pietism.

2. The Biblical Tendency.

3. The Historical Tendency.

4. The Philosophical Tendency.

§ 20. The Dogmatics of Rationalism and Supranaturalism.
• I. The Period of Illumination.

2. Kant.

3. Vulgar Rationalism.

4. Supranaturalism.

§ 21. The Dogmatics of the Most Recent Time.

1. The Renewal of Religious Faith.

2. The Philosophy of this Period.

3. The Emotional Theology of this Period.

4. The Dogmatics of the Mediating Theology.

5. Confessional Dogmatics.

PART I.

THEOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF GOD (§ 22—37),
§ 22. The Treatment of the Doctrine of God.
§ 23. The Natural Revelation of God.

1. The Significance of Revelation.

2. The Definition of Revelation.

3. General Revelation.

§ 24. The so-called Proofs of the Existence of God.

1. Proofs derived from Reflection on the World.

2. Proofs derived from Reflection of man upon himself.

\
\

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS. 125 j

§ 25. The Supernatural Revelation of God.

1. The Fact of Revelation.

2. The Definition of Revelation. i

3. The Constituent parts of Revelation. '

4. The Contents of Revelation. ;

5. The Nature of Revelation.

§ 26. The Necessity, Possibility, and Actuality of Supernatural Rev- '
elation.

1. The Necessity of Supernatural Revelation. i

2. Its Possibility. .',

3. The Relation of Reason and Revelation. '

4. The Actuality and Truth of Revelation. .
§ 27. God as the Absolute Personality. i

1. The question of the Recognition of God. :

2. The Definition of the Absolute and of Personality. |

3. The Personality of God. -;

4. Pantheism and Theism. I

5. The History of the Notion of God apart from the Bib- ]
lical one. *

6. The Biblical Notion of God. ]

7. The Churchly Theology. j
§ 28. God as Holy Love. \

1. God as Essential Goodness. 1

2. God as Perfect Holiness. j

3. God as Tender Love. .
§ 29. The Doctrine of the Divine Attributes. ;

1. The Notion of the Divine Attributes, and of their Rela-
tion to the Divine Essence.

2. Manner of Determining the Attributes.

3. Division of the Attributes. I

4. The Particular Attributes. j
§ 30. The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity. \

1. The Doctrine of the Old Testament, •

2. The Doctrine of the Nev^ Testament. j

i) The self- witness of Jesus.

2) The Apostolic Declarations. !

3) The New Testament Doctrine of the Holy Ghost. i

4) The Co-ordination of the Three Persons. j
§ 31. The Church Doctrine of the Trinity. ;

I. The History of the Doctrine. I

126 iNTRODtrcTlOK to DOGMATtC TtiEOtOGY. •

1. The Dogmatic Formulation. j

3. Explanatory Analogies and Scientific Deductions. i

4. Attacks upon the Church Doctrine of the Trinity.

§ 32. Doctrine of the Decree of God, or of Predestination. :,

1. The Scripture Doctrine. \

2. The Church Doctrine.

% 33. The Doctrine of Creation. \

1. Biblical Account of Creation.

2. Definition of Creation. J

3. The Essential Dogmatic Determinations. '-\
§ 34. The Doctrine of Providence. \

1. Transcendence and Immanence. \

2. The Assurance of Providence. \

3. The Definition of Providence. ,

4. The Object of Providence. J

5. The Form of Providence. ■

6. The Aim of Providence. j

7. Antitheses to the true Doctrine.
§ 35. The Doctrine of Miracles.

1. Miracles of Scripture. !

2. Miracles in the Church. \

3. Notion and Definition of Miracles. .]

4. The Possibility of Miracles. ;

5. The Necessity of Miracles. i

6. The Actuality of Miracles. \

7. The Divisions of Miracles. !
§ 36. The Doctrine of Angels. I

1. The Scripture Doctrine. ;

2. The Church Doctrine. i

3. Modern Criticism. »
§ 37. The Doctrine concerning Satan.

1. The Scripture Doctrine. \

2. The Church Doctrine.

3. Modern Criticism.

PART II.

ANTHROPOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF MAN (§ 38-44). j

§ 38. Man. I

1. Creation of Man. •

2. The Essential Constituents of Man. -

I'HE t)ISl»OSlTlON OF DOGMATICS. 127

3. The Unity of the Human Race.

4. The Propagation of the Soul.
§ 39. The Original Condition of Man.

1. The Scripture Doctrine. ;

2. The Church Doctrine. ]
§ 40. The Fall. '.

1. The Biblical Account.

2. The Historical Actuality of the Fall. ]

3. Attempts to explain away the Historical Facts. ;
§41. Original Sin. !

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine. I

3. Modern Criticism. i
§ 42. The Essential Character of Sin. :

1. The Scripture Doctrine,

2. The Church Doctrine.

§ 43. Actual Sins. ij

1. General Definition of Sins of Act.

2. Divisions of Sins of Act.

§ 44. Moral Bondage, or the Doctrine of Free Will. )

1. The Scripture Doctrine. j

2. The Church Doctrine. 1

PART III. j

CHRISTOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF THE PERSON i

OF CHRIST (§ 45—51). I
§ 45. The Historical Preparation for Salvation.

1. Beginning of the History of Divine Revelation. ^

2. The Heathen World. j

3. Israel. 1
§ 46. The Postulate of the divine-human Mediator.

1. The Necessity of the Atonement. ^

2. The Ground of the Incarnation. |

3. The Person of Christ. '
§ 47. The Reality and the Integrity of the Two Natures of Christ. ']

1. The Scripture Doctrine. ;

2. The Church Doctrine. \
§ 48. The God-Man. ^

1. The Scripture Doctrine. I

2. The Historical Unfolding of the Church Doctrine. j

128 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. ^

§ 49, Doctrine of the Dogmaticians concerning the God-Man. :j

1. Unitio or Incarnation.

2. The Personal Union. 5

3. The Communion of Natures.

4. The Personal Propositions.

5. The Communicatio Idiomatum. .

i) Genus Idiomaticum.

2) Genus Majestaticum. j

3) Genus Apotelesmaticum. '
§ 50. The Humiliation of Christ. I

1. The Scripture Doctrine. |

2. The Church Doctrine. j
§ 51. The Modern Development of the Christological Dogma. j

PART IV. '

SOTERIOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF THE WORK OF

CHRIST (§ 52—56).

§ 52. The Mediatorial Office of Christ. ^

1. Jesus is the Mediator. '

2. The three-fold Office of Christ. ■
§ 53. The Prophetic Office.

1. The Scripture Doctrine. \

2. The Church Doctrine. > [
§ 54. The Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement. j

1 . Sin brings guilt. ;

2. The Old Testament Doctrine concerning Sacrifice. j

3. The Utterances of the Gospel in regard to the Sufferings \
of Christ.

4. The Utterances of the Apostles. j
§ 55. The Church Doctrine of the Atonement. j

1. The Ancient Church. j

2. The Church of the Middle Ages. i

3. The Reformation. ]

4. The Dogmaticians of the Seventeenth Century. 1

5. Further History of the Dogma. I
§ 56. The Regal Office. i

1. The Descent into Hell. j

2. The Resurrection of Christ. :

3. The Ascension to Heaven.

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS. 129

4. The Sitting at the Right Hand of the Father.

5. The Intercession.

6. The Kingdom of Christ.

PART V.

PNEUMATOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF THE WORK
OF THE HOLY SPIRIT (§ 57—66).

§ 57. The Arrangement of the Material.
§ 58. The Grace of the Holy Spirit.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 59. The Calling or Vocation.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 60. Illumination.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 61. Conversion.

1. The Scripture Doctrine. t

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 62. Repentance.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§63. Faith.

1. The Scripture Doctrine,

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 64. Justification.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctnne.
§ 65, Regeneration and the Mystical Union.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 66. Sanctification, Renovation, Good Works.

1. The Church Doctrine.

2. The Scripture Doctrine.

130 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

PART YI.

ECCLESIOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE CONCERNING THE

CHURCH (§ 67—74).
§ 67. The Essential Character and Attributes of the Church.

1. The Scripture Doctrine. .

2. The Church Doctrine.

3. The Later Development of the Doctrine of the Church.
§ 68. The Holy Scriptures.

1. The Testimony of Scripture to itself.

2. The Church Doctrine.

i) The ancient Catholic Church.

2) The Church of the Middle Ages.

3) The Roman Catholic Church.

4) The Protestant Church.

5) The Doctrine of the Dogmaticians.

6) The more recent Development of the Doctrine con-
cerning the Holy Scriptures.

§ 69. The Means of Grace.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 70. The Word of God.

1 . The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.
§ 71. Baptism.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

i) The ancient Catholic Church.

2) The Church of the Middle Ages.

3) The Protestant Church.
§ 72. The Lord's Supper.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

1) The Ancient Church.

2) The Church of the Middle Ages and the Roman
Catholic Church.

3) The Reformation.

4) The Dogmaticians.

5) Modern Criticism of the Doctrine.

THE DISPOSITION OF DOGMATICS. 131

§ 73. The Sacraments.

1. The Ancient Catholic and Roman Church.

2. Protestantism.

3. Appendix : The Sacraments so-called of the Roman
Church.

§ 74. The Doctrine of the Ministry.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

PART YII.

ESCHATOLOGIA OR THE DOCTRINE OF THE LAST

THINGS (§ 75-79).
§ 75. Life after Death. Immortality.

1. The Testimony of the Universal Human Consciousness.

2. The Scripture Doctrine concerning the State after Death.

3. The Church Doctrine.

§ 76. The Second Coming of Christ.

1. The Conversion of the Gentiles.

2. Antichrist.

3. The Second Coming of Christ.

4. The so-called Reign of a Thousand Years. Chiliasm.
§ TJ. The General Resurrection.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

§ 78. The Final Judgment and the End of the World.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

§ 79. Eternal Life and Eternal Death.

1. The Scripture Doctrine.

2. The Church Doctrine.

132 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

IV. THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS.
SECTION XV.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH.

The Theology of the Ancient Church was in-
fluenced by the prevaihng* philosophy of portions
of the Church. It is the patristic theology, and
so far from possessing the unity which is claimed
for it by those w^ho desire to give it an undue
authority, it is for its range the most diversifled
and conflicting, in manifold respects, of all the
theologies of the various eras.

I. THE APOSTOLICAL FATHERS.

We cannot properly speak of a theology of the Apos-
tolical Fathers^ (Clement of Rome, Author of Epistle
to Diognetus, Polycarp, Ignatius, Barnabas, Papias)
for they preserve and continue the Apostolic tradition,
making continual reference to the oral preaching of the
Apostles. The Apologists^ of the second century (Justin

1. Of the three well-known editions of the original i) Jacobson, 2) Hefele,
3) Gebhardt, Harnack, Zahn, the last is the best and most complete. Of mono-
graphs, Lightfoot's Clement of Rome (2 vols.) and Ignatius and Polycarp (3 vols.,
1885) are superior to anything that has ever been attempted before. They are com-
mentaries, containing a revised Greek text, introductions, notes and dissertations.

The best English translation and most accessible is the one found in vol. i. of
the Ante-Nicene Fathers^ published by " The Christian Literature Publishing
Co.," 1885.

Compare also Church Histories of Schaff, Hase, Neander, and Kurtz, and
Donaldson's Apostolical Fathers, London, 1874.

2. For Bibliography of separate authors see Richardson's Bibliographical
Synopsis to Anti-Nicene Fathers (Christian Literature Company, 1887). For
students we would especially recommend Gildersleeve's edition of the Apologies of
Justin Martyr, and March's edition of Athenagoras, published by Harper & Bros.,
in the Douglass series of Christian Greek and Latin writers. An English transla-
tion is given in vol. i (//. 159—578) and vol. 2 (//>. 59—162) of the American edj.
tion of the Ante-Nicene Fathers,

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 133

Martyr, Irenasus, Tatiaii,Theophilus,andAthenagoras)
through their \vri tings, by their refutation of the slan-
ders of Jews and Gentiles, by their vindication of the
truths of the Gospel and their attack of the errors and
vices of idolatry, prepared the way for the speculations
of the Alexandrian School, whose chief representatives
are Clement of Alexandria and Origen.

II. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
I. The School of Alexandria.

1) Clement OF Alexandria^ (d. about 220) after
Justin Martyr and Irenseus, may be regarded as the
founder of Christian literature. He became the sucessor
of Pantasnus in the Catechetical School of Alexandria
(after 180 a. d.), and had Origen for his pupil, who suc-
ceeded him in 202 A. d. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444)
calls Clement ''a man admirably learned and skilful,
one that searched to the depths all the learning of the
Greeks, with an exactness rarely attained before," and
Eusebius {d. 340) praises him as an "incomparable
master of Christian philosophy." His works are full of

3. An English translation of the extant works of Clement is given in the
American edition of the Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 2, pp. 163 — 605. For a full
Bibliography of all the Ante-Nicene Fathers see Richardson's Bibliographical
Synopsis^ The Christian Literature Co., 1887.

To avoid burdening our pages with so many references, we here once for all
call attention to the Encyclopsedias and works of reference, which are of especial
value to the student in the study of the lives, views, and writings of the different
writers, theologians, and dogmaticians which are mentioned in this brief outline,
and which have been moie or less used in the preparation of these notes.

The Encyclopcedias of Plitt-Hauck-Herzog, Schaff-Herzog, Alexander-Kitto,
Johnson, McClintock-Strong, Smith -Wace, Encyclopaedia Britannica. etc.; the
Church Histories of Schaff, Hase, Neander, Kurtz, Robertson, Hagenbach,
Herzog, Gieseler, Guericke, Hardwick, Milman, Mosheim, Neale, etc.; among the
works on History of Doctrines and of Dogmatics we would mention the works of
Kliefoth, Thomasius, Harnoch, Neander, Frank, Dorner, Hagenbach, H. Schmid,
Shedd, Crippen, etc.

We will refer in our foot-notes to special monographs, and to the more im-
portant works bearing on the topic or person under consideration.

134 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

quotations from the older Greek authors. He aims to
harmonize Greek philosophy and Christianity, and seeks
to guide his readers from faith (pistis) to knowledge
(gnosis) by the aid of philosophy.

His three great works 1) The Exhortation to the
Greeks, 2) The Instructor, and 3) The Miscellanies or
Stromata, are really parts of one whole system, repre-
senting three progressive stages in a systema^tic teach-
ing of Christianity, and are among the most valuable
remains of Christian antiquity.

These three works were composed by him during his
residence as a teacher in Alexandria, and in his '' Exhor-
tation," which is a work on Apologetics, he points out
the unreasonableness and immorality of heathenism ; in
his ''Instructor" or "Educator," which is a work on
Ethics, he unfolds Christian morality, with constant
reference to heathen practices; his "Miscellanies," a
work of a dogmatical character, aims to furnish the
material for the construction of a Christian philosophy
on the basis of faith. This last work, though written
carelessly, is a storehouse of immense learning. Though
his writings are rich in brilliant thoughts, abounding
in passages of power and beauty, he often repeats him-
self and is lacking in clear, fixed method.

ScHAFF : " His theology is not a unit, but a confused
ecletic mixture of Christian elements with many Stoic,

Platonic, and Philonic ingredients His ethical

principles are those of the Hellenic philosophy, inspired
by the genius of Christianity".

Though Clement has never been branded with heresy
like Origen, still "in his utterances concerning the Son,
the Philonic wavering between the theory of subordina-
tion and Modalism is not fully overcome " (Ueberweg) *,

4. See his History of Philosophy^ vol. i. //. 311 — 315 for a careful estimate
of Clement as a philosopher and a theologian.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHtfRCH. 135

and his exegesis of Scripture was cast in the same fan-
tastic allegorical mould as that of Origen, his pupil and
successor.

2) Origen 5 (d. 254) was the greatest scholar of all
the Ante-Nicene Fathers, but he was by no means or-
thodox, either in the Roman Catholic or Protestant
sense. It is in his early dogmatic work De Principiis,
i. e., on the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith,
that he lays himself open to charges of false doctrine.

This A^ork of Origen is divided into four books : in
the first, he treats of God, of Christ, of the Holy Ghost,
of angels ; in the second book, of the creation of the
world, of the incarnation of Christ, of the soul, of the
resurrection, of judgment, of punishment; in the third,
of the freedom of the will, of sin, of the end of the world ;
in the fourth, of the inspiration of the Scriptures, their
authority and interpretation, together with a summary
of the doctrine of the Trinity, and of various other doc-
trines.

This was the first attempt to set forth a complete
system of dogmatics, and is full of Platonizing and
gnosticising errors, some of which Origen retracted in
his later years.

The points on which Origen departed from the or-
thodox faith are mainly these :

1) His doctrine that the souls of men had previously
existed, and that their imprisonment in material bodies
was a punishment for sins which they had then com-
mitted ;

5. For an English translation of his De Principiis and Cojttra Celsum see
Coxa's edition of the Ante-Nicene Fathers^ vol. 4, pp. 223 — 669. For two valuable
monographs see Thoniasius^ Gott,, Origines, ein Beitrag zur Dogmengesch. des
dritten Jahrhunderts. Nurnberg, 1837. Redepenning^ E. R.^ Origines, eine Dar-
stellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre. 2 vols. (Pp. xvi, 461 ; xvi, 491), Bonn,
1841 — 46.

136 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

2) His doctrine that the human soul of Christ had
also previously existed and been united to the Divine
nature before the Incarnation ;

3) His doctrine of an eternal creation;

4) His denial of a material resurrection;

5) His doctrine of an universal restoration, that the
work of redemption extends to the inhabitants of the
stars, and that all men, the evil angels, and Satan him-
self, shall be finally restored ;

6) Although he was the first to teach expressly the
eteri2a7 generation of the Son, yet in the great Christo-
logical controversies of the fourth century the Arians
(heteroousios), the Semi-Arians (homoiousios) and the
Athanasians (homoousios) , all equally regarded Origen
as on their side.

In this treatise De Principiis his principles of inter-
preting Scripture are also brought out, and although
Origen may be regarded as the father of critical investi-
gation of Scripture, and his greatest service was in
exegesis, nevertheless his principles of exposition, though
put forth by him in a devout spirit and with many cau-
tions, have a tendency to subvert belief in the historical
truth of Scripture.

ScHAFF : " His great defect is the neglect of the gram-
matical and historical sense and his constant desire to
find a hidden mystic meaning. He even goes further in
this direction than the Gnostics, who everywhere saw
transcendental, unfathomable mysteries. His hermen-
eutical principle assumes a three -fold sense — literal,
moral, and spiritual. His allegorical interpretation is
ingenious, but often runs away from the text and de-
generates into the merest caprice; while at times it
gives way to the opposite extreme of a carnal literalism,
by which he justifies his ascetic extravagance".

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 137

The treatise of Origen Against Celsus is a defence of
Christianity in opposition to a Greek philosopher named
Celsus, and is one of the ripest and most valuable of his
productions. It was written in his old age (about 248)
and is composed with care, and shows evidence of the
widest learning. As the work is in strict harmony with
the orthodox teaching of the Church, it is only fair that
we should judge Origen rather from the standpoint of
his more mature work, than from his youthful produc-
tion De Principiis.

2. The New Alexandrian School.

This School sincerely respected thememory of Origen,
and in part followed in his footsteps in their speculative
treatment of Christian doctrine. But they avoided his
unbiblical errors, and simply consistently carried out
what was sound in his teaching. Keeping clear of all
Subordinationism the theologians of this School agreed
more fully with the teachings of the divines of the
Western Church. Its leading and most orthodox repre-
sentatives were Athanasius, the three great Cappadoci-
ans, Gregory Nazianzen, Basil the Great, and Gregory
of Nyssa, and Didymus the Blind. The leaven of error
again appeared in Cyril of Alexandria, although he was
still regarded as orthodox. We may also, in this connec-
tion, refer to the Catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem.

1) Athanasius ^ (c/. 373) is the theological centre of
the Nicene age. The history of his life is the history of
the Church during that period. The "father of or-

I. The more important dogmatic works of Athanasius have been edited by
J. C. Thilo in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Patrum Grcecorum Dogmatica,
pp. 43 and 1006, Leipsic, 1853. English translation by J. H. Newman in Library
of the Fathers^ 3 vols., Oxford, 1842 — 44. May also be reprinted in second series
of Schaff's edition of The Nicene attd Post-Nicene Fathers. See also H. Voigt :
Die Lehre des Athan. (xvii, 346), Bremen, 1861 ; F. Bohringer : Athanasius und
Aritis. Stuttgart, 1874.

138 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

thodoxy," he is, on the whole, one of the purest and
most imposing characters in the history of the Church,
and no one of the Eastern Church fathers enjoyed so
high consideration in the Western Church as Athanasius.
His name is inseparable from the conflicts and the tri-
umph of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Dr. Schaff^
has well said : '' He was (and there are few such) a theo-
logical and churchly character in magnificent, antique
style. He was a man of one mould and one idea. . . St.
Paul lived and labored for Christ crucified, Gregory vii.
for the Roman hierarchy, Luther for the doctrine of jus-
tification by faith, Calvin for the idea of the sovereign
grace of God. It was the passion and the life-work of
Athanasius to vindicate the deity of Christ, which he
rightly regarded as the corner-stone of the edifice of the
Christian faith, and without which he could conceive no
redemption."

He was present at the Council of Nicsea (325), and
distinguished himself there by his zeal and ability in
refuting Arianism and vindicating the eternal deity of
Christ, — to which he devoted his whole future life. In
328 he succeeded Alexander as bishop of Alexandria,
which office he held for forty-five years, during which
period he was ten times banished, and passed twenty
years in exile, mainly in the West.

His writings are mainly directed against Arianism,
but his stormy life prevented him from composing a
large systematic work. Among his dogmatic and cow-
trovers/a/ works in defence of the Nicene faith especially
noteworthy are the Four Orations against the Arians
(358), the Four Epistles to Serapion on the Deity of the
Holy Spirit (358), and two books Against ApoUinaris,
in defence of the full humanity of Christ.

2. In his History of the Clvistian Churchy vol. 3, p. 890,

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 139

2) Gregory Nazianzen 3 {d. 390), the Theologian (in
the narrow sense of the word as the defender of the
deity of the Logos), though inferior to his bosom friend
Basil as a church ruler, and to Gregory of Nyssa as a
speculative thinker, was superior to both as an orator,
and with the exception perhaps of Chrysostom,was the
greatest orator of the Greek Church. His life, with its
alternations of high station, monastic seclusion, love of
severe studies, enthusiasm foT poetry, nature, and friend-
ship is intensely interesting (Schaff).

Gass * : In christology Gregory opposed Arianism
and Apollinarianism ; in anthropology he teaches orig-
inal sin, and derives the mortality of man from the fall.
But he held to the ability of the human will to choose
the good, and to the co-operation of man with God in
salvation (influenced by Origen).

3) Basil the Great ^ (Bishop of Ceesarea in Cappa-
docia 380—379) had all the advantages of Christian
training and classical and philosophical culture. His
life, which is more interesting than a romance, was an
illustration of strong faith, of self-denying love, of high
aims, and of royal dignity. Schaff ^^ : '' Basil is disfin-

3. See Carl Ullmann : Gregoritis von Nazianz^ der Theologe. Darmstadt,
1825. Translated (in part) by G. F. Cox. London, 1857. His most important
dogmatic writings are his Five Theological Orations in defence of the Nicene doc-
trine against the Eunomians and Macedonians, delivered in Constantinople, and
republished and edited by Goldhorn, in the second volume of Thilo's Bibliotheca
Patruni G?-cBCorum Dogmatica. Leipsic, 1854. A translation may appear in the
second series of Schaff' s edition of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

4. In Schaff- Her zog''s Encyclopcedia.

5. His most important dogmatic works {Five Books against Eunomitis^ writ-
ten in 361, in defence of the deity of Christ, and his work On the Holy Spirit ^-wr'it-
ten in 375, to Amphilochius, at his request) were republished, edited by Goldhorn,
in the second volume of Thilo's Bibliotheca Patrum Grcecorum Dogmatica. Leip-
sic, 1854. A translation may appear in the second series of Schaff's edition of The
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. See Klose: Basilius der Qros^e nach setnent
Leben und seiner Lehre dargestellt. Stralsund, 1853,

6. la his Church History, vol. 3, p. 903,

140 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

guished as a pulpit orator and as a theologian, and still
more as a shepherd of souls and a church ruler ; and in
the history of monasticism he holds a conspicious place.
In classical culture he yields to none of his contempora-
ries, and is justly placed with the twoGregories among
the very first writers among the Greek fathers."

At first, fearing Sabellianism, he belonged to the mid-
dle party (the Homoiousians) in the great conflict be-
tween Arianism and Orthodoxy, but the persecutions
of the Arians drove him to a positive confession of the
Nicene faith, and it was by the power of his spirit and
faith he preserved the Eastern Church during the fright-
ful persecutions inflicted by Valens, the Arian.

4) Gregory of Nyssa'' {d. about 395), the youngest
of the three Cappadocians and the brother of Basil the
Great, was the profoundest theologian of the three, and
excelled his two friends in philosophic acumen and
scientific attainments. Schaff^ : " Gregory did lasting
service in the vindication of the mystery of the Trinity
and the Incarnation, and in the accurate distinction be-
tween essence and hypostasis. Of all the church teach-
ers of the Nicene age he is the nearest to Origen. He not
only follows his sometimes utterly extravagant allegor-
ical method of interpretation, but even to a great extent
falls in with his dogmatic views. With him, as with

7. A selection of his most important writings, in the original Greek, together
with a German translation, has been published by Frattz Oehler in his Bibliothek
der klrchenvdter, vols, i — 4, Leipsic, 1858 — 59. Vol, I (xvi, 239) contains his
beautiful dialogue with his sister Macrina " On the Soul and the Resurrection," and
the biography of his sister addressed to the monk Olympics. Vol. II (iv, 239) con-
tains his " Catechetical Compend of the Christian Faith," "On the Trinity," etc.
Vol. Ill {p. 315) contains his work " On the Creation of Man," and " Five Ora-
tions on Prayer." fW. /F (viii, 319) his "Eulogies on Eminent Saints," etc.
Compare also Rupp : Gregors, des Bishofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungeti.
Leipsic, 1834. (Schaff, however, calls this work " unsatisfactory.")

8. Church History., vol. 3, p. 907 — 8.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 141

Origen, human freedom plays a great part. Both are
ideaHstic, and sometimes, without intending it or know-
ing it, fall into contradiction with the Church doctrine,
especially in eschatology. Gregory adopts, for example,
the doctrine of the final restoration of all things."

Ueberweg '^ : " In his scientific method Gregory fol-
lows Origen ; but he adopted the doctrine of the latter,
only in so far as it agreed with the orthodox dogmas.
He combats expressly such theories as the pre-existence
of the soul before the body, and deviates from the ap-
proved faith of the Church only in his leaning toward
the theory of a final restoration of all things to com-
munion with God."

5) DiDYMUs called ''the Blind" {d. 395), though he
lost his sight at the age of four, by his extraordinary
industry acquired an extensive learning. He became so
familiar with the Holy Scriptures by hearing them read,
that he knew them almost by heart. Athanasius ap-
pointed him as a teacher in the catechetical school of
Alexandria where he labored successfully for more than
fifty years. Jerome, Rufinus, Isidore, Evagrius, and
others were among his pupils. Though he was orthodox
in the doctrine of the Trinity, and a zealous opponent of
Arianism, still being an enthusiastic admirer of Origen,
he shared some of the extravagant views of that Fa-
ther, especially concerning the pre-existence of souls and
probably concerning final restoration.

Of his many works only few have been preserved. Of
his dogmatic writings, we possess, however, a Latin
translation by Jerome of his treatise "On the Holy
Ghost," and three books " On the Trinity," in the Greek

9. See his Histoty of Philosophy, vol. i,p. 326. (A work which cannot be too
highly recommended.)

142 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

original, together with a brief treatise against the Ma-
nichaeans, also in the original Greek.

6) Cyril of Alexandria (c?.444) furnishes a striking
proof that orthodoxy and piety are two quite different
things, and that zeal for pure doctrine may co-exist
with an unchristian spirit (Schaff). And still with all
his personal faults, Cyril must be reckoned among the
greatest dogmaticians of the Greek Church. His Christ-
ological writings against Nestorius and Theodoret are
of the greatest importance to the history of doctrine.
Among his writings we may mention his ''Five Books
against Nestorius," and a doctrinal work '*0n the
Trinity and the Incarnation."

7) Cyril of Jerusalem {d. 386) took an active part
in the Arian controversy, and at the second oecumen-
ical council held at Constantinople, 381, he received the
praise of having suffered much from the Arians for the
faith. He left us an important theological work^", the
first example of a popular compend of religion, which is
of great value for the study of the history of doctrine,
and for the true understanding of the liturgy and cate-
chetical methods of the Early Church.

3. The last theologian of the Greek Church.

1) John of Damascus ^^ (d. 754) is the last of the
Greek Fathers, and the most authoritative theologian
in the Eastern Church. In his famous v^rork '^The Fount
of Knowledge,'^ he gives us an epitome of the theology

10. His 23 Ca/ec/ieses, or catechetical lectures, which he delivered while still a
presbyter, about the year 347, in preparing a class of catechumens for baptism. We
have this work complete in the Greek original, and it has been translated into
German and English {Vo/. 2 0/ Oxford Library of the Fathers^ 1839). May also
appear in the second series of Schaff' s edition of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers.

11. See Langen : Johannes von Damaskiis. Pp. viii, 311. Gotha, 1879; alsQ
t,upton; St. John of Damascus, I-ondon, j883.

THE DOGMATICS OP THE ANCIENT CHURCH. l43

of the Greek Church. This work consists of three sepa-
rate books. In the first book, called "Heads of Philo-
sophy," in a series of short chapters, we have an
application of the Categories of Aristotle to theology,
— a work which is valuable mainly on account of the
light it throws upon the terminology of the Church of
that period. In the second part, '*0n Heresies", we
have a description of one hundred and three heresies,
compiled mostly from Epiphanius. The third part is the
most important of all — ''An accurate Exposition of the
most Orthodox Faith." In this part he systematically
arranges and presents the various doctrines or dogmas
as propounded by the Councils and the Church Fathers,
especially as presented by the three great Cappadocians.
This last part as we now have it, is divided into four
books: I. Theology proper. (Here John of Damascus
maintains the Greek Church doctrine of the single pro-
cession of the Holy Spirit). II. Creation, Anthropology,
Providence, Predestination. III. Incarnation. IV. Per-
son of Christ, States of Christ, Faith, Baptism, the Eu-
charist, Images, the Scriptures, Virginity, Circumcision,
Antichrist, Resurrection, etc.

