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EXCHANGE

AN INVESTIGATION

OF CERTAIN PHASES OF

THE REORGANIZATION MOVEMENT

IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES

OF INDIANA PUBLIC

SCHOOLS

BY
HUBERT GUY GHILDS, Ph.D.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of

Philosophy, Columbia University.

PUBLISHED BY
FORT WAYNE PRINTING CO.

FORT WAYNE. IND.
1918

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was undertaken under the direction of Professor
T. H. Briggs of Teachers' College, Columbia University, to whom
I am indebted for helpful criticism during the progress of the
investigation.

Numerous superintendents, principals, teachers, and school
officials have cooperated with me in assembling the data pre-
sented in the following pages, and I am glad to express my ob-
ligation to them for their assistance, without which this study
would have been impossible.

374393

CONTENTS

A. INTRODUCTION. PAGE

1. Introductory statement 1

2. Statement of the aims of the investigation 4

3. Statement of the methods of the investigation and their limita-

tions ~ 4

4. Location of schools reporting data 7

B. BODY.

1. Reorganization in Indiana schools 9

a. Extent as to numbers with date of organization 9

b. Aims, advantages, and standards of the reorganization move-

ment (theory) 12

1. Plan of evaluating aims and factors of reorganization

adopted in this study . 12

c. Standards or features of reorganization actually in use in

Indiana schools 20

1. Programs of study in Indiana junior high schools .... 20

2. Provision for individual differences in junior high schools . 41

3. Indications of revised methods 49

4. Guidance and social activities 60

5. Miscellaneous features 63

a. Grades included 69

b. Types of organization claimed 70

c. Housing 70

d. Time distribution as to length of year and recitation . . 71

e. Teacher training and experience 71

f. Number of men teachers 71

g. Salaries 72

h. Conditions of admission to junior high schools ... 73

d. Features of practice in departmental schools and their

comparison with those of junior high schools 75

1. Programs of study 75

2. Provision for individual differences 83

3. Indications of revised methods 85

4. Guidance and social activities 87

5. Miscellaneous features 90

6. Comparison of junior and departmental schools ... 95

2. Measurement of claimed advantages and objections to junior

high school organization 103

a. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision 103

b. Comparative measures of achievement in the eighth grades

of several junior and non-junior type schools 121

1. Spelling 125

2. Reading, understanding of sentences 128

3. Vocabulary test or word recognition 131

Contents; List of Charts

PAGE

4. Arithmetic, multiplication 134

c. Measurement of retention thru junior high school grades in

both junior and non-junior type schools 137

1. General discussion 137

2. In terms of enrollments 140

3. In terms of the attendance and progress of definite sixth
grade pupil groups thru higher grades 149

LIST OF CHARTS

PAGE

1. Comparative scoring of junior and departmental schools 101

2. Per capita cost of instruction and supervision in junior and non-

junior type schools 113

3. Retention in junior and departmental schools in terms of enroll-

ments 143

4. Retention in junior and departmental schools in terms of half years

of attendance beyond the high sixth grade 159

5. Per cent gain in attendance retention by boys in junior and depart-

mental schools . . 159

LIST OF TABLES

1. Date of organization 11

2. Population of cities and towns by school groups 11

3. Features of junior high school organization as rated by twenty-five

judges < 14

4. Group ranking of factors in junior high school organization 17

5. Subject offerings in junior high schools 22

6. Provision for individual differences in junior high schools 41

7. Factors in method modification in junior high schools 55

8. Miscellaneous features of practice in junior high schools 67

9. Subject offerings in departmental schools 76

10. Provision for individual differences in departmental schools 83

11. Factors in method modification in departmental schools 85

12. Miscellaneous features of practice in departmental schools 90

13. Rating of junior high schools in special features of organization. ... 97

14. Rating of departmental schools in special features of organization . . 99

15. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in junior and depart-

mental schools 105

16. Range of cost distribution 107

17. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in cities of 5,000

and more population 107

18. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in cities of less than

5,000 population 108

19. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in consolidated

schools 108

20. Ayers' Spelling Test Results, County "A" 125

21. Ayers' Spelling Test Results, County "B" 126

22. Thorndike Reading Test Results, County "A" 128

23. Thorndike Reading Test Results, County "B" 128

24. Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Test Results, County "A" .' . . . 131

25. Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Test Results, County "B". 132

26. Woody Multiplication Test Results, County "A" 134

27. Woody Multiplication Test Results, County "B" 135

28. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities of

less than 5,000 population 141

29. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities

of from 5,000 to 19,000 population 141

30. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities

of 20,000 and more population 142

31. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities

of less then 5,000 population 142

32. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities

of from 5,000 to 19,000 population 143

vii

viii List of Tables

PAGE

33. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities

of 20,000 and more population 144

34. Retention in non-departmental schools in terms of enrollments 144

35. Summary of tables 28 to 34 inclusive 145

36. High sixth grade enrollments in 1907-8 and 1912-13 151

37. Retention of pupils in junior high schools thru each number of half

years beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 152

38. Retention of pupils in junior high schools thru each number of half

years beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 154

39. Retention of pupils in departmental schools thru each number of

half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 155

40. Retention of pupils in departmental schools thru each number of

half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 156

41. Per cent of gain in retention in years of attendance between 1907-8

and 1912-13 groups in junior high schools 157

42. Per cent of gain in retention in years of attendance between 1907-8

and 1912-13 groups in departmental schools 157

43. Retention of pupils in junior high schools as measured by years of

progress beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 162

44. Retention of pupils in junior high schools as measured by years of

pogress beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 164

45. Retention of pupils in departmental schools as measured by years

of progress beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 165

46. Retention of pupils in departmental schools as measured by years of

progress beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 166

47. Per cent of gain in retention in years of progress between the 1907-8

and 1912-13 groups in junior high schools 167

48. Per cent of gain in retention in years of progress between the 1907-8

and 1912-13 groups in departmental schools 167

49. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in junior high schools,

1912-13 group 170

50. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in junior high schools,

1907-8 group 170

51. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in departmental

schools, 1912-13 group 171

52. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in departmental

schools, 1907-8 group 171

A. INTRODUCTION.

1. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The rapid economic expansion of the last half of the nine-
teenth century resulted in a marked shifting of population from
a rather primitive rural life to a complex city life, a high degree
of specialization in labor and the removal of labor from the
home, a lack of educative employment for city youth, an increase
in wealth and leisure, and an increased demand upon the school
for a longer and somewhat modified type of training.

Like other institutions the school was conservative and re-
sponded slowly to the increasing demand for a longer term and
compulsory attendance, and still more slowly did the school and
the public become conscious that the traditional school program
needed radical reorganization to supply the elements taken from
the life of the child by the changed social conditions and to enable
him adequately to solve the new social problems arising out of
these changed and changing conditions.

The first demand for reorganization came chiefly from those
interested in higher education from the point of view of economy
of time in preparation for professional work. Naturally the
proposal was in the form of an extension of the work of the
secondary school into the grammar grades. In the report of
the Committee of Ten on Secondary Education1 such a down-
ward extension of its work was urged by practically every aca-
demic department group represented in the high school. In
other words they favored a six year secondary school above a
six year elementary school as best designed to accomplish the
desired reform.

While the committee held that the high school should minister
to the needs of the vast majority of its pupils who are not going
to college, yet the report leaves the impression that the committee
considered that what was best for those going to college was best
for all. The report says, " Ninety-eight teachers unanimously
declare that every subject taught at all in a secondary school
should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to

1 Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. 1893:14 and 15.

2 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable
destination of the pupil may be or at what point his education
is to cease/'2

The Committee on the Economy of Time in Education3 and
the Committee on a Six Year Course of Study4 favor either a
shortening of the twelve year period of elementary and secondary
education by the earlier introduction of high school subjects
or the enrichment of the six year secondary work so that the
period of collegiate and professional training may be shortened.
While the recommendations for reorganization are broader in
scope than those of the previous committee, yet these committees,
like the Committee of Ten, appear to view the problem largely
from the point of view of the high school and the college.

Only within the last ten years, and chiefly within the last
five, has the reorganization movement turned in part from a
program of reform along purely academic lines to the inclusion
of vocational activities of a broad and varied sort in both the
high school and the grammar grades. This is, no doubt, due in
considerable degree to the rapidly improving economic condi-
tions among large elements of our population and to the conse-
quent leisure among youth, making a longer period of education
possible; to the lengthening of the time of school training and a
more rigorous enforcement of compulsory attendance laws; to
the increased popularity of the high school as a result of its
offering some elective work ; to the fact that a rapidly increasing
grammar grade and high school enrollment represents every
variety of occupational interest as compared with narrow interests
in times past; to an increased realization among educators of
the conditions of elimination in the upper grades and high school
and of the significance of individual differences among children;
and to an increasing social consciousness that the school is a
social institution whose function is to produce socially efficient
citizens thru providing an opportunity for the development of
every variety of talent deemed socially desirable.

The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa-
tion,6-6 which has been at work since 1913 and which has issued
as yet but few reports of the various sub-committees, advocates

1 Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. 1893:17.

» Report of the Committee on the Economy of Time in Education. Bui. 38. 1913, U. S.
Bureau of Ed.

« Report of the Committee on a Six Year Course of Study. Proc. N. E. A. 1901 :498-503.
• Reorganization of Secondary Education. Bui. 41. 1913, U. S. Bur. of Ed.
"Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. Bui. 2. 191 7, U. S. Bur. of Ed. pp. 26-29.

Introductory Statement 3

a six year high school organization and a greatly modified and
enriched program and differentiated curricula in the junior high
school grades as a means of meeting the problems of our complex
and democratic society.

Many objections have been raised against the eight-four plan
or the usual grammar grade organization prevailing at the present
time, among others the following:7 over-crowded curriculum,
duplication and waste, lack of correlation between subjects,
unessential and impracticable topics, topics which have a legiti-
mate place in no program, over- worked pupils, inflexible course
of study, inadequate articulation of elementary and high school,
little consideration for individual differences, promotion based
on unsound principles, discipline unsuited to youth, improperly
equipped teachers, pupil contact with too few personalities,
unpedagogical methods of instruction, too late beginning of some
secondary subjects, lack of vocational work, too much elimina-
tion, insufficient attention to retarded and superior pupils, in-
sufficient hand work, lack of specific trade training, and an over-
mechanical system.

The advantages stated for the reorganized school imply
that the opposite of the above named objections are realized.
The question may be raised whether most of the objections
stated really have anything to do with an eight-four or a six-
six type of organization; they relate rather to the spirit of the
organization and not to its form, although the six-six plan will
make the realization of some factors more probable. In the second
place it appears that many of these objections are entirely over-
drawn for the average school system of the present time. It
may be that educational reformers, like other reformers, delight
in setting up supposed conditions which are easy of attack.
However, there is a spirit of dissatisfaction in the public mind
that is demanding a change in school purposes and organization
in line with current social and industrial ideals.

Since 1910 the reorganization has progressed at an accelerated
rate. In 1910 there were probably not to exceed a score of schools
claiming junior high school or intermediate school organization;
in 1914, Briggs8 reported data from 133 and estimated that at
least 60 more had been reported thru other sources; in 1915

7 Davis, C. O. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Education. Ch. iv of
Johnston's High School Education. N. Y. 1912.

8 Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School. Report of the U. S. Com. of Ed. 1914:135-157.

4 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Bingaman9 estimated that there were 280 such schools in the
country; and a conservative estimate at the present time would
probably not place the number below 400.

In spite of the numerous reports of National Education
Association committees before 1913, and the numerous reports
of school survey committees since that date recommending the
reorganization program in grammar grades, and the reports of
various investigations, and a voluminous literature on the junior
high school movement, there still appears to be the utmost con-
fusion in practice as to standards appropriate to the new move-
ment. Among Indiana so-called junior high schools almost
every imaginable degree of variation appears to exist relative
to every standard advocated for the reorganized school.

2. STATEMENT OF PURPOSES.

This investigation has been undertaken:

a. To ascertain the nature and extent of the reorganization of

instruction and administration in the grammar grades in
Indiana public schools :

(1) as to its extent, as indicated by the number of

schools claiming junior high school standing;

(2) as to aims and standards considered desirable by

Indiana schoolmen actively engaged in the move-
ment;

(3) as to standards of practice actually in vogue in

these schools;

(4) as to comparisons of so-called junior high schools

with other schools.

b. To measure specifically certain claimed advantages or objec-

tions to junior high school organization.

(1) The cost of instruction and supervision.

(2) Comparative achievements of junior and non-

junior schools in certain eighth grade subjects as
measured by standard tests.

(3) The retention of pupils in grammar grades and

high school in junior and non- junior type schools.

3. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND THEIR LIMITATIONS.

The nature of this investigation is such that no one clear cut
method of investigation seems adequate. The movement is of

• Bingaman, C. C. A Report on Intermediate or Junior High Schools of the United States
Goldfield, la. 1915.

Purposes and Methods 5

too recent origin in Indiana to make the historic mode of treat-
ment valuable, while the general reorganization movement of
the past quarter century throughout the United States to 1914
has been well treated by Bunker.10 Certain phases of the prob-
lem lend themselves to statistical treatment, as the measurement
of school achievements and the retention of pupils in school,
and in part the features of practice in the different schools in-
vestigated. The comparative method has been freely used, but
the experimental method has not been employed. Rather a
variety of types of procedure have been utilized in this investi-
gation.

a. Theoretical junior high school standards for Indiana schools

have been determined from published articles and from the
ranking of a definitely formulated list of items by 25 super-
intendents.

b. Features of practice generally have been ascertained thru

questionnaire returns, and include: (1) type of organiza-
tion, (2) promotion, (3) housing, (4) enrollments, (5)
provision for flexible advancement of individuals and
groups, (6) teacher training, experience, and salaries,
(7) features of method, (8) social organization, (9) time
distribution, (10) cost of instruction and supervision,
(11) overlapping of junior and senior high school instruc-
tion, (12) program of studies.

c. The measurement of achievement in certain school subjects

by means of standard tests and the measurement of reten-
tion among certain pupil groups by the examination of
school record cards thru a series of years have constituted
problems for special investigation.

The use of the questionnaire method in this investigation is
subject to the same limitations as the use of this method generally,
namely, incomplete returns for some items, possibly hopes sub-
stituted for facts in some cases, and impossibility of verifying the
accuracy of the returns in considerable part.

While practically all reports are lacking in some details, the
total per cent of replies to the various items for each group of
schools is sufficiently high to be considered representative of
group tendencies. Also in large degree specific statistical and
other fact items have been called for in the questionnaire and

"» Bunker. F. A. Reorganization of the Public School System. Bui. 8. 1916, U. S. Bur. of Ed.

6 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

not subjective opinions. As a result the replies are as a rule not
subject to emotional bias but are based upon tangible school
records.

So far as possible checks have been applied to verify the
accuracy of significant data. Statements of subject offerings
for the grades in question and the number of teachers giving
junior high school instruction have been verified or corrected
by reference to the school's schedule of work for the term for
which the data were collected, from the state high school direc-
tory, and by correspondence or conference with teachers other
than the person filling out the original questionnaire blank.
Teachers of English and history in all junior and departmental
schools were asked for statements showing the nature and empha-
sis of their work for grade eight as a basis for estimating the extent
of the reform of traditional procedure. About one-half replied.
Whereever enrollment data appeared to be of questionable value,
the superintendent was asked to check again, and also in some
cases the principal or some teacher was asked to submit enroll-
ment data for the period or term involved. Data relative to the
cost of instruction in the senior high school and to the over-
lapping of the teaching staffs of high school and grammar grades
have been in part verified by reference to data in my possession
relative to cost of instruction in Indiana high schools, an in-
vestigation made by the writer in 1915-16. n Data for some
schools relative to subject offerings in grade nine and to teacher
training and experience have been verified by reference to North
Central Association reports to which the writer has access. The
writer has personally visited about one-third the schools reporting
and has been able to note housing and general administrative
conditions and programs of study as well as general conditions
of instruction and the attitude towards the reorganization move-
ment by teachers and patrons.

In the measurement of achievement in school subjects
standard tests were chosen and uniform directions for their
administration were sent to each principal in charge. All papers
were scored by the writer or immediately under his direction.
The two county superintendents and the several high school
principals entered into the giving of the tests with a good spirit,
and the returns from no school indicate that directions were
deviated from in any way.

In the measurement of retention thru half years of attendance

» Childs, H. G. Cost of Instruction in Indiana High Schools. Bui. of Third Conference on
Educational Measurements. Ind. University. Feb. 1917:126-170.

Schools Reporting 7

or progress it would be desirable to have more schools in each
group for comparison, but only a very limited number of junior
high schools have been organized sufficiently long to make these
data of value. The limitation of enrollment data as a measure
of retention is discussed specifically in connection with the sec-
tion dealing with retention. A third measure of retention might
have been used, namely, the per cent of resident children twelve
to eighteen years of age and particularly the per cent fourteen
and fifteen years of age who are actually enrolled in school and
more specifically in the junior high school or departmental grades.
While the State Department requires a statement of the number
of fourteen and fifteen year old children enumerated, it requires
no report as to the number of these actually in school, and these
data, if obtainable from each school office, can be had only with a
great expenditure of time. The writer has solicited such data
from about seventy schools within the past three years and has
not received one usable reply.

To the extent that the schools supplying retention data are
from cities which are representative of their junior or depart-
mental groups, the data and the conclusions therefrom have
validity. Very specific and clear directions were given for
collecting the retention data, and the reports submitted indicate
a careful compliance with the directions. There seems to be no
reason to question their accuracy. Schools with imperfect
records were candid in their statement of the fact and withdrew
from participation in the investigation.

It should also be noted that data which may have been
entirely accurate in the autumn of 1916 may be completely in
error a year later, so rapidly are schools overhauling their tradi-
tional procedure.

The writer believes that the inquiry forms were sent to repre-
sentative schools and that the fifty per cent replying are entirely
representative of reorganization conditions in Indiana public-
schools.

4. LOCATION OF SCHOOLS REPORTING DATA INCLUDED IN THIS
INVESTIGATION.

a. Those claiming junior high school organization.

Anderson, Battle Ground, Bloomington, Brazil,
Buck Creek, Clark's Hill, Crawfordsville, Dayton,
Dunkirk, East Chicago, Elkhart, Evansville,

8 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Gary, Gas City, Gladden, Hartford City, Jackson
Township, Monitor, Montmorenci, Mount Vernon,
Muncie, New Albany, Oakland City, Princeton,
Richmond, Romney, Rushville, Seymour, Stock-
well, Vincennes, Washington, Wea, West La-
fayette, West Point, Williamsport.

b. Departmental non-junior schools.

Bedford, Bluffton, Cayuga, Clinton, Columbia
City, Connersville, Crown Point, Decatur, Frank-
lin, Goshen, Huntington, Kendallville, Kokomo,
La Porte, Madison, Marion, Michigan City,
Mishawaka, New Castle, Noblesville, North
Vernon, Orleans, Plymouth, Portland, Ridgeville,
Rochester, Rockport, Royal Center, Salem,
Sullivan, Thorntown, Wabash, Waveland, Wayne-
town, Whiting.

c. Non-departmental non-junior schools.

Akron, Alamo, Angola, Arcadia, Argos, Auburn,
Batesville, Bowers, Darlington, Fairmount, Farm-
land, Greencastle, Ladoga, La Grange, Linden,
Loogootee, Medora, Middletown, Montezuma,
New Market, New Ross, Union City, Wingate.

d. Schools contributing data on school achievements.

Battle Ground, Buck Creek, Dayton, Gladden,
Jackson Township, Montmorenci, Romney, Stock-
well, Wea, West Point, Alamo, Bowers, Darling-
ton, Ladoga, Linden, New Market, New Rich-
mond, New Ross, Waveland, Waynetown, Win-
gate.

e. Schools contributing special data on retention.

Bloomington, Bluffton, East Chicago, Hartford
City, Huntington, Michigan City, New Albany,
Princeton, Richmond, Wabash.

Number Claiming Reorganization 9

B. BODY.

1. REORGANIZATION IN INDIANA PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
a. Extent of the movement as to numbers concerned.

(1) Representative character of the schools reached.

During the spring, summer, and fall of 1916 questionnaire
forms, with a request for cooperation, were sent to the superin-
tendents of schools in all towns and cities in Indiana listed by
the 1910 Federal census reports as having (a) 2,000 or more
population (110 cities), (b) 1,000 to 1,099, 1,200 to 1,299, 1,500 to
1,599 population, (c) to a few other schools whose superintendents
were personally known to the writer, to certain schools reported
to have junior high schools in various published articles or known
by me personally to claim such organization, and to 12 additional
consolidated schools in one county. All schools in Indiana on the
North Central Association accredited list for 1915-16 (78) are
included in the list. In all 180 inquiry blanks were sent out to as
many different schools.

Replies, more or less usable, were received from 92 schools,
55 of these being from the 2,000 or more population class cities,
and 37 from schools in smaller communities. The proportion of
replies from each group is approximately fifty per cent of the
inquires sent out. The replies represent schools in every part
of the state and the writer is confident that every school having
any serious claim to junior high school organization at the time
the questionnaire was sent out has been reached. Thirteen other
schools, mostly in the larger cities, indicated departmental
teaching in grammar grades but gave no further data, and hence
are not included in this study.

(2) Numbers involved in varying degrees of reorganization,
(a) Those claiming junior high school organization, (b) those

claiming departmental organization only, (c) those hav-
ing neither.

To obtain a basis of classification for the schools, the follow-
ing definition of a junior high school was submitted in the
questionnaire: "Have you a special organization of grades 7 and
8 or 8 and 9 or 7, 8 and 9 to provide for greater differentiation of
studies, easier transition to the high school, longer retention in
school, earlier introduction to vocational work, etc. (commonly
called a junior high school)?"

10 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

In a second paragraph on the type of organization the follow-
ing was submitted, "Do you have departmental teaching (special
teachers for each subject) in grammar grades? In what subjects?"

Practically all schools indicate a greater or less degree of
departmental teaching in domestic science, manual training,
music, and art. The line between departmental and non-de-
partmental schools has been drawn on the basis of departmental
teaching in the usual common studies of the grammar grades, as
arithmetic, reading, grammar, history, etc.

Of the 92 schools making usable returns up to March 1917,
39 claimed some degree of junior high school organization, 30
claimed departmental teaching only, and 23 claimed neither form
of organization. One of these schools entirely withdrew its
claims to junior high school organization in reply to a second
inquiry, a second stated that it really had inaugurated depart-
mental teaching only but hoped to add other features later, and
three others of the 39 have since disclaimed junior high school
organization in reply to a searching questionnaire recently sent
out by Doctor Briggs of Teachers' College, Columbia University.
These five I have transferred to the departmental school list.
One other school, not reporting fully to me directly, reports to
Doctor Briggs that it has reorganized on the junior high school
basis in January 1917.

According to data in my possession in April, 1917 the 93
towns and cities included in this study are classified as follows
on the basis of their own claims: 35 towns or cities have inter-
mediate or junior high school organization, with a total of 38
such schools; 35 have departmental organization only; and 23
are non-departmental schools. Two schools reported by Doug-
lass1 as junior high schools have withdrawn such claims in connec-
tion with this investigation.

(3) Supplementary information relative to junior high schools
and departmental schools.

1 Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of National Soc. for Study of
Education. Part III. 1916:141.

Date of Organization 11

TABLE 1.
DATE OF ORGANIZATION

Before 1900. .

DEPARTMENT
JUNIOR SCHOOLS

ORGANIZATION
DEPT. SCHOOLS

J. H. S.
ORGANIZATION
JUNIOR SCHOOLS

1900 to 1904

1905 to 1909

1910 to 1914

1915 to 1917 (April)
Not stated

18
0

2
4

25
0

Total

*Median date . .

1915

1910

1915

*Medians computed from exact dates indicated in reports.

TABLE 2.
POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS BY SCHOOL TYPE GROUPS

POPULATION* t

0 to 999 . . . ....

JUNIOR GROUP

DEPT. GROUP

2
6
7
10
7
3
0

NON-DEPT. GROUP
8

0
0

1 000 to 2 499

2 500 to 4,999

5 000 to 9,999

10,000 to 19,999

20,000 to 49,999

50 000 to

Total

35
6.000

23
1.350

tMedian oooulation. .

5.000

* Estimated for 1916.

t Exact medians computed from estimated population of each city.

12 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

b. Aims and advantages claimed for the reorganization
movement, and standards of reorganization.

To evaluate any movement it is fundamentally important
to know the aims its promoters seek to attain.

The method employed in this study of ascertaining aims,
investigating practice, and determining standards of the re-
organization movement in Indiana schools is as follows: first,
a questionnaire was prepared on the basis of a summary of pre-
vious investigations and junior high school literature generally;
second, a list of eighteen features, often associated with junior
high school organization, was sent to twenty-five Indiana school
men actively engaged in the reorganization movement to be
ranked on the basis of relative importance in junior high school
organization; and third, the features of practice in Indiana
schools have been tabulated and analyzed in light of these tenta-
tive standards.

The following is the list of factors submitted for ranking;
with the request that other important features not listed be added
if any such applied to the situation, and that any that were of
little or nor value be crossed off. Directions were given to number
the items in order of importance 1, 2, 3, etc.

ITEMS SUBMITTED.

(a) Close contact of grammar school grades with the senior
high school with respect to housing and the use of laboratories
and equipment.

(b) A distinctive organization separate from the elementary
grades and the senior high school.

(d) Opportunities for some pupils to take some subjects of
the high school earlier, as foreign languages or algebra.

(e) Opportunity for pupils to take more extensive offerings
in prevocational subjects than the minimum state requirements.

(f) Provision for greater differentiation of curricula than
under the old conditions.

(g) Provision for rapid advancement of bright groups,
(h) Promotion by subject.

(i) Departmental teaching.

(j) Reorganized courses of study.

Aims of the Reorganization Movement 13

(k) Reorganized methods of instruction.

(1) Provision for supervised study.

(m) Provision for educational and vocational information
and guidance.

(n) Better organization of pupil social activities.

(o) Opportunity for over-age pupils regardless of their
scholastic attainments.

(p) Shortening the period of elementary and high school
training by one year.

(q) Opportunity to discover interests and capacities.

(r) To provide specific training along lines of interest and
ability.

This list was checked by twenty-five superintendents and
principals, some ranking the entire eighteen items and others
but five or six or ten as the case might be, which they considered
most important. No item received twenty-five rankings.

14 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Aims of the Reorganization Movement 15

Table 3 shows the resulting rankings. The letters at the left
indicate the items in order as listed above, while the numbers
across the top indicate the ranks in order of importance from 1
to 18. The three columns at the right are, in order, number of
judges ranking each item, median rank, and relative rank deter-
mined from the medians. The table should be read as follows,
beginning at the upper left hand corner and reading to the right :
item (a) was ranked as first in importance by 4 judges, second by
1, third by 2, fourth, fifth, sixth, ninth, eleventh, twelfth, four-
teenth, and sixteenth each by 1, and eighth by 2 judges. The
total number of judges who ranked item (a) is 17, their median
rank is 5.5 which gives this item sixth place in importance as
compared with the ranks assigned the other items.

On the basis of the ranked judgments of the 25 judges, re-
organized courses of study is entitled to the most important con-
sideration of the 18 items listed in junior high school organiza-
tion, opportunity for pupils to take more extensive prevocational
offerings than the minimum state requirement is second, and then
in order: provision for greater differentiation of curricula, op-
portunity to take high school subjects earlier; departmental
teaching, close association of grammar grades with the high
school with respect to housing and the use of laboratories and
equipment, promotion by subject, the same teachers as for the
high school, both in academic and special subjects, reorganized
methods, supervised study, provision for rapid advancement of
bright groups, provision for educational and vocational guidance
and opportunity to discover interests and capacities (equal rank),
better organization of pupil social activities, shortening of the
twelve year course and a distinctive organization separate from
the elementary or high school (equal rank), specific training along
lines of interest and ability, and opportunity for over-age pupils
regardless of their scholastic attainments.

An examination of the 18 items suggests that they fall into
certain related groups which constitute more natural and usable
standards than these isolated items. Items d, e, and j are con-
cerned with modifications within subjects and courses of study,
usually providing for enrichment; f, g, and h, with provision for
individual differences; c, i, k, and 1, with method modifications
(c has been interpreted by the writer to have a marked bearing
upon securing the spirit of secondary school methods in discipline

16 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

and instruction); m, n, and q, with exploration and discovery of
interests and capacities. The remaining five items seem to repre-
sent more or less isolated factors, (a) economy in housing and
equipment, (b) distinctive organization, (o) provision for over-
age pupils, (p) economy of time, and (r) specialized training. To
determine the relative values of these group standards, the
rankings of the individual items are combined in groups as indi-
cated above. Table 4 shows these combined rankings.

Aims of the Reorganization Movement 17

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18 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

In general, table 4 is to be read as is table 3. The horizontal
totals line represents the sum of the group items immediately
above it, except that the median rank (Y) and the relative rank
(Z) are computed exactly as were these ranks for each separate
item in the previous table.

Item (a) receives a ranking which gives it a value approxi-
mately that of group C (revised methods). This item was no
doubt given undue weight by many superintendents because
this combination is both natural and necessary in the small
school, although several of the larger cities also utilize a common
school plant for junior and senior high schools. However, it
seems reasonable to assume that common housing is not an
absolute requirement of reorganization although necessary or
desirable in certain cases. The remaining four detached items
are ranked at the bottom of the list and are apparently deemed of
relatively little importance as factors in reorganization.

The relative ranks assigned to groups A, B, C, and D are the
same whether we use the method adopted or average the orignal
relative ranks.

As most of these group and individual factors will be discussed
in a later section, extensive comparisons will not be made at this
point. However, I shall offer a probable explanation for the
apparently low ranking given provision for exploration and
guidance, which receives very prominent mention in statements
of aims in the literature on reorganization. Probably the most
fundamental provision for this is thru the enrichment of the
courses of study which has already been provided for in group A.
It is also provided for in a measure thru differentiated curricula
and revised methods; hence, as a separate factor, it is properly
assigned a place below other factors thru which it is realized.

Recent educational literature emphasizes provision for the
over-age child in the junior high school, but Indiana superin-
tendents are apparently not in accord with this view in theory as
we shall later see they are not in practice. Highly specialized
training of the vocational type is not judged to be an important
function of the junior high school. This is in agreement with
Snedden2 who says that it is right and proper that this period
from 12 to 14 should continue to be reserved for general educa-
tion (cultural, physical, and social education) and that no specific

* Snedden, D. "Character and Extent of Desired Flexibility as to Courses of Instruction
and Training for Youths of 12 to 14 Years of Age". Ed. Adm. & Sup., 2:233.

Aims of the Reorganization Movement 19

vocational education should be offered in it. There is apparently
little opinion in favor of shortening the period of school training
except thru provision for accelerant groups. No doubt the
opinion that the course should be enriched rather than shortened
is the prevailing one.

On the basis of these rankings, then, we shall consider revised
courses of study, provision for individual differences, modified
methods, and provision for exploration and guidance as of highest
value in the order given in the examination of procedure and
practice in Indiana schools.

20 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

c. Standards of practice in Indiana reorganized grammar
grades.

I have based my investigation of this phase of the study upon
the work of the eighth grade as representing the one grade found
in all types of junior high school grouping in Indiana schools, and
as typifying the most characteristically transition grade between
the elementary and the high school, and as representing the
grade against which the chief charges have been made of useless
repetition and formal, impractical, and uninteresting content.

The traditional subjects of the eighth grade, now yielding
to more or less marked modifications, are reading, grammar,
spelling, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and physiology.
The reading material too often consisted of numerous short
selections, often over-difficult and ill adapted to the interests of
youths twelve to fourteen years of age, and devoid of value for
information or for literary enjoyment and appreciation. The
grammar was usually of the technical sort with little or no appli-
cation to written or oral composition. Spelling, to a large extent
consisted of formal word lists, seldom used by adults and of
unusual difficulty, and taught without regard to daily use in
written work. Writing was a continued drill on form regardless
of the need for improvement. In arithmetic much stress was
placed on difficult, little used, and obsolete phases for the purpose
of mental discipline. In both history and geography emphasis
was generally placed on the memory-for-uninteresting-and
detached facts type; while physiology was a memory exercise
in anatomy with little regard to its functioning. As a rule each
of these subjects was on the daily program of each pupil for a
period of from fifteen to twenty-five minutes. The extent to
which traditional subject matter and modes of treatment are
still followed may be inferred in part by reference to the pro-
motional examinations given by county superintendents to eighth
grade pupils in March, April, and May of each year, and by
reference to teachers' examinations in the common school subjects
which may be found in the Educator Journal from month to
month.

(1) PROGRAMS OF STUDY AND SUBJECTS OF STUDY
MODIFICATIONS.

I shall indicate the program of studies for the eighth grade for
each school, noting required and elective subjects in the general

Programs of Study 21

curriculum, with the time devoted to each subject weekly, also
what subjects the superintendent says have been considerably
modified as to content recently. In English the time given to
the various elements will be indicated where data are available
as a basis for judging the relative emphasis. The presence of
civics as a separate course or as a distinct phase of the history
course will be noted together with the reference or text books used
for such civics work. In mathematics any indications of a ten-
dency towards general methematics, a partial year's work in
algebra, or other modification of the traditional course will be
noted. Whereever general science is offered in the ninth grade,
but not in the eighth, the fact will be stated.

In the majority of these schools industrial and household
arts and agriculture have been introduced since 1913, the date
of the Indiana vocational education law, and not more than
three or four schools have had such work in this grade to exceed
ten years. General science is a new acquisition also, as is civics
where it receives any marked consideration, at least if the
emphasis is on the community civics type. Definite provision
for physical training is also, generally, a new requirement.
Music and drawing are comparatively new in several schools,
while in others they have been represented on the program for
twenty-five years or more.

22 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Programs of Study

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24 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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th composition and other subjects,
ndicated.

cs given together,
inth grade pupils.

e traditional subject organization. School No. 10 has so mod
it. School No. 13 has socialized practically every traditional subj

Note. A period is taken to mean the time devoted daily to a standard subject, as arithmetic or hi
time is expressed in terms of the standard subject period.

Note. 2E5, etc., means 2 periods required and 5 periods elective.

