THE CAMBRIDGE BIBLE
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
GENERAL EDITOR FOR THE OLD TESTAMENT
AND APOCRYPHA :
A. F. KIRKPATRICK; D.D.
DEAN OF ELY
AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
PENTATEUCH
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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5*""
AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
PENTATEUCH
by
A. T. CHAPMAN, M.A.
Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Cambridge ."
at the University Press
1911
Cambridge :
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PREFACE
BY THE
GENERAL EDITOR FOR THE OLD TESTAMENT
THE present General Editor for the Old Testament
in the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges
desires to say that, in accordance with the policy of
his predecessor the Bishop of Worcester, he does not
hold himself responsible for the particular interpreta-
tions adopted or for the opinions expressed by the
editors of the several Books, nor has he endeavoured
to bring them into agreement with one another. It
is inevitable that there should be differences of
opinion in regard to many questions of criticism and
interpretation, and it seems best that these differences
should find free expression in different volumes. He
has endeavoured to secure, as far as possible, that
the general scope and character of the series should
be observed, and that views which have a reasonable
claim to consideration should not be ignored, but he
has felt it best that the final responsibility should, in
general, rest with the individual contributors.
A. F. KIRKPATRICK.
PREFACE
THE aim of this Introduction is to give a general
account of the critical problems which concern the
Hexateuch as a whole, with a view to a more complete
treatment than would otherwise be possible, and in order
to avoid repetitions in the Introductions to the separate
books. The special problems connected with each book
will be dealt with in the separate commentaries.
The writer desires to make his acknowledgements to
Bishop Ryle and Dr M c Neile for valuable help and
counsel ; and to Professor Driver, who has read the proof-
sheets throughout with the greatest care, and made various
suggestions upon them, which in most cases he has gladly
adopted.
A. T. C.
20 April 1911
CONTENTS
PART I
PRELIMINARY STATEMENT OF FACTS (139)
PAGES
Names and Titles i 6
Note A. The name Hexateuch .... 6
Heptateuch and Octateuch ... 7
Note B. Jewish Titles of the Books of the Law . 8, 9
Plan and Contents of the^ Hexateuch . . 1014
General Remarks on the History .... 14 17
The Origin of the Hexateuch ..... 17 24
diverging views: further enquiry necessary . 18
Criticism denned : 'Textual' and 'Higher' explained 18, 19
Applied in dealing with classical problems . . 20
Same methods necessary for determining age and
authorship of books of O.T ai
Importance of internal evidence .... 11
Objections considered 33
Sketch of Hexateuch criticism 15 39
i. Early Jewish and Christian writers ... 25
ii. The first questionings 26, 27
iii. The beginnings of criticism. Simon and
Asti~uc both pointed out marks of different
authors 27 29
iv. A century of criticism. Asiriu: to Hupfcld . 19 32
Four documents traced in the Hexateuch . 32
Chronological order of the documents . . 33
viii CONTENTS
PAGES
The literary method followed in this period, but
In recent times, the historical method . . 34 38
Twofold comparison of the codes (a) with one
another, (b) with the history.
Results stated in three propositions ... 36
Three stages in history of criticism ... 38
Three corresponding propositions to be investi-
gated in Part II 38, 39
PART II
X. THE FIRST PROPOSITION (4050)
The Hexateuch contains passages of later date than the times of
Moses and Joshrta
i. Passages quoted by earlier critics, and ... 40
ii. Other short passages ....... 41
These might be regarded as editorial additions . . 42
The following cannot be so regarded.
iii. Passages of greater length 43 45
iv. Two groups of passages :
a. Passages in which quotations are made . 45 47
b. Passages which refer to prophets . . . 47 49
v. The narratives were composed in Palestine . . 49
The evidence in iii v implies a series of writers, and
establishes a probability in favour of ... 50
a. THE SECOND PROPOSITION (50110)
The Hexateuch is a composite work, in which four documents
(at least) can be distinguished
i. Use of different Names for the Divine Being . . 51 53
a. Elohirti. b. Jehovah 51
implies more than one writer . . . . ' 52, 53
CONTENTS
PAGES
This inference confirmed by the fact that variety of
Name is accompanied by
ii. Diversity of Style and Vocabulary .... 5373
shewn by examining and comparing passages in
Gen. i. xi., and in the patriarchal history . 54 66
from the facts marked (a) (h) [p. 60 .]
are drawn the inferences (i) (6) . . 61 66
Two narratives are distinguished ; one of them
shews marked characteristics of style and
phraseology, and is denoted by P 66
P uses Elohim, the other account Jehovah . . 66
N.B. The arguments in (i) and (ii) are independent . 67
Examination of Exod. vi. 2, 3 suggests a reason
why P uses Elohim in Genesis ... 67
Elohim used designedly as far as Exod. vi. . 68
Portions belonging to P after Exod. vi. . . 68 70
The character of the document .... 71
The writer who uses Jehovah in Gen. ii. 4
Exod. vi. not the same as P . . . 72
J Deuteronomy has a style of its own, and is the
work of another writer 73
iii. Existence of Duplicate Accounts .... 73 97
Some duplicate accounts already noticed . . 73
N B. This section is independent of the preceding section;
the arguments here advanced will corroborate
those drawn from style &c. in (ii) ... 73
a. Duplicate accounts in Genesis.
Narrative of the Flood examined . . . 74 81
An example of a composite story : it imli<
diversity of source in the same manner as
sepaiate accounts 79
The narrative has been put together by one
who shews affinity with P, not with J . 79 81
b. Duplicate accounts in other books . . . 81 97
Three sets of passages considered . 81
CONTENTS
Those which refer to
(1) the Ark
(2) the Tent of meeting
(3) the mission of the spies
(1) Of the passages referring to the Ark
(a) Exod. xxxiv. and Deut. x. in their pre-
sent form are not from same writer .
(b) neither of the passages belongs to P .
(c) Deut. shews affinity with a passage which
does not belong to P
three writers at least indicated .
(2) Passages which refer to the Tent of meeting .
An account of a Tent without the camp which
differs from that of P as to the time when
&&& place where it was set up ...
These passages cannot belong to P .
(3) Passages referring to the mission of the spies .
Examination of Num. xiii., xiv. shews that two
versions of the story are here combined .
The account in Deut. i. 19 44
is parallel with the non-P section of Num. and
was written before the two sources in Num.
were combined
Josh. xiv. 6 15 corroborates this inference
iv. The sources J and E
Arguments similar to those employed in separating
P in (i) (iii) shew that the remainder after
this separation is composite ....
a. Examination of Gen. xx., xxi., and xxvi. .
shews that
a. Gen. xx. i 17 does not belong to P
/3. Gen. xx., xxi. 22 32, and xxvi. are not from
P, and not from the same writer : therefore
Two sources besides P are found in Genesis
b. Comparison of Exod. iii. with Exod. vi. shews that
another writer besides P uses Elohim in Gen.
i. Exod. iii. ,
PAGES
81-83
84
84
84
84
8486
85
86
8697
9294
90-92
94, 95
96,97
97-107
97
5100
99
100
JOO, 101
CONTENTS xi
PAGES
c. Additional evidence from Genesis that the non-P
portions are composite ..... 101 103
The composite character of JE shewn from examina-
tion of Exod. iv., vii. x., and xxiv. . . 103, 104
d. Also from examination of passages which refer to
the father in law of Moses .... 104 107
The variety of names indicates a double narrative,
by writers who lived in an age remote from
that of Moses 107
The evidence brought forward in (iv) is weighty and varied :
the sources cannot always be distinguished with
certainty ; but this does not weaken the argument that
JE is composite 107
v. Summary of the evidence in support of the second Propo-
sition, and restatement of conclusions already drawn 108 1 10
3. TIIK THIRD PROPOSITION (110172)
The laws contained in the Pentateuch consist of three separate codes
which belong to different periods in the history of Israel
i. General description of the Laws .... 110 112
a. The laws in JE no
Exod. xx. 23 xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 1127 antl xiii -
37, 1013.
- b. The laws in Deuteronomy n i
Deut. xii. xxvi.
c. The laws in the Priestly code . . . . m
Exod. xxv. Num. x., Num. xv., xviii., xix., xxvii.
xxxvi., Gen. xvii. and Exod. xii.
with a note on Lev. xvii. xxvi.. . . in, 112
ii. General comparison of the codes .... 112 122
a. Comparison of D with JE 112 117
Difference between the accounts of the covenant
at Sinai ;
the Book of the covenant the basis of the covenant
in Exod. xxiv. 3 8 (|I. i .... 113
the Decalogue only the basis of the covenant at
Horeb (1>) Ii
CONTENTS
PAGES
the author of Deut. was not acquainted with Exod.
xx. xxiv. in its present position . . . 114
probable growth of the Sinai tic narrative . . 115
the precepts in Exod. xxxiv. 10 26 are also the
basis of a covenant 115
this representation differs from that of D . . 116
various interpretations of w. 27, 28 . . . 116
but same conclusion follows . . . . 117
the two accounts of a covenant made on the basis
of words written by Moses, and different from
the words of the Decalogue, vary so much
from the account in Deut., that D and JE
cannot be from the same writer . . . 117
b. Comparison of D with P 117 122
According to P, a series of statutes are given
through Moses at Sinai, and during the
40 years : D records two covenants, one at
Horeb based on the Decalogue only, and one
in the land of Moab based on xii. xxvi. . 117,118
These representations are so divergent that they
cannot be from the same writer . . . 118 120
Silence of D with respect to matters in P not
explained by saying that Deut. is a people's
book 119, 120
Comparison of laws about the cities of refuge makes
the divergence more apparent . . . 121, 122
ni. Comparison of particular Laws ..... 123 172
a. Laws relating to slavery ..... 123 129
Examination of these laws will shew that they
must have been gradually developed ; and
that JE, D, P represent successive stages of
this development 123
a. Comparison of the laws with one another . 123 128
Tabular view of the legislation . . . 124
Exod. and Deut. very similar . 125
Variations in Deut. imply later date of D . 125, 126
Why are two laws needed before the settled
life in Palestine? . ... 126
CONTENTS
X11I
PAGES
Exod. and Deut. allow Hebrew bondservants;
Leviticus forbids Israelites to be sold as
bondservants, and must be last in historic
sequence . ... 126, 127
The laws cannot be explained on the sup-
position that JE and P were set forth at
Sinai, and D about 40 years later . . 127,128
/3. Comparison with the history . . . 128, 129
. shews that law of D was recognized in
Zedekiah's reign .... 128
Jeremiah uses language which implies the
idea expressed in the law of Leviticus 128, 129
the law of Leviticus was introduced after
the exile 129
b. Laws relating to worship 130 134
offer abundant material for twofold comparison
(p. 36) and may be considered under four
heads.
a. The place of Worship (131146)
(1) The comparison of the codes with one another shews
that 131133
(i) the laws in JE imply a plurality of altars, but 131
(ii) the laws in D introduce a limitation . . 131, 132
offerings must be brought to one place only ;
to be enforced when they dwell in safety
after the Temple is built, but . . 132, 133
(iii) the laws in P represent the principle of the
one sanctuary as established from the
beginning 133
(2) The comparison of the codes with the history shews that 133146
(i) altars were set up, and sacrifice offered in
clilTerent places by Joshua, Samuel, Saul,
and in both kingdoms .... 134
(ii) a reformation was introduced in Josiah's reign
on the authority of the law book found in
the Temple, and sacrifice at the high
places was suppressed . . . . 135
CONTENTS
reasons for considering this book to be Deut.
or a part of it (a] (d) .... 136
the reformers advocated suppression of the
high places 137
Deut. limits sacrifice to one place : both Deut.
and the reformers denounce idolatry . 137
The particular cases specified and the intensity
of feeling in Deut. indicate a present
danger and conflict .... 138
Deut. depicts a situation like that in Josiah's
reign 138
The significance of Deut. xii. . . . 139
J Passages in Deut. which imply a post- Mosaic
date 140
Modifications necessary when worship is
limited to a central sanctuary . . 140, 141
Summary of facts which support the con-
clusion that : parts at least of Deut. were
composed in or shortly before the reign of
Josiah I4 2
Note on Deuteronomy and Josiah's reform . 142 145
Deut. contains a law given to Moses at
V Horeb, and set forth by him for the
first time in Moab 143
Meaning of 'the book of the law' in i K.
xxii. 8 M4
The reformers in Josiah's reign issued a pro-
phetic version of older laws which they
regarded as Mosaic . . . 145
The use of the definite article in Hebrew . 145, 146
/3. The Times of Sacrifice (146148)
(i) Comparison of the codes with one another shews that
the three pilgrimage feasts are more fully
described in D than in JE, and most fully
in P 146, 147
P enjoins additional feasts, and a fast; the time is fixed
by the month and day .... 147
CONTENTS xv
FACES
7. The different kinds of Sacrifices and
their names (148 153)
(1) A comparison of the codes shews that :
(i) in JE, sacrifices are not specified by name, and
the material is not prescribed ... 148
(ii) a list of offerings is found in D, and the material
of the Passover sacrifice is prescribed . 148
(iii) in P, Sin Offering and Guilt Offering are added,
sacrifices for each occasion prescribed, and
the ritual of each sacrifice . . .148, 149
For fulness of detail in respect of (j3) and (7)
the codes stand in the order JE, D, P 149
(2) Names denoting sacrifice used in the history . . 149, 150
Use of minhah in P 150
Sin- and Guilt- Offerings first mentioned in Ezek. . 150
Elkanah's sacrifice illustrates early custom . . 151
The feast kept at the dedication of the Temple . 153
Comparison of the accounts in Kings and Chronicles 152, 153
The history points to a development, the stages of
which are represented by JE, D, P 153
8. The laws relating to Priests (153 172)
(i) From a comparison of the codes, it appears that for the 153 157
performance of priestly duties
(i) no provision is made in the Covenant code . 153
(ii) the tribe of Levi is set apart in the Deut.
code 153
(iii) sons of Aaron only are qualified in the Priestly
'code 154
Is the limitation of (iii) known to Deute-
ronomy? 154
Wide difference between D and P in respect of
(a) Place of abode 154
in P, the tribe of Levi dwell in their
own cities
'in D, the Levite is a sojourner in cities
of others 155
xvi
CONTENTS
PAGES
(6) Revenue
in P, all the tithe belongs to the tribe
ofLevi 155
in D, all the tithe brought before the
Lord and shared by the offerer, with
his household and the Levite 'that
is within thy gates ' ... 155
The difference not explained by
(a) the traditional interpretation of a second
tithe 155
nor (/3) by considering D's provision for the
Levite as a temporary one . . 156
This marked difference between the codes raises the
presumption that the limitation of (iii)
indicates a further difference between
D and P 157
The differences between D and P (r) (5) can be
explained only by assuming that the
codes belong to different periods in the
history of Israel 157
(2) Comparison with the history 157 172
Instances of sacrifices offered by those who were not
priests 157
(i) The history of Micah shews that: . . 158160
Levites were preferred as priests, but others
might discharge priestly functions . 158
descendants of Moses officiated at Dan while
the house of God was at Shiloh . . 159
no trace of an exclusive Aaronic priesthood 159
Levite has not the same meaning as in P . 160
Another meaning of 'Levite' . . . ib. note 3
(ii) An ancestor of Eli appointed priest in Egypt 161
the priesthood transferred from Eli's house 161
Zadok does not belong to the family of Eli's
ancestor 161
History of the priests obscure ... 162
(iii) The tribe of Levi entrusted with priestly
functions in Deuteronomy . . . 162
CONTENTS xvii
PAGES
Priests at the Temple, and priests at the
high places till Josiah's time . . . 163
(iv) Effect of Josiah's reformation .... 163
Priests of the high places removed, but . 163
not allowed to officiate at Jerusalem . 164
(v) Ezekiel's ordinance enforces the difference be-
tween priests officiating at the altar, and
those who did not, which had already
existed at Jerusalem as a result of Josiah's
reformation 165168
he occupies a position intermediate between
the legislation of D and P 169
his other ordinances are intermediate in
character 169
(vi) The condition of the people after the Return 170
No definite reference to Priestly code until . 1 70
the reading of the Law by Ezra . . 171
its acceptance by the people followed by a
ceremony enjoined in P . . . 171, 172
Resemblance to Josiah's reform . . . 171
Reforms before and after captivity
for the interval D is law for the nation . 172
4 . SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENTS IN SUPPORT OF
THE THREE PROPOSITIONS (173)
The evidence that P is the latest element in the Hexateuch
is weighty and cumulative ... 173
corroborated by considering the relation of the prophets
to the law 174
>/ 5. THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS (174181)
Prophecy the most prominent feature in the history of the
nation 174
at first oral, afterwards written 175
Prophetical Torah and Priestly Torah developed on similar
lines 176
XV111
CONTENTS
PAGES
The earliest written prophecy in opposition to the priests 176, 177
makes no appeal to a written standard of law or
doctrine, it represents . . . . 177
Moses as prophet, rather than lawgiver . . . 177
Josiah's reformation effected with concurrence of priest and
prophet 177
Deuteronomy expounded written law in the prophetic spirit 178
Written law grew, and became more ceremonial in character 1 78
Ezekiel the exponent of this phase 178
developed in the code read by Ezra .... 178
The history sets forth prophecy in three stages of . . 178, 179
(1) independence of 178
(2) alliance with 179
(3) subordination to 179
the Priestly Torah, and corroborates the argument
deduced from examination of the laws . 179, 180
The sense in which the laws are put forth as part of the
law of Moses 180, 181
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS (181-191)
(i) Probable steps in the formation of the Pentateuch and
Book of Joshua 181186
The chronological order of the codes being JE, D, P,
the steps would be
J and E, each containing records of the early
history, were combined .... 182
D, when accepted as a law book, would be added
to JE 183
Deuteronomic recension of Joshua and the history
in Judges Kings 184
Efforts during the exile to preserve the ancient
traditions 184
embodied in the book of the Law brought by
Ezra 185
When accepted incorporated with JED . 185
Joshua probably separated I 5
CONTENTS xix
PAGES
(ii) Ancient customs preserved in D and P 186191
Both codes contain (a) ancient customs and
(<b) later developments .... 186
that (a) is found in the early history is not proof
that (3) was also then known . .187, 189
Illustrations from 'the lamp' 186
'the Nazirite' and other expressions . . . 187 189
The developed system of P not known to D . . 190
Note on I Sam. i. vii. supplies further illustrations 192 195
APPENDIX
^~ I. PASSAGES IN THE HEXATEUCH ASSIGNED TO P 197206
^^-11. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRIESTLY CODE . 207227
III. COMPARISON OF THE COVENANT CODE WITH
DEUTERONOMY AND LEVITICUS . . . 228231
IV. THE STYLE OF DEUTERONOMY .... 232239
V. LEVITICUS xvn. xxvi. AND THE PROPHET
EZEKIEL 240255
VI. THE MEANING OF TORAH .... 256259
VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE DOCUMENTS . 260276
VIII. THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH .... 777299
IX. THE CHRISTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT . . . 300304
X. ARCHAEOLOGY AND CRITICISM .... 305318
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND REMARKS .... 319333
INDEX 3*5-339
ABBREVIATIONS
The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, by W, Robertson
Smith. Second Edition.
LOT 8 Ah Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, by
S. R. Driver. Eighth Edition. The pagination is the
same as in the 6th and yth edd.
EHH The early History of the Hebrews, by A. H. Sayce.
/. C. C. International Critical Commentary.
J. Th, S. Journal of Theological Studies.
Oxf.Hex. The Hexateuch, by J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby.
SHS Dr Briggs' General Introduction to the Study of Holy
Scripture.
DB Dictionary of the Bible, edited by Hastings. (4 vols. The
supplementary volume is referred to as vol. v.)
Enc. Bib. Encyclopaedia Biblica. Enc. Brit. Enc. Britannica.
QPB The Variorum Bible. (Eyre and Spottiswoode.)
Ges. -K. Gesenius' Hebraische Grammatik (28th ed ., by E. Kautzsch).
English translation by A. E. Cowley.
BDB. Hebrew Lexicon by Brown, Driver, and Briggs.
Other works are quoted in full when first cited, and subsequent
abbreviations will be easily understood.
EVV. t for A.V. and R.V. where both agree; cpw., compared
with; the letter *t* after a numeral, as *6t,' should be read '6
tunes.' The mark f indicates that alt the passages in the O. T. where
the word or expression occurs have been cited.
In quotations R.V. is generally given ; but sometimes another
rendering has been adopted, especially in comparing passages together,
in order to make clear the extent of the similarity in the Hebrew.
INTRODUCTION TO THE
PENTATEUCH.
PART I.
The following sections contain a statement of facts con-
cerning the Pentateuch and book of Joshua, and the criticism
which has been directed towards them, which will serve as an
introduction to the investigation which follows in Part If.
i. NAMES AND TITLES.
THE tripartite division 1 of the Jewish Canon into the Law,
the Prophets, and the Writings indicates three stages in the
1 Thi> division is as follows:
i. The Law, or Tordh, comprising Genesis Deuteronomy.
t. The Prophets, or N e bh7im\ which are divided into
(</) the Former Prophets, comprising Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
Kings,
(6) the Latter Prophets, comprising Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and the Twelve Minor prophets (Hosea Malachi),
reckoned as forming one book.
3. The Writings or K*thubim (Hagiographa), comprising
(a) Psalms, Proverbs, Job.
(6) The five Rolls, or M'zilloth, viz. Song of Songs, Ruth,
Lamentations, Ecck lier.
(c) Daniel. !'./. ra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
Though MSS. and printed books present some variation in the order
of the books in division (7) and a greater variation in division (3),
C. i'. 1
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
history of its formation 1 . The five books which occupy the
first place in the Hebrew Bible, as well as in all versions of the
O.T., owe their position to the fact that they were the first books
read in public assemblies, and recognized as Canonical by the
Jews. In the English and some other modern versions they are
called 'Books of Moses,' but this description is not found in
the original Hebrew, nor in the Greek and Latin versions. The
title given to them by the Jews is Torah, or Law, because of
the legislation contained in them. The division into five books
is older than the LXX. 2 , and may have been made when the
yet ' the books belonging to one division are never (by the Jews)
transferred to another' (Professor Driver, Introduction to the Litera-
ture of the Old Testament, eighth edition, 1909, p. i).
A different arrangement of the books is found in our English Bibles.
After the Pentateuch, all the historical books are grouped together
(Joshua Esther), Ruth being placed after Judges. The poetical books
follow, arranged in accordance with the traditional view as to their
date, the three books ascribed to Solomon (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
and the Song of Solomon) being placed together. The prophets
form the last division, Lamentations being placed after Jeremiah, as
being traditionally his work, and Daniel after Ezekiel. It will be
observed that the variation of the order is caused by rearranging the
books of the second and third Jewish divisions. This order is due
to the influence of the LXX. version in which the books were re-
arranged (with the so-called apocryphal books intermixed) substantially
according to subject -matter ; first history, then poetry, lastly the
prophetical writings. This order, transmitted through the Vulgate,
is found in English and other modern versions, only with the removal
of the ' apocryphal ' books to a class by themselves.
1 The statement in the text may be verified by reference to works
on the Canon of the Old Testament (see a list in LOT 8 p. i),
especially that by the Bishop of Winchester, The Canon of the Old
Testament, second edition, 1895, who says (p. 221) 'that "the tripartite
division" gives no arbitrary grouping but is a trustworthy witness and
an invaluable memorial of the historical growth and gradual develop-
ment of the Canon.' Cf. Art. ' Canon' in DB vol. i. p. 349, and 'Old
Testament Canon' in vol. III. p. 604.
2 The LXX. translation was begun early in the 3rd century B.C.
TITLES OF THE BOOKS
Pentateuch assumed its present form. Each book was called
a homesh or 'fifth part 1 ,' and the whole Torah was called
h u mishshah hum e she thorah, 'the five fifth-parts of the law 2 .'
The Greek title, 17 irevraTcvxos (/3i'/3Xos) the five-volumed (book),
refers to the same division ; whence the Latin Pentateuchus
and the word Pentateuch in English and other modern lan-
guages.
The Hebrew, Greek, and Latin titles of the books are given
in the following table :
HEBREW
ENGLISH RENDERING
OF THE IlEBKKW
GREEK
LATIN
i. B'rcshlth
'In the beginning'
IVrr
Genesis
2. V'ellehsh'moth,
'And these are the
"E^o6os
Exodus
usually abbre-
viated to
names,' or 'Names'
Sh'moth
3. Vay-yikrd
4 And he called' A.cv(()iTiK6v
Leviticus
4. Bammidhbar
4 In the wilderness ' 'Api0/H
Numeri
5. El Uh hadd'bha.
4 These are the words,'
kfVTepovbfjiiov
Deuteronomium
rir/t, usually
or 'Words'
abbreviated to
D*bharim
The Hebrew titles consist of the opening word or words of
each book, as will be seen by comparing the English renderings
in the second column with the English versions. From the first
words of Numbers, 'And the Lord spake unto Moses in the
wilderness of Sinai,' the Hebrew word corresponding to 'in the
wilderness' has been selected as the first distinctive word, and
as descriptive of the contents of the book, but the book \v.t^
to as the second homesh in th<
Talmud, Sotah 7. 4 (21 rf, line 24 of the Kroto>chin i-dition).
- Jcrus. Talm. Smth. 10. i (28 a), KoheUth rabba on Eccl. xii. u,
in many other places, and in punted editions of the Hebrew IliMe.
I 2
4 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
also sometimes called Vay*dhabber from the first word of the
book, the English of which is 'and he spake 1 .'
The Greek translators gave a name to each book, indicating
its contents, or some important event described in it. The name
generally occurs in the Greek version. Thus Genesis (lYi/trm)
refers to the creation of the world (r. *cdo-/iov in A), and the word
is found in Gen. ii. 4; Exodus ( v E|o5o?) to the departure from
Egypt, and the word is found in Ex. xix. I ; Numbers ('Apifyioi')
to the numberings of the people, and the word is found in
Num. i. 2 ; Deuteronomy (Aeurepoi>6/ztoi>) to the law contained
in the book, and the word is found in Deut. xvii. 18. The title
1 According to Jerome in his prologue. This great Biblical scholar
and critic, after some years spent in revising the Old Latin version,
began his new translation of the O.T from the Hebrew in AD. 391, and
finished it about 404. He composed by way of preface what he styled
' a Helmed Prologue' (Prologus Galeatus), in which he gave an account
of the Canonical Scriptures of the Hebrew Bible. The exact meaning
of this remarkable phrase has been variously explained; yet it seems
tolerably certain that Jerome intended to signify that this Preface was
to be his general apology for limiting his special work to the books of
the Hebrew Canon, a limitation which would expose him to the assaults
of many in the African Churches. By slow degrees his work, variously
modified, became the ' Vulgate ' the common Version of the Latin
Churches. (Abbreviated from Westcott's Bible in the Church, p. 181.)
This preface is still printed at the beginning of ordinary editions of the
Vulgate, but in some earlier editions (e.g. that of 1498) it occupies its
original place before the books of Samuel, as prafatio in libr. Samuel
et Malachim. It is given in Excursus D to Kyle's Can. of O.T. 2 p. 299.
The part referring to the Pentateuch is as follows :
Primus apud eos liber vocatur Bresith quern nos Genesim dicimus.
Secundus Ellesmoth qui Exodus appellatur. Tertius Vajecra id est
Leviticus. Quartus Vajedabber quern Numeros vocamus. Quintus
Elleaddabarim qui Deuteronomium praenotatur. Hi sunt quinque libri
Mosi quos proprie Thorath id est legem appellant.
Jerome himself describes his prologue as follows : Hie prologus
Scripturarum, quasi galealum principium omnibus libris, quos de
Hebraeo vertimus in Latiuum, convenire potest.
TITLES OF THE BOOKS 5
of the third book, Leviticus, has been chosen with a view to
describe the ordinances contained in it, but these ordinances
apply mainly to priests, and there is no mention of Levi or
Levites in the book. The name given to it by Jewish writers,
Torath Koh a nim, ' the priests' law,' is more appropriate.
The Latin names are transliterations of the Greek. The title
of the third book in Greek is a neuter adjective, and some MSS.
give the Latin name Leviticum^ but the masculine form of the
adjective (suggesting 'liber' as the unexpressed substantive) has
been generally adopted. A transliteration of the name of the
fourth book 1 occurs in Tertullian 2 , but by the time of Cyprian it
has been replaced by the translation Numeri. The fifth book
preserves in Latin the neuter form of the Greek,
The English names are identical with the Latin for the first
three books, but following the example of the Latin, Numeri is
translated ' Numbers,' and the ending of Deuteronomium is
modified 3 .
Besides the Hebrew titles given in the table, other expres-
sions are used by Jewish writers to denote certain books or
portions of books. Torath Kotfnim as a name for Leviticus has
already been mentioned. Deuteronomy is often referred to as
Mtshneh Tordh, 'repetition of the law,' and the Greek Afvrfpovo-
piov expresses the same idea 4 . According to Origen, quoted in
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. vi. 25, the Hebrew name of Numbers was
in, which seems to represent homesh \Jiap\ftqudim b ,
1 A variation in the order of the books may be noted : Melito,
i .eontius, and the Cheltenham list reverse the common order of Leviticus
:ml NiimUT.-,. Swcte, Jntr. to O.T. in Greek, p. 326, and Sanday,
Stitdiii Biblica, III. p. 241.
2 adv. Mariioium, IV. 23, referring to the Nazirite vow (Num. vi.),
and IV 28, referring to Balaam (Num. xxii. xxiv.), as 'in Arithn
8 In German Bibles the Latin nani'.--. arc unaltered; in 1-ieneh Bibles
the Latin endings are dropped, as ' Exode,' ' Deuterunome ' ; and
'Noinbrcs' is a translation.
4 See note B at end of this section p. 8.
5 So 111 the Mishnah, Joma vii. i, whcie Num. xxix. 7 is iclcnxd
6 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
i.e. 'the fifth-part [of the law] of [i.e. relating to] the numbered
ones.' This title, like the Greek, refers to the numbering of the
children of Israel.
Philo speaks repeatedly of the Pentateuch as 'the Legisla-
tion'; and in one passage 1 he quotes Josh. ii. 11 as included in
this title. He also frequently refers to the Pentateuch as 'the
Law,' and in one passage 2 as 'the Laws.'
For other titles see the lists in Prof. Swete's Introduction to
the O.T. in Greek, pp. 198216, and Bp Kyle's Philo and Holy
Scripture, p. xixff., and Can. of O.T. 2 Excursus D and E and
p. 306.
NOTE A. THE NAME HEXATEUCH.
The book of Joshua is the first in the second division of the
Hebrew Canon. But though this arrangement draws a very
definite line between the book of Joshua and those that precede
it, a close connexion both in structure and subject matter exists
between them. The first stage in the history of God's dealings
with His chosen people ends with their settlement in the
Promised Land, rather than with the death of Moses. The
promise is made to Abraham 'To thy seed will I give this land'
(Gen. xii. 7) and frequently repeated to him and his descendants
in the book of Genesis. \ The rest of the Pentateuch records the
development of the nation, and its discipline preparatory to
entering the Land. This record is incomplete without the book
of Joshua in which the fulfilment of the promises is recorded.
'People and Land are the two leading ideas which beginning
in Genesis are never lost sight of till they culminate in Joshua.
Hence instead of the Greek name Pentateuch given to the Five
Books, modern critics have adopted the name Hexateuch for the
Six Books including the book of Joshua 3 .'
to as DHIpSn &&\rh& "IW31, 'And on the tenth' (the first Heb.
word of xxix. 7) belonging to the fifth-part of the numbered ones, i.e.
of the book Numbers.
i De Migrat. Abrah. 32. 2 De Spec. Legg. i.
8 The late Bp Perowne in Camb. Comp. to the Bible, p. 93.
THE NAME HEXATEUCH
Combinations of the books of the Pentateuch with other
books of the O.T. were not unknown in the Christian Church.
The name Heptateuch was given to the first seven books of the
Bible, and these books together with the book of Ruth were
designated the Octateuch. Nestle in the Article 'Septuagint,'
DB IV. 447 note, observes : c Greek MSS. mostly count Gen.
Ruth as books i 8, as oKrartu^of ; the Latin MSS. Gen.
Judges as Heptateitchus? The eighth of the Latin lists given by
Swete, hit rod. to O. T. in Greek, p. 212, has a note after Judges
' Fiunt libri VII ver.xvTIlC 1 .' On this list see Sanday, Studia
Biblica, m. p. 222 f., and other works cited in Swete, loc. cit. and
pp. 123, 227, 346. Another list given by Turner in J. Th. S.
II. p. 239 has after Judges 'hi sunt VII libri legis quos greci
Eptatheuchos appellant...' 2 . Ambrose in his commentary on
Ps. cxviii. (cxix. Heb. and Eng.) 162, 'I rejoice at thy word, as
one that findeth great spoil,' refers to the Canonical Books as
spoil found 'sine labore meo.' 'Inveni Heptateuchum, inveni
regnorum libros....' Migne P. L. vol. XV. col. 1584.
The eighth of the Greek lists given by Swete, op. cit. p. 205,
groups together Gen. Ruth as 17 oxTUTfvxot ; and the ninth,
p. 206, from Lagarde, Septuagintastudien, II. p. 60, has in a
separate line after the Pentateuch and Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
TAof TTJS oKTaTfi/xov. Another list (/. Th. S. II. p. 238) has after
Gen. Ruth, 'hii libri vin habent versus numero XXI CCCCXIIII.'
Other versions as the Armenian and Ethiopic have traces of the
same grouping. No ancient precedent has yet been found for
the name Hexateuch, but a close relation between the Penta-
teuch and the book of Joshua is implied in the words of the
Talmud Xsdarim 22), ' If Israel had not sinned, they would
be reading only the five books of the Law and the book of
Joshua.' The ideal Israel has the Hexateuch for its Bible.
1 This note gives the number of verses in the Heptateuch. See
Swete, op. cit. p.
a On the Lyons old Latin Ilc^taUuch M:C/. ///. S. II. p. 305.
8 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
NOTE B. ON JEWISH TITLES OF THE BOOKS OF THE LAW.
These titles are of two kinds ; either taken from the initial
words of a book, or descriptive like the Greek titles. Which of
these two methods of naming the books is the older ? Descrip-
tive titles seem more natural, and in accordance with the general
method of naming books. The titles of the books following the
Hexateuch (Judges, Samuel, Kings) are descriptive and in the
N.T. a portion of the Torah is referred to as ' the Bush.' The
method of initial words seems more artificial ; but as it is found
in the Mishnah, it was employed at least as early as the second
century A.D. From a comparison of Origen's list, with its
descriptive title for Numbers (see p. 5), with that of Jerome
(p. 4 note), it might be inferred that initial words gradually
supplanted descriptive titles, and that the process was not
complete in Origen's time.
According to Ben Asher in Dikduke Jiatt el ainim, p. 57 (ed.
Baer and Strack), the name Sepher y*zl'ath Mizraim, i.e. the
book of the going out from Egypt, was applied to Exodus.
Philo (de Migr. Abr. 3, I. 438, Mangey's ed., 14 Wend-
land and Cohn) states that Moses gave to Exodus the title
'E^ayojy?) (a bringing out, or going out) and commends it as
suitable. Philo did not mean that Moses gave the Greek name
to the book; but 'Egaywyrj is the Greek translation of some
Hebrew title which was of sufficiently venerable antiquity to be
regarded by him as Mosaic. He may be cited as bearing
testimony to the existence of a Hebrew descriptive title for
Exodus, which was considered very ancient in his day. Was it
the same as that given above from Ben Asher? It is not pro-
bable that the Jew borrowed his descriptive titles from the Greek,
but it may be that Greek titles are due to Jewish tradition.
There are two passages in the LXX. where the word Seure/jo-
vofttov occurs: (a) Deut. xvii. 18; mishneh haltorah hazzothis
here rendered TO dein-f povopiov TOVTO. As most commentators
have pointed out, the Hebrew words must be translated 'a
JEWISH TITLES OF THE BOOKS 9
repetition (i.e. a copy) of this law,' and by 'this law,' the law
contained in the book of Deuteronomy is implied ; (6) Josh. viii.
32 (ix. 5 in cod. B) ; mishneh torath Mosheh is here rendered TO
fieurfpovo/itoi/, vopov Motvafj. Here the Hebrew words must be
translated 'a copy of the law of Moses,' and by 'the law of
Moses ' in this passage the law in the book of Deuteronomy is
implied. The LXX. rendering of both these passages is inaccu-
rate. But it may be asked, what led the LXX. translators to
coin this compound word? If the title mishneh torah, given to
the fifth book of the law in the Talmud and elsewhere, were an
old designation, then Aevrfpovopiov, which is a good rendering
of it, may have been adopted by Greek-speaking Jews as a name
of the book, and a reason for the employment of the word in
these two passages is apparent. The juxtaposition of the two
words mishneh and torah suggested the word Aeirrepoi/o/uoi/
which] was already known to them. If the LXX. translators, by
using AevrepovofjLiov in these passages, intended to make reference
to the book known to them by that name, then their translation,
though not grammatically defensible, conveys the meaning of
the original, for in both passages the law contained in the book
of Deuteronomy is referred to.
It appears then that Jewish descriptive titles of the last four
books of the Pentateuch can be traced ; and the question may
be asked, What descriptive title (if any) was given to the book
of Genesis ?
The work of Creation is often referred to in Talmudic litera-
ture as md^seh frreshith (i.e. the work (done) in the beginning 1 ),
and more briefly as Ifreshith-. Hence the book of Genesis, as
1 See Mishnah, Chagigah, ii. i. Dr Streane in his English translation
of this treatise (Camb. Univ. Press, 1891) explains how the approximate
date of passages in the Talmud, an important element in estimating its
testimony, may be determined (see Introduction, p. vii, and Glossary ;
also Strack, Einleitun ..ilniiid, ed. 4, 1908, pp. 8 1 112, and
Mielziner, Introduftion to Ike Talmud, 1903).
..ill, j> e raihoth t ix. 2, 54 a, and 59 . These benediction:, arc
probably very old.
io INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
containing the account of the Creation 1 , came to be called
B e reshtth, a title which referred to a portion of its contents as
the Greek title Genesis does, but was also the opening word of
the book. It is not improbable that a precedent was thus made
for naming other books by their initial words.
2. PLAN AND CONTENTS OF THE HEXATEUCH.
The Hexateuch in its present form contains a history of the
chosen People up to the time of their settlement in the Promised
Land. The history is not continuous ; some portions are treated
fully while others are passed over with only brief comment. It
may be summarized under the following heads 2 :
(i) The ancestors of the nation.
The book of Genesis may be regarded as an introduction,
dealing with the period before the existence of the nation. A
brief sketch of primitive history (Gen. i. xi.) serves to connect
Israel with the beginning of all things, and with the surrounding
nations of the earth. It sets forth God as the Maker and Ruler
of the world and of man, blessing the race in Adam, punishing
disobedience by driving Adam and Eve from the garden, and,
when the wickedness of man was great upon the earth, bringing
the flood upon the ungodly, but saving Noah and his family and
1 The statement in Kyle's Philo and Holy Scripture from Dr Pick,
that in Sanhedrin 62 b, and the Jerus. Talmud, Megillah ch. 7, the
history of the Creation in Genesis is called Sepher Y'zirah rests on a
mistake. The Jer. Talm. of M e gillah has no seventh chapter ; and in
Sank. 65 b (not 62 b) the reference is not to Genesis, but to a book
which the context shews was of a mystical character. The error (which
is due originally to Fiirst, Kanon des A.T.^. 5) was pointed out by
Blau, Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, 1894, p. 47. It is doubtful
whether the book Genesis was ever called Sepher y e zirah.
2 As the introduction to each book will contain a full analysis of its
contents, it will be sufficient to indicate here the main outlines of the
whole.
CONTENTS OF THE HEXATEUCH u
making through him a covenant with all mankind. A list of
foreign nations known to the Hebrews is given in the form of
a genealogical table of the descendants of Shem, Ham and
Japheth. Another table from Shem to Abraham connects the
ancestor of the chosen race with the family that survived the
flood, and the pedigree is further traced upwards to Adam in
the genealogy of ch. v. From Gen. xii. the history is confined
to the family from which the nation was to spring, 'when there
were yet but a few of them, and they sojourners in the land'
(Ps. cv. 12): the lives of Abraham and Isaac, the chequered
career of Jacob, the exaltation of Joseph, and the circumstances
which led to the migration of Jacob and his family to Egypt,
fill up the remainder of the book.
(2) The deliverance of the nation.
The book of Exodus begins with a list of Jacob's sons who
came down with him into Egypt, repeating part of the list
already given in Gen. xlvi., and takes up the narrative at
Joseph's death (i. 6, cf. Gen. 1.). The growth of the nation from
threescore and ten (Gen. xlvi. 27, Exod. i. 5) to a people that
filled the land is passed .over in a few words (i. 7). The nar-
rative again becomes detailed in describing the oppression of
the children of Israel under the new king (i. 8 22), and the
events leading to their deliverance; the birth of Moses and his
preservation, his commission to lead forth the people, God's
revelation of Himself as Jehovah, and the plagues which follow
upon Pharaoh's refusal to let the people go (chs. ii. xi.).
Regulations for celebrating the Passover and the Feast of
Unleavened Cakes and for the dedication of the first-born
follow, and on the death of the first-born, the children of Israel
went out of Egypt in 'that night of the Lord to be observed of
all the children of Israel throughout their generations' (xii.).
Pharaoh pursued after them, but the Egyptians were overthrown
in the midst of the sea (xiv.), and Moses and the children of
. sang unto the Lord the triumph song over Pharaoh,
his chariots and his host \^xv. I 21;.
12 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
(3) The instruction of the nation.
The narrative goes on to relate how the children of Israel
after their deliverance were led to Sinai, and while they were
encamped there for nearly a year (cf. Exod. xix. i with Num.
x. u), laws for the present and future guidance of the nation
were imparted. The Decalogue (Heb. The Ten Words, Deut.
iv. 13, x. 4) was first given, followed by a collection of laws
partly religious partly civil (Exod. xx. xxiii.), and instructions
for preparing the Ark, the Tabernacle and its vessels, for
inaugurating the priesthood, and for offering sacrifices (xxv.
xxxi.). Further precepts (mostly of a ceremonial character) are
found in Leviticus and Num. i. x. 10; and after leaving Sinai
(Num. x. u, 12, 29), supplementary laws are issued at intervals
during the journey (xv., xviii., xix.). When the children of
Israel 'pitched in the plains of Moab' (xxii. i), further enact-
ments about offerings and vows (xxviii. xxx.), the cities of
refuge (xxxv.), and the inheritance of daughters (xxvii., xxxvi.)
are recorded. The book of .Deuteronomy contains another
code of laws (Deut. v. xxvi.) said to have been promulgated
(Deut. i. 3, 5) by Moses in the nth month of the 4oth year,
just before his death (Deut. xxxiv.). "
To the body of legislation contained in the Pentateuch the
Jews gave the name Tor ah, and that name was transferred to
the whole Pentateuch. The primary meaning of the word Torah
being instruction or decision imparted by prophet or priest, the
legal enactments of the Pentateuch may be designated as ' the
instruction of the nation.'
(4) The discipline of the nation.
The forty years in the wilderness are described as a period of
probation appointed * to humble thee and to prove thee, to know
what was in thine heart whether thou wouldest keep his com-
mandments, or no ' (Deut. viii. 2). The record of the journey
from the Red Sea to Sinai is found in Exod. xv. 22 xix., and of
the journey from Sinai to the steppes of Moab on the Eastern
side cf Jordan in Num. x. 29 xxii. i.
CONTENTS OF THE HEXATEUCH 13
(5) The victories of the nation.
(a) On the East of the Jordan. As soon as the children of Israel
cross the Arnon they enter on territory which is afterwards
allotted to them, and the career of conquest begins with the
victories over Sihon and Og the two kings of the Amorites.
The description of the campaign is found in Num. xxi. 21 35,
arid (in words borrowed largely from Numbers) in Deut. ii. 24
iii. ii.
() On the West of the Jordan. The campaign on the Western
side begins with the taking of Jericho and Ai. The Gibeonites
by craft succeed in making a league with the children of Israel,
and Joshua, coming to their rescue in fulfilment of the oath
sworn to them, defeats the kings of the South. A combination
of northern kings is put to flight by Joshua at the waters of
Merom. These victories are recorded in Josh. vi. xii.
(6) The settlement of the nation.
The assignment by Moses of the territory on the East of the
Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of
Manasseh is related in Num. xxxii. and Deut. iii. 12 17, and is
referred to in Josh. i. 12 18, xii. 6. Before the land on the
West is divided among the tribes, Joshua gives Caleb the portion
promised to him by Moses because he 'wholly followed the Lord
his God' when sent to spy out the land (Josh, xiv 6 15, which
refers to the accounts in Num. xiii., xiv. and Deut. i. 19 40).
The borders and cities of the lot assigned to Judah are then
described (xv.), and the borders of the sons of Joseph, Ephraim
and Manasseh (xvi., xvii.). Reference is again made to the
inheritance of Manasseh on the East of the Jordan, and the
commands of Moses with regard to the daughters of Zelophehad
are carried out (xvii. 3 6, with reference to Num. xxvii. i ii,
xxxvi. i 12). The remaining seven tribes receive their inherit-
ance at Shiloh, and the city of Timnath-serah is assigned to
Joshua (xviii., xix.). With the appointment of the six cities of
, and 48 cities for the Levites (xx., xxi., with reference to
14 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Num. xxxv.), the work of allotment is finished, and the two and
a half tribes, having fulfilled the conditions on which they
received their land, are sent back with a blessing to take
possession of it (xxii.). To this account of the division of
Western Palestine (chs. xvi. xxii.) is prefixed in ch. xiii. a de-
scription of the territory already assigned on the East of the
Jordan, thereby completing the survey of the whole land allotted
to the children of Israel.
The two remaining chapters of the book of Joshua (xxiii.,
xxiv.) contain Joshua's parting addresses to the people with an
account of the covenant made by him with the people, and short
notices of the death of Joshua, and of Eleazar, and of the burial
of Joseph's bones at Shechem. This last notice (xxiv. 32, with
which compare Gen. 1. 24, 25, Exod. xiii. 19) and the frequent
references, during the account of the settlement, to the injunc-
tions contained in the Pentateuch, especially those in Deutero-
nomy, illustrate the close connexion in subject matter between
the book of Joshua and the earlier books.
Some general remarks on the history may be made here :
1. It is a religious history, not a bare chronicle of events,
but the record of God's gracious purpose for Israel and of the
means whereby He brought it to pass.
2. Though the record is mainly a history of the chosen
people, a wider horizon is opened out in the introductory
chapters of Genesis (i. xi.). Here the Ruler of the world is
shewn as the same God who revealed Himself to the patriarchs
as God Almighty (El Shaddai\ and to Moses as Jehovah.
Certain methods of His dealing with Israel are foreshadowed
in this primitive history.
(a) The method of selection. The first contrast in the Bible
is between Cain and Abel. God chose the sacrifice of the one,
and rejected that of the other. He chose Noah as the righteous
man in his generation, and preserved him and his family from
destruction. The same method of working is illustrated at each
stage in the patriarchal history; Abraham from the family of
CHARACTER OF CONTENTS
Terah, Isaac the child of promise from the family of Abraham,
and Jacob from the family of Isaac, are chosen as inheritors of
the promise.
(b] The method of deliverance. Selection is with a view to
rescue from evil, or, in other words, the election is of grace. God
is set forth as the Saviour of Noah and his family from perishing
by the waters of the flood ; Jacob gratefully refers to 'the Angel
which redeemed me from all evil' (Gen. xlviii. 16) ; Joseph
points out to his brethren that their conduct towards him was
overruled by God to preserve them a posterity in the earth, and
to save them by a great deliverance (xlv. 7). The central fact of
the history is the deliverance from Egypt. And when at the
close of the journeyings Balak sent and called Balaam to curse
the people, the Lord delivered them out of his hand (Num. xxii.
xxiv., Josh. xxiv. 10). The Lord defends His people 'in all
dangers ghostly and bodily.'
(c) The method of the covenant. When Noah and his
family again tread on dry ground after being preserved in the
Ark, God makes a covenant with Noah and his seed after him.
A covenant is also established with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
with the nation at Sinai, and again in the land of Moab. And
the covenant is with promise. That with Noah contained the
promise that God would no more destroy all flesh (Gen. ix. 15),
that with Abraham the promise 'To thy seed will I give this
land' (Gen. xii. 7), a promise renewed at intervals in the history
of the patriarchs and of the nation (xxviii. 13, xxxv. 12; Exod.
iii. 8, 17, vi. 8). Consequently
3. The history is one of expectation. It is always looking
forward to the fulfilment of the promise. Abraham's purchase
of the cave for a burying place (Gen. xxiii.), Jacob's enti
'bury me not in Egypt but let me lie with my fathers,' and
Joseph's commandment concerning his bones, rest on the belief
that God would bring them to the land which he promised to
Abraham to Isaac and to Jacob (cf. Gen. xlvii. 30, xlviii. 21,
1. 24, 25; licb. xi. 22).
16 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
4. The history shews a unity of purpose. It sets forth God
as 'always mindful of his covenant and promise that he made to
a thousand generations' (Ps. cv. 8). He hears the cry of His
people in their affliction, and comes down to deliver them (Exod.
iii. 7, 8). He bears them as on eagles' wings (Exod. xix. 4;
Deut. xxxii. II 14) from their infancy to their full growth as
a nation, and plants them in the land that they may do Him
service. In the words of the Psalmist;
*He remembered his holy word,
And Abraham his servant.
And he brought forth his people with joy,
And his chosen with singing.
And he gave them the lands of the nations ;
And they took the labour of the peoples in possession:
That they might keep his statutes,
And observe his laws.' (Ps. cv. 42 45.)
The last verse brings into prominence the purpose of the
history. Those for whom such great things have been done
should 'keep his statutes, and observe his laws.' The purpose
of the choice and call of Abraham is set forth in Gen. xviii. 19
(R.V.) 'I have known him, to the end that he may command his
children and his household after him, that they may keep the
way of the Lord....' The picture of God entering into covenant
with the patriarchs, and mindful of His covenant delivering His
people with a mighty hand and stretched out arm, is drawn in
order to awaken trust and love in the hearts of the people.
Moses at the close of the journeyings after reminding the
Israelites how God had led them from the land of Egypt to the
banks of the Jordan, puts the question 'And now, Israel, what
doth the Lord thy God require of thee?' (Deut. x. 12), and the
answer there given may be summed up in the words fear, love,
and service. And in the last chapter of the book of Joshua, the
leader who has brought the people into the land, after reviewing
their past history from Abraham, concludes with the solemn
appeal ; ' Choose you this day whom ye will serve' (Josh. xxiv. 1 5).
The question and the challenge are addressed not only to Israel
CHARACTER OF CONTKN 17
in the plains of Moab, and at Shechem, but to every Israelite
not only to their forefathers whose eyes had seen the wonders of
the Lord, but to the children yet unborn who should arise to tell
them to their children :
'That they might set their hope in God,
And not forget the works of God,
But keep his commandments.' (Ps. Ixxviii. 6, 7.)
The Hexateuch is a sacred history, told for the instruction
in righteousness of succeeding generations. It contains the
promise of the land made to the fathers, and the history of the
people until the fulfilment of the promise, together with statutes
and judgements to guide them in the land of their inheritance.
The history is recorded to stimulate obedience to the law.
3. THE ORIGIN OF THE HEXATEUCH.
Is this unity of purpose shewn in the Hexateuch due to unity
of authorship? The answer to this question until comparatively
recent times has been generally in the affirmative. Moses, the
great leader and lawgiver, was regarded as the author of the
Pentateuch 1 . For the patriarchal and earlier period, it was said,
he had recourse to documents and tradition ; the rest is a record
of events with which he himself was closely connected of the
work which in obedience to the Divine commands he under-
took on behalf of Israel. The laws are inserted in this record
in the order in which they were communicated ; at Sinai, in
the desert, and in the plains of Moab. The last chapter of
Deuteronomy which relates the death of Moses was from the
hand of Joshua his successor, who continued the history of the
Israelites up to the time of their settlement in the land.
But for more than 150 years, and especially during th
century, the authorship of UK- Hc\.it<-wh has been one of the
foremost problems in O.T. research, and a numerous array of
workers have minutely examined (lie I'entutrurh and book of
Joshua with a view to find out what evidence the books thein-
1 Compare the beginning of the next section, p. 25.
C. P. 2
i8 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
selves afford as to their origin, their literary character, and
the time when they were written. The opinion that the
narrative contained in them is composite, and that the laws
which are inserted in the narrative belong to successive stages
in the development of the Jewish nation, has been steadily
gaining ground and is now held by a large and increasing
number of scholars both in Europe and America. It has been
expressed by W. Robertson Smith (The Old Testament in the
Jewish Church, 2nd edition, 1892, p. 313) as follows: 'Mosaic
Law is not held to exclude post-Mosaic developments. That
the whole law is the Law of Moses does not necessarily imply
that every precept was developed in detail in his days, but only
that the distinctive law of Israel owes to him the origin and
principles in which all detailed precepts are implicitly contained.
The development into explicitness of what Moses gave in prin-
ciple is the work of continuous Divine teaching in connexion
with new historical situations.'
It is sufficient to indicate here in broad outline these two
diverging views. The fact of the divergence necessitates further
enquiry. In the following section a brief historical sketch of
Hexateuch criticism will be given, but a few remarks may be
made here, by way of introduction, on what is meant by
criticism.
Criticism consists in a discriminating use of facts ; it collects
and classifies them, and draws inferences from them when
classified. The range of criticism is more extended when
applied to an ancient book, written centuries before the invention
of printing and preserved in manuscript, than when applied to
a modern printed book. Questions arise as to the 'text and
authorship of ancient books which are definitely settled in
modern books by the title-page and author's preface. The
definition of criticism as 'the critical science which deals with
the text, character, composition, and origin of literary documents
especially those of the Old and New Testaments' (Murray's
New English Dictionary, s.v. criticism) recognizes this wider
field of enquiry as necessary for ancient documents.
The first care of the critic is for the text. When there is but
TEXTUAL AND HIGHER CRITICISM 19
one MS. in existence 1 , his task is limited to suggesting emenda-
tions where the text is corrupt. Most ancient works have been
preserved in more than one manuscript, and the labour of the
critic becomes more arduous, according to the number and
character of the MSS. which he has to examine. Many and
peculiar difficulties T)eset the Old Testament critic in his en-
deavour to ascertain the true text, especially of passages which
are obviously corrupt. His difficulties, and his method of pro-
cedure, cannot be here described, but the reader who desires
further information may consult Buhl, Kanon und Text des
Alten Testamentes, an English translation of which was pub-
lished in 1892 ; A short history of the Hebrew Text of the Old
Testament by T. H. Weir, 1899 ; and Prof. Burkitt's Art. on
Text and Versions in Enc. Bib. vol. IV. p. 501 1 f.
The criticism described in these books has been designated
Textual Criticism, while the investigation which concerns the
literary character, composition, and origin of the books has
been distinguished by the name of Higher Criticism. The
term was first employed with reference to the books of the Old
Testament by Eichhorn 2 . In the Preface to the second edition
of his Introduction he says :
' I have been obliged to bestow the greatest amount of labour
on a hitherto entirely unworked field, the investigation of the
inner constitution of the particular writings of the Old Testa-
ment, by the aid of the Higher Criticism (a new name to no
Humanist).'
His description of 'the higher criticism' as 'a new name
to no Humanist' shews that he was introducing no novelty, but
investigating the character and composition of the books of
the Old 1 by a method already known to cla>
1 The Annals of Tacitus ai< in one MS. Sec the account
md publication by Pope Leo X. in Jcbb, /
Addresses, \>.
a Author of Einleilung in das A.T. which was published i;
and pa>M-d through several editions, the List being dated 1823-4. He
died in is 27. References are to the third edition of 1803.
22
20 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
students. At the same time he refers to himself as labouring
' in a field which has hitherto been unworked.' The method
was not new, but the application of it to the books of the Old
Testament was attempted for the first time by Eichhorn. In
another place he describes the Higher Criticism as distin-
guishing between the writers, characterizing each by his own
method and diction, favourite expressions and other peculiari-
ties (vol. II. 424, p. 330). These words shew clearly the func-
tion of the higher criticism as conceived by the first Biblical
critic who employed the phrase.
Though the term 'higher criticism' is not often used, the
method is applied in dealing with other kinds of literature.
The Dialogues of Plato, for example is it possible by internal
evidence to ascertain their historical order ? Many efforts have
been made to determine a chronological succession, and diffe-
rent theories have been propounded: the problem is one of
'higher criticism.' The Metaphysics of Aristotle suggest many
difficult questions. By whom was the book arranged in its
present form, by Aristotle or by others ? Does it form a con-
secutive and continuous treatise ? The Nicomachean Ethics
V. vil. agree verbally with three books of the Eudemian Ethics :
which was their original place, and how far are they directly the
work of Aristotle 1 ? (Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, i. 108,
146, and Grant's Ethics, vol. I. p. 57), The Constitution of
Athens recently discovered in papyri, is it the work of Aristotle
or not ?
Different answers have been given to these questions, and
the material at our disposal may not enable us to solve them ;
but they are all problems of higher criticism, and are questions
which it is legitimate to endeavour to solve. And in the field
of Biblical research similar questions arise : the Epistle to the
Hebrews, is it S. Paul's or not? (Notice the beginnings of
higher criticism in Origen's remarks (Euseb. H. E. VI. 25) :
'That this Epistle is purer Greek in the composition of its
1 A similar question arises with respect to 2 Kings xviii. 13 xx. and
Isai. xxxvi. xxxix.
