Full text of "An introduction to the Old Testament"

INTRODUCTION

OLD TESTAMENT.

VOL. II

AN INTRODUCTION

TO THE

OLD TESTAMENT.

JOHANNES BLEEK.

EDITED BY

ADOLF KAMPHAUSEN.

Translated from the Second Edition (Berlin, 1865,) by
G. H..VENABLES, ESQ.

EDITED BY

REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A.

Canon Residentiary of Lincoln.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.

LONDON : BELL AND DALDY, YORK STREET,
COVENT GARDEN.

1869.

LONDON : POINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

FIRST DIVISION continued from Vol.1.

THE PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 176-269, p. 1-229.

GENERAL REMARKS UPON HEBREW PROPHETS AND PROPHECY.

176-195, p. 1-40.

176. General Aim, Nature, and Importance of Hebrew Prophecy ...

$ 177. Various Ideas as to Hebrew Prophecy ..

| 178. Consideration of the Hebrew and Greek Names given

Prophets, and the Ideas attached to them

179. Other Names given to the Hebrew Prophets

180. Nature of the Prophetic Office

181. Hebrew Prophets Their Mode of Life, Dress, &c 11

182. Their Origin J^

183. Mode of Prophetical Inspiration ^

5 184. Prophetical Inspiration by means of Visions

185. Form and Mode of Delivery of Prophetical Utterances

6 186. Symbolical Actions performed by Prophets

187. Purport and Aim of the Prophetical Utterances

& 188. References to the Future in the Prophetical Discourses ... ...

189. Consideration of the various Opinions as to the Prophetical 1

dictions * -

190. General Character of the Prophetic Discourses *l

& 191. Messianic Predictions Their Character - ;o

192. Messianic Predictions Special Details as to Turn-, Circum- ^

stances, &c. ... ... " ^

& 193. Messianic Predictions Their Proper Interpretation

I 194. Method of Fixing the Dates of the various Prophetical Writings

195. The Authors of the Prophetical Scriptures 39

THE BOOK OF ISAIAH. 196-205.

196. Isaiah His Name, Family, and Date of his Ministry

197. Nature of Contents of the Book Its three Sections

198. Question as to Unity of Authorship

vi Contents.

PAGB

199. Authorsh ip of the third Section of the Book ...

... 50
... 53

200. Review of Contents Chaps, i-xii.
201. Chaps, xiii-xxiii. ...

202. Chaps, xxiv-xxxv.

203. The Historical Section 59

204. Date of the Compilation Its Place in the Canon .. 60

205. Messianic Character of the Prophecies in the Book of Isaiah ... 61

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 206-219.

206. Jeremiah His Name, Date, Parentage, and Circumstances 64

207. Prophecies belonging to the Reign of Josiah . . 67

208. belonging to the Reigns of Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin* 69

.209. belonging to the Reign of Zedekiah 74

21t)&lt; in Zedekiah s Reign, and Historical Events connected*

therewith ... ... ... &gt;t&gt; &lt;t&gt; r-y

211. Jeremiah s Imprisonment Prophecies delivered during this Period 79
212. Prophecies uttered after the Capture of Jerusalem Fate of

Jeremiah ... ... ... ... on

213. Different Arrangement of the Book in the Hebrew Text and in

the LXX ... ... ... ... t 04

214. Various opinions as to the respective Values of the Hebrew and

Greek Recensions ... ... ... 07

215. Origin of the Greek Recension ... .. . " 89

216. Consideration of the Variations between the Hebrew and Greek

Recensions ... ... ... ttt oq

217. Cause of the Variations Question as to the Priority of the two

Recensions ~~

218. Origin of the two Recensions .... ! 95

2 1 9. General Character of Jeremiah s Prophecies and Discourses ! . . 99

THE LAMENTATIONS. 220.
220. Title-Position in the Canon-Date of Composition and Contents 101

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL. 221-228.
221. Name of the Prophet-His Family, Locality, and Period

Ministry

222. Review of Contents Chaps, i-xxi v !n

ooo f~ii * ... -lUo

Cnaps. xxv-xxxn. ... ... JQO

Chaps, xxxiii-xxxix. ... . . . HQ

" tt Chaps, xl-xlviii.

226. Reality of the Prophetic Visions " !J:

227.

the Prophecies-Their Compilation and Order

228. Language and Peculiarities of Style- Characteristics of his Pro- ^
phetical Ministry ............

Contents. vii

THE TWELVE LESSER PROPHETS. 229-253

. PAGB

229. Their Collective Name Compilation and Order of Succession ... 120

1. THE BOOK OP HOSEA. 230-233.

230. Name of the Prophet Period of his Prophetical Ministry ... 121

231. Review of Contents Chaps, i-iii. Symbolical Actions ... 123
232. Chaps, iv-xiv. Nature and Dates of the

several Utterances ... ... ... ... ... ... 125

233. General Character of the Prophecies Their Style and Language 127

2. THE BOOK OF JOEL. 234-236.

234. Name General Purport Mode of Interpretation 128

235. Its Date 132

236. Literary and Poetical Characteristics 136

3. THE BOOK OP AMOS. 237, 23b.

237. Name Date and Period of his Ministry 137

238. Divisions of the Prophecy 138

4. THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 239.
239. Name Nature of the Contents Date of the Prophecy ... 141

5. THE BOOK OF MICAH. 240.
240. Name Birthplace Date Purport of the Prophecies 144

6. THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 241.
241. Name Birthplace Date and Contents of Prophecy 148

7. THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 242.
242. Name Division of the Book Date and Nature of the Prophecy 151

8. THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 243.
243. Name Descent Nature ef his Prophecy Date 154

9. THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 244.
244. Name Description Nature of his Prophecy 157

10. THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 245-249.

245. Name Division of the Book The first Division 159

246. The second Division of the Book Opinions as to its Author ... 161
247. Date of the Prophecies in the second Division of the Book First

Section , 164

viii Contents.

PAGB

248. Date of the Prophecies iu the second Division of th&lt;j Book

Second Section... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

249. Cause of the Union of the Older Prophecies with the Book of

Zechariah 173

11. THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 250.

250. Name and Person of the Prophet Date and Contents of the

Prophecy 175

12. THE BOOK OF JONAH. 251-253.

251. Person of the Prophet Contents of the Book ... 179

252. Origin of the Book Historical Value Object 181

253. Historical Foundation of the Book ... ... ... ... 186

THE BOOK OF DANIEL. 254-269.

254. Position in the Canon Review of Contents 190

255. Various Opinions as to the Origin of the Book ... ... ... 197

25G. Unity of Authorship 199

257. Origin and Authorship ... ... ... ... ... ... 201

258. External Arguments for an Earlier or Later Date 202

259. Internal Arguments against Daniel s being the Author... ... 205

260. The Author s Aim in the second Division in the Book 209

261. Difficulties arising from the passage Dan. ix. 2 210

262. Date of the Narrative Greek Names for Musical Instruments ... 212

263. Historical Difficulties of the Narrative ... ... ... ... 213

264. The real Object of the Historical Section of the Book ... ... 218

265. Similarities in the Narrative to the Events of a Later Date ... 2ly

266. Typical References to Antiochus Epiphanes 222

267. Author s Aim in the two first Chapters ... ... ... 223

268. Historical Existence of Daniel and his Companions 225

269. Value of the Book 228

THE POETICAL BOOKS. 270-291.
THE PSALMS. 270-278.

270. Title Division into five Books . 230

271. Origin Superscriptions ... ... ... ... ... 231

272. The Authors of the various Psalms 234

273. Anonymous Psalms Latest Date of any of the Psalms 237

274. Origin and Formation of the Collection 239

275. Review of the various Classes of Psalms, and their Contents ... 241

! ... 248

. 250

to. neview or tne various Classes or Psalms, and theii
276. The Separations between the Single Psalms . .

277. Integrity of the Individual Psalms

278. Slight Alterations in the Ancient Text ..

THE WRITINGS OF SOLOMON. 279-285.
279. Works attributed to Solomon ... . 252

Contents. ix
1. THE I ROVERBS OF SOLOMON. 280, 281.

PAGE

280. Title of the Book Review of its Contents 252

281. Origin of the Compilation 256

2. THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 282-284.

282. Title, &c. 257

Cj -283. Subject of the Book Various Interpretations ot its Contents ... 258

284. Authorship Age of Composition 261

3. ECCLESIASTES, OR THE PREACHER. 285.

285. Authorship and Tendency of the Book 263

THE BOOK OF Jou. 286-291.

286. Nature of the Book Review of Contents 268

287. As to the Historical Character of Job s Person and Life ... 272

288. Ideas asserted as to the Aim of the Author ... ... ... 275

289. The Prologue and Epilogue Their Author 278

290. Elihu s Discourses Opinions as to their Originality, Nature,

and Aim 280

291. Question as to the Authorship and Date of the Book 284

SECOND DIVISION.

HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 292-321.

. 292. Nature and Method of the Investigation 289

A. HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT AMONG
THE JEWS. 293-306.

293. The Book of the Law 290

294. Nature and Extent of Nehemiah s Collection of Books 291

ij 295. Books included in Nehemiah s Collection 293

296. Union of the Torah with the other Books in the Collection ... 296
297. Reception into the Canon of the Books not included in Nehe
miah s Collection 297

298. Books not included in Nehemiah s Collection Their Position in

the Canon ... 299

299. Completion of the Canon Comparative Authority of later Books 301

300. The Canon among the Hellenistic Jews The Apocrypha ... 302

301. Philo s References to the Canonical Books only 305

302. References in the New Testament to the Canonical Books only... 306

303. Absolute Completion and Limitation of the Hebrew Canon ... 307

304. General Adhesion of the Hellenistic Jews to the Hebrew Canon ... 309

305. Views of the various Jewish Sects as to the Hebrew Canon ... 310

306. Various erroneous Ideas as to the Foimation of the Canon ... 312
VOL. II.

Contents.

B. HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 307-321.

PAGB

307. Reception of the Hebrew Canon in the Christian Church Relative

Authority of the Apocryphal Books ... ... ... ... 315

308. MeHto s Old-Testament Canon 317

309. Origen s List of the Canonical Books 318

310. Lists of the Old-Testament Canon In the Greek Church ... 321

311. In the Latin Church ... 327

312. Opinions as to the Apocrypha in the Western Church ... ... 333

313. in the Creek Church 330

314. Position of the Apocrypha in the Protestant Church 336

315. ,, in the Romish Church 340

316. Decision as to the Apocrypha in the Greek Church ... . ... 342

317. Modern Opinions in the Protestant Churches as to the Apocrypha 344

318. Considerations as to the Apocrypha ... ... .... ... 346

319. Position and Authority of the Old Testament in the Christian

Church 349

320. Difference in the Value and Authority of the several Books of the

Old Testament 352

321. Conclusions as to the Value and Authority of the Apocrypha ... 353

THIRD DIVISION.

HISTORY OF THE TEXT OF THE CANON, FROM ITS FORMATION DOWN
TO OUR OWN TIME. 322-365.

322. Various Opinions as to the Integrity and Purity of the Hebrew-
Text 353

323. Criticism of the Hebrew Text Houbigant Kennicott De Rossi 361

324. Results of Criticism and Collation of Manuscripts 363

A. HISTORY OF THE EXTERNAL FORM OF THE TEXT. 325-334.

325. The twofold Hebrew Character The Phoenician Character ... 365
326. Relation between the Phoenician and Babylonian Characters ... 367
327. Partial and Temporary Retention of the Ancient Phoenician Cha
racter 370

328. Origin of the Later or Babylonian Character 373

329. Opinions as to the Antiquity of the Hebrew Vowel-Points and

Accents ... ... ... ... ... t-&gt; . ^ 375

330. Various Proofs of the Novelty of the Vowel-Signs and Accents " 378

331. Date and Origin of the Introduction of Vowel-Signs 381

332. The Division of the Text into Words ... ... 334

333. The Division into Verses ... ... ... ... 335

334. Divisions into Sections and Chapters ... ... 337

Contents. x j

B. INTERNAL HISTORY OP THE TEXT. 335-365.

335. Proofs of Extreme Care in its Early Transmission ^91

oov Comparison f the Hebrew Text with the Samaritan Pentateuch 391

| 66 1. 1 he beptuagmt Traditions as to its Origin 395

538. Conclusions as to the Real Origin of the Septuaeint .. ! 399

339. Completion of the Septuagint Nature of the Text 404

340. The Name given to the Greek Translation 408

III TK ih ^ tj , l t]ie ? e P taa i ^ t in the J^ish and Christian Churches 408
342. The Greek Translations of Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus, and

others , . , A -t f\

?f ? S 1 ? 611 8 HeXapla and Tet n&gt;pla Their Aim and Nature"

nf , LXX-Variations in Manuscripts ... 421

545. Ihe four chief printed Editions of the LXX ... 425

346. Aucient Greek Translations ....... ] t ^Q

347. The Vulgate Ancient Latin Translations 431

348. Jerome s Latin Translations ...... 434

on of Jerome s Translation as the Vulg ate

350. Chaldee Paraphiases or Targnms 439

351. The Peshito Its Origin and Character ... 44 o

352. Other Syriac Versions .........

353. Arabic Translations from the Hebrew Text

354. Persian Translations from the Hebrew Text 449
355. Our Hebrew Text the Basis of the Ancient Translations " \ 450

d56. Ancient Quotations from the Hebrew Text 450

HI fr m the Talmud Of the Care devoted to the Hebrew Text 451

358. The Keri and Ketib ..........

359. Ancient Alterations by the Scribes . . . 457

360. The Masora and Masoretic Notes

361. The Western and Eastern Readings

362. Early Readings and Manuscripts

363. The Maso.etic Text

...

364. Printed Editions of the Hebrew Old Tesiament-Polygl
365. Various Editions of the Hebrew Old Testament .,

47!

THE PROPHETICAL BOOKS.

GENERAL REMARKS UPON HEBREW PROPHETS AND PROPHECY. 1

176. General Aim, Nature, and Importance of Hebrew
Prophecy.

IN the Introduction to the historical books, we have seen
that many of the earlier historical works of the Hebrews,
quoted in the existing Books of the Old Testament, are
shown, by their titles, to have had prophets for their au-

1 Chr. Aug. Crusius (Professor at Leipzig, d. 1775), Hypomnemata ad
theol. propheticam, 3 Parts, Leipzig, 1764-78 : the first part contains
general remarks : the two others treat of the separate prophets ; the third,
however, is confined to Isaiah. Hengstenberg, Christologie des A. T.
1st edit. i. 1 (1829; pp. 293-332. " The Nature of Prophecy." Revised
and fsbentially improved in the 2nd edit. iii. 2 (1857), pp. 158-217.
Hitzig, Der Prophet Jesaja, 1833. Introd. pp. xxii-xxxii; Der Pro-
phetismus. Knobel, Der Proplielismus der llebrder vollstdndig darge-
atellt. 2nd Part, Breslau, 1837. Fried. Burchh. Koster, Die Propheten
des A. u. N. T. nacli ihrem Wesen und Wirken dargestellt, Leipzig, 1838.
Redrflob, Der Begriff des Nabi oder der nog. Propheten bei den Ilebr.,
Leipzig, 1839. J. Chr. K. Hofmann (of Erlaugen), Weissagung u.
Erfullung im A. und im N. T. Ein Theol. Vers. 1st half, Niirdl. 1841 ;
2nd half, 1844. Ewald, Die Propheten d. A. B., 1 vol. (1840;, pp. 1-64.
Delitzsch, Die bibl.-proph. Theologie, its continuation by Crusius, and
its latest development after Hengstenberg s Christologie, Leipzig, 1845.
Fr. Diisterdieck, De rei prophetic^ in Vet. Test, quum universal turn
Messianx natura ethica, Gottingen, 1852. Laur. Rc-inke (Professor at
Miinster\I?e^ra(/e zur ErUarung d. A. T. Vol. 2 (Minister, 1853 , pp. 1-
202 ; Allg. Einl. in die Weissagungen, &c. Bunsen, Gott in der Gesch.
Part 1 (Leipzig, 1857), pp. 221-256. Die leitenden Ideen der WdHan-
s/ hauung der Hebr. Proph. A. Tholuck, Die Propheten und Hire Weis-
sagungen: Eineapolog.-hermen.Studie, Gotha, I860. Karl Kohler, Der
1 rophetismus der Hebrder u. die Mantik der Griechen in ihrem geyensei-
tiijen Verhdltniss, Darmstadt, 18GO. Gxist. Baur, Geschichte der Alttest.
U cissagungen. 1st Part : Die Vorgeschichte der AUtest. Weissagungen.
Giesseu, 1861. G. F. Oehler, Ueber das Verhdlt. der Alttest. Prophetic
zur heidnischen Mantik. Tubingen, 1861 ; also, by the same author in
Herzog s Real Ency clop., articles " Prophetenthum des A. T.," and " Weis-
saguny."

VOL. II. B

2 Origin of ilie several Books.

thors. We may, therefore, infer that, at least for a con
siderable period, the prophets were the chief historians
among the people. Although there is not one of the
existing historical books of the Old Testament which can
be certainly proved to have been composed by an author
who, during his lifetime, was looked upon by his people
as a prophet, still we cannot doubt that the above-named
histories, composed as they were by prophets, formed the
ground-work of the greater part of the historical books
as we have them. There are, on the other hand, a series
of other works written by prophets, which may be called
KO.T c&xyv, prophetical; these are the so-called PropTietce
Posleriores, forming the second sub-division of the D N^J,
or second division of the Books of the Old-Testament
Canon.

These works, like the historical books, tend to the con
firmation and completion of the Jewish theocracy, but keep
this object in view in a more direct way. The historical
books depict the development of the theocracy as shown in
the fortunes of the people of Israel, either in the events
just occurring, or in those of past ages ; they bring to our
view how Jehovah chose this nation as his own possession,
and added to the Covenant he made with them the most
glorious promises with respect to its fulfilment ; but that
the people frustrated this fulfilment by their repeated
transgressions, and brought upon themselves frequent and
continued punishments. But the prophetical books (in the
more limited sense of the term) have directly in view that
special form and condition of the theocracy which was
existing in the prophets time. They presuppose the
bygone history of the people and God s guidance of them,
also their transgressions and their punishments, and
closely connect all these facts with the present time by
seeing forth that a continued opposition to Jehovah s Will
will certainly, as before, draw down upon them the Divine
vengeance. They announced, also, what was required of the
people for removing and averting the Divine chastisements,
and for hastening on the time when Jehovah might accom
plish for them all His promised blessings. The earlier
promises which had been given to their fathers are in
these books repeated and amplified in favour of the pious
and God-fearing; but, for the rebellious, and those who are

Hebrew Prophecy Ideas as to it. 3

stubborn in their disobedience, the severest Divine correc
tions are again threatened.

These prophetical books, therefore, both from their
character and purport, are well qualified to serve as
sources of history. They introduce us into all the circum
stances of the people of Israel as they existed at the time
of the prophets, both foreign and domestic, and also into
their religious and political relations ; these subjects, too,
are generally dealt with in a far deeper and more im
pressive way than in the proper historical books, as, in
the latter, many periods are but very briefly handled, and
these are the very periods in "which the prophetical agency
was most active. But to us they cannot fail to be of special
importance, inasmuch as they are lively witnesses to the
fact that God continued to guide this people by men raised
up by Him, and to lead them on to the advent of the great
salvation which was to arise among them, and from them
was to spread over the whole world.

177. Various Ideas as to Hebrew Prophecy.

Very various ideas have been formed, especially in
modern times, with regard to the special characteristics of
the Hebrew prophets, and the real nature of their ministry,
of which these prophetical works are the result. The
cause for this diil erence of opinion is plain : these works
are too often considered with a prejudiced mind, and with
definite preconceived opinions, which are sometimes biassed
by the somewhat similar phenomena which existed among
other nations of antiquity.

In earlier times, the almost exclusive idea of a prophet
was that of a man who predicted future events ; and the
only distinction drawn between such a prophet and the
soothsayers and seers among other nations was, that in
the case of the former, the result fully showed that he
was inspired by the Spirit of the true God. In moclern
times, on the other hand, the Divine inspiration of these
men has often been too much thrown into the background,
and their utterances have altogether been considered as
being nothing but the result of their natural intellect and
of purely human information. They have often been com
pared to the demagogues and popular orators among the
Greeks, and their influence over the people has been some-

4 Origin of the several Books.

times represented as actually injurious. Some have gone
so far as to ascribe to them the troubles and ultimate ruin
of the Jewish Commonwealth. By others they have been
looked upon as men who, at all events, were distinguished
among their contemporaries by their talents, learning, and
acumen, and were thus enabled to form and lay down deci
sions as to measures necessary for the state, and not un-
frequently were in a position to throw a correct glance into
the future. Others have regarded them merely as poets,
endowed with a rich poetical fancy, and therefore liable to
be misled in their ideas as to the events that were impend
ing. It has been sometimes thought that past events
were the sole subjects of their effusions, and that these,
by means of a poetical fiction, were made to refer to future
times.

Almost all these opinions are based upon some measure
of truth, and their erroneous character arises chiefly from
the fact that this is brought forward in a one-sided way,
to the exclusion of other points of view which are kept
too much in the background. The only way in which we
can attain to a comprehensive and correct idea on the
subject is by impartially considering the prophets them
selves, and duly weighing all the various points in which
their ministry is set before us in the prophetical writings ;
also, by studying all that is said upon the point in the
historical books, with which, however, certain declarations
in the New Testament should be compared.

178. Consideration of the Hebrew and Greek Names given to
Prophets, and the Ideas attached to them.

As regards the name and idea of the prophets among the
Hebrew people, the most usual designation in the Old
Testament is K^J. The root of this word, &OJ, does not
occur in the Hebrew in Kal, but only in Kiphal and Hith-
pael, and in significations which are only derived from
that of the noun, as denominative from 6033. The ques
tion, however, arises as to the proper signification of the
root itself, and also as to the original meaning of the word
N 33, derived from that root. The root is very probably
connected with JJ33 = ebullire, scaturire, Hiph. to bubble
forth, to pour out ; in the Arabic ^X5 = indicare, annunciare,

Hebrew Prophets Their Name. 6

c. aocus pers. N^23 may, therefore, be explained in a two
fold way ; (a) passively, as the name of him who is taught
or apprised of anything, viz., by God. Kb ster accepts
this; and the form of the Avoid is certainly favourable to
this interpretation, as ^PP is properly a passive form. But
the derivation of this signification from the fundamental
meaning is rather unnatural, especially as liedslob explains
it, who likewise urges a passive form : poured into breathed
into, i.e., by the Spirit of God. 1 (&) The form Pi?, when
it comes from intransitive verbs, has not unfrequently an
intransitive meaning, as, e.g., 1^3, prince (from 133, infronte
C8se\ U^Z, fugitive, "OT, small TK*y. X O w, N ^, in its funda
mental meaning, is not improbably an intransitive = scaturire;
and, the idea being transferred to t he pouring forth of words.
may be translated to apeak. The noun may, therefore, have
had a signification corresponding with this, and (as Gesenin.s
and others think) may have been really equivalent to speaker,
and, specially, a spokesman or interpreter. The weight of
probability is in favour of this view. This word is used
early in reference to God s relation to men in the designa
tion of a man who acted as the medium, the speaker and
interpreter, between God and man.

That this was, in fact, the real idea of the N*?3 is espe
cially shown in the passage (Exod. vii. 1) :

^N 33 rrrp TpriK pnxi rijnsV D ribg VW

" I have made thee a god to Pharaoh : and Aaron thy brother
shall be thy Nabi ;" ihou shalt be, as it were, the inspirer,
to suggest to him what he shall say, and he shall be thy
spokesman to lay before Pharaoh all that thou suggestest.
The same idea is otherwise expressed (Exod. iv. 16) :

A"nn nr.jo na 1 ? -rprp s-in irrn oyrrta " tomani

The Nabi appears in these passages as a medium between
God and man, who is to announce God s words to man in
an intelligible way, just as Aaron intervened between
Moses and Pharaoh, in oider to make known to the latter
all that Moses charged him with, or suggested to him (cf.
Ueut. xviii. 18): "I will raise them up a Prophet from

1 Hupfeld explains it as "he who has received something which is
suggested (cf. DiO) or instilled into him," so that N^33 denotes the
prophet as the recipient of the revelation.

6 Origin of the several Books.

among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put my
words in his mouth : and he shall speak unto them all that
I shall command him." Also, cf. Jer. xv. 19 : " Thou shalt
be my mouth," rrnn ""DS = my prophet.

The idea, therefore, "of a Nabi is not limited to the func
tions of a seer and predicter of future events ; neither does
the term denote (as many in modern times suppose) every
poet or teacher of the people. It conveys the notion of an
interpreter between God and man a confidant, as it were,
of God one to whom Jehovah manifests Himself in order to
announce to men that which He desires they shall know :
referring either to future events, or to the disclosure of
Divine mysteries, or even to instruction in moral laws.

Thus Abraham is called a Nabi, Gen. xx. 7: "Now,
therefore restore the man his wife, for he is a K 11 ?:, and he
shall pray for thee and thou shalt live." In Ts. cv. 15, the
patriarchs generally are called Jehovah s prophets ("K O}).
Philo, De MonarcMa, i. 9, fin. p. 820, Ed. Tar. : eo^yets
yap eicra/ ot Trpo^Tat Oeov Kara^p^^ivov roTs e/cetVwv opyai/ois
Trpos Slower tv &v av lOeX^ar]. De Pr ami-is et Pcenis, 9,
p. 918: cp/Jir}vev&lt;; yap ecrr/ 6 Trpo^rvys a/8o0V fon/xowros TO,
Ae/crea TOV Otov. Cf. De Vita Mosis, ii. 7, p. 659. Quis rer.
divin. hceres? 52, p. 517 ; 53, p. 518. De Special Legibus
quce referuntur ad octavum, &c., 8, p. 343. Ed. Mang.

If this is the proper meaning of the word, the Greek
term Trpo^r^, as used in the LXX, is the most suitable
translation of it ; for Trpo^^s among the Greeks did not
originally signify a mere predicter of future events; it
derives its sense from Trpo^/xi, not in the meaning of
"predicting," but as " uttering," palam proferre ; Trpo^r^s,
therefore, is properly a speaker, who, as such, intervenes
between two individuals, and makes known to one the
words or the will of the other person in an intelligible
way. Thus Dionys. Halic. ii. 73, the priests are called
Trpo^rat TOW $e&lt;W, interpretes cultus divini = e^y^rat, with
which it is there combined. In Diod. Sic. i. 2, history is
called Trpoc/np-is -n}s aA^eias, the mouth, as it were, through
which truth is made known. In Plato, Phcedr. p. 262, poets
are called Mouo-wv Trpo^rai. The word is also used of the
interpreter of an author, Themistius, Oral, xxiii. p. 290,
Aptorore /Ws 7rpo&lt;]&gt;r)T7]v, Aristotelis interpretem. Aristoph.
Avcs 972: CTTC COV 7rpo^jr^s, carminum interprcs. The term

Hebrew Prophets Their various designations. 1

is, however, specially used for those who under
stood the broken and dark expressions of the /MXITIS when
in a state of ecstasy, and explained them to others, and
their occupation is called 7rpo&lt;f&gt;7)Tia. It is thus expressly
defined in Plato, Timceus. Ed. Bip. ix. p. 391 seq. Ed.
IJekker, P. iii. Vol. ii. p. 101 seq. (De AYette, 202 a). Cf.
Pindar, /.lai/ret co, Moixra, 7rpo^&gt;r/rei cra) 8 eyto. At an eailier
date among the Greeks this distinction between the //.aims
and TrpofoJT-rjs was not always observed, and a seer in a state
of ecstasy was sometimes called Trpo^r/r^s ; this is observed
and blamed by Plato and others. The proper meaning of
the term Trpo^rr;?, that, namely, which is in conformity with
the general usage of the language, is that which we have
stated, viz., speaker, announcer, or interpreter, and is there
fore the most suitable equivalent for the Hebrew N^V

Roster s opinion is unfounded, that the Hebrew word
would have been more suitably rendered in the LXX by
the term Oeoir POTTOS.

179. Oilier Names given to the Hebrew Prophets.

Elsewhere, the prophet is called " a man of God, DTi^n)
"N. This is in itself a more general expression, which is,
however, used more particularly of one in whom God con
fides, to whom also he manifests Himself in a direct way,
and of whom he makes use to announce His will to others.

In Judges xiii. 6, we have this designation for super
natural beings sent from God to men ; it is, however,
usually used for men whom God makes use of in this way.
Thus, 1 Sam. ii. 27 ; ix. 8, and frequently in the Books of
Kings. There is nothing implied in this designation which
would show that the gifts and employment of these men
related exclusively or even principally to the prediction of
future events ; on the contrary, it simply points to a closer
and more confidential relationship with the Godhead.

The names HN") and njri, which are also often applied to
prophets, are of a somewhat different kind.

The former often occurs as describing Samuel (1 Sam.
ix. 9, if. ; 1 Chron. ix. 22 ; xxvi. 28) ; also for a prophet

1 Cf. Bnrdili, Significatus primitivus vocis irpofp-firris, &lt;tc., Gottingen,
1786. A. Tli. Hortmann, " Micali," newly translated, 1800. Gesenius,

W. C. s. v. &T33, and Schleus .iL-r, s. v. TTPC^TJTTJS, and the works quoted.

8 Origin of the several Books.

Hanani, in the time of Asa, King of Judah (2 Chron. xvi.
7, 10). This expression, also, has no definite relation to
the future, as implying that it was laid open to these men ;
but it merely points out that their view penetrated into
the Divine counsel and mysteries, and that thus they were
in a position to explain them to others.

In 1 Sam. ix. 9, we find an intimation that the name
riN~i was the usual one in earlier times, and that the term
{rilJ was subsequently adopted . " Beforetime in Israel,
when a man went to enquire of God, thus he spake, Come and
let us go nNirny, for nspn D^ &oj9? mn K 23^." From
this the term N Oi does not appear to have come into gene
ral use until a later time, most probably after the age of
Samuel, when the prophets began to lead a more public
life and to interfere more spontaneously in the course of
public matters. For, up to the time of Samuel, this per
sonal and direct illumination only from time to time fell
to the lot of isolated individuals, who generally dwelt by
themselves in a state of seclusion, and, unless they were
asked for advice, lived an almost entirely contemplative life.
The name HN~i seems to point to these peculiarities, whilst
the expression K Oi alludes to a more public course of life,
and to an utterance of those sayings which were revealed
and inspired by the Godhead ; just as in ^Eft, which occurs
in jV Iicati ii. 11 for a prophet, and completely corresponds
with N\2J in etymological signification.

nin and H&n are quite, synonymous. The former ex
pression first occurs in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11, where Gad is called
in nth N^3il. Elsewhere it is only met with in the
Chronicles, arid appears to have become usual in later times,
in addition to the two other expressions.

In 1 Chron. xxix. 29, Samuel is designated as flfrpn, Na
than as NU3H, and Gad as, nthn, all one after the other.
We must not, however, understand by this, that the author
of the Chronicles distinctly intended these three words to
represent three different or differently modified ideas ; the
cause for these designations, doubtless, arose from the acci
dental circumstance, that in the works cited by the author
these various epithets were annexed to the writers names. 1

1 In Knobel, i. 9, various other names for the prophets are stated
in addition to those quoted, such as (a) nSV, HSVP } ")&gt;, spy, watch-

Hebrew Prophets Nature of their Office.

180. Nature of the Prophetic Office.

Among that portion of mankind whose history is spe
cially set forth in the Scriptures, prophets or men directly
enlightened by God existed from the earliest ages. The
most ancient historical books of the Old Testament are
particularly devoted to relating how God manifested Him
self to the pious and believing, and announced to them
in a direct way His will and His counsel.

Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, stand out the most
prominently in this character; next, and above all, Moses,
who is pointed out as a- prophet that had none like him,
either before or after him, who saw Jehovah face to face,
and spoke to Him mouth to mouth. (Num. xii. 6-8 ; Deut.
xxxiv. 10, if.)

, ^ It was not, probably, till the age of Samuel, that the posi
tion of prophets among the Hebrew people was considered
as an actual munus, so that they constituted a special class.
Samuel appears to have formed certain institutions for the
education of prophets, so far as human institutions could
have any influence in the matter. Although it is nowhere
expressly told of him, he is considered as the founder of the
so-called " Schools of Prophets," l and it is usually thought
that the real prophetical ttge began with him. 2

In Samuel s times we find the Nebiim assembled in com
panies ; they wandered about in bands (1 Sam. x. 5, ff.),
and dwelt together, with Samuel at their head, in Naioth

(fl ; Ketib rhJ) ; it is doubtful whether this is the name
of a place near Kamah in Mount Ephraini, or a locality in
the town itself (1 Sam. xix. 18, if.), but the former idea is
the more probable. There were perhaps a number of rural

man, inasmuch as they vigilantly watched over the affair* of the people
of God, and the world generally, and sought by their warnings to avert
evil from the people, &c. ; (6) miT 13^, miT *fK^D. These, how
ever, are not properly names, but only epithets or" poetical expressions.

1 Of. Wilh. Rud. Kranichft Id, De Us, qute in test &lt;mento vetere com-
memorantur, prophetarum societatibus. Berlin, 1861.

* Thus in Acts iii. 24, Samuel is spoken of as the first of the pro
phets; cf. Hebr. xi. 32. Likewise, in the Talm. Hier. tr. Chaggiga,
fol. 77, he is called the teacher of all the prophets. The way in which
Augustine, De Civit. Dei, xvii. 1, mentions Samuel should also be
.-j ecially noticed.

10 Origin of the several Books.

habitations near this town. Just in the same way, in the
time of Elijah and Elisha (850 B.C.), we find the prophets
united in companies, and, at least, partially dwelling to
gether.

2 Kings vi. 1, f. : " And the sons of the prophets said unto
Elisha, Behold now, the place where we dwell with thee is
too strait for us." Verse 2 : " Let us go, we pray thee, unto
Jordan, and take thence every man a beam, and let us
make as a place there, where we may dwell." Bethel is
mentioned as the place where they dwelt in 2 Kings
ii. 3 ; Gilgal in ch. iv. 38 ; Jericho in ch. ii. 5.

The scholars who were being educated as prophets were

8\an8,filu Magorum, scholars of the Magi. These "sons of
the prophets," who were themselves often called prophets,
must have been rather numerous, as may be gathered
from the passages cited. E.g., 2 Kings iv. 43 (100 men
with Elisha), and 1 Kings xviii. 4, in the days of Ahab
and Elijah, " when Jezebel cut off the prophets of the
Lord, Obadiah took an hundred prophets, and hid them
by fifty in a cave, and fed them with bread and water."
Of. also, 2 Kings vi. 1, if. The sons of the prophets appear
here to be all under the guidance of a superior ; as in
former times they were under Samuel, in the same way
afterwards they were under Elijah, and then under Elisha,
whom Elijah himself, during his lifetime, had anointed, at
Jehovah s command, to be a prophet in his stead, 1 Kings
xix. 16.

At a later time we no longer find this living together,
and union of the prophets in associations or schools, but see
only single prophets appearing, and that till a little while
after the conclusion of the Captivity. The last known pro
phet is Malachi, in the middle of the fifth century B.C. After
that time prophetic inspiration ceased among the Israel-
itish people. They themselves had the feeling that the
spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel, and they
waited patiently for the time when a prophet should again
arise who should proclaim Jehovah s words to the people
through Jehovah s own revelation to him (cf. 1 Mace. ix.

Hebrew Propliets Their Mode of Life. 11

27 ; iv. 4(&gt; ; xiv. 41). In the meantime the teachers of the
people contented themselves with interpreting the utterances
of earlier prophets.

With Christianity the spirit of independent prophecy
again awoke. Among the gifts of the Holy Ghost which
prevailed in the Christian Church in the apostolic age, was
the ^a/Hcr/m Trpo^Tyreuxs ; the Trpo^rat are named as a particular
class among those who, in the primitive Christian Church,
were engaged in founding and building up the kingdom of
God.

In addition to the prophets, we find prophetesses also
occur ; thus at the time of Josiah a prophetess, Huldah,
was held in the greatest estimation, 2 Kings xxii. 14 ;
2 Chron. xxxiv. 22. At the time of Nehemiah, a prophetess,
Noadiah, is mentioned by him (but not for good), Keh. vi.
14. So Miriam, the sister of Moses, is called a prophetess,
Exod. xv. 20, and likewise Deborah, Judges iv. 4. Pro
phetesses are also spoken of in the New Testament (Acts
xxi. 9, four daughters of Philip, and 1 Cor. xi. 5).

181. Hebrew Prophets Their Mode of Life, and Dress.

As regards the mode of life of the Hebrew prophets, in
some cases they might have lived by an acquired trade, but
they mostly appear to have found their maintenance by the
collection of vegetables and fruits, and sometimes by free
will gifts from pious Israelites, especially those who sought
advice and help from them, who sometimes also would give
them a hospitable reception (of. 2 Kings iv. 8, if., 38, ff.,
42, ff. ; 1 Kings xiv. 3, if. ; Amos vii. 14 ; cf. Jer. xl. 5).
Their way of lite was, on the whole, certainly very simple ;
yet we cannot exactly believe that every prophet, without
exception, lived in great poverty. 1

In their clothing they had something distinctive in the
wide prophets-mantle, made of i ur or of shaggy hair, par
ticularly that of the camel.

Vide 1 Sam. xxviii. 14 (^VP of Samuel) ; 1 Kings xix.
13, 19 ; 2 Kings ii. 13 (rrn of Elijah) ; ib. ch. i. 8, where,
doubtless in reference to his dress, Elijah is described as a
hairy man, TSJ& fy* B&gt;K, fofo Spatrvs. Cf. Zech. xiii. 4 : "In

1 We may instance Nathan and Isaiah. Cf. Jer. xxxii. 9, in which the
prophet, although only in a symbolical way, buys a field for seven
shekels (of gold) and ten pieces ot silver.

12 Origin of the several Books.

that day the prophets shall be ashamed every one of his
vision, when he hath prophesied; neither shall they wear a
(mantle of fur) rough garment ("W rmN) to deceive."
Elijah is also described as being provided with a leathern
girdle about his loins (2 Kings i. 8). Cf. Matt, iii. 4 ; Heb.
XI. 37. 7T6piY]\6ov iv /AT/AwTais, ev aiyeiois

182. Hebrew Prophets Their Origin.

The Hebrew prophets did not belong to any particular
tribe, nor to any particular region. Some prophets, indeed,
belonged to the priesthood, as Jeremiah (i. 1), Ezekiel (i. 3 ),
Zechariah, son of Jehoiadah (2 Chron. xxiv. 20;. But these
are only isolated cases, and the others belonged to different
tribes, and during the division of the two kingdoms both to
the kingdom of Israel, and to that of Judah. It may often
have been the case, particularly so long as the schools of
prophets were in existence, that the son of a prophet grew
up as a prophet by the side of his father. We do not,
however, find that those who were especially distinguished
for prophetical activity had prophets for their fathers, but
that they came forth without any such origin and without any
previous training for their position, just as the Divine call
fell upon them (cf., e.g., Arnos vii. 14). Their appearance,
however, and their agency generally, were dependent on
their being called by God, and being moved by His Spirit.
Even in those on whom the Divine call to prophetical
activity had once fallen, the inspiration was no lasting-
state of the mind, everywhere attending them, capable
of being called forth by them at any moment in an arbi
trary way, so that the prophet could everywhere and at
every instant supply a solution to every difficulty from an
inner light. On the contrary, he needed everytime a pecu
liar Divine revelation, as it is expressed, " the Spirit of
God came upon him," or " the Spirit of God invested him"
(ntJQ?), or "covered him," or * the hand of Jehovah came
upon him." 1

Luther, in Gen. ch. xliv. (ed. Erlangen, x. 303 sq.)
" usitato proverbio apud theologos dici solet; Spiritus
Sanctus non semper tangit corda prophetarum. Illumina-

1 Cf. as to this, e.g., in Koster, p. 248, if. We evidently see the same
character belonging to the prophets of the New Covenant; cf. 1 Cor
xiv. 30.

Hebrew Prophets Mode of Inspiration. 13

tiones prophetic* non sunt continue et perpetuse, sicut
Tsaias non habuit continuas etastdduas revelationes de rebus
maximis, sed per vices teniponim . Idem testatur exem-
plum Elisfei, cum ait de Sunamitide: dimitte illam, aniuia
enim ejus in amaritudine est, et Doininns celavit a me et
non indicavit mihi (2 Kings iv. 27) ; ibi fatetur Deum non
semper tangere corda prophetarum . Interdum etiam venit
spiritus cum aut cithara aut psalterio luderent et psalmos
quosdam et cantica spiritualia decantarent."

183. Mode of Prophetical Inspiration.

As regards the way in which the prophets received the
Divine illumination, we find it often mentioned in the his
torical books, that God revealed Himself to them while they
were asleep, in dreams. 1 But the usual condition of the
prophets at the time of inspiration was a waking state.
Consciousness and clearness of perception with regard to
the outer world surrounding them is a characteristic attri
bute of this inspiration, by which alone the prophets were
able to set forth to the people in an intelligible way the
purport of the revelation received by them.

This attribute is particularly brought forward by the
apostle Paul (1 Cor. xiv.) as a mark of the Christian
prophets at that time. In this respect he places the inspi
ration of these prophets in contrast with the inspiration of
those yA.wo-0-ats XaAoiWcov. Tn the latter, the consciousness
of the outer world was more or less lost, so that they spoke
purely from an inner self-consciousness. They were not,
therefore, usually able to act as their own interpreters or
explainers of that which they had announced in inspired
language whilst in a state of inspiration, since while in this
state, they had no clear perception of the outer world sur
rounding them, and after its cessation, no distinct recollec
tion of their thoughts and sensations during this condition,
nor of what they had spoken about. Their inspiration was]
in this respect, nearly allied with that of the Greek fuivrii
who needed the Trpwjyqrrp as an interpreter and explainer
of his utterances. Neither the Hebrew nor the New-Tes
tament prophets needed any such aid.

It was not, therefore, necessary that the prophets should
deliver forth the communications which they received at
1 Of. Knobcl, i. 174, ff.

14 Origin of the several Books.

the moment they received them. They could quite as well
deliver them subsequently, some time after the revelation ;
as during the state of prophetical inspiration, they pos
sessed complete clearness and consciousness, and also had a
full and distinct recollection of that which was revealed to
them. The words, 7n/ea;/zaTa Trpo^rwj/ 7rpoc/&gt;r;Tais {m-oracro-CTCu,
must refer to this, 1 Cor. xiv. 32.

The Fathers have justly noticed this characteristic ot
the clear consciousness of the prophets, and have perceived
in it a distinguishing mark between them and the Greek
soothsayers, as well as the Montanist fanatics.

E.g., Chrysostom, Homil. ad 1 Cor. xii. 2 : TOVTO yap ju,ai/Tus
tSiov TO e^eaT^KeVai, TO df ay/&lt;r?J { Tro/xeVeii/, TO wOeicrOaL, TO e/VKCO-^at,
TO (rvpecrOaL &o-rrfp /zaivo/xej/oi/. O Se Trpo^T^s ov% OUTOOS, aXXa
LteTO, Stavotas vr)(f&gt;ov&lt;jr]&lt;; KOL a coc^poi-rn o-^s Karcu7Tao*eoo?, KOL eiotos
a &lt;$eyyeTai c^o-tv aTravra wore /ecu Trpo T^S eK^ao-ews KavrfvOev
yvo)pi,6 TOV fjidvTiv Kol TOV 7rpo&lt;^-rjT7jv. Epiphan. Hear, xlvin.
3. Hieronym. Procem in Jcs. : " neque vero, ut Montanus cum
insanis feminis somniat, prophetse in ecstasi sunt locuti, ut
nescirent quid loquerentur, et, cum alios erudirent, ipsi
ignorarent quid dicerent." Id. in Eplies. eh. iii. 5. Cf.
Bleek s remarks, Theol Stud, und Krit. 1829, i. pp. 57-61.

Hengstenberg (Christoi. 1st Edit.) has incorrectly denied
this characteristic of the Hebrew prophets, and considered,
with Tertullian, adv. Marc. iv. 22, and the Montanists gene
rally, that during their inspiration they were in an ecstatic
state, as the /xavTets of the Greeks, and that in them also,
the suppression of all human activity and intelligent cons
ciousness was a consequence of the spirit of prophecy.
This is absolutely opposed to all the phenomena and inti
mations which the Scriptures both of the Old and New
Testament afford us as to the state of inspiration in the
prophets. Without a great clearness of perception at the
moment of inspiration, and a consequent distinct recollec
tion, the prophets would not have been in a position to
write down afterwards the very purport of the revelation
received, which, at least with many of them, was certainly
not done until after its verbal delivery, and the cessation of
the inspired state.

Hebrew Prophets Mode of Inspiration. 15

184. Prophetical Inspiration by means of Visions.

We also find that revelations were often made to the
prophets in visions, which came to them in a waking state,
in which also subjects and circumstances of the external
world were sometimes placed before them, as symbolical
intimations of the circumstances and destinies of God s
people and the world in general, sometimes also transcen
dental subjects under material forms. Thus, Is. vi ; Amos
vii. ff. ; often in Exekiel ; also Zech. i-vi.

On this point, indeed, many modern interpreters have
thought, and so, as it appears, even Koster (p. 274, flf.) that
where the Hebrew prophets speak of such visions, it is only
to be looked upon as rhetorical or poetical imagery, of
which they availed themselves for the figurative represen
tation of that which they wished to proclaim, without their
having actually had any such vision. This may, of course,
be partly the case, particularly with the prophets of a later
time, who often copied the style of the earlier ones, and
therefore sometimes made use of this device as a mere
literary embellishment. This supposition gains force from
the comparatively greater frequency with which this form
of prophecy is found among the later prophets, and also
from the fact that, the visions related by them are some
times very circumstantial and put together in such a way
that the prophets, although the revelation was actually
made to them in this way, have yet doubtless further amp
lified it. But, generally speaking, any such view is quite
untenable. As a rule, the visions which the Old-Testament
prophets announce, were as surely given to them as those
seen by the apostles Peter and Paul, of which we read in
the New Testament.

A vision is certainly always a kind of ecstatic state, in
which, for the moment, the perception of external things is
withdrawn, and the man is raised to a higher internal con
sciousness. Only, in the Hebrew prophets, this withdrawal
of external perception cannot have existed, even during the
vision, to such an extent that all connection between the
circumstances of their inspired contemplation and the con
cerns of their life was entirely lost. For else, after the
cessation of the state of rapture, they could have retained
no clear recollection of what had been shown to them in

1 6 Origin of tlie several Books.

the vision. They would have been unable to communicate
these visions to others living in the outer world, either by
proclaiming them to them intelligibly, or by writing them
down.

Herigstenberg himself has, in his second edition, essen
tially modified and softened down his earlier opinions, and
denies particularly in reference to 1 Cor. xiv. (vv. 14, 15,
19, 32) the amentia, the absence of intelligent conscious
ness, in the prophets ; although even here he assumes an
ecstatic state in them to too great a degree, and also holds
that all the Old-Testament prophecies were communicated
to the prophets in visions, even those prophecies about
which we have no such intimation.

185. Form and Mode of Delivery of Prophetical Utterances.

As regards the form of the communication and delivery
of the prophetical utterances, a difference is to be observed
corresponding not only to the individuality of each pro
phet, but also to their various epochs, and we find a gradual
change from poetry to prose, and from an oral delivery to
written statements, similar to that found in the history of
Greek literature in general. The utterances of the Nebiim
were originally oral only. They declared by word of mouth
what was suggested to them by the Spirit of God on every
particular occasion ; nor did they themselves, nor any one
else, think of writing down the purport of their utterances
fur those that came after. Therefore, even during the pro
perly prophetical age, from Samuel onwards, some cen
turies elapsed, during which no complete prophetical utter
ances have been preserved to us. The delivery of the (r
prophets in the more ancient times was, however, certainly
of a most lively character, and in lyrical and poetical lan
guage ; and, like the delivery of lyrical poetry generally,
accompanied by music.

Thus, in the age of Saul, the prophets appear marching
along and holding their prophetic discourses to the sound
of psalteries, tabrets, pipes, and harps, 1 Sam. x. 5, ff.
Therefore the verb which properly designates prophetic
language. N33, is also used for an inspired delivery of songs
accompanied by music; e.g., 1 Chron. xxv. 1, "David and
the captains of the host separated to the service of the sons
of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should pro-

Hebrew Prophets Their Mode of Delivery. 17

phesy (D iQSn) with harps, with psalteries, and with cym
bals." So also, it is related of the prophet Elisha (2 Kings
iii. 15), that when he wished to make known a propheti
cal judgment to the king Jehoram of Israel, and Jeho-
shaphat of Juclah, he desired that a minstrel might be
brought to accompany his discourse. We must hardly con
sider this as anything peculiar, or look for any particular
intention in it, as, e.g., to stir up the prophet s inspiration
by the man s playing, or in a measure to curb and soften it
down ; but that it was, at the time, the not unusual mode
of prophetical delivery, just as in the Greek tragedies the
declamation was accompanied by the playing of flutes, and
a still more complete musical accompaniment entered into
the chorus.

How soon the prophets generally began to write down
their utterances, cannot be exactly decided. The earliest
written prophecies which have been preserved to us in the
collection of prophetical books, date about fifty years before
the breaking up of the kingdom of Israel, shortly after
800 B.C. Their authors flourished as prophets contempora
neously, or shortly after one another, partly in Israel and
partly in Judah ; viz. : Joel, Amos, Hosea ; then Micah,
Isaiah, and Nahum.

The prophetic utterances of these prophets were, in ge
neral, originally delivered orally, and not written down
until after they had been delivered ; some of them, perhaps,
very soon after, and some not until a later time ; the pro
phet collecting in a written form the discourses which he
had at different times delivered.

That the discourses were originally delivered orally ap
pears very clearly in some of them (of. Is. vii ; Amos vii.
10, if.).

The language of the above prohpets is poetical (except
when they merely relate historical matter), and possesses the
parallelism of members and other peculiarities of poetical
diction. This is also the case with several prophets of a
later time, up to and after the Captivity, but not to quite
the same extent. In other prophets of the later time, on
the contrary, the language is entirely prosaic, as partly in
Jeremiah, and still more so in Ezekiel, Zechariah, Haggai,
and Malachi.

It may be assumed with certainty, that the utterances

VOL. II. c

18 Origin of the several Books.

of many of these later prophets were first composed in a
written form, without having been previously delivered
orally, as, e.g., Ezekiel, particularly ch. xl-xlviii, also Is.
xl. ff. ; and even in the earlier prophets, the oracles as to
foreign nations are in general of this sort; as it is not
probable that these would have been orally delivered before
they were written down, as they could not have been ut
tered in the hearing of those to whom they were addressed.

186. Symbolical Actions performed by Prophets.

Symbolical actions performed by the prophets also form a part
of the prophetical mode of statement, and served as a more
distinct way of setting forth that which they wished to
make known.

We find this sort of action related in the historical
books of some of the older prophets, before the time to
which the prophetical Scriptures belong. The prophet
Ahijah the Shilonite, when he wished to predict to Jero
boam, that he was to be the ruler of the kingdom of Israel,
and that that kingdom should be torn asunder from the
kingdom of Judah, took the new mantle which he wore
and tore it into twelve pieces, and gave ten of them to
Jeroboam : " take thee ten pieces : for thus saith Jehovah,
the God of Israel, Behold, I will rend the kingdom out
of the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to thee:
(1 Kings xi. 29, f.) There is another example, ch. xxii. 11,
where a certain prophet, Zedekiah, made himself horns of
iron, as signs that, as if with such horns, Jehoshaphat and
Ahab, the united kings of Judah and Israel, should push at
and destroy the Syrians. In the prophetical Scriptures
preserved to us, we find such symbolical actions in Isaiah,
Hosea, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. This occurs in Isaiah only
once (ch. xx), where he relates that he went about naked
and barefoot, in order to warn the people against trusting
in the help of Egypt and Ethiopia, as a sign that the
Egyptians and ^Ethiopians should be taken away captive
by the Assyrians in such a condition. This mode of state
ment occurs more frequently in Jeremiah, and repeatedly
in Ezekiel.

We meet with the same difficulty here as in the visions
of the prophets, viz., whether the prophets actually per
formed these symbolical actions or not. The Kabbinical

Hebrew Proplids Symbolical Actions. 10

interpreters assume that they did not: e.g., Kimclii, Aben
Esra, and particularly Moses Maimonides, who (Moreh Ne-
hochim, part ii. ch. xlvi.) expresses himself fully about these
matters, and declares his opinion that all the actions of
this kind took place merely in visions. Hengstenberg
also, among the modern expositors, adopts the same view.
This opinion, however, is certainly groundless. Others
consider them only as literary embellishments, which the
prophets availed themselves of, but not based on any fact
that had taken place. Staudlin 1 may be specially mentioned
as supporting this view. This, however, just as with the
visions, can only be affirmed with any degree of proba
bility, with reference to later times.

At a more ancient time, as long as the prophetic utter
ances were principally delivered orally, we cannot doubt
that it actually was one of the customs of the Hebrew
prophets to perform symbolical actions before the eyes of
the people, in order to inculcate more distinctly and strin
gently that which they wished them to lay to heart, as the
narratives quoted from the historical books clearly show.
But subsequently, when the lively, oral delivery of the
prophets was generally given up, and when they contented
themselves with communicating their prophecies to the
people in writing only, it is quite probable in itself that
the symbolical actions which they relate were not pre
viously actually performed by them, but that they only
served as literary embellishments of their narrative ; and
in some of them, from the whole nature of the case, this
may be affirmed with tolerable certainty. E.g., in Jer.
xiii. 1-7, where the prophet relates as a symbolical action,
that he bought a girdle and placed it on his loins, and had
gone to the Euphrates and there hidden it in a cleft of the
rock, and when he afterwards came thither again he found
the girdle marred (in reference to the destruction of Judah
and Jerusalem). Ezek. xii. 1-7, in which the prophet on
a certain day provided himself with a travelling equipage,
and in the evening, digging a hole through the wall with his
hand, and carrying his baggage departed in the sight of the
people (in reference to the king Zedekiah being led away
into captivity through the broken down walls of Jerusa-

1 Neue Beitr. zur Erlduterung der Bill. Proplieten. 1791. Pp. 123,
220,210.

2Q Origin of the several Books.

lein). So also Ezek. iv ; Hosea i, ii. Such actions, if actually
performed, would have quite failed of their aim.

187. Purport and Aim of the Prophetical Utterances.

If we now consider the essential purport and aim of the
prophetical discourses, we shall find that they coincide with
the special vocation of the prophets. They were Jehovah s
ambassadors and mediators for the race of Abraham, which
race had received the promise through their ancestors of a
great salvation which should be theirs, and a great blessing
which, from them, should be spread over all the nations of
the earth. With, them also Jehovah had, in the Mosaic
legislation, renewed and strengthened the Covenant made
with Abraham. The vocation of the prophets was alto
gether ethical ; they were to keep the people chosen by
J ehovah faithful to His Covenant, and to maintain them in
it, both generally and particularly ; and when they had
gone out of the way, they were to bring them back again
into the right path, and to keep alive all the theocratically
founded relations between Jehovah and the people of Israel,
in order to lead the people on to, and prepare them for, the
predicted salvation and the destiny thus assigned to them.
For this purpose, their first endeavour was to preserve the
people in the worship of the one, true, living God, to main
tain monotheism in all its purity, and to combat the idolatry,
to which the people, up to the time of the Captivity, were
so much disposed.

We find the prophets Elijah and Elisha very devotedly
engaged in these efforts in the kingdom of Israel, then
separated from the centre of the worship of Jehovah, and in
conflict with the idolatrous kings. (Cf. Jeremiah, Deutero-
Isaiah, &c.)

But the prophets aim was not simply the furtherance of
a mere external worship of Jehovah. They declaimed much
against an adoration of Jehovah which satisfied itself with
offering sacrifices, making long prayers and fasts, and with
the observance of feast-days, but did not, before every
thing, study piety of the heart, and true obedience to God,
which was preferable to all offerings. Thus they watched
with all earnestness over the purity of the morals of the
people, and as their leaders, fearlessly blamed their per
versity and wickedness, chastised their thoughtlessness and

Hebrew Prophets Aim of their Ministry. 2 1

arrogance in their good fortune, and their despondency
and unbelief in their misfortunes, their debauchery, pride,
corruptibility, hardness, &c.

Their ministry, however, was also often directed towards
the political relations of the people, and in this respect also,
they often appear as watchmen. They endeavoured, before
everything, to excite and keep alive both in the people and
in the princes the consciousness, that God the Lord was the
true supreme king over Israel, and that, in all the affairs
of the state, they were to show themselves submissive and
obedient to Him, and that earthly princes were only to be
considered as His vicegerents, and merely had to execute
His will ; but that the people should turn with confidence
to their God before every one, when they were in danger
or distress.

They exercised influence in multifarious ways in the
arrangement of public matters. We see Samuel as the
leader of the entire State. The prophet Ahijah the Shilo-
nite, during Solomon s lifetime, made known to Jeroboam
that he should be king over ten tribes. (1 Kings xi.) The
prophet Elisha, at the time of the idolatrous king Jehoram,
anointed Jehu to be king over Israel. (2 Kings ix.) At a
later time in the kingdom of Judah, they often assisted the
kings of the hou^e of David with their advice and warn
ings. They particularly cautioned them, that in* distress
they were not to expect safety from the assistance of foreign
and idolatrous nations and princes, to which, at that time,
the great men of the people were very readily induced.
Whenever they felt that they were afflicted and oppressed
by any neighbouring powerful state, they were very ready
to purchase the assistance of some other nation a policy
which must have made the enervated Judah still more
the sport of their neighbours, and at last brought on the
destruction of this kingdom, just as of the kingdom of
Israel previously. The prophets, however, forewarn them
against such idle confidence in the help of feeble and also
idolatrous men, and rather counsel patience under the afflic
tions sent by God, and a believing confidence in Jehovah,
their God, who would be ready with His help in His own
good time. 1

1 Cf. Hupfeld, " The Policy of the Prophets of the Old Testament,"
in the Neue Evangel Kir -chenze dung, 1802, No. 22.

22 Oriyin of the several Books.

As a result of these endeavours, of the love of truth re
gardless of consequences which animated them, and of the
candour which they used towards great and small, princes
and people, without distinction, the prophets could not fail
to meet with opposition of every kind, and also to experi
ence considerable persecution ; sometimes on the part of the
idolatrous kings, sometimes on the part of the judges and
great men of the people, when they blamed their injustice,
corruptibility and wickedness generally, or their unpatriotic
and untheocratic inclinations ; and sometimes on the part
of the people, priests, and false prophets.

The Books of Kings tell us, how Ahab, the idolatrous
king of Israel, under the influence of his wife the Sidonian
princess Jezebel, raged against Jehovah s prophets, and
put many of them to death, and repeatedly also attempted
the life of Elijah, who once answered him, when the king
asked him, " art thou he that troubleth Israel ?" " Not I, but
thou, and thy father s house, in that ye have forsaken the
commandments of Jehovah, and thou hast followed Baalim."
(1 Kings xviii. 17, 18). This same Ahab, caused another
prophet, Micaiah, the son of Imlah, to be fed on bread and
water, when he predicted an unhappy conclusion to his war
with the Syrians, which prediction was confirmed by the
result (1 Kings xxii) ; likewise Asa, king of Judah, perse
cuted Hanani the Seer (2 Chron. xvi. 710). Joash, king of
Judah, caused Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, to be stoned in
the court of the temple, when he, in prophetic inspiration,
predicted destruction to the people, because they did not
keep the commandments of their God (2 Chron. xxiv. 20).
The prophet Isaiah was, according to an ancient tradition,
sawn asunder in the time of Manasseh. Jeremiah experi
enced repeated ill-treatment. 1

The opposition and ill-will of the princes and great men
against the prophets, at the way in which the latter openly
opposed them, might sometimes appear justifiable, if the
prophets had come forward only from their own human
impulse in expressing their opinions, advice, and blame.

But they everywhere act and speak in the consciousness

that they are Jehovah s instruments, operating in His name,

and urged on by His spirit, to execute His commands and

to announce His words ; in the consciousness that what

1 Cf. Matt. v. 12, xxiii. 29, if. ; Luke vi. 23, xi. 47, ff.

Hebrew Prophets References to the Future. 23

they did, they dare not leave undone, without being guilty
of the greatest disobedience towards their God.

188. References to the Future in the Prophetical Discourses.

It is a peculiarity of the discourses in the prophetical
ministry, that their utterances have a reference to the future,
and therefore assume an actually prophetical character.
This is the case with those utterances which do not give
advice on any particular occasion as to any prescribed line
of conduct which was to be taken to be delivered out of
affliction or to avert a danger or the like, but only gene
rally warn the people to return to or persevere in the ways
of Jehovah, or rebuke the prevailing depravity. This
is the precise point where a great variety of opinions pre
vails, chiefly in modern times, based on a fundamental
ditference in the mode of interpreting these utterances.
The difference between the opinions prevailing in ancient
times and the more modern views, is generally this that
the former exaggerate the predictive character of the pro
phetical discourses, and the latter throw the Divine illu
mination of the prophets too much into the background.
Eichhorn s view belongs to the latter class, and must be
considered as a thoroughly defective conception. He con
siders almost all the utterances in our prophetical Scriptures,
which have any references to the events of the near future,
as poetical descriptions of events written post eventum.

E.g., in the various statements in the Book of Isaiah, in
which the overthrow of the host of Sennacherib is pre
dicted, Eichhorn thinks that this description of events
as future, is a mere embellishment of a poet who must
have lived at an epoch perhaps considerably later, and
had no other aim in this mode of statement, except to
glorify certain prodigies in this way. But if, in our pro
phetical Scriptures, certain utterances actually occur which
have originated in this way, we cannot avoid considering
them as interpolations ; and even then it would be a
mistaken opinion to regard the intention of their composi
tion as merely an historical or poetical one. This idea
arises in general from a complete misconception of these
scriptures. This is at once evident, if we look at the
narratives in the historical books referring to the age of the
prophets. In them we find clearly, that the Hebrews

24 Origin of the several Books.

considered the prophets as men who were able by Divine
enlightenment to impart positive information with respect
to the future (e.g., 1 Kings xxii ; 2 Kings iii. 1119). It is,
therefore, in the highest degree improbable, that all refer
ences to the future in their writings should bear the character
of predictions only under a false pretence ; and should be in
truth nothing but poetical descriptions of past events. This
opinion appears still more untenable, if we consider the
writings of the prophets themselves, since it is by the
hypothesis of their predictive character that we can best
explain their present shape. The threatenings or promises
which appear sublime as regarding the future, would look
weak or unnatural as a representation of the past.

It is, however, at present pretty generally acknowledged
that this opinion and mode of treatment is absolutely mis
taken, so that it is not necessary to further refute it.

189. Consideration of the various Opinions as to the Pro
phetical Predictions.

There are two other views which appear more plausible.
One of these regards the references to the future in the
discourses of the prophets, as the product of the human
wisdom of these men, of their experience and judgment in
the different circumstances of life, both of individuals and
of the people, which enabled them from a view of the past
and present to throw a correct glance into the future.
The other, however, finds in these discourses of the pro
phets nothing but purely human hopes and fears dictated
by their patriotism and poetic fancy, without any concern
whether they were fulfilled in futurity or not. The two
ideas are, perhaps, allied to another ; yet they do not give
the full truth.

As regards the former, it certainly cannot be denied that
many of the prophets, as Samuel, Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah,
and others, were distinguished by great experience in
human affairs, and by a corresponding insight into dealing
with them. Their position in the State led to this, and
they were therefore often able, even when they were not
enlightened by any peculiar Divine revelation, to give very
wholesome advice for the judicious guidance of public
matters, both internal and external. But it would be,
nevertheless, quite wrong to consider the discourses of the

Hebreiv Prophets Views as to their Predictions. 25

prophets relating to the future as the mere result of re
flection and intellect.

There is abundant evidence that they very well knew
how to distinguish between the results of their own human
intellect and the suggestions of a higher illumination ;
since often, when they were asked as prophets for informa
tion as to the future, they owned that they were unable to
give it until the Spirit of God had descended upon them,
and God s hand had been laid upon them. The nature also
of the prophecies now extant is such that we are by no
means induced to consider them as the work of an intellect
carefully taking account of external scenes ; on the contrary,
they were the result of a living faith and a Divine inspira
tion. Otherwise the prophets would hardly have clung with
so firm a hold to the principle that, even in the most threaten
ing dangers for the State, human help and power could
avail nothing, and that confidence in Jehovah and His
assistance was alone necessary, nor would they have dis
suaded the people with such zeal from making treaties with
foreign heathen nations, even when from them alone, ac
cording to the outward circumstances, prevention from
destruction appeared to be in any way to be expected.

The second opinion finds support in. the fact, that if we
examine the prophecies as to the future which are pre
served to us, we find many things in them, the exact fulfil
ment of which we cannot point out in the succeeding history,
and much even which can be proved either certainly or
with probability, not to have been fulfilled in the way in
which it was predicted by them.

Ancient interpreters have often been led to adopt very
forced explanations from the idea that the predictions must
be fulfilled in every single feature, and have split up the pre
dictions into their several parts, referring one part to quite
different circumstances and times from another, although
they are both closely connected together in the statement
of the prophet. In doing this, they often leave the order
and succession of the separate parts of the prophecy quite
unnoticed, so that they refer to the earlier event the pre
diction which is the later in the prophetical delineation, and
the later to the earlier ; finally, in one and the same pro
phetical delineation, they arbitrarily take one feature of it
quite literally and attach peculiar importance to the

26 Origin of the several Books.

special literal fulfilment of it ; whilst in another passage
immediately connected with the former, they insist on a
figurative interpretation, without any sufficient reason
being shown from the contents and context of the prophecy
itself for these different kinds of interpretation. The re
sult of such a mode of interpretation is, that every detail
perhaps is proved to have been fulfilled, but, at the same
time, not the whole in the connection and relation in which
it appears in the prophecy itself ; for all the several widely-
separated events and circumstances, to which, in this way,
the separate features of one and the self-same prophecy are
applied, do not when combined issue in a state of things
at all corresponding to that to which the whole prophecy
appears to us to point, if we look at it in its entire cha
racter, aim, and connection. Harmony of interpretation is
entirely disregarded in. this mode of treatment, and the re
proach has not unjustly been made, that if we were to deal
with the completely poetical delineations of heathen poets
in the same way, just as literal a fulfilment could be shown
as in the Biblical predictions.

Jf, however, we push this to such an extreme as to
conclude that all particular fulfilments of the prophecies
are merely accidental, such a conclusion is just as little
to be accepted as the forced interpretations made of them
particularly by the ancient interpreters ; and for this rea
son, because such a view would not at all accord with
what we know historically about the character of the
prophets. From the fact that the contemporaries of the
prophets often applied to them for information about the
future, and consulted them as the month-piece of Jehovah,
we perceive that a correct prevision and prediction of the
future, and indeed of those separate future events of which
they could have no foreknowledge by a judicious calcu
lation of past circumstances, but only through some higher
illumination, were regarded as requisites in a prophet. If
then, that which the prophet predicted as to the future
never came to pass, he was estimated as nothing but a
false prophet 1 Kings xxii. Jer. xxviii. 9 : " When the
word of the prophet shall come to pass, then shall the
prophet be known, that the Lord hath truly sent him."
l)eut. xviii. 20-22 even gives us a law [which, in this
form, like the repetitions of the law in Deuteronomy gene-

Hebrew Prophets Views as to their Predictions. 27

rally, probably belongs to the prophetic age], according to
which a fal.se prophet is to be punished with death, and such
a prophet is tw be recognised by that which he announces
in the name of Jehovah not taking place.

Added to this, there are many of the prophecies pre
served to us, of the genuineness of which there can be no
doubt, in which unconnected future events are predicted
with great confidence, in such a way that it can be clearly
seen that no doubt prevailed in the prophet s mind as to
the certain and exact fulfilment of his prediction, and that
he was led to this by a higher confidence than could be
inspired by human judgment and forecast.

Of this sort, e.g., are the prophecies in Isaiah as to the
closely impending destruction of the kingdoms of Israel and
Syria, which he predicted with great confidence at a time
when the two kingdoms appeared particularly strong by
their treaty with each other, and, as a testimony thereof,
announced the birth of a boy (ch. vii) ; besides the re
peated predictions as to the destruction of the mighty
hosts of Sennacherib king of Assyria which besieged Jeru
salem, and the deliverance of the state from the greatest
distress. Among these predictions, those in ch. xxix. 18
appear to me particularly noteworthy, where he foretells
that a long time hence Jerusalem should be besieged by a
foreign host and pressed very hard, but that the latter,
just as they believed they were getting possession of the
city, should be scattered and annihilated ; for this pre
diction, from its whole character, appears to have been
uttered before any danger showed itself from this quarter.
Further, the exact predictions in Jeremiah as to the return
to their home of the people led away into exile, &c., and
still more in Ezekiel. So we also find in the New Testa
ment that those who are pointed out as prophets foresaw
future events by means of the gift granted to them, as
particularly Agabus (Acts xi. 28; xxi. 11).

190. General Character of the Prophetic Discourses.

I have before intimated ( 178), and, in considering the
different names for prophets in use in Hebrew, have par
ticularly called attention to it, how little the oral ministry of
the prophets must be looked upon as limited to the predic-

28 Origin of the several Books.

tion of future events spiritually seen by them. This clearly
results from 1 Cor. xiy, where Paul speaks circumstan
tially of the 7rpo&lt;f&gt;riT.vew in opposition to the yAwcrcrats AaAeu/ ;
but with regard to the former, he does not bring into any
prominence the gift of predicting the future, but rather
that of discerning and discovering the secrets of men s
hearts ; which was also a gift of the Old-Testament prophets.
But even in those discourses of the prophets which contain
a reference to the future, the predictions of future events
are by no means always so exact as those in the single
examples previously quoted, and still less is foretelling
the future the sole or peculiar aim of their discourses.
For it was not their chief intention to make disclosures
as to the future in order to satisfy curiosity ; but where
such disclosures are made, it was done to meet some parti
cular necessity, to warn the people of some pernicious
counsel, or to comfort them in distress. It is by far most
commonly the case that their predictions as to the future
are bound up with further instructions, admonitions, warn
ings, or censures, and act only as a powerful motive for the
latter.

The chief ideas which they bring forward in this respect
are the same as those on which the Mosaic laws are based,
viz., that Jehovah had chosen the seed of Abraham as His
peculiar possession, as a race sanctified to Him, and destined
to become the salvation and blessing of the world : that
He made them find their reward in the fulfilment of His
commands, and their punishment in the disobedience
to His will, but that lie would visibly show His grace
and compassion on those who turned to Him in sincere
penitence.

Thus, then, the prophets appeared everywhere in their
predictions as the announcers both of God s justice, and also
of His mercy and love to His people, sometimes the former
predominating, and sometimes the latter, according to the
different circumstances. "When the people were in misery
and need, although by their own faults, if they only turned
again repenting to their God, the prophecies have chiefly a
comforting, supporting, encouraging character; when, on
the contrary, the people, induced by external security,
lived in arrogance and forgetfulness of God, the prophecies
are rebuking and threatening, and announce the Divine

Hebrew Prophets Nature of their Discourses. 29

judgments; yet even in these the threats are mostly fol
lowed by comforting promises.

The prophets, however, did not content themselves only
with expressing these ideas in merely general terms, and
we mostly find them more distinctly specified ; e. g., it is
stated what sort of punishment Jehovah had destined for
the princes or the people who had hardened and blinded
themselves against Him, and what foreign nation was to be
called in for their chastisement, or what sort of happiness
He would award to those who persevered in His ways, or
turned again to Him. These descriptions are, however,
often given in such a way that the exact fulfilment of their
separate features cannot everywhere be shown, unless
we resort to the very forced method employed by the
ancient interpreters of examining the surface only, and
giving interpretations which dislocate the connected por
tions of the prophecy. We must not, however, as has
previously so often been done, leave un considered the poetic
element which the prophets employed as the vehicle of
their predictions. This involves the conclusion, that al
though their chief object was only to establish some general
ideas, as, e.g., that God would punish the wickedness of the
people, and would deliver the steadfastly pious and faithful
put of their danger and suffering, yet that they would
individualize these thoughts in a poetical way by a more
lively and graphic mode of statement, such as naming the
prescribed kind of punishment and the exact way of
rescue, without personally wishing to have any further
importance laid on these special features, or considering
that the truth of their prophecy would be dependent on
the fulfilment of them.

As to this, it is very natural that the form of the special
descriptions in these predictions should be, as a rule, settled
by the then present historical circumstances by which the
prophet was surrounded. \Ve must mostly explain it
psychologically, and as arising from the state of things
existing at the time of the prediction, how the prophet
was induced, e.g., to threaten the Divine vengeance in
this or that way exactly, or to announce the invasion of
this or that foreign nation. It would, however, be wrong-
to assume as a rule that the prophets were wont to de
scribe the details of their predictions exactly in the way

30 Origin of the several Books.

in which it would be most probable that they would be
individually fulfilled, from a judicious consideration of the
political circumstances. They were wont rather to express
them in the mode they thought best fitted to make the
wholesome impression on the people which they had in
view. Thus, e.g., they do not threaten them with the
invasion of those very nations which, at the time of the
utterance, were hostile to and menacing the Israelites, and
from whom, according to outward appearance, danger was
the most readily to be feared ; but often rather with those
nations against whom they wished to warn the people or the
king, when the latter was thinking of turning to them for
help, or of forming a closer union with them.

191. Messianic Predictions Their Character.

At this point we must particularly take into consideration
the Messianic predictions, or predictions of salvation. These
are, in the wider sense in which I provisionally use the
word, all those predictions which refer to the realization of
that salvation which was promised to the people of God
in Abraham. And in this sense, almost all the predictions
of the Hebrew prophets have properly a Messianic character.
The longing after deliverance, and after the full appearance
of the Divine salvation and the Divine rest, pervades the
whole history of the Israelites, as they, with justice, cher
ished the feeling that all the promises given to Abraham
were by no means fully realized by the taking possession of
the land of Canaan (cf. also Heb. iv. 8) ; and this longing
more or less prevails in the predictions of all the prophets,
and forms the horizon to which every glance is directed.

But in details we find that this expectation shaped itself
in different ways in different times and prophets :

First, (ft) there are many predictions in which the great
salvation which God had reserved for His people appears
almost entirely or predominantly conceived and represented
as of an external political character, as a victory over
all outward enemies, and a glorious re-constitution of the
Israelitish commonwealth, connected with a remarkable
fruitfulness of the land and similar Divine blessings.
There are others, on the contrary, in which the expec
tation has taken a purer and more spiritual shape, and
principally expresses the promise of the blotting out of all

Hebrew Prophets Messianic Predictions. 31

misdeeds, and the cleansing from sin and the sanctification
of men.

Next, (6) this longing first relates to the people of Israel,
the seed of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as the race chosen
by Jehovah; and in many predictions these only, the
natural descendants of the above patriarchs, are spoken of,
as those to whom the deliverance and the salvation should
be awarded. In others, however, the prophets glance
stretches further, and they predict that other nations also,
even tho.se who then stood hostilely opposed to Jehovah s
people, should likewise have a share in Israel s salvation,
and should be accepted into God s kingdom, which should
spread itself over the whole world.

^ Finally, (c) as regards the bringing about of this salva
tion ; in most of the predictions this is ascribed to Jehovah
Himself, the Divine Defender of Israel, without distinct
prominence being given to any human deliverer. There
are others which express the hope that, under the Divine
assistance, the triumph of the worship of the only true God
should be completely or partly accomplished, and the glory
and salvation assigned to the people of the Covenant should
be made ready for them through some person then exist-
i n &gt; e -0-&gt; tne king sitting on the throne, or through a num
ber of persons, as, e.g., the true servants of God generally ;
and others, also, in which the bringing about of this salva
tion is bound up with the appearance of some single future
deliverer, particularly a ruler out of the family of David.

These latter predictions are those which, in the closer
sense, are called Messianic. But the other predictions
mentioned are also with justice likewise numbeied among
the Messianic ones, so far as the longing which is expressed
in all of them, and the expectation on which they are all
based, find their essential fulfilment only in the salvation
proceeding from the Messiah, which came into the world
with Christ.

But, as regards the various modifications with which
this expectation is expressed in the prophecies, these must
sometimes be looked at by regarding the respective ages to
which the predictions belonged, and the circumstances among
which the prophet ministered. Thus, e.g., in the prophetic
utterances threatening the scattering of the people, or in
those which were themselves composed at the time of the

32 Origin of tlie several Books.

Captivity, the promise of Messianic salvation is bound up
immediately with that of the return of the people out of
exile. These variations sometimes belong merely to the
individuality of the several prophets ; as in several prophets,
as, e.g., in Joel, Amos, Zephaniah, Obadiah, Nahum, Ha-
bakkuk, and Haggai, also Isaiah xl. ff., there is no dis
tinct promise of an} single future person as a Deliverer
and Saviour. But even in one and the same prophet, this
promise is at times framed in different ways in different
predictions, and sometimes one way and sometimes the
other is made the more prominent.

192. Messianic Predictions Special Details as to Time,
Circumstances, &c.

In a certain way also, the different modifications in which
the bringing about and form of the future great salvation
is depicted in detail may be considered as the poetic side of
the statement of the Messianic hope. But it cannot be
overlooked, and must not be left unnoticed, that even this
is connected with the incompleteness of the prophetic
perception generally. All prophetic intuition, as we are
acquainted with it in the Holy Scriptures of the Old
Covenant, has something imperfect and limited about it;
e/c /xepoti? Trpo^r/revo/xev, 1 Cor. xiii. 9.

This is usually acknowledged with regard to the time. In
this respect the prophecies are usually so framed that they
have a perspective character, great developments and cata
strophes, occurring at considerable intervals of time, appear
ing to be brought close together, or to be quite intermixed.

When chronological statements occur in genuine, un
altered predictions, they are mostly of a general nature,
employing round numbers of a somewhat sacred character
seventy being a favourite number which cannot be in
tended literally by the prophets themselves, as may be
proved pretty exactly from the details.

The limitation of the prophetical view, apart from the
relations of time, is usually not less evident in the rest
of their delineation of the future event, and of the nature
and manner of its bringing about. This is particularly the
case with the Messianic predictions. If we view these by
themselves, and compare them not only with one another,
but also with the nature of the actual salvation which

Hebrew Prophets Messianic Predictions. 33

appeared, we shall see plainly that it has not pleased
Divine Providence to allow any one of the Hebrew pro
phets to conceive this future salvation, and the whole
glory of Him by whom it was to be brought about, in such
clearness as is granted to us now that it has come into the
world. The prophets themselves belonged to the Old
Covenant, and although their glance is always directed
towards the new one, yet what was communicated to them
by revelation as to the nature of it, has always more or less
been perceived by them as through a veil, and not with
that clearness in which it is now disclosed to us.

This is also intimated in 1 Peter i. 10, in which we see
that the prophets themselves did not perceive, as clearly
revealed, the time and circumstances to which the purport
of their predictions referred. Therefore even the Saviour
Himself speaks of the least in the kingdom of God as
greater than John, whom he styles as the greatest of the
prophets, i.e., of the Old Covenant: Matt. xi. 11; Luke
vii. 28. In 2 Peter i. 19, the prophetic word is appro
priately compared to a light shining in a dark place ; but
this light is distinguished from and opposed to the bright
ness of the morning star, the light of day, which would not
arise until its fulfilment.

This explains how it is that the purport of the Gospel in
the New Testament is spoken of, especially by Paul, as
something, on the one hand, revealed of old to the prophets,
and also as a /xvo-r^piov, which, kept in the counsel of God,
had been hidden from all, and was not revealed until after
the appearance of Christ, when it would be still more and
more plainly revealed. It was disclosed that God intended,
in His own good time, to cause a great salvation to appear ;
and this is expressed in every prophecy of those prophets
who have intended, by means of their utterances on these
points, to strengthen and confirm the people in faith and a
steadfast fidelity to the worship of the true God, even in
tribulation and grief, and to stir up and maintain in them
the longing after the future salvation. But the exact mode
in which this salvation was to be shaped was ever a ^o-n?-
piov, about which none of the Old-Testament prophets
were able to give any distinct and clear information. The
references to this in their utterances are to be taken as
proceeding more from the human individuality of the

VOL. II. D

34 Origin of the several Books.

several prophets ; they express rather the particular way
in which the various prophets conceived the Divine revela
tion of that great salvation by means of their human indi
viduality. Thus there is a great variety in these ideas, and
the separate features in the Messianic predictions are shaped
in very different ways in different prophets.

193. Messianic Predictions Their proper Interpretation^

Assuming 1he correctness of these remarks, we may
gather from them how we ought to proceed in the interpre
tation of these predictions. On the one hand, we must
always holdfast to the consciousness that Jesus Christ, and
the kingdom of God founded by Him, is the aim of all these
predictions, and that it is He in whom alone all the hopes
and aspirations shown in these predictions were to find,
and indeed could alone find, their complete satisfaction.
On the other hand, we cannot expect that we shall be in a
position to prove the exact fulfilment of all the separate
details in these predictions in the person and history of
Christ. It would be vain for us to attempt this. We
must not, however, leave unconsidered all the various and
special statements in the details of these predictions, since
it is only by them we can discern in what way and with
what modifications the hope of the Messiah shaped itself in
the different prophets, and, historically, what course this
hope had taken under the Divine guidance, from its first
budding until it found its fulfilment in and with the ap
pearance of Jesus Christ. This part of the question, indeed,
which in former times has been frequently overlooked,
should rather be the most prominent with us in the expla
nation of the details, as the chief importance of these
Messianic predictions for us is that they bear testimony to
the fact that God, before the appearance of Christianity,
led on the Israelites in the old time by the eyes and
lips of men raised up by Him until the time of the arrival
of this salvation ; whilst they can be of less service to us in
teaching us the real essence and nature of this salvation
itself; for tliis we must look rather to the history of its
appearance.

It might however be, perhaps, regarded as difficult, or
quite impossible, to determine in the prophecies generally
whether any part was to be taken as a distinct special pre-

Hebrew Prophets Special Messianic Predictions. 35

diction, or only as serving to express a general thought.
There are, of course, some cases in which there might be
some doubt as to this at first ; but, by an impartial and
careful consideration of the context, and of the actual
aim of the different prophecies, the means of decision is
usually spontaneously afforded. Thus we may most cer
tainly assume that any portion is to be taken as a special
prediction, if the prophet states that the confirmation of his
truth as a Divine ambassador is dependent on its fulfilment,
as, e.g., Is. vii. 14. AVhere, however, the case so stands
that it is not easy to make a certain decision in this respect,
no stress is to be laid upon it.

In forming our idea of the prophets, it is essential that
no doubt should be entertained of their being men enlight
ened by God" in a direct way, and that as such they could
receive and communicate information as to various events
of the future. But whether they made use of this gift in
this or that case, is not very important to us in a religious,
or even in an historical point of view, as these predic
tions were not given to us for historical investigation, any
more than the Messianic predictions for instruction as to
the being and person of the Saviour. But in general it is
undeniable that cases of this kind of special predictions are
comparatively seldom found in our prophetical Scriptures,
and they were perhaps always only rare. What Jsitzsch
(System der Christl. Lelire, oo) intimates is, therefore, very
apposite that the distinct gift of prediction must always
be kept subordinate in revelation, and must show itself
rarely and moderately, or else its whole relation to history
would be destroyed. In our endeavours, therefore, to
prove that certain special facts in a later age correspond
with the separate details of this or that prophecy and are
to be looked at as their fulfilment, we must not go further
than we are led by an impartial consideration of the pro
phecy itself in its natural connection, and we must not
generally lay too great a value on it in comparison with
the rest of the purport of the prophetical utterances. 1

At all events we have no reason for supposing that, in
the prophecies of the Old-Testament prophets, any special
predictions occur as to events happening after the com-

1 The remarks of Nitzsch (ut supra, ed. 3, IF., against Hcngstenberg)
are appropriate.

36 Origin of the several Books.

mencement of the New Covenant. For the sum of all the
predictions of the Old Covenant have their aim and end in
the New, and are, for the most part, fulfilled by its institu
tion. If it did not please the Divine wisdom to impart to
any one of the prophets of the Old Covenant a thoroughly
clear and lucid disclosure, either as to the commencement
of this New Covenant or the appearance and person of the
Saviour who founded it, it is still less probable that God
would have caused them to have a clear perception of cir
cumstances which occurred still later, in times which had
been so entirely altered in comparison with any earlier
epoch, by the intervention of that great event ; as every
thing that occurred subsequently was necessarily connected
with the mode in which this event had shaped itself. My
meaning, however, is not that these prophecies were com
pletely fulfilled in the first establishment of the Chris
tian Church by the Saviour becoming flesh ; for they
certainly will not find their full accomplishment until the
consummation of God s kingdom at the end of time. But
the question here is only as to the predictions of certain
special events ; and among the Old-Testament prophecies
we certainly cannot expect to find any which relate to
events happening after Christ.

194. Method of fixing the Dates of the various Prophetical

Writings.

We have still one point to consider briefly the dates of
the prophecies. 1 Most of the prophetical Scriptures of the
Old Testament are provided with superscriptions, in which
the age to wnich the prophets belonged is generally stated,
according to the kings under whom they lived ; and some
part of them have special superscriptions or introduc
tions fixing the time exactly at which, and the circum
stances among which, the prophecy was issued. The
prophecies of Haggai are distinguished the most exactly
in this respect, according to the year, month, and day.
There are, however, some of the prophetical Scriptures
which do not contain any such statements, and in which
we know nothing about the date and circumstances of the
author from assured historical information derived from

&lt;pf. Bleek s work, "The Song of Moses, Deut. xxxii. 1-43," pp.
251 250.

Hebrew Prophets Dates of their Writings. 37

other quarters, as, e.g., Joel, Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk,
Malachi. In other cases, the age to which the prophet
belonged is stated generally, but nothing exact as to the
times in which their different utterances took place : added
to this, in many of the superscriptions of this kind it is
doubtful whether they proceed from the prophets them
selves, and to what extent they are authentic. It becomes
a question, therefore, how to ascertain the dates of the
different prophecies, where this is not made known by
historical evidence, or at least not in a trustworthy way.

Of course a more exact study of the character of the lan
guage will help us in this as affording a proof of an earlier
or later age. This criterion of the date always has, how
ever, something very uncertain in it. The chief rule, there
fore, which we shall use in this investigation is the result
of our previous consideration of the nature of the Hebrew
prophesying; viz., the two points (a) that the aim of
the ^ Hebrew prophets in their utterances was throughout
ethical, having in view the condition and necessities of
their people; and (6), that during their inspiration they
always retained a clear consciousness, and in their con
sciousness were never mentally isolated from the external
circumstances surrounding them. From these points we at
once gain the rule that, in the utterances presented to us,
we should take notice of those circumstances with which
the actual prophecy is bound up, which are presupposed
in it as present and well-known ; we can then look upon
these as constituting the state of things surrounding the
prophet, at the time of uttering or composing his prophecies.
If these circumstances clearly point out and are charac
teristic of any particular age, or any particular date in
preference to any other, we may thus ascertain the date
of the composition.

Thus, e.g., if we find prophecies in which the people of
Judah are spoken of as having lived for a long time away
from their homes among foreign idolatrous nations, and in
which Jerusalem, together with the temple and the other
cities of Judah are described as lying in ruins, in which,
however, the people are comforted by the intimation of
their liberation, return to their land, and re-institution
of their state and temple, all closely impending according
to the Divine counsel, we can then infer with certainty

38 Origin of the several Books.

that the above are utterances of a prophet at the time of
the Babylonian Captivity.

Yet even the employment of this rule will often fail
to lead us to any very sure decision. Firstly, the circum
stances then existing are not usually expressly stated in
connection with the prophecy itself, but at the most are
only hinted at, and, as a rule, merely inferred ; they are
therefore, often not easily to be discerned. Secondly, in
the very deficient sources which are at our disposal as to
the history of the people of Israel, there are only a small
number of its epochs of which we have any knowledge
sufficiently detailed and certain to enable us to draw a
lively and distinct picture of the circumstances of the people
at any particular age or date. Therefore, although some
particular circumstances may be clearly prominent in a
prophecy, yet we are not always in a position at the same
time to state with certainty to what particular epoch these
belong. In prophecies, therefore, which do not precisely
state their date in the superscription or historical introduc
tion, there frequently remains, in respect to this point,
more or less uncertainty and indecision.

But still we must keep close to the above rule, and by
its means follow out the investigation of the dates of the
several prophets and their predictions, so far as is possible
from a study of the then existing circumstances ; and we
must also make use of this rule in order to prove the cor
rectness in this respect of the superscriptions of the different
prophecies.

Among the opponents of the principles here developed,
there are, among the modern interpreters, Hengstenberg,
and others who followed him. Their opinion is (also in the
2nd edit, of the Christol.*), (a) that the circumstances of the
future were always represented to the prophets in the form
of vision ; and (6) that the prophet was transported by his
vision into the various circumstances of a future, often far-
removed, and prophesied prospectively from this stand
point, assumed by him as then present. Thus, for example,
prophets who lived long before the Babylonian Captivity,
were able to take their stand-point at this epoch, and from
thence predict things impending still more remotely, treat
ing nevertheless of the atfairs of the Captivity as then
present.

Hebrew Prophets WorJcs under their Names.

The assumption, however, is certainly erroneous, or at
least not at all demonstrable, that the substance of their
prophecy was always communicated to the prophets by
way of vision. We have no right to assume that the com
munication was by actual eyesight, except where they
themselves relate that visions were afforded them. In other
prophecies we are not entitled to suppose, nor is it at all
probable, that they were revealed to the prophets exactly
in this form.

Even in the actual visions of the Old-Testament prophets,
we do not find any such transference into the circum
stances of another and much later epoch, but always a
close relation to those of their own time and its wants.
This is still more the case in the prophecies of another
class. Although in these, the prophet sometimes appears
to transport himself out of the circumstances then immedi
ately existing, and to consider as present the facts revealed
to him, which he really intends to predict as imminent,
this was only for the moment, and the object was merely
to depict the fact poetically, and in a more lively and
graphic way. Moreover, whenever this took place, to
those immediately round him and his contemporaries, to
whom his discourse always referred in the first place, the
matters treated of in it and the circumstances which were
spoken of, were always perfectly clear. Besides, such a
view as that of Hengstenberg and his followers, would
preclude the possibility of ascertaining the dates of the
several prophecies from their substance. The ethical cha
racter of the Hebrew prophesying would also be, in this
way, as good as lost.

195. TJie Authors of the Prophetical Scriptures.

As regards the prophetical Scriptures in our Canon, the
persons under whose names they have been preserved to
us, are as follows, (a) in the second division of the Canon,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve so-called Lesser
Prophets, and (6) in the Hagiographa, the Lamentations of
Jeremiah, and Daniel.

It has been seldom, if ever, questioned, that the greater
part of these scriptures are, in general, the works of the
men whose names they bear, viz., Jeremiah, Ezekiel. and the
lesser prophets, with the exception of Jonah and Zechariah.

40 Origin of the several Books.

With regard to the Book of Jonah, amongst all the variety
of opinions about it, it has been generally so far acknow
ledged, that it has been adopted into the collection of pro
phetical books, because the contents of it relate to the
history of a prophet ; and its name is assumed to refer not
so much to the possible author, as to the chief person who
appears in it. With regard to the Book of Daniel, the
authenticity of the whole ^ork and its origin have been,
in modern times, the subject of continuous controversy ;
and it is questionable, whether the whole of the prophecies
contained in the Books of Isaiah and Zechariah, belong to
the prophets Isaiah and Zechariah, who are named in the
superscriptions of the books as their authors, or whether
some parts of them are not by other prophets of other
times.

We shall treat of these books in general according to
their order of succession in the Hebrew Canon ; we shall,
however, make our investigation of the Lamentations fol
low immediately after that of the prophecies of Jeremiah,
and we shall consider the Book of Jonah the last of the
lesser prophets ; and conclude with the investigation of the
Book of Daniel.

THE BOOK OF ISAIAH.

196. Isaiah His Name, Family, and Date of his
Ministry.

The name of Isaiah, by which the first of the properly
prophetical books is called, both in the printed editions of
the Hebrew Old Testament and in the translation of
Luther, is in Hebrew, -ITO^, or in the abridged form in
which it is written as the title of the book, iT^" - Je
hovah s salvation ; in the Greek, Ho-aias, or more" correctly,
Ho-cuas, in the Latin, Etaias, also Isaias ; Luther writes
Jesaia.

Isaiah was the son of Amos, pDK (ch. i. 1 ; 2 Kino-s xix.
2 ; xx. 1), otherwise unknown. 1 He appears to have had
his regular residence in Judah, and indeed in Jerusalem, cf.,
as pointing to this fact, ch. vii. 3, if., xxii. 1, if. It follows
from ch. vii. 3, viii. 3, 18, that he was married and had
several sons ; indeed from ch. vii. 14, if., in comparison with
v. 3, that probably he was twice married.

The age to which Isaiah belonged is stated in the super
scription relating to the whole book (ch. i. I), as the reigns
of Uzziak, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. The
first named died about 759 B.C., and Hezekiah reigned from
728 to 699 B.C. We possess clear evidence of the ministry of
Isaiah in the reign of Ahaz and Hezekiah, partly given by
express statements in his prophecies (and in regard to
Hezekiah s reign, in the second Book of Kings) (ch. xix. ff.),
and partly by the clear traces of date afforded by the con
tents of the various utterances.

\Ve find Isaiah particularly active in the first year of the
reign of the idolatrous king Ahaz, when Judah was assailed
and hard pressed by the allied kings of Syria and Israel,
Rezin and Pekah ; and the king of Judah, in opposition to
the warning of the prophet, had purchased the help of
the Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser. By his means, Judah
was, indeed, delivered from the momentary distress, and

1 Not to be confused with the prophet Amos (DlOy), with whom
many ecclesiastical authors identify him, because the two names are
written in the same way iu Greek and Latin ( A^uSs, Amos).

42 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

their enemies were humbled ; but, at the same time, they
became more and more oppressively dependent on the
Assyrians, from whom, they suffered much at the time of
Hezekiah, after the kingdom of Israel had been completely
broken up by the Assyrian king Shalmanezer, in the sixth
year of the former king. Express statements show that
the ministry of Isaiah was especially and very influentially
directed to the relation of Judah with the Assyrians, and
particularly to the distress arising from this nation under
Sennacherib in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah.

King UzziaJi is again named (besides the superscription)
in ch. vi. 1 ; and the year of his death is mentioned as the
time when the vision there related was vouchsafed to the
prophet. This vision has quite the character of being an
ordination of the prophet to his prophetic office, as if
it commenced at this time. Yet, I think that it may be
assumed with the greatest probability particularly com
paring an analogous indication of the time, ch. xiv. 28
that this vision is not intended to be " before the death of
the king, in the year in which he afterwards died," as it is
understood by the ancient expositors, but, " in the year in
which he died ;" so that it would have happened soon after
Uzziah s death, at the beginning of Jotham s reign. There
fore the statement in the superscription ch. i. 1, as it now
stands, proceeded doubtless not from the prophet himself,
but from some later compiler, and must be considered as
inaccurate, the days of Uzziah being therein named as a
portion of the time in which Isaiah s prophecies were
uttered.

Apart from this statement, ch. vi. 1, Jotham and his reign
are not expressly mentioned in any of the prophecies of
our book, nor is there in any of them internal evidence to
lead us to suppose that they belonged to the succeeding
years of this king. It may be, therefore, that the prophet
did not commit to writing his prophetical deliveries made
at that time, or that they are now lost to us.

The latest period at which we find any certain state
ments as to Isaiah s prophetical ministry is in the reign of
Hezekiah, after the retiring of Sennacherib s host from
Jerusalem, and after Hezekiah s illness and recovery ; on
the occasion of an embassy from the Babylonian king
Merodach-baladan to the former, when Hezekiah, out of

Period of Isaiatis Ministry. 43

vanity, showed the ambassadors all his treasures. Then, it
is related, Isaiah predicted to him the impending Babylo
nian bondage of the people of Judah, which ensued about
125 years after (2 Kings xx ; Is. xxxviii. f.). This occurred
in any case, some time after the 14th year of Hezekiah,
(71 4 B.C.), therefore at least 46 years after Uzziah s death,
at which time Isaiah received his calling as a prophet.

No further express statements are to be found as to
Isaiah s ministry during the remaining part of Hezekiah s
reign, embracing 15 years more. Yet we cannot doubt
that he continued to exercise his prophetic office even till
the reign of Manasseh. For we know that Isaiah wrote a
history both of Uzziah and also of Hezekiah ( cf. 62, 63).
The former is quoted 2 Chron. xxvi. 22, and the latter
2 Chron. xxxii. 32. We see from the words of this latter
quotation, that what he had written concerning Hezekiah
had been adopted into the great work of the " History of
the Kings of Judah," and from the way in which it is
mentioned as containing " the rest of the acts of Hezekiah,
and his pious conduct," we cannot doubt that it was a
very complete work, and not composed by Isaiah until
after the death of the above king. An ancient tradition
corresponds with the above, which tells us that Isaiah
lived on uniil Manasseh s time, and died a martyr s death,
being sawn asunder at the king s command.

[The same tradition occurs in the Talmud (tr. Jelamoth,
f. 49, 2 : Sanliedr. f. 103, 2), and in the Rabbis as well as in
Justin Mart. (Dial. c. Trypli. p. 349) ; Tertull. (de Patientia, c.
14), and other Fathers, and in an apocryphal book ascribed
to Isaiah, Ava/SariKov, in about the second century after
Christ, which has been preserved in an ^Ethiopian version
as well as partly in an ancient Latin translation (v. as to this,
De AVette, 214, Notes, and Liicke (Introd. to the ApocaL
Edit. 2, 16). Not improbably the tTrpio-Oyo-av, Heb. xi. 37,
refers to this.]

The fact itself, from the idolatrous and cruel character of
Manasseh, is not at all unlikely, although it cannot be con
sidered as certain. In our book, and in the Old Testament
generally, there is no express evidence of any ministry
of Isaiah in the reign of Manasseh. This, however, does
not prove that it may not have lasted so long. At this time
the prophet would have attained a very considerable age,

41 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

as much as 80 years at least, but there is no improbability
in this.

197. Nature of Contents Its three Sections.

As regards the Old-Testament book preserved to us under
the name of Isaiah, by far the greatest part of it consists of
prophetical utterances, and there are only four chapters
of historical narrative. It divides itself, at first sight, into
three chief parts :

A. Chapters i-xxxv. A collection of separate prophetic
utterances, sometimes furnished with particular super
scriptions and short historical introductions, and sometimes,
without this, they are divided from each other by their
substance, and show themselves to be different prophecies
referring to different times, subjects, and circumstances.

B. Chapters xxxvi-xxxix. An historical fragment of
the history of Hezekiah, relating to the siege of Jerusalem
by the Assyrians in the fourteenth year of this king, the
deliverance of the city, the illness and recovery of Heze
kiah, and the Babylonian embassy to him.

C. Chapters xl-lxvi. Contains nothing but prophetic
utterances, but more intimately connected with one another
than the prophecies in the first part, by one joining on to
the other, and all of them referring substantially to the
same dates, viz., to the last period of the Babylonian Cap
tivity of the Jews, and their deliverance therefrom.

198. Question as to Unity of Authorship.

All these elements of our book were formerly attributed
to one and the same author, the prophet Isaiah, the son of
Amos. Only Aben Esra 1 has given some slight intima
tions, which allow his opinion to gleam through, that the
prophecies of the last part have for their author a later
prophet, at the time of the Babylonian Captivity. No
regard, however, has yet been paid to these hints. Quite
independently of him, however, similar opinions in refer
ence to these prophecies have been brought to bear by
many Protestant divines of Germany, since the last twenty

1 In his "Commentary on Isaiah," chaps, xl, xlix, lui; cf. Geiger,
in the " Scientific Journal of Jewish Theology," edited by him, Vol. 2
(Frankf. 1836), pp. 553-557.

Unity of Authorship questioned. 45

rears of the last century. They have denied Isaiah s author
ship of various portions even of the first division, and
have attributed them to other prophets and times. Other
authors have, indeed, controverted this, and have earnestly
endeavoured to vindicate the integrity of the book, and the
unity of the authorship in all its divisions. 1 Yet, I be
lieve that an unprejudiced consideration could not rest
satisfied with these traditional opinions ; particularly in
reference to the third division (ch. xl-lxvi). Basing our in
vestigation on the rule previously ( 194) laid down, if we
pay due regard to the circumstances presupposed, with
which the actual prophecy is connected, we shall clearly see
that these prophecies do not belong to Isaiah or to his age.
We shall find circumstances alluded to quite at variance
with the state of things in Isaiah s age, and correspond
ing to a condition of things that did not exist at all till
towards the end of the Babylonian Captivity.

Although the external circumstances of the remote
future were clearly unveiled to the prophet, there are
in this division no predictions, as one would have ex
pected in prophecies of the age of Isaiah, intimating that,
as had happened with the kingdom of Israel, Judah should
also be broken up, and the people carried away to Babylon,
and that Jerusalem and the other cities of Judah should be
destroyed. All this appears as if it had already taken place
for some considerable time, Jerusalem and the other cities
of Judah are lying in ruins, and the predictions declare
that they should be again built up. The Jewish people are
addressed as if they were in Babylon, rejected by their
God on account of their sins, a prey to their enemies, and
hemmed round by idolaters ; and they are comforted by the
prediction that Jehovah would yet again be moved to pity
His own people, that He would deliver them, and bring
them back again to their native land. It is not anywhere
predicted, as from the stand-point of Isaiah might have
been expected, that, in the course of time, the Babylonians

1 Thus, keeping only to the German Protestant divines, Hengsteuberg
( Christol. Vol. 2 ) ; Kleinert ( " On the Genuineness of the whole of the
Prophecies in the Book of Isaiah," 1 vol. Berlin, 1829); Havernick-
Drechsler ("The Prophet Isaiah," 3 parts, 1845-57); Keil; Stier
("Isaiah not Pseudo-Isaiah," "Interpretation of Chapters xl-lxvi"
Barmen, 1850 , &c.

46 Origin of the several Boohs Isaiah.

should get the dominion instead of the Assyrians, and that
they should use their power for the enslaving of the Jews :
but the Chaldeans appear as if already at the summit of
power, although their destruction was now near, and it is
merely predicted, that anon the Divine judgment would fall
on them, especially on account of their cruelty towards the
Dews. The Persian king Cyrus is here pointed out, and
twice indeed even mentioned byname (ch. xliv. 28 ; xlv. 1),
as the deliverer of the Jews out of the Babylonian slavery,
and as the conqueror of the Babylonians ; but it is nowhere
predicted that, at some future time, a prince of the name of
Cyrus should arise, and he appears as if already existing
and well known to all, as distinguished by Jehovah by
his former victories, and as a prince to whom the eyes of
all were directed. All that is predicted of him is, that,
impelled by Jehovah, and with His assistance, he should
soon humble the might of the Chaldeans, destroy Babylon,
dismiss the Jews to their homes, and again build up Jeru
salem and the Temple.

This being the nature of the prophecies in Is. xl-lxvi,
we are, in my judgment, perfectly entitled, if not com
pelled, to come to the decision that they cannot belong to
the age of Isaiah, but to a considerably later time, the cir
cumstances of which are so clearly presupposed as present ;
viz., to the last period of the Babylonian Captivity.

At that time, half a century had already elapsed since
the breaking up of the state of Judah and the destruction
of Jerusalem, during which the stock of the Jewish people
were in exile in Babylon. Many Jews appear to have so
settled themselves there that they had lost all longing to
return to their desolated homes ; and these had so closely
connected themselves with the idolatrous people among
whom they lived, as even in part to take to their worship,
or at least "to the adoration of images; some of these were
indifferent spectators of the conflict of Cyrus with the
Babylonians, while others sided with the latter.

Those Jews were far less numerous who, like the pro
phet, kept firmly faithful to Jehovah, even in exile, and
who observed the law of their God, so far as it could be
done without a temple and without the offering of sacri
fices, particularly by hallowing the Sabbath, and by the
particular observance of those fast-days which reminded

Authorship of last Section. 47

them of the punishment decreed by Jehovah on their
nation, and also by an abstinence from everything which
had reference to idolatry. These cherished the longing
after their native land, the re-institution of the temple, and
the worship of Jehovah, and so much the more, the more
they had to suffer persecution on the part both of their
heathen tyrants and of the mass of their own fellow-coun
trymen. From the beginning, they followed the move
ments of Cyrus against Babylon with warm sympathy, and
were the more inclined to recognise in him an instrument
raised up by Jehovah for their liberation, as the religion of
the Persians was much more nearly allied to the mono
theism of the Jews than the religions of the other heathen
nations, and they entertained the same detestation of the
adoration of idols as the stricter observers of the law
among the Jews.

Thus our prophet repeatedly praises Cyrus as a prince
especially favoured by Jehovah, whom He had ordained to
humble Babylon, to bring back to their homes the captive
Jews, and restore again to them Jerusalem and the Temple.
At the same time he repeatedly attacks idol and image-
worship most energetically, and represents it in its vanity
and folly with striking and almost sarcastic irony, pointing
to Jehovah as the only living, almighty, all-seeing God, who
aforetime had caused to be predicted what now was on the
point of taking place, the victory over heathenism, and
the freeing of His people, whose deliverance would be de
layed only by the continual sinfulness in the midst of them.
Yet, that Jehovah would certainly bring this to pass; that
He would atone for the sins of the people, and so make
them fit to be partakers of the great salvation destined for
them, which is here directly bound up with the return of
the people out of Captivity, and, like this return itself, is
gloriously depicted in poetical imagery.

199. Authorship of the third Section of the Boole.

That all this series of prophecies have one and the
same author may be inferred from the great similarity in
the style and language which, in general, pervades the
whole ; this is also acknowledged by far the greatest part
of those who deny Isaiah s authorship of this section ; cf.

48 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

Knobel s Jesaja, p. 299, ff. Edit. 3. In this respect, however,
we must remark as follows :

(1) We may assume with the highest probability of the
section Ivi. 9-lvii. 11 [as Ewald also thinks], that it was
originally composed perhaps by Isaiah himself, as a pro
phetical utterance before the Captivity ; probably not long
before it, but at all events at a time when the kingdom of
Judah still existed ; as the purport and form of this portion
can only be understood on this supposition.

The enemies of the people of Judah are therein sum
moned to approach and swallow them up, which would not
be difficult for them to do, as the watchmen of the people,
to whom their safety was confided, were asleep and quite
blind to all danger, and unable to warn them against it. 1
This throughout presupposes the existence of the kingdom
of Judah ; likewise, in ch. Ivii. 6-11, Jerusalem is spoken
of and described as a harlot committing uncleanness with
idols : vide also the same v. 3. Also the way in which,
ch. Ivii. 1-10, the unlawful offering of sacrifice is spoken of
generally as a worship in high places, and v. 5, and also
probably v. 9, as the (Ammonitish) worship of Moloch,
agrees more with what we find in the prophets before the
exile, especially just immediately before it, than the mode
in which in the rest of this series of prophecies idolatry is
represented in its ridiculous point of view. There is no
sign, besides this, that the Israelites carried on the worship
of Moloch at the time of the Captivity. 2

It is, however, very probable, that this utterance was
adopted by the author of the above series of prophecies
(ch. xl Ixvi), and was inserted among his own discourses ;
perhaps, indeed, precisely on account of the earnest threaten-

1 Cf. as to this, "Lectures on Isaiah," on this passage: "If this is
the sense of ch. Ivi. 9, ff., it appears to me that it is impossible it
could have heen written in one connection with what precedes. It is
absolutely incredible, that the prophet, after the promises that no evil
of any kind should again hurt the people (ch. Iv), that the time of
salvation was quite near, in which even the foreigners among the
people should partake (ch. Ivi. 1), should now suddenly summon up
foreign nations to devour his people," &c.

2 Cf. "Lectures on Isaiah": "From all this, since my first lecture on
Isaiah, 1820-21, 1 have come to the conclusion that this section, which
by its language is clearly distinguished from the prophecies near it,
was originally written before the destruction of Jerusalem." Umbreit
also confesses that the passage seems somewhat extraneous.

The Author of the Last Section. 49

ings in it directed against the idolatry of the people, which
in his time also was very prevalent, although carried on
in a somewhat different form.

(2) As regards the author of this series of prophecies,
we cannot doubt that he was not in Egypt at the time of
its composition, 1 but on the whole in Babylon itself. The
author, however, may have become acquainted with the
circumstances of the land of Judah at that time by his own
observation. Also, these prophecies were, in all pro
bability, written by the author in the very order in which
we have them, yet not quite all at one and the same time.
The first part, at least to ch. xlvii. inclusive, was certainly
written before the taking of Babylon by Cyrus, and per
haps much of what follows. It is not improbable that the
latter part, on the contrary, was not composed until after
the capture of the city of Babylon, when the hope of the
speedy liberation and glorious restoration of the Jewish
people had not been immediately realized. At a some
what later time, after a part of the people, and the prophet
among them, had already returned to Palestine, come per
haps the last chapters, from ch. Iviii. onwards ; more cer
tainly, however, the four last chapters, Ixiii-lxvi, which
are generally more distinct from the preceding ones, as
different prophetical utterances complete in themselves,
but perhaps likewise by the same author.

(a) Ch. Ixiii. 1-6. A beautiful effusion, and complete
in itself, announcing the Divine judgments on the heathen
nations, and particularly on the Edomites. In it, verse 4,
" For the day of vengeance is in mine heart, and the year
of my redeemed is come," renders it very probable, that
the composition occurred at a time when the people of the
Covenant had been for a long time in oppression and cap
tivity, and perhaps shortly before they were delivered out
of it. A prediction against the enemies of the people would
be very likely to take this particular form against the
Edomites, as, at the breaking up of the state of Judah, the
latter showed themselves peculiarly hostile and malicious
against the Jews.

1 This is the opinion of Ewald, who considers him as a descendant
of those who went down to Egypt with Jeremiah, and also of Bunsou
&lt;Gott in der Geschichte, Part i.;, who identifies him with Baruch
former minister of Jeremiah.

VOL. ii.

50 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

(1) Ch. Ixiii. 7-lxv. fin., first to Ixiv. fin. Confession
of the sins of the people, and the prophet s intercession for
them. In v. 10 of ch. Ixiv. the destroyed temple is spoken
of as that " in which our fathers praised thee," and yet
there is no intimation that the author was in exile. This,
very probably, belongs to a time, when, by the first of the
returning exiles, a beginning, though only a feeble one,
had been made in the rebuilding of Jerusalem. - Ch. Ixv.
is connected with this in which Jehovah answers these la
mentations and entreaties. The substance of this likewise
makes it most probable that the author, as is generally
assumed, no longer lived in exile, but in Palestine, and
that it was composed at a time when a part of the Jews
had returned out of exile, and had united with the other
part who were in the land ; at a time, however, when the
new state found itself still in continual need and distress,
which the prophet considers as the just punishment of
their continual sinfulness.

(c) Ch. Ixvi. is of similar purport with ch. Ixv. Every
thing in it points to a prophet who lived in Palestine, in
Jerusalem, or its neighbourhood, at a time when sacrifices
were again offered there (vv. 3, 6, 20), namely, on the altar
of burnt-offering, erected there by the returned exiles ; and
also, perhaps, at a time when the rebuilding of the temple
had been begun.

200. Review of Contents Chapters i-xii.

The first principal division of the book, ch. i-xxxv, con
tains, as we have already remarked, various separate utter
ances, and there are many among them which cannot belong
to Isaiah and his age, because the circumstances of another
time appear presupposed in them as present. As to the
details, I will only here give a few short notes. This part
may be most conveniently considered in three sub-divisions :
ch. i-xii, xiii xxiii, xxiv-xxxv.

I. Ch. i-xii. This sub-division contains, according to the
most probable view of it, eight different prophecies, sepa
rated from each other sometimes by particular superscrip
tions, and sometimes, without these, only by their contents.
With the exception of a short fragment, ch. ii. 2-4, all this
division contains nothing but the genuine words of Isaiah.

Review of Contents. 51

The different utterances are as follows :

(1) Ch. i. Threatening and warning discourses spoken
to Judah and Jerusalem ; after Jehovah had sent a heavy
punishment on the land, most probably either at the time
of Ahaz, after the inroad of the Syrians and Israelites into
Judah, or still more likely, at the time of Hezekiah, in the
fourteenth year of this king, after the departure of the
Assyrians out of the land of Judah. The comparatively
more general bearing of this utterance was, perhaps, the
cause for placing it at the beginning of the whole book, as
a sort of proem to it.