* Incidental in conjunction w:
x Subject given but time not i
E Elective.
+ Geography, history and civ
z General science offered to n
GM General mathematics,
c Changes indicated from tl
ninth grade program in grade eigl

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Programs of Study 25

Table 5 should be read, beginning with school number 1
and reading vertically down the column : in school No. 1 changes
have been made in the English work which is given 5 periods a
week; literature, 2 periods; grammar-composition, 3 periods;
spelling incidental to various school subjects; writing not given
at all; changes are indicated in arithmetic which is given daily
for one-half year, with algebra daily for the second half year;
changes are indicated in the history-civics work, but civics is
not given as a separate course; geography and physiology-
hygiene are each given daily for one-half year; general science is
offered in grade nine; agriculture is not given; household and
manual arts are each required 2 periods a week and are elective
for 5 additional periods for some pupils; drawing, music, and
physical training are each required for 1 period a week; and
German, Latin, and commercial work are each elective 5 periods
a week.

SUMMARY OF COURSE OF STUDY CONDITIONS.

New Subjects

Household arts, manual arts or agriculture are required in
every school at least two periods a week, the minimum require-
ment of the State Board of Education.1 In three schools as
much as 7 periods a week may be taken along these lines by any
pupil so electing to do. Agriculture is required in the eighth
grade in 19 of the 35 schools. The average number of periods
required a week in these practical arts subjects is 2.6, and 8
schools offer additional work as elective.

General science is required in 15 schools in the eighth grade,
and may be taken with the ninth grade in three others. Other
data in my possession show that in still 10 other schools this
subject is offered in the ninth grade, but not to eighth grade
pupils. Thus general science is offered, either required or elective,
in the eighth or ninth grades of 28 of the 35 schools of this group.

In 30 of the 35 schools at least one subject usually taught in
the high school is available to all or part of the pupils of the eighth
grade, in 22 schools to the eighth grade pupils as class groups,
and in the remaining schools to individual pupils with ninth
grade classes. Algebra is required in 5 schools in grade 8A and is
elective in 3 schools as a ninth grade subject, open to some

1 Uniform Course of Study for the El. Schools of Ind. 1915-16:214.

26 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

pupils of the eighth grade. Latin is an elective for eighth grade
pupils in 1 2 schools. German is required in the seventh and eighth
grades of 12 schools and is elective for eighth grade pupils (and
in a majority of these for the seventh also) in 15 other schools.
Thus German is available in 27 schools to some or all eighth
grade pupils.

The relatively large offering in German is, no doubt, to be
accounted for by the fact that Indiana has a very large population
of German descent, and this factor is especially prominent in
Tippecanoe county where 12 of the junior high schools require
German in grades seven and eight. So influential is this nationality
factor in the state that legal provision is made for the compulsory
introduction of German in the elementary grades on petition.

The legal provision follows. " and whenever the

parents or guardians of 25 or more children in attendance at any
school of a township, town, or city shall so demand, it shall be
the duty of the school trustee of said township, town, or city to
procure efficient teachers and introduce the German language,
as a branch of study, in such schools".2 (The above stated pro-
vision is given under 'branches taught' in the elementary schools.)

Commercial work is elective in 6 schools for eighth grade
pupils. In two of these schools it constitutes a part of the regular
eighth grade vocational course, and in the other 4 schools ninth
grade commercial work is elective to certain eighth grade pupils.

Free-hand drawing is required or elective one or more periods
a week (generally 1 or 2) in each of the 35 schools.

Music is required in 34 of these schools and elective in one,
the number of weekly periods being about evenly divided between
one or two.

Physical training is required in 10 schools and is elective in
one. Two periods a week is the more common time devoted to it
where offered.

Old Subjects That Have Been Under-going More or Less
Modification Recently.

ENGLISH

Twenty-seven of these schools indicate changes in the courses
in English, especially in the type of literary selections read (for
the most part conforming to the state course of study), in a
decided shift of emphasis from formal grammar to composition

1 Ind. School Law, 1911. p. 108. Also, Ind. Rev. Stat. 1908, art. 6582.

Programs of Study 27

and grammar with spelling often attached to the composition,
and in a greater unifying of the English work. The time distribu-
tion for the English group of subjects indicates a marked reduc-
tion in the total number of periods devoted to English as compared
with the old order. It is to be noted, however, that in most of
these schools the length of the recitation and study periods
combined have been lengthened over the old recitation period,
but that the actual time given to the recitation proper remains
about the same.

Twelve schools assign English 4 periods a week; 10, 5 periods
(1 of these for one-half year only); 1, 6 periods; 3, 7 periods;
3, 8 periods; 3, 9 periods; 1, 11 periods; 1, 12 periods; and 1, 15
periods. The median time for the 35 schools is 5 periods a week
and the average, 6.1 periods. Penmanship, which is properly
no part of the English work, is included in this summary. If
we omit this subject our distribution will be 12 schools, 4 periods
a week; 9, 5 periods; 3, 6 periods; 5, 7 periods; 1, 8 periods;
2, 10 periods; 1, 12 periods; and 1 not indicated; a median of 5
periods and an average of 5.6 periods.

The time distribution for literature alone is: 21 schools, 2
periods a week; 3, 3 periods; 1, 4 periods; 1, 5 periods; and in 9
the total time only is indicated with no distribution among all
the subordinate elements. The median for the 26 reporting the
detailed distribution is 2 periods with an average of 2.3 periods.

In grammar-composition 13 schools assign 2 periods a week;
7, 3 periods; 3, 4 periods; 3, 5 periods; and 9 do not indicate the
time distribution. The median for the 26 schools is 2.5 periods
and the average 2.8 periods. This includes spelling in several
schools where this is incidental in the composition work. The
correct average should probably be about 2.5 periods to composi-
tion-grammar alone.

For spelling alone, 8 schools assign no periods; 1, J^ period;
2, 1 period; 2, lJ/£ periods; 4, 2 periods; 2, 2J^ periods; 14, a small
amount of time in connection with composition; and 2 with
spelling time undistributed. Assuming from .2 to .3 periods for
the 14 which offer spelling in combination, the median time would
be .25 period and the average .67 for the 33 schools.

Writing shows 25 schools assigning no time; 3, 1 period; 1,
1 y% periods; 4, 2 periods; 1, 2J/£ periods; and one without distribu-
tion of writing time. The median for the 34 schools is 0 periods
and the average .5 periods a week.

28 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

HISTORY-CIVICS

One school requires 7 periods a week in this group of subjects;
18, 5 periods; 15, 4 periods; and 1, 5 periods for a half year only
In one of the 5 period schools geography is included but additional
emphasis is given to history and civics work in the audi-
torium periods. One school requires 3 periods a week in
civics; 4, 5 periods for a half year; 1 offers industrial history as a
ninth grade subject elective for many eighth grade pupils; 4
others indicate that civics is given the equivalent of 1 or 1J^
periods; while 7 announce special attention to civics but do not
indicate the time. If the state course of tudy is followed, some
time is probably devoted to civics in every school, although the
state course calls for a very formal type of constitutional dissec-
tion. The fact that Dunn's Community and the Citizen or
Nida's The City, State, and Nation is used as a text in several
schools indicates a tendency to break away from the traditional
type of social science commonly given in the past. The median
time given to the social science studies (not including geography)
is 5 periods a week with an average of 4.6 periods.

MATHEMATICS

In 19 schools mathematics is required 5 periods a week, and
in the remaing 16, 4 periods a week. The median requirement is
5 periods and the average 4.6 periods. Four schools require
algebra in grade 8A, while in 3 it is elective for many eighth
grade pupils. A course in general mathematics (arithmetic,
elementary algebra, and observational geometry) is reported by
by school number 10. In school number 20 certain pupils may
elect commercial arithmetic, and in school 35, bookkeeping.
Nineteen other schools indicate more emphasis on fundamentals
or other changes in the traditional course, and 3 are planning to
introduce general mathematics soon. One school offers vocational
arithmetic in its vocational course. One of these schools in its
printed syllabus for grade 8B announces ratio, proportion,
partnership, powers, roots, mensuration, longitude and time,
public lands, and the metric system as the topics for considera-
tion, the very topics most often indicated for omission by the
Committee on the Economy of Time3 and other organizations
attempting to bring about reorganization in grammar grade
mathematics.

3 Jessup, W. Economy of Time in Arithmetic. El. S. Teacher. 14:461,

Programs of Study 29

GEOGRAPHY

But 9 schools require geography in grade eight, although it
is required by all in grade seven. Two schools require 5 periods
a week for a half year; 1, 3 periods for a year, 1, 3 periods for a
half year; and 5 do not indicate the time.

PHYSIOLOGY-HYGIENE

Physiology-hygiene is required in 17 of the 35 schools in time
varying from 1 to 5 periods weekly, the median for the 15 indicat-
ing time being 2J^ periods, and the average 1.2 for the 33 schools
reporting time or no time. Every school, except numbers 10,
12, and 27 requires some science work in the eighth grade, either
physiology-hygiene, general science, or geography. In school
27 general science is elective for some eighth grade pupils.

ELECTIVES

Sixteen schools indicate some regular arrangement for elec-
tives for certain groups of pupils, in all but four of these schools
for bright pupils only. Where the grammar grades are housed
with the high school, no doubt individual arrangement is also
made by some of the other schools for bright pupils to carry an
extra subject, but it is not announced as a regular provision.

Agriculture is elective in the eighth grade in 1 school ; algebra
in 3 ; commercial subjects in 6 ; drawing in 1 ; ninth grade English
in 2 ; an additional special course in English in 1 ; general science
in 3 ; German in 15 (in one school only for those who have studied
it from the first grade) ; industrial history in 1 ; household arts
in 6; Latin in 12; manual arts in 7; music in 1; and physical
training in 1. As noted elsewhere in this study, 12 of the smallest
of these schools have radically changed the eighth grade work by
requiring general science and German each 4 periods weekly, but
owing to the small size of classes it is not possible to make these
courses elective. One of the larger schools, number 30, has made
decided modifications in its program of work but offers no high
school subjects nor electives to pupils below grade nine.

Schools 11, 12, 21, and 22 are in cities having 25,000 or more
population and could easily provide wel differentiated courses
and elective studies. They all provide for accelerant and slow
moving groups in a limited way. Slight modifications probably

30 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

have been made in the traditional subjects, but the time dis-
tribution for 22 indicates 12 periods weekly for English. Num-
ber 11 offers German for a limited number of bright pupils in
grades seven and eight, but indicates no other marked plan of
differentiation. School 12 offers German in grade eight to those
who have had it for seven years, and also permits a few pupils to
take physical training and music as elective work, otherwise
offering no high school subjects and permitting no extra work.
School 21 adjusts individual programs in exceptional cases, but
has no definite system of differentiation or options. School 22
offers no options or electives, permits no extra subjects, and pro-
vides no differentiated courses. Schools 24 and 31, being in
cities of less than 10,000 population, can probably not afford any
extensive offering of differentiated courses, but it would seem
possible for them to offer more of the practical arts and possibly
one high school subject by cutting down on the excessive require-
ments in formal English. Several of these schools have apparently
made no more changes in the traditional studies than the majority
of Indiana schools not claiming junior high schools, and they have
made no provision for individual differences thru electives or
differentiated courses. They are apparently basing their junior
high school claims almost exclusively on the fact that they have
introduced departmental teaching. It should be added that at
least two of these six are working on definite plans of reorganiza-
tion at the present time.

To summarize, the typical Indiana junior high school requires
in the eighth grade the following program: English 5 periods a
week (approximately 2 to literature and 3 to grammar-composi-
tion combined); arithmetic 4 or 5 periods a week; history 4 or
5 periods a week (with definite work in civics in about one-half
the schools and with an increasing tendency towards community
civics); general science 4 or 5 periods a week or physiology-
hygiene geography 2 or 3 periods; household or industrial arts or
agriculture 2.6 periods a week; drawing and music each 1.3
periods: and physical training somewhat less than 2 periods a
week (in one- third the schools only).

Elective subjects are: household or industrial arts and
agriculture 2 to 5 periods a week (in 7 schools only), and foreign
language 4 or 5 periods (most frequently German and required
rather than elective in 12 of the 27 schools in which offered).
Also it is to be noted that as a rule electives, outside the practical

Programs of Study 31

arts, are open only to pupils above average in academic ability.

In the report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey, director
Leonard4 refers to the plan of confining election in the practical
arts work to pupils of inferior ability as a limitation of the
present plan of organization in the junior high school in that city.
Relative to elective subjects, he says: "Subjects offered as
electives should be those which have appreciable identity with
occupational activities or with lines of interest leading to well-
defined courses to which they are fundamental."

Data submitted by 28 of these same schools for the seventh
grade program of studies show the following average program.
Required: English 6.2 periods a week, arithmetic 4.5, history
4.2, geography 2.7, physiology-hygiene 2, agriculture or manual
training 2.1, domestic science 2.3, drawing and music 1.5 each,
German (in 12 schools) 4, and physical training (5 schools only)
2. Elective: German or Latin in 4 schools, additional work in
manual or domestic arts 4 schools, commercial work 1 school,
and agriculture 1 school (twice a week).

Data submitted by 27 of the junior type schools show the
following typical average program for the ninth grade. Re-
quired: English 5 periods a week, algebra 5, foreign language
(Latin or German) 5. Elective: science 5 periods a week,
manual or domestic arts 5 double periods, drawing and music
(in most of the schools) 1 or 2 periods, physical training (in less
than one-third the schools) 2 periods, commercial work (in one-
third the schools and chiefly commercial arithmetic or book-
keeping) 5 periods, industrial vocational courses in 5 or 6 schools
only, and ancient history in about one-sixth of the schools.

Having ascertained the standards of practice among Indiana
junior high schools relative to subjects of study modifications and
differentiation of courses, the question arises, to what extent are
these standards in agreement with junior high school practice
generally, and with current educational opinion? What subject
modifications and what degree of differentiation are desirable in
reorganized schools?

Davis advises the following program of studies. "In the
seventh and eighth grades each pupil's program should include:
(1) English; (2) history, civics and geography; (3) ethics and
sociology; (4) physiology and hygiene; (5) mathematics (includ-
ing arithmetic, algebra and geometry); (6) elementary science;
(7) manual training or household arts; (8) music and fine arts;

• Leonard, R. J. Report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey for Vocational Education.
(Ind. State Board of Ed. 1916) pp. 513, 548.

32 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

(9) drawing; (10) voice culture, public speaking, and dramatics;
(11) physical training; and in addition opportunity should be
given for one or two or three elective studies."8

Francis6 recommends the following for the general course in
the seventh and eighth grades:

REQUIRED SUBJECTS ELECTIVE SUBJECTS

7th GRADE

English 5 periods Foreign language 5 periods

Arithmetic 5 periods Bookkeeping or stenog-

Geography-history 5 periods raphy 5 periods

Physical training 1 period (select one)

Music 2 periods

Drawing 2 periods

Penmanship 2 periods

Practical arts 4 periods

8th GRADE

English 5 periods Foreign Language 5 periods

History-civics 5 periods Bookkeeping 5 periods

Physical training 2 periods Stenography 5 periods

Oral English-music 2 periods Arithmetic-algebra 5 periods

Physiology-hygiene 2 periods Drawing 5 periods

Practical arts 4 periods (select two)

The Butte Survey Committee7 recommends the following
subjects for the general course for grades seven and eight:

REQUIRED SUBJECTS ELECTIVE SUBJECTS

7th GRADE

English 5 periods Foreign language 5 periods

History 5 periods Bookkeeping and business

Geography 5 periods arithmetic 5 periods

Arithmetic 5 periods (select one)

Physical training 2 periods

Drawing 2 periods

Music 2 periods

Practical arts 4 periods

8th GRADE

English 5 periods Foreign language 5 periods

History-civics 5 periods Bookkeeping and business

General science 3 periods arithmetic 5 periods

Physiology-hygiene 2 periods Mathematics (algebra and

Drawing 2 periods geometry) 5 periods

Music 2 periods (select two)

Physical training 1 period

Practical arts 4 periods

6 Davis, C. O. Reorganization of Secondary Education Ch. IV. in Johnston's High School
Education p. 97. New York, 1912.

« Francis, J. H. The Portland, Ore., Survey, 1913. p. 196.

7 The Butte, Mont., Survey, 1914. p. 65.

Programs of Study

Leonard8 recommends the following junior high school courses
in the light of the findings of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey:

REQUIRED SUBJECTS

FIRST YEAR,

English 5 periods

History 3 periods

Geography 4 periods

Arithmetic 4 periods

Industrial arts 4 periods

Household arts 4 periods

Fine arts 2 periods

Music 2 periods

Physical education and hy-
giene 2 periods

ELECTIVE SUBJECTS
7th GRADE

Latin 4 periods

French 4 periods

Spanish 4 periods

German 4 periods

CommerciaJ 4 periods

Industrial arts 4 periods

Household arts 4 periods

Agriculture 4 periods

SECOND YEAR, 8th GRADE

English 4 periods

History-civics 3 periods

Elementary science 4 periods

Industrial arts 4 periods

Household arts 4 periods

Music or fine arts 2 periods

Physical education 2 periods

Study of vocations 1 period

Latin 4 periods

French 4 periods

Spanish 4 periods

German 4 periods

Industrial arts 4 or 8 periods

Household arts 4 or 8 periods

Agriculture 4 or 8 periods

Commercial 4 or 8 periods

Drawing and design. . . 4 or 8 periods

Music 2 or 4 periods

Mathematics 4 periods

THIRD YEAR, 9th GRADE

English 4 periods

History-civics 4 periods

Geography or science 4 periods

Physical education-hygiene . 2 periods
Study of vocations 1 period

Latin 4 periods

French 4 periods

Spanish 4 periods

German 4 periods

Commercial 4 or 8 periods

Industrial arts 4 or 8 periods

Household arts 4 or 8 periods

Agriculture 4 or 8 periods

Drawing and design. . . 4 or 8 periods

Music 2 or 4 periods

Mathematics 4 periods

Science 4 periods

(Six 50-minute periods are to constitute a day.)

• See reference 4. just cited, p. 550.

34 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Snedden advocates a course of study having "a large range
of elective or optional studies in addition to certain essentials in
English language, English literature, American history, commu-
nity civics, and geography."9 Elsewhere,10 he specifically
mentions as desirable optional subjects modern languages and
practical arts, including manual training, commercial subjects,
agriculture, and household arts, but not compulsory for all.
Snedden11 also makes a clear distinction between doing or ex-
pressive subjects and those whose chief function is the develop-
ment of appreciation, and believes that the latter type of material
should be utilized more largely in the school program.

Bonser12 recommends the following distribution of subjects
and points for the junior high school consisting of the seventh,
eighth, and ninth grades, 30 points constituting a year's work.
Common subject matter for all, 54 points, are distributed thus;
English 12, history 8, geography 8, elementary science 8, every
day mathematics 8, civics and problems in industrial and voca-
tional life 6, physical education 6, and music 3. He advises 36
points of optional matter to be chosen from any of the above
named or to be distributed. His plan provides for a maximum
of two-fifths optional work.

Briggs,13 who is an advocate of the exploratory function of
adolescent education, advises extensive reading of many classics
in literature for appreciation, oral and written composition rather
than formal grammar, music and pictorial art for appreciation,
general history and community civics, general mathematics
(including arithmetic, algebra, and constructive geometry),
general science, and varied projects in the industrial arts, and
possibly one general elective. "Exploration" he says, "should
give some knowledge of many fields to be treated more exhaustive-
ly later."

A committee of the North Central Association of Colleges
and Secondary Schools14 recommends the following subjects or
subject groups for the junior high school: (1) mathematics, (2)
natural science, (3) social science, (4) language, (5) fine and
practical arts; and also physical training and medical inspection

• Snedden, D. "Reorganization of Education for Children from 12 to 14 Years of Age.
Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:425.

10 Snedden, D. Problems of Secondary Education, p. 231. New York, 1917.

« Snedden, D. "Character and Extent of Desirable Flexibility as to Courses of Instruction
for Youths of 12 to 14 Years of Age." Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:219.

K Bonser, F. G. "Democratizing Secondary Education by the 6-3-3 Plan". Ed. Adm. &
Sup. 1 :S67-576.

" Briggs, T. H. "Possibilities of the Junior High School" Education. 37:279.

14 Proceedings of the N. C. A. of Colleges & Secondary Schools, 1916.

Programs of Study 35

without reference to graduation credit. The report further says
that a stereotyped line of work for all is to be avoided, and advises
continuity in three of the five lines, and an opportunity for a wide
distribution of electives.

The Committee on the Economy of Time in Education15
recommends the inclusion of the two last elementary grades with
the high school, and the beginning of foreign languages, ele-
mentary algebra, constructive geometry, elementary science,
and history two years earlier. It also recommends that subject
matter be selected on the basis of relative values and that only
the more important be included, and that methods be differen-
tiated for formal and content material. The introduction of the
prevocational arts is favored from the age of twelve.

Douglass reports the following as typical curricula for the
junior high school: "7th grade; English 6 periods a week, with
reading, writing, grammar, spelling and penmanship taught
separately or in rather poor coordination under the general
heading; social science (5), presented as history and geography ;
mathematics (5), meaning arithmetic ; physiology and hygiene (3) ;
or physical training (2); drawing (2); and, perhaps, music (2);
manual training (2) or domestic science (2). 8th grade, English
(5); history (5) or civics (5); arithmetic (5); physiology and
hygiene (3) or physical training (2) ; music (2) or drawing (2) ;
and an option between Latin or German (5) and manual training
or domestic science (2) . Real differentiation is under way in the
ninth grade. Here the only required subject is English, and
options are allowed, under supervision, to the extent that the
pupil practically selects his own work. He may choose among
Latin, German, history, algebra, general sciences, music and
drawing, manual or industrial arts and domestic science, and
certain commercial subjects."16

Educators are in rather general agreement as to the subjects
that ought to have a place in the reorganized school, that mod-
ifications ought to be made in the old subjects looking to a more
socialized content, and that certain high school subjects as foreign
languages should be introduced, but there is far less agreement as
to the specific content of each of these subjects and the methods
by which they are to be taught, the time allotment of some of
them, and the extent of options. In foreign language, for example,

15 Report of Com. on Economy of Time in Education. U. S. Bur. Ed. Bui. 38, 1913.
» Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of Nat. Soc. for the Study
of Ed. part III. 1916. p. 82.

36 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

there are those who would transfer the grammar-translation
method of the traditional ninth grade bodily to the seventh
grade, while others, as Davis,17 Briggs,18 and the Committee
on Foreign Languages19 of the Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Education suggest a beginning course "about" foreign
language to give a knowledge of the people, customs, institutions,
and geography of the country whose language is being studied,
with a smaller amount of time given to the more formal elements
of the language itself, for the purpose of giving immediate value
and of stimulating interest to want more. The first two of the
above named authorities with Breslich,20 Taylor,21 and others
advise a modified program of mathematics for the eighth or
ninth grades to include the mastery of the simpler parts of
commercial arithmetic, with much practice on computing and
checking, the elements of algebra, a well articulated body of
geometric knowledge concrete, observational, and constructive,
including not only rules for areas and volumes but also the
simpler properties of geometric figures and graphic representa-
tions of space. The actual practice in Indiana schools does not
indicate that these recommendations are receiving much con-
sideration. Arithmetic in the eighth grade and algebra in the
ninth are practically universal even in the schools claiming junior
high school organization.

Foreign language is generally recommended as an option for
grades seven and eight in theory and this seems to be followed
to a considerable extent in practice, although in many schools
the number permitted to take this work is very limited, and not
a few schools still offer no language work below grade nine, pre-
ferring to provide a richer program in social and natural sciences
and prevocational arts as being fundamentally more valuable as
a training for citizenship.

The Ettinger plan,22 or similar plan, for short unit exploratory
courses in the industrial arts in the seventh and eighth grades is
employed in the schools of Los Angeles, California, Kansas City,
Kansas, Rochester, N. Y., and other cities, and is recommended
by Briggs,23 Leonard,24 Snedden25 and others. This plan provides

" Davis, C. O. A Survey of the Secondary Schools of Grand Rapid.--, Mich. pp. 231-242.

» Briggs, T. H. "Possibilities of the Junior High School." Ed. 37:279.

» Report of Com. on Reorganization of Education Bui. 41, 1913, U. S. Bur. Ed.

" Breslich. E. R. "Forward Movements in Secondary Mathematics. Sch. Rev. 24:283.

21 Taylor, E. H. "Course in Mathematics in the Junior High School" Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2 :460.

22 Ettinger, W. L. A Report on the Organization and Extension of Prevocational Training
in Elementary Schools. Dept. of Ed. N. Y. City, 1915.

23 See reference 18.

2< Leonard, R. J. Report of the Richmond, Ind., Survey for Voc. Ed. p. 553.

» Snedden, D. Reorganization of Education for Children, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2 :425.

Programs of Study 37

for participation in all typical lines of industrial work, as wood,
metal, clay, electrical, concrete, printing, gardening, and other
forms, each from four to nine weeks rather than spend an entire
term or year in one field as is the usual practice. The idea is to
discover interests and aptitudes as a basis for guidance.

As an illustration of the types of programs of studies that are
used in Indiana reorganized schools, in junior high school grades,
the following courses of study, representing six city and twelve
village and rural high schools in one county, are submitted.

TYPICAL COURSES OF STUDY

1. Anderson, Indiana.™

General course (vocational and commercial courses are also
given in which the special work displaces geography-history) .

REQUIRED SUBJECTS ELECTIVE SUBJECTS

7th GRADE

Literature 2 periods Latin 5 periods

Current events 1 period German 5 periods

Grammar 1 period Cooking or sewing 5 periods

Spelling and composition . . 1 period Printing 5 periods

Arithmetic 5 periods Commercial 5 periods

History-civics 5 periods (elect one)

Geography 5 periods

Household arts or wood

work 1 period

Drawing 2 periods

Music 1 period

Physical training 1 period

8th GRADE

English (as in 7th) 5 periods Latin 5 periods

Arithmetic (Y2 year) 5 periods German 5 periods

Algebra (^ year) 5 periods Cooking or sewing 5 periods

History-civics 5 periods Manual training 5 periods

Geography (^ year) 5 periods Commercial training 5 periods

Physiology-hygiene (]/%) ... 5 periods Printing 5 periods

Household or manual arts. . 2 periods (elect one)

Drawing 1 period

Music 1 period

Physical training 1 period

* Course of Study for Junior High Schools, Anderson, Ind. 1917.

38 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

9th GRADE

English literature 4 periods Latin 5 periods

Current events 1 period German 5 periods

Algebra 5 periods Cooking 2^ periods

Sewing 23^ periods

Household chemistry 5 periods

Wood work 3 periods

Mechanical drawing 2 periods

Mechanical drawing 5 periods

Botany 5 periods

General science 5 periods

Ancient history 5 periods

Printing 5 periods

Music 1 period

Physical training 1 period

Drawing (free hand) 2 periods

(elect three)

2. East Chicago, Indiana.27

College preparatory course. (Non-college preparatory and
commercial courses are also offered, which are the same as the
college preparatory course in grade seven except in special cases,
and which substitute practical arts for foreign languages in
grades eight and nine.)

Grade 7, required subjects: arithmetic 5 periods a week,
geography (one-half year) 5, grammar 5, U. S. history 5, physiol-
ogy (one-half year) 5, music 1J^, drawing 2, writing 1J^, spelling
(one-half year) 2J/£, and gymnasium 2^. No electives.

Grade 8, required subjects: preparatory mathematics 5,
civics (one-half year) 5, English (one-half year) 5, Latin or Ger-
man 5, manual training, printing, or domestic science 5, gym-
nasium 2J/6, Elective subjects: music 1J^, drawing 1.

Grade 9, required subjects : English 5, algebra (one-half year)
5, geometry (one-half year) 5, Latin or German 5, general science
or household science 5, Elective subjects: music IJ^, drawing 1,
gymnasium 2J^.

All periods are 60 minute periods.

3. Hartford City, Indiana.™

Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history
5, geography 5, manual training or domestic science 2, drawing 2,
music 2, physical training 2. No electives.

17 Report of Supt. of Public Instruction, Indiana. 1915-16:595.
*> Program of Studies in the Hartford City Schools. 1916.

Programs of Study 39

Grade 8, required subjects: general science 5, English 5,
arithmetic (% year) 5, history (% year) 5, manual training or
domestic science 2, drawing 2, music 2, physical training 2.
Electives: Latin 5, German 5, algebra 5.

Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, Latin or
German 5, physical training 2. Elective subjects: general science,
general geography, manual training or domestic science 4,
drawing 3, music 3.

4. Richmond, Indiana?*

Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history 5,
music 2, drawing 2, woodwork or sewing 2, hygiene 2, physical
training 2. Elective subjects (choose one): Latin 5, German 5,
English composition 5, industrial work (boys and girls) 5.

Grade 8, required subjects: geography daily in 8B, civics in
place of history, and cooking in place of sewing, otherwise the
same as in grade 7, both required and elective.

Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, physical training 1.
Elective subjects: algebra 5, Latin 5, German 5, botany 5,
physiography 5, domestic art 5, domestic science 5, printing 5,
bench work and mechanical drawing 5, free-hand drawing 2,
chorus practice 1, orchestra 2^, penmanship (% year) 5, com-
mercial arithmetic (J/£ year) 5.

5. Seymour, Indiana™

Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, geog-
raphy (^2 year) 5, history 5, physiology-hygiene 2, sewing or
woodwork 2, drawing 2, music 2. Elective subjects: Latin or
German 5, agriculture 2.

Grade 8, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic (}/2 year)
5, algebra (J^ year) 5, history (J^ year) 5, civics (% year) 5,
physiology-hygiene 2, cooking or woodwork 2, drawing 2, music
2. Elective subjects: Latin or German 5, agriculture 2.

Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, Latin or
German 5. Elective subjects: drawing 4, domestic science 4,
manual arts 4, agriculture 5 (double), botany 7, general science
7, physical geography 5, ancient history 5, music 2.

*• Program of Studies of the Richmond. Ind., High School. 1916.

10 Courses of Study and Circular of Information of the Shields High School, Seymour, Ind.

1914.

40 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

6. Tippecanoe County, Indiana?1

Grade 7, required subjects: English 4, arithmetic 4, history 4,
geography (J/£ year) 4, physiology (J/£ year) 4, agriculture 2,
sewing 2, German 4, music 1, drawing 1. No electives.

Grade 8, required subjects : English 4, arithmetic 4, history 4,
general science 4, agriculture 2, sewing 2, German 4, music 1,
drawing 1. No electives.

Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, German 5,
agriculture or wood work 5, cooking 5, music 1, drawing 1. No
electives.

All periods are 40 minute periods.

7. Vincennes, Indiana?2

Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, social
science (history, geography, nature study) 5, industrial arts,
sewing, manual training) 5, music and physical training 5. No
electives.

Grade 8, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history
and civics 5, industrial arts (cooking, printing, manual training)
5, music and physical training 5. No electives.

Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5. Elective
subjects : Latin 5, German 5, general science 5, cooking or sewing
5, manual training 5, music and physical education 5.

« Report of the Public Schools of Tippecanoe Co. 1916-17.

11 Course of Study, Senior and Junior High Schools, Vincennes, Ind. 1916-17.

Provision for Individual Differences

(2) PROVISION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

TABLE 6.

PROVISION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE

CURRICULA

FREQUENCY

METHOD OF PROGRESS

SCHOOL

OFFERED-I-

OF PROMOTION

PROMOTION GROUPS f

a, i, d, c

Hyr

subject a&s

subject no

iyrr

subj. in part a&s

V£ yr.

grade no

i yr

subject no

lyr.

subject no

sub. in part no

8
9

a
a

lyr.

subject no
subject no

a, i, d, c

YL yr.

subject a&s

i,d

a»

i,d

lyr.

subject
subject
subject

a&s
a &s
a&s

sub. in part

subject
subject
subject
subject
subject
subject

no
no
no
no
no
a&s

subject

a&s

grade

a&s

subject

subject
subject

a&s

subject

subject
subject
subject

a&s
a&s
no

subject

a&s

grade

subject
subject

no
no

subject
subject

no
no

PROVISION FOR
INDIVIDUALS*

ex, c, w, p

none

ex, fr, ir

ex, ir, o, fr, c

fr, sp, ir

ex, ir, o, fr, p,

ex, c

ex, ir, c, o
ex, ir, w, fr,

p,c
ex
ex

ex, fr, p, v, o
ex, fr

ex, c, ir, o
ex, min

ex, fr, c

ex, fr, p

ex, fr, o

ex, ir, p
ex, c

ex, fr, c, o
ex, fr, c, w, o

ex.c
ex, fr, p

Under provision for individual differences are included those
features of organization which attempt to secure adjustment to
the varying capacities and subject interests of pupils, and to
provide for individual or homogenous group advancement as
contrasted with uniform progress by entire grades or classes.
The features here considered are differentiation of curricula,
method of promotion (by grade or by subject), frequency of
promotion, homogenous progress groups, and means of individual
advancement.

+ a, i, d, c mean academic, industrial.domestic science, and commercial curricula.

1a & s means accelerant and slow moving groups.
ex, c, w, p, fr, o, ir, sp, v, min, respectively, mean extra subject, coaching, weighted credit,
prevocational program, fewer subjects, credit for outside work, irregular promotion, special
help, vacation work, minimum requirement.

42 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 6 should be read: school No. 1 offers academic, in-
dustrial, domestics arts, and commercial curricula in the grammar
grades; promotes pupils half yearly; promotes by subject; has
provision for rapid and slow moving groups (as well as normal) ;
and provides individual help thru extra subjects, coaching,
weighted credits, and prevocational programs for special pupils.

Differentiation.

Two schools, 1 and 10, indicate clearly differentiated curricula
in their published outlines for the junior high school. School 13,
Gary, which has a nation wide reputation for flexibility in fitting
its program to individual needs, should be credited with adequate
provision in this respect, and school 25 also has definite provision
for each pupil in the seventh and eighth grades to choose approx-
imately one-sixth his work from foreign languages, or practical
arts, or a special course in English. Several other schools indicate
three courses each, academic, household arts, and manual arts,
but they appear to have but one standard course for all pupils,
except that every girl takes 2 periods a week of domestic science
and every boy 2 periods of manual training weekly, which condi-
tion is true of practically every school in the state. Schools 4,
16 and 23 begin commercial work, as do many of the others, in
grade nine. All four of the schools having well differentiated
curricula are in cities of 25,000 to 50,000 population. Five other
cities are of the 20,000 and more population class and could pro-
vide well differentiated curricula, without doubt; five cities are
between 8,000 and 12,000 population and could, no doubt, pro-
vide more definite differentiation than at present their programs
show; while four other cities in the 5,000 to 8,000 class offer ex-
tensive electives in some high school subjects, it would seem
desirable and quite possible for them to increase their offerings
to seventh and eighth grade pupils in practical arts, especially
as these grades are housed with the high school in each case and
have the use of the high school shops and laboratories. With the
remaining schools curriculum differentiation, save in household
arts and manual training in limited degree, is clearly out of the
question, but even here it would seem possible to plan a single
curriculum with some design as some of them have done and are
doing, and which according to Johnston33 is the chief mark of the

'Johnston, C. H. What is Curriculum Differentiation? Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2 :49.

