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UC-NRLF 


B   M   S7E   D73 


LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


IRELAND 


Industrial   and   Agricultural 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE   AND  TECHNICAL 
INSTRUCTION  FOR  IRELAND 


IRELAND 

Industrial    and    Agricultural 


H 


DUBLIN  •  CORK  •  BELFAST 

BROWNE    AND    NOLAN,    LIMITED 

1902 


-'^I^ERAL 


Printed  by  Bkowne  and  Nolan,  Limitku.  Dublin 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

In  January,  190 1,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruc- 
tion for  Ireland  decided  to  take  part  in  the  Glasgow  International  Exhibi- 
tion, 1 90 1,  by  erecting  an  Irish  Pavilion  in  the  Grounds,  and  displaying 
therein  a  representative  selection  of  the  characteristic  products  of  Irish 
Industry.  It  was  arranged,  at  the  same  date,  that  an  official  handbook 
deahng  with  Ireland's  chief  economic  resources  should  be  prepared  in 
connection  with  the  Department's  Exhibit  at  Glasgow.  This  work  was 
entrusted  to  my  charge,  and  the  original  issue  of  what  has  now  grown  to  be 
a  very  full  and  comprehensive  account  of  Ireland's  economic  resources,  was 
issued  in  June,  1901. 

A  word  as  to  its  scope.  It  was  thought  well  to  take  the  opportunity 
afforded  by  the  publication  of  such  a  work  to  make  it  something  more — 
indeed,  something  other- — than  an  ordinary  guide  to  the  Irish  Pavilion. 
The  book  opens  with  a  description  of  the  general  geological  and  physio- 
graphic features  of  the  country,  followed  by  articles  on  the  climate,  flora 
and  fauna  of  Ireland.  An  analysis  of  the  economic  distribution  of  the 
population  is  then  given,  preliminary  to  an  account  of  the  internal  means 
of  communication,  and  the  banking  faciUties  of  the  country.  The  next 
Section  is  devoted  to  agricultural  and  technical  education  and  art  instruction. 
As  leading  up  to  the  functions  of  the  State  Departments  in  regard  to  agri- 
culture and  industry,  an  account  is  given  of  the  splendid  work  done  by 
some  of  the  great  voluntary  associations  of  Ireland  in  developing  the 
material  resources  of  the  country.  Two  chapters  are  occupied  with  a  neces- 
sarily curtailed  analysis  of  the  work  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  and 
the  powers  and  constitution  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical 
Instruction  for  Ireland.  The  principal  institutions  of  Science  and  Art, 
which  have  now  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Department,  are  briefly 
described.  Special  articles  deal  with  agriculture,  live  stock,  sea  and  inland 
fisheries,  shipbuilding,  the  linen  industry,  the  modern  Irish  lace  industry, 
and  the  Art  and  Cottage  industries  of  Ireland.  The  articles  to  which  no 
names  are  attached  in  the  Table  of  Contents  were,  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, prepared  by  the  Editor,  or  compiled  in  the  Statistics  and  Intelligence 
Branch. 

The  present  issue  of   IRELAND  ;    INDUSTRIAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL,  is 


editor's  preface. 


more  than  a  new  edition ;  it  is  practically  a  new  book.  No  fewer  than 
250  pages  of  entirely  fresh  matter  have  been  added;  quite  a  dozen  of  the 
original  articles  have  been  re-written,  and  considerably  amplified,  and  every 
contribution  has  been  revised  and,  as  far  as  possible,  brought  up  to  date. 
In  addition  a  full  Index  has  been  appended.  The  new  contributions 
include  articles  on  the  brewing  and  distilling  industries  ;  the  bacon-curing 
industry ;  the  milHng  industry ;  the  leather  and  tanning  industry ;  the 
Derry  shirt-making  industry ;  Irish  canals ;  the  Royal  Agricultural  Im- 
provement Society  of  Ireland,  and  the  North-West  Agricultural  Association. 
The  book  is  still,  no  doubt,  imperfect,  if  considered  as  a  complete  survey 
of  Ireland's  economic  resources ;  but,  within  its  necessary  limits,  it  presents, 
perhaps,  a  fuller  and  a  fairer  statement  of  the  actual  industrial  position  of 
this  country  than  is  contained  in  any  other  single  volume.  It  is  hoped, 
therefore,  that,  for  several  years  to  come,  IRELAND;  INDUSTRIAL  AND 
Agricultural,  may  serve  as  a  useful  book  of  reference,  which,  if  it  does 
not  always  fully  satisfy  intelligent  curiosity,  will  at  least  stimulate  thought 
and  suggest  lines  of  enquiry.  Economic  Ireland  is  still  a  terra  incognita 
to  too  large  a  number,  even  of  Irishmen.  The  material  resources  of  this 
country  have,  in  turn,  been  unduly  exaggerated  and  underrated.  An 
unreasoning  optimism,  and  an  equally  thoughtless  pessimism  have,  too  often, 
been  substituted  for  the  calm  observation  and  consideration  of  facts  quite 
accessible  to  scientific  tests.  In  the  following  pages  will  be  found  what  is 
believed  to  be  an  unbiassed  account  of  Ireland's  Economic  and  Industrial 
position  at  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  century,  with  some  statement  of  the 
historical  events  that  have  led  up  to  that  position.  Such  a  narrativre  is 
essential  to  any  serious  study  of  the  "  Irish  Problem  "—-but,  needless  to 
say,  it  does  not  compass  the  whole  of  that  problem.  Issues,  vital  to  its  full 
consideration — the  question  of  land  tenure,  for  example — have,  of  necessity, 
been  omitted  from  the  present  volume,  for  reasons  that  ought  to  be  obvious. 
Such  issues,  however,  are  precisely  those  least  likely  to  be  overlooked  in 
this  country,  or  in  Great  Britain,  and  are  those,  also,  on  which  a  very  large 
amount  of  information  is  already  easily  available  in  other  publications.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  matters — vital  ones,  too,  to  the  progress  of  Ireland — 
discussed  in  this  work,  deal  with  questions  on  many  of  which  full  and  trust- 
worthy information  has  not  hitherto  been  generally  accessible,  and  in 
regard  to  which,  public  opinion  is  not  yet  sufficiently  enlightened. 

The  Editor  has  again  to  thank  the  following  for  permission  to  use,  for  the 
purposes  of  illustration,  certain  blocks  of  which  they  held  the  copyright : — 
The  Secretary,  Board  of  Education,  London ;  The  Arts  and  Crafts 
Society  of  Ireland;  Messrs.  WiTHERBY  AND  SON,  the  pubHshers  of 
Knowledge;     Messrs.    CHARLES    GRIFFIN    AND    Co.,    the    publishers    of 


editor's  preface. 


Professor  Grenville  Cole's  Open  Air  Studies  in  Geology  ;  Messrs.  GUY  AND 
Co.,  of  Limerick  and  Cork,  and  the  publishers  of  the  Irish  Naturalist. 
Miss  Mitchell  has  prepared  the  Index. 

Messrs.  Browne  and  Nolan,  Limited,  of  Nassau-street,  have  printed 
and  published  this  revised  edition  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  a  special 
agreement  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction 
for  Ireland.  Its  Typographical  and  other  merits — the  work  is  printed  on  a 
specially  made  Irish  paper — are  the  best  evidence  of  the  care  and  taste 
which  that  firm  have  brought  to  the  enterprise.  In  the  literary  preparation 
of  the  volume,  and  in  the  arduous  work  of  proof  reading,  Mr.  THOMAS 
Butler,  a  Staff  Officer  in  the  Statistics  and  Intelligence  Branch,  and 
Messrs.  Walier  E.  C  ALLAN  (who  is  a  joint  author  of  the  important  article 
on  "  The  Brewing  Industry  "),  and  Ernest  A.  MORRIS,  two  other  members 
of  my  staff,  have  given  me  valuable  assistance.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add 
that  without  the  unstinted  and  invaluable  aid  of  my  colleagues  in  the 
Department,  and  the  other  contributors,  this  work  would  not  have  been 
possible. 

WILLIAM  P.  COYNE. 

Superintendent  of  Statistics  and  Intelligence  Braiic/i, 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 
June,   1902. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


Page.  ARTifLE.  Author. 

1    The  Topography  and  Goology  of  Ireland,    .       .       .  Grenville  A.  J.  Cole,  F.G.S. 

il7    Irish  Minerals  and  Building  Stones,     ....  Gre.vville  A.  J.  Cole,  F.G.S. 

A^  The  Soils  of  Ireland J.  R.  Kilroe. 

^  36    The  Climate  of  Ireland J.  R.  Kilroe. 

46    The  Flora  of  Ireland T.  Johnson,  D.Sc. 

V53    The  Animals  of  Ireland, G.  H.  Carpenter,  B.Sc. 

64;  The  Economic  Distribution  of  Population,        .       .  [Charles  Booth.] 

V^73  ;  The  Railways  of  Ireland 

\C82  '  Canals  and  River  Navigations, 

120    Irish  Joint  Stock  Banks, 

129    Irish  Savings  Banks 

^  131    Co-operative  Credit  Associations  in  Ireland,     .       .  

»  \,137  ■  Agricultural  Education  in  Ireland,      ....  [The  late  Sir  Patrick  Keenan. 

146    Metropolitan  School  of  Art,  Dublin,    ....  James  Brenan,  R.H.A. 

148    Belfast  Government  School  of  Art George  Trobridge,  A.R.C.A. 

152    The  Crawford  Municipal  School  of  Art,     .       .       .  W.  Mulligan. 

155    Science  Teaching  and  Technical  Instruction,    .       .  

175    The  Royal  Dublin  Society, 

181    The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland,       .       .  Thomas  Carroll. 

197    The  Xorth-East  Agricultural  Association,         .       .  Kenneth  M'Crae  (Secretary). 

205    The   Irish   Flax   Industry  and   The    Flax    Supply 

Association W.  Morton  (Secretary). 

213    The  North-West  Agricultural  Society,        .       .       .  Ashmur  Bond  (Secretary). 

\      215    The  County  Cork  Agricultural  Society,       .       .       .  James  Btrne. 

218    Agricultural  Co-operation  in  Ireland,  .       .       .  R.  A.  Anderson  (Secretary, 

I.A.O.S.) 
235    The  Dairying  Industry  in  Ireland 

241    The  Irish  Bacon-curing  Industry,         ....  Alexander  W.  Shaw. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Pagk.  Article. 

258    The  Congested  Districts  Board  for  Ireland, 

»  271    The   Department   of    Agriculture   and    Technical 
Instruction  for  Ireland,     . 

295  The  Dublin  Museum  of  Science  and  Art, 

302  The  National  Library  of  Ireland, 

•^304  Statistical  Survey  of  Irish  A griciilture, 

!'  326  The  Irish  Horse-breeding  Industry, 

332  The  Ponies  of  Connemara, 

359  The  Irish  Cattle  Industry, 

364  Sheep-breeding  in  Ireland, 

369  The  Sea  Fisheries  of  Ireland, 

387  Inland  Fisheries, 

390  The  Irish  Woollen  Industry,  . 

402  The  Irish  Milling  Industry,    .       . 

408  The  Leather  and  Tanning  Industry,    . 

413  The  Belfast  Linen  Industry,  . 

417  The  Derry  Shirt-making  Industry, 

420  The  Modern  Irish  Lace  Industry, 

433  Marketing  of  Irish  Lace, 

436    The  Poplin  or  Tabinet-making  Industry, 

438  Art  and  Cottage  Industries  of  Ireland, 

416  The  Shipbuilding  Industry,    . 

451  The  Brewing  Industry  in  Ireland, 

494  The  Distilling  Industry  in  Ireland, 

513  Index,  .       .       , 


Author. 


Colonel  Plunkett,  C.B. 
T.  W.  Ltster,  M.A. 


J.  C.  EwART,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 
Robert  Bruce. 

W.  S.  Green,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S. 
W.  S.  Green,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

T.  W.  ROLLESTON. 


James  Brenan,  R.H.A. 


T.  W.  ROLLESTON. 


(  T.  Cai.lan  Macardle. 
\  Walter  Callan. 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


N,B.— The  titles  in  italics  are  those  of  Illustrations  printed  in  the  text. 


Page.  Title  of  Illustration. 

Frontispiece— Glendalough,  Co.  Wicklow, 

2  Limestone,  Beauparc,  Co.  Meath,    . 

3  Section  of  Folds  in  S.  Ireland, 


8  Pass  of  Ballybeamagh.  Co.  Kerry 

9  On  the  Great  Central  Limestone  Plain  of  Ireland, 

12  Dyke  Cutting  Chalk  and  Basaltic  Lavas,  Cave  Hill, 

Belfast 

13  Ice-worn  Rock,  Loo  Bridge,  Co.  Kerry, 

14  Head  of  Killary  Harbour 

15  Granite    Pinnacles    near    Slieve    Donard,    Mourne 

Mountains,       ...        * 

27  BaUyahinch,  Co.  Gal  way, 

28  Geological  Drift  Map  of  Ireland, 

30    Speciincns  of  Clover, 

45     View  of  Etiiiiskerry,  Co.  Wicklow 

55    Bones  of  the  Great  Auk  from  Kitchoi-middcn,   Co. 
Galway, 

53    Skeleton  of  the  extinct  Giant  Deer  (C'cry«.s-  Giffuntciis) 
commonly  known  as  the  Irish  Elk 

57    Sea  Urchins  in  Rock  Pools,  Bundoran,  Co.  Donegal,  . 


57  TheKerry  Spotted  Slug,    . 

58  Dianthoecia  Luteago, 

59  Pyrenean  Weevil, 

59  Arctic  Ground  Beetle, 

60  My  sis  Relicta,       .... 

61  American  Freshwater  Sponge, 
109  Map  of  the  Irish  Canal  System, 


PhOTOGKAI'HKR. 

Lawrence,  Dublin. 

Welch,  Belfast. 

After  A.  B.  Wtnnk,  reprinted 
from  Knowledge. 

Welch,  Belfast. 


Lawrence,  Dublin. 


Lawrence,  Dublin. 
From  the  Iri^h  Naturalist, 


Welch.       From   the    Irish, 
Naturalist. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page.  Title  of  Illustration.  Photographer. 

128    Diagram  showing  the  Deposits  and  Balances  in  the 

Irish  Joint  Stock  Banks 

130    Diagram  showing  the  Amount  of  Deposits  in  Irish 

Savings  Banks 

140  Albert  Agricultural  Institute,  Glasnevin,     .       .       .  

141  Munster  Institute,  Cork, — - 

146  Design  for  a  Skirt  in  Limerick  Lace,       ....  — - 

147  Sketch  Design  for  a  Counterpane, 

148  Design  for  a  Counterpane, 

148  Design  for  a  Damask  Table  Cloth 

149  Design  for  Lace  Flounce  and  Collarettes  in  Limerick 

Lace  and  Crochet, 

150  Design  for  a  Lace  Skirt, 

151  Design  for  a  Damask  Tablecloth 

151  Design  for  a  Lace  CoUarette, 

152  The  Crawford  School  of  Art, 

153  Design  for  Lace  Fan 

153    Design  for  Damask, 

220    Map  showing  position  and  number  of  Co-operative 

Societies, — ^ 

246    Swine  from  the  Glasnevin  Herd 

'247    Swine  from  the  Glasnevin  Herd, 

250  Typical    Irish    Bacon-curing    Factory— Tin-making 

Department, Guv  &  Co. 

251    Killing  Bar  and  Hanging  House,    ...  „ 

254    Saiisage  Room, „ 

"255    Packing  Department,  .       .               ...  „ 

■258    Map  of  the  Congested  Districts 

•259    Gweebarra  Bridge,  Co.  Doneyal 

262  Clare   Island.      Wall   separating   Farms    from   the 

Mountain  Commonage, Charles  Green. 

263  Clare  Island.    A  New  Farm  House  and  "Stripes,"     .  ,, 

266    The  Spring  Mackerel  Fleet  in  Berehaven,     .       .        .    W.  S.  Grekn. 

■267    Mackerel  being  Despatched  from  West  Coast  Pier, 

Kerry, „ 

268    Mackerel  Boats  of  the  Nobby  and  Zulu  Type,  built  in 

Connemara „ 


269    Herring  Boats  of  the  Zulu  Type,  Co.  Donegal,      .       .  „ 

The  Tara  Brooch,  front  and  back  views,       ...    A.  McGoogan. 


296) 
297) 


298    The  Arilar/h  Brooch,  

298    The  Dromnach  Airgid 

•299    The  Shrine  of  St.  Patricks  Bell A.  McGoogan. 

502    National  Library  of  Ireland Lawrence,  Dublin. 

-304    Chart  to  illustrate  the  relative  areas  under  Crops, 

Grass  and  Meadow  in  Ireland, 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page.  Title  ok  Illustration.  PiioTotiHAi'iiEn. 

307  Map  to  show  the   Division    of    Land   iindei-   Crops 

and  Grass  in  Ireland, 

308  Coloured  Line  Diagram  to  illustrate  changes  in  Crop 

areas, 

328  Typical  Weight-Carrying  Hunter, Lafayette. 

329  Agricultural  Stallion, 

332    Geological  Map  of  the  Conneniara  District,        .  

334  Connemara  Pony  and  Foal— Andalusian  Type,    .       .    Lafayette. 

335  Connemara  Ponies — Andalusian  Type ,, 

336  Connemara  Ponies 

337  Light  Grey  Connemara  Filly 

337    A  Mountain  Pony  distinguished  as  a  Hunter, 

Sm    Dexter  Bull, 

361    Kerry  Cow, 

365    RoscoviDion  Ewe, 

375  Types  of  Fishing  Boats 

376  French  Mackerel  Boat, 

377  Arklow  and  Manx  Mackerel  Boats,        ....  

378  Map  of  Ii-ish  Fisheries 

'380    Mackerel  Seine  Boat 

381    Kinsale  Mackerel  Boat 

384  Interior  of  Marine  Laboratory  of  Department  of  Agri- 

culture and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland       .    Charles  Green.- 

385  The  Departvient's  Nohbii  "  Monica  "     ....  

386  "Steam  Drifters"  at  work, 

386  Cape  Clear  Harbour, 

387  The"Helga," 

388  Salmon  Fass,  Galway 

388  The  Falls  of  the  Shannon,  near  Castloconnoll,      .       .    Lawrence. 

389  Salmon  Weir,  near  Galway 

389    Arklow  Mackerel  Fleet, 

391  Treadle  Wheel  and  Spindle  ^rith  Whorl,    .       .       .  

392  Plan  of  a  Treadle  Wheel, 

392    Large  or  Hand  Spinning  Wheel,  Arran  Islands,  .        .  

401    The  Loom  of  Penelope, 

418    Two  Typical  Londonderry  Shirt-making  Factories,    .    Kerr. 

420  Venetian  Needlepoint,  17th  Century,     ....  

421  Genoese  Pillow  Lace,  17th  Century,       ....  

421  Gros  Point  de  Venise,  17th  Century,     ....  

422  Snow  Point  Venetian,  17th  Century,     ....  

422  Brussels  Pillow  LacC,  18th  Century,      ....  • 

423  Mechlin  Pillow  Lace. 

423  Old  Flat  Point,  Youghal,  Ireland, '■ 

424  Modern  Flat  Point,  Youghal,  Ireland 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page.  Title  of  Illustration. 

124  Modern  Raised  Needlepoint,  Yoiighal,  Ireland, 

424  Modern  Flat  Needlepoint,  Kcnniare,  Ireland,    . 

425  Birr  Pillow  Lace, 
425  Old  Limerick  Tambour  Lace,  . 

425  Modern  Limerick  Tambour  Lace, 

426  Modern  Limerick  Run  Lace,    . 

427  Old  Applique,  Carrickmacross, 

427  Sketch  of  Fan  Design, 

428  Modern  Applique,  Carrickmacross 

429  Modern  Carrickmacross  Guipure, 

430  Carrickmacross  Lace  Fan, 

431  Old  Crochet  Lace, 
431  Modern  Crochet  Lace,  Ardara,  Co.  Donegal 

431  Modern  Crochet  Lace,  New  Ross, 

432  Irish  Spinninp  Wheel, 

432  Cork  Crochet  Lace,      . 

433  Designs  for  Lace  Handkerchiefs 

434  Design  for  Collar  in  Carrickmacross  Lace 

435  Worked  Crochet  Panel  for  Dress, 

444  Specimens    of   Brass   and   Copper   Work 

Fivemiletown 


Photographer. 


445  Bookplate  by  Mr.  John  J'inycomb,  M.R.I.A 

446  S.S.  "Oceanic,"     ...... 

450  S.S.  "  Egga," 

470  Guinness's  Brewery,  Frontage  of  Premises, 

471  One  of  the  Malting  Floors 

472  View  of  Mash  Tuns,  . 

472  The  Cleansing  House 

^'■3  View  of  the  Cooperage  Yard, 

*73  Loading  Wharf  on  the  River  Liffcy 

476  The  Cork  Porter  Brewery, 

477  The  Lady's  Well  Brewery, 

478  The  Fermenting  Room,  Dundalk  Brewery  (Macardl 

Moore  &  Co.,  Ltd.)         .... 

479  Views  of  the  Castlebellingham  Brewery, 

488  An  old  advertisement  of  Irish  Porter, 

489  D'Arcy  and  Sons'  Prize  Horse  "  Butterscotch, 
.511  Modelled  DeaiQti  for  Card  Trail,  . 


made   at 
Belfast 


Allison. 

C.  J.  Thornhill. 


Robinson. 


THE    TOPOGRAPHY    AND    GEOLOGY    OF 

IRELAND. 

Ireland,  lying  on  the  western  rim  of  the  great  Eurasian  continent,  occupies 
a  position  of  extreme  geological  interest.  The  line  along  which  a  large 
body  of  water  meets  with  continental  land  is  now  recognised  as  one  of  in- 
stability and  unrest.  It  has  long  been  obvious  that  the  breakers  are  wearing 
away  the  rocks  at  one  point,  while  at  another  they  are  depositing  beds  of 
shingle  and  fine  sand.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  very  floor  of  the  ocean  is 
rising  or  falling  with  the  slow  movements  of  the  crust ;  the  ocean  is  thus 
forced  to  recede  before  the  elevation  of  a  new  coast-line,  or  is  allowed,  by 
subsidence,  to  creep  in  upon  the  land.  Each  movement,  this  way  or  that, 
leaves  its  record  m  the  rocks.  The  masses  that  are  already  solid  become 
crumpled  together  like  a  cloth  ;  old  marine  deposits  are  forced  up  to  form 
the  outposts  of  a  continent,  until  we  find  the  shells  entombed  in  them  lying 
thousands  of  feet  above  the  sea  ;  or  the  land  surface,  carved  by  rain  and 
rivers,  sinks  beyond  the  reach  of  the  destroying  agents,  and  is  gently  buried 
beneath  sheets  of  sediment  in  the  ocean.  The  resistance  or  yielding  of  the 
border-lands  that  protect  a  continent  often  determines  the  fate  of  the  con- 
tinent itself.  The  rocks  of  Ireland  thus  record  the  main  features  of  the 
history  of  Western  Europe. 

The  present  outline  of  the  country  is,  geologically  speaking,  of  modern 
date.  The  island  rises,  in  fact,  from  the  continental  plateau,  and  is  essen- 
tially a  part  of  Europe.  The  line  marking  a  depth  of  lOO  fathoms  upon  the 
Admiralty  charts  runs  from  Norway,  outside  the  Shetlands  and  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  keeps  west  of  the  Irish  coast  by  25  to  100  miles,  and  then  passes 
down  southward  until  it  almost  touches  Spain.  Beyond  this  line,  the  depths 
increase  rapidl)',  as  we  reach  true  oceanic  waters.  Only  100  miles  west  of 
Co.  Mayo,  we  find  a  depth  of  1,000  fathoms,  and  300  miles  west  of  Co. 
Kerry  we  have  the  abyssal  depth  of  2,700  fathoms,  or  more  than  16,000 
feet.  On  the  east,  the  channel  between  Ireland  and  Scotland  is,  at  one 
point,  only  thirteen  miles  wide  ;  and  at  Wexford  it  is  only  some  fifty  miles 
across  to  Wales.  Between  Stranraer  and  Larne,  there  is  a  singular  depres- 
sion, reaching  down  to  140  fathoms  (840  feet) ;  but  this  is  quite  local,  and 
the  sea  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  is  rarely  deeper  than  seventy 
fathoms.  The  small  granite  hills  of  Killiney,  in-  Co.  Dublin,  could  be  cut 
off  at  the  sea  level  and  pushed  across  from  Kingstown  to  Holyhead,  without 
their  summits  ever  becoming  covered  by  the  waves.  On  the  other  side  of 
England,  the  broad  North  Sea,  except  for  one  channel  that  reaches  down  to 
300  fathoms  close  against  the  Norwegian  coast,  is  similarly  a  mere  film  of 
water  on  the  submerged  plateau,  and  is  rarely  fifty  fathoms  deep.  The 
connexion  of  Ireland  with  the  continental  mass  is  further  emphasised  when 
we  note  the  outline  of  its  coast.  On  the  east,  it  is  fairly  smooth,  with  few 
conspicuous  inlets  ;  on  the  west  the  sea  runs  up  by  a  number  of  long  valleys 
into  the  land.  This  is  the  essential  feature  of  the  indented  western  coast 
of  Scotland,  and  of  the  corresponding  coast  of  Norway ;   in  fact,  the  edge 

B 


2  TOFOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY. 

of  Europe  possesses  the  same  characters  from  Bantry  Bay  to  the  North 
Cape. 

In  general  surface  Ireland  may  be  described  as  basin-shaped.  The 
traveller  will  be  struck  by  the  mountainous  appearance  of  the  coast.  Jour- 
neying westward  from  Holyhead,  he  may  see  from  afar  the  blue  line  of  the 
Wicklow  Mountains,  rising  2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  As  he 
approaches  Dublin,  the  details  become  clear  ;  the  rounded  bosses  of  KiUiney, 
the  bold  promontories  of  Howth  and  Bray,  the  broken  masses  of  the  foot- 
hills above  Enniskerry,  are  only  a  foreground  for  that  great  granite  moor- 
land, which  extends  for  seventy  miles  into  the  south.  At  Greenore  he 
meets  a  still  more  picturesque  coast,  the  huge  domes  of  the  Mourne  Moun- 
tains contrasting  with  the  rugged  Carlingford  ridge,  above  the  quiet  water 
that  stretches  up  to  Newry.  At  Belfast  the  rim  of  the  country  is  presented 
to  him  in  the  form  of  long  black  scraps,  terraced  and  forbidding,  the  edges 
of  the  high  plateaux  that  spread  from  Carrickfergus  away  to  Limavady.  If 
our  traveller  passes  westward,  and  rounds  the  coast  of  Donegal  and  Mayo, 
he  views  walls  of  rock  at  times  2,000  feet  in  height,  the  noblest  cliffs  in  all 
the  British  Isles ;  he  then  encounters  rugged  Connemara,  and  the  high 
limestone  terraces  of  northern  Clare.  Farther  south,  peak  after  peak, 
range  after  range,  bars  him  out  from  the  interior  of  the  country,  culminating 
in  the  grey  and  cloud-capped  masses  that  look  down  on  Bantry  Bay. 

Surely  this  Ireland  must  be  a  land  of  mountains.  Yet  the  same  traveller 
may  cross  from  Dublin  to  Galway,  a  distance  of  1 1 5  miles,  without  encoun- 
tering a  genuine  hill  upon  the  way.  He  may  pass,  again,  from  Dundalk  to 
Mallow,  and  will  feel  himself  in  a  great  plain,  above  which  a  few  ranges 
rise,  quite  unimportant  when  compared  with  the  extent  of  brown  bog  and 
level  meadow  land.  The  highlands  of  Ireland  are,  in  fact,  massed  upon  its 
margin ;  while  the  central  area  is  a  broad  depression,  in  which  numerous 
bogs  and  lakes  have  gathered.  There  is  thus  no  well-defined  watershed 
in  the  country,  with  rivers  radiating  from  it.  It  seems  much  a  matter  of 
chance  whether  a  stream  rising  in  one  of  the  central  counties  should  run 
into  the  Irish  Channel  or  the  Atlantic.  The  plain  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of 
gathering  ground  for  the  waters  that  trickle  from  the  surrounding  hills,  and 
for  the  sand  and  gravel  that  they  wash  down. 

It  is  well  known  that  definite  mountain-ranges  result  from  the  crumpling 
together  of  rocks  in  the  earth's  crust,  and  that  this  crumpling  has  been 
repeated  after  very  long  intervals  of  time.  M.  Bertrand  and  Professor 
Suess  have  shown  us  how  the  main  folds  in  Europe  can  be  grouped  into 
four  series,  each  of  which  has  probably  some  representative  in  Ireland.  By 
its  very  mode  of  occurrence  on  the  spherical  surface  of  the  earth,  an  upward 
fold,  called  by  geologists  an  anticlinal,  is  accompanied  by  a  downward 
fold,  styled  a  synclinal ;  and  commonly  a  number  of  anticlinals  and 
synclinals  occur  together,  giving  us  a  contorted  series  (Fig.  2).  The 
results  of  earth  movements  are  complicated  by  actual  fracturing  of  the 
crust ;  and  the  rise  of  one  region  usually  implies  the  breaking  up  and  faUing 
in  of  another.  When  we  examine  the  mountain  chains  in  detail,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  the  crests  of  ridges  are  formed  by  individual  anticlinals. 
Where  the  rocks  are  brought  up  from  below  in  the  crowns  of  the  folds  are 
such  as  resist  the  atmospheric  agents,  while  softer  beds  lie  in  the  synclinals, 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  weathered  surface  may  correspond  fairly  with  the 
underlying  folds.  This  is  beautifully  exemplified  throughout  the  south  of 
Ireland.  Commonly,  however,  the  surface  ridges  give  us  little  clue  to  the 
precise  type  of  fold  that  underlies  them.     A  s)'nclinal  of  resisting  rock,  like 


TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY.  3 

the  coal-measures  of  Kilkenny,  may  be  left  standing  out  as  a  highland,  while 
an  anticlinal,  fractured  at  the  top  and  exposed  to  rapid  denudation,  may  be 
the  first  mass  to  be  worn  away.  The  general  trend  of  mountain  ranges, 
however,  is  determined  by  the  directions  of  the  axes  of  their  folds. 

Before  the  existence  of  the  Cambrian  fauna,  which  is  the  first  well-marked 
assemblage  of  life-forms  upon  the  globe,  the  still  older  crust  had  become 
locally  crushed  and  folded,  giving  rise  to  the  "  Huronian  "  system  of  moun- 
tain chains.  The  sediments  laid  down  in  periods  earlier  than  the  Cambrian 
were  thus  converted  into  gleaming  mica-schists  and  hard  flinty  quartzites  ; 
limestones  became  altered  into  crystalline  marbles,  and  volcanic  rocks  into 
tough  and  dark  amphibolites.  Molten  masses  oozed  into  these  from  below, 
baking  and  often  dissolving  them,  and  giving  rise,  when  consolidation  took 
place  to  granites,  and,  more  especially,  to  the  striped  and  streaky  type  of 
granite  known  as  gneiss.  These  materials  formed  the  hills  and  shores 
against  which  the  Cambrian  strata  were  laid  down.  In  Ireland,  there  are 
but  few  traces  of  these  "  Huronian  "  chains.  Yet  they  existed,  and  probably 
underlie  part  of  the  north-western  highlands.  Their  gnarled  and  twisted 
rocks  are  clearly  visible  in  Western  Sutherland  and  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
and  this  axis,  if  continued  southward,  should  reappear  in  Donegal  and 
Mayo.  But,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the  existing  features  of  these  areas  owe 
most  of  their  characters  to  the  later  "  Caledonian  "  folding. 

Blocks  of  crumpled  and  gneissic  rocks,  however,  are  found  included  in 

Tyrone  in  the  granites  that  are  connected  with  the  "  Caledonian  "  folds. 

Clearly,  then,  an  ancient  gneissic  floor  existed  where  Ireland  now  is,  and 

became  broken  up  and  involved  in  all  the  later  movements.     A  great  part 

of  the  tumbled  uplands  of  the  county  of  Londonderry, 

North-West         from  Limavady  westward,  and  almost  the  v/hole  of 

Highlands.         Donegal,  are  composed  of  crystalline  rocks  which  are 

the  oldest  in  the  country.     Mayo  and  Connemara  also 

continue  the  same  series,  until  it  is  lost  to  sight  under  Galway  Bay.     These 

romantic  highlands,  now  carved  out  into  peaks  and  ridges,  with  little  lakes 

nestling  in  their  hollows,  carry  us  back  to  a  time  when  Ireland,  as  we  know 

it,  had  no  separate  existence,  and  formed  a  region  on  the  edge  of  a  great 

continent  stretching  north  towards  the  pole. 

We  do  not  know  if  any  "  Cambrian  "  rocks  were  laid  down  in  the  Irish 
area,  or  if  it  remained  in  that  period  above  the  sea.     Possibly  the  slates  and 
quartzites  of  Howth  and  Bray,  and  their  southern  repre- 
Bray  Head         sentatives  in  the  lower  land  near  Wexford,  belong  to 
Area.  the   same   period   as   the   Cambriati   slates   of  Wales. 

The  Great  Sugarloaf,  in  Co.  Wicklow,  owes  its  beau- 
tiful form  to  the  uptilting  of  a  bed  of  altered  sandstone  (quartzite)  belong- 
ing to  this  early  series ;  the  hard  rock  forms  the  peak,'  and  its  debris  are 
showered,  like  a  crown  of  snow,  upon  the  slopes.  The  broken  surface  of 
Bray  Head  and  of  the  promontory  of  Howth  is  due  to  the  resistance  of 
masses  of  similar  quartzite  among  the  more  easily  weathered  slates  and 
shales. 

The  "  Ordovician  "  or  "  Lower  Silurian  "  strata  were  deposited  almost 
continuously  over  the  Irish  area,  followed  by  the  Gotlandian  {Upper 
Silurian  of  the  Geological  Survey  maps).  The  edge  of  the  northern  conti- 
nent must  have  dipped  beneath  the  sea,  and  sands  and  muds  were  washed 
down  from  it,  while  beds  of  limestone,  due  to  the  growth  of  shell-fish  and 
corals,  accumulated  off  its  shores.  Such  limestones  are  traceable  in  the 
Chair  of  Kildare,  and  at  Portrane,  near  Dublin,  full  of  Ordovician  fossils 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY 


The  more  ordinary  muddy  sediments  are  now  found  in  the  foothills  of  the 
Leinster  chain,  and  also  in  a  broad  area  stretching  from  Drogheda  and 
Cavan  to  Belfast  Lough. 

At  the  close  of  Silurian  times,  the  subterranean  forces  began  their  work 

ao-ain  in  Europe.     Volcanic  eruptions  had  already  indicated  a  considerable 

amount    of    unrest.       Off  Portrane,  a  cone  had  been 

Portrane  and       reared,  spouting  out  its  lavas  and  ashes  into  the  sea 

Lambay  Island,  m  which  the  corals  grew — an  interesting  precursor  of 
the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  Pacific  of  to-day.  The 
neck  of  this  volcano,  cold  and  crystalline,  now  forms  Lambay  Island ;  and 
the  famous  green  "  Lambay  porphyry  "  is  the  mass  that  last  consolidated  in 
the  vent.  In  Kerry  again,  we  have  a  unique  little  volcano,  of  Gotlandian 
age,  which  has  left  its  lavas  and  banks  of  agglomerate  in  the  cliffs  of  the 
Dingle  promontory.  Then  the  wrinkling  of  the  crust  set  in.  A  series  of 
huge  folds  were  formed,  with  axes  running  north-east  and  south-west. 
Sometimes  these  were  pressed  over  obhquely,  and  became  broken  through, 
while  one  part  moved  over  another  along  surfaces  of  shding  known  as 
thrust-planes.  Old  rocks,  that  ought  to  have  been  comfortably  buried 
down  below,  were  thus  brought  to  the  surface,  and  became  piled  on  others 
of  far  later  date.  The  Huronian  chains  were  in  part  remoulded,  and  frag- 
ments of  them  were  worked  up  into  these  new  Caledonian  chains.  The 
latter  take  their  name  from  the  Grampian  region,  which  was  conspicuously 
involved  in  these  disturbances  at  the  close  of  Silurian  times.  Thus  some 
of  the  leading  hnes  of  Ireland  became  early  impressed  upon  our  area.  The 
north-east  and  south-west  "  Caledonian  "  trend,  the  trend  of  the  axes  in 
Scandinavia  and  in  Scotland,  is  clearly  seen  in  the  structure  of  Donegal  and 
the  Ox  Mountains,  in  the  axis  from  Cavan  to  Belfast,  and  notably  in  the 
Leinster  chain.  The  folding  was  accompanied  by  the  uprise  of  molten 
granite  from  below.  This  hot  igneous  rock,  squeezed  upward  by  the  earth 
pressures,  filled  the  arches  of  the  anticlinals,  inch  by  inch,  as  they  were 
formed.  It  attacked  its  surroundings,  melting  mass  after  mass  from 
the  walls,  absorbing  them  into  its  substance,  and  sending  insidious  offshoots 
into  the  adjacent  shales  and  sandstones.  The  sedimentary  rocks  forming 
the  arches  thus  became  baked  and  crystalline,  and  in  places  are  bound  to 
the  invading  granite  by  a  network  of  interlacing  veins.  As  the  weather 
worked  down  against  the  uprising  chains,  the  coating  of  sediments  was 
often  worn  away,  and  the  granite,  now  cold  and  hard,  was  exposed  as  a 
moorland  in  the  midst. 

The  backbone  of  Leinster,  running  south-west  from  Dalkey  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Barrow  and  the  Nore,  a  distance  of  seventy 
The  Leinster  miles,  was  thus  formed  by  the  Caledonian  movements. 
Chain.  On  its  flanks,  Ordovician,  and,  perhaps,  Gotlandian, 

strata,  rise  in  contorted  masses,  consisting  of  dark 
shales  for  the  most  part,  and  easily  cut  into  by  the  rivers  that  flow  from  the 
central  axis.  Picturesque  ravines  and  valleys,  like  those  of  the  upper  Liffey, 
with  woods  and  old  demesnes  along  them,  mark  this  region  on  the  east  or 
west.  In  Wicklow,  similar  features,  including  the  Glen  of  the  Downs  and 
the  Devil's  Glen,  have  been  carved  out  of  the  older  strata  of  the  Bray 
series,  which  have  also  become  involved  in  the  flanks  of  the  chain.  As  a 
contrast  to  this  varied  country,  the  high  moors  of  Dublin,  Wicklow,  and 
Carlow,  stretch  in  a  uniform  series  of  great  domes,  heather-clad  and  impres- 
sive in  their  vastness,  where  the  granite  core  comes  to  light  along  the  axis 
of  the  chain. 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY.  5 

This  rock,  with  its  broad  even  joints  and  powdery  products  of  weathering, 
gives  rise  in  the  course  of  ages  to  round-backed  hills,  with  few  conspicuous 
peaks,  and  with  valleys  smoothed  by  crumbling  debris.  The  contrast  be- 
tween its  characters  and  those  of  the  stratified  masses  round  it  is  well  seen 
at  the  Upper  Lake  of  Glendalough  (Fig.  i),  where  the  sheer  walls  of  shale 
and  schist  abut  on  the  spurs  of  Lugnaquilla. 

In  the  corresponding  axis  of  Newry,  granite  has  similarly  welled  up,  and 
at   Castlewellan  it  is  seen  to  be  stuck  full  of  frag- 
The  Axis  of  ments  derived  from  its  stratified  neighbours.       The 

Newry.  whole  Newry  granite    probably    owes  its  darkened 

character  to  the  material  absorbed  by  it ;  and  the  in- 
clusions in  it  are  often  completely  altered  and  crystalline,  and  are  pene- 
trated on  a  microscopic  scale  by  the  granite  that  attacked  them.  The 
Ordovician  and  Gotlandian  rocks  of  Louth,  Monaghan,  and  Down,  form  a 
broken  country  of  small  and  frequent  hills,  with  one  of  the  most  irregular 
surfaces  to  be  found  in  Ireland. 

As  alread}-   liinted,   the   west   and  north-west  highlands  were   certainly 
refolded  in  Caledonian  times.     Old  knots  of  gneiss, 
like  that  of  East  Tyrone,  had  the  younger  masses 
lyroiie.  pressed  against  them,  and  formed  "  eyes  "  round  which 

the  Caledonian  earth-waves  flowed.       Granite  veins 
traversed  them,  becoming  especially  conspicuous  in  the  counties  of  Mayo 
and  Donegal.     It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  older  Huro- 
nian  granites  and  the  new,  throughout  this  mingled  region  of  the  West.    But 
the  trend  of  the   Ox  Mountains,  with  their  granite 
The  core,  invading  the  schists  and  amphibolites,  and  run- 

Ox  Mountains.         ning  from  Castlebar  to  Sligo,  and  the  lines  of  fold  and 
fracture   in   Donegal,    such   as   the   great  glen  from 
Gweebarra  Bay  to  Sheep  Haven,  are  clearly  due  to 
Highlands  of         the  Caledonian  system  of  movements.     At  the  same 
Donegal  and  Mayo,   time,  the  Gotlandian  beds  were  uplifted  high  and  dry 
in  Mayo,  and  have  since  been  carved  out  into  the 
noble  masses  of  Muilrea  and  Ben  Gorm,  which  look    down    on    Killary 
Harbour.     The  quartzite  cone  of  Croagh  Patrick  is  now  known  to  belong  to 
the  same  series  of  strata,  which  have  thus  contributed  largely  to  the  rugged 
scenery  of  the  west. 

This  uplift  at  the  close  of  Gotlandian  times  formed  a  continental  area 
on  which  detritus  began  to  gather,  Vi^hile  the  great  lakes  spread  across  the 
hollows.  The  sea  still  lay  to  the  south-east  across  Devonshire  and  Belgium  ; 
but  the  Irish  and  Scotch  areas  were  included  in  the  land.  The  weather 
soon  laid  hold  of  the  Caledonian  masses,  and  rolled  down  sand  and  pebbles 
fiom  them  into  the  lakes.  Under  the  burden  of  debris  thus  poured  into 
them,  the  lake  floors  sank,  as  those  of  Eastern  Africa  have  done  since  the 
time  of  their  formation,  and  thousands  of  feet  of  freshwater  strata  were 
thus  enabled  to  accumulate.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone, laid  down  in  the  Devonian  period. 

The  boundaries  of  the  old  lakes  are  nowadays  difficult  to  determine.  The 
sandstone  and  conglomerate  that  form  a  hilly  land  between  Lough  Erne 
and  Pomeroy  may  have  been  at  one  time  continuous  with  corresponding 
beds  in  Southern  Scotland.  The  great  masses  of  the  south  of  Ireland  may 
have  been  connected  on  the  east  with  the  Devonian  estuary  of  Hereford 
and  Wales.     In  any  case,  the  lake  deposits  extended  far  and  wide  across 


TOPOGRAPHY   AND   GEOLOGY. 


our  area,  and  their  sandy  nature  has  contributed  markedly  to  the  scenic 
features  of  the  south. 

The  continental  region  again  sank,  and  the  sea  flowed  gently  in,  every 
year  farther  and  farther,  across  the  borders  of  the  lakes.  The  Carboni- 
ferous period  dawned.  The  Caledonian  ridges  remained  long  above  the 
level  of  the  waves,  in  the  form  of  promontories  and  islands.  The  sea  thus 
stole  round  the  Leinster  Chain,  washed,  and  finally  submerged  the  isles  of 
Bray  and  Howth,  and  Lambay,  and  spread  far  to  westward,  dominating 
even  the  stubborn  hills  of  Donegal.  Patches  of  Carboniferous  sandstone, 
laid  down  on  the  ancient  shore,  still  cap  some  of  the  Caledonian  masses  in 
the  West.  The  submergence  was  here  less  marked, 
fi     r     1       however,  and  the  coal-beds  of  Ballycastle,  in  county 

Ballycastle  Coal.  Antrim,  occurring  in  the  lowest  Carboniferous  strata, 
show  tliat  a  coast,  with  its  accompanying  forests  and 
deltas,  was  near  at  hand  upon  the  north. 

The  Carboniferous  sea  was  an  extensive  one — a  veritable  ocean.  Marine 
life  was  abundant  in  it,  and  foraminifera,  corals,  and  shell-fish  of  all  kinds, 
formed  vast  thicknesses  of  limestone  on  its  floor.  Here  and  there,  the 
muds  washed  in  from  the  relics  of  the  Caledonian  mass  rendered  the  water 
turbid,  and  gave  rise  to  the  black  shaly  limestone  locally  known  as  calp. 
Elsewhere,  even  up  to  the  shore-line,  the  deposits  were  remarkable  for 
their  purity.  It  is  possible  that  no  great  rivers  were  scouring  the  adjacent 
land.  The  sea-floor  went  on  sinking,  the  limestone  grew  in  thickness,  and 
to  this  day  it  forms  the  most  continuous  and  most  characteristic  of  all  the 
Irish  deposits. 

The  period  closed  with  a  general  uplift,  as  gentle  as  that  which  had 
admitted  the  sea  across  the  lakes.  On  the  flats  and  deltas  thus  formed, 
the  forests  of  the  Coal  Measures  grew ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  at  one 
time  they  extended  far  across  Ireland.  Tree-ferns,  and  giant  club-mosses 
and  horse-tails,  the  familiar  vegetation  of  that  remote  epoch,  clothed  the 
I.einster  Chain,  spread  westward  into  Kerry,  and  sheltered  among  the 
Caledonian  ribs  of  Donegal.  Very  little  of  the  coal  that  was  formed  by  the 
decay  of  all  these  forests  has,  however,  been  left  to  Ireland.  The  new 
wrinklings  of  the  crust  wrought  havoc  with  this  valuable  material  (Fig.  2). 

With  the  close  of  the  Carboniferous  period,  the  third  important  epoch  of 
earth-movement  in  Europe  gave  us  the  Hercynian  folds,  so  named  from  the 
region  of  the  forest-ranges  in  Western  Germany.  The  general  trend  of  their 
axes  is  from  west  to  east.  The  floor  of  Belgium,  of  southern  England  and 
Wales,  and  of  southern  Ireland,  became  crumpled  from  south  to  north  like  a 
cloth  pushed  back  across  a  table.  As  the  slowly  heaving  earth-waves  met 
the  Caledonian  masses,  some  deviation  from  the  general  trend  took  place, 
usually  producing  a  conformity  with  the  direction  of  the  earlier  axes.  Thus, 
in  England,  the  recoil  from  the  tough  old  masses  of  Westmoreland  and 
Wales  drove  the  axis  of  the  Pennine  Chain  into  a  north  and  south  direction, 
perpendicular  to  that  of  the  southern  folds,  which  are  seen  in  Wales  and 

Mountain  ridges  ^"^^er  London.  In  Waterford,  Cork,  and  Kerry,  the 
„  o      ,,  east  and  west  trend  is  distinct  and  unimpeded  ;   but 

the  Hercynian  anticlinal  from  Limerick  to  Portarling- 
ireiana.  ^^^^^  including  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mountains,  follows 

the  direction  of  the  far  older  Leinster  Chain.  Away,  again,  in  the  north- 
west, it  is  probable  that  the  antique  core  of  the  Ox  Mountains  served  to 
direct  the  course  of  the  earth-wave  which  rose  against  its  slopes  in  Her- 
cynian times. 


TOPOGRAPHY    AND   GEOLOGY.  7 

The  crumpling  of  Cork  and  Kerry  was  of  immense  significance  to  the 
scenery  of  southern  Ireland.  The  crests  of  the  anticlinals  were  at  first 
formed  of  Coal  Measures,  of  Carboniferous  Limestone,  and,  in  places,  of 
Carboniferous  Slate.  These  rocks  were  stripped  off  by  weathering,  and  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  lay  revealed  below  (Fig.  4). 

The  action  of  the  atmosphere  was  hereupon  greatly  retarded,  while  it 
could  still  carve  away  at  the  softer  and  often  soluble  strata  that  occupied  the 
synclinal  folds.  Hence  the  anticlinals  weathered  out  as  ridges,  running  east 
and  west,  and  the  synclinals  were  worked  down  into  valleys.  The  structure 
of  the  W'hole  south  is  as  simple  as  that  of  the  Jura  Range,  when  we  take  a 
broad  survey  of  that  classic  area. 

The  beds  are,  however,  so  compressed  together  as  to  be  often  overfolded  ; 
and  numerous  minor  wrinkles  accompany  the  main  and  obvious  ones.     In 

Courses  of  Rivers  J^^^^  f,^^^^^^  ^'^^'  ^I'^J'^^'^""'^  structure  is  evidenced 
.     «     ,,  by  the  courses  of  the  Bandon  River,  the  Lee,  the 

m  boutnern  g^^^^^  ^^^  Upper  Blackwater,  and  the  lower  portion 

Ireland.  ^^  ^-^^^  Suir.     All  these  rivers  run  east  along  synclinal 

hollows,  which  are  mostly  still  filled  by  Carboniferous  Limestone.  West  of 
the  watershed  that  passes  through  the  Boggeragh  and  Derrynasaggart 
Mountains,  the  streams  run  similarly  along  synclinals  to  the  Atlantic  ;  but 
their  former  valleys  have  been  largely  invaded  by  the  sea,  owing  to  subsi- 
dence of  the  coast  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

The  courses  of  the  rivers  in  southern  Ireland  at  the  present  day  are  thus 
clearly  dependent  on  the  direction  of  the  Hercynian  folds.  But  some  of 
them,  like  the  Lee  and  the  Blackwater,  seem  at  last  to  defy  the  anticlinal 
and  synclinal  axes,  by  turning  abruptly  south  and  cutting  across  them.  Pro- 
fessor Jukes  long  ago  supplied  the  explanation  of  this  bending  of  the 
streams  at  right  angles  to  what  appears  to  be  their  proper  course.  The 
earliest  drainage  from  the  mass  that  was  upheaved  at  the  close  of  the  Car- 
boniferous times  gave  us  a  system  of  streams  running  north  and  south.  The 
general  wearing  down  of  the  surface  by  denudation,  in  long  subsequent 
times,  carved  out  the  systems  of  east-and-west  valleys  in  the  synclinals,  and 
in  these  the  tributaries  of  the  main  streams  ran.  But  certain  southward- 
running  streams,  having  got  the  start,  and  working  down  the  steep  slope  of 
the  countr}^  kept  ahead  of  the  tributaries,  and  maintained  their  own  valleys 
at  a  lower  level.  Hence,  although  these  tributaries  spread  farther  and 
farther  back,  and  became  in  time  the  most  important  portions  of  the  rivers, 
their  waters  were  still  turned  south  where  they  joined  the  original  gorges. 
As  Professor  Davis  shows  us,  moreover,  only  the  more  active  of  the  south- 
^\•ard  running  streams  would  cut  their  way  down  at  a  sufficient  rate.  While 
the  valleys  grew  deeper  along  the  synclinals,  some  of  the  tributaries  would 
altogether  fail  to  get  into  their  original  main  streams ;  the  latter  would  be, 
as  it  were,  "  beheaded,"  and  would  dwindle,  while  their  former  tributaries 
would  swell  the  volume  of  the  nearest  successful  primary  stream. 

Hence  the  rivers  of  southern  Ireland,  and,  indeed,  of  Ireland  generally, 
are  older  than  the  present  form  of  the  surface.  General  denudation  has 
lowered  and  widened  their  valleys  in  some  places,  leaving  other  parts  of  the 
adjacent  country  standing  at  a  higher  level ;  and  the  rivers  seem  to  cut 
across  mountain-ridges,  because  the  hard  rocks  of  these  ridges  have  resisted 
denudation,  while  the  gathering-ground  of  the  rivers,  up  stream,  has  been 
more  rapidly  worn  down. 

The  original  Hercynian  mass  was  far  more  continuous  than  the  present 
ridges,  which  have  been  carved  out  by  ages  and  ages  of  denudation.     We 


8  TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY. 

have  pointed  out  that  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  where  now  exposed,  once 
bore  upon  its  back  the  thick  mass  of  Carboniferous  Limestone,  and  this  in 
turn  was  covered  by  the  Coal  Measures.  The  loss  of  the  latter  is  surely 
atoned  for  by  the  magnificent  mountain-scenery  to  which  the  Old  Red 

Sandstone  has  given  rise.  The  Reeks  of  Kerry,  the 
__.       ,   .        „^  brown  and  purple  masses  of  Killarney,  the  bare  and 

Mountains  ot  Kerry.    ^^^^^  rock-walls  that  look  down  on  so  many  romantic 

valleys  of  the  west,  result  from  the  exposure  of  the 
lake  deposits  of  Devonian  times.  The  terraced  structure  of  the  original 
stratification,  bed  upon  bed,  is  characteristic  of  these  mountain-sides,  and  is 
nowhere  more  clearly  seen  than  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Derrynane  and 
Waterville.  On  the  east,  the  anticlinal  ridges  are  more  rounded  and  broad- 
backed  ;  but  fine  craggy  combes  occur  in  the  Galtees  and  in  the  Comeraghs, 
and  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  country  is  still  given  over  to  moor  and  heather. 
(Fig.  5)- 

The  contrast  between  the  scenery  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  and  that 

of  the  easily  denuded  Carboniferous  strata  is  finely 

^..,  revealed   around   Killarney.     The   Upper   Lake   lies 

1   any.  among  the  mountains  ;  the  Lower  Lake,  with  its  flat 

northern  shores  and  its  low  islets,  lies  on  Carboni- 
ferous Limestone,  and  reminds  one  of  the  features  of  the  central  plain. 

In  the  Dingle  Promontory,  a  great  unconformity  separates  two  divisions 
of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  earth-movements  disturbed  the  lower 
beds  during  the  course  of  the  Devonian  period,  and  the  later  strata  were 
laid  down  across  their  upturned  edges.  Were  these  movements  belated 
relics  of  the  Caledonian  folding,  or  precursors  of  the  Hercynian  ?  At 
various  points  we  meet  with  evidence  of  this  kind,  showing  that  the  crust  is 
never  really  at  rest,  although  we  mark  out  certain  epochs  of  calm,  and  others 
marked  by  strenuous  folding. 

The  Coal  Measures  still  remain  spread  across  the  country  from  Killarney 
to  Galway  Bay,  but  are  unproductive  from  a  mining  point  of  view.     They 
have  been  swept  off  eastern  Limerick  and  from  most  of  Tipperary ;   in  the 
mountains  round  Lough  Derg  and  in  the  Galtees,  even  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone has  been  cut  through,  and  the  Gotlandian  and  Ordovician  rocks  have 
come  to  light.     But  a  broad  synclinal  lies  between  the  joint  Slieve  Bloom 
and  Devil's-Bit  Range  and  the  Leinster  Chain  •   and 
The  Kilkenny        in  the  centre  of  this  the  high  Kilkenny  Coal-field 
Coal-field.  stands.     The  Barrow  on  the  east,  and  the  Nore  on  the 

west,  have  cut  out  valleys  which  limit  the  intervening 
■mass    of    Coal   Measures ;     from  either  stream,  the  ground  rises    to    the 
plateau  of  Castlecomer,  in  a  series  of  scarps  which  remind  one  of  those  of 
"Yorkshire,  or  of  the  edges  of  the  similar  synclinal  coal-field  of  the  Forest 
•of  Dean.    The  coal  is  anthracite,  but  has  long  been  mined  for  local  purposes. 
On  the  west  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  this  area,  where  the  head-waters  of 
the  Suir  and  the  Nore  have  exposed  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  the 
country  is  a  fairly  level  and  plain-like  region,  in  which  the  rivers  wander. 
When,  indeed,  we  round  the  coal-field  at  Stradbally,  we  look  out  over  the 
true  plain  of  Kildare,  where  brown  bogs  gather  in  the  hollows,  the  haunt  of 
plovers  and  nestUng  gulls,  and  where  green  demesnes  and  broad  meadows 
speak  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil.     Here  there  is  no  rapid  repetition  of  sand- 
stone ridges  and  softer  pastoral  synclinals  ;    on  tlie  other  hand,  one  vast 
and  shallow  synclinal  stretches  from  the  Slieve  Bloom  Range  to  the  Ox 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY.  9 

Mountains  and  Donegal  Bay.     The  scenery  partakes, 
The-  Central  Plain,   in  consequence,  of  the  underlying  geological  mono- 
tony ;  the  features  of  the  cramped  southern  synchnals 
are  here  spread  out  over  the  half  of  Ireland  (Fig.  6). 

Yet  the  landscape  is  soft  and  pleasing,  tender  in  its  tints  of  green  and 

brown ;    here  and  there  the  view  is  bounded  by  far  blue  hills,  which  lie 

always  on  the  horizon,  and  which  retain  the  same  distant  air  throughout  the 

journey  of  a  summer  day.     Long  ridges  and  heaps  of  gravel,  the  familiar 

'■'  green  hills,"  are  the  only  elevations  near  at  hand.     The  great  cumulus 

clouds  that  throw  their  shadow^s  across  the  plain  seem  an  essential  portion 

of  the  landscape  ;  the  heavens  and  the  earth  here  meet  in  a  unity  unknown 

amongst  the  sterner  mountains.     The  sun  shines  out  upon  the  white  waters 

of  a  lake,  fringed,  perhaps,  with  a  belt  of  larches  or  Scotch  firs.     The  edge 

of  the  lake  seems  quite  an  accidental  boundary,  and  the  stones,  when  the 

water  sinks  sufficiently  low,  are  seen  to  be  excavated 

Lough  Corrib.        by  solution  into  fantastic  forms    along    the    shores. 

Lough   Corrib  itself,  with  its    low    and    flat-topped 

islands,  is  only  a  watery  region  of  the  plain.     The  eastern  part  of  Lough 

JNIask  belongs,  similarly,  to  the  limestone  area,  while  the  ancient  Silurian 

rocks    rise  in  sudden    dignity  on  its  western    shore. 

Clew  Bay.  Clew  Bay,  dotted  with  islets,  is  merely  another  lake  of 

the  Carboniferous  Limestone  region,  into  which  the 

sea  has  become  admitted  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

The  great  and  shallow  synclinal  which  thus  provides  such  uniformity  of 
feature  is  split  into  two  on  the  north-east  by  the  old  Caledonian  axis  of 
Ne\\"ry,  which  runs  in  reality  from  Co.  Longford  to  the  coast  near  Strangford 
Lough.  Hence,  in  this  region,  a  tumbled  and  rougher  country  intervenes 
between  the  grazing-grounds  of  Meath  and  the  lowlands  of  Lough  Erne. 
The  road  from  Dublin  to  Belturbet  provides  a  characteristic  traverse  of  the 
old  floor  of  Ireland,  which  here  again  rises  to  the  light  of  day,  the  watershed 
occurring  in  an  almost  highland  landscape  at  Cross  Keys. 

The  Shannon,  after  its  first  rapid  drop  from  Cuilcagh,  a  scarp  of  Upper 
Carboniferous    Sandstone    in    Fermanagh,    becomes 
»,,      „,  essentially  a  river  of  the  plain.       It  wanders  south 

e  b   annon.         through  the  broad  limestone  country,  in  an  indepen- 
dent and  unbounded  fashion,  now  and  again  expand- 
ing into  lakes,  which  are  enlarged  by  the  actual  solution  of  their  shores. 
At  the  south  end  of  Lough  Derg,  it  cuts  across  the  local  anticlines,  amid 
mountain-scenery  at  Killaloe ;  but  it  then  winds  again  over  ledges  of  lime- 
stone to  Castleconnell  and  the  Atlantic.     The  Erne  is  a  river  of  the  same 
class,  in  which  the  lake-feature  has  become  predominant.     Lough  Oughter, 
with  its  abundant  islands,  is  really  only  a  network  of  branches  of  the  stream. 
Upper  Lough  Erne  is  little  more  ;  the  wanderings  of  the  river,  in  materials 
so  easily  removed,  have  here  made  it  assume  the  aspect  of  a  lake,  the  islets 
remaining  as  relics  of  its  former  banks.       Lower  Lough  Erne  possesses 
bolder  features ;   but  here  we  are  in  an  area  of  more  complex  geological 
structure.     On  the  south-west,  bold  masses  of  Carboniferous  sandstone, 
and  even  the  Coal  Measure  cappings  of  Arigna  and 
Ari^na  Coal-field      ^o^S^  Allen,  have  escaped  the  general  denudation. 
°  '         *     The  out-liers  of  coal-bearing  strata  on  these  hills  are 

a  melancholy  reminder  of  the  amount  that  has  been 
washed  away  from  the  great  plain  to  southward.  The  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone also  has  here  been  lifted  into  prominence,  and  inland  cliffs  and  scarps 


10  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY. 


aie  weathered  out  of  it,  forming  superb  features  in  the  landscapes  north 
of  Shgo. 

The  whole  of  the  limestone  region  is  marked,  as  in  other  countries,  by 
the  disappearance  and  reappearance  of  streams,  which  often  run  for  long 
distances  underground,  and  by  the  prevalence  of  caves  produced  by  solution 
along  these  subterranean  waterways. 

At  Dungannon,  south-west  of  Lough  Neagh,  in  a  country  where  the  lime- 
stone surface  is  more  irregular  than  in  the  south,  a 
.        patch  of  Coal  Measures,  containing  ordinary  house- 
Tyrone  Coal-tield.     j^^j^  ^^^j^  |^^g  ^^^  ^^^^  fortune  been  preserved.     It  is 

in  part  covered  by  later  deposits,  and  forms  an  un- 
expected region  of  mining  industry,  close  to  the  moors  of  Tyrone  and 
Londonderry,  where  the  Caledonian  chains,  and  even  still  older  ridges, 
come  to  light. 

The  Hercynian  folding  lifted  the  Carboniferous  beds  to  a  fatal  height 
upon  these  north-west  highlands,  and  only  outliers  remain  to  show  their 
former  extent.  From  Dungannon  to  Lough  Foyle,  however,  a  fairly  con- 
tmuous  band  of  sandstones  represents  the  shore  deposits  of  the  old  Car- 
boniferous sea.  As  already  mentioned,  coal  occurs  in  these  strata  away  to 
the  north  at  Ballycastle. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  Coal  Measures  were  removed  during  a 
definite  part  of  one  geological  period.  Denudation,  starting  on  the  Her- 
cynian chains,  has  been  checked  here  and  there  for  a  time,  and  has  then  got 
to  work  again  on  the  old  surface  of  attack.  The  sum-total  of  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  Irish  region  shows  a  large  balance  on  the  side  of  denudation. 

After  the  great  uplift  at  the  close  of  Carboniferous  times,  the  Permian 
sea  flowed  in  upon  the  north,  as  it  did  over  the  corresponding  English  area. 
Then  the  Triassic  period  set  in  ;  and  continental  land,  by  a  new  swing 
upward,  spread  away  for  some  900  miles  to  the  south-east.  On  its  surface, 
deserts  and  shallow  lakes  occurred,  the  latter  often  drying  up,  and  depositing 
layers  of  gypsum  and  rock-salt.  Thus  the  conditions 
Rock-Salt  of  in  Triassic  Ireland  were  much  hke  those  of  L^tah  at 
Carrickfergus.  the  present  day.  The  gypsum  of  Kingscourt  and  the 
Belfast  district,  and  the  rock-salt  now  mined  near  Car- 
rickfergus,  show  that  deposits  were  laid  down,  comparable  to  those  of 
Cheshire.  The  conglomerates  of  the  same  period  have  given  a  name  to 
Red  Bay,  in  Co.  Antrim,  where  the  red  soil,  when  ploughed,  reminds  one  of 
eastern  Devonshire.  From  Portadown  to  Magilligan  Point  at  the  entry  of 
Lough  Foyle,  these  soft  Triassic  sandstones  are  traceable  above  the  Car- 
boniferous deposits.  Yet  they  lie  more  often  on  the  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone and  the  Lower  Carboniferous  Sandstone  than  on  the  Coal  Measures, 
thus  proving  how  far  the  denudation  that  accompanied  the  Hercynian  up- 
heaval had  already  stripped  away  the  coal. 

Ireland  was  still  destined  to  be  denuded,  rather  than  to  be  compensated 
for  her  previous  losses.  The  Rhaetic  and  Jurassic  sea,  which  stretched  in 
Ligain  from  the  south-east,  met  with  a  shore  in  the  ancient  hills  of  Donegal. 
The  downward  dip  of  the  area  only  allowed  of  the  deposition  of  Liassic 
strata ;  while  the  continued  subsidence  in  England,  on  the  other  hand, 
produced  the  well-known  oolitic  limestones  of  Bath  and  Portland,  which  are 
famous  among  building  stones.  The  thin  Irish  representatives  of  the 
Jurassic  system,  the  Lias  clays  of  Co.  Antrim,  have  a  curious  effect  upon 
the  landscape.  Though  little  noticeable  in  themselves,  they  produce  catas- 
trophic landslips  along  the  coast.     The  mass  of  chalk  and  basalt  deposited 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY.  11 

on  them  in  later  times  squeezes  out  the  clays  and  shales.     The  chalk,  more- 
over, is  permeated  by  water,  and  this  accumulates  on  the  clays  below,  pro- 
Landslins   on         viding  a  lubricated  surface  for  a  landslide.     The  coast 
♦Vi     r       f  R     /I       road  of  Co.  Antrim  thus  suffers  at  many  spots  from 
tne  toast  Koad       ^j^^  movement  of  the  cliffs  above  it,   notably  near 
01  Lo.  Antrim.        Garron    Point ;    and   picturesque   fallen    masses    and 
"  undercliffs  "  result.     The  village  of  Straidkilly,  on  the  heights,  is  noted  for 
the  shifting  and  warping  of  its  buildings,  as  the  ground  slips  beneath  them. 
Precisely  similar  phenomena,  in  the  same  systems  of  strata,  occur  on  the 
coast  of  Dorsetshire  near  Lyme  Regis. 

At  Portrush,  the  Lias  is  baked  into  a  flinty  porcellanous  mass  by  the 

intrusion    of   basalt   into   it    from    below    during   the 

Lias  of  Portrush.     Eocene   eruptions.     It  is  well   seen  upon   the  north 

shore,  close  against  the  town,  and  still  retains  traces 

of  ammonites  and  other  fossils. 

The  long  period  of  denudation  during  Jurassic  times  was  followed  by  a 
subsidence,  of  the  north  at  any  rate,  during  the  latter  half  of  the  Cretaceous 
period.     Conglomerates   and   sandstones,   true   shore-deposits,   herald   the 
sea's  return.     How  far  the  waters  spread  over  central  Ireland  is  quite  un- 
certain, for  Cretaceous  beds  are  only  preserved  under  the  great  outpouring 
of  basalt   that   covers   almost   the   whole    county    of 
White  Limestone     Antrim.       The   White   Limestone,   representing   the 
of  Co.  Antrim.        Chalk  of  England,  is  about  one-tenth  as  thick  as  that 
of  Norfolk,  but  was  deposited  in  fairly  deep  water 
towards  the  close.     The  ocean  spread  westward,  as  is  seen  by  the  odd  little 
outlier  of  chalk  on  the  northern  summit  of  Slieve  Gallion,  in  Londonderry, 
now  lifted  1,400  feet  above  the  sea.     The  white  cliffs  near  Portrush,  and 
the  beautiful  band  of  white  rocks,  now  coming  down  to  the  coast  road,  now 
receding  far  up  in  the  hills,  which  stretches  from  Red  Bay  to  Moira  in  Co. 
Down,  belong  to  the  pure  oceanic  deposits  of  the  Cretaceous  period.     The 
contrast  of  this  gleaming  layer,  now  quarried  for  lime,  with  the  grim  black 
basalt  crags  above,  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  the  country.    Just  south- 
east of  Fair  Head,  above  the  wooded  hollow  of  Mur- 
rfu  R  lough  Bay,  the  chalk  forms  the  summit  of  the  cliff,  with 

Murioug  Bay.  ^  band  of  coarse  conglomerate  under  it ;  the  latter 
was  the  shore-deposit,  laid  down  when  the  land  sank 
in  mid-Cretaceous  times.  Beneath  this  are  the  far  earlier  continental 
layers  of  the  red  Triassic  sandstone,  reposing  in  turn  on  a  floor  of  ancient 
metamorphic  rocks,  which  were  probably  folded  and  crumpled  by  both  the 
Huronian  and  the  Caledonian  earth-movements.  The  Carboniferous  sand- 
stone and  the  Eocene  basalts  close  at  hand  complete  this  "  picture  in  little  " 
of  the  many  changes  that  the  Irish  area  has  undergone. 

The  Cretaceous  ocean  passed  away  in  turn  from  north-west  Europe.  The 
former  ooze  of  the  sea-bottom  was  uplifted  as  consolidated  beds  of  chalk. 
The  skeletons  of  siliceous  sponges,  and  other  similar  remains,  had  by  this 
time  become  altered  and  re-deposited  in  the  mass  as  bands  and  lumps  of 
flint.  The  weather  scoured  away  the  soft  limestone,  and  left  the  almost 
insoluble  flints  as  pebbles  on  the  surface.  Hence  chalk  downs  were  formed, 
comparable  to  those  of  Surrey  and  Sussex,  and  flint  gravels  accumulated 
in  their  combes  and  hollows,  as  they  do  in  the  Home  Counties  of  England 
at  the  present  day. 

On  this  occasion,  the  movements  were  fraught  with  more  serious  conse- 
quences than  the  mere  uplift  of  a  continental  margin.     As  they  continued, 


12  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY. 

the  chalk  strata  of  Yorkshire  became  contorted,  and  those  of  Dorsetshire 

were  in  places  set  vertically  on  end.     The  Irish  region  was  cracked  across 

by  numerous  fissures,  mostly  running  north-west  and  south-east,  and  molten 

lava  oozed  up  these  passages,  and  established  a  multitude  of  volcanic  cones 

upon    the    surface.       Sheet  after  sheet  of  lava  was 

The  Plateaux  of     poured  out  across  the  undulating  downs,  filling  up  the 

Co.  Antrim.  hollows,  burying  the  beds  of  gravel,  and  uniting  with 

one  another  to  form  continuous  and  stratified  layers. 

Little  occurred  in  the  way  of  explosive  action.       Here  and  there,  as  at 

Carrick-a-rede,  a  volcanic  neck  remains  to  us,  choked  with  fragments  of  lava 

and  chalk,  torn  off  by  the  more  violent  eruptions ;   but  on  the  whole  the 

action  was  continuous  and  steady,  until  the  broad  land-area,  from  the  Faroe 

Isles  to  Fermanagh,  was  covered  with  basalt,  and  was  converted  into  a 

region  of  plateaux. 

The  cracks  up  which  the  lava  welled  are  seen  as  dykes  at  the  present  day, 
the  "  whinstone  dykes  "  of  the  northern  peasantry,  and  stand  out  conspicu- 
ously across  the  white  quarries  of  the  chalk.  The  chalk  is  baked  and 
rendered  crystalline  by  contact  with  them,  and  is  also  compacted  by  the 
pressure  of  the  mass  of  lava  above ;  hence  it  has  been  justly  styled  the 
"  White  Limestone,"  in  opposition  to  the  soft  English  Chalk.  The  gravels 
above  are  reddened,  and  form  a  marked  zone  along  the  irregular  surface  of 
contact  between  the  lava  and  the  limestone  (Fig.  7). 

Occasionally,  a  more  massive  intrusion  has  taken  place,  and  the  great 
knot  of  lava  has  had  its  effect  upon  the  modern  lands- 
Slemish.  cape.     The  huge  crag  of  Slemish,  where  St.  Patrick 

tended  his  master's  sheep,  is  the  one  true  mountain  of 
Co.  Antrim,  and  towers  above  the  plateaux  by  reason  of  its  toughness  and 
resistance.     It  is  formed  of  dolerite,  a  completely  crystalline  type  of  basalt, 
and  was  doubtless  the  neck  of  one  of  the  later  volca- 
Fair  Head.  noes.     Fair  Head  is  similarly  made  of  intrusive  do- 

lerite, and  the  crystals  of  augite  and  felspar  in  some  of 
the  veins  traversing  it  are  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  This  coarse  mass  has 
given  rise  to  a  superb  cliff  that  faces  the  northern  ocean,  and  its  vertical 
joints,  produced  as  it  cooled,  enable  the  frost  and  other  agents  to  throw 
down  enormous  blocks  on  to  the  talus  at  its  foot,  and  to  keep  the  main  crag 
sheer  and  imposing. 

The  jointing  is  here,  indeed,  actually  columnar ;  and  these  regular  shrink- 
age cracks,  so  characteristic  of  cooling  lava,  impart  in 
-,  ,  IS       1+       many  places  an  effect  of  titanic  architecture  to  the 

tolumnar  Basalts,    ^liff-walls  of  the  Antrim  coast.     In  successive  tiers, 
the  columns  stand  above  one  another,  like  those  of 
some  Roman  amphitheatre.     The  bottom  of  each  lava-flow  cooled  slowly, 
and  the  columns  are  there  regular  and  well  formed  ;   the  upper  part  cooled 
more  rapidly,  in  contact  with  the  variable  currents  of  the  air  ;  and  thus  each 
great  flow  became  divided  into  two  layers,  a  basal  one  with  well  developed 
columns,  and  an  upper  one  more  rubbly  and  irregular.     The  next  lava-flow 
spread  over  the  older  one,  and  the  process  of  cooling  was  repeated.     Here 
we  have  the  secret  of  the  alternation    of    columnar    layers    and    duller 
bands  at  Pleaskin  Head,  and  of  the  beautiful  structure 
'The  Giant's  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  which  is  the  basal  portion 

Causeway.  of  a  flow  that  is  traceable  at  a  far  higher  level  up  the 

cliff.  The  connexion  between  Stciffa,  an  offshoot  of 
the  Mull  volcano,  and  the  Giant's  Causeway,  is,  of  course,  mythical,  except 


KIG.  VII.      DYKK,  CLTTINt;   IIIALK   AND   BAffALTIC   LAVAS, 
CAVE   HILT..  BELFAST. 


F^«H 

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TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY.  iSf 


in  so  far  as  both  masses  were  poured  out  during  the  same  geological 
epoch. 

At  Pleaskin  Head  and  the  Causeway,  a  red  layer  among  the  basalts  easily 
attracts  the  eye.  This  is  one  of  the  bands  of  iron-ore  which  occur  here  and 
there  in  the  basaltic  region.  They  mark  an  incident  that  occurred  about 
tlie  middle  of  the  volcanic  epoch,  when  matters  were  calmer  for  a  time,  and 
when  lakes  accumulated  in  the  hollows  of  the  lava-flows.  The  waters  enter- 
ing them  were  highly  charged  with  iron  salts,  brought  into  solution  from  the 
decomposing  basalts  round  about,  and  the  beds  of  more  or  less  nodular  ore 
consist  of  the  msoluble  products,  which  were  deposited  as  these  salts  broke 
tip  on  oxidation. 

These  stratified  iron-ores  are  mined  in  Glenariff ;  and  another  still  more 
valuable  material  is  associated  with  them.  The  destruction  of  the  lavas, 
and  especially  of  the  rhyolites  which  are  about  to  be  described,  set  free 
as  occasionally  happens,  a  certain 'amount  of  aluminium  in  the  form  of  a 
liydrate.  This  gives  us  a  clayey  substance,  which  is  often  mixed  with  true 
clay  (hydrous  alummium  silicate).  This  material  accumulated  in  the  lake- 
basins  as  a  fine  grey  mud,  and  is  known  as  bauxite,  an  important  commercial 
source  of  aluminium. 

While  the  eruptions  of  basalt  were  quiescent,  a  completely  different  type- 
of  lava,  the  highly  silicious  rhyolite,  welled  up  here  and  there,  and  produced 
a  white  and  almost  granitic  rock  that  is  quarried  in  the  dome-like  hill  of 
Tardree.       Near  at  hand,  on  Sandy  Braes,  natural  glass  (Obsidian)  was 
produced  by  the  rapid  cooling  of  these  lavas. 

The  main  interest,  however,  of  these  sporadic  outbursts  of  rhyolite  lies 
in  their  probable  connexion  with  the  Mourne  Moun- 
The  Mourne  tains.     This  handsome  group  of  granite  peaks,  north 

Mountains.  of  Carlingford  Lough,  is  known  to  be  of  later  origin 

than  the  adjacent  "  Caledonian "  granite  of  Newry. 
The  Mournes  owe  their  boldness  of  detail,  and  their  frequent  craggy  crests 
and  walls,  to  their  comparative  youth  (Fig.  lo).  Yet,  when  viewed  from  a 
distance,  as  from  the  Great  Northern  Railway  above  Newry,  they  show  the 
domed  and  rounded  character  which  we  associate  with  denuded  granite 
chains.  The  Mourne  granite  cuts  across  an  earlier  series  of  basalt  dykes, 
which  abound  upon  the  coast  of  Dov.^n  ;  it  is  itself  traversed  by  a  later 
series.  At  Carlingford  similar  granite  invades  the  black  and  rugged  mass 
of  dolerite  that  forms  the  ridge  between  Dundalk  and  Greenore.  This 
dolerite  cuts  the  Carboniferous  Limestone.  The  granite  of  Mull  and  Skye, 
again,  is  post-Cretaceous,  and  is  of  the  same  type  as  that  of  the  Mourne 
Mountains.  The  chemical  composition  of  these  granites  corresponds  to  that 
of  the  rhyolites  of  Tardree.  Here  are  the  facts  that  lead  geologists  to  the 
interesting  conclusion  that  the  Mourne  granite  was  intruded  as  a  molten 
mass  after  the  first  basaltic  eruptions  had  taken  place  in  Ireland,  but  before 
the  outpouring  of  the  later  basaltic  series.  It  is,  as  it  were,  the  deep- 
seated  mass,  the  solidified  caldron,  of  which  the  rhyolites  of  Tardree  were 
the  surface-manifestations. 

What,  then,  was  the  age  of  these  great  eruptions,  which  have  added,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  higli  plateaux  of  Antrim  and  Londonderry,  and  on  the 
other  the  glorious  summits  of  the  Mournes,  to  the  varied  scenery  of  north- 
east Ireland?  During  the  lacustrine  epoch,  marked  by  the  iron-ores, 
numerous  plants  were  washed  down  into  the  clays.  Mr.  Starkie  Gardner 
has  determined  these  as  belonging  to  the  Eocene  period,  during  which  the 


14  TOPOGRAPHY  AND   GEOLOGY 


London  Clay  and  other  marine  deposits  were  quietly  accumulating  in  the 
south  of  England.  Hence,  the  volcanoes  of  Antrim  are  of  Eocene  age,  and 
and  may  have  extended  into  the  next  period,  the  Oligocene.  They  were  the 
forerunners  of  tremendous  changes  in  the  physical  geography  of  Europe. 

For,  soon  after  the  Irish  outbreak,  the  ridges  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Juras  appeared  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  the  Alps  themselves  followed, 
and  the  great  Carpathian  ring,  accompanied  by  volcanic  eruptions  of  their 
own.  The  Balkans,  the  Caucasus,  the  Himalayas,  date  from  the  same  epoch 
of  unrest ;  and  the  disturbances  in  the  Scotch  and  Irish  areas,  on  the  edge 
of  the  old  northern  continent,  may  be  said  to  mark  the  opening  of  the 
Alpine  movements,  which  have  built  up  the  continents  of  to-day. 

Moreover,  the  cessation  of  eruption  in  Ireland  was  accompanied  by  the 
breaking  up  of  the  northern  land.  The  lava-plateaux  cracked  and  sub- 
sided, and,  as  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  shows  us,  now  He  in  great  part  on  the 
floor  of  the  north-east  Atlantic.  The  basin  of  Lough  Neagh  was  produced 
by  a  settlement  of  this  kind,  while  the  basalt  on  either  hand  remained  high 
on  the  hills  of  Antrim  and  Sheve  Gallion.  The  edge  of  Europe  was  now 
in  process  of  formation ;  Ireland  vv^as,  as  it  were,  detached  on  the  north  and 
west  from  its  ancient  allegiance,  and  was  tacked  on  to  the  new  continent, 
still  in  its  birth-throes,  on  the  east. 

Even  now,  Ireland  was  not  an  Island.  Through  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
times  it  remained  an  integral  part  of  Europe.  Animals  found  their  way 
into  it  which  could  not  have  swum  or  flown  across  the  sea,  but  which  neces- 
sarily wandered  in  upon  dry  land.  Considering  the  antiquity  of  its  own 
land-surface,  Ireland  may  have  nourished  some  forms  of  mammalian  life 
before  they  could  gain  a  foothold  in  Europe  ;  but  the  strange  epoch  of  cold 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  known  as  the  Ice-age,  probably  drove  most  of 
them  eastward  and  southward.  When  they  returned,  in  happier  times, 
they  still  entered  the  Irish  area  on  dry  land.  But  a  gradual  subsidence  was 
taking  place,  and  Ireland  was  at  last  converted  into  an  island  on  the  Euro- 
pean edge.  Mammals  continued  to  enter  England,  whereby  the  fauna  of 
that  country  became  richer  than  that  of  Ireland.  In  turn,  by  marine  exca- 
vation, as  well  as  by  subsidence,  Britain  was  cut  off  also,  by  the  formation 
of  the  Straits  of  Dover  and  the  shallow  North  Sea  basin,  and  its  fauna 
remains,  therefore,  limited  in  comparison  with  that  of  continental  Europe. 