(2) Ch. ii-iv. This, from the superscription, is also a
discourse about Judah and Jerusalem, a threatening of the
Divine judgment against the debauchery and idolatry pre
valent in the land, with a conclusion, however, promising
new blessings; most probably uttered in the reign of
Ahaz, a considerable time after the inroad of the Israelites
and Syrians into Judah, when this kingdom was again
strengthened from without by the help of the Assyrians.
The utterances of Isaiah, however, do not begin until ch.
ii. 5. ^ The preceding verses, 2-4, containing a Messianic
promise in a wider sense, again occur, with almost verbal
agreement, Micah iv. 1-3. How this is to be explained is
very doubtful. I, however, think (a) that it may be as
sumed with tolerable certainty that the passage in Micah
is ^the original one, as in his book it stands with a verv
suitable context, and (6) that it formed no part of the
prophecy of Isaiah, either originally, nor as borrowed by
the prophet from some one else; but that it was inter
polated into the Book of Isaiah by some later reader or
compiler ; first, perhaps, it was placed in the margin, and
thence, subsequently, got into the text.

(3) Ch. v. Parable of the vineyard, in reference to
Israel and Judah, joined with threatening discourses against
the people, especially against the great men in Jerusalem,
without any promise being added; probably at the later
period of the reign of Ahaz.

(4) Ch. vi. The vision, in which the prophet was ini
tiated into his vocation, in the year of Uzziah s death, i.e.,
at the commencement of Jotham s reign (v. above); the
record in writing of this vision most probably did not take
place until later, perhaps even in the reign of Ahaz.

52 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

(5) Ch. vii. A discourse which is provided with an
historical introduction, by which it appears to be of the
time of the attack of the united kings of Syria and Israel
upon Judah, at the time of Ahaz, and most probably at the
beginning of his reign. The prophet predicts to the king
the sure destruction of these enemies, and points out to
him, as a testimony of the truth of his announcement, the
birth of a boy from a no?y, probably the bride or young
wife of the prophet himself; and then at the conclusion
threatens the entire devastation of the land by the Egyptians
and Assyrians. This threatening, w. 17-25, is connected
with what goes before in a very abrupt way, so that we
may assume, perhaps with probability, that in the oral
delivery, something else stood between them.

(6) Ch. viii. 1 ix. 6. Likewise belonging to the reign
of Ahaz, but one or two years later than the previous pre
diction. The prophet threatens the Israelites who were
hostile to the house of David with devastation at the hands
of the Assyrians, admonishes Judah and Israel to confidence
in Jehovah, and concludes with a Messianic prediction,
and with the promise of the deliverance of the people,
especially of those tribes of the kingdom of Israel which had
already been severely oppressed by the Assyrians, and also
of the entire victory over their enemies, through some future
glorious prince, who should reign for ever as a righteous
ruler on the throne of David.

(7) Ch. ix. 7-x. 4. An utterance against the kingdom
of Israel, which Jehovah would punish with defeat and
captivity, and by causing the members of the people to
rage one against the other. This is probably some years
later than the previous discourse, when the people had some
what recovered themselves from the attacks of Tiglath-
pileser.

(8) Ch. x. 5-xii. 6. This discourse, from its purport,
was given in Hezekiah s reign, after the breaking up of the
kingdom of Israel, probably in the 14th year of Hezekiah,
at the beginning of Sennacherib s campaign against Judah.
The prophet threatens the Assyrians on account of their
haughtiness and the oppression exercised upon his people,
predicts to them the frustration of their enterprise against
Jerusalem, and concludes with the promise of the birth of
a Messiah from the stern of David, under whom general

Review of Contents.. o3

peace should prevail on the earth, to whom even the heathon
nations .should gather themselves together, and with the
promise also of the return of the scattered ones of the people
of Israel to their native land. There is no reason for con
sidering, with some interpreters, that the last part of this
section, eh. xi. and xii, or, with Ewald, only ch. xii, are
nothing but later additions.

201. Review of Contents Chapters xiii xxiii.

II. Ch. xiii-xxiii. This sub-division contains, with the
exception of ch. xxii, further prophecies against or about
foreign nations, such as those in the other prophets. Jer.
xlvi-li ; Ezek. xxv xxxii. Most of the discourses in this
division are distinguished from the other prophecies of the
Book by the word NSS D being used to describe them in the
superscription. This may, perhaps, have been added by
the compiler of this division ; yet here also, all the several
discourses are not divided from one another by superscrip
tions. This division most probably comprises fifteen dif
ferent discourses, several of which cannot be by Isaiah.

(1) Ch. xiii. 1-xiv. 23. Predicting the destruction of
the city of Babylon and its king by the Medes, the de
liverance of the Jews out of the hard bondage of the Baby
lonians, and their return to their native land. The con
tents decidedly show that this discourse belongs to the
last period of the Bab} lonian exile, yet before the capture
of the city of Babylon by Cyrus ; and that it was composed
by a prophet who himself lived in the Babylonian country,
but not perhaps in the city itself.

(2) Ch. xiv. 24-27, relates to quite different circum
stances from the preceding prophecy, and is, without doubt,
just as the one after it, a genuine utterance of Isaiah;
from its purport, it clearly relates to the invasion of the
Assyrians into Judah at the time of Hezekiah, and predicts
that Jehovah shall destroy them in His land. This dis
course is perhaps a little later than that in ch. x. 5 xii. 6,
and was given at a time when the Assyrians were already
in the land.

(3) Ch. xiv. 28-32. According to the superscription, " in
the year of Ahaz death," which without doubt means for
the substance of the prophecy shows it after the death

54 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

of the king. This discourse is directed against the Philis
tines, and is intended, as it appears, to warn them not to
exult too soon in the death of Ahaz, for in the person of
his son and successor, a still more dangerous adversary
should arise against them.

(4) Ch. xy, xvi, against the Moabites, a prediction of
the impending desolation of their country, against which
they would vainly turn for succour to their idols. The last
verses of the section, ch. xvi. 13, 14, contain an epilogue,
in which it is predicted, that the destruction of Moab,
beforetime threatened by Jehovah in the preceding pro
phecies, would take place in exactly three years. Opinions
differ very much as to the date of the composition of the
prophecy itself, and as to its relation to the epilogue. It
appears to me most probable that (a) the body of the pro
phecy is either by Isaiah, or at least in his age ; composed
at the time of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser, when the
latter, in the first year of Ahaz, made his warlike invasion
of these districts ; (6) that the epilogue, however, although
in the language it reminds one of Isaiah, was not added
till a considerably later time, perhaps not until about the
time of the Babylonian Captivity.

(5) Ch. xvii. 111. According to the superscription is
an utterance against Damascus. But from the purport of
it, it is not against the Syrians of Damascus only, but also,
and even more decidedly, against the kingdom of Ephraim,
which, like Damascus, should be visited with desolation, as
a righteous punishment for forgetting their God and attach
ing themselves to foreigners. This utterance is without
doubt by Isaiah, in the reign of Ahaz, most probably com
posed when the Assyrians, sent for as succour by Ahaz, had
already entered Syria.

(6) Ch. xvii. 12-14 forms, as it appears, a separate utter
ance ; it is directed against hostile nations, most probably
against the Assyrians in their attack on Jerusalem in the
14th year of Hezekiah.

(7) Ch. xviii. A very obscure utterance, which, how
ever, probably relates to the same period of time as the
preceding one, and refers to the hostility of the Assyrians
against Judah and Jerusalem at the time of Hezekiah, and
to the annihilation of their hosts through the ^Ethiopians
coming to the help of the Jews, of whom the prophet

Eevieic of Contents. 55

predicts that they shall acknowledge Jehovah s power, and
shall offer oblations to Him at Jerusalem.

The two discourses (6 and 7) are, without doubt, by
Isaiah, and were composed at about the same time, most
probably after the defeat and flight of the Assyrians.

(8) Ch. xix, as to Egypt, at first rebukes and threatens,
and, after v. 18, conveys promises, stating that Jehovah
should be acknowledged and worshipped even on the part
of the Egyptians, and also on the part of the Assyrians,
both of whom should join in a glorious alliance with Israel
for the service of a common God, and all three should be
acknowledged and blessed by Jehovah as His people. The
origin and integrity of this prophecy is doubtful. But we
may assume with the greatest probability, that the whole
of it, as we have it, is a genuine utterance of Isaiah; it
was probably given in the latest period of the ministry of
the prophet, when the power of the Assyrians was already
weakened, after the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, perhaps
not until the reign of Manasseb.

(9) Ch. xx. The narrative and interpretation of a sym
bolical action, which the prophet performed by command
of Jehovah, in order to intimate that the Egyptians and
^Ethiopians should be carried away by the Assyrians with
a scanty equipment. From the superscription, this belongs
to the reign of Sargon, an Assyrian king, whose name does
not elsewhere occur in the Old Testament ; he must, how
ever, either be the same as Shalmanezer, or else a king
who reigned for a short time between Shalmanezer and
Sennacherib. From verse 1, his army besieged Ashdod,
a frontier fortification of the Philistines against Egypt.
The Jews were perhaps, as well as the Philistines, much
ill-treated and oppressed by the Assyrians, and hoped for
deliverance through the Egyptians; the intention of the
prophet, however, is to warn them, not to put their confi
dence in men who were also idolaters, but only in their
God.

(10) Ch. xxi. 1-10. As to the overthrow of Babylon
by the Elamites and Medes, which the prophet predicts for
the comfort of his oppressed and ill-treated people; this
prophecy belongs, without doubt, to the last period of the
Babylonian Captivity, and is, not improbably, by the same
author as ch. xiii. 1-xiv. 23, only perhaps rather earlier,

56 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

(11) Ch. xxi. 11,. 12. An utterance against Dumah, an
Ishmaelitish tribe in Arabia, and

(12) Ch. xxi. 13-17 against Arabia. Nothing certain
can be ascertained from their purport as to the date of
these two utterances ; there is no peculiar reason for deny
ing that they were written by Isaiah.

(13) Ch. xxii. 1-14. A threatening prophecy against
Jerusalem, of a hostile investment of the city, probably
the siege by Sennacherib. The Jewish army had probably
already fought with the enemy, and a part of them had
been taken captive, and a part driven back. This was
delivered perhaps rather later than that ch. x. 5, ff., perhaps
also than that ch. xiv. 24-27.

(14) Ch. xxii. 15-25, against a certain Shebna, then
prcefectus palatii, governor of the palace ; the threat is
made to him, that Jehovah would punish him by remov
ing him from his office and by a foreign banishment, and
would raise up another man in his place, Eliakira, the son
of Hilkiah. The latter filled this office at the time of the
siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib (ch. xxxvi. 3, 22;
xxxvii. 2), so that this utterance must have taken place
at an earlier time than that, before the fourteenth year of
Hezekiah.

There is no question that both these two utterances in
ch. xxii. belong to Isaiah.

(15) Ch. xxiii, as to the overthrow of Tyre. The date
of this prophecy is very doubtful. By the way, however,
in which the Chaldeans are mentioned in v. 13, it is very
probable, in my judgment, that it is not by Isaiah, to
whom Gesenius, Umbreit, Knobel, and De Wette (Edit.
2, IF.), attribute it, but that it belongs to the time of the
Chaldean dominion, and to the age of Jeremiah; from
v. 18, however, it must have been composed before the
destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple, perhaps during
the reign of Jehoiakim. It has always seemed probable
to me, that this is an utterance of Jeremiah s, and Movers
also takes the same view (in the " Theolog. Quarterly
Journal," 1837, pp. 506-537), and endeavours to prove it
precisely, from its belonging to the fourth year of Jehoia
kim.

Review of Contents. 57

202. Review of Contents Chapters xxiv-xxxv.
III. Ch. xxiv-xxxv. The prophecies comprised in this
sub-division are of different purport and dates. They are
best divided into three portions : ch. xxiv-xxvii ; xxviii-
xxxiii ; xxxiv, xxxv.

(1) Ch. xxiv-xxvii. These four chapters form, probably,
one continuous prophecy. In its contents it presents con
siderable difficulty-. Probably, however, it is not by
Isaiah, but of a later time, and written by a prophet living
in Judah or Jerusalem, after the destruction of the Assyrian
kingdom, when the Jews had to suffer much from other
hostile nations, probably from the Egyptians. The prophet
considers this as the sign of a general judgment, which
God would bring upon the earth on account of the sins of
men, as to which the hope is expressed that Jehovah, the
punishment being accomplished, will again accept His
people, and, destroying their enemies, will make Jeru
salem a meeting-place for all nations, and will dry up
every tear, and annul death itself. The composition pro
bably took place at the time of Josiah king of Judah, or
immediately after.

(2) Ch. xxviii-xxxiii. This section contains various
separate prophecies, which are probably the purely genuine
productions of Isaiah, and of the reign of Hezekiah.

(a) Ch. xxviii. 1-22. An utterance which was made
before the destruction of Samaria, but perhaps only a
short time before, when ruin was approaching the city.
He begins with a threatening discourse against it ; its prin
cipal .part, however, is directed against Judah and Jeru
salem, particularly against the filthy, profligate, frivolous
offenders among the people, including even the priests and
prophets, whom Jehovah would unexpectedly destroy by
the means of foreign nations, and that those only shall dwell
quietly who trust in theocracy, the assured comer-stone
laid in Zion by Jehovah.

(6) The remainder of the chapter (xxviii. 23-29) forms a
separate utterance ; it is really no prediction, but a Maschal
an instructive poem, which does not, as many interpreters
imagine, seek to lay down the dealings of God with man,
but much more unmistakeahly relates to human actions,
and, in the works of the husbandman, desires to illustrate

58 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

the truth that everything has its proper time and way for
doing it, and that man can neither do the same thing con
tinually, nor all and everything in the same wa}^. .,

Then follows, (c) in ch. xxix. 1-8, a prophetical utter
ance against Jerusalem (Ariel), spoken probably about a
year before Sennacherib s attack against the city, the pro
phet predicting this distress to the city, as well as the
repulse and annihilation of the besieger.

(d) Ch. xxix. 9-24, against the wicked among the
(Jewish) people, whom Jehovah would strike with blind
ness, and within a short time would destroy by judgments
in the midst of the people, which would serve to convert
the latter, and bring them back to their God.

(e) Ch. xxx. and (/) xxxi. 1 xxxii. 8 relate to the same
circumstances; the prophet blames the great men of the
people, who, in the conflict with the Assyrians, instead of
trusting in Jehovah, sent ambassadors to Egypt to purchase
help from thence; also, generally, the obstinate are rebuked,
who would not hear the prophets, except they prophesied
according to their desire. He predicts that Jehovah Himself
will protect the city and overthrow the Assyrians ; and
that then justice and righteousness should prevail in Israel,
and that blindness should cease among men.

({/) Ch. xxxii. 9-20. Penal and threatening language
against the luxurious women in Jerusalem; a prediction of
the desolation of the land and city, and then of the return
of fruitfulness, and at the same time of peace and righteous
ness by the means of Jehovah s Spirit, and the destruction
of the haughty (the enemy, perhaps the Assyrians).

(h) Ch. xxxiii. belongs probably to the time when the
siege of Jerusalem by the host of Sennacherib had already
begun, and predicts the annihilation of the enemy, which
shall take place before the eyes of all, so that even the
wicked in Jerusalem shall be amazed at it, and the pious
shall dwell securely under Jehovah s protection; also that
Jehovah will guard and defend His city.

(3) Ch. xxxiv. and xxxv. Threatening of a judgment
which Jehovah shall bring on the nations, particularly the
Edomites, on account of the hostility which they had
shown towards Zion ; also an announcement of the return
to Zion of the scattered members of Jehovah s people, and
tho blessings which would be there awarded them. The

Review of Contents. 59

purport leaves no doubt that this utterance belongs to a
considerably later time than that of Isaiah ; there is, how
ever, no distinct reason for attributing it to the last period
of the Babylonian Captivity, as ch. xl. tf. It may have been
spoken in the first year of the time of the exile, shortly
after the destruction of Jerusalem, or even before this event.

203. Review of Contents The Historical Section.

So much as to the first principal division of our book.
The two prophetical divisions of the book are divided by
an historical section (ch. xxxvi xxxix), narrating events
in the reign of Hezekiah, from Sennacherib s campaign
against Jerusalem in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, to
the illness and recovery of this king, and the Babylonian
embassy to him. These events are also related 2 Kings
xyiii. 13-xx. 19; only that Hezekiah s song of thanks
giving (Is. xxxviii. 9-20) on his recoveiy is wanting.
Excepting this, the two accounts agree completely, and
mostly verbally, so that there can be no doubt that either
one author took it from the other, or both from a common
source. Now it can hardly be maintained, as many inter
preters assume, that the author of the Books of Kings took
this fragment out of Isaiah ; because the composition of
the Books of Kings took place earlier than the present form
of the Book of Jsaiah; added to which, where there are
variations between the two texts, the form in the Books of
Kings shows itself to be, in by far the most cases, the more
original (v. as to this, Gesenius and Knobel). So it is in
the highest measure probable that the indubitably genuine
song of Hezekiah did not originally belong to the narrative,
but was inserted in the already existing history, not, indeed,
in a very skilful way, but so as to disturb the natural course
of the narrative.

We have previously seen (p. 180, vol. i.) that according to
2 Chron. xxxii. 32, Isaiah had composed an historical work
relating to Hezekiah, without doubt, however, a complete
work, and not merely relating to these few events in the four
teenth year of his reign. This was adopted in the Book of
the Kings of Judah and Israel, not, however, completely, but
in an abridged or revised form. The author of the Books
of Kings probably made use of this, and adopted the narra
tives referred to into his work ; and from this it was pro-

00 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

bably received into our Book of Isaiah, by the last editor of
the latter, and it is possible that at the same time the older
work as to the history of the kings of Judah was also em
ployed. The song of Hezekiah was in all probability, how
ever, taken from quite another source, it may be from some
collection of .songs, or, perhaps, when circulating singly.

The cause that induced the compiler of Isaiah s pro
phecies to add this historical fragment was, doubtless, the
leading part taken by Isaiah in the events recorded in it ;
and also that it contains a complete prophetical utterance
of Isaiah (ch. xxxvii. 2135).

The reason why he gave the fragment this particular
position was, perhaps, because that which is recorded at
the conclusion of it, how Isaiah predicted to Hezekiah the
impending captivity of his people in Babylon, appeared to
be a suitable introduction to the contents of the prophecies
which follow relating to the circumstances of this Babylo
nian bondage.

204. Date of the Compilation Its place in the Canon.

We may, however, conclude from what has gone before,
that the compilation of this Book in its present form did
not take place at a very early date, at any rate not until
after the Babylonian Captivity, and a long time after
the composition of .the latest of the prophecies which is
contained in it. In none of the prophecies in the book,
which belong to a later time than that of Isaiah, is there
any ground for supposing that the author intended to be
taken for Isaiah, or that he wrote generally, as personating
some more ancient prophet ; but in every prophecy
both in ch. xl. if., and also in those of the same sort in the
first principal division we cannot doubt from their whole
nature that the author wrote and published them with the
intention of their being looked upon as his own utterances,
and belonging to his own time, and as revealed to him by
Jehovah. It must, therefore, have been through an error
in one of the later compilers that these prophecies, belong
ing to another and a later prophet, were united in one
book with those of Isaiah.

That might easily have been done if the different pro
phecies were originally delivered singly, and not always

Date of Compilation. 61

with the prophet s name attached. Even if this were known
to the first readers to whom the prophecies were committed,
it might, in the course of time, easily be lost sight of, and,
by some subsequent conjecture, an inexact or false opinion
might be formed. It may be assumed, with the greatest
probability, that Isaiah, like many other prophets, never
formed any collection of his different utterances. What
induced the compiler to attribute to him particularly so
many prophecies belonging to a later time cannot be stated ;
but he was, perhaps, led to ascribe to him the prophecies
specially relating to the Babylonian exile, by reading in
the historical narrative (ch. xxxix. 6, if.) that Isaiah had
predicted the above Captivity. This, however, must always
presuppose that the compilation was not made till a con
siderable time after the exile.

It has, perhaps, something to do with this, that this
book, as it appears, originally had its place in the He
brew Canon after Jeremiah and Ezekiel, although Isaiah
lived considerably earlier than both of them, and was at all
times held in much greater esteem by the Jews. (Cf. p. 30,
vol. i.)

205. Messianic Character of tlie Prophecies in the Book
of Isaiah.

The Book of Isaiah, and, indeed, both Isaiah s own utter
ances, and also the prophecies in it belonging to the other
prophet, are, in a literary point of view, and as regards
their form and language, among the most beautiful rem
nants of Hebrew literature. And the prophecies of this
book have an eminent and special value from their religious
and moral character, particularly in a Messianic respect.

We see a difference, however, between ch. xl. if. and
Isaiah s own prophecies. The last part of the book has,
almost throughout, a Messianic character, and is a con
tinuous series of Messianic predictions, all of them being
devoted to the prediction of the near approach of the
time when God would again accept His people, and bring
them to salvation. First of all, they predict the nearly
impending return of the people out of captivity, and with
that is bound up the promise of an undisturbed peace,
both within and without, together with the enjoyment of

62 Origin of the several Books Isaiah.

the greatest Divine blessings in the re-constituted State ;
not less, also, is it repeatedly brought forward how Jeho
vah would forgive His people their sins, in order to make
them fit to be partakers of the salvation prepared for them.
The fear of God, and the knowledge of God, are particu
larly named as the virtues by which the new race shall be
distinguished; and it is, indeed, also predicted that, with
them, other nations shall have a share both in these virtues
and also in the salvation of the people of God. The bringing
about of this salvation is, however, particularly attributed
to the Servant of God. He is depicted as, up to that time,
afflicted by his God with tribulation and misery of every
kind, as in captivity, and even given over to death, and all
this not so much on account of his own guilt, as for the
transgressions of others ; he is also to be endued with the
Spirit of Jehovah, and destined to attain the highest glory,
and to be the mediator of the Covenant between the people
(of Israel) and Jehovah, and also a light to all (heathen)
nations.

It is much questioned among interpreters how, according
to the prophet s view, we must understand this idea of the
Servant of Jehovah. If, however, we do not consider single
passages by themselves, but take the whole course of pro
phecies pervaded by this idea, I feel convinced that the
prophet does not exactly mean one single person, but that
the pious and steadfast worshippers and servants of Jeho
vah in general are intended, Israel Kara Tn/eS/xa, the actual
people of God, in opposition, not to heathen nations merely,
but to the great mass of the people of Israel. And thus
the prophecies have, in this respect, a somewhat general
character, inasmuch as they do not precisely predict the
appearance of any future single person as a Saviour and a
Messiah. But the depicting of the character of the servant
of God is quite ideal, and so drawn, that no single person,
be he never so pious a servant of the true God, could
correspond with it, only excepting the One, to whom the
description applies in its most eminent sense, who, being
the Sou of God, is without sin. Through Him alone could
the description of the servant of God, generally given in
these prophecies, find essentially its complete fulfilment.
(Cf. Bleek s Vorlesungen uber Jes. Hi. 13-liii. 12, in the
Theolog. Stud, und Erit. 1861, pp. 177-218.)

Distinct Messianic Predictions. 53

There are some, on the contrary, among the prophecies
of Isaiah himself, which distinctly predict the appearance of
a single person as a Saviour. Thus, particularly, ch ix
C, 7, and ch. xi. 1 In both he is predicted as a prince of
Israel, endued with Divine attributes, who shall sit on
David s throne, and rule his people with righteousness and
power. In the latter, however, it is at the same time more
prominently brought forward, that, through him peace
and the fear of God shall be generally diffused in the land
and that other nations also shall assemble round him and
shall have a share in the salvation of the people of God

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

206 Jeremiah His Name, Date, Parentage, and Circum
stances.

The name of Jeremiah occurs in Hebrew in the same
two-fold form as that of Isaiah, rvT and ^*?T, the former
in the title of the book in the Hebrew manuscripts and
editions, the latter usually in the book itself. We find,
however, the probably later, shorter form ^pT, e.g., ch.
xxvii. 1 (in a not genuine superscription), ch. xxviii. 5, 6,
10, 11, 12, 15, xxix. 1, also Dan. ix. 2. Etymologically,
the name, which under both of its forms occurs in the Old
Testament for different other persons, signifies from its
construction from HVV HOT, Jelwvali casts, hurls, e.g.,
lightning. [Following the well-known interpretation of
Origen, /Acrea&gt;pur/u.ds law, Clericus (on Exod. iii. 15) goes
back to D-D, altum esse, as also Fiirst explains, " Jah is the
lofty one."] In the Greek it is lepe/uas, in Latin, Jeremias
and Hieremias, in German, according to Luther, Jeremia
(Ewald, Jeremja).

The ministry of this prophet occurred in the saddest and
most tragical times of the Jewish State, during the reigns of
the last kings of Judah, from the thirteenth year of Josiah
down to the destruction of Jerusalem, and still later ; it
embraces therefore a period of more than forty years.

Since Jeremiah, during all this time, took a most active
and effective part, both in the fate of his people and also in
all the actions of the princes and great men, both in ex
ternal and internal matters ; and since the book bearing
his name gives not only his prophetical utterances, but
also very lively narratives of some of his struggles and
adventures which were closely connected with those of his
nation and state, it therefore affords us more matter than
any other scripture of the Old Testament, even the his
torical books, for becoming acquainted in many respects
with the circumstances and relations of the people at that
time, in a more accurately distinct way.

Jeremiah was born at Anathoth (ch. i. 1 ; xxix. 27), a

Jeremiah His Parentage, Residence, dc. 65

priestly town in the tribe of Benjamin, often mentioned in
the Old Testament, lying north-east, and according to Jo-
sephus, about twenty stddia distant from Jerusalem. 1 He
was of the priestly race, and son of Hilkiah, a priest

Many think this was the high priest Hilkiah, by whom,
in the eighteenth year of Josiah, the Book of the Law was
found in the Temple; thus Clemens Alexand., Jerome,
Jos. Kinichi, Abarbanel, and many others ; also Von Bohlen
(Genesis, Einleit. p. clxvi.), and Umbreit (Jeremia, Einleit.
p. x. f.). But this is certainly incorrect, according to the
way in which, ch. i. 1, the father of our prophet is de
signated, not as bhlH jn3h, or merely as jrfan, but only as
" one of the priests that were at Anathoth." The hMi
priest would hardly have had his dwelling-place with his
family outside of Jerusalem. Therefore, Jeremiah s father
was doubtless only a simple priest, who accidentally bore
the same name as the then high priest, and, in order to be
distinguished from the latter, is denoted in the way re
marked ; the name of Hilkiah was not generally rare, as it
occurs, ch. xxix. 3, for some other person.

Jeremiah s family had landed possessions at Anathoth
as follows from ch. xxxii. 6, ff., where Jeremiah, as the
nearest one belonging to it, purchases a portion of a field of
one Hanameel, son of his uncle, for seventeen shekels, from
which we gather that Jeremiah, even at this later period
(he was in prison in the tenth year of Zedekiah), could riot
have been in needy circumstances. In the first period of
his prophetical ministry, Jeremiah appears to have still
dwelt at Anathoth (cf. ch. xi. 18-23), as the inhabitants of
this place laid in wait to kill him on account, of his pro
phecies. At a later time, however, he had his fixed resi
dence in Jerusalem, till the time of the capture of the citv
by the Chaldeans.

From ch. xvi. 2, we may conclude that Jeremiah was not
married then, nor had been lately a married man, this pro
phecy occurring probably at the time of Jehoiachin. Per
haps he was never at any time married, at least there is
m his book no indication whatever that he had either wife
or child ; though there was no want of an opportunity of

1 Doubtless the present Anata, a poor village on the ridge of a hill,
{leagues north-east from Jerusalem v. Itobinsons Palestine," ii
319, t. ; also Winer s Beahcurterb. (under the word "Anathoth ,

VOL. II.

66 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

declaring the fact, in his circumstantial narratives about
his own fortunes.

Jeremiah was tolerably young when he was called to be
a prophet, as we may conclude both from the long dura
tion of his ministry, and also from the account of his call
ing, in which (ch. i. 6, 7) he designates himself as "&gt;y3, and
on this account considers himself unfit for public pro
phetical efficacy in the service of Jehovah.

That his calling and the beginning of his prophetical
ministry took place in the thirteenth year of Josiah (about
628 B.C.), as stated in ch. i. 2, is also shown by ch. xxv. 3,
where, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, he says, that from
the above-named thirteenth year of Josiah to that day, for
twenty-three years, he had incessantly spoken to them in
the name of Jehovah ; therefore, since Josiah reigned thirty-
one years altogether, there were in his time eighteen to
nineteen years, under Jehoahaz three months, added to
that the four first years of Jehoiakim, equal to twenty-three
years. We gather therefrom that, even in this first period,
he had been continually engaged in the delivery of pro
phetical discourses. A part only of these discourses have
been preserved to us, and most of them, perhaps, were not
generally written down.

In the reign of Josiah occurred the overthrow of the
Assyrian monarchy by the Medes under Cyaxares and the
Chaldeans under Nabopolassar, the latter of which nations
particularly spread themselves over the west at a subse
quent time.

We learn from Herodot. i. 15, 103-106, that the Scy
thians also in this age spread themselves in Asia, up to the
coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, and, like the Medes and
inhabitants of Asia Minor, overflowed Syria and Palestine
generally, until the Egyptian king Psammetichus induced
them, to retire. Many of the modern interpreters, as Eich-
horn, Hitzig, Ewald, Umbreit, Movers (Zeitsch. fiir Philos.
und kathol. Theolog. Part 12, p. 98, f.) assume, that this
occurred in the time of Jeremiah s prophetical ministry,
and that the prophet, in some of his earliest utterances
(particularly ch. iv-vi), where he threatens the people with
a nation from the north, meant the Scythians. This cer
tainly appears doubtful, inasmuch as in many utterances of
Jeremiah, where also he speaks in general only of a nation

Prophecies given during Josialis Eeign. 67

from the north, by means of whom Jehovah would chastise
His people, the Chaldeans are decidedly and confessedly
intended, and there is not any such essential difference in
the description and delineation in these other utterances,
as to distinctly justify us in assuming that he had an
entirely different nation in his mind. Added to this,
in the Old Testament historical books generally, there is
not the slightest intimation of any inroad of the Scythians,
and in the other scriptures of the Old Testament there is
nowhere any absolutely certain trace of it; for this reason,
we may well suppose, that even if Judah was visited by
them, she did not really suffer anything from them. Yet
one might very well imagine, when the Scythians were in
the neighbourhood of the land of Judah, that the prophet
might have threatened the stubborn people with a devas
tating inroad on their part, as a Divine punishment. [Of.
Graf, Der Prophet Jeremia, p. 16, f.]

Josiah perished 611 B.C., in a battle against the Egyptian
Pharaoh-lS echo at Megiddo. The king of Judah had gone
out against the Egyptians, when the latter were engaged in
a warlike expedition to the Euphrates. The people of
Judah then nominated as king Josiah s younger son, Jeho-
ahaz. 1 After three months Kecho captured Jehoahaz at
liiblah, on the northern boundary of Palestine, and brought
him away captive to Egypt, where he also died; and A echo
instituted as king of Judah, in his stead, his elder brother
Eliakim, who, as king, bore the name of Jehoiakim.

207. Prophecies belonging to the Reign of Josiah.

Of the prophecies in our book, besides ch. i, in which
the Divine calling of the prophet is told, only ch. iii. t&gt;-
vi. 30 is expressly pointed out as having taken place in the
reign of Josiah.

The prophet reproves Judah for not having been warned
by the chastisement of Israel, and for transgressing still

1 Jeremiah, ch. xxii. 11, calls him Shallum, perhaps on account of his
short reign, in allusion to tlie Israelitish king Shallutn, the murderer of
the king Zacbariah, who reigned only one month (2 Kings xv. 13);
but perhaps he had actually borne the name of Shallum, and assumed
the name of Jehoahaz only when king.

1 Cliron. iii. 15, where Suallumid spoken of as a different son of Josiah
from Jehoahaz, is in error.

68 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

more grievously in all kinds of idolatry, and threatens that
Jehovah will bring for their punishment an ancient people
from the far north, from the uttermost ends of the earth,
with bows and javelins, whose language they shall not
understand. Yet will He not utterly destroy them, pro
mises being added for Israel s return, if they amend.

We may assume with great probability that the follow
ing also belong to the reign of Josiah : (a) the preceding
prophecy, ch. ii. 1-iii. 5 ; (6) ch. vii. 1 ix. 25, and
(c) ch. xi. 1-17.

(a) The prophecy ch. ii. 1-iii. 5, was probably uttered
in the first period of Jeremiah s prophetical ministry, and
at a time when Judah had a good understanding with
Egypt. The prophet blames the disobedience, the idolatry,
and the worship of Baal in high places, to which the people,
together with their priests and prophets, had given them
selves up, and predicts that their confidence in Egypt shall
be to their disgrace, threatening them with destruction
from the Egyptians themselves. This oracle is rightly in
terpreted when it is supposed that it was given at a time
when the Scythians (cf. under, as to Zephaniah, 243) made
expeditions into these regions, and the Jews hoped to be
defended against them by the Egyptians. Perhaps it like
wise belongs to the thirteenth year of Josiah, and was
spoken soon after the former prophecy in ch. iii. 6-vi. 30.

(b) Ch vii. 1-ix. 25, likewise blaming the criminality
and idolatry even in the temple itself, and threatening
that Jehovah, unless they became better, would do to their
sanctuary as he had done at Shiloh, viz., desolate the land
and scatter the people among nations who knew them not.

(c) Ch. xi. 1-17. A summons to the Jews, to hear the
words of the Covenant, which the prophet would make
known in all the cities of the land ; joined with the pre
diction that Jehovah, when they showed themselves dis
obedient, would cause to come upon them all the threaten-
ings which were expressed in the Covenant, on account of
their idolatry, &c.

There is the greatest probability that this oracle was
given very soon after the discovery of the Book of the Law
in the eighteenth year of Josiah ; the preceding one, on
the contrary, before this time, therefore between the thir
teenth and eighteenth year of the above king.

Prophecies in Jelwldkim s Reign. 69

There are, perhaps, still other portions of this book which
belong to this reign ; they cannot, however, be ascertained
with any certainty.

208. Prophecies belonging to the Reigns of Jehoiakim and
Jehoiachin.

The book does not again furnish us with expressly dated
prophecies until the reign of Jehoiakim, who, coming to
the throne at the age of twenty-five, reigned eleven years,
611-600 B.C., but who, according to the way in which
Jeremiah (ch. xxii. 13-19) speaks of him (after his death),
appears to have exercised an unjust, violent, and unpopular
rule over his subjects. He appears to have maintained
a good understanding with Pharaoh-Necho, who placed him
on the throne.

Ch. xxvi, according to its express statement, belonged to
the beginning of his reign. AVhen Jeremiah again pre
dicted in the court of the temple, that, if they would not
hearken to Jehovah s words, that house should be made
like unto Shiloh, and the city as a curse to all nations,
he was seized by the priests, prophets, and people, and
accused before the princes of Judah; but on this occa
sion was acquitted, Ahikam, the father of Gedaliah, being
named as his protector. Jt is at the same time related how
another prophet, Urijah, who prophesied to the same effect
as Jeremiah, was persecuted by Jehoiakim, and although
he had fled into Egypt, was brought back from thence by
the royal command, and was put to death. This also
points to a friendly relation between Jehoiakim and the
king of Egypt.

The power of Egypt, however, was soon broken. In the
fourth year of Jehoiakim, 607 B.C., Necho was slain in the
battle at Carchemish, or Circesium, on the Euphrates, by
the Chaldeans, under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar, as
commander in the place of his father who was incapacitated
by age.

The utterance against the Egyptians, ch. xlvi. 2-12, re
lates to the above facts ; its composition most probably took
place immediately after the tidings had arrived about this
battle.

Nebuchadnezzar came to the throne in the same year,
according to Jer. xxv. 1, where (at least in the Hebrew

70 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

text) the fourth year of Jehoiakim is pointed out as the
first year of Nebuchadnezzar as king of Babylon.

This is scarcely intended as some Hitzig, Keil, F. B.
Hasse (d. 1862) T would have it, as the first year of his
dominion at Jerusalem, when he made the Jews submissive
to him, 2 Kings xxiv. 1 ; but as the first year of his rule
over the kingdom of his father after the latter s death;
agreeable to this is the statement of Berosus (Josephus, Ant.
x. 11, 1), according to which Nebuchadnezzar was then
(soon after the victory over the Egyptian ruler) induced
to return to Babylon by the intelligence of his father s death.

In this year we must place the prophecy ch. xxv. 1-14,
in which the people are warned of their disobedience,
hitherto shown to the prophetical warnings. The pro
phet threatens, that Jehovah will cause a nation to come
out of the north, against the land and all the surrounding
peoples ; and that the land shall be devastated and the
inhabitants serve under the nations for seventy years
(according to the LXX), after which that the above na
tions themselves shall be chastised. Then follows (in the
Masoretio text) vv. 15-38, a prediction of the judgments
that Jehovah would cause to come both on His people, and
also on the foreign nations round, by means of the Chal
deans.

In this same fourth year of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah caused
his servant Baruch to write out in a roll the whole of
the prophecies which he had delivered to them since the
time of Josiah, and to read these out to the assembled
people in the temple, in the ninth month of the fifth year,
on the occasion of a general fast. The matter came to the
hearing of the king, who ordered the roll to be brought and
read out, but cut it up and burnt it on a pan of coals. He
ordered that Jeremiah and Baruch should be brought, who,
however, concealed themselves, so as to escape his first
wrath. Jeremiah then had the contents of the previous
roll, together with many other utterances, written down in
a fresh one. The wrath of the king was excited by the
prediction that the king of Babylon would come and de
vastate the land (ch. xxxvi, cf. ch. xlv, a personal predic
tion to Baruch of the same time).

1 In his Programme, Dissertatio &lt;3e prima Nebucadnezaris adversus
Hierosolyma expeditione. Bonn, 1856, pp. 7, 16.

Prophecies in Jehoiakim s Beign. 71

From the emotion which this prediction of Jeremiah
excited, it may be concluded with tolerable certainty, that
up to this time, therefore up to the ninth month of the fifth
year of Jehoiakim, the Chaldeans had not yet come to Jeru
salem, which Hasse (ut supra, p. 16, f.) and others deny.
There is nowhere any distinct and certain statement as to
the time when they first occupied Judaea. As we read,
2 Kings xxiv. 1, that Jehoiakim became subject to Nebu
chadnezzar, when the latter came up against him, for the
period of three years, and that he afterwards revolted
from him ; and as Jehoiakim reigned eleven years in all,
therefore Jehoiakim s submission, and the first entry of
Nebuchadnezzar into Judah cannot have taken place later
than the eighth year of Jehoiakim, nor earlier than the
ninth month of the fifth year. It must, therefore, fall be
tween the sixth and eighth year, and not as Hasse (ut supra)
would have it, in the fourth year.

To this period belongs ch. xxxv, which is placed by
the superscription in the reign of Jehoiakim, and from
its purport pertains to the time of the first approach of the
Chaldeans, when the Rechabites, a small wandering tribe
on the borders of Palestine, retreated and took refuge
in the fortified city of Jerusalem. These showed great
fidelity in keeping to the precepts handed down to them
by their ancestors, particularly in abstaining from all wine,
so that Jeremiah held them up as an example to the Jews,
with the threatening, that Jehovah, on account of their
faithlessness and idolatry, would bring upon the latter
every misfortune which he had predicted.

Whether the Chaldeans had then reached Jerusalem it
self, or whether Jehoiakim had submitted himself to Nebu
chadnezzar on the approach of his host, is not known. The
latter is, perhaps, the more probable.

Several other prophecies of our book also, probably, be
long to the time of his reign.

Thus particularly ch. xvi. 1-xyii. 18. Threatening the
people, on account of their idolatry and transgression of
the Divine law, with banishment to a land that they knew
not, to a land of the north, &c. ; also several other pro
phecies, as perhaps

Ch. xvii. 19-27. Admonitions to the kings of Judah
and all the Jews, not to profane the Sabbath by work.

72 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

Ch. xiv, xv, at the time of a great dearth, when the
prophet had been some time in his ministry and was well
known.

Gh. xviii, which relates to ch. xiv, symbol of the vessel
altered by the potter, in reference to Jehovah s different
dealings with His people according to their behaviour.

Ch. xi. 18-xii. 17, as to the murderous plot of the
Anathothites against the prophet, together with prophecies
against the hostile neighbours of the Israelites.

When Jehoiakim, after paying tribute for three years,
had revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, then, we read in
2 Kings xxiv. 1, Jehovah sent against him the hosts of
the Chaldeans and other neighbouring nations, in order to
destroy Judah. No further details are given us about the
campaign ; but after reference is made, in v. 5, as to the
rest of the history of Jehoiakim, to the Book of the
Chronicles of the kings of Judah, we read in v. 6, " and
Jehoiakim slept with his fathers : and Jehoiachin his son
reigned in his stead." On the contrary, it is related in
2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, that Nebuchadnezzar came up against
him and bound him in fetters, to carry him away to
Babylon.

Hasse is certainly wrong (ut supra, pp. 4, 10, 11) (a), in
referring this to what is told in 2 Kings xxiv. 1, as to the
first expedition of Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem,
when Jehoiakim was subject to him for three years ; it re
lates much more certainly to some later event in the last
period of Jehoiakim s reign; and (6), when he believes
(with Movers and Bertheau) that n733 "G^in^ is intended
to express, that Jehoiakim was not actually carried away to
Babylon. This certainly is not according to the meaning
of the chronicler, as v. 7 also shows. But, of course, the
statement of the carrying away of Jehoiakim to Babylon
presents a difficulty.

From the way in which 2 Kings runs, we should be
naturally led to the idea, that he died a natural death, and
indeed at Jerusalem, perhaps before the army despatched
against him had arrived at the city. Yet, Jer. xxii. 19,
is opposed to this, where the prophet states, in an utter
ance in Zedekiah s time, that Jehovah had threatened
Jehoiakim, that he should be buried as an ass is buried,
drawn along and cast out outside the gates of Jerusalem

Prophecies in Jelwiacliin s Reign. 73

(cf. ch. xxxvi. 30). As Jeremiah refers back to this threat
ening prophecy in a later utterance, it may be assumed
with certainty that it was fulfilled ; and therefore we may
conclude that Jehoiakiin was not carried away to Babylon,
but that he did not die a natural death in Jerusalem; he
had perhaps, gone out against the enemy, and so was slain
outside Jerusalem.

His son Jehoiachin, 1 who after his father s death, as
cended the throne at eighteen years of age, appears, from
the way in which Jeremiah (ch. xxii. 24), expresses him
self about him, to have awakened fair hopes ; but these
were realized only for three months and ten days ; for the
Chaldean army with Nebuchadnezzar himself, soon came
before Jerusalem, when Jehoiachin went out and yielded
himself to Nebuchadnezzar. He was carried away to Ba
bylon with his mother, Nehusta, his wives, his officers,
and the principal men, as well as the inhabitants who were
fit for war, 2 among whom was the prophet Ezekiel. The
royal palace and the temple was plundered by Nebuchad
nezzar of their treasures and valuables, and an uncle of
Jehoiachin was instituted by the former as king ; he was
the brother of Jehoiakim son of Josiah, named Mattaniah,
but as king was called Zedekiah.

Perhaps ch. x. 17-25, belonged to the short reign of
Jehoiachin, or to the last period of Jehoiakim s ; in it, the
prophet summons the Jews to collect their property out of
the country, for Jehovah " will sling them out at this
once," and will bring up a destroyer from the north, who
will lay waste the cities of Judah ; a prayer is added to
Jehovah, to award the chastisement with equity, and to
pour out his wrath against the nations who have devoured
Jacob and laid waste his habitation.

Perhaps, also (ch. xiii), the symbolical action with the
girdle, which the prophet took down to the Euphrates, and
then found it again damaged, which action was applied to
Judah and Jerusalem, with the threat to the king and queen
(probably the queen-mother), that they should lose their
crown, that the people out of the north should rule over

1 In Jer. xxiv. 1, Jechonjahu, -TiTOD* ; xxii. 24, 28 ; xxxvii. 1,
Chonjahu, J|,T

2 According to the 2 Kings xxiv. 16, 7000 ; according to Jer. lii. 28,
3023.

74 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

the land, and that the people should be scattered on account
of their idolatry. By Ewald, Hitzig, and Umbreit, this is
placed in the time of Jehoiachin, but may very well be of
the time of Jehoiakim, since if the queen, mentioned with
the king in v. 18, be the queen-mother, this might well
refer to Zebudah, the mother of Jehoiakim, who was twenty-
five years old at the beginning of his reign, therefore thirty-
six at his death.

209. Prophecies belonging to the Reign of Zedekiah.

We find the most distinct accounts of the prophetical
ministry of Jeremiah in the reign of Zedekiah. The vision
in ch. xxiv. belongs to the first period of the reign of this
king.

In it the prophet sees two baskets of good and bad figs :
the former of which are referred to those who are carried
away to Babylon, and the latter to Zedekiah and those
remaining in Judah, and also the Jews dwelling in Egypt.
The prophet predicts that Jehovah will extirpate the latter
out of the land by the sword, famine, and pestilence, but
that He will be favourable to the former, and will bring
them bank, and turn them to Himself.

This probably fell very soon after the carrying away of
Jehoiachin, when the prophet himself still entertained
some hope that the exiles would soon be brought back
to their homes. It would, however, soon be clear to him
that this was not in accordance with the will of God. He
embraced the occasion of an embassy being sent by Zede
kiah to Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon (Elasah and Gema-
riah) to write to the exiles in quite a different tenor
(ch. xxix).

In this he admonishes them to settle themselves in
Babylon and to pray for its welfare, and not to allow
themselves to be deceived by the false prophets among
them, particularly by one Ahab and by one Zedekiah, who
flattered the wishes of the people, and disgraced them by
their adulterous conduct ; then that after seventy years
Jehovah would again look upon them, would bring them
home, and fulfil his gracious promises to them.

When Shemaiah, another false prophet in captivity,
wrote to the priest Zephaniah at Jerusalem about this letter
of Jeremiah, and reproached him that he allowed Jeremiah

Prophecies in Zedekialis Reign. 75

to do as he liked, Jeremiah wrote in threatening lano-n a o- e
against him (ch. xxix. 24-32).

The utterance (ch. x. 1-16) is also not improbably ad
dressed to the exiles at that time.

The prophet depicts the folly of the heathen worship of
the idols made by themselves, praises the power and great
ness of Jehovah, and admonishes the Jews not to get accus
tomed to the ways of the heathen, nor to be dismayed at
the signs in the heavens.

If we conceive that this was the occasion of its utterance,
the whole form of this discourse admits of a very easy
explanation, and also the circumstance that, in v. 11, it
tells us in the CJtaldee language : " Thus shall ye say unto
them, The gods that have not made the heavens and the
earth, they shall perish from the earth, and from under
these heavens," without being compelled to pronounce
against the genuineness of this verse, which is contained in
the LXX, or, with Movers, De Wette, and Hitzig, to fix the
date of the whole discourse after the destruction of Jeru
salem, and to ascribe it to a prophet himself living in
exile.

Chapters xxvii. and xxviii. also fall in the first year of
Zedekiah s reign.

The prophet makes yokes and bonds for his neck, so as
to intimate to the ambassadors of foreign nations who were
in Jerusalem, as well as to Zedekiah himself, that Jehovah s
will had subjected all these lands to the king of Babylon ;
and censures the false prophets, who predicted the imme
diate bringing back of the holy vessels carried away to
Babylon. He then particularly rebukes a false prophet,
Hananiah, who had taken the yoke from off his (Jere
miah s) neck, with the prediction that Jehovah would,
within two years, break off the yoke of the king of Babylon
from the necks of all the people, and would bring back
all the Jewish captives, together with Jehoiachin and the
temple utensils, out of Babylon. Jeremiah, on the con
trary, predicted to him, that he, Hananiah, should die that
very year, which also came to pass.

_The superscription in the Masoretic text (ch. xxvii. 1),
" in the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim," can only
proceed from a transposition of the writer (from ch. xxvi. 1),
as the contents clearly show, that the utterance took place

76 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

in Zedekiah s time. We must, therefore, read as in the
Syriac, an Arabian translation, and some manuscripts, " in
the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah," or, with the LXX,
merely, otJrcos etTre /cuptos, without any definition of the time.

In ch. xxviii. 1, the Masoretic text has, " in the beginning
of the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah, in the fourth year,
in the fifth month." The one part does not rightly suit
with the other. We must either, with Ewald, consider the
exact definition of the time as a later interpolation, or the
former words " in the beginning. * These last words are
wanting in the LXX, which has, on the other hand, the
other statement of the date.

The great prophecy against Babylon (ch. 1, li.) also took
place in the fourth year of Zedekiah, according to the
express statement (ch. li. 59).

The prophet predicts the overthrow of Babylon by na
tions from the north, particularly by the Medes and others,
and at the same time the return home to Zion of both the
Israelites and Jews, and their conversion to Jehovah, their
God. We read in the epilogue to this prediction (ch. li.
59-64), that Jeremiah gave it to Seraiah, an officer of Zede
kiah s, when the former went to Babylon in the above-
named year, 1 with the charge that, on his arrival, he should
read it, and then sink it in the Euphrates with a stone
tied to it, as an intimation that Babylon should be thus
sunk.

This prophecy has, from Eichhorn s days, been called in
question by many interpreters; its authorship has been
denied to Jeremiah, and the date of it has been transposed
to the later time of the Captivity. This utterance, of course,
presents some difficulty from its purport and the turn of
mind shown in it, if we compare it what Jeremiah else
where expresses about the Chaldeans. But we must then
assume, as Ewald supposes, that the author both composed
this utterance in the name of an earlier prophet, Jeremiah,
and then also added this epilogue to make it pass for a
discourse of the latter prophet, which is not in itself pro
bable. But we also find indications in the utterance itself
that it was composed in Judaea during the existence of the

1 According to the Hebrew text, Seraiah went with the Jewish king
(Di&lt;), according to the more probable reading of the LXX, on his
behalf (n$&gt;), as his messenger.

Prophecies in Zedekiah s Reign. 77

Sanctuary at Zion (ch. 1. 5; li. 50), and also of the city
t Jerusalem (ch. li. 35). Also the words (ch. li 51)
Strangers are come into the sanctuaries of Jehovah s
house suit well to Zedekiah s time, as stated, because
then, after Jehoiachin had been carried away captive Nebu
chadnezzar had plundered the temple; but they would
not suit a time when the temple was completely destroyed
A or would the expression, " the vengeance for thy temple"
(ch. 1. 28; h. 11), according to the Masoretic reading:
necessarily lead to the idea of its ruin ; according to the
LAA however, probably the former passage is not genuine
and the latter originally stood, " vengeance for the people"
(tKdi/ojo-is Aaou avrov m r).

Chapters xxii. 1-xxiii. 8, also belong to Zedekiah s reign,
as their substance shows.

The prophet, pointing back to the three predecessors of
Zedekiah and to what had been predicted about them
admonishes the king to rule righteously, if he, with his
race intended to look for happiness; he utters a complaint
as to the shepherds who have scattered Jehovah s flocks but
then promises the return of those of the people of the Cove
nant that remained scattered, and their collection together
under good shepherds, and under a righteous king from the
house of David, whose name shall be Jahveh Zidkenu

Ihe prediction against false prophets (ch. xxiii 9-40)
likewise falls in Zedekiah s time:

210. Prophecies in Zedekiah s Reign, and Historical Events

connected therewith.

The feeble king Zedekiah remained for a series of years

subject to Nebuchadnezzar, who had placed him on the

He then allowed himself to be induced by his

princes and counsellors to make himself independent of

Chaldeans, and to enter into an alliance with the

Egyptian king (Ezek. xvii. 15), Pharaoh-hophra (yian i n

Jer xhv. 30), who reigned about twenty years " This

resulted m Nebuchadnezzar marching against Judah with

his army, conquering the fortified cities, and besieging

Jerusalem. The beginning of the siege of the city took

ce, according to Jer.xxxix. 1, in the ninth year of Zede-

P,n] X f X ^ffT c j? me ? s Alex., oMfw, in Manetho, Ovd&lt;t&gt; pis - in
Herodot. and Diodor. Sic., Airpfyy. [Cf. Bunsen s Egypt, v. p. 414.]

78 Origin of tlie several Books Jeremiah.

kiah, in the tenth month ; and, according to Jer. Hi. 4 and
Ezek. xxiv. 1, on the tenth day of this month.

Ch. xix. and xx. perhaps belong to the time of Zedekiah s
revolt, before the Chaldean army had arrived in Judaea ;
they describe an emblematical action of Jeremiah s, and
his being made a prisoner by Pashur.

At Jehovah s command, Jeremiah broke a bottle in the
valley of Tophet, with the threat that Jehovah, on account
of their horrible idolatry and their worship of Baal, Moloch,
and the hosts of heaven, would make the city with their
houses to be a mocking and an amazement, and would
cause the inhabitants thereof to perish by the sword of the
enemy, also by the hands of one another.

\Vhen the prophet afterwards repeated this prophecy to
the people in the temple, he was struck and made captive
by the priests and Pashur, the chief governor of the temple,
the son of Immer. He was, however, set free on the follow
ing day, and then uttered threatening predictions both
against Pashur and also against the whole of Judah, whom
Jehovah would give into the hands of the king of Babylon,
and would cause them to be carried away thither ; adding
lamentations as to the persecution which he, the prophet,
had to endure in Jehovah s service ; who, however, would
help him, and overthrow his persecutors.

Later, in the first beginning of the blockade of Jeru
salem, falls (a) ch. xxxiv. 1-7, when, except Jerusalem,
only Lachish and Azekah were left of all the fenced cities
of the land.

Jeremiah predicts to Zedekiah that Nebuchadnezzar
would capture and burn Jerusalem, and that Zedekiah
would fall into his power, and would be carried away to
Babylon ; however, that he should there die in peace, and
be buried with royal honours.

(&) Chapter xxi. falls, perhaps, a little later, but still in
the first beginning of the blockade of Jerusalem, when the
Jewish army was still striving with the Chaldeans outside
the city.

Zedekiah has Jeremiah asked by two deputies if Jehovah
would not bring deliverance to them. The prophet, how
ever, predicts that Jehovah would turn back the weapons
of the Jews, and would slay the inhabitants of Jerusalem by
famine, pestilence, and the sword ; that he would give those

TJie Reign of Zedekiah. 79

that were left, together with their king, into the hands of
Nebuchadnezzar and would destroy the city by fire, and
that those only who went out to the Chaldeans should
remain alive. At the same time he admonishes the royal
house to exercise righteous judgments, and to interest them
selves for the oppressed.

For a long time, indeed, matters seem to have gone
favourably for the besieged. There was an army of their
Egyptian allies approaching, and the Chaldeans were
thus induced to march against them, and, for a while, to
raise the siege of Jerusalem (ch. xxxvii. 5, 11). The Jews
immediately gave themselves up again to their levity. In
their distress they had solemnly laid themselves under an
obligation in the temple to set free their native male and
female bond-servants, but now nobody thought any more
of thi. Jeremiah blames them in the name of Jehovah for
their perjury, and predicts to them that Jehovah would
bring back the Chaldeans, arid that they should again be
siege the city, and that it should be captured and burnt,
and that their king and princes should be given into their
power (ch. xxxiv. 8-22). Jeremiah predicts the same
thing at this time to the messengers whom Zedekiah sent
to him to summon him to pray to Jehovah for them (ch.
xxxvii. 3-10). The Chaldeans now actually returned and
began the siege afresh, the Egyptians having marched back
without having ventured on a battle.

211. Jeremiah s Imprisonment Prophecies delivered during
this period.

In the meantime, Jeremiah had lost his freedom. He
had wished to go out from Jerusalem into the territory of
his tribe Benjamin, but was arrested at the gate by Irijah,
a captain of the ward, under the accusation that he intended
to go over to the Chaldeans ; he was brought before the
princes, who smote him, and confined him in the house of
one Jonathan, a scribe, which had been turned into a
prison (ch. xxxvii. 11-15). From thence, after a long time,
the king sent for him to come to him secretly, to inquire of
him as to the word of Jehovah ; and although Jeremiah
predicted to him that he should fall into the hands of the
king of Babylon, Zedekiah, in answer to his lamentations
arid entreaties, caused him to be brought into the court of

80 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

the guard, perhaps a better and more respectable place of
captivity, and as long as there was any bread in the city
generally, he ordered that a loaf of bread should be delivered
to him daily out of the bakers street (ch. xxxvii. 16-21).
Here he enjoyed a sort of freedom, and was not cut oif
from intercourse with the people.

It was here, at a time when the entrenchments of the
besiegers were pushed up to the city, in the tenth year of
Zedekiah, and the eighteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar, that
Jeremiah bought of his uncle Hanameel a portion of a field,
of which, as nearest relative, he had the right of redemption,
for seventeen shekels, and carefully preserved the title-
deeds, as an intimation of a future peaceable time, when
houses and fields should again be bought in the land. At
Jeremiah s prayer, Jehovah revealed to him that the city
should surely for the present be given up as a prey to
the king of Babylon by the sword, famine, and pestilence ;
bat that afterwards Jehovah would collect the scattered
ones out of all countries, and bring them back to that place,
and would give them a pious heart and conclude an ever
lasting Covenant with them, so that they should again, in
all the land, buy fields with perfect freedom and security,
and should enter into contracts about them (ch. xxxii).

Thus also in ch. xxxiii, in the same place of confinement,
he receives, at a time when the houses of the city and
even the royal palace were pulled down to erect ramparts
against the besiegers (v. 4), joyful promises as to the return
of Judah and Israel from captivity, and the repeopling of
the depopulated cities of Jerusalem, &c. (w. 1-1 3). l

Chapters xxx. and xxxi. perhaps belong to this time, before
the capture of Jerusalem ; in these the prophet communi
cates the promises about Judah and Israel which were
revealed to him by Jehovah. The first and largest portion
of this utterance, up to ch. xxxi. 22, relates to the Ephrai-
mites, whom Jehovah would redeem from the ruin sent
upon them, and bring them back to Samaria, and maintain
them in His worship at Zion under the royal house of
David ; and not less would Jehovah bring back the cap
tivity of Judah, that every one should have their hearts
desire on the holy mount of Zion (ch. xxxi. 23-26) ; that
Jeh vah would make the land of Judah and Israel fruitful
1 Verses 14-26 are wanting in the LXX, and were perhaps added later.

Jeremiah s Imprisonment. 81

for men and cattle ; that He would henceforth cause each
one to pay the penalty for his own sins only, and not for
those of his fathers, and that He would make a new and
everlasting Covenant with Israel and Judah, and rebuild
and enlarge Jerusalem (vv. 27-40).

When, however, several of the chief men heard Jere
miah tell the people from his captivity, that Jehovah would
give the city over as a prey to the Chaldean army, and
that those only who went out to them should be preserved ;
but that those who remained in the city should perish by
sword, famine, and pestilence, they urged the king to put
him to death because he discouraged the army and the
people. As the feeble king was not able to offer any
opposition to them, they had Jeremiah let down by cords
into a very muddy dungeon in the court of the prison.
Then an eunuch of the king s court, Ebed-melech the
./Ethiopian, obtained, by his entreaties, permission from the
king to have the prophet drawn up out of the dungeon,
and the latter was again brought into the court of the
prison, where he remained until the capture of the city
(ch. xxxviii. 1-13, 28). All this took place perhaps in the
last period of the siege, when want of bread prevailed in
the city (y. 9).

To this time, also, belongs the short prophecy, ch. xxxix.
15-18, to Ebed-melech, to whom he promised, that in the mis
fortunes coming on the city, his life should be preserved.

The king again contrived a private interview with Jere
miah in order to ask advic^ of him. The prophet coun
selled him to give himself up to the Chaldean princes, as
thus he would save his own and his sons lives and also the
city, but that if he did otherwise, he still would not escape
the enemy, and would only bring about the burning of the
city. The king, however, feared to follow the advice of
the prophet, being most afraid of those Jews who had
already gone over to the Chaldeans (ch. xxxviii. 14-28).

Soon after on the ninth day of the fourth month of the
eleventh year of Zedekiah, about one and a half years after
the first beginning of the siege were the walls of the city
broken throygh by the besiegers. Zedekiah endeavoured
to save himself with his army by a flight at night out of
the gate of the city ; the Chaldeans, however, pursued him,
and overtaking him at Jericho, brought him to Kebuchad-

VOL. JJ. Q

82 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

nezzar at Biblah in the land of Hamath. His sons and his
princes were there put to death before his eyes ; he him
self was carried away to Babylon, blinded and in fetters,
and died there in captivity. Soon after the Chaldean army
under Nebuchadnezzar marched again to Jerusalem, where
the temple, the royal palace, and other houses were burnt,
the walls were broken down, and the principal inhabitants
carried away to Babylon (according to Jer. lii. 29, 832
souls out of Jerusalem). The meaner people were left in
the country, and fields and vineyards were given to them.
This burning of the city took place on the seventh or tenth
of the fifth month, according to 2 Kings xxv. 8; Jer. lii. 12.
According to Ezek. xxxiii. 21, one would be inclined to
fix the date of this burning in the following year, therefore
fully a year after the breaking down of the walls. But
from the way in which, in Jer. and 2 Kings, the fifth
month is named, without any statement as to the year, we
cannot well doubt that the same year was meant as that of
which the fourth month had just been named, therefore
the eleventh year of Zedekiah ; so that the burning of the
city occurred only one month after its capture ; this also
is expressly confirmed in Ezekiel itself by the statement in
ch. xl. 1. Cf. also Jer. i. 3, where the " carrying away cap
tive " of Jerusalem is to be understood of this destruction
of the city, and the fifth month of the eleventh year of
Zedekiah is likewise stated for it.

212. Prophecies uttered afiqy the Capture of Jerusalem
Fate of Jeremiah.

At the time of the first capture of Jerusalem, the princes
of the king of Babylon, having heard of Jeremiah and
his fate, through deserters or in some other way, allowed
him to come out of the prison-court, in order that Gedaliah
the son of Ahikarn, should watch over him ; and thus he at
first remained in the city (ch. xxxix). When, afterwards,
Nebuzar-adan had marched against Jerusalem and had
burnt it, Jeremiah also was carried away in fetters along
with tie other Jews who were to be deported to Babylon;
but he was only taken as far as the city of Ea^mah. Here
Nebuzar-adan set him free, and gave him the choice either
to go with him to Babylon or to remain in the land of
Judah. On the prophet choosing the latter, Is ebuzar-adan

Prophecies after the Capture of Jerusalem. 83

appointed him a fixed maintenance, giving him a present,
and referred him to Gedaliah, who had taken the manage
ment of the land of Judah as vicegerent for the king of
Babylon, and had taken up his residence at Mizpah. Many
of those Jews soon returned who had at first fled away into
the neighbouring countries through fear ; Gedaliah, how
ever, together with the Jews and Chaldeans with him,
was soon after (in the seventh month) murdered at a ban
quet by Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, of the race of the
Jewish kings, aud some other Jewish conspirators. The
murderers were, indeed, pursued by the Jewish princes,
but they could not get hold of them. The Jewish princes,
from fear of the vengeance of the Chaldeans, now thought
about escaping into Egypt. They, therefore, asked counsel
of Jeremiah, who, after ten days, received a Divine revela
tion on the matter, according to which he decidedly dis
suaded them from their design, and predicted to them, that
if they remained in the land, Jehovah would protect them
and defend them against the king of the Chaldeans ; but
that in Egypt they would be visited with destruction by
the sword, famine, and pestilence (ch. xl-xlii). Jeremiah s
advice, however, was not attended to by the Jewish princes,
who, together with other Jews, both men and women, set
out fur Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with them.
They came at first to Tah-panhes, i.e., Daphne, near Felu-
sium (ch. xliii. 1-7).

Here Jeremiah spoke an oracle accompanied with a sym
bolical action (ch. xliii. 8-18), in which he predicted that
Jehovah would cause the Egyptians to be conquered and
their idol-temples burnt by Nebuchadnezzar.

The oracle, ch. xliv, was spoken still later, in the same
country, to the Jews of the different cities among the Egyp
tians and of Pathros, who had assembled together, perhaps
for the joint solemnization of a feast, or for some other
reason.

The Jews, and, as it appears, the women still more
zealously, had continued even in Egypt to take a share in
the worship of idols, particularly of the queen of heaven.
When Jeremiah reproached them with this, referring to the
judgments executed on Jerusalem and the Jewish cities,
on account of idolatry, they stubbornly declared that they
would not relinquish it. The prophet, therefore, again

84 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

predicted to them that all the Jews in Egypt should perish
by the sword, famine, and pestilence, and that only a few
of them should return into the land of Judah ; and, as a
pledge of the fulfilment of this judgment, he predicted that
Jehovah would deliver Pharaoh-hophra into the hands of
his enemies.

After this nothing else is known for certain as to Jere
miah s ministry and fate. At the time of the settling in
Egypt he had been active as a prophet for over forty years,
and was, therefore, sixty years old at least. It is asserted
by some ecclesiastical writers, that he was stoned by the
people (perhaps ,the Jews) at Daphne, on account of his
prophecies. 1 Whether there is any truth in this cannot be
ascertained ; it is however probable, that, after settling in
Egypt, he remained there until he died.

The idea has sometimes prevailed among the Jews that
just as some other leading character of the Old Covenant,
particularly Elijah and Moses, Jeremiah would also come
back on earth, immediately before the appearance of the
Messiah, to prepare the way for him by the preaching of
repentance, cf. Matt. xvi. 14. According to another idea
about him, which we find in 2 Mace. ii. 4, ff., Jeremiah,
at the burning of the temple, saved the ark together with
some other holy things, and hid them in a cave on Mount
Horeb, from whence they shall again come to light in the
days of the Messiah; cf. the expositors of Eevelation ii. 19.

213. Different arrangement of the Book in the Hebrew Text
and the LXX.

The book which we possess under the name of Jeremiah,
contains some historical narratives besides its prophetical
utterances. These narrate the circumstances that gave rise
to certain prophecies, and their effect ; also the fortunes
of the prophet, and, connected therewith, the affairs of the
Jewish people at the period after the burning of Jerusalem
by the Chaldeans. It has been much questioned in modern
times if, and how far, the whole contents of the book was
written, or caused to be written, by Jeremiah himself;
when this was done, and to what extent the text of the

1 Tertull. Scorpiace, c. 8 ; Pseudo-Epiph. De Vitis Proph. Opp. ii. 239 ;
Hierori. adv. Jovin. lib. ii. 19 ; Isidor. Hisp. De Vita et Obitu Sanctor.
c. 38.

Arrangement of the various Sections. 85

book lias been preserved uncorrupted in its several parts.
We have the more reason for uncertainty in this respect,
from the fact that the book is extant in a two-fold, and in
some respects very different, recension the Masoretic in
the Hebrew manuscripts and editions, and the Alexandrine
in the translation of the LXX.

As the book exists in the Hebrew Canon it may be divi
ded into the following elements :

I. Ch. i-xxxix. Prophetic utterances, sometimes with
a narrative of their cause and effect, and almost entirely in
reference to the people of the Covenant, from the first ap
pearance of the prophet to the capture and destruction of
Jerusalem by the Chaldeans.

II. Ch. xl-xlv. Historical narrative with prophecies at
the period after the destruction of Jerusalem, before and
after the flight to Egypt ; among which, however, ch. xlv,
contains an utterance to Baruch in the fourth year of Je-
hoiakim.

III. Ch. xlvi-li. Utterances as to various foreign nations.
The superscription, ch. xlvi. 1, relates to this collection.

There are the following separate utterances :

(1) Two against Egypt: (a) ch. xlvi. 2-12, in the fourth
year of Jehoiakim, after the battle of Carchemish ; (6)
ch. xlvi. 13-28, prediction that Jehovah would deliver the
Egyptians into the power of Nebuchadnezzar ; perhaps,
but not certainly, at the time of the sojourn of the prophet
in Egypt,

(2) Ch. xlvii, against the Philistines, who are threat
ened with waters from the north (perhaps with the Chal
deans). The date runs in the Hebrew text, " before that
Pharaoh smote Gaza," which is wanting in the LXX.

(3) Ch. xlviii, against Moab, partly from Is. xv, xvi.
We may conclude from v. 13, that this oracle falls before
the breaking up of Judah, and perhaps at a time when
Judah was not, for the moment, hard pressed (" Moab shall
be ashamed of Chemosh, as the house of Israel was ashamed
of Bethel their confidence ").

(4) Ch. xlix. 1-6. Against the Ammonites, who are re
proached with the possession of the territory of the Gadites,
and on that account are threatened with destruction.

(5) Ch. xlix. 7-22. Against the Edomites, who shall
not remain unpunished (whilst those who had nothing to

86 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

do with it are forced to drink of the cup), notwithstanding
their confidence in their wisdom and the natural strength
of their land (cf. after, on Obadiah).

(6) Ch. xlix. 2o-27. "Concerning Damascus" (also
Hamath. and Avpad).

(7) Ch. xlix. 28-33. " Concerning Kedar and the king
doms of Hazor ("NSn only in this passage) which Nebuchad
nezzar, the king of Babylon, smote."

(8) Ch. xlix. 34-39. About Elam, according to the super
scription, at the beginning of Zedekiah s reign.

(9) Ch. 1-li. Against Babylon, in the fourth year of
Zedekiah (y. p. 76).

IV. Ch. Ixii. An historical addition as to the capture of
Jerusalem, the plundering and burning of the temple and
city, and events connected with it, for twenty-six years after
that catastrophe.

The LXX varies from the Hebrew Canon in the arrange
ment of the prophecies. The prophecies against foreign
nations (ch. xlvi-li), stand in the LXX after ch. xxv. 13 to
ch. xxxi, and in very different order of succession. 1 Then
follows, as ch. xxxii, the prediction of the judgment which
Jehovah would bring, both on Israel and also on foreign
nations, which is, in the Hebrew, in ch. xxv. 15-38 ; to
which in like order succeed the following sections, Hebrew,
ch. xxvi-xliv = LXX, ch. xxxiii-li. (the last of the pro
phecies of this section, is the personal one to Baruch,
Hebrew, ch. xlv ; LXX, after ch. li). The historical addi
tion, ch. lii, is also in the LXX at the conclusion of the
whoie book.

But, besides this different order of succession in the se
parate sections, the translation of the LXX presents very
numerous variations from the Hebrew text. The LXX
has very few additions, and these only single words or syl
lables ; on the contrary, there are many omissions of words,
sentences, verses, and whole passages (altogether about
2700 words are wanting, or the eighth part of the Masore-
tic text) ; also alterations of passages, sometimes not with
out influence on the sense.

Origen testifies to this relation of the two texts to each

1 Namely, thus: (8) Elam, (1) a and 6, Egypt, (9) Babylon, (2) Phi
listines, (5) Edom, (4) Ammonites, (7) Kedar, and the kingdom of
Hazor, (6) Damascus, (3) Moab.

The Alexandrine Eecension. 87

other, Ep. ad Afric. : TroAAa 8e Toiai-rfc /cat cv rcy

v, fv (I) TT]v 7roAAr/i/ fjLero.6f.criv /cat
rail/

214. Fan ows Opinions as to the respective Values of the

Hebrew and Greek Recensions.

As regards the origin of these variations, in earlier times
the opinion prevailed, that the Hebrew text gave the book
in the original and more ancient form, and that the varia
tions in the LXX arose only through the negligence or
arbitrariness, sometimes of the transcriber, and sometimes
of the translator himself. This is the view of Jerome, 1 as
well as by far the majority of those after him. De Wette
also is inclined, in Edit. 4 of his Introduction, to refer all the
variations to the arbitrariness of the translator.

Eichhorn, Bertholdt, and others, on the contrary, have
supposed that the translator made use of a Hebrew recen
sion differing from the Masoretic. Eichhorn supposes dif
ferent versions executed by the prophet himself and so
also Dahler subsequently. 2 J. D. Michaelis 3 maintains the
decided superiority of the Alexandrine Eecension, but has
not succeeded in pursuing this idea as closely as he in
tended. Movers 4 has applied great industry and much
critical sagacity to the investigation of this matter.

In the first place, Movers supposes that many of the pro
phecies of our book have been considerably remodelled by
some other author, particularly by Deutero-Isaiah, to whom
he altogether attributes ch. x. 1-16 (as to this, however, see
above, p. 75). He also supposes more than one version of
the collected prophecies, one of which was made soon after
the Captivity, by the redactor of the Book of Kings, which
however, did not contain ch. xxvii-xxxi. and xxxiii ; also
another more complete version by Nehemiah, in which the
book received the form it has at present in the Hebrew

1 Procem. ad Comment, in Jerem.: Jeremise ordinem librariorum
en-ore confusum (in the Greek and Latin translation) ; and Prxf in
Jerem.: Praeterea ordinem visionum, qui apud Graecos et Latinos ornnino
confusus est, correxiraus.

2 Jeremie traduit, accompagne des notes, &c. Part 2. Strasb 1825

oon o th f New Te " tamt -t. fo r the Unlearned," Part 1 (1790]
p. 285. Cf. Supplement^ s. v. &lt; =]^^.

4 De utriusque recensionis, vaticiniorum Jeremife, Grxcx Alexandrine
et Hebraicx Masorethicx, indole et origine. Hamb. 1837.

88 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

Canon. A little after, probably in the age of Alexander
the Great, the Alexandrine Eecension originated. Both the
Masoretic and the Alexandrine Eecensions are based upon
an earlier one, common to both, which, however, had re
ceived manifold alterations from the original text of Jere
miah, from which alterations the Alexandrine Eecension
kept itself far more free than the Masoretic.

De Wette (edits. 5 and 6) has almost entirely followed
Movers s inferences, only in a sceptical- way. Hitzig also
agrees with him in many points, particularly in giving a
great preference to the Alexandrine text over the Maso
retic.

Ewald s view is the same, but modified.

Ewald, indeed, as also many previously, denies Jere
miah s authorship of ch. 1-li, also Hi, and attributes them
to an author at the last period of the Babylonian Captivity,
who also inserted some matter into ch. xxv; but in the varia
tions of the two recensions, he gives an overwhelming pre
ference to the Masoretic, and lays many of the variations in
the LXX to the fickleness and arbitrariness of the trans
lator. He, however, believes that not unfrequently * the
original reading has been preserved in the LXX.

On the other hand, A. Kiiper 2 (Counsellor at Stettin),
Havernick, Joh. Wichelhaus 3 (of Halle, d. 1858), and Keil,
have most decidedly pronounced for the integrity of the
Masoretic text, and considered all the variations of the LXX
as corruptions arising from the negligence or arbitrari
ness of the translator himself. But a careful, unprejudiced
consideration of the phenomena presented to us, does not
justify us in forming such a judgment. I cannot, how
ever, here enter into an investigation of the details ; I must
content myself with stating, and shortly and suggestively
proving, those principal points in general, which appear to
me to be well founded ; they are as follows :

1 That here and there this is the case, the modern interpreters of our
book do not deny ; on the other hand, Graf, who began the investiga
tion with the most favourable intention in regard to the LXX, came to
the conclusion, " that the form of the text presented by the Greek
translator is one that has arisen at a much later time from the extant
Hebrew text, and is both mutilated and spoilt."

2 Jeremias librorum sacrorum interpres atque vindex. (Berlin, 1837),
pp. 167-202.

3 De Jeremiee versione Alexandrina. Halle, 1847.

Variations between the two Recensions. 89

215. -Origin of the Greek Recension.

K fi 1 ^ Th i e ^ XX translation of this book is in part so ver
bally faithful to, and so closely follows, the Hebrew, that it
s most improbable that the translator or translators should
have permitted such arbitrary alterations and omissions in
so many passages, as must have been the case if all the
alterations proceeded from them, which their text pre
sents in comparison with the Hebraico-Masoretic version
A either is it at all probable that they are generally to be
ascribed to later transcribers of theLXXT There would
then exist in the different manuscripts of the LXX greater
variations, and also greater coincidences with the Hebrew
text than is the case, and than was the case in Origen s
time In the first place, therefore, it must be held as cer
tain that the Greek translators met with a Hebrew text
ot our book in a shape essentially agreeing with that of
their translation The book, therefore, at the time of the
omposition of the translation, must have had, in Hebrew
manuscripts m Egypt, a form differing from the Masoretic
Recension; as, on the other hand, we cannot doubt that
from the time when it was adopted into the collection of
the prophetical books (by Nehemiah, . 294), the book

?nTh y M ? P t 8tim that 6ha P e which {i ** Presents
in the Masoretic Recension.

^.-Consideration of the Variations between the Hebrew
and Greek Recensions.

(2) If we impartially consider the several variations of
the two texts, we shall come to the conclusion, with the
highest degree of probability, in many cases from internal
evidence that the Alexandrine Recension affords us the
Selled Masoretic presents one somewhat

This, in the first place, applies to some larger passages
which exist in the Masoretic text, but not in the LXX
In this case, it is everywhere much more probable that
these passages are additions than that they were omitted

11 or compilers thougl1 origina11 ^ be -

Of this sort are the following passages _

(a) Ch. xxix. In Jeremiah s letter to those carried

90 Origin of the several Boolts Jeremiah.

away with the king Jehoiachin. Here the Masoretic text
has, in vv. 16-20, a threat of destruction against Zedekiah
and those who remained at Jerusalem. This is wanting
in the LXX, and most probably did not originally form a
part of the letter, as Hitzig correctly decides. Unmistake-
ably the connection is now altogether interrupted, as Cap-
pellus also thinks, whilst v. 21 follows on very suitably to
v. 15: v. 15, "Because ye have said, Jehovah hath raised
us up prophets in Babylon ;" v. 21, " Thus saith the Lord
of hosts, the God of Israel, of Ahab, &c., which prophesy a
lie to you in my name ; Behold, I will deliver them," &c.

(6) Ch. xxxix. There is here wanting in the LXX
the notice in the Masoretic text (vv. 4-13) concerning Zede
kiah being taken captive, and the matters connected with
it; also how Nebuchadnezzar particularly confided Jere
miah to Nebuzar-adan. This, however, is certainly, as
Movers and Ewald rightly judge, a later interpolation very
awkwardly disturbing the connection of the narrative, in
which it causes great obscurity and inaccuracy ; whilst
v. 14 can be very properly connected with v. 3, where it is
related that, after the capture of Jerusalem, the princes of
the king of Babylon sat in the middle gate, and (in v. 14)
from thence sent to fetch Jeremiah out of his confinement,
and delivered him over to Gedaliah.

(c) In the historical addition, ch. lii, the Masoretic text
has a list in vv. 28-30 of the Jews deported to Babylon at
different times, which list is wanting in the LXX. This
list has all the appearance of exactitude; yet we may
assume with the greatest probability that originally it did
not form a part of this narrative, as no reason at all can be
discovered why it should have been subsequently omitted.
Some later transcriber perhaps met with it, and inserted it
here. If we assume the correctness of the Masoretic text
in the remainder of the chapter, we may conclude that this
list did not proceed from the author, because in v. 29 a
deportation is dated as taking place in the eighteenth year
of Nebuchadnezzar, which is, no doubt, intended for the
one which took place at the time of the destruction of the
city. This, in v. 12, according to another mode of reckon
ing the years of Nebuchadnezzar s reign, is fixed in the
nineteenth year of this king, which statement, however, is
also wanting in the LXX. Finally, it is in favour of this

Variations between the two Recensions. 9 1

view that the purport of these verses is also wanting in
the parallel passage, 2 Kings xxv.

(d) The promises in ch. xxxiii. only extend in the LXX
to v. 13 ; but in the Masoretio text they are continued
(vv. 14-26) in three different paragraphs, particularly in
reference to the preservation and increase of the seed of
David and the race of Levi. If this section were originally
an element of the prophecy, it would be unintelligible,
from the nature of its contents, how it could be either
omitted or rejected by a later transcriber. Although the
section, perhaps, may be actually a prophecy of Jeremiah,
we must still assume that it was not originally written in
immediate connection with what precedes, but as a sepa
rate utterance perhaps not until after the destruction of
Jerusalem and that it was not discovered until after the
rest of the book had been compiled, and that it was in
serted here. Yet it is, perhaps, altogether an addition by
another author, who, in the first verses, had in view Jere
miah s prophecy (ch. xxiii. 5, 6). It must be remarked
that in ch. xxiii. " Jahveh Zidkenu" is pointed out as the
name of the Messiah, the righteous seed of David, but that
it appears here as the naine of the restored Jerusalem.

There are short passages in the Masoretic text, wanting
in the LXX, in which, in all probability, the circumstances
are just the same as the above: as, e.g., ch. viii. 10 & 12
(later interpolation from ch. vi. 1315); ch. x. 6-8, 10;
ch. xxvii. 19-22; ch. xvii. 1-4; ch. li. 44c-49a, &c.

There are additions of single sentences and words, or
slight alterations, influencing, however, the sense ; as e.g.
as follows :

Ch. xxx. 176, " Because they called thee an Outcast, (say
ing), This is Zion, whom no man seeketh after." Zion is
wanting in the LXX, and is, doubtless, a later gloss, and
indeed an incorrect one, arising from an improper, refer
ence of the passage to Judah and Jerusalem ; this pro
phecy, from ch. xxx. 1-xxxi. 22, referring to the deliver
ance of the Israelites (the Ephraimites).

In the prophecy (ch. xxv. 15-38) as to the cup of fury
which Jehovah would cause all nations to drink of, we are
told in v. 26 &. after various other nations are named, "and
the king of Sheshach (Babylon) shall drink after them."
This sentence is wanting in the LXX, and here does not

92 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

rightly suit the context ; it is, without doubt, a later addi
tion. Babylon is there called Sheshach per Athbasch, 1 a
cabbalistic mode of naming which it is not at all likely
that Jeremiah would have made use of.

The Athbasch occurs in our book again (a) in the same
case (ch. li. 41), " How is Sheshach taken ?" The word
is here wanting in the LXX, and can well be left out;
it is, doubtless, a later addition there also. (6) Ch. li. 1 :
j? lb 3B = 0^3 n^, which latter, doubtless, originally
stood here ; the LXX has rovs /carot/cowras XaASatovs, the
same words as v. 35 for D^fcO 3I^.

In the prophecy (ch. xxv. 114) the LXX presents many
differences, but, on the whole, certainly has the original
readings. Thus, in v. 9 and v. 12, neither Nebuchadnezzar
nor Babylon are specially meant, which were inserted as a
later gloss only (as likewise ch. xxi. 4, 7, &c.). In v. 11 it
does not tell us " that these nations" but that " Judah among
the nations shall serve the king of Babylon seven years."

There are also many other similar cases.

(3) On the other hand, there are cases where, in the
variations of the two recensions, the Masoretic text is the
more original, the text in the LXX, therefore, being pre
sented in an altered, remodelled shape. This, however, is
comparatively seldom.

Thus, e.g., in the section (ch. xxix. 24-32) against the
false prophet Shemaiah. Here, v. 26 appears in the LXX
as words of Jeremiah ; not as written words of Shemaiah
to the priest Zephaniah, as in the Hebrew text, which, no
doubt, is the genuine reading.

217. Cause of the Variations Question as to the Priority
of the two Recensions.

(4) The relation between the two recensions presented
to us cannot be explained with any probability by the fact
of two compilers at different places and quite indepen
dent of each other, collecting and editing Jeremiah s pro
phecies, which, up to that time, had circulated either
singly or in small fragmentary collections ; for we should
then expect that the two recensions would show much

1 According to the Athbasch (KOJltf) instead of N a D is put, in
stead of 1 a *", instead of 2 a "I, &c. ; instead of each letter the corre
sponding one in the inverted order of the alphabet.

Respective Priority of the two Recensions. 93

more important variations in regard to their extent and
purport than is actually the case. It could scarcely have
failed to happen that many pieces would have escaped the
notice of one compiler which would have fallen in the way
of the other acting quite independently of the former. Both
must at least have met with one larger collection contain
ing ch. i-xlv. and ch. lii ; for the sections contained in
these chapters follow in a similar sequence in both recen
sions, and it is only the oracles against foreign nations
which are inserted in different places, and follow on in a dif
ferent order of succession. But it is altogether improbable
that when a work as to the prophecies and fortunes of
Jeremiah was compiled, so comprehensive as ch. i-xlv.
and ch. lii. would be, the author of it, whoever he might
be, should not have also adopted the oracles against the
foreign nations.

We are, therefore, induced to assume that the relation
between the Masoretic and Alexandrine recensions, even
as regards the placing and order of succession of the oracles
against foreign nations, is not that of two works originated
independently of each other, but as between an earlier and
more original one and a later one altered from it.

(5) As regards the question as to priority, it is usually
assumed without dispute, even by Ewald, that the original
position of these oracles is that in the Masoretic Recension.
We cannot deny the possibility that the originator of the
Alexandrine Kecension, although he found the oracles in
the place where they stand in the Hebrew Canon, might
have been induced, by ch. xxv. 13, to continue them on
from thence, and insert them at that place. But we may
just as well imagine that if they originally had the above
position, a later editor might think it right to place the
oracle against foreign nations quite at the end of the col
lection. We are induced to imagine, by the result of our
former considerations as to the relation between the two
recensions with regard to the text of the separate prophe
cies, that the case actually is that the LXX gives the
compilation in its more original shape.

A consideration of the respective order of succession of
the separate oracles against foreign nations is also in favour
of this view.

Supposing that the Masoretic Recension were the more

94 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

ancient of the two, it would be impossible to understand
how the later Alexandrine editor, even though -he gave
these oracles in general a different position in the book to
that in which he found them, should have come to so trans
pose them, as to place the oracle as to Elam first of all (the
last but one in the Masoretic text), that about Babylon (the
last in the Masoretic text) as the third, &c. We could far
rather imagine, that if these oracles had at first the position
and order assigned to them in the LXX, a later editor,
moving them from thence to the end of the whole collec
tion, might also have altered their successive order. For,
looking at the fact that the immigration of the Jews with
the prophet into Egypt had been just before related, with
prophecies as to the destruction which should there befal
them, and also about the conquest of the country by Ne
buchadnezzar and the ruin of Pharaoh -hophra, he might
easily have been induced to select from the oracles about
foreign nations, the two about Egypt (which at first stood
after that about Elam), and place them at the beginning ;
and he might also think it suitable to place the great oracle
against the Chaldeans, the chief opponents of the people of
the Covenant (originally following the one about Egypt),
quite at the end.

In this way, therefore, the disarrangement of the positions
of the whole of the oracles would be easily and almost spon
taneously brought about.

Added to this, however, is the difference in the text of
the two recensions in the passage, ch. xxv. 13. A more
exact consideration of the relation between them on this
point affords an important argument for the establishment of
our opinion.

As ch. xxv. 13 runs in the Hebrew text, it is absolutely
out of place, as in the preceding part of the book we find no
threatenings at all against foreign nations. The matter,
however, explains itself by comparison with the LXX.
There it runs, " And I cause to come on this land (Judah)
what is written in this boek." Then follows, a tTrpo^^reu-
vev Iepe//,ias ITT! TO. f.0vrj, as a superscription to the prophecies,
against various foreign nations which follow. The corre
sponding Hebrew words, D^liT^ ^PT *?? "% were
doubtless also so intended, that they appear only suitable
when, as in the LXX, a series of utterances against foreign

Origin of the two Recensions. 95

nations immediately follows ; but they are far less appro
priate as a superscription of the separate prophecies follow
ing in the Hebrew Canon (ch. xxv. 15-38), although this
utterance likewise threatens foreign nations. The originator
ot the Masoretic Recension, however, transplanting those
other oracles against foreign nations from this place to the
end ot the book, has (as Movers justly remarks), mistakenly
placed the words in question as part of the context of his
prophecy, with the insertion of 5|, and then also places a
at the beginning of v. 14, as a link with what precedes
which also originally did not stand there, and is not ex
pressed in the LXX.

218. Origin of the two Recensions.

(&lt;5) As regards the further question, as to the originators
Ot the two recensions, we must first inquire, whether the
collection, in the more ancient form in which essentially
it is supplied to us in the LXX, was prepared and issued
by Jeremiah himself, or by some other compiler The
former certainly cannot be very probable, if we look upon
on. In. as an original element of the collection ; for as we
have seen previously (p. 407, 1st vol.), its historical pur-
. brings us to after the year 562 B.C., when Jeremiah
must have been about ninety years old. This chapter how
ever, can very well be separated from the rest of the book
M\d we may easily imagine that it may have been added by
a different person from the one who prepared the preceding
collection. In order to narrow the decision of this question
the following points must be taken into consideration

According to chapters xxxvi. and xlv, Jeremiah, in the
lourth year of Jehoiakim, caused Baruch to write down the
whole of the prophecies which Jehovah had revealed to him
from the first period of his prophetical ministry up to
that time, about the Jewish and other nations; these he
also, m the fifth year, had read out publicly, and when the
king destroyed the roll, he caused them to be written again
on a fre&gt;h roll, with other utterances added to them Cer
tainly, we can scarcely venture to infer from this that
Jeremiah had, up to that time, not yet written down any of
his prophetic utterances during the twenty-two to twenty
three, years of his ministry; we may rather, from the
inp: m ch. xxxvi. 18, conclude, not indeed with certainty

96 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

but yet with some probability, that Jeremiah dictated his
discourses to Baruch not from recollection merely, but that
he read some of them out to him from earlier records, in
order that he might then write them in one roll. Certainly,
the collection cannot well have been preserved in our book
in the shape in which it was then arranged, as there are pro
phecies long before ch. xxxvi. of a later date than the fifth
year of Jehoiakim, as e.g., ch. xxi. at the time of the siege
of the city of Jerusalem under Zedekiah, &c. But, on the
other hand, it is very probable, that those prophecies of our
book, which are of an earlier date than the making of this
roll, were preserved in it, therefore in a collection made in
the fourth or fifth year of Jehoiakim.

This is particularly the case with the prophecy (ch. xxv.
1-13) according to the superscription, " in the fourth year
of Jehoiakim." Eeferring to his previous prophetical ad
monitions during so long a period, to which admonitions
they had continually shown themselves disobedient, the
prophet here threatens them with the nations from the
north, and with the seventy years bondage ; as to which it
tells us, y. 13, " And I will bring upon that land all the
words which I have pronounced against it, even all that is
written in this look (cf. p. 93, ff.). These words, in which
the LXX agrees with the Hebrew text, are considered
spurious by most of the modern interpreters ; they may,
however, well be genuine, and originally a part of the text
of the prophecy, if the " this book " be understood merely
of the roll made by Baruch; which, indeed, the date of the
prophecy renders necessary. This prophecy probably
formed the conclusion of the utterances against the Israel-
itish people given here, and thereon perhaps joined some
of the more ancient of the prophecies against foreign
nations, which perhaps, at least in part, have been pre
served in the collection of utterances relating thereto, con-
tained in our book, which also, in the LXX, immediately
follow the prophecy (ch. xxv. 113). At the head of this
collection stood perhaps the prophecies (ch. ii-ix ; ch. xi.
1-17); and it had as superscription exactly that which we
now find (ch. i. 1, 2, without v. 3) : " The words of Jere
miah, to whom the word of Jehovah came in the days of
Josiah, in the thirteenth year of his reign."

After that, at a later time, we find in ch. xxx. 2, that

Compilation by Baruch. 97

Jehovah commanded Jeremiah to write in a book all the
words which He had spoken to him; this, however, per
haps relates to the prophecies immediately following
(ch. xxx, xxxi). But from what is expressly told us
about the earlier collection of his utterances and their being
written down together in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, we
must think it only probable that the prophet, in his later
years, should have intended to place before the eyes of his
contemporaries in one work his whole prophetical ministry,
and a selection of the discourses delivered by him at an
earlier time ; and this may very well have been our book in
the shape in which it has been preserved in the Alexan
drine translation, We* may then assume with certainty,
that the prophet arranged this compilation in his later
years during his sojourn in Egypt, and that he made use of
Baruch s assistance in it, who (ch. xliii. 6) was taken down
into Egypt with him. We may, however, well imagine,
that Baruch himself made the compilation in a somewhat in
dependent way, either during the lifetime of Jeremiah and
prompted by the latter, or not until after his death. In the
latter case he might have issued the fifty-second chapter
together with the rest of the book, otherwise it would
have been most likely, that it was subsequently added by
Baruch.

The idea that the compilation of our book was eifher
actually arranged by Jeremiah himself or by some one in
close connection with him, who, like Baruch, was exactly
acquainted both with his prophetical ministry and also
with his fortunes, is much strengthened by the circum
stance, that, among all the prophecies of the book, there is
not one, according to my judgment, of which we have any
reason for denying the authorship to Jeremiah ; and like
wise that the historical narratives bear a most distinct and
graphic character, which a composition by a partaker in
the events can alone rightly explain. But that, at any
rate, Baruch took an active part in the compilation and
editing the book, is made more probable by the prophecy
relating to him personally ; not so much the insertion of it,
as pre-eminently its position.

It is of the fourth year of Jehoiakim, but stands in our
book after the narrative about the flight and sojourn in
Egypt ; therefore in the Masoretic text in ch. xlv, before the

VOL. II.

98 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

prophecies against foreign nations ; but in the LXX, and
according to the more original arrangement, quite at the
end, immediately before the historical appendix (ch. Hi).
If Baruch either superintended or wrote down this com
pilation, we should on this very account be inclined to
think that he would place this prophecy, relating to him
personally, quite at the end, although it belonged to a com
paratively rather early time. Indeed, it is more probable
that he should have placed it at the end of the work com
prising Jeremiah s prophetical ministry, as it is in the LXX,
than among the other prophetical sections, as is the case in
the Masoretic text ; so that there is .herein another point in
favour of the greater originality of the Alexandrine Recen
sion, in preference to the Masoretic one.

Ch. i. 3 was probably inserted in the preparation of this
collection as an addition to the superscription relating to
the older compilation in the fourth year of Jehoiakim. The
superscription was perhaps meant "to relate to the whole
book; the latter, indeed, refers to occurrences after the
final time here named (the destruction of Jerusalem, in
the fifth month of the eleventh year of Zedekiah), but
not to much proportionately, so that we may well imagine
that Jeremiah himself, or Baruch, might have fixed this
fata.1 epoch, as the point to which his prophetical ministry
extended itself, so far at least as the book presented it
to us.

(7) The compilation and editing of the book without
doubt took place in Egypt, and it appears to have been
circulated there by means of manuscripts, in an essentially
unaltered state, until the composition of the Greek trans
lation. We may assume with great probability, however,
that the book made its way from Egypt quite early, even
during the exile, to the Jews who were at Babylon, for
naturally it must have been of the greatest interest to them.
It is not at all unlikely that the book there experienced
the revision in which it is now presented to us in the
Masoretic text, in which shape also, without doubt, it was
from the very first admitted into the Hebrew collection of
Canonical Scriptures, so that this revision took place, at any
rate, at a time when it was still in circulation as a single
book.

General Character of the Prophecies. 99

219. General Character of Jeremiah s Prophecies and
Discourses.

The position, however, which the book assumed in the
Old-Testament Canon, and its importance in an historical
point of view, in introducing to us the history of the Jewish
people at the time of the prophet and in placing before our
eyes in so lively a manner both their external arid internal
affairs, are the natural results of the character of that which
it imparts to us. In his personality, Jeremiah stands out as
a genuine prophet, who frankly predicted, without fear or
favour of man, all that was revealed to him as Jehovah s
word and will ; who undauntedly spent himself in the
service of his God, thinking only how he could maintain
the people in His Covenant and bring them back to His
service, recommending them to that which could alone
avail for their true happiness. He was opposed and perse
cuted both by the people and the princes, especially
Jehoiakim ; also by the chief men against whom the feeble
minded king Zedekiah was unable to protect him ; by the
priests and false prophets, who, just at his time, shaped
their conduct to the ruin of the people, and endeavoured to
excite the latter at a time when, unless they wished com
pletely to perish, there was nothing to be done, except to
keep themselves quiet, and in patient submission to await
the Divine assistance.

We find Jeremiah repeatedly in conflict with the false
prophets, whenever they appear to have pursued an immoral
course of conduct. Ch. xxiii. 940 is specially directed
against false prophets, who appear to have boasted of having
received revelations from Jehovah in dreams ; appeasing
the Jews by false illusions, that no misfortunes should come
upon them, without giving any care to the moral improve
ment of the people : v. also ch. xxviii. (Hananiah), ch. xxix.
(Ahab, Zedekiah, Shemaiah) ; cf. also ch. ii. 8; xiv. 13, ff. ;
xviii. 18; xxvi. 7, f., 11, 16; xxvii. 14, ff. ; xxxvii. 19.

We perceive from this book how strong was the ten
dency of the Jewish people to idolatry, to the adoration of
the stars, and to the shameful worship of Moloch, even after
the discovery of the Book of the Law and the reformation
effected by the king Josiah ; and not only in the country, on
high places and in groves, but also in Jerusalem, in the

100 Origin of the several Books Jeremiah.

streets and on the house-tops (oh. xi. 13 ; xix. 4, ff. ; xxxii.
29), and even in the temple itself (ch. xxxii. 34). All this
is censored by the prophet in the most emphatic way, and
is pointed out by him as the cause of the Divine wrath and
judgments on the people. He chiefly insists on the obser
vance of the law, and appears, after the discovery of it in
the eighteenth year of Josiah, to have been most zealously
active in spreading and inculcating it (ch. xi. 117 ; cf.
xvii. 19-27, warning against profaning the Sabbath by carry
ing burdens and other work). Yet that it does not depend
on a lifeless observance of the external precepts of the law,
and in offering sacrifices to Jehovah, but in a willing obe
dience towards God (ch. vi. 20 ; vii. 22, f.). He stood forth
against his adversaries in a vigorous and energetic way,
and as he looked upon them as not merely his own personal
enemies, but as the opponents of God and the destroyers of
the people, he therefore summoned Jehovah as his helper
(ch. xi. 20; xviii. 21-23; xx. 11, 12).

His prophecies have mostly a threatening import, predict
ing the ruin of the people on account of their sinfulness ;
yet, for the future, he is not wanting in joyful prophecies
of a Messianic character.

Thus, e.g. (ch. iii. 14-18), prediction of the return home
of the people out of exile, if they amend, both of Israel and
Judah, who shall be united ; promise of righteous shepherds
for the people ; Jerusalem will be called the throne of Jeho
vah, and to it shall all nations gather together in Jehovah s
name, when there shall no longer be any question about the
Old Covenant, which shall then be no longer thought of.

Ch. xxiii. 3-8, partly of a similar purport, together with
the promise of a righteous offspring of David with the name
of Jehovah Zidkenu, who shall reign as a righteous king,
under whom Judah and Israel shall be blessed.

Ch. xxx, xxxi, and in them, especially ch. xxx. 8, f.,
that Israel (Ephraim) shall amend, and shall serve Jeho
vah and the king, David, whom He would set up, and ch.
xxxi. 31-37 as to the New Covenant which Jehovah would
conclude with Israel and Judah : ch. xxxii. 37-44, xxxiii.

Ch. xii. 14-17. The prophet promises to the neigh
bouring nations also, that, if they would turn to Jehovah,
He would take pity on them after their punishment, and
would accept them among His people.

101

THE LAMENTATIONS.

220. Title Position in the Canon Date of Composition
and Contents.

Besides the Book of Jeremiah which we have just con
sidered, which has its place among the greater prophets,
we have another shorter work, consisting of five chapters,
forming the same number of elegiac songs ; this work is like
wise ascribed to Jeremiah.

In the superscription in the Hebrew manuscripts and
editions, the title of the book is now n^N, taken from the
first word of the first song (as also of the second and fourth),
" Ah how ;" which was thought appropriate to call attention
to the tendency and character of these songs. In the Talmud
and among the Rabbis it is usually called nWf?, " Songs of
Mourning, Lamentations, Elegies ;" and so in the LXX,
and in the Greek theological authors, Opyvoi ; in the Latin
authors, as also in the Vulgate, Lamentationes, in others
Lamenta, or Threni.

In the Hebrew Canon this book is placed among the Ketu-
llm, as one of the Megilloth, between Ruth and Ecclesiastes ;
on the contrary, in the LXX arid A r ulgate, it stands after
Jeremiah (cf. p. 35, 1st vol.). It is, however, very probable
that at an earlier time it had its position here in the Hebrew
Canon also (cf. 295, 298). In the Hebrew Canon, the
composer is not mentioned in the superscription, nor is it,
in any express way, in the contents of the songs. The LXX
and the Vulgate, on the contrary, have a superscription, in
which these songs are placed in close connection with the
preceding Book of Jeremiah, and ale designated as the
Lamentations of Jeremiah over Jerusalem, spoken after the
carrying away of Israel into exile, and the destruction of the
above city. Thus in the Talmud also, Jeremiah is named
as the author of Lamentations (v. p. 408, 1st vol., notes) ;
and Josephus presupposes the same thing, as, without
doubt, he had our Lamentations in view when he says
(Ant. x. 5, 1) that Jeremiah wrote a song of grief on the
death of king Josiah, 6 /cat /^.e^pt vvv Sia/x,eW. At a later-
time, however, there have been doubts expressed by some

102 Origiii of the sevsral Books Lamentations.

as to Jeremiah s authorship of these songs, but only by few
persons.

E.g., by Herm. von der Hardt in a Programme, Helm-
stadt, 1712, and subsequently by some others (v. Keil, in
the continuation of Havernick s " Introduction to the Old
Testament, iii. 517, f.). Ewald (Gesch. Isr. iv. 22, if., cf.
Jahrb. f. bibl. IF.) considers it far more probable that one of
Jeremiah s scholars in Egypt composed the book. Thenius
(Die Klagelieder in the Sixteenth Part of the Exeg. Hanclb.
1855), ascribes ch. ii. and iv. to Jeremiah, the three other
songs to a rather later poet. Bunsen (Gott in der Geschichte,
i. 426) ascribes it to Baruch.

But the traditional view that Jeremiah was the author
of these songs is much more generally considered to be well
grounded, and it may be assumed as certain. In favour
of this opinion we may note the agreement of the songs with
Jeremiah s prophecies in their whole character and spirit,
in their purport, and in the tone of disposition shown in
them, as well as in the language (cf. I)e Wette, 274) ;
and also, particularly, that which the poet intimates about
his own fortunes, ch. iii. 52, if., cf. Jer. xxxviii. 6, ff.

As regards the occasion and substance of these songs, the
two first and the two last relate to the misery which had
been sent on the Jewish people, and particularly on Jeru
salem ; the middle one, however, ch. iii, chiefly refers to
the personal sufferings of the author.

As regards the date of their composition, it cannot be
doubted that they all belong to the period after the capture
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar s army (in the eleventh
year of Zedekiah, in the fourth month, on the ninth day).
It is generally supposed that they were also preceded by
the burning of the city and temple, which took place
through Nebuzar-adan, in the same year indeed (v. p. 82),
but still a month later, in the fifth month, on the tenth
day. Yet, I believe, that we may assume, with great
probability, that the songs were composed before this last
catastrophe (v. however, ch. v. 18), therefore, in the in
terval between the surrender of the city and its destruc
tion, during which time Jeremiah remained in Jerusalem
(Jer. xxxix. 14).

We are led to this by the contents with tolerable cer
tainty, at least in the songs of more general import (ch.

Date of Composition Form, &c. 103

i, ii, iv, v). They all point clearly to a time when Jeru
salem was captured by the enemy and partly desolated :
when many of the Jews had either escaped or been carried
away into captivity ; when the king and chief men par
ticularly were in bondage among the heathen (ch. ii. 9 ;
iv. 20) ; when the temple had been profaned and plun
dered by the latter (ch. i. 10 ; ii. 6, f., 20), and no feasts
were celebrated in the temple (ch. i. 4) ; but yet they also
contain numerous hints, that the city and temple still
existed (v. ch. i. 2, 4, 16, 19; ii. 6, ft ., 10, ff., 19, ff . ; iv.
1, 5, 18; v. 11, 14), and that fearful famine and want
still prevailed in the city (ch. i. 11, 19, f. ; ii. 19, 20 ; iv.
3-5, 9, 10), consequent on the lingering siege, so that they
appear to have been written very soon after the capture of
the place. The prophet also depicts the misery in so life
like a way, that we may well suppose that he himself was
present in the city ; v. particularly ch. ii. 11, ff.

As regards ch. iii, in which the prophet pours out his
complaints as to his personal calamities and persecutions,
and indeed, as it appears, as to the scoffings and hostility
which he had experienced from his fellow countrymen
(vv. 14, 52, if.), but at the same time mourns over the mis
fortunes of his people, as the punishment for their sins
(v. 22, f., 42, ff., 45, if., 48) of course, this song, taken by
itself, might perhaps have been written somewhat later,
and after the destruction of the city. The contents, how
ever, do not precisely point to this ; indeed v. 51, where
the prophet expresses his sorrow for the daughter of the
city, makes- it much more probable that the city still
existed ; and the way in which, in v. 52, if., he speaks of
the hostility and ill treatment he experienced makes it
likely that it was written not long after the events described
in Jer. xxxviii. 16, if., which are probably those here
meant, and therefore very soon after the surrender of the
city. Added to this, we must note the position of this song
among the others.

As regards the form, of the Lamentations, the four first
are alphabetical.

Ch. i, ii, and iv, consist of twenty-two verses, each
verse commencing with a letter of the alphabet in regular
succession and consisting of several divisions ; ch. iii, on
the contrary, contains in all sixty-six verses, three verses

1 04 Origin of the several Books Lamentations.

belonging to each letter; they are, however, shorter, each
verse containing only one or two shorter divisions. Ch v.
also consists of twenty-two verses, but without alphabetical
arrangement.

It must be mentioned that in ch. ii, iii, and iv, 5 stands
before JJ, which, occurring in all the three songs, cannot be
accidental, although no satisfactory explanation has yet
been given of it.

We must, however, consider the statement 2 Chron.
xxxv. 25, that Jeremiah composed Lamentations for Josiah
(I WN^y -irrD-p ftipn) : and all the singing men and all
the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations to
this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel: and,
behold, they are written in the lamentations " (rrirprrpj?).
\Ve may perceive from this, that there was, at the time of
the Chronicler a collection of elegiac songs by various
authors, which contained lamentations on Josiah s death,
and some, perhaps, by Jeremiah.

This passage has, perhaps, caused Josephus, ut supra, and
Jerome (Comm. ad Sach. xii. 11), to refer these Lamenta
tions of Jeremiah to the death of Josiah. This is quite
untenable from the contents ; nor is it at all probable that
the chronicler was thinking of these songs, and should
have incorrectly given them this reference. But the songs
spoken of by him were some of Jeremiah s, which, like so
many of the works quoted in the Chronicles, were not ad
mitted into the Canon, and have therefore been lost.

105

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL.

221. Name of the Prophet His Family, Locality, and
Period of Ministry.

The name of the prophet Ezekiel is in Hebrew, ^&gt;N p-trp
" God strengthens " (ch. i. 3 ; xxiv. 24) ; in Greek, le^e^A,
and from that, in Latin and German, Ezecliiel (in German
also HeseJciel). The name occurs in the Hebrew in the
same form, 1 Chron. xxiv. 16, for a priest at the time of
David.

The prophet himself is not named in the Canonical
Scriptures of the Old Testament, except in his own book.
For his personal history we are entirely limited to his
book, as in Ecclus. xlix. 8, f., he is praised only in refer
ence to its contents.

Ezekiel was of the priestly family, the son of one Buzi
(ch. i. 3), about whom nothing is otherwise known. He
was a younger contemporary of Jeremiah, and like him,
prophesied both before and after the destruction of the
Jewish state by the Chaldeans, although he was in the
land of the Captivity, and not with Jeremiah in Judaea and
Egypt. He was one of the leading Jews at Jerusalem,
who, together with the king Jehoiachin, were carried
away by Nebuchadnezzar (599 B.C.). They took up their
residence in the Chaldean kingdom in Mesopotamia, on
the river Cliebar ("IM, ch. i. 3; iii. 15, 23; x. 15, 22). 1
Ezekiel appears to have always remained here ; although
not continually on the bank of the river, yet in the neigh
bourhood, at least during the whole time of his prophetic
ministry ; as he dates his prophecies according to the
years of his exile, which coincide with the years of Zede-
kiah s reign. He received his prophetic call in a glorious
vision (ch. i. 1, if.), in the fifth year of Jehoiachin s being
carried away captive.

There is also, in v. 1 , another definition of the time, " in

1 It is, perhaps, the same river as the Chdboras pun), to which
only to some other part of it the Israelites of the ten tribes had been
deported by the Assyrians (2 Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11 ; 1 Chron. v. 26)
which flows into the Euphrates at Circesium.

106 Origin of the several Books EzeJcieL

the thirtieth year " (in the fourth month, on the fifth day),
which must be intended to refer to some publicly accepted
era ; it is, however, uncertain what it is, whether it is
some Jewish or Babylonian one (that of Nabopolassar).

The prophet is earnestly warned to enter upon the office
conferred upon him by Jehovah, as watchman over the
Israelites, and to communicate to them the Divine admoni
tions, and not to shun doing this, or else he himself would
grievously sin (ch. iii. 16, ff).

The latest date is stated in ch. xxix. 17, the twenty-
seventh year of Jehoiachin s captivity (572 B.C.). From
ch. xxiv. 18, we perceive that Ezekiel had been married,
and that his wife died in the ninth year of his exile
(590 B.C.) ; also from ch. iii. 24, viii. 1, that, in exile, he
had a house of his own. About his subsequent fate nothing
is known to us ; he probably, however, died in exile, where
he was held in considerable respect by his fellow-country
men, the elders of whom often assembled themselves round
him, to hear his prophetical counsel : v. ch. viii. 1 ; xiv. 1 ;
xx. 1 ; cf. xxxiii. 30, ff.

No stress must be laid on that which is stated about him
by Pseudo-Epiphan. (De Vitis Prophetarum, Opp. ii. 240),
that he died as a martyr, being put to death by one of the
chief men of the Jewish people, on account of the purport
of his prophecies.

222. Review of Contents Chapters i-xxiv.

The book, which we possess under the name of Ezekiel,
contains the following elements :

A. Ch. i-xxiv. This part contains about twenty-nine
different utterances against the Israelites, particularly the
inhabitants of Jerusalem. There is oftentimes a statement
of the date when the prophet began a prophecy, giving
year, month, and day, dated from his being carried away
captive : ch. i. 1 ; viii. 1 ; xx. 1 ; xxiv. 1 ; and the fifth,
sixth, seventh, and ninth years are named in chronological
order; and besides, ch. iii. 16, is named as falling seven
days later than that which proceeds. The rest of the
intervening utterances are most!} joined on to what goes
before by the words, "and the words of Jehovah came
unto me ;" but appear for the most part as separate utter
ances, to which the date next preceding has very little

Utterances against the Israelites. 107

reference, except that they fall in the interval between the
above date and the date following next. They were all
i composed before the breaking up of the kingdom of Judah ;
and, with the exception of the discourse against the Ammo
nites, ch. xxi. 33-37, they all refer to the Israelites, par
ticularly Jerusalem.

They are repeatedly reproached with their sins, by which
they have driven Jehovah from them, particularly the
idolatry, the abominations, the sun- worship, &c., which was
then carried on among them in Jerusalem, even by the
elders of the people, among whom he particularly specifies
one Jaazaniah, son of Shaphan (ch. viii. 11). He reproaches
king Zedekiah with his alliance with Egypt, wherein he
broke his covenant with the king of Babylon who placed
him on the throne, and despised Jehovah s oath (ch. xvii.
15, ff.) ; not less does he speak against the false prophets,
who only glossed over matters, and false prophetesses (ch.
xiii). He threatens the Israelites, and especially the inha
bitants of Jerusalem, that they, not for their father s guilt,
but for their own (ch. xviii), shall be given up as a prey
to certain ruin ; that the king (Zedekiah) shall be dethroned
(ch. xxi. 30, if.), and shall be carried away to Babylon in
the land of the Chaldeans (ch. xvii. 20), without, indeed,
seeing the land (being blinded), and there shall he die (ch.
xii. 12, If.). That the people shall perish by the sword,
famine, and pestilence ; that Jerusalem and the other cities
shall be burnt and destroyed, and those that escape the
sword shall be scattered to the four winds ; yet that Jeho
vah will leave a remnant of the pious of Jerusalem, who
shall come to the (then) exiles, and mutually comfort them
selves with Jehovah s righteous judgment. But those
exiles, who persevere in their sinful intentions and desire
to know nothing of Jehovah, but, like the heathen, practise
abominable idolatry, will Jehovah carry away out of the
nations and the countries in which they are scattered, not,
however, to the land of Israel, but into the " wilderness of
the people," and there hold judgment upon them (ch. xx.
30, ft .). Yet, that Jehovah had no pleasure in the death of
a sinner, but much rather that he should turn from his
wickedness, and live (ch. xviii. 23). And it is predicted,
that the scattered ones of the people shall be brought to the
knowledge of Jehovah (ch. vi. i), f. ; xxii. 16) ; that Jehovah

108 Origin of the several Books EzeJciel.

shall collect the scattered ones out of all lands, and the
land of Israel hhall be given to them ; and that there shall
they root out every abomination, and that He will give
them one heart and a new spirit, a heart of flesh - "istead of
a heart of stone, so that they should walk in Hi statutes,
and shall be His people, and He shall be their God (ch. xi.
16-20). That after their re-establishment, the whole house
of Israel shall serve Him on the Holy Mount of Israel, in
the righteous knowledge of God ; and there will He accept
their offerings (ch. xx. 40-44). Compare with this ch. xxi.
25, ff., where it is stated that after the overthrow of Zede-
kiah, the land shall be desolated, | until He come whose
right it is" (ttp^&gt;n ib T^N K3~"J5?, perhaps in allusion to the
Messianic passage Gen. xlix. 10) ; and ch. xvii. 22-24,
where, following the image already made use of in refer
ence to Jehoiachin rw ^ Zedekiah, after the announcement
of the overthrow ana uestruction of the latter. Jehovah
predicts that He will take a tender shoot from the top of
the high cedar, and will plant it in the mountain of the
height of Israel (Zion), where it shall grow prosperously
to be a lordly cedar, in which birds of all kinds shall dwell,
so that all the trees of the field shall know that Jehovah
had done it.