HIGHER CRITICISM 21
phrases, every one will confess who is able to discern the
difference of style.') The resemblances and differences in the
accounts of the same discourses and events in the Synoptic
Gospels how are they to be accounted for? The second
Epistle of St Peter and the Epistle of Jude have remarkable
similarities: which is the borrower? Are these and questions
as to date and authorship of books of the Old Testament to be
treated differently from those problems of classical literature
which have been mentioned ? They are akin in character and
should be treated alike. Such was Eichhorn's opinion when he
applied the 'higher criticism' to all the books of the Old Testa-
ment in his Introduction.
Words and phrases often 'lose the precision of their first
employment 1 .' Their original meaning is forgotten or unheeded,
and a new and improper sense is assigned to them. So the
term 'higher criticism' has been understood not as a criticism
dealing with higher and more difficult problems, but as a higher
and intensified form of criticism with an implied sense of supe-
riority. When thus misunderstood, it has provoked hostile
comment as being arrogant and ambitious. It has been con-
fused with historical criticism, and also with speculative ques-
tions as to the origin of religious beliefs in Israel, and the
extent to which surrounding nations may have influenced their
development. Such questions lie beyond the province of 'higher
criticism' ; and many of the objections raised against the higher
criticism are due to misconceptions of its scope and purpose.
Its real function is (as has already been stated) to determine
the origin, date, and literary structure of the books of the Bible
by the same methods as those applied to any ancient document.
The problems with which it deals are literary problems ; and
the investigations are based on material found in the Bible
itself 2 .
1 Trench, English past and />rfs< //.', loth ed. p. 300.
8 The statement in the text i.j.ly that the critic is debarred
/data in ad lition to those contained in the
Dible. The allu- i. hi. 8 to No-amuu (Thcbe.->) Jixes a terminus
22 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Most books when carefully examined will furnish the enquirer
with material for determining the age in which they were written.
An enquiry of this nature is unnecessary when (as in nearly all
modern printed books) the author is clearly indicated ; but
ancient books preserved in manuscript are often without any
certificate of origin corresponding to the modern title-page and
author's preface. If an author's name appears on the manu-
script, it may have been put there by the transcriber of the
manuscript, or by some later owner or reader. The manuscript
itself will bear witness to the transcriber's qualifications as a
scribe, but further enquiry must be made in order to estimate
rightly the value of his testimony about the author. In such
cases the evidence of the book itself becomes of primary import-
ance. What modern criticism demands is that due weight
should be given to this internal evidence, to the witness which
a book bears of itself 1 .
When this claim is made with reference to the books of the
O.T., it is regarded by many with suspicion because associated
a quo for the date of the prophecy which is supplied by Assyrian annals.
The mention of Dan in Gen. xiv. 14 can be supplemented by a refe-
rence (in this case to the Bible) to Judg. xviii. 29 (see p. 41). The
expression 'the witness which a book bears of itself ' used at the end
of the following paragraph does not exclude evidence furnished by com-
parison of the book with other data. Thus in the case of the Decretals,
and the Epistles of Phalaris (referred to in the following note), the bulk
of the evidence consists in the use of historical data supplied from
other works: e.g. in the Epistles of Phalaris a city is mentioned which
was not built until after the time of Phalaris. The criticism in all these
instances is based on statements in the text of the work criticized, but
the critic uses all data at his disposal in elucidating the text, and
drawing inferences as to the date and origin of the work.
1 As illustrations of the employment of this internal evidence, the
reader may be referred to the controversy about the so-called Isidorian
Decretals, and to the famous essay of Bentley on the Epistles of Phalaris.
See the article in Smith's Diet, of Christian Antiquities on Decretals,
Prof. Bury's review of Fournier Etude sur les fausses Dtcretales, in the
Journal of Th. Stud., Oct. 1907, p. 102, and J ebb's Life of Bentley.
HIGHER CRITICISM 23
with (i) speculations relating to the origin of religious beliefs in
Israel, or (2) certain assumptions (such as the improbability of
miracles or prophecy) which prejudge the question in a sense
hostile to the generally accepted belief of Jews and Christians,
or because (3) some leaders of the modern critical school are of
opinion that the religious development of Israel was a natural
one, and may be explained without any assumption of divine
revelation. But it is sufficient to note in answer to (i) that
speculation of this sort, as has been already said, has nothing to
do with higher criticism ; in answer to (2) that the strength of
any argument can be tested, and if vitiated by an d priori
assumption, its weakness can be exposed ; and in answer to (3)
that in order to test any special exercise of criticism, one must
put the question, Is the inference sound ? does it afford a satis-
factory explanation of the facts? The further question, Is the
critic orthodox? is irrelevant. That it should be put at all is
due to confusion between testimony and argument. Testimony
is personal, argument is independent of person. It is right
to enquire about the character of a witness before accepting his
testimony ; an argument, whether advanced by friend or foe,
must be weighed and answered. The strength and value of an
argument does not depend upon the character of him who pro-
duces it 1 .
The remarks of Robertson Smith (OT/C 2 , p. 314) on the
service done by scholars indifferent to the religious value of the
Bible should be read. His conclusion may be given here: ' It
is easier to correct the errors of a rationalism with which we
have no sympathy, than to lay aside prejudices deeply interwoven
with our most cherished and truest convictions.'
Sound criticism, from whatever quarter it may proceed,
contributes towards the establishment of truth ; when applied
1 In The Problem of the O. T. \ *r < >rr agrees (p. 15) in theory with
cw here set forth, but in practice In.- it, lx>th in his
:>ter, and on other occasion* in the course of his work.
P. 1013, *7 I( / J !lulc '
24 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
to the Bible, it can only bring out into stronger relief the Divine
message contained in it 1 .
1 The reader may consult the three papers on the Higher Criticism
by Dr Driver and Dr Kirkpatrick, reprinted together in 1905, for
further information on the aims and methods of the Higher Criticism.
Also an article by Dr Driver in the Contemporary Review, Feb. 1890,
reprinted as No. 21 of Essays for the Times, London, F. Griffiths, with
a useful list of books bearing on the critical study of the O. T., among
which Dr Briggs' General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture
may be especially mentioned.
Although the terms textual, literary, and historical indicate three
main divisions of criticism which are generally recognized, it should be
pointed out that in some cases it is difficult to draw a sharp line
between them. In textual criticism cases occur in which an appeal is
made even against the reading of all documents (Westcott and Hort,
Introduction to the New Testament 85 92 and pp. 279 282, and
note the remark 'The question which these passages raise is rather
literary than textual' p. 282). In literary criticism it is not easy to
separate the form from the matter. In investigating the authorship of
Isaiah, the theology of the different parts must be considered ; the reie-
rences to the exile and the mention of Cyrus are facts to be weighed ;
and some would hesitate before deciding whether parts 01 the investi-
gation should be assigned to the literary or historical department of
criticism. In examining the laws contained in the Pentateuch, progress
and difference of date may be inferred without bringing in any historical
reference. Is such an examination literary or historical ?
Some would understand by historical criticism an enquiry into the
credibility of the document under examination, and an estimate of its
value as a contribution to history. Others use the term in a wider
sense. The history of Hexateuch criticism traced in the following sec-
tion will shew two distinct lines of investigation one which aimed at
separating documents, another which endeavoured to arrange them in
chronological order. These two lines of investigation have been dis-
tinguished as the literary method, and the historical method, and they
are so designated in the following section. But the reader who con-
sults the works there referred to will find that sometimes the same
writer will employ arguments both of a literary and of a historical
character.
A HISTORICAL SKETCH 25
r HEXATEUCH CRITICISM.
i. Early Jewish and Christian writers. For some time
before the Christian era, the opinion that Moses was the author
of the Pentateuch was generally accepted. In the i st century A.D.
Philo, who flourished in the first half of that period, ' ascribes
to the Pentateuch the highest degree of Divine authority, and in
honour of Moses as the writer of the Sacred Books and as the
prophet-founder of the Israelite Law he lavishes every variety of
eulogy' (Ryle, Philo and Holy Scripture, p. xvii, where passages
in illustration are quoted). Josephus, whose works were com-
posed in the latter half of the century, in his account of the
books of the O.T. (Against Apion, I. 8), puts in the first place
'five books of Moses.' The writers of the N.T. refer to the 'law
of Moses,' introduce passages from the Pentateuch with the
words 'Moses wrote,' and shew by these and similar expressions
that they followed the commonly accepted opinion of their age.
Christian writers of succeeding generations followed Jewish
tradition with respect to the authorship oi different books ot the
O.T., so that the five books oi the Law were received as 'Books
of Moses' in the Christian Church.
Along with this acceptance of Mosaic authorship is found a
stream of ecclesiastical tradition which ascribes to Ezra an
important work in restoring the books of the O.T. This
tradition 1 , probably founded on the passage in 4 Esdras xiv.
39 ff. (2 Esdras in A.V. and R.V.)' J , is generally expressed in
words which imply that Ezra, by a Divine illumination 01 his
memory, re-wrote the books which had been destroyed (burnt,
:i) at the time of the captivity 3 . Some fathers (e.g.
Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i. 21, 22) attribute to Ezra
a full discussion, see Ryle, Can. o/O. 7 1 . 2 , Excursus A, pp. 750 ff.,
LOT*, pp. iv ff., and Robertson Smith, 07/C 3 , p. 151.
2 The book is generally assigned to the close of the first century A.D.
8 According to 4 Esdras xiv. he re-wrote also apocryphal books,
to which the writer attaches a higher value than to the Canonical
books!
26 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
a renovation as well as a re-writing of the sacred scriptures.
To what extent the view of Mosaic authorship was modified in
certain phases of this tradition is not clear. No attempt was
made to distinguish between the work of Moses and that of
Ezra; nor did the doubts raised by a few writers 1 in early
Christian times materially affect the prevailing opinion that
Moses was the author of the five books of the Law.
ii. The first questionings. Jewish writers of the middle
ages drew attention to certain passages in the Pentateuch which
seemed to be of post- Mosaic date N In the first part of the twelfth
century, Ibn Ezra (tn67), commenting on the words 'The \
Canaanite was then in the land' (Gen. xii. 6, xiii. 7) observes,
* It appears that Canaan had already taken the land of Canaan
from others.' Apparently he is not satisfied with this explana-
tion, for he adds, * but if it is not so, I have a secret, but the
prudent man will keep quiet.' His meaning is obvious. The
words 'The Canaanite was then in the land' are those of a
.writer who lived when the Canaanite was no longer in the land*
From Josh. xvi. 10, Judg. i. 27 33, 2 Sam. xxiv. 7, I Ki. ix. 16,
it appears that the Canaanites remained in parts of the land till
the time of Solomon. Ibn Ezra suggests 4hST this comment
must be assigned to a period later than that of Solomon*. But-
he knows how dangerous it is to incur the suspicion of hetero-
doxy, and contents himself with putting forth a riddle, the
solution of which he leaves- to the reader.
His caution was justified ; for the above remark and a few
others expressed in the same cryptic manner drew from one of
his Jewish brethren the remark, 'may melted gold be poured
into his mouth 2 .' As with the synagogue so with the Church:
to impugn tradition was perilous in both, for the time of free
speech was not yet.
The intellectual movement of the I5th century, called the
Renaissance, or the Revival of Learning, did not at first concern
1 For details see Oxf. Hex., vol. I. ch. iii. p. 21, and Holzinger,
Einleitung in den Hexateuch, p. 25.
2 Holzinger, Einkiiung, p. 29.
THE PRELIMINARY STAGE 27
itself with the problem of the Pentateuch. Its chief work was
to bring within reach of the student, through the agency of the
printing press, .what had hitherto been locked up in libraries or
possessed only by men of wealth. Besides the literature of
ancient Greece and Rome, the Bible 1 in Latin, Hebrew, and
Greek was by this means rendered accessible, and also the
writings of some of the Fathers. The claim to include Hebrew
in the rapidly widening area of knowledge had hardly been
conceded, when Europe became agitated by the controversies
of the Reformation 2 . Attention was now mainly directed
towards the struggle, both doctrinal and political, between
Catholic and Protestant. Occasionally during the i6th, and
more frequently during the following century, the Pentateuch
was examined with the view of finding in it some testimony
with respect to its origin.
The criticism of this period was mainly negative. Ibn Ezra's
objections were repeated, and others of a similar character were
brought forward, but little that proved to be of permanent value
was suggested. This stage of the enquiry may be described as
preliminary ; the traditional belief had been questioned, and the
need of further investigation became evident.
iii. The beginnings of -criticism. Simon and Astnic. The
first positive contribution of criticism towards the solution of
the problem was made by Father Simon, a priest of the Oratory
Histoirc critique dtt Vienx Testament, 1678, an English trans-
lation of which was published 1682). He drew attention to the
existence of duplicate > YYWff/if cj thf, xam* i**nt in the book of
Genesis, and in illustration referred to
1 The munificence of Cardinal Ximencs, in providing the first
Polyglott Bible 1502-17, anl his efforts to secure the best Hebrew text,
deserve grateful commemoration.
3 Reuchlin, generally regarded as the founder of the modern study
of Hcbn-w, published his Rudiment^ ifl 1506, and the year
1516. when the attem; procure his condemnation
may be n. r of triumph for Hebrew scholarship.
Luthci vie publish
28 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Creation (i. ii. 4 ; ii. 4 25). He also pointed out the composite
character of chs. vi. ix., containing the account of the Flood.
' It is probable,' says he, ' that if only one author had composed
this work, he would have expressed himself in fewer words,
especially in a History.' He inferred that in these chapters
the work of two authors could be traced. His remark about
difference of style, 'Sometimes we find a very curt style, and
sometimes a copious one,' suggests a field of investigation which
has been diligently worked over by subsequent critics. He has
been called 'the founder of modern Biblical criticism,' and justly
deserves remembrance under this title; for his two literary tests,
(a) the existence of duplicate accounts, (b) diversity of style, have
since his time been applied to the whole Pentateuch and to the
book of Joshua, as well as to other books of the O.T.
Such an extended application of these tests was made neither
by Simon nor by his immediate successors ; and three quarters
of a century elapsed before another Frenchman 1 attempted the
solution of the problem by a different method.
In 1753, a Roman Catholic physician, by name Astruc, pub-
lished a work entitled ''Conjectures sur les Memoires originaux
dont il paroit que Moyse s'est servi pour composer le Livre de
1 The nationalities of the earlier critics deserve notice. England
and Germany are hardly represented ; the controversy is carried on
chiefly by natives of France and Holland. The majority of them are
Roman Catholics ; the most daring and outspoken Spinoza was a
Jew. Among Englishmen, Hobbes is the only name of note ; at the
close of the i8th century Geddes, a Scottish Roman Catholic priest,
published The Holy Bible... translated... with various readings, explan-
atory notes, and critical remarks, Vol. I. 1792 (The Pentateuch and
book of Joshua), Vol. II. 1797 (Judges Chronicles). He is generally
regarded as the father of the 'fragmentary' hypothesis, and his name
appears on the title-page of Vater's Commentary on the Pentateuch
(3 vols. Halle, 1802-5), in which the theory that the Pentateuch is
composed of fragments of varying length, put together by one or more
redactors, was introduced to Germany, with a favourable notice of
Geddes, and his work. From the time of Eichhorn onwards, the bulk
of the critical work on the O.T. was contributed by German writers.
SIMON AND ASTRUC 29
la Genese? He pointed out that in some sections of Genesis,
Elohim is used as the Divine Name, and in others Jeh
and divided the whole of Genesis and the first two chapters of
Exodus (certain portions excepted) into two 'Principal Memoirs,'
the first (A), in which the name Elohim, the second (B\ in
which the toXR&Jthovak occurs. Several shorter passages con-
taining 'facts not connected with the history of the Hebrews'
were in his opinion derived from the Midianites, or other tribes
with whom Moses came in contact. He considered Gen. xiv.
as an extract from another 'Memoir,' and also admitted that his
two sources A and B might be divided. There may be, he says,
more than one Memoir in which the authors use Elohim^ and
more than one where the authors give to God the name Jehovah.
In these remarks he anticipates much .of the criticism of the
following century.
The first of the two narratives of Creation is in Memoir A,
the second in Memoir B, and the account of the Flood is com-
posed of extracts from both/ The judgement of Simon with
respect to these chapters was thus confirmed. He inferred
diversity of authorship from the existence of duplicate accounts.
Astruc inferred the same diversity from the use of dijfcrent
ne \aine s+ The two methods lead to the same results,
and each corroborates the inference of the other. Astruc's
method separated two documents of considerable extent, to
which the tests already proposed by Simon could be applied.
iv. A century of criticism. Astruc's work did not attract
much attention in his own country, and the comments upon it
in Germany were at first unfavourable. Mote than a quarter of
a century elapsed before any further advance was made. Eich-
horn. 1 . \vi to have worked independently of Astruc
r* \ol. ii. i 4 1 6. -i, p. 276, and Westphal, Lcs >
I. 1 1 8 f.), applied the methods both of Simon and
Astruc to the book of Genesis. He not only recognized the
existence of tuo main documents, but directed attention to the
literary charactei i-t . ed how, both in thought
1 bt-c note on \,.
30 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
and language, they differed one from the other 1 . At first he
considered Moses the compiler of Genesis, but afterwards ex-
pressed himself with reserve on this point, and suggested the
possibility of later interpolations (n. 398, 435, and 426, 442).
He assigned the last four books of the Pentateuch to Moses,
and explained the fragmentary character of some portions by
suggesting the idea of a Journal, in which was recorded every-
thing that happened, or was comm'anded, or done (II. 402, 435).
In 1805 De Wette published Dissertatio critica qua a priori-
bus Deuteronomzum Pentateuchi libris diversum alius cujusdam
recentioris auctoris opus esse monstratur\ and in 1806-7 two
volumes entitled Beitrdge zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament.
He maintained that the book of Deuteronomy was so distinct
in thought and expression from the first four books of th
Pentateuch, that it must be assigned to a special writer He
also pointed out that the book exhibits marks of a later age.
than that of Moses, and assigned it to the seventh century B.CV
This view has been adopted by practically all subsequent
critics 2 . These volumes written when the author was- biit
25 years of age, at once established his reputation as a critic.
His rules of criticism ^Maxinun] given at the commencement of
vol. II. of the Beitrdge) are of permanent value. His observation
(Beitrage, I. 265), It is interesting to note that in our Pentateuch
we may discover traces of gradual development (' successiver
Ausbildung') in the laws relating to worship (' Gottesdienst '),
deserves to be placed on record. It was sixty years before
these words took root and bore fruit.
K. D. Ilgen deserves notice as being the first to point out
the existence of two writers who used Elohim as the Divine
Name. Only the first volume of his work (Die Urkunden des
Jerusalemischen Tempelarchivs in ihrer Urgestalt, 1798) ap-
peared ; but the title shews the object of his investigations.
He considered that the original documents of which Genesis
was composed consisted of archives preserved in the temple at
1 Compare the remarks on p. 20.
8 The reasons for assigning this date will be given later. See p. 142.
DE WETTE AND HUPFELD 31
Jerusalem. A more thorough analysis of the book was necessary
in order to recover these archives in their primitive form. He
warns his contemporaries against guessing and theorizing on
insufficient data; he points out the necessity-far fnrthe* i -literary
analysis, in order to secure a basis for a critical study of the
history of Israel. Those who desire further information about
his book, and the extent to which he anticipated further in-
vestigators, especially Hupfeld, may be referred to Westphal,
Les Sources du Pent., vol. i. pp. 125 141 and p. 205.
The next 1 forward step was taken by Hupfeh} in his work
Die Quellen der Genesis und die Art ihrer Zusammensetzung,
Berlin, 1853, published exactly one century later than Astruc's
Conjectures. He shewed that although in the earlier portions
of Genesis those passages in which Elohim occurs (beginning
with Gen. i. ii. 4) exhibit marked characteristics of style and
vocabulary, yet from Gen. xx. onwards other passages are found
in which, although Elohim is used to denote the Divine Being,
none of these characteristics are to be observed.
Two writers were accordingly distinguished, who, though
they agreed in the use of the name Elohim, differed in other
respects very greatly from one another. These writers are now
called P and E, while Astruc's memoir B (marked by the use of
Jehovah] is called J. Hupfeld further shewed that the sources
J and E were independent documents, and maintained that
Genesis in its present form was the work of a redactor \\ ho
combined P, J, and E together.
1 It is not necessary to follow in detail the course of criticism from
Eichhorn onwards: the 'fragmentary 1 hypothesis of Geddes i
been mentioned in a note on p. 18 ; the 'supplementary' hypothesis
was supported by Bleek, Tuch, Ewald, and De Wette in the fth and
6th edition-, of his Eitihitung. Further information may he found in
WellhauM n's article on the Pentateuch in the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
vol. xvni., reproduced with revision in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, vol.
JI. pp. 2O-t; ;ial, Lts Sv.i .!atcticht, I. 17^. Hokinger,
Einleitung, 8, 9, pp. 43 61, Oxf. Hcx.> 1900, ch. vii. j, 5, and
. Nachwort in the 21; of Tuch's Comm^ntctr uUr cUe
Genesis, edited by him in 1871.
32 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
There was no reason for supposing that these three sources
discovered in Genesis ceased to contribute to the history after
the death of Joseph. On the contrary, it seemed probable that
all three contained records of the chosen people at least as far
as the possession of the land of promise. An examination of
the books following Genesis confirmed this probability. P is
so strongly distinguished from both E and J by phraseology,
method, and other definite characteristics, that the difference
between this writer and the other two could be traced to the,
end of the Hexateuch. Even before the separation of P from
E, the affinity of the Elohist in Genesis 1 with the legislation of
the middle books of the Pentateuch was recognized, and there
was general agreement as to the limits of P's contribution fo
the rest of the Hexateuch.
The results of the first century's criticism may be summed
up as follows:
Four documents can be traced in the Pentateuch and book
of Joshua, two marked by the use of Elohim (those now
called P and E\ one marked by the use of Jehovah (_/),
and one Deuleronomic (D\^
Subsequent investigations have been built on these results ;
and though the general tendency of more recent criticism is
towards further subdivision of the sources, the position assumed
more than fifty years ago has been maintained in its broad
outlines. As far as the analysis of the Hexateuch is concerned,
little more has been done during the past half century than
to determine more exactly the limits of each document, especi-
ally J and E. This latter portion of the critics' work does not
affect the main argument as to the origin and development of
the Hexateuch ; for it is generally allowed that J and E were
combined together at a comparatively early period, certainly
before amalgamation with P. The investigation still supposes
(as did the earlier critics before Hupfeld) a double strand in
the first four books of the Pentateuch ; P, and a remainder, the
1 Though the Elohist at that time was regarded as including P and
E, the inclusion of E did not materially obscure that affinity.
THE XIXTII CENTURY 33
composite character of which is indicated by the symbol JE.
The only difference is that P has been more exactly defined,
and JE has taken the place of J.
With regard to the chronological order of the documents
some variety of opinion existed, but the dominant view accepted
by critics about the middle of last century may be described as
follows :
a. Following the lead of De Wette, they assigned Deutero-
nomy to the time of Josiah, and regarded it as the latest of the
documents co*Uaied-i- the Hexateuch. The Deuteronomic
revision brought the Hexateuch into its final form.
b. Recognizing that the document^P^Jurnishes the frame-
work of Genesis, they assumed it to be the oldest source
(' Grundschrift,' or fundamental document) with which JE was
afterwards combined 1 .
c. Noticing also the priestly character of the legislation
contained in P, they considered it as due to the priestly circle,
and probably issued in the reign of Solomon, though some
critics assigned an earlier date, the reign of Saul or David.
The legislation itself was regarded as being in parts of great
antiquity, and including elements of Mosaic origin.
This view of the genesis of the Hexateuch might be expressed
by P + JE + D, and the whole by the symbol PJED.
If the question is asked, On what grounds was this order of
the documents based ? it is difficult to frame a definite answer.
The earlier critics, confronted with two principal documents,
were impressed with the regular structure and full details of the
document now called P, and very naturally considered it as the
fundamental source on which the other was grafted. When
Hupfcld shewed that J and E must have existed originally as
separate and independent documents, the question of chrono-
.il order was in fact re-opened, but the full significance of
Hupfeld's argument, and its bearing upon the relative dates of
1 Before Hupfeld's separation of V., the older source or ( irmxlsdirift
1 to be P+E, with which J was afterwards combined,
c. p. 3
34 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the sources was not appreciated, and the hitherto accepted
order was for a time retained.
v. Continuation to the present time. The method pursued
until Hupfeld's time was (with a few exceptions, which did not
at the time secure acceptance) the literary method. Critics
separated the writers from each other, observed their charac-
teristics, noted remarkable expressions, favourite words and
phrases, and constructed a vocabulary for each separate source.
This method was sufficient for purposes of analysis, and shewed
the existence of the four sources PJED ; but it was not sufficient
to indicate the relative dates of the sources.
The fact that commentators on the O.T., who have proved
themselves sharp-sighted and discriminating critics, have as-
signed very different dates to the same portions not only of the
Hexateuch, but also of other books (e.g. Isaiah, Zechariah, and
the Psalms), is in itself a proof that the literary method alone is
inadequate when applied to the O.T. To determine when the
different documents contained in the Hexateuch were written is a
historical investigation rather than a literary one, and De Wette
in the passage quoted on p. 30 was one of the first to point out
the path which the historical investigation should pursue. The
laws and institutions of a people are landmarks in its develop-
ment ; and the historical student examines them in order to trace
the growth of ideas which exercise influence on the community.
A similar process is necessary in following the course of Israel's
development, both religious and political. Accordingly criticism
proceeded to enter on a wider field, and, instead of occupying
itself exclusively with words and phrases, paid attention to the
laws and institutions of the chosen people.
The laws of Israel are found almost exclusively in the
Pentateuch ; and it was observed that :
Each of the sources which had been distinguished by the help
of the literary criticism contained a collection of laws 1 .
1 These different collections of laws will be examined in a later
section. See pp. uoff.
AT THE PRESENT TIME 35
(a) J and E contain the laws comprised in Exod. xii.
21 27, xiii. 3 16, xx. 22 xxiii., xxxiv. 11 26.
(V) Deuteronomy, as its name implies, contains a code
of laws (those comprised in chs. xii. xxvi.).
(c) The main portion of P consists of directions with
reference to the Tent of meeting, or Dwelling; and
laws relating to priests, sacrifices, firstfruits and
tithes (Exod. xxv. Num. xxxvi.).
The laws of P are not gatheredtogether into a compact code %
like most of the first two groups, but legislative enactments and
narrative are combined. As regulations concerning the dress
and functions of priests form a distinguishing feature of this
legislation, it has been designated the Priestly Code.
The laws in (a) are so similar in character that they may
be considered as one group. The code of laws contained in
Lev. xvii. xxvi. may'for the present be regarded as forming
part of (c). Thus three groups of laws may be distinguished
in the Pentateuch. Each group has a distinctive character, and
each contains enactments peculiar to itself. But regulations
concerning certain subjects, such as worship, the treatment of
slaves, etc., are found in all the three groups. A comparison of
those laws which deal with the same subjects leads to the con-
clusion that they cannot be regarded as component parts of the
sui/u- legislation, or of legislation promulgated within the limits
of a single generation. The language and details, and also the
principles which underlie the details, are different in the three
codes. The differences can only be satisfactorily explained on
the supposition that the codes belong to different ages, and
were issued at different periods in the development of the nation.
The next step was to compare these codes with the history
of the nation, in order to ascertain how, and at what times, the
precepts contained in_tliem were observed, and also to note
deviations from laws prescribed in any one of them. Tim
enquiry was not to be limited to the historical books. The
message of the prophet indicates the condition of the people
32
36 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
to whom he is sent ; and his writings afford valuable help in
filling up the outline furnished by the historian.
This twofold comparison of the codes (a) with one another,
(b) with the history of the nation, is equivalent to constructing a
history of Israel, civil and religious, from a critical point of
view. The scantiness of the record leaves some points un-
certain ; but the following propositions embody the results of
this historical school of criticism :
(1) The chronological sequence of the codes is that in
which they have been mentioned, viz. (a} the
Code of J E, (b} the Deuteronomic Code, and (c]
the Priestly Code.
(2) There is no evidence shewing the existence of the
Deuteronomic Code before the seventh century B.C.
(3) The worship and ceremonial enjoined in the Priestly
Code was not observed as a system before the Return
from the captivity^
The works of Graf (Die geschichtlichen Biicher des Alten
Testaments, which appeared at the end of 1865 with the date
1866) and Kayser (Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte
Israels und seine Erweiterungen, 1874) gave an impulse to
this historical method of criticism, which was carried further by
Wellhausen and Kuenen. Wellhausen, after contributing articles
on the Composition of the Hexateuch to the Jahrbiicher fur
Deutsche Theologie, 1876 and I877 1 , published vol. I. of his
History of Israel in 1878. A second edition appeared in 1883
under the title Prolegomena to the History of Israel, of which
an English translation was published in 1885. For this trans-
lation a preface was written by W. Robertson Smith, who had
already in 1875 introduced the newer criticism to British readers
in the Encyclopedia Britannica (9th ed. art. Bible). In 1881
he had delivered a course of twelve Lectures on Biblical criticism
1 These important articles were afterwards reprinted in a separate
volume entitled Die Composition des ffexateuchs, &--Y., which has
appeared in several editions.
THE HISTORICAL METHOD 37
in Edinburgh and Glasgow, which were published in the same
year under the title The Old Testament in the Jewish Church.
A second edition, carefully revised, with a supplementary
Lecture (xin.), appeared in 1892. Prof. Kuenen published in
1885 the first volume of the 2nd ed. of his Historico-critical
enquiry into the Origin and Collection of the Books of the Old
Testament, an English translation of which appeared in the
following year. The English reader has in the former of these
works a full statement of the modern critical view in a popular
form, and in the latter an Introduction to the Hexateuch, in
which its contents are minutely discussed by the help of critical
methods. He will also find an analysis given in an easier form
in Driver, LOT*, pp. I 159, with detailed descriptions of the
sources.
It must not be supposed that this method of criticism was
entirely new when Graf published his book in 1865-6. Sixty
years before, De Wette had drawn attention to traces of de-
velopment in the legislation of the Pentateuch, and had pointed
out the historical method as the most effective for determining
the relative dates of the codes l . ^Professor Reuss, of Strassburg,
had in 1833 formulated certain propositions which are in effect
the same as the three enumerated above on p. 36. He com-
municated them to his pupils, but did not publish them 2 . In
1879 he published the third volume of his great work La Bible
under the sub-title of JJHistoire Sainte et la Lot. The proposi-
tions enunciated in 1833 are found in that volume 3 , and the
debt which Graf and Kayser (both pupils of the Strassburg
professor) owed to their teacher was made clear. Both had
1 Cf. p. 30.
3 They were assumed in an article Judenthum contributed by him to
Krsch and Gruber's Allgenuinc Encyclopadti,
3 On pp. 23, 24. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, Kng. trail-,, p. 4 note,
Westphal, Les Sources du Pent., vol. 1 1. p. xvi. After the <le:ith <.f
in 1891, a German edition of his work on the liible appeared,
the third \.>lmue, iNyj, bearing the -uib-title Die hcilige Geschichte und
das Cifse/t.
38 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
meanwhile been removed by death ; and Reuss 'had the satis-
faction of seeing the views he had enunciated in his youth taken
up and elaborated by his distinguished pupils and commanding
ever increasing assent as he incorporated them, matured and
consolidated, into the works of his old age' (Kuenen in his
Introduction to the English translation of his volume on the
Hexateuch, p. xxxiv). In 1835, Vatke (Die Religion des A.T.
nach den kanonischen Biichern entivickelf) and George (Die
dlteren judischen Feste mit einer Kritik der Gesetzgebung des
Pentateuchs] maintained that the course of Israel's development
was gradual, and that much of the priestly legislation belonged
to a period much later than that of Moses. Before this, Gram-
berg (Kritische Geschichte der Religionsideen des A.T., 1829)
had proposed to trace the ideas of the O.T. connected with
religion according to their chronological development. His
division of the subject into I. Sacred Places, II. Sacrifices and
Offerings, III. Priesthood, IV. Festivals, V. Other Customs,
VI. Idol Worship, resembles that of Wellhausen in his Prolego-
mena. It appears then that throughout the I9th century repre-
sentatives can be found of that school of criticism which during
the last thirty years has found a wide and increasing accept-
ance.
In this historical sketch of Hexateuch criticism, three stages
of the enquiry have now been distinguished as (i) preliminary,
(2) literary, (3) historical.
Three lines of investigation are thus suggested, corresponding
to these three stages, which will be pursued in Part II.
In the first stage attention was directed to passages which
appeared to have been written after the times of Moses and
Joshua.
In \hzfirst line of investigation these passages, with others
of a like character, will be considered ; and the result of the
investigation will be embodied in
Proposition I. The Hexateuch contains passages of later
date than the times of Moses and Joshua.
THE THREE PROPOSITIONS 39
In the second stage the literary method was mainly fo'lowed.
In the second line of investigation literary arguments will be
brought forward in support of
Proposition 2. The Hexateuch is a composite work, in
which four documents (at least) can be distinguished.
In the third stage the historical method was followed.
In the third line of investigation the laws and regulations
connected with religious observances will be considered, and
arguments brought forward in support of
Proposition 3. The laws contained in the Pentateuch
consist of three separate codes, which belong to
different periods in the history of Israel.
It is important to observe that, though these three lines of in-
vestigation are placed before the reader in the order suggested
by the historical sketch, each line of investigation is separate
and independent. Hence, although the propositions are here
considered in the order in which they have been enunciated,
they may, being independent, be treated in any order. For
example, taking Proposition 3 first ; if it be established, it
follows that there are documents of different ages in the Penta-
teuch ; then the arguments adduced in support of Proposition 2,
and the inferences drawn from passages considered under
Proposition i, will supplement and corroborate the reasoning
under Proposition 3. The strength of the critical position is
mainly due to the fact that the same conclusions are reached
by independent lines of argument.
PART II.
i. THE FIRST PROPOSITION.
The Hexateuch contains passages of later date than the times
of Moses and Joshua.
i. Passages quoted by Ibn Ezra and the critics of the
1 6th and I7th centuries will first be considered :
a. ' The Canaanite was then in the land ' (Gen. xii. 6 ; xiii. 7).
See above p. 26.
b. 'Before there reigned a king over Israel' (Gen. xxxvi. 31).
The time of the kingdom is implied.
c. ' They [the children of Esau] destroyed them [the
Horites] from before them, and dwelt in their stead ; as Israel
did unto the land of his possession, which the Lord gave unto
them' (Deut. ii. 12). The writer refers to Israel as already in
possession of their land, after having destroyed their enemies
from before them.
d. 'The name of the city is Beer-sheba unto this day'
(Gen. xxvi. 33). The remark of one who knows the city as
existent in his day, addressed to a generation who knew it as
an ancient city which was there in the time of their forefathers.
e. 'And Moses wrote' (Deut. xxxi. 9). This, coming after
passages in which Moses has been almost continuously speaking
in the first person (in cc. i. xxx.), suggests a change of writers.
The middle books of the Pentateuch contain a history about
Moses, rather than one written by him. Compare them with
Deut. i. xxx.
, POST-MOSAIC ELEMENTS 41
/ 'And pursued as far as Dan' (Gen. xiv. 14). 'All the
land of Gilead unto Dan' (Deut. xxxiv. i). The name Dan was
given to the city Laish at the time of the Danite migration
northward (Josh. xix. 47 ; Judg. xviii. 29). The use of the
newer name implies a writer who lived after the name had been
changed.
ii. To the preceding passages, others may be added, which
imply that an interval of some length has elapsed between the
time of the events described, and that of the writer.
a. To, or unto this day (Gen. xxii. 14 ; xxvi. 33 1 ; xxxv. 20;
xlvii. 26; Deut ii. 22; iii. 14*; x. 8 ; xxxiv. 6 3 ; Josh. iv. 9; v. 9;
vii. 26; viii v 2l7 J 2S^ ix. 27 ; x. 27 ; xiii. 13; xiv. 14; xv. 63; xvi. 10).
With the exception of Gen. xlvii. 26, these passages refer to
places in the land of Canaan or in the land E. of the Jordan.
It may be allowed that Gen. xxii. 14; xlvii. 26; Deut. x. 8, might
have been said by Moses ; but most of the other passages could
hardly have been written till after the children of Israel had
been settled in the land for a considerable time. Let the
reader consider what is involved in attributing Gen. xxvi. 33
or xxxv. 20 to Moses. 'To this day,' in the mouth of Moses,
must refer to a time when the land of Canaan was still
inhabited by idolaters whom the Lord was about to drive out
from before Israel because of their wicked doings. Moses tells
the children of Israel that these idolaters have preserved the
memory of Abraham's Well and Rachel's Pillar. And neither
Moses nor the children of Israel had seen these memorials of
their forefathers.
b. The 'bedstead 5 of Og is referred to as an interesting
relic of the last of the giants (Deut. iii. ii). Moses, who died
a few months after Og's defeat, could not have written this
verse. It describes a historic monument of antiquity, the ex-
1 Already discussed on the preceding page, i. d.
1 See ii. c. p. 42.
8 Admitted to be post-Mosaic; cp. the remarks on xxxiv. 10 on
p. 49.
42 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
istence of which became known to the children of Israel in
later times.
c. According to Judg. x. 4, Jair, who was a judge after
the time of Gideon and Abimelech, had thirty sons and thirty
cities in the land of Gilead called Havvoth-Jair (the towns of
Jair, R.V. marg.). This account was written some time after
Jair lived ; for it describes the cities as 'called Havvoth-Jair
unto this day? Num. xxxii. 41 locates Havvoth-Jair in Gilead,
but says that they were taken by Jair, the son (descendant) of
Manasseh, a contemporary of Moses, who also gave them their
name of Havvoth-Jair (Num. xxxii. 41 ; Deut. iii. 14). Here are
different traditions about the origin of the name, like those
about Beer-sheba (Gen. xxi. 31 and xxvi. 33), Bethel (Gen.
xxviii. 19 and xxxv. 15), and Hormah (Num. xxi. 3 and Judg.
i. 17). There is also another difference. Deut. iii. 14 and Josh,
xiii. 30 refer to the same 'towns 1 ', but locate them in Bashan.
The variety of geographical description is an indication that
the passages in Num. and Deut. are not by the same writer.
For fuller details the commentaries of Gray, Driver, and Moore,
on the passages in Num., Deut, and Judg., International
Critical Commentary, may be consulted. Observe how inap-
propriate 'unto this day' is in Deut. iii. 14, if the verse is ascribed
to Moses. Jair is represented as having taken the cities only
a few months before the death of Moses.
The passages that have been quoted are short, in some
cases not more than a single clause. May they not be regarded
as editorial additions, the work of some reviser or copyist, who
noted that the place about which he was writing was called by
the same name in his day, or in some other way brought the
narrative which he was transcribing into connexion with his own
time ? This is the explanation often offered of those passages
which contain definite references to a period later than that of
1 The Heb. word translated 'towns' in some of these passages is
hawoth, and occurs only in connexion with Havvoth-jair in the passages
quoted, and i Kings iv. 13; i Chr. ii. 23. It probably means 'tent-
villages.'
THE PRIESTLY CITIES 43
the conquest and settlement. In the preliminary stage (see
p. 27), these passages were discussed at great length because
they furnished the chief argument against the Mosaic author-
ship of the Pentateuch. But criticism has advanced since that
time, and occupies now so wide a field, that these passages
have been pushed aside by questions more directly dealing with
the origin and composition of the books. The reader will be
better able to judge, at the close of the whole investigation,
whether the hypothesis of glosses and marginal notes is neces-
sary or sufficient.
iii. Other passages of greater length and of a different
character will now be considered.
a. In Josh. xxi. 13 19, thirteen cities with their suburbs
are assigned to the children of Aaron the priest. Nothing
is here said about Aaron's posterity in the future becoming
sufficiently numerous to occupy these cities, but in Joshua's
time Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons of Aaron, and their families
were the only surviving descendants of Aaron (Lev. x. i 7;
Num. iii. 4). The priestly cities are all in the tribes of Judah,
Simeon, and Benjamin, in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem,
and nine of them are to the south of that city. These cities are
suitable dwelling places for priests who officiated at Jerusalem,
and were with their families sufficiently numerous to occupy
all the thirteen cities. They were not suitable for the priests in
Joshua's time, nor for their successors during a period of more
than 400 years (i Kings vi. i). During the greater part of the
period from the conquest to the building of the temple the ark
was at Shiloh(Josh. xviii i ; i Sam. i. 3 ; iv. 12 22 ; Ps. lxxviii.6o;
Jer. vii. 12). Eli and his two sons were there and many genera-
tions of priests must have dwelt there. But Shiloh is not
enumerated among the priestly cities. Ahimelech the priest was
at Nob, and there all the sons of Ahimelech except Abiathur were
slain. Nob is expressly called ' the city of the priests ' (i Sam.
xxii. 19), but it is not to be found among the thirteen of Josh. xxi.
This passage can be assigned to Joshua only on the sup-
position that he is legislating, not for the present, but for a
44 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
distant future, and the narrative affords no support for such an
assumption. The arrangements are for a priesthood ministering
at Jerusalem, and the earliest period to which they are suitable
is that of Solomon.
b. Lev xviii. 24 30. In vv. 24 26, as translated in A.V.
and R.V., the casting out of the nations is described as future.
But in w, 27, 28 the expulsion is referred to as already past:
the verses seem to have been written after the children of Israel
had taken possession of the land, and are regarded by some
commentators as a gloss, due to a later editor. Many modern
critics, however, consider that the exhortations in this and the
following chapters, though written from a Mosaic standpoint,
really belong to a later period They object to the rendering of
the English versions in v. 25, where the verbs are taken as
prophetic perfects, and translate ' I have visited the iniquity
thereof upon it, and the land hath vomited out her inhabitants.'
They find in i>. 25 as well as in vv. 27, 28 evidence of post-
Mosaic date, and on other grounds (see App. V) assign the
whole passage to a late period.
c. Other indications of time are found in Lev. xxvi. 34 45.
'34 The land shall enjoy [or pay back] her sabbaths../ (i.e.
during the captivity).
S 35 As long as it lieth desolate it shall have rest (keep
sabbath), even the rest which it had not in your sabbaths when
ye dwelt upon it.'
Here is a statement that so long as the children of Israel
were dwelling in the land they did not observe the sabbath or
sabbatical year. The last clause contemplates the children of
Israel as no longer dwelling in the land, that is, they are in
captivity.
Those who assume the Mosaic authorship of this passage,
regard it as a prediction, and the past tense 'when ye dwelt
upon it ' as looking back from the future point of time assumed
by the prophet. This explanation is, however, far from natural,
and the words seem rather to be those of a prophet on the
eve of the captivity who could refer to the non-observance of
POST-MOSAIC PASSAGES 45
sabbaths as a matter already known to his hearers. Further
remarks on the chapter will be found in App. V.
Verse 44 should be translated :
'And yet for all that when they be in the land of their enemies,
1 have not rejected them neither have I abhorred them... for I
am the LORD their God, but I will for their sakes remember.'
Those in captivity are reminded that God hath not cast off
His people, but will remember them. The change from the
past to the future seems to indicate the date of the passage.
d. The description of the woes that will befall Israel as
given in Lev. xxvi. and Deut. xxviii. is so full of detail as to
suggest that some calamities of a similar kind had already
befallen a part of the nation (cf. Deut. xxviii. 53, 57, with
2 Kings vi. 28, 29).
iv. Two groups of passages which afford definite indication
of the date of their composition deserve attention :
a. Passages in which quotations are made from other writers.
(a) * Wherefore it is said in the book of the Wars of the
Lord....' Num. xxi. 14.
(/3) 'They that speak in proverbs 1 say....' Num. xxi. 27.
(y) 'Is not this written in the book of Jashar?' Josh. x. 13.
The incidents related in Num. xxi. happened in the last
seven months of Moses' life (cf. Num. xxxiii. 38, 39 and Deut.
xxxiv. 7 with Exod. vii. 7).
Would Moses in relating events in which all the children of
Israel had recently taken part, have any need to refer to a book
or a poem ? Or is it probable that the leader of the people in
'the clay when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before
children of Israel' (Josh. x. 12) would give any other account
than his own of the victory at Beth-horon ? A writer who
quotes the testimony of another acknowledges in so doing
1 This rendering, though adopted both in A.Y. and R.V., requires
emendation ; there is nothing of the nature of a ' proverb' in the snatch
of national poetry which follow-,: -wherefore the ballad-singers say'
(Perowne) Is better. See note on the passage in the commentary.
4 6 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
that another stands nearer than himself to the events he is
describing.
It may, then, be inferred that a literature intervenes between
the writers of the passages in (a), (/3), (y), and the events which
they are describing.
What is the probable date of this literature ?
(1) Though Num. xxi. 14 is the only passage which has
been preserved from the ' book of the Wars of the Lord,' the
character of the work is sufficiently indicated by its title. The
Lord fought by and with the men through whose hand He saved
Israel from the day that He delivered them out of the hand of
Pharaoh (Exod. xiv. 31 ; Josh. v. 13 15 ; vi. 16, 27 ; Judg. v. 13,
23, 31; vi. 14, 36; vii. 14; xiii. 5, 25). David fought the Lord's
battles (i Sam. xviii. 17; xxv. 28, where the Hebrew words are
the same as in the title of the book). The wars of the Lord, or
the Lord's battles, were the battles fought by Israel on the way
to their inheritance, and to secure their possession of the land
(Judg. v. 23).
(2) The book of Jashar, or rather (as the Heb. word has
the article) 'of the Upright,' contained, besides the passage
quoted in Josh. x. 12, 13, the lamentation over Saul and Jonathan,
2 Sam. i. 19 27. It is almost certain that it also contained a
poem used by Solomon at the dedication of the temple 1 (i Kings
1 According to i Kings viii. 12, 13 a short passage of a poetical
character is uttered by Solomon before his long dedicatory prayer in
vv. 22 53. Verses 12, 13 are not in the LXX., but after v. 53 is
found a passage which may be rendered,
' The sun hath the Lord set in the heavens,
In darkness hath He determined to abide ;
I have built an house of habitation for thee,
A place to dwell in eternally.'
It is clear that the LXX. have translated a piece of poetry which was
in their Hebrew copy, a portion of which appears in the Masoretic text
and our English version in vv. 12, 13. The words which follow in the
Greek text may be rendered ' Is not this written in the book of song ? '
The similarity to ' Is not this written in the book of Jashar' (Josh. x. 13)
is obvious. The similarity is still more close in Hebrew. The words
QUOTATIONS 47
viii. 12, 13). This is all that is known about the book. Whether
it was exclusively poetical, or whether a poem was introduced
by a historical notice of the occasion on which it was composed;
and whether other poetical passages preserved in the Bible have
been taken from it, must be left undecided. The poetry was
both secular and religious, and the book could not have been
compiled before the age of David or Solomon. In character, it
was similar to the book of the Wars of the Lord.
Both these books contained poetical pieces, commemorating
the mighty deeds of the early heroes of Israel ; both were pro-
bably compiled in the peaceful days of the undivided kingdom,
when the Lord had given 'rest on every side' (i Kings iv. 24, 25 ;
v. 3, 4). Tradition ascribes literary activity to this period and
whether the books belong to this, or a subsequent age, the
writers who quote them must belong to a still later period. The
impression produced on reading the passages under discussion
is that they were written long after the events occurred, and
that their authors quoted documents which they considered
ancient in support of their statements.
b. Passages which refer to prophets and prophesying.
When were prophets known in Israel by this name ? Accord-
ing to i Sam. ix. 9 they were known as ' seers ' in the time of
Saul. 'Beforetime in Israel when a man went to enquire of
God thus he said, Come and let us go to the seer ; for he that is
now called a prophet was beforetime called a seer.' David
for 'song' and 'Jashar' both contain the same three consonants;
inverting the order of the first two consonants in 'Jashar' would turn
it into ' song ' pt? "W). The Syriac version of Josh. x. 13 has made
this inversion, and rendered 'Jashar' ol the Hebrew text by 'song.' It
seems almost certain that the Greek translators have done the same in
Kings, and that the Heb. text before them was the same as in Josh. x. 13.
Or if they have translated exactly, then 'song' (SH Y R) was in their
Hebrew text. In that case ' Jashar' (Y SH R) may be suggested as an
emendation. In either case the LXX. tran>lators in this passage
supply indirectly further information about the book of Jashar. They
have also preserved for us a beautiful stanza of Hebrew poetry.
48 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
uses the expression in addressing Zadok, 2 Sam. xv. 27. It
would seem that in the interval between Saul's time and that of
the writer of the first book of Samuel, the word prophet had
become the usual expression to denote that class of persons
who were in earlier times called 'seers. 3
The origin of the name nabh? (prophet) is obscure. Two
women before the time of Saul bear the title 'prophetess'
Miriam (Exod. xv. 20) and Deborah (Judg. iv. 4). Both com-
memorate the deliverance of Israel with a song, and Deborah
also discharges the function of 'judge.' Their office seems
different from that of the later ' prophet.' The word ' prophet '
occurs but once in the book of Judges. A prophet was sent when
Israel cried unto the Lord because of Midian (Judg. vi. 7, 8).
This passage, whether attributed to the Deuteronomic compiler,
or to a source akin to the Hexa.teuchal E (Driver, Moore), will
not set back the use of the word * prophet ' to a date earlier than
that inferred from i Sam. ix. 9.
The passages in the Pentateuch where the word 'prophet'
occurs are :
a. Abraham is described as a prophet (Gen. xx. 7).
. Aaron is a prophet to Moses (Exod. vii. i), and his
sister Miriam is a prophetess (Exod. xv. 20).
y. When the Lord took of the spirit that was upon Moses
and put it upon the seventy elders they prophesied. Two men
who remained in the camp also prophesied, and Joshua on
hearing this asks Moses to forbid them ; Moses replies :
'Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets, that
the Lord would put his spirit upon them' (Num. xi. 16, 17,
2429).
Moses is here represented as having the spirit of prophecy,
sharing it with the elders, and desirous that all the Lord's
people should share the gift.
8. In Num. xii. 68 Moses is represented as a prophet,
but one distinguished from other prophets to whom the Lord
vouchsafes special privileges.
PROPHETS AND PROPHESYING 49
t. Deut. xiii. contains warnings against false prophets.
f. Deut. xviii. contains a promise that the Lord will raise
up prophets like unto Moses, and also a test for distinguishing
between true and false prophets (see p. 175).
TJ. Deut. xxxiv. 10 declares 'that there hath not arisen a
prophet since in Israel like unto Moses,' and assigns to him a
pre-eminence like that implied in Num. xii.
If it were conceded that the word * prophet ' was occasionally
used before the time of Samuel, passages (a) and (/3) might be
instances of such use ; but the other passages could only have
been written during the era of the prophets, and Deut. xxxiv. 10
can only be explained by supposing that the writer lived after a
long succession of prophets had arisen in Israel. The view
which assigns the closing verses of the Pentateuch to Joshua
does not do justice to the terms here used of Moses.
These two groups of texts (i.e. those which contain quota-
tions, and those referring to prophets) indicate that contributions
to the Hexateuch have been made from the close of David's reign
onwards, and up to a late date in the history of the kingdoms.
v. The narratives furnish proof that they were composed in
Palestine. The phrase 'beyond Jordan,' however it may be
employed in particular passages, owes its origin to a writer in
Western Palestine, who thus describes the land to the east of
the Jordan. Towards the west is 'seawards' ; and the south is
the ' Negeb,' the stretch of imperfectly watered country to the
south of Hebron (cf. Judg. i. 15). These indications of position
are suitably used by an inhabitant of Palestine ; but for the
children of Israel during their wanderings the Negeb would be
to their north. Yet they are employed in the directions for making
the Tent of meeting. The geographical knowledge of the writers
is exact for places in Palestine, but indistinct for places con-
nected with the wanderings. The many references to places, to
the names given them, and the notices of things and names which
have remained 4 to this day' are appropriate only in the ca
a writer living in the land and addressing his fellow-countr\ nun
who know UK-M- places and the traditions connected with them.
C.F, 4
50 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The evidence that has been collected in i. v. is sufficient
to establish the first Proposition. The time of Solomon has been
indicated as the earliest time at which some portions may have
been written, and traces of a later date have been pointed out in
other passages. Palestine has been shewn to be the home of
some of the writers ; and this, be it remembered, implies that the
whole was written there, unless a theory of composite authorship
resembling that which is to be considered under Proposition 2
be conceded. The Hexateuch shews signs of literary activity
extending to a period subsequent to that of the undivided king-
dom, at least till late in the history of Judah. Such prolonged
literary activity implies a series of writers, and a probability is
thus established in favour of
( 2.) THE SECOND PROPOSITION.
The Hexateuch is a composite work, in which four documents
(at least} can be distinguished.
i. THE USE OF DIFFERENT NAMES FOR THE
DIVINE BEING.
As this diversity of use supplied the first clue for separating
the book Genesis into its component parts, it may appropriately
be considered first. But the history of critical investigation
shews that in course of time other criteria for discriminating
between the sources have been noted and applied ; consequently,
the relative importance of the test which Astruc discovered is
less now than when he first employed it. It is necessary to bear
this in mind, because Hexateuch criticism is sometimes described
in terms which imply that the distinction between the Divine
Names Elohim and Jehovah is the foundation stone on which it
rests. It will appear clearly in the course of this investigation, that
such a representation greatly exaggerates the value of Astruc's
test. The distinction between the Divine Names is employed
to confirm results obtained by other critical methods ; or it may
be regarded as establishing a probability which is strengthened
by further investigation.
ELOH1M AND JEHOVAH 51
a. Elohim.
There are three Hebrew words rendered God, El (chiefly
in poetry: in prose only with epithets attached as 'God Al-
mighty'), Eloah (only in poetry, mostly in Job, and late prose),
and Eldhim, which is by far the most common. It is in form a
plural noun, and is used either as a plural, with plural verbs or
adjectives, or as a singular, with singular verbs or adjectives.
f a. Construed as a plural noun Elohim denotes superhuman
\beings (i Sam. xxviii. 13), heathen gods (Gen. xxxv. 2 and often),
and occasionally the true God (Gen. xx. 13 ; xxxv. 7 ; Deut. v. 26
[Heb. 23] ; Josh. xxiv. 19).
ft. Construed as a singular noun, it sometimes denotes a
heathen god as Chemosh (Judg. xi. 24) ; but far more frequently
(with or without the definite article) it denotes the Supreme
Being, probably as a 'plural of majesty 1 ' and is then rendered
'God' in the English versions.
When Elohim occurs without either verb or adjective in
agreement, the meaning is sometimes doubtful (see Gen. iii. 5).
The rendering 'judges* in some texts and margins (Exod. xxi. 6 ;
xxii. 8, 9, 28) is an interpretation : the judge is regarded as the
mouthpiece of a Divine oracle (or of God), and so his judicial
words or acts are God's. There is no real difference of meaning
in the variations between R.V. and A.V. The commentaries
on these passages may be consulted.
b. Jehovah.
There is also a sacred name the consonants of which are
YHWH (probably pronounced Yahweh). Later Jews from
feelings of reverence did not pronounce it, but substituted for
it in reading the Scriptures 'Adonai (with the final di used
exclusively as = 'the Lord'; cf. Ges.-Kautzsch'-' 8 I35q and note).
But if in the Hebrew text Adonai immediately precedes the
1 See Davidson, Heb. Syntax 16 c ; ' 1 24 g, h. The
Heb. words for ' lord,' ' master' are oftm used in the pliual even when
they refer to a single 'lord' or ' n. .1. xxi. 4, 6, 79, 34;
xxii. II [Heb. 10]; Isai. i. 3 ; xix. 4).
42
52 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
sacred name Jehovah, Elohim was substituted, and the Jews
read the two together as 'Adonai Elohim. When ^Adonai is
read, the sacred name is represented (both in A.V. and R.V.)
by 'the LORD, 3 and when Adonai Elohim is read, the two are
rendered * the Lord GOD.' The reader of the English versions
may be sure that whenever * LORD ' or * GOD ' appears in small
capitals, the Hebrew text contains the sacred name, YH WH *.
The pronunciation 'Jehovah' (obtained by combining the
Hebrew consonants of the sacred name with the vowels of
'Adonai} was not introduced until early in the i6th century A.D.,
and has passed into the modern languages of Europe. Though
the pronunciation rests on a misunderstanding, it has now a
recognized position in the English language, and hallowed
memories have gathered round it in the last three centuries. It
suggests to English speaking peoples ideas about the covenant
God of Israel similar to those which the sacred name suggests
to the Jew (though he does not venture to pronounce it), and
may fittingly be retained as its English equivalent 2 . It is in both
A.V. and R.V. of Exod. vi. 3, Ps. Ixxxiii. 18, Isai. xii. 2, xxvi. 4,
and in R.V. of Exod. vi. 2 9, in w. 2, 6, 7, 8. It also occurs
as part of a compound name in Gen. xxii. 14, Exod. xvii. 15,
Judg. vi. 24, Jer. xxiii. 6, Ezek. xlviii. 35.
The manner in which these two Divine Names are employed
in the book of Genesis has already been pointed out (p. 29).
Astruc's conjecture that the passages in which Elohim- is used,
and those in which Jehovah occurs, are derived from different
sources has been accepted not only by modern critics, but also
by some upholders of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
1 For fuller information on the use of the Divine Names, the student
may consult Driver's Genesis, pp. 403 ff. ; BDB Heb. Lexicon under the
different names, and DB ii. 198 f. v. 625, 636.
a A more exact representation of the Hebrew would be to print
YHWH wherever the sacred name occurs and leave it to the English
reader to supply as a spoken substitute either Lord or God'vn accordance
with the rule given above, or to read Jehovah, or Yahweh. But this
could not be done in a version intended for general use.