John of Damascus has been called the ''Father of
Scholasticism" and "the Lombard of the Greeks," and
in a certain sense he was the forerunner of the Scholas-
ticism of the Middle Ages.

III. THE WESTERN CHURCH.

The Theologians of the Western Church were dis-
tinguished by their firm adherence to the Bible, their
strong faith, their practical tendency in contradistic-
tion to the speculations of the Alexandrian School, and
for their bold stand against gnosticism and all kinds of
heresies.

144 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

I. To the death of Augustine.

Among the most influential of the Western Church
Fathers of this period, whose writings are mainly of a
dogmatic character, we may mention Ireneeus, Tertul-
lian, Cyprian, Hilary, and Augustine.

1) Iren^us 1 {d. 202) spent his youth in Asia Minor,
was instructed by the venerable Polycarp of Smyrna,
the pupil of St. John. After 178 he was bishop of
Lyons in France.

ScHAFF 2 : '' Irenaeus is the leading representative of
Catholic Christianity in the last quarter of the second
century, the champion of orthodoxy against gnostic
heresy, and the mediator between the Eastern and
Western churches. He is the first of all the church
teachers to give a careful analysis of the work of re-
demption, and his view is by far the deepest and sound-
est we find in the first three centuries. On the whole,
he is the most orthodox of the Ante-Nicene Fathers. We
must however except his Eschatology."

It was during the early years of his episcopate at
Lyons that Irenaeus wrote, in Greek, his important
^^ork'' Against Heresies,'' in five books. The full title
is "A Refutation and Subversion of Knowledge falsely
so called," and ''is at once the polemic theological mas-
terpiece of the Ante-Nicene age, and the richest mine of
information respecting Gnosticism and the Church doc-
trine of that age."

1. Best edition of his works by //arz'^y in 2 vols. Cambridge, 1857. English
translation in Coxe's edition of Ante-Nicene Fathers. Vol. i, pp. 307—602 ; also
by Keble in "Oxford Library of Fathers." Oxford, 1872. Compare also Beaven :
Life and Writings 0/ Irencetcs. London, 1841 ; Duncker : Des heil. Irencvus
Christologie. Goettingen, 1843.

2. See his Church History^ vol. 2, pp. 750, 587.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH, 145

2) Tertullian^ (d. 220) is the father of the Latin
ecclesiastical language, and one of the greatest of the
Christian Fathers. As a heathen, he distinguished him-
self as an advocate and rhetorician. He was converted
when he was about forty years of age. His zeal in favor
of strict asceticism and against every kind of worldli-
ness, led him to become a Montanist, about 201, when
about fifty years of age. In developing his Christian
theology, he was influenced by the judicial habit of
mind resulting from his previous legal studies, while, in
defending it, he employed that peculiar eloquence which
had characterized him as an advocate.

Kurtz: ''Although trained in heathen lore, Tertul-
lian was fanatically opposed to it, and equally so to
Gnosticism. His peculiar mode of thinking and feeling,
the energy of his will, the ardor of his affections, his
powerful imagination, his tendency towards the strict-
est asceticism, and his predilection for realism, found
full scope for development in Montanism. If, withal, he
kept free from many aberrations of Montanism, this
must be ascribed to his clear understanding and, how-
ever much he may have despised it, to his thorough
scientific training."

Schaff: ''Tertullian's theology revolves about the
great Pauline antithesis of sin and grace, and breaks the
road to the Latin anthropology and soteriology, after-

3. Best edition of his works by Oehler in 3 vols. Leipsic, 1853-54. For
students we would especially recommend March : Select Works of Tertullian.
New York, 1876, (Contains Ad Martyres, De testimonio am'mce, Apologett'cus,
Ad Scapulam, and De spectaculis). English Translation in Goxe's edition of
Ante-Nicene Fathers^ vol. 3, pp. 745, and vol. 4, pp. 1-126. For Monographs see
'^Q^xA^x'.Antignosticiis^ Geist des Tertulliantis und Einleitung itt dessen Schrif-
ten. 2nd ed. Berlin, 1849. Translated into English by Ryland in 2 vols. London,
1859, Kaye : Ecclesiastical History of second and third Centuries, illustrated
from the writings of Tertullian. 3d ed. London, 1845. Hauck : Tertulliafi's
Leben itnd Schriften. Pp. 410. E'langen, 1877.

146 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ward developed by his like-minded, but clearer, calmer,
and more considerate countryman, Augustine."

The writings of TertuUian (as classified by Neander)
are 1) partly apologetic, addressed to the heathens, and
relating to the conduct of the Christians under persecu-
tion; 2) partly ethical or ascetic, and 3) partly dogma-
tic and polemical. They can also at the same time be
arranged chronologically, i. e., some books were written
before he became a Montanist (before 200—201 A. d.),
and some after this period.

We, here, have only to do with the third class of
writings. The principal dogmatic or polemical Ante-
Montanistic work is the well-known treatise '' On the
Prescription of Heretics.'' In it TertuUian lays down
the fundamental principle of the Church in dealing with
heretics.

Of the Montanistic writings of a dogmatic character
we may especially mention his ^^ Five Books against
Marcion,'' in which he elaborately defends the unity of
God, the integrity of the Scriptures, and the harmony
of the Old and New Testaments. His tracts ''On the
Fiesh of Christ,'' '' OntheSoul," ''On the Resurrection of
theFlesh," " Against Hermogenes," " Against Praxeas" ,
are important to the history of Christian doctrine.

Cardinal Newman calls TertuUian ''the most power-
ful writer of the early centuries".

3) Cyprian* {d. 258), at first a heathen rhetorician,
afterwards bishop of Carthage (248— 258), was equally

4. Best critical edition of his works by Hartel in 3 vols. Vienna, 1868-71. A
convenient manual edition by Gold/torn is found in volumes 2 and 3 (vill, 256;
VIII, 279) of Gersdoi-fs Bibliotheca Patrum ecclesiasticorum Latinortmi selecta.
Leipsic, 1838-39. English Translation by Wallis^ in Coxe's edition of the Ante-
Nicene Fathers^ vol. 5, pp. 261-596. Compare also Poole : Life and Ttjnes of
Cyprian. Pp. 419. Oxford, 1840 ; Benson : In Smith and Wace Diet. vol. i^pp.
739-55; Rettberg : Cyprian us dargestellt nach seinem Leben und Wirken. (xil,
399). Goitingen, 1831.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 147

distinguished by a firm adherence to the idea of one,
holy, visible Church, and by zeal, faithfulness, vigor,
and prudence in the administration of his duties.

Schaff: '^As Origen was the ablest scholar, and
TertuUian the strongest writer, so Cyprian was the

greatest bishop, of the third century His peculiar

importance falls not so much in the field of theology,
where he lacks originality and depth, as in Church or-
ganization and discipline He is the typical high

churchman of the Ante-Nicene Age He knew how

to combine strictness and moderation, dignity and gen-
tleness, and to inspire love and confidence, as well as
esteem and veneration".

The most important works of Cyprian relate to
practical questions on church goverment and discipline,
such as '' The Unity of the Church ;' '' On the Lapsed,''
^'On Works and Alms,'' etc.

4) Hilary of Poitiers ^ {d. 368), so named from his
birth-place and subsequent bishopric in southwestern
France, was the Athanasius of the West.

Semisch ^5 : '* He shone like a clear star alongside of
the great champions of the Nicene Creed, — Athanasius,
Basil, and the two Gregories. Among the teachers of
the West of his day he was beyond dispute the first, and
bore a strong resemblance to TertuUian, both in dis-
position and scientific method His distinguishing

characteristics were fidelity to the Church creed, acute-
ness in argument, and resolution in action. His power
lay essentially in his thorough acquaintance with the
Scriptures. His Christologyis full of fresh and inspiring
thoughts, and deserves to be better known than it is".

5. Compare Baltzer : Die Theologie des heil. Hilarius von Poitiers. Pp. 511.
Rottweil, 1879. An English translation may appear in ■S'^(:^«(/ series of Schaff's
edition of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

6. In Schaff-Herzog,

148 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

His writings are distinguished for deep and earnest
discussions of dogmatic theology, and he greatly con-
tributed to the settlement of the orthodox doctrine of
the Trinity and of the Person of Christ.

The great work of his life was the writing, in exile
(356—361), of his '^ Twelve Books on the Trinity,'' to
which he afterwards added various tracts against
Arianism.

5) Augustine'^ {d. 430), for thirty-five years bishop
of Hippo, a town lying 200 milefe west of Carthage,
was the intellectual head of the North African and the
entire Western Church of his time.

ScHAFF^: ''Augustine is a philosophical and theol-
ogical genius of the first order, towering like a pyramid
above his age, and looking down commandingly upon

succeeding ages As a theologian he is facile prin-

ceps, at least surpassed by no church father, scholastic,

or reformer He combined the creative power of

Tertullian with the churchly spirit of Cyprian, the spec-
ulative intellect of the Greek Church with the practical
tact of the Latin. He was a Christian philosopher and
a philosophical theologian to the full With pro-
fundity he combined an equal clearness and sharpness of
thought. He was an extremely skilful and a successful

7. For an English Translation of the works of Augustine see Schaff's edition
of T/ie Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. First Series, Volumes i-8. This is by
far the most valuable edition of Augustine's works ever published, 4n account of
its valuable Introductions and Bibliographical notes. See especially Bittdematin:
Der heil. Aiigustimis. 3 vols. (vol. I, Berlin, 1844; ii, Leipsic, 1855; lii, Greifs-
wald, 1869). ('The best work in German''). See also Cutts : St. Augustin.
London, 1880 ; Schaff in his St. Augustin^ Melanchthon and Neander. New
York, 1886.

On the theology of Augustine see Aug. Dorner : Augustinus, sein theol.
System, etc. Berlin, 1873 ; and the same writer's article in Plitt-Herzog (abridged
in Schaff-Herzog). Ueberweg's criticism of the Philosophy of Augustine, in his
fjistory of Philosophy (Vol. i. pp. 333-346) is very satisfactory,

8, In his Church History., Vol. 3, pp. 994-99Q.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 149

dialectician, inexhaustible in arguments and in answers

to the objections of his adversaries In him was

concentrated the whole polemic power of the Catholicism
of the time against heresy and schism, and in him it
won the victory over them."

BiNDEMANN •' : ''St. Augustinc is one of the greatest
personages in the Church. He is second in importance
to none of the teachers who have wrought most in the
Church since the Apostolic time ; and it can well be said
that among the Church Fathers the first place is due to
him, and in the time of the Reformation a Luther alone,
for fulness and depth of thought and grandeur of char-
acter, may stand by his side. He is the summit of the
mediaeval Western Church; from him descended the
mysticism, no less than the scholasticism, of the middle
ages; he was one of the strongest pillars of Roman Cath-
olicism, and from his works, next to the Holy Script-
ures, especially the Epistles of Paul, the leaders of the
Reformation drew most of that conviction by which a
new age was introduced".

His writings bear upon almost all the departments
of theology, and may be characterized as forming an era
in theological literature. Of the different works of Au-
gustine (1) Autobiographical, 2) Philosophical, 3) Apol-
ogetic, 4) Religious-Theological, 5) Polemic-Theological,
6) Exegetical, and 7) Ethical and Practical) we here
have to do mainly with the fourth and fifth classes. Of
his Religious-Theological works we would especially
mention ^^ Four Books on Christian Doctrine'^ (the best
patristic work on Biblical Hermeneutics), and ^' The En-
chiridion^' ^^' or "On Faith, Hope, and Love" (a brief

9. Ih the preface of his monograph on Augustine, already cited (quoted by
Sc/iaj^).

10. Under the topic Faith he follows the order of the Apostles' Creed and
refutes, without naming them, the Manichsean, Apollinarian, Arian, and Pelagian
heresies. Under Hope he explains The Lorcfs Prayer.

150 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

compend of Christian faith and morals, written at the
request of a certain Laurentius).

But his Polemico— Theological works are the most
important in the history of doctrine. These again may
be subdivided (1) Anti-Manich^an, 2) Anti-Donatistic,
3) Anti-Arian, 4) Anti-Pelagian). In the Anti-Man-
ichasan writings ^ ^ , Augustine treats of the origin of evil,
of free will, of revelation and nature, of the authority of
the Scriptures and the Church, etc.

The Anti-Donatistic works ^ ^ contain Augustine's
doctrine of the Church, the Sacraments, and of Church-
discipline.

Of the Anti-Arian writings, which treat of the Deity
of Christ, and of the Holy Ghost, the most important
treatise is that on the ''Holy Trinity '\ in fifteen books.
"It is the most elaborate, and probably also the ab-
lest and profoundest patristic discussion of this central
doctrine of the Christian religion, unless we except the
''Orations against the Arians" by Athanasius, ''the
Father of Oorthodoxy ", who devoted his life to the
defense of the Divinity of Christ. Augustine bestowed
more time and care upon it than on any other book,
except ' ' the City of God " ^ ^ . But the most valuable of
all the writings of Augustine were his Anti-Pelagian
works 1 *. All these were written after 412, and in them

11. A translation of the more important of these {On the Morals of the Cath-
olic Churchy On the Morals of the Manichceans, On two Souls, Thirty- three Books
against Faustus the Manichcsan^ On the Nature of the Good, etc.) is given in vol.
4 {pp. 1-365) of Schaff's Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (First Series),

12. Three of the most important treatises {On Baptism, Answer to the Letters
of Petilian, The Correction of the Dojiatists) are given in vol. 4 {pp. 367-675) of
the work cited in last note.

13. See Preface of Vol. 3 of Schaff's Nicene ajtd Post-Nicene Fathers (First
Series) which among other important doctrinal treatises of Augustine, contains the
translation of this work " On the Holy Trinity'^ {pp. 1-228).

14. The most important of these (" On the Spirit and the Letter" (413 A. d.),
" On Nature and Grace" (415), " On Grace and Free Will" (426), '• On Discipline

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 151

he develops his systemof anthropology and soteriology,
and most nearly approaches the position of Evangelical
Protestantism.

We cannot leave Augustine v^ithout referring to his
great Apologetic work, " The City of God ^^ in twenty-
two books, the only Christian philosophy of history
known for over a thousand years. ''It is the master-
piece of the greatest genius among the Latin Fathers,
and the best known and most read of his works, except
the 'Confessions'. It embodies the results of thirteen
years of intellectual labor and study (413-426 a. d.).
It is a vindication of Christianity against the attacks
of the heathen in view of the sacking of the city of
Rome by the barbarians. ... It is the first attempt of
a philosophy of history, under the aspect of two rival
cities or communities, the eternal city of God and the
perishing city of the world " ^ '\

The formal principle of the doctrinal system of Aug-
ustine is the Authority of the Church, the material prin-
ciple, the free redeeming Grace of God in Christ.

2. To the Close of the Ninth Century.

1) Vincent of Lerins ^*^ (d. 450) a monk in the cel-
ebrated monastery of Lerinum (a small island in the
Mediterranean Sea, formerly belonging to Roman Gaul) ,
in his famous book Commonitoriutn gives us the most
complete representation of the Roman Catholic doctrine
of tradition. As a test of true doctrine he propounded
the maxim, which has since remained the standard in
the Roman Catholic Church: "We must hold what has

and Grace" (427), " On the Predestination of the Saints " (428), " On the Gift of
Perseverance" (429), etc.) are given in Vol. 5 of Schaff's "Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers" (First Series). Pp. Lxxi, 567.

15. See Preface to Vol. 2 of Series just cited.

16. For a full analysis of his " Commonitorium " see Schmidt in first edition
of Herzog's Real'Encykl.

152 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

been everywhere, always, and by all believed ".^ ' This
work also occupies a prominent place in the history of
doctrines, for its Semipelagian character and its antag-
onism to Augustine are clearly discernible.

2) Gennadius of Marseilles {Bourished 500 a. d.)
a Semi-Pelagian presbyter of South Gaul, in his *'De
Fide mea sive dogmatibus ecclesiasticis " gives us a
compend of Christian doctrine.

3) Isidore {d. 636), bishop of Seville, in Spain, for
thirty six 3^ears, was the greatest scholar of his day.
He wrote on nearly every branch of science then know^n.
His most important theological w^ork is a compend of
Theolog3' compiled from Augustine and the '' Moralia^^
of Gregory the Great, knowm under the title of " Senten-
tiarum sive de Summo Bono Libri III." The first book
treats of Dogmatics and the last two of Ethics. The
influence of this work during the Middle Ages was very
great, and innumerable copies w^ere made of it, and it
led to the preparation of similar works, like Peter Lom-
bard's ^^ Sentences y

4) John Scotus Erigena^^ {d. about 877) was of
Scottish nationality, probably born and brought up in
Ireland, but he spent his later life at the court of Charles
the Bald of France. He was undoubtedly the most^
learned man, and the deepest, boldest, and most in-
dependent thinker of his time. His speculations have
not been surpassed for centuries before or after him.
In his own time he was neither understood nor appre-
ciated, and scarcely deemed even worthy of being
declared a heretic {Kurtz).

His greatest work is his treatise ^^De Divisione Nat-

17. " Ut id teneamus quod ubigtie^ quod semper, quod ab ofnmbiis creditum
est".

18. Compare Th. Christlieb : Leben und Lehre des yoh. Scotus Erigena.
Gotha, 1S60 ; Ueberweg : History of Philosophy. Vol. i. pp. 3SS-365.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 153

urae "^ ^ in five books, condemned to be burned by Pope
Honorius III (1225) as *'a book teeming with the
worms of heretical depravity", and still later put on
the ''Index" by a bull of Gregory XIII (1685). This
is a kind of speculative theology, which, starting from
the supposition of the unity of philosophy and theol-
ogy, ends as a system of idealistic pantheism, philos-
ophy having in the course of the development entirely
absorbed theology.

Scotus divides nature, in which conception he in-
cludes all that is either existent or non-existent— into
four species: 1) that which creates and is not created
(God), 2) that which is created and creates (Logos),
3) that which is created and does not create (World),
and 4) that which neither is created nor creates. By
this last is not meant a fourth nature, distinct from
the other three, but God, viewed as the term in which
all things end, and to which all finally return.

In the controversy respecting predestination, he
taught that there was only one predestination, to eter-
nal salvation.

Scotus Erigena, sometimes, has been called "the
Father of Scholasticism", but he is rather the founder
of Speculative Philosophy in the line of Spinoza, Schell-
ing, and especially Hegel. '' The scholastics drew from
him, but he was not a scholastic. The mystics drew

from him, but he was not a mystic He is one of

the most interesting figures among the medieeval writ-
ers. He demands study and he rewards it " ^ ^ .

5) BoETHius^^ (beheaded at Pavia 525), one of the

19. German Translation by L. Noack : " Erigena ueber die Eintheilung der
Natur." 3 pts. Leipsic, 1874-7.

20. See Schaff's " Church History", vol. 4, p. 773.

21. See Fr. Nitzsch : "Das System des Boethius und die ihm zugeschriebenen
theol. Schriften. Berlin, i860.

154 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

last Neo-Platonists of antiquity, through his '^ Consola-
tion of Philosophy ^\ as also through his translation
and exposition of some of the logical writings of Aris-
totle, became the most influential connecting link be-
tween ancient and mediaeval learning. His ''Consolatio"
was very popular during the Middle- Ages, and was
translated into various languages (Greek, Old High Ger-
man, Anglo-Saxon, Norman-English, French, Hebrew),
but it is a question whether Boethius was a Christian.
The work is but an echo of Greek philosophy, of the
school of Plato or Seneca.

SECTION XVI.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

The Dogmatics of the Middle Ages was in-
fluenced by Scholasticism and by the antithesis
of Kealism and Nominalism.

I. The essential Character of Scholasticism i .

Scholasticism was the reproduction of ancient philos-
ophy under the control of ecclesiastical doctrine. In
matters common to philosophy and theology, the lat-
ter was received as the absolute norm and criterion of
truth. Its tides praecedit intellectum was uttered in
the interest of the doctrines of a Church which claimed
to be infallible.

The Scholastics did not add new dogmas, nor alter
them with respect to their essential contents. Having
the materials for the formation of a doctrinal system of
Christianity in the dogmas as formulated and fixed by
the oecumenical councils of the Church, it was their task

I. Compare Thomasius : Dogmengeschichte. Vol, 2. //. 31-66 ; Ueberweg:
History 0/ Philosophy. Vol. i. //. 355-484; Hampden: The Scholastic Philos-
ophy considered in its relation to Christian Philosophy. 3rd Edition. London, '38

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 155

to gather these materials, sift, arrange, preserve, and
apply them. But it was also a treatment of these dog-
mas. They sought to give to each doctrine a rational
foundation, sufficient to elevate it from a mere matter
of faith to a matter of science. They hoped to form the
v^hole mass of dogmas into a perfect system. Some, in-
deed, hoped to create a philosophy of Christianity, and
to bring about a perfect unity between faith and sci-
ence, theology and philosophy. They proceeded from
the supposition that the whole contents of the Chris-
tian faith, i. e., each single dogma or doctrine is ab-
solute, divine truth, — but the warrant for this supposi-
tion was not sought for in Scripture, nor in the essence
of Christianity, nor in the nature of man (a favorite
theory of so many modem philosophers), but in the
authority of the Church and her tradition.

With all the censure heaped in after times upon the
barrenness of Scholastic speculation, it was wonder-
fully acute, and it has rich results to invite the scholar
to a thorough acquaintance with it.

The period of its highest bloom and most complete
development was characterized by the thorough mas-
tery of Aristotle and the ascendency of his authority
in matters of philosophy. Aristotle came to be called
^^ precursor Christi in naturalibus^\ just as John the
Baptist was called ^^ precursor Christi in gratuitis^\

The antithesis of Realism and Nominalism influenced
the whole history of the theology of the Middle Ages.

Extreme Realism, the doctrine of Plato, maintained
that universals or general ideas have an independent
existence apart from individual objects, and that they
exist before the latter {universalia ante rem, in God's
mind) ; moderate Realism, the doctrine of Aristotle,
maintained that universals, while possessing indeed a

156 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

real existence, exist only in individual objects (univer-
salia in re, in things), and this view was the bond
between theology and philosophy ; Nominalism, on the
other hand, maintained that only individuals have real
existence, and that universals are merely the products
of the human reason, nothing but a concept of man's
mind {universalia post rem, in man's thoughts), and
this last view separated the bond between theology
and philosophy, and led to scepticism in spiritual
matters.

Of the earlier period, Augustine and Boethius were
decided Realists; so also John Scotus Erigena of the
ninth century. The great Realists of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries were Anselm, William of Champeaux
and Bernard of Clairvaux ; of the thirteenth, Alexander
of Hales, Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, Thomas
Aquinas and Duns Scotus. The chief Nominalists were
Roscellinus and William of Occam. Abelard was a
moderate Nominalist or Conceptualist.

2. The Beginnings of Scholasticism.

1) Anselm of Canterbury ^ (d. 1109), the father
of orthodox scholasticism, the Augustine of the Middle
Ages, was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to his
death. He regarded faith as the necessary condition of
all true knowledge, and defined the object of scholastic
theology to be the logical development and demonstra-
tion of the doctrines of the church such as they were
handed down by the Fathers. By his ^^ Credo, ut in-
telligam^\ he means that Christians should advance
from direct faith to whatever degree of scientific insight
may be attainable by them, but always on the condi-

2. See Hasse : Anselm von Canterbury. 2 vols. Leipsic, 1843-52. An ab-
ridged English translation by Turner^ London, 1850 ; see also Church : Life of
St. Anselm. London, 1875.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 157

tion that the Christian Creed, alreadj^ fixed in dogmatic
form, remain untouched and be regarded as the ab-
solute norm for thought. Anselm requires, therefore,
unconditional submission to the authority of the
Church.

As a metaphysician he was a Realist, and one of his
earliest works {De Fide Trinitatis) was written against
the Nominalism of Roscellinus. The fame of Anselm
chiefly rests on his two celebrated works, ^'Proslogium^^
and " Cur Deus homo ?'' ^ In the first he sets forth the
ontological proof of the existence of God, as following
from the very idea which we have of him, existence for-
ming one of the necessary attributes of God. In the last
Anselm treats of the doctrine of redemption and satis-
faction, and develops the theory of vicarious atone-
ment, which was afterwards adopted by the Church.

It is a characteristic of Anselm that he sought to
establish on rational grounds not only the existence of
God, but also the doctrines of the Trinity and of In-
carnation.

3) Roscellinus has often been named as the founder
of Nominalism. He attracted special attention to the
dangerous tendency of Nominalism by applying his
philosophical views to the doctrine of the Trinity,
maintaining that our conception of the Deity was only
an intellectual abstraction, and that the three persons
of the Godhead could not be spoken of as One, and con-
sequently the Trinity became to him three Gods. In the
year 1092 the Council of Soissons compelled him to
recant his tritheistic exposition of the doctrine of the
Trinity, and he soon disappears from history.

4) William of Champeaux {d. 1122), an intimate

3. In two books, and frequently published separately (Erlangen, 1834 ; Berlin,
1857; London, 1863). E,ng\\s\i ttansXaXions oi Cur Deus hotno ? a.nd Pfoslogmm
are found in Bibliotheca Sacra (Vol. 8, 9, 12).

158 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

friend of Bernard of Clairvaux, was the special cham-
pion of Realism in France, but was defeated byAbelard.
In his ^^ De Origine Anitnee'' he pronounced himself in
favor of Creationistn, and from his ''De Bucharistia^^ it
is evident that in his time the Lord's Supper was still
generally administered ''in both kinds".

5) Abelard {d. 1142) adopted a position of his own
between the Nominalism of Roscellinus and the Realism
of Anselm, but his doctrine did not differ much from
strict Nominalism. In theology as well as in philos-
ophy, he is merely a critic. Through him was prepared
in the Middle Ages the ascendency of the philosophical
authority of Aristotle, which became firmly established
within a half century of his death. In comparison with
the rigid orthodoxy of Anselm, Abelard shows a strong
rationalistic tendency, and his dialectics drove him on
almost every point beyond the pale of the faith of the
Church, yet it is to him as much as to Anselm that the
theology of the Middle Ages owes its dialectical form.
In his ^^ Introd actio ad theologiam^^ he lays down the
principle (in opposition to Anselm 's Credo, ut intelli-
gani) that rational insight must prepare the way for
faith, since without it, faith is not sure of its truth
(nihil credi posse, nisi prius intellectum ; intelligo ut
credam).

Although Abelard decidedly rejected the Tritheism of
Roscellinus, still in his doctrine of the Trinity he verges
towards Monarchianism, (explaining the three persons
as being God's power, wisdom, and goodness, potentia,
sapientia et benignitas), though he did not confess this
consequence.

In his bold work ^' Sic et Non^\ — which consists of
quotations from the fathers arranged in harmony with
the Loci theologici, but contradicting each other at

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 159

every point without any solution being offered — he
seeks to maintain his independence of patristic author-
ity. This work estabHshes the fact, that only what is
contained in the canonical Scriptures is without ex-
ception and unconditionally true and that no one of
the Church Fathers may be regarded as of equal au-
thority with the Apostles.

The most brilliant period of Abelard's life was about
twenty-five years before his death. His fame as a teach-
er was then at its height, and thousands of pupils gath-
ered around him in Paris. Nearly all the great men of
the age, both within and without the Church, heard
Abelard. But this brilliant career was suddenly checked
by his relation to Heloise.

About 1135, seven years before his death, his conflict
with his great opponent, Bernard of Clairvaux, begins.
Bernard complained of the rationalistic tendency of
Abelard and affirmed that he ' * savored of Arius when
he spoke of the Trinity ", *^ of Pelagius when he spoke
of grace ", *' of Nestorius when he spoke of the person of
Christ", and that ** while he labored to prove Plato a
Christian, he showed himself a heathen".

6) Bernard of Clairvaux* {d. 1153), the great
opponent of Abelard, was one of the most illustrious
Christian teachers and representatives of monasticism
in the Middle Ages. He founded the famous monastery
of Clairvaux, and at his death left behind him one
hundred and sixty monasteries, which had been formed
by monks from Clairvaux. He is the *'last of the Fa-
thers ", representing what is called the positive, patris-
tic school. In his writings Bernard exhibits a decided

4. SQQ'i>iea.ndQT'. Ber ket'Hge Bernhard,etc. Third edition (viii, 392), (Vol,
12 of collected works). Gotha, 1865. (The first edition was translated into English,
London, 1843). Morison : Life and Times of St. Bernard. London, 1863.

160 INTRODtrCTtON TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

antagonism to the speculations of his day, and a deep
love for contemplative or rather mystical, theology. ^

Robertson:^ ''Bernard found himself, apparently
without design and even unconsciously, elevated to a
position of such influence as no ecclesiastic, either before
or since his time, has attained. Declining the ecclesias-
tical dignities to which he saw a multitude of his fol-
lowers promoted, the Abbot of Clairvaux v^as for a
quarter of a century the real soul and director of the
Papacy ; he guided the policy of Emperors and Kings,
and swayed the deliberations of councils ; nay, however
little his character and the training of his own mind
might have fitted him for such a work, the authority of
his sanctity was such as even to control the intellectual
development of the age which owned him as its master".