223. Review of Contents Chapters xxv-xxxii.

B. Ch. xxv-xxxii. This division contains further pro
phecies against foreign nations, like those we find in Lsaiah
and Jeremiah. In Ezekiel we find, firstly short discourses
against the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, and Philistines, in
ch. xxv. without date, but according to the purport, soon
after the capture and destruction of Jerusalem by the Chal
deans at the time of Zedekiah.

They are threatened on account of their hostility against
Jerusalem, and their mischievous joy at the profanation of
Jehovah s sanctuary and the carrying away of the house of
Judah ; that the Ammonites and Moabites should be given
up as a prey to the children of the East, and that the Edo
mites should be chastised by the hand of the house of
Israel, and that the Philistines should be rooted out by
Jehovah.

Then follows, ch. xxvi xxviii, a longer discourse with

Utterances against Foreign Nations. 109

several breaks, or separate discourses one joining on the
other, against Tyre and its king, also against Sidon; the
first of these, ch. xxvi. 1, is dated as in the eleventh year,
on the first day of the month. It is not stated what month
is meant but it must be one of the latter ones, either the
eleventh or twelfth, as, according to v. 2, the capture and
destruction of Jerusalem is presupposed.

Tyre had shown a very malicious joy at the fall of Jeru
salem ; on which account numerous nations should march
against her, and Nebuchadnezzar should destroy her (ch.
xxvi) ; she should sink ignominiously into the sea, and all
her immense treasures should go to ruin (ch. xxvii, in
which the extraordinary commercial business of the city is
depicted in detail) ; the haughty king of the city, who con
sidered himself wiser than Daniel, should be destroyed by
foreign nations (ch. xxviii. 1-19). And not less should
feidon be punished by pestilence and the sword (xxviii. 20-
23) ; after which the promise follows, that Israel should~no
longer as before be injured by the neighbouring nations
and that Jehovah should collect them from all nations
among whom they were scattered, and should cause them
to dwell peaceably in the land which he gave to his servant
Jacob (vv. 24-28).

The four following chapters (xxix-xxxii), contain seven
separate utterances against Pharaoh or against Egypt, with
the exception of one, ch. xxx. 1-19, which is directed
against Pathros and other neighbouring districts; they are
all exactly dated, as falling in the tenth and the twenty-
seventh years, two in the first month of the eleventh year
and two in the twelfth year.

They threatened Egypt, on which Israel leaned as on a
staff, with destruction, mostly through Nebuchadnezzar the
king of Babylon ; that Egypt and her king should fall
just as Assur was overthrown ; that the Egyptians should
be scattered among the nations, to show Jehovah s might.
Then would Jehovah cause the horn of the house of Israel
to bud forth, and would open the mouth of the prophet
(Ezekiel) among them, so that they should acknowledge
Him as Jehovah (ch. xxix. 21). It is also promised ?n
reference to the scattered Egyptians, that, after forty years
icy shall be brought back to Pathros, the country of their
origin, where, however, they shall form a mean kingdom

110 Origin of the several Books Ezeldcl.

only, in which Israel should be never again tempted to
place a false confidence (ch. xxix. 13-16). 1

224. Review of Contents Chapters xxxiii-xxxix.

C. Ch. xxxiii-xxxix. This division contains nine dif
ferent utterances, of which (1), ch. xxxiii. 1-20, is, perhaps,
the earliest, and previous to the prophet s receiving the
news of the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. ch. xxiv. 26).

It points out the duties of the prophet as watchman, viz.,
to warn the people of their ruin, or else their blood should
be required of him (cf. ch. iii. 17, tf.) ; also, as to the justice
of the ways of the Lord, who judges every one according
to his conduct, and does not forbear from punishing the
righteous, if they do wickedly while confiding in their
righteousness, and allows the sinner to live, not remem
bering his sins, if he ceases from his wickedness.

The rest of the utterances fall later, and none of them
until after the destruction of Jerusalem.

The second of these (ch. xxxiii. 21, 22) contains an exact
date, which, however, occasions difficulty. It is named as
the twelfth j^ear, the tenth month, the fifth day, " of our
captivity," and indeed as the day when one that had
escaped from Jerusalem came to the prophet and announced
to him that the city had been smitten (Tjn nnari). Now,
however, as we have seen, p. 82, not only the capture but
also the burning of Jerusalem occurred in the eleventh
year, the latter in the fifth month of the same year, as also
results from what Ezekiel himself says (ch. xl. 1), in which
the same expression has the same reference. The prophet,
therefore, could not have received the news of this cata
strophe until nearly one and a half years after it happened,
which is not likely. There may, therefore, perhaps, be an
error in the text. The LXX has the tenth year, which natu
rally is quite unsuitable. Perhaps it should be read, "in
the eleventh year (W^2 instead of W?) with Syr., Doder-
lein, Ewald, and Hitzig.

1 The nations, against whom the different utterances of this division
(B) are directed, may be enumerated as seven: (1) Ammonites, (2)
Moabites, (3) Edomites, (4) Philistines, (5) Tyre, (6) Sidon, (7) Egypt;
but they do not at all appear as separate in this collection ; still less
that with regard to the total number, was it probable that the prophet
placed any importance on the number seven, and purposely made use of
it, as Ewald, Hitzig, and Keil think.

Pertal Discourses against Israel. 1 1 1

In the evening before the arrival of him that escaped,
" the hand of Jehovah came upon the prophet," and ho
was thereby caused to break his long silence, and to speak
until the arrival of him that had escaped. It is not stated
what he then said ; for what follows must be considered as
a different utterance, as the third, ch. xxxiii. 23-33. (" And
the word of Jehovah came unto me, saying"). Then
follow, after the reception of the above intelligence, the
words of Jehovah in reference to the (still remaining) in
habitants of the ruins in the land of Israel. Notice is taken
of their (hitherto) illegal, idolatrous, vicious conduct, and it
is threatened, that they shall be given over to ruin, and
their land to complete desolation ; at the same time the
Israelites round the prophet are reproached, that they will
indeed hearken to his speech, as to a lovely song, but that
they will not heed his words.

(4) Ch. xxxiv. Commences with a penal discourse against
the shepherds of Israel, who, instead of faithfully tending their
flocks, have been guilty of scattering and destroying them;
that Jehovah will, on this account, punish them, and will no
longer confide their flocks to them, but will Himself watch
over their pasture with all carefulness, when He shall have
collected them out of every place wherein they have been
scattered, and brought them into their own land, where they
shall not want for good pasture (vv. 1-16). The discourse
next refers to the sheep themselves that Jehovah will
strengthen them, will restrain the fat from violently treatin&lt;-
the feeble and sick (vv. 17-22) ; that Jehovah will set over
them His own shepherd, His set vant David, and will conclude
a covenant of peace with them, and cause them todwell on their
land in full security .uninjured by other nations arid by the wild
beasts of the field, the land being blessed with rich fertility.

(5) Ch. xxxv. 1-xxxvi. 15, against the Edomites, on
account of their hostility towards Israel, whose children
they had put to the sword in the time of their calamity,
during which they had reviled them and shown a malicious
joy, and (after the destruction of the state of Judah) had
endeavoured to appropriate their country (both of Israel
and Judah), ch. xxxvi. 5 ; cf. xxxv. 10. They are threatened
with the complete devastation of their land and the extir
pation of the inhabitants thereof; but to the land of Israel
on the contrary, and the cities which had become the prey

112 Origin of the several Books Ezekiel.

and the derision of those that were left and the nations
around, it is promised that Jehovah should again people
them with the house of David, and should build up the
ruins, and cause the cities to be again inhabited by numer
ous men and cattle.

(6) Ch. xxxvi. 16-38 likewise contains glorious promises
for Israel, and was, without doubt, not composed until
some time after the breaking up of the state of Judah.
Israel, scattered among the nations on account of their un
clean, idolatrous, and vicious conduct, continues to profane
Jehovah s holy name. Jehovah, however, for His own sake,
and the sake of His honour, will collect them again out of
every country to their own land, will purify them from
idolatry and all uncleanness by the sprinkling of pure
water, and will give them a new heart of flesh instead of
a heart of stone, and His spirit in their souls, and will
cause them to walk in His statutes, and they shall be His
people, and He shall be their God. The ruined cities
shall be again rebuilt, and populously inhabited, and the
land shall be blessed with fruitfulness, so that herein even
the surrounding nations shall own Jehovah.

(7) Ch. xxxvii. 114. A vision in which the prophet
sees a field of dead bones which, at the prophet s word at
the direction of Jehovah, were provided with sinews, flesh
and skin, and then were quickened by the spirit. This is
applied, in Jehovah s discourse, to the whole house of Israel,
whom Jehovah, against all hope, would raise, as it were,
out of the grave and bring into the land of Israel, in order
that they shall know that He is Jehovah. The precise
sense is, however, questionable. Usually, it is understood
figuratively only, of the restoration of the community of
Israel in their land. Hitzig, on the contrary, understands
it literally, of a resuscitation and resurrection of dead
Israelites, who should be reanimated at the restoration of
the people, in order to have a share in tke new community
in the land of Israel. And thus, perhaps, it is intended
by the prophet.

(8) Ch. xxxvii. 15-28. Symbol of two sticks, which
should become one stick in the hand of the prophet, in re
ference to the re-uniting of Israel (the tribes of the king
dom of Ephraim) and the Jews ; that Jehovah should
collect them all from out the nations among whom they

Prophecy as to Israel s last Conflict. 113

lived, and unite them as one people in the land of Israel,
under one king and shepherd, David, the servant of
Jehovah, under whose dominion they shall there dwell for
ever, united and walking in Jehovah s statutes, who shall
conclude an everlasting Covenant of peace with them, and
will cause His sanctuary and His habitation to be for ever
in the midst of them. This is, therefore, another prophecy
with a comforting promise of a Messianic character.

(it) Ch. xxxviii. and xxxix. A prophecy presenting much
difficulty. It points to a last conflict, which Israel, the
people of Jehovah, shall have to wage with heathen nations,
and indeed after their restoration to their land ; which,
however, shall end with the utter destruction of these
enemies, so that the people shall understand that it was on
account of the misdeeds of the house of Israel, that
Jehovah caused them previously to wander in captivity,
and to perish by the sword of the enemy. Gog, in the
land of Magog, is named as the leader of these nations in
the extreme north (ch. xxxviii. 15; xxxix. 2), who shall
be induced by Jehovah to come up in the latter days,
with numerous nations from the north, west, and south,
against the Israelites again dwelling in security in their
land, where, however, they shall, one and all, meet with
their destruction in fearful multitudes; their own land
also shall be devastated by fire.

Ewald is, certainly, not correct in thinking that the
prophet in all this intends the Chaldean monarchy and
its overthrow. On the contrary, Havernick (Commentar
iiber den Propheten Ezechiel, 1843), and Hitzig (Der Pro
phet Ezechiel, 1847), explain it rightly. If the prophet
had been thinking of the Chaldeans, he certainly would
not have omitted to refer to the acts of violence previ
ously committed by them against Israel ; also the way
in which the assembling of Gog s armies is depicted, in ch.
xxxviii. 2, ff., does not at all induce us to suppose it was
the above nation. We may see from ch. xxxviii. 17, 19,
and xxxix. 8, that Ezekiel had some earlier prophecies
before him, in which some such last decisive conflict of
the heathen multitudes with God s people was spoken of;
we cannot however ascertain how much of the details he
has borrowed from them. The greatest part, however, be
longs to him. The name of the land of Magog is peihaps

VOL. II. I

114 Origin of the several Books Ezekiel.

derived from Gen. x. 2, where Magog is specified among
the sons of Japhet, with other nations, several of which
are mentioned here among the hostile armies. The name
of the king Gog, is perhaps formed from Magog ; it cannot
however, be decided, whether this was done by the pro
phet, or whether he met with the name elsewhere. Gog,
together with Magog, are mentioned in Revelations xx.
8, as nations whom Satan, after the termination of the
kingdom of 1000 years, shall bring up from the uttermost
parts of the earth for the last conflict against God s
people. Ezekiel s prophecy, however, is based upon the
same idea essentially.

225. Review of Contents Chapters xl-xlviii.

D. Ch. xl-xlviii, in the twenty-fifth year "of our cap
tivity," fourteen years after the destruction of Jerusalem, a
series of connected visions was afforded to the prophet, he
being removed in these visions into the land of Israel.
They all relate to the future circumstances of the people of
the Covenant after the restoration.

Firstly, the arrangements and measurements of the build
ing of the future sanctuary are stated, of the courts and
doors of the temple, of the temple itself and its outbuild
ings, as they were shown and measured out to the prophet
by an angel with measuring-rod and line in his hand (ch.
xl-xlii). After that, the prophet saw how the glory of
Jehovah made its entrance into the temple, which was to
be no more profaned (ch. xliii. 1-12) ; the dimensions of
the altar are stated, and precepts for offering sacrifices on it,
also for priests and Levites (ch. xliii. 13-27 ; xliv.) ; next,
directions for the division of the land, as to the share to be
appropriated for Jehovah and the priests, for the Levites,
the community, and the princes (ch. xlv. 1-8) ; also admoni
tions to the princes, to exercise justice, and not to oppress
the people, and to have correct weights and measures
(xlv. 9-12); further directions about the heave offerings
which they, the princes, were to offer, and the oblations
to be brought by them, and other things relating to the
princes (xlv. 13-xlvi. 18); also as to the cooking of the
offerings (xlvi. 19-24) ; then about the fountain springing
up from the temple, full of fishes and fertilizing the land,
whose waters flow into the Dead Sea (xlvii. 1-12) ; finally,

Tlie Prophet s last Visions. 115

as to the future boundaries of the land of the people of
the Covenant, and its partition among the twelve tribes,
the priests, the princes, and the citizens ; and as to the
twelve gates of the city, the name of which shall hence
forth be n& mrp ( c h. xlvii. 13-xlviii. 35).

It is very doubtful what the prophet had in view in
3 visions. The descriptions contained in them differ
very often from the arrangements of the time before the
captivity.

Thus, as regards the arrangement of the sanctuary the
exterior extent of the temple and the buildings round it
e much larger than that of Solomon s Temple, so as to be
able to contain the new community, and it is represented
as square and outside the city, which latter was also .square
Ihe internal arrangement of the temple, however, is more
simple and less gorgeous. The distinction between the
Holy 1 lace and the Holy of Holies is left out, inasmuch as
the whole temple is the Holy of Holies ; nor is any new
ark spoken of, but only Cherubim, who take a place in
the temple. No one of the priests is specified as the hio-h
Driest; the priests generally, however, as before the high
priest in particular, are laid under an obligation to keep
away from all uncleanness. Among the sacrifices, the burnt
ottering is made most prominent, yet a daily evenino- offer
ing is not spoken of, but the amount of morning offerings
is stated as larger. Among the principal feasts, the Pass
over and the Feast of Tabernacles alone are named, but not
Pentecost, nor the Great Day of Atonement, the omission
)t which is connected with the absence of any mention of
the ark and the rngh priest. A new feast is instituted on
the first and seventh days of the first month of the year
when a solemn propitiation for the sanctuary was to take
place, for the sake of those who have sinned through error
or simplicity (ch. xlv 18-20). In the division of The land
among the twelve tribes, Joseph is named as one he how
ever is to receive two shares, but the others all alike
those indeed who, when on the other side Jordan, had their
possession assigned to them by Moses in the land of Canaan
side Jordan. The strangers living among the Israel
ites were also to have a share with the various tribes in
the division of the land, in the like manner as the Israelites

116 Origin of the several Books Ezekiel.

The prophet adverts in a peculiar way to the prince of
the people in N^, for so he calls him, and not "SJTO (ch. xlv.
7, ff. ; xlvi ; xlviii/21, f.). The prince is not merely to receive
a separate share in the division of the land (that he should
not oppress the people), but he also stands in a peculiarly
near relation to the sanctuary, as if he were a superin
tending priest ; and 011 him, as such, is to be imposed as a
duty the offering up of all sacrifices, particularly on the
feasts and sabbaths.

Exception has often been taken to the fact, that in the
arrangements prescribed here both in political and ecclesi
astical matters, no notice is taken of the return of the Jews
to their native land, and of the restoration of the sanc
tuary ; and thus a justification has been found for the
opinion that all this matter in Ezekiel is to be explained as
being merely symbolical and allegorical. This may some
times be assumed, as, e.g. in the description of the fountain
of the temple, ch. xlvii. 1, if. &o., where it cannot well be
imagined that the prophet could have expected a literal
fulfilment of the prophecy ; but this must not be carried too
far. In most of the statements as to the future arrange
ments, it is evident that the prophet meant them in earnest,
and in a literal sense. Not indeed as plainly binding pre
cepts for the people in any future restoration, but as inti
mations of that which he would recommend for it, and
thought worthiest and most suitable. It could not well be,,
that all these things should be carried out in the way stated,
here, because the return and restoration of the people never
took place nearly so extensively or completely as is pre
supposed by the prophet.

226. Reality of tlie Prophetic Visions.

There is no adequate reason for asserting, that the visions
forming the whole of the last part of the book, and indeed
to be found elsewhere also in it, are merely literary em
bellishments, and that the visions related by him were
never actually vouchsafed to the prophet, nor the objects
presented to his sight. His human individuality must,
nevertheless, have had an important influence in the
(shaping of these visions, and we may also imagine that
me prophet would, in his written records of them, amplify

Symbolical Actions done by the Prophet. 117

them with further details, as, for example, is certainly
the case in chapters xl-xlviii. We may, on the contrary,
assume with tolerable certainty that, where the prophet
speaks of symbolical actions he had performed, they were not
actually done by him, but that this was merely a literary
embellishment on his part. The whole character of nearly
all of them clearly point out, that if they were actually
outwardly performed, they could not have come to the know
ledge of those for whom the prophecy was intended, cf
e.g. ch. iv. 4-6 ; v. 1-4 ; xii. 3, ff., &c.

227. Written Eecord of the Prophecies Their Compilation
and Order of Succession.

That Ezekiel sometimes exercised his prophetical voca
tion orally is clear from the passage (ch. xx. 1) as to his
intercourse with the elders, who applied to him for counsel
and instruction; v. also ch. xxiv. 19. We may, however,
assume with great probability, with regard to the utter
ances which we read in his book, that they were not in
general orally delivered before they were written out, but
that, at any rate, they were read out to the people after
they had previously been written. This applies specially
to all those utterances which were intended for people
not in the immediate neighbourhood of the prophet, as
for the Jews in Jerusalem before the destruction of the
State, and for foreign nations. The primary record of the
several utterances followed, perhaps, not long after the
revelation referring to them had been afforded to the pro
phet. Yet it is not improbable that he subsequently, here
and there, somewhat remodelled them when preparing and
issuing them in a collected form. It may, however, be
considered as tolerably certain that Ezekiel himself prepared
this compilation, and that therefore no utterances are ad
mitted into it which are not Ezekiel s own. 1

The prophecies relating to the people of Israel are doubt
less all arranged here in chronological order, according to
the date of their original conception ; firstly, those of the

1 The attacks of an English critic (1798) upon the prophecies against
foreign nations have been disposed of, also those of Oeder and Vogel (1771 )
against ch. xl-xlviii, and those of Corrodi (1792) against ch. xxxviii-xl.
Zunz (Gottesdienstliclie Vortrdge der Juden, 1832, p. 158, ff.) is inclined
to fix the date of the whole book at some time in the Persian age, but
on untenable grounds.

118 Origin of the several Books Ezeldel.

first part, ch. i-xxiv, as falling before the capture and
destruction of the city, and next, those of the third part,
ch. xxxiii-xxxix, which are all later than the former, and
then the visions of the fourth part occurring still later.
The reason that caused Ezekiel to place the prophecies
against foreign nations between the first and third parts
was, that at the conclusion of the former part (ch. xxiv.
i 26, ff.), it was disclosed to the prophet that " one that had
escaped" should announce to him the fall of Jerusalem,
and also, that the first of the utterances directed against
foreign nations belongs without doubt to the time imme
diately after this catastrophe, and threatens the neighbour
ing nations on account of their hostility and malicious joy
at the misfortunes of Jerusalem, and at the profanation of
the Temple. This, then, has been the inducement to the
prophet for placing the utterances against foreign nations
in the position they fill. He would not, however, wish to
conclude his book with these, but rather with promises as
to Israel s future. Of this sort are (a) ch. xxxv. 1-xxxvi.
15, containing indeed a threatening discourse against the
Edomites, and might, consequently, have been placed with
ch. xxv. had it not contained in conclusion a promise as to
the restoration of Israel ; also (6) ch. xxxviii, xxxix, about
Gog, &c. The visions in ch. xl-xlviii. form, apart from the
date, a manifestly suitable conclusion to the whole collection.

228. Language and Peculiarities of Style Characteristics of
Ms Prophetical Ministry.

Ezekiel s language has not only much of a Chaldaic cha
racter, but presents generally a good deal that is peculiar,
and, in a grammatical point of view, anomalous and in
correct, more so indeed than any other Old-Testament
author. In his style he is very diffuse and redundant ; and
his thoughts are too much drawn out into particularities.

E.g., in the measurements and descriptions in the last
part ; in the recital of the wealth and commerce of Tyre
(ch. xxvii) ; particularly also in the delineation of Jeru
salem and Samaria as licentious women (ch. xvi, xxiii),
in which the whole sketch is carried out in a way offensive
to good taste, such as we do not find to this extent in any
other of the Old-Testament prophets.

In moral earnestness, however, he stands inferior to none

Characteristics of his Ministry. ng

of the other prophets. He is, as a prophet, imbued with
a solemn feeling of duty, that he must, as Jehovah s
watchman, warn the people from false ways, and also by a
consciousness of the guilt which he would incur in the
neglect of this obligation (ch. iii. 17-21 : xxxiii. 7-9). He
is thus worthy of his position among the other prophets,
especially of ranking with his older contemporary, Jere
miah. The latter, at the time of Ezekiel s being carried
away captive from Jerusalem, had been ministering there as
prophet for about thirty years, and we can hardly doubt
that Ezekiel knew him personally, and had often listened
to him and read his discourses ; perhaps some of them may
have subsequently reached him in his exile, as Ewald and
others have supposed with great probability that Ezekiel
made use of Jeremiah s prophecies; v. De Wette 223
note c.

He shared with Jeremiah in his energetic opposition to
the continual idolatry exercised in Judah and even in
Jerusalem; in his insisting on the observance of the Sabbath,
&c. ;&gt; also in a political point of view, in his disapprobation
of aid being sought in Egypt against the Chaldeans, which
was held out to Zedekiah as a breach of faith with the
king of Babylon, who had placed him on the throne. Jn
these things, however, as compared with Jeremiah he shows
much that is peculiar to himself.

The statement of Josephus (Ant.*.. 5, 1), about "two
books of Ezekiel, is very obscure. 1

] This can hardly be referred to Jeremiah, with Eichhorn, Bertholdt.
Havermck, and Movers (de utriusque rec. Jer. p. 47).

120

THE TWELVE LESSER PROPHETS.

229. Their Collective Name Compilation and Order of
Succession.

Ezekiel is followed in the Hebrew Canon by a collec
tion of twelve shorter prophetical Scriptures, which, col
lectively, scarcely equal the extent of a single one of the
three preceding greater prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel). 1 They are always reckoned by the Jews as one
book only, stating the number of the holy books as twenty-
two (or twenty- four) ; Josephus has reckoned them in this
way, also the Talmud and the Kabbis, as well as the eccle
siastical authors (v. 301-?, 309-311). They are called the
twelve, -m D^, Chald. IDn^l, [ S^oW (irpo^rcu), TO Sa&gt;Se-
Ka7rp6(frr]Tov. That these writings were, in the second century
B.C., already considered as one associated collection, is clearly
shown by the unreasonably suspected passage, Ecclus. xlix.
1 (v. p. 33, vol. i.). The author of this collection is doubtless
the saimp man who compiled the scriptures of the Nebiim,
the second part of the Canon, therefore most probably
Nehemiah (y. 294, f.). The prophets by whom these
works were severally written, or after whom they were
named, belonged to various epochs from the time of Uzziah,
about 800 B.C., up to the time of Nehemiah, about 450 B.C.
Between these points are the earliest and latest that are
preserved to us.

The order of succession of these works, as regards the
six first, stands differently in the LXX and in the Hebrew
Canon, as Jerome 2 remarks. Joel, in the LXX, not coming
until after Micah, and Micah after Amos ; therefore

Hebr. (1) Hosea, (2) Joel, (3) Amos, (4) Obadiah, (5) Jonah,
(6) Micah.

LXX. (1) Hosea, (2) Amos, (3) Micah, (4) Joel, (5) Obadiah,

(6) Jonah.

1 Cf. Hieron. Procem in Esaiam: Cum Esaias duodecim prophetis
juxta numerum versuumaut sequalis aut major sit. Augustin. De Civ.
Dei, xviii. 29 : Qui propterea dicuntur minores, quia sermones eorum
sunt breves in eorum comparatioue, qui majores ideo vocantur, quia
prolixa volumina condiderunt.

2 Prxf. in XII Prophetas: Non est idem ordo XI E Prophetarum
apud Hebrseos, qui est apud nos.

Lesser Prophets Order of Succession. 121

The six last are in the same order of succession in both :
(7) Nahum, (8) Habakkuk, (9) Zephaniah, (10) Haggai, (11)
Zechiiriah, (12) Malachi.

Which order of succession is the more original as regards
the first half cannot be decided certainly, but probably
that in the Hebrew Canon. We may assume, with the
greatest probability, that the originator of this collection
had a chronological order in view ; but Jerome, 1 and
others, and also Havernick, Caspari (Oladiah, p. 37), and
Hengstenberg, are decidedly wrong in attributing so much
authority to the order in the Hebrew Canon, as to allow
the sequence observed in it to determine their judgment as
to the respective epochs of the several prophets.

We shall on the contrary see, without considering Jonah
and the second part of Zechariah, that most probably, Joel
is the most ancient of these prophets, and that Obadia h, on
the other hand, chronologically considered, has too early a
place, &c.

1. THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

230. Name of the Prophet Period of his Prophetical
Ministry.

Name, in Hebrew, JJB&gt;in, =. salvation, the same name
which the last of the Israelitish kings bore, which also
was the original name of Joshua (Xum. xiii. 8, 16 ; cf.
Dent, xxxii. 44) ; in the LXX and Vulg. fio^e (also written
fitn/e, Rom. ix. 25), and Osee. Jerome (ad i. 1) found
another form, Avo-rj, Ause, in manuscripts, but rejects it. In
German, in Luther, &c., it more follows the Hebrew form,
Hosea.

This prophet is not named in the Old Testament, except
in his book (in the title and ch. i. 1, 2). In the superscrip
tion, ch. i. 1, he is called the son of Beeri, about whom per
sonally nothing further is known.

It is quite arbitrary in certain Rabbis to identify this
man with Beerah ( "HNS), 1 Chron. v. 6. Little credence is
likewise to be given to the statements of the later Jews
and Fathers of the Church as to the place of birth of the
1 Ut supra: in quibus autem (Prophetarum scriptis) tempus non
praefertur in titulo, sub illis eos regibus prophetasse, sub quibus et ii,
qui ante oos habent titulos, prophetaverunt.

122 Origin of the several Books Hosea.

prophet, especially as they do not agree among themselves
about it.

The age to which Hosea belonged is stated in the super
scription, ch. i. 1, to be in the reigns of (a) Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz, Hezelciah, kings of Judah, exactly those who are named
in Tsaiah i. 1 ; and (6) of Jeroboam (II.), king of Israel, son
of Joash. The two middle ones of these kings of Judah,
Jotham and Ahaz, reigned each sixteen years, therefore
the period from the year of Uzziah s death to the first year
of Hezekiah would be thirty-two years. But the Israelitish
king, Jeroboam, certainly died a considerable time before
Uzziah, although how many years cannot with certainty
be named from the various, and relatively incongruous,
statements in the Books of Kings as to the relation between
the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah ; at least as
many as fourteen years (according to 2 Kings xv. 8) ; pro
bably however about twenty-six years (by comparison of the
corresponding statements, 2 Kings xiv. 2, 17, 23 ; 2 Chron.
xxv. 1-25). The passages, 2 Kings xv. 1, xiv. 23, lead to
a still longer period of thirty-eight years. This much is
certain, that according to the statement of the superscrip
tion, the ministry of the prophet must have begun some
considerable time before the death of Uzziah, and must
have been of long duration, at least fifty years, even if it
began but a short time before the death of Jeroboam II,
and extended only to the beginning of Hezekiah s reign.
It depends, however, upon the question whether the super
scription is authentic or not. There may be some doubt,
whether, in its present shape, it was prefixed by the pro
phet himself. It is rather contrary to this idea, and indeed
surprising, that four kings of Judah are named, and only
one king of Israel, Jeroboam II., whose reign did not reach
down to the death of even the first named of the kings of
Judah ; none of those kings being named at least six in
number who reigned in Israel during the last part of
Uzziah s time, and during the time of Jotham, Ahaz, and
the first period of Hezekiah s.

We shall again return to this matter, and I will only
remark here that the mention of the father of Hosea, no
where else named, shows an acquaintance with the circum
stances of the prophet s life, and is consequently in favour
of the high antiquity of the superscription.

Review of Contents. 123

231. Review of Contents (Ch. i-iii.) Symbolical Actions.

The Book of Hosea is divided into two principal parts,
the first of which (ch. i-iii.) begins the prophecies with
the narration and explanation of certain symbolical actions
which were performed by the prophet at the command of
Jehovah.

The prophet relates, in the first place, that at Jehovah s
command he took as mistress a harlot named Corner,
daughter of Diblaim, and that she bore him several chil
dren (bastards) (ch. i. 2-9). The impurity of the woman
points to the idolatry in the land, and the revolt from
Jehovah (v. 2) ; the names of the three children ha^e
likewise a symbolical reference to Jehovah s relations to
the people of the kingdom of Israel, as an intimation that
Jehovah would scatter them, and that He would revenge
on the house of Jehu the bloodshed through which he
came to the throne ; also that He would no longer favour
the people of Israel, and would no more look upon them as
His people, and that He would be no more their God,
whilst, on the other hand, He would bless the house of
Judah, and cause them to be saved.

The promise, however, immediately follows (ch. i. 10, 11)
that Jehovah will again bless the people, and will acknow
ledge them as His people; also that He will make the
Israelites very numerous, and will gather the children of
Jsrael and Judah under one head, and will bring them up
out of the land (perhaps to Jerusalem for worship).

Similar thoughts to those in ch. i. are repeated in ch. ii.
1-23, and mostly in similar imagery ; in the first place,
censure and threatening against the people of Israel on
account of their whoredoms and their idolatry ; and then,
from v. 16, a promise that Jehovah will convert them
through affliction, and renew His Covenant with them, and
bless them with great happiness.

Ch. iii. contains another symbolical action. The pro
phet relates how at Jehovah s command he bought another
mistress, who had previously committed adultery, 1 and
made the condition with her that she should abstain for a
long time from any sexual union whatever. It is thus

1 From the mode in which it is expressed this is not meant, as e.g.
Ewald would have it, for the fame woman as that in ch. i.

1 24 Origin of tlte several Books Hosea.

intimated that the kingdom of Israel, as a punishment for
their revolt, should be deprived for a long time of all
their supports and leaders both from their rulers and from
their worship, and that through this they should be induced
to return again to Jehovah, their God, and to the house of
David.

As regards the symbolical actions in ch. i. and ch. iii, there
is no doubt that these are to be considered as mere literary ^
embellishment, 1 and not as things actually done by the
prophet. Without noticing the moral oifence they would
necessarily present, if they were to be looked upon as actual
facts, they would be quite unsuitable, and would fail in
tKeir aim, because the actions, if performed, would run
over a whole series of years, and the people would not easily
have understood their signification.

Jerome s view of this matter is correct (cf. Liibkert, Die
symlolisclie Handlung Hosea , in Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1835),
vol. iii. pp. 647-656).

As regards the date of composition, it is evident from
ch. i. 4, that the house of Jehu still ruled over Israel, for
it is there threatened that Jehovah would within a short
time punish the house of Jehu on account of their^ blood
shed, particularly, perhaps, on account of Jehu s own
actions, and would exterminate them, and make an end of
the kingship in Israel. Jehu, anointed by means of Elisha,
had overthrown the Israelitish king Jehoram and usurped
the throne, in all which he committed much cruelty
(2 Kings ix-x). After him, there reigned of his pos
terity, one after the other, Jehoahaz, Jehoash, and Jero
boam II. (forty-one years), and then the latter s son Zacha-
riali, who, however, after six months, was put to death by
Shallum. This prophecy must have been composed before
this event, probably in the latter part of the reign of the
Jeroboam II. named in the superscription, so that the
statement of the superscription, as regards the earliest point
of time therein mentioned, is thus proved to be correct.
Ch. iii. might also belong to the, same time. This, how
ever, perhaps, falls rather later in the unquiet and partly
anarchical times which followed soon after the death of
Jeroboam II. Verse 4 may intimate, although it is not cer-

1 J. H. Kurtz thinks otherwise, " Marriage of the Prophet Hosea."
Dorpat, 1859.

Tfireatening Prophecies. 125

tain, that the prophet had then a state of things in view
which was actually present.

232. Review of Contents (Ch. iv-xiv.) Nature and Dates
of the several Utterances.

There are no more symbolical actions in the remaining
portion of the book (ch. iv-xiv). It consists of prophetical
utterances, for the most part of a threatening import,
directed against the kingdom of Israel.

The prophet censures the people, and particularly the
priests, who are nourished by the sins of the people, and
reject knowledge, and will on that account be rejected
by Jehovah (v. chapters iv. 411 ; v. 1; vi. 9); alto the
chief men on account of their revolt from Jehovah, and of
the idolatry and the unlawful cultus generally which they
zealously carried on on numerous altars and in groves, united
with soothsaying (rhabdomancy particularly, ch. iv. 12),
uncleanliness and adultery, wicked revelling, drunkenness,
lies, perjury, violence, and bloodshed. The prophet, on
this account, threatens them with destruction, which Je
hovah will soon bring upon them. Vainly will they en
deavour to propitiate Jehovah by oblations; also that
Jehovah loves mercy and the true knowledge of God
better than any sacrifice or burnt-offering (ch. vi. 6). In
vain will they turn for assistance to foreign, idolatrous
nations, particularly to Assyria and Egypt (ch. v. 13 ;
vii. 11; viii. 9; xii. 2; xiv. 4). Jehovah will punish
them by the means of tho.se very nations in whom they

1 Cf. "Lectures on Hosea," on ch. iv. 4 : "According to the usual
explanation of v. 4 b, it must be assumed that the striving with the
priests (cf. Dent. xvii. 8-13) had become an almost proverbial expres
sion for designating a godless audacity worthy of death. Yet it cannot
be denied that the expression, so understood, always has something
characteristic about it, especially with this context; for the priests in
Israel appear in this passage as equally godless as the people, and
therefore the striving with them could not serve to indicate a wicked
opposition to Jehovah s commands. Hitzig s explanation is not so
natural. J. D. Michaelis points it ^HDS : thy people, Oh priest,
act as if they would strive against me, a not unsuitable sense. The
vocative thus standing at the end may, indeed, appear unnatural ; what
comes after is much against this mode of pointing. F. 6 is, in any case,
addressed to the priests, without this fact being at all intimated ; and
the s cond person in v. 5 m.ght also very suitably be referred to the
priests so that the priests and false prophets of the kingdom are
fittingly named together;."

126 Origin of tlie several Books Hosea.

put their trust, and will cause them to wander thither into
exile (ch. vii. 16 ; viii. 13 ; ix. 8, 6 ; xi. 5 ; cf. v. 10, ff.).

The discourse of the prophet is here mostly directed
against Israel and Ephraim, as in the first part, where, in
ch. i. 7, the house of Judah, which Jehovah would bless
and deliver, is named in express contrast to Israel. Thus
here, in ch. iv. 15, Judah only is admonished not to imitate
Israel in transgression by partaking in the idolatry at Gil-
gal and Bethaven.

But Judah is very often censured and threatened, to
gether with Israel, as guilty of the same offences.

Thus, particularly in the section, ch. v. 8-vi. 3, which
is directed against both kingdoms in common ; also ch. vi.
411 a, and ch. xii, in which the same is the case, only
that Ephraim stands forth to a greater extent ; cf. ch. viii.
14; x. 11, where, in utterances otherwise entirely directed
against Israel, Judah is only once named as sharing in the
same guilt and the same punishment.

It is, however, evident that Hosea was chiefly concerned
with the kingdom of Israel. He doubtless dwelt in it
during his prophetical ministry, and perhaps also, as is the
usual opinion, he belonged to it by birth, although it is.
not quite certain (cf., however, ch. vii. 5). He may, how
ever, have subsequently visited Judah, and in it have
made public his writings. This is, at least, not improbable,
if the superscription, in which four kings of Judah are
named first, was entirely prefixed by Hosea himself.

As regards this second part, however, various modern
scholars have endeavoured to fix the dates to which the
several utterances belong (v. in De Wette, 227, note 6).
But this cannot well be accomplished with any certainty.
Although we cannot doubt that this portion actually con
tains various utterances which were not all delivered at
the same period, yet it cannot be decided everywhere with
certainty where one begins and another leaves off. and
still less the exact date lor each of them. It is probable
that Hosea himself subsequently selected some of those
discourses which he had probably written down separately
at an earlier time, and put them together in their present
form. As to their dates, we can only determine with cer
tainty that they all belong to a time when the kingdom of
Israel still existed, therefore before the sixth vear of Ileze-

Dates of the Various Prophecies. 127

kiah, and the compilation and last editing of them pro
bably also took place before the breaking up of the above
kingdom. Besides, we are, in general, led to a time of
anarchy such as ensued in Israel after the death of Jero
boam II. Nothing more exact than this can with cer
tainty be determined about the date of any of the single
utterances.

We may perceive, from the way in which, in various
passages, the Assyrians and Egyptians are spoken of, that
the Israelites were inclined to seek aid from one and the
other nation alternately ; and this renders it, at least, pro
bable ^ that the composition took place before the Assyrian
king Tiglath-pileser had torn away a portion of its terri
tory from the kingdom of Israel at the time of the Lsrael-
itish king Pekah (Ahaz being king of Judah) ; but perhaps
hardly during the reign of the powerful king Jeroboam II.
On the other hand, ch. x. 14, would lead us to a later time
if the Shalman, there mentioned as devastating Betharbel,
be Shalmanezer. This, however, is questionable, and the
reference of this passage generally is very uncertain. The
words (ch. x. 13) point to a time when the kingdom of
Israel believed that it could still rely on the multitude of
its warriors. Various passages, however, as particularly
ch. vii. 7, viii. 4, apply to a time when the kings in Israel
were rapidly changed, and were placed on the throne at
the arbitrary will of the people.

It is possible that certain portions wei e not written until
the beginning of the reign of Hezekiah ; and the super
scription of the book, ch. i. 1, might proceed entirely from
the prophet himself. Perhaps Uzziah only of the kings of
Judah was originally named, together with the Israelitish
Jeroboam, son of Joash, when the superscription related
only to two or three first chapters, and the three other kings
of Judah were not added until the compilation and issuing
of the whole book by Husea himself.

233. General Character of the Prophecies Their Style
and Language.

As a whole, Hosea s prophecies have a censuring and
threatening character; but yet they sometimes end with
joyful promises of a Messianic kind.

In the last respect, it is predicted that, notwithstanding

128 Origin of the several Books Joel.

the infidelity of the people, Jehovah would not withdraw
His grace and mercy from them ; that the old relation
between them should be again restored, and that the peo
ple should again faithfully be joined to Him, all which is
here bound up with their return from the dispersion, also
in the return of the whole people, both Israel and Judah, to
the house of David, with which, also, a promise is united
of the increased fertility of the land, and of undisturbed
peace ; v. chapters ii. 1-3, 16-25 ; iii. 5 ; xi. 811 ; xiv. 5-10.

As regards the literary character of the Book of Hosea,
his symbolical actions are related in prosaic language ; in
the remainder his style of writing is poetico-rythniical, but
is somewhat abrupt and harsh.

Cf. Jerome, Prcef. in XII Proph. : " Osee comniaticus est
et quasi per sententias loquens." As regards the explana
tion of his details, he is one of the most difficult of the
prophets and Old Testament writers generally.

2. THE BOOK OF JOEL.

234. Name General Purport Mode of Interpretation.

Joel, the son of Pethuel, is named as the author of the
second work in the collection of the lesser prophets, or
rather he is, in fact, named as the person to whom " the
word of Jehovah came," which is communicated in the book-j
he is, however, without doubt its author. The name, 7N1 1
= Jehovah is God, occurs in the Old Testament for different
persons ; the prophet himself, however, is not named in
any other part of Scripture.

This much clearly appears from Joel s work, that he
belonged to the kingdom of Judah, and, at the time of his
utterances, dwelt in Jerusalem; v. particularly ch. i. 14,
ii. 1; also ch. i. 9, 13, 16, ii. 9, 15, 17; besides ch. iv.
1, 16, ff., &c. 1 All interpreters are agreed as to the above,
but not so as to the epoch of the prophet, not 1 , in many
respects, as to the references of his prophecies, their occa
sion and purpose.

The general purport and train of thought are as follows.
The prophets summons the inhabitants of the land to

1 Bleek s references are to the Hebrew division, according to which

ch ii. 28-32 (A V.) stands as ch. iii, and ch. iii. (A.V.J as ch. iv. Tr.

TJie Plague of Insects. 129

mourn over a public calamity, which is denoted in ch. i. 4,
as arising from various kinds of insects (cf. ch. ii. 25) ; a
calamity more severe than almost any that had yet taken
place, through which the whole land would be devastated, HO
that it would even be impossible to sacrifice meat and
drink offerings to Jehovah ; wherefore the priests are
charged to ordain a general fast, arid to call together the
people to Zion. The plague is designated as the army and
camp of Jehovah, as the executioners of His will, and as
indications that the day of the Lord is come, or at hand
(ch. i. 2-ii. 11). The prophet then calls on the people
to turn now to Jehovah with their whole hearts, with fasts
and public meetings for prayer, rending their hearts and
not their garments; and then, perhaps, would He repent
him in His grace and long-suffering, and anew pour out His
blessings upon them, and restore the fruitfulness of the
land, that they might again be able to bring to him meat
and drink offerings (ch. ii. 12-17). That which the pro
phet hero only ventures to hint at, he next expresses more
confidently, viz., that Jehovah would remove the plague
from them, which he designates as "the northern "(Jia-?rh
and would overthrow it between two seas, and that he
would bestow rain upon them at the right season, and a
rich abundance of the produce of the earth, that he would
show himself to be Israel s God, and that His people should
never be put to shame (ch. ii. 18-27). After that, Jehovah
further announces that He will pour out His Spirit upon
all people, no longer on individuals only, but on all flesh
(ch in. 1 2), and will cause extraordinary appearances,
both in heaven and earth, as forerunners of the fearful
day of the Lord, in which, however, all who call on
Jehovah s name shall find deliverance at Jerusalem and on
Zion (ch. 111. 3-5) ; then will Jehovah brino- back the
captivity of Judah and Jerusalem, and will enter into
judgment with all nations who shall have shown them
selves hostile to His people, who have bought and sold
them, scattered them into foreign countries, and plundered
teir treasures, among whom Tyre, Sidon, and the Philis
tines are specified by name ; these Jehovah will requite
by means of the Jews, for all the evil they had done to the
latter (ch. iv. 1-8). Then, however, the discourse is again
directed against the surrounding nations generally, the

130 Origin of the several Books Joel.

heathen, who were hostile to God s people ; they are sum
moned to prepare for a conflict with J ehovah (vv. 9-1 2) ;
yet will they not escape a condemnatory judgment, which
Jehovah will pass on them in the valley of judgment or
decision, making His mighty voice resound from Zion
during the darkening of the heavenly bodies, so that
heaven and earth shall quake ; He will be a protection
and shield to His people Israel, making them know
that He is their God, dwelling in Zion, at Jerusalem,
which shall henceforth be holy, and no more profaned by
strangers (vv. 13-17). Then follows yet again the promise,
that Jehovah will bless His land with rich fruitfulness, and
will water it with a stream proceeding out of the house of
the Lord, Egypt and Edom being laid desolate on account
of the hostility exercised by them against the Jews.
Judah and Jerusalem shall everlastingly be inhabited, and
having cleansed them from the bloodshed that oppressed
them, Jehovah shall dwell on Zion (vv. 18-21).

With respect to the calamity on the land, depicted in the
two first chapters, it is a question among interpreters, (a),
whether locusts and their devastations are actually spoken
of, or whether it is to be taken figuratively for the invasion
and ravages of hostile armies in the land of Judah; and,
(6), whether the delineation is meant as of some then
present plague, or as a prophecy of a future one.

Theodoret, and also many later interpreters, understand
it as a prophecy; Luther, Calvin, and most of the modern
expositors, as a description of something present. It is
looked upon in a figurative sense, as referring to the Chal-
dceans by Jerome, Cyril (Alex.), Abarbanel, Luther, Grotius,
Bertholdt, and others ; on the contrary, Easchi, A ben Esra,
David Kimchi (as also Jewish interpreters at the time of
Jerome), and, following Bochart s example, most of the
modern expositors understand it to refer to actual swarms
of insects. Among the most modern expositors, however,
Hengsteriberg (Christol Edit. 2) and Havernick interpret
it both figuratively and prophetically.

In favour of this description being understood as pro
phetical, the passages ch. i. 15, and ii. 1, ff., have been
appealed to among others, under the idea that the mis
fortune of which the prophet speaks is there stated as
closely impending, and therefore as still future. But the

Interpretation of the Prophecy. 131

day of Jehovah is also stated as being near, the day of the
general Divine judgment ; and the prophet looks upon the
present plague as only the beginning of it, or as a sign that
this day of decision is near at hand. The way in which
the prophet speaks of the plague, just at the beginning of
his discourse (ch. i. 2), really admits of no doubt that he
refers to a plague that was present, and well known, without
further question, to his first readers, and not to something
in the future which was quite unknown to them ; for, in
the latter case, a more unnatural mode of statement could
not well be imagined.

A similar sentence would also have to be pronounced, if
the prophet had intended here to speak of hostile armies.

If this had been the case, the prophet certainly would
not put it before everything that they had devastated the
vines and fig-trees with lions teeth, and had barked them,
so that the branches became white (ch. i. 6, if. ; cf. vv. 12,
17-20); nor would he have pointed out the devastating
host as being like to horses in appearance, and running as
horsemen (ch. ii. 4), and as running like mighty men, and
climbing walls like warriors (ch. ii. 7), and as entering into
windows like to thieves (ch. ii. 9).

The whole imagery would be unnatural, artificial, and
feeble, as applied to a hostile army, whilst, in reference to
the devastations of such creatures as locusts, it would be
just as distinct and striking. Only we must assume, as
indeed results from the whole description, that this plague
was of a particularly fearful character, not quickly passing
away, nor confining itself to a small tract of the country,
but pervading the whole of it for several years (ch. ii. 25,
i. 4) ; joined also with great dearth and want of water.
The prophecy must have been composed at the time of the
sorest need.

The book was in former times sometimes divided into
several separate, independent prophecies. This, however,
is not admissible. The book, as we have it, forms without
doubt, in a literary point of view, an undivided whole.

Ewald has put forward a peculiar opinion, which has
been followed by E. Meier (Der Prophet Joel, Tubingen,
1841). They suppose that there are two different pro
phetical discourses in the book, the first of which, ch. i. 1-
ii. 17, summoned the people to a penitential festival in the

132 Origin of the several Books Joel.

temple, whilst the other was spoken after this festival ha-1
been solemnly observed; and they regard ch. ii. 18, 19 a,
as an historical parenthesis of the prophet connecting the
two discourses, showing that Jehovah, in consequence of
this festival, had again taken pity on the people, and now
spoke what follows as a promise to them. This idea is
very unnatural, and certainly incorrect. Without doubt,
this passage forms a part of the continuous prophetical
discourse, and is to be understood as a prophecy just
beginning as a promise ; and it is not opposed to this, that
the verbs are in the imperfect with the vau-consecutivum, as
in the prophetical discourses, this form of the verb is often
elsewhere made use of as the perfect, to describe more
vividly that which the prophet wished to predict. (Cf. 2
Chron. xv. 4.)

Yet, on the other hand, it is not altogether probable that
Joel delivered orally the whole discourse, as we now have
it, in one effusion. It is, perhaps, very probable, that
during the long continuance of the visitation, the prophet
repeatedly addressed the people, and that he collected in
this work the essential purport of his discourses, so that the
separate parts were not orally delivered in exactly the
same form as that in which they are now presented to us.

235. Date.

The age to which Joel belonged is, however, very doubt
ful. The opinions of interpreters diifer pretty widely as to
this; varying from the middle of the tenth century down to
the beginning of the sixth (B.C.). The most probable opinion,
however, is, that, as a prophet, he was a contemporary of
Amos, but somewhat his senior, and that he flourished like
the latter in the reign of Uzziah. 1 A comparison of the
two prophets favours this opinion in a two-fold point of
view.

(a) Amos, in ch. iv. 6-9, points out to the Israelites,
that Jehovah, in order to bring them back to Him, had
brought on them famine, drought, and great dearth, also a
destruction of the gardens and vineyards, the fig-trees and

1 Thus Abarbanel, Vitringa (Typus dodrinse Proph., Appendix to
Hypotyposis Historic et Ckronolog. Macrae], Eichhorn, Rosenmuller, Von
Colin (de Joelis xtate. Marburg, 1811;, Knobel, De Wette. &c.

Date of the Prophecy. 133

olive-trees by means of locusts (palmer- worms) ; and for
these destructive creatures the designation Dtan is made
use of; the same term also occurs in Joel (cliJi. 4, ii. 25).
amongst the names of the various kinds of devastating
insects ; a term which we do not find anywhere else. Apart,
however, from this designation, the representation by Amos
of the plague ravaging the land has, unmistakeably, a great
similarity to Joel s description, so that it is most likely
that Amos, in speaking of the plagues previously sent by
God, refers to the same calamity which Joel had before
his eyes. It is not opposed to this idea that Amos speaks
of a plague befalling the kingdom of Israel, and Joel of
one with which Judah was smitten.

In a plague of long duration, extending over several
years, or again returning, it is exceedingly improbable
that it should be limited to one small district. As to this,
we must consider ch. ii. 20, where Joel calls the plague
^ID-Vn. This is, indeed explained in various ways, but,
according to the derivation from flBS, it is most probably
to be understood, in accordance with most modern inter
preters, as Septentrionale, the northern plague, the northern
enemy, as pouring itself over the land from the north. From
this, therefore, it may be assumed that before Judah was
visited with it, the plague had already raged in the ter
ritory of the kingdom of Israel.

(6) A comparison of Amos i. 6-10 with Joel iv. 4-6
points equally to a contemporary existence of the two
prophets.

Joel, in the preceding verses (2, 3), threatens the nations
in general with God s judgment, because they had scattered
His people, the Israelites, had sold them as slaves, and had
divided their land among them, and especially names the
Tyrians, Sidonians, and Philistines, whom he reproaches
with having plundered God s treasures, and made use of
them in their own temples, and with having sold the child
ren of Judah and Jerusalem to the Greeks (the lonians,
D ^*? ^|), in order to remove them far from their home ;
wherefore they are threatened that the like shall also be
done to them by the Jews. In Amos, however, besides,
some other cities of the Philistines, Gaza, and Tyre as
well, are specially threatened with the Divine punishment
because they had carried away numerous captives (in which

134 Origin of the several Books Joel.

only Jews or Israelites can be intended), and had delivered
them over to the Edomites.

Joel here naming the Greeks, and Amos the Edomites,
as those to whom the Philistines had delivered over their
captives, is not an essential difference, and cannot make it
certain that they had a different point of time in view.
The question is as to a trade in slaves, and it is natural,
therefore, that those nations should have sold the captive
Israelites and Jews in different quarters, just as it paid
them best. In order, therefore, to show the harshness and
cruelty of their conduct, the one prophet particularly names
the Greeks, as a distant nation beyond seas ; the other the
Edomites, as a tribe allied indeed to the Israelites, but at
different times showing hostility against them.

The similarity in the mode of threatening the foreign
nations, and in the way in which their transgression against
the people of the Covenant is described, is so great, that
we may assume with the greatest probability, that the two
prophets had the same historical events before their eyes.
If we add to this the other coincidences (under (a)), we
can, I believe, assume with the greatest probability, that
Joel s prophecy falls somewhat earlier several years, at
most ten than the prophecies of Amos, therefore in the
reign of Uzziah, and perhaps not quite in the last part of it,
about 800 B.C. (Of. 237.)

Most probably Zech. ix. also belongs to the same age,
and we may conclude from v. 13, that "the sons of Javan"
had kept some individuals of the people of the Covenant
far from their home, which may very well refer to those
who had been sold to them as slaves not long before by the
Phoenicians and Philistines. Cf. Theolog. Stud, und Krit.
1852, p. 265, ff. I have there (p. 268) shown, that we may
conclude from these passages, that not long before their
composition, at the time of Uzziah, king of Judah, and
Jeroboam II., king of Israel, the Philistines and Phoenicians
had waged a successful war against the Israelitish people,
indeed both Judah and Israel, and had sold captives from
both kingdoms, particularly to the Greeks. There is nothing
peculiar in the historical books of the Old Testament leav
ing these events unmentioned, as the latter treat of the
protracted reigns of these two kings in so short and sum
mary a way.

Date of tlte Prophecy. 135

The opinion here developed as to the age to which Joel
belonged is not contradicted by the passage, ch. iv. 19.

In the promise as to the future great fertility of the land
of Judah, it tells us in contrast to this, " Egypt shall be a
desolation, and Edom shall be a desolate wilderness, for the
violence against the children of Judah, because they have
shed innocent blood in their land." Whether the latter part
applies to the Egyptians also cannot be decided ; if it did,
we should only be forced to think that there were some
invasions of the land of Judah, which might have taken
place without the historical books mentioning anything
about it. Besides, the Egyptians might be called the
ancient enemies of Israel, although, just at the moment,
no particular hostility had been practised by them. But
with regard to the Edomites, of course we shall be com
pelled to assume that they must have shown hostility a
short time before, although only by partial and very tran
sient inroads into the land of Judah. That this took place
at the time we suppose is shown clearly by Amos i. 11.

By far the greater number of expositors are agreed at
present that the age to which Joel belonged was not later
than that of Amos ; but several entertain the incorrect
view that he must be placed in a much earlier period.

Thus, Credner (Der Prophet Joel, Halle, 1831), Movers
(Chronik. p. 119, f.), Hitzig, Ewald, Meier, Keil, and David
son place him in the first period of the reign of Joash, king
of Judah, before the Syrians of Damascus under Hazael
had invaded Judah, whose departure Joash purchased by
giving up the treasures of the temple (2 Kings xii. 18, 19 ;
cf. 2 Chron. xxiv. 23, 24, from which latter passage it even
appears as if the Syrians had captured Jerusalem itself),
between 870 and 850 B.C. It is thought that if this event
had previously happened, Joel would not have omitted to
include the Syrians among those enemies of Israel who
were to be punished, as Amos does in ch. i. 3, ff. But this
idea could not be well founded unless this book were com
posed very soon after this inroad of the Syrians. But on
our view of the date of composition, at least half a century
must have elapsed since the invasion took place, during
which time nothing is known to us of any further hostilities
of the Syrians against the Jews. If, however, something
of this sort had not happened just previously, like the

136 Origin of the several Books Joel.

attacks of the Phoenicians, Philistines, and Edomites, in
the case of the Syrians there would have been the less in
ducement for expressly naming them, as their country did
not lie qnite close to that of the Jews, but was divided
from it by the kingdom of Israel.

Bnnsen (Gott in der Gescliiclite, i. 321. ff.) places Joel still
further back, about fifteen or twenty-five years after the
invasion of Judah by the Egyptian king Shishak, in the
fifth year of Eehoboam, in which the temple and the royal
treasury was plundered (1 Kings xiv. 25). And he thinks
that Joel was induced by this event to utter the threats
against Egypt in ch. iv. 19. As shown by our previous
remarks, there is nothing to justify this opinion.

According to the opinion hei e developed as to the age to
which Joel belonged, he is perhaps the earliest of the pro
phets, whose prophecies, written by themselves, have been
handed down to us ; only with regard to Zechariah, ch. ix,
it may be doubtful if its composition did not take place
somewhat earlier still.

236. Joel Literary and Poetical Characteristics.

In a literary and poetical point of view Joel s prophecy is
one of the most beautiful productions of Hebrew literature ;
in florid and vivid description it is surpassed by none. It
is also important in a Prophetical and Messianic respect,
although, of course, in this it is inferior to the prophecies
of several other prophets.

In Joel the Messianic salvation is bound up with the
existence of the then present state of the kingdom of Judah,
with Jerusalem and Zion, and other nations are mentioned
only as the enemies of Jehovah, and by no means as future
partakers in the salvation of God s people. Also here, the
idea of the Messiah is not defined as of any distinct human
personality, but only in general Jehovah is specified as the
author of salvation. We find here, however, the promise
of the general pouring out of God s spirit (cf. Is. xxxii.
15 ; xliv. 3), which found its essential fulfilment in the
Christian Church only, particularly in the first establishing
of it, although, in the prophecy, it first related to the people
of Judah. There are, however, at least hints that members
of other nations should also partake of it, ch. iii. 2, 5.

137

3. THE BOOK OF AMOS.

237. Name Date and Period of Ms Ministry.

The name of the prophet, Dtoy, is not found in the Old
Testament, except in this book (ch. i. 1, 7, 8, if. ; viii. 2),
either in reference to the prophet himself, or any other
person. The Fathers of the Church sometimes erroneously
identify him with the father of Isaiah.

Amos was (according to ch. i. 1 ; vii. 14), a herdsman,
in possession of a flock at Tekoa, a small city in the tribe
of Judah, twelve Roman miles south of Jerusalem, near
the wilderness of Tekoa, and named from it (2 Chron. xx. 20 ;
1 Mace. ix. 33), on the edge of the great Arabian desert.
He was, as he says, ch. vii. 14, neither of a prophetical
family nor prepared in any particular way, but only " a
herdsman and a gatherer of sycamore fruit ;" but he will
ingly obeyed Jehovah s call, when His command came to
him to stand forth as His prophet for Israel (the kingdom
of the ten tribes) ; only for a short time, however, as may
be concluded from ch. i. 1.

The date of the utterances of Amos is there specified as
(a) the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and the Israelitish
king Jeroboam, son of Joash, therefore the first period of
Uzziah s and the latter period of Jeroboam II. s reign (cf.
ch. vii. 10, according to which, Jeroboam was then the king
of Israel), and, (b), " two years before the earthquake."

^ There is nowhere any account of this earthquake in the
historical books ; but in a prophecy before the Captivity, of
Jeremiah s age, it tells us, Zech. ch. xiv. 5, " Ye shall flee,
like as ye fled from before the earthquake in the days of
Uzziah king of Judah." We cannot ascertain more nearly
the year in which this earthquake took place. The state
ment, however, in the superscription of our book limits the
utterances contained in it to the one year (two years before
the earthquake), and probably his public prophetical min
istry had no longer duration than this. A\ hen the Divine
summons came to him, Amos must have left his home and
the land of Judah generally, and have sojourned in tho

138 Origin of the several Books Amos.

kingdom of Israel, and probably he must subsequently have
returned from thence to his home. He was, as it appears
(ch. vii. 13), ministering more particularly at Bethel, in the
kingdom of Israel, a chief place for the Israelitish cultus,
where, perhaps, the king of Israel was peculiarly wont to
perform his worship ; there was also a royal residence
there, where the king had a palace, in which he resided
from time to time, although his actual court was then at
Samaria.

It was at Bethel that Amos was particularly opposed by
Amaziah, the high priest of the sanctuary at that place.
This man accused him to the king of conspiring in the land
by means of his prophecies, by predicting that the king
would perish by the sword, and that the people would be
carried away captives out of the land. Amaziah charged
Amos to return to Judah, and there eat bread and pro
phesy, but not at Bethel ; against which Amos referred to
the Divine call which he had received (ch. vii. 10, ff.).
But, as already intimated, Amos could not have continued
his prophetical ministry there for more than one year, at
most.

238. Divisions of the Prophecy.

The book, as presented to us, is divided by the form of
statement into two distinctive parts.

A. Ch. i-vi. Simple prophetical utterances of a threat
ening nature.

These are, firstly, ch. i. 2-ii. 5, penal discourses against
various neighbouring nations : (a) Damascus ; the Syrians
of Damascus, ch. i. 2-5 ; (&) the chief cities of the Philis
tines (vv. 6-8) ; (c) Tyrus (vv. 9, 10) ; (d) Edom and its
chief cities (vv. 11, 12); (e) the Ammonites (vv. 13-15);
(/) Moab (ii. 1-3). These foreign nations are reproached
with various crimes, especially cruelty against the Israel
ites, and they are threatened with desolation. Then fol
lows (g~) an utterance against Judah, which had despised
Jehovah s law, and had allowed themselves to be led away
by lying idols, on which account the fire of Jehovah should
be sent upon them, and the palaces of Jerusalem should be
consumed (ch. ii. 4, 5).

These short discourses form only a kind of introduc
tion, and the last one against Judah is the transition to

Nature of the Prophecies. 139

the prophecies that follow on to ch. vi. 14, all directed
against Israel (only in ch. vi. 1 are the careless in Zion
mentioned, as well as those who trusted in the mountain of
Samaria, although just afterwards the prophet appears to
have again had the Israelites alone in view). The prophet
does not censure political errors, but earnestly rebukes the
heavy moral and religious crimes prevailing among the
people, especially among the great; the idolatry (at Bethel,
Gilgal, and Beersheba, actually belonging to Judah), the
cruel harshness of the rich and important men (as well as
of the women also, ch. iv. 1-3) against the humble and poor;
the injustice and corruption of the judges, the frivolity, re
veiling and imchastity. He censures also a merely outward
service of Jehovah, and requires justice and righteousness
(ch. v. 21, ff.). He energetically admonishes them to turn
to Jehovah, and threatens them with heavy Divine punish
ment with the overthrow of Samaria and the other cities
of Israel, and a removal out of the land to Hermon l (ch.
iv. 2), beyond Damascus (ch. v. 27 ; cf. vi. 7-14).

B. Ch. vii-ix. This part contains various visions, suc
ceeded by their interpretation and other prophetical utter
ances.

(1) Ch. vii. 1-9. Vision, in which the overthrow of
Israel and Jeroboam s house is, successively, represented
under the figures of grasshoppers, of fire, and of a plumb-
line.

(2) Ch. vii. 10-17. Narrative of the hostility shown by
the priest Amaziah, at Bethel, against Amos, and the pro
phetical threatening by the prophet against him and his
house, together with the menace of Israel s being carried
away out of the land.

1 Cf. Vorl. iiber Amos, on ch. iv. 3 : " PHrO^PP! must be, with the ancient
translators, unhesitatingly pointed as Hophal, as it is in a Cod. of Rossi,
since the PT in PJJWinn, at least according to the accents, is paragogic,
and is doubtless indeed the local Pi. If we do not consider the difficult
word PUIDTPIPI as the name of an entirely unknown place, it would
most probably refer to Hermon. Vateralso would read PUlEnnn, and
indeed in some Codd. of Rossi, PI stands instead of PI. It might, how
ever, very well be imagined that Amos wuuld have written the name of
this mount with a n. The Israelites must have passed by Hermon
when they were removed to Assyria or Syria. Cf. Ps. xlii, xliii, probably
the lamentation of a Jewish priest living in captivity at Hermon at
. he source of the Jordan."

140 Origin of Me several Books Amos.

(3) (Jh. viii. 1-3. Vision of a basket of fruit, as an inti
mation that Israel was ripe for destruction, to which fol
lows, in w. 4-14, a discourse threatening punishment on
those particularly who oppressed and devoured the poor and
carried on a disgraceful traffic in corn ; also against those
who gave themselves over to idolatry; that Jehovah will
bring upon them great affliction and mourning, also hunger
and thirst, all according to the Word of God (through the
mouth of the prophet).

(4) Ch. ix. A new vision, in which the prophet saw the
Lord standing on the altar, ordaining a destruction from
which no one shall be able to escape (w. 1-4). The threat
ening of the Divine judgment then goes still further, that
Jehovah would blot out the sinful kingdom, and that all
the sinners in the people should certainly perish by the
sword, and that the House of Israel should be sifted among
all nations ; but yet that the house of Jacob should not be
entirely blotted out, and that in the sifting no grain of corn
should fall to the ground (w. 5-10). Then follows the
further promise, that Jehovah would again reinstate the
fallen tabernacle of David in its former security and splen
dour, and that Israel shall take possession of the remnant
of Edom, and of all the nations that are called by Jehovah s
name ; that the land should be blessed with the richest
plenty and fruitfulness, that the scattered ones of the people
should again be brought back, that the overthrown cities
should be built up, and that they themselves should be
firmly planted in the land (vv. 11-15).

The book concludes with these Messianic prophecies ; a
book, the remainder of whose purport is of so penal and
threatening a character, that Luther says (W. A. vi. 2438),
" this prophet employs almost the whole of his book in mere
censure, and in preaching the threats and terrors of the
impending Divine judgment. That it appears as if he were
therefore called Amos, that is, a burden, as being a heavy,
rough, and burdensome preacher."

The book, as we have it, with, the superscription, ch. i. 1
(which, from its exact statement of the date, doubtless pro
ceeds from the prophet himself), cannot have been written
until after the earthquake therein mentioned, and conse
quently, at all events, some years later than the time of
Amos s prophetical ministry in Israel ; whether during

Literary Character of the Book. 1 41

Jeroboam s lifetime, or not till after his death, cannot be
ascertained. We must, perhaps, consider the book as a
record of his prophetical ministry in the kingdom of Is
rael, composed by the prophet himself at a subsequent
time. The well-arranged order of the different parts of
the book is in favour of this idea, and also the Messianic
promise forming the conclusion to the whole of it.

As regards the literary character of the Book of Amos, its
language is poetical, even in the narrative of the visions ;
it is, however, on the whole very simple, quiet, and mea
sured. His Hebrew is in general pure.

Jerome (Prooem. in Amos) designates him as " imperitum
sermone, sed non scientia." The former opinion, however,
is too strongly expressed, looking at the nature of his
writing, and can only be applied to some variations from
the usual orthography (v. De \Vette, 234, note b ; Ewald,
Die Propheten, i. p. 84).

4. THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

239. Name Nature of the Contents Date of the Prophecy.

Under the name of Obadiah, we have a prophecy with
the superscription, nnay jitn. There can be no doubt that
here ^Hn y = the servant of Jehovah, is not, as Augusti sup
poses, appellative " the prophecy of some pious man " (this
construction nowhere thus occurs, and the mode of desig
nation would be strange and against all analogy), but that
it is a proper name, as it often occurs for different persons
at different times. LXX, Cod. Vat, &c., s O/ftuas, Cod. Al.
and in the Alexandrine ecclesiastical authors, A/28ias (from
another form, n -py, O r rn^y), and so in the Latin, Abdias.
In Luther, according to the Masoretic text, Obadja.

Obadiah s work is directed against the Edomites, begin
ning with the, words, "Thus saith the Lord Jehovah con
cerning on iO."

This nation, which by its descent from Esau was allied
with the Jews and was adjacent to them, had shown them
selves to be full of malicious joy and hostile to the highest
degree, when the Jewish army was vanquished by foreign
enemies and carried away captive, when Jerusalem itself

142 Origin of the several Books Obadiah.

was captured, so that lots were cast over it, and its inhabi
tants had fled. For this, the prophet threatens this per
fidious brother-people ; he compares the house of Jacob and
Joseph (Judahand Israel) to the fire and the flame, and the
house of Esau to the stubble, which shall be entirely con
sumed by the flame ; that the day of the Lord was near
upon all the heathen, and then would Edom with its wise
men and its mighty men be blotted out, notwithstanding
the natural strength of the land, whilst the house of Jacob
shall again receive its possessions, and shall find deliver
ance on the holy Mount Zion, and the kingdom shall be
Jehovah s.

In ascertaining the date of the composition, we must fix
in the first place, on the particular misfortune of the Jews
which is intended, at which the Edomites showed such
malicious joy. It has been pretty generally considered to
have been the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad
nezzar; and this is certainly correct. The composition,
therefore, cannot have taken place until after this event.

Jahn thinks it was the capture of the city at the time of
Jehoiachin, 599 B.C., in which the king himself with a
considerable number of Jews was carried away captive. As
the Chaldeans are not expressly named, but only generally,
Dnro, D S ~)T, v. 11, as the enemies who had vanquished the
Jewish army and captured Jerusalem, we might just as
well suppose that they were the Egyptians who slew Josiah
at Megiddo, 611 B.C. and, three months after, came to Jeru
salem, and took away Jehoahaz to Egypt. But the whole
description of the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jews
(vv. 11-14, 16 ; cf. vv. 17, 20, f.), leaves but little doubt that
the prophet refers to the above-named great catastrophe.

It is quite a mistake, when Havernick, Caspari (Der
Prophet Obadja, 1842), -and Hengstenberg (Die Geschichte
Bileams, p. 253, f. Notes), although acknowledging the
reference assumed by us, understand the description as
prophetic, and fix the composition of it in the age of
Uzziah, on account of its position in the Canon. Hitzig is
equally wrong in postponing the date of the composition
until after Alexander, and as taking place in Egypt.
There is in the contents no adequate cause whatever for
such an opinion, and it is untenable, because the compila
tion of the twelve minor projphets, and that of the Nebiim

Position in the Canon. 143

generally was arranged, without doubt, long before Alex
ander s time.

A special question arises as to the relation of this pro
phecy to Jer. xlix. 7-22. The two agree occasionally
surprisingly, even verbally, so that we cannot help assum
ing that one prophet must have borrowed of the other. 1
It is very doubtful which of the two is the more original.
(Cf. Graf s Jeremia, p. 559.) If our previous remarks as
to the date of Obadiah be correct, we cannot doubt that
Jeremiah is the more original, as his prophecy, in all pro
bability, took place before the destruction of Jerusalem,
perhaps in the reign of Jehoiakim. It is in favour of this
view, that there is no intimation in Jeremiah of hostilities,
or of a hostile disposition on the part of the Edomites,
against Israel and Judah.

At all events, Obadiah s work, chronologically consi
dered, has an improper place in the Canon. This is caused
in all probability, as Schnurrer correctly remarks (Dissertat.
pkiloL in Obadiam. Tubing. 1787 ; in his Dissertatt. philol. crit.
Gotha et Amst. 1790, p. 383, ff.), by the conclusion of
the Book of Amos, ch. ix. 12. There Obadiah s work
appears as a further description of that which Amos only
cursorily hinted at, and thus the originator of the compila
tion of the lesser prophets has allowed it to follow Amos.

Nothing is known to us about this prophet, beyond that
which we gather from his work, according to which he
was a Jew at the time of the Babylonian Captivity, and
had lived to see the overthrow of his people and their chief
city, and, from v. 20, was perhaps himself among the cap
tives.

1 Ewald s opinion is but little probable, that both passages were
based on an older prophecy, which both Jeremiah and Obadiah had
made use of. [G. F. Jager shows in his " Programme" ( On the Age
of Obadiah," Tubingen, 1837), that Obadiah did not borrow of Jeremiah,
but is wrong in making our present Book of Obadiah precede Jeremiah ;
the position of the former book in the Canon is, in the opinion of Au-
gusti, Ewald, Graf, and others, sufficiently explained.]

144

5. THE BOOK OF MIC AH.

240. Name Birthplace Date Purport of the Prophecies.

The name, H?*P, occurs in the Old Testament for several
persons, sometimes with this form and sometimes the
longer ones nD*p, -I.Wp.

The latter forms must be considered as the more ori
ginal, etymologically signifying " who is like Jehovah f
(of. Michael), and nrPD only as proceeding from the former
by contraction. The prophet is named by the shorter form
both in the title and superscription of his book, ch. i. 1 ;
and also Jer. xxvi. 18, in the Keri ; theChetib, on the con
trary, has rrrPD in this passage. LXX, M^aiae ; Vulgate,
Michceas and Luther, Micha.

Micah is designated both in his book and also in Jer.
xxvi. 18, as the Morasthite, VIBhttn ; doubtless from the
place of his birth, Moreshet, about which Jerome (Prolog,
in Midi.}, says, calling it Morasthi, that it was still exist
ing in his time as a not very considerable village in the
neighbourhood of Eleutheropolis (westward from Jeru
salem). Most probably this place is intended in ch. i. 14,
by the name na fl^hiQ, so called perhaps, because it formed
a part of the territory of Gath.

Luther, &c., are incorrect in deriving the designation
Morasthite from Maresa, niPTO, a town in the plain of the
tribe of Judah, the name of which often occurs, and is men
tioned by Micah (ch. i. 15).

The prophet is distinguished by his designation as a
Morasthite, from another older prophet Micah (Micaiah),
son of Imlah, a contemporary of Elijah, at the time of
Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and Ahab of Israel, 1 Kings
xxii. 8, ff. The ecclesiastical authors look upon both as the
same men, and the author of the Books of Kings appears
to have done the same, as, in v. 28, he puts into the mouth
of the son of Imlah, the very words which form the begin
ning of our Book (ch. i. 2), C&3 Dy WOK*. This, how
ever, certainly only arises from the above author, who

Date and Contents. 145

belonged to the time of the Captivity, mistaking the one
for the other.

The age to which this prophet belonged is stated in the
superscription (ch. i. 1) as the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz,
and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, according to which he was
a contemporary of Isaiah, and perhaps somewhat later than
Joel, Amos, and Hosea ; about the time of the breaking up
of the kingdom of Ephraim. There is another ancient
testimony, in Jer. xxvi. 18, as to the age to which Micah
belonged, and as to a prophecy contained in his book actu
ally being uttered in Hezekiah s reign.

Jeremiah here relates, that the accusations against him
were referred by the elders of the people to the former
conduct of Micah the Morasthite, as one who had likewise
prophesied in Hezekiah s time the complete destruction of
Jerusalem and the Temple (and the passage, Micah iii. 12,
is literally quoted) without being put to death by the
king and the people, as was threatened to Jeremiah. At
the same time they point out how Micah had induced
Jehovah by his piety and his prayers, not to bring on the
predicted misfortune (cf. Micah vii. 7, ff.).

The subject of this book is specified in the superscrip
tion as prophecies concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. The
first section, ch. i. 1-16, is expressly against the two king
doms or their chief towns, and chiefly against Samaria,
which is threatened with complete devastation, which, how
ever, would reach Judah and even Jerusalem. In what
follows, however, no further reference to Samaria is made
distinctly prominent, Sometimes the utterances may be
referred to both kingdoms in common, as ch. ii, iii. 1-8 ;
but in other places Judah, and particularly Jerusalem, ex
pressly stand forth as the objects of the prediction, as
ch. iii. 9, ff. ; iv. 9, ff.; and vi. 9, ff.; and itis probable that
the prophet in his threatening discourses everywhere, from
chapter ii. onwards, speaks of this latter kingdom only, to
which he belonged by birth, and where he doubtless re
sided ; even where he mentions Jacob and Israel in general,
as ch. iii. 1, 8, 9. This is most easily explained by the
supposition that the first utterance took place before the
breaking up of the kingdom of Israel, and the following
ones after this catastrophe, when the kingdom of Judah
was alone remaining, and the members of this kingdom

VOL. II. L

146 Origin of the several Books Micah.

would therefore be meant by the general designations of
Jacob and Israel. These prophecies, then, would all fall
in the reign of Hezekiah, as is stated in Jer. ut supra ; and
the first section also belongs to this reign, only to the ear
lier period of it. According to this the statement of the
superscription appears to be inexact ; but it probably refers
to the whole period of Micah s prophetical activity gene
rally, and not exclusively to the time to which the utter
ances of the book belong.

As regards the separate parts of the book, we cannot but
observe that, apart from the first section chiefly relating to
Samaria, it is not a single continuous prophetical utterance
with various sections ; but that there are various utter
ances which were not perhaps originally all issued at the
same time. But it cannot always be ascertained with cer
tainty where they severally begin and end ; and still less
can we state anything at all exact as to their respective
dates. It is perhaps probable, that the prophet himself
subsequently collected some of the utterances of his pro
phetical ministry, which he had previously written out
separately, and combined them together into the form in
which we now have them, perhaps without attending to
the retention of their chronological order.

As regards the tendency of Micah s prophetical ministry,
as it strikes us in his book, his utterances do not take
notice of the political transgressions and errors of the
leaders of the commonwealth, as if often the case with
Jeremiah and Isaiah particularly, but only, like Amos, of
the religious and especially the moral condition both of the
people and princes.

The prophet censures the idolatry in the land (ch. i. 5, 7 ;
vi. 16) ; he specially rebukes the princes and important
men for their violent and rapacious conduct towards others,
particularly against women and children, wherewith they
flay and devour the people ; for their bloodshed which they
load themselves with, and for their corruption as judges.
He rebukes the false prophets, who, for love of gold, pro
phesy in favour of those who pay them, and nevertheless
think that they may rely on Jehovah ; he rebukes the
people generally for their fickleness, for their lying, deceit
ful conduct in their daily business (false measures and
weights), for their want of trust in their nearest -friends

Purport of the Prophecies. 1 47

and relations, and for the discord existing even among
members of the same family (ch. vii. 6) ; he laments that
there are scarcely any pious and just men in the land
(ch. vii. 1, f.). The prophet, therefore, threatens the people
and the princes with the Divine judgments, and with devas
tation of the land (ch. i. 9, ff. ; ii. 3, ff. ; vii. 13), particularly
with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple (ch. iii.
12 ; vi. 13, ff.), with the expulsion and captivity of the
inhabitants (ch. ii. 10), also specially with a removal to
Babylon (ch. iv. 10) ; that they will cry in vain to Jehovah,
for He will not hear (ch. iii. 4). He admonishes them to
become better, and brings to their recollection, how graci
ous Jehovah had ever been to His people, and that they
were not to make oblations to Him of various kinds, but
rather to do justly, to love mercy, and walk humbly with
their God (ch. vi. 1-8). Then, however, the prophet pre
dicts the return of the Divine mercy and blessing, with a
pardon for their offences ; from the exile whither Jehovah
had caused them to wander, will He again send them de
liverance. He will again gather the remnant of Israel into
a numerous flock, under a new ruler, who shall proceed from
Bethlehem from the ancient family (as David), and shall
tend Jehovah s people with power, and cause them to dwell
safe from all attacks of their enemies. Then shall the mount
of the Temple be splendidly glorious, and numerous foreign
nations shall turn to Zion, in order to seek there for Divine
instruction, acknowledging Jehovah as their Lord and Ar
bitrator, and that henceforth there shall be no more war
among them (ch. ii. 12, 13 ; iv. 1-8 ; v. 1-8 ; cf. vii. 7-20).
Micah s style of writing is throughout poetical ; it is for
the most part similar to that of Isaiah, and, in some
respects, to that of Hosea ; it is sometimes quite as difficult
and abrupt as the latter. He loves eccentricities and
plays upon words, with which the section, ch. i. 10-15, is
too much loaded.

148

6. THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

241. Name Birthplace Date and Contents of Prophecy.

The name E-1H3 = consolation (in Greek Naotyx ; Vulg. and
with us, Nahum and Naum), occurs both on a Phoenician
and Greek inscription (DnJ, Naov/xos, the latter for a man of
Aradus), but is not found in the Old Testament, except in
our book.

Nahum is designated in the superscription as the Elko-
shite, which, doubtless, is to be understood as a nomen
gentile, from Elkosh, the place of his birth. It is so under
stood by Eusebius in the Chronicon, and Jerome (in Prooem.
Nahum), the latter of whom points out Helkesaei, a small,
and, at that time, almost ruined village in Galilee, which
appears to have been shown him as the birthplace of
Nahum.

Up to the beginning of the last century it was usual to
look upon the Galilean Helkesaei as the prophet s birth
place. After this time, however, a place in Assyria has
been sometimes decided upon for it a place called Alkosch,
or Elkosch, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, not far from
the city of Mosul and the ancient Nineveh, where the pre
tended grave of Nahum is shown ; among others who have
thought this, are J. D. Michaelis, Eichhorn, Ewald, &c. ;
v. also Hitter, " Geography," ix. 742, if. It is thought, there
fore, that Nahum was born here of Israelitish ancestors,
who were in exile in Assyria. This opinion, however, has
very little in its favour. Even if the prophet \vere born
there, it would not necessarily result that he should have
died there. According to Layard, Nahum s pretended
grave is not even very ancient, and is, without doubt, of
Christian origin. Probably at a tolerably late time people
were induced by the perhaps accidental similarity of the
name of the Assyrian place to Nahum s designation as the
Elkoshite, to derive this designation from the above place,
and to look upon some monument which they found there
as the tomb of this prophet, whose work is directed against
Nineveh.

Contents and Date of the Prophecy. 149

The purport of Nahum s prophecy corresponds with the
superscription, " The burden of Nineveh. The book of the
vision of Nahmn the Elkoshite."

It does not matter whether the book is divided into two
discourses, the second beginning with cli. iii. 1 ; or whether
it is considered as only one ; at any rate, the whole of it
relates to the same circumstances, and was written at the
same time. It is all directed against Nineveh, the chief
city of the Assyrian kingdom, and its king; both being
threatened with complete destruction because of their
hostile proceedings against Jehovah, His people, and their
chief city.

The date of composition is variously stated. As to this, I
remark as follows :

(a) There can be no doubt that Nineveh still existed as
the chief city of the Assyrian kingdom. The Assyrian
monarchy was overthrown and Nineveh taken by storm by
the Medes under Cyaraxes in alliance with the Chaldeans
under Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar s father, a little before
the year 600 B.C. This work must, therefore, have been
composed before this time.

(6) It may, besides, be assumed with probability that
the composition took place some time after the defeat and
retreat of Sennacherib s army from Jerusalem, but still
before the death of this king, who was murdered by his two
sons in a temple at Nineveh.

Judah and Jerusalem must unmistakeably have suffered
much from Nineveh and the Assyrian king not long before,
as was particularly the case after the breaking up of the
kingdom of Israel at the time of Hezekiah, and especially
in the fourteenth year of his reign, at the time of Sen
nacherib. It may be supposed with the greatest proba
bility that the prophet meant this prince and his expedition
against Jerusalem, when he says (ch. i. 11) : "There is one
come out of thee (Nineveh), that imagineth evil against the
Lord, a wicked counsellor." This opinion is generally
entertained, even by Ewald. Ewald is, however, wrong in
thinking that this prince is here spoken of as if he had been
dead a long time, and the circumstances were then quite
different. The prophet certainly has the same prince in
view in ch. i. 14, in the threat that Jehovah would blot out
his race, that He would cut off out of his idol-house his

1 50 Origin of the several Books Nahum.

carved and molten images, and tliat He would make his
grave for that he was vile. 1

(c) The passage (ch. iii. 8) also agrees with this, accord
ing to which the city of No-Amon ("Thebes) in Egypt
must, not long before, have been conquered by a hostile
nation, and the inhabitants have been carried into cap
tivity.

We have no exact historical accounts as to this event ;
but it is not improbable that it agrees with Isaiah xx, and
took place through the Assyrians before the fourteenth year
of Hezekiah ; and thus the reference to this event can be
easily understood if our opinion be followed as to the age
to which Nahum belonged, but not if Nahum flourished
considerably later, as, e.g., Ewald and Hitzig suppose.

I must also notice that Ewald thinks that the prophet
must have been in the neighbourhood of Nineveh when he
composed this threatening discourse. But this in no way
follows from the mode of statement in the book ; it is much
more probable, particularly from ch. i. 12, if., that he was
living at Jerusalem, or at least near it.

In a literary point of view, Nahum is very eminent ; his
diction is original, very poetical and vivid, without any
redundance.

This work presents no Messianic matter except in a
general sense, as in the threatening of the destruction of
the opponents of the people of God, in the prediction that
Jehovah would henceforth no more humble Jerusalem, and
that He would no more lay waste Judah ; but that He
would give them cause for feasts of joy, and that He would
again set tip the greatness of Jacob (Judah) and Israel
(ch. ii. 1, ff.).

1 Cf. Varies, iiber Nahum, on this passage : Hi?)"? is perhaps best to be
understood " tliou art cursed." The Kal, indeed, does not otherwise
occur with this signification, the Piel, however, does in the active mean
ing, to revile, to curse, and thence the noun H^jp.

151

7. THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

242. Name Division of the Book Date and Nature of

the Prophecy.

The name of this prophet, which only occurs in the Old
Testament, as applied to him, and, in his book only in the
superscriptions, ch. i. 1, and ch. iii. 1, runs in the Hebrew
p-lpan = embracing, clasping round; in the Greek, the LXX,
and in the Greek ecclesiastical writers, A^/fo/coG/x, the first
syllable of which has, perhaps, proceeded from p-1p3n ; the
transformation, however, of the P in the last syllable into /x
is without analogy, and it must remain undecided whether
it was done by the Greek translator himself, or whether it
arose through some very ancient corruption. In Latin- and
German, Habacuc, Habakuk.

In the superscription, ch. i. 1 ; iii. 1, Habakkuk is merely
designated as K ?3n, but nothing else is stated about him,
not even the age to which he belonged ; for ascertaining
this we are confined to his book only.

In the Greek additions to the Book of Daniel, in the ac
count of the Dragon at Babylon (v. 33, ff.), Habakkuk is men
tioned as the man who was brought from Judaea to Babylon
by an angel of the Lord, in order to feed Daniel in the den
of lions ; according to that he would have lived at the time
of the Babylonian exile, or after it, at the time of Cyrus.
As, however, the whole of this narrative has altogether the
character of a fabulous composition, not the least attention
should be paid to it in fixing the time of the prophet, and
just as little also both to the statement of Pseudo-Epiphan.
(De Vitis PropJietarum) and other ecclesiastical authors, and
also to that of the Eabbis, none of whom agree very much
with one another; v. De Wette, 242, note a, and Delitzsch
( De Habac. Prophet., Vita et jEtate, Leipzig, 1842).

The book itself is divided into two parts, (1) ch. i. 2,
with the superscription, "The burden which Habakkuk
the prophet did see ;" (2) ch. iii, with the superscription,
" A Trayer of Habakkuk the prophet," rfWJB&gt; ^y.

Both parts refer essentially to the same circumstances,

152 Origin of the several Books Habdkkuk.

treated of, however, in different ways, vi, to the judgment
which Jehovah either threatens or executes on His people
by means of a foreign nation, namely, the Chaldeans, who
are mentioned by name (ch. i. 6). A portion of the first
part of the prophecy is framed in the shape of a dialogue
between Jehovah and the prophet.

The prophet is deeply grieved at the internal corruption
of his people, the deeds of violence in the land, the injus
tice, the oppression of the righteous by the wicked, and the
relaxation of the law (to this without doubt refers ch. i.
2-4 ; query whether also ch. i. 13 ?). To these lamentations
of the prophet, Jehovah answers by an intimation of the
punishment which He will prepare, through the Chaldeans,
who are accurately depicted as a fearful nation, extending
their conquering march over the whole earth with great
swiftness and success (ch. i. 5-11). The prophet acknow
ledges therein the righteous judgment of Jehovah, who is
too pure to behold iniquity, but relies on the living, never-
dying 1 God, that He will not allow the destroyer to have
his will without cessation (ch. i. 12-17). In ch. ii. it is
then predicted more exactly, and is stated as certain to
ensue in due time, that this haughty, destructive, insatiable
people shall also experience that which they dealt out to
other nations, that they should become an object of con
tempt and derision, and that their idols should be unable
to help them ; also that this judgment should cause that the
earth should be filled with the knowledge of the glory of
Jehovah (y. 14) ; but "the just (among God s people) shall
live by faith " (y. 4).

Opinions are very various as to the date of the composition
of this prophecy, and also as to the age generally to which
Habakkuk belonged. This much follows clearly from the
contents, (a) that the Chaldeans had already extended
their march of conquest and destruction to the west, and
(&), on the other hand, that this march had only very
shortly begun, and that they had not yet arrived at Judah
and Jerusalem, so that they were as yet little known there.
This clearly results from the way in which they are spoken

* Cf. Varies, uber Habak. on ch. i. 12 : " Ewald correctly reads
instead of n-1103 ; the latter has come into the text by Tikkun Sopherim
(cf. 359). Of. Theol. Stud, und Krit. 1858, p. 352."

TJie Prophet s Prayer or Song. 153

of in ch. i. 6, ff. We shall, therefore, fix upon the reign of
Jehoiakim as the most probable.

We think it decidedly erroneous to fix, with some, the
time after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans ;
it is likewise inadmissible when others have desired to put
it forward into the Assyrian age.

Chapter iii. shows, in its whole character and tone, as
well as by its separate superscription, that it is a distinct
poem from ch. i. and ii ; Bertholdt and Justi (Hahakiik,
1821) erroneously deny this. It is a psalm-like song, which
might have found a place in our collection of Psalms. That
it was made use of for public musical delivery is shown
both by the superscription (cf. Ps. vii. 1) and by the post
script, as also by the expression selah occurring three times
(vv. 3, 9, 13).

The prophet here depicts in a sublime manner that which
he had learned in the spirit by Divine revelation how
Jehovah would appear for the assistance of His people and
of His anointed, and to pronounce judgment on the adver
saries oppressing His people (doubtless the Chaldeans) ; he
beseeches that Jehovah, in the course of years, would exe
cute this judgment, and in His wrath against His people
for their misdeeds, would yet turn in mercy to them. Fear
and hope alternate in the prophet s mind ; joyful confidence,
however, retains the mastery.

This chapter belongs, in general, to the same age as the
first part, but is. perhaps a little later; at a time when the
Chaldeans had come closer, and had to some extent oppressed
and attacked Judah itself.

Habakkuk s book is confessedly one of the most beautiful
remains of Hebrew literature, notwithstanding the some
what late age of its composition. He is excelled in sub
limity of description by none of the Old-Testament authors,
either poetical or prophetical ; the song, ch. iii, is pecu
liarly beautiful and sublime. He is also distinguished by
purity of language.

154

8. THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

243. Name Descent Nature of liis Prophecy Date.

Name, Hebr. n*3BV == Jehovah covers or protects (a name
often occurring in the Old Testament) ; LXX, 2o&lt;ovias :
Vulg. Sophonia (from the form n^HS , as particip.) ; Luther,
Zephanja.

Zephaniah s descent is stated in the superscription, ch. i.
1, from the fourth generation, i.e., from his great-great
grandfather Hizkiah. Many persons have thought that it
was Hezekiah, 1 king of Judah, and it is not improbable.

If this were so, it might however be expected he would
be expressly styled " the king of Judah ;" but the very
circumstance that the family of the prophet is traced so far
back makes it probable, both that his family was no unim
portant one, and also that the man as far as whom it is
carried back was a peculiarly well known and eminent
person. According to the relations of time, such a con
nection between this prophet and the king Hezekiah is by
no means impossible.

We have only a short work by him, which consists of
one continuous utterance, with various pauses in it, which
however was certainly not written at different times.

The prophet is deeply moved at the idolatry which was
practised in Jerusalem and Judah together with the ex
ternal worship of Jehovah, and predicts a general Divine
judgment, which was close impending, and would, in a
dreadful way, extirpate every one (ch. i) ; he admonishes
his people to gather themselves together, ere the fire of
Jehovah s wrath should come upon them, which should be
poured out on the nations, among whom he names the Philis
tines, the Moabites, the Ammonites, the Ethiopians, and
especially the Assyrians with their chief town Nineveh
(ch. ii). His threatening then turns again against Jerusalem,
which is profaned by the injustice of its princes and judges,
and the practices of its prophets and priests ; Jehovah had

1 Thus Aben Esra, and also Eichhorn, Hitzig, FT. Ad Strauss (Vati-
cinia Zeph, comment, illustr. Berlin, 1843), Hiivernick, Keil, &c. *

Nature and Date of the Prophecy. 155

in vain admonished them to repent ; but that now the day
of judgment was near when Jehovah would assemble the
nations, in order to pour out His fury on the wicked
among His people (ch. iii. 1-8). 1 That He will then
awaken these nations, that they shall call upon His name,
and shall serve Him with one consent ; and that, after the
extirpation of the wicked and stubborn, there shall be left
remaining in Judah an humble and afflicted people, who
shall live in righteousness and trust in Jehovah ; then also
will Jehovah make Jerusalem glorious, will annihilate her
oppressors, bringing back all the scattered ones of His
people, and that henceforth they shall see evil no more
(ch. iii. 9-20).

The age to which Zephaniah belonged is stated in the
superscription to be the reign of Josiah, king of Judah
(642-611 B.C.); and this also agrees throughout with the
purport of the prophecy and the cirnumstances presupposed
in it.

It follows from the threatening against Assyria and
Nineveh (ch. ii. 13-15), that this oracle must have been
composed before the destruction of this city and the over
throw of the Assyrian monarch by the Medes and Baby
lonians, therefore by no means later than Josiah s reign.
We also find a similar state of things as to the Jewish
people, such as different kinds of idolatry, false prophets,
and the like, as we notice in Jeremiah s prophecies, like
wise uttered during this reign.

It may be assumed with probability that the composition
took place before the discovery of the Book of the Law in
the eighteenth year of Josiah there is, at least, no intima
tion whatever of any such reform as to idolatry, as Josiah
then instituted in the whole land unless the composition
took place a very considerable time after that event, which,
on account of the prophecy against Nineveh (ch. ii. 1315)
is not very probable.

Certain passages are certainly not in opposition to the
above opinion, although they have sometimes been consi-
sidered so.

(a) In ch. i. 8, the king s sons are named together with
the princes, as partakers in foreign heathen customs. It

1 In ch. iii. 8, the suff. in DH^V does not relate to the nations, as
Ewald, Hitzig, Strauss, &c., would have it, but to the wicked Jews.

156 Origin of the several Books Zeplianiah.

has been thought that this could not have been the case
before the eighteenth year of Josiah, as the latter was only
eight years old at his coming to the throne. But it is not
necessary to refer this expression to the king s sons only ;
as it might be intended to refer to his brothers and other
descendants of the house of David.

(&) It has been thought that it might be inferred from
the words " the remnant of Baal," in ch. i. 4, that Josiah s
reformation in this respect must already have begun. But
even if this were correct, the composition might still have
taken place before the eighteenth year of Josiah, as this
prince, according to 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3, began to purge
Judah and Jerusalem from idolatry, from the twelfth year of
his reign onwards. Thus the composition is fixed by Jahn, v.
Colin (Spicileg. Observat. Exeget. Grit, in Zepli. Breslau, 1818),
Hitzig, and Keil, between the twelfth and eighteenth year
of Josiah. This may be correct, although the above passage
does not render this idea necessary, as the words may be
simply understood, with Ewald and others, as " the Baal-
worship up to the last remnant."

(c) Still less is it to be inferred from ch. iii. 4, "her
priests have polluted the sanctuary, they have done vio
lence to the law," that this must have been written after
the eighteenth year of Josiah, as previously to this Jehovah s
law could not have been quite an unknown thing, and its
infringement by wicked priests might very well have been
spoken of before this time (cf. Jer. ii. 8 ; viii. 8), which
prophecies likewise occurred before the discovery of the
Book of the Law. (Cf. also p. 334, 1st vol.)

It is also most probable that the composition took place
at the time when the Scythians made their devastating
march into Asia, and extended it to Palestine.

It may be inferred from the prophecy that -the prophet,
at least at the time of its composition, must have been
dwelling in Judah and at Jerusalem. Nothing further is
known as to his personal circumstances.

This work is worthy of attention in a prophetical point of
view, particularly on account of the prediction of the con
version of heathen nations, even those who carried out the
judgments on Israel, to the worship of Jehovah, and even
before the conversion of Israel. Zephaniah has no promise
as to the person of the Messiah.

HaggaiName, &c. 157

We .must mention, that there was extant in the ancient
Christian Church an apocryphal work in Zephaniah s name

(aSr ^

Ai *!"

Alex. (Strom, v. p. 585), and Pseudo-

VMs Pro), quote passages. In the

. e

twa Sacra, and in Nicephorus, Stichometria,^ 9 it i s
added among the Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament
and its extent is stated as 600 verses

9. THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

244. Name, &c

158 Origin of the several Books Haggai.

known importance. Cyril Alex, regards the above view as
absurd.

The Book of Haggai, which was, without doubt, both
composed and issued in its present shape by the prophet
whose name it bears, contains four short prophetical utter
ances, made in the first place to Zerubbabel and Joshua,
and exactly dated according to year, month, and day ; they
all took place in the second year of Darius Hystaspis, in the
sixth, seventh, and the two last in the ninth month (on the
same day) ; the first also has an historical addition as to
the effect of the utterance. They all relate to the rebuild
ing of the temple

The prophet admonishes his fellow countrymen, who
themselves dwelt in ceiled houses, that they should not
allow the house of God to lie waste ; and that for this
cause Jehovah would punish them with the failure of their
crops, and with unfruitfulness in the land, both for man
and beast (ch. i. 1-11). The result of this prophetical
warning was, that after three weeks the building of the
temple, which had ceased since the time of Cyrus, was
again formally begun, as is related ch. i. 12-15. Soon
after, in the following month, the prophet is induced to
appease his countrymen, those particularly who had seen
the former temple in all its glory, on account of the new
temple being so very inferior to the old in extent ; he ad
monishes them to continue actively at work, and promises
that in a short time the glory of the new house shall be
greater than that of the old, that Jehovah will cause the
riches of all nations to flow into it, and that He will bring
peace and salvation upon that place (ch. ii. 1-9 ). 1 Of the
two last utterances, both of which fall upon the same day,
the former particularly sets forth, that the curse still con
tinually remains on the people on account of their unclean-
ness, but that Jehovah will from that day bless them with
richer fruitfulness (ch. ii. 10-19) ; the second (vv. 20-23),
that Jehovah will bring about a universal revolution and

1 In v. 7, Luther has translated DM3rr3 rnipn, " oiler Heiden
Trost" (A. V., "the desire of all nations"); also Jerome, i: desideratus
cunctis gentibus." It is, however, intended to mean the treasures of the
nations, which they shall bring into the temple (cf. 1 Sam. ix. 20), and
is perhaps to be read hlDH, since the predicate -1N3 stands in the
plural.

ZechariahName Divisions of the Book. 159

will overthrow both thrones and kingdoms ; but that He
will take Zerubbabel, whom He has chosen, under His
especial protection.

Zerubbabel, as a scion of the house of David, may be
here looked upon as a type of Christ ; there being no dis
tinct promise in Haggai as to the future appearance of any
other personal Saviour ; but the promise as to the future
glory of God s new house is Messianic in a wider sense
(ch. ii. 6-9) ; so also is the prediction as to the future
shaking of heaven and earth and all the kingdoms of the
world (ch. ii. 21, f.).

10. THE BOOK OF ZECHARTAH.

245. Name Division of the Book The first Division.

This book consists of two divisions (A.) ch. i-viii ;
(B.) ch. ix-xiv. each of which contains several separate
utterances. It is, however, a matter of dispute whether the
utterances in the second division belong to the same author
as the first, or to one or several other prophets. There
are_ superscriptions in the first part (ch. i. 1, 7; vii. 1)
which mention Zechariah as the prophet to whom the
word of the Lord came, and name the time as the reign
of the king Darjavesch (Darius Hystaspis) in his second
and fourth year. There is no question whatever that the
whole of the utterances in the first part belong to the
above prophet.

The name in Hebrew, ir"OJ, frequently occurs in the
Old Testament for different " persons ; LXX and Vulg.,
Zaxapias, Zacharias ; Luther, Sacharja.

This prophet was, according to the above statement, a
contemporary of Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua,
and also of the prophet Haggai, with all of whom he is
named in Ezra v. 1 ; vi. 14; yet he is there designated as
the son of Iddo, but in our book, on the contrary he is

called nrja (liTrna) rrrna-ja.

Ancient interpreters," as Jerome and Cyril, take this to
be filium Berechjce, filium Iddonis, and then endeavour to
explain in what sense the prophet could be styled at the
same time the son both of Berechiah and Iddo. But, as
it runs in the passage, it can only mean the son of Be re-

160 Origin of the several Books Zechariah.

&lt;ohiah, who was the son of Iddo, so that he is really styled
the grandson of the latter, whilst in the Book of Ezra he
is called his son. The latter may, perhaps, be explained
by the assumption that Berechiah, the father, had died
very early, or had been much less known than the grand
father Iddo. It might thus happen that Zechariah might
often be looked upon and styled as the son of his actual
grandfather Iddo, with the omission of his real father ;
yet the matter was, perhaps, differently circumstanced
(v. as to which, 249).

I must here mention that a certain Iddo is named in
Neh. xii. 4, as among the chief priests who returned with
Zerubbabel and Joshua out of exile, and also in v. 16 a
certain Zechariah is named as his immediate successor. It
is not improbable that these two are the very Zechariah
and Iddo of whom we are speaking, whether the latter
were the father or grandfather of the former. It would
result from this that Zechariah belonged to the priestly
race, and that he officiated as priest, or as one of the prin
cipal priests, under the high priest Joiakim (ib. v. 12), the
son and successor of Joshua. It agrees well with this that
in ch. ii. 4, he speaks of himself as a young man ("W); there
fore, at the time of this utterance, in the second year of
Darius Hystaspis, and at the time of the high priest Joshua,
ae must have been still tolerably young.

There is, therefore, no question but that the prophecies
in the first part of the book (ch. i-viii.) belong to this
Zechariah. They were delivered, according to the state
ment (ch. i. 1, 7; vii. 1), at the time of the re-commenced
building of the temple, before the completion of the build
ing, in the second year of Darius Hystaspis.

The prophet here exhorts his fellow countrymen to turn
earnestly to Jehovah, their God, to whom their fathers
were so often disobedient, and to apply themselves with
zeal to righteousness and piety ; and that then Jehovah
would bless them, and increase them numerously ; and that
their days of penitence and fasting, whicti they had been
wont to observe since the exile, would then be turned into
days of joy and feasting.

These utterances in reference to his people have a gene
ral character of promise and consolation. The threaten-
in gs are directed only against the enemies of the people of

The second Division of the Bapk. 161

the Covenant, whom they had for so long time oppressed.
Like Haggai, he praises by name Zerubbabel and Joshua,
the builders-tip of the temple, and promises to them Divine
blessings. He puts upon Joshua two crowns as symbols of
the priestly and royal power, both of which shall one day
be united in the branch (nDV, following Jeremiah) who shall
come and reign.

The object of almost all these prophecies is clothed
in symbolical imagery, which the prophet sees in visions.
These images, however, often have some obscurity about
them, and do not indicate their purpose distinctly. The
whole purport of the prophecy is too general in its con
ception, and is not unfrequently wanting in force and
vivacity.

246. TJie second Division of the Book Opinions as to its
Author.

Although the composition of theirs/ part of the book is
undisputedly ascribed to Zechariah, a prophet after the Cap
tivity, it has been a subject of question in modern times
how the matter stands with regard to the second part
(ch. ix-xiv) ; whether the prophecies contained in it belong
to the above named prophet, or to one or several other
prophets of an earlier time.

The first cause for doubt was given by the passage
(Matt, xxvii. 9, 10), inasmuch as in this a prophetical
utterance is quoted under the name of Jeremiah, which
can be nowhere found in the writings of this prophel,
while it bears considerable resemblance to Zech. xi. 12, 13,
so that it may be assumed with great probability that the
Evangelist had this passage in view. This caused Mede
(d. 1038) to ascribe ch. ix-xi. of Zechariah to Jeremiah,
and in this idea Whiston (1722) and others of his country
men have followed him, as also Doderlein (1787), who ex
tended it to the whole of the last six chapters. Subse
quently, to establish the view that these chapters do not
belong to the same prophet as the eight first, less reliance
has been placed on the quotation in the New Testament
than on internal evidence. In the more exact investigation
and proof of this point, B. G. Fliigge (Preacher in Hamburg,
d. 1792) took the lead in a work appearing anonymously
(Die Weissagungen welclie den Schriften des Proph. ZacL

VOL. n. M

162 Origip of the several Books Zechariah.

beigebogen sind, Hamburg, 1788). Most of the other cri
tical divines of the German Protestant Church have de
clared themselves in favour of the same opinion : as, among
others, G. L. Bauer, Augusti, Bertholdt, Eichhorn (4th ed.),
Hosenmiiller (Schol. 2nd ed.), De Wette (1st to 3rd ed.)
Hitzig, Ewald, Maurer, Knobel (Proplietismus), Bunsen
(Gott in der Geschichte, i. 449, ff.), Bleek (upon the age of
Zech. ix-xiv, together with occasional contributions towards
the explanation of these utterances, in the Theol. Stud. u.
Krit. 1852, vol. ii. pp. 247-332), v. Ortenberg (Die Bestand-
theile des Buches Sack Gotha, 1859), and others. Others,
however, in modern times have pronounced quite a con
trary opinion, as particularly Fried. B. Koster (Meletemata
critica et exegetica in Zacharice prophetce partem posteriorem,
cap. 9-14, Gott, 1818) ; Hengstenberg (Authentic des Daniel
und Integritdt des Sacharjd, ^831, pp. 361-388); De Wette
(4th to 6th edits.) ; Umbreit, Havernick, J. D. Fr. Burger
(Etudes exeg. et crit. sur le prophete Zacharie, Strasb. 1841,
p. 118, ff.); Stahelin (Die Messianischen Weissagungen des
A. T., Berlin, 1847, p. 125, ff., pp. 173-177); Keil [Kohler,
Professor at Jena], and others. 1

Most of those scholars, however, who deny that Zechariah
(the composer of the first part) is the author of these last
prophecies, agree also in thinking that they belong to
an earlier time, before the Captivity, although they differ
from one another in exact definition of the time. Rosen-
miiller and Hitzig place the whole in Uzziah s age. Bert
holdt, on the contrary, assumes at least two different
authors, the first of whom (ch. ix-xi.) must have written
in the age of Ahaz, the second (ch. xii-xiv.) shortly before
the Babylonian Captivity, at the time of Jehoiakim (or
Jehoiachin). Likewise Knobel, Bunsen, v. Ortenberg,
and, in general, Ewald also, and Hitzig (2nd ed. of " The
Twelve Minor Prophets," 1852). I am decidedly of opinion
that this view is correct in its main outlines, viz., that
(a) the prophecies of this second part, as a whole, are not
to be ascribed to the prophet Zechariah, who lived after
the Captivity, but that they were composed at an earlier
time, and before the Captivity ; and (6) that ch. ix-xi. belong
to an earlier time than ch. xii-xiv ; the former to the age

1 As to the writings on this question, cf. also Koster, ut supra, p. 10, ff.,
and Ortenberg, pp. 1-13.

Authorship of the second Dirisia-i. 163

of the very earliest prophets whose writings have been
preserved to us, viz., to the age of Uzziah and Ahaz ; the
latter to the age of Jeremiah ; and therefore that these two
sections must have been written by different prophets.

I do not place any particular importance on the quota
tion in St. Matthew.

^ We may, perhaps, regard it as certain that the Evange
list, although quoting this passage as an utterance of Jere
miah s, only followed the tradition as to its origin which
was generally accepted among the Jews since the compila
tion of the prophetical Scriptures, and that the mention of
the name of Jeremiah proceeds only from an accidental
mistaking of one for the other on the part of the Evangelist,
or to an error either in memory or writing down ; for it
follows from the nature of the quotation that this passage
must have been floating in his memory in a rather dim

way.

There are, however, decisive internal reasons which com
pel us to deny the authorship of the prophecies of this
part to Zechariah, a prophet living after the Captivity.
Ihese reasons are similar to those which induced us to
deny Isaiah s authorship of Is. xl-lxvi, and of some other
prophecies in his book, namely, because the historical cir
cumstances which are presupposed, and with which the
prophecies are connected, are quite different from those
existing in the age of Darius Hystaspis, to which age the
first part of the book belongs.

De Wette (4th to 6th edits.) cannot deny this, and has
therefore thrown out the very improbable opinion that the
later prophet (Zechariah) had purposely adopted a pro
phetic scheme of an archaic character in order to throw
over his prophecies a veil of mystery. When, however,
De Wette says that the purport of these chapters is, in
part, enigmatical, it is certainly very true if we proceed
on the supposition that they were composed in the Persian
age, for then the purport is, for the most part, incompre
hensible; but, although some few difficulties may still
remain, the general perplexity vanishes, if we place the
actual composition at the time to which we are led by the
historical circumstances intimated in the contents. For
this purpose we must briefly consider the details.

(1) ch. ix ; (2) ch. x ; (3)
(1) Chapter ix. This

164 Origin of tlie several Books Zecliariah.

247. Date of the Prophecies in the second Division of the
Book First Section.

I. Chapters ix-xi. This first section of the second
division of the Book embraces four different utterances :

ch. xi. 1-3 ; (4) ch. xi. 4-17.
s utterance is directed against

various foreign nations, partieularly those that were neigh
bours of the Israelitish people, who are threatened with
destruction ; but it is predicted, in reference to the Philis
tines, that idolatry shall be rooted out from among them,
and that they shall henceforth become Jehovah s possession,
and shall dwell in the midst of Judah like the Jebusites
(00. 1-7). It is promised to Jehovah s people that their
God shall in future protect His house, and will no more
give it as a prey to the oppressor. Jerusalem is called
upon to rejoice, because its king shall come to it just and
victorious, meek, and riding on the foal of an ass, on
which account he is styled the Prince of Peace ; that he
shall do away with all war ; that he shall possess the rule
over the land of Israel to the fullest extent ; and it is also
promised that Jehovah shall deliver the Jews languishing
in prisons, and shall bring them to a safe place (00. 8-12).
Then follows the further prediction that Jehovah shall
protect and strengthen His people in a contest against
their enemies, the Greeks (the children of Javan), and
that they shall increase gloriously in the land (00. 13-17).

That this utterance does not belong to the Persian age,
but to a much earlier one, namely, that of King Uzziah, is
clearly pointed out to us by the shape and way in which
both the children of the Covenant, and in opposition to
them, also various foreign idolatrous nations, are spoken of.

As regards the former, it clearly follows from 0. 10,
" And I will cut off the chariot from Ephraim, and the
horse from Jerusalem, and the battle bow shall be cut off,"
that the kingdom of Israel was still existing as an inde
pendent . state, as well as Judah and Jerusalem ; cf. also
0. 13.

As the enemies of Jehovah s people the following are
named quite in the beginning.

(a) The land Hadrach, or, more probably, the land of
Hadrach ("=J"nn) and Damascus. From the way in which

Consideration of Contents of the second Division 105

both are named together in v. 1 , it may be concluded, that
Damascus was the chief city of that land ; and it is most
natural to understand Hadrach as the name of its prince
(v. Stud, und Krit. 1852, p. 257). The country in question,
then, was Syria, belonging to Damascus : and we must
presuppose that this then formed an independent kingdom,
with a prince of its own ; also from the way in which the
second half of this verse is connected with the first, we
may assume, that it had, at that time, shown itself par
ticularly hostile to the people of the Covenant. Kow,
the Syrian kingdom of Damascus was broken up in the
earlier period of the reign of Ahaz, king of Judah, by the
Ass} r rian king Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kings xvi. 9 ; Rezin, the
last king, was then slain by the Assyrians. After that time
Damascus remained subject to the Assyrians, afterwards
to the Chaldeans, and then to the Persians; but it never
afterwards formed an independent kingdom. We shall,
therefore, be justified in fixing the date of the composition
at some time before the breaking up of the kingdom of
Damascus, and before Eezin, therefore also before Ahaz.
Hadrach was, perhaps, Rezin s immediate predecessor, and
we shall then be brought to the reign of Jotham or
Uzziah.