Provision for Individual Differences 43

junior high school. Thru provision for carrying an extra subject
in many of these schools opportunity is afforded for a limited
kind and amount of differentiation. Omitting the ninth grade,
we may say that 31 of these 35 schools make no extensive pro-
vision for curriculum differentiation. Evidently these schools
are not realizing in practice what their superintendents desire
in theory, for they rated curriculum differentiation as third in
importance of the 18 items submitted for ranking.

At the present time differentiation constitutes the storm center
in junior high school discussion, and we find every possible
variation both in theory and in practice. The recommendations
relative to courses and subjects of study have a bearing on this
point but the above mentioned writers and others have much to
say more specifically to this point.

Johnston33 has rendered a positive service in helping to clarify
the meaning of the term differentiation. He points out that
differentiated curricula should include many of the same courses
in common, that differentiation may be thru courses for boys and
for girls, for fast and slow moving groups, for prevocational and
academic groups, and by having the same subject with different
content adjusted to different group interests, and that every act
of individual pupil help or variation in assignment is differentia-
tion. More recently he writes: "curriculum differentiation is
the crucial issue."34

Davis35 advises the organization of differentiated curricula,
some freedom of choice by pupils of subject matter to be studied,
and differentiation of work among different classes in the same
subject. Again, he says,3^ that this differentiation may come
(ajid in small schools it must come) in the regular classroom work
itself.

Briggs37 says that differentiation may be on the basis of
mental ability, interests, sex, etc., and should follow the decision
of the pupil, parent, and teacher after exploration reveals facts
about the child and the vocations.

Snedden38 recommends differentiation on both psychological
and social grounds, because of innate differences in human
nature and capacities, and because of interests of a specific
vocational kind. He urges uniform elements for the education

»< Johnston, C. H. The Junior High School. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:413.

« Davis, C. O. A Survey of the Secondary Schools of Grand Rapids, Michigan, p. 230. 1916.

18 Davis, C. O. in Johnston's High School Education, p. 97.

87 Briggs, T. H. Possibilities of the Junior High School. Education, 37:279.

» Snedden, D. Reorganization of Education of Children 12 to 14. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:425.

44 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

of all where the purpose is training for civic life and assimilation
into the broader social group. He advises partial group differ-
entiation as early as the age of twelve, but he assumes that no
highly specialized vocational training, as such, will be given in
the junior high school.

Bagley,39 while recommending the six-six plan as an adminis-
trative device for securing many desirable educational reforms,
is opposed to the junior high school as an expression of marked
differentiation. He argues that in a democracy in this age of
extreme specialization there is urgent need for the development of
a like-minded social consciousness, or as he puts it, a "social
solidarity," and for this purpose the school (up to the age of
fourteen) must place great emphasis on uniform and common
elements tending to produce that end. Bagley protests against
putting individual interests before the social, and fears that
extreme differentiation will result in class stratification. He also
argues that marked differentiation, unless common in all schools,
both rural and urban in grades seven and eight, will seriously
handicap pupils moving from one school to another. And he
also states that the necessary differentiation to suit the needs of
individual differences can be secured thru variation in method in
classroom procedure.

Judd40 points out the marked psychological changes of early
adolescence and bases the need for differentiation on the demands
of individual differences, and urges the abandoning of the eight-
four plan with its elementary school methods for the upper
two grades and the useless repetition of subject matter of the old
organization.

Bonser41 advocates partial differentiation on the grounds of
the intrinsic nature of the child and his vocational destiny.

The committee of the North Central Association42 advises
that no first course in the junior high school should be modified
as to purpose or content with reference to any group of high
school pupils.

These authorities indicate that the trend of educational
opinion has greatly changed since the time of the report of the
Committee of Ten43 in 1893, whose opinion was quoted in the
introduction to the effect that every subject in the high school

»• Bagley, W. C. The Six-Six Plan. School & Home Ed. 34:3-5 & 79, 80.

"Judd, C. H. The Junior High School. Sch. Rev. 24:249-260.

« Bonser, F. G. Democratizing Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 1 :567.

42 Report of Com. on Definition of a Unit. Proc. N. C. A. 1916.

« Report of Com. of Ten of N. E. A. 1893. p. 17.

Provision for Individual Differences 45

should be taught to every pupil in the same way and to the same
extent regardless of his probable career. The extent of the change
of opinion is realized when we consider that the Committee of
Ten advocated no differentiation in the senior high school, much
less in the junior high school.

Apparently all the writers are agreed that individual dif-
ferences are rather marked at the junior high school age and
demand some measure of recognition. They are also, no doubt,
agreed that many elements of common training are desirable for
a common citizenship, but they disagree as to the means and the
amount of differentiation desirable.

The chief objection to extreme differentiation in subject
matter seems to be founded upon a fear of industrial exploitation.
Dewey,44 as well as Bagley, views this possibility with concern.

However much extreme subject differentiation may be ob-
jectionable in theory, neither Douglass' investigation nor my own
indicate a degree of differentiation of the sort that has assumed
alarming proportions. An option of a foreign language 4 or 5
times a week or of prevocational arts (in Indiana required) 2 or
3 times a week in the eighth grade seems to be the more general
practice among so-called junior high schools. It is to be noted,
however, that the majority of schools in this study are of the
small school type. Apparently other means of differentiation,
as fast and slow moving groups, permission to carry extra or
fewer subjects, variation in classroom methods to suit individual
needs, sex segregation in prevocational arts, and certain modi-
fications in subject matter for all are relied upon as the chief
provisions for individual differences. Neither a wide range in
options nor varying rates of progress by groups are available for
the small school.

But 4 of the 35 Indiana schools have any marked variations
in curricula, and in no one of these has the pupil an option of
more than one-fifth his work during the seventh and eighth
grades.

Bonser45 recommends about two-fifths the time in the eighth
grade for optional or differentiated work; Snedden,46 that at least
one-fifth the program be differentiated or optional ; and Bagley47
argues against the elective principle below grade nine. About

"Dewey, J. "A Policy of Industrial Education. School & Soc. 2:11.
« Bonser, F. G. Democratizing Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 1 :567.
48 Snedden, D. Character & Extent of Desired Flexibility, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:233.
" Bagley, W. C. The Six-Six Plan. S. & H. Ed. 34:3-5 and Justification of a Certain
Measure of Uniformity. 111. Univ. School of Ed. bulletin 13, 1914:12-21.

46 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

one-half the Indiana junior type schools offer no electives, al-
though in 13 of these the former program of studies has been
radically changed in grades seven and eight with limited options
in the ninth.

The writer desires to advance objections to current argu-
ments for extreme differentiation on the grounds, first, that our
psychology of individual differences indicates that original nature
is selective and that differing natures will react to common
stimuli differently and produce differing individualities;48 and,
second, the principal already advanced by Briggs that interests
and aptitudes do not precede experience, should furnish a basic
principle for required exploratory courses. While we must give
due weight to environmental influences, it would seem that the
principle first stated should receive consideration. Another
point much stressed in the educational literature on the junior
high school is the variation of subject matter in a given course to
fit the demands of different curricula settings. Just why should
a boy taking the general curriculum in the seventh or eighth
grades have a different brand of civics from that of a boy taking
a commercial or industrial course? I wonder if we have not
dragged a Munich continuation school idea, properly applicable
to youthful workers sixteen or eighteen years of age, who have
both vocational experience and vocational interests, into our
grammar grades and attempted to apply it to twelve year-olds
who have neither vocational experience nor vocational interests
of any very definite sort. The recommendation of the North
Central Association Committee, already referred to, that no
first course in the junior high school should be varied in content
for different curricula groups, seems to be based upon sound ped-
agogic principles.

In conclusion, all writers are agreed that subject matter
modifications and some degree of differentiation are indispensible
features of the junior high school. In practice, junior high school
claims are all too often based upon mere administrative changes
in externals, as the grouping of certain grades or the utilization
of certain housing facilities. Relative to this Snedden says:
"Proposals for the junior high school type of school organization
are chiefly, as yet, proposals for administrative readjustments.
I hear very little regarding pedagogical changes."49 Judd, in a

« Thorndike, E. T . Educational Psychology. Vol. III. pp. 305-310.

«• Snedden, D. Reorganization of Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2 :42S.

Provision for Individual Differences 47

recent summary of current educational writings, expresses a
similar opinion. He says : "Nor can one avoid a feeling of appre-
hension that the movement in the direction of changes in ad-
ministrative form will outrun the changes in organization of
materials and methods of instruction which are essential to the
ultimate success of the junior high school."50

Promotions.

Of the 35 schools, 22 have promotion half-yearly and 13
yearly. Here the determining factor is clearly that of the size
of the school. All the schools having yearly promotions are in
towns of 1,600 population or less. It is clear that two sets of
standards must apply here, one for the larger and another for
smaller schools. Frequency of promotion is desirable so that
failed pupils may not lose overmuch time in repeating, but the
small school with its smaller classes and its possibility for more
intimate contact between teacher and pupil and for individual
help should be able to prevent failures in greater degree and thus
overcome this objection in part.

Various investigations indicate that promotion by subject is
a well nigh universal practice with junior high schools. Without
it there can be but little flexibility in providing for individual
advancement. Promotion by subject or by related groups of
subjects seems to be a standard feature of practice with Indiana
junior high schools as well as of theory. Thirty- two schools in-
dicate promotion by subject in whole or in part. Of the three
reporting promotion by grades, one is just inaugurating its re-
formed organization and states that subject promotion is to be
introduced soon. The remaining two schools, 22 and 31, having
promotion by grades are among the cities of the 8,000 and larger
population class and have claimed junior high school organiza-
tion for several years. Their practice with respect to this stand-
ard is clearly not in line with either the best opinion or practice.

Accelerant and Slow- Moving Groups.

Fourteen schools report fast and slow moving classes as
definite features of their organization, while 21 schools say they
do not have such organization. School 4 says this will be added
next year. Of the remaining 20 schools, not having such groups,

*° Judd, C. H. In School Rev. May. 1917. p. 375.

48 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

17 are in towns of 4,000 or less population where such provision is
clearly impracticable on account of the limited number of
class groups in any one school grade. School 16 has probably too
small a population to warrant the introduction of this feature,
but other schools of the size of 7 and 31 (8,000 to 12,000) are
using it successfully which would appear to warrant its being
tried out in these two schools.

Plans for Individual Advancement.

Eight schools made no report to this part of the questionnaire.
But one school, number 2, states that it has no provision for
pupil advancement other than moving with the class group.
Twenty- four schools indicate that extra subjects are available
for pupils of good ability in academic work; 13 indicate that some
pupils may take fewer subjects; 13, coaching or special help;
7, more prevocational work in place of some of the academic
work; 9, credit for outside work; 8, irregular promotion; 3, weight-
ed credits; 1, vacation work as an opportunity to make up work;
and 1, minimum requirement in each subject for certain pupils.
My replies indicate that more adequate provision is made for
the brighter pupils, but if the opposite case had been submitted
as clearly, we should, no doubt, find that coaching and special
help for slow pupils are even more common than provision for
the advancement of bright pupils. In evaluating the standards
of the school these factors should be considered in connection
with accelerant and slow-moving groups, supervised study, and
the size of the school. Where the school is too small to provide
fast and slow progress groups, it is evident that some definite
provision should be made for supervised study or other means
above enumerated for advancing each pupil with the greatest
benefit to himself.

To summarize, clearly differentiated curricula is not a stand-
ard feature of practice even among the larger Indiana junior high
schools. In cities of 2,000 or more population half-yearly
promotion is the universal practice as is yearly promotion in
the smaller communities. Promotion by subject in whole
or part is practiced in nearly every junior high school, 32 of
the 35, and may be accepted as a standard. As every school
in cities of 10,000 or more population, except one, has or is to
have soon, accelerant, slow, and normal progress classes, we may
accept such practice as standard for cities of this class, and as

Revised Methods 49

but two cities smaller than this have such groups, we may
assume that this is not a reasonable standard for junior schools
in these smaller towns. The facts of table 6, last column, would
seem to warrant the expectation that every school should provide
one or more means, each, for helping unusually bright or slow
pupils to make the best possible adjustments in school progress as
means of adjustment to individual differences.

These conclusions refer only to present standards of practice
in these 35 Indiana schools claiming junior high school organiza-
tion, and may not be adequate standards for junior high schools
generally, as indicated by their form of organization and ad-
ministration. Comparative data are limited.

Briggs'51 data show 31 schools promoting by subject to 19 not
so promoting, and 32 schools promoting half-yearly to 13 yearly.
Data relative to other features named in table 6 are not avail-
able for comparison.

(3) REVISED METHODS.

The two most prominent factors in the reorganization move-
ment are the demand for changes (1) that shall bring the pupil
into better adjustment with the social demands (economic,
political and industrial) of his time, and (2) that shall give due
consideration to individual differences in interests and capacities.

To realize these new aims, more or less extensive changes are
proposed in the program of studies thru the revision of the con-
tent of old subjects and the introduction of new ones. But
valuable as these revisions are, the desired aims will not be realized
unless the methods, by which the new content is to be made a
part of the pupil's experience, are revised and adapted to the
new aims. The new socialized content cannot be made effective
thru the old drill methods. Method must conform to subject
matter. Relative to this Dewey says: "Method means that
arrangement of subject matter which makes it most effective
in use. Never is method something outside the material."
Again: "The better methods of teaching engage his activities."
—"The method is derived from observation of what actually
happens with a view to seeing that it happens better next time."62
Again, as touching the topic of interest, he says: "The problem
of instruction is thus that of finding material which will engage

" Briggs, T. H. "The Junior High School." Report of U. S. Com. of Ed. 1914. Vol. I.
pp. 135-157.

" Dewey. J. Democracy and Education, p. 194. New York, 1916.

50 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

a person in specific activities having an aim or purpose, of moment
or interest to him."53 Elsewhere54 Dewey advocates a type of
method, the psychological, based on the experiences, interests,
and abilities of the learner in contrast with the more usual and
formal methods based upon the logic of tjie subject matter as
viewed by the one who has mastered it. And again55 he speaks
of the abuse of linguistic methods in education

Eliot advocates similar revisions in content and methods to
replace the old formal program. He says: "We Americans, like
the Chinese, have dwelt in our schools too much on two faculties —
discrimination between shades of meaning of different words and
phrases, and memory for words, phrases, narrative, description,
and even argument. Memory training has predominated over
training in observation and the acquisition of skills."56 He
advocates more acquisition of skill by pupils, more sense training,
more contact with real objects, practice in the use of machines,
a larger place for laboratory work, wider opportunities for sport,
and an extension of the playground movement. Continuing, he
says: "We must not imagine that this better preparation of
children to earn their livelihood is going to diminish the intel-
lectual value of the school training."

Other writers have criticised traditional methods of instruc-
tion in the grammar grades. Davis says: "Individual tastes
and capacities are not rightly considered, — discipline is unsuited
to the stage of development of the pupils, — methods of in-
struction are unpedagogical, — there is not sufficient hand work —
the whole system is over-mechanized."57 Speaking of the
psychology of the adolescent period, he says: "Individuality
begins to play and demands a larger circle in which to assert and
express itself. — To keep him (the adolescent) under the re-
strictive and arbitrary discipline of the ordinary elementary
school is to sin against nature and to commit an offense against
the laws of social well-being. To employ with him the methods
of instruction and training of the elementary school is to pro-
voke him to truancy, encourage him to evade school work, and
impel him to forsake school duties altogether." He advocates
discovery and development of individual aptitudes, the sub-

" Dewey, J. ibid. p. 155.

•« Dewey, J. How We Think, ch. v. New York, 1910.

"ibid. p. 176.

M Eliot, C. W. The Concrete and Practical in Modern Education, pp. 14-39. Boston,
1913.

67 Davis, C. O. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Education, in Johnston's
High School Education, ch. iv. New York, 1912.

Revised Methods 51

stitution of useful content for formal methods, departmental
instruction, a more vitalized classroom procedure, and self-
activity.

Hall,58 than whom no one has written more extensively on
the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence, offers many sug-
gestions relative to methods of discipline and instruction during
adolescent years. Pertaining to discipline, he says: "The period
of habituating morality and making it habitual is ceasing; and
the passion to realize freedom, to act on personal experience, and
to keep a private conscience is in order. — The attempt to treat
a child at adolescence as you would treat an inferior is instantly
fatal to good discipline — guidance by command may now safely
give way to that by ideals — the one unpardonable thing for the
adolescent is dullness, stupidity, lack of life, interest, and enthu-
siasm in school or teachers, perhaps above all, too great stringen-
cy. Least of all, at this stage, can the curriculum or school be
an ossuary." He urges emphasis upon interest rather than drill;
upon appreciation instead of expression ; upon great wholes rather
than upon over-accuracy and 'morselization'; upon more oral
and objective work. He denounces the excessive amount of
writing demanded of pupils, and characterizes the daily theme
as an 'infection'. Speaking of the pubescent reading passion,
he says: "It is the age of skipping and sampling, of pressing the
keys lightly."

Snedden59 advocates a change from the traditional methods
of drill and memory and formal analysis, by which external bits
of information are acquired, to natural methods, based on the
nature of the learning process. He would have methods grow
out of educational experimentation in all the varied school
activities. He advocates that methods be in keeping with the
new and variable types of subject matter to be introduced into
the junior high school, methods capable of adaptation to in-
dividual differences, methods that shall reveal to the pupil his
capacities and develop power in expression, departmental teach-
ing or the Gary plan of allied groups, short unit courses in the
practical arts with the project method. He states that the work
of these years (12 to 15) has too much of repetition and memory
drills, and lacks vitality.

68 Hall, G. S. Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene, ch. 9, 10. New York, 1907.

69 Snedden, D. Problems of Educational Readjustment, ch. 2, 5, 6. Boston, 1913.

52 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Definite suggestions relative to reorganized content and
methods in English,60 community civics,61 and the social sciences62
have been recently published by the Commission on the Reor-
ganization of Secondary Education in a series of bulletins issued
by the United States Bureau of Education. Social motive and
pupil activity receive marked emphasis.

The project method has been strongly advocated for practical
arts, and more recently for elementary science in the junior high
school, and its principles are being utilized in increasing degree
even in such subjects as history and literature.

Concerning this method the Committee on General Science
of the National Education Association says: "The most effective
method of science teaching yet devised, in which all three ele-
ments of the scientific spirit receive due recognition, is called the
method of teaching by projects. — Every project is characterized
by three equally important elements of the scientific spirit;
namely, (1) a desire on the part of the pupil to understand better
the meaning and use of some fact, phenomenon, or experience.
This leads the pupil to ask questions. (2) A firm faith that it is
worth while and possible to secure a better understanding of the
thing in question. This causes the pupil to go to work with
enthusiasm. (3) The gathering from experience, books, and
experiments of the needed information, and the application of
this information to answer the question in hand. This settles
the question temporarily at least."63

Relative to this method Twiss says : ' The method of starting
a project or problem and giving the pupils time to think and
study on it, and to work it out for themselves with the assistance
of the teacher and their classmates, puts them in a position
where they have a strong immediate motive for getting all the
information they can that bears on the solution of the problem or
the accomplishment of the project."64

These points of view of method in instruction indicate the
need of marked changes from the traditional procedure and
imply conditions that ideally should obtain in laboratory, shop,
excursion, individual and home projects, sports and athletics
and supervised study procedure, which types of method are
commonly being advocated for the junior high school. This is

«o Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 2, 1917.

" Teaching of Community Civics. U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 23, 1915.

«2 Social Studies in Secondary Education, U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 28, 1916.

« Preliminary Report of Com. on General Science of N. E. A. 1916.

M Twiss, G. R. Science Teaching, ch. 23. New York. 1917.

Revised Methods 53

quite in opposition to the disciplinary conception, the result of
which Dewey characterizes by a quotation: "It makes no
difference what you teach a boy so long as he doesn't like it";
or to the view as formulated by the Committee of Ten,65 that
subjects of study are of equal educational value if they are
thoroughly taught, which statement seems to imply that method
is the prime factor and separate from subject matter.

Modification of methods was ranked as third in importance of
the seven group factors in reorganization by Indiana superin-
tendents.

The determination of methods of instruction and discipline
in the junior high school, as contrasted with other school units,
constitutes an important problem in the reorganization move-
ment.

A limited number of inquiries, sent to certain schools relative
to the organization of important subjects in the program and
details of teaching method, failed to secure responses that would
have value in an analytical treatment, and as the writer was
unable, personally to visit any large number of the schools
investigated during the period of investigation, direct observa-
tion and record of methods were impossible. In the absence,
then, of these direct evidences of revised methods, certain in-
direct evidences have been selected which, in a measure, are
indicative of the nature of methods of organization, teaching,
and study procedure.

One of the chief arguments for grammar grade reorganization,
advanced by some has been to introduce high school methods
earlier into our schools. Departmentalized instruction has been
defended largely on the ground that it meets this need. The
degree, then, to which departmental instruction has been em-
ployed should be indicative of the break with the traditional
elementary school procedure of one teacher for a class for all
subjects.

If high school methods of organization, instruction, and dis-
cipline, or methods more nearly approximating the high school
type are desired, as many writers on the six-six plan advocate,
then we may expect that the employment of teachers with high
school teaching experience, especially if they are also teaching
some high school classes at the same time, will favor the introduc-
tion of high school methods in these grammar grades.

• Report of the Com. of Ten on Sec. Ed. 1893. p. 53.

54 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Supervised study is an important means for securing more
attention to the needs of the individual pupil as contrasted with
mass instruction and should lead to improved teaching methods.
That it has not accomplished all that is hoped or claimed for it
goes without saying, but its introduction is indicative of desire
to improve thru experimentation.

The use of the individual project plan in prevocational sub-
jects has been singled out as a fourth index of revised methodology
This plan, while often advocated for all natural and social sciences
has not generally been employed in the older subjects of the
course of study, and hence I have confined my inquiry to its use
in the practical arts subjects, where it is coming into most ex-
tensive use. The employment of this method in this line of
work is strongly advocated by the Indiana State Department of
Public Instruction66 and by the Massachusetts State Board of
Education.67

Table 7 sets forth certain factors that are more or less indica-
tive of method modifications. The table should be read : in school
1, 66.7% of junior high school teachers teach one subject only;
16.7%, 2 subjects; 16.6%, 3 or more subjects; no report was
made as to the number of teachers per pupil in grades seven and
eight; 30 minutes of each class period (60 minutes in this school)
are devoted to supervised study in each study subject; the pro-
ject method is used in prevocational work; a part of the junior
high school vocational work is taught by senior high school
teachers; and 75% of all junior high school teachers have had
high school teaching experience.

w Uniform Course of Study for the Elem. Schools of Ind. 1915-16. pp. 228,238.
« "Agricultural Project Study." "Project Study Outlines for Vegetable Growing." (Bul-
letins of the Mass. State Board of Ed.)

Revised Methods

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56 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Direct replies from superintendents and an inspection of
schedules of school work provide the data as to the degree of
departmentalization in 22 of these schools. Thru visitation and
conferences with teachers the writer is familiar with the practice
in schools 3, 11, 12, 13, 20, 22, 24, 30 and 31, in each of which
the distribution is not far from 75% teaching 1 subject; 20%,

2 subjects ; and 5%, 3 subjects or more. The 4 remaining schools,
8, 17, 18, 34, are of the same approximate size, number of teach-
ers, and plan of organization as schools 2, 5, 15, 19, 29 and 32.
They are all under the direction of the same county superinten-
dent and aim to carry out departmentalization as far as a staff
of 4 or 5 teachers will permit in grades 7 to 12. Approximately
50% of these teachers will be found to teach 2 subjects and 50%

3 or more subjects.

In approximately 18 of the 35 schools 60% or more of the
teachers teach but 1 subject or field of work; in 1, 45.5%; and in
3, between 12.5% and 24%. It is probable that in 7 schools 50%
of the teachers teach 2 or more different subjects or lines of work;
and that in 9 schools 50% or more of the teachers teach 3 or
more subjects. In all cities of 5,000 or more population, save
one, 60% or more of the teachers teach 1 subject only, while in
the smaller schools the numbers are about equally divided be-
tween the teachers having 2 and those having 3 or more subjects.

The questionnaire form calls for data relative to the number
of different teachers a normal pupil has in any one term in grades
6, 7, 8, and 9. The tabulated replies show the following results:
grade 6 — 6 schools 1 teacher; 2, 2 teachers; 2, 3 teachers; 2, 4
teachers; 2, 5 teachers; 3, 6 teachers; 1, 9 teachers; and a median
of 3 teachers. Grade 7 — 1 school 2 teacher; 1, 3 teachers; 4
5 teachers; 8, 6 teachers; 2, 7 teachers; 1, 8 teachers; 1, 9 teachers,
and a median of 6 teachers. Grade 8 — 1 school 3 teachers; 2, 4
teachers; 7, 5 teachers; 4, 6 teachers; 3, 7 teachers; 1, 9 teachers;
and a median of 5 teachers. Grade 9 — 7 schools 4 teachers; 6, 5
teachers; 2, 6 teachers; 1, 7 teachers; and a median of 5 teachers.
Reports from the 1 1 rural high schools not reporting would probably
lower the median result for grade seven by one teacher. These
11 schools have the same teachers for grades 7 to 12 and the same
degree of departmental teaching in all these grades, namely, 4 or
5 teachers per pupil. The above results indicate that the degree
of departmentalization in grades seven and eight is as complete
as in grade nine, and that in the seventh grade the pupil has to
adjust himself to more teachers than in higher grades.

Revised Methods 57

Briggs is of the opinion that complete departmentalization
is not so desirable as partial for the seventh and eighth grades.
"One principle to be observed," he says, "provides that the in-
crease in the number of teachers for each child shall be gradual."68

A committee of the High School Masters' Club of Massachu-
setts says: "it (departmental teaching) makes for thoroughness
and accuracy of scholarship and better methods of teaching. —
There are some dangers in early departmental instruction, but
these do not seem to be insuperable, and they are far outweighed
by the advantages, especially when such instruction is intro-
duced gradually. The practice of some junior high schools of
having two teachers in the seventh grade and three in the eighth
and full departmental instruction in the ninth has much to
commend it."69 And later, "It is of vital importance that the
methods of the high school shall not be thrust upon the junior
high school. It is equally important that the methods of the
lower grades shall not be continued. A wise compromise between
the two methods of teaching must be sought."

It is apparent that an abrupt change from one to too many
teachers may be more unfortunate for the child than a longer
continuance of elementary practice, especially in view of his
immaturity. Our aim should be gradual transition to many
personalities rather than abrupt, for if abrupt transition between
the eighth and ninth grades is undesirable, certainly it will be
more so between the sixth and seventh. Every one of the 35
schools has, at least, partial departmentalization of work for all
teachers, varying from one subject per teacher to four in two
schools, and from two teachers for each seventh grade pupil in
one school to nine in another.

Our inquiry called for information relative to the use of the
same teachers in junior and senior high school grades, and the
subjects which these common teachers teach. In 17 of the 35
schools all subjects in the junior and senior high schools are
taught by the same teachers; prevocational and some academic
subjects are taught by the same teachers in 13 other junior and
senior high schools; all or part of the special subjects in junior
and senior high schools are taught by the same teachers in 3
schools; and in 2 schools no subjects in junior and senior high
school have common teachers. It appears that in 30 of these

" Briggs, T. H. 'The Junior High School" Rep. U. S. Com. Ed. 1914. Vol. I. p. 138.
" Report of Com. of H. S. Masters' Club of Mass. pp. 15, 37. 1917.

58 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

schools the greater part of junior high school teaching is done by
those who also teach in the senior high school. This practice
should have a marked influence in introducing high school
methods. It is to be noted that in these schools elementary
school teachers are not teaching in high school for the purpose of
economy by the school authorities, but only those may teach in
high school who have a high school license.

Closely related to the practice just discussed is that of the
relative number of junior high school teachers who have had
high school teaching experience. In 17 of these schools all
teachers have had high school teaching experience; in 4 more,
75% or more have had such experience; in 4, 50% or more; in
5, 25% or more; in 3, less than 25%; and in 2 there was no
reply to the inquiry. The median is 100%, which means that
in 17 of these schools 100% of the teachers have had high school
teaching experience, and that in 16 less than 100% have had such
experience. The average number is 75.5%.

Our inquiry asked, "Do you have supervised study other
than in the assembly room?" The number of minutes per day
was also called for. Thirty-one schools indicate that definite
time is given to supervised study in the grammar grades. Four
say "none," but one of these has carefully planned study super-
vision in the general assembly hall. Eighteen have approxi-
mately 15 minutes of directed study daily for each study subject;
11, 25 to 30 minutes; 2 merely answer "yes." Schools indicating
15 minute study periods have a class schedule calling for 40
minute periods, and those having 25 to 30 minute study periods
have 50 to 60 minute class periods. Two of the schools answering
"yes" and one saying "no" indicate 30 minute class periods.

Relative to the use of the project plan in prevocational work,
4 schools made no report; 8 answered "no"; 20, "yes"; and 3
"in part." While new subject types may not always be accom-
panied by a change of methods, the presence of manual and
domestic arts, agriculture, commercial work, general science,
and community civics may reasonably be taken as indices of
new aims and new methods.

To summarize, every school indicates departmentalized
organization in high or moderate degree, for the most part under
conditions that closely approximate regular high school procedure.
This is in agreement with the general practice among reorgan-
ized schools, which makes departmental organization a pre-

Revised Methods 59

requisite for realizing the other benefits hoped for thru the
reorganization movement. Both the Briggs' and Douglass'
reports, previously referred to, show that nearly all so-called
junior high schools have adopted departmental teaching.

Supervised study is so nearly universal in these schools (31 of
35) that it may be considered a standard feature in Indiana
reorganized schools. This practice is in keeping with the recent
trend in educational writings respecting junior high school
organization as affording a basis for adapting instruction to
individuals and for experimentation. It is recommended by
Johnston, Briggs, Wood, Davis, and others. Lewis70 gives it as
one of the ten standards for the junior high school.

The use of the project method in prevocational work is not
so general as the features just enumerated. About two- thirds
of these schools use this method in their grammar grades, the
remaining probably do not. Some of those not employing this
method in the seventh and eighth grades indicate that they do
in the ninth.

A wide use of teachers with high school teaching experience
seems to be the standard practice in Indiana junior high schools.
This is probably due in part to the fact that the majority of
these schools are in rural and village communities where complete
fusion of the upper six grades is desirable from the teaching and
economic points of view. However, some of the larger schools
have their juniors in the same buildings as their senior high school
pupils and utilize the same teaching staff, in whole or in part,
for both.

In reply to a recent questionnaire by Dr. Briggs, out of 15
Indiana junior high schools replying, 12 stated that the problem
of discipline was easier under the new organization, 2, the same,
and 1 , harder.

The prevailing practice with respect to the foregoing factors
indicates that Indiana junior high schools are probably realizing
in considerable degree a change to high school methods and to
greater freedom in individual choice and action which it implies.

7° Lewis, E. E. Standards for Measuring Junior High Schools. Univ. of la. Extension
bulletin, Nov. 1916.

60 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

(4) PROVISION FOR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, EXPLORATION, AND
GUIDANCE OTHER THAN SUBJECT AND CURRICULUM CHANGES

Aside from the opportunity for exploration of pupils' interests
and capacities thru contact with an enriched curriculum, there
are other exploratory and stimulating forces which may be and
are commonly used. These are largely of the extra classroom
variety and are all the more valuable because removed from class-
room restraint and permit a freer and more spontaneous contact
between pupil and teacher. The activities or means especially
selected for comparison are those frequently found and generally
advocated by schools of the reorganized type, and include
definitely responsible pupil advisory systems, educational and
vocational guidance, extra-classroom social organizations of
pupils, and school assemblies.

One of the objections to the departmental system of teaching
in grammar grades is that the immature pupil becomes lost and
bewildered with his many subjects and many teachers, especially
when it is no one's business to be responsible for him in the way
of co-ordinating the forces operating upon him. Departmental
teachers tend to become over-interested in subject matter, and
because of the large numbers of pupils who recite to each daily,
the individual pupil is often lost sight of, fails in his work, be-
comes a repeater, loses interest in school and school work, and
seeks the earliest opportunity to drop out of school. Under the
one teacher plan, while much of the instruction may have been
of mediocre quality, at least the teacher was in position to know
the pupil personally, to be acquainted with his strong and weak
points, to be able to advise him for his best interests, and to
stimulate him to renewed effort.

Many school systems that have employed departmental
teaching in the grammar grades most successfully have adopted
some teacher advisory plan whereby a given teacher is responsible
for a given group or class of pupils, usually from fifteen to thirty.
It is the duty of such a teacher adviser to keep in touch with the
work of each pupil in her group, not only as pertains to her own
subject but in each of his subjects with all his teachers, to learn
his strong and weak points, his interests and dislikes, his home
and other environing conditions, that the best personal and edu-
cational and vocational advice may be given the child for his
development.

Social Organization and Guidance 61

N. C. Hieronisus,71 principal of the Richmond, Indiana,
junior high school, has recently published an account of the advis-
ory system employed in his school, which is substantially as follows :
Each teacher is assigned a group of pupils, not all from the same
class but from various classes and grades, each of whom stays
with this teacher during his (the pupirs) stay in the junior high
school so far as pertains to the advisory system. The adviser
keeps in touch with the school and outside interests of each
pupil, and with the work of each pupil. Hieronimus favors this
plan because it provides a longer and continuous acquaintance
with each pupil, permits sex segregation, and throws older and
younger pupils together, and makes for solidarity.

Another important factor in the exploration of interests and
capacities is that of extra-classroom organizations. Such ac-
tivities are favored for the cooperation and the initiative they bring
out and for their value in developing recreational and avocational
interests.