USE OF DIVINE NAMES 53
Other writers, however, maintain that the distinction in the
meaning of the Divine Names, and a natural desire for variety
of expression, sufficiently account for the phenomena presented
in the book of Genesis, and that it is not necessary to assume
the existence of separate writers, who use one name in preference
to the other. It is true that these two names of the Supreme
Being ' represent the Divine nature under different aspects, as
the God of nature and the God of revelation 1 .' Elohim is the
more general term ; Jehovah is the name by which Israel knows
its covenant God. This distinction in meaning does in some
passages determine the choice of name ; when heathens are
speaking, or spoken to, or in the dialogue between the woman
and the serpent (Gen. iii. 7), the name Elohim is clearly more
appropriate, and in some other places a reason might be
suggested why one name is used in preference to the other.
But the manner in which these names are used throughout
Genesis cannot be satisfactorily explained in the way that has
been proposed in the preceding paragraph, viz. that the same
writer used both names, either employing them with discrimina-
tion, or changing them for the sake of variety. With such a
writer, the names would alternate one with the other much more
frequently than they do in the existing text. There one name
only is used throughout whole sections. In Gen. i. ii. 4
Elohim only occurs, throughout xxiv. only Jehovah, and there
are many other passages in which one or other of the Divine
Names is used exclusively. But the presumption that the
employment of different Divine Names implies different writers
is further confirmed by the fact that variety of name is accom-
panied by diversity of style and vocabulary. This diversity will
now be considered.
ii. DIVERSITY OF STYLE AND VOCABULARY.
When the book of Genesis is closely examim-d, it will be
found that certain sections can be separated from the rest
1 Driver, LOT 9 , p. 13.
54 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
of the narrative, which are distinguished by a strongly marked
phraseology and style.
a. Examination of selected sections. The first of these
sections 1 is Gen. i. ii. 4; in which the following expressions
may be noted:
'create' 'after its kind' 'bring forth abundantly,' or more
literally (R.V. marg.) 'swarm with swarms' 'creeping thing,'
'every thing that creepeth' 'likeness' 'image' 'male and
female.'
Besides these expressions (some of which occur more than
once in the section) there is a combination in Gen. i. 22 which
is repeated in i. 28. 'And God blessed them, saying, Be
fruitful and multiply and fill the waters....' Here is a command
expressed in three imperatives, 'Be fruitful multiply fill,' in-
troduced by a statement, ' God blessed.' This grouping of four
words is exactly repeated in i. 28 and ix. i ; but the rendering
'replenish' of both A.V. and R.V. obscures the identity. The
same. Hebrew verb (translated 'fill' and 'replenish') occurs in
all three passages. The phrase 'God blessed...' is found also in
ii. 3('... the seventh day') ; in ch.v. 2 in connexion with 'create/
1 It will appear presently that the sections to which attention is here
directed are part of the document described in Part I. 4, and denoted
by the symbol P. In order to avoid repetition, the list in App. II may be
consulted, where further information about the expressions here noted
will be found. According to the historical development of criticism as
traced in Part I. 4, these sections were at first separated from the rest
of Genesis by applying the test suggested by Astruc, viz. the use of
different Divine Names Elohim and Jehovah ; and then further dis-
criminating marks were observed in the two documents. But these
further discriminating marks of style and phraseology constitute a
separate and independent phenomenon, which is here considered by itself.
The argument in this section is independent of that which precedes, and
would have the same force if the varying use of Divine Names did not
exist. It may be remarked that the reference to the list in App. II is
made solely for the sake of convenience and brevity, and does not imply
any assumption as to the nature of the document under consideration.
DIVERSITY OF STYLE 55
'likeness,' 'male and female,' where the similarity to ch. i. is
very marked. Compare with these xvii. 20 : * I have blessed
him and will make \i\vn. fruitful and multiply him ' (of Ishmael).
Sarah (xvii. 16) and Isaac (xxv. n) are blessed ; also Jacob
(xxxv. 9), where ' be fruitful and multiply* are found in z/. u.
His father Isaac has already blessed him and invoked God's
blessing with the words ' bless] 'make fast fruitful and multiply
thee' (xxviii. 3) ; and Jacob records the blessing he had received,
using the same three words (xlviii. 3). In these passages words
and phrases recur in the same combination 1 . A record of blessing
is followed by words signifying to be fruitful and multiply.
It will be instructive to compare other passages which refer to
blessing (xii. 2; xxii. 17; xxiv. i; xxvi. 3, 12, 24; xxx. 27;
xxxix. 5). On reading these it will appear (i) that the words
accompanying the blessing in the first set of passages are not
found in the second set, (ii) that in this second set, the blessing
is a continued action manifested by the course of God's goodness
in the past, or promised for the future. In the first group of
passages, the blessing is recorded as a single formal act, a kind
of benediction. (Cp. Gen. xlvii. 7, 'and Jacob blessed Pharaoh.')
A distinct difference in thought and expression between these
two groups is apparent. A difference in the Hebrew text may
also be noted. The words 'I will bless thee' may either be
1 In all languages, one writer is distinguished from another not so
much by the peculiarity of the words which he employs (though of
course when such peculiarity exists, it is a distinguishing mark) as by
the manner in which he combines words common to himself and others.
If two children are sent into the fields to gather posies, one may return
with a nosegay carefully arranged in concentric circles of different
colours ; the other may adopt a less systematic arrangement. One may
have a preference for dark colours, the other for light ; but light and
dark colours will be gathered by both. So it is with language ; preference
and combination are the distinguishing marks which differentiate one
writer from another. Little stress is here laid on words by ihtni^
it is consequently no answer to the investigation in the text (which is
summed up in the final inference (6) on p. 66) to point out that a word
used in P is found occasionally in JE.
56 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
rendered by a single word in Hebrew, the objective personal
pronoun being compounded with the verb, or it may remain
separate as in English. The first group of passages shews a
decided preference for the separate form, in the second group
the composite single word is used almost exclusively.
The book of Genesis contains many records of promises made
to Abraham, and renewed to his descendants. When these are
compared, it will be found that they are easily separable into two
groups, one of which exhibits marked phraseology and style.
Gen. xvii. may be selected as the representative of this
group, and with it may be compared the promise to Jacob,
xxxv. 9 13 ; the words of Isaac to Jacob on sending him away,
xxviii. 3, 4 ; and Jacob's reference to the blessing bestowed upon
him, xlviii. 3, 4. The following words and phrases may be
noted l :
I am God Almighty be thou perfect kings shall come out
of thee I will establish my covenant thee and thy seed after
thee an everlasting covenant an everlasting possession the
land of thy sojournings ; and the conclusion, 'and God went up
from Abraham.' Observe also that the promise is associated
with a change of name, Abram to Abraham, and Sarai to Sarah.
The combination of 'bless,' 'make fruitful,' and 'multiply'
occurs (xvii. 20 and compare 2, 6, 16).
In xxxv. 9 13 four of these phrases are repeated. God
'blesses' Jacob, changes his name, and bids him 'be fruitful and
multiply.' Note in xxviii. 3, 4 ' God Almighty bless thee and
make thee fruitful and multiply thee,' a reference to the blessing
of Abraham, and 'the land of sojournings.' In xlviii. 3, 4,
the reference to ch. xxxv. is obvious, some of the phrases are
repeated, and the land is described as an 'everlasting possession.'
In the covenant with Noah, ix. 9 17, the following phrases
similar to those in xvii. occur : ' I establish my covenant with
you and your seed after you' (ver. 9 and cp. -w. u, 17), 'the
everlasting covenant' (16), and 'for perpetual generations' in
ver. 12 may be compared with 'throughout their (your) genera-
1 See the table on pp. 64, 65.
CHARACTERISTIC WORDS AND PHRASES 57
tions' of xvii. 7, 9, 12. A further similarity may be noticed:
the covenants both of ch. ix. and ch. xvii. are marked by a token ;
the rainbow for Noah, and circumcision for Abraham. The
identity of ix. i with i. 28 has already been pointed out The
command is repeated in ix. 7, where 'bring forth abundantly'
and in v. 6 'in the image of God made he man' supply further
connecting links with the thought of ch. i. 'Bring forth
abundantly' is the same in Hebrew as i. 20, and might here be
noted in the margin as 'swarm.' In other parts of the Flood
narrative verses are found which closely resemble some in the
first chapter. Cp. vi. 20, 21, vii. 14, 21, viii. 17, 19, with i. 20 25.
It appears then that in the account of the Creation (Gen. i.
ii. 4), in portions of the Flood narrative, and in some accounts
of the promises made to the patriarchs, certain words and phrases
recur in the same combination, and that the vocabulary of these
passages exhibits marked characteristics. They will now be
examined more in detail.
According to the account in Gen. i., the work of Creation is
completed in six days, and that which is done on each day is
described with a recurrence of the same phrases. The following
is the frame in which each day's work is set :
'And God said, Let there be '...'and it was so.' 'And God
saw that it was good' ... 'and there was evening, and there was
morning, a ... day.' Orderly arrangement with repetition of
phrases is a characteristic of this narrative. The successive
steps are cast in the same mould.
In ch. v. the first two verses contain four expressions
which are found in ch. i., and in the genealogy which follows
an orderly arrangement with repetition of phrases is ayain
apparent. Three verses are assigned to each member of the
genealogical tree ; the first states his age at his first-born's
birth, the second the length of the remainder of his life with the
phrase 'and begat sons and daughters,' and the third the total
length of life concluding with 'and he died 1 .' An additional
1 Yer. 2(j breaks the uniformity of arrangement, and is probably
from another source.
58 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
feature of the narrative may be noted. The third verse is not
necessary, as the number contained in it may be obtained from
the two preceding verses. In the genealogy from Noah to
Abraham (xi. 10 26) two verses only are given for each genera-
tion, exactly resembling in form those in ch. v. These additional
verses of ch. v. may be noted as exemplifying a redundance of
sfyle, supplying details which are implied in what has already
been stated.
Instances of precision of statement (in addition to those
already noted in chs. i., v., and xi.) are found in parts of the
Flood narrative. Noah's age when the flood came is given
(vii. 6); the time of the beginning and end of the flood is defined
exactly by the year, the month (designated by a number as the
'second,' 'seventh'), and the day of the month (vii. n, viii. 4, 5,
13, 14). The dimensions of the ark (vi. 15, 16) and the height
of the water (vii. 20) are also noted.
Other instances of redundancy of style different from that
just pointed out as existing in ch. v. are found :
Gen. i. 27 : 'God created man in his own image, in the
image of God created he him.' The second clause repeats with
slight variation in form what has already been said in the first.
This repetition is somewhat akin to the parallelism of Hebrew
poetry 1 , and imparts a stateliness of description to the account.
It may be observed in ch. v. I, 2 ; compare also ix. i with ix. 7
and ix. 12 with ix. 17. Also in ch. xvii. ; compare v. 2 with
u. 4, vv. 12, 13, 23, 27 with one another, and 2/. i with
v. 24. Gen. vi. 22 is another instance, ' Thus did Noah ;
according to all that God commanded him, so did he.' This
rather noticeable type of sentence often recurs in P : see p. 213.
The literal translation of the first clause is, And Noah did (\\).
In those chapters which have been examined the expression
* These are the generations (or, origins] of occurs at intervals
(ii. 4, vi. 9, x. i, xi. 10, 27 ; with a slight variation in v. i, ' This
1 On the parallelism of Hebrew poetry the reader may consult the
Introduction to the Psalms in this series.
DIVERSITY OF STYLE 59
is the book of the generations of ...'). It is also found xxv. 12,
19, xxxvi. i, 9, xxxvii. 2. See the list in App. II, No. 8.
The whole history is, by the recurrence of this phrase,
divided into stages. At each stage, either a step forward in the
direct line of Israel's ancestors is made, or the limits of the
history are indicated by appending a short genealogy of those
families which were not inheritors of the promise. For details,
the commentary on Genesis may be consulted ; this feature of
the narrative is here noted as an additional example of orderly
arrangement with repetition of phrases.
b. Comparison of these selected sections with other passages.
Other passages of Genesis will now be considered in order to
find out whether they exhibit any of the marked characteristics
of style and vocabulary which have been noted in the preceding
pages. The account of the Creation in Gen. i. ii. 40 ends with
the words ' These are the generations of the heaven and of the
earth when they were created.' Another narrative (ii. 4^ iii. 24)
follows commencing with the words * In the day that the LORD
God made earth and heaven 1 .' The style of this narrative is
quite different from that of the preceding one ; none of the
words and expressions noted on p. 54 are found in it. In place
of the orderly arrangement with repetition of phrases^ the stately
precision with which the successive steps of the Creator's work \
are enumerated, the story is here told in a simple and picturesque J
manner, and the words employed to describe the work vijelwah (
are borrowed from the everyday work and life of man. In the
first account God creates^ a word especially employed to denote
divine activity ; in the second the LORD God forms (the word
used of a potter moulding clay) man of the dust of the ground,
He plants a garden, He takes the man and puts him therein.
He brings beast and fowl to the man, and the rib which He took
from the man He builded into a woman (R.V. marg.). This
1 It seems certain that this verse should be divided thus, by placing
a full stop after 'created. 1 The rest of the verse must then be connected
with ver. 5. In the day that the LORD God made earth and heaven,
no plant of the field was yet...'
60 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
simple record, in words of everyday life, of the mysterious power
which called forth the world and man is quite different in thought
from the picture of the God who * spake and it was made, who
commanded and it stood fast.' The difference is expressed in
technical language by saying that the representation of God in
the second narrative is more anthropomorphic than in the first ;
but the full meaning of this statement is not appreciated until
the words employed in ii. 425 have been duly weighed. To
them may be added others from the continuation in ch. iii.
The LORD God walks in His garden, and the sound of His
footsteps is heard (iii. 8, R.V. marg.) ; He makes coats of skins
for the man and his wife, and clothes them. The whole concep-
tion of God in this narrative is far removed from that which
underlies the representation of His work in the first chapter.
The interest of this second narrative centres in the making
of man and woman, and in the planting of the garden, the scene
of the momentous events recorded in ch. iii. But where it refers
to the creation of plants and living beings it implies an order
different from that of ch. i. Man is formed, then the garden
with its trees ; beasts and fowls are formed, and last of all
Eve is brought to the man. In the first chapter, an orderly
gradation is observed culminating in the creation of man, both
male and female. In the second the plants, trees and living
beings are described as made for his use and enjoyment, and
after he has been formed. Woman is formed last because there
had not yet been found an help adapted to the man. The/^/j
in the two narratives are presented differently.
In respect then of 1
(a) the style
(b} the conception of the Divine Being
(c] the representation of facts :
1 From here onwards statements have been marked with letters
(a) (^), and the inferences drawn from them by numbers (i) (6) in
order to bring out the continuity of the argument, and the connexion of
the final inference (6) on p. 66 with those preceding.
VARIETIES OF REPRESENTATION 61
the two accounts exhibit such marked divergence as to warrant
the presumption that
(i) the accounts in Gen. i. ii. 40 and in Gen. ii. \b in. 24
are not from the same narrator.
The t<wo genealogies in ch. iv. and ch. v. In iv. i/f. the
genealogy of Adam through Cain is traced to Lamech ; seven
names are given, and Lamech is in the sixth generation from
Adam. In ch. v. the genealogy of Adam through Seth is traced
to Lamech ; nine names are given, and Lamech is in the eighth
generation from Adam. These two genealogies are not by the
same writer, and they are not written in the same style. The
precision of ch. v. (already described on p. 57) is lacking in ch. iv. ;
instead of the repetition of the same phrases for each generation
there are found three varieties in iv. 17, 18 : 'she [Cain's wife]
bare Enoch' 'unto Enoch was born Irad' 'and Irad begat 1
Mehujael. 3
An inspection of the following table in which the genealogies
Adam
r
Cai
Em
Ira<
Me
Me
Lai
/. 17, 18
iv. 25, 16 ch. v.
r~
n
>ch
1
mjael
hushael
nech
Seth Seth'
Enosh Enosh
Kenan
Mahalalel
Jered
Enoch
Methuselah
Lamech
are placed side by side will shew that :
(d] the resemblances are sufficient to suggest a common
origin,
1 A further difference in the Hebrew may lie noted. Throughout
ch. v. the Hebrew for 'begat' is ho/idh, the Hiphil form of the root;
but in iv. 18 tin- ; yaladh, the < v >al form. The same dill. :
is found in cc. x., xi. ; yaladh x. 8, 13, 24 (twice), 26: but the Hij.hil
form in xi. 1027. Notice also in x. 21, 25 ' unto . .were b< i
Cf. iv. 1 8.
62 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
(e) the variations are so marked that they cannot be assigned
to the same writer,
(/) the difference of style points to the same conclusion as (e).
Hence the presumption is warranted that
(2) these two genealogies are not from the same narrator.
The genealogies in chs. x., xi. The descendants of Japheth
and Ham are given in ch. x. 2 20 ; those of Shem in x. 21 31.
Another genealogy from Shem to Abraham is given in xi. 10 26.
The same differences that were noticed in chs. iv., v. (p. 61)
present themselves here, but in a more complicated form, as
ch. x. shews affinity of style both with ch. iv. and with ch. v. For
details the reader may consult the commentary on Genesis, but
he will have little difficulty in applying to these chapters the
remarks already made with reference to the genealogies in
chs. iv., v., and in the note. The conclusion drawn will be that :
(3) the genealogies in chs. x., xi. are not all from the same
narrator.
The account of the Flood in chs. m. ix. Some verses in the
Flood narrative which resemble parts of Gen. i., and others
shewing precision of statement, have been already noticed on pp.
54, 57. The whole account is analysed in a subsequent section
(pp. 74ff.). The reader can refer to that section for details, so that it
is not necessary to repeat them here ; it is sufficient to note that :
(4) chs. vi. ix. shew signs of composite authorship, and two
sources have contributed to the narrative in its present form.
If the reader considers the statements (a) (/) and the
inferences (i) (4) drawn in the preceding pages, he will see
that a very strong case has been made out in favour of the
composite character of Gen. i. xi.
One group of passages containing blessings and promises
has been examined on p. 56. In the table on pp. 64, 65 they
occupy the left hand column. The passages in the right hand
column belong to the second group of passages containing
blessings and promises, and it will be seen that :
The words and phrases noticed on p. 56 are not found in them.
SIGNS OF COMPOSITE AUTHORSHIP 63
In both columns reference is made to a numerous posterity
and the future possession of the land, but the passages of the
right hand column lack the distinctive phraseology of those on
the left hand, and exhibit greater variety of language. Abraham's
descendants are likened for multitude to the dust of the earth
(xiii. 16), the stars (xv. 5, xxii. 17, xxvi. 4), and the sand on the
sea shore (xxii. 17). The outlook is wider; 'in thee shall all
families of the earth be blessed ' (xii. 3) has reference to others
beside the seed of Abraham. The promise is repeated (xviii. 18,
xxviii. 14), and with a slight variation (xxii. 18, xxvi. 4). For
the meaning of the words see the commentary in this series.
In close connexion with some of these passages it is recorded
that an altar was reared up to commemorate the appearance of
the Lord (xii. 7, xiii. 4, xxvi. 25 and cp. ch. xxii.). No such
record is found in connexion with any of the promises in the
left hand column. A comparison of these two columns warrants
the inference that they are not from the same source. These
promises are found scattered throughout the whole patriarchal
history, and there is no reason for separating the promises from
the narratives. In most cases the promise is embedded in the
narrative ; the narrative leads up to the promise, and has been
preserved for the purpose of recording it. Hence the promises
carry with them the patriarchal history, and the further inference
may be drawn that :
(5) the patriarchal history is not all from the same narrator,
and two sources have contributed to the narrative in its present
form.
A similar inference has been drawn from considering (icn.
i. xi. The examination of chs. i. xi., and the examination of
the patriarchal history, furnish evidence in favour of composite
authorship. Each line of argument supports and increases the
probability of the other.
{Continued on page 66.]
64 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
COMPARISON OF PASSAGES.
Gen. xvii.
...! am God Almighty (Heb.
El Skaddai), walk before me and
be thou perfect.
2 And I... will multiply thee ex-
ceedingly...
6 And I will make thee exceed-
ing fruitful... and kings shall come
out of thee.
7 And I will establish my cove-
nant between me and thee and
thy seed after thee throughout their
generations for an everlasting
covenant, to be a God unto thee,
and to thy seed after thee.
8 And I will give unto thee, and
to thy seed after thee, the land of
thy sojournings, all the land of
Canaan, for an everlasting posses-
sion; and I will be their God.
16 1 will bless her [Sarah] and
she shall be (a mother of) nations ;
kings of peoples shall be of her.
!!>... and I will establish my
covenant with him [Isaac] for an
everlasting covenant for his seed
after him.
20 1 have blessed him and will
make him fruitful, and will mul-
tiply him exceedingly...
21 But my covenant will I estab-
lish with Isaac...
22 ...and God went up from
Abraham.
Gen. xii. 2, 3, 7
2 ...and I will make of thee a
great nation, and I will bless thee,
and make thy name great ; and be
thou a blessing: 3... and through
thee shall all the families of the
earth be blessed.
? ...unto thy seed will I give this
land : and there builded he an
altar to the Lord...
xiii. 14 17
** ...Lift up now thine eyes and
look... north ward and southward
and eastward and westward: x sfor
all the land which thou seest, to
thee will I give it, and to thy seed
for ever. l6 . . .And I will make thy
seed as the dust of the earth:...
*7 Arise, walk through the land...
for unto thee will I give it.
xv. 5, 1 8
s Look now toward heaven, and
tell the stars, if thou be able to
tell them : and he said unto him,
So shall thy seed be.
l8 ...unto thy seed have I given
this land...
xviii. 18
...Abraham shall surely become
a great and mighty nation, and all
the nations of the earth shall be
blessed through him.
xxii. 15 18
*s And the angel of the LORD...
said...
*7 ...hi blessing I will bless thee,
and in multiplying I will multiply
COMPARISON OF PASSAGES
xxvin. 3, 4
3 And God Almighty bless thee,
and make thee fruitful and multiply
thee, that thou mayest be a com-
pany of peoples; *and give thee
the blessing of Abraham, to thee,
and to thy seed with thee; that
thou mayest inherit the land of
thy sojournings, which God gave
unto Abraham.
xxxv. 913
9 And God appeared unto Jacob
again... and blessed him... "and
said unto him, I am God Al-
mighty: be fruitful and multiply...
kings shall come out of thy loins ;
12 and the land which I gave to
Abraham and Isaac, to thee will
I give it, and to thy seed after
thee will I give the land. '3 And
God went up from him...
xlviii. 3, 4
3... God Almighty appeared unto
: ! me, <an<!
unto me, Behold I will make thee
fruitful and multiply thee, and
I will make of thee a company of
Bl ; and will give this land
t.. thy seed after thee for an
possession.
thy seed as the stars of the heaven,
and as the sand which is upon the
sea shore ; and thy seed shall
possess the gate of his enemies :
18 and by thy seed shall all nations
of the earth bless themselves ;...
xxiv. 7
The Lord... that sware unto me
saying, Unto thy seed will I give
this land ;...
xxvi. 3, 4, 24
3 Sojourn in this land, and I...
will bless thee ; for unto thee, and
unto thy seed, I will give all these
lands, and I will establish the
oath which I sware unto Abraham
thy father; <and I will multiply
thy seed as the stars of heaven,...
and by thy seed shall all the nations
of the earth bless themselves ;
2 - I am the God of Abraham
thy father :...!. ..will bless thee,
and multiply thy seed for my
servant Abraham's sake.
iii. 13, 14
'3...I am the Lord,... the land
whereon thou liest, to thee will
I give it, and to thy seed ; l and
thy seed shall be as the du>>t of
the earth, and thou shalt .-.
1 to the west and to th<
and to the north and to the south:
aii'i through thee and through thy
hall all the families of the
eaith be hi'
To the passages in the left-hand column might be added Gen. i. 12,
28, v. 2, ix. i, 8 17, which have been noticed on pp. 54 57. Kr all
'ie commentary may be consulted; ab>O the list
H churacte.ii.-tic ot 1' in Ap,>. 11.
C.P.
66 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The whole investigation may be summed up as follows :
(g) The sections Gen. i. ii. 4, ch. v., xi. 10 27, some
passages in chs. vi. ix., and the passages in the left hand
column on pp. 64, 65, contain combinations of words and phrases
of a marked character, and exhibit strong characteristics of style.
(ft) Side by side with them are found other sections (the
remainder of Gen. i. xi., and the passages in the right hand
column on pp. 64, 65) where none of these phrases, combinations,
or characteristics can be traced.
A very strong probability 1 is claimed for the inference that :
(6) the sections enumerated in (g) must be assigned to a
different hand from that which contributed the passages referred
to in (h\
Because in the sections enumerated in (g} Elohim is used as
the name of God, they were formerly called Elohistic ; but more
recently they have been denoted by the symbol P (for reasons
which have been referred to in Pt I. 4, p. 35, and others which
will be given more fully later).
The use of the Divine Names in the passages which have
been considered may now be noted :
(a) Throughout the sections referred to in (g) Elohim is
used as the name of God.
(b] In Gen. ii. 4 the expression ' the LORD God ' occurs for
the first time in the Bible, and is repeated in this and the
following chapter. The strict rendering of the original is
'Jehovah God'; the combination is uncommon, it is found in
the Hexateuch (outside chapters ii. and iii.) only in Exod. ix. 30.
It is generally allowed that this is not the original form of
writing, and that the names are intentionally combined to shew
the identity of the Elohim of ch. i. with the Jehovah of subse-
quent narratives. Klostermann (Der Pentateuch, p. 37) suggests
that it is an instruction to the reader to pronounce Elohim
1 The fact that the same events are recorded in the sections
enumerated in (g) and (h) materially strengthens this probability.
VARYING USE OF DIVINE NAMES 67
instead of the sacred name in chs. ii., iii. If this be so, the
method of indicating the pronunciation differs here from that
adopted in other parts of the Bible (described on pp. 5 1 f.).
(c) In the remaining portions of Gen. i. xi. and in the
promises in the right hand column the name Jehovah is used.
Now either : the variation in the use of Divine Names may
be regarded as furnishing further evidence in favour of the
separate origin of the two narratives ; or, the investigation into
the style and character of the two narratives may be considered
as confirming the inference which was drawn in the preceding
section from the varying use of the Divine Names. The im-
portant point to bear in mind is that the two phenomena which
have been observed are separate, and consequently that argu-
ments based upon those phenomena are independent, and when
they tend to establish the same proposition are corroborative.
An important passage will now be examined, which suggests
a reason for the varying use of the Divine Names in Genesis.
The R.V. of Exod. vi. 2, 3 is as follows :
'And God spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am
JEHOVAH : and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and
unto Jacob, as God Almighty (Heb. El Shaddai R.V. marg.),
but by (or, as to R.V. marg.) my name Jehovah I was not
known to them.'
The writer points out that God's revelation of Himself was
progressive; for the period from Abraham to Moses He was
known as El Shaddai, but from the time of Moses onwards He
is known by His name Jehovah. Appearances as El Shaddai
to which he refers have been recorded in Gen. xvii. and xxxv.
He uses in vi. 2 8 the expression 1 'I have established my
ant,' found also in Gen. ix. <;, n, 17; xvii. 7, 19, 21.
land promised to the patriarchs is described as 'the
land 01 their sojourning' (Exod. vi. 4), as in Gen. xvii. 8,
a complete list "1 the passages where : < occur
sec the list in App. II.
5 2
68 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
xxviii. 4 1 . Can it be doubted that Exod. vi. 2 8 is from the
same hand, and that it gives the reason for this writer's use of
Elohim in preference to Jehovah"*
That Elohim is used designedly as far as Exod. vi. appears
from the fact that it is used much more frequently in those
chapters than in the rest of the Hexateuch. In Gen. i. Exod. vi.
(56 chapters) it occurs about 120 times, but in the remaining
155 chapters of the Hex. it occurs about 30 times as the name
of the Deity.
The average occurrence per chapter is 2*1 in the first section
against less than "2 in the second. There must be some reason
to account for this great difference the average in one part is
more than ten times higher 2 than in the other and Exod. vi.
supplies the reason. Before God's further revelation of Himself
under the name Jehovah, this writer prefers to use the more
general term Elohim, and on occasions El Shaddai ; afterwards,
as will be seen, he uses Jehovah freely.
From Exod. vi. onwards, the test supplied by the use of
Elohim and Jehovah is no longer applicable. But the passages
which have been already examined and denoted (p. 66) by the
symbol P exhibit a writer with marked characteristics in respect
of style and phraseology. These characteristics will prove
sufficient to determine the extent and limits of his contribution
towards the rest of the Hexateuch. (See App. I.)
In the account of God's message to Pharaoh, and of the
plagues that follow (Exod. vii. 14 xi. 10), his style may be
recognized. In the preliminary sign shewn before Pharaoh
1 The passages from Genesis have already been noted as belonging
to P.
3 If pages be taken instead of chapters which are of unequal length,
Gen. i. Ex. vi. occupies 77 pages and the rest of the Hexateuch
241 pages in the Interlinear Bible. The averages are i'5 and -12, the
first being more than twelve times the second. They would be the
same for other editions.
PASSAGES IN EXODUS 69
(vii. 8 13) Aaron cast down his rod and it became a serpent
(Heb. tannin, any large reptile R.V. m. ; the same word is
translated 'sea-monsters' [whales A.V.] in Gen. i. 21). In
Exod. iv. 3 Moses' rod becomes a serpent (Heb. nahash, the
usual word for serpent), and the sign is to be shewn before the
children of Israel to persuade them. The two accounts are
clearly from different sources ; the account in ch. vii. shews
affinity with Gen. i., that in ch. iv. with Gen. iii. Pharaoh called
for the wise men and sorcerers (vii. 11); and the magicians of
Egypt did so with their enchantments. The concluding verse
records * And Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened
not unto them ; as the LORD had spoken.'
If now the following passages (vii. 19 2Cvz, lib 22; viii.
5 7, 16 19; ix. 8 12) be read, the similarity to vii. 813
is obvious. The accounts of the preliminary sign (vii. 813),
and the accounts of water turned into blood, frogs, lice, and
boils are all cast in the same mould. Moses and Aaron are
associated together, the rod is Aaron's, the magicians three
times imitate Aaron's work, in viii. 18 they fail, in ix. 18 they are
punished. Each section concludes 'and he hearkened not unto
them ; as the LORD had spoken.' The characteristic expressions
of P noted above as occurring in Genesis (pp. 54, 56) do not
occur here (the subject obviously does not admit them) ; yet,
many similarities of vocabulary and style (e.g. orderly arrange-
ment with repetition of phrases) link all these passages together,
and differentiate them markedly from the context : contrast, for
instance, the opening words 'Say unto Aaron...' with 'Go in
unto Pharaoh, and say unto him...'; and make strong with
make heavy (see R.V. marg. in chs. vii. xi.). In other parts
of these chapters further evidence of composite authorship may
:nd, and phenomena similar to those already observed in
:. xi , and the passages recording the promises on pp. 64,65.
;ivcr, LOT*, p. 24, and the commentary in this series.
The account of the institution of the Passover (Exod. xii.
1 13, 4349), ^h full precepts for its first and subsequent
celebrations, may be compared with the account (Gen. xvii.) of
70 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the institution of circumcision. The similarity in the phrase-
ology is evident. Note the expressions ' throughout your
generations,' 'that soul shall be cut off,' 'in the selfsame
day,' in the two chapters ; the stranger must be circumcised
before he is allowed to eat the Passover. Consult the list in
App. II.
The reader will recognize the style of P in xii. 14 20, 40 41,
50,51.
In this chapter occurs for the first time 'the congregation
of Israel' (xii. 3, 6, 19, 47). This expression is found more than
loo times in the Hexateuch, and only in passages which are
with good reason assigned to P. See App. II, No. 28.
This writer also furnishes an account of the deliverance from
Egypt, the overthrow of the Egyptians in the sea, and the march
to Sinai, which is preserved in the present text in combination
with other accounts. The exact amount of manna gathered each
day, and the enforcement of the sabbath ordinance in connexion
with it, afford illustrations of his style. The stay at Sinai is-
recorded at great length, and this writer contributes a full
account of the legislation which extends to 50 chapters (Exod.
xxv. Nu. x. 28, with the exception of Exod. xxxii. xxxiv. 28).
On the departure from Sinai, his record of the journey to the
plains of Moab is again found mixed with other accounts in
Num. x. 29 xxii. i, but he contributes also three chapters of
legislation (xv., xviii., xix.). The chapters from Num. xxv. to the
end of the book are all (except xxv. I 5, and parts of xxxii.)
from his pen.
They record the second numbering of the people, Joshua's
appointment as the successor of Moses, the vengeance taken on
Midian, an itinerary of the journeyings from Rameses to the
plains of Moab, the borders of the land to the west of the
Jordan, and the names of the men appointed to divide the land,
the assignment of Levitical cities and cities of refuge. They
are chiefly narrative, with full details of persons and places, but
ch. xxvii. and ch. xxxvi. deal with the law of inheritance, and
chs. xxviii., xxix. contain a list of sacrifices to be offered on each
CHARACTERISTICS OF P 71
day, sabbath, fast and festival. In ch. xxx. laws concerning
are found, and the conditions regulating the use of the
cities of refuge (ch. xxxv.) are legal in character.
This writer contributes but few verses to Deut. and to the
first half of Joshua, but furnishes the main part of Jos. xiii. xxi.,
which describes the allotment of the territory, the boundaries of
the tribes, with an enumeration of their cities and villages, the
setting apart six cities of refuge and 48 cities for the Levites.
The character of the document may be inferred from this
sketch of its contents. Though in form it is narrative, the 50
chapters which describe the legislation at Sinai (Exod. xxv.
Nu. x.) shew the aim of the writer. They are almost exclusively
concerned with the externals of religion ; the tabernacle and its
furniture, how and by whom they are to be packed and carried
during the journeyings, priesthood, sacrifices, feasts, the day of
Atonement, and priestly dues. An outline only of the history
is given, but full accounts are found when some important
ordinance (e.g. Passover, Exod xii., Circumcision, Gen. xvii.)
is described. Though the narrative describes the first observ-
ance of these rites, the minute details, and expressions such as
'an everlasting covenant' (Gen. xvii. 13), 'ye shall keep it a
feast by an ordinance for ever' (Exod. xii. 14), 'whosoever does
not observe either circumcision or passover,' 'that soul shall be
cut off from his people,' shew that what was commanded to
their forefathers is of perpetual obligation. In the history of the
.ire found rubrics for the present. The legislation is clothed
in a historic garb.
Because of the precise assignment of dates and the svstem-
nt of material, this document practically forms a
framework which binds together the component parts of the
;-U(h. In the earlier days of criticism it was regard.-,
the oldest writing, and called the '(JrumlM hrift' or fundamental
.dso (ailed the Klohistic n.tiiative frm its
use of the name I-.lohiin, but this title describes only the portion
before I \od. \i. and (as will be shewn subsequently is not a
sutlkiently distinctive title, liy mure recent critics it lias been
72 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
called (on account of the fulness with which priestly functions,
privileges, and dues are described) the Priestly code, and
denoted by the letter P, or PC. Although the priestly legisla-
tion forms only a part of the work, it is nevertheless a consider-
able and prominent part, and much that is narrative in form is
legislative in character. It will be convenient to use the symbol
P in referring to this document.
The writer who uses the name Jehovah^ may be easily
traced by this characteristic as far as Exod. vi. The accounts
of the Creation (Gen. ii. 46 25) and the Fall (ch. Hi.), and
most of the patriarchal history are from his hand. The name
Jehovah is used of the time before Abraham (Gen. iv. 26),
and in chs. xii. xvi. it is recorded of Abraham that he called
on the name of Jehovah* (ch. xii. 8), and that the Lord said
unto him, 'I am Jehovah' 1 that brought thee out of Ur of the
Chaldees ' (ch. xv. 7). Can the writer who employs the name
Jehovah in these passages be the same as the writer of Exod. vi.
2 8 who says that God was not known to the patriarchs by His
name Jehovah, and can he have written the passages which
have been shewn to be in close connexion with those verses?
Are these two representations of the patriarchal history, one
avoiding the name Jehovah, the other using it freely, both from
the same source 3 ?
As J records the promises made to the fathers, it is reasonable
to suppose that he was not silent with reference to the course of
events that brought about their fulfilment, and that this source
can be traced in Exodus and Numbers.
The book of Deuteronomy has a style of its own, which may
be recognized even by the reader of the English versions 4 . The
1 He is generally designated as J.
2 ' The LORD ' in the English versions.
8 If the reader is in doubt how to answer this question, let him
consider the remarks on Gen. ii. 4 25 (pp. 59f.) and on the story of the
Flood (pp. 74-81).
4 Some phrases characteristic of Deut. are given in App. IV. For
further illustrations see the Introduction to Deuteronomy.
THE ELEMENTS J AND D 73
book records the promulgation of a law in the land of Moab
which the children of Israel are to observe when settled in the
Promised Land. But it is more than a mere code of laws ; the
introduction to the laws (cc. v. xi.) is a prolonged and earnest
entreaty that Israel should hear and do them. It sets forth love
towards God as the great motive to obedience, and both in its
conception of the Lord God of Israel, and of the response which
a nation chosen by such a God should make to His demands, it
embodies the highest ideal of prophetic teaching. It has been
said that Deuteronomy bears to the preceding books of the
Pentateuch a relation similar to that of St John's gospel to the
Synoptic gospels. The remark is suggestive, and deserves con-
sideration. The unity of thought which pervades the book
suggests at first a single author, and no doubt the greater part
of it is the work of one writer ; but further examination shews
that it, like other books of the Hexateuch, shews traces of
expansion and editorial redaction. Both narratives and laws
contained in the book will come under review presently. It is
sufficient here to indicate it as another element of the Hexateuch,"
and to denote it by the symbol D.
iii. EXISTENCE OF DUPLICATE ACCOUNTS.
In the preceding section, a particular document (to which
has been assigned the symbol P) has been separated out from
the rest of the Hexateuch. In the course of that investigation
attention has been directed to the existence of duplicate accounts,
e.g. those of the Creation, the Flood, the genealogies, and the
promises to the patriarchs. Though in that section stress has
been chiefly laid on the argument from phraseology and style,
it lias also been pointed out that, when variations in phraseology
and style are observed in duplicate accounts of the same events,
the argument in favour of composite authorship is the more
decisive. The duplicate accounts here considered may thus be
regarded as supplementing, and coiio the argument
advanced in seciion ii. It will be found that they throw light
74 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
on the composition of the Hexateuch and on the character of
that portion of it which remains after P has been separated. The
observation made with reference to the investigations in sections
i and ii (viz. that they are independent, and when they tend to
establish the same result, corroborative] may be repeated here.
This section is independent of the preceding section, and might
have been placed before it. Then, the composite character of
the passages which will be here considered having been estab-
lished, the investigation of section ii would follow, with a strong
antecedent probability established in favour of the composite
character of the whole Hexateuch.
a. Duplicate accounts in Genesis. The first instance of
duplicate accounts is contained in Gen. i. and ii., and has been
investigated on pp. 54, 59. The narrative of the Flood (Gen. vi.
5 ix. J7) is the first instance of duplicate accounts preserved in
a different form ; here the compiler instead of keeping the two
sources separate (as in Gen. i. and ii.) has woven together his
two sources into a single narrative. It will be instructive to
examine these chapters, and note the indications of composite
authorship and the method of the compiler.
Comparing vi. 5 8 and 9 13, it will be noticed that the
same facts are recorded in both passages. There is a favourable
notice about Noah, a statement that God saw the wickedness
that was in the earth, and announced His determination to
destroy all that was therein. This repetition of facts is made in
very different language. Though in the English versions the
word destroy occurs in both passages two different Hebrew
words are used. The one in vi. 7 ; vii. 4, 23 may be rendered
literally as in R.V. marg. blot out. The other in vi. 13, 17 ; ix. 1 1,
15 is a common word for destroy.
In vv. 58 it is twice stated that the Lord repented that
He had made man ; but in vv. 913 this is not recorded.
In iiv. 5 8 Jehovah, in vv. 9 13 Elohim is the name
employed to denote the Divine Being. Verse 9 commences with
the words < These are the generations of Noah.' A reference to
p. 58 shews that this is one of P's phrases, as also are 'perfect,'
DUPLICATE ACCOUNTS IN GENESIS 75
* Noah walked with God ' (cf. Gen. v. 24 ; and xvii. i ' walk
before me and be thou perfect')- The same phenomena which
have been observed in the accounts of Creation again present
themselves in these verses which serve as an introduction to the
story of the Flood. Two versions of the same facts follow one
after the other ; the first, by using Jehovah 1 , and representing
the Lord as * repenting,' recalls the characteristics of Gen. ii.
4 25 ; the second uses God, and expressions found in ch. v.
and ch. xvii. (parts of the document which has been denoted by
the symbol P). The first has blot out, the second destroy. The
words ' from the face of the ground] following ' blot out' in vi. 7,
vii. 4 R.V., are like ii. 5, 6, 7, 9, 19 (J). P uses generally
' earth.' These two versions are clearly from different sources.
Do these two sources furnish material for the rest of the
narrative? Further examination will shew that they do, and
will also supply additional tests for distinguishing between the
two sources. It will assist the reader if the results are given in
a tabular form (see pp. 76, 77).
In the central column C a summary of the narrative is given ;
those facts and statements which are repeated are in ordinary
type, those which are recorded only once are in italics. The
columns on either side contain the Scripture references ; the
outer columns to the right and left contain selections from the
passages words and expressions which serve to distinguish
between the sources. The portions in italics are placed on
that side of C which is nearer to the column to which they are
assigned. Italics in the outer columns indicate words and ex-
pressions characteristic of J and P respectively.
A glance at column C of the table is sufficient to shew the
great preponderance of matter in ordinary type, i.e. of incidents
which are repeated in these chapters. Nearly the whole of the
narrative is duplicated. If the passages contained in each of
the columns P and J be i .nl coose mivi-ly, it will be seen that
-i>' in vi. 5 (A.V.) bhould be 'the LORD' (Jehovah]
a, in K.V.
76 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
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And the Lord said, 7 //// 5/tf/ out
man... from off the face of the
ground.
[command to make an ark.]
For yet seven days and 7 7t;*Y/
cause it to rain. ..will I blot out
from off the face of the ground.
Come thou and all thy house. Of
every c&vm beast thou shall
lake to thee seven and seven...
and of beasts that are not clean
*700...each and his mate.
And Noah did according to all
that the Lord commanded him.
After the seven days. ..the waters
of the flood were upon the earth.
Of clean beasts, and of beasts that
are not clean..
...and the Lord shut him in.
NARRATIVE OF THE FLOOD
77
the end o
ened the w
ven days a
th the dov
t other sev
Noah rem
the ark an
ld, the fa
ry-
re from
will not curse tke ground
neither will 1 again smite.
78 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
each of them furnishes an almost complete story. Where repeti-
tion is the rule and single record the exception (as column C
shews), it will be necessary to examine the latter more closely,
to see whether a reason can be given why only one account has
been preserved (see pp. 79 f.).
Two Hebrew words occur in the narrative, which are both
translated 'die.' In vii. 22 (J) the ordinary Heb. word is used ;
in vi. 17, vii. 21 a less common word (like ' expire'' in English),
which outside the Hexateuch is found only in poetry, and in
the Hexateuch is found only in P.
According to one account the flood is the result of prolonged
rain (vii. 4; where note 'blot out from off the face of the
ground,' R.V. vii. 12. Cf. 'the rain from heaven was restrained,'
viii. 2). According to the other account waters from beneath,
'the fountains of the great deep' ('deep' as in Gen. i. 2), join
with those from above to produce the catastrophe (vii. n;
viii. 2).
A distinction is made between clean and unclean animals in
vii. 2, 8. Seven pairs of the former but only one pair of the
latter are to be taken. No such distinction is made in vi. 19, 20,
vii. 15.
Two expressions are used to denote male and female :
(1) zakhar urfkebhah, vi. 19, vii. 16, as in Gen. i. 27 (P).
(2) 'ish ifishto (lit. 'a man and his wife 1 ,' here it might be
rendered, 'each and his mate'), vii. 2 (twice) (J).
From vii. 7 compared with vii. 10 it seems that Noah and
his family came into the ark before the flood ; in vii. 13 they
entered 'on the selfsame day' (see list of P's words and phrases
in App. II). Noah's family are described as 'all thy house' in
vii. i : but in vi. 18 ; vii. 7, 13 ; viii. 15, 18 a more detailed de-
scription, 'thou and thy sons and thy wife and thy sons' wives
with thee,' is given after the manner ot P.
The indications of time are different in the two narratives.
1 In Hebrew, ' man ' and * woman ' are used in the sense oi ' each ' ;
of animals, and even of inanimate objects: see Gen. xv. 10; Zech. xi. 9.
THE TWO VERSIONS COMPARED 79
Seven clays and 40 days are mentioned in vii. 4, 10, 12, 17.
viii. 6, 10, 12.
A complete chronology is supplied as follows :
Year Month Day
vii. 6 6ooth of Noah
ii 217
viii. 4 7^7
5 10 i
13 6oist of Noah i i
14 2 27
According to this the complete duration was a lunar year and
10 days, i.e. a solar year, and the period of the waters prevailing
was 5 months, i.e. the 150 days of vii. 24 and viii. 3. This
dating by the year, month and day is a characteristic of P
(cf. Exod. xl. 17 ; Num. i. i ; ix. i ; x. II ; xxxiii. 3, 38). Other
indications of his style are 'in the selfsame day,' vii. 13 ; ' I will
establish my covenant,' vi. 18, ix. 9, 11; 'the token of the
covenant,' ix. 12, 17.
The words and expressions which have been noted in the
preceding paragraphs appear in the outer columns of the table
in italics. The table may serve to remind the reader of the
arguments, and help him to estimate their force. The same
series of allied phenomena present themselves which have been
noted on pp. 54 ff. with reference to the accounts of the Creation.
An account which is in form single indicates diversity of source
in the same manner as the separate accounts of the Creation in
the first two chapters of Genesis.
One more point remains to be considered : I )oes the
iiive in its present form afford any evidence of the manner
in which it hn> been put together?
1 h- table shews that the portions which arc found in J
only
(1) The Lord repented that He had made man.
(2) The distinction between clean and unclean.
8o INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
(3) The story of the raven and the dove.
(4) Noah's sacrifice.
The omission of (2) and (4) by P is in accord with his
treatment of the whole patriarchal history. He abstains from
recording any act of sacrifice or ceremonial distinction between
clean and unclean before the establishment of a priesthood in
the time of Moses.
The representation of God in P is less anthropomorphic
(see p. 60) than those in other writers. This explains why the
expression 'the Lord repented that He had made man' finds no
place in his narrative. It appears then that P omits designedly ;
and this accounts for his omission of (i), (2), and (4). As regards
(3), P may have mentioned the sending forth of the raven and
the dove ; a compiler would not relate an incident like this in
duplicate. The account of P supplies the framework of the
whole narrative, and has been preserved almost, if not altogether,
entire.
The portions found in P only are :
(1) The command to build the ark.
(2) The exact dates year, month and day.
(3) The departure from the ark.
(4) The blessing of Noah.
Now (2) is quite in P's style ; he alone gives the exact dates
which are found in the Pentateuch. Also (4) is very similar to
Gen. i. 28 (see the remarks on p. 54). These are probably given
by P only, but J's account is sufficiently complete and indepen-
dent to justify the conjecture that some notices corresponding
to (i) and (3) were originally contained in it. The probable
position of these presumed original contents of J are indicated
in the table in brackets.
Some parts of J have been expanded by a redactor (or editor)
who incorporated phrases from P. The evidence in favour of
this statement is most clearly furnished by vii. 7 9. Here we
should expect to find J's version of the entry into the ark, parallel
ANALYSIS OF THE NARRATIVES 81
to P's account in vii. 1316. The distinction between clean and
unclean points to J, but there is much in these verses that
resembles P, e.g. 'his sons and his wife and his sons' wives with
him' vii. 7 (cp. vi. 18 and vii. 13), P's expression for 'male and
female' (cp. p. 78), 'two and two' of all sorts, and 'God' (vii. 9).
Other probable additions to the J narrative are { whom I have
created' (vi. 7), 'male and female,' as in P (vii. 3). The preceding
remarks render the following statement probable:
The material in J has been expanded by a redactor -who has
combined the sources. He shews affinity with />, and not with J.
b. Duplicate accounts in other books. Duplicate accounts
of both kinds, separate and combined, like those in Genesis
which have already been examined, are found in other books of
the Hexateuch. The declaration of the Divine Name Jehovah
on the eve of the defiverance from Egypt is recorded in both
Exod. iii. and vi. The account in ch. vi. has been shewn to be
part of P (p. 67). In Exod. iii. Moses is bidden to declare the
name Jehovah to the children of Israel, and to demand their
release. The chapter is different in both style and language
from ch. vi., but contains similar matter. An investigation such
as that employed (p. 59) in examining Gen. i., ii. will shew that
these two chapters are from different sources. The description
of the plagues in Exod. vii. xi. contains parts which are taken
from a single document, and other parts where details from
more than one document have been combined. Many narratives
in Exodus and Numbers are composite, like the account of the
Flood in Gen. vi. ix.
Three sets of passages which, on examination, will prove
instiuctive, will here be considered: those which refer to
(1) the Ark,
(2) the Tent of meeting,
(3) the minion of tin.-
(i) Passages which refer to the A>k.
itiofl is (inc. i. .1 to the table on p 82.
UP. 6
82 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Exod. xxv.
10 And they shall make an ark
of acacia wood...
Exod. xxxiv.
r ...Hew thee two tables of stone
like unto the first :
and I will write upon the tables
the words that were on the first
tables which thou brakest.
i ...And be ready by the morning,
and come up in the morning unto
mount Sinai, and present thyself
there to me on the top of the mount.
3
4 And he hewed two tables of
stone like unto the first; and Moses
rose up early in the morning,
and went up unto mount Sinai,
as the LORD had commanded him,
and took in his hand two tables
of stone.
Deut. x.
1 ...Hew thee two tables of slone
like unto the first, and come up
unto me into the mount, and make
thee an ark of wood
2 and I will write on the tables
the words that were on the first
tables which thou brakest, and
thou shall put them in the ark.
3 And I made an ark of acacia
wood,
and I hewed two tables of stone
like unto the first,
and I went up into the mount,
having the two tables in mine
hand.
28 ...and he wrote upon the
tables the words of the covenant,
the ten commandments.
Exod. xxxvii.
And Bezalel made the ark of
acacia wood.
(Description follows w. i 9.)
Exod. xl.
17 ...in the first month in the
second year, on the first day of
the month... he took and put the
testimony into the ark,... and he
brought the ark into the taber-
nacle.
4 And he wrote on the tables
according to the first writing,
the ten commandments which the
LORD spake unto you in the mount
out of the midst of the assembly :
and the LORD gave them unto me.
5 And I turned and came doum
from the mount, and put the tables
in the ark -which I had made ; and
there they be, as the LORD com-
manded me.
EXODUS AND DEUT. COMPARED 83
He will notice that two accounts from Exod. xxxiv. and Deut. x.
are verbally identical except that (a) in Ex. (w. 4ff.) Moses is
spoken of in the third person, while in Deut. he speaks in the
first ; and that (V) the passage in Deut. contains three additional
statements (these are in italics) concerning the ark.
According to Exod. xxv. 10 22 Moses receives the command
to make the ark (with instructions about its form), the mercy seat,
and the cherubim, during his first stay in the mount ; according
to Deut., the command to make the ark is given with the
command to make two tables of stone like the first, which were
broken, i.e. after the first stay in the mount, during the interval
between coming down from that first stay and going up again.
During that interval Moses makes the ark (Deut. x. 3); he goes
up into the mount, and on his return puts the tables into the
ark; 'and there they be as the LORD commanded me' (x. 5).
According to Exod. xxxv. ff., Moses, after his return from the
second stay on the mount, gives instructions for making the ark
which were carried out by Bezalel (xxxvii. i), and after the
tabernacle was reared up, Moses puts the testimony (i.e. the two
tables) into the ark and brings the ark into the tabernacle
(Exod. xl. 20). The two accounts differ both as to the time of
the command to make the ark, and as to the time when it was
made:
The command to make the ark was given, according to
Exodus, during)
- \ the first stay in the mount.
Deuteronomy, after J
The ark was made, according to
Exodus, after 1 ,
V the second stay.
Deuteronomy, beforej
These two accounts agree in two points : (i) the ark was of
acacia (shittim A.V.) wood, and (2) Mobes put the tables into the
ark. But notwithstanding thi-> agreement, the divergence in
other details is so marked that two ditierent authors must have
.'uutcd them. Whoever wrote Kxocl. xxv., or Exod. xxxvii.,
could not h.ive written the account in Deut. x. 1 5, or that
6-2
84 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
in Exod. xxxiv. I 4, which is so closely parallel to it. Some
interesting questions arise about the relations between these
two last mentioned passages, but they must be left unanswered
at present ; the following statements, however, may be regarded
as established by the preceding investigation.
(a) The two accounts in Exod. xxxiv. and Deut. x. in their
present form (one with, the other without, reference to the ark)
are not from the same writer; nor were they placed in their
present positions by the same compiler ; nor were they composed
by the author of Exod. xxv. or xxxvii.
(b) The full and exact details about the ark in Exod. xxv.
and xxxvii. belong to P. Therefore Exod. xxxiv. does not belong
to P.
(c} Deuteronomy shews affinity with that portion of Exodus
which does not belong to P.
Note that these inferences involve : (a) the existence of three
writers at least ; (/3) probably, also, one or more redactors.
(2) Passages which refer to the Tent of meeting.
Instructions are given to Moses about the Tabernacle 1 and
its vessels in Exod. xxv. xxxi., during his first stay of forty
days in the mount. In Exod. xxxv. xl. these instructions are
communicated to the people and the ark, the tabernacle, and
its vessels are made. The work occupied some time ; for the
tabernacle was not set up until the first day of the first month
of the second year (about 9 months after arriving at Sinai)
(Exod. xl. 17). But in the interval between receiving these
instructions, and carrying them out, a remarkable series of events
1 Two expressions are used in describing the ' Tent ' or ' Tabernacle '
of Exod. xxv. xxxi. and xxxv. xl. ; ' Ohel Mo'e dh, which is translated
Tent of meeting R.V., tabernacle of the congregation A.V. ; and Mishkan
(Dwelling), translated Tabernacle both in R.V. and A.V. ; but R.V.
has in the margin Heb. dwelling. The two expressions are combined
Exod. xl. 2, 6, 29. The tent of xxxiii. 7 n, and that described in
xxv. xxxi., xxxv. xl. are both called by the Hebrew name 'Ohel
MFtdh.
THE TENT OF MEETING 85
took place, which are recorded in Exod. xxxii. xxxiv. The
people worship the golden calf, and the command is issued to
depart from Mount Sinai, accompanied with a declaration that
God will not go up in the midst of them. On hearing these evil
tidings the people mourned, and put off their ornaments. Then
follows (xxxiii. 7 n) an account of a tent which Moses used to
pitch ' 'without the camp, afar 4^" from the camp,' and he called
it 'the Tent of meeting' (tabernacle of the congregation A.V.).
Every one who sought the LORD used to go out to this tent.
When Moses went out and entered into the Tent, the pillar of
cloud would descend and stand at the door of the Tent ; all
the people would see this and worship. When the LORD had
spoken unto Moses face to face, Moses would turn again into
the camp, but his minister (servant A.V.) Joshua did not depart
out of the Tent.
The tenses in the Hebrew are frequentative, implying that
what is here described was customary, and not done only on
some special occasion. A tent is here referred to as already
existing, without any previous intimation that it had been made.
Did Moses make this tent, or cause it to be made, without
having received instructions? If he did, there is a notable
divergence between the two accounts. If he received instruc-
tions, either they have been omitted, or they are those of
Exod. xxv. In either case the accounts differ as to the time
at which the Tent of meeting was set up.
Other occasions on which the Tent of meeting is described
as pitched without the camp are :
(i) When the seventy elders prophesy on a portion of the
Spirit being imparted to them (Num. xi. 16, 17, 23 30), a
distinction is drawn between the two men who remained in the
camp, and prophesied, and those who went <</// unto the Tent
(xi. 26). The words 'and Moses gat him into the camp' (xi. 30)
imply that he returned after having gone out to the Tent.
(ii) When Miriam and Aaron speak against Moses (Num.
xii.), the three are bidden to come out 'unto the tent of meeting'
86 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
(xii. 4), 'and the Lord came down in a pillar of cloud and stood
at the door of the Tent' (as in Exod. xxxiii. 9).
(iii) Although Deut. xxxi. 14, 15 does not expressly mention
the Tent as outside the camp, the similarity between the passage
and the other three is so marked that it may be classed with
them. All four passages are probably by the same writer, who
is different from the writer, or writers, who describe the Tent of
meeting as in the midst of the camp.
The description in Exod. xxxiii. 7 u, which assumes that
the Tent of meeting is already made, and the record of the
subsequent construction of the Tent of meeting and its erection
on the first day of the first month of the second year (P) cannot
be both from the same author.
The suggestion has been made that the tent in Exod. xxxiii.
was a temporary one used before the permanent Tent of meeting
was completed. But (i), (ii), (iii) (see above) describe events
which took place after that Tent of meeting had been set up,
and (iii) belongs to the last year of the wanderings. A tent
which accompanied the children of Israel throughout the whole
of their journeyings is referred to in these passages, and it is
called 'the Tent of meeting' (tabernacle of the congregation A.V.),
one of the names given to the 'Tabernacle' in the rest of the
narrative (xxviii. 43 ; xxix. 4, 32, 44 ; Lev. i. I ; iv. 7, 18 ; vi. 26, 30 ;
viii. 4, 33, 35 ; ix. 23 ; Num. xiv. 10; xxxii. 54, &c.). It seems clear
that the same structure is implied throughout, and consequently
that the whole narrative in its present form exhibits traces of
'duplicate accounts' with reference both to the Ark and to the
Tent of meeting. Note that the construction of the Tabernacle
in xxxvi. 8ff. is recorded without any reference to the Tent of
meeting of ch. xxxiii., or any intimation that it was made to
replace that tent.