During  the  Ice-age,  or  the  Glacial  epoch,  the  mountain-rim  of  Ireland 

was  probably  far  higher  than  it  is  now.     The  glaciers 

The  Glacial  that  gathered  on  it  have  everywhere  scored  the  sur- 

Epoch.  face  of  the  rocks.     The  lower  grounds  of  Kerry  and 

Connemara,    and    even    some    thousands    of   feet   of 

barren  mountain-wall,  have  been  moulded  into  the  smooth  round  forms 

that  are  known  as  roches  nwutonnces,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  mammil- 

lations  of  a  lawyer's  wig  (Fig.  8).     Between  Kenmare  and  Glengariff,  these 

features  are  fully  as  evident  as  in  the  classic  region  of  North  Wales.     Snow, 

compressed  into  a  huge  flat  glacier,  accumulated  in  the  basin  of  the  plain, 

which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  first  marked  out  by  the  antique  Hercynian 

folding,  and  which  now  served  as  the  receptacle  for  all  the  debris  of  the 

mountains.     The  glaciers  brought  down,  especially  in  their  lower  layers, 

abundant  blocks  and  pebbles  picked  up  in  their  passage  from  the  hills ;  the 

streams  running  under  the  broad  ice-sheet  of  the  lowlands  washed  these 

materials  along  their  courses,  and  piled  them  up  in  their  groove-like  channels 

under  the  ice.     When  at  last  the  temperate  climate  was  restored,  and  the 


FIG.    X.       GRAXniO  PIXXACI.ES  XEAR  SLIEVE  DOXARD,    MOURXK   MOIXTAIXS. 


TOPOGRAPIIV  AND  GEOLOGY.  15 


ice  slowly  melted,  these  channels  were  recorded  by 
The  Eskers.  chains  of  gravel,  the  well-known  "  eskers,"  or  "  green- 

hills,"  which  rise  in  wonderful  freshness   above  the 

level  of  the  plain. 
The  ice-age  left  the  plain  encumbered  with  glacial  sands  and  gravels,  and 
the  valleys  in  the  mountains  were  often  choked,  like  GlencuUen  in  Co. 
Dublin,  with  similar  materials,  through  which  the  streams  now  cut  their 
way.  The  abundant  scratched  blocks  in  these  deposits  show  how  the 
stones  were  once  pressed  against  one  another,  and  were  pushed  into  the 
lowlands  under  the  weight  of  solid  ice. 

The  Irish  Channel,  as  we  have  seen  above,  was  formed  since  the  glacial 
epoch,  and  was  at  one  time  even  wider  than  it  is  at  present.     Clays  were 

deposited  on  its  shore,  full  of  modern  marine  shells, 

f  D  If    ^      which  are  now  again  lifted  above  the  sea,  and  which 

Clays  or  Belfast,     ^^j.^^^  ^q  t^ke  one  instance,  the  foundations  of  Belfast. 

The  sickle-shaped  promontory  of  Larne,  whence  the 
steamers  start  for  Scotland,  has  been  lifted  some  twenty  feet  since  man 
himself  came  into  the  countr}'. 

During  these  comparatively  recent  oscillations,  now  one  way,  now  another, 
the  v.-hole  western  edge  of  Europe  dipped  sufficiently  below  the  water  to 
allow  the  sea  to  flood  the  western  valleys.  These  had  long  been  occupied 
by  ice,  and  no  debris  could  thus  gather  in  their  floors.  They  offered,  as 
the)"  sank  and  as  the  glaciers  melted,  clean  and  clear  inlets  by  which  the  sea 
could  penetrate  the  land.  The  fjords  of  Norway  are  the  most  notable 
example,  running  in  places  lOO  miles  into  the  hills.     Those  of  Scotland  and 

Ireland  originated  in  the  same  epoch  of  depression. 

The  Western         Hence  one  of  the  most  delightful  features  of  the  west, 

Fjords.  the  narrow  Killary  Harbour  (Fig.  g),  ten  miles  long 

and  half-a-mile  wide,  is  a  true  example  of  a  fjord. 
Uingle  Bay,  the  Kenmare  inlet,  Bantry  Bay,  and  many  others,  are  also  sub- 
merged valleys  ;  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  we  view  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic,  lapping  gently  at  high  tide  against  the  wild  flowers  on  the  shore. 
Galway  Bay  and  Clew  Bay  present  the  features  of  ordinary  wide-mouthed 
areas  of  submergence,  such  as  are  styled  "  rias  "  on  the  Spanish  coast ;  the 
sharp  northern  edge  of  the  former,  running  east  and  west,  suggests  a  frac- 
ture in  the  solid  crust,  with  subsidence  on  its  southern  side.  It  is  note- 
Avorthy  that  this  line,  when  continued  eastward,  coincides  with  one  of  the 
lowest  areas  of  the  plain,  the  region  between  Galway  town  and  Dublin. 

The  lowering  of  the  east  coast,  attendant  on  the  separation  of  Ireland 
from  Britain,  similarly  produced  rias  or  fjords.  The  Norse  invaders  saw  m 
them  a  reminder  of  their  own  indented  coast,  and  the  names  of  Waterford 
and  W'exford,  Carlingford  and  Strangford,  connect  geology  with  history. 
The  north  coast  also  has  its  submerged  valleys,  in  the  long  inlets  of  Lough 
Swilly  and  Lough  Foyle. 

Ireland,  then,  as  we  know  her,  this  land  of  crag  and  glen,  of  lake  and 
plain,  owes  the  rich  contrasts  of  her  scenery  to  a  long  and  complex  series  of 
events.  Yet  the  main  structural  lines  of  the  country  were  impressed  upon 
it  very  early  in  its  history.  The  Caledonian  folding  determined  the  heights 
cf  Donegal  and  the  long  backbone  of  Leinster ;  the  Hercynian  folding 
marked  out  the  parallel  ranges  of  the  south,  and,  dying  away  to  northward, 
settled  the  broad  reaches  of  the  central  plain.  The  Mournes  and  the  Antrim 
plateaux  are  the  only  recent  features,  and  even  they,  somewhat  proudly,  can 
claim  precedence  of  the  Alps. 


16  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY. 


Lastly,  it  is  clear  that  the  natural  incorporation  of  Ireland  in  the  British 
Isles,  and,  through  them,  with  Europe,  has  profoundly  influenced  her  his- 
tory. Her  insular  position  laid  her  open  to  attack  from  a  variety  of  nations, 
in  times  when  it  was  far  easier  to  travel  by  sea  than  to  court  the  dangers  and 
difficulties  of  the  land.  The  early  pre-Celtic  inhabitants  were  thus  invaded, 
possibly  by  men  of  a  central  European  race.  A  dominant  tribe,  which  arose 
ultimately,  and  which  was  known  as  the  Scots,  occupied  the  plain,  and  ruled 
the  country  from  the  centre,  as  the  Magyars  now  rule  Hungary.  The  ex- 
pansion and  enterprise  of  the  Scots  enabled  them  to  found  a  colony  in 
Galloway,  and  their  descendants  gave  a  name  to  .Scotland.  In  the  ninth 
century,  the  Irish  coasts  were  in  turn  harassed  by  Norwegians,  commonly 
spoken  of  as  Danes,  who  seized  a  number  of  the  ports,  including  Dublin  and 
Limerick.  They  maintained  communications  from  one  settlement  to 
another,  and  commerce  sprang  up  in  the  shelter  of  the  rias  and  the  fjords. 
The  value  of  these  harbours  was  later  realised  by  the  freebooting  Normans, 
who  were,  after  all,  distant  relations  of  the  Scandinavians.  The  royal 
authority  planted  castles  to  guard  the  entries  of  the  ports,  and  to  keep  the 
towns  in  Norman  hands.  The  mountainous  nature,  however,  of  the  rim  of 
Ireland  allowed  descents  on  these  strongholds  to  be  easily  made  on  the 
part  of  native  tribes ;  while  the  forests  and  bog-land  of  the  central  plain 
prevented  its  settlement  by  the  limited  body  of  colonists,  even  as  late  as 
Elizabethan  times.  To  this  day  the  western  mountains  of  Ireland  marl'i 
the  region  where  the  old  language  is  mostly  spoken,  while  it  prevailed  quite 
recently  in  the  corresponding  highlands  on  the  east.  Throughout  the 
country,  the  townlands  still  bear  characteristic  Gaelic  names,  which  often 
suggest  some  natural  feature  of  the  landscape. 

In  this  brief  attempt  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  physical  structure  of 
Ireland  upon  her  history,  our  survey  of  the  country  well  may  end.  It  may 
be  that  one  should  be  born  a  peasant  among  the  purple  hills  of  Connaught 
to  know  to  the  full  the  enduring  fascination  of  the  land.  But  to  all  of  us  it 
may  be  given  to  stand  in  some  great  meadow  of  the  midland,  and  to  hear 
the  plovers  calling,  and  to  see  the  plain  melt,  as  it  were,  against  a  soft  and 
cloud-filled  air ;  or  to  view  from  some  high  brown  moorland  the  streamlets 
starting  on  their  courses,  and  far  below,  in  the  precipiced  combe,  the  gleam- 
ing of  a  rock-girt  lake  ;  or,  again,  at  evening,  to  rest  amid  the  crescent  of 
the  sand-hills,  our  ears  filled  with  a  murmur  of  Atlantic  waves,  and  to  catch 
far  off^,  against  the  gold  of  sunset,  some  glimpses  of  the  fortunate  isles. 


IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES.  17 


IRISH    MINERALS    AND    BUILDING    STONES. 

It  will  be  clear  from  the  foregoing  general  description  of  the  geology  of 
Ireland  that  the  country  depends  largely  for  its  coal  supply  upon  outside 
sources,  notably  on  Scotland  as  regards  the  northern  counties,  and  on  Lan- 
cashire as  regards  the  centre  and  the  south.  The  many  schemes  for  utilis- 
mg  peat  as  fuel  on  a  commercial  scale  have  not  met  with  much  success,  con- 
fronted as  they  are  by  the  nearness  of  the  coalfields  across  the  narrow 
channel  on  the  east.  The  absence  of  native  coal  in  most  districts  has 
checked  the  formation  of  industrial  centres  in  Ireland  ;  and  even  the  metallic 
ores  raised  from  time  to  time  have  been  sent  for  smelting  to  Ayrshire  or 
South  Wales.  The  attention  of  the  working  population  has  thus  become 
more  and  more  directed  to  agriculture ;  and  the  introduction  of  steam 
machinery  into  almost  every  trade  has  still  further  emphasised  the  differ- 
ence between  the  economic  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  Midlands  of 
Ireland  and  those  of  industrial  England.  This  question,  however,  has 
obviously  two  sides  to  it ;  and  a  population  compelled  to  seek  prosperity 
from  the  soil  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  after  all  more  for- 
tunate than  one  which,  year  by  year,  becomes  more  closely  crowded  into 
towns.  The  utilisation  of  water-power  for  the  production  of  electricity,  and 
the  employment  of  the  electric  furnace  in  metallurgy,  may  open  new  possi- 
bilities for  Ireland  ;  but  at  present  her  metallic  ores  remain  in  large  part 
unproductive,  and  her  coal  is  raised  somewhat  sporadically,  owing  to  the 
readiness  with  which  fuel  can  be  imported  from  the  richer  seams  in  Britain. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  improved  means  of  carriage  from  the  mines 
to  the  main  lines  of  railway  may  do  much  towards 
„     J  promoting   a   local   use   of   Irish   coal.     There   have 

been,  for  the  past  few  years,  twenty-four  mines  at 
work  in  the  various  coalfields,  employing  a  total  of 
nearly  one  thousand  persons.  Professor  Hull's  estimate,  in  1881,  of  the 
"net  tonnage  available  for  use"  in  the  Irish  coalfields  gave  182,280,000 
tons  of  coal.  About  125,000  tons  are  now  raised  annually,  or  little  more 
than  the  figure  recorded  twenty  years  ago.  The  output  of  Scotland,  with 
her  rich  coal-basins  between  Ayr  and  the  Firth  of  Forth,  is  about  30,000,000 
tons  per  annum,  the  amount  having  been  nearly  doubled  in  five-and-twenty 
years.  Like  that  of  South  Wales,  the  coal  of  Ireland  is  very  largely  anthra- 
citic,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  not  a  brightly  burning  coal.  The  northern  coalfields 
of  Lough  Allen  and  Eastern  Tyrone  produce,  however,  what  is  called  bitu- 
minous coal,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Hmited  Ballycastle  and  Carrick- 
macross  areas.  The  great  Kilkenny  field,  and  all  its  southern  companions, 
produce  anthracite  alone.  This  type  of  coal  in  Ireland  contains  from  80  to 
90  per  cent  of  carbon,  the  ash  being,  in  these  extreme  varieties  respectively, 
9.8  and  3.7  per  cent.  Sulphur  is  occasionally  present  in  undesirable 
quantity,  but  in  other  seams  is  practically  absent. 

The  Irish  coalfields  have  been  reported  on  fully  by  Sir  R.  Griffith,  Sir 
Robert  Kane,  and  the  officers  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  offer,  in  most 
cases,  a  field  for  patient  exploration  rather  than  for  speculation.     Thus  the 

C 


18  IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 


favourably  situated  and  productive  coal-bearing  strata  in  the  Lough  Allen 
(Arigna)  area*  are  in  the  form  of  outliers  on  the  tops  of  mountains  of 
moderate  height.  The  beds  can  be  traced  along  fairly  horizontal  out- 
crops, and  the  strata  below  the  Millstone  Grit  series  are  unproductive. 
Here,  then,  deep  mining  will  reveal  no  further  source  of  coal.  At  Bally- 
castle,  however,  the  coal  occurs  in  lower  Carboniferous  Sandstone,  the  "  Cal- 
•ciferous  Sandstone  "  series  of  Scotland,  accompanied  by  layers  of  clay-iron- 
stone. This  ironstone  has  been  calcined  on  the  spot,  and  exported  for 
smelting  in  Scotland.  The  coal-bearing  strata  are  exposed  on  the  steep 
slopes,  and  cliffs  above  the  shore,  both  west  and  east  of  the  bold  dolerite 
promontory  of  Fair  Head.  They  are  mined  by  tunnelling  into  the  face  of 
the  rock  ;  and  the  dip  causes  the  beds  in  some  places  to  fall  rapidly  as  they 
are  traced  inland.  The  degree  of  folding  undergone  by  the  beds  being 
unknown  as  we  pass  south  across  the  country,  trial  borings  may  possibly 
reach  the  same  strata  in  convenient  positions  away  from  the  sea-shore.  The 
fioor  of  ancient  schists  on  which  the  beds  were  deposited  comes  to  the  sur- 
face, however,  only  two  miles  from  the  coast,  both  on  the  west  and  on  the 
south,  and  thus  no  great  thickness  of  coal-bearing  strata  can  be  anticipated 
as  we  proceed  inland.  We  are  here,  in  fact,  limited  by  our  position  low 
'down  in  the  Carboniferous  system,  and  far  below  the  true  Coal-Measures, 
-which  cannot  therefore  be  struck  by  boring. 

Here  and  there,  in  the  undulating  country  between  Lough  Neagh  and 
TvOugh  Foyle,  it  is  just  possible  that  coal  of  the  Ballycastle  type  occurs ; 
but  its  existence  in  commercial  quantities  is  extremely  doubtful.  Three 
hundred  years  ago,  as  Mr.  G.  H.  Kinahan  records,  ironstone  nodules  were 
smelted  in  Drumard,  near  Draperstown,  and  they  may  be  seen  among  the 
sandstones  and  shaly  beds  in  some  of  the  stream-banks  of  that  locality. 
But  none  of  the  valleys  that  traverse  these  strata  seems  to  have  exposed  a 
bed  of  coal  to  view. 

The  Tyrone  coalfield  has  more  promise,  and  provides  some  opportunity 
for  a  prospector.  The  surface  of  Coal-Measures  exposed  is  small,  and  is 
definitely  bounded  by  lower  and  unproductive  beds  upon  the  west.  But,  on 
the  east,  the  coal-bearing  strata  run  under  the  Triassic  Sandstone,  and  may 
possibly  be  preserved  by  this  covering  for  some  distance  towards  Lough 
Neagh.  Considering,  however,  that  the  Trias  rests  on  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone in  the  valley  of  the  Lagan,  and  also  immediately  south  of  Dungannon, 
great  denudation  must  have  occurred  during  what  has  been  termed  the 
Hercynian  uplift.  The  Coal-Measures  of  Dungannon  and  Coalisland  are 
not  at  all  likely  to  extend  beneath  Lough  Neagh.  Locally,  they  must  be 
regarded  as  rich,  the  Annagher  seam  being  nine  feet  thick,  and  other  seams 
running  from  two  feet  to  five  feet  thick. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  strike  these  beds  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  ; 
one  boring  was  put  down  the  neck  of  an  Eocene  volcano,  the  rhyolite  that 
choked  the  vent  being  mistaken  for  a  Carboniferous  Sandstone,  although 
its  true  character  had  been  noted  by  geologists  sixty  years  before  the 
attempt  was  made.  Another  boring  was  made  near  Carrickfergus,  and 
resulted  in  the  fortunate  discovery  of  rock-salt.  Only  by  pure  good  luck 
can  patches  of  Coal  Measures,  if  such  exist,  be  struck  by  borings  put  down 
through  the  superincumbent  rocks  in  County  Antrim.  The  black  Silurian 
shales  of  Strangford  Lough  have  been  mistaken  for  Coal-Measures ;   but  a 

*  For  analyses,  &c.,  of  coal  of  this  area,  see  R.  J.  Cruise,  Journ.  R.  Geol.  Soc.  Ireland,  vol. 
xlii.  (1873),  p.  144,  and  L.  Studdert,  ibid.,  p.  146. 


IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES.  19 


very  slight  acquaintance  with  the  fossils  of  that  locality  will  prevent  the 
repetition  of  so  futile  a  speculation. 

The  coal  that  is  often  mentioned  in  the  County  of  Cavan  has  a  somewhat 
curious  history.  Part  of  the  Lough  Allen  coalfield  lies  within  the  county  ; 
and  true  coal  exists,  in  a  limited  amount,  in  a  patch  of  Coal-Measures  lying 
just  beyond  the  eastern  border.  But  curiously  enough,  bands  of  anthracite 
ari  here  and  there  traceable  in  County  Cavan  in  the  Silurian  strata,  and  were 
favourably  reported  on  by  Mr.  J.  L  Whitty  in  1854.*  The  seam  was  in 
places  four  feet  thick,  and  trial  shafts  were  put  down  near  Kilnaleck.  The 
beds  are,  however,  almost  vertical,  and  the  anthracite  is  much  broken  by 
masses  of  shale.  Seeing  that  the  strata  are,  at  the  latest,  of  Llandovery 
age,  and  that  no  plants  likely  to  form  coal  existed  at  so  remote  an  epoch, 
the  continuity  of  the  deposit  is  most  improbable.  It  may,  indeed,  be,  like 
the  graphite  of  Bavaria  and  Ceylon,  entirely  of  mineral  origin.  Near  Bally- 
jamesduff,  the  beds  seem  impregnated  with  quartz  and  anthracite,  while 
iron-ores  occur  at  hand  in  the  same  series.  Mr.  Whitty's  report  seems  to 
have  been  over-sanguine  as  to  the  value  of  the  material  as  a  fuel. 

The  Kilkenny  coalfield,  with  its  seams  of  anthracite,  has  its  commercial 
centre  in  Castlecomer,  and  occupies  a  high  synclinal  basin,  like  the  Forest  of 
Dean  in  England.!  Means  of  transport  are  still  in  a  backward  state  ;  the 
upper  and  thicker  seams  have  become  already  exhausted  ;  and  the  coal  as  a 
rule  contains  a  deleterious  amount  of  sulphur,  in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  anthracite  of  Leinster  may  come  into  further 
use  for  commercial  purposes,  when  better  communications  are  established 
between  the  coalfield  and  the  limestone  plain.  Already,  180  persons  are 
employed  at  the  J  arrow  colliery  alone. 

The  Coal-Measures  of  North  Kerry  and  Clare  cover  a  large  area,  but 
contain  only  a  few  thin  coals.     The  iron  ore  associated  with  them  was  for- 
merly smelted,  especially  in  the  seventeenth  century.     Mr.  G.  H.  Kinahan, 
in  his  essay  on  Irish  Mining,  gives  no  ground  for  hope  that  this  region  will 
ever  become  productive.     Anthracite  occurs  also  in  North-west  Cork,  and 
has  been  worked  recently ;   but  the  spots  where  development  may  be  best 
expected  are  in  Tyrone,  and  on  the  hill-sides  near  Lough  Allen.     In  the 
latter  region,  the  associated  clay-iron  stone  has  always  been  highly  spoken  of. 
Bog  iron  ore,  the  limonitic  deposit  of  existing  bogs  and  stagnant  pools, 
occurs  where  the  waters  of  the  locality  are  or  have 
Bo^  Iron  Ore  ^^^^^  ^^^^  charged  with  salts  of  iron.     This  material 

°  •  has  been  found  of  use  in  the  purification  of  gas,  for 

which  purpose  it  is  exported  from  the  County  of  Done- 
gal, and  from  Mountrath  in  Queen's  County.  4,321  tons  of  bog  ore  were 
raised  in  1 899.  Ochre,  for  paint,  is  raised  m  County  Wicklow,  in  connection 
with  the  Ovoca  mines. 

The  only  other  iron  ores  regularly  worked  in  Ireland  in  recent  years  are 
those  formed  in  the  lakes  of  Eocene  times,  and  found 
Sr.f«5m  T««r,  n«.»c      intcrbeddcd  among  the  Antrim  basalts.     The  official 
Aninm  iron  ures.     reports  of  the  Inspectors  of  Mines  record  no  "  iron- 
stone "  as  raised  in  connection  with  the  coal  mines  in 
Ireland  during  1900,  but   102,941   tons  of  iron  ore  are  recorded  from  the 
metalliferous  mines.     Practically  the  whole  output,  say  100,000  tons,  may  be 
annually  credited  to  County  Antrim. 

*  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  Dublin,  vol.  vi.,  p.  187. 

t  For  details  of  coals,  see  G.  H.  Kinahan,  Journ.  R.  Geol.  Soc.  I.,  vol.  vii    (1886),  p.  20. 


20  IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 

These  stratified  iron  ores  of  northern  Ireland  have  been  described  in 
detail  by  Mr.  Philip  Argall,*  who  was  incUned,  however,  to  refer  them  to 
volcanic  mud-flows,  rather  than  to  the  products  of  weathering  of  the 
earlier  basalts.  The  richest  ore  is  pisolitic,  like  that  deposited  in  some 
recent  lakes,  and  is  at  times  a  bright  red  earthy  haematite,  at  times  brown 
and  limonitic,  at  times,  again,  black  and  magnetic,  with  about  lo  per  cent, 
of  titanium  dioxide.  The  black  type  of  ore,  according  to  published  analyses, 
consists  largely  of  dark  haematite  ;  but  some  of  the  granules  are  formed  of 
magnetite,  and  even  show  polarity.  The  beds  are  worked  between  Glenarm 
and  Broughshane,  and  the  actual  ore  is  often  a  foot  in  thickness.t 

Intercalated  among  these  interesting  strata  is  bauxite,  a  hydrous  alumi- 
nium oxide,  associated  with  some  pale  clay,  and  giving 
at  times  57  per  cent,  of  alumina  on  analysis.       The 
isauxite.  Irish  bauxite  is  worked,  under  the  name  of  "  alum 

clay,"  for  the  manufacture  of  alum,  and  was  for  a  time 
used  as  a  commercial  source  of  the  metal  aluminium.  It  occurs  both  in  the 
Glenarm  district  and  near  Ballintoy.  Mr.  Kinahan  states  that  the  alum 
industry  commenced  in  1 874,  and  that  beds  were  worked  "  more  especially 
near  Ballintoy."  In  1898,  12,402  tons  of  bauxite  were  raised,  valued  at 
nearly  ;£^3,000;  this  fell  to  5,779  tons  in  1900.  Antrim  furnishes  the  only 
record  for  this  material  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  mining  of  other  metalliferous  ores  in  Ireland  depends  very  largely 
upon  the  fluctuation  of  prices  in  the  trades  directly  concerned. 

Copper,  which  is  practically  all  in  the  form  of  Copper  Pyrites,  was  at  one 
time  very  profitable,  the  ore  being  sent  to  Swansea 
_  and  Lancashire  to  be  smelted.     Chalcosine  or  Red- 

ttoppe  .  ruthite    (sometimes   called   in    Ireland    "  grey   copper 

ore,"  a  term  usually  applied  to  Tetrahedrite),  and  Ma- 
lachite, the  green  carbonate,  were  also  worked  on  a  limited  scale.  From  1 840 
to  1843,  the  annual  output  of  the  Ballymurtagh  Mine  in  County  Wicklow 
averaged  nearly  6,000  tons  of  copper  ore,  while  the  whole  output  of  copper 
ore  for  Ireland  in  1899  is  recorded  as  only  533  tons.  Development  is  pro- 
ceeding in  some  of  the  old  mining  districts  of  the  south,  such  as  the  Allihies 
mine,  in  County  Cork  ;  but  the  raising  of  copper  ore  has  long  been  con- 
fined to  County  Wicklow.  In  both  these  counties  further  prospecting  is 
now  in  progress. 

Mr.  Argall  +  described  the  "  ancient  and  recent  mining  operations  "  of 
East  Ovoca  in  1 879 ;  but  the  best  historical  accounts  of  the  whole  area  are 
to  be  found  in  Sir  R.  Kane's  work  and  in  Mr.  Kinahan's  "  Economic 
Geology."  The  occurrence  of  iron  pyrites  (pyrite)  with  the  copper  ore,  often 
in  preponderating  amount,  has  led  to  the  same  mines  being  worked  for  iron, 
copper,  and  sulphur,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  day.  The  pyrite 
is  known  as  "  sulphur  ore,"  and  forms  the  bulk  of  the  material  raised  at  the 
present  time,  the  output  amounting  to  2,411  tons  in  1899,  and  2,434  tons  in 
1900. 

The  south  of  Ireland  was  in  former  times  essentially  a  copper-producing 
district,  and  the  success  of  the  mines  at  Knockmahon  and  Bonmahon,  in 
County  Waterford,  and  of  the  Allihies  mine  west  of  Berehaven,  in  County 

*  Journ.  R.  Geol,  Soc.  I.,  vol.  vi.   (1881),  p.  g8. 

t  See  Mem,  Geol.  Survey  to  Sheet  20  (1886),  pp.  12-16  and  28-31.  Bauxite  is  touched  on  in 
the  same  Memoir  ;  but  its  more  important  application  is  of  later  date  than  1886. 

J  lourn.  R.  Geol.  Soc.  I.,  vol.  v.,  p.  150.  See  also  report  by  Sir  Warington  Smyth,  Records 
of  the  School  of  Mines,  vol.  i.  (1853),  p.  370. 


IRISH   MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES.  21 


Cork,  encouraged  a  considerable  amount  of  speculation.  Here,  again, 
copper  pyrites  is  the  prevailing  ore.  Mr.  Kinahan  points  out  that  the  Bon- 
mahon  group  of  mines  was  well  exploited  from  1824  down  to  the  dis- 
mantling of  the  works  in  1880  ;  but  veins  and  pockets  may  yet  be  struck  in 
the  south  of  Ireland  which  will  provide  material  of  equal  value  to  that  of 
the  worked-out  undertakings.  Some  of  the  ultimately  successful  areas  were 
abandoned  or  sold  by  previous  owners  because  the  first  years  of  work  were 
discouraging. 

Copper  pyrites  has  been  sporadically  mined  in  many  other  parts  of 
Ireland.  Even  at  the  sea-inlet  of  Loughshinny,  south  of  Skerries,  in  County 
Dublin,  adits  exist  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  shales,  from  which,  as  Kane 
says,  ore  was  "  raised  from  time  to  time." 

Lead  and  zinc  are  commonly  raised  together,  the  two  sulphides.  Galena 
and  Blende,   being  the  prevalent   Irish  ores.       Fine 

Lead,  Silver,  and  crystals  of  Cerussite  (lead  carbonate)  have  been  ob- 
Zinc.  tained  from  the  mines  of  Glenmalure  in  County  Wick- 

low  ;  while  Smithsonite  (zinc  carbonate)  occurs,  as  a 
product  of  replacement  of  limestone,  in  the  Silvermines  works  near  Nenagh.* 
As  is  well  known,  silver  is  a  common  accessory  in  galena,  and  the  argenti- 
ferous ore  was  worked  at  Silvermines  even  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
richness  of  this  lode  makes  further  prospecting  advisable,  both  in  west 
Tipperary  and  in  Clare. 

Galena  was  recently  raised,  to  the  extent  of  30  to  40  tons  per  annum, 
in  County  Wicklow,  the  ore  in  Glendasan  giving  8  to  10  ounces  of  silver  to 
the  ton.f  Smelting  is  still  carried  on  at  Ballycorus,  in  the  south  of  County 
Dublin  ;  but  the  ore  is  imported,  and  the  old  workings  in  the  Ordovician 
shales,  like  so  many  lead-veins  in  Ireland,  are  regarded  as  now  unprofitable. 
Galena  was  also  formerly  worked  in  the  southern  part  of  County  Monaghan, 
and  this  area  may  yet  deserve  careful  prospecting.  While  a  great  number 
of  occurrences  of  galena  have  been  recorded  from  the  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone area,  it  cannot  be  said  that  this  ore  is  limited  in  Ireland  to  any  par- 
ticular formation. 

The  abundance  of  pre-historic  gold  ornaments  in  Ireland  has  suggested 
that  the  metal  was  of  local  origin  ;  and  this  is  by  no 
Gold.  means  unlikely,  despite  the  barter  and  commerce  that 

went  on  in  Europe,  even  in  the  remote  period  when 
these  articles  were  fashioned.  The  metal,  however,  was  doubtless  alluvial, 
and  had  accumulated  in  the  gravels  of  Wicklow,  and  perhaps  of  Donegal, 
for  untold  ages  before  man  came  into  the  country.  When  its  use  and  value 
became  discovered,  the  deposits  doubtless  were  rapidly  worked  out,  and  the 
centuries  that  have  since  elapsed  have  seen  only  a  trivial  amount  of  denu- 
dation and  accumulation,  compared  with  the  long  epochs  that  went  before. 
Hence  in  Ireland,  as  in  Peru,  latter-day  gold-mining  has  been  of  little 
importance,  and  the  material  may  be  sought  with  most  success  in  the 
tombs  and  hidden  treasuries  of  prehistoric  chieftains. 

The  Croghan  Kinshelagh  and  Ovoca  districts  in  the  County  of  Wicklow 
have,  however,  produced  considerable  quantities  of  gold  from  alluvial  work- 
ings during  the  last  hundred  years  or  so  ;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Gerrard 

*  lukes,  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  Dublin,  vol.  x.  (1863),  p.  12.  Apjohn  records  also  electric  cala- 
mine (/J/c/.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  157) ;  and  Wynne  has  given  a  general  description  of  the  Silvermines 
district  {ibid.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  244). 

t  The  Luganure  lodes  are  described  by  Sir  Warington  Smyth  (Records  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  vol.  i.  (1853),  p.  353 ;  see  also  Haughton,  Journ.  G.  S.  Dublin,  vol.  vi.,  p.  168). 


22  IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 

A.  Kinahan*  that  the  deposits  were  by  no  means  exhausted.  Mr.  E.  St.  John 
Lyburn,  A.R.C.Sc.L,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  Royal  Dubhn  Society  in 
I  go  I,  has  proved,  by  a  large  number  of  assays,  the  general  poverty  of  the 
Wicklow  rocks  in  gold ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  supports  Mr.  G.  A. 
Kinahan's  view  that  many  of  the  gravels  remain  unexplored,  especially  in 
their  deeper  layers,  or  on  the  shelves  above  the  present  streams. t  Mr. 
Gerrard  A.  Kinahan's  paper  contains  an  excellent  account  of  the  history  of 
gold-working  in  County  Wicklow,  whereby  it  appears  that  the  value  of  the 
metal  raised  only  occasionally  exceeded  the  cost  of  mining.  Probably,  the 
really  profitable  transactions  were  those  of  the  peasantry,  who  from  time  to 
time  stored  up  a  little  gold,  which  they  had  washed  out  by  the  most  primitive 
means,  and  brought  it  for  sale  to  the  jewellers  in  Dublin.  It  is  currently 
reported  that  this  practice  still  continues.  The  gravels  to  the  north  and 
north-east  of  Croghan  Kinshelagh  were  worked  by  Government  from  1796 
to  1803,  when  the  operations  were  finally  abandoned.  Various  companies 
have  examined  the  deposits  since  that  date,  finding  gold,  it  is  true,  but  not 
with  sufficient  uniformity. 

The  occurrence  of  Cassiterite  (in  the  form  of  stream-tin),  with  its  constant 

associate  wolfram,  in  the  auriferous  gravels  of  Croghan 
Tin.  Kinshelagh,  has  also  excited  curiosity.     This  instance, 

and  the  finding  of  a  small  quantity  of  tin  ore  in  a  lead- 
vein  at  Dalkey,  are  the  only  authenticated  records  of  cassiterite  in  Ireland. 
In  County  Wicklow  the  original  vein  has  not  been  discovered. 
Among  minerals  which  are  not  metallic  in  the  popular  sense,  Rock-Salt 

deserves  the  most  prominent  mention.       The  well- 
Rock-salt,  known  beds  near  Carrickfergus,  in  County  Antrim, 

were  discovered  in  1850,  when  the  Triassic  clays  and 
sandstones  were  being  pierced  in  the  hope  of  finding  coal.  The  site  offered, 
in  reality,  only  a  very  small  chance  for  the  coal-prospectors  ;  but  the  borings 
proved  the  existence  of  deposits  of  rock-salt  comparable  with  those  of 
Cheshire.  One  of  the  beds  at  the  Duncrue  mine  was  actually  eighty  feet  in 
thickness.  The  records  show  that  32,113  tons  of  salt  were  raised  from  this 
limited  area  in  the  east  of  Antrim  in  1900,  with  1 1,081  tons  obtained  in 
addition  from  brine. 

While  the  Gypsum  associated  with  the  same  strata  near  Belfast  is  mostly 

in  thin  veins,  this  mineral  has  been  worked,  for  the 
Gypsum.  preparation  of  Plaster  of  Paris,  from  a  much  thicker 

mass  in  the  Triassic  outlier  near  Carrickmacross. 
Barytes,  another  white  salt,  occurs  in  veins  in  many  places,  as  in  the 

Ordovician    strata  of  the  coast  of  County    Dublin ; 
Barytes.  but  in  County  Cork  it  is  of  unusual  mass  and  abund- 

ance.+  Near  Bantry,  a  vein  is  found  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet  thick  ;  and  a  remarkable  lode,  like  the  infilling  of  a  chimney, 
thirty  feet  long  and  fifteen  feet  wide,  also  occurs.  Barytes  is  mined  at 
Mount  Gabriel,  near  Schull,  at  Duneen  Bay,  Clonakilty,  and  also  at  Gleniff 
near  Bundoran.  3,278  tons  of  barytes  were  raised  in  Ireland  in  1899,  and 
3,626  tons  in  1900.     The  material,  it  may  be  observed,  is  mined  to  a  yet 

*  "  On  the  Mode  of  Occurrence  and  Winning  of  Gold  in  Ireland,"  Journ.  R.  Geol.  Soc.  !• 
vol.  vi.  (1882),  p.  156,  and  also  in  Sci.  Proc.  R.  Dublin  Soc,  vol.  iii.  (1883),  p.  263. 

t  Sci.  Proc.  R.  Dublin  Soc,  vol.  ix  (1901),  p.  426.  See  also  a  paper  by  Mr.  George  H. 
Kinahan,  ibid.,  vol.  iv.  (1885),  p.  39. 

J  See  E.  T.  Hardman,  "  On  the  Barytes  Mines  near  Bantry,"  Journ.  R.  Geol.  Soc,  I.,  vol.  v. 
{1878),  p.  99. 


IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES 2a 

larger  extent  in  each  of  the  counties  of  Northumberland,   Durham,  and 
Staffordshire,  and  is  clearly  of  commercial  interest. 

The  soft  magnesium  silicate.  Steatite,  a  massive  form  of  talc,  occurs  here 
and  there  in  good  veins,   but  is  often    mixed    with 
harder  minerals,  which  destroy  its  utility.     At  Crohy 
Dteatite.  Head,  and  Gartan,  however,  in  the  County  of  Done- 

gal, considerable  and  good  beds  occur  among  the 
ancient  metamorphic  rocks. 

While  Ireland  cannot  claim  especial  richness  as  a  mineral  country,  she  is 
essentially  a  stone  country,  and  quarries  have  been  opened  everywhere  for 
building  purposes  and  for  road-metal,  even  through  the  sands  and  gravels 
of  the  plain.  Naturally,  limestone  is  the  chief  substance  excavated  ;  and 
the  frequent  deficiencies  of  the  Irish  roads  are  due  to  the  general  use  of 
Carboniferous  limestone  as  a  metalling.  The  country  possess  excellent 
igneous  rocks,  which  should  be  imported  into  all  districts  where  they  are 
required.  In  this  matter,  the  growing  practice  of  England,  and  of  many 
foreign  states,  notably  Saxony,*  is  strongly  to  be  commended,  seeing  that 
good  roads  are  far  more  economical  to  mamtain  than  bad  ones,  and  that  they 
give  an  impetus  to  activity  and  intercommunication  such  as  no  main  line  of 
railway  can  bring  about.  In  Ireland,  far  more  than  in  England,  the  roads 
perform  the  functions  of  branch  lines — witness  those  numerous  stations 
named  after  roads,  and  situated  miles  away  from  the  towns  which  they 
are  meant  to  serve.  When  the  selection  of  proper  road-metal  is  seriously 
considered  in  rural  districts  in  Ireland,  the  country  itself  will  be  fully  able 
to  cope  with  the  demand. 

The  clays  used  for  bricks  have  been  mostly  derived  from  the  Glacial 
drift-deposits,  where  these  are  not  too  highly  charged; 
p,  with    limestone  debris.    The  Triassic  clay  of  Kings- 

^  '  court  has  produced  good  results,  while  the  carboni- 

ferous fire-clays  are  raised  in  connection  with  some  of 
the  coalfields,  notably  near  Dungannon.  These  ancient  shales,  when 
crushed,  yield  bricks  capable  of  resisting  a  high  temperature,  provided  that 
they  are  not  too  ferruginous.  The  Ordovician  shales  are  similarly  utilised 
at  Waterford.  Numerous  clays  suitable  for  ordinary  red  and  brown  glazed 
ware  exist  throughout  the  country.  The  clay  of  the  Lagan  valley  near 
Belfast,  and  that  on  the  north  side  of  the  Ovoca  at  Arklow,  are  used  for 
terracotta. 

True  porcelain-clay,  or  kaolin,  does  not  appear  to  occur  in  Ireland,  though 
it  might  have  been  expected  as  a  product  of  decay  from  the  granite  areas. 
The  materials  mentioned  under  this  head  by  Mr.  Kinahan  are  really  arti- 
ficially crushed  felspathic  rocks,  without  the  composition  of  true  kaolin. 
The  famous  pottery  of  Belleek,  in  County  Fermanagh,  was  thus  formerly 
made  from  the  crushed  alkali-felspars  of  the  granite  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lough  Erne.     The  material  used  is  still  a  felspar,  but  is  imported. 

The  diatomaceous  earth  which    has    accumulated  in  such  purity    near 

Toome,  in  County  Antrim,  where  the  Bann  flows  out 

Kieselguhr.  of  Lough  Neagh,  is  now  worked  for  various  purposes, 

under  the  usual  commercial  name  of  "  kieselguhr." 

Irish  slates  have  suffered,  from  a  business  point  of  view,  through  the 

*  See  O.  Hermann,  "  Steinbruchindustrie  und  S tein.br uchgeol ogie  "  (1899),  p.  351,  where 
an  analj'Sis  is  made  of  the  Saxon  highways,  proving  that  the  limestones  and  soft  rocks  that  form 
40  percent,  of  the  surface  of  Saxony  are  nowhere  employed  upon  the  public  roads. 


24  IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 

proximity  of  the  enormous  supplies  of  Llanberis  and 

_.  Ffestiniog,  in  N.  Wales.     A  local  use  has,  however, 

been  found  for  many  slates  occurring    in    inland  or 

western  localities.     The  quarries  in  Ordovician  strata 

in  Clashnasmuth  townland,  six  miles  from  Carrick-on-Suir,  have  a  sound 

reputation,  some  of  the  material  being  selected,  on  account  of  its  green 

colour,  for  special  decorative  effect.     Similar  slate  is  raised  not  far  away  in 

County  Kilkenny,   from  quarries  at  Kilmoganny.       Near  Killaloe,   again, 

roofing  slates  are  raised.     The  firm  tough  slate  of  Valentia  Island,  in  County 

Kerry,  is  suitable  for  flags  and  slabs,  which  are  obtained  there  of  an  unusual 

size.     Slates  are  also  raised  from  the  Carboniferous  Slate  series  west  of 

Clonakilty  in  County  Cork. 

The  fine-grained  bedded  sandstones  of  Upper  Carboniferous    age    in 
Ireland  are  at  times  extremely  tough  and  durable. 
-,,    .  The  dark  flags  of  south-west  Clare,  and  the  similar 

°  '  slabs  raised  in  County  Kilkenny,  and  sold  as  "  Carlow 

Flags,"  have  been,  in  consequence,  widely  used  for 
paving.     Good  flagstones  are  also  recorded  from  the  Lough  Allen  area. 
The  best  Irish  sandstones  for  use  in  architectural  work  in  towns,  and 
some  of  the  finest  in  texture  in  the  British  Isles,  occur 
„      ,  ,  in  the  Carboniferous  system  in  the  Counties  of  Done- 

gal and  Fermanagh.  The  stone  of  Mount  Charles  in 
Donegal,  though  of  course  not  so  easily  worked  as 
limestone,  is  capable  of  receiving  a  sharp  edge,  and  of  being  used  for 
moulded  work  of  a  delicacy  unusual  in  this  class  of  material.  While  the 
soft  Triassic  sandstones,  like  those  of  Scrabo,  in  County  Down,  are  not 
suitable  for  monumental  work  in  the  smoky  atmosphere  of  towns,  and 
while  much  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  south  must  be  put  aside  on 
account  of  its  coarseness  of  grain,  the  Carboniferous  sandstones  may  receive 
more  and  more  attention  as  time  goes  on,  and  may  be  found  worthy  of 
export  to  the  manufacturing  cities  of  England. 

There  is  no  lack  of  good  grey  Carboniferous  limestone  in  the  broad 
central  Irish  area,  and  much  has  been  done  with  this 
Limestone  and        material,  both  for  massive  structures  and  for  decora- 
Marble,  tion.       The  shaly  varieties,  black  through  included 
mud-particles,  and  locally  known  as  "  calp,"  are  to  be 
avoided  for  all  but  common  walls,  since  they  weather  out  unequally  along 
the  planes  of  stratification.     The  opposite  type,  uniform  and  fine-grained, 
is  seen  in  the  grey  limestones  of  Roscommon,  in  which  excellent  carved  work 
has  been  effected,  and  which  are  practically  marbles,  utilised  as  building 
stones. 

The  Carboniferous  limestones  become  occasionally  dolomitic,  the  change 
being,  as  usual,  marked  by  the  introduction  of  iron  as  well  as  magnesium. 
The  rock,  in  consequence,  becomes  brownish  on  oxidation,  sometimes  in 
flecks  and  patches.  This  variegated  colouration  enhances  the  effect  of 
certain  varieties,  and  makes  them  serviceable  as  ornamental  marbles. 

The  black  marbles  of  Ireland  have  long  been  famous.  They  are  Carboni- 
ferous limestones  coloured  by  a  small  percentage  of  graphitic  carbon,  and 
have  been  quarried  mostly  near  the  cities  of  Galway  (Menlo)  and  Kilkenny 
(Archer's  Grove).  The  Menlo  rock  provides  pure  black  stone,  while  the 
white  sections  of  fossil  brachiopods  afford  a  striking  feature  amid  the  black 
ground  of  the  marble  of  Kilkenny. 

Other  marbles  that  have  achieved  marked  success  for  decorative  work 


IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES.  25 

are  the  red  varieties  of  County  Cork.  The  rock  of  Little  Island  is  the 
richest  in  colour,  showing,  on  polished  surfaces,  a  brecciated  structure,  with 
flowing  lines  and  veins.  It  has  been  largely  used  for  columns  and  the  panel- 
ling of  walls.  Red  marbles,  merging  into  grey  with  pink  calcite  veins,  are 
quarried  in  the  same  county  at  Midleton  and  near  Fermoy.  These  are  all 
cf  Carboniferous  age,  and  possess  a  beauty  similar  to  that  of  the  Devonian 
marbles  of  the  Plymouth  area. 

The  white  and  grey  marbles  of  the  County  of  Donegal  have  been 
examined  by  prospectors  from  time  to  time.  Many  are  true  calciphyres, 
containing  silicates  developed  in  them  ;  or  they  possess  numerous  micaceous 
partings,  which  hinder  their  use  in  large  blocks,  owing  to  the  planes  of 
weakness  thus  established.  There  is,  however,  a  possibility  of  raising  stones 
of  sufficient  size  in  the  deeper  parts  of  certain  quarries.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  metamorphic  action  and  earth-stresses  that  have 
affected  the  whole  County  of  Donegal  have  converted  almost  every  material 
alike  into  schistose  masses  traversed  by  an  immense  number  of  joint-planes. 

The  absolutely  unique  green  marble  of  Connemara  has  been  much  sought 
after  for  decorative  use.  It  varies  greatly  in  texture  and  colour,  and  is 
mineralogically  unsuited  for  out-door  work  ;  but  its  very  irregularity  and  its 
banded  structure  render  it  one  of  the  noblest  of  indoor  ornamental  stones. 
Under  the  name  of  "  Irish  Green,"  yellow-green  stones  from  Ballynahinch, 
and  magnificently  tinted  and  striped  masses  from  Lissoughter,  have  been 
sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  common  with  other  well-known  types  of 
Irish  marble,  this  material  is  finely  displayed  in  the  decorative  work  of  the 
Museum  of  Science  and  Art  and  the  National  Library  in  Dublin.  It  owes 
its  special  colouring  to  the  serpentine  which  permeates  it  in  knotty  bands 
and  curving  layers.  This  mineral  has  doubtless  arisen  from  the  alteration 
of  olivine  ;  and  the  rock  probably  at  one  time  resembled  the  banded  olivine- 
marbles  that  are  produced  by  the  contact  of  lava  and  limestone  in  the  vol- 
canic vent  of  Vesuvius. 

The  great  demand  for  ornamental  stone  that  will  resist  atmospheric  in- 
fluences in  industrial  cities  has  drawn  especial  atten- 
p        .,  tion  to  granite  and  allied  igneous  rocks.     Granite  has 

long  been  used  as  a  building  material  in  Ireland  ;  the 
grey  muscovite-granites  of  the  Leinster  chain  thus 
furnish  the  basement-courses  of  hundreds  of  unpretentious  houses,  which 
are  continued  upwards  in  ordinary  red  brick.  Polished  granite,  however, 
has  proved  itself  to  be  the  handsomest  and  most  durable  material  for  city 
work.  The  transformation  of  London  facades  in  the  last  thirty  years  testi- 
fies to  the  prevalent  tendency  among  architects  and  the  merchant-princes 
whom  they  serve.  In  London,  which  is  naturally  the  purchasing  centre 
towards  which  Ireland  must  chiefly  look,  the  grey  granite  of  Aberdeen,  the 
red  and  uniformly  grained  granite  of  Peterhead,  and  the  speckled  por- 
phyritic  red  graniie  of  Shap,  have  been  used  with  a  repetition  that  has 
almost  begun  to  pall.  Swedish  and  other  granites  have  been  introduced  to 
give  variety,  and  many  among  these  importations  are  granites  only  in  the 
liberal  and  commercial  acceptance  of  the  term.  The  fine-grained  grey 
granites  of  the  Newry  axis,  quarried  at  Altnaveigh,  Moor,  Goraghwood, 
Bessbrook,  and  other  places,  have  successfully  held  their  own  in  the  London 
market ;  but  rich  stores  of  red  and  variegated  granite  remain  still  practically 
undeveloped  in  the  west  of  Ireland.  Notable  among  these  are  the  Galway 
granites,  now  quarried  at  Shantallow.  Besides  a  compact  chocolate-red  and 
speckled  type,  porphyritic  granites  occur,  with  red  felspar  in  a  ground  of 


26  IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 


mingled  green  and  red.  The  green  colouration,  being  largely  due  to 
epidote,  implies,  in  this  case,  a  general  hardening,  and  not  a  softening  of  the 
mass.  These  handsome  rocks,  like  those  of  Mayo  and  Donegal,  lie  near  the 
coast,  whence  cheap  carriage  might  be  available. 

The  granites  of  Donegal  have  been  worked  from  time  to  time,  and  a 
company  is  at  present  engaged  on  those  around  Dungloe.  The  rocks  here 
offer  great  variety  of  colour,  a  consideration  of  much  importance,  seeing  how 
often  red  and  grey  stones  are  used  in  the  same  public  building.  The 
granite  of  Tamney,  Milford,  is  also  being  worked  by  another  company. 

The  importance  of  the  granite  industry,  even  in  its  present  position,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  165  persons  are  employed  in  the  County  of 
Wicklow  alone  in  extracting  granite  for  ordinary  building  work,  fifty  of 
these  being  at  the  Ballyknockan  quarry,  near  Blessington.  More  than  100 
men  are  employed  in  one  of  the  Newry  quarries,  and  fifty  in  eacli  of  several 
others. 

Finally,  among  stones  which  pass  in  the  trade  as  granites,  but  v/hich 

have  a  very  different  chemical  composition,  the  hand- 
_.  ,     .,  some  dark-green  dolerite  of  Rostrevor  may  be  cited, 

which   is   often   used   for   tombstones.       The    tough 

altered  dolerite  or  fine-grained  dolerite,  of  Arklow 
provides  employment  for  1 80  persons,  being  famous  as  a  material  for  paving 
setts. 

In  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  mineral  resources  and  building  stones  of 

Ireland,  many  interesting  materials  may  have  been 

„       ,     .  passed  over,  which  may  in  time  prove  to  have  com- 

"  mercial  importance.       But-  enough  has  been  said  to 

assure  the  reader  that  the  popular  notions  as  to  the 
vast  mineral  wealth  of  Ireland,  or  her  hidden  coal-fields,  waiting  only  for 
development,  are  myths  unworthy  of  a  serious  and  reflective  age.  If  mining 
of  metallic  ores  is  to  be  established  or  revived  in  any  district,  it  will  only  be 
possible  through  scientific  enterprise,  on  carefully  considered  economic 
principles,  and,  above  all,  through  the  hard  and  continuous  work  of  all  con- 
cerned. It  is  possible,  after  all,  that  a  ploughshare  and  a  spade  made  of 
imported  iron,  and  a  home-bred  peasant  to  guide  them,  may  yet  prove  the 
best  means  of  utilising  the  mineral  wealth  of  Ireland,  which  ages  of  denuda- 
tion have  taught  us  to  look  for  in  the  soil. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Memoirs  to  the  Sheets  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ireland;  various  dates.  A 
notice  of  any  mines  or  trials  for  minerals  usually  appears  in  the  concluding  pages  of 
each  memoir. 

G.  Wilkinson.  "  Practical  Geology  and  Ancient  Architecture  of  Ireland  "  (Murray, 
London,  1845).  Contains  a  practical  description,  county  by  county,  of  all  building- 
materials  worked  in  Ireland  at  the  date  of  publication,  with  the  results  of  an  elaborate 
series  of  experiments  on  the  absorption  of  water  by  various  specimens,  their  weight  per 
cubic  foot,  and  the  weights  required  to  break  or  crush  them. 

Sir  Robert  Kane.  "The  Industrial  Resources  of  Ireland"  (Hodges  and  Smith,  Dublin,  2nd 
ed.  1845).  This  classical  work  deals  with  Irish  coals  in  pp.  i — 54,  metallic  xires  in  pp. 
118—230  and  245 — 248,  and  building-materials  in  pp.  170 — 171  and  230 — 45. 

Jos.  Holdsworth.  "  Geology,  Minerals,  Mines  and  Soils  of  Ireland"  (Houlston  and  Wright, 
London,  1857).  ^  popular  account,  written  when  mining  enterprise  was  especially  active 
in  the  British  Isles. 

"  Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  several  matters  relating  to  Coal 
in  the  United  Kingdom  "  (1871),  vol.  i.,  pp.  78  and  168  ;  vol.  iii.,  pp.  27  and  150. 

Ed.  Hull.  "  The  Coalfields  of  Great  Britain  "  (Stanford,  London,  4th  ed.,  1881).  Includes 
Ireland  in  pp.  322 — 344. 

G.  H.  Kinahan.     "  Economic  Geology  of  Ireland."     Forms  volume  viii.  of  the  Journal  of  the 


IRISH  MINERALS  AND  BUILDING  STONES. 


27 


Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland,  1887—9.  The  three  parts  also  occur  in  the  Scientific 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  vol.  v.,  pp.  200,  372,  489,  and  507;  and  vol.  vi., 
pp.  6.  6g,  143,  169.  A  series  of  notes  on  practically  every  mineral  or  stone  raised  for 
commercial  purposes  in  Ireland,  and  displaying  almost  encyclopcEdic  knowledge  of  the 
country.  Differences  of  opinion  may  exist  as  to  some  of  the  geological  inferences,  and  the 
pages  require  press-revision  here  and  there  ;  but  it  forms  an  e.'^tremely  valuable  and 
permanent  work  of  reference.  An  index  has  been  added  to  the  complete  volume,  which  is 
now  issued  as  a  separate  work. 

Home  Office  (formerly  Mining  Record  Office),  Reports,  Records,  Mineral  Statistics,  &c. 
published  annually,  relating  to  Mines  and  Quarries  in  the  three  kingdoms. 

Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Dublin,  vols.  i.  to  x.  (1S32— 1864)  ;  continued  as 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland,  vols.  i.  to  viii.  (1867 — 1889). 


Ballynahinch,  Co.  Galway. 


28 


THE    SOILS  OF  IRELAND. 


THE    SOILS    OF    IRELAND. 


Through  the  writings  of  Boate,  M'CuUogh,  Young,  Wakefield,  Kane, 
Griffith,  and  other  acknowledged  authorities  on  matters  concerning  land, 
agricultural  enquirers  are  familiar  with  much  that  has  to  be  said  upon  the 
present  subject.  The  fertility  of  Irish  soils  has  long  been  recognised — as  a 
general  characteristic,  perhaps,  sometimes  over-estimated.  It  is  probable 
that  the  favourable  reputation  they  possess  is  largely  due  to  the  humidity  of 
our  climate — which  imparts  to  the  vegetation  of  the  Emerald  Isle  its  pro- 
verbial verdure — as  well  as  to  the  circumstances  which  are  to  be  described. 

Situated  as  Ireland  is,  upon  the  outskirts  of  the  European  Continent,  and 
exposed  to  the  moisture-laden  breezes  directly  reaching  it  from  the  Atlantic, 
the  island  in  some  respects  suffers  from,  if  in  other  respects  it  profits  by,  the 
undiminished  effects  of  their  humidity.  Frequent  late  springs  and  damp 
harvests,  with  heavy  rainfall,  particularly  in  the  hilly  regions,  causing  waste 
of  fertilising  ingredients  in  the  soils,  are  amongst  the  evil  effects  attendant 
upon  the  position  of  the  island.  As  a  set-off  against  those  drawbacks  there 
are  the  modifying  influences  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  producing  a  more  equable 
and  milder  climate  than  other  countries  in  the  same  latitude  enjoy.  These 
circumstances  are  moreover  conducive  to  a  much  prolonged  period  of  vege- 
table growth,  and  to  the  rearing  of  healthy  stock. 

The  following  figures  as  to  the  aggregate  areas  of  grass  land  and  arable 
soil,  woodlands,  peat  bogs,  and  waste  land  for  1900  and  1901,  are  taken 
from  returns  issued  by  the  Statistics  and  Intelligence  Branch  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 


Provincks. 

Total 
Area  under 

Crops 

(including 

Meadow 

and  Clover). 

Grass. 

Fallow. 

Woods 

and 
Planta- 
tions. 

Turf  Bog 
Marsh, 
Barren 

Mountain 

Land, 

Water, 

Roads, 

Fences,  &c. 

1 
Total. 

Leinster       {;9°° 
Monster       Ij^^,, 

connaught  -j^900 

(19OI 

Acres. 

1.239,535 

1,228,725 

i,2oo,t66 

1,188,857 

1,594.738 
1,587,643 

624,293 
625,826 

Acres. 

2,777,666 
2,792,880 

3,280,034 
3.291,199 

2,403,655 
2,415.753 

2,102,017 
2,077,406 

Acres. 
3.302 

3.577 

2,889 
2,535 

4,923 
3.813 

1.475 
961 

Acres. 
95,040 

95.447 

106,951 
105,411 

57.980 
57.080 

51.677 
51,803 

Acres. 
729,283 

724,197 

1,359,220 
1,361,258 

1,261,038 
1,258,045 

1,437,462 
1,460,928 

Acres. 

|-  4,844,826 

J-  5.949-260 
}  5.322,334 
,-  4,216,924 

4,658,732 
4,631,051 

10,563,372         12,589 
10,577,238         10,886 

311,648 
309.741 

4,787,003 
4,804,428 

r  20,333,344 

Tabulated  in  another  way,  the  distribution  of  areas  runs  thus  : — 

Above  the  2,000  feet  contour,  82  square  miles ;  between  2,000  feet 
and  1,000  feet  contour,  1,590  square  miles  ;  between  1,00^  feet  and  500 
feet  contour,  5,797  square  miles ;    between    500    feet    and    250    feet 


y^       PcTlrU. 


^Btnnicre  or  F^ir  ffeatl 


\\\rklow  Heaa 


THE   SOILS  OF  IRELAND.  29 


contour,  11,797  square  miles;  between  250  feet  and  sea-level,  13,242 
square  miles. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  well-nig;h  half  the  area  of  Ireland  would  probably  lie 
below  the  300  feet  contour  line,  and  is  thus  favourably  situated  for  the 
mechanical  operations  of  farming,  which  become  more  laborious  with  the 
increase  of  declivities,  while  these,  as  well  as  unfavourable  climatic  condi- 
tions, are  dependent  upon  the  increase  of  elevation. 

Referring  to  the  arable  and  grass  land,  there  are  several  areas  where  high- 
class  fattening  pasturage  prevails,  such  as  the  Golden  Vein,  on  the  confines 
of  Tipperary,  Limerick,  and  Cork  ;  East  Leinster,  including  parts  of  Meath, 
Dublin,  and  Kildare  ;  and  the  Valley  of  the  Lagan,  including  parts  of 
Antrim,  Down,  and  Armagh.  Against  this,  there  are  many  parts  where  the 
land  is  naturally  poor,  and  where,  because  cultivated  by  the  poorer  classes 
of  tenantry,  it  has,  through  bad  tillage  and  over-cropping,  run  down  below 
the  condition  which  would  be  normal  under  circumstances  of  fair  soil-treat- 
ment. Beyond  these  exceptional  regions  there  is  a  large  proportionate  area 
of  the  country  which  presents  a  fairly  high  average  quality  of  land,  varied, 
however,  by  the  intervention  of  peat  expanses,  badly  drained  clay  tracts, 
and  stony  ground,  which  are  of  low  value  ;  and  by  alluvial  flats,  many  of 
which  show  soils  of  good  quality. 

The  varieties  of  land  have  been  classified  somewhat  as  follows : — 

1.  Finishing  and  fattening  land.         This  land  bears  a  thick  sole  of  suc- 

culent     grass      interspersed      with 
clovers. 

2.  Lowland  pasture,   first  quality.        This    varies    from     land   bearing 

suitable  for  dairying.  mixed  herbage  to  pasture  on  shal- 

low, clayey,  and  moory  soils. 

3.  Lowland  pasture,  second  quality.      Indifferently   drained   land,    bear- 

ing rushy  and  coarse  herbage. 

4.  Mountain  pasture.  Mixed  green  and  shrubby  pasture, 

with  furze,  heather,  and  rocky  por- 
tions. 

5.  Wastes.  Unreclaimed    cutaway    bog,    red 

bog,  and  mountain  top. 
Throughout  the  country,  in  what  is  now  pasture  land,  there  are  indica- 
tions of  the  extensive  tillage  which  it  once  could  boast — a  somewhat  melan- 
choly reminder  of  itc  lessened  population,  and  of  the  correspondingly  great 
drop  in  the  prices  of  cereals,  and  some  other  agricultural  products.  Even  so 
late  as  1870,  the  area  under  rotation  crops,  including  clover,  meadow,  and 
fallow,  was  5,659,796  acres  ;  at  present  it  is  4,641,937  acres.  The  unlevelled 
ridges  or  "  lazy  beds  "  to  be  met  with  in  the  grass  land  in  many  places,  also 
remind  one  of  the  wasteful  character  of  husbandry  in  vogue  in  the  first  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  "  beton  "  fires  dissipated  the  organic  matter 
of  old  leas,  and  with  it  the  valuable  store  of  nitrogenous  compounds  with 
which  years  of  herbage-growth  had  enriched  the  sod.  They  were  days  of 
innocence  as  regards  the  prudence  of,  rather,  we  may  say,  the  necessity  for 
rigid  conservation  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  in  soils.  It  is  now  becoming 
better  known  that  if  burning  renders  mineral  substances,  particularly  potash 
compounds  in  the  sod  more  easily  soluble  and  available  to  plants,  this,  in 
the  case  of  clay  leas  is  at  the  expense  of  other  beneficial  ingredients :  in  the 
case  of  a  plentiful  depth  of  moory  soil,  the  loss  of  organic  matter,  including 
nitrogen,  is  not  felt.     On  the  profit  side  of  the  soil  account,  it  is  doubtful  if 


Loop  h 


Valencia  Islccnd 


THE   SOILS  OF  IRELAND.  29 


contour,  11,797  square  miles;  between  250  feet  and  sea-level,  13,242 
square  miles. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  well-nigh  half  the  area  of  Ireland  would  probably  lie 
below  the  300  feet  contour  line,  and  is  thus  favourably  situated  for  the 
mechanical  operations  of  farming,  which  become  more  laborious  with  the 
increase  of  declivities,  while  these,  as  well  as  unfavourable  climatic  condi- 
tions, are  dependent  upon  the  mcrease  of  elevation. 

Referring  to  the  arable  and  grass  land,  there  are  several  areas  where  high- 
class  fattening  pasturage  prevails,  such  as  the  Golden  Vein,  on  the  confines 
of  Tipperary,  Limerick,  and  Cork  ;  East  Leinster,  including  parts  of  Meath, 
DubUn,  and  Kildare  ;  and  the  Valley  of  the  Lagan,  including  parts  of 
Antrim,  Down,  and  Armagh.  Against  this,  there  are  many  parts  where  the 
land  is  naturally  poor,  and  where,  because  cultivated  by  the  poorer  classes 
of  tenantry,  it  has,  through  bad  tillage  and  over-cropping,  run  down  below 
the  condition  which  would  be  normal  under  circumstances  of  fair  soil-treat- 
ment. Beyond  these  exceptional  regions  there  is  a  large  proportionate  area 
of  the  country  which  presents  a  fairly  high  average  quality  of  land,  varied, 
however,  by  the  intervention  of  peat  expanses,  badly  drained  clay  tracts, 
and  stony  ground,  which  are  of  low  value ;  and  by  alluvial  fiats,  many  of 
which  show  soils  of  good  quality. 

The  varieties  of  land  have  been  classified  somewhat  as  follows : — 

1.  Finishing  and  fattening  land.  This  land  bears  a  thick  sole  of  suc- 

culent     grass      interspersed      with 
clovers. 

2.  Lowland  pasture,  first  quality.        This    varies    from    land   bearing 

suitable  for  dairying.  mixed  herbage  to  pasture  on  shal- 

low, clayey,  and  moory  soils. 

3.  Lowland  pasture,  second  quality.      Indifi^erently   drained    land,    bear- 

ing rushy  and  coarse  herbage. 

4.  Mountain  pasture.  Mixed  green  and  shrubby  pasture, 

with  furze,  heather,  and  rocky  por- 
tions. 

5.  Wastes.  Unreclaimed    cutaway    bog,    red 

bog,  and  mountain  top. 
Throughout  the  country,  in  what  is  now  pasture  land,  there  are  indica- 
tions of  the  extensive  tillage  which  it  once  could  boast — a  somewhat  melan- 
choly reminder  of  it^  lessened  population,  and  of  the  correspondingly  great 
drop  in  the  pnces  of  cereals,  and  some  other  agricultural  products.  Even  so 
late  as  1870,  the  area  under  rotation  crops,  including  clover,  meadow,  and 
fallow,  was  5,659,796  acres  ;  at  present  it  is  4,641,937  acres.  The  unlevelled 
ridges  or  "  lazy  beds  "  to  be  met  with  in  the  grass  land  in  many  places,  also 
remind  one  of  the  wasteful  character  of  husbandry  in  vogue  in  the  first  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  "  beton  "  fires  dissipated  the  organic  matter 
of  old  leas,  and  with  it  the  valuable  store  of  nitrogenous  compounds  with 
which  years  of  herbage-growth  had  enriched  the  sod.  They  were  days  of 
innocence  as  regards  the  prudence  of,  rather,  we  may  say,  the  necessity  for 
rigid  conservation  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  in  soils.  It  is  now  becoming 
better  known  that  if  burning  renders  mineral  substances,  particularly  potash 
compounds  in  the  sod  more  easily  soluble  and  available  to  plants,  this,  in 
the  case  of  clay  leas  is  at  the  expense  of  other  beneficial  ingredients :  in  the 
case  of  a  plentiful  depth  of  moory  soil,  the  loss  of  organic  matter,  including 
nitrogen,  is  not  felt.     On  the  profit  side  of  the  soil  account,  it  is  doubtful  if 


30 


THE    SOILS  OF  IRELAND. 


farmers  yet  fully  realise  the  gain  which  would  accrue  from  giving  clovers  and 
other  leguminous  crops  a  larger  place  in  their  rotations.  It  is  now  well 
known  that  such  crops  have  the  peculiar  faculty  of  appropriating,  through 
the  agency  of  micro-organisms  (which  generally  inhabit  soils,  and  colonize 
in  warts  upon  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants),  free  nitrogen,  which  exists  in 
the  atmosphere  in  unlimited  quantities,  and  finds  its  way  into  the  pores  of 


Specimens  of  Clover  Plants  ;  the  larger  plant  exhibiting  Root  Warts. 

the  soil.  The  accompanying  illustration*  shows  two  clover  plants :  one 
grown  in  soil  devoid  of  micro-organisms,  the  other,  of  much  larger  size, 
under  the  same  circumstances  of  cultivation,  grown  in  soil  to  which  micro- 
organic  earth  had  been  added.  The  latter  exhibits  the  root  warts,  which 
formed  at  once  the  abodes  and  laboratories  of  the  microscopic  beings. 

The  saving  to  the  farmer's  purse,  in  a  lessened  necessity  for  the  purchase 

*  Reproduced  from  Salfeld's  "  Bodcnimp/uiig,"  with  the  permission  of  Dr.  Salfeld's  publisher, 
M.  Heinsius  Nachfolger,  of  Leipzig. 


THE   SOILS  OF  IRELAND.  31 


of  nitrates  and  salts  of  ammonia,  which  would  accrue  from  the  cultivation  of 
leguminous  crops,  is  the  best  argument  for  his  consideration  of  this  branch 
of  science. 

Nor  have  Irish  soils  suffered  only  through  the  dissipation  of  nitrogenous 
compounds,  for  every  barrel  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  other  cereal  taken 
to  the  market,  every  load  of  hay  and  straw  sold,  to  be  exported  or  utilised 
in  and  near  towns,  every  animal  driven  off  the  land,  every  gallon  of  milk 
used  elsewhere  than  on  the  farm,  robs  the  soil  of  a  proportion  of  lime,  phos- 
phate, potash,  magnesia,  and  other  mineral  substances,  so  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  fertility.  It  is  a  somewhat  amazing  fact  that  after  centuries 
of  such  loss  as  must  in  the  ways  mentioned  have  been  incurred,  not  to  speak 
of  the  still  greater  waste,  perhaps,  through  the  drenching  of  soils  in  wet 
weather,  and  the  carrying  off  by  drainage,  streams,  and  rivers,  of  thousands 
of  tons  of  the  substances  mentioned,  that  the  soils  of  this  country 
should  have  retained  any  reputation  for  fertility.  The  source  of  waste  last 
referred  to  is  so  great,  even  in  France — a  much  drier  country  than  Ireland 
— that  M.  Risler,*  in  his  Geologic  Agricole,  while  enforcing  his  advice  as  to 
the  necessity  for  irrigation,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that,  if  this  were  ade- 
quately practised,  the  wealth  of  the  country  would  be  doubled.  So  great  is 
the  drain  upon  the  phosphates,  particularly  it  may  be  said,  in  the  store- 
cattle  feeding  portions  of  Ireland,  that  Sir  R.  Kane  questioned  whether  the 
store  of  these  valuable  substances  would  not,  sooner  or  later,  become  ex- 
hausted. There  is  no  doubt  that  this  would  be  the  case,  were  it  not  that  the 
soils  become  renovated  by  fresh  supplies  from  beneath,  in  the  case  of  land 
where,  as  over  much  of  the  limestone  area,  the  necessity  for  artificial  supplies 
IS  not  greatly  felt,  though  the  soils  are  often  shallow. 

The  varieties  of  soils  being  practically  innumerable,  resort  must  be  had  to 
some  system  of  classification,  and  with  it  to  some  means  of  representation, 
so  as  to  bring  into  relief  points  of  comparison  between  soil  and  soil — chiefly 
as  regards  quality  and  ascertainable  deficiencies  ;  although  quality,  the  chief 
thing  with  which  practical  men  are  concerned,  is  a  comparative  rather  than  an 
absolute  term,  and  is  dependent  upon  a  multiplicity  of  conditions.  Geolo- 
gical maps  to  some  extent  serve  the  needed  purpose  ;  they  fix  the  localities 
of  rocks  whence  the  soils  are  derived,  and  thus  afford  clues  to  soil  qualities, 
and  an  intelligible  basis  of  effective  classification. 

Throughout  wide  areas  in  Ireland,  the  rock  is  covered  with  detritus  not 
wholly  derived  from  the  solid  mass  immediately  beneath ;  and  both  this 
covering  and  the  solid  rock,  are  concealed  in  many  places  by  more  recent 
deposits  of  alluvium,  bog,  blown  sands,  etc.  There  are,  however,  many  areas 
of  importance  chiefly  in  the  hilly  tracts,  where  locally  formed  clay  soils  are 
found.  Throughout  the  central  plain,  and  in  Connaught,  where  limestone 
appears  here  and  there  in  the  low  ground,  this  rock  is  covered  with  a  scanty 
soil,  proverbially  rich.  It  is  well  suited  to  store-feeding  pasturage,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  quantity  of  lime  and  lime  phosphates  which  are  set  free  by 
solution,  and  are  taken  up  in  extra  quantity  by  the  grass  and  meadow  hay. 

The  soil  yielded  by  the  disintegration  of  the  limestone  varies  in  physical 
character,  from  light  yellowish  brown  tenacious  clay  loam,  to  a  brown  friable 
sandy  loam,  according  as  the  limestone  contains  little  or  much  admixture  of 
sand,  or  beds  of  sandstone.  Some  of  the  best  feeding  land  of  Connaught 
is  of  the  former  character — the  strong  clay  containing  a  fair  proportion  of 
potash  as  well  as  phosphates. 

*  Director  of  the  Institiit  Agronomiqne,  Paris. 


32  THE    SOILS   OF   IRELAND. 


Limestone  land  usually  affords  the  necessary  conditions  for  percolation 
and  drainage  ;  but  in  the  extensive  flats  of  central  Ireland,  natural  facilities 
for  drainage  are  wanting,  and,  as  a  consequence,  much  of  the  country  is 
covered  with  peat,  as  in  the  great  Bog  of  Allen,  and  with  peaty  alluvium, 
as  found  along  the  chief  rivers  draining  that  region — the  Shannon,  Barrow, 
etc.  Much  of  these  flat  lands  has  been  reclaimed,  work  rendered  feasible 
by  the  extensive  schemes  of  Arterial  Drainage  carried  out  in  the  first  half 
of  the  last  century ;  and  much  more  might  be  brought  under  profitable 
cultivation. 

The  hills  of  Old  Red  Sandstone  which  form  most  of  the  Counties  of  Cork, 
and  Waterford  ;  and  parts  of  Kerry,  Clare,  Limerick,  Tipperary,  Kilkenny, 
Mayo,  and  Tyrone,  are  flanked  by  accumulations  of  local  detritus,  which 
yields  sandy  loams  vrell  suited  for  tillage  and  dairying.  A  considerable  dif- 
ference in  fertiHty  is  noticeable  between  these  soils  in  Cork,  Waterford,  etc.. 
and  the  Old  Red  soils  of  Tyrone,  which  is  probably  attributable  to  a  less 
quantity  of  hme  in  the  Tyrone  soils,  than  in  those  of  the  former  counties. 

The  areas  of  Silurian  rocks  which  dot  the  geological  maps  in  Meath, 
Queen's  County,  Tipperary,  Clare,  Kilkenny,  and  Waterford,  are  clothed 
with  soils  which  vary  from  sandy  to  clay  loams — being  in  part  derived  from 
slate  and  grit,  and  in  part  from  slate  without  grit  bands.  These  rocks 
throughout  are  calcareous,  and  the  soils  in  consequence — probably  not  very 
deficient  in  potash — show  a  fair  covering  of  herbage.  They  are,  to  a  large 
extent,  used  for  dairying,  and  are  suitable  for  this  industry:  near 
Castle  Otway,  in  Tipperary,  these  Silurian  soils  rank  high,  even  in  com- 
parison with  the  rich  limestone  soils  of  the  Golden  Vein  and  about  Nenagh. 
The  late  Colonel  Spaight,  of  Deny  Castle  by  Lough  Derg,  informed  the 
writer  that  he  fattened  small  three  year  old  cattle  on  his  land,  where  Silurian 
calcareous  slate  is  the  prevailing  rock. 

The  Silurian  rocks  of  Down,  Cavan,  Louth,  Armagh,  and  Monaghan, 
Mayo,  and  south-east  Ireland,  yield  sandy  and  stony  loams  which  are  poor 
in  natural  resource,  and  therefore  make  poor  pasture  land  :  being  very  defi- 
cient in  lime  as  an  ameliorative  (though  possibly  there  may  be  sufficient  of 
this  substance  to  serve  as  plant  food),  percolation  is  bad,  and  artificial  drain- 
age usually  required.  Happily  facilities  for  this  are  not  wanting,  for  the 
weathering  of  these  rocks  has  produced  an  uneven  surface — undulating 
ground — with  good  fall. 

The  locally  formed  soils  which  scantily  cover  the  schists  of  Donegal, 
Mayo,  and  West  Galway  are  very  uninviting,  unless  where  relieved  by 
bands  which  here  and  there  traverse  the  areas,  marking  the  presence  of 
partially  concealed  beds  of  limestone,  or  "  dykes  "  of  basalt  or  of  felsite. 
The  soils  usually  contain  an  admixture  of  peaty  matter  Which  renders  cul- 
tivation less  difficult  and  more  profitable  ;  where  this  is  wanting,  the  shallow 
soils  are  stony  and  contain  a  trifling  proportion  of  clay.  Even  where  a 
considerable  depth  of  schist  detritus  occurs,  as  in  the  case  of  accumulations 
of  locally  formed  drift,  the  soils  capping  these  accumulations  are  in  their 
natural  state  only  a  few  inches  deep.  Under  artificial  treatment — to  be 
more  explicit,  through  long  continued  cultivation  of  a  good  type — the  soils 
around  Derry,  Raphoe,  and  Dunnamanagh  have  become  deepened  and 
enriched,  so  that  they  are  now  by  no  means  indifferent  receptacles  for 
manures,  nor  unresponsive. 

The  granites  of  Donegal,  Down,  Leinster.  ]\Iayo,  and  Galway  usually  form 
ground  which  lies  above  the  limit  of  profitable  cultivation.  In  Galway  and 
around  Dungloe  in  Donegal,  its  elevation  is  not  great,  but  it  forms  ground 


THE    SOILS  OF   IRELAND.  33 

very  uninviting  to  the  agriculturist,-  for  the  most  part  peat-covered.  The 
soils,  when  worth  describing  (as  in  the  southern  parts  of  Carlow  and  on  the 
slopes  of  the  granitic  masses),  are  gray  sandy  loams,  naturally  very  deficient 
in  Hme  and  phosphates,  but  they  contain  potash  and  some  soda  resulting 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  felspathic  constituents  of  granite.  Through- 
out east  Waterford  and  Wexford  gray  loams  are  common,  resulting  from  the 
decay  of  felsites  ;  like  the  soils  formed  from  granite  these  contain  supplies 
of  alkalis,  but  are  deficient  in  lime. 

In  Antrim  and  east  Londonderry,  basalt,  the  prevailing  rock,  yields  red 
pulverulent  loams,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  soils  formed  from  granite, 
in  that  they  contain  lime  and  phosphate-yielding  ingredients,  and  in  being 
deficient  in  potash.  Though  the  fertihsing  constituents  in  these  soils  are 
)delded  up  slowly,  the  soils  are  frequently  extremely  rich. 

Were  the  soils  throughout  Ireland  such  as  have  been  formed  from  the 
rocks  immediately  underlying  them,  an  ordinary  geological  map  would  in- 
dicate, with  a  fair  degree  of  precision,  the  nature  and  contents  of  the  former  ; 
but  this  is  not  found  to  be  the  case  except  in  the  circumstances  mentioned 
on  a  previous  page.  The  supervention  of  glacial  conditions  in  the  country, 
m  the  remote  past,  has  resulted  in  transplacements  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  of  soil-forming  materials,  which  obscure  the  relations  between  the 
soils  and  the  several  rock  formations.  These  circumstances,  though  in 
some  instances  operating  adversely,  are  found  in  a  far  greater  degree  to  have 
worked  beneficially  to  the  agricultural  interest :  there  has  been  a  mingling  of 
components  drawn  from  various  sources  which  is  generally  conducive  to 
fertility  ;  and  in  the  distribution  of  drifts  carried  from  the  central  plain, 
hundreds  of  square  miles  have  been  covered  with  valuable  limestone 
detritus,  thus  imparting  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  a  degree  of 
fertility  ^\•hich  otherwise  they  would  not  possess. 

Regarding  the  beneficial  effects  of  mingling  of  soil  components  there  is 
little  question  that  the  richness  of  alluvial  and  drift  soils  of  the  Golden  Vein 
is  attributable  to  detrital  contributions  from  the  Silurian  and  Red  Sandstone 
rocks  of  the  Keeper  Hills,  and  from  the  felsites,  basalts,  etc.,  of  the  Limerick 
basin,  mingling  with  the  materials  derived  from  the  rich  limestone  of  the 
countr}-.  The  rich  soils  of  Meath,  North  Kildare,  and  Dublin  consist  chiefly 
of  limestone  detritus  interspersed  with  contributions  from  sandstones, 
granites,  and  other  potash-yielding  rocks  ;  and  the  Lagan  Valley,  clothed 
with  drift,  owes  its  well-known  fertility  to  glacially  formed  mixtures  of  com- 
ponents drawn  from  basalt,  and  red  marl  on  the  one  side,  and  Silurian  grits 
and  slate  on  the  other,  added  to  decomposed  New  Red  Sandstone — the  pre- 
vailing rock  of  the  valley.  The  soils  of  the  barony  of  Forth  and  of  other 
parts  of  Wexford,  owe  their  fertility  to  transported  limestone  detritus  ;  and 
similarly  the  best  barley  soils  of  Cork,  Carlow,  Queen's  County,  Louth,  etc. 
are  of  drift  origin. 

The  distribution  of  drifts  may  be  judged  from  the  accompanying  small 
map,  prepared  with  a  view  to  showing  the  ground  covered  with  those 
deposits — not  all  limestone  detritus,  however.  The  materials  and  mixtures 
are  well-nigh  infinite  in  variety ;  to  represent  even  a  fair  classification  of 
them  and  of  soils  formed  from  them,  as  well  as  directly  from  the  solid  rock, 
where  no  drifted  materials  occur,  would  demand  a  large  scale  detailed  map. 
In  the  production  of  such  a  map  for  agricultural  purposes,  while  noting  in  a 
general  way  the  local  nature  of  the  drifts,  especially  as  regards  sub-soils, 
I  think  a  double  system  of  classification  could  be  adopted,  with  appropriate 
colouring  and  other  map  indications,  in  which,  as  regards  texture,  sands  and 
gravels,  brick  clays,  and  the  intermediate  varieties,  sandy  loams,  loams,  and 

D 


34 


THE   SOILS  OF  IRELAND. 


clay  loams,  would  be  noted  ;  and,  as  regards  chemical  resources,  distinctions 
would  be  indicated  between  lime  soils,  highly  calcareous,  and  non-calcareous 
soils,  and  those  strongly  potassic.  The  former  or  -physical  distinctions, 
might  be  indicated  respectively  by  the  following  letters,  viz. : — s  (sands  and 
gravels) ;  cl  (brick  clays) ;  Is,  I,  Ic  (the  principal  varieties  of  loam).  Tabu- 
lated, the  chemical  indications,  also,  might  appear  as  follows : — 

Classificatio.m  of  Soils  according  to  their  Chemical  Properties. 


Distinction.                   Symbol. 

i 

Description  and  Origin. 

hxme  Salts 
Highly  Calcareous 
Calcareous 

Non-calcareous    . . 
Potassic  Soils 

c 

C2. 