(6) Hamaih (v. 2). This kingdom was conquered and
subjected by the Assyrians shortly before the time of
Hezekiah (v. Is. x. 9; xxxvi. 19; xxxvii. 12, f.) As it is
mentioned here, we are induced to suppose that it still
formed an independent state, which permits us to fix the
age of I saiah as the very latest.

(c) Tyre and Sidon (vv. 2-4). From the mention of these
places nothing decisive can be concluded as to the date of
composition.

(d) Tlie Philistines (vv. 5-7). The same four towns are
mentioned here as their chief cities, as in Amos i. 6-8, and
afterwards Zeph. ii. 4 ; Jer. xxv. 20. We must particularly
note the statement in v. 5, that the king shall perish out
of Gaza, from which it would appear but natural that this
city was then the seat of an ii dependent king, which
certainly was not the case in the days of Darius Hystaspis.

It is quite in accordance with the inference to be drawn
from these passages that in v. 13 the sons of Javan are
named as those against whom Jehovah will stir up and

166 Origin of the several Books Zecliariah.

arm the Jews and Israelites, and, as indeed appears evident
from the joining of this verse to v. 12, because they had
taken captive some of the people of the Covenant and kept
them far from their homes. We may recollect lhat in
Joel iv. 6, it appeal s that in the age of this prophet at the
time of Uzziah Phoenicians and Thilistines had sold Jews
as slaves to the (Insular) Greeks (v. p. 134, f.). If, in
addition to the evidence derived from the other passages,
we consider the way in which the Greeks are here spoken
of, we shall be justified in concluding that the prophecy
was uttered at a time when the selling and carrying away
to Greece of captive Jews had taken place not long before,
so that the minds of the Jews were vividly affected by it ;
therefore that the composition of these prophecies was
nearly contemporary with that of Joel.

(2) Chapter x. This chapter forms a distinct prophecy.
The prophet admonishes the people not to direct their
prayers (for the fruitfulness of the land) to the Teraphim
and soothsayers, but to Jehovah, whose wrath, even out of
love for His people, shall be inflamed against their shep
herds, but that He shall glorify Judah, and shall grant
victory to the house of Joseph (Ephraim). That He would
indeed scatter the Ephraimites among the nations, but that
those who should think upon Him when afar off should be
brought back out of Egypt and Assyria into the land of
Gilead and Lebanon, that He would multiply and strengthen
them, but that He would, on the contrary, humble Assyria
and Egypt.

The purport of this prophecy leads us to the reign of
Ahaz, soon after his war with Pekah and Eezin. From
this, the composition would fall somewhat later than that
of ch. ix, but not so very much later, that both might not
have proceeded from the same author.

From the contents, it follows :

(a) In the first place (from v. 11), that at the time of the
composition, Assyria and Egypt both existed as powerful
independent states, which had shown themselves hostile to
Jehovah s people, and from which danger was almost con
tinually threatened ; this, however, does not lead us to the
Persian age, but in general to that of Isaiah. To this we
ure also led by the circumstance that Assyria and Egypt
are here (v. 10) prominently mentioned as the two countries

Contents of the second Division. 167

out of which the scattered Israelites should be brought
back (cf. Is. xi. 11 ; xxvii. 13 ; Hosea xi. 10, f.).

(b) That the kingdom of Israel particularly had suffered
very much, and that many of its inhabitants were in exile
(w. 6, 9, ff.).

(c) But that the breaking up of this kingdom by Shal-
manezer had not yet ensued ; for then we should expect
the whole of Israel or Samaria would have been named as
the land to which the scattered ones should be brought
home, and not, as in v. 10, the land of Gilead and Lebanon,
the most northern portion of the kingdom of the ten tribes.
This can be easily explained, if we assume that the com
position took place during the reign of Ahaz, soon after the
war waged by Pekah and Rezin against Judah, after, and
in consequence of which, the Assyrians under Tiglath-
pileser summoned by Ahaz, both destroyed the Syrian
kingdom at Damascus and took away from Israel the north
eastern districts, and carried away their inhabitants to
Assyria (2 Kings xv. 29 ; 1 Chron. v. 6, 26).

(3) Chapter xi. 1-3. These three verses are not imme
diately connected with what precedes, as Hofmann ( Weissag-
uwj u. Erfiillung, i. p. 316) would have it, nor with what
comes after, as Hengstenberg, Hitzig, Ewald, and most
expositors are of opinion. They appear to form a distinct
utterance by themselves, as is thought by Fliigge, Kosen-
muller, De Wette, and Knobel. Mention is made in them
of a destruction of the pride of Jordan, the cedars of
Lebanon, and the oaks of Bashan. This is for the most
part taken only figuratively, as of the destruction of mighty
heroes, or the like. But in this case, the mode of descrip
tion would be somewhat unnatural.

By comparison with other passages such as Is. xxxvii. 24
(2 Kings xix. 23), Hab. ii. 17, Is. xiv. 8, these verses are
simply to be understood as a lamentation on account of
some northern king having deprived Lebanon and Jordan
of their pride ; perhaps by a needless devastation which he
had committed in mere wantonness, just as, according to
the above passages, both the Assyrians and subsequently
the Chaldeans seem to have done. \Ve are induced to
think that an Assyrian king is here meant, for there is no
reason for placing this utterance in any other or later age
than either the two preceding ones, or the one that follows,

168 Origin of tlie several Bocks Zecharidh.

and least of all in the Persian age, in the time of Darius
Hystaspis.

(4) Chapter xi. 4-17. A figurative passage presenting
much difficulty and obscurity, which, however, can only be
explained by the hypothesis of a composition in about the
same age as that to which ch. ix. and x. are ascribed.

The object of the passage manifestly is, to set forth as
a Divine decree, that Jehovah would Himself give over the
people of the Covenant to punishment, as they would not
show themselves to be obedient to the leading of their
God, nor estimate it at its true value ; that Jehovah would
neither any longer concern Himself to preserve peace be
tween the two kingdoms, Judah and Israel, nor would He
keep off foreign nations from injuring His people ; that He
would set over them godless shepherds and rulers, who
would only consume them, but that these shall not escape a
just retribution.

It clearly follows from the whole of it that this utterance
belongs to a time when the two kingdoms of Judah and
Israel- both existed close to one another as portions of the
people of the Covenant ; for the way in which, in v. 14, the
destruction of the brotherhood between Judah and Israel is
spoken of, could scarcely be understood, if one of these
kingdoms no longer existed. It results clearly from v. 6,
that the people were still under the government of their
own king, and the whole statement points to a time when
they were ruled over by bad kings, who took no care for
their welfare. Verse 8 is particularly to be noticed, by
which we are led to the anarchical period in Israel, after
the death of Jeroboam II.

The prophet here relates in symbolical style, that he
had put to death three shepherds in one month. This is
certainly not intended, as many ancient and modern inter
preters have understood it, to mean three different classes
of leaders of the people, but as pointing out three in
dividuals, three distinct historical personages, whom the
prophet could presuppose were well known to his readers,
and that they would understand whom he meant by this
designation ; three persons indeed who stood out before
the people as princes and rulers. This passage then leads
us to some very anarchical, stormy period, when the rulers
of the kingdom followed one another in quick succession ;

Last Section of the second Division. 169

and we may assume with great probability that it relates
to the state of the kingdom of Israel after the death of
Jeroboam II., when king Uzziah reigned in Judah. In
two of the three shepherds the prophet perhaps figured
Zachariah, son of Jeroboam II., who reigned only six
months, and his murderer Shallum, who, according to
2 Kings xv. 10, 13, f., usurped the kingdom, but after one
month was himself slain by Menahem ; and in the third
shepherd, some other usurper, who, at this time, either
before the murder of Zachariah or after that of Shallum
may have placed himself at the head of the kingdom, but
only maintained his place for a very short time, whose
name is not mentioned in our historical books, these being
generally very brief and incomplete in their accounts of
the circumstances of the kingdom of Israel at this time.

We are induced by all this to suppose that the composi
tion of this prophecy took place during the reign of the
Israelitish king Menahem, and the latter part of that of
Uzziah, king of Judah, therefore in general, in the same
age as ch. ix, although rather later. There is, however, no
reason for naming as its author any other prophet than the
author of ch. ix, and perhaps also of the two utterances
standing between them.

248. Date of the Prophecies in the second Division of the
Book Second Section.

II. Chapters xii-xiv. These chapters contain the follow
ing prophecies, which, however, are differently circum
stanced from those we have just considered. The purport
of these last utterances leads us to place them in an earlier
age than that of Zechariah, living after the Captivity, in a
later age, however, than ch. ix-xi.

(1) Ch. xii. 1-xiii. 6, with the superscription, "the
burden of the word of Jehovah for Israel," similarly to
ch. ix. It is a joyful promise for Judah and Jerusalem
presenting much difficulty in its expressions.

In it mention is made of a future attack on Jerusalem on
the part of the other nations of the earth, in which attack
Jehovah will show Himself to be the deliverer of His people
and His city, and will blot out the hostile nations through
the princes of Judah, in such a way that the latter shall
understand that all their strength and succour come from

170 Origin of the several Books Zechariah.

Jehovah. That Jehovah would pour out on the house of
David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem a spirit of grace
and deep repentance for their past misdeeds, and would
open a fountain for them to purify them from all sin and
tmcleanness ; that He would root out all idolatry in the
land, as well as all soothsayers and false prophets, and
would take away from every one the desire of coming forth
as a prophet.

That this utterance belongs to a later time than ch. ix-
xi. may be inferred from ch. xii. 11, for in this passage it
may be assumed with the greatest probability, that by " the
mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddon " is
meant the lamentation over the death of king Josiah ; see
2 Kings xxiii. 29, f. ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 22-25. That the
breaking up of the kingdom of Israel had then taken place
some considerable time before, is proved by the fact that
the prophecy is concerned with Judah and Jerusalem only,
and that these are dealt with as if they comprised the
whole people of God, although in the superscription it is
designated as " a burden for Israel." On the other hand,
we are pointed to a time before the destruction of the
kingdom of Judah and Jerusalem.

From the very beginning, and all through the discourse,
Jerusalem appears as the chief city of an independent king
dom, as the object of warlike attacks by other nations, and
ruled over by the house of David. The prophet speaks of
the house of David as most of all in need of penitence and
purification (ch. xii. 10, 12; xiii. 1); and in ch. xii. 7, in
the promise of Divine safety for his people, he prominently
sets forth, that Jehovah would first help the tents of Judah
(before Jerusalem), in order that the house of David and
the dwellers at Jerusalem should not magnify themselves
against (what was left of) Judah. It is very improbable
that Zechariah, living after the exile, would have expressed
himself just in this way. In the days of the Persian governor
Zerubbabel, himself belonging to the house of David, the
prophet would have been more likely to have commended
and exalted him in every way ; see ch. iv ; cf. Haggai ii.
23.

The foregoing considerations lead us to fix upon the latter
period of the Jewish kings, after Josiah ; i.e., the last years
of Jehoiakim s reign, or Jehoiachin s, or Zedekiatis. With this

Last Section of the second Division. 171

age, being that of Jeremiah s, Zech. xiii. 2-6 is quite in
harmony.

(a) According to ch. xiii. 2 a, idolatry appears to have
been not yet blotted out of the land, in conflict with which
idolatry we find both Jeremiah, Zephaniah and Ezekiel ;
whilst it does not appear to have existed among the Jews
who returned out of exile with Zerubbabel, for we do not
find any denunciation of it either in the former part of our
book, nor in the Books of Haggai, Malachi, Ezra, and
Nehemiah. (6) According to ch. xiii. 26-6, many false
prophets and soothsayers must have been carrying on their
calling in the land of Judah, with whom also we con
tinually find Jeremiah in conflict. 1

(2) Ch. xiii. 7-xiv. 21. This section forms a separate
prophecy. Ewald and Ortenberg are quite wrong in sepa
rating ch. xiii. 7-9 from it, and looking upon this passage
as the close of the prophecy in ch. xi. The essential pur
port of this prophecy may be condensed as follows : that
Jehovah, after the purifying punishment decreed on His
people, in which He gives Jerusalem as a prey to her ene
mies, and causes her king to perish, and a great part of
her people to be delivered to captivity and spoiling, would
again accept His people, and would punish the foreign
nations, their enemies, destroying a portion of them, and
converting a portion to Himself, so that, in common with
His people, they should worship Him ; and that then every
thing should be holy unto Jehovah amid God s people, in
Judah and Jerusalem, and that henceforth nothing unholy
or unclean should be found therein. These ideas are ex-

1 The interpretation and reference of the passage ch. xii. 10, is
difficult. ^&gt;N is probably to be read here instead of ta ; " they shall
look upon him whom they have pierced, and mourn T for him," &c. ;
cf. Johu xix. 37 ; Rev. i. 7, where the passage is quoted and made use of
in reference to the Saviour; but it more probably refers originally to
some historical matter of fact which the prophet had in view, and
might suppose to be familiar to his readers; to the person of some
martyr, perhaps, who shortly before had been slain in the service of
the true God : and therefore, in its reference to the death of Christ, it
must be considered as a type and not as a prediction. Bunsen, ut supra,
p. 451, f., refers it to the prophet himself, namely, to Urijah, son of
Shemaiah, who was killed by Jehoiakim (Jer. xxvi. 20-23). But if
this were the correct reference, Urijah himself could not very well be
the author, for the murder is here supposed to have taken place.

172 Origin of the several Books Zechariah.

pressed here very poetically, but some of them rather too
diffusely, and the mode of expression presents a good deal
of difficulty in the immediate reference of the details.

The following data are to be considered in ascertaining
the date of the composition of this prophecy.

(a) It may be inferred, from ch. xiv. 5, that it was not
composed until some long time after Uzziah s death ; for
it there refers to the terror at the fearful earthquake in the
days of this king (Amos i. 1), and in a way in which the
prophet would not have expressed it, if it had not been
some long period of time since it took place.

(6) It falls after the destruction of the kingdom of the
ten tribes, on the contrary,

(d) In ch. xiv. 10 a, according to the correct interpreta
tion, the territory of the people of God is pointed out as
" the plain from Geba to Eimmon south of Jerusalem."
Now, Geba was the most northerly border town of the
kingdom of Judah, so that no notice seems to be taken of
the territory of the ten tribes, which leads us to conclude
that this kingdom no longer existed.

(e) That, on the contrary, the kingdom of Judah still
existed cannot be doubted from the nature of the beginning
of the prophecy. It begins (ch. xii. 7) with a summons of
Jehovah to his sword, to slay his shepherds and fellows, in
order that the sheep may be scattered. We cannot doubt
that by these shepherds and fellows of Jehovah the pro
phet here means the then reigning native king of the
people, who, as he was, before all, a partaker in the sinning
of the people, so must, before all, suffer in their punish
ment. By this, therefore, we are pointed to a time before
the breaking up of the state of Judah, when it still had its
own independent native king. Cf. ch. xiv. 10, where the
king s wine-presses are spoken of. 1 The passages (ch.
xiii. 8, f. ; xiv. 1, f.) also tell against a composition in the
time of Darius Hystaspis, for in that case we should expect
that the prophet, in threatening the punishment coming
on Judah and Jerusalem through foreign nations, would

1 According to Theol Stud, und KriL, 1852, p. 302, Bleek lays no
particular weight on this, " since this name might have been retained as
a topographical designation of some particular place in Jerusalem at au
earlier time, even after the rebuilding of the city."

Incorporation of the older Prophecies. 1 73

have made some reference to the fact that the city and
people had already, and not very long before, been visited
with a chastisement of this kind, and had been only very
scantily restored from the effects of it. We find, however,
nothing of this kind.

(/) In ch. xiv. 18, f., it appears presupposed, that, al
though at the time of salvation, the heathen shall be
brought to Jerusalem, in order there to take a part in the
worship of Jehovah, the Egyptians should for the most
part strive against it, and to their own destruction. From
this we may conclude with probability, that the Egyptians
at that time were showing themselves peculiarly hostile
against the people of the Covenant. And if we put this
together with the other indications, as well as with the
position of this utterance after that which precedes, we
shall be led with the greatest probability to place the com
position in the days of Josiah or Jehoiakim.

This prophecy, therefore, falls somewhat earlier than the
one before it, but there are no grounds for doubting that
they both belong to the same prophet, who lived in the age
of Jeremiah and composed them both, at any rate before
the destruction of Jerusalem ; on the contrary, the four
prophecies of the first half of this division (ch. ix. 11) belong
to a considerably earlier time, probably the period from
Uzziah to Ahaz, and all the four are not improbably by
the same prophet.

249. Cause of the Union of the older Prophecies with the
Book of Zechariah.

We find, therefore, that these prophecies by different
prophets at different times were united in one book with
those of Zechariah, living after the Captivity. This union
can only have taken place, as in the like case in the Book
of Isaiah, by some error on the part of the later compilei
of the prophetical Scriptures.

Tt has been sometimes thought, and this is Hengsten
berg s view, that in the case of Zechariah, it was the less
likely that extraneous fragments should be joined on to his
prophecies, as he lived in the same age with the compilers
of the Canon, and that, therefore, the latter would have
known what belonged properly to him. But this was not the
case. The compilation of the Nebiim, and also of the twelve

174 Origin of the several Books Zechariah.

lesser prophets, was, as we shall see, most probably made
by Nehemiah, somewhere about eighty years after Darius
Hystaspis, in whose time Zechariah prophesied, and there
fore at a time when this prophet was certainly not alive.
We may, therefore, very well imagine that the compiler
attributed to Zechariah not only his own prophecies, but
also, in error, some which belonged to another prophet and
another age. As long as the prophecies of any prophet
were in circulation singly, and not yet collected together
in a completed form with canonical authority, it might well
happen that, even within a short period after they were
written, discourses by different composers, at different times,
should be written down together, and should afterwards be
considered to be writings of one and the same author, if
these discourses, as at least was often the case, were issued
singly and without any express mention of the author s
name, and were not subsequently collected together by the
author himself.

In the present case the fact might be still easier ex
plained, if, perhaps, the real author of these prophecies had
also borne the name of Zechariah, a name which so fre
quently occurs in the Old Testament. 1 The supposition of
Bertholdt, as regards ih& first section of this older prophecy
(ch. ix-xi), approved of also by Gesenius (Jesaia, i. 327, ff.),
Knobel, and Bunsen, has something rather striking about
it; it is that this section had as its author Zechariah, the
son of Jeberechjahu (Jeberechiah), who is mentioned in Isaiah
viii. 2 (in the first year of Ahaz reign). Since this man is
spoken of in v. 16 as a disciple of Jehovah, it may very well
be supposed that he might also have been efficient and
well known as a prophet. The name Jeberechjahu is
avowedly the same name as Berechjahu and Berechja
(Berechiah) which occurs in Zech. i. 1, 7, as the name of
the father of the Zechariah after the exile. This former
Zechariah not only then bore the same name as the later
prophet, but their fathers also bore the same name. Under
these circumstances it might have been all the easier, for
any written prophecies belonging to the former to have

1 Thus, e.g., in 2 Chron. xxiv. 20, f., an older prophet, Zechariah, son
of Jehoida, who died as a martyr at the time of Joash, king of Judah,
the grandfather of Uzziah ; and ib. xxvi. 5, another prophet Zechariah
in the beginning of Uzziah s reign.

Malacki Name, &c. 175

been attributed to the latter, as being better known to the
compiler. But perhaps the case was somewhat different to
this. \Ve have before seen that the Zechariah living after
the exile is called the son of Iddo in Ezra v. 1 ; vi. 14
(cf. also Neh. xii. 16). Now it might have been possible,
and Knobel and Ortenberg look at the matter in this way,
that in reality he was a son and not a grandson of Iddo,
and that originally he was thus designated in the super
scription (Zech. i. 1, 7), and that the -irPSTlpa going before
was first added by some compiler who subsequently took it
out of the superscription to the prophecies of the similarly
named contemporary of Isaiah. This certainly can be
regarded only as a supposition, and cannot claim the same
degree of certainty as the decision as to the age to which
these prophecies belong.

As regards the second section (ch. xii-xiv), it may not be
improbable that, as Bertholdt thinks, the two prophecies
contained in it were joined in the manuscript with ch. ix-xi,
previously to their being placed in connection with ch. i-viii.
by the compiler of the Nebiim.

It must remain uncertain, whether the prophet Urijah,
son of Shemaiah, was the author of this second half, as
Bunsen thinks (Jer. xxvi. 20-23).

11. THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

250. Name and Person of the Prophet Date and Contents
of the Prophecy.

_ The work of Malachi takes the last place in the collec
tion of the lesser prophets and the Nebiim generally, and
is also, without doubt, the latest also in point of time.

Name of the author, in Hebrew, 3K7D, in the title of the
book, and in the superscription ch. i. 1 ; LXX, in title, Ma-
Aa^tas ; in Latin, Malachias ; in Luther, Maleachi, according
to the Hebrew. The Hebrew name is most probably to be
explained as derived from i"PDN/D ? Jehovah s messenger, through
abbreviation ; to which the Creek and Latin forms also
point. The name does not occur elsewhere in the Old
Testament. It is, however, a question whether it be really
a proper name here or only a symbolical designation for the

176 Origin of the several Books MalacJiL

author as a divine ambassador, from the signification, " Je
hovah s messenger," or " my messenger." The LXX has,
in the superscription belonging to the book, lv x et P^ ayye /W
avrov, for ^K^ft T2. From this, some have entertained the
same idea about tne author of this book as about Haggai,
as we perceive from Jerome (ad Agg. i. 13, and Procem. in
Malach.\ and Cyrill. Alex. (Procem. in Malach.) ; others have
so understood it, that at least the human author was pointed
out by it in a symbolical way only. Thus the Jewish
writers at the time of Jerome, as Targ. Jonatli. ad i. 1
(who think that Ezra was the author, which Jerome appears
to approve of) ; thus also, Vitringa (Obervatt. Sacrce, torn. ii. p.
338, ff.), Simonis (Onomasticon, p. 298), and, latterly, Heng-
stenberg (ChristoL iii. p. 583, ff.). Yet the form of the term
induces us far rather to look upon it as an actual name, in
which also most expositors agree.

As to the person of the prophet, nothing is known except
from his book. It is the general opinion, that he belonged
to the period after the Captivity, and flourished considerably
later than Haggai and Zechariah ; and from the contents
of his book, there can be no doubt as to this. The temple
then stood completed (ch. i. 10; iii. 1-10). Most inter
preters place him decidedly in the age of Kehemiah, and
many of them at the period of the latter s second presence
in Judaea, therefore not before the thirty-second year ot
Artaxerxes Longimanus (433 B.C.). 1 This view is based on
the fact, that Malachi sometimes denounces the same faults
and violations of the law as those Nehemiah strove against,
especially (according to Neh. xiii), after the latter had re
turned to the Persian Court, and from thence had gone back
again to Judaea, in the thirty-second year of the reign of
Artaxerxes, twelve years after his first arrival in Judaea.
Among these faults we may specify neglect of the payment
of the legal tithes for the maintenance of the priesthood and
Levites (Mai. iii. 8-10; Neh. xiii. 10-12); also the marriages
of the Jews, especially of the priests, with foreign wives (Mai.
ii. 10, 11 ; JS"eh. xiii. 23-30). The agreement in these two
points, however, is scarcely sufficient to induce us to recog
nize this period as that of the composition of our book.

1 Thus Vitringa, ut supra, p. 333, ff., Jahn, Eosenmuller, Bertlioldt,
Hengstenbers:, Havernick, and Keil.

Date and Contents of tJte Book. 177

Hitzig has correctly remarked, that the way in which
the governor of Juda3a is mentioned in ch. i. 8, renders
it improbable that the book was composed at the time of
Nehemiah s governorship. The prophet there reproaches
the Jews for bringing unclean, defective beasts as offerings,
and demands of them, if they would dare to bring the
like to the governor. Now, it is much more probable,
that the governor of Judaea at this time was a Persian, who
preceded Nehemiah, from the way in which the latter
(in Keh. v. 14) boasts, that from the beginning of his
governorship he had not troubled the people for bread,
wine, and money, as former governors had done. From
this it is more likely, as also Maurer, Herbst, Ewald, and
Eeinke 1 assume, that this book was composed at a time
when some Persian, a predecessor of Nehemiah, governed
Judaea. As in all probability Nehemiah arranged the com
pilation of the prophets, this book could not, at any rate,
have been composed after his time ; and from its reception
into the collection it is much more probable that it was
composed rather before.

The prophet besides shows himself to have entertained
essentially the same sentiments about the law, as those Ezra
and Nehemiah acted on.

Much discontent and murmuring prevailed among the
Jews in Judaea on account of their miserable and depressed
condition. They excused themselves for not properly
paying the tithes to the temple, on account of the meagre
produce of the fields ; and the priests appear to have allowed
them to intercept many better beasts, which they had re
ceived as offerings, and to substitute for them inferior,
defective animals ; other unseemly things also took place,
such as oppression of the poor, and various evil deeds.
For these reasons the prophet threatens the people with
Divine judgment.

Malachi s work embraces several utterances, which are
not, however, divided from one another by any separate
superscriptions, but only by their purport. They were
doubtless written and issued at the same time, and in the
same order in which we now possess them, so that they
must be considered as one prophecy with different divi

sions.

1 Der Prophet Maleachi. Giessen, 1856, pp. 29-32.
VOL. II. XT

178 Origin -of the several Books Malachi.

The separate utterances or sections are as follows :

(1) Chapters i. 2 ii. 9. The prophet endeavours, in the
first place, to show to the Jews, by a comparison of Israel
with Edom (which latter must then have been waste and
desert), how unfounded was their idea that Jehovah no
longer loved them, and also adds a sharp censure on the
Jews, and particularly on the priests, who did not hesitate to
bring inferior cattle as offerings to Jehovah. The prophet
calls the attention of the tribe of Levi to their original
duty, and threatens them that, if the priests would not
fulfil their obligations, Jehovah also would cancel his treaty
with them, and would punish them with failure of crops,
and would make them contemptible before all people.

(2) Ch. ii. 1016. A denunciation of those who (a)
married foreign heathen wives, and (6) separated themselves
from their former (Israelitish) wives. Perhaps the prophet
had before him an example, where some one had put away
his Jewish spouse, and had married a foreign one.

(3) Ch. ii. 17 iii. 6. Against those who fancied, because
everything did not yet go well with the people, that piety was
of no avail in pleasing Jehovah, and that God would never
appear for righteous judgment. The prophet predicts to
them that Jehovah will send His messenger to prepare His
way before Him, and that the Lord whom they had longed
for should suddenly come into His temple ; but would then
purify the people, and especially the sons of Levi, and would
execute judgment on all sinners and wicked men. And that
then the offerings of Judah and Jerusalem should again be
pleasant to Jehovah, as in the days of old.

(4) Ch. iii. 7-12. A censure against the irregular offer
ings of the tithes, which is characterized as a robbery of
Jehovah, and as a cause why Jehovah had afflicted the land
with unfruitfulness, but that, if in future they showed
themselves to be more conscientious in offering the tithes,
Jehovah would bless their land to overflowing.

(5) Ch. iii. 13 iv. 6. Another censure on those who
said that it was in vain that they served Jehovah and kept
His commandments, for that the proud and wicked appeared
to be better off; but that this was not the case, as would be
experienced in the day of Jehovah, who would then destroy
the wicked, but that to those who worshipped Jehovah,
and kept the law of Moses, would He give a glorious

Messianic Prophecies: 179

reward ; and that before the coming of this day Jehovah
would send the prophet Elijah, to " turn the heart of the
fathers unto the children, and the heart of the children to
their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a
curse."

As a Messianic prophecy in this book, ch. iii. 1 deserves
particular attention ; yet this is not, as has been frequently
understood, a prediction of an appearance of any human
personality as a Messiah and Saviour ; but the word Lord is
to be understood of Jehovah, who shall again take up His
abode among God s people, as beforetime on the Ark of
Covenant, and shall there hold his separating and purifying
judgment ; and to prepare the hearts of the people for this,
He would send beforehan* a prophet like Elijah ; as to
which, see also ch. iv. 5, 6.

12. THE BOOK OF JONAH.

251. Person of the Prophet Contents of the Book.

The Book of Jonah is distinguished from the rest of the
Scriptures of the Lesser Prophets in being purely narrative.
It can only have been received into this collection, because
the principal person in the narrative was a prophet, whose
conduct as a prophet is therein set forth. This is one Jonah
(n: V), son of Amittai, ch. i. 1. Neither of the names occur
elsewhere in the Old Testament, except in similar connec
tion 2 Kings xiv. 25, where we read that the Israelitish
king Jeroboam II. " restored the coast of Israel from the
entering of Hamath unto the sea of the plain" (i.e. up to
the Dead Sea), " according to the word of the Lord God of
Israel, which he .spake by the hand of his servant Jonah the
son of Amittai, the prophet, which was of Gath-hepher "
(a town in the tribe of Zebulon). We must, doubtless,
consider that this was the Jonah who appears as the prin
cipal character in this book. From him, therefore, pro
phecies must have proceeded of a similar purport to those
intimated in the above passage, either handed down in
writing or only by oral tradition, probably the former. At

180 Origin of the several Books Jonah.

all events none of them have been preserved. 1 Jonah
probably lived at the time of the Israelitish king Jeroboam
II., certainly not later, and consequently not later than the
most ancient prophets whose writings have been preserved.
The scene of his prophetic ministrations was perhaps the
kingdom of Israel, where also he was born.

Of this prophet the book which bears his name gives the
following account. The command of Jehovah came to him
to go to the city of Nineveh, and to cry against it, that its
wickedness had come up before God ; the prophet had no
desire to comply with this command, the reason being as
appears from ch. iv. 2, because he feared that the Ninevites
might repent at his preaching, and that Jehovah would
be thereby induced to have mrcy on the city. In order
to get out of the reach of the power of Jehovah, the God
of Israel, he left the latter country, and embarked in a
ship at Joppa to go to Tarshish. But Jehovah stirred up
a violent storm on the sea, and the sailors, in order to find
out on whose account it was sent, cast lots, and the lot fell
on Jonah, who had, however, himself acknowledged that
he was guilty, and had summoned them to throw him
into the sea ; this they then did, with prayer to God, and
the sea was immediately still ; but the fear of Jehovah fell
upon the ship s company, and they made sacrifices and vows
to Him (ch. i. 1-16). Je.hovah then prepared a great fish,
which swallowed up Jonah, and the prophet remained in
its belly three days and three nights (ch. i. 17). In these
circumstances he addressed to Jehovah a prayer of thanks
giving on account of the deliverance which he had expe
rienced from great peril to life (ch. ii. 1-9). The fish then
vomited him up on to the dry land at the command of
Jehovah (ch. ii. 10). The prophet complied without delay
with the renewed command to go and preach at Nineveh.
He predicted to the city, that within forty days it should
be entirely destroyed. The Ninevites immediately, with
out exception, believed the prediction, and proclaimed a
fast, and put on mourning; the king himself arose from
his throne, covered himself with sackcloth and ashes, and

1 Hitzig s opinion is quite untenable (Des Proph. Jonas OraJc. iiber
Moab, Heidelberg, 1831 ; and Der Prophet Jesaja, 1833), t! at the pro
phecy there mentioned is the oracle against Moab, Isaiah, ch. xv.
and xvi.

Review of Contents. 181

issued a decree that neither men nor beasts should taste
anything, and that all, both men and beasts, should put on
sackcloth, and that they should fervently cry to God, and
turn, every one of them, from their wicked ways, and that
perhaps God would repent him of his anger and avert
the destruction from them (ch. iii. 1-9). This earnest
penitence moved God to spare the city (ch. iii. 10.) Jonah
was most displeased at Jehovah s mercy, but Jehovah
replied to him merely, " Doest thou well to be angry ?"
(ch. iv. 1-4). Jonah then made himself a tent outside the
city, to see what became of the place ; here he forgot his
anger in his satisfaction at the shade afforded him by a
plant 1 which the Lord God had provided for him (vv. 4-
6). But when God caused the plant to be smitten in
the night by means of a worm, so that it withered up, and
a sultry east wind being also sent, the sun beat upon the
head of Jonah, the latter fainted and wished for death ; and
when inquired of by Jehovah, said that he had good grounds
for being displeased at the destruction of the plant (ch. iv.
7-9). Jehovah then showed him how wrong he was to
allow himself to be so much grieved on account of a tree
for which he had taken no trouble, which came up in a
night and perished in a night, and yet blamed Jehovah
for showing pity to such a city as Kineveh, with " more
than six score thousand persons that cannot discern
between their right hand and their left hand, and also much
cattle." This speech of Jehovah to Jonah concludes the
book.

252. Origin of the BooleHistorical Value Object.
Opinions have much varied, especially in modern times,
as to the origin of this book, its historical value, and its
aim.* In former times the general opinion was, that the
book contained a purely historical account of some events
in Jonah s prophetical ministry, and that it was composed
by this prophet himself. This same opinion, in both

f Vj5j3 only here ; Luther, from the LXX, Kiirbis (gourd). It is
most probably (with Syr. and Jerome) the Ricinus, or so-called Palma
Christ i.

2 Cf. Friedrichsen (" Critical Review of the Various Opinions as to
tl e Book of Jonah"), 2nd edit., Leipzig, 1841). G. F. Jager ("On the
.Yoral and Religious Aim of the Book of Jonah," &c. Tubing. 1840.

182 Origin of the several Books Jonah.

respects, has been asserted in modern days, also, by several
scholars. 1 This book, therefore, according to 2 Kings
xiv. 25, would be at least contemporary with the most
ancient of the prophetical Scriptures which have been
handed down to us, and probably the most ancient of all.
There are, however, no particular grounds for the opinion
that Jonah himself wrote the book. Not only is Jonah
always spoken of in the third person, but there is not the
least intimation anywhere that the author wished to be
considered as the prophet himself. Others, therefore, with
out taking any notice as to the author or date of compo
sition, have pronounced in favour of the purely historical
character of the book. 2 Still the contents of the book, con
sidered in this light, present no inconsiderable difficulties.
The chief difficulty in my eyes consists in the impro
bability, which must necessarily appear to any unprejudiced
reader, that the whole of the inhabitants of so enormous a
city as Nineveh is represented to be should have imme
diately felt such remorse at the exhortation to repentance
of a foreigner of a strange nation, and that they should
have been turned to such sincere contrition as is here
described, from the king downwards to the very meanest
of the people ; added to which, that in the history of this
nation not the slightest trace of this event and its results
is at all alluded to. If the fact had occurred, as it is here
related, we should certainly expect that some permanent
results would have remained, and that the king and at
least a portion of the people would have been led to the
knowledge and the confession of the one, true, living God ;
and also that the prophet, after he had seen his error, would
have taken the trouble to assist somewhat further this
knowledge among the people. But there is no intimation
of this, either in our book, nor any trace of it in the fol
lowing history of the Assyrians. They appear continuously
as idolaters, trusting only in the power of their idols, and

1 Thus, particularly, Havernick (in the E.K.Z., 1834, No. 27, if., and
" Introduction to the Old Testament , "; also Delitzsch (in Rudelbach s
and Guerike s Zeitschr. filr Luth. Theolog. 1840, Part 2j ; M. Bauin-
garten (ib. 1841, Part 2;, Keil.

* Thus Sack (Christ. Apolog., Edit. 2, p. 345, f.) ; Welte (in Herbst a
Introduction, ii. 2, pp. 125-142), which section is entirely by the
editor. [Franz Kaulen, Librum Jonse prophetx exposuit. Morguntix.
1862.]

Historical Value. 183

as despisers of Jehovah and the gods of all other nations
generally ; as, e.g., appears clearly from Isaiah xxxvii. 10 ;
cf. v. 23, f. ; x. 10, if. Apart from all this, a comparison with
the later prophets who predicted against Assyria and
Nineveh, such as Isaiah, Jsahurn, and Zephaniah, tends to
confirm our views. Had these men been at all acquainted
with the fact, that an older Israelitish prophet had been
ministering there in so powerful, and for the moment so
successful, a way, we should surely expect that they would
have referred to it in some way in their prophecies ; but
this is not the case in the remotest degree. Ezekiel iii. 5, 6,
is certainly not a reference to this event, as Havernick
(p. 344) affirms.

It also appears surprising, on the hypothesis of the his
torical character of the book, that the name of the Assyrian
king in whose time all this took place, who also was con
verted with such earnest repentance to the confession of
the true God, is not once mentioned in it, nor anything else
stated as to him personally, which in an historical event
would certainly have been of great interest. The narrative
also presents some other instances of want of precision in
things where we should expect more exact statements in
an account of a purely historical character, and especially
in a record made of it by an eye-witness and principal
sharer in the events : e.g., in what place Jonah again, came
to land, and what became of him subsequently, particularly
(as is before remarked) as to the further relation he stood
in to the Ninevites after the Divine communication made
to him.

To the above must be added some other circumstances
in the narrative itself which occasion no slight difficulty ;
of these I will only particularize one, that Jonah not only
remained three days and three nights in a fish s belly, and
was vomited out from it in a living state, but that he also,
under these circumstances, while still in the fish s belly,
should have composed a psalm. It may be supposed that
a human being might live for a period of time in the
stomach of a marine animal, and we will also allow that
by Divine assistance this period might be extended to thrice
twenty-four hours, still, we can hardly suppose that this
state of things was attended with a full clear consciousness,
and that the prophet would have found himself in a position

184 Origin of the several Books Jonah.

to compose psalms. Least of all could this position of the
prophet be felt to be a state of complete deliverance, as
would appear from the song ch. ii. 2-9 ; which song,
however, does not appear at all suitable to his circum
stances, as it is not a prayer for deliverance, but rather a
thanksgiving for salvation experienced. Jt is quite con
trary to the tenor of the narrative to suppose, as many have
thought, that the thanksgiving song of the prophet was
composed and sung after the fish had vomited him up ; for
we are expressly told, in v. 1, that Jonah made this prayer
out of the belly of the fish, and this, as his swallowing up
and preservation are spoken of immediately before, can
only be intended to refer to the time during which he was
in the stomach of the creature ; and it is not related until
after the communication of the psalm, that the fish, at
Jehovah s command, vomited Jonah up on to the dry land.

The aim of the book is, however, in no way historical,
but purely didactic.

If the book had really had any historical aim or tendency,
we must necessarily have supposed that the narrative was
not written down till some later time, from some inaccu
rate and partly distorted tradition as to the actual course
of the facts. And it has been thus understood by many
interpreters, as by Bunsen (Gott in der Geschichte, i. 349, &.),
some of whom have taken the trouble to distinguish the
actual facts contained in the book, and to separate them
from the embellishments and additions. But even if the
general tendency of the book were historical, we should be
compelled to relinquish this attempt, as means would be
wanting for effecting such a separation with any degree of
certainty. But some of the same grounds which are brought
to bear against a purely historical view of the narrative,
also make it improbable that the author should have had an
historical tendency generally ; for then it would necessarily
be expected that he would have given more precise details
of many of the circumstances, and particularly would have
further followed out Jonah s relations to the Ninevites, and
not have broken off at a point giving so poor a conclusion,
and so unsatisfactory for the history. On the contrary, all
this would find a satisfactory explanation if we assume that
the aim of the author was purely didactic, and that he wished
to bring under the attention of his people certain moral and

Aim of the Book. 185

religious truths ; for then he would have no need to con-
tmue the narrative any further than the prominence of
these truths required. In this case Jehovah s address to
Jonah (ch. iv. 9, ff.) forms a very proper conclusion, for
therein a very essential truth is prominently brought
forward in an impressive manner.

Among the Jewish interpreters, the didactic aim of the
: has been asserted by Kimchi, ad i. 1 (cf. De Wette,
236 h). Among Christian expositors, Semler (Apparatus
ad liberal Vet. Test, interpret, p. 271) was the first to bring
specially forward this point of view, by considering the
whole as a didactico-moral poem. He has been followed
by J. D. Michaehs, Herder, and many others ; also Heng-
stenberg (Cliristologie, Edit. 2, i. pp. 467-474).

Let us now inquire rather more closely into, the author s
aim and ascertain what were the chief truths which he
wished principally to assert. This is indeed decided in
different ways, but in general there can be no doubt, that
ne proposed to offer some opposition to the narrow-minded
religious bigotry which prevailed among the mass of the
Jews, and to their idea that Jehovah, the one true God
worshipped by them, was their God only, and had His
habitation only in their land, and that He embraced with
His fatherly love their people alone, and that it was right
to entertain hostile feelings towards all other nations
simply as foreigners, and to wish for their destruction in
stead of their conversion. 1 Jonah, the Israelitish prophet,
appears here as the representative of these feelings and this
way of looking at things. The author brings these for
ward : (a) m the first refusal of Jonah to go to Nineveh as
a preacher of repentance, the reasons for which the prophet
states, ch iv. 2 ; (6) in the delusion of the prophet (and it
is certainly little likely that one of God s prophets would
have actually entertained it in such a shape) that he, if he
left the land of Israel and went beyond the sea. could get
Df reach of Jehovah s power; and (c) in his displeasure

!iit m f ng Var ]^ S P iDions Kiehm s views (Stud, und Kritilt. 1862,
p. 413, f.) may find a place. The practical aim of this little book is
o attord guidance in the proper treatment of the prophetical threaten^

asTh e wfrl f V f P K P , liet Predict8 against his *& * to be considered
* the work of God ; but man may be able to avert its fulfilment by

not be mad

186 Origin of tlie several Books Jonah.

at the recalling (on account of their conversion) of the
punishment ordained by God on the Ninevites, and the ulti
mate preservation of the city. In contrast to the above,
our narrative shows how Jehovah knew how to find out
the obstinate in every place, and that His power and control
were not limited to the land of Israel ; and, chiefly, that
He manifested Himself as a merciful God, not merely to
wards the people of Israel alone, but towards other nations
also, if they repented of their sins, and turned to Him in
penitence. In a beautiful and striking way is this great
truth brought forward at the conclusion of the book (ch.
iv. 4, 9-11). It might well be said that the all-embracing
fatherly love of God, which has no respect for person or
nation, but is moved to mercy on all who turn to Him, is
brought into view in no book of the Old Testament, in a
way so impressive and so nearly approaching the Christian
religion, as it is in this book.

253. Historical Foundation of the Boole.

As regards any historical foundation of the narrative, it
is of course possible, that, by means of tradition, the author
had met with something of the sort which he partly
followed. It is at least an historical personage, one of the
ancient prophets, whom he introduces as filling the chief
place. What it was, however, which led him to fix upon
Jonah whether there was any distinct inducement for it
in the traditionary account of him, or in any of his prophe
cies which were extant, we cannot ascertain, as nothing
whatever has been handed down as to the life and actions
of this prophet, except in this book, besides the short
notice of him in 2 Kings xiv. 25, which gives no informa
tion on these points.

The passage, Tobit xiv. 4, where, according to the Greek
revision of the book, but not according to the Latin, Tobit
says, " I believe that which the prophet Jonah spake as
to Nineveh, that it should be destroyed," relates, without
doubt, merely to the contents of our book, although in an
improper way, and is doubtless to be attributed only to
the Greek reviser of the Book of Tobit.

As regards Jonah s sojourn and preservation in the fish s
belly, after he had embarked on the sea at Joppa, many

Traditionary Foundation. 187

modern interpreters, as Gesenius, De Wette, Eosenmiiller,
Friedrichsen, and others, have quoted two Greek myths as
being parallels to them, and have supposed a connection
between them and our narrative ; they are as follows :

(a) The myth of Hercules, who freed Hesione, daughter
of the Trojan king Laomedon, when bound to a rock in
order to serve as a prey to a sea-monster (/dyros) which de
vastated the land, which was killed by Hercules. The
myth runs thus in Diod. Sic. iv. 42 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 9-12 ;
Ovid. Metamorph. xi. 217 ; and in this shape offers no points
of comparison with our narrative. Only in some later
authors, such as in Lycophron s Cassandra, 33, ff., which
work, however (according to Kiebuhr) most probably is of
the second century A.D. it is stated that Hercules himself
was swallowed by a sea-monster, or had jumped down his
throat ; and it was some still later Christian authors who
first relate that he remained three days in the bowels of
the creature. But neither the one thing nor the other
originally belonged to the Greek myth, and were both later
additions to it ; both perhaps, certainly the latter, having
arisen from this very narrative of Jonah.

(6) The myth of Perseus, who rescued Andromeda, when
bound to a rock on the coast near Joppa, in order to be
made the prey of a sea-monster (/d^os) which devastated
the land, and which was killed by Perseus with the aid of
Medusa s head. This latter myth has a great resemblance
with that of Hercules, and is, perhaps, only a variation of
it. But it has very little in common with our narrative,
except the locality being-placed near Joppa.

Consequently there is not the slightest probability that
what is told in our book about Jonah s sojourn in the fish s
belly could have been derived, either directly or indi
rectly, from this Greek myth. Least of all have we any
reason to think, as many scholars have done, that a foreign
myth would have taken such a shape in the mouth of the
Israelitish people, as we read in this book ; in this case we
should be led to expect that it would have been done in a
way which was more conformable to the prevailing dispo
sitions and ideas of the people, than is the case in the
whole contents of this book. Although the matter the
historical substratum of this book may really have been
partly derived from some other source, it must be sup-

188 Origin of the several Books Jonah.

posed, that the author remodelled what he met with in an
unfettered way, conformably to his didactic aim.

We must consider as entirely mistaken, and in the highest
degree unnatural, the opinion of F. v. Baur (" The Prophet
Jonah, an Assyrico-Babylonian Symbol," 1837, pp. 88-134),
which derives the substance of the narrative from popular
tradition, and compares thereto a Babylonian myth of the
monster Oannes, and the mourning festival of Adonis ; v .
on the contrary, Jager, ut supra, p. 86, if.

It is, however, very probable that the author found some
moving cause in the circumstances around him for giving
prominence to those truths which he asserts in his book.
But nothing more definite can be ascertained with any
certainty, nor again as to the date of the composition. The
Chaldaizing character of the language of the book points
to a somewhat late date. Also, it cannot be doubted that
it was not written until some considerable time after the
prophet s death, as he is spoken of in it in so poetic a
manner ; perhaps, also, a considerable time after the de
struction of Nineveh. For this city is spoken of as one
known in ancient history, and not as one then in existence
(ch. iii. 3). Consequently we get, at least, to the Chaldaic
age. Perhaps it was somewhat later, in the beginning of the
Persian age, and then it might be possible that the author,
as Jager thinks, intended by Nineveh to mean Babylon,
and desired to bring before his fellow-countrymen a reason
for the fact that this hostile city also was not immediately
destroyed at its capture by Cyrus. It seems more probable,
however, to me, that it was composed in Judsca than, as
Jager thinks, in Babylonia.

Ewald fixes the composition somewhat later still, in the
fifth century B.C. He also considers the aim of the book
didactical, but in a very general way; and that ^ it inti
mates (a) in the foreign sailors, (6) in Jonah, (c) in Nine
veh, that only true fear and repentance can bring salvation
from Jehovah.

Hitzig s opinion is decidedly wrong and entirely mis
taken, which makes out that both this book and Obadiah s
prophecy were composed in Egypt, at the time of Ptolemy
Lagus (ssec. 4, fin.), with the intention of vindicating God
on account of the non-fulfilment of Obadiah* s oracles against
the (heathen) Edomites, also to exculpate the prophet on

Bunsens Opinion. 139

this account, and to put to silence the displeasure of the
Jews about ^t.

I also consider the opinion of Bunsen as untenable He
considers the song, in ch. ii. 2-0, to be a genuine song of
the prophet Jonah, who composed it on the occasion of his
deliverance from the dangers of the sea, and believes that
this song through an error, has given cause for the history
ot Jonah being composed in the way in which we have it
and endeavours to restore the actual matter of fact on the
basis of this song. The didactic character of the book
w hlch ^ s immistakeably its main point, is scarcely at all put

190

THE BOOK OF DANIEL.

254. Position in the Canon Review of Contents.

This book stands in the Hebrew Canon among the Ketu-
Um, between Esther and Ezra ; in the LXX and Vulgate,
as well as in Luther, as the fourth of the greater prophets,
after Ezekiel. It consists of twelve chapters, partly in the
Hebrew, partly in the Chaldee language, the first six of
which relate matters of fact of a substantive character, the
last six contain various visions afforded to Daniel. The first
half of the book is again divided into several separate sec
tions, which are only loosely joined on to one another
without any formula of transition, and indeed, form com
plete narratives by themselves, but still so that the former
ones are presupposed in the latter.

Their substance is as follows :

(1) Ch. i. (Hebrew). In the third year of the reign of
Jehoiakim, at the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar,
in which the Jewish king came into his power, and a
portion of the holy vessels of the temple were carried away
into the land of Shinar Daniel and three other Israelitish
youths of noble families, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,
were brought to Babylon ; and there, in the king s palace
for three years, they were taught the language and learn
ing of the Chaldeans, and were educated for the service of
the king. They desired, however, during this time to keep
from any kind of defilement, through partaking of the
meat and drink of the king, and therefore lived upon bread
and water. They also made distinguished progress in their
learning, so that the king found at the expiration of the
time that they excelled all the wise men of his kingdom in
judgment, and Daniel " had understanding in all visions
and dreams." Verse 21 concludes the chapter " and
Daniel continued (""0^) unto the first year of king Koresch
(Cyrus) ;" this probably means, that he remained in
Babylon up to the date named, when the Jewish exiles
generally received permission to return home.

(2) Ch. ii. Nebuchadnezzar, in the second year (?) of

Review of Contents The King s Dream. 1 9 1

his reign, had a disquieting dream. He caused all the
magicians, sorcerers, astrologers, and Chaldeans, to come
before him, and demanded of them, not only the interpre
tation of his dream, but also that they should tell him the
purport thereof; none of them were able to do it, the king
therefore gave command that they should all be slain, and
for this purpose Daniel also was sought for. To the latter,
both the dream and its interpretation was revealed in a
vision at night, and he made them known to the king, who
was thus convinced of the might and omniscience of
Daniel s God. He fell on his knees before Daniel, made
oblations to him, and nominated him chief governor over all
the wise men of Babylon, and also, at his request, made
over the management of the province of Babylon (which
had been intended for Daniel), to his three companions
whilst he himself remained in the king s palace. The
dream itself related to a great image which the king saw,
the head of which was of gold, the breast and arms were of
silver, the belly and thighs of brass, and the feet partly of
iron and partly of clay ; a stone, dug out without hands,
struck against the feet of the statue and broke all the
parts of it in pieces. Daniel interpreted this of several
successive kingdoms; to the then existing kingdom of
Nebuchadnezzar (the head of gold), an inferior kingdom
should follow, and then a third of brass, ruling over the
whole earth, and a fourth, strong as iron, breaking in
pieces and subduing all things ; next a divided kingdom
partly of iron and partly of clay, i.e., partly strong, and
partly fragile, in which they (the several portions or
rulers) shall be mixed in races, without cleaving to one
another; but that in the days of this king (of the divided
kingdom), Gcd would Himself set up a kingdom upon
earth, which should destroy all kingdoms, but which should
itself endure for ever, and that it should be made over to
no other peoples.

The narrative is completely finished at the end of the
chapter. It begins in Hebrew vv. 1-3 ; but in v. 4, the
Chaldean wise men are represented as speaking in the
Chaldee language, and this dialect continues in what follows
for the narrative itself: and the succeeding narratives of
the first portion of the book, are also entirely written in
Chaldee.

192 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

(3) Ch. iii. 1-30. Another narrative complete in itself,
which is not connected even by a 1 with what goes before,
although the contents of ch. i. are presupposed. It states
that Nebuchadnezzar set up in the neighbourhood of
Babylon a monstrous golden statue, sixty cubits high, and
six cubits in breadth, and collected together for its dedica
tion all the high officials of his kingdom, and ordered
them, under penalty of being cast into a burning fiery
furnace, to fall down before the image and worship it.
Daniel s three companions of Daniel himself no mention
is made neglected to do this, and on being denounced on
this account to the king by certain Chaldeans, they still
persistently refused to do it ; they were, therefore, by the
king s command, cast into a most fiercely burning furnace,
in which, by God s help, they were wonderfully preserved,
so that Nebuchadnezzar, full of wonder, acknowledged the
power of their God ; he issued a command in which any
one was threatened with death who should dare to blas
pheme the God of these men, and to the men themselves
he entrusted high positions in the land of Babylon.

(4) Ch. iv. 1-fin. This section also is complete in itself,
without being joined on to what precedes by any transi
tional formula or words of connection ; here again, also, the
contents of ch. i. are presupposed as being well known. It
is a letter of king Nebuchadnezzar, addressed to all the
nations of the whole earth, in which he relates that Daniel
had interpreted to him a dream, which all the magicians,
astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers, were unable to
explain. That this dream was fulfilled with regard to
himself twelve months afterwards ; that, as a punishment for
his pride, he had been afiiicted with madness, and had
lived in this state seven times (years) in the open fields
with the cattle, and like them, feeding on grass ; that then
his reason had returned to him, and he had praised the
power and greatness of the Most High ; that he was again
established in his kingdom, and his might was increased;
so that he now praised and honoured the King of Heaven
before all the world. In ch. iv. 28-33, the epistolary form
is dropped, and the king is spoken of in the third person, but
from v. 34 to the end, he again speaks in the first person.

(5) Ch. v. I-fin. This narrative, also, is not connected
with what precedes it by any connecting formula, although

Review of Contents Bclsliazzars Feast. 193

the purport of the narrations that go before, particularly
ch. i, ii, and iv, is presupposed in it as well known. A
king Belshazzar of Babylon, who is spoken of as a son of
Nebuchadnezzar (vv. 1 1 , 13, 18, 22), caused, in his arrogance,
the holy vessels to be brought, which his father Nebuchad
nezzar had carried away out of the Temple at Jerusalem,
and drank out of them, with his princes and concubines,
singing songs of praise to their idols. Suddenly the king
perceived a hand, which wrote on the wall of the dining-
hall. After all the wise men of Babylon had in vain
attempted to read it, at the queen s suggestion, Daniel was
sent for, who read and explained the writing, to the effect
that, on account of his profanation of the holy vessels, and
his wicked contempt for the Lord of Heaven, the king
Belshazzar should lose his kingdom, and that it should be
given to the Medes and Persians. The king caused Daniel
to be invested as he had promised to the man who should
explain the writing with scarlet and a golden neck-chain,
and proclaimed him as the third ruler in the kingdom ;
the king himself was, however, slain that same night, and
Darius (Darjavesch), the Median, took the kingdom.

(6) Ch. vi. 1-fin. This narrative, also, is complete in
itself. King Darius set over the whole kingdom 120
governors, and over these, three princes ; as one of these
latter, Daniel was appointed, who had so distinguished
himself, that the king thought to put him over the whole
land. Whereupon, the other princes and the governors
sought for an opportunity to ruin Daniel. They, there
fore, persuaded the king to issue a decree, according to the
law pf the Medes and Persians, which altereth not, for
bidding every one, fur thirty days, to ask a petition of any
god or man, except of the king. Daniel, however, did not
refrain from his custom of praying to his God three times a
day in his house, with his windows open towards Jeru
salem. He was, on this account, denounced by those who
envied him, and the king found himself compelled by the
law although it was very painful to him to order Daniel
to be thrown into the den of lions. When, next morning,
he found him still unharmed, he was overjoyed and had
him drawn out, and ordered that his accusers should be
thrown into the den, where they were immediately torn to
pieces by the lions. The king then wrote a decree to all
VOL. ii.

194 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

the nations on the whole earth, that every one throughout
all his dominions should reverence the God of Daniel, who
had shown himself as the everlasting and almighty Ruler,
and Doer of wonders. The narrative concludes, v. 29, " So
this Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius (Darjavesch),
and in the reign of Cyrus (Koresch), the Persian.

The second division of the book may be divided into
four sections, setting forth the same number of visions
occurring to Daniel at different times.

(1) Ch. vii. A vision in a dream of Daniel, which he
saw and wrote down in the first year of Belshazzar, king
of Babylon. He saw four great beasts come up out of the
sea : (a) one a lion with eagle s wings, which received the
appearance and heart of a man ; (6) a second beast like a
bear, with three ribs in his mouth, which is told to devour
much flesh ; (c) a third beast like a leopard with four
fowl s- wings and four heads, to which beast dominion was
given ; (d) a fourth beast with great iron teeth, devouring
and smashing all things, and with ten horns ; among these
another little horn rose up, which spoke proud things, and
before which three of the other horns were rooted out.
Then appeared the Ancient of days in judgment; the
beast is slain on account of the proud words spoken by the
horn, and is thrown into the burning flame, and the
dominion was taken away from the rest of the beasts for a
certain time. Then one appeared like the Son of Man
with the clouds of Heaven, and to him was given glory
and dominion over all nations, and an everlasting kingdom.
This vision is then interpreted to Daniel, at first in general,
as referring to four kings, i.e., kingdoms or dynasties, which
shall arise out of the earth, but that afterwards the saints
of the Most High (the people of God), shall possess the
kingdom for ever and ever. It is then explained specially
in respect to the fourth beast and its horns; the fourth
kingdom symbolized in this way is styled " diverse from
all kingdoms," and as devouring, treading down, and
breaking in pieces the earth ; the ten horns are ten kings
arising in it, after whom another king shall appear, diverse
from the others. The latter shall subdue three kings,
shall utter blasphemies against the Most High, and make
war upon His saints, and shall think to alter the (feast)
times and laws; they shall be given into his hand for

Review of Contents Daniel s Visions. 195

three and a half times (years), until judgment shall sit
and make an end of his dominion, and then shall the
kingdom and dominion over all the nations of the earth be

g ven for ever to the people of the saints of the Most
igh.

^ This dream-vision of Daniel has, unmistakeably, a great
similarity to that of Nebuchadnezzar, in ch. ii, and in both
we are induced to explain the consecutive kingdoms in
the same way. This section is also written in Chaldee.
What follows, however, is again entirely in the Hebrew
language.

(2) (Jh. viii. A vision of Daniel in the third year of
Belshazzar, in which Daniel was (perhaps only in a vision)
in the palace of Shushan in Elam by the river Ulai. He
saw a ram with two horns, and the higher of the two came
up last ; the ram pushed mightily towards the west, north,
and south, until a he-goat, spreading over the whole earth,
with a notable horn, came from the west, and pushed the
ram to the ground, breaking both his horns ; then the he-
goat broke his great horn, and in its place four came out
towards the four quarters ef the world ; out of one of these
came forth a little horn, which increased very much toward
the south, and the east, and toward Juda3a, and it waxed
great even to the host of heaven, and the prince of the host,
whose habitation it threw down, and took away from him
the daily sacrifice. Daniel then heard the vision explained
by the, angel Gabriel ; that the ram with the two horns
signified the kings of Media and Persia, the he-goat the
king of Greece (the Grecian monarchy), his notable horn
the first king (Alexander), the four horns coming up in its
place are four kingdoms which shall stand up out of the
nation, but not in the power of the first king (this, perhaps,
is only meant for four kingdoms arising out of that of
Alexander) ; the little horn, however, is a bolder and more
crafty king, who shall arise at last, and shall ruin many of
the people of the saints, and shall stand up against the
prince of princes, but shall be finally destroyed withou/
the agency of the hand of man. Daniel had been pre
viously told that the transgression of the destroyer and the
hindrance of the daily sacrifice should last for 2300 evenings
and mornings pp3 :ny = so man y times when the daily
saciifices in the evening and morning were to be offered =

196 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

1150 days = 3i times, ch. vii). He is finally commanded
to seal up the vision, which shall last for a long time (ac
cording to v. 17 at the time of the end). He was for some
time sick through his amazement at the vision, which neither
he (nor any one) could understand. It appears, however,
to be clearly evident that the little horn is here intended
to signify the same as in ch. vii. a heathen prince in one
of the kingdoms which proceeded out of that of Alexander,
who violently oppressed the Jewish nation and stopped the
regular offering of sacrifice in the temple.

(3) Ch. ix. A vision of Daniel in the first year of Darius
(Darjavesch), son of Ahasuerus (Xerxes ?), of the seed of
the Medes, who was made king over the realm of the Chal
deans. Daniel reflected on the number of seventy years,
which Jeremiah prophesied should be accomplished in the
desolations of Jerusalem, and implored Jehovah with fast
ing, and sackcloth and ashes, to put aside the sins of the
people and avert the Divine wrath from Jerusalem and Zion.
Then the angel Gabriel appeared to him and revealed to
him the explanation of the prophecy of the seventy years ;
that it would be seventy weeks (weeks of years = Sep-
tennia), until the guilt of the people should be entirely
atoned for, and the prediction of the prophet find its fulfil
ment, and the Most Holy be anointed. This entire period
is again divided into three smaller ones, 7 + 62 4- 1 ; viz.,
(a) seven weeks from the going forth of the commandment
as to the restoration of Jerusalem, up to the time of an
anointed prince (Cyrus) ; (6) within the next following
sixty-two weeks (therefore, during the time of this anointed
prince to the sixty-ninth week of years) will the city be
rebuilt, yet in troublous times ; (c) after the expiration of
these sixty-two weeks (therefore of the sixty-ninth week of
years), will an anointed one be cut off, and the people of a
prince that shall come will destroy both city and sanctuary ;
he shall enter into a covenant with many, and during the
(last) half of a week (during one-half of this week of years)
he shall cause the sacrifice and oblation to cease, until
destruction shall be poured out on the desolater.

We are here induced to consider that this destroyer is
the same prince as is intended by the little horn in ch. vii.
and viii. But it appears to be intimated here, that with
the overthrow of this prince, the whole of the period had

Origin of the Book. 197

elapsed intended by Jeremiah up to the full appearance of
the salvation, which Jehovah had intended for His people.
(4) Ch. x-xii. A vision of Daniel, in the third year of
the Persian king Cyrus (Koresch), by the Tigris (Hiddekel).
After Daniel had mourned and fasted for three weeks an
angel appeared to him, who referred to the contest which
he had had to carry on with the guardian angels of Persia
and Greece, in which he had been assisted only by Michael,
the guardian angel of the Jews ; he then gives him a re
velation as to the future, from ch. xi. 2 on. Beginning
with the Persian kings succeeding Cyrus, he goes on to
Alexander and his successors, and describes in detail the
relations and conflicts of the kings of the north and of the
south (Syria and Egypt) with each other. But he dwells most
particularly on the description of one of the kings of the
north, viz., of Antiochus Epiphanes, as to whom there can be
no doubt from the whole mode of statement, both as to his
conflicts with Egypt and in his attempts and violent acts
against the Jews, and all his insolent, cold, God-despising
nature, down to v. 45, where his end is spoken of, which
he shall meet without any to help him. The angel then,
in ch. xii. 1-3. concludes the prediction, that in a time
of trouble to an extent before unheard of, all the elect of
Daniel s people shall find salvation, and many of those
in the sleep of death shall awake, some to everlasting life,
and some to everlasting contempt. In v. 4, Daniel is asain
commanded by the angel to shut up these words, and to
seal up the book, until the time of the end. Then Daniel
heard the period stated from the time of the taking away
of the daily sacrifice, as 1290 days (u. 11), and in v. 12,
that he is called blessed who shall wait and come to the
1335 days.

255. Various Opinions as to the Origin of the Book.
Opinions vary much both as to the origin of the book
and as to its aim and value. As regards the first point,
Daniel has been considered as its author both by Jewish
tradition and the entire ancient Christian Church, con
nected with which is the fact, that the contents of the book
have been looked upon as purely historical : the first part
as a purely historical narrative of events which took place
in the lifetime of Daniel, the second part as an historical

198 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

account of visions and revelations which were actually
afforded to Daniel. To the latter particularly, considerable
importance has been ascribed, on account of the great exact
ness surpassing all the other prophets in the prediction
of future events, and their chronological relation to one
another; thus Josephus, Ant. x. 11, 7 ; Theodoret, Prcef. in
Dan., &c. The book experienced, tolerably early, an attack
on its genuineness, but this came from an opponent of all
revealed religion generally, Porphyrius, the JSeo-Platonist
(d. 304).

Out of his fifteen books against Christianity, the whole
twelfth book is taken up with an attack on the Book of
Daniel. He maintained that it was fabricated by a Jew
who lived at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and that it
was rather an account of things that had taken place, than
a prophecy of the future ; and that, therefore, he appears
to predict truly in everything before this date, and falsely
in everything that goes beyond it. In order to prove his
assertions he made a most exact study of the Syrian history
particularly. There are fragments of his argument in
Jerome s " Commentary on Daniel," in which he is fre
quently opposed, as also by other ecclesiastical authors,
whom Jerome mentions (Methodius, Apollinaris of Lao-
dicea, and Eusebius of Csesarea).

In modern times, however, the opinion in favour of
Daniel s authorship of the book has also met with manifold
opposition in the Christian Church, particularly among the
Protestant German divines, since the end of the last cen
tury.

Thus. Corrodi (Freimutliige Versuche uber verschiedene in
Theol. u. bibl. Kritik einschlagende Gegenstande, 1783, p. 1,6.;
Versuch einer Beleuchtung der Gesch. des BibelJcanons, 1792, i.
p. 75, fT.). Eichhorn, then Bertholdt (Daniel neu ubersetzt
u. erEdrt, Part 2, 1806-1808, and Einleitung in d. A. u.N. I 7 .),
Augusti, De Wette, and others. I have given a more exact
consideration to this subject, in Abhandlung uber Verfassnng
u. Zweck d. Bucnes Daniel ; Revision der neuerem daruber an-
gestellten Untersuchung, in Schleiermacher, De Wette, and
Liicke s Theol. Zeitschrift, Part 3 (Berlin, 1822), pp. 171-294,
in which I also have decided for the later composition of
the book. Partly in reference to this treatise, other divines
have again endeavoured to vindicate Daniel s authorship

Unity of Authorship. 199

of the book. Thus, amongst others, Sack (Christl. Apologetik,
1 edit., 1829); Hengstenberg (Dze Autlient. des Daniels und
die Integr. des Sacharjah, 1831) ; Havemick ( (a) Commentar
uber das Bach Daniel, Hamburg, 1832, (6) Neue krit. Unter-
suchung uber das Buch Daniel, Hamburg, 1838, (c) Einleitung
in das A. T.) ; Herbst, Keil, Auberlen (Der Prophet Daniel
u. die 0/enbarung Johannis, Basle, 1854, 2nd edit. 1857) ;
Delitzseh (in Herzog s Beal-Encyclop., Art. " Daniel "), and
others. The following have decided in favour of the later
composition, and endeavoured to prove it : Kirmss (Com-
mentat. hist. crit. exhibens descriptionem et censuram receniiorum
de Dan. libro opiniorum, Jena, 1828) ; Eedepenning (Tlteol.
Stud. u. Krit. 1833. Part 3, 1835) ; Von Lengerke (Das Buch
Daniel verdeutscht u. ausgelegt, Konigsberg, 1835) ; Ewald,
Hitzig (Das Buch Daniel erklart, Leipzig, 1850) ; Bunsen
(Gott in der Geschichte, i. pp. 514-540) ; Liicke ( Versuch einer
vollstdndigen Einleitung in die 0/enbarung Johannis, 2nd edit.
p. 41, ff.) ; Bleek (Die Messianischen Weissagungen im Buche
Daniel, mit besonderer Beziehung auf Auberlen s (d. 2nd May,
1864) Schrift; in the Jahrbuch fur deutsche Theologie, 1860,
i. pp. 45-10 1). 1

256. Unity of Authorship.

The unity of authorship has been also questioned,
although incorrectly.

Among the modem defenders of the authenticity of the
prophecies of the book, Sack, Herbst, and Davidson attri
bute to Daniel himself only the second portion of the book,
and consider that ch. i-vi. were written by some Israelite
at a later time as an introduction to the visions. Among
those scholars who place the date of the book generally at
a later time, Eichhorn (edits. 3 and 4) assumes that there
were two authors, (a) for ch. ii. 4 to ch. vi. fin., and (6) for
ch. vii-xii. and ch. i. 1-ii. 3 ; and Bertholdt, followed by
Augusti, assumes different authors for the separate sections
of the book, in all nine different authors at somewhat dif
ferent times. Some other modern scholars, on the contrary,

1 David Ziindel has lately entered the lists in favour of the orthodox
opinion (Krit. Untersuchungen uber die Abfassungszeit des Baches
Daniel Basle, 1861). Of., on the contrary, Rudolf Baxmann, Veber
das Buch Daniel, in the Theol. Stud. u. Krit 1803, Part 3.

200 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

who deny Daniel s authorship of the book, attribute the
whole to one and the same author, and this may be assumed
as certain. The changes in the dialect can in no way be
decisive on this point, as in ch. ii. it can be explained in a
natural way, and the Chaldee elements could in no case
have formed by themselves an independent work. But
Bertholdt s opinion as to the multiplicity of authors is
entirely untenable and is now generally given up. What
he alleges in favour of this idea, is either quite un
founded and incorrect, or valueless as a proof. Thus, he
appeals to the different historical contradictions in the
various sections, particularly ch. i. 21 with x. 1 ; ch. i. 1, 5
with ii. 1 ; ch. ii. 48, 49 with v. 11-14. Some of these,
however, are by no means certain, and all of them of such a
nature that the circumstances can be explained even under
the supposition of the same author, at least, if he were a
late author, and not Daniel. Bertholdt himself is com
pelled to allow that the authors of the later sections must
almost always have been acquainted with the former ones,
and must have followed them as continuators, also that
they must have imitated them in the whole mode of state
ment, as well as in the use of certain words and expres
sions ; and that this must have been done in such a way as
is scarcely imaginable. In favour of the unity of author
ship of the first division of the book, there is also the
fact, that in ch. i. and ii. there are hints which seem to
refer to the contents of the following chapters. Thus, in
ch. i, Daniel s skill in the interpretation of dreams, is cer
tainly so prominently brought forward in reference to
the narrative in ch. ii ; also in ch. i. Daniel s three com
panions being named with him, and in ch. ii. 49 its being
told that the king made over to them the management of
the province of Babylon, are both in reference to ch. iii,
in which they appear in the condition of officials of the
land ; and the mention in ch. i. 2 of the carrying away by
Nebuchadnezzar of the holy vessels of the Temple has
doubtless been made in reference to ch. v. Also, the as
sumption that the first division of the book was composed
by a different author from that of the second, and that it
was, at a later date, intended by him as an introduction to
this latter, appears altogether improbable if we observe
the great similarity which they both offer to each other

Authorship. 201

in respect to their whole spirit, ideas, literary style, and
language, which similarity is of that nature that it could
only be looked for in one and the same author. Cf. Bleek s
treatise in the TlieoL Zeitschrift, p. 241, if., p. 255 if. De

\\/",-.4.^ S. Of-f} *

VVette, 256

257. Oriqi

As regards the question as to the origin and author of
the book, the controversy still is, whether it was composed
by Daniel, who must have lived, according to our book,
during the whole time of the Babylonian exile, up to the
third year of Cyrus, or by some Jewish author living about
three and a half centuries later, in the age of Antiochus
Epiphanes. \Ve certainly must not conceal from ourselves
that the question involved here is of another kind from
that as to Isaiah xl. If., and Zech. ix. ff. ; for in this latter
case, there is really no question at all as to the genuine
ness or non-genuineness of these portions, but only as to
their authors and ages, as the authors themselves nowhere
mention their own names, and make no claim in any way
to be looked upon as Isaiah and Zechariah. But with
regard to the Book of Daniel it is a somewhat different
matter. The historical sections, chapters i-vi, make no
express claim to being composed by Daniel himself; for
Daniel is everywhere spoken of in them in the third per
son, as also his three companions. But in the second divi
sion of the book, it is expressly mentioned in ch. vii. 1, as
to the first vision, that Daniel himself wrote it out, and in
all these visions Daniel is regularly spoken of in the first
person, so that he appears as the narrator : " I saw," " a
vision appeared to me, Daniel," &c. It appears, therefore,
from this, that this part at least, and by its connection
with the first part the whole book lays claim to be con
sidered as a work of Daniel ; and if the date is fixed at a
later age, it must be assumed that a similar state of things
exists, as, e.g., with regard to the Deuteronomic law-giving,
or Jacob s blessing, or Ecclesiastes, viz., that the introduc
tion of Daniel as the writer or relater of his visions is only
an embellishment of the author, for some moral or didactic
end, which is for us to ascertain. We are necessitated by
overpowering reasons, as I think, to pronounce in favour of

202 Origin of tlie several Books Daniel.

this opinion, partly from external, and partly from internal
evidence. 1

258. External Arguments for an earlier or later Date.

As regards the external evidence, the champions for
Daniel s authorship appeal to the following as proof that it
was extant before the age of Antiochus Epiphanes, namely :

(a) To 1 Mace. ii. 59, 60, where the dying priest Matta-
thias refers his son to the deliverance which God afforded
to Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael, and also to Daniel,
and does it in that way, that most probably there is a
reference to the narrative in chaps, iii. and vi. of our book.
But Havernick himself (Einl. ii. p. 459) acknowledges that
this speech of Mattathias is an arbitrary composition of the
author, and thus only affords a proof that the Book of
Daniel was extant at the time of the composition of the
first book of Maccabees, which would be about the year
100 B.C., therefore sixty to seventy years after the death of
Antiochus Epiphanes. This passage, therefore, can prove
nothing.

(&) To the narrative of Josephus (Ant. xi. 8, 5), that
when Alexander the Great, in his conquering march, came
to Jerusalem, the Book of Daniel was there shown to him ;
and that he took to himself the prophecy in it, that a Greek
should destroy the Persian empire, and was much pleased
at it. But Josephus whole narrative, with its concomitant
circumstances, has something in it so improbable, and
sometimes manifestly fabulous, that certainly not the
slightest importance can be attributed to it in reference to
the above circumstance: v. Theol. Zeitschrift, pp. 183-187.

On the other hand, we meet with many things which
cause us to conclude with the greatest probability that the
book and its contents could not have been known until a
considerably later time than the age of Daniel. Among
these are as follows :

() The position of the book in the Hebrew Canon, that
is, its being placed among the Ketubim and not among
the Nebiim, and as one of the last of the former. This can
scarcely be explained, except by the supposition, that the

1 I can only bring forward here the chief points, referring sometimes
to the further explanation in the Theol. Zeitschrift (and in the Jahrb.
fur deutsche Thedogie).

Position in the Canon. 203

book was not known at the time wlien the compilation of
the Nebiim was made, which was most probably by Isehe-
rniah, about 450 B.C., therefore at least 100 years after the
age of Daniel.

The position of the book in the LXX has been occa
sionally appealed to, in which it is placed after Ezekiel.
But in this case there can be no doubt, and it is now
generally acknowledged, that this was not its original place
in the Canon ; if it were, it would be difficult to under
stand how it got to be shifted to the place which it occupies
in the Hebrew Canon, whilst, on the other hand, it might
very easily be explained how it got to be transplanted
into the list of prophets from its original place in the
Canon. Others have thought that the compilers of the
Canon considered that Daniel was differently circumstanced
to the other actual prophets, whose writings form the
second class ; e.g., that he was not an actual K riJ, but only
a run (thus Havernick), or that he was a prophet by his
gifts only, and not by his office, and that his ministry lay
in a foreign land and at the court of a heathen king, and
not among his own people ; whilst in the second class of
the Canon, the writings of those only were included who
were prophets by office (thus Hengstenberg). There is
nothing tenable, however, in this. If the visions were
afforded to Daniel which are related in our book, he might
just as well have been included in the list of Nebiim, as,
e.g., Amos, Ezekiel, and Zechariah, who also received a
great part of their revelations in visions ; and just as well,
also, as the Book of Jonah, which sets Jonah before us in
his prophetic ministry among a foreign nation only, and
not among the people of Israel. This peculiarity cannot
well be explained, except under the supposition that the
compiler of the books of the second part of the Canon,
which, from their contents, could not well have been col
lected before Nehemiah s age, was not acquainted with the
Book of Daniel. This, again, cannot easily be understood,
if the book, or even only the visions in it, were written by
Daniel himself, therefore about 100 years before.

(6) The silence of Jesus, the son of Sirach, as to Daniel,
in Ecclus. xlix, where we should be entitled to expect an
express mention of him.

He devotes ch. xliv-1. altogether to praising the worthies

204 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

of his nation, who were distinguished as rulers, or by their
wisdom as lawgivers, prophets, &c. Thus he himself, in
ch. xliv. 115, announces his purpose ; and, firstly, in
ch. xliv, he treats in succession of the patriarchs, Enoch,
Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob ; then, in ch. xlv, of Moses,
Aaron, Phirieas ; in ch. xlvi, of Joshua, Caleb, the Judges,
Samuel ; in ch. xlvii, of Nathan, David, Solomon ;
ch. xlviii, of Elijah, Elisha, Hezekiah, Isaiah; ch. xlix,
of Josiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the twelve lesser prophets, of
Zerubbabel, Joshua, and Nehemiah, and, in ch. 1, he con
cludes with praise of the high priest Simon. The passage
where the twelve minor prophets are mentioned, is de
clared by Hengstenberg, Havernick, Keil, and Davidson
(also by Bretschneider) to be not genuine, but without
satisfactory reasons. As these twelve minor prophets are
mentioned and put together as one body, it is most sur
prising that Daniel is not also mentioned; one would
expect to find him close to Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and it is
difficult to explain how Jesus Sirach came to omit naming
him with the others, if he had been known to him as a
prophet who had seen such visions and performed such
deeds, as we read of in the book extant in his name. This,
too, cannot well be explained, except by the supposition
that our book was not known to Jesus Sirach (about 200 to
180 B.C.), and, at any rate, that it was not then acknow
ledged as canonical. Hengstenberg has, indeed, brought for
ward with some plausibility that Ezra and Mordecai are not
named. But there is a marked distinction here, for Daniel,
as he appears in his book as a prophet and doer of wonders,
stands out quite differently from Ezra, who was neither the
one nor the other, but only a certainly not undistinguished
priest and scribe, who, however, was made much more of
by the later Jewish tradition than appears from his book ;
although, perhaps, he even would not have been omitted if
the book extant in his name had been an element of the
Canon at the time of Jesus Sirach. The omission of Mor
decai can still less be compared with that of Daniel,
without mentioning that the Book of Esther, in which he
is signalised, was, at the time of Jesus Sirach, not yet
perhaps existing, and certainly not of acknowledged autho
rity. It is, then, in the highest degree improbable that
the Book of Daniel was known and acknowledged by the

Authorship Internal Arguments. 205

son of Sirach, who lived more than 300 years after the
Captivity. But it is very difficult to explain how it could
then be unknown to him, except under the supposition that
at that time it was not yet in existence.

(c) There is still another point that must not be lost
sight of. If the Book of Daniel had been composed in the
age of Cyrus, and therefore existed ever since, and was also
well known to the Jews, we should certainly expect that
traces of some use having been made of it would be found
in the prophets nourishing after the Captivity, Haggai,
Malachi, and particularly in Zechariah, ch. i-viii, and tliat
it would, in particular, have exercised some influence on
the shaping and modification of the Messianic ideas in these
later prophets. But this is not anywhere the case.

As regards Zechariah particularly, the Messianic pro
phecies of Jeremiah have exercised influence over him in
shaping out^his idea of a Messiah; but this is not the case
with the visions of Daniel, not even the prediction of a
ruler like unto the Son of Man coming in the clouds :
Dan. vii. The same thing holds good with regard to the
Angelology, in which it cannot easily be mistaken, that the
accounts in our book bear a later and much more finished
character than those in Zech. i-viii, which at the most can
only be compared with the former.

259. Internal Arguments against Daniel s being the Author.
The internal features of the book, under the supposition of
its authorship by Daniel, present equal difficulty as regards
both the purport and nature of its prophecies, and also its
historical elements. We will first consider the former. As
regards this point, under a supposition of its composition
by Daniel, the prophecies would have something about
them at all events altogether peculiar and distinguishing
them from those of the other prophets of the Old Tes
tament. There is in them a distinctness of prediction of
even special events in a tolerably distant future, such as we
meet with in no other prophet to a like extent. This espe
cially applies to the last sections, ch. x-xii, in which are
depicted the several conflicts of the Ptolemies and Seleucida3,
the two ruling dynasties over kingdoms, which in Daniel s
time did not yet exist, but which proceeded considerably
later out of another great kingdom, likewise not existing in

206 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

Daniel s time ; and this is sometimes done so exactly and
with such detail that one would imagine it an historical
narrative, rather than a prophecy. Not less surprising
are the chronological definitions for certain future events,
which are sometimes given even in days, as ch. viii. 14,
xii. 11, 12 ; this, too, is contrary to the usual analogy of
the Hebrew prophets, who, in general, very seldom fix the
dates of future events, and (if we except the certainly
interpolated passage, Is. vii. 8) state them in round and
holy numbers. Added to this, the fact is particularly
important, that the special distinctness of the prediction
extends only to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, when
this Syrian prince exercised his tyranny against the Jewish
people, and endeavoured in every way to suppress the
worship of Jehovah, and for this purpose sought to intro
duce the Greek cultus itself into the Temple at Jerusalem ;
whilst the prophecies either break off with the destruction
of this prince, or immediately annex to it the prediction of
the deliverance of God s people from all distresses, and of
the Messianic salvation and kingdom, and even the resur
rection of the dead.

In several of the sections it is indeed a question if the
matter stands quite in this way, many interpreters referring
the purport of these visions to other events. 1 But, in the
first place, with regard to the last section, it is at the
present day generally acknowledged, and cannot be doubted,
that in ch. xi. 21-45, the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes is
spoken of, his wicked conduct and proceedings, and par
ticularly his enterprises against the Jewish people and the
worship of Jehovah, up to his overthrow. The promise,
however, is immediately joined on to this, that at the same
time all the elect of the Jewish people should find salvation,
and that many of those who slept in death should be
awakened ; so that evidently the hope is expressed that this
would ensue immediately after the overthrow of the tyrant.
This is also clearly confirmed by the way in which, after
wards, the time of the oppression exercised by him, and
the duration of the abolition of the worship of Jehovah in
the temple, enforced by him, are stated (ch. xii. 7, 11).

1 For what follows, cf. Jahrb. fur deutsche Theologie, ut supra, in
which, purely from an exegetical stand-point, the untt-nableness is
shown of the orthodox interpretation of these visions.

Authorship Internal Evidence. 207

It is just as indubitable and generally acknowledged,
that the king, symbolized in ch. viii. by "the little
horn," of whom it is told that he would arise out of one
of the four kingdoms which would be formed out of the
Grecian monarchy after the death of its first king is An-
tiochus Epiphanes; for the prophecy breaks oft* with the
destruction of this prince (v. 25) after his insolent conduct
had been previously most particularly depicted, which he
would pursue both against God s people, and also against
Heaven and the Lord of Heaven himself, whose daily
offering he would hinder.

If, however, this is correct, it cannot well be doubted,
as already (p. 197) remarked, although this is less generally
acknowledged, that the same prince is intended :

(a) In ch. vii, by the little notable horn, which is there
expressly explained of a king who would utter blasphemies
against the Most High, would make war upon the saints,
and think to alter (feast) times and laws. The description
of this prince is so similar to that of Antiochus Epiphanes
(ch. viii. 9,ff., 23, ff.; xi. 21, if.), that it would not be per
missible to refer it to any other personality than the one
meant in these latter passages. 1 Here, also, to the de
struction of this prince is immediately joined on the
promise of a general Divine judgment, the appearance of
the Messiah, arid the establishment of His kingdom.

(&) In ch. ix, by the prince of whom it is told, in v. 27,
that he would, for a half- week of years (3^ years), hinder
the sacrifices and oblations ; and this is also stated of
Antiochus Epiphanes in the other visions. 2 Here, also,
the prophecy breaks off with the death of the prince, and
with the intimation that then the whole period would be
elapsed which should elapse, conformably to Jeremiah s
prophecy and according to Divine counsel, until the sins
of the people should be atoned for, and the salvation
destined for them should appear. There is, also, the pheno
menon in all these visions, that the events and catastrophes
in them are predicted with a surprising distinctness, and

1 Delitzsch also acknowledges this, ut supra, p. 280.

2 Now, even many of the defenders of the authenticity of the book
partly allow that the reference is to Antiochus Epiphanes, thus Huf-
mann (WeiMOqvng u. ErfvUung. i. 296, ff.), Delitzbdi, Eeichel (Die 70
Jahresu-ochen Dan. ix. 24-27, in Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1858).

208 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

that this is especially the case as to the time of the Ptole
mies and Seleucidae, and eminently so as to the period of
the dominion of Antiochus Epiphanes, up to his death;
but that after that time it is different, and that the prophecy
either breaks off with his death, or assumes a more in
distinct and more general character, the promise of the
Messianic salvation for Jehovah s people being immediately
annexed.

Under the supposition of Daniel s authorship ot these
visions, the above circumstances have a very extraordinary
and perplexing air. Having to do with a seer who actually
lived and wrote at the time of the Babylonian Captivity, as
Daniel is here represented, we should expect that he would
be much more likely to direct his prophetic glance to the
liberation of his people from the then existing Babylonian
slavery, than to their deliverance from the oppression of
Antiochus Epiphanes, who belonged to a dynasty which
did not come into power until centuries afterwards ; and
also that his Messianic hope and his prediction of Messianic
salvation for his people should have been closely bound up
with their return into the land of their fathers, as, e.g., in
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah xl-lxvi. But nothing of
this is mentioned in the visions of Daniel. This pheno
menon, which is repeated in all the prophecies of the
second part, presents the greatest difficulties, under a
supposition of their genuineness, and cannot easily be
explained in a natural way. The very same phenomenon
leads us to fix the date of the composition of these visions in
the age of the Maccabees, and, more exactly, at the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes; for then, when Jehovah s people
were suffering so grievously under the hand of this
despotic prince, who sought in every way to hinder ^the
worship of Jehovah, it was very natural that the pious
should await with especial longing for the appearance of
the salvation promised to their fathers by the mouth of the
prophets; and it may easily be imagined that they would
give way to the hope that their heavy oppression would
soon come to an end, and that then the Messianic salvation
would immediately appear. Thus, then, the way in which
the Messianic hope is framed in these visions, and the
connection into which it is brought with the preceding
events and catastrophes, cannot be explained in a natural

Aim of the Author. 209

way, except by the supposition that they were composed in
the age of Antiochus Epiphanes; not before the time when
the Jewish people were still groaning under his tyranny,
and the worship of Jehovah in the Temple was stopped
by him, nor after a period immediately following his death.
At any long interval after this, the Messianic hope would
no longer have retained this shape. It is, therefore, certainly
wrong, when Bertholdt places the date of the last section
in the middle of the age of the Maccabees.

260. The Author s Aim in the second Division of the Book.
The aim of the author is only to comfort and support his
oppressed nation by an intimation of the nearness of
deliverance, and of the salvation destined for them by God.
His speaking in the person of Daniel is to be considered
only as an appropriation on the part of the author, just as
in Deuteronomy or in Ecclesiastes. An appropriation of
this kind was by no means unfrequent in this age, both
among the Greeks and Jews ; where an author, who was
convinced that he was in the possession of certain salutary
truths, and yet that he did not enjoy a personal authority
adequate to procure them the hearing he wished for,
placed them in the mouth of some other wise men or
prophets. This adoption of a name in our case is con
nected with the fact, that in the age of the Maccabees the
spirit of independent prophecy had long departed from
Israel, and the consciousness of this prevailed among the
people (1 Mace. ix. 27 ; cf. ch. iv. 46, xiv. 41). The ap
propriation of the special name selected by this author
brought with it the result that he is carried back with his
prophecies to the Babylonian exile, in which he places
Daniel, and takes his starting-point from thence ; and it is
thus very conceivable how he touches but cursorily on the
times immediately following this point, and dwells far
more in detail on those circumstances by which he himself
was directly affected, those, namely, which were existing
at the time of the composition, and those immediately
preceding it.

An analogy can be found in Jewish literature of the
same age, in the still extant so-called Sibylline Oracles.
Among these there is no inconsiderable portion, viz.,
almost the whole of the third book, which may be shown in

VOL. II. P

210 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

the most evident way (v. my Abhandlung, in Schleiermacher s,
&c., Theol. Zeitschrift, Part 1, 2), to have been composed by
a Jew, an Alexandrine, indeed, and also in the age of
Antiochus Epiphanes, probably about 170-168 B.C. The
overthrow of the then most considerable heathen monarchy
is therein predicted, and Antiochus Epiphanes himself is
threatened with destruction, from which prince the Egyp
tians were suffering much by his repeated invasions of
their country, as also the Jews who were in it. A general
upsetting of the then existing system of the world is
spoken of as closely impending; and that God s people
will then immediately extend their dominion over the
whole earth for ever, under a king sent by God Himself;
and idolatry, together with the ungodly, will be blotted
out, and the true God will be everywhere worshipped, and
that the quiet and happiness of men shall never more come
to an end. These predictions, partly threatening, and
partly containing promises of Messianic salvation, as they
were, perhaps, at first intended for the Greeks round him,
were by the Jewish composer placed in the mouth of the
sibyls who were esteemed among them as prophetesses,
and in conformity with this dressing up, descriptions of
former kingdoms and events were brought forward as pre
dicted by the sibyls.

There are other works with a similar assumption of
Jewish or Judaico-Christian authors, the Books of the
Sibylline Oracles, written for the most part by Christian
authors, the so-called Fourth Book of Ezra, the Book of
Enoch, the Ascensio Jesaice, the Testament of the Twelve Pa
triarchs, &c. All these may be considered as more or less
analogous to the visions of Daniel.

261. Difficulties arising from Dan. ix. 2.

I will mention one single passage (ch. ix. 2) in this second
part, which also is not without difficulty, under the suppo
sition of Daniel s authorship of it.

We are there told, that Daniel " understood by books "
(O -lBDIl) ^0 seven ty y ears which, according to Jeremiah s
prophecy, should be accomplished in the desolations of Jeru
salem. The expression Dnaon, as it here stands, can mean
only a compilation, /car eox^, of sacred books of canonical
authority, and it is supposed that the prophecies of Jere-

Daniel s interpretation of the " Seventy Tears." 21 1

miah were already to be found in such a collection. This,
however, cannot well have been at the time stated in the
superscription of the vision, viz., in the first year of Darius
the Mede, who, at any rate, must be placed before Cyrus.
For at that time, the prophetical Scriptures were certainly
not yet brought together into one collection, and still less
were they united with the Pentateuch. For this very
reason, also, we are led to fix a considerably later time for
the composition.

It is also not very probable, that so early as the time
indicated, doubt could exist in any of the Jews as to the
actual sense of Jeremiah s seventy years, as Daniel intimates
he felt ; as, at that time, not even seventy single years had
elapsed since the exile, and particularly after the destruc
tion of Jerusalem, and until after the expiration of this
period no one would readily entertain a doubt, that the
number of years should be considered as anything more
than so many common years. Not until -the full expiration
of seventy years and upwards since the utterance of the
prophecy (Jer. xxv. 11, ff. ; xxix. 10) and the destruction
of the city, had a great part of the people returned to their
homes, but the people then found themselves in so distressed
a condition, that the feeling must have pervaded them,
that the salvation, promised by God through the prophets,
and so also by Jeremiah, had not yet appeared, and that
therefore the prophecy had not yet been fulfilled according
to its essential purport ; not until then, could further
thoughts as to the said seventy years have originated among
the pious of the people, whether they were not to be under
stood in some other than the literal way, and by some mode
of reckoning different from the usual one. Thus we may
very easily imagine, that in the age of Antiochus Epiphanes,
when Jehovah s people again fell into such grievous distress,
their attention would be directed both to the predictions of
other prophets, and also to Jeremiah s utterances as to the
seventy years, and they would inquire whether they would
not allow of an interpretation by which a correct, speedy,
find complete fulfilment of the Divine promises contained
iri^them might be hoped for. It is such an explanation as
this, which is here placed in the mouth of the angel in the
communication to Daniel, that the seventy years were at
the point of expiring just at that very time, viz., the time

212 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

of Antiochus Epiphanes, so that the last part of it would
be taken to be the period during which the Jewish people
and the sanctuary at Jerusalem were given up to the above
foreign king, by which means the hope is intimated, that,
at the expiration of the half week of years of Antiochus
tyranny, the time would arrive, when Jehovah would fulfil
all His great promises to His people.

262. Date of the Narrative Greek names of Musical
Instruments.

If, however, the visions in the second division of the book
were composed at the time assumed by us, the later compo
sition of the narrative portion of the first half of the book
follows also as a matter of course, for, as we have seen before
(p. 200), both divisions had one and the same aulhor. The
nature of these sections make it very improbable, when
considered by themselves, that they were composed by
Daniel or any contemporary author. Against the idea of
a contemporary authorship is the fact, that the names for
the various musical instruments, which are repeatedly named
in ch. iii, are almost entirely Greek, and at least many of
them are such that it cannot well be assumed that the
Babylonians and Greeks got them from a common source,
or that the Greeks got them from the Babylonians ; but
there can be no doubt that they became known to the author
through the Greeks either directly or indirectly.

Thus particularly iTJDD-ID (vv. 5 ? 15) ? or according to an
other reading, N^p (v. 10). Both are quite clearly the
Greek cru/xcjbawa, about the Greek origin of which there can
be no doubt, for it is evidently composed of the Greek words
&lt;rvv and (JJWVCLV. It seems very strange when Hengstenberg.
to prove that the word is not of Greek origin, appeals to

the fact that the Chaldee corresponds to the Syriac L^HCLSI

tibia ; for there can be no doubt that the Syriac word also
is derived from the Greek, as is the case in so many Syriac
words. Also |HWD3, i^oArr/ptoj/, from i/^aAAeiv, if/dew; D"inp,
KiOapis (from /a &xpos, breast) ; also

1 The weakness and untenableness of these arguments derived from
the names of musical instruments is exposed by Dr. Pusey, " Daniel the
Trophet," pp. 24-30. Tr.

The Historical Section. 2 1 3

It is but little likely, that the musical instruments of the
Greeks with Greek names should have been in customary
use at Nebuchadnezzar s court. For although some inter
course already existed at that age between the inhabitants
of Upper Asia, and the lonians in Asia Minor, the influence
exercised on the former by the Greeks would not probably
be of that nature, which such a fact would presuppose. It is
likewise improbable, that Daniel or any other Jew of Pales
tine, of his age, should have become so familiar with the
Greek instruments and their Greek names from any other
source, that he would, as a matter of course, have employed
those names instead of the names actually in use. We can
far more easily conceive this being done by some Jewish
author, in the age of Alexander s Hellenic successors, when
Judjea was under the alternate dominion of the Ptolemies
and Seleucida3.

263. Historical difficulties of the Narrative.

Added to all this, there are many other historical difficul
ties presented by these sections, the purport of which we
must consider as purely historical, if they were composed
by Daniel. There is, generally, a very great difficulty in
the circumstance, that the Chaldean and Median kings
should not only have themselves acknowledged the Omnipo
tence of the God worshipped by the Jews, the God of Daniel
and his companions, as the God who alone had power to
deliver, and to work signs in heaven and earth, but that
they should also have issued a royal edict to all the inhabi
tants of their vast empire, in which they commanded, as
Nebuchadnezzar did, that no one should dare to utter a
blasphemy against this God, and indeed went so far as to
decree, as Darius did, that every one should fear and worship
the God of Daniel.

The same difficulty appears here, as in the Book of Jonah,
the contents of which, historically considered, involve the
circumstances, that the Ninevites were all of them converted
to the true God. Here also, in the succeeding history of
these nations not the slightest trace of such an event can
be discovered. An edict like this, especially from one of
the Median kings, which, according to ch. vi. 9, could not
be repealed even by the king himself, must have had some
important results, either that it would be obeyed, or, as is

214 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

certainly more to be expected, that it met with opposition ;
nothing, however, is known either of one state of things or
the other, and even in the narrative itself there is not the
least further intimation, as might well be expected.

Added to which, there are many things, which occasion
difficulty in an historical respect, making it at least alto
gether improbable, that the narratives were composed as
an historical account by an eye-witness and partaker in the
events.

I will only mention some of them here :

(1) In ch. i. 1, we are told that Nebuchadnezzar as king
of Babylon captured Jerusalem 1 in the third year of Jehoi-
akim. But it can be shown, from Jeremiah and 2 Kings,
that Nebuchadnezzar did not come to the throne until the
fourth year of Jehoiakim (cf. p. 71, f.), and as the main point
(from Jer. xxxvi. 9-29), that the Chaldeans themselves, in
the ninth month of the fifth year of Jehoiakim, had not
yet arrived at Jerusalem. It can also be shown, at least
with probability, although less certainty, that, during the
reign of Jehoiakim, they had neither captured the city
generally nor carried away the sacred vessels of the temple,
but that the first capture of the city by the Chaldeans did
not take place until the reign of Jehoiachin (v. Theol. Zeit-
schrift, p. 280, if.).

(2) From ch. ii. according to v. 1, Nebuchadnezzar must
have had his dream in the second year of his reign. This
does not agree with ch. i, in which Nebuchadnezzar is
mentioned as king when the Jewish youths were carried
away, but according to v. 5, these youths were educated for
three years at the court of the king, and that during their
stay there, the king discerned their great wisdom ; but the
interpretation of the dream in ch. ii, cannot, from the
nature of the narratives, have occurred before the expira
tion of the period of education ; and thus, the statement in
ch. ii, if considered historically, produces great difficulty.
It is, besides, almost incredible, that N ebuchadiiezzar should

1 This is a mis-statement on Bleek s part. It is not asserted, Dan. i.
1, that the king of Babylon took Jerusalem iu the third year of Jehoiakim,
but that he besieged it, and that the king and part of the sacred vessels
-nothing is said about the city were given into his hands. " Thy
mention that, not Jerusalem, but Jehoiakim, fell into the hands of
Nebuchadnezzar rather implies that the city was not taken then."
Pusey, ut supra, p. 397. Tr.

Historical Difficulties. 215

have sent such a summons, as is here described, to all the
wise men of his land of various classes, not only to explain
to him his dream, but also previously to state to him the
purport of the same, and that he should have punished
them all with death for their inability to comply with his
demand, and not those merely whose peculiar vocation it
was to interpret dreams. It is also difficult to imagine,
that so zealous a worshipper of Jehovah, as Daniel appears
to have been, should have undertaken the office of chief
governor over the wise men and magi (ch. ii. 48) ; for their
institutions were certainly bound up with the Babylonian
idolatry. Chaldeans, also, who are here mentioned among
others as a peculiar class of wise men, according to Herodot.
i. 181, 183, and Diodor. Sic. i. 24, 29, was the name of the
most important priests of the land; none therefore could
easily hold such an office as that of chief governor of the
wise men and magi, without being an entire partaker in
the idolatry of the land.

(3) Ch. iii. 1-30. In this passage, it seems very impro
bable, that so monstrous a golden image of sixty cubits long,
should have been set up in the open plain. It is also sur
prising, that nothing at all is mentioned in it as to what
became of Daniel on the occasion of the dedication of the
image, for the chief governor of the establishment of magi,
especially from his connection with the priesthood, certainly
could not have been absent on such an occasion.

(4) Chapter iv. 1-fin. Nebuchadnezzar s seven years
madness. An event like this must have brought with it
considerable change and complication in the Babylonian
empire ; and it could not well have been omitted to be
mentioned by historians, although they may have abridged
the account of the reign of this prince. Nevertheless,
except in this book, no one says anything about, it.
Berosus, the Chaldean historian, can have mentioned no
thing whatever about it, as may be clearly observed from
what Josephus has taken from him. Josephus himself
relates the matter, only following the Book ot Daniel ; and
Origen and Jerome, notwithstanding all the trouble they

1 See Pusey, ut supra, pp. 421-424, Daniel " is not called Rab-mag,
chief of the Magi ; but is simply said to have been head of the sagans
^or governors) over all the wise men of Babylon, perhaps a sort of minister
of public instruction." Tr.

216 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

took, could find nothing in any historian which pointed
to such an event. The idea that Nebuchadnezzar s letter,
addressed to all nations, in which the whole occurrence
is set forth as a narrative, was not actually written by
him, is corroborated by the circumstance that, in the
middle of it, the epistolary form is relinquished for a time,
and Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of in the third person
(vv. 28-33), but both before and after it in the first person.
This could hardly have happened to M ebuchadnezzar him
self, as the writer of the letter, but easily to some one else
writing such a letter in his name. 1

(5) Chapter v. This narrative, if taken as purely his
torical, presents considerable difficulty, because in it so
many things are crowded together into one night, that it
is scarcely credible that they should have followed one
after the other within so short a period. First, the ban
quet, which appears to have lasted some little time before
the king ordered the sacred vessels of the Jews to be
fetched, and a still longer time before the hand showed
itself writing on the wall. Then the summons to all the
wise men, astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers, and
their consultations as to the purport of the writing, in the
investigation of which they must certainly have consumed
a considerable time before they acknowledged their igno
rance ; next the summons to Daniel, which took place at
the queen s advice as to which it is difficult to understand
why he, as chief governor over all the wise men, had not
been sent for at first. Then Daniel s interpretation of the
writing ; and immediately on this, notwithstanding the
interpretation predicted such misfortunes for the king, and
the latter could not yet tell whether it was correct or not,
follows Daniel s clothing with purple and a chain, and the
proclamation of the latter as the third ruler in the king
dom ; and, finally, Belshazzar s death, according to the
express statement, in that same night. It is also not
without difficulty that Darius, a king of the Median race,
follows Belshazzar as king ; which Darius is (ch. ix. 1 ;
xi. 1) designated as a Mede, and in ch. ix. 1, as son of
Ahasuerus, i.e., Xerxes. He is, therefore, a prince of an
other (the Median) dynasty, and it appears to be repre
sented that this dynasty commenced after the destruction
1 See Pusey, ut supra, pp. 425-433, 437-439. Tr.

Historical Difficulties. 217

of the Chaldaso-Babylonian dominion generally. There is,
indeed, always a question on this point, whether, after the
overthrow of the Chaldean dominion, Babylon fell to the
Median dynasty first, or immediately to the Persian. ]n
favour of the former opinion, beside some others, is
Xenoph., Cyrop. i. 5, 2, and also Josephus, Ant. x. 11, 4,
according to whom Cyrus conquered Babylon for his father-
in-law, Cyaxares II., son of Astyages, and attained to an
independent rule only after his death. We must, there
fore, look upon Darius, the Median, as being this Cyaxares ;
and the author of our book has certainly considered that,
after the overthrow of the Babylonian monarchy, first a
Median and then a Persian dominion flourished. But, not
only Herodot. i. 130, and Ktesias,but also Isaiah xl.ff., lead
to the idea that Cyrus conquered Babylon as an inde
pendent prince, the supremacy being at that time made
over by the Medians to the Persians (as to this v. Lengerke,
Einleitung, on ch. v).

(6) Chapter vi. There is a peculiar difficulty occasioned
here, besides that arising from the contents of Darius s
edict, v. 25, if., to all nations of the earth (v. p. 213), by the
circumstance that the princes and satraps of the Babylonian
empire all appear as if living for a considerable time in the
city of Babylon, indeed, with their families (according to
v. 24). It is, however, scarcely credible that king Darius
should have issued an edict like this to all his subjects, as
is previously related, forbidding them, under pain of death,
for a whole month to ofter prayer to any man or god.
There is also something very surprising in the way in
which the den of lions is here spoken of ; the author appears
to have imagined the same as a hollowed-out receptacle,
which was under the ground, coming to a point at the top,
which might be closed up with a stone (v. 18). In reality
the lions den could not have been like this ; in such sub
terranean pits, without air and light, the lions could not
have lived long. 1

1 Such a paltry argument as this is unworthy of our author, generally
so fair and judicious. In our complete ignorance of the construction of
the den, such an objection weakens instead of strengthening his case
See Pusey, ut supra, pp. 415-417. Tr.

218 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

264. The real Object of the Historical Section of the Book.

The nature of the first division, considered by itself,
shows, therefore, that these narratives could not well have
been composed by Daniel or any contemporary author, and
very slightly opposes the assumption to which we were led
by their similarity to the second division, that they were
written by the same author as the visions not, therefore,
until the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. If we take this view,
the question arises as to the end the author had in view in
this part of his work. As to this, we might consider that
an historical tendency is intended : that the author sought
to collect together, as an historical introduction to the
visions which follow it, all that he could ascertain, either
from other works or through oral tradition, as to the his
tory of Daniel, in whose mouth he wished to place his
prophetical hopes in the visions. But yet, in this case, he
would have had no inducement to relate the history of
Daniel s three companions, when it was not closely con
nected with that of Daniel himself; but in one section,
ch. iii. they alone are spoken of, without Daniel being at
all mentioned. Added to this, if the author had intended
these narratives to be really historical, we must necessarily
expect that he would have placed the separate narratives
in some sort of connection with one another, by forms of
transition at least, and would have somehow knit them
together in an historical whole. This, however, is by no
means the case. If they are historically intended, we
should also expect, (a) that the author would have given
some intimation in ch. iii. how it happened that, when
Nebuchadnezzar commanded all the officials of his empire
to assemble together at the dedication and setting up of the
golden image, Daniel had nothing to do with it, who was,
however, at the king s court ; and (6) that, at the end of
ch. vi, he would have given some intimation as to the sub
sequent destinies of Daniel, and as to his death.

If we are now induced to seek out some other aim in
these narratives than a really historical one, we shall find
that this, as regards the four last sections (ch. iii-vi),
can have been at first only an hortatory one ; and we are
entitled to assume this by the whole character of these
narratives, particularly by the existing conclusion of them ;

Author s Aim in tlie Historical Section. 219

and the aim which we assume, is indeed one which bears
an exact and special reference to the circumstances of
the time at which these narratives were composed. If
we consider these circumstances, we can have no doubt
that the author had in view, by setting forth the examples
of Daniel and his three companions, on the one hand, and
Kebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar, on the other, to exhort his
fellow-countrymen and contemporaries to imitate their
inflexible, courageous faith, shown in the open, daring
confession of their fathers God, and to point out that this
only true, almighty God will, in due time, know how to
humble and overthrow those who, like Antiochus Epi-
phanes, have opposed Him in their presumptuous arro
gance, and have endeavoured to render His people faithless
to His worship, and also, on the other hand, to afford to
His own true, steadfast worshippers the final victory.
Thus, essentially the same aim prevails in these narrative
sections, as in the visions which follow them. By the
assumption of an aim like this, to which the purport of
these narratives is so unmistakeably adapted, the discon
nection and individual completeness of the several narra
tives does not appear at all surprising ; for his hortatory
aim does not depend upon showing any connection between
the separate histories, as without that, each taken separately
would be able to make clearly prominent (as is, in fact, the
case) those truths which the author had in view to make
manifest.

265. Similarities in the Narrative to Events of a later Date.
Even allowing this hortatory intention in these narra
tives (ch. iii-vi), it certainly may still be the case that
they are historical at least as regards their essence. But,
on the other hand, we have before ascertained how difficult
it is to consider them as historical as regards their chief
points ; and by this we are in some measure entitled to
presume that the author freely handled the traditionary
materials he met with according to the subject-matter, as
best suited his hortatory aim. We are confirmed in this
opinion by perceiving to how great an extent the events
set forth in these narratives as belonging to the time of
the Babylonian Captivity, correspond sometimes, even in
detail, with the events and circumstances which took place

220 Origin of the several Boohs Daniel.

in the land of Judaea under Antiochus Epiphanes oppres
sion. If we transport ourselves into the spirit and circum
stances of these days, particularly by reading the Books of
Maccabees, we shall find that the author, in his descriptions
in ch. iii-vi, has had before his eyes, almost everywhere,
both as a whole and in details, these very circumstances
of his time and country, and has set them before his readers
in a mode which, though disguised, could be easily under
stood by them.

Thus the narrative, ch. iii. 1-30, reminds us of the
attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes to force the Greek cultus
on the Jews : 1 Mace. i. 43, ff.

He dedicated the Temple at Jerusalem to Jupiter Olym-
pius (2 Mace. vi. 2), and caused the altar of burnt offering
there to be prepared as a heathen altar, and built on it
a smaller idol-altar in the year 145 aer., Seleuc., 167 B.C.
(1 Mace. i. 54), in doing which he no doubt caused a statue
to be erected of the God to whom the Temple was dedicated
(cf. Dan xii. 11 ; xi. 31 ; ix. 27). After that, he used every
exertion to compel the Jews to observe this Greek cultus,
and those who were obstinate he tortured and put to death,
sometimes by means of fire : v. I Mace. i. 29-63 ; 2 Mace.
vi, vii ; Dan. xi. 33. The first readers of our book, par
ticularly of ch. iii, must have been induced almost spon
taneously to think of the events then taking place round
them, and it may be assumed with the greatest probability,
that the author composed this narrative as a parabolic
representation, intended to set forth to his fellow-country
men the example which they should follow in the steadfast
rejection of all participation in idolatry, and also to stir up
in them the hope that, if they maintained themselves con
stantly faithful, and preferred to bear patiently all that
could be done to them, rather than show eren an outward
veneration for the idols to whom their temple was dedi
cated, Jehovah would at last deliver them, and so visibly
afford them His assistance, that even their despisers, who
persecuted them on account of their faith, would be com
pelled to acknowledge His power; cf. vv. 17, 18, 28, 29,
where this hortatory and also prophetic tendency is most
clearly shown.

If this reference of the narratives in Daniel is the cor
rect one, they must probably have been written not long

Similarities in the Narrative to later Events. 221

after the dedication of the altar of burnt offering in the
Temple at Jerusalem to the worship of Jupiter. In this
way also are the Greek names for the musical instruments
in our narrative best explained.

It is not probable that these instruments and their Greek
names should have been in common use among the Jews
themselves, so_that the Jewish author could have derived
them from this source. There is, on the contrary, every
probability that they were in use at the court and in the
army of the Seleucidae, particularly of Antiochus Epi-
phanes, who followed Greek customs in all his arrange
ments. And it may be, perhaps, supposed that the dedica
tion of the Temple of Jerusalem to the worship of Jupiter
took place in a solemn manner, with processions and
music, just as the subsequent re-dedication of the temple
was performed by Judas Maccabeus with singing and
music, with citherns, harps, and cymbals (1 Mace. iv. 54),
and we may thus conjecture that at the former solemnity
just such Grecian instruments were used, and that our
author got their names in this way.

In cb. vi. also the case is similar. It certainly is, as
already remarked, scarcely credible that a prince should
have allowed himself to be persuaded into making so fool
ish and impracticable an enactment as is here told of
Darius the Median, a king who is otherwise altogether
unknown to us, at least under this name. But the first
readers of the narrative, at the time of Antiochus Epi-
phanes, would certainly be led, without further question,
to attribute it to the latter prince, of whom we read that,
after he had captured Jerusalem by surprise, he issued an
edict to the whole of his empire, to the effect that they
should all be one people, and that every one should give
up their vofupa; who also endeavoured to compel the Jews
to relinquish their ancestral law, and no longer to appeal
to Jehovah, the God of their fathers (1 Mace. i. 41 ; 2 Mace,
vi. 1-9). We may well imagine that the author, in order
the better to show forth the perversity and wickedness of
such an attempt, might have represented in a parabolic
narrative, as is done here, that it was an attempt on the
part of the king to direct to his own person only all worship
and prayer.

But the tendency of the narrative is here again both

222 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

hortatory and, at the same time, prophetical. The author
seeks, by Daniel s example, to encourage his countrymen
to give themselves up to the most evident danger of death
rather than become unfaithful to the worship of their
fathers God, or even only conceal this worship. For this
purpose he brings forward prominently how, notwithstand
ing the rigorous edict of the king, Daniel did not omit to
make his prayer punctually to his God, and did it without
any concealment at the open window, whilst he might
have been able to avoid the threatened danger if he had
prayed in secret (cf. the corresponding conduct of the aged
Eleazar at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, 2 Mace. vi.
18-31). But, at the same time, the author also strives, in
the course of his narrative, to confirm the faithful in the
confidence, that if they held steadfast to the acknowledg
ment of their God, without denying or even concealing
their faith, He would not forsake them, and would make the
worship of His name victorious, and acknowledged even
by His opponents.

266. Typical References to Antiochus Epiphanes.

These narratives have, therefore, essentially the same
aim as the visions in the second division oif the book.
The same remark applies to the two narratives between, in
ch. iv-v, only that they have more of a threatening cha
racter as regards the unbelieving who, in their insolent
haughtiness, oppose the only true, almighty God.

Both in Nebuchadnezzar, in ch. iv. and in Belshazzar,
in ch. v, the author has, doubtless, had Antiochus Epi
phanes distinctly in view. This is peculiarly manifest in
the latter narrative, in ch. v. In this, the reader at the
time of Antiochus Epiphanes would be naturally led to
imagine that this prince was being depicted, of whom it is
told as something most wicked, that he broke into the
Temple at Jerusalem and with unclean hands carried
away the golden basins, cups, goblets, and other sacred
vessels (1 Mace. i. 21, if. ; 2 Mace. v. 15, ff.). The author,
doubtless, intended to point out the wickedness of this
profanation of holy things, and by Belshazzar s fate to
represent to the Syrian prince the Divine judgment which
threatened him for such impiety. This reference would be
still clearer if it had happened which is not expressly

Historical Basis of the Narrative. 223

told, but still is not in itself improbable that the holy
vessels had been used by Antiochus Epiphanes or his ser
vants at common entertainments, or the sacrificial feasts in
honour of the Greek divinities.