(3) The mission of the spies.
(a) The most complete account of the spies is found in
Num. xiii., xiv. : how they were sent, the report which they
ANALYSIS OF NUM. XII!., XIV.
brought back, the murmuring of the people, and their punish-
ment. It is not difficult to recognize that two (or more) versions
of this incident form the basis of the record in these two chapters.
As usual, the story of P may be most easily separated from the
rest. In the following table, the right hand side contains P's
account, and the remainder is placed on the left.
Num. xiii.
i And the Lord spake unto
Moses saying, 2 Send thou men
that they may spy out the land of
Canaan... of every tribe of their
fathers shalt thou send a man,
every one a prince among them.
3 And Moses sent them from the
wilderness of Paran according to
the commandment of the Lord ;
all of them men who were heads
of the children of Israel.
[The names of the spies follow,
w. 416.]
17 b ...and he said unto them,
Get you up this way by the South,
and go up into the mountains :
1 8 and see the land what it is; and
the people that dwelleth therein
whether they be strong or weak...
19 and what the land is that they
dwell in... and what cities they be
that they dwell in...
IQ and what the land is... And
be ye of good courage and bring
of the fruit of the land.
2 1 And they went up by the
Smith, and came to Hebron...
23 And they came unto the
valley of Eshcol, and cut down
from thence a branch with one
cluster of
26 1> [and they r
and brought back word unto them,
17 And Moses sent them to spy
out the land of Canaan
21 ...and they spied out the land
from the wilderness of Zin unto
Rehob, to the entering in of
Hamath.
25 And they returned from spying
out the land at the end of forty
26 And they went and came to
Moses and to Aaron, and to all
the congregation of the children
of Israel, unto the wilderness of
88 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
and shewed them the fruit of the
land. 27 And they told him, and
said, We came unto the land
whither thou sentest us, and surely
it floweth with milk and honey;
and this is the/rwzVof it. 28 How-
beit the people that dwell in the
land are strong, and the cities are
fenced and very great : and more-
over we saw the children of Anak
there.
30 And Caleb stilled the people
before Moses, and said, Let us go
up at once and possess it ; for
we are well able to overcome it.
31 But the men that went up with
him said, We be not able to go
up against for they are stronger
than we.
33 And there we saw the Nephi-
lim, the sons of Anak...
32 And they brought up an evil
report of the land which they had
spied out unto the children of
Israel saying, the land through
which we have gone to spy it out
is a land that eateth up the in-
habitants thereof, and all the
people that we saw in it are men
of great stature.
xiv.
\b ...And the people wept that
night.
4 And they said one to another,
Let us make a captain and let us
return to Egypt.
r And all the congregation lifted
up, and gave forth their voice...
i And all the children of Israel
murmured against Moses and
Aaron : and the whole congrega-
tion said unto them, Would God
that we had died in the land of
Egypt...
5 Then Moses and Aaron fell on
their faces before all the assembly
of the congregation of the children
of Israel. 6 And Joshua the son
of Nun, and Caleb the son of
ANALYSIS OF NUM. XIIL, XIV.
89
{Moses (or Caleb , cf. xiii. 30) en-
courages the people to go up.
Verses 8, 9 are part of this
speech. ]
8 If the LORD delight in us then
he will bring us into... a land
flowing with milk and honey...
1 1 And the LORD said unto Moses,
How long will this people despise
me?... I will smite them with the
pestilence, and disinherit them,
and will make of thee a nation
greater and mightier than they.
[Moses intercedes for the people in
verses 13 19, and the Lord
pardons thtm, verse 20 ; but
announces their punishment.]...
73 surely they shall not see the
land which I sware unto their
fathers, neither shall any of them
that despised me see it : 74 but
my servant Caleb, because he had
another spirit with him and hath
followed me fully, him will I
bring into the land whereinto he
. and his seed shall possess
it. 25 Now the Amalekite and
iiiaainte dwelt in the valley:
tomorrow turn and take your
journey into the iritdcTOCM by the
way to the Red Sea.
Jephunneh, which were of them
that spied out the land, rent their
clothes : 7 and they spake unto all
the congregation of the children
of Israel, saying, the land which
we passed through to spy it out is
an exceeding good land.
10 But all the congregation bade
stone them with stones. And the
glory of the LORD appeared in the
tent of meeting unto all the child-
ren of Israel.
16 And the LORD spake unto
Moses and unto Aaron, saying,
37 How long shall I bear with this
evil congregation which murmur
against me? 28 Say unto them,
as I live saith the Lord, surely as
ye have spoken in mine ears, so
will I do to you: 79 your ca
shall fall in this wilderness; and
all that weie numbered of you,
according to your whole number,
from twenty years old and ujiwaid,
which have murmured against me,
90 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
30 surely ye shall not come into
the land, concerning which I lifted
up mine hand that I would make
you dwell therein, save Caleb the
son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the
son of Nun.
34 After the number of the days
in which ye spied out the land,
even forty days, for every day a
year, shall ye bear your iniquities
even forty years....
36 And the men which Moses
sent to spy out the land...
37 even those men that did bring
up an evil report against the land,
died by the plague before the
LORD. 38 But Joshua the son
39 And Moses told these words of Nun, and Caleb the son of
unto all the children of Israel : Jephunneh remained alive of those
and the people mourned greatly. men that went to spy out the land.
[They go up and fight in spite of
Moses 1 remonstrance, and are
defeated, w. 40 45.]
(b] Another account is found in Deut. i. 1944, of which
the following is a summary :
Num. Dt.
xiii. 26 i. 19 On arriving at Kadesh Barnea, a proposal made by
the people to send men to search the land was approved
by Moses, who took twelve men, one man for every
17 24 tribe,... and they went up into the mountain and came
23 nnto the valley^- of Eshcol and spied (searched A.V.)
20 25 it out. And they took of the fruit of the /a;uL.and
1 A.V. of Num. xiii. 23 by translating ' brook ' may lead the reader
to suppose a difference where none exists. The Hebrew is the same
in both.
THE ACCOUNT IN DEUTERONOMY
Num. Dt.
xiii. 26 bron^it us word again and said: It is a good land
27 which the Lord our God giveth unto us. But the
people murmured in their tents and said... our brethren
xiv. 8 i. 18 have made our heart to melt (discouraged our heart A. V.)
Num. saying, the people is greater and taller than we; the
xiii. 28 cities are great and fenced (walled A.V.) up to heaven;
and moreover we have seen the sons of the Anakim there.
[Moses exhorts the people not to fear.]
34 And the Lord. ..was wroth, and swarc, saying, Surely
xiv. 23 35 there shall not one of these men of this evil generation
see the good land -which I sware to give unfo your
34 36 fathers , save Caleb the son of Jephunneh,...to him will
I give the land... and to his children ; because he hath
wholly followed the Lord . . .
From this point the two narratives are placed in
parallel columns.
Num. xiv.
25 ...turn, and take your journey
into the wilderness by the way to
the Red Sea.
[The punishment of the people is
announced: they shall wander
in the wilderness 40 years, and
shall be consumed... w. 26 39.]
40 And they rose up early in the
morning, and gat them to the top
of the mountain, saying, Lo, we
be here, and will go up unto the
place which the LORD hath pro-
: for we have sinned. 4 1 And
. Wherefore now do ye
the commandment oj
the LORD, seeing it shall not
r? 42 Co not up, for the
LORD is ;/<>/ amon^ you; that ye
be not smitten befoi e your (ncmies.
Deut. i.
40 But as for you, turn you, and
journey info the wilderness by the
way to the Red Sea.
41 Then ye answered and said
unto me, We have sinned against
the LORD, we will go up and fight,
according to all that the LORD
our God commanded us. And ye
girded on every man hi> we
<>f war, and were fi \\ar-l to go up
into the mountain. 41 And the
LORD said unto me, Say unto
thnn, Go not up, neither fight;
for I am not among you ; that ye
be not s/nittctt before your enemies.
92 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Num. xiv. Deut. i.
43 For there the Amalekite
and the Canaanite are before 43 So I spake unto you, and ye
you, and ye shall fall by the hearkened not, but ye rebelled
sword : because ye are turned against the commandment of the
back from following the LORD, LORD,
therefore the LORD will not be
with you. 44 But they presumed and were presumptuous and went
to go up to the top of the moun- up into the mountain,
tain : nevertheless the ark of the
covenant of the LORD, and Moses,
departed not out of the camp.
45 And the Amalekite and the 44 And the Amorite which dwelt
Canaanite which dwelt in that in that mountain, came out against
'mountain, came down, and smote you, and chased you, as bees do,
them, and beat them down, even and beat you down in Seir, even
unto Hormah. unto Hormah.
For the analysis of Num. xiii., xiv. on pp. 87 ff. the com-
mentary may be consulted; some of the facts on which it
rests are here pointed out.
The beginning of ch. xiii. may with confidence be assigned
to P. The expressions 'land of Canaan,' 'tribe,' 'prince,' 'at
the commandment of the Lord'; Joshua's change of name
(cp. Gen. xvii. 5, 15; xxxv. 10; and see p. 56), and the list of
names (vv. 4 16), like the list of the heads of fathers' houses in
Num. i. 5 1 6, are sufficient (with the remarks on these expres-
sions and on P's style on pp. 57 f.) to indicate the source from
which it is derived. A word for 'spy out' is found three times
(w. 2, 1 6, 17) in these introductory verses; its frequent occur-
rence throughout these chapters will help to identify other
portions belonging to P. Also the expressions 'the congregation
of the children of Israel,' 'all the congregation' (xiii. 25 ; xiv. i,
2, 5, 7, 10, 26, 36), 'the glory of the Lord' (xiv. 10), and the
general style of the passages in the right hand column, com-
pared with that of the passages in the left hand column will be
sufficient to shew the reader that there are cogent reasons for
REASONS FOR THE ANALYSIS 93
considering the narrative as duplicate, and for the partition
indicated in the two columns.
The geographical detail supplies corroborative evidence : the
camp is in the wilderness of Paran according to Num. xiii. 3;
in the Deuteronomic account it is at Kadesh Barnea (Deut. i. 19).
Now in Num. xiii. 26 'to Kadesh' is added as explanatory after
'unto the wilderness of Paran.' This implies that Kadesh was
in the wilderness of Paran; but in Num. xx. I, and still more
distinctly in Num. xxvii. 14, Deut. xxxii. 51, Kadesh is mentioned
as in the wilderness of Zin, which the people reach only after
the expedition of the spies. The same place is thus differently
described in the two sets of passages. The variation can only
be satisfactorily explained by supposing that they are due to
different writers.
The extent of the expedition is described in Num. xiii. 21
'from the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, to the entering in of
Hamath.' The wilderness of Zin, adjoining that of Paran,
into which the children of Israel came after leaving Paran
(Num. xx. i), was in the S. boundary of Judah. The entering
in of Hamath defines the extreme N. boundary of the whole
land (Num. xxxiv. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 5). According then to this
narrative, the whole land is spied out. The valley of Eshcol
(near Hebron, S. of Jerusalem) is mentioned in Num. xiii. 23 as
the point which the spies reached. According to Deut. i. 25,
after searching out (the Heb. word is different from that in
Num. xiii., xiv.) the valley of Eshcol, they took of the fruit of
the land and brought it down (from the high ground of Hebron
to the lower level of Kadesh) to the children of Israel. The
obvious inference from the Deuteronomic account is that
Eshcol was the limit of the expedition.
In Num. xiii. 30 Caleb alone is mentioned as 'stilling the
people,' and in xiv. 24 Caleb alone is again mentioned as
allowed to enter the land; but in xiv. 6, 30, 38 (passages which
for other reasons are assigned to the 1' narrative) Joshua is
associated with Cairo in cm oura^ing the people, and i-, men-
tioned with hi;. np| hum the punishment that would fall
94 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
on 'this evil congregation' (xiv. 27). In mentioning Caleb only
(xiv. 24) the narrative is closely parallel to that in Deut. i. 36.
Of course Joshua as well as Caleb entered the promised
land ; as successor to Moses he is expressly mentioned in
the Deuteronomic account (Deut. i. 38) as causing Israel to
inherit it : but the mention of Caleb alone in Num. xiv. 24 and
Deut. i. 36, as compared with Joshua and Caleb in xiv. 6, 30, 38,
may fairly be pointed out as additional evidence in favour of
composite authorship.
The punishment announced in Num. xiv. 27 35 has already
been threatened in xiv. 22 24. The two passages are dupli-
cates; and in xiv. 36, 37 an additional detail is given: the spies
that brought up the evil report 'died by the plague before the
Lord.'
The facts stated above are sufficient to justify the separation
of the sources in Num. xiii., xiv. The account in Deut, when
compared with these chapters, will be found closely parallel ; but
the portions of Num. which furnish this parallelism are in the
left hand column, i.e. the Deuteronomic narrative shews affinity
with the account which is not from P. In the summary of
the Deuteronomic account on p. 90, the expressions in italics are
verbally 1 the same as in Num. (the verses both of Num. and
of Deut. are in the columns at the side); though these coin-
cidences are numerous and important, the reader who compares
carefully the whole account both in Num. and Deut. will not
fail to observe further points of resemblance, and also that
these points of resemblance are found only in the left hand
column of pp. 87 90.
But a most noteworthy feature in the Deuteronomic account
is the close connection of Deut. i. 40 and 41, compared with the
positions of the corresponding verses in Num. xiv.
In Deut. i. 40 a command is given to turn aside from the
promised land, and journey towards the Red Sea. The people
1 There is a difference of person in the verbs and pronouns : in
Num. the third person is used throughout ; in Deut. Moses speaks of
himself in the first person, and to the children of Israel in the second.
COMPARISON OF NUM. AND DEUT. 95
in reply (i. 41) propose to attack the inhabitants of the mountain
at once, and persisting in spite of Moses' opposition suffer a
disastrous defeat. The command of Deut. i. 40 is found in
Num. xiv. 25, but the attack and its consequences (Deut. i.
41 44) are related in Num. xiv. 4045.
Thus Num. xiv. 25 = Deut. i. 40
and 40= 41.
In Num. xiv., verses 2639 are placed between two verses
which form a continuous narrative in Deut. Why does Deut
take no notice of these intervening verses? Looking at the two
parallel columns on pp. 91 f. it will be seen that each furnishes a
fairly complete version of the incident. It has also been noticed
that Deut. has throughout made no reference to the right hand
column, and here he treats Num. xiv. 26 39 as if it were not
existent. There can be but one explanation of these facts :
the narrative in the left hand column once existed apart from
that in the right hand column, and as a separate account served
as the basis of the Deuteronomic account. It is inconceivable
that, if Num. xiii., xiv. in their present form were known to the
writer of Deuteronomy, he would have selected from it only
those portions that are in the left hand column. The conclusion
to be drawn is that Deuteronomy was not acquainted with P's
version of the spies ; and that P's version was incorporated with
the other narrative after the Deuteronomic account was written.
This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact that the book
of Deuteronomy is throughout based on those parts of the
Pentateuch which are not due to P.
The inference here drawn must be of special interest to the
Biblical student. The Bible itself "is here delivering its message,
and furnishing us with an illustration how one of its sections
has assumed its present form by a process of accretion.
(c) A few remarks on Jo->h. xiv. 615 may be added :
In this pasia^c Caleb reminds Joshua of the promise made
to him by Jclioi'ali through Mo-.cs that 'the land \\hcu-on ' his
'loot hath trodden' (ver. v> c p. Dcut. i. 36) should belong to
>_
96 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
him and his descendants, as a reward for his faithful conduct.
He asks Joshua to give him 'this mountain 3 [i.e. Hebron 1 ]
'whereof the LORD spake in that day' (ver. 12). His request
was granted, and ' Hebron became the inheritance of Caleb the
son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite unto this day' (ver. 14). This
assignment of territory is referred to also in Josh. xv. 13 15 2 .
This promise of the land is not found in P's account of the
spies, but in Num. xiv. 24 (in the left hand column on p. 89)
and Deut. i. 36. The words in w. 8, 9 'brethren '...'made the
heart of the people melt' (cp. Deut. i. 28) and 'the land whereon
thy foot hath trodden ' (cp. Deut. i. 36) point to the Deuteronomic
version of the story; the mention of 'Hebron' points to Num.
xiii. 22, Kadesh-Barnea to Deut. i. 19. There is no trace of P's
style or vocabulary, and no reference is made to Joshua as
associated with Caleb in the task of spying out the land (p. 90).
On the contrary, vv. 7, 8 with the personal pronouns in the
singular number, 'I' 'me' 'my' 'mine' imply that Joshua is
not here regarded as accompanying Caleb on that mission.
The words 'Moses sent me' and 'my brethren that went up
with me' are not appropriate when addressed to one who was
1 Hebron is one of the highest points of the central mountain range
stretching southward from the plain of Jezreel.
2 A comparison of these verses with the parallel account in Judg. i.
10, 1 1, 20 affords an instructive illustration of variety in different versions
of the same event. What in Jos. xv. 14 is represented as Caleb's
personal exploit becomes a tribal exploit in Judg. i. 10 ('And Judah
went. ..and they smote'). It is regarded as a national exploit in Josh.
x. 36 f. ('Joshua went up... and all Israel with him unto Hebron, and
smote it. ..and all the souls that were therein'). In xi. 21 also,
apparently on another occasion, 'he cut oft' the Anakim...from Hebron...
and utterly destroyed them.' Was Hebron taken, and all its inhabitants
destroyed, twice by Joshua, and also by Caleb, or are these different
versions by different writers of the same event ? The student who will
write out Josh. xv. 13 15 and Judg. i. 10, rr, 20 and place them side
by side in parallel columns will be rewarded for his trouble. It is done
for him by Moore in I.C.C. Jintg. p. 23.
JOSHUA AND NUMBERS COMPARED 97
a companion of the speaker in spying out the land : it follows
that the writer who represented Caleb as uttering these words
did not consider Joshua as one of the spies. Hence the words
'and concerning thee' in v. 6 are not from his pen ; the pre-
dominance of the singular personal pronouns throughout makes
it almost certain that these words are a marginal gloss due to
the influence of the account contained in P.
The facts here noted shew that the passage is closely related
to the Deuteronomic account, and also has affinity with the
account in Num. which occupies the left hand column in pp. 87 if.
All three may with confidence be referred to a common origin ;
the existence of a second passage (Josh. xiv. 6 15) in addition
to that in Deut. i. 19 44, which makes no reference to P's
account of the spies, confirms the inference drawn from con-
sidering the Deuteronomic account, viz. that the narrative
contained in the left hand column of pp. 87 ff. existed at one
time as a separate source, with which P has been combined.
iv. THE SOURCES J AND E.
The evidence furnished in the preceding sections that the
Hexateuch contains material drawn from more than one source,
is varied and decisive. A document has been separated from
the rest of the Hexateuch, to which the symbol P has been
affixed, and the limits of this document have been approximately
determined. When P has been separated from the Hexateuch,
it is found that the remainder exhibits some of the phenomena
which have been noted in sections i iii. In Genesis, the
alternation of Elohim and Jehovah may be observed ; duplicate
accounts of the same events are also found both in Genesis and
in the following books of the Hexateuch. The inference drawn is
that this remainder is also composite. The separation of P has
>lished a precedent ; and also indicated a probability that
further sub-division may be necessary ; either of P, or of the
remainder, or of both. Further consideration of P being post-
poned for the present, the character of the remainder (i.e. of the
non-P portions of the Hexateuch) will be considered in this
C. P. 7
98 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
section 1 . The investigation is necessary in order to complete
the proof of the Second Proposition.
The step forward taken by Hupfeld when he demonstrated
that the Elohistic (i.e. the non-J) sections of Genesis were not
homogeneous has been pointed out in the sketch of Hexateuch
Criticism (Part I. 4, pp. 31, 33). He observed that from Gen. xx.
onward the name Elohim occurred in passages which exhibit
none of P's characteristics, and rightly concluded that more
than one writer used Elohim. Some of these passages will now
be examined.
a. Examination of Gen. xx., xxi., and xxvi.
In Gen. xx. I 17 Elohim occurs throughout; but the
passage exhibits none of P's linguistic or other characteristics,
and cannot be assigned to that writer.
In verse 12, Abraham defends himself against Abimelech's
reproof by explaining that Sarah was both sister and wife,
because she was the daughter of his father Terah. The writer
of xi. 3 1 (P) who describes Sarah simply as Terah's ' daughter
in law, his son Abram's wife' expresses himself as if he were not
1 The analysis of JE is an investigation quite distinct from that
which has been pursued in the preceding sections. The reader may
pass by this section altogether, and go on to the next. It is quite
possible that after following the analysis in sections i iii, he may feel
disinclined to consider further applications of the analytical method. It
may be a relief to consider at once the issues raised under the third
proposition, and afterwards the analysis contained in this section. Taking
note of the fact that critics are of opinion that JE is composite, he may
proceed to consider the summary in section v, and the third proposition.
The analysis of JE is not a necessary preliminary to anything that
follows ; though, in the course of the argument in support of the third
proposition, further reasons may appear for supposing JE to be com-
posite. In fact, the analysis of the Hexateuch at its present stage
affords a complete parallel to the analysis of the legislation. Each
consists of three distinct and corresponding portions. The further
analysis suggested in the concluding paragraph of this section (see p. 107)
may be deferred till the rest of the Introduction has been read.
KXAMINATION OF GEN. XX., XXL, XXVI. 99
aware of this double relationship. It appears then that xi. 3 1 and
; 2 are not from the same hand, and since xi. 31 belongs to P,
\\. 12 does not. This inference confirms the conclusion drawn
in the first instance from the style of xx. i 17 that
a. Gen. xx. I 17 does not belong to P,
Gen. xxi. contains an account of a visit paid by Alraham
and Sarah to Abimelech at Beersheba.
Gen. xxvi. contains an account of a visit paid by Isaac and
Rebekah to Abimelech at Beersheba in which the points of
resemblance to xx. i 17, xxi. 22 32 are numerous and re-
markable.
Both Abraham and Isaac
(1) dwell in Gerar : where they meet
(2) Abimelech king of Gerar (xx. 2), or of the Philistines
(xxvi. i), who dwells there.
(3) They both represent that the wife is a sister ; and
Abimelech in both cases reproves them when the truth becomes
known to him ;
(4) they both make a covenant with Abimelech and Phicol
the captain of his host 1 ,
(5) at a place which on each occasion is said to have been
named in consequence Beersheba in Abraham's time in ch.
xxi., and in Isaac's time in ch. xxvi.
The close similarity indicated in (i) (5) renders it highly
probable that the two narratives are variants of the same tradi-
tion 8 .
1 So R.V., and rightly : the Hebrew words of this expression are
the same in both narratives, though the translation in A.V. is different.
3 'In reading the narrative of Isaac's dealings with Abimelech by
:de of Abraham's dealings with the same king, it i.^ difficult to
the conclusion that we have before us two versions of the same
event. Doubtless, history repeats itself; disputes about the possession
11s in a desert -land can frequently recur, and it is possible that
two kings of the same name may have followed one another on the
72
ioo INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The account in Gen. xx. 117, xxi. 22 32 uses Elohim,
that in Gen. xxvi. uses Jehovah ; hence
/3. these two accounts in their present form are not from the
same writer ; and since neither account shews any affinity with
P, (a) and (/3) combine to justify the conclusion that
Two sources besides P can be traced in Genesis.
It appears then that parts of Gen. xx. and xxi. in which
Elohim is used, are from some source other than P ; i.e. that
two Elohistic writers have contributed to the patriarchal history.
Is there any further evidence corroborating this conclusion?
b. Examination of Exod. Hi. 9 15. Exod. iii.*9 15 con-
tains an account similar in character to that in Exod. vi. 2 8.
Moses receives a commission to go to Pharaoh, and bring the
children of Israel out of Egypt. He asks, 'When I come unto
the children of Israel and say unto them, The God of your fathers
hath sent me unto you, and they shall say to me, What is his
name? what shall I say to them?' In reply God bids him say,
' The LORD (Heb. Jehovah), the God of your fathers,... hath sent
me unto you : this is my name for ever, and this is my memorial
unto all generations.' Though it is not expressly said (as in
vi. 3) that God was not known by His name Jehovah to former
generations, yet a name is here revealed to Moses, and through
him to the children of Israel, the same name Jehovah as in vi. 2.
The idea contained in iii. 9 15 is the same as that in vi. 2 8 ;
but the language in which it is expressed is different. Both
passages are records of a revelation of God as Jehovah. In
Exod. iii. no mention is made of God Almighty (El Shaddai\
but an explanation of the name Jehovah is given (iii. 14, 15).
In Exod. vi. mention is made of God Almighty, but no explana-
throne of Gerar. But what does not seem very possible is that each
of these kings should have had a "chief captain of his host " called by
the strange non-Semitic name of Phichol (Gen. xxi. 22, xjvi. 26) ; that
each of them should have taken the wife of the patriarch, believing her
to be his sister; or that Beersheba should twice have received the same
name from the oaths sworn over it ' (Sayce, EHH p. 64).
THE SOURCES J AND E IN GENESIS 101
lion of the name Jehovah is given. The phrases characteristic
of P in vi. 28 have already been pointed out (p. 67). None
of these are found in Exod. iii. 9 15. Here is an instance of
duplicate accounts of the same event, accompanied with differ-
ences of style and vocabulary. The inference 1 is that two
writers record the fact that God before delivering His people
from the bondage of Egypt, imparts to them a fuller knowledge
of Himself under His name Jeh0vaSt. It is probable, therefore,
that two writers have contributed to Gen. i. Exod. vi., both of
whom would use Elohim in preference to Jehovah in describing
pre-Mosaic times. This inference agrees with and corroborates
the inference drawn from the examination of Gen. xx., xxi., xxvi.
c. Examination of Gen. xxviii. \o>xxxv.^ and Exod. iv.,
xxiv. Additional evidence in support of this conclusion (viz.
that two sources besides P can be traced in Genesis) is derived
from an examination of Gen. xxviii. 10 xxxv. In these chapters,
the alternation between Elohim and Jehovah points to the con-
tinuance of the two sources (neither of which can be identified
with P) which have been traced in chs. xx., xxi., and xxvi.
In xxviii. 1022 there are indications that the narrative
is composite. According to one portion of it Jacob, * when he
fled from the face of Esau his brother' to his uncle Laban, lay
down in a certain place, and saw in a dream the ladder whose
top reached to heaven, and * the angels of God ascending and
descending upon it' (xxviii. 11, 12). And Jacob was afraid and
said * This is none other than the house of God,' and set up the
stone which he had put under his head for a pillar, and poured
oil on it (w. 17, 1 8). With this account (in which Elohim is
used) is combined another, in which the Lord is described as
standing beside him (the rendering of R.V. marg. in verse 13 is
better than * above it ' of both A.V. and R. V.) and confirming to
him the promise of the land. And Jacob awaked and said,
'Surely the LORD is in t his place ' (w. 13 16 in which/*A0?/<//i is
1 The same argument as that applied repeatedly in section ii to
separate P.
102 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
used). Jacob called the name of this place Bethel. He refers
to the first incident, and to the place as Bethel (xxxi. 5 16), in
speaking to his wives before leaving Laban. (Note especially
the reference in verse 13 to anointing the pillar and to the vow.)
Again in xxxv. i 7 God commands Jacob to go to Bethel and
refers to the former appearance ' when he fled from the face of
Esau his brother.' In both these passages Elohim is used ; but
they show no marks of P's style. A passage which undoubtedly
belongs to P (xxxv. 9 13) records an appearance of God to
Jacob, and states that Jacob named the place where God spake
with him, Bethel. This occurs after his long sojourn with Laban.
The passage in xxviii. II, 12, 17, 18, where the name Bethel is
given to the place because of God's appearance to Jacob before
he meets Laban cannot be from the same source as xxxv. 9 13 :
nor can the passages xxxi. 5 16 and xxxv. I 7 ; for both of these
refer to that first appearance at Bethel. These three passages,
in which Elohim is used, do not belong to P.
Another account, that of Jacob's wrestling with the angel in
xxxii. 22 32, cannot be assigned to P, although Elohim occurs
in it ; both on stylistic grounds, and also because it records
Jacob's change of name as taking place at the ford Jabbok, on
the east of the Jordan, not at Bethel on the west, as in xxxv. 10 (P).
In chs. xxix. xxxi., note : (i)the alternation of Elohim and
Jehovah ; (2) the double etymologies 1 in ch. xxx. ; and (3) different
accounts of the relations between Jacob and Laban, and how
Jacob became rich (see Driver, LOT* p. 16, and the com-
mentary on Genesis).
1 In xxx. 1 6 Leah ' hires ' Jacob, in ver. 18 Leah receives her ' hire ' ;
the name Issachar is connected with the Heb. sdchar (hire), but on two
different occasions with different explanations of the 'hire.' Similarly
in ver. 20 'endow' (Heb. zdbhad) and 'dwell' (zdbhal) are both
connected with the name Zebulun. In both instances it is probable that
the two varying explanations are not from the same source ; and the
probability is confirmed in w. 23, 24. Here two etymologies are given
for the name Joseph; one from ^ asaph (take away) with Elohim (ver. 23),
and another from y asaph (add) with Jehovah.
THE SOURCES J AND E IN GENESIS 103
Sufficient evidence has been collected to show that two
sources may be traced in those portions of Genesis xxviii. xxxv.
which are not assigned to P ; and thus to support the conclusion
drawn on p. 100 from an examination of Gen. xx., xxi., and xxvi.
It is also clear (from the analysis of xxviii. 10 22 on p. 101 and
the facts marked as (i) (2) (3) on p. 102) that these two sources
have sometimes been combined together by an editor or redactor.
It may not always be possible completely to resolve the narra-
tive again into its component parts ; however clear the evidence
in favour of its composite character may be, the facts at our
disposal are often not sufficient to effect the separation with
certainty (cf. LOT 8 pp. 13, 19); but this does not weaken the
argument supplied from the facts already noted, which shew that
the narrative is not from one source.
The evidence for the composite character of JE has been so
far supplied from the book of Genesis ; the books of Exodus
and Numbers furnish equally convincing evidence. For Exod.
i. xviii., the commentary and LOT 8 pp. 22 31 may be
consulted. Exod. xix. xxiv., and xxxii. xxxiv. *, contain JE's
narrative of the events at Sinai. Parts of this narrative have
been examined, and compared with corresponding accounts in
P, and in Deuteronomy on pp. 82 85 ; and other parts will be
examined under the third proposition on pp. H3ff. Evidence in
favour of the composite character of JE is there incidentally
disclosed ; but further incontestable evidence is furnished in a
continuous reading of the whole. For a full discussion, the
commentary and LOT* pp. 32 39 may be further consulted.
Two points in the evidence furnished by these chapters of Exodus
are selected for illustration, (i) Exod. iv. contains two accounts
of a * rod' in the hand of Moses. In iru. 2 4 it is represented
as the staff which is already in Moses' hands, the shepherd's staff
with which he tends the flock of his father in law. The change
of this rod to a serpent is one of the signs which Moses is to shew
fifji-f-t- the children of Israel, as a token of the coming deliverance.
1 The exact limits ot Y (and by inference of JE) are given in App. I.
104 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
In ver. 17 Moses is furnished with a wonder-working rod (called
the rod of God in iv. 20, xvii. 9), wherewith he is to do the signs.
These are not the signs of vv. 2 9 for only one of them is
connected with the ' rod,' but the wonders (portents) which God
has put in his hand to be done before Pharaoh (v. 21). It
seems clear that these two representations of the ' rod,' that in
vv. 2 4, and that in vv. 17 21, are not from the same source.
On examining the account of the plagues (vii. x.) a corre-
sponding variety of representation may be observed. Sometimes
Moses lifts up the rod, at others he is bidden to declare unto
Pharaoh, that if he will not let the people go, God will smite
him and his people. The infliction of the plague is then ascribed
to direct Divine agency in the words 'and the LORD did so'
(viii. 24), ' and the LORD did that thing on the morrow ' (ix. 6).
For details, the commentary should be consulted.
(2) The command to Moses in xxiv. 12 'Come up to me...,'
and the words with which Moses, before obeying this command,
takes leave of the children of Israel, * Behold, Aaron and Hur
are with you : whosoever hath a cause, let him come near unto
them,' imply that both Moses and Aaron are at the foot of the
mount. In vv. 9 1 1 both Moses and Aaron in company with the
' nobles of the children of Israel ' are upon the mount. Exod. xxiv.
3 8 seems to be a continuation of ch. xxiii., and xxiv. 12 14 is an
appropriate sequel to vv. 3 8 ; the two passages xxiv. I, 2 and
9 1 1 form a continuous account, but, in their present positions,
they impair the connexion 1 between ch. xxiii. and xxiv. 38,
and between vv. 3 8 and vv. 12 14 of ch. xxiv. 12 14. The
inference is that two accounts of an ascent have been combined
in ch. xxiv.
One more instance of duplicate accounts in JE may be
given, in which different names are assigned to the same person.
d. The father in law of Moses. References to Moses' father
in law are found :
1 In xxiv. i Moses is told to come up : though in fact (cp. xx. 21) he
is already in the mount ; but xxiv. 3 is the natural sequel to chap, xxiii.
DUPLICATE ACCOUNTS IN EXODUS 105
a. In Exod. ii. 1622, where he is called Reuel.
. In Exod. iii. I, iv. 18, xviii. I 12, where he is called
Jethro.
y. In Num. x. 29 'Hobab the son of Reuel 1 the Midianite,
Moses' father in law,' is invited to accompany the Israelites on
their journey. In this passage 'Moses' father in law' may refer
either to Hobab or to Reuel.
(1) If it refers to Hobab, it agrees with Judg. iv. ii (A.V.)
* Hobab the father in law of Moses.' In Judg. i. 16 ('the children
of the Kenite Moses' father in law' A.V.) the name Hobab seems
to have dropped out before ' the Kenite ' : it is found in several
MSS. of the LXX. If this be so, Hobab would be mentioned
also here as the father in law of Moses.
Three different names, Reuel, Jethro, and Hobab, are thus
given in these passages to the father in law of Moses; and
Num. x. 29 introduces a further complication by representing
Hobab as the son of Reuel.
But in Num. x. 29 ' Moses' father in law' may refer to
(2) Reuel. If Reuel be Moses' father in law, as stated in
Exod. ii. 1 8, Hobab the son of Reuel would be brother in law
of Moses. R.V. by translating 'brother in law' in Judg. i. 16,
iv. 1 1 adopts this view 2 . But the Heb. word hothen always means
elsewhere 'father in law'; and the rendering of R.V. in these
two passages is very uncertain. It seems to have been adopted
as an inference from Num. x. 29 compared with Exod. ii. 18; it
reduces complication, but does not remove the evidence for the
duplicate account. The variation between Jethro and Reuel
remains, and must either be explained, or accepted as indicating
a double narrative.
The translation of R.V. marg. and A.V., which makes Hobab
Moses' 'father in law' in Judg. i. 16, iv. n is much to be
1 The ' Raguel ' of A.V. is a variant form of the same Heb. name
as that in Kxod. ii. 18, derived from the LXX. and Vulg.
1 R.V. by its translation in Judg. i. 16 refers the passage to Hobab,
probably supposing that Hobab has dropped out.
106 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
preferred ; and another suggestion for reducing complication
may be considered.
The account in Exod. ii. 16 22 begins with a reference to
the priest of Midian without mentioning his name ; so in Exod.
xviii. 13 27 no name is given to Moses' father in law. The
/name Reuel comes in rather strangely in v. 18; why should not
the name have been given at once in ii. 16, where the priest of
Midian is introduced? It has been conjectured that Reuel is a
gloss, derived from a misunderstanding of Num. x. 29 (taking
Reuel to be Moses' father in law, as in (2) above). If this
conjecture be allowed, Reuel disappears as a name of Moses'
father in law, and with it the very doubtful translation ' brother
in law' of R.V. The variation between Jethro and Hobab,
however, still remains, indicating a double narrative.
But it may be asked, Why, if a name was thought necessary
in Exod. ii. 18, was it taken from the distant passage Num. x. 29,
instead of from the adjacent Exod. iii. I ? Whether Reuel be a
gloss or no, it seems certain that it was in the text before it was
placed in such close proximity to iii. I, where Jethro is mentioned.
Many of the Sabaean kings, and some of their priests, have
/ two names ; and it has been suggested that Jethro and Reuel
I may thus be actually two names of the same person. Grant-
ing this, however, it is not probable that one and the same
writer would have used the two names, each one by itself , within
a few verses of each other. Two 1 narratives, put together by a
redactor, seem to be necessary to account satisfactorily for the
present state of the text.
Whether the hypothesis that the name Hobab has dropped
out in Judg. i. 16 be allowed or not, Judg. i. 16 and iv. ii
distinctly state that the family to which Moses became related
by marriage was Kenite. In Exod. and Num. the family is
designated as Midianite. Here are clearly two traditions found
in Judges and Numbers ; both in passages that do not belong
1 Sayce, EHH p. 163 admits two traditions. He says ' Tradition
has handed down more than one name for the high-priest of Midian.'
THE FATHER IN LAW OF MOSES 107
to P. There are also two traditions (at least) preserved in the
Hexateuch about the name of Moses' father in law, and two
sources (at least) must be assumed, in which are recorded these
diverging accounts of Moses' relations by marriage, with refer-
ence both to their names, and to their tribe.
It should also be pointed out, that the writers who record
these traditions must have lived at an age remote from that of
Moses. During the lifetime of Moses and of Joshua, there
would be no uncertainty about the ancestry and tribe of Moses*
wife. Some generations must have passed away before such
divergent traditions could have obtained currency.
The evidence brought forward in this section is weighty and
varied : it points to the conclusion that JE is composite. The
criteria for distinguishing between the sources are not so clear
and decisive as in the previous investigation (the separation of
P from JE in i iii). The strongly marked peculiarities
of style and vocabulary observed in P do not present themselves
in JE ; hence in many cases the analysis is uncertain (LOT*
pp. 1 1 6 f.). The grounds for effecting a separation do not lie on
the surface, but are found by studying closely passages of
considerable length : e.g. Gen. xx. xxxv. ; Exod. xix. xxiv. ;
xxxii. xxxiv. ; Num. xx., xxi. ; xxii. xxiv. ; Deut i. iii., and
ix. xi. in connexion with corresponding narratives in Exodus
and Numbers. Some of these passages have been considered
in the preceding pages ; other portions will come under review
in discussing the third proposition ; but these sections should be
read continuously with the help of the commentaries on the
books in which they are found. Anyone who will undertake
this study will find additional evidence that two (or more)
sources are contained in JE; he will also find additional
illustration of the difficulties that are met with in attempting' to
disentangle them. But if the reader is considering the author-
ship of the Hexateuch for the first time, he is advised to postpone
the further study of JE here indicated 1 , and go on to consider
the next section.
1 See the note at the commencement of this section.
io8 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
v. SUMMARY OF THE EVIDENCE.
To sura up the evidence in support of the second Pro-
position :
a. It has been shewn that :
a. The variety in the use of the Divine Names in Gen. i.
Exod. vi. renders it probable that two sources (at
least) can be traced in the Hexateuch (i. pp. 50 f.).
/3. This probability is increased when it is shewn from a
consideration of Exod. vi. 2 8 that the avoidance
of the name Jehovah is designed (ii. p. 67).
b. In an independent investigation, it has been shewn, by
examining the style and phraseology of certain chapters in
Genesis which contain different versions of the same incidents,
that:
a. Two sources can be traced in Gen. i. xi. ; this con-
clusion is confirmed by
#. A comparison of passages containing accounts of the
promises made to the patriarchs. On the basis of
results obtained in considering (a) and (/3),
y. One source which by its very distinctly marked style
and phraseology was separated from the rest in
the book of Genesis, has been traced through the
remainder of the Hexateuch, and its limits have
been approximately indicated.
This source has been distinguished as P.
c. The remainder of the Hexateuch after P had been
separated from it was shewn to be of a composite character.
This composite character was indicated by the symbol JE.
d. It was also pointed out that the book Deuteronomy
possesses a style and character of its own, and must be assigned
to a different source from those already indicated.
THE HEXATEUCH COMPOSITE 109
The separation of P from JE is the first step in the analysis
of the Hexateuch ; and the preceding investigation has shewn
that this separation is justified.
The evidence already adduced to shew that JE is composite
is weighty, and has not been effectively challenged 1 . More
detailed study of the books with the help of the commentaries
will make this fact more clear.
The reader may think that Deuteronomy has not received
sufficient attention. As a book which, except in a few parts,
bears throughout a single stamp, it stands on a different footing
from other portions of the Hexateuch which have been examined ;
it can be more effectively treated as a whole in the commentary
upon it in this series. When considering the evidence in support
of the third proposition, it will be necessary to determine the
date of the book, and to describe its contents (see p. 142).
Further remarks on Deuteronomy, with a list of Deuteronomic
expressions, will be found in Appendix IV.
Before proceeding to discuss the third proposition, the con-
clusions already drawn may be once more stated.
(i) Traces of literary activity extending as far as the exile
are found in the Hexateuch. From this it follows that various
writers have contributed to the Hexateuch.
[The alternative, to assign all to the writer of latest date,
would be accepted by none.]
1 This statement is made deliberately, after careful perusal of much
that has been written by opponents of the criticism that would separate
J from E. Dr Orr does not succeed in shewing JE to be the work of a
single hand. For instance, his treatment of the narratives in Gei:
and xxvi. (Problem of the 0.7*., pp. 237 239) does not take into
account all the facts ; no reference is made to Gen. xxi. 11 32. The
facts to which attention has been drawn in iv. p. 99 (4) and (5), and
the quotation from I'rof. Sayce in the note, will shew that Gen. xxi.
nm,t not be omitted in estimating the evidence that JE is composite.
On other points, also, his argument* are inconclusive.
no INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
(2) There are at least four sources, of which three are easily
distinguished.
(3) More than one indication has been noted that
JE, D, P
is a. probable historic sequence.
(4) All sources exhibit evidence that they belong to a period
subsequent to that of Moses.
3. THE THIRD PROPOSITION.
The laws contained in the Pentateuch consist of three separate
codes which belong to different periods in the history of Israel.
i. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LAWS.
The laws in the Pentateuch may be divided into three groups :
a. The laws in JE. A collection of laws in Exod. xxi.
xxiii. is introduced by the words 'These are the judgements
which thou shalt set before them.' They are preceded by regu-
lations about worship (xx. 23 26) ; and further regulations about
worship are found in xxiii. 13 19. In xxiv. 3 8, it is recorded 1
that Moses wrote all the words of the Lord ; after sacrifice had
been offered, he read the book of the covenant to the people, and
sprinkled the blood of the sacrifice on the people with the words,
1 Behold the blood of the covenant, which the Lord hath made
with you on (the basis of) these words 2 .'
The Book of the Covenant includes the collection of laws in
xx. 23 xxiii. 19, which may be distinguished as the 'Code of
the Covenant,' or the ' Covenant Code.' It is apparently de-
signed for an agricultural community, and contains precepts of
a social, moral, religious, and ceremonial character. The smaller
collection of laws on worship in xxxiv. n 27 shews many points
of similarity with this Covenant code, repeating verbatim several
1 For a discussion of this passage see the commentary on Exodus.
2 This, or R.V. marg. upon all these conditions, is a better rendering
than 'concerning' in A.V. and R.V. These words or conditions are
contained in chs. xx. 23 xxiii.
CODES OF LAW IN THE PENTATEUCH in
of the corresponding laws of the 'Code 1 .' It is sometimes
called the 'Little Book of the Covenant' (Briggs). The laws
embodied in xiii. 3 7, 10 13 also belong to JE.
b. The laws in Deuteronomy. The Code embedded in
Deut xii. xxvi. is introduced by the words 'These are the
statutes and judgements... ' (xii. i) ; and the words ' This day the
Lord thy God hath commanded thee to do these statutes and
judgements' (xxvi. 16) form a conclusion to it. This may be
called the ' Deuteronomic Code.'
c. The laws in the Priestly Code. The remaining laws of
the Pentateuch are not gathered together into a compact code,
like the first two groups ; but legislation and narrative are
combined, and some of the legislation arises out of occurrences
related in the narrative (Num. ix. 6 14, xv. 32 2 36). Most
of these laws are found in the middle books of the Pentateuch
(Exod. xxv. Num. x.), and are represented as given at intervals
during the stay at Sinai. Three chapters of legislation are
assigned to the period of the journeyings (Num. xv., xviii., xix.),
and additional laws to the time when the children of Israel were
in the plains (or steppes) of Moab (see Num. xxvii. xxxvi.).
With these may be joined Gen. xvii. (institution of Circum-
cision), and parts 3 of Exod. xii. (institution of the Passover and
Feast of Unleavened Cakes). These laws deal mainly with the
sanctuary, priests and sacrifices, rites of purification, tithes and
offerings, and may be distinguished as the ' Priestly code.'
The section Lev. xvii. xxvi. deserves special notice. Most
of the laws contained in these chapters have sch a distinctive
character that, though they are combined now with elements
derived from P, they probably formed at one time an independent
code ; for they begin with regulations about the place of worship,
1 The details are given in the note on p. 115.
* Note the indication of time : ' while the children of Israel were in
the wilderness' (cf. Num. xxi. 13, 18). Clearly written after they had
left the wilderness.
8 For the parts see App. I.
112 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
and end with a hortatory discourse like the Covenant and
Deuteronomic codes (Exod. xxiii. 2033 ; Deut. xxviii.). The
legislation of these chapters is marked by the stress laid on
the idea of holiness, ' Ye shall be holy, for I the LORD your God
am holy ' (xix. 2). Of course, the assertion of God's holiness,
and of the necessity that Israel, as the chosen people of God,
should be holy, is found elsewhere; but in these chapters the
two ideas are presented in combination with a repetition and
emphasis which impart a unique character to this section 1 of
the Priestly code. The phrase 'I am Jehovah' ('the LORD' in
A.V. and R.V.) occurs nearly fifty times in this section ; with the
additions ' which sanctify you* (xx. 8 ; xxi. 8, 15, 23 ; xxii. 9, 16,
32), and 'I the LORD am holy* (xix. 2 ; xx. 26 ; xxi. 8). The
obligation of the people to be holy, based on the holiness of its
God, is enforced in the verse already quoted (xix. 2), and in
xx. 26 ; it is implied in xx. 7, 8. To disregard this obligation is
to 'profane' sacred things, which is prohibited with equal
insistence (to profane the name of the LORD, xviii. 21, xix. 12,
xx. 3, xxi. 6, xxii. 2, 32 : a holy thing or sanctuary, xix. 8,
xxi. 12, 23, xxii. 15). See Driver, LOT* pp. 48 50. On account
of the prominence given to the command ' Ye shall be holy,' and
to the reason accompanying it, the section has been called the
'Law of Holiness,' and is frequently referred to as H.
ii. GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE CODES.
The character of the argument in support of Proposition 3
has already been indicated in Pt I. 4. Before proceeding to
apply the twofold comparison of p. 36 to particular cases,
a few general remarks may be made on the relation of the three
codes to one another, and to the narrative with which they are
incorporated.
a. Comparison of D with JE. Exod. xxiv. 3 8 contains
an account of the covenant which the Lord made with the
1 See the note on p. 55. Here is a very good illustration of the
preference and combination there referred to.
COMPARISON OF THE CODES 113
children of Israel at Sinai. The passage is the sequel 1 to
ch. xxiii. and implies that the words of the Lord which Moses
wrote in the ' Book of the covenant,' and read in the audience of
the people, are contained in Exod. xx. 22 xxiii. 33, and form
the basis of the covenant at Sinai. These words are different
from the words of the Decalogue which were given to Moses
after the sojourn in the mount for forty days and forty nights
(cp. xxiv. 18; xxxi. 18).
Deuteronomy (xxix. i) mentions two covenants: that which
was made 'with the children of Israel in the land of Moab'
(cf. vv. i, 9, 12, 21), and that 'which he made with them in
Horeb' (cf. iv. 13, 23, v. 2, 3, 22).
What was the covenant in Horeb? According to Deut. v.
the Decalogue only was spoken by the Lord in Horeb, 'and he
added no more' (y. 22). The people ask that they may not
hear the voice of the Lord any more (v. 25), but that Moses
may communicate to them any further message (v. 27). The
Lord approves their request (y. 28) ; and commands Moses to
stand by Him while He declares to him the statutes and judge-
ments which he (Moses) is to teach them, that they may do
them in the land when they have taken possession of it (v. 31).
These statutes and judgements are not made known to the
people at once. The words of v. 31, 'which thou shalt teach,'
do not require Moses to teach them at that time ; and he declares
them to the children of Israel in the land of Moab on the eve of
passing over the Jordan. These statutes and judgements are con-
tained in Dcut. xii. xxvi. ; and with the discourse of ch. xxviii.*
form the basis of the covenant made in the land of Moab. A
comparison of Deut. v. 31 with vi. J, 6, viii. i, u, xi. 8, shews
that ' the commandment 8 , and the statutes, and the judgements'
1 See the remarks on this passage on p. 104.
1 Not necessarily in its j.rcsriu I'urni. The argument is not affected
by allowing that the lxx>k of Deuteronomy may have been revised and
ragmented.
8 Not the ' command mentr ' as A.V., which suggests to the
C.P. 8
H4 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
spoken to Moses at Horeb are imparted to the people on the
eve of passing over Jordan. This law, declared in the land of
Moab (i. 5), is not a repetition of laws already promulgated at
Sinai, but a series of enactments delivered to Moses at Horeb,
and now, at the close of the journeyings, for the first time made
known to Israel.
Here is a distinct difference between the two representations
of the covenant at Sinai (Horeb). According to Deuteronomy
the Decalogue only is the covenant at Horeb (iv. 13, v. 22).
Whatever had been imparted to Moses at Horeb besides that,
is communicated by him to the people in the land of Moab, and
not before. But according to Exod. xx. xxiv. the Book of the
covenant was laid before the people (xxi. i), and formed the
basis of the covenant at Sinai described in xxiv. 3 8. The
inference to be drawn from this diversity of view is that
The writer of Deut. v. xxvi.^ xxviii}- was not acquainted
with Exod. xx. 22 xxiv. in its present position.
It is however quite certain that many of the laws of the
Covenant code were known to the author of Deut. xii. xxvi. 2
It follows therefore that though the laws of Exod. xx. 22
xxiii. 1 8 (or some of them) were in existence when Deut. xii.
xxvi. and v. xi. were written, they had not yet been brought
into connexion with the Sinai narrative as they now stand in
Exod. xx. xxiv. 3 ; for no one who had read those chapters in
their present form could describe the covenant at Horeb as
reader a reference to the Decalogue, or 'Ten Words,' but the 'com-
mandment,' i.e. the Deuteronomic legislation generally.
1 The possibility of portions having been added to an earlier form of
these chapters is not lost sight of. Cp. note i on p. 113.
2 Evidence in support of this statement will be found later on p. 230.
Consult also the commentary on Deuteronomy in this series.
3 Or if Exod. xx. xxiv. was in existence as a whole, it was not
known in that shape to the author of Deuteronomy ; for he knows the
Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant (or parts of it) separately, but
not in juxtaposition.
COMPARISON OF THE CODES 115
limited to the Ten Words. The author of Deut. does so describe
the covenant at Horeb ; therefore he had not before him the
statements in Exod. xx. xxiv. as they now stand.
This conclusion throws light on the probable growth of the
Sinaitic narrative. A collection of laws which is now found
incorporated with the legislation at Sinai, was known (or partly
known) to the Deuteronomist, but not regarded by him as part
of the Sinaitic legislation. May there not be other laws which,
when they were recognized as authoritative, were by such
recognition considered as breathing the spirit of the first great
lawgiver, and embodied in the account of the Mosaic legislation ?
Another account of a 'covenant' at Sinai is contained in
Exod. xxxiv. 10 27. Like that in Exod. xxiv. 38, it states that
the words which Moses is commanded to write formed the basis
of a covenant (v. 27). * These words' in v. 27 refer to the
precepts contained in w. 10 26. They are chiefly ceremonial
regulations, which are closely parallel to those contained in
Exod. xxiii. 12 ff. 1 The similarity between the regulations of
1 The relation between the ' Little Book of the Covenant ' (see p. 1 1 1)
and the Book of the Covenant is shewn in the following table :
Exod. Exod.
xxxiv. xxiii. xxxiv. xxiii.
18 = 15 ii = 23
*oc = isc H, 15 = 32, 33
21 = 12 13 = 24
22 = l6 14 = 24
23 = I 7
25 = 18 I4 = xx. 3, 5
26 = 19 Cp. Josh. xxiv. 14, 20
xiii. I7 = xx. 23
18* = 6 a i=xx. 9
19 = 12
20 = 13
* the middle clause
The jaiallels in the first column shew verbal identity with ch. xxiii.
and cb. xiii. : those in the second column are not so close, and are from
8-a
ii6 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
xxxiv. 10 26 and xxiii. 12 ff., and the fact that xxiv. 8 and
xxxiv. 27 both record a covenant based on laws written by
Moses (for it may be assumed that the Divine command in
xxxiv. 27 was obeyed) render it probable that xxiv. 3 8 and
xxxiv. 10 27 are duplicate accounts. Be that as it may, the
inference on p. 114 with reference to the covenant of xxiv. 3 8
may be applied to the covenant described in xxxiv. 10 27 : the
writer of Deut. was not acquainted with this latter passage in
its present position. The connexion between vv. 27 and 28
has been much discussed :
(a) The common interpretation of v. 2 < &b (from 'And he
wrote... 3 ) considers that it is a continuation of the account in
v. i and z/,4, recording the writing of the Decalogue by Jehovah
on the tables as promised in v. i. Cp. Deut. x. i 4 (see p. 82).
Of those who consider v. 28 as the continuation of v. 27 ;
(b} Some identify ' the words of the covenant, the ten words'
in v. 28 with ' these words ' in v. 27, and with the regulations
of vv. 12 26, which (in their view) were originally 'ten' in
number. Moses is then regarded as the subject of the verb
in v. 28$. According to this view, there were two traditions
with reference to what was written on the tables, and * the Ten
Words' denoted here the original 'ten' laws of xxxiv. 12 ff.,
and in Deut. iv. 13, x. 4 the Decalogue of Deut. v.
(c) Others are not satisfied with the attempts that have
been made to reduce the regulations of vv. 12 26 to the
number ten, and doubt whether the phrase * the Ten Words ' in
v. 28 should be taken as referring to them. They suggest that
it is a gloss of a later scribe who understood (wrongly) 'the
words of the covenant ' to mean the Decalogue. The expres-
sion 'the Ten Words' occurs elsewhere only in Deut iv. 13,
x. 4, where it undoubtedly refers to the Decalogue of Exod. xx.
the hortatory discourse at the end of the Book of the Covenant. Two
of the commands (vv. 14, 21) may be compared with the second and
fourth commandments ; but they have parallels in xx. 23 and xxiii. 24.
COMPARISON OF THE CODES 117
and Deut. v. According to this view, the account in Exod. xxxiv.,
in its original form (without the three last words of v. 28), agrees
with that in Exod. xxiv. 3 8 in describing a covenant based
on words written by Moses.
Whichever interpretation be adopted,
Either :
The covenant of Exod. xxxiv. is the same as that of
Deut. iv. 13 based on the Decalogue : then the two accounts of
the covenant at Horeb (Sinai) are so different (with, according
to one interpretation, divergent applications of the phrase { the
Ten Words ') that they must be from different authors ;
Or:
The covenant of Exod. xxxiv. is different from that of
Deuteronomy : then it is evident that the writer of Deuteronomy
was unacquainted with Exod. xxxiv. 10 27. He describes the
covenant in Horeb as founded on the Decalogue on/y, and
followed by a second covenant made in the land of Moab. How
could he have written thus, if he had known that there were two
covenants described as having been made at Sinai, one in Exod.
xxiv., and the other in Exod. xxxiv. ?
Diversity of authorship (i.e. that D and JE are not from the
same source) follows, whichever alternative be adopted.
b. Comparison of D with P. The portions of the Sinaitic
narrative in Exodus which have just been considered are assigned
by general consent to JE 1 . But the bulk of the legislation
contained in the Pentateuch belongs to P, and the question
naturally arises: What is the relation between D and P?
According to P's account, when Israel arrived at Sinai
(xix. I, 2a\ the glory of the Lord abode on mount Sinai, and the
cloud covered it six days : on the seventh day God called Moses
up into the Mount (xxiv. 16 1 8), and gave him instructions for
making the Ark, the Tabernacle with its vessels, and the priestly
garments (xxv. xxix., with xxx. xxxi. as a supplement). On
1 The comments in the preceding pages strengthen the argument in
Prop, a iv. in i.ivour of the composite character of JE.
n8 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
his return Moses issues these instructions to the people, who
prepare all the material required ; the Tabernacle and its
appurtenances are constructed (xxxv. xxxix.) ; the Tabernacle
is set up (xl.)i and further instructions are given in Leviticus
and Num. i. x. 28 ; after Sinai has been left, further enact-
ments are issued during the journeyings (Num. xv., xviii., xix.),
and in the plains of Moab (Num. xxviii. xxxvi.).