Cl. 

c„. 

K. 

Those   obviously    formed    from    limestone    drift    and 
shallow  soils  resting  on  limestone.    They  will  probably 
contain  a  quantity  of  phosphate  in  easily  available 
form  for  plants.           • 

Drift  Soils  derived  from  calcareous  rocks,  where  lime- 
stone detritus  is  noticeable  in  the   subsoil ;  and  soils 
formed  directly  from  disintegrating  basic  igneous  rocks. 
They  will  probably  contain  some  phosphate. 

Those  derived  from  calcareous  rocks,  and  drift  soils  in 
cases  where  the  deeper  subsoils  graduate   downward 
into  limestone  boulder  clays  and  gravels.     Phosphates, 
if  present  here,  probably  occur  in   forms  not   readily 
available  to  plants. 

Those  derived  from  non-calcareous  rocks. 

.Soils  derived   from   acid   igneous   rocks — granite,    fel- 
site,  &c. 

Such  a  classification  as  this  would  place  experiments  in  manuring  upon  a 
sound,  because  scientific  basis ;  for  it  will  be  apparent  to  any  thoughtful 
person  that  the  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  certain  manures  upon  soils — - 
say,  of  the  first  and  fourth  kinds  named  above — must  necessarily  differ  ; 
and  that  without  a  recognition  of  the  distinctions  pointed  out,  the  results 
should  prove  misleading  and  worthless  as  a  means  of  testing  or  illustrating 
the  comparative  value  of  manures.  The  results  obtained  may  just  as  well 
prove  the  differences  of  sot/s,  in  different  places,  as  the  different  degrees  of 
suitability  of  various  schemes  of  manuring,  to  certain  crops.  It  may  be 
conceded  that  crops  do  not  all  draw  alike  upon  the  chemical  constituents  of 
soils — upon  this  fact  partly  the  principle  of  rotation  cropping  depends — and 
that  certain  artificial  supplies  are  suggested  by  the  special  requirements  of 
particular  crops.  It  is,  nevertheless,  rational  to  suppose  that  the  deficiencies 
and  natural  resources  of  soils  are  amongst  the  chief  points  to  be  considered 
in  prescribing  and  adopting  suitable  manures.  Some  ;^300,ooo  worth  of 
mineral  manures  is  employed  in  Ireland  ;  such  are  used  with  substantial 
profit  in  many  cases,  but  with  recorded  loss  in  others — to  the  extent,  some- 
times, of  £2  an  acre.  To  obviate  waste  some  such  classification  as  that 
above  proposed,  and  soil  maps  prepared  accordingly,  would  seem  to  be 
necessary  economic  desiderata. 

It  has  been  fully  established  by  experiments  conducted  at  Rothamsted, 
that  the  influence  of  certain  mineral  substance'='  in  soils,  upon  the  character 


THE   SOILS  OF  IRELAND.  35 


of  vegetation  and  quantity  of  produce  borne  is  very  marked ;  it  is  not 
enough,  therefore,  to  know  whether  the  soils  are  loams,  clay  loams,  or  sandy 
loams,  etc.  Geological  circumstances  determine  in  a  fairly  accurate  way  the 
chemical  resources  of  the  soils,  which  are  not  manifest  to  ordinary  observers, 
but  which  may  with  advantage  be  studied,  in  connection  with  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  herbage  which  the  land  produces,  and  may  be  made  to 
produce. 

It  has  been  found  that  certain  parts  of  Ireland,  determined  by  geological 
circumstances  yield  a  superior  quality  of  butter,  as  compared  with  other 
parts — circumstances  of  manufacture  being  equal ;  *  more  concentration  of 
effort,  upon  dairying,  therefore,  in  such  localities,  as  indicated  by  soil  maps, 
would  obviously  be  attended  with  good  results. 

Pastures  clothing  soils  rich  in  phosDhates  are  best  adapted  to  horse- 
breeding,  where  strength  of  bone  and  constitution  are  especially  demanded  ; 
the  necessity  for  a  good  supply  of  lime  and  phosphate  is  also  requisite  in 
the  rearing  of  young  horned  stock.  Soil,  therefore,  naturally  rich  in  these 
ingredients  would  be  especially  suitable  to  these  branches  of  stock-raising. 

A  good  supply  of  potash  in  soils  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  best 
samples  of  malting  barley,  and  generally  in  promoting  maturity  in  cereals. 
Means  of  selecting  the  most  suitable  localities  for  the  former  crop,  and  in- 
dicating the  deficiencies  in  soils,  where  the  crop  is  grown,  would,  therefore, 
be  of  obvious  value  to  farmers. 

In  a  brief  account  of  Irish  soils  such  as  the  present,  it  would  manifestly 
be  impossible  to  do  more  than  summarise  certain  features  which  they  pre- 
sent, and  suggest  means  by  which  readers  who  are  especially  interested, 
might  be  made  acquainted  with  such  characters  and  conditions  as  render 
soils  valuable  or  the  contrary.  The  writer  is  well  aware  that  much  remains 
to  be  said,  both  as  regards  the  soils  themselves  and  the  means  of  their  im- 
provement— whether  moory  soils,  alluvial  deposits,  sand  tracts,  intakes,  etc., 
which  occupy  large  areas  in  the  aggregate,  but  to  none  of  which  special 
attention  can  here  be  given.  Before  concluding,  reference  might  be  made 
to  the  strips  and  wide  tracts  of  alluvial  soils  which  margin  the  streams  and 
rivers,  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  peculiar  advantage  attaching  to  the 
occasional  saturation  of  such  soils  with  the  lime-charged  drainage  waters 
flowing  over  the  limestone  rock,  and  from  limestone  drifts.  These  waters 
always  carry  traces  of  phosphates  as  well  as  lime,  which  add  much  to  their 
enriching  properties :  and  their  value  in  this  respect,  equally  serves  as  an 
illustration  of  the  benefits  accruing  from,  and  an  argument  for  the  more 
extended  use  of,  irrigation,  too  much  neglected  in  this  country. 

Of  the  large  areas  of  peat  and  moory  soils  met  with  throughout  Ireland, 
much  might  profitably  be  reclaimed.  Reclamation  undertaken  on  an  ex- 
tended scale  has  occasionally  been  attempted,  with  discouraging  results. 
On  the  margins  of  peat  bogs,  however,  where  the  transference  of  clay  and 
gravel  for  top-dressing  would  not  be  costly,  and  lime  is  easily  procurable,  it 
has  been  successfully  carried  out,  and  "  cut-away  "  bogs  in  many  places  could 
easily  be  brought  under  profitable  cultivation.  Limestone  gravel  and  clayey 
drifts  would  be  especially  suitable  for  the  purposes  ;  disintegrating  granite 
has  been  used  effectively  in  North-west  Donegal,  and  the  detritus  of  Old 
Red  Sandstone  in  the  region  of  Dunmanway,  in  Cork. 

Shell  gravel  and  "  coralline  sand  "  exist  at  various  points  along  the  coast 

of  Ireland,  and  these  substances  would  be  invaluable  in  reclamation. 

*  See  article  in  Farmer's  Gazette,  issue  of  loth  December,  1898,  and  editorial  comments  in 
issues  of  17th  December  and  14th  January  following. 


36  THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 

All  who  are  concerned  in  the  material  interests  of  Ireland  realize  what 
an  important  place  circumstances  of  climate  hold  in  connection  with  the 
prosperity  of  the  country.  No  class  can  appreciate  better  than  agricul- 
turists, the  manner  in  which  their  industry  is  affected  by  the  characteristic 
features  of  our  climate ;  — to  wit,  fickleness  and  unusual  humidity,  with  a 
degree  of  mildness  in  temperature,  which  surpasses  that  of  other  countries  of 
the  same  latitude.  Taken  in  conjunction,  these  characteristics  are  not  un- 
favourable to  health,  and  are  particularly  suited  to  the  stock-feeding 
branches  of  our  main  industry.  Crop-raising,  especially  in  the  case  of 
cereals,  is  affected  by  both  humidity  and  the  frequency  of  weather  changes  ; 
notwithstanding  this,  a  high  degree  of  success  in  cultivation  was  realized 
before  prices  were  brought  down  to  their  present  level ;  and  the  climate 
did  not  hinder  the  successful  growth  of  wheat,  though,  perhaps,  this  is  the 
crop  which  is  most  sensitive  to  its  unfavourable  influences. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  clearing  away  of  forests,  the  lessening 
of  water  areas,  and  the  carrying  out  of  extensive  schemes  of  arterial  drain- 
age, in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century,  have  tended  to  bring  about  changes 
in  the  climatic  conditions.  These  have  been,  probably,  more  in  the  way  of 
greater  drought  and  increased  light  and  heat  in  summer,  and  greater  cold  in 
winter,  than  in  the  alteration  of  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  island*  : 
but  even  if  alteration  in  the  former  respects  have  taken  place,  it  must  have 
been  to  a  very  slight  degree,  as  it  would  be  over-ridden  by  the  effects  of 
much  stronger  outside  influences,  which  no  changes  within  would  affect,  and 
which  have  operated  uniformly,  probably,  for  many  centuries.  One  great 
disadvantage  attendant  upon  the  clearing  of  forests  is  the  lack  of  the  shelter 
which  their  presence  would  afford,  an  element  of  no  mean  importance  where 
stock  feeding  in  the  open  is  so  much  practised  as  it  is  in  Ireland. 

We  may,  at  the  outset,  distinguish  between  climate  and  weather.  The 
former  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  geographical  position  of  our  island 
with  reference  to  latitude  ;  and,  relatively,  to  the  neighbouring  Continent  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  a  less  degree,  upon  the  altitude  of  its  mountain  groups. 
The  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  depends  upon  the  seasons  and  the  change- 
ability of  the  wind  direction,  or,  in  more  scientific  language,  the  movements 
of  aerial  currents.  It  is  impossible  to  draw  a  hard-and-fast  line  between 
conditions  which  constitute  climate,  and  those  which  constitute  weather  : 
they  are  both  dependent  upon  natural  laws  which  mutually  interact,  and 

*  The  importance  of  such  considerations  in  regard  to  cUmate  is  emphasised  by  an  instance 
given  by  Mr.  John  Knox  Laughton,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  who  points  out  "that  a  mere  knowledge 
of  the  mean  temperature  of  a  place  gives  little  or  no  idea  of  its  climate,  or  of  the  forms  of  life 
— animal  or  vegetable — for  which  it  is  fitted.  The  mean  temperature  for  the  year  is  almost 
the  same  in  the  Hebrides,  and  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Caspian,  or  of  the  Sea  of  Aral  ;  but 
there  are  perhaps  no  places,  between  which  a  comparison  can  be  made  at  all,  where  the  climate 
is  so  different." 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND.  37 

these  may  be  briefly  reviewed  here  in  so  far  as  they  affect  Ireland,  under 
the  following  heads,  viz. : — 

Temperature. 

Latitude. 

The  Gulf  Stream. 

Configuration  of  the  ground. 

Aspect. 

Relation  of  temperatures  of  air  and  soil. 

xA.erial  currents. 

Atmospheric  moisture. 

Vapour  condensation. 

Cloud,  fog,  dew,  mist,  rain. 

Wet  and  dry  winds. 

Rainfall. 

Weather  prognostication. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Every  reader  is  likely  to  be  aware  of  the  manner  in  which  the  tempera- 
ture of  Ireland  is  affected  by  its  position  as  regards 
latitude.     It  will  guard  against  exaggerated  estimates 
Latitude,  ^^  ^^  extent  to  which  the  local  temperatures  of  the 

north  and  south  of  the  country  differ,  to  say  that  while 
3,700  miles  intervene  between  the  Frigid  and  Torrid  Zones — between  the 
regions  of  arctic  cold  and  tropical  heat — the  length  of  this  island  is  only 
270  miles,  or  one  fourteenth  of  the  former  distance. 

The  temperatures  of  north  and  south,  in  regard  to  latitude,  are  of  course 
the  direct  results  of  the  sun's  heating  power  ;  but  though  this  be  recognised, 
the  amounts  cannot  be  known  by  observation  independently  of  the  effects 
of  other  heat-applying  agencies — the  Gulf  Stream,  warm  air  currents, 
vapour  condensation,  etc.  Observed  temperatures  involve  the  existence 
and  co-operation  of  all  these,  and  show  about  4°  F.  for  the  January  mean  ; 
2°  5  F.  for  August ;  and  3°. 3  F.  for  the  year,  in  favour  of  the  south. 

The  Gulf  Stream  is  a  potent  agency  in  influencing  temperature.     This 
vast  body  of  water,  issuing  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 

T^v»     r    If  cf  flows  north-eastward    past    Florida,   into   the   North 

ine  uuii  stream.  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  continues  its  course  across  the 
ocean,  with  an  average  temperature  of  65  F.,*  dividing 
into  two  branches,  a  north-easterly,  which  flows  past  the  British  Isles,  and 
an  eastward  branch  flowing  towards  the  coasts  of  France.  Parts  of  both 
blanches  strike  the  S.W.  coast  of  Ireland  and  flow  northward  ;  and  part  of 
the  eastward  branch,  turning  northward  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  flows  up  to  the 
English  and  St.  George's  Channels,  and  towards  the  Irish  coast.  The  heat- 
ing effect  upon  the  British  Isles  is  such  that  the  mean  winter  temperature  of 
Ireland  is  20°  F.  higher  than  that  of  places  on  the  same  parallels  of  latitude 
m  America  and  West  Russia.  The  body  of  water  also  being  so  great,  is 
productive  of  uniformity  in  temperature ;  so  much  so  that  the  mean  summer 
temperature  of  Ireland  is  some  5°  F.  to  10°  F.  lower  than  that  of  east 
Prussia.     The  amount  of  caloric  which  the  Gulf  Stream  possesses,  and  can 

*  "  Meteorology,  Practical  and  Applied,"  (p.  314),  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Moore,,  iiow  Sir  J.  W.  Moore. 


38 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


impart  to  the  atmosphere  in  our  latitudes,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
following  note  given  by  Marie  Davy,  from  observations  made  by  Captain 
Duchesne  in  crossing  the  Atlantic  from  New  York  to  France  in  1865*  : — 

The  effect  of  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  the  local  temperatures  in  Ireland  is 
such  that  the  isothermals  crossing  the  island  from  east  to  west,  decline  from 
the  parallels  of  latitude,  in  accordance  with  the  following  observations, 
viz. : — The  mean  temperature  for  the  year  at  Dublin  is  about  1^.4  F.  less 
than  at  Westport ;  for  January  it  is  2°. J  F.  less;  and  for  August  i°4  F. 
greater. 


Day. 

Hour. 

N.  Lat. 

Air  Temp. 

Sea  Temp. 

Diff. 

10 
II 
II 
12 
12 

November 

9  a.m. 
4  a.m. 

8  p.m. 

9  a.m. 
noon 

40°.  10' 
40". 16' 
40".23' 
40^56- 
4i'^.o5' 

8°  C.  (46^.4  F.) 
1  5'-  C.  (4i°.o  F.) 
4"  C.  (39^.2  F.) 
4^'  C.  (39".2  F.) 
5-  C-  (41^0  F.) 

1                                      1 

'    11°  C.  (5i".8  F.)  '     5".4  F. 

i4°C.  (57-.2F-)      15' -2  F. 

15"  C.  (59^.0  F.)      ig^.S  F. 

21°  C.  (69<^.8  F.)  1   so-'.e  F. 
!   21°  C.  (eg'.S  F.)   i  28^^.8  F. 

AveraLje  difference  20". i  F. 

of  the 
Ground. 


Amongst  the   conditions   contributory   to   the   general   character  of   the 
climate  of  the  island,  as  well  as  to  variation  in  local 
Configuration  temperature,  is  the  configuration  of  the  surface.     If 

300  feet  above  the  sea  level  be  taken  as  the  general 
level  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  country,  about  half  its 
area  lies  above  this  elevation  ;  and  every  additional  100  feet  above  300  per- 
ceptibly lessens  the  value  of  land,  because  of  the  effect  of  altitude  upon 
temperature.    This  was  fully  recognised  by  Sir  R.  Griffith.f    In  consequence 
of  the  effect  referred  to,  the  mean  temperature  at  500  feet  elevation  near 
Dublin,  would  be  about  equal  to  that  at  the  sea-level  at  Londonderry  or 
Moville.     The  temperature  falls  approximately  one  degree  F.  for  every  250 
to  300  feet  rise,  in  our  latitude.     The  higher  ground  of  the  mountain  groups, 
moreover,  tends  to  modify  the  direction  and  force  of  winds  ;    it  produces 
condensation  of  vapour  reaching  Ireland  from  the  Ocean,  which  greatly 
affects  the  temperature  of  the  hilly  regions,  and  adjacent  low-l)'ing  areas  ; 
and  it  partially  drains  the  aerial  currents  of  moisture,  so  that  the  precipita- 
tion (rain)  on  the  lee  side  of  the  hills,  is  not  so  great  as  it  otherwise  would  be. 
Every  farmer  knows  the  advantage  of  a  southern  aspect  for  his  early 
seed  bed  in  spring.     The  sun  at  the  Equinox  is  only 
some  36°  above  the  horizon  at  noon,  in  our  latitude. 
Aspect.  ji^g  heating  power  at  this  season,  therefore,  as  w^ell  as 

being  lessened  by  sending  its  rays  obliquely  through 
the  moist  atmosphere,  is  greatly  diffused  on  level  surfaces,  and  almost  nil 
on  northern  slopes.  Concentration  of  the  sun's  heat  and  light  therefore, 
which  is  so  desirable,  can  only  be  secured  by  arranging  that  beds  bearing 
seeds  and  plants,  sliall  be  presented  to  it  at  as  great  an  angle  as  convenient. 
The  following  Table,  prepared  from  data  given  in  the  Monthly  Sum- 
maries of  the  Meteorological  Office,  sets  forth  the  number  of  hours  of,  and 
percentage  of  possible,  bright  sunshine  in  the  three  growing  months,  March, 
April,  and  May,  at  the  only  Irish  stations  which  record  it :  for  the  sake  of 
comparison  the  records  at  two  English  stations  are  added. 

*  "  Meteorologie  Generate, "  p.  145. 

t  "  Guide  to  the  Principles  of  Land  Valuation,"  (Ponsonl)y,  Dublin),  p.  164. 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


39 


Hours  of  Bright  Sunshine  for  1901,  and  Average  of  20  Years,  with  Percentage  in  each  case. 


MARCH. 

APRIL. 

MA\ 

cc    ^• 

CQ 

aj    _• 

cc 

h 

l«5    ^• 

CO 

(4 
0 

a    2 

lad 

_o5 

X  0 

Si 

ma 

03  0 

Sro 

II 

t-i  ^ 

^  ti 

S     5 

53 

1  a 

r 

0 

f.9 

5^ 

S     3 

1^ 

s  > 

Markree 

108.4 

105.2 

30 

29 

178.8 

145  8 

43 

35 

271.0 

188.5 

55 

38 

Armagh 

89.3 

103. 1 

25 

28 

172. 1 

140.7 

41 

34 

254.1 

184.6 

52 

38 

DubUn 

140& 

123.8 

39 

34 

192.6 

162.4 

4b 

39 

276.7 

212.4 

57 

44 

1  Parsonstown 

116-4 

II0.8 

32 

,SO 

199 

151. 1 

48 

46 

26S.4 

185.0 

55 

38 

Valentia 

120. 1 

132.3 

33 

36 

172.2 

163.9 

42 

40 

292.2 

210.7 

61 

44 

Llandudno     . . 

121.8 

1.0.3 

3.S 

30 

181. 3 

152.6 

43 

3t 

294.9 

201.0 

bi 

41 

Cambridge    . . 

77-4 

125-3 

21 

34 

220.4 

157-6 

53 

38 

253 

203.1 

52 

42 

Badly  drained  land  and  retentive  geological  Formations  have  not  only 
P  ,    ,.  „         a  cooling  effect  on  the  air  in  immediate  contact  with 

Kelations    ot  ,^,^^^^^^  ^^^^  through  the  diffusion  of  the  chilliness  have 

Air  and  Soil  '^  material  effect  upon  tlie  island  as  a  wliole.      ihis  is 

a  subject  which  may  well  repay  full  consideration  j 
for  the  circumstances  of  cause  and  effect  act  and  react.  A  damp  atmos- 
phere hinders  the  heating  effects  of  the  sun  upon  the  land  ;  and  damp  cold 
soils  and  rock  Formations,  on  the  other  hand,  cause  dampness  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

Prof.  Seeley,  F.R.S.,  classifies  rocks  and  superficial  deposits  (sands, 
gravels,  etc.)  as  follows,  according  to  the  effects  which  they  severally  have 
upon  local  climate*  : — 

Pebble  beds.  Sands,  and  Sandstones  ;  dry,  bracing  atmosphere. 

Limestone  ;  though  usually  well-drained,  is  over- 

hung by  steamy  atmosphere  in 
summer. 

Clay  Slates  ;  damp  and  cool  atmosphere. 

Crystalline  Rocks  ;  do. 

The  extensive  tracts  of  bog  and  alluvium  in  the  centre  of  Ireland  have  a 
lowering  effect  upon  local  temperature,  and  no  doubt  also  have  an  effect 
to  some  extent  upon  the  general  climate  of  the  island.  Reclamation  of 
moory  soils,  and  even  drainage  of  these  and  other  water-logged  surface 
deposits,  would  tend  to  alleviate  this  disadvantage.  Wollny  proved  by  an 
elaborate  series  of  experiments  carried  out  at  Munich  in  1890,  1892,  and 
1893,  that  top-dressing  peat-soil,  not  to  speak  of  the  well-known  advantage 
of  thorough  draining,  had  the  effect  of  raising  its  temperature,  particularly 
when  the  top-dressing  was  viingled  with  the  uppermost  layer  of  peat ;  and 
this  both  in  upland  moor  soils  {H ocJnnoorbodcn')  and  lowland  {N iederungs- 
moorbode'ii)^^ 

AERIAL  CURRENTS. 

Many  elements  combine  to  produce  variation  in  the  direction  and  pressure 
of  winds  in  the  Irish  region.     Amongst  them,  may  be  reckoned  land  and  sea. 

*  Sir  J.  W.  Moore,  "  JMeteoroIogy,  Practical  and  Applied,"  p.  35. 
\  Forschungen  a.  d.  Gcb.  d.  Agriculturphysik  for  1894,  pp.  245  et  seq. 


40  THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


bre  zes,  experienced  morning  and  evening  under  certain  circumstances. 
Anti-trade  winds  also,  which  set  from  the  S.W.  and  W.S.W.  in  our  lati- 
tudes (Trade  winds  prevailing  between  g°  N.  and  30°  N.)  may,  as  was 
held  by  Dr.  Buchan,  act  a  certain  part  in  producing  variability  in  wind 
direction.  The  most  influential  factors,  however,  in  causing  change  are  the 
winds  eddying  in  cyclonic  systems  which  reach  Europe  from  tlie  Atlantic, 
sometimes  in  comparatively  rapid  succession. 

The  origin  of  these  storms  is  a  subject  of  much  debate  upon  which  we  need 
not  enter.  They  are  by  many  believed  to  cross  the  Atlantic  from  shore  to 
shore.  Prof.  Loomis,  an  able  authority,  maintains  that  they  undergo  modi- 
fication after  leaving  the  American  coast  region,  which  of  course  interferes 
somewhat  with  calculations  as  to  the  time  and  place  at  which  they  may  reach 
Europe.*  The  popular  belief  is  that  these  points  may  be  accurately  fore- 
told ;  and  it  is  xvorth  noting  that  calculations  in  this  respect  are  frequently 
verified. 

It  is,  however,  a  fact  generally  accepted,  that  after  traversing  a  great 
distance  across  the  Atlantic,  these  storms  usually  reach  the  European  region 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  British  Isles,  Ireland  experiencing  brushes  of  the 
skirts  of  the  vast  aerial  eddies  in  their  easterly  progress.  Occasionally  they 
cross  the  British  area,  and  cause  a  greater  amount  of  meteorological  dis- 
turbance than  usual.  A  peculiarity  of  these  circular  storms  is  that  they 
rotate,  looked  at  downward,  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  hands  of  a  watch, 
north  of  the  Equator.  The  centres  are  marked  by  reduced  barometic  read- 
ings, the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  being  there  particularly  low  ;  and  the 
pressure  increases  outward  towards  the  margins  of  the  eddies,  where  it  is 
approximately  normal.  As  the  storm  passes  over  a  locality  therefore,  the 
barometer  rapidly  falls  till  the  place  is  reached  by  the  centre  of  the  cyclone, 
after  which  the  barometer  rises.  And,  as  regard  wind  directions  experi- 
enced while  the  storm  moves  onward,  if  the  centre  passes  to  the  north  of 
Ireland,  in  the  way  most  usual,  the  direction  of  the  wind  will  be  perhaps 
first  S.,  then  S.W.,  and  then  W. — the  change,  or  veering  as  it  is  called, 
being  "  with  the  sun."  If  it  takes  a  more  southerly  course,  and  crosses  Ire- 
land, the  winds  will  change  "  against  the  sun,"  backing,  as  it  is  called,  with 
a  falling  barometer,  a  condition  which  will  be  followed  by  a  repetition  of  the 
storm,  and  a  rising  barometer. 

By  carefully  mapping  simultaneous  barometric  observations  at  many 
places,  and  connecting  the  places  of  equal  indicated  atmospheric  pressure 
over  large  areas,  the  connecting  lines  {isobars  as  they  are  called),  form 
irregular  concentric  circles  around  the  centres  of  the  cyclones,  and  by  com- 
paring the  positions  of  these  circles  from  day  to  day,  or  more  frequently, 
the  progress  of  the  storm  may  be  made  apparent  by  means  of  maps.  There 
are  also  circles,  obtainable  in  a  similar  way,  surrounding  points  on  these 
weather  charts  where  the  barometer  stands  very  high.  These  points  are  the 
centres  of  "  anticyclonic  systems,"  around  which  winds  circulate  at  rates  not 
dt  all  so  rapid,  and  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  uniformly  observed  in 
cyclones ;  the  anticyclone  circulates  according  to  the  hands  of  a  watch. 

In  summarising  data  for  the  preparation  of  a  cyclone  map  from  the 
Weekly  Records  of  the  Meteorological  Office,  the  present  writer  found  that 

*  The  subject  is  discussed  in  a  most  interesting  manner  by  M.  Marie  Davy  in  his  Mefeorologic 
Generale,  pp.  223  to  234.  Mr.  R.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  treats  the  matter  as  one  of  doctors  differing, 
and  perhaps  wisely  confines  himself  in  his  work  on  "  Weather  Charts  and  Storm  Warnings"  to 
the  simple  questions  of  their  existence,  movements,  effects,  and  characteristics. 


THE  CLIMATE  OE  IRELAND.  41 

31   depression-centres  crossed  the  British  area  during  the  past  two  years, 
I  goo  and  1901,  distributed  according  to  the  following  Table  : — 

Jan.      Feb.      Mar.      Apr.      May      June      July      Aug.      Sep.      Oct.      Nov.      Dec. 

1900  6  '^3  3 

lOOi  5  3  4  5 

from  which  it  will  be  perceived  that  cyclones  have  been  much  more  pre- 
valent in  the  winter  half  year.  Disturbance  was  caused  in  the  British  area 
by  some  twenty  other  cyclones,  which  crossed  by  the  north-west,  east,  and 
south.  It  was  also  found  that  the  compass  of  the  storms  varied  in  diameter 
from  200  to  2,400  miles ;  and  that,  while  most  came  from  the  west,  some 
twenty-five  appear  to  have  developed  in  the  western  European  area,  between 
parallels  of  47  and  65,  and  meridians  12  W.  and  5  E.  of  Greenwich,  and 
some  thirteen  broke  up  within  the  same  area. 

With  respect  to  the  commonly  accepted  "  Equinoctial  Gales,"  Mr.  Rupert 
Smith,  from  records  for  26  years,  ascertained  that  "  cyclonic  winds  occur 
with  greatest  frequency  and  force,  some  two  weeks  before  the  Spring 
Equinox,  and  three  weeks  after  the  Autumn  Equinox." 

From  these  circumstances  it  will  be  seen  that  winds  in  the  Irish  region 
may  w^ell  greatly  vary  both  in  direction  and  force.  Dr.  Lloyd,  in  his  report 
on  the  Meteorology  of  Ireland,*  has  given  a  Table  setting  forth  the  directions 
of  wind,  which  shows  that  westerly  winds  are  on  the  whole  more  than  twice 
as  prevalent  as  easterly,  throughout  the  year  ;  that  the  most  frequent  are 
those  from  the  S.W.,  W.,  and  N.W. ;  that  the  least  frequent  are  east  winds  ; 
and  that  south  winds  are  the  most  prevalent  after  the  westerly. 

Air  takes  up  moisture  at  all  temperatures,  and  becomes  highly  charged 
when  moving  over  sheets  of  water,  marshes,  and  peat 
Atmospheric         bogs.     It  is,  however,  seldom  charged  to  the  full  ex- 
Moisture,  tent  that  it  will  bear— it  is  seldom  saturated.     The 
less  moisture  it  contains,  the  greater  its  drying  power, 
or  hygroscopic  capacity,  and  the  less  is  its  "  relative  humidity."     This  term, 
given  in  Meteorological  Tables,  maybe  explained  as  the  percentage  of  vapour 
in  the  air  to  that  which  is  necessary  for  its  saturation.     The  greater  the 
relative  humidity,  the  better  it  is  for  agriculturists  at  times  when,  as  in  May 
and  June,  in  Ireland,  herbage  is  likely  to  suffer  from  drought  through  lack 
of  disturbance  in  atmospheric  conditions,  such  as  is  usually  attended  by 
rain.     The  average  relative  humidity  for  the  year,  reckoned  upon  monthly 
averages  for  sixteen  Irish  Stations,!  as  given  by  Dr  Lloyd,  was  as  high  as 
87  per  cent,  for  the  year  1851. 

*  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  vol.  xxii.,  pp.  440-442. 

t  It  is  not  satisfactory  to  notice  that  while  progress  in  meteorological,  as  in  other  scientific 
observations,  marks  the  present  day,  Ireland  should  be  far  behind,  if  it  does  not,  even  in  some 
particulars,  show  absolute  as  well  as  relative  retrogression. 

While  England  and  Wales  have  47  Stations  of  tlie  First  and  Second  Order,  and  Scotland  25, 
Ireland  has  only  ^—five  outside  of  Dubhn.  Of  Telegraph  Reporting  Stations  connected  with 
the  Meteorological  Office,  for  preparation  of  Weekly  Weather  Reports,  bearing  upon  Agricultural 
and  Sanitary  matters,  England  has  eleven  or  twelve,  Scotland  seven,  Ireland  five — the  countries 
being  divided  into  six,  three,  and  tjfo  Districts  respectively.  In  Rainfall  Stations  Ireland 
unfortunatel).-  shows  the  same  strong  disparity,  it  has  but  146,  against  249  in  Scotland,  and 
2,802  in  England  and  Wales.  The  United  States  is  divided  into  eleven  Districts,  and  has  77 
Stations,  recording  temperature  and  rainfall,  all  linked  together  by  means  of  the  most  elaborate 
system  of  telegraphic  communication. 


42 


THE  CLIMATE  OE  IRELAND. 


From  observations  on  evaporation  during  two  consecutive  years,  Mr. 
James  Price,  C.E.,  found  that  at  Dublin  and  Galway  it 
amounted  to  26  inches  ;  while  at  Cavan,  where  the 
soils  are  retentive,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  which  sheets 
of  water  and  tracts  of  peat  abound,  the  evaporation 
These  circumstances  are  referred  to  by  Sir  J.  William 
Moore,*  who  further  points  out  that  though  the  rainfall  at  Galway  is  greater 
than  at  Cavan,  the  habitual  comparative  dryness  of  the  former,  and  of  Clare, 
renders  their  local  climate  preferable  to  that  of  Cavan,  being  more  bracing. 

On  page  354  of  his  work.t  Sir  J.  W.  Moore  gives  a  Table  setting  forth  the 
results  of  observations  from  1865  to  1887,  upon  the  temperature,  humidity, 
cloudiness,  rainfall,  etc.,  at  Dublin,  a  portion  of  which  is  here  borrowed : — 


Yapour 
Condensation. 

was  only  13  inches. 


Tempek.\ti're 

l^elati^'c            Percent. 

1                            ;                                 Huiiii<lity           of  Cloiul 
Mean                 Ma.x.                   Min. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

.          41.3       . 
43.0 

43-3 

•1         47-8 
•I         51-9 

•  57-8 
.'         60.8 

59.8 
•:         55-8 
.1         49-8 

•  1         44-5 
•:        41-1 

45-3          1         37-3          '         85-4                   64 
47.2                38.8         :        84.9                66 

45.2  38.3         '        81.9                60 

53.6  42.0                79.6                56 

58-2                   45-5                   75-')                  55 

64.3  51.3                   76.S                   60 
67.2                   54.4                   78.0                   62 
65.')                   53.7                   81.9                   58 

61.4  50.2                   84.3                   56 
54-f'                    44-9                    85.5                    59 

48.7  40.3                    85.9                    62 
45.1                    37.1                    S5.7                    61 

1           ° 
Annual  Means                 . .  j         49.8 

0,0'                           1 
55.0                   44.6          1         82.2                    60 

At  night,  when  the  air  cools  down — through  contact  with  the  earth,  itself 
cooled  by  radiation — a  temperature  is  reached  at  which  the  air  can  no  longer 
retain  its  vapour  in  invisible  form  (for  the  warmer  air  is,  the  greater  is  its 
capacity  for  vapour)  ;  the  vapour  then  condenses,  and  becomes  visible  as  fog, 
which  rests  on  vegetation  and  soil  as  dew,  or  in  extreme  cases  of  cooling  as 
hoar  frost.  The  temperature  at  which  fog  begins  to  form  is  called  the  dezo 
point,  also  given  in  Meteorological  Tables.  At  the  dew  point  the  condensa- 
tion of  vapour  causes  a  release  of  latent  heat,  which  tends  to  preserve  the 
layer  of  air  in  contact  with  vegetation  from  extreme  cooling — an  important 
consideration  in  early  spring.  We  may  say  then  that  the  higher  the  dew 
point  is,  the  less  likelihood  there  is  of  injury  from  frost.  These  circum- 
stances exhibit  the  bearing  of  meteorological  data  upon  the  prospects  of 
Irish  farming. 

Happily  the  lowland  parts  of  Ireland  are  not  so  cold  as  commonly  to 
produce  vapour  condensation,  except  at  night ; 
but  this  often  takes  place  during  the  day  around 
the  colder  mountain-tops  and  along  the  flanks  of 
hills,  and  affords  a  familiar  index  of  humidity,  and 
forewarning  of  probable  mist  and  rain.  The 
liang  about  such  situations,    have    a    baneful  influence  upon 


Fog,  Cloud,  Mist, 
Bain. 


fogs  which 


*  "  Meteoroloj,'y,  Practical  and  Applied,"  pp.  184,  1S5.  t  Op.  cit.,  pp.  184,  1S5. 


THE  CLiMAi'E  Ui"  IRELAND.  43 


the  agriculture  of  hilly  districts.  They  hinder  the  passage  of  the  sun's 
light  and  heat,  which  otherwise  would  counteract  the  cooling  effects  of  air 
descendmg  from  the  hillsides  into  the  valleys,  and  to  the  land  margining 
the  hills  ;  with  the  results  of  late  springs,  late  and  damp  harvests  and  other 
disadvantages. 

The  meeting  of  currents  of  air  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
one  cold  and  probabh-  dr}',  the  other  warm  and  damp,  will,  when  they  coal- 
esce, if  the  latter  be  sufftciently  humid,  result  in  the  condensation  of  the 
contained  moisture,  which  will  form  cloud  and  possibly  give  rain.  The 
currents,  too,  before  meeting  may  contain  sufficient  cloud  to  indicate  their 
directions,  and  render  it  possible  to  forecast  the  result. 

Sir  J.  W.  Moore,  M.D.,  etc.,  has  given  in  his  work  on  Meteorology  (p.  221),. 
an  excellent  classification  of  clouds,  to  which  attention  is  here  directed. 
Some  accompany  fine,  and  some  bad  weather. 

Amongst  the  former  are — Cirrus  or  "mare's  tail;"  Alto-cumulus; 
Cumulus  or  "  wool-pack ; "  and  amongst  the  latter  are  Cirro-stratus  or 
"sheet-cloud;"  Alto-stratus  or  "ground  fog;"  and  Cumulo-nimbiis  or 
"  rain  cloud."  The  altitudes  of  clouds  range  from  about  g,ooo  metres 
(nearly  10,000  yards  in  the  case  of  Cirrus)  to  some  2,000  yards  in  the  case 
of  "  fog  banks." 

The  insular  position  of  Ireland  exposes  it  in  a  special  way  to  the  influence 
of  damp  winds  off  the  ocean,  the  prevalent  ones  in 
Wet  and  Dry        this  region,  as  we  have  seen,  being  those  from  the 
Winds.  westward  and  southward.     Those  from  the  north  and 

east,  though  not  always  dry  winds,  are  usually  so. 
The  meteorological  element  which  tells  perhaps  most  upon  Irish  farming 
is  precipitation — rain.     Not  that  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  but  its  occurrence 
is   so   precarious  that   the  best  attempts  at   forecasting,   based  upon  past 
experiences,  however  well  systematised,  are  often  foiled.     Only  in  the  east 
of   England — with   a   rainfall   of   less   than    25    inches — is   there    a   region 
distinctly  drier  than  any  part  of  Ireland.     The  general 
....  rainfall  of  the  centre  of  England  (25   to  30  inches) 

■  equals  that  of  the  centre  of  Ireland.     In  Cumberland, 

Westmoreland,  Wales,  and  N.  W.  Scotland  some 
recorded  precipitations  are  greater  than  in  the  wettest  part  of  Ireland,  which 
is  at  Alangerton  (118.8  inches  in  igoo).  The  wettest  region  in  Ireland  com- 
prises the  hilly  districts  along  the  west  coast  from  Cork  to  Donegal  (about 
50  to  75  inches),  extending  inland  so  as  to  include  the  Waterford  and 
Tipperary  Hills  (about  40  ins.)  The  hilly  district  of  Wicklow  and  South 
Dublin  is  distinctly  wetter  than  Middle  and  North  Dublin  ;  and  that  of  the 
Mourne  ^Mountains,  though  on  the  east  Coast,  is  also  a  wet  region  in  com- 
parison with  other  parts  of  the  County  Down. 

That  weekly  and  monthly  averages  are  serviceable  in  agriculture,  there 
can  be  little  doubt.  Indeed  the  general  consensus  of  opinion  is  to  this 
effect,  judging  from  the  number  of  stations  at  which  records  of  rainfall  are 
kept  even  in  Ireland  (146 — see  previous  footnote  p.  41).  The  manner  in 
which  records  of  rainfall,  temperature,  etc.,  may  be  made  to  serve  their 
natural  purpose  has  been  admirably  worked  out  in  America  :  allusion  is 
made  to  this  point  at  the  conclusion.  An  obvious  use  to  which  Symons' 
Tables  of  British  Rainfall  may  be  put,  is  that  of  classifying  various  regions 
in  Ireland  according  to  the  annual  amount  of  precipitation.     The  records 

*  Symons'  Rainfall  Map,  "Modern  Meteorology,"  p.  141. 


44  THE  CLIMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


would  justify  a  more  detailed  classification  of  localities  according  to  average 
monthly  rainfall  than  any  now  existing ;  and  a  meteorological  scheme  of 
classifying  localities,  still  more  likely  to  be  helpful  to  agriculture,  might  be 
devised  upon  a  basis  in  which  the  bearing  of  other  elements  would  be 
■recognised,  conjointly  with  rainfall. 

With  such  a  degree  of  variability  in  the  weather  as  is  experienced  in 

Ireland,  a  system  of  prognostication,  similar  to  that 

Weather  adopted  and  applied  in  America,  would  be  invaluable  ; 

Prognostication.  but  what  has  already  come  before  the  reader  will  show 
how  different  are  the  conditions  of  the  problem  in  the 
two  countries.  In  America,  with  its  immense  continental  area,  storms  may 
arise,  run  their  course,  and  cease,  within  the  region  reached  by  the  splendid 
system  of  telegraphic  communication  organised  by  the  States  Agricultural 
Department.  In  Ireland,  on  the  other  hand,  the  disturbing  forces  originate 
in,  and  approach  these  islands  mostly  from  the  west.  Hence  one  is  pre- 
pared to  hear  so  high  an  authority  as  Mr.  R.  H.  Scott,  late  Secretary  of  the 
Meteorological  Office  in  London,  confess  that  weather  prognostication  in 
these  countries  is  attended  with  prodigious  difficulties.  Regarded  in  their 
simplest  elements,  Mr.  Scott  says  ("  Weather  Charts  and  Storm  Warnings," 
p.  6i),  concerning  the  approach  and  characteristics  of  cyclonic  storms : — 

"  The  phenomena  belonging-  to  the  front  of  the  system  are — Cirrus  clouds 
or  '  mare's  tails '  in  the  sky,  south-easterly  winds,  great  rise  of  the  thermo- 
meter, and  excessive  dampness.  The  sky  becomes  gradually  overcast,  fol- 
lowed by  mist  and  rain.  The  barometer  falls  persistently,  while  '  scud  '  begins 
to  drift  from  the  southward.  The  barometer  continues  to  fall,  the  wind  veering 
from  S.  to  S.W.,  rain  falling.  As  soon  as  the  wind  passes  the  S.W.,  and 
draws  to  W.  or  N.W.,  the  barometer  begins  to  rise  with  a  sudden  jump,  and 
the  temperature  falls,  with  very  heavy  showers  of  rain,  possibly  turning  to 
hail,  connected  with  and  following  which,  the  air  becomes  drier  and  the  sky 
clears." 

Notwithstanding  recognised  difficulties  in  forming  reliable  forecasts  in 
Ireland,  there  is  no  doubt  that  patient,  steady,  and  systematic  use  of  the 
barometer  and  thermometer,  with  close  observation  of  such  phenomena  as 
the  forms  and  movements  of  clouds,  would  reward  those  whose  care  it  is  to 
combat  or  forestall  the  unfavourable  weather  conditions  which  assail  us. 
If  these  observations  were  supplemented  by  some  others  collected,  say,  at 
a  few  stations  along  the  western  seaboard,  used  conjointly  with  information 
received  from  many  quarters  at  the  Meteorological  Office  in  London,  put  in 
suitable  form  for  transmission  at  a  subsidiary  office  in  Dublin,  and  de- 
spatched by  wire  to  country  parts,  there  is  little  doubt  that  material  help 
could  by  such  means  be  given  to  farmers  in  the  harvest  season.  The  help 
would  be  especially  valuable  in  barley  growing  districts.  This  crop,  an 
important  asset  in  the  country,  is  particularly  liable  to  injury  by  bad  har- 
vesting ;  and  even  ten  or  twelve  hours  of  warning  would  admit  of  the  reaped 
crop  being  secured  against  danger. 

Elaborate  as  are  the  arrangements,  and  suitable  the  circumstances,  for 
the  prognostication  of  weather  changes  in  the  wide  area  of  the  United 
States,  this  appHcation  of  Meteorology  is  not  the  only  practical  one  to 
justify — in  so  far  as  agricultural  matters  are  concerned — the  large  expendi- 
ture of  public  money  upon  the  science  in  that  country.  There  are  besides 
notes  upon  agricultural  operations  and  crop  prospects,   recorded   weekly, 


THE  CLliMATE  OF  IRELAND. 


45 


concurrently  with  the  state  of  the  weather  in  each  of  the  districts  ;  and  com- 
parisons of  the  latter  with  average  conditions,  founded  upon  many  years' 
observation.  This  is  an  application  of  the  science  which  might,  with  advan- 
tage, lend  itself  to  the  same  purposes  m  Ireland,  where  prognostication, 
cannot  be  practised  as  satisfactorily  as  might  be  wished,  because  of  our 
geographical  situation.  Quarterly  Reports  of  rainfall  are  issued,  and  com- 
parisons with  the  averages  drawn,  for  north  and  south  of  Ireland,  by  the 
Meteorological  Office  ;  but  these  are  much  too  general  to  serve  any  practical, 
ends — ^the  districts  even  are  larger  than  districts  in  England.  If  the  best 
possible  averages  were  made  out  for  districts  in  Ireland,  defined  by  their 
presenting  fairly  distinct  meteorological  characteristics,  and  reports  of  cur- 
rent observations  made  from  week  to  week  in  spring  and  summer,  to  com- 
pare with  averages,  and  connect  with  crop  conditions  and  agricultural, 
operations,  the  results  would  be  highly  useful — if  only  in  remedying  the 
tendency  to  procrastination  in  spring  preparations  and  sowing  ;  a  sounder 
basis  of  harvest  anticipations  than  at  present  exists,  would  be  afforded  ; 
method  and  exactitude  would  be  induced ;  and  habits  of  observ^ation  be- 
gotten, which  could  not  fail  in  many  respects  to  prove  beneficial  to  the 
country,  especially  to  the  farming  community. 


Enniskerry,  Co.Wicklow,  with  view  of  Sugar  Loaf  Mountain, 


46  IHE   FLORA  OF  IRELAND. 


THE    FLORA    OF    IRELAND. 

To  a  British  botanist  nothing  can  be  more  enjoyable  than  his  first  view 
of  the  typical  Irish  plants  to  be  found  in  Connernara,  m  Counties  Kerry, 
Cork,  or  Donegal.  With  the  salmon-smugglers'  friend,  the  beautiful  Irish 
Spurge,  in  profusion  along  the  coast,  the  royal  fern  forming  hedges  on  the 
earth  banks  dividing  fields,  every  pool,  it  may  be,  containing  Lobelia  Dort- 
manni,  the  Pipewort,  with  possibilities  of  the  Quill-wort  and  the  Pill-wort, 
the  botanist  may  search  for  Naias  fiexilis,  rare  heaths.  Saxifrages,  the  filmy 
ferns,  orchids,  or  other  characteristic  rarities.  Fortunately,  he  may  go  well 
armed  with  the  recently  published  second  edition  of  the  Cybele  Hibernica, 
which  gives  a  general  account  of  the  distribution  of  Irish  flowering  plants 
and  ferns,  and  embodies  the  work  of  the  authors  of  the  first  edition,  the  late 
Dr.  D.  Moore  and  A.  G.  More  ;  of  the  editors  of  the  second  edition,  N. 
Colgan  and  R.  W.  Scully ;  and  the  late  Professors  C.  C.  Babington,  J.  H. 
Balfour ;  J.  T.  Mackey,  W.  Wade,  I.  Carroll ;  of  S.  A.  Stewart,  T.  Chandlee, 
R.  M.  Barrington,  R.  LI.  Praeger,  H.  C.  Plart,  R.  A.  Phillips,  and  many 
others. 

The  introduction  to  the  Cybele  Hibernica  contains  a  discussion  of  the 
chief  features  of  the  Irish  flowering  plants,  and  of  the  physical  causes  com- 
bining to  produce  these  features.  Just  as  the  English  Flora  (1,480  species), 
may  be  regarded  as  an  incomplete  Continental  one,  so  may  the  Irish  Phaner- 
ogamic Flora  (1,019  species),  be  considered  as  an  incomplete  English  one. 
The  Irish  Flora  consists  largely  of  English  migrants,  and  would  have  been 
still  more  English  in  character  had  not  Ireland  incontinently  separated  itself 
by  the  sinking  of  the  difference  (in  land)  between  itself  and  Ireland  in  the 
Irish  Sea.  Owing  to  the  warm,  moisture-laden,  south-western  winds,  the 
sedges,  rushes,  ferns,  etc.,  are  more  abundant  in  the  west,  to  which  region 
Sibthor-pia  europcea,  Microcala  filiformis,  and  Saxifraga  Genni  are  con- 
fined. A  few  species  found  in  the  west  and  south-west  are  true  Hibernians, 
being  absent  from  Great  Britain,  and  include  the  London  Pride,  the  Straw- 
berry tree,  and  several  fine  heaths  in  Connemara.  This  distribution  is 
brought  out  in  an  accompanying  map,  showing  the  twelve  well-known  dis- 
tricts into  whicn  Ireland  has  been  botanically  divided. 

The  publication,  in  1901,  by  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  of  the  "  Irish  Topo- 
graphical Botany,"  by  R.  Lloyd  Praeger*  {Proc.  R  LA.,  third  series,  vol.  7, 
1901)  usefully  supplements  the  Cybele  Hibernica,  and  gives,  as  far  as  is 
known,  a  detailed  list  of  the  distribution  of  the  flowering  plants  and  ferns 
in  the  forty  botanical  divisions  into  which  Ireland  has  been  divided  by 
Praeger.  The  book  contains  a  valuable  introduction  and  several  maps,  and 
is  intended  to  show  the  actual  state  of  the  Flora  as  ascertained  during  the 
preceding  five  years.  As  the  names  of  authorities  for  earlier  records  when 
these  have  been  confirmed  during  the  past  five  years,  disappear,  the  last 
person  to  see  or  record  any  particular  species  being  the  authority  quoted, 

*  During  the  past  few  years  some  5,000  specimens,  illustrative  of  this  work  have  been 
obtained  for  the  herbarium  in  the  Department's  Museum  in  Dublin. 


THE  FLORA  OF  IRELAND.  47 

readers  must  turn  to  the  Cybclc  Hibcrnica  for  the  first  records  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  last  century.  Praeger  has  found  the  "  types  "  of  distribution 
of  H.  C.  Watson  unsuited  to  tlie  Flora  of  Ireland  and  proposes  accordingly, 
in  a  paper  now  at  press,  to  replace  them  by  the  following  : — 

1.  General  Plants  occurring  throughout  Ireland. 

2.  Central  Plants  occurring  in  the  Central  Plain,  (mostly  calcicolc). 

3.  Marginal  Plants  occurring  near  the  coasts  and  on  the  hills  bor- 

dering the  sea,  {calcifugc). 

4.  UltoNIAN  Plants  occurring  m  Ulster. 

5.  Lagenian  Plants  occurring  in  Leinster. 

6.  MUMONIAN  Plants  occurring  in  Munster. 

7.  CONNACIAN  Plants  occurring  in  Connaught. 

The  Killarney  Fern  {Trichomanes  radicans),  so  plentiful  fifty  years  ago 
as  to  be  used  for  bedding  for  cattle,  is  now  almost  exterminated.  The 
Maiden-hair  Fern  {Adiaritiim  Capilliis-'V eneris)  occurs  along  the  west 
coast  from  County  Clare  northwards,  and  is  quite  a  feature  in  the  f  ssures  of 
the  limestone  rocks  of  the  Arran  Islands,  (Galway  Bay).  Many  other  in- 
teresting ferns  are  to  be  found  in  the  S.W.  and  other  districts. 

The  Flora  of  Ireland,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  humidity  of  the 
climate,  is  rich  in  mosses  and  liverworts.  Of  the  830  species  which  grow  in 
the  British  Isles,  540  or  about  two-thirds  are  found  in  Ireland.  Alpine 
species  are  not  abundant  or  remarkable,  but  the  S.W.  of  Ireland,  especially 
County  Kerry,  contains  an  interesting  group  of  species  which  is  character- 
istic of  the  S.W.  of  Europe  and  some  of  which  are  found  also  in  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America. 

The  liverworts  {Hepaticae)  of  Ireland  number  170  species;  some  43 
species  and  many  varieties  having  been  recorded,  mainly  by  the  efforts  of 
D.  M'Ardle  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Glasnevin,  since  the  publication 
of  the  late  Dr.  D.  Moore's  paper  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy  (Ser.  2,  Vol.  2,  1876).  Counties  Cork  and  Kerry  are  especially 
rich  in  liverworts,  no  less  than  129  species  having  been  recently  recorded 
from  the  Dingle  promontory  by  D.  M'Ardle  {Proc.  R.I. A.,  Ser.  3,  Vol.  6, 
No.  3,  1 901). 

Dr.  Spruce,  the  explorer  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Andes,  states  that, 
"  when  gathering  mosses  and  Hepaticae  (liverworts)  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Andes,  he  was  reminded  of  the  Kerry  Mountains  whose  cryptogamic  vege- 
tation is  the  nearest  approach  in  Europe  to  that  of  the  tropical  mountains." 

This  is  especially  true  of  the  Hepatics  or  Scale  Mosses,  a  group  which  is 
better  represented  in  Kerry  in  number  of  species,  in  abundance  and  in 
luxuriance  of  growth,  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  Kingdom,  or  indeed 
of  Europe. 

Tortilla  hibernica,  Mitt. ;  Daltonia  splachnoides.  Hook.,  and  Tayl. ; 
Hypnum  canariense,  Mitt. ;  and  Hypnum  circinale,  Hook.,  are  mosses  con- 
fined in  the'  British  Isles  to  the  S.W.  of  Ireland,  while  a  large  number  of 
Hepatics  are  found  in  this  district  only  in  the  British  Isles,  or  confined 
entirely  to  it,  such  as  Leieiinea  flava,  Nees.  ;  L.  diversiloba,  Spruce  ;  L. 
Holtii,  Spruce  ;  Radiila  Holtii,  Spruce  ;  Bazyania  Pearsoni,  Stephani ; 
Cephalozia  hibcrnica.  Spruce  ;   and  Plagiochila  e.xigua,  Tayl. 

Ditrichinn  vaginans,  Sull.,  a  moss,  has  only  been  met  with  in  County 
Antrim  in  the  British  Isles. 

Other  rare  and  interesting  species  which  grow  in  S.W.  Ireland  and  form  a 


48  THE  i-'LORA  OF  IRELAND. 


connecting-  link  between  the  moss  and  liverwort  Flora  of  Ireland  and  that 
of  the  S.W.  coast  of  England,  the  Atlantic  Islands,  and  West  Indies  are 
Hookeria  laetevirens,  Hook.,  and  Tayl.  ;  Jubiila  Htiichinsiae,  Hook.  ; 
Radula  voluta,  Tayl. ;  and  Diiniortiera  hirsuta,  var.,  irrigua,  Tayl. ;  the 
three  last-named  being  liverworts. 

Scapania  nhnbosa,  Tayl.,  also  a  liverwort,  has  only  been  found  on  Bran- 
don Mountam  (Co.  Kerry),  and  in  one  locality  on  the  West  coast  of  Scot- 
land. 

Of  other  rare  British  species  of  mosses  found  in  Ireland  may  be  mentioned  : 
Bartraniidula  Wiisoni,  B.  and  S. ;  Leptodontiuni  recurvifoliwn,  Lindb. ; 
Hypnum  micnns,  Wils.  ;  H.  demiscum,  Wils. ;  Glyphomitrium  Daviesii, 
Brid. ;  and  Grininiia  conferia,  var.,  pruinosa,  Braith.  ;  the  two  latter  species 
being  abundant  on  the  crumbling  basaltic  rocks  of  County  Antrim. 

The  rarer  Irish  Hepaticae  are  : — Lejeiinea  microscopica,  Tayl.  ;  Radula 
Carringtonii,  Jack.  ;  i  lasniatocolea  ciincifolia.  Hook.  ;  and  Acrobolbns 
Wilsoni,  Nees. 

The  beautiful  liverwort,  Plagiochila  anibagiosa,  Mitten.,  found  early  in 
the  last  century  by  Miss  Hutchins  of  Bantry,  has  not  been  re-discovered. 
The  Rev.  C.  H.  Waddell,  M.A.,  of  Samtfield,  Co.  Down,  founder  of  the 
British  Moss  Exchange  Club,  has  supplied  particulars  as  to  the  mosses  and 
the  more  important  moss  literature  : — 

Dawson,  Turner,  Muscologiae  Hibemkae  Spicilegimn,  1804. 
Taylor,  in  Mackay's  Flora  Hibernica,  1836. 

MoORE,  D.,  "  Synopsis  of  Mosses  of  Ireland,  1872  "  {Proc.  R.I. A). 
Moore,  D.,  "  Irish  Hepatic^,  1876  "  {Proc.  R.I. A.,  ser.  2,  vol.  2.).* 
Stewart  and  Corry,  Flora  of  N.E.  of  Ireland,  1888.  and  Supplement, 

1895- 

Lett,  Mosses  of  Mourne  Mountains,  1889. 

The  writer  in  the  "  Irish  Peat  Question  "  {^Economic  Procs.  R.D.S.)  gives 
c\  key  for  the  recognition  of  the  species  of  the  peat-moss,  Sphagmim, 
found  in  Ireland. 

The  Phycologia  Britannica  of  the  late  W.  H.  Harvey,  the  Professor  of 
Botany  to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  (a  chair  now  continued  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Science,  Dublin),  and  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  is  still  the 
standard  work  in  English  on  British  Marine  Algae.  Harvey  gives  an  illus- 
trated account  of  360  species,  without  special  reference  to  their  distribution 
ni  Ireland.  In  1890  the  "Revised  List  of  British  Marine  Alg«  "  {^Annals 
of  Botany)  by  Holmes  and  Battery,  gave  a  list  of  560  (now  700)  species,  of 
which  230  are  recorded  as  occurring  in  Irish  waters.  Harvey's  invaluable 
collections  of  marine  algae  are  preserved  in  the  Trinity  College  Herbarium, 
DubHn,  under  the  charge  of  Prof.  E.  P.  Wright,  M.D.,  who  has  himself 
described  several  species,  new  to  science,  in  Ireland.  It  was  the  writer's 
intention  to  bring  our  knowledge  of  the  Irish  weeds  to  the  level  of  that  in 
Great  Britain,  but  the  claims  of  economic  botany  (peat,  osiers,  plant-dis- 
eases, etc.),  have  intervened  and  stopped  the  work.  With  the  help  of 
several  former  students — Miss  R.  Hensman  more  especially,  H.  Hanna, 
M.A.,  and  Miss  M.  C.  Knowles — reports  on  various  groups  of  algae  have 
appeared  during  the  past  ten  years.  Thus  the  Brown  Algas  (Irish  Phae- 
ophyce£e,  Procs.  R.I. A.,  3rd  ser.  vol.  5,  No.  3,  1899),  now  number  113,  40 

*  Dr.  Moore's  collections  of  mosses  and  liverworts  are  preserved  in  the  Herbarium  of  the_ 
Science  and  Art  Museum,  Dublin. 


THE  FLORA  OF  IRELAND.  49 


having  been  added  in  this  list.  The  calcareous  Red  Algae,  of  great  econo- 
mic value,  in  Bantry  Bay,  on  the  Connemara  and  other  coasts  ("  A  List  of 
Irish  Coralhnaceae,"  Proc.  R.D.S.,  vol.  9,  1899)  now  number  some  35  species 
— 22  being  additions.  The  perforating  or  shell-boring  algae,  discovered  in 
France  by  Bornet,  are  now  known  to  occur  on  all  the  Irish  coasts,  (e.g., 
Gomoniia,  Hyella,  Mastigocoleiis,  Cojichocelis,  "  Some  Shell-boring  Algse," 
Nat.  Science,  vol.  5,  1894). 

Unfortunately  Isaac  Carroll's  collections  were  mostly  destroyed  by  the 
fire  in  Queen's  College,  Cork,  some  years  ago,  but  the  collections  made  by 
Miss  A.  Ball,  fiom  Youghal,  etc.,  and  many  of  Miss  Hutchins'  plants  are 
preserved  in  the  Dublin  Museum. 

Ireland  is  rich  in  freshwater  algas.  Up  to  the  year  1892,  900  species  and 
varieties  had  been  recorded,  mainly  through  the  efforts  of  W.  Archer, 
F.R.S.,  the  pioneer  in  their  study,  who  for  twenty  years  devoted  himself  to 
the  algal  flora,  more  especially  of  Counties  Dublin  and  Wicklow,  with 
occasional  visits  to  the  west  of  Ireland.  The  Rev.  E.  O'Meara  similarly  de- 
voted himself  to  the  Diatomaceae.  Since  1892  W.  West,  F.L.S.,  helped  by 
his  son  Professor  West,  has  visited  Ireland  several  times,  partly  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Fauna  and  Flora  Committee  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
and  has  added  400  species  and  200  varieties  to  the  known  algal  flora,  so  that 
there  is  now  recorded  for  Ireland  no  less  than  1,500  species  and  varieties. 
Of  this  total  three-eighths  are  Desmids  (Cosmarium,  etc.),  and  one  quarter, 
Diatoms.  Connemara,  Wicklow,  and  the  counties  of  the  S.W.  appear  to  be 
richest  in  fresh-water  algas.  Many  species  new  to  science  have  been 
described  from  Ireland,  some  of  which  have  since  been  found  in  other  coun- 
tries. Some  of  the  species  are  of  an  "  Atlantic  "  type,  being  confined  to  the 
West  of  Ireland,  Wales,  N.W.  Scotland,  and  Scandinavia. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  West  for  the  accompanying  lists. 

Some  of  the  rare  species  of  Ireland  not  recorded  elsewhere : — 

Staurastnim  Archerii,  S.  vcrticillatuvi^  S.  Donardense^  S.  subgmcilli- 
miwi^  S.  co7iicnlatuvi  v.  spinigeruviy  S.  Gatniense,  S.  latiuscidmn^  S. 
barbaricum ,  S.  jaculiferiim^  S.  trachyconenni,  S.  curvatum,  S.  pelagicuni^ 
S.  pungcns,  S.  hibeniicum,  S.  siibpygmaetim^  S.  natator^  S.  pseiidosebaldi 
V.  duacense,  S.  Arnellii  v.  spiniferuin  ;  Cylindrocystis  obesa ;  Arthrodesmiis 
tripinnatns^  A.  elegans ;  Cosviatiian  perpusilhini,  C.  sjibdanictim,  C. 
syjithlibome?mm,  C.  obciineaUan^  C  hiberniciim,  C.  qiiadridentattim  ; 
Xanthidiiim  sub/iastiferwn,  X.  apmtliferum ;  Spondylosium  ellipticum  ; 
Sphaerozosma  gramdatum  v.  trigramdatum ;  Zygnema  momoniensc, 
Golenkhna  paucispinosa;  Crucigenia  Tetrapedia,  C.  pulchra ;  Chodatella 
breviscta  ;  CalotJirix  parietina  t.  Jubetmicum  ;  Polycistis  elongata ; 
Anabaena    ortliogona. 

The  following  are  amongst  those  Irish  Species  that  have  been  found  but 
rarely  elsewhere : — 

Cosmarium  temie,  C.  Scenedesvtus,  C.  ReiiiscJiii,  C.  tuberculatus ,  C. 
nas2ihim,  C.  per/oratiun,  C.  goniodes,  C.  sphaeroideiun,  C.  sportella ; 
Cosmodadmin  bonstrictum,  C.  siibramosum ;  Arthrodesmus  tenmssiinus, 
A.  phiinus ;  Pleiirotaeniiim  nobile,  P.  nodosum;  Docidiuni  dilatatuvi ; 
Mesotaeniian  iMirHficuin ;  Cylindrocystis  minutissima ;  Staurastrum  elon- 
gatmn,  S.  cornitum,  S.  naamense,  S.  Manjeldtii,  S.  scabrum,  S.  Brebis- 
sonii,  S.  megalonotum,  S.  monticulosum,  S.  eristatum,  S.  oligacanthum, 
S.  megacantJuivi^  S.  polytrichum,  S.  spongiomvi  v.  perfidiun,  S.  amoenum, 

E 


50  THE  FLORA  OF  IRELAND. 


S.  gramilosum,  S.  sinensc^  S.dispar;  Hyalotheca  iindulata;  Sphaerozosina 
Ardierii,  S.  secedeno  ;  Spondylosium  pnlcliellmn,  S.tetragonuvi,  S.Pygmae- 
7im  ;  Micrastcrias  pinnatifida,  M.  furcata  ;  Eiiastrnm  pictiini,  E.  Titrnerii, 
E.  pyraviidatuin ;  Spirotaenia  parvula,  S.  trabeculatay  S.  ienerrima ; 
Clostermni  directnin,  C.  Archerianum,  C.toxon;  Penmm  morreanum,  P. 
£xigimm{  P.adelochondrum;  Xanthidiian  SviitJiii ;  Gonatonema  Hirnii,  E. 
longicolle ;   Gongrosira  Sclerococacs,  G.  viridis  ;   Ti  e?ztepohlia  calamicola. 

The  Characeae,  the  most  highly  organised  of  freshwater  algas,  are  listed 
in  the  Irish  Naturalist  (1895),  by  the  brothers  Grove,  and  the  writer  pub- 
lished in  the  same  periodical  a  general  account  of  the  group  and  a  key  for 
the  recognition  of  the  species  found  in  Ireland. 

In  spite  of  the  economic  importance  of  the  fungi  as  causes  of  some  very 
'destructive  diseases,  and  of  their  fascination  as  a  field  study,  no  group  has 
received  less  attention  in  Ireland.  This  neglect  is  partly  due  to  the  great 
•difficulty  in  preserving  the  larger  forms  for  reference  and  examination 
beyond  a  few  hours  after  collection,  and  to  the  scarcity  of  botanists  in 
Ireland  for  the  investigation  of  the  microscopic  forms.  The  first  serious 
attempt  to  prepare  a  comprehensive  list  of  Irish  fungi  was  made  by  Green- 
wood Pim,  in  the  Guide  Book  of  the  British  Association  Meeting  in  Dublin 
in  1878,  where  478  species  are  recorded,  (See  also  Procs.  R.D.S.,  1878),  fol- 
lowed by  a  Supplement  comprising  60  species,  in  the  Procs.  RJ.A.,  in  1883. 
In  1893,  Greenwood  Pim  and  Prof.  E.  J.  M'Weeney,  M.D.,  published  a 
paper  in  the  Iris/t  Naturalist  (vol.  2,  pp.  245-257),  in  which  270  additional 
species  are  recorded.  In  1898  these  lists  were  consolidated  and  added  to, 
giving  830  species,  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  British  Mycological 
Society,  which,  during  its  week's  visit  to  Dubhn,  added  in  their  list  of  430 
species  {Irish  Naturalist,  vol.  7,  p.  286),  160  species  to  the  previous  records. 
This  Society  made  the  Museum  its  headquarters  and  gave  a  large  number 
of  specimens  to  it.  Thus,  for  the  Counties  bf  Dublin  and  Wicklow,  about 
1,000  species  of  fungi  have  been  observed,  some  new  to  science,  or  to  the 
British  Flora,  or  very  rare  in  Great  Britain. 

The  Rev.  H.  W.  Lett,  M.A.,  gives  a  list  of  some  580  names  in  the  Procs. 
Belfast  Field  Club  for  the  year  1886,  of  species  found  in  Down,  Antrim, 
Armagh,  and  Cavan. 

Greenwood  Pim  published  a  preliminary  note  on  the  fungi  of  Glengarriff 
and  Killarney  in  the  Procs.  RJ.A.,  1885. 

The  rest  of  Ireland  is  practically  a  blank  so  far  as  our  knowledge  of 
systematic  mycology  is  concerned,  and  a  rich  harvest  awaits  the  fungologist 
who  will  devote  himself  to  the  investigation  of  the  fungi  of  Counties  Cork, 
Kerry,  of  Connemara,  and  other  regions  in  Ireland. 

I  am  indebted  to  G.  Pim  for  the  following  list  of  the  new  or  rarer  species 
of  fungi  in  Ireland  : — - 

Octaviania  asterospenna,V\X.\..;  Cyathus  striatiis,  Hofifm. ;  C.  vernicosus, 
D.C.;  Muiinus  (Phallus)  cajnnus,Yv.;  Polyporus giganteus,¥x.;  P.wynnei; 
Fistnliua  hepatica,  Fr. ;  Marasinius  hudsoni,  P.;  Amanita  strobilifonnis, 
Vitt. ;  Ustilago  vaillantii,Tu\.;  SaprolegJtia  philoinukes,V^\G.S.;  Papido- 
spora  sepedunioides,  Preuss. ;  Botrytis  dtchot07nay  Ca. ;  Ramularia  rapae, 
Pim.  ;  EcJiinobotryum  atrum,  Ca. ;  MyxotricJium  chartarum,  Kze. ;  M. 
deflexum,  Bk. ;  Teiraploa  aristata^  B.  and  Br. ;  Pimia  parasitica^  Grove  ; 
Isaria  fuciformisy  Bk. ;  Morchella  elata,  Br. ;  Tricospora  crossipe  ;  Vibrissea 
truncorum,  Fr.  ;   Stagoiiospora  pini,  Grove. 


THE  FLORA  OF  IRELAND.  51 


And  to  Professor  M'Weeney  for  the  following : 


Gyrodon  riibellus,  McVV. ;  Nyctalis  parasitica^  Fr. ;  Clo)iostacJiys  arau- 
caria,  Ca. ;  Stysa?ius  idmariae^  McW.  ;  Tilktia  rauzvcnhofii,  F.  v.  W.  ; 
Plasniopara  pygmaea\  de  By.  ;  P.  deiisa,  de  By.  ;  Peronospora  arbores- 
icns,  Bk.  ;  P.  affijiis,  Schroet ;  P.  trifoliorum ,  de  By.  ;  P,  grisea,  Ung.  ; 
P .  lamii,  de  By.  ;  P.  Schleideni,  Ung.  ;  P.  allioriun  (Cooke  and  Massee)  ; 
P.  sordida,  Bk.  ;  Gyninoasciis  reesii,  Baran.  ;  TJiccospo7-a  bifida^  Hark.  ; 
Ophionectria  paludosa,  Sacc.  ;  Acrospcniiuvi  graniiniiuiy  Lib.  ;  Hypomyccs 
aiiraiitius,  lul.  ;  H.  lateritins,  Tul.  ;  Plypocopra  viaxivia ;  PhyllacJiora 
podagra ria,  Roth.  ;  Dothidea  ribesia ;  Sordaria  copropJiila ;  Cordyceps 
militarise  Fr. ;  C.  ditmari ;  Pcziza  subiivibrina^  Boud. ;  P.  bninneoatra^ 
Desm.  ;  Geopyxis  ainmopliila ;  Sclerotijiia  sderotiorum^  Massee;  vibrissea 
Guernisact,  Crouan ;  V .  viargarita,  White ;  Cicinnobolus  tesatii;  Plioma  betac, 
Frank;  Mycetozoa: — Trichia  serotina,  7".  cJirysospernia ;  Arcyrea  cinerea; 
CoJiiatj'icha  Friesiatia,  de  By.  ;  Didenua  cyanescois ;  Didyniiimi  squamosuvi^ 
D.  squavinlos7im  ;  Physarum  leucopjts,  Rost. ;  Plasviodiophora  brassicae,  Wor. ; 
Cldorospleninvi  {Helotiuni)  aerugiiiosum  and  Accidiiim  grossulariae,  occur 
abundantly  in  fruit  in  Ireland,  a  rare  occurrence  in  P^ngland  or  Scotland. 

Dr.  M'Weeney  sends  me  the  following  notes  on  the  Bacteria  of  Ireland  : — 

"  The  results  of  the  parasitism  of  bacteria  on  men  and  animals  are  of  enor- 
mous economic  importance.  The  common  saprophytes  occur  in  Ireland 
with  the  same  frequency  as  they  do  elsewhere.  Amongst  species  character- 
ised by  some  remarkable  property  may  be  mentioned  the  fluorescent 
bacilli,  both  the  liquifying  and  the  non-liquifying  forms  of  which  abound 
in  water.  Bacillus  prodigiosiis  occurs,  though  very  seldom,  in  the  air,  and  I 
have  lately  isolated  an  allied  species  Bactcninn  Kdicnse  (Fischer  and  Breu- 
nig),  from  the  water  of  a  well  at  Dungarvan,  Co.  Waterford.  It  produces  a 
gorgeous  red  pigment.  On  the  other  hand,  out  of  the  many  hundreds  of 
water  analyses  I  have  made,  I  have  never  encountered  B.  violaceus.  Turn- 
ing to  the  parasitic  (disease-producing)  species,  by  far  the  most  destructive 
to  human  life  is  Mycobacterium  Tuberculosis,  L.  and  N.,  which  is  now  usually 
classed  amongst  the  lower  Hyphomycetes.  Cattle  suffer  severely  from 
bovine  tuberculosis,  and  I  have  also  met  with  the  avian  variety  amongst 
pheasants  on  an  estate  near  Arklow,  County  Wicklow.  Its  ally,  the  lep- 
rosy bacillus  (JMycobacteriiim  LeprcF,  L.  and  N.),  is  no  longer  found  in 
Ireland,  save  occasionally  in  imported  lepers.  This  was  not  the  case  during 
the  Middle  Ages  when  leprosy  was  endemic  in  Ireland.  It  has  left  its 
trace  in  a  few  place-names  like  Leopardstoiun,  where  there  was  formerly  a 
hospital  for  lepers.  The  '  acid  fast,'  pseudo-tubercle  bacilli  found  lately  in 
milk,  butter,  on  Timothy  grass,  etc.,  on  the  Continent,  are  not  known  to 
occur  in  Ireland.  Aciiitomyces  is  not  a  common  parasite  here.  A  few  cases 
have  been  recorded  in  the  ox.  Only  two  instances  of  human  Actinomy- 
cosis have  occurred  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  one  having  been  observed  by 
Dr.  Dargan,  on  a  patient  in  St.  Vincent's  Hospital.  Corynebacterium 
Diphtherice  (L.  and  N.)  was  very  rare  in  Ireland  some  twelve  years  ago,  but 
is  steadily  on  the  increase,  especially  in  towns  along  the  east  coast  whither  it 
has  probably  been  introduced  from  England.  A  closely  allied  but  non- 
pathogenic form,  occurs  in  the  epidermis  of  calves.  My  attention  was 
first  drawn  to  ic  in  the  analysis  of  vaccine  lymph.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
distribution  of  the  disease-producing  bacilli  would  be  out  of  place  here.     I 


69  THE  FLORA  OF  IRELAND. 


may  add  that  the  B.  typhosus  is  universally  distributed,  and  that  three 
years  ago  B.  intracellularis  jneningitidis  made  its  appearance  in  the 
Dublin  District  and  gave  rise  to  a  severe  outbreak  of  cerebro-spinal  men- 
ingitis." 

Several  extremely  rare  European  Lichens  are  known  to  occur  in  Ireland. 
Of  these  Gomphillus  and  Melaspilea  have  been  found  in  only  one  other 
British  station,  and  Sirosiphon  and  Pycnothelia  have  not  been  found  in 
any  other  locality  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  most  interesting  lichens  are  two  tropical  species  which  in  Europe 
are  confmed  to  Ireland — Leptogidimn  detidriscum,  a  native  of  Brazil,  Isle 
of  Bourbon,  and  New  Caledonia ;  and  Glyphis  labyrinthica,  a  native  of 
Guyana,  Amazon,  and  Ceylon,  have  been  gathered  at  Killarney  in  the 
great  sheltered  damp  hollow,  only  a  few  feet  above  the  sea-level,  which  lies 
midway  between  the  summit  of  Carrantual  and  Mangerton,  the  highest 
mountains  in  Ireland,  whereon  the  arctic  Cetraria  islandica  (Iceland  Moss) 
has  its  only  Irish  habitats.  In  Connaught,  Parmelia  saxatilis,  Lecanora 
patella,  and  Lecanora  tartarea,  but  especially  the  first-named,  are  used  in 
the  process  of  dyeing  the  home-spun  woollen  yarns  of  the  inhabitants. 

Irish  lichenology  suffered  a  heavy  loss  in  the  accidental  death  of  Admiral 
Jones,  whose  large  collection  of  lichens  is  preserved  in  the  Botanical 
division  of  the  Science  and  Art  Museum  in  Dublin.  The  Rev.  H.  W.  Lett, 
who  mentions  8g  species  of  lichens  in  his  paper  entitled  "  Report  on  the 
Mosses  and  Lichens  of  the  Mourne  Mountains  District "  (Proc.  R.I. A.,  ser. 
3,  vol.  I,  1889),  has  supplied  the  following  particulars  of  the  more  important 
literature.  At  the  present  moment  no  one  is  actively  engaged  in  the  study 
of  Irish  lichens. 

J.  T.  MaCKAY,  Flora  Hibernica,  Part  2  (1836),  contains  descriptions  by 
Dr.  Taylor  of  300  species,  chiefly  from  the  S.W.  and  N.E. 

Isaac   Carroll,   "  Contributions  to  Irish  Lichens,"   in  the   Proc.   of  the 

Dublin  Univ.  Zool.  and  Biological  Association,   1859,  vol.   i,  pp.  268- 

276,  Plates,  29-31). 
Admiral  Jones,  "  Report  on  the  progress  made  in  collecting  Irish  lichens, 

with  a  list  of  those  presented  to  the  Dublin  Natural  Society,  May,  1 864  ; 

also  an  Index  List  in  Proc.  Dublin  Natural  Plistory  Society,  vol.  4, 

pp.  1 14-149  (1865),  which  comprises  349  species. 

Admiral  Jones,  "  Report  on  the  progress  made  in  collecting  Irish 
Lichens,"  in  Proc.  Dublin  Natural  History  Society,  vol.  4,  pp.  280-290 
(1866),  which  adds  56  species  to  previous  list. 

Rev.  W.  Leighton,  Lichen  Flora  of  Great  Britain  and  Irelatid  and  the 
Channel  Islands,  3rd  edit.  (1879),  gives  Irish  records  for  770  of  the 
species  and  varieties  described — principally  from  the  S.W.,  N.E., 
Dublin,  Wicklow,  and  Gal  way. 

Greenwood  PiM,  "  List  of  the  Lichens  of  Counties  Dubhn  and  Wicklow," 
in  Proc.  R.D.S.,  New  Series,  vol.  i  (1878),  which  includes  150  species. 

It  must  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  so  much  excellent  work  has  been 
done  when  it  is  remembered  that  Botany  has  hitherto  received  no  encour- 
agement either  in  the  elementary  schools  or  in  the  boys'  secondary  (or 
intermediate)  schools  of  the  country,  and  that  in  the  girls'  secondary  schools 
it  has  been  treated  as  a  polite  accomplishment,  largely  taught  and  altogether 
examined  theoretically. 


ZOOLOGY.  53 


THE    ANIMALS    OF    IRELAND. 

The  extreme  western  outpost  of  the  great  Euro-Asiatic  continent,  Ireland 
possesses  a  fauna  that,  although  comparatively  poor,  is  highly  interesting. 
Ireland  is  doubtless  a  "  continental  island,"  which  at  no  very  distant  geolo- 
gical period  formed  part  of  a  far-stretching  land-mass,*  and  its  animal 
inhabitants  must,  for  the  most  part,  have  made  their  way  thither  over  land- 
connections  now  submerged  beneath  the  waters  of  the  sea.  Situated  far  to 
the  west,  the  island  is  poor  in  species  as  compared  with  Great  Britain,  and 
still  poorer  as  compared  with  continental  Europe.  Most  of  the  Irish  animals 
are  identical  with  British  species ;  but  many  creatures  that  are  familiar  to 
the  English  naturalist  are  absent  from  Ireland.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
ancient  forms  of  life,  unknown  or  restricted  to  very  narrow  limits  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  nearer  parts  of  the  Continent,  have  been  preserved  in 
Ireland,  and  it  is  the  presence  of  these  that  makes  the  fauna  of  the  country 
so  interesting  a  study.  One  well-marked  group,  which  shows  a  likeness  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia  and  the  Arctic  regions,  may  be  characterised 
as  the  Northern  or  "  Arctic  Fauna."  Another  group,  showing  affinity  to  the 
denizens  of  south-western  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  shores,  is  often 
distinguished  as  the  "  Lusitanian  Fauna." 


VERTEBRATES. 

The  best-known  class  of  animals — the  Mammals — yield  good  illustration 
of  the  poverty  and  the  interest  of  the   Irish  fauna, 
Mm    alq  Several   familiar   beasts — the   Fox,   the   Badger,   and 

the  Otter,  for  example — occur  throughout  the  country, 
as  in  Great  Britain.  But  of  the  order — the  Carni- 
vores— to  which  these  belong,  the  Weasel  and  Polecat  are  unknown  in 
Ireland,  although  the  Stoat  is  common,  and  of  some  interest,  since  its  Irish 
race  differs  constantly  from  the  British  in  the  relative  extent  of  its  dark  and 
pale  markings.  Wolves  formerly  abounded  in  Ireland,  where  they  were 
not  exterminated  until  the  eighteenth  century.  The  former  presence  of 
Bears  in  the  country  is  shown  by  the  discovery  of  their  remains  in  cave- 
deposits,  but  they  seem  to  have  become  extinct  before  the  historic  period. 
The  Irish  Bear  has  been  regarded  as  identical  with  the  Grizzly  {Ursus 
horribilis)  of  North  America;  no  remains  of  the  great  Cave  Bear  {Ursus 
spelcsus)  that  inhabited  Great  Britain  and  Central  Europe  during  Pleisto- 
cene times  have  been  found  in  Ireland. 

Turning  to  the  Insectivores  we  find  the  Hedgehog  common  everywhere 
as  in  Great  Britain,  while  the  Mole  is  quite  absent,  and  only  one  Shrew,  the 
"  Lesser  "  (Sorex  pygi7tcsus')  out  of  the  three  British  species  occurs.     Simi- 

*  A.  R.  Wallace.     "Island  Life."     London,  1892. 