7) The YiCTORiNES— Hugo, Richard, and Walter,—
so called from the abbey of St. Victor at Paris, adhered
closely to the dogmas of the Church, which they endeav-
ored to explain and support. All of them combined the
cultivation of the dialectics of the age with a more spir-
itual and mystical turn of mind.

a) Hugo of St. Victor'' {d. 1141) was one of the
profoundest thinkers of the Middle Ages, and a man of
great learning. He is the real founder of the mediaeval
mysticism of France. His theological views are unfolded
in his ^'Summa Sententiarum'\ and more fully in his
treatise '*Z)e Sacramentis Fidei Christianse^^ which was
written against Abelard. The spirit of his teaching can
be seen from the two main propositions on which this
last work is based :

5. His Sermons on Canticles have been translated into German (with a pre-
face by Franz Delitzsch). Leipsic, 1862.

6. In his Church History. Vol. 3. pp. 11, 12.

7. See Liebner: Hugo von St. Victor^ etc. Leipsic, 1832. (The most com-
prehensive monograph).

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MllDDLE AGES. l6l

1) tantutn deveritate quisque potest videre quantum
ipse est— what a man is in himself is the measure of his
insight of the truth, and 2) we can only know God by
loving him (ubi caritas est, claritas est). He also laid
down the principle that the ''uncorrupted truth of
things cannot be discovered by reasoning ' ' .

b) Richard of St. Victor « {d. 1173) is still more
pronounced in his mystical tendency. His works are
concerned chiefly with inward and contemplative relig-
ion. His great motto was: " You have just as much
power as you have grace". The most celebrated of
his mystical works is his ^^ De gratia contemplationis^\
He distinguishes contemplatio from cogitatio and me-
ditatio. Cogitatio is common thought, meditatio is a
deep pondering on a special subject, contemplatio is an
intuition, an immediate vision of the divine.

c) Walter of St. Victor {d. 1180) took the bold-
est stand against the prevailing scholasticism of his
day, and wrote a work " Against the four labyrinths of
France" (Abelard, Peter Lombard, Gilbertus Porreta-
nus, and Peter of Poitiers), affirming that all of them,
'inspired with the spirit of Aristotle, had treated with
scholastic levity the doctrine of the ineffable Trinity
and of the Incarnation".

8) Peter Lombard {d. 1164), in his celebrated man-
ual of dogmatics, "Four Books of Sentences'', •' which
procured for him the title of ** Master of Sentences",
sought to justify the doctrines of the Church by subtle
processes of reasoning, and refinement of argument.
His main authority is Augustine, and he arranged his

8. Compare Kaulich : Die Lehre des Hugo und Richard v. St. Victor.
Prague, 1864.

9. In \\i^ first book he treats of God ; in the secoftd^ of created things ; in the
third, of the incarnation, redemption, etc.; in the fourth, of eschatology and the
(seven) sacraments.

162 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

matter systematically. As the whole was neatly and
methodically put together, it was welcomed as a clear
and useful handbook, and the work became and for
centuries continued in the schools to be the basis of
theological instruction. It was imitated by some, and
commented on by others. In the dialectical treatment
of theological questions the "Sentences" were, as a rule,
made the point of departure.

3. The Period of the highest bloom of Scholasticism.

1) Alexander of Hales {d. 1245), "the monarch
of theologians", "the Irrefragable Doctor", was the
first Scholastic who used the whole philosophy of Ari-
stotle in the service of Christian theology, and in his
great work ^^ Summa Universse Theologiae''^ ^^ he made
use of philosophy for the demonstration of theological
dogmas. He quotes a triple series of authorities,
1) those who say yes, 2) those who say no, and 3) the
reconciling views, — choosing the authorities not only in
the Bible and among the Fathers, but among the later
philosophers and theologians as well as Greek, Latin,
and Arabian poets.

2) Albertus Magnus 1 ^ {d. 1280), called "the Univer-
sal Doctor" on account of his extensive learning and
great skill in instruction, was the first Scholastic w^ho
introduced the complete system of Aristotle to the un-
derstanding of his age through loose reproductions from
the Arabic, and this furnished the scholastic philosophy
with means for its highest development. In his ^^Summa
Theologix^\ while searching constantly for philosoph-
ical arguments in support of the articles of faith, Al-
bertus nevertheless excludes the specifically biblical and

10. I. Of God and his attributes ; 2. Of creation and sin ; 3 Of redemption
and atonement ; 4. The Sacraments.

11. See Sighart : Albertus Magtnts, sein l.eben und seine IVissenscha/t. Re-
gensburg, 1857.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 163

Christian doctrines of revelation from the sphere of
things knowable by the light of reason.

3) Thomas Aquinas ^^ {d. 1274), "the Angelic Doc-
tor", was the profoundest and keenest defender of the
doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, and has a
place with Augustine, Jerome, and Ambrose, among
the four authoritative teachers of the Church. In an
encyclical dated Aug. 4, 1879, Pope Leo XIII recom-
mended his works to the Catholic seminaries and theol-
ogical faculties throughout the world, as a proper
foundation of their religious and philosophical teaching.

Taking his stand as a Realist, he brought the Schol-
astic philosophy to its highest stage of development, by
effecting the most perfect accommodation that was
possible of the Aristotelian philosophy to ecclesiastical
orthodoxy, and was careful to distinguish between
those truths which are only known by revelation and
those which could be known and demonstrated by
reason. His exegetical principles are good, and he
refers more frequently to biblical texts than the other
scholastics, but he could not free himself from ecclesias-
tical authority.

The principal works of Aquinas on theology are his
'' Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard'', a
work of his earlier years, in which he worked out his
own system, and his great (unfinished) work '' Summa
totius Theologise'\^^ the work of his later years, in

12. See Werner: Der heil . Thomas von Aquino, 3 vols. (Vol. i, : Life and
writing;s ; Vol. 11.: Doctrine ; Vol. in. : History of Thomism). Regensburg, 1858-
59. Also Vaughan: R. C. Archbishop of Sydney : Life and Letters of St. Thomas
Aquinas. 2 vols. London, 1871-72.

13. This viTork is divided into three great parts : I. Of God and his works.
II. Of Man, and the seven virtues, which he classifies as i) theological, — faith
hope, and love -and 2) ethical, — the four cardinal virtues of justice, prudence

fortitude, and temperance; III. Christ's person and work, and the Sacraments,

their member being seven, — Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penitence)

164 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

which all revealed doctrines were to be systematically
presented. In this last work Aquinas maintains that
the Church's doctrines of the creation of the world in
timt, of original sin, of the incarnation of the Logos, of
the sacraments, of the resurrection of the flesh, of the
judgment, and eternal salvation and damnation, are
not to be demonstrated by natural reason. These
revealed doctrines are regarded by Thomas as above,
but not contrary to, reason.

He is not willing to accept Anselm's ontological
argument for the existence of God, but himself gives
several forms of the cosmological and teleological ar-
guments,— nevertheless adds, that while reason can
prove that God exists, it cannot discover what his nat-
ure is. He employs all his speculative talent to explain
the doctrine of the Trinity, yet declares that it is beyond
the sphere of reason to discover the distinction of per-
sons in the Godhead, and affirms that he who tries to
prove the doctrine of the Trinity by the unaided reason
derogates f rom faith ^ ^ . Und er providence he considers
the titKrtTrnes oi election and i'iipPUUULlUll. Both rep-
robation and election are matters of divine decree ; and
the exact number of the reprobate, as well as of the
elect, is determined in advance. His treatment of the
seven sacraments, had a shaping influence upon the
discussion of the subject in after-time. He also teaches
the doctrines of purgatory and the intercession of the
saints.

Neander^-^ "Aquinas is said to have employed

Orders, Marriage, and Extreme Unction. (The author did not live to finish his
great work, but died before he reached the discussion of " the sacrament of Or-
ders ". A supplement containing his views, taken from his Commentary on Peter
Lombard's Boo/s of Sentences has been appended to the later editions of his
Sunima).

14. See Landerer in Schaff-Herzog.

15. In his Church History. Vol. 4. //. 422, 423. (Toriey's Translation\

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 165

three or four amanuenses, to all of whom he dictated
at once on diiferent subjects. His writings show that
his thoughts on divine things flowed from a full heart ;
he was conscious of the necessary connection subsisting
between thought and feeling. Every day he was accus-
tomed to have something read to him from a work of
edification ; and when he was asked why he took this
time from his speculative studies, he replied that he
thought the act of devotion prepared him for soaring
upwards to speculation. When the feelings are enkin-
dled by devotion, the thoughts would more easily
ascend to the highest matters. He never began to
study, to dispute, to give lectures, to write, or to dic-
tate, without first betaking himself to prayer for divine
illumination. Whenever doubts confronted him in his
investigations, he left off meditating, in order to seek
divine guidance in prayer ".

4) Bona VENTURA {d. 1274) ''the Seraphic Doctor",
developed still further the mystical doctrine begun by
Bernard of Clair vaux and continued by the Victorines,
and gave to the teachings of Plato as transformed by
the Church Fathers the preference over those of Ari-
stotle, but all human wisdom, even that of Plato,
appears to him as folly compared with mystical illum-
ination. He distinguishes three stages of Christian
perfection: 1) the observance of the law; 2) the fulfil-
ment of the spiritual counsels of the Gospel; and 3) the
enjoyment of eternal happiness in contemplation, —
which last is reserved to ascetics. Bonaventura dis-
tinguished himself as a writer of mystical and practical
works on Christianity and his ^^ Breviloquium^'' is con-
sidered one of the best expositions of Christian Dogma-
tics which the Middle Ages produced.

5) Duns Scotus^« {d. 1308, at the age of thirty-

i6. See Werner: y^oMnnes Duns Scopus. Vienna, 1881.

.166 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

four), the pride of the Franciscans, called "the Subtle
Doctor" on account of his keenness and subtlety, was
the great opponent of Thomism, or the philosophy of
Thomas Aquinas, and the founder of the Scotist school.
His strength laj^ rather in acute, negative criticism of
the teachings of others, than in any positive elaboration
of his own. His scepticism, however, refers only to
argumentation, and arguments he may destroy until he
has no other basis for truth than the absolute will of
God and the voluntary submission of man ; but this
basis, the truth of the divine revelation, and the author-
ity of the Church, he never touches ^^ He seeks contin-
ually to establish a harmony between philosophy and
the teaching of the Church.

The difference between Duns Scotus and Thomas
Aquinas is very striking. Thomas is speculative, Scotus,
critical ; in their ideas of God, Thomas lays stress on
necessity, Scotus, on freedom. Thomas teaches the de-
termination of the will, Scotus its indetermination.
Thomas affirms the doctrine of predestination in the
strict, Augustinian sense of the term, while Scotus
teaches a doctrine of Synergism near akin to Pelagian-
ism. According to Thomas, God commands what is
good, because it is good, while Scotus maintains, that
the good is good, because God commands it. Creation,
incarnation, the necessity of accepting the merit of
Christ as atonement for our guilt, are facts depending
solely on the free-will of God, unconditioned by any
rational necessit3^ Thus the pre-eminence ascribed by
Scotus to the will over the reason, in God and in man,
resolves itself in fact into the omnipotence of the ar-
bitrary will of the Deity ^ ^ .

17. Ste K.DornQr: In Schaff-Herzog.

18. See Ueberweg: History of Philosophy. Vol. i. //. 456, 457.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 167

6) Roger Bacon ^ ^ (c/. 1294) by his deYotion to the
investigation of nature obtained the title ''the wonder-
ful Doctor", and became a forerunner of Bacon of Veru-
1am. He preferred to study nature rather than to bury
himself in scholastic subtleties. He did not succeed,
however, in drawing his contemporaries away from
metaphysics. He urged a wider circulation and more
earnest study of the Bible, tracing nearly all the evil
of his day to want of personal acquaintance with this
heavenly rule of life. He recommended a revision of the
Latin Vulgate, and especially urged the importance of
returning to the study of the Bible in the original Greek
and Hebrew. His ''Compendium Studii Theologise^'
was probably his latest composition.

4. The Time of the decline of Scholasticism.

1) DuRAND OF St. Poursain (d. 1332) was sur-
named "the most Resolute Doctor", on account of the
resoluteness with which he maintained that there is no
human authority above the human reason. The con-
sequence was an open split between faith and know-
ledge, between theology and philosophy. He denied
that theology was a science, and made its object or
subject man instead of God, and declared the Scriptures
to be a practical help in attaining heaven by good
works. He wrote a '' Commentary ^^ on the '' Sentences
of Lombard ", which Gerson recommended to his pupils
as the best work on the subject. He disputed the cur-
rent scholastic teaching respecting transubstantiation,
which he declared to beunscriptural, and approximated
closely to the view taught by the Reformers in the six-
teenth century ^ " .

19. See Schneider : Roger Bacon, Eine Monographie. Augsburg, 1873. (^ his
writer not only protests against the extravagant judgments of late passed upon
Bacon, but points out very clearly in what aspects Bacon appears as a mere
scholastic.

20. See Wagenmann in Schaff-Herzog.

168 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY*

2) William Occam {d. 1347), called by his followers
"thelnYincible Doctor", renewed the doctrine of Nomin-
alism, breaking completely with Realism, which had
been the sole rnler in philosophy since the days of An-
selm and the Yictorines. He maintained that the har-
mony between reason and faith, between science and
religion, always presupposed by Realism, must be an
illusion. He denied that any theological doctrine could
be demonstrated by pure reason. Even the existence
and unity of God were, in his judgment, meiely articles
of faith. All knowledge which transcends the sphere of
experience was relegated to the sphere of faith. Through
his writings he exercised some influence in the period of
the Reformation, especially on Luther -i, in his earlier
stage, because of Occam's opposition to the Pope,
though in doctrine they were often quite antagonistic.

Wagenmann : - ^ Occam was a critic by nature. From
a criticism of the reigning realism in philosophy, he
went on to a criticism of the dogmatical tradition of
the church, and thence to the criticism of the ecclesias-
tico — political views of his age; always free, sharp,
consistent, and yet pious, orthodox to stiffness, ascetic
even to fanaticism ; always clear and precise in his fun-
damental conceptions, but lengthy and heavy in his
dialectical exposition; sometimes flashing like light-
ning, but often obscure on account of abstruseness
and subtlety.

3) Peter D'Ailly (c/. 1425), bishop of Cambray
(1396) and from 1411 also a cardinal, known as ''the
Hammer of Heretics," though a Nominalist, defended
the doctrine of the Church, and sought in philosophy
to steer between skepticism and dogmatism, making

21. See Rettberg: Occam und Luther, In Stud, latd Kri't., 1839.

22. In Schaff-Herzog.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 169

a clear distinction between theology and philosophy.
He gave precedence to the Bible rather than to Christ-
ian tradition, and protested against the infallibility of
the pope, maintaining that the true representative of
the Church was not the pope, but the oecumenical coun-
cil. He also wrote a ^' Commentary^' on the " Senten-
ces " of Peter Lombard.

4) John Gerson^s (J. 1429), ^'the most Christian
Doctor," attempted to combine Mysticism with Schol-
asticism. An adherent of Nominalism he sought to
reconcile theology with Scholastic philosophy, main-
taining that truth could be learned only through
revelation. He urged the study of the Bible and the
Fathers. According to Gerson, neither Plato nor Ari-
stotle is the right guide for him who is seeking his sal-
vation. Better than all knowledge is obedience to the
divine exhortation : Repent and believe the Gospel. He
also protested against the infallibility of the pope, and
held that oecumenical councils are the true representa-
tives of the Church, and that they may accuse and
depose popes.

5) Gabriel Biel (d. 1495) ''the last Scholastic,"
whose chief merit lay in his clear and faithful presenta-
tion of the nominalistic doctrine, publishing a summary
of the doctrines of Occam, exerted considerable influ-
ence on the beginnings of the Reformation. Semi-Pela-
gian in his teaching, he is the last noticeable representa-
tive of the ecclesiastical science of the Middle Ages.

5. Mysticism and the Pre-Reformatory Theology. 2 4

1) Meister Eckhart^s (J 1329) the author and

23. See Schwab: John Gerson. Wuerzburg, 1859.

24. See Ullmann : Reformers before the Reformation. Translated into En-
glish. 2 vols. Also Vaughan : Hours with the Mystics^ 2 vols. Third ed. Lon-
don, 1880.

25. See Martensen: Meister Eckhart. Hamburg, 1842. Also Lasson in
Ueberweg's History of Philosophy. Vol. i. pp. 467-84.

170 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

perfecter of the entire development of German Mysti-
cism, has been called "the father of modern Pantheism,"
on account of his pantheistic speculations, maintaining
that in its true existence every creature is not only a
revelation of God, but a part of him, and that the true
object of life is to strip off all illusions and deceptions,
and return into the one great being, ~God. In manj-
points the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas approaches ex"
ceedingly near to that taught by Eckhart. The Roman
Thomas became the highest scientific authority of the
Romish Church, while the doctrine of Eckhart, the
German, prepared the v^ay through its ethics for the
Reformation, and through its metaphysics for the later
German speculation.

2) Johannes Tauler^^ (J. 1361), "the Sublime and
Illuminated Doctor," was one of the greatest preachers
of his time. He was distinguished by deep humility,
ardent love, and fervent piety. On the doctrine of jus-
tification by faith he closely approximated the teaching
of the Reformers. His style and doctrine entitle him to
a place among the best German prose authors before
Luther.

3) HeinrichSuso {d. 1365) was the representative
of the poetical mysticism of the Middle Ages, and he
wrote his book " Von der ewigen Weisheif'—'' On Eter-
nal Wisdom " in 1338.

4) RuYSBROECK (d. 1381) "the ecstatic Doctor," so
called because he laid so much stress on the ecstatic
state, was the most prominent of the Dutch mystics.
Without going very deeply into ontological specula,
tions, he taught that the way to God was through
contemplation, but his views are not always free from
pantheistic tendencies.

26. English translation of his Sermons with a short li^e by Catherine Wink-
worth, London, 1857. Edited by Dr. Hitchcock, New York, 1858.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 171

5) The unknown author of Theologia Germanica/'
''Eyn Deutsch Theologia" exerted a great influence on
the times of the Reformation. This work was edited
by Luther in 1518, ^'^ and in the preface he speaks of it
*' as a noble work, which sets forth clearly what Adam
and what Christ is, and how Adam is to die and Christ
to rise in us." Nearly one hundred editions have been
published, and the work has been translated into many
languages.

Tauler and the ''German Theology'' perpetuated
the speculations of Eckhart. The work itself treats
principally of the incarnation of God in Christ, and
urges the sacrifice of one's self, in order to fulfil better
the will of God.

6) John Wiclif^s {d. 1384), ''the Morning Star of
the Reformation," wrote his chief work " Tnalogus^'
in 1382, in which he fully sets forth his theological
views. His formal principle was the absolute author-
ity of Scripture, and his material principle the absolute
causality of God. His great problem is to represent the
incarnation from a moral point of view, and he loves
to set forth Christ as the centre of humanity. His
view of the Incarnation and Atonement led him to
renounce all trust in human merit, and to protest
against the worship of relics and images, and the sale
of indulgences. He denied the real presence of the body
and blood of Christ in the Lord's Supper, taught abso-
lute predestination, believed in purgatory, and held

27. The best edition is by Pfeiffer. Third edition. Guetersloh, 1855. The
best English translation by Susanna Winkworth, 1874.

28. See Vaughan : John de WycUffe, a Monograph. London, 1853. Also
Lechler : Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation. 2 vols.
Leipsic, 1873. Translated into English, with important additional notes by Lor-
imer under the title. John Wiclif And his English Precursors. 2 vols. London,
1878; in I vol. 1881. New edition by Dr. S. G. Green, i vol. 1884. (This work
supeisedes all others).

172 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

some peculiarly erratic views on the nature and intent
of marriage, and many germs of error and extrava-
gance may be detected in his speculations, much as
these were overbalanced by the noble witness which he
bore to long-forgotten truths, and by the virtues of his
private life. ^ »

7) John Huss ^^ {d. 1415), inferior to Wiclif in spec-
ulative talent and constructive faculty, was more evan-
gelical than the English Reformer. His principal work
is ''De Ecclesia;' "On the Church." He regarded the
Scriptures as an infallible authority, and defined the
Church to be the body of the elect, basing his views
upon the teaching of Augustine. A great student and
admirer of Wiclif, he died a martyr because he based
his reform of the Church upon conscience and Script-
ure, and not upon ecclesiastical authority.

8) JoHANN Wessel ^^ {d. 1489) "the light of the
world," "the Master of contradictions," was the most
prominent of the precursors of the Reformation in
Germany. Luther, who published a collection of the
works of Wessel, in 1522, says of him, in the preface,
that if he had not written anything before he read
these words, people might have thought that he had
stolen all his ideas from him. ^ ^ On many points, on
justification, penance, purgatory, etc., he anticipated
the Reformation.

His definition of the Church is of special interest.
He says: "I believe with the Church, but I do not

29. See Hardwick: Church History. (Middle Ages). Pp. 374-390. Third
edition. London, 1872.

30. See Gillett : Life and tunes 0/ yohn Huss. Third edition. Boston, 1870.
Also Lechler m Schaff-Herzog.

31. See especially Ullmann^ already quoted.

32. " Wenn ich den Wessel zuvor gelessen, so liessen meine Widersacher sich
duenken, Luther hatte AUes vom Wessel genommen, also stimmmet unser beider
GeJ5t zusammen."

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 178

believe in her." The Church to him is a communio
sanctorum, the community of saints, and not a com-
ttiunio praedestinatorum as Wiclif and Huss have it.
Wessel v^as alike distinguished as a theologian and as
a general scholar.

9) JoHANN VON Wesel {d. 1481) wrote against the
doctrine of indulgences {Adversus Indulgentias) and on
"Ecclesiastical Pov^er." On his trial (he escaped the
stake, but was locked up for life in an Augustinian con-
vent at Mayence) the principal charges against him
were, that he denied the procession of the Holy Spirit
from the Son, rejected tradition, and disputed the ab-
solute authority of a council legitimately called. He
taught the formal principle of Protestantism, — the
Scriptures the sole rule of faith,— but he did not fully
reach the material principle, — justification by faith
alone.

6. The Humanists.

The Humanists, the critical spirit of the age, and
the study of the Bible, co-operated in preparing the
way for the Reformation. The humanists were the
philologians and critics of their age ; they restored the
purity of the Latin language, made the study of Greek
an indispensable element of scholarly education, and
introduced the study of Hebrew. In Germany these
studies were chiefly cultivated by the "Brethren of the
Common Life," and from this school the Reformation
received great assistance. Though they aided in the
work, the Humanists would never have effected the
Reformation.

174 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION XVII.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTURY OF THE
REFORMATION. ^

The sixteenth century was Ml of fresh specu-
lation and practical life, with a harmony of the
intellectual, experimental, and practical, almost
without a parallelism in the history of the Church.

The two sorts of Dogmatics, the Lutheran
and the Keformed, may be characterized as the
theology of Salvation, and the theology of the
Absolute Will.

I. The Dogmatics of Melanchthon 2.

The impress of the character of Luther upon the
Lutheran Church is so mighty that no one can under-
stand the doctrines of the church without understand-
ing him. For the whole earlj^ history of our Church is

1. Krauth: The Conservative Reform.atio7i and its Theology. Philadelphia,

1871.

Seiss : Ecclesia Lutherana. Fourth edition. Philadelphia, 1871.

Thomasius: Das Bekenntniss der evang. luth. Kirche in der Konsequenz
seines Prtncips. Nuernberg, 1848.

Thomasius: Dogfuengeschichte. Vol. 2. Erlangen, 1876.

Hase: Hutterus Redivivus^ order Dogmatik der evang, luth. Kirche. Elev-
enth edition, Leipsic, 1876.

Schmid : The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, ex-
hibited and verified from the original sources. Translated into English. Phila-
delphia, 1876.

2. The first complete edition of his works is given by Bretschneider and
Bindseil in the Corpus Reformatorum. Vols. 1-28. Halle, 1834-50. Ledder-
hose's Life of Melanchthon (Heidelberg, 1847) has been translated into English
by Dr. Krotel, Philadelphia, 1855.

On Melanchthon's Theology s^^ Plitt: Melanchthon' s Loci in ihrer Urgestalt.
Erlangen, 1864; Herrlinger: Die Theologie Melanchthons^ etc. Gotha, 1879.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTtJRY OF THE REFORMATION. 175

interwoven with the personal and official history of
Luther^ {d. 1546).

But it was Melanchthon {d. 1560), who wrote
the first Protestant work of Systematic theology,
under the title "Loci Communes,^' * of which three
editions appeared in 1521. In this work he sought to
give the theological and religious results of the Refor-
mation, and pursued the dialectic rather than the spec-
ulative method, making accurate definitions and clear
divisions. In this first edition he follows closely the
Epistle to the Romans in his delineation of the funda-
mental doctrines of sin and grace. But after 1534 he
departed farther and farther from the views of Luther,
and in the second great edition of his Lociy in 1535, and
his third, 1543, he made many alterations and empha-
sized his so-called Synergism. He mentions three causes
as concurring in the work of conversion — ''the Word
of God, the Spirit, and the human will assenting to,
and not rejecting, the Word of God."^

He everywhere insists upon his doctrinal agreement
with Luther, and does, in fact, agree with him in mak-
ing all prominent the doctrine of salvation by faith in
Christ, but the Melanchthon of the later period differed
very considerably in doctrinal views from Luther.

3. The best serviceable edition of Luther's works is the Eriangen edition in
67 German and 33 Latin volumes (1826-73). The most valuable biogfraphies are
by Koestlin : Martin Luther, sein Leben und sei'fie Schrt/ten, Third Edition,
2 vols. Elberfeld, 1883 ; also his smaller work, Luther'' s Leben. Third edition.
Leipsic, 1883. English translation, London, New York, and Philadelphia, 1883-
Bayne: Life of Luther, 2 vols. 1887.

On Luther's Theology see: Koestlin: Luther'' s Theologie, 2 vols. Stuttgart,
1863. Harnack: Luther^ s Theologie, 2 vols. Eriangen, 1862-1886.

4. See note on p. 13. On his relation to the Augsburg Confession and Apol-
ogy see notes on pp. 92-99. On his vacillations in statements of doctrine see note
on /. loi.

5. •* Concurrunt tres causae bonae actionis, verbum Dei, Sp. S., et humana
voluntas assentiens nee lepugnans verbo Dei."

176 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGT.

His vacillations, real and seeming were due to his
timidity and gentleness of character, his aversion to
controversy, his philosophical, humanistic, and classi-
cal cast of thought, and his extreme delicacy in matter
of style; his excessive reverence for the testimony of the
Church, and her ancient writers , and his anxiety that
peace and harmony should be restored to the Church.
The friends of the Reformation were embarrassed and
confounded, its enemies delighted and encouraged, by
perceiving endless diversities of statement in the edi-
tions of books, rapidly succeeding each other, books
which, in their first form, Luther had endorsed as of
Canonical purity and worthy of immortality. The
very Confessions of the Church, determined by her
authorities, and signed by her representatives, were
amended, enlarged here, abridged there, changed in
structure and in statement, as the restless spirit of re-
fining in thought or style moved Melanchthon^

The three works of Melanchthon in which the
charges were most noted and most mischievous, are:
1) the Augsburg Confession '^ ; 2) the Apology «; and
3) the Loci Communes ^

It was as the author of the Loci that his influence
continued to be felt years after his death, because this
work served, for almost a century, as the basis and
model of the dogmatic teaching of the Lutheran
Church. 1 «

6. This paragraph is condensed from Krauth's Conservative Refortnation.
Pp. 289-290.

7. See note 8, on pp, 94, 95.

8. See note 12, on p. loi.

9. See note i, on/. 13.

10. The three important editions of the Loci (1521, 1535, i543)» witk valua-
ble prolegomena, are edited by Bretschneider and Bindseil in vol. 21 of Corpus
Reformat orum. In vol. 22, they give an account of the various translations of the
Loci (three in High German— i. by Spalatin, nine editions from 1522-1526 ; 2. by

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION. 177

As an exegete, Melanchthon does not occupy the
same prominent position as Luther. He insisted upon
the literal sense in contrast to the four senses of the
scholastics (literal, moral, mystical, allegorical).

Melanchthon also exerted a wide influence in the de-
partment of Homiletics, though he never preached from
the pulpit, not having been ordained, and has been re-
garded as the author, in the Protestant Church, of the
methodical style of preaching v^hich follows the text or
the subject. His influence in the departments of Philol-
ogy and Pedagogy entitles him to the name of ''the
Preceptor of Germany." He laid great stress upon
classical studies, and advocated a close and necessary
connection of the School and the Church, regarding the
School as the nursery of the Church ^ ^ .

2. The Melanchthonian School of Dogmatics.

1) YiCTORiN Strigel (d. 1569), a pupil of Melanch-

Justus Jonas, eight editions from 1536-1540 ; 3. by Justus Jonas, revised and im
proved by Melanchthon, nine editions from 1542-1559 — two in Low German, and
translations in Italian, French, Dutch, etc.), and carefully edit the translation made
by Justus Jonas and revised by Melanchthon.

The cheap edition of the Loa', published by Schlawitz, Berlin, 1856, is a re-
print of the Leipsic edition of 1559, the last published during the life of Melanch-
thon.

After a brief preface Melanchthon in 24 sections presents his whole system :
I. De Deo; 2. De creatione; 3. De causa peccati et de contingentia; 4. De humanis
viribus seu de libero arbitrio ; 5, De peccato ; 6. De lege divina; 7. De evangelio ;
8. De gratia et de justificatione ; 9. De bonis operibus: 10. De discrimine veteris
et novi Testamenti; 11, De discrimine peccati mortalis et venialis; 12. Deecclesia;
13. De Sacramentis; 14. De praedestinatione; 15. De regno Christi; 16. De resur-
rectione mortuorum; 17. De spiritu et litera ; 18. De calamitatibus et de cruce, et
de veris consolationibus ; 19. De invocatione Dei seu de precatione; 20. De magis-
tratibus civilibus et dignitate rerum politicarum; 21. De ceremoniis humanis in
ecclesia; 22. De mortificatione carnis; 23. De scandalo; 24. De liber tate Christiana.
Wz't/i two Appendixes: i. De conjugo; 2. Definitiones multarum appellationum,
quarum in ecclesia usus est.

II. Compare the excellent article of Landerer in Herzog {First edition).
HerrHnger has rewritten this article for the second edition.

178 INTRODtrCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. '

thon, was a strong advocate of Synergism ^ . A public
controversy lasting fifteen days was held between him
and Flacius, in 1560, at Weimar. The only point dis-
cussed was the relation of the human will to divine
grace in the work of conversion. It was a conflict be-
tween the Melanchthonian theology and strict Luther-
anism. It was in the heat of this controversy that
Flacius made the assertion, that original sin was the
very substance of human nature, since the fall, and not
something accidental, — which he would not afterwards
retract, and thus gave occasion to the Flacian contro-
versy.