The laws which are thus given by P are, as a rule, imparted
through Moses. A direct communication to Aaron is found,
Lev. x. 8; Num. xviii. I, 8, 20; in some cases Moses and Aaron
are addressed (Lev. xi. I ; xiii. I ; xv. I ; Num. ii. I ; iv. i ;
xix. i; xx. 12, 23); but as a rule the words of the Lord are
delivered to Moses, with an instruction, ' Speak unto Aaron,' or
'Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons' (Lev. vi. 9, 25; xvi. 2;
Num. vi. 23; viii. i); sometimes, 'Speak unto Eleazar the son
of Aaron ' (xvi. 37) ; or the instruction is, ' Speak unto (some-
times, 'Command') the children of Israel, and say unto them'
(Exod. xxv. 2 ; xxxi. 13 ; Lev. i. 2 ; iv. 2 ; vii. 29 ; xii. 2 ; xxvii. 2 ;
Num. v. 2, 6, 12; vi. 2; ix. 10; xv. 2, 18, 38; xvii. 2; xxviii. 2;
xxxiv. 2 ; xxxv. 2, 10).
Thus according to P, a series of statutes are given during the
stay at Sinai ; they are supplemented during the journeyings,
and a last addition is made in the plains of Moab. The instruc-
tion of Israel in the law is spread over the whole period of the
journeyings. The writer of Deuteronomy makes no reference
to this elaborate system of sacrifice, worship, and law ; and his
account of the legislation leaves no room for it. The covenant
at Horeb was the 'Ten Words'; and there is no intimation that
any further commands were issued to the people during their
stay at Sinai, or during their journeyings 1 . The instructions
1 The writer of Deut. might indeed think of Moses as issuing
instructions for the guidance of the people during their journeyings.
Such instructions, having been received from God, might be described
as statutes and judgements ; and if the instructions were of a permanent
character, they might anticipate some command or other found in
chs. xii. xxvi. Such instructions may be referred to in Deut. i. 18,
COMPARISON OF D WITH P 119
which Moses received from God at Horeb were for the guidance
of the people in the Promised Land ; they were not needed
during their progress to Canaan, and accordingly they were not
imparted till the final encampment in the field of Moab. The
representation of the lawgiving in the Priestly Code is different ;
it records a series of enactments issued by God through Moses
during the whole period of the forty years. The book of Deutero-
nomy not only ignores this continued legislative activity ; it
excludes it. When it is remembered that P's legislation in the
plains of Moab is assigned to a period immediately preceding
that in which the second Deuteronomic covenant was made in
the land of Moab, the absence in Deuteronomy of any allusion
to the concluding chapters of Numbers is very remarkable.
The silence of Deuteronomy with regard to matters contained
in P is sometimes explained by saying that Deuteronomy is
addressed to the people, and omits reference to priestly ritual.
But the legislation in P is addressed to both priests and people
(see reflf. on p. 1 18) ; even precepts referring to sacrifice and ritual
purity are delivered directly to the people (Lev. xii., Num. xxviii.,
xxix.). Though the Priestly code contains the priests' ritual,
it contains also, like the other codes, laws for the people. The
explanation offered only accounts for the silence of Deuteronomy
with regard to a part of P, viz. that part which contains regula-
tions for the priests. Reference is made in Deuteronomy to
laws already in existence ; to some of the laws in the Covenant
code 1 , and to regulations about leprosy (xxiv. 8). The book
also specifies the kinds of food that may and may not be eaten 8 .
iv. ;. But action of this kind on the part of Moses does not affect the
general view expressed in Deut. that no formal code other than the
Decalogue was issued at Sinai. The writer of Deut. would not have
expressed himself as he has done, if he had been acquainted with P.
1 Compare the remarks on p. 114, and those in the section dealing
with the laws atxjut slavery (p. 125).
a These passages are often quoted as proving that Deuteronomy is
acquainted with the legislation 01 I'. The Deuteronomic view of the
120 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Why, when specifying with some minuteness the sacrifices and
offerings that should be brought (Deut. xii. 6, n, 17), is no
reference made to precepts issued to the people a few months
before on the same subject (Num. xxviii., xxix.)? A similar
question may be asked with reference to an important ordinance
contained in P, to which Deuteronomy makes no allusion ; that
concerning the Great Day of Atonement. The observance of
that day is most strictly enjoined : whoever does not afflict his
soul in that day shall be cut off, and the Lord will destroy the
soul that doeth work on that day from among his people (Lev.
xxiii. 29, 30). A law so necessary for all must find a place in a
code which contains the statutes and judgements to be observed
in the land which the Lord God is giving to Israel. That it is
not included in the covenant made in the land of Moab admits
of but one explanation ; the author of Deuteronomy knew
nothing of such a law.
Both in Numbers and Deuteronomy, the great lawgiver,
when told he is not to enter the Promised Land, is represented
as giving final instructions before his approaching departure.
These instructions are found in Num. xxviii. xxxvi., and in
Deuteronomy. It has been pointed out (pp. u.8f.) that the
Deuteronomic view of the whole legislation as consisting of
(i) the Decalogue given at Sinai, (2) the legislation given in
the land of Moab, leaves no room for any legislation at Sinai
or in Moab, besides the laws contained in Deut. xii. xxvi.
(Cf. xxix. i, 9, 12, 21.) These laws are entirely different from
any of P's Sinaitic laws, and from those in Num. xxviii. xxxvi..
which are obviously to be assigned to P, as they exhibit un-
whole legislation, as embodied in the two covenants at Horeb and in the
land of Moab, excludes the idea of the Priestly code as part of the
Sinaitic legislation. Priestly Torah was no doubt in existence when
Deuteronomy was written, and is referred to ; but such Torah was not
then generally recognized as having been imparted at Sinai. Compare
the remarks about the Covenant code on pp.
THE CITIES OF REFUGE 121
mistakable marks of his style. The lawgiver as depicted in
Deut. could not have imparted these laws in Num. xxviii. xxxvi.
only a few months before. (Cp. the dates in Num. xxxiii. 38
and Deut. i. 3.) Among the laws contained in Num. xxviii.
xxxvi. is one (that referring to the cities of refuge) which has
its parallel in the Deuteronomic legislation. It will be instructive
to compare the two versions in Num. xxxv. 9 34, and Deut. xix.
I-I3-
The Deuteronomic account gives no name to the cities ;
that in Numbers describes them as l drey miklat (cities of recep-
tion?), a term found elsewhere only in Josh, xx., xxi., where
the carrying out of the law in Numbers is described, and in
i Chron. vi. 57, 67 in a list of the Levitical cities clearly taken
from Josh. xxi. (see Josh. xxi. 13, 21).
Three cities only are specified in Deut. xix. 2, 7 ; with a
proviso that, 'if the Lord enlarge thy border,' three more cities
should be added. Num. xxxv. 13, 14 fixes the number at six,
three on each side of the Jordan 1 . The six cities are set apart
by Joshua (Josh. xx.). The same writer would not enjoin six
cities, and within a few months speak of them as three.
In Deuteronomy, 'the elders of his city 'are to send and fetch
the murderer from the city of refuge, to deliver him to the
avenger of blood for death. Some investigation of the case is
here supposed ; and the course of fetching him from the city of
refuge for death would be adopted only if he were judged guilty.
As no mention of any other authority is made, it would seem that
the judgement was pronounced by 'the elders of his city.'
Elders are often represented as exercising judicial functions
(cf. Driver, Deut., pp. 200, 233). But in Num. xxxv. 12 the
judgement rests with the 'congregation,' an expression frequently
occurring in P, but not in D or JE. Apparently, 'the congrega-
tion ' is that of the city of refuge. It might be said that when
1 See the commentary on Deuteronomy for a discussion of Deut. iv.
41 43 in connexion with this law. The difierc-ncc in the representation
of three and six exists, whatever view be adopted with reference to that
gc.
122 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the murderer had been condemned by ' the congregation '
(Num. xxxv. 12, 24, 25), 'the elders of his city' (Deut. xix. 12)
fetched him from the city of refuge. But if this were so, it is
strange that Deuteronomy makes no reference at all to 'the
congregation.'
The version in Numbers contains many expressions character-
istic of P, e.g. the introductory formula ' Speak unto the children
of Israel and say unto them,' 'soul' (nephesh} in the sense of
person, 'throughout your generations,' 'in all your dwellings'
(v. 29). None of these are found in Deuteronomy. The time
of sojourn in the city of refuge ' till the death of the high priest,
which was anointed with the holy oil' (Num. xxxv. 25) is
expressed in terms peculiar to P. Deuteronomy does not
indicate any limit to the sojourn.
Accidental homicide is described in Num. xxxv. n, 15 as
done in ignorance (Heb. bisfcgdgah^ unwittingly R.V.), a word
regularly used in P (Lev. iv. 2, 22, 27 ; v. 15 ; xxii. 14 ; Num.
xv. 24, 26 29). Deuteronomy has bibh'll dcfath, unawares
R.V. (iv. 42 ; xix. 4 ignorantly A.V.).
The descriptions given, and especially the illustrations dis-
tinguishing accidental from intentional homicide, are entirely
different in the two passages. With the exception of the words
'manslayer,' and 'flee thither,' no similarity can be traced
between them.
Also the reasons assigned for such a law are expressed
differently. In Deuteronomy, the object stated is 'that innocent
blood be not shed in thy land' ; in Numbers, the idea that 'the
land wherein Jehovah dwells in the midst of the children of
Israel ' should not be defiled, is one which lies at the base of P's
legislation.
The reader may be left to form his own judgement whether
it is probable that these two passages were both written by the
same person. When it is remembered that Moses has already
been told that he is not to go over Jordan into the Promised
Land, the question may be asked : Is it probable that within
the few months allotted to him, he would issue two laws on the
LAWS ABOUT SLAVERY 123
same subject, with such remarkable differences between them,
both addressed to the children of Israel ?
iii. COMPARISON OF PARTICULAR LAWS.
The general comparison of the codes in the preceding
section (while incidentally furnishing additional evidence that
JE is composite) has shewn that the accounts of the legislation
at Sinai are widely divergent in JE, D, and P. A detailed
examination of the laws will throw light on these divergences.
The twofold comparison already indicated (p. 36) will first be
applied to the laws about slavery.
a. Laws relating to slavery.
The laws relating to the Hebrew slave are found in :
Exod. xxi. 2 ii.
Deut. xv. 12 1 8.
Lev. xxv. 3955.
a. Comparison of the laws with one another.
An examination of these laws points distinctly to the con-
clusion that they cannot be practically contemporaneous, but
must have been gradually developed ; and that the three groups
<S in Exodus, Deuteronomy, and Leviticus represent successive
stages of this development.
The laws of Exodus, Deuteronomy, and Leviticus are given
in the following table in parallel columns ; the words that are
identical in Exod. and Deut. are in italics* ; words in Leviticus
in italics are found also in Exod. or Deut. ; if in both, then the
1 The text is that of K.V., except that 'bondman* and 'bondwoman'
are inserted from R.V. marg., in order to make it clear that the same
Hob. words are used in all three passages. The similarity is closer than
the italicised words indicate, e.g. 'he shall be thy bondman for ever'
(Deut. xv. 17) is identical in meaning with 'and he shall serve him lor
ever' (Exod. xxi. 6). 'Serve' and 'bondman* are cognate, i.e. derived
from the same root in Hebrew; just as the English 'serve 'and 'servant.'
124 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
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LAWS IN EXODUS AND DEUTERONOMY 125
words are in ittilics in all three columns ; but italics in the third
column only indicate words found cither in Exod. or Deut.
The laws in the first two columns may first be compared :
It is clear that either: (a) one of these accounts is dependent
on the other; or, () both are derived from some common
source.
The variations in the Deuteronomic law deserve notice. Its
opening words, ' If thy brother,' sound a note which may be
heard throughout the whole of this legislation. The brotherhood
of all who have been redeemed from a common bondage is the
principle which should guide every Israelite in dealing with his
neighbour 1 . In xv. 13 15 the principle of the common brother-
hood is applied practically and enforced by reference to the bond-
age in Egypt These verses are peculiar to, and characteristic of
Deuteronomy, as also verse 18, which promises God's blessing
on him who treats his less fortunate brother in a generous spirit.
A difference in the treatment of female slaves is clearly
indicated. The Deuteronomic law begins with a reference to
'the Hebrew or Hebrewess,' and ends with 'and also unto thy
bondwoman thou shalt do likewise.' There is no difference in the
treatment of the sexes ; but in Exod. xxi. 7 it is expressly ordered
'she shall not go out as the bondmen do.' The difference must
be recognized, as well as that which it implies a changed social
condition of woman, and, consequently, a considerable interval
between the times at which the two laws were promulgated.
According to Exod. xxi. 4, the wife and children, if the wife
was given to the bondman during his term of service, were
treated as the master's chattels : the bondman might go ; but
only on the condition that wife and children were left. If the
argument from silence be allowed, it would appear that a more
humane treatment of the bondman was customary at the time
when Deuteronomy was written. This change of custom would
indicate that the law of Deuteronomy was later than that of
Exodus.
1 Cp. xv. 3 ii ; xix. 18, 19; xxii. 14; xxiii. ly, 20 in illustration.
126 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Another difference appears in the ceremony which inaugurates
life long service. The action of the master is described in nearly
the same words in both laws. He pierces through the ear of
the bondservant with an awl into the door. But in Exod. xxi. 6
the master is to bring his slave 'to God' R.V., or 'to the judges'
A.V. 1 Something is here prescribed as introductory to the
ceremony of boring the ear which has been omitted in Deutero-
nomy. The omission is a notable one, and intentional. Some
portion of the ceremony as described in Exodus had fallen into
disuse or discredit in the time of the Deuteronomist.
Both laws are intended for settled life in Palestine, but if
both laws were given in the wilderness, why should the earlier
law of Exodus require modification after the Israelites had spent
40 years in a nomad condition ? The differences between the
two laws may be most easily accounted for by the supposition
that the law of Deut. was introduced at a later date, and represents
such modification of the original law of Exodus as was found
necessary, after the children of Israel had been for some time in
possession of the land.
Very different both in language and thought is the law
contained in Lev. xxv. 39 46. The laws in Exodus and
Deuteronomy refer to a definite class of Hebrew bondservants :
nothing is said about these in Leviticus ; but a particular case,
that of the free Israelite who becomes a bondman, as in 2 Kings
iv. i, Neh. v. 5, is mentioned. The Israelite who on account of
poverty is reduced to the position of a bondman is not to be
treated as such by his brother Israelite but as a hired servant,
and in the year of jubile he is to return to his family. As in
that year each man returns to his own possession, he will then
be able to support himself and his family (xxv. 39 41).
A more general view of bondage follows : all Israelites are
1 A.V. is a paraphrase ; the judge is the representative of God
(Deut. i. 17); so Exod. xxii. 8, 9. The decision was probably delivered
at the sanctuary in the earliest times. Cf. Judg. iv. 4, 5, and (for a
solemn agreement) xi. n. Cp. p. 51.
LAWS IN LEVITICUS 127
the bondmen of Jehovah ; He rescued them from the bondage
of Egypt, and they shall not be sold as bondmen (xxv. 42).
But they may ' buy bondmen and bondmaids ' (the same words
as in Exod. xxi. 2, 7) of the nations that are round about, or of
the foreigners that sojourn among them (xxv. 4446). The
idea of treating any Israelite as a bondservant is repudiated on
the ground that he is a brother, and that all alike are 'servants'
(the same Heb. word as 'bondmen') of Jehovah (xxv. 42, 46).
Here is a fundamental difference of conception, which may be
accounted for on the supposition that in course of time the idea
of an Israelite occupying the position of a bondservant became
repugnant to the national feeling. The ideas of common
brotherhood and common deliverance from bondage lie at the
base of the Deuteronomic legislation. It is conceived in a
humanitarian spirit, which, however, still allows the Hebrew to
enslave his brother (Deut xv. 12 18). The Levitical legisla-
tion marks a further step in the development of these ideas,
and draws the inference that the Lord's bondmen must not
be bondmen one to another 1 . Such a view of the position of
an Israelite must belong to the last stage in the development
On the assumption that JE, D, P represent successive steps
in the treatment of an Israelite bondservant, the whole legisla-
tion with respect to slavery appears in historic sequence and
presents no difficulty ; but on the supposition that JE and P
were set forth in the same year at Sinai, and D promulgated
about 40 years later, the inconsistency of the three laws is in-
explicable. According to Lev. xxv. Moses communicates to the
people a law forbidding them to treat a Hebrew as a bondman,
1 The principle enunciated ip Lev. xxv. 43 (' they are my servants ')
is by some writers taken as applying only to the case treated in w. 39 41.
But the principle as re-stated in ver. 55 is in general terms ('the
children of Israel arc my servants'); and the close parallelism between the
of Exod. xxi. 7, 7 and Lev. xxv. 44 46 implies that the permission
to acquire a Hebrew slave contemplated in the law of Exod. is withdrawn
in Lev., and only non- Israelites are allowed as slaves.
128 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
and requiring them to let such as were obliged to sell themselves
on account of poverty go out in the jubile; thereby practically
repealing the law of Exodus given only a few months before.
According to Deut. the same lawgiver less than 40 years after-
wards enacts a law which permits a Hebrew to be made a
bondman for life ; thereby re-enacting the law of Exod. xxi. 2 6,
and at the same time permitting that which had been forbidden
by the law in Leviticus.
/3. Comparison with the history.
No definite reference to any of these laws about slavery can
be traced in the historical books 1 before the time of Jeremiah.
An incident which occurred during the siege of Jerusalem illus-
trates the position of the Hebrew slave in the last days of the
Kingdom (Jer. xxxiv. 8 22). Zedekiah had made a covenant
with the people to release their bondservants, and they had let
them go ; but afterwards they brought them back into subjec-
tion. For this breach of covenant Jeremiah declares that they
shall be given into the hand of their enemies. The language is
evidently based on the law contained in Deut. xv. The mention
of Hebrew or Hebrewess (xxxiv. 9), the letting bondman and
bondmaid go free (ver. 10), at the end of six years' service
(ver. 14), shew an acquaintance with the Deuteronomic form of
the law. The law recognized by the prophet the law of the
Hebrew nation towards the end of the monarchy was that of
Deuteronomy.
There seems to be in the prophet's mind the idea contained
in Lev. xxv. 42, 46, that no Jew should be a bondservant. But
it has not yet been formulated as a law. The prophet appeals
to the Deuteronomic law 2 (xxxiv. 13, 14), and says that this law
1 The incident in 2 Kings iv. i 7 shews that children might be sold
by a creditor as payment for debt.
2 Observe that the law is referred to as given 'in the day that
I brought them forth out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of
bondage.' The words ' in the day that I brought them forth out of the
land of Egypt ' occur also in Jer. vii. 22, xi. 4, 7, xxxi. 32. The phrase
THE BONDMAN IN THE HISTORY 129
had not been observed by their fathers ; but that they had now
obeyed it by proclaiming liberty every man to his neighbour
(verses 14, 15).
The expression ' that none should serve himself of them '
(Jer. xxxiv. 9) is found also in Jer. xxii. 13 ; xxv. 14 ; xxvii. 17 ;
xxx. 8. It is employed in Lev. xxv. 46 and Exod. i. 14 (both P) ;
and also the expression 'proclaim liberty' (Jer. xxxiv. 8, 15, 17)
occurs in Lev. xxv. 10.
The development of the law seems clearly indicated in the
history. Jeremiah, in appealing to the Deuteronomic law, uses
language which implies that one Jew should not be in bondage
to another. This idea is expressed in the law of Lev. xxv. 39 46
which also employs Jeremiah's phrase 'none shall serve himself
of them ' (see above). But it is not appealed to as law by
Jeremiah ; it is still prophetical Torah in his time.
It appears to have been the same for some time after the
Return from captivity : in the time of Nehemiah the distress was
so great that many had borrowed money, and brought into bond-
age their sons and daughters (Neh. v. 4, 5). Nehemiah was very
angry and contended with the nobles and the rulers. He reasons
with them on the impropriety of exacting usury, and selling their
brethren into bondage. Would he have remonstrated on the
subject of bondage, if Lev. xxv. 39 46, expressly forbidding it,
had been then in existence as a law ? The hardships of the
returned exiles prompted their leaders to frame laws for their
relief; and the law against bondage (Lev. xxv. 42 46), which
was the logical sequence to Jeremiah's reproof and Nehemiah's
remonstrance, eventually found its place in the statute book of
Israel
' in the day ' must not be taken literally, and probably means no more
than ' at that time ' ; the reference, however, seems to be to the
beginning^ rather than to the end of the journeyings. If the prophet
knew the law as a part of the complete Book of Deut., would it not have
been represented as proclaimed in the land of Moab (Deut. xxix. i) ?
C. P.
I 3 o INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
b. Laws relating to worship.
A comparison of the regulations affecting worship will
confirm the inferences drawn in the preceding section. The
central idea of O.T. worship is sacrifice ; and for its regulation
four questions must be answered :
(a. Where? .the place of worship.
0. When? (the times at which men
must or may offer sacri-
To the I answer I fice Qr iftg
question , What ? will ^ differem ^^ Qf sacri _
mdlcate fice and offering.
Who? \the persons qualified to
offer sacrifice.
A further question, If certain persons are set apart to offer
sacrifice, what provision should be made for their support ? may
be considered in connexion with question (8).
If the answers to these questions supplied by the different
codes be examined, it will be found that in fulness of detail, and
extent of obligation, the code of D occupies a middle place
between the other two codes.
The historical books record many acts of sacrifice, and supply
details with respect to the manner in which worship was cele-
brated. Many references, direct and incidental, to altar and
offering, priest and sanctuary, occur throughout the books of the
O.T. The material for a twofold comparison like that which
has already been made in the case of slaves, exists, and in much
greater abundance. To treat this material at all completely would
involve writing the religious history of the nation 1 , an under-
taking of greater length and complexity than the limits of this
Introduction permit. Only a few points can here be briefly
considered ; for further information the works mentioned in
1 This has been done by Ottley in The Religion of Israel, and by
Kautzsch in his article in DB extra vol. pp. 612 734. The outline
which follows should be supplemented by reference to these writers.
LAWS ABOUT WORSHIP 131
1't I. 4, pp. 36 f., and those referred to in the note at the foot of
page 130 may be consulted.
a. THE PLACE OF WORSHIP.
(l) Comparison of the codes with one another.
(i) The laws in JE. The Covenant code allows an altar
of earth or of unhewn stone ; implying the existence of more than
one altar, and also of one different from the altar of wood overlaid
with brass (bronze) enjoined in Exod. xxvii. i 8. An altar may
be erected at any place where the Lord causes His name to be
remembered (Exod. xx. 24 26). The law of Exod. xxii. 29, 30,
which enjoins that firstlings should be given to the Lord on the
eighth day from birth, implies that an altar was near at which
they might be presented. The precepts of Exod. xxi. 6 'bring
him unto God,' xxii. 8, 9 'come before God' could not be observed
if there were but one sanctuary. These precepts assume that
the parties concerned can come before God at some place not
far distant from their place of residence. 'The first of the first-
fruits of thy ground thou shalt bring into the house of the LORD
thy God,' a precept which occurs both in Exod. xxiii. 19, and in
xxxiv. 26, may refer to the sanctuary at which the Ark was kept,
to which annual pilgrimages were made (i Sam. i. 3, 7, 21 ;
ii. 19).
(ii) The law in Deuteronomy. The injunctions of the
Deuteronomic code with respect to the place of worship are
clear and emphatic. To 'the place which the LORD your God
shall choose to cause his name to dwell there' (xii. n); to that
place, and that alone, shall sacrifice and oblation be brought
'Thou mayest not eat within thy gates (i.e. in the city where
thou dwellest) the tithe of thy corn, or of thy wine, or of thine
oil, or the firstlings of thy herd or of thy flock, nor any of thy
vows which thou vowest, nor thy freewill offerings, nor the heave
offering 1 of thine hand : but thou shalt eat them before the LORD
1 This expression refers to gifts taken from the produce of the
soil (the firstfruits and firstlings); cp. Num. xv. 19 71. The word
92
i 3 2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
thy God in the place which the LORD thy God shall choose'
(xii. 17, 1 8).
A limitation is here introduced which is not apparent in the
Covenant code. It has already been shewn, in considering the
laws about slavery (p. 125), that Deuteronomy, though shewing
acquaintance with precepts contained in Exod. xxi. 2 ff., extends
and modifies the usages there prescribed. In the opening
chapter of the Deuteronomic code, the principle of the one
sanctuary is enunciated and enforced with repeated warning and
entreaty. (In addition to the verses already quoted, note Deut.
xii. 5, 13, 14, 26.) If the regulations about the three pilgrimage
feasts in Exod. xxiii. 14 17, xxxiv. 18, 22, 23 be compared with
those in Deut. xvi., and the frequent references in w. 2, 6, 7, u,
15, 16 to 'the place which the LORD thy God shall choose' be
observed, the inference to be drawn seems clear : in the Deute-
ronomic enunciation of these laws an important additional
regulation is introduced, viz. that which determines \htplace of
worship.
The manner in which this precept is urged gives the impres-
sion that something new is demanded. No reference is made
to a previous law, but it is implied that the existing practice of
the people is unsatisfactory. 'Ye shall not do after all the things
which we do here this day, every man whatsoever is right in his
own eyes' (Deut. xii. 8). An excuse seems to be offered in the
following verse: the people are not yet settled in peaceful
possession of the land ; but when they 'dwell in safety' (v. 10),
irregular and arbitrary worship must cease, and the ordinance of
the one sanctuary must be observed (vv. 11 18).
This limitation of sacrifice and worship to one place is not
Pnimah (heave-offering) means that which is lifted up, taken off from a
gift or sacrifice, as a special oblation, and it may be applied even to
land (Ezek. xlv. i). It is extremely doubtful whether a rite of ' elevation,'
such as is implied in the English rendering 'heave-offering,' was practised
when offering these gifts; such a rite is probably a later element
in Jewish sacrificial ritual. See Dillmann on Lev. vii. 33, and the
article ' Offering ' in DB vol. ii. p. 588.
COMPARISON OF THE CODES 133
enforced until the time of peaceful settlement. From a com-
parison of Deut. xii. 10 with I Kings v. 4, it appears that 'rest'
from enemies on every side was secured in the reign of Solomon.
In this indication of date, Deuteronomy is at one with the
redactor of the books of Kings, who mentions sacrifice offered
at the high places before the building of the temple without
imputing biame, ' because there was no house built unto the
name of the LORD' (i Kings iii. 2), but regards all such
sacrifices offered after that event as irregular. According to
these writers, the building of Solomon's temple forms an epoch
in the history of worship. But P's representation of the period
before the building of the temple is different.
(iii) The Priestly code gives directions about the Tabernacle
and the altar, and has regard to the requirements of the people
during their journeyings. It assumes the existence of one
sanctuary, and one altar 'before the door of the Tent of meeting,'
to which alone sacrifices might be brought. As the principles
of this priestly legislation are valid for all time (the statutes are
in perpetuity, ordinances for ever ' throughout your generations'),
it implies that the future worship of the people will be regulated
in accordance with those principles. According to P, the ordi-
nance of the one sanctuary has been established from the
beginning ; according to D, it is introduced under the monarchy.
Moses is pleading in Deuteronomy for the principle of the one
sanctuary, as an ideal to be realized in the future ; but the
Priestly legislation sets forth the one sanctuary as already in the
midst of the children of Israel.
In proceeding to compare the codes with the history, the first
question is : What light does the history throw on the impor-
tant point of difference between the Deuteronomic code and its
predecessor the code 01 the Covenant?
(2) Tlie place of worship in the history.
(i) To the fall of the Northern Kingdom. Throughout the
books of Judges and Samuel, instances are found of altars
134 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
erected, and sacrifice offered at different places in the land.
Gideon (Judg. vi. 24) and Manoah (xiii. 19) erect altars at the
places where God appears to them ; as did the patriarchs
before them (Gen. xii. 7, 8; xiii. 18; xxvi. 25; xxxiii. 20; xxxv.
7; xlvi. i). Although the Tent of meeting had been set up in
Shiloh (Josh, xviii. i), Joshua gathered the tribes together at
Shechem, where he sets up a great stone by, or, 'in' (see R.V.
marg.) 'the sanctuary of the LORD' (Josh. xxiv. i, 25, 26) 1 . The
ministrations of the Levite Jonathan at Dan (Judg. xviii. 30, 31),
carried on during the time that the ark was at Shiloh, will be
noticed later on (see p. 1 58). Samuel built an altar unto the Lord
at Ramah (i Sam. vii. 17), where Saul meets Samuel as he was
going up to the high place to bless the sacrifice (ix. 13, 14).
Samuel orders Saul to go down to Gilgal, and promises to come
and offer burnt offerings and peace offerings there (x. 8, and
cp. xi. 15, xiii. 9). Saul also built altars unto the Lord (in
xiv. 35, mention is made of 'the first altar that he built').
Sacrifice is offered at Bethlehem by Samuel, and there is also
a yearly sacrifice there (i Sam. xvi. 2, 5, and cp. xx. 6, 29).
David's sacrifices, on bringing the ark of the Lord into the city
of David (2 Sam. vi. 13), and at the threshing-floor of Araunah
the Jebusite (xxiv. 18 25), may also be mentioned. After the
disruption of the kingdom, the people assemble for worship at
Gilgal, Beersheba, and other places of both kingdoms (Amos
iv. 4; v. 5 ; Hos. iv. 15). Elijah complains that the people have
thrown down the altars of the Lord (i Kings xix. 10), and at
Carmel he repaired the altar of the Lord that was thrown down
(i Kings xviii. 30). The earlier prophets object, not to these places
of assembly as such, but to the spirit in which worship is offered
there, and to the false estimate formed by the people of its
efficacy. The Lord desires 'the knowledge of God more than
burnt offerings' (Hos. vi. 6). The existence of divers places for
assembly and sacrifice is not limited to the northern kingdom ;
from the time of Solomon onwards the historian records that
1 The LXX. read Shiloh in xxiv. i, 25 ; in ver. 25 they add ' before
the tent of the God of Israel.'
COMPARISON WITH THE HISTORY 135
the people in Judah continued to sacrifice in the high places
(i Kings iii. 2 ; xiv. 23 ; xv. 14 ; xxii. 43).
(ii) The reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah. Hezekiah is the
first king of whom it is said that 'he removed the high places...';
Rabshakeh refers to this removal in his speech at Jerusalem
(2 Kings xviii. 4, 22), and his words seem to imply that dis-
content had been aroused by the action of the king. No details
are given, so that it must remain matter of conjecture under
what impulse the king undertook this reform ; but whatever
purification of worship may have then been effected was wiped
out in blood during the reign of Manasseh.
In the eighteenth year of king Josiah 'the book of the law'
was found in the house of the Lord (2 Kings xxii. 8). The
words of this book made a deep impression on the king, and
he with the people made a covenant to observe 'the words of
this covenant that were written in this book' (2 Kings xxiii. 3).
The king commanded the destruction of vessels used in
idolatrous worship which were found in the temple, brought
out the Asherah that was in the house of the Lord, burnt it, and
scattered the ashes on the graves of the common people. There
were certain idolatrous priests called Chemarim that had been
appointed by the kings of Judah to burn incense in the high
places in the cities of Judah. These the king put down, but the
priests that had ministered at the high places, where sacrifice
had been offered in the reigns even of the best kings of Judah
(i Kings xiv. 23; xv. 14; xxii. 43; 2 Kings xii. 3; xiv. 4; xv.
4> 35)> he brought out of the cities of Judah, and suppressed the
high places where they had hitherto officiated (2 Kings xxiii.
4 8). These and other reforms were introduced on the authority
of the law book which Hilkiah had found in the house of the
Lord (xxiii. 24).
What was the book of the law, which produced such remark-
able results? Generally, when reference to the law is made in
the books of Kings, the Deuteronomic version of the law is
implied (i Kings ii. 3 ; viii. 9, 56; 2 Kings xiv. 6; xxi. 7). The
136 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
probability that Deuteronomy is referred to also in 2 Kings xxii.,
xxiii. is strengthened by the following considerations :
(a) One form of idolatry, the worship of the ' host of heaven,'
is mentioned in 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 5, 12. Manasseh appears to
have introduced it into Judah, for 'he built altars for all the
host of heaven in the two courts of the house of the LORD'
(2 Kings xxi. 3, 5). It is forbidden in Deut iv. 19 and xvii. 3,
and only there in the Pentateuch.
(b] Those 'that had familiar spirits, and the wizards'
(2 Kings xxiii. 24) were put away in accordance with the de-
mands of the book. The various forms of witchcraft and magic
are enumerated in Deut. xviii. 9 14, and the words employed
there are found in 2 Kings xxi. and xxiii. Manasseh 'made his
son to pass through the fire, and practised augury, and used
enchantments, and dealt with them that had familiar spirits, and
with wizards' (2 Kings xxi. 6). These practices are forbidden
with special emphasis in Deut. xvii. 2 5 and xviii. 9 14.
(c} King Josiah was alarmed at the threatenings contained
in the book (2 Kings xxii. 13). Passages such as Lev. xxvi. or
Deut. xxviii. would produce this effect ; but the allusion to the
covenant seems to suggest the latter.
(d} The book found in the house of the Lord is called the
book of the covenant (2 Kings xxiii. I, 21) and the king makes
a covenant 'to perform the words of this covenant that were
written in this book' (xxiii. 3). The style of the whole verse is
Deuteronomic, and, as has been shewn already (see p. 113), the
legislation in Deuteronomy is described as the covenant made
in the land of Moab.
Although other parts of the Pentateuch contain warnings
against idolatry and witchcraft, which might have served as
a basis for the Josianic reform, the special forms of idolatry and
witchcraft in (a) and (b} point very distinctly to Deuteronomy.
But there is one item in the list of reforms carried out by
Josiah which does not occupy a very prominent place in the
account of 2 Kings xxii., xxiii., yet, in consequence of its effect
REFORM OF JOSIAH 137
on the subsequent development of worship, may be considered
as the most important of the steps then taken to suppress
idolatry the abolition of the worship at the high places.
The opposition to these high places had probably been
growing for some time, Amos and later prophets had denounced
the worship at popular shrines, such as Gilgal and Beersheba,
but even under the best kings before Hezekiah it had not been
put down. The invasion of Sennacherib 1 had destroyed or
rendered desolate many of these high places, and at those that
were set up again under Manasseh the worship was probably
more idolatrous than before. On the accession of Josiah those
who sorrowed for backsliding Judah hoped for better things;
but the experience of the past had convinced the advocates of
reform, that so long as sacrifice and worship were permitted at
the various high places scattered throughout the land, so long
would corruption continue, and idolatrous practices (probably
remnants of Canaanite superstition as well as newer cults) could
not be effectively restrained. The diminished area of the king-
dom, now that Israel had been carried away captive, rendered
a concentration of worship at Jerusalem possible. Accordingly
the reformers in Josiah's reign advocated the total suppression
of worship at the high places.
The manner in which this limitation of worship to the one
sanctuary is introduced deserves notice. Two injunctions are
placed in the forefront of the Deuteronomic legislation : to
uproot idolatry, and to bring sacrifice and oblation to the one
place which the Lord should choose. This combination of
1 The campaign of Sennacherib, so briefly noticed in i Kings xviii.
13 16, brought ruin to Judah. According to the monuments, 46 strong
. and innumerable small towns were taken, and more than 200,000
people carried away. The high places adjacent to these towns and
cities were, no doubt, plundered wherever there was material to tempt
the invader, but, whether destroyed or not, they were rendered destitute
of worshippers. See Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the O.T.,
p. 393, Eng. trans. Vol. I. p. 286, Sayce, Hightr Criticism ami the
Monuments, p. 431, and Driver, Isaiah, pp. 6669, 73~75-
138 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
precepts exactly illustrates the aim of the reformers in Josiah's
reign. They denounced the idolatry that was prevalent, and
proposed the abolition of the high places as the most effective
means of suppressing it. The situation as depicted in 2 Kings
xxii., xxiii. seems to have coloured the account in Deuteronomy.
'The places wherein the nations... served their gods' (Deut.
xii. 2), as well as the altars, pillars, and Asherim 1 (groves A.V.)
were to be destroyed (cp. Exod. xxiii. 24; xxxiv. 13). Although
the places are not called 'high places' (Bamoth\ the description
of them as * upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and
under every green tree' (Deut xii. 2) is that given of the idolatry
practised in the time of the monarchy (i Kings xiv. 23 ; xvi. 4 ;
xvii. 10; note especially Jer. ii. 20; iii. 6, 13; xvii. 2, 10; also
Ezek. vi. 13 ; and cp. 'even their sons and their daughters do they
burn in the fire to their gods' Deut. xii. 31, with 2 Kings xxi. 6;
xxiii. 10).
The particular cases specified in Deut. xiii. if a prophet
(xiii. I 5), or a near relation or friend (xiii. 6 1 1) entice others
to go and serve other gods, or a city (xiii. 12 i8)has fallen away
to idolatry indicate a real danger then existing. These details
are not found in the other codes ; they imply the prevalence of
idolatry, with its votaries active in drawing aside the people after
them. And in the midst of all these warnings is set (xii. 5 28) the
law of the one sanctuary, coupled with the command to destroy all
places of idolatry (xii. 4, 5).
The intensity of feeling shewn in the setting of this law, and
the earnest tone of the entreaty which accompanies its enuncia-
tion, indicate that a real conflict is pending, and that men are
then and there contending with their brethren for a purer form
of worship. The situation here depicted corresponds exactly
with that of the reformers in Josiah's reign, who attempted to
stamp out idolatry by enforcing the law of the one sanctuary.
The words of Deut. xii. 8, 'Ye shall not do after all the things
which we do here this day, every man whatsoever is right in his
1 See the commentaries on Exodus and Deuteronomy for explana-
tions of these terms.
REFORM OF JOSIAH 139
own eyes,' also point towards the same conclusion. The contrast
in Deut. xii. is between a man doing ' whatsoever is right in his
own eyes,' and observing the law of the one sanctuary. To the
careful reader of xii. 8 13 it will be clear that doing ' whatsoever
is right in his own eyes ' and offering * burnt offerings in every
place that thou seest ' are equivalents. But the people in the
land of Moab are not called upon to observe the law of the one
sanctuary ; the obligation to such observance is not laid on
them, but on their descendants when they ' dwell in safety,' i.e.
in the reign of Solomon (cf. p. 47). The contrast in Deut. xii. as
addressed to the people in the land of Moab, conveys no instruc-
tion as to their own conduct, either before or immediately after
passing over Jordan. Such instruction might naturally be
expected to follow the prohibition of Deut. xii. 8. (Cp. ' cease
to do evil : learn to do well ' in Isai. i. 16, 17.) But the contrast
in Deut. xii. acquires a real force when it is addressed to the
heirs both of Israel in Moab, and of Israel under Solomon ; the
commands laid on both generations are equally binding for those
that come after, and the choice between frequenting the one
sanctuary, and ' doing that which is ri^ht in their own eyes ' is
offered to the same persons. This twelfth chapter of Deutero-
nomy, when considered as a retrospect of the past, is in effect a
solemn appeal to those who are offering ' burnt offerings in every
[high] place' : let them cease doing 'every man whatsoever is
right in his own eyes ' and repair to 'the place which the LORD
hath chosen to put his name there.' Such an appeal was made
by the reformers in the reign of Josiah, who wished to concentrate
the worship of the people at Jerusalem.
There are, moreover, other passages in Deuteronomy which
imply a post- Mosaic date. Those which refer to prophecy have
fly been noticed on p. 49. It is there pointed out, that the
representation of prophecy as a fully developed institution is
suitable only to a late period of the history.
Anotlu-r indication of .1 similar kind is found in the reference
to the king (Deut. xvii. 16, 17). 'it is difficult not to think that
HO INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
there is in these words a covert reference to the policy inaugurated
by Solomon' (Driver, Deut. I.C.C. p. 211, and cp. I Kings iv. 26,
x. 26, 28, 29 with Deut. xvii. 16 ; also v. 17 with I Kings xi.
38, x. 1425, 27).
A long occupation of the land is implied in the prohibition,
' Thou shalt not remove thy neighbour's landmark, which they of
old time have set in thine inheritance 3 (Deut. xix. 14).
These passages are difficult to explain on the supposition
that Deuteronomy was written before the conquest of the land ;
but they receive at once a natural interpretation, if the book be
assigned to a much later date. They may therefore be adduced
as corroborating other evidence which associates the Deutero-
nomic legislation with the prophets and reformers of the seventh
century B.C. Their appeal to the people is based on the covenant
made with their fathers when they came out of Egypt (cf. Jer.
xi. i 10) ; they bring forward a revised form of the existing
tradition, and point to Moses as setting a precedent for their
action. They call on the people to put away their abomi-
nations, and seek the Lord their God in Jerusalem.
Some modifications of existing practice were necessary, if
worship and sacrifice were to be transferred to the central sanctu-
ary. The law of Exod. xxii. 30 requires the firstborn to be given
to the Lord on the eighth day. This rule was practicable when
offerings could be brought to some place of worship in the
neighbourhood, but became impracticable when there was only
one place where such offerings were permitted. The time pre-
scribed is therefore prolonged, and according to Deut. xv. 20
firstlings are to be sacrificed ' year by year in the place which the
LORD shall choose.' But the proviso that no work shall be done
with the bullock, and that the sheep must not be shorn shews
that, as in the former legislation, firstlings are the Lord's from
the time of their birth.
Other relaxations of existing custom when 'the place which
the LORD thy God shall choose to put his name there be too far
from thee ' (Deut. xii. 21) are allowed. The reason for the permis-
POST-MOSAIC MARKS IN DEUT. 141
sion granted in this verse to ' kill of thy herd and of thy flock,'
requires explanation. In Eastern countries flesh is not eaten so
frequently as in the West. In ancient times, as in the present day
among the nomad Arabs, the meat eaten was for the most part
that of animals taken in hunting. Domestic animals, * of the herd
and of the flock,' were only slaughtered on some special occasion
(cp. Nathan's parable in 2 Sam. xii.), and such slaughter was
in early times considered as sacrificial ; the fat and the blood
were offered on an altar (cp. I Sam. xiv. 31 34, where the great
stone serves as an altar). This custom was easy of observance
when altars were numerous, and in all parts of the land ; but
when sacrifice was limited to one sanctuary, those at a distance
from it would not be able to kill domestic [i.e. sacrificial] animals
for food. Hence slaughter for food became distinguished from
slaughter for sacrifice ; the former was permitted anywhere, the
latter restricted to the one sanctuary. When slaughtered for
food, the flesh of domestic animals was to be treated as flesh
taken in hunting, 'as the gazelle [roebuck A.V.Jand as the hart.'
For such food, there was no restriction with reierence to ritual
purity ('the clean and the unclean shall eat thereof alike'), but
only with reference to the blood ; that was to be poured out upon
the earth like water. (See Deut. xii. 15, 16, 20 24, Driver,
Deuteronomy I.C.C., p. 145, and OTJC*, p. 249.)
Another modification of the existing rule with respect to the
tithe was also necessary. There was no difficulty in presenting
tithe of every kind at a local sanctuary ; but when it could be
brought only * to the place which the LORD shall choose,' the
regulation became impracticable. Permission was therefore
granted to turn the tithe into money, which might be expended
in a sacred feast at the central sanctuary (see Deut. xiv. 22 27,
and consult the notes on this passage, and also on xii. 15, 16,
2024 m the commentary on Deuteronomy).
tacts to which attention has been drawn in the preceding
paragraphs may be summed up as follows :
Up to the time of Josiah, sacrifice was offered at places
142 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
other than the central sanctuary; and Josiah abolished this
form of worship.
The Deuteronomic legislation lays stress on reforms which
Josiah carried out ; especially the overthrow of idolatry, and the
concentration of worship at Jerusalem.
Some of the corrupt usages forbidden in Deuteronomy (e.g.
the worship of the 'host of heaven') were not introduced into
Judah (so far as is known) until the seventh century B.C.
One form of idolatrous worship described in 2 Kings xxi. 5,
xxiii. 4, 5 is denounced only in Deuteronomy.
The language of Deuteronomy in referring to idolatry and
magical arts accords with that found in 2 Kings xxi. xxiii.
The similarity of style between Deuteronomy and Jeremiah
has been noted by all commentators on those books.
The Deuteronomic legislation introduces modifications of
existing usage which are necessary when sacrifice and offerings
are limited to a central sanctuary.
The inference drawn from these facts is : parts at least of the
book of Deuteronomy were composed when its precepts became
necessary; either in or shortly before the reign of Josiah.
Further evidence tending to corroborate this conclusion has
been noticed in preceding pages : e.g. the prophetic style and
character of the book (p. 73); the land described as already
occupied for a long time (p. 140) ; the conclusions drawn from
comparing the laws about slavery (pp. 125, 128); the sequence
of JE, D, P, already pointed out as probable (pp. no, 127), and
further illustrated in the following sections (p. 1 54). But for a
fuller investigation the reader must be referred to the Introduc-
tion to the book, and the notes upon particular passages in it,
in the commentary on Deuteronomy.
NOTE ON DEUTERONOMY AND THE JOSIANIC REFORM.
Reasons for assigning Deuteronomy to the seventh century
B.C., and connecting its promulgation with the reforms carried
out in the reign of Josiah have been given in the preceding
section. It has also been shewn that many of the laws in
JOSIAH'S REFORM AND DEUT. 143
Deuteronomy are similar to those in the Covenant code, and
that some of the modifications introduced in the Deuteronomic
code are such as would be necessary, if worship were restricted
to a central sanctuary. Other modifications are most easily
explained on the supposition that the laws of the Covenant code
represent an earlier stage of legislation, which in consequence
of development in social conditions, and other changes, was no
longer suitable.
If the Covenant code existed as a separate document, re-
garded as ancient, and embodying Mosaic precepts, it is not
difficult to understand how the Deuteronomic edition of this
code came to be put forward on the authority of Moses. If the
Covenant code had already been combined with the history of
the deliverance from Egypt, and the journey to Canaan, it would
probably occupy a position similar to that in which Deute-
ronomy is placed in the present Pentateuch 1 .
The writer of Deuteronomy would be only following the
tradition handed down to him, if he described his version of
that ancient code as the last bequest of the great lawgiver to
Israel.
According to the traditional view, Deuteronomy is a repeti-
tion of laws already promulgated at Sinai and elsewhere, issued
just before entering the promised land. But the statements of
the book itself do not support this view. It has been pointed
out (p. 114) that Deuteronomy refers to a covenant at Horeb
consisting of the Decalogue only, and sets forth the second
covenant in the land of Moab as based not on a repetition of
a law already given, but on a law set forth by Moses for the first
time in the land of Moab, though it had been communicated to
him at Horeb.
Much stress has been laid on the words 'the book of the
law' (2 Kings xxii. 8), and the inference has been drawn that the
1 It has already been pointed out (p. 114) that the code of the
Covenant was not in its present position when Deuteronomy was
written.
144 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
book found by Hilkiah was a well known and ancient book of
law presumably Mosaic. But the use of the definite article here
cannot be adduced as proving this. In accordance with the
rules of Hebrew syntax 'a book of law' or torah (in the sense
of prophetic or priestly teaching) is a perfectly legitimate trans-
lation (see the remarks at the end of this note). Shaphan's
words to Josiah 'Hilkiah the priest hath delivered me a book'
seem to support such a translation. There is nothing in the
narrative contained in the book of Kings which in any way
implies that the book found in the house of the Lord was
attributed to Moses. Comparison with the later parallel account
in 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14, xxxv. 6, 12 is very instructive. The
view of the later writer undoubtedly is, that a book of law
ascribed to Moses was read on that occasion. But there is
nothing in the older account which definitely asserts this. It
may further be noted that the word 'book 7 conveys to most
readers the idea of a volume 1 of some size. But the Hebrew
word for book (sepher, ' document,' or ' scroll ') is applied to a ' bill,'
i.e. deed, of divorcement (Deut xxiv. i, 3), to a deed (evidence
A.V.) of conveyance (Jer. xxxii. 9 16), to Jezebel's 'letter' to the
elders of Naboth's city, and other letters (i Kings xxi. 9 ; 2 Kings
v. 5). In all these passages the Heb. word sepher denotes a
document written on a single scroll or skin. The 'book'
delivered by Hilkiah to Shaphan might have been of a similar
character ; the fact that the book was read three times at least
in one day shews that it was of moderate length.
The words of the narrative do not give exact information
about the extent or character of the document which made so
profound an impression on king and people ; and any suggestion
as to its contents must be conjectural. Some would say that
Deut. v. xxvi. and xxviii., others that Deut. xii. xxvi. and
xxviii. formed the book which was found in the temple and read
to Josiah. But possibly a still shorter selection was read before
1 A 'book ' in the modern sense of the word, composed of many
pages of paper stitched or bound together, was quite unknown in O.T.
JOSIAH'S REFORM AND DEUT. 145
the king, such as Deut. vi. 4, 5, 14, 15; xii. 27; xvi. i, 2, 16,
21, 22; xviii. 9 15, 19; xxviii. I 6, 14 2 1 1 . It would be
sufficient to move him to take in hand the work of reformation.
The fact which seems assured is that the contents of the book
found in the house of the Lord in the eighteenth year of Josiah
have been preserved in the present book of Deuteronomy.
If the demands of the reformers were made in the name of
Moses, as they at present stand in the book of Deuteronomy,
those who made this claim would feel themselves justified ; for
they were but issuing with prophetic exhortation an older law
which they regarded as in substance Mosaic, a law which per-
haps had already been ascribed to the great lawgiver. It is
however possible that the words written on 'the scroll' were
delivered in the same manner as other prophetic Torah ; * in the
name of the LORD.' If the shorter selection suggested above
was read, this seems very probable. The writer who has
preserved for us Deuteronomy in its present form may have
supplied the Mosaic environment of the book. By him, as well
as by the people in Josiah's time, its precepts were recognized as
words of the Lord to His people whom He had brought out of
Egypt, and meet to be associated with earlier words that were
attributed to Moses,
The use of the definite article in Hebrew referred to above is
explained in Davidson's Hebrew Syntax 21 <?, and in Gesenius-
Kautzsch, Heb. Gramm. 126. 4, q / p. 414, 28th ed. (pp. 227 f.
English translation).
A person or thing not previously mentioned, is in the mind
of the writer regarded as definite, being the particular person
or thing to which he refers. In such a case English (and other
: n languages) would generally use the indefinite ar:
Judg. iv. 19 and she (Jael) opened a bottle of milk. Hcb.
the bottle.
:. Cheyne in Jeremiah, his Lift an i 1 fmes, p. 50, proposes a
urn of passages almost identical with tl.
C. P. 10
146 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Judg. iv. 21 Then Jael Heber's wife took a tent-pin (nail of
the tent A.V.). Heb. the tent-pin,
vi. 38 he (Gideon)... wringed the dew out of the fleece,
a bowlful of water. Heb. the bowlful.
These are instances of two words in a genitive combination ; an
instance of a single word is
2 Sam. xvii. 17 and a maidservant (wench A.V.) used to go
and tell them. Heb. the maidservant.
other exx. : Gen. ix. 23 ; Exod. xvii. 14, xxi. 20 ; Nu. xi. 27, xxii.
27 ; Dt xv. 17, xxii. 17 ; Josh. ii. 15, viii. 29 ; Judg. iv. 18, viii. 25 ;
I Sam. ix. 9, x. 25, xxi. 10; Jer. xxxii. 10, xxxvi. 23 (two words in
a genitive combination). The common phrase Dl*n W\ (lit.
* and the day was '), used of a day not specified in what pre-
cedes, and corresponding to our expression, 'It fell on a day,'
is an additional illustration of this method of Hebrew thought.
As soon as the day is brought into the view of the narrator, it
becomes defined. This idiomatic usage is described by David-
son as 'peculiar,' by Ges.-Kautzsch as * eigentiimlich,' not with-
out reason.
0. THE TIMES OF SACRIFICE.
(i) Comparison of the codes with one another.
(i) The code of JE enjoins that all males must appear
before the Lord three times in the year (Exod. xxiii. 14 17 and
xxxiv. 1 8, 22, 23) \ The injunctions in the two chapters are
almost verbally identical.
(ii) A more detailed account of the three pilgrimage feasts,
at which all males must appear before the Lord, is found in
Deut. xvi. i 17. In addition, Deuteronomy prescribes certain
1 A comparison of these passages shews clearly the composite
character of JE. It is most unlikely that both passages were contributed
by the same writer. It seems almost certain that one belongs to the
source J, the other to E. The preservation of both versions is due to a
compiler.
TIMES OF SACRIFICE 147
ceremonies to be observed on two occasions ; an annual observ-
ance in Dcut. xxvi. I 11 ; and a triennial observance in irv.
12 15. A special formula of a liturgical character is ordered
to be said on each occasion.
(iii) The additions of P are numerous :
(a) Two ceremonies in connexion with the harvest The
l O/wr' or sheaf of firstfruits to be waved 'on the morrow after
the sabbath ' in connexion with Mazzoth (the feast of unleavened
bread or cakes) ; and the two ' wave loaves,' when the harvest
was completed, seven weeks later in connexion with the feast of
weeks (Lev. xxiii.* 9 21). These ceremonies are enjoined in the
'Holiness code' (H), which has been incorporated with P.
(V) A blowing of silver trumpets in the set feasts, and on the
first day of every month (Num. x. 10) ; on the first day of
the seventh month (New Year's Day), 'a memorial of blowing
of trumpets' of a different kind, properly 'horns' (Lev. xxiii. 24).
Special sacrifices in addition to the daily sacrifice are prescribed
for these occasions, and for the day of Atonement in Num.
XXN iii. and xxix.
(c) The day of Atonement on the loth day of the seventh
month (Lev. xxiii. 27 32, and ch. xvi.).
(d} The rulc-b for the three pilgrimage feasts of JE and D
are more elaborate ; the first day and seventh day of unleavened
appointed as 'a holy convocation,' and also the
and eighth of the feast of tabernacles. The time at which
<> be observed is fixed by the day of the month.
as the observance was local, and for the family, a
general indication of time was sufficient; when the ceremony
took place at the central sanctuary, and became national, it was
necessary to fix the day more exactly.
;ull list of feasts (among wh'u 1 v of Atone-
. is included compared with tii.. tion,
\\L-I- il lists issued within the same year 1 ? The
i he sojourn at Sinai U Icis than a
102
148 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
difficulty of giving an answer is increased, when the legislation
of Deuteronomy is taken into account. If that legislation be a
recapitulation of laws already given, why are only the three
pilgrimage feasts of JE mentioned? The omission of all refer-
ence to the Day of Atonement has already been commented
upon (p. 120).
y. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SACRIFICES AND THEIR
NAMES.
(i) Comparison of the codes with one another.
(i) The laws of JE. Burnt offerings arid peace offerings
are enjoined in Exod. xx. 24, and mentioned in xxiv. 5 ; but the
sacrifices to be brought on the three occasions when all males
were to appear before the Lord are not specified by name
in JE, nor is the material prescribed ; firstlings of oxen and
sheep are claimed as the Lord's in Exod. xxii. 30, xxxiv. 19, 20.
Leaven must not be offered with sacrifice ; neither must the fat
be left till the morning (Exod. xxiii. 18, xxxiv. 25 where the
name Passover occurs).
(ii) The laws in Deuteronomy. A list of offerings to be
brought is found in Deut. xii. 6, n, 17, 18. The kind of sacrifice
is indicated as one of which the worshipper partakes ('thou shalt
eat it before "the LORD thy God,' Deut. xii. 18; xv. 20). Burnt
offerings and sacrifices are specified in xii. 6 ; and the Passover
sacrifice is to be brought from the flock or the herd (xvi. 2) \
(iii) The laws in the Priestly Code. A full description of the
different kinds of sacrifice, and of the ritual prescribed for each
kind, is found in Lev. i. vii. The sacrifices are divided into
1 The ceremony described in Deut. xxi. i 9 may be here noticed.
As an animal is slaughtered, the action is sacrificial in character, and the
idea of atonement by shedding of blood is prominent ; but it cannot be
classed among the known varieties ot Jewish sacrifice, and is probably
an ancient custom, the memory of which has been preserved ,only m
this passage. See the commentary on Deuteronomy, and 07/C" 2 ,
P- 373-
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SACRIFICE 149
five classes : (i) Burnt offering, (2) Meal [Meat 1 A.V.] offering,
(3) Peace offering, (4) Sin offering, (5) Guilt [Trespass A.V.]
offering.
The calendar of times and seasons to be observed throughout
the year in Lev. xxiii. (see p. 147) prescribes the material of the
sacrifice on two occasions (w. 12, 13, 18, 19); for the rest, it
ordains 'an offering made by fire unto the Lord' (vv. 8, 25, 27, 36).
Of what those offerings should consist is stated in Num. xxviii.,
xxix. Exodus xxix., in prescribing the sacrifices and ceremonies
to be observed in consecrating the priests, and Lev. viii., ix., in
recording the manner of their inauguration, supply details as to
the kind and material of sacrifice, and the manner in which they
should be brought. The law of the daily offering is given in
Exod. xxix. 38 42. Further sacrifices are prescribed for special
occasions in Leviticus and Numbers 2 , e.g. for the leper and
the Nazi rite.
The above description is sufficient to shew that the answers
to the questions 'When 'and 'What 'are mainly to be found in P,
and that as regards fulness of detail the three codes stand in
the order JK, D, P.
(2) The codes compared with the history.
In the preceding section the answers to the question 'When?'
supplied by the codes, were considered ; but the comparison of
the codes with the history was omitted. This comparison was
deferred in order to avoid repetition. The answers to the
questions 'When?' and 'What?' supplied by the history may be
Icred together.
The name most commonly employed to denote sacrifice
is zebhah ; the word used in the account of the first recorded
1 ' Mir .11 ' in old English was not (as now) restricted to animal food,
hence its use in A.V. Hut, 'in consequence of the change which has
taken place in the English language, the term "meat offering" has
lie inappropriate to describe an offering of which flesh was no part'
(from the preface of the Revisers of the O. T.).