54  ZOOLOGY. 

laxly,  Ireland  has  but  seven  of  the  fifteen  British  Bats.  Of  the  two  surviv- 
ing British  species  of  Deer — the  Red  Deer  and  the  Roebuck — Ireland  has 
only  the  former,  now  confined  to  the  protected  areas  in  County  Kerry. 
But  the  Reindeer  formerly  inhabited  the  country,  and  the  remains  of  the 
extinct  Giant  Deer  {Cervus  giganteiis)  occur  so  abundantly  in  the  marls 
beneath  the  Irish  peat-bogs  that  the  animal  is  commonly  known  as  the 
"  Irish  Elk,"  though  its  remains,  as  preserved  on  the  Continent,  in  Great 
Britain,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  show  that  it  must  have  travelled  westward 
from  southern  Europe  or  Western  Asia.  The  only  species  of  Elephant 
known  to  have  inhabited  Ireland  in  former  times  is  the  Mammoth,  whose 
bones  have  been  found  in  the  County  Waterford  cave  deposits. 

Among  the  Rodents  both  the  Black  and  Brown  Rats  occur,  and  a  dark, 
fine-coated  variety  of  the  latter  species  was  described  by  Thompson  as  dis- 
tinct under  the  name  of  Miis  hibernicus.  But  Ireland  possesses  only  two 
of  the  four  British  Mice,  and  not  a  solitary  representative  of  the  Voles.  The 
Irish  Hare  is  not  the  familiar  animal  {Lepus  euro-pcens)  of  the  British  low- 
lands, but  the  Varying  Hare  {L.  variabilis^)  of  the  Scottish  highlands,  which, 
on  the  Continent,  is  confined  to  northern  and  Alpine  regions.  In  Ireland 
this  animal — a  typical  example  of  the  Arctic  fauna — occurs  both  on  the 
hills  and  in  the  plain  ;  owing  to  the  mild  climate,  it  only  occasionally  assumes 
the  white  winter  coat  so  appropriate  in  those  northern  and  mountain 
haunts  to  which  (except  in  Ireland)  it  is  now  restricted  by  the  competition 
of  its  newer  rival. 

The  absence  of  so  many  British  Mammals  shows,  without  doubt,  that  the 
land-connections  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  must  have  broken 
down  before  the  latter  country  became  separated  from  the  Continent.  Ire- 
land is,  therefore,  the  older  of  the  two  islands.  Dr.  Scharff  *  has  recently 
shown  that  those  British  Mammals  ("  Eastern  "  or  "  Siberian  "  fauna)  ab- 
sent from  Ireland  migrated  from  Siberia  across  the  central  European  plain 
in  Pleistocene  times,  reaching  Great  Britain  too  late  to  continue  their  pro- 
gress farther  to  the  west.  It  is  remarkable  that  (excepting  only  the  Grizzly 
Bear)  all  the  living  and  extinct  Mammals  of  Ireland  inhabit,  or  did  inhabit, 
Scotland.  This  fact  led  Professor  Leith  Adamst  to  infer  that  they  entered 
Ireland  by  a  northern  land-connection.  But  Dr.  Scharff  believes  that — 
except  in  the  case  of  the  Reindeer  and  the  Varying  Hare,  evidently  northern 
species — the  track  of  all  these  animals  can  be  traced  by  their  fossil  remains 
westward  through  southern  Europe.  He  concludes  from  this  that  they 
entered  Ireland  from  the  south  and  passed  thence  northwards  into  Scotland. 
We  see,  therefore,  how  the  peculiarities  of  the  Irish  fauna  bear  on  fascina- 
ting problems  of  ancient  geography. 

Ireland  affords  an  excellent  field  for  the  study  of  many  Birds  that  are 
restricted  as  breeding  species  to  the  more  remote 
„.    ,  parts  of  Great   Britain.       The  Ring  Ouzel  and  the 

Dipper,  for  example,  breed  in  suitable  localities 
throughout  Ireland,  while  the  Raven  and  the  Chough 
still  nest  in  most  of  the  western  counties,  the  latter  bird  being  often  found 
m  numbers  along  the  sea-cliffs.  The  unpopular  Hooded  Crow  is  wide- 
spread and  common,  but  the  Carrion  Crow  is  almost  unknown. 

Among  birds  of  prey,  the  Golden  Eagle  still  lingers  as  a  breeding  species 

*  R,  F.  Scharft.     "  The  History  of  the  European  Fauna."     London,  i8gq. 
t  A.  L.  Adams.     "Report  on  the  History  of  Irish  Fossil  Mammals."     Proc.  R.I  A.  (2),  iii., 
1878. 


ZOOLOGY. 


55 


/S5S 


Fig.  I.— Bones  of  Great  Auk  from  Kitchen-Middens,  Co.  Waterford. 

I,  2.— Left  Humerus.  3>  4-— Left  Coracoid.  5.— Right  Tibia. 

6,  7.— Right  Metataral.  8.— Pelvis. 

Natural  size. — From  Ussher,  Irish  Nat.,  vol.  viii. 


56  ZOOLOGY. 


in  the  remoter  parts  of  Counties  Mayo  and  Donegal,  while  the  Peregrine 
Falcon  nests  on  sea-cliffs  and  mountains  throughout  the  country.  The 
rocky  coasts  of  Ireland  afford  numerous  breeding  places  for  sea-birds ; 
Black-headed  Gulls  nest  in  large  colonies  on  the  midland  bogs. 

As  with  the  Mammals,  so  several  familiar  English  Birds — the  Nightingale, 
the  Reed  Warbler,  and  the  Tawny  Owl,  for  example — are  quite  unknown  in 
Ireland.  On  the  other  hand,  several  birds  are  extendmg  their  range  as 
breeding-species  through  the  country,  as  the  Stock-dove,  the  Tree-sparrow, 
and  the  Crossbill.  The  Magpie,  now  common  throughout  Ireland,  furnishes 
an  excellent  example  of  the  rapid  spread  of  a  modern  immigrant,  as  the 
bird  is  known  to  have  invaded  the  country  so  recently  as  1684,  when  a 
small  flock  landed  in  County  Wexford.  A  very  interesting  example  of  the 
southern  range  in  Ireland  of  a  typically  northern  animal  is  furnished  by  the 
Red-breasted  Merganser,  which  nests  in  many  counties,  including  Kerry, 
although  its  breeding-range  in  Great  Britain  is  confined  to  Scotland,  and  on 
the  Continent  to  northern  and  Arctic  localities.  Recent  discoveries  by 
Messrs.  Ussher*  and  Knowles  of  remains  of  the  Great  Aukf  in  kitchen- 
middens  on  the  Antrim  and  Waterford  coasts  prove  that  this  interesting 
northern  bird  ranged  farther  south  in  Ireland  than  elsewhere  in  Europe, 
and  was  used  as  food  by  pre-historic  Man. 

Much  valuable  information  obtained  from  birds  observed  at  lighthouses 
and  lightships  around  the  Irish  coasts  has  been  recently  collected  by  Mr. 
Barrington,  who  has  been  able  to  throw  considerable  light  on  the  paths 
taken  by  the  various  species  on  their  migrations.+ 

The  only  Reptile  native  in  Ireland  is  the  Brown  Lizard  {Lacerta  vivi- 

-pard)  which  is  locally  spread  over  the  country.     The 

Reptiles  and         absence  of  Snakes  from  the  island  is  well  known,  and 

Amphibians.         is  doubtless  due  to  the  same  cause  as  the  absence  of 

the  Eastern  group  of  Mammals  described  above.     Of 

the  Amphibians,  the  Common  Frog  is  abundant  and  widespread,  though 

according  to  tradition  it  is  an  introduced  animal ;  and  only  a  single  species 

{Molge  vulgaris)  of  the  three  British  Newts  is  known  to  inhabit  Ireland. 

The  most  interesting  Irish  Amphibian  is  the  Natterjack  Toad,  which  is 

confined  to  a  small  area  in  County  Kerry  along  the  shores  of  Dingle  Bay. 

It  is,  doubtless,  a  member  of  the  old  Lusitanian  fauna,  as  it  is  abundant  in 

south-western  Europe,  but  very  scarce  and  local  in  southern  Britain  and 

Central  Europe. 

Attention  may  be  called  to  two  features  of  the  Irish  fish-fauna     Beyond 

the  hundred-fathom  line  off  the  west  coast  several 

p,.  .  deep-sea    fishes    have  been   dredged  which   are,  of 

course,   unknown   in   the   shallow   channels   between 

Ireland  and  England,  or  England  and  the  Continent. 

This  deep-sea  fauna  off  the  western  Irish  coast  shows  a  remarkable  mingling 

of  northern  and  southern  forms.     Arctic  and  Scandinavian  species  like  Ma- 

crurus  rupestris,  and  the  Portuguese  deep-sea  shark  Centrophorus  squamo- 

sus,OQ.QMx  together  off  the  coast  of  County  Mayo.§ 

*  R.  J.  Ussher  and  R.  Warren.  "  The  Birds  of  Ireland."  London,  1900.  A.  G.  More.  "  A 
List  of  Irish  Birds.     Dublin,  1890. 

f  See  illustration  on  preceding  page. 

\  R.  M.  Barrington.  "  The  Migration  of  Birds  as  observed  at  Irish  Lighthouses  and  Light- 
ships."   London  and  Dublin,  1900. 

§  E.  W.  L.  Holt  and  W.  L.  Calderwood.  "  Survey  of  Fishing  Grounds,  West  Coast  of 
Ireland.     Report  on  the  Rarer  Fishes."    Ti'ans.  R.  Dub.  Soc.  (2),  v.,  no.  i.x.,  1895. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  EXTINCT  GIANT  DEER  ("CEHVUS  GIGANTELS    )  COMMONLY   KNOWN 
AS  THE  "  IRISH  ELK." 


ZOOLOGY 


57 


The  other  point  of  interest  is  furnished  by  the  Irish  freshwater  fishes. 
There  are  distinct  species  or  races — such  as  the  Gillaroo  Trout  {Salvia 
stoviachicus)  of  Lough  Neagh  and  the  Shannon  and  Connemara  lakes  ; 
Cole's  Charr  (5.  Colci)  confined  to  Lough  Eask,  County  Donegal,  and 
Lough  Dan,  County  Wicklow  ;  and  the  PoUan  {Coregonus  pollan)  of  Lough 
Neagh  and  Lough  Erne* — which,  though  only  found  in  Ireland,  are  closely 
related  to  forms  inhabiting  the  freshwaters  of  Great  Britain.  An  ancient 
freshwater  home  for  the  ancestors  of  these  allied  fishes  may  probably  be 
looked  for  in  a  former  lake  and  river  valley  occupying  the  bed  of  the  present 
Irish  Sea. 


INVERTEBRATES. 

In  this  brief  sketch  it  is  only  possible  to  indicate  a  few  of  the  more 
interesting  features  of  the  Irish  invertebrate  animals,  as  illustrated  by  some 
of  the  groups  that  have  received  a  fair  amount  of  attention  from  naturalists. 


Fig.  2. — The  Kerry  Spotted  Slug  {Geonialaciis  maciilosits) 
Natural  size. — From  ScharfF,  Irisli  Nat.  vol.  \ii. 


The  most  characteristic  member  of  the  ancient  Lusitanian  fauna  is  the 

Spotted  Slug  {Geomalacus  niaculosiis)  which  inhabits 

a  considerable  tract  of  country  in  western  Kerry  and 

Molluscs.!  Cork,  notably  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kenmare.     It 

is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  British  Islands,  and  is 

quite  unknown  in  Central  Europe,  but  reappears  in  north-western  Spain 

and  Portugal.     Its  range,  therefore,  recalls  that  of  the  characteristic  western 

Irish  plants.     The  colours  of  this  interesting  slug  harmonise  closely  with  the 

lichen-covered  rocks  on  which  it  lives ;  in  dry  weather  it  retires  into  deep 

crevices. 

Several  other  Irish  molluscs,  though  less  restricted  in  their  range  than 
Geomalacus,  clearly  belong  to  the  same  faunistic  group.  That  prettily- 
marked  Snail  Helix  pisana,  for  example,  which  inhabits  the  eastern  coast  of 
Ireland  from  Rush,  County  Dublin,  northwards  to  Drogheda,  and  reappears 
on  the  opposite  shore  of  St.  George's  Channel  in  South  Wales  and  Cornwall, 

*  W.  Thompson.    "  The  Natural  History  of  Ireland."    London,  1849-56. 
t  R.  F.  Scharff.    "  The  Irish  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca."     Irish  Nat.,  vol.  i.,    1892. 
A.  R.  Nichols.    "  A  List  of  the  Marine  Mollusca  of  Ireland."    Proc.  R.  I,  Acad.  (3),  vol.  v.,  1900. 


58 


ZOOLOGY. 


is  found  on  the  Continent  only  in  southern  France  and  around  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores.     It  ranges  also  to  the  Atlantic  islands — Madeira  and  Azores 

suggesting  the  possible  extension  of  the  ancient  continent  far  to  the  west. 

The  markedly  discontinuous  and  restricted  range  of  these  Lusitanian 
species  shows  clearly  that  they  are  the  most  ancient  section  of  our  fauna, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  came  into  our  area  as  long  ago  as  the 
Miocene  (middle  Tertiary)  period  of  geologists. 

The  poverty  of  the  Irish  Butterfly  fauna  recalls  that  of  the  mammahan, 
many    familiar    English    Butterflies — Vanessa  foly- 
-         ,    ^  chloros,    Limenitis    sibylla,   and   Apatura    iris,   for 

insects.  example,  being  quite  unknown.     One  of  the  most  in- 

teresting of  Irish  Butterflies  is  Erebia  epiphron — the 
"  Mountain  Ringlet  " — which  inhabits  some  of  the  western  mountain  ranges 
— Croagh  Patrick,  Nephin  Beg,  and  the  hills  near  Sligo.  The  "  Irish  Bur- 
net "  Moth  {Zygcsna  pilosellcE  var.  niibigena)  is  abundant  in  the  limestone 
districts  of  Counties  Galway  and  Clare  ;  for  many  years  it  was  unknown 
elsewhere  in  the  British  Isles,  but  its  range  has  now  been  traced  into  western 
Scotland  (near  C>ban)  and  Wales.  The  dark  form  {Barrettii)  of  the  south 
European  Dianthcecia  luteago  inhabits  the  cliffs  of  Howth,  County  Dublin 


Fig.  3. — Dianthacia  luteago,  Continental  type  (upper  figure), 
and  its  Irish  variety,  Barrettii  (lower  figure).     Slightly  enlarged. 

(now  very  sparsely),  County  Waterford,  and  County  Cork  ;  this  form  has  in 
recent  years  been  found  also  in  Wales,  Devon,  and  Cornwall.  These  in- 
sects  may  perhaps  belong  to   a  southern  faunistic  group   somewhat   less 


*  W,  F.  de  V,  Kane.  "  A  Catalogue  of  the  Lepidoptera  of  Ireland."  Entomologist,  vols, 
xxvi.-xxxiv.,  1893-1901.  W.  F.  Johnson  and  J.  N.  Halbert.  "  A  List  of  the  Beetles  of  Ireland," 
Proc.  R.  J.  Acad.  (3),  vol.  vi.,  1902.  A.  H.  Haliday.  Papers  on  Irish  Diptera  and  Hymenoptera 
in  Entom.  Mag.,  vols,  i.-v.,  1833-8. 


ZOOLOGY.  59 


ancient  than  the  true  Lusitanians,  but  they  are  doubtless  very  old  inhabi- 
tants of  our  area,  in  some  part  of  which  they  must  probably  have  survived 
the  severe  conditions  of  the  Pleistocene  "  Ice  Age." 

A  marked  characteristic  of  Irish  Moths  is  their  tendency  to  assume  dark 
varietal  forms.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  almost  jet-black  races  of 
Epunda  lutulenta  which  occur  near  Sligo.  In  this  character  the  Irish 
moths  resemble  those  of  the  Scottish  highlands,  and  the  moisture  of  the 
climate  may  very  probably  be  regarded  as  the  cause. 

The  mingling  of  the  ancient  northern  and  southern  faunas  in  Ireland  is 
very  markedly  shown  by  the  Beetles.  There  are  species  like  Carabus 
clathratus,  confined  in  Great  Britain  to  the  northern  half  of  the  island,  but 
ranging  in  Ireland  to  the  far  south-west.  Still  more  remarkable  is  Pelophila 
borealis  (fig  4) — -a  small  black  Ground-beetle  found  by  lake-shores  in  the 


Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 

Fig.  4. — Arctic  Ground-beetle  {Pelophila  burcalis),  Co.  Armagh. 

Fig.  5. — Pyrenean  Weevil  {Otiorrhyiichus  auropiiiictatus),  Co.  Dublin. 
Magnified  3  times. 

western  half  of  Ireland  from  north  to  south,  but  confined  in  Great  Britain 
to  the  Orkneys,  and  on  the  Continent  to  fairly  high  northern  latitudes.  In 
contrast  to  thesp  we  have  such  south-western  species  as  the  weevil  Mesites 
Tardyi,  spread  throughout  Ireland  in  wooded  districts,  though  restricted  to 
a  few  scattered  localities  in  western  Britain  (Clyde  area,  Devonshire) ;  and 
another  weevil  Otiorrhynchus  auropiinctatus  (fig.  5)  ranging  in  the  north 
and  east  of  Ireland  from  Donegal  to  Wicklow,  but  known  elsewhere  only  in 
the  districts  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Auvergne. 

Similar  characteristics  are  shown  by  other  related  groups.     The  common 
Dublin   house-spider   {Tegenaria   hibernicd),   for   ex- 
Spiders,  Millipedes,  ample,  quite  unknown  in  Great  Britain,  is  nearly  re- 
and  Crustacea.       lated  to  a  Pyrenean  species.*       A  millipede  {Poly- 
desmiis  galliciis),  generally  distributed    in    Ireland, 
seems  absent  from  Great  Britain,  but  reappears  in  south-western  Europe  and 
the  Atlantic  Islands. f     Turnmg  to  the  Crustacea,^  we  have  in  the  small 

*  G.  H.  Carpenter.     "  A  List  of  the  Spiders  of  Ireland."     Proc.  R.  I.  Acad.  (3),  vol.  v.,  1898. 

t  R.  I.  Pocock.    "  Notes  upon  some  Irish  Myriopoda."    Irish  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  1893. 

J  W.  T.  Caiman.  "  On  Deep-sea  Crustacea  from  the  South-west  of  Ireland."  Trans.  R.I. A., 
vol.  xxxi.,  1896.  E.  W.  L.  Holt  and  W.  I.  Beaumont.  "  Report  on  the  Crustacea  Schizopoda 
of  Ireland."    Trans,  k,  D.  Soc.  (2),  vol.  vii.,  1900. 


€0  ZOOLOGY. 

shrimp-like  Schizopod,  Mysis  relicta,  of  Lough  Neagh,  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  Irish  animals.  Inhabiting  freshwaters  in  Ireland,  Sweden, 
Norway,  Russia  and  North  America,  it  nevertheless  belongs  to  a  marine 
genus,  and  is  st  ill  living  in  the  Baltic  ;  its  distribution  indicates,  therefore, 
a  former  extension  of  the  sea  over  a  great  part  of  north-western  Europe. 
No  detailed  reference  to  marine  Crustacea  is  possible  in  this  sketch,  but 
several  forms  of  much  interest  have  been  dredged  from  deep  water  off  the 
west  coast. 


Fig.  6. — Mysis  relicta,  Lough  Neagh.     Twice  natural  size. 

Two  south  European  Earthworms  {Allolobophora  Georgii  and  A.  vcneta) 

have  been  discovered  in  Ireland  in  recent  years.     Of 

-,.,  *  the  interesting  but  obscure  group  of  the  Land  Plan- 

arians,  m  addition   to  the    common    European    and 

British  Rhynchodenius  ierrestris,  Ireland  possesses  a 

species — R.  Scharjfi — which  has  not  yet  been  found  elsewhere. 

Noteworthy  among  Irish  shore-hunting  Echinoderms  is  the  Purple  Sea- 
urchin    {Strongylocentotus    lividus)    which    may    be 

„  ,  .      ,  found  in  numbers  along  the  west  coast  northwards  to 

Echinoderms.        t-.  i    4^u  *.  i.u  u       j 

Donegal,   the   specimens   resting  in   the   cup-shaped 

hollows    that    they    excavate    in    the    rocks.       This 

species  ranges  in  Ireland  much  farther  north  than  elsewhere,  for  in  Great 

Britain  it  is  found  only  in  the  south-west,  and  on  the  continental  coasts  from 

France  southwards.     In  the  deep  water  to  the  west,  northern  and  southern 

forms  mingle  in  the  Irish  marine  area.t     Among  the  northern  species  the 

handsome  scarlet  sea-cucumber  Holothiiria  trenmla  and  the  starfish  Pontas- 

ter  tenuis pinis  are  noteworthy.    The  steep  submarine  slope  beyond  the  lOO 

fathom  line,  where  such  specimens  are  dredged,  suggests  irresistibly  the 

western  shore  of  an  old  continent  stretching  from  north  to  south. 

*  H.  Friend,  Papers  on  Irish  Earthworms.  Irish  Nat.,  vols,  i.-iv.,  1892-5.  R.  F.  Scharff. 
•"  The  Irish  Land  Planarians."    Irish  Nat.,  vol.  i.x.,  1900. 

t  A.  C.  Haddon  and  W.  S.  Green.  "  Second  Report  on  the  Marine  Fauna  of  S.W.  Ireland." 
Proc.  R.  I.  Acad.  (3),  vol.  i.,  1889. 


ZOOLOGY. 


61 


Sponges.' 


Among  the  lower  forms  of  life,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  recent 
discovery  by  Dr.  Hanitsch  of  three  North  American 
species  of  freshwater  sponges — Efhydatia  crateri- 
forniis,  Tubella  pennsylvamca,  and  Heteronieyenia 
Ryderi — hitherto  unknown  in  Europe,  in  various 
lakes  in  the  west  of  Ireland.  This  discovery  shows  that  the  peculiar  assem- 
blage of  North  American  plants  inhabiting  western  Ireland  are  accompanied 
by  animals — albeit  lowly  ones — of  the  same  distributional  group.  Little 
doubt  can  be  entertained  that  these  American  forms,  with  their  distribution 
east  of  the  Atlantic  so  greatly  restricted,  are  older  than  the  animals  of  the 
ordinary  Northern  type  with  a  wide  circumpolar  range.  They  support  the 
theory  of  an  ancient  land-connection  to  the  north  of  the  Atlantic  by  means 
of  which  many  of  the  Arctic  species  common  to  Europe  and  North  America 
were  able  to  make  their  way  between  the  two  continents. 


Fig.  7. — American  Freshwater  Sponge  (Heteromeyenia  Ryderi),  Co.  Kerry. 
Natural  size. 


Fig.  8. — Spicules  and  amphidiscs  of  H.  Ryderi.     Magnified  200  times. 
After  Hanitsch,  Irish  Nat.,  vol.  iv.  • 

The  remains  of  this  old  continental  coast,  connecting  Scandinavia  with 
Scotland,  and  Scotland  with  Ireland,  probably  lasted  until  the  Pleistocene 
"  Ice  Age  "  had  passed  away.  Across  it  passed  the  latest  of  those  animals 
that  journeyed  to  Ireland  overland.  The  fact  that  it  broke  down  before  so 
many  of  the  British  animals  could  make  their  way  thither  explains  the 
poverty  and  interest  of  the  Irish  fauna.     For,  had  the  newer  eastern  group 


R.  Hanitsch.    "  The  Freshwater  Sponges  of  Ireland."    Irish  Nat.,  vol.  iv.,  1805. 


62  ZOOLOGY. 


been  able  to  invade  Ireland,  it  is  unlikely  that  the  many  ancient  forms  of 
life  could  have  survived  there,  to  delight  the  naturalist  of  to-day. 


ECONOMIC    ZOOLOGY. 

The  peculiarities  of  Ireland  and  its  animal  inhabitants  are  not  without 
influence  on  the  practical  life  of  the  farmer.  He  may  congratulate  himself, 
for  example,  that  such  members  of  the  Eastern  fauna  as  the  vegetable- 
feeding  Voles — which  in  British  and  Continental  localities  have  been  known 
to  increase  and  multiply  to  a  veritable  plague — are  absent  from  Ireland.  The 
Hedgehog  is  certainly  a  more  desirable  insect-eater  than  the  absent  Mole, 
since  the  latter  feeds  largely  on  the  valuable  earthworms,  and  disturbs  agri- 
cultural land  by  his  underground  journeys.  The  House-sparrow,  the  only 
bird  perhaps  that  is  an  almost  unmitigated  enemy  to  the  farmer,  seems,  at 
least  in  the  remoter  parts  of  Ireland,  to  be  less  numerously  represented 
than  in  Great  Britain. 

The  damp  climate  of  Ireland  is  especially  favourable  to  the  rapid  multi- 
plication of  Slugs  and  Snails,  and  much  damage  to  green  vegetable  produce 
is  due  to  the  hungry  appetites  of  these  molluscs.  The  small  slug  Agrio- 
limax  a  gr  est  is  is  perhaps  the  chief  offender.  Garden  plants  are  often 
destroyed  by  Woodlice,  which  are  unusually  numerous  in  Ireland,  especially 
the  species  Porcellio  scaber  and  Oniscus  asellus. 

But  as  in  most  countries,  the  most  serious  ravages  to  farm  crops  are  due 
to  Insects.*  That  characteristically  Irish  crop,  the  Potato,  suffers  com- 
paratively little  from  insect  pests,  though  every  dry  summer  many  large 
caterpillars  of  the  "  Death's-head "  Moth  {Acherontia  atropos)  may  be 
found  feeding,  usually  by  night,  on  the  foliage.  Beans  and  Peas  are  often 
attacked  by  their  characteristic  black  and  green  Aphids,  and  the  imported 
seeds  for  these  crops  contain  too  often  the  destructive  beetles  of  the  genus 
Bruchus.  The  Mangold  and  Beet  crops  are  especially  subject  to  insect- 
ravages  in  Ireland  ;  the  white  fleshy  maggots  of  the  Mangold  Fly  {Pegomyia 
betce)  mine  the  tissues  of  the  leaves,  the  caterpillars  of  the  "  Silver  Y  "  Moth 
{Pliisia  ganDna)  feed  openly  on  the  foliage,  while  the  grubs  of  the  Black 
Carrion  Beetle  (Silpha  opacd)  eat  up  young  plants.  The  carrot  is  often 
injured  by  the  root-feeding  maggot  of  the  Fly  Psila  roses,  while  Celery- 
leaves  are  mined  by  the  grub  of  Acidia  heraclei.  Cabbages  and  Turnips 
are  attacked  above-ground  by  the  caterpillars  of  the  White  Butterflies,  and 
the  irrepressible  Flea-beetles  ("  Fly  "),  and  underground  by  the  "  surface  " 
caterpillars  of  Agrotid  Moths,  and  the  maggots  of  Phorbia  brassiccs  and 
other  Root-Flies. 

Corn  crops  and  pasture  lands  suffer  greatly  from  the  "  leather- jacket  " 
grubs  of  Crane-flies,  and  the  Wire-worm  grubs  of  Click-beetles.  The  moist, 
imperfectly  drained  soil  in  many  parts  of  the  country  is  especially  favourable 
to  Crane-flies.  As  in  Great  Britain  Agrioies  obscurus  and  A.  lineatus  are 
common  Click-beetles ;  but  the  most  abundant  and  destructive  of  these 
insects  in  Ireland  seems  to  be  Athoiis  hcemorrhoidalis.  Cockchafer  grubs 
are  sometimes  injurious,  and  in  certain  summers  the  smaller  Chafer  Phyl- 
lopertha  horticola  multiplies  to  such  an  extent  in  the  western  counties  as  to 

*  G.  H.  Carpenter.    Reports  on  Economic  Entomology  in  Reports  of  R.  Dub.  Soc,  1891-1900. 


ZOOLOGY.  63 


become  a  serious  plague.  The  absence  of  trees  in  many  districts  of  Ire- 
land entails  scarcity  of  many  insect-eating  birds,  and  a  consequent  alarming- 
increase  in  the  numbers  of  insects.  On  the  other  hand,  the  numerous  sea- 
birds  in  the  maritime  counties  often  do  great  service  to  the  farmer  by 
devouring  grubs  as  they  follow  the  plough. 

Among  the  insects  affecting  fruit  trees,  the  most  prevalent  are  the 
"  American  Blight  "  on  the  Apple,  and  the  grubs  of  the  Savvflies  {Nciiiatus 
ribesii  and  Enocampoides  Innacina)  of  the  Gooseberry  and  Pear  respec- 
tively. The  extension  of  Fir-plantations  in  Ireland  has  been  followed  by  a 
spread  of  the  characteristic  pme-insects.  The  great  pine  Sawfiy  iSircx 
gigas)  is  now  established  throughout  Ireland,  but  the  accompanying  beetles 
—the  weevil  Hylobhis  abietis,  and  the  bark-borers  Hylurgus  pimperda 
and  various  species  of  Hylastes — are  more  destructive.  Among  insects  whicli 
injure  other  forest  trees,  the  bark  beetle  of  the  Ash  {Hylcsinns  fraxini), 
and  the  caterpillar  of  the  "  Hornet-clearwing  "  Moth  {Trochilium  crabrom- 
f  or  mis)  which  burrow  in  the  wood  of  Willow  and  Poplars  may  be  mentioned 
as  especially  noteworthy.  The  "  Lusitanian  "  weevil  Mesites  Tardyi  is  often 
common  enough  to  injure  seriously  the  timber  of  Beech  and  Holly. 

In  a  grazing  country  like  Ireland,  the  maggots  of  the  Warble-fly  {Hypo- 
derma  bovis)  feeding  beneath  the  skin  of  cattle,  often  cause  great  suffering 
to  the  beasts  and  loss  to  their  owners.  The  alHed  Bot-fly  of  the  Horse 
Gastrophilns  equi),  whose  maggots  feed  in  the  lining  of  the  stomach,  is 
also  too  common.  The  Sheep  Bot-fly  (Oestrus  ovis)  occurs  in  Ireland,  but 
far  more  injurious  to  flocks  is  the  Sheep  Flesh-fly  {Lucilia  sericatd)  whose 
maggots  live  parasitically  on  the  skin  and  even  in  the  flesh  of  neglected 
sheep.  The  usual  parasitic  Lice  and  Mites  of  the  domestic  animals  are 
prevalent  in  Ireland,  and  the  voracious  grass  Tick  {Ixodes  r'edtivius)  is 
especally  abundant  m  the  western  counties. 

Although  insect  ravages  to  crops  and  stock  may  be  less  serious  in  Ire- 
land than  in  countries  with  a  richer  fauna,  the  subject  has  received  less 
attention  than  it  deserves  from  Irish  agriculturists.  The  most  effective 
means  for  destroying  injurious  insects  are  found  to  vary  with  different 
localities,  and  careful  observations  and  experiments  as  to  the  special  needs 
of  Ireland  in  this  respect  would  probably  lead  to  valuable  results.  That 
very  important  branch  of  Economic  Zoology — Fisheries — is  fully  dealt  with 
in  another  section  of  this  work.  It  is  certain  that  the  study  of  the  animal 
life  of  Ireland  and  its  surrounding  seas  has  a  most  direct  bearing  on  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  its  people. 


64  ECONOMIC   DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


THE    ECONOMIC    DISTRIBUTION    OF    POPULATION 

IN    IRELAND, 

[*^*  In  the  year  1886  Mr.  Charles  Booth,  the  well-known  Economist  and  Statisti- 
cian, read  a  paper  before  the  Royal  Statistical  Society  of  London  on  "  The  Occupations 
of  the  People  of  the  tfnitcd  Kingdom  ^  The  section  of  that  paper  devoted  to  the  analysis 
of  the  economic  distribution  of  the  people  of  Ireland  is  given  below  as  being  at  once  an 
authoritative  and  able  review  of  the  industrial  positioji  of  this  countiy.  The  figures  for 
i8gi  7vere  prepared  by  Mr.  Booth  for  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  Financial  Relations  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — Editor.] 

The  following  are  Mr.  Booth's  observations  in  reference  to  Ireland : — 

The  picture  of  the  industrial  development  of  England  since  1851,  and  her 
apparent  position  in  1881,  is,  on  the  whole,  one  which  may  be  regarded  with 
satisfaction.  Nor  could  any  changes  since  1881  seriously  affect  this  result. 
Every  Hne  of  it  shows  vitality  and  an  innate  power  of  meeting  changes  of 
circumstances,  which  seems  to  give  promise  of  continued  prosperity. 

The  growth  of  the  population  of  Scotland  (6^,  9^,  and  1 1  %  per  cent, 
for  the  three  decades,  1851-1881)  has  been  slower  than  that  of  England 
(12,  13,  and  14 j^  per  cent.),  and  the  proportions  engaged  in  each  main 
division  of  industry  are  somewhat  different,  but  the  points  of  similarity  are 
much  more  noticeable  than  the  points  of  difference.  .  .  .  We  see  a  similar 
falling-off  in  the  proportion  connected  with  agriculture,  a  similar  constancy 
in  those  connected  with  building  and  manufacture,  and  a  similar  increase 
under  other  heads. 

The  figures  show  that  the  two  countries  share  each  other's  fortune,  and 
make  the  union  of  feeling  between  them  easy  to  understand. 

But  it  is  far  different  with  the  sister  island. 

If  the  picture  given  of  the  condition  of  agriculture  in  England  and  Scot- 
land is  gloomy,  that  of  the  whole  condition  of  Ireland  is  much  more  so,  and 
needs  a  treatment  far  more  exhaustive  than, can  here  be  pretended  to. 

In  adopting  the  method  already  employed  for  England  and  Scotland,  it 
must  be  remembered  that,  in  place  of  increasing,  the  whole  population  has 
decreased.  The  amount  of  this  decrease  from  1841  to  1881  is  three  mil- 
lions out  of  eight  millions  of  persons,  and  is  made  up  as  follows : — - 


From   1 841   to   1 85 1,  ...  ...      1,623,000 

1851   to   1861, 

1861   to   1871, 

„      1871   to  1881, 


753,ooo[  ^ 

386,000  h'OoO'Ooo 


238,000 

The  general  picture  at  each  period  stands  as  under:  1841  is  taken  as  the 
starting-point,  because  it  is  necessary  to  begin  from  before  the  famine  of 

•     *The  preceding  increase  of  population  had  been  :  — 

From  1821  to  1831,  ..  ..         965,000 

From  1831  to  1841,  .  . .         408,000 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


65 


1846-47,  and  the  returns  of   184 1   for  Ireland  appear    to    be    sufficiently 
correct : — 


Table  A. — Showing  Occupations  of  the  People  of  Ireland  by 

Per-centage. 

Occupations. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

1891.* 

Agriculture,  &c., 

1                    ! 

50.9)        !  48.4) 

42.9)             40.7) 

1 
41-0            43-7) 

Fishing, 

0.2^51.3 
0.2) 

0.4  -  49.2 
0.4) 

0.3  f  43-6 
0.4) 

0.4W1.4 

0.5  '>  42.0  i      .5  V-  44.4 

Mining, 

0.3) 

0.4)          !     .2) 

Building, 
Manufacture, 

2.0) 
27.3}  "^-^ 

i^  ^4.8 

.0:51  ^3.. 

.9.3^  "■' 

.I:J['«->'.,t}--. 

Transport, 

2.6)     ^-^ 

3.1!-    3-0 

.':?}  =- 

Vo\  '-^ 

::il  -^  =::!-  - 

Dealing, 

Industrial  Service, 

—       1.2 

—     2.3 

—       7-5;     —       7-5 

—       6.7:     —       6.6 

Industry, 

-     84.9 

-  81.3 

—     80.1 

—    77-3 

—    74-1      —     79.4 

Public  and  Professional 

ti.6. 

2.2. 

.3.3 -'«-5 

4.3^ 

S-o-v 

5-8. 

Service. 
Domestic  Service, 

9.4-'5"::9.4r'-^ 
4.1'       1  7.1^ 

15.2  t"-^ 

18.0  ^5-9 

12.2  h°-^ 

Others, 

2.9-^                   '       3.2'' 

2.9-' 

2.6-' 

t 

—  loo.o  1     —  100. 0 

—    100. 0| lOO.O 

I 

—  100. 0       —  100. 0 

1 

*  Of  those  engaged  in  productive  industry  (or  agriculture,  fishing,  mining,  building,  and 
manufacture,  although  in  actual  numbers  there  has  been  a  decline  of  76,000  in  the  10  years, 
the  proportion  to  the  total  of  those  employed  shows  an  apparent  increase  from  60.4  in  1881 
to  64.8  in  1891.  This  increase  is,  however,  in  reality  mainly  due  to  the  changed  method 
(already  noted)  of  enumerating  those  engaged  in  domestic  work,  which,  by  transferring  a 
great  body  of  women  from  the  occupied  to  the  unoccupied  class,  has  reduced  domestic  service 
by  6  per  cent.,  and  has  correspondingly  increased  the  proportion  of  the  other  occupied  classes. 


With  dependents  apportioned  to  each  class,  the  following  are  the  figures 
Table  B.— Showing  Means  of  Support  of  the  People  of  Ireland  by  Per-centage  (Estimate). 


Occupation.s. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

Agriculture,  &c., 

Fishing,               . .              . . 

Mining, 

Building, 

Manufacture, 

Transport, 

Dealing, 

Industrial  Service, 

Industry, 
Public  and  Professional  Service,   . . 
Domestic  Service, 
Others, 

62.1) 
0.3  r  62.7 
0.3) 

—  1.6 

—  88.6 
ti.8) 

4.2  -  1 1.4 

3.4) 

—  1 00.0 

55.7) 
0.5  >■  56.7 
0.5) 

1.9) 

3.3;  5" 

-  3.0 

-  83.7 
2.5) 

J4.4  - 16.3 

9-4) 

lOO.O 

5i.r) 
0.4^53.0 
0.5) 

It]  ^-3 

—  8.0 

—  85.8 
4.6) 

6.4  - 14.2 
3.2) 

lOO.O 

48.7) 
0.5  V  49.6 
0.4) 

-«[  7.2 

4-4)      ^ 

-  8.9 

-  83.2 

5.1) 

7.6^  16.8 
4.1) 

lOO.O 

49-5) 

0.6  -  50.5 
0.4) 

^•4^-  15.8 
12.4)     ^° 

2.9) 

4.5)     '■' 

—  8.2 

-     81.9 
6.0) 

8.8  f-  18. 1 
3.3) 

—  1 00.0 

t  Army  and  Navy  were  omitted  from  the  Census  of  Ireland  in  1841  and  1851. 
j  It  is  probable  that  domestic  service  should  be   i  per  cent,  more  in  this  year,  and  farm 
service  (agriculture)  i  per  cent.  less.     The  returns  point  to  confusion  in  this  respect. 

The  numbers  employed  in  agriculture  have  decreased  since    1841    by 
858,000,  out  of  a  total  of  1,844,000,  and  those  who  may  perhaps  be  counted 

F 


66  ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


as  supported  by  agriculture  hy  2)4  out  of  five  millions.  Nor  is  this  all,  for 
these  reductions  being  proportionately  greater  than  those  for  the  whole 
population,  the  percentage  employed  in  or  supported  by  agriculture  has 
decreased  as  well  as  the  total  numbers. 

The  land  in  England  and  Scotland  employs  as  many,  and  probably  sup- 
ports nearly  as  many,  as  it  did  in  1841,  and  meanwhile  other  productive 
industries  support  the  bulk  of  our  great  increase  of  population.  In  Ireland, 
on  the  other  hand,  not  only  does  the  land  fail  to  support  half  of  those  it  once 
in  some  fashion  maintained,  but  other  productive  industries  {e.g.,  building 
and  manufacture)  are  even  worse  off,  and,  like  agriculture,  show  it  both  in 
numbers  and  per-centage ;  those  engaged  in  building  and  manufacture 
(taken  together)  being  10.9  less  in  per-centage,  as  well  as  626,000  fewer  in 
number,  than  in  1841. 

It  is  when  taken  together  that  these  facts  appear  so  serious  as  evidence 
of  decadence.  It  might  be  well  that  fewer  people,  or  that  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  the  population,  should  attempt  to  obtain  a  Hving  from  the  land ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  abandonment  of  industries  for  which  the 
country  has  no  advantages  might  be  no  loss,  whether  accompanied  by  a 
general  loss  of  population  or  not ;  and,  although  a  painful  process,  a  general 
reduction  in  numbers  of  population  by  death  and  emigration  may  finally 
conduce  to  the  benefit  of  those  who  remain ;  but  if  all  these  things  happen 
at  once — if  a  reduced  population  finds  less  work  to  do  per  man — it  is  hard 
to  obtain  any  encouragement  from  the  figures.  The  best  that  can  be 
hoped  is  that  some  ultimate  advantage  may  lie  at  the  end  of  a  road  not  yet 
all  trodden. 

Nevertheless,  the  view  is  commonly  held  that  in  general  well-being  Ireland 
has  enormously  improved  since  the  famine.  No  evidence  of  this  improve- 
ment is  to  be  found  in  the  occupation  returns,  which,  on  the  contrary,  point 
to  a  demoralisation  of  industry  likely  to  be  the  cause,  as  well  as  conse- 
quence, of  poverty  and  waning  trade,  and  certain  to  be  the  source  of  poH- 
tical  discontent.  I  know  that  figures  may  be,  and  are,  drawn  from  bank 
deposits  and  other  returns  which  seem  to  tell  a  different  story.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  reconcile  this  conflict  of  evidence.  To  do  so  would  be  beyond 
the  scope  of  this  paper.  I  can  only  state  the  conclusions  to  which  the 
census  returns  point. 

There  may  be  much  that  is  delusive  in  the  rather  golden  picture  of  the 
industrial  condition  of  England  and  Scotland  that  has  been  given ;  the 
tide  may  have  turned  since  1881,  or  even  before,  and  the  number  of  the 
unemployed  or  partly  employed  in  each  trade,  whose  lack  of  employment  is 
not  considered  in  our  occupation  returns,  may  make  the  reality  very  dif- 
ferent ;  but  in  the  picture  of  desolation  which  the  Irish  figures  afford,  there 
seems  little  room  for  delusion.  When  industries  decay,  those  who  have 
been  supported  by  them  cling  to  their  employment  as  long  as  possible,  and 
what  in  England  may  have  happened,  that  the  numbers  given  mclude  many 
who  no  longer  find  a  living  in  what  they  profess  to  do,  has  certainly  occurred 
in  Ireland.  In  such  a  case  the  facts  are  assuredly  worse  than  the  figures 
disclose. 

The  subject  may  be  taken  from  another  side.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
percentage  of  the  Irish  population  actually  returned  as  engaged  in  produc- 
tive industry  (or  agriculture,  fishing,  mining,  building,  and  manufacture)  has 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


67 


fallen  from  80.6  per  cent,  in  1841  to  60.4  per  cent,  in  1881,  or  progressively 
thus : — 


1811. 

185). 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

Per  cent. 
S0.6 

Per  cent. 
74.0 

Per  cent.                Per  cent. 
66.7                          63.1 

Per  cent. 
60.4 

the  percentage  of  those  otherwise  engaged  having  risen  in  propoition  from 
about  20  per  cent,  to  about  40  per  cent.  I  shall  try  to  show  what  propor- 
tion of  this  increase  in  non-producers  offers  any  compensation.  It  is  divided 
thus : — - 


Increase   in   Transport 
Dealing 


Industrial  Service 

Public  and  Professional  Service 

Domestic  Service 

Property  Owning 


Decrease  in  Indefinite 


Per  cent. 

17 
2.2 

5-5 
34 
8.6 
0.6 


22.0 
1.8 

20.2 


The  increase  under  Transport  is  connected  with  improvements  in  com- 
mercial system,  and  is  not  to  be  objected  to.  Of  that  under  Public  and  Pro- 
fessional Service,  which  is  very  considerable,  it  is  impossible  to  say  much 
without  entering  upon  ground  more  political  than  economical.  The  items  in 
detail  are  as  follow  : — 


1841. 

1881. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Administration, 

6,000,    or  0.2 

11,000,   or  0.5 

Army  and  Navy,     . . 
Police  and  Prisons, 

* 

ir,ooo     ,,    0.3 

40,000     ,,    1.7 
18,000     ,,    0.8 

Law, 

5,000     ,,    0.1 

5,000     ,,    0.2 

Medicine, 

7,000     ,,    0.2 

7,000     ,,    0.3 

Art  and  Amusement, 

4,000     ,,    0.1 

3,000     ,,    0.1 

Literature  and  Science, 

—          — 

1,000     ,,    — 

Education, 

17,000     ,,    0.5 

22,000     ,,     I.O 

Religion,                  . .                 . . 

7,000     ,,    0.2 

14,000     ,,    0.6 

57,000     ,,    1.6 

121,000     ,,    5.0 

The  soldiers  in  Ireland  were  omitted  from  the  Census,  1847 . 


68 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION   OF  POPULATION. 


We  may  compare  these  with  the  parallel  figures  for  Scotland,  which  are  as 
follows : — 


— 

1841. 

1881. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Administration, 

4,000,   or  0.4 

10,000,   or  0.6 

Army  and  Navy,     . . 

5,000     ,,    0.5 

8,000 

1 
.    0.5 

Police  and  Prisons, 

2,000     ,,    0.2 

4,000 

,    0.2 

Law, 

6,000     ,,    0.5 

7,000 

.    0.5 

Medicine, 

6,000     ,,    0.5 

10,000 

,    0.6 

Art  and  Amusement, 

2,000     ,,    0.2 

5,000 

,    0.3 

Literature  and  Science, 

—          — 

1,000 

,    — 

Education, 

7,000     ,,    0.6 

ig,ooo 

,    I.I 

Religion, 

;^,ooo     ,,    0.3 

6,000 

,    0.4 

35,000     „    3.2 

70,000 

,    4.2 

The  increase  in  Ireland,  though  large,  does  not  (if  the  Army  and  Navy  be 
omitted)  bring  the  per-centage  for  1881  so  high  as  that  of  Scotland,  or  by 
any  means  so  high  as  in  England,  and,  except  for  the  item  of  Police  and 
Prisons,  there  is  not  much  to  be  objected  to. 

It  is  otherwise  with  the  increases  under  all  the  other  heads.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  account  satisfactorily  for  the  increase  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
numbers  as  well  as  per-centage  of  the  dealers — those  who  live  by  buying 
and  selling.  This  increase  cannot  be  traced  to  any  improved  system  of 
distribution,  nor  can  we  account  for  it,  as  we  may  in  England  and  Scotland, 
by  the  fact  that  increasing  production  or  greater  wealth  increase  the  volume 
to  be  distributed,  and  that  our  foreign  trade  has  made  of  Great  Britain  a 
shop  to  which  all  the  world  come  to  buy.  It  seems  evident  that  the  multi- 
plying of  this  class  in  Ireland  can  only  be  taken  as  a  sign  of  want  of  more 
useful  employment. 

In  Industrial  Service  the  commercial  portion  of  the  class  was  12,000  in 
1 841,  and  16,000  in  188 1  ;  an  increase  which,  like  that  in  Transport,  may  be 
satisfactory,  as  pointing  to  improvement  of  system,  but  this  is  not  so  with  the 
main  increase  in  this  class — that  of  general  labourers,  from  31,000  in  1841, 
to  144,000  in  i88l 

These  labourers  (who  no  doubt  to  some  extent  belong  to  the  agricultural 
class)  can  hardly  be  added  to  the  ranks  of  productive  industry.  They  take 
their  origin  from  the  destitute  class  who  appear  in  the  return  of  1851  (after 
the  faYnine)  as  "  indefinite,"  and  who,  dropping  out  of  this  unnamed  position, 
appear  in  1861,  and  continue  in  1871  and  1881,  as  "general  labourers."  It 
IS  true  that  this  class  is,  relatively,  almost  as  considerable  in  England  and 
Scotland  as  in  Ireland,  but  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  fact  that  in  the 
former  countries  they  have  always  been  a  numerous  order  connected  with 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


69 


the  manufacturing-  and  building  industries,  whereas  in  Ireland  they  have  no 
such  basis  of  support,  and  sprang  into  existence,  not  from  any  need  of  their 
services,  but  as  the  outcome  of  agriculture  and  industrial  distress  and  chari- 
table doles  on  an  enormous  scale. 

Domestic  Service  has  risen  with  a  steady  progression  from  9.4  per  cent,  in 
1 84 1,  to  18.0  per  cent,  in  188 1.  It  may  perhaps  be  reasonable  that  the  loss 
of  a  large  poor  population  should  increase  the  proportion,  to  the  whole,  of 
those  classes  who  can  afford  to  keep  servants  ;  but  this  would  not  account 
for  the  large  positive  increase  in  the  total  number  of  servants  (85,000),  nor 
for  the  extraordinary  fact  that  the  proportion  of  servants  to  population  in  so 
poor  a  country  as  Ireland  is  considerably  higher  than  it  is  in  England,  and 
as  much  as  3^  per  cent,  higher  (comparing  the  per-centage)  than  it  is  in 
Scotland.  And  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  was  not  so  in  1841,  when  the 
percentage  for  Ireland  was  much  less  than  for  England  and  Scotland.  The 
figures  are  as  follows,  taking  the  proportions  first  to  be  employed,  and 
second  to  the  whole  population  : — 


— 

On  the  Employed. 

On  the  whole  Population. 

1841. 

1881. 

1841. 

1881. 

Per  cent.                Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

England,  . . 

16.2                          15.7 

6.8     - 

7-1 

Scotland,  . . 

12.2                          II. I 

5-2 

4.9 

Ireland,     . . 

9.4                          18.0 

4.2 

8.2 

What  is  the  explanation  of  these  remarkable  figures?  It  would  be  sim- 
plest to  show  that  they  are  incorrect,  but  apart  from  some  difference  in  the 
method  of  tabulation  (alluded  to  in  the  Census  Report  for  1881,  but  not 
specified),  I  have  found  no  loophole  of  escape,  and  the  comparison  of  suc- 
cessive decades  shows  how  gradually  the  position  of  Ireland  was  reversed, 
from  being  the  most  economical  to  being  the  most  extravagant  in  Domestic 
Service.  The  only  explanation  that  suggests  itself  is  that  servants  are 
more  numerous  where  poverty  makes  service  cheap.* 

The  slight  increase  in  the  per-centage  under  Property  Owning  would  also 
be  unobjectionable,  if  any  conclusion  could  be  fairly  drawn  from  the  figures, 
but,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  the  case  of  England,  the  returns  under  this 
head  are  entirely  delusive. 

Against  these  increases  has  to  be  set  off  a  decrease  in  the  Indefinite  class, 
which  is  returned  as  122,000  in  1841,  against  38,000  in  1881. 


*  The  total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  domestic  service  was  reduced  from  about  426,000 
in  the  Irish  Census  of  1881  to  about  255,000  in  that  of  1891.  This  was  due  in  great  part  to  the 
removal  in  1891  from  the  heading  of  "  Others  engaged  in  service  "  of  females,  who  were  in  the 
Census  of  1881  to  the  number  of  about  139,000,  placed  under  that  description.  These  women 
were  returned  as  "housekeepers,"  but  were  really  wives  or  other  near  relatives  of  heads  of 
houses.  In  the  Census  of  1891,  they  were  mostly  included  in  Order  24  the  "  Indefinite  and 
Non-Productive  Class."     (Irish  Census  Report,  1891,  Part  II.,  p.  23).     B.  H.  H. 


70 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


To  bring  the  figures  roughly  together,  so  as  to  show  what  portion  of  the 
increase  of  non-producers  may  be  satisfactory  or  not  unreasonable,  and  what 
portion  must,  as  I  think,  be  considered  unsatisfactory,  I  submit  the  following 
table.  The  difference  in  condition  and  industrial  utility  between  the  small 
dealers  and  general  labourers  and  the  undefined  class  is  probably  very  slight, 
and  for  this  purpose  they  may  be  counted  together : — 


Table  C- 


-Showing  Transfer  of  Employed  from  Productive  to  Non-Prod uctive  Industry 
between  1841  and  1881. 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Decrease  in  those  employed 
directly  in  productive  in- 
dustry 

20.2 

Increase  in  those  employed 
by  non-productive  indus- 
try :- 

(Satisfactory  or  not  un- 
reasonable)— 

Transport, 

Commercial  Class, 

17 
0.4 

\ 

Public   and   Profes- 
sional Service 

3-4 

6.1 

Property   Owning, 

0.6 

1 

« 

Unsatisfactory — 

Domestic    Service, 

8.6 

1-  ■•■■ 

Dealing  and  general 
labour     (less     de- 

5-5 

crease     in     Inde- 
finite class) 

20.2 

20.2 

Although  this  calculation  must  be  accepted  with  very  great  reserve,  it 
may  yet  give  us  a  fair  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  Ireland,  besides  its  great 
decrease  in  numbers,  has  also  deteriorated  in  the  quality  of  work  performed 
by  those  who  remain.  It  shows  us  that  since  1841  more  than  14  per  cent, 
of  the  employed  population  have  been  transferred  from  direct  production  to 
occupations  which  can  at  best  add  little  to  the  wealth  of  the  community. 

In  confirmation  of  this,  if  we  turn  to  the  details  of  those  who  figure  under 
the  head  of  Manufacture,  we  find  only  one  occupation  which  has  increased 
considerably  in  per-centage,  while  on  the  whole  there  has  been  so  great  a 
decrease  ;  this  is  under  the  heading  Dress  ;  and  going  into  further  detail  we 
find  that  in  Dress  it  is  the  shirtmakers  only  who  have  increased  in  numbers, 
viz.,  from  47,300  to  71,000;  so  that  once  more  it  is  only  in  the  last  refuge 
of  destitute  women  that  we  find  any  increase. 

A  detailed  review  of  productive  industry  in  Ireland,  to  which  we  will  now 
return,  will  show  us  more  closely  where  the  falling  off  has  occurred. 

The  decrease  in  those  employed  in  Agriculture,  though  affecting  each 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION.  71 


branch,  shows  itself,  of  course,  mainly  in  the  labourers  and  farm  servants, 
which  have  fallen  from  1,326,000  in  1841,  to  329,000  in  1881,  or  75.2  per 
cent.  The  decrease  in  farmers,  from  471,000  to  442,000,  is  only  6.2.  The 
figures  in  regard  to  those  engaged  about  animals,  which  show  a  large  de- 
crease, are  fallacious,  because  a  great  number  of  persons  who  were  in  the 
earlier  census  classed  as  herds,  have  in  1881  been  counted  with  farm 
servants,  which  would  tend  to  make  the  truth  as  to  the  farm  servants  even 
worse  than  appears. 

Fishing  and  Mining  are  small  industries  in  Ireland.  The  former  has 
increased  from  9,000  to  11,000,  or  from  0.2  per  cent,  to  0.5  per  cent,  of  the 
employed  population ;  mining  has  fluctuated  considerably  at  each  decade, 
but  ultimately  shows  a  slight  falling  off  in  bulk.  In  per-centage,  however, 
il  has  risen  from  0.2  per  cent,  to  0.4  per  cent. 

In  1 841  there  were  72,000  persons  occupied  in  Building;  in  1881  there 
were  but  56,000  ;  nevertheless  the  per-centage  to  the  total  employed  popula- 
tion has  increased  by  0.4  per  cent. 

The  total  employed  in  Manufacture  has  dropped  from  989,000  to  379,00a 
(or  61.7  per  cent.),  and  the  per-centage  to  the  whole  occupied  population 
from  27.3  per  cent,  to  16  per  cent.  Machinery  and  tool  making  employ  a; 
very  much  smaller  proportion  of  workers  than  do  these  trades  in  England 
3Jid  Scotland,  but  the  numbers  have  risen  slightly,  and  now  form  0.2  per 
cent  of  the  employed.  The  way  in  which  Ireland  has  failed  to  share  in  the 
growing  prosperity  of  the  other  portions  of  the  kingdom  is,  however,  strik- 
ingly exemplified  in  these  trades,  for  whilst  the  great  development  of 
machinery  during  the  last  40  years  has  enabled  England  and  Scotland 
combined  to  add  nearly  200,000  to  their  number  of  workers  in  this  branch,. 
Ireland  during  the  same  period  has  found  a  new  opening  in  this  direction- 
for  barely  1,000  persons.  This  will  be  found  to  throw  a  cross  hght  on  our 
next  point  (textile  fabrics),  where  more  strongly  than  elsewhere  we  find 
the  evidence  of  industrial  decay. 

It  appears  that  in  1 841,  696,000  persons  were  enumerated  as  employed 
in  textile  and  dyeing  industries.  Since  then  the  decline  has  been  startling, 
to  424,000  in  1851,  275,000  in  1861,  218,000  in  1871,  and  finally  to  130,000 
in  1881.  In  the  meantime  England,  starting  with  only  604,000  in  1841,  has 
progressed  to  962,000  in  1881.  These  figures  include  spinning,  and  it  is  to 
the  loss  of  this  hand  industry,  which  passed  to  English  machinery,  that  the 
reduction  is  largely  to  be  traced.  There  is  no  body  of  women  similar  to 
the  Irish  spinners  to  be  found  in  the  English  returns  of  1841,  though  there  is 
a  large  number  of  women  weavers  who  fall  away  later.  It  may  be  that 
domestic  spinning  existed  in  England  and  was  not  returned  at  all ;  or  it  may 
be  that  a  larger  share  of  this  industry  fell  to  Ireland.  At  any  rate,  we  have 
the  singular  fact  that  in  1841  Ireland  returns  more  workers  in  this  section 
(textiles)  than  England,  but  in  1881  not  one-seventh  of  the  number.  If  the 
spinning  industry  was  spread  over  the  country,  and  an  aid  to  every  family 
whose  men  only  were  needed  on  the  land,  it  would  go  some  way  to  explain 
a  wreck  of  prosperity. 

The  figures  for  textile  manufacture  show  a  very  general  decline,  to  which 
even  flax  and  linen  cannot  be  considered  exceptions. 


72 


ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 


The  detailed  facts  as  to  the  textile  industries  of  Ireland  are  as  follows 

(In  thousands  and  decimals  of  a  thousand.) 


Occupations. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

1891. 

Woollen  cloth  manufacture, 

.       80.7 

45-9 

16.6 

20.4 

71 

6.3 

Worsted  and  stuff  manufacture, 

O.I 

0.1 

0.1 

.01 

0.1 

0.1 

Flannel  manufacture, 

.       23.0 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Carpet  and  rug  manufacture. 

■ 

0-3 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

— 

Woollen  knitters. 

35-6 

19.7 

— 

— 

.2 

Others,  in  wool. 

— 

— 

0-3 

— 

Cotton  and  cotton  goods  manufacture,        6.0 

16.1 

9.8 

7.0 

3.9 

23 

Silk  and  silk  goods  manufacture, 

0.6 

0.6 

05 

0.8 

0.6 

3 

Ribbon  manufacture. 

.  '       0.2 

0.1 

— 

— 

Crape,  gauze,  shawls,  and  fancy  goods        0.9 

64.0 

417 

18.5 

8.1 

3.8 

(textile)  manufacture 

Weavers,  spinners,  and  factory  hands!  441.0 

86.0 

I0I.6 

103.3 

24.0 

7.4 

(undefined) 

Flax,  linen,  and  Damask  manufacture 

,*     135-3 

124.9 

73.8 

55-6 

79.1 

88.7 

Canvas  and  sailcloth  manufacture, 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

— 

Sacking  and  bag  manufacture. 

— 

— 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

.3 

Hemp,  jute,  and  cocoa-fibre  manufac-        — 

— 

— 

— 

0.4 

■3 

ture 

Rope,  twine,  and  cord-makers, 

I.I 

1-3 

.1 

I.O 

0.9 

1.0 

Net  makers, 

I.I 

0.9 

0.4 

0.4 

0.2 

.1 

Mat  makers, 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.1 

0.2 

.1 

1  Lace  manufacture, 

1.8 

2.2 

1-5 

1.0 

0.7 

.6 

'  Embroiderers, 

— 

41.4 

3.9 

5.6 

1-5 

4.2 

Thread  manufacture. 

0.2 

0.1 

0.4 

0.4 

0  2 

I.I 

Tape  manufacture, 

•  t 

— 

0.2 

.1 

Trimming  manufacture. 

1      

0.1 

— 

0.9 

0.1 

.1 

Artificial  flower  makers  and  others. 

— 

— 

— 

05 

— 

Dyeing, 

Total  of  textiles  and  dyeing. 

.        3-8 

3-7 

3.3 

2.2 

1-5 

1.0 

696.0 

423-7 

275-1 

217.6 

130.0 

iiS.o 

*  The  apparent  increase,  under  the  heading  of  "  Flax  and  linen,"  between  1871  and  1881  is 
negatived  by  the  striking  decrease  in  "  weavers,  spinners,  and  factory  hands  (undefined),"  cf 
whom  a  large  proportion  must  have  been  employed  in  the  flax  and  linen  industries. 


RAILWAYS.  .  73 


THE    RAILWAYS    OF    IRELAND. 

Shortly  after  1834,  when  the  first  railway  in  Ireland — the  line  from  Dublin 
to  Kingstown — was  opened,  and  before  any  other  line  was  commenced,  a 
Royal  Commission  was  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  considering,  with  a 
view  to  developing  the  resources  of  the  country,  a  general  system  of  railways 
for  Ireland,  and  the  best  methods  of  directing  the  growth  of  this  new  means 
of  transit  so  that  the  greatest  advantage  might  be  obtained  by  the  smallest 
outlay.  After  an  elaborate  survey  the  Commission  reported  that  the  cir- 
cumstances of  Ireland  were  entirely  different  from  those  of  England,  and 
that  it  could  not  be  expected  that  the  volume  of  traffic  would  induce  private 
companies  to  duplicate  the  trunk  lines  of  the  country.  Accordingly,  the 
Commission  reported  in  favour  of  State  assistance,  and  in  the  same  year 
resolutions  to  the  following  effect  were  carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  : — 

1.  "  That  the  Irish  Railways  should  be  constructed  with  money  sup- 
plied by  the  British  Treasury,  and  that  they  should  be  under  State 
control." 

2.  "  That  the  revenue  from  the  lines  should  be  applied — -ist,  in  their 
maintenance  ;  2nd,  in  the  payment  of  3  ji'  per  cent,  on  their  cost ;  3rd, 
in  repayment  of  the  cost  by  instalments  of  i  ^4  P^r  cent. ;  4th,  in 
reducing  the  rates  of  carriage." 

However,  in  the  words  of  the  official  record,  "  The  question  of  Government 
interference  was  subsequently  dropped,  and  private  companies  were  allowed 
to  proceed  as  in  England  and  in  Scotland."  One  of  the  chief  features  of 
the  Irish  Railway  System  that  thus  came  into  existence  was  the  great  num- 
ber of  small  companies  which  sprang  up,  and  though  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  smaller  railways  have  been  absorbed  by  the  great  trunk  lines,  the 
three  thousand  odd  miles  of  Irish  railways — a  mileage  not  exceeding  by 
much  that  of  a  single  English  line,  the  Great  Western — are  controlled  by 
nearly  thirty  companies,  each  with  its  own  directors  and  salaried  officials. 
State  purchase  of  the  railways  has  been  not  infrequently  advocated  as  pre- 
ferable to  either  competition  or  amalgamation  ;  but  any  consideration  of  the 
merits  of  these  rival  schemes  is  necessarily  outside  the  limitations  of  this 
article. 

There  are  a  few  features  which  distinguish  Irish  railways  very  markedly 
from  English.  In  the  first  place,  shortly  after  railway  activity  commenced 
to  operate  in  Ireland,  the  population  began  to  decrease — and  this  decrease 
has  since  continued — so  that  Irish  companies,  instead  of  being  almost  over- 
whelmed, like  the  English  railways,  with  traffic  produced  by  the  unforeseen 
growth  of  large  towns,  have  had  to  face  the  opposite  difficulty  of  paying 
their  way  in  a  country  which  becomes  more  and  more  deserted  as  time  goes 
on.  This  fact  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  critical  examiner  uf 
Irish  railways. 

In  one  respect,  in  the  matter  of  gauge,  the  railways  of  Ireland  enjoy  an 
immense  advantage  over  those  of  Great  Britain.  The  first  railway  in 
Ireland  was  constructed  by  a  company  formed  in  1831  to  connect  Dubhn 
with  Kingstown.  This  line,  six  miles  in  length,  was  opened  for  traffic  in 
1834,  and  for  several  years  was  the  only  railway  in  the  country,  and  before 


74 


RAILWAYS. 


any  of  the  great  lines  were  laid  sufficient  experience  had  already  been 
gained  to  show  that  the  standard  narrow  gauge  of  4  feet  8  j^  inches  which 
had  been  adopted  in  England  was  too  small.  "  The  Irish  have  aWays  shown 
a  wise  liberality  in  their  ideas  as  to  what  was  a  suitable  gauge  for  their 
railways,  and  the  Ulster  line  was  originally  laid  out  on  a  very  large  scale, 
with  a  space  between  the  rails  only  ten  inches  less  than  that  adopted  by 
Brunei  on  the  Great  Western.  The  traffic,  however,  was  far  from  requiring 
any  such  accommodation,  and  in  1849  the  company  felt  compelled  to 
abandon  the  great  width  of  track  with  which  they  had  started  and  to  bring 
their  line  into  conformity  with  the  others  which  were  springing  up  all  over 
the  country.  Since  that  date  the  Irish  railways  have  used  for  main  line 
work  the  uniform  gauge  of  5  feet  3  inches."*  It  is  worth  noting  in  this 
respect  that  the  Dundalk,  Newry  and  Greenore  Company,  though  situated 
in  the  Great  Northern  country,  is  worked  by  the  London  and  North  Western 
in  connection  with  the  steamers  between  Holyhead  and  Greenore,  and  the 
English  Company,  which  supplies  for  the  purpose  engines  and  carriages  of 
its  ordinary  standard  patterns,  has  to  adapt  them  to  the  Irish  wider  gauge. 
Owing  to  this  difference  in  gauge  there  is  always  the  possibility,  remote 
though  it  may  appear  at  present,  that  at  some  future  time  Ireland  may  be 
far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  kingdom  in  railway  development. 

There  were  in  the  year  1900,  according  to  the  Board  of  Trade  returns, 
seventeen  principal  railway  companies  in  Ireland,  and  as  many  as  thirty-two 
subordinate  lines,  which  were  either  leased  to  or  otherwise  controlled  by 
the  former.  The  position  of  the  chief  lines,  so  far  as  mileage  receipts  and 
expenditure  are  concerned,  is  given  in  the  following  statement,  compiled 
from  the  official  returns  just  referred  to  : — 

Table  showing  certain  Particulars  as  to  Mileage,  Receipts,  and  Expenditure 
of  Irish  Railways  in  the  Year  1900. f 


Length 

Line, 
1900. 

Total 

Proportion 

Receipts 

Total 

per  cent. 

Name  of  Company. 

from 

Working 

of  Expen- 

all soxu-ces  of 

Expenditure. 

diture  to 

Traffic. 

Receipts. 

Miles. 

£ 

£ 

Ballycastle 

16 

5,270 

3,867 

73 

Belfast  and  Co.  Down 

76 

137.938 

80,277 

58 

Belfast  and  Northern  Counties 

249 

318,918 

201,564 

63 

Cork  and  Macroom 

25 

17.254 

10,560 

61 

Cork,  Bandon,  and  South  Coast 

94 

79,997 

49,259 

62 

Cork,  Blackrock,  and  Passage 

6 

19,116 

16,505 

86 

Donegal  Railway    . . 

90 

27,461 

17,589 

64 

Dublin,  Wicklow,  and  Wexford 

144 

275.115 

181,389 

66 

Dundalk,  Newry,  and  Greenore 

26 

i7,»38 

22,196 

124 

Great  Northern  of  Ireland    . . 

528 

911,549 

502,566 

55 

Great  Southern  and  Western  of  Ireland 

730 

1,041,943 

616,339 

59 

Listowel  and  Ballybunion    . . 

9 

2,184 

2,195 

lOI 

Londonderry  and  Lough  Swilly 

31 

21,562 

11,732 

54 

Midland  Great  Western  of  Ireland     . . 

538 

586,891 

323,082 

55 

Sligo,  Leitrim,  and  Northern  Counties 

43 

24,647 

16,741 

68 

Waterford  and  Tramore 

7 

6,829 

3,251 

48 

Waterford,  Limerick,  and  Western    . . 

342 

251,723 

151,298 

60 

*  Saturday  Revieiv.  Much  information  has  been  derived  from  a  valuable  series  of  articles 
in  the  Saturday  Review  upon  Irish  Railway  Development. 

t  This  Table  does  not  include  the  Light  Railways  authorised  under  the  Tramways  (Ireland) 
Acts,  i860  to  1883,  with  the  exception  of  four  small  lines  worked  by  the  chief  lines,  and  included 
in  the  figures  of  the  Table.  The  lines  thus  included  are — "  The  Athenry  and  Tuam  Extension 
to  Claremorris,"  the  "  Ballinrobe  and  Claremorris,"  the  "  Loughrea  and  Attymon,"  and  the 
"  Mitchelstown  and  Fermoy  "  Light  Railways. 


RAILWAYS. 


75 


The  following  comparative  statements  show  how  Irish  railways  stand 
as  contrasted  with  those  of  the  other  countries  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It 
will  be  seen  from  the  second  statement  that  the  cost  of  construction  of  the 
Irish  railways,  as  indicated  by  the  amount  of  paid-up  capital,  has  been 
remarkably  low  when  compared  with  the  cost  of  those  of  either  England  or 
Scotland  ;  in  fact,  the  average  cost  per  mile  is  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
cost  in  Great  Britain. 


I. 


Length  of 
Lines  open 

31st 
December, 

1900. 

Total 

Receipts, 
1900. 

Propor- 
Total                 tion  of 
Expenditure,          Espen- 
1900.             :  ditureto 
Receipts. 
1 

Population 

according  to 

Census  of  1901 

(unrevised 

figures). 

England  &  Wales 
Scotland  . . 
Ireland     . . 

Miles. 

15,187 
3,485 
3,183 

£                             £                Per  Cent. 
89,392,501              55,882,810             63 
11,603,010                6,584,215              57 
3,806,347                2,276,495              60 

32,525,716 

4,471.957 
4,456,546 

Total  for  United 
Kingdom 

21,855 

104,801,858              64,743,520             62 

41,454,219 

II. 




Share  Capital, 
1900. 

Loans  and 
Debentures,  1900. 

Total  Paid-up 
Capital,  1900. 

England  and  Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

iiii-.i 
£                                £ 
781,934,150             313,107,907 

123,307,777               39.031,155 
31,890,768               13,402,322 

£ 
1,095,042,057 
162,338,932 
45,293,090 

Total  for  United  Kingdom     . . 

937.132,695             365.541.384                 1,302,674,079 

It  will  be  seen  that,  though  the  net  receipts  are  much  lower  in  Ireland 
than  in  Great  Britain,  yet  owing  to  the  much  smaller  cost  of  construction, 
the  average  dividend  for  Irish  railways .  is  higher  than  that  in  England 
Oi  Scotland.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  ordinary  capital  of  con- 
structed lines  in  Ireland  upon  which  no  dividends  were  paid  in  1900  was 
;^2,532,826,  whilst  in  the  same  year  dividends  were  paid  on  the  ordinary 
capital  of  Irish  railways  as  follows  : — 


Not  exceeding  2  per  cent., 

Above  2  and  not  exceeding  4  per  cent., 

„      4  ..  5 

„      5  »  6 

,  ,,      7  „  10 


£411,164 
2,370,000 
5,452,020 
1,288,903 

3.657.730 
350,000 


The  country  north  of  Dublin  is  served  chiefly  by  two  large  railways,  the 
Great  Northern  and  the  Belfast  and  Northern  Counties,  the  former  of 
which  connects  the  metropolis  with  the  two  most  important  places  in  the 
north  of  Ireland — Belfast  and  Londonderry — whilst  the  latter  forms  another 
connection  between  these  two  latter  centres  of  industry  and  the  adjoining 


76  RAILWAYS. 


districts.  The  Great  Northern,  as  at  present  constituted,  is  the  result  of 
the  amalgamation  of  a  large  number  of  separate  undertakings.  Even  the 
mam  line  was  built  in  three  distinct  pieces.  The  Ulster  Company,  once 
famous  for  its  broad  gauge,  was  incorporated  in  1839  to  connect  Belfast 
and  Portadown.  Shortly  afterwards  another  company  was  formed  to  build 
a  line  between  Dublin  and  Drogheda,  a  distance  of  thirty-two  miles,  and 
the  gap  between  Portadown  and  Drogheda  remained  until  considerably 
later,  when  the  Dublin  and  Belfast  Junction  Company  completed  the  com- 
munication between  Dublin  and  Belfast,  a  distance  of  113  miles,  which 
remained  until  1875  under  the  control  of  three  separate  companies.  A 
series  of  amalgamations  then  took  place,  out  of  which,  on  ist  April,  1876, 
the  present  company  emerged.  It  has  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century 
absorbed  a  number  of  smaller  lines,  notably,  the  Portadown  and  Omagh 
and  the  Enniskillen,  Bundoran  and  Sligo  railways.  The  main  line  is  along 
the  east  coast  between  Dublin  and  Belfast,  and  there  are  two  main  branches 
from  Dublin  to  Londonderry  in  the  north,  and  to  Bundoran  in  the  west, 
whilst  the  connection  between  Belfast  and  Londonderry,  via  Portadown, 
1=  only  a  little  longer  than  the  route  of  the  Belfast  and  Northern  Counties. 
The  trains  have  been  considerably  improved  of  late,  and  the  rolling  stock  is 
now  very  good,  breakfast  and  dining  cars,  and,  on  one  journey,  sleeping  cars, 
have  been  introduced,  and  the  locomotives  used  for  the  important  trains 
strongly  resemble  those  of  the  London  and  South  Western.  The  Belfast 
and  Northern  Counties  Railway  has  grown  out  of  a  small  company  incorpo- 
rated in  1845  to  connect  Belfast  and  Ballymena  by  a  narrow  gauge  line. 
It  now  serves  the  whole  of  the  north-east  of  Ireland,  connecting  different 
places  in  Londonderry,  Tyrone,  and  Antrim  with  Belfast,  and  has  249  miles 
of  lines.  In  addition  to  Belfast  and  Dublin  these  two  northern  railways 
connect  a  number  of  ports  which  have  a  considerable  cross-channel  traffic, 
notably,  Larne,  Greenore,  Dundalk,  Drogheda,  and  Newry. 

The  Dublin,  Wicklow  and  Wexford  serves  the  eastern  counties  of  Ireland, 
running  southward  from  Harcourt-street  via  Bray  to  New  Ross,  for  though 
the  Company  was  originally  incorporated  in  1846  as  the  Waterford,  Wex- 
ford, Wicklow  and  Dublin,  it  has  not  yet  got  as  far  as  Waterford  ;  but  it 
will  probably  soon  be  extended  there  in  connection  with  the  Fishguard  and 
Rosslare  scheme.  It  now  works,  under  a  long  lease,  the  line  between 
Kingstown  and  Dublin,  which  has  been  already  alluded  to  as  the  first  rail- 
way built  in  Ireland,  and  which  cost  upwards  of  ^^^63,000  a  mile.  As  this 
line  has  been  extended  to  Bray,  the  Company  has  thus  two  distinct  ap- 
proaches into  Dublin,  one  along  the  coast  via  Kingstown,  and  the  other 
inland  to  Harcourt-street.  No  other  railway  in  the  United  Kingdom  can 
show  its  passengers  such  splendid  sea  views.  From  Merrion,  midway 
between  Dublin  and  Kingstown,  it  runs  along  the  sea  front  for  over  twenty- 
five  miles  to  the  town  of  Wicklow,  and  except  for  two  miles  of  tunnel  be- 
tween Kingstown  and  Dalkey  it  is  never  more  than  a  few  yards  from  the 
sea  shore.  This  line  is  more  dependent  on  short  distance  traffic  than  any 
other  Irish  railway.  Its  other  Dublin  terminus,  Westland-row,  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  City  of  Dublin  Junction  Railway,  a  short  urban  line  worked 
by  the  Dublin,  Wicklow  and  Wexford,  which  connects  together  all  the 
railways  running  into  Dublin. 

The  Midland  Great  Western  Company  has  the  second  largest  mileage  in 
Ireland,  and  serves  the  whole  of  the  central  part  of  the  country  from  Dublin 
across  to  the  Atlantic.     The  Company  was  originally  started  in  1845  to 


RAILWAYS.  77 


connect  Mullingar  with  Dublin ;  but  extensions  were  soon  made  to  Athlone 
and  Galway,  and  in  1851  the  through  service  from  sea  to  sea  was  estab- 
lished. A  number  of  small  local  lines  have  been  since  absorbed,  and  the 
Company  works  several  of  the  light  railways  which  have  been  built  in 
recent  years  in  the  West,  whilst  the  Irish  Government  has  given  consider- 
able subsidies  in  order  to  induce  the  Company  to  make  extensions  of  its 
main  line  to  several  of  the  poorer  outlying  districts  where  the  traffic  returns 
for  some  time  could  hardly  be  sufficient  to  justify,  from  a  solely  commercial 
point  of  view,  these  extensions.  The  Royal  Canal,  one  of  the  two  great 
Irish  waterways,  which  runs  from  Dubhn  westward  to  the  Shannon,  was 
acquired  by  the  Midland  and  Great  Western  Railway  at  an  early  stage  of 
the  Railway's  career.  The  Company  paid  over  a  quarter  of  a  million  for  the 
Canal,  which  runs  alongside  the  railway  up  to  Mullingar,  and  it  is  obliged  to 
maintain  the  navigation,  and  is  not  allowed  to  vary  the  tolls  without  the 
consent  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant.  Broadstone,  the  Dublin  depot  of  the  Com- 
pany, is  considered  to  be  the  handsomest  railway  terminus  in  Ireland,  and 
though  the  rolling  stock  is  hardly  modern,  it  is  only  fair  to  remember  that 
the  Company  does  not  serve  any  flourishing  business  centres  like  Belfast 
and  Cork  ;  things  would  probably  have  been  very  different  on  this  line  had 
the  attempt  to  establish  a  good  system  of  steamship  communication  be- 
tween GaWay  and  North  America  proved  successful. 

The  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway  has  grown  out  of  the  under- 
taking of  a  Company  formed  in  1844  to  connect  Cork  and  Dublin  by  rail. 
The  mileage  has  increased  in  the  usual  way  by  the  construction  of  branches 
and  the  absorption  of  smaller  companies,  until  this  railway  now  extends 
from  Dublin  to  Valentia  in  the  extreme  south-west,  to  Waterford  in  the 
south-east,  and  to  Athlone  in  the  centre  of  the  country.  By  far  the  most 
important  amalgamations  it  has  effected  are  those  in  connection  with  the 
Fishguard  and  Rosslare  undertakings.  A  few  years  ago  the  English  Great 
Western  Company  commenced  a  small  branch  from  a  few  miles  east  of 
Milford  to  Fishguard,  a  harbour  on  Cardigan  Bay.  In  1893  and  1895 
respectively  powers  were  obtained  to  build  harbours  at  Fishguard  and 
Rosslare  (a  point  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Ireland  a  few  miles  north  of 
Wexford),  and  to  run  cross-channel  steamers  between  these  two  points. 
The  Waterford,  Dungarvan,  and  Lismore  Railway,  which  runs  across  Co. 
Waterford,  and  which  could  be  made,  by  two  short  extensions,  to  complete 
the  new  route  between  England  and  Ireland  was  purchased.  At  this  stage 
the  Great  Southern  and  Western  and  the  English  Great  Western  Com- 
panies joined  hands  and  got  a  Bill  passed  giving  them  a  general  joint 
interest  and  joint  control  of  the  new  route  and  of  the  various  works  con- 
nected with  it,  whilst  in  the  year  1900  the  former  Company  obtained  the  con- 
sent of  Parliament  to  an  amalgamation  scheme  which  included  the  absorption 
of  the  Waterford  and  Central  Ireland  Railway  and  the  Waterford,  Limerick 
and  Western  Railways.  This  latter  Railway  was  an  important  line  running 
from  Tuam,  in  the  north  of  Galway,  through  Limerick  to  Waterford,  and 
by  this  amalgamation  the  Great  Southern  and  Western — already  the  largest 
Company  in  Ireland — -brought  its  mileage  up  to  over  a  thousand  miles. 
This  amalgamation  has  a  more  than  local  importance,  for  when  the  Fish- 
guard and  Rosslare  scheme  is  complete  there  will  be  a  route  open  between 
London  and  Oueenstown  via  Paddington,  Fishguard,  and  Rosslare,  which 
will  be  shorter  than  the  present  journey  from  Euston  via  Holyhead  and 
Dublin — a  very  important  consideration,  especially  as  regards  the  American 


78 


RAILWAYS. 


mails.  A  curious  feature  is  that  these  two  competing  routes  will  be  worked 
in  Ireland  by  the  one  Company — the  Great  Southern  and  Western.  The 
locomotives  and  rolling-  stock  have  been  greatly  improved  of  late,  possibly 
in  view  of  the  danger  of  American  passengers  deserting  the  Irish  route  in 
favour  of  Southampton  or  Plymouth. 

A  noticeable  feature  of  all  the  Irish  railways  mentioned  is  the  attention 
they  devote  to  the  tourist  traffic.  Thus  the  northern  railways  offer  special 
facilities  for  transit  to  Carlingford  Lough,  the  Giant's  Causeway,  and  Port- 
rush  ;  the  Dublin,  Wicklow  and  Wexford  exploit  the  famous  Wicklow 
scenery ;  the  Midland  Great  Western  carry  large  numbers  to  Achill  and 
the  district  about  Recess,  whilst  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  have 
special  services  to  Killarney,  and  besides  offering  cheap  fares  the  Companies 
have  of  late  built  a  number  of  hotels  where  the  accommodation  was  pre- 
viously bad  or  insufficient.  The  following  figures,  taken  from  the  latest 
Banking  and  Railway  Statistics,  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland,  will  help  to  show  the  present  position 
ot  Irish  Railways  as  compared  with  thirty  years  ago  : — 

Irish  Railway  Receipts  per  Mile  for  Passenger  and  Goods  Traffic 
in  1871  compared  with  1900. 