Weatherwax72 indicates an apparently close relationship
between the number of extra-classroom organizations and the
per cent the high school enrollments are of the total population
in cities of comparative size. Considering median results by
schools for per cent of enrollments and the ratio of enrollments to
number of clubs per school we have; for cities having 500 or
more high school enrollments (7 in all), the three having the
highest per cent of the population enrolled (median 2.4%) have
an average of 31.3 pupils per club, and the three having the
lowest per cent enrollments (median 1.4%) have an average of
50.1 pupils for every club in the school. In schools having from
150 to 499 pupils enrolled (26 in all) the data for the five each
having the highest and lowest per cent of enrollments are re-
spectively, 7.1% and 13.8 pupils per club, and 2.3% and 24.5
pupils per club. For schools having less than 150 enrollments
(78 in all) the data for the eleven each having the highest and
lowest per cent are, 12.7% and 15 pupils per club, and 3.1%
and 15.8 pupils per club. For schools of the first two groups,
where clubs are most numerous, the relationship between the per
cent of enrollments and the number of clubs is high, but in the
smaller schools it is not so apparent. Of course other factors
enter into the above situation, but the informal social life of the

71 Hieronimus, N. C. "The Teacher Adviser in the Junior High School" Ed. Adm. &
Sup. 3:91.

72 Weatherwax, L. E. A Study of Extra-classroom Activities in Indiana High Schools.
Master's thesis, Ind. University. 1916.

62 Reorganization Measure in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

school may reasonably be expected to add a sense of worth-while-
ness to school activities, which results in greater enrollments.

Relative to the value of these social organizations Davis says :
"The employer who asks for a recommendation cares very little
whether the pupil's standing in history is 85% or 91%. What he
usually asks is "What kind of a boy is he?" Has he initiative,
energy, push? Can he work harmoniously with others and can
he lead? Is he socially efficient?"73 Continuing he says: "The
social spirit of the age is reflected in the student life and it has
introduced new problems that schoolmen are called upon to solve.
This obligation can no longer be ignored nor wilfully pushed aside.
It must be faced squarely as an educational question."

Another means of exploring and directing social, educational,
and vocational interests is that of the school assembly, not the
chorus type of assembly only, but a period in which varied ac-
tivities and interests are represented, and in which pupils have a
very considerable share in participation, The daily auditorium
period of the Gary type school represents the most effective
means the writer has seen for developing social efficiency, pro-
viding motivation for school work, and imparting vocational
information. The auditorium activities of the Gary schools and
the values resulting therefrom have been well set forth by
Bourne74 in his analysis of the Gary system.

Much of the value of the school assembly depends upon the
relation of the assembly activities to the pupil's present needs
and interests and upon the extent of his participation in those
activities.

Vocational guidance is a matter which is receiving increasing
emphasis in the industrial world, in the home, and in the school.
The choice of a life career is, perhaps, the most momentous issue
the youth has to decide, and about this center many of his most
powerful interests.

The Committee on Social Studies says in its report: "The
question of vocational guidance is very much in the foreground
at present. While there is general agreement that the young need
guidance for the vocational aspects of life, as for its other aspects,
there is wide divergence of opinion as to the nature of this
guidance and the means by which it may best be given."75 And
again, "Much of the mortality that occurs during the eighth and

» Davis, J. B. In Johnston's Modern High School, pp. 427, 428. New York, 1914.

74 Bourne, R. S. The Gary Schools, pp. 50, 92. Boston, 1916.

74 Dunn, A. W. The Social Studies. Bui. 28, 1916. U. S. Bur. Ed. pp. 26, 27.

Social Organization and Guidance 63

ninth years is due to the failure of pupils and parents to see the
economic value of the high school course. An opportunity exists
to make high school education seem 'worth while' by taking the
budding vocational or economic interest as one point of depart-
ure."

DATA RELATIVE TO GUIDANCE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, AND ASSEMBLY.

No. of School

1. Definite advisory organization. Educational guidance thru careful

analysis and record of pupil traits, parent conferences, and public
parent meetings. Athletic, musical, debating, literary, publication,
and boy scout organizations. One assembly weekly with pupil partici-
pation in music.

2. No report relative to advisory system, guidance or assembly. No social

organizations.

3. Incidental teacher advice. No definite educational or vocational guid-

ance. Athletic and musical organizations. One assembly weekly.

4. Definite advisory system, with definite record of pupil characteristics and

report to the principal of the senior high school to guide in the selection
of high school courses. Athletic, literary, musical, publication
and scouting organizations. One assembly weekly with 25% pupil
participation.

5. No data on advisory system or guidance. Athletic organizations. One

weekly assembly with no pupil participation.

6. No data.

7. Definite advisory system and card record. No definite guidance. De-

partmental and musical organizations. One weekly assembly with a
small amount of pupil participation.

8. No data relative to advice, guidance, or assembly. Athletic organiza-

tions.

9. Definite teacher advisory system. No vocational guidance. Athletic,

musical, and student government organizations. Two assemblies a
week with very little pupil participation.

10. Room teacher system. No definite guidance. Athletic, civic, literary,

musical, publication, and scouting organizations. Two assemblies
monthly with 50% pupil participation.

11. No advisory system now but will have. Definite provision for educa-

tional and vocational guidance thru the English department by the
Grand Rapids plan. Athletic and musical organizations. No report
on assembly.

12. No advisory system. No plan of guidance. Departmental, musical,

and publication organizations. Assemblies at the call of the principal,
with an average of 1 a week with but little pupil participation.

13. Definite teacher advisory system. Vocational guidance thru auditorium

work. Athletic, civic, musical, and student government organizations.
Daily auditorium period for each pupil with much pupil participation.

64 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

14. Definite advisory system. No systematic vocational guidance. No

report on social organizations. One assembly weekly with nearly all
pupil participation.

15. No report on advice, guidance, or assemblies. Athletic organization.

16. No systematic advisory system or guidance. Athletic and musical organ-

zations. Two assemblies weekly with 50% pupil participation.

17. No report.

18. No report.

19. Definite advisory plan. No report on guidance. Athletic organization.

One assembly weekly.

20. Definite advisory plan. No report on guidance. Athletic organization.

One weekly assembly.

21. Definite teacher adviser. Educational and vocational guidance thru

study of local needs and parent conferences. Athletic and musical
organizations. Daily assemblies with 50% pupil participation.

22. Reports "yes" on adviser, and has vocational guidance thru manual arts.

No social organizations below grade nine. No report on assemblies.

23. Advisory system, but no systematic plan of educational or vocational

guidance. Athletic, debating, musical, publication, and scouting
organizations. One weekly assembly.

24. Advisory system. Talks by the superintendent and parent conferences

for educational guidance. Athletic, literary, and musical organiza-
tions. No report on assemblies.

25. Very definite advisory system. No definite plan for guidance. Athletic,

civic, literary, musical, publication, and student government organi-
zations. One weekly assembly with some pupil participation.

26. Teachers act as advisers. No guidance plan indicated. No report on

social organizations. Two assemblies monthly with 10% pupil partici-
pation.

27. No advisory system or guidance plan. Athletic, civic, and musical

organizations. Twenty minute assembly daily.

28. Advisory system. Guidance incidental. Athletic and musical organiza-

tions. Two weekly assemblies with 50% pupil participation.

29. Agricultural and musical organizations. No report on other features.

30. Definite advisory system. Vocational guidance thru parent conferences

and vocational director. Athletic, civic, literary, musical, publication,
and student government organizations. No report on assemblies.

31. Principal is adviser. Guidance thru woodwork. Athletic and literary

organizations.

32. All teachers are advisers. Guidance thru pupil conferences. Three

assemblies monthly with 50% pupil participation. No report on social
organizations.

33. Teacher advisers. Guidance thru manual arts only. Athletic, musical,

and publication organizations. No report on assemblies.

34. Athletic organization. No report on assemblies.

35. Educational and vocational guidance thru superintendent and super-

visors of subjects. Athletic, musical, social, and student government
organizations. One weekly assembly with very little pupil participa-
tion.

Social Organization and Guidance 65

The data upon which the foregoing summary is based show
that 22 schools in all give an affirmative reply to the inquiry
relative to teacher advisers, but "yes" without indication of
means, or "all teachers," or "pupil can consult any teacher,"
or "incidental" do not warrant our concluding that approximately
seven twelfths of these schools are consciously giving personal and
educational and vocational guidance to pupils. One school says
"no, but shall have," 3 say "no"' and 9 make no reply. However,
as about one-half these schools are very small (from 50 to 100
pupils in the six upper grades) where there is intimate contact of
pupils with teachers, the situation may not demand the same
definitely organized advisory system which is desirable in the
larger school.

Eight of the 35 schools seem to have some definite plan of
educational and vocational guidance, the more significant meth-
ods being, card record of pupil characteristics, parent conferences,
a study of vocations, lantern slides and talks in auditorium
periods relative to vocational life, and thru a vocational director.
A few other schools indicate guidance thru pupil conferences
(probably to correct errors in class exercises, incidental, or manual
arts, any of which are of very questionable value for the purpose
designated. For the most part only the larger cities seem to be
attempting the problem of guidance and by no means all of such
schools. At the present time we can hardly say that these so-
called reorganized schools have established definite advisory or
guidance plans as standards of practice.

A considerable variety of extra-classroom organizations are
open to seventh and eighth grade pupils in these schools, and the
list is greater for the ninth grade. But two schools report no
such organizations; one a small rural school having but 13 pupils
in the eighth grade, and perhaps a majority of these transported
in school vans so that no opportunity is afforded for remaining
after school hours; and the other, a city school, having more than
150 pupils in the eighth grade. Seven schools made no reply to
the inquiry. All but one of these schools not reporting are small
rural schools having, probably, not more than one or two such
organizations for each school. Of the 26 schools reporting such
organizations, 5 report but 1 organization each; 8 report 2 each;
5, 3 each; 2, 4 each; and 6 report 5 or more each. The median
number is 2 and the average, 2.64 per school. Athletics and
musical activities are the ones most commonly found, the

66 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

former in 22 of the 26 schools, and the latter in 20. In 8 there are
school publications, literary clubs in 7, civic clubs in 6, student
government organizations in 6, and boy scouts in 4. From the
showing of these schools, two or more types of extra-classroom
social activities appear to be the common practice, as a means of
developing the latent social qualities of grammar grade pupils.
But 22 schools were questioned relative to assemblies. One
made no reply, and the remaining 21 indicate some time given to
assemblies. Eleven report one assembly a week; 2, two assem-
blies a month; 1, three a month; 3, twice a week; and 4 daily.
The writer has visited many of these schools, as well as some of
the 13 from which reports were not received, and in no case has
he found the school without an adequate assembly room. The
data at hand indicate that one assembly a week is the prevailing
tendency.

SUMMARY.

Provision for teacher advisory systems has not been perfected
as yet in these schools; about one-third have definite organza-
tion, another third have a more or less indefinite provision, but
the tendency is, without doubt, in the direction of improvement.

Definite provision for educational or vocational guidance is
being well worked out by a few schools, but such organization is
not sufficiently common to make it a standard feature in reor-
ganized schools as yet.

The data relative to social organization would seem to warrant
provision for a minimum of two such activities in each school,
one providing for physical activity and the other of a musical
or other nature to suit local conditions, with an increasing number
of organizations in the larger schools.

One assembly period a week is the more common practice
in the grammar grades of these schools, as it probably is in the
senior high school as well. Data submitted do not indicate that
activities involving active pupil participation are common.
Personal experience, based on much high school visitation, leaves
the impression that the typical assembly activities are, the formal
school announcements given by the principal or teachers, occa-
sional short talks by visitors, and a very limited amount of
chorus singing in which large numbers of the pupils do not par-
ticipate at all.

Additional Features of Organization

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Additional Features of Organization 69

Table 8 indicates several features of practice not included
under our four main headings, and should be read as follows:
school No. 3 has a junior high school organization which includes
the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades; has an administrative
grouping of 5, 3, and 4 grades in the partial units of the system;
has 1 junior high school, separate from both the lower grades and
the senior high school, which is housed in a building very near
the high school (within 50 feet) ; has a 36 week school year, and
a 45 minute class period ; has a teaching staff with an average of
2.5 years of training beyond high school graduation, with an
average of 8 years' teaching experience, with 32% of the number
college graduates, 95% women, 5% men, and an average salary
of $712; and has no definite provision for the admission of over-
age pupils to these junior high school grades.

GRADES INCLUDED.

Twenty-two of the 35 schools include grades seven, eight,
and nine in their junior high school organization; 9, the seventh
and eighth; 2, the eighth and ninth; 1, the sixth, seventh, and
eighth; and 1, the eighth only. The eighth grade is included in
all, the seventh in all but three, and the ninth in twenty-four.

If the object of the junior high school is to bridge the gap
between the elementary and high schools and to provide for a
gradual transition, then the last grade of the present elementary
school and the first of the high school should be included in the
reorganization if the objects named are to be realized in the
highest degree. Lewis says: "If the ninth grade is not included
the organization cannot be called a junior high school according
to our present conception of that term."76 This may be Lewis'
conception of the term, and it seems to accord with the statement
of aims indicated above, but it is not that in actual practice in
much more than 50% of schools claiming reorganization. Doug-
lass77 reports on 100 schools claiming junior high school organiza-
tion, of which 41 include grades seven, eight, and nine; 5, the
seventh to the tenth inclusive; 4, the eighth and ninth; and 3
indicate a six-six plan. This makes a total of 53% that include
grade nine with the eighth in such reorganization. Twenty-four
of the 35 Indiana junior type schools include grades eight and

78 Lewis, E. E. Standards for Measuring Junior High Schools, bul. 25. Univ. la. 1916.
" Douglas, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of Nat. Soc., etc.. part III,
p. 134.

70 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

nine, or approximately 69%, which is a considerably higher per-
cent than for schools of the junior type scattered over the country
generally.

TYPE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION CLAIMED.

Twenty of these schools claim a 6-3-3 type of organization;
6, a 6-2-4 type; 5, a 6-6 type; 1, a 5-3-4 type; and 1, an 8-4 plan;
and 2, a 7-5 plan.

If a 6-3-3 plan means that the first three years of the secondary
course constitutes a distinctive unit in itself, then but two schools,
numbers 1 and 10, with clearly differentiated courses for the
junior high school, are entitled to this classification, Three or
four of these schools claiming a 6-3-3 type are essentially of the
6-2-4 type, while all the others claiming a 6-3-3 organization
should properly be classed as of the 6-6 type. Approximately
60% of these schools are of the 6-6 type and 25% of the 6-2-4 type.

HOUSING.

In 25 cities and towns the junior high school is housed in the
same building with the senior high school, and in at least 14 of
these the junior pupils occupy the same assembly and recitation
rooms as the senior pupils. In city 10 there is a second junior
school in a separate building. In 5 cities the whole or the major
part of the junior organization is in a separate building, in two of
of which schools, 1 and 4, the building is inadequate in size and
some of the seventh grade pupils remain in a nearby elementary
school building while the ninth grade occupies the senior high
school building which is also close by (within one block). In 5
cities the junior school occupies a floor of an elementary school
building, and in two of these the junior school is near or very
near the senior building. In all but 5 of the 37 junior schools the
junior school is within 5 blocks of the senior school, and in 2
of these cases the ninth grade is in the junior school with the eighth
so that adequate provision is made for the overlapping of the work
of these two grades.

All of these 37 junior schools have auditoriums or large assembly
rooms suitable for meetings of the entire school. Every school
has adequate shop and laboratory facilities for wood work, cook-
ing, and sewing, and all those located in high school buildings
have access to the regular laboratories for general science in case
the subject is given, as well as for agriculture.

Additional Features of Organization 71

•

TIME DISTRIBUTION

Three schools have a term of 40 weeks; 17, 36 weeks; 1, 34
weeks; and 14, 32 weeks. The median is 36 weeks and the
average, 34.7 weeks.

Seven schools report a 60 minute class period; 2, 55; 1, 50;
2, 45; 20, 40; and 3, 30 minutes. The median is 40 and the
average 44.4 minutes. In all but the 3-30 minute period schools
and 1 of the 40 minute period schools some time is devoted to
supervised study in each study subject, varying from 15 to 30
minutes for each class period. A school day of 6-60 minute
periods may be desirable in the city school but it is doubtful
whether the small rural school with classes of from 10 to 20 pupils
can afford to change from 8-40 minute perios to 6-60 minute
periods as the number of teachers would have to be very ma-
terially increased. Douglass78 reports on 90 schools of which 13
have 60 minute periods; 5, 50; 12, 45 to 49; 39, 40 to 44; 4, 35;
15, 30; 1, 25 ; and 1, 20 minute periods. The median for Douglass*
returns is 40 minutes and the average 41.9.

TEACHER DATA.

Teache- training. Twenty-eight schools reported data from
which to compute the number of years of training of teachers
beyond the four year high school course. As training of one and a
fraction years was counted as one year in a few cases, the figures
indicating the amount of training may be slightly below rather
than above the actual facts. Two schools report an average train-
ing of 4 or more years beyond high school for junior high school
teachers, the same teachers being also teachers in the senior high
school; 11 report an average of 3 but less than 4 years; 12, 2 but
less than 3 years; 3, 1 but less than 2 years; and none less than 1
year. The median by schools is 2.96 years and the average 2.71.

The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary
Schools79 recommends the same teacher training standards for
junior high school teachers as for senior high school teachers,
namely, an A.B. degree from a standard college with eleven
semester hours in education courses. Very wisely the Association
has not attempted to make its recommendation a required
standard. Many superintendents and educational writers are
not at all convinced that, under our present conditions of teacher
training, this is a realizable or even a desirable standard.

« Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of the Nat. Soc. for the
Study of Ed. Part III, 1916. p. 134.

7» Proceedings of the N. C. A. of Colleges & Secondary Schools, 1916.

72 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Twenty-eight schools reported the average years of teaching
experience of their junior high school teachers. In 4 schools the
average is 15 or more years; in 4, 10 but less than 15 years; in 18,
5 but less than 10 years ; and in 2, 4 years. The median by schools
is 8 years and the average 8.6.

Twenty-six schools reported data from which the per cent of
college graduates among junior high school teachers has been
computed. Three schools have none; 3, more than 5% but less
than 25%; 10, more than 25% but less than 50%; 7, 50% but
less than 75%; and 3, more than 75%. The median by schools
is 41.5% and the average, 43.1%.

Thirty-three schools reported data from which the per cent
of men and women teachers in junior high schools has been com-
puted. Four schools have 40% but less than 50% women
teachers; 5, 50% but less than 60%; 13, 60% but less than 70%;
7, 70% but less than 80%; 3, 80% but less than 90%; and 1,
95%. The median per cent of women teachers by schools is 60
and the average 64. The corresponding data for men teachers
are 40% and 36% respectively.

Data submitted in a later section show that the per cent of
men teachers is far greater in the schools claiming junior high
school organization than in other schools.

Many of our leading writers on educational theory advocate
a higher per cent of men teachers in the grammar grades. Rela-
tive to junior high school teachers, Johnston says: "We shall
have better teachers — and more men teachers — . More men
will become junior high school principals, and there will be a
more nearly divided teaching staff on the lines of sex."80 Snedden
wntes: "If the state is willing to pay the price, a certain propor-
tion of men teachers should be assigned to departmental positions,
not primarily because they are necessarily better teachers than
women, but because it is desirable to introduce, in boys classes,
at any rate, the influence of masculine personality."81

Twenty-five schools contributed data relative to average
salaries paid to junior high school teachers. One school reports
an average salary of $576; 3, $600 but less than|$650; 3, $650 but
less than $700; 10, $700 but less than $750; 3, $750 but less than
$800; 2, $800 but less than $850; 1, $850 but less than $900; and
2 more than $900. The median by schools is $720 and the
average $735.

so Johnston, C. H. The Junior High School. Ed. Ad.& Sup. 2:419.

8» Snedden, D. Education for Children from 12 to 14. etc. ,Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:427.

Additional Features on Organization 73

ADMISSION TO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL.

It was indicated in a previous section that definite provision
for over-age pupils was ranked lowest of the eighteen items
essential to junior high school organization. In other words
the judgment of these 25 men is that the junior high school is an
institution primarily for normal and bright children. Their
practice seems to accord with this judgment. Sixteen of these
35 schools state that no provision is made for the over-age child
in these grades. Four only of the larger cities indicate rather
definite provision for such children. School number 1 states
that special groups of over-age and slow-progress pupils are
brought into the junior high school, and that programs are made
to suit group and individual needs. Some pupils in this school
are admitted from as low as the second grade. School number 10
states that pupils ready for the seventh grade, who are over four-
teen years old, may choose the industrial work of the eighth year
program in place of part of the academic work of the seventh.
School number 13 indicates individual programs for all excep-
tional children in all grades, and school number 25 states that
over-age pupils are advanced from the sixth grade without regular
promotion on the advice of the elementary school principal, and
that such pupils are given a program containing much industrial
work. Two schools made no response to this item, and the re-
maining 13 indicated a very limited provision for the admission
of over-age pupils regardless of the previous scholastic attain-
ments when it would seem to be to the best interests of the child
to do so. Some of these schools say, "a few each year," "occa-
sionally," and the like. One assigns special programs for any such
pupils, and two others assign the regular seventh grade work,
while ten do not indicate the nature of the work assigned in case
they admit such pupils. In but two of these schools is there any
evidence to show that over-age pupils are admitted from any
but the sixth grade. Aside from those schools having clearly
differentiated curricula provision for over-age pupils, not regu-
larly promoted from the sixth grade, has been considered not
at all or in very limited degree.

Douglass82 reports that 68 of 94 junior schools require regular
promotion from the preceding grade as a requirement for entrance
while in Indiana schools, 16 of 33 reporting have the same re-
quirement, although some of those stating limited provision may
easily fall in this class.

82 (Reference previously given, 78 ) p. 48.

74 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Educational writers have urged consideration of the needs of
over-age children as one of the important features of the junior
high school movement. Snedden urges that "all children between
12 and 15 years of age (including children under twelve ready
for the seventh grade, and excluding children under fifteen ready
for the regular or senior high school) should be sent to the central
Junior High School or Intermediate School."83 Johnston says:
"The pupil population of the junior high school will include not
only those now in seventh and eighth and ninth grades, but all
of these ages now 'over-age' in the elementary six grades and all
over fourteen who for any reason are out of school. It is a pupil
democracy."84 Spaulding says that "promotion must be deter-
mined not by what a pupil has learned, but by what he needs to
learn."85

No doubt many pupils have been done great injustice in the
past by compelling all to reach a common level of achievement
in every stage of academic work before securing advancement to
the next, but it is not clear that equal injustice may not be done
in going to the opposite extreme of promoting pupils on the age
basis alone. Even the basis of educational need is a very doubtful
experiment unless the capacity of the child be carefully considered
in this connection. Other factors should be considered with both
of the foregoing as, intellectual maturity, social maturity, physical
development, and probable occupational interests and needs.

* Snedden, D. (Reference 81) p. 426.

84 Johnston, C. H. (Reference 80) p. 418.

•» Spaulding, F. E. Portland, Ore., Survey, p. 165. 1913.

Departmental School Organization 75

d. Departmental school standards and their comparison with
junior high school standards.

By some it is contended that the intermediate or junior high
school has effected no reorganization that good departmental
schools generally have not accomplished. Others, who grant the
leadership of the junior type school, maintain that probably
many departmental schools are entitled to junior high school
classification, not on the basis of name claimed, but rather on that
of real reorganization.

It is the purpose of this section to determine departmental
school standards and to compare them with those previously
determined for the so-called junior high schools.

(1) SUBJECTS OF STUDY MODIFICATIONS IN DEPARTMENTAL

SCHOOLS.

Table 9 shows the subject offerings in departmental schools
and the number of class periods per week assigned to each subject,
and is to be read as table 5 under section c (1).

Household and manual arts and drawing periods have been
assigned on the basis of 40 to 50 minute periods, as in junior
high schools. As several schools give but 30 minutes to such
subject periods, their periods are represented in fractional units
in some cases.

76 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

N • CN C>J P^ CS CS

Departmental School Organization

«O CO t— T-K rH\ IOIO»O X • • lX •

»•« <N<N y CN • -y '

»0 irj 10 fO CS 10

• (M CM CN ^ *-*

O ^J

0.0.0

^ X X X X X X -*-(M XX -XXXXX
•4-1 *"*

nJ rji 10 io 10 XX 10 -lO

«-"»-•

: •: 9

' '-

:-S 2S >>

78 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

JJ> »O rj< VO r-t\,H\IO • IO • CS CN -.-l\rH\fH\T-l CS

.^^^

^ «-t CN CN • . T-I T-I

^^ X X X -10 -^ . X^
f»)

-H ^ »O 1O CN CN IO • fO • • <O
r»J ^H ...

f"^""10

1/5 * »O lO "^ ^\^\»O • »O »-< PO • . • T-H T-H \c*
»-l CN CN • • . • »-N

1
a

I <5 fO lO lO >-"•

i—l ^ T-I 10 rO CN »H »O • PO • CN CN • '-I Tfc -^ T-H

H ::::::::::::::::

i MMNnNNNn

B? • •

3 ; ;|M ; : ! : i : ; : : : :

• 4-> *

; •;] i ! ; ; ; ; ! i ; M i !

o.S e - •• - •

Departmental School Organization 79

NEW SUBJECTS.

Household or manual arts or agriculture are required in every
seventh and eighth grade for two recitation periods weekly b}'
State Board regulation.1 In 3 of these schools the time distribu-
tion of subjects is not indicated; in 3, 1 period a week (of 40 or
50 minutes); in 6, 1J^ periods; in 16, 2 periods; in 2, 3 periods;
and in 5, 4 periods. The median number of periods required in
the 32 schools is 2, and the average is for manual training 2 and
for household arts 2.1. Additional work with the ninth grade
is elective for some pupils in three of these schools. Agriculture
is required in 10 schools. In 1 the time is not indicated; in 4,
2 periods a week; in 2, 1^ periods; and in 3, 1 period. The
average for the 35 schools is .4 period a week. The total average
time for household or manual arts and agriculture is approxi-
mately 2.2 periods a week. This average is but .4 periods a week
less than for the same type of work in the junior high school
group, and if we consider the number of periods regardless of
length, the time is the same.

General science is required in the eighth grade of but one of
these schools and may be taken by some pupils with the ninth
grade in six schools. Twelve schools offer the subject in grade
nine. Thirteen of the junior type schools offer general science
in grade nine, in three of which it is elective for some eighth
grade pupils, and in 15 of the junior type eighth grades the sub-
ject is required, or the subject is offered in 28 of the 35 junior
schools and in but 13 of the departmental schools in grades eight
or nine.

Algebra is required in grade 8 A in two schools, daily, and
bookkeeping in one twice a week.

Drawing (freehand) is required in 31 schools and is elective
in one with the ninth grade for some pupils. In 4 schools no time
is indicated; in 1, J^ periods a week; in 16, 1 period; in 3, 1J^
periods; in 6, 2 periods; and in 1, 3 periods. The median is 1
period and the average 1.2.

Thirty-two schools require music and in one it is elective.
In 2 schools the time is not indicated; in 6, 1 period a week; in
23, 2 periods; and in 1, 3 periods. The median is 2 periods and
the average, 1.7 periods. Music periods average about 30 min-
utes in length. Conditions with respect to the number of periods
in drawing and music are approximately the same as in the junior

» Uniform Course of Study for the Elementary Schools of Indiana. 1915-16. p. 214.

80 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

type schools, where both subjects are required on the average 1.3
periods weekly, with periods averaging about 44 minutes in
length.

Physical training is required in 7 of the departmental schools
and is elective in 1 for about 1.5 periods a week, while it is re-
quired in 10 and elective in 1 of the junior schools.

Twenty-three departmental schools report no offering of high
school subjects as eighth grade electives, the remaining 12 offer-
ing one or more of such electives to strong eighth grade pupils
who have completed a part of the eighth grade subjects, or as an
extra subject. The following subjects are mentioned: algebra
by 7 schools, English by 7, German by 8, Latin by 9, general
science by 6, botany by 1, ancient history by 1, drawing by 1,
bookkeeping by 1, physical training by 1, household arts by 3,
and manual arts by 3. In the junior type schools German is
available to all or part of eighth grade pupils in 27 of the 35
schools and Latin in 12, in other respects the choice of electives
being about the same.

OLD SUBJECTS.

The total time distribution in these schools for English is:

2, no time indicated ; 2, 5 periods a week; 3, 7 periods; 1, 9 periods;

3, 10 periods; 3, 11 periods; 1, llj^ periods; 3, 12 periods; 2
13 periods; 4, 14 periods; 1, 14}^ periods; and 10, 15 periods.
The median is 13 periods a week and the average 12.

In reading 7 schools report undistributed time; 1, 2 periods a
week; 2, 3 periods; 5, 4 periods; and 20, 5 periods. The median
of the 28 is 5 and the average 4.6 periods a week. The probable
average with the 7 included is about 4.3 periods. This is nearly
double the number of weekly periods assigned to literature in the
junior type schools, which was 2.3 periods.

In grammar-composition 7 schools report undistributed time ;
1, 3 periods a week; 2, 4 periods; 21, 5 periods; 1, 6 periods; 3,
7 periods. The median for the 28 is 5 periods and the average
5.1. The probable average including the 7 is about 4.5 periods
a week.

In spelling four schools indicate no distribution of the time;
3 indicate no spelling; 5, 1 period a week; 2, 2J/£ periods; 8, 2
periods; 12, 2}^ periods; and 1, 3 periods. The median for the
31 schools is 2 and the average 1.8, which is about one period a
week more than in the junior type schools.

Departmental School Organization 8 1

In writing 3 schools indicate no distribution of the English
time; 11, no time; 3, 1 period a week; 1,1^ periods; 6, 2 periods;
11, 2j/£ periods. The median for the 32 schools is 2 periods a
week and the average 1.7, which is 1.2 periods a week more than
in the junior type schools.

The average number of periods a week for English, exclusive
of writing, is approximately 10.3 periods, while in the junior type
schools the corresponding time is 5.6 periods a week.

Arithmetic is assigned 5 periods a week by 31 schools; time
is not indicated by 2 schools; and in the remaining 2 arithmetic
is given daily for one-half year with algebra the other half year.
The median number of periods a week is 5 and the average,
approximately 5. This is .4 period a week more than in the junior
schools, where one-half the schools gave the subject 4 periods a
week, with an average of 4.6.

In history-civics one school does not indicate total time but
indicates a separate course in civics; 2 schools report 3 periods a
week; 5, 4 periods; 24, 5 periods; 3, 7 periods. The median is 5
and the average 4.9. Fifteen schools indicate a separate course
in civics, in most cases 4 or 5 periods weekly during the second
half of the 8th grade; one school devoted 2 out of 5 history periods
to civics, and 7, 1 period. Two schools check civics but do not
indicate the time given. Twenty-five of the 35 schools indicate
1 or more periods a week for civics, with such readings as Dunn,
Nida, Harrison, and Lapp as texts and reference books. The
total number of weekly periods for history-civics is about the
same in junior and departmental schools, but a somewhat larger
offering in civics is given by the departmental schools.

Ten school do not offer physiology-hygiene in the eighth
grade; 3 do not indicate the time given; 9, 2 periods; 6, 3 periods;
3, 4 periods; 4, 5 periods. The median is 2 and the average, for
32 schools, 2.1. This is .9 period a week more on the average
for all schools than among junior high schools, which had an
average of 1.2 periods.

Twenty-one schools do not require geography in grade eight;
3 require the subject but do not indicate the time; 4, 2 periods
a week (4 periods for a half year) ; 2, 3 periods; 3, 4 periods; and
2, 5 periods. The median is 0 periods and the average, 1.1
periods. The average for the geography-physiology-hygiene
combination is 3.2 periods a week. Six schools require no
science, but in three of these general science is elective for some

82 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

pupils in grade eight, and agriculture is required in two of them.
But 9 junior type schools offer geography in grade eight as
contrasted with 14 departmental schools.

In conclusion, the junior type schools offer approximately
the same work in agriculture, manual and household arts as do
the departmental schools. General science is offered in, more
than twice as many junior type schools as in departmental
schools, and also about three times as many junior schools offer
eighth grade pupils an opportunity to take some high school
subject or subjects. About twice as many periods a week are
given by departmental schools to work in English, which is
probably indicative of a more formal type of reading, grammar,
and spelling with less unity on the whole than in the junior schools.
On the other hand the departmental schools, in larger numbers,
seem to have effected a greater degree of reorganization in their
history-civics courses.

Departmental School Organization

(2) PROVISION FOB INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS.

TABLE 10.
PROVISION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS

SCHOOL
1

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

FREQUENCY OF
PROMOTION

1 year
J^year

Jiyear
1 year

year

Hyear
J^year

1 year
lyear

J^year
lyear

lyear
lyear
lyear

1 year
lyear
lyear
Hyear
lyear

METHOD OF
PROMOTION

PROGRESS
GROUPS *

subject

a&s

grade

none

grade

none

subj. in part

a&s

grade

none

subject

none

subj. in part

none

grade

none

subject

a&s

subject

a&s

grade

none

grade

none

subject
subject

a & s-lim.
a&s

grade

none

grade

none

subject

a & s-lim.

grade

none

subject

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

a&s

grade

none

subject

none+

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

grade

none

PROVISION FOR
INDIVIDUALS^

ex, sp-as

sp-as

ex, sp-h, ir-p

none

none
ex, ir-p
ex,v

ir-p

ex, fr, ir-p

none

ir-p

none

ir-p

none
none

max. min, sp-
h.

Table 10 should be read: school 1 promotes half-yearly,
promotes by subject, provides accelerant and slow groups, and
provides for flexible individual advancement thru extra subjects
and special assignments to some pupils.

Because of the subject of study showing of this group of
schools, the inquiry relative to differentiated courses was not
submitted, it being evident that such provision did not exist as

* a & s and lim. mean accelerant and slow progress groups and limited, respectively.

J ex, sp-as, sp-h, ir-p, v, fr, max, min, mean respectively extra subject, special assignment,
special help, irregular promotion, vacation school, fewer subjects, maximum work, minimum
work.

+ See discussion on progress groups.

84 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

two-thirds of these schools offer no electives and those that do
only to individual pupils with the ninth grade. As but three of
these schools are in cities of more than 20,000 population, we
should scarcely expect to find many of the 35 making provision
for differentiated curricula. It may be added that in Indiana
cities of 50,000 and over, not included in this study, very little
provision is made for differentiated opportunities for all seventh
and eighth grade pupils.

Twelve schools have yearly promotions and 23, half yearly.
Here, as in the junior high school group, the determining factor
is chiefly that of the size of the school. But three schools of
3,000 and more population have yearly promotions.

But 11 of these schools have promotion by subject, while in
24 it is by grade. This is in sharp contrast with the junior high
school group where 32 of the 35 schools have promotion by sub-
ject. In view of the fact that a majority of these seventh and
eighth grades are housed in the high school building and have
departmental teaching in practically all subjects, it appears that
the possibilities for plans of flexible advancement are not at all
adequately utilized.