2) Nicolas Selnecker (d. 1592) was also one of
Melanchthon's pupils, and one of the authors of the
Formula of Concord. In his " Institutiones Christianas
Religionis^^ (1563), a commentary on the I/Oc/ of Mel-
anchthon, which is the first system of dogmatic theol-
ogy in the Lutheran Church which contains the so-
called Prolegomena, he still represented the Melanch-
thonian type of theology, but this was corrected in
accordance with the teaching of the Formula of Con-
cord in his later v^orks.

3) Martin Chemnitz (J. 1586) was the greatest of
Melanchthon's pupils, ''without doubt the prince of
the theologians of the Augsburg Confession" 2, "that
great theologian of our Church, whom no one will re-
fuse to assign the chief place after Luther among the
defenders of the Gospel truth," ^ and as one of the
authors of the Formula of Concord, left the impress of
his theological learning upon it. His ^^ Loci Theolo-

1. Tt'es sutit causae efficieiites co7ive7-siotiis: Detis^ verbiim, et voluntas homi-
nis. His Loci //ieo/ogzcz\ edited by Pezel (4 vols. 1582-85), is the best Dogmatics
of the Melanchthonian type of theology.

2. Quenstedt.

3. Buddeus.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION. 179

gicP^ ^ is a commentary upon the Loci Communes of
Melanchthon, which he corrects wherever Melanchthon
departs from the doctrine of our Church. In this work
Chemnitz displays his accuracy and clearness in the
definition of doctrine, his prudent choice of matter and
his knowledge of Scripture. His ^^ Bxamen Concilii Tri-
dentini'^ ■' is the ablest defence of Protestantism ever
published.

Dr. Krauth: f' ''The learning of Chemnitz was
something colossal, but it has no tinge of pedantry.
His judgment was of the highest order. His modesty
and simplicity, his clearness and thought, and his lumi-
nous style, his firmness in principle, and his gentleness
in tone, the richness of his learning and the vigor of his
thinking, have revealed themselves in such measure in
his "Loci," his books *'0n the Two Natures of Our
Lord," and '' On the True Presence," in his '' Examen of
the Council of Trent," his ''Defence of the Formula of
Concord," and his "Harmony of the Gospels," as to
render each a classic in its kind, and to mark their
author as the greatest theologian of his time — one of
the greatest theologians of all time."

4) Jacob Heerbrand (c7. 1600), professor of theol-
ogy at Tuebingen after 1557, through his principal work
" Compendium Theologicum,^^ which was generally
used as a text-book in Germany, Denmark, and Swe-
den, and which had almost symbolical authority in
Wuertemberg, exerted a wide influence. The book is in

4. Published after his death by Polycarp Leyser in 1591. The edition in my
library, to which reference will be made, is that of Wittenberg, 1610, which also
contains his two important treatises De vera et substantiali PrcBsentia and De
duabiis Naturts.

5. Published in four parts, 1565-73. Reprinted by Preuss, Berlin, 1861.
The edition used is that of Geneva, 1667. A condensed German translation was
published in St. Louis, 1875, (also Dresden).

6. In Cotiservative Reformation, p. 310.

180 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

the form of questions and answers, and presents very
clearly and simpl3^ the Lutheran doctrines in a biblical
manner. On account of the negotiations going on, at
the time, between the Patriarch of Constantinople and
the University of Tuebingen, it was translated into
Greek. This writer, and the following writers of this
century, no longer followed Melanchthon, but adopted
strict Lutheran views, and closely adhered to the Form-
ula of Concord.

5) Matthias Hafenreffer {d. 1619), professor of
theology at Tuebingen after 1598, in his ^^ Loci Theolo-
gici,'- follows the synthetic method, starting from the
highest principle, God, and proceeding to Man, to
Christ, to Redemption, until the system ends in the
doctrine of the Last Things. This work was the text-
book generally used at the Universities (Tuebingen,
Upsala, etc.), during the seventeenth century. '*It ob-
tained at once the voidest currency in upper and lower
Germany, because it gave in the most precise and intel-
ligible manner the doctrinal points of the Formula of
Concord, which was what they wanted to hear exclu-
sively in the Lutheran lecture rooms." ^

3, The Reformed Dogmatics.

1) ZwiNGLi^ {d. 1531) gives us the most complete,
though not a systematic, presentation of his views in his
^' CommentRrius de vera et falsa religione,^^ published
in 1525. Unlike Luther, he was not led to be a reformer
by any inward experience, but by classical culture, and
a scientific study of the Bible. The doctrine of justifi-
cation by faith, therefore, was by no means so central

7. Heppe.

I. Zeller: Das theologische System Zwtngle's, Tuebingen, 1853. Sigwart:
Zwingli, dei- Character semer Theologie^ etc. Stuttgart, 1855, Hottinger: Life
0/ Zwmgtz (Tra.nsla.ted hy T. C. Porter). Harrisburg, 1857. Usteri: Zwing/t,
7,nnQ\:\, 1883. Grob; The Li^e 0/ Zm'ngli^ New York, 1883.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION. 181

and vital with him as with Luther. He began his
work, not so much with the purification of doctrine,
as writh external improvements in worship, order, and
customs. He laid stress upon the absoluteness of God
and the exclusiveness of his will, so that the material
principle of Zwingli is the glory of God. Acknowledg-
ing as his formal principle the exclusive authority of
Scripture as a Rule of Faith, he often did violence to
the Word of God, for he approached it externally, and
explained the scriptures according to his subjective
judgment. He regarded the sacraments as only com-
memorative signs, and he had such superficial views of
original sin and guilt, that he regarded even heathen,
like Socrates and Cato, without further qualifications,
as members of the kingdom of God, — of which view
Luther says : ''If this is true, then the whole Gospel is
false." ^ His speculations led him to adopt a fatalistic
predestination, which deprives the wll of moral free-
dom, as over against divine providen/e. Schaflf : ^
''Zwingli lacked the genius and depth of Luther and
Calvin, the learning of Melanchthon and Oecolampa-
dius, but he was their equal in honesty of purpose, in-
tegrity of character, heroic courage, and devotion to
the cause of the Reformation, and surpassed them in
liberality. His prominent intellectual trait was clear,
strong common sense. He had no organ for the mys-
tic element in religion In his theological views

he v^as more radical than Luther He differed

chiefly from his vie^w of the real presence of Christ's
body and blood in the sacrament, and held this ordi-
nance to be merely a commemoration of the atoning
death of Christ In some articles he was ahead

2. Hoc SI verum est, totum evangelium falsum e^t.

3. In Jo/mson's Cyclopcedtq.

182 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

of his age, and held opinions which were then deemed
dangerous and heretical. He had a milder view of

original sin and guilt than the other Reformers

Zwingli represents only the first stage in the history of
the Reformed Church. His work was completed after
his death by his successor, BuUinger, at Zurich, and
still more by Calvin at Geneva."

2) John Calvin* {d. 1564), the founder of Calvin-
ism, wrote his famous work, ^^ Institutes of the Christ-
ian Religion,^^\n 1536, when he was twenty-seven years
old. The final form was given to the Institutes in the
Latin edition of Geneva, 1559, when it was made into
a treatise of four books, divided into one hundred and
four chapters. In the first three books he follows the
order of the Apostles' Creed, and in the fourth book
treats of the Church. ^ As a system, this work of Cal-
vin is more comprehensive, and more complete in its
formal scientific construction, than the Loci of Mel-
anchthon. Although Calvin far surpassed Zwingli in
religious depth and fervor, and closely approximated
the views of Luther, still, in the fundamental principle
of his system, he stood on the same basis with Zwingli.
He was decidedly hostile to ecclesiastical tradition, and
on the doctrine of the person of Christ differed greatly
from Luther, and therefore could not apprehend the
doctrine of the Lord's Supper in the fulness of Luther's

4. There is an English translation of Calvin's works by the " Calvin Trans-
lation Society." in 52 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-53. On his Li/e see Dyer: Life of
Calvin^ London, 1849; Bungener: Calvifi, Paris, 1862 (English translation, Edin-
burgh, 1863); but especially Stahelin: Johannes Calvift, 2 vols. Elberfeld, 1863. See
also Schaff; Creeds 0/ Christendom. Vol. i, pp. 421-465.

5. The first edition (Latin, Basel, 1536) contained only six chapters; i) Of
law, with an exposition of the Ten Commandments; 2) Of faith, with an exposi-
tion of the Apostles' Creed; 3) Of prayer, with an exposition of the Lord's Prayer;
4) Of the sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper; 5) Of the other so-called
sacraments; 6) Of Christian liberty, Church government and discipline.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION. 183

faith. The inexorable consistency with which he car-
ried out his views of predestination, made them exceed
Augustine's doctrine in inflexible rigidity and severity. ^
The five points of Calvinism are: 1) unconditional
election ; 2) limited atonement, designed for the elect
alone; 3) the total moral inability of the will ; 4) irre-
sistible grace; and 5) the perseverance of the saints.

3) Peter Martyr Yermilius {d. 1562), in his ''Loci
Communes.'^ which is one of the principal sources for
the study of the Reformed theology of the sixteenth
century, was Zwinglian in his doctrine.

4) BuLLiNGER (d. 1575), the author of the ''Second
Helvetic Confession," 1566, one of the most elaborate
of the Reformed Creeds, and next to the Heidelberg
Catechism, the most authoritative, contributed much
to establish the Reformation in Switzerland. ^ His
'' Compendium religionis christian^'' appeared in 1556,
in which, however, he did not lay so much stress on ab-
solute predestination.

5) Wolfgang Musculus {d. 1563) was originally in
favor of a union between the Lutheran and the Re-
formed Churches, but afterwards saw fit to change his
views, and in his ''Loci CommuneSy^^ ^ took a strong
Calvinistic position.

6) Aretius {d. 1574), professor of theology at Berne
(1563-74), exercised considerable influence through his
" Theologise Problemata,'' and his " Examen Theologi-
cum " ran through six editions in fourteen years.

7) Zacharias Ursinus {d. 1583), the chief author of

6. For an excellent article on Calvmistn by Dr. A. A. Hodge see Johnson's
Cyclopoedia, He speaks of the "Institutes," as "the first and grandest work of
systematic divinity the world has seen," that in it Calvin "has recast Augustinian-
ism in its final Protestant form, and handed it over to the modern world stamped
with its great author's name."

7. SeeSchaff: Creeds of Christejidom. Vol. i.//. 390-420.

8. Basel, 1560, and afterwards often reprinted.

184 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

the ''Heidelberg Catechism" (1563), was a man of
profound classical, philosophical, and theological learn-
ing. He was no orator, and no man of action, but a
retired, modest, and industrious student. His principal
works, beside the Heidelberg Catechism, are a ''Com-
mentary" on the Catechism, and an attack on the
Formula of Concord/-^

8) Olevianus {d. 1587), joint author of the "Heidel-
berg Catechism" with Ursinus, was inferior to Ursinus
in learning, but his superior in the pulpit and in Church
government. In the doctrines of the Lord's Supper
and predestination, he held the views of Calvin. He
has been regarded as the forerunner of the "federal the-
ology" of Cocceius {d. 1669).

9) Hyperius {d. 1564), professor of theology at
Marburg (1542-64), exercised a considerable influence
on the formation of evangelical theology. His " Topi-
ca theologica'' (1561) was extensively used, even by
Roman Catholic preachers.

10) Zanchi {d. 1590) acquired a great reputation
as one of the most learned theologians of his time. He
strongly advocated the Calvinistic doctrine of predes-
tination, and attacked the Lutheran doctrine of the
Person of Christ.

SECTION XVIII.

THE ORTHODOX DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY.

The orthodox dogmatics of the seventeenth
century had the character in some measure of a
revived and purified scholasticism, running out

9. St&Schdi^'. Creeds 0/ Christendom. Vol. i. //. 529-534.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 186

in some extreme cases into a sort of Protestant
Mediaevalism. But it was more profound than
the theology of the Early Fathers, more true
and consistent than that of the Scholastics, and
more scientifically developed and honestly out-
spoken than the dogmatics of the Roman Catho-
lic Church.

I. The Characteristic of the Dogmatics of this period i.

During the latter part of the sixteenth century the
Lutheran Church had undergone the ordeal of a war of

I. In order to form a clear conception of the history of the dogmatic develop-
ment of the Lutheran Church in the 17th Century, we must take into considera-
tion, i) The three general tendencies which were at work in Lutheran Germany,
and 2) the internal controversies which agitated the Lutheran Church during this
period.

1) Of the general tendencies at work the first was a strong Roman Catholic
reaction, supported by political power, kindled and fermented by the Jesuits, a
reaction which culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), of which Gusta-
vus Adolphus, of Sweden, is the hero.

The second general tendency was a strongly-marked Calvinizing movement,
also started and abetted by political power, by which Lutheran Germany lost sev-
eral states.

The third general tendency were the Unionistic efforts, which instead of re-
storing religious unity, only made the breach wider. These Unionistic efforts were
of a two-fold character : a) The attempt to bring about a reconciliation between
the Roman Catholics and the Protestants (The Conference of Thorn, 1645, known
as the Colloquium Caritativum, the Conference of Courteous Compliments, and
the correspondence between Bossuet and Leibnitz in 1691); b) the attempt to
bring about a reconciliation between the Lutherans and the Reformed (The Collo-
quy of Leipsic, 1631, and of Cassel, 1661).

2) A reaction against the so-called Scholasticism and one-sidedness of the
Lutheran Church could not fail to take place within the Church herself. The op-
position which sprang up was of a two-fold character : a) in the case of Calixtus
and the Syncretistic controversies it was confined exclusively to the sphere of the-
ology ; b) in Spener and the Pietistic controversy, it more largely concerned the
Christian life. And though the opposition which arose was marked by a one-
sidedness of another sort, still these controversies had a beneficial influence upon
the spiritual life of the Lutheran Church.

a) The Syncretistic Controversy. By Syncretism, we mean a tendency to
form a union between two religious bodies on the basis of such doctrines 01 tenets
as are common to both. There are two tendencies discernible throughout the

186 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

polemics. The precision, clearness and carefulness of
the Formula of Concord had gradually overcome all
opposition to it, and had in fact really restored har-
mony within the Church.

Now came a period of comparatively internal repose,
the mediaeval period of Lutheran Theology, when the
theological system of our Church was fully developed,
reared like a glorious Gothic edifice, massive in archi-^
tecture, rich in construction, and finished in beauty,
even to the last of its marvelous adornings. But this
tendency to an accurate delineation and precise defini-
tion of doctrine became more and more one-sided.
Like Medieval Scholasticism, in its concern for logic it
almost lost vitality. Nevertheless, this scholastic or-
thodoxy, with all its one-sidedness, imparted to Lu-
theran theology a fulness and wealth, an acuteness
and consistency of structure, the grandeur of which
the greatest theologians of all denominations are com-
pelled to acknowledge. We can conceive of men of in-
tellect studying this system without receiving it in
every part ; but we conceive it impossible for a man of
high intellect to master the system of our Church with-
out admiring it.

whole Reformation period, the one condemning all toleration of different opinions
as an unsoundness of doctrine, the other striving after reconciliation and harmony
between the different religious bodies. In the middle of the seventeenth centuiy
these two tendencies came into violent conflict with each other, The controversy
originated in the views of the great Helmstadt theologian, George Calixtus. On
his side were the theologians of Helmstadt and Konigsberg, and opposed to them
were the more rigid Lutheran theologians of Leipsic, Dresden, and Wittenberg,
led by John Huelsemann of Leipsic, and above all by Abraham Calovius of Wit-
tenberg, who alone wrote 26 controversial books, many of them more than a
thousand pages quarto.

b) The Pietistic Controvesy. Pietism denotes a movement in the Lutheran
Church which arose as a reaction of the living, practical faith against an ortho-
doxy which too often contented itself with a theoretical correctness of its creed. In
the 17th century we have only to do with Pietism in its early stage, and the whole
movement centres around the person of Philip Jacob Spener (d. 1705).

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 187

And though this period of our Church is often reviled
as that of '' dead orthodoxy," it cannot be denied that
it possessed more true piety and spiritual life than the
eighteenth century, that period which most deridedit,
— and that it is far superior to this present century,
with all its boasted progress, and scientific attain-
ments, in stedfastness of faith, in earnest devotion, in
consecration to God, and in strict adherence to the doc-
trines of God's Word and to the teachings of our Con-
fessions. A century which has produced a Johann
Arndt {d. 1621), a Valerius Herberger {d. 1627) a John
Gerhard {d. 1637), a Johann Andreae {d. 1654), a Hein-
rich Mueller (d. 1675), a Paul Gerhardt (d. 1676), a
Christian Scriver {d. 1701), and a Spener {d. 1705),
can not be altogether an age of spiritual coldness, and
a period in the history of the Church as black as it has
generally been painted.

Dr. Walther: - The theological works of the seven-
teenth century ''exhibit, not only according to the
judgment of all Lutherans who are faithful to the Con-
fession, the very best results that have ever been at-
tained in the Christian Church of all ages, so far as cor-
rect presentation, thorough development and organic
arrangement of the doctrines of the Bible are con-
cerned, and are therefore of imperishable value, but
even according to the testimony of men who do not
unreservedly subscribe to the Confessions of our Church,
yea even of its enemies, these works belong to the most
admirable productions of the earnest spirit of Christian
research, which even now every one must make himself
perfectly familiar with, if he wishes to learn the doc-
trines of our Church in their peculiar features, their
wealth, and their self-consistency; or even if, in gen-

2. In a criticism of Schmid's Dogmatik der Evang. Luth. Kirche.

188 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

eral, he wishes to be capable of forming a well-tested
judgment in the department of Dogmatics."

2. The divers tendencies of the Orthodox Dogmatics i .

Laxity in Calixtus {d. 1656), rigidity in Calovius
(d. 1686), moderation in Musseus {d. 1681), represent
the great universities which these great men adorn,
Helmstadt,, Wittenberg, and Jena.

George Calixtus for forty-two years (1614-1656)
professor of theology at Helmstadt, was, in the seven-
teenth century, the most prominent and influential rep-
resentative of the school of Melanchthon. A man of
superior scientific and social accomplishments, a thor-
ough student of Church History, rich in the culture
which can only be obtained by extensive travels, Calix-
tus, being of an irenical turn of mind, formed a more
liberal judgment of other denominations than was
commonly held. He did not, indeed, desire a formal
union of the various Churches, but he held that they
should recognize, tolerate, and love each other. He
proposed a secondary principle of Christian theology
(next to the Holy Scriptures as its primary principle) ,
the consensus of the first five centuries as a common
basis for all Churches, and sought to show that all
subsequent diversities were either non-essential or less
essential." But the more rigid Lutheran theologians,
who v^ere mistrustful of all peaceful measures, ever
since the trouble with crypto-Calvinism at the end of
the sixteenth century, accused Calixtus of crypto-Cal-
vinism, of crypto-Catholicism, in fact Calixtus was at-
tacked on all sides, and by no one more furiously than
by that strict defender of orthodoxy, Abraham Calo-
vius of Wittenberg.

1. SeeH. Schmid: " Geschichte der synkret, Streitigkeiten, " etc. Erlangen,
1846; Gass: •' Calixtus und der Synkretismus." Breslau, 1846.

2. See Kurtz in his Church History. Vol. 2. § 38. 2.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 189

Calovius was the prodigy of his age, the most volu-
minous of our theologians, writing on all departments
of theological science, distinguished for his wonderful
industry, unyielding firmness and severity, vast and
varied learning, and his most remarkable zeal in con-
troversy. Although ranking high as a dogmatician,
still the conspicuous position which he occupied in the
theological world of the seventeenth century is owing
principally to his violent polemics against Calixtus,
and against that reconciliating tendency which was
represented by the University of Helmstadt. In 1655
the Theological Faculties of Leipsic and Wittenberg, of
which Calovius was the ruling spirit, prepared a state-
ment of the divergences between the Book of Concord
and the principles enforced by the school of Calixtus.
They hoped to make this formal document ^ authorita-
tive, and of a symbolical character, but it was never
legally ratified.

Mus.^us, of Jena, who was strongly opposed to the
exact and fixed definitions which were then used in
Lutheran orthodox dogmatics, in vain, sought to me-
diate between these two parties.

3. The Dogmaticians of this period.

1) Aegidius Hunnius {d. 1603), professor of theol-
ogy at Marburg 1576-92, and at Wittenburg 1591-
1603, was one of Heerbrand's pupils, and a staunch
champion of Lutheran orthodoxy. While at Marburg,
he opposed the reigning Calvinistic tendency, especially
in Christology {De persona Christi, 1585), and in Wit-

3. The title was : Consensus Repetitus fidei vere Lutheranae, and it was
arranged under 98 heads or articles. Each of the heads was subdivided into three
parts. The first division declared the true Lutheran doctrine: Profit emur et
docent. The second stated the opinion condemned: Rejicimus. The third, under
the form of Ita docent, contained extracts from the writings of Calixtus, or, in a
few cases, o£ his followers.

190 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

tenberg he contributed greatly in suppressing Melanch-
thonian views. In 1603 he wrote De procidentia Dei
et eeterna prsedestinatio against Huberts false view,
that election is universal and entirely unlimited. John
Gerhard calls him "the best of the recent theologians."
2) Leonard Hutter {d. 1616), professor of theol-
ogy at Wittenberg from 1596 until his death, was the
most prominent theologian of his age. His resemblance
to Luther in vigor of mind, energy of action, unwearied
industry, firmness in faith, and boldness in proclaiming
truth and sharply rebuking error, gave him the title of
^^ Redonatus Lutherus.'' He was a typical representa-
tive of Lutheran orthodoxy in its older form, before its
scholastic development, while it still confined itself to
reproduction and polemics. His best known work is
his ''Compendium Locorum Theologicorum,'' '^ pub-
lished in 1610, which, for nearly a century, was almost
universally used in the theological schools of Germany,
superseding the Loci Communes of Melanchthon. It is
brief, concise, and comprehensive, arranged in the form
of questions and answers, and for its definitions mainly

I, Many editions of this excellent work have been published, and it has been
translated into German three times (in 1611, by Hutter himself in 1613, by Francke
in 1837), into Swedish (Stockholm, 1618), and into English (by Doctors Jacobs and
Spieker, Philadelphia, 1868).

It presents the whole subject-matter of Dogmatics, arranged in the Synthetic
manner, under 34 /act or articles: i) De Scriptura Sacra, 2) De Deo uno et trine,
3)De duabus naturis in una persona Christi, 4) De creatione, 5) De angelis bonis
et malis, 6) De imagine Dei in homine, 7) De aeterna Dei providentia, 8) De pec-
cato in genere et in specie, g) De libero arbitrio, 10) De lege Dei, 11) De evangelio,
12) De justificatione, 13) De aeterna praedestinatione, 14) De bonis operibus, 15)
De poenitentia et confessione, 16) De ministerio et ordine ecclesiastico, 17) De
ecclesia, 18) De libertate Christiana, 19) De sacramentis in genere, 20) De bap-
tismo, 21) De coena Domini, 22) De sacrificiis et de missa pontifica, 23) De scan-
dalo, 24) De cruce et consolationibus, 25) De invocatione, 26) De votis monasticis,
27) De magistratu et rebus civilibus, 28) De matrimonio, 29) De morte corporis
deque immortalitate animae. 30) De consummatione sive fine mundi, 31) De resur-
rectione mortuorum, 32) De extremo judicio, 33) De inferno, 34) De vita aeterna.

THE BOGMAtlCS Of TfiE SEVENTEENtS CENTURY, 191

uses the words of the Symbolical Books, and of the
older theologians, Chemnitz and Aegidins Hunnius. At
least eight of our theologians have made this compend
a basis for other works.- Huelsemann of Leipsic {d.
1661), esteemed the study of this Compend as of no
less importance than that of the Symbolical Books
themselves. ^ Hutter's ^^ Loci Communes Theologici,^'
published in 1619, three years after his death, by the
theological faculty of Wittenberg, is simply a further
elaboration of the Compendium. The Lutheran Church
is also indebted to Hutter for the direction which his
instructions gave to the mind of John Gerhard.

3) John Gerhard {d. 1637), the greatest of all Lu-
theran theologians, ^'combined rare learning, great
acuteness, wonderful industry, sound judgment, and
practical ability with ardent piety."* Bossuet is said
to be the author of the often-quoted remark that Ger-
hard is the third (Luther, Chemnitz, Gerhard) in that
series of Lutheran theologians in which there is no
fourth. It is by his great work ''Loci Theologici,'' ^
that he gained his great fame.

2. Cundisius (1648), Glassius (1656), Christian Chemnitz (1670), Bechmann
1690), Schneider, Leuschner, Ebart, Deutschmann, etc,

3. See Dr. Jacobs' Preface to English Translation of Compend.

4. Luthardt.

5. See note 4 on /. 14.

So important is this work of Gerhard, that we will attempt to indicate in a
brief analysis, the comprehensiveness with which each doctrine is discussed. A
more detailed analysis of his mode of treating some of the more important doc-
trines, will be given later, in the dogmatic system itself. (The paging given in
this anal>sis refers to the laige quarto edition of Preuss, 9 vols. 1863-1885).

Book I. Locus I. De Scriptura Sacra (Chapters 27, pp. 13-240); 2. De natura
Deiet attributis divinis (Ch. 8. pp. 241-370); 3. De sanctissimo Trinitatis mysterio
(Ch. 13, pp. 371-446); 4. De persona et officio Christi (Ch. 15, pp. 447-608).

Book II. Locus 5. De creatione et angeUs (Ch. 6, pp. 1-16); 6. De providen-
tia (Ch. 15, pp. 17-47); 7. De electione et reprobatione (Ch. 14,//. 48-106); 8. De
imagine Dei in homine (Ch. \o,pp. 107-141); 9. De peccato originali (^Ch. 10, pp.

192 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Luthardt: "A more careful exegetical treatment
than is found in his predecessors, the comprehensive
consideration of the material afforded by the history
of dogmas, the most thorough elaboration of every
question, the objectiveness of its judgment, and its
firmness in polemics, combined with the reference to
the practical and consolatory use of the individual
dogmas, distinguish this work, which also through
its copious application of the scholastic theology (es-
pecially in the doctrine of God), and its employment,
although still in a moderate degree, of the scholastic
form, was of the most significant influence upon works
which followed it."

Tholuck "The progress that Gerhard made be-
yond Chemnitz and Hutter, consists partly in a more
perfect systematization, partly in a deeper and more
speculative argumentation of the dogmas, but espec-
ially in the completeness and comprehensiveness of the
treatment."

142-182); 10. De peccatis actualibus (Ch. 26,//. 183-237); 11. De libero arbitrio
(Ch. 12,//. 238-282).

Book III. Locus 12. De lege Dei (Sections 208, pp. 1-108); 13. De legibus
ceremonialibus et forensibus (Sec. 44, pp. 109-140) ; 14. De evangelio (Sec 130, pp.
141-202); 15. De poenitentia (Sec. 145, pp. 203-299); 16. De justificatione per fidem
(Sec. 251, pp. 300-520).

Book IV. Locus 17. De bonis operibus (Sections 147, pp. T-136); 18. De
sacramentis (Sec. 109, pp. 137-219); 19. De circumcisione et agno paschali (Sec.
6.S, pp. 220-255); 20. De sacro baptismo (Sec. 271. //. 256-398).

Book V. Locus 21. De sacra coena (Ch. 26, pp. 1-253); 22. De ecclesia (Ch.
13, Sec. 305, pp. 254-602).

Book VI. Locus 23. De ministerio ecclesiastico (Ch. 10, Sec. 375, pp. 1-265);
24, De magistratu poHtico (Ch. 8, Sec. 489, //. 266-562).

Book VII. Locus 25. De conjugio (Ch. 12, Sec. 708, pp. 1-466).

Book VIII. Locus 26. De morte (Ch. 10, Sec. A^T^pp. 1-391); 27. De mor-
tuorum resurrectione (Ch. 13, Sec. 124, pp. 392-504).

Book IX. Locus 28. De extremo judicio (Ch. 11, Sec. 126, pp. 1-126); 29. De
consummatione secuH (Ch. 11, Sec. 107, pp. 127-204); 30. De inferno seu morte
aeterna (Ch. 13, Sec. 93, pp. 205-287); 31. De vita aeterna (Ch. 12, Sec. i77>//-
288-427).

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 193

Kahnis: *' The strength of this work does not lie in
the systematic arrangement of the material, but in the
thorough elaboration of the individual doctrines, ac-
cording to the entire extent of their exegetical, dogma-
tico — historical, symbolical, polemical, and practical
material."

BuDDEUS: ''Those who admire his industry, but
overlook his sound judgment, prove thereby that they
themselves are destitute of judgment, as I am certain
that they cannot produce a single example of an error
in judgment."

Walther: ^ "In our opinion, this work is the most
excellent and complete, both in contents and form, that
has been produced within this department of the Christ-
ian religion, and will remain until the last day the model
for all who make attempts in this sphere."

Not only was Gerhard a giant among the theolo-
gians, but he Avas a most successful advocate of a liv-
ing Christianity, and his ^^ Meditationes sacr^" show
him to have been a true mystic.

4) NicoLAUS HuNNius {d. 1643), professor of theol-
ogy at Wittenberg (1617-22), and Superintendent at
Luebeck after 1623, followed in the footsteps of his
father, Aegidius Hunnius, and like him, was possessed
of great learning. His ''Epitome Credendorum " ^ has
often been reprinted.

5) George Calixtus^ (d. 1656) introduced the ana-
lytic method (which begins with the end of all theol-
ogy, blessedness, and hence takes the opposite course
from the synthetic) into the treatment of Dogmatics,

6. All these eulogies are quoted from sketch of Geihard in Appendix I, to
Schmid's Doctrinal Theology.

7. Translated into English by Gotthetl, Nuremberg, 1847.

8. See/. 188. Compare also H, Schmid: Gesch. des synkret. Streitigkeiten,
Erlangen, 1846; Gass : G. Calixtus und der Synkretismus .

194 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

and also separated Ethics Irom Dogmatics. The de-
fender in the great Syncretistic controversy, his princi-
pal work on Dogmatics proper is his small compend
''Epitome theologiae,'' published in 1619. In his later
writings he departed widely on various doctrines, from
the teaching of the Lutheran Church ^ .