In the composition, also, of Nebuchadnezzar s letter in
ch. iv. the author s aim, doubtless, is to show to Antiochus
Epiphanes, as in a mirror, by the fate of that mighty
Chaldean prince who had destroyed Jerusalem and the
Temple, whither his haughty presumption against the
Most High, the King of Kings, was leading him, and how
necessary it was for him to acknowledge with penitence
His power and sublimity if he wished to escape the heaviest
Divine punishment (v. ch. iv. 14, 22-24, 29, 31, f., 34).

This exact reference of these narratives to the circum
stances surrounding the author must, however, make it
more and more improbable that they were founded on
actual matters of fact occurring at the time of the Baby
lonian exile. Nevertheless, it might have been the case
that certain events in the history of the Chaldean and
Median monarchy may have floated acro.ss the author s mind,
but they could have been nothing but isolated matters
which he, perhaps, followed ; and we must still assume
that everything that he met with was made use of by him
in a perfectly arbitrary way suitably to his aim and end,
and that he absolutely had no actual historical purpose.
We cannot, therefore, make use of these narratives to in
crease and correct our knowledge of the Babylonian and
Median empires, and to introduce us to the spirit and cir
cumstances of those days which they appear to treat of.
They ma} , however, well assist in giving us a vivid pic
ture of the state of things among the Jews at the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes, and especially of the courageous
faith which the more pious of the people then showed, and
of the hopes which they entertained.

267. Author s Aim in the two first Cliapters.

We have now still to consider the two first chapters, and,
in the first place, ch. ii. The author s point in view in
this is certainly not to do honour to Daniel for his skill in
the interpretation of dreams, for this is only a secondary
consideration in the story. The chief point is evidently
the purport of Nebuchadnezzar s dream, and its reference

224 Origin of the several Books DanieL

to the future. The end of it is the everlasting kingdom to
be established by God, the Messianic kingdom, before
which all other kingdoms shall disappear. This is sym
bolized by a stone cut out without human instrumentality.
The establishment of the kingdom is here also bound up
with the same circumstances as those in the visions in ch.
vii, if.

It has been already remarked that this dream of Nebu
chadnezzar s in ch. ii. offers a great similarity to that of
Daniel s in ch. vii, and that, without doubt, the consecutive
kingdoms in both of them are to be interpreted in a corre
sponding way. If, therefore, according to our preceding
remarks, as to ch. vii, Antiochus Epiphanes is, without
doubt, to be considered as the little notable horn, then the
fourth beast, devouring and breaking in pieces the whole
earth, having ten horns, between which this lesser horn
stood up, can be intended only for Alexander the Great s
empire and the empires of his successors proceeding out
of it ; and this leaves no doubt that in ch. ii. also we must
look upon the fourth kingdom corresponding to the iron
thighs, which, like iron, breaks everything to pieces, as the
empire of Alexander the Great ; also in its feet and toes,
partly iron and partly clay, which is explained by the
divided kingdoms, partly weak and partly strong, among
Alexander s successors. 1 The establishment of the Messi
anic kingdom is then subjoined to these empires, of which
we are told that they shall mix with one another in race
(by affinity), but shall never be united. In this it was
most natural for the Jews to refer it to the Ptolemies and
Seleucidse, under whose dominion they were alternately
subject.

For the same reasons which were brought forward in
regard to the visions of Daniel (ch. vii-xii), we may now
assume that this framing of the dream belongs to the age
of the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, and if we consider what
has gone before, we shall be warranted in attributing its
form to the author of the book. So also we may assume
that the whole narrative was not related by him as he
received it from tradition, but was arbitrarily shaped out
to suit his hortatory aim, so as to comfort and maintain his

1 Delitzsch even allows this. Besides, cf. Jahrbuch fur deutsche
Ilieol. p. 57, ff. [See, in opposition to this, Pusey, ut supra, ii.]

Historical Existence of Daniel 225

people in the time of their affliction by the statement of
his prophetical hope of the near approach of deliverance,
and of the appearance of the kingdom of the Messiah.

Finally, as regards the first chapter, the chief aim is, at
all events, to serve as an introduction to what follows,
both to the remaining sections of the narrative and also to
Daniel s visions. Here also, however, a certain hortatory
aim may be perceived which relates distinctly to the ci v -
cumstances which existed at the time of the composition.

\\ hen the author brings so prominently forward, how
Daniel and his companions kept themselves, even at the
court of a heathen king, free from all uncleanness as re
gards meat and drink, and for this purpose partook of no
flesh-meat and wine, but only vegetable food, pulse and
water, and that God had turned this to their peculiar bless
ing, he certainly had in view to exhort his fellow-coun
trymen under similar circumstances, when they were in
danger of being defiled by the enjoyment of meat and
wine, to observe a like conduct, arid to be willing to en
tirely abstain from them. There was a peculiar induce
ment for an admonition like this in the land of Judaea
during the dominion of Antiochus Epiphanes, when sacri
fices were offered to the Grecian divinities all over the
land and even in the Temple at Jerusalem, and when
the Jewish inhabitants might easily have happened to eat
and drink the flesh and wine which had been made use
of in the offerings and libations to idols ; for we also read
that at this time zealous worshippers of Jehovah, such as
Judas Maccabasus and others, carefully guarded themselves
from pollution by means of food, and, that they might not
incur the danger of being defiled, subsisted constantly on
vegetables. (2 Mace. v. 27 ; cf. 1 Mace. i. G2, if.)

2G8. Historical Existence of Daniel and Ms Companions.

It would of course be quite in accoi dance with all that
has gone before, that Daniel and his three companions
should have been historical personages, Jewish exiles, who
were distinguished in Babylon by their piety and wisdom,
and had even attained to favour and esteem with the rulers
of the country ; and this is assumed by most of those
scholars who date the composition of the book in a later
age, and look upon the details of it as unhistorical. It is,

VOL. II. Q

226 Origin of the several Books Daniel.

however, questionable if there be any adequate sanction for
this assumption. A special proof of the actual existence oi
Daniel is found in Ezekiel xiv. 14, 20, and xxviii. 3, where
this prophet makes mention of a Daniel in a very laudatory
way. But the way in which this is done is not without
difficulty. In both passages Ezekiel s principal aim is not\
to praise and magnify Daniel particularly, but it is clear)
that he mentions him, because, like Noah and Job, between
whom he is named in ch. xiv. 14, 20, he might be supposed
to be well known to his readers and to the king of Tyre
himself as a man distinguished by his wisdom and righteous-,
ness. But, by the way in which he is mentioned, we are
not induced to look upon him as a man who was living
at the same time as Ezekiel in the Babylonian exile anc
at the time of Ezekiel s utterances, could not have been
of very mature years, but far rather as some long well-
known personage of past ages ; he may, therefore, have
been some historical person, who had been influential in thti
history of the Israelitish people, or, like Job, more of aj
poetical character, which is perhaps more probable, as wej
know nothing of him from any other source. From the)
way in which Ezekiel mentions him, it is scarcely credible/
that he should have been a Jewish exile contemporary}
with Ezekiel, as the Daniel of our book appears to have 1 .
been. 1 I

But, on the other hand, we are induced by the way in/
which Ezekiel mentions Daniel on account of his righteous
ness and wisdom, to consider that he was speaking of a man
equally as distinguished for virtue and wisdom, as Daniel
appears in the book we are discussing, and also to con
jecture that there must have been some connection between
the character appearing in this book, and the man whom
Ezekiel had in view. It may, perhaps, be assumed with
probability, that Ezekiel was acquainted with some older
work which tieated of one Daniel as a man distinguished
both by his legal piety, and his profound wisdom, but yet
afforded no precise details as to the age in which he nour
ished. This book, however, was perhaps early lost, during

1 I have pointed this out in the Tltcot. Zeitsclirift, p. 283, ff. ; aiid I
do not believe that the things I there brought forward have been at all
set aside by the opposing remarks of Hengstenberg, ut supra, p. 70, ff.,
a/id Havmik-k, Einleit. ii. 2, p. 455.

Historical Existence of Daniel. 227

the Babylonian Captivity, or soon after it ; at any rate, it was
not extant at the time of the composition of our book; and
thus, nothing more distinct was known about Daniel to the
author of the book and his contemporaries than could be
deduced from these passages in Ezekiel. Pie might thus
use the utmost freedom in dealing with his history in his
parabolic narratives, just as best agreed with his hortatory

o ivn **

aim.

His chief reason, perhaps, for placing his narratives at
the time of the Babylonian Captivity, was, that at this time,
when the Jewish nation were in a foreign land, without a
temple or sacrificial service, and, living surrounded by
heathen, were so easily induced to partake in their
idolatry, the greatest similarity was offered to his own age,
and the best opportunity was given him for making Daniel
and his companions appear and show their faith under cir
cumstances similar to those in which the pious Jews were
placed in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes. Something
else, however, may very feasibly have had its influence on
Daniel being placed in the Babylonian exile, viz., the
person mentioned by Ezekiel being confounded with some
later Daniel, who was one of the Jews in exile.

An exile named Daniel actually occurs, but as a con
temporary of Ezra and Nehemiah, a priest of the family
of Ithamar. He was one of the exiles who returned with
Ezra from Babylon to Judaja (Ezra viii. 2), and is subse
quently mentioned as one of the priests who, at the read
ing out of the Mosaical law by Ezra, solemnly pledged
themselves to observe the same, by signing their names
(A eh. x. 7). It is curious that there are also named as
contemporaries of this Daniel, a Mishael, Hananiah, and
Azanah; the two latter, the same as Daniel, as among the
priests and chief men who pledged themselves to the main
tenance of the law (Neh. x. 3, 24), and Mishael, as one of
those who stood by the side of Ezra while he was readin-r
out the law (fe. viii. 4). This coincidence of names with
those of the heroes of the faith appearing in our book may
have been accidental, but still it is remarkable that it
occurs in reference to all four, and Daniel and Mishael are
names which are seldom met with. Of course the ao- e of
these four contemporaries of Ezra and Nehemiah is a later
one than that of Daniel and his friends in our book, as the

228 Origin of tlie several Books Daniel.

period from the third year of Jehoiakim to Ezra s reading
out the Book of the Law would be about 160 years. But,
nevertheless, the supposition is a reasonable one, that the
author of the Book of Daniel derived the names of his
heroes from these four men. Whether he was further
acquainted with any particulars of their history and adven
tures in Babylon, we know not. But at all events, we may
perhaps assume that, when he makes Daniel so distin
guished both for his piety, and also especially for his
wisdom, he must have had floating across his mind some
idea of that Daniel previously mentioned by Ezekiel in so
laudatory a manner.

There is, however, something very improbable and un
founded in the suppositions of Ewald, (a) that the Daniel
spoken of by Ezekiel was perhaps a descendant from the
kingdom of the ten tribes, who lived at the heathen court
of Nineveh (similarly also Bunsen, Gott in der Gescliichte,
i. 514, ff.) ; and (6) that the author of our book was
acquainted with and made use of a work of Alexander s
age or of the time succeeding him, wherein prophetical
utterances as to the kingdoms of the world were placed in
the mouth of the above Daniel referred to by Ezekiel and
living in exile in Assyria. The explanation as to the
origin of our book is in no way facilitated by an assumption
of this sort, but is, on the contrary, rendered more difficult.

Hitzig s opinion is also quite unjustifiable, that the
book was written in Egypt, by the high priest Onias IV.,
who also wrote Isaiah xix. 16-25.

269. Value of the Book.

If, however, the opinion as to the Book of Daniel here
developed were generally acknowledged, it would of course
lose something of the position which it filled, owing to the
accepted idea of its composition by Daniel, in the history
of Old-Testament prophecy. But it would still retain no
slight significance in the Canon of the Old Testament. Not
only does it teach us to realize in an eminently distinct
way the spirit of the age to which it belongs, and also the
courageous faith and trust in God of the pious, amid the
severest afflictions and persecutions, but it is also of no
slight importance in a Messianic point of view, for it shows
us how the Messianic hope was still clung to, after the

Value of tlie Book. 229

conclusion of the actually prophetic age, and the shape that
it took, at an epoch of which on this point at least we have
no further information in any other part of the Old-Testa
ment Canon. And thus, even after this book had doubtless
fulfilled its immediate purpose of strengthening and con
firming the faithful ones among the Jewish people at the
time of the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes, it has also had
no inconsiderable influence in after ages, not only in the
maintenance, but also in the wider development of the Mes
sianic idea, as we may also see particularly in the New
Testament.

230

THE POETICAL BOOKS.

THE PSALMS.

270. Title Division into five Books.

THIS book forms a collection of 150 songs of various pur
port, all of them, however, coinciding in their prevailingly
religious character. This collection may be compared with
our hymn-books, and we must consider that its aim is
similar to that of the latter, and that the originators of the
collection intended to provide a book of religious songs,
suitable for use both in song and prayer, both by the com
munity generally and also by single persons in all the
various circumstances of life : for edification, for confirma
tion in faith and trust in God, for penitence, and for praise.

The title of this book is in the Hebrew Canon, Q^nP), a
plural-form, not used elsewhere, from nfftR,praue t therefore
a song of praise to God, Hymnus (thus in the superscription
to Ps. cxlv) ; also in the contracted form O^ri, or j*?B. This
designation of songs of praise is selected a parte potiore ; as
is the case with the designation, in rrt?BJjl, in the conclusion
of Psalm Ixxii. The usual Greek name KJ/aXpot, is a more
suitable one, which designates them as lyric poems which
were sung with the accompaniment of music. To the
Greek \j/a\fjLoi corresponds the term "Tl^t^, which occurs in
the superscription of a considerable number of psalms. In
some other of their superscriptions we find the general
designation "T 1 ^, song, which is often joined with "OOfD ; and
there are various other names for different psalms. The
term if/aXrrjpiov, Psalterium, occurs in Greek and Latin.

The whole collection is divided into five books ("&gt;p) :
(1) i-xli; (2) xlii-lxxii; (3) Ixxiii-lxxxix ; (4) xc-cvi;
(5) cvii-cl. At the end of each of the four first books
there is a doxology of one or two verses, which, in the
numbering of the verses, belongs to the Psalm preceding
the last of each book but still does not form a part of it,

Origin Superscriptions. 231

and only serves to conclude the book in a way worthy of
its contents, and to separate it from what follows, e.g.,
Ps. xli. 14: "Blessed be Jehovah the God of Israel from
everlasting, and to everlasting. Amen, Amen," and simi
larly at the conclusion of the second, third, and fourth
books. These doxologies are found in the LXX and all
ancient translations, which speaks for the antiquity of this
division into books, which is probably of the same age as
the entire collection in its present extent, and perhaps as
Epiphanius (De. Hens, et Pond. c. 5) thinks, was chosen as
an imitation of the fivefold division of the Torah.

271. Origin Superscript ions.

As regards the origin of the book, the two first books are,
as already remarked, styled Prayers of David at the end of
the second book, after the doxology. Many persons have
considered all the songs, not only of the two first books,
but of the whole collection, to be songs of David, an idea of
which Clauss 1 was the latest advocate, but which scarcely
needs refutation, as the superscriptions of no inconsiderable
number of these songs name other persons as their authors.
About two-thirds of the Psalms are provided with super
scriptions referring to their authors, and the author is most
generally indicated in them by the prefix ?, e.g., 1VJ?, or
T|T&gt; "VlETp, or "ilttTp *?, and the like. In some cases the ?,
has another signification, e.g., certainly in Ps. xxxix. 1,
where f-IJT n* indicates the choir to whom the song was
assigned for musical performance. In two instances it per
haps points out the person for whom the song was origin
ally composed, e.g., probably Ps. Ixxii, perhaps also Ps. xx,
xxi, ex. In these latter cases, however, it is not quite certain
it was thus intended by the author. At any rate, these are
only isolated exceptions, and in by far most cases there can
be no doubt that it is intended to point out the composer.

But it is more questionable what authority is due to the
superscriptions. Theodorus of Mopsuestia 2 considered them
to be of later origin ; many modern interpreters, 3 also, not

1 Beitrdge zur Kritilt u. Exegese der Psalmen. Berlin, 1831.

2 In Leontius Byzantin., Contra Nestor, et Eutycli. lib. iii. n. 15.

3 Tims particularly, De Wette (Commentar iiber die Pss. 1811, Edit, 5,
by G. Baur, 185(5; and Einleitung) ; Hitzig (Die Pss. 2 vols. 1835-36);
Ewald, J. Olshausen (Die Psalmen, 1853).

232 Origin of the several Boolcs The Psalms.

only look upon them as not genuine, and not prefixed by
the authors themselves, but attribute to them no authority
at all. It, cannot be denied that, in many Psalms the state
ments in the superscriptions as to the author or the
accounts that are given in some as to the occasion for the
song, do not at all agree with the contents, so that in these
cases they must be unmistakeably incorrect, and could not
have proceeded from the authors themselves, e.g., Ps. lix,
cxxii, cxliv, &c. In these cases the superscriptions may,
of course, have been prefixed by later transcribers or com
pilers from some incorrect tradition or hypothesis ; and it
is certainly a mistake, when some modern scholars 1 assume
the correctness of all the superscriptions, which sometimes
causes a necessity for most unnatural explanations. But,
on the other hand, I believe that it is going too far, to
think that on this account they must all be rejected in a
mass, without further question. In many of the superscrip
tions we may conclude from their whole character, that
they are of very high antiquity, because events and cir
cumstances are therein referred to and presupposed as well
known, which in our Old-Testament Books are either not
mentioned generally, or told in a somewhat different way.

Thus, Psalrn vii. is called in the superscription a song,
which David sang in reference to a Benjamite named Gush,
who was probably one of David s opponents at the court of
Saul, who, however, is not named anywhere else in the Old
Testament. This circumstance is a direct assurance of the
high antiquity, and also of the correctness of the state
ment.

P^alm Ix, according to the superscription, falls in the
time of David s wars (2 Sam. viii ; 1 Chron. xviii), but
the Psalm affords several variations from the statements in
these historical books ; easy enough to explain, but serving
as proof that the author of the superscription did not have
these books before his eyes, and therefore as an evidence of
high antiquity.

There is nothing improbable in the circumstance that
the Hebrew composers themselves, when writing or de
livering their songs, should have given their names or the

1 Thus Hensstenberg &lt; Commentar iiber die Psalmen. 4 vols. 1842-
1847, 2nd Edit. 1849-1852); Tholuck ( Uebersetzung und Autleqq. dev
Psalmen, 1843;, Keil.

Value and Importance of the Superscriptions. 233

occasions for which they were composed, as this is quite
usual among the Arabian poets, and was at least often the
case among the Hebrew prophets.

Among compositions of another kind, Hezekialis Song of
Praise (Is. xxxviii)&gt; must particularly be considered. This
has a superscription in v. 9, which is so abrupt and so little
worked into the narrative itself, that in no way could
it have been prefixed by the author of Is. xxxvi-xxxix,
but must have been found by him already annexed to the
song, which serves to prove that it must have been prefixed
either by Hezekiah himself, or at least at a very early date,
soon after the composition of the song.

Even when the superscriptions were not prefixed by the
authors themselves, we may in general venture to suppose
that it was done subsequently, not on a purely arbitrary
hypothesis, but in conformity with some well considered
tradition.

In some cases the songs were in circulation singly,
before they came into this collection; and then it was
natural that some tradition as to their author and occa
sion should accompany their use, and thus this statement
was prefixed by some reader, copier, or compiler. The
songs of the various composers were, however, frequently
brought together previously in separate collections, and
these were perhaps arranged by the composers themselves ;
there was, for instance, a collection of David s songs, of
Asaph s, &c. From these the separate songs were adopted
into this mixed collection, and the author s statement,
which stood at the beginning of each separate collection,
was prefixed to the several songs, perhaps in exactly the
same words. Even then the superscriptions must have no
small weight with us, although, in their present form and
in their present positions, they may not have proceeded
from the authors themselves.

Although it cannot be asserted of any of the superscrip
tions that, in and by themselves, they afford any adequate
security for their correctness, still we have good cause
to attribute some weight to their statements ; and if a con
sideration of the contents and character of the Psalm does
not discover anything which is in contradiction to the
superscription, we have no reason to be so sceptical as to
their statements as many expositors have been.

234 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

272. The Authors of the various Psalms.

The most ancient of those who are named in the super
scriptions, as the authors of certain psalms, is Moses, to
whom Ps. xc. is attributed. There is no adequate reason
for denying to the lawgiver the authorship of this Psalm,
and, at all events, it bears the stamp of very great anti
quity.

Many of the Psalms, seventy-three in all, are designated
as of David, mostly in the two first books, only eighteen of
them being in the following ones. In some of them, the
T)T? may perhaps mean, for David, in reference to him (xx,
xxi, ex). Among the rest there are several, which very
probably, as partly shown by their contents and historical
relations, and partly by their language and other charac
teristics, may belong to some other composer, as certainly
Ps. xiv, liii, cviii, cxxii, cxxiv, cxliv ; also, perhaps, iv, xxiii,
xxv, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, xxxi, xxviv, xxxvii, xl, Iviii, lix,
Ixxxvi, ciii, cxxxi, cxxxiii, cxxxix, cxliii, cxlv. The charac
ter of many is such, that there is nothing in them decidedly
opposing the statement of the superscription, nor anything
peculiarly to confirm it. But no inconsiderable number,
most probably, belong to David, and especially, we cannot
doubt from all that we are told of him as a poet in the
historical books, that he distinguished himself by the com
position of such songs as our Psalms, and we may therefore
suppose, with all probability, that many of his songs have
been preserved in our collection, as may be asserted of
several with tolerable certainty, as Ps. iii, vii, xv, xviii,
xxxii, li, Iv, Ix, Ixi, Ixiii, &c.

Solomon is twice named in the superscriptions, in Ps.
Ixxii, cxxvii. In Ps. Ixxii, riD?^? is perhaps intended to
signify ad Salamonem, the song, however, was probably not
composed for Solomon, but for one of his later successors;
and with a still greater probability, the Ps. cxxvii. belongs
to a considerably later date, and in this case the super
scription is wanting in the LXX.

There are, besides, twelve Psalms imputed to Asaph
Ps. 1, Ixxiii-lxxxiii. Asaph is often mentioned in the
Chronicles as a Levitical singer at the time of David, who
was appointed, together with Heman and Ethan, for con-

Their Authors. 235

ducting the singing in the House of God at Jerusalem. In
2 Chron. xxix. 30, he is called the Seer ( "Win), and it may
bo inferred from this passage that he was famous as a poet,
and that religious songs must have been in existence com
posed by him, which, from the statement in the Chronicles,
were used in Hezekiah s time in Divine worship, together
with those of David. Nothing, however, in the purport of
anv of these songs, which in the superscriptions of our col
lections are designated as of Asaph, point very distinctly
to the age of David ; they more probably belong to a poet
in the kingdom of Israel (Ixxx, Ixxxi, Ixxxiii, perhaps also
Ixxxii) ; others belong to a poet of Judah, but at a later
time, about the date of the exile, as particularly Ixxiv,
Ixxv, Ixxvi, Ixxix, and perhaps also the remainder of them.
These, perhaps, belong to a poet living at that time who
likewise bore the name of Asaph, perhaps as the head of
the family of singers springing from the Asaph at the time
of David, and named after him, which we meet with in
later times under the name ^D^ ^ or e ^ se tnev are songs
which were composed by various members of this family,
and were previously brought together in a separate col
lection, and from this were adopted into the compilation
we are discussing.

It is still more probable that the case is the same with
the eleven songs for the sons of Koi-ah ; these are entitled
rnp on?, Ts. xlii. (forming one song with Ps. xliii), xliv-
xlix, Ixxxiv, Ixxxv, Ixxxvii, Ixxxviii.

The sons of Korah are often named in Chronicles as
a family of singers and servants of the Sanctuary, and
twice as being appointed by David to be door-keepers to
the same ; in 2 Chron. xx. 19, they are mentioned as Jeho
vah s singers in the army of J ehoshaphat, king of Judah,
so that this superscription affords no distinct proof as to
the age of these songs. It is rather questionable, whether
this superscription relates to the author, as Eichhorn and
Bertholdt will have it, or to the body of singers to whom
the song was made over for musical performance. But in
most of them, the arrangements of the words, as compared
with other superscriptions, clearly shows that they must
point to the author, particularly so Ps. xlv, Ixxxiv, Ixxxvii.

The plural form, sons of Korah, which would not be easy
to understand, if these superscriptions were originally

236 Origin of the several Books TJie Psalms.

selected for these songs singly, can be explained without
difficulty by the assumption, that there was previously a
separate collection of songs which was in general desig
nated of (or for) the sons of Korah, because it contained
songs by various members of this family of singers. These
would be adopted singly into our collection of Psalms, and
the above superscription would be prefixed to each, which
was, in fact, suitable only for them collectively.

Thus it may be explained, that in Psalm Ixxxviii, two
superscriptions are joined together, the first of which styles
the Psalm for the sons of Korah ; the other attributes it to
Heman the Ezrahite. According to 1 Chron. vi. 33, Heman
was a descendant of Korah at the time of David, and thus
this Psalm may have been specified in the separate collec
tion of songs of the sons of Korah, as a song of Heman, and
this intimation was subsequently united with the more
general statement as to its author.

In 1 Kings iv. 31 ; 1 Chron. vi. 33, ff. ; xv. 17 (cf. 2 Chron.
xxxv. 15), one Ethan the Ezrahite is named, together with
Heman, as among the wise men and singers in the days of
David. He is named in the superscription of the Psalm fol
lowing the above (Ps. Ixxxix) ; the contents, however, of
both Psalms, particularly Ps. Ixxxix, render it probable that
the} 7 belong to a later time than that of David ; and the
same remark applies to the rest of the songs of the sons of
Korah, although many of them are amongst the most beau
tiful in the collection. It is perhaps the case, that Ps.
xlii-xlix, Ixxxiv, all belong to the same composer, a Jewish
priest in the Assyrian age, in the days of Ahaz and Heze-
kiah, and Ps. Ixxxvii. to the Chaldean age, and Ps. Ixxxv.
to the first period after the return out of exile.

1 In confirmation of this idea, cf. the following out of Die Vorl. uber
die Psalmen : " The song, Ps. xlii, xliii. bears much resemblance to the
likewise Koruhite Psalm Ixxxiv. Both express the longing of a pious
man after Jehovah s Sanctuary, from which he was living far away,
which also is presupposed as still existing : it may be assumed from
PS. xlii, xliii : (a) that the author was in the region by Hermon, and
that his sojourn there was not temporary (Ewald), but of long duration ;
(6) from Ps. xlii. 5, that he was a Levite or priest, perhaps one of the
high priests, by which his calling himself an anointed (Ps. Ixxxiv. 9)
can be well explained. As regards the cause of the poet s exile, we
may consider that he .was perhaps captured by the Assyrians in
Hezekiah s time, and carried away to the above district, which was
then subject to them, or that he was taken prisoner at the time of Ahaz.

Anonymous Psalms. 237

273. Anonymous PsalmsLatest date of any of the Psalms.
As regards those anonymous, and, as it were, unfathered
Psalms, which present no statement as to their author (DVpirV),
it is but very seldom possible, from a consideration of their
(chiefly) general purport, to ascertain the authors with
any probability. Many among them may well have been
by David, but which they are is difficult to make out.
Likewise with regard to those Psalms, in which we have
good cause for doubting or rejecting the statements in the
superscriptions as to their authors, it is not easy to specify

or somewhat earlier, by the Syrians of Damascus, who at that time still
firmed an independent nation, in one of the wars of the latter with the
Jews. Nothing more exact can be determined with any certainty.
Ps. xliv. might not improbably belong to the same age. This Psalm
throughout does not give the impression of a time, such as that of the
Babylonian exile, when both nation and state were entirely broken up.
Verse 12 is to be understood as spenking, at any rate, of a partial scat
tering only, which long previously had happened to the Jews, after

defeats in which captives had been taken and carried away. In Ps.

xlv, according to v. 15, a king is intended, several of whose ancestors
had filled the throne with glory. It may, besides, be supposed, from
the relations of this song with the one preceding it, that it belongs to a
somewhat later time than that of Solomon, to whom, however, it is
referred by Hupfeld [also Colenso ("The Pentateuch," &c., ii. p. 279),
who finds the name of the Bride in 1 Kings xiv. 21, and compares it
with 2 Sam. x. 2, xvii. 27J. It, therefore, probably refers to a successor
of Solomon, or to some Israelitish king, several of whose forefathers bad
filled the throne, as perhaps Jeroboam II. (Ewald). Ps. xlvi. pre
supposes that violent and exterminating wars had raged between
neighbouring nations, in whicli Juda&a, and Jerusalem especially, appear
to have been threatened. A comparison with the other Korahite
Psalms induces us perhaps to conclude that this also belongs to the
age of Isaiah ; and I might, indeed, with Hitzig, place it in the time of
Ahaz. aiter the defeat of Pekah and Ilczin ; it may though, perhaps,
have been somewhat earlier. Hitzig expressly attributes ft to Isaiah
but this must remain undecided, though there is much in it that
rt minds us of this prophet. Ps. xlvii. also very probably belongs to
the same age as the other Korahite Psalms. It appears as if composed
at a time when the Jewish people had been engaged in a successful
war; cf. particularly verse 4, which we cannot venture to refer to the
future,but to the continuation of what had gone before. Ps. xlviii. is now
mostly referred to the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hosts of
Sennacherib ; and this is not untenable, yet the mention, in v, 4, of kings
banded together against Jerusalem, makes it seem more probable that, it
refers to the attacks on the city by the Israelites under Pekah and the
Syrians under Rezin, when the Jews were at the same time oppressed
by the Edomites and Philistines " (2 Kings xvi ; 2 Chron. xxviii..

238 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

the real authors ; we mostly find some indicia of their ap
proximate age, yet in this respect opinions vary very much,
it is also in general doubtful at how late a date any of the
Psalms in this collection are to be placed. Various early
interpreters have dated certain Psalms in the Maccabean
age ; but Hitzig, Von Lengerke, and J. Olshausen go the
furthest in this respect.

Hitzig (Begriff der Kritik, 1831, but more particularly in
Commentar uber die Pss.) ascribes but very few of these songs
to David and the most flourishing period of Hebrew litera
ture, on the contrary, he places the whole of the three last
books (Ps. Ixxiii cl.) together with Ps. i, ii. in the Macca
bean age, and some of them in quite the latter part of
it. Olshauseri (Die Psalmen, 1853) does not place a single
song of the Psalter in the age of David and Solomon, and
by far the most of them in the Maccabean age, down to
the time of John Hyrcanus. Von Lengerke (Die funf
Bucher der Psalmen, Konigsberg, 1847).

But this is decidedly wrong, 1 because beyond doubt the
collection was existing in its present shape long before this
time ; and, from 2 Mace. ii. 13, it is probable that it was
united with the Nebiirn by Nehemiah, and then received
its present extent (v. 294). It may also be shown, by
comparing 1 Chron. xvi. 36 with the concluding doxology
of the fourth book (Ps. cvi. 48), that our collection of Psalms,
with the concluding doxologies, existed even before the
composition of Chronicles. 2 In fact there is no song in our
Psalter, which, from any well founded reason, should be

1 Ewald s remarks against the Maccabean Psalms are very good
(Ueber das Suclien und Flnden sog. Maklc, Psalmen, in the Juhrb. dtr
Ull. Wiss., vi. pp. 20-32.

2 Vide Vorl. uber die Psalmen, Ps. cvi : " This Doxology was doubtless
not added until the completion of the collection of Psalms and i*s
arrangement in five books. In 1 Chrou. xvi. 36, in a song professing
to be by David, made up from Ps. cv. and cvi, this verse is adopt* d in
connection with the preceding one. This proves that the compiler of
this song, who was probably the author of Chronicles, had met with
this verse at the conclusion of the Psalm, and that, therefore, he must
have become acquainted with the latter after it was adopted into the
collection of Psalms as it now exists. Vide Tlieol. Stud, und Krlt. 1858,
ii. p. 371, f., and Evvald, ut supra, pp. 22-24. We must also note the
following considerations : Among the pretended Maccabt an Psalms
there are some which the superscriptions expressly attribute to ancient
authors, to David, and others, and even to Moses. In every instance

Date of the latest Psalms. 239

placed later than in Nehemiali s age, therefore about 300
years before that of the Maccabees ; and there are but few
which we should be induced to date even so late as the
above. It may be assumed with probability that many
Psalms belong to the prophetic age, and were the work of
prophets, particularly those in which some pious servant of
Jehovah bewails over persecutions and ill-treatment which
he had undergone on account of his zeal for his God. Like
wise the historical references in many of the Psalms lead to
the belief that they belong to the time of the Captivity and
the return from it.

Psalms cii, cxxxvii. were clearly composed during the
Captivity ; probably also cxix, cxxiii, cxxiv, and perhaps
several others. Certainly after the partial return of the
exiles and the restoration of the commonwealth, Psalms
cvii, cxxi, cxxii, cxxvi, cxlvii, probably also Ixxxv, xcvi-
xcviii, ciii, civ, cxiii, cxvi, cxxv, cxxvii-cxxix, cxxxv,
cxxxvi, cxliv, cxlvi, cxlviii-cl).

Certainly, however, these later Psalms are not in the
preponderating number, which not only Hitzig, but also
Ewald, Roster, 1 J. OLshausen, and others assume, and they
are to be found in the second half of the collection espe
cially, whilst by far the larger part of those, which are
pointed out in the superscription to be by David, are con
tained in the first half.

274. Origin and Formation of the Collection.
As regards the formation of the collection itself, it may
be assumed with the greatest probability that it was
brought to a conclusion by Kehemiah, by whom also it

these songs seem to express vividly the feelings of the author, and are
sometimes caused by special historical circumstances by which he was
then surrounded. lu no case can it be assumed that the composer
himself ititentioiuilly fathered these songs on more ancient authors, and
composed them in their names ; there was not the slightest inducement
for this procedure. These superscriptions could not then have been
added until a still later time, either through false tradition or some
wrong notion of the copier or compiler ; yet this assumption must be H
very questionable one, because these statements are found in the LXX
likewi.-e, which translation of the Psalms was composed probably
earlier, but certainly not later than the Maceabean age."

1 l)it P sal men nach iJirer stroph. Anurdnuny ubersetzt. Kouigsberji
183 1 .

240 Origin of the several Books TJie Psalms.

was united with the Nebiim, but also that it was not begun
by him. The entire nature of the collection leaves no
room for doubt, that it was formed and added to gradually ;
this is incorrectly denied by Hengstenberg.

Had it all been formed at one time, the songs would cer
tainly have been arranged differently from the present mode,
either according to their authors, or according to the simi
larity of their purport, or some other intelligible design ;
for in our present collection, although a number of Psalms
sometimes follow one another which are ascribed by the
superscriptions to the same author, or by their contents
seem to be allied to one another, frequently, also, those
that belong together in this way are quite separated from
each other.

The gradual formation of the collection is also proved by
the concluding formula at the end of the second book (Ps.
Ixxii. 20) 4 : " The prayers of David the son of Jesse are
ended." This conclusion cannot have proceeded from the
originator of the whole collection, or from any copier who
had the whole collection before him ; because in the two
first books, to which the concluding formula relates, there
are several Psalms (seventeen) which, in some cases, have no
author named, arid in others are attributed to other com
posers (such as the sons of Korah, Asaph, and Solomon),
and also because among the Psalms in the books which
follow, there are many (eighteen) which are described to be
David s. Just in the same way, for the former reason, it is,
not probable that the above concluding formula should
have proceeded from a person who compiled the two first
books, and only these. The expression -1^3 seems, too, to
intimate that there were other songs by other authors to
follow. This phenomenon is most readily explained by as
suming that the seventy-two first psalms previously formed
a separate collection, arranged for the purpose of Divine
worship, and that some one who subsequently continued
the collection, placed this formula as a division between
the compilation he had met with and the follow ing portion
added by himself, and that he attributed the former a potion
to David. But he could only have done this under the idea
of appending no more Psalms of David, but those of other
authors only. Perhaps he only added the eleven Psalms
immediately following, which are designated in the super-

Formation of the Collection. 241

scription as of Asapli, for we find an intimation in 2 Cliron.
xxix. 30, that at a tolerably early time the Psalms of
Asaph were made use of together with those of David for
the purposes of Divine worship. Thus the Psalms of the
two first books would have originally formed a collection
by themselves, and Psalms Ixxiii-lxxxiii. were the first
added, and subsequently the rest of the Psalms in the third
book, as well as the whole of the fourth and fifth books.
The number of compilers engaged in this cannot easily
be ascertained. But, as I believe, it may be assumed with
some probabilit}^ that the compilation of the two first
books took place before the Babylonian Captivitj .

275. Review of the various Classes of Psalms, and their
Contents.

The contents of these songs vary very much according to
the causes which prompted them. They may be primarily
divided into those which are of more general purport, with
out any special historical motive, and into historical songs,
which are based on some individual historical motive,
the influence of which is reflected in the composer s feel
ings. This separation, however, cannot be very strictly
carried out, and the distinction is generally only a rela
tive one. It may in general be assumed that most of
the songs in our collection have been prompted by some
individual historical motive, particularly the older ones.
Except among those of a later time, we do not find many
songs in which the author entirely fails to regard the
peculiar historical circumstances around him, which were
composed from beginning to end for future use, either for
himself or for others, e.g., for public Divine worship; thus
we scarcely meet with the latter class, except in the last
part of our collection, where there are many Psalms, which
appear to have been composed entirely with a view to
the worship in the Temple, as e.g., Ps. cv, cxxxiv-cxxxvi,
cxlviii, cl, &c. ; but they are less frequent among the earlier
ones, e.g., Ps. Ixvii. But even among those Psalms which
have originated in the vivid expression of the author s
feelings at any particular time, there are a good many in
which either the prompting cause was of so very general a
kind, or the special matter pointing out the latter and
expressing the feelings awakened by it is kept so much in

VOL. n. R

242 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

the background, that they are almost entirely taken out of
the class of historical Psalms, and must take a place among
the songs of more general purport. The intention of the
collection required, that in general those songs should be
excluded, in which the special historical references stood
out too strongly, so that they did not generally admit of
being readily used for the edification of others or of the
whole community in public Divine worship ; this is the
case, e.g., with David s beautiful elegy on the death of
Saul and Jonathan (2 Sain, i.) and others.

The songs in our collection of more general purport are
again of different kinds.

(1) Didactic Poems, Maschals on religious and moral
subjects ; e.g., Ps. 1. on the right way in which to worship
God, as opposed to a wicked hypocrisy and a merely out
ward service ; Ps. Ixxviii. exhortation to keep the Divine
commands; Ps. cxxviii. happiness of the pious man who
puts his trust in Jehovah ; Ps. xv. description of the attri
butes of the pious who shall dwell in Jehovah s tabernacle
on His holy hill ; Ps. cxxxiii. praise of unity among
brethren. Some of them are taken up with considering the
lot of the righteous and the wicked, and have intrinsically
the character of a theodice, e.g., Ps. xxxvii, xlix, Ixxiii,
sometimes, however, they bear reference principally to the
destinies of the Israelitish nation.

(2) Hymns, songs of praise to Jehovah. These praise
Him, either (a) as the Creator and Lord of nature (e.g.,
Ps. viii, xix, 1-7, xxix, civ, likewise Ixv.) (with prayer for
rain added) ; or (6) more in His relation to mankind, par
ticularly to the pious, as their Protector, Sustainer, and
Father full of love and forbearance (e.g., Ps. ciii, cvii,
cxiii, cxvii, cxxvii, cxlv), particularly also as the pro
tecting God of the Israelites by his favour and help shown
to them at all times, by His Covenant and Law imparted
to them, the preference thus given to them, and the like
(cf. Psalms xcix, c, cv, cxi, cxiv, cxxix, cxlvi, cxlvii,
cxlxix) ; or (c) as contrasted with other gods, as superior
to them, and as the only almighty Lord and Judge of
nations (Ps. xcvii, cxv). In connection with this the
people are urgently required to be obedient to their God
(e.g., Ps. xcv), to wait patiently for Him (Ps. cxxxi), to
keep His feasts (Ps. Ixxxi.) and the like.

Historical Psalms. 243

(3) The historical Psalms in a stricter sense relate either
(1) to purely personal circumstances affecting the author
himself, or, (2) to national affairs. The middle place between
these two classes is taken by those songs in which the in
dividual to whom they refer is, by his position the represen
tative of many others, or of the whole people ; e.g., when
a king thanks Jehovah for victory over enemies (e.g. PH.
xviii), or when the composer expresses himself in prayers,
wishes, &c., for a prince ; this kind may be perhaps called
royal-psalms ; thus Ps. ii, xx, xxi, .xlv, Ixxii, ex. In the
greater part of these, and most of all in Ps. ii, xlv, Ixxii,
ex, it has always been a question, whether they refer to
the king ruling Israel at the time or to some future
monarch, the Messiah. 1 A decision as to this is the pro
vince of exegesis. I will only remark here, that in my
opinion, the contents of all these songs induce us to look
upon the prince reigning at the time as their immediate
object, but yet nevertheless they present Messianic ele
ments of more or less importance, partly typical and partly
prophetical.

There are other Psalms, which refer first of all to the
personal condition of the composer, which was of that
nature, that many others were similarly circumstanced,
either the whole people or at least a very considerable part
of it, e.g., all the pious and faithful worshippers of Jehovah
(e.g., Ps. xiv, liii, Iviii). Others, however, have the circum
stances of the whole people more distinctly and actually
as their object ; these either express thanks to Jehovah for
safety afforded to the people for deliverance out of afflic
tion, for victories won and the like (e.g., Ps. xlvii, xlviii,
Ixvi, Ixxvi, xcviii, cxviii, cxxiv, cxxvi) ; of this sort also
are some songs on the entry of the ark into the sanctuary
after the return from a war (e.g., Ps. xxiv, xlvii, Ixviii, per
haps also xv), or they are prayers for the Divine assistance
in times of trouble (Ps. x, xliv, lix, Ixxvii, Ixxx, Ixxxix,
xc, cvi, cxlii), especially in wars with foreign nations (e.g.
Ps. Ix, Ixxiv, Ixxv, Ixxix, Ixxxiii, cviii), or in the time of

1 A Messianic interpretation of Ps. xlv. is given in the Ulrechtcr
Dodorschrift, by H. F. Kohlbriigge, Amstelod, 1829), whose son-in-law,
Edw;ird Bohl (Zicolf Messian/sche Psalmen erldart, nebst einer grund-
legenden chrixlologiscliKn Einleitung. Basle. 1862; propounds strange

244 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

captivity of the people (e.g., Ps. cii, cxxxvii, probably cxxii,
and others).

Among the Psalms which have arisen purely out of per
sonal relations, there are also some songs of thanksgiving
for deliverances experienced (as Psalms xxx, xxxii, xl.
2-12 ; cxvi). But by far the greater part of them are
Psalms of Lamentation, and express the complaints of the
author at his unhappy fate, and at the wrongs and afflic
tions with which he is visited, joined with prayers for
Divine assistance. In most of them the wrongs consist in
persecutions by adversaries, either heathens, or, as appears
to be much more frequently the case, on the part of his
own fellow-countrymen; in several, however, it is unmis-
takeable, that there must have been some severe disease, as
leprosy or something similar, in addition to the external
distresses, by which disease even the friends of the author
were driven away from him, and he was all the more given
over to the revilings of his adversaries (thus particularly
Ps. vi, xxxviii, xxxix, xli, Ixxxviii). Many of these songs
express also the consciousness of guilt in the most vivid
manner, the pious author looking upon the misfortunes be
falling him as the just punishment for his sins, and pray
ing, before everything, that these might be forgiven him,
and that power might be granted to him for his moral im
provement (these penitential Psalms are Ps. xix. 8-15 ;
xxv, xxxviii, xxxix, li) ; others simply express the quiet
and certain confidence which the pious sufferer places in
his God in all that may befall him (e.g., Ps. xvi, xxiii, xxvi,
xxvii, xxxvi, lii, Ivi, Ixii).

There are also many of these Psalms of Lamentation,
which ancient and sometimes also modern interpreters have
considered as immediately Messianic ; so that they do
not regard the author himself as speaking in them, but
the suifering Messiah, in whose name they were com
posed through prophetic inspiration ; thus particularly
Ps. xvi, xxii, xl, &c. We shall, however, be compelled by
the contents of these songs, to decide that they were with
out doubt originally composed by the author in reference
to himself and his own sufferings, but still, like many others
of the Psalms, that they have Messianic elements, inas
much as the pious author, both in the cause of his suffer
ings and also in the way in which he endures them in

Psalms of Lamentation. 245

faith and hope, appears as a type of the Redeemer, and
sometimes even expresses hopes, which can find their essen
tial fulfilment in Him and His kingdom only. On the
other hand, De Wette (in Daub and Creuzer s Studien, vol.
iii. P. 2, p. 252, ff., and in his Commentar uber die Psalmen)
has endeavoured to prove that by far the greater part of
these Psalms of Lamentation are of a national character, and
composed in the name of the Israelitish people in reference
to the hostilities of other nations ; so also liosenmtiller
(Scholia in Pss. Ed. 2). De Wette has retracted this in
reference to many of them in the 4th Edition of his Com
mentary, but yet has held to his opinion as to some, an un
prejudiced consideration of which will, I believe, render
it in the highest degree probable that originally they
only had the person of the author himself as their object,
in reference to the sufferings inflicted on him by his fellow-
countrymen ; thus particularly Ps. vi, xiii, xvii, xxv, xxvii,
xxxi, xxxvi, xxxviii, Iii, liv, Ixiv, Ixix, Ixxi, cix, cxx, cxl,
&c. On the other hand, there certainly can be no doubt,
that originally personal Psalms of Lamentation of this sort
were frequently applied in later times to general national
circumstances, just as subsequently in the Christian Church
they were, and are still, made use of in reference to the
tribulations of the community or of individual believers.
This is sometimes quite admissible from the spirit and
purport of many of these songs. But we must not venture
to think, with many ancient Christian interpreters, that
they were originally composed in reference to these later
circumstances, and that the author had these distinctly
in view. All we can say is, that in his suffering and the
emotions awakened by it, he stands forth as a type to other
sufferers in after times, both in the Old and New Cove
nants, of the resignation and trust in God, by which they
may evade or endure such afflictions. But in making use
of these songs for the edification of the Christian commu
nity, it should not be done without some caution, and not
without paying attention to the fact, that in the Old Cove
nant that spirit could not yet prevail, which, in all its
fulness and clearness first came into the world through
Christ, which, in the sermon on the mount and elsewhere,
appears to form a contrast between the moral spirit of the
Old and New Covenants. As in the Old Testament gene-

246 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

rally, so also in the Psalms, there is expressed, generally-
most prominently, the confidence of the pious in the pro
vidence of the only God, who would never forsake those
who patiently wait for Him. But we find in these songs,
that their hopes were confined to this present life, as if the
pious and believing, after their death, were no longer in
God s hand, and could no longer glorify Him ; and it is
only in isolated Psalms that there is any hint as to a future
life. The Psalms express in a peculiarly forcible and ener
getic way the abhorrence of sin, and many add an acknow
ledgment of individual guilt, and continual sinfulness ;
e.g., Ps. xix. 13 ; xxv, xxxii, xxxviii, xxxix, li ; cvi. 6, f. ;
cxxx, cxliii. (no man is righteous before God). But this
genuine Christian humility does not pervade them all in
an equal measure ; there is in some of them more of a
haughty self-confidence in personal innocence, and an
appeal to individual righteousness, cf. Ps. vii, xi ; xviii.
21, if.; xxvi, lix, 4, 5 ; Ixvi. 18, and some others. There
are likewise several Psalrns, in which we miss the spirit of
love which the Gospel enjoins its professors to manifest
even towards their enemies, and not only towards personal
offenders, but even against the adversaries of the Lord. A
spirit of vindictiveness and vehement hostility is particu
larly shown in Ps. cix, cxxxvii. But after the revelation
of the New Covenant and the Christian spirit, we must
no longer venture to consider songs of this kind as fitted
to be adopted into hymn-books for Christian communities
without some alteration and softening down, although this
has not unfrequently been done, especially in the Reformed
Church, by an identification of the spirit of the Old and
New Testaments. On this point we ought rather to
acknowledge, that through Christianity, something higher
and holier has come into the world, by which the Old
Covenant and the Scriptures of the Old Testament could
not, at that time, have been completely imbued.

276. The Separations between the single Psalms.
We have still two points to bring under consideration :
(a) the division of the single Psalms from one another ; and,
(6) the integrity of these songs generally, in the form in
which we now have them in our collection. As regards
the former point, those of the songs which are provided

Separation of the single Psalms. 247

with a superscription as to their authors, the occasion of
composition, &c., are by this means naturally divided from
the Psalm before them. This, however, is not the case
with those which have no such superscription. As at the
origin and completion of the collection, the single Psalms
were not perhaps sufficiently indicated by ciphers, and
thus divided from one another, the beginning of a fresh
Psalm being perhaps marked merely by a small intervening
space, or by new lines, it would thus be very easy for mis
takes in copying to arise in the course of time. Thus in
the LXX, and in consequence also in the Vulgate, they are
in many cases not divided in the same way as in the pre
sent Hebrew text.

They have thus (a) joined together Ps. ix. and x. as one
song ; (6), likewise Ps. cxiv. and cxv ; on the contrary
(c) Ps. cxvi. is divided into two songs, vv. 1-9 and vv.
10-19 ; and likewise (d) Ps. cxlvii. into two songs, vv. 1-11
and 12-20. There is, therefore, in the LXX and Vulgate,
as in the Greek and Latin Fathers, a different numbering
to that in the Hebrew Canon, viz. :

Hebrew Text. LXX arid Vulgate.

Psalm ix, x. Psalm ix.

Xl-CXlll.

cxiv, cxv.

cxvi.

cxvii-cxlvi.

cxlvii.

cxlviii-cl.

x-cxn.
cxiii.
cxiv, cxv.
cxvi-cxlv.
cxlvi, cxlvii.
cxlviii-cl.

In the three last of these four cases the division in the
Hebrew text is the correct one, according to my judgment;
on the other hand, it is very probable that Ps. ix. and x,
in the form in which we now have them, form one song,
with an alphabetical arrangement, although this is not
quite carried out. There are, besides, several cases in
which although both texts agree in the division made
it may be assumed with more or less probability that they
are not rightly divided.

It is most certain that Ps. xlii. and xliii. originally
formed only one song, with three strophes concluding with
the same recurring verse. Perhaps also, Ps. cxiii. and cxiv.
belong together as one song, and Ps. cxvii. (only two verses)
with Ps. cxviii.

248 Origin of the several Books The Psalms.

On tlie other hand, the following Psalms probably con
tain each two originally separate songs :

(1) Ps. xxiv. (a) vv. 1-6, who may dwell in Jehovah s
sanctuary ; (6) vv. 7-1 0, on the entry of the ark into the
sanctuary.

(2) Ps. xxvii. (a) vv. 1-6, trust in God ; (6) vv. 7-14,
suppliant cries for help.

(3) Ps. xxxii, perhaps (a) vv. 1-7, happiness of the for
giveness of sins and open confession ; (6) vv. 8-1 1 , exhorta
tion to willing obedience to God.

277. Integrity of the individual Psalms.

As regards the integrity of the separate Psalms, we find
distinct signs that, at least many of them, between the time
of their first composition and of their being received in a
fixed shape into canonical estimation, have experienced in
many ways greater or less alteration in the text, both
with and without influence on the sense. 1 A wide popular
currency of these songs at an early period, when they
circulated singly, and were often copied, read, learned, and
applied to individual circumstances, would render this
adaptation all the more easy. In this way it was, perhaps,
often the case, that these songs, by means of additions, omis
sions, and slight alterations, received a shape in which they
became more fit to be applied to circumstances of a later
period, which were somewhat similar, but yet not quite
parallel.

Ps. li. is an example of the kind. The superscription
styles it a P^alm of David s, composed by him after his
adultery with Bathsheba. This was, no doubt, the prompt
ing cause of the song, and its purport quite coincides with
this, with the exception of the two last verses, 20, 21. These
manifestly point to a date, when Jerusalem and the Temple
were destroyed, so that, for a time, the legal sacrifices
could not be offered ; these circumstances, too, are presup
posed as then existing, whilst in all the rest of the song
there is no trace of them, nor any intimation whatever,

1 Of this sort is the religious awe which is far rather to belaid to the
compiler than the author having for its result the exclusive or pre
vailing use of the term Elohirn, in Ps. xlii-lxxxiv ; cf. Ps. liii. with xiv,
also xliii. 4; xlv. 8; 1. 7; also Ivii. 10, with cviii 4; as well as Ixviii.
8, 9, with Judges v. 4, 5, &c., and vide Hupfeld s Psalmen, iv. p. 461.

Integrity of tlie single Psalms. 249

that it has any reference to the general affairs of the
people. It may be assumed with the greatest probability,
that the present conclusion of the Psalm was subsequently
added at the time of the Captivity, when this Psalm of
David s was made use of as a penitential Psalm in reference
to the Jewish people and their condition at the time.

A similar case occurs in Ps. Ixix. (w 35, 36), and in
Ps. xxv (y. 22), perhaps also in Ps. cxxxi. (f. 3).

In some places the application of ancient Psalms to other
and later circumstances has led to alterations in the body
of the Psalm, which are more closely blended with it, so
that they cannot be so easily recognized. Such a case
is brought under our notice by comparing Ps. xiv. and
liii, which for the most part agree even verbally, but
yet differ in one passage in a way which can be on\y
explained under the supposition that the Psalm, which
has, perhaps, been preserved in its original state in Ps. xiv,
was subsequently applied to other circumstances, and was
thus brought into the shape which Ps. liii. presents. Yet
if we only possessed Ps. liii, we should not be in a, position
to ascertain and restore the original form of the song.

In other places, a portion only of some more ancient
and larger song has been appropriated at a later time, per
haps for liturgical use, as Ps. Ixx. =Ps. xl. 14-18 ; or two
songs or parts of several songs have been united in one.
Thus Ps. cviii. is made up from Ps. Ivii. 8-12, and Ps. Ix.
7-14 ; and the song in 1 Chron. xvi. 8-36, from Ps. cv,
xcvi, and cvi. 1, 47, 48. Ps. xix. contains two portions of
quite different natures, which, both in purport and form,
are quite distinct from each other : (a) w. 1-7, a hymn to
God as Creator, at the end dwelling upon a consideration
of the glory of the sun ; (6) vv. 81 5, praise of the purity
and rectitude of Jehovah s law, with acknowledgment of
individual moral weakness, and entreaty for deliverance
from its tyranny. The two parts were not, perhaps, origi
nally written in connection with each other, but as two
separate songs which were subsequently, and perhaps
intentionally, united in one. Ps. ix. and x. are also to
be looked upon as one song, but worked up together out of
three more ancient ones: (a) Ps. ix. 2-13, originally a
thanksgiving t-ong for the conquest of enemies ; (6) Ps. ix.
14-21, a prayer for deliverance from enemies ; (c) Ps. x. a

250 Origin of the several Books Tlie Psalms.

song both of supplication and lamentation. These three
songs were afterwards worked up together into one, with
some alterations and additions, and with an alphabetical
arrangement, which, however, is not carried out.

Many, therefore, of the ancient Hebrew songs have been
dealt with in a similar way to numerous songs of ancient
Christian poets, which had been composed for some par
ticular occasion, and were revised, abridged, enlarged, or
otherwise altered by later authors, perhaps with a view to
their adoption into a book of hymns, so as to render them
more fitted for public use, or for immediate application to
ajstate of things different from that in reference to which
they were originally composed. It is certainly often the
case, as regards our Psalter, that we have the Psalms in it
in a later and revised shape ; for the compilers of the col
lection just as the arrangers of our hymn books felt no
very great critical or literary interest in the matter, and
for their purpose, handing down the songs in the original
shape in which they came from the hand of David, Asaph,
&c. was of much less importance, than issuing them in the
form in which they would be best fitted for application to
various circumstances in the life of the people and of
individuals, and for general use in Divine worship. This
certainly produces a peculiar difficulty in their historical
explanation, and the effect of it is, that we are no longer
able to look upon many of the songs, in the shape in
which we now have them, as entirely the work of their
various original authors, but more generally as productions
of the Israelitish people and the theocratical spirit of the
Old Testament. Another circumstance connected with the
above is, that in some of these songs, as in those we have
just considered, we do not meet with that connection and
that agreement of the various parts, nor that individuality
of the disposition of mind shown in them, which would be
the case in the absolutely independent and unaltered pro
ductions of one author.

278. Slight Alteratio ns in the Ancient Text.

But besides these alterations purposely made to fit them
for later use, the Psalms, until they had received a fixed
shape as elements of our collection and had attained cano
nical authority, must have occasionally experienced many

Alterations in the Text. 251

slight alterations in their text just as our ancient sacred
songs have clone as regards orthography and language ;
forms and expressions, which were more regular and more
in use at a later time, being sometimes substituted for those
which were obsolete, unusual, or anomalous ; sometimes,
also, alterations were made by the copiers, either through
error or wilfully. Thus it might happen, that in the
course of time different recensions of the same song might
exist, each varying more or less, although the song itself
had not experienced any very great or intentional altera
tions.

We have an example of this in David s song of victory,
Ps. xviii, which also occurs in 2 Sam. xxii. There are
slight variations between tho two copies in almost every
verse, but almost entirely unimportant, and with little
or no influence on the sense. There are none of those
variations, which would be caused by a later revision of
the song to fit it for Divine worship or some other special
use ; still less is it at all probable that the author himself
should have issued the song at different times in these dif
ferent recensions But these are variations which would
easily be formed in the course of time in a song which was
so much read and copied, partly through quite accidental
errors, either of the reader or writer, and partly through
attempts to amend the text. In this case, the recension in
2 Sam. xxii, gives the original readings, 1 not everywhere,
but very usually ; and we may assume with great pro
bability, that the compiler of the Psalms derived it from
the B&lt;;ok of Samuel, but that the song subsequently expe
rienced various alterations, both in the Book of Samuel
and in the collection of Psalms, and that the alterations
were rather more important and numerous in the latter,
than in the historical book.

This example leads us to suppose, that other songs in
our collection may also have experienced alterations more
or less in this way. This has been the case with the
Psalms, perhaps to a greater extent than in the historical
and prophetical Scriptures, because the former were more
frequently read and copied.

1 The opinions of many modern interpreters are just the reverse, as
De Wctte, Hitzig, Ewald, Olsbausen, and Hupfcld.

252

THE WRITINGS OF SOLOMON.

279. Works attributed to Solomon.

We fleam from 1 Kings iv. 29-34, that Solomon liad
acquired a distinguished name, both for his wisdom and
also as a poet. But of his numerous poetical productions,
pointed out in this passage, but very few are preserved
to us.

Besides the Book of Wisdom, which stands in the name of
this king among the Apocryphal Books of the Old Testa
ment, we possess in the Canon the following works ascribed
to Solomon : (1) Two Psalms (Ps. Ixxii. and cxxvii. (v. p.
234), and (2) three independent works ; (a) The Proverbs
or Sayings, (6) the so-called Song of Solomon, and (c) The
Preacher (Ecclesiastes). But it is doubtful how far these
works are actually the composition of Solomon himself.

1. THE PROVERBS OF SOLOMON.

280. Title of the Book Review of its Contents.

The title of this work is iltfb^ !?B&gt;. The word ,
really signifies likeness ; thence simile, parable, and, as the

G \ \
Arabic, JJLo, very often occurs for,

(a) Short maxims, sentences, or Gnomes, which among
the Orientals consisted often in comparisons ; a thought
of a religious or moral nature being brought out more
distinctly by a reference to circumstances of the external
world. The Orientals were generally very fond of such
sentences as these, which frequently became quite pro
verbial (thence the title of our book in the LXX, Trapoi/ucu,
Vulg. Proverbia ; among us frequently Proverbs, more
suitably, as in Luther, Spriiclie Salome s) ; cf. Jerome, ad
Matt, xviii. 23 : " Fainiliare est Syris et maxime Palsestinis,
ad omneni sermonem suum parabolas jungere, ut, quod per
simplex praeceptum teneri ab auditoribus non potest, per
similitudinem exemplaqne teneatur." This mode of teach-

Meaning of the Title of the Book. 253

ing is also peculiarly popular among the Arabians, whose
oral law, the Sunna, is full of such sentences. There are
also certain collections of these Sayings arranged by vari
ous Arabian poets, among others, one by a grammarian,
Al Meidani (d. 1141), who endeavours to investigate the
historical origin of them. In this he thus expresses him
self as to the high value of aphoristic wisdom: "The
knowledge of aphorisms graces with its beauties all classes
of society, and is an ornament to the inhabitants both of
cities and the desert; it gives brilliancy to the contents of
books, and, by its allusions, sweetens the words both of
preachers and teachers. And why should it not do so ?
For the word of God, the Koran, is itself imbued with
it, the language of the prophets is enriched by it, and the
most excellent scholars, who have traced out the courses of
the most abstruse knowledge, have chosen it as their
auxiliary." "Aphorisms," he says somewhere else, "are
to the mind what a mirror is to the eyes."

(6) (Longer or shorter) connected didactic poems, so
far as these contain separate sentences joined on to one
another. Many of the didactic poems among the Psalms
are of this nature; and in the book we are discussing,
ch. i-ix, praise of wisdom; and ch. xxxi. 10-31, praise of
a virtuous woman ; also ch. xxii. 17-xxiv. 22. But the
greater part of the book is made up of separate short moral
sentences. There is a similar collection in the Book of
Jesus Sirach in the Apocrypha.

The passage in 1 Kings iv. 29-34 clearly proves that
Solomon was very famous as a composer of proverbs ; and
from this passage we may also suppose, with probability,
that at least many of his sayings have been preserved in
the book named after him. The whole of it, however, as
we now have it, cannot have been his composition, but
various authors must have had a share in it, as is clearly
proved by express statements in the book itself, and by
several superscriptions prefixed to the several parts.

The book consists of the following portions :

(1) Ch. i-ix. A connected Maschal, in which wisdom is
praised, and the young are called upon to apply themselves
to it, and are warned to beware of enticements to evil, and
particularly of the seductions to impurity and adultery ; to
these vices and their evil results the author repeatedly

254 Origin of the several Books Proverbs.

reverts, so that it is easily seen that in the circumstances
and persons surrounding him, he had some particular
prompting cause for bringing them forward so prominently.
To ch. i. 1-6, is prefixed a superscription and introduction,
in which what follows is styled " The Proverbs of Solomon,
the Son of David, king of Israel," and their aim is stated to
be, to teach wisdom and instruction, so as to understand
the words of the wise and their dark sayings.

(2) Ch. x-xxii. 16. With the superscription, "Proverbs
of Solomon" a collection of separate sayings and various
maxims of an ethical and politic nature, which are but
loosely connected with one another ; the connection is
mostly confined to each single verse, which is followed by
fresh ideas, without any close union with what precedes.

(3) Ch. xxii. 17-xxiv. 22, is a Maschal of a more con
nected character, with precepts of justice and prudence,
unrnistakeably constituting a whole to some extent ; which,
however, has no separate title, but yet has a special intro
duction, ch. xxii. 17-22, consisting of a. summons to hearken
to (the following) instruction, and to the words of the wise.

(4) Ch. xxiv 23-34. With the superscription nta DI
D^pprp, which may be understood, " This also is for the
wise," but is more probably intended for " This also is of
(or by} the wise ;" this section is also formed of unconnected
Maschals, which by this superscription are described to be
maxims of various unknown wise men, and are an addition
to what precedes them.

(5) Ch. xxv-xxix. With the superscription, " These are
also the proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah,
king of Judah, collected" (Ip^Vi?, compiled, re-wrote). This
also is a collection of single Maschals joined on to one
another.

(6) Ch. xxx. Likwise a small collection of single di
dactic and sometimes paradoxical thoughts, with the super
scription, " The words of Agur, the son of Jakeh, a, prophecy,
speech of the man unto Ithiel t even unto Ithiel and Ucal" As
to the persons named here, and their age, we know abso
lutely nothing. Jerome and other interpreters, both Chris
tian and Jewish, look upon Agur as merely a symbolical
name for Solomon, just as Koheleth, and meant to be in the
sense of compiler. This designation, however, would be a
very unsuitable one for Solomon, and likewise his being

Review of Contents. 255

called the son of Jakeh. There is quite as little proba
bility about other modes of explanation, which understand
it as a merely symbolical mode of designation in reference
to the origin of the collection. In all probability, Agur is
the real name of some otherwise unknown Israeli tish sage,
who composed the Maschals which follow. Jakeh is the
name of his father. Ithiel and Ucal were, perhaps, his
sons or scholars. Ewald, 1 indeed, is of opinion that the
latter name is, perhaps, arbitrarily formed, and used by the
composer for his purpose, and explains it, 4l With me is God,"
and " lam strong (likewise Keil). This, however, from the
actual nature of the name, is at least improbable.

(7) Ch. xxxi. 1-9. Wise instruction for kings, with the
superscription, " The words of Lemuel (7K-1D?, which in v. 4
is pointed ^iD 1 ?), the king, the prophecy that his mother taught
him. Kothing is known as to this Lemuel. Some ancient
interpreters, and also Ewald and Keil, consider this as
merely a symbolical name for Solomon, equivalent, ac
cording to Ewald, to to God he who is turned to God devoted
to God. This, however, is not very probable, because
Solomon is elsewhere named in this book by his own name.
It is also improbable that, as Grotius thinks, it should be a
designation for Ilezekiah, as if a remodelling of his name,
from KB?, according to the Arabic = iniecta manu cepit, as
n*pTn, from pin. It ought rather to be considered, with
Eichiorn, Jalm, and Bertholdt, as a name arbitrarily
formed ; and that the sayings are the work of some Israeli tish
y a g e __ f Agur, as Jahii thinks, whom Ewald also takes to
be the author. But it may be the case, that Lemuel was the
real name of some prince in the neighbourhood of Judaea,
some Arabian or Edomite prince, from whom the wise
maxims proceeded, and were only copied or translated by
an Israelitish compiler. 2

1 Theolog. Stud, und Krit. 1828, ii, p. 343, f., and in Comment, zu d.
Spr.; cf. Jahrbuch, i. p. 109, f. Others, by means of altered punctua
tion and alteration of the division of the words, consider the two words
as an independent sentence, with which the series of these sayings is
opened.

2 Hitzig discovers in the N^ ch. xxx. 1, and xxxi. 1, a kingdom
of Mas^ah, in Arabia, formed by the emigrant Simeonites (1 Chroii.
iv. 38-41 ; Gen, xxv. 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 30), from which these two chapters
proceed ; in doing this he very much alters the pointing and division ot
words. Cf. the acute arguments in favour of this opinion in Das

256 Origin of the several Books Proverbs.

(8) Ch. xxxi. 10-31, an alphabetically arranged didactic
poem in praise of a virtuous woman, without any special
superscription, but distinct in purport and form from what
precedes it.

281. Origin of the Compilation.

AYith regard to the origin of the compilation, we may in
general assume as follows : It is made manifest by the
superscription, ch. xxv. 1 (" These are also proverbs of
Solomon," &Q.), that the proverbs immediately following
were brought together at the time of Hezekiah, and perhaps
at his instance ; they passed for sayings of Solomon, but
up to that time had been chiefly in oral circulation among
the people. It may be inferred from this superscription,
that the collection following was arranged as an addition
to the one already existing in the preceding part of the
book. In all probability, the series in ch. x. 1-xxii. 16,
formed the most ancient collection, and was the original
portion of our book ; but in this shape it hardly proceeded
from Solomon, although without doubt it contains many
genuine proverbs of Solomon. The passages ch. xxii. 17-
xxiv. 22, and eh xxiv. 23-34, were then added, the latter
of which sections has the superscription, " These things,
also, are from the wise." It cannot well be ascertained as
to these, whether they were added by the servants of
Hezekiah, the same as in ch. xxv. ff., or whether these
already formed a part of the original collection ; they
could not anyhow have been added later than the time of
Hezekiah. It cannot be ascertained when the last portions
(ch. xxx xxxi.) were added, perhaps, also, by the learned
men at the court of Hezekiah ; more probably, however,
at a later time ; and thus, also, perhaps, ch. i-ix. This
connected Maschal was, at least probably, composed by the
last editor of the book, as a kind of introduction to the
Proverbs of Solomon, which follow; and ch. i. 1-6, is
intended by him as a superscription and declaration of its

Kiiiugreich Massa, in Seller s Theol. Jalirb. 1844, pp. 269-305, and
Die Spriiche Sal. 1858. Bertheau essentially agrees with this (Die
Spriiche Sal. in the 7th part of the Exeget. Handbuch, 1847) ; cf. also
Halm (in Renter s Repert. N. Folge, xiv.), and Bunsen (Bibehuerk,
Einl. p. clxxviii. if.),

Song of Solomon Title, &c. 257

purpose, in reference rather to the whole book and the
Proverbs of Solomon in it especially, than as applying to
his own special Maschal.

2. THE SONG OF SOLOMON.

282. Title, &c.

This work is called in ch. i. 1, ri&f? Tfc/N DTB ; n TB ; , and
in the title, D Ttpn ~VW. This combination is not to be
understood, with Aben Esra, Kimchi, &c., as " A Sony
of the Songs (of Solomon)," and certainly not as Velthusen
and Paulus (in Eichhorn s Repert. xvii., p. 109, f.) have
explained it, by using the TB&gt; the first time in a sense
quite different to the last, as "a chain (series) of songs"

s - j

(according to the Chald. and Arab. W, A^) ; but the proper
explanation is, " The song of songs " = the most beautiful,
the most valuable of songs ; as a paraphrase of an idea of
the superlative, as e.g., 1 Kings viii. 27, E Ef n *fc&gt;, heaven
of heavens Itizek. xvi. 7, D" 1 !^ HS, ornament of ornaments,
&c. Luther expresses this idea, and calls it " Das Hohelicd
Salomonis." In the LXX and the Greek ecclesiastical
authors, the title runs aoym acryu-cmov, a literal translation of
the Hebrew, also 07x0. merely (Cod. Vat. in title) ; in Latin,
canticum (also cantica), canticorum. The in riOTEr? must
doubtless point to the author, as in the superscription of so
many Psalms. The "E/N prefixed is peculiar. This relative
is not perhaps intended to refer, as a singular, to the whole
idea, as " song of songs, which is Solomon s," but as plural
to the genitive D Tlpn, as " song of songs, which are Solo
mon s ;" so that it is thus placed in comparison with other
songs of Solomon. Thus Ewald, Poetische Biicher, i. p. 184.
We may assume, with the greatest probability, whatever
we may decide as to the origin of the book itself, that this
designation of it did not proceed from Solomon. It may
be concluded, although not with certainty, that it was not
prefixed by the same person who composed the book, from
the use of "^N, as everywhere else in the book & only is
used as a relative.

VOL. II. S

258 Origin of the several Books The Song of Solomon.

283. Subject of the Book Various Interpretations of its
Contents.

The subject of the book is in general the love and
mutual relations of two lovers. It contains, for the most
part, sometimes the separate speeches, and sometimes the
conversational speeches, of two lovers, who praise each
other, express their longing for one another, and the like.
There is, in the first place, a question as to what kind of
love it is which is treated of in this book, and who the
lover and the loved one were who appear in it. The
explanation as to these points, which was very popular in
earlier times, is, that it is only spiritual love which is
spoken of, and that the lover was either God (Jehovah), or
the Messiah (Christ), and the object of love was either
God s people generally, or the individual souls of believers ;
but both ideas are quite untenable.

Solomon s Song is understood in this allegorical way both
by Jewish interpreters, and by most of the ancient Chris
tian ones, from Origen downwards. In the first place, the
explanation of the lover as personifying the person of
Christ, put forward by Hengsfenberg (Das Hohelied Sal.,
Berlin, 1853, and Christol. d. A. T., 2nd ed. i., pp. 177-179),
is altogether unnatural. In this case, the purport of the
whole book would have to be taken as prophetical, and as
referring to persons and circumstances which, from the
stand-point of the author, were entirely future, not the
slightest intimation of this being given in the book, but
rather everything to lead us to believe that the persons and
circumstances brought forward in it were present to the
author. It may be assumed with tolerable certainty, that
Christ and the apostles did not understand the contents of
the book in the above way ; for it would thus have afforded
them so many things which they might have made use of
and referred to, when they spoke of the communion of the
Lord with His people or with individual believers ; but in
no single passage in the New Testament is the book either
made use of or quoted. Ilengstenberg (Hohelied, p. 253, if.)
quotes a multitude of passages out of the New Testament,
particularly from Jesus words, in which Solomon s Song is
referred to ; but not a single one of these references has even
the slightest probability about it, and with regard to all of

Various Interpretations. 259

them without exception, it is inconceivable how any one
can really think that an intentional allusion or reference
has been made to the Old-Testament passages (cf. Bunsen s
Gott in der Geschichte, i. pp. 4G7-476).

The explanation of the lover as God, Jehovah, and ot
the loved one as the people of God, is found in the Chaldee
paraphrasers, and in modern times it has been again brought
forward with many modifications. By Kosenmiiller (111
Keil and Tzschirner s Analekten, i. p. 138, ff. ; but otherwise
in the Scholiasts) ; Hengstenberg (Evany. K. Ztg. No. 27, ff.,
1837) ; Keil (in Havernick s Einl and in his own EmL). In
later times, the aim of Solomon s Song has been pointed out
to be a delineation of the communion between the Lord and
His chosen people, which, through the faithlessness of Israel,
was often interrupted, but was again reinstated on the latter
returning to their true Covenant-God, through God s un-
chano-eable love. This mode of interpretation, however, is
also, from the nature of the book, quite unnatural, and still
more so, if Solomon, the lover appearing in. the book, is
considered as the author of it, as by Hengstenberg and Keil.
It is not, indeed, unusual among the Hebrew prophets to
depict the relation of the Jewish people to Jehovah under
the imao-e of a marriage, and Jehovah as the lawful consort
of His people. But when the Hebrew prophets and poets
avail themselves of this allegorical mode of representation,
they do not. readily omit to apply it to the matter that is
thereby symbolized, or to point out distinctly the reference
to it, so that it shall be clear to the reader. But through
out this book, there is no such application of the mode ot
delineation to the relations between God and men, nor any
intimation that it at all refers to it ; in the whole book the
name of God does not, once occur, except in ch. viii. 0, in
the combination PP rnn?^ (the flames of love are flames of
fire, a flame of Jali). " The section (ch. iii. 6-11) contains a
song on Solomon s nuptials. It would be in the highest
degree unnatural to consider this as a delineation of the
umon of Jehovah with His people, so that, without the least
intimation of it in the song itself, Solomon would stand
directly for Jehovah, particularly if Solomon were the author,
or even if he were not. So also in the other sections of
the book, if their sense and aim is to be understood in thira
way, the whole mode of statement especially of Jehovah

260 Origin of the several Books The Song of Solomon.

as a lover is carried out most unnaturally, indeed in a
way both repulsive and also most painful to good taste.

Some explanations of another kind, which have been
attempted for Solomon s Song, are, however, quite as un
natural.

Thus, e.g., Rosenmiiller in his Scholiasts refers it to the
intercourse of Solomon with Wisdom, taking the loved one
(Sularnith, ch. vii. 1) to be wisdom; Hug (Das Hohelied in
einer nodi unversuchten Deutung} understands the lover and
loved one to be Hezekiah and the people of the ten tribes
who were still remaining in the land after the breaking up
of the kingdom of Israel, which latter expressed their long
ing to come under Hezekiah s rule, as of a second Solomon,
and that this prince also entertained the same wish, but was
opposed by the citizens of Judah, represented by the
brothers of Sulamith. H. A. Hahn (Das Hohelied von Salo
mon, Breslau, 1852) refers it to the relation of the Israel-
itish king to heathen nations, and of the missionary duty of
the former towards heathenism ; and other interpreters have
explained it in various other ways.

All these allegorical explanations, however variously they
may be modified, are unnatural from the nature of the work
itself, and can only be carried out in a very forced way ;
and none of them are suggested by the contents of the
book itself. By impartially reading it, we are, on the con
trary, led to the belief that the book contains songs of an
erotic character, referring to the love between two persons
of different sexes.

, An interpretation of this sort was brought forward by
Theodorus of Mopsuestia (d. about 425), to whom, however,
it was imputed as heresy, as, long after his death, the fifth
(Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, A.D. 553, pro
nounced a general anathema on him. Subsequently also,
for the same reasons, the Eeformist divine Seb. Castellio,
who wished, under this conception of the book, to remove
it out of the Canon, was impeached before the Senate at
Geneva, and was expelled the city (1544; d. 1563, as Pro
fessor of Greek at Basle). Other interpreters, who under
stood at least the immediate sense of the book in this way,
are H. Grotius, Simon Episcopius, Clericus, &c., and, later,
J. D. Michaelis, Herder, &c. By the ingenious way in
which the book is dealt with by the latter (Lieder der Liebe,

Authorship. 261

die dltesten und schonsten aus dem Morgenlande, Leipzig,
1778), the above ideas as to it have been circulated in a
wider sphere, at least in the German Protestant Church,
and have been acknowledged to be correct by most of the
scholars of this Church ; as also by Delitzsch (Das Hohelied
untersucht u. ausgelegt, Leipzig, 1851).

This opinion would doubtless have prevailed more gene
rally and at an earlier time, if it had not been for the fact
that the book was included in the Canon of Holy Scripture.
It is certainly probable, as we shall see in the history of
the Canon, that the book first attained to general acknow
ledgment as a canonical scripture in the Jewish Church
itself, only because it was considered to admit of an
allegorical explanation. We see, however, from this very
fact, that this interpretation was not the usual and pre
vailing one at the time of the formation of the Old-Testa
ment Canon, but that then and up to that time it had been
referred to sexual love. We have, however, in tlfe Old-
Testament Canon itself at least one song, although a shorter
one, which may be considered as a parallel to our song in
this sense, viz., Ps. xlv, which was without doubt composed
as a nuptial song, or congratulation at the marriage of
some Jewish or Israelitish king, and does not admit of any
allegorical interpretation without much forcing.

284. Authorship Age of Composition.

Those expositors, however, who agree in the opinion
which we have here expressed, still differ very much on
other points, viz., as to the author and age of composition ;
whether it was composed by Solomon, to whom the super
scription attributes it, and if not, whether in the age of
Solomon or later ; whether by one or several authors, and,
in the former case, if it is the work of one author, whether
the whole of it was composed as one work or at least in
reference to one and the same circumstance, so that the
lover and the loved one are the same persons throughout,
or whether there are not various songs unconnected with
one another in reference to different circumstances and
persons. On these points I will content myself here with
making the following remarks :

(a) In the first place it may be assumed with the greatest
probability, that the book had but one author; this is

262 Origin of the several Books Tlie Song of Solomon.

pointed out by the similarity of character, literary style
and language, and the recurrence of so many individual
references.

(6) Some passages clearly relate to Solomon and the cir
cumstances of his time, so that there can be scarcely a doubt
that they were written in the age and neighbourhood of
this prince ; thus especially the nuptial song, ch. iii. 6-11 ;
alsoch. i. 5 ; viii. 11, if.

Many persons incorrectly fix the date of the book con
siderably later, at the time of the Captivity or in the Persian
age, thus Eichhorn, Bertholdt, Urnbreit (Lieder der Liebe,
&c., 1820, second edit. 1828), Rosenm uller (Hupfeld) and
others ; Evvald (Gesch. Isr. iii. 458, if.) places it in the first
century after Solomon, in the kingdom of Israel.

(c) The very same passages however make it in the
highest degree probable that Solomon himself was not the
author, but some other poet at the time and in the vicinity
of Solomon ; cf. also ch. i. 4, 12.

(d) Finally, as regards the composition of the book, several
modern interpreters * have endeavoured in various ways to
prove its unity as a continuous dramatical representation of
one and the same circumstance. But none of these attempts
at explanation are satisfactory, not even the one carried out
by Delitzsch in so ingenious a way.

He refers the whole, as composed by Solomon, to the cir
cumstances affecting one maiden from the first falling in
love of the lovers up to their wedding, and divides the
whole into six acts and each of these into two scenes :
(1) Ch. i. 1-ii. 7 : the commencement of mutual love. (2)
Ch. ii. 8-iii. 5 : their mutual seeking for and finding each
other. (3) Ch. iii. 6-v. 1 : the going to meet the bride
and the nuptials. (4) Ch. v. 2-vi. 9 : the rejected but
afterwards regained love. (5) Ch. vi. 10-viii. 4: how
Sulamith, who is ravishingly beautiful, shows herself to be
as a princess both simple and modest. (6) Ch. viii. 5-14 :
visit of Solomon and Sulamith to the home of the latter
and confirmation of their covenant of love. This concep
tion of it presents, however, much that is difficult and
improbable, as to which I will only mention as follows. The
section, ch. iii. 1-5 and ch. v. 2-7, Delitzsch would con-

1 Thus, e.g., Umbreit, Ewald (Das Hohelied Sal. Gottingen, 1826,
and Die Poetischen Biivher d. A. B. i. p. 41, ff.), Delitzsch, &c.

Date of Composition. 263

sider as a dream of Sulainith, only because they* could not
be understood as statements of actual events in the history
of the love of Solomon and Sulamith ; but the account in
the book itself offers no suggestion at all to consider these
passages as a dream. In ch. i, the passages v. 7, f., v. 12, ff.,
also v. 17, are altogether unfavourable to the idea that
Solomon himself was the lover ; the latter manifestly appears,
on the contrary, to have been a shepherd, and a different
person to the king ; in the same way he appears as a
herdsman, ch. ii. 1(5. also ch. vi. 8, 9, where the speaker
and lover contrasts the one object of his love to the numerous
queens and concubines of the king. Solomon s wedding-
song, ch. iii. (3-11, appears clearly to have been composed
by some other poet than Solomon himself; and in the same
way we cannot imagine that Solomon would have praised
himself in so extraordinary a way, as that in which the
lover is spoken of in ch. v. 9-16. Thus these views of
Delitzsch can hardly be considered as correct, and some
other ideas, which look upon the book in this way as a
unity, are just as untenable.

The more probability we find for the belief that the
whole book was composed by one author, and in the age of
Solomon, the more, I think, we are compelled to assume
that it includes various erotic songs, which bear reference
to various circumstances and various persons, and only
partly to Solomon ; on the contrary, they mostly relate to
the circumstances of persons in a pastoral condition and in
the country ; and there must of course exist a doubt, whether
they were actual matters of fact which the author had in
view, or merely ideal circumstances.

3. ECCLESIASTES, OR THE PREACHER.

285. Author-snip and Tendency of the Book.
This book, like Proverbs, is one of the class of didactic
compositions or Maschals ; it does not, however, consist of
a number of maxims loosely strung together, but forms
the continuous soliloquy of a wise man on the vanity of all
human affairs. These remarks are placed in the mouth of
a man who is called (ch. i. 1, 2, 12 ; vii. 27 ; xii. 8, 9. 10)
, and is designated as the son of David, and king in

264 Origin of the several Books Ecclesiastes.

Jerusalem (eh. i. 1, 12). There can, therefore, be no doubt
that they are intended to be considered as spoken by king
Solomon, and that fprfp is therefore a designation of Solomon,
and is a term framed by the author himself in reference to
the way in which the king appears in the book. The most
ancient, the most usual, and also the most probable expla
nation is, that it proceeds from /&gt;np, to gather together (the
people), and therefore signifies the assembler, and thence the
orator before the assembly of the people or wise men.

In the same way EKKX^cnacrT^s, as the LXX expresses
the word, from eKKaXclv. Cf. Jerome, ad Eccles. i. 1 " e/&lt;-
K\.7]o-Lao-T^ Graeco sermone appellatur, qui coetum, id est
ecclesiarn, congregat ; quern nos nuncupare possumus con-
cionatorem, eo quod loquatur ad populum et ems sermo
non specialiter ad unum, sed ad universes generaliter diri-
gatur." In Luther, Prediger.

The feminine form here occasions some difficulty, as the

form ?rtp would have been more looked for. In opposi
tion to this, it has been remarked that in proper names
the gender is often not suitable to the sex of the person
indicated, and that many names of men occur, particularly
in later times, with the termination H"" as J"n?D and n"i3D.
Ezra ii. 54, 57 ; Keh. vii. 57, 59. But this explanation is
not sufficient, because 0?rfp is no actual proper name, but
only an appellative designation for Solomon, selected by
the author. Ewald and Koster (Das B. Hiob u. d. Pred. Sal.
&c. Schleswig, 1831), interpret it as actually expressing
the thing preaching (wisdom), and that this was, by the author,
treated as a proper name. Essentially, it amounts to the
same thing, when Knobel and others (Comment, uber d. B.
Koheleth, Leipzig, 1836), give it an abstract signification .as
a neuter. But it must not be lost sight of that it is in
tended here -as a designation of Solomon, and is therefore
treated as masculine; v. ch. i. 2, xii. 8, 9, 10. In one pas
sage, ch. vii. 27, in the Masoretic text indeed, we read
n?np rntttf ; yet there, without doubt, we should follow
earlier interpreters, and join n to the following word,
^rD PL 1 ""??&gt; just as it is in ch. xii. 8 even in the Masoretic
text. 1

1 Cf. Das Berliner Gymnasialprogromm, von C. Kleinert ; Der
Prediger Salomo ; Uebersetzung, sprachliche Bemerkungen und Eror-
terungcn zum Verstandniss, 1864.

Authorship of the Book. 265

As regards the origin of the book, the universal opinion
in ancient times was that it was written by Solomon ; which
is the view of Welte and Ludwig von Essen (Eector of the
Progym. at Juliers) x among modern writers. But Grotius
and Jlerm. von der Hardt 2 (1714) have pronounced a con
trary opinion, and it is at present almost generally acknow
ledged that the author s assumption of Solomon s name, for
the person speaking, is nothing but a literary embellishment.
The composer might very easily be induced to do this,
inasmuch as he could not readily have found a more suit
able person to testify to the vanity of all earthly things,
than this king who had so thoroughly given himself _up to
the enjoyment of them. That there is an assumption of
Solomon s name is clearly shown by several passages.

Among these are not only the conclusion, ch. xii. 9-14,
in which the author appears speaking in his own person
as distinct from Koheleth, 3 but also several passages in the
rest of the book, in which the character of the person
assumed has not been strictly carried out, as ch. i. 12
" I, Koheleth, was (TV!?) king in Jerusalem over Israel ;"
ch. i. 16, " I have gotten more wisdom than all that have been
before me in Jerusalem ;" and ch. ii. 9, " I increased more
than all that icere before me in Jerusalem," all which does
not.appear very natural as coming from the son of David,
who first captured Jerusalem.

As to the date of the composition of the book, it may be
assumed with certainty that it took place at a period after
the Captivity.

(a) It was written at a time when the temple and the
service in it existed. This is shown by passages such as
ch. v. 1, ch. ix. 2. (6) Yet certainly not before the Captivity
but some considerable time after it ; this is pointed out by
the whole nature of the language and the prosaic character
of the composition. It is also full of Chaldaisms, 4 such as

1 Der Fred. Salomo. Schaffhausen, 1856.
" Vide Jntrod. ii. p. 204, if., by Carpzov.

3 This concluding speech is indeed pronounced by many interpreters,
as Doderlein Scholia in librus V. T. poeticos, 1779, and Salomo s Pred.
u. Itohes Lied, 1784), J. E. C. Schmidt (Salomo s Pred. 1794), Bertholdt
and Kiiobc l, to be not genuine, but, as I believe, for insufficient reasons.

4 The Dissertatio de Aramaismis libri Koheleth, in which Ed. Bohl
(Erlangen, 1860) endeavours to claim the authorship for Solomon, is
unsatisfactory. Also Heinr. Aug. Hahu, in his commentary on our

266 Origin of the several Books Ecclesiastes.

we scarcely meet with in any other of the Hebrew books
of the Old Testament, (c) In favour of its composition at
a later age, is the complaint as to much book-making, ch.
xii. 12. (cT) It may be inferred from various passages that
the Jewish people were then under kings who gave much
occasion for complaint, and to whom they paid but an
unwilling obedience, and that these were foreign kings,
and not hereditary monarchs of their own race (cf. ch. iv.
13-16 ; v. 8 ; viii. 1, ff., 9 ; x. 4, 16, f., 20).

We cannot ascertain anything more exact on this point.
The composition may have perhaps taken place in the latter
period of the Persian dominion, as Ewald and* others
assume ; perhaps, however, still later, at the time of the
Syrian rule over Judasa.

The passage, ch. iv. 13, if., appears to refer to some dis
tinct historical fact, when some personage not sprung from
the royal race had come to the throne out of a prison.
But to whom this may refer cannot be ascertained.

As regards the prompting cause for, and aim of the book
it represents to us the internal struggle which the author
felt in the contemplation of earthly human matters, and of
the vanity of human efforts in the constantly recurring
periodical course of events. He repeatedly recommends as
true worldly wisdom the enjoyment of the good things and
pleasures of life (ch. ii. 24-26 ; iii. 12, f., 22; v. 17-19; vii.
14; viii. 15; ix. 7, 10; xi. 7-xii. 7). But these remarks
manifest no atheistical epicureanism in the author.

Not only does the book conclude (ch. xii. 13, f.), as
summing up the whole matter, with the summons to fear
God and keep His commandments, for " God will bring
every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether
it be good or whether it be evil," but the whole course of the
argument is based everywhere upon the consciousness, ex
pressed in the most distinct way, that God is the Almighty,
from whom everything proceeds, who gives life, wisdom,
and all good things to men, whose working is for ever
lasting, who makes everything beautiful and watches over

book (Leipzig, 1860), as well as Hengstenberg and Iveil. express them
selves in favour of Solomon being the author, and think that it tends to
the disgrace of orthodox divinity, that the rationalistic opinion as to
Ecclesiastes has been so willingly given way to.

Tendency of tlie Book. 267

all (ch. ii. 26 ; iii. 10, f. ; v. 1, 7, 17-19 ; viii. 14 ; ix. 1-3);
that in His own good time lie will bring everything to
judgment, and that He will finally bless those who fear
Him, but not so the wicked (ch. viii. 12, f. ; iii. 17 ; xi. 9) ;
that mere man cannot understand the works of God, and
that they are unintelligible to him (ch. iii. 11 ; viii. 16, f.),
and that man must not venture to strive with God, who
only tries him (ch. iii. 18; vi. 10), but that he must fear
God (ch. iii. 14; v. 1; vii. 18). Koheleth, therefore, re
commends the enjoyment of the good things of life, inas
much as they are given us by God (ch. iii. 12, f., 22 ; v. 17),
and places this in opposition to those who are unsat^fied
with their lot and complain about present things, as if
former times had been better (ch. vii. 10), and also to those
who only strive after riches without taking pleasure in the
enjoyment of them (ch. v. 1 1, ff. ; vi. 2, ft .), also to those who,
in their proud self-conceit, consider that they alone are
wise, and aspire to the fame of an austere righteousness
(ch. vi. 16-18), as there is no man on earth who is just and
without sin (ch. vii. 20).

Certainly the book affords no just satisfaction for any
religious want. In it, as Oehler 1 justly remarks, "the con
trast between the Divine perfection and the vanity of the
world is represented as irreconcileable the latter as an un
deniable experience, the former as a religious postulate."
But it is both moving and elevating to see how this latter
belief is held fast to amid every doubt, and how the author
everywhere recurs to it.

The book, too, is frequently deficient in a well-arranged
train of thought, and the author gives himself up freely to
the course of his own feelings, adopting foreign matter and
appropriate aphorisms, just as they occurred to him,
although they were but distantly connected with the lead
ing idea of the book, and could be joined on but very loosely
to the matter preceding them.

1 Prolegomena zur Theol. des A. T. Stuttg. 1846, p. 90.

208

THE BOOK OF JOB.

286. Nature of the Book Review of Contents.

This book is a long and continuous didactic compo
sition in an interlocutory form. For the chief matter of
the book, and by far the larger portion as to extent (ch.
iii xlii. 6) consists of long discourses, the speakers being
partly Job and his friends, and partly Jehovah Him
self. An introduction or prologue in the form of a narra
tive (ch. i. and ii.) precedes these, and in the same way
they are followed by a concluding narrative or epilogue
(ch. xlii. 7-17).

In the prologue Job is at once represented as the chief
person (iVN), a pious, righteous man in the land of Uz,
blessed with many good things. Uz was probably situate
in the desert of Arabia, north of Idumsea, and east of Judasa,
not however immediately adjacent to the latter land. On
the occasion of an assembling of the sons of God, among
whom was Satan, the latter raised wicked doubts as to the
disinterested sincere piety of Job, who was then given up
to him by Jehovah, so that Satan received power to bring
upon Job whatever evil he wished, but was forbidden to
lay his hand upon his person ; and that thus Job s piety
would have an opportunity of showing itself. In conse
quence of this, great misfortunes came upon Job ; in one
day he lost his flocks, his servants, and all his children ;
but he still bent in pious submission to the will of Jehovah
who had given and also taken away. But when, never
theless, Satan persevered in his doubts to Jehovah, Job
was given up to him for bodily chastisement, only his life
was to be spared ; Satan therefore brought a leprosy of the
sorest kind upon Job, who, however, by all this, was not
induced to sin against God. Three of his friends, Eliphaz
the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naama-
thite, heard of all the misfortune, which, in this shape, had
come upon Job, and came to him by common agreement,
but found him so disfigured that they could not recognize

Review of Contents. 269

Lira; silent and full of grief they sat round him for seven
days and nights.

Thus much we find in the prologue. Next follow the
long discourses, firstly between Job and his three friends,
ch. iii-xxvi. This section may be divided into three acts,
so to speak, the three friends answering Job s complaints
and discourses three separate times, one after the other :
First, Eliphaz, next Bildad, then Zophar, only that the
third time, the two former alone speak ; Zophar, as it
appears, not venturing to interfere again. The essential
point aimed at in the discourses of the friends is, from the
very first, that no innocent person suffers ; this rule they
always distinctly apply to Job, arguing that he also must
have merited his sufferings by his sins, and urging him to
turn to God in full confidence, and to be converted to the
Almighty, Most High, and Holy God, who punishes only
in conformity with justice. Job perfectly acknowledges
the greatness of God, before whom all must bow ; but he
maintains that God destroys the innocent as well as the
wicked, indeed that the wicked who care nothing about
God are seldom visited with destruction, but that, on
the contrary, they enjoy lasting and flourishing good
fortune. He repeatedly pours forth vehement lamenta
tions as to the intolerable nature of the misery brought
on him, and complains that his friends insidiously utter
accusations against him, which they are not able to
prove. Even if he had sinned, God, to whom no injury
would arise from it, should rather forgive him, than
allow him to perish in his misery ; still he is conscious of
no injustice, and protests his innocence, often expressing
the hope that God Himself would undertake his justifica
tion. After Job had thus reduced to silence his three friends,
he still goes on speaking (ch. xxvii-xxxi), at first address
ing himself to his friends (ch. xxvii-xxviii), then in what
follows (ch. xxix-xxxi), without paying any attention to
them. His discourse begins again with another decided
protestation of his innocence ; but he then adds the expres
sion of the idea that the lot of the wicked would be cer
tainly hopeless, and that sudden destruction should fall
upon him, whilst God s protection should be afforded to the
pious and righteous, (ch. xxvii) ; to this is joined a con
sideration of the value and profundity of wisdom, which

270 Origin of the severed Books Job.

man, though he may penetrate the depths of the earth,
cannot fathom, and only God can understand ; who sets
before men, as the only wisdom, to fear God and to avoid
evil (ch. xxviii). Next follows a sorrowful consideration
of his former prosperity, and of the misery and ignominy
into which God had now plunged him, although he feels
conscious that by his former conduct he had not deserved
it (ch. xxix. 1-xxxi. 34) ; he then expresses the wish that
God might hear him, and that for his justification He would
set before him, in what he had sinned, and that he would
boldly confront Him, concluding with an imprecation upon
himself, if he had been guilty of any injustice (ch. xxxi.
35-39). The chapter concludes with the postscriptum,

It goes on to relate, how another man, not hitherto named,
Elihu, the son of Barachel, the Buzite, of the race of Ram,
took up the discourse, full of indignation against Job, be
cause he justified himself before God, and not less angry
with the three friends, before whom, he, as the younger,
had kept silence, because they knew not how to answer
Job s discourses (ch. xxxii. 1-6). Elihu s discourses extend
to the end of ch. xxxvii, in different portions, which are
also sometimes specially introduced (ch. xxxiv. 1, xxxv. 1,
xxxvi. 1). His discourses, by their style, give the impression
of a diffuse, vain character ; they are not, however, other
wise inferior in their value to those of the previous speakers.
The essential ideas contained in them are these : that Job
acted very wrongly in maintaining that he was pure, and
thinking that he suffered innocently and God had brought
these misfortunes on him through enmity, and that man
was no better off through his piety, than if he sinned ;
but that, on the contrary, God requited every one only
according to his conduct, and punished without partiality,
and with equal severity, both the highest and the meanest ;
that this is done to warn men and make them better, if
they sin against. Him, but that He will bless for ever those
who feel remorse, and will give up to shameful sufferings
those who harden themselves and are exasperated at their
visitation ; that the suffering ones must wait with patient
submission; that God is generally too lofty for man to
venture to call Him to account for His dealings ; and that a
human being must not dare to accuse God of injustice, who

Review of Contents. 271

in His works in nature shows Himself so sublime and un
searchable, whom also, we are not able to find out, but
only have to fear.

Now, however, Jehovah Himself condescends to speak,
answering Job out of the whirlwind ; the latter having
challenged Him to set forth his guilt (ch. xxxi. 35, ff. ; cf.
ch. xiii. 22). Summoning Job to prepare for the conflict,
He proposes to him, one after the other, a series of questions
as to the wonderful phenomena of nature, both animate and
inanimate, both of earth and heaven, so as to induce in
him a vivid consciousness of the imperfection of the human
intellect and human knowledge, as opposed to Divine wis
dom and omnipotence (ch. xxxviii, xxxix). He calls upon
Job to answer it, him who had presumed to dispute with
the Almighty (ch. xl. 1, 2). Job, however, now acknow
ledges himself humbled, and that he is too mean to be able
to answer anything, and that he will no longer speak
against God (vv. 3-5). But Jehovah repeatedly calls upon
Job, to prepare himself to declare to him his questions ; he
asks, whether, in order to justify himself he would be really
willing to condemn Him, and whether he can rule the
thunder with Divine power and majestj , and bow down the
proud and annihilate the wicked ; for that then He would
praise him (vv. G-14). Then Jehovah describes still more in
detail as to their nature and doings, two wonders of the
animal world, the hippopotamus and the crocodile, which
were especially well fitted to show to men their own weak
ness and the creative power of God (ch. xl. 15-xli); in
this description Jehovah also (ch. xli. 11) asks the ques
tion, who hath surpassed Him, that He should repay him ?
but that everything on the earth was His. Job now con
fesses more decidedly his acknowledgment of the Divine
omnipotence, and is full of repentance fur his wrong and
foolish behaviour in calling God to account, for which his
only excuse was his previous imperfect acquaintance with
God (ch. xlii. 1-6).

The epilogue (ch. xlii. 7-14), then tells us that Jehovah-
reproved Job s three friends of Elihu, nothing is said
on account of the purport of their discourses, in which
they had not spoken rightly of God, as Job had done, and
they are enjoined to oiler up a burnt offering for themselves
and to induce Job to intercede for them ; and that for his

272 Origin of the several Books Job.

sake only, Jehovah would not punish them for their per
versity. This demand they then complied with. After
that, Jehovah restored to Job the double of all the good
things which he had lost, and gave him also seven sons
and three daughters, the most beautiful in the land, to
whom their father gave possessions ; and Job lived (after
this) 140 years, and saw his descendants to the fourth
generation, and then died, old and full of days.

287. As to the Historical Character of Job s Person and Life.

In the first place, it is a question if this book gives, and
intends to give, a history based on facts, or merely an
imaginary composition. Most of the ancient interpreters
adopt the former view. They not only take Job to be an
historical person, but also consider the entire contents of the
book as historical. Ezekiel xiv. 14-20, mentions Job, naming
him between Noah and Daniel, as the only men whom
Jehovah would deliver, in their own persons, an account of
their righteousness, when he gave over their whole country
to destruction on account of its sinfulness. It may, how
ever, be assumed with probability, that this mention of Job
took place merely in reference to the way in which he
appears in the book we are discussing ; and that we cannot
infer from it, that Ezekiel was acquainted with anything
else as to the existence and history of Job. No authority,
however, can be given to the statements of the LXX, and of
later authors, especially of the Arabians.

The latter go so far as to relate all kind of things about
Job, as to his family, his age, his disease, &c. ; his grave is
also shown, but in six different places, from which it can be
sufficiently inferred, how little value is to be put on these
later statements. V. Fliigel, in Ersch and Gruber s Attgem.
Encycl, Art. " Hiob " (Sect. ii. vol. viii. p. 298, f.) ; d Herbelot,
Orient. Bibl., under " Ajub" (i. p. 235, ff.) The LXX have
some additions at the end of the book, which are indeed
ancient, but still of only Christian origin ; they mostly
contain. genealogical statements as to Job and his friends,
in which, among other things, we are told that his name
was previously Jobab, who is mentioned in Gen. xxxvi. 33,
as an Edomite king ; this is, however, manifestly an entirely
arbitrary combination, to which a certain similarity be
tween the names 3i*N and 22r, particularly in the Greek,

Its Poetical Character. 273

form Io&gt;/3, Io&gt;/3a/2, has given rise. Josephus mentions no
thing about Job. 1

Therefore for deciding the question as to the historical
character of Job s person and the narrative about him, we
are exclusively directed to the book itself. But from its
whole nature, it may be asserted with certainty, that the
book has no historical tendency.

In the Talmud the contents are pronounced by a Eabbi
Eesch Lakisch 2 , to be a purely parabolic composition ; Baba
Batlira, fol. 15, 1 " Jobus nunquam exstitit neque creatus
est, sed parabola est," The verdict of Moses Maimonides
is the same (More Neboch. iii. 22), as well as that of the
ecclesiastical author Junilius (De Partibus Legis. Div.). lib. i.,
of Theodorus of Mopsuestia, and, at a later time, of Clericus
and others. In modern times it is pretty generally assumed,
that the book neither is, nor is intended to be, of an his
torical nature.

From its whole contents it can in no way be considered as
purely historical ; on the contrary, its composition is, with
out doubt, generally poetical.

In particular, the consultations and resolutions at the
assemblage of the heavenly hosts could not well be a sub
ject for human narrative. The kind of matter, therefore,
which our book gives in the prologue, even if the rest of
the book were historical, could only be deduced from the
result, namely, from the whole course of the events occur
ring on the earth ; and the statements in this part of the
work must be considered as a poetical embellishment. It is,
besides, absolutely incredible that in the condition in which
Job was when the hand of God was so heavily laid upon
him, such long and ingeniously-composed discourses should

1 Cf. on this point " Lectures on Job :" " It caunot be decided that
Josephus did not consider Job to be an historical person ; he might have
omitted to mention him, because, according to our book, he does not
appear either as an Israelite or as one of the ancestors of the Israelitish
people, nor is he included in any part of their history. That Josephus,
on the contrary, considered our book as actually historical, may be con
cluded from the passage Cont. Apion, i. 8, where, in the enumeration of
the Sacred Books, he must have included Job among the thirteen, in
which the prophets living after Moses down to the time of Artaxerxes
(Longimanus) TO. KUTCL avrovs Trpax^eVra (rvvtypatyav.

2 Others incorrectly ascribe tiiis to the Rabbi Samuel bar Nachmanja,
who, on the contrary," attacks E. Resell Lakisch. It is correct in Magnus
(Commentar zum BucJie Hiob, i. (Halle, 1851), p. 298).

VOL. IX. T

274 Origin of the several Books Job.

have been actually maintained between him and his friends
as we here read of (as Luther says, " There is not so much
talk in trouble ;" Tischreden [VV. A. xxii. 2082] ) ; and it is
just as little credible that, even if these conversations were
really held, they could have been subsequently exactly
repeated by any author, even an ear and eye-witness, in
deed not even by Job himself. We must, therefore, in any
case, consider that the discourses which manifestly form
the principal part of the book are, in their present form
and extent, the literary work of the author. But even in
that portion which tells about Job s external circum
stances the poetic hand is readily to be discerned if we
notice the parallel which exists, according to the epilogue,
between the things which were given to Job after his
sufferings and those which he previously possessed the
same number of sons and daughters, the exactly doubled
number of his herds of cattle, &c.

It might possibly be the case that the author did not
originate all his matter spontaneously and independently,
but that he followed something that he met with, either in
tradition or in some earlier work.

Thus it is, at least, not improbable that he did not form
the name of Job on purpose for his work ; for in that case
we should expect that the name would present, in its ety
mology, some clearly prominent reference to the part that
Job was to play in it, which, however, is not the case. It
is, therefore, at least not improbable that the author met
with the name of Job in connection with either a written or
oral tradition as to the heavy trials of some man bearing
this name in former times, with, perhaps, also the land of
Uz mentioned as his dwelling-place. How much besides
he may have met with cannot, from the nature of the case,
be ascertained with any certainty or even probability.

This, however, is certain, that the portion of the book
which is, perhaps, historical, was not related by the author
with any historical aim, but was made use of by him only
as a foundation for his composition, and to suit his pur
pose, and that the discourses in the book especially were
composed in an arbitrary way just as the didactic aim of
the author suggested.

Aim of the Author. 275

288. Aim of the Autlior Ideas asserted.
The author s 1 aim is differently understood even by those
who look upon the whole as a didactic composition. Many
ancient interpreters have conceived its chief aim to be, to
set forth Job s behaviour as an example of patience for the
imitation of all sufferers. But for this purpose Job appears
in the book as too little in action, and is also by no means
represented as so perse veringly patient and resigned with
out hesitation to the will of God. Among modern inter
preters Schlottmann 2 particularly has sought to establish
that the aim of the book is to represent the conflict and
victory of the pious in the heaviest troubles. But this is
certainly not the correct idea. On the contrary, the author,
doubtless, seeks to impart instruction as to the procedure
and counsel of God in reference to the relation of evil to
the moral conduct of men ; for the subject to which all the
discourses in the book relate is the heavy afflictions which
were brought upon Job by Divine dispensation or permis
sion, and the Divine intention in this visitation.

According to the idea prevalent among the Hebrews, in
the spirit of strict retribution inherent in the Mosaic law,
the worldly fate of men, both in general and in detail, was
considered to be settled by their conduct according to
either their piety or sinfulness ; therefore when a man
was visited by great affliction it was thought that he had
offended God by some act of peculiar guilt, and they were
also inclined to look upon continuous worldly prosperity as
the reward of eminent piety. Thus the unfortunate who
were visited with severe and long-continued afflictions
must have often found that they were considered as the
peculiar objects of the Divine wrath and displeasure, and
that it was thought that their afflictions were brought upon
them on account of their sins sins perhaps hidden from
the eye of man and that for this reason, harsh, injurious
judgments were passed upon them by their pious fellow-
countrymen, indeed by their closest friends, although they

1 A peculiar revival of the allegorical comprehension of the book i.s
&lt;nven by the Archidiaconus Seinecke (Der Grundgedanke des finches
Hiob, Clausthal, 1863), who understands by Job the servant of God, in
Is. xl-lxvi, or the pious nucleus of the people.

- Das B. Hiob verdeutscht u. erldutert. Uerlin, 1831.

276 Origin of the several Books Job.

themselves might be conscious that they had not know
ingly wandered from God s paths. Now, the author of our
book may have felt these bitter experiences either in his
own person or in that of another. Many of the songs in
the Psalter the so-called Penitential Psalms relate to
circumstances of this sort in which pious sufferers heavily
visited with evil of various kinds, and on this account
exposed to the insults of men, pour out their lamentations
to God, and implore His help. Some Psalms are devoted
to considering the lot of the pious and ungodly, in refer
ence to the Divine justice, and with giving instruction
on the point, as Psalms xxxvii, xlix, Ixxiii. This, then,
may be considered as the theme also of the Book of Job.
The usual opinions of the Hebrews are represented in it
by the speeches of Job s friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and
Zophar, also partly of Elihu. Proceeding on the idea that
every misfortune happening to men is well deserved, and
that the godless only can be continuously unfortunate,
they believe they are justified in supposing that Job also
had merited his sufferings by his sins. They express this
to him sometimes insiduously, sometimes candidly, but
always with great harshness, and call upon him to turn to
God. Many truths occur in their discourses, but the lead
ing idea from which they proceed is unmistakeably intended
by the author to be pointed out as erroneous, as evidently
appears from the prologue and epilogue : from the pro
logue, inasmuch as in it the whole of Job s misfortune and
sufferings are pointed out as brought upon an altogether
pious man, who was earnestly intent on walking in God s
ways, and on keeping himself and his house pure from sin,
whom also God recognized as His faithful servant, in whom
He had a peculiar pleasure ; in the epilogue, inasmuch as
we are here expressly told that Jehovah admonished Eli
phaz and his two friends, and imposed upon them an
atoning sacrifice, because they had not spoken rightly of
God, as Job had done.

It now becomes a question what idea the author himself
entertained as to the cause for such afflictions. This is
understood by modern interpreters in various ways ; yet,
by an impartial consideration of the whole book, we shall,
I think, be induced to consider that the leading idea and
essential truths which it seeks to assert are as follows :

Ideas asserted in tlie Book. 277

(a) That even a pious man may be visited by God with
heavy and manifold afflictions without its being necessary
to consider these as punishments for any peculiar sinful-
ness, or as signs of peculiar Divine displeasure ; that it
was reprehensible to reproach such a one with his suffer
ings as if they were caused by God s displeasure, but that,
on the contrary, they were decreed or permitted by God,
so that the piety, faith, and virtue of the sufferer might be
proved, and might find a suitable opportunity of showing
themselves (for this is expressly pointed out in the prologue
as the aim of the misfortunes happening to Job).

(6) That it is foolish presumption on the part of men to
be angry with God on account of the misfortunes befalling
them, and to wish to call Him to judgment on account of
them. That no man is in a position to fathom the wisdom
and the counsel of God, and that true wisdom for men
must be set down as this to fear God, and to avoid evil.

^(c) But that Jehovah will at last certainly pity the
pious sufferer if only he persevere in his piety and hold
fast to God, or, in case he has transgressed in his depres
sion, if he repents, and will bless and gforif y Him.

In the first place, ancient interpreters are wrong in
understanding the author s idea to be (as, e.g.. J. D.
Michaelis, Einleitung in die gottl. Scliriften des A. B. p. 2:3)
that Divine justice will not show itself until in a future
world, after the resurrection, in the rewards and punish
ments which will then be decreed for men according to
their piety or ungodliness. This opinion is gathered from
an explanation of Job s speech (ch. xix. 25-27), which was
formerly very popular followed even in the Vulgate and
Luther s translation in which these passages are referred
to the resurrection, and the justification to be expected after
it. In modern times also this interpretation has some
times been brought forward, in reference at least to a future
life after death, and the justification to be then expected,
e.g., by Ewald, Schlottrnann particularly, and others. But
this, according to the words, is decidedly wrong, 1 as in the
whole book generally there is no conception of a resurrec
tion, or of a retribution after death ; but, on the contrary,

1 Cf. also the work of Seinecke, and my remarks in the TJieol Stud,
und Krit., 1863, p. 811, f. ; also the treatise by J. F. Eabiger, Professor
at Breslau, De libri Jobi sententia primaria, 1800.

278 Origin of the several Books Job.

as in many of the Psalms, there are various expressions
which decidedly indicate the opposite idea (v. ch. vii. 7-10 ;
x. 20-22; xiv. 7-12; xvii. 13-16).

On the other hand, the author s view cannot have been,
as has been supposed sometimes in modern times (e.g., by
Bernstein in Keil and Tzschirner s Analelcten, Bd. i. [1812],
Part 3), to oppose the doctrine ; of retribution altogether
and absolutely, and to attack the idea of any connection
existing between the worldly fate of a man and his mo
rality. In Job s discourses it is indeed repeatedly asserted
that the wicked who despise God are the very ones to
enjoy a continuous, flourishing good fortune ; thus particu
larly ch. xxi. and xxiv. But we certainly cannot consider
this as an idea, the assertion of which was the author s aim.
These expressions can only be the utterances of a depres
sion of mind, into which the best of men might fall if they
were in the condition in which Job then was, and spoken
in opposition to the speeches which his friends made
against him. But after the latter were put to silence the
author makes Job himself before the appearance of Je
hovah, in ch. xxvii. 8, n. express his own conviction that
the lot of the wicked was a hopeless one, and his wealth of
short duration, and that sudden destruction should strike
him. But, finally, in the epilogue, Job s piety finds its
reward after he had humbled himself before God, and had
acknowledged with repentance how wrong and foolish his
conduct had been when he called God to account. He is
eminently restored to his former prosperity; he is blessed
by children in his house, and attains to a good old age.