Eight schools report some provision for accelerant and slow
groups, although in two of the largest of these cities the provision
is conditioned by "when possible" and "in a few classes," which
indicates that such procedure is scarcely a fixed policy of these
schools. School number 30 reports an accelerant group but no
retarded group, while school number 27 has been trying the plan
of having all eighth grade pupils cover a year's work in a half
year and then have all who fail repeat the work.

Schools were asked as to the provision made for rapid advance-
ment of bright pupils. Ten schools made no response to this
item. The program of studies for the eighth grade shows that 12
schools offer some ninth grade electives to strong eighth grade
pupils. Three other schools report special assignments (not extra
subjects) for strong pupils; one indicates minimum work and
special help for slow pupils; one, vacation school; five, irregular
or double promotion in exceptional cases; and eight indicate
that no provision is made for individual progress. Probably
individual help, in a limited way, is given in most schools, but
without definitely organized plan. If a list of specific provisions
for individual adjustment had been submitted for checking, no
doubt, many features of practice would have been reported that

Departmental School Organization

are not given in this report. It is not evident that systematic
planning for adjustment of group and individual differences is
a marked feature of practice in any considerable number of these
departmental schools.

(3) METHOD INDICES IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS.

TABLE 11
FACTORS IN METHOD MODIFICATION IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS

SUPERVISED
STUDY

PROJECT
PLAN

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

The degree of departmentalization in these schools has been
determined from data relative to the number of different teachers
a normal pupil has in any given term in grades six, seven, eight
and nine. The tabulated replies show the following results:

Note: sp, ac., m., tr., d., sc., com., dr., mean special subjects academic subjects, manual
training, domestic science, commercial subjects, and drawing, respectively.
1 1ndicates that the data submitted are not clear.
Table 11 is to be read as the last 4 columns of table 7.

15 min-

yes

in part

geog- only

in part

yes

....

yes

in part

yes

arith- only

yes

some subj-

yes

15 (total)

yes

some subj-

yes

in part

some subj-

yes

JUNION H. S. WORK

% DEPARTMENTAL

BY H. S.

TEACHERS WITH

TEACHERS

H. S. EXPERIENCE

part special

special subject

....

sp. & part ac.

50 +

sp. &partac.

33 (ac.)

sp. & English
sp. &ac. in 8th

40 (ac.)
66 (8th)

sp. & part ac.

special

none

'is'

music & dr.

H. S. subjects

none

domestic science

none

m. tr-d. sc-com.

special

none

special

sp. & English

75+

m. tr. & dom. sc.

25+

none+

sp. Eng. math.

100

none

special

• '25'

special

100

special

....

none+

sp. & English

specia1

sp. read., hist.

special

50+

special

86 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

grade 6 — in 2 schools 1 teacher; in 8, 2 teachers; in 7, 3 teachers;
in 3, 4 teachers; in 3, 5 teachers; in 3, 6 teachers; in 1, 7 teachers;
and in 1, 8 teachers. The median is 3 teachers. Grade 7 — in 1
school 2 teachers; in 5, 3 teachers; in 8, 4 teachers; in 5, 5 teachers;
in 7, 6 teachers; in 2, 8 teachers. The median is 5 teachers.
Grade 8 — in 3 schools 2 teachers; in 4, 3 teachers; in 8, 4 teachers;
in 5, 5 teachers; in 6, 6 teachers; in 2, 7 teachers; and in 2, 8
teachers. The median is 4.5 teachers. Grade 9 — in 9 schools 4
teachers; in 4, 5 teachers; and in 1, 6 teachers. The median is 4
teachers.

The corresponding data from 18 junior high schools show grade
medians of 3, 6, 5 and 5 teachers, respectively, as compared with
3, 5, 4.5 and 4 in the departmental schools. These data include
teachers of special subjects as drawing, music, domestic science,
and manual training, usually from two to three in all, as well as
teachers of the traditional common subjects. While the junior
schools have a somewhat greater number of teachers per pupil in
grades seven and eight, the differences are not so great as to
cause any great difference in the degree of departmentalization
of teaching. Apparently in the schools of either group the
typical pupil has from two to three teachers for the traditional
subjects and a like number for special subjects.

Seven schools report 25 or 30 minutes of supervised study
daily for each study subject; 1, 20 minutes; 5, 15 minutes; 1,
10 minutes; 5 devote some time daily or twice weekly to some
subjects; 1 indicates 1-15 minute study period daily; and 15
say that they do not have supervised study. About one-half
these schools have made some definite provision for directed
study under the classroom teacher daily, while such practice pre-
vails in 31 of the 35 junior type schools.

Relative to the use of the project plan in prevocational work,
5 schools made no report, 5 indicate that they do not use the
method, 7 say "in part", and 18 give an unqualified "yes".
This represents essentially the same condition as in the junior
type schools where 20 use the project plan, 3 in part, 8 do not.
and 4 make no reply.

Our data indicate that in none of these schools is all the
academic work of the seventh and eighth grades taught by the
regular high school teaching staff, while in the junior type schools
high school teachers had charge of all grammar grade work in
18 of the 35 schools. In 9 schools high school teachers are in

Departmental School Organization 87

charge of special subjects and a part of the academic work; in
1 7 schools high school teachers are in charge of all or part of the
special subjects; in 1 school high school electives only are taught
by high school teachers (offered to some eighth grade pupils
with the ninth grade); and 8 schools indicate no teachers in
common between high school and departmental grades, while in
the junior type schools but two schools had no teachers in com-
mon between the high school and grammar grades. In more than
three-fourths the junior type schools the major part of seventh
and eighth grade work is carried by regular high school teachers,
while the same is true for not to exceed one-fourth of the depart-
mental schools. The foregoing data indicate far less contact
between high school and grammar grades in teaching staff and
probable high school methodology in departmental schools than
in those of the junior type.

In two of these schools, both in small villages, all the teachers
of the seventh and eighth grade classes have had high school
teaching experience; in 2, 75% to 80%; in 5, 50% to 74%; in 9,
25% to 49%; in 5, 11% to 20%; in 5, 0% and 7 schools made no
reply to the item. The median per cent is 31.5 and the average
37. The schools of the junior type had a median of 100% and an
average of 75.5%.

It is apparent that the junior type schools are securing a
type of instruction and discipline that probably much more
closely approximates the high school type than are the depart-
mental schools, if the employment of teachers of high school
experience affords any criterion for judgment.

In conclusion, the departmental grammar schools apparently
approximate junior high school standards in degree of depart-
mentalization and in the use of the project method in prevo-
cational work; but in the use of supervised study and teachers
of high school experience their procedure is far less likely to
achieve junior high school aims and standards of method. -

(,4) DATA RELATIVE TO GUIDANCE AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN DEPART-
MENTAL SCHOOLS.

No. of School

1. Principal acts as pupil adviser. No systematic educational or vocational

guidance. Athletic and musical organizations.

2. Pupil advisory system. Incidental educational and vocational guidance.

Athletic organization.

88 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

3. No advisory system. Definite guidance. Athletic and civic organiza-

tions.

4. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic organization.

5. No advisory plan. No guidance. No extra-class organizations below

grade nine.

6. Room teacher adviser. No definite plan of guidance. Literary, publica-

tion, scout, and student government organizations.

7. Advisory plan. Some vocational information. Athletic, musical, and

social organizations.

8. Advisory plan. No direct guidance. Athletic, literary, musical, and

social organizations.

9. Advisory plan. Guidance thru history of industries. Athletic and musical

organizations.

10. No data on advisory plan. No guidance. No data on extra-class organi-

zations.

11. Advisory plan. Guidance thru manual training.

12. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic organizations.

13. Advisory plan. Guidance thru community civics. Athletic, civic,

musical and social organizations.

14. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic and musical organizations.

15. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic and musical organizations.

16. Advisory plan. Guidance thru manual training and domestic science.

Athletic and musical organizations.

17. No advisory plan. Some guidance by the principal, but not definitely

organized. Musical organization.

18. Advisory plan. Some guidance by the manual training teacher.

19. No advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic, civic, musical, publication,

and student government organizations.

20. Advisory plan. Guidance thru the principal and thru chapel talks.

Athletic and musical organizations.

21. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic organizations.

22. Room teacher adviser. No guidance. No extra-class organizations.

23. No data on advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic organizations.

24. Advisory plan. No guidance. No data on extra-class organizations.

25. No advisory plan. No guidance. No data on extra-class organizations.

26. Advisory plan. Incidental guidance. Athletic organizations.

27. No advisory plan. No guidance. No data on extra-class organizations.

28. Advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic and literary organizations.

29. Advisory plan. Incidental guidance. Athletic, civic, and musical

organizations.

30. Room teacher adviser. No guidance. Athletic organizations.

31. Advisory plan. No guidance. No data relative to extra-class organiza-

tions.

32. Advisory plan. No guidance. No extra-class organizations.

33. No data relative to advisory plan or guidance. Agricultural and athletic

organizations.

34. No advisory plan. No guidance. Athletic and musical organizations.

35. No data relative to advisory plan or guidance. Athletic organizations-

Departmental School Organization 89

Twenty-five schools indicate provision for some form of
pupil advisory plan, six report that they have no such provision,
and four returned no data. What specific plan is followed is
indicated in very few cases. Twenty-one schools report no
definite provision for educational or vocational guidance ; 7 report
"incidental," "not systematic," "manual training and domestic
science," etc.; and 5 report "yes"» "vocational information,"
"history of industries," "community civics," and "chapel talks."
In two cases no data were reported. With respect to provision
for extra-classroom activities in seventh and eighth grades, 7
schools make no response; 3 indicate no such organizations in
grades seven and eight; and 25 report 1 or more such organiza-
tions, the two of most frequent occurrence being athletics, in 23
schools, and musical clubs, in 13 schools. Civic clubs are reported
from 5 schools; literary and social clubs, 3 each; publication and
student government, 2 each; agriculture, departmental, and
scouts, 1 each. One school reports five different organizations;
3 report four; 2 report three; 10 report two; 9 report one; and 3
report none. The median number is 2 and the average, 1.9.

Twenty- two junior schools report some form of advisory plan
as compared with 24 departmental schools, and 8 indicated some
definite educational or vocational guidance as compared with
5 departmental schools. Neither group of schools seems to have
made very definite provision for pupil advice or guidance. The
median number of extra-class organizations is the same for the
two types of schools, being 2 in either case, but the average
number of organizations per school for the junior type is 2.64 as
compared with 1.9 for the departmental schools.

There seems to be very little difference between the junior
and departmental schools with respect to the above named feat-
ures of guidance and social organization.

90 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Departmental School Organization 91

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92 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 12 should be read, departmental school No. 1 is housed
in a building separate from the high school and the elementary
school, but is very near the high school building and has a few
lower grade pupils in the same building; has a 36 week school
year and a 40 minute class period; its teachers have on the
average 2 years of training beyond the high school course and
10 years of teaching experience, none of its teachers are college
graduates, 93% are women and 7% men teachers, the average
annual salary is $675; and very limited provision is made for
the admission of over-age pupils regardless of previous scholastic
attainments.

In 7 cities or towns the seventh and eighth grades are housed
in the high school building, but in 6 of these not in the high school
assembly room. In school No. 6 the eighth grade occupies the
high school assembly and recitation rooms, has several teachers
in common with the high school, and has opportunity to take
several high school subjects as electives. In 5 other cities or towns
grades 1 to 12 are in the same building; in 6, the seventh and
eighth grades occupy a separate building; in 4, mainly separate
but in a building having some lower grade pupils; and in 13 they
are housed with the first six grades, though often occupying an
entire floor of such building. In 23 schools the seventh and
eighth grades are separate from the high school, and in 12 they
are in the same building. These proportions are the reverse of
those among junior high schools where 25 are housed with the
high school and 10 are separate from it.

One schools has a term of 40 weeks; 1, 38; 27, 36; 1, 34; and
5, 32. The median term is 36 weeks and the average 35.5, which
is .8 week longer than in the junior high school group.

Two schools report class periods of 60 minutes (including
supervised study); 5, 50 minutes; 7, 40 minutes; 3, 35 minutes;
10, 30 minutes; 5, 25 minutes; 2, 22 minutes; and 1, 20 minutes.
The median is 30 minutes and the average, 35.5. For the junior
high school group the median is 40 min.utes and the average,
41.4 minutes, or the class periods average 8.9 minutes shorter
in the departmental schools, although the recitation time is
probably about the same, the difference representing additional
time given to supervised study in the junior type school.

Thirty-four schools reported data relative to teacher training.
In 2 of these schools the average number of years of teacher
training beyond the high school is 3 but less than 4 years; in 19,

Departmental School Organization 93

2 but less than 3 years; and in 13, 1 but less than 2 years. The
median by schools is 2.37 years and the average 2.06 years.
The median is .59 year less than in the junior group schools, and
the average .65 year less. But one-ninth the junior schools have
teachers with an average training of less than 2 years, while
more than one-third the departmental schools are below this
standard.

Of the 34 schools reporting data relative to the term of
teaching experience, in 7 the average is 15 or more years; in 12
10 but less than 15 years; in 12, 5 but less than 10 years; and in
3, less than 5 years. The median is 10 years and the average
10.4 years. This is approximately 2 years more than in the
junior type schools.

Data from 32 schools relative to the per cent of college grad-
uates among seventh and eighth grade teachers show that 20
schools have none; 3, more than 5% but less than 25%; 7, 25%
but less than 50%; 2, 50% but less than 75%; and none more
than 75%. The median by schools is 0% and the average, 12%.
This is decidedly less than for the junior type schools where the
median is 41.5% and the average, 43.1%. Seven-eights of the
junior type schools have 25% or more of their teachers college
graduates, while but one-fourth the departmental schools equal
this standard.

Thirty-two schools reported data relative to the number of
men and women teachers having any classes in any seventh and
eighth grade work. None of these have less than 50% women
teachers; 4, 50% but less than 60%; 8, 60% but less than 70%;
6, 70% but less than 80%; 11, 80% but less than 90%; and 3,
90% but less than 100%. The median by schools is 75% and
the average 74.5%. For men the corresponding figures are 25%
and 25.5%. The per cent of women teachers in departmental
seventh and eighth grades is materially greater than in the
junior type schools, where the corresponding per cents are 60
and 64 for women, and 40 and 36 for men. This difference may
be due in part to the large number of very small schools in the
junior group, in which the per cent of men teachers is invariably
higher than in the larger schools of the same group.

Of the 32 schools reporting data relative to the average annual
salaries of teachers, 1 pays less than $500; 3, $500 but less than
$550; 4, $550 but less than $600; 6, $600 but less than $650; 8,
$650 but less than $700; 7, $700 but less than $750; 3, $750 but

94 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

less than $800; and none over $800. The median is $667 and the
average, $650. The corresponding figures for the junior type
schools are $720 and $735, or the average annual salary paid in
the junior type schools is 13% higher than in the departmental
schools.

Twelve of the 30 schools reporting on the conditions of admis-
sion to the departmental grades, especially grade seven, indicate
that promotion from the next lower grade is necessary, but 18
qualify this statement by saying that they are very liberal in
promoting over-age pupils who are weak in some subjects, or
that the general rule is not adhered to strictly in exceptional
cases. However, the number of pupils advanced irregularly with-
out regular promotion seems to be insignificant. In response to
the question, "Do you enroll here over-age pupils who have not
completed the work of the previous grade because of the greater
benefit you think they will receive from this arrangement?" 10
answer "no" and 20 indicate that a few (usually none or very few)
pupils are so advanced. Apparently such pupils are advanced
from the next lower grade only and are given a conditional pro-
motion even though very weak in their previous work. It is not
apparent that the conditions of admission are greatly different
from those in the junior type schools. Aside from 4 city schools
of the junior type, very, very limited provision is made for the
admission of over-age pupils to the seventh grade when deficient
in regular academic work, and when so admitted they are general-
ly compelled to carry the regular work of the seventh grade in-
stead of having a special program consisting largely of prevoca-
tional work.

SUMMARY OF COMPARISONS.

In the seventh and eighth grades the schools of the junior
group offer on the average but little more work in the practical
arts than do the departmental schools. By state requirement
the schools of all types must offer such work 2 periods a week.
Many of the departmental schools, however, assign but 30
minute periods to such work, while schools of the junior type
have from 40 to 60 minute periods. The junior schools have
made marked changes in the time assignment for English and
have probably unified the course more and made it somewhat
less formal. General science is required or elective in five-sixths
the junior high school eighth or ninth grades, while it is offered

Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 95

to a much more limited extent in departmental schools. The
latter schools have introduced special work in community civics
more widely than have the junior schools, but such courses have
not become the general rule in either type of school as yet.
Junior schools offer wider opportunities for eighth grade pupils
to elect or carry subjects ordinarily given in the high school than
do departmental schools; they also offer additional work in the
practical arts more frequently, and they offer work in physical
training more often although neither group has made adequate
provision for physical education.

Promotion by subject is almost the universal practice in the
junior group schools, but not even a majority of the departmental
schools have yet adopted the practice.

Frequency of promotion, organization of progress groups,
provision for individual advancement, the degree of department-
alization, and the use of the project plan in prevocational work
are not peculiarly typical for either group, but supervised study
and the employment of teachers in grammar grades with high
school teaching experience are far more common in the junior
schools. Differences relative to teacher adviser plans and social
organization are not marked between schools of the two groups.
The junior type schools have more commonly teachers of longer
training, more men teachers, and pay somewhat higher salaries.

(6) COMPARISON OF JUNIOR AND DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS;
THRU THE APPLICATION OF REORGANIZATION STANDARDS.

As measured by the most vital standards of the reorganiza-
tion movement, namely, subject modification, promotion by
subject and other provision for individual differences, supervised
study and other features of improved method, provision for
social organization, and superior training and qualifications for
teachers, the junior high school group, as a whole, has advanced
farther from traditional practice than has the departmental
group. However, it is apparent that some schools claiming
junior high school organization are inferior in reorganization to
some of the departmental schools. To ascertain the extent to
which departmental schools have adopted the reorganization
program and may reasonably be classed with the junior type
schools, although not claiming the name, I shall arbitrarily apply
certain standards that have met very general acceptance among

96 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

the so-called junior high schools, and shall attempt a tentative
weighting of the different factors employed in order to secure
results capable of quantitative measurement. This weighting is,
in part, based upon the relative ranking of certain factors by the
twenty-five superintendents and, in part, represents merely the
opinion of the writer. The standards and their weighting, as I
shall subsequently use them, are as follows:

1. Subjects of study modifications for grade eight (total 10).

a. English (literature, composition, grammar) 5 periods or less per

week, 2 points; 6 to 8 periods inclusive, 1 point.

b. Civics, separate course, 2 points; special emphasis as part of the

history course, 1 point.

c. General science, 2 points.

d. One or more high school electives or subjects open to eighth grade

pupils, 2 points.

e. Practical arts in addition to the state requirement, 1 point.

f. Physical training, 1 point.

2. Provision for different rates of advancement (4 to 7 points).

g. Promotion by subject, 3 points; in part, 2 points,
h. Provision for individual advancement, 1 point.

i. Homogenous groups (cities of 6,000 and more), 1 point.

j. Differentiated curricula (cities of 20,000 and more), 2 points.

3. Factors influencing method (3 points).

k. Supervised study, 1 point.

1. Project plan in prevocational work, 1 point; in part, ^ point.

m. Twenty-five per cent or more of teachers with high school ex-
perience, 1 point.
4 Social and advisory organizations (3 points).

n. Teacher adviser, 1 point.

o. Two or more extra-class organizations, 1 point.

p. Definite plan of educational or vocational guidance, 1 point.
5. Miscellaneous features (6 points).

q. Term of 36 weeks or more, 1 point.

r. Teacher training 2.5 years or more beyond high school, 2 points;
2 years, 1 point.

s. Forty per cent or more men teachers, 1 point; 20%, % point.

t. Salary of $700 or more, 1 point; $600, ^ point.

u. Definite provision for over-age pupils, 1 point; limited, ^ point.
The grand total of all points is from 26 to 29.

Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 97

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98 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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100 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 101

CHART 1.

Scoring of junior and departmental schools, based on tables 13 and 14.
Upper graph, junior schools, lower graph, departmental schools.
Numbers on left margin, score.
Numbers above graph lines, schools as given in tables.

Tables 13 and 14 represent the results of the scoring of the
35 junior high schools and the 35 departmental schools on the
basis of the above named factors. Four of the junior type schools
score 80% or more; 7, 70% to 79%; 19, 60% to 69%; 2, 50% to
59%; and 3 below 40%. Tentatively it will be assumed that any
school scoring below 60% should not be classed as meeting junior
high school standards. By the same standards no departmental
school scores 80% or more; 1, 70% to 79%; 2, 60% to 69%; 7,
50% to 59%; 8, 40% to 49% and 17, below 40%.

From this comparison it appears that but 3 of the depart-
mental schools (all in cities of 5,000 or more population) surpass
the lowest 5 of the junior type schools in the features of organiza-
tion just enumerated, although 3 other schools are close to the
arbitrarily chosen border line, and with slight modifications in
their present organization could qualify by these standards.
Twenty-seven of the junior schools surpass all but one of the
departmental schools, and 32, all but 6. The amount of over-
lapping of the two types of schools is not as great as is generally
assumed, which seems to indicate that the adoption of the junior
high school name carries with it certain standards of reorganiza-
tion which other departmental schools are unconscious of, or at
least, are not attaining.

The fact that the junior high school group have a "Q" of but
4.2 as compared with 11.5 for the departmental schools, indicates
a much closer grouping of the junior high schools about their

102 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

central tendency than is the case in the departmental schools.
The contrast is still more marked when each "Q" is divided by
its median to obtain the per cent of variability. The variability
for the junior type schools is .063 while that for departmental
schools is .29, or the departmental schools are nearly five times
as variable among themselves as are the junior schools with
respect to the features upon which the rating is based.

This entire comparison is based on the assumption that my
standards and the weighting I have given them are valid. Also
this method of scoring leaves out of account fundamental
features of all school organization and considers only those
features stressed in reorganization. Thus the score given is not
to be considered as a total efficiency score, but as a sum to be
added to a common fundamental score for achieving superior
excellence along certain desirable lines. My choice of 60% as a
dividing line between junior and departmental schools is based
on the distribution of schools of the junior type, there being ap-
proximately as many of these below 60% as above 80%, and I
have assumed that the number of schools possessing a decidedly
inferior organization should be approximately equal to the num-
ber possessing a superior organization, above 80%.

Many conscientious objectors to the junior high school name
and program raise the question, "Why adopt a new name and
make such ado about nothing when departmental schools every-
where are achieving the same results?" Are they achieving the
same results? The foregoing comparisons do not indicate that
they are. The value, then, of the new name lies in the new
spirit created whereby the administrator can more easily secure
the introduction of new subjects, new and better equipment,
better teachers, new features of method and social organization
under the new than under the old name and organization. An
enthusiasm and interest is created among pupils, teachers
and patrons under the new name that is largely impossible under
the old. The situation has in it many of the elements making for
success in new resolutions, conversions, and fads generally; tra-
dition having been broken with, new types of activity and ad-
ministration can much more easily be introduced and supported.
Johnston2 has happily characterized the situation in his state-
ment, "It (the junior high school) has somehow fired our educa-
tional imagination," which statement seems to explain much of
the force and success of the new and rapidly growing reorganiza-
tion movement.

» Johnston, C. H. "The Junior High School." Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2 :424.

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 103

2. SPECIFIC MEASUREMENT OF CERTAIN CLAIMED ADVANTAGES
OR OBJECTIONS TO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

a. Junior High School Costs.

One of the chief objections that has been advanced against
the reorganization movement has been its greater cost. At the
present time common opinion seems to take higher costs for
granted in the junior type school than in the traditional grammar
grades. Francis1 states that the junior high school cost should
be about midway between that of the first six grades and of the
senior high school. Phillips and Barnes2 state that replies to
their inquiry indicate that a six year high school organization
may be expected to cost from 10% to 15% more than the usual
two year grammar grades plus a four year high school plan.
Briggs3 had only 30 out of 157 schools reply relative to costs,
but 17 stated that the junior high school cost more than in the
first six grades, 6 about the same, and the remaining 7 gave
qualified answers. Rundlett4 gives the cost under the old organiza-
tion in 1909-10 as $33.14 per pupil in grammar grades and as
$29.28 and $28.09, respectively in 1910-11 and 1911-12 under the
new organization. He also indicates that the average of class
scholarship marks was raised under the new plan and that 33%
more work was covered in Latin, history, and mathematics in
junior high school grades. Bachman,5 in the New York City
Survey, shows that in 1911-12 the intermediate school organiza-
tion of seventh and eighth grades in New York City was costing
less than the regular grammar grade organization, largely due to
a more economic use of rooms and equipment under the former
type of organization. But it is to be noted that the New York
intermediate schools were not offering the widely enriched and
differentiated curricula which are associated with this type of
school in our larger cities, nor were they employing teachers
approximating high school standards of training. A recent
investigation by Briggs,6 not yet published, shows some schools
paying less per capita for maintenance and operation in the
junior high school than in the first six grades and in other cities
the costs are more than for the senior high school.

1 Francis. J. H. "Needed Reorganizations." The Portland, Ore., School Survey, p. 191.
1 Phillips, E. M. and Barnes. C. H. The Junior High School Problem. Bulletin No. 59, 1916
Minn. Department of Public Instruction.

3 Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School. Report U. S. Commissioner of Ed. 1914, vol. I.
p. 135-157.

4 Rundlett, Concord, N. H., School Reports, 1909 to 1912.

6 Bachman, F. P. Report of Com. on School Inquiry, N. Y. City. Vol. I. pp. 146-148. 1913.
• Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School (an investigation inaugurated in 1917 and not yet
published).

104 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

This great variation in costs may be due to several causes,
many of which are discussed later in this section. Costs will be
low where teachers are employed with qualifications for ele-
mentary school teaching only, where the traditional type of
principal is employed who does no supervising, where large
classes are the rule, where traditional rather than laboratory and
shop subjects and methods prevail, where meager equipment is
used, and where cheaply constructed buildings are utilized. In
a few instances the junior high school costs were more than in
the senior high school because of new and more costly and better
equipped buildings, and because of the introduction of more shop
and laboratory work with special teachers in the junior high
school, while maintaining largely the traditional text book
courses in the senior high school.

In all the investigations the cost data have been very meager,
chiefly because school officials do not keep their financial records
in such form that they can easily determine cost factors.

COST DATA FOR INDIANA SCHOOLS

What do junior high school organizations cost in Indiana as
compared with the usual eight-four type?

A preliminary inquiry revealed the fact that I should be
unable to secure data from most schools relative to detailed
analyses of maintenance and operation other than the cost of
instruction and supervision which could be rather easily checked
from the salary list. Accordingly I have limited my cost statistics
to this phase of the problem.

My inquiry forms called for the total annual salary account
for teachers, principals and supervisors for grades 1 to 6, 7 and 8,
and 9 to 12, separately, the salary of each individual to be dis-
tributed among these three groups according to the time spent
by the teacher or supervisor in each of these grade groups. As
the majority of schools failed to report their average attendance,
I have used the total enrollment up to and including March for
the second semester as the base for computing the cost per pupil.
While the data will not be readily comparable with those of other
investigations, the method seems to be a valid one for comparing
schools within this study. The cost per pupil for grades 1 to 6
means the total salary account for teaching and supervision
charged against all these grades divided by the total enrollment
for these grades. Per capita costs for the grammar grade and
high school units are similarly computed.

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons

105

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106 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 107

TABLE 16.
RANGE OF COST DISTRIBUTION

JR. HIGH SCHOOL DEPT. SCHOOL NON-DEP. SCHOOL

COST GRADE GRADE GRADE

LIMITS 1-6 7-8 9-12 1-6 7-8 9-12 1-6 7-8 9-12

6 to 10 1 1

11 to 15 9 1 8 1 11 2

16 to 20 5 4 10 5 4 4

21 to 25 2 3 2 9 1 2 4

26 to 30 1 3 2 2 10 3 6 1

31 to 35 2 1 4 3 5 2

36 to 40 13 2 8

41 to 45 4 6 1 5 2

46 to 50 1 2 6 1 1

51 to 55 42 2

56 to 60 1 2 1

Over 60 12 3

No. cases.. 19 24 21 23 29 24 18 19 18

TABLE 17.

COST PER PUPIL FOR INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION IN CITIES OF 5,000 AND
MORE POPULATION.*

JUNIOR

HIGH SCHOOLS

DEPARTMENTAL

SCHOOLS

CITY

GRADE

CITY

GRADE

1-6

7-8

9-12

1-6

7-8

9-12

16.70

18.00

34.20

34.90

15.40

29.70

35.00

, 2

19.20

22.90

23.60

43.60

ii!7o

26.60

34^30

27.90

53.70

78.60

15.70

24.50

43.50

15.70

28.10

17.00

26.10

38.10

14.60

21.50

33.80

22.80

24.00

43.40

32.40

36.90

18.60

19.10

48.20

57.00

14.20

25.90

24.30

iiiio

17.10

3rio

20.90

26.10

57.50

52.80

24.70

28.20

30.90

13.10

37.40

33.70

13.60

27.00

28.30

ii!io

21.10

33.70

17.60

28.80

35.10

14 50

14.90

25.90

4s!io

Average .

18.64

31.54

39.30

17.50

25.24

39.74

Median. .

15.55

27.55

35.95

17.60

25.90

38.10

5.77

17.40

4.73

3.39

3.86

7.56

High....

32.40

57.00

78.60

24.70

34.90

57.50

Low. . . .

13.10

28.10

11.40

14.50

24.30

* Note:

All non-departmental

schools are

in cities

of less than

5,000 population. See

table 15.

108 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

TABLE 18.

COST OF INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION PER PUPIL IN CITIES OF LESS THAN
5,000 POPULATION.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

DEPARTMENTAL

SCHOOLS

CITY

GRADE

CITY

GRADE

1-6

7-8

9-12

1-6

7-8

9-12

19.00

41.50

29.20

42.20

21.80

52.60

26! 80

25.20

48.60

49.40

20.20

30.90

46.50

18 '.30

43.20

17.40

25.50

11.50

31.90

45.50

16.90

17.60

35!66

14.90

65.50

16.90

23.50

37.20

31.00

53.10

11,10

41.60

17.60

42.20

15.10

31.90

46.80

12.20

19.60

32.10

12.30

18.30

42.10

20.60

21.10

48.70

20.50

27.90

41.00

7.20

30.00

34.80

20.00

22 10

28.40

28.00

29'.00

46'.00

29.10

56.10

Average .

18.43

40.09

46.80

17.96

26.74

41.02

Median. .

18.30

41.85

45.50

17.15

27.75

42.10

4.31

15.75

5.72

4.25

4.58

5.94

High....

31.00

65.50

29.10

41.60

56.10

Low. . . .

11.50

19.60

32.10

7.20

17.60

27.90

Note: For non-departmental schools see table 15.

TABLE 19.
COST OF INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION PER PUPIL IN CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS

J U N 10 R

HIGH

SCHOOLS

NON-J

UNIOR

SCHOOLS

CITY

GRADE

CITY

GRADE

1-6

7-8

9-12

1-6

7-8

9-12

19.00

41.50

14.30

27.30

52.60

21.80

52.60

14.60

19.20

124.00

49.40

12.50

17.30

41.90

is. 36

43.20

15.90

33.30

95.20

14.90

65.50

23.80

35.80

51.40

31.00

53.10

15.70

30.40

40.00

17.60

42.20

33*

28.00

29.00

46.00

41.00

35*

29.10

56.10

Average .

17.51

48.56

19.24

27.68

63.40

Median. .

19.00

46.30

15.80

29.05

52.00

3.66

5.80

6.85

7.05

26.65

High....

31.00

65.50

29.10

35.80

124.00

Low ....

14.90

41.00

12.50

17.30

40.00

* Note: These two schools are from the departmental list; the remaining six are from the
non-departmental list.

Tables 17. 18. and 19 are to be read the same as table 15.

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 109

Tables 15 to 19 set forth the data for the cost of instruction
and supervision for such schools as reported both cost and enroll-
ment data, about two-thirds the whole number participating in
the investigation. The schools have been divided into three
groups for comparison, junior high schools, departmental schools,
and non-departmental schools, all the latter having, however,
a measure of departmental teaching in special subjects.

Table 15 should be read: Instruction and supervision costs
school number 2 of the junior high school group $19 per pupil in
the first six grades, $41.50 in the seventh and eighth grades,
and $41.50 in grades nine to twelve inclusive (a 6-6 school with
grades 7 to 12 under the same teaching staff). School number 2
of the departmental group makes no report for the first six grades
or grades nine to twelve, but has a per capita cost of $19.20 in
grades seven and eight, etc.

Because of the wide variation of a few schools the median
cost would seem to be a better measure of central tendency in this
instance than the average, although I have computed the latter
also. The median will be used in the following discussions unless
otherwise indicated.

From table 15 it appears that the median cost per pupil for
the first six grades is for the junior high school group $16.70j for
the departmental group, $17.00; and for the non-departmental
group, $T5.15 a year. For grades seven arid eight the corre-
sponding costs are $34.40, $25.90 and $24.90 respectively ; while
for grades nine to twelve they are $41.50, $41.85, and $40.55
respectively. The only marked variation between the three
groups is in grades seven and eight where the junior high school
type costs 33% more than in the departmental schools. The
ratio between high and low for any one grade group varies
from two and one-third to one for the high school costs of the
departmental schools to five to one for the seventh and eighth
grade costs in the junior high school group. A "Q" of 15.75, or
nearly one-half its median, for costs in grades seven and eight
of the junior high schools indicates a uniformly wide deviation
from the central tendency for these schools. "Q" represents the
difference between the first and third quartile points of the dis-
tribution divided by two, or it is approximately the distance we
must go either side the central tendency to include the middle
50% of our distribution.

110 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 16 represents a distribution of the number of schools of
each group for each $5 unit of cost from $5 up to $60 and more,
and should be read: In the junior high school group in the first
six grades nine schools have a cost per pupil of $1 1 to $15 inclusive ;
5 schools, $16 to $20 inclusive, etc.

Table 15 does not enable us to get at a close analysis of the
cost conditions, for we have here represented schools in cities of
35,000 population and others located at a country cross-roads
three miles from any village, and the costs due to different causes,
as size of school or differentiated curricula, combine so as to
give unsatisfactory comparisons due to the non-homogenous
grouping of the schools to be compared. To make these com-
parisons more significant I have re tabulated the data of table 15,
showing in table 17 costs in schools in cities of 5,000 or more
population, and in table 18 costs in schools in towns and villages
of less than 5,000 population.