Kind  of  Traffic. 

Receipts  per  Mile. 

Increase. 

1871. 

1900. 

Passenger  Traffic 
All  Goods  Traffic 

Merchandise 

Live  Stock 

Minerals     . . 
Total   Receipts  from  all 

sources  of  Traffic 

£ 

630 
489 

367 
92 

29 

1,143 

£ 

639 

534 

377 

97 

61 

1,196 

Increase,  £^.  or  1.4  per  cent. 
Increase  of  ;^45,  or  9.2  per  cent. 
Increase  of  £\o,  or  2.7  per  cent. 
Increase  of  ;^5,  or  5.4  per  cent. 
Increase  of  ^32,  or  110.3  per  cent. 
Increase  of  ^53,  or  4.6  per  cent. 

Gross  Receipts  of  Irish  Railways  in  1871  compared  with  1900. 


Kind  of  Traffic. 

Total  Receipts. 

Increase. 

1871. 

1900. 

Passenger  Traffic  (including 
excess  Luggage,  Mails,  &c). 
Passengers  alone  (includ- 
ing     Season       Ticket 
Holders). 
All  Goods  Traffic  . . 
Merchandise    . . 
Live  Stock 
Minerals 
Total     Receipts     from     all 
sources  of  Traflic. 

£ 
1,252,530 
1,070,730 

971,149 

729,816 

183,306 

58,027 

2,272,386 

2,034,717 
1,591,819 

1,698,909 

1,198,534 
307,165 
193,210 

3,806,347 

£'jdi2,TiSj,  or  62.4  per  cent. 
;^52i,o89,  or  48.7  per  cent. 

;^727,76o,  or  74.9  per  cent. 
£468,718,  or  64.2  per  cent. 
/i23,8^9,  or  67.6  per  cent. 
/^i35>i^83,  or  233.0  per  cent. 
^1,533,961,  or  67.5  per  cent. 

RAILWAYS. 


79 


Another  aspect  of  the  development  of  the  traffic  of  the  Irish  Railway 
systems  is  shown  in  the  following  statements. 

A. — Statement  showing  the  Passenger  Traffic,  arranged  according  to  Classes, 
on  Irish  Railways  in  the  years    1871,  1891,  and  1900. 


Year. 

No.  of 

Per-centage  of  Passengers 
in  each  Class. 

No.  of  Journej's 

per  Head 
.  of  Population. 

No.  of 
.  Passengers 
per  Mile  of 
Lines  open. 

1st. 

1 
2nd.              3rd. 

1871 
1891 
1900 

15,547,934 
22,202,258 
27,649,815 

1 

12.5              27.8              59.7 
6.8       1       18.9       j      74.3 
5.4             14.2             80.4 

2.9 

4-7 

0-2  Estimated  Population 

7,821 

7,755 
8,687 

B. — Statement  showing  the  Goods  Traffic  on  Irish  Railways  in  the  years  1871  and  1900. 


Year. 

Mileage  of 

Gross  Tonnage  Carried. 

Tons  carried  per  Mile 
of  Lines  open. 

Lines  open. 

General 
Merchandise. 

Miiipral^                   General 
Minerals.         |     Merchandise. 

Minerals. 

1871 
1900 

1,988 
3,183 

2,441,289                  472,326                       1,228 
3.637.834       i        1.513,476                       1,143 

238 
475 

The  decline  in  First  and  Second  Class  passenger  traffic,  and  the  increase 
in  Third  Class  passenger  traffic  are  remarkable.  In  regard  to  the  column  in 
the  Statement  A.  showing  the  "  Number  of  Passengers  per  Mile  of  Lines 
open,"  it  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  mileage  of  Irish  railways 
increased  between  1871  and  1900  from  1,988  in  the  former  year  to  3,183 
ill  the  latter,  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  population  decreased  in  the  same 
period  from  5,412,377  in  1871  to  an  estimated  population  of  4,466,326  in 
1900.  In  fact,  the  column  showing  the  "  Number  of  Journeys  per  head  of 
Population  "  gives  the  more  correct  idea  of  the  expansion  of  the  Passenger 
Traffic  on  Irish  railways  at  the  different  periods. 

Still  more  instructive,  perhaps,  is  the  following  comparison,  in  certain  par- 
ticulars, of  the  English  Great  Western  system  with  the  entire  railway 
system  of  this  country.  The  comparison  would  be  more  satisfactory  if  an 
estimate  of  the  population  of  the  districts  of  England  and  Wales  served  by 
the  Great  Western  had  been  available  ;  but  as  it  ?tands  the  contrast  is  suffi- 
ciently striking : — 


Length 
of 

Lines 
open  on 

31st 
Decem- 

her, 

1900. 

Total 
Pas- 
sengers 
conveyed 
(exclu- 
sive of 
Season 
and 
Periodical 
Tickets). 

Goods 
Traffic. 

No.  of 

Miles 

travelled 

by 
Trains. 

No.  of 
Pas- 
sengers 

Mile 

of  Lines 

open. 

Total  Receipts. 

Passenger 
Traffic. 

Goods 
Traffic. 

!    Miles. 
All  Irish   Rail-       3,183 
ways  (including 
LightRailways) 

Great   Western  :     2,627 
of  England      i 

27,649,815 

80,914,483 

Tons. 
5.151.310 

37,500,510 

17,268,796 
46,415,184 

8,687 
30.813 

2.034.717 
5,165,067 

£ 
1,698,909 

5.698,049 

80 


RAILWAYS. 


It  may  be  noted  that  of  the  3,183  miles  of  the  Irish  railway  system.-^ 
2.557  are  single  lines,  and  only  626  double  (or  more)  lines,  while  in  the  case 
of  the  Great  Western  of  England  the  proportions  are  as  follows : — single 
Imes,  1,270;  double  (or  more)  Hnes,  i,357-. 

In  regard  to  the  very  important  question  of  rates,  the  following  State- 
ments prepared  from  the  Board  of  Trade  returns  deserve  study.  In  the 
year  1900  the  average  rate  per  ton,  irrespective  of  the  distance  hauled,  on 
Merchandise  carried  on  the  Irish  railways  was  as  much  as  37.14  per  cent,  in 
excess  of  the  rate  charged  on  the  same  class  of  Traffic  in  England,  and 
33.97  in  excess  of  the  Scotch  rate.  The  average  Irish  railway  rate  per  ton 
for  Merchandise  in  1900  was  higher  by  nearly  2  per  cent,  than  it  was  in 
1890,  while  in  England  the  decrease  in  the  former  as  compared  with  the 
latter  year  was  8.79  per  cent.,  and  in  Scotland  1.70  : — 

Statement  showing  the  Average  Rate  per  Ton  on  Merchandise  carried  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  in  the  Years  1880,  1890,  and  1900  respec- 
tively ;  and  showing  Excess  of  Irish  Average  over  English  and  Scotch  for 
the  same  years. 


Year.s. 

Average  Rate  per  Ton  on  Merchandise 
carried  in 

Excess  of  Irish  Average  Rate 
per  Ton  over 

England. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

English. 

Scotch. 

1880 
1890 
1900 

.s'.      d. 
5     8.35 
5     3-87 
4  10.26 

s.     d. 
5     5-50 
5     0.67 
4  11.64 

s.     d. 
6.    11.27 
6.     6.40 
6.     7.90 

21.83  per  cent, 

22.75 

37-14 

27.13  per  cent. 

29.22 

33-97 

Statement  showing  the  Gross  Tonnage,  Gross  Receipts,  and  Average  Receipts 
per  Ton  of  Merchandise  carried  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  in 
Years    1880,    1890,   and   1900. 

ENGLAND.* 


Year. 

Gross  Tonnage. 

Gross  Receipts. 

Average  Rate  per  Ton. 

1880 
1890 
1900 

59,415.037 

74.319.330 

102,628,842 

/ 

16,922,646 
19,781,087 
24,916,037 

5.     d. 
=  5     8.35 
=  5     3-87 
=  4  10.26 

1890  v.  1880 
1900  v.  1880 
1900  V.  1890 

25.08  per  cent.  Increase 
72.73  per  cent.  Increase 

38.09  per  cent.  Increase 

16.89  psi"  cent.  Increase 
47.23  per  cent.  Increase 
25.95  per  cent.  Increase 

6.56  per  cent.  Decrease 

14.77  per  cent.  Decrease 

8.79  per  cent.  Decrease 

*  The  figures  given  for  England  for  the  year  1880  are  exclusive  of  Merchandise  Traffic 
carried  over  the  West  Lancashire  Railway,  the  Swansea  and  Mumbles  Railway,  and  the  Hoy- 
lake  and  Birkenhead  Railway  and  Tramway,  and  those  for  the  year  1890  are  exclusive  of 
Merchandise  Traffic  dealt  with  by  the  Dover  and  Deal  Committee's  Line.  In  all  these  cases 
Minerals  have  been  included  with  Merchandise  Traffic  in  the  Board  of  Trade  Returns  from 
which  the  statement  has  been  compiled. 


RAILWAYS. 


81 


SCOTLAND. 


Year. 

Gross  Tonnage. 

Gross  Receipts. 

Average  Rate  per  Ton. 

1880                           7,611,503 
1890                           9,871,788 
1900                          12,273,754 

i 
2,077,400 
2,495,811 
3.050,537 

s.      d. 
=  5     5-50 
=  5     0.67 
=  4  11.64 

1890  V.  1880 
1900  V.  1880 
1900  V.  1890 

29.69  per  cent.  Increase 
61,25  per  cent.  Increase 
24.33  per  cent.  Increase 

20.14  per  cent.  Increase 
46.84  per  cent.  Increase 
22.22  per  cent.  Increase 

7.38  per  cent.  Decrease 
8.95  per  cent.  Decrease 
1.70  per  cent.  Decrease 

IRELAND  (excluding  Light  Railways). 


Year. 

Gross  Tonnage. 

Gross  Receipts. 

Average  Rate  per  Ton. 

1880 
1890 
1900 

2,596,300 
3,102,869 
3,549,695 

£ 
900,809 
1,013,621 
1,181,795 

5.      d. 

6  11.27 
6     6.40 
6     7.90 

1890  V.  1880 
1900  V,  1880 
1900  V,  1890 

19.51  per  cent.  Increase 
36.72  per  cent.  Increase 
14.40  per  cent.  Increase 

12.52  per  cent.  Increase 
31.19  per  cent.  Increase 
16.59  per  cent.  Increase 

5.86  per  cent.  Decrease 
4.05  per  cent.  Decrease 
1.92  per  cent.  Increase 

In  interpreting  the  average  rates  charged  on  Irish,  EngHsh,  and  Scotch 
railways,  as  shown  by  the  above  Tables,  it  must,  of  course,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  distance  hauled  is  not  taken  into  account.  Unfortunately,  as 
regards  the  railways  of  the  United  Kingdom,  ton-mile  statistics  are  not  avail- 
able. If  they  were,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  Irish  railways  would  com- 
pare more  favourably  than  they  appear  to  do  in  the  matter  of  rates  with  the 
railways  of  Great  Britain.  The  above  Tables  do  an  injustice  to  the  Irish 
railways  in  so  far  as,  and  to  the  extent  that,  the  average  length  of  haulage 
may  be  found  on  examination  to  be  greater  in  Ireland  than  in  Great  Britain. 


82  CANALS. 


CANALS    AND    WATERWAYS    OF    IRELAND,* 

(a.)  Preliminary  Observations. 

In  his  presidential  address  to  the  members  of  the  Fourth  International 
Congress  on  Inland  Navigation,  which  met  in  i8go  in  Manchester,  Sir 
Michael  Hicks-Beach  was  obliged  to  admit  that  the  United  Kingdom  was 
very  much  behind  other  countries  in  its  supply  of  statistical  information  on 
inland  waterways  and  their  traffic.  However,  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  pur- 
suance of  powers  conferred  on  them  by  the  Railway  and  Canal  Act  of  1888, 
have,  since  the  passing  of  that  Act,  issued  two  Blue  Books  [C.  6083 — 1890 : 
Cd.  19 — 1899]  containing  fairly  complete  and  accuratet  statistics  of  canals 
and  inland  navigations  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

It  becomes  more  and  more  evident  that  it  is  an  important  preliminary  to 
all  lasting  economic  reform  to  have  an  instructed  public  opinion  in  this 
country  concerning  itself  with  our  industrial  interests.  The  amount  of 
accurate  information  on  public  problems  of  importance  to  the  material  pro- 
gress of  the  country  is,  from  whatever  cause,  disappointingly  small,  even 
amongst  those  who  ought  to  be  interested  in  such  matters.  In  looking  up 
the  materials  on  which  the  appended  remarks  are  largely  based,  I  expe- 
rienced considerable  difficulty,  not  merely  in  getting  information,  but  even 
in  getting  at  some  of  the  sources  of  information.  I  take  this  as  evidence 
that  it  is  a  work  of  some  value  to  bring  together  in  a  succinct  and  con- 
nected form  facts  which,  while  accessible  to  any  painstaking  inquirer,  are 
so  scattered  and  hidden  away  in  half-forgotten  reports  as  to  be  beyond  the 
easy  reach  of  the  general  public.  The  time  is  not  inopportune,  moreover, 
for  calling  public  attention  to  the  status  quo  and  the  possibilities  of  our 
fine  network  of  canals  and  river  systems.  There  is  (as  I  shall  show  pre- 
sently) a  revival  of  interest  in  every  progressive  country  in  the  too  long 
neglected  question  of  inland  waterways.  Ireland — no  country  more  so — 
is  vitally  concerned  in  the  problem  of  cheap  transport  generally,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  cheap  transport  of  such  heavy  goods  of  relatively  small 
value  as  coal,  stone,  slates,  brick,  timber,  lime,  turf,  manure,  roots,  etc., 
which  are  the  characteristic  items  of  water  carriage.  Again,  a  system  of 
cheap  and  efficient  water  communication  throughout  the  country  would  be 
of  immense  help  to  small  industrial  centres  and  to  nascent  rural  industries 
such  as,  it  may  be  hoped,  will  result  in  time  from  the  new  operations  of 
State  aid  as  applied  to  agriculture  and  industry.  It  must  not  be  forgotten, 
m  this  connection,  that,  apart  from  new  industries,  there  is  in  Ireland,  as  in 
many  other  countries,  a  large  amount  of  potential  traffic  waiting  on  low 
transit  rates.     Sir  Arthur  Cotton  rightly  told  the  Commission  on  Canals  of 

*  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  F.  de  Vismes  Kane,  of  Drumreaske  House,  Co.  Monaghan,  late 
Chairman  of  the  Grand  Canal  Company,  for  many  valuable  suggestions  in  the  preparation  of 
this  statement,  and  for  the  loan  of  some  interesting  documents  and  MSS.  on  the  history  of  Irish 
canals,  on  which  subject  his  knowledge  is  exceedingly  full, 

t  See,  however,  for  a  criticism  of  the  Report  of  1890,  a  paper  on  "  Canals,"  by  Lionel  B. 
Wells,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  Report  of  Conf.  on  Inland  Navigation,  Birmingham,  1895,  p.  28. 


CANALS.  83 

1883  that  "  it  was  not  traffic  that  made  communications,  but  communications 
that  made  traffic ; "  and  an  American  economist  has  justly  said  that  "  the 
carriers  of  freight  hold  the  keys  of  trade."  Proximity  to  market  (to  put 
the  same  truth  in  another  way)  is  the  economic  justification  of  intensive 
culture,  and  every  extension  or  (what  amounts  to  the  same  thing)  every 
cheapening  of  good  means  of  communication  brings  more  producers  and 
consumers  into  profitable  trade  relations,  and  this  permits  of  the  application 
or  more  capital,  labour,  and  skill  to  the  improvement  of  agricultural  and 
industrial  methods.  In  these  days  of  wideawake  competition  in  a  world- 
market,  a  slight  reduction  in  freight-charges  may  make  all  the  difference 
between  success  and  failure  in  any  industry.  It  seems  important,  then,  that 
our  transport  problems  should  be  studied  with  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  of 
the  case  at  home  and  abroad,  and  with  due  regard  to  the  growing  needs 
and  the  new  possibilities  of  an  industrial  revival.  Our  canal  system — if 
the  term  "  system  "  can  be  applied  to  an  unfinished  network  of  waterways 
of  diverse  depths  and  numerous  breaks  of  gauge — is,  it  is  quite  true,  far 
from  perfect ;  but  it  is  equally  far  from  being  in  the  moribund  condition 
which  many  people  seem  to  imagine.  One  cannot,  of  course,  read  the 
history  of  its  creation  without  forming  one's  own  opinion  as  to  the  causes 
of  its  comparative  inefficiency,  and  also  as  to  some  of  the  obvious  remedies  ; 
but  it  is  not  my  business  or  intention  to  touch  on  these  points  further  than 
as  they  arise  out  of  the  consideration  of  the  general  question  of  transit  on 
inland  waterways. 

(b.)   The  Economic  Functions  of  Canals  and  Inlaiid   Waterways. 

Rivers,  lakes,  and  inland  seas  are  the  first  natural  highways  of  commerce 
New  Imoortance  and  ^"^  intercourse  between  peoples,    and,    as    everyone 
n     j-i.-  knows,  they  play  a  most  important  ro/e  in  the  earlier 

Modern  Conditions  ^^^^^^  ^^  civilisation.  Roads  and  canals  followed  as 
of  Transit  Facilities,  ^j-^g  f^j-gt  artificial  highways,  and,  finally,  with  the  appli- 
cation of  steam  power  came  the  railroad  and  the  steamship.*  The  evolu- 
tion of  trade  had  a  somewhat  parallel  development.  Originally  the  pro- 
ducer— or  rather  the  producing  unit,  the  family — is  self-supporting  and  self- 
sufficient,  consuming  in  great  measure  what  it  itself  produces,  there  being 
little  trade  between  individuals  or  groups  ;  a  further  stage  is  reached  when 
with  the  division  of  trade  or  pursuits,  exchange  of  wealth  takes  place 
between  individuals  living  in  the  same  locality ;  and,  finally,  comes  the 
period  of  great  specialisation  of  industry,  involving  the  transportation  of 
commodities  from  one  district,  country,  and  even  continent,  to  another.  It 
is  in  this  latest  stage  of  industrial  growth  or  economic  evolution  that  the 
question  of  transportation  assumes  an  importance  of  the  first  order.  Regu- 
larity, suitability,  and  safety  of  service,  speed  and  cheapness  of  transport — 
these  are,  to-day,  determining  factors  in  the  industrial  struggle  between  the 
progressive  nations  who  compete  in  the  great  markets  of  the  world.  Hovv' 
recent  such  facilities  of  communication  are  few  people  fully  realise — they 
are,  in  effect,  the  creation  of  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  centur)- 
Porter,  in  his  Progress  of  the  Nation,  written  in  1842,  makes  the  follow- 
ing observations  on  a  Sussex  hamlet  which  is  now  practically  included  as  a 

*  On  the  24th  Maxch,  1824,  it  is  interesting  to  note,  the  first  steamer  service  was  established 
between  DubHn  and  Liverpool,  the  "  City  of  Dublin  "  doing  the  journey  in  fourteen  hours.  A 
week  was  the  average  of  sailing  vessels  for  the  same  journey. 


84  CANALS. 


suburban  district  of  London  :  "  An  inhabitant  of  Hasham,  in  Sussex,  lately 
living,  remembered  when  a  boy  to  have  heard  from  a  person  whose  father 
carried  on  the  business  of  a  butcher  in  that  town,  that  in  his  time  the  ordy 
means  of  reaching  the  metropolis  was  either  by  going  on  foot  or  riding  on 
horseback,  the  latter  of  which  undertakings  was  not  practicable  at  all 
periods  of  the  year,  nor  in  every  state  of  the  weather ;  that  the  roads  were 
not,  at  any  time,  in  such  a  condition  as  to  admit  of  sheep  or  cattle  being 
driven  upon  them  to  the  London  markets,  and  that  for  this  reason  the 
farmers  were  prevented  sending  thither  the  produce  of  their  land,  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  being,  in  fact,  their  only  market.  Under  these 
circumstances  a  quarter  of  a  fat  ox  commonly  sold  for  about  15  s.,  and  the 
price  of  mutton  throughout  the  year  was  only  five  farthings  the  pound." 
To-day  London  is  partially  fed  from  Canada,  Victoria,  the  Argentine,  and 
even  Siberia.  As  to  cheapness  of  transport,  a  well-known  illustration  of  an 
American  economist  may  be  quoted : — "  The  wages  for  one  day's  work  of 
an  average  mechanic  in  the  far  East  (i.e.,  of  the  United  States)  will  pay  for 
moving  a  year's  subsistence  of  bread  and  meat  a  thousand  miles  or  more 
from  the  distant  West."  These  are  but  vivid  illustrations  of  an  economic 
revolution  with  the  effects  of  which  we  are  all  familiar,  and  which  has  been 
brought  home  keenly  to  all  Irish  agriculturists.  I  bring  them  forward  now 
to  emphasise  the  importance  of  using  every  available  means  to  improve 
facilities  of  communication,  and  to  concentrate  attention  on  a  phase  of  the 
transport  problem  which,  though  it  has  at  no  time  been  ignored,  and  has 
recently  been  a  good  deal  discussed,*  deserves,  I  think,  a  fuller  study,  on 
the  part  of  the  general  public,  than  it  has  yet  received.  One  of  Ireland's 
outstanding  economic  advantages  is  her  nearness  to  several  of  the  greatest 
food-consuming  centres  in  the  world  ;  but  this  advantage  is  being  daily 
lessened  by  the  improvements  in  efficient  transport  service  of  our  competi- 
tors, and  by  scientific  progress  in  regard  to  cold  storage,  sterilising  chambers, 
and  the  use  of  preservatives  for  food  products.  It  behoves  us  then  to  see 
that  nothing  is  left  undone  to  secure  the  effective  working  of  our  railways, 
rivers,  canals,  and  even  our  roads,  and  to  make  them  directly  subserve  the 
industrial  needs  of  the  country.  There  is,  indeed,  a  wide  field  for  work  for 
the  improvement  of  Irish  agricultural  and  other  products  ;  there  is  very 
much  still  to  be  learnt  in  the  matter  of  preparing  these  products  for  market 
so  as  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  consumer ;  but  at  least  of  equal 
moment  it  is  to  bring  our  means  of  communication  in  regard  to  speed, 
freight-charges,  and  general  efficiency  up  to  the  level  of  those  European 
countries  which  at  present  challenge  our  supremacy  in  the  British  markets. 

Within  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  distinct  and  most 

„.,„,,         ,     significant  revival  of  interest  in  every  European  coun- 

ReYival  of  Interest    ,^  n  .u    tt  -4.    i  C4.  <^      •    ^-u  ^         c 

.  try,  as  v/ell  as  m  the  United  States,  m  the  question  or 

m  miana  canals  and  inland  waterways  generally.     It  has  come 

Waterways.  ^q  be  realised  that  a  vital  mistake  was  made,  especi- 

ally in  these  countries,  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  railway,  in  not  main- 
taining the  canal  systems  as  independent  competitive  routes,  which,  as  it 
now  appears,  can  carry  more  economically  certain  classes  of  traffic  than  the 

*  Notably  by  Mr.  James  M'Cann,  M.P.,  the  present  Chairman  of  the  Grand  Canal  Company, 
n  his  "Address  to  the  Shareholders  of  the  Grand  Canal  Company,  1900";  speech  in  the 
House  of  Commons  (April  30th,  igoo)  on  "  Irish  Railways  and  Canals,"  and  in  a  brochure 
entitled  "  Trade  and  Transit." 


CANALS.  85 

railways  can.  The  laisser  fairc  policy  dominant  in  England  at  the  time 
was  against  any  direct  State  interference  with  canals  and  railways,  and  thus 
no  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  canal  mileage  of  the  United  Kingdom 
was  allowed  to  pass,  without  protest  or  conditions,  into  the  hands  of  the 
railway  companies.  This  involved  an  even  more  serious  interference  with 
the  competition  of  the  waterways  than  appears  at  first  sight,  for  it  is  clear 
that  the  railways  had  to  get  control  of  only  a  section  of  a  navigation  made 
up  of  one  or  more  waterways,  to  interfere  with  competition  along  its  entire 
length.  Moreover,  it  was  in  regard  to  heavy  traffic  only  that  the  railways 
needed  to  compete  in  the  matter  of  freight  charges  with  the  canals.  Pas- 
senger traffic,  perishable  traffic,  and  "  smalls "  traffic  came  to  them  as  a 
matter  of  course.  "  That  the  whole  subject  of  transit  in  England  requires  to 
be  considered  from  its  very  foundation,"  wrote  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  in  a  very 
interesting  Report  to  the  Committee  on  "  Canals  "  in  1883,  "  has  been  most 
fully  proved  by  the  late  and  present  Committees  already.  The  defects  in 
the  legislation  hitherto  on  this  subject  are  inconceivable.  The  one  fact  that 
all  the  main  lines  of  water  transit  should  have  been  paralysed  by  allowing 
the  railways  to  buy  up  a  short  line  in  the  middle,  and  so  establish  a  mono- 
poly, shows  this  beyond  dispute.  And  this  after  they  had  been  granted 
Acts  of  Parliament  which  gave  them  the  power  of  doing  anything  they 
pleased  with  private  property  that  lay  in  their  way.  It  is  remarkable  that 
in  France  they  should  be  so  far  in  advance  of  us  in  this  matter  that  the 
Government  have  taken  the  water  lines  into  their  own  hands,  and  are  now 
opening  them  with  one  object  in  view,  the  general  good  of  the  community." 
The  French  Government  had,  in  fact,  with  wise  prevision,  bought  up  a 
good  many  of  the  canals  on  the  occasion  of  the  slump  in  their  value  at  the 
advent  of  railways. 

In  1845  the  canal  companies  of  the  United  Kingdom  petitioned  Parlia- 
r        1  T    tf'tjlaf'nn      i^^^i^t  for  protection  against  the  competition  of  the 
•     ■♦•>.     IT   -f  i\        railroads,  and  secured,  for  the  first  time,  strange  as  it 
m  tne  uniiea        may  seem,  the  right  of  becoming  shippers  over  their 
ivingaom  since  10*0.  Q-yy^  canals,  obtaining  at  the  same  time  the  power  to 
lower  and  raise  their  tariffs.     Looking  back  now,  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
actual   development   of  railways,   it   seems  incredible   that   railroads   were 
originally  regarded  by  their  promoters  as  well  as  by  the  public  as  public 
highways,  or  even  "  land  canals,"  and  that  the  companies  themselves  de- 
clared it  was  against  their  wish,  and  would  be  against  their  interest,  to 
attempt  the  carriage  of  goods  and  passengers,  and  that  they  desired  to  be 
toll-takers  only.     The  same  curious  lack  of  apprehension  of  the  inherent 
possibilities  of  the  railway  system  was  shown  in  the  construction  of  short 
local  lines  in  imitation  of  the  existing  sectional  waterways.       Thus  the 
present  Great  Northern  Railway  of  Ireland  is,  as  is  well  known,  the  result 
of  the  amalgamation  of  no  less  than  eleven  smaller  companies. 

It  must  not  be  assumed,  however,  that  the  old  system  of  waterways  in 
the  United  Kingdom  or  elsewhere  was  ideal  in  any  respect.  Being  a  prac- ' 
tical  monopoly,  fares  and  freight  charges  were,  in  many  cases,  excessive  to 
a  degree.  Speaking  in  the  House  of  Commons,  May,  1836,  Mr.  Morrison 
is  reported  to  have  said : — "  The  history  of  existing  canals,  waterways,  etc., 
affords  abundant  evidence  of  the  evils  (i.e.  of  monopoly)  to  which  I  have 
been  adverting.  An  original  share  in  the  Loughborough  Canal,  for 
example,    which    cost    ^^142   ijs.,  is  now  selling  at    ;^  1,2 50,  and  yields  a 


86  CANALS. 

dividend  of  £go  or  £ioo  a  year.  The  fourth  part  of  a  Trent  and  Mersey 
Canal  share,  or  ^^50  of  the  company's  stock,  is  now  fetching  i^6oo,  and 
yields  a  dividend  of  about  £-^o  a  year.  And  there  are  various  other  canals 
in  nearly  the  same  situation."  While,  however,  it  is  quite  true  that  the 
canal  proprietors  in  pre-railway  days  reaped  the  harvest  of  monopoly  rates, 
that  supplies  no  reason  whatever  why  they  should  have  been  sacrificed  in 
the  interests  of  another  monopoly.  It  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  strong  reason 
for  safeguarding  the  legitimate  powers  and  functions  of  each  means  of  com- 
munication, and  thus  permitting  the  development  of  a  sound  and  healthy 
competition,  which  would  have  proved  of  enormous  service  to  the  trading 
community  and  (as  it  is  now  being  recognised,  especially  on  the  Continent) 
have  been  in  the  true  interests  of  the  railways  themselves.  Parliament  has, 
since  1845,  made  many  efforts  to  secure  an  equitable  readjustment  of  the 
respective  interests  of  canal  and  railway  owners.  Several  Royal  Com- 
missions and  Select  Committees  have  investigated  the  subject,  and  in  the 
years  1854,  1873,  1888,  and  1894,  respectively,  important  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment to  regulate  railway  and  canal  traffic  have  passed  the  Legislature.  The 
Act  of  1 873  established  a  Railway  Commission,  consisting  of  three  members 
and  two  assistants,  in  whose  hands  was  placed  the  enforcement  of  the  pre- 
vious Act  of  1854.  This  Act  of  1873  was  to  have  had  effect  for  five  years 
only,  but  in  1878  it  was  continued  till  the  end  of  1879,  then  till  December 
31st,  1882,  then  for  five  years  longer.  In  1887  the  Commissioners  were 
made  a  permanent  body.     The  Act  of  1 873  enacted,  mter  alia,  that : — 

"  Every  railway  company  and  canal  company  shall  keep  at  each  of  their 
stations  and  wharves  a  book  or  books  showing  every  rate  for  the  time  being 
charged  for  the  carriage  of  traffic  other  than  passengers  and  their  luggage, 
from  that  station  or  wharf  to  any  place  to  which  they  book,  including  any 
rates  charged  under  any  special  contract,  and  stating  the  distance  from  that 
station  or  wharf  of  every  station,  wharf,  siding,  or  place  to  which  any  such 
rate  is  charged. 


e  m- 


"  Every  such  book  shall,  during  all  reasonable  hours,  be  open  to  th 
spection  of  any  person  without  the  payment  of  any  fee. 

"  The  Commissioners  may  from  time  to  time,  on  the  application  of  any  per- 
son interested,  make  orders  with  respect  to  any  particular  description  of  traffic, 
requiring  a  railway  company  or  canal  company  to  distinguish  in  such  book 
how  much  of  each  rate  is  for  the  conveyance  of  the  traffic  on  the  railway  or 
canal,  including  therein  tolls  for  the  use  of  the  railway  or  canal,  for  the  use  of 
carriages  or  vessels,  or  for  locomotive  power,  and  how  much  is  for  other  ex- 
penses, specifying  the  nature  and  detail  of  such  other  expenses. 

"  Any  company  failing  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall 
for  each  offence,  and  in  the  case  of  a  continuing  offence,  for  every  day  during 
which  the  offence  continues,  be  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  five  pounds, 
and  such  penalty  shall  be  recovered  and  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  penal- 
ties imposed  by  the  Railways  Clauses  Consolidation  Act,  1845,  ^^^  the  Rail- 
ways Clauses  Consolidation  (Scotland)  Act,  1845  (as  the  case  may  require), 
are  for  the  time  being  recoverable  and  applicable."     (Section  14.) 

The  Commissioners  had  power  to  decide  whether  terminal  charges  were 
reasonable,  and  their  consent  was  necessary  before  any  railway  company 
could,  except  by  Act  of  Parliament,  purchase  or  obtain  control  of  a  canal 
(sect.  16). 


CANALS.  87 

The  Act  of  1888  was  a  further  important  step  in  the  direction  of  freeing 

Thfl  Railwav  and     '-^^  canals  from  danger  of  domination  by  the  railways 

1  T     ffl     H   f     ^^'^  maintaining  them   as  genuine  competitors.       It 

Canal  Traffic  Act     (^j-g^^ted  a  Railway  and  Canal  Commission  to  super- 

of  1888.  5g(jg  j-j-jg  Commission  established  by  the  Act  of  1873. 

The  constitution  of  this  permanent  Commission  is  laid  down  in  sections  2, 

3,  and  4  of  the  Act  of  1888,  which  read  as  follows  : — 

"2.  On  the  expiration  of  the  provisions  of  the  Regulation  of  Railways  Act, 
1873,  with  respect  to  the  Commissioners  therein  mentioned,  there  shall  be 
established  a  new  Commission,  styled  the  Railway  and  Canal  Commission  (in 
this  Act  referred  to  as  the  Commissioners),  and  consisting  of  two  appointed 
and  three  ex-officio  Commissioners;  and  such  Commission  shall  be  a  court  of 
record,  and  have  an  official  seal,  which  shall  be  judicially  noticed.  The  Com- 
missioners may  act  notwithstanding  any  vacancy  in  their  body. 

"  3. — (i.)  The  two  appointed  Commissioners  may  be  appointed  by  Her 
Majesty  at  any  time  after  the  passing  of  this  Act,  and  from  time  to  time  as 
vacancies  occur. 

(2.)  They  shall  be  appointed  on  the  recommendation  of  the  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  one  of  them  shall  be  of  experience  in  railway 
business. 

(3.)  Section  five  of  the  Regulation  of  Railways  Act,  1873.  shall  apply 
to  each  appointed  Commissioner. 

(4.)  There  shall  be  paid  to  each  appointed  Commissioner  such  salary 
not  exceeding  three  thousand  pounds  a  year  as  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  may.  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Treasury,  determine. 

(5.)   It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Lord  Chancellor,  if  he  think  fit,  to  remove 

for  inability  or  misbehaviour  any  appointed  Commissioner. 

"4. — (i.)  Of  the  three  ex-Officio   Commissioners  of  the  Railway  and  Canal 

Commission,  one  shall  be  nominated  for  England,  one  for  Scotland,  and  one 

for  Ireland  ;  and  an  ex-Officio  Commissioner  shall  not  be  required  to  attend 

out  of  the  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  which  he  is  nominated. 

(2.)  The  ex-Officio  Commissioner  ineach  case  shall  be  such  judge  of  a 
superior  court  as — 

{a.)  in  England  the  Lord  Chancellor;  and 
(b.)  in  Scotland  the  Lord  President  of  Court  of  Session  ;  and 
{c.)  in  Ireland  the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  ; 
may   from   time   to   time   by   writing   under   his   hand    assign,    and   such 
assignment  shall  be  made  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  five  years. 

{3.)  For  Ihe  purpose  of  the  attendance  of  the  ex-officio  Commissioners, 
regulations  shall  be  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the 
Lord  President  of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ire- 
land respectively,  in  communication  with  the  ex  officio  Commissioners  for 
England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  to  the  arrange- 
ments for  securing  their  attendance,  as  to  the  times  and  place  of  sitting 
in  each  case,  and  otherwise  for  the  convenient  and  speedy  hearing  thereof." 

Other  sections  of  interest  in  this  important  Act  are  section  31,  which 
provides  that  on  the  application  of  anyone  interested  in  through  traffic  the 
Commissioners  can  order  through  rates  and  decide  whether  any  through 
rate  is  just  and  reasonable  ;  section  39  (3),  which  provides  : — 

"  When  the  canal  of  a  canal  company,  or  any  part  thereof,  is  intended  to 
be  stopped  for  more  than  two  days,  the  company  shall  report  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  stating  ihe  time  during  which  such  stoppage  is  intended  to  last,  and 


CANALS. 


when  the  same  is  re-opened   the  company  shall  so  report  to  the  Board  of 
Trade."     [Section  39  (3).) 

And  section  42,  which  runs  as  follows : — ■ 

"  No  railway  company,  or  director  or  officer  of  a  railway  company,  shall, 
without  express  statutory  authority,  apply  or  use  or  authorise  or  permit  the 
application  or  use  of  any  part  of  the  company's  funds  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring-,  either  in  the  name  of  the  railway  company,  or  of  any  director  or 
officer  of  the  railway  company,  or  other  person,  any  canal  interest,  or  of 
enabling-  any  director  or  officer  of  the  railway  company,  or  other  person,  to 
purchase  or  acquire  any  canal  interest,  or  of  guaranteeing-  or  repaying  to  any 
director  or  officer  of  the  railway  company  or  other  person  who  has  purchased 
or  acquired  any  canal  interest  the  sum  of  money  expended  or  liability  incurred 
by  such  director,  officer.,  or  person  in  the  purchase  or  acquisition  of  such 
canal  interest,  or  any  part  of  such  money  or  liability. 

^'  In  the  event  of  any  contravention  of  the  provisions  of  this  section,  the 
canal  interest  purchased  in  such  contravention  shall  be  forfeited  to  the 
Crown,  and  the  directors  or  officers  of  the  company  who  so  applied  or  used, 
or  authorised  or  permitted  such  application  or  use  of  the  company's  funds, 
shall  be  liable  to  repay  to  the  company  the  sums  so  applied  or  used  and  the 
value  of  the  canal  interest  so  forfeited  ;  and  proceedmgs  to  compel  such  re- 
payment may  b,;  taken  by  any  shareholder  in  the  company. 

"  In  this  section  the  expression  '  company*s  funds  '  means  the  corporate 
funds  of  any  railway  company,  and  includes  any  funds  which  are  under  the 
control  of  or  administered  by  a  railway  company;  the  expression  '  officer  ' 
includes  any  person  having  any  control  over  a  company's  funds  or  any  part 
thereof;  and  the  expression  '  canal  interest '  means  shares  in  the  capital  of  a 
canal  company,  and  includes  any  interest  of  any  kind  in  a  canal  company  or 
canal."     (Section  ^2.) 

On  August  25th,  1894,  "  An  Act  to  Amend  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic 

The  Amending       ^^^  °h-'^^\"  became  law.     This  brief  but  important 
w   .     J,  .««,  Amendmg-  Act  may  be  quoted  here  tn  extenso.       It 

Act  of  1895.  ^.jns  as  follows  :— 

"  An  Act  to  amend   the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,   1888. 

[25th  August,  1894.] 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Queen's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this 
present  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  same,  as  follows: 

"  I. — (i.)  Where  a  railway  company  have,  either  alone  or  jointly  with  any 
other  railway  company  or  companies,  since  the  last  day  of  December,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-two,  directly  or  indirectly  increased,  or 
hereafter  increase  directly  or  indirectly,  any  rate  or  charge,  then  if  any  com- 
plaint is  rpade  that  the  rate  or  charge  is  unreasonable,  it  shall  lie  on  the  com- 
pany to  prove  that  the  increase  of  the  rate  or  charg-e  is  reasonable,  and  for 
that  purpose  it  shall  not  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the  rate  or  charg-e  is  within 
any  limit  fixed  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  or  by  any  Provisional  Order  confirmed 
by  Act  of  Parliament. 

"  (2.)  Under  and  subjejct  to  any  regulation  which  may  be  made  by  the  Board 
of  Trade,  every  railway  company  shall  keep  the  books,  schedules,  or  other 
papers,  specifying  all  the  rates,  charges,  and  conditions  of  transport  in  use 


CANALS.  89 

upon  such  railway  on  the  thirty-first  day  of  December,  one  thousand  eig-ht 
hundred  and  ninety-two,  open  for  inspection  at  its  head  office,  and  shall  upon 
demand  supply  copies  of  or  extracts  from  such  books,  schedules,  and  papers. 

"  (3.)  The  Railway  and  Canal  Commissioners  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  hear 
and  determine  any  complaint  with  respect  to  any  such  increase  of  rate  or 
charge,  but  not  until  a  complaint  with  respect  thereto  has  been  made  to  and 
considered  by  the  Board  of  Trade  under  section  thirty-one  of  the  Railway  and 
Canal  Traffic  Act,  1888. 

"  (4.)  Unless  the  court  shall  before  or  at  the  hearing-  of  the  complaint  other- 
wise order,  a  complainant  to  the  Railway  and  Canal  Commissioners  under 
this  section  shall,  before  or  within  fourteen  days  after  filing  his  complaint, 
pay  to  the  railway  company  such  sum  in  respect  of  any  rate  or  charge  com- 
plained of  as  would  have  been  payable  by  him  to  them  had  the  rate  or  charge 
in  force  immediately  before  the  increase  remained  in  force;  or  if  that  rate  or 
charge  is  higher  than  the  rate  or  charge  in  force  on  the  last  day  of  December, 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-two,  then  such  sum  as  would  have 
been  payable  on  the  footing  of  the  last-mentioned  rate  or  charge  ;  any  dispute 
as  to  the  amount  so  payable  shall  be  decided  by  the  registrar,  or  in  such 
other  mode  as  the  court  may  order,  but  such  payment  or  decision  shall  be 
without  prejudice  to  any  order  of  the  court  upon  the  complaint. 

"  (5.)  Section  twelve  of  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,  1888,  shall  apply 
in  the  case  of  any  such  complaint,  and  in  the  case  of  any  rate  or  charge  in- 
creased before  the  passing  of  this  Act  shall  have  effect  as  if  six  months  aftc- 
the  passing  of  this  Act  were  substituted  for  the  limit  of  one  year  therein 
mentioned,  but  the  Board  of  Trade  may,  if  they  think  fit,  extend  the  said 
period  of  six  months  with  respect  to  any  complaints  made  to  them  during 
that  period. 

"  2.  In  proceeding  before  the  Railway  and  Canal  Commissioners,  other  than 
disputes  between  two  or  more  companies,  the  Commissioners  shall  not  have 
power  to  award  costs  on  either  side,  unless  they  are  of  opinion  that  either 
the  claim  or  the  defence  has  been  frivolous  and  vexatious. 

"  3.  The  provisions  of  section  fourteen  of  the  Regulation  of  Railways  Act, 
1873,  with  respect  to  the  power  to  make  orders  and  failure  to  comply  with 
such  orders,  shall  extend  to  any  rates  entered  in  books  kept  in  pursuance  of 
section  thirty-four  of  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,  1888. 

4.  Whenever  merchandise  is  received  or  delivered  by  a  railway  company  at 
any  siding  or  branch  railway  not  belonging  to  the  company,  and  a  dispute 
arises  between  the  railway  company  and  the  consignor  or  consignee  of  such 
merchandise  as  to  any  allowance  or  rebate  to  be  made  from  the  rates  charged 
to  such  consignor  or  consignee  in  respect  that  the  railway  company  does  not 
provide  station  accommodation  or  perform  terminal  services,  the  Railway  and 
Canal  Commissioners  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  determine  such  dis- 
pute, and  to  determine  what,  if  any,  is  a  reasonable  and  just  allowance  or 
rebate. 

"  5.  This  Act  may  be  cited  as  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,   1894,  and 
shall  be  read  with  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Acts,  1873  to  1888." 

In  May,  1892,  the  Board  of  Trade  had  begun  the  investigation  of  the 
powers  of  Navigation  Companies  and  their  rate  charges,  and  in  1893  had 
revised  the  Schedule.  Previously  Parliament  had  revised  the  Schedule  of 
Maxima  which  the  railways  might  charge  for  the  conveyance  of  merchandise 
traffic.  Hence  the  above  Act  dealt  with  complaints  as  to  rates  or  charges 
raised  since  1892. 


90  CANALS. 


All  this  legislation,  however,  excellent  in  intention  as  it  was,  came  rather 
late   to  secure  the  full  free  development  of  inland 

Railway  versus  waterways.  Of  the  whole  mileage  of  the  canals  of 
Canal.  the   United   Kingdom,   practically  one-third,   as  has 

been  said,  belonged  to  the  railway  companies  in  1888. 
The  actual  figures  were  1,204  ^-  ^4)4  ch.  owned  by  railway  companies,  as 
against  2,608  m.  65  ch.  not  so  owned.  The  mileage  of  canals  belonging  to 
railway  companies  has  decreased  since  1888  by  a  little  over  65  miles,  owing 
to  the  transfer  to  the  Sheffield  and  South  Yorkshire  Navigation  Company 
of  certain  canals  which  belonged  to  the  Grand  Central  Railway  Company. 
Of  the  582  m.  12  ch.*  of  canals  in  Ireland,  95  m.  69  ch.,  or  nearly  one- sixth, 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  railway  company.  Commenting  at  the  Manchester 
Conference  on  the  1888  figures  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  Sir  Michael  Hicks- 
Beach,  the  then  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  said : — "  Out  of  the 
whole  mileage  of  the  canals  of  the  United  Kingdom,  one-third  belong  to  the 
railway  companies.  That  one-third  only  carries  one-fourth  of  the  total 
traffic  carried  on  the  canals.  The  gross  receipts  per  mile  on  that  one-third 
are  considerably  less  than  they  are  on  the  independent  canals,  and  Ihe  net 
profits  out  of  these  gross  receipts  amount  to  as  little  as  one-fourth  of  the 
gross  receipts.  I  confess,  without  desiring  to  say  anything  that  should  be 
unpleasant  to  the  railway  companies,  that  the  facts  do  seem  to  me  to  give 
some  colour  to  the  accusation  which  has  been  frequently  made,  that  when  a 
railway  company  becomes  the  owner  of  a  canal  it  works  that  canal  rather 
for  the  profit  of  the  railway  than  for  the  profit  of  the  canal  or  the  advantage 
of  the  community.  I  believe  there  can  be  no  more  short-sighted  policy 
than  such  a  policy  as  that.  If  our  railway  companies  allowed  the  free  de- 
velopment of  the  traffic  of  their  canals  and  through  traffic  from  their  canals 
to  the  canals  of  independent  companies,  I  believe  the  result  would  be  most 
satisfactory  to  canals  generally  and  to  the  public  at  large,  but  even,  by  the 
increase  of  trade,  to  the  railways  themselves."  This  is  emphatically  the 
opinion  of  those  foreign  Governments  which  own  both  the  railways  and 
canals,  and  which  can  thus  secure  a  natural  and  profitable  division  of  labour 
between  the  two  supplementary  modes  of  transit.  I  shall  return  in  a 
moment,  to  the  illustration  of  this  point.  Meantime  I  take  it  as  an  evidence 
of  what  I  may  call  the  vitality  of  inland  waterways — a  vitality  arising,  of 
course,  from  their  inherent  utility  and  adaptability  as  economical  means  of 
communication — that  in  spite  of  the  past  action  and  attitude  of  railway 
companies  (of  which  something  has  just  been  said),  and  in  spite  of  their  own 
intrinsic  engineering  and  other  defects,  the  canals  of  the  United  Kingdom 
have  been  able  to  survive  at  all  and  even  to  pay  a  moderate  return  on 
capital. 

According  to  the  Board  of  Trade  Return  issued  in  1890  (the  particulars 
given  are  for  the  year  1888),  it  will  be  seen  that  25  per  cent,  of  the  paid-up 
ordinary  capital  paid  2  to  3  per  cent,  dividend  ;  47  per  cent,  paid  3  to  4  per 
cent.  ;  and  9  per  cent,  paid  4  to  10)4  per  cent.  Only  6  per  cent,  of  the 
v>  hole  ordinary  paid-up  capital  gave  no  return.  The  Board  of  Trade  figures 
for  the  year  1898,  which  I  append,  are,  it  is  true,  far  from  being  so  favour- 
able.    Still,  it  will  be  seen  that  68.48  per  cent,  of  the  entire  ordinary  capital 

*  This  figure  is  taken  from  the  Board  of  "Works  return  for  1898,  but  the  Table  on  which  this 
mileage  is  estimated,  omits  the  following  waterways  : — River  Suir  Navigation,  Foyle  Navigation 
(Foyle  to  Strabane),  Ballinamore  and  Ballyconnell  Navigation,  Lough  Corrib  Navigation,  and 
the  Tyrone  Navigation.  An  estimate  of  our  inland  navigation  places  it  at  750  miles,  more  than 
two-thirds  of  which  are  natural  lakes  and  rivers. 


CANALS. 


91 


pays  some  dividend,  while  as  much  as  4147  per  cent,  still  pays  more  than  3 
per  cent,  interest : — 

Table  showing  for  the  Year  1898  the  Amount  of  Ordinary  Stock  classed  according  to  the 
Rate  per  Cent,  of  Dividend  Paid,  in  respect  of  Canals  and  Navigation,  in  England 
and  Wales,  Ireland  and  the  United  Kingdom,  not  belonging  to  Railway  Companies. 


Rate  Per  Cent,  of  Dividend  or 
Interest  Paid. 

Ordinary. 

England 
and 

Wales. 

Ireland. 

United 
Kingdom. 

Per  Cent. 

of 

Total. 

No  dividend  or  interest  paid 

Dividends  and  interest  paid  ; — 

Not  exceeding  i  per  cent. 

Exceeding  i  per  cent,  and  not  exceed- 
ing 2  per  cent. 

Exceeding  2  per  cent,  and  not  exceed- 
ing 3  per  cent. 

Exceeding  3  per  cent,  and  not  exceed- 
ing 4  per  cent. 

Exceeding  4  per  cent,  and  not  exceed- 
ing 5  per  cent. 

At  5^  per  cent.     . . 

At  6  per  cent. 

At  7j  per  cent.     . . 

At  9  per  cent. 

Birmingham    and    Warwick    Junction 
Canal 

Premiums 

Total           

£ 

4.861,738^ 

1,086,093 
259.150 

2,763,100 

5.682,575 

231,032 

178,648 

24,400 
50,000 
60,000 

5.183 

£ 
82,898 

66,000 

332,950 
5.120 

£ 

4,944,636^ 

1,152,093 
259.150 

2,763,100 

6,015,525 

236,152 

178,648 

24,400 
50,000 
60,000 

5.183 

31-52 

7.34 
1.65 

17.61 

38.34 

1-51 

1. 14 

.16 
■32 

•38 

•03 

15,201,919^ 

486,968 

15.688,8871 

1 00.0 

The  following  comparison  between  the  dividend-paying  power  on  the 
ordinary  paid  up  capital  of  the  canals  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  canals  of 
Ireland,  and  the  Irish  railways,  will  make  it  clear  that  the  canal,  even  under 
the  most  crippling  conditions,  is  not  yet  in  these  countries  a  negligible  quan- 
tity in  the  matter  of  merchandise  and  mineral  transport : — - 

Statement  showing  for  the  Year  189S*  the  Proportion  per  Cent,  of  the  Ordinary  Capital 
of  the  Canals  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  Irish  Canals,  and  the  Irish  Railways, 
respectively,  upon  which  (I.)  No  Dividend  was  paid,  and  (II.)  Dividends  were  paid, 
classified  according  to  the  Rates  of  Interest. 


Amount 

of 
Ordinary 
Capital. 

Proportion  per  Cent,  of  Ordinary  Capital  upon  which— 

(I.)— No 
Divi- 
dend 
was 
paid. 

(II.)— Dividends  were  paid. 

Not 
exceed- 
ing! 
per  cent. 

Exceed- 
ing 1 
and  not 
exceed- 
ing 2 
per  cent. 

Exceed- 
ing 2 

and  not 

exceed- 
ing 3 

per  cent. 

Exceed- 
ing 3 

and  not 

exceed- 
ing* 

per  cent. 

Exceed- 
ing 4 

and  not 

exceed- 
ing 5 

per  cent. 

Exceed- 
ing 5 
per  cent. 

Canals  of  the 
United  King- 
dom 

Irish  Canals    . . 

Irish     Railways 

£ 
15,688,887 

486,968 
16,159.991 

31-5 

17.0 
18.2 

7-4 

13-5 
0.3 

1-7 
2.0 

17.6 
0.7 

38.3 

68.4 
15.0 

1-5 

I.I 
31-4 

2.0 

32.4 

The  latest  year  for  which  full  Canal  returns  are  available. 


92  CANALS. 

The  traffic  of  the  canals  of  Ireland  amounted  to  708,174  tons  in  1898, 
while  the  goods  traffic  of  the  Irish  railways  was  5,113,419  tons  in  the  same 
year. 

In  an  admirable  memorandum  on  "  The  Policy  of  Water  Carriage  m 
England,"  which  Lieutenant-General  Rundall,  R.E.,  handed  in  to  the  Com- 
mission on  Canals  (1883),  the  distinctive  advantages  of  water  transport  are 
excellently  set  out  as  follows  : — - 

"  It  is  not  only  in  the  item  of  cheapness,  however,  that  canal  carriage  '.s 
superior,  but  it  also  possesses  the  following  advantages:  ■ — 

"  I.  It  admits  of  any  class  of  goods  being  carried  in  the  manner  and  at  the 
speed  which  proves  to  be  most  economical  and  suitable  for  it,  without  the 
slightest  interference  with  any  other  class. 

"  2.  The  landing  or  shipment  of  cargo  is  not  necessarily  confined  to  certain 
fixed  stations  as  is  obligatory  on  railways,  but  boats  can  stop  anywhere  on 
their  journey  to  load  and  unload. 

"  3.  The  boat  itself  often  serves  as  a  warehouse,  in  which  an  owner  may 
keep  his  cargo  till  sold. 

"  4.  The  dead  weight  to  be  moved  in  proportion  to  the  load  is  much  less  In 
the  case  of  canal  carriage  than  that  of  railway.  The  ordinary  railway  truck 
weighs  nearly  as  much  as  the  load  put  on  it,  whereas  a  cargo  boat  will  carry 
four  or  five  times  its  own  weight. 

"  5.  The  capacity  for  traffic  is  practically  unlimited,  even  in  the  case  of 
canals  with  locks,  provided  the  locks  are  properly  designed.  A  lock  150 
feet  long  by  20  feet  broad,  in  a  canal  with  a  draft  of  six  feet,  will  pass  single 
boats  of  300  tons  burden.  Locks  can  be  designed,  and  are  in  actual  operation, 
so  as  to  be  manoeuvrable  in  three  minutes;  but  supposing  that  time  were 
doubled,  then  at  the  rate  of  10  lockfuls  of  300  tons  per  hour,  the  capability  of 
a  single  lock  would  be  at  the  rate  of  10x300x24  =  72,000  tons  per  day,  or 
over  25  million  tons  per  annum.  If  a  larger  traffic  recjuired  to  be  accommo- 
dated, it  would  be  met  either  by  increasing  the  speed  at  which  the  locks  were 
worked,  or  doubling  their  number. 

"  6.  In  the  case  of  either  State  or  private  canals,  unless  worked  by  the 
owners  of  the  canal,  there  is  no  necessity  for  maintaining  an  enormous  and 
expensive  apparatus  or  establishment,  as  all  that  can  and  wou'd  be  carried  on 
by  separate  agencies  and  by  district  capital,  thus  avoiding  a  large  expenditure 
in  the  first  cost,  and  subsequent  maintenance  of  rolling  stock. 

"  7.  The  almost  total  absence  of  risk  and  reduction  of  damage  to  cargo  in 
transit  to  a  minimum.  In  order  to  reap  the  fullest  advantages  of  water  car- 
riage, however,  it  will  be  necessary,  just  as  it  is  in  all  undertakings,  not  only 
to  construct  the  most  perfect  instrument  possible,  but  also  to  take  care  that 
it  is  most  carefully  and  wisely  managed    afterwards." 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  that,  from  the  national  point  of  view,  the 
good  influence  of  our  system  of  canals  and  waterways  has  been,  and  is, 
greater  than  the  volume  of  trade  dealt  with  or  the  dividend  returns  earned 
might  lead  us  to  imagine.  Their  power  of  regulating  freight  charges  on  the 
railways  is  considerably  more  than  their  absolute  efficiency  at  any  moment 
would  seem  to  imply ;  for  even  potential  competition  has  an  immediate 
influence  on  rates,  as  anyone  conversant  with  railway  problems  can  readily 
illustrate  from  his  own  experience.  In  any  comparison  between  railways 
and  canals  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  former  are  regarded  (as  we 
actually  find  them)  at  the  highest  point  of  modern  efficiency,  while  canals 
have  to  be  considered  (as  we  actually  find  them  also)  as  a  means  of  trans- 
port using,  in  these  countries  at  any  rate,  out-of-date  sections,  locks,  barges. 


CANALS.  93 

and  haulage,  and  thus  affording  a  most  imperfect  estimate  of  what  their 
potentiahties  would  be  under  improved  modern  conditions.  The  railway 
has  developed  wonderfully  in  response  to  the  increasing  demands  of  trade 
and  passenger  traffic,  while  inland  waterways  have,  in  the  United  Kingdom 
for  the  most  part,  remained  stationary  for  quite  half  a  century,  and  many 
of  them  have  actually  retrogressed  or  even  gone  derelict.  In  regard  to  this 
whole  question  of  competition  between  waterways  and  railways,  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  Professor  Emory  R.  Johnson's  "  Inland  Waterways  " 
(Philadelphia,  1 893)  is  well  worthy  of  respect  as  coming  from  a  distinguished 
economist  who  has  made  a  special  study  of  transit  problems  : — "  The  best 

_,,      _        ,  regulator  of  railroad  rates  is  (writes  Dr.  Johnson),  the 

independent  waterway.*     Competition  between  rail- 

Kegulator  01  roads  and  water  routes  is  quite  different  in  kind  from 

Railway  Rates.  .that  of  railroads  with  each  other ;  it  is  bound  to  pro- 
duce cheaper  rates,  and  can  do  this  without  detriment  to  the  railroads. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  showing  the  power  of  water  transportation  to 
lower  freight  rates.  The  past  and  present  opposition  which  the  railroads 
have  shown  the  waterways  in  order  that  rates  might  be  controlled  indicates 
clearly  enough  that  the  railroads  are  conscious  of  the  potency  of  water 
competition.  The  railroads  see  in  the  waterway  an  agency  which  can  move 
certain  kinds  of  freight  at  lower  rates  than  they  can  be  transported  on  land, 
and,  without  analysing  the  results  of  this  to  see  what  may  be  the  secondary 
effects  on  the  freight  business  by  rail  of  the  cheaper  transportation  charges 
for  these  certain  kinds  of  goods,  the  railroad  strives  to  quash  the  waterway 
out  of  existence.  An  illustration  out  of  many  that  might  be  cited  to  show 
the  real  and  effective  competition  of  waterways  is  afforded  by  Belgium. 
Liege  and  Antwerp  are  connected  by  a  line  of  navigation  156  kilometres 
long,  that  comes  in  competition  with  two  railroads  somewhat  shorter  in 
length.  The  water  rates  often  come  as  low  as  2  francs  15  centimes  to  2 
francs  30  centimes  per  ton  for  the  entire  distance.  In  order  to  compete,  the 
railroads  carry  at  their  lowest  rate  between  Li^ge  and  Antwerp.  In  train 
load  lots  of  200  tons,  for  exportation  by  sea,  they  charge  only  two  francs  a 
ton.  This  is  a  special  rate,  all  others  being  enough  higher  than  by  boat  to 
enable  the  w^aterways  to  secure  a  good  volume  of  freight.  The  cheapest 
freight  rates  by  rail  to  be  found  in  the  world  are  those  for  grain  between 
Chicago  and  New  York  ;  and  why  ?  Because  the  cheapest  inland  water 
transportation  rates  in  the  world  are  those  between  the  same  points.  All  the 
railroads  of  the  United  States  have  been  steadily  lowering  freight  charges 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  and  largely,  of  course,  because  improvements 
in  track  and  equipment  have  made  this  possible.  Those  roads,  however, 
that  have  made  the  most  improvements  and  the  greatest  reductions  in  ra.tes 
are  the  great  trunk  lines  leading  into  New  York  from  the  West,  those  that 
compete  with  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Hudson  River.  The 
average  freight  earnings  per  ton  mile  of  all  the  railways  of  the  United 
States  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1890,  were  .941  cents.f  The  ton  mile 
earnings  of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  were  .730 
cents,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  .661  cents;  on  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern,  .653  cents,  and  on  the  Michigan  Central,  .726  cents ; 
whereas  the  average  earnings  per  ton  mile  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul,  and  the  Chicago  and  North-western,  roads  coming  but  slightly 

*  The  italics  are  in  the  original. 

t  For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1S91,  they  were  .S95  cents. 


94 


CANALS. 


into  competition  with  the  Great  Lakes  and  other  waterways,  were  i.o6  and 
1.03  cents  respectively.  The  following  table,  showing  the  wheat  rates  per 
bushel  from  Chicago  to  New  York  for  the  years  1870,  1880,  and  1889,  by 
water,  by  water  and  rail  combined,  and  by  rail,  indicates  very  plainly  how 
freight  charges  have  fallen,  and  how  this  movement  has  been  led  by  the 
waterways : — 


By  Lake  and 

1              Canal. 

By  Lake  and 
Rail. 

By  all  Rail. 

1870          

1880          

1889          

17.10  cents. 
12.27        „ 
6.89 

22.0  cents. 
15-7       .. 
8.7       ,. 

33.3  cents. 
19-9       .. 
i,5-o       „ 

"  The  important  influence  of  the  Erie  Canal  on  freight  rates  has  often  been 
emphasized ;  only  a  few  facts  need  be  given  here.  They  are  for  the  year 
1 89 1.  The  Erie  Canal  was  opened  in  May,  at  which  time  the  pool  rates  on 
grain  from  Buffalo  to  New  York  were  seven  and  four-fifths  per  cent,  per 
bushel.  The  grain  rates  on  the  canal  for  the  various  months  of  the  season 
were— May,  2.51  cents;  June,  2.53  cents;  July,  2.68  cents;  August,  3.94 
cents;  September,  4.19  cents;  October,  4.44  cents;  and  November,  4.13 
cents.  The  railroad  pool  rates,  though  nominally  unchanged,  were  not 
maintained.  Mr.  Edward  Hannan,  Superintendent  of  Public  Works  of 
New  York,  says  :  '  My  information  on  that  subject,  which  has  been  received 
from  private  sources,  is  that  contracts  were  made  by  the  various  railroads  to 
carry  grain  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  for  four  cents  a  bushel ; 
September,  four  and  one-half ;  and  October,  five  cents.  On  petition  of  the 
Merchants  Exchange,  of  Buffalo,  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Works  kept 
the  canals  of  New  York  State  open  five  days  longer  than  the  allotted  time. 
This  shows  very  plainly  that  shippers  regard  the  canal  as  a  freight  regu- 
lator. When  the  canals  closed  for  the  winter  the  railroad  charges  again  rose 
to  the  pool  rates.'  " 

To  return  now  to  the  interesting  question  of  the  division  of  labour 
between  canals  and  railways  which  the  characteristic  quahty  of  each  means 
of  communication  would  dictate,  and  which  is  actually  in  operation  in 
countries  where  this  problem  of  transit  is  considered  from  a  broad  national 
standpoint,  and  where  consequently  a  unified  system  of  inter-communica- 
tion exists. 

Bulky  raw  materials  *  naturally  constitute  the  larger  share  of  the  actual 
traffic  on  canals  in  every  country ;  the  kind  of  the  raw  material  depending, 
of  course,  on  the  industrial  character  of  the  district  served  by  the  particular 
canal.       The    commodities    carried    by    the    Irish    canals    in    1899   consist 

*This  must  not,  however,  be  interpreted  too  strictly.  Mr.  F.  de  Vismes  Kane,  a  former 
Chairman  of  the  Grand  Canal,  writes  me  on  this  point: — "  Undoubtedly  heavy  traffic  is  well 
suited  for  canals.  But  if  it  were  not  that  we  carried  large  quantities  of  lighter  goods — mer- 
chandise of  all  kinds— even  furniture,  drapery,  crockery,  tobacco,  and  groceries  of  all  sorts, 
paying  ^ood  freight,  we  could  scarcely  have  maintained  the  service  on  the  Grand  Canal.  Given 
good,  staunch  boats,  we  can  well  compete  with  railways  in  these  things  where  haste  is  not 
required  ;  and  as  for  whiskey  and  tea,  and  valuable  goods  of  that  kind,  we  can  lock  up  the 
holds  and  prevent  pillage  entirely.  We  did  a  large  business  sending  whiskey  sealed  down  all 
the  way  to  Limerick  ;  and  furniture  is  most  safely  carried.  To  Naas  we  had  a  boat  which 
delivered  goods  earlier  than  the  railway.  Our  service  was  a  continuous  one — night  and  day — 
so  that  the  difference  in  speed  was  not  great  for  short  distances." 


CANALS. 


95 


mainly  of  coal,  bricks,  timber,  sand,  turf,  oats,  flour,  grain,  porter 
(which  is  25  per  cent,  of  all  traffic  on  the  Shannon  and  Maigue  Navi- 
gations), and  such  agricultural  requirements  as  artificial  manures,  grass 
seeds,  etc.,  besides  a  fair  proportion  of  "  general  cargo."  In  a  country 
like  Ireland  whose  soils  vary  so  much  in  kind,  there  being  large  districts  of 
moory  land,  heavy  clays,  shallow  soils  lying  immediately  upon  limestone 
plateaux,  and  friable  loams  on  basaltic  or  igneous  formations,  the  farm 
produce  is  affected  very  diversely  by  the  varying  conditions  of  sun-heat  and 
rainfall  in  different  seasons,  so  that  it  is  not  unusual  to  have  a  heavy  root 
crop  in  one  district  while  in  others  it  is  of  poor  quality  or  scanty  in  bulk. 
In  the  absence  of  cheap  transport  for  bulky  crops  such  as  potatoes  or 
turnips,  the  local  glut  or  scarcity  rules  the  market  prices  ;  so  that  the  profits 
of  agriculture  are  subject  to  more  violent  fluctuations  than  would  obtain  if 
there  were  better  facilities  for  distribution.  The  railway  freights  are  neces- 
sarily disproportionate  to  the  value  of  such  products.  However,  since  the 
"  inward  "  exceeds  very  largely  the  "  outward  "  traffic  to  seaports  by  reason 
of  the  scarcity  of  manufacturing  industries  in  Ireland,  it  is,  perhaps,  worth 
consideration  whether  lower  rates  for  such  class  of  goods  might  not  remu- 
nerate the  carrying  companies  by  utilizing  the  empty  return  wagons.  Here, 
certainly,  an  efficient  inland  navigation  service  would  serve  the  farmer.  The 
same  general  classes  of  commodities,  as  quoted  above,  are  found  in  the 
traffic-lists  of  continental  waterways.  Of  the  freight  brought  to  Berlin  for 
instance,  in  1890,  49  per  cent,  consisted  according  to  the  official  returns,  of 
stone  and  brick,  21  per  cent,  of  lime,  earth,  sand,  etc.,  10  per  cent,  of  wood, 
7  per  cent,  of  coal,  and  6  per  cent,  of  grain.  Again,  an  official  analysis  made 
some  years  ago  of  the  traffic  carried  on  French  canals  gives  the  following 
results :  construction  materials  and  minerals,  28  per  cent. ;  agricultural  pro 
duce,  14.4  per  cent. ;  timber,  8.6  per  cent. ;  metals,  7  per  cent. ;  manure 
and  accessories,  5.3  per  cent.  ;  and  so  on.  A  consideration  of  the 
character  of  this  traffic  makes  it  evident  that  the  province  of  the  water- 
way in  transportation  is  a  narrower  one  than  that  q^  the  railway.  The 
latter  naturally  takes  all  passenger  traffic,  all  perishable  goods,  nearly  all 
"  smalls  "  traffic,  and  practically  all  live  stock,  and  as  it  happens,  these  are 
precisely  the  classes  of  traffic  which  are  most  remunerative  on  railways.  It 
is  significant,  by  the  way,  of  the  influence  of  waterway  rates  on  railway  rates, 
that  while  goods  rates  have  been  reduced  very  considerably  within  the  past 
two  decades,  passenger  fares,  in  which  there  is  practically  no  water  compe- 
tition, have  declined  to  a  far  less  extent  (except,  of  course,  in  urban  areas, 
where  the  competition  of  the  tram  system  has  been  felt).  This  is  a  pheno- 
menon observable  in  every  country  where  there  is  genuine  competition 
either  between  waterways  and  railways,  or  by  railways  in^er  se.  The  fol- 
lowing Table  for  the  United  States  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  tendency  :^ 


Year. 

Rate  per  Ton-mile. 

Rate  per  Passenger- 
mile. 

1884 

1887 

1890   . . 

1893 

1896 

Cents. 

1. 124 

1.034 

.927 

•893 
.821 

Cents. 
2.356 
2.276 
2.174 
2.072 
2.034 

96  CANALS. 

Accompanying  this  decrease  (outside  of  this  country)  in  rates  for  goods 
there  has  been,  needless  to  say,  a  wonderful  increase  in  the  goods  traffic  in 
comparison  with  the  passenger  traffic.  In  fact,  it  is  this  very  increase  of 
freight  traffic — which  is  obtaining  a  greater  and  greater  preponderance  in 
the  entire  traffic  of  the  railroad — which  has  again  brought  prominently  for- 
romnarativp  Cost  ^'^^^'^  ^^e  question  of  waterway  transit.  Heavy  goods 
^  traffic  is  the  least  profitable  traffic  for  a  railway  to 

ot  Railroad  and  handle,  and  the  provision  for  it  in  the  matter  of 
Water  Haulage.  sidings,  double  and  even  (as  on  the  English  trunk 
Imes)  quadruple  lines,  reduces  the  small  margin  of  profit,  where  there  is  any 
serious  competition,  to  a  still  lower  figure.  It  has  been  estimated*  that  a 
gross  income  of  more  than  ;£"30,000  a  mile  is  earned  in  England  off  a  single 
pair  of  tracks  by  a  traffic  exclusively  in  passengers  or  goods  carried  at  pas- 
senger speed.  About  ;i^8,ooo  per  mile  is  said  to  be  the  largest  revenue 
earned  by  any  line  of  mixed  traffic,  and  ;^6,200  a  mile  has  been  earned  on 
mineral  lines  proper.  On  the  other  hand,  a  moderate  estimate  of  the  cost 
of  carriage  of  heavy  materials  by  canal  places  it  at  less  than  a  third  of  the 
corresponding  cost  by  railway.  The  late  Mr.  Francis  R.  Corder,  C.E.,  who 
gave  important  evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  on  Canals,  1883,  put 
m,  inter  alia,  an  interesting  document  (which  will  be  found,  p.  234  of  the 
Report  [C.  252 — 1883]  of  that  Committee)  dealing  with  the  comparative 
costs  of  Railway  and  Canal  transport.  Mr.  Corder  was  certainly  an  enthu- 
siast for  inland  navigation,  and,  possibly,  tended  to  an  optimistic  view  of  the 
possibilities  of  canal  traffic,  but  his  main  contentions  are  unquestionably 
sound,  and  his  statement  of  the  case,  though  worked  out  nearly  twenty 
years  ago,  still  deserves  study.     I  accordingly  quote  the  following  extract : — 

"The  main  causes  which  render  transport  by  canal  cheaper  than  transport 
by  railway  are  (writes  Mr.  Corder)  the  following  : — 

"  (i.)  In  canal  transport  there  is  no  item  of  cost  corresponding  to  the 
wear  and  tear  of  rails,  sleepers,  and  fittings,  or  to  the  replacement  and 
maintenance  of  permanent  way.  These  items  form  13  per  cent,  of  the 
working  expenditure  of  the  railways  of  the  United  Kingdom.! 

"  (2.)  A  corresponding  saving,  which  there  are  reasons  for  estimating  as 
equal  to  the  former,  is  made  in  the  repairs  of  vehicles  and  locomotives, 
due  to  the  damage  caused  by  the  reaction  of  the  rigid  way. 

"  (3.)  The  maintenance  of  the  works  on  a  canal  is  on  the  average  much 
less  costly  than  the  corresponding  outlay  on  a  railway;  not  only  from  the 
absence  of  vibration,  but  from  the  much  smaller  magnitude  of  the  works 
themselves.  The  average  cost  of  the  railways  of  England  and  Wales  is 
_;z{J'46,ooo  a  inile.  That  ot  the  canals,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained,  is 
not  more  than  ;^3,35o  per  mile.  The  average  cost  of  18  of  the  principal 
English  canals  was  under  _;^io,ooo  a  mile;  that  of  the  Birmingham  Canal, 
of  which,  in  1865  the  original  ;^i,ooo  shares  were  each  worth  more  than 
^^30,000  in  the  market, J  was  ;/5"i5,ooo  a  mile.  The  cost  of  the  Man- 
chester, Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire,  and  of  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire 
Railways,  which  offer  the  best  parallel  to  the  Birmingham  Canal,  aver- 
aged ;^65,7oo  per  mile.  Thus  for  equal  volumes  of  traffic,  the  cost  of 
the  maintenance  of  works  on  a  canal  will  be  less  than  one-fourth  of  that 
on  a  railway.     The  cost  of  thi.s  item  on  the  railways  of  the  United  Kingdom 

*  See  "Index  to  our  Railway  System,"  by  William  Fleming,  No.  III.,  47. 
t  Vide  "  Index  to  our  Railway  System,''  No.  III.,  p.  24. 

1   Vide   "  Du   Regime  des  travaux  publics  en  Angleterre.'       Par  Ch.    De   Franqueville. 
Paris,  1875.     Vol.  II.,  p.  301. 


CANALS. 


97 


is  7  per  cent,  of  the  working  expenditure.*  In  the  annexed  table  I 
have  taken  one-third  of  this  for  the  cost  of  canal  maintenance. 

"  (4.)  The  resistance  to  traction  on  a  level  railway,  at  the  speed  of  30 
miles  an  hour,  is  exactly  ten  times  the  resistance  to  traction  on  a  canal, 
at  the  speed  of  2J  miles  an  hour.f  The  force  that  will  draw  a  load  on  a 
canal  at  four  miles  an  hour  is  just  half  that  required  to  draw  an  equal  load 
on  a  railway  at  35  miles  an  hour.  The  economy  of  tractive  force  is  thus 
in  inverse  proportion  to  the  speed  of  transport.  Traction,  on  the  railways 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  costs  16  per  cent,  of  the  expenditure.  I  have 
taken  it  at  half  that  figure  on  canals. 

"  (5.)  It  is  not  so  evident  why  the  item  of  traffic  expenses,  which  forms  J 
30  per  cent,  of  railway  expenditure,  should  be  so  much  lighter  on  canals. 
It  is,  however,  in  evidence  that  it  is  so.  I  have  taken  the  proportion, 
from  the  French  returns,  at  one-fifth  of  this  rate. 

"  (6.)  The  items  of  duty  and  general  charges,  which  amount  to  15  per 
cent,  of  the  English  expenditure  on  railways,  follow  nearly  the  same 
proportion  as  the  trafl^c  expenses,  on  the  French  canals.  I  have,  how- 
ever, allowed  an  equal  proportionate  charge  to  that  of  the  railways  for 
the  English  canals. 

"  I  can  thus  state  with  confidence  that  the  following  table  underrates  the 
economy  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  canal  transport  for  heavy  traffic. 

"  Out  of  every  ;^200  paid  for  an  equal  tonnage  transported  an  equal  distance, 
the  detailed  costs  are:  — 


Item. 

By  Railway. 

By  Canal. 

Maintenance  of  Way 
Maintenance  of  Works 
Repairs  of  Rolling  Stock    . . 
Traction 
Traffic  Expenses 
General  Charges 
Interest  on  Capital  . . 

Total    

13 

7 
19 
16 
30 

15 
100 

0 

2.3 

6 

8 

6 
15 
33-3 

200 

70.6 

Showing  an  economy  of  64.7  per  cent,  by  canal. 

"I  may  point  out,"  adds  Mr.  Corder,  "that  in  the  case  of  the  transport  of 
fish,  of  light  parcels,  and  of  any  commodities  for  the  rapid  carriage  of  which 
it  is  worth  while  to  pay  treble  freight,  the  question  of  time  has  to  be  set 
against  that  of  cost.  But  mineral  trains  rarely  run  at  higher  speed  than 
fifteen  miles  an  hour,  while  the  time  consumed  in  waiting  in  sidings  is  so 
much,  that  on  one  important  line  the  locomotive  superintendent  has  stated 
that  the  average  rate  of  some  of  the  trains,  covering  all  stoppages,  was  not 
above  five  miles  per  hour." 

It  is  clear  from  considerations  such  as  these — and  Mr.  Corder's  calcula- 
tions are,  I  believe,  still  substantially  true — that  the  canal,  under  normal 
conditions,  could  by  division  of  appropriate  traffic,  both  be  an  aid  and  a 
complement  to  the  railway.  Against  this  view,  seemingly,  is  the  strange 
apathy  of  these  railways  who  own  canals  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  regard 
to  that  portion  of  their  property.  It  is  commonly  believed,  that  railway 
proprietors  are  good  judges  of  their  own  interests,  and  presumably  there  are 

*  "  Index  to  our  Railway  System,"  No.  III.,  p.  24. 

t  Vide    "Transactions    of    the    Institute    of    Civil    Engineers,"    Vol.    I.,    p.     173,    and 
"  Locomotive  Engineering,"  by  Z.  Colborn,  Vol.  I.,  p.  291. 
I  "  Index  to  our  Railway  System,"  No.  III.,  p.  24. 

H 


98 


CANALS. 


reasons  for  the  neglect  of  the  railway-owned  canals.  I  have  already  quoted 
Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach  on  this  subject.  A  single  fact  will  illustrate  the 
case  as  vividly  as  pages  of  argument.  Between  1888  and  1898  the  traffic 
on  independent  canals  in  the  United  Kingdom  increased  by  over  5,000,000 
tons  ;  on  the  railway-owned  canals,  in  the  same  period,  the  traffic  decreased 
2,000,000  tons.  The  Midland  Great  Western  Railway  Company  of  Ireland, 
which  purchased  the  Royal  Canal  for  a  sum  of  ;6'298,05g,  and  have,  since 
1845,  expended  on  it,  according  to  the  Board  of  Trade  returns,  a  sum  of 
;£"I09,3I3,  do  not  themselves  act  as  carriers  over  that  waterway,  being 
simply  toll-takers  to  the  extent  of  £'2,7  \1  in  the  year  1898.  Of  course,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  tonnage  of  heavy  goods  traffic  on  an  Irish  rail- 
road cannot  compare  in  volume  with  that  on  any  of  the  trunk  lines  of  Great 
Britain,  and  still  less  with  that  on  the  chief  transatlantic  lines.*  There  s 
seldom  in  this  country  a  serious  congestion  of  freight  traffic  as  is,  indeed, 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  out  of  the  total  mileage  of  3,176  only  621  miles 
are  double  (or  more)  lines.  The  Great  Western  of  England  has  more  than 
twice  as  great  a  mileage  as  the  whole  Irish  railway  system  under  double 
(or  more)  lines. 

Hence,  on  the  one  hand,  the  railways  can,  in  a  country  like  Ireland,  pro- 
vide for  this  class  of  heavy  goods  traffic  proportionately  cheaper — I  mean 
at  less  cost  to  themselvest — than  can  be  done  on  English  or  American  lines, 
while,  on  the  other,  the  absence  of  a  fully-developed  free  water  competition 
enables  them  to  maintain  freight  charges,  in  most  cases,  at  a  non-competi- 
live  and  therefore  very  remunerative  level.     However,  the  issues  involved  m 

*  Mr.  J.  Thompson,  President  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  ot  Commerce,  and  one  of  the 
members  of  a  deputation  which  waited  on  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  last -year  in 
reference  to  the  canal  system  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  reported  {Times,  December  14th,  igoo) 
to  have  said  that  "  the  railways  had  reached  the  limit  of  their  capacity  for  heavy  traffic,  and 
they  all  felt  that  the  canals  were  a  very  valuable  and  imperfectly  utilised  mode  of  transport, 
and  were  capable  of  great  improvement." 

t  Having  regard  (in  the  case  of  Ireland)  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  capital  expenditure 
involved,  the  lack  of  expenditure  on  additional  tracks,  sidings,  goods  stores,  &c.,  and  particu- 
larly the  considerably  smaller  outlay  on  wages  and  salaries.  In  connection  with  the  latter,  the 
following  Board  of  Trade  returns  are  suggestive  : — 

EARNINGS     OF     RAILWAY     SERVANTS. 


Coxintvj. 

Number  of  Workpeople 
employed  (First  "Week  in 
December). 

Average  Wages  per  Head. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

England  and  Wales  (16J 

companies) 
Scotland  (5  companies) 

Ireland    (8    companies) 

1  Total  for  29  companies 

i 

1 

339.883 

40,871 
17.354 

353.785 
41,148 

17.371 

371.490 
42,660 
17,708 

5.     d. 

24   io| 

19    5 

5.     d. 
25     li 

22     7l 
19     4f 

1 
5.     d.      \ 
25     92 

22   lof 

19     4?     1 

398,108 

412,304 

431.858 

24     4^ 

24     7| 

25     3 

Note. — The  workpeople  included  in  the  table  are  those  employed  in  the  coaching, 
goods,  locomotive,  and  engineers'  departments  of  the  Railway  Companies.  The  29  Com- 
panies making  returns  employ  over  90  per  cent,  of  all  the  railway  ser\ants  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

X  Two  of  these  are  now  under  one  management. 


CANALS.  ^  99 

a  careful  review  of  the  causes  affecting  freight-charges  on  railways  are  pecu- 
liarly complex,  and  could  only  be  adequately  dealt  with  by  a  railway  expert. 
I  make  no  pretence  of  discussing  them  here  further  than  to  make  the  above 
somewhat  obvious  comments  on  an  apparent  paradox,  so  far  as  it  concerns 
Ireland.  What  attention  I  have  given  to  the  question,  has  convinced  me  of 
the  truth  of  two  propositions  in  regard  to  Irish  transit  problems :  the  first  is 
that  the  interest  of  the  proprietors  of  a  railway  company,  and  the  interests 
of  the  community  served  by  the  company  are  not,  if  we  confine  our  attention 
to  -periods  of  comparatively  short  duration,  necessarily  co-mcident ;  the 
second  is  that  a  considerable  increase  of  goods  and  passenger  traffic  is 
awaiting  even  a  moderate  reduction  of  railway  rates  and  fares. 