From the foregoing it also appears to be wrong when
many interpreters, as Knobel (De carminis Jobi argumento
fine ac dispositione. Breslau, 1835), Heiligstedt (Comment,
in Jobum. Leipzig, 1847), and Hupfeld (Deutsche Zeitschrift
fiir Christl. Wissenschaft, &c., 1850. Nos. 3537), consider
the aim of the author to be exclusively or principally to
point out that men cannot penetrate into the Divine coun
sel, and must therefore submit, in believing resignation, to
everything that the latter decrees for them.

289. The Prologue and Epilogue Their Author.

If the idea here developed as to the didactic aim of the
book be correct, it follows that the prologue and epilogue

Prologue and Epilogue. 279

form a most necessary part of it, and that the view enter
tained by many that they did not originally form a part of
the book is decidedly erroneous. Some of the reasons which
have been brought forward for this view are manifestly
wrong, and some are irrelevant.

Carpzov thinks, that although the whole of the discourses
were written by Job himself (before Moses), the prologue
and epilogue were subsequently added (by Samuel) ; and
many later interpreters have also considered that they were
added subsequently, among others, Stuhlmann (Hiob ; Ein
reliyidses Gedicld, &c., Hamb., 1804), Bernstein, also earlier,
De \Vette, and finally Knobel (ut supr. and TheoL Stud. u.
Krit. 1842, ii. pp. 485-495). Considerable importance has
also been laid on the circumstance, that in the prologue
and epilogue God is usually called Jehovah, but in the
discourses this designation is avoided. But the cause for
this is that the composer himself was a Hebrew, and he
does not make either Job or his friends appear as Israelites,
but as pious men of some other race, and, indeed, in
patriarchal times. For this reason, in their discourses he
makes them abstain from the use of that name, which had
prevailed among the Israelites from the time of Moses for
the only true God, whilst he himself, the Israelitish
author, usually, makes use of it, not only in his narrations
in the prologue and epilogue, but also wherever, in his
introductory words to God s speeches, he is compelled to
name Him, ch. xxxviii. 1; xl. 1, 3, G ; xlii. 1. Even in
the prologue, when Job and his wife speak, they call God
Elohim and not Jehovah, ch. i. 5 ; ii. 9. It is otherwise,
indeed, in ch. i. 21, where Job says Jehovah more than
once ; this, however, must be considered as a mere incon
sistency, which we might have well expected to find in an
Hebrew author. The term Jehovah also occurs in Job s
speech, ch. xii. 9, and, according to the original reading,
most probably also in ch. xxviii. 28, likewise the result of
a certain inaccuracy in the language. Therefore, from the
existing data, we may absolutely conclude that there is no
variety of authors. There may be a greater appearance of
difficulty in the contradiction which exists between ch. i.
19, where all Job s children are made to perish, and
ch. xix. 17, where, in Job s discourse in his time of suffer
ing, his children are presupposed to be existing. It is not

280 Origin of the several Books Job.

probable that in the latter passage the children spoken of
are intended for grandchildren, as Ewald, Hirzel (Hiob,
]839, 2nd edit. 1852), and others will have it; it should
rather be acknowledged as another inaccuracy of state
ment. But it is not at all to be wondered at, if, in the
purely poetical treatment of his matter in a comparatively
voluminous work, the author should have, as it were, for
gotten himself in the flow of his language ; and this can all
the less feasibly serve as a proof of a variety of authors,
as in ch. viii. 4, xxix. 5, the account in the prologue of the
destruction of Job s children is evidently presupposed.

Without the prologue, the whole book would not be easily
intelligible. It is only in the prologue that it is distinctly
made clear to the reader what neither Job nor his friends
make known in their discourses how Job s sufferings are
really to be understood, viz., that they were sent on him
that his piety might find an opportunity of showing itself.
That this is actually the author s intention cannot well be
doubted from the tendency of the discourses themselves ;
yet in the latter, even in Job s last speech and in Jehovah s,
it is not made distinctly prominent, which would certainly
have been done if the author had not previously laid it
before his readers.

For the same reasons, Heiligstedt s opinion is untenable,
who, indeed, looks upon the prologue generally as original,
but excepts the account of the transactions in Heaven,
between Jehovah and Satan, ch. i. 6-12, ii. 1-7 ; for it is
in these very verses that the idea is intimated of the reason
for Job s sufferings. The epilogue, too, must necessarily form
part of the book, the contents of which, without the former,
would be evidently insufficient for the reader, especially for
the Hebrews.

290. EWius Discourses Opinions as to tlieir Originality,
Nature, and Aim.

Another opinion, however, must be passed as to the dis
courses of Elihu (chapters xxxii-xxxvii). By ninny modern
critics these are looked upon as a later interpolation. 1
On the other hand, others have pronounced decidedly for

: Tims Stuhlmann, Bernstein, De Wette, Eichhorn (Edit. 4), Ewald,
Hirzr], Knobel, Heilisfsttdt [Delitzsch], and others. Cf. Bltek, Theol.
Stud, und Kr:t, 1858, ii. p. 3G8, ff.

Elihu a Discourses. 281

their originality. 1 But the greater probability is in favour
of the former opinion.

The principal reasons are as follows :

(a) These discourses are unmistakeably inserted with a
very disturbing effect on the rest of the contents of the
book.

Thus, when we are told in ch. xxxviii. 1 : " Then Jeho
vah answered Job out of the whirlwind and said," we
should certainly expect that Job s discourses immediately
preceded, to which this admonition of Jehovah referred.
Everything here would fit in beautifully if we looked
upon Jehovah s admonition as being in immediate connec
tion with Job s last discourse preceding the questionable
section, in which last discourse, just before its conclusion,
ch. xxxi. 35-37, he expresses, with bold confidence, his
earnest longing that God Himself would answer his com
plaints, and would acquaint him how he had sinned against
Him. God s appearance follows on to this in a very suit
able way, which leaves nothing to be suggested, whilst the
intervention of Elihu s reproofs, divided into four long
discourses, form a very disturbing element.

(&) It is very surprising that, in the rest of the book, not
the slighest notice is taken of Elihu and his discourses.

He appears without his coming being spoken of, whilst
we should expect that this would have been mentioned just
in the same way as that of Job s other three friends (ch. ii.
1 1 , if.), especially as he evidently shows himself to have
listened to all the previous discourses, and must, therefore,
have been present from the first. It is still more sur
prising that afterwards, when he had delivered his dis
courses, he is no more spoken of at all. K either does Job
answer his discourses, as he did all the preceding ones,
nor is he named in the epilogue, in which it is told that
the other three friends were reproved by Jehovah on
account of their harsh speeches against Job.

Among the defenders of the originality of Elihu s dis-

1 Thus Juhn, Bertlioldt, Rosonmi dler, Staudlin (Beitrlige zur Philos.
u. Gesch. der Rel&gt; &lt;j. und Sittenlehre, ii. p. 132, if.), Umbreit, Roster (Das
B. Hiob u. d. Pred. Salomon, 1831), and particularly Stickel (Das B.
Hiob, Leipzig, 1S42) : also Herbst, Welte (Das Buck Hiob, Freiburg,
1849 , Hiiveruick, Halm (Comm. iiber d. B. Hiob. Berlin, 1850j, Schlott-
niann, K.eil, and, in a certain sense, Bunsen (who considers that these
discourses were supplementurily added by the same author).

282 Origin of the several Books Job.

courses there are two directly opposite opinions as to their
aim and character. Many, as dmbreit, Koster (and formerly
Eichhom), and others, are of opinion that the author
wished to represent Elihu as a superficial babbler, who
spoke very diffusely, without being able to adduce any
thing of a striking nature, who, therefore, was tacitly
despised by Job, and was not considered by Jehovah as
worthy of any special notice. But, then, we should neces
sarily expect that Elihu s discourses would be in them
selves entirely vain and worthless, and that they would
contain nothing but trivial or false assertions, so that the
author would presuppose that their emptiness and objec
tionable character would be recognised by the reader as a
matter of course ; but this, as we have before remarked, is
in no way the case. Others and among them Staudlin,
Eosenrniiller, Stickel, Havernick, Sohlottinann, and Bunsen
take the opposite view, considering that the poet has
already in these discourses sought to give the solution of
the question, and thus to prepare for the appearance of
Jehovah. This opinion, from the didactic character of the
discourses, is, at any rate, more natural than the former.
The author unmistakeably seeks to vindicate as religions
truths those thoughts which he attributes to Elihu as his
own. But then we should quite expect that something
would be told us of their effect, and the impression which
they made on Job and his three friends, and that, in the
epilogue, Jehovah would have expressed his approbation
of this champion, as he did his disapprobation of the three
others, and that the author would have in some way in-
limated what relation he intended Elihu and his discourses
to bear to the rest of the book and its aim.

The explanation given by Hahn is quite insufficient ;
he thinks that Elihu filled the part of arbitrator between
Job and his three friends, and that on this account he was
not further noticed. But he does not at all appear as an
arbitrator, but, just like the three others, as an opponent
to Job ; and even if he were an arbitrator, no motive is
shown for Jehovah s silence about him, notwithstanding that,
according to Halm s own opinion, Elihu s discourses must
have proceeded from the same point of view as those of the
three other friends.

Nature and Aim of Elihu s Discourses. 283

courses as regards their style, in the pomposity and boastful
tone which prevails in them : cf. ch. xxxii. 8, ft . ; xxxvi.
3, &c. If we compare them with the other discourses in
the book, we might readily form the supposition that the
author intentionally planned to represent Elihu as a vain,
ostentatious fool. But as this opinion would be inadmis
sible on account of the didactic contents of the discourses,
this peculiarity of form can be caused only by the literary
character and individual taste of the author himself; so
that this also would be a ground for thinking that they
were composed by a different author from that of the rest
of the book, who shows, in this respect, a much simpler
feeling, and sounder taste.

Many other differences may also be brought forward,
which /although not decisive in themselves, may yet seem
to corroborate the above.

Among these, e.g., is the fact that Elihu alone addresses
Job by name (ch. xxxiii. 1, 31 ; xxxvii. 14; cf. ch. xxxii.
12; xxxiv. 5, 7, 35, 36; xxxv. 16), and that he at the
outset expressly recapitulates the point in dispute, to
which his discourse is to refer (ch. xxxiii. 8-10 ; xxxiv.
5, 6; xxxv. 3): also that these discourses present often
recurring peculiarities in the language, and, in particular,
more Chaldaisms than the rest of the book.

The author s aim is again only a didactic one ; to assert
the truths which he makes Elihu utter as to God s relation
to men, and as to the way in which men should look upon
the sufferings sent by God, and how they should comfort
themselves with regard to God s dealing with them.
These truths may not have appeared to him to be set forth
sufficiently and expressly enough in the book as he found
it, and he perhaps feared that the way in which, in the
epilogue, Job is justified by God, and Job s three friends
are reproved, might work prejudicially, if he did not meet
Job s assertions, so liable to give offence, in some other way
than either by means of the three friends, or by Jehovah s
appearance.

He sought, therefore, to explain in these discourses
how, in his opinion, such expressions of displeasure were
to be met. It may be assumed, with great probability,
that the words, at the conclusion of ch. xxxi, " the words
of Job are ended," were added at the time of- the insertion

284 Origin of the several Books Job.

of Elihu s discourses, and b} the same author, in order to
separate the long discourses of Job which precede from
Elihu s discourses, which were here inserted.

Various expositors have endeavoured to prove that
some other passages in the book are also later additions ;
thus (a), Bernstein, the fragment ch. xxvii. 7-xxviii. 28, in
Job s speech ; (I) Stuhlmann, Bernstein, and De Wette, the
description of the crocodile, ch. xli. 4-26, Ewald (in Zeller s
Theolog. Jalirbb. 1843, No. 4, pp. 740-751), the description of
the crocodile, and the hippopotamus, i.e., the whole section,
ch. xl. 1 5-xli. 26 ; but all alike, as I believe, without suf
ficient grounds.

291. Question as to tlie Authorship and Date of the Book.

With regard to the origin of the book, there can be, in
the first place, no doubt that it is the work of an Israelitish,
i.e., Hebrew author.

But very few have entertained a different opinion to
this, as e.g., Herder (Geist der Hebr. Poesie. Vol. i.), and
Ilgen (Jdbi antiquissimi carminis Hebraici natura atque vir-
tutes. Leipzig, 1789), who consider that the author was an
Idumgean. This, however, must be considered as an anti
quated idea, for the Israelitish origin of the book is at pre
sent generally acknowledged; as to this, v. particularly
Bernstein, ut supra, and De Wette, 291, Note (a). There
is likewise very little foundation for its being considered
by others as a translation from a foreign original, either
from the Arabic and Syriac. For the latter opinion, the
addition at the end in the LXX is especially relied upon ;
OUTOS epfjirjveverai CK TT}S ^,vpLaK^&lt;s fiifi^ov. Most probably,
however, it is the existing Hebrew book which is there in
correctly styled Syriac ; otherwise no importance at all can
be placed on this statement, which is to be considered de
cidedly false.

There is more difficulty as to the age of the composition.
The date of it falls, on the one hand, later than the days of
David and Solomon, and on the other hand, before the
Babylonian Captivity probably between the Assyrian and
Babylonian exiles.

The Talmud ascribes the book to Moses (v. p. 192, vol. i.),
likewise also other Rabbis, the author of a commentary ex
tant under Origen s name (as to this, v. Carpzov, Inttod. ii.

Date of the Composition. 285

52), Ephraem Syrus, and various later Christian scholars,
especially J. D. Michaelis. Others go so far as to assume
a pre-Mosaic age, as Carpzov, Eichhorn, Jalm, Stuhlmann,
and Bertholdt. The chief reason for fixing this early age
is, that, in the book itself, there is not thought to be any
reference to the Mosaical law and institutions, and to the
Israeli tish history. But this, so far as it is correct, is
caused by the literary disguise assumed by the author,
making Job and his opponents to appear as pious men of
some adjacent nation, and not as Israelites, for which reason
also, he makes him abstain from the usual term Jehovah.
But as the author, in the discourses here given, does not,
as we have seen, follow out the abnegation of his religion
and his nation with full consistency, neither does he com
pletely exclude the circumstances of his age, by which he
was surrounded. Thus, when in ch. xii. 17, in a discourse
of Job, we are told that " God leads away captive council
lors and priests, places kings in fetters, and renders impo
tent the noble and mighty," we may assume with the
greatest probability that the author had had experience of
such proofs of the Divine power in his own people. And
when, in ch. xv. 18, Eliphaz says that he will show that
which " wise men have told from their fathers, unto whom
alone the earth was given, and no stranger passed among
them," we may suppose that at the date of the composition,
the author s native country was repeatedly overrun by
enemies, and partly occupied by them. (Of. also ch. ix.
24.) Passages also, such as ch. xiii. 26, xxxi 35, lead us to
a later time than at least the Mosaic age, since it appears
from them that, at the time of the author, it was customary
to bring written complaints before tribunals. Moreover,
our book appears so much the product of varied, continuous
reflection, that we are necessarily led to presuppose that
a more comprehensive and multiform system of literary
art prevailed among the people than can be assumed with
any degree of probability to have existed among the Is
raelites in the Mosaic age or still earlier. 1 These con-

Cf. For/, tiler Hiob : " There are ideas in them, which, framed in
this way, do not occur at least in the older Scriptures of the Old Testa
ment, and in all probability were not generally adopted by the Hebrews
until a later time, as particularly that about Satan. Also, the whole
language of the book has unmistakeably a greater similarity to the
later than to the earlier Scriptures of the Old-Testament Canon."

286 Origin of the several Books Job.

siderations decidedly lead us to bring down the composition
to a later age than that of Solomon or David, in which it
has been placed by Luther, Doderlein (Scholia in libros
Vet. Test. poet. Halle, 1779), Standlin, Rosenmiiller, Welte,
Havernick, Hahn, Schlottmann, Keil, and others.

On the other hand, it is inadmissible to date the com
position at the time of the Babylonian Captivity, or in the
Persian age, as some of the Kabbis named in the Talmud,
as well as H. von der Hardt, Clericus, Bernstein, Gesenius,
(Gesch. der Hebr. Spr. u. Schrift, 11), Umbreit, Bunsen,
Seinecke, and also De Wette (Einl. edits. 1 to 4), and Vatke
(Bibl Theologie. i. p. 563), have done. For it may be as
sumed with great probability that Ezekiel was acquainted
with this book (Ezek. xiv. 14-20 ; cf., above, p. 22i&gt;), and
not less so, that Jeremiah had it in view and repeatedly
imitated it, thus particularly in Jer. xx. 14, ff. (cf. Job iii.
3, ff.), and in some other passages. Thus, also, the last editor
of the Book of Proverbs the author of ch. i-ix. appears
to have imitated several passages (v. in Eosenmiiller, Schol.
p. 35, f. ; Heiligstedt, p. xxiii). We shall, therefore, be
led to a time at all events before the Babylonian exile,
and probably between the Assyrian and Babylonian captivi-
tiea; among modern expositors, Ewald, Hirzel, De Wette
(edits. 5 and 6), Stickel, Heiligstedt, and others, generally
agree in this.

The composition of Elihu s discourses consequently falls
later, probably after the Babylonian Captivity, which, per
haps, the author had in view in ch. xxxvi. 8. 1

As regards the place of composition, it may be assumed
with great probability, that the Jsraelitish author lived and
wrote in Palestine, but perhaps not in Jerusalem or its
neighbourhood (for in that case we should expect that
some allusions to this centre of the worship of the true
living God would have unconsciously escaped him) but
more on the borders of the land, in a region, where not
only the life in cities, but also that of the wandering

1 Cf. Vorl. iiber Hiob : " The frequent occurrence of Chaldaisms, and
the general linguistic character of these discourses also lead us to a
later age than the rest of the book does ; likewise, with great pro
bability, certain things among the dogmatic conceptions, as particularly
ch. xxxiii. 22, f., the idea of deatli-bringers (destroyers) as a dist/ nd
class of angels, which certainly did not belong to the time before the
exile, as also the idea of angels who minister by instruction.

Place of Composition. 287

tribes was presented to his perception, in a region also re
peatedly attacked and beset by hostile armies ; and perhaps
situate, as Stickel thinks, in the south-east of Palestine, on
the borders of the Edomites and Arabians. The author
appears, at least, to be well acquainted with the customs
and ideas of the people of the East, and also not without
some knowledge of Egypt. At least his description of the
hippopotamus and the crocodile, although not quite exact
as regards natural history, makes it not improbable that he
had at some time lived near the native country of these
animals.

It must not, however, be concluded from this that the
book was written in Egypt (as Hitzig, without proof, al
leges, Der Prophet Jesaja, p. 285), and still less, as Hirzel
assumes, that it was the work of a Jewish exile in Egypt,
or as Bunsen decides it, of Barucli. On the contrary, the
particular way in which he expatiates on the description
of these two creatures, as extraordinary natural wonders, in
which more than anything else the power and wisdom of
God are shown, makes it probable that he had not, known
them from his earliest youth, but that he had found an
opportunity of becoming acquainted with them in his later
years, and for a comparatively short time.

As regards the more approximate motive for the com
position, several interpreters, as Bernstein, De Wette, and
others, look for it in national circumstances. They are of
opinion that the author had in view the unhappy condition
of the Israelitish people, in their relations to other heathen
nations, and that in the course of the book he intimated that
the people, if they only maintained a firm faith in Jehovah
and His worship, would finally be brought by their God
to a state of prosperity and to greater glory than they
had previously possessed. But there are in the book no
distinct intimations which justify such an opinion, any
more than in the greater number of the Psalms of Lamenta
tion. It is, on the contrary, much more probable that the
author was first incited to the composition of his work by
the circumstances which were presented to him in the do
mestic affairs of his people ; by the contemplation of the
severe and continuous sufferings which the most pious ser
vants of Jehovah specially underwent, which, too, he him
self perhaps had sometimes experienced, so that in his com-

288 Origin of the several Books Job.

position, he strove both to ward off the unjust, hard-hearted
opinions formed by others, as to the reasons for such suffer
ings, and also to admonish those who were suffering not
to "dispute with God as to their afflictions, but to consider
them as only a trial coming from Him, and to wait patiently
in humble faith and obedience, sure that then He would
at last certainly again bless and glorify them.

289

SECOND DIVISION.

HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 1

292. Nature and Method of the Investigation.
THE whole of the books which we have been considering
are united in one complete collection of writings, which
we call the Canon of the Old Testament, i.e., the aggregate
of those books which are of authority as authentic sources
of knowledge for revealing the Old Covenant, and as a
code of rules (KCIVWI/) for determining the faith and course
of life of those who are in relation to the ancient Book.
The second part of our task is to show how this collection
of books was formed and how it has fared with it, as regards
botli its actual extent and also its authority, from its
first formation up to the present time, firstly in the Jewish
and then also in the Christian Church. As regards the
formation of the Canon, we find ourselves in much the same
position as when we considered the origin of so many of the
separate books viz., that any distinct express statements
on the point which we have at our command are of a date
at which they could no longer be considered as authentic
tradition, and they are also of that nature, that much that
is unmistakeably false is mixed up with matter which is to
some extent true. In this consideration we are constantly
driven to suppositions, and to combinations of separate
matters of fact ; and in doing this we must lay down as our
basis, on the one hand, the earliest possible statements as to
the collection of the Sacred Books, and, on the other, the re
sults of our previous investigations into the origin of these
scriptures separately. I can only give here some short
notices on these points.

1 Cf. A. Dillmann : Ueber die Bildung d. Sammlung heil. Schriften
A. T., in the Jahrbb.fur deutsche Theolog. iii. (1858) 3, pp. 419-491.

VOL. II.

290

A. HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT AMONG
THE JEWS.

293. The Book of the Law.

The Torahthe Mosaic Law confessedly forms the ground
work of the Canon of the Old Testament. We have before
seen that a considerable number of laws were not only
promulgated by Moses himself, but were also written
down by him, and that these were, perhaps quite early,
united in collections and were, at least from the age of
Saul and David, adopted as integral elements of historical
works which contained the history of the people of Israel
at the time of Moses, as well as of the preceding and subse
quent periods up to the taking possession of the land of
Canaan. The Mosaic law, although it was often disregarded
and infringed, had, of course, at all times prescriptive and
canonical authority for the Israelites. Still it cannot^ be
shown, indeed it is altogether improbable, that at any time
before the completion of the Pentateuch and the compo
sition of Deuteronomy, any such authority was ascribed^to
any single work containing these laws. This authority
was doubtless first ascribed to our present Pentateuch, after
Deuteronomy was added, but not before its discovery in the
Temple in the eighteenth year of Josiah, thirty-six years
before the destruction of Jerusalem, although its composi
tion in its present extent may have taken place fifty to eighty
years earlier. We may perhaps assume that then and after
wards it was considered that this work contained the Mosaic
law in its authentic shape, and the work thus received as a
Scripture a prescriptive canonical authority. During the
Captivity, however, which so soon followed, when the Tem
ple was destroyed and the people were living far from the
Holy Land, the law could have been but little observed as
regards its ceremonial precepts. The Book of the Law was
then perhaps read by few ; as we see in Isaiah xl. if., that
a great part of the people were at that time partakers of
the idolatry, or at least of the image- worship of heathen
nations. But it is indubitable that since then the Penta
teuch has remained unaltered as the Book of the Law, and

TJie Book of the Law. 291

that the Jews brought it back out of their Captivity in the
same state as that in which they took it thither. Accord
ing to Neh. viii-x, it was solemnly acknowledged by the
people at Jerusalem in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah,
nearly 100 years after the return of the first exiles.

We read (Neh. iii. 9, x. 2) that Ezra, at a time when
Nehemiah was governor of the land of Judasa, there
fore about 444 B.C., read out the Book of the Law to the
people assembled in Jerusalem for several days from morn
ing to mid-day, and that afterwards the people pledged
themselves to it in a solemn manner, all the princes of the
people, and the Levites and priests (who are particularly
mentioned), binding themselves to its observance by formal
subscription, the rest of the people following them by
taking an oath, and swearing that they would be willing
to comply with the Divine Law given by Moses.

Ezra now, doubtless, took care to make the Book of the Law
more accessible to the people by means of copies, since he is
styled as ISEL 1 throughout the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah,
and this is often done in express reference to the Mosaical
law ; v. Ezra vii. 6 : HPD rnina THO "iBiD-fittm., and w. 12, 21 ,

in the letters of Artaxerxes : ^| KW %;^ NTH ISO. We
may assume with probability, as before remarked (p. 366,
vol. L), that if the Book of Joshua had remained up to that
time united with the Book of the Law, and was not sepa
rated from it at Josiah s time, the separation must have
been made in Ezra s time, and perhaps by him. Thus much
is certain, that since that time our Pentateuch "in its present
extent has been continually acknowledged by the Jews as
the authentic Book of the Law, and has maintained as a
Scripture a prescriptive canonical authority.

294. Nature and Extent of Nehemiah s Collection of Books.

There can be no doubt that in this age, and perhaps by
Ezra and Nehemiah, other writings also of peculiar national
and religious interest were collected together, both histori
cal, prophetical, and poetical. Many of these writings were
already invested with authority, but they had not been
combined in any fixed collection, and had not been divided
from others of the same natui e.

This applies, e.g., to the prophecies of the earlier pro-

292 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

phets, so far as they were extant in a written form. We
find that the later prophets sometimes appealed to the earlier
ones; cf. Jer. xxvi. 17, f. Thus the author of Isaiah xl. if.
appeals to the earlier prophecies, in which Jehovah pre
dicted the things which were just then on the point of
happening ; thus also Zechariah refers (ch. i. 4, vii. 7, 12)
to the warnings which Jehovah had given to his people
through the prophets before the Captivity (D^&on DW33n).
But there was no one collection formed of these older pro
phetical writings, to which any peculiar authority had
been attributed beyond any others then extant. And in
the same way we cannot doubt that even before the Capti
vity, and both during it and also after the return of _ the
exiles, the lyric songs of ancient poets, particularly David s,
were made use of for public worship, as well as for private
edification ; cf. 2 Chron. xxix. 30, where we are told that
Hezekiah cause^l the Levites to sing praises to Jehovah in
David s and Asaph s words. Doubtless even before the Cap
tivity, collections of songs were made for the same purpose
as our hymn-books, but not perhaps with fixed limits and
exclusive authority. This was also the case with the
many historical works which were in existence as to the
earlier history of the people of Israel or of certain distin
guished men among them.

There is an express statement on this point in the
2 Mace. ii. 13 : " The same things also were reported in
the writings and commentaries of Neemias (e^yowro Sc /cat
V TOIS dvaypac/&gt;ats /cat iv rots vTro/xv^yaancr^ots TOIS Kara rov
Nee/Atav ra aura) ; and how he established a library (/cat a&gt;s
KarajSaXXo/xei/os (3i^\io6^K7}v) , and collected (frujvvrjyayc) ra
irf.pl TWV /3a(rtXeW /cat Trpo^roov (/3t/3/Yia) KCU TO, TOV AamS /cat
eTTto-ToXas /3ao-iA.eW Trcpt ava^e/xarojv."

This passage is found in the certainly unauthentic letter
of the Jews of Palestine to those of Alexandria, in which
they summon the latter to take part in the festival of the
consecration of the temple. The author, however, quotes, and,
as may be easily seen, reports accurately, the above state
ments out of some other work, which he styles Nehemiah s
writings and commentaries. This is not our Book of Nehe-
miah, but some Apocryphal work, perhaps that of which a
part has been preserved under the name of the Greek Ezra,
or the Third Book of Ezra, also 6 tepevs. Touching the

Nehemiatis Compilation. 293

statement itself, as it stands, we have certainly no reason
for doubting its correctness. This tells us that Nehemiah
arranged a public collection of books, doubtless such as had
some peculiar interest for the people, but which had not
been before collected together. 1 \Ve have perhaps a right
to suppose that the above statement is not quite complete
and exact. It shows us however of what kind these scrip
tures were generally.

There are named here, firstly (1) TO. Trept TWI/ /?ao-&lt;AeW /cat
7rpo0r/rcov. By the former expression we may doubtless
understand historical writings as to the reigns of the kings
of Israel and Judah ; the latter expression, however, which
is perhaps joined to the former somewhat incorrectly, we
must suppose to mean prophetical writings, which contained
the predictions of prophets. And if we notice how, in the
Hebrew Canon, the prophetical Scriptures follow imme
diately after the Scriptures relating the Jiistories of the
kings of Israel and Judah, we shall be led to the view that
these are the very books which Nehemiah caused to be
collected, and to which he gave their present combination
and order of succession. 2 This is corroborated by the fact
that there is also named (2) TO. rov Acu/iS, by which our
Book of Samuel is certainly not intended, as Bertholdt
thinks, but David s writings, doubtless the Psalms, which,
in the Hebrew Canon, now immediately follow the prophe
tical Scriptures.

295. Books included in Nehemiah 8 Collection.

If now we compare the present contents of the Canon of
the Old Testament with the result of our previous investi
gations into the origin of the several books, we may, with
probability, make the following assumptions :

(a) That the collection of Psalms either had at that time

1 According to Dillmann (ut supra, p. 447, ff.), the books named here
were a part of a larger collection of books arranged by Nehemiah,
which, however, contained many works not become canonical. The full
completion of the second division of the Canon falls, on the contrary, m
the fourth century B.C.

It is decidedly wrong, when Movers (Loci quidam histort x canon is
Vet. Test, illmtrati. Breslau, 1842, p. 15; understands the whole expres
sion, TO, Trepl TUIV jSamXeW Kal Trpo^Tuv, as designating our Books of
Chronicles, which could in no case have been thus styled.

294 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

or then received its present extent; probably, also, it was
then brought to a conclusion, and divided into fave books,
after the manner of the Pentateuch.

(6) That the collection of the prophets then formed
contained all the prophetical Scriptures which now exist
in the second division of the Canon, and in the shape
they are therein found-the Books of Isaiah Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets Not impro
bably several of these books, as particularly Isaiah and
Zechariah,then first received their present shape, in which
the prophecies of some other prophets of either a later 01
earlier date were united with those of the above-named

P1 fcVThat the works (ra ircpl rav /WiXeW ical Trpo^rw) men
tioned first and before the prophetical ones were intended
for the Books of Samuel and Kings, which, at any rate m
the Hebrew Canon, precede the prophets and as we have
seen are so closely connected with one another and also
have been constantly considered by the Hellenistic Jews as
one work, the BoA of Kings. But we may also suppose
that some works treating of the history of the people of
Israel previous to the Books of Samuel were adopted into
this collection; and that they were the very books which
now exist in the Canon, therefore the Book of Judges and
also perhaps the Book of Joshua, if this latter had been then
separated from the Pentateuch, as was highly probable.
The point Nehemiah had in view in this collection as re
gards the historical books was, in all probability to include
those which contained a continuous history of the people
of Israel, from the point at which the already generally
acknowledged Pentateuch left off down to the Babylonian

be assumed with probability that this collec
tion was not arranged until after the solemn renewal of
the people s obligation to the Torah, and also that while
Ezra lived, he also took a personal share in the arrangement
of it. But on this point nothing more certain can well be
ascertained. It is not, however, improbable that on this
occasion the historical books underwent some alterations at
the beginnings and conclusions, so as to connect them
more closely one to another, as we now find them \et
anything of this sort which then took place was not veiy

Books included in Nehemiah s Collection. 295

important, nor such as to warrant either Ezra or the then
compiler being styled the author of the books (as Bertheau
says, v. above, p. 388, vol. i.)

(e) It may be assumed with probability that the Book of
Ruth was then adopted into the series of historical books,
after the Book of Judges ; and its acceptance must have
appeared to be justified, inasmuch as it supplied informa
tion about the early history of the forefathers of David, the
ancestor of the kings of Judah.

The Book of Ruth not only follows Judges in the LXX
and Vulgate, but it also appears to have had the same posi
tion in the first century after Christ among the Hebrew
Jews, and to have been numbered with the Book of Judges
as one work, as we may conclude from the statements of
Josephus, Melito, Origen, Jerome, and others, as to the
Hebrew Canon (cf. 303-308, ff.). But this is most easily
explained, if it received its position at the first collection of
these books.

(/) Similar reasons lead us to assume, with regard to the
Lamentations, that they also were adopted into this collec
tion, and had their place after the prophecies of Jeremiah,
which they have continually retained in the LXX.

(0) It cannot be decided whether any other of the
poetical books, which are now in the third division of
the Hebrew Canon, were then adopted into Nehemiah s
collection.

Evidently, this could be the case with those only which
were then existing, and this can be assumed with certainty
only of the Book of Job, Solomon s Proverbs, and Solo
mon s Song. It is possible that these were then adopted,
and have, since then, remained combined with the others ;
but it is also possible, and indeed more probable, that they
were not joined to the rest until later.

(7t) In 2 Mace. ii. 13, after the ra TOV AcuAS are named as
having been adopted into Nehemiah s collection, there is
also mentioned eVio-roXai /3acr/AcW -rrcpl uvafle/mTcov. By
these, doubtless, are intended, as Grotius rightly under
stands it, letters of foreign princes, and particularly of the
Persian kings, as to the plans and donations for founding
the newly-instituted Temple at Jerusalem, and certainly
not, as Hengstenberg thinks (Beitrage, i. 243, f.), merely the
letters of the Persian kings contained in our Books of Ezra

296 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

and Nebemiah, "hut some other letters, which, from their
purport, must have been of considerable interest for the
Jews at that time. 1

(i) We are not told in the passage, 2 Mace. ii. 13, nor is it
very probable in itself, that Nehemiah then combined these
books with the Book of the Mosaical Law in one whole. On
the contrary, we must doubtless think that he made a col
lection of them separately from the Book of the Law, and
that in this he combined, out of the writings of his own time
and those that were extant of a more ancient date, just
those books, which, as well as the Book of the Law, were
of peculiar interest for his people, partly as evidences
through history and prophecy of the continual Divine
guidance and revelation, and partly for liturgical and
didactic use. In all probability this collection remained
separate from the Torah fcr some time longer, and enjoyed
from the very first an authority which, although not similar to
that of the Torah, was of no inconsiderable importance, and
greater than that of other ancient writings which were
then extant, but had not been adopted into this collection,
although sometimes of similar contents; as particularly
many historical books with which we become acquainted
from the quotations in the Chronicles.

296. Union of the Torah with the other BooJcs in the Collection.

The authority of Nehemiah s collection of books perhaps
increased in course of time. How long a time elapsed
before it was united with the Torah into one whole cannot
be ascertained with any exactitude. The passage, Dan.
ix. 2, shows that, in the" beginning of the Maccabean age,
the collection of scriptures, in which the prophecies of
Jeremiah were found, were designated as the Scriptures,
KO.T c&xqv (Q 1 1?PL 1 ), by which only Holy Scriptures with
prescriptive, canonical authority can be intended; this,
however, makes it most probable that these books were
then united into one whole with the Pentateuch, and were,
indeed, considered as one.

In this combination the several books of Nehemiah s
collection were, doubtless, arranged in the order in which
they stood when they formed a separate collection, which

1 Movers is quite incorrect (ut supra, p. 15), in thinking that by this
expression our Book of Ezra is meant.

Books not included by Nehemiah. 297

also is pointed out in 2 Mace., viz., in essentially the same
order in which they are now found in the Hebrew Canon ;
the historical books, from Joshua to Kings, following the
Pentateuch (only that probably the Book of Kuth came in
after Judges) ; next, the actually prophetical Scriptures, the
greater prophets and among these probably Lamentations
came after Jeremiah the twelve minor Prophets, and then
followed the Psalms, with any other of the poetical Scrip
tures which then might form elements of the collection.

" The Epistles of the Kings concerning the holy gifts,"
the last named in 2 Mace. ii. 13, were omitted ; this was done
when Nehemiah combined his collection with the Book of
the Law, if not earlier ; doubtless because it was felt that
these letters, although interesting in their contents, were,
notwithstanding, unsuitable to remain as independent
works in a collection of books, which were looked upon
as Sacred Books with a specific, canonical authority.

297. Reception into the Canon of the Books not included in
Nehemiatis Collection.

As regards those books of our Hagiographa which Nehe
miah did not then include in his collection, and indeed in
some cases could not have done because they were not
composed till a later time, we cannot ascertain, as to most
of them, whether they were added to Nehemiah s collec
tion before the combination of the latter with the Book of
tho Law, or not until after this event. 1 This applies,
to the Book of Job, and also to the three writings of Solo
mon, and the Books of Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and
Chronicles. As to these latter historical books, it is not
altogether improbable that the authors themselves united
them with, and annexed them to, the other books of the
collection ; either the collection of Nehemiah separately, or
that and the Pentateuch combined. They soon obtained
currency, perhaps in reference to their contents : the Chro
nicles, because it both contained interesting, and sometimes
not unimportant, additions to the books already in the

1 According to Ewald, Ezra (and Nehemiah) were added at the
beginning of the Grecian dominion, and the rest of the Ketubim in the
Maccabean age, in the re-arrangement of the canonical compilation by
Judas Maceubieus, mentioned 2 Mace. ii. 14 ; v. Gesch/chte Inr. vii.
pp. 403-470 ; Gesch. d. Sammlung foil. Schriften, p. 431, ft .

298 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

collection, and in it matters relating to tlie institutions of
Divine worship have special prominence ; the Books of
Ezra and Nehemiah, because they contained a history of
the people of God during a period after the return from
exile, which is not dealt with in the rest of the books a
history specially referring to the civil and religious institu
tion of the re-established Jewish commonwealth ; the Book
of Esther, because it gave an explanation as to the origin of
the Feast of Purim, which had begun to be observed as
particularly sacred. We find, however, in Talm. Hieros. tr.
Megilloth, 70, 4 [v. above, p. 449, 1st vol. and cf. Bertheau s
Erldarung des B. Ester, p. 283] a statement that the intro
duction of this feast met with opposition from some Jews
of importance, from which we may conclude that the Book
of Esther itself must also have been much questioned before
it met with general recognition.

It is also unknown at what date the writings of Solomon
were adopted into the collection, and met with general
recognition. The reception of the Book of Proverbs can be
readily explained, both from a consideration of its moral
value, and also from the name of its author, after whom the
book is named, and to whom, perhaps, the whole was attri
buted. The reception of the two other books was, perhaps,
chiefly caused by a respect for Solomon, after whom they
were named, and to whom their composition was, perhaps,
attributed ; yet it is not improbable that they had then
already begun to explain Solomon s Song mystically and
allegorically. There are also express intimations among
the later Jews, that all the three works of Solomon, and
particularly Ecclesiastes and Solomon s Song, met with
opposition at a later time from those who opposed their
acceptance among the number of the Sacred Books, and
that this opposition only disappeared because they began
to be differently explained than they were previously the
Song of Solomon doubtless allegorically.

Thus we read, Capitula, E. Nathan, c. i, at the begin
ning : " At the beginning, there were some who said that
the Proverbs, Solomon s Song, and the Preacher, were
apocryphal (D*TW|) ; alleging that they are fiWp, and not
among the number of the Ketubirn ; and thus they opposed
and concealed them (withdrew them from public use, and
pronounced them to be apocryphal), until the men of the

Books not included by Neliemidh. 299

Great Synagogue came and explained them." In the
Misclma, tr. Jadaim, iii. 5, there are statements as to the
disputations of certain Jewish scholars of importance con
cerning the Song of Solomon and Koheleth, whether they
were to be reckoned among the Sacred Books or not in
which a different decision as to Koheleth is spoken of as
being given by the scholars of Hillel and those of Scham-
mai (v. Movers, ut supra, p. 25, f.). Vajjikra Eabba, sect. 28,
fol. 161, col. 2 : " Yoluerunt sapientes aTro/cpwrTeiv librum
Coheleth, quod deprehenderent in eo verba, quae ad di/o/xtW
(improbitatem s. hasresiu) vergunt." Tr. Schallath, f. 30,
c. 2 : " Sapientes qua3rebaiit a.iroK.p\nnf.w librum Coheleth,
eo quod verba ejus se mutuo everterent ;" but that it was
not expunged (^.), in consequence of its beginning
(ch. i. 3), and its conclusion (ch. xii. 13, f.), both of which
were words of the law. Agreeable to this is the statement
of Jerome, ad Coheleth, xii. 13, in which he mentions that
it was declared by the Hebrews, that although the Preacher
appeared to be excluded, together with other works not
adopted into the Canon, on account of its contents giving
offence, still that it was placed among the number of the
Holy Scriptures in reference to its conclusion (ch. xii. 13, f.),
which sets forth, as the sum of the whole matter, to fear
God and keep His commandments.

The Book of Daniel appears, from the result of our
investigations, to be the latest of the Books of the Canon of
the Old Testament. We may suppose, with the greatest
probability, that this book at its appearance met with con
siderable recognition and no opposition among the pious
and law-observing Jews, and that it was very soon inserted
in the collection of Canonical Books.

298. Books not included in Nehemiah s Collection Their
Position in the Canon.

Of all the books which were composed after the age
of Ezra and Kehemiah, as is certainly the case with the
Book of Daniel, as well as with Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles, not one has a position in the Hebrew
Canon among the historical and prophetical Scriptures
collected by Nehemiah; although, from their contents,
they might well have been among the former, they are all
placed after the Psalms and the other poetical books. We

300 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

may gather from this that the Scriptures collected by
Nehemiah must have attained to so much authority among
the Jews of Palestine, and must have also so maintained this
authority after their being combined with the Torah, that
they did not venture to insert any other work in this
series, but were contented with placing them at the end
of the whole collection. Thus, the Hebrew Canon is so
shaped that the historical and prophetical books collected
by Nehemiah follow first after the Torah, next come the
Psalms and other poetical books, and then some later
historical and prophetical Scriptures.

The name for the historical and prophetical books col
lected by Nehemiah, which was usual at least in the second
century B.C., was the Prophets, 0^113, whilst it was some
time afterwards before any established designation was in
use for the rest of the Scriptures, beginning with the
Psalms. We may gather this from the preface, prefixed
about 130 B.C., by the Greek translator of the Book of
Ecclesiasticus, in which preface the books standing in
canonical authority among the Jews are mentioned accord
ing to the three divisions into which the collection is still
separated, and these are designated the first as 6 vo/xos,
the second as ot Trpo^rjraL (twice ; once as at Trpo^reiat), the
third as TO, aAAa Trarpia y8t/3A.ia, and TO. XOLTTO. TWV (3i(3Xi&lt;av,
cf., at the beginning of the preface, TU&gt;V aAAwv ro&gt;v KO.T
GLVTOV&lt;S fjKoXovOrjKOTwv (perhaps masc.).

Connected with the above are the various public uses
made of these books, viz., that, after they had begun to
read out in the Jewish synagogues some of the other books
of the Canon as well as the Pentateuch, passages of the
Nebiim only were made use of for the regular course on the
Sabbaths ; the Psalms, however, were employed for com
mon liturgical use as before, both in the temple arid in
the synagogue ; whilst, on the contrary, no regular public
use of the rest of the Ketubim was made in the synagogue
generally. The custom that some of them, the so-called
Megilloth, should be read out on prescribed feast-days, was
perhaps not introduced till later. Then, also, but not until
a long time after the destruction of the second Temple,
perhaps because they were to be made use of in the same
way, the Books of Ruth and Lamentations were taken out
of their original place in the second division, and placed

Completion of the Canon. 30 1

among the books of the third division, with the three other
Megilloth.

299. Completion of the Canon Comparative Authority of
later Books.

From our previous observations as to the writings of
Solomon and the Book of Esther, it may be inferred that
some books of the Canon were for a long time subject to
the question whether they should be looked upon as Holy
Canonical Scriptures ; and we must assume that it was
but gradually that they attained to more general recogni
tion. It is likewise connected with this, that it was some
considerable time before the Canon was considered as fully
completed as regards this third division of it, and as no
longer susceptible of any further enlargement and altera
tion. Of course this view became so far established, at
least among the Jews of Palestine, that some centuries
before Christ, they entertained a feeling and consciousness
that the Spirit, of God no longer prevailed among the people
in such a way as to produce works deserving to be con
sidered as actual Holy Scriptures, and to be placed by the
side of the Torah and the Prophets. Thus, among the
Jews of Palestine, no work was received into the Canon
which was known to have been composed later than about
100 years after the Captivity.

Thus, e.g., the Book of Ecclesiasticus (written probably
about 210-180 B.C.) was not accepted into the Canon, be
cause its late origin was known ; the book itself making
no claim to high antiquity, and the Greek translator, the
grandson of the author, expressly distinguishing this, his
grandfather s book, from the Canonical Scriptures.

(a) But, in the first place, with regard to historical or
didactic works, the age of which was unknown, or which,
by means of the appropriation of some name as author,
laid claim to be the work of ancient prophets or wise
men, if this assumption found belief, a disposition must
have arisen to attribute to any such work the authority of
a prophetical and Holy Scripture. . Thus, as we have
already remarked, Ecclesiastes and the Book of Daniel
were certainly received into the Canon and also recog
nized as Canonical Scriptures only because they were re
garded as writings of Solomon and Daniel. Although other

302 History of the Canon Among tlie Jews.

works, which were similarly circumstanced as regards their
origin and assumption of an author, were never adopted
into the series of Scriptures of the Hebrew Canon, yet we
cannot doubt that even the Hebrew Jews, taking for
granted the genuineness of these works, placed them in a
position more or less similar to the Canonical Scriptures in
authority and sanctity.

(6) But with regard to some other writings of a later
time, the contents of which were of peculiar interest, as,
e.g., the Books of the Maccabees, which relate the struggles
of the Jewish people for their faith and worship against
the oppression of Antiochus Epiphanes, we may well
imagine that they attained a certain authority as authentic
historical evidence as to a period not unimportant in the
maintenance of Theocracy, and, although they were not
adopted into the series of Scriptures of the Hebrew Canon,
they nevertheless closely approached in authority to several
of the books in the third division, such as the Books of
Esther, Ezra, and Nehemiah.

300. The Canon among the Hellenistic Jews The
Apocrypha.

(c) It is more probable that among the Hellenistic Jews,
the Canon remained unsettled for a longer time, and no
marked distinction was made as regarded their authority
between the books which had been admitted into the He
brew Canon and several others of a somewhat later date.
The question has been frequently propounded, whether the
Jews of Alexandria and Palestine had a different Canon.
This is answered in the affirmative by some, 1 but, on the
contrary, has been denied by most of the Protestant divines
(also De Wette, 176). But it may be held as certain
that among the Jews of Alexandria, even at the time of
Christ, the limits of the Canon of Scripture had not been
exactly fixed. The Greek translation of the LXX was
almost entirely used among them in reading the Books of
Holy Scripture. In this translation not only had several
of the Books of the Hebrew Canon received considerable
additions, which did not exist and never had existed in

1 Seraler, Corrocli (Beleucht. des Jild. und Christl. Bibelkan. i. 155, ff, 1 ;
Miinsclier (Doymengesch. i. 257, f.); August! (Die Fortbi ldung dtf
Christenth. zur Weltrelig. i. 130 ; , and others?.

The Apocrypha. 303

the Hebrew text, such as the additions to Job, and especially
to Esther and Daniel, which were certainly looked at by the
Hellenistic Jews in just the same light as the portions of
the books which were in the Hebrew, but there were also
several books not in the Hebrew Canon, such as Jes. Sir.,
1st and 2nd Mace., Wisdom, and others which stood among
the Canonical Books, and it may be assumed with proba
bility that these, still existed in the manuscripts of the LXX
at the time of Christ and the apostles. It may thus be
easily imagined that most of those Jews who react the Old
Testament in this translation, which at the time of Christ
was much circulated in Palestine, would not be in a posi
tion to make any precise distinction between those books
which occur only in the translation and not in the Hebrew
Canon, and the books which form the latter. The former
books are called by us in the Protestant Church, by way of
distinction, the Apocrypha of the Old Testament.

This name is often met with in the ancient Church, but
not always in the same sense. The word is, at any rate,
derived from aTro/cpuTrretv, and = abscondita. Augustine (De
Civ. D. xv. 23) explains it as pointing out those writings, the
origin of which was obscure, " eo quod earum occulta oricjo
non claruit Patribus." Others, as Hottinger, Bertholdt, Hug,
and Herbst, look upon it as a translation of the Hebrew.
It is often used in the Talmud and by the liabbis for cer
tain works as contrasted with the Canonical Scriptures, aa
particip. pass, from T33 = abscondcre, i.e., to withdraw from
public use. This word often occurs among the later Jews,
sometimes in reference to manuscripts of the Holy Scrip
tures, which, because they were obscure, faulty, or deficient,
were to be withdrawn from public use ; and sometimes in
reference to certain books, which likewise were withdrawn
from public use, i.e., were separated from the number of
orthodox canonical books prescribed for that purpose. It is,
however, very probable that this use of the terms TJ|, T-133 by
the Jews, for designating certain writings as o.7roKpv&lt;/&gt;a, had
not much influence on the ecclesiastical writers, at least
originally. Among these, the use of this word originally
proceeded from an idea of secret and mysterious matters, and
indeed first came into vogue among heretical sects, par
ticularly the Gnostics. These possessed various books, to
which they attributed a peculiar sanctity, the greater part

304 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

of which bore the names of holy personages, either of the
Old or New Covenant ; they asserted that they had obtained
these by means of a certain secret tradition, and for this
reason called them a-n-oKpy^a. In the- main body of the
Church, not only was the genuineness of these works
repudiated, but they were looked upon with all the greater
distrust in proportion as more importance was laid upon
them by the heretics. Ecclesiastical authors retained for
these works the designation aTroVpi^a, partly borrowed from
the heretics in reference to these works, but joined with it
generally an idea of something not genuine and heretical.
There were, however, some teachers of the Church who did
not use the name in so decidedly bad a sense, but applied it
generally to certain works most of which were made some
use of in the Church, in addition to the really Canonical
Scriptures; although they would not wish to see an equal
authority ascribed to the former as to the latter, because
it was at any rate uncertain what their origin was.
Thus Augustine (ut supr.) used and explained the word;
thus also Jerome, in the Prologus Galeatus in libr. Beg.,
where he places in contrast the Canonical Scriptures and
the apocryphal, speaking of the latter as books which, as
he expresses it in the Prcef. in libros Salom. were indeed
read in the Church, ad cedificationem plebis, but not ad auc-
toritatem ecclesiasticorum dogmatum confirmandam. And in
this sense the term Apocrypha has become usual in the
Protestant, particularly the Lutheran, Church, as a terminus
technicus for a certain number of works, those, namely,
which, although not in the Hebrew Canon, exist in the
LXX and Vulgate in close conjunction with the elements
of the Canon, and are placed in Luther s translation as an
appendix. There are, besides, some other books bearing
the names of patriarchs, prophets, or wise men of the Old
Testament, which do not form a portion of the above apo
cryphal writings in the LXX, such as the Fourth Book of
Ezra, the Book of Enoch, the Ascensio Jesaise, &c., which
have been called, perhaps as a distinction from the Apo
crypha, the Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. [Cf.
Herzog s Eeal-Encydop. xii. p. 300, ff.]. Cf. J. A. Fabricius,
Codex pseudepigraphus Vet. Test, castig. et illustr. Ed. 2, Ham
burg, 1722-23.

Authority of the Apocrypha. 305

301. Philo s References to the Canonical Books only.

The fact that none of our Old-Testament Apocrypha are
quoted in Philo and the New Testament is often appealed
to as a proof that not only the Jews of Palestine, or Hebrew
Jews, but also the Jews of Alexandria and the Hellenistic
Jews generally, looked upon the Canon as strictly defined
and concluded after the adoption in it of the latest of our
Old-Testament Books, and that they attributed to no other
works an authority similar to that possessed by those in the
Hebrew Canon. But from the New Testament, at least, we
may rather deduce proofs of a directly contrary opinion, and
Philo affords none that are valid. Philo certainly does not
quote expressly any one of our Old-Testament Apocrypha ;
but there are many of our Canonical Books which he also
does not cite.

His work is principally devoted to the interpretation
of the Pentateuch, considering, as he does, Moses to be the
dpxt7rpo&lt;/&gt;T/T?7s, and the other sacred authors only as Moouo-etos
ercupous. Out of the Pentateuch he quotes innumerable
passages, as well as about twenty utterances out of the
1 salms, but only a few out of the other scriptures ; e.g., hu
does not quote anything from Ezekiel, Daniel, Lamenta
tions, Ecclesiastes, Solomon s Song, Esther, Euth, Joel,
Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah,
Haggai, and Malachi ; out of Job only once, and out of
Isaiah and Jeremiah very few times. Thus, from the fact,
that he does not expressly quote any of our Apocrypha, it
cannot be concluded with any certainty that he did not
place them in a similar category with the prophetical and
hagiographical Scriptures of the Old Testament. It may
be readily supposed that he does not draw any very nice
distinction between them, because he extends very widely
his idea of inspiration, and even attributes it to himself,
so that, excepting those of Moses, he allows no difference,
or at least only a very slight one, between the rest of the
books and his own writings; v. De Cherubim, 9, p. 112,
Ed. Par. ; De Migratione Abraami, 7, p. 39- 3 ; cf. Gfrorer,
Philo, i. p. 57, fl . And in the passage, De Prcem. et Pcenia,
19, p. 927, he quotes an expression which does not exist in
our Old-Testament Books, but must have been found in some
work which is lost, mentioning it just as if it were a state-

VOL. II. X

306 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

iwent of a Oecrm&v, exactly as elsewhere he quotes canonical
passages of the prophets ; and he even brings forward with
it a passage of the Psalms, as being of the same nature.

302. References in the New Testament to the Canonical
Books only.

In the New Testament, none of our Old-Testament Apo
crypha are expressly quoted. But (a) the influence of many
of these books as of Sirach, the Wisdom of Solomon, and the
Books of Maccabees is unmistakeably shown in the tone of
thought observable in the New-Testament authors; numerous
reminiscences of them are also found in their writings.

Thus, particularly in the Epistle of St James, and also
in other books; and in the Epistle to the Hebrews, in
ch. xi, the examples brought forward in the Books of
Maccabees of persevering faith at the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes are alluded to and glorified in exactly the same
way as those heroes of the faith who are described in the
Canonical Books. Cf. my remarks, TheoL Stud. u. Krit.
(1853) ii. pp. 337-349.

(6) In the New Testament we find a use made of the
pseudepigraphical and other non-canonical works of Hebrew
literature, most of which have bten lost; and this use is
similar to that made of the Books of the Hebrew Canon.

Thus, St. Jude (v. 14) expressly quotes a passage from
the Book of Enoch, as a prophecy of Enoch ; and (in v. 9)
makes use (without express quotation) of the purport of a
passage in another pseudepigraphical book (dvaA^is Mari)-
o-ea&gt;s) quite as if it were a genuine scripture. In James
iv. 5, a sentence, otherwise quite unknown to us, out of
some lost work in all probability belonging to later Jewish
literature, is quoted with the form of citation (^ ypa&lt;-)
Aeyei) usually employed for the Sacred Canonical Books.
In the 1 Cor. ii. 9, a passage is cited (xa^cbs ye ypaTrrat) which
certainly is not, as has been supposed, Is. Ixiv. 4, but is
taken out of some lost Jewish work, according to Origen
and others, an Apocryphum of Elias. So, most probably,
the words quoted by the Saviour, John vii. 38, as state
ments of Scripture (/&lt;a$a;9 etTrev 77 ypa^) are derived from a
work since lost; and also in Luke xi. 49, the expression in
the discourse of our Lord?/ o-o&lt;ta rov Oeov CITTCJ/ is to be
considered as introducing a quotation, and that, as in the

New-Testament References to the Apocrypha. 307

former case, from some work of later Jewish literature which
is now no longer extant : v. Stud. u. Krit., ut supra, 326-335.
(c) On the other hand, several of our Canonical Books,
as Obadiah, Nahum, Esther, Ezra and Nehemiah, the Song
of Solomon and Ecclesiastes, are not mentioned at all in the
New Testament, and we find no traces of any influence
being exercised by them or any use being made of them.
We must not indeed conclude from this that the authors of
the New Testament were unacquainted with these books as
forming elements of the Old-Testament Canon. But, in
conjunction with other things, it shows that the^use made
in the New Testament of the Hebrew Canonical Scriptures
was of a freer and more eclectic character, and that no marked
distinction was drawn between them and the uncanonical
works of ancient Jewish literature. And since we may
assume, that in the quotation of Scripture generally, Christ
and the New-Testament authors followed the course usual
among their nation, we may, therefore, conclude that at that
time there was still a somewhat lax and not strictly denned
idea of the Canonical Holy Scriptures, and that no strict dis
tinction was made, at least by all, between the books in
the third division of the Canon the Ketubim and many
other works of the later Jewish literature, such as our
Apocrypha and Tseudepigrapha.

303. Absolute Completion and Limitation of the
Hebrew Canon.

On the other hand, it may be assumed with the greatest
probability, that except those that are now in it, no other
books have ever been received into the Hebreio Canon, and
inserted in the manuscripts of it, At least there is no where
any intimation of the kind. Thus, it might be the case,
that the Hebrew Jews considered the Canon as absolutely
concluded with this number of books, and that this opinion
was increasingly prevalent among them.

We find that this is the case pretty certainly, in a pas-
sa*e of Josephus, c. Apion, i. 8.

He there says, that they the Jews have not among
them myriads of books, disagreeing with one another, but
only twenty-two which are justly held to be Divine, ex
tending down to the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus ; and
that since the time of Artaxerxes down to his own time,

308 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

sundry books (lucurra) had indeed been written ; but that
they were not considered equally worthy of belief with the
earlier ones, Sia TO /AT? yevicrOai rr/v TWV Trpo^rdv aKpL^rj
SiaSox^v. And that it was in fact clear what faith they,
the Jews, entertained towards their scriptures, for, although
so long i time had elapsed, no one had ventured either to
take anything away from, or add anything to them. In
these assertions there is much that is exaggerated, and
merely the result of Josephus opinion. Thus, in his state
ment that the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus was the
latest date of the composition of any of the Canonical Books,
he certainly does not rely on any tradition, but it is merely
an inference in which he thought himself justified by the
contents of the Canonical Books themselves ; as he proceeds
on the supposition that all the books in the Canon were
written by those whose names are given in the titles, or,
at any rate, by contemporaries of the events related in
them. Thus, he considers the Book of Esther to be the
latest, and fixes the date of its composition at the time of the
Persian king Ahasuerus, who appears in it, whom, as appears
from Antiq. xi. 6, 13, 1 he incorrectly takes to be Artaxerxes.
But this much may be clearly seen, that he at that time
considered the Canon as completed, and that this was not an
idea peculiar to him only, but that a similar opinion must
have prevailed among the Jews of the period, at least in part.
He states the whole number of the Sacred Books as
twenty-two (corresponding with the number of letters in
the Hebrew alphabet), and it may be assumed as in the
highest degree probable, that this number is intended for
the whole of the present Canonical Books of the Old Testa
ment, as we find further statements as to this mode of
numbering in the ecclesiastical writers. Josephus indi
cates more precisely the books lie intended, thus : (a) Five
books of Moses (No. i-v). (fe) Thirteen books of Prophets
after Moses (No. vi-xviii). These latter he most probably
reckoned as follows: (1) Joshua, (2) Judges and Euth,
(3) Samuel, (4) Kings, (5) Chronicles, (6) Ezra and Nehe-
miah, (7) Esther, (8) Isaiah, (9) Jeremiah and Lamenta
tions, (10) Ezekiel, (11) Daniel, (12) the Twelve Minor
Prophets, (13) Job. (c) Four books of Hymns and Moral

1 "Eypa^e 8e Map5o%a?os TO?S eV rfj ApTaepou jSatriAe ws &lt;t)ffiv lovSaiois,
ravrcis iraa^vXafffffiv TO.S fyue pas, Kai eoprfy &yiv avras, K.T.\.

Josephus Testimony. 309

Eules, by which doubtless the Psalms and the three books
of Solomon are meant. With the exception of the three
books of Solomon and Job, Josephus, in his writings, makes
use of and quotes all the above books.

Nevertheless, Josephus 1 view as to the absolute limitation
and closing up of the Canon is not always so decided as in
the above passage.

In another place, namely, in the ArclMBOlogy, he expresses
himself so as to appear to have included among the Holy
Scriptures which he made use for the historical contents
of his work, some other writings besides our Canonical
Books, in which writings the history was further continued.
Thus, for the history after the Captivity down to Artaxerxes,
he appears to have made a particular use of the apocryphal
Greek Ezra, instead of availing himself of the Canonical
Book of the same name. V. Movers, ut supra, p. 1 4, f., 29, f.

Among the Jewish evidences on the point, the Talmud
follows Josephus, and not only speaks of all cur Old-Tes
tament Books as canonical, but those only. Here, also, the
collection appears as absolutely concluded, and indeed ex
pressly divided into the three parts : the Torah, theNebiim,
and Ketubim.

Cf. tr. Baba Bathra, fol. xiv. 2. After the lorah the rest
of the books are thus enumerated :

vtnrr D *

!?B&gt;DI 21 w D^nn nn D niro hv pno x
Dnyn nmi sory "&gt;riDN n^joi h&n nirpi

Kuth and Lamentations are here reckoned with the
Ketubim and as separate books, and the whole number of
books is therefore stated as twenty-four. But Ruth and
Lamentations, as already remarked ( 298), were probably
not so placed until after the destruction of the second
temple, in reference to the use that was then made of them
for reading out on certain feast days, and probably just at
Jthe very time when our present Haphtharoth were fixed.

304. General Adhesion of tlie Hellenistic Jews to the

Hebrew Canon.

If we now take a glance back at our previous considera
tions, we are bound to confess that, in the history of the

310 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

Canon, particularly as regards its fixed completion, much
obscurity remains. Yet, from all the intimations we have,
it may be assumed with the greatest probability, that the
Canon first obtained its entirely settled form and comple
tion from the scribes of Palestine, whose schools flourished
both before and after the destruction of Jerusalem. By
them, perhaps, .the canonicity of several of the books of
our Hagiographa would be first decided, which indeed
had already found a place in the collection, but had not
yet received general acknowledgment, such as the Book
of Esther, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon ; and,
on the other hand, a decision would be given as to the
exclusion of other books, which, without having been
adopted into the Hebrew collection of Sacred Books, still,
up to that time had been made use of in much the same
way as those Holy Scriptures that were contained in this
collection ; in the Greek translation, some of the former were
found in among the Canonical Books, and were therefore
made use of by the Hellenistic Jews who adopted this trans
lation, and read indiscriminately with the Books of the
Hebrew Canon. But the authority and the influence which
these schools of the Hebrew Jews gained over the whole of
their fellow-countrymen, particularly after the destruction
of the second temple, soon brought about a complete iden
tity of views as regards the Canon among the Jews in dif
ferent countries, even those speaking Greek ; from this it
resulted that even these latter more and more relinquished
the use of the Alexandrine translation of the Sacred Books,
and acknowledged them only to the extent and in the shape
which they were found in the Hebrew Canon.

305. Views of the various Jewish Sects as to the Hebreiv
Canon.

It is a matter of dispute whether the Jewish sects, which
we meet with at the time of Christ, entertained different
opinions as to the Canon. Thus, especially, as regards the^
Sadducees. Many fathers, as Tertullian, Prcescr. Hceret. 45/
Origen, c. Gels. i. .11, 1, Jerome, ad Matih. xxii. 31, f.,
distinctly assert that the Sadducees accepted only the five
books of Moses, and rejected the prophets.

1 Cf. Oehler. in Herzog s Beal-Encydop. vii. p. 231, f. ; also Holtzmann.
Kanon und Tradition, p. 157, if.

Views of tlie Jetnslt Sects as to tlie Canon. 311

This, however, is now usually regarded as an error,
caused by the fact of the Sadducees acknowledging aa legal
precepts tlie written law of Moses only, and not the late
traditions of the Pharisees. Joseph says nothing furthe
about them in an express way (Ant. xm 10, 6 ; xvm. 1, 4j
and even in the above passage as to the Canon, he .does not
in the least intimate that the Sadducees differed m that
respect from the Pharisees. Other reasons also seem to
favour the idea that the Sadducees did no* reject all the
rest of the books except the Pentateuch; *. particularly
Winer Eeal-W B., under the word " badducee (11. P-35d).
But yet, on the other hand, it is not altogether probable
that they attributed canonical authority to the whole of
the books of the Old Testament, for they would be unable
to reconcile such passages as Dan. xii. 2, with their denial
of the resurrection and immortality generally.

The most probable view is that the Sadducees acknow
ledged as a lawgiver Moses only and the Pentateuch as
theonlv authentic source for the knowledge of the Divine
law. They in no way rejected the rest of the historical
prophetical, and poetical books, but yet did not .allow to
them any actual prescriptive canonical authority in the
establishment of their faith and views ot lite.

As to the Essenes and Therapeutce, from the accounts
which we have of them in Josephus and Philo, we may
assume that they accepted the Canonical Scriptures of their
people, but that they possessed as well various writings ot
a prophetical and lyrical kind, which were held in authority
among them; cf. llavernick, i. 1, p. 75 (2nd ed p. 85, f.).

The Samaritans, on the contrary, decidedly acknowledged
as Sacred and Canonical Scripture, the Pentateuch only ;
rejecting all the other prophetical and poetical books

At the time when this people constituted themselves as
a separate religious and ecclesiastical community, after the
Jews who had returned out of exile had refused to allow
them to partake in their worship at Jerusalem, they then
accepted the completed Pentateuch as a book of the law
and as a rule of faith, this alone of all the scriptures having
real canonical authority among the Jews at that time
The Samaritans, however, stopt there, and have not adopted
,nv one of the other books winch subsequently received
prescriptive canonical authority among the Jews.

312 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

of these books were extant before this time, but some were
not composed until later; the Samaritans acknowledged
none of the later prophets ; but Moses alone is their prophet
for all time, the friend of God and the son of his house.

They indeed possess a Book of Joshua, but it differs much
from the Hebrew Book of Joshua, although it is founded
on the latter l ; it curries the history to a period long after
Joshua s time down to the days of the emperors Constant] ne
and Constantius. It never obtained canonical authority
among the Samaritans ; as to this book, v. De Wette, 171.

306. Various erroneous Ideas as to the Formation of the
Canon.

In the history of the Canon here given, I have taken no
notice of those accounts of it of later date, which, partly
from the sources in which they are found, and partly from
their own nature, clearly appear to be decidedly untrust
worthy or entirely fabulous. [Cf. Oehler, in Herzog s Eeal-
Encydop. vii. p. 245, 11 .]

Among these are :

(a) The statement that is found in some of the Fathers,
as in Tertullian, De Habitu Muliebri, c. 3, Iren. adv. Hceres.
iii. 25, Clemens Al. Strom, lib. i. pp. 329-342, Theodoret,
Prcef. Comment, in Cant., Chrysostom, Homif. viii. in Epist. ad
Heir., Pseudo- August. De Mirabilibus Scrip, s. ii. 33, that,
after the original copies of the Holy Scriptures which, as it
was thought, were deposited in the temple, were burnt to
gether with the latter, Ezra restored them by inspiration,
both the Law and the Prophets. The Fathers, doubtless,
derived these statements from some Judaico-Apocryphal
source, and not improbably from the Fourth Book of Ezra,
ch. xiv ; in this passage, however it is not quite clear what
the author really meant, and, besides, the reading is not
certain. Cf. Liicke, Einl. in die 0/enb. Joli. p. 183.

(6) The statement which is found in the Jewish Rabbis,
but only the very late ones, as particularly Elias Levita,
which has been also followed by several Christian divines,

1 It is known to us by means of one codex, which formerly belonged
to Scaliger, in the Arabic language, with Samaritan writing, and from
that, now edited complete with a Latin translation, by W. J. Juynboll,
Lugd. B. 1848; as to this, vide Kdiliger s Recension in the Hall. Ally.
L. Z. 1848. No. 217, ff., who is of opinion that it was originally written
in Arabic, perhaps not until the thirteenth century.

Statements as to its Formation. 313

that the Canon was formed by the so-called Great Synagogue,

n n033. A college thus named is mentioned in the
Mislina, which Ezra is said to have instituted at the
restoration of the Jewish Church and State ; the number of
its members is stated to be 120 (cf. Stiihelin s Specielle
Einleitung, p. 10), and among them, the Jews place all the
men of note who lived in their country down to Simon the
Just. Bertholdt and Havernick ascribe to this college an
important share in the arrangement of the Canon, Haver-
nick in the completion of it, Bertholdt in the first formation
of it, viz., the union of the Pentateuch with some of the
prophets. But hardly any weight is to be given to the
accounts in this shape. It may certainly be assumed that
Ezra and Nehemiah, in their endeavours for the restoration
and strengthening of the institutions in church and state,
were supported by associates, and so also in what they did
in the collection of the Holy Scriptures of their people.
But that there was a formal college of the kind stated in
the Mishna and the Talmud is very problematical, and
J. Eberh. Rau (Prof, of Div. at Herborn, d. 1770), De Syna-
goga Magna, Utrecht, 1726. P. ii. p. 66, if., Jahn, De Wette,
and others have justly pronounced against its existence,
and designated it as a fabrication of the later Jews, who by
this means sought to show the continuous connection of
tradition ; neither in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, nor
in Josephus and Philo, nor generally before the Mishna, is
the slighest trace of it to be found. Bertholdt has wrongly
considered the (rwaytoyr/ ypa^/xareW, 1 Mace. vii. 12, * to be
a particular division of this college which had to dp with
the formation of the Canon; but a distinct authoritative
body, a separate college of scribes is not at all the thing
here spoken of. Certainly, in the Talmud (tr. Baba Bathra,
f. 15, 1), it is said of this college that its members wrote
(tins) Ezekiel, the twelve (minor) prophets, and the Books
of Daniel and Esther. But this is decidedly not intended
to describe their introduction into the Canon, as Bertholdt
anrl Havernick think, but that they first actually wrote
them down; v. de Wette , 14, note c. A collection of the
books in the Canon was first attributed to the Great
1 Leop. Lowe, Chief Kabbi at Szegedin, in his Monatsschrift Ben-
CJiananja (1858, p. 102, ff., particularly p. 194, ff.) discovers the Great
Byuagugue also in 1 Mace. xiv. 28.

314 History of the Canon Among the Jews.

Synagogue, as already named, by Elias Levita in the six
teenth century, to whose testimony not the slightest weight
could be given-, even if the existence of the college itself
was made much more certain than is the case.

(&lt;) Another idea very prevalent in early times fixes the
formation of the Canon at a date long before the Captivity.
Jt is assumed that from the time of Moses the several books
of the Old Testament, as they appeared and were acknow
ledged as Divine, were united with the Book of the Law,
and immediately received a prescriptive canonical value,
and that authentic copies of them were deposited in the
sanctuary. Thus, e.g. Havernick, who ascribes the com
pletion of the Canon to those to whom he attributes the
composition of the latest of the books, namely, to Ezra
and Kehemiah. But this is quite unhistorical. There are
certainly signs which lead us to think it was not unusual
among the Hebrews, as among other ancient nations, to
^reserve in the sanctuary any peculiarly important docu
ments (cf. Deut. xxxi. 26 ; 1 Sam. x. 25, and the account of
the finding the Book of the Law in the Temple at the time
of Josiah). But yet it is in itself altogether improbable
that this should "have been the case with the historical,
prophetical, poetical, and didactic writings in the Canon ;
for in that case the same thing would have happened with
several other prophetical and historical works composed by
prophets, which we know through quotations in our books,
which works would then have been likewise considered as
canonical before the Captivity ; but this was certainly not the
case, for then they would have been existing after the Cap
tivity. But it is shown by the account of the discovery of
the Book of the Law itself in the time of Josiah, and there
fore in the really prophetical age, that it was not distinctly
expected that it was in the temple, and still less that there
was any idea that a depot of sacred writings was to be
found there in particular. Such an opinion, however, ap
pears quite untenable, if we consider the way in which,
according to the result of our previous investigations, so
many of our Canonical Books received their present form
in the Canon after manifold revisions and compilations.

(d) Finally, I mention the opinion of Bertholdt and
De Wette, who think that some little time after the second
division of our collection was completed and united with

Opinions as to its Formation. 315

the Pentateuch, the formation of the third division of the
Canon was next begun. In this opinion no notice is taken
of the statement, bearing throughout the appearance of
truth, in 2 Mace. ii. 13, that a collection of prophetical
books and the Psalms was arranged by Nehemiah. If our
opinion as to the sense and credibility of this passage be
well founded, it cannot be doubted that the Psalms were
united with the Pentateuch in this collection of Nehemiah
at the same time as the prophetical Scriptures. And it is
also altogether improbable that when they began to place
other -scriptures, historical and prophetical, by the side of
Moses Books of the Law, and to combine them together in
one whole, they would not also at the same time have adopted
the religious songs of David and other poets of the old time ;
for we have certain signs that even before the Captivity, these
songs were made use of liturgically in Divine service.

B&gt; HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THi&lt;J

CHRISTIAN CHURCH.

307. Reception of the Hebrew Canon in the Christian Church

Relative Authority of the Apocryphal Books.
As in the Jewish Synagogue, so also in the Christian
Church, excepting some anti-Judaizing heretical factions,
the Books of the Old Testament were employed both for
public use in congregations, and also for private use, for
edification and instruction. At first these alone were used
as Scriptures; but, afterwards, when Christian Scriptures
had been composed by the apostles and other teachers in
the apostolic age and had attained to some authority, both
kinds of scripture, the latter together with the former,
were made use of in a similar way. Thus the Christian
authors continually more or less avail themselves of the
Books of the Old-Testament C.mon as Holy Scriptures of
canonical authority and as the Word of God, both with and
without formal quotation. It was but seldom, however,
that the Christian ecclesiastical authors were acquainted
with the original language of the Old Testament, and by
far the most of them were taught from the Greek transla
tion, and knew the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament

31 6 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

in that shape only in which they existed in Greek. It
might, therefore, easily happen that even after the apostolic
age, at a time when among the Jews the conception of the
Canon became more and more firmly settled and more and
more definitely limited to the books that were then con
tained in the Hebrew Canon, Christian authors might make
use, as Sacred and Canonical Books, of Jewish writings
which had no place in the Hebrew Canon, and might quote
passages out of them as utterances of Scripture, of the
Holy Spirit, and the like, just as if they were portions of
the Canonical Books. This was the case sometimes with our
Apocrypha, both with the independent books, such as Eccle-
siasticus, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Books of the Mac
cabees, and also with the apocryphal additions in the LXX
to some of the Canonical Books of the Old Testament, for
instance, to the Book of Daniel ; and sometimes with several
other pseud epigraph ical books.

Thus we find that the apocryphal additions to the Book
of Daniel (Bel and the Dragon and Susannah) were used by
Irengsus and Cyprian in a similar way to the Scriptures of
the Hebrew Canon ; the Book of Barudi and the Wisdom of
Salomon by Irenpeus, Clemens Alex., Tertullian, and
Cyprian ; Jesus Sirach by Clemens Alex, and Tertullian ;
the Books of Tobit and Judith by Clemens Alex, and Cyprian ;
the Books of Maccabees, and the Third Book of Ezra, by
Cyprian. Clemens Alex, makes a peculiarly frequent use of
these apocryphal books, mostly of Ecclesiasticus, whose
language he often quotes just in the same way as passages
out of the Scriptures of the Hebrew Canon ; likewise, only
less frequently, he quotes passages out of Wisdom, J3aruch,
&c. (v. Welte in Herbst s EinleiL i. p. 24, If.). Among other
pseudepigraphical works, the Fourth Book of Ezra is quoted
in the epistles of Barnabas and Clemens Alex. ; the Book
of Enoch by Tertullian and Origen. Tertullian speaks ex
pressly on the point, De Habitu Muliebri, c. 3 ; it was not
unknown to him that the book had not been received by
the Jews into their Canon (" in armarium Judaicum non
refertur "), and he gives as a reason for this, that it prophesied
of Christ ; this exclusion did not prevent him from ascribing
canonical authority to it, as he considered it genuine, and
that it had the testimony of Jude in its favour.

Earliest Christian Canon. 317

308. Melito s Old-Testament Canon.

A need soon arose among Christian divines, perhaps
owing to the disputes with the Jews, for introducing some
more exact, knowledge as to the real extent of the Sacred
Books of the Old Testament, and for forming a more definite
view about them. We first see this in Melito, Bishop of
Sardis, about 172 A.D., in his letter to a Christian brother
Ouesimus (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iv. 26), who wished to have
more accurate information as to the number and arrangement
of the Books of the Old Testament, to whom Melito com
municates the result of his inquiries on the point made in a
journey to the East and Palestine. He quotes in this the
Books of the Hebrew Canon only, and none of the Apo
crypha or Pseudepigrapha, but he does not quote them in
the order of the Hebrew Canon, but more according to the
order of the LXX, and under the Greek names, e.g.,
fiacriXeLuiv Tecrfrapa, &C.

Ev rats ypac^etcrais aura) eKAoyats (McAiVtov) TOJV 6//,oAoyoi;/AeVaji&gt;
Tr)&lt;s TraAaitts Sia^/a/s ypa&lt;aj/ Troieirat KctTaAoyoV " MeAtVart
OvfjcTL/Jno TW ttSeA^xt) yaipew. EzreiS^ 7roAAd/as r/^uocras (nrovBrj
rf) Trpos TOV Aoyoi/ ^pcoyu,evos ywecrOau o-ot e/vAoyas e* T*. TOV vofjiov

KO.I TUJV 7rpO07^TOJV TTf.pl TOl) (TUlTTJpOS Kttt TTtttT^S TT]&lt;5 TTtCTTeCOS Tj^JiWiV

Tt Sc KOI jita^etv r^v TOI/ TraAatcoi /?ij8AtW e/?ovA?)^7j5 d/cpt/^eiai/,
Trocra TOV apiOfJiOV KCU OTTOLO. rrfv rd^iv etci , ccrTroi Sacra TO TOIOUTO
7rpaai, e7ricrTa//,evds trov TO (nrovBcuov Trept rrjv TT KJTIV KOL (friXo-
/xa$S Trept TOV Aoyov OTI rf yu,aAio~Ta TTCIVTCOV TTO^OJ TW Trpos 6eov
TT}S aituviov o"OJT^ptas dyoovt^o/xevos. Aj/eA-

^ , KOU COJ5 TOV TO7TOU JVO/JLVO&lt;S fvOa.

j, Kal a.Kpt^SaJ9 yaa^wv TO. T^5 TraAatas &ia.Or)Kr]&lt;;

KpiTai, Pov^, /3ao"tAet&lt;2)V Te&lt;ro~apa,
7rapoi/j.iai, 17 /cat

Itoj3 Ilpo^TOJV, Haatou, lepejMiot , TCOV SaioeKa
Aavt^A, le^eKtr/A, v Eo~6pas ^ d&gt;v Kttt Tas CKAo

Ezra is placed after the prophets, quite at the end, per
haps in reference to its contents. Nehemiah and Esther are
not mentioned ; Kehemiah is doubtless included with Ezra,
as indeed the Jews numbered the two as one book (cf. 157).
It is, however, altogether improbable, that the fame is the

318 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

case with Esther, as Eichhorn, Havernick, and Keerl think
(Die Apocryplien des A. T. 1852, p. 122, note). We may, on the
contrary, rather assume, that this book was not communicated
to Melito by the Christians of Palestine, as being one of
the Canonical Scriptures, since, as we shall see, in some
later lists it was not included among the Canonical Books,
being either omitted in silence, or mentioned as doubtful,
as one of the books of the second class. Even in the
Jewish Church, there were probably, at that time, various
opinions prevailing as to the value of this book, and this
helped to bring about that, in the Christian Church also,
attention was drawn to the spirit ruling in the book, and
for a long time it was questionable whether the book should
be received into a collection which was to enjoy authority
in the Christian Church, as Holy Canonical Scriptures.
The Lamentations are not separately named above, but are
doubtless included with Jeremiah, after whose prophecies
they were originally placed in the Hebrew Canon, and are
so placed constantly in the LXX ; the Book of Ruth he
names separately after Judges. As already remarked, he
mentions none of our Apocrypha. It is remarkable, his
saying : SoA-o/xtovos Trapoi/uou, y /cat, 2o&lt;ia. [It must not be
inferred from this that there is a confusion of the Canonical
Proverbs with the apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon,
as the former is frequently called by the later Jews, HD3H "IBD,
and by the Fathers, 5o&lt;i a ; cf. Bertheau s Comment, on Proverbs.
Introd. 1].

309. Origen s List of the Canonical Books.

Origen is the next Father from whom we possess a list
of the Sacred Books of the Old Testament. He gave it in
his interpretation of the first Psalm, from which Eusebius
supplies it (Hist. Eccl. vi. 25). In this he specifies the books, as
he himself says, according to the tradition of the Hebrews,
as twenty-two in number ; his list contains the whole of
the Books of the Hebrew Canon, in the way in which the
Jews numbered them :

Toi/ n-ev rotye Trparroi/ e^yov/xevos ^faX/jiov, cKOecriv TreTron^rcu
( OptyeVyys) TOV rwi/ tepaJy ypa(f&gt;uv TT)S TraAxuas Sia&yK^s /cara-
Xoyov, (LSe TTCOS ypdfav Kara A.etv. " OVK ayvorjreov 8 clvai
ras ei/Sta^/cous flifiXorvs, a)? E/^patot TrapaSiSoacrtr, $vo KOI.
ocros 6 dpiOfJLOs r^v irap aurots (jroi^etW ecrrtV." Elra

Origen s List of the Canon. 310

ixcra Ttva e7n.&lt;/&gt;epei Xeycw " Eon 8t at etKocn Svo /3i/3Xot Ka$
E/3paiovs aTSc- 17 Trap i^tv FeVeo-is CTriyeypa/x/xei/??, Trapa 8e
E/2paiois aVo r^s apx^ rfc (3ip\.ov Bpya-10, OTrep eariv cv
apx?r "Eo8os, OiJaXeo-/xaj0, ovrep ecm ravra ra oi/d/xara-
AeumKOi Ovt/cpa, /cat eKaXecrev Apifyxoi, A/x/xe0-&lt;eKa&gt;8i/x-
Aeurepovd/xtov, EXXe aSSeySaptp-, ovrot ot A-dyor I7yo-oi5s vios
Navy;, Itoa-ove /?v Novv Kptrat, Pov^, Trap aurots iv evl
Sax^eTi /r Bao-iAetW Trpoor^, Setirepa, Trap airots ei/ 2ap,ov-^A,
6 OeoKXrjTos- BacrtAeto.v rptr^, rf.Ta.prrj, eV evt Ova/xp:eXX
Aa/318, OTrcp CO-TI ^aa-tA-cta Aa^t S- IIapaA.et7ro/xeVci&gt;v Trpcoroi/,
/, ev ei/t At^Spr/ Ata/xt/x, OTrep etrn Adyot ?//xepcov

"EcrSpas Trparros /&lt;at Seirrepos (Nehemiah), ev e^t Epa, o eWt

iA.A.t/x 2oA.o/xa&gt;i/ros Ilapot-

juai, Mia-Xw^ 1 EKKX^o-tacrr^9, Kcoe Xe^. ^Atcr/xa aoyxcmoi/,
2tp ao-crtpt/x Ho-atas, kcrata- lepe/xtas crvv Op-qvo^ KOL rrj
TriTToAf}, cv evt I p c it i a AavtT/X, A a i/ 1 r; X, le^eKir/X,
lc^K^X-lw/8,lw)3- Ecr^p Ecr^^p. "Ew 8e TOVTWV ecrri TO"
MaKKa/rtatKa, aTrcp eTTiyeypaTrrat Sappy 6, ^apfiave eX."

The Epistle of Jeremiah is a pretented letter of Jere

miah to the Babylonian exiles, against idolatry, which, in

Luther and the Vulgate, stands at the end of the Book of

Baruch (as ch. vi), but in ancient manuscripts of the LXX,

after Lamentations. Origen must have met with it in the

latter place, which was doubtless its original position in

the LXX. The letter is decidedly spurious, and without,

doubt, was originally written in Greek. It is possible that

there was a Hebrew translation of it, and that at the time

of On gen it existed in this form in some manuscripts of

a Hebrew codex. But it is more probable, that Origen

was acquainted with it only in the LXX, and that he wns

induced to mention it, as he did, in the Hebrew Canon, only

because he had been accustomed to read it after the Cano

nical Scriptures of Jeremiah. The twelve lesser prophets

are not mentioned by Eusebius, which can only proceed

from some accidental oversight, either of Eusebius himself

in giving the passage from Origen, or of some copier of

Eusebius ; and this may be inferred from the circumstance,

that although Origen expressly states the number of the books

as twenty-two, without the twelve lesser prophets, there are

only twenty-one enumerated in this list. They were pro

bably named between Solomon s^ Song and Isaiah, as they

are in Rufinus s translation. Daniel is named bet ween Jere-

320 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

iniah and Ezekiel. After Ezekiel comes Job, and next,
Esther, the latter, therefore, not among the historical books;
and this may perhaps be explained by the fact that no com
plete unanimity prevailed either in the Christian or Jewish
Church, as to the historical character and perhaps even as
to the canonical authority of this book.

Of our Apocrypha, besides the Epistle of Jeremiah, Origen
also mentions TO, Ma.KKa/3au&lt;a, which he not only names quite
at the end, but divides them from what precedes by !&lt;o
Se TOVTWV eo-ri TO. MaKKa/foiKa, by which he appears to specify
them as not belonging to the number of the books of the
Canon, as they would amount to the number of twenty-two,
if the minor prophets are reckoned with them. The other
Apocrypha he does not mention at all, and thus tacitly
excludes them from the Hebrew Canon. He acts in quite
a different way in some of his other works, where he has not
especiall3 r in view to set forth the Canon according to
Hebrew tradition. In this latter case, just as Clemens
Alex., he makes use of our Apocrypha and Scriptures of
the Hebrew Canon in a similar way, and repeatedly cites
passages out of the former as utterances of Scripture, and
the like.

Thus he often quotes these books is Eawsiasticus and
the Wisdom of Solomon, c. Gels. iii. 72 ; viii. 50, as $eios Xoyos,
although he expresses himself in Prolog, in Cant, as follows:
" We do not find this in the Canonical Scriptures, but only
in the Book of Wisdom, which is attributed to Solomon,
but does not enjoy authority with all ;" he also quotes from
Baruch, and from the Books of tlie Maccabees (which, in
De Princip. ii. 1, and likewise in other passages, he quotes as
Scripturarum auctoritas). As showing Origen s opinion, the
Epistola ad Africanum is peculiarly important. Africanus
had pointed out, that in the Books of Daniel and Esther
several passages which occurred in the LXX, were wanting
in the Hebrew ; Origen acknowledges this as well as the
general relation between the Hebrew Canon and the LXX,
but he does not think that the passages occurring in the
LXX are to be rejected on this account ; he particularly
makes it his business to defend the history of Susannah, as
to which, he thinks, that it had been first excluded from
the Canon by the Jewish^ teachers. Thus he remarks, ic
reference to the Books of Judith and Tobit, that the Jews

Lists of the Old-Testament Canon. 321

made no use of them, and that they did not possess them
in their Apocrypha written in the Hebrew language ; never
theless, he makes no objection to the Christian community
availing themselves of them.

Thus, therefore, Origen appears to have shown some
vacillation, but to have agreed with Tertullian so far that,
in deciding what books and passages of books in the pra3-
Christian Jewish literature should have value attributed
to them in the Church, he does not depend alone on the
extent of the Hebrew Canon, and on the opinion of the
Jewish scribes at the time.

310. Lists of the Old-Testament Canon In the Greek Church.

The list of the Hebrew Canon, given by Origen, exercised,
as it appears, in aftertime no unimportant influence over
the opinion of other religious writers of the Greek, and,
partly also, of the Latin Church. In this list, Origen
quoted in general those books only which were contained
in the Hebrew Canon ; he also in other places called atten
tion to the fact, that many elements of the LXX (in which
alone the Old Testament was read in the Greek Church),
were not contained in the Hebrew Canon. To this very
point the Christian teachers were continually referred by
the Jewish scholars in their disputes with the former.
AVe, therefore, find, that in the list of Canonical Books
of the Greek religious authors in the fourth century and
the succeeding period, only the elements of the Hebrew
Canon are in general quoted, and not the independent
works which are found in the LXX only.

The lists are as follows : (a) that of the Council of Lao-
dicea (c. 360); (6) that in the Canones Apostolorum; (c) of Cyril
of Jerusalem (d. 386) ; (d) of Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 389) ;
(e) in that of the Iambi ad Seleucum, in the same age ; (/) of
Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria (326-373) ; (g) in the
2uVoi//is Tfjs 0eias ypa&lt;f&gt;rjs, also perhaps of the Alexandrian
Church, after the time of Athanasius (on the contrary,
according to Credner, Zur Gesch. des Kanons, p. 127, ff., of
the ninth century at the earliest, on the ground of an im
perfect manuscript of the Stichometria of Nicephorus) ; (h)
of Epiphanius (d. c. 402). All these keep in general to the
Hebrew Canon, and represent books which are not in this
as not canonical, with the exception only of the Epistle of

VOL. II. V

322 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

Jeremiah, which Origen also names with Jeremiah and
the Book of Baruch ; these are expressly mentioned with
Jeremiah, just as the Lamentations, in the lists of the
Council Laod., of Cyril Jems., and of Athanasius. In the
other lists Canones Apost., Gregory Naz., Iambi ad Seleuc.
they are not indeed expressly named, but neither are the
Lamentations, so that it may be perhaps assumed, that like
the latter, the two former works are included in Jeremiah.
This is the case in a list of Epiphanius, De Hens, et Pond.
c. 23 ; so ib. c. 4 ; although he remarks, in cap. 5, that the
" Epistles of Baruch," ov Keu/rcu Trap E/3pcu ois . In another
list, Hceres. viii. 6 (Opp. i. 19), we are told by Epiphanius,
without further question, "Tov Trpo^^r^v lepepcu/ pera run/
8pY)Vu&gt;v KCU 7ricrroA.u&gt;i/ avrov re /cat TOV Bapoir^." The Book of
Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah appear to have attained
pretty general recognition in the Greek Church in this age.
In the Can. Apost. only, three books of the Maccabees are men
tioned among the Canonical Books, and (edit. Coteler), the
Book of Judith also; but both are in this series only and in
none of the other lists. In some of them, however, several of
our Apocryphal Books are specified as profitable for reading,
especially for catechumens and the young. The Council
of Laodicea indeed, decreed (Can. 59), that none whatever
of the non-Canonical Books should be read, but only the
canonical ones of the Old and New Testament; Cyril
of Jerusalem expressly cautions against the reading of the
non-Canonical Books, and desires that the books which
are not read and generally acknowledged by the Church
should not be read even at home. But Athanasius, who was
induced to put forth his list on account of some persons
having presumed to invent apocryphal books and mix them
up with the inspired Scriptures, admits a middle-class be
tween the Canonical and the Apocryphal Books, i.e., those
devised and forged by heretics ; this class consisted of read
ing boohs, avayivua-KOfjieva, which had been prescribed by
their forefathers to be read by catechumens ; and in this
class he and following him, the Synopsis places the Wis
dom of Solomon, Jesus Sirach, Judith, Tobit ; the Synopsis
adds the four books of Maccabees and the History of Susan
nah, which Athanasins does not name. The Canones Apos-
tolici expressly separate Ecclesiasticus from the Canonical
Books, but speak of it as a work, which the young were tc

Lists of the Old-Testament Canon. 323

learn. And Epiphanius who, in Hoeres. 8, styles Ecclus.
and Solomons Wisdom as books which are held to be doubt
ful, says in a later passage that they are profitable. It is
remarkable that in another passage, Hceres. 70, where he
first points out in general the Books of the Old Testament,
and then mentions those of the New Testament, he names
Solomons Wisdom and Sirach in an uninterrupted series
after the Apocalypse, and then unites them altogether
under the designation of " Divine Scriptures ;" although, in
another place,he had expressly severed them from the Books
of the Old-Testament Canon. Epiphanius appeals to both
works, particularly Wisdom, in various other passages, just
as if they were utterances of Scripture; Athanasius does
the same, and so also does Cyril of Jerusalem (v. Herbst,
Eirdeitung. i. 35, f.), so that even he is not always so strict
in his separation of these works from the Canonical Scrip
tures, as he claims to be in the above list.

(a) Council of Laodic. Can. 59, in Mansi Sacrorum Concill.
nova et ampliss. collectio, torn. ii. (Florence, 1759), p. 574 :
"On ou Set tStu&gt;riKO7;s ^aApous Ae yeo^at iv rfj eK/cA^cri a, ovSe
aKcawicrTa /2t/3Ata, uAAa fj.6va TO. KO.VOVLKO. r^s KUIV^S KCU TraAatas
Sia#r//o7s. Next follows, in Can. 60 (on the genuineness, how
ever, of which a doubt is thrown by Credner, Geschichte
d. Nentest. Kanon, p. 219), a li.st of the Canonical Scriptures
("Oora Set (3i/3Xia di/aytfoio-Keo-tfat r}s TraAatas Sta^KT/s), which
contains the same books, and in the same order, as that of
Cyril (only Job is after Solomon s Song). " lepe/xtas KCU
Bapot&gt;x, Oprjvoi /cat eTricrroXat."

(6) Canones Apostolici (Patrum Apost. Opera, ed. Cotelerius,
i. 448), in 76 (al. 85) Canon : "Ecrro) TTO.O-LV vfuv /cA^pt/cots KCU
A-atKor? /3ty8At a O tfido fjua. Kal ayta, TT}S p&lt;v TraXata? Sta^TyK^s
Mtovcreojs TTCVTC. - Irjcrov rov Nai^ ev, TWV Kptroiv eV, TTJ&lt;S
PovO eV, BacrtA-etoji/ TeWapa, ITapaXetTro/xeVwv TOV j3i/3\LOv
Toiv rjfjifpwv Bvo, "EcrSpa Svo, Ecr^p eV, louSet^ ev (wanting
in many Codd.), Ma^a^ottKwv rpt a, IwyS eV, ^aAp,ot

Trf.VTr)KOVTa, SoXoyu,a&gt;^ro&lt;&gt; rpi a. IIpo^Tat Se/cae ^. *

Se Trpocrtcrropetcr^co iip-lv, fj.av9a.vtLV v/j.u)V TOVS veovs T^V
TO! TroXvfJiaOovs 2etpax- H/xeVepa Se, T. e., r^s /cati/?}?

Euayy. Te cnrapa. ITavAoi) eTrtcrroAat SeKareVfrapes, lleVpou

CTT. Svo, Icoan/ov rpets, Ia/cco/3ov p,ta, lovSa p,ta,
eTTtcrroAat 8vo KOL at Starayat vjjJiv rots e7ri&lt;jK07rot St

s or Se?

324 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

/XOO"ieUCtV eTTl TTOVTUV, Std TO. lv a.VTCU&lt;S /J.V(JTU&lt;d) KOL ttt
tjfJLlt)V TCOV ATTOCTToAcOV.

(c) Cyril of Jerusalem in the 4th Catechesis : &lt;&gt;iAo/xa#ws
Trapd TTJ&lt;S eKKATyatas, Troiat /xeV cio"iv at TT}S TraAatas
/3t)3Aot, Troiai Se rys Katies, Kat /xot /x^Sef TO&gt;V dTTOKpu-
dvayiviocrKe. O yap ra Trapa iracrw 6/xoAoyov/xeva
TI Trept ra d/x&lt;/&gt;t^8aAAo/x,eva raAaiTroopeis /xarTy
rag 6(.ia.&lt;s ypa.(as, rag etKoat 8vo /3i/3Xov&lt;s TT}S TraAat a?
Sta^ryKTy?, ras WTTO TWJ/ e^SSo/x^KOvra 8vo ep/A^vei/rtov ep/xTyvcu^etcras.

Oi yap evpeo-tAoyta /cai KaTacnccw) cro^tcr/xarajv dv-

^v TO yiFO/vtevor, dAA CK Trvev/xaros aylov rj TUIV dywu

Tds etKOO~t Svo /3t/3Aovs dvaytVoocrKe, Trpos Se Ta aTTOKpix^a /x-^Sev e^e
Kou dV. Tov i/d/xou fjitv yap etcrtv at Mawcrews Trpumxt TreVTe /3t/3Aoi.
e^s Se, 1770-07)9 mos Nav}, Kat TO&gt;I/ Kpmoi/ /xeTa T^S T) - v/a
/3So/xov dpt^/xoO/xevov. Ta&gt;v Se AOITTOJV tcrTOpiKaiv /3t/3
it SevTepa TOJV Bao"tAeta&gt;v /xta Trap E/3patot ecrTt
/xta Se Kat 17 TptT7; Kat 17 TfTaprrj- 6/xotcos 8e Trap avTOts Kat TWV
IlapaAetTro/xevcoj/ 17 TrpcoTT? Kat ry SeuTepa ytxia Tuy^dvet
at TOV "Eo-Spa 17 Trpumy Kat 17 SeuTepa /u,ta AeAoytcrTaf
/3ty3Aos 17 Eo-^p. Kat TO, /xev to-ToptKa TavTa. Td Se
T^n/X^^ 61 7r ^ I//re 1^/3, Kat /3t/3Aos ^aA/xa)T/, Kat Ilapotyatat Kat
EKKAryo-tao T^ ;, Kat^Ato-/xa ao-/xaTO)V, CTTTaKatSeKaTOi/ /3t/3Atov.
ETTI 8e TOVTOIS Ta Trpo^)7yTiKa TreVTe* TOJV ScoSeKa TLpo(f&gt;T]T(i)v /xta
/St/3Aos, Kat Ho-a/ou /xta, Kat lepe/xtov /xta /xeTa Bapou^ /&lt;at
BpYjVwv Kat eTricrToATys elTa le^eKtryA Kat 17 TOV Aavtr^A etKoo*-
TT^Seirrepa /St /^Aos TT}S TraA. Sta^. T-^s Se KatVT^s Sta^., TO. TeVo-apa
Evayy. Ta Se Aotrrd ^evSeTrtypa^a Kat /SAa/?epd
Eypai//av Kat Mavtx,toi KaTa o&gt;/xav CL ayye Atov, OTrep

Se Kat TO.? Trpd^ets TOJV ScoSeKa ^
Trpos TOVTOIS Se Kat Tas eTrrd IaKw/3ou Kat IleTpou, IwdvJ^ou Kat
lovSa Ka^oAtKas eTrto~ToAds. ETrto~&lt;/)pdy to~/xa 8e TOJV TrdvTwv
Kat /xa^Tcov TO TeAeuTatov, TOLS IlauAov SeKaTecrcrepas e7rto"ToAds.
Td Se AotTrd TrdvTa e^w KetV^co ev SevTepa). Kat oaa /xei/ ev
/XT) avayLVtacrKeTat, ravra /X7y8e KaTa

vv Gregory Nazianzen, Carmen de veris Scripturce libris,
Opp. ed. Caillau (Paris, 1840), ii. 259, s#. : ^O&lt;/)pa Se /a^
etVryo*i rdov KAe Trroto y3t/3Aoto~tv iroAAat yap TeAe^ovcrt Trape y-
ypaTTTOt KttKOTTyTes* Sex vvcro TOVTOV e/xoto TOV tyKpiTOV dpiO/JLOV.

Jo-ToptKat SuoKatSeKa (as Cyril, the Book of Euth

Lists of tlie Old-Testament Canon. 325

separately numbered instead of the deficient Book of Esther)
.... (TTL^paL Trevre . . . Trpo^rat TreVre.

(e) Iambi ad Seleucum, in Gregorii Kaz. Onp. ed. Caillau, ii.
1102, ?.

(/) Athanasius, in a fragment of an Epistola Paschalis,
Opera ed. Colon. (1686), ii. 38, sq. : "Emi^^oftovfuu, rf
7rco5 oAtyot T&lt;ji)V aKepatcov O.TTO ri}s a.irX.6rfjTO&lt;s Kat r^s dyvdr^ros
OLTTO 7-775 Travovpyias rivaiv avOpanrwv, /cat AoiTroy
erepots dp^cuirai rots AeyoyaeVois O.TT o K pv &lt;fr o LS,
TTJ bp.u)wp.ia. ruir aXrjBivutv y3ty8Atcov TrapaKaAtu ave-
et Trepi ail/ eVtcrrao-^e, Trept TOUTCOI/ Kaycb
ypa&lt;^aj, 8ia re rr/v dvd-yKfjv KGLI TO ^p-ycn/nov rrj&lt;;
Me AAaji/ 8e TOVTCW /av^/xo^eveti/, xpTya-o/xat Trpos
e/xavroO ToAyar^s r(5 TVTTO) TOU EtiayyeAtoTou Aou/ca, Aeywi/ /cai
auros ETretOTyTrcp rives Tn^Lpr)O av cxi/ara^ao"^ai eaurots T(i
Aeyo/xeva a7roKpv&lt;^a, Kat 7rt/u.t|at rairra 7-17 feoTrvevcrra) ypa^,
Trept vys f.Tr\r)po&lt;f&gt;opy6r)[jiev, Ka$ws TrapeSoCTai/ rots TraTpatrtv ot
aTr apx^5 auTOTrrat Kat vTnype rat yevo/xevot rou Aoyov ISo^c
Kcl/xot, TrporpaTreVrt Trapa yj/^cruoi/ dScA^aiv /cat fj-aOovri a
C^T}S eK^eV^at ra Ka.vovL%6fJi.cva /cat TrapaSo^eVra,
T ev$ e vra T ^eta etvat ySt^SAia, tva eKao-ros, et
r]iraTrj&^ /carayvw TOJI/ TrAai^crai/Ttoj/ 6 &lt;$ /ca^apos
^atpr/ TroAiv trro/Ai/Ai/T/cr/co/xej/os. "Ecrrt roLwv T^S /xev TraAat as
SiaOrjKTjs ^3tj8Ata TW api@/j.a) ra Trai/ra et/coo-tSvo- roo-avra yap,
d)S ^/covo-a, /cat ra o-rotxeta ra Trap E^patots eti/at TrapaSe Sorat.
TrJ Se Ta^fL /cat TO&gt; ovo//,art fcrrLV e/cacrrov owrcos ...... (the

historical and poetical books, as Gregory, " lepe/ztas /cat crw
p Bapo^, ^vot /cat eVtoroA?; "). Ta Se r^s Kai j/7;s TraAtv
oKvrfriov fiirelv TTI 8e ravra (as Cyril) .... /cat TraAtv

aTro/coiAvi/ ts. Tairra Tn^yat TOV o-urrrjpiov . . . . eV

Tovrots /AoVots TO r^s t^Q-e/^etas 8t8a&lt;r/caAetoi/ etiayycAt^erat.
M^Sets TOUTOIS eTrt/3aAAeTCD, yu-r^Sc TOVTWV dc^atpetV^cu rt . . .
AAA eve/ca ye TrAetovos d/cpt/3etas Trpoo-Tt^/xt Kat TOVTO, ypac/nui/
di/ay/catW, d)S co-rt Kat Irepa /3t/3Ata TOUTCOV e|w^ev, ov Kavoi/t-
o/xeva /xev, TerirTroj/xeva 8e Trapa TOJV Trarepcuv d^aytvcocrKeo-^at
rots dprt Trpoo-epxo/u,eVois Kat /?oi;Ao/&gt;teVots Kar^x^o-^at TOI/ 1-775
evore/Seias Aoyov o~oc/)ta ^oAop;a&gt;i/TOS Kat o*o&lt;/&gt;ta 2tpav,
Kat Eo-0?)p, /cat lovSt^, Kat ToyStas, Kai AtSa^^ KaAov-
H&nr) TWV ATroo-ToAa&gt;v, Kat 6 IIoi/X7;v Kat o/&gt;ttos, dyaTnyroJ,
KaKetvojv avayiv(i)CTKOfjivwv Kat TOVTWV Kai/oviou,eva)i/,
ou8a/aou TO&gt;V aTTOKpvc/)cov fivrj/jirj dAAa atpertKoji/ eo-Ttv eTrtvota,
/x.ev ore 6e\ovcriv aura xapio/aeVa)i 8e Kat Trpoo*Ti-

ou/c

26 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

auroTs *xf&gt;6vov&lt;s, ti/a ws TraXata 7rpoc/&gt;epoi/Tes
aTrarai/ CK TOVTWV rows aKepatovs.

(#) Sweats T&gt;}S #etas ypac/^s, in Athanasii Opp. ed.
Colon, ii. 55, sq. : To/es /xev rot TCOV TraXatu&gt;j/ etpryKacrt Ka-
vovi&o-Oai Trap c E/3patots /cat T?)V Ecr^T/p* /cat r-Jyi/ /xey Poi&gt;$,
//-era raw KptTooi/ evov/xev^v, eis ev /3t/3Xtov dpt0yt/,er$at, TTJV Se
Ecr$7)p ets erepoi/ eV /cat owro) TraAti/ eis etKOcrt Svo a vfJLTrX.rjpovo Oai
rov apiOfJtov TWV Kavovi^o/xeFO)!/ Trap aurots /3tf3X.iu&gt;v.

(h) Epiphanius in several passages of his writings, in
every case in a peculiar order ; 1 and 2 Ezra and Esther are
always at the end, after the prophets. He reckons some
times 22, sometimes 27 books (e.g. de Mensur. et Pond. 23),
taking Ruth, 2 Chronicles, 2 and 4 Bao-tAeiwv and 2 Ezra
separately. Hmres. viii. 6 : .... Kat avrat cto-tv at et /cocn

eTTTa /3t/3A.ot at e/c ^01) So^etcrat rot&lt;j IotSatots Etcrt 8e

/cat aAAai Suo /St/5Xoi Trap aurots ev d/xc/)tXe/cra), 17 ^o&lt;/&gt;ta TOV
!tpav Kat ^ TOV SoAo/xtovTOS, X^P^ ttXXcov rtvo)v evaTro/cpvc^cov.
Hwres. 76 : Et yap 17? e^ dytou Trvev/&gt;iaTOS yeyej/v^eVos, /cat
Trpoc/)7yrats Kat a,Tro(TTdA.ots /Ae/Aa^Teujneyo 1 ;, e Sct ere 8teA.^ovra
CITT dp^S yeveVews KOO-/X.OV a^P 1 "^^v T^S Ato-^r/p ^povoov, ev
etKoo-t Kat eTTTa jSt^Atos TraXatas SLaOrjKf)^, etKOcri 8vo dpt^/xov/i,evos,
rerapcrt 8e dytots CLiayyeXtots, Kat ev recrcrapecrKatSeKa eTrtcrroAats
TOV dytov d-Troo-ToAoi; Ila^Aov, Kat ev rats Trpo roirrtov Kat crw
raZs ev rots CLVTWV ^povots Trpd^ecrt TWV aTroo ToAwi , Ka0oA.tKats
eTTto-ToAats laKw^ou Kat Herpoi;, Kat IcoaVi/oi; Kat Ioi;Sa, Kat ei/
T&gt;] TOV loudvFOt a,TTOKaXi;i^ei, ev T rats croc/) tats SoXo/xoJvros
re ^/xt Kat t)toO ^tpa^ Kat Trdcrats aTrXcos ypa^ats dyt ats, Kai
eaurov Karayrcoi/at, ort K.r.X. De Mensur. et Pond. 4 :
ETrX?7paj0??o-ai/ ow at etKO&lt;ri8i; o /3t/3Xot . ... At yap artx^pets
Svo ^3i/3Xot, ^re TOT) SoXo/^aivTOS 17 ITavdperos Xeyo/xeV^ Kat 17

TOV I^(ro{) TOV vtoS ^tpax Kat airat xpycnfJiOL p^v etcrt

Kat ax^cXt/xot, aXX cts apiOj^ov PT/TOJV OVK dvac/&gt;epovrai. IfoVi 23,
we are told, after the enumeration of the 27 BB. : "Eon
8e Kat dXXr; /AtKpa ^Si)8Xos, ^ KaXetrat Ktva)^, ^rts ep/xr;v^eTat
Opyvos lepe/Atov, a-ur^ Se rw lepc/Ltta crwaTTTerat, ^TIS tort
Trepto"O"^ TOT) aptOfJiov Kat TW lepejaia crvvaTrro^evr].

We must also consider the position of the Greek Church
in this age as regards the Book of Esther. Not only at the
time of Melito and Origen (. above, 308, f.), but also
after the middle of the fourth century, when, in the Jewish
Church, this book had certainly become generally acknow
ledged, doubts appear to have been entertained whether

Authority of the Book of Esther. 327

it should be reckoned among the Holy Scriptures of full
canonical authority; and this was doubtless in reference to
the spirit which is shown in it, which harmonizes so little
with that of Christianity.

The lists of the Council of Laod., the Can. Apostolici,
Cyril of Jerus., and Epiphanius mention it among the Ca
nonical Books without question. On the other hand, in
that of Gregory Naz., it is entirely wanting, and certainly
not through an accidental error ; for in the Synopsis, he ex
pressly tells us that some of the ancients declared that this
book was held as canonical by the Hebrews a proof that,
at that time in the Church so far as the author was ac
quainted with it, and at least in the Alexandrian Church,
it was not generally looked upon in this way. Athanasius
also agrees with this, who mentions it only in the series of
u.vayivu)(TKo[j.va, and not among the Canonical Books. It is
not mentioned among the latter, in the list in the Iambi; it
is named only at the end : roirrots TrpocreyKpivowri rr/v

311. Lists of the Old-Testament Canon In the Latin Clmrch.

We find, however, traces of doubt in regard to the Book
of Esther in the Greek Church only, and not in the Latin,
where it appears to have been adopted with the rest of
the Books of the Canon without any opposition. In this
Church, however, our Apocrypha came into acknowledged
canonical authority in this age, together with the Scrip
tures of the Hebrew Canon. Nevertheless, we find lists of
the Canonical Scriptures from the middle of the fourth to
the beginning of the fifth century, in which the two classes
are expressly divided, and canonical authority is awarded
only to the elements of the Hebrew Canon. We possess
lists by three men, who in their theological and exegetical
studies were much devoted to the Greek Fathers, particu
larly to Origen, and who also follow him in their Canon of
the Old Testament; Hilarius, Rufinus, and Jerome.

(1) Hilarius Pictavensis (d. 368), in his revision of the
Psalms, Prolog, p. 8, mentions the Canonical Books of the
Old Testament as twenty-two in number, from Genesis
to Esther, exactly in the same order as Origen (v. 309),
whose list he manifestly had before his eyes ; with Jere
miah he mentions the Epistle together with Lamentations :

328 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

" Hiereinias cum lamentation ibus et epistola

Quibusdam autem visum est, additis Tobia et Judith viginti
quatuor libros secundum numerum Greecanim literarum
connumerare."

(2) Rufiuus, Presbyter of Aquileia (d. c. 411), in his
Expositio Symboli Apostolici. In this he seeks to specify, ac
cording to the tradition of the Church, the Scriptures
inspired by the Holy Ghost, and, in the Old Testament,
names the whole of the Books in the Hebrew Canon, not
mentioning Lamentations but doubtless including it with
Jeremiah, and in the same way most probably the Epistle
of Jeremiah. [Spiritus S. est, qui in V. T. legem et pro-
phetas, in Novo vero evangelia et apostolos inspiravit

Et ideo, quae sunt Novi ac Vet. Instrument!

volumina, quse secundum magnorum traditionem per ipsum
Spiritum Sanctum inspirata creduntur et ecclesiis Christ!
tradita, competens videtur in hoc loco evident! numero,
sicut ex patrum monumentis accepimus, designare.] (Then
follow the books of the Old and New Testaments.) In
reference to these Scriptures, he says : " Haec sunt, qua3
patres intra Canonem concluserunt, ex quibus fidei nostras
assertiones constare voluerunt." Then, however, he men
tions a second class of books, which he calls ecclesiastici,
corresponding to the reading book of Athanasius, and again
distinguishes from the latter the Scripturas apocryphas :
[Sciendum tamen est, quod et alii libri sunt, qui non
canonici, sed ecclesiastici a majoribus ,appellati sunt : ut est
Sapientia Salomonis, et alia sapientia, quse dicitur filii Sirach,
qui liber apud Latinos general! vocabulo Ecclesiasticus
appellatur, quo vocabulo non auctor libelli, sed scripture?,
qualitas cognominata est . Ejusdem ordinis est libellus
Tobice et Judith et Mace, libri . In Novo vero Test, libellus,
qui dicitur Pastoris s. Hermatis, qui appellatur duaa vise,
vel judicium Petri : quce omnia legi quidem in ecclesiis volu
erunt, non tamen proferri ad auctoritatem ex his fidei conftrm-
andam . Ceteras vero Scripturas. apocryphas nominarunt,
quas in ecclesiis legi noluerunt].