This should yield more satisfactory comparisons, for schools
relatively alike in size and other conditions are grouped together.

Table 17, median results, shows that for schools in cities of
5,000 and more population the pupil cost is higher in both the
first six grades and in the high school in the departmental group,
$17.60 and $38.10 respectively as compared with $15.55 and
$35.95 in the junior type schools, and that the difference in costs
for grades seven and eight is $1.65 per pupil, or 6% higher for
the junior group. The deviation or "Q" for grades seven and
eight of the junior type schools is very high, 17.4, which indicates
lack of standardization in costs here as compared with costs
in the grammar grades of other type schools. So far as concerns
instruction and supervision only the junior type school does not
appear to add very materially to the cost per pupil of the usual
departmental school for cities of this size, and the added cost per
pupil in grades, seven and eight is more than offset by the lower
high school costs in the junior type schools.

Table 18 shows a slightly higher cost for the junior high school
type in both the first six grades and in the high school, and a
decidedly higher cost, 50.8% higher, in grades seven and eight
in the schools of less than 5,000 population, as measured by
group medians. This is no doubt to be explained by the fact
that in the seventh and eighth grades of the junior type schools
all the teachers from grades seven to twelve are regular high
school teachers and receive high school salaries, and that prin-

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 111

cipals and special teachers devote more time to these grades in
this type of school, and especially that these small junior high
schools are the smallest schools on my list, far too small for eco-
nomic class grouping. If average costs be compared the relative
standing of the two types of schools remains unchanged. Again
the variability or deviation in the grammar grade costs of the
junior type schools is high, amounting to approximately 40% of
the average cost. The cost for the various grade groups in the
non-departmental schools (table 15) is slightly lower in each case
than for the corresponding unit in the departmental schools
(table 18).

As eight of the small schools of the junior high school group
are of the consolidated rural type, I have selected for comparison
eight other consolidated schools, all I have data on, from the
departmental and non-departmental groups. Table 19 shows
the costs for these schools. The seventh and eighth grade costs
are, for the junior schools, $46.30 and, for the non-junior schools
$29.05. Again the junior type school costs more in the first
six grades, $19 as compared with $15.80 in non- junior schools
(due to very small enrollments), 59% more in grades seven and
eight (partly due to small enrollments in these junior type schools),
but 11% less in the senior high school grades, in spite of the fact
that these junior type schools have a much smaller average
enrollment than have the others. If averages be used the non-
junior type schools have still higher costs in grades nine to twelve
inclusive.

This suggests that these results are not to be taken at their
face value in ascertaining the real cost conditions, but rather
there should be an investigation of the costs covering the entire
six upper grades in both groups of schools. It is the total cost
of the school system that the taxpayer is concerned with, and
any plan of grouping whereby one department may be made to
have a low per capita cost does not relieve the situation if some
other department is thereby made more expensive. It may be
that our high cost in grades seven and eight in the junior type
schools is fully counterbalanced by lower costs in the senior
high school, due to a more economic use of the staff in the six-
six type school.

Eight schools of the six-six type and eight of the eight-four
type, indicated in table 19, reported complete cost and enrollment
data for grades seven to twelve inclusive. The average enrollment

112 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

for grades seven to twelve in the junior type schools is 70, and
the average annual cost of instruction, $3250. For the eight
non- junior schools of the consolidated group the corresponding
figures are, average enrollment, 96, and average annual cost
$4180. From this we get a per capita cost for grades seven to
twelve of $46.43 for the junior type schools and $43.54 for the
same grades in the non-junior schools. The 6% higher cost in
the junior type schools is probably more than accounted for by
their smaller enrollment, which is far below the economic effi-
ciency point, and they also have as advantages for the extra
outlay a teaching force with a higher average amount of training
and a somewhat richer curriculum offering. From these facts it
appears that a junior high school type of organization can be
maintained in the small consolidated school at approximately the
same cost as is required for the eight- four plan; that high costs
are not primarily due to the "junior" feature of the organization
but rather to the "small" factor.

From data in my possession I have estimated that these eight
junior high schools of the consolidated type could return to the
eight-four plan by dismissing one high school teacher and em-
ploying an additional elementary school teacher at a saving of
$160 a year for the entire six upper grades, and that the seventh
and eighth grade costs would then be $18.33 per pupil per year
and the high school costs $63.50 per pupil. If we consider grades
seven and eight only our present cost of $46.30 per pupil is 153%
more than it would be under the stated conditions of the eight-
four plan with a seventh and eighth grade cost of $18.33. This
seems to be an enormous difference, but if we include the high
school with the seventh and eighth grades the present total cost
of $3250 is only 5% more than it would be after effecting a saving
of $160. The apparently great saving in grades seven and eight
would be nearly offest by the increased cost in grades nine to
twelve, due to a less economic utilization of the high school teach-
ing staff with a smaller number of pupils.

Under the non-junior plan seventh and eighth grade pupils
in rural consolidated schools are receiving these advantages:
non-departmental teaching for the most part, promotion by
grade, no supervised study, no men teachers or a man teacher
two periods a week in manual training or agriculture only, an
elementary school type of discipline, little or no participation
in high school athletics and social activities, teachers with from

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons

113

one to two years of normal or college training, a course of study
and methods based largely upon a deadening repetition of what
has already been explored (arithmetic 5 periods a week, history 5,
geography-physiology 5 or more periods, formal English 10 to 15,
manual or household arts or agriculture 2, drawing 1, and music 1),
and a non-stimulating elementary school atmosphere.

Under their present junior type of organization they have
these advantages: departmental teaching, promotion by subject
supervised study, 40% men teachers in certain subjects, both
vocational and academic, a high school type of discipline, partic-
ipation in high school athletics and social activities, teachers
with an average of more than three years of college and normal
training, a course of study designed for a wider exploration of
pupil interests and fields of knowledge (arithmetic 4 periods a
week, history 4, general science 4, revised English 4, German 4,
household or manual arts or agriculture 2, drawing 1, music 1),
and the spirit and stimulus of a high school atmosphere.

CHART 2.

Per capita cost ofi nstruction
and supervision, based on tables
17, 18 and 19.

"a" schools in cities of 5,000
and more.

*b" schools in cities less than
5,000.

"c" consolidated rural schools.

Numbers in left margin, cost
in dollars.

junior schools.

departmental or non-
junior schools.

Upper pair of lines, high
school costs.

Middle pair of lines, 7th and
8th grade costs.

Lower pair of lines, costs in
grades 1 to 6.

30-

1 14 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

The present junior-senior type of organization in consolidated
schools costs $2.29 per pupil more than it would for the same
grades under the old eight-four plan (a saving of $160 divided by
70, the number of pupils in the average six year high school).
The question for the school authorities to decide is, is it worth
the increased outlay to secure these advantages? From the fore-
going analyses it appears that in both the larger city and the smal-
ler consolidated schools, considered separately, the junior-
senior high school cost doea._Qot_ejcceed the eight-four plan cost
for the upper six grades by more than 6%, and it is probable that
the compensating advantages more than offset the additional
outlay. For village and small city junior schools the per capita
cost for the upper six grades is approximately 15% to 20% more
than for departmental schools.

FURTHER ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS.

1. FACTORS WHICH TEND TO INCREASE COSTS.

a. Teacher Conditions.

(1) The reorganized school has teachers of superior training.
Even in those schools where teachers of high school qualifications
are not employed in the junior high school, the best of the
elementary teachers are chosen. Data presented in another
section of this study show that on the average junior high school
teachers have had approximately six-tenths of a year more
training than teachers in grades seven and eight in non- junior
high schools, and that 43% of them on the average are college
graduates as compared with 12% for the seventh and eighth
grades in the usual grammar school of the departmental type.
Necessarily this superior training will result in higher salaries.
My data show that junior high school teachers receive on the
average $85 more a year than do teachers in the grammar grades
of departmental schools.

(2) The junior high school has more men teachers. Our
data relative to teachers show that in the median school 40%
of junior high school teachers are men as compared with 25%
in the grammar grades of the non-junior type school. The average
salary of men teachers in Indiana high schools is at least $100 a
year more than that of women teachers, and the use of more men
teachers in grammar grade instruction will increase costs pro-
portionately.

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 115

(3) The junior high school, especially in the larger schools,
has more teachers and supervisors of special subjects, which in
large part constitute the differentiated curricula.

Well trained teachers in vocational and special subjects
command higher salaries as a rule than do teachers of academic
high school subjectspanTi especially do these special teachers,
who are members of the high school teaching staff, except in a
very few of our Indiana schools, receive salaries decidedly in
advance of the salaries paid to grammar grade teachers of read-
ing, arithmetic and the like.

b. Conditions arising out of varied and enriched subjects of study
and differentiated curricula.

(1) Any increase in the number of subjects taught in the
school will call for an enlargeoT teaching st'ah1 and an increased

A comparison of the number of teachers in the small Indiana
high schools now and ten years ago will reveal the fact that four
or six teachers are now employed where formerly there were two
and three only, and this in schools having not to exceed an enroll-
ment of 50 or 60 pupils. The number of subjects has been in-
creased a'nd the ratio of teachers to pupils has markedly in-
creased, thus adding to the cost per pupil.

(2) Every differentiation tends to divide the student popu-
lation into more groups, and this, except in the larger schools,
will result in decreasing the size of classes and in increasing the
per capita costs.

For example, a small school may have 30 pupils in the eighth
grade. In arithmetic and the other common subjects they con-
stitute one class group, but in the practical arts they divide
into two groups and inevitably the cost is increased. To make
my point clearer, I shall cite an illustration from a previous
study I have made relative to high school costs.7 In each of two
different schools the drawing teacher receives an annual salary
of $810, but in school "a" the average class size in drawing is
9.5 pupils and in school "b" 35 pupils, with equal credit allowed
per hour of work and with equal teaching time for the two teachers.
The cost per credit in school "a" is $10.65 while in "b" it is but
$2.88. All conditions except class size are the same. Funda-

» Childs, H. G. "Cost of Instruction in Indiana High Schools." Bui. of Third Annaul
Conference on Educational Measurements. Indiana University, 1917. p. 133.

116 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

mentally, class size is the most important factor in cost produc-
tion in instruction1. In the larger schools having several sections
for each grade, the boys and girls from two ordinary sections can
be grouped for work in practical arts and thus keep all classes of
approximately standard size, but this is impossible in the small
school and is seldom done in the larger.

(3) The practical arts subjects, which are being much stressed
in junior high schools, are commonly assigned double the time
of the academic subjects for the same credit. This is universal
in high school practice.

With double time given to such class groups teachers can
teach but half as many different classes during the day as in
academic subjects, and hence the cost of instruction is increased.
My study of instructional costs, just referred to, shows (page 137)
that in the median size high schools manual and household arts
instruction cost $7.10 and $7.23 respectively per credit, while
history and mathematics cost but $3.15 and $3.51 respec-
tively. As the salaries of the two groups of teachers were about
the same, the double costs are clearly due to a combination of
smaller classes and double time for the practical arts group.

(4) It is customary to have smaller class groups in special
and vocational subjects than in academic subjects, even in the
larger schools, and this still further adds to the cost.

Reference to my study just cited (page 147) shows for cities
of 20,000 and more population a class size of 10.2, 14.8, 13.9,
22.1, 20.9, 20.6 respectively in drawing, household arts, manual
arts, English, mathematics, and science. In practically all cases
the academic subject groups are from 50% to 100% larger.

(5) The increase in the number of classes referred to above,
together with demands for rooms for varied types of work, calls
for an increase in the total number of class rooms, which in turn
demands an increased outlay for buildings.

(6) The introduction of practical arts and vocational courses
in the junior high school, or any other school, calls for large
expenditures for laboratory^and shop equipment. In those schools
which utilize a common building and common equipment for
the junior and senior high schools, the expense may not be greatly
increased by the junior organization, but rather such combination
favors a better utilization of facilities already provided for the
high school. All schools in Indiana, whether they adopt the
junior high school name and habits or not, must require manual

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 117

and dmoestic arts or agriculture in the seventh, eighth, and ninth
grades. Hence the cost for the junior type school need be little
different from that of other schools, except where wide differentia-
tion and numerous courses are provided.

(7) It is claimed that the introduction of enriched and
vocational subjects in the junior high school will and does in-
crease interest among pupils in school work and result in the
longer retention of pupils for a longer period of years in school.

This is given as one of the chief of the junior high school aims,
and, except in the small schools, costs will increase to the extent
that it is realized. Data that I give in another section of this
investigation show that certain Indiana schools, during the past
five years have increased by as much as 18% the number of
pupils who are retined thru the seventh and eighth grades. In
the large school this added retained list will add to the total cost
for the system by necessitating more classes but not to the per
capita cost, but in the small schools, whose class groups are
below an economic standard size, the total cost will remain the
same while the per capita cost will be actually decreased.

If a trained citizenship is the measure of educational values,
then high retention and adequate training are to be sought; if,
however, low money cost is the objective, the best school will
be the one which eliminates all its pupils earliest.

c. Conditions arising out of miscellaneous administrative
practices.

(1) In the junior high school the tendency is to lengthen all
class periods to approximate high school standards.

This, while valuable for the pupil, reduces the number of
classes taught by each teacher in a day and hence adds to the
cost of instruction. My data show that the usual eight-four
type of grammar school has a class period of 25 to 30 minutes in
length, while those of the junior type have from 40 to 60 minute
periods. The average difference is about 10 minutes. The total
length of the school day in the two types of schools is about the
same.

(2) Supervised study appears to be an almost universal
feature of practice in Indiana junior high schools. This is one of
the chief contributing factors for the lengthened class period
just mentioned. The old type grammar school had and has ten or

118 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

eleven 30 minute periods without directed class study. The usual
high school period is 40 minutes. With the introduction of the
junior type school the tendency is to divide the day into six
60 minute periods. This practice, while enhancing the value of
the instruction, necessarily costs more.

(3) As the junior school approximates the high school
standards there has been a marked tendency to reduce the size
of classes in academic subjects from 30 or more to 20 or 25 pupils.

This is no doubt in keeping with the ideals of a more adequate
adaptation of work to pupil needs, but it necessarily results in
added costs.

(4) The departmental type of instruction, which is an almost
universal feature of junior high school organization, will result
in a poor coordination of teaching effort by the various teachers
unless the work is unified thru close and thorough supervision
of a type not demanded under the older organization. In the
small school system the change will probably call for no additional
expense, and in the larger system the centralization of the upper
grades may result in a saving even with improved supervision,
if the supervisory expense of the ward buildings containing the
first six grades is reduced ; if not, then the concentration will call
for additional supervision of a more expensive quality.

(5) Retardation and repetition of work are prolific sources
of increasedcostsT^

The junior school, however, with its greater attention to the
individual and its provision for varied types of work seeks to
reduce this repetition, and to the extent to which it is successful
it will reduce rather than increase costs.

^rayer^ estimates that 10% of all seventh grade pupils and
8% of an eighth grade pupils are repeating work previously
taken. This would give an average of at least 9% for the two
grades. Ayers9 states that in the average city elementary school
the average number of years to reach the point where pupils are
is 111% of the normal time that should be required without
failure and repetition. Or, he says, that the cost is 11% greater
than the per capita cost should be.

An examination of certain data in this study relative to
retention will show that in some schools the per cent of progress
thru grades seven and eight is not more than 80% of what it

s Strayer, G. D. Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges. U. S. Bur. Ed. bulletin
No. 5, 1911. p. 136.

• Ayers, L. P. Money Cost of Repeating vs. Money Saving thru Acceleration. Am.
Sch. Board Jr. Jan. 1912. pp. 13, 14.

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 119

normally should be, and the showing would probably be much
worse if pupils did not stop the repeating process by leaving
school as soon as permitted by law. The Butte Survey Report10
shows an eighth grade non-promotion of 10.3% and an elimina-
tion of 11.3%. In a previous study11 on the per cent of failures
in high school subjects, I have shown that certain Indiana high
schools are failing as high as 59% of all boys taking first year
German and 41% of all boys in first year Latin and 39% of all
boys in first term English.

Specifically, the above facts on failure and repeating mean
this, that failure of promotion leads to retardation or elimination ;
if the pupil leaves he is not receiving the training the community
intended him to have ; and if he repeats, either classes will be over-
crowded or new classes must be organized. In the latter case
the school budget must be enlarged to provide more building
room and a larger teaching staff.

In the small school with its small classes and possibility of
much attention to individuals, retardation and failure should be
prevented in the maximum degree. Also a small amount of
repetition here would not increase costs because the class size
permits of the repeater being carried without additional sections
being organized.

2. FACTORS WHICH TEND TO REDUCE COSTS.

The junior high school program is not one of retrenchment
but rather one of expansion and enrichment. Such a policy in-
variably calls for added rather than lessened expense. However,
there are certain features of administration where the junior
type of organization may effect certain economies.

(a) Thru centralization of seventh and eighth grades at cen-
tral buildings, not only can greater variety and differentiation
be provided, but at the same time a standard class size may be
maintained which shall make for economy.

(1) Where these grades are scattered in outlying buildings
there will necessarily result many small classes and some over-
crowded ones, which may be eliminated at a central plant with
a saving in the total teaching force, other conditions remaining
the same.

10 Report of the Survey of the School System of Butte, Mont. p. 27.

» Childs, H. G. "Per Cent of Failures in High Schools." Bulletin of the Third Con-
ference on Educational Measurements, Indiana University, 1917. pp. 188-191.

120 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

(2) It has been advocated that such centralization makes
possible a saving in supervisory costs, but as I have previously
stated, it appears to me that such centralization will tend to
increase such cost by providing a better type of supervision.

(3) Without doubt such centralization will reduce enormous-
ly the cost of shop and laboratory equipment over what would
be the case if such facilities were provided for every elementary
school building and then only partially utilized.

(4) To the extent that centralization prevents idle equip-
ment and unused rooms for much of the time, it reduces costs by
requiring fewer total rooms and even buildings. And to the extent
that there may be a saving in the number of rooms and buildings,
there will be a saving in heating, lighting, and janitor service
and other factors in up-keep.

(b) A constantly maintained policy of elimination will ulti-
mately result in a saving in the grammar grades and high school
costs, because the main factor making for increased costs, the
pupil, will have been removed. Such a policy would result in
fewer buildings, fewer teachers, less equipment and all the various
factors that make up the modern school. As I have previously
indicated, however, the junior high school is seeking to prevent
elimination and to increase retention.

SUMMARY.

Opinion seems to be varied relative to junior high school costs,
apparently due to lack of accurate cost data and to variable
aims and organization, some officials having cost saving as their
dominant purpose, while others are seeking an enriched educa-
tional program regardless of cost.

The data for the Indiana junior high schools indicate that
such organization costs about 6% more for the seventh and
eighth grades in the larger schools and 6% more for the upper
six grades combined in small consolidated schools than does the
ordinary grammar grade-high school organization for the same
size of school, and from 15% to 20% more in small city junior
high schools in the upper six grades than in non-junior schools
in cities of corresponding size. Reference to programs of study
in schools of the various types indicates that the junior high school

Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 121

group, on the average, are providing a more varied type of
educational program and have a teaching force which has had a
superior training to teachers in grammar grades in other types
of organization.

A summary of other factors relative to junior high school
costs indicates that on the whole we may expect them to be
greater because of teachers with superior training, more men
teachers, more teachers of special and vocational subjects, a
more varied and enriched program of studies, differentiated
curricula and smaller class groups, more shop and laboratory
work with half credit value per unit of time, lengthened class
periods and supervised study, better supervision, longer reten-
tion of pupils in school, demand for more room to accommo-
date the new types of work, and demands for more elaborate
and expensive equipment.

The chief economies of this type of organization will come
thru concentration of seventh and eighth grades at a central
plant, utilization of a common teaching staff for grades seven to
twelve in many schools, and a reduction in failure, retardation,
and repetition of work.

The junior high school movement seeks to raise grammar
grade work to the high school level by departmentalized methods
of instruction, smaller classes, teachers with superior training
and experience, superior facilities and equipment, and, most
important of all, by enriched and differentiated courses of study
and curricula. This must necessarily cost more than the tra-
ditional school training. To establish a junior high schools calls
for the consideration of relative values. One of my correspon-
dents writes: "The junior high school costs more, but that is no
objection, for it is worth more."

122 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

b. Comparative Measures of School Achievement.

One argument frequently urged against the junior high school
is that if the new studies and activities advocated are put into
practice many elements of the present seventh and eighth grade
work, long considered of fundamental importance in training for
a common citizenship and daily utility, will have to be slighted or
omitted altogether. Such arguments have been leveled especially
against the introduction of differentiated courses in industrial
arts, foreign language and the like.

Both Bagley and Coffman argue against any considerable
differentiation in the grammar grades. Bagley1 says that ele-
mentary education should provide "a basis of common feeling
and common thought and common aspiration which is absolutely
essential to an effective democracy." He says that if we must
have differentiation to prevent elimination, then have it; but he
ascribes elimination to other preventable causes. Coffman2
urges "a curriculum consisting of minimum essentials — a curri-
culum consisting of those great facts and principles, which all
should be expected to acquire within the limits of their respective
capacities." With Bagley he argues for a uniform curriculum but
differentiated methods to suit the individual child or group.

In the light of these and other similar objections I have
attempted to ascertain to what extent certain schools that have
radically modified their programs of study for the seventh and
eighth grades are able to show a comparatively creditable achieve-
ment in certain subjects, notably English and mathematics, which
are generally classed among the necessary common elements re-
ferred to as compared with another group of schools whose pro-
grams show them to be devoting their time chiefly to these saving
elements.

For this purpose certain standard tests were administered in
the eighth grades of twenty-one, out of a possible twenty-four
consolidated rural and village high schools in two counties, which
I shall designate as "A" and "B". These schools are in every-
thing, except their programs of study, apparently much alike.
Both counties are strictly agricultural, no one of these schools is
in a town of over 1,200 population, and the school systems of
both counties are considered to be among the best in Indiana.

i Bagley, W. C. The Six-six Plan. School & Home Education. 34:3-5.
1 Coffman, L. D. Minimum Essentials vs. Differentiated Courses of Study in Seventh and
Eighth Grades. N. E. A. Proc. 1916. p. 953.

Measures of School Achievement 123

COMPARISON OF CONDITIONS IN SCHOOLS "A" AND "B"
(GRADE 8).

Items of comparison Co. "A". Co. "5".
Program of studies (periods a week) :

Reading or literature 2 . 5.

Grammar 1 . 4 .

Composition 1 . 1 .

Spelling incidental 2 . 5

Writing 0. 2.5

Arithmetic 4 . 5 .

History 4 . 5 .

Geography, physiology, hygiene 0 . 7 .

General science .' . . 4 . 0 .

German 4 . 0 .

Agricultcre or manual training 2 . 2 .

Domestic science 2 . 2 .

Drawing 1. 1.5

Music 1. 1.5

Time distribution in minutes:

Length of recitation periods 25 . 25 .

Length of supervised study periods 15. 0.

Weekly time to forma1 reading recitation . . 50. 125 .

Weekly time to grammar-composition... 50. 125.

Weekly time to spelling incidental 62 . 5

Weekly time to arithmetic 100 . 125 .

Per cent of total time to reading 8.3 13.5

Per cent of total time to spelling 0. 6.75

Per cent of total time to arithmetic. ... 16.7 13.5

Per cent of time to foreign languages 16.7 0 .

Per cent of time to new or special subjects. . 50 . 0 13.5

County "A" schools have been working on this schedule for
two years so that present eighth grades have not had the tradi-
tional amount of time for English but have substituted German
for one-half the time usually given to the vernacular.

Probably all will agree that English language and literature
and arithmetic are fundamentally important subjects of study
containing essential elements to be incorporated in the education
of all children, and that pupils ought to acquire a reasonable
proficiency in them. "A" schools have transferred much time
from English to German, and if common elements are neglected,
the field of English should be conspicuous for low achievement.

124 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

The tests given were the Woody Arithmetic Series B, Multi-
plication Scale;3 Ayers Spelling Scale4 (first 25 words column T) ;
Thorndike Reading Scale, Alpha 2, part II;5 and the Thorndike
Visual Vocabulary Scale, A 2 x.6

The cooperation of the county superintendents and the school
principals was hearty and cordial, and uniform directions for
the administration of the tests were sent with the tests. These
tests were given in the various schools on March 13th and 14th,
1917, and all the test papers were forwarded to me at once by
the principals. All scoring on the reading and vocabulary tests
was done by the writer, and that of the arithmetic and spelling
directly under my supervision, and has been rechecked to make
sure of accuracy and uniformity in scoring.

» Woody, C. The Measurement of Some Achievements in Arithmetic. Teachers' College
Contributions to Education, No. 80. 1916.

« Ayers, L. P. Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Sage Foundation. New York,
N. Y.

« Thorndike, E. L. An Improved Scale for Measuring Ability in Reading. Teachers'
College Record, Nov. 1915. p. 31.

• Thorndike, E. L. Measurement of Achievement in Reading, Word Knowledge. Teachers
College Record, Nov. 1916. p. 430.

Measures of School Achievement

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126 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools
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Measures of School Achievement 127

Tables 20 and 21 show the comparative results for the spelling
test, and should be read: in county "A" school No. 1 gave the
test to 14 eighth grade pupils, of whom 1 spelled 7 words cor-
rectly; 1, 10; 2, 15; 1, 18; 1, 20; 3, 21; 1, 22; 1, 23; 1, 24; and 2, 25.
The average score for school No. 1 is 19.1 words, and the average
per cent of correct spellings is 76.4. Of the 10 schools from county
"A" participating in some of the tests, but 8 sent in spelling re-
turns.

The per cent of correct spellings is determined by multiplying
the average score by 4, since 25 words constituted the list, and
this multiplied by 4 gives 100, or a perfect score. The average
of all individual pupil scores for county "A" is 64 per cent and
for county "B" the corresponding score is 78 per cent of correct
spellings. The results are uniformly better for county "B" but
in both counties the results are far below the Ayers' standard of
88 per cent of correct spellings for eighth grade pupils. On the
basis of school averages, "A" schools score but 81.3% as high as
"B".

If it is reasonable to assume that eighth grade pupils should
be able to spell correctly such words as the Ayers' T column
(guess, circular, argument, volume, organize, and the like), then
county "A" schools are deficient in their provision for efficient
spelling. On consulting the time assignment in the program of
woik for the "A" schools, spelling does not appear in the list of
subjects taught. "B" schools give 62.5 minutes weekly to spelling
and make a much higher score on the test. "A" schools have
apparently slighted spelling, and the test results would indicate
that additional time could be profitably assigned to this subject
since other schools that give definite time to spelling secure
noticeably better results. Perhaps an additional 40 minute
period weekly should be assigned spelling by "A" schools or its
equivalent in distributed shorter periods.

The "Q" (3rd quartile minus 1st quartile score divided by 2)
for "A" schools is 7 and for "B" schools, 3.45. This indicates
that regular class work in spelling keeps the results in "B"
schools much more uniform than in "A" schools where there is
wide variation from the central tendency, probably due to the
fact that some schools give some spelling incidentally in connec-
tion with other school work while others do not.

128 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

(2) READING, UNDERSTANDING OF SENTENCES.

It was thought that if there was definite value in daily formal
reading or a weakness in ability to read understandingly because
of giving little time to formal work in reading and literatuie a
test by the Thorndike reading scale, alpha 2, part II, should
make this apparent.

This scale consists of a series of prose paragraphs of different
and known degrees of difficulty, and the ability measured by
the test, according to Thorndike, is that of getting the message
carried by a continuous passage. Or it is the ability to read
silently and understand the given passages. The pupil reads the
paragraph and answers, in writing, questions relating to it and so
worded as to demand a minimum of ability in expression ii»
indicating the interpretation of the reading.

TABLE 22.
THORNDIKE READING TEST RESULTS, COUNTY "A '.

No. OF

No. OF ERRORS FOR EACH DIFFICULTY SCORE FOR 80%

SCHOOL

PUPILS

8% 9 CORRECT RESULT

6.95

7.14

7.13

7.46

7.41

7.10

7.02

6.70

6.84

6.67

Total .

123

170

439

369

524

7.01

School average

7 04

O..

.25

TABLE 23.
THORNDIKE READING TEST RESULTS, COUNTY "B".

No. OF

No. OF ERRORS FOR EACH DIFFICULTY

SCORE FOR 80%

SCHOOL

PUPILS

8% 9 CORRECT RESULT

7.52

7.01

118

139

6.94

7.40

104

7.39

6.88

103

7.14

7.40

7.25

6.85

7.60

Total .

205

221

673

594

831

7.26

School 3.

vpra CTP

7 22

Q..

.25

Measures of School Achievement 129

Tables 22 and 23 show the comparative results, and should
be read: in school No. 1 of group "A", 15 pupils were tested in
reading; they made 22 errors in difficulty 7; 54 errors in difficulty 8;
46, in difficulty &%', 66, in difficulty 9; and they could read ma-
terial of 6.95 difficulty with 80% efficiency. The method of
determining the difficulty at which 80% correct results are
achieved is that described by Thorndike in the reference given
above. The degree of difficulty at which 80% correct responses
were given by the pupils is, for schools of county "A" (school
average) 7.04 and for county "B" 7.22. The "A" schools are
therefore about 2J^% less efficient than "B" schools, that is,
they can read with 80% correctness material that is about 2J/£%
less difficult. Thorndike estimates that eighth grade pupils
should make a score of approximately 7.5 and seventh grade
pupils, 7. The average score for 18 Indiana schools in grade
eight is 9.7

Our results show "A" schools slightly inferior to "B" schools
in ability to read and interpret the material of the Thorndike
tests. Are we warranted in assuming that the superiority of the
"B" schools is due to the extra time they give to formal reading
over that of the "A" schools? There seem to be four important
factors to be taken into consideration; first, do these tests ade-
quately measure reading ability? Second, granting that addi-
tional time given to formal reading will improve the results in
this case, will the slight improvement necessary to equalize the
results in these two groups of schools warrant the outlay of 70
minutes additional time weekly? Third, if additional time were
given, are we sure the results would improve? And fourth, where
do pupils acquire their ability to read silently and to interpret
what they read? No doubt the formal reading develops this
ability somewhat, but their reading in various other school sub-
jects and miscellaneous reading is probably far more extensive
than the special work of the reading period, and the accuracy
of reading and interpretation will depend upon the excellence
of teaching in all subjects, upon the degree to which teachers
compel their pupils to read carefully and thoughtfully the lessons
assigned. The schools of both counties are considerably below
eighth grade standards and should probably stress somewhat more
the power to read and interpret the printed page, but it is not
apparent that adding time to the formal reading period will
achieve the desired results.

' Haggerty, M. E. The Ability to Read. Ind. University Studies. No. 34. 1917. p. 14.

130 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Assuming that important aims of reading are to produce
ability in recognizing the words read and in interpreting their
meaning, and assuming that this alpha test adequately measures
such ability, the data of tables 22 and 23 show conclusively that
the eighth grades in "A" schools achieve more than 97% of the
efficiency of the eighth grades in "B" schools with an expenditure
of 40% of the time given by "B" schools to formal reading. Or
stated differently, "A" schools have lost practically nothing in
silent reading efficiency by giving one-half or more of the usual
English time to foreign language.

In both groups of schools the time limit for the test was fixed
at 30 minutes and this may have been rather too short a period
for this test. If so the results in both groups would tend to drop
below the Thorndike norm if we consider all responses given,
but by the Thorndike method of scoring, that difficulty is taken
as the score at which the pupil makes 20% errors, and as this
invariably fell for these schools in difficulties 7 or 8, the length
of the time would hardly affect the result as all pupils had time to
go beyond difficulty 8. In fact, most pupils seem to have at-
tempted practically all the exercises of the tests, which would
indicate sufficient time. Then, too, it is comparative scores we
are seeking, and not necessarily high scores compared with other
schools at another time and place.

A "Q" of .25 means that in 50% of these schools the variation
from the central tendency is less than 3J^% of the central ten-
dency. This shows uniform results in all school of each group as
measured by this test. This close grouping of the scores for both
groups of schools, in spite of the wide time variation between
the two groups assigned to formal reading, indicates that the
cause of the uniformity must lie outside the time element.

(3) VISUAL VOCABULARY TEST.

According to Thorndike, "the obvious purpose of these scales
is to measure how hard words a pupil can read in the sense of
understanding their meaning well enough to classify them under
the proper heading, as an animal, a flower, something about time,"
etc.8 The ability to recognize printed words and to have meaning
for them in sentences constitutes the essence of reading. If extra
time, over that of the "A" schools, given to formal reading, will
improve silent reading ability markedly, it should be apparent
in the results of either the previous test or this one or both as
applied to the "B" schools.

8 Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Achievement in Reading, Word Knowledge."
Teachers' College Record. Nov. 1916. p. 430.

Measures of School Achievement

131

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132 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Measures of School Achievement 133

Tables 24 and 25 show the comparative results of the vocabu-
lary tests, and should be read: in school No. 1 of county "A"
15 pupils were tested, 3 errors were made in difficulty 4; 7, in
difficulty 4.5 ; 10, in difficulty 5 ; etc. ; and the average difficulty at
which these pupils had 20% errors or 80% efficiency is 7.2. For
"A" schools the average for all pupils is 6.9 and for "B" schools
7.1. "B" schools have a superiority as measured by this test
of slightly less than 3%. The small values for Q indicate a close
grouping of the schools about their central group tendencies,
that is, 50% of the schools vary from the median by less than
than 6% of its amount for the junior or "A" schools. When the
papers are scored by the Thorndike method of line averages, the
average for "A" schools is 7.9 and for "B" schools, 8.2. As in
the previous test the close grouping of the scores about a common
central tendency (7) indicates that the uniformity is due to some
other factor than the time distribution for English in the two
groups of schools, for this is 2J^ times as much in the "B" schools
as in the "A" schools. The superiority in the "B" score is about
two words on the list of 130 words in the whole test series. Even
this small difference may be due, in part, to differences in time
allotment to formal English, but we should be hardly warranted
in advising a 150% increase in reading time to secure a 3% im-
proved in efficiency as measured by this test.