6) JoHANN MusAEUS {d. 1681), professor of theology
at Jena (1646-81), possessed an excellent philosophical
training and, on the one side, vindicated the applica-
tion of philosophy to theology against the disciples of
the stiff Lutheran orthodoxy, ^while on the other side,
he condemned its too universal use by the theologians
of the Reformed Church. He regarded theology the
object not only of the intellect, but of the affections'^^,
and emphasized to such a degree the sanctity of the
will, that he has been regarded as a precursor of Spener.
He refused to sign the Consensus drawn up by Calovius
in 1655, and was also accused of Syncretism, and com-
pelled in a formal way to renounce all sympathy with
the views of Calixtus ^ ^ .

7) John William Baier (d. 1695) based his '' Com-
pendium Theologiae Positivae " ^ ^ upon the theology of
Musaeus, his father-in-law, and of ''many other ortho-
dox theologians." The author adopts the analytic
method, ^ ^ and the study of this book is an excellent
introduction to the older Dogmaticians.

g. See note 3 on p. 189.

10. See his Introductio in theologiam. Jena, 1678.

11. See note 3 on /. 189.

12. A very cheap reprint by Preuss. Berlin, 1864; another edition, enlarged
by Dr. Walther appeared in 1879-83, in 3 vols. St. Louis and Dresden.

13. Prolegomena, i. De natura theologiae; 2. De scriptura sacra.

Pars Prima, i. De Deo; 2. De creatione; 3. De angelis; 4. De imagine
Dei; 5. De providentia Dei; 6. De beatitudine aeterna; 7. De damnatione aeter-
na; 8. De morte temporali; 9. De resurrectione mortuorum; 10. De judicio ex-
treme et consuramatione seculi.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 195

Dr. Walther ^ ^ sums up the merits of this com-
pendium, as ''great completeness combined with com-
pact brevity, exclusion of all extraneous material, ex-
quisite selection, and, above all, accurate exegesis of
scriptural proof -passages, critical comparison, and
employment of the labors of his predecessors within
the department of dogmatics, and, in addition to Lu-
theran fidelity in doctrine, the expression of a living
heart-faith, and a mild, pious sensibility."

8) Conrad Dannhaner {d. 1666), professor of theol-
ogy in the University of Strasburg, where Spener was
his pupil, had considerable influence through his pro-
found exegetical labors. In his ^^ Hodosophia Christ-
iana,^^ he presents the dogmas, in the analytical meth-
od, from the standpoint of a man who is a pilgrim on
his way to heaven. He was an ardent champion of
Lutheran orthodoxy, and his zeal for the purity of
doctrine v^as connected with the most earnest personal
piety. He wrote against the Romanists, against the
Calvinists, and against Syncretism (represented by
Calixtus).

9) JoHANN HuELSEMANN {d. 1661), profcssor of the-
ology at Wittenberg (1629-46), and at Leipsic after
1646, has given us two excellent works on Dogmatics.
His compend ^^ Breviarium Theologise^^ (1640), was
enlarged in his ^^ Bxtensio breviarii^^ of 1648. His op-

Fa7's Secunda. i. De peccato in genere; 2. De peccato originis; 3. De pec-
catis actualibus.

Pars Tertia. i. De gratia Dei; 2. De Christo: a) De persona Christi, b) De
statibus exinanitionis et exaltationis, c) De officio Christi; 3. De fide in Christum;
4. De regeneratione et conversione; 5. De justificatione; 6. De renovatione et
bonis operibus: 7. De verbo legis et evangelii; 8. De sacramentis in genere: 9.
De sacramentis veteris testamenti; 10. De baptismo; 11. I'e sacra coena; 12. De
praedestinatione; 13. De ecclesia; 14. De ministerio ecclesiastico; 16. De magis-
t'-atu politico; 16. De statu et societate domestica.

14. In vol. T. of Lehre und Wehre. See Sketch of Dogmaticians in Schmid'§
Doctrinal Theology.

196 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ponents spoke of his style as ''stilum barbarum, scho-
lasticum, holcoticum, scoticum ac tenebrosum."

10) JoHANN Friedrich Kcenig {d. 1664), succes-
sively Swedish court-preacher, professor of theology
at Greifswald (1651), superintendent of Mecklenburg
and Ratzeburg (1656), and professor of theology at
Rostock, after 1659, was one of the *' dogmatic virtu-
osi" of the seventeenth century. His compend '' The-
ologia positiva acroamatica^^ was often republished,
and widely used as a text-book, and forms the founda-
tion of Quenstedt's famous work. It is more scientific
than the "Compend" of Hutter. Buddeus: "The
author comprehended much in a few words and in a
forcible manner ; but, by an excessive desire of brevity
and accuracy, produced a mere skeleton, destitute of
sap and blood."

11) JoHANN SCHERZER (d. 1683), profcssor of theol-
ogy at Leipsic, in his '' Breviculus theologicus'' (1678)
sought to present a system of dogmatics in a still
shorter and more concise form than Koenig, which,
however, he enlarged in his " Sy sterna theologise''
(1680), but he is not happy in his definitions. He also
wrote the best Protestant work against the Roman
Catholic controversialist, Bellarmine {d. 1621).

12) Abraham Caloviusi^ {d. 1686), professor of
theology at Wittenberg after 1650, represents the
strictest school of orthodoxy, and wrote ably on all
departments of theology. His '' Sy sterna Locorum
Theologicorum'' (12 vols. 1655-77), is the most com-
pact and comprehensive representation of Lutheran
dogmatics, the true exemplar of what has been called
Lutheran Scholasticism ^ ^ . His writings are more po-

15. See/. 189, and fiote on p. i86,

16. The first four volumes are more thorough in their treatment than the
later volumes.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. , 197

lemical than dogmatical. His great exegetical work
''Biblia Ulustrata'' is mainly a refutation of the Com-
mentaries of Grotius.

13) JOHANN QuENSTEDT {d. 1688), professor of the-
ology at Wittenberg (1649-88), has been called ''the
bookkeeper of the Wittenberg orthodoxy." His '' The-
ologia didactica polemica,'^ which appeared in 1685, is
one of the most important works of Lutheran theol-
ogy, and is noted for its accurate classification of
dogmatic material. On account of the objectivity of
his treatment, and his thorough acquaintance with
the literature of his own times, Quenstedt, next to Ger-
hard, is the most instructive representative of the or-
thodox dogmatics.

''It possesses little originality, and follows closely
the outline of Kcenig, but shows the greatest erudition
in its citation of authorities, and skill in rendering the
work of reference easy. The objection, however, is often
made, that Quenstedt, by his excessive attention to the
details of his system, has deprived dogmatic theology
of life, by reducing its doctrines to the shape of mathe-
matical formulas ^ ^."

14) David Hollazi^ {d. 1713) is especially known
by his v^ork " Examen theologicum acroamaticum "
(1707) ^ ^ The great popularity of this work was not
due to its originality of thought, but to the clearness
and terseness of its definitions, and especially to the
genial and irenic tone and the living scriptural charac-
ter of its theology. He is the last of the strict Lutheran
theologians, but in the period of transition between
the seventeenth and eighteenth century, took an inter-

17. See Sketch of Quenstedt in Appendix to Schmid's Doctrinal Theology.

18. Or Hollazius.

19. All quotatio s will be cited from the quarto edition of 1741.

198 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

mediate position between Lutheran orthodoxy and pie-
tism 20.

In the form of questions and answers he recapitu-
lates with great clearness and compactness the results
attained by his predecessors ^ ^ .

4. The Reformed or Calvinistic Dogmaticians of this period.

The dogmatics of the Lutheran Church had its home
in Germany and bears a character of unity and conti-
nuity; the Reformed dogmatics, on the other hand,
was developed in various lands and under the influence
of different schools of thought. The dogmatic theology
of the Reformed Church was cultivated mainly in the
Netherlands, ^where we meet with Arminianism and

20. See Wagenmann in Schaff-Herzog.

21. The synopsis of the whole work is as follows :
Propcedia Theologica.

I. De theologiae constitutione, pp. 1-34; 2. De religione et articulis fidei,pp.
34-64; 3. De scriptura sacra, //. 64-198.

Poedia Theologica.

Pars Prima, i. De Deo, pp. 198-295; 2. De mysterio Trinitatis, pp. 296-361;
3. De creatione, pp. 361-385; 4, De angelis, pp. 385-416; 5. De homine, pp. 416-
432; 6. De providentia divina, pp. 432-463; 7. De beatitudine aeterna, pp. 463-471,

Pars Secunda. i. De imagine Dei, pp. 471-499 ; 2. De peccato in genere, pp.
499-516; 3. De peccato originali, //. 516-546; 4. De peccato actuali, //. 546-576;
5. De defectu liberi arbitrii in spiritualibus, pp. 567-592.

Pars Tertia. A. De salutis principiis. i. De benevolentia Dei universali,
pp. Sg2-6i'2\ 2. De praedestinatione, //. 612-659; 3* De persona Christi, />/. 660-
787; 4. De vocatione, //. 787-812; 5. De illuminatione, //. 813-847; 6. De con-
versione, pp. 848-870; 7. De reganeratione, pp. 871-888; 8. De justificatione, pp.
888-927; 9. De unione mystica, //, 927-942; 10. De renovatione, //. 942-958: 11.
De conservatione, pp. 958-966; 12. De glorificatione, pp. 966-984.

B. De mediis salutis. i. De verbo legis,//. 985-1022; 2. De verbo evangelii,
//. 1022-1041; 3. De Sacramentis,//. T041-1067; 4. De baptismo, //. 1067-1094;
5. De eucharistia, //. 1095-1136; 6. De poenitentia et contritione, //. 1136-1157;
7. De fide in Christum. jz>/. 1157-1184; 8. De bonis operibus, /^. 1184-1214; 9. De
morte et de resurrectione mortuorum, pp. 1214-1233; 10. De extrerao judicio et de
consummatione mundi,//. 1233-1264.

Pars Quarta. i. De ecclesia, pp. 1265-1325: 2. De ministerio ecclesiastico,
1326-1349; 3. De magisratu politico, //. 1350-1365; 4. De statu ceconomico, pp.
1366-1384.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 199

Calvinism in conflict, with a scholasticism in compar-
ison with which that of Quenstedt is only child's play,
with the philosophy of Descartes, and the federal theol-
ogy of Cocceius. In England we meet with latitudina-
rianism and deism, and in France with the teachings of
Amyraldus.

The centers of Reformed Theology, in Switzerland,
were Basel, Berne, Zurich, and especially Geneva; in
Germany, Heidelberg; in the Netherlands, Franeker,
Utrecht, Groningen, and above all, Leyden; in France,
Saumur, Montauban, and Sedan.

a) Germany.

The Reformed theology of Germany assumed a pecu-
liar type known as the German Reformed theology.
Although it had a Melanchthonian element, it was still
Calvinistic in its tendency. It took its origin in the
Palatinate, and had received its expression in the Hei-
delberg Catechism (1562).

1) Bartholomew Keckermann {d. 1609), at one
time professor at Heidelberg, died when he was only
thirty-eight years old. His '* Systema theologiae^^ was
widely used. Heppe says of him that the height of the
religious and philosophical speculation, and of the dia-
letic skill, of the German Reformed dogmatics, is found
in his system.

2) Johann Alsted {d. 1638), who represented the
Reformed Church of Nassau at the Synod of Dort,
1618, was a very prolific writer, and his works give a
striking idea of the literary and scientific attainments
of his age. The various theological disciplines were dis-
cussed by him in separate works. '' Theologia Scholas-
tica didactica'' (1618), '' Theol polemica" (1620),
* ' Tbeol. prophetica, " etc .

3) Markus Friedrich Wendelin (c7. 1652), was

200 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

one of the chief representatives of Reformed Scholastic-
ism. In his ^^Christianas theologiae sy sterna majuSj^'
published after his death, in 1656, he pays a great deal
of attention to the '^absurdas Lutheranorum opin-
iones," and accuses them of Pelagianism.

b) Switzerland.

1) Amandus Polanus {d. 1610) composed a ^'Syn-
tagma theol. Christ ^^ (1610), which was held in high
repute. Gass says that Polanus gave the first example
of an elaboration of the doctrinal system, expounding
and making distinctions in the causal method.

2) Johannes Wolleb {d. 1629), professor of theol-
ogy at Basel, 1618-29, published only one book, his
''Compendium theologiae Christianae,'^ 1626, but it
established his reputation as one of the great theolo-
gians of the Reformed Church. The work is noted for
its clearness and precision and the perfect order of its
arrangement.

3) Benedict Pictet (d. 1724), professor of theol-
ogy at Geneva (1702-24) was an able and voluminous
writer. His " Theologia Christiana'' (1696 in 11 vols.)
was much valued.

c) The Netherlands.

Among the Arminians we may mention the great
divines Episcopius, Grotius, and Limborch.

1) Simon Episcopius {d. 1643), professor of theol-
ogy at Leyden (1611-18), at Amsterdam (1634-43),
among other v^orks wrote " Institutiones Theologi-
cae'' and " Responsio ad Quaestiones -Theologicas,''
which became the standard works of Arminian the-
ology.

2) Hugo Grotius {d. 1645) espoused the cause of
the Arminians. In his " Defensio £dei Catholicae de
satisfactione Christi'' (1617), written to clear himself

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 201

from the charge of Socinianism, he first propounded
what is known as ''the Governmental Theory of the
Atonement." According to this view, the right to re-
lax the demands of the law, at will, belongs to God's
prerogative as moral governor. Christ's death was
not a vicarious atonement, not a real satisfaction of
the justice of God, but the benevolence of God requires,
that, as a precondition of the forgiveness of any sinner,
he should furnish such an example of suffering in Christ
as will exhibit his determination that sin shall not go
unpunished. His apologetic work "Z>e veritate relig.
Christ.'' (1627), designed for seamen who came in con-
tact with Mohammedans and heathens, has been trans-
lated into many languages.

3) Philip van Limborch {d. 1712), professor of the-
ology at Amsterdam (1668-1712), completed the work
which Episcopius began and Curcelleeus {d. 1659) con-
tinued. His '^ Institutiones Theologiae Christianae" ^
(1686) is the most complete exposition of the Arminian
doctrine extant, and is noted for its perspicuity and
judicious selection of material.

Over against these defenders of Arminianism, in
strict adherence to the praedestinarian views of Cal-
vin, may be mentioned Gomarus, Maccovius, Maresius,
and Voetius.

4) Francis Gomarus (c/. 1641), professor of theology
at Leyden, Saumur, and Groningen, was the leader of
the extreme Calvinistic party, and the declared adver-
sary of Arminianism. He and his followers (the Gom-
arists) were Supralapsarians, L e., they held that God
not only foresaw and permitted, but actually decreed
the fall of man, but overruled it for his redemption.
His ''Loci theol.'' appeared in 1644.

I. Translated into English by William Jones, London, 1702.

202 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

5) Joannes Maccoyius {d. 1644), professor of the-
ology at Franeker (1615-44) was famous as a dispu-
tant. In his ''Loci Communes'' (1626), he adopts the
scholastic method of treatment.

6) Samuel Maresius {d. 1673), professor of theol-
ogy at Groningen (1643-77), wrote many polemical
works (against the Amyraldists, the Socinians, the
Jesuits, the Cartesians, the Federalists, etc.).

7) Gysbertus Yoetius (J. 1676), professor of theol-
ogy at Utrecht (1634-76), was a pupil of Gomarus,
and a strict Calvinist both in doctrine and in policy.
He regarded Arminianism as of the greatest danger to
the Dutch Reformed Church, and waged war against it
to the bitter end. He also strongly opposed the feder-
alism of Cocceius and the philosophical views of Des-
cartes.

The philosophical system of Descartes gave rise to
violent controversies, and left its impress upon the doc-
trinal views of the Reformed Church, for the theolo-
gians who belonged to this school, attempted to recon-
cile the principles of natural and revealed theology.

8) Rene Descartes {d. 1650, in Stockholm), was
the great master of the system of philosophical ration-
alism. Starting from the principle de omnibus est du-
bitandum, Descartes arrived at his cogito, ergo sum, as
the ultimate fact of consciousness v^hich cannot be
doubted. A most powerful opposition arose against
him in the Church. Yoetius, in 1639, charged him with
Atheism, his philosophy was condemned in 1647 ^nd
again in 1676 by the university of Leyden, as well as
by the Synod of Delft in 1657.

Over against its serious errors, the philosophy of
Descartes has given to the world some fruitful truths.
He established the authority of reason in its own

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 203

Sphere, and on the witness of consciousness he has
constructed a barrier sufficiently strong to resist the
efforts of skepticism and a narrow, false theology.
Among other things he has shed special light on the
idea of the infinite, and Deism may be said to have
been philosophically annihilated by him.

The Federal Theology originated with Cocceius, and
is represented by Burmann, Leydecker, Witsius and Van
Til.

9) Johannes Cocceius {d. 1669), professor of the-
ology at Bremen (1629), Franeker (1636), at Leyden
(1650), was the founder of the Federal Theology 2. His
principal works, in which his views are developed are
his "Summa Doctrinae'' (1648), and '' Summa Theolo-
giae.^^ He drew his theology directly from the Bible,
and from it alone ; and thus he put himself in opposi.
tion to the scholastics and the Cartesians. But as an
interpreter Cocceius is open to the charge of fanciful-
ness. Heppe says: *' The fruit of his influence on the
Reformed Dogmatics was to lead theologians back to
the Bible, delivering it from the bondage of a tradi-
tional scholasticism . ' '

10) Franz Burmann {d. 1679), professor of theol-
ogy at Utrecht {d. 1662-79), in his ''Synopsis Theolo-
giae^^ (1671) attempts to reconcile the doctrines of
Cocceius and those of the orthodox Reformed Church,
and embodies the results of the Federal theology in a
permanent form.

11) Melchoir Leydecker {d. 1721), professor of
theology at Utrecht (1679-1721) simplified the Federal

2. His whole doctrinal system was founded upon the idea of a covenant be-
tween God and man. He distinguished between i) the covenant before the fall
(of works), and 2) the covenant after the fall (of grace). This latter he divides
into three economies; i) the economy prior to the law. 2) under the law, and 3)
of the Gospel.

204 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

theology and treated the whole system of theology in
the order of the three persons of the Trinity, approxi-
mating very closely to the Reformed dogmatics in its
traditional form. He presents his system most fully in
his "De oeconomia trium personarum,^^ etc., (1682).

12) Hermann Witsius (cf. 1708), professor of theol-
ogy at Franeker (1675-80), Utrecht (1680-98) and
Leyden (1698-1708), in his "De oecotnia foederutn Dei
cam hominibus^^ ^ endeavored to mediate between the
orthodox Reformed and the Federalists, but as usual
pleased neither party, least of all the Federalists, to
whom he belonged, who accused him of sinning against
the Holy Ghost. The work itself is in no way remark-
able.

13) Solomon van Til {d. 1713), professor of theol-
ogy at Dort and Ley den, was one of the ablest of the
Reformed divines. In his " Theologiae utriusque com-
pendium turn naturalis turn revelatae'^ (1704), he en-
deavored to set forth a system which combined Schol-
asticism, Cartesianism, and Federalism.

d) England and Scotland'^.

The Reformation in England ended by showing itself
decidedly Calvinistic. Scotland, with the Presbyterian
form of government, also received from John Knox the
principles of Calvinism. The Church of England, dur-
ing the beginning of the seventeenth century, was rep-
resented by Richard Hooker, Field, Jackson, and
Archbishop Laud, and during the latter half, by Bull,
Jeremy Taylor, Stillingfleet, Waterland, Bey-
ERiDGE, Pearson and Burnet. In the established

3. English Translation in 3 vols., one in 1763, and another in 1771. Last
edition in 2 vols., London, 1837.

4. Compare Hagenbach's Histo7-y of Doctriiies^ edited by Henry B. Smith.
Vol. 2., pp. 182-195. See also Perry's History of the Church of EnglaJid, pp. 358-
586, New York, 1880.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 205

church there were still some who held to the doctrines
of the Reformed theology, such as Leighton, and Ro-
bert South. The more distinctive Puritan theology
was advocated by Charnock, John Bunyan, Rich-
ard Baxter, John Owen, and John Howe. The
Scotch divines as a rule, of whom we may mention
Thomas Boston, and the New England divines of this
period, such as John Cotton, and Cotton Mather, were
strict Calvinists.

There were also other phases of theological opinion
in England. A Platonizing tendency was represented
by Ralph Cud worth, and under Latitudinarianism we
may class such names as ChilHngworth, Tillotson, and
Samuel Clarke.

1) Richard Hooker {d. 1600), was one of the most
eminent divines of the Church of England. His ^^Eccle-
siastical Polity, ^ more than any other w^ork, has given
shape to the theology of the English Church.

2) Richard Field {d. 1616) was an intimate friend
of Hooker, and in his famous work " Of the Church " ^
treats of the nature, members, and government of the
true Church. He takes the moderate view of the Epis-
copacy,

3) Thomas Jackson^ {d. 1640), was originally a
Calvinist, but became an Arminian.

4) William Laud^ (beheaded 1644), Archbishop of
Canterbury, was the great High-Churchman of this
period, and has been called the ''English Cyprian."

5) George Bull {d. 1710), Bishop of St. David's, in
his ^' Defensio Fidei Nicense^^"^ (1685) in a most learned

5. Best edition by Keble.

6. Republished in 4 vols., Cambridge, 1847.

7. His works, of which his Commentaries on the Apostles'' Creed is the best,
have been republished in 12 vols., Qjiford, 1844.

8. His works have been republished in 7 vols., Oxford, 1853.

9. New translation in 2 vols., Oxford, 1851-2. Best edition of his works by
Burton in 8 vols., Oxford, 1827, 1846.

206 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

manner attempts to show that the orthodox doctrine
of the Trinity existed fully developed in the Christian
Church before the Council of Nicaea.

6) Jeremy Taylor {d. 1667), ''the Chrysostom of
English theology, but in brilliancy of imagination sur-
passing his Greek antitype," ^ » was decidedly anti-Cal-
vinistic and anti-Puritan, and not altogether free from
Pelagianizing tendencies, but approximated very closely
to the Lutheran doctrine of the Sacraments. He is best
known, however, by his devotional works, such as
''Holy Living'' and ''Holy Dying;' and his "Life of
Christ:'

7) Edward Stillingfleet {d. 1699), Bishop of
Worcester, an able metaphysician as well as theolo-
gian, was an ardent opponent of Romanism, and took
an active interest in the Trinitarian controversy of the
age.

8) Daniel Waterland {d. 1740) was the bold de-
fender of the orthodox doctrine against the Arians and
Socinians of his time. Against the views of Samuel
Clarke he wrote his masterly works on " Christ's
Divinity" '^K

9) William Beveridge ^^ (j. 1708), Bishop of St.
Asaph, has been styled "the great reviver and restorer
of primitive piety." Among his works we may men-
tion his "Doctrine of the Church of England" and his
" Thesaurus Theologicus."

10) John Pearson {d. 1686), Bishop of Chester,
was one of the great divines of the Church of England,
and his great work "Exposition of the Creed" ^^ is a
standard to this day.

10. Stoughton in Schaff-Herzog.

11. His works appeared in a new edition, in 6 vols., 1843.

12. His works were republished, in 12 vols., Oxford, 1844-48.

13. Best edition that of Chevallier.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 207

11) Gilbert Burnet (d. 1715), Bishop of Salisbury,
mainly known for his historical labors, wrote his ^^Ex-
position of the Thirty-nine Artie les^^ in 1699.

12) Robert Leighton {d. 1684), principal of the
University of Edinburgh, Bishop of Dunblane (1661-
72), Archbishop of Glasgow (1672-74), was one of the
noblest characters of his day.

13) Robert South {d. 1716) was a strong Calvin-
ist, and though anti-Puritan in civil and ecclesiastical
polity, was a Puritan in theology. As a preacher few
in the English Church have ever excelled him. His
mastery of English is almost unrivalled.

14) Stephen Charnock (d. 1680) is best known by
his able ''Discourses on the Existence and Attributes of
God,^' a work which is an acknowledged masterpiece.

15) John Bunyan (c/. 1688), a Baptist, through his
immortal w^ork, the ''Pilgrim's Progress '^ has aided
greatly in spreading evangelical truths among the
lowly and ignorant. Coleridge regards this book as
''incomparably the best Summa, Theologiae Evangelicae
ever produced by a writer not miraculously inspired."
Its style is invaluable as a study to every person who
wishes to obtain a wide command of the English lan-
guage.

16j Richard Baxter (c/. 1691) was noted as a
preacher, a pastor, a teacher, and a theologian. In-
clined to Calvinism, he was nevertheless independent
in his theological views. He sought to find a common
platform upon which all could meet — Calvinist and
Arminian, Episcopalian and Presbyterian, Protestant
and Romanist. A most voluminous writer, Baxter is
mainly known by his '* Saints' Everlasting Rest,''
which is only readable in an abridgment of an abridg-
ment. His chief work -was his " Methodus Theologiae

208 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Christianas,^^ a Latin work of nine hundred folio pages,
published in 1681.

17) John Owen 1* {d. 1683) was the most eminent
of the Independent divines of this period. He was a
strong Calvinist, and has written on almost all the-
ological topics.

18) John Howe {d. 1705), one of Cromwell's chap-
lains, through his various works, has left an impress
on Puritan theology. Robert Hall : "I have learned
more from John Howe than from any author I ever
read."

19) Thomas Boston ^^ {d. 1732) exercised a great
influence over the Presbyterian churches in Scotland
and England. He is best known by his ^^ Complete
Body of Divinity,'' and his ''Fourfold State.''

20) John Cotton {d. at Boston, 1652), was a volu-
minous v^riter ^ ^ , and one of the most noted of the Pur-
itans in America.

21) Cotton Mather {d. 1728) is the author of
three hundred and eighty two separate works, of which
several are elaborate volumes, while the great work of
his life (in his own view), his Bihlia Americana still re-
mains in manuscript.

22) Ralph Cudworth {d. 1688), an English Pla-
tonist, occupied an intermediate position between the
Puritanic and Romanizing tendencies of his time, and
was an able champion of revealed religion against the
reigning Deism. His fame rests on his great work ''The
True Intellectual System of the Universe" ^ ''.

23) William Chillingworth (d. 1644) is best

14. Latest edition of his works in 17 vols,, Phil'a., 1865-69.

15. Collected edition of his works in 12 vols., London, 1852.

16. Dexter in his Congregationalism, as seen in its Literature^ mentions 36
of his publications.

17. The occasion of its appearance was the philosophy of Hobbes (1588-1679).

THE DOGMATICS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 209

known by his famous work ^' The Religion of Protest-
tants a safe way to Salvation,^' which is an able vin-
dication of Protestantism. ''The Bible, the whole
Bible, and nothing but the Bible, is the religion of
Protestants."

24) John Tillotson {d. 1694), Archbishop of Can-
terbury, was a Latitudinarian in his tendencies, being
influenced partly by the writings of Chillingworth. He
ranks among the foremost of English preachers, and
was strongly opposed to popery.

25) Samuel Clarke {d. 1729), was a philosopher
as well as theologian, and defended the Newtonian
philosophy against Leibnitz. His fame chiefly rests
upon his ^^ Discourse upon the Being and Attributes oi
God,^^ and his ^^ Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity. ^^
This last work exposed him to the charge of Arianism.

e) France.

The French school of Amyraldists was preceded in
certain respects by Camergn, as Amyraut was his
pupil. Its great opponent was Heidegger. The doc-
trine was renewed by Pajon and Papin.

1) John Cameron (c7. 1625), professor of theology
at Saumur (1618) and at Montauban (1624), taught
the imputation of Christ's passive obedience alone, and
advocated the theory of what is known as '' hypothetic
universalism," which was more fully developed by his
pupil Amyraut. He was not an Arminian, however, as
is shown by his '' Defensio de gratia et libero arhitrio "
(1624).

2) Moses Amyraut (Amyraldus) {d. 1664), profes-
sor of theology at Saumur (1633-64), in his ''Traite
de la Predestination " expounded the doctrines of grace
and predestination not in accordance with the formulas
of the Synod of Dort. His views have been described

210 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

as ''the combination of a real particularism with a
merely ideal universalism." The Formula Consensus
was drawn up against his views in Geneva, 1675.

3) JoHANN Heinrich Heidegger (d. 1698), professor
of theology at Heidelberg, Steinfurt (1659), and Zurich
(1665), was the great opponent of Amyraldism. He
drew up the Formula Consensus which was adopted
by the city of Zurich in 1675. His ''Corpus Theolo-
giae Christianae'^ was often reprinted.

4) Claude Pajon (d. 1685), for a short time pro-
fessor of theology at Saumur, is the father of the so-
called Pajonism, a peculiar development of the doc-
trinal system of the French Reformed Church. A fol-
lower of Amyraldus, he denied the immediate concur-
rence in providence, and the immediate influence of the
Holy Spirit in conversion.

5) Isaac Papin (c/. 1709), a pupil of Pajon, departed
more and more from the Reformed doctrines, and finally
embraced Romanism, in 1690.

SECTION XIX.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION.

The dogmatics of this period shows partly a
reactionary character over against the tradi-
tionalism and formalism which, in a certain
measure pervaded Theology, and partly a pro-
gressive character in which were conflicting ele-
ments,— the one of which tended to a better life,
the other toward rationalistic apostasy.

I . The Dogmatics of Pietism i .

Pietism denotes a movement in the Lutheran Church
which arose as a reaction of the living, practical faith

I. See H. Schmid : Geschichte des Pietismus : ]^6rd.\\nz&n, li^T,. A. Ritschl:
Geschichte des Pietismus. 2 vols., Bonn, 1880-1884.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 211

against a dead orthdoxy. It grew from the very prin-
ciples of the Lutheran Reformation, and would, no
doubt, have developed, even though there had been no
dead orthodoxy to react upon.

JoHANN Valentin Andrew (c/. 1654), a grandson of
Jacob Andreas {d. 1590) had already waged a polemic
against the scholasticism and dogmatism of the Lu-
theran theology of his time, but in the seventeenth cen-
tury we have only to do with Pietism in its early stage,
and the whole movement centres around the person of
Spener.