.It these hooks, and the commentaries upon them, for further
inform
ISO INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
sacrifice (Gen. iv. 3 5) is minhah, which is used generally
of a present (Gen. xxxii. 14 ff., xliii. n ff.), or of the even-
ing sacrifice (i Kings xviii. 29; 2 Kings xvi. 15). The two
expressions are used together as a general description of sacri-
fices (i Sam. ii. 29; iii. 14). Sacrifices are further distinguished
as *dlah) 'Burnt offering,' in which the sacrifice was wholly
burnt ; and shtldmim, * Peace offerings,' of which a portion was
eaten by the worshipper. These three words are employed in
Lev. i. iii. : *dlah to designate the Burnt offering, the ritual of
which is prescribed in ch. i. ; minhah is applied to the Meal
[Meat A. V.] offering, the different kinds of which are described
in ch. ii. ; and the rules for Peace offerings (sh e lamim] are given
in ch. iii. Two additional offerings are specified in Lev. iv.
vi. 8 which are not found in the earlier codes; the hattath 'Sin
offering,' and the *asham, 'Guilt 'or 'Trespass offering.' The first
mention of these kinds of sacrifice outside the Priestly code 1 is
in the prophet Ezekiel (xl. 39; xlii. 13; xliv. 29; xlv. 17 &c.).
In the history, the sacrifices mentioned are for the most part
1 The word 'askdm occurs in the sense of guilt (Gen. xxvi. 10)
and the adjective 'guilty' (Gen. xlii. 21). The Philistines send an
'asham of golden mice and tumours along with the ark (i Sam.
vi. 3). In 2 Kings xii. 17 the reference is to fines which were paid in
cases of trespass or offence (trespass money and sin money A.V.). The
Levitical legislation imposed in surh cases a sacrifice in addition.
Another passage in which, according to the opinion of some, reference
is made to the Sin offering is Hos. iv. 8 'They feed on the sin of my
people, and set their heart on their iniquity.' But the parallelism
requires that 'sin ' in the first clause must convey an idea similar to that
of ' iniquity' in the second. The priests are condemned for making
profit out of the people, and compounding (in some way not specified,
probably by receiving payment in money or gifts) for their misdeeds. If
the text be taken to mean ' they eat the Sin offering of my people ' not
only is the parallelism destroyed, but the assertion is without point, for
eating the Sin offering was by the law allowed to the priests. The
passage would then affirm that the priests obeyed the law ; whereas the
context insists on their evil doings.
COMPARISON WITH THE HISTORY 151
those brought by individuals l . Details of the ritual observed are
seldom given, but on some occasions, as in the case of Saul
(i Sam. xiv. 33 35), the ceremonial seems to have been of a
simple character.
The sacrifice offered by Elkanah affords an instance of an
offering brought at a prescribed time. It was probably the feast
of ingathering, one of the three occasions on which all males were
to appear before the Lord. It appears that though the injunc-
tion applied only to men, it was customary for the wife and
household to accompany the head of the family. But the pilgrim-
age is described as a yearly one (i Sam. i. 3, 7, 21 ; ii. 19, 'the
yearly sacrifice'), and the whole account implies that Elkanah,
in thus presenting himself once a year before the Lord in
Shiloh, is fulfilling the obligation imposed upon him by the
existing law. Either the injunction of Exod. xxiii. 17 and
xxxiv. 23 was not known to him, or on the two other occasions
he appeared before the Lord at a local sanctuary 2 .
1 With the limitation of worship to the one sanctuary, the public
sacrifices on behalf of the community would become more prominent,
while those of private individuals would occupy a subordinate position.
The history as contained in Judges Kings is practically a record of
worship before this limitation, i.e. before the reign of Josiah. There
was no time for Josiah's reform to bear fruit before the exile, and the
brief records of post-exilic times do not contain much information with
reference to sacrifice. The effect of the concentration of worship at
Jerusalem is shewn in Jewish history outside the O. T. canon.
2 The injunction to appear three times a year before the Lord was
practicable, only if the journey involved was short. As long as the local
sanctuaries remained, this was the case ; and as the injunction of JE is
repeated in Deuteronomy, it would seem that the reformers in Jo
time regarded the area of Judah as sufficiently limited to allow its inhabi-
tants to visit Jerusalem three times a year 1 . There is no evidence to
shew whether the law was observed in the short interval between Josiah's
a and the fall of the Kingdom, or by the Jewish community after
1 Here is further indirect evidence as to the real date of Deuteronomy. Would
A law imposing three visits in the year to Jerusalem be practicable fur tlie children of
when they occupied their whole irrrit.iry? W.is it then enacted tyert they
entered the land, to be binding fim the time of Solomon onwards?
152 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The dedication of the Temple in Solomon's reign is described
at length in I Kings viii. Special mention is made of the
great number of sacrifices then offered ; the brazen altar was
too little to receive them (v. 64). On such an occasion the full
ritual of the law would certainly be observed. According to P,
when the service of the tabernacle was inaugurated, the first
sacrifice brought by Moses was a bullock for a Sin offering
(Lev. viii. 14). When Aaron enters upon his office, the first
offering brought was the calf of the Sin offering for himself
(ix. 8) ; and the first offering brought on behalf of the people
was the goat of the Sin offering (ix. 15). But in I Kings viii.
among the numerous sacrifices offered, the Sin offering finds no
place. If this account of the inaugural services in the Temple
is compared with the account of the inaugural services in the
Tabernacle (Lev. viii., ix.), it is evident that the ritual standards
in the two narratives are different.
The feast kept at the dedication of the Temple was the feast
of the seventh month, the Feast of Tabernacles. According to
the law in Deuteronomy the feast was to be kept for seven days
(Deut. xvi. 13). According to Lev. xxiii. 33 36 an eighth day
was to be kept, besides the seven days of the feast. No mention
is made of this eighth day in I Kings viii. ; but the parallel (and
later) account in 2 Chron. vii. 9 records that on the eighth day
was a ' solemn assembly ' held (the same word as that used in Lev.
xxiii. 36). The account in i Kings viii. states that on the eighth
day the king sent the people away; i.e. on the day when accord-
ing to 2 Chron. vii. the people were keeping a solemn assembly.
The writer of Chronicles adds : 'And on the three and twentieth
day of the seventh month he sent the people away.' Here are
the Return. The area within which they were settled was at first
probably more limited than that of the old kingdom of Judah. "Cut
when in later times Galilee was inhabited by Jews, the observance of the
three pilgrimage feasts would become impracticable for such as resided
so far north. In N. T. times a yearly attendance seems to have been
customary ; but more frequent visits were no doubt made by pious Jews
in Jerusalem and the neighbourhood.
COMPARISON WITH THE HISTORY 153
two different accounts of the manner in which the feast was
kept : (i; that in I Kings viii., where, according to the Deutero-
nomic rule, the feast was kept for seven days (from the fifteenth
to the twenty-first inclusive) and the people were dismissed on the
eighth day (the twenty-second) ; (2) that in 2 Chron. vii. 9, where,
according to the law of Leviticus, the feast was kept seven days,
with a solemn assembly on the eighth day, and the people were
dismissed on the three and twentieth day. The inference seems
warranted, that the appointment of the eighth day of tabernacles
was made after the author of Kings had composed his narrative.
The later writer assumes that the feast was kept according to the
ritual of his own day. That ritual was not the ritual of the
Temple in the time of the kingdom.
Attention has been drawn to (i) the frequency of pilgrimage,
(2) the existence of the Sin-offering, (3) the duration of the Feast
of Tabernacles: it appears that in the time of Samuel the
practice falls short of the requirements even of JE ; that in the
time of Solomon, according to the writer of Kings, the law of
Deuteronomy is recognized ; and that, according to the writer of
Chronicles, the existence of the law in P is assumed. This
points to a development of Jewish law, the stages of which are
>ented by JE, D, and P.
In order to answer the fourth question ' Who ?' (see p. 130)
it will be necessary to examine
d. THE LAWS RELATING TO PKIIMS.
The duties assigned to the whole tribe ofLevi, as well as the
provision made for their maintenance, will be considered.
(i) Comparison of the codes with one another.
(i) The Covenant code contains no regulations about priests.
The law about altars (Exod. xx. 2426) is addressed to the
children of Israel generally, and makes no mention of persons
who were specially appointed to offer sacrifice upon them.
(ii) The Deuteionomic code mentions the tribe of Levi as
154 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
specially set apart for the service of the Lord, but draws no
distinction between different members of the tribe.
(iii) The Priestly code allows only those who are of the seed
of Aaron to officiate as priests. One family of the tribe of Levi
is separated from the rest. The Levites (i.e. the rest of the tribe
who do not belong to the family of Aaron 1 ) perform various
menial duties ; they carry the tabernacle and its furniture
(Num. iii., iv.), minister to the priests^ (Num. iii. 6 ; xviii. 2),
and 'stand before (i.e. wait on) the congregation' (Num. xvi. 9).
The difference between the language of Deuteronomy and
that of the Priestly code will be apparent to any careful reader.
He will ask, Is Deuteronomy acquainted with this sharp division
of the tribe into priests and ministers, although he never refers
to such a division? Is this a point on which a 'lay folks' book 5
might reasonably be silent? Before answering these questions,
it is necessary to examine other passages in which reference
is made to Levites. It will be found that in respect of the
provision made for their support, and their general condition,
the descriptions in Deuteronomy differ widely from those in the
Priestly code.
The provision made for their support consists of (a) dwelling-
place, and (b} sustenance or revenue.
(a) Their place of abode. According to P (Num. xxxv. I 8),
the tribe of Levi acquire the right to certain cities with their
suburbs, which are to be set apart for them after the conquest
(Josh. xxi.). The priests and Levites dwell in their own cities.
1 The word ' Levite ' in D and P is used in two completely different
senses. In D it denotes any member of the tribe, who, if he comes to
the central sanctuary, has a right to officiate there as priest ; in P (except
occasionally, see p. 160 note -2) it denotes the inferior members of the
tribe, who are servants to the priests and to the congregation, and perform
the menial duties specified in the text. They are sharply distinguished
from the ' priests,' and prohibited, under pain of death, from performing
priestly duties. The distinction must be carefully borne in mind in
reading the following discussion. A third sense in which ' Levite ' is used
will appear later (see p. 160 note 3).
PROVISION FOR LEVITES 155
But according to Deuteronomy, the Levite that is within thy
(your) gates is commended with the stranger, the fatherless,
and the widow to the charitable consideration of the people
(xii. 12, 18; xiv. 27, 29). He is a sojourner (xviii. 6) in cities
belonging to others, and not a resident by right in cities which
are his own possession (Lev. xxv. 33, 34).
(b) Their revenues. P assigns all the tithe in Israel to the
Levites (Num. xviii. 21, 24; where by Levite is meant those
members of the tribe of Levi who do not belong to the family of
Aaron), of which they are to give a tenth to Aaron (xviii. 26, 28).
A tithe is levied from the herd or flock (Lev. xxvii. 32). But,
according to Deuteronomy, all the tithe, and firstlings of the
herd and flock are to be eaten before the Lord by the offerer with
his household and the Levite (Deut. xiv. 22 27). Every third
year, all the tithe is laid up at home for the benefit of the Levite,
the stranger, the fatherless and the widow (xiv. 28, 29). Here
the contrast between the two codes is startling. The tithe,
which in Numbers is allotted to the Levites, is in Deuteronomy
to be eaten before the Lord by those who are not Levites
and the Levite is invited to share in the feast. Every third
year the tithe is laid up at home, and distributed to the Levite
and other needy persons. If both these laws come from the
same lawgiver, then two tithes must have been demanded from
the Israelite. This is the traditional Jewish interpretation; the
Deutcronomic tithe is a second tithe, levied in addition to the
tithe. But on what does this interpretation rest?
Clearly not on the passages in Numbers and Deuteronomy
which refer to tithe. The laws in both books refer to one tithe
only. This can be proved, in the case of Deuteronomy, from
xviii. i 4; where the dues of 'the priests the Levites, all
the tribe of Levi ' are specified. They consist of portions from
es, first fruits, and * the first of the fleece of thy sheep,'
but no mention is made of tithe.
If, when Deuteronomy was written, a law of tithe was in
< ncc, providing for ribci in
=
~r ~7,
156 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Num. xviii., it would surely be mentioned in the list of priestly
dues in Deut. xviii. 3, 4, and also in the solemn profession in
Deut. xxvi. 12 15. It is essentially a matter about which the
layman must be informed, in order that he may fulfil his obliga-
tions.
That the law in Num. xviii. refers to one tithe only seems
clear from ver. 21 ; 'unto the children of Levi, behold, I have
given all the tithe in Israel. 3 The supposition that Deuteronomy
refers to a second tithe not given to the Levites is excluded by
the word all. According to Num. xviii. 21 #//the tithe is given
to the Levites ; according to Deuteronomy all is not given to
them.
In Deuteronomy, the Levites are not represented as being in
possession of cities and fields, and receiving a regular income
from tithe, but as scattered among the people with scanty means
of subsistence, and needing the same treatment as the stranger,
the fatherless and the widow. As one explanation of this
acknowledged difference between the status of the Levites in
the two codes of D and P, it has been suggested that the exhorta-
tions of Deuteronomy to take care of the Levites are especially
appropriate to the time when they were issued, just before the
entry into the promised land. The Levites would be in special
need of assistance during the period of the conquest and early
occupation of the land, before they had obtained possession of
their cities, and so long as the tithe law was not in full operation.
But this supposition that Deuteronomy has in view the transi-
tional period before the complete acquisition of the land, is one
which finds no support in the book. The laws are not meant to
apply to this early period before the people have fully entered
on their inheritance, but to the period when ' he giveth you rest
from all your enemies round about so that ye dwell in safety'
(Deut. xii. 10; cp. xxv. 19; xxvi. i). The command to give the
priests their dues is to be observed in perpetuity. 'For the
Lord thy God hath chosen him out of all thy tribes, to stand to
minister in the name of the Lord, him and his sons for ever'
(xviii. 5). Cp. xix. i j and 'even to the tenth generation'
COMPARISON OF D WITH P 157
(xxiii. 2, 3). The law of tithe, like other laws, is obligatory
when the people are settled in the land ; it is not meant to pro-
vide for a temporary depression in the status of the Levites ;
also it is clear that, if the children of Israel are able to bring the
tithe 'to eat before the Lord'(xiv. 23), they would also be able to
give it to the tribe of Levi, if the command to do so were in
existence.
The law of Deut xiv. 22 29, and that in Num. xviii. cannot
be from the same hand : Jewish practice, in endeavouring to fulfil
these commands, shews that they cannot be observed without
levying two tithes, and the words both of Deut. and Num. (as
has been shewn above) expressly exclude such an interpretation
and practice. This marked difference between the two codes,
and other differences which have been noted in the preceding
paragraphs, raise the presumption that the silence of Deutero-
nomy about the division of the tribe into priests who offer
sacrifice, and servants (Levites) who assist at such functions,
points to a further difference between the legislation in Deutero-
nomy, and that in the Priestly code.
The differences between D and P in respect of (i) their use
of the term * Levite,' (2) the distinction between the priests the
sons of Aaron and the rest of the tribe, (3) the provision for
maintenance from the tithe, (4) the appointment of Levitical
cities, and (5) the general condition of the 'Levite' (whether
understood in the sense of Deuteronomy, or as in Num. xviii.)
can be satisfactorily explained (as other differences have been
explained p. 125), only by assuming an interval sufficient to
allow of changed social conditions between the promulgation of
the two codes.
(2) Comparison of the codes with the history.
msidering the place of worship, instances were given
tcrifices one-red in places other than the central sanctuary
A ho were not priests ofu-red them ; and the
b.um iuit in ancient Israel, sacrifice
not subject to limitation will. 10 cither person or
158 . INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
place. The record of sacrifices preserved in the history points
to a continuous practice from the beginning : patriarch, judge,
prophet and king, each bring their offering; according to one
account (Exod. iii. 18; v. I 3; viii. 25 28), Pharaoh is com-
manded to let the people go that they may hold a sacrifice to
the Lord. It is assumed that ancient customs prevail; the
practice seems to be simple and primitive, and the narrative
contains no reference to a special ritual introduced on the
authority of Moses.
The history of Micah is most instructive (Judg. xvii., xviii.).
He, an Ephraimite, first consecrates his own son as priest But
a wandering Levite, Jonathan by name, a grandson of Moses,
comes to the house of Micah as he journeyed, and Micah thinks
himself fortunate in securing his services as priest. An exploring
party of Danites passing by Micah's house ask counsel of God
through the Levite. When the warriors of the tribe of Dan,
600 strong, shortly after make their expedition against Laish,
they carry off Micah's ephod, teraphim, and images. The priest
agrees to go with them. The Danites, in spite of Micah's
protest, take with them the priest and the sacred images, and
set them in a sanctuary at Dan, where they remain under the
charge of the Levite Jonathan and his descendants all the time
that the house of God was in Shiloh.
According to the letter of the narrative, this guardian of the
sanctuary at Dan is a son of Gershom and a grandson of Moses.
Gershom was born before the children of Israel left Egypt ; his
son Jonathan was probably born during the journeyings. He
may have been a lad or young man at the passage of the Jordan ;
he must certainly have been a contemporary of Joshua, and
would be numbered among the elders who outlived Joshua.
He could not have known the regulations in Exod. xxviii., xxix.,
Num. xvi. 40, xviii. I 7, under which the sons of Aaron only
were permitted to officiate as priests, and the Levites were given
to Aaron and his sons to do the service of the tabernacle. If
he did know them, it would be necessary to assume a rebellion
THE HISTORY OF MICAH 159
analogous to that of Korah and his company in order to account
for his conduct ; but we are expressly told that during his
generation ' Israel served the LORD' (Josh. xxiv. 31). It seems
impossible to reconcile this story as it now stands with the
existence of an exclusive Aaronite priesthood inaugurated by
Moses 1 .
If it be assumed that some steps of Jonathan's genealogy
have been omitted, and that 'son ' may be taken as 'descendant,'
then Jonathan and the Danite raid might be assigned to a later
generation which 'knew not the LORD' (Judg. ii. 10).
But whatever view may be held as to the time of Jonathan's
ministrations, the story itself is of special interest, because it
preserves an early tradition of Levite priests who traced their
descent from Moses. While Eli and his sons were exercising
their priestly functions at Shiloh, where the ark was kept, a
descendant of Moses was priest to the tribe of the Danites, and
guardian of Micah's graven image. The historian, who lived
after the ark was removed from Shiloh, and after ' the captivity
of the land' (Judg. xviii. 30, 31), records the existence of two
sanctuaries, one at Shiloh and the other at Dan ; he also makes
mention of priests who were descendants of Moses. He draws
1 To those who regarded the Aaronic priesthood as established at
Sinai, Jonathan must have appeared as a wilful transgressor ; it is not
then surprising that later Jews wished to remove the name of this (in
their judgement) rebellious Levite from the family of the great lawgiver.
This they tried to do by inserting the letter 'N' in the name of Moses,
and reading Manasseh instead. But their reverence for that which was
written forbad them to add this letter to the traditional text ; they
wrote it above the line, thus leaving a witness to the original reading.
The R. V. rightly rejects the additional letter, and reads ' Moses ' ii.
' Manasseh' of A.V. in Judg. xviii. 30. The Ileb. text is .~L
which may be explained to English readers thus: M SI I are the
English equivalents of the Heb. text (which originally had no vo.
I are the consonants of 'Moses '(Heb. Mtshth): MNSIi
the consonants of 'Mana&seh' (Heb. Af'nashsJuh). S is pronounced
'sh,' and U doubled in the I kin
160 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
attention to the fact that the worship at the sanctuary in Dan,
with its priest of Mosaic lineage, continued for a long period ;
without giving any intimation that such worship was exceptional
or blameworthy 1 . It seems evident that he knew nothing of a
law limiting the priesthood to the sons of Aaron.
These priestly descendants of Moses are Levites. This is a
further point of interest preserved for us in this narrative. The
term ' Levite ' is here used in a sense other than that in which it
is applied in the Priestly code. A { Levite ' here means one who
is specially qualified for the priestly office. In the Priestly
code, ' Levite ' is generally used as a distinctive term for those
not allowed to exercise priestly functions 2 . In this story a
* Levite' may belong to the family of Judah (Judg. xvii. 8). In
the Priestly code, a ' Levite ' is generally one of the tribe of Levi
who is not of the seed of Aaron 3 .
1 The history of Micah and his priest is sometimes put aside with
the remark that no valid inference can be drawn from events which
happened in times of lawlessness, when 'every man did that which was
right in his own eyes' Qudg. xvii. 6; xxi. 25). But although incidents
in the Danite raid, and the shocking disclosures in Judg. xix. xxi.,
shew that the times were out of joint, the facts to which attention is
directed, viz. the origin of the Danite sanctuary, and the continuance
of a Mosaic priesthood there, are not affected thereby. They are not
cited as instances of lawlessness, but by way of giving information about
a sanctuary in northern Israel. The important point to bear in mind is
this : the earliest reference to priesthood (outside the Priestly code) is in
connexion with the family of Moses.
2 P occasionally uses ' Levites ' to denote both the priestly and non-
priestly portions of the tribe (Num. xxxv. i 8).
3 In another passage (Exod. iv. 14) the term ' Levite ' cannot mean
a member of the tribe of Levi. The question ' Is there not Aaron thy
brother the Levite ? ' has no meaning when addressed to Moses, unless
it implies that 'Levite' differentiates Aaron from Moses, and attributes
to Aaron a vocation or power which Moses does not possess. The
context suggests that the power is that of facile speaking. The term
seems to have here an official sense, irrespective of membership in a
particular tribe (cf. McNeile, Exod. p. Ixvi). How the term ' Levite' came
THE HOUSE OF ELI ,6r
In the opening chapters of the books of Samuel Eli and his
sons are mentioned as ministering at the temple in Shiloh,
without any introductory notice of their ancestry. A man of
God, in announcing to Eli the coming judgement on his house,
refers the institution of the priesthood to the time when the
Israelites were in Egypt (l Sam. ii. 27, 28). The name of Eli's
ancestor is not given 1 ; but whoever he may be, the tradition is
different from that which describes Aaron and his sons as receiv-
ing their commission at Sinai (Lev. viii., ix.). The house of Eli
is here represented as the lineal descendants of a priest appointed
in Egypt, with a promise to his successors in perpetuity. That
promise is now withdrawn, because of their evildoings ; * I said
indeed that thy house, and the house of thy father, should walk
before me for ever ; but now the Lord saith, Be it far from me ;...
I will raise me up a faithful priest, and I will build him a sure
house ; and he shall walk before mine anointed for ever' (i Sam.
ii. 30 35). This seems clear, that the faithful priest does not
belong to Eli's house. The words 'and the house of thy father'
shew also that he does not belong to the family of that ancestor,
to be employed in these different meanings is one of the most obscure
points in ancient Israelite history. One thing seems certain, that the
passages Exod. iv. 14, Judg. xvii., xviii., and parts of xix. xxi. are
icmoved by a considerable interval of time from the passages both in the
Deuteronomic and Priestly codes which define the duties of Levites.
m the words of v. 38 ' Did I choose him out of all the tribes
of Israel to be my priest ? ' it might be inferred that Levi, the head of
the priestly tribe, was the ancestor referred to. ' The covenant of an
i hood' (Num. xxv. 13) was made with ' Phinehas, the
son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest' (v. 11); and this line of
succession is known to the older tradition (Josh. xxiv. 33, and cp. Deut.
x ft). It should also be noted that one of Eli's sons l><>re the name of
I'hinelins. If it be assumed that Aaron is referred to in i Sam. ii. 28,
the difference of tradition noted in the text still exists, as also tin- further
difficulty that, from the whole passage ii. 3736, it would seem that
Zadok, the faithiul prie.->t, is nut . .u> belonging to the house
of A.i
CP. H
162 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
who was appointed priest in Egypt. The judgement on Eli
involves the transfer of the priesthood from the house on which
that dignity was conferred. The 'faithful priest' was Zadok,
whom Solomon put in in the room of Abiathar, thereby fulfilling
' the word of the LORD, which he spake concerning the house of
Eli in Shiloh.' i Kings ii. 27, 35.
The notices in Judges and Samuel concerning the priests at
the northern sanctuaries of Dan and Shiloh contain much that
is obscure ; and a more detailed history of the period would no
doubt help to explain them. They contain no direct reference
to an Aaronite priesthood. The first book of Kings records the
appointment of Zadok in place of Abiathar, but says nothing of
his lineage. When the Temple was built, the priests who
officiated there were called 'the sons of Zadok,' as distinguished
from the priests who were connected with the 'high places'
scattered throughout the land. How these latter priests
obtained their position is nowhere explained. They may have
been ' Levites ' in the sense that Jonathan was a Levite ; and it is
probable that, as sanctuaries were multiplied, a priestly guild
was formed. The priestly office tended to become hereditary,
and the members of such a guild were regarded as a family
descended from a common ancestor.
In the blessing of Moses 1 (Deut. xxxiii.) the tribe of Levi is
entrusted with priestly functions. They are there indicated as
giving direction (ToraJi), and offering sacrifice (ver. 10). No
distinction between members of the tribe is made, nor is Aaron
mentioned by name 2 . In Deut. x. 8 the tribe is described as
separated ' to bear the ark of the covenant of the Lord, to stand
1 This poetical description of the tribes is generally considered as
earlier in date than the book of Deuteronomy, and a production of the
northern kingdom. For details, consult the commentary on Deutero-
nomy.
2 The latter half of xxxiii. i r, referring to the enemies of Levi, has
led some to infer that the claims of Levi were not allowed without
opposition. Other explanations of these words have been suggested.
See the commentary.
I'RIESTHOOD IN THE HISTORY 163
U-f<>i-e the Lord to minister unto him, and to bless in his name.'
The priests are in the book of Deuteronomy called 'the priests
the Levites,' or * the priests, the sons of Levi ' (xvii. 9 ; xviii. i ;
xxi. 5 ; xxiv. 8 ; xxvii. 9 ; xxxi. 9). They are nowhere called
- of Aaron' (as in P), nor is there any intimation that the
priesthood is limited to a single family in the tribe ; on the
contrary, the whole tribe is separated for the performance of
priestly duties.
The erection of the Temple, and the splendour of its services,
must have profoundly impressed the people of the southern
kingdom. They would flock to the central sanctuary, as in former
times men went up to Shiloh. The priests who ministered there
would overshadow in importance those who still officiated at the
high places. These local sanctuaries, however, continued till
the time of Josiah, in spite of the attempt made in Hezekiah's
reign to suppress them.
It has already been pointed out (p. 137) that the reformers
in Josiah's reign insisted on restricting the worship of Jehovah
to one place [Jerusalem], in order more effectively to uproot
idolatrous practices. This limitation of worship affected not only
the religious observances of the people (pp. Mof.), but also the
status of those who up to that period had ministered to them as
priests of the high places. As the book of Deuteronomy makes
provision for the changes necessary when worship is limited to a
central sanctuary (see pp. 140 f.), it is probable that the case of the
priests who up to the time of Josiah had ministered at the local
:ld be noticed. Now it is enjoined in Deut. xviii.
68, that if any Levite 'come from any of thy gates (i.e. towns)
in all Israel* to Jerusalem, he shall be allowed to minister there
in the same way as his brethren which serve the Temple, and
Oiall shaiv the dues of the Jerusalem priests. Such a provision
sp M ially appropriate to the conditions existing as a con-
nee of Jo in, and it seems reasonable to suppose
that tin- Levites here mentioned are the dispossessed priests of
1) places.
From 2 Ki. \.\ni. 9 it appears that, though the priests of
II 2
1 64 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the high places were called brethren, and some portion was
granted to them, they were not allowed to officiate at the altar
in Jerusalem. The family of Zadok had, from the time of
Solomon, held the chief rank at the Temple, and would not
welcome the advent of additional priests to share their position
and emoluments. The repeated injunctions in Deuteronomy
not to forget the Levite, but to allow him to share both in the
feasts at Jerusalem, and in the tithe at the end of every three
years (xiv. 27 29), shew that there was need of further provision
for his maintenance ; and the commendation of him to the good-
will of the charitable, along with the stranger, the fatherless, and
the widow, indicates his dependent position 1 . The legislation
of Deuteronomy enjoins what was not enforced till the time of
Josiah, and endeavours to provide^for a situation created by his
reform. During Josiah's reign the reformation was not carried
on without opposition. The Jerusalem priesthood resisted
successfully the attempt to incorporate the priests of the high
places with themselves ; and on the death of Josiah the disasters
which befel the nation proved an effective barrier to any further
reform. The pictures drawn by Jeremiah (ch. xliv.) and Ezekiel
(ch. viii.) shew that idolatrous rites were again introduced and
practised freely during the last years of the kingdom.
Within twelve years of the death of Josiah, all save the poorest
of the land were carried away captive. During the captivity
Ezekiel had a vision of a new Temple, and received instructions
for the future conduct of worship therein. The ordinances with
regard to those who were to minister in the restored house
deserve careful attention (xliv. 4 16). Uncircumcised foreigners
shall no longer minister as they did in the old sanctuary (vv. 7, 9) :
1 But the Levites that went far from me, when Israel went astray,
1 The law of Num. xviii., according to which all the tithe was
allotted to the tribe of Levi, was not known to the writer of Deutero-
nomy. He would hardly have directed the Israelite to spend the tithe
on whatsoever his soul desired, and invite the Levite to share it with
his household (Deut. xiv. 26, 27), if the whole tithe already belonged
by Divine enactment to the tribe of Levi (Num. xviii. 21).
PRIESTHOOD IN EZEKIEL 165
which went astray from me after their idols ; they shall bear
their iniquity. Yet they shall be ministers in my sanctuary, having
oversight at the gates of the house, and ministering in the house ;
they shall slay the burnt offering and the sacrifice for the people,
and they shall stand before (i.e. wait upon) them to minister
unto them. Because they ministered to them before their idols
...they shall not come near unto me to execute the office of
priest unto me, nor to come near to any of my holy things, unto
the things that are most holy :... Yet will I make them keepers of
the charge of the house, for all the service thereof, and for all
that shall be done herein' (w. 10 14).
* But the priests the Levites, the sons of Zadok, that kept the
charge of my sanctuary when the children of Israel went astray
from me, they shall come near to me to minister unto me ; and
they shall stand before (wait upon) me, to offer unto me the
fat and the blood, saith the L6rd GOD : they shall enter into
my sanctuary, and they shall come near to my table, to minister
unto me, and they shall keep my charge' (vu. 15, 16).
Ezekiel here makes a distinction between the Levites those
who had proved a stumbling-block to the house of Israel and
the sons of Xudok. The former were to 'bear their iniquity' (i.e.
be punished for it), and not to do the office of a priest. From
this it is clear that they had before officiated as priests ; but
henceforth they were to be degraded from that office, and, in-
stead of offering sacrifice, were to perform the subordinate offices
hitherto discharged by uncircumcised foreigners. But the sons
of Zadok, who officiated in the Temple before the exile, were to
their priestly privileges. Ezekiel makes no appeal to an
exclusive right of the sons of Aaron to 'stand before [wait upon j
the LORD,' according to the provisions of the Priestly code, but
introduces this ordinance as a new one to be obser\ed in the
;ed Temple. As a matter of fact it was not a very startling
inno. :ence between priests officiating at the
who did not had already existed at Jerusalem
M-Milt of the Josianic reform.
The hibtoi ./ekiel's new ordinance is Jeru-
i66 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
salem and its priesthood after Josiah's reform. 'The Levites
that went far from me,' whose status Ezekiel proposes to change
from that of priests to that of Temple servants (xliv. 10 14), were
the priests who ministered at the high places before Josiah's
reformation 1 . It had been proposed (Deut xviii. 6 8) that these
1 This identification is generally allowed. Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce
Levitiqiic, p. 194, admits that the prophet Ezekiel, in introducing the
regulation of xliv. 10 14, very probably has in view the priests of the
high places brought up to Jerusalem by Josiah ; also that in xlviii. n,
'the Levites,' who are there distinguished from 'the priests that are
sanctified of the sons of Zadok,' are the degraded priests of xliv. lof.
But he maintains that the distinction drawn in P between priests the
sons of Aaron and Levites was known to the prophet. Bredenkamp,
Gesctz und Propheten, 1881, p. 189, who adopted the same view, sup-
posed that the Levites, discontented with the position assigned to them
in the Priestly code, had exchanged their subordinate position in the
Temple for that of priests at the high places, and that some of the priests
had also gone astray. There is nothing in the Biblical narrative which
indicates such change, and if the Levites had deserted their posts in
the Temple, in order to officiate at the high places, Ezekiel's proposal
to put them back in their original position could hardly be regarded
as a punishment. What (it may be asked) would the Levites who
had faithfully discharged their functions say to such a reinstatement?
There would then be two classes of Levites, those who had gone astray,
and those who had remained faithful. Baudissin, who expresses him-
self in favour of ' the priority of the Priests' code [to Ezekiel], or at
least of the system represented by it, ' says : There is certainly nowhere
a clear expression that ' besides those who went astray and the Zadok-
ites there is yet another group of Levites recognized by Ezekiel,
namely those who had even at an earlier period occupied the position
now assigned to the former bdmoth priests ' [i.e. the priests of the
high places described in xliv. 10 as 'the Levites that went far from
me'] (DB, Vol. IV. pp. 78 a, 87 a).
The explanation of Ezek. xliv. 1014 offered by Moller, Are the
Critics right? pp. 125 f., is that the priests of the high places are those
described as 'the Levites that went astray from me,' and that these,
'as a punishment for their transgressions, must henceforth perform in
PRIESTHOOD IN EZEKIEL 167
priests, who were deprived of their emolument by the abolition
of the local altars, should be admitted to serve as priests in the
the sanctuary the lower service handed over in the most recent past to
the uncircumcised strangers.' The words ' in the most recent past ' do
not seem warranted, in view of the distinct statement of 2 Kings xi. 4
that Carites (captains of the guard A. V.) were employed to ' keep the
watch of the house of the LORD' (ver. 7) in the time of Jehoiada.
Both Moller and Prof. Orr agree that ' there is certainly in these
verses degradation of priests to that lower rank of service which the
Priestly code assigns to the Levites' (Orr, Problem of the O.T., p. 316).
The points of agreement between these writers and the statements
in the text are worth noting. Hoonacker's work cited above, and
his Le lieu du culte dans la legislation rituelle des Htbrenx, contain the
most clearly arranged defence of the traditional view. It is possible
that, as he contends (Le Sacerdoce Levitique, p. 195), the distinction
drawn in Ezek. xl. 45, 46 between 'the priests, the keepers of the
charge of the house ' [i.e. the Temple] and * the priests, the keepers of
the charge of the altar ' may be based on Temple usage, and that a
gradation of service was in existence in the last days of the kingdom,
but it should be noted that the distinction is between priests, not be-
tween priests and Levitts. The function assigned in xliv. 14 to 'the
Levites that went far from me ' (xliv. 10) seems to be the same as that
ned in xl. 45 to 'the priests the keepers of the charge of the house.'
See also 07/C a , pp. 359 f., and the note on p. 360.
It is sometimes said that the closing chapters of Ezekiel describe a
, and that much of the language is symbolical. The descriptions
are for the ino-t part too exact for pure symbolism. The people in
captivity were looking forward to the Return; their leaders encouraged
their expectations, and were busy in making preparation for it. Their
.ire would be for the Temple and the worship, and Ezekiel would
be active among them. There is good reason for supposing that the
details in these chapters are the outcome of careful thought and con-
sultation. The reality of the vision in which Kzekiel saw himself con-
ducted by the lu-avcnly messenger through the Temple of the futui
not affected by supposing that the measurements and much of the
description may have been coloured by his independent knowledge of
the actual Temple. The mingli; m appears
168 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
Temple at Jerusalem. But the sons of Zadok would not agree
to share their position with these country priests. Though
allowed certain privileges they were not permitted to officiate
at the altar ; and so they became subordinate members of the
Jerusalem guild. They were probably men of inferior social
position, and their ritual, judged by the Zadokite standard, was
defective and irregular. A division between the Levites of the
capital and the country was thus called into existence, and
Ezekiel justifies the attitude adopted by the Jerusalem priests
towards their brethren of the high places on the ground of their
idolatrous practices 1 .
The priests of Jerusalem equally with the cities of Judah had
'provoked the LORD to anger' with their idolatrous abominations
(Jer. vii. 17 20), and the Temple itself was profaned (Ezek. viii.).
It is possible that some of these country priests would compare
favourably with their brethren at the Temple in character and
worship, but the distinction between them had already been
drawn, and Ezekiel states authoritatively that the practice of
the last days of the kingdom shall continue after the return.
on comparing cc. xl. xlvi. with the vision of the waters issuing from
the Temple in ch. xlvii., and the partition of the land in ch. xlviii.
The manifestly ideal character of these two chapters renders more
prominent the real and practical element in the preceding section (cc.
xl. xlvi.).
1 The number of priests who had officiated at the high places would
not be very great when Ezekiel proposed this ordinance, and none of
them lived to see the Return, which was more than eighty years after the
suppression of the high places. The ordinance practically affected only
the descendants of these priests, who, as they had never had any op-
portunity of exercising priestly functions, were probably contented with
the position formerly held by their fathers. But in the opinion of
some, the very small number of Levites who returned (see the lists in
Ezra ii. and Neh. vii., and cf. Ezra viii. 15), and certain incidents in
the account of Korah's rebellion afford indications that the change was
not effected without some opposition (see the remarks on Num. xvi. f.
in App. I, p. 202).
PRIESTHOOD IN EZEKIEL 169
But would Ezekiel have urged this distinction between the sons
of Zadok and other Levites, on the ground of idolatry, if he had
been acquainted with a law which forbade all but the sons of
Aaron to offer sacrifice, or even to 'come nigh the vessels of the
sanctuary and the altar' (Num. xviii. 3), on pain of death? Yet
Ezekiel by dividing the priestly tribe of Levi into two parts, one
of which shall henceforth offer sacrifice, while the other shall be
deprived of its priestly rights and minister as servants of the
house, lays the foundation of that difference between the sons of
Aaron and the rest of their brethren the sons of Levi, which is
drawn so sharply in the Priestly code.
It is also worthy of notice that Ezekiel considers his provision
for the Levites who are not sons of Zadok as a punishment and
a degradation, whereas the Priestly code describes the office of
a Levite as a privilege (Num. xvi. 9). Moreover the right to
discharge priestly functions is extended in the Priestly code:
for the sons of Aaron include others beside the family of Zadok,
and this change from Zadok to Aaron may indicate some further
modification of the priestly caste of which no definite account
has been preserved 1 .
Ezekiel in drawing his distinction between the sons of Zadok
and other Levites occupies a position intermediate between the
legislation of 1) and P. His ordinances regarding the Temple
and the ritual connected with it, when compared with the
legislation of P shew that he is proposing a less fully developed
system. If the Priestly code were already in existence it would
be known to Ezekiel, who was himself a priest. Would he
attempt to modify statutes which were given as 'an ordinance
1 ' It is conceivable that the Aaronites might include pi it--
i it her .sanctuaiies besides that of Jerusalem, and e^peci. illy from Noithcrn
I, and that these latter with the Zadokites were called " M.HS of
i" in view of the fact that the piieMliood of Northern Ixr.iel
id/etl Aaron a-, their amc.tor' (Kiu-iu-n, Hex., p. 795). II.
to O< n the Aaronites,' and dKcusscs the point further in his
. pp. 4 ssif. S.e also articles in /. /'//. .S., Jan.
1905 and July 1006 by 1W. Rennett, and Uct. 1905 l*y Di M'Neile.
170 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
for ever throughout your generations'? The inference seems
warranted that Ezekiel was unacquainted with at least this part 1
of P.
There are yet some stages of development before Ezekiel's
rules given in the captivity assume their final form as preserved
in the Priestly code.
The first years after the return from exile were years of
trouble and rebuke, trouble on account of bad seasons and
failure of crops, rebuke because of slackness in building the
'house of the LORD.' With the help and encouragement of
Haggai and Zechariah the people set forward the work, and the
Temple was finished in the sixth year of Darius. The history of
the next sixty years is almost a blank. It may be supposed that
under the leadership of Joshua and Zerubbabel, and the influence
of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the service of the restored
temple was resumed with some of its former magnificence, and
was the means of uniting in a spiritual bond of common wor-
ship the returned exiles with the people that had remained in
the land. But when that generation had passed away, religion
declined, abuses crept in, and the prophet Malachi complains
of a corrupt priesthood, of carelessness in bringing tithes and
offerings, and of marriages with strangers. But in none of these
three post-exilic prophets is there any definite reference to the
provisions of the Priestly code as regulating the practice of the
restored community. The language of Malachi is based on
Deuteronomy 2 . He speaks of 'the priests the sons of Levi*
1 Some parts of P, or laws similar to those now codified in P, are
presupposed by Ezekiel.
2 The prophecy of Malachi belongs to the age of Ezra and Nehe-
miah ; but whether it was delivered before the coming of Ezra (B.C. 458),
or shortly before the arrival of Nehemiah in 445, or about the time of
Nehemiah's second visit (B.C. 432), cannot be determined with cer-
tainty. It would seem from Mai. iii. 10 ' Bring ye the whole tithe into
the storehouse ' that some of the demands formulated in P had already
been put forward. But the practice of giving the tithe to the sanctuary
AFTER THE RETURN 171
iii. 3) as needing purification that they may offer to the
LORD an offering in righteousness. In the name of the LORD
he exhorts the people, 'Remember ye the law of Moses my
servant which I commanded unto him in Horeb for all Israel,
even statutes and judgements' (Mai. iv. 4) : compare Deut. v. 2,
31 ; vi. 2 ; x. 8; xii. 2. The law to which Malachi appeals is
that of Deuteronomy. In his anxiety to secure a strict obser-
vance of the Temple ritual both on the part of priests and
people, he is at one with Ezra and Nehemiah, and prepares the
way for their more drastic reforms.
One event in connexion with these reforms must not be
passed over: the reading of the law by Ezra to the great
assembly at Jerusalem before the water gate on the first day of
the seventh month (Neh. viii.). The narrative bears a close
resemblance to that of the reformation instituted by Josiah.
Ezra and Nehemiah take the place of Hilkiah, Shaphan, and
Huldah. But whereas in the earlier assembly, after the law has
been read, the king proceeds to enforce its demands, in the later
congregation, the people take upon themselves the yoke of the
law, and proceed to carry out its precepts. The reformation in
Josiah's time is marked by the observance of a Passover such as
was not holden 'from the days of the judges, nor in all the days
of the kings of Israel, nor of the kings of Judah' (2 Kings
\xiii. 22). The reading of the law by Ezra is followed by the
observance of the Feast of Tabernacles : 'and all the congrega-
tion of them that were come out of the captivity made booths,
and dwelt in the booths : for since the days of Joshua tin
of Nun unto th.it day had not the children of Israel done so'
(Neh. viii. 17).
may l>c older than 444 ; fur the legislation of I' constantly attaches itself
to pre-existent usage. On the other hand, what is said in th<
hi's lU'uteiononiit language is not conclusive in favour of
an earlirr date, lor he may have used the older and more familiar
DenterODOmic . vcn though he wrote after the adoption of
the 1'iicstly code (see Century llil-Ie, MauiJti, j.j>. nj->, 312).
i;2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
On both occasions a feast is celebrated in a special manner,
and with certain accompaniments, to which no parallel can be
found in the whole history of the nation. The accompaniment
of the feast in Nehemiah's time was the dwelling in booths ; and
it is said that this had not been done since the days of Joshua.
This definite pronouncement with regard to the past history of
the people seems to imply that the ceremony of dwelling in
booths was then introduced on the authority of the law book
which was read. Dwelling in booths is enjoined in Lev. xxiii.
39 43) a P art f the Holiness code which has been incor-
porated in P. The people in Ezra's time accept the obligation ;
the rule is henceforth part of the Jewish law, and placed with
the rest of the legislation bearing the name of Moses. Another
feature of the festival is the observance of the eighth day l as a
'solemn assembly' (^azereth) (Neh. viii. 18) ; a regulation which
is found only in P.
The evidence that the Priestly code, at least in part, was at
this time set before the children of Israel is conclusive. The
reformation under Josiah is marked by the production of a-
written law, that of Deuteronomy ; the reformation carried out
by Ezra and Nehemiah is marked by the production of another
written law, that of the Priestly code. Two distinct revisions
of the constitution can be traced in the history, one in the time
of Josiah before the Captivity, the other in the time of Nehe--
miah, after the Return. For the interval between the two, the-
Deuteronomic code is the law for the nation. This appears
from Jeremiah's language about slaves during the siege of Jeru-
salem, Nehemiah's remonstrance on the subject of usury and
bondage (p. 129), and the language of the post-exilic prophets
(p. 170). From the time that Ezra promulgates the law, and
onwards, the children of Israel are ruled by the complete law,-"
both Deuteronomic and Priestly.
1 Compare what has been said about this festival and the manner of
its observance as related in Kings and Chronicles on p. 152.
STAGES IN GROWTH OF LAWS 173
4. SUMMARY.
The preceding investigations establish a reasonable pre-(
sumption that the three codes found in the Pentateuch were}
promulgated at different periods in the history of Israel The
varieties in the laws referring to slaves, worship, and priesthood,
all point to the same conclusion ; that the Priestly code is of
later date than the Deuteronomic, and that the Covenant code
is prior to both. This evidence in favour of the third Proposition
is further corroborated by examination of the narrative in
Deuteronomy. It has been shewn (p. 118) that this narrative
limits the published revelation at Horeb to the Ten Words, and
thus excludes the idea that further legislation, such as that
contained in the Priestly code, was communicated to the
children of Israel at Sinai.
In support of the second Proposition, that the Hexateuch
is a composite work in which four documents can be dis-
tinguished, certain composite narratives were examined and it
was shewn that they contained two accounts, one from P, the
other from JE (see pp. 54 66, 74 97). From the manner in
which they had been combined, the inference was drawn that P
is the later element of the combination.
In support of the first Proposition, that the Hexateuch con-
tains passages of later date than the times of Moses and Joshua,
passages which exhibited definite indications of post-Mosaic
date were considered. Among them were certain verses from
Lev. xxvi., which seemed to be most naturally explained on the
supposition that they were written shortly before, or during the
rvilc.
This evidence that P is the latest contribution to the com-
posite narrative of the Hexateuch is weighty and cumulative.
It has been gathered from single passages, and groups of
passages ; from narratives whether treated as a whole, or re-
1 into their component parts; 'from the codes of law
led rolk'c lively ; and from particular laws in the dificicnt
codes compared with one another, and with the history.
174 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The evidence has been drawn from examination of parti-
cular passages ; it may be further corroborated by a general
retrospect of the whole history. The enquiry under the third
Proposition has been directed to the laws which were delivered
for the guidance of the people ; the influence of the prophets
during the greater part of Israel's career must not be forgotten.
It is of the utmost importance to apprehend clearly the relation
in which the prophets stand to the law, and the significance of
these two factors in the development of the nation. In the
following section these points will be briefly treated, but only so
far as they bear upon the subject treated in this Introduction,
viz. the date and authorship of the documents contained in the
Hexateuch.
5. THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS.
If the question be asked, What is the most prominent
feature in Israel's history as represented in the books from
Judges to Kings ? the answer must be, Prophecy. ' The history
and development of Israel was started by a prophet, and pro-
phets conducted it all along its course 1 .' The prophets them-
selves are conscious that the nation has been under prophetic
leading since the Exodus from the land of Egypt. Amos
declares in the name of the Lord : ' I brought you up out of
the land of Egypt.. .and I raised up of your sons for prophets'
(ii. 10). Hosea describes the deliverance from Egypt as effected
through prophetic guidance : ' By a prophet the LORD brought
Israel up out of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved'
(xii. 13). And more expressly Jeremiah, 'Since the day that your
fathers came forth out of the land of Egypt unto this day I
have sent unto you all my servants the prophets' (vii. 25). The
teaching has been prophetic throughout; but the nation 'hath
not hearkened to the voice of the LORD' (vii. 27).
1 Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy ', p. 18. The whole chapter on
'Prophecy the dominating factor in Israel's history from the time of
Moses onwards ' should be consulted.
1'KOPHECY AND LAW 175
This prophetic teaching contains statutes and command-
ments, and includes 'the law which I commanded your fathers'
(2 Kings xvii. 13; Zech. i. 4, 6; Ezra ix. 1012). Moses is
represented as a prophet of the highest grade (Deut. xxxiv. 10;
cp. Num. xii. 6, 7), and as declaring that this gift of prophecy
will continue in Israel. The passage in Deut. xviii. 15, 'The
LORD thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst
of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me,' has been interpreted as
receiving its complete fulfilment in Christ ; but in its primary
meaning it points to a succession of prophets who would carry
on the work of Moses. The nations whom the Lord drave out
from before Israel consulted diviners, and practised augury 1 .
Not thus shall the chosen people seek to know God, but through
the prophets who shall arise in each generation, to shew Israel
the way wherein they should go (cf. Deut. xviii. 10 16 and
1820). In the place of heathen sorcerers shall arise the
prophets of the Lord.
The message of the prophets was at first conveyed orally ;t
it was simple, inculcating moral truth, and directed to the whole
nation. Not till the time of Amos was it preserved in writing.]
When the people refused to hear the voice of the prophets, andf
betook themselves to diviners, Isaiah is bidden to commit his
message to writing as a testimony against those who would not
hearken, but, instead of seeking unto their God J , sought out
those who had familiar spirits (Is. viii. i, 16, 19, 20). In like
1 Compare the passage from Isai. viii., and the remarks on it in the
next paragraph.
3 The reference of the words law and testimony in w. 16, 20 is nut,
as is often thought, to the Mosaic law, but (cf. R.V.m. teaching) to the
message and teaching of Isaiah himself, which he gives (ver. 19) as a
guide in future difficulties, in preference to iamiliar spirits and wizard
(see Skinner, Cambridge Rikle, &c., on the passage). See also on the
:ng of Torah, App. VI, p. 256. The similarity between this
passage of Isaiah and Deut. xviii. deserves notice. In both the prophet
rs in contrast with the diviner. Compare the preceding para-
graph.
176 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
manner Jeremiah, after a long oral ministry, is commanded to
commit his prophecies to writing, and dictates them to Baruch,
in the hope that the house of Judah will take heed to them, and
return from their evil way. When the spoken word of the
prophet fails, the word is written in a book that others may
hearken, and the word of the Lord may not return to him void.
This development of prophetic teaching, according to which
written prophecy follows after oral prophecy, and, when the
spoken word fails, the written message remains as a witness, is
one of the most interesting facts recorded in the history of
prophecy 1 . It also marks an epoch for the historian; for the
period of written prophecy affords the first opportunity of supple-
menting the historical record by the words of those who moulded
the thought and guided the action of the people.
Along with the Torah of the prophets, there was also the
Torah of the priests, which, it may reasonably be supposed, was
developed on similar lines. At first handed down orally, the
decisions of priests would in course of time be committed to
writing, then arranged in subjects, and codified. In this way
traditions of great antiquity may have been preserved at the
local sanctuaries, as well as at Jerusalem. It is possible that
the step from oral to written Torah was taken earlier in the case
of priestly, than in the case of prophetic Torah. Details
connected with different kinds of food, compensation for injuries,
settlement of disputes, were matters about which every man
would at some time seek guidance, and obtain direction ( Torah}
from the priest. The earliest code preserved in the Pentateuch
(that in JE, see p. no) is generally assigned to a period before
the commencement of written prophecy ; and portions of it may
have existed in writing before they were codified. It deals
mainly with civil duties, and such questions as would be referred
to a priest or judge for decision.
The earliest prophets whose writings have been preserved
appear in opposition to, rather than in alliance, with, the priests.
1 See Skinner, hoi. i. xxxix., Cambridge Bible, Introduction,
p. xxxL
THE PROPHETS AND THE I..V.V 177
They blame the people for putting their trust in external obser-
es, and neglecting weightier matters, justice, truth, and the
knowledge of God (Amos iv. 4, 5 ; v. 4 15, 21 24 ; Isai. i. 10
17). From these and other passages it appears that sacrifices
were offered and festivals observed, and that rules for regulating
this worship formed an important part of the priestly Torah.
Micah accuses both priests and prophets : 'the priests teach for
hire, and the prophets divine for money' (iii. 11, where the
Hi.-b. word translated 'teat h' means 'give Torah] i.e. a decision
or instruction, cp. Hos. iv. 8 and App. VI). Hosea censures both
priests and people alike (Hos. iv. 9; v. i). It is evident that
the prophets of this period look upon the priests as failing in
their duty of teaching the people the knowledge of God.
The prophets, in denouncing both priests and people, 'make
no appeal to the sacred authority of any written standard of
law or doctrine 1 .' They do not represent Moses as the giver
o!" a law which the people have transgressed and the priests
have perverted, but exhibit a spirit of detachment from priestly
ritual which is difficult to explain on the supposition that
authoritative rules on these subjects were already in existence,
and attributed to Moses. The prophets recognize Moses as the
head of their guild ; the first in a succession of men chosen to
ic the divine word to Israel, but they do not recognize him
lawgiver prescribing rules for worship at the Tabernacle,
which have the force of 'statutes for ever throughout their
generations.' Such a conception of the office and work of Moses
t found in the prophetic literature : Malachi is the first to
mention the law of MOM-S (iv. 4), and Ezekiel is the only prophet
who pi < illation* relating to the externals of worship.
attitude of the earlier prophets towards law ami
monial worship becomes modified in the time of Josiah.
reformation carried out by thai king was effected with the
urrence both of priest and of prophet : the hook of
insinn f existing law in the prophetic
1 Kyle. ( '<;//. (>/
-33, deserve careful study.
C. P. 12
178 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
spirit. This change in prophetic action is caused by the changed
circumstances of the age. Written law is there, and received as
authoritative. The prophet cannot ignore the fact ; his mission
now is to prophesy over these dry bones of legal enactment, that
they may become a living word to Israel. So the writer of
Deuteronomy conceived his call to speak to his generation ; in
his book 'laws, old and new alike, lived in the spirit of Moses,
and glowed with the vehemence of prophecy. The tone in
which the law was here expounded to the people was something
new. It marked the close of one era, it heralded the beginning
of another The book was recognized as a divine gift, and
lifted, though but for a passing moment, the conception of the
nation's religion above the routine of the priesthood's traditional
worship' (Ryle, Can. of O.T.\ p. 61).
The written law had entered, with prophetic sanction, as an
active agent in the life of the nation. It grew, and became more
detailed and ceremonial in character. During the captivity,
Ezekiel sets before the people a ritual law for the second temple.
The similarity between that law and some of the provisions of
the code read before the returned exiles by Ezra is recognized
by ah 1 writers. How the people received that code, and bound
themselves by a covenant to observe its precepts, has already
been described (see p. 171).
The history sets forth the era of the prophets first, followed
by an era of legal enactments. The course of prophecy in
/ Israel, as far as its relation to the priestly Torah is concerned,
I may be divided into three stages ; of (i) independence, (2)
' alliance, (3) subordination.
( i ) At first, the prophets are independent of the priests ; they
appear as the religious leaders of the nation, and are the direct
means of communication between God and the people. They
make no appeal to a law, issued by divine authority through
Moses. Even in the time of Josiah, when a book of law (Torah}
is found in the Temple, the king does not appeal to Hilkiah the
priest, but to Huldah the prophetess, in order to ascertain the
authority of the message contained in the book.
PROPHETS IN THE HISTORY 179
(2) In the time of Josiah a period of alliance commences.
The prophets unite with the priests in propounding a law for
the people ; but there is little trace of its influence during
the remainder of Josiah's life. With the death of the king at
Megiddo corruption again creeps in, and in the next generation
the people are swept into exile.
Another effort is made to guide the people by means of
written law : Ezekiel, the prophet-priest of the exile, has a vision
of the restored temple, and issues new regulations for priests
and service (see note on pp. i66f.).
(3) These regulations (in modified form) are set before the
people in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. viii.). When
they are accepted the function of the prophet becomes sub-
ordinate; interest is centred in the law, and the 'scribe' ap-
pears ; his function is to preserve the written document, and to
interpret its provisions. As the written law assumes its final
shape, the utterances of the prophet become more rare, and are
little heard after the introduction of the Priestly code.
The course of prophetic activity, as shewn in the history of
the nation, and presented in the preceding summary, furnishes
strong corroboration of the argument deduced from the examina-
tion of the laux Prophecy, as a factor in Israel's development,
is not adequately explained on the supposition that a complete
ich as that contained in the Priestly code, was
in operation from the beginning. There is no proof that siu h
tern was in existence before the exile, and the historic fact,
that with the acceptance of this system after the Return, pro-
phetic activity ceased, seems to point to the conclusion that the
Junction of the prophet as a revcaler of God's will was incom-
patible with the existence of the fully develops 1 legal ^tern.
The prophet's duty is to declare the will of (,od ; it" that will is
!y manifested in a law containing in lai
ritual, the prophet must be, to a ^ re.it extent, suln > that
law. lie must inve; t disobedience to it, and illustrate
apply its i tin- earlier prophet^ is their
e of such action? They regard priestly iiie a as governed
122
i So INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
by custom, and as in no way within their province. Their
conduct cannot be satisfactorily explained on the supposition
that a divine law of ritual, such as that contained in the Priestly
code, is already in existence ; and, conversely, the assumption
that such a law does exist involves an estimate of the prophetic
office far below that which the history requires 1 . The more fully
the prophets are studied, the more clearly will the directness of
their mission appear. The expression 'the law and the pro-
phets' indicates the order in which these two parts of Scripture
were received into the Canon ; it dates from a period when
both written law and prophecy had become fixed in form, and
affords no evidence as to the order in which portions, either of
the law or of the prophets, were originally communicated to the
chosen people.