134 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Measures of School Achievement

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136 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Tables 26 and 27 show the comparative results for the multi-
plication test, and should be read: in county "A" 13 pupils of
school No. 1 wrote the test, of whom 1 solved 13 problems cor-
rectly; 2, 15; 1, 16; 2, 17; 1, 18; 5, 19; and 1, 20; with an average
of 17.4. The average of all individual scores in county "A" is
15.4 and in "B", 15.2. The average of the school averages is
15.1. The Q in each group is small and indicates a uniform dis-
tribution near the central tendency of achievement in all the
schools of each group. The differences in these two sets of scores
are slight and show a slight superiority in the "A" schools. The
differences in the amount of time given to class work in arith-
metic in the various schools of the two counties are also not
great, being in "A" schools from 100 to 120 minutes a week and
in "B" schools 125 minutes. Neither group of schools equals
the Woody standard score of 18 for the eighth grade. The fact
that most of these pupils are unaccustomed to taking tests of
this sort may have been responsible, in part, for the low scores,
or it may be that neither system is emphasizing drills in funda-
mental processes in the grammar grades, and that pupils do not
acquire and keep up a high standard of proficiency in them.
It would probably be best for these schools to assume that they
are devoting sufficient time to arithmetic and to experiment with
a better distribution of the time within the subject and to formu-
late more definitely just what objectives they are working for
before allotting more time to the subject.

Haggerty9 found that there was little correlation between
excellence in arithmetic scores by the Courtis standard tests and
the time devoted to arithmetic in the various schools.

As a result of this test we conclude that the marked change
in program emphasis by the schools of county "A" has not caused
any deterioration in arithmetic achievement as compared with
the schools of county "B" which still give their major emphasis
to the traditional subjects.

SUMMARY.

To summarize briefly, the schools of county "A" show approx-
imately the same quality of achievement in arithmetic, reading
for understanding of sentences, and in visual vocabulary recogni-
tion as do the schools of county "B". In spelling, which is more
dependent on formal drill for its results than is reading, they

• Haggerty, M. E. Arithmetic. Indiana University Studies. No. 27. 1914.

Retention of Pupils in School 137

are decidedly inferior, and probably need to devote more time
specifically to securing spelling efficiency. Contrast with the
"B" schools, which give more than double the "A" time to read-
ing and other phases of formal English, does not give convincing
proof that an increase in time for formal English in the "A"
schools would be spent with profit. They are probably receiving
other values of various kinds thru the study of German that more
than counterbalance any that have been lost. The limited
evidences of all these comparative tests do not offer any con-
vincing proof that, even when one-half to three-fifths the usual
time is taken from the chief of our "common elements", there
has been any marked deterioration in the quality of achievement
as compared with other schools devoting much more time to this
work and less to new subjects. In the above evaluation, "as
measured by these tests," should be understood.

c. The Measurement of Retention Thru Grammar Grades and

High School.

(1) GENERAL DISCUSSION.

One of the chief advantages claimed for the junior high school
type of organization is that it retains pupils longer in school than
do other forms of grammar grade organization. For fifteen years
the claim has been made by practically every advocate of re-
organization, but the statistical evidence supporting the claim
has not been of a convincing sort, and for the most part there
has been no evidence offered other than mere opinion.

Without doubt principals and superintendents who have
introduced the junior high school type of organization have
assumed that the increasing grammar grade and high school en-
rollments of the past few years have been due to this new organiza-
tion, without considering the fact that other schools on the old
eight-four plan of organization and that schools without even
departmental organization have had equally great increases in
enrollments.

In the report of his investigation in 1914, Briggs1 states that
107 principals of junior high schools declare that junior high
school organization retains pupils better than the old organiza-
tion; 2, that it does not; and 3 say they don't know.

» Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School. Report of U. S. Com'r of Ed. 1914. Vol. I. pp.
142 and if.

138 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

In response to his inquiry relative to the longer retention in
school of pupils in the junior high school, Bingaman2 received 91
affirmative replies, 4 negative, and 7 indicating doubt.

A Los Angeles report3 for 1913-14 indicates that the average
enrollment in grades seven to nine from 1897 to 1903 was 13.7%
of the total school enrollment; 17.2% in 1904 to 1911 ; and 20.1%,
1912 to 1914. The junior high school organization went into effect
in 1911. As the increase in the enrollments was as great in the
period immediately preceding 1911 as in the one following it,
these figures do not seem to warrant the conclusion that the
junior high school organization was responsible for the improve-
ment.

Moreover the data cited by Briggs from the Berkley schools
to the effect that under the junior high school organization
94.73% of those completing the eighth grade enter the ninth
proves nothing unless we know what the conditions were very
shortly before the introduction of the reorganization movement.
Fifteen years ago the writer was connected with a school that
regularly carried from 95% to 100% of its eighth grade pupils
into the ninth grade, and that with non-departmental teaching,
promotion by grade, and with no manual training, domestic
science or the other prevocational arts which are common sub-
jects in the junior high school of the present time. This school
still maintains a high record of retention in the grammar grades
and between the elementary and high schools, and it has intro-
duced manual training, domestic science, agriculture, promotion
by subject, and various other features of the reorganized program.
If the present superintendent has not consulted past retention
records he may be harboring the delusion that a 95% retention
between the eighth and ninth grades is entirely due to his intro-
duction of the practical arts or to the assuming of the junior
high school name.

The data cited by Briggs from Grand Rapids, which indicate
a 10% higher ninth grade enrollment from eighth grade junior
high school pupils than from eighth grade grammar school pupils
appears to be significant; but if eighth grade graduates had to
attend high school farther from home than the grammar school
and also change to an unfamiliar environment while eighth grade
graduates of the junior high school continued at the same building

s Bingaman, C. C. A Report on Intermediate or Junior High Schools of the U. S. 1915.
» The Intermediate Schools of Los Angeles. El. Sch. Jr. 15:361-377.

Retention of Pupils in School 139

this 10% increase in favor of the junior high school may easily
be due to "distance to travel" rather than to "junior high school."
The gain of 28% reported in the per cent of eighth grade grad-
uates entering the ninth at Evansville, Indiana, between 1912
and 1914, reported by Briggs in the reference just cited, must be
considered in the light of facts submitted in January, 1917, by
the present superintendent who, in a personal letter, says, relative
to the retention of pupils, that the object of placing eighth grade
pupils with the senior high school was to prevent their dropping
out of school when they finished the eighth grade. He further
states that it accomplished this to a large degree ; that the pupils
did not drop out after completing the eighth grade, but rather
after finishing the seventh. Later he adds: "The sum of the
pupils enrolled in the eighth and ninth grades in 1916 was exactly
the same as that enrolled in the same grades in 1909 before the
building of the present junior high school and the inauguration
of our present scheme." It should also be noted that the city
has had a very considerable growth during the past ten years.

The data submitted by Douglass4 relative to elimination and
retardation are very inconclusive. Corresponding data should
have been collected from a large number of non- junior high schools
at the same time and have been presented for comparison.
Douglass' comparisons between his own data on elimination, col-
lected in 1916, and that of Thorndike, published in 1907, are
valueless for the purpose as vast changes have occurred during
the nine year interval in both enrollments and elimination.
Numerous opinions of superintendents and principals of junior
high schools are quoted which are not substantiated by any
statistical evidence. His figures relative to enrollments do not
take into account population changes, nor do they take into
account the fact that schools in large and small cities operate
under vastly different conditions relative to attracting and hold-
ing pupils and that their data should be tabulated separately
if they are to reveal significant facts. Furthermore his data
relative to retardation in junior high schools do not take inco
account the fact that the conditions, good or bad, of over-ageness
in the junior or senior high school may be, and probably are,
largely due to conditions in grades 1 to 6 rather than in t<he
junior high school. Information relative to the rate of progress
thru the junior high school is what is desired rather than a

4 Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of National Society for
Study of Ed. 1916, part III. pp. 101-113.

140 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

statement of retardation or acceleration without regard to what
unit of the school system is responsible. Also comparisons of
junior and senior high school enrollments are of less significance
as measures of retention than are comparisons of both with the
enrollment in grades 1 to 6 combined, which represents for the
most part the school population of compulsory age.

(2) DATA FROM INDIANA SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO THE RETEN-
TION PROBLEM.

a. Retention as measured by enrollments.

In order to ascertain the facts relative to retention in Indiana
schools data of two types have been collected and tabulated.
I shall first present enrollment data for grades 1 to 6, 7, 8, 9 and
10 to 12 from the majority of schools included in this investiga-
tion of each of the junior high school, departmental, and non-
departmental groups, classified according to the population of
the cities in which located. These data are based on enrollments
for the first semester of the year 1915-16 and were reported by
the superintendent as the official enrollments for the term indica-
ted. Data were reported from 28 junior, 33 departmental, and
23 non-departmental schools.

The purpose of the collection and tabulation of these data is
to ascertain for each type of school and for each population
group the per cent of enrollments in the junior and senior high
schools grades as compared with enrollments in the first six
grades. More specifically the purpose is to compare junior and
senior high school percentile enrollments in school of the junior
type with the corresponding percentile enrollments in schools of
the departmental and non-departmental types. Enrollments in
grades 1 to 6 have been taken as basal because attendance in these
grades is, with few exceptions, compulsory, and this group of
pupils has a more constant and uniform ratio to population than
that of any other school group. From the comparisons indicated
above it is hoped that some conclusions may be warranted
relative to the retaining power of the junior and non-junior type
schools.

Retention of Pupils in School

141

TABLE 28.

RETENTION IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
OF LESS THAN 5,000 POPULATION, WlTH A MEDIAN POPULATION OF LESS
THAN 1,000.

SCHOOL

2
5
6
8
9
14
15
17
19
23
33
34
35

1-6

108

120
356
442
67
102
101
300
356

170

ENROLLMENT
GRADE
789

16 13 24
15 9 10
21 16 9
17 18 12
48 27 40
48 32 19
997
11 14 15
16 15 17
40 35 50
65 49 63
20 20 17
24 22 25

10-12

41
23
24
34
60
37
4
18
38
75
103
29
60

% ENROLLMENT is OF ENROLLMENT
OF GRADES 1 TO 6
GRADE 1
78 97-9 10-12

14.8 12.0 22.2 49.0 38.0
27.3 16.4 18.2 61.9 41.8

0-12 is
OF 7-9

54.1
67.6
52.2
72.4
52.2
37.4
16.0
45.0
79.1
60.0
58.2
50.9
84.5

14.2
13.5
10.9
13.4
10.8
15.9
13.3
18.2

15.0
7.6
7.2
13.4
13.1
14.9
11.7
13.8

10.0
11.2
4.3
10.4
14.1
16.9
16.7
17.7

39.4
32.3
22.4
37.2
38.0
47.7
41.7
49.7

28.3
16.9
7.4
6.0
17.6
37.8
25.0
28.9

14.1

12.9

14.7

41.7

35,3

No
Average

11
15.1
14.1

11
12.5
13.1

11
14.2
14.7

11
41.9
41.7

25.7
28.3

13
56.1
54.1

Median. .

TABLE 29.

RETENTION IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
AND TOWNS OF FROM 5,000 TO 19,000 POPULATION, WITH A MEDIAN
POPULATION OF 8,500.

ENROLLMENT

% ENROLLMENT is OF ENROLLMENT %
OF GRADES 1 TO 6 EN.

SCHOOL

GRADE

10-12 is

1-6

10-12

7-9

10-12

OF 7-9

3 1

,491

225

143

172

292

15.1

9.6

11.5

36.2

19.6

54.1

4 1

,297

147

138

173

290

11.3

10.6

13.3

35.2

22.3

63.3

7 1

,079

160

127

104

259

15.0

11.8

9.7

36.5

24.0

66.2

870

118

205

13.6

7.8

10.7

32.1

23.6

73.1

748

173

13.2

9.5

10.9

33.6

23.1

68.6

902

112

182

12.4

9.9

7.5

29.8

20.2

67.6

856

137

8.8

5.4

6.8

21.0

16.0

77.4

890

101

158

10.0

7.3

11.3

28.6

17.7

61.9

31 1

,100

100

253

9.1

7.7

9.1

25.9

23.0

88.8

No.

Average .

12 1

8 8

10 1

31 0

21 1

69.0

Median , ,

12.4

9.5

10.7

32.1

22*.3

67^6

142 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

TABLE 30.

RETENTION IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
OF 20,000 AND MORE POPULATION, WITH A MEDIAN POPULATION OF
28,000.

ENROLLMENI

% ENROLLMENT is OF ENROLLMENT
OF GRADES 1 TO 6

SCHOOL

GRADE

10-12 is

1-6

10-12

7-9

10-12

OF 7-9

10 2,

717

223

129

110

126

8.2

4.7

4.0

16.9

4.6

27.3

11 2,

191

343

264

210

364

15.7

12.0

9.6

37.3

16.6

44.6

12 8,

133

818

500

318

612

10.1

6.1

3.9

20.1

7.5

37.4

21 2,

591

429

298

233

359

16.6

11.5

8.9

39.0

13.8

37.4

25 2,

664

296

235

267

436

11.1

8.8

10.0

29.9

16.3

54.6

30 2,

591

224

181

150

315

8.6

7.0

5.8

21.4

12.2

56.8

Average .

11.7

8.3

7.0

27.4

11.8

43.0

Median

10.6

7.9

7.3

25.6

13.0

41.0

TABLE 31.

RETENTION IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
AND TOWNS OF LESS THAN 5,000 POPULATION, WITH A MEDIAN POPULA-
TION OF 2,800.

ENROLLMENT

% ENROLLMENT is OF
OF GRADES 1

ENROLLMENT

TO 6

Scoooi

RADE

(

jRADE

10-12 is

1-6

10-12

7-9

10-12

OF 7-9

77.0

444

127

12.8

14.2

39.8

28.6

71.8

328

10.1

7.6

10.4

28.1

24.4

87.0

541

121

14.8

10.9

10.2

35.9

22.4

62.4

356

14.6

8.7

10.4

33.7

21.6

64.2

348

15.2

8.9

12.6

36.7

25.9

70.3

492

136

14.6

11.6

16.0

42.2

27.6

65.4

180

12.2

6.7

7.8

26.7

19.4

72.9

463

158

15.8

11.7

16.6

44.1

34.1

77.8

316

16.5

11.7

15.3

43.5

26.9

62.0

151

17.9

12.6

15.9

46.4

34.4

74.3

347

127

15.8

13.2

18.1

47.1

36.3

77.4

67 8

16S

12.5

11.3

18.4

42.2

41.1

97.2

200

12.5

13.0

15.0

40.5

31.5

77.8

No , 13

Average 14 . 3

Median.. 14.6

13 13 13 13 15
10.8 13.8 38.9 28.7 73.7
11.6 15.0 40.5 27.6 72.9

Retention of Pupils in School

143

TABLE 32.

RETENTION IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
OF FROM 5,000 TO 19,000 POPULATION, WITH A MEDIAN POPULATION OF
8,800.

ENROLLMENT

% ENROLLMENT is OF
OF GRADES 1

ENROLLMENT

TO 6

SCHOOL

GRADE

10-12 IS

1-6

10-12

7-9

10-12

OF 7-9

1,343

132

122

127

166

9.8

9.1

9.5

28.4

12.3

43.6

723

158

12.4

9.3

11.1

32.8

21.8

62.4

1,347

120

161

8.9

5.0

6.5

20.4

11.9

58.7

883

103

110

160

11.6

7.8

12.4

31.8

18.1

56.7

524

177

12.2

9.7

13.7

35.6

33.8

94.7

1,216

116

122

171

9.5

10.0

6.9

26.4

14.1

53.1

1,148

170

139

115

296

14.8

12.1

10.0

36.9

25.8

69.8

523

132

17.0

11.6

13.4

42.0

25.2

60.0

1,195

114

116

171

9.6

7.1

9.7

26.4

14.3

54.3

874

120

10.5

7.9

8.4

26.8

13.7

51.1

1,455

158

105

161

10.8

7.2

6.7

24.7

11.1

44.6

1,546

130

167

161

8.4

10.8

5.8

25.0

10.4

41.6

658

120

13.4

11.4

14.7

39.5

18.2

46.1

852

120

9.6

7.5

8.0

25.1

14.1

56.1

770

100

13.0

10 4

1,205

156

128

102

171

12.9

10.6

8.5

32.0

14.2

44.3

Average

11.5

9 2

9 7

30.2

17.3

55.8

Median

11.2

9.5

28.4

14.2

54^3

15-

CHART 3.

Retention in terms of enroll-
ments, based on tables 28 to
33, inclusive. r

'a" schools in cities of 5,000— O-6 •

"b" schools in cities of 5,000
to 19,000.

"c" schools in cities of 20,000
and +.

Numbers at left represent 30 -
per cent enrollments are of
enrollments in grades 1 to 6.

junior schools.

— departmental schools.

Upper pair of lines, grades ,
7 to 9. <O

Lower pair of lines, grades 10
to 12.

*0-

/s-

/o-

144 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

TABLE 33.

RETENTION IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN CITIES
OF 20,000 AND MORE POPULATION, WITH A MEDIAN POPULATION OF
22,000.

SCHOOL

13 2
16 2
17 1

1-6

,387
,748
,746

ENROLLMENT
GRADE
789

250 221 201
323 229 184
199 156 161

10-12

454
381
160

% ENROLLMENT is OF
OF GRADES 1
GRADE
789

10.4 9.3 8.4
11.7 8.3 6.7
11.4 8.9 9.2

ENROLLMENT

TO 6

7-9 10-12

28.1 19.0
26.7 13.8
29.5 9.2

10-12 is
OF 7-9

67.5
51.8
38.4

3
11.2
11.4

3 3
8.8 8.1
8.9 8.4

28
28

1
,1

3
14.0
13.8

3
52.6
51.8

Average

Median . .

TABLE 34.

RETENTION IN NON-DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF ENROLLMENTS IN
CITIES AND TOWNS WITH A MEDIAN POPULATION OF 1,350.

ENROLLMENT

% ENROLLMENT is OF ENROLLMENT %
OF GRADES 1 TO 6 EN.

SCHOOL

GRADE

10-12 is

1-6

10-12

7-9

10-12

OF 7-9

181

15.9

16.9

19.3

52.1

48.6

94.6

13.1

9.5

35.7

100.0

340

100

12.1

13.2

12.9

38.2

29.4

76.9

150

20.7

15.3

21.3

57.3

42.0

73.0

190

16.3

9.0

16.8

42.1

33.7

81.0

379

122

11.2

12.4

9.8

33.4

21.1

62.9

193

6.7

10.3

14.5

31.5

20.2

63.9

13.2

15.4

7.7

36.3

30.8

84.8

175

11.4

18.3

11.4

41.1

30.8

75.0

270

13.0

11.5

9.2

33.7

16.7

49.4

124

9.6

12.9

32.1

19.3

60.0

483

162

14.1

12.8

14.1

41.0

33.5

81.8

155

15.5

9.0

19.3

43.8

31.0

70.6

197

13.2

19.3

17.2

49.7

47.2

94.9

152

6.6

17.1

6.6

30.3

21.1

69.5

82.0

160

's.i

7.5

12.5

28.1

22^5

80.0

224

12.9

17.4

13.4

43.7

21.8

50.0

300

10.7

9.3

4.7

24.7

5.7

23.0

124

11.3

17.7

20.1

49.1

38.7

78.7

16.4

12.6

41.6

37.9

90.9

322

15.5

13.0

13.3

41.8

28.9

68.9

137

16.0

10.9

15.3

32.2

19.0

44.8

Average

12 9

13.3

13.1

39.5

28.9

72.0

Median .

13.1

12.9

13.1

41.1

30.1

75.0

Retention of Pupils in School 145

TABLE 3.5.

SUMMARY OF TABLES 28 TO 34 INCLUSIVE.
(a) average per cents. (b) median per cents.

% ENROLLMENT is OF ENROLLMENT % ENROLLMENT 10-12

POPULATION IN GRADES 1 TO 6 is OF ENROLLMENT

GROUP GRADES 7 TO 9 GRADES 10-12 7 TO 9

(a) JUNIOR DEP'TL NON-DP. JUNIOR DEP'IL NON-DP. JR. DEP'TL NON-DP.

5,000- 41.9 38.9 39.5 25.7 28.7 28.9 56.1 73.7 72.0

5,000-19,000... 31.0 30.2 21.1 17.3 69.0 55.8

20,000& + 27.4 28.1 11.8 14.0 43.0 52.6

Total 58.3 63.9 72.0

(b) as above . . .

32
25,

.7
,1
6

40.5
28.4
28.1

28.3
22.3
13.0

27.6
14.2
13.8

30.1

54.1
67.6
41.0
57.5

72.9
54.3
51.8
62.4

75.0
75 !6

Tables 28 to 35 show the per cent the 7th, 8th, 9th, 7th to 9th,
and the 10th to 12th grade enrollments, respectively are of en-
rollments in grades 1 to 6 combined, for junior high schools,
departmental schools, and non-departmental schools, and the
per cent the enrollment in grades 10 to 12 is of the enrollment in
grades 7 to 9.

Table 28 should be read: school No. 2 of the junior high
school group has enrollments of 108, 16, 13, 24 and 41, respec-
tively, in grades 7, 8, 9, 7 to 9, and 10 to 12; and the enrollments
in grades 7, 8, 9, 7 to 9, and 10 to 12 are respectively 14.8 12.0,
22.2, 49.0, and 38.0 per cent of the enrollments in grades 1 to 6
combined; and the enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 54.1 per
cent of the enrollments in grades 7 to 9. Tables 29 to 34 inclusive
are to be read in a similar manner.

Averages are computed by schools and not on the number of
pupils in all schools combined as the latter gives undue weight
to the relatively large school. It is comparative results we are
seeking. All non-departmental schools are in cities and towns of
5,000 population or less.

A comparison of average results from the three types of schools
when classified according to the size of the towns or cities in
which located shows that in cities of less than 5,000 population
the per cents of enrollments in grades 7, 8, or 9 are variable within
narrow limits for the three types, no one type maintaining the
lead for all three grades. The enrollments for grades 7, 8 and 9
combined are 41.9%, 38.9%, and 39.5% of enrollments in grades
1 to 6 respectively for junior, departmental, and non-department-
al schools. The advantage seems to be with the junior schools.
The differences are small but have more significance when we

146 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

consider that reorganization has taken place very recently in
these schools. If medians be considered the corresponding per
cents are 41.7, 40.5, and 41.1, the advantage still being with the
junior group.

The per cents of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 25.7,
28.7, and 28.9 of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 respectively for
the three types of schools in order as above, the junior group
being below the others by about the same amount as it was
above in grades 7 to 9. The corresponding per cents for medians
are 28.3, 27.6, and 30.1 respectively. The low average for the
senior high school enrollments in the junior type schools is due
to the fact that one school, No. 15, is just establishing a four
year course and had at the time data were collected but 6% as
many pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 as in grades 1 to 6. This
lowers the average of the entire group by 3%. The median would
seem to be the more reliable index of conditions in this case, and
if this is used the junior group schools are superior to depart-
mental schools in retention thru the senior high school in cities
of this class. The fact that junior organization is of so recent
date in practically all these schools may easily account for no
marked superiority of these schools over departmental schools in
retention in the senior high school.

In cities of this class the junior type schools have a lower
ratio of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 to enrollments in grades
7 to 9 than have either of the other groups. The per cents for
the junior, departmental, and non-departmental groups are
respectively 56.1, 73.7, and 72.0. The use of this ratio as a meas-
ure of retention as is done by Douglass and others may be very
misleading, especially in schools where the reorganization is just
beginning to be felt. Naturally this influence will be apparent
first in the junior high school grades and the greater the in-
fluence here the lower will be the ratio of senior to junior high
school enrollments until the influence has had time to work itself
fully thru the entire high school. On the other hand some
high schools receive into the eleventh and twelfth grades many
pupils from neighboring 1, 2 or 3 year, or from 4 year certified
schools, in which case the ratio of senior to junior enrollments is
high as compared with that in other schools where the normal
conditions of retention are really better.

For cities of from 5,000 to 19,000 population the per cents
the enrollments in grades 7 to 9 are of enrollments in grades 1 to 6

Retention of Pupils in School 147

are 31.1 and 30.2 respectively for junior and departmental schools;
and the enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 21.1% and 17.3% of
the enrollments in grades 1 to 6 respectively for the same school
groups; and enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 69% and 55.8%
of the enrollments in grades 7 to 9 of the same schools. In this
group of cities the junior type schools have a clear advantage
over departmental schools in all three comparisons for measuring
retention. If median results be used the junior schools maintain
their advantage in all comparisons, the per cents corresponding
to the averages above being, 32.1, 28.4, 22. 3, 14.2, 67.6, and 54.3,
respectively.

For cities of the 20,000 and more population class the depart-
mental schools have a slightly higher per cent of enrollments in
grades 7 to 9 and in 10 to 12 than the junior type schools, and
also "a higher ratio of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 as compared
with grades 7 to 9. The per cents in order as for the last com-
parison are, 27.4, 28.1, 11.8, 14.0, 43.0, and 52.6 for junior and
departmental schools. The median results are 25.6, 28.1, 13.0,
13.8, 41.0, and 51.8, respectively. The best results would
naturally be anticipated for the junior type schools in the larger
cities where differentiated opportunities can best be provided,
but it is here that the departmental schools excel most the junior
schools.

The above data show that the junior type schools are superior
to departmental schools in power of retention as measured by
the per cent of enrollments in junior and senior school grades as
compared with enrollments in grades 1 to 6 in schools in cities of
less than 20,000 population and slightly inferior in cities of 20,000
and more population.

Other facts that are apparent from these tables are that the
per cent the enrollments in both junior and senior high school
grades is of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 decreases as we pass
from the smaller towns and cities to the larger, and that in both
junior and departmental schools in cities of less than 20,000 9th
grade enrollments are greater than in grade eight. Both of these
conditions are to be accounted for, probably, by the fact that
the smaller school corporation draws many pupils from surround-
ing rural areas in the upper grammar grades and especially in
the high school. In cities of 20,000 and more population 9th
grade enrollments are less than in the 8th in both junior and de-
partmental schools.

148 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Douglass5 reports for 34 junior type schools an enrollment of
59 in the senior high school for every 100 in the junior high school
(grades 7 to 9 inclusive). Table 35 (a) shows that for the 28 junior
type schools included in this table, under the last column head-
ing, there are 58.3 pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 for every 100
in grades 7 to 9, but when the enrollments are averaged for the
33 departmental schools for the same grades there are 63.9
pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 for every 100 in grades 7 to 9.
The limitations of this method of measuring retention have been
noted above.

The measurement of retention in terms of enrollments is
open to the objection that it conceals increases or decreases in
school enrollments due to increasing or declining city population.
Thus a school in a rapidly growing community may have a large
lower grade enrollment and a small enrollment in the grammar
grades and high school, which causes it to appear to have a very
low retentive power, while as a matter of fact the reverse may be
true. Also, as previously noted, certain schools may have un-
usually high enrollments in upper high school grades because of
transfer from two and three year high schools in the surrounding
territory. However where we are comparing several schools of
one type and class with several of another type but of the same
city class, as we are in this investigation, the objection noted
above is largely removed as we are measuring group tendencies
rather than individual schools. We have already disposed of
another objection by dividing our schools according to the size
of the cities in which they are located. It would be desirable to
have enrollments by sex to note what type of organization,
junior or departmental, makes the stronger appeal to one sex
or the other. As many of the schools reported total enrollments
only and not boys and girls separately, total enrollment data
only have been used in this section of my report. Schools were
asked to report enrollment data for 1911 also that changes in
enrollments and retention over a period of years might be ascer-
tained and its relation to any particular type of organization
noted, but very few schools submitted data relative to this item,
so few that the data are valueless for comparative purposes.

6 Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of National Society for the
Study of Education. 1916, part III. p. 104.

Retention of Pupils in School 149

b. Retention Measured in Terms of High Sixth Grade Pupils

Retained in the School System Thru Half Years

of Attendance.

In view of the limitations indicated above for measuring
retention in terms of present enrollments, other data were collected
which, it was thought, would afford a better index of retention
than the method previously used. For this purpose data have
been collected from several schools showing the high sixth grade
enrollments for the second semester of the school years 1907-8
and 1912-13, boys and girls being listed separately. The data
collected show exactly how many of the pupils enrolled in each
of these groups were retained in the school system 1,2,3,4,5 and
6 half years; also how many of each of the originally enrolled
pupils made a school advancement of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 half
years for each date group. From these data the per cent of
retention thru each number of half years from 1 to 6 has been
computed for junior and departmental schools separately for
each date and for boys, girls and totals. Junior and departmental
schools are then compared as to attendance retention (half years
in school) and progress retention (half years of advancement) for
boys, girls, and totals and for both dates; and also as to the
increase in the per cent of retention during the five year interval
between the 1907-8 and the 1912-13 groups.

Is is assumed that age-grade conditions and the extent of
moving away from the school system are approximately the same
at the two dates, 1907-8 and 1912-13, for any given school.

As conditions necessarily vary somewhat from school to
school making for high or low retention at both dates, the in-
crease in the per cent of retention between the two dates is
perhaps a better index of improvement than is the actual per
cent of retention at either date.

A clear advantage of this method of measuring retention
is that it follows the records of certain definite pupils enrolled in
a given system thru a certain number of years. Accordingly it
determines the holding power of the school for these certain pupils
regardless of whether the city is growing rapidly or slowly in pop-
ulation.

Obvious limitations of this method of investigation are:
first, that pupils moving away from the school system in which
they were enrolled as high sixth grade pupils are checked against
this system on the negative account even though the child

150 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

leaves thru no dislike of school and frequently attends school in
another system into whose jurisdiction he moves. Second,
pupils moving into a district after passing the high sixth grade
level and attending school there, frequently for several years,
are not counted on the positive retention account of this school.
In case the number of schools considered is sufficiently great the
marked differences in individual schools, in the respects noted
above, will be neutralized in the general tendencies of the g*>up
of schools, and it is essentially group tendencies with which we
are concerned. The most obvious limitation of this phase of
the investigation is the small number of schools from which data
were secured.

Ten of the schools claiming junior high school organization
date their junior organization from September 1914 or earlier.
It is apparent that data from schools organized since that date
would have little or no value for this comparison as the reorgani-
zation influence could not have influenced retention in grades
7, 8 and 9 from the second semester of 1912-13. If reorganiza-
tion influences retention it should be apparent to some degree in
schools reorganized before 1914, especially in view of the fact
that the spirit of such a movement usually precedes its formal
accomplishment by two or three years.

Data were solicited from these ten schools and twenty de-
partmental schools of approximately similar size. Five of the
ten junior type schools contributed the desired data as did also
four of the departmental schools. A fifth departmental school
supplied data for the 1912-13 group of pupils but its results are
omitted from comparative averages and medians because growth
in retention between the two dates cannot be determined for
this school.

Inability to trace pupil records thru the years indicated was
the chief cause of non-cooperation by all the schools of which the
request was made. The data were collected during the months
of April, May and June, 1917, and were compiled from the
school records in the superintendent's office in each case by the
superintendent or by his clerk under his direction. The data
were collected in accordance with the directions indicated below,
and no further checking has been attempted to verify their
accuracy than to note whether the data sent in seemed within
the bounds of reason.

Retention of Pupils in School 151

DIRECTIONS FOR TABULATING OR CHECKING RETENTION DATA.

"Indicate the name of the city and by whom the data were checked.
Divide the tabulation sheet into five columns. In column 1 write a complete
list of all boys enrolled in the high sixth grade of your schools during the
second semester of the school year 1912-13. In column 2, opposite the name
of each pupil in column 1, indicate the number of half years each pupil attended
your schools below grade 9 after the date given in column 1. In column
3 indicate the number of half years of advancement each of these pupils
received in your schools below grade 9 after the date indicated in column 1.
In column 4 indicate the number of half years each of these pupils attended
grades 9-12 inclusive after the date indicated in column 1. In column 5
indicate the number of high school credits completed by each of these pupils
in grades 9-12 inclusive after the date indicated in column 1.

If a pupil has withdrawn from school during the term without completing
the work of the term count his attendance as one-half of a year for the term in
question.

A high school credit is to be given for a subject satisfactorily completed
which has daily recitations for a half year. Four credits constitute a normal
half year's work. Indicate fractional credits on a proportional basis.

Be sure to check over your high sixth grade list for the semester following
the date given in column 1 to include any pupil who may not have been pro-
moted to grade seven at the end of the semester for which the list was prepared.

Prepare similar lists for girls of the high sixth grade for the second semester
of 1912-13 and also separate list for boys and girls for the second semester of
the year 1907-8 for the same grade as above.

Compute the data for the 1912-13 groups to the end of the first semester in
January, 1917."

Tables 37 to 40 show the retention of high sixth grade pupils
thru each half year of attendance from 1 to 6 for junior and
departmental schools for the dates of 1912-13 and 1907-8, and
tables 41 and 42 show the gain or loss in the per cent of retention
during the five year interval between these two date groups.
Table 36 shows the enrollments in the high sixth grade for boys
and girls separately and for both 1907-8 and 1912-13.

TABLE 36.

HIGH SIXTH GRADE ENROLLMENTS.
IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOLS

SCHOOL

1912-13

1907-8 SCHOOL 1912-13

1907-8

G T

22 43

32 72

140

167

16j

18 38

101

53 102

119

134

141

. . .

Note: In this and following tables B, G, T, means boys, girls, and totals respectively.
This table is the base for computing per cents in the following tables.

Table 36 should be read: School 3 of the junior high school
group had 42 boys, 37 girls, and a total of 79 pupils enrolled in
the high sixth grade during the second semester of the year
1912-13, and 31 boys, 17 girls and a total of 48 pupils for the
same semester in 1907-8.

152 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Retention of Pupils in School 153

Table 37 should be read: School 3 of the junior group had
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Tables 38, 39 and 40 are to be read in a similar manner.

154 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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156 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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158 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 41 should be read: in school 3 there is a gain in reten-
tion thru one-half year of 9.1% for boys, 22.3% for girls and
13.5% for all pupils of the high sixth grade during the interval
between the 1907-8 and the 1912-13 classes. On the average for
the five schools there is a gain for all pupils of 7.3% thru 1 year
(2 half years), 10.5% thru 2 years, and 9.1% thru 3 years.

Table 42 is to be read in like manner.

Retention of Pupils in School

159

CHART 4.

Retention in terms of attendance beyond the high sixth grade, based on tables 37 to 40

Numbers at top represent half years; and numbers at the left, the per cent of high sixth
pupils retained.

and junior schools.

and departmental schools.

Upper pair of lines, 1912-13 groups.
Lower pair of lines, 1907-8 groups.

CHART 5.

Gain in attendance
retention by boys be-
tween the dates 1907-
8 and 1912-13, based
on tables 41 and 42.

Numbers at top
represent half years.

Numbers at left
represent per cent of
gain.

junior schools.

departmental

schools.