It  remains  to  see  how  keenly  foreign  countries  are  interested  in  the  prc- 
T  1      H  N     "d  f        servation  and  development  of  water- transit  facilities, 
.  °  and  how  they  recognise  that  canals  are  the  comple- 

m  trance  and        ments  rather  than  the  competitors  of  railroads.  There 
Germany.  existed  a  right  of  toll  on  the  rivers  and  canals  in 

France  up  to  1880,  but  it  was  abolished  by  a  statute  of  19th  February,  1880  ; 
and  since  that  date  the  State  has  no  longer  charged  any  rates  on  boats  and 
merchandise  passing  along  the  canals  and  rivers  any  more  than  on  car 
riages  and  goods  going  along  the  roads.  The  passage  through  the  locks 
is  free  even  at  night,  without  payment,  and  the  State  pays  the  lock-keepers, 
who  work  the  gates  day  and  night.  There  remain  only  a  few  canals,  for- 
merly handed  over  to  some  companies,  on  which  these  companies  levy  tolls. 
These  are  very  profitable  to  the  shareholders.  The  State  has  already  re- 
purchased a  good  many  concessions  of  canals,  and  it  is  intended  to  re- 
purchase the  rest  so  as  to  abolish  all  tolls.  Previous  to  1880  the  tolls  in 
navigation  were  low,  amounting  to  from  .oi5<3?.  to  .Qi},d.  per  ton  per  mile  for 
the  rivers,  and  .03^.  to  .076c/.  for  the  canals,  according  to  the  classes  of  goods. 
Since  1841  France  has  devoted  over  ;^8o,ooo,000  sterling  to  the  construction 
and  improvement  of  the  national  waterways,  and  now  annually  contributes 
about  30,000,000  francs  (roughly  ;^i, 200,000)  for  maintenance  and  staff.* 

A  most  suggestive  French  experiment,  illustrating  how  a  suitable  water- 
way charging  moderate  freights  can  practically  create  its  own  traffic,  is 
found  in  the  case  of  the  canal  of  Marne-au-Rhin.  This  navigation  runs 
parallel,  for  a  greater  part  of  its  length,  with  the  railway  from  Paris  to 
Strasburg,  and  83  per  cent,  of  its  present  traffic  is  contributed  by  neigh- 
bouring industries  which  came  into  existence  subsequent  to  its  foundation. 
M.  Picard,  President  of  the  Section  of  Public  Works,  at  the  State  Council, 
speaks  of  the  canal  as  having  given  a  wonderful  impetus  to  the  mineral  and 
other  industries  of  Lorraine — industries  which  could  not  have  been  born, 
according  to  him,  except  for  cheap  transit  facilities  such  as  these  provided 
by  the  Marne-au-Rhin  Canal.  "  Minerals  which,"  says  M.  Picard,  "  lav 
undisturbed  before  its  construction  are  now  being  actively  extracted  ;  fac- 
tories and  furnaces  are  so  numerous  upon  its  banks,  and  press  so  closely 
upon  each  other,  that  one  might  imagine  them  sprung  up  from  the  earth." 
In  fact,  "  83  per  cent,  of  the  industries  upon  its  banks  have  been  established 
since  the  canal  was  cut."     When  we  turn  to  Germany.t  we  find  the  same 

*  Quite  recently  the  French  Government  laid  before  Parliament  estimates  to  the  amount 
650,000,000  francs  for  the  improvement  and  extension  of  the  French  Canal  System.  See, 
however,  a  somewhat  adverse  criticism  of  this  scheme,  in  the  first  February  (1902)  issue  of 
the  Revue  dcs  Deux  Mondes. 

t  See  on  German  Canals  an  excellent  article  entitled  "  Relative  advantages  of  the  Railways 
and  Waterways  of  Germany,"  Journal  of  Royal  Statis.  Soc,  Vol.  LI.  (1888),  pp.  375,  et  seq. 


100 


CANALS. 


far-sighted  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  Government  for  the  development  of  inland 
navigation.  In  spite  of  the  great  extension  of  railways  in  Germany,  the 
traffic  on  the  waterways  is  growing  absolutely  and  relatively.  It  rose 
between  1875  and  1885  from  21  per  cent,  of  the  total  traffic  to  23  per  cent. ; 
and  while  the  increase  of  goods  traffic  on  the  railways  amounted  in  the  same 
decade  to  52  per  cent.,  that  on  the  waterways  reached  66  per  cent.  "  The 
German  Government  has,"  writes  Mr.  Gastrell,*  Commercial  Attache  to  H. 
M.  Embassy  at  Berlin,  "  systematically  tried  to  establish  in  this  country  a 
combined  net  work  of  waterways  and  railways  ;  and  they  have  recognised 
the  -practicability  of  both  working  well  together,  the  canals  taking  the 
bulky  fart  of  the  heavy  traffic  which  does  not  require  rapid  trarisport^ 
Quite  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  truth  that  the  growth  of  a  canal  trade 
may  be  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  traffic  and  profits  of  a  competing 
railway,  is  afforded  by  the  canalization  of  the  Main  from  Mayence  to  Frank- 
fort. The  Main  improvement  works  were  completed  in  1886.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  tonnage  by  rail  and  by  water  for  the  three  years  before 
and  for  the  three  years  succeeding  the  canalization  of  the  Main :--' 


Year. 

Traffic 

on 

Waterways. 

Increase  over 

previous 

Year. 

Traffic 

on 

Railways. 

Increase  over 

Previous 

Year. 

1884 

1885 

1886 

Average  for  3  years 

1887 

1888 

i889t      •  • 

Tons. 
150,513 
150,805 
155.956 
152,425 
360,062 
516,798 
577.610 

Tons. 

281 
5,151 

204,106 

156.735 
60.812 

Tons. 

864,005 

897,040 

932.090 

897,712 

1,013,628 

1,231.935 

i.334.i4« 

Tons. 

33,035 
35.050 

81.538 
218,307 
102,213 

The  moral  of  this  table  is  that  coincident  with  an  increase  of  traffic  on  an 
improved  waterway  there  can  be  an  enormously  increased  freight  on  a  com- 
peting railroad.  The  great  gains  in  the  tonnage  of  the  railroad  since  the 
canalization  of  the  Main  as  compared  with  the  gains  before  is  seen  if  the 
yearly  increase  is  noted.  Nor  was  the  increase  merely  temporary.  I  have 
obtained  the  most  recent  figures  available  both  of  railway  and  water  traffic, 
and  they  show  a  practically  uninterrupted  increase  of  freight  on  each  route  ■. 


*  Foreign  Office  Report  on  the  Development  of  Commercial  Industrial  Maritime,  and 
Traffic  Interests  in  Germany,  1871  to  i8g8. 

t  There  was  a  strike  of  railway  and  canal  operatives  in  this  year,  which  explains  the 
relative  decline  in  increase  of  tonnage  both  for  waterways  and  railways. 

%  Railway  returns  for  1300  not  yet  available,  but  an  estimate  puts  them  at  2,500,000  tons. 
I  am  indebted  for  these  figures  to  my  friend,  Dr.  Moritz  T.  Bonn,  of  Frankfort-on-Main. 


CANALS.  101 

The  economic  use  of  waterways  makes  raw  materials  cheaper,  and  thus 
increases  and  extends  industry  ;  increased  transportation  follows  necessarily 
on  increased  production  ;  by  this  means  the  development  of  waterway  traffic 
reacts  favourably  on  railroad  freights.  The  case  of  the  canalization  of  the 
Main  certainly  seems  to  point  that  way.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  the 
growth  of  traffic  between  Frankfort  and  Mayence  may,  in  some  measure, 
liave  been  due  to  the  recent  general  progress  of  the  industrial  movement  in 
Germany,  but  the  total  increase  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  be  thus  explained. 

The  British  Consul  at  Stuttgart,  in  his  Annual  Report  for  1 900- 1 901  upon 
the  trade  of  Wurtemburg  (Foreign  Office  Annual  Series,  No.  2732),  empha- 
sises the  importance  attached  in  Germany  to  the  construction  of  canals  and 
the  utilisation  of  rivers  as  a  means  of  cheap  transport.  From  1877-97  the 
number  of  river  and  canal  boats  has  increased  from  17,653  to  22,564,  an 
advance  of  28  per  cent.  ;  the  carrying  capacity,  however,  has  increased  from 
1,400,000  to  3,400,000  tons,  or  about  143  per  cent.  If  this  latter  number, 
3,400,000  tons,  is  compared  with  the  loading  capacity  of  the  German  sea- 
going fleet  upon  January  i,  1898,  which  amounted  to  2,400,000  tons,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  river  and  canal  boats  surpassed 
the  loading  capacity  of  the  cea-going  fleet  by  about  1,000,000  tons.  A  com- 
]  'arison  of  the  relative  size  of  the  river  and  canal  boats  reveals  that  the  num- 
ber of  small  boats  of  200  tons  shows  only  a  slight  increase  ;  that  the  number 
of  those*  between  200  and  400  tons  has  almost  trebled  itself  (967  as  com- 
pared with  2,673) ;  ^^^  that,  finally,  the  number  of  large  river  and  canal 
boats  above  400  tons  has  increased  tenfold  (from  137  to  1,541).  The  num- 
ber of  steamers  shows  also  an  increase,  having  risen  from  570,  with  35,000 
horse-power,  to  1,953,  with  240,000  horse-power,  including  an  increase  of 
passenger  steamers  of  from  269  to  844,  and  an  increase  in  tug-boats  and 
steam  freight  boats  of  from  301  to  1,109.  This  increase  in  the  number  of 
boats  and  the  increased  utilisation  of  the  loading  capacity  have  reduced  the 
costs  of  transport  on  German  waterways  during  the  period  of  twenty  years 
mentioned  above  by  about  one-half,  so  that  the  present  cost  of  transport 
per  mile  and  ton  amounts  to  something  less  than  ^/^d. 

A  vivid  illustration  of  the  value  of  canals  to  agriculture  is  afforded  by  the 
Yalue  of  Canals      ^^^^  °^  ^^^  reclamation  of  the  district  of  France  im- 

,_..,,  ,     mediately  west  of  the  Loire,  known  as  La  Sologne. 

to  Agriculture  and  ^r.  O'Neill,  British  Consul  at  Rouen,  has  admirably 
Industry,  described*  this  region  and  its  transformation  by  means 

of  the  facilities  offered  by  the  Canal  de  Sauldre.  "Nearly  1,000,000  acres 
comprising  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  three  departments,  the  Loir  et 
Cher,  the  Cher  and  the  Loiret,  lie  within  the  westward  bend  of  the  Loire, 
and  they  are  composed  of  a  soil  that,  unfertilised,  is  of  absolutely  no  agricul- 
tural value.  In  parts  the  clay  appears  on  the  surface,  but  over  the  greater 
portion  of  its  area  the  sand  lies  with  some  thickness  upon  a  stiff  impermeable 
clay.  Left  alone,"  writes  Mr.  O'Neill,  "  it  will  produce  nothing  of  value.  It 
is  a  country  of  sand  and  heather,  broken  up  by  innumerable  ponds  and 
marshy  tracts,  as  unhealthy  as  they  are  unprofitable.  Immense  efforts  have 
been  made  for  forty  years  past  to  reclaim  these  lands  by  planting  the  sandy 
tracts  with  pines,  by  draining  the  stagnant  surface  waters,  and  by  the  trans- 
port there  for  intermixture  with  the  sand  of  a  calcareous  marl,  which  is 

*  In  an  excellent  report  on  "  The  Fluvial  Traffic  of  the  Rouen  and  Waterways  of  the 
Seine  basin."     [C.  7582 — 27 J  Foreign  Office  Reports,  Miscellaneous  Series,  No.   366. 


102  CANALS. 

obtained  from  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Sancerrois  Hills  that  limit  this 
district  on  the  south-east.  Nearly  200,000  acres  have  been  turned  into  a 
pine  forest ;  drainage  of  stagnant  waters  and  proper  irrigation  has  made 
good  pasture  land  of  much  that  lies  in  proximity  to  the  rivers  running 
through  the  district — the  Cosson,  the  Beuvron,  and  the  Sauldre.  But 
nothing  could  have  been  done  to  fit  the  land  for  the  culture  of  cereals  and 
other  more  profitable  products  had  not  the  Canal  de  Sauldre  been  cut 
right  into  the  heart  of  the  district  from  a  more  favoured  country  yielding 
the  calcareous  elements  of  which  the  soil  of  the  Sologne  was  wholly  de- 
prived. For  forty  years  the  transport  of  '  marne,'  or  calcareous  marl,  has 
gone  steadily  on,  and  it  is  now  computed  that  over  1,000,000  tons  of  this 
fertiliser  have  been  carried  by  it  and  distributed  over  the  poorer  adjacent 
lands.  The  canal  has  been  the  main  agent  in  the  transformation  of  the 
country  to  a  distance  of  10  and  12  miles  from  its  banks.  Pastures  enriched 
produce  now  from  30  to  35  hectolitres  of  hay  per  hectare  ;  wheat  is  grown, 
and  a  return  of  from  25  to  35  bushels  an  acre  obtained  upon  land  that 
before  only  yielded  the  poorest  crop  of  rye ;  beetroot  and  artichokes  are 
amongst  the  latter  crops  of  the  district,  and  stock  is  fattened  on  many  of  the 
farms  for  the  Paris  market.  The  influence  of  the  canal  upon  the  agriculture 
of  the  district  is  such  that  we  are  told  the  selling  value  of  land  increases  or 
decreases  as  it  approaches  or  recedes  from  the  banks  of  the  canal,  that  is, 
from  the  means  of  obtaining  at  a  low  cost  of  transport  the  '  improvements  ' 
of  which,  from  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  it  stands  in  need.  It  is  not  surprising 
to  hear  after  this  that  the  general  cry  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  is  for 
an  extension  of  the  canal  to  the  banks  of  the  Loire  and  the  Cher,  so  that 
they  may  be  put  into  communication  by  water  with  the  navigable  portions 
of  those  rivers.  So  far  the  chief  function  of  the  canal  has  been  to  bring 
them  the  fertilisers  by  which  their  land  has  been  reclaimed ;  what  they  ask 
for  now  is  its  extension  to  assist  them  to  carry  off  and  find  markets  for  its 
heavier  products."  Mr.  O'Neill,  in  the  same  report,  gives  two  striking  illus- 
trations of  the  practical  elimination  of  distance  and  the  cheapening  of  raw 
materials  by  the  easy  and  cheap  communication  afforded  by  suitable  canal 
communication.  These  are  well  worth  quoting  in  full,  as  they  throw  light 
on  some  of  the  arguments  in  favour  of  waterway  transit  to  which  attention 
has  already  been  called  : — 

"Amongst  our  [i.e.  of  France]  imports  (writes  Consul  O'Neill),  is  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  feldspar  from  Norway.  The  chief  part  of  this  feldspar  goes 
by  lighters,  of  course,  into  the  heart  of  France,  into  the  Department  Loiret. 
There,  upon  the  banks  of  the  Canal  de  Briar,  is  an  immense  button  manu- 
factory. Over  1,500  men  are  employed  in  it,  and  the  sewing  of  the  buttons 
on  the  cards  on  which  they  are  sold  all  the  world  over  gives  occupation  to 
many  thousands  of  women  and  children  in  the  surrounding  country.  Crushed 
up,  and — curious  detail — set  with  milk,  for  which  purpose  more  than  100 
cows  are  kept  upon  the  premises,  this  feldspar  from  the  mountains  of  Norway 
serves  as  the  material  from  which  buttons  are  made.  On  observing  this 
singular  importation,  one  naturally  asks,  not  without  surpnse,  '  How  is  it 
that  a  manufactory  in  the  heart  of  France  is  importing  feldspar  from  Norway 
when  the  granites  and  other  feldspathic  rocks  of  the  central  mountains  of  the 
country  must  provide  this  raw  material  in  abundance?'  All  the  feldspars,  the 
common  feldspar  (orthoclase),  lime  feldspar  (anorthite),  and  soda  feldspar 
(albite),  are  to  be  found  in  abundance  in  the  French  central  mountains.  There 
can  be  nothing,  therefore,  peculiar  to  the  feldspar  of  Norway,  nothing  in  the 


CANALS.  103 

feldspars  imported  that  is  wanting-  in  those  of  France.  The  answer,  I  believe, 
is  simply  this.  The  mountains  of  Norway  are,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
cost  of  transport,  nearer  to  the  manufactory  upon  the  banks  of  the  Canal 
Briare  than  are  the  mountains  of  Limousin,  in  France,  where  feldspar  abounds, 
although  these  are  only  distant  from  the  Department  Loiret  90  or  100  miles. 
But  there  is  no  water  communication  between  these  two  points.  The  physi- 
cal difficulties  raised  by  the  intervening  spurs  of  the  central  mountain  mass 
and  the  courses  of  such  torrential  streams  as  are  the  Vienne,  Creuse,  Indre, 
and  Cher  in  their  higher  beds,  prevent  the  development  of  canal  construction 
in  those  regions.  And  such  a  raw  material  does  not  well  support  transport 
charges  by  rail. 

"The  other  instance  I  will  give  is  that  of  the  importation  of  kaolin.  No  fewer 
than  43  British  ships  arrived  here  [i.e.  at  Rouen]  last  year  laden  with  this 
product.  Kaolin,  I  need  hardly  say,  is  a  clay  derived  from  the  decomposition 
of  granite,  or  more  particularly  from  the  decomposition  of  one  of  the  chief 
constituents  of  granite,  feldspar,  from  which  the  soluble  constituents  have 
been  carried  off  in  chemical  combination  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  rain-water, 
and  the  insoluble,  silica  and  alumina,  have  remained,  and,  washed  down,  form 
the  clay  known  by  that  name.  It  is,  therefore,  chiefly  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  granite  mountains,  and  38  of  the  British  ships  that  came  here  with 
cargoes  of  it  last  year  arrived  from  Cornish  ports,  to  which  it  is  sent  from 
the  quarries  in  the  granite  hills  of  that  country.  The  remaining  five  came 
from  Poole,  which  provides  also  from  the  eocene  beds  in  its  neighbourhood  a 
kaolin  of  slightly  less  pure  quality.  A  very  large  proportion  of  these  car- 
goes was  sent  right  across  France  into  Alsace  by  the  canal  that  joins  th? 
basin  of  the  Seine  to  that  of  the  Rhine,  crossing  the  valleys  of  the  Meuse  and 
Mozelle,  a  distance  of  over  700  kiloms.  by  water.  Here  again  we  have  a 
mineral  product  that  is  not  a  stranger  to  France.  The  fact  alone  that  an 
import  duty  of  3  fr.  50  c.  a  ton  is  levied  upon  it  shows  clearly  enough  that 
there  is  an  industry  in  its  extraction  which  has  to  be  protected.  A  small 
quantity  is  extracted  in  the  neighbouring  Department  of  the  Somme,  but  it  is 
chiefly  quarried  at  St.  Yrieix,  in  the  Haute  Vienne.  The  porcelain  industries 
of  Limousin  owe  their  existence  to  the  extensive  deposits  of  kaolin,  due  to 
the  decomposed  granites  and  pegnatites  of  that  neighbourhood,  and  more 
than  20,000  tons  are  extracted  there  annually.  The  same  cause  has,  however, 
operated  here  as  in  the  case  of  imports  of  feldspar.  The  excellence  of  the 
water  routes  in  the  Seine  basin  has  brought  the  quarries  of  Cornwall  within 
easier  communication  of  the  manufactories  in  Alsace  than  are  the  districts 
within  France  where  this  product  is  most  plentiful." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  quote  any  further  evidence  from  other  countries  as  to 
the  renewed  interest  and  activity  on  the  part  of  foreign  governments  in 
regard  to  securing  for  waterways  their  due  position  and  influence  in  a 
national  system  of  transportation.  Belgium  and  the  United  States,  in  par- 
ticular, have  displayed  a  wise  prevision  in  the  matter.  It  is  quite  possible, 
of  course,  to  overdo  the  argument  from  foreign  analogies,  and  even  to  mis- 
conceive the  lessons  of  statistics  of  other  countries.  I  must  not  be  under- 
stood as  implying  that  (even  apart  altogether  from  the  vital  difference  of 
State-ownership  of  railways  and  canals),  conditions  at  home  and  abroad  are 
so  similar  as  to  admit  of  the  direct  and  immediate  application  of  a  suc- 
cessful experiment  in  France  or  Germany  to  the  necessities  of  our  own  in- 
dustrial position. 

It  is,  at  the  same  time,  impossible  to  reflect  on  the  potential  value  of  our 
own  neglected  waterways,  and  the  vital  need  Ireland  has,  and  will  more 


104  CANALS. 

and  more  have,  for  cheap  transit  facihties,  and  to  consider  the  concurrent 
testimony  of  every  progressive  comitry  as  to  the  importance  of  water-transit 
without  wishing  to  see  the  lessons  of  foreign  experience  apphed  in  ? 
broadly-conceived  pohcy  to  the  general  control  and  direction  of  a  system 
of  waterways,  natural  and  artificial,  not  inferior  probably,  if  rendered  effi- 
cient, to  those  draining  any  similar  area  in  the  world.  The  gist  of  the  whole 
matter  is  admirably  summed  up  in  the  following  resolution  of  the  Fourth 
International  Congress  on  Inland  Navigation : — "  The  existence  and  de- 
velopment together  of  railways  and  waterways  is  desirable,  first,  because 
these  two  means  of  transport  are  the  complements  of  each  other,  and  ought 
to  contribute  each  according  to  its  special  merits  to  the  public  good  ;  second, 
because,  viewed  broadly,  the  industrial  and  commercial  development  which 
will  result  from  the  improvement  of  the  means  of  communication  must,  in 
the  end,  profit  both  railways  and  waterways." 


(c)  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Inland  Navigation  in  Ireland. 

If  our  system  of  Inland  Navigation,  as  a  whole,  has  so  far  proved  dis- 
astrous as  an  investment  of  capital,  it  cannot  be  said  it  was  from  lack  of  an 
adequate  conception  of  what  a  network  of  waterways  in  a  country  like 
Ireland  should  be.  So  far  back  as  17 15,  the  Irish  Parliament  passed  a 
statute  for  encouraging  a  scheme  of  drainage  and  inland  navigation  of  truly 
national  proportions,  which — though  executed  in  a  spasmodic  and  piecemeal 
fashion — was  still  the  goal  at  which  all  subsequent  legislation  aimed.  The 
interests  of  arterial  drainage  and  the  interests  of  navigation  were  not,  it  is 
true,  always  reconcilable,  and  a  good  deal  of  misdirected  effort  was  caused 
by  hesitancy  between  the  relative  importance  of  the  one  and  the  other. 
But,  on  the  whole,  the  scheme  was  a  sound  one  in  its  inception,  and  its 
failure  must,  in  my  opinion,  be  looked  for  in  the  nature  of  the  machinery 
originally  provided  to  carry  it  out,  and  in  the  successive  shiftings  of  respon- 
sibiHty  for  its  conduct  and  maintenance  between  State  departments,  mixed 
boards,  local  companies,  and  private  companies,  rather  than  in  any  intrinsic 
causes.  The  following  interesting  sketch  of  the  early  history  of  Inland 
Navigation  in  Ireland  is  taken  from  the  Report  [C.-3173]  of  Lord  Monck's 
Commission  of  1883  : — 

The  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Irish   House  of  Commons  on   Inland 

Navigation,   presented  on  the  23rd  June,    1800,  states 

First  Statute  on       ^'^^^  "  I^l^tid  Navigation  has  been  an  object  of  Parlia- 

Inland  Navigation     "^^ntary  attention  from  a  very  early  period,  the  journals 

•     T     1      A   AHA  statmg  proceedmgs  and  grants  from   the  year   1703, 

in  Irelana,  1715.       j^^^  ^j^g  j^j.^^  statute  on  the  subject  was  an  Act  passed 

by  the  Irish  Parliament  in  the  second  year  of  George  I. 

(A.D.  1715),  and  entitled  "  An  Act  to  encourage  the  draining  and  improving  of 

the  Boggs  and  unprofitable  low  grounds,  and  for  easing  and  despatching  thri 

inland  carriage  and  conveyance  of  snoods  from  one  part  to  another  within  this 

kingdom." 

This  Act,  after  reciting  that  the  great  tracts  of  bog  and  fenny  waste 
grounds,  which  encumber  the  midland  parts  of  this  kingdom,  are  not  only 
useless  to  the  owners,  but  an  occasion  of  a  corrupt  air,  and  a  retreat  and 


CANALS.  105 


harbour  for  malefactors,  and  that  it  has  been  ascertained  that  navig-able  and 
communicable  passages  for  vessels  of  burthen  to  pass  throug'h  might  be  made, 
from  and  through  the  said  midland  counties  into  the  principal  rivers,  and  that 
by  the  benefit  of  such  master  drains,  the  bog^s  and  other  lost  grounds  might 
be  improved,  and  also  a  cheap  and  expeditious  communication  betwixt  His 
Majesty's  subjects  inhabiting  the  several  parts  of  his  said  kingdom  might  be 
opened,  proceeds  to  authorize  certain  persons,  whose  names  are  given,  and 
who  are  styled  "  undertakers,"  to  make  "  at  their  proper  costs  and  charges  " 
the  river  Shannon  navigable,  "  portable  and  passable,"  for  boats,  barges, 
lighters,  and  other  vessels  of  burthen  from  the  common  landing-place  of  the 
city  of  Limerick  to  the  town  of  Carrick  Drumrusk  (now  Carrick-on-Shannon) 
in  the  county  of  Leitrim. 

Full  powers  are  given  to  the  undertakers  to  adopt  every  measure  necessary 
for  their  purpose,  and  in  order  to  repay  themselves  for  their  original  outlay 
and  for  the  expense  of  keeping  the  navigation  in  order,  they  are  authorized 
to  take  "  to  their  own  use  "  twopence  toll  for  every  loolbs.  weight  conveyed 
ten  miles,  and  three  pence  for  every  passenger  conveyed  the  same  distance. 
The  Members  of  Parliament  and  the  Justices  of  the  Peace  for  counties  adjoin- 
ing the  navigation  are  nominated  Commissioners  for  adjusting  all  differences 
that  may  arise  between  the  undertakers  and  the  proprietors  of  the  lands 
adjacent  to  the  river.  The  Act  goes  on  to  empower  similarly  qualified  Com- 
missioners in  the  districts  drained  by  the  "  Liffy,"  the  "  Rye,"  the  "  Boyne." 
the  "  Mungagh,"  the  ■'  Brosney,"  the  "  Barrow,"  the  "  Glyn."  the  "  Bann," 
the  "  Foyle,"  the  "  Earn,"  and  in  short  nearly  every  river  in  Ireland,  to 
appoint  undertakers  to  make  and  keep  navigable  the  said  rivers,  and  to  open 
communication  between  them  and  adjacent  bogs  and  other  lost  and  useless 
grounds.  No  navigation  seems  to  have  been  undertaken  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act,  except  that  of  the  river  Maigue,  which  connects  the  towii 
of  Adare,  in  the  county  of  Limerick,  with  the  river  Shannon,  a  distance  of 
eight  miles.  No  attempt  was  made  at  that  time  to  improve  the  Shannon. 
The  next  Act  of  Parliament  referring  to  drainage  and  navigation  was  passed 
in  the  eighth  of  George  the  First,  and  merely  amended  that  of  second  George 
the  First  in  regard  to  the  numbers  and  powers  of  Commissioners. 

In  the  third  year  of  George  the  Second  (1729)  an  Act  was  passed  referring 

K   4-     t  r       rf    IT       ^°  ^^^^  failure  of  the  original  Act  (second  of  George  the 

Act  01  ueorge  11.      First)  to  accomplish  its  purpose  Dy  reason  of  "  under- 

"  Commissioners  of    takers"   not  coming  forward    to    execute    navigation 

Inland  Navigation    works  on  account  of  the  expense  and  risk  incurred  in 

anpointed ''  1729       doing   so,    and   appointing   the   Lord     Lieutenant,     the 

Lord  Chancellor,  the  four  Archbishops,  the  Speaker  of 

the  House  of  Commons,  together  with  eighty  other  persons.  Commissioners 

for  Ireland  to  put  the  said  Act  into  execution,  with  power  also  to  encourage 

tillage,  and  to  employ  the  poor  on  works  of  public  benefit,  and  providing  them 

with  funds  for  doing  so  from  duties  afterwards  called  "  tillage  duties,"  levied 

on  carriages,  on  cards  and  dice,  and  on  gold  and  silver  plate,  the  proceeds  of 

which  duties  for  twenty-one  years  were  appropriated  to  their  use.     The  only 

navigation  works  that  were  undertaken  by  the  new  Commissioners  under  the 

Act  of   1729,   appear  to  have  been  that  connecting  Newry  with  the   Upper 

Bann  and  Lough  Neagh,  and  the  Tyrone  navigation  connecting  Coalisland 

with  Lough  Neagh.      It  seems,  however,  that  the  Commissioners  must  have  at 

any  rate  commenced  other  public  works  from  the  terms  of  the  23rd  George 

II.,  chapter  5,  which  refers  to  the  time  for  which  duties  were  granted  for  the 

use  of  the  Commissioners  by  the  3rd  of  George  11. ,  as  being  about  to  expire, 

and   renews   them    for   twenty-one   years,    "  because   divers   sums   of   money 

arising  from  said  duties  had  been  applied  towards  making  and  carrying  on 


106  CANALS. 


several  useful  and  necessary  works,"  which  works  could  not  be  made  and 
finished  without  further  supplies.  It  is  probable  that  these  useful  and  neces- 
sary works  were  roads  and  bridges,  and  possibly  drainage  operations,  or 
embankments;  but  were  not,  with  the  exception  of  the  Newry  and  Tyrone 
canals,  for  the  purpose  of  navigation. 

.  By  the  25th  of  George  II.,  chapter  10,  the  Commissioners  were  erected  into 
a  body  corporate,  with  a  perpetual  succession  and  common  seal  by  the  name 
of  the  "  Corporation  for  promoting  and  carrying  on  an  Inland  Navigation  in 
Ireland,"  and  thenceforward  they  were  generally  known  and  described  as 
"  The  Commissioners  of  Inland  Navigation."  This  Corporation  continued  in 
existence  until  1787,  when  it  was  dissolved  by  the  27th  George  III.,  chap.  30, 
and  the  tillage  duties  by  which  it  had  been  supported  disappropriated. 
During  that  time  it  commenced  the  Grand  Canal  from  Dublin  to  Ballinasloe, 
with  branches  to  various  places,  the  Lagan  navigation  which  connects  Belfast 
with  Lough  Neagh,  the  Barrow  navigation  from  Athy  to  Scars,  the  Boyne 
navigation  from  Carrickdexter  to  Drogheda,  and  the  Shannon  navigation 
from  Limerick  to  the  Collieries  on  Lough  Allen. 

All  these  navigations,  except  the  Grand  Canal,  which  had  been  handed  over 
to  a  company  incorporated  in  1772,  and  the  Lagan  which  had  become  the 
property  of  a  company  in  1779,  were,  with  the  works,  locks,  houses,  and 
everything  connected  with  them,  vested  in  local  corporations,  which  were 
created  by  the  same  Act  which  abolished  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Navi- 
gation. All  the  navigations  in  Ireland,  therefore,  were  in  1787,  and  for  some 
time  afterwards,  in  the  hands  of  local  corporations  or  private  companies. 

With  respect  to  the  proceedings  of  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Navigation, 
the  Committee  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  already  referred  to  reported 
as  follows  in  the  year  1800  : — 

"  Your  Committee  find  that  the  period  from  which  the  bounty  of  Par- 
liament for  promoting  inland  navigation  became  conspicuous  was  that  at 
which  there  appeared  to  be  a  surplus  in  the  Treasury  to  the  amount  of 
nearly  half  a  million,  viz.,  about  the  year  1755.  The  avidity  with  which 
public  grants  were  from  that  time  sought  after  for  inland  navigations,  as 
well  as  for  other  purposes,  appears  from  the  journals  of  the  House,  the 
objects  of  those  grants  being  as  various  as  the  interests  and  inclinations 
of  the  petitioners. 

"  But  the  Superintendence  of  a  body  so  numerous  as  the  corporation,  and 
so  little  enabled  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  merits  of  the  plans  sub- 
mitted to  their  consideration,  was  ill  calculated  to  promote  with  effect 
the  objects  of  their  trusts,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  sums  granted  not 
being  sufficiently  connected  with  the  permanent  private  interest  or  capital 
of  individuals,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  great  sums  of  public  money 
have  from  time  to  time  been  lavished  without  being  attended  by  corres- 
ponding advantage  to  the  public.  A  system  of  granting  public  monies  at 
once  so  profuse  and  abortive  was  at  length  exploded,  and  in  the  year 
1787  the  Corporation  for  promoting  Inland  Navigation  was  dissolved, 
the  tillage  duties  were  disappropriated,  and  a  system  was  adopted  of 
granting  aids  to  private  undertakers  proportionate  to  their  private  sub- 
scriptions." 

Under  the  system  of  granting  aids  from  the  public  exchequer  to  private 
p        ,  g  n  1.      undertakers   in   proportion  to  their  own  contributions, 

tanais  managea  by  ^^^  inland  navigations  were  supported  and  continued 
Local  torporations    f^om  1787  to  1800.     Between  those  dates  the  following 

and  Private  Com-      enterprises  were  begun :  - 

panies,  1787-1800.         jhe  Royal  Canal,^by  the  Royal  Canal  Company,  from 


CANALS.  107 

Dublin  to  Cloondara  on  the    Shannon  ;    and    the    Foyle   navigation,    by   the 
Marquis  of  Abercorn,  from  Strabane  to  the  River  Foyle. 

According-  to  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Irish  House  of  Com- 
mons already  quoted,  the  following-  sums  had  been  issued  before  1800  bv  the 
Treasury  from  the  produce  of  the  tillage  duties,  and  under  grants  of  Parlia- 
ment and  King's  letters  for  promoting  inland  navigation,  viz.:  — 

Issued  from  the  produce  of  tillage  duties  from  1730  to  1790  ;!^35 1,946 
Under    grants   of    Parliament    and    King's    Letters    from 

1750  to  1800,  including  the  Lap-an  local  duties,  .       505,436 

Total,  .         .         .  ;^857,382 

In  the  year  1800  a  new  plan  was  adopted  for  promoting,  completing,  and 

controlling    inland    navigation    in    Ireland.      A    statute 

Appointment  of  a     (40th    of    George  III.,   chap.   51),  was  passed  which, 

Board  of  Directors-   after     reciting     that    the    means    heretofore     provided 

General  of  against  the  improvident  expenditure  of  public  money 

A  JJ      'rf  +•         towards  the  furtherance  of  inland  navigation  have  not 

Inland  Navigation,   answered  the  purpose  expected,  gives  the  Lord  Lieu- 

1800-1831.  tenant  power  to  appoint  five  persons  to  be  Directors  of 

all   works   relating   to   inland   navigation,    with   full   power   and   authority   to 

order,  direct,  regulate,  and  appoint  all  matters  and  things  whatsoever  relating 

to  inland  navigation.      A  sum  of  ;^5oo,ooo  was  by  the  same  Act  granted  for 

inland  navigation  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  Port  of  Dublin,  which  sum 

was  to  be  expended  as  recommended  bv  the  Directors.     All  navigations  and 

canals  managed  by  local  corporations  and  not  private  property  were  vested 

by  the  same  Act  in  the  Directors.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  navigations 

either  wholly  or  partially  completed  in   1800,   when  the  Directors  assumed 

office:  — 

1.  The  Maigue,  7.   The  Barrow, 

2.  The  iNewry,  8.   The  Grand  Canal, 

3.  The  Tyrone,  9.  The  Royal  Canal, 

4.  The  Lower  Boyne,  10.  The  Foyle, 

5.  The  Shannon,  11.   The  Lagan. 

6.  The  Upper  Boyne, 

The  four  first-named  became  vested  in  the  Directors  as  not  being  private 
property.  The  fifth  (the  Shannon)  was  partly  vested  in  the  Directors  and 
partlv  in  private  companies.  The  six  last  continued  to  be  managed  as  private 
undertakings.  From  1800  to  183 1  the  inland  navigation  of  the  country  was 
directly  or  indirectly  managed  by  the  new  Board,  and  large  sums  of  public 
money,  in  addition  to  the  ;^5oo,ooo  granted  by  the  40th  of  George  the  Third, 
were  given  on  their  recommendation  for  the  completion  and  support  of  the 
various  navigations,  both  public  and  private.  No  new  navigation  was  com- 
menced during  the  rule  of  the  Directors-General,  but  all  those  that  were  un- 
finished in  1800  were,  except  the  Shannon,  completed.  The  Royal  Canal 
Company  having  become  insolvent,  the  Royal  Canal  was  vested  in  the  Direc- 
tors in  1814,  and  was  finished  by  them.  This  canal  was  handed  over  to  a  new 
Company  in  1822.  The  Grand  Canal  Company  also  became  much  embar- 
rassed, but  having  received  a  large  grant  of  money  from  Parliament  in  1813 
continued  to  manage  their  business  themselves.  The  other  private  navi- 
gations likewise  received  large  support  from  the  public  funds,  but  we  are 
unable  to  state  the  exact  amounts  granted  to  each.  The  entire  expenditure, 
both  public  and  private,   was,   as  will  be  seen  further  on,   very  great.     In 


108  CANALS. 

1829  the  Newry  navigfation  was  transferred  to  a  private  company.  In  the 
same  year  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  reported  that  the  per- 
manent continuance  of  the  Board  of  Directors-General  was  "  questionable." 
In  1829,  as  in  1800,  it  seems  to  have  been  a  subject  of  regret  that  great  sums 
of  public  money  had  from  time  to  time  been  expended  on  inland  navig-ation 
without  being-  attended  with  corresponding-  advantage  to  the  public. 

On  the  constitution  of  the  Board  of  Works  in   1831   by  the   ist  and  2nd 

Board  of  Public       William  the  Fourth,  cap.   33,   all  the  property  vested 

"WnrlrQ  ^^    ^^^    Directors   of   Inland    Navigation,    and   all   the 

powers  possessed  bv  them,  were  transferred  to  the  said 

constituted.  Board. 

Since  1 83 1  the  following  navigations  have  been  constructed  : — 

1.  The  river  Suir  navigation,  by  a  private  Company,  from  Carrick-on-Suir 
to  Granagh  Ferry,  near  Waterford. 

2.  The  Ballinamore  and  Ballyconnell  navigation,  from  Louq-h  Erne  to  the 
Shannon,  by  the  Commissioners  of  Public  Works,  the  expenses  being  defrayed 
partly  out  of  public  funds,  and  partly  by  advances  charged  on  the  districts 
adjoining  the  navigation, 

3.  The  Upper  and  Lower  Bann  navigations,  the  former  from  Blackwater- 
town  to  and  through  Lough  Neagh,  the  latter  from  Lough  Neagh  to  Cole- 
raine,  by  the  Commissioners  of  Public  Works,  at  the  expense  partly  of  the 
public,  partly  at  that  of  the  localities  affected. 

4.  The  Loueh  Corrib  navigation,  from  Galway  to  Cong,  by  the  Com- 
missioners of  Public  Works,  at  the  expense  partly  of  the  public  and  partly  of 
the  localities  affected. 

5.  The  Ulster  Canal,  connecting  Lough  Erne  with  Lough  Neagh,  by  the 
Ulster  Canal  Company, 

This  canal  was  vested  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  the  Commissioners  of  Public 
Works  in  1865,  the  Company  having  been  unable  to  pay  interest  on  an 
advance  of  /Ti 20,000  made  to  them  by  the  Exchequer  Loan  Commissioners, 
who  consequently  took  possession  of  the  property.  The  Shannon  navigation 
came  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the  Commissioners  of  Public 
Works  in  1846.* 

The  estimated  total  cost  of  these  708  miles  of  canal  and  river  communication 
is  -^4,722,211,  made  up  as  follows:  - — 

Charged  on  counties,  ....     ;^385,364 

Raised  from  private  sources        ....     2,296,349 
Public  money,  ......      2,040,498 


Total,  .         .     ;^4,722,2ii 

*  This  is  not  quite  accurate— The  Act  g  &  10  Vic,  c,  98,  provided,  it  is  true,  for  the 
transfer,  after  the  30th  September,  1846,  of  the  powers  and  privileges  of  the  special 
temporary  Commission,  who  had  control  of  the  Shannon  Works,  to  the  permanent 
Department  of  Public  Works  in  Dublin.  Notwithstanding  this  Act,  however,  the  execution 
of  the  works  never  received  the  concerted  attention  of  the  members  of  the  new  and  enlarged 
Board.  On  the  contrary,  the  superintendence  of  the  works  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
same  three  Commissioners,  who,  though  they  had  lost  their  legal  identity  as  Shannon 
Commissioners,  by  the  Act  g  &  10  Vic,  c  86,  continued  to  make  annual  reports  separate  and 
■distinct  from  those  of  the  Board  of  Works,  as  if  the  Act  had  never  been  passed.  It  was  not 
till  the  works  had  been  finally  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  1850,  that  the  full  Board  recognised 
amongst  its  duties  the  obligations,  imposed  upon  it  four  years  before  by  the  Act  of  1846,  of 
controlling  the  Shannon  Navigation  and  its  works. 


CANALS   AND    INLAND 
NAVIGATIONS  OF  IRELAND,  1902 


CajioLi-  emd  Jial^rways- 
Lough  MviffcUions  •••--■ 


DERRY  \  ANTRIM 


TYRONE 


'.  •iit^Tmat  Toy  ^ 


'   •!       \BELFASTd 


y^ 


J  ROSCOMMON  J^Imgrcrd.' 
flohpFORD    \ 


TIPPERARY 


"%mC<n1ott^  \ 

<\RLOW'- 


KILKENNy^L^'l" 


L  I MERICK 


DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE     AND     TECMNICAl.     INSTRUCTION     FOR     IRELAND. 
STATISTICS     ANp     INTELLIGENCE     BRANCH. 


CANALS.  109 


After  this  general  introduction  to  the  history  of  Irish  canals  and  inland 
waterways,  some  details  of  the  course  and  development  of  the  leading  routes 
may  be  given.  A  reference  to  the  accompanying  map  will  show,  at  a 
glance,  that  there  are  in  Ireland  two  main  systems  of  waterw^ays,  viz.,  what 
may  be  called  the  "  Northern  Navigation  System  "  and  "  The  Midland 
and  Southern  Navigation  System."  As  regards  the  former,  starting  from 
Coleraine,  we  find  the  Bann  Navigation  extending  to  and  through  Lough 
Neagh,  into  w^hich  converge  the  Lagan  Navigation  from  the  east,  the  Newry 
Navigation  from  the  south-east,  and  the  Tyrone  Navigation  from  the  west. 
After  the  junction  of  these  navigations,  the  line  of  communication  proceeds 
in  a  south-westerly  direction  by  means  of  the  Ulster  Canal  to  Upper  Lough 
Erne.  After  passing  through  that  lough,  which  affords  another  branch 
navigation  (northward)  past  Enniskillen  to  Belleek  on  the  Lower  Lough, 
the  line  is  continued  by  the  BalHnamore  and  Ballyconnell  Canal  as  far  as  the 
Shannon,  a  little  above  Carrick. 

The  Royal  Canal  and  the  Grand  Canal,  in  conjunction  with  the  Barrow 
Navigation,  may  be  said  to  form  the  Midland  and  Southern  Navigation 
System  of  Ireland.  These  navigations  are  connected  with  the  River 
Shannon,  and,  therefore,  provide  a  line  of  communication  by  water  from 
Dublin,  and  from  important  places  in  the  Midland  and  South-eastern  coun- 
ties, not  only  to  the  western  districts,  but  also  to  the  North  of  Ireland. 
There  are,  of  course,  other  important  separate  navigations  such  as  the 
Boyne  Navigation,  the  Lough  Corrib  Navigation,  the  Maigue  Navigation 
and  the  Suir  Navigation,  which,  however,  cannot  be  said  to  form  part  of  any 
continuous  system.  The  province  of  Munster  is,  it  will  be  noted,  curiously 
deficient  in  canals. 

The  Royal  Canal  was  commenced  by  a  private  company  towards  the 
end  of  the  last  century,  assisted  by  grants  from  the 
Thp  Roval  Pa      1      ^^i^^^  Parliament.       It  was  subsequently  taken  up  by 
^  '     the  Directors-General  of  Navigation,  and  completed 

by  them  about  the  year  1822,  when  from  first  to  last  it 
had  absorbed  something  over  i^  1,400,000,  of  which  ;^3 59,7/6  had  been  con- 
tributed out  of  public  funds.  The  first  Royal  Canal  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1789.  It  received  before  the  year  1800  grants  of  public  money  to 
the  extent  of  ;^84,000,  and  from  the  Union  to  1813,  further  grants  of 
;^87,692.  On  inquiries  before  the  Committees  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  181 1  and  1813,  it  appeared  that  the  Company  had  expended  on  making 
forty-six  miles  of  the  canal  from  Dublin  to  Coolnahay,  £"704,877  ;  of  this, 
;£  171,692  had  been  granted  as  already  mentioned.  To  provide  the  balance, 
and  to  pay  the  dividends  and  interest,  which  had  been  paid  out  of  capital  to 
an  extent  ascertained  to  exceed  ^^369,231,  the  Company  had  borrowed  up- 
wards of  ^^73 8,462,  and  raised  on  share  capital  ;;^276,923.  In  18 10  the  Com- 
pany had  a  gross  income  of  only  /fi  3,868,  and  a  net  income,  after  providing 
for  maintenance  and  establishment  charges,  of  only  ^^3,8 13,  to  meet  an 
annual  charge  for  interest  of  ^^45,806.  Upon  the  representation  of  the 
Committee  of  181 3  as  to  the  insolvent  state  of  the  Company's  affairs,  the 
charter  was  forfeited  and  the  property  transferred  to  the  Directors-General 
of  Inland  Navigation  in  Ireland,  who  expended,  between  181 5  and  1822, 
£iS2,S^i  of  public  money  in  completing  the  canal  from  the  summit  level  to 
the  Shannon.  In  181 8  the  holders  of  debentures  issued  by  the  dissolved 
Royal  Canal  Company  were  constituted  the  shareholders  in  the  new  Royal 


CANALS.  109 


After  this  general  introduction  to  the  history  of  Irish  canals  and  inland 
waterways,  some  details  of  the  course  and  development  of  the  leading  routes 
may  be  given.  A  reference  to  the  accompanying  map  will  show,  at  a 
glance,  that  there  are  in  Ireland  two  main  systems  of  waterways,  viz.,  what 
may  be  called  the  "  Northern  Navigation  System  "  and  "  The  Midland 
and  Southern  Navigation  System."  As  regards  the  former,  starting  from 
Coleraine,  we  find  the  Bann  Navigation  extending  to  and  through  Lough 
Neagh,  into  which  converge  the  Lagan  Navigation  from  the  east,  the  Newry 
Navigation  from  the  south-east,  and  the  Tyrone  Navigation  from  the  west. 
After  the  junction  of  these  navigations,  the  line  of  communication  proceeds 
in  a  south-westerly  direction  by  means  of  the  Ulster  Canal  to  Upper  Lough 
Erne.  After  passing  through  that  lough,  which  affords  another  branch 
navigation  (northward)  past  Enniskillen  to  Belleek  on  the  Lower  Lough, 
the  line  is  continued  by  the  Ballinamore  and  Ballyconnell  Canal  as  far  as  the 
Shannon,  a  little  above  Carrick. 

The  Royal  Canal  and  the  Grand  Canal,  in  conjunction  with  the  Barrow 
Navigation,  may  be  said  to  form  the  Midland  and  Southern  Navigation 
System  of  Ireland.  These  navigations  are  connected  with  the  River 
Shannon,  and,  therefore,  provide  a  line  of  communication  by  water  from 
Dublin,  and  from  important  places  in  the  Midland  and  South-eastern  coun- 
ties, not  only  to  the  western  districts,  but  also  to  the  North  of  Ireland. 
There  are,  of  course,  other  important  separate  navigations  such  as  the 
Boyne  Navigation,  the  Lough  Corrib  Navigation,  the  Maigue  Navigation 
and  the  Suir  Navigation,  which,  however,  cannot  be  said  to  form  part  of  any 
continuous  system.  The  province  of  Munster  is,  it  will  be  noted,  curiously 
deficient  in  canals. 

The  Royal  Canal  was  commenced  by  a  private  company  towards  the 
end  of  the  last  century,  assisted  by  grants  from  the 
Thp  Rnval  C        1      ^^^^^^  Parliament.       It  was  subsequently  taken  up  by 
^  *     the  Directors-General  of  Navigation,  and  completed 

by  them  about  the  year  1822,  when  from  first  to  last  it 
had  absorbed  something  over  ;;6^ i ,400,000,  of  which  £3S9>77^  ha-d  been  con- 
tributed out  of  public  funds.  The  first  Royal  Canal  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1789.  It  received  before  the  year  1800  grants  of  public  money  to 
the  extent  of  ;^84,ooo,  and  from  the  Union  to  1813,  further  grants  of 
;£"87,692.  On  inquiries  before  the  Committees  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  181 1  and  1813,  it  appeared  that  the  Company  had  expended  on  making 
forty-six  miles  of  the  canal  from  Dublin  to  Coolnahay,  ^^704,8 77  ;  of  this, 
;{ 171,692  had  been  granted  as  already  mentioned.  To  provide  the  balance, 
and  to  pay  the  dividends  and  interest,  which  had  been  paid  out  of  capital  to 
an  extent  ascertained  to  exceed  ^^"369,231,  the  Company  had  borrowed  up- 
wards of  ;6^73 8,462,  and  raised  on  share  capital  ;i^276,923.  In  18 10  the  Com- 
pany had  a  gross  income  of  only  iTi  3,868,  and  a  net  income,  after  providing 
for  maintenance  and  establishment  charges,  of  only  ;^3,8i3,  to  meet  an 
annual  charge  for  interest  of  ^^"45,806.  Upon  the  representation  of  the 
Committee  of  1813  as  to  the  insolvent  state  of  the  Company's  affairs,  the 
charter  was  forfeited  and  the  property  transferred  to  the  Directors-General 
of  Inland  Navigation  in  Ireland,  who  expended,  between  181 5  and  1822, 
;£'i82,87i  of  pubHc  money  in  completing  the  canal  from  the  summit  level  to 
the  Shannon.  In  181 8  the  holders  of  debentures  issued  by  the  dissolved 
Royal  Canal  Company  were  constituted  the  shareholders  in  the  new  Royal 


110  CANALS. 

Canal  Company.  It  passes  through  County  Dubhn,  between  Counties 
Kildare  and  Meath,  and  through  Counties  Westmeath  and  Longford  to  Tar- 
nionbarry,  where  it  joins  the  Shannon.  In  pursuance  of  the  Act  58  Geo. 
III.,  c.  35,  the  canal  on  being  finished  was  handed  over  to  a  new  company  in 
1822,  by  which  it  contmued  to  be  worked  and  managed  till  1845,  subject, 
however,  to  the  supervision  of  a  Board  of  Control,  required  under  the  same 
Act,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Lord  Lieutenant.  It  was  then  purchased  by 
the  Midland  Great  Western  Railway  Company,  under  the  Act  8  and  9  Vic, 
c.  119  (local).  The  annual  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  works  was  esti- 
mated in  1878,  at  ;^4,650,  and  die  annual  receipts  at  ^^"8,530. 

The  Lagan  Navigation  connects  Belfast  with  Lough  Neagh.     Its  length 
is  25  miles  47  chains ;    six  miles  of  which  are  river. 
The  Lagan  and  the  remainder  canal.     The  size  of  the  smallest 

Navigation.  lock  is  69  feet  6  inches  long  by  16  feet  broad.     The 

depth  of  water  on  the  cills  of  the  locks  varies  from 
7  feet  in  wet  weather  to  5  feet  in  dry,  and  on  one  or  two  occasions  within  the 
last  ten  years  has  been  only  4  feet  6  inches.  The  work  which  was  begun 
about  the  year  1/53,  but  not  completed  till  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, is  in  the  hands  of  a  private  company  who,  under  the  provisions  of  6  and 
7  William  IV.,  cap.  107,  pay  a  rent  for  it  to  the  Government  of  ;^300  a  year. 
It  was  stated  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Company  in  1882*  to  be  in  perfect 
repair  and  working  order  with  traffic  sufficient,  on  an  average  of  the  last 
five  years,  to  pay  one  and-a-half  per  cent  on  the  capital  invested  after  pro- 
viding for  the  cost  of  maintenance.  For  the  purpose  of  the  Lagan  Naviga- 
tion the  water  has  not  been  shut  up,  nor  the  drainage  power  of  the  country 
interfered  with  in  the  district  through  which  it  passes.  "  For  the  purposes 
of  through  traffic,  as  at  present  carried  on,  into  Lough  Neagh,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  water  in  the  laJ^e  at  the  mouth  of  the  canal  (which,  however,  does 
not  derive  its  supply  from  the  lake)  should  be  maintained  at  what  is  called 
l)y  the  witnesses  who  were  examined  '  Summer  level,'  that  is  to  say,  at  a 
depth  of  not  less  than  8  feet  on  the  upper  cill  of  Toome  lock  ;  but  we  shall 
observe  on  this  point  the  depth  of  the  lake  when  reporting  on  the  naviga- 
tion of  Lough  Neagh.  As  far  as  the  Lagan  proper  is  concerned,  the  drain- 
age of  the  country  is  in  no  way  injuriously  affected  by  it,  the  navigation  is 
now  profitably  utilised,  and  there  is  no  further  outlay  of  public  money  neces 
sary  to  put  it  into  order  or  to  maintain  it."t 

The  "  Upper  Bann  Navigation "  is  something  of  a  misnomer,  as  it  is 

Th*»  Tin  p       TiH       applied  to  that  section  of  the  Blackwater  river  which 

"^  lies  below  the  point  of  its  junction  with  the  Ulster 

Lower  Bann         Canal  at  Moy,  and  connects  that  canal  with  Lough 

Navigations.         Neagh.     The  distance  from  Moy  to  Lough  Neagh  is 

by  water,  7  miles  and  35  chains.     There  are  no  locks  or  artificial  obstructions 

-on  this  part  of  the  Blackwater.       The  navigation  is  maintained  by  the 

Upper  Bann  Navigation  Trustees,  out  of  funds  raised  from    their    entire 

district  by  local  taxation. 

The  Lower  Bann  Navigation  connects  Coleraine  with  Lough  Neagh.  Its 
length  is  32  miles  32  chains,  of  which  3  miles  12  chains  axe  lake,  26  miles 
.40  chains  river,  and  the  remainder  canal.     The  size  of  the  locks  is  130  feet 

*  To  Lord  Monck's  Commission.  f  Report  of  Lord  Monck's  Commission, 


CANALS.  Ill 

in  length  by  20  feet  in  width.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  cills  is  8  feet. 
The  Lower  Bann  is  the  only  outlet  for  all  the  water  falling  into  Lough 
Neagh.  The  works  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Bann  were,  together  with 
those  of  Lough  Neagh,  executed  by  the  Commissioners  of  Public  Works  as 
both  a  navigation  and  a  drainage  work,  between  the  years  1845  and  1859, 
at  a  total  expense  for  the  three  navigations,  according  to  a  return  made  by 
the  Commissioners,  of  ;^  106, 175,  of  which  £6^,0"/^,  was  a  grant  of  public 
money.  The  balance  has  been  repaid  out  of  county  rates.  A  branch  of  the 
Northern  Counties  Railway  runs  parallel  to  the  Lower  Bann  on  the  east,  at 
an  average  distance  of  six  miles  for  its  whole  length,  and  the  Derry  Central 
Railway  runs  parallel  to  it  on  the  west,  both  railways  competing  with  it  for 
traffic.  A  railway  is  also  projected  from  Ballymena  to  Portglenone.  The 
works  of  the  Lower  Bann  were  handed  over  in  1859  to  two  bodies  of  trus- 
tees— one  whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain  the  navigation  works  the  other 
whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain  the  drainage  works  only,  and  whose  authority 
extends  over  the  drainage  of  both  the  Upper  and  Lower  Bann.  They  are 
called  respectively  the  Navigation  and  Drainage  Trustees.  Both  sets  of 
works  are  maintained  by  local  taxation,  supplementing  the  receipts  from 
water  traffic  as  regards  the  expenditure  of  the  Navigation  Trustees.  Lord 
Monck's  Commission  took  in  1882  a  distinctly  pessimistic  view  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  developing  traffic  on  this  Navigation.  "  The  average  annual 
expenditure  on  the  Lower  Bann  Navigation  for  the  five  years  ending  30th 
June,  1880,  was  £1,1^^  15^".  ^d.  The  average  annual  receipts  from  tolls, 
wharfage,  rents,  etc.,  for  the  same  period  were  £gi  l^s.  id.  The  deficit 
has  been  supplied  by  an  annual  presentment,  made  by  the  grand  juries  of 
the  adjoining  counties.  These  figures  show  that  the  navigation  works  have 
been  practically  maintained  and  the  expenses  connected  therewith  paid, 
not  out  of  funds  derived  from  traffic  on  the  canal  and  river,  but  by  local 
rates.  We  are  satisfied  from  the  evidence  submitted  to  us  that  there  is  no 
reason  to  expect  any  considerable  increase  in  the  traffic.  The  testimony  on 
this  point  is,  in  our  opinion,  conclusive." 

The  Ulster  Canal,  extending  from  Blackwatertown  to  Lough  (Upper} 
Erne,  was  made  by  a  company,  formed  in  1826  under 

The  Ulster  Canal.  ^  ^^°-  ^^•'  ^\  '93-  J^e  ^o^ks  took  about  fifteen 
years  to  complete,  and  absorbed  over  i,  200,000  m 
capital,  towards  which  the  Government  advanced  on 
loan  £"130,000.  When  the  canal  was  opened  in  1841,  the  traffic  proved 
unremunerative,  and  the  water  supply  defective.  In  1851  the  Public  Works 
Loan  Commissioners  took  possession  of  the  property  as  principal  mort- 
gagees, and  proceeded  to  lease  it,  first  to  a  private  individual  (Mr.  Dargan), 
and  subsequently  to  the  Dundalk  Steam  Navigation  Company.  While 
under  the  management  of  this  company,  the  canal  works  fell  into  very  bad 
repair,  and  indeed  became  almost  derelict.  On  the  expiration  of  this  com- 
pany's lease  in  1865,  it  was  determined  (but  only  after  much  hesitation),  to 
vest  the  canal  and  undertaking  in  the  Board  of  Works,  Ireland,  who  were 
of  opinion,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Sir  John  Ivlacneill  in  1861,  that  it  was  the 
deficiency  of  water,  and  not  the  railway  competition,  which  had  prevented 
its  being  remunerative.  The  transfer  was  effected  by  28  &  29  Vic,  c.  109. 
After  an  additional  outlay  of  nearly  ;£"20,ooo  on  the  supply  of  water,  the 
'canal  was  re-opened  in  1873  !  but  the  traffic  on  it  has  been  very  trifling. 
The  annual  expense  of  its  maintenance  was  set  down  in  1878,  at  ;^  1,200, 


112  CANALS. 

which  used  to  be  provided  for  in  the  Civil  Service  Estimates  (Class  I.) ;  and 
the  receipts  then  only  averaged  ;£"i66  a  year. 

The  Commissioners  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  system  of  navigation 
connecting  Coleraine,  Belfast,  and  Limerick  community  in  this  navigation, 
in  their  Report  [C.  31 731  — 1882]  state  that — 

"  Notwithstanding  the  large  sums  laid  out  by  the  Commissioners  of  Works 
on  the  canal  between  1865  and  1873,  amounting,  as  has  been  stated,  to 
^.22,000,  it  is  now,  chiefly  owing  to  leakage,  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state, 
and  from  want  of  water  navigable  only  for  eight  months  in  the  year.  The 
traffic  is  also  restricted  even  when  the  canal  is  fully  supplied  with  water,  by  its 
shallowness  and  by  the  smallness  of  the  locks.  The  boats  in  use  on  the 
Lagan  canal  cannot  pass  along  the  Ulster  canal  when  fully  laden,  the  depth 
of  water  in  the  channel  of  the  latter  being  only  four  feet,  whilst  on  the  cills  of 
the  locks  it  is  only  three  feet  nine  inches.  Oh  the  Lagan  canal  vessels  can 
generally  be  loaded  so  as  to  draw  five  feet  six  inches.  The  locks  on  the 
Lagan  canal  are  sixteen  feet  wide.  Those  on  the  Ulster  twelve  feet  two 
mches.  Evidence  has  been  submitted  to  us  that  by  a  further  expenditure  of 
/i"io,ooo  on  the  Ulster  canal  it  may  be  deepened  to  five  feet  both  in  the 
channel  and  in  the  locks,  additional  water  supplied,  and  all  the  leakages 
staunched.  Many  witnesses  expressed  their  confidence  that  if  this  were  done 
a  large  traffic  would  spring  up,  and  the  canal  would  become  a  remunerative 
concern.  But  it  must  be  observed,  they  add,  that  the  Great  Northern  Rail- 
way competes  with  the  canal  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  and  to  expect 
such  an  increase  of  traffic  on  the  latter  as  would  be  sufficient  to  pay  its  present 
average  expenses  of  ;^i,i53  a  year,  in  addition  to  ;£.i^35o,  the  interest  of  the 
;^io,ooo  necessary  to  put  it  into  order,  or  ;;^  1,503  in  all,  is  in  our  opinion  to 
take  a  very  sanguine  view  of  its  prospects." 

This  navigation  was  transferred  during  the  year  1890,  to  the  Lagan  Navi- 
gation Company,  and  has  ceased  to  be  maintained  out  of  the  Imperial  taxes 
In  accordance  with  the  Act  of  Parliament,  an  agreement  was  subsequently 
entered  into  between  the  Board  of  Works  and  the  Lagan  Navigation  Com- 
pany for  tiansfer  of  the  canal.  This  agreement  bound  the  Company 
to  expend  ;^  10,2 50,  the  amount  required  according  to  the  estimate  of 
the  Board  of  Works'  Engineer,  to  ensure  a  sufficient  water  supply  and  put 
the  canal  in  order  for  a  ftve  feet  draft  for  lighters,  the  draft  formerly  given 
by  the  Board  of  Works  being  only  four  feet.  The  company  proceeded  to 
carry  out  the  works,  which  cost  ;^I2,7C)0  instead  of  the  ;^I0,250  estimated. 
Towards  this  sum  the  Treasury  made  a  free  grant  of  ^^3,500,  and  the  Board 
of  Works  lent  ;^4,400,  repayable  in  forty  half-yearly  instalments  with  in- 
terest at  4  per  cent,  per  annum,  on  condition  that  the  Chairman  of  the 
Lagan  Navigation  Company  lent  ;!f4,400  on  same  terms.  The  original 
defect  of  water  supply  to  the  summit  level  still  remains,  no  attempt  having 
been  made  to  increase  the  size  of  the  storage  reservoir,  or  to  remove  an 
obstruction  which  exists  in  this  portion  of  the  canal.  The  waterway  above 
the  town  of  Monaghan  therefore,  is  still  impassible  by  barges  during  a  por- 
tion of  almost  every  summer,  and  in  dr)/  seasons  the  stoppage  of  the  traffic 
is  complete  for  considerable  periods.  Until  this  essential  improvement  has 
been  carried  out  the  Ulster  Canal  will  not  be  able  to  reap  the  traffic  which 
awaits  it  at  the  thriving  towns  through  which  it  passes.  It  is  a  most  im- 
portant link  in  the  northern  navigation  system — continuing  the  line  of  navi- 
gation from  Moy  on  the  Blackwater  river  to  Lough  Erne,  near  which  lake  it 
joins  the  River  Finn. 


CANALS.  113 

This  navigation  is,  practically,  a  series  of  lakes  joined  by  canal  cuts.     As 

Ballinamorp  designed  it  is  useless  except  for  barges  drawn  by 

steam  power ;   the  intermittent  series  of  small  lakes 

and  Ballyconnell  through  which  it  is  conducted,  making  horse  haulage 
Canal.  impossible.     As  a  connecting  link  with  Lough  Erne 

it  might,  however,  be  available  whenever  the  improved  industrial  conditions 
of  the  country  warrants  steam  traction ;  in  which  case  the  Grand  Canal 
Company's  boats  might  avail  of  it,  their  present  terminus  being  Carrick-on- 
Shannon.  It  unites  Lough  Erne  to  the  Shannon  at  the  town  of  Leitrim, 
Its  total  length  is  38  miles  46  chains.  The  size  of  the  locks  is  82  feet  long 
by  16  feet  6  inches  broad,  with  a  depth  of  water  on  the  cills  when  originally 
constructed  of  5  feet  6  inches.  The  canal  was  made  by  the  Board  of 
Works  for  the  purpose  both  of  navigation  and  drainage  between  1846  and 
1859,  at  a  cost  of  ,^228,652,  of  which  sum  ;^30,ooo  has  been  repaid  by  the 
adjoining  counties.  The  remainder,  ;^I98,652,  has  been  a  free  grant  from 
the  public  exchequer. 

The  works  were  handed  over  to  two  bodies  of  trustees — navigation  and 
drainage  trustees — in  i860,  both  bodies  having  taxing  powers  for  mainten- 
ance purposes.  No  railway  runs  parallel  to  this  canal,  nor  competes 
directly  with  it  for  trafhc,  but  there  is  direct  railway  communication  from 
Dublin  to  Carrick-on-Shannon,  at  the  western  end,  and  from  Dublin,  Bel- 
fast, and  Dundalk,  to  Belturbet  Junction  and  Clones,  not  far  from  the 
eastern  end.  Lord  Monck's  Commission  reported  as  follows  on  the  state  of 
this  navigation  in  1882  : — • 

"  The  canal  is  now  out  of  repair  and  quite  unnavigable.  The  receipts  for 
five  years  ending  in  1880  were  'nil'  The  annual  expenditure  on  naviga- 
tion account,  apparently  for  lock-keepers'  wages,  was  about  '  £%o'  It  is 
alleged  that  the  navigation  was  originally  '  badly  designed,  badly  made,  and 
passed  over  to  the  trustees  in  an  unfit  state.'  Evidence  has  been  given  to 
us  that  the  navigation  works  were,  up  to  1865,  kept  by  the  trustees  '  in  the 
order  in  which  they  received  them  ; '  but  that  since  that  time,  there  being 
no  trade,  nothing  has  been  done  to  keep  them  in  repair.  The  canal  was 
navigable,  and  no  more,  when  given  up  by  the  Commissioners  of  Public 
Works,  and  there  being  no  traffic  worth  mentioning  upon  it,  was  allowed  to 
go  from  bad  to  worse  until  it  has  reached  its  present  condition  of  absolute 
uselessness  as  a  navigation.  We  have  been  informed  by  competent  engi- 
neers that  by  the  expenditure  of  £j,OQO  or  ;^8,ooo,  the  canal  could  again  be 
made  navigable,  but  when  it  was  navigable  no  use  was  made  of  it,  and  thf:; 
trustees  advertised  in  vain  for  persons  to  establish  boats  upon  it.  In  1865, 
whilst  the  canal  was  still  in  working  order,  the  Grand  Jury  of  the  County  of 
Cavan 

"  '  Expressed  their  unanimous  sense  of  the  utter  inutility  of  this  navigation, 
and  earnestly  hoped  that  the  Commissioners  of  Public  Works  would  not  con- 
tinue to  exercise  the  power  vested  in  them  of  oblig-ing  the  trustees  to  main- 
tain (save  so  far  as  might  be  necessary  for  drainage  purposes)  any  of  the 
works  connected  with  this  navigation,  which  had  been  in  operation  for  some 
years,  and  had  been  fully  proved  to  be  totally  valueless  to  the  county  which 
nad  been  so  heavily  taxed  for  it.' 

"  The  evidence  submitted  to  us  goes  to  show  that  the  restoration  of  the 
navigation  would  be  of  little  benefit  to  the  public,  that  there  would  be  no 
profitable  traffic  upon  it,  and,  further,  that  there  would  be  a  great  disinclina- 

I 


114  CANALS. 

tion  on  the  part  of  the  local  tax-payers  to  support  it.  The  canal  has,  how- 
ever, a  completely  different  aspect  when  viewed  as  a  drainage  work.  The 
evidence  is  unanimous  that,  for  drainage  purposes  it  is  most  valuable,  and 
that  it  is  of  great  importance  that  it  should  be  maintained  as  an  arterial 
drain." 

The  River  Shannon,  whose  total  length  is  254  miles,  rises  in   Cuilca 
Mountain  in  Cavan  county,  passes  southward  through 
The  Shannon        Leitrim,  and  thence  between  Connaught  and  Leinster 
Navigation.  and  Connaught  and  Munster  to  Limerick,  forming  in 

its  course  several  large  lakes,  the  principal  of  which 
are  Loughs  Allen,  Ree,  and  Derg,  and  turning  westward  discharges  itself 
into  the  Atlantic  through  a  large  estuary  between  the  counties  of  Clare  and 
Kerry.  Previous  to  1831  the  Shannon  Navigation  appears  to  have  been 
under  the  control  of  three  distinct  bodies,  viz.,  the  Lower  Shannon  under  the 
Limerick  Navigation  Company ;  the  Middle  Shannon  under  the  Grand 
Canal  Company ;  and  the  Upper  Shannon  under  the  Directors  of  Inland 
Navigation.  ■  On  the  powers  of  the  Directors  of  Inland  Navigation  being, 
by  Act  of  that  year  (i  &  2  W.  IV.,  c  33),  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Public 
Works,  the  Upper  Shannon  was  handed  over  to  the  Board.  The  naviga- 
tion appears  to  have  remained  under  a  divided  control,  that  is,  partly  in 
pubHc  hands,  and  partly  in  private  hands,  till  1839.  It  was  taken  over  by  the 
Board  of  Works  in  1850  (see  footnote,  p.  108). 

The  navigation  is  open  for  traffic  throughout  its  entire  length,  between 
the  northern  extremity  of  Lough  Allen  and  Limerick,  a  distance  of  143 
miles  in  a  direct  course ;  but  by  adding  the  Boyle  branch  of  nine  miles  and 
the  Strokestown  branch  of  six  miles,  a  total  length  of  river  and  canal  navi- 
gation of  158  miles  is  now  open ;  of  which  129  miles,  viz.,  from  Killaloe  to 
Leitrim,  including  the  two  branches  above  mentioned,  are  suited  to  the 
navigation  of  large  steamers.  In  the  main  river  of  1 1 5  miles  the  entire  fall 
amounts  only  to  35  feet,  which  has  been  overcome  by  the  erection  of  five 
locks.  This  important  navigation,  which  occupies  nearly  a  central  position 
between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Ireland,  is  connected  with  Dublin  by 
means  of  the  Grand  and  Royal  Canals.  The  cost  of  the  Shannon  works 
was  defrayed — ^^"272,789  from  local  taxes,  and  £^410,523  from  general  taxes. 
The  amount  of  rents,  tolls,  etc.,  received  in  the  year  ended  31st  March,  1877, 
was  ;;^5,372,  and  the  expenditure  amounted  to  ^^5,362,  including  ;^3,i75  in 
works. 

The  Grand  Canal  Company  plies  over  the  most  extensive  waterway  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  owning  a  canal  system  reaching 

Til     r       AT       1     froni  Dublin  southwards  to  New  Ross  in  Wexford, 

ine  trrana  oanai.  ^^^  westwards  to  the  Shannon.  From  thence  its 
traffic  is  carried  over  the  latter  navigation  to  Limerick 
in  the  south-west,  and  northwards  to  Carrick-on-Shannon  in  Leitrim. 
Nearly  all  the  freight  is  carried  in  the  Company's  own  boats,  and  though 
directly  competing  with  railways  over  almost  the  whole  distance,  yet  it  has 
proved  that  with  good  management  canals  are  capable  of  yielding  fair 
profits  in  Ireland  even  through  districts  devoid  for  the  most  part  of  manu- 
facturing centres  or  mineral  products. 

The  Grand  Canal  proceeds  from  the  south  of  Dublin  westward  to  the 
Shannon  at  Shannon  Harbour,  and  thence  on  the  other  side  of  the  Shannon 


CANALS.  115 


to  Ballinasloe,  with  branches  to  the  Liffey,  Robertstown,  Blackwood  Reser- 
voir, Monasterevan,  St.  James's  Well,  Athy,  Mountmellick,  Edenderry,  and 
Kilbeggan.  The  summit  level,  279  feet  above  sea-level,  and  164  feet  above 
the  Shannon  at  Shannon  Harbour,  is  near  Robertstown,  about  25  miles 
from  Dublin.  The  Grand  Canal  was  commenced  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Inland  Navigation,  who  received  grants  of  public  money,  between  1753  and 
1772,  to  the  amount  of  ;^70,496.  In  the  latter  year  the  completion  of  the 
canal  was  transferred  to  a  company.  Between  1772  and  1800  the  company 
received  grants  to  the  extent  of  ;^83,776,  in  addition  to  ;^i 8,231  to  secure 
the  completion  of  the  Ringsend  Docks.  In  1798  the  company  obtained  a 
loan  of  i^2  7,692  of  public  money  on  the  opening  of  the  Athy  branch  of  the 
canal,  and  a  further  grant  of  iT  13  8,46 1  was  made  as  recommended  by 
Government  and  approved  of  by  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1 81 3,  on  the  terms  that  the  Company  should  raise  £4.6,1^4,  to  be  apphecl, 
along  with  the  ;^  13  8,461,  in  payment  of  their  debts.  The  extension  of  the 
canal  from  the  Shannon  to  Ballinasloe  and  the  Mountmellick  and  Kilbeggan 
branches  were  subsequently  made  for  the  purpose  of  giving  employment  to 
the  poor,  and  ;!f98,524  was  advanced  to  facilitate  their  execution.  The  ex- 
tensions were  opened  in  1830.  In  1844  the  repayment  of  this  sum  was  com- 
muted by  statute  for  ;^  10,000.  By  an  Act  of  1848  the  original  company, 
called  "  the  Undertakers  of  the  Grand  Canal,"  was  reconstituted  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Grand  Canal  Company."  The  passenger  traffic  on  the  canal 
ceased  on  the  opening  of  the  railway  system,  but  the  Company  received  a 
remission  of  its  debt  to  the  Government  to  the  extent  of  £"88,524.  The 
total  capital  expenditure  on  the  canal  is  put  down  at  ;£^  1,13  7,680,  out  of 
which  public  grants  amounted  to  ;^32i,674.  The  profile  of  the  Grand  Canal 
at  the  Dublin  terminus  is  wanting  in  boldness,  ascending  by  a  gradual  flight 
of  19  locks  to  a  level  of  211  feet  above  the  sea  at  low  water  in  9  miles. 
Near  Robertstown,  in  the  county  Kildare,  about  25  miles  from  Dublin,  it 
attains  the  summit  level  of  278  feet,  and  thence  the  southward  branch  to  the 
Barrow  bifurcates.  The  Shannon  line  skirting  the  Bog  of  Allen  continues 
for  25  ^<  miles  at  the  same  level,  only  interrupted  by  one  lock,  having  a  lift 
of  9  feet,  past  Philipstown  towards  Tullamore.  Then  passing  again  through 
portions  of  the  Bog  of  Allen  it  reaches  the  River  Shannon  at  Shannon 
Harbour,  82  miles  from  the  River  Liffey,  where  is  an  extensive  establish- 
ment of  the  Company,  consisting  of  a  large  range  of  stores  and  a  hotel. 
This  place,  together  with  Tullamore,  were  once  the  centres  of  great  activity, 
both  in  the  transmission  of  grain,  etc.,  to  Dublin  from  the  counties  of  Gal- 
way  and  Tipperary,  and  as  chief  stations  for  the  passenger  boats,  which 
were  for  many  years  the  chief  and  favourite  means  of  communication 
between  the  central  parts  of  Ireland  and  the  metropoHs  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  well-appointed  stage  coaches  about  1810,  when  the  service  was 
reduced  to  six  boats  daily.  The  rate  of  8  miles  an  hour,  including  delays 
at  locks,  was  attained  by  narrow  fly  boats,  which,  drawn  by  four  horses  at 
a  gallop,  plied  only  by  day.  A  slower  passenger  and  parcel  boat  travelled 
mght  and  day  at  a  moderate  rate  of  speed,  and  the  Company  maintamed 
five  hotels  for  the  accommodation  of  the  travellers.  After  the  introduction 
of  steamboats,  the  passenger  service  was  extended  to  Limerick.  At 
Shannon  Harbour  the  trade  boats  of  the  Company  tranship  into  steamers 
which  ply  northwards  to  Athlone  through  Lough  Ree  to  Carrick-on- 
.Shannon,  and  southwards  by  Banagher  and  Portumna  through  Lough  Derg 
to  Killaloe,  and  thence  by  the  Limerick  Canal  to  Limerick. 


116  CANALS. 

The  southern  branch  of  the  canal,  starting,  as  before  mentioned,  from  the 
summit  level,  reaches  the  Barrow  at  Athy  through  two  double  and  ten  smgle 
locks.  Thence  to  Bagnalstown  on  the  Barrow  Navigation  by  flat-bottomed 
barges,  carrying  a  maximum  load  of  40  tons  in  winter,  and  less  in  summer, 
in  consequence  of  the  condition  of  the  navigation  channel  of  the  Barrow. 
The  Grand  Canal  is  peculiar  in  having  been  carried  at  various  places 
through  bog  for  a  total  distance  of  28  miles.  The  calculation  that  by  so 
doing  embankments  would  be  avoided  proved  futile,  inasmuch  as  the 
vicinity  of  the  canal  stimulated  the  trade  in  peat  fuel,  and  the  bog  has  been 
cut  away  in  several  places  to  a  considerable  depth  on  each  side,  necessitating 
considerable  outlay  in  maintenance.  The  average  cost  of  maintenance  was 
estimated  in  1878  (by  the  Commission  on  the  Board  of  Works,  Ireland),* 
at  ;£"i6,i86  per  annum,  and  the  annual  receipts  at  an  average  of  ;^24,033, 
exceeding,  therefore,  the  out-goings  by  one-third.  The  canal  in  1889  paid 
the  shareholders  £2  per  cent,  interest  per  annum,  in  1890,  £\  iojt.,  and  m 
1 891  and  1892,  £2.  In  March,  1894,  the  Dividend  was  3^  per  cent.,  in 
1895  and  1896,  £})  per  cent,  in  1897,  3}^  per  cent,  and  in  1898  and  1899, 
£d^.  per  cent,  in  1900,  ;^3  lOi-.  per  cent,  and  in  1901,  £"3  per  cent  In  1891 
the  capital  authorised  and  created  by  the  Company  amounted  to 
^^665,938  145-.  ^d.  In  1894  the  Company  was  authorised  by  the  Grand 
Canal  Act,  1894,  to  purchase  the  Barrow  Navigation  Company,  whose 
system  extended  from  a  junction  with  the  Grand  Canal  Company  at  Athy 
to  the  tidal  way  at  St.  Mullin's,  passing  through  Carlow,  Milford,  Leighlin- 
bridge,  Bagnalstown,  and  Graiguenamanagh,  and  going  on  to  New  Ross 
and  Waterford.  The  purchase  was  completed  on  the  ist  July,  1894,  at  a 
cost  of  ^^30,000.  The  conversion  of  the  Company's  Capital  authorised  by 
the  Act  came  into  operation  on  ist  January,  1895.  The  Stock  was  con- 
verted into  £\o  shares,  one-half  of  which  (^^332,950)  are  preference  shares, 
bearing  3  per  cent  interest,  and  the  remained  (;^332,950)  ordinary  shares, 
which  are  entitled  to  all  the  profits  after  the  preference  shares  receive  3  per 
cent.  The  Act  also  authorised  the  issue  of  Debenture  Stock  to  an  extent 
not  exceeding  ;!^85,ooo,  of  which  ;^36,C)00  has  now  been  issued. 

The  Barrow  Navigation  connects  the  Athy  branch  of  the  Grand  Canal 
with  the  tidal  part  of  the  River  Barrow  below  St. 
The  Barrow  Mullin's.     The  length  of  the  Barrow  from  Athy  to 

Navigation.  the  "  Scars  "  at  St.  Mullin's,  is  43  miles,  and  has  a 

total  fall  of  169  feet.  The  river  between  Athy  and 
St.  Mullin's  lock  is  canalized  for  its  entire  length.  There  are  23  locks  and 
22  weirs,  the  level  at  Cloghrenan  lock  (2  miles  below  Carlow)  being  main- 
tained in  the  canal  (which  is  about  60  chains  in  length)  by  the  natural  fall 
in  the  river  for  that  distance. 

An  excellent  account  of  this  navigation  v/as  given  by  Mr.  M.  B.  Mullins, 
A.M.,  in  his  address  as  President  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  of 
Ireland  in  the  year  1859  which  is  worth  quoting  as  illustrating  the  history  of 
this  waterway : — 

"  The  river  forms  the  course  of  this  navigation,  except  in  a  few  instances 
where  short  deviations  are  made.  It  extends  from  Athy,  in  the  County  of 
Kildare  to  the  tide  water  below  the  rock  called  the  '  Scars,'  at  St.  Mullin's,  in 
the  County  of  Carlow — a  distance  of  34  miles,  nearly  5  miles  of  which  are 

*  Report  [C. — 2060],  1878,  p.  xliv. 