A few words may be added in explanation of the term
Mosaic as applied to the laws contained in Deuteronomy, and
in the Priestly code.
The prophets in their messages to the people do not repre-
sent themselves as teaching new truths to Israel about Jehovah;
they rather accuse the people of departing from the old truth
which has been revealed concerning Him. What Jehovah />,
that they declare; and they lay stress on the fact that He has
always been the same. This characteristic of the prophetical
Torah is also characteristic of the priestly Torah. But there is
a difference between prophecy and law. A unity underlies the
prophetic message, in that it reveals the One God who is the
same, however the condition of the people and state may
change. But law, being the rule for the people, may and does
vary according to the circumstances of time and place. The
lawgivers, however, seem actuated by the prophetic spirit and
desirous of exhibiting law as the same from the beginning. In
enunciating law in modern dress, they set it forth as old law, and '
whenever it is promulgated, it is described as part of the law
given by Moses the servant of God.
1 See Robertson Smith, OTJC 2 , pp. 311 314, for further illustration
of this point; also pp. 227 2.22 on the traditional view of the Pentateuch.
IN WHAT SENSE THE LAW IS MOSAIC 181
In this there is no attempt to deceive 1 . God's whole counsel
for the nation is conceived as implicitly given at Sinai, and
revealed to the people when they were fitted to receive it. The
idea is found in Deuteronomy, where Moses receives the law at
Horeb, but does not at once impart it. The law is one, as God
is one ; but unity does not exclude development, and the law
for Israel, as at present contained in the Pentateuch, exhibits
ample evidence 2 of such development. It is the work both of
prophet and of priest, each in turn setting forth that which they
believed to be the word of God to their generation, but embody-
ing principles which they regarded as communicated by God to
Moses when they were delivered from bondage, and chosen by
Him as a people, in order that 'they might keep his statutes and
observe his laws.'
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS.
(i) The redaction of the Hexateuch.
The preceding arguments tend to shew that the formation of
the Pentateuch and book of Joshua must have been gradual.
The reader will ask, How have these books been brought into
their present form ? There must be a conjectural element in
any answer to this question, as the historical data are imperfect.
With this reservation, the following sketch of the probable steps
in the formation of the Pentateuch and book of Joshua is
appended by way of conclusion, as an attempt to supply an
er in accord with the facts of the history, so far as they are
known.
:c the Deuteronomic legislation, the people possessed
historical and legal records, some of which have been pre-
1 Compare the reference by the Greeks to Z6\u 6 TO/XO^TTJS, the
ion by the K'.in.m. of l.uv to the XII t;il>lcs, and the remaiks of
Kol>ertson Snuili on 'k-jj-tl fictions' (OT/C*, pp. 384 f.).
- The i l>e reminded that only an outline i tin evidence
has U-eii laid l.ciorc him in tli ; investigation. The com-
ii'.entaiieb uu each book will supply ckt.
1 82 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
served in JE. When the component parts of this document
were committed to writing cannot be determined precisely.
Indications are not wanting that the writers are separated by
some interval of time from the events which they describe, e.g.
the reference to other works, such as the Book of the Wars of the
Lord, the book of Jashar, and expressions which imply settle-
ment in the land (see pp. 45 49). After the Disruption, the
common tradition would assume different forms among the
northern and southern tribes ; and it seems probable that J and
E represent the versions of the past history current in the two
kingdoms of Judah and Israel 1 . The existence of two accounts,
covering nearly the same ground, may in this way be most
easily explained, and it is also natural to suppose that, when the
kingdom of Israel came to an end, the surviving kingdom of
Judah might incorporate portions of the northern records with
its own.
In JE narrative is most prominent. It contains almost all
the patriarchal history which charms the reader of Genesis, and
in Exodus, Numbers, and Joshua supplies most of those graphic
touches which impart life to the narrative. In respect of the
small amount of legislation which it contains, it affords a con-
trast both to D and P. In JE the law is an appendage to the
narrative. In D and P the narrative ser vestas an introduction
to the law.
The Deuteronomic code (Deut. xii. xxvi.) is in the absence
of direct testimony generally assigned to the period when its
characteristic precepts first appear to be recognized as law for
the nation to the seventh century B.C. The close connexion of
Deuteronomy with Josiah's reform is_easily recognized, and has
already been pointed out (see pp. 141 f.). The exact character of
1 It should be noted that, if it be assumed that J and E represent
Judahite and Ephraimite versions of the history, the common base of
this history is carried back to the period before the Disruption. This
common tradition of a past history was gradually shaped by prophetic-
ally minded teachers.
GROWTH OF THE HEXATEUCH 183
tha f connexion cannot be determined with certainty ; but it may
safely be asserted that the teaching which exercised such pro-
found influence on King Josiah and the nation has been recorded
in Deuteronomy and the earlier prophecies of Jeremiah.
A distinction must be drawn between the laws embedded in
Deut. xii. xxvi., and the oratorical expansion of them, which
is found in the accompanying discourse. Many, perhaps the
majority of these laws, are much older than the existing book of
Deuteronomy. Where laws of JE are repeated (generally with
modifications), this is, of course, evident ; but there is no reason
why other laws in Deuteronomy may not be based on older
sources, other than the Covenant code. Some of the ritual
Torah regulating the worship and practice both at the Temple
and at the different sanctuaries of the land was already known,
certainly by oral tradition, and probably also through written
precepts. That much of this Torah was ancient seems certain ;
and in assigning Deuteronomy, or parts of it, to the time of
Josiah, it is by no means suggested or implied, that Torah^
both civil and priestly, was not already in existence, and pos-
sibly in written form. The laws in Deuteronomy do not, in
most cases, afford definite indication of their date 1 . It is rather
the environment of the laws, the basis of the appeal to obedience,
and the prophetic character of the teaching, that stamp the book
as a product of the later prophetic period. These shew that in
Deuteronomy there is a reproduction of that which is old, com-
bined with a setting forth of that which is new.
When 1) was accepted as a law book for the community, its
amalgamation with the previously existing sources J and E
would probably soon follow. The sources J and E may have
continued in use as separate documents for some time after
they were united, and may have been used by the writer of
Tonoiny. Hut the view that the compound story (i.e. J K,
not J ami 'dy) was the written source that lay before
1 Tim assertion must be uri'Icrstood as qualifi<-<l by wh.it has altvaiy
been statc<l with : 'l its con-
; 149,
1 84 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the Deuteronomic authors is adopted by many (see OT/C 2 ,
p. 424, and the note, but cp. Kuenen, Hexateuch^ 13, p. 249,
and note 27, p. 253).
The activity of the Deuteronomic authors was not confined
to the book of Deuteronomy. Their work is clearly to be
traced in the book of Joshua. The old narrative of JE, which
carried on the history up to the time of settlement in the land,
has, to use a modern term, been 'edited' by a writer imbued
with the spirit of Deut., and using the same style. The first
chapter in the book of Joshua takes up the narrative at the
death of Moses, and is evidently intended to be read as a
continuation of the book of Deuteronomy. The style of the
Deuteronomic editor is most marked here, and in chap, xxiii. ;
other additions from his pen are indicated in LOT S , 6,
Joshua, pp. 104 fif. The history of the people in the land, as con-
tained in the books of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, has also
been edited in the same spirit 1 . 'Thus all the non-priestly parts
of the Hexateuch were united into one book, to which Judges,
Samuel, and Kings, in the Deuteronomic redaction, formed
the continuation' (OT/C 2 , p. 425). The whole formed the law
book and history of the people for the first ninety years after the
Return, and until the introduction of the Priestly code.
The captivity and destruction of the Temple put an end for a
time to the national worship, but the exiles in Babylon were
encouraged to hope that after chastisement in exile, worship
would again be celebrated in the restored Temple. A suitable,
one might almost say necessary, occupation for the Babylonian
exiles would be to put on record the practice of the priests in
the old Jerusalem Temple, to serve as a guide for worship after
the return. Ezekiel's rules for the temple and its services are
based on ritual usages ; and the collection of laws now em-
bedded in Lev. xvii. xxvi., generally known as the ' Law of
1 See for details LOT 8 on these books. The additions are most
marked in Judges and Kings.
THE POST-EXILIC STAGE 185
Holiness 1 ,' may with some confidence be regarded as the result
of an attempt to preserve pre-exilic law, adapting it to suit the
needs of the time 2 . The further labours of the children of the
captivity may be found in the book of the law which Ezra
brought with him from Babylon.
Some are of opinion that the Pentateuch nearly in its present
form was the book of the law which Ezra 'brought before the
congregation' (Neh. viii.) ; but on the whole it seems more
probable that the priestly legislation only was read. The in-
terval which elapsed between Ezra's return and the solemn
reading of the law described in Neh. viii. (about which interval
so little is recorded in the scripture narrative) may have been
spent by Ezra in commending his proposals to the community
already established in Jerusalem. The reading of the Law is
generally assigned to the year 444 r.c. When it had been
accepted by the people, steps would be taken to incorporate
it with the already existing book formed out of JE and D.
Owing to the predominance of the legal element in P, the
result of the incorporation was to produce a law book rather
than a history ; it was probably with a view to emphasize this
aspect of the combination that the book of Joshua was at this
stage separated from the preceding books 3 . A division into
parts would naturally follow : the book of Genesis at the be-
ginning, and the book of Deuteronomy at the end, are obviously
separated by their subject-matter from the middle portion ; and
this latter was further divided into books approximating in
length to the other two. Thus the Pentateuch would assume its
present form, with its division into five books. The book of the
:ibovc, p. IH.
2 The elements due to P in these chapters have been added later.
1 ' The legislation really closes with Deuteronomy and the account
^es' death, and it was legislation which K/.ra and Nehemiah
H to enforce,' DB, Art. JOSHI'A, Vol. II. p. 784. It is there
Mated as probable 'that the JK, I), and 1' portions of Joshua
combined by ni. editor than the editor who combined
.-e documents in the I'entuteuch.'
1 86 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
law was appropriately closed with an account of the lawgiver's
death, to which account the three principal sources JE, D, and
P have all contributed 1 .
(ii) Ancient customs preserved in D and P.
Though these collections of laws (contained in D and P)
acquired canonical sanction at so late a period in Jewish history,
it must not be inferred that the laws themselves were all new.
Both collections (those in D and P) are, in large measure,
expansions and codifications of existing law. That this is the
case with the greater part of the Deuteronomic code is evident
on comparing it with the Covenant code (Exod. xxi. xxiii.),
and it may safely be assumed that the object of the Babylonian
exiles was to preserve the old ritual of the Temple. The codes
both of D and P contain precepts of great antiquity, handed
down by tradition, and also by means of written documents,
from the early days of the nation. Both codes contained, in
addition, developments which, it is reasonable to suppose, were
not admitted without some questionings. But the reforms both
under Josiah and under Ezra were carried in their entirety,
because they were recognized as based upon existing custom,
and presenting in written form acknowledged ritual and practice.
If this combination of ancient law with modern development
be recognized, the true explanation of certain passages in the
early history will be apparent. These passages 2 either contain
words which occur, or refer to observances concerning which
regulations are given, in the Priestly code. As an illustration
i Sam. iii. 3 may be quoted. It is clear from that verse that a
lamp burned in the temple at Shiloh. A law which enjoins the
1 A few passages in the history as contained in Judges Kings, some
of which are noted on pp. 773 ft., shew that the Deuteronomic redaction
of these books has been in parts further revised by a priestly writer.
3 These passages are often quoted as evidence that the law as
contained in D and P was in force at an early period in the history of
Israel.
ANCIENT ELEMENTS IN D AND P 187
use of lamps in the Tabernacle is found in P (Exocl. xxv. 31 f.,
xxvii. 21 ; Lev. xxiv. 3). The mention of the lamp in the history
affords no evidence that the law contained in P was in existence
in Samuel's time ; the use of a lamp was an ancient custom,
known to the writer of I Samuel, but the reference to it does not
prove that the developed ritual of P, which required seven lamps
to burn during the whole night, was in force when Samuel slept
in the temple of the Lord 1 .
The Nazirite vow affords another illustration of custom which
existed in ancient Israel being regulated by provisions in P.
Samson is a Nazirite (Judg. xiii. 5, 7; xvi. 17); Samuel has
some of the distinguishing marks of the Nazirite. Regulations
for the Nazirite vow and sacrifice are found in Num. vi. 221
(P). But Nazirites in the early history are dedicated from birth,
and yield a life-long service ; the regulations in P provide for
those who take upon themselves a vow for a definite period, and
prescribe certain ceremonies to be observed and sacrifices to be
offered at the end of that period, when the Nazirite has fulfilled
his obligation, and assumes the position of an ordinary Israelite.
The provisions of P are obviously inapplicable to the earlier
Nazirites ; Samson and the Nazirite of Num. vi. have little in
common beyond the name ; the mention of Nazirite in the early
history and in Amos ii. II f. proves nothing as to the date of P.
The presumption is, that as the Nazirite in P differs so much
in character from the early Nazirite, both he, and P's regulations
concerning him, belong to a different period, i.e. they do not
belong to the early history.
These two illustrations are sufficient to shew that words or
phrases, by themselves^ afford no proof that the ceremonial
system as existing in P was operative when the narrative
lining such words or phrases was written. The institutions
i' 1 are of great antiquity. Sacrifice and worship, distinc-
tion of meats, abstention from blood, and other observances,
formed part of their religion from the beginning: it is not
1 Further ol<.Tvntioi)s on I Sain, i. iii. will be found in li.
at the end of this section.
i88 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
doubted that such observances were, from the first, regulated
by authority. The argument in the third Proposition tends to
shew that in Israel's law, as in that of other nations, a develop-
ment can be traced ; and that P represents the latest stage in
such development. Bearing in mind the fact that ancient
custom forms the basis of the developed system contained in
the Priestly code, it is reasonable to expect that the history
will shew some points of affinity with P ; and that these will
become more numerous and definite as the history progresses.
A careful study of the evidence afforded both by the historical
and prophetical books shew that this expectation is correct.
The following expressions 1 maybe noted as occurring in the
history :
i Sam. ii. 28, 'all the offerings of the children of Israel made
by fire.' The word for offerings made by fire (Heb. 'ishshe, or
'fire offerings') is frequently used in the Levitical law (Lev. i. 9;
xxiii. passim}.
I Sam. xxi. i 6. The account of the shewbread which was
given by Ahimelech to David and his young men shews clearly
that the custom of putting the shewbread 'before the LORD'
was observed by Ahimelech. The ordinance concerning the
shewbread is in Lev. xxiv. 5 9. It was to be eaten by Aaron
and his sons, i.e. by priests. The narrative in Samuel does not
furnish any proof that Ahimelech is acquainted with this ordi-
nance restricting the use of the holy bread to the priests ; his
words, as recorded in i Sam. xxi. 4, are consistent with the
supposition that in his day the shewbread might be eaten by
laymen, provided that they were ritually clean. See DB,
Vol. IV. p. 495.
The Philistines send back a 'guilt offering' ^ashdrn) with
the ark (i Sam. vi. 3, 4, 8, 17). The same Heb. word is used
for one kind of sacrifice prescribed in Lev. i. vii. (see p. 1 50).
The Philistine offering consists of golden images.
'The LORD smelled the sweet savour' (Gen. viii. 21). The
1 For a full list of such expressions see Driver, LOT 9 , pp. 142 152.
Those given in the text are selected from his list.
ANCIENT ELEMENTS IN D AND P 189
ssion 'sweet savour' or 'savour of satisfaction ' is frequently
used in sacrificial ritual (Lev. i., iii. passim}.
The passages here quoted shew that some of the ex-
pressions in P are very old, and that some of the institutions
for which P supplies regulations can be traced back to very
early times ; they do not 1 shew that the regulations in P are of
the same antiquity as the institutions themselves ; on the con-
trary, whenever a description is found in the history, there is
generally some deviation from P's special rules ; the impression
is produced that the custom or ceremony was observed more
simply than is required by the prescriptions of P. Both
'ancient' and 'modern' are found in P; the history, when
alluding to what is 'ancient,' does not prove that what is
' modern ' was also known in the time of the narrator.
In Deuteronomy the evidence of acquaintance with elements
preserved in P is more varied and decisive. This acquaintance
does not prove the dependence of D on P ; it is just what
might be expected, if the date of Deuteronomy is that assigned
to it in the preceding investigation (pp. 136 142). By the
time of Josiah, priestly Torah had developed, and parts of it
had probably assumed a written form. Deuteronomy expressly
1 The reason why these passages are not accepted as sufficient
evidence for the existence of I' when they were written is not always
appreciated. Some writers say, Why is the mere allusion not enough?
and they ask, with an air of surprise, Why should express and distinct
statements be demanded ? Are they to be expected in a history ? The
answer is, If there were no independent reasons for regarding P as late,
these allusions might be accepted as sufficient: but there are such
reasons; they have Keen laid before the reader in the preceding |
More than a mere allusion is not to be expected in a hi>t"iic.il account;
hut then these allusions are not sufficient to o\vi \\ < i^h the .strong
indfpendent grounds for referring I* to a later da:
ha- hern |..-;nJcd out in the text, some deviation In. in \'\ M ;
>r implied. The rare allusions to Leviles in the hooks ,,t
Samuel are noticed in App. \ 11, pp. 275 f.
190 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
refers to the priests as authoritative guides in cases of leprosy,
and they would probably quote Torah already in existence which
concerned the laity (xxiv. 8). The distinction between clean
and unclean in food is a feature of Semitic religions ; it must
have been known in Israel from the earliest times. Allusion to
it is found in Judg. xiii. 4, 7 ; it is a subject on which decisions
would be sought, and Torah would be issued. The list of clean
and unclean in Deut. xiv. shews such close verbal coincidence
with the list in Lev. xi. as to make it clear that one of them
is dependent on the other, or that both are derived from a com-
mon original. Since the existence of Torah concerning food
may be regarded as certain, the hypothesis that both passages
are based on some earlier list seems most probable. No definite
conclusion can be drawn as to the priority of either passage :
the general question, whether the Deuteronomic or the Priestly
code is the earlier, must be determined on other grounds ; the
list in Deut. xiv. contributes nothing towards its solution.
In the provision for the cities of Refuge, two expressions are
common to Deuteronomy and the Priestly code : these have
been pointed out on p. 122.
There are also references to Burnt and Peace Offerings,
tithes, freewill offerings, the prohibition to eat blood, and the
flesh of that which dieth of itself. Wherever it is possible to
compare regulations on the same subject, the comparison shews
that D is independent of P, and exhibits the particular law or
institution in a simpler and less developed form than that found
in P.
The inference that the developed system of P is unknown to
Deuteronomy is confirmed by an examination of the books of
Kings. These books were compiled about the middle of the
sixth century B.C. The writer knows a law of Moses ; but when
he quotes particular statutes, they are those of Deuteronomy
(e.g. 2 Kings xiv. 6). He represents David as exhorting his son
Solomon (i Kings ii. I 3) to observe that which is written in
the law of Moses ; the words are closely parallel to those in
Josh. i. 6 8, part of the Deuteronomic revision of the book of
SVSTKM OF P UNKNOWN TO D iyi
Joshua 1 . Jeroboam is blamed for making priests who were not
of the sons of Levi (i Kings xii. 31). The phrase of Deuteronomy
is adopted, rather than that of P, who would have written "the
sons of Aaron.' Throughout, the writer judges individuals by
the standard of the Deuteronomic law 2 , in marked distinction
from the Chronicler of a later period, who represents the pious
kings as obeying in all its details the developed system of P.
An instance of this has already been pointed out on p. 152,
with reference to the duration of the Feast of Tabernacles;
further illustrations will be found in App. VII, pp. 268 flf. The
inference seems justified that P's regulations obtained recogni-
tion at some date after that of the books of Kings, i.e. after
the middle of the sixth century B.C. Reasons for associating
this acceptance of P with the solemn reading of the law re-
corded in Neh. viii. have already been given on p. 172.
1 This passage cannot be regarded as furnishing evidence that
Deuteronomy was known to David. Its Deuteronomic style shew.*
that the language is due to the compiler. See Introduction to A'l'ngs /,
// (1908) in this series, 3, Structure and Sources, pp. xviii xxi, and
for the date assigned, pp. xxi, xxii of the same section.
2 The phraseology of P is found in i Kings viii. i ff. The omiv>iou
of the passages in the LXX. is a strong argument for concluding that
they are a later addition. See A'in^s /, //, p. ;o and App. VII, p. 273.
192 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
NOTE ON i SAMUEL I. VII.
The whole account of the temple at Shiloh, contained in i Sam.
i. iii., is of special interest, being one of the few passages in the O.T.
in which ancient ritual and custom are described. The ark was in the
temple at Shiloh; a legitimate priesthood (according to i Sam. ii. 27
chosen in Egypt) officiated there ; it was a place of assembly for all
Israel. Here sacrifice would be duly offered, and worship celebrated
according to a properly authorized standard. If the rites prescribed in
the Priestly code had been in existence from the time of Moses, surely
some evidence of their observance would be found at Shiloh where the
LORD caused His 'name to dwell at the first' (Jer. vii. 12). But,
though these opening chapters of the book of Samuel have been
carefully examined, no definite trace of P, as a system, has been found.
There are verbal resemblances between the story in Samuel and the
Priestly code ; these are fully accounted for by the explanation offered
in the text, viz. that some of the institutions in P are of great antiquity,
and have their roots in the early history; in the time of Eli and
Samuel they have not yet reached the mature stage of development
exhibited in the Priestly code.
Reference has been made on p. 187 to 'the lamp of God in the
temple of the LORD,' i Sam. iii. 3. It is there brought forward as an
illustration of that verbal resemblance which simply attests the antiquity
of a custom, but not the ritual development of that custom contained in
P. Professor Orr is of opinion that it suggests the prescriptions of the
Levitical code (Problem of the O. T., p. 171); he also alleges (p. 172)
that Elkanah's ' sacrifice for his vow is according to the law ' and refers
to Lev. vii. 16 and Num. xv. 8 10. Elkanah's action, considered with
reference to the second of these passages, is not strictly ' according to
the law.' He and his wife Hannah bring 'a bullock' (i Sam. i. 24;
the reading of LXX. and Syr. given in R.V. marg. 'a bullock of three
years old' is better than the ' three bullocks' of R.V. and A.V., because
it is in accord with ver. 25, ' And they slew the bullock,' which implies
that only one bullock was brought), 'and one ephah of meal, and a bottle
THE TEMPLE AT SHILOH 193
(or, skin, R.V. marg.) of wine.' The bullock is one of the animals
specified in Num. xv. 8 10, but it is there (ver. 9) prescribed that
' a meal offering of three tenth parts of an ephah of fine flour mingled
with half an hin of oil ' should be brought as an accompaniment of the
animal sacrifice ; this could not have been furnished out of the 'ephah
of meal* (k?mah), for the law required 'fine flour* (soleth), and no
mention is made of the oil in Samuel. The fact that Elkanah came
to the sanctuary has nothing whatever to do with P ; all three codes
enjoin this observance (see p. 151 and notes).
Now if other passages in the books of Samuel afforded clear indica-
tion that the developed system of P was known to the writer, minor
points of divergence might be disregarded. It might be urged with
reason that, in a simple, story, popular language would be employed,
and not technical ritual terms. But when such clear indications are not
to be found, but, on the contrary, the books convey the impression that
a simpler ritual was observed, it is necessary to insist that this popular
language must not be pressed beyond its precise meaning. The simi-
larity to P is only in the names ; a thorough examination of the facts
shews points of contrast with P, rather than points of resemblance.
The things which the names connote in Samuel and in P are different.
One of the chief features of the tabernacle worship is the with-
drawal of the ark into an inner shrine, entered only by the high priest
with solemn rites once a year. To take this ark into the battle is so
manifest a breach of the law as contained in P, that it is comparatively
a minor point to discuss how near Samuel was to the ark when he slept
in the temple. Yet i Sam. iii. 3 in the correct translation of R.V. docs
^t that he slept near it ; else why should the position of the ark
be specified ? And where are the Levites who according to the law
should be ministering about the Tent ? They are mentioned neither in
this narrative, nor in i Sam. vii. i, where the men of Kiriath-jearim
fetch the ark from Bethshemesh, and place it in the house of Abinadab.
And where are the priests the sons of Aaron, of P, when it is found
neces n. vii. i) to consecrate Abinadab's son Eleazar, to keep
the ark ? When the ark was restored by the Philistines, it was brought
into the fields of Bethshemesh at harvest time; the reapers rejoiced to
see the ark, broke up the cart on which it was brought, and offered the
kine which drew the cart as a sacrifice (vi. 13, 14). The statement in
vi. 15 that ' the Levites took down the ark of the LORD' is difficult to
adjust with the non-mention of any Levites in the particulars given of
C- P. 13
194 INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
the sacrifice in the previous verse, and probably the words ' the Levites '
are substituted for an original ' they.'
The sanctuary at Shiloh is called a htkhal (i Sam. i. 9 ; iii. 3), the
usual word for 'temple' (r Kings vi. 3 etc.); it has 'doors* (i Sam.
iii. 15), not a mere entrance (pet hah], like the Tent of both E (Exod.
xxxiii. 9, 10; Num. xii. 5 : the ' door ' in R.V. and A.V. of these passages
should be ' entrance ' as in Heb.) and P (Exod. xxvi. 36, xxix. 4 ; and
frequently) ; also a door-post (i Sam. i. 9). The description, though
only incidental, seems sufficient to shew that, by the time of Eli, the
Tabernacle had been replaced by a more solid structure of permanent
character. The whole account of David's bringing up the ark to
Mount Zion, and placing it in the Tent which he had prepared (2 Sam.
vi.), furnishes a strong presumption that the Tabernacle had disappeared.
Frequent mention is made of the ark from the time of its capture by
the Philistines to the time when it was brought by David to Mount
Zion, but without reference to the Tent, which according to the law is
regarded as its necessary shelter. If that Tent had existed in David's
time it is difficult to suggest a reason why he should have prepared
another. The historian who records that preparation would surely
explain why the ancient Tabernacle was set aside in favour of a newer
Tent. Again, this Tent of David is referred to as 'the Tent (tabernacle
A.V.) of the LORD' (i Kings ii. 29, 30), a title hardly appropriate if
the original Tabernacle was still in existence. From it Zadok took the
horn of oil to anoint Solomon (i Kings i. 39), and before it was the
altar to which Adonijah (i. 50) and Joab (ii. 29) fled for refuge. The
reasons for supposing that the Tabernacle lasted so long are (i) the
reference to 'the Tent of meeting' in i Sam. ii. 22 6, a passage which
is clearly based on Exod. xxxviii. 8. But this clause, for two good
reasons, (a) that it gives the name 'Tent of meeting' to that which
elsewhere in the same context (i Sam. i. 9, iii. 3) is called a temple,
(b) that the clause is wanting in the LXX., is in all probability not part
of the original story: (2) the statement in i Kings viii. 4, that the
Tent of meeting was put into the Temple. But reasons have been
given above for supposing that the Mosaic tent had disappeared, and
there can be little doubt that i Kings viii. i n has been interpolated
(see App. VII, p. 274). The reference here to the tent may be a
scribal addition, and is so regarded by Skinner, Century Bible, and
Barnes, Cambridge Bible (see their notes on i Kings viii. 4), and DB t
Vol. iv. p. 654 b.
RECORD OF SAMUEL'S WORK 195
It is sometimes urged that the period of Samuel's activity was one
of religious disorganization, and therefore exact conformity could not
be expected. Even if the validity of this plea be accepted, its applica-
tion in the case of Samuel may be questioned. He stands out in the
narrative as the religious reformer of his age, who calls on the people
to prepare their ' hearts unto the LORD and serve him only ' ( i Sam. vii. 3).
His efforts to recall the people to the true worship of Jehovah would
certainly be based on the precepts of the Priestly code, if they were
then known as an authorized standard of observance. In the record
there is no indication that Samuel was acquainted with P, and much
which suggests that he was not. But, apart from the question of how
much or how little of the narrative may be in conflict with the demands
of P, an important point to notice is the attitude of the historian
towards the whole narrative. He never suggests that the observances
which he mentions are not in accord with an ancient recognized
standard, but considers them as ordinary procedure, which is acceptable
to God. Now the books of Kings and of Chronicles are written by
historians who clearly shew acquaintance with a code, in the case
of Kings with the code of Deuteronomy, and in the case of Chronicles
with the Priestly code. Their records note observance and non-
observance of the law, and are ready with an apology for infringement
of it (i Kings iii. i). In this respect both writers appear in marked
contrast to the historian of Samuel. The inference seems obvious: the
writer of Samuel is not acquainted with the two codes which were the
standard authorities to the writers of Kings and Chronicles respectively.
13-3
APPENDIX I.
PASSAGES IN THE HEXATEUCH ASSIGNED TO P.
A general description of the document P has been given in
pp. 54 71. The following table indicates the limits of P
throughout the Hexateuch, and the headings in italics describe
its contents. As in the first four books (Genesis Numbers)
little is found which does not belong either to JE or P, this table
will also serve to indicate the limits of JE for these books. A
few notes have been added pointing out where passages have
been discussed, or giving short reasons for the analysis. The
notes are introductory in character, and for further information
the reader is referred to the commentaries on the separate books.
GENESIS.
The Creation
I. i II. 4<z.
Generations of the heaven
and of the earth
Generations of Adam
v. 128, 3032.
Generations of Noah
VI. 9-12.
The Flood
VI. 13-22.
VI I. 6, 7 9 (partly), u,
13 i6a, 18 21, 24.
VIII. I, 2 a,
I3a, 1419-
IX. 117, 28, 29.
See notes on this passage on pp.
54, 55, and the comparison of it
with ii. 4 a iii. 24 on pp. 59, 60 ;
also the inference (i) on p. 61.
On ch. v. see notes on pp. 57, 58.
See p. 74 for comparison of this
passage with w. 5 8.
The accounts of the Flood in cc.
vi. ix. are examined in pp. 74 81,
and the grounds of the division in-
dicated.
198
APPENDIX I
Generations of the sons of
Noah
X. i7, 20, 22, 23, 31,
32.
Generations of Shem
XL 1026.
Generations of Terah
XL 27, 31, 32.
Abraham
XII. 4* 5-
XIII. 6, ii, 12.
XVI. i a to 'children':
3. I5> 16.
The covenant with A.
XVII.
Destruction of Sodom
XIX. 29.
Birth of Isaac
XXI. i b, 2 6$.
Purchase of Machpelah
XXIII.
Death of Abraham
XXV. 7i i a.
On cc. x., xi. see the note on
p. 61, and p. 62.
Note the great similarity to xi. 31.
From 'and they separated...' (v.
n) down to '...cities of the Plain'
(v. 12).
It is clear that v. 3 repeats the
statement of the preceding verse,
with a note of time.
On this chapter, see pp. 56, 57,
62, 63, the table on pp. 64, 65, and
inference (6) on p. 66.
Note the name God after Jehovah
of preceding verses, remembered,
see p. 77, and cities of the Plain as
xiii. 12. The verse repeats in other
words the substance of the pre-
ceding narrative. LOT 8 p. 15.
On cc. xx., xxi., xxvi., see pp. 98f.
The second clause of z/. i repeats
the statement of the first clause.
Note set time in v. 2, as in xvii. 21.
In v. \\b 'and Isaac dwelt by
Beer-lahai-roi ' seems founded on
xvi. 14 and xxiv. 62.
APPENDIX I
109
Generations of hhmael
XXV. 1217.
Generations of Isaac
XXV. 19, 20, 26 b.
Esau's wives
XXVI. 34, 35-
Jacob sent away
XXVII.46 XXVIII.9,
Jacob with Laban
XXIX. 24, 29.
Jacobs return
XXXI. i8, XXXIII.
On 'These are the generations
of/ see p. 59.
The two incidents related in vv.
21 26 a, 27 34 are from JE.
For remarks on xxviii. 10 xxxv.
see pp. 101 f.
Perhaps the clauses referring to
the handmaids in xxx. 4 a, qb be-
long to P, and parts of I , 22 a.
/ Shechem
XXXI V.I, 2 , 4,6,8
10, 1318, 20-24,
part of 25, 2729.
God blesses Jacob at Bethel
XXXV. 6 a, 9-13, 15,
22 29.
Generations of Esau
XXXVI.
Generations of Jacob
XXXVII. i, 20.
in Egypt
XLI. 46.
XLVI. 6 .27
The division of the sources in
this chapter is in some places un-
certain.
On iru. 9 13, see pp. 56, 67, and
the table on pp. 65, 66.
Based on P (esp. in w. 6 8),
but containing additions from other
sources.
The commencement of the story
of Joseph and his brethren is taken
from P, but the rest is almost entirely
from JE. The age of Joseph, and
the genealogy, belong to P.
200
APPENDIX I
XLVII. 5, 6 a, 7 11,
27^,28.
XLVIII. 3 6, 7?
XLIX. i, 28^33.
L. 12, 13.
EXODUS.
The children of Israel
multiply
I. i-5, 7, I3> '4-
God hears their cry^ and
takes knowledge of
them
II. 23^25.
The Name JEHOVAH
VI. 28.
Moses sent to Pharaoh
VI. 9-VII. 7.
Aaron's rod becomes a
serpent
VII. 813.
The Plagues
VII. 19, 20 a, lib 22.
VIII. 5-7, 15^-19.
IX. 8-12, XL 9, 10.
On the variation between Heb.
and LXX. in xlvii. 5, 6, see the
commentary, and LOT* pp. n, 17.
The reference to Machpelah in
these chapters points to c. xxiii.(P).
For the connexion between irv.
i 5 and Gen. xlvi. 8 f. see the
commentary.
On ii. 15 230, see pp. 105 f.; on
the revelation of the name Jehovah
in ch. iii., see p. 100; on parts of
ch. iv., see p. 103.
On vi. 2 8, see pp. 67 f.
Note the genealogies in this sec-
tion ; that of Levi is given most
fully, because Moses and Aaron be-
long to that tribe.
Note the similarities, esp. those
of expression, between this and the
passages following.
On the composite character of
the account of the plagues, see
pp. 69, 104 and LOT 91 pp. 2428.
APPENDIX I
201
The Passover and the
Feast of Unleavened
Cakes
XII. 120,28,370,40,
41,4351.
First-born sanctified to
God
XIII. 1,2.
XIII. 20.
Passage of the Red Sea
XIV. 1-4,8,9,15-18,
2123, 26, 27 a, 28,
29, XV. 19.
Quails and Manna
XVI. 1-3, 6-24, 31-
36.
XVII. 10.
Arrival at Sinai
XIX. i, 2a.
Moses goes up into the
mount
XXIV. 15-180.
and reteives instructions
about the tabernacle &*c.
XXV. XXXI. 1 8 a.
xii. 21 27 is part of a different
account of the institution of the
Passover, which stands to xii. 3
13 in the same relation that the
regulations about Mazzoth in xiii.
3 16 stand to those in xii. 14 20.
Dillmann, in LOT* p. 29.
See p. 70. In i>. 21, from 'and
the LORD' to 'dry land 1 ' is not
from P, nor the last clause of v. 28.
This ch. should be compared
with Num. xi. From 'Rephidim'
in xvii. la, to the end of ch. xviii.
belongs to JE.
With 'and there Israel...' in v. ib
begins JE's account of the legisla-
tion at Sinai.
Continuation of xix. 2 a, in-
troducing P's account of the legis-
lation.
Instructions about the tabernacle
&c. The remainder of JE's account
of the events at Sinai, is in cc.
xxxii. xxxiv., to which xxiv. 18 b
1 Note that 'dry land' in v. 11 is different from 'dry ground' in
v. ii\ also that P seldom describes in detail the im-ih<xl of the Divine
action as in this clause. In xv. i<; both A.V. and K.V. have 'dry land,'
but it should be 'dry ground,' lr the Ileb. word is the same as in
xiv. 1 6, 22. The affinity of xv. 19 with P is then mure evident to the
English reader.
202
APPENDIX I
Moses comes down from
the mount. His face
shines
XXXIV. 29-35.
XXXV. XL.
LEVITICUS.
(after 'cloud') and xxxi. i8 (after
'testimony') are an introduction.
These cc. relate the carrying out
of the instructions in cc. xxv.
xxxi. See pp. 70, 71.
On the 'Law of Holiness' in cc.
xvii. xxvi.,seepp. iuf.,andApp.V.
NUMBERS.
The numbering of the
people^ and legisla-
tion
1. X. 28.
The mission of the spies
XIII. i 17, 21, 25,
26 , 32.
XIV. iS 2\ 5-7, 10,
26 39 1 .
Laws concerning sacrifice,
offerings, and fringes
XV.
The rebellion of Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram
XVI. I a, 2^11, 1 6
24, 27 a, 32 b, 3550.
Aaron's rod that budded
XVII.
The remainder of P's account of
the legislation at Sinai.
On these cc. see pp. 85 97,
where the grounds of the division
are indicated.
In Num. xvi., three incidents
seem to be referred to:
(1) a rising of Dathan and Abiram
against Moses related in the por-
tions not belonging to P ;
(2) a protest against the claims of
the tribe of Levi (vv. 2 b 7 a,
1824, 27*, 32^, 35, 41-50, c. xvii.),
with which is combined
1 In the main; v. 31 belongs to JE, and the source 01 vv. 32, 33 is
uncertain.
APPENDIX I
203
The dues of the priests
and Levitcs
XVIII.
The ashes of the red heifer
used for purifications
XIX.
The waters of Meribah
XX. la, 2, 3^,4,6-13.
Death of Aaron
XX. 2229.
The Journey to Canaan
XXI. 4<r, 10, ii.
XXII. i.
The zeal of Phinehas
XXV. 6- 18.
The second numbering and
the law of inheritance
XXVI. XXVII. ii.
Joshua appointed as suc-
cessor to Moses
XXVII. 1223.
Offerings for festival s and
other occasions
XXVIII., XXIX.
(3) a protest against the exclusive
claims of Aaron and his sons to the
priesthood (vv. -j b n, 16, 17, 36
40). See the commentary, and
LOT* pp. 64, 65.
On c. xviii. see pp. 155 f.
The year is not specified in v. I.
In xxxiii. 37, Zin is the station be-
fore Mt Hor, reached in the 4oth
year. On Zin = Kadesh see p. 93.
The continuation of v. 21 'Israel
turned away from him' is 'to com-
pass the land of Edom' (xxi. 4^).
Cp. Deut. i. 40, ii. I.
The VTJ. from P in xxi., xxii. are
part of P's itinerary, cf. xxxiii. 43
48. For reasons why the itinerary
in xxi. 12 20 is assigned to JE see
LOT* p. 66.
Contrast 'Moab' in v. I with
'Midian' in vv. 6 1 8.
204
APPENDIX I
Law of vows
XXX.
The war against Midian
XXXI.
Allotment of the country
E. of for dan
XXXII. 1 8, 19, 2432.
Journeys of the children
of Israel from Rame-
ses to the plains of
Moab
XXXIII.
The borders of the land,
cities for the Levites,
cities of refuge &"c.
XXXIV. XXXVI.
DEUTERONOMY.
1.3-
XXXII. 4852.
The death of Moses
xxxiv. 10, 5^,79.
JOSHUA.
IV. 13, 15-17.
The encampment at Gil-
gal
IV. 19, V. 1012.
VII. i.
Traces of P are found in w. I
4 and in other parts of the chapter.
For details see LOT 8 p. 69 and the
commentary.
Remarks on c. xxxv. will be found
on pp. 121 f. On the position of the
legislation in cc. xxvi. xxxvi., and
its relation to Deut. see p. 119.
Clearly parallel to Num. xxvii.
1214.
All the sources seem to have con-
tained accounts of Moses' death.
Seep. 186.
Only slight traces of P are found
in cc. i. xii. The narrative of JE
has been expanded in the style and
spirit of Deut. by an editor who is
designated as D 2 . See p. 184 and
LOT 9 p. 104.
Note the exact date in iv. 19.
An introduction to the story of
Achan by Rp. (Cf. p. 219, No. 31.)
APPENDIX I
205
The Gibeonites condemned
to bondage
IX. 15 , 1721.
The inheritance of the two
tribes and a half
XIII. 15-32.
The nine tribes and a half
XIV. 1-5.
The lot of J ml ah
XV. I 13, 2062.
The lot of the sons of
Joseph
XVI. 4-8.
XVII. i 4, 7, 9, iort.
The remaining seven tribes
receive their inheri-
tance
XVIII. i, 1128.
XIX. 18, 10-46, 48,
For 'princes of the congregation*
see App. 1 1, No. 28 c. In v. 27 'for
the congregation and' is perhaps
due to Rp, influenced by-z/^. 17 21.
On the 'towns of Jair' (Havvoth
Jair, v. 30) see p. 42.
The distribution of the land W. of
Jordan according to P begins here.
Some critics think that xviii. i
should stand before xiv. i 5. On
xiv. 6 15 see p. 96, and on Caleb's
exploit v. 14 see the note there.
Whether v. 13 belongs to P, or is
an introduction by Rp to w. 14
19 is doubtful. The addition of the
names of eleven 'cities with their
villages' by LXX. in v. 59 shews
that the Heb. text is not complete.
The account of JE (which de-
scribes Joseph's lot as one} is com-
bined with that of P (which assigns
a lot to Manasseh, cp. xvi. 5 8
with xvii. i). Parts of xvii. i 4,
9 ioarcfromJE,seeZ,07' 8 p. no.
In xviii. 6, the Heb. word for 'de-
scribe' is 'write.' Cp. 7 a with xiii.
14, 33, Deut. xviii. j, 2.
206
APPENDIX I
Cities of refuge appointed
XX. 13, 60, 79.
The Levitical cities
XXI. 142.
The altar erected by the
two tribes and a half
XXII. 9-34-
The non-P portions, which are
Deuteronomic in character, are due
to a late revision ; they are not in
the LXX. See LOT 8 p. 112. On
the accounts in Num. xxxv. and
Deut. xix., see pp. 121 f.
Cp. Num. xxxv. i 8. Vv. 43 45
form the close of the Deuteronomic
account of the partition.
The work of a writer who shews
marked affinities with P, but also
uses expressions not found in P.
APPENDIX II.
_
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRIESTLY CODE.
Attention has been directed on pp. 54 72 to the style and
phraseology of P. Further details have been given in the
analysis of the Flood narrative (pp. 74 81), and in the notices
of duplicate accounts (pp. 81 97). A list of the most character-
istic words and expressions occurring in P is given in the following
table (cp. LOT 8 pp. 131 ff.). It is not exhaustive, but sufficiently
full, it is hoped, to assist the reader in appreciating the extent
and variety of the evidence for the separation of P from the rest
of the Hexateuch. It also shews that the distinctive use of
Elohim which is sometimes spoken of as if it were the sole
basis of the separation of P is only a very small part of the
whole evidence, and adds weight to the remarks on p. 50 with
reference to this point.
One characteristic will appear on consulting this list. It
may be described as the depth of the colouring in P. On
comparing the passages in the left-hand column of pp. 64, 65
with the short list of expressions on p. 56, it will be seen that
two or more items of that list occur in each passage. Other
passages of P, when compared with this list, exhibit the same
phenomenon. To use one of P's own expressions, his text
'swarms' with characteristics, or, to go back to the first metaphor,
the colour may be easily recognized. The reader may easily
verity this statement by examining any of the passages assigned
to P in Appendix I. He will generally find in the following
list cumulative evidence io support of the assignment
208 APPENDIX II
(1) The use of the Divine Names.
(a) Elohim. In the examination of Exod. vi. i 8 on p. 67, a
reason has been suggested for the use of Elohim by P in the section
Gen. i. Exod. vi. See also pp. 29, 31, 66, 71, 75.
(6) El Shaddai, God Almighty. Gen. xvii. i; xxviii. 3; xxxv. n;
xlviii. 3; Exod. vi. 3. These passages are assigned to P, not only
because this name occurs in them, but on other grounds which are
indicated on p. 67, and also in Nos. n, 14. The name also occurs in
Gen. xliii. 14, and must be read (with LXX.) for Almighty alone in
xlix. 25 (see Driver, Genesis, ad loc.).
( f ) Jehovah. This name is not used by P in Gen. i. Exod. vi.,
but after the revelation of the name Jehovah recorded in Exod. vi. P
Vi^,^ Jehovah freely. See p. 68. The occurrence of this name in Gen.
xvii. i ; xxi. i b is due to transcriptional error. Cf. LOT 8 p. 21, where
Driver points out that these isolated occurrences of the name cannot
justly be regarded as subversive of an argument resting on an abundance
of criteria extending throughout the Pentateuch.
(2) Names of Places.
(a) Kiriath-arba (Kirjath A.V.). In Josh. xiv. i5=Judg. i. 10
(JE) it is said that the ancient name of Hebron was Kiriath-arba; in P
this name is given with the remark 'the same is Hebron'; Gen. xxiii. 2 ;
xxxv. 27; Josh. xv. 13, 54; xx. 7; xxi. n. In Gen. xxxv. 27; Josh.
xv. 13; xxi. ii A.V. has the city of Arba(h}. See also Neh. xi. 25.
(b) Machpelahi the children of Heth: Ephron the Hittite.
These three expressions occur several times in Gen. xxiii., where the
purchase of Machpelah is recorded, and in passages referring to that
transaction: xxv. 9, 10; xlix. 29 32; 1. 13!. Only in these passages
are the Hittites called 'children of Heth,' and represented as settled in
the south of Palestine.
(c) Paddan-aram'. Gen. xxv. 20; xxviii. 2, 5, 6, 7; xxxi. 18;
xxxiii. 18; xxxv. 9, 26; xlvi. 15; xlviii. 7 (Paddan only)f. Contrast
Aram-naharaim (Aram of the two rivers) in Gen. xxiv. 10 (J) ; Deut.
xxiii. 4; Judg. iii. 8 (Mesopotamia, EVV.).
(d) Wilderness of Sin (pD) : Exod. xvi. i ; xvii. i ; Num,
xxxiii. n, i if.
Wilderness of Zin (P): Num. xiii. 21; xx. i; xxvii. 14; xxxiii.
36; xxxiv. 3; Deut, xxxii. 51; Josh. xv. i.
APPENDIX II 209
Zt'n: Num. xxxiv. 4; Josh, xv. 3!.
(e) The plains (steppes) of Moab: Num. xxii. i; xxvi. 3, 63;
xxxi. 12; xxxiii. 48 50; xxxv. i; xxxvi. 13; Deut. xxxiv. 1,8; Josh,
xiii. 32 f. In Num. xxii. r and Josh. xiii. 32 the position is described
as beyond the Jordan at (Heb. of) Jericho, but in Num. xxii. i A.Y.
has on this side Jordan by Jericho ; the Heb. is the same in both. The
other places in Num. have by the Jordan at Jericho. In Josh. iv. 13,
v. 10 the corresponding position W. of the Jordan is called the plains
of Jericho.
(3) Kind(min\
Always used with prep. > and possessive pron. e.g. after its (his
or her A. V.) kind. It occurs 10 times in Gen. i. 1 1 25 ; 7 times in the
Flood narrative, vi. 20; vii. 14; 4 times in the list of unclean birds,
Lev. xi. 1319 and Deut. xiv. 1218; also Lev. xi. 22, 29. On the
relation of Deut. xiv. to Lev. xi., see p. 190. Elsewhere only Ezek.
xlvii i of.
In Gen. viii. 19 the Heb. word translated kinds A.V. is different :
lit. families (so R.V.).
(4) Swarm and swarming things.
(a) To swarm (sh&raz): Gen. i. 20, 21; vii. 21; viii. 17; Lev.
xi. 29, 41, 42, 43, 46; Ezek. xlvii. 9. Used figuratively of men,
Gen. ix. 7; Exod. i. 7. Once in JE, Exod. viii. 3 (of the frogs:
cf. P*. cv. 30) t.
(b) Swarming things (shtrez): Gen. i. 20; vii. 21; Lev. v. 2;
xi. 10, 20, 21, 23, 29, 31,41 44; xxii. 5; Deut. xiv. 19 = Lev. xi. 2of.
See No. 3.
(5) With the words in (4) may be compared: Creep and
creeping things, which are favourite expressions of P, though
found occasionally in other writers.
(a) To creep (ramas): Gen. i. 26; vii. 14; viii. 17; Ezek.
.11. 20 (with the corresponding noun); Gen. i. 21, 28, 30; vii. 8,
11 ; viii. 19 (moTflh K.V.); ix. 2 and Lev. xx. 25 (tiemcth K.V.); Lev.
xi. 44, 46 (moveth, K. V. in both w.) ; Deut. iv. 18 ; Ps. Ixix. 34 (moveth
[in the \vatcrs]j; civ. 20.
(6) Creeping things (rf'mes): reptiles, as distinguished from beasts,
fowl, and fishes: (Jen. i. 24, 25, 26; vi. 7, 20; vii. 14, 23 ; viii. 17, 19:
C. P. 14
210 APPENDIX II
also i Kings v. 13 ; Hos. ii. 20; Hab. i. 14; Ezek. viii. TO; xxxviii. 20;
Ps. cxlviii. 10; of things that move in the sea Ps. civ. 25; of all moving
animals Gen. ix. 3. The passages in Gen. all belong to P.
N.B. The distinction between 'swarming things,' creatures that
move in swarms, and 'creeping things,' creatures that creep or glide
along the ground, or through the water without feet, or with very small
feet, has not been uniformly observed in the English versions,
occasioning, especially in Lev. xi., great confusion to the English
reader. In the following passages ' creep ' and ' creeping things ' occur
where the rendering should be 'swarm' or 'swarming things': Gen.
vii. 21 ; Lev. v. 2; xi. 20, 21, 23, 29, 31, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46; xxii. 5;
Deut. xiv. 19. In Lev. xi. 10 swarm should stand for move, and
in Ezek. xlvii. 9, move A.V. should be swarm, as R.V. See Art.
'Creeping things' in DB i. 518.
(6) Fruitful and multiply, to be, or to make (rQT) m2 in
Kal and Hiphil).
Gen. i. 22, 28; viii. 17; ix. I, 7; xvii. 20 (cp. w. 2, 6); xxviii. 3 ;
xxxv. ii ; xlvii. 27; xlviii. 4; Exod. i. 7; Lev. xxvi. 9. Also Jer.
xxiii. 3 ; and in inverted order iii. 16; Ezek. xxxvi. nf. See remarks
on pp. 54 f., 62 f., the table on pp. 64, 65, and further contrasts in
Gen. xvi. 10; xxxii. 12; Exod. xxxii. 13; Josh. xxiv. 3, Also Deut.
i. 10; x. 22; xxviii. 62.
(7) Food (oklah\ in A.V. meat, which in R.V. is generally
changed to food, because ' meat ' which, when A.V. was made,
denoted food in general as it does still in 'sweetmeat' is now
restricted to flesh, and this limited meaning is not intended in
the passages here cited. Cp. p. 149, note.
With prefix s,for: Gen. i. 29, 30 (meat}', vi. 21 (food)', ix. 3
(food R.V. meat A.V.); Exod. xvi. 15 (to eat)\ Lev. xi. 39 (of which
ye may eat, lit. which is to you for food) ; xxv. 6 (food R.V. meat A.V.).
In Ezek. the expression is used of that which is cast into the fire, and
is translated in xv. 4, 6, xxi. 32 fuel 1 , in xxiii. 37 to be devoured R.V.,
to devour them A.V. ; in other places of men given as .a prey to birds
and beasts, xxix. 5; xxxiv. 5, 8, 10 (meat); xxxv. 12 to devour; xxxix.
4 to be devoured^. In Gen. xlvii. 24, where for food occurs twice, in
1 The usage in these passages is to be explained by the fact that
Heb. often uses the verb ' to eat ' of fire devouring.
APPENDIX II 211
the Heb. the infin. of the verb is used. In Jer. xii. 9 the infm. is also
used, and is translated to devour.
(8) Generations
(a) On the phrase These are ike generations of... see pp. 58 f. In
addition to the passages there cited, the phrase occurs Num. iii. i (P);
Ruth iv. 1 8 ; i Chron. i. 29 (from Gen. xxv. 12).
(b) According to their gen. (with prep. ?): Gen. x. 32 ; xxv. 13;
Exod. vi. 16, 19; i Chron. v. 7; vii. 2, 4, 9; viii. 28; ix. 9, 34;
xxvi. 31. Cf. Nos. 16, 18, 27.
(f) Exod. xxviii. 10; and of the 12 tribes in Num. i. 2042
(all P)f. For another Heb. word translated generations see No. 16.
(9) Hundred (m^dth, the constr. state, instead of m?ah> the
more usual form before substantives).
Gen. v. 3, 6, 18, 25, 28; vii. 34; viii. 3; xi. 10, 25; xxi. 5;
xxv. 7, 17; xxxv. 28; xlvii. 9, 28; Exod. vi. 16, 18, 20; xxxviii. 25,
27 (31); Num. ii. 9, 16, 24, 31; xxxiii. 39. Elsewhere only 2 Chron.
xxv. 9 (K e re) ; Est. i. 4. The readings in Eccl. viii. 12 and Neh. v. 1 1
are prob. corrupt; see BDB 548, and M c Neile, Ecclesiastes, pp. 78,
148. P uses me' ah in such cases only twice, Gen. xvii. i7;.xxiii. i.
(10) To die, expire (gave?}. Not the usual word for * die.'
Gen. vi. 17; vii. 21; xxv. 8, 17; xxxv. 29; xlix. 33; Num.
xvii. 12 ; xx. 3, 29; Josh. xxii. 20. See p. 78; the poetical passages
are Zech. xiii. 8; Ps. Ixxxviii. 15; civ. 29; Lam. i. 19, and 8 times
in Jobf-
(i i) Personal pronouns with prepositions used redundantly.
(a) With thee (him &c.) : Gen. vi. 18 (thou, and thy sons, and
thy wife, and thy sons' wives with thee} presents a type of sentence
which recurs frequently: vii. 7, 13; viii. 16, 18; ix. 8 (note the
repetition of phrases referred to on pp. 57, 6y); xxviii. 4; xlvi. 6, 7;
Exod. xxviii. i, 41; twice in xxix. 21 and the parallel passage in
,o; Lev. viii. 2; x. 9, 14, 15; xxv. 41, 54 (t: from
11 have the prep. DJJ, elsewhere it is J"lX); Num. xviii. i, 2, 7, M, nj
(twice). Similarly
(b) After thee (him &c.) following 'seed': Gen. ix. 9; xvii. 7
10, 19; \\\. .. 4; Lxuii.
142
212 APPENDIX II
(12) This selfsame day, lit. in the bone of this day.
Gen. vii. 13; xvii. 23, 26; Exod. xii. 17, 41, 51; Lev. xxiii. 14,
21, 28, 29, 30; Deut. xxxii. 48; Josh. v. n. Josh. x. 27 is prob. from
the redactor. Outside the Hex. only in Ezek. ii. 3 ; xxiv. 2 ; xl. 1 1-
(13) Everlasting, applied especially to ideas or institutions
of the theocracy (in the Heb. lit. 'a covenant, statute, &c., of
eternity"* ['<?/;//]). This usage is not peculiar to P; but its
frequency -, in the combinations quoted, is a characteristic of P.
(a) covenant: Gen. ix. 16; xvii. 7, 13, 19; Exod. xxxi. 16;
Lev. xxiv. 8; Num. xviii. 19.
(/>) ordinance, statitte, due: Exod. xii. 14, 17; xxvii. 21 ; xxviii.
43; xxix. 9, 28; xxx. 21 ; Lev. iii. 17; vi. 18, 22; vii. 34, 36; x. 9,
15; xvi. 29, 31, 34; xvii. 7; xxiii. 14, 21, 31, 41; xxiv. 3, 9; Num.
x. 8; xv. 15; xviii. 8, n, 19, 23; xix. 10, 21. Throughout your
generations is added in many of these passages.
(c) possession: Gen. xvii. 8; xlviii. 4; Lev. xxv. 34.
(d) priesthood: Exod. xl. 15; Num. xxv. 13.
(e) generations, once in Gen. ix. 12 'for perpetual generations.'
(14) The verb to sojourn, and its cognates :
(a) Sojourning*, land of thy (their) : applied to the land of
Canaan as ' sojourned* in before it was possessed; A.V. translates, tht
land -wherein thou art a (they were) stranger(s) Gen. xvii. 8 ; xxviii. 4 ;
xxxvi. 7 ; xxxvii. i ; Exod. vi. 4; Ezek. xx. 38 (but not with reference
to the early sojournings). Cp. Gen. xlvii. 9 days of my (their) pilgrimage
(R. V. marg. sojournings) ; Ps. cxix. 54 house of my pilgrimage (Heb.
sojournings). In Ps. Iv. 15, in their dwellings), Job xviii. 19, where
he sojourned (in his dwellings, A.V.) the word sojournings occurs, but
without land, and without reference to the early history!- The word is
derived from the Heb. verb to sojourn', and the corresponding noun
(ger % Heb.) denotes a foreigner resident in Israel under protection.
Much confusion is caused to the English reader by the translation of
this word as * stranger' in both A.V. and R.V. See DB, Art. Stranger,
vol. iv. p. 623. The ger is often mentioned in JE and D, but the
following expressions are found only in P and Ezek. ('sojourner' is
used instead of the 'stranger' of A.V. and R.V.).