(3) Jerome (d. 420) gives, in the Prolog. Galeatus in
libros Regum, a list of the Old-Testament Books, twenty-
two in number, according to the division into Law, Pro
phets, and Hagiographa, Euth being expressly reckoned
with the Judges as one book, and the Lamentations, tacitly,

Jerome s List of the Old-Testament Canon. 329

with Jeremiah; and he remarks that some persons place
Jttuthand Lamentations among the Hagiographa as separate
books, and thus make twenty-four books (the Epistle of
Jeremiah not being noticed). He then asserts : " quicquid
extra hos est, inter Apocrypha esse ponendum." He forms
his idea of the Apocrypha in a more comprehensive and
milder sense than, e*g. t Rufinus, thinking that the libri eccle-
siastici .should be included with it (cf. Prof, in libros Salom.,
and above, JOO). As books of this sort, he mentions in
the Prol. Galeat. the Wisdom of Solomon, Jesus Sirach, Judith,
Tobit, and the Pastor, subsequently also the two Books of
Maccabees. It is doubtful what book is meant by Jerome
as the Pastor. Augusti ( 54) and Bertholdt (iii. 1000),
are of opinion that it is the third Book of Ezra (i.e., the
Greek Ezra), which has the title of iepev s, of which, as is
thought, Pastor is the translation ; but it seems more pro
bable to me that, as is usually supposed, the so-called Pastor
of Hermas is intended, which Rufinus and Athanasius men
tion among the Libri Apostolici, dj/ayti/oxTKo/^cj/a.

In the Bibliotheca Divina, and in the Epistola ad Pauli-
num (v. Christ. Fried. Schmidt, Historia antiqua et vindicatio
Canonis\ Jerome brings forward the twenty-two books of
the Hebrew Canon, without indeed mentioning the Apo
crypha, in the same way as in the Prolog. Galeat.

[Prolog. Galeat. : " Viginti et duas literas esse apud
Hebraeos, Syrorum quoque lingua et Chaldeeorum testatur
.... Porro quinque Jiterge duplices apud Hebrseos sunt,
Caph, Mern, Nun, Pe, Bade. Unde et quinque a plerisque
libri duplices existimantur, Samuel, Melachim, Dibre Haja-
mim, Esdras, Jeremias cum Kinoth, i.e., Lamentationibus
suis . Quomodo igitur xxii elementa sunt . . . . ita xxii
volumina supputantur . Primus apud eos liber vocatur
Beresith, quern nos Genesim dicimus : secundus Veelle
Semoth, qui Exodus appellatur : tertius Vajikra, i.e. Levi
ticus : quartus Vajedabber, quern Numeros vocamus : quin-
tus Elle haddebarim, qui Deuteronomium prsenotatur . Hi
sunt quinque libri Mosis, quos proprie Torah, i.e., Legem
appellant . Secundum Prophetarum ordinem faciunt, et in-
cipiunt at Jesu filio Nave, qui apud illos, Josue ben Nun
dicitur . Deinde subtexunt Sophetim, i.e., Judicum librum :
et in eundem compingunt Ruth, quia in diebus Judicum
facta ejus narratur historia : tertius sequitur Samuel, quern

328 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

" Hieremiaa cum lamentation ibus et epistola

Quibusdam autem visum est, additis Tobia et Judith viginti
quatuor libros secundum numerum Graecarum literarum
connumerare."

(2) Rufinus, Presbyter of Aquileia (d. c. 411), in his
Expositio Symboli Apostolici. In this he seeks to specify, ac
cording to the tradition of the Church, the Scriptures
inspired by the Holy Ghost, and, in the Old Testament,
names the whole of the Books in the Hebrew Canon, not
mentioning Lamentations but doubtless including it with
Jeremiah, and in the same way most probably the Epistle
of Jeremiah. [Spiritus S. est, qui in V. T. legem et pro-
phetas, in. Novo vero evangelia et apostolos inspiravit

Et ideo, quae sunt Novi ac Vet. Instrument!

volumina, qnas secundum magnorum traditionem per ipsum
Spiritum Sanctum inspirata creduntur et ecclesiis Christi
tradita, competens videtur in hoc loco evidenti numero,
sicut ex patrum monumentis accepimus, designare.] (Then
follow ihe books of the Old and New Testaments.) In
reference to these Scriptures, he says : " Hsec sunt, quae
patres intra Canonem concluserunt, ex quibus fidei nostras
assertiones constare voluerunt." Then, however, he men
tions a second class of books, which he calls ecclesiastici,
corresponding to the reading book of Athanasius, and again
distinguishes from the latter the Scripturas apocrypha* :
[Sciendum tamen est, quod et alii libri sunt, qui non
canonici, sed ecclesiastici a majoribus ,appellati sunt : ut est
Sapientia Salomonis, et alia sapientia, quae dicitur filii Sirach,
qui liber apud Latinos generali vocabulo Ecclesiasticus
appellatur, quo vocabulo non auctor libelli, sed scripturae
qualitas cognominata est . Ejusdem ordinis est libellus
Tobias et Judith et Mace, libri . In Novo vero Test, libellus,
qui dicitur Pastoris s. Hermatis, qui appellatur duae vise,
vel judicium Petri : quce omnia legi quidem in ecclesiis volu
erunt, non tamen proferri ad auctoritatem ex his fidei conftrm-
andam . Ceteras vero Scripturas. apocryphas nominarunt,
quas in ecclesiis legi nolueruntQ.

(3) Jerome (d. 420) gives, in the Prolog. Galeatus in
libros Begum, a list of the Old-Testament Books, twenty-
two in number, according to the division into Law, Pro
phets, and Hagiographa, Ruth being expressly reckoned
with the Judges as one book, and the Lamentations, tacitly,

Jerome s List of the Old-Testament Canon. 329

with Jeremiah ; and he remarks that some persons place
liuthand Lamentations among the Hagiographa as separate
books, and thus make twenty-four books (the Epistle of
Jeremiah not being noticed). He then asserts : " quicquid
extra hos est, inter Apocrypha esse ponendum." He forms
his idea of the Apocrypha in a more comprehensive and
milder sense than, e?g., Rufinus, thinking that the libri eccle-
siastici should be included with it (cf. Prcef. in libros Salom.,
and above, ^00). As books of this sort, he mentions in
the Prol. Galeat. the Wisdom of Solomon, Jesus Sirach, Judith,
Tobit, and the Pastor, subsequently also the two Books of
Maccabees. It is doubtful what book is meant by Jerome
as the Pastor, Augusti ( 54) and Bertholdt (iii. 1006),
are of opinion that it is the third Book of Ezra (i.e., the
Greek Ezra), which has the title of tepev s, of which, as is
thought, Pastor is the translation ; but it seems more pro
bable to me that, as is usually supposed, the so-called Pastor
of Hermas is intended, which Rufinus and Athanasius men
tion among the Libri Apostolici, di/ayu/coo-Ko/xcj/a.

In the Bibliotheca Livina, and in the Epistola ad Pauli-
mim (v. Christ. Fried. Schmidt, Historia antiqua et vindicatio
Canonis), Jerome brings forward the twenty-two books of
the Hebrew Canon, without indeed mentioning the Apo
crypha, in the same way as in the Prolog. Galeat.

[Prolog. Galeat. : " Viginti et duas literas esse apud
Hebraeos, Syrorum quoque lingua et Chaldaeorum testatur
.... Porro quinque Jiterse duplices apud Hebraaos sunt,
Caph, Mem, Nun, Pe, Sade. Unde et quinque a plerisque
libri duplices existimantur, Samuel, Melachim, Dibre Haja-
mim, Esdras, Jeremias cum Kinoth, i.e., Lamentationibus
suis . Quomodo igitur xxii elementa sunt . . . . ita xxii
volumina supputantur . Primus apud eos liber vocatur
Beresith, quem nos Genesim dicimus : secundus Veelle
Semoth, qui Exodus appellatur : tertius Vajikra, i.e. Levi
ticus : quartus Vajedabber, quem Numeros vocamus : quin-
tus Elle haddebarim, qui Deuteronomium praanotatur . Hi
sunt quinque libri Mosis, quos proprie Torah, i.e., Legem
appellant . Secundum Prophetarum ordinem faciunt, et in-
cipiunt at Jesu filio Nave, qui apud illos, Josue ben Nun
dicitur . Deinde subtexunt Sophetim, i.e., Judicum librum :
et in eundem compingunt Ruth, quia in diebus Judicum
facta ejus narratur historia : tertius sequitur Samuel, quem

330 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

nos Regum i et ii dicimus : quartus Melachim, i.e., Regum,

qui iii et iv Regum volumine continetur Quintus

est Esaias : sextus Jeremias : Septimus Ezechiel : octavus
liber duodecim Prophetarum, qui apud illos vocatur Thereasar.
Tertius ordo Hagiographa possidet . Et primus liber incipit
a Job : secundus a David, quem quinque incisionibus et
uno Psalmorum volumine comprehenctunt : tertius est Sa
lomon tres libros habens, Proverbia, quse illi Misle, i.e.,
Parabolas appellant : quartus Ecclesiastes, i.e., Coheleth :
quintus Canticum Canticorum, quem titulo Sir Hassirim prae-
notant : sextus est Daniel : septimus Dibre Hajamim, i.e.,
Verba dierum, quod significantius Chronicon totius Divinae
histories possumus appellare, qui apud nos Paralipomenon i.
et ii inscribitur : octavus Esdras, qui et ipse similiter apud
Grsecos et Latinos in duos libros divisus est : nonus Esther .
Atque ita fiunt pariter Yeteris Legis libri xxii, i.e., Mosis v
et Prophetarum viii, Hagiograpborum ix . Quanquam non-
nulli Ruth et Kinoth inter Hagiographa scriptitent et hos
libros in suo putent mirnero supputandos ac per hoc priscse

legis libros viginti quatuor Hie prologus scriptur-

arum quasi galeatum principiuin omnibus libris, quos de
Hebraeo vertimus in Latinum, convenire potest, ut scire
valeamus, quicquid extra hos est, inter Apocrypha esse ponen-
dum . Igitur Sapientia, quse vulgo Salomonis inscribitur,
et Jesu filii Sirach liber et Judith et Tobias et Pastor non
sunt in Canone . Maccabaeorum primum librum Hebraicuin
reperi, secundus Grsecus est, quod ^x ipsa quoque phrasi
probari potest." Prcef. in libros Salomonis : Fertur et iravd-
peros Jesu filii Sirach liber et alius ^eu8e7n/ypa&lt;/&gt;os, qui
Sapientia Salomonis inscribitur . Quorum priorem Hebrai-

cum reperi secundus apud Hebrasos nusquam est

Sicut ergo Judith et Tobi et Maccabseorum libros

legit quidem Ecclesia, sed inter canonicas Scripturas nori
recipit, sic et hsec duo volumina legat ad aedificationem
plebis, non ad auctoritatem ecclesiasticorum dogmatum con-
firmandam. More strongly against the Apocrypha, e.g.,
Epist. 107, ad Lcetam : Caveat omnia apocrypha ; et si quando
ea non ad dogmatum veritatem, sed ad signorum reveren-
tiam legere voluerit, sciat non eorum esse, quorum titulis
praanotantur ; multaque his adrnixta vitiosa, et grandis
esse prudentiae aurum in luto quaerere.]

But Jerome himself, elsewhere in his works, particularly

Decrees of the African Synods. 331

in the later ones, unhesitatingly quotes passages out of the
various apocryphal books, just in the same way as passages
out of the Books of the Hebrew Canon, and intermingled
with them, as utterances of Scripture and the like. 1 Per
haps, the decrees of the African Synods taking place in the
meantime may have been of influence ; in which decrees
the adoption of these works was formally sanctioned.

Thus, firstly, at the Council at Hippo Hegius in Numidia,
A.D. 393, in the thirty-sixth Canon. In this our Apocrypha
were named among the Canonical Books in the Old Testa
ment ; viz., the Wisdom of Solomon, and Jesus Sirach (which,
with the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Solomon s Song, are
without question put together as Salomonis libri quinque), the
Books of Tobit and Judith, and two Books of Maccabees.

This decree was repeated and confirmed in the third
Carthaginian Synod, A.D. 397 (Can. 47 in Mansi, iii. 891).
Augustine, presbyter, and after 395, Bishop of Hippo Kegius,
being present at both synods, was particularly active, and of
great influence. It is evident from his expressions, espe
cially in his work wiitten soon after the above synod, De
Doctrina Christiana, ii. 8, on what principles the determina
tion of the Canon was managed. In forming an opinion as
to this, he desires that the authority of as many Catholic
communities as possible should be followed, and therefore
that the pre-eminence should be given, first to the gene
rally acknowledged Scriptures, i.e. to those works which
have been accepted by the most numerous and important
communities. He then states the several books of the Canon,
first those of the Old-Testament Canon, exactly those
named by the above-named synods ; he also justifies the
Wisdom of Solomon and Jesus Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) being
numbered among the Canonical Books, as deserving such
authority, although it was not unknown to him that they
were not composed by Solomon, and had only been named
" of Solomon," on account of a certain similarity to his
writings. Just in the same way he is in favour (contra
Gaudent. i. 31) of the Church accepting the Books of Mac
cabees, notwithstanding the Jews had not done so.

The decree of the two above-named African Synods was
once more repeated in that of Carthage, A.D. 419, in which
Augustine likewise took a part, and it was then deter-
1 Vide Herbst, EM. i. p. 36, f., and Welte s notes on it.

332 History of the Canon -In tJte Christian Church.

mined to apply for the confirmation to it of the Bishop of
Koine, and other bishops, which doubtless did not fail to be
given. Somewhat earlier, in 405, Innocent I., Bishop of
Kome, had given in a letter (in Mansi, iii. 1040) to Exsu-
perius, Bishop of Toulouse, at his wish, a list of the books
adopted in the Canon, which entirely agrees with the
decrees of both the two before-named synods ; and, in the
same way, a list by Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, which is
said to have been made at a synod at Kome (in Mansi,
viii. 146 ; Credner, Zur Gescli. des Kanons, pp. 151-290).

The decree of the Council of Hippo has been preserved
only in an abridgement, " in quo quasdam diligentius con-
stituta videntur," in the acts of the above Carthaginian
Synod (in Mansi, iii. 924) : " Ut praeter scripturas canonicas
nihil in Ecclesia legatur sub nomine Divinarum Scrip-
turarum . Sunt autem Canon. Scripturas : Gen., Exod.,
Levit., Numb., Deuteron., Jesu Nave, Judicum, Kuth,
Kegnorum libri quatuor, Paralipom. libri duo, Job, Psal-
terium Davidicum, Salamonis libri quinque, duodecim libri
Prophetarum, Esaias, Jerem., Dan., Ezech., Tobias, Judith,
Hester, Hesdrse libri duo, Machabceorum libri duo . Novi
autem Test. Evangeliorum libri quatuor, Actus Apostol.
liber unus, Pauli Apost. epistolae tredecim, ejusdem ad
Hebraeos una, Petri dua3, Joannis tres, Jacobi una, Judas
una, Apocalypsis Joannis. Ita ut de connrmando isto
Canone transmarina Ecclesia consulatur. Liceat etiam
legi passiones martyrum, cum anniversarii dies eorum
celebrentur." Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, ii. 8 : " In
canonicis scripturis ecclesiarum catholicarum quarnplurium
auctoritatem sequatur, inter quas sane illa3 sint, quse apos-
tolicas sedes habere et epistolas accipere meruerunt. Tene-
bit igitur hunc moduni in Scripturis Canonicis, ut eas, quse
ab omnibus accipiuntur ecclesiis catholicis, prasponat eis,
quas quidam non accipiunt ; in eis vero, quaa non acci
piuntur ab omnibus, praeponat eas, quas plures gravioresque
accipiunt, eis, quas pauciores minorisque auctoritatis eccle-
siae tenent. Si autem alias invenerit a pluribus, alias a
gravioribus haberi, quamquam hoc facile inveniri non
possit, aequalis tamen auctoritatis eas habendas puto." In
the list of the Biblical Books which follows, he says : " Illi
duo libri, unus, qui Sapientia, et alius, qui Ecclesiasticus
inscribitur, de quadam similitudine Salamonis esse dicuntur :

Opinions as to the Apocrypha. 333

nam Jesus Sirach eos conscripsisse constantissime perhi-
betur, qui tainen, quoniam in auctoritatem recipi meruerunt,
inter propheticos numerandi sunt." Contra Gaudent. i. 31 :
Hanc quidem scripturam, quse appellatur Maccabaeorum,
non habent Judasi, sicut legem et Prophetas et Psalmos,
quibns Dominus testimonium perhibet, tanquam testibus
suis Luc. xxiv. 44, sed recepta est ab Ecclesia non inuti-
liter, si sobrie legatur vel audiatur."

312. Opinions as to the Apocrypha in the Western Church.

Thus, therefore, in the Western Church the insertion
of our Apocrypha into the Old-Testament Canon (which
was chiefly brought about by Augustine) and the equaliza
tion of it with the elements of the Hebrew Canon, were
sanctioned by authoritative decrees, and the use of it was
thus naturally very much promoted, so that these books
found a place in the ancient Latin translation made from
the LXX the so-called Italazs also in the LXX itself,
among the elements of the Hebrew Canon. But yet even
in the West itself there was a counterpoise formed against
this by the lists of Hilarius, Kufinus, and Jerome, so
esteemed on account of his erudition. Thus, during the
next century, even in the West, the Apocrypha was pre
vented from attaining generally acknowledged canonical
authority, so that although by most readers it was made
use of equally with the Scriptures of the Jewish Canon,
yet, among the more learned authors of the Church who read
the works of the older Fathers, and even among those who
(as was the case with almost all), from ignorance of Hebrew,
could not read the Old Testament in the original language,
the consciousness was maintained of a distinction between
the Apocrypha and the elements of the Hebrew Canon.

Thus we find that Cassiodorus, De Institutions Divin.
Script, cap. xii. f., places together the enumerations of the
Old-Testament Books made by both Jerome and Augustine,
and that Gregory the Great (590-604) thinks that he must
apologize for introducing a proof out of 1 Mace., it being
not a canonical book (Moral, in Job, xix. 17 :" Xon inordinate
agimus, si ex libris non canonicis, sed tamen ad asdifi-
cationem editis testimonium proferamus "). We also find,
somewhat later, however, that many of the most distin
guished divines of the Western Church in the middle

334 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

ages, down to the Eeforniation, looked upon the Apocrypha
in the same way as Jerome, either numbering only twenty-
two books of the Old Testament, or expressly specifying
the other books as indeed profitable for reading, but as
not being in the Canon ; that they also pointed out the dis
tinction between them and the Canonical Books, or would
not allow the proofs derived from the former to be valid. 1

Thus, e.g., in the eighth century, the Venerable Bede
[in Apocal. 4 : " Ala3 sena3 quatuor animalium, quae sunt
24, totidem Vet. Instrument, libros insinuant." Cf. De sex
cetatibus mundi (ad a. 3496) : " Hucusque (Div. Script.)
temporum seriem continet . Qua3 autem post hsec apud
Judaeos sunt digesta, de libro MaccabcBorum et Josephi
atque Africani scriptis exhibentur"]. Alcuin [adv. Elipan-
tum, Tolet. lib. i. on Jesus Sirach : " Quern librum Beatus
Hieronymus atque Isidorus (?) inter Apocryphas, i.e., du-
bias Scripturas deputatum esse absque dubitatione testan-
tur"J. Eabanus Maurus, d. 856, De Instit. Clericorum, c. liv.

Notker, Abbot of St. Gall, d. 912 [in his Notatio of the
most distinguished interpreters of Scripture, says, as to the
Wisdom of Solomon : " Ab Hebrreis penitus respuitur et
apud nostros quasi incertus habetur ; tamen quia priores
nostri eum propter utilitatem doctrine legere consueverunt,
et Juda3i eundem non habent, Ecclesiasticus etiam apud nos
appellatur . Quod de hoc, id etiam de libro Jesu filii Sirach
sentias oportet, nisi quod is ab Hebrasis et habetur et legi-
tur . . . . De libro Judith et Esther et Paralipomenon
quid dicam, a quibus et qualiter exponantur, quum etiam
ip^a in eis litera non pro auctoritate, sed tantum pro me-
moria et admiratione habeatur ? Idem de libris Macha-
basorum su,spicari poteris."]

In the twelfth century, Peter of Cluny, EpisL contra
Petrobrusianos. Hugo of St. Victor [counts twenty-two
books of the Old Testament, and, in the preface to lib. ii.
de Sacram., calls the Apocrypha libros controversos, which
were indeed read, but were not in corpore textus vel in
Canone auctoritatis. Cf. de Scriptura. cap. 6]. Eichard of
St. Victor, Excerpt, ii. 9 (in Hugo of St. Victor, Opp. ed.
Migne, iii. 208, sq.). Eupert von Deuz, in Gen. iii. 23. -

1 For what follows, vide Job. Gerhard, Loci Tlieol. torn. ii. loc. I.e. 6,
v( J-96 [Hody, De Bibliorum textibus original, p. 654, fl 1 .], and Keerl,
Die Apokryplien des A. T. 1852, pp. 140-144.

Opinions as to the Apocrypha. 335

John of Salisbury [Epist. 143 (al. 172), ed. Migne : " Quia
de numero librorum diversas et multiplices patrum lego
sententias, Catholicae ecclesies Doctorem Jeronimum se-
quens .... 22 libros V. Test, in 3 distinctos ordinibus
indubitanter credo .... Liber vero Sap. et Ecclesiasticus,
Judith, Tobias et Pastor non reputantur in Canone, sed
neque Machabasorum liber, qui in 2 vol. scinditur."]

Hugo Carensis (thirteenth centuiy), Prolog, in Jos. : " Res-
tant Apocrypha : Jesus, Sapientia, Pastor, et Machabaeorum
libri, Judith atque Tobias. Hi quia sunt dubii, sub Canone
non numerantur ; sed quia vera canunt, ecclesia suscipit
illos." Nicolfleua Lyranus (fourteenth century), in a trea
tise, De libris Biblice, canonicis et non canonicis, preceding his
Postillce perpetua in Biblia, complains that no distinction is
made between the Apocryphal and Canonical Books, enu
merating the latter according to Jerome, and stating their
relation to the former in the same way as the above Fathei
and jUufin : "Nam Canonici sunt confecti Spiritu Sancto
dictante, noncanonici autem sive apocryphi nescitur quo
tempore quibusve auctoribus sint editi," &c. ; v. Gieseler,
K. Gesch. ii. 3, p. 238 ; 2nd edit. p. 270.

Antoninus, Archbishop of Florence (fifteenth century)
[Chron. Pars i. tit. 3, cap. 9, 12 : "Ecclesia etiain Apo
crypha recipit ut vera, et ut utilia et moralia veneratur,
etsi in contentionem eorum qua3 sunt fidei, non urgentia
ad arguendum." Cf. ib. cap. 4, and Summ. Theol., part 3,
tit. 18, c. 6, 2 : " Unde forte habent auctoritatem talem
qualein Labeiit dicta sanctorum Doctoruin approbata ab
Ecclesia."]

In the sixteenth century, Cardinal Francis Ximenes,
Prcef. Bibl. Complut. ; Johannes Pico of Mirandola ; Faber
Stapulensis. Cardinal Cajetan, in the dedication to Cle
ment VII. of his " Commentary on the Old Testament "
(1532), praises the great merits of Jerome: " Propter
discretos ab eodem libros canonicos a non canonicis ;" and
at the conclusion of his " Commentary on Esther," he de
mands : " Ad Hieronymi limam reducenda sunt tarn verba
Conciliorum quam Doctorum." Santes Pagninus, at the
end of his Latin translation of the Old Testament, 1528.

I must also remark, that subsequently, in the Eoman
Catholic Church, for the canonical value of the Apocrypha
they appealed to the Florentine Council (1439), which

336 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

gave, in its seventh decree, a list of the Biblical Books, and
mention in it the Apocrypha as Canonical Books. It be
comes, however, very probable, from external grounds,
that this seventh decree, which no one was acquainted
with before the Tridentine Council, is not genuine, but
was interpolated at a later date to favour the Apocrypha ;
v. Keerl, ut supra, p. 150, f.

The inference from what has preceded is, therefore, this, .
that although in the West, after the fourth century, the
Apocrypha was often made use of just in the same way as
the elements of the Hebrew Canon, yet the opinion about
it remained unfettered, and no general, valid, binding au
thority was attributed to the conclusions of the African
Synods, and the determinations of the Bishop of Some in
the fifth centurjr.

313. Opinions as to the Apocrypha in the Greek Church.

In the Greek Church during this period, the decrees of the
Council of Laodicea and the Fathers of the fourth century
remained unaltered. This remained the case up to the
time of the Keformation, when the above church came to a
more exact decision, to acknowledge as canonical the books
of the Hebrew Canon only.

Johannes Damascenus (c. 720), de fide Orthod. iv. p. 18,
mentions as the Scriptures of the Old Testament, the
twenty-two books of the Hebrew Canon only, and goes on
to say of the Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach, that they were
indeed admirable and beautiful (ei/aperai KO! xaXai), but
were not to be included with the others. And a list, at
the end of the Chronographia of Nicephorus, Patriarch of
Constantinople (d. 828), which, however, he had perhaps
met with somewhere, mentions only the twenty-two books
of the Hebrew Canon as the Divine, Canonical Scriptures
accepted by the Church ; naming, however, Baruch instead
of Esther, and styling our Apocrypha including Esther, a
second class Antilegomena which were not accepted by
the Church*

314. Position of the Apocrypha in the Protestant Church.

In the Protestant Church, the Apocrypha the works and
passages contained in the LXX and Vulgate, and not in

TJie Apocrypha in Luther s Bible. 337

the Hebrew Canon has from the very first had a separate
position.

Andreas Bodenstein (Karlstadt) in his work, De Canonids
Scripturis Libellus, Wittenb. 1520 (printed by Credner, Zur
Gesch. des Kanons, 1847, p. 291, ft .), referring to Jerome s
list and comparing it with that of Augustine, directs
attention to the difference between them, and designates as
Apocryphal the works and passages which are not contained
in the Hebrew Canon. But even among these works he
makes a distinction, specifying the Books of Wisdom, Jesus
Sirach, Judith, Tobit, and the two Books of Maccabees, as
Apocrypha simply, as being "extra canonem Hebrseorum,
tamen hagiographi ;" on the other hand, the third and
fourth Book of Ezra, Baruch, the Prayer of Manasseh, and the
additions to the Book of Daniel, he designates as "plane
apocryphos." This work of Karlstadt, however, has not
exercised any great influence on the opinion of Protestants
generally.

Luther himself originally translated the Apocrypha (only
not the third and fourth books of Ezra) singly, just as the
Hebrew books. In the first Protestant editions of the
whole German Bible (Zurich, Worms, and Strasburg,
1529-30), these books occur according to the translation of
Leo Judce, and are designated as the books which were not
enumerated by the ancients among the Biblical Scripture,
and were not found in the Hebrew Canon. The same title,
with the prefix of the name Apocrypha, is given to these
books in the Frankfort edition of 1534, in which those of
them which had already been translated by Luther sepa
rately were adopted according to his translation, and the
others were retained according to that of Leo Juda3. In
the same year there appeared at Wittenberg the first Ger
man Bible, executed by Luther himself, which contained
the whole of these books and passages according to Luther s
own translation (namely, Judith, Wisdom, Tobit, Sirach,
Baruch, 1 and 2 Mace., the Greek additions to Esther and
Daniel, and the Prayer of Manasseh) after the Books of the
Hebrew Canon, and with the title : " Apocrypha : These are
books winch are not considered equal to the Holy Scrip
ture, yet are profitable and good to be read." Luther has
not expressed himself further as to these works and pas
sages as a whole, but only as to each singly in the separate

VOL. n. z

338 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

preface to each (W. A. Part xiv). His opinion as to their
value is given differently as regards each; what he says,
however, shows how very far he was from denying to them
any value at all in the Christian Church ; how inclined he is,
indeed, almost to put some of them on a par with the Canoni
cal Books of the Old Testament, and how he estimates them
more than, e.g., the Book of Esther ; although he separates
them from the Canonical Books, and in general gives them
an inferior rank.

He speaks peculiarly favourably of 1 Mace. " This book
is one of those which is not reckoned in the Hebrew Bible.
Nevertheless in its style, in language and words, it closely
resembles the rest of the Books of Holy Scripture, and
would not be unworthy to be enumerated with them, because
it is a very necessary arid useful book by which to understand
the eleventh chapter of the prophet Daniel." He speaks
much more unfavourably, though, and justly so, of the
2 Mace. " Summa : just as rightly as the first book should
be accepted into the number of the Holy Scriptures, so the
second book should be rejected from them, although there
may be something good about it. Let it be, however,
committed and brought home to the pious reader to judge
and decide." As to the Book of Judith, he is in favour of
the opinion that it is not a history, but a poem, perhaps
intended for public dramatic representation ; it is, how
ever, he says, " a spiritual and beautiful poem, by a holy
and clever man, who desired to depict and typify in it the
good fortune of the whole Jewish people, and their victory
against all their enemies ;" also that it is a " graceful, good,
holy, useful book, well for us Christians to read." He ex
presses his opinion in a like manner about the Book of
Tobit : " If it is a history, it is an elegant and holy history.
If, however, it is fiction, it truly is a thoroughly beautiful,
salutary, and profitable fiction, and the composition of a
clever poet. Judith presents a good, earnest, vigorous
tragedy ; and Tobit a polished, lovely, godly comedy.
This book, therefore, is good and profitable for us Chris
tians to read, as an elegant Hebrew poem, which deals
with worthy and not frivolous facts, and in the main is
managed and described in a Christian spirit." His opinion
as to the Book of Baruch is much more unfavourable.
" This book is very mean, whoever the good Baruch may

Luther s Opinions as to the Apocrypha. 339

be. For it is not credible that the servant of St. Jeremiah,
who also was called Baruch (to whom this epistle is attri
buted), should not have been more eminent and richer in
talent than this Baruch is. Besides, the number of the years
does not agree with the history. I wish that I had put it
aside with the third and fourth books of Ezra. For these
two books of Ezra we have been simply unwilling to trans*
late into German, because there is nothing at ail in thefti
which could not be met with better in ^Esop, or even some
more trifling work. \\ e have allowed Baruch to remain
among this collection, because he wrote so severely against
idolatry, and stands up for the law of Moses." In the pre
face " to the portions of Esther and Daniel," he says : " here
follow certain passages which we have not wished to trans
late in the prophet Daniel and in the Book of Esther. \Ve
have, therefore, plucked up these corn-flowers, because they
i!o not exist in the Hebrew Daniel and Esther, yet still have
placed them in a separate garden or bed, because neverthe
less much that is good is found in them ;" in addition to
which he remarks, that the text of Susannah, and of Bel,
Habakkuk, and the Dragon, are beautiful and spiritual com
positions, just as Judith and Tobias. Of Jesus Sirach he
says : that it was " not reckoned by the ancient fathers in
the number of the Sacred Books, but merely as an excellent
and beautiful work by a wise man, and thus we let it re
main;" that " in this book none of the passages are well
adapted to one another, as the work of a master, but it is
extracted from sundry authors and books, confusedly mixed
up together, as a bee extracts the juices from various
flowers, and mingles them with one another;" that it is " a
profitable book for ordinary men ; for all its endeavour is
to make a citizen or the father of a family godly, religious,
and prudent .... that it might well be named a book as
to domestic discipline or as to the virtues of a pious master
of a house, which is, and is to be called, true religious dis
cipline." Cf. also, De servo arbitrio, in Erasmus (1526)
(\V. A. xviii. p. 2188, f.) where, in reference to a quotation
made by Erasmus out of Jesus Sirach, he says : " Although
I might reject this book, as not being in the Canon, I shall,
however, adopt it, because we thus do not lose time, and
come at once to the question, what does or does not stand
in the Jewish Canon." Finally, as to the Book of Wisdom,

340 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

he says, among other things, that for a long time " it was a
matter of dispute whether it should be reckoned among
the Books of the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament, or
not ;" he is of opinion that the ancients looked upon Philo
as the author of this book " not without great cause ;" but
that there are " many good things in it, and well worthy of
, being read. Particularly should it be read by great men
who storm against their dependents, and rave against the
innocent on account of God s Word. And it pleases me in
it that he for the most part commends the Word of God so
highly, and ascribes to the Word all the wonders which
God had wrought against His enemies and for His saints."
Also, that the book is a correct interpretation and example
of the first commandment, " for it is to be seen in it that
he throughout teaches men to fear God and trust in Him ;
and terrifies with the Divine wrath those who have no fear
of, or reverence for, God ; on the other hand, he encourages
with instances of Divine favour those who believe and
trust in Him ; and all this is nothing else but a right
understanding of the first commandment."

In the other Protestant translations of the Bible, these
books received the same position after the Books of the
Hebrew Canon as in Luther s translation ; and this was
the case not only in the Lutheran, but also in the Re
formist, the Gennano-Swiss, the Dutch, and the English
translations.

315. Position of the Apocrypha in the Romish Church.

In opposition to the system of separation and distinction
adopted by the Protestants who, agreeing as to the posi
tion of the Apocrypha in their translations of the Bible,
certainly considered these books as profitable and edifying
for Christian perusal, but yet, like Jerome, Athanasius,
and others, excluded them from the Canon, and did not
award to them any authority in the proof of doctrinal
matters in the Homish Church they began to concur more
decidedly in Augustine s opinion, and, conformably to the
decrees of the African Synods and the prescriptions of the
Romish bishop, to equalize in authority the Apocrypha and
the elements of the Hebrew Canon ; and they were also the
more induced to do this on account of these books being
placed among the latter, both in the authentic translation

Position of the Apocrypha in the Romish Church. 341

of the Bible the Vulgate and also in the LXX. Thus,
in a synod (usually called the Synod of Sens) held at Paris
in 1528, in opposition to Luther and his adherents, in their
fourth decree, the Apocrypha is classed with the Canon ;
this Council, however, could lay no claim to general
authority. It was otherwise, however, with the Tridentine
Council, which is considered by the Romish Church as a
general one, and in which the teaching of the Romish
Church, as opposed to that allowed by Protestants, was in
general decided upon and fixed. At first various opinions
were broached. Some of those present proposed that, two
classes of Scriptures should be admitted into the Bible,
and that in the first, those books only should be adopted
which had always remained uncontested, and that in the
second, those books should be placed which had in former
times been rejected or doubted. But the views of these
parties did not prevail, and the opinion of those triumphed
who advised that the Sacred Books should be arranged
without distinction in one series. The fourth sitting (on
the 8th April, 1546) settled a nominal list of all the Books
of Scripture of the Old and New Testaments; in this the
books styled as Apocrypha by Jerome, and not found in
the Hebrew Canon, were included among the Scriptures of
the Old Testament. An anathema was pronounced against
those not adopting the whole of these books as sacred and
canonical, in all their parts, as they were wont to be read
in the Catholic Church and as they stood in the Vulgate
(including, therefore, the apocryphal additions to the Books
of Esther and Daniel).

In conformity with this decree, the Romish Church has
since, as regards the Old Testament, acknowledged as
canonical, in addition to the Books of the Hebrew Canon :

(1) The Book of Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah;

(2) Jesus Sirach ; (3) The Wisdom of Solomon ; (4) The
Book of Tobit; (5) The Book of Judith; (6) Two Books
of Maccabees; (7) The additions to the Book of Esther,
eh. x. 4-xvi. 24 ; (8) The additions to the Book of Daniel,
viz., (a) The Prayer of Azariah, and the Song of the three
men Daniel s companions in the furnace, Vulg. Dan. iii.
24-90; (6) The Story of Susannah, Dan. xiii; (c) The
narrative of Bel and the Dragon at Babylon, Dan. ch. xiv.
There are, besides, usually annexed in the Vulgate (a) The

344 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

317. Modern Opinions in the Protestant Churches as to the
Apocrypha.

In the Protestant Church, however, in opposition to the
Catholic Church as regards the Apocrypha, a much more
strictly exclusive opinion was subsequently asserted than
existed at first and was prevalent generally in the first
century after the Reformation. Among Protestant con
fessions, those of the Lutheran Church neither give lists of
the Canonical Books of Holy Scripture, nor in any way
express an opinion as to the relation of the Apocrypha to
the Canon. In the " Apology of the Augsb. Conf." there
are two passages quoted out of these books (out of Tobit
and the second Maccabees), and they are not distinctly
rejected. 1 The later orthodox Lutheran dogmatists have
held fast to the distinction between the Apocrypha and
the Scriptures of the Hebrew Canon laid down in Luther s
Bible, and attribute to the former no independent autho
rity in proof of matters of faith, yet without denying
them a certain value in the instruction and edification of
Christian people. The Eeformed dogmatists make use of
them in general in the same way. The Episcopal Church
of England has also selected lessons out of the Apo
crypha for use in Divine service on week-days. Several
of the Reformist confessions of faith express themselves
definitely on the subject, giving lists of the Books of the
Bible, and, in the Old Testament, separating the Apocrypha
from the elements of the Hebrew Canon ; also insisting
that no independent authority was to be attributed to the
former, stating, however, that they were useful, and were
to be read in churches for the edification of the people.

Thus, the strict Calvinist Confessio Galiicana, 1559, the
Thirty-nine Articles, 1562, the second Helvetic Confession
of 1564, the Belgic Confession (which was subsequently
confirmed by the Synod of Dort), the Declaration of Thorn,
1645 ; v. Theolog. Stud. u. Krit. 1853, p. 278, f.

The Confession of the Westminster Assembly of Puritans
or Presbyterians in the year 1648 (approved of also by the
Scotch Church), expresses itself more strongly against the
Apocrypha, without distinctly allowing its usefulness or
indeed any difference between it and other non-Biblical
1 Vide Bleek s remarks, Theol. Stud, und Krit. 1853, ii p. 280.

The Apocrypha Protestant Opinions as to it. 345

books. 1 These stricter views have in modern times often
been asserted, and have become prevalent in the Protestant
Church; thus, firstly, in the Presbyterian Churches of
Scotland and England, and also in the so-called evangelical
party in the Anglican Church, they have sometimes pre
vailed to the extent that it was considered not merely as a
doubtful matter, but as decidedly dangerous and pernicious,
to outwardly combine the Apocrypha with the Canonical
Books of Scripture in the language of the country. Since
1825, the English and Scotch Bible Societies have most
emphatically protested against the circulation of Bibles
containing the Apocrypha. This at first occasioned many
controversies with the Bible Societies of Germany and
other Protestant countries. Very latterly, however, the
same strict exclusive judgment has found more favour even
in Germany.

In the year 1851, various Protestant divines pronounced
the same opinion in small pamphlets ; as Ebrard (Zeugnisse
gegen die Apokr. Basle, 1851 ; a very frivolous and super
ficially written work, with incorrect historical assertions,
which are scarcely to be excused), and others. Next, the
committee of management for the Home Mission in the
Grand Duchy of Baden, in a meeting, July 185 J, looked
upon the Augsburg Confession in the same strict way on
the occasion of a presentation of prizes; of the nineteen works
entering for it, two were successful: (a) Fried. Keerl
(Minister in Baden), Die Apokryphen des A. T., ein Zeugniss
wider dieselben auf Grund des Wortes Gottes, Leipzig, 1852 ;
(6) Ed. Klage (Minister in Silesia), Die Stellung und Bedeut-
ung der Apokryphen ; zwei Gesprache, Frankfort, 1852. The
latter work is considered the more popular, and discusses
the subject in a tolerably temperate manner ; ihe first is
more learned, and contains much that is instructive, but
entirely proceeds from the bitter, absolute point of view
which the proposers of the question demanded. Some
later works have appeared by Keerl to the same effect ; the

1 After quoting severally the Canonical Books of the Old. and New
Testament, it tells us c. i. 3 : Libri apocryphi vulgo dicti, quum non
fuerint divinitus inspirati, canonem Scripture Sacra nullatenus con-
stituunt proindeque nullam aliam auctoritatcm obtinere debent in
Ecclesia Dei, nee aliter quam alia humana scripta sunt aut approbandi
aut adhibendi.

346 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

last, Die ApoJcryphenfrage mit Berucksichtigung der darauf
bezuglichen Schriften Stier s und Hengstenberg s aufs neue
beleuchtet. Mit einem Anhange : Philo im N. T. Leipzig,
1855. Another work of the same purport, induced by this
award of prizes, although not successful, is that of Oschwald
(Minister in the Canton of Ziirich), Die Apokr. in der BibeL
Zurich, 1853. The Bible Society of Berg, on the 2nd of
December, 1853, pronounced for the exclusion of the
Apocrypha by a resolution to the effect, that it should only
be supplied at the express desire of the purchasers of
Bibles ; and likewise the Conference of the 14th of Sep
tember, 1853, at the Sandhof at Frankfort, expressed the
opinion, that it was an obligation on evangelical Christendom
to strive against the Apocrypha being printed and bound
up with the Canonical Books.

The principal Bible Society at Berlin has, however,
pronounced a different opinion, and continues, just as before,
to circulate the Bible with the Apocrypha ; the Wupperthal
Bible Society (formed in 1854) did the same thing; and
Hengstenberg (Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, 1853, No. 54, ff.,
1854, No. 29, ff.), and Stier (Die Apocryphen, Vertheidigung
Hires althergebrachten Anschlusses an die Bibel. Brunsw.
1853), have endeavoured to defend their course of action;
and the Evangelical Consistorium at Minister have ex
pressed theniselves to the same effect. I have fully stated
how I look at the matter in a treatise, Ueber die Stellung
der Apocryphen des A. T. im Christl. Kanon, in Theol. Stud. u.
Krit. 1853, pp. 267-354, to which I now refer, confining
myself here to a few short remarks.

318. Considerations as to the Apocrypha.

Among those who wish to see the Apocrypha entirely
excluded from Bibles intended for popular use, and are
unwilling to allow it even a separate and subordinate place,
Kome allege and endeavour to prove, that these books not
only deserve but little credit, but also contain much that
is opposed to the doctrine and spirit of the Canonical
Books, and many errors dangerous to the soul. Others urge
more general considerations that they are purely human
productions, which were never acknowledged by the Jews
as canonical and Divine, nor had in their favour the testi
mony of Christ and the Apostles, as was the case with the

TJie Apocrypha, as compared with the Canon. 347

Books of the Hebrew Canon, and that it is, therefore,
inadmissible to join them with the Canonical Books of the
Old and New Testaments as Divinely-inspired Scriptures,
containing the Word of God. But these assertions are
exaggerated in their severity, and are not tenable, as
partially follows from the results of our previous conside
rations. The formation of a correct judgment on the whole
question chiefly depends on this in what way we conceive
the idea, first, as to the Canon and what belongs to it gene
rally ; next, as to the relation of the "Word of God to Holy
Scripture, and of the Old Testament to the Christian Canon.
The opponents of the Apocrypha proceed on the principle
that a similar dignity belongs to all the Books of the Bible,
as canonical, Divine, and inspired Scriptures ; and that the
same authority is to be ascribed (even for the Christian
Church) to the Old-Testament Scriptures, both as a whole
and in detail, as to the New Testament. In such a mode
of looking at it, of course it must appear warrantable that
these books should be considered absolutely and finally as a
completed collection, and that no other books should be
placed in that state of union with them, in which, in the
Protestant Church, the Apocrypha formerly stood as regards
the Books of the Hebrew Canon in the Bibles intended for
popular use ; and I do not believe that those divines are
right, who, as Hengstenberg and Stier, proceeding from the
above point of view, are nevertheless of opinion that the
previous practice in the Protestant Church can be vindi
cated. But I believe that the whole way of looking at it
in this harsh, absolute, peremptory manner is indefen
sible, and cannot well be justified by means of the New
Testament, by the personal procedure of Christ and the
Apostolical authors. In the " Introduction to the New
Testament," I point out that the different component
parts of the New Testament are to be considered as cano
nical in different degrees, and some of them only very
subordinately ; also that this fact has been recognized, both
by the ancient Fathers and also by Luther and many old
Lutheran divines, and is evident even in Luther s trans
lation of the Bible by the position of certain books in it,
and by Luther s prefaces to them. 1 This applies still more
i Vide the " Epistle to the Hebrews," i. pp. 437-479, and Theol Stud,
und Krit., ut supra, pp. 283-298.

348 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

in reference to the Old-Testament Scriptures. As regards
the relation of the Old Testament to the New Testament
and to the Christian Canon, there have been various
opinions, especially in modern times : sometimes violently
opposed to one another, the one side attributing scarcely
any authority at all to the Old Testament in the Christian
Church, as Schleiermacher especially among the distin
guished divines of modern times ; the other side not only
considering the Old Testament as an integral constituent
of the Christian Canon, but attributing to the Old-Testa
ment Scriptures exactly the same canonical dignity and
authority as to the New Testament. But neither of these
opinions, in this shape, can be recognized as the correct
one. As regards the former, it is indubitably agreeable to
the doctrine of the New Testament, and most unmistakeably
based on the language of Christ and the Apostles, that the
Old Testament contains a Divine revelation to the people
of the Covenant communications of the Spirit and the
Word of God ; this is too little acknowledged by Schleier-
macher and others. But, on the other hand, we must also
acknowledge that the Old-Testament revelation, in its rela
tion to the New Testament, has only a preparative character,
with the denned purpose of educating the people of Israel,
and leading them on to the salvation which was to appear
in the world through Christ, as TratSayoryos cts Xpto-rov
(Gal. iii. 24). It results from this, that the Old-Testament
revelation has a more imperfect character than that of the
New Testament ; and also further, that, after the absolute,
complete revelation through Christ and the salvation in
and through Him had been made manifest, to which the
Old Testament was to lead on, the latter no longer had, for
those who recognized the former, the like prescriptive
signification as for the faithful of the Old Covenant itself;
and that it could no longer afford a system of regulations
for the faith and life of Christians similar to that made
known through Christ and in Him. The Old-Testament
revelations are all of the nature which St. Paul (Gal. iv.
3, 9; Col. ii. 8, 20) designates as elementary (rudimentary),
as "the elements of the world," which, when they had
accomplished their prescribed purpose of leading on to
Christ, after the time was fulfilled and Christ appeared,
must necessarily lose their previous significance. Tho

Authority of the Old Testament for Christians. 349

relation between the two covenants is in general similar to
that between Christ and the Baptist, as described by the
latter (John iii. 30), " He must increase, but I must de
crease." And this equally applies both to the legal and
prophetical constituents of the Old Testament, and also
to its whole moral and religious tone.

319. Position and Authority of the Old Testament in the
Christian Church.

The Old-Testament law was given for the people of
Israel, and in the form in which it is laid down in the
Pentateuch could find its application among this nation
only, bearing, as it does, both an ecclesiastical and a
national, civil character. This law still retained its na
tional validity for the Jew even after his conversion to
Christ so long as he did not renounce his nation, and so
long as the Jewish State and Church, so closely inter
woven together, still remained in existence. Since the
foundation of the Christian community this law has no
longer had any religious value for Christians, especially
now that the Israelitish State has been so long destroyed,
and the Christian Church has been so long and so fully
separated from the Jewish. This abrogation of the Jewish
law as regards the members of the New Covenant is in
conformity with the express teaching of the New Testa.-
ment, and is asserted with peculiar emphasis by St. Paul,
and also by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews in
reference to the Levitical institutions. The Old-Testa
ment law, therefore, can no longer have for us the same
prescriptive authority which it had, and was meant to
have, for the Israelites before the appearance of Christ.
The Old-Testament law certainly contains also elements
of permanent significance and value. For us, however,
these have no continued validity merely as elements of
the Old-Testament law laid down for the people of Israel,
but only so far as they are acknowledged and adopted in
the Gospel. For in the law these elements are confusedly
mixed up with its other component parts even in the Deca
logue, e.&lt;/.,the law as to the Sabbath in the nhape in which
it there stands ; and the law itself affords no guidance
in separating the two elements, representing, on the con
trary, all its precepts as inviolable (Deut. xxvii. 26 ; cf.

350 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

Gal. iii. 10) ; so that from the law itself we cannot ascer
tain what those commandments are which are of universal
authority, and can only learn them from the teaching of
Christ, as Matt. xxii. 37-40; Mark xii. 29-31.

The prophetical elements of the Old Testament are
essentially similarly circumstanced, even those which, in a
narrower or wider sense, may be considered as Messianic.
These show us that, from the very beginning, pious men,
filled and enlightened with the Spirit of God, have pointed
to the salvation which the Lord God had destined for the
people of the Covenant and mankind in general. They
are not only of extraordinary interest to us for purely
historical considerations, but they may also in many ways
contribute to stir up and strengthen the faith of the Chris
tian reader. But, on the other hand, owing to the nature
of these predictions, as previously considered in connec
tion with the character of prophecy generally, they are
not in themselves, either separately or as a whole, fitted
to warrant any dogmatic conclusions as to the real nature
of the Saviour and the character of His kingdom, and can
not lay down rules for the guidance of our ideas as to
Christ and His salvation. We are, therefore, in preference
directed to a consideration of the actual historical appear
ance of Christ as depicted in the New Testament, arid by
this means only are able to discern and judge what is the
essential and Divine part in these Old-Testament prophe
cies, and what is due to human infirmity.

But as regards The moral and religious tone of the Old
Testament in general, in this respect also it may serve to
edify (cf. Riehm s Vortrag uber die besondere Bedeutung des
A. T. fur die Gemeinde. Halle, 1864), as faith in the one,
true, living God as the Almighty Creator and Kuler and
righteous Judge of the world pervades the whole of it, so
that all human circumstances are considered in reference
to Him, and from Him only all safety is expected ; also
the consciousness is expressed that sin removes us from
Him, and renders us unworthy of His blessing. This is
the characteristic common to and shared by all the Books
of the Old Testament, with very slight exception, and con
stituting the common ground both of the Old and New
Testaments. But still there is on this point a not unessen
tial difference, and even a partial antagonism, between the

Comparative Authority ofihe two Testaments. 351

two Testaments. Christ himself points this out in his
Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 21, ff.), where He shows
His disciples, that He requires from them quite another
kind of fulfilment of the law than that set forth under the
old system. He there represents the Jewish moral law
not the law, as often understood, according to the concep
tion and handling which it met with from the later phari-
saical scribes, but even in the shape in which it was made
known to the people by Moses himself- as no longer in
harmony with the stand-point of the kingdom of God ;
indeed that the two stand-points, that of the old law and
that of God s kingdom, form in a certain measure a con
trast to each other as regards their entire spirit. This con
trast between the two is especially evident in the narrative
Luke ix. 52-56, where the conduct which Elijah, the
great prophet of the Old Covenant, pursued towards his
enemies, with an appeal indeed to his Divine mission
(2 Kings i. 9, ff.), is characterized by the Saviour as being
contrary to the spirit of the kingdom of God, by which
spirit His disciples were to be pervaded and allow them
selves to be guided. In like manner would the Saviour
certainly have judged as regards, for instance, Samuel s
command for the extirpation of the Amalekites and the
killing of Agag (1 Sam. xv), although this course of action
was quite in harmony with the stand-point of the Old
Testament. Therefore, from the very language of Christ
himself, we are not warranted in considering the moral
law of the Old Testament, and the corresponding mode of
action of men of God named therein as forming rules for
us ; but in order to understand what and how much is
therein contained which forms a model for and is obliga
tory on us, we must always take the stand-point of the
Gospel in forming our judgment.

The above also holds good in forming a judgment as to
the moral and religious spirit of the Scriptures of the Old
Testament in general, e.g., as to the Psalms. Notwithstand
ing the.se songs have continually afforded such copious
matter for teaching and admonishing Christians, and for
building up and strengthening their faith, there is still
much in them which is not compatible with the doctrine
and spirit of Christianity. Of this nature is the fact, that
in them the faith and hopes of the pious appear to be

352 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

limited to this present life, and that in many of the songs
a certain proud reliance is shown on individual innocence
and an appealing to individual righteousness ; that in other
places there is manifest a spirit of passionate enmity and
revenge against adversaries, and the spirit of love is very
much wanting which Christians are commanded to exer
cise towards their enemies, and not only towards per
sonal offenders, but even towards those who stand forth as
opponents of the Lord (cf. 275). This is bound up with
the peculiar spirit of the Israelitish law and the Old Testa
ment in general, by which even the most pious servants of
Jehovah were actuated, which, too, pervades most of the
Scriptures of the Old Testament. Nowhere, however, is
this disposition shown in a way more bitter and more
opposed to the spirit of the Gospel than in the Book of
Esther, as to which Luther expressed himself so severely
(y. 173). There are, indeed, some of the Scriptures and
utterances of the Old Testament which show a spirit which
is more comprehensive and more approaching to that of
the Gospel ; and in this the Book of Jonah is distinguished
above all. But, in general, as regards its moral and reli
gious tone, there is not the same prescriptive authority due
to the Old Testament as to the New, and even to those
Scriptures of the latter, which can only be looked upon as
belonging to the second or third class of Canonical Books.

320. Difference in the Value and Authority of the several

Books of the Old Testament.

It follows from what precedes that the several Old-Testa
ment Scriptures, and passages of Scripture, have not all the
same enduring value for us. The prophetical Scriptures in
the stricter sense, and the prophetical elements which per
vade the whole of the Old Testament, will in general always
have a greater significance for us than the historical part ;
and the various books and portions are so much the more
valuable just as they correspond with or approach the
ruling spirit in the Gospel. The participation of the
Holy Spirit in the composition of these Scriptures, or the
inspiration of their authors, is in general only to be con
sidered as the impletion and guiding of the latter by the
theuoratical spirit of the Old Testament, in such a way,
however, that the personality and independence of the

Degrees of Inspiration in the Canonical Books. 353

authors was not annihilated or withdrawn ; so that in some
of them the legal and individual stand-point might show
itself more forcibly, whilst in others it might be mixed up
with prophetical and universal elements, and thus some
portions of the Old Testament may, in their whole tone,
approach nearer to the New Testament than others do.
But, besides this difference as regards the whole moral and
religious tone, the participation of the Spirit of God in the
composition of Scripture is of a different nature in those
books in which the revelations given relating to any general
or special matter were actually written down by those who
received them, as in the laws written down by Moses per
sonally, and the prophecies recorded by the prophets
themselves ; and, again, of a different nature in those books
in which men, moved by the theocratic spirit, expressed
their personal feelings or reflections, as in the Psalms, the
Book of Job, and Koheleth; again, also, of a different nature
in the historical books, which deal with the history of past
times which the authors relate with a peculiar regard to
the theocracy and what relates to it, as they discovered it,
and arrived at it from verbal or written tradition.

321. Conclusions as to tlie Value and Authority of
the Apocrypha.

If the preceding remarks are acknowledged to be correct,
we cannot well help allowing (a), that there may be certain
portions of our Old-Testament Scriptures which, from their
origin and internal nature, stand on the boundary, as it
were, so that they are almost entirely removed out of
the sphere of Divine revelation and of the impulse and
guidance of the theocratic spirit, and thus present no par
ticular points affecting the histoiy of the development of
the Old-Testament theocracy as preparing for Christ, and
educating for Him ; and (6) that, in works written before
the time of Christ, in Jewish or Israelitish literature, we
are not entitled to limit the participation of the Holy
Spirit to those in the Hebrew Canon, and to deny that-
other works, such as our Apocryphal Books, or some of
them, may to a certain extent have shared in it.

The Jews indeed, as we have previously seen, had the
consciousness, and certainly with reason, that after the
age of Malachi and Kehemiah, the spirit of independent

VOL. II. 2 A

354 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

prophecy had departed from Israel. But nevertheless, the
composition of works both historical, and also didactic
and poetical had not come to an end, the authors of
which were actuated and guided by the theocratical spirit,
which works had their influence in the development of
the latter up to the time of Christ. From the result of
our previous investigations, several of the books in the
third division of the Hebrew Canon, appear to be of this
kind, as especially the Book of Daniel, so important in a
theocratic point of view, the composition of which cer
tainly took place at the beginning of the Maccabean age,
but nevertheless, at a time which is inferior to few periods
in the ancient history of the Jsraelitish nation in the true
theocratic inspiration of the real essence of the people,
and, therefore, was well fitted to produce works of abid
ing significance in the history and development of theo
cracy. Therefore, although the whole of the Apocrypha
was not composed until after the age of Malachi and
Nehemiah, it does not follow, as a matter of course, that
an absolute distinction exists between it and the elements
of the Hebrew Canon, and that it is altogether inadmis
sible to consider that in the former, at least in part and
to a certain extent, evidences of the Divine Spirit leading
on to Christ may be found ; especially as, from the matters
we have previously brought forward, it follows : (a) that
at the time of Christ, some of these works had a certain
authority among the Jews as Holy Scripture, and that the
Canon was not considered by them as absolutely closed,
although then containing all its present Hebrew elements ;
and (&) that Christ and the authors of the New Testament
made no specific difference between the present elements
of the Hebrew Canon, and other works dealing with holy
things in previous Jewish literature; that most of the
Books of our Apocrypha are often made use of and noticed
in the New Testament, 1 and also that manifold and clear

1 The author seems to have forgotten his previous statements on this
subject &lt; supra, p. 306 . He has there correctly stated that though the
influence of some of them is evident in the New-Testament Scriptures,
no express quotations by our Lord and His Apostles from the Books of
the Apocrypha can be pointed out. Bleek is inclined to state the case
too favourably for the Apocrypha. It is a question whether one clear,
indisputable reference to the Apocrypha in the New Testament can be
brought forward. Tr.

Conclusions as to the Value of the Apocrypha. 355

traces are shown of their influence on the ideas, the literary
style, and the language of the New Testament.

If our Apocrypha is impartially considered, it cannot
well be denied that some of the books in it appear per
vaded with the theocratical spirit in a higher measure
than certain books in the Hebrew Canon, and have been
of influence in the development of the doctrine of salva
tion, and in the history of theocracy up to the time of
Christ. This especially applies to the First Book of
Maccabees, to Ecclesiasticus, and the Wisdom of Solomon,
which works have been duly honoured by Luther (cf.
314).

The First Book of Maccabees gives an account, credible in
all essential points, of the history of the ancient people of
the Covenant in their heroic struggles for their faith and
for the service of the true God, during a period of forty
years, in the course of which the composition of the Book
of Daniel occurred. The former book is written decidedly
far more in the spirit of theocracy, than the Book of
Esther ; Luther also expresses his opinion tnat this book
deserves to be admitted into the number of the Sacred
Books just as much as Esther deserves to be excluded from
the same. Ecclesiasticus was originally written in Hebrew
or Aramaic, and indeed earlier than Daniel, and we may
compare it, as also the Wisdom of Solomon, with Solomon s
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes in the Hebrew Canon; and 1
believe that we may well say of them, that they are not
in general inferior to the above-named Canonical Books
in importance in the development of the Old-Testament
theology and ethics up to the time of Christ, and that
they stand higher in this respect, than e.g., Solomon s Song,
although the latter contains so much that is beautiful.

Nevertheless, we cannot approve of what the Catholic
Church has done in placing not only the Books of the
Apocrypha themselves, but also the Apocryphal additions
to the Books of the Hebrew Canon indiscriminately among
the Canonical Scriptures of the Old Testament, without
giving any intimation of any difference between them, nor
of the fact that they were never acknowledged or adopted
as canonical by the great body of the Jewish Church, from
whom we received the Canon of the Old Testament. The
Protestant Church has acted judiciously in pointing out the

356 History of the Canon In the Christian Church.

difference between the two series of books, by giving them
a separate position in the editions of Bibles arranged for
popular use. 1 On the other hand, we cannot lay down the
rule that Bibles intended for popular use must necessarily
all of them contain the Apocrypha. Since many editions
are published containing only the New Testament in the
language of the country, and others containing the New
Testament with the Psalms, it must certainly be considered
allowable to circulate editions containing the New Testa
ment, together with the Canonical Books of the Old Testa
ment, but without the Apociypha. But the exclusion of
the latter, as a matter of principle, cannot be justified ; we
have no right to withhold entirely from Christian people
the various though more sporadical matter which these
books afford for discerning the development of the doc
trines of salvation and ascertaining the history of the
people of the Covenant after the age of Ezra and Nehe-
miah ; which matter also contributes io the comprehension
of the New Testament. This inflexible adhesion to the
principle of the exclusion of the Apocrypha has, in modern
times, not a little contributed to impede the introduction
of Bibles in the vernacular tongue among the Christians
both of the Koman Catholic and Greek churches ; for the
superior ecclesiastics of these churches are only too glad to
use the fact of this exclusion as a pretext for an accusation
of mutilating the Holy Scriptures. For this reason, also,
it would be advisable either to adhere to the former practise
of the Evangelical Church, both the Lutheran and the
Reformed, or to return to it, and to permit the Apocrypha
to find a place in the complete Bibles intended for popular
use, as an addition to the Canonical Books of the Old Tes
tament. No dogmatic scruple against this old Protestant
line of action can arise, if the principle be recognized,
which, as I think, is not only a matter for scientific accept
ance, but must more and more come home to the conscious-
news of Christians, that in the Christian Church generally,
canonical prescriptive authority is not due to the Scriptures
of the Old Testament in an absolute sense, but subordi-
nately only as compared with those of the New Testament ;
and that it is indeed due in different measures to different

1 Kwald proposes as a title. Zicischenbuclier minder guten Werthes,
" Intermediate Books of Less Material Value.

Value of the Apocrypha. 357

books, according to their respective significance in the deve
lopment of the doctrine of salvation, and for the history of
theocracy down to the time of Christ, and also according
to their respective agreement with the spirit and doctrine
of the Gospel. Where this principle is recognised, it will
also be acknowledged that, in bringing out this significance
of the Old Testament, the Apocrypha, too, has a share,
greater or less, which a Christian people is well qualified
to appreciate, and we have no right to withhold from them.

358

THIKD DIVISION.

HISTORY OF THE TEXT OF THE CANON, FROM ITS FORMATION
DOWN TO OUR OWN TIME.

322. Various Opinions as to the Integrity and Purity of

the Hebrew Text.

Ix this division it will be our duty to answer the ques
tion whether, since the time when the Old-Testament
Books in the shape and extent in which we have them in
the Jewish Canon received canonical authority from the
Jews, the text of these books has experienced any and
what kind of alterations, or whether they have been sub
sequently preserved to us without change? The latter
idea has been often asserted, and sometimes indeed to the
extent of embracing the whole external form of the text,
the characters, the vocalisation, &c., and even of supposing
that, in the period between the first composition of the
Books and their collection in the Canon, the text had
likewise experienced no alterations. On the other hand,
it has often been asserted that the Hebrew text had
been corrupted, not so much from pure criticism as in
some dogmatic interest, so as to favour some translation
accepted in the Church, particularly the LXX or Vulgate.
Thus, in respect to the variations existing between the
LXX and the Hebrew Text, the Fathers frequently re
proached the Jews with falsifying their books with the
view of getting rid of the expressions which bore testimony
against the Jews and in favour of the Christians. Origen
and Jerome, however, do not generally agree in these
charges. 1 At a subsequent period, after the Hebrew text
was printed, the supposition arose among Protestant
divines, in connection with their strict notion as to the
absolute canonical dignity of the Books even of the Old
Testament, that the text of the latter had proceeded from
the hands of the authors themselves in the very shape in
3 Vide Jerome, in Jes. c. 6 ; in De Wette, 84, note a.

Mbrmus Views. 359

which it appeared in the printed editions, and that it had
been preserved altogether ungarbled. Luther, however,
particularly, formed a more unfettered judgment in this
matter. The Catholic divines were also less rigid in this
respect, as the Vulgate stood in greater authority with
them than the original Hebrew text, During the six
teenth century, however, they did nothing as to pro
nouncing the Hebrew text to be corrupt, in opposition to
the Protestants or the Jews. A vehement dispute on this
subject broke out about the middle of the seventeenth
centuiy ; it was first set on foot by the French divines, the
Catholic Joh. Morinus and the Reformist Ludw. Cappellus
(v. . 5, 53).

Joh. Morinus was born (at Blois, 1591) of Eeformist
ancestors, but went over to the Catholic Church, and
became a zealous opponent of Protestantism. He became
priest of the Oratory at Paris ; d. 1659. In previous works
he had allowed to the Samaritan Recension of ^ the Penta
teuch a decided preference over the Masoretic, and en
deavoured to prove the modern date of the vowel-points.
But his principal work in Biblical criticism consists of his
ExercitationumBiblicarumde Hebrcei Grce.cique textus slnceritate,
Libri duo, which are distinguished by great erudition and
many valuable collections, and investigations. The former
part appeared first at Paris, 1633 ; the whole, however, was
not published until after Morinus death, Paris, 1669. He
took pains to show that the original text of the Bible had
been so distorted and garbled by the copiers, not exactly
with malicious intent, but through negligence, that it
could no longer be made use of by us with any certainty ;
also that, as regards the Old Testament the LXX must be
adhered to, and as regards both the Old and New Testa
ments the Vulgate, as the authentic ecclesiastical translation.
His work is really directed against the Protestants, since
he endeavours to establish in opposition to them, that the
Holy Scriptures, which were acknowledged by them as the
only source of the truth of their creed, were but uncertain
and unreliable in themselves, unless the authority of the
Church was submitted to in making use of the same. Among
other things, he made the assertion that writing Hebrew
without vowel-points proceeded from God Himself, who
intended by this means to make men submit themselves to

360 History of the Text of the Canon.

the judgment of the Church in the interpretation of Holy
Scripture.

Louis Cappelle (Ref. Minist, and Prof, at Saumur,
d. 1658). After having in his previous works endea
voured to prove the modern date of the Hebrew vowel-
points, he attacked, in his Critica Sacra, the integrity and
absolute correctness of the Hebrew text of the Old Testa
ment generally. He laboured at his work thirty-eight
years, and after its completion he could not find any one who
would undertake to print it, on account of its contents being
at variance with the views generally entertained, especially
by Protestants. At last, through the mediation of his son,
Joh. Cappelle, who had gone over to the Catholic Church,
he obtained permission from the French king to have it
printed in the royal printing-office ; but in doing this, he
was compelled to submit his work to the censorship of the
Catholic divines, who were permitted to alter much in it
against the author s will ; among them Morinus was pro
minent, who from his zeal against the Protestant Church
was very active in editing the work. It appeared at Paris,
1650 (a new edition by Vogel and Scharfenberg, Halle,
1 775-83. 3 Parts). The aim of the work is to prove that
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament is no longer abso
lutely correct, but corrupted by copyists in many passages
and in various ways, but not intentionally or in points so
essential as to influence the doctrines of faith and morals
in it, or to afford any justification for regarding the records
of revelation as dubious. He seeks to derive his proofs of
this partial corruption of the text from the variations which
parallel passages present when compared with one another
(e.g. Ps. xviii. and 2 Sam xxii, &c), from the quotations
in the New Testament, from the Keri and Ketjb, and
from the Samaritan Kecension of the Pentateuch. He
takes 110 notice of Hebrew manuscripts.

The correctness of the Hebrew text of the Old Testa
ment was also assailed by Isaak Vossius (de LXX interpp.
Hague, 1661, and Append, ad librr. de LXX interpp. 1663),
from a still more one-sided stand-point, viz., an over esti
mation of the LXX.

There was, however, no want of other scholars of va
rious confessions, who pronounced decidedly against these
opinions from the ver^ first. Among them we must par-

Works of Buxtorf, Carpzov, and WJiiston. 361

tieularly mention Job. Buxtorf, the younger, whose Anti-
critica . vindicice veritatis Eebr. (Basle, 1653) contains a
complete criticism on the work of Cappellus, in which he
minutely investigates and endeavours to refute not only his
first principles, but also his examples in detail. Buxtorf
was much superior to Cappellus in a well - grounded,
grammatical knowledge of Hebrew, and thus well knew
how to discover the weak points in his work. Yet even he
was wanting in impartial judgment in determining what
was correct, for he proceeded entirely on the principle
of maintaining the originality of the present Hebrew text
throughout, and that it was handed down unfalsified from
the time of the composition of the books ; and he even did
this in reference to the vowels and other diacritical marks.
It. Simon (1678) acted more circumspectly and more im
partially ; he neither considered our Masoretic text to be
faultless, nor yet made it unconditionally subordinate to
any evidences leading to another shaping of the text.
Carpiov, on the contrary, in his Critica Sacra V. T. (1728)
maintains the complete integrity of our Masoretic text,
that it proceeded from the authors of the different books
entirely in its present shape, with the vowels and accents,
the present form of character, and the division into verses.
In the third part of his work he endeavoured to prove this,
in opposition to \Yilliam Whiston, an Englishman, who, in
an " Essay towards restoring the true Text of the Old Testa
ment," gave a decided preference to the Samaritan Recension
of the Pentateuch over the Judseo- Masoretic version, and
sought to prove that the Jews, in the controversy with the
Christians in the second century after Christ, had falsified
the manuscripts both of the Hebrew text and also of the
LXX. Carpzov, indeed, could not deny that the existing
Hebrew manuscripts presented variations ; but he felt war
ranted in denying that any passage in att the manuscripts
extant had been corrupted, so that the true reading must
always have been preserved in certain manuscripts.

323. Criticism of the Hebrew Text Houbigant Kennicott
De Rossi.

Subsequently, criticism of the Hebrew text was again
aroused by Carl Fried. Houbigant (Priest of the Oratory at
Paris, b. 1686, d. 1783).

362 History of the Text of the Canon.

In his edition of the Hebrew Bible, and the Prolegomena
in Scripturam Sacram, printed separately from it, Paris, 1740,
he propounds the opinion that the Hebrew manuscripts,
from which the text in the printed editions of the Old
Testament is derived, are extraordinarily faulty through
the negligence and ignorance of the copyists, and he be
lieves that in the restoration of the text he is justified in
not only venturing to employ a collation with other Hebrew
manuscripts, both of the ancient translations and of the
Samaritan Eecension of the Pentateuch, but also frequently
in using mere conjectural criticisms on the point. He has
thus brought forward numerous conjectures as to the re
storation of the text, many of which are certainly but
poorly justified, and altogether too arbitraiy ; but he is not
wanting in sagacity, and some of his conjectures are, as I
believe, worthy of more notice than they have met with.
He found an opponent superior to himself, in a grammatico-
philological respect, in JSebaldus Ban, who in his Exercita-
tiones philologicce ad Houbigantii Prolegomena, &c. L.B., 1785,
followed him step for step, and endeavoured to confute
him, mostly in a well-grounded, way.

In the same age certain collations of various extant
Hebrew manuscripts were instituted, more comprehensive
than any of a previous date, particularly by Benj. Ken-
nicott (Div. Prof, at Oxford, d. 1783), and Joh. Bernh. de
Kossi, Prof, of Orient. Languages at Parma [died in March,
1831].

Kennicott first published two works on the nature of the
Hebrew text, Oxford, 1753-59, translated into Latin by
Wilh. Abr. Teller : Kennicotti Dissertatio (now Diss. Se-
cunda) super ratione textus Hebraici Vet. Test. Leips. 1756-65.
In the first work, among other things, he furnishes obser
vations on seventy Hebrew manuscripts, with an abstract
of the variations in them, which he examines to prove their
value ; in the second, among other things, he gives a list
of the Hebrew manuscripts known at that time, and a
history of the Hebrew text, divided into six periods, to
gether with directions for the correct use of the data ex
tant for the emendation of the text. He manifests a great
predilection for the Samaritan Eecension of the Pentateuch
in comparison to the Masoretic. In the same year in which
the second Dissertatio appeared (1759), he announced a

KennicotCs Labours. 363

much greater undertaking, viz., to collate, and cause to be
collated, as many Hebrew manuscripts as possible. For this
purpose he obtained in England ample pecuniary means by
subscriptions, in all about 9000. He thus found himself
in a position to devote himself exclusively to the collation
of manuscripts, and to cause those manuscripts to be col
lated which were out of England, particularly by Paul Jac.
Bnms (born at Preez in Holstein, previously Prof, of Hist.
and Librarian at Helmstadt, afterwards Prof, at Halle, d.
1814) ; altogether over 600 manuscripts were collated, and
their readings only however as regarded the consonants
he fully made known in his edition of the Old Testament,
Oxford, 1776-80. At the beginning of the second volume
stands a Dissertatio generalis in V. T. Hebraicum (published
separately by Bruns, Brunswick, 1783), in which he vindi
cates his undertaking, and seeks to prove that the Hebrew
text of the Old Testament had, from the most ancient times,
continuously throughout the various periods, actually ex
perienced many kinds of alteration, and describes the manu
scripts collated, &c. The number of readings was con
siderably increased by De Rossi : Varice lectiones V. T., &c.
1784-88 (with a supp. vol., 1798). In the Prolegomena
prefixed, he sought to give a history of the Hebrew text,
besides critical canons for forming a judgment as to the
readings, and a description of the various manuscripts and
editions collated. In giving the readings themselves, he
sometimes brings forward variations in reference to the
vowel-marks. The whole number of manuscripts collated
by Kennicott and De Rossi amounted to 1346.

324. Eesults of Criticism and Collation of Manuscripts.

However meritorious these arduous undertakings, carried
out with so much industry, may have been, yet in their
results they did not answer the expectations that had been
formed of them. It was expected by some, that in the
Hebrew manuscripts, proofs would be found of more im
portant corruptions of the Hebrew text as it stood in the
printed editions, and of important variations, such as, e.g.
the LXX presents in several books, and also traces of alter
ations which the Old-Testament Books had experienced in
their shape soon after their composition. But these ex
pectations were not verified ; and from the nature of the

364 History of the Text of the Canon.

circumstances, some of which, however, were only first
brought to light through this collation, it could not have
been otherwise.

In the first place, the Hebrew manuscripts of the Old
Testament, all revert to that form of the text of the books
which they had at the time when they received canonical
authority among the Hebrew Jews. Before the actual
canonical acceptance of these books, various manuscripts
of them existed, which presented greater or less variations ;
thus after their acknowledgment as of canonical authority,
and their union in a collection bearing this authority,
they would no longer be written and circulated in the
shape they had hitherto taken in the single manuscripts,
but would follow the manuscripts of the whole Canon or at
least of complete parts of the latter, and consequently in
the shape in which they exist in the Canon (cf. under
362, ). Added to this, the Hebrew manuscripts of the
Old Testament are all of a comparatively rather modern
date, none of them being anything like so old as the
most ancient manuscripts of the New Testament and the
LXX ; nor can any with certainty be placed at an earlier
date than the eleventh century, and only a few so far
back as this. 1 The reason for this may, perhaps, partly be
found in a Talmudical law, which commanded that manu
scripts which were faulty, being torn or spoiled through
age, should be destroyed. Still fewer ancient Hebrew
manuscripts have come down, to us from Christian sources,
since Christian divines in the middle ages scarcely studied
the Old Testament in the original tongue at all. Naturally,
therefore, the Hebrew manuscripts which are extant give
the text only in the form which was the usual one at a
proportionately late time, and indeed they all give it in a
comparatively very similar shape. The various manu
scripts all indeed present readings differing more or less,
but these variations are comparatively unimportant, af
fecting for the most part only single letters ; the widest

1 The collection of Hebrew manuscripts purchased by the Emperor
of Russia from the Karaite teacher, Abraham Firkowitsch of Eupatoria,
must contain several still more ancient manuscripts ; cf. the communi
cations of Edw. v. Muralt in Heidenheim s Deutsclier Vierteljahrsschrift,
No. 6, p. 186, if.; of Jul. Fiirst in the Bibliotheca Judaica, iii. p. Ix. f.
ulso the Protestant ische Kirchenzeitung, 1863, p. 195.

Results of Criticism. 365

differences in them even are not so important, as, e.g., the
variations which the most ancient manuscripts of the New
Testament afford mutually and in comparison with the
most modern ones.

The collation, therefore, of so great a number of Hebrew
mamiscripts furnishes us really only with a proof that, since
the time to which the oldest of them belong, the Hebrew
manuscripts have been preserved unaltered generally, and
this in a measure of which we find no second example in
other works which have been multiplied and circulated by
numerous manuscripts. But we have every reason for
assuming, and shall indeed find it distinctly proved, that
the Jewish scribes (through whom we receive the Hebrew
Canon of the Old Testament), in earlier times preceding
the most ancient of our Hebrew manuscripts, had taken care,
as much as possible, to preserve and propagate the text in
an uncorrupted state, since the date when the books first
received canonical authority. 1 As to this point, however,
we must distinguish between the external form of the text
and its internal nature. For in the former respect, the text,
in the course of time, has of course experienced many kinds
of not unimportant alterations, namely, as regards the/orm
of writing, and its accessories.

A. HISTORY OF THE EXTERNAL FORM OF THE TEXT.

325. The twofold Hebrew Character The Phoenician
Character.

(1) In the more ancient books of the Old Testament
the whole of those written lefore the Captivity the whole
character of the writing has been altered ; a different form of
letter from that now existing in the manuscripts and edi
tions of the Hebrew Old Testament having been employed

1 In spite of the high antiquity of the documentary groundwork of
the present Hebrew text, we possess it actually in one recension only ;
and the various readings are wanting which we have in the New
Testament. It is a matter of fact (cf. e.g., 2 Sam. xxii. with Ps. xviii),
that the transcribers wrote more uufetteredly before canonical authority
kept a stricter watch over the characters, i.e., at a time which in general
lies beyond the reach of our critical apparatus. Thus, however, is the
necessity for merely conjectural criticism shown to be undeniable (vide
above, 323) ; cf. Olshausen s Vorrede zum Psalmen Commentar, Hup-
feld s Psalmen, i. p. 235, notes, &c.

366 History of the Text of the Canon.

by the author originally. The true state of the case is,
however, still a matter of controversy, and we think it
necessary to consider the subject somewhat accurately.

We find that the monuments which are preserved in the
Hebrew, or more generally the Canaanitish language, are
written in a twofold character, the Babylonian and the
Phoenician. The form of character in which the Hebrew of
the Old Testament is at present usually printed and written
is allied to the Babylonian.

Among the later Jews it is called the Quadrate-cJiaracter
(JJins 1H2), from the quadrangular shape of many of the
letters ; also the Assyrian character ( &lt;I "}-1C^N 3H3, TTn-IS^N) is
called by the (later) Samaritans Ezra s character (v. Eich-
horn s Repert. xiii. 273).

The Phoenician character is found (a) on Maccabean
coins, (6) in Samaritan manuscripts, and (c) on Phcenico-
Punic inscriptions.

(a) On Jewish coins of the Maccabean age, struck off by
Maccabean princes after the middle of the second century,
B.C. ; some by Jonathan ; others, and the greatest part, by
Simon ; others by Alexander, Antigonus, and Janngeus (the
last d. 78 B.C.). On these coins most of the letters are
found, but not |, O, or D.

(&) In the manuscripts of the Pentateuch written by the
Samaritans, which are of the thirteenth to sixteenth century.
The same form of character, only with small letters, is
made use of by the Samaritans in other works, both in the
Samaritan and Arabic languages. This character, usual
among the Samaritans, is called in the Talmud (tr. Sanhedr.
21, f.) Hebrew writing, n?y ana.

The shape of the letters on these various monuments
very often varied in details, but yet so that they are clearly
and unequivocally based on the same form, both in the
Phoenico-Punic monuments as compared with one another,
and also with the Jewish coins and the Samaritan cha
racter. As regards the latter, as we see it in manuscripts,
even those of the Samaritan Pentateuch, it differs more
from the character on the Jewish coins and on the Phoenico-
Punic monuments than it doubtless did in earlier ages, the
characters we now find being not those originally used,

The Phoenician Character. 367

having gradually assumed their present shape by means of
curtailment, and especially of ornamentation of the forms.

In one case we have express evidence on this point.
Jerome, in Ezek. ix. 4, says, that in the characters which
the Samaritans even then made use of, the last letter, Thau,
had the shape of a cross. Now this is not the case as re
gards the Thau in the later Samaritan character, neither in
the manuscripts of the Hebrew Pentateuch, nor in other
works ; but it is the case in the characters on the Jewish
coins, and in the Phoenico-Punic monuments. From this
case, we may conclude in others that the Samaritan cha
racter, down to the fifth century, was more similar in de
tails to that on the Jewish coins and on the Phoenico-Punic
monuments than it is in the Samaritan manuscripts which
are preserved of a later date.

326. Relation between the Phoenician and Babylonian
Characters.

As regards the relation which the Phoenician character
bears in general to the Babylonian (in our Quadrate cha
racter), it is acknowledged that the two were not formed
altogether independently of one another.

In certain letters they present great similarities, e.g., in
Shin, in which it is evident, in both forms of character,
that the figure corresponding to the word ft? (i.e., tooth),
is grounded upon the shape of a row of teeth ; in Koph,
Beth, and Daleth ; also in others the letters do not differ so
much, but that the various shaping may not be derived
from the same original form.

But the closer historical relation of the two kinds of
character to each other is a matter of question, both in
general and also as to their use among the Hebrews. As
regards the latter, it is at present acknowledged that the
two written characters were not, as formerly Buxtorf and
many other scholars were of opinion, always in common use
among the Hebrews, the one as a sacred and the other as a
profane character for writing ; and also that the Phoeni
cian character did not, as others have formerly thought, 1
gradually result (through tachygraphy) from the Quadrate,
the latter being the more ancient form among the Hebrews ;
but that, on the contrary, the Phoenician character was the

1 Steph. Morinus, De Lingua Priinxva, p. 271 ; Loscher, De Causi*
Ling. Uebr. p. 207, f.

368 History of the Text of the Canon.

one most commonly in use among the Hebrews at an earlier
date, and the Quadrate character did not come into use
among them until subsequently. The only question is,
when this change of character took place among them, and
how it was brought about. On this point, I believe that
the right idoa in general is, that, down to the time of the
Babylonian exile, the Israelites had both the same language
and the same written characters as the Phoenicians and
Canaanites generally viz. the Phoenician ; but that in the
Captivity they appropriated both the Chaldean language and
the Babylonian character, and that after the return from
exile, the ancient Sacred Books which had been written in
the Phoenician, were re-written in the Babylonian character,
and that this Avas probably done at the time of Ezra and
Kehemiah. The express statements of Origen and Jerome,
and those in the Talmud, are all equally in favour of this
view.

Origen, Hexapla, ed. Montfaucon, torn. i. p. 86, expressly
specifies two different kinds of writing Hebrew : the one as
the more ancient and previously usual, the other as in use
at that time, which also, as has been said, Ezra employed
after the Captivity ; and ad Ezek. ix. 4, he says that in the
ancient character the Thau has the figure of a cross, which
proves that he considered the Phoenician as the more
ancient. And Jerome, Prolog. Galeat. ad libr. Reg., states
that it is certain that Ezra invented a new character,
which was still in use ("alias literas reperisse, quibus nunc
utimur"), and that up to that time the Hebrews and Sa
maritans had used the same character (the Phoenician).
It must, at any rate, be considered as an inaccuracy, when
Jerome, differing herein from Origen, designates Ezra as the
inventor of the new character ; but he agrees with Origen
in thinking that the Hebrews, up to the time of the exile,
had employed the Phoenician letters, and that the other
character, usual in his time since the exile, viz., since
Ezra, had become habitual among them. We can have
no doubt that the Fathers found this opinion prevailing
among the learned Jews in their time, especially as the
statements of the Talmud and Eabbis quite coincide with
it. Among them the Quadrate character was usually called,
as already remarked, n-1B&gt;K an3. This expression is indeed
explained in different ways, sometimes as an appellative

Relation between the two Hebrew Characters. 369

designation : and thus Michaelis (Orient. Bibl. xxii. 133),
Hupfeld (Theol. Stud, und Krit., 1830, ii., p. 292, if.), and
Havernick ( 49), would understand it; the two latter
consider the probable meaning to be, guarded, strong, firm,
in reference to the finished, polished style of character.
But this explanation is altogether improbable and unna
tural, and the right explanation is doubtless the usual one,
as it is also in the Talmud, that it is a proper name,
Assyrian, and that the character is so called because the
Jews brought it with them out of Assyria. "Vocatur
nornen ejus JV VIB K quia ascendit cum iis ex Assyria,"
tr. Sanhedr. fol. 22, 1, where the Assyrian is to be under
stood in a wider sense for the Babylonian empire, as indeed
it often stands in the Bible. In the same passage, we are
expressly told, that this re-writing of the law in the Assyrian
character was done by Ezra, and that the law remained
among the Samaritans in the ancient character ; cf. Talm.
Hieros. tr. Megilla, fol. 71, 2.

There* is nothing at all improbable in supposing that in
that age a character differing from the Phoenician was
prevalent among the Babylonians. \Ve may, then, very well
imagine that during the residence of the Jews among the
Babylonians and their intercourse with them, they would
not only become acquainted both with the language of the
latter and also their written characters, but that these
would become more familiar to them than their own an
cient letters ; and that, even after their return to their
homes, they would remain in customary use among them.
And since it was Ezra who, after the rebuilding of the
temple, caused the Jews to be bound over anew to the
Mosaic law (Nehemiah viii-x), it is quite conceivable
that he also took care that it should be laid before the
people in a form of writing which was then familiar to them,
and that, he prepared copies in this character. It is also
very probable, as already remarked ( 293), that the epithet
constantly given to Ezra in the Books of Ezra and Nehe
miah a scribe, "IQD relates to these labours : it mentions
him, indeed, as a scribe skilful in the law of Moses espe
cially (v. particularly, Ezra vii. 6, 11, 12, 21). Whether
Ezra re -wrote some of the other ancient books in the
Babylonian character as well as the Pentateuch cannot be
distinctly asserted; yet it is not improbable that this was

VOL. II. 2 B

370 History of the Text of the Canon.

done in the same age as the preparation of the collection of
these books by Kehemiah (according to 2 Mace. ii. 13).
The later books after the Captivity, were, however, probably
originally written in this Babylonian character. On this
point I must remark as follows :

327. Partial and temporary Eetention of the ancient
Phoenician Character.

(a) It must not be assumed that the ancient Phoenician
character became after this time completely unknown to
the Jews, and forthwith went out of use for Holy Scrip
tures .in every place. There is, especially, no doubt with
respect to the Jews who, at the time of the Babylonian
Captivity and earlier, lived in Egypt and had there no
peculiar occasion for adopting the Babylonian character for
the Sacred Books in the Hebrew language, that where they
wrote Hebrew, they retained the ancient Phoenician cha
racter, and that this prevailed among them for a long time.

It may be concluded, from the following circumstances,
that, among the Egyptian Jews, the Sacred Books in the
Hebrew language were still written in this ancient cha
racter in the third century B.C. The Greek translators of
the Old Testament appear sometimes, from an anxious
timidity, not to have expressed in Greek the name nirv ?
but where it occurred in the Hebrew to have written it
down in Hebrew letters. Origen met with this in the
more accurate manuscripts with the old Hebrew letters (in
the Phoenician character), which must be thus explained,
that the translators translated from a Hebrew manuscript
with the Phoenician character, and wrote down the word
just as they there found it. Among the Egyptian and
Hellenistic Jews generally, the Babylonian character for
Hebrew would only become customary in the course of
time, more particularly through the influence of the Jews
of Palestine, especially those who had emigrated from
Palestine to Egypt after the exile, partly also by reading
the later books of the Old Testament, which existed in the
Babylonian character only. Subsequently, therefore, in
the manuscripts of the Greek Old Testament, and also of
the Pentateuch, where the name Jehovah would be written
with Hebrew letters, it would be written in the Babylonian
character instead of the Phoenician. The mode of expres-

Hebrew diameter used among the Samaritans. 371

sion of Origen, ut supra (Hexapla, i. p. 86), leads to this
view, when he says that the word occurs in the more accu
rate manuscripts (ev rats aKpi/^eVi rai/ uvriypa^tov) written
with the old letters, therefore that in others, perhaps, it
occurred written with those of the Babylonian character ;
this is also corroborated by the statement of Jerome
(Ep. 136, ad Mcarcettam), that ignorant transcribers read
the word as if they were Greek letters, mm, which was
only possible with the figures of the Babylonian character,
and not with those of the Phoenician.

(6) The ancient character remained in constant use
among the Samaritans, just as it did for some time among
the Egyptian Jews.

Before the separation of the kingdom of the ten tribes,
the Israelites doubtless used the Phoenician character, and
perhaps those of the people who afterwards remained be
hind in the land and their descendants still retained it.
The foreign colonists who were brought into the land used
perhaps partly the Babylonian, partly the Phoenician cha
racter. We are, however, quite unaware how the case
stood in this respect, so little do we know about the art of
writing as then practised in that country. AYe find, how
ever, that in the course of time the Israelitish element in
respect to religion and cultus more and more obtained the
pre-eminence there, so that at last a strict monotheistic
worship of God prevailed among them ; and thus the same
thing may have happened in reference to the written
characters, so that the Israelitish character, which was most
in use before the breaking up of the kingdom, viz., the
Phoenician, became the ruling one among the whole of the
native and foreign inhabitants of the land. The Samaritans
adopted the complete Pentateuch as their sole Book of the
Law doubtless at the time when they constituted them
selves as a separate religious and priestly community,
after the Jews who had returned out of exile had refused
to admit them to partake in the Cultus at Jerusalem. On
this point, we may assume with the greatest probability,,
from the relation in which, as we shall see, the text of the
Samaritan Recension of the Pentateuch stood to that on
which the Alexandrine was based, that the Samaritans re
ceived their manuscripts of the Pentateuch out of Egypt,
and that they were, therefore, in the ancient Hebrew or

372 History of the Text of the Canon.

Phoenician character. The use, then, of the Book of the
Law in this character may have contributed to the latter
remaining the prevailing one among them, both for reli
gious writings and also those of other kinds.

(c) Even among the Jews of Palestine, in Juda3a and
Galilee, after the Captivity and the re-writing of the older
books in the Babylonian character, the ancient Phoenician
character did not immediately become unknown, and did
not also completely go out of use.

Those Jews who were left behind in the land after the
destruction of the Jewish State by the Chaldeans, or who
very soon after returned thither, and also their descendants,
certainly continued to retain the ancient written characters.
Although afterwards, through the preponderating in
fluence of the exiles returning from Babylonia with the
priests and scribes, the Babylonian character soon became
most used among the Jews, still for a long time the Phoeni
cian character was used in writing as well as the other,
especially in the intercourse with the neighbouring nations,
among whom the Phoenician character continued to prevail,
as e.g., with the Phoenicians, Samaritans, &c. Thus, in
deed, among the Jews of Palestine, after the Captivity, the
ancient Hebrew language remained for a long time in use,
as well as the Aramaic dialect. The ancient Hebrew
character, however, was constantly retained for the inscrip
tions on coins, and even among the Maccabean princes, the
ancient Hebrew language is retained in them. But from
this latter circumstance it can hardly be inferred that at
that time after the middle of the second and at the be
ginning of the first century B.C. the ancient Hebrew lan
guage was that prevailing among the Jews in Judasa (no
doubt, the Aramaic was the prevailing one) any more than
we are justified in supposing from the former circumstance,
against the general Jewish tradition, as many scholars do,
such as Ewald (Hebr. Gr. 77 [otherwise in 10 of the 7th
edit.]), Hupfeld (Tlieol. Stud. u. Krit. 1830, ii.) and Kopp,
that the Phoenician character was the one prevailing at
that time in Judaea, even for the Sacred Books. In the in
scriptions on the coins only, they were wont to retain that
which was used in the old time, both as regards language
and character. In this latter respect, perhaps a considera
tion for their trade with the Phoenicians, on whose coins

The Babylonian diameter. 373

the same characters are found, may have been of some
influence.

(d) The new Babylonian character, as the Jews adopted
it, had indeed essentially the same characteristics as our
present quadrate character, but it may be assumed with
great probability that the forms of some of the letters
became a little modified in course of time, and particu
larly through the caligraphic care of the Jewish tran
scribers received more of an analogous and square kind of
shape, as uncial letters, having previously had more of a
cursive character, with smaller figures.

An expression of Jerome (Comment, in Ezek. lib. vii.
prooewi.) points to this ; he remarks on the smallness of the
Hebrew letters. Probably at an earlier time they were
more like the figures in the inscriptions at Palmyra [v.
above 28, with which are to be compared the inquiries of
Beer and Levy given in the Zeitschnft dcr D. M. .,1864,
pp. 65-117]. This character is essentially allied to the
same form as the quadrate, and in many of the shapes
appears to bear the same relation to it, as the Italic to the
Gothic letter ; and it is not improbable that the Babylonian
character, previously in use among both the Babylonians
themselves and also the Jews, had a shape rather similar
to this.

328. Origin of the later, or Babylonian Character.

As regards the general historical relation between the
Phoenician writing and the Babylonian, they are both, as
already remarked, so mutually allied together that they
cannot have been formed independently cf one another.
But 1 hold it to be decidedly wrong to consider that one of
the two, viz., the Babylonian was formed out of the other
the Phoenician, as we know it by a gradual transition.

This opinion has been brought forward in modern times
by (a) Ulr. Fried. Kopp (Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit,
vol. ii. Mannheim, 1821, p. 94, if. ; and Theol. Stud. u. Krit.
1829), who was followed by Eichhorn (Edit. 4), also by
De \\ ette in the 2nd edit, of the Hebr.-Jud. Archaologie,
278. otherwise in Edit, 3 ; and (6) by Hupfeld (Theol.
Stud. u. Krit. 1830, ii.). These scholars assume that the
Phoenician character, at the time of the Babylonian Capti
vity and several centuries later, prevailed in the whole of

374 History of the Text of me Canon.

Anterior Asia as far as the Tigris, and thus also in Babylon.
Kopp and those who follow him think, that from this, but
not until the first three centuries after Christ, were ori
ginated, by a gradual transition into a cursive character,
those written forms which are found in the inscriptions at
Palmyra, and that therefrom was also formed our quadrate
character, but not until the fourth century. Hupfeld also
agrees with this in the main, with the modification, how
ever, that he considers the quadrate character to be of
Syrian origin, and is of opinion that the Jews derived it
from the Syrians, not however all at once, but that the
earlier character was gradually developed into this, up to
the first or second century after Christ.

But this view is altogether improbable. For (a) the
characteristics of several of the letters on the Jewish coins
and other monuments in the Phoenician writing differ too
much, not only from those of the quadrate character but
also from those of the writing at Palmyra, to allow of our
thinking that the latter could have been developed from
the former through any gradual transition. (6) If among
the Hebrews the one kind of writing had so gradually
developed itself into the other, the two kinds of writing
employed in the Sacred Books would not subsequently have
been so expressly and plainly distinguished, (c) It would
be difficult to explain how the idea came into vogue among
the Jews that they had received the quadrate character
(which was alone used for the Sacred Books) from the hated
and idolatrous nation of the Assyrians or Babylonians, if
this had not been actually agreeable to the truth, and if
the re-writing of the Sacred Books in this instead of the old
character had not taken place at the prescribed time which
they had received by tradition, (d) It may be inferred
from Matt. v. 1 8, that, at the time of Christ, Jod was the
smallest letter in the alphabet, which is the case in the
Babylonian character, but certainly not in the Phoenician ;
from which it is evident that at that time the former was
in exclusively prevailing use among the Jews, and that
therefore it could not have been formed after this time.

We must, on the contrary, as I think, regard the matter
as follows. Both kinds of writing are based upon one and
the same Semitic original ; where this latter was originally
formed, whether in Phoenicia, Babylonia, or some other

Origin of the Babylonian Character. 375

region of the countries inhabited by the Semitic nations, can
no longer be ascertained with any certainty. This Semitic
primitive character, from which the names of the Hebrew
letters have been as a whole preserved perhaps unaltered,
had at an early time been shaped in different places into
somewhat various kinds and forms of letters, especially into
the Phoenician character in the western, and into the Baby
lonian character in the eastern district of the Semitic race.
The Phoenician character, as a whole, retained more of
the original form of letters, as may be deduced from the
fact that in several cases the figures in the Phoenician cha
racter correspond more to the shape of that which is indi
cated by the name than those of the Babylonian do ; e.g.,
Ajin=eye t in Phoenician O and the like ; Reach = head, in
Phoenician ^ ; Thau (cf. Ezek. ix. 4) = a sign, in the form
of a cross, in Phoenician -j- ; Jod = hand, in Phoenician ,\.
The Babylonian character is but seldom the nearest to the
shape of the object indicated by the name ; thus, Kaph = hol
low hand, 3 ; in the Phoenician the shape does not much
correspond with the object.

Thus, then, these two branches of the Semitic original
character existed in various regions of the Semitic districts,
at any rate at the time of the Babylonian Captivity, as forms
differing considerably from each other and really different
kinds of writing just as at present the German, Gothic,
and the Latin so that to those who know the one, the
other might be quite strange ; and this was the case with
the Jews as to the Babylonian character when they came
to Babylonia. We may, however, very well imagine that,
in their long sojourn there among the Babylonians, they
adopted their written characters as well as their dialect,
and even adhered to them after their return to their homes,
and were, therefore, compelled to re-write in this character
even their Sacred Books.

329. Opinions as to the Antiquity of the Hebrew Vowel-
Points and Accents.

(2) Our investigation has so far related to the consonants
only, since at the time of this re-writing of the Sacred
Books in the Babylonian character, neither this latter nor
the Phoenician was provided with vowel-signs and accents
like our present Hebrew points. As to the origin of

376 History of the Text of the Canon.

the Hebrew vowels and accents, there has been formerly much
controversy, whether they proceeded from the authors of
the Old-Testament Books, or whether their writings were
furnished with these signs at a later time, and if so, by
whom. On this point, it is so far a matter of fact that the
Jewish grammarians, since the tenth century, were not
only acquainted with our present mode of pointing, but that
they also appear to presuppose that the Hebrew text was
originally provided with it ; for they lay no inconsiderable
importance on the correctness of the text in this respect,
as well as on the investigation of the various readings
existing in different manuscripts, or in diiferent regions,
and on correcting them according to certain manuscripts
considered peculiarly correct. Also, the first of the Jewish
grammarians well known to us have composed works in
reference to the pointing, as K. Saadia Gaon (d. 942), and
K. Jehuda Chajjug (d. about 1040 ; cf. 46). There are,
however, signs that then, and in the centuries next follow
ing, the opinion as to the originality of these vow r el-signs
and accents was not altogether a general one among Jewish
scholars.

This is the view of Aben Esra (d. c. 1167) ; and this
very thing may be concluded from the fact, that (a) the
Book Sonar considers it necessary to defend the idea of the
antiquity of our vowels with peculiar energy, and (6) that
several Christian scholars, who had received their know
ledge of IJebrew from. Kabbis/did not acknowledge the ori
ginality and antiquity of these vowels ; as Kay mu nd Mar
tini (d. 1284), Perez de Valentia (about 1450 : Introd. ad
Exposit. in Psalmos}, and Lyra (ad Hos. ix).

These, however, were only isolated expressions of opi
nion and in general but little noticed. Elias Levita (d.
1549) on the contrary, sought in a more decided w T ay to
prove the novelty of the vowels.

Masoreth Hammasoreth, 3rd preface. This appeals parti
cularly to the non-mention of them in the Talmud, and to
certain passages in the Talmud where a different pronun
ciation than that to which our vowels would lead is pre
supposed as possible, also to the names for the several
vowels and accents being Syriac and not Hebrew.

We find this opinion now and then expressed by Chris
tian divines of the time.

Opinions as to the Age of the Vowel-Points. 377

Thus by Pellicantis (Prcef. ad Pentat.) ; by Zwingli, who
(Prcef. in Jes.) says, that for a long time the vowel-points
were not joined to the consonants, and that they were not
very skilfully (parum civiliter) invented by the Eabbis ;
by Calvin (adZach. ix. 7, ff.), and especially by Luther, e.g.
ad Gen. xlvii. 31, where, according to the LXX and Hebr.
xi. 21, he decides for the pointing HED instead of HtSD, and
says as to it : " Tempore llieronymi nondum sane videtur
fuisse usus punctorum, sed absque illis tota Biblia lecta
sunt ;" also that he does not accept the " recentiores Hebraeos."
Thus, he often expresses himself against the points, saying
that he does not trouble himself much as to the supra and
infra of the Rabbis, and that it would be better to read the
Scriptures according to the intra, &c. And, ad Jes. ix. 6
(VV. A. vi. 292), he designates the points a new invention,
which had no right to have more authority than the sinvple
genuine meaning which was strictly conformable to gram
mar, as he did not care much for their (the Jews) gram
matical superstitions.

Among Christian divines in general, especially those of
the Protestant Church, the opinion opposed to the above
was soon again prevalent, viz., that the Hebrew text came
from the hands of the authors of the books exactly in the
shape in which we now have it, with all the vowel-marks and
accents ; this was especially promulgated by those divines
who followed the older Rabbis in their treatment of Hebrew;
thus especially so by the Buxtorfs and all their school.

Joh. Buxtorf (the father) had already defended the anti
quity of the vowel-marks in opposition to Elias Levita
(Tiberias, 1020). He soon, however, found an opponent on
the point in Ludw. Cappellus, in his Arcanum punctationis
revelatum. Cappellus sent this work to Buxtorf in manu
script, who indeed acknowledged the difficulty of the
question ; but still maintained his point that it was a dan
gerous thing to assume the novelty of vowel-marks ; the
work was then printed by Thorn. Erpenius (Prof, of Orient.
Lang, at Leyden), L.B. 1624, and afterwards enlarged into
Lud. Cappelli Commentarii et Notes Criticce in V. T. Acces-
sere Jac. Cappelli Observationes in Eosdem Libros, &c. Amst.
1689. Joh. Buxtorf (the younger) appeared against him
in Tractatus de Punctorum, vocalium et accentuum in libris Vet.
Test. Hebraicis origine, antiquitate et auctoritate. Basle, 1648.

378 History of the Text of the Canon.

He throughout maintains the originality of the Hebrew
pointing, and even extends to it the same inspiration as to
Holy Scripture, an idea which in the Reformed Church of
Switzerland received authority as an article of their creed,
by the Formula consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum (1675).

Can. 2 : " Hebraicns V. T. Codex turn quoad

corisonas turn quoad vocalia, sive puncta ipsa sive puncto-

rum saltern potestatem @eo7n/evcrros, ut fidei et

vitee nostraa una cum codice N. T. sit Canon unicus et illi-
batus, &c." Ludw. Cappellus further defended his views
against the younger Buxtorf in Vindiciaz arcani punctationis
recelati (likewise printed in the Commentarii et Notce Crit.
in Vet. Test.). Joh. Morinus, among others, concurred in
the views of Cappellus in the second part of his Exercitt.
Biblicce, &G. Paris, 1669. Exercitt. pp. 12-14 ; thus also
Walton, in the preface to his Polyglot, and others. But
the antiquity and originality of the vowel-marks were con
stantly believed in and defended by many, as by Loscher,
de caussis lingua Hebr. 1706 ; Pfeiffer, Crit. Sacr. 1680, p.
83, ff ; Carpzov, Crit. Sacr. 1728, p. 243, ff.

330. Various Proofs of the Novelty of the Vowel-
Signs and Accents.

The idea that the ancient Hebrews wrote without our
vowel-signs and accents did not become very prevalent
until more modern times ; but from all the historical facts
in question this cannot be doubtful to any impartial
critic. 1 In the first place, it may be shown that, at the time
of Jerome and the Talmud, the text of the Old Testament
possessed none of our vowe.1 -signs and accents.

The surest evidence of this is in Jerome, from whose
language it may be deduced most clearly. When he
speaks of that which was written in the Hebrew text, he
invariably names the consonants only, and often says that
these might be expressed in various ways according to the
opinion of the reader, or according to the context, or the
nature of the passage where they occur, and that therefore
they had different significations. E.g., in Jerem. ix. 21

1 The most modern well-grounded investigation on this point is by
Hupfeld : Crit. examination of some of the obscure and misunderstood
passages in the history of the text of the Old Testament. II. Vocaliza
tion. * Stud, und Krit. 1830.

Novelty of the Vowel- Signs Jerome. 379

p2n) : Yerbum Hebraicum quod tribus literis scribitur,
Daleth, Beth, Kes vocales enim in inedio non habet (i.e.
no vowel letters) pro consequentia et legends arbitrio,
si legatur dabar, sermonem significat, si deber, mortem, si
dabber, loquere. In Habac. iii. 5 : Pro eo quod nos trans-
tulimus mortem, in Hebraso tres literaa positae sunt, Daleth,
Beth, Res, absque ulla vocali ; quas si legantur dabar, verbum
significat, si deber, pestem. Cf. in Is. ix. 7 (likewise in re
ference to dabar); Ep. 125, ad Damasum (D JH = D^ and
D jh) ; in Is. ii. 22 (!"!D3 = n3, in quo, and n2,excelsitudo).
Thus may be explained the very different ways in which
various Greek translators have explained this or that word
in a passage; e.g., in Is. xxvi. 14 ("OT) : Nee terrere nos
debet, quare LXX masculum, et ceteri interpretes memo-
riam transtulerunt, cum iisdem tribus literis, Zajin et Caph
et Ees, utrumque scribatur apud Hebraeos . Sed quando
memoriale dicimus, legiter Zeclier, quando masculum Zachar.
Et hac verbi ambiguitate deceptum arbitrantur Saul,
quando pugnavit contra Amalech et interfecit oinne mascu
lum eorum. Deo enim praocipiente, ut deleret omnem me-
moriam Amalech sub caelo, ille pro memoria, non tain
errore, quam praedae seductus cupidine, masculos interpre-
tatus est. (1 Sam. xv.) He certainly at times speaks of
vocalibus litoris in medio ; but from the context it is clear
that by this he does not understand anything of the nature
of our vowel-signs, but certain other consonants, from which
in certain passages the pronunciation of the word may be
fixed, and not only the actual vowel letters N 1 * and n, but
also P. Cf. Prowm. Comment, in Amos: Amos propheta non
est ipse quern patrem Esairc prophetae Icgimus. ^llle enim
scribitur per primam et ultimam nominis sui literam,
Aleph et Sade, hie vero per Ajin et Samech ; apud nos au-
tem, qui tantam vocalium literarnm (therefore ^ and V were
vocales liter) et S Iitera3, qua3 apud Hebraeos triplex est,
differen tiara non habemus, haac et alia nomina videntur esse
communia. Thus he often speaks of the accentus. But it
is certain, that it is not our accents which are meant, and
most probably generally not our written signs, but only^ a
difference partly in the accentuation, and especially in
the pronunciation both of whole words in reference to the
vowels with which they were to be provided in articula
tion, and of single consonants according to their various

380 History of the Text of the Canon.

shades. Vide the passages in Jahn (Einl. i. 343, f., Hupfeld,
p. 579, ff., De Wette, Biblische Archdologie, 3rd edit. 279 ,
notes c [likewise in the 4th edit, of 1864, p. 430, note 3J.

It may likewise be asserted with the greatest probability,
that in the Talmud where D^DVID are mentioned, neither
our accents nor written signs generally are meant, but only
divisions according to the sense ; cf. Hupfeld, p. 565, ff.
Still less is there in the Talmud any certain trace of the
existence of an} 7 vowels like ours ; but there is perhaps
decided proof of the contrary, as the decision as to the sense
of those words which were written with similar consonants,
but were expressed with different vowels, is made to de
pend not on written signs, but on the context. Thus, in
tr. Berachoth, fin., it was a question, whether in Isaiah liv.
13, T33 should be written: thy children (^3), or, thy
builders (T-! 3 )* &c.

The data of an earlier time, before Jerome and the
Talmud, as well as some other points which will come
under consideration, all concur with the above results.

That the Septuagint was translated from a text without
vowels may be perceived from the frequent confusing of
words having the same consonants, and likewise from the
spelling of the proper names, which often differs so much
from our Masoretic placing of the vowels ; the very same
thing may be observed in the other Greek translators,
as Josephus and Origen. Agreeing with all this is
the fact, that the writing on the Jewish coins and on all
the Phoenico-Punic monuments, is altogether without
vowel-signs ; and also, that the synagogue-rolls of the Sacred
Books are even now written by the Jews, and indeed are
obliged to be written, without vowels and accents ; and
this certainly is derived from the ancient usage, and could
not easily be understood, if these books had been originally
written with the vowel-signs and accents ; and also, that in
the other Semitic dialects, the introduction of vowel-signs
into the writing did not take place until a tolerably late
date. Among the Arabians it did not take place, at the
earliest, until the seventh century, shortly before the
Hegira, perhaps not till after it. The Koran at least,
was originally written without vowels and diacritical signs,
which perhaps were not added until the first century of the
Hegira, by the grammarians at Kufa.

Date of the Vowel-Signs. 381

331. Date and Origin of the Introduction of Vowel-Signs.

But as to the time when our Hebrew text of the Old
Testament was first provided with the present vowel-
signs and accents, and by whom it was done, there is alto
gether a complete deficiency in any historical accounts. All
we can do, from the several historical facts which we can
get at, is to fix certain limiting points, between which the
introduction of them must have taken place. On the one
hand, in the tenth and eleventh centuries our system of
A r owels must have been complete and must have been in
use some considerable time.

A comparison of the readings of the Hebrew text in
various manuscripts, which was instituted about 1034, by
Ben A.sher and Ben Xaphthali, relates only to the vowels
and signs for reading, and shows that considerable import
ance was attributed to their agreement, and that they
were in no way left to the discretion of the transcribers.
The Eabbi Jehuda Chajjug, living about this time, and
Saadia Gaon, of a still earlier date, wrote grammatical
works as to the pointing (v. 46), and the latter s Arabic
translation of the Books of the Old Testament, in its com
prehension of the sense, completely follows our Masoretic
pointing, no that it may be inferred that the Hebrew text
had been previously provided with our system of pointing.
The Masora likewise mentions by name most of the vowels,
and speaks of variations in respect to them. The Jewish
grammarians after the eleventh century, appear generally
to have had no other opinion, than that the vowel-signs
had always been united with the text ; so that it may be
assumed, perhaps with certainty, that a considerable time,
perhaps some centuries had elapsed at that time, since their
introduction had been completed.

On the other hand, it results from what, has gone before
that up to the middle of the fifth century, the text had not
been provided with vowel-marks and accents such as are now
in use. A\ e shall, therefore, be brought approximately to
the time between the sixth and eighth centuries. The idea
that the introduction could not have taken place earlier,
and that it was rather nearer the eighth century than the
sixth, is favoured by the relation of the Hebrew vocalization
and accentuation connected with it (which were doubtless

382 History of the Text of the Canon.

introduced at the same time), to the vocalization of the
other Semitic languages.

For it cannot be doubted that, as regards the introduc
tion of the vowel-signs into their writing, the various
Semitic nations exercised some influence on one another.
But the present Hebrew vocalization is decidedly the most
ingenious and most artificial system among those of the
other Semitic languages ; from which it may be concluded,
that the more simple systems of the other Semitic languages
were the first. Thus Joh. Morinus (Exercitt. Bibl. p. 565),
and R. Simon understand it, and likewise de Sacy, Gesenius,
Hupfeld, &c. Among the Semitic nations, the Syrians pro
bably were the first who noticed words and forms which were
written with similar consonants, and distinguished them
from one another by the means of certain diacritical signs ;
and this was at first (before the sixth century) done by the
use of a point in diiferent positions (cf. Ewald, Abhandlungen
zur orient, bibl. Literatur, i. 1832, pp. 53-129; Ueber das
Syrische Punktations-System, nach Syrischen Handschriften.
Next followed the more complete system of the Arabians;
and somewhat later the Syrians also began to adopt a more
complete system of vocalization ; and later still, the much more
ingenious Hebrew system was introduced ; as to this cf.
Hupfeld, Theol Stud. u. Krit. 1830. (Ewald, in the LeJir-
buch der Hebr. Sprache, p. 66, Edit. 7, was of a different
opinion.) We can, therefore, scarcely fix the date of this
introduction before the eighth century, and at the earliest
in the seventh. In general, Hupfeld, and formerly Eich-
horn, and others, agree as to this.

This introduction, therefore, must have preceded the trans
planting of the Jewish scriptural erudition from Baby
lonia and Palestine into the West, having been effected in
the learned schools in Asia, and according to llupfeld s opi
nion, at Tiberias. When the Jewish scriptural erudition
made its way into the West, this alteration had been effected
as much as a century before, and it may thus be easily
explained, that in the West its origin was soon forgotten.

It may be assumed, with great probability, that the pre
sent ingenious and complex system of pointing in the
Hebrew text was not added all at one time, but that it was
preceded by a more .simple vocalization and accentuation,
in which fewer vowels and accents were used, or perhaps

Origin of the Vowel-Signs. 383

certain diacritical signs were added only to some doubtful
words, in order to distinguish them from one another.

This latter plan was the case e.g., with the Samaritans,
who, in their Hebrew Pentateuch, intimated by a stroke
either above or below, when any form from its signification
had to be expressed in a different mode than in most cases ;
thus, e.g., "121, dabar, "131, deber = pestilence; 7K = ^,

b$ = !?N. Thus it is very probable that the Jewish
scholars, now and then, before the introduction of vocali
zation, affixed to the text similar incomplete intimations of
the pronunciation and the sense ; and also that when they
began to indicate the vowels and accents, they did not all
at once make use of our present complex system, but that
some more simple methods came first.