CANALS.  117 

• 

lateral  cuts.  The  works  were  commenced  in  1759,  according  to  the  designs 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Omer,  who  proposed  to  make  them  suitable  for  vessels  of  70 
tons  at  all  seasons,  the  river  in  its  then  state  not  having-  been  navigable  at 
certain  times  of  the  year  by  vessels  carrying  more  than  2  or  3  tons.  Seven  locks 
and  the  cuts  leading  to  and  from  them  had  been  completed  up  to  1790  under 
the  immediate  inspection  of  Mr.  John  Semple,  as  Deputy  Engineer.  In  the 
above-mentioned  year,  ;^22,500  having  been  previously  spent  under  the  Navi- 
gation Board,  the  Company  was  incorporated,  and  Mr.  William  Chapman  was 
appointed  to  direct  the  works.  The  proposal  made  by  the  Company  to  Par- 
liament, was  to  render  the  river  navigable  for  boats  of  15  tons  in  summer  and 
30  tons  in  winter,  with  towing-paths  for  the  whole  length,  and  to  expend  for 
that  purpose  /?40,ooo  of  their  own  money,  on  receiving  ;^2o,ooo  from  the 
public  purse  ;  but  whatever  success  might  have  attended  the  first  proposal 
it  was  only  partially  proceeded  with,  for  during  the  progress  of  the  works  the 
Company  were  induced  to  enlarge  their  project  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
boats  from  Youghal  and  Dungarvan  to  pass  through  the  River  Barrow  and 
Grand  Canal  to  Dublin  without  transhipping,  and  also  take  in  coal  vessels 
from  British  ports.  With  that  view  24  new  locks  were  designed,  80  feet  long 
and  16  feet  wide,  with  5  feet  water  on  the  cills  to  admit  boats  of  80  tons  burden. 
Of  these,  10  were  built,  and  4  of  the  original  locks,  of  various  sizes  and  of 
bad  construction,  were  taken  down  and  reconstructed  on  the  modified  plan. 
However,  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  canal  bounties  on  produce  carried  to 
Dublin,  the  progress  of  the  enlarged  scheme  was  stopped,  but  only  for  a 
time,  no  importance  having  been  apparently  attached  to  the  fact  that  the 
locks  of  the  Grand  Canal,  which  were  not  uniform  in  size,  are  in  no  instance 
more  than  70  feet  in  length,  so  that  Dublin  could  not  be  reached  by  80-ton 
boats  without  transhipping. 

"After  having  expended  on  the  several  works  ;^62,88i,  including  the  grant  of 
;^2o,ooo,  the  navigation  being  still  incomplete  on  the  enlarged  scale  proposed, 
the  Company  applied  for  aid  to  the  Directors-General  who  agreed  to  give 
them  ;^20,ooo  on  condition  of  their  reducing  the  tolls,  and  to  give  a  further 
sum  of  ;^27,5oo,  a  moiety  of  ;^55,ooo,  the  estimated  cost  of  completing  the 
navigation,  with  the  necessary  locks  and  lateral  cuts,  weirs,  towing  paths, 
etc.,  on  the  enlarged  scale  before  specified.  Those  several  amounts,  together 
with  a  sum  of  ;^  11,620,  the  half  of  which  was  likewise  contributed  by  the 
Directors-General,  had  been  expended  on  the  works  up  to  February,  181 2, 
when  a  survey  was  made  of  their  then  state,  and  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
completion  prepared  amounting  to  ;^66,ooo. 

"  The  outlay  from  1803  to  181 2,  including  ;^78,89i  granted  by  the  Direc- 
tors-General, was  ;^i49,5oi  ;  if  to  this  we  add  the  sum  of  ;^23,5oo  expended 
by  the  Board  of  Navigation  previous  to  the  incorporation  of  the  Company, 
and  the  sum  of  ;^66,ooo  the  amount  of  the  estimate  to  finish  made  in  181 2, 
we  shall  get  a  total  of  ;^239,ooi,  equal  to  ^•j,02(^  8s.  9d.  per  mile,  at  a  rate  of 
lockage  in  that  distance  of  only  5  feet  per  mile,  a  considerable  portion  of 
which  would  be  absorbed  in  the  declination  sufficient  to  give  impetus  to  the 
discharge  of  the  waters  of  the  river  and  of  its  tributaries. 

"  The  profits  in  181 2,  according  to  the  report  submitted  to  Parliament  were 
;^2,589  or  ;^76  per  mile  per  annum,  not  including  interest  on  capital  sub- 
scribed by  individuals,  or  on  grants  obtained  from  the  Government  ;  but  had 
the  peculiarly  favourable  lie  of  the  country  for  a  canal  the  whole  way  been 
taken  advantage  of,  the  proprietors  could  not  have  failed  to  obtain  a  far 
different  result,  as  well  by  the  economy  of  construction  and  maintenance  as 
by  the  general  improvement  of  the  surrounding  districts,  seeing  that  the 
Barrow  Navigation  passes  through  a  country  of  great  natural  fertility,  and 
high  cultivation  ;  that  it  meets  at  its  outfall  the  rivers  Nore  and  Suir  by  which 
it  communicates  with  the  ports  of  New  Ross  and  Waterford,  and  that  the 


118  CANALS. 

towns  of  Carrick-on-Suir,  Clonmel,  Ennisteague,  and  Thomastown,  are  also 
accessible  to  it,  from  one  extremity,  while  the  port  of  Dublin  is  open  to  its 
craft  at  the  other  ;  time  alone  having  been  necessary  for  the  development  of 
highly  remunerative  traffic,  on  a  line  so  favourably  circumstanced  if  cheaply 
and  judiciously  constructed.  Boats  cannot  load  more  than  two-thirds  of 
their  tonnage  in  summer. " 

This  waterway  now  belongs  to  the  Grand  Canal  Company,  having  been 
acquired  by  purchase  in  the  year  1892. 

This  navigation  is  carried  from  Warrenpoint  to  Newry  by  the  ship  canal 

which  admits  vessels  drawing    1 5    feet    of    water ; 

The  Newry  thence  northward  by  canal  to  Portadown  ;  16 }4  miles 

Navigation.  above  it  joins  the  Lower  Bann,  in  the  bed  of  which 

river  it  is  continued  to  Lough  Neagh.     The  summit 

level  is  76  feet,  and  28  above  Lough  Neagh.     The  Newry  Navigation  was 

purchased  in  1901,  by  the  Newry  Harbour  and  Navigation  Trust.     In  1881, 

the  shares  of  the  Newry  Navigation  Company  were  worth  £SS  ;   in  1900 

they  had  fallen  as  low  as  ;;^20,  and  at  something  like  the  last  figure  they 

were  purchased. 

This  is  a  short  navigation,  extending  from  Coal  Island  to  the  river  Black- 
water,  near  Lough  Neagh.     The  works  were  executed 
The  Tyrone  under  40  Geo.  III.,  c.  51,  in  the  early  part  of  the  cen- 

Navigation.  tury,  out  of  pubHc  funds,  to  the  amount  of  ;^25,8i3, 

by  the  Directors-General  of  Inland  Navigation,  and 
when  the  powers  of  those  Directors  were  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Works, 
under  i  and  2  W.  IV.,  c.  33,  in  183 1,  this  navigation  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Board  of  Works,  in  whom  it  has  since  been  vested. 

This  navigation  extends  from  Navan  to  Drogheda,  in  all  nineteen  statute 
miles.       A   sum  of  i^75,ocxD  was  expended  on   the 
The  Boyne  works  prior  to  1789,  and  a  further  outlay  of  ;^85,ooo 

Navigation.  subsequently,    by    the    Directors-General  of  Inland 

Navigation.  Over  ;^30,000  was  subscribed  for  pri- 
vately, which  brought  the  total  cost  of  the  navigation  up  to  about  ;£"  190,000. 
It  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Board  of  Works,  in  consequence  of  the 
transfer  to  them  in  1 831  of  the  powers  of  the  Directors-General. 

This  was  one  of  the  navigations  undertaken  by  the  Board  of  Works, 
under  5  and  6  Vic,  c.  89,  in  connection  with  arterial 
Lough  Corrib         drainage  works,  between  1848  and  1889.     The  cost  of 
Navigation.  the  works  was  intended  to  be  divided  between  the 

Government  and  the  district ;  but,  in  consequence  of 
an  integral  part  of  the  scheme,  which  was  to  connect  Lough  Corrib  with 
Lough  Mask,  being  found  impracticable  owing  to  the  subterraneous  lime- 
stone caverns,  the  whole  of  the  expense  (;^  102,289),  with  the  exception  of 
^^14,883  repaid  by  the  counties,  fell  on  public  funds.  The  works  were 
handed  over  to  trustees,  pursuant  to  19  and  20  Vic,  c  62.  In  1874  powers 
were  given  to  the  trustees,  by  the  Act  37  and  38  Vic,  c  71,  to  dispose  of  the 
property  with  the  consent  of  the  Grand  Jury. 


CANALS.  119 

This  navigation  extends  from  Adare,  County  Limerick,    to    the    River 

Shannon.     The  works  are  about  eight  miles  in  length, 

The  Maigue  and  they  were  executed  at  a  cost  of  between  ;£"2,C)00 

Navigation.  and  ^^^3,000  in  171 5,  under  the  first  Act  for  promoting 

Inland  Navigation  in  Ireland.       After  being  vested 

first  in  the  Commissioners,  and  then  in  the  Directors-General  of  Inland 

Navigation,  these  works  were  transferred  in  1831  to  the  Board  of  Works. 

The  history  of  Irish  Inland  Navigation  is  not  exhilarating  reading.  Con- 
ceived on  broad  national  lines,  the  system  of  artificial  waterways  in  this 
country  has  been  executed  in  a  singularly  spasmodic  and  haphazard  fashion. 
Control  and  responsibihty  for  its  extension  and  maintenance  have  been, 
from  the  start,  so  separated  and  shifted  from  one  authority  to  another  that 
no  policy  of  continuous  development  was  possible.  Again,  opinion,  even 
expert  opinion,  hesitated  frequently  between  the  claims  of  navigation  and 
drainage — wherever  their  interests  were  not  coincident — and  hesitation  led 
to  inaction.  Since  the  railway  era,  the  question  of  inleind  navigation  had 
practically  been  neglected,  in  these  countries,  till  within  the  last  two  decades 
or  so.  In  this  inadequate  survey  of  a  very  interesting  but  a  very  complex 
subject,  I  have  endeavoured  to  suggest  some  of  the  classes  of  consideration — 
mainly  economic — that  would  have  to  be  kept  in  view  in  a  general  considera- 
tion of  the  transit  possibilities  of  our  waterways. 


120  BANKS. 


IRISH   JOINT   STOCK  BANKS,   \Z00-\90U 

The  year  1797  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Bank  of  England  and 
the  Bank  of  Ireland.  In  that  year,  in  view  of  war  and  the  state  of  public 
credit,  they  were  both  authorised  to  suspend  cash  payments.  An  Order  in 
Council  was  issued,  Sunday,  February  26,  prohibiting  the  Bank  of  England 
from  discharging  its  notes  in  specie.  On  March  2,  1797,  the  Lord  Lieu- 
tenant (Earl  Camden)  and  the  Privy  Council  determined  that — 

"  to  prevent  a  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  cash  to  answer  the  exig-encies  of 
the  public  service,"  the  Directors  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland  "  should  forbear 
issuing  any  cash  in  payment  until  the  sense  of  Parliament  should  be  taken  on 
the  subject." 

On  the  same  day,  having  received  this  proclamation,  the  Bank  authorities 
published  a  notice,  in  which  they  state — 

*'  the  g"overnor,  deputy-governor,  and  Directors  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  in 
court  assembled,  think  it  proper  to  comply  with  the  above  order,  and  to  sus- 
pend the  payment  of  specie  at  present;  but  a^e  happy  in  being  able  to  inform 
the  public  that  the  situation  of  the  Bank  is  strong,  and  its  affairs  in  the  most 
prosperous  situation;  and  that  the  governors  and  directors  will  accommodate 
the  public  with  the  usual  discounts,  paying  the  amount  in  bank  notes." 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Dublin  merchants  and  traders,  held  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Lord  Mayor  (Mr.  Thomas  Fleming),  in  the  Mansion  House, 
March  3,  1797,  it  was  unanimously  resolved  to  accept  the  notes  of  the  Bank 
of  Ireland,  and  of  the  several  other  bankers,  in  discharge  of  all  sums  that 
might  be  payable,  and  to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  to  make  all  their 
payments  with  bank  paper.  The  result  of  the  Privy  Council  regulation, 
repeated  and  enforced  by  the  Bank  Restriction  Act,  was  a  great  and  an- 
nually growing  increase  in  note  circulation  on  the  part  of  the  Bank  of  Ire- 
land, accompanied  by  a  correspondmg  expansion  in  the  note  issues  of  the 
private  banks ;  and  a  disastrous  impetus  was  given  to  the  formation  of  these 
concerns. 

With  the  suspension  of  cash  payments  in  this  country  coincided  the 
appearance,  in  great  numbers,  of  small  notes,  issued  by  some  bankers,  for 
such  sums  as  is.,  is.  6d.,  2s.,  2s.  6d.,  Js.  Qd.,  gs. ;  and  this,  too,  was  the  suc- 
cessful era  of  the  forger.  Bank  of  Ireland  notes  were  repeatedly  counter- 
feited, till  the  Directors  adopted  the  Oldham  process  of  note-production. 
In  every  way  they  then  did  what  they  could  to  protect  the  inexperienced 
pubhc.     In   1 818,  as  the  Annual  Register  informs  us,  they  sent  agents 


BANKS.  121 

through  the  kingdom  with  facsimiles  of  their  notes,  and  directions  for 
detecting  forgeries ;  and  in  County  Wexford  a  representative  attended  the 
fairs,  and  examined  notes  for  the  country  people.  The  same  was  done  in 
other  places. 

In  1820,  by  the  Act  i  and  2  George  IV.,  c.  72,  so  much  of  the  Bank  of 
Ireland's  monopoly  was  then  removed,  as  enabled  companies  with  more 
than  six  partners,  i.e.,  with  any  number  of  partners,  to  start  and  carry  on 
business,  as  bankers,  at  fifty  Irish  miles  from  Dublin,  and  to  borrow,  owe, 
or  take  up  any  sum  or  sums  of  money  on  their  bills  or  notes  payable  on 
demand,  and  to  make  such  bills  or  notes  payable  at  any  place  in  Ireland 
outside  that  radius.  At  this  date  the  Bank  of  Ireland  was  without  country 
branches.  It  had  no  establishment  outside  Dublin.  In  Cork  and  Belfast 
there  were  private  banks.  Wexford  and  Mallow  had  one  each  also.  The 
rest  of  the  island  was  bankless.  There  was  ample  room,  therefore,  for  the 
exercise  of  banking  energy  and  enterprise.  For  four  years,  nevertheless, 
the  Act  of  1820  could  not  be  turned  to  any  good  account.  It  was  contended, 
and  successfully  so,  that  under  this  legislation  non-residents  in  Ireland  could 
not  become  partners  in  an  Irish  Joint  Stock  Bank.  Thus,  English  capital 
was  excluded.  To  remove  this  obstruction  to  bank  development,  the 
Amending  Acts  of  1824  (5  George  IV.,  c.  73)  and  1825  (6  George  IV.,  c.  42) 
were  passed.  The  latter  year  saw  three  Joint  Stock  Banks  in  operation  in 
Ireland.  These  were,  in  the  order  of  opening,  the  Northern,  the  Hibernian, 
and  the  Provincial. 

The  Northern  Banking  Company  was  founded  in  Belfast  on  the  private 
Northern  Bank.  In  1820,  with  the  law  as  it  then  stood,  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  had  been  made  to  convert  it  into  a  Joint  Stock  Bank.  It  was  the 
first,  however,  to  take  advantage  of  the  Act  of  1824,  and  commenced  busi- 
ness in  the  Northern  Bank  Buildings,  Castle-place,  Belfast,  January,  1825, 
with  a  nominal  capital  of  ^^"500,000.  In  the  same  year  the  Bank  of  Ireland 
opened  a  branch  in  Belfast,  in  Donegall-place.  Belfast  had  then  about 
45,000  of  a  population.  In  1852,  when  the  population  was  over  100,000,  the 
Northern  Banking  Company  moved  to  its  present  head  office.  In  1867  it 
was  incorporated,  and  the  capital  doubled.  The  capital  was  again  doubled, 
and  limited  liability  was  adopted,  September  i,  1883.  In  1888,  the  Northern 
Banking  Company,  Limited,  opened  an  office  m  Dublin. 

The  Hibernian  Bank,  originally  known  as  the  Hibernian  Joint  Stock 
Loan  and  Annuity  Company,  was  promoted  by  Catholic  capitalists,  who, 
by  reason  of  the  religious  tests  formerly  imposed,  were  excluded  from  the 
direction  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland.  It  was  established  under  a  special  Act  of 
Parliament  (5  George  IV,  c.  159),  and  commenced  business  in  June,  1825, 
v/ith  a  capital  of  ;^i, 000,000,  ;^2 50,000  of  which  was  paid  up.  In  1868  the 
capital  was  increased  to  ;^i, 500,000,  and  in  1873  to  ;^2,ooo,ooo.  The  nomi- 
nal amount  of  each  share  was  then  £^100,  with  ;^25  paid  up.  In  1885  the 
Company  underwent  reconstruction,  and  was  called  the  Hibernian  Bank, 
Limited.  The  capital  was  then  sub-divided  into  ;o20  shares,  with  £^  paid 
up  on  each.  In  the  originating  Bill,  the  Bajik  sought  the  power  of  note- 
issue,  but  this,  on  the  opposition  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  was  not  conceded. 
Tokens  were  then  substituted,  on  engraved  unstamped  paper,  with  the 
words  "  Hibernian  Bank  Token,  One  Pound,"  with  signature  and  date. 
These,  it  was  contended,  were  not  notes,  but  the  Bank  of  Ireland  resisted 


122  BANKS. 

tlieir  circulation,  and  they  were  withdrawn.  Another  attempt  was  made  to 
acquire  the  advantages  of  note-issue,  in  1844  It  was  unsuccessful.  In 
the  meantime  a  Bill  had  been  promoted  in  Parliament  to  dissolve  the  Com- 
pany, but  it  was  rejected. 

The  Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland  was  the  third  Joint  Stock  Bank  to  com- 
mence business  in  1825.     Its  origination  was  at  a  meeting  of  English  capi- 
talists held  in  London,  June   11,   1824,  when  the  capital    was    fixed    at 
;£"2,ooo,ooo,  in  ;^ioo  shares,  ^^25  on  each  to  be  paid  up.     The  then  state  of 
the  law,  which  was  constructed  to  require  residence  in  Ireland  on  the  part 
of  every  partner  in  an  Irish  Joint  Stock  Bank,  prevented  progress,  after  the 
capital  had  been  more  than  subscribed ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  Amending 
Act  of  1825  was  passed  that  additional  steps  could  be  taken.     In  that  year, 
September  i,  the  first  branch  was  opened  in  Cork.     Branches  in  Limerick, 
Clonmel,  and  Derry,  immediately  followed.     In  1826,  others  were  opened 
in  Sligo,  Wexford,  Belfast  (March  i),  Waterford  and  Galway;  in  1827,  in 
Armagh,  Athlone,  Coleraine  and  Kilkenny;  in  1828,  in  Ballina  and  Tralee  ; 
then,  no  branches  were  opened  till  1831  ;  after  which,  most  years  saw  one 
or  more  additions  to  the  number.     The  head  office  was  in  London,  for  a 
Dublin  office  was  as  yet  precluded  by  the  Bank  of  Ireland's  parliamentary 
privilege  of  a  fifty  mile  preserve,  measured  from  the  metropolis.     But  this 
was  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise.     London  was  a  greater  metro- 
polis ;  it  was  the  grand  metropolis  of  the  money  market ;  rich  in  experienced 
financiers — which  could  not  be  said  of  Ireland — from  whom  to  form  a 
highly  capable  directorate ;  while  the  men  so  chosen  were  certain  to  be  un- 
trammelled by  local  partialities  and  prejudices,  so  often  detrimental  to  general 
interests  in  similar  large  undertakings.     Local   Directors,   however,   with 
restricted  powers,  were  at  first  appointed  at  each  branch.     From  its  incep- 
tion, the  Provincial  Bank  gave  the  assurance  of  becoming  a  formidable 
rival  to  College-green,  not  only  from  the  wealth  and  importance  of  the 
chief  shareholders,  but  from  the  exceptional  business  talent  that  was  at  the 
head  of  aff"airs ;    the  original  board,  sixteen  in  number,  being  all  men  of 
capacity,  included  such  names  as  Matthias  Attwood,  M.P.,  a  partner  in  the 
banking  house  of  Spooner,  Attwood  and  Co. ;  Moses  (afterwards  Sir  Moses) 
Montefiore,  and  Thomas  Spring-Rice,  M.P.,  subsequently  Lord  Monteagle 
and  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.     The  appearance  of  the  Prospectus  with 
the  announcement  of  the  towns  in  which  branches  were  intended  to  be 
established,  stimulated  the  Bank  of  Ireland  to  make  a  new  departure,  and 
to  go  out  into  the  country — a  course  not  hitherto  attempted.     It  at  once 
broke  ground  in  Cork,  and,  immediately  afterwards,  in  Waterford,  Clonmel, 
Derry,  Belfast,  and  Westport.     Such  were  the  earliest  fruits  of  competition. 

In  February  and  March,  1826,  the  Provincial  Bank  experienced  the  first 
"  run."  It  took  place  in  Cork,  and  was  brought  about  by  the  closing  of  two 
local  banks.  The  Bank  of  Ireland,  though  also  established  there  at  the 
time,  was  not  affected  by  the  consequent  demand  for  gold,  as  it  was,  as  yet, 
not  liable  to  pay  in  specie  anywhere  outside  Dublin.  In  1 827  the  Provincial 
Bank  made  a  considerable  stride.  It  that  year  it  became  the  Depository  for 
the  Excise  Stamps,  and  Post  Office  receipts  for  places  bayond  the  Bank  of 
Ireland's  Dublin  district,  and  its  notes  were  put  on  a  par  with  that  Bank's, 
a  Treasury  Order  authorising  Collectors  of  Revenue  to  accept  them  in  pay- 
ment. 

In  1828,  1830,  and  1831  there  were  "runs,"  in  the  South  more  especially. 


BANKS.  123 


The  Bank  of  Ireland  participated  with  the  Provincial,  in  the  two  latter 
years,  in  meeting  the  rush  for  gold  in  the  provinces ;  for,  in  the  meantime, 
the  Act  of  9  George  IV.,  c.  8i,  had  been  passed,  putting  it  on  a  level  with 
the  other  existing  banks,  as  regards  paying  all  notes  at  the  places  where 
they  were  issued. 

In  the  first  of  these  years,  for  the  convenience  of  the  public,  the  Provincial 
Bank  had  opened  an  office  in  Dublin,  where  they  paid  their  own  notes  in 
gold,  but  did  not  reissue  them,  or  keep  customers'  accounts.  Legislation 
was  construed  as  not  disallowing  such  establishments,  of  mere  agency,  but 
the  Bank  of  Ireland  considered  the  presence  of  the  Provincial  Bank  in 
Dublin  an  infringement  of  its  vested  rights  in  the  metropolis  and  fifty  miles 
district,  and  brought  an  action  in  their  vindication,  December,  1828.  The 
verdict  was  for  the  plaintiffs,  with  dd.  damages,  and  ^d.  costs  ;  which  marked 
the  public  sentiment  in  the  situation.  In  1826,  the  Dublin  merchants  and 
traders  had  memorialised  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  to  permit  Joint  Stock 
Banks  to  be  established  in  the  city,  indicating  the  disadvantages  at  which 
they  were  placed  in  comparison  with  other  towns  where  banking  facilities 
were  not  so  restricted ;  but  their  petition  for  bank  extension  had  not  been 
entertained.  The  outcome  of  the  lawsuit  referred  to  was — an  arrangement 
between  the  two  Banks,  which  led  to  the  Act  of  1830  (i  William  IV.,  c.  32) 
empowering  Joint  Stock  Banks  to  pay  notes  in  Dublin,  for  the  purpose, 
only,  of  withdrawing  them  from  circulation.     As  Mr.  Malcolm  Dillon  says : 

"  The  Provincial  Bank  was  the  real  pioneer  of  Irish  banking.  It  fell  to  the 
lot  of  that  institution  to  combat  with  existing^  prejudices,  to  g^uide  legislation, 
and  step  by  step  to  secure  the  freedom  of  trade  in  banking." 

Other  "runs"  on  it  took  place  in  1833  and  1836 — and  in  common  with 
the  other  banks,  the  Bank  of  Ireland  and  the  National  Bank  particularly. 

The  scarcity  of  money  in  London  was  then  so  extreme  that  even  the 
Exchequer  bills  could  hardly  be  converted  into  cash.  Mr.  Pierce  Mahony 
stated  in  his  evidence  before  the  House  of  Commons  Committee,  in  1837, 
that  the  supply  of  gold  transmitted  to  Ireland  from  the  Bank  of  England 
during  this  panic,  which  lasted  about  a  month,  was  almost  iJ"2,ooo,ooo.  The 
Provincial  Bank  was  prepared  for  it,  and  had  specie  on  hands  exceeding  the 
amount  of  its  note-issue.  In  1839  there  was  another  but  a  small  "  run  "  on 
the  Provincial ;  in  1 856  there  was  a  considerable  one,  owing  to  the  stop- 
page of  the  Royal  British  and  Tipperary  Banks,  and  other  causes.  In  1875 
it  lost  heavily  by  the  series  of  huge  linen  failures  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  In 
Belfast  the  Provincial  had  opened  in  1826,  in  Donegall-street ;  in  1870,  it 
moved  to  its  present  stately  pile,  erected  on  ground  in  the  defunct  Hercules- 
place,  sold  (very  shortsightedly,  and  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  many  Belfast 
Catholics  at  the  time)  by  the  Committee  of  the  old  Catholic  Institute.  In 
1882,  it  adopted  limited  liability. 

The  Belfast  Banking  Company  was  the  next  in  the  order  of  establish- 
ment. It  was  formed,  with  a  capital  of  ;^500,ooo,  by  an  amalgamation  of 
the  old  Belfast  Bank  and  the  Commercial  Bank,  Belfast,  and  commenced 
business  August  i,  1827.  Its  head  office  was,  and  is,  what  was  the  historic 
Old  Exchange — the  place  where  the  Irish  Harpers'  meeting  was  held  in 
1792,  where  winter  subscription  balls  were  given,  and  where  Henry  Joy 
M'Cracken  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death,  July  17,  1798,  being  hanged  at 


124  BANKS. 

the  old  Market  House  at  five  o'clock  the  same  evening.     In  1846,  the  pre- 
mises underwent  alteration. 

In  1865,  the  Belfast  Banking  Company  was  incorporated,  and  the  capital 
raised  to  £"1,000,000;  August  16,  1883,  it  was  registered  as  a  Limited  Lia- 
bility Company,  with  a  capital  of  £"2,000,000. 

In  1837  the  Southern  Bank  of  Ireland  was  established,  with  a  nominal 
capital  of  £500,000,  and  power  to  bring  the  subscription  up  to  £1,000,000. 
It  sprang  out  of  the  Cork  business  of  the  Agricultural  Bank,  and  was  man- 
aged by  certain  of  that  Bank's  officers.  In  about  two  months  it  suspended 
payment.  Undoubtedly  it  promised  badly,  judging  from  facts  stated  about 
it,  and  its  irregularities,  before  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Mr.  Pierce  Mahony  declared  in  his  evidence,  that,  as  to  the  credit  of  the 
shareholders,  he  "  should  be  sorry  to  take  £500  endorsed  by  the  whole  of 
them." 

In  1835  the  National  Bank  of  Ireland — for  that  was  its  title  till  1856, 
when  the  two  final  words  were  dropped — was  founded  by  Daniel  O'Connell, 
its  first  Governor.  The  subscribed  capital  was  £1,000,000,  in  £50  shares, 
its  constitution  being  that  ever}^  holder  of  five  shares  had  one  vote,  twenty 
shares  two  votes,  sixty  shares  three  votes,  a  hundred  shares  four  votes.  It 
commenced  business  at  Carrick-on-Suir.  As  Mrs.  Morgan  John  O'Connell 
says — 

"  It  was  intended  to  be  especially  a  poor  man's  bank,  g^ot  up  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling-  the  lower  classes  to  invest  their  small  savings,  and  thus  get  an 
interest  for  their  money,  instead  of  trusting  their  pound  notes  to  the  fortunes 
of  an  old  stocking,  or  a  cracked  teapot,  or  even  a  hole  in  the  thatch.  These 
expedients  for  saving-  money  were  not  uncommon,  and  those  who  were  a  little 
more  enlightened  used  frequently  to  hand  over  their  money  to  a  friend  to 
*  keep  safe  '  for  them." 

The  banking  instinct  was  not  strong  in  our  peasantry  in  those  days. 
Occasionally  it  showed  itself,  and  then  chose  a  wrong  place  of  deposit.  It 
was  some  time  before  even  the  Liberator's  bank  got  properly  to  work  among 
them. 

"  Even  I,"  Mrs.  O'Connell  continues,  "  born  five  years  after  the  National 
Bank  was  first  established,  have  been  asked  by  people  to  take  charge  of  their 
little  hoards.  And  in  the  old  days  there  were  many  traders,  like  my  father's 
[Charles  Bianconi's]  old  friend,  Mary  Kirwan,  who  used  to  gain  considerably 
by  the  small  sums  intrusted  to  them — of  which  they  were  allowed  to  keep 
the  interest." 

Originally,  an  unusual  principle  in  banking,  the  National  Bank  consisted 
of  two  separate  and  distinct  bodies  and  interests — the  English  shareholders 
and  the  Irish  shareholders.  In  1836  there  were  246  shareholders  having 
votes,  of  whom  only  46  were  Irish;  in  1843,  there  were  481  shareholders, 
of  whom  only  106  were  English.  When  a  branch  was  opened  the  local  and 
English  shareholders  subscribed  an  equal  proportion  of  the  capital,  and 
divided  the  profits.  In  1837  the  two  stocks  were  consolidated,  except  at 
Clonmel  and  Carrick-on-Suir,  where  the  local  shareholders  were  indisposed 
to  admit  the  whole  proprietary  to  partake  in  their  profits.  In  1856,  how- 
ever, the  final  consolidation  was  arranged. 


BANKS.  125 

In  1836,  a  "  run  "  was  made  on  the  National  Bank,  and  others,  and  after 
the  alarm  was  over,  O'Connell  issued  his  manifesto  to  the  Irish  people  upon 
the  folly  of  their  procedure.  It  is  a  statesmanlike  pronouncement,  char- 
acterised by  wise  and  liberally  expressed  feelings  towards  a  rival  bank. 

In  1854  the  National  Bank  commenced  to  do  business  in  London,  having 
taken  power  in  its  deed  of  settlement  to  open  in  any  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  Bank  of  England  resisted  this  development,  but  had  to 
withdraw  its  opposition  after  consulting  high  legal  opinion. 

The  Ulster  Bank  began  in  Belfast  in  1836,  and  in  the  same  year  opened 
in  Ballymoney.  The  original  capital  was  ;£" i, 000,000 ;  now,  ;^2,400,ooo. 
In  i860  its  magnificent  new  head  office  in  Belfast,  the  finest  in  the  city,  was 
completed.     In  1 862  it  opened  a  branch  in  Dublin. 

The  rest  of  Ireland's  banking  history  may  be  shortly  dismissed.  In  1843, 
the  London  and  Dublin  Bank  was  opened,  with  a  capital  of  ;£"26o,ooo.  It 
lasted  till  1848.  The  business  was  then  transferred  to  the  National  Bank. 
In  1862  the  Union  Bank  of  Ireland  was  founded,  with  a  nominal  capital  of 
iJ" 1, 000,000,  and  went  into  liquidation  in  1868.  The  business  was  divided 
between  the  Munster  Bank  and  the  Hibernian  Bank.  In  1863  the  English 
and  Irish  Bank  was  established,  with  a  nominal  capital  of  £^2,000,000,  and 
was  taken  over  by  the  European  Bank  in  1 864.  In  that  year  the  European 
Bank  opened  a  Dublin  office,  but  relinquished  it  the  following  year,  the 
business  bring  transferred  to  the  Munster  Bank.  The  European  Bank — 
originally  the  Union  Bank  of  England  and  France — was  voluntarily  wound 
up  in  1866.  The  Munster  Bank,  at  first  called  the  National  Investment  Co., 
Ltd.,  was  established  in  Cork  in  1864,  with  a  capital  of  ;^i,ooo,ooo,  increased 
m  1880  to  i^i, 500,000.  In  1870  it  took  over  La  Touche  and  Co.'s  business. 
It  suspended  payment  July  14,  1885,  and  went  into  liquidation.  On  the 
ruins  of  this  Bank,  the  Munster  and  Leinster  Bank  was  established  in  1885. 
It  took  over  the  Dublin  and  Cork  offices  of  the  defunct  institution,  and  sub- 
sequently purchased  most  of  the  branch  premises. 

The  existing  Joint  Stock  Banks  have  all  adopted  limited  liability,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland.  Bank  of  Ireland  stockholders' 
liability  is  undetermined,  as  nothing  is  said  in  the  Charter  or  subsequent 
Acts  of  Parliament  on  the  subject.  However,  a  joint  opinion  was  signed, 
February  26,  1886,  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Mr.  Justice)  Kekewich,  Q.C.,  Sir 
Richard  Webster,  Q.C.,  and  Mr.  Hornell,  to  the  effect  that  "  holders  of  Bank 
of  Ireland  stock  are  not  Hable  for  any  debts  or  engagements  of  the  Bank." 
The  Bank  of  Ireland's  subscribed  capital  is  ^^2,769,231  15^-.  ^d.,  and  is  all 
paid  up. 

In  1825  (6  George  IV.,  c.  79)  the  assimilation  of  the  Irish  and  English 
coinage  took  place.  The  English  shilling  then  ceased  to  pass  in  Ireland  for 
I3<2?. ;  the  half-guinea  for  \\s.  \]'2d. ;  and  the  guinea  for  £\  2s.  gd.,  which 
was  their  previous  value,  as  settled  by  Proclamation  of  the  Lords  Justices 
and  Privy  Council,  September  29,  1737.  In  1828  (9  George  IV.,  c.  80) 
Irish  Banks  were  authorised  to  issue  unstamped  notes  upon  payment  of  a 
composition,  and  were  thus  put  on  an  equal  footing  with  banks  in  England. 
In  1 84 1  (5  &  6  Victoria,  c.  82)  the  equaUsation  of  the  Irish  with  the  English 
stamp  duties  was  effected.  The  result  of  this  legislation  was  that  the  impost 
was  more  than  doubled.     In  1845  (8  &  9  Victoria,  c.  37)  the  Irish  Banking: 


126  BANKS. 

Act,  the  latest  Act  on  the  subject,  was  passed.  By  this  Act  the  only  remain- 
ing vestige  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland's  monopoly  (beyond  being  the  Govern- 
ment bank)  left  by  the  Act  of  1820,  whereby  banks  with  more  than  six 
partners  were  prohibited  from  transacting  business  in  Dublin  and  fifty  Irish 
miles  therefrom,  was  swept  away,  and  the  whole  country  was  thus  thrown 
open  to  joint  stock  enterprise.  Joint  Stock  Banks,  so  established,  were  then 
empowered  to  deal  in  bills  at  any  less  date  than  six  months.  The  Bank  of 
Ireland  was  to  manage  the  public  debt  of  Ireland  free  of  charge  :  the  interest 
on  advances  made  by  it  to  Government  was  reduced  to  3  ^  per  cent.,  which 
became  3  per  cent,  in  1 865  ;  the  offensive  oath  formerly  required  of  its 
Directors  was  abolished  :  it  was  entitled,  in  the  event  of  any  bank  relinquish- 
ing note-issue,  to  increase  its  note-issue  by  the  amount  relinquished ;  but 
the  relinquishing  bank  could  not  thereafter  resume  the  power  so  surren- 
dered. Bankers  uncertified  by  the  Commissioners  of  Stamps  and  Taxes 
were  prohibited  from  issuing  notes ;  limitation  of  note-issue  was  provided 
for ;  Bank-notes  for  fractional  parts  of  a  pound,  or  for  a  pound  and  a  frac- 
tion, were  prohibited,  under  a  penalty  of  i^20  for  each  note  issued ;  issuing 
banks  were  required  to  render  weekly  accounts  of  their  note-circulation  and 
stock  of  specie  at  the  head  office  or  principal  places  of  issue  to  the  Com- 
missioners of  Stamps  and  Taxes,  who  were  also  empowered  to  cause  an 
inspection  of  books ;  public  officers  were  allowed  to  become  partners  in 
banks  ;  banks  were  bound  to  return  once  a  year  to  the  Stamp  Office,  Dublin, 
a  list  of  the  names,  addresses,  and  professions  of  their  partners ;  power  was 
given  to  sue  and  be  sued  by  their  public  officers ;  promissory  notes  or  bills 
of  exchange  for  sums  under  a  pound  were  made  negotiable ;  such  are  the 
chief  provisions  by  which  banking,  as  we  now  understand  it,  was  settled  to 
be  conducted  in  this  country.  This  Act  also  decided  the  doubts  which  had 
arisen,  and  on  which  the  most  eminent  counsel  were  divided,  as  to  whether 
Bank  of  England  notes  were  legal  tender  in  Ireland.  It  enacted  (which 
will  be  information  to  many)  that  they  were  not,  but  that 

*'  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  Circulation  In  Ire- 
land of  the  Notes  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  England 
as  heretofore." 

Bank  of  Ireland  Notes  are  legal  tender  only  in  payment  of  Revenue. 

Present  Position  of  Irish  Joint  Stock  Banks. 

The  deposits  and  cash  balances  in  the  Joint  Stock  Banks  at  the  close  of 
December,  1901,  as  shown  in  Table  I.,  stood  at  ;^42,923,ooo  (exclusive  of 
;^ 1, 83 1,000  Government  and  other  Public  Balances  in  the  Bank  of  Ireland), 
as  compared  with  ;^43,28o,ooo  at  the  corresponding  period  in  the  year  1900, 
being  a  decrease  of  £"357,000.  This  is  the  first  time  since  December,  1887 
that  the  figures  in  this  Table  show  a  decrease,  there  having  been,  comparing 
December  with  December,  a  continuous  annual  increase  throughout  the 
intervening  period,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  i^i 3,509,000.  It  should 
be  noted,  however,  that  although  the  amount  for  December,  1901,  is 
^357.000 — only  0.8  per  cent. — less  than  that  recorded  for  December,  1900. 
the  amount  for  the  latter  year  was  the  highest  ever  reached. 

In  Table  I.  (a)  the  amounts  of  deposits  and  cash  balances  are  compared 
by  half-years :  it  shows  that  as  usual  there  was  an  increase  in  December  as 
compared  with  June. 


BANKS. 


12 


Table  I. ^Showing  amount  of  Deposits  and  Cash  Balances  in  Joint  Stock  Banks,  on  31st 
December,  1881-1901,  compiled  from  Returns  furnished  by  the  several  Joint  Stock  Banks 
in  Ireland.* 


Date.                                     Amount. 

Yearly 
Increase. 

Yearly 
Decrease. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

i88r 

31st  December   ..          ..              30,161,000 

415,000 

— 

1882 

32,746,000 

2,585,000 

— 

1883 

,,               ..          ..              3i>340|000 

— 

1,406,000 

1884 

30,627,000 

— 

713,000 

1885 

29,370,000 

— 

1,257,000 

1886 

30,172,000 

802,000 

— 

1887 

29,771,000 

- 

401,000 

1888 

,,               . .          . .              30,979,000 

1,108,000 

— 

1889 

32,968.000 

1,989,000 

— 

1890 

33.325.000 

357,000 

— 

1891 

34.532.000 

1,207,000 

— 

1892 

35.375.000 

843,000 

— 

1893 

35)852,000 

477,000 

— 

1894 

,              ,,               ..          ..              37,607,000 

1,755,000 

— 

1S95 

39,008,000 

1,401,000 

— 

1896 

,               ,,          ■    , .          . .              39,238,000 

230,000 

— 

1897 

39.300,000 

62,000 

— 

1898 

39,438,000 

138,000 

■    — 

1899 

,,               . .          . .              40,772,000 

1,334,000 

— 

1900 

43,280,000 

2,508,000 

— 

1901 

42,923,000 

— 

357,000 

*The  names  and  the  dates  of  foundation  of  the  Banks,  the  combined  statistics  of  which 
are  included  in  Tables  I,  and  I.  (a),  are  as  follows.  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk 
(*)  are  Banks  of  Issue. 


Name. 

Established. 

Name. 

Established. 

*  Bank  of  Ireland, 
*Northern  Banking  Company, 

Hibernian  Bank, 
*Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland,   . . 

*  Bel  fast  Banking  Company,     . . 

1783 
1824 
1825 
1825 
1827 

♦National  Bank, 

♦Ulster  Bank 

Royal  Bank  of  Ireland, 
Munster  and  Leinster  Bank,  . . 

1835 
1836 
1836 
1885 

128 


BANKS. 


Table  I.  (a)— Showing  amount  of  Deposits  and  Cash  Balances  in  Joint  Stock  Banks,  in  the 
months  of  June  and  December,  in  the  years  1891-1901,  compiled  from  Returns  furnished 
by  the  several  Joint  Stock  Banks  in  Ireland. 


Date. 

Amount. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1891,  30th  June, 
1891,  31st  December, 

33,700,000 
34,532,000 

375,000 
832,000 

1892,  30th  June, 
1892,  31st  December, 

34,565,000 
35,375,000 

33,000 
810,000 

— 

1893,  30th  June, 
1893,  31st  December, 

34,637,000 
35,852,000 

1,215,000 

738,000 

1894,  30th  June, 
1894,  31st  December, 

35,430,000 
37,607,000 

2,177,000 

422,000 

1895,  30th  June, 
1895,  31st  December, 

37,491,000 
39,008,000 

1,517,000 

116,000 

1896,  30th  June, 
1896,  31st  December, 

38,758,000 
39,238,000 

480,000 

250,000 

1897,  30th  June, 
1897,  3^st  December, 

38,564,000 
39,300,000 

736,000 

674,000 

1898,  30th  June, 
1898,  31st  December, 

38,973,000 
39,438,000 

465,000 

327,000 

1899,  30th  June, 

39,840,000 

402,000 

— 

1899,  31st  December, 

40,772,000 

932,000 

— 

1900,  30th  June, 
1900,  31st  December, 

40,387,000 
43,280,000 

2,893,000 

385,000 

1901,  30th  June, 
1901,  31st  December, 

41,568,000 
42,923,000 

1,355,000 

1,712,000 

There  are  six  banks  in  Ireland  authorized  to  issue  Notes,  the  statistics  of 
which  are  included  in  this  Table.  The  total  authorized  issue  of  Notes  for 
these  Banks  is  ;^6,3  54,494,  distributed  as  in  the  following  Table  : — 


Name  of  Bank. 

Amount  of 
Authorized 
Circulation. 

Bank  of  Ireland,     . . 

Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland, 

National  Bank, 

Ulster  Bank, 

Belfast  Banking  Company,  . .              . . 

Northern  Banking  Company, 

Total,      .. 

£ 
3,738,428 

852,269 

311,079 
281,611 
243,440 

^■6,354,494 

Diagram   A.— Showing  DEPOSITS  AND  CASH  BALANCES  IN  JOINT 

STOCK  BANKS  in  Ireland  on  the  31st  of  December  in  each 

year  for  the  period   1881-1901. 


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DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE  AND  TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION   FOR  IRELAND, 
STATISTICS    AND   INTELLIGENCE   BRANCH 


I  I 


BANKS.  -  129 


IRISH    SAVINGS   BANKS. 

Savings  Banks,  as  we  know  them,  are  creations  of  the  past  century.  The 
first  genuine  Bank  of  the  kind  was  estabhshed  at  Tottenham,  in  England, 
in  1804,  by  six  gentlemen  who  acted  as  trustees,  and  allowed  as  much  as 
5  per  cent,  interest  on  sums  exceeding  one  pound  sterling  which  remained 
ui  their  hands  for  one  year.  This  well-meant  venture,  however,  involved 
the  trustees  in  loss,  and  was  abandoned.  In  18 10  a  well-organised  Savings 
Bank,  known  as  "  The  Parish  Bank  Friendly  Society,"  was  established  at 
Ruthwell,  and  proved  so  successful  that  by  the  year  18 16  it  had  led  to  the 
establishment  of  nearly  eighty  Savings  Banks  in  England  and  Ireland. 
The  year  181 7  saw  the  first  legislation  on  the  subject — i.e.,  Acts  57  Geo. 
III.,  c.  105  and  c.  130 — intended  to  encourage  and  regulate  Banks  for  savings 
in  England  and  Ireland  (these  Acts  were  not  extended  to  Scotland  until 
1835).  The  chief  provisions  of  these  Acts  were — (i)  Trustees  were  prohi- 
bited from  making  a  profit  out  of  these  Banks  ;  (2)  They  were  bound  to 
remit  to  the  office  for  the  reduction  of  the  National  Debt  where  "  the  fund 
for  the  Banks  of  savings  "  was  opened  all  deposits  exceeding  £^,0  in  the 
aggregate;  (3)  That  office  was  to  allow  interest  at  the  rate  of  £4  lis.  ^d. 
per  cent,  per  annum  (whereas  the  Banks  themselves  mostly  allowed  their 
depositors  4  per  cent.)  ;  (4)  Not  more  than  ;^50  could  be  deposited  in  any 
one  year  (in  England,  however,  a  depositor  could  deposit  £100  in  the  first 
year).  The  next  measure  dealing  with  these  Banks  was  an  Act  of  1824 
limiting  deposits  to  ^^50  in  the  first  year  and  £;^o  in  any  subsequent  year, 
and  further  providing  that  when  the  deposits  of  any  person  exceeded  i^200 
no  interest  was  to  be  allowed  on  the  excess.  In  1828  there  was  an  im- 
portant amending  and  consolidating  Act  which  provided  inier  alia — (i) 
That  the  rules  of  each  Trustees  Savings  Bank  should  be  approved  by  the 
Commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  National  Debt ;  (2)  that  the  rate  of 
interest  allowed  by  that  office  should  be  reduced  to  ;^3  i6i".  oy^d.  per  cent, 
per  annum,  while  depositors  should  receive  from  the  Bank  interest  at  the 
rate  of  £l  %s.  sV^^-  P^^  cent,  per  annum;  (3)  that  no  depositor  should  be 
permitted  to  deposit  more  than  £^150,  although  the  interest  might  be 
allowed  to  accumulate  until  the  deposit  reached  ;^200.  Five  years  after 
this  Act  {i.e.,  in  1833)  there  were  in  Ireland  76  Trustees  Savings  Banks, 
49,872  depositors,  and  ^^1,380,7 18  deposits.  The  numbers  for  England  in 
the  same  year  were  385  Banks,  414,014  depositors,  and  i^i 3,973,243  total 
deposits. 

The  Savings  Bank  principle  was  enormously  developed  by  the  establish- 
ment in  1 86 1  (Act  24  Vic,  c.  18),  of  Post  Office  Savings  Banks,  which  at 
once  became  popular  in  England  and  Ireland,  though  in  Scotland  they  have 
not  rivalled  the  popularity  of  the  Trustees  Savings  Banks.  The  statutory 
rate  of  interest  under  this  Act  was  2^  per  cent.  The  security  which  the 
Post  Office  Savings  Banks  offer  has  influenced  depositors  in  England  and 
Ireland  to  forego  the  slightly  higher  rate  of  interest  which  the  Trustees 
Savings  Banks  can  offer.* 

*  Between  1817 — the  date  of  the  first  Savings  Bank  Act — and  1828,  the  Government  allowed 
interest  to  the  Trustees  at  the  rate  of  £i,  iis.  3^.,  while  the  average  rate  of  interest  yielded  by- 
Consols  varied  from  £^  8s.  4^/.  to  £^  bs.  id.  From  1828  to  1844  the  Trustees  received  £^  16s., 
while  Consols  yielded  from  £2  15s.  ^d.  to  £^  os.  8d.  From  1844  to  1880,  Government  allowed 
£3  5^'  P^''  cent.,  while  the  rate  of  interest  on  Consols  varied  between  £^  10s.  jd.  and  £^  os.  8d. 
From  November  20,  1880,  the  rate  of  interest  allowed  was  3  per  cent.,  which  was  again  reduced 
in  iS88  to  2|  per  cent.,  at  which  it  still  remains. 

K 


130 


BANKS. 


The  increasing-  popularity  of  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  is  well  brought 
out  in  the  annexed  Table  (Table  I.),  which  refers  only  to  Ireland : — 

Table  I. — Showing  the  Estimated  Balances  of  Deposits,  on  30th  of  June  of  the  under- 
mentioned years,  in  the  Post  Office  and  Trustees  Savings  Banks  respectively  in 
Ireland  ;  and  also  total  deposits  for  both. 


Year. 

Trustees 
Saving  Banks. 

Post  Office 
Savings  Banks. 

Total  Deposits 

in  Savings  Banks 

in  Ireland. 

1833. 
1844, 
i860, 
1870, 
1880, 
1885, 
1890, 
1895, 
1900, 
1901, 

1,380,718 
2,749,107 
2,143,082 
2,062,758 
2,063,000 
2,022,000 
2,035,000 

2,O3/f,00O 

2,295,000 
2,340,000 

£ 

633,000 
1,481,000 
2,325,000 
3,585,000 
5,337,000 
7,791,000 
8,289,000 

£ 
1,380,718 
2,749,107 
2,143,082 
2,695,738 
3,544,000 
4,347,000 
5,620,000 
7,371,000 
10,086,000 
10,629,000 

Table  II.— Showing  the  Number  of  Accounts  remaining  open  in  Post  Office  and  Trustees 
Savings  Banks  in  Ireland  on  31st  December  in  each  year  of  the  period,  1884-1900, 
compiled  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  for  the  United  Kingdom. 


]                   Year. 

Trustees 

Post  Office 

Total  for 

Savings  Banks. 

Savings  Bank. 

Ireland. 

1884, 

52,655 

124,973 

177,628 

1885, 

50,236 

135.777 

186,013 

1886, 

49,775 

147.193 

196,968 

1887, 

49,994 

158,848 

208,842 

1888, 

49,242 

172,305 

221,547 

1889, 

50.455 

185,360 

235,815 

1890, 

49,643 

198,790 

248,433 

1891, 

49,276 

212,076 

261,352 

1892, 

49,003 

225,823 

274,82b 

1893. 

46,505 

235.944 

282,449 

1894, 

47.510 

259,870 

307,380 

1895, 

48,123 

280,499 

328,622 

I     1896, 

48,911 

301,976 

350,887 

1897, 

49,518 

322,486 

372,004 

1898, 

49.725 

342,070 

391.795 

1     1899, 

50.324 

362,716 

413,040 

i     1900, 

50.318 

381,865 

432,183 

The  Savings  Bank  Act  of  1893  raised  the  maximum  allowed  to  be  de- 
posited in  cash  in  one  year  from  £^0  to  ;^50,  doubled  the  annual  maximum 
amount  of  stock  allowed  to  be  purchased  (it  had  been  £100),  and  increased 
the  stock  Hmit  from  ;£'300  to  ^^500.  This  legislation  naturally  resulted  in  a 
sudden  and  remarkable  rise  in  the  gross  amount  of  deposits.  While  the 
deposits  in  1893  were  i^  16,000  less  than  these  for  1892,  these  in  1894  were 
£616,000  in  excess  of  the  1893  returns.  In  fact,  since  1894,  the  total 
deposits  in  Post  Office  and  Trustees  Savings  Banks  in  Ireland  have  in- 
creased by  ;^3,459,ooo.  These  figures  seem  to  denote  that  Savings  Bank 
depositors  are  no  longer  exclusively  drawn  from  the  poorer  classes,  to  whose 
interests  alone  prominence  was  accorded  in  the  early  Savings  Bank  legisla- 
tion. 


Diagram    B.     Showing   AMOUNTS   OF    DEPOSITS    IN   POST  OFFICE 

AND  TRUSTEES  SAVINGS  BANKS  in  Ireland  in  December 

of  each  year  for  the  period  1881-1901. 


MlUions,   £    j 

DOO.OOO             1        ^ 

omitted.              "^ 

1 1 II II II  M  1 II  H  U  III 

Millions,    £ 
000,000 
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DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE  AND  TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION  FOR  IRELAND. 
STATISTICS    AND   INTELLIGENCE   BRANCH. 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS.  131 


CO-OPERATIVE    CREDIT    ASSOCIATIONS. 


The  organisation  of  Co-operative  Credit  Associations  in  the  rural  districts 
of  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland  was  inaugurated  in  February  of  the  year 
1 894,  by  the  establishment  of  a  "  bank  "  at  Doneraile,  Co.  Cork.  The 
success  of  this  trial  institution,  which  was  founded  on  what  is  known  as  the 
Raiffeisen  system,  naturally  led  to  the  creation  of  similar  institutions  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  1901  there  were  as 
many  as  one  hundred  and  three  of  these  rural  "  banks  "  registered.  Herr 
F.  W.  Raiffeisen,  the  creator  of  the  "  loan  bank  "  system  which  bears  his 
name,  was  born  in  the  year  1818,  at  Haum  in  Westphalia.  Brought  mto 
sharp  touch  with  the  misery  of  the  poor  peasant  cultivators  of  the  Rhine- 
land,  through  his  official  position  as  Burgomaster  of  several  districts  in  the 
Westerwald,  Raiffeisen  determined  to  see  if  he  could  not  alleviate  their 
chronic  suffering  and  poverty  by  the  application  of  the  principle  of  co- 
operation to  their  several  needs.  His  first  venture  was  a  co-operative 
bakery,  which  was  quickly  followed  by  a  co-operative  cattle-purchase  asso- 
ciation. But  successful  as  these  experiments  immediately  proved — and 
such  associations  can  now  be  counted  by  the  hundred  on  the  Continent — 
the  lack  of  capital  remained  as  a  fatal  flaw  in  the  economy  of  the  Wester- 
wald peasantry.  To  supply  this  Raiffeisen  started  at  Hammersfield,  in  the 
year  1849,  his  first  co-operative  credit  association.  Not  till  five  years  later 
was  a  second  "  bank  "  started,  and  again  Raiffeisen  himself  was  the  founder. 
In  1862  a  third  was  formed;  in  1868  a  fourth.  In  1896  no  fewer  than 
2,169  Raiffeisen  "banks"  were  at  work  in  Germany  alone.  Their  founder 
had  then  been  dead  for  eight  years,  but  the  associations  which  "  Father 
Raiffeisen  "—as  he  is  affectionately  spoken  of  by  his  own  countrymen — 
had  originated,  grew  and  are  growing  apace  in  every  European  country.* 

The  practical  problem  which  faced  Raiffeisen  in  the  Westerwald  was  to 
supply  a  very  poor  agricultural  people,  who  had  two  of  the  requisites  of 
production — land  and  labour — with  a  third,  to  wit,  capital.  This  he  did  by 
uniting  the  peasants  as  shareholders  in  loan  associations,  regulated  on  the 
principle  of  unhmited  liability.  In  these  societies  every  member  is  equally, 
jointly,  and  severally  hable  with  every  other  member  for  the  debts  of  the 
association.  This  was  the  first  safeguard  of  the  "  bank  " — it  secured  care 
and  caution  in  the  admission  of  members,  and  constant  supervision  m  the 
application  of  a  loan.  The  second  safeguard  was  afforded  by  the  invariable 
rule  that  loans  were  made  for  a  productive  purpose  only — a  matter  to  be 
decided  by  the  committee  of  the  association — that  is  to  say,  by  men  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  character  and  circumstances  of  the  appHcant  for 
a  loan,  and  each,  individually,  liable  to  be  mulcted  in  case  of  his  default. 
Raiffeisen  was  emphatic  as  to  the  necessity  for  restricting  the  operations  of 
each  association  to  a  particular  area — a  village,  a  parish,  a  townland — and 

*  See  "  People's  Banks,"  by  Henry  W.  Wolff.     London  :  P.  S.  King  &  Son. 


132  CO-OPERATIVE   CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS. 

the  wisdom  of  such  a  course  cannot  be  questioned,  having  regard  to  the 
principles  and  aims  of  these  organisations.  It  is  also  clear  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  unlimited  liabiUty  is  only  possible  where  all  the  members  of  a  com- 
paratively poor  community  are,  more  or  less,  on  an  equality  in  regard  to  the 
possession  of  worldly  goods.  The  members  of  the  committee,  or  other 
officials  of  the  banks,  get  no  salaries,  and  no  dividends  are  paid — profits, 
when  there  are  any,  going  generally  towards  the  formation  of  a  reserve 
fund.  The  Tables  given  in  this  report  must,  therefore,  not  be  judged  from 
the  standpoint  of  an  ordinary  joint  stock  balance  sheet.  The  measure  of 
the  prosperity  of  these  credit  associations  is  not  large  profits  or  handsome 
dividends,  but  rather  the  extent  to  which  the  capital  of  the  "  bank  "  has 
subserved  the  needs  of  its  members,  and  proved  productive  in  their  hands ; 
and  the  absence  of  serious  loss.  With  three  exceptions,  all  the  credit  asso- 
ciations in  Ireland  are  Raiffeisen  "  banks,"  and  consequently  I  need  not  do 
more  here  than  allude  to  the  well-known  fact  that  there  have  been  in  Ger- 
many and  Italy  other  apostles  of  co-operative  credit  in  town  and  country 
v^hose  fame  is  only  second  to  that  of  Raiffeisen  himself.  Herr  Schulze — 
called  Schulze-DeHtzsch  from  his  birth-place— organised  his  first  credit 
association  in  1850,  a  year  after  the  Raiffeisen  bank  was  established 
at  Flammersfeld.  The  Schulze  "  banks  "  are  savings  banks  as  well  as 
credit  associations,  and  their  growth  has  been  mainly  in  Continental  towns. 
Their  founder  wished  to  bring  credit  and  the  opportunity  for  thrift  to  the 
doors — not  of  a  rural  peasantry — but  of  the  artisans  and  small  shopkeepers 
of  town  populations.  The  success  of  the  Schulze-DeHtzsch  associations  on 
the  Continent  has  been  remarkable.  There  are,  at  the  present  moment, 
several  thousands  of  these  organisations  in  Germany  alone,  and  they  have 
spread  to  Austria,  Italy,  and  France.  Still  another  modification  of  the 
system  of  co-operative  credit  is  found  in  the  "  Banche  Popolan,"  which  Italy 
owes  to  the  genius  and  zeal  of  Commendatore  Luigi  Luzzatti.  Luzzatti 
started  his  first  People's  Bank  in  Milan  in  1865.  Avowedly  inspired  by  the 
idea  of  Schulze-Delitzsch's  associations,  Luzzatti  considerably  modified  the 
German's  conception  with  a  view  to  meeting  the  special  needs  of  Italy.  It 
is  enough,  in  this  place,  to  mention,  in  regard  to  these  modifications,  Luz- 
zatti's  rejection  of  the  principle  of  unlimited  liability.  The  "  banche  popo- 
lari "  were  town  "  Banks  "  ;  Italy  needed  also  its  rural  credit  associations. 
To  supply  these  was  the  mission  of  Signor  Wollemborg,  a  Venetian  land- 
lord, whose  immediate  desire  was  to  rescue  his  tenantry  and  their  neighbours 
from  the  thraldom  of  usurers.  In  June,  1883,  the  first  Italian  rural  "  bank  " 
was  organised.  In  essentials  the  "  casse  rurali "  of  Italy  are  Raiffeisen 
associations.  An  enormous  impetus  was  given  to  the  spread  of  the  rural 
"  banks  "  of  Italy  by  the  energy  and  ability  of  Father  Cerutti — the  parish 
priest  of  Gambarare,  in  Venetia — who  smce  1 890  has  been  the  promoter  of 
hundreds  of  these  institutions  in  Venetia  alone. 

In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  character  of  these  rural  credit  associa- 
tions in  Ireland,  I  extract  the  following  comments  on  their  effects  from  the 
Sixth  Report  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society.  The  Secretary 
of  the  Burren  Bank  writes  : — 

"  For  a  time  only  twenty-six  members  co-operated  ;  others  watched 
closely,  and  after  a  time  when  they  saw  the  marvellous  profits  attained  by 
borrowers  in  short  spaces  of  time,  it  was  then  they  really  took  to  their  minds 
what  profits  they  could  have  gained  had  they  embarked  on  the  same  ship  as 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS.  133 


their  more  spirited  neighbours,  who  seemed  to  be  outvieing  each  other  to  see 
who  could  boast  of  the  greatest  profits  to  his  own  purse  after  paying  back 
the  principal.  I  have  known  people  who,  before  they  became  members,  were 
quite  indifferent  about  either  themselves  or  their  homes,  and  '  drank  '  on  every 
occasion  they  could  ;  but  since  they  have  joined  the  Bank  are  now  some  of 
the  most  thrifty  and  fast-rising  people  in  the  place,  and  will  turn  a  sixpence 
about  a  score  of  times  in  their  fingers  before  bidding  good-bye  to  it.  So  you 
can  understand  we  have  set  the  axe  to  the  roots  of  the  huge  trees  of 
drunkenness  and  unthriftiness." 

Another  letter,  from  the  Rev.  P.  Kilkenny,  P.P.,  Claremorris,  tells  the 
same  story.     He  writes  : — 

"  I  have  great  pleasure  in  stating  that,  in  my  opinion,  the  objects  of  the 
philanthropic  gentlemen  who  have  promoted  the  establishment  of  Agricultural 
Banks  in  Ireland  are  fully  realised  in  the  case  of  the  small  Bank  of  Murneen. 
The  means  at  its  disposal  are  no  doubt  slender,  still  it  is  easy  to  point  to 
cases  where  the  loan  received  from  the  Bank  has  produced  twice  or  even 
thrice  the  amount  borrowed.  Cattle  and  pigs  that  would  have  been  sold  to 
the  great  loss  of  the  borrower  were  enabled  to  be  retained  until  their  full 
value  was  realised. 

"  Greater  even  than  the  material  advantages  of  the  Bank  are  the  moral 
effects  resulting  from  it  in  the  district  of  Murneen  :  firstly,  in  the  education 
the  people  are  receiving  in  the  true  use  of  credit,  and  again  in  the  gain  for 
the  country  that  can  so  easily  be  obtained  from  mutual  co-operation.  Here- 
to ore  the  man  who  borrowed  lost  caste  in  the  neighbourhood,  was  regarded 
as  a  ne'er-do-well,  and  fast  hastening  to  join  the  class  who  are  a  burden  on 
society.  Now  the  people  are  learning  that  it  is  honourable,  when  necessary, 
to  borrow  for  the  honest  purpose  of  improving  one's  position  and  ascending 
higher  the  ladder  of  industrial  prosperity.  From  the  success  that  has 
attended  the  working  out  of  this  little  experiment  in  such  a  remote  district, 
one  is  forced  to  wish  that  branches  were  multiplied  in  the  country,  that  this 
influence  for  good  may  be  more  widely  extended  "' 

From  the  Reports  of  the  Secretaries  of  several  Raiffeisen  "  Banks  "  I 
have  taken  the  following  typical  instances  of  loans,  the  purposes  to  which 
they  were  put,  and  the  results,  which  give  an  insight  into  the  nature  of  the 
transactions  negotiated  by  these  small  rural  credit  associations.  I  have 
omitted  the  names  and  residences  of  the  borrowers — 

;^4  for  ten  months — bought  4  bonhams  ;  sold  them  before  the   loan 

had  expired  for  ;£'i6. 

;^3  purchased  3  bonhams,  which  died  when  value  about  ;^6.     Paid 

loan  punctually  and  got  new  one. 

£3  for  ten  months  ;  bought  3  bonhams,  which  he  sold  in  nine  months 

for  ;!^i5.  Paid  his  loan  and  got  a  new  one  for  ;^2  io.y.,  no  more  money  being 
available. 

grot  ;^3  for  ten  months  ;  bought  two  bonhams  at  255.,  sold  them  in 

nine  months  at  ;^5  10^.  Also  purchased  a  calf  for  ^,2  12s.  6cl.,  sold  it  in  ten 
months  for  ;^6. 

;^3  for  ten  months  ;  purchased  a  calf  which  sold  after  six  months  for 

;!^5  5.?.     Paid  his  loan  and  invested  residue  in  pigs.     Has  a  new  loan. 

;£,  2,  ten   months — bought   pigs,  which   he  sold  in  nine  months  for 

£6  I  OS. 

£2,  ten  months — bought  pigs.     Both  pigs  and  borrower  died.      His 

widow  paid  loan  punctually  and  in  full,  and  got  a  new  advance. 


134 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS. 


got  £2>- 


^^  -boug-ht  two  sheep  and  paid  his  passage  to  England.  The 
sheep  had  two  lambs,  with  which  he  paid  loan.     He  has  now  five  sheep. 

would  have  had  to  sell   a   springer  to  take  him  to  England,  but 

borrowed  ^2>  ^"'^  kept  his  beast.  He  has  a  cow  and  calf  now,  and  paid  his 
loan  out  of  money  made  in  England. 

;63)  fo""  =i^  months — bought  two  young  pigs   for  30^.  and  manures 

and  seeds.     Pigs  sold  in  October  for  ;^5   icy. 

;^3,  for  four  months — bought  two  young  pigs  and  paid  his  fare  to 

England.     Results  splendid. 

The  following  statement  as  to  the  transactions  of  a  typical  "  Bank  "  may 
be  of  interest : — - 


Clare   Island   Agricultural   Bank,   Co.  Mayo. 


Amount. 

Time. 

Purpose. 

Length  retained. 

Profit.* 

£     ^-     d. 

£    s.    d. 

200 

10  Months. 

2  Bonhams. 

8|  Months. 

950 

200 

10        ,, 

2         „ 

10        ,, 

650 

500 

7 

3  Calves. 

7 

10     5     0 

500 

12        ,, 

2         ,, 

9 

700 

100 

II         „ 

2  Bonhams. 

II         „ 

7  15     0 

100 

10        ,, 

I         ,, 

10         ,, 

400 

I    10     0 

10        ,, 

2 

10         ,, 

726 

200 

10        ,, 

2 

10         ,, 

700 

£ig  10     0 

;^58     12         6 

The  confidential  reports  of  the  secretaries  of  the  various  Banks  (which  I 
have  been  permitted  to  read)  show  clearly  that  most  of  the  borrowers  could 
profitably  employ  two  and  three  times  as  much  capital  as  the  funds  of  the 
local  Bank  place,  at  present,  within  their  reach.  It  is  consequently  a 
matter  of  some  moment  that  the  loan  capital  funds  of  these  associations 
should  be  augmented.  In  this  connection  I  may  quote  a  paragraph  from 
the  Sixth  Report  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society : — 

"  We  have  great  pleasure  in  recording  the  enlightened  policy  of  the 
Congested  Districts  Board  in  aiding  these  Banks,  which  has  been  fully  justified 
by  the  results.  The  Board  has  allowed  banks  in  congested  districts  to  borrow 
loan  capital  from  it  to  the  extent  of  ;^3,ooo.  The  amount  lent  to  the  indi- 
vidual societies  varies  from  ;^50  to  ;^2oo,  on  which  they  pay  interest  at  the  rate 
of  3^  per  cent.  About  these  small  deposits  as  a  nucleus  other  sums  g-ather 
by  degrees,  and  a  sufficient  capital  will  in  time  be  acquired.  Much  might  be 
done  by  the  Joint  Stock  Banks  if  they  would  recognise  the  security  formed  by 
an  association,  and  the  fact  that  these  little  societies  cannot  be  regarded  as 
rivals,  but  as  feeders,  enabling  the  large  banks  to  utilize  their  capital  in  pro- 
moting enterprise  in  a  class  hitherto  excluded  from  their  help." 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  also  have 
decided  to  allocate  certain  sums  to  the  purposes  of  the  organization  and 
capitalization    of  Raiffeisen  credit  associations  in  non-congested  areas,  so 


*  The  term  "Profit,"  as  here  used,  means  the  gross  return  exclusive,  of  course,  of  the 
amount  of  the  loan. 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS.  135 


that  the  difficulty  of  insufficient  capital  will  probably  be  a  transitory  one. 
It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  time  will  come  when,  with  the  extension  of 
these  small  local  banks  working  within  a  very  narrow  area,  the  need  of 
some  sort  of  central  credit  organisation  to  serve  both  as  a  distributor,  on 
reasonable  terms,  of  capital  to  the  local  credit  societies  and  as  a  kind  of 
clearing  house  for  these  societies  inter  se,  will  become  a  pressing  one.  This 
has  been  the  case  in  continental  countries,  and  the  experience  will  probably 
be  repeated  here.  Of  course  outside  the  sphere  of  operation  of  these  Raif- 
feisen  credit  associations — which  deal  only,  and  by  their  nature  can  only 
deal,  with  a  small  though,  in  Ireland,  a  very  important  part  of  the  whole  field 
of  agricultural  credit — there  is  room  and  opportunity  for  organising  (again 
on  continental  models)  agricultural  credit  more  thoroughly,  with  a  view  to 
bringing  within  the  reach  of  all  those  engaged  in  the  greatest  industry  of 
this  country,  credit  facilities  on  terms  not  more  onerous  (and  this  involves 
the  question  of  the  duration  of  the  loan,  no  less  than  of  the  interest  on  it) 
than  those  on  which  a  solvent  manufacturer  or  merchant  can  now  secure 
capital  to  develop  his  business. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  practically  all  the  capital  got  on  loans  is  employed,, 
in  the  cases  above  quoted,  for  stocking  the  land.  Most  of  the  borrowers  are 
small  farmers  on  whose  holdings — averaging  from  lo  to  30  acres — there  is 
generally  a  disproportionally  large  percentage  of  more  or  less  rough  pasture. 
The  credit  faciUties  offered  by  the  local  banks  enable  them  to  buy  young 
stock  for  this  grazing,  or  an  almost  equally  important  boon,  to  hold  over  any 
stock  they  may  have  until  such  time  as  prices  turn  in  their  favour.  The 
great  "  profit "  that  is  the  usual  outcome  of  the  use  of  this  "  lucky  money  "' 
— ranging,  it  is  stated  on  good  authority,  from  25  per  cent,  to  150  per  cent. 
— arises,  of  course,  not  from  the  use  of  the  money  alone,  but  from  its  employ- 
ment on  land  and  with  labour  which,  before  the  addition  of  such  capital, 
were,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  valueless.  In  fact  the  value  and  the  need 
of  capital  in  the  case  of  these  poor  landholders  (on  such  terms  of  interest 
and  for  such  a  period  as  they  can  afford  to  borrow  it)  are  emphasised  by  the 
quite  abnormal  returns  ("  profits  ")  which  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases 
are  gratefully  recorded. 

Some  of  the  loans,  it  will  have  been  observed,  are  sought  for  by  migratory 
labourers,  and  repaid  out  of  monies  earned  in  England  or  Scotland.  It  is, 
perhaps,  worth  pointing  out  that  though  the  "  migrants  "  go  annually  to 
Great  Britain  in  search  of  work,  many  of  their  own  farms  would  profitably 
respond,  were  capital  available,  to  a  very  considerable  amount  of  intelli- 
gently applied  labour.  The  reason  for  this  anomaly  seems  to  be  that  (as  I 
took  occasion  to  point  out  in  my  Report  on  Migratory  Labourers  for  1900), 
there  is  no  distinct  class  of  agricultural  labourers  in  these  districts,  and 
hired  labour  is  consequently  very  difficult  to  obtain  even  were  the  capital  at 
hand  to  pay  for  it,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  labour  of  an  occupier  without 
help  from  his  family,  would  not  generally  suffice  to  work  his  holding  profi- 
tably on  a  system  of  even  moderately  inextensive  culture,  not  to  speak  of  his 
inability  to  wait  over  a  season  for  the  reward  of  his  industry.  The  lack  of 
capital,  which  is  the  chief  want,  turns  the  balance  of  advantage  in  favour 
of  migration.  A  case  in  point  will  illustrate  what  I  mean :  "  A.  B.,  in  the 
district  of  Burren  (Co.  Mayo),  has  a  holding  of  eight  acres  of  tillage  land 
and  a  large  run  of  mountain  grazing,  but  is  compelled  to  go  to  England 
every  year  to  earn  money  to  meet  his  calls.  He  would,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  be  better  off  if  he  could  stay  at  home  and  work  his  farm. 


136  CO-OPERATIVE   CREDIT  ASSOCIATIONS. 

but  he  has  not  sufficient  capital  to  keep  going  at  home  for  a  twelvemonth. 
He,  however,  has  a  large  family  of  small  children  which,  although  an  encum- 
brance now,  will,  he  believes,  when  the  boys  are  able  to  handle  a  spade,  be 
the  means  of  making  him  an  independent  man.  Thus  men,  even  with  good 
holdings,  are  compelled  to  go  to  England  year  after  year  because  their 
unaided  toil  is  not  sufficient  to  work  their  farms."  (Report  (unpublished) 
of  Mr.  Paul  Gregan,  Bank  Organiser,  I.A.O.S.) 

Another  small  tenant  (a  woman)  whom  Mr.  Gregan  interviewed  in  Burren 
said  that  "  if  money  were  easily  got  the  men  would  stay  at  home,  which  she 
maintained,  would  be  far  more  profitable  than  going  to  England,  where 
they  learn  bad  habits."  "  In  connection  with  the  labour  problem  in  Burren," 
the  same  gentleman  writes,  "  I  have  been  endeavouring  to  introduce  the 
use  of  small,  wheeled,  one-horse  ploughs,  light  enough  for  a  man  to  carry  on 
his  back,  and  not  too  deep  for  the  shallow  soil.  There  is  not  a  single  plough 
in  Burren."  The  want  of  capital,  in  the  form  of  money  or  of  such  machinery 
and  other  equipment  as  the  rural  economy  of  small  holdings  of  poor  land 
would  justify,  is,  it  is  obvious,  a  grievous  want  in  the  districts  served  by  these 
Raiffeisen  credit  associations,  and  consequently  their  increase  and  success 
must  be  regarded  as  a  most  hopeful  and  healthful  means  in  the  uplifting  ot 
backward  agricultural  communities. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  rural  banks  are  in  Congested  Districts.  There 
are  in  Mayo  as  many  as  25  of  these  co-operative  credit  associations,  in  Gal- 
way  14,  in  Donegal  10,  in  Wexford  4,  in  Clare  and  Sligo  3  each  ;  2  each  in 
Queen's  County  Roscommon,  Cavan,  Waterford,  and  Tyrone,  and  i  in  each 
of  the  Counties  Cork,  Kerry,  Tipperary,  Armagh,  Down,  Kilkenny,  and 
Londonderry.  It  will  be  noticed  that  3  of  the  4  "  banks  "  registered  in  the 
County  Wexford  do  not  admit  the  principle  of  unlimited  liability  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  true  Raiffeisen  "  bank." 

The  following  statement  shows  the  growth  of  co-operative  credit  associa- 
tions in  Ireland  since  1895. 

Co-operative  Credit  Associations  in  Ireland,  1895-1901. 

1895,  1896,  1897,  1898,  1899.  1900,  1901, 

31st  Mar.   31st  Mar.  31st  Mar.  31st  Mar.  31st  Mar.  31st  Dec.  31st  Dec. 
No.  of  Associations,  i  2  3  15  48  75  103 

The  membership  has  grown  from  less  than  50  in  1895  to  4,223  (estimated) 
on  December  31st,  190 1.  In  a  series  of  transactions,  involving  over  iJ'i6,0(X), 
two  societies  have  made  losses  of  a  trifling  sum  of  about  £4*  A  very  good 
record  for  punctuality  in  repayment  of  loans  has  been  established.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  there  are  no  paid  officials  in  these  credit  associations, 
and  that  all  the  services  of  management  and  control  are  cheerfully  given 
without  reward,  the  educational  value  of  such  organisations  cannot  be 
disputed. 

*  These  "  losses,"  it  is  worth  pointing  out,  arose,  not  from  any  defaults  in  payments  on  the 
part  of  borrowers,  but  from  certain  banks  not  being  able  to  put  into  circulation  all  the  capital 
they  possessed. 


EDUCATION.  137 


EDUCATION. 

Agricultural  Education — Technical  Education:  Science — Art. 

[*»*  Note. — /;;  this  chapter  will  he  found  brief  historical  sketches  of  what 
has  been  aiteftipted  and  do7ie  ifi  Ireland  towards  promoting  technical  itistruction 
in  regard  to  agriculture,  industry,  arid  the  arts  and  crafts.  The  consideration 
of  the  whole  question  of  literary  instruction — pritnary,  secondary ,  arid  university 
— though  of  the  first  importance ,  is  beyond  the  scope  and  purpose  of  this  work. 
In  regard  to  the  very  interesting  efforts  of  the  Board  of  National  Education  to 
graft  on  to  their  literary  prograrnme  a  system  of  agricultural  instruction,  no 
better  account  exists  than  that  contained  in  a  letter  addressed  by  the  late 
Sir  Patrick  Keenan,  k.c.m.g.,  c.b.,  Resident  Commissioner  of  National  Education, 
to  His  Excellency  the  Earl  Spencer,  k.g.,  then  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  in 
January,  1883.  This  document  is  at  once  authoritative  and  succinct.  It  was 
published  originally  in  the  Second  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  on  Technical 
Instruction  {C. — 3981, — /.),  Vol.  II.,  pp.  271-281;  and  it  is  reprinted  here  as 
giving  the  best  brief  history  of  a  remarkable  and  instructive  experiment. — 
Editor.] 


Agricultural  Education  in  Ireland,  1826-99. 

The  first  movement  in  the  direction  of  agricultural  education  was  made  in 
1826  by  a  committee  of  the  Ulster  gentry,  at  a  place 
Agricultural  School,  called    Templemoyle,   in  the   County    Londonderry. 
Templemoyle,        This  committee  collected  and  subscribed  large  funds, 
Co.  Londonderry,     which  were  expended  in  the  farming  stock  and  the 
necessary  buildings  of  a  considerable  agricultural  in- 
stitution.    From  fifty  to  seventy  agricultural  pupils  were  annually  received 
into  the  Templemoyle  School.     The  stipend  was  only  from  £10  to  ;^I2  a 
year  for  board  and  instruction  ;    but  the  school,  on  the  other  hand,  com- 
manded the  free  labour  of  the  pupils.     For  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century 
it  was  self-supporting.       But,  in  the  long  run,  mainly  as  an  effect  of  the 
famine  of  1847,  the  committee  became  embarrassed  in  their  finances,  and, 
to  relieve  themselves  from  further  responsibility,  connected  the  institution, 
in  1850,  with  the  Board  of  National  Education. 

The  Templemoyle  school  in  the  course  of  its  operations  up  to  1850,  had 
received  and  educated  about  800  pupils  from  different  parts  of  England  and 
Scotland,  as  well  as  Ireland.  Concurrently  with  the  operations  of  the 
Templemoyle  School  came  the  first  attempt  of  the  National  Board  to  diffuse 
a  knowledge  of  agricultural  science  amongst  the  people.  It  suggested  itself 
to  the  Commissioners,  when  Parliament  was  first  invited  by  them  to  vote 
funds  for  agricultural  education,  that  the  most  efficient  plan  to  spread  a 
knowledge  of  sound  principles  in  agriculture  would  be  to  make  it  a  subject 


138  EDUCATION. 


of  instruction  in  the  Normal  School  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in  Marl- 
borough-street.     This  was  in  the  year  1838. 

A  lecture  upon  agriculture  was  accordingly  given  to  the  students  of  the 
Normal  School  daily.  Without  expository  instruction 
Glasneyin  upon  the  farm,  it  was,  however,  conceived  that  this 

Model  Farm.  lecture  would  be  productive  of  somewhat  compara- 
tively barren  results.  It  was,  therefore,  determined 
by  the  Board  in  the  same  year,  1838,  to  take  a  farm  at  Glasnevin,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Dublin,  to  which  the  literary  students  in  training  might  have 
easy  access,  and  upon  which  they  might  see,  practically  carried  out,  the 
plans  and  systems  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  recommended  in  the  daily 
lectures.  This,  in  point  of  fact,  was  the  origin  of  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment of  the  Irish  National  system  of  education.  It  is  particularly  im- 
portant to  observe  this.  The  Glasnevin  farm  was  not  designed  merely 
to  bring  up  a  race  of  skilled  stewards  and  skilled  practical  farmers.  Its 
original  and  primary  purpose,  on  the  contrary,  was  simply  to  qualify  the 
ordinary  elementary  schoolmasters  to  instruct  their  pupils  in  the  theory  of 
agricultural  science,  and,  where  practicable,  in  school  gardens  and  small 
farms  attached  to  the  National  schools,  to  illustrate  their  teaching  by  refer- 
ence to  the  operations  on  the  gardens  and  farms.  The  Commissioners 
explicitly  stated  at  the  time,  in  their  report  presented  to  Parliament,  that 
their  object  was  not  to  teach  trades,  but  to  facilitate  a  learning  of  them  by 
explaining  the  principles  upon  which  they  depend,  and  by  habituating 
young  persons  to  expertness  in  the  use  of  their  hands. 