(b) The sojourner that sojourneth (hagger haggar, Heb.) among you
(them), generally associated with 'ezrah (homeborn, born in the land} :
APPENDIX II 213
Exod. xii. 49; Lev. xvi. 29; xvii. 15; xviii. 26; xix. 34 (with you);
Num. xv. 15, 16 (with slight difference), 29. The comparison is
sometimes with the house (children) of Israel, Lev. xvii. 8, ro, 12, 13;
xx. ; Num. xv. 26, 29; xix. 10; xxxv. 15; Josh. xx. 9. Cp. Ezek.
xiv. 7; xlvii. 22, 23. Also Exod. xii. 1948; Lev. xix. 33 ; Num.
ix. 14; xv. 14. The passages cited above, which enjoin equality
of privilege and obligation, both for the homeborn (the native Israelite)
and the stranger (the foreigner resident under his protection), are
peculiar to P and Ezek.
(c) Sojourner or settler. Another Heb. word (tdskdb) is trans-
lated 'sojourner': Gen. xxiii. 4; Exod. xii. 45; Lev. xxii. 10; xxv.
6 47 ; Num. xxxv. i5f. In i Kings xvii. i for 'sojourners (inhabitants
A.V.) of Gilead,' read, in accordance with LXX., Tishbeh of Gikad,
and see Burney, Notes on i, 2 Kings> on the passage, p. 216.
The words of Gen. xxiii. 4 seem to have been in the mind of the
Psalmist in Ps. xxxix. 12 (referred to in i Chron.xxix. 15) and Ps. cxix.
54. The idea is more fully expressed in the N.T. Heb. xi. 9, 10,
13 16 ; and referred to in Eph. ii. 19, r Pet. i. i ; ii. i i.
The phrase 'land of sojournings' seems based on a knowledge of the
position held by the 'ger" 1 or 'sojourner' among the children of Israel.
It illustrates the past history from the present, and is an instance of that
didactic treatment of the patriarchal narrative which marks a writer far
removed in time from the events which he describes. See remarks on
P's style at the end of this list, p. 224. The similarity in thought and
expression between P and Ezek., of which instances are noted here,
points to the same conclusion.
( 1 5) And [Noah} did (it) ; according to &c.
See p. 58 : this type of sentence recurs Exod. vii. 6; xii. 28, 50;
xxxix. 32; xl. 16; Num. i. 54; ii. 34; viii. 20; xvii. ii: expanded in
Exod. xxxix. 43; Num. v. 4; ix. 5. The characteristic form of the
Heb. is disguised in EVV.
(16) Throughout your (their) generations with Heb. prep. ?
(A.V. has generally, in, often, throughout, and sometimes, for,
unto, among).
Gen. xvii. 7, <,, 12; Mxod. xii. 14', 17; xvi. .;:, ; 3 for EVV.
xxvii. 21 (unto A.V.); xxix. 42; xxx. 8, 10, 21, 31; xxxi. 13, 16;
xl. 15 (in these four chapters throughout in both versions); Lev. iii. 17
214 APPENDIX II
(for A.V.); vi. 18; vii. 36'; x. 9'; xvii. 7'; xxi. 17; xxii. 3 (among
A.V.); xxiii. 14*, 21', 31', 41 (m E.V.); xxv. 30' (7/zV); Num. ix. 10
(of KN.> posterity A.V.); x. 8'; xv. 14, 15, 21, 23 (aw^w^ A.V.) 38';
xviii. 23*; xxxv. 29* f-
The verses marked with (/) have throughout in A.V. as well as
R.V. The comparison of A.V. with R.V. shews that though R.V.
is not always uniform in its renderings, it is more exact than A.V.
Contrast Gen. vi. 9 (P) in his generations with the sing, in vii. i
in this generation (J).
(17) Dwellings or habitations, in all your.
Exod. xii. 20; xxxv. 3; Lev. iii. 17; vii. 26; xxiii. 3, 14*, 21*,
31*; Num. xxxv. 29*; Ezek. vi. 6, 14. When, as in the verses marked
with an asterisk*, this expression is combined with that in No. 16
throughout your generations in all your dwellings, illustration is afforded
of that fulness of expression, after the manner of a legal document,
which is a characteristic of P.
(18) Families^ after your (their).
Gen. viii. 19; x. 5, 20, 31; xxxvi. 40; Exod. vi. 17, 25; Num.
i. (13 times); ii. 34; iii. and iv. (15!); xxvi. (i6t); xxxiii. 54; Josh,
xiii. (41); xv. i, 12, 20; xvi. 5, 8; xvii. 2; xviii. n, 20, 28; xix.
(i2t); xxi. 7, 33, 40.
This word illustrates the remarks in the note on p. 55. The
word for 'family' (mishpdhah) occurs in all the sources (Gen. x. 18;
xxiv. 38, 40; Deut. xxix. 18; Josh. vii. 14, 17). It is also found in com-
bination with the prep. 7 in Exod. xii. 21; Num. xi. 10 (both JE). 'It
is the frequency of the^'combination which causes it to be characteristic
of a particular author.' LOT 6 p. 132 note.
(19) Exceedingly (bfmfddh m*odh\
An unusual expression, used with a verb, Gen. xvii. 2, 6, 20;
Exod. i. 7; Ezek. xvi. 13; with an adj. Ezek. ix. 9f.
M^odh is duplicated without the prep. 1 in Gen. vii. 19; Num.
xiv. 7 (both P) ; Gen. xxx. 43 (J) ; i Kings vii. 47 ; 2 Kings x. 4 ;
Ezek. xxxvii. iof. In these passages it is simply a duplicated adverb,
but in this expression it is used first with the prep. 1 as a noun and then
as an adj. It may be rendered in English by ' in very veriness,' which
partly illustrates the peculiarity of the expression. But cf. Ges. -K. 1 33 k.
APPENDIX II 215
(20) Substance (r*kush).
Gen. xii. 5; xiii. 6; xxxi. 18; xxxvi. 7; xlvi. 6; Num. xvi. 32;
xxxv. 3.
It also occurs in Gen. xiv. n 21 (5 times); xv. 14; and in
Chron. Ezr. Dan. (15 times) f.
The cognate verb to get is found only in Gen. xii. 5; xxxi. 18;
xxxvi. 6; xlvi. 6f.
(21) All of, as regards (W>).
Gen. ix. 10; xxiii. 10; Exod. xiv. 28; xxvii. 3, 19; xxviii. 38;
xxxvi. i; Lev. v. 3; xi. 26, 42; xvi. 16, 21; xxii. 18; Num. iv. 27,31,
32; v. 9; xviii. 4, 8, 9; Ezek. xliv. 9. 'Probably a juristic use.
Occasionally elsewhere, esp. in Chron.' LOT* p. 132.
(22) Soul (ntphesh}, in the sense of person.
Gen. xii. 5; xxxvi. 6 (persons A.V.); in the list of Jacob's des-
cendants in xlvi. 627 (6 times) and Exod. i. 5; xii. 4, 15, 16 (ntan
EVV.), 19; xvi. 16 (persons EVV.); Lev. ii. i (any A.V., anyone
R.V.); iv. 2 (any one R.V.); 27 (any one EVV.); v. i, 2 (any one
R.V.); and nearly 100 times in the rest of Hex. Cp. Deut. x. 22;
Gen. xiv. 21 (persons in EVV. of both). Of a dead body: Lev. xix.
28; xxi. i, ii ; xxii. 4; Num. v. 2; vi. 6; ix. 6, 10.
(23) Between the two evenings.
Exod. xii. 6; xvi. 12; xxix. 39, 41; xxx. 8; Lev. xxiii. 5; Num.
ix- 3, 5. ii ' xxviii. 4, 8t- A technical expression, translated at even;
but the exact rendering is found in the marg. of R.V. and A.V.
Contrast Deut. xvi. 5; Josh. v. 10.
(24) Judgements (sh'philtim, the more common word is
mishpatini).
Exod. vi. 6; vii. 4; xii. 12; Num. xxxiii. 4; Ezek. v. 10, 15;
xi. 9; xiv. 21 ; xxv. n; xxviii. 22, 26; xxx. 14, 19 (all of God's judge-
ments); xvi. 14 (of men); i Chron. xxiv. 24 (of the Syrians); I'r-iv.
xix. 29 (alternative renderings in BDB 1048 a)f.
(25) Peoples 1 ('(immim} plural in the sense of kinsfolk.
j>crly, as Arabic shews, fitthfrs X-///r//. ver on Gen.
14, pp. i.S;, iSS. Tli; : he /////-.// in Hcb. In A.V. and
K.V. the word is confused with the ordinary Hcb. word for 'people,'
but though we may speak of a man's 'people,' we cannot speak of Ins
216 APPENDIX II
(a) That soul (man) shall be cut off from his people'. Gen. xvii. 14;
xxx - 33> 3 8 ; xxxi - J 4J Lev - vn - 20 > 2t > 2 5> 2 7; xv - 9; xix - 8;
xxiii. 29; Num. ix. 13. The noun is singular in Lev. xvii. 4, 10;
xviii. 29; xx. 3, 5, 6, 18; xxiii. 30; Num. xv. 30; here (as the text
stands) the rendering 'people' is right; the verb is active (I will cut
him off...} in Lev. xvii. 10; xx. 3, 5, 6 ; Ezek. xiv 8 ; xxiii. 30 (destroy)*?.
Observe that xxiii. 29 differs in both respects from the following verse,
and that the verbs also are different in the two verses.
(b) Gathered unto his people: Gen. xxv. 8, 17; xxxv. 29; xhx. 29
(people in sing.} 33 ; Num. xx. 24, 26 (unto his people not in Heb. text),
xxvii. 13; xxxi. 2; Deut. xxxii. 5of.
(c) Lev. xix. 16; xxi. i, 4, 14, 15, Ezek. xviii. 18: perhaps
Judg. v. 14; Hos. x. i4f.
(26) Hosts (armies A.V.).
Exod. vi. 26; vii. 4; xii. 17, 41, 51; Num. i. 3, 52; xxxiii. i.
In Num. ii. and x. the disposition of the tribes on the march is
described ; the four camps are arranged according to their hosts (armies
A.V., except in x. 25, for the camp of Dan), and for each tribe of a
camp, the name of the prince (captain A.V.) 'over his host' is mentioned.
The word for ' host" 1 occurs 24 times in the sing., and n times in the
plural (the word seems to have fallen out from ii. 31). The reader
of A.V., in consequence of the rendering 'armies,' would not notice
that the same Heb. word occurs throughout these chapters. In Num.
xxxi 4 6, 32, 36 the sing, 'host* is translated (in both R.V. and A.V.)
*war? in xxxi. 27, 28 battle, and in xxxii. 27 armed for war. Cp.
Deut. xxiv. 5. Captains of hosts (armies A.V.) are also mentioned in
Deut. xx. 9 ; but the writer is there referring to the future organization
of the army in war ; and the expression does not imply acquaintance on
his part with the detailed arrangements of Num. ii. and x. In Exod.
xii. 41, Num. i. 52 A.V. translates 'hosts.'
(27) Head (gulgoleth, a skull) used with the Heb. prep. 7
to denote persons.
In Exod. xvi. 16 and xxxviii. 26 translated a head R.V., for every
man A.V. In other places both versions render by their polls, by the
rples.' Where the plural occurs in Heb., father's kin, or kinsmen
Id be read for 'people.'
APPENDIX II 217
poll. Num. i. 2, 18, 20, 22; iii. 47 and in i Chron. xxiii. 3, 24. All
places where the word is so applied are given here. It occurs elsewhere,
e.g. Judg. ix. 53 in its ordinary sense, skull.
(28) Congregation ( l eddh\ a word used about 120 times in
Exod. xii. 3 Josh. xxii. 30 to denote the children of Israel.
They are called the * Congregation of the LORD* in Num. xxvii. 17;
xxxi. 16; Josh. xxii. 16, 17. The word occurs in the following
phrases :
(a) [All] the [whole} C. of Israel : Exod. xii. 3 + 3 1 ; Lev. iv. 1 3 ;
Num. xvi. 9; xxxii. 4; Josh. xxii. 18, 20.
(6) [All} the [whole} C. of the children (Heb. sons) of Israel-.
Exod. xvi. i, 2, 9, 10; xvii. i ; xxxv. i, 4, 20; Lev. xvi. 5; xix. 2; Num.
i. 2, 53; viii. 9, 20; xiii. 26; xiv. 5, 7; xv. 25, 26; xvi. 41; xix. 9;
xxvi. 2; xxvii. 20 (cf. ver. 21); xxxi. 12; Josh, xviii. i; xxii. 12.
(f) [All} the [rulers} [princes} of (or in) the C., Exod. xvi. 22 ;
xxxiv. 31; Num. iv. 34; xvi. a; xxxi. 13; xxxii. 2; Josh. ix. 15, 18;
xxii. 30. The princes and all the C. y Num. xxvii. i.
Otherwise in: Exod. xxxviii. 25; Lev. iv. 15; viii. 35; ix. 5;
x. , 3, 16, 17; xxiv. 14, 16; Num. xiv. 1+51; xvi. 3 + 91; xx. i+6t;
xxv. 6, 7; xxvii. 2 + 5t; xxxi. 26, 27, 43; xxxv. 12, 24, 25; Josh. ix.
19, 21, 27; xx. 6, 9.
The word is used of the people who joined themselves to Korah
(Num. xvi. 5,6, n, 16, 40; xxvi. 9, 10; xxvii. 3); in these verses both
versions render company, except in xvi. 16, congregation R.V. It is
not found in JE or D; in Judg. xiv. 8 it is used of a swarm of bees;
of the children of Israel in xx. i, xxi. 10, 13, 16; also in i Kings viii. 5
( || 2 Chron. v. 6), xii. 20, Hos. vii. 12. (On i Kings viii. 5 see p. 274.)
The non-occurrence of this word in JE and Sam., and its extreme
rarity in Judg. and Kings (in Judg. and i Ki. viii. 5 it occurs in passages
which there are the strongest reasons for believing to be later additions
to the original narrative: see LOT* pp. 169 f. ; Thatcher, Century
fiible, p. 17) are extremely remarkable, and a strong corroboration
of the critical conclusion that P belongs to an entiiely different stratum
of narrative from JE, Sam., Deut., and the earlier narratives of Judg.
and K
The Revisers have distinguished between this and another Heb.
word dfah&l) by using assembly, assemble for this latter word and its
2i8 APPENDIX II
cognate verb, and reserving congregation as the rendering of the other
(see Preface to R.V.). The A.V. renderings of these words are not
uniform. In Lev. viii. 4; Num. viii. 9; x. 2, 3; xvi. 2 ; xx. 8 (cf. v. 6)
for assembly A.V. read congregation as R.V., and in Lev. iv. 14, 21;
xvl 17, 23; Num. x. 7; xv. 15; xvi. 3, 33, 47; xix. 20; xx. 4, ro, 12;
Deut. xxiii. i 8; xxxi. 30; Josh. viii. 35 for congregation A.V. read
assembly as R.V. The A.V. renderings of the passages in Deut. do not
make clear to the English reader that 'eddh does not occur in that book.
(29) Prince, or ruler (nasV}.
Besides the passages given in No. 28 (<:), the same officials are
mentioned in Exod. 1 xxxv. 27; Lev. iv. 22; Num. i. 16, 44; iv. 46
(chief A.V.); x. 4; xiii. 2 (ruler A.V.); xvii. 2, 6; xxv. 14. A list of
the heads of tribes is given in Num. i. It is repeated in c. ii. and c. vii.
In A.V. they are called captains in ch. ii., and princes in c. vii., but the
Heb. word is the same in both chapters. In ch. xxxiv. a prince is
taken from each of the nine tribes who inherited W. of the Jordan, and
in Josh. xxii. 14, ten princes are taken from the same tribes. The heads
of the three divisions of the tribe of Levi are also called 'princes' but
A.V. translates chief .(Num. iii. 24, 30, 32, 35).
Applied to Abraham Gen. xxiii. 6 ; to rulers of other tribes or
nations xvii. 20; xxv. 16 (Ishmael); xxxiv. 2; Num. xxv. 18; Josh,
xiii. 21 (all P).
Used once in JE Exod. xxii. 27; not in Deut., Judg., Sam.; in
i Kings viii. i (see p. 274); xi. 34.
In Ezek.: of the king, vii. 27; xii. 10, 12; xix. i (the sing, is here
read by some commentators); xxi. 30; of a future ideal king, xxxiv. 24;
xxxvii. 25; of the civil head of the restored community, xliv. 3 and in
cc. xlv., xlvi., xlviii. (cf. Ezr. i. 8); of rulers, xxi. 17; xxii. 6; xlv. 8,
9; and of foreign princes, xxvi. 16; xxvii. 21; xxx. 13; xxxii. 29;
xxxviii. 2, 3; xxxix. r, 18.
(30) Possession, Heb. words signifying.
(a) Possession ( a htczzah): everlasting p. , Gen. xvii. 8; xlviii. 4;
Lev. xxv. 34; land of your (their, his...) p., Gen. xxxvi. 43; Lev.
xxv. 24; Num. xxxv. 28; p. of a burying place, Gen. xxiii. 4, 9, 20;
xlix. 30; 1. 13; Gen. xlvii. u; Lev. xiv. 34; xxv. 10 46; xxvii.
16 28; Num. xxvii. 4, 7; xxxii. 5, 22, 29, 32; xxxv. 2, 8, 28;
Deut. xxxii. 49; Josh. xxi. ia, 41; xxii. 4, 9, 19. Elsewhere only in
APPENDIX II 219
Ezek. xliv. 28; xlv. 5 8; xlvi. 16, 18; xlviii. 10 22; and in Ps. ii. 8;
i Chron. vii. 28; ix. 2 ( = Neh. xi. 3); Chron. xi. 34; xxxi. it. The
cognate verb (ahaz) is found in Niph. to get possession, Gen. xxxiv. 10;
xlvii. 27; Num. xxxii. 30; Josh. xxii. 9, ipt. Cp. the legal phrase to
be seize J of. * All those his lands which he stood seized of (Shakespeare).
Two other words for 'possession,' derived from the Heb. root
kanah, to get or purchase, belong to the vocabulary of P.
(b) A getting, kinyan\ Gen. xxxi. 18, cattle of his getting;
xxxiv. 23 their cattle and their substance; xxxvi. 6 his possessions
(substance A.V.); Lev. xxii. u the purchase of (with A.V.) his money
(like miknath keseph in (c) following) ; Josh. xiv. 4 for their cattle and
for their substance; Ezek. xxxviii. 12, 13 cattle vrA goods. In all these
passages (except Lev. xxii. n) note that 'cattle' (mikne'h) accompanies
the word. Also in Ps. civ. 24 riches; cv. 21 substance; Prov. iv. 7
with (or at the price of) all than hast gotten (thy getting A.V.).
(c) Possession, acquired by purchase (miknah): Gen. xxiii. 18;
Lev. xxv. 1 6, 51 ; xxvii. 22; bought with money (miknath keseph), Gen.
xvii. 12, 13, 23, 27; Exod. xii. 44. 'Prob. a legal term,' LO T* p. 133.
Elsewhere only in Jer. xxxii. u, 12, 14, 16, *deed (evidence A.V.)
of purchase,' cf. p. 144!.
(31) To trespass (ma'dl) and the corresponding noun,
generally translated commit a trespass.
Lev. v. 15; vi. 2; xxvi. 40; Num. v. 6, 12, 27; xxxi. 16 (on the
reading, and suggested emendation see BDB s.v.); Deut. xxxii. 51 (cf.
Num. xxvii. 14); Josh. vii. i; xxii. 16, 20, 22, 31. A priestly word,
chiefly late, BDB s.v., found in Ezek. xiv. 13; xv. 8; xvii. 20; xviii.
24; xx. 27; xxxix. 23, 26, in Chron. about lot, in Ezr., Neh., and once
Prov. xvi. lot. From this list, it seems probable that Josh. vii. i is an
introduction to the account of Achan, either written or expanded by Rp.
(32) The glory of the LORD.
An expression used by P to describe the Lord's appearance on
several occasions (e.g. when the children of Israel murmured, on the
completion of the tabernacle, &c.), Exod. xvi. 7 (?with reference to
the gift of manna), 10; xxiv. 16, 17; xl. 34, 35; Lev. ix. 6, 23; Num.
xiv. 10 ; xvi. 19, 42 ; xx. 6. The expression is found often in Ezekiel;
i. 28; iii. 12,23; x. 4, 18; xi. 23; xliii. 4, 5; xliv. 4; and the glory of
the God of Israel in viii. 4; ix. 3; x. 19; xi. 22; xliii. a. Other refer-
220 APPENDIX II
ences to the glory of the Lord are found in Exod. xxxiii. 18, 22 ; Num.
xiv. 2i ; Deut. v. 24; but the terms in which it is mentioned are unlike
those of P, and it is not in any way associated with the tabernacle.
Cp. also Exod. xxix. 43; i Kings viii. n [|| 2 Chron. v. 14], and
2 Chron. vii. i 3 [not in the parallel account of i Kings viii. Cp.
w. 62 f.].
The preceding list will illustrate and confirm the statement
on p. 68 that P exhibits 'marked characteristics in respect of
style and phraseology'; it will also supply reasons for the
partition indicated in App. I. Some further remarks, supple-
menting the general description of P on pp. 68 71, may here
be added.
(a) The chapters from Exod. xix. to Num. x. contain the
accounts of the sojourn at Sinai, and form the central section of
the Pentateuch. This Sinaitic section is approximately equal to
the sections preceding (Gen. i. Exod. xviii.) and following
(Num. x. 29 Deut. xxxiv.). But in character it is different. Of
the 59 chapters in this section all but nine belong to P, while P
contributes far less than JE to the first, and less than JE and
D together in the last section. The distinctive character of P
appears on examining this central section. The nine chapters
of JE exhibit a narrative in which laws are inserted (Exod. xx.
xxiii., xxxiv. 1027), but the 50 chapters of P do not contain
narratives with laws inserted, but laws with brief historical
notices of the arrival at, and departure from, Sinai attached.
The inauguration of the priesthood is recorded at length in
Lev. viii. x. ; but the exact description of the ritual observed is
evidently intended as a guide for future generations. The
narrative contains legislation (cp. p. 71).
This distinctive character of P is equally marked in the
remainder of the book Numbers. The portions which are
assigned to P contain much more legislation than narrative;
and the narrative which there is records events relating to
the priesthood and ritual observance (cp. Num. xvi. xviii.,
xx. 2229).
APPENDIX II 221
Moreover, the legislation of P is different in character from
that which is contained in the other sources. It refers almost
exclusively to matters of worship and ceremonial observance.
The civil element which is prominent in Exod. xxi. xxiii. is not
found in P ; P's regulations are intended for * the congregation/
or for the individual who brings his offering to the priest.
In its representation of the events occurring at Sinai, P
differs from the other accounts. In Exod. xxiv. and xxxiv.
reference is made to a * covenant' concluded at Sinai. In Deut.
three covenants are distinguished : that with the fathers, that
made at Horeb based on the Decalogue, and that made by
Moses with the children of Israel in the land of Moab. In P,
no mention is made of a covenant entered into at Sinai. There
is reference to a covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in
Exod. vi. 2 8 ; but the laws which occupy so prominent a place
in this source are not put forward as terms of a covenant.
According to P, there are two covenants: one with Noah,
who represents all the families of the earth; the other with
Abraham, who represents the chosen race. This latter covenant
is to be an 'everlasting' one; all God's dealings with Israel are
its fulfilment. Because He remembered His servant Abraham
He brought forth His chosen with joy, and His people with
gladness. Their inheritance was the covenant promise 1 .
Hence certain differences of expression :
The tables on which the Ten Words were written are called
'tables of the covenant' (Deut. ix. 9, II, 15); but in P they are
called
The testimony ('//)*: Exod. xvi. 34, xxv. 16, 21, xxvii. 21,
1 It may be noticed that although P does not use the word
'covenant' with reference to the Sinai legislation, a Sign' is given.
'Ye shall keep my sabbaths' (Exod. xxxi. 12, 17). In this respect the
manifestation at Sinai corresponds to the covenants with Noah ami
with Abraham (cp. Gen. ix. 12, xvii. 1 1).
* The being so termed as a 'testimony' or witness of
God's will for man.
222 APPENDIX II
xxx. 6, 36, xxxi. 7 (lit. in Heb. the ark for the testimony}, xl. 20 ;
Lev. xvi. 13; Num. xvii. 4, 10; and
The tables of the testimony: Exod. xxxi. 18, xxxiv. 29 (com-
pare with v. 28).
The ark is frequently called 'the ark of the covenant' in JE
and D (Num. x. 33, xiv. 44 ; Deut. x. 8, xxxi. 9, 25 ; Josh. iii.
3 + 7 times, iv. 7, 18, vi. 8, viii. 33); but in P
The ark of the testimony : Exod. xxv. 22, xxvi. 33, xxx. 6, 26,
xxxix. 35, xl. 3, 5, 21 ; Num. iv. 5, vii. 89 ; Josh. iv. 16.
The following combinations also occur 1 :
The tent of the testimony: Num. ix. 15, xvii. 7, 8, xviii. 2;
A.V. has the tabernacle of witness except in the first passage.
The tabernacle of the testimony (mishkan h&eduth) : Exod.
xxxviii. 21 ; Num. i. 50, 53, x. II.
The veil (vail A.V.) of the testimony: Lev. xxiv. 3.
The difference between P and the other sources in respect
of subject-matter, representation of events, and consequent
variety of expression, which can be traced in the Sinaitic section,
is equally marked in the later legislation, assigned to the field
or steppes of Moab. In P, additional laws are given through
Moses to the children of Israel in Num. xxvii. xxxvi. According
to D, Moses declares laws which he had already received at
Horeb, with earnest exhortations to observe them diligently.
And although the Deuteronomic legislation treats at some
length of worship at 'the place which the Lord thy God shall
choose,' yet the contrast between D and P in their treatment
of kindred subjects is evident on comparison. These points
have already been discussed on pp. 117122, 132 f., 154157.
(b} The character of P's contribution towards the first
section (Gen. i. Exod. xviii.) appears on examining the
^passages in Appendix I. Beyond genealogies, and a chronicle
of birth, marriage, and death, this document contains little more
1 This persistent use of 'testimony' and avoidance of 'covenant' by
P makes it almost certain that the occurrence of ' tables of the testimony '
in Exod. xxxii. 15 (JE) is due to the redactor (Rp).
APPENDIX II 223
than two chapters (Gen. xvii. and xxiii.) for the period from
Abraham to Moses. Gen. xvii. insists on the observance of
circumcision. It is a * token' (VM) of the covenant which is of
perpetual obligation (an everlasting covenant, see No. 13).
Gen. xxiii. records the purchase by Abraham of a field for the
burial of his wife Sarah, where afterwards (xxv. 9) he himself was
buried (see No. 2 ). On the eve of the departure from Egypt,
full instructions are given for the celebration of the Passover
(Exod. xii.). The legal and ritual elements, which are prominent
in the Sinaitic section and in the remainder of the book Numbers,
are also prominent in this brief treatment of the early period.
Existing institutions are traced back to their origins; to the
body of legislation in Exod. xxv. Num. xxxvi. the historical
abstract, legal in character, forms an appropriate introduction.
In P's brief survey of pre-Mosaic times, there is no room
for delineation of character. God appears to the patriarchs as
El Shaddai\ they receive His commands and obey them. The
pictures of home life, the motives, sometimes unworthy, which
prompted action, are passed over in P. Isaac's words to Jacob
on sending him away to Laban (Gen. xxviii. I 5), compared
with the words of Rebekah (xxvii. 43 45), illustrate P's treat-
ment of the history. Different motives are assigned for Jacob's
journey: in JE Rebekah urges Jacob to flee, in order that he
may escape Esau's vengeance ; in P Isaac sends him on a visit
to Laban, in order that he may take a wife of his own kindred.
Again, JE traces at length the rivalry between Jacob and Esau,
and their subsequent meeting and reconciliation. But P only
records their birth, Esau's migration to Edom, and their presence
together at the burial of their father Isaac, with names of wives
and children. The migration of Jacob and his sons to Egypt
is an essential part of the story, and P relates this, and the
death of Jacob, but in few words, compared with the narrative
in other sources.
This brevity of the patriarchal, in strong contrast with the
fulness of the Sinaitic record, is part of l"s ideal treatment of
the history. His object is to trace the Divine action in bringing
224 APPENDIX II
the nation to maturity. The patriarchs are regarded as ancestors
of the nation, through whom God's purpose was fulfilling itself.
Incidents in their family life are of subordinate interest. For
this writer the fulness of time is at Sinai, and he hastens to
record at length the instruction which was there imparted to
the children of Israel.
When this document is considered as a whole, it will \>tfelt
that it is written with a purpose. The hand of the teacher may
be recognized ; and the inference seems warranted, that historical
records lie at the base of P's didactic treatment. If that
document for the period before Moses is in the main a list
of names and genealogies, with occasional reference to selected
events, some outline of the history, familiar both to the writer
and his readers, seems implied. At many points of P's brief
retrospect some acquaintance with facts, other than that which
P supplies, is assumed. And a compendium follows after, it
does not precede, the more complete account : a writer who
arranges his material in a systematic manner, and uses it for
the purpose of religious education, is separated by an interval
from the events which he describes, and is dependent upon his
predecessors. Alike in his brevity and his fulness, P bears
witness that he has entered into other men's labours.
Another characteristic of P may be noted which points in
the same direction : his representation of the Divine Being.
(a) The exclusive use of Elohim for the period before
Moses has been described on pp. 66 68. Here it maybe noted
that the orderly revelation of the Divine names, El Shaddai
and Jehovah, and the division of the history into stages marked
by the recurrence of the phrase 'These are the generations of...'
(see p. 58) are instances of that 'arrangement of the material
in a systematic manner' to which attention has been directed,
from which an inference has been drawn in favour of a late
date for P.
(b) The use of anthropomorphisms. It has already been
pointed out that the representation of God in Gen. i. ii. 4
is less anthropomorphic than that in Gen. ii. 4 iii. (see
APPENDIX II 225
pp. 59 f). Similar differences may be noted in the patriarchal
narratives, and in the account of the deliverance at the Red
Sea. In recording the manifestation at Sinai P makes use of a
characteristic phrase ''the glory of Jehovah! His description in
Exod. xxiv. 15^ i8rt (from 'and the cloud covered...' to '...went
up into the mount,' the continuation of xix. I, 20} shews
restraint when compared with the account in ch. xix. The
phrase is repeated on other occasions during the wanderings
(see No. 32). In other sources reference is made to God's
glory, partly revealed to Moses (Exod. xxxiii. 18 23), and to the
children of Israel at Horeb (Deut. v. 24), and filling the whole
earth (Num. xiv. 21) ; but in P the phrase seems used in order
to avoid direct mention of the Divine Name. May the beginning
of that reverential feeling be here traced, which led to the use
of Memra ( = 'word') in the Targums, where Jehovah in the
Hebrew text is generally rendered by 'the Word of Jehovah* 1
Another instance of this reverential feeling may be noted :
In describing the Divine action towards man, expressions
indicating relationship between man and his fellow are avoided;
thus P uses the phrase
establish a covenant (hlkim Writ/i) instead of cut a covenant
(karath b'rzth\ the phrase ordinarily used of human covenants,
which is found in the other sources.
In Part II of the Introduction selected portions of P have
been examined, and it has been pointed out that whether con-
tributing to a composite story, or enunciating laws affecting
social order, or assigning duties to the threefold order of high
priest, priest, and Levite, this document exhibits a later stage
of development than that which marks the other sources. The
remarks which have been here made on the document considered
as a whole tend to confirm the inferences which have there
drawn from considering portions of it, and comparing them
with parts of JE and D.
Some remarks on the so-called 'archaisms' of the Pentateuch
may be made here.
C. P. IS
226 APPENDIX II
(#) It is well known that in the Pentateuch the pronoun for
the third person singular is generally written Kin both for the
masculine and feminine. This usage has been considered as
evidence of antiquity. It is said that in the earlier stages of the
Hebrew language one sound only was used to denote both 'he'
and 'she,' that the existence of the one form Nin is evidence of
this ancient usage, and that the Massoretic pointing Kin (to be
read fcOH) for the feminine indicates a later differentiation between
the pronunciation of the Hebrew pronouns of the 3 s.m. and 3 s.f.
But the distinction of sound between these two pronouns exists
in Arabic, Aramaic, and Ethiopic, and this fact shews that the
distinction is part of the common stock of the Semitic languages.
It is highly improbable that the Hebrew language, which dis-
tinguishes, in common with its sister languages, between the
genders of the second person, should have dropped this equally
necessary distinction in the third person, and resumed it again
at a later period. In old inscriptions Phoenician, Moabite, and
Aramaic, the pronoun is written Kn for both genders, and it
seems probable that the same letters were used in Hebrew,
though they were pronounced hu\ or hi ', according as these two
letters (NH) referred to a male or female, or to a noun of
masculine or feminine gender. The 1 and * were added after-
wards, as they were in other cases, to guide the reader ; but they
did not form part of the earliest written representation of the
personal pronouns. (See Ges.-K. 32 /.)
(b) A similar use of the same form to express both masculine
and feminine has been preserved in the word "W3, which in the
Pentateuch is used both for a young man and young woman,
the context of course deciding which is intended. The three
letters are used to denote a damsel in Gen. xxiv. (51), xxxiv.
and Deut. xxii. (14 1). In this last chapter the full form
nd^rah occurs in ver. 19 as in other parts of the O.T.
(c] ?xn occurs eight times in the Pentateuch (once in
I Chron.) instead of the more usual form n?Nn. In the cognate
languages the corresponding word ends with a vowel sound.
APPENDIX II 227
This is, like (b\ an instance of the final H being occasionally
omitted ; and there can be no doubt that the word should be
pronounced ha'ellSh, just as if written in the fuller, and more
usual form.
The preceding variations illustrate the use of the letters H, \
and ' to indicate vowel sounds. It is impossible to fix a date
when these letters were first employed for this purpose. The
development of a more complete orthography was gradual ; it
seems probable that it was designed to preserve a correct
pronunciation, when Hebrew ceased to be the common language
of the people. This change of dialect is of later date than that
assigned by critics to P, and consequently these variations in
orthography do not raise any presumption in favour of an
extreme antiquity for that document.
With reference to (a) it may be noted that the usage of the
Pentateuch is not absolutely uniform ; N'n occurs eleven times.
The peculiarity is also found in the MS. of the later prophets
dated 916 A.D. This MS. is at St Petersburg, and has been
published in facsimile by Strack.
With reference to (c] it should be noted that besides the eight
exceptional cases of *?Xn, the demonstrative is found in the
Pentateuch more than 250 times in the usual form, as in other
parts of the Hebrew Bible. Also that the form t>N occurs once
in i Chron. xx. 8.
These peculiar forms do not occur in the Samaritan Penta-
teuch. If they were in existence at the time that copy
made, they were not regarded as the best readings. If they are
of later date than the Samaritan copy, they of course furnish no
evidence for the antiquity of the Pentateuch.
The reader who wishes further information may consult
Driver, LOT* pp. 125 f., Deuteronomy, Intr. pp. Ixxxvii f.,
255, and Kuenen, Hf.vntfUth, pp. 318 f., 321 f., 342, where he
will find these and other alleged * archaisms' discussed. He
issued that, t; of tin- Pentateuch does
not furnish any argu t affect the conclusions generally
accepted by critics with reference to the date of its composition.
15-2
APPENDIX III.
COMPARISON OF THE COVENANT CODE WITH
DEUTERONOMY AND LEVITICUS.
Slaves
Murder
and Asylum
Offences against
parents
Man-stealing
Compensations 1
for damage
Retaliation
Seduction
Sorcery and
Divination
Other gods xxii. 20
Stranger (i.e. resident xxii. 21
foreigner ; see App. Repeated
II, No. 14) in xxiii. 9
Widow and orphan xxii. 11 24
Interest xxii. 25
Pledges xxii. 26, 27
Reverence xxii. 28
Exodus
Deuteronomy
Leviticus
xxi. 2 n
XV. 12 1 8
xxv. 3946
xxi. 12
xxiv. 17, 21
xxi. 13, 14
xix. 113
(Num. xxxv.)
xxi. 15, 17
xxvii. 1 6
xxi. 1 8 21
xxi. 16
xxiv. 7
xxi. 1 8 xxii.
15
xxi. 2325
XIX. 21
xxiv. 19, 20
xxii. 16, 17
xxii. 28, 29
xxii. 1 8
xviii. 9 14
xix. 7,66, 31, xx.
6,^7
xxii. 19
xxvii. 21
xviii. 22, xx. 15
xvn. 2 7-
xxiv. 17
XXIV. 19 22
xxiii. 19, 20
xxiv. 10 13
not in Deut.
xix. 33
xix. 9f., xxiii. 23
xxv. 3537
1 Neither in Deut., nor in Lev., except the law of retaliation (as
given two lines below).
2 The character of alien worship is more specific in Deut. On the
expression 'the host of heaven' see remarks on p. 136.
APPENDIX III
229
Exodus
Deuteronomy
Leviticus
Firstfruits
xxii. 29
xv. 1923
and firstlings
xxii. 30
xxvi. i 1 1,
xii. 6
Unclean food
xxii. 31
xiv. 21
xvii. rs
False witness
xxiii. I
xix. 16 21
xix. 15
Just judgement
xxiii. 2, 3
xix. 15, 16
xxiii. 6, 7
xvi. 1820
Bribes
xxiii. 8
xvi. 19
Animals astray
xxiii. 4
xxii. i 3
or fallen
xxiii. 5
xxii. 4
Seventh year
xxiii. 10, ii
XV. I 11
xxv. i 7
Sabbath
xxiii. 12
xix. 3, xxvi. i
Other gods (cp.
xxii. 20)
xxiii. 13
vi. 14, xi. 16
Pilgrimage feasts
xxiii. 14 17
xvi. i 17
xxiii. (Num.
xxviii., xxix.)
Leaven 1
xxiii. 18
ii. ii
Fat not to be left
till the morning
xxiii. 1 8
vii. 1518
xix. 68
Firstfruits
xxiii. 19
ii. 1416
Kid not to be boiled
xxiii. 19
xiv. ii
in mother's milk
Concluding
xxiii. 20 33
xxviii.
xxvi. 3-45
exhortation
The following conclusions may be drawn from an examina-
tion of this table :
A comparison of the passages in Exod. and Deut. shews that :
( i ) The whole legislation in the Book of the Covenant [Exod.
xxi. 1 8 xxii. 15 excepted] is repeated (sometimes witli material
modifications) in Deuteronomy (see p. 125).
1 The prohibition of leaven with a sacrifice is general in Exod. xxiii.
18; in Lev. ii. n the prohibition is in the case of the meal offering: in
vii. 1518 a distinction is made between different offerings; the flesh
of a thanksgiving offering must not be left till the illuming, but other
sacrifices may be eateu uu the following day.
230 APPENDIX III
(2) The similarity of expression between the laws as
enunciated in Exod. and Deut. shews that the laws of the
Covenant code were known to the writer of Deuteronomy.
Also the fact that the Deuteronomic legislation practically
includes that of the Covenant code renders it probable that
the laws of Exod. xxi. xxiii. were known to the compiler of
the Deuteronomic code, not only separately, but in their com-
bination.
It must not, however, be supposed that Deut. is simply a
reproduction of the Covenant code. Much of the legislation in
Deut. lies outside the area of that code, and is probably taken
from some other source which has not been preserved elsewhere
in the Pentateuch.
It also appears that :
(3) The passages in Lev. are nearly all from the 'Holiness'
code of Lev. xvii. xxvi. (see p. 112).
A comparison of the passages in Leviticus with those in
Exod. and Deut. shews that :
(4) The relation between the passages in Exod. and Deut.
and those in Lev. is different in character from that between
Exod. and Deut. which has been pointed out in (i) and (2).
The technical terms are sometimes, but not always, the
same, but the close similarity, both in words and phrases,
between Exod. and Deut. is not found in Leviticus. This will
appear on consulting the parallel passages relating to slavery in
the table on p. 124. The same ideas are expressed in nearly the
same words in Exod. and Deut., but the passages from Leviticus
in the third column have but few words in common with those
in the first and second columns, and the general purport of the
Levitical law is different from that of the corresponding laws in
Exod. and Deut. There are also sometimes very material
differences between the regulations in Lev. and those in Exod.
and Deut. on the same subject The reader may verify these
statements for other laws besides those about slavery by
comparing the passages in the first and second columns with
APPENDIX III 231
those in the third column : especially noticeable is the different
application of the sabbatical year in each of the codes. The
law about Asylum in the third column is in Num. xxxv. (P) : for
a comparison of this law with that in Deut see pp. 121 f.
The dependence of the Deuteronomic code on the Covenant
code may be maintained with confidence; the laws in Deut. and
H may in some cases have a common source, but they have
acquired their present forms through independent development.
APPENDIX IV.
THE STYLE OF DEUTERONOMY.
a. The distinctive character of Deuteronomy is shewn
rather in the grouping together of ordinary words in phrases,
than in the employment of unusual expressions. A few examples
are here appended by way of supplement to the remarks on
pp. 73, 109. For further details the commentary in this series
should be consulted, and Driver, Dcut. Introduction, pp. Ixxviii ff.,
xciii, and the notes on particular passages in the commentary,
especially pp. 67, 90, 100, 140, &c.
(i) References to the 'land' (viii. 7 10; xi. 10 12) as a
good land (iii. 25 ; iv. 21, 22 ; vi. 18; ix. 6 ; xi. 17),
(a) given by God, "which Jehovah thy 1 God is giving thee, iii. 20;
iv. i, 40; xi. 17, 31; xii. 9; xv. 7; xvi. 5, 18, 20; xvii. 2, 14; xviii. 9;
xxv. 15; xxvii. 2, 3; xxviii. 8, 52 [in some of these passages gates
or cities are found instead of land] ;
(b) as an inheritance, iv. 21; xix. 10; xx. 16; xxi. 23; xxiv. 4;
xxvi. i ;
Or, to possess it, v. 31; xix. 2, 14; xxi. i : both phrases combined
in xv. 4; xxv. 19. Cp. xix. 3; xxvi. i;
(c) whither ye go over to possess it, iv. 5, 14, 22, 26; vi. i; xi. 8,
n ; xxx. 18 ;
(d) go in to (or and) possess it, i. 8, 39; iv. i, 5; vi. 18; vii. i ;
viii. i (cp. ix. i, 5); xi. 10, 31;
(e) which He sware unto thy fathers, i. 35; vi. 10; viii. i; x. u;
xi. 9, 21.
1 The personal pronoun varies both in this and many of the follow-
ing expressions, instead of 'thy' will be found 'your,' ' our.'
APPENDIX IV 233
(2 ) To prolong days.
iv. 26, 40; v. 33; xi. 9; xvii. 20; xxii. 7; xxx. 18; xxxii. 47 ;
that thy days may be long (same word in Heb.), v. 16 (Exod. xx. 12);
vi. 2; xxv. 15. Generally with the addition of upon the land, with
one of the phrases in (i), (a) (e). Also i Kings iii. 14; Josh. xxiv.
31 (=Judg. ii. 7) ; Isai. liii. 10; Prov. xxviii. 16; Eccl. viii. ist.
Sometimes combined with that it may be -well with thee, iv. 40;
v. 16, 29, 33; vi. 3, 18; xii. 25, 28; xxii. 7. Cp. vi. 24; x. 13; xix. 13.
(3) Which 1 am commanding thee this day.
iv. 40; vi. 6; vii. u; viii. i, n ; x. 13 ; xi. 8 ; xiii. 18; xv. 5;
xix. 9; xxvii. 10; xxviii. i, 13, 15; xxx. 2, 8, n, 16. With reference
to the legislation contained in the book, and as distinguished from the
Ten Words imparted at Horeb. Occasionally without this day vi. 2 ;
xii. 14, 28. The legislation is described as
(4) Statutes and judgements.
iv. i, 5, 8, 14; v. i; xi. 32; xii. i ; xxvi. 16;
the commandment [in the sing. ; see p. 113, note 3] viii. r,
and the statutes and the judgements, \. 31; vi. i; vii. ir;
the (this) commandment, vi. 25; xv. 5; xvii. 20; xix. 9; (thy
commandment), xxvi. 13;
statutes commandments [and Judgements], iv. 40; vi. 2; viii. u;
xi. i (in different order) ; xxvi. 17;
commandments testimonies and statutes, vi. 17, 20 (different
order).
The Deuteronomic passages in Kings contain the same expressions:
i Kings viii. 58, 61; ix. 4 ; xi. 3338; Kings xvii. 34, 37. The
expression all the (I his) commandment is found Deut. v. 31; vi. 25;
viii. i ; xi. 8; xv. 5; xix. 9; xxvii. i ; xxxi. 5 and not elsewhere.
(5) 754* place which Jehovah {your God} shall choose to
cause His name to dwell there.
xii. n; xiv. 23; xvL 2, 6, 1 1 ; xxvi. 2. Cp. Jcr. vii. 12 ; Nch.
i. 9. The first part only of the phrase (as far as 'choose') occurs xii. 14,
18, 26; xiv. 25; xv. 20: xv i. 8, 10; xviii. 6 ; xxxi. n.
With this may i 1 the name MiJikdn, Dwelling^ frequently
234 APPENDIX IV
given in P to the Tent of meeting 1 . Another expression, to put His
name there, occurs xii. 5, 21 ; xiv. 24.
(6) So shalt thou put away (consume utterly as by fire) the
evil from the midst of thee, or from Israel.
xiii. 5; xvii. 7, 12; xix. 19; xxi. 21; xxii. 21, 22, 24; xxiv. 7.
Peculiar to Deut. ; the same verb (Piel of "1JJ3) is used in xix. 13 ; xxi. 9
(the innocent blood) ; xxvi. 13 (hallowed things), 14 ; also 2 Sam. iv. 1 1 ;
i Kings xxii. 46; 2 Kings xxiii. 24 (of Josiah); 2 Chron. xix. 3; and
with '"inX i Kings xiv. 10; xvi. 3; xxi. 21, in the sense of cutting off
posterity.
(7) The expression Jehovah thy God [see No. i (a)] occurs
very frequently in Deut.
It is found elsewhere, especially in H, in the expression, * I am
Jehovah thy God' (see p. 112), and occasionally in P, but the fact that
it occurs more than 300 times in Deut. marks it as a characteristic of
this book.
(8) Other gods, generally in warnings against going after
or serving them.
vi. 14; vii. 4; xiii. 2, 6, 13; xvii. 3; not confined to Deut., but
used frequently in that book, in Jeremiah, and in those portions of
Judges and Kings which are generally assigned to the compilers. Also
Exod. xx. 3 ( = Deut. v. 7), xxiii. 13, and xxxiv. 14 (in the sing.).
(9) That Jehovah may bless thee xiv. 29 ; xxiii. 20 ; xxiv. 19 ;
xxx. 16; or Jehovah will bless thee vii. 13; xii. 7; xiv. 24;
xv. 4, 6, 10, 14, 18; xvi. 10, 15 ; xxviii. 8, 12; or because Jehovah
hath blessed thee ii. 7. Cp. x. 15, 21, and the prayer for a
blessing in xxvi. 15.
God's guidance and blessing in the past, as shewn in the wilderness,
is urged as a reason for obedience ; the prospect of further blessing is
set forth as an encouragement to observe His statutes and judgements.
Sometimes in connexion with the expressions in No. 2.
1 A.V. uses 'tabernacle' both for mishkdn and for 'ohel, ' tent'' ; in
R.V. mishkdn is rendered tabernacle,' thus preserving the distinction
between the two Heb. terms.
APPENDIX IV 235
(10) Thou canst not, he cannot, in prohibitions (rendered
may not}.
In vii. 22; xii. 17; xvi. 5; xvii. 15; xxi. 16; xxii. 3, 19, 29;
xxiv. 4. This use of the Heb. word 7^ in the sense of moral inability
is rare. Cp. Gen. xliii. 32; Judg. xxi. 18.
(11) Jehovah loveth you.
vii. 7, 8, 13; xxiii. 5. His love to the fathers is the reason for
choosing their seed, and bringing them out of Egypt, iv. 37; x. 15 (the
verb here and in vii. 7 is different). Not elsewhere in Hex. A prominent
thought in Hosea (see cc. i. iii., xi. i 4).
(12) An abomination to the LORD thy God.
vii. 25; xii. 31; xvii. i; xviii. 12; xxii. 5; xxiii. 18; xxv. 16;
xxvii. 15. Of certain deeds, or of the doer of them. The word
abomination occurs by itself vii. 26 (of the silver or gold on idols);
xiii. 14, xvii. 4 (of idolatry); xiv. 3 (of forbidden food); in the plural,
xviii. 9, xx. 1 8 (of heathen practices), and in the Song (xxxii. 16) in
parallelism with 'strange gods.'
The preceding examples illustrate the character of the dis-
course in Deuteronomy ; but in order to form any adequate idea
of the rhythm, pathos, and earnestness exhibited in this book,
whole chapters must be studied. A continuous reading of
cc. v. xi., whether in English or in Hebrew, will furnish the best
proof that Deut. has a style of its own, and shew that 'the book
is written in a very different manner from the preceding ones 1 .'
The frequent recurrence of the characteristic phrases enumerated
above (with others which the observant reader may note) will
confirm this judgement.
b. The resemblances, both in style and expression, between
the prophet Jeremiah and Deuteronomy are recognized by all
commentators (p. 142).
Some illustrations of these resemblances which 'are neither
few nor insignificant 8 ' are appended:
1 Spcakt^s Commentary, Introd. to Dcut. p. 793.
ii.
236 APPENDIX IV
(i) The land given as an inheritance [see above, No. i (a),
()] is often described as one which God causes Israel to inherit.
Deut. i. 38; iii. 28; xii. 10; xix. 3; xxxi. 7 and Josh. i. 6 (thou
[addressed to Joshua] shalt cause this people to inherit the land).
Cp. Jer. iii. 18 the land which I caused your fathers to inherit.
xii. 14 the inheritance which I caused my people Israel to inherit.
(ii) A strong hand and stretched out arm.
Deut. iv. 34; v. 15; vii. 19; xi. 2; xxvi. 2. Cp. Jer. xxi. 5 a
stretched out hand and a strong arm.
thy great power and thy stretched out arm. Deut. ix. 29 identical
with Jer. xxxii. 17 and (with the pronoun 'my') xxvii. 5.
(iii) To fear Jehovah our God for our good all the days.
Deut. vi. 24.
Two Deuteronomic expressions 'for our good ' and 'all the days,'
and a Heb. form of the verb 'to fear' frequently used in Deut. are all
found in Jer. xxxii. 29 that they may fear me all the days for their good.
Cp. Deut. iv. 10 ; v. 29; vi. 2; xiv. 23; xxxi. 13.
(iv) Going after other gods to serve them^ and worship
them. (Cp. No. 8 above.)
Deut. via. 19; xi. 16; xiii. 2, 6, 13; xvii. 3; xxviii. 14; xxix. 18
26; xxx. 17; also Josh, xxiii. 16. Cp. Jer. xi. 10; xiii. 10; xvi. n;
xxii. 9; xxv. 6; xxxv. 15 where the same expressions are found.
(v) A metaphorical application of circumcision to the heart.
Deut. x. 16; xxx. 6.
Cp. Jer. iv. 4 ; ix. 26.
(vi) The prophet that shall speak a word in my name that
I have not commanded him.
Deut. xviii. 20. Cp. Jer. xxix. 23 also with Deut. xviii. 22. Cp.
Jer. xxviii. 9; xiv. 15.
(vii) The iron furnace applied to Egypt.
Deut. iv. 20; Jer. xi. 4 and i Kings viii. 51 (a chapter containing,
especially in vv. 14 61, many Deuteronomic expressions).
APPENDIX IV 237
(viii) Thou shalt be a consternation (unusual word) unto all
the kingdoms of the earth.
Deut. xxviii. 35. The same clause, with two unusual expressions,
is found in Jer. xv. 4; xxiv. 9; xxix. 18 and xxxiv. 17.
(ix) Thy carcase shall be food unto all the fowls of the air,
and unto the beasts of the earth, and there shall be none to fray
(i.e. frighten) them away.
Deut. xxviii. 26; so Jer. vii. 33 the carcases of this people shall be...
The sentence occurs without the last clause in Jer. xvi. 4 ; xix. 7. This
last clause is found only in Deut. xxviii. 16 and Jer. vii. 33 ; the same
Heb. words occur in Lev. xxvi. 6, Jer. xxx. io = xlvi. 27, and in other
places, but with a different application, and no one shall make him (you)
afraid.
(x) The LORD shall bring thee. ..unto a nation which thou
hast not known, thou nor thy fathers; and there shalt thou serve
other gods, wood and stone.
Deut. xxviii. 36, and with this cp. xxviii. 64 The LORD shall
scatter thee...and there thou shalt serve other gods, which thou hast not
known, thou nor thy fathers, even wood and stone. Cp. Jer. xvi. 13 I
will cast you forth out of this land into the land that ye have not know*,
ye nor your fathers, and there shall ye serve other gods day and night,
and Jer. ix. 16 I will scatter them also among the nations whom they have
not known, they nor their fathers.
(xi) The LORD shall bring a nation against thee from far...
a nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand... and he shall
eat the fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy ground... [and"} not
leave thee corn, wine or oil.... And he shall besiege thee in all
thy gates, until thy high and fortified walls come down.... And
thou shalt eat the fruit of thine own body, the flesh of thy sons
and of thy daughters, which the LORD thy God hath given thee
in the siege and in the slrailness wherewith thine enemies shall
straiten thee.
Deut xxviii. 4953, with which cp. Jer. v. 15 / will bring a
nation against you from far,. ..a nation whose tongue thou knowest not
23 8 APPENDIX IV
neither under standest what they say...///<y/ shall eat thine harvest and
thy bread... they shall eat thy flocks and thy herds, they shall eat thy vines
and thy fig trees: they shall beat down thy fortified cities...
and Jer. xix. 9 and I will cause them to eat the flesh of their sons, and
the flesh of their daughters, and they shall eat every one the flesh of his
friend, in the siege and in the straitness wherewith their enemies and
they that seek their life shall straiten them.
(xii) All the nations shall say Wherefore hath the LORD done
thus unto this land. ..? And men shall say Because they forsook
the covenant of the LORD God of their fathers... and went and
served other gods, and worshipped them.
Deut. xxix. 24, 25. The question and answer are found in
almost identical terms in Jer. xxii. 8, 9 Wherefore hath the LORD done
thus unto this great city? And they shall say Because they forsook the
covenant of the LORD their God, and worshipped other gods and served
them.
The following inferences may be drawn from a consideration
of the preceding lists :
The marked difference between Deuteronomy and the rest
of the Pentateuch points to diversity of authorship. In various
sections of the Introduction many points of divergence between
D and JE, and also between D and P, have been indicated (see
pp. 117 122, 132 f., 154 157). Cumulative evidence has thus
been offered that D differs in origin from the rest of the Penta-
teuch. The literary argument as outlined in (a) supports
and corroborates this evidence.
The marked similarity between Deuteronomy and Jeremiah
points to some affinity of origin. The same line of thought, the
same choice of expressions, are usually found in writers which
are not far removed in point of time, one from the other. When
they have common aims and ideals, their community of purpose
is exhibited in community of language. The age of Jeremiah is
known, and the literary evidence collected in () tends to shew
that Deuteronomy also is a product of the same period. A
APPENDIX IV 239
study of Josiah's reform (see pp. 135 ff.) points to the same con-
clusion. Thus the literary and historical evidence agree together.
Dillmann's remark (Num. Deut. und Jos. p. 611), quoted by
Driver, LOT 6 p. 88, that 'the style of Deut. implies a long
development of the art of public oratory, and is not of a
character to belong to the first age of Israelitish literature,' may
be admitted as a just judgement, and as further corroborating
the combined literary and historical evidence already adduced.
APPENDIX V.
LEVITICUS xvn. xxvi. AND THE PROPHET EZEKIEL.
These chapters of Leviticus attracted attention in the
early days of criticism ; and since Graf, in his book published
in 1866 (see p. 36), put forward the view that the greater part
of Lev. xvii. xxvi. in its present form is the work of the
prophet Ezekiel, these chapters have been carefully analysed
and compared with the prophet's writings.
It is generally agreed that:
(1) These ten chapters of Leviticus have no marked con-
nexion with the preceding legislation, or with the last chapter
of Leviticus which follows.
The exhortation in c. xxvi. with its promises and warnings is
evidently intended as a conclusion to the preceding legislation.
The last verse of the chapter points through that exhortation to
the laws in cc. xvii. xxv., which are described as 'statutes and
judgements and laws.' Its position indicates that the discourse in
c. xxvi. is regarded as an integral part of the collection, and the
verse separates what precedes from the chapter following.
(2) The style and phraseology of P is clearly marked in
portions of these chapters, especially in certain parts of c. xxiii.
and in xxiv. I 9.
With the help of the list in Appendix II the student will be
able to verify this statement for the passages specified, and to
recognize other portions as belonging to P. But the exact limits
of P cannot always be determined in this section. For details,
Kuenen Hex. pp. -275 f., LOT*, pp. 51 57, and the commentary
on Leviticus may be consulted.
APPENDIX V 24!
(3) When the portions belonging to P have been set aside,
there remains
(a) a code of laws containing prescriptions of varied
character which do not exhibit affinity with P, with which are
combined
(b) hortatory passages, and certain characteristic ex-
pressions which have already been noticed on p. 112.
The editor of this code, who has added the matter described in
(b) t seems to have collected existing laws from different sources,
instead of drawing up a code himself. It will be sufficient to give
here a few illustrations in support of this statement, and to refer to
the commentary for further details.
The command ' my sabbaths shall ye keep ' is found both in
xix. 3 and xix. 30. In v. 3 it is preceded by the injunction 'ye
shall fear every man his mother and his father'; in v. 30 it is
followed by 'and my sanctuary ye shall reverence.' In both
verses, the double precept concludes with the words 'I am the
LORD' ['your God' ad 