Philip Jacob Spener id. 1705) was one of the
purest and most spotless in character of the theolo-
gians of the seventeenth century ". In theological culture

2. During his university course, at Strassburg, he lived a very retired Iife»
devoting himself entirely to his books. His theological teachers were principally
Dannhauer, Johann and Sebastian Schmid, the last named being the most
famous exegete of his day, According to the custom of the times he completed
his studies by visiting the different universities. He first went to Basel to receive
instruction of the younger Buxtorf, at that time the most celebrated teacher of
Hebrew on the Continent. Afterwards he spent a year at Geneva, and also five
months in Stuttgait and Tuebingen, and his qualities o^ mind and heart gained
him many friends in Wuertemberg. In 1666, although only thirty one years of age,
on account of his distinguished talents and rare learning, which was profound,
thorough, and comprehensive, extending even beyond the sphere of theology and
philosophy, he was chosen senior pastor in Frankfurt-am-Main.

Although most heartily attached to the Lutheran Church, he believed that in
adhering to its then prevalent orthodoxy, it had departed from the earnest, lively
Gospel of the Reformers, and was in dangei of burying its talent in a sterile the-
ology of words and dead orthodoxy. He aimed at a reform, and this should con-
sist in an inner, living theology of the heart, and a demonstration thereof in true
piety of life. He first of all attempted to revive a thorough system of catechetical
instruction, and especially attacked the system of mechanical memorizing, which
was then as common as now. In 1670, after he had been four years in Frankfurt,
he invited to a kind of friendly re-union in his study, for the purpose of mutual
edification, the most serious-minded persons in his congregation, and thus con-
stituted the so-called collegia pietatis. In 1682, twelve years later, Spener was
able to change his private meetings into public gatherings, and transfer them
from the study to the church.

In the meantime he had published (1675) his famous Pia Destderia, in which
he laments the corruption of the Church, and he recommends six different reme-

212 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

he was equal to any of his contemporaries. It was his
principle to submit to the Confessions of the Church,
and even Calovius himself, that great champion of or-
thodoxy, acknowledged that he found nothing hetero-
dox in Spener. And such, indeed is the case, for he is in
perfect harmony and accord with the greatest theolo-
gian of them all, Johann Gerhard.

It was Spener who gave character to Pietism in its
first stages, but he cannot be called the father of Piet-
ism as it was developed later at Halle and elsewhere.

In the department of Dogmatics, the Pietistic School
originated very little. Though Spener 's list of v^orks
embraces seven volumes folio, sixty-three in quarto,

dies. These remedies were : i) The spreading of a more general and more inti-
mate acquaintance with the Bible, by means of private gatherings; 2) Laying
more stress upon the universal priesthood of believers, and using the co-operation
of laymen in the spiritual guidance of the congregation; 3) Emphasizing the fact
that a knowledge of Christianity must be accompanied by a corresponding Christ-
ian practice, in order to be of any value; 4) Instead of attacking heretics and in-
fidels with merely doctrinal and generally more or less embittered polemics, we
should use love as cur motive power; 5) A re-organization of theological study,
so as to make a godly life as important a part of the preparation for ministerial
work, as study and learning; 6) A new manner of preaching, — a return to the
earnest method of Apostolical times.

This work of Spener found an echo in many hearts in Germany, and Spener
ever afterwards adhered to these six propositions, and defended them against all
attacks.

The first opposition to Spener came from the University of Leipsic, under the
leadership of Johann Benedict Carpzov and Alberti, which was aggravated by the
founding of the new University at Halle, which immediately became the home of
Pietism, and was thronged by crowds of students. It was at Halle that Francke,
Breithaupt, and Anton, as members of the theological faculty, exerted such a wide
influence as the later leaders of the pietistic movement.

The Pietistic controversy, in contrast with the thorough theological discus-
sions of previous decades, was entirely of a personal and bitter character, and the
opponents of Spener do not appear to a good advantage. Deutschmann, the
senior of the Faculty at Wittenberg, did more harm than good to his cause, when
in his Christlutherische Vorstellung (1695) he accused Spener of two hundred
and eighty-three heresies. All these accusations, and the various other polemical
writings, Spener answered in a becoming spirit, and in 1705 he peacefully entered
into his final rest.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 213

seven in octavo, and forty-six in duodecimo, still they
are mainly practical. Joachim Justus Breithaupt {d.
1732), professor of theology at Halle (1691-1704),
where together with Francke and Anton, he gave the
whole theological study its peculiar character and
tendency, published ^^ Institutiones Theologicae^'' ^, and
^^ Theses credendorum et agendorum fundatnentales^^
(1700). The lectures of Paul Anton (c/. 1730) ''Col-
legium Antitheticum,'^ based on the *' Theses ^^ of Breit-
haupt, were published after his death in 1732.

JoHANN Anastasius Freylinghausen * (d. 1739)
was also one of the leaders of the Pietistic movement
in Germany, and succeeded Augustus Hermann Francke
(c/. 1727), the founder of the Orphan House at Halle,
in 1727. His principal theological work, " Grundlegung
der Theologie^'' (1703) is noted for its piety and practi-
cal tendency, in opposition to the dry and cold scholas-
ticism which then prevailed in the German Universities.

JoHANN Jakob Rambach {d. 1735), professor of the-
ology at Halle and Giessen, exercised a considerable in-
fluence as a mediator between Pietism and the Wolffian
philosophy. His '' Schriftmassige Erklarung der Grun-
dlegung der Theologie^' was published by Freyling-
hausen in 1738.

Joachim Lange {d. 1744), professor of theology at
Halle after 1709, was the literary representative of the
Pietists. In his controversy with the orthodox Church,
in which Lange acted as spokesman of the Pietists,
he was far from being a match for Valentin Ernst
LosCHER (d. 1749,) the acknowledged leader of the

3. 2 vols. Halle, 1694; much enlarged, 3 vols. 1732.

4. His most valuable productions are 44 Hymns, He also published one of
the best German Hymn Books. 2 vols. Halle, 1704 and 17 13. The historical sig-
nificance of this collection consists in its pietistic spirit, and the introduction of the
element of subjective devotion as a supplement to the older, more objective, and
churchly hymns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

214 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. .

orthodox party, the author oi^^Timotheus Verinus,^' of
which the first part appeared in 1718, and the second
in 1722. Loscher accused the Pietists of being indiffer-
ent to the truths of revelation systematized in the sym-
bolical books, of depreciating the sacraments and the
ministerial office, of obscuring the doctrine of justifica-
tion by faith by asserting that good works were neces-
sarily connected with saving faith, its evidence, indeed,
— and he altogether rejected the chiliastic, terminis-
tic, and perfectionistic doctrines which had developed
among the Pietists ^ . In almost every point there was
some reason for the opposition of Loscher. and he was
not a mere dogmatist ; on the contrary, he advocated
the cause of practical piety almost with as much
warmth as the Pietists themselves.

Nevertheless, the fundamental ideas of Spener and
his followers were too intimately related to the very
principles of the Reformation, not to find a wide ac-
ceptance. In less than half a century Pietism spread
its influence through all spheres of life, and through all
classes of society ; and though it had to give way, in
Northern Germany, to the rising rationalism, it found
a new home in Southern Germany. What Spener,
Francke, Anton, Breithaupt, Arnold, and others had
been to Prussia and Saxony, Bengel, Weismann, Oetin-
ger, Hahn and others were to Wuertemberg and Baden.

To the period of the later Pietism belong three ten-
dencies which stand in part in a reciprocal operation
with it. These are the Biblical, the Historical, and the
Philosophical tendencies.

2. The Biblical Tendency.

This tendency has its home by pre-eminence in Wuer-
temberg. Among its most prominent representatives

5. See Riggenbach in Schaff-Herzog under Pietism.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 215

we may mention Bengel, Crusius, Oetinger, Rieger and
Rods. %

1) JoHANN Albrecht Bengel ^ (c/.1752), by the
publication of his '^ Greek Testament^' and an ^^Ap-
paratus Criticus^' (1734), laid the foundation for the
science of Textual Criticism. His famous canon was,
''The more difficult reading is to be preferred." This
work was followed by his ^^ Gnomon Novi Testamentr^^
(1742), which remains to this day ''a treasure-house
of exposition delivered in sentences whose point, clear-
ness, brevity, and wondrous depth of meaning, render
them not only worthy of patient study, but a part of
the mental stores of the attentive student." His main
principle of interpretation was ''to put nothing into
the Scriptures, but to draw everything from them, and
suffer nothing to remain hidden that is really in them."
His motto was : Te totum applica ad textum ; rem
totam applica ad te. With a profound reverence for
the Bible, with an acuteness which let nothing escape
him, and in strict conformity to grammatical rules, but
untrammeled by dogmatical or symbolical considera-
tions, he sought to find out the exact meaning of Scrip-
ture. His exegetical principles left their impress upon
his dogmatic system (for in theology he was but a
moderate Lutheran), and this displays itself most fully
in his view« of the historical development of the king-
dom of God, and in his realistic interpretation of the
Book of Revelation.

2) Christian August Crusius {d. 1775), professor
of theology at Leipsic (1750-75), v^as the staunch ad-
versary of the Wolffian philosophy, and in theology he

ij Compare Burk : Memoir of Life and Writings of fohn Albert Bengel.
From the German. London, 1837; Wachter: y. A. BettgeVs Lebensabriss. Stutt-
gart, 1865.

2. There are three English translations.

216 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

defended the tradition of the Church, as an element in
true exegesis, against Ernesti, whose exegetical princi-
ple admitted only a purely grammatical interpretation.
The views of Crusius are most fully presented in his
'' Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam^' '\

3) Friedrich Christoph Oetinger* (d. 1782), the
great Swabian theosophist of the eighteenth century,
exercised a great influence in the pietistic circles of Wiir-
temberg. Bengel, with whom he corresponded, became
his ideal in theology, Boehme, in philosophy, and at a
later time, Swedenborg, He sought to construct a
sacred philosophy, and to find out by investigation
the original, living essence of truth, by studying the
two Bibles, — nature, and the Word of God. All efforts
to separate him from the Lutheran Church proved una-
vailing, and in his old age, he said that his entire theol-
ogy was concentrated in Luther's Catechism. In Wlir-
temberg he had many followers, and he exerted a great
influence over Schelling and von Baader. The peasant
Michael Hahn was one of his most remarkable follow-
ers, and diffused his doctrines among the people ^.

4) Georg Conrad Rieger {d. 1743) was one of the
most celebrated preachers of the pietistic school, and
his sermons are still much read in Wlirtemberg.

5) Magnus Friedrich Rocs {d. 1803), was a pupil
of Bengel, and exercised great influence not only by his
writings, but also by his magnetic personality. His
'' Christ Hche Glauhenslehre'^ is still much read in Wlir-
temberg (last edition 1860).

3. Part I. General Introduction, 1764; Part II. On select passages, 1771;
Part III, On Isaiah, 1779. See also Franz Delitzsch : Die biblisch-proph. The-
ologie^ ihre Fortbildung durch Crusius^ etc, Leipsic, 1845.

4. Compare his Selbstbiographie, edited by Hamberger, Stuttgart, 1845; also
Auberlen : '■'■ Oetinger'' s Theosophie nach ihren Grundsaetzen,''^ Tuebingen, 1847^

5. See Auberlen in Schaf-Herzog,

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 217

3. The Historical Tendency.

Out of the conflicts between the orthodox and piet-
istic school, arose what may be called the historical
school. The theologians of this school sought to unite
Lutheran orthodoxy with free investigation, true schol-
arship with religious fervor, strict confessionalism with
anirenic spirit. Among the most important theologians
of this tendency we may mention Buddeus,Pfaflf, Walch,
and Mosheim. Three others, also belonging to this
school, Ernesti, Michaelis, and Semler, though still be-
lieving in a divine revelation, nevertheless by their prin-
ciples of interpretation, prepared the way for the ad-
mission of Rationalism into theology.

1) JoHANN Franz Buddeus {d. 1729), professor of
theology at Jena after 1705, was a man of genuine
piety and immense learning. He sought to harmonize
orthodoxy and pietism. He was distinguished for his
fidelity to the faith of the Church, and his firmness and
moderation towards those who dissented from it. He
wrote more than a hundred books, some of which are
still acknowledged authorities. Especially important
are his '' Institutiones theol. dogm.'' (1723), '' Instit.
theol. moralis^^ (1711), and ^^ Isagoge hist, ad theol.
universam (1727).

2) Christof Matthaeus Pfaff {d. 1760) professor
of theology at Tubingen (1714-56), and at Giessen
(1756-60), was a man of great accomplishments and
exercised a large influence as a teacher. He was very
active in promoting a union between the Reformed and
Lutheran Churches, and his doctrinal standpoint was
more liberal than the prevailing orthodoxy, as is evi-
dent from his ^^ Institutiones theologiae^^ (1719).

3) JoHANN Georg Walch (d. 1775), professor of
theology at Jena after 1724, took an active part in the

S18 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

philosophical controversy between Buddeus and Wolff,
and in his ^^ Pbilosophiscbes Lexicon ^^ departs from
Lutheran orthodoxy, opening the way on one side for
pietism, and on the other for rationalism ^

4) JoHANN LoRENZ YON MosHEiM (d. 1755), profe^-
sor of theology at Helmstadt (1723-47), and at Got-
tingen (1747-54) was the most learned theologian of
the Lutheran Church of his day. As a theologian he
was opposed to the confessional orthodoxy on the
ground that theology would thus be excluded from
scientific culture. Mosheim made contributions to
nearly every branch of theological science, but is best
known by his works in the department of Church His-
tory.

5) JoHANN August Ernesti (d. 1781), professor of
theology at Leipsic after 1758, enjoyed great fame as a
classical philologist, and in his '' Institutio Interpretis
N, T." 2 (1761), applied the same principles of interpre-
tation to the exposition of the Holy Scriptures, thus
founding the grammatico — historical school of inter-
pretation. Though Ernesti held to the doctrines of the
Church and believed in inspiration, still he has rightly
been called the father of rationalistic exegesis, and his
principles undermined the old dogmatical method of
interpretation.

6) JoHANN David Michaelis {d. 1791), professor of
theology at Gottingen after 1745, bore the same rela-
tion to the Old Testament as Ernesti did to the New,
and was by no means a pillar for the waning ortho-

1. The principal works of Walch are i) Einleitung in die Religionsstreitig-
keiten ausser der evang. luth. Kirche, (5 vols. 1733-36); 2) Einleitung, etc. inner-
half a er evang. luth. Kirche, 5 vols. 1730-39; and an edition of Luther's Works
in 24 vols. Halle, 1740-52.

2. Translated into English and published in the Biblical Cabi?iet, Edinburgh,
1834.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 219

doxy of the times, for in theology he departed widely
from the Lutheran orthodoxy, and openly acknowl-
edged that he knew nothing of the internal testimony
of the Holy Spirit. His ''Commentaries on the Laws
of Moses'' (4 vols. London, 1810), and his ''Introduc-
tion to the New Testament'' (6 vols. London, 1823),
have been translated into English. Kurtz: **Noman
was a ^eater master than he in the art of substituting
his own empty, superficial, and conceited views for
those of the sacred authors, and then to explain them
at great length. His ' Commentaries on the Laws of
Moses ' is a classic in this respect."

7) JoHANN SoLOMO Semler ^ (1791), profcssor of
theology at Halle after 1757, was a forerunner of
Rationalism in a still greater degree than Ernesti and
Michaelis. Endowed with great gifts, but without any
depth of spiritual character,' he undermined the pillars
of orthodoxy, without wishing to touch Christianity
itself, by disputing the genuineness of certain books of
the Bible, by laying down a peculiar theory of inspira-
tion and accommodation to the peculiar views of the
New Testament Times, which allowed error and delu-
sion in Scripture, and by treating the history of dog-
matics in such a way as if the doctrines of the Church
were the result of misconception, and want of judg-
ment. He wrote one hundred and seventy one separ-
ate works, only two of which, however, reached a sec-
ond edition. He sowed the wind and reaped a whirl-
wind, and when the storm of rationalism began to
rage, Semler died of a broken heart.

4. The Philosophical Tendency.

This tendency had its origin mainly in Wolff. The
great stimulating minds in philosophy had been Descar-

3. See H. Schmid; Bt'e Theologie Setnlers. Nordlingen, 1858.

220 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

tes, Spinoza and Leibnitz. Wolff developed and meth-
odized the system of Leibnitz. Theological representa-
tives of the philosophical tendency are Reinbeck, S. J.
Baumgarten and Toellner.

The philosophy of Descartes * (1596-1650) is
neither a Catholic nor a Protestant philosophy, and
gave rise to tv^o tendencies, the one pantheistic, the
other theistic. It was Spinoza (1632-77) who trans-
formed the dualism of Descartes into a pantheism,
whose fundamental conception was the unity of sub-
stance. He has greatly impressed himself upon much of
the subtlest speculation of our century. Fichte, Schell-
ing, Schleiermacher, Hegel, and many others, ow^e very-
much to him. In fact, Spinoza has largely contributed
to the various phases of pantheism so current in our
day, and his influence upon our own time is larger than
upon his own.

The immortal Leibnitz (1646-1716), the father of
German philosophy, at once one of the most independ-
ent thinkers and one of the profoundest scholars of his
age, and of all time, exerted a great influence upon the
theology and general culture of the eighteenth century,
chiefly through his famous ''Theodicy (1710), in which
he attempted to demonstrate the agreement of reason
with faith, and to vindicate God in view of the evil in
the world, maintaining that there is a harmony be-
tween the kingdom of nature and grace. His philoso-
phy was theistic and was directed pre-eminently to-
ward the union of the theological and cosmological
conceptions of the world.

Christian Wolff (1679-1754), adopting the the-
ories of Leibnitz, modifying them partly with ideas
derived from Aristotle, so systematized them, and pro-

4. See/. 202.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 221

vided them with demonstrations, that he founded a
comprehensive system of philosophy. This was done
with such talent and ability, that nearly all the disci-
ples of Leibnitz in Germany were influenced by him,
and the school was and still is designated as the Leib-
nitz- Wolfiian. This philosophy became more and more
prevalent and opened the way for the theological Ra-
tionalism, which was afterwards more fully developed
by Kant and his school.

The earlier followers of Wolff remained faithful to
the doctrine of the Church. Joh. Gust. Reinbeck
(1682-1741) prefixed to his reflections on the truths
contained in the Augsburg Confession a preface on the
use of reason and philosophy in theology. Sigmund
Jacob Baumgarten (1706-1757), professor of theol-
ogy at Halle after 1730, exerted a wide influence as a
teacher. By adopting the formal scheme of the philos-
ophy of Wolfl", and applying it to the theological ideas
of Pietism, he formed the transition from the pietism
of Spener and Francke to the modern rationalism. But
it was especially Johann Gottl. Tollner {d. 1774)
who first opened the way for the introduction of Ra-
tionalism into dogmatic theology. He taught ''that
God leads man to happiness already by natural revel-
ation," and that the revelation of Scripture is only a
more certain and perfect means thereto. He also found
no trace of inspiration in the Bible, since the sacred
authors thought and wrote without any special divine
aid.

5. The History of Dogmatics outside of Germany.

This is the best place to present a brief outline of the
history of theology outside of Germany, during the
eighteenth century. On the whole, nearly all the Prot-
estant countries took very little notice of the conflicts

222 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

going on there. In England the principles of Arianism
were taught by Samuel Clarke {d. 1729), and the Uni-
tarian controversy was continued by Joseph Priest-
ley (d. 1804, having come to the United States in
1794), whose great opponent, Samuel Horsley {d.
1806), was more than a match for him, ''his spear
having pierced the Socinian's shield," as Gibbon ex-
presses it.

Among the more prominent dogmatic writers of the
Church of England we may mention Daniel Water-
land 1 (d. 1740), Thomas Stackhouse ^ (d. 1752),
Thomas Secker (d. 1768), Augustus Montague Top-
lady (d. 1778), William Warburton ^ (d. 1779), Jones
ofNayland(c/. 1800), and George Tomline*(c/. 1827).
Among the Baptists, John Gill^ {d. 1771) takes the
highest rank.

Of the three new sects ^ that originated in the eight-
eenth century, by far the most powerful and influential
took its rise in England. John Wesley {d. 1791) and
John William Fletcher {d. 1785) laid the founda-
tions of Wesleyan Arminianism, while George White-
field {d. 1770) became the father of the Welsh or Cal-
vinistic branch of Methodism.

Of the theologians of the eighteenth century no one
was superior to Jonathan Edwards (d. 1758), the

1. The bold defender of the Church Doctrine against the Arians and Socin-
iaas of his time. See/. 206.

2. His "Complete Body of Divinity" (1729) reached a third edition in 1755.

3. His famous work " The Divine Legation of Moses " was written agaifist
the Deists.

4. His '-Elements of Christian Theology" (2 vols. London, 1799; 14th ed.
1943), is one of the standard works of theology in the Church of England.

5. In his '• Body of Divinity" (3 vols. 1769; new ed. London, 1839), he takes
a strong Calvinistic ground, but is violently opposed to Infant Baptism.

6. Methodism founded by yo/m Wesley^ the Unitas Fratrum or Moravians,
resuscitated by Count Zinzendor/ {d. at Herrnhut, 1760), and the New Jerusalem
Church founded by Ema7iuel Swedenborg {d. 1772).

THE DOGMATICS OFRATIONALISM. 223

most distinguished divine of America, who was the
great defender of Calvinism against all the objections
raised by Arminianism, and the founder of the so-called
'' New England Theology."

SECTION XX.

THE DOGMATICS OF RATIONALISM AND SUPRANATURALISM.

This was a period in which there seemed to be
a life struggle between the revealed testimony of
God and the self-asserting Kationalism of man.
In it the defense of truth was impaired by the
unconscious demoralization of the spirit of the
times, in the very men who attempted to repre-
sent and defend the truth.

I. The Illumination falsely so-called, i

1) In England.

Deism flourished in England during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, and was an indirect product
of the tendencies at work within the Church of Eng-
land. Deism has been defined as the exaltation of Nat-
ural Religion, so as to make it the normal rule of all
positive religions.

Eminent in this school v^as Lord Herbert of
Cherbury (d. 1648), who was free from the usual lev-
ity of the Deists and attempted with serious earnest-
ness, and as he thought for the glory of God, in his two
principal works, De Veritate (1624) and Be religione
Gentilium (1645), to show that natural religion is the
heart of all religions and sufficient for salvation with-
out Revelation.

I. Compare Lechler: Geschichte des engl, ZJ^/jwaj. Stuttgart, 1841; Farrar:
A Critical History of Free Thought. New York, 1881; Hurst: History of Ra-
tionalism. Ninth revised edition. New York. Cairns: Unbelief in the Eighteenth
Century. Edinburgh, 1881.

224 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

The tendency of Herbert was developed with consid-
erable ability and with marked effect by a number of
Deistical writers, among whom ^were Anthony Col-
lins (1729), Matthew Tindal {d. 1733), called the
" Great Apostle of Deism," whose chief work ^^Christ-
ianity as Old as the Creation^' (1730), may be called
the Deist's Primer, Lord Bolinghoke {d. 1751), Dayid
Hume (d. 1776), and others of the same school.

The general position of this school was that the
Bible was full of absurdities and of statements and
principles conflicting with morality, — that the tradi-
tional Christianity of the Church was for the most
part a work either of weak or hypocritical men.

2) In France.

In France Jean Jacques Rousseau {d. 1778) ap-
peared, writing in a charming style, demanding a re-
turn to nature in all the relations of life. His works
present the dream of a poet. The Christianity he ac-
kno^edges is mere natural religion, and this kind of
Christianity he defends with great ardor in his ^^Pro-
fession de Foi da Vicaire Savoyard, ^^ in '' Emile.^^

Voltaire {d. 1778) has not the refinement of feeling
nor the delicacy of style which characterize Rousseau.
He shows a personal hatred to Christ, and with his
poisonous satire attempts to render ridiculous the Holy
Scriptures. These two great writers and their imita-
tors controlled educated France. What they still left
of the general religious ideas of men, belief in God,
recognition of a realm of truth and virtue, w^as thrown
to the winds by the Materialism which followed them.
These older infidels became by comparison almost rela-
tively orthodox. The leaders of the coarser infidelity
were Diderot (d. 1784), D'Alembert {d. 1783), Hel-
VETius {d. 1771), and others.

THE DOGMATICS OF RATIONALISM. 226

3) In Germany.

The witty frivolity of the French found a lodgment
in the court of Frederick II of Germany (King of Prus-
sia from 1740-86), and through the influence of the
court more and more exercised a baneful influence upon
the people. The watchword of the time, in all spheres
of thought, was the word ''Illumination," and the
centre or focus of this light was Berlin.

4) The development in Theology.

While this movement was taking place in the outside
world, a development in theology correspondent with
it, took place. Among the perverters of truth two
names are conspicuous, first, the frivolous Bahrdt, and
the other, the more earnest but no less negative Reim-
arus.

Bahrdt {d. 1792) was a man of no ordinary talent,
and full of activity. He wrote about 126 books, but a
mere trifler in science, a man lewd in life, passing over
first from Crusius to Ernes ti, seeking to do away with
the doctrines of the Church, under pretense of develop-
ing a Biblical system {'^ Dogmatics ^^^ 1768). Subse-
quently, advancing still further he tried to show that
Scripture itself can be of no use in the establishment of
right faith {''Newest Revelations,'' 1772), and finally
went over completely on the side of those who ac-
knowledge nothing but Natural Religion {'' Moral Re-
ligion,'' 1787). He made morality the basis of all re-
ligion, and offered himself, the most immoral of men,
as teacher of Morals to mankind.

Reimaurus {d. 1768) first appeared as a defender of
the doctrine of the existence and attributes of God,
from the wise constitution of nature. An assailant of
Atheism and Spinozism, he subsequently introduced
English Deism into Germany by means of a work pub-

296 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

lished after his death by Lessing,— the famous " Wolien-
biittel Fragments'' (1774-78), which claim to be an
apology for the rationalistic worship of God. In this
work Reimaurus attempted to show the irrationality
and immorality of a large portion of Scripture and of
Biblical characters, and the contradiction especially in
the narratives of the Evangelists.

These attacks upon revealed Religion were met in-
deed and answered, nevertheless the thought which
lay at the bottom of this movement, — the reduction
of revealed religion to the standard of nature, — con-
stantly gained ground. This was partly due to the in-
fluence of the so-called popular philosophy, into which
the philosophy of Wolff had run out, a philosophy in
which the lighter tone of conversation had taken the
place of that of the heavy mathematical demonstra-
tion. Mendelssohn {d. 1786) and others represented
this philosophy.

Over against this intellectual tendency, the feeble
supporters of the position of the older Church knew
no better w^ay than to make concessions. These pro-
fessed defenders of orthodoxy talked much of the bonds
which held together reason and faith, and the result
was that illogical mixed theology, which was neither
rationalistic nor orthodox, — too rationalistic to be
orthodox, too orthodox to be rationalistic, and was
thus at once neither and both. Lessing {d. 1781) hated
it so thoroughly that he declared that the old ortho-
doxy would be far more acceptable than this mongrel
system.

Among the representatives of this enfeebling of the
Church doctrine may be mentioned Seiler {d. 1807),
DoDERLEiN {d, 1789), MoRus {d. 1792), Gruner {d,
1778) and Teller {d. 1804).

THE DOGMATICS OF RATIONALISM. 227

This whole efFort to render the Christian doctrine
more rational, obtained a fixed principle through the
labors of Kant.

2. Kant.

Among the greatest names in modern philosophy is
that of Immanuel Kant {d. 1804). His influence has
been felt in every department of thought, and for a
time at least was a special power in the domain of the-
ology. He reasoned out from a critique of the faculty
of cognition, and deduced from it the conceptions of
space and time, the categories of the understanding,
the ideas of reason, which he maintained are purely
subjective and afforded no objective certainty. He
maintained that we cannot demonstrate the existence
of God,— that the ordinary proofs of it are untenable-
Pure reason can make no affirmation in regard to God.
These views he maintained in his ''Critique of Pure
Reason'' (1781).

On the other hand, according to him, God is a pos-
tulate of the Practical Reason. Man, as a theorizer
can reach no conception of God, but man as a being of
moral activity is driven to a recognition of a Supreme
Being. Conscience demands unconditional recognition
of the moral law of God. But with the world of virtue,
the world of impulse, desire and passion, is in conflict,
and yet is equally essential to it ; we cannot remove the
dissonance of the two worlds by destroying either. This
conflict demands a harmonizing, which will be brought
about by God, after death. The essential substance of
religion he upholds to be 1) God, 2) virtue, 3) immor-
tality. These principles he develops in his work, '^ Re-
ligion within the bounds of Mere Reason'' (1793). In
accordance with these principles we are to form our
judgment of every form of religion and by them are to
vindicate the pre-eminence of Christianity.

228 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

In these views Kant gave expression to the domi-
nant tendency of his time, and although his views were
of a decidedly Pelagian character, they yet gave rise to
a relatively greater moral earnestness.

3. Vulgar Rationalism.

The vulgar Rationalism was the product of these
two elements, the illumination on the side, the Kantian
philosophy on the other, meeting and fusing in the
sphere of theology. Its essence has been defined to be
the union of the deistic religion of Reason, with posi-
tive Protestanism. It proposed to reform Christianity
in accordance with the wants of the time and the de-
mand of what was then passing for reason. It was
not so much a set of doctrines or even of negations, as
a method of interpretation ; it fixed the reason of men
as the absolute standard, adjusted revelation by it and
forced the texts to accord with what it assumed to be
true.

In the Rationalism of the Eighteenth Century all the
faith was submitted to the dominant culture of the
times. The spurious illumination of the age deter-
mined the position of Scripture, of the doctrine of the
Church, and of revelation in general. On the question
of the necessity of revelation, in the strict sense of the
word. Rationalism really made the same decision as
Deism, that is, it denied revelation in the strict sense,
and the revelation it seemed to grant and to patronize
was a figment of its own, at least the result of a mere
ordinary providence, -svith nothing supernatural in it.

The Dogmaticians of this tendency appeared with
more or less closeness to Kant. Among these we may
mention Tieftrunk (professor of philosophy at Halle,
d. 1837), Henke (professor of theology at Helmstadt,
1780-1809), Staudlin (professor of theology at Qot-

THE DOGMATICS OF RATIONALISM. 229

tingen, 1790-1826), Rohr (court-preacher at Weimar,
1820-1848), and Wegscheider (professor of theology
at Halle, 1810-1849).