160 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 37 shows that for the 1912-13 group in junior high
schools on the average 4.2% more boys than girls were retained
thru 1 year beyond the high sixth grade, that 8.7% more boys
than girls were retained thru 2 years, and 7.8% more boys than
girls were retained thru 3 years. Table 38 shows that 5 years
earlier in these same schools 1.4% more boys than girls were
retained thru 1 year, 2.2% more girls than boys were retained
thru 2 years, and 3.9% more girls than boys were retained thru
3 years beyond the high sixth grade. In the junior schools the
boys made marked gains as compared with the girls during the
5 year interval indicated in table 41.

Tables 39, 40 and 42 show corresponding data for the de-
partmental schools. Table 39 shows that for the 1912-13 group
3.9% more boys than girls were retained thru 1 year, 4.7% more
girls than boys were retained thru 2 years, and 7.6% more girls
than boys were retained thru 3 years beyond the high sixth
grade. Table 40 shows that for the 1907-8 group 6.2% more
boys than girls were retained thru 1 year, 10% more boys than
girls thru 2 years, and 10.5% more boys than girls were retained
thru 3 years beyond the high sixth grade. Table 42 shows that
there was a decided increase in retention in departmental schools
during the 5 year interval but that the marked increase was with
the girls who surpass the boys in retention at the latter date.
This condition is directly contrary to the tendency in the junior
type schools where the boys have the higher retention at the latter
date although starting with the lower record 5 years before.

A comparison of the averages of tables 37 and 39 shows that
for all pupils of the 1912-13 group the departmental schools have
a 3% higher retention than the junior schools thru 1 year (82.8%
to 79.8%), a 7% higher retention thru 2 years (70% to 63.3%),
and a 7% higher retention thru 3 years (53% to 46.4%).

When these tables are compared for the per cent of boys
retained we find the departmental schools 3% higher thru 1
year, 1% higher thru 2 years, and both equal thru 3 years beyond
the high sixth grade.

Comparison of the averages of tables 41 and 42 for all pupils
shows the junior type schools to have a 3% greater increase in
retention than the departmental schools thru 1 year (7.3% to
4.6%), a 1% smaller increase thru 2 years (10.5% to 11.8%),
and a 4% smaller increase thru 3 years (9.1% to 12.7%).

Retention of Pupils in School 161

When tables 41 and 42 are compared for boys only the junior
schools have a 5% greater increase in retention than the depart-
mental schools thru 1 year (8.5% to 3.7%), a 10% greater in-
crease thru 2 years (15.2% to 5.6%), and a 10% greater increase
thru 3 years (13.8% to 3.9%).

As measured in terms of attendance retention of all pupils
(boys and girls) of the 1912-13 group the departmental schools
are superior to the junior schools, but as measured in terms of
gain in retention by boys during the 5 year interval the junior
schools have a distinct superiority.

The 1907-8 data in my possession show retention thru the
senior high school also, but as the 1912-13 pupils have not yet
reached the upper high school grades these data have no com-
parative value for this study, and so are omitted.

The fact that 2 of the junior and 1 of the departmental schools
computed their data to June 1917 instead of January 1917 as
directed has no effect on the data submitted in the preceding
tables as more than three years, the period for which the tables
were designed, had elapsed at either of the dates, January or
June.

The foregoing tables exhibit data relative to retention in terms
of half years of attendance. The material collected from
these schools enables us to compare junior and departmental
schools as to retention in terms of half years of progress thru the
school system. Tables 43 to 46 indicate retention thru half years
of progress for both junior and departmental schools for the
1907-8 and the 1912-13 groups, and tables 47 and 48 show the
gain or loss per cent in progress retention during the 5 year inter-
val.

162 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Retention of Pupils in School 163

Table 43 should be read: in school 3 of the junior group 34
boys and 30 girls of those who were enrolled in the high sixth
grade during the second semester of 1912-13 remained in school
to complete another half year of work. On the average for the
five schools 75.3% of all pupils who were enrolled in the high
sixth grade made 1 year of advancement in school thereafter;
59.6%, 2 years; and 34.2%, 3 years.

Tables 44, 45, and 46 should be read in like manner.

164 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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Retention of Pupils in School

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Table 47 should be read : in school 3 there is a gain in reten-
tion thru one-half year of 6.8% for boys, 16.4% for girls and 10.2%
for all pupils during the five year interval between the 1907-8
and 1912-13 groups. On the average for the five schools there
is a gain for all pupils of 9.6% thru 1 year, 11.2% thru 2 years,
and 2.0% thru 3 years, etc.

Table 48 is to be read in like manner.

A comparison of averages of tables 43 and 45 shows that for
all pupils the departmental schools have a 1% higher progress
retention than junior schools thru 1 year (76.9% to 75.3%), a
5% higher retention thru 2 years (64.8% to 59.8%), and an 8%
higher retention thru 3 years (42.4% to 34.2%). The depart-
mental schools have a superior retention thru all three years be-
yond the high sixth grade.

When these tables are compared with respect to the per cent
of boys retained we find the departmental schools 1% higher thru
1 year, equal thru 2 years, and 7% higher thru 3 years.

A comparison of averages of tables 47 and 48 for all pupils
shows a 4% greater gain in retention for junior than for depart-
mental schools thru 1 year (9.6% to 5.3%), a 1% greater gain
thru 2 years (11.2% to 10.6%), and a 5% smaller gain thru 3
years (2% to 6.8%).

When comparisons are made for boys only from tables 47
and 48 (averages) the junior schools have an 8% greater gain than
departmental schools thru 1 year (10.9% to 3.3%), a 9% greater
gain thru 2 years (15.2% to 6.1%), and a 4% greater gain thru
3 years (4.4% to .7%).

As measured in terms of retention of all pupils of the 1912-13
group the departmental schools are superior, but measured in
terms of gain in retention of boys during the 5 year interval
the junior high schools have a distinct advantage, as they also
have in terms of gain in retention of all pupils thru 1 and 2 years.

The fact that 2 junior and 1 departmental school computed
the 1912-13 group data to June 1917 instead of to January 1917
as directed may have a slight effect upon the results for the sixth
half year as a few retarded pupils may have passed the sixth half
year of work during the extra half year included by these schools.
The fact that these errors were in both types of schools tends to
neutralize the error as relates to group comparisons. From the
number of retarded pupils who might affect the results as indi-
cated, I estimate that the per cent of error for any school for the

Retention of Pupils in School 169

sixth half year is not greater than 5 per cent and that any error
in the group averages for the sixth half year is less than 2 per
cent.

Tables 49, 50, 51 and 52 show the per cent of possible progress,
the per cent acceleration, and the per cent retardation for junior
and departmental schools for the high sixth grade groups of 1907-
8 and 1912-13.

170 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

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172 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

Table 49 should be read: in school 3 the 1912-13 group of
boys had 136 half years of attendance in grades seven and eight
which resulted in 95 half years of progress; their per cent of
possible progress was 69.8%; 2.4% of these boys were accelerated
one-half year or more during their progress thru grades 7 and 8 ;
and 38.1% of them were retarded one-half year or more in the
same grades, etc.

Tables 50, 51, 52 are to be read in like manner.

One-hundred per cent possible progress would be scored if
every half year of attendance resulted in a half year of progress.

The two groups of schools, see tables 49 to 52 inclusive, show
marked similarities in results. In both the girls have a slightly
higher progress score than the boys, 4% more for the junior
schools for the 1912 :1 3 group and 5% for the departmental schools
for the same date. The average for all pupils is 3% higher in
1912-13 than in 1907-8 for the junior schools and 2% higher for
the departmental schools. On the average about 50% more
boys than girls are retarded for both the 1907-8 and 1912-13
groups, and the retardation rate for seventh and eighth grade
pupils is lowered during the 5 year interval by 3% in junior
schools and 1% in departmental schools. Only 1 junior school,
No. 25, shows a marked retardation improvement (14.7%),
although No. 2 of the departmental schools shows neither re-
tardation nor acceleration at either date. Department school
No. 11, improved its retardation rate by 31.9% but schools 16j
and 17 made poorer records at the later date by 19.8% and 8.2%
respectively. But one school in each group at the later date
appears to be securing even a small degree of acceleration for
both boys and girls, although school No. 3 of the junior group
shows a small per cent of acceleration for boys in 1912-13, and
No. 10 of the junior schools, a small acceleration for girls for
the same date. Neither group had a school showing any accelera-
tion for the 1907-8 pupils.

The data of these tables warrant no claims of superiority for
either type of organization, junior or departmental.

SUMMARY OF RETENTION FACTS.

As measured by enrollments the junior type schools have a
higher per cent of retention than the non-junior schools in grades
7 to 9 and 10 to 12 in cities of less than 20,000 population, but
have a slightly lower per cent of retention in cities of 20,000 and
more population.

Retention of Pupils in School 173

As measured by the per cent of high sixth grade pupils of
the 1912-13 group retained thru half years of attendance the
departmental schools are superior.

As measured by the^ relative per cent of boys of the 1912-13
group retained thru 1, 2 and 3 years the departmental schools
are very slightly superior thru 1 and 2 years and equal thru 3
years.

As measured by the gain in retention for all pupils during
the 5 year interval the junior schools have the higher record thru
1 year and the departmental schools thru 2 and 3 years.

As measured in terms of the gain in per cent of boys retained
during the 5 year interval the junior schools have a distinct lead
thru each of the three years.

As measured by the progress retention of the 1912-13 group
the departmental schools are superior.

As measured by the progress retention of boys of the 1912-13
group the departmental schools are slightly superior.

As measured by the gain in progress retention of all pupils
during the 5 year interval the junior schools are superior thru
1 and 2 years and the departmental schools thru 3 years.

As measured in terms of gain in progress retention by boys
during the 5 year interval the junior schools are superior thru
all three years.

These data give no support to the claim often advanced that
junior high school organization promotes a superior retention of
pupils as compared with other types of grammar grade organiza-
tion. These data do, however, indicate a justification for the
claim, frequently made, that junior high school organization
makes an appeal to boys and retains them in greater numbers and
for a longer time than do other types of grammar grade organiza-
tion.

These data relative to attendance and progress retention,
because of the small number of schools included in each group,
are merely suggestive of tendencies rather than of definite con-
clusions.

Studies for comparison of retention, measured in terms of
retention beyond the sixth grade, are not available. Van Den-
burg6 and Dynes7 have data of a partially similar nature apply-
ing to grades 9 to 12 inclusive, but as their per cents are computed

• Van Denburg, J. K. Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York
City. pp. 84-90.

7 Dynes, J. J. Relation of Retention and Elimination of Students from the High School.
School Rev. 22:396.

174 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

on the number of pupils who enroll in grade 9 only, it is impossible
to reduce their data to comparable terms. Then, too, we are
investigating more particularly the conditions in grades 7 to 9
inclusive while the major part of their data relates to grades
10 to 12.

General Summary 175

GENERAL SUMMARY.

Thirty-five Indiana public schools claimed junior high school organization
in 1916, twenty-five of which were established in 1915 or later. Twelve
of these schools are located in towns of 1,000 population or less and nine
are in cities of 20,000 or more population.

Twenty-five superintendents and principals ranked the following four
factors as chief in importance in junior high school organization, in
order as given : (a) enriched subjects and courses of study ; (b) provision
for individual differences, including differentiated curricula, half yearly
promotions, promotion by subject, class grouping on the basis of ability,
and provision for flexible individual advancement; (c) revised or modi-
fied methods, of which the degree of departmentalization, employment
of teachers with high school experience, supervised study, the use of
the project plan in prevocational subjects, and the use of a common
teaching staff for junior and senior schools are taken as indices; (d) ex-
ploration, guidance and social organization.

Junior high school standards in Indiana schools.

a. Programs of study. The typical Indiana junior high school offers

the following average program in:

(1) Grade 7 (28 schools): English (6.2 periods a week)

arithmetic (4.5), history (4.2), geography (2.7)
physiology-hygiene (2), agriculture or manual train-
ing (2.1), domestic science (2.3), drawing and music
each (1.5), German, 12 schools, (4), and an elective
of foreign language (5) or practical arts (2 to 4) in
approximately one-sixth the schools.

(2) Grade 8 (35 schools): English (5.6 periods a week),

arithmetic (4.6), history and civics (4.6), general
science (4) or geography-physiology-hygiene (3),
domestic science or manual training or agriculture
(2.6), drawing and music each (1.3), and an elective
required in some, of foreign language (4 or 5) or other
high school subject other than general science (4 or 5).

(3) Grade 9 (27 schools): Required-English (5 periods a

week), algebra (5), foreign language, German or
Latin (5). Elective-science — general science, botany,
physical geography — (5), manual or domestic arts (5
double periods), drawing and music, in most schools,
(1 or 2), physical training, in less than one-third the
schools (2), commercial work including commercial
arithmetic or bookkeeping or both, in about one-third
the schools (5), industrial vocational courses, in about
one-fifth the schools (5), ancient history, in about
one-sixth the schools (5).

b. Relative to provision for individual differences, of 35 schools,

4 offer differentiated curricula to provide for well defined
group interests, 22 promote half yearly, 32 promote by subject,
14 have accelerant and slow moving classes, and 34 make some
provision for flexible individual advancement.

176 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

c. Relative to indices of method modifications, there is a close

approximation to high school standards in the degree of depart-
mentalization, introduction of new methods, and general
methods of instruction. On the average every pupil of grade
7 has 6 different teachers, grade 8, 5 teachers and grade 9,
4 teachers. Hence the degree of departmentalization is equiva-
lent to that in the high school. In 17 schools the same teachers
have charge of all classes in both senior and junior high schools,
and in but 3 schools are there no senior and junior high schools
teachers in common. Seventy-five and five-tenths per cent of
junior high school teachers have had high school teaching
experience. Thirty-one schools have supervised study, and 23,
of 31 reporting, use the project method in whole or part in
the prevocational subjects.

d. With respect to exploration, guidance, and social organization,

22 of 26 schools reporting indicate some form of teacher adviser
plan, 8 have systematic provision for educational or vocational
guidance, 26 of 28 reporting, have one or more extra-class
organizations, more commonly athletics and music, and 21,
of 22 reporting, have an average of one assembly a week.

e. Miscellaneous features.

(1) Grades included. Twenty-two include grades 7, 8 and

9; 9, grades 7 and 8; 2 grades 8 and 9; 1, grade 8;
1, grades 6, 7 and 8.

(2) Housing. Twenty-five schools have the grammar grades

in the high school building; 5, separate but near the
high school ; and 5 with elementary grades, generally
a separate floor of the building.

(3) Time distribution. The median length of the school

term is 36 weeks and the average, 34.7 weeks. The
median class period is 40 minutes and the average
44.4.

(4) Teacher data. For the average school the number of

years of teacher training beyond the high school is
2.71; the average number of years of teaching ex-
perience, 8.6; the average per cent of college graduates
43.1; per cent of men teachers, 36 (median 40); and
the average annual salary, $735.

(5) Provision for over-age children. Four schools report

definite provision; 13, very limited; and 16, no pro-
vision.

4. Departmental school standards.

a. Subjects of study with time allotment.

(1) Grade 8. English (12 periods a week), arithmetic (5),
history and civics (4.9), geography or physiology-
hygiene (3.2), domestic science or manual training or
agriculture (2.2), music (1.7), drawing (1.2), and
electives with grade 9 in 12 schools to a limited extent.

General Summary 177

(2) Grade 7. Approximately the same as in junior high

schools with the exception of more time to formal
English and practically no offerings in foreign lan-
guage.

(3) Grade 9. Approximately the same as in the junior

high schools.

b. Relative to provision for individual differences, no schools report

differentiated curricula other than the minimum required by
State Board rules in prevocational work in grades 7 and 8.
Twenty-three report half yearly promotions; 11, promotion by
subject ; 8 accelerant and slow moving classes; and 18, limited
provision for individual advancement.

c. Indices of method modification. Fourteen indicate provision for

supervised study as a regular feature, and 6 in a limited degree;
the degree of departmentalization is approximately the same
as in the junior type schools; the project method is used in pre-
vocational work in whole or in part in 25 schools; in 9 schools
high schools teachers have charge of a part of the academic and
all special subjects in the departmental school, in 8 no high
school teachers teach any departmental classes, and in 17 they
teach all or part of the special subjects in the grammar grades ;
and 37 per cent of departmental teachers have had high shcool
teaching experience.

d. With respect to exploration, guidance, and social organization,

24 schools report some provision for a teacher adviser plan;
5 have systematic provision for educational or vocational
guidance; and 26, of 29 reporting-, have 1 or more extra-class
organizations, athletics and musical predominating.

e. Miscellaneous features.

(1) Housing. In 13 schools grammar grades are in the high

school building but do not use the same assembly or
class rooms, and of the remaining 22, all but 4 are
with elementary school pupils.

(2) Time distribution. The median length term is 36 weeks

and the average, 35.5 weeks. The median length reci-
tation period is 30 minutes and the average, 35.5
minutes.

(3) Teacher data. The average teacher training beyond

the high school is 2.06 years; teaching experience,
10.4 years; per cent of college graduates, 12; per
cent of men teachers, 25.5; and the average annual
salary, $650.

(4) Provision for over-age children in grammar grades. No

schools report any definite provision; 12 report no
provision; and 18 report a very limited provision, as
occasionally, etc.

5. Comparison of departmental and junior schools.

By a point system of scoring new and frequently advocated features
of reorganization but 5 of the 35 junior high schools fall below the

178 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

arbitrarily determined junior high school standard, while but 6
departmental schools of the 35 score above this limit. By the scor-
ing scheme a total of 26 to 29 points are given, distributed as follows:
subject of study modifications, 10 points; provision for different
interests and abilities, 4 to 7 points; social and advisory organiza-
tion, 3 points; and miscellaneous features, 6 points. The adoption
of the junior high school name seems to carry with it, in considerable
degree, the adoption of the new standards. The median junior
high school score is 66.7 and the median departmental school
score 40.7

6. Measurement of some claimed advantages of and objections to the junior
high school.

a. Costs. As measured by the median, seventh and eighth grade

costs for instruction and supervision are about 6 per cent higher
in the junior type schools than in departmental schools in cities
of 5 000 and more population. In consolidated rural high
schools of the junior type, organized on the six-six plan, the
per capita cost for grades 7 to 12 inclusive is 6 per cent more than
for non-junior schools under the same general conditions. In
towns and villages of less than 5 000 population the per capita
costs in grades 7 to 12 inclusive are from 15 to 20 per cent
higher in the junior than in the departmental type schools.

b. Measurement of some school achievements in junior and non-

junior schools in grade eight.

Ten six-six plan schools compared with 11 eight-four plan schools
score 18 per cent lower (64% to 78%) on the Ayers' Spelling Scale,
column T. The six-six plan schools give no definite time to spelling
in grades 7 and 8 while the eight-four plan schools average 15 min-
utes daily. As measured by the Understanding of Sentences and
the Visual Vocabulary Scales (Thorndike) the six-six type schools
score about 3 per cent below the eight-four plan schools, and devote
only from 40 to 50 per cent as much time to formal reading. The
six-six type schools score 2 per cent higher on the Woody Multiplica-
tion Scale and devote a slightly less amount of time to the subject
of arithmetic than do the eight-four type schools. The six-six plan
schools give one-half the traditional English time to German (4-40
minute periods a week in grades 7 and 8). With the possible excep-
tion of spelling, the above stated facts do not appear to indicate
that an excessive amount of time devoted to formal English, as in
the eight-four plan schools, yields results proportional to the time
spent. The six-six type schools, which have given one-half the
usual English time of the grammar grades to a foreign language and
still additional time to general science in grade 8, appear to be
realizing approximately the same values in the fundamental gram-
mar grade subjects as the non- junior schools and in addition, without
doubt, are receiving very positive values from the study of foreign
language and general science which these non- junior schools do not
have in these grades.

General Summary 179

c. Retention of pupils in school.

As measured by the per cent of enrollments in junior and senior high
school grades as compared with the numbers in grades 1 to 6 neither
the junior nor the departmental type school seems to have any ad-
vantage. The junior school has an apparent lead in schools in towns
and cities of less than 20,000 population and the departmental
schools in cities of 20,000 and more population. As measured by
the per cent of the high sixth grade pupils retained thru a series of
years attendance or thru years of progress the departmental schools
have the higher score on the basis of all pupils retained, but the
junior schools are markedly superior on the basis of the gain in the
per cent of boys retained during the 5 year interval between the
1907-8 and the 1912-13 groups. In general, it is not apparent that
these junior school data justify the claim, commonly made, that
junior high schools retain a higher per cent of pupils than do schools
of the non- junior type in the grammar and high school grades.
The data do seem to justify the stated aims of some advocates of
reorganization, namely, that the junior type school makes a superior
appeal to boys as compared with the traditional organization

180 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

APPENDIX.

A SURVEY OF THE SEVENTH, EIGHTH AND NINTH GRADE ORGANIZATION
IN INDIANA PUBLIC SCHOOLS, A QUESTIONNAIRE.

Name of city Information furnished by .

Number of weeks in the school year Date of report

A. Type of organization.

1. Junior high school.

a. Have you a special organization of grades 7 and 8 or 8

and 9 or 7, 8 and 9 to provide for greater differentia-
tion of studies, easier transition to the high school,
longer retention in school, earlier introduction of
vocational work, etc., commonly called a junior high
school? If so, how many such schools?

b. If you have a junior high school, what is the attitude of

teachers, pupils, and patrons toward the organiza-
tion?

c. What is the date of the first definite organization of

your junior high school?
d What grades constitute this school?

e. What are the reasons for the particular combination of

grades in this school — the psychological and social
needs of the children, the demands of subject matter
and methods, or economic and building conditions?

f. If you have not a junior high school according to the

above definition do you contemplate the organization
of one soon? Approximate date?

2. Departmental school (to be answered also by junior high schools.)

a. Do you have departmental teaching (special teachers

for each subject) in the grammar grades? In what
subjects? In what grades?

b. Is promotion by subject or by grade?

c. In what other grades below the high school do you have

departmental teaching and promotion by subjects?

d. Date of the introduction of departmental teaching?

Is promotion in these grammar grades yearly or half

yearly?

How many different teachers does a normal pupil have

in any one term in grade 6.. ..,7.. ..,8.. ..,9....?

g Are any of these teachers the same as of the subjects in

grades 9 to 12? How many? What subjects?
h If you have departmental teaching in grammar grades
is each pupil assigned to some teacher or principal as
a special adviser?

Appendix 181

i. Is any systematic attempt made to give educational or
vocational guidance in these grades? If so, indicate
how, briefly.

j. Do you have supervised study other than in the general
assembly room for these grammar grades? If so,
how many minutes per day per pupil?
B. Conditions of housing, admission, grouping, attendance, enrollment, etc.

1 . Housing and supervision.

a. Are grades 7 and 8, 8 and 9, or 7, 8 and 9 housed with

the senior high school, with lower grades, in a sep-
arate building, or are all grades from 1 to 12 in the
same building?

b. Are these grades in charge of the principal of the senior

high school, the principal of an elementary school,
or have they a separate principal of their own?

c. What per cent of the time of the principals of these grades

is devoted to supervision? (Supervision is here de-
fined to mean classroom visitation and conferences
with teachers for the purpose of improving the quality
of the work).

2. Admission.

a Is promotion in all subjects from the grade below the
grades referred to necessary for admission to the
seventh or beginning grade of your departmental or
junior school?

b. Do you enroll here over-age pupils who have not com-

pleted the regular work of the earlier grades be-
cause of the greater benefit you think they will receive
from this arrangement?

c. If this latter is true, how many such pupils were ad-

vanced to this department at the end of the last
term?

3. Grouping into classes.

a. In what classes (subjects) do you have pupils segregated

as to sex? In what grades? What results or ad-
vantages are claimed for such segregation?

b. Do you form classes in these grades on the basis of mental

ability (fast and slow moving classes)? About what
per cent of pupils in the grammar grades are in such
classes? What are the advantages of the plan?

c. To what extent do you group pupils into classes on the

basis of vocational interests?

d. Indicate any other plan of classification you use in

forming classes in these grades.

4. Enrollment, attendance, failure.

a. Indicate the enrollment for the first semester of the year
1915-16 in the following grades: 1 to 6 inclusive. 7.
89, 10, 11 and 12.

182 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

b. Indicate the same for the first semester of the year 1910-

1 1 if the data are available.

c. Indicate the number of high school graduates, June

1915. Also for June 1910.

d. What is the estimated population of your city, 1915?

e. Indicate the average daily attendance for the first

semester 1915-16 in grades 7, 8, and 9 separately.

f. Indicate the per cent of failure for the first semester

1915-16 in grades 7, 8, and 9 separately. (If promotion
is by grade divide the number of pupils failing by the
number of pupils enrolled; if by subjects, divide the
number of subject failures by the number of subject
enrollments).
C. Teachers in grammar grades.

1. Number.

a. How many teachers are employed in your unior high
school, departmental school or grammar grades,
women? men? (Count fractional teacher where
time is divided between the grades in question and
other grades,)

2. Training.

a. What is your minimum requirement for teachers in

these grades as to the number of years of normal school
or collegiate training?

b. Is this average above that for teachers in grades 1 to 6?

c. In these grammar grades how many college graduates?

How many with 2 years of college training? How
many are graduates from a 3 year normal school?

3. Teaching experience.

a. How many years of teaching experience do you require

before placing a teacher in charge of these grammar
grade classes?

b. What is the average number of years of teaching ex-

perience for all teachers in these grades?

c. How much is this above the average for grades 1 to 6?

d. How many teachers in these grades have taught 10

years or more, 5 to 9 years, 2 to 5 years?

e. How many have taught in high school? In lower grades?

4. Salary and costs.

a. What is your maximum annual salary in these grades,

exclusive of the principal? Minimum? Average?

b. How does this average compare with that in grades 1

to 6? With that of the high school?

c. What is your total salary account for teaching and

supervision in these grammar or junior high school
grades? (Divide salaries for part time work in this
department on the same basis as their time was
divided in C. 1. Include principals' salaries in these

Appendix 183

totals.) In grades 1 to 6? In the high school? (In-
clude grades 9 to 12 or 10 to 12 inclusive according
to your organization, which represents the grades
above your junior high school.)

d. Indicate the salary, or the average salary where there are
more than one in a given group, of each of the following :
high school principal, general elementary school
principal, junior high school or departmental prin-
cipal.
5. Time daily in grades 7 and 8 or junior high school.

a. What is the average number of periods each teacher

conducts recitations daily? Is in charge of assembly
hall or is supervising study?

b. What is the length in minutes of recitation periods?
D. Dourses of study offered and taken.

1. After each of the following subjects which you offer in the grades
of your junior high or departmental school check the
following data under each of the grades which you
are including in the organization.

a. In column "a" indicate whether the subject is required

or elective by "R" or "E". If the subject is required
in one course and elective in another indicate by
"R-E".

b. In column "b" indicate the total number of pupils

taking the subject for each grade.

c. In column "c" indicate the total number of minutes

devoted to class recitation by any pupil per week for
each subject.

d. In the column marked "date" indicate by a "B" or an

"S" whether the subject was introduced into this
department of your school before or since 1912.

e. Those schools that include grade 6 in this department

and not the 9th will cross out the 9 at the head of the
column headed "grade 6 or 9", and those having the
9th and not the 6th included will cross out the 6.

184 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools
2. Program of studies by grades.

GRADE 7

GRADE 8

GRADE 6, 9

SUBJECT

Date

Agriculture

Algebra

Ancient History

Arithmetic . .

Bookkeeping ....

Botany

Civics

Com. Arithmetic

Com. Geography. . . .

Cooking .

Drawing and Art

Electrical Work

Elementary Science. . .

English

grammar and comp

reading and literat'e
spelling and writing
Geography

German

History (U S )

Industrial History

Iron and Metal Work .
Latin

Mechanical Drawing

IVIusic

Physical Geography . .
Physical Training

Physiology & Hygiene
Plumbing

Printing

Stenography

Typewriting

^Vood - work

Other Subjects

Note: Please enclose courses of study for grammar grades and high school,
together with the statement of requirements for graduation.

Appendix 185

E. Advantages of and objections to junior high school organization.

1. Check whichever of the following you think represent distinct
advantages of your junior high school organization as compared
with other forms of 7th and 8th grade organization:

a. It provides greater differentiation of studies

b. It provides an easier transition to high school as reagrds

subject matter methods of teaching

school discipline and social life

c. It provides for the individual needs and affords a better

opportunity to the dull pupil to the bright

pupil

d. It provides a better grounding in high school subjects

such as languages and mathematics

e. It provides an earlier opportunity for vocational and

prevocational subjects

f . If favors a longer retention of pupils in school

g. It makes possible the elimination of one year from the

upper six years of our twelve year course

h. Indicate any other advantages

2. Check whichever of the following you think represent objections
to the junior high school as compared with other forms of 7th
and 8th grade organization:

a. Higher cost

b. Personal or community

preference for the present organization.

c. Difficulty in securing suitable teachers

d. Distance many 7th and 8th grade pupils would have to

go to reach school and cost of transportation

e. Need of more time on the three R's in these grades rather

than on high school subjects for the average pupil

f. Scarcity of suitable text-books

g. Present building and equipment not suitable

h. School system too small to provide the differentiation of

subjects called for by new plan

i. Name other objections

F. Economy of time and extension of work to college grade.

1. Shortening the high school course.

Do you think it desirable to organize the work of the
junior high school or the grammar grades so as to
eliminate one of the last six years of work of the twelve
years' course? , why or why not?

2. Extending the twelfth year's work to college grade.

a. Do you think it desirable to make the twelfth year of
common school work the equivalent of college fresh-
man work? . .

186 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools

b. Are you, in your high school, offering a year of college

work?

c. What subjects?

d. How many hours of work a week for the pupil represent

normal work in this junior college department?

e. How many pupils are enrolled for this advanced work?

f. What qualifications do you require for the teachers of
junior college subjects in the way of academic prepara-
tion and experience above those of regular high school

teachers?

Is a Master of Arts degree desirable?

required

G. Mention new or special features of your junior (grammar grade) or senior
high school organization which are proving of decided value

II. A SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONNAIRE ON SEVENTH, EIGHTH AND NINTH
GRADE ORGANIZATION IN INDIANA PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

1. What is the type of your general school organization, 8-4, 6-2-4, 6-6, 6-3-3,

7-5, 7-4, 6-5? Indicate if other plan is used.

2. Number 1,2, 3, in order of their bearing, the controlling factors that led

to your junior high school reorganization: building conditions, educa-
tional values, economy in the operation of your school system.

3. Number in the order of their relative importance (1, 2, 3, etc.) the essential

features that in your judgment characterize the junior high school; close
contact of certain grammar grades with the senior high school with
respect to housing and the use of laboratories and equipment, a distinc-
tive organization separate from the elementary grades and the senior
high school, the use of the same teachers as for the senior high school
both in academic and special subjects, opportunity for some pupils
to take some high school subjects earlier as foreign languages and
algebra, opportunity for pupils to take more extensive offerings in pre-
vocational subjects than the minimum state requirement, provision for
greater differentiation of courses than under old conditions, provision
for fast and slow moving groups and classes, promotion by subject,
departmental teaching, reorganized and enriched subjects of study,
reorganized methods of instruction, provision for supervised study, pro-
vision for educational and vocational information and guidance, better
organization of pupil social activities, opportunity for over-age pupils
regardless of their previous scholastic attainments, the shortening of
the period of elementary and high school training by at least one year,
opportunity to discover interests and capacities, to provide training
along the special lines of these capacities and interests. Add other
features of importance not listed, and mark with an "X" any listed that
you think are of little value.

Appendix 187

4. a. Do you keep a systematic record of the individual traits of each pupil

and of his educational and vocational and social interests?
b. Is the individual project plan used in prevocational work in grades 7,
8 and 9?

5. For your departmental or junior high school grades indicate the number

of teachers who have had less than 1 year of training beyond the high
school, 1 but less than 2 years, 2 but less than 3 years, 3 but less than
4 years, 4 years, and more than 4 years.

6. Do any of your junior high school or departmental school teachers have to

write for both a common school and a high school license to conform
to the state law for certification? If so, does this cause you any difficulty
in securing teachers for these grades? Do you know of any other pro-
visions of the Indiana state laws or of the regulations of the State
Board of Education that do or may hinder the free working out of the
junior high school idea? If so, indicate them.

7. What extra-class organizations (definitely organized) do you have which

are open to pupils in your junior or departmental school, as athletics,
boy scouts, civic clubs, departmental clubs, general literary society,
general social club, school publication, student government, musical
organizations, etc.? Indicate for 7th, 8th, and 9th grades separately.

8. Indicate the types of courses in your junior high school, as academic,

agriculture, commercial, home making (girls), industrial arts (boys), etc.

9. What provision do you make for unusually bright or slow pupils in junior

hieh school grades, as the carrying of an extra subject, special help, etc.?

VITA

1. Place and date of birth:

Mankato, Minnesota, December 14, 1871.

2. Educational institutions attended :

Rural school, Beauford, Minnesota. 1877 to 1888.
State High School, Mapleton, Minnesota. 1890 to 1893.
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1893 to 1897.
Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University, California. 1910-

1911.
Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. 1911-1912

and Feb. to June, 1917.

3. Degrees received:

B.S. University of Minnesota. 1897.
A.M. Leland Stanford Jr. University. 1911.

4. Titles of previous publications:

a. "A Tentative Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring

Scale of Intelligence", (L. M. Terman and H. G. Childs) in the
Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. to May, 1912.

b. "Measurement of the Drawing Ability of Two Thousand One Hundred

and Sevenety-seven Children in Indiana School Systems by a
Supplemented Thorndike Scale," in the Journal of Educational
Psychology, Sept., 1915.

c. "A Half- Year's Progress in the Achievement of One School System,"

in The Fifteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study
of Education, part I, 1916.

d. "Cost of Instruction in Indiana Schools and Related Problems,"

in the Bulletin of The Third Conference on Educational Measure-
ments, Indiana University, Feb., 1917.

e. "The Measurement of Achievement in Algebra," in the Bulletin of

The Third Conference on Educational Measurements, Indiana
University, Feb., 1917.

f. "A Study of Enrollment, Acceleration, Retardation and Normality,"

in the Bulletin of The Third Conference on Educational Measure-
ments, Indiana University, Feb., 1917.

g. "The Per Cent of Failures in High School," in the Bulletin of The

Third Conference on Educational Measurements, Indiana Univer-
sity, Feb., 1917.

h. "The Results of Practice Teaching as Conducted at the University of
Indiana for the Years 1908-9 to 1913-4 inclusive," in Educational
Monographs, number VII, of the Society of College Teachers of
Education, 1916.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
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