I must here remark, that some years ago (1845-46),
Pinner in Berlin, and Luzzatto at Padua, communicated
certain passages of the Old Testament from manuscripts of
the Karaite Jews (cf. above 46), in the East, having a
vocalization and accentuation very different from ours,
which was called the Assyrian (ours is called that of
Tiberias) ; (as to this, cf. Ewald, Jahrb. i. 160-172). Ewald
is of opinion, that this Assyrian pointing and the other that
subsequently came into use are grounded on a more ancient
base common to both. [As to tSimcha Pinsker s Einleitung
in das Babylonisch-Hebraische Punldations- System (Vienna,
1863), cf. Ewald in the 7th edit, of the Lehrbuch der Heir.
Sprache, p. 7, f., and Noldeke (Prof, at Kiel), in Zarncke s
Literar. Centralblatt, 1863, No. 43.]

This much, however, may be decided with certainty,
that in Jerome s time the Hebrew text was not provided
with any marks like our pointing ; and from this it follows
that those persons 1 are decidedly wrung who think that
the ancient Hebrews had any vowel-signs like ours ; the
fact being that marks were placed as hints as to some
difficult and doubtful words.

From the great sanctity which, since the formation of
the Canon, was attributed to the very shape of the text
handed down from antiquity, these signs would have been

1 Thus Michaelis ( Von d. Alter, d. Hebr. Voc. &c., Verm. Srhriften,
Part ii. ; Orient. Bill. ix. 82, ff., 88, f.) ; Trendelenburg (in EicLhorri s
Rcpert. xviii. 78, if.,, Eichhorn, Uortholilt.

384 History of tlie Text of the Canon.

likewise preserved. So long as the language was a living
one the Hebrews had absolutely none of these vowel-
marks any more than the Phoenicians, the Punic, and other
Semitic nations in ancient times. The vowels in the Semi
tic languages are generally of far less importance compared
with the consonants than in the Vv esterii, as the essen
tial radical meaning of a word is not usually defined by
them, but only the modifications of different forms of a
root. Also even in later times, long after the vowel-signs
had been introduced into the various Semitic dialects,
the text was frequently without them. In the Hebrew,
however, while the language was a living one, certain
consonants were sometimes used for the general inti
mation of the vowel Avith which a word or syllable was
to be expressed, namely, 1 and \ and also K and H; as to
which we must observe that at a later time these letters
were more frequently used in pointing out the vowels than
they were previously, as, e.g., the Pentateuch is the most
sparingly supplied with them of all the Books of the Old
Testament.

Our present vowel- signs and accents do not, therefore,
form a part of the real text of the Old-Testament Scrip
tures, but only serve as evidence to show how the Jewish
scribes expressed the Hebrew in the age in which these
signs were introduced. They are also of equal use in
showing how they understood the text, as the meaning
of a passage is frequently settled by the pointing, arid the
consonants by themselves often allow another rendering.
Now, it is certain that the Eabbis managed this with great
care, and their pointing is derived from an exegetical tra
dition in general correct ; but vowels can never have the
same authority for us as the consonants, so that a deviation
from the traditional form of a word can only, by a misuse
of terms, be styled a variation of the reading.

332. The Division of the Text into Words.

(3) It may also be assumed with great probability that
the Old -Testament authors wrote without any division of
words. Yet the necessity for marking the division of words
in the writing was sooner felt than the need for the vocali
zation ; but even after the beginning and the end of sepa
rate words had commenced to be shown by means of points

Division of Words and Sections. 385

or small intervals, a long time, perhaps, elapsed before it
was done in a constant and regular way. If, therefore, by
a division of words varying from that now existing in
manuscripts and editions, the interpretation is facilitated
or a more natural sense better suited to the context can
be attained to, we ought to have no hesitation in following
this altered arrangement ; for the most ancient translations,
particularly the LXX, often divide words differently to the
present Masoretic text.

333. The Division into Verses.

(4) As to tha division of the text into sections, larger or
smaller according to the sense, such as our verses and
chapters, I will briefly remark as follows :

(a) In the really poetical books and passages the custom
certainly very early obtained of distinguishing from one
another in the writing, both the parallel members of an
idea, and also the members themselves, either by a little
interval or the beginning of a new line. This sometimes
was done, most probably, by the author himself; e.g., in
alphabetical songs ; but how far in other songs cannot be
certainly decided. But it is certain that in Jerome s time
these divisions were to be seen in the poetical books not
only in the Greek and Latin, but also in the Hebrew
manuscripts.

Jerome speaks of a diver sa distinctio inter Hebraicum et
Septuaginta (Ep. ad Cyprian ad Ps. Ixxxix. [Hebr. xc.], 11).
In the alphabetical songs, a passage consisting of several
members and assigned to a single letter is called versus by
Jerome. Thus he says (Ep. ad Paulam), in reference to
Ps. cxix, that 8 versus begin with N. Elsewhere, how
ever, he designates by the same expression the single
hemistichs, or members, which form a single line in the
writing, and are also called ortxoi ; thus (Procem in L. xvi
Comment, in Jes.), where a small fragment, which in the
Vulgate makes now only three verses, is specified as "8
versus." These single limbs, or stichi, are perhaps those
which in the Talmud, in the Psalms, are called D p-IDS
(commata, ccesa), which expression was subsequently in use
for our verses; v. tr. Kidduschim, fol. 30, I, 1 according to

1 Tradunt Rabbini nostri : 5888 al. 8888, as instead of H H is read)
versus habi-t Lex, Psalmi hiibent octo versibus plus. 1 Chrou. octo
vnrsibus minus.

VOL. II.

386 History of the Text of the Canon.

which the Psalms contain 5896 Pesukim, whilst the number
of our verses amounts to 2527.

In our Hebrew editions and manuscripts, in some of the
songs in the historical books, the divisions into separate
members are indicated by means of intervals, viz., in
Exod. xv, Dent, xxxii, Judges v, which is still more fre
quently the case in the most ancient manuscripts ; which
usage has perhaps been retained from antiquity downwards.

As regards the prosaic books, it is certain that in these
the authors themselves did not divide their writings either
into small portions resembling our verses or still smaller
parts, and make these divisions perceptible in the writing.
Yet, at least in the Pentateuch and in the Prophets, these
divisions are mentioned in the Mishna (tr. Megilla, c. 4, 4)
under the name of D j&gt;lD3. They corresponded in general
to our verses. These divisions were made to assist the
reading of the books, first in the Pentateuch the Gemara
(tr. Megilla, fol. 22, 1) appears to attribute them to IMoses
himself next in the Isebiim and the Megilloth, and then
in the rest of the books.

According to tr. Kidduschim, ut supr., the Pentateuch had
5888 Pesukim, whilst the number of our verses is 5845 ;
cf. also De Wette, 80 a, Notes 6 [Eichhorn, 143 1 ]. In the
same way, also, the number of these divisions in the Chro
nicles is stated at 5880. Hupfeld (Stud. u. Krit., 1837, p.
852, if.) is of opinion that these Talmudical verse-divisions
were not indicated to the eye, but were only made in the
reading by verbal tradition (cf. De Wette, 80 b). But,
from what has gone before, this is altogether improbable,
as they had been distinctly enumerated at the date of the
Mishna.

Perhaps, at the time of the Mishna, the division was
made by two points, in the mode of our Soph-pesuk,
as, at least a little later 2 it must have been to some
extent usual, even before our pointing. But it was not
perhaps until the introduction of pointing that the

1 According to tr. Kidduschim, fol. 30, 1 (vide under 357;, Levit, xiii.
33, would be the middle Pesuk in the Pentateuch; according to the
present division of verses, the number of the verses preceding this ex
ceeds those following it by about 300, a proof that the verses were not
the same in detail as at present.

2 According to tr. SopJterim, 3, 7 : Liber Legis in quo incisurn est

C 5 ), et in quo capita incisorum punctata sunt, ne legas in eo.

Division of Verses. 387

verses were definitively settled for the whole of the
Books of the Old Testament. Thus, we find them in
the manuscripts of the Old Testament (only not in the
synagogue-rolls, which are obliged to have no division into
verses), and also in the earliest editions of the Old-Testament
Books, but without any numbering; they are first num
bered in the Sabbionettic Pentateuch, 1557, in which every
fifth verse of a chapter is provided with a number. The
single verses of the chapters were first numbered in the
Hebrew text in the edition of Athias, 1661 ; this had been
previously done in the Vulgate in the 7th edit, of liob.
Stephanus, 1555-58.

334. Division into Sections and Chapters.
(I) In any connected works, such as our historical books,
&c., greater divisions, like our chapters, were not perhaps
made by the authors themselves, or at least not made evident
in the writing so that they could be retained by transcri
bers. Yet, in the multifarious religious uses of these books,
the need for this kind of division must soon have made
itself felt. Jerome often mentions capitula, in reference
both to the Hebrew and also the Greek and Latin texts,
and it is certain that these were not divisions made by
himself, but that they then existed, and had been made
conspicuous in the text in some external way; for he
several times speaks of the end of a chapter and of the
variations in this respect which the LXX and the Latin
translation present as compared with the Hebrew text. 1
These " capitulge " in the Hebrew text are most probably
the very same divisions which occur in the Talmud
and the Mishna under the title Parashioth (Hi^B, from
KHQ, separare, distinguere, divider e, therefore = separalio,
divisio, sectio). Divisions under this latter name are no\v
found in manuscripts and editions of the Pentateuch, and
of two kinds (1), smaller ones, 669 altogether, and (2) larger
ones, or Sabbath-Parashioth, fifty-four in number. These
latter, which are probably more modern than the former,

1 E.g., in Mich. vi. 9 : In Hebraicis altering hoc capituli exordium est,
apud LXX vero finis superioris. In Sophon. iii. 14: Nun videatur
inirum, aliter Hebraica capitula et aliter LXX Grseca videlicet Latin-
aque finiri. Ubi enim in sensu di versa translatio est, ili necesse eat
diveraa es=e vel priucipia vel fines.

388 History of the Text of the Canon.

were read out on each Sabbath in the synagogue, so that
the reading of the whole Pentateuch would be completed
within a year.

The Jewish year, as a lunar year, has, as a rule, twelve
months of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, 354
days altogether, consequently fifty or fifty-one Sabbaths ;
but after some years, in order to bring it into harmony
with the solar year, a month is intercalated ; and for this
leap-year the number of these Parashioth has been fixed
at fifty-four, in the ordinary year two Parashioth being read
on some Sabbaths.

According to the usual opinion, the Sabbath-Parashioth
are the older, and were again divided into the smaller ones ;
as to which Bertholdt thinks that the smaller divisions
were intended to be read out on week-days. But this idea
is quite unfounded. But what. Hupfeld (Stud. u. Krit., 1837,
p. 833, if.) asserts, and following him De Wette (edits. 5
and 6) also approves, seems altogether more likely ; that the
shorter Parashioth were the older, and the Sabbath-Para
shioth, in which a quantity of the shorter divisions are
united in one section for reading out on the Sabbaths, were
a subsequent arrangement.

The Parashioth and the smaller ones are doubtless
those meant are mentioned in the Mishna ; in the Ge-
mara (tr. Berach. fol. 12, 2), they are derived from Moses
himself; a sign, that at that time, they must have been
long in use.

In the Talmud 1 (a) the open, and (6) the dosed Para
shioth are distinguished (a) nmna, and (6) nD-IHp, or
rO-lp, leaning and it is insisted that this distinction is to
be observed in writing ; the open Parashah begins with a
fresh line, the dosed only with a small interval in the same
line as that which goes before. These Parashioth have
been ever since kept up in the Pentateuch, and are distin
guished in the manuscripts and editions, the open ones by
a, the closed by D ; in all the editions, however, care is
not taken in all cases to begin the open ones with a new

line. When the Sabbath-Parashah begins with an open

Parashah, it is indicated by ass ; when it begins with a
dosed one, by ODD-

) Tr. Schalbath fol. 103, 2 (vide under 357).

Division into Sections. 389

(c) In the Mishna the name Parashah occurs also iii
reference to the NeUim (Megilla, c. 4, 4), and probably here
the same sections are meant as by the capitula of Jerome.
These are probably in general the same sections which
now in the Nebiim and Ketubim are separated from one an
other in the more correct manuscripts and editions by small
interval-spaces, without however being otherwise indicated.

In the Babylonian Gernara (Berachoth, fol. 9, 2 ; 10, 1),
the separate Psalms are also pointed out as Parashioth, by
being divided from one another by small interval-spaces.

(d) The Haplitliaroth in the Nebiim are quite different
from the above capitula or Parashioth. These are selected
portions like our ecclesiastical Pericopce, (sections) out of
the Scriptures of the second division of the Canon, which
were read out on various Sabbaths together with the Sab
bath- Parashah.

Elias Levita explains the name ^"J9^^ fr m " l ^??&gt;
Aphel ; liberum diniittere, diniittere ; therefore dimissio or
cessatio, because the Scripture reading on the Sabbath was
concluded with the reading of these sections. It must,
however, remain uncertain, if this explanation be correct.
The Haphtharoth are so selected that the contents corre
spond to those of the Parashah used at the same time ;
they were also taken out of the Nebiim and written on
separate rolls. There are, however, many variations in this
respect between the Spanish and the German Jews.

The Haphtharoth are mentioned in the Mishna (Megilla,
c. 4, 5;. Yet it is questionable how the Haphtharoth of
that time are circumstanced as regards those subsequently
in use. That at the time of Christ and the Apostles, the
prophetical Scriptures, as well as the Law, were permitted
to be read out in the synagogue on the Sabbath, may be
deduced from Luke iv. 17, Acts xiii. 15 ; but from the
former passage it may be concluded with tolerable cer
tainty that at that time particular Haphtharoth had not yet
been prescribed for different Sabbaths, nor doubtless parti
cular sections of the To) ah.

(e) Our present division into chapters comes considerably
later than the present division into verses, not until the
first half of the thirteenth century. It is of Christian
origin, and for the New Testameut also was first intro
duced into the Vulgate.

390 History of the Text of the Canon.

Hugo de St. Caro (Hugh de Saint-Cher, Provincial of
the Dominicans in France, afterwards Cardinal in Spain,
d. 1 263), is usually named as the originator of this division ;
he is said to have made it to assist his Concordance of the
Vulgate (according to Gilbert Genebrard, Chron. 1. 4, p.
644). Another statement (Baleens, Hist. Eccl. Cent. xiii.
c. 7, 10), gives Stephen Langton (Archbishop of Canter
bury, d. 1227) as the author. The Jews subsequently
adopted this division from the Vulgate into the Hebrew
text; E. Isaak Nathan first used it for his Concordance,
made about 1440 ; he expressly says in the preface, that he
had derived the division into chapters from the Vulgate.
The first printed edition of the Hebrew Old Testament,
which had the division into chapters, was Bomberg s edition
of the year 1525. Among the Jews these chapters are
usually called |T13, also fyo Bp.

These chapters were, from the first, pointed out by con
secutive numbers, and thus these divisions became pecu
liarly convenient for quotations. Previously they were
content, in quoting Scripture, to mention only generally
the book or the author ; if they wished to point out more
closely the passage quoted, the section the Capitulum or
Parashah relating to it was named, with an intimation
of its contents ; thus, e.g., Philo, De Agricultura, 24 : Ae ya
yap cV rais apals (Gen. iii. 15) ; Bom. xi. 2 : ej/ EAia ri Aeyet
f) ypoL^rj (1 Kings xix. 10); Mark xii. 26: OVK di/eyi/wre eV
ry f3i(3X.tt) Moruo-os CTTI rov fidrov (Exod. iii) ; Baschi, on
Hosea ix. 9 : " this is Gibeon Benjamin in the concubine"
( Judg. xix) ; id. on Ps. ii : " as is said in Abner " (2 Sam. ii.
8 if.). Thus among the Eabbis, Parashioth are quoted, as
the Parashah Balaam, red heifer, &c. Subsequently it be
came usual to specify the separate Sabbath-Parashioth, by
the word which began it, e.g., the Parashah JV^fcOn. &c.

391

B. INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE TEXT.

335._-p,-oo/s of Extreme Care in its early Transmission.

Hitherto we have considered the chief alterations in the
external form of the Hebrew text, Now, as regards its
internal history, as long as it was circulated m manuscript
only up to the fifteenth century we have, as already
remarked ( 324), every reason for assuming that, since the
incorporation of the books into the Canon, the scribes, by
whom the text was handed down to us, have used the
utmost and even painful care in its being transmitted in an
uncorrupted state ; so that what Josephus (c. Apion, i. 8)
says in reference to these scribes, and from the time above-
named downwards, may be considered in general as cor-
rect: &}Aov 8 eo-rtv epyu&gt;, irois ^//.eis TO!? loio^ ypd^aat : CTTI-
orevKa/xcv TOVOVTOV yap aiwws Ifa Trapw^fOTos, otrre irpoff-
6dvai TIS ov8o&gt; ovre d^eAelv auruv ovre /wraflaixu TeroX^iccv.

As to the nature and the different classes of the Hebrew
manuscripts handed down to us, v. De Wette 108-114,
and the works there quoted. As already remarked ( 324),
they are all of a tolerably late date, and furnish us with
the text essentially in a similar shape to that in which it
was settled in the Middle Ages, after the completion oi
our present system of pointing. Nevertheless in various
remarks and peculiar phenomena, in all of which they
aree essentially, they contain intimations which point out
how carefully pains were taken in earlier times to transmit
the actual text in an uninjured state (cf. 357, f.).

33(3. Comparison of the Hebrew Text with the Samaritan

Pentateuch.

This is likewise pointed out by other documentary evi
dence and means of proof which we possess as to the state
of the Hebrew text in different centuries of an earlier date.
\mone these are, in the first place, the ancient transla
tions and for the Pentateuch, the Samaritan Eecension of the
same as compared with our Jewish Recension in the He
brew manuscripts written by the Jews. VV e have already
seen (cf 139, 305) that, among all the Scriptures oi 1

392 History of the Text of the Canon.

Old Testament, the Pentateuch alone obtained canonical
authority among the Samaritans. This authority it has
constantly maintained among them, and they possess it
partly in the Hebrew language, and partly in translations,
of which there are two :

(a) A translation in the Samaritan dialect (in the Paris
and London Polyglot) by an unknown author, and of an
unknown age, but, at all events, of a date when the Sama
ritan was still a living language among this race ; at the
latest, a few centuries after Christ ; according to Winer and
Gesenius (de Pent. Sam. p. 18, f.), not after the second cen
tury after Christ. 1

(6) An Arabic translation composed by the Samaritan
Abu Said in the eleventh or twelfth century, which is only
partly published f seven codices of which are, however,
extant in Europe (v. De Wette, 67).

Here, however, the matter for us to consider is, in what
form the Pentateuch was received among the Samaritans in
the Hebrew language.

It was known to some of the Fathers that the Samaritan
often differed from the Jewish text, and Jerome particu
larly often quotes these variations. It was only from these
quotations, particularly Jerome s, that the Samaritan Pen
tateuch was known in Europe up to the seventeenth cen
tury. It was first printed in the Paris Polyglot (Part 6,
1632), according to one Codex, under the superintendence
of Job. Morinus, in the Samaritan character ; subsequently
also in the London Polyglot. Afterwards Kennicott caused
fifteen other manuscripts to be completely or partly col
lated. A separate edition of this Samaritan Pentateucli
re-written, however, in the Quadrate character was
brought out by Benjamin Blayrney (Pentat. Hebr.-Samari-
tanus, &G. Oxford, 1790). Gesenius has, however, furnished

1 Vide Winer, De Versionis Pentat. Samar. indole. Leipzig, 1817.

2 Genesis in 3 Codd. ; Libr. Genesis sec. Arab. Pentat. versionem ab
Abu Saido conscr. Edit. Abr. Kuenen (under Juynboll s guidance).
L. B. 1851. Libr. Exod. et Levit. by the same, 1854. [In the fragments
(cf. Eichhorn s Introd. ii. p. 268) of the Triglott of the Pentateuch
written in the Samaritan character, the Arabic translation stands in the
middle ; the columns on the right hand contains the Samaritan text or
the Samaritan Recension in the Hebrew language, whilst the Samaritan
version is on the left, which alone, therefore, is composed in the Sama
ritan language.j

TJie Samaritan Pentateuch. 393

an exact collation of the text of this Recension (De Pentat.
Samarit. origine, indole et auctoritate. Halle, 1815).

As to the nature of the Hebrew text of the Samaritan
manuscripts, and its relation to the Hebrew text of the
Jewish manuscripts, I remark as follows :

(a) The various Samaritan manuscripts differ much
among themselves, which, however, is only caused by their
all being, in general, written much more carelessly than
the Jewish manuscripts, and the variations have no par-
ticular influence on the sense. In any more important
readings they agree, and, among many other variations
from the Jewish text, they also present all those which
Jerome brings forward, with the exception only of Gen. v.
25-28.

(6) The variations of the Samaritan manuscripts from
the Jewish are very numerous, those variations even in
which the former completely agree among themselves. In
by far the most cases, however, we cannot doubt that the
readings in the Jewish Recension are the original ones, and
that those in the Samaritan have proceeded from them.

The variations sometimes relate merely to the ortho
graphy or grammatical forms, more difficult or less correct
forms being altered into easier and more usual ones ; some
times they consist of alterations and additions, the aim of
which is unmistakeably to throw light on the sense of
a passage, to obviate seeming or actual difficulties in the
text, or to remove anything which, in an historical or
doctrinal point of view, might bear the appearance of giv
ing offence. The alterations of the chronological state
ments are of this nature ; thus particularly the dates (Gen.
v. xi. 10, ff.) ; the statement of the duration of the sojourn
of the Israelites in Egypt (Exodus xii. 40) ; besides, in
the narratives of Divine appearances it is not God Him
self Jehovah who is mentioned as the Person appearing,
even where this is the case in the Jewish text, but always
an Angel. The reading (Deut. xxvii. 4) is particularly
famous, where, instead of Ebal, as it is in the Hebrew
text, Gerizim is named as the mountain on which, accord
ing to Moses command, the stone with the law written
upon it was to be set up.

394 History of the Text of the Canon.

reading of the Samaritan Eecension is the original one;
thus, e.g., Gen. iv. 8 ; xxii. 2 : perhaps also ch. ii. 2, &c.

(d~) In cases of the latter kind the LXX everywhere
agrees with the Samaritan Eecension as opposed to the
Jewish text ; but this is the case not merely in these pas
sages, but also in numerous others, altogether more than
a thousand, in which it can in general be assumed that
the original reading is that of our Jewish text. This
agreement often refers to the merest trifles ; e.g., the omis
sion or addition of the prefix 1, but, in other places, to
other kinds of alterations, completions, and facilitations of
the text. In many passages, however, the LXX agrees
with the Jewish text as opposed to the Samaritan, or it
presents variations from the Jewish text in which the
Samaritan Recension is not in its favour ; or both the LXX
and the Samaritan Recension differ from the Jewish text,
but in different ways.

Thus, e.g., in the statements of the dates (Gen. v. xi.
10, if.), where the doubtless original statements of the
Jewish text appear altered in the LXX and in the Samari
tan Recension according to some fixed principles, but in
different ways. (Cf. Ed. Preuss, Die Zeitrechnung der Sep-
tuaginta vor dem 4. Jahr Salomons, Berlin, 1859.)

(e) The reasons for these phenomena are variously ex
plained. I have stated my opinion about them in Rosen-
miiller s Eepert. i. pp. 62-79 ; and I still hold that the view
there asserted was the correct one, viz., that the pecu
liar form of the Alexandrine-Samaritan Recension origi
nally arose among the Jews resident in Egypt, perhaps
after the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity ; that the
Samaritans received copies of the Pentateuch from the
Egyptian Jews at the time they instituted among them
selves a settled worship of Jehovah, after the Babylonian
Captivity, and before the composition of the LXX ; that
this shape of the text afterwards experienced still farther
and various alterations at the hands both of the Egyptian
Jews and also of the Samaritans.

(/) The comparison, however, of the Samaritano-Egyp-
tian Recension of the Pentateuch with the Jewish Recension
of the same serves as a proof of the care which has been taken
by the Palestine Jews, by whom the Jewish Recension has
been transmitted to us, in handing down the text of the

Ancient Translations. 395

Book of the Law in an unaltered shape ; and that this care
has continued since the time when Ezra bound over the
people to the Law afresh. Even in those few passages
in which it may be assumed with reason that the Egypto-
Samaritaii Recension gives the original reading, it is pro
bable that the corruption did not, get into the Jewish text
after the time of Ezra, but in the time between the dis
covery of the Book of the Law in the Temple in Josiah s
days and the fresh delivery of it to the people by Ezra,
perhaps in its re-writing in the Babylonian character in
stead of the Phoenician, either by or at the time of Ezra.

337. The Septuagint Traditions as to its Origin.

Among the documentary evidence as to the text of the
Old Testament, not only of the Pentateuch, but also of the
rest of the books, we have now to consider chiefly

THE ANCIEXT TRANSLATIONS.

Of these, firstly, only the direct translations will come
under consideration ; the indirect, which have been made
from another translation, from the LXX, the Vulgate, or
the Peshito, can only serve as documentary evidence for the
text of this particular translation itself. The direct transla
tions are, so far as is known, all composed by Christians ;
the indirect ones are made partly by Jews, partly by Sama
ritans ( 336), partly by Christians, and sometimes, indeed,
in the Western, and sometimes in the Eastern, languages.

The most ancient translation of the Old Testament now
existing, and probably the most ancient absolutely which
has been made of it, is the Greek Alexandrine translation,
or

THE SEPTUAGINT. 1

This is the only complete translation existing in the
Greek language, and stood in the highest estimation among
the Jews before Christ and for a long time after Christ,
likewise also in the Christian Church. We find much that
is fabulous amongst the ancients as to the origin of this
translation. These stories principally depend on a Greek
letter which purports to be written by Aristeas, a Greek

1 Vide Humphry Hody (Archdeacon and Professor of Greek at
Oxford, d. 1706), l)e Bibliorum textibus origiitalibm, versionibus Grsecis
et Latino, Vulgata, libri iv. Oxford, 1705.

396 History of the Text of tlie Canon.

living at Alexandria, at the court of Ptolemseus Phila-
delptms (reg. 284-247), to Philocrates, a brother of the
former, in which, as an alleged partaker in the matter, he
gives an account as to the motive for the translation. 1

According to the letter, the well-known Athenian, Deme
trius Phalereus, is said to have induced the Egyptian king
Ptolemseus Philadelphus to have a Greek translation pre
pared of the Jewish Book of the Law. After he had pre
viously, by buying the freedom of the whole of the Jewish
bondsmen in Egypt to the amount of more than 1000
Talents, assured for himself the favour of the Jews, he
requested the then high priest, by means of an embassy in
which Aristeas took part, to send him men learned in both
languages and suitable for the translation, six out of each
tribe. The high priest sent the number of men which was
asked for, together with a Hebrew codex written in golden
characters. These persons were highly honoured by the
king ; they completed the translation in seventy-two days,
working in common at it in a beautiful building on the
shore of the Island of Pharos. Demetrius wrote down the
translation as soon as they agreed on any portion of it.
Then Demetrius convoked an assemblage of the Jews, and
read out the translation in their presence and in that of
the translators, and it found general approval. The Jews
asked Demetrius to let their principal men have a copy of
this translation of the law and to utter an anathema on
any who should venture to alter anything in it. The king
was highly rejoiced at the success of the work and, com
manding Demetrius to take particular care for its preserva
tion, dismissed the translators to their homes with rich
presents.

This detailed account by one engaged in the transaction
forms the ground-work of all the statements of later writers
as to the origin of this translation, even of those of Philo
and Josephus.

Philo, de Vita Mosis, 1. 2, 5-7 (p. 657, ff. ed. Par.), refers
to the way in which this translation was originated as a
proof of the great authority the Jewish law possessed even
among foreign kings. He does not indeed name Aristeas

1 The letter has often been printed ; among others by Hody, pp. i-
xxxvi, and by Van Dale, Dissert, super Aristea de LXX interpretibus,
&c. Amsterdam, 1705.

Origin of tlie Septuagint. 397

as his source, but agrees so much with his account in essen
tial things, and even in allusions to several special circum
stances which Aristeas related more in detail, that it may be
assumed with tolerable certainty that he was acquainted
with this letter, and considered its contents as undoubtedly
historical. Philo has the following special details in his
account : (a) that all the translators, as if by coincident
inspiration, made use of expressions best corresponding to
the original and always indicating things in the most distinct
and clearest way ; and (6) that in remembrance of the
above event there was a festival every year on the Island
of Pharos, to which not only the Jews but others also
crossed over, in order to thank God for His blessing ex
perienced in the translation and to enjoy themselves in
feasts. Josephus expressly appeals to the letter of Aristeas,
and relates the affair circumstantially and almost in exact
conformity with the latter, with slight differences which
need not be noticed ( Ant. xii. 2 ; cf. Prcef. ad Antiqq. 3 ;
( . A.pion, ii. 4).

All the writers of the Church who speak of the origin of
the LXX equally depend, either directly or indirectly,
on Aristeas, only they add certain things which serve to
further embellish the narrative and to place the matter in
a still more wonderful light.

Thus, in the first place, Justin Martyr, Cohort, ad
Grcec. c. 13. He asserts that Ptolemaeus sent for seventy
scholars learned in Hebrew and Greek from Jerusalem, to
whom were assigned, according to the king s directions,
seventy different cells (OUCWT/AOI) in the Island of Pharos,
where they worked ; and that then care was taken that
they had no communication with one another, and could
not act in concert ; nevertheless, that they all translated
every passage in the same words, without the slightest
difference. Philo doubtless was the origin of this embel
lishment, although it is not probable that he intended it ;
it, however, became customary after that time to tell the tale
in this way, viz. (cf. Irenaeus, iii. 25 ; Clemens Alex. Strom.
j. 22 ; Augustine, de Civ. Dei, xviii. 42, Doctr. Christ, ii. 22.
Cf. also, tr. Megilla, fol. 9) : that the king collected the seventy-
two elders without making his views known to them, that
he then shut them up in seventy-two dwellings, and directed
that each single one should write out for him the Law of

398 History of the Text of the Canon.

Moses (in Greek) ; and that this was done by all of them
in an exactly corresponding way. Epiphanius (de Mens.
et Pond. c. 3, 6, 9-11) only differs from this in making the
seventy-two interpreters work in pairs in thirty-six cells.
Justin Martyr assures us, that, during his sojourn in Alex
andria, he had found traces of these cells in Pharos ; which
goes to prove that at that time the thing was generally
believed in the district, and thus people were readily in
duced to give this application to certain ruins in Pharos.
There have been still further additions made to the story
by the Fathers : (a) that the Egyptian king in the first
place procured from Judaea the books in the original
Hebrew, and then, by means of a second embassy, the men
fitted to translate them; thus, e.g., Justin M. Apolog. i. 31,
Epiphanius and others ; (?&gt;) that then, at the king s sugges
tion, not only the Pentateuch was translated, but also the
other Books of the Canon ; thus, Justin M. ut supra (twice),
Clemens Alex., and Epiphanius, who names seventy-two
Apocryphal Books, in addition to the twenty-two canonical
ones.

Much importance could not be given to these additions
to the legend, even if their foundation, the pretended letter
of Aristeas, deserved credit. But it is now universally
acknowledged that the latter is forged.

Its spuriousness has been so satisfactorily proved by
Hody and Van Dale, that there can be no doubt about it ;
cf. also liosenmiiller, Handb. fur die Lit. der Bibl. Krit. u.
Exeg. ii. p. 377, if. Its spuriousness is really sufficiently
proved by the circumstance pre-supposed in it, viz., that,
at the time of Ptolemasus Philadelphus, and indeed when
the latter was monarch over Egypt, Demetrius Phalereus
managed the Library at Alexandria, and enjoyed the con
fidence of the king. It can be proved certainly by his
torical evidence that this Athenian who lived at the court
of Ptolemaeus Lagus was, after the death of this king,
immediately removed from the court by his son and suc
cessor (Ptol. Phil.), and soon after died in prison by the
bite of a venomous snake. Added to this, there are a
quantity of improbabilities in the whole narrative of the
event, as it runs in this letter. Generally, it is perfectly
evident, that the letter is not, as it claims to be, the work
of a Greek, but is by a Jewish author who, however great

Aristeas Letter. 399

pains ho may have taken, cannot discard his nation. The
composition of the letter must have been before the time of
Thilo and Josephus; but how long before cannot be ascer
tained with certainty ; probably, however, it was not long
before Christ, The view of the Jewish composer appears
to have been not so much to elevate the authority of this
translation, as rather to glorify generally his people and
their law in the eyes of the Hellenes, by showing what
honour was rendered to the nation by the Egyptian king,
and to what great expense the latter had put himself in
order to obtain their Sacred Book of the Law in a language
which he could understand. The author was perhaps in
duced to assume the person of Aristeas, because the latter
was already well known as the composer of a letter about
the Jews, which Alexander Polyhistor (in Euseb. Prcepar,
Euang. ix. 26) mentions ; this letter also is, perhaps, referred
to when the Pseudo- Aristeas says at the beginning of the
letter we are speaking of, that he had previously sent to
Philocrates some other letters concerning noteworthy
things which he had learned from high priests of the
Jewish race.

338. Conclusions as to the real Origin of the Septuagint.

Although this letter may not be genuine, it may well
be supposed, that it was not all pure invention on the part
of the author, but that he followed the prevalent opinion
or tradition which was in circulation in his times as to the
prompting cause and origin of this translation. On this
point, it certainly will not be easy to make a separation
with any certainty, and to distinguish the historical ground
work from the invented matter which surrounds it. ISome
points, however, may be determined with a certain degree
of probability.

(a) In the first place, it is probable that the translation
of the Bo&lt;;k of the Law was put in hand by Ptolemaius Phila-
delphus, and that it was carried on by Demetrius Phalereus
in particular ; for we have on this point other evidence
cenainly independent of Pseudo- Aristeas, in the statement
of Aristolulus, a Jew of Alexandria, living about the middle
of the second century before Christ.

This Aristobulus had written Ein/yrycras rrj? Mu&gt;iWa&gt;s

;a&lt;;, and had dedicated it to Ftoleinjeus Philometor

400 History of the Text of the Canon.

(181-147, B.C.) ; in 2 Mace. i. 10, he is called an instructor
of the King Ptolemaeus (probably Philometor). Various
fragments of it have been preserved, particularly by Cle
mens Alex, and Eusebius, collected by Eichhorn (Attgem.
Bibl. der bill. Liter, v. 281-298). Incorrectly, as I believe,
li. Simon, Hody, Eichhorn, and others, have disputed the
genuineness of the letter from which these fragments are
taken, and regarded it as the work of a Christian author ;
(on the contrary, cf. Valckenaer, Diatribe de Aristobulo Judceo
(L. B. 1806), p. 22, if.). This Aristobulus says, in a fragment
in Euseb. Prc&p. Evang. xiii. 12 : 77 Se 0X77 ep^r;veia rav 8ta
TOV vofjiov 7rdvT(DV (yeyorev) ITTL TOV Trpoo-ayopevOtVTOs &lt;E&gt;iA.aSeA.(/&gt;ov
/5a&lt;jiXeo)s, (rov Se Trpoyovov 7rpoo~.vyK.a.fjivov ^titpva. &lt;/AoTi/x,iav,
A.-r)/jir]Tpiov TOV $ttX7ypecos Trpay/mrevo a/xei ov TO. irf.pl TOVTWV. I
believe that we have no 1 just cause for doubting gene
rally these statements of Aristobulus, whose age falls
about one hundred years after that of Ptol. Philad. and for
explaining the origin of this translation as being only the
necessity of it for the Egyptian Jews for the purpose of
Divine worship ; on the contrary, we may perhaps assume,
that Demetrius Phalereus actually managed the translation
of the Book of the Law with peculiar zeal.

There is a difficulty here, caused by the statement that
the translation is said to have taken place during the reign
of Ptol. Philadelphus, as from certain accounts we cannot
doubt that, at the very beginning of the reign of this
king, Demetrius was removed from court, and soon after
died. There must be, therefore, some inaccuracy here. We
may, perhaps, accept the following view of several earlier
writers. It is well known that PtoleinaBUs Lagus, in the last
year of his reign, took Ptolemaaus Philadelphus as his co-
regent. Now, if the translation was instituted or completed
during the common reign of these two princes (and it may
be that Ptol. Philad. assisted the undertaking in an especial
way), it might well be explained, how some persons sub
sequently have specified the reign of the latter as the date
of the production of this translation, and others the reign
of Ptolemteus Lagus. 2 It might therefore be most pro-

1 Otherwise, e.g. O. F. Fritzsche in Herzog s Real-Encyd. i. p. 227, f.

Thus Irenteus, iii. 21 ; cf. Clemens Alex. Strom, i. 22, 148, where
he says that, according to some, the translation was made at the time of
Ptol. Lagus ; according to others, of Philadelphus ; and especially also

Origin of the Pentatcueli in the Scptuagint. 401

bablo, that the translation of the Book of the Law took
place during the end of the lifetime of Ptolemaeus Lagus,
at the suggestion of Demetrius Phalereus, and that Ptole-
masus Philadelphus was especially interested therein, con
sequently about 285-284 B.C.

There is nothing at all improbable per se in the fact that
the Egyptian kings generally, either Ptolemaeus Lagus or
Philadelphus, had, at the suggestion of Demetrius Pha
lereus, been induced to obtain for their Library the book
of the Jewish law in a language which was intelligible
to himself and the Jews generally, as it is sufficiently
well known what zeal both princes showed for this
Library instituted by the first of them, and how various
Greek scholars and especially Demetrius Phalereus helped
them and excited their energy in its establishment arid
enlargement Plutarch (Apophthegm. Beg. torn. viii. p. 124,
ed. liutten) expressly relates that Demetrius Phalereus
urged Ptolemaeus to procure and read books irepl /foo-i-
Aeias /cat ^ye/xoi/ias. We may readily believe that the books
of the Jewish law are here meant ; because so great a
multitude of this people dwelt at that time in Egypt, and
especially in Alexandria, living then as later, in close
intercourse of various kinds with the Hellenes, and some
times filling no unimportant official positions.

(6) We have no ground for assuming that the translation
then proposed by the Ptolemies and managed by Demetrius
Phalereus embraced any books of the Old Testament besides
the Pentateuch, or indeed the whole Old Testament, as
Valckenaer and others, and Havernick ( 70), suppose.

Aristobulus words are certainly intended only to apply

to the whole of the Book of the Law the Pentateuch

although the above scholars explain them otherwise ; and
also by Pseudo-Aristeas, Philo, and Jo&ephus, the law of
the Jews only is spoken of, by which we are led to think
the Torah is intended, with which the rest of the books had
not, perhaps, yet been united in one collection ; likewise
in the Talmud (v. Hody, p. 169 ; e.g., tr. Megilla : " Traditio
est, ut dicit li. Judah, quod, quum permiserunt fmagistri

the passage by Anatolius, an Alexandrine, Bishop of Laodicea, in the
second half of the third century, in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. vii. 32, in which
we are told that the Seventy interpreted the Sacred and Divine Scriptures
ot the Hebrews nroXe /uajy T&lt;f&gt; &lt;J&gt;tA.a5eA.(p&lt;/&gt; /cat T&lt;? rovrov Trarpi.
VOL. II. 2 D

402 History of the Text of the Canon.

nostri], Legem in Graecum conscribi, permiserunt id tantum
libro Legis ; atque inde ortum est opus Ptolemasi regis ").
Jerome also asserts the same in various passages (in Hody,
p. 174, f.). Other Fathers, from Justin downwards, make
out that the other books of the Old Testament were trans
lated on the same occasion, and Epiphanius adds numerous
apocryphal books ; but this is certainly an unhistorical
addition, which might have been easily suggested to them
by the union of these books with the Book of the Law in
the Canon.

(c) It may be assumed as certain, that the Greek trans
lation of the Pentateuch which was then prepared is gene
rally the earliest which was made of this book in the Greek
language.

Aristobulus indeed (in Clemens Alex. Strom, i. 22, 150 ;
Eusebius, Prwp. Evang. ix. 6 ; xiii. 12) speaks of an earlier
Greek translation, which was made before the dominion
of Alexander and the Persians, as to the march of the
Hebrews out of Egypt, the conquest of Canaan, and the
whole giving of the law. But, if we consider the context
of what he says, it is tolerably clear that he himself was
not acquainted with anything definite about it, and that it
was merely a supposition or assertion on his part, which
was induced by an endeavour to prove that Plato him
self had in part derived his wisdom from the Mosaical
Scriptures. As it could not be credibly asserted that Plato
had read the latter in Hebrew, and it was sufficiently well
known that the Greek translation of that time was not
made until long after Plato s days, he might easily have
been induced to proceed upon the hypothesis that Plato
had read the Jewish law in some older translation made
before his time.

(d) As regards the Jewish scholars, by means of whom
the Egyptian king caused the translation of the Book of
the Law to be made, the internal nature of the translation
decidedly points out that these scholars belonged to Egypt
and not to Palestine, and certainly that they were not those
whom the high priest expressly sent to Egypt with a codex
of the Books of the Law for this purpose.

The whole nature of the text on which the translation
of the Pentateuch is based, is against this latter idea;
its text differs very much from our Hebrew text, and fre-

Hebrew Text followed in the Sepiuagint. 403

quently coincides with that of the Samaritan Recension, as
to which we have already remarked (v. 336 (e)), that it was
doubtless formed among the Egyptian Jews. If scribes
sent from Palestine by the high priest at Jerusalem had
made the translation, we could not doubt that they would
have -followed the text accepted in Palestine. There is
likewise no doubt that in this case they would have trans
lated from a codex in the Babylonian character, which was
then in exclusive use in Palestine in copies of the Sacred
Books. It appears, however, very probable that the codex
from which the Pentateuch was translated was written in
the ancient Hebrew or the Phoenician character, which was
then in partial use among the Jews out of Palestine, parti
cularly in -Egypt ; v. my remarks in Rosenmiiller s Eepert.
i. 74-79. Added to which, the translation of the Penta
teuch often shows a considerable acquaintance with Egypt
and the Egyptian institutions, which renders it very pro
bable that it was produced by natives of the country.
I will here only mention, what is remarked by Hody
(lib. ii. c. 4) that the word DJn is rendered by oA.ry0eia,
which is doubtless caused by the fact, that (according to
(Elian, v. part xiv. 34 ; Diod. Sic. i. 48) aXyOeia was the
usual designation in Egypt for a figure which the highest
of the Egyptians priests and judges bore on their collar,
which therefore bore a great similarity to the Israelitifsh
Urim and Thummim. There is still more on this point
in Hody, ut supra. Finally, in that age it would be in
Egypt rather than in Palestine that we should expect to
find scribes who had, besides a knowledge of Hebrew, such
cultivation in the Greek language as would be requisite
for making this translation, as is attested by the translation
of the Pentateuch particularly.

Whether the translation was the work of several scholars
or of a single one, cannot be ascertained. But it is pro
bable that in the preparation of it, application was made to
the chief men of the body of Egyptian Jews, and that
these, although they did not make the translation them
selves, yet assisted in and approved of it; thus also can
be best explained the reception and approbation \vhich
the work must have very early met with from the Jews
both in and out of Egypt.

(e) Nature of the Text. We have already seen above

404 History of the Text of the Canon.

( 336), that the text on which this translation is based
very often differs from our Hebrew text, and only in com
paratively few cases appears to give the original reading,
having doubtless received its shape in Egypt itself. This text
it follows exactly and gives the sense of it truly and in most
cases appropriately, as Jerome (Qucest. ad Genes.) remarks,
who justly gave the preference to the translation of the
Pentateuch over that of all the other books of the Old
Testament : " quos (libros Mosis) nos quoque confitemur
plus quam ceteros cum Hebraicis consonare." Especial
care has unmistakeably been given to the translation of the
Pentateuch.

339. Completion of the Septuagint Nature of the Text.

As regards the translation of the other books of the Old
Testament, nothing about its production is known to us
through express historical evidence ; yet, from its nature
and other circumstances the following points may be laid
down, some certainly, some only with probability :

(a) That they also were all translated in Egypt; in
many of the books we are led to this opinion by peculiar
circumstances, and in none of them are we distinctly led
to a contrary one.

(6) That they were not translated by the same persons
as the Pentateuch had been, and that the whole of the
Nebiim and Ketubim were not translated by the same men
nor at the same time.

A variety of translators may be inferred, both from the
different character of the translation in different books, and
also from certain perpetually recurring variations. Of the
latter I will only quote one example. Thus, e.g., D flE^B
in the Book of Joshua, as in the Pentateuch, appears as
&lt;JiAio-Tiei]a, and in the other books is rendered by aXXo-
&lt;frv\oi : HDS in the Chronicles is throughout &lt;ao-e/c, in the
other books Tracrxa. In Chronicles we find for Gentilitia
the prevailing form 77*0)1, AvaOwOi, &lt;&apa9a)vt, for which,
in the Books of Samuel and Kings, we have CKOU T^S, Avo&gt;-
6&gt;t r7?s, &lt;&apaOuviTr)&lt;;. Iii the Books of Judges, Ruth, Samuel,
and Kings, we find the remarkable use of eyto et/xt, em
phatically for eyco, e.g., Judges V. 3 : ao-o/xat eyw ei/u TU&gt; Kvpt a).
That different translators were employed on Isaiah and

Character of the Greek Translation. 405

the minor prophets appears, according to Gesenius (Isaiah, i.
1, p. 57) from a comparison of Isaiah ii. 1-4, with Micah
iv. 1, ff., and as regards Isaiah and the Books of Kings,
from a comparison of Isaiah xxxvi-xxxix. with 2 Kings
xviii. ff. A comparison of Ps. xviii. with 2 Sam. xxii. also
points to a difference in translators. There is more on the
point in Hody, p. 204, ff. But certainly all differences of
this kind do not serve as proofs of different translators,
for even the same translator does not everywhere proceed
exactty in the same way, even in the same book.

(c) In the case of several books, it is probable that the
translation of them was made even before the union of
Nehemiah s collection with the Pentateuch, and before
they had thus received canonical authority in a strict
sense ; also that it was not made according to that form of
the text in which the books were adopted into Nehemiah s
collection, but that in which they were circulating singly
in Egypt. This is especially the case with Jeremiah ; as
we have previously seen (215, ff.), the Greek translation
appears to give this prophet, both as a whole and in details,
m a more original shape than our Hebrew text itself,
although we have no reason for doubting that the Hebrew
text presents the book to us in the shape in which it was
received into Nehemiah s collection, and that it has subse
quently experienced no essential alterations. Among the
other books, Job, Proverbs, Daniel, and Esther, must be
especially named as those which present important varia
tions from the Hebrew text ; in these books, however, we
have well-grounded reasons for considering the Hebrew
text as the original form.

On this point, however, it cannot always be decided,
whether (a) the translators had an altered text before them,
or whether (/3) they themselves ventured sometimes to
make additions and alterations, or whether (y) the transla
tion subsequently experienced these additions and altera
tions. The second case is, perhaps, that which has occurred
with regard to the Proverbs. In many passages the trans
lation of this book is successful, yet it is very often any
thing but literal, and often when the translator did not
agree with, or could not rightly understand, the sense of
the Hebrew Maschal, he has not hesitated to place another
sentence for it, sometimes also to make additions. The

406 History of the Text of the Canon.

same thing is in general 1 the case with Job. The translator
of this book appears to have had no very considerable
knowledge of Hebrew, and he has very frequently ex
pressed another sense than that which the Hebrew words
could bear, but still preserved a sense which was not without
judgment and taste. In the poetical portions of the book,
in the speeches whole sentences are often omitted, very
likely because the translator did not understand them;
indeed Origen and Jerome complained of these omis
sions. Much matter, however, which was deficient at
the time of Origen has been since supplied (perhaps
from the Hexapla of Origen). In the Prologue and
Epilogue the translation has many additions amplifying
the text, as to which there may be a doubt whether they
proceed from the translator himself, or whether they were
subsequently added ; in the Epilogue at least, the latter is
certainly partly the case. The Book of Esther, in the
Greek translation, has very considerable additions made to
it in various sections of the book ; these additions Jerome
placed at the end of the book, where we still find them
in the Vulgate (as ch. x. 4-xvi. 24) ; in Luther s transla
tion they stand among the Apocrypha, as portions of Esther
(v. De Wette as to this, 200) All of these additions
are without doubt of Alexandrine origin, and never
existed in Hebrew. At the end of the Greek text (Vulg.
as xi. 1), there is a remark that the preceding letter as to
the Feast of Purim, interpreted by one Lysimachus of
Jerusalem, was inserted by Dositheus, a priest, and his
son, in the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemasus (Philo-
metor) and Cleopatra; from which it may be concluded
that the book was not known in Egypt before this time
(177 B.C.). It was, perhaps, translated here before it was
admitted in the Canon. The same may be said of the Book
of Daniel. Bertholdt asserts of this book, without any proof,
that it was not translated until a considerable time after
Christ. On the contrary, it appears very probable that
the Greek translator of the First Book of Maccabees was
acquainted with, and made use of, the Greek translation
of Daniel ; and it is also very probable in itself, that on

1 Of. Paul de Lagarde, AnmerJc. zur Griech. Uebersetzung der Pro-
verbien, Leipzig, 1863 ; and Gust. Bickell, De indole ac ratione versionis
Alexandrinx in interpretando libra Jobi. Marburg, 1863.

Character of the Greek Translation. 407

account of the contents of the book claiming the general
interest of the Jews, it made its way into Egypt very soon
after its appearance, and was there translated. The trans
lation itself, however, even where it adheres to the Hebrew
text, is among the worst of all the books of the Old
Testament. There are important apocryphal additions in
it ; viz., (1) after ch. iii. 23, Azariah s Prayer and the Song
of Praise of the three men in the furnace, in the Vulgate
ch. iii. 24-90 ; (2) the history of Susannah, Vulg. ch. xiii ;
(3) the history of Bel and the Dragon at Babylon, Vulg.
ch. xiv ; in Luther all these are among the Apocrypha.
Besides, ch. i-vii, and ix, have much in them that differs
from the Hebrew text, additions, abridgements, and other
alterations (cf. De Wette, 258, 259). There is, however,
no doubt, that our Hebraeo-Chaldee text affords every
where the original form of the book ; the alterations pro
ceed, perhaps, from the translator, the larger additions
from, some subsequent reviser, and were originally com
posed in Greek. On account of these great differences
from the original text, the ancient Church before Jerome s
time rejected this translation of the Book of Daniel, and
adopted instead of it that of Theodotion as the orthodox
translation, which, therefore, we find in the ordinary
editions of the Septuagint.

(d) Of the other books, I will only remark as follows :
The translation of Ecclesiastes follows the Hebrew text
with peculiar accuracy, and sometimes with excessive
literalness, which, e.g., in ch. vii. 29, verges on obscu
rity. 1 Jerome (Prof, ad Ez.) points out the translation
of Ezekiel as of great excellence compared with the
others. That of Isaiah is, however, very bad, the author
frequently giving an incorrect sense, and often translating
so as to convey no meaning. The same remark applies to
the translation of the Psalms.

(e) We can perceive from the preface to Ecclesiasticus,
that, at that time (about 130 B.C.), the Nebiim and Ketubim
were translated, as well as the Pentateuch. As the books are
not there enumerated singly, it cannot be distinctly shown
from the passage that no single book of our Hebrew Canon

1 nxV T5e rovro tvpov, t&gt; pfe^K = that) iiroi-rja-fv 6 6ebs avv rov

408 History of the Text of the Canon.

viz., among the Hagiographa was then untranslated.
But still it is probable that they were then all translated.

340. The name given to the Greek Translation.
As regards the designation for this translation, we call
it the Alexandrine, or the Septuagint. The latter name is
the more ancient, occurring indeed in the Fathers, from
the presumed number of the originators of it, the state
ments relating to the translation of the Pentateuch being
transferred to that of the other books. The number is
stated by Pseudo-Aristeas and those who follow him, as
seventy-two. But the numbers seventy-two and seventy are
promiscuously used by Jewish and Christian authors in
reference also to other subjects ; from whence also is to be
explained that in Luke x. 1, 17, the manuscripts waver
between e/^So/^/corra and e^So/x^Kovra Svo (cf. Hody, lib. ii.
c. 5, 6). Thus Josephus, when he wishes to designate
generally the Jewish scholars sent to the Egyptian king,
calls them the e/JSo/^fcovro, and their number is similarly
stated by most of the writers of the Church, as Justin
Martyr, Irenseus, and others. The translation was there
fore called that of the seventy wy&gt;e&lt;r/?vrepoi, or that of the
Seventy, or directly Septuagint. Cf. Augustine, de Civ. D.
xyiii. 42, where, after relating that six scholars out of each
tribe, seventy-two in all, were sent to Alexandria, he adds :
" Quorum interpretatio ut Septuaginta vocetur, jam obtinuit
consuetudo." It is usually indicated by the Roman or
Greek cyphers (LXX, &lt;/).

341. Authority of the Septuagint in the Jewish and Christian

Churches.

From all that has preceded as to the representations and
accounts of Jewish authors, it may be inferred what autho
rity this translation must have had among the Jews both
before and after Christ, not only among the Jews of Alex
andria, but also among those of Palestine. They considered
it as an authentic and even inspired version of their Sacred
Books, and had no hesitation in reading them in this trans
lation, and even in making use of it for doctrinal purposes,
to which use they were led by a deficiency in their know
ledge of the original language of the Old Testament. Philo
of Alexandria can have had but the poorest knowledge of

Authority of the Septuagint among the Jews. 409

Hebrew, and all his interpretations of Scripture are based
entirely on the LXX. Josephus of Palestine was not
unacquainted with Hebrew and sometimes refers to the
Hebrew text, but in general he takes the Greek translation
as his ground-work. We find the same prevailing in the
New- Testament Scriptures. In quoting passages of the Old
Testament, and making use of the Old-Testament history,
some^ of the New-Testament authors keep entirely to the
LXX, even in cases where the translation differs more or
less from the original text ; thus, the author of the Epistle
to the Hebrews, Peter, Mark, Luke ; others, as Paul, John,
Matthew, show a knowledge of the Hebrew text, and some
times give the Old-Testament passages according to their
own translation ; but most even of these keep to the LXX,
especially Paul. Also in the synagogues of the Alex
andrian and Hellenistic Jews generally, the Sacred Books
were for a long time almost always read out in this trans
lation, and explained from it. This was still the case in
the first century after Christ, as appears from passages of
Justin Martyr (Apolog. i. 31 ; Dial. c. Tryph. 72, where he
speaks of the manuscripts in the Jewish synagogues), and
Tertullian (Apolog. 18, where he says, in reference to this
translation, that the Judcei palam leditant).

Soon after this time, however, the Jews began more and
more to renounce their reverential and unhesitating use of
the LXX ; they were prompted to this not only by the great
zeal which was exercised in the Jewish schools in the
study of the Sacred Books in the original language, but also
by the controversies between the Jewish scholars and
Christian divines, in which the Scriptures were appealed
to in this translation. We find traces in Justin Martyr
(Dial. c. Tryph. c. 68, 71) of these controversies, in which
the Jewish scholars pronounced the interpretations in
the LXX as not everywhere true and correct. Still less
did they accept the additions to the Hebrew text con
tained in it, whilst the Christian divines continually asserted
that these passages had been subsequently expunged from
the text by the Jews (of. Justin, ut supr. c. 72, &c). In
stead of the LXX, the Jews who were not well acquainted
with Hebrew began to use the translation of Aquila, which
follows the Hebrew text so closely (according to Origen,
Ep. ad Afric. ; Philastrius, Hwres. 90 ; v. Hody,p. 236). Later^

410 History of the Text of the Canon.

however, the Greek translations generally of the Old
Testament were offensive to them. A law of Justinian s of
the year 551 A.D. (Novell. 146) shows that controversies
existed on this point among the Jews themselves : some
wishing to continue to use a Greek translation, others,
however, being opposed to it. The passage proves that it
was free to the Jews, if they wished, to make use, even in
the Synagogue, of a translation of the Scripture in the
language of the country whatever it might be, and in the
Greek of the LXX and Aquila s translation. From their
aversion to the LXX have proceeded all the invidious
additions made by the later Jews to the legend as to its
origin, that at the time it was being made a three days
darkness came over the earth, &c. (cf. De Wette, 43, note f,
and the works there quoted).

In the Christian Church, however, the LXX appears to have
retained a higher and more continuous authority. By most
of the writers of the Church it seems to have been held as
equally inspired with the Hebrew text ; as, e.g., by Irenasus
(iii. 25 : " unus et idem Spiritus Dei, qui in Prophetis pra3-
conavit, in senioribus autem interpretatus est quse prophe-
tata fuerant ") ; Clemens Alex. (Strom, i. 22, 149), and
Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xviii. 43 : " Spiritus enim, qui in
Prophetis erat, quando ilia dixerunt, idem ipse erat etiam
in Septuaginta viris, quando ilia interpretati sunt"), and
others. This translation, therefore, was considered even
in its variations from, and additions to, the Hebrew text
as a complete authorized interpretation of the sense of the
Old-Testament Scriptures as intended by the Holy Spirit
(thus, e.g., Augustine, ut supra). Some teachers in the
Church were indeed more circumspect in their judgment in
this respect, and in the case of variations gave the pre
ference in general to the Hebrew text; thus, especially
Origen, and still more Jerome. But in the Greek Church,
the authority of the LXX as an authentic translation be
came more and more settled, and it retains this authority
to the present day. This authority of the LXX in the
Church, joined to a deficiency in the knowledge of the
Hebrew language, has had this effect ; that when a need
arose for a translation of the Holy Scripture into the vulgar
tongue of the Christian Churches in those countries in
which Greek was not sufficiently known, especially where

Authority of the Septuagint among Christians. 411

the Christian communities had taken rise from the Greek
Church, the Old Testament was translated from the LXX,
and this re-translation received and retained ecclesiastical
authority. This was the case especially (a) with the
Ethiopian translation; (6) with the Egyptian translation,
both the Coptic, or Lower-Egyptian, and also the Sahidic ;
(c) with the Armenian; (d) with the Georgian; (e) pro
bably also with the Slavic. The Old Testament was trans
lated into these languages at the same time as the New
Testament, and for further details as to the history of these
translations, v. " Introduction to the New Testament." The
Old-Testament Scriptures have been often translated into the
Arabic language by Christian scholars in behalf of Christian
communities, and these were partly made from the LXX,
as the translations of the Prophets, the Psalms, Solomon s
Books, and the Book of Ezra, printed in the Paris and Lon
don Polyglot ; as to these and others, v. De Wette, 55,
Eichhorn, 295301. The Syrian Church, indeed, pos
sessed from an early date a translation made directly from
the Hebrew, the Peshito ( 351); yet, subsequently, the
authority of the LXX in the neighbouring Greek Churches
was the cause of translations being made of the LXX into
Syriac, which, however, did not attain to ecclesiastical use
(of these translations I shall speak later).

In the Latin Church, up to the end of the fourth century,
the only Latin translations of the Old Testament which
existed had been made from the LXX, and possessed eccle
siastical authority as well as the latter (I shall speak of
their histoiy when treating of the Vulgate). When Jerome
made a fresh Latin translation immediately from the
Hebrew text, it excited great offence at first on account
of its manifold variations from the translation hitherto
considered authentic. But this translation in the course of
time gradually found more and more favour in the Western
Church, and at last attained to general ecclesiastical autho
rity, in connection with which the LXX quite lost its
former consequence. In later days, in the Protestant
Church, Isaac Vossius, in two works, 1661 and 1663, has
sought to assert the authority of the LXX as an authentic
and inspired interpretation which merited greater authority
than the Hebrew text ; as to these works and the contro
versies by them, v. Kosenmiiller, Handbuch, ii. 401, ff.

412 History of the Text of the Canon.

342. The Greek Translations of Aquila, Theodotion,
Symmachus, and others.

Towards the conclusion of the second century after Christ,
there were various other Greek translations of the Old
Testament, in addition to the LXX, some made by Jews,
others by Christians ; they were suggested by the endea
vour to give the Old Testament in the Greek language in
a shape more corresponding to the Hebrew text. These,
indeed with the exception of one book, Daniel never
attained ecclesiastical authority, but were made use of by
many Fathers together with the LXX, and exercised an
influence on its text, particularly after the undertaking
of Origen, who placed them with the LXX in his Tetrapla
and Hexapla. They have not been preserved complete, but
exist only in fragments in these works of Origen, and in
quotations by the Fathers ; this is mostly the case in the
translations of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, in
which we at least know the names of the authors, although
we know little else about them that is authentic.

(1) Aquila. He is first mentioned by Irena3us, iii. 24. 1 It
has been sometimes thought that Justin M. (Dial, c. Tryph.
71), had this man in view ; 2 but Justin s words do not point
to a written translation; and it is at least probable that
Aquila s translation may not have been meant by him ; as
to which point, v. Credner, Beitrdge zur Einl. ins N. T. ii.
197, ff. Irenasus designates him as a Jewish proselyte
(i.e., born of heathen parents, and converted to Judaism) of
Pontus. This is doubtless correct, and most of the later
ecclesiastical authors agree therein. Thus also the Talmud
of Jerusalem (tr. Kiddusch. fol. 59, 1) calls him a proselyte.
Epiphanius (I)e Mens. et Pond. c. 15) relates some fabu
lous matters about him that he was first converted from
heathenism to Christianity, and subsequently, being ex
pelled from the Christian Church, went over to Judaism.
Before Epiphanius, no one knew anything about his ever
having been a Christian, and it is therefore altogether im-

1 AAA OVK us efioi (pavl TUIV vvv /ue0ep / u?ji/eueji TO\u.ui/Tcav TTJV
ypaty-fjv ISov 7] veai/is eV jaffrpl e^erou vlbv, us eoSoriW fip^vevcrfv 6
Etyeffios Kal Aitv\as 6 TlovTiitbs, a/jL&lt;p6Tepoi louScuot TrpoffijXvTOi, ols
KaraKoXovOriffavTes ol Efiitovcuoi, e| icaarity avrbv yeyevricrBai. (fxiffKovcriv.
(The LXX has, Isaiah vii. 14, irapfleVos).

2 riepl rys Ae ea&gt;s TTJS, iSov ^ ivapQevos eV -yaffrpl Xrj^erai, a^reiTrare,
\eyovrfs flprjffOai, I5ov j] veavis ei/ yaffrpl Xtyerai.

Aquila s Greek Translation. 413

probable. Since Irenseus (ut supr.) seems to speak of him
as a contemporary, his translation must probably have
been made after the middle of the second century. In
his translation he shows much etymological knowledge,
but is literal to an excess, expressing every Hebrew word
and every particle by a separate Greek word as exactly
as possible, to an extent that makes him often quite un
intelligible to those who are not well acquainted with the
original text ; as, e.g., Gen. i. 1 : eV Ke&lt;aXcua&gt; IKTIVCV 6
6fo&lt;s ai)v TOV ovpavov KCU rrjv yfjv. Gen. V. 5 : KCH ttflcrtv
Abaft rpiaKovra eros /ecu evraKocrta eros. (Cf. Origen, Ep.
ad African.* and Jerome s opinion as to him in De Wette,
44, note e.)

It is quite evident that he produced his translation in
opposition to the LXX, which was independent in its
character, and differed so frequently from the Hebrew text.
It cannot, however, be proved that he had in view in his
translation that which was often laid to his charge by the
Fathers, viz., from hostility to the Christians, to remove in
every way any possible allusions to Christ. Jerome often
absolves him of this, and acknowledges that he had found
in his translation much matter, " quae ad nostram fidem per-
tineant roborandam," Ep. 74, ad Marcett. ; cf. in Habac. iii.
13, where he says that Aquila has translated the passage :
" egressus es in salutem cum Christo tuo," according to
the Christian sense. 2 We see from various passages of
Jerome that there was a two-fold edition of Aquila s trans
lation, which the Fathers distinguish as Editio prima et
secunda (v. Eichhorn, 188) ; he often quotes both when
they vary, in other cases only either the one or the other.
The second edition appears to be distinguished from the
first by a still more strictly literal character ; therefore
Jerome, in EzeJc. iii., says, that the Hebrews name it /car
aKpifieiav. Aquila s translation met with great approval
from the Jews ; they preferred it to the other translations

1 OvTO) yap AKv\as 5ov\fv&lt;av T rj E&paiKT) Aeei
ejTrojj/. (pi\OTi/j.6Tepov ireTri&lt;TTfv/j.tvos trapa lovSaiois Tip^ve
ypa.fyr)v, o& /xa\t(TTa eluOaffiv oi ayvoovvrfs TT/J/ E/3paia&gt;j/
Xprjrrflcu, w$ ird.v"T&lt;i)V ju.aAA.oi/ e-rriTeTevy/j.fi q}.

2 Theodotio quasi pauper et Hebionita, seel et Symmachus ejusdem
dogmatic, pauperem sensum secuti Judaice transtulerunt. Isti semi-
Christiani Judaice transtulerunt ; et Judseus Aquila interpretatua est
ut Cliristiauus.

414 History of the Text of the Canon.

(Augustine, De Civ. Dei, xv. 23 ; Origen, ut supra). In the
Talmud of Jerus., we are told that he translated with such
great approval, that the words of the Psalm were used as
to him, DTK ^30 rva B* (Psalm xlv. 3). This translation
was also read out in some synagogues, although in others
the LXX was retained for this use (v. above, 341).

(2) Theodotion. He also is first mentioned by Irenseus,
who speaks of him as a contemporary, just as he speaks of
Aquila, so that we can perhaps assume it as certain that he
also translated after the middle of the second century.
Irenaeus calls him an Ephesian, and styles both him and
Aquila Jewish proselytes. The former remark, relating to
his native country, we have no reason to doubt. Epipha-
nius (De Mens. et Pond. c. 17), indeed calls him HOVTLKOV,
but not much weight is to be placed on this, or on his
further statement, that he was a follower of Marcion, and
was after this converted to Judaism. But, as I believe,
it is open to doubt whether he was a Jewish proselyte and
belonged generally to the Jewish Church, notwithstand
ing the weighty evidence of Irenseus, who lived so shortly
after his time. Jerome, indeed, also calls him a Jew, 1 but
mostly speaks of him as a Judaizing heretic, as a semi-
Christian, and an Ebionite. 2 It seems very probable to me
that he belonged to the Christian Church, and for the fol
lowing reasons in particular : (a) We find no traces that
Jews ever made use of his translation, still less that it ever
stood in authority among them ; this was far more the case
in the Christian Church, which accepted his translation of
the Book of Daniel for ecclesiastical use. (6) In Isaiah

xxv. 8, Theodotion has rendered the words H-?^ ^l^L 1 #?3
KareiroOr] 6 $avo,Tos as vucos, exactly as in 1 Corinth, xv.
54, quite differently, however, from the LXX, which
has KaT7riv 6 $avaros tcr^cras, and had it also at the
time of Irengeus. This coincidence is probably not purely
accidental, but is to be explained by the assumption that
Theodotion appropriated Paul s translation of the passage ;
but this makes it highly probable that he was a Christian
at the time of his making the translation. He was, perhaps,

1 Ep. 89 ad August. : Ex Theodotionis editione ab Origene additum
est . . . . prsesertim cum ea, qme audita sunt, ex hominis Judaei
atque blasphemi edilione transtulerit.

2 Of. above, p. 413, note 2, and De Wette, 44, note g.

Theodotion s and Symmachus Greek Translations. 415

born of heathen parents, and, as a Christian, was not allied
to the Judaizing party.

Jerome remarks as to the character of his translation, 1
that he very much follows the LXX, and takes a middle
course between that translation and Aquila s. He decid
edly deviates from the LXX only where it presents omis
sions and wider deviations from the Hebrew text ; in these
he often agrees with Aquila, only that he avoids being so
slavishly literal. He does not appear to have had a com
prehensive knowledge of Hebrew. It does not seem im
probable to me that Theodotion made his translation in
reference to that made by Aquila for his brethren in faith,
as a version for the purpose of the Christian Church, and
as a fresh revision of the LXX, following more exactly
the Hebrew text. The Book of Daniel in his translation
has been preserved complete in the ordinary editions of
the LXX, as this translation perhaps between the age of
Origen and that of Jerome received ecclesiastical autho
rity, and was adopted into the Codices of the LXX. Ac
cording to Jerome, in Jerem. xxix. 17, 2 a second edition
was made of his translation also, unless it is Aquila s second
edition that is here meant ; except in this passage no such
secunda edito of Theodotion is mentioned.

(3) The translation of Symmachus took place later than
the two just spoken of. We may pretty certainly conclude
that Trenseus was not yet acquainted with it, because, in
reference to Isaiah vii. 14, where all three translators give
vcai/ts for the Hebrew HO^yn, he finds fault with this
only in Aquila and Theodotion. Jerome also presupposes
this relation of date between Symmachus and Theodo
tion, e.g., in Is. Iviii. 9 : " Symmachus in Theodotionis scita
concedens." Finally, we may conclude from Eusebius, Hist.
Eccl. vi. 17, that Symmachus translation was little known
before the time of Origen, that the latter received it from
one Julian, who got it from Symmachus himself. Eusebius
and Jerome style him an Ebionite. 3 Nothing further is
known to us about him, as no notice is to be taken of the

1 In Ecdes. ii : LXX et Theodotio, sicut in pluribus locis, ita et hoc
quoque concordant. Prvf. in Evangg. : inter novos (Aq. et Symin.)
et veteres (LXX) medius inccdit.

2 The otlotio interpretatus est sudrinas ; secunda pessima ; Sym
machus novissimas.

8 Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 17 ; Demonstr. vii. 1 ; Hieron. in Halac. ul supr.

416 History of the Text of the Canon.

statements of Epiphanius (T)e Mens. et Pond. c. 17), which
are fabulous on this point also. As regards the character
of his translation, it is of a freer nature than that of Aquila
and Theodotion. Syminachus expresses more the ideas
than the exact words of the Hebrew text, and he is clear
and intelligible, for which he is praised by the ancients,
especially and repeatedly Jerome (vide Hody, p. 588).
Jerome in two passages (in Jerem. c. 32 ; in Nah. c. 3)
expressly distinguishes two different editions of this trans
lation also, as prima and secunda editio.

These three translations are besides often quoted as
ot r/oets. "tres (alii, reliqui) interpretes " (v. Hody, p. 589).

(4) Besides these Greek translations which we have just
considered, Origen was acquainted with three others by
unknown authors, which from the position which they as
sume in his Hexapla, are styled Quinta. Sexta, Septima(e, e , ).
Little that is authentic is known about them. They did
not embrace the whole Old Testament ; thus much we know,
however, that all three contained the Psalms and the Minor
Prophets, the two first the Pentateuch and Solomon s Song
also ; and the Quinta, perhaps also the Septima, gave the
Books of Kings as well.

343. Origen s Hexapla and Tetrapla Their Aim andNature.

Through the existence of these other Greek translations,
and the disputations with the Jews, the Christian Church
became increasingly conscious that the LXX, as accepted
by the Church, differed much from the Hebrew text, even
in those books and sections which in general were to be
found in the Hebrew Codex. A necessity, therefore, arose
for members of the Christian Church, even divines who
were not able to read the Hebrew text itself, that the}
should possess means so that, without any adequate know
ledge of Hebrew, they might know particularly in dispu
tations with the Jews where and how far the orthodox
translation either agreed with or differed from the Hebrew
text. This necessity, therefore, Origen sought to satisfy by
the pains he took to supply editions of the LXX, in which
he endeavoured to make the latter convenient and fitted to
be used by Christians in their controversies with the Jews;
so that the former might easily and readily know when
the latter were justified in rejecting the LXX as incorrect

The Hexapla of Origen. 417

and not agreeing with the Hebrew text ; at the same time
he sought to provide them with means for making the former
correspond more with the latter. For this purpose, Origen
prepared two different editions, which Eusebius (Hist.
Ecd. vi. 1 6) * appears expressly to distinguish, the Hexapla
and the Tetrapla. It is, however, doubtful what relation
these two bore to one another.

The arrangement and the aim of the Hexapla is the best
known, as to which Origen himself speaks in Ep. ad African.
It was not his idea to publish a new text of the LXX one
differing from the text which prevailed in the Church but
by a kind of synoptical arrangement, to place the LXX
side by side with the other Greek translations and with the
Hebrew text; also, by intimations and diacritical signs in
the text of the LXX, sometimes to assist the comprehension
of the latter, and sometimes to point out its relation to the
Hebrew text, so as to prevent Christians when disputing
with the Jews from bringing forward matter which did not
exist in the Hebrew text, or rejecting, as a matter of course,
passages brought forward out of the original text, because
they could not find them in the LXX. Origen worked
many years both in collecting materials for this work and
also in its preparation ; he was assisted with money for this
purpose, especially by his friend Ambrosius.

The external arrangements of the work were these : 2 he
placed the Hebrew text and the different Greek transla
tions by one another in columns, in the following order :
(1) The Hebrew text in the Hebrew character; (2) the
same in Greek letters; (3) the translafion of Aquila;
perhaps as that which the closest follows the Hebrew text

1 Tavras 8e cnrda-as eirl ravrbv ffwayayuv SifXwv re -irpbs KU\OV Kal
avTiirapadds a\\^\ais pera Kal avrijs rf/s E/3paiuv arj/uLfiaxrftDS, ra ruv
\fyo/j.evui QairXuv rjp.lv avriypacpa Kara\f\onrfv, iSius r^v A/cuAa Kal
eoSoriWos e/cSocrti/ apa rfj rcav o Iv ro?y r(Tpair\o7s

" llufin, H. E. vi. 13 ; Hieron. in Ep. ad Tit. 3 : Uncle nobis curse
fuit, onmes veteris legis libros, quos vir Adamantius in Hexapla diges-
serat, de Caosnriensi Bibliotheca descriptos, ex ipais authenticis ernendare,
in quibus ipsa Hebrsea propriis sunt characteribus verba descripta, et
Graecis literis tramite expressa vicino. Aquila etiam et Symraachus,
Septuaginta et Theodotio suum ordinem tenent. Nonnulli vero libri,
et raaxime hi, qui apud Hebrseos versu compositi sunt, tres alia.s
editiones additas habent. quam Quintain et Sextam et Septimam trans-
lationem vocant, auctoritatem sine nominibus interpretum consequutas.

VOL. II. 2 E

418 History of the Text of the Canon.

(4) that of Symmachus ; (5) theLXX, the text of which he
probably gave according to the collation of several manu
scripts, and perhaps, where there were several readings,
he selected that which came the nearest to the Hebrew
text ; (6) the translation of Theodotion, as that which often
exactly followed the expressions of the LXX. The work
was thus shaped as regards the greater part of it, and to
these six columns refers the usual name for the whole of
it, Hexapla, eo.7rA.a. In some books, the Quinta arid Sexta
(translations) are added in which case there were eight
columns, for which Epiphanius, De Mensur. et Pond. c. 19,
intimates that the name oKraTrAa would be more suit
able, though it is not exactly to be inferred from his words,
that this was then a customary designation for it. In later
Scholia oKrao-eXiSov occurs. Where the Septima (transla
tion) is added, there are actually nine columns ; but this
was comparatively but seldom added, and had no influence
on the name of the work. In the column of the LXX,
Origen not only copied the simple text, but also at the
same time showed how and where it differed from the
Hebrew text. Matter that stood in the LXX, without
being in the Hebrew text, he allowed indeed to remain,
but placed before the additional matter an obelus (or, ac
cording to Jerome, Ep. ad Suniam et Fretelam), a virgulajacens

(a straight or somewhat twisted line, or *^^-~&gt;, according

to Epiphanius), 1 and after it two points , for which in some
manuscripts other signs are found, e.g. \. When, on the
contrary, the Hebrew text contained anything which was
not expressed in the LXX, Origen mostly supplied this
from Theodotion, sometimes from Aquila (perhaps where
Theodotion also had not expressed it), sometimes also from
Symmachus ; before these inserted passages he placed an
asterisk, with the initial letter of the passage from which it
was taken, and after it two points, e.g. * . AYTOC . In
hexaplar manuscripts there also occur Lemnisci -f- and
Hypolemnisci : , which, however, are not mentioned by
Origen and Jerome, but first by Epiphanius and Isidorus
Hispal. Origg. i. c. 20. According to the latter, the Lem-
niscus was intended to intimate that the various translators
express the same sense in different words; the Hypolem-
1 De Mensur. et Pond. c. 3 (of the obelus] : TrapaTrX-rjffiws

The Hexapla of Origen. 419

, which he calls antigraphus, that they differ from one
another in the sense. It is, however, very questionable if
these latter marks proceeded from Origen. From Augustine,
de Civ. Dei, xviii. 43, it may be concluded pretty certainly,
that he was not aware of these marks in the hexaplar
manuscripts, but only recognized the obeli and the as
terisks. Origen also wrote for this work a history of the
translations and Prolegomena on the several books of the
Old Testament, as well as marginal notes of an exegetical
and critical character, many of which have been preserved.
Fifty years after Origen s death at the beginning of
the fourth century this comprehensive work was brought
out of its obscurity (probably at Tyre) by Eusebius and
Pamphilus, and placed in the library of Pamphilus (d. as
martyr 309) at Csesarea. Here Jerome found it and made
use of it, as he himself says (in Ep. ad Tit. 3). After this
time it is not further mentioned; it is supposed (Jalm)
that it was destroyed in 653, at the capture and destruc
tion of Ca3sarea by the Arabians. It is not probable that the
whole work, consisting of many volumes, was ever com
pletely copied out, and we find no trace of this. But
certain matter was perhaps selected from it for critical
and exegetical use. Thus, from Jerome, Prcef. in Paralip.
ad Chromatium, 1 we may perceive that Eusebius and Pam
philus copied out of the work and issued the columns of
the LXX with the critical signs. These manuscripts,
which Jerome (ut supr.) calls Palcestinos Codices, are the
hexaplar manuscripts of the LXX ; they contain the trans
lation in the shape in which it stood in the Hexapla of
Origen, with the obeli and the asterisk, and the added
portions out of the other Greek translations. There were
very many of these manuscripts of the LXX in use at
the time of J erome, not only in the Churches of Palestine

1 Alexandria et ^Egyptus in LXX suis Hesychium laudat auctorcm.
Constantinopolis usquo Autiochiam Luciani martyris exemplaria prpbat.
Media? iuter has provincial Pala3stinos codices legunt, quos ab Origine
elaborates Eusebius et Pamphilus vulgaverunt. Totusque orbis hac
inter se trifaria varietate compugnat. Et certe Origenes non sohnn
exempluria composuit quatuor editionum, e regione singula vcrba
describens, ut unus dissenticus statim ceteris inter se consentientibus
arguatur ; sed, quod majoris audacise est, in editione LXX Theodotionis
editionem miscuit: astericis designans, quae minus ante fueraut, et
virgulis. qua; ex superfluo videbautur apposita.

420 History of the Text of the Canon.

but in those of other countries also. F. Ilieron. Ep. 89, ad
Augustin. : " Vis amator esse verus LXX interpretum V non
legas ea, qua3 sub astericis sunt ; imo rade de volnminibus,
ut veterum te fautorem probes. Quod si feceris, omnes
ecclesiarum bibliothecas damnare cogeris ; vix enim unus
ant alter invenietur lityer, qui ista non habeat." Prooem.
Comment, in Dan. : " Cunique omnes Christ! ecclesise, tarn
Grascorum quam Latinorum, Syronimqne et ^Egyptiorum
hanc sub astericis et obelis editionem legant," &c. Augus
tine, de Civ. Dei, xviii. 43. In Scholia on Greek manu
scripts, these editions are also mentioned often as those of
Eusebius and Pamphilus, or as those of Eusebius (v. Hody,
p. G20).

In the same Scholia, however, the Tetrapla (or rer/oao-e-
AtSov) is mentioned, as well as the above editions. But it
is very questionable what the relation of the Tetrapla was
to the Hexapla. Many scholars, as Eichhorn and Au-
gusti, are decidedly wrong in considering it merely as a
different name for the same work; the statements of the
above scholiasts clearly point out a difference between the
two, 1 #s the Scholia of Eusebius, ut supra, Epiphanius, De
Mens. et Pond, c. 19. According to the statements of these
Fathers, the Tetrapla contained, as its name would imply,
only four columns, with the four chief translations, the
LXX, Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus ; and, indeed,
Origen himself (according to Eusebius, ut supra ; cf. Jerome,
Prcef. in Paralip.) produced this as a separate work, as
a synoptical edition of the four translations. That it was
constantly in use in the Church, we may well conclude ;
because the Fathers so often quote these translations, that
we are induced to assume that they must have had them
written out before them in a form convenient for com
parison. As in the scholiasts, the text of the LXX in
the Tetrapla is often pointed out as differing from the
text of the Hexapla in the editions of Eusebius and Pam-
philus, it is scarcely admissible that Origen himself can
Lave composed the Tetrapla as an abstract of the Hexapla,
the LXX with the critical marks, &c. ; for then the sub
sequent labour of Eusebius and Pamphilus would have been
quite unnecessary. It is, on the contrary, much more pro-

1 E.g., ad Psalm. Ixxxvi : rb (fa) Kar

Luciaii s and Hesycliius Recensions of the LXX. 421

bable, as Montfaucon assumes, (a) that Origen composed the
Tetrapla before the Ilexapla ; which may also be inferred
from the words of Eusebius ; and (&) that the Tetrapla was
merely a combination of the above four translations, con
taining the LXX in the usual text, without the critical
marks and the additions taken out of the other transla
tions. [What can be recovered of the Ilexapla is in course
of publication at the Clarendon Press, under the care of the
liev. F. Field.]

344. Other Recensions of the LXX Variations in
Manuscripts.

At the end of the third century, two other men attempted,
in a somewhat different way from Origen, to render service
to the text of the LXX : (a) Lucianus, L resbyter at Antioch,
d. at the end of the third century as a martyr in Diocle
tian s persecution (Euseb. Hist. Ecd. viii. 13, ix. 6) ; and (6)
Hesychius, an Egyptian Bishop, who (according to Euseb.
viii. 13) perished in the same persecution. They each pre
pared a separate Eecension of the text of the LXX, which
was circulated in their respective countries.

According to Jerome, Prcef. in Paralip. (ut supra), Hesy-
chius edition was, in his time, chiefly prevailing in Alex
andria and Egypt; and that of Lucian from Constantinople
to Antioch. We know little or nothing else of Hesychius
Eecension; Jerome, in Is. Iviii. 11, quotes it as exemplar ia
Alexandrina. That of Lucian is more often mentioned,
and is spoken of by later authors of the Greek Church
as almost a new translation from the Hebrew which is
decidedly wrong also as a correction of the LXX from the
Hebrew text. Jerome (Ep. ad. Suniam et Fretelam T ), how
ever, ranks it with the KOLV-Y], i.e. ordinary pre-hexaplar text.

Both, doubtless, endeavoured to purify the text of the
LXX which was in use in their district, by the collation of

1 Sciatis aliam esse editionem, quam Origenes et Caesariensis Eusebius
omnesque Grsecise tractatores Koivfiv, i.e., communem appellant atque
vulgatumeta plerisqne mine A.ovKiav6s dicitur ; aliam LXX interpretum,
quse in eaTrAots cudieibus reperitur . . . KOIVT] autem ista. h. e.
communis editio, ipsa est quse et LXX. Sed hoc interest inter utramque,
quod KoivT) pro locis et temporibus et voluntate Scriptorium veteruui [al.
leg. vetus] corrupta editio est ; ea autem, qua habetur in e|aTr\ots et
quam DOS vertimus, ipsa est. quse in eruditorum libris incorrupta et
immaculata LXX interpretom translatio rescrvatur.

422 History of the Text of the Canon.

various manuscripts ; how far this was done by recourse to
other means of assistance, can now hardly be ascertained
with any certainty. So, also, we cannot determine with
certainty what influence these two editions exercised on
the further shaping of the text of the LXX. AVe see
from the expressions of Jerome, that, in his time the KOLV-TJ,
or editio vulgata, i.e., the text in the non-hexaplar manu
scripts among which he reckoned Lucian s revision was
shaped in many different ways according to the various
countries. 1 The manuscripts of the hexaplar editions were,
however, often employed for religious uses, first especially
in Palestine, and subsequently in other regions. 2 Some
times, also, the LXX was translated into other languages
from these hexaplar editions, and with the critical marks,
or the translations of the Books of the Old Testament
already existing in these languages were emended from
these manuscripts of the LXX, and in the hexaplar mode ;
this took place especially in the Latin and Syrian Churches
(?. 348 6, 352). Both for private use, and also for public
religious service, they were wont to read the Greek text
as it was in these hexaplar manuscripts, without noticing
the critical signs ; they therefore read the passages marked
with obeli as well as those marked with asterisks, and they
likewise read the hexaplar editions of the old Latin transla
tion of the several Books of the Old Testament. 3 Thus they
were accustomed in the Church to consider the hexaplar
additions as belonging to the text of the LXX, and these
additions have frequently made their way into other manu
scripts of the LXX which were not provided with Origen s
critical marks. Thus, e.g., we find in our Greek manu
scripts of Job much that corresponds with the Hebrew
text, which was wanting in them in the time of Origen. 4
The LXX might thus become more fitted for public re
ligious use, so far at least, that nothing was omitted in it

1 Procem in L. xvi. Comment, in Jes. : in editione vulgata, quae Greece
Koivf) dicitur et in toto urbe diversa est. Ep. ad Sun. et Fret, (vide
above).

2 Vide the passages of Jerome, above v. p. 418, f.

3 Jerome s language shows this (Ep. 89, ad Augmtin.}, above p. 418, f.,
and Augustine (de Civ. D. xviii. 43).

4 According to Jahn, i. 169, Jerome complains : " error exoritur,
quod astericis subtractis distinctio confunditur." But lie does not point
out the passage, and I doubt if this can be found in Jerome.

Variations in Manuscripts of the LXX.

which was afforded by the Hebrew text. But this necessa
rily caused that the text of the LXX often became settled
in a way which more widely differed from its original
shape, than in the manuscripts before Origen. That which
the LXX had beyond the Hebrew text was indeed suffered
to remain, but the hexaplar additions to supply the defi
ciencies of the former became firmly settled in the text, as
if they had originally belonged to it. Yet the manuscripts
of the LXX present numerous variations from one another,
and many of them are not directly connected with the in
fluence of the hexaplar text. A text differing much from
each other, is often presented by the two manuscripts which
are the most ancient and most celebrated at least among
those which contain the whole Greek Old Testament (to
gether with the New Testament) : (a) the Codex Alexandri-
nus, and (b) the Codex Vaticanus, the former of which has
been, since 1628, in the British Museum, the latter in the
Vatican Library at Home ; both belong to a date between
the fourth and fifth centuries. 1

For further details as to these, v. " Introduction to the
New Testament," p. 700, ff. A copy of the Greek Old

1 In 1859, Tischendorf found in a room in a monastery on Mount
Sinai a manuscript [known now as the Codex Sinaiticus, and marked
XI which in his opinion, belongs to the fourth century (Hilgeufeld, in
his ZeiUchrifl fiir wissensch. Theologie, 1864, Part i places it in the
sixth century; cf. ibid. Part ii. TischendorFs vindication and ]
genteld s answer, who considers his opinion strengthened by the selt-
evidence of the Codex), and is to be considered as the most ancient
and the most valuable of all the manuscripts extant of the Greek Bible ;
unfortunately it only contains about twenty books of the Old Testament.
Vide Wissensch. Beilage der Leipzig. Zeitg. 1859, No. 31, 17th April ;
Gelzer s Protest. Monatsbldtter, vol. xvii. pp. 310-322, and the Notitia
editionis Cod. BibL Siwit. &c. Leipzig, 1860 Tischendorf rightlv
considers the Codex Friderico-Augustanus, found by him in 1844, and
published at Leipzig in 1846, a fragment of the same manuscript.
This contains, besides Nehemiah and Esther, the Book of Jeremiah
from ch x 25, as well as portions of Chronicles, Ezra, Lamentations,
and Tobit. As to the value of the Sinaitic Bible-manuscript, ct. K
Wieselerinthe Theol Stud, und Krit. 1864, pp. 399-438, and H.Ewald
in the GStt. Gel. Anz. 1863, pp. 1379-92. This manuscript has been
printed in fac-simile, 4 vols. fol. (Bibliorum Codex Smaiticm edtd.
Tischendorf. Petropoli. 1862). [In 1863 the New Testament was pub
lished at Leipzig, 4to, in columns as in the original. Scrivener has also
printed its readings in a small volume, 1863, and Hansell has added
them to his edition of the New Testament, 1864. Tr.J

424 History of the Text of the Canon.

Testament according to the Cod. Alex. with type ex
pressly cast for it in the character of the original was
published in London, at the royal expense, by H. Hervey

Baber: V. Test. Grcec. e Cod. MS. Alex typis ad simili-

tudinem ipsius Cod. Scripturce fideliter descriptum, 1812-26.

The Cod. Vatic, has two great deficiencies almost the
whole of Genesis (ch. i-xlvii), arid Psalms cv-cxxxviii,
and the Books of Maccabees being wanting ; from this Car
dinal Mai (d. 1854) had a copy prepared of the Old and
]S"ew Testaments, the printing of which was completed
in 1837; its publication, however, was not permitted by
the Roman Curia until 1857 : F. et N. Test, ex antiquissimo
Cod. Vat. ed. Angelus Mains, 5 vols. But this edition
afforded no kind of certainty as to the nature of the text
of this codex, the omissions in it being supplied out of
other manuscripts. Even in other portions Mai went to
work with such great carelessness, that they found them
selves compelled to print afresh a great number of leaves
before publication. Even after this, much that is very
faulty has been allowed to remain. 1

It is very doubtful what relation these two manuscripts
stand in, in their variations, to the different forms of the
text existing in Jerome s time. The hypotheses on this
point are directly opposed to one another. I believe, how
ever, that the two forms of the text presented by these
manuscripts go back to a date before the time of Origen, to
the apostolic age, and that there were at that time various
forms of the text in various manuscripts of the LXX, one
of which forms we find preponderating in the Cod. Vat,
another in the Cod. Alex.* Very difficult is it, however,
in numerous cases, to decide whether the readings in the
one or other codex, and generally, which of the varying
readings in the different manuscripts are the most ancient
and original ; for the criticism of the text of the LXX is in
general a very difficult task, and if we attempt to deal Avith
it, so as to restore it everywhere to its original shape, it is
a matter perhaps altogether not to be solved, notwithstand
ing all the material gathered in modern times.

1 [A fac-simile edition of the Codex Vaticanus is in course of publica
tion at Rome, by Vercellone and Cozza. The New Testament appeared
in 1868. J

2 Vide my " Epistle to the Hebrews," i. pp. 3G9-375.

Editions of the Septuayint. 425

345. The four chief printed Editions of the LXX.

Of the editions of the LXX up to this time, four must be
considered in reference to the text as chief or fundamental
editions, on which the others are dependent:

I. The Complutensian, in the Complutensian (y. 364)
Polyglot (1514 to 1517). It is based upon several manu
scripts, which, however, are not named. It has been some
times suspected that the text of the LXX was altered
according to the Hebrew; but this, by closer investigation,
has been shown to be unfounded, for the suspected readings
actually exist in manuscripts of the LXX. This text is also
printed in the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots, and others.

II. The Editio Veneta or Aldina, published in 1518 at
Venice, in the office of Aldus Manutius, two years after his
death, by his father-in-law, Andreas Asulanus, who declared
that the edition had been prepared from multis vetustissimis
exemplaribus, and that the advice of learned men had been
made use of; yet the accusation has been made that the
text has been occasionally interpolated out of other Greek
translations, and even out of the New Testament. But in
this case also, the suspected passages have been actually
found among the readings brought to light in manuscripts
in modern times. This edition is rare, but several versions
in Germany have been based upon it : (1) Strasburg, 1526 ;
(2) Basle, 1545; (3) Ibid. 1550 ; (4) Frankfort, 1597.

HI. The Eoman Edition, Vaticana s. Sixtina, 1587. This
appeared, under the authority of Pope Sixtus V., as the
joint work of several scholars, among others, of Petrus
Morinus ; their work extended over nine years. It is based
on the Cod. Vat. ; its deficient passages are supplied out of
two other manuscripts, not, however, so ancient as the Cod.
Vat. The text of the Cod. Vat. is, however, by no means
everywhere retained ; not only is the orthography of the
codex altered into that usual in Greek, but the editors have
also sought to emend that which they considered faulty in
the manuscript, without always indicating the alteration.
Besides the text, the most note-worthy readings are quoted
from many other manuscripts, especially from the Medicean
Library at Florence, also fragments out of other Greek
translations, which Petrus Morinus had collected out of the
Catence.

426 History of the Text of the Canon.

By far the greater part of the later editions are based
upon the text of the above. Of these editions I will only
mention here: (a) The "London Polyglot," 1657, with
readings of the Cod. Alex., and, in the 6th vol., a collection
of readings from other manuscripts and earlier editions.

(b) That of Lambert Bos, Franeker, 1709; with Prolego
mena as to the history and criticism of the LXX ; under
the text stand Greek Scholia from the Roman edition, and
readings from the " London Polyglot." The text of the
LXX is not everywhere exactly that of the Eoman edition,
although Bos protests that it is so. The text of Bos has
been repeated by David Mill in a portable edition (Amster
dam, 1725) ; readings of two manuscripts are appended.

(c) That of Joh. Eeineccius, Leipzig, 1730 ; 2nd edit, 1757 ;
the Roman text, with the most important deviations from
the Alex, and other manuscripts, (a) That of Leander von
Ess, Leipzig, 1824. Reprint of the Roman text, (e) That
of Const. Tischendorf, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1850; edit. 2, 1856
(edit. 3, I860). Likewise a reprint of the text of the Vat.
with the readings of the Cod. Alex. ; also of the Ephraemus
and Friderico-Augustanus.

TV. The Edition of Grabe, Oxford, 1707-20, 4 vols., by
Joh. Ernst Grabe (born at Konigsberg, lived as a private
teacher in England, d. 1711) ; he himself edited only vols. 1
and 4 ; the two middle ones did not appear until after
his death ; the 2nd was arranged by Francis Lee, the 3rd
by some one not named, from materials, however, from
amongst Grabe s papers. This edition bears the same re
lation to the Cod. Alex., as concerns the text, as the Sixtina
to the Cod. Vat. It was intended, except as to orthography,
to give in general the text of the Cod. Alex. ; but the
editors have not only often adopted the readings of other
manuscripts of the LXX instead of those of the Cod. Alex.,
where they considered the former to be more correct, but
have also supplied from other translations the omissions of
the LXX, after Origen s plan. These deviations from the
Cod. Alex., however, have been distinguished by being
printed in smaller characters, and the reading belonging to
the Cod. Alex, is placed in the margin in the usual cha
racter; but the requisite care has not been everywhere
taken as to this, and sometimes a reading deviating from
the Cod. Alex, has been adopted, without its being specially

Alexandrine Translation of Daniel. 427

indicated. Prolegomena of critical and historical purport
are prefixed to the several volumes. Grabe had also the
idea of editing a separate volume with critical remarks ;
the notes on Gen. xlix. were fully prepared by him, and
published by Bruns, in Eichhorn s Eepert. iv. pp. 1-40.

The edition of Joh. Jak. Breitinger (Prof, at Zurich,
d. 1776), 1730-32, 4 vols., contains a reprint of Grabe s
text ; only that the typographical errors are corrected, and
the alterations are adopted, which were considered neces
sary by Grabe in his Prolegomena. Under the text stand
the varying readings of the Roman edition, and this edition
is, therefore, very valuable. The editor promised a 5th
vol., with critical discussions and readings from the Basle,
Augsburg, and Zurich manuscripts, which, however, has
not appeared. 1

In all these editions, the translation of the Canonical
Book of Daniel is given from Theodotion (only the larger
Apocryphal additions are given from the LXX). Of the
Alexandrine translation of the book, only one codex is known,
in the library of Cardinal Chigi at Eome ; and from this
it was first published, Rome, 1772, probably arranged by
Simon de Magistris, from a not very correct copy of the Codex.
The Codex is hexaplar, being provided with the additions
and critical signs of Origen, which also are adopted in the
edition, as well as other things contained in the Codex,
together with some additions by the editor himself. J. D.
Michaelis superintended a twofold reprint of this edition :
(a) Gottingen, 1773, which contains only the Greek text;
and (6), 1774, with the most important additions of the
Roman edition. From Michaelis edition, that of Segaar
(Utrecht, 1775) was prepared. Lately another separate
edition of this Alexandrine translation of Daniel has been
edited by H. A. Hahn (d. 1861), with collation of a Syrian
translation obtained from the hexaplar text of the LXX,
which had been edited by Cajetan Bugati from a Milan
codex (Milan, 1788), with critical and philological notes,
Leipzig, 1845.

By far the most editions of the LXX contain the Apo-

1 Appeared at Oxford, 1859 : Vet. Test. Graece juxta LXX inter-
pretes. Recensionem Grabianam ad fidem codicis Alex, aliorumque
denuo recognovit, Grseca secundum ordinem textus Hebraic! reformavit,
libros apocryphos a canonicis segregavit Fridericus Field.

428 History of the Text of the Canon.

crypha, according to this translation, as well as the Canonical
Books of the Old Testament. These, however, have often
been published separately, by August! among others, Leip
zig, 1804, from the text of lieineccius second edition, but
with many alterations [and by Henricus Edwardus Apel,
Leipzig, 1837J.

^ A vast fund for criticism of the text of the LXX is fur
nished by a large edition of it which appeared in England,
in 5 vols., in separate parts, from 1798-1827 (the last

as he died in 1805, edited only the first volume, containing
the Pentateuch, and besides, the Book of Daniel separately
(from Theodotion and the LXX). The remaining portion
was edited after his death by J. Parsons. The text of this
work is throughout that of the Sixtina. But under the text
stand the readings from the manuscripts collated, the prin
cipal editions, the ancient authors, and the ancient transla
tions of the LXX. The number of manuscripts collated
amounts to twelve Uncial-Codices (which are indicated
by Roman numerals) and 261 Minusculi (numbered with
Arabic cyphers). The whole contains rich material for a
revision of the LXX ; the editors themselves, however,
have done nothing towards it. It must be considered as a
deficiency in it, that the quotations from the Fathers are
everywhere only noticed where their readings differ from
the Sixtine text, but not where they agree.

G. L. Spohn (Pro-Kector at Dortmund, d. 1794) has made
an attempt to restore the Graeco-hexaplar text of Jeremiah,
with peculiar reference to Grabe s edition of the LXX:
Jerem. Vates e versione Judceorum Alex, ac reliquorum interpr.
Gr. emend, notisque crit. illustr. Leipz. 1794. Vol. ii. ed. F. K.
Guil. Spohn, 1824.

Various scholars have endeavoured to render service in
the collection and revision of the actual fragments which
have been preserved of the ancient Greek translations
with the exception of the LXX sometimes in the quota
tions of the Fathers, sometimes in the ancient manuscripts
of the LXX, and in those that have resulted from the
hexaplar text of the same, especially in Syrian translations
of certain books. We must mention particularly Bern.

Concordances, &c., of the Greek Translations. 429

de Montfaucon (Benedictine at Paris, d. 1741), Hexaplorum
Origenis quce supersunt, &c., 2 vols., Paris, 1713 ; an abstract of
this was given by K. F. Bahrdt (2 vols., Leipzig, 1769-70),
in which the Greek fragments given by Montfaucon were
printed, but the Hebrew words written with Greek letters
and Montfaucon s notes were omitted. Several other scholars
have since furnished additions and emendations to the
Hexapla, cf. De Wette, 45, fin., and Eichhorn, 174. [In
Tischendorf s Monumenta Sacra, nova collectio, vol. 3, Leipzig,
1860, there are fragments of Origen s Octateuch.]

There are various Concordances and lexicographical ivories
to these Greek translations. The most ancient is that by
Conr. Kircher (Minister at Jaxthausen : Concordantice V. Test.
GrcBcae, Hebrceis vocibus respondentes* TroAtr^p^crTot, Frankfort,
1607), and is really an Hobraeo-Greek Concordance; the
Hebrew words are alphabetically arranged, and under each
the various Greek words are placed, which are used for the
above Hebrew word in the LXX, with a reprint of the
several passages in which the same are found. This ar
rangement is useful, in an exegetical point of view, for the
explanation of the Hebrew of the Old Testament out of the
LXX. At the end, however, an alphabetical Greek index
is added, and in it also the passages are printed in which
the several Greek words occur in the Apocrypha. On the
other hand, real concordances and lexicons to the LXX
and the other Greek translations, following the alphabetical
order of the Greek words, have been furnished by (a)
Abr. Tromm (Minister at Groningen, d. 1719), Concord.
Grcecce versionis LXX, &c., Utrecht, 1718; (6) Joh. Chr.
Biel ( Pastor at Brunswick, d. 1745), Nov. Tliesaur. pliilol. sive
lexicon in LXX et alias interpr. et scriptores apoc. Vet. Test.,
Hague, 1779-80, edited by Miitzenbrecher (d. 1801, as
General Superint. at Oldenburg) ; (c) Joh. Fried. Schleusner
(d. 18-H, at Wittenberg), Nov. Tliesaur. philol.-crit. sive lexicon
in LXX, &c., Leipzig, 1820. The latter work, however, has
very great deficiencies, and is in no way correspondent to
the just claims of our time in such an undertaking. A new
lexicographical work on these translations was begun by
Bockel (Gen. Sup. at Oldenburg), who died a few years
ago : Nova&gt; clavis in Grcecos V. Test, interpretes . . . atque
editionis LXX intcrpretum liexaplaris spedmina, Leipzig, 1820.

430 History of the Text of the Canon.

346. Ancient Greek Translations.

Besides the Greek translations which we have hitherto
considered, on the margins of manuscripts of the LXX,
and in the Fathers, some other ancient Greek translations
and readings are quoted under different names, viz. as
follows :

(a) 6 E/3pcuos. The matter that is cited under this
name consists of certain emendations of the LXX out of
the Hebrew text, and are mostly derived from Jerome s
exegetical works on the Old Testament. Eichhorn, 206,
correctly thinks this. It is, however, very probable that
some one collected these in a separate form, and made
them known under the above title, whence it is explained
why they are always quoted under this name.

(&) 6 2&lt;vpo&lt;5. The work which after the fifth century is
quoted under this title is, most probably, as Semler (Vor-
bereitung zur iheol. Hermeneutilc, p. 421) supposes, and Doder-
lein (Quis sit 6 3vpos V. Test. Grcecus interpr. Altdorf, 1772)
in particular has shown, the Greek translation of the Books
of the Old Testament made by Sophronius, Patriarch of
Byzantium, from Jerome s Latin translation (v. Hieron. de
viris illustr., and Ep. 1 34, ad Soph:). As to the name 6 Svpos,
we must compare the fact that Theodorus of Mopsuestia
(in Photius Bibl. Cod. 227) calls Jerome Apa//, ; probably
in reference to his long sojourn in Palestine. 6 Svpos and
6 EjSpcuos are often quoted as quite in accordance.

(c) TO 2a//,apeiTtKov is the name for readings of the
Samaritan Eecension of the Pentateuch translated into
Greek ; they may have been collected from the readings
differing from the LXX, which were found in this recension,
either in the Hebrew language or in the Samaritan transla
tion. They could hardly have been a complete Greek
translation of this recension ; cf. Eichhorn, 208.

(d) 6 EAA-^viKos. Under this name a Greek transla
tion is often quoted, together with the EySpcuos (Eichhorn,
209) ; but no details are known about it.

The Versio Veneta s. St. Hard belongs to a much later
date ; it now exists in one codex only in the library of St.
Mark at Venice.

Cf. De Wette, 56; Eichhorn, 211. It contains the
Pentateuch (ed. Amnion, Erl. 1790-91, in 3 parts), also the

Ancient Latin Translation. 431

three Books of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, and Daniel
(ed. Villoison, Strasb., 1784). This codex is of about the
fourteenth century, the composition of the translation is
some centuries earlier; it presupposes our pointed text,
and follows it exactly. The language shows an attempt at
Attic elegance, but there are many barbarisms and sole
cisms mixed up in it. The translator was probably a
Christian scholar, who obtained his knowledge of Hebrew
from Jewish Rabbis.

347.T1ie Vulgate Ancient Latin Translations.

Just as in the Greek Church, the LXX has constantly
been held in authority as the authentic translation of the
Old Testament ; so also in the Latin and the entire Roman
Catholic Church generally, the Latin translation, or the
VuLGATE, 1 has held the same rank.

This translation is also in general made directly from
the Hebrew text, but not every portion of it, and not in an
absolutely independent way. This is shown by the history
of this translation, for which we must go back to that of the
earlier Latin translations. As in the other districts of the
Church, so also in the West, the Old Testament was at
first read in Greek from the LXX, and when the need was
felt of possessing the former in the Latin language, it was
translated from the LXX. How early, by whom, and in
what part of the West this was first done we have no
accounts to tell us, just the same as regards the Latin trans
lation of the New Testament. But it may be assumed that
the Scriptures of the Old Testament in general were trans
lated into Latin at the same time as those of the Kew
Testament, and that at the time of Tertullian there was
such a Latin translation of the Bible, which was in common
use, at least in his district. 2 Subsequently, after the middle
of the fourth, and about the beginning of the fifth century.

1 Cf. O. F. Fritzsclie s article " Vulgata" in Hcrzog s Ency clop., and
the first volume of Car. Vercellone s ram x Lectiones Vulgatse Latinx
Bibliorum editionis. Rome, 1860.

* As regards the New Testament, this follows from Tertull. De Mono-
yamia, c. 11 : Sciamus, plane non sic eese in Gr&co authenticu, quomodo
in usum oxiit per duarum syllabarum aut callidam aut simplicc m ever-
sionem (i.e. wrong translation) : "si autem dormierit vir ejus i^l Cor.
vii. 39), quasi de future sonet.

432 History of the Text of the Canon.

several such. Latin translations are spoken of, both of the
New and also of the Old Testament, in distinct statements
of Hilarius Pictaviensis 1 and of Augustine particularly.
The latter goes so far as to speak decidedly of a plurality
of Latin translations ; 2 and the same may be inferred from
the language of Jerome. 3 We may, therefore, of course,
assume that when Jerome elsewhere (Prcef. in Jos. et Prcef.
in Evangg.) says, that in the Latin there were " tot exemplaria,
quot codices," he, by the term exemplaria, does not intend merely
various forms of one and the same translation arising from
corruption, but (also) various translations, and that Augus
tine s meaning is the same in the term codices, when he
(Ep. 71, ad Hieron.} speaks of the multiplicity of the Latin
text "in diversis codicibus." But, on the other hand, we see
from a comparison of the portions that have been preserved
of these ancient Latin translations, that they were not
actually different translations, entirely independent of one
another, but only different forms of one and the same trans
lation, which probably had been originally made in pro
consular Africa, in Latin of a rude and barbarous character,
but subsequently in other countries experienced various
revisions which prevailed in their respective regions, 4

1 E.g. in Ps. liv : Hymnos aliqui translatores nostri carmina nuncu-
parunt, pUrique autem Hymnos ex ipsa Grsecitatis usurpatione posue-
runt.

2 De doctr. Christiana, ii. 11 : Qui enina scripturas ex Hebraaa lingua
in Grsecam verterunt, numerari possunt, Latini autem interpretes nullo
modo ; ut enim cuiquo priinis fidei tempo ri bus in rnaims venit codex
Grsecus et aliquantulum facultatis sibi utriusque linguae habere vide-
batur, ausus est interpretari. Ib. at the beginning of tbe chapter : ut
ad exemplaria prsecedentia recurratur (viz. to tbe Hebrew and Greek
original text), si quam dubitationem attulerit Latinorum interpretum
injinita var/etas. Jb. c. 12 : nounullas obscuriores sententias plurium
codicum ssepe manifestavit inspectio, sicut illud Isaise prophetse (cb.
Iviii. 7) unus interpres ait ... alius autem ait ... nterque sibiim-t
invicem adtestantur . . . mine collato interpretum sensu, &c. . . . Diffi
cile est enim, ita diversos a se interpretes fieri, ut non se aliqua vioinitate
continuant. Ib. c. 18, c. 14 : Plurimum bic quoque jurat interpretum
numerositas collatis codicibus in&pecta atque discussa, &c. Ep. 71, ad
Hieron., ed Ben.

a Particularly, Ep. 140, ad Principiam (on Ps. xlv. 9) : Pro eo, quod
nos transtulimus "domibus eburneis," . . . quidam Latinorum ob verbi
ambiguitatem " a gravibus " interpretati sunt.

4 Augustin. c. Faust, xi. 2 : Itaque si de fide exemplarium qusestio
verteretur, sicut in normullis. quse et paucse sunt et sacrarnm literarum
studio?^ notissimse sententiaruui varietates : vel ex aliarum regionuiu

Ancient Latin Translations. 433

and would be perhaps looked upon as different transla
tions. 1

Among these ancient Latin translations there is one
which Augustine calls the Itala, and peculiarly recom
mends as the most faithful, the most literal, and at the same
time the clearest. 2 The name Itala refers perhaps to the
fact that this translation was common in Italy, especially
in Upper Italy, where probably it was formed.

In this the language was polished and made more elegant
than in the original African shape, and the translation was
also perhaps emended by collation with Greek manuscripts.
Augustine doubtless became acquainted with this Italian
form of the Latin Bible, as compared with the African,
during his stay in Borne and Milan, and learnt to appre
ciate its superiority, and perhaps also brought it to the
attention of other Latin Christians in his home in Africa.

All that has been preserved of the ancient ante-Hierony-
mian Latin translations of the LXX is very often em
braced under the name Itala. This is inaccurate if we
look at the use of the word by Augustine; and besides this,
the name does not occur in the ancients. It cannot, how
ever, be decided as regards what has been preserved of
the ante-Hieronymian translations, what portion belongs
to the Itala, and what portion to the other forms of the
translation.

The fragments of these translations have been most com
pletely collected by the Benedictine, Peter Sabatier, from
the quotations of ancient Latin Church-authors : EMiorum
s. Latinos versiones antiques, sen vetus Italica et ceterce qucecun-
que in codd. MSS. et antiquorum libris reperiri potuerunt, d~c.,

codicibus, unde ipsa doctrina commeavifc, nostra dubitatio dijudicaretur,
vel si ibi quoque codices variarerit, plures pauoioribus aut vetustiores re-
ccntioribus pneferrentur, et si adlmc esset incerta varietas, prsecedens
lingua, undo illud interpretatum est, consuleretur.

1 For details as to this doubtful point, vide " Introduction to the New
Testament," p. 739, ff. Cf Thcol. Stud, und Krit. 1858, iii. p. 5GO.

* De Doctr. Christ, ii. 15: "In ipsis autem interpretationibus Itala
ceteris praferatur, nam est verborum tenacior cum perspicuitate sen
tential." Without any adequate reason the text here has been con
sidered incorrect, and various conjectures have been made about it.
Eeuss Gescliiclite d. N. T. 452) supposition that Augustine intended
to refer to Jerome s improved translation from the Hexapla can hardly
be regarded as correct.

2 F

434 History of the Text of the Canon.

Bheims, 1743, 3 vols. fol. ed. Auct. 1749-51. The two
first volumes contain the fragments of the Old-Testament
Books. But in a critical point of view there is much left
to be wished for in this collection. Thus there are many
passages quoted from Jerome s works, which most pro
bably in this shape did not form a part of the ancient
translation, but had been emended by Jerome in citing
them (v. Banke, in the work quoted below, i. p. 9, ff.).
On the other hand, there is much that may be added from
works of ancient Latin authors which were subsequently
published, viz. by Mai (v. Eanke, p. 5). A very valuable con
tribution to the knowledge of these ancient translations has
been made by Ernst Eanke (in Marburg) : Fragmenta ver-
sionis s. Script. ante-Hieronymiance e codice Mscr. Fuldensi
emit atque adnotatt. criticis instruxit. Marburg, 18CO (from
Hosea, Amos, Micah, &c. ; v. Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1856, ii.
1858).

All the various forms of this ancient Latin translation
appear throughout to have been made from the ante-
hexaplar text, and follow it pretty closely ; they are there
fore a useful assistance in the criticism of the LXX for the
restoration of the above ante-hexaplar text.

348. Jerome s Latin Translation.

The Western Church could hardly fail to become more
and more conscious of the defectiveness of this ancient
translation, and of the need for an improvement of it ; this
need Jerome sought in several ways to supply.

(a) Firstly, in his sojourn at Eome about 382 A.D.,
where he also prepared a new Latin translation of the New
Testament, he revised perhaps prompted by the Eomish
Bishop Damasus the Latin translation of the Psal