Wegscheider was the chief dogmatician of Rational-
ism 1 . His views are in brief these : Christ is a man,
who obtained for himself the just claims to the title of
the Son of God. His death is a symbol of the fact that
sacrifices are abrogated, but is not to be abused as a
plaster for the conscience of bad and morally corrupt
men. God is no blood-thirsty Moloch, and all the sin-
ner needs is the reformation of his life. The resurrec-
tion of Christ is the resuscitation from seeming death,
a distinguished proof of the existence of divine provi-
dence. The ascension of Christ is a tradition, like that
of Romulus and others. The righteousness before God
is obtained not by outward works, but neither is it ob-
tained by mere faith, but through the gracious state of
feeling which pleases God. This is possible, for original
sin is a gloomy figment. The operation of the Word
is a natural one. There is no such thing as a super-
natural operation of the Spirit in man. Reformation is
a work of personal activity, the Sacraments are mere
symbols. Baptism is a rite of consecration and initia-
tion, and the Lord's Supper is a memorial meal. The
doctrine concerning "the Last Things " reduces itself to
faith in a future state of rewards and punishments.

This, says Luthardt, is the Dogmatics of Rational-
ism. Others attempted to approximate somewhat
more closely the doctrine of the Church, without how-
ever, abandoning the rationalistic basis. Such were
Ammon (1766-1850), Bretschneider (1776-1848),
and TzsCHiRNER (professor of theology at Leipsic, d.
1828). But whatever may be the relative moderation

I. See his Instit. theol. Christ, dog,, 1815. 8th edition, 1844.

230 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

of this School, the point of view is substantially the
same as the other. The distinctions are only those of
degree.

Karl Hase, in his ^'Theologische Streitschriften "
(1834-37), has left to the vulgar rationalism nothing
whatever to stand on, and there is not at this hour, in
Germany, a solitary theologian of commanding posi-
tion who adheres to the old Vulgar Rationalism. That
which swept over Germany like a flood has passed
away, and left nothing but memorials of the death
which it brought with it.

4. Supranaturalism.

Supranaturalism maintains the necessity and actual-
ity of positive revelation, and acknowledges the revela-
tion furnished in Scripture as the norm of religious
truth. Often, however, it has been a little more than
a certain compromise between Reason and Revelation.
The Scripture indeed was to decide, but Reason never-
theless determined in various ways what is essential in
Scripture, so that the dogmatic result was not as com-
pletely distinct from that of Rationalism, as the uncon-
ditional recognition of the supremacy of God's Word
would have made it. This was the middle tendency of
the so-called Supranaturalistic Rationalism and Ra-
tionalistic Supranaturalism, which may be likened to
chemical compounds which have the same parts in the
same proportion, with diversity of arrangement.

Franz Volkmar Reinhard {d. 1812) exercised the
greatest influence as a preacher, and in his sermons ^ he
maintained that we must either hold entirely to Reason
or entirely to Scripture, and that it is impossible to co-

I. His collected sermons comprise 35 volumes. His Confessions, translated
into English, in which he presents the history of his own development as a
preacher, is of value.

THE DOGMATICS OF SUPRANATURALISM. 231

ordinate them, for to be logical we are compelled to
subordinate the one to the other. Yet even in the case of
Reinhard, the relation to revelation and to the doctrine
of Scripture was too external, and his understanding
of the Church Doctrine was very defective.

George Christian Knapp {d. 1825), professor of
theology at Halle (1777), and director of the Francke
Institution (1785), occupies the same general position
as Reinhard, but with a closer approximation to the
doctrines of the Church. His chief work, ''Lectures on
Christian Theology, ^^ was translated into English by
Leonard Woods, ^ and has been widely used.

August Hahn {d. 1863) was one of the last represent-
atives of the old Supranaturalism, but in the second
edition of his '' Lehrhuch des Christlichen Glaubens^^
(1857), the influence of the positive Church renewal
of theology shows itself.

As Reinhard represented Supranaturalism in the
north, GoTTLOB Christian Storr {d. 1805), professor
of theology at Tubingen after 1777, represented it in
the south of Germany. His chief work, '' Doctrinae
christians pars theoretical' ^ shows pre-eminently the
biblical tendency of the Wilrtemberg or Old Tubingen
School, and is still valuable as a book of reference.

JoHANN Friedrich Flatt (d. 1812) and Friedrich
Gottlieb Suskind (d. 1829), the immediate followers
of Storr, and able representatives of the Old Tubingen
School, sought by emphasizing the Bible as the only
source of the knowledge of the faith, to establish and
vindicate the doctrine of the Church, by a moderate
biblical interpretation.

2. 2 vols. Andover, 1831-33.

3. Appeared in 1793, was translated into German, with extensive explana-
tions and additions, by jF/a^i, in 1803, and this last was translated by S. S.
Schmucker of Gettysburg, under the title, " Biblical Theology of Storr and Flati"
(2 vols. Andover, 1826. Reprinted in England, 1845).

232 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

This tendency ^was represented in polemic antithesis
toward the philosophical perversion of the Christian
faith by Steudel {d. 1837), professor of theology at
Tubingen after 1815. In his ^^ Lehrbegriff der evang.
protest. Kirche^' (1834), he has throughout reference
to Schleiermacher and Hegel, against whose views he
directs his polemic.

JoHANN Tobias Beck {d. 1878), professor of theology
at Tubingen after 1843, returned decisively and com-
pletely to the standpoint of the Old Tubingen School,
and is the ablest modern representative of the Wiirtem-
berg or Pietistic School of Bengel, Oetinger and Roos.
His views are presented in his two works, ^' Einleit-
ung in das System der christ. Lehre'' (1838, 2nd ed.,
1870), ''Die christ. Lehrwissenschaft '' (1 Th. die
Logik der christ. Lehre, 1841, 2nd ed., 1875). His
thought and style are heavy and dull, but his matter
is of great intrinsic value. He contends that theology
shall be completely separated from all the philosophy
and the culture of the time, and this he would accom-
plish by binding and establishing it upon the Scriptures,
but he does this in a way, which shows that he has a
wrong conception with regard to the operation of the
Holy Spirit in the Church, of the witnesses of the
Church, and of the history of the Church, and he has
so completely ignored the dogmatic labors of others as
to have had comparatively limited influence upon the
development of theology.

On the whole, Supranaturalism, though opposed to
Rationalism and contending for much peculiar to the
old faith of the Church, shared also in the infection of
the time and abandoned much. It did not build up so
well as it fought. And Pietism in its noblest form is
never well fitted to take up arms in defence of Revela-

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 233

tion,— on the contrary, in its farther development it
generally shows a tendency towards rationalism. It
takes a much greater interest in life than in doctrine,
and is indeed adverse to the scholastic form in which
the orthodox system is presented; it is lukewarm to
the idea of pure doctrine for purity's own sake, and on
account of this indifferentism to the extension of truth
for truth's own sake, pietism may come to consider
Scripture simply a practical means to a practical end,
and not keep the source of all truth ever flowing. It is
unionistic in its tendency, and is so firmly determined
to make religion, first and foremost, a practical issue,
that it sometimes shrinks into a narrow brotherhood
of the faithful, with no interest for the Church Univer-
sal. In fact, even at its best estate, Pietism has always
lacked certain elements of the highest form of Lutheran
Christianity, and is simply a pure Christianity in a
feeble, feverish state of health, lacking force, freshness,
largeness, and positiveness of doctrine, and is never
able to cope with error and rationalism, with any hope
of success.

SECTION XXI.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME.

The Dogmatics of the most recent times is
marked by depth and geniality and by the
struggle between the mediating and the strictly
logical and churchly tendencies.

I. The Renewal of Religious Faith.

The renewal of the religious faith and life, as it was
called forth by the earnestness of the time, in the first
decennial of our century, in Germany, had at first a
merely general Christian character. Gradually, how-

234 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ever, under the influence of the historic feeling which is
strongly characteristic of our era, and which has made
itself felt in every department of scientific life, it went
back to the life of faith in the past, in order to con-
nect itself in unity with it. There were two paths on
which the return was made to positive theology and
to the doctrine of the Church: 1) that of philosophical
thinking, and 2) that of emotion.

2. The Philosophy of this Period.

Philosophy had advanced from the criticism of Kant
{d. 1804) to the Idealism of Fichte {d. 1814). The
unity which had been sought analytically by Kant was
still pursued by Fichte, and was found by him in the
Ego, over against which he placed the Cosmos or ex-
ternal world as the Non-Ego, and which in its abso-
luteness is connected with the moral advance of man-
kind. This moral advance on which he dwelt in his
system, the moral order of the Cosmos, was Fichte's
God. On this account he was accused of Atheism, and
deposed from his position as professor of philosophy at
Jena (1799). In his later speculations he was inclined
more to a mystical Pantheism.

Another of the great names in Philosophy, of this era,
is that of SCHELLING {d. 1854). It is usual to divide
his intellectual life into three periods. His earlier phil-
osophy is but a philosophic expression of that yearn-
ing to comprehend the absolute as it appears above all
in Goethe's Faust, and his system is the highest glorifi-
cation of genius as celebrated by the romantic school.
By speculative knowledge alone, Schelling expects a
regeneration of esoteric Christianity and the procla-
mation of the absolute Gospel. The doctrine of the
Trinity, of the Incarnation, and similar doctrines, are
regarded as symbolic expressions of the relation of the

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 235

infinite and the finite. His second period is character-
ized by his inclination to theosophic speculation and
the influence of Christian mysticism, especially of Jacob
Bohme. In his later period we have one of the greatest
endeavors of modern philosophy to construct the sys-
tem of Christian doctrine. He distinguishes three ages
of Church History, and names them after the charac-
ters and names of the three Apostles: 1) The Petrine
Period y or Catholicism; 2) The Pauline Period, or Prot-
estantism; 3) The Johannean Period , or the ''Church
of the future" i.

Closely allied to Schelling we have the speculations
of Franz von Baader {d. 1841), who has been called
"the greatest speculative theologian of modern Cath-
olicism," and who found many followers, especially in
South Germany.

While Schelling was laboring in quietude, Hegel {d.
1831) took the philosophical chair of the era and read
to the world a ''collegium logicum"in grand style.
His philosophy swept away all other philosophies as
if they were mere dust, and before he died it began to
make itself felt as an actual power both in State and
Church.

The adherents of the School of Hegel, after their
master's death, divided into two parts, of which one
called the "right wing" (Erdmann, Rosenkranz), was
on the side of Christianity, and the other, or "left
wing" (Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer), took ground against
Christianity.

The course of philosophy reflected itself in theology.
With no theologian of this era was this more the case
than with Karl Daub {d. 1836), who has been called
"the founder of Protestant speculative theology." The

I. See Heyder in Herzog.

Z6b INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

rapid development of the German philosophy in his age
compelled him to change his views repeatedly. Origi-
nally writing as a Kantist (1801), he has left for Fichte
in 1805, and by 1806 has already reached Schelling.
For several years he is under the influence of Schelling
and of his mystical ideas (1810), but by 1816 it is evi-
dent that he is steering towards Hegel, and in the Heg-
elian philosophy he finally anchors, which he applies to
theology (in his '' Dogmatische TheologiejetzigerZeit,^^
1833).

A similar experience is that of Philipp Konrad
Marheineke {d. 1846). professor of theology at Ber-
lin, after 1811. His " Dogmatik,'' in the edition of
1819, took the position of Schelling, the second edi-
tion of 1827, that of Hegel, and the same position is
occupied by the edition published in 1847, by two of
his pupils, Matthies and Yatke, which last is much
clearer than his earlier work. Marheineke came to be
recognized as the leader of the "right wing" of the
Hegelian School, which affirmed that Hegelianism can
be reconciled with positive Christianity.

The Hegelian philosophy imagined that it had re-
stored peace between the doctrine of the Church and
Philosophy. But the deep cleft which actually sepa-
rates them was uncovered by David F. Strauss (d.
1874), who brought together the negative elements
of Hegelianism, in order to show the invincible conflict
between the modern consciousness, that view of the
world which rested upon the theory of Immanence, on
the one side, and the doctrine of the Church, on the
other. The theory of a God lost in the world, which
is that of Immanence, cannot be harmonized with the
true view of the Church, of an extra mundane and
personal Deity. With the materials of Hegelianism,

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 237

Strauss endeavored to annihilate the Church doctrine,
in what he calls his ''Christliche Glaubenslehre,'' ^ which
has been characterized as resembling a theology in the
same way that a cemetery resembles a city. In this
book he tries to demonstrate that the history of Christ-
ian doctrine is the history of its dissolution, and that
theology can have no other future than that of transi-
tion into philosophy.

Deeply influenced by Strauss, and a disciple of Hegel,
Alois Emanuel Biedermann {d. 1885), professor of
theology at Zurich, after 1850, and a leading ration,
alist, in his '^ Christliche Dogmatik^^ ^ denies the histor-
ical character of the Gospels, the personality of God, a
personal immortality to man, and yet holds that love
to God and man constitutes the essence of religion.

3. The Theology of Emotion.

During these movements in the theological world,
the emotional theology had already won for itself an
independent sphere. This it did by recognizing religion
as a thing not of cognition and knowledge, but of in-
ternal life, and showed its place in the immediate con-
sciousness, or emotion. Lessing {d. 1781) had already
appealed to the internal assurance of the believer as
something which could not be shaken by the assaults
upon Scripture.

Jacobi {d. 1819) had represented the right of imme-
diate emotion, in the assurance of the supersensuous,
and thus had won a foothold for a mystical Christian-
ity. Jacobi believed, indeed, that there was an irrecon-
cilable conflict between thinking and feeling, between
the head and the heart, and declared that he himself
was a Christian with his heart, a heathen with his
head .

2. Two volumes, Tuebingen, 1840, 41.

3. Second edition. 2 vbls. Berlin, 1884, 85.

238 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Attaching himself to Jacobi, and employing at the
same time Kant's method of analysis, Fries {d. 1843)
pointed out in reason the immediate organ of the di-
vine, whose internal revelation was only vivified or
quickened by all further revelation.

The influence of this philosophy is shown by De
Wette {d. 1849). In his work ''Ueber Religion und
Theologie," * he develops the fundamental aspects of
his philosophy, to which he faithfully adhered through
life. In his '' Bibl. Dogmatik " (1813 and 1831 ) he pre-
sents the religious ideas of Scripture (Biblical Theolo-
ogy), and in his ''Kirchl. Dogm." (1816 and 1840), he
was more in affinity with the doctrine of the Lutheran
Church, but his own system, which is more popular
and positive, and at the same time showing more the
influence of Schleiermacher, he presents in his ^' Wesen
des Glaubens" (1846).

This tendency became an epoch-making power under
the influence of Friedrich Schleiermacher ^ (cf.l834),
professor of theology at Berlin, after 1810. In order
to preserve theology from all false blending with phil-
osophy, he endeavored to discover the proper sphere of
religion in man. This he found in immediate conscious-
ness, or in feeUng, and the feeling in which he found it
was that of absolute dependence. He therefore con-
sidered that theology had nothing to do with specula-
tion, any more than religion has to do with think-
ing, and he maintained that philosophy and theology
should be kept apart, although his own theology is
penetrated to the core by his philosophy.

4. Berlin, 1815 New edition, 1821.

5. Compare Jonas and Dilthey: Aus Schleiermacher' s Leben, in Brie/en. 4
vols. Berlin, 1858-61. Translated in part into English : The Life 0/ Schleier-
macher. 2 volg. London, i860; W. Gass: in Herzog\ Ueberweg: History of Phil-
osophy. Vol. 2, pp. 244-254.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 239

As a theologian he ranks among the greatest of all
ages. The effect of his early training and the type of
Moravian Christianity can be clearly traced in his dog-
matic writings. Though belonging to the Reformed
Church, he labored for its union with the Lutheran
Church, and this Syncretism developed into rational-
ism, while his pietism developed into supranaturalism,
and yet he cannot be classed with the rationalists, nor
with the supranaturalists, nor with the mystics, but
combined in himself elements from all.

His greatest work ^^ Der christliche Glaube^^ has been
called *'a monument of religious enthusiasm and phil-
osophical reasoning which has no equal in the theologi-
cal literature after Calvin's Institutiones.'^ The touch-
stone on which a dogma is to be tried is not the direct
teaching of the Scriptures, nor the demonstration of
proofs drawn from reason, but our feelings. He rejected
the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and of the Person
of Christ, of the Devil and the fall of the angels, of in-
spiration and the canon, and taught an ultimate resto-
ration, — in fact, his errors are as numerous as those of
Origen. ''Yet he ever held fast to Christ as the greatest
fact in history, as the one only sinless and perfect man
in whom the Divinity dwelt in its fulness, and from
whom saving influences emanate from generation to
generation, and from race to race. In this central idea
lies Schleiermacher's chief merit in theology, and his
salutary influence. He modestly declined the honor of
being the founder of a school ; and his best pupils, as
Neander, Twesten, Nitzsch, Lucke, Bleek, Ullmann, Ju-
lius Miiller, went far beyond him in the direction of a
positive evangelical creed "^.'

The impulse which Schleiermacher gave to the relig-

6, See Article in Schaff-Herzog.

240 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

ious consciousness and also to the scientific method of
Dogmatics, will continue to operate, at least in Ger-
many, for a long time. Two distinguished theologians
have attached themselves most closely to Schleier-
macher. The first of these was K. Immanuel Nitzsch
(J. 1868), professor of theology at Bonn (1822-47),
and at Berlin (1847-68), who was a theologian in the
fullest sense of the word. In his ''System of Christian
Doctrine" ^ he combines Dogmatics and Ethics? and rests
both upon the Scripture, as the restoration of religious
consciousness, as it reveals itself in the Apostolic an-
nouncement in its original form for all ages. He thus
substituted for Schleiermacher's "Christian conscious-
ness," the Word of God itself.

The second theologian, August Christian Twesten
(d. 1876), professor of theology at Berlin, after 1834,
was also a pupil of Schleiermacher. His lectures on
Dogmatics ^ sltq very thorough but were never com-
pleted, and he forms a transition from the emotional
theology to a stricter Lutheran orthodoxy. He delin-
eates dogmatics as a justification of the doctrine of the
Church, a doctrine which the dogmatician is to repro-
duce from his inner consciousness of faith.

4. The Dogmatics of the Mediating Theology.

This theology attempts to harmonize the opposition
of the rationalistic and the positive, of the philosophi-
cal and emotional tendency. This it does in combina-
tions of divers kinds, and hence is represented by a
series of theologians who approximate on the one side
to Rationalism, an on the other to the doctrine of the
Church.

7. Published in 1829. Sixth edition, 1853. Fifth edition translated into
English. Edinburgh, 1849.

8. Vorlesuhgen ueber die Dogin. der evang. luther. Kirche. 2 vols. Ham-
burg. (Vol. I. Introd, and Critical Part. 1826. 4th edition. 1838. Vol. 2. Theol-
ogy and Angelology. 1838).

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 241

To the former school belongs Karl August Hase,
since 1830 professor of theology at Jena, who indeed
gave the death-blow to vulgar rationalism, yet is the
dogmatic representative of the rationalistic principle.
Hase unites the historic feeling of the recent time with
the speculative enthusiasm of modem philosophy and a
tendency to the ideal. His '' Evang. Dogmatic'' ^ was
written for theologians, but his '' Gnosis'' '^^ was ad-
dressed to the educated laity. According to him re-
ligion is the attraction of Love to the Infinite, only
approximately attained by other men, but reached
and presented in the supremest degree in the man Jesus,
thus making him the centre of a fellowship of all noble
spirits who arc striving after unity with the Infinite,
i. e., with God. In its results his theology differs very
little from that of Rationalism.

Daniel Schenkel (d. 1885), professor of theology
at Heidelberg, after 1851, at first almost orthodox, be-
came the leader of the Protestanverein. In his dogmat-
ics, the peculiar character of which is expressed in its
title, '^ Die christliche Dogmatik vom Standpunkte des
Gewissens" (2 vols. 1858-59), he clings closely to Schlei-
ermacher.

Alexander Schweizer, professor of theology at
Zurich, since 1835, a pupil of Schleiermacher, in his
^^ Glauhens-lehre der evangelische reformirten Kircbe"
(2 vols, 1844-47) combines Schleiermacher's absolute
feeling of dependence with the Reformed doctrine of pre-
destination. In his later works he stands entirely upon
the ground of the so-called ''modern consciousness."

9. Leipsic, 1826. Sixtk edition, 1870, To be distinguished from his Hutterus
Redivivus, oder Dogmatik der evang. luth. Kirche. 1829. Twelfth edition. 1883.
In this last work he attempts to present the doctrine of the Lutheran Church as
Hutter would have represented it, if living.

10. Three vols. 1827-29. Second edition, 1869-70.

242 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Richard Rothe (d. 1867), professor of theology at
Heidelberg after 1839, with the exception of a short
period (1849-54), during which he lectured at Bonn,
presents his entire speculative theological system in his
^' Theologiscbe Bthik,'^'^^ which has been called *'the
greatest work of German speculative theology next to
Schleiermacher's Der Christliche Glaube.'' He is char-
acterized by a union peculiar to himself of the religious
consciousness of Schleiermacher, and of the speculations
and method of Hegel. These he combines so as to pre-
sent a complete theosophic view of the whole. Next in
importance to his Ethik is his Zur Dogmatik, 1863, and
his lectures on Dogmatik, imperfectly edited from his
manuscripts by Schenkel (2 vols. Heidelberg, 1870).

JoHANN Peter Lange (d. 1884), professor of theol-
ogy at Bonn after 1854, one of the most original and
fertile theological authors of the Reformed Church of
this century, has attempted to place dogmatics in con-
nection with the entire life of the spirit and to harmo-
nize with each other the manifold oppositions of the
supernatural and the natural life. This he has done in
his brilliant work ^^Christliche Dogmatik (Heidelberg),
which he published in three parts (1 Philosophical Dog-
matics, 1849; 2. Positive Dogmatics, 1849; 3. Applied
Dogmatics, 1852). His theology is biblical and evan-
gelical, but he is best known as the editor of Lange's
Commentary, and by his Life of Christ (6 vols).

Karl Theodor Albert Liebner {d. 1871), succes-
sively professor of theology at Goettingen, Kiel, and
Leipsic, and court-preacher at Dresden (1855), attemped
to enrich dogmatics with purely speculative elements,
and to shape it into a Christology, in his work ^*Die
christl. Dogmatik aus dem christologischen Prinzip dar-

II. 3 vols. 1845-48. Second edition, thoroughly revised, in 5 vols. 1867-72.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 243

gestellV, (1849). He maintains that Dogmatics must go
forth from the idea of the God-man, as the synthesis,
by means of the analysis of the actual unity of the
divine and human given therein, and he thus unfolds
what he calls ''the system of all systems," ''a faithful
scientific photograph of the full unabridged Christian-
ity, as our fathers held it."

The ripest fruit of this whole development, with ref-
erence at the same time to the most recent contribu-
tions to dogmatics, is given by Isaac August Dor-
NER (d. 1884), professor of theology at Kiel (1839),
Koenigsberg (1843), Bonn (1847), Goettingen (1853),
and finally at Berlin (1862), in his ''System der Christ-
lichen Glaubenslehre'^ ^^ . As one of the profoundest
and most learned theologians of this century, he ranks
with Schleiermacher, Neander, Nitzsch, Julius Mueller,
and Richard Rothe. With a positive faith and an his-
torical spirit he sought to unite the theology of Schlei-
ermacher and the philosophy of Hegel. His theology is
pre-eminently christological.

Johannes Heinrich Ebrard (born 1818), Reformed,
in his '' Christliche Dogmatik,^' i-^ presented without
philosophical speculation, in essentials retaining the
Church orthodoxy, the Reformed Dogmatics as an ex-
pression of the Christian consciousness of salvation,
but he excludes the doctrine of absolute Predestination.

Robert Benjamin Kuebel, professor of theology at
Tuebingen, since 1879, in his ** Christliche Lehrsystem "
(1873), represents the biblical school of Wuertemberg.

LuDWiG Friedrich Schoeberlein {d. 1881), pro-
fessor of theology at Goettingen after 1855, in his
^' Grundlehren des Heils^' (1848), ''Die Geheimnisse des

12 2 vols. Berlin, 1879-80. Second edition. 18.^6. Translated inlo English
with the title " A System of Christian Doctrine." 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1880-82.
13. 2 vols. 1851. Second edition, 1862.

244 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Glaubens'' (1872), and in his last work ''Bas Prinzip
und System der Dogmatif (1881), shows a strong
mystical tendency.

Heinrich Johann Matthias Voigt, since 1864, pro-
fessor of theology at Koenigsberg, in his Fundamental
Dogmatik (Gotha, 1874), has given us a careful and full
discussion of the fundamental questions that arise in
dogmatics.

Albrecht Ritschl, since 1864, professor of theol-
ogy at Goettingen, is a determined opponent of Protes-
tant Scholasticism, and is the only liYing theologian
who has founded a school of theology. His view of jus-
tification and atonement, of reconciliation and grace,
of sin and law, are so peculiar, that he reconstructs the
very scheme of redemption. His views are especially
seen in his ''Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung
und Versoehnung,''^^ a work which is attracting much
attention. He describes his theological standpoint as
follows : *^ In the strictest recognition of the revelation
of God through Christ ; most accurate use of the Holy
Scripture as the foundation of the knowledge of the
Christian religion ; view of Jesus Christ as the ground
of knowledge for all parts of the theological system;
in accord with the original documents of the Lutheran
Reformation respecting those peculiarities which differ-
entiate its type of doctrine from that of the Middle
Ages."

Ritschl has a large following among the younger
professors of theology. Kaftan (born 1848), Dorner's
successor in Berlin, is under his influence, so is Herr-
mann (born 1846), professor of theology at Marburg,
the theological faculty at Giessen hold to his views, and
Hermann Schultz (born 1836) of Goett ingen and Lip-

14. 3 vols. 1870-74. Second edition, 1882-83. The first volume has been
translated into English.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 245

sius of Jena defend the essential positions of his theol-
ogy. Against him are arrayed such men as Frank, pro-
fessor in Erlangen, and Luthardt, Fricke and Best-
mann, of Leipsic.

Richard Adelbert Lipsius (born 1830), professor
of theology at Jena, since 1870, is a follower of Kant
in philosophy, and of Schleiermacher in theology. In
his ^^ Lehrbuch der evang. prot. Dogmatik,^^ ^^ and in
his '^ Dogmatische Beitraege^^ (1878), he seeks to build
up a system of dogmatics founded upon the religious
experience of the Christian communion and of the in-
dividual believer. In fact, he bases the evidence of all
Christian and religious truth on experience.

5, Confessional Dogmatics.

a) Lutheran.

The confessional dogmatics shaped itself by the side
of the theology of mediation, exhibiting more and more
the tendency to return to that doctrine of the Church
which is embodied in her great Confessions of the six-
teenth century. This tendencj' shows itself in two
classes of -works: 1) in those which outline the confes-
sional doctrines historically, and 2) in those which are
an independent reproduction of that doctrine.

Some of the best books of the first class come from
the hand of men who were too much under the influ-
ence of the perverted thinking of the age to embrace
the doctrine they so ably presented.

Among the works of this class may be mentioned
the ''Hutterus Redivivus'' of Karl Hase (12th ed.
1883), which is a model of literary skill. By condens-
ing the matter, and using abridgments of frequently
recurring words, he has condensed into a narrow space
a vast fund of information. He gave to it the name

15. Braunschweig, 1876. Second edition, 1879.

246 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

of the old dogmatician Hutter, whose fidelity to the
Confessions and whose ability as a theologian has pre-
served his memory in the Church, and his object was to
present the System of Dogmatics, as Hutter might have
been supposed to present it, were he actually {redivivus)
restored to life.

The well known work of Heinrich Schmid ^ ^ differs
from that of Hase, in that it is confined to the older
Dogmaticians, and from these its citations are much
fuller.

Under the second class of works on confessional dog-
matics, in which the writers have given to us not the
history of the dogmatic thinking of others, but their
own independent reproduction of Christian doctrine,
we have contributions from some of the profoundest
and most brilliant scholars of the age.

The ''Dogmatics'' of Hans Lassen Martensen {d.
1884), the most eminent Danish theologian of this cen-
tury, has been favorably received. Luthardt says of
it ''that it exhibits spirit and versability, and is sug-
gestive, rich in apologetic and speculative elements."
The work is indubitably profound, clear in the main
and concise. But while we place it among the works
of confessional dogmatics, it is far from being a guide,
which can be followed implicitly. He professes to hold
to the type of doctrine as confessed by the Symbolical
Books of the Lutheran Church, especially to the Augs-
burg Confession, and aims at reproducing the doctrine
ot Scripture and the Church scientifically from the
depths of a consciousness, which is regenerated and
filled with the idea of the Christian truth, nevertheless
his Lutheran theology has been greatly influenced by

i6. The fifth German edition translated into English under the title of -'The
Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church," Philadelphia, 1876.
The sixth German edition appeared in 1876.

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 247

the philosophy of Hegel and the theosophic views of
Franz Baader.

The next great name among the Lutheran Confes-
sional Dogmaticians is that of Ernest Sartorius (d.
1859), who in addition to various minor publications
on dogmatics, has presented his system most fully in
his treatise on '' The Doctrine of Divine Love " ^ '''.

Gottfried Thomasius (d, 1875), professor of theol-
ogy at Erlangen, after 1842, in his ''Christi Person und
Werk/^ 1^ has made the Person of Christ the centre of
his system, and on every page gives evidence of his
thorough acquaintance with the history of doctrines.
It is in this work that he presents the modern *'Keno-
tic" theory in its developed form, and claims that this
view is the legitimate outcome of the fundamental prin-
ciples on which the Lutheran doctrine of Christ's per-
son is based.

One of the safest and best guides among the larger
systems of recent date is that of Friedrich Adolf
Philippic 9 {d. 1882), professor of theology at Dorpat
(1841), and at Rostock after 1852. He is the best
modern representative of Lutheran orthodoxy.

Karl Friedrich August Kahnis, professor of the-
ology at Leipsic (1850-86), one of the ablest theolo-
gians of this century, in his ''Luth. Dogm. bistor. genet.
dargestellV^ ^^ abandons the doctrine of the supreme
divinity of Christ, and gives up the true doctrine of the
Sacramental Presence, and by his looseness in regard
to the doctrine of Inspiration, makes his claim to a
place among the Confessional Dogmaticians more than
doubtful.

17. Translated into English, from the last German edition. Edinburgh, 1884.

18. Second edition. 3 vols. Eriangen, 1856-63,

19. See note 8, p. 15. For outline of his system see/. 121.

20. Second edition. 2 vols. Lepsic. 1874-75.

248 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Not the least among the confessional dogmaticians
of the Lutheran Church is Fkanz Hermann Reinhold
Frank, professor of theology at Erlangen since 1858.
His more important works are ''Die Theologi^ der Con-
cordienformel " (4 vols. Erlangen, 1858-65), ''System
der Christ. Gewissheit" (2 vols. Second edition; 1. 1884;
2. 1881), and "System der christ. Sittlichkeit " (vol. 1.
1884). In his later writings he is noted for his pro-
found reasoning and for the stress he lays upon the
subjective element in faith.

He who watches the horizon of German Theology,
will always discover some new star of great brilliancy,
I'ust coming into range above it. One of the latest of
distinguished living theologians is Christoph Ernst
LuTHARDT, since 1856 professor of theology at Leipsic,
and renowned as a university lecturer and pulpit ora-
tor. His ''Compendium der Dogmatif had already
reached the seventh edition in 1886.

The work is not strictly speaking the development
of a system, but rather a compendious presentation of
carefully selected material. It is by far the best manua]
of the Dogmatics of the Evangelical Lutheran Church
we possess. It gives the most important recent litera-
ture under each head, and because of its comprehensive-
ness, brevity, and succintness, we have taken it as a
basis of our own presentation, and would especially
recommend it to students ^ ^ .

Of the confessional dogmaticians of Sweden we
would especially mention the names of Carl Olof
BjoRLiNG (d. 1884), bishop of Westerns, after 1866.
The second edition of his ''Den Christeliga Dogma-
tiken^^-^ (1866), adheres more closely to the teaching

21. The fifth German edition has been translated into Swedish, Stockholm,
1879. For 21 complete synopsis of his system see pp. iao-131.

22. See noie 11, /. 15, for outline of his system.

THE D0G51ATICS OF THE MOST EECEN T TIME. 24{\

of the Confessions of our Church than his fi rst edi-
tion.

An important contribution to dogmatics, likewise,
is the '' Grunddragen af den Christeliga TroslMran'' by
SvEN Libert Bring ^s (born 1826), professor of theol-
ogy, at Lund.

In the Lutheran Church in the United States there
are two theologians of the strict confessional tendency
who have left their dogmatic impress upon the Church.

Charles Porterfield Krauth {d. 1883), professor
of theology in the Lutheran Seminary at Philadelphia,
after 1864, has been the leader in the establishment of
the General Council (1867), and has given shape to
its strict confessional basis =^*. In his most important
work, " The Conservative Reformation and its Theol-
ogy'' (Philadelphia, 1871) he has given evidence of the
strictest adherence to the doctrines of our Church as
confessed in her Symbolical Books.

Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm Walther {d. 1887),
professor of theology at St. Louis, after 1849, the
founder and leader of the Synod of Missouri (Synodi-
cal Conference), "■' is bj^ pre-eminence the representative
of Lutheran Orthodoxy, a Calovius redivivus, equally
zealous in controversy and positive in polemics. In the
'^Predestinarian Controversy" his zeal, and that of his
followers, went so far, as to accuse our most conserva-
tive theologians, such as Philippi, Luthardt, Vilmar,
and others, of Semi-pelagianism, Synergism, and Ra-
tionalism. Although not the author of any system of
dogmatics, he has written on almost all its topics, and
has edited with great ability Baier's Compend, in three
volumes, a work which seems to have been his greatest

23. See fwte 12, p. 16, for outline of his system.

24. See notes i, 2, 3, ox\. pp. 1 16-1 18.

25. See note 1. p, ti6.

250 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

favorite among the dogmaticians of the seventeenth
century.

b) Reformed.

Heinrich Ludwig Julius Heppe (d. 1879), professor
of theology at Marburg, after 1864, from the position
of Reformed unionism, has given us several valuable
works of a historical character. The principal are '^Die
Dogmatik des Protestantismus im 16 Jahrhundert'^ (3
vols. Gotha, 1857), and '^ Die Dog. der evang. reformir-
ten Kirche'' (Elberfeld, 1860) . This last is nearly iden-
tical in plan with the work of Heinrich Schmid, de-
scribed above.

Jan Jakob van Oosterzee {d. 1882), professor of
theology at Utrecht, after 1862, ^was the recognized
leader of the evangelical movement in Holland. His
^^ Christian Dogmatics ^^ has been translated into En-
glish from the Dutch (London and New York, 1874),
and his American editors - ^ regard it, among the numer-
ous foreign systems of Theology, *'as being upon the
whole the work best adapted to the wants of English
and American students, and nearer, perhaps, to the
prevailing type of Anglo-American Theology than any
similar work produced of late years on the continent
of Europe." This "prevailing type of Anglo-American
Theology " here referred to, is of course. Reformed in its
tendency, and not Lutheran.

c) Church of England.

A standard work of the dogmatic theology of the
Church of England is the well-known ^^ Exposition oi
the X X X I X Articles'' (12th ed. 1882; Amer. ed. by
Bishop Williams of Connecticut, 1865) by Edward
Harold Browne, Bishop of Winchester, since 1873.

26. Henry B. Smith and Philip Schaff,

THE DOGMATICS OF THE MOST RECENT TIME. 251

The English Church has produced no great systema-
tic theologian, in the full meaning of the term.

d) Congregational.

Ralph Wardlaw {d. 1823), professor of theology
at Glasgow, after 1811, was for a long time one of the
prominent leaders of the Congregational churches in
Scotland. His ''System of Theology'' (3 vols. 1856-
57) was published after his death.

In the history of Congregationalism in the United
States, pre-eminent among the theologians of this cen-
tury, are the names of Samuel Hopkins {d. 1803),
whose system had its root in the writings of the elder
Jonathan Edwards (d. 1758), and was essentially Cal-
vinistic, but distinguished as ''Hopkinsianism," Na-
THANAEL Emmons {d. 1840) wlio developed the system
of Hopkins into what is characterized as "Emmonism,"
Nathaniel William Taylor {d. 1858), the founder of
''The New-Haven Theology," the elder Leonard Woods
{d. 1854), ''the judicious divine of the later New-En-
gland theology," and Charles G. Finney {d. at Ober-
lin, 1875).

e) Presbyterian.

Charles Hodge {d. 1878), professor of theology at
Princeton, New Jersey, after 1822, achieved distinction
in all departments of theology, and exerted the widest
influence as a teacher, training more than a thousand
ministers. His ''Systematic Theology'' (3 vols. 1871-
73) has been called "the greatest system of dogmatics
in the English language."

The "Outlines of Theology" (revised edition, 1878)
by Archibald Alexander Hodge {d. 1887), son of the
preceding, professor of theology at Princeton, after
1878, is an excellent compend of Reformed Theology,
3,nd ivS widely used as a text-book.

252 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

/) Baptist.

Augustus Hopkins Strong, professor of theology at
Rochester, N. Y., since 1872, in his ''Systematic Theol-
ogy^'' (1886), has given us a compendium and common-
place-book for theological students. The work gives
evidence of wide reading and a full mastery of the
science of dogmatics.

g) Methodist.

Richard Watson {d. 1833, in London), in his '' The-
ological Institutes'' (2 vols. Eighth edition, 1850) sys-
tematized and expounded the theology of John Wesley
{d. 1791^, and adopts a modified Arminian interpreta-
tion of the Bible. This is the text-book of Methodism.

William Burt Pope, professor of theology at Man-
chester, England, since 1867, in his ''Compendium of
Christian Theology'' (3 vols. 1875-76 \ follows Wat-
son's improved Arminianism.

Miner Raymond, professor of theology at Evanston,
111., since 1864, in his ''Systematic Theology" (3 vols.
1877-79 ', holds to more radical Arminianism.

h) Roman Catholic.

Giovanni Perrone (d. 1876), professor of theology
after 1816, has exerted the widest influence in the Ro-
man Catholic Church. His " Praelectiones theologi-
cae" appears in two forms, unabridged (in 9 vols. 31st
ed. 1865), and abridged (2 vols. 36th ed. 1881), trans-
lated into various languages. It is most widely used
by the students of the Roman Catholic Church, and
comes up most fully to the standard of orthodoxy as
set by the Church.

Hugo Hurter, professor of theology at Innsbruck,
since 1858, has also written a work on dogmatics
which has reached a wide circulation. His " Theolo-
giae dogmaticae compendium " (3 vols. 1876), had
already i^eached a fifth edition in 1885,

INDEX,

Abelard, 17, 158, 119
Albertus Magnus, 162
Alexander of Hales, 162
Alexandria, school of, 183-137 ;

new school of, 137-141
Allegorical sense of Scripture, 85
Alsted, 199
Ammon, 229
Amyraldism, 209, 210
Amyraut, 209
Analogy of faith, an inspired

means of interpretation, 84-87
Ancient Church, dogmatics of,

I3i-154
Andreae, 211

Anselm of Canterbury. 156, 157
Antecedent articles of faith, 110
Anthropologia, analysis of topics

discussed under, 126, 127
Antilegomena, 79
Anton, Paul, 213
Apocryphal Books, of O. T., 76,

77; of N. T., 81
Apologists, theology of, 132, 133
Apology of Augsburg Confession,

history of origin of, 96, 97
Apostles' Creed, history of origin

of, 89 note
Apostolical Fathers, theology of,

132, 133
Aquinas, 163-165
Archetypal theology, 17, 18
Aretius, 183
Aristotle, 25, 155. 162
Articles of faith, 109-115; pure and

mixed, 109; fundamental and

non-fundamental, 109-115
Assurance of salvation, 70, 71
Athanasian Creed, history of ori-
gin of, 91 note
Athanasius. theology of, 137, 138
Atheism, 44

Augsburg Confession, history of
origin of, 92 noie\ composition
of, 93, 94; contents of, 95, 96

Augustine, 148-151

Baader, 235

Bacon, Roger, 167

Bahrdt, 225

Baier, on natural theology, 45;
theology of, 194, 195

Baptists, recent dogmatician of,
252

Basil, the Great, 139, 140

Baumgarten, S. J., 221

Baur, on difference between Lu-
theran and Reformed, 60

Baxter, 207, 208

Beck, on definition of religion, 33,
36; sketch of, 232

Bengel, 215

Bernard of Clairvaux, 159, 160

Beveridge, 206

Bible, normative authority of, 52,
59, 65, 66, 73

Biedermann, 237

Biel, Gabriel, 169

Bindemann, on Augustine, 149

Bjorling, introduction of, 15; anal-
ysis of system of. 15 note; dog-
matics of. 248, 249

Boethius, 153, 154

Bolingbroke, deism of, 224

Bonaventura, 165

Boston, Thomas, 208

Breithaupt, 213

Bretschneider, 229

Bring, analysis of system of, 16
note; dogmatics of, 249

Browne, 250

Buddeus, on John Gerhard. 193,
sketch of, 217

Bull, George, 205, 206

254

INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Bullinger, 183
Bunyan, 207
Burmann, 203
Burnet, Gilbert, 207

Calixtus and his syncretism, 188,
198, 194

Calovius. on the use of Philoso-
phy, 26; on interpretation of
Scripture, 85, 86; 'theology of,
189, 196

Calvin, 182, 183

Calvinism, 185, note

Cameron. John, 209

Canon, of the O. T., 75-78; of the
J^. T., 78-82

Catechisms of Luther, history of
origin of. 99

Charnock, 207

Chemnitz, introduction of, 14; on
the Canon, 81; theology of, 178,
179

Chillingworth, 208, 209

Christ, doctrine of person of, anal-
ysis of topics discussed under,
127, 128; work of, analysis of
topics, 128, 129

Christlieb, on faith, 24

Christianity, essence of, 46, 47; re-
lation to heathenism and Juda-
ism, 46: historical forms of, 46;
the true religion, 47

Christologia, analysis of topics
discussed under, 127. 128

Church doctrine, 87-120; consists
of articles of faith, 109-115;
teacher's relation to, 106-108

Church, doctrine of the, in Roman
Church, 49, 50; analyzed, 180, 131

Church of England, dogmatics of,
205, 206, 222, 250

Clarke, Samuel, 209, 222

Clement of Alexandria, 138, 184

Cocceius, 208

Collins, deism of. 224

Confessional dogmatics, of recent

times, 245-249
Confessionalism, Plitt on, 104-108
Confessions of the Church, 88-208;
necessity of, 88, 89; authority or,
92-103; subscriptions to, 104-
108; sufficiency of, 108, 108

Congregationalism, dogmatics of

recent, 251
Consciousness of faith, 120
Consequent Articles of faith, 111
Constituent Articles of faith, 110
Cotton, John, 208
Council, General, of Evang. Luth.

Church, 116-119; principles of

faith of, 117 note
Crusius, C. A., 215, 216
Cudworth, Ralph, 208
Cyprian, 146, 147
Cyril of Alexandria, 142
Cyril of Jerusalem, 142

D'Alembert, 224

Daniel, canonicity of, 77, 78

Dannhauer, 195

Daub, 235, 236

Deism, 42, 43, 223, 224; in France,
224

Descartes, 202, 203, 220

Deutsch Theologia, 171

Deutschmann, opposes Spener,212
note

DeWette, 238

Diderot, 224

Didymus, the Blind, 141, 142

Doederlein. 226

Dogma, definition of, 29

Dogmatics, relation to Ethics, 28;
definition of, 29-31; formation
of a system of, 72-87; material
principle of. 72, 73; formal prin-
ciple of, 78, 74; churchly charac-
ter of. 88; analysis of a System
of, 122-181; history of, 132 252

Dorner, on Reformed Protestant-
ism, 60; as a theologian. 243

Duns Scotus, 165, 166

Durand, 167

Ebrard, 248

Ecclesiologia, analyzed, 130, 131
Eckhart, Meister, 169. 170
Edwards, Jonathan. 222, 2:i3
Ektypal theology, 17, 18
Emmons, Nathanael, 251
Emotion, theology of, 237-240
Episcopius, 200
Ernesti, 2l8
Eschatologia, analyzed, 181

INDEX.

Ethics, relation to Dogmatics, 28,

29
Evidences of Christianity, 41
Exegetical theology, analysis of,

Faith, and knowledge, 23, 24; jus-
tiflcatioa by, 62-65, 72, 73; con-
sciousness of, 120; foundation
of, 109, 110; articles of, 109-115

Fichte. 234

Field, Kichard, 205

Filioque, 91

Finney, Charles G., 251

Flatt,231

Fletcher, 222

Formal Principle, of Protestant-
ism, 52, 53; of Lutheranism, 65,
66 ; of Reformed Protestantism,
59-61

Formula of Concord, history of
origin of, 101, 103

Francke, A. H., 212 note, 213

Frank, on fundamental doctrines,
113-115; dogmatics of, 248

Freylinghausen, 213

Fries, 238

Fundamental articles of faith,
109-115; of General Council, 117
note

Gass, on Gregory Nazianzen, 139

General Council of Evang. Luth.
Church, 116-118

General Synod of Evang. Luth.
Church, 116 note

Getmadius of Marseilles, 152

Gerhard, John, introduction of,
14; on faith, 23; on the Canon 81;
on interpretation of Scripture,
84, 85, 86, 87; theology of, 191;
analysis of loci of, 191 7iote

Gerson, John, 169

Gill, 222

God, doctrine of, analysis of sub-
jects, 124-126

Goebel, on distinction between
Lutheran and Reformed, 59

Gomarus, 201

Gregory Nazianzen, 139

Gregory of Nyssa, 140, 141

Grotius, Hugo, 200, 201

Gruner, 226

Hafenreffer, 180

Hahn, 231

Hase, Carl, introduction of, 14;
opponent of vulgar rationalism,
230; sketch of, 241; Hutterus
redivivus of, 245, 246

Heathenism and Christianity con-
trasted, 46

Heerbrand, 179, 180

Hegel, 235

Heidegger, 210

Helvetius, 224

Henke, 228

Heppe, on difference between Lu-
theran and Reformed, 59; dog-
matics of, 250

Herbert of Cherbury, on natural
religion, 44, 45; philosophy of,
223

Hermann, 244

Herzog, on difference between
Lutheran and Reformed, 60

Hilarv of Poitiers, 147, 148

Historical theology, analysis of,
27

Hodge, A. A., 251 ^ ^ ^. „

Hodge, Charles, mtroduction of,
16; Systematic theology of, 251

Hofmaim, on definition of dog-
matics, 31

Holiaz, on marks of true religion,
39-41; on the Canon, 80; theol-
ogy of, 197, 198; analysis of dog-
matics of, 198 7iote

Hooker, Richard, 205

Hopkins, Samuel, 251

Horsley, 222

Howe, John, 208

Huelsemann, 195, 196

Hugo of St. Victor, 160, 161

Humanists, the, 173

Hume, deism of, 224

Hunnius, Aegidius, 189, 190

Hunnius, Nicolaus, 193

Hurter, 252

Huss, John, 172

Hutter, Leonard, 190, 191

Hyperius, 184

Idealism, absolute, 42
Hlumination, period of, 223-227

256

INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Infallibility, in Koman Church,
50, 51, of the Word of God, 68;
of the Church of God, 68-70

Inspiration, in the Roman Church,
50; doctrine of, 83

Interpretation, of Scripture, 82-
87; literal, 85; according to anal-
ogy of faith, 84; not a multiple
sense, 84, 85; principles of, 86, 87

Introduction to Dogmatics, object
of, 13-16; analysis of, 122-124

Iowa Synod, 116 7iote

Irenaeus, 144

Isidore of Seville, 152

Jackson, Thomas, 205

Jacobi, on faith, 24; sketch of, 237

Jacobs, on the Apology, 97 note

John of Damascus, 142, 143

Jones of Xayland, 222

Judaism and Christianity con-
trasted, 46

Justification by faith, the mate-
rial principle of Lutheranism,
62-65; of Dogmatics, 72, 73

Kaftan, 244

Kahnis, on definition of dogmat-
ics, 31; on religion, 37; order of
system of, 121; on John Ger-
hard, 193; dogmatics of, 247

Kant, 227, 228, 234

Keckermann, 199

Knapp, 231

Knowledge and faith, 23, 24

Koellner, on the Smalcald Arti-
cles, 99 note

Koenig, 196

Krauth, on relation of philosophy
and theology, 25; on marks of
true religion, 39, 40; on mystic-
ism, 43; on Lutheran Protes-
tantism, 51-53; on Catholicism,
56-58; on true value of tradi-
tion, 59, 60, 68-70; on the Augs-
burg Confession, 94-96; on
Smalcald Articles, 98; on Form-
ula of Concord, 101-103; on the
importance of Creeds, 103; on
the principles of faith of Gen-
eral Council, 118, 119; on Chem-
nitz, 179; as a theologian, 249

Kuebel, 248

Kurtz, on Tertullian, 145

Lange, Joachim, 213

Lange, J. P., 242

Last Things, doctrine of, analyzed
131

Laud, William, 205

Leibnitz, 220

Leighton, 207

Lessing, 226, 237

Leydecker, 203 204

Liebner, 242, 243

Limborch, 201

Lipsius, 245

Loescher, Val. Ernst, 213, 214

Luthardt, introduction of, 15; re-
lation of philosophy to theol-
ogy, 26; fourfold perversion of
religion 42-44; on Catholicism,
48-49; on difference between
Eeformed and Lutheran, 61, 62;
on material principle of Luther-
anism, 62; of Dogmatics, 73;
general divisions of system of
dogmatics, 121, 122; analysis of
system of. 122-131; on Gerhard.
192; as a theologian, 248

Luther, on Aristotle, 25; on per-
spicuity of Scripture, 83, 84;
works, life, theology, 175 note

Lutheran Church in U. S., Statis-
tics and tendencies, 116 note

Lutheran Dogmaticians, recent,
245-249

Lutheran Protestantism, differs
from Reformed, 59-62; material
principle of, 65, 66; historical
character of, 67-70

Lutheran theology, 186, 187

Maccovius, 202

Man, doctrine of, analysis of top-
ics discussed under, 126, 127

Marburg, Articles of, 92 note

Maresius, 202

Marheineke, order of system of,
121; sketch of, 236

Martensen, on Catholicism, 48.49;
on difference between Catholic-
ism and Lutheranism, 54-56;
between Reformed and Luther-

INDEX.

257

an Protestantism, 61; order of
system of, 121 ; as a dogmatician,
246

Material principle, of Protestant-
ism, 51-56; of Lutheranism, 62-
65; of Eeformed Protestantism,
60

Materialism, 42, 44

Mather, Cotton, 208

Mediation, theology of, 240-245

Meister Eckhart, 169, 170

Melanchthon, work of, on Augs-
burg Confession, 94 note; edi-
tion of Variata, 94, 95; prepares
the Apology, 96, 97 ; vacillations
of, 101 note, 176; dogmatics of,
174-177; loci of, 13, 175, 176 note

Melanchthonian school of dog-
matics, 177-180

Mendelssohn, 226

Methodists, recent dogmaticians
of, 252

Michaelis, J. D., 218, 219

Middle Ages, dogmatics of, 154-
173

Mixed articles of faith, 109

Moehler, on Romanism and Prot-
estantism, 48

Montanism, 145

Morns, 226

Mosheim, 218

Multiple sense, theory of, 84, 85

Musaeus, 189. 194

Mysticism, 43, 44, 169-173

Natural religion, 44, 45
Neander, on Aquinas, 164, 165
New England Theology, 223, 251
New Haven Theology, 251
New Testament Canon, 78-82
Nicene Creed, history of origin

of, 90 note
Nitzsch, on difference between

Lutheran and Reformed, 59 ; as

a theologian. 240
Nominalism, 155, 156, 157
Nonrfundamental articles of

faith, 111

Oetinger 216

Ohio Synod, 116 note

Old Testament Canon, 75-78

Olevianus, 184

Oosterzee, introduction of, 16;

dogmatics of, 250
Oriental Church, dogmatics of,

133-143
Origen, theology of, 135-137
Owen, Joon, 208

Pajon, 210

Pantheism, 42

Papin, 210

Pastors are teachers, 21

Pearson, 206

Perrone, 252

Perspicuity of Scripture, 83, 86

Peter D'Ailly, 168, 169

Peter Lombard, 161, 162

Peter Martyr Yermilius, 183

Pfafe, 217

Philippi, introduction, 15; on
faith, 23; on definition of dog-
matics, 31; on religion, 33; on
Christianity, 46; on the Apol-
ogy, 97 note\ on fundamental
doctrines, 112, 113; division of
system of, 121; dogmatics of, 247

Philippists, 101 note

Philosophy, relation to theology,
25, 26; on the Middle Ages, 154-
159; of Descartes, Leibnitz,
Wolff, 220; of Deism, 223, 224;
Kant, 228; of recent times, 234-
237

Pictet, 200

Pietism, 185 note, 186 note; dog-
matics of, 210-216; character-
ized, 232, 233

Plitt, on Confessionalism, 104-108

Pneumatologia, analyzed, 129

Polanus, 200

Polytheism, 42

Pope, William B., 252

Practical theology, analysis of, 28

Pre-Reformatory theology, 169-
173

Presbyterianism, recent dogmat-
ics of, 251

Priestley, 222

Polegomena, object of, 13-16;
analysis of, 122-124

Protestant, origin of name, 53

Protestantism, contrasted with

258

INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Eomanism, 47-58 ; essential char-
acter of. 51-58; formal principle
of, 52, 53; material principle of
52, 53; Lutheran, 58-71; Re-
formed, 59-62
Pure articles of faith, 109

Quenstedt, introduction of. 14;
on the use of philosophy, 26; on
definition of dogmatics, 30; on
marks of true religion, 41; on
the Canon, 81, 82; on interpreta-
tion of Scripture. 84; theology
of, 197

Kambach, 213

Rationalism, dogmatics of, 223-
230

Raymond, Miner, 252

Realism, 155, 156

Reformation, dogmatics of cen-
tury of, 174-184

Reformed Dogmatics, recent, 250

Reformed Protestantism, distinct
from the Lutheran, 59-62

Reimaurus. 225, 226

Reinbeck, 221

Reinhard, 230

Religion, definition of, 32, 33; de-
rivation of word, 32 ; essence of,
34-37; truth of, 38; subjective,
33-36; objective, 37; divisions
of, 39-45; marks of true, 39-41;
fourfold perversion of, 42-44;
natural, 44; revealed, 19, 45;
Christianity is the true, 47; ori-
gin of, 37, 38

Richard of St. Victor, 161

Rieger, 216

Ritschl, 244

Robertson, on Bernard of Clair-
vaux, 160

Roehr, 229

Roger Bacon, 167

Roman Catholic Church, recent

dogmaticians of, 252
Romanism, contrasted vrith Prot-
estantism, 47-58 ; essential char-
acter of, 48, 49; criticised, 49-51
Roos, 216
Roscellinus, 157
Rothe. 242

Rousseau, 224
Ruysbroeck, 170

Salvation, internal assurance of
70, 71; doctrine of, analyzed,
128, 129
Schaff, on Clement of Alexandria,
134; on Origen, 136; on Athana-
sius, 138; on Basil the Great,
139, 140; on Gregory of Nyssa,
140; on Irenaeus, 144;onTertul-
lian, 145, 146; on Cyprian, 147;
on Augustine, 148 ; on Zwingli,
181
Schelling, 234, 235
Schenkel, 241 ,

Scherzer, 196

Schleiermacher, on faith and emo-
tion, 24; on Protestantism and
Romanism, 48; as a theologian,
238-240
Schmid, H., introduction of Dog-
matics of, 14; work of, 246
Schneckenburger, on difference
between Reformed and Luther-
an, 60
Schoeberlein, 243, 244
Scholasticism, character of, 154-
156; beginnings of, 156-162;
bloom of, 162-167; decline of
167-169
Schultz,244

Schwabach, Articles of, 93 note
Schweizer, on difference between
Lutheran and Reformed, 60;
sketch of, 241
Scotus Erigena, 152, 153
Scripture, normative authority of,
52, 59, 65, 66, 73; interpretation
of, 82-87
Seeker, 222
Selnecker, introduction of, 13;

theology of, 178
Semisch, on Hilary, 147
Semler, 219

Smalcald Articles, history of ori-
gin of, 98, 99
Smith, H. B., introduction of, 16
Soteriologia, analysis of topics

discussed under, 128, 129
South, Robert, 207
Spener, 186 note\ sketch, 211-213

INDEX.

259

Spinoza, 220

Spirit, Holy, testimony of, 71, 73;
doctrine of the work of, ana-
lyzed, 129

Stackhouse, 222

Stahl, on Reformed Protestant-
ism, 61

Steudel,232

Stauedlin,228

Stillingfleet, 206

Storr, 231

Strauss, D. F, 236, 237

Strigel, Victorin, 177, 178

Strong, introduction of, 16; on
theology as a science, 24; Sys-
tematic theology of, 252

Study, means of theological, 19, 30

Sueskind, 231

Supranaturalism, dogmatics of,
230-233

Suso, 170

Syncretism, 185 note

Synergism, 175

Synod, General, of Evang. Luth.
Church, 116 note

Synod, United, South, 116 note

Synodical Conference, 116 note

Systematic theology, analysis of,
27,28

Systems of theology, Bjorling, 15;
Bring, 16; Philippi, 121; Lu-
thardt, 120-131; Melanchthon,
177 note\ Hutter's Compend,
190 note\ Gerhard, 191 note\
Baier, 194 note; Hollaz, 198 note

Tauler, 170

Taylor, Jeremy, 206

Taylor, Nathaniel W., 251

Teller, 226

Tertullian, 145, 146

Theologia blermaniea, 171

Theologia or doctrine of God,
analysis of, 124-126

Theologian, a true, 19

Theology, definition of, 17-20; di-
visions of, 17, 18, 26-28; revealed,
19, 45; means of study of, 19, 20;
aim of, 20; claims of, 20-26; or-
ganism of, 27-28; a science, 21-
26; relation to philosophy, 25,

26; natural, 44, 45; System of,

122-131
Tholuck, on John Gerhard, 192
Thomas Aqninas, 163-165
Thomasius, introduction of, 15;

dogmatics of, 247
Tieftrunk, 228
Tillotson, 209
Tindal, deism of, 224
Toellner, 221
Tomline, 222
Toplady, 222
Torgau Articles, 93 note
Tradition, unreliableness of, 51;

true value of, 59, 60, 68-70
Twesten, on Protestantism and

Romanism, 48; as a theologian,

240
Typical sense of Scripture, 85, 86
Tzschirner, 229

Ueberweg, on Gregory of Nyssa,

141
Unionism, 185 note
Ursinus, 183, 184

Van Oosterzee, introduction of
dogmatics of, 16; dogmatics of,
250

Van Til, 204

Victorines, the, 160, 161

Vincent of Lerins, 151, 152

Voetius, 202

Voigt, 244

Voltaire, 224

Vulgar Rationalism, 228-230

Wagenmann, on Occam, 168

Walch, J. G., 217, 218

Walter of St. Victor, 161

Walther, on theology of seven-
teenth century, 187, 188; on
John Gerhard, 193; on Baier,
195 ; as a theologian, 249, 250

Warburton, 222

Wardlaw, 251

Waterland, 206, 222

Watson, Richard, 252

Wegscheider, 229

Wendelin. 199, 200

Wesel, 173

Wesley, 222

260 INTRODUCTION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.

Wessel, 172 Wolfenbuettel fragments, 226

Western Church, dogmatics of, Wolff, 220, 221

143-154 Wolfgang Musculus, 183

Wette, de, 238 Wolleb, 200

Whitefield, 222 Woods, Leonard, 251

Wiclif, 171, 172 Wuertemberg School, 215, 216, 232
William of Champeaux, 157, 158
William of Occam, 168

Wltsius, 204 Zwingli, 180-182

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