The  function  of  Templemoyle  was  exclusively  to  produce  skilled  farmers  ; 
that  of  Glasnevin,  as  I  have  said,  was  mainly  to  qualify  elementary  teachers 
to  instruct  the  pupils  of  rural  schools  in  the  principles  of  agricultural  science. 
I  say  mainly,  for  the  Commissioners  entertained  the  idea  that,  without 
detriment  to  the  interests  of  the  schoolmasters,  young  men  intending  to 
become  farmers,  stewards,  and  colonists,  might  also  be  received  as  pupils  in 
the  institution.  But  the  difficulty  of  directly,  themselves,  managing  a  farm 
almost  immediately  occurred  to  the  Commissioners..  How  to  make  the 
farm  pay,  and  how  to  make  it  teach,  cropped  up  as  conflicting  problems.  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  they  soon  shrank  from  the  responsi- 
bility of  farming  upon  their  own  account ;  and  in  the  following  year  (1839) 
they  accordingly  rented  the  farm  to  their  agriculturist,  an  arrangement 
which  lasted  until  1847,  when,  under  the  light  of  experience,  they  themselves 
took  courage  to  resume  its  working.  The  idea  of  engrafting  agricultural 
instruction  upon  the  ordinary  curriculum  of  an  elementary  school  was 
accepted  in  the  country  with  positive  enthusiasm.  Landlords  and  others 
who,  on  rehgious  and  political  grounds,  hated  the  National  system,  turned 
invariably  to  this  feature  of  the  operations  of  the  Board  with  the  greatest 
favour. 

The  Devon  Commission,  in  1843,  hailed  the  project,  and  recommended 
the  establishment  of  schools  for  agricultural  instruction  throughout  the 
country.  Agricultural  societies  and  leading  public  men  expressed  their 
approval  of  the  proposals  with  unstinted  cordiality.  But  even  at  so  early  a 
period  as  1 848  an  adverse  criticism  from  so  influential  a  quarter  as  the  Select 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  Miscellaneous  Expenditure  was 
communicated  to  the  Commissioners.  This  Committee  expressed  grave 
doubts  as  to  the  policy  of  engrafting  an  agricultural  department  upon  a 
national   system   of   Primary   Education.       The    Commissioners,    however, 


EDUCATION.  139 


entertaining-  the  conviction  that  they  were  right,  took  pains  to  assure  the 
Government  that  they  anticipated  great  national  advantages  from  the 
system  of  agricultural  education  which  they  had  conceived  for  the  country ; 
and  at  the  same  time  they  announced  their  determination  to  give  stability 
to  their  agricultural  system  by  the  appointment  of  an  inspector  who  should 
have  the  superintendence  of  the  Glasnevin  farm,  and  also  have  the 
general  guidance  of  such  agricultural  schools  as  from  time  to  time  were 
springing  up  in  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Scheme  of  Itinerant  popular  sentiment  in  support  of  the  development  of 
Instructors.  agricultural  education  became    more    demonstrative 

from  day  to  day.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  (Lord  Clar- 
endon) appointed,  in  1848,  a  body  of  agriculturists,  called  Practical 
Instructors,  to  go  about  amongst  the  farmers,  especially  in  the  districts 
which  had  been  ravaged  by  the  famine,  to  urge  them  to  improve  their  system 
of  cropping,  and  to  induce  them  to  undertake  the  drainage  of  their  farms. 
The  work  of  these  practical  instructors  was  eminently  educational.  Hence 
I  think  it  right  to  refer  to  them.  And  I  must  at  the  same  time  say,  from  a 
personal  recollection  of  their  institution  and  labours,  that  no  more  fruitful 
experiment  in  the  material  interests  of  the  country  was  ever  attempted.  It 
was  through  the  agency  of  this  corps  of  practical  instructors  that  green 
cropping  as  a  systematic  feature  in  farming  was  introduced  into  the  south 
and  west,  and  even  into  the  central  parts  of  Ireland. 

The  acclamation  of  Irish  opinion  in  favour  of  agricultural  improvement 
to  a  large  extent  beguiled  the  Board.  Instead  of  mainly  directing  their 
exertions,  as  they  originally  intended,  to  the  agricultural  instruction  of  the 
literary  students  in  training  in  the  Normal  School,  they  resolved,  through 
the  foundation  of  provincial  model  farms,  to  establish  a  great  system  of 
technical  education  for  the  instruction  of  young  men  as  farmers  and  land 
stewards.  From  time  to  time  they  took  leases  of  farms,  twenty  in  all, 
in  different  parts  of  the  country;  and  (including  Glasnevin)  at  a  cost  of 
some  i^ii5,ooo  erected  residences  and  farm  buildings.  At  each  of  these 
farms  there  was  provided  adequate  accommodation  for  a  number  of  resident 
agricultural  pupils,  and,  besides,  suitable  arrangements  were  made  for  their 
technical  education.  The  only  coincident  purpose  which  existed  between 
these  farms  and  the  farm  at  Glasnevin  was  that,  wherever  a  literary  model 
school,  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the  Commissioners  was  estab- 
lished adjacent  to  the  farm,  the  literary  pupil  teachers  and  their  head  master 
lived  upon  the  farm  and  pursued  the  old  idea  as  to  agricultural  training 
which  prevailed  at  Glasnevin.  For  some  years  the  twenty  country  farms, 
as  well  as  the  Glasnevin  farm,  enjoyed  an  immense  popularity.  Four  of 
these  farms  were  in  operation  in  1849,  ^^^  ^^  1856  they  were  all  in  complete 
working  order.  Besides  these  model  farms,  which  w^ere  the  property  of  the 
Commissioners,  and  entirely  supported  by  them,  numerous  farm  schools 
were  opened  under  private  influence  from  year  to  year,  which  obtained  aid 
from  the  Board  towards  their  organisation  and  working.  In  the  year  1850 
the  Commissioners,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Poor  Law  Board,  deter- 
mined to  offer  substantial  attractions  to  the  guardians  of  the  poor  law 
unions  throughout  the  country  to  encourage  agricultural  education  in  the 
workhouse  schools.  Wherever  there  was  a  farm  of  suitable  dimensions 
connected  with  a  workhouse,  the  Commissioners  offered  a  gratuity  to  the 
teacher  of  the  school  for  success  in  the  management  of  the  farm,  and  for 
giving  efficient  instruction  m  agricultural  science  to  his  pupils. 


140  EDUCATION. 


But  an  agitation,  originated  by  the  Liverpool  Financial  Reform  Associa- 
tion, about  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  arose  against 
Agitation  in  England  our  whole  agricultural  system.     This  association  dis- 
against  State  Aid.     puted  the  right  of  the  State  to  train  up  farmers  and 
stewards  at  the  public  cost.     In  Parliament  the  asso- 
ciation, especially  amongst  advanced    free-traders,  had  many    influential 
exponents.    The  Government,  from  time  to  time,  was  harassed  in  its  defence 
of  the  system.     Successive  Chief  Secretaries,  in  deference  to  the  views  of 
Parliament,  barely  tolerated  its  continuance.     Mr.  Herbert,  Mr.  Cardwell, 
and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  were  absolutely  hostile  to  it.     Mr.  Cardwell  especially 
directed  his  hostility  to  the  countenance  given  by  the  Board  to  agricultural 
instruction  in  the  workhouse  schools  at  the  expense  of  Parliament,  and  dis- 
tmct  from  its  support  from  the  rates,  and  strongly  and  successfully  urged  the 
Board  to  abandon  this  branch  of  their  agricultural  system. 

This  was  in  1862.  The  workhouse  experiment  thus  lasted  only  twelve 
years.  The  greatest  number  of  workhouse  schools  having  agricultural  de- 
partments attached  in  any  one  year  during  the  twelve  years  of  the  experi- 
ment was  seventy-nine.  The  Board  recognising  this  great  change  in 
Parliamentary  opinion,  held  their  hands,  and  determined  not  to  add  to  the 
number  of  their  farms.  They  even  tried  to  avert  hostility  to  the  system  by 
renting  nine  of  the  existing  farms  to  the  agriculturists  in  charge  of  them, 
with  a  view  to  reducing  the  cost  of  the  agricultural  department.  But  this 
latter  experiment  proved  to  be  a  great  embarrassment  to  the  administration, 
and  had  to  be  abandoned.  In  1870  the  Royal  Commission  upon  Primary 
Education,  presided  over  by  Lord  Powis,  recommended : — - 

"  That  the  position  of  provincial  and  district  model  agricultural 
schools  should  be  revised  by  the  Commissioners  ot  National 
Education,  and  that  their  number  should  be  reduced." 

The  old  Templemoyle  School,  to  which  I  referred  in  my  opening  remarks, 
died  out  in  1866.  In  the  beginning  of  1872  the  agricultural  department  was 
at  a  low  ebb  in  popular  favour.  It  had  been  proscribed  by  Chief  Secretary 
after  Chief  Secretary,  and  it  at  all  times  had  to  encounter  the  fiercest  hos- 
tility of  the  Treasury,  who  regarded  it  as  a  baneful  excrescence  upon  a 
primary  system  of  education.  Besides,  the  Royal  Commission  had  spoken, 
as  I  have  quoted,  in  anything  but  a  sympathetic  fashion. 

You,  however,  my  dear  Lord  Spencer,  in  your  former  Lord  Lieutenancy, 
Earl  Snencer's       hesitated,  in  face  of  accumulating  opposition,  to  be- 

_  ,  f  r'  lieve     that    agricultural    improvement    through     all 

ocneme  01 1  arm  agencies  was  hopeless,  and  in  the  spring  of  1 872 
Prizes.  submitted,  as  you  will  remember,  through  your  private 

secretary,  Mr.  Yates  Thompson,  the  following  project  to  the  Board : — 

"  I  am  to  state  that  his  Excellency  has  long  taken  an  especial  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  the  very  numerous  class  of  Irish  small  tillage  farmers,  and  has 
held  the  opinion,  which  personal  observation  of  their  condition  and  prospects 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  has  amply  confirmed,  that  their  present  style  of 
farming  and  the  management  of  their  homesteads  admits  of  considerable 
improvement.  It  appears  that  more  than  half  of  all  the  holdings  in  Ireland, 
namely,  317,457  out  of  608,864  (from  both  of  which  figures,  however,  some 
deductions  must  be  made  for  the  cases  in  which  two  or  more  separate  holdings, 
being  in  the  occupation  of  the  same  individual,  are  enumerated  separately), 
were  valued  in  1886  at  less  than  ;^'8  a  year.     His  Excellency  thinks  it  will  not 


EDUCATION,  141 


be  disputed  that  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases  these  holding's  are  imperfectly 
cultivated,  and  that  the  habitations  upon  them  are,  speaking-  generally,  both 
inferior  and  ill-kept.  Under  these  circumstances,  and  considering-  that  the 
settlement  of  the  land  question,  under  the  Act  of  1870,  has  turned  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  to  the  g^eneral  condition  of  the  farming-  classes,  and  has  given 
an  impetus  to  many  improvements  in  the  management  of  farms,  the  present 
has  seemed  to  his  Excellency  a  favourable  occasion  for  an  endeavour  to  direct 
attention  to  this  very  large  and  important  class  of  agriculturists.  In  doing  so, 
I  am  to  state  that  he  does  not  desire  to  raise  or  pronounce  any  opinion  on  the 
very  difficult  question  of  the  proper  size  of  the  farms.  He  would  carefully 
avoid  that,  but  at  the  same  time  he  is  confident  that  that  most  interesting 
question  cannot  be  satisfactorily  solved  in  this  country  until  the  small  farmers 
of  Ireland  avail  themselves  of  the  means  at  their  disposal  for  careful  tillage 
much  more  extensively  than  they  do  now.  Among  the  methods  employed  to 
promote  good  agriculture,  his  Excellency  is  of  opinion  that  nothing  has  been 
more  calculated  to  benefit  the  small  farmers  than  the  school  farms  or  gardens 
under  the  inspection  of  the  National  Board  of  Education,  which,  he  is  glad  to 
observe,  are  gradually  increasing  in  number.  Accordingly,  it  has  occurred  to 
him,  more  in  the  hope  of  seeing  his  action,  if  successfully  carried  out,  imitated 
by  others  than  from  any  notion  that  so  small  a  contribution  can  have  any  very 
considerable  eff'ect  in  itself,  to  offer,  on  certain  conditions,  prizes  to  be  adjudged 
in  connection  with  certain  of  these  school  farms.  He  has  selected  eight  of 
them  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  viz. : — 

In  Leinster — Garryhill  and  Ballinvally. 

In  Ulster — Cornagilta  and  Parkanour. 

In  Munster — Tervoe  and  Grange. 

In  Connaught — Castlehackett  and  Killasolan. 

And,  taking  round  each  of  them  a  radius  of  five  or  six  miles,  he  proposes  to 
give  annually  for  the  next  five  years  three  prizes,  to  be  called  '  The  Spencer 
Small-farm  Prizes,'  and  consisting  of  ;;^3  los.,  ;^2  los.,  and  ;^i  los.,  respec- 
tively, to  the  occupiers  of  the  three  holdings  in  each  of  the  areas  above 
described,  and  valued  under  ;^8  a  year,  which  shall  be  adjudged  to  be  the  most 
commendable  on  the  score  of  (i)  the  neatness  and  cleanliness  of  the  house ; 
(2)  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  produce  of  the  land  ;  (3)  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  live  stock  of  all  sorts,  from  horses  and  cows  down  to  poultry 
and  bees  ;  (4)  any  other  circumstances  that  may  attract  the  favourable  atten- 
tion of  the  judges." 

The  Commissioners  received  this  scheme  with  much  satisfaction,  and 
unanimously  resolved  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  your  Excellency  their 
agricultural  inspectors  for  the  adjudication  of  the  prizes.  In  each  of  the 
five  years  of  the  experiment  the  Commissioners  received  a  report  from  their 
inspectors  which  satisfied  them  that  the  scheme  proved  to  be  a  great  success, 
not  only  in  encouraging  the  small  farmers  to  make  the  most  of  their  humble 
resources,  but  in  stimulating  the  landlords  to  look  with  a  more  earnest 
solicitude  upon  the  industry  and  improving  fortunes  of  their  small  tenants. 

But  whilst  your  prize  scheme  was  still  in  its  infancy,  a  Departmental  Com- 
mittee, 1873-4,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Gladstone,  M.P.,  was 
appointed  by  the  Treasury  to  investigate  (along  with  other  Irish  Depart- 
ments) the  affairs  of  the  National  Board  of  Education.  The  agricultural 
branch  of  the  National  system  naturally  came  under  the  survey  of  this  com- 
mittee ;  and  they  reported,  inter  alia,  that,  exclusive  of  Glasnevin,  they 
found  that  there  were  in  the  other  twenty  agricultural  schools  but  thirty- 
three  resident  pupils. 


142  EDUCATION. 


This  Committee  then  recommended  that  :— 

"  These  buildings  (the  model  farm  buildings)  are  much  too  large  to  suit 
ordinary  tenants  of  the  small  portions  of  land  attached  to  them,  and  there  will, 
therefore,  be  difficulty  in  disposing  of  the  farms  on  advantageous  terms  ;  but 
we  consider  that  their  retention  only  involves  the  continued  outlay  of  public 
money  without  any  adequate  return  ;  and  as  the  general  opinion  appears  to  be 
that  their  alienation  will  be  no  loss  to  agricultural  education  in  the  country, 
we  entirely  agree  with  the  Royal  Commissioners  that  these  farms  should  be 
got  rid  of  as  speedily  as  possible." 

The  upshot  of  these  recommendations  of  the  Departmental  Committee  is 
that,  under  Treasury  sanction,  we  have  sold  nine  of  the  farms,  surrendered 
to  the  landlords  seven,  relet  one,  and  handed  over  two  others  to  local 
management.  There  are  thus  left  only  two,  viz.,  the  Munster  farm  at  Cork, 
and  the  Albert  Institution,  Glasnevin. 

The  case  of  the  Munster  farm  is  interesting.     Just  as  the  Commissioners 
were  taking  steps  to  get  rid  of  it  a  movement  was  set 
The  Munster         on  foot  in   Cork  to  reanimate  it,  and  to  make  its 
Institute,  Cork.       operation  a  lever  in  the  revival  of  the  butter  trade  of 
Cork.     The  following  extract  of  a  letter  addressed  by 
the  Commissioners  to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  on  the  24th  of  June,  1880, 
will  best  explain  the  views  of  the  Board,  and  the  new  development  agricul- 
tural education  had  a  likelihood  of  making  : — 

"  The  Board  was  led  to  understand  that  a  movement  of  some  importance 
was  on  foot  in  the  city  and  county  of  Cork,  having  for  its  special  object  the 
diffusion  of  agricultural  science  generally,  and  especially  a  knowledge  of  what 
is  technically  called  *  Dairy-farming.'  The  great  agricultural  trade  of  the 
South  of  Ireland  is  butter-making.  In  former  times  the  butter  of  the  Cork 
market  was  esteemed  very  highly  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  In  recent 
times  the  Cork  '  brand '  declined  considerably  in  public  favour.  The 
movement  referred  to  has  for  its  special  object  a  revival  of  the  distinction 
which  the  Cork  butter  formerly  enjoyed.  This  movement  is  represented  in 
Cork  by  a  committee  of  influential  persons  connected  with  the  farming  interests 
of  the  South  of  Ireland.  The  Commissioners  learned  that  a  committee  was 
anxious  to  co-operate  with  them  in  making  the  model  farm  a  centre  for  impor- 
tant agricultural  experiments,  a  school  for  practical  instruction  for  agricultural 
students,  and  a  training  establishment  for  the  education  of  dairymaids.  The 
Board  could  not  be  indifferent  to  such  a  proposal,  and  they  therefore  cordially 
entered  into  its  consideration,  in  the  sanguine  expectation  that  even  at  the 
eleventh  hour  agricultural  education  might  in  this  instance  prove  a  success.^' 

Luckily,  this  appeal  gained  the  Treasury  sanction.  The  local  com- 
mittee, in  augmentation  of  the  Parliamentary  grant  in  the  first  year,  sub- 
scribed ;^526.  The  experiment  so  far  has  been  eminently  successful.  Since 
1880  over  a  hundred  dairymaids  have  undergone  a  course  of  training  in  the 
schools  of  at  least  six  weeks'  duration  in  each  instance.  The  butter  which 
was  made  at  the  school  almost  immediately  obtained  a  high  reputation,  and 
commanded  the  best  price.  At  the  Birmingham  Dairy  Show,  in  1881,  the 
success  of  the  school  produced  quite  a  sensation  in  the  agricultural  world 
The  prizes  which  it  obtained  at  the  Show  were  First,  Second,  and  Third, 
in  the  fresh  butter  classes. 

Subsequently,  in  the  same  year,  at  Islington,  other  important  prizes  were 


EDUCATION.  143 


awarded  to  the  school,  viz. : — First  and  Second  prizes  in  the  fresh  butter 
classes,  special  prize  for  salt  butter,  special  prize  given  by  the  judges  for 
excellency  of  entries,  and  also  the  Champion  Cup  presented  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  and  Corporation  of  the  City  of  London  for  the  best  butter  exhibited. 
The  young  women  who  are  educated  as  dairymaids  in  the  school  are  chiefly 
the  daughters  of  Munster  farmers.  The  stipend  paid  by  each  for  the  six 
weeks'  course  is  only  ^^"3.  As  I  have  said,  the  Cork  butter  trade  had 
declined  in  its  reputation.  The  success,  so  rapid  and  complete,  of  this 
school  is  said  already  to  have  increased  the  value  of  the  dairy  produce  of 
Munster  by  so  large  a  sum  that  I  hesitate  to  record  it.  But  there  can  be 
no  doubt  whatever  that  this  propitious  experiment  has  proved  not  only  to 
be  a  turning-point  in  the  fortunes  of  Irish  agriculture,  but  a  practical  lesson 
to  the  whole  population  of  Munster  that  education  is  not  a  device  of  states- 
men to  make  people  only  masters  of  books  and  of  sciences,  but  that,  wisely 
directed,  it  is  all  the  while  a  certain  means  of  promoting  their  material 
prosperity. 

For  many  years,  however,  it  had  occurred  to  the  Board  that,  whilst  every 
rural  National  school  in  the  country    could    not    be 
Agricultural  organised  in  the  strict  sense  as  an  agricultural  school. 

Instruction  in  Rural  every  such  school  might  readily  be  made  to  become 
National  Schools,  an  efficient  instrument  for  the  inculcation  of  sound 
instruction  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  agricul- 
tural science.  To  this  the  Commissioners  looked  with  more  hope  than  even 
to  the  successful  working  of  a  limited  number  of  expository  (model)  farms. 
And  that  there  might  be  no  misconception  about  their  views,  they  laid  it 
down  that  agriculture  in  a  prescribed  course  should  be  a  subject  of  obliga- 
tory instruction,  like  reading,  or  writing,  or  arithmetic,  in  the  three  upper 
classes  (standards),  viz.,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  of  every  boys'  rural 
school. 

To  encourage  the  teachers  to  promote  the  success  of  this  project  a  special 
results  fee  of  4^-.  or  55'.,  according  to  class,  is  awarded  for  proficiency.  In 
1 88 1  the  number  of  boys  examined  in  agriculture  under  this  provision  was 
37,476,  and  the  number  of  "  passes,"  that  is,  of  boys  who  earned  the  results 
fees  for  their  teachers,  was  18,517.  But  whilst  thus  stimulating  agricultural 
knowledge  in  all  rural  schools  it  v.'as  felt  that,  if  the  teachers  themselves 
could  become  possessed  of  something  more  than  the  mere  book-knowledge 
of  the  science  of  agriculture,  which  every  master  must  exhibit  in  order  to 
obtain  a  certificate  of  classification  as  a  National  teacher,  our  new  agricul- 
tural experiment,  the  most  hopeful  we  had  hitherto  tried,  would  be  all  the 
more  likely  to  prove  a  success. 

The  male  students  in  the  Normal  College,  Marlborough-street,  about  100, 
each  year  get  sound  practical  instruction  upon  the  Glasnevin  farm  through- 
out the  period  of  their  training.  So  far  as  they  are  concerned,  there  is  no 
gap  or  want  in  their  agricultural  training.  But  to  help  other  teachers  to 
obtain  the  same  advantages  it  was  arranged,  in  1881,  to  bring  up  classes  of 
masters  from  year  to  year,  of  about  fifty  in  each  class,  to  Glasnevin,  at  the 
public  expense,  for  a  special  practical  course  of  six  weeks'  duration.  In 
1881,  fifty-two,  and  in  1882,  seventy,  attended  at  Glasnevin  for  this  special 
purpose.  The  report  of  the  superintendent  is  highly  favourable  to  this 
experiment. 

But,  besides  the  results  fees  which  we  grant  for  mere  book-knowledge  of 
agricultural  science,  we  give,  in  the  case  of  ninety-three  National  schools  to 


144  EDUCATION. 


which  small  farms  or  cottage  gardens,  the  property  of  managers  of  schools, 
are  attached,  results  fees,  not  only  for  the  book-knowledge  evinced  by  the 
pupils,  but  for  {a)  the  degree  of  merit  which  the  cultivation  of  the  little 
farm  or  garden  evinces,  and  (J))  the  practical  powers  of  the  pupils  as  agents 
in  the  working  of  the  farms. 

This  part  of  the  system  is  working  admirably,  and  is  a  vast  improvement 
upon  the  plan,  in  force  until  1875,  of  a  uniform  salary  of  ;^5  or  £10  to  the 
teachers  of  those  schools.  The  fees  for  the  book-knowledge  of  agriculture 
in  the  ordinary  National  schools  are  provided  in  the  estimate  for  National 
Education  generally.  In  1881  these  fees  amounted  to  ^^"2,309  14^-.  6d.  For 
the  work  of  the  Agricultural  Department  proper,  i.e.,  for  the  Glasnevin  and 
Munster  establishments,  and  the  ninety-three  small  farms  or  cottage  garden 
schools,  a  separate  estimate  is  presented  to  Parliament.  This  year  (1883) 
it  amounts  to  i5"4,030.  The  expenditure  upon  model  farm.s  was  greatest  in 
1853-4,  when,  exclusive  of  interest  on  the  cost  of  the  farm  buildings,  it 
amounted  to  £12,2^0. 

In  conclusion,  I  should,  perhaps,  observe  that  at  the  Glasnevin  and  the 

Munster  farms  ordinary  agricultural    male    students 

_       ,     .  continue  to  be  received  for  practical  and  scientific  in- 

Lonc  usio  .  struction  in  agriculture.     The  number  of  students  in 

each  of  these  institutions   at   present   [i.e.,   January, 

1883]  is:— 

I.  Munster  school : — 

Last  session  there  were  eight  students,  all  residents,  and  paying 
£"/  los.  for  each  term  of  four  months. 

II.  Glasnevin  school : — 

(rt.)  Twenty-five  free  students  (resident)  who  obtained  their  places 

by  competitive  examination. 
(b.)  Eighteen  students  (resident),  and  paying  £'/  \os.  for  each  term  of 

four  months. 
(c.)  Four  students  (extern)  paying  £2  for  each  term  of  four  months. 

The  following  analysis  of  the  destination  of  seventy-one  free  students 
who  attended  the  Glasnevin  farm  since  August,  1881,  if  not  entirely  satis- 
factory, is  curious  and  interesting : — 

Land  surveyor,  valuator,  etc.         -             -  -  -  4 

Land  steward,                    -             -             -  -  -  6 

Farming  at  home,             -             -             -  -  -  IQ 

Gardener,               -             -             -             -  -  -  i 

Herd,                      -             -             -             -  -  -  i 

Farm  labourer,  etc.,  at  Albert  Institution,  -  -  i 

Engaged  in  charge  of  engine  at  Albert  Institution,  -  i 

National  teacher,               -             -             -  -  -  4 

In  normal  school  for  training  teachers  at  Drumcondra,    -  2 

Other  employment,            -             -             -  -  -  4 

Emigrated  with  a  view  to  farming,           -  -  -  12 

Unknown,  -  -  -  -  -  -15 

Died,          -             -             -             -             -  -  -  I 

/I 


EDUCATION.  145 


Except  by  the  allusion  which  I  made  to  Lord  Clarendon's  Practical  In- 
structors of  1848,  and  to  your  own  [i.e.,  Earl  Spencer's]  prize  scheme  of  1872, 
I  have  confined  my  remarks  in  this  letter  to  the  fitful  fortunes  of  agricultural 
education  as  administered  by  the  Commissioners  of  National  Education. 
But  the  story  of  Irish  agricultural  education  would  be  incomplete  if  no- 
reference  were  made  to  the  operations  of  the  industrial  and  reformatory 
schools,  which  not  only  in  boys',  but  in  girls'  schools,  have  embraced  agri- 
cultural and  dairy  instruction  in  their  industrial  curriculum,  and,  I  believe, 
with  very  marked  success— a  significant  reproach  to  the  panic-born  policy 
which  forced  the  National  Board  to  withdraw  their  grants,  in  1862,  for 
agricultural  education  from  the  workhouse  schools. 


146  ART   INSTRUCTION. 


ART    INSTRUCTION    IN    IRELAND. 

There  are  few  schools  of  art  m  the  United  Kingdom  which  can  boast  a 
greater  antiquity  than  the  Metropohtan  School  of  Art, 
Metropolitan         Dublin.     The  Royal  Dublni  Society  was  (as  stated 
School  of  Art,        elsewhere  in  this  volume)  founded  in  the  year  1731  for 
Dublin.  improving  "  Husbandry,  Manufactures,  and  other  use- 

ful Arts  and  Sciences  "  ;  and  we  find  that  on  the  i8th 
May,  1746,  it  decided  that,  "  Since  a  good  spirit  shows  itself  for  drawing  and 
designing,  which  is  the  groundwork  of  Painting,  and  so  useful  in  manufac- 
tures, it  is  intended  to  erect  a  little  academy  or  school  for  drawing  and 
painting,  from  whence  some  geniuses  may  arise  to  the  benefit  and  honour  of 
this  kingdom,  and  it  is  hoped  that  gentlemen  of  taste  will  encourage  and 
support  so  useful  a  design."     This  modest  announcement,  expressed  in  the 
rather  quaint  phraseology  of  the  period,  marks  the  commencement  of  the 
School  of  Art.     In  1748  we  find  that  the  "  Society  agrees  to  pay  Mr.  West, 
who   keeps   a  drawing   school   in   George's-lane,   his   usual   allowance   for 
teaching  the  poor  boys."     In  1763  the  Society's  Art  School  was  located  in 
the  Society's  house,  Shaw's-court,  Mr.  West  being  the  master.     Collections 
of  casts  and  water  colour  drawings  appear  to  have  been  presented  to  the 
School  from  time  to  time  ;  many  of  these  are  at  present  in  the  School  and 
Museum.     In  the  year  181 5  the  Society  purchased  Leinster  House.     The 
present  gallery  of  the  School  of  Art  appears  to  have  been  originally  in- 
tended for  a  museum,  and  was  built  about  the  year  1843.     The  first  public 
distribution  of  prizes  to  pupils  of  the  School  of  Art  took  place  on  the  8th 
December,  1842,  under  the  presidency  of  his  Excellency  the  Lord  Lieu- 
tenant.    On  the  30th  January,  1845,  Mr.  West,  the  then  head  master  of  the 
Art  Schools,  was  superannuated.     His  services,  together  with  those  of  his 
father  and  grandfather,  appear  to  have  extended  over  a  period  of  ninety 
years.     In   1848  the  newly-established  Government  School  of  Design  at 
Somerset  House,   London,   presented  the  Art   School  with   100  casts  of 
ornament,  and  from  this  time  forward  Vv^e  shall  find  that  the  School  has 
ceased  to  exist  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  wish  expressed  in  the  resolution  of  1746  was 
in  a  large  measure  reahzed,  as  the  records  of  the  Society  show  a  long  list 
of  names  of  artists  who,  having  studied  in  the  School,  rose  afterwards  to 
eminence.     Amongst  them  we  find  such  men  as  Ashford,   Cuming,   and 
Cregan,  all  of  whom  became  presidents  of  the  Royal  Hibernian  Academy, 
We  also  find  Shea,  afterwards  president  of  the  Royal  Academy ;  Comerford, 
the  miniature  painter  ;  James  Barry  ;  Foley  and  Hogan,  sculptors  ;  Mossop, 
the  medallist,  and  many  more ;   indeed  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  state  that 
there  is  scarcely  an  Irish  painter,  sculptor,  or  architect,  from  the  period  of 
the  inception  of  the  School,  who  did  not  receive  portion,  at  least,  of  his  art 
education  within  its  walls.       Up  to  the  year  1849  the  Society  had  four 
schools,  or  departments,  for  figure,  landscape  and  ornament,  architecture, 


<jn 


5KtTC«   DEhIGn   FOR  fl  COiriTEKPAnE.- 

•Tt  Si  EnWOIDtHED  wrTMoriTonTwreAo- 

■  in  iATin  sTrrCH.— sctoinq.  or"  - 


SKETCH  DESIGN-  FOR  A  COrNTEKl'ANE. 


James  H.  Jcffi't'v. 


Belfast  School  of  Arb. 


ART   INSTRUCTION.  147 


and  modelling.  In  this  year  the  School  was  converted  into  a  so-called 
School  of  Design,  under  .the  Board  of  Trade.  Mr.  Henry  M'Manus  was 
appointed  headjnaster,  and  the  gallery  was  handed  over  for  the  use  of  the 
school ;  it  has  since  remained  in  its  occupation.  An  evening  school  for  males 
was  now  for  the  first  time  established,  also  day  classes  for  female  students 
Up  to  this  period  the  instruction  given  was  gratuitous,  and  the  School 
appears  to  have  been  attended  by  a  daily  average  of  lOO  students.  Durmg 
the  session  1849-50  the  School  was  attended  by  /43  students,  being 
apparently  the  largest  number  on  record  attending  during  any  one  session. 
In  the  year  i860  the  Society  accepted  the  Taylor  trust  for  the  promotion  of 
Art  in  Ireland.  From  this  time  onward  the  School  was  in  connection  with 
the  Department  of  Science  and  Art,  although  not  directly  administered  by 
it ;  but  in  the  year  1879,  after  a  Royal  Commission  had  been  held  to  inquire 
into  the  advisability  of  establishing  a  separate  Science  and  Art  Department 
for  Ireland,  the  School  was,  along  with  other  institutions  such  as  the  Botanic 
Gardens,  National  Library,  etc.,  formally  taken  over  by  the  Government. 
On  the  1st  April,  1900,  the  School,  along  with  the  other  science  and  art 
institutions  in  Ireland,  passed  under  the  control  of  the  new  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 

The  Reports  of  the  School  from  the  year  when  it  was  taken  over  by  the 
Government  bear  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  work  done  has  been  of  a 
high  order.  Some  years  ago  the  feeling  throughout  the  country  generally 
was  to  the  effect  that  sufficient  attention  to  what  may  be  called  the  industrial 
side  of  art  education  was  not  given  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department.  It 
was  said  that  too  many  students  were  being  educated  as  mediocre  artistsy 
that  the  question  of  design  was  being  lost  sight  of ;  and  in  response  to  this 
feeling  as  expressed  in  many  quarters,  the  Department  made  such  changes 
in  the  arrangements  for  its  examinations  and  competitions  as  favoured  the 
direction  towards  the  study  of  applied  design  m  the  Schools  of  Art.  The 
Metropolitan  School  of  Art  was  not  slow  m  responding  to  the  changed  con- 
ditions, and  an  examination  of  the  Reports  for  the  past  ten  years  or  so  will 
afford  an  index  to  the  work  of  the  School  in  various  directions.  After  the 
Cork  Exhibition  of  1883,  a  great  impetus  to  lace-making  and  the  improve- 
ment of  lace  design  took  place  in  Ireland.  In  1890  a  special  class  for  the 
study  of  lace  design  was  formed  in  the  School,  and  this  has  increased  to  an 
extent  which  renders  more  room  for  this  class  desirable.  A  reference  to 
the  prize  lists  since  1890  will  show  that  many  medals  and  prizes  have  been 
gained  in  the  national  competition  for  lace  designs.  In  1890,  five  prizes  for 
lace  design  were  won  ;  in  1891,  eight  prizes,  including  two  silver  medals  for 
lace ;  in  1 898,  one  gold  medal,  one  silver  medal,  and  seven  book  prizes  for 
lace.  The  Hungarian  Government,  it  may  be  mentioned,  purchased  two  of 
the  lace  designs  this  year.  In  1 900,  thirteen  prizes  and  medals  were  gained 
for  lace  design.  But  it  is  not  alone  these  prizes  gained  in  the  national  com- 
petition which  evidence  the  success  of  the  School  in  this  direction,  but  the 
fact  that  the  demand  for  lace  designs  from  the  various  centres  throughout 
the  country  has  been  considerable. 

The  principle  which  governs  the  instruction  given  in  lace  designing  is, 
that  while  the  students  cire  taught  to  study  the  construction  of  the  patterns 
in  the  antique  laces  of  the  best  periods,  and  are  encouraged  to  make  them- 
selves acquainted  with  the  technical  requirements  of  the  fabric  by  learning 
to  make  it,  yet  they  must  go  to  nature  for  the  "  motifs  "  which  furnish  the 
body  of  the  design.     Care  is  taken  that  the  individuality  of  the  student 


U8  ART    INSTRUCTION. 


shall  not  be  lost,  and  they  are  given  to  understand  that  if  they  exhibit  good 
construction,  good  arrangement,  good  drawing,  and  a  full  evidence  of  their 
knowledge  of  the  technical  requirements  of  the  material  in  their  designs, 
they  may  fearlessly  put  them  upon  the  market  and  allow  their  work  to  be 
judged  upon  its  own  merits. 

The  School  has  always  had  a  good  reputation  for  modelling,  and  there 
seems  to  be  something  in  the  Irish  mind  which  takes  kindly  to  this  branch 
of  art.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  in  this  subject  also ;  as,  for 
example,  the  School  gained  one  gold  medal  and  one  silver  medal  for 
modelled  design  in  the  year  1890,  and  in  1891  three  silver  medals  and 
eight  book  prizes  for  the  same  subject.  To  a  small  extent  the  students 
have  supplied  a  demand  for  modelled  work  for  the  silversmith  and  the  wood 
carver.  However,  until  series  of  technical  classes  in  those  subjects  with 
which  art  is  more  immediately  connected  are  established  in  the  School,  and 
which  will  allow  the  students  to  embody  their  ideas  in  the  material,  the  work 
of  the  school  cannot  be  considered  to  be  complete  in  this  direction.  On 
several  occasions,  chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Committee  of 
the  Branchardiere  Fund,  lace  teachers  have  been  brought  up  from  different 
parts  of  the  country  in  order  to  obtain  instruction  in  drawing  and  design, 
for  short  periods,  in  the  School  of  Art.  For  instance,  the  lace  mistresses  at 
Carrickmacross,  Crossmaglen,  Armagh,  and  Benmore,  near  Enniskillen, 
have  so  benefitted.  In  all  cases  the  Reports  have  been  that  the  instruction 
imparted  to  the  mistress  has  proved  highly  beneficial  to  the  industry.  In 
1900  a  certain  number  of  National  school  and  other  teachers  were  offered  a 
short  summer  course  of  lessons  in  drawing  and  design.  Those  who 
attended  were  required  to  do  freehand  drawing  from  the  cast ;  foliage  from 
nature,  with  the  brush ;  geometrical  drawing,  so  far  as  it  applied  to  design, 
using  those  problems  which  were  particularly  applicable  to  the  striking  out 
of  patterns ;  and  elementary  design.  The  experiment  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. 

The  history  of  the  Belfast  School  of  Art  divides  itself  into  three  periods : 

(i)  1849-54,  when  it  was  known  as  the  Government 

Belfast  School       School  of  Design;  (2)  1 870-1 901,  as  the  Government 

of  Art.  School  of  Art ;   and  (3)  the  Municipal  School  of  Art, 

which  has  just  come  into  existence. 

Some  years  before  the  establishment  of  the  Government  School  of  Design, 
attention  had  been  drawn  to  the  desirability  of  providing  means  of  practical 
art  training  for  the  artisans  of  Belfast.  The  first  suggestion  of  a  School  of 
Design  appears  in  the  "  Address  to  the  Public  "  which  prefaces  the  cata- 
logue of  the  first  exhibition  of  the  "  Belfast  Association  of  Artists,"  in  1836. 
Among  other  objects  to  which  it  was  proposed  to  devote  the  proceeds  of  the 
exhibitions  was  the  estabhshment  of  "  a  normal  school  of  artistic  education, 
at  which  lectures  on  the  principles  of  designing  and  colouring  will  be  an 
essential  part."  The  initial  effort  to  get  such  a  school  established  was  not 
made,  hov/ever,  until  1848,  when  a  correspondence  was  entered  into  whh 
the  Secretary  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant.  In  reply  to  official  inquiries,  it  was 
stated  that  local  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of  ^^300  per  annum  could  be 
reckoned  upon  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  sum  of  more  than  ;;^400  was  sub- 
scribed the  first  year,  showing  that  there  was  a  considerable  amount  of 
interest  taken  in  the  project.  The  Town  Council  was  approached  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  a  grant  from  the  rates  ;   but  it  appeared  that  there  was 


Jaiiic's  H()dK<-'ii. 


DKSIGX   FOR   A  COrNTEUl'AXE. 


Belfast  School  of  Art. 


DESIGN'  FOR  A  DAMASK  TABLECLOTH. 


Edwin  A.  Morrow. 


Belfast  School  of  Art. 


DESIGNS  FOR  A  LACE  FLOUNCE,   AND  COLLARETTES  IN    LIMERICK   LACE   AND  CROCHET. 

Alice  Jacob,  Dublin  School  of  Art. 


ART    INSTRUCTION.  U9 


some  bar  to  their  making  one,  although  the  Cork  School  of  Design  was  at 
that  time  receiving  municipal  support.  The  Drapers  Company  gave  an 
annual  grant  of  £2^^,  and  applications  for  aid  were  also  made  to  the  ]\Iercers', 
Grocers',  and  Fishmongers'  Companies,  and  the  Irish  Society,  though  the 
scanty  records  available  do  not  show  whether  they  were  successful  or  not. 
The  school  also  received  an  annual  grant  of  £^00,  afterwards  increased  to 
;^6oo,  from  the  Government.  Altogether,  the  amount  of  outside  aid  re- 
ceived far  exceeded  that  given  at  any  time  to  its  successor  the  Government 
School  of  Art. 

Lord  Dufferin  was  invited  to  become  president,  and  the  formal  inaugura- 
tion took  place  early  in  1850,  the  various  classes  having  been  in  operation, 
however,  from  the  previous  November.  Lord  Dufferin  showed  himself  a 
good  friend  to  the  school  in  many  ways,  offering  a  prize  of  £^0  in  the  first 
year,  and  founding  a  scholarship  of  ;^20  per  annum  as  well.  Another  of 
£10  per  annum  was  given  by  Mr.  Blakiston-Houston,  and  it  was  contem- 
plated to  provide  a  third  out  of  the  School  funds.  A  Mr.  Henning,  of 
Waringstown,  offered  further  prizes  of  ;^io  and  ;^5,  so  that  there  was  no 
lack  of  encouragement  to  the  students. 

Mr.  Claude  Lorraine  Nursey,  who  had  held  a  similar  position  in  the 
Leeds  School  of  Design,  was  appointed  headmaster,  with  Mr.  David  Wilkie 
Raimbach  (a  son  of  the  well-known  engraver,  Abraiiam  Raimbach)  as 
second  in  command. 

The  course  of  instruction  was  the  same  as  in  other  Schools  of  Design, 
and  comprised  drawing  from  flat  copies,  and  from  models  and  casts  ;  also, 
studies  of  plant  form,  and  original  design.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  these  latter 
studies  did  not  amount  to  much,  for  we  find  the  Government  Inspector 
expressing  surprise  that  living  plants  were  not  provided  for  the  students, 
and  no  design  was  considered  worthy  of  the  large  prize  offered  by  Lord 
Dufferin.  Another  complaint  made  by  the  Inspector  was  that  a  proper 
"  sculpture  gallery,"  or  antique  room,  was  not  provided,  and  we  find  frequent 
reference  to  this  want  in  the  records  of  the  School.  As  early  as  October. 
1849,  the  Committee  were  in  treaty  with  the  Governors  of  the  Royal 
Academical  Institution  for  the  erection  of  a  special  room,  sixty  feet  by  forty, 
and  twenty  feet  high,  for  this  purpose,  and  on  the  8th  of  January,  1850, 
the  Secretary  wrote  to  the  central  authorities  that  it  was  expected  such  a 
room,  only  a  hundred  feet  long,  would  be  built  at  once.  But  nothing  came 
of  the  project ;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  what  was  felt  to  be  a  pressing 
necessity  at  that  time,  remained  more  than  fifty  years  unprovided  for. 

From  various  causes,  the  schools  of  design  did  not  fulfil  the  hopes  of 
their  founders.  The  manufacturers  took  very  little  interest  in  their  opera- 
tions ;  partly,  no  doubt,  because  the  instruction  given  in  most  of  them  was 
not  of  a  very  practical  character,  so  far  as  the  main  purpose  of  crainmg 
designers  was  concerned.  Before  a  special  committee  of  the  Council  of  the 
Government  School  of  Design,  Somerset  House,  Mr.  Richard  Burchett 
stated  that  the  Central  School  was  "  an  utter  and  complete  failure  ; "  and 
Mr.  Ambrose  Poynter  said  that  the  provincial  schools  had  "  no  pretension 
to  be  called  Schools  of  Design." 

The  great  Exhibition  of  185 1  only  tended  to  emphasise  the  lamentable 
deficiencies  of  British  industrial  art  in  comparison  with  that  of  other  coun- 
tries, especially  our  great  dependency,  India.  The  exquisite  productions  of 
that  country,  which  many  Englishmen  had  been  accustomed  to  look  upon 
as  a  semi-barbarous  one,  were  a  revelation  to  all  concerned,  and  put  to 


150  ART    INSTRUCTION. 


shame  the  crude  and  pretentious  work  of  our  own  manufacturers  and  crafts- 
men. Renewed  efforts  were  made  to  remedy  this  unsatisfactor}^  condition 
of  things,  and  in  1S52  a  "  Department  of  Practical  Art,"  under  the  Board  of 
Trade,  was  estabHshed,  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  Schools  of  Design,  and 
to  advance  the  cause  of  industrial  art  generally.  This  was  superseded  in  the 
following  year  by  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art,  as  a  branch  of  the 
Education  Department.  A  wider  scheme  was  organised,  and  a  new  system 
of  State  aid  inaugurated,  throwing  more  responsibihty  upon  the  localities 
for  the  support  of  the  schools.  Direct  grants  were  withdrawn,  and  the 
system  of  payments  on  results  of  examinations  was  instituted. 

The  effect  of  this  change  on  the  Belfast  School  of  Design  was  disastrous 
Local  interest  in  its  work  was  not  sufficient  to  provide  adequately  for  its 
support,  and  so,  in  1854,  it  was  compelled  to  close  its  doors.  During  its 
short  life  it  had  not  been  without  influence  for  good,  even  if  it  had  missed 
its  proper  aim.  Many  local  architects  received  more  or  less  of  their  training 
within  its  walls,  and  some  of  its  students  eventually  entered  the  ranks  of  art 
as  professional  painters  or  sculptors.  Of  these  we  may  mention  Samuel 
M'Cloy,  Ebenezer  Crawford  (a  promising  artist  who  died  eaxly),  Samuel  F. 
Lynn,  the  well-known  sculptor,  and  Anthony  C.  Stannus.  The  building 
occupied  by  the  Belfast  School  of  Design  forms  the  north  wing  of  the  Royal 
Academical  Institution.  This  Institution,  now  a  public  school,  was  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  Queen's  College,  and  is  still  known  by  many  as  the  "  Old 
College."  the  square  in  which  it  stands  being  called  "  College  Square  "  to 
this  day.  The  School  of  Design  building  had  been  the  home  of  the  medical 
school,  and  of  course  the  arrangements  were  not  calculated  to  meet  the 
needs  of  an  art  school. 

After  the  collapse  of  the  School  of  Design,  drawing  classes  were  carried 
on  in  connection  with  the  Academical  Institution ;  but  the  advantages  of  a 
pubhc  School  of  Art  were  denied  to  Belfast  students  until  the  year  1870. 
Vv^hen  the  same  old  building  v^as  re-opened  as  the  Government  School  of 
Art.  An  influential  committee  was  formed,  and  a  considerable  sum  of 
r»oney  raised  for  the  equipment  of  the  School,  and  the  establishment  of  local 
prizes.  Mr.  Thomas  M.  Lindsay  was  chosen  as  head  master,  and  justified 
his  appointment  by  the  success  which  attended  his  efforts.  The  School  took 
a  high  place  in  the  national  competition,  and  many  of  the  students  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  successful  career  in  art  under  his  direction.  In  1880  he  was 
appointed  Art  Master  at  Rugby  School,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  George 
Trobridge,  A.R.C.A.  (London),  who  had  just  completed  a  highly  successful 
course  of  training  at  the  National  Art  Training  School,  South  Kensington. 
Under  his  direction  the  work  of  the  School  was  somewhat  extended — so 
far,  that  is  to  say,  as  the  limited  space  and  unsatisfactory  arrangements 
allowed — especially  in  the  direction  of  figure  drawing.  A  nude  life-class 
was  established,  and,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  School,  students 
were  presented  i'or  examination  in  anatomy,  and  drawing  from  the  antique, 
in  the  year  1881.  The  life-class  was  conducted  under  great  disadvantages, 
and  with  limited  success,  one  small  room  having  to  answer  both  for  life-room 
and  modelling-room,  and  the  students  being  required  to  pay  the  cost  of  their 
own  models.  From  this  small  beginning  there  have  been  considerable 
developments  in  recent  years  ;  and  at  the  last  examinations  thirty  successes 
were  obtained  in  drawing  from  antique  and  from  life. 

Great  difficulties  have  always  been  experiencel  in  carrying  on  the  work 
of  the  School,  owing  to  lack  of  space,  and  the  unsuitabiUty  of  the  premise.s. 


P'.V^'l; 

vy  ?^&  ^-'^' 

^^ 

CT 

B^iw^PJ 

^ 

K 

IB 

Miss  Frances  .Shoi-tr. 


DKSIGN'  FOR  A  LACE  SKIRT. 


Cork  School  of  Art. 


VtS^l^^' 


ART    INSTRUCTION.  '  151 


The  Board  of  Management  has  done  what  was  possible  to  minimise  these 
drawbacks ;  and  large  sums  have  been  spent  in  such  improvements  as 
could  be  made  in  the  old  building.  The  expansion  of  the  work  of  the  School 
also  entailed  increased  expenditure  in  various  directions,  and  led  to  an  em- 
barrassed condition  of  the  finances,  which  necessarily  checked  development. 
With  all  these  obstacles  the  School  has  a  record  of  which  it  need  not  be 
ashamed.  In  the  course  of  the  last  ten  years  of  its  history,  during  which 
period  it  had  the  advantage  of  a  small  yearly  grant  from  the  City  Council, 
i^  showed  remarkable  progress.  Between  the  years  i8go  and  1898  the  suc- 
cesses at  the  advanced  examinations  rose  more  than  threefold,  and  the 
Government  grant  was  nearly  doubled.  The  year  1900  saw  high-water 
mark  in  the  national  competition,  sixteen  awards  being  gained,  including  a 
gold  medal.  But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  achievement  has  been  in  the 
direction  of  scholarships  and  exhibitions.  No  less  than  nineteen  national 
scholarships  have  been  gained  since  1872,  besides  four  studentships-in- 
training,  and  two  local  scholarships.*  Some  of  the  students  who  have  taken 
these  scholarships  now  occupy  a  high  place  in  the  art  world ;  some  are 
engaged  in  teaching ;  and  others  are  employed  as  designers  in  Belfast  or 
elsewhere. 

The  most  important  question  in  regard  to  any  School  of  Art  is  whether 
its  operations  are  of  benefit  to  local  industries.  A  strong  affirmative  answer 
may  be  given  in  the  case  of  Belfast,  though  the  manufacturers  themselves 
do  not  appear  to  know  the  extent  of  their  indebtedness  to  the  School. 
Some  years  ago,  when  the  Technical  Commissioners  were  taking  evidence 
in  Belfast,  the  head  of  an  important  firm  was  asked,  "  Do  you  find  the  School 
of  Art  of  any  benefit  to  you  ?"  and  answered,  without  hesitation,  "  None 
whatever ; "  although  at  the  time  he  had  two  designers  in  his  employment 
whom  his  partner  had  lately  obtained  from  the  School.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  many  of  the  principal  designers  in  the  city  are  students,  or  former 
students,  of  the  School,  including  the  head  designers  in  two  of  the  largest 
damask  manufactories.  Several  firms  have  produced  designs  by  the  late 
headmaster,  Mr.  Trobridge,  which  have  proved  most  successful,  and  other 
members  of  the  staff  have  been  employed  from  time  to  time  in  connection 
with  local  industries.  ]\Ir.  Henry  C.  Morrow,  who  has  been  teacher  of 
design  for  the  past  ten  }'ears,  is  the  leading  house  decorator  in  the  city,  and 
has  carried  out  many  extensive  works  in  public  and  private  buildings. 
As  an  indication  of  the  general  tendency  of  the  School  work  it  may  be 
mentioned  that,  of  sixteen  honours  gained  in  the  national  competition  of 
1900,  SIX  were  for  original  designs  for  linen  damask,  six  for  embroidered 
linen,  and  one  for  printed  muslins.  Of  the  embroidery  designs  the  exam- 
iners spoke  in  very'  high  terms.  They  said :  "  The  designs  for  white  em- 
broidery, accompanied  by  worked  specimens,  from  Belfast,  for  one  of  which, 
by  James  H.  Jeffrey,  a  gold  medal  is  awarded,  are  admirably  adapted  for 
their  purpose,  and  are  quite  remarkable  for  their  treatment." 

The  production  of  practical  work  in  a  School  of  Art  greatly  depends  upon 
the  encouragement  given  by  local  manufacturers.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Belfast  School  liberal  donations  were  given  for  special  prizes,  and  a  large 
number  of  designs  were  produced  in  competition  for  these.  Such  dona- 
tions gradually  fell  away  until  during  several  years  there  were  no  special 
prizes  at  all.     In  the  year  1 897,  some  members  of  the  Board  of  Management 

*  In  the  year  1899  four  Belfast  students  were  holding  scholarships  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Art. 


152  ART   INSTRUCTION. 


exerted  themselves  to  obtain  a  better  list  of  local  prizes,  and,  as  a  result  of 
their  efforts,  a  large  amount  of  excellent  work  was  produced.  The  successes 
in  the  national  competition  rose  at  a  bound  from  four,  in  1897,  to  fourteen 
in  1 898  ;  showing  how  readily  the  School  responded  to  such  a  stimulus. 

While  decorative  design,  and  studies  leading  thereto,  formed  the  most 
important  section  of  the  School  work,  other  studies  were  not  neglected.  In 
the  day  classes  painting  from  flowers  and  still-life,  and  drawing  and  painting 
from  life,  were  largely  pursued,  in  addition  to  more  elementary  work ;  and 
in  the  summer  time  classes  for  sketching  from  nature  were  held 

A  successful  Sketching  Club,  and  an  Illustration  Club,  have  been  main- 
tained for  many  years  as  adjuncts  to  the  general  school  work.  Many 
teachers  have  received  training  which  has  enabled  them  to  obtain  employ- 
ment, and  carry  the  benefits  they  have  received  to  other  centres.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  school  children  also  have  attended  the  classes ;  and  the 
drawing  department  of  Victoria  College,  the  largest  ladies'  school  in  the 
north  of  Ireland,  has  been  conducted  for  some  twenty-five  years  as  a  branch 
<jf  the  School  of  Art. 

On  the  31st  July,  1901,  the  Government  School  of  Art  ceased  to  exist, 
after  more  than  thirty  years  of  successful  work.  The  Technical  Instruction 
Committee  of  the  City  Council  then  undertook  the  duties  of  management,  in- 
corporating the  School  in  the  new  Technical  Institute,  and  reorganising  it  on 
an  extended  basis.  A  new  and  greatly  strengthened  staff  was  appointed, 
with  Mr.  R.  A.  Dawson,  A.R.C.A.  (Lond.),  as  head  master ;  new  premises 
were  acquired,  to  which  the  operations  of  the  School  were  transferred ;  and 
additional  appliances  were  provided  with  a  view  of  making  the  teaching 
more  effective.  Both  teachers  and  students  will  now  have  opportunities  such 
as  they  have  never  had  before,  and  we  may  safely  predict  that  the  Belfast 
School  will  take  a  still  higher  position  in  relation  to  other  schools  than  it 
has  hitherto  held.  The  record  of  the  old  School  in  the  last  year  of  its 
existence  was  a  highly  creditable  one,  eclipsing  in  some  respects  all  previous 
achievements ;  among  other  honours,  three  silver  medals  and  nine  other 
awards  having  been  obtained  in  the  National  Competition,  and  no  less  than 
six  open  scholarships  gained.  These  latter  include  three  National  Scholar- 
ships at  the  Royal  College  of  Art,  two  Scholarships  in  the  Metropolitan 
School  of  Art,  Dublin,  and  one  local  Scholarship.  A  Bronze  Medal  was 
also  awarded  to  the  School  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  for  the  high  character 
of  the  work  of  its  students. 

Over  a  century  ago  a  number  of  Cork  citizens,  associated  for  scientific 

purposes,  founded  the  Royal  Cork    Institution,    and 

The  Crawford        obtained  a  Royal  Charter.       A  School  of  Art  and 

Municipal  School     Design  was  started,  partly  in  connection  with  the  in- 

of  Art,  Cork.         stitution,   and   a   report   presented   to  the   Board  of 

Trade  in   1850  stated  that  there  were   118  evening 

students  and  72  day  students  on  the  register,  of  whom  38  were  admitted 

free.       The   Royal    Cork    Institution   fell   into   pecuniary   difficulties    and 

became  practically  moribund,  and  the  School  of  Art,  which  occupied  the 

upper  portion  of  the  Institution  building,  suffered  accordingly.     The  place 

was  in  such  bad  repair  that  at  one  time  the  students  were  obliged  to  work 

under  umbrellas.       Mr.    James    Brenan,    R.H.A.,  the  headmaster    of    the 

School,  and  Mr.  Arthur  Hill,  R.E.,  M.R.I.A.,  and  others  made  repeated 

efforts  to  re-organise  the  Institution  and  the  School,  but  for  some  time 


Miss  M.  \agle. 


DESIGN    FOR    KAN. 


Municipal  School  of  Art,  Cork. 


Miss  M.  XiiKlo, 


IJKSIGN    KOK  DA.MASK. 


Mimicijial  School  of  Art,  Cork. 


ART   INSTRUCTION.  163 


without  success.  At  length,  in  1877,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  N.  D. 
jMurphy,  ]\I.P.,  a  scheme  was  authorised  for  the  establishment  of  an  im- 
proved School  of  Art,  a  School  of  j\Iusic,  and  a  School  of  Science,  and  con- 
siderable support  was  received  from  the  Corporation. 

The  handsome  building  in  which  the  Schools  of  Science  and  Art  are  now 
housed  consists  of  the  old  building  of  the  Royal  Cork  Institution,  with  a 
very  considerable  addition,  and  the  architect,  jNIr.  Arthur  Hill,  solved  a  dif- 
ficult problem  with__distinct  success  in  the  way  in  which  he  grouped  to- 
gether the  new  and  the  old  building  into  one  harmonious  and  homogeneous 
whole,  so  that  a  stranger  could  not  detect  the  addition  that  was  made. 
The  new  building  was  presented  to  the  city  by  the  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Crawford, 
with  princely  generosity,  at  a  cost  of  over  i^20,ooo.  Their  Royal  Highnesses 
the  then  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  were  present  at  the  opening  cere- 
mony in  1885,  and  christened  the  building  the  Crawford  Municipal  School 
of  Art. 

The  average  number  of  students  attending  the  School  of  Art  for  Art 
subjects  is  about  220,  and  those  studying  machine  or  building  construction, 
without  taking  any  Art  subjects,  bring  the  total  under  instruction  to  about 
250.  Formerly,  the  day  and  evening  classes  were  about  equal  in  number. 
Thus,  in  the  year  1885-6,  the  sessions  immediately  following  the  opening  of 
the  new  building,  133  students  attended  the  day  classes,  and  136  the  evening 
classes  ;  latterly,  not  more  than  70  have  attended  during  the  day,  and  the 
evening  classes  average  180.  A  large  proportion  of  the  evening  students  are 
either  attending  or  have  been  educated  at  the  National  schools  in  the  city, 
and,  unfortunately,  much  of  the  work  done  at  the  School  of  Art  is,  therefore, 
of  a  very  elementary  character ;  but  it  is  hoped  that  with  an  improvement 
in  the  hand  and  eye  training  of  the  National  schools  it  will  be  found  possible 
to  make  the  instruction  in  the  School  of  Art  of  a  more  advanced  character. 

The  Cork  Industrial  Exhibition  held  in  1883  called  attention  to  the  lace 
and  crochet  industry  in  the  South  of  Ireland,  and  the  need  for  improved 
designs  in  their  production.  The  visits  paid  by  Mr.  Alan  S.  Cole,  of  South 
Kensington,  also  stimulated  both  the  lace  workers  and  the  designers,  and 
from  that  time  the  Cork  School  of  Art,  and  the  branch  classes  founded  in 
connection  with  it,  have  acquired  an  increasing  reputation  for  the  artistic 
character  of  the  designs  for  lace  and  other  needlework. 

The  surplus  realised  by  the  Cork  Exhibition  of  1883  was  applied  to  the 
founding  of  two  Local  Scholarships,  tenable  at  South  Kensington  by 
students  of  the  Cork  School  or  the  branch  classes  elsewhere.  These  Scholar- 
ships have  proved  most  beneficial  in  their  results,  as  will  be  seen  from  a  few 
examples.  In  1887  Michael  ]\Iurphy,  a  stone  carver,  who  had  previously 
held  one  of  the  local  Exhibitions,  obtained  a  National  Scholarship  at  South 
Kensington,  and  has  since  become  a  most  successful  Art  craftsman,  working 
chiefly  in  London,  but  getting  many  commissions  from  architects  in  other 
parts  of  England.  In  1896  Michael  M'Namara,  another  stone  carver,  was 
successful  in  obtaining  a  National  Scholarship,  having  the  previous  year  held 
a  Local  Exhibition,  and  after  being  a  National  Scholar  for  two  years,  his 
Scholarship  was  continued  for  a  third  year,  and  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  other  National  Scholars.  Albina  Collins,  of  the  branch  class  at  the 
Kinsale  Convent,  was  appointed  a  National  Scholar  in  1896,  and  in  1897 
Georgina  Mackinlay,  of  the  Cork  School,  and  Cecilia  Keyes,  of  the  branch 
class  at  Kinsale,  each  secured  a  National  Scholarship,  so  that  in  the  year 
1897  no  less  than  four  of  the  National  Scholars  at  South  Kensington  were 


154  ART    INSTRUCTION. 


from  the  School  of  Art,  Cork,  and  the  Kinsale  Branch  class.  All  four  had 
previously  held  Local  Exhibitions. 

Taking  into  account  the  small  number  of  advanced  students  the  Cork 
School  of  Art  has  held  a  fairly  high  place  in  the  National  Competition  of 
Schools  of  Art. 

In  1896  the  first  grant  from  South  Kensington  under  the  Technical  In- 
struction Act  was  made  to  the  School  in  support  of  a  class  for  the  teaching 
of  Embroidery.  In  1899  a  further  grant  was  made  in  aid  of  the  teaching  of 
Limerick  Lace  making,  and  in  October,  1900,  Crochet  was  added  to  the 
subjects  of  Technical  Instruction  taught  in  the  School.  These  Needlework 
classes  have  proved  of  the  greatest  possible  benefit  to  the  designers,  whose 
designs  are  now  much  more  practical  than  before,  with  the  result  that  there 
is  a  much  greater  demand  for,  and  readier  sale  of,  the  designs  than  formerly. 

In  April,  1900,  during  the  visit  of  Her  late  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  to 
Dublin,  specimens  of  the  Needlework  executed  at  the  Cork  School  were 
submitted  to  Her  Majesty,  who  was  graciously  pleased  to  order  two  em- 
broidered coverlets,  which  were  completed  and  forwarded  to  Buckingham 
Palace. 

Several  designs  for  table  damask  have  been  sold  in  Belfast ;  and  quite 
recently,  in  a  competition  for  prizes  held  by  the  Old  Bleach  Linen  Co., 
Randalstown,  County  Antrim,  which  was  open  to  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
second  prize  of  ;^io  was  won  by  Miss  G.  Sutton,  and  the  fourth  prize  by 
Miss  Whitcliffe.  The  seventh  prize  for  towel  design,  open  to  ladies  only, 
was  also  won  by  Miss  Sutton.  Several  of  the  National  Competition  prizes 
awarded  to  this  School  in  recent  years  have  been  for  modelled  works,  and 
now  that  a  special  Modelling  Master  has  been  appointed  it  is  hoped  that 
modelled  designs  applied  to  local  industries  will  be  as  successful  as  the 
designs  already  produced  for  Needlework  and  Damask.  There  is-  good 
terra-cotta  clay  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  so  that  there  seems  no 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  largely  availed  of  by  architects  for  decorative 
purposes. 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  155 


SCIENCE    TEACHING    AND    TECHNICAL 
INSTRUCTION. 

The  facilities  for  and  the  supply  of  Science  Teaching  and  Technical 
Instruction  in  Ireland  have  been,  at  any  rate  until  recently,  so  inferior  to 
those  existing  in  England,  that  a  slight  historical  retrospect  is  necessar}^  in 
order  to  understand  the  recent  changes  in  this  respect  in  Ireland.  The  fol-* 
lowing  extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Technical 
Instruction,  pubHshed  in  1884,  shows  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  early 
eighties : — 

**  Whilst  science  and  art  classes,  many  of  them  very  successful,  are  to  be 
found  in  several  of  the  important  towns  of  Ireland,  there  are  scarcely  any 
science  classes  at  work  in  Dublin.  Various  reasons  were  assigfned  to  us  for 
this  state  of  things,  some  of  them  of  a  kind  into  which  it  is  not  expedient  that 
we  should  enter.  At  the  same  tim.e,  there  is  in  Dublin  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  with  a  staff  of  competent  professors,  an  admirable  technical  museum, 
and  laboratories  f  lirly  well  equipped  for  practical  work.  It  appears  from  the 
evidence  that  of  the  small  number  of  students  who  follow  a  complete  course  of 
instruction  in  this  institution,  about  one-half  are  Englishmen,  holders  of  the 
Royal  Exhibitions  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  scarcely  any  of  whom 
become  teachers  of  science  in  Ireland.  There  are  no  short  summer  courses  at 
the  College,  like  those  at  the  Normal  School  at  South  Kensington,  for  the 
instruction  of  science  teachers.  There  are,  we  are  aware,  some  courses  of 
evening  lectures  ;  but  although  the  laboratories  of  the  College  are  the  only 
ones  in  Dublin  available  for  practical  evening  instruction,  such  instruction  in 
science  and  in  mechanical  drawing  forms  no  part  of  the  arrangements  of  the 
College.  It  appears  that  by  the  rules  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  the 
professors  of  the  College  cannot  earn  grants  on  the  results  of  instruction  in 
science,  as  would  be  the  case  if  they  were  ordinary  science  teachers.  We  are 
of  opinion  that  so  long  as  the  eftective  work  of  the  College  in  preparing 
associate  students,  and  more  particularly  Irish  students,  is  so  limited  in  area 
as  at  present,  evening  classes  with  practical  laboratory  work  should  form  part 
of  the  regular  College  courses,  and  that  the  remuneration  of  the  professors 
should  depend  in  part  on  the  success,  or  at  any  rate  on  the  regular  attendance, 
of  students  at  such  classes 

"  We  would  also  remark  that  we  have  received  evidence  of  a  very  contra- 
dictory nature  as  to  the  teaching  of  science  in  the  Irish  Intermediate  Schools. 
We  believe,  however,  that  it  is  engaging  the  attention  of  the  Board  of 
Intermediate  Education,  and  we  only  deem  it  necessary  to  state  in  reference 
to  this  subject,  that  efficient  instruction  in  science  will  not  be  possible  in  those 
schools  unless  they  are  provided  with  proper  laboratories,  which  in  most,  if 
not  in  all  of  them,  are  at  present  entirely  wanting. 

"But  the  most  important  part  of  our  task  with  regard  to  Ireland,  is  to 
consider  the  possibility  ot  improving  the  industrial  conditions  of  the  poor  and 
remote  districts  of  the  West,  by  means  of  technical  education. 

"  By  the  courtesy  of  Sir  Patrick  Keenan,  K.C.M.G.,  the  Resident  Commis- 
sioner   of  National    Education   in    Ireland,  your   Commissioners   have  been 


156  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


furnished  with  what  they  understood  to  be  a  complete  set  of  the  books  used 
in  the  Irish  National  Schools.  They  find  that  these  books  are  well  adapted  for 
the  literary  instruction  of  the  children  of  various  ages  in  those  schools,  and 
that  they  contain  much  interesting  information  on  the  natural  features  and 
resources  of  Ireland.  But,  except  as  to  agriculture,  they  do  not  afford  adequate 
assistance  towards  graduated  instruction  in  industrial  processes,  or  in  the 
rudiments  of  the  sciences  on  which  those  processes  are  founded.  As  the  Irish 
National  Education  Commissioners  are  by  their  regulations  mainly  responsible 
for  the  selection  of  the  books  used  in  the  schools,  this  defect  should  receive 
their  early  attention. 

"There  is  a  general  consensus  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  persons  of  all  ranks 
in  that  country,  whatever  may  be  their  views  on  other  subjects,  that  the  pros- 
perity of  the  poorer  districts  of  Ireland  may  be  greatly  promoted  by  technical 
instruction  in  handicrafts  and  in  home  industries.  There  is  a  conviction  not  less 
general,  and  it  is  one  which  visits  have  fully  confirmed  in  our  minds,  that  the 
children  and  young  people  of  Ireland  of  the  labouring  class  possess  great  manual 
dexterity  and  aptitude,  which  only  requires  to  be  developed  in  order  to  be 
useful  to  themselves  and  to  those  amongst  whom  they  live.  As  evidence  of 
this,  we  need  only  refer  to  the  remarkable  success  of  the  Christian  Brothers, 
and  to  that  of  the  ladies  of  Religious  Orders,  in  training  children  and  young 
persons  for  handicrafts,  in  Industrial  Schools  and  institutions  of  a  like 
nature.  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  similar  instruction  to  that  which 
is  given  in  these  schools  should  not  be  given  elsewhere,  if  the  necessary  funds 
and  teachers  are  forthcoming.  We  have  shown  that  instruction  of  this  kind 
given  on  the  Continent  to  persons  in  remote  districts,  who  would  otherwise  be 
idle,  has  added  materially  to  their  resources,  both  directly,  and  by  training 
them  for  employment  in  larger  industrial  concerns,  and  we  have  ascertained 
that  no  great  expenditure  of  public  money  has  been  required  in  order  to  pro- 
duce these  effects. 

"  Not  only  is  instruction  of  this  kind  deemed  to  be  desirable,  but  we  have 
found  that  there  is  a  willingness  on  the  part  of  benevolent  persons  in  Ireland 
to  assist  its  promotion  by  subscriptions  and  in  other  ways.  It  is  true  that  by 
some  it  has  been  proposed  that  the  Government  should  itself  initiate,  if  it  did 
not  entirely  charge  itself  with  this  work,  but  we  were  happy  to  find  there  were 
others  who  would  be  quite  satisfied  if  its  utility  received  the  imprimatur  of  the 
Government,  and  if  the  State  offered  rewards  for  the  ascertained  results  of 
instruction  of  this  kind.  We  are  of  opinion  that  successful  work  of  this  nature, 
whether  it  be  conducted  by  individuals  or  societies,  or  by  religious  bodies, 
deserves  the  recognition  and  reward  of  the  Government.  We  think  it  no  part 
of  our  duty  to  state  which  are  the  home  industries  best  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions of  different  parts  of  Ireland,  Each  locality  will  be  able  to  form  its  own 
judgment  in  regard  to  this,  and  due  weight  should  be  given  by  the  Government 
to  such  local  expression  of  opinion  ;  payment  in  all  cases  being  dependent 
upon  the  results  obtained  in  the  schools  or  classes.  We  do  not  think  it  would 
be  possible  for  the  Government  to  train  teachers  for  a  variety  of  home  indus- 
tries, but  it  might  contribute  to  the  payment  of  such  teachers  appointed  by  the 
localities  :  and  it  would  be  expedient  to  establish  a  class  of  itinerant  teachers 
for  service  in  districts  where  resident  instructors  cannot  be  maintained. 

"  These  suggestions  apply  even  in  a  greater  degree  to  the  instruction  of 
girls  than  of  boys. 

t  "We  need  scarcely  point  out  that,  if  it  be  deemed  desirable  to  introduce 
manual  instruction  in  the  use  of  tools  in  elementary  schools  at  all,  this  would 
apply  in  an  eminent  degree  to  the  primary  schools  of  Ireland.  It  was  stated 
in  evidence  before  us  that  in  some  parts  of  Ireland,  ordinary  handicrafts,  like 
those  of  the  mason,  have  become  absolutely  extinct.     Whether  the  children 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  157 


remain  in  their  own  immediate  localities  or  migrate  to  other  parts  of  the 
country,  or  emigrate  to  our  colonies  or  to  foreign  countries,  such  instruction 
leading  up  to  their  apprenticeship  as  skilled  labourers,  instead  of  their  fulfilling, 
as  is  now  too  much  the  case,  the  part  of  mere  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water,  would  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  them.  We  are  happy  to  find  that  the 
authorities  of  the  National  Board  of  Education  in  Ireland  appreciate  the  impor- 
tance of  introducing  instruction  in  manual  work  into  their  schools.  They  have 
already  begun  to  give  instruction  of  this  kind  to  some  few  of  their  teachers, 
with  a  view  to  qualify  them  for  imparting  it  to  the  children  in  the  schools  ;  but, 
in  order  that  this  instruction  may  be  satisfactory,  it  is  important  that  the 
training  of  the  teachers  themselves  should  be  systematic  and  thorough  ;  and, 
obvious  as  this  might  appear  to  be,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  impress  it  upon  the 
minds  of  the  authorities  of  the  National  Board.  Until  the  teachers  are  able 
themselves  to  give  the  instruction,  it  might  be  given  by  skilled  and  intelligent 
artisans.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that,  whenever  efficient  teachers  can  be 
found,  the  National  Board  will  be  prepared  to  pay  for  the  results  of  manual 
teaching  in  the  primary  schools.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  our 
statement  with  regard  to  drawing,  in  reference  to  schools  generally,  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  Irish  schools.  We  may  remark  that  the  progress  of 
children  in  learning  home  trades  will  be  much  more  satisfactory  if  they  have 
been  trained  at  school  in  the  use  of  the  ordinary  tools  for  working  in  wood 
and  iron,  and  in  drawing.'' 

Some  account  of  the  history  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ireland 
(which  has  now  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland)  may  be  fittingly  introduced  here. 

As  is  the  case  with  so  many  other  public  institutions  in  Dublin,  the  origui 

The  Royal  College    °^  ^^Z  -^T^  ^?-F  ?!,  ^T'''^  "^^^t  P'c^^*'^^  ^^ 

of  Science  for         sought  m  the  activity  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  as 

far  back  as  the  eighteenth    century.       A    chemical 

Ireland.  «  elaboratory  "  was  then  established  for  practical  work 

in  the  Society's  premises,  and  students  of  mineralogy  were  recommended  to 

resort  to  it  for  assistance  in  their  enquiries.     Prizes  of  the  value  of  £"50  were 

oftered  to  such  students  ;  and  subsequently  the  Society  organised  systematic 

courses  of  lectures  on  Chemistry,  Physics,  Mineralogy,  Geology,  Zoology, 

and  Botany. 

On  the  establishment  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  March,  1853,  the  Museum  of  Irish  Industry 
in  St.  Stephen's  Green,  Dublin,  passed  under  its  control.  This  practical 
institution  had  been  founded  nine  years  before,  under  the  office  of  Woods 
and  Forests,  and  contained  a  chemical  department,  which  conducted  enqui- 
ries for  the  Geological  Survey,  and  other  researches  "  of  public  industrial 
interest"  (ijt/  Rep.  Dep.  Science  and  Art,  1854,  p.  Ixvi).  The  staff  was  also 
"  engaged  on  investigations  of  the  nature  of  agricultural  soils,  and  in  pre- 
paring a  series  of  maps  of  the  agricultural  surface  of  the  Irish  counties 
according  to  the  chemical  nature  and  financial  values."  The  Department  of 
Science  and  Art  proceeded  to  carry  out,  in  addition,  an  educational  scheme 
which  had  been  contemplated  for  some  years,  by  the  appointment  of  pro- 
fessors "  in  connection  with  the  Museum,  for  the  most  important  sciences 
belonging  to  the  Industrial  Arts."  The  subjects  selected  were  Geology, 
Chemistry,  Mechanics,  and  Botany.  The  lectures  were  of  a  popular  nature 
and  admission  was  free ;  being  given  in  the  evenings,  the  average  nightly 
attendance  was  at  first  about  400  {Report  of  Sir  R.  Kane,  Director  of  the 


158  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


Museum,  i8i;5).  These  lectures  mark  the  foundation  of  the  GOVERNMENT 
School  of' Science  applied  to  Mining  and  the  Arts,  Dublin,  and 
were  at  once  succeeded  by  the  formation  of  a  class  of  "  Practical  Chemistry." 
By  arrangement  with  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  the  courses  of  lectures 
already  given  by  that  body  in  each  year  were  made  to  serve  as  introduc- 
tions to  more  special  courses  in  the  new  School  of  Science.  In  addition  the 
popular  evening  lectures  were  maintained.  In  1866,  the  Government 
resolved  to  further  systematise  scientific  instruction  in  Dublin  by  the  con- 
version of  the  Museum  of  Irish  Industry  "  into  a  college  of  science  "  (14/^ 
Rep.  Sci.  and  Art  Dep.,  1867,  p.  2).  At  that  time  seven  professorships 
already  existed  in  connection  with  the  Museum  of  Irish  Industry,  including 
one  of  Agriculture.  Professorships  of  "  Applied  Mathematics  and  Mechan- 
ism," "  Mineralogy  and  Mining,"  and  "  Descriptive  Geometry,  Mechanical 
Drawing,  Machinery  and  Surveying,"  were  now  added,  and  a  comprehen- 
sive scheme  of  instruction,  extending  over  three  years,  was  drawn  up. 
Students  successfully  pas'sing  the  final  examinations  were  awarded  the 
diploma  of  Associate  of  the  RoYAL  COLLEGE  OF  SCIENCE  FOR  Ireland. 

The  College  thus  established  was  to  some  extent  modelled  on  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines  in  London,  but  was  intended  to  have  a  wider  scope.  From 
the  first  it  admitted  women  to  its  lectures  and  class-rooms,  and  its  influence 
in  the  scientific  education  of  women  has  always  been  considerable.  The 
Council  of  Professors,  in  1874,  appears  to  have  proposed  some  extension  of 
the  courses  afforded  in  agriculture,  which  remained  practically  confined  to 
agricultural  chemistry  ;  but  the  scheme  was  not  regarded  as  practicable,  and 
the  chair  of  Agriculture  was  abolished  in  1878.  That  of  Mining  was  also 
abolished  in  1 899,  the  teaching  in  Mineralogy  being  transferred  to  the  chair 
of  Geology.  With  these  changes,  the  general  teaching  has  been  maintained 
much  on  the  lines  formulated  in  1 867  ;  but  the  practical  laboratory  work 
then  encouraged  has  assumed  greater  and  greater  prominence,  in  accord- 
ance with  scientific  progress.  External  examiners  are  associated  with  the 
Piofessors  in  the  several  examinations  for  the  Diploma. 

The  list  of  associates  who  have  graduated  in  the  College  in  the  past 
represents  only  a  small  part  of  the  educational  and  public  work  performed 
by  the  Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ireland.  An  institution  in  which  indi- 
vidual students  can  pursue  special  studies,  without  following  the  routine 
required  for  a  degree,  naturally  attracts  many  who  otherwise  would  find  it 
diiTicult  to  acquire  scientific  knowledge.  Persons,  moreover,  already 
engaged  in  scientific  or  industrial  pursuits,  are  able  to  receive  instruction  in 
new  methods  and  developments,  and  to  work  with  special  apparatus  before 
introducing  it  into  their  own  laboratories  or  workshops.  While  a  number  of 
past  students  have  adopted  teaching  as  a  profession,  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction,  to  which  the  College  was  transferred 
in  1900,  has  arranged  for  the  attendance  of  selected  students  as  free  scholars 
for  courses  of  three  years'  instruction,  with  a  view  to  their  qualifying  them- 
selves as  technical  teachers  and  as  instructors  in  agriculture  for  the  service 
of  County  Councils.  Short  courses  of  instruction  to  qualified  teachers  have 
also  been  in  existence  during  the  summer  months  of  the  last  four  or  five 
years.  The  Department  proposes  to  revive  and  to  enlarge  the  Faculty  of 
Agriculture,  with  special  regard  to  the  requirements  of  the  country.  The 
faculties  at  present  in  operation  are  those  of  Engineering,  Manufactures, 
Physics,  and  Natural  Science. 

The    following    extract    from    the    Report    of    the    Recess    Committee, 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  159 


published  in  1896,  shows  that  not  much  improvement  in  the  facilities  pro- 
vided for  Technical  Education  had  been  effected  in  the  intervening  twelve 
years  since  the  Royal  Commission  reported : — 

"There  is  in  Dublhi  a  Royal  College  of  Science,  whose  declared  object  is 
*  to  supply,  as  far  as  practicable,  a  complete  course  of  instruction  in  science 
applicable  to  the  industrial  arts,  especially  those  which  may  be  classed  broadly 
under  the  heads  of — (i)  mining-,  (2)  agricultural,  (3)  engineering,  (4)  manufac- 
tures.' This  College  is  under  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  and  is 
maintained  entirely  by  the  Treasury.  There  is  a  Technical  and  Science  and 
Art  School  in  Kevin  Street,  under  the  Corporation,  managed  by  a  committee 
and  supported  by  grants  from  the  Corporation,  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment, and  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute.  At  Ringsend  there  is  a 
Fishery  School,  endowed  by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  which  also  receives  contri- 
butions from  the  Corporation,  and  the  Science  and  Art  Department.  There  is 
likewise  in  Dublin  a  Metropolitan  School  of  Art  under  the  Science  and  Art 
Department.  In  Belfast  a  Weaving  School,  a  School  of  Art,  and  some  working 
men's  classes  are  partly  maintained  by  the  Corporation,  and  partly  by  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  and  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London.  In  Cork 
there  is  a  School  of  Art  similarly  maintained,  and  at  the  Christian  Brothers' 
Schools  there  is  a  Technical  Laboratory,  in  which  some  technical  instruction  is 
given." 

Since  the  Recesj  Committee  reported,  some  important  changes  have 
been  effected  in  the  facihties  for  Science  Teaching  and  Technical  Instruc- 
tion in  Ireland.  A  Vice-Regal  Commission  was  appointed  in  1897  to 
examine  into  the  question  of  Manual  and  Practical  Instruction  in  the 
Primary  Schools  under  the  Board  of  National  Education.  The  Report 
showed  that,  whilst  it  is  generally  conceded  that  no  technical  instruction 
should  be  given  in  primary  schools,  there  was  an  overwhelming  consensus 
cf  opinion  that  the  education  given  was  of  too  "  bookish  "  a  nature,  and  did 
not  sufficiently  provide  for  that  training  of  hand  and  eye  which  is  now 
recognised  as  of  the  greatest  possible  value,  not  only  as  an  equipment  for 
actual  work  in  after  life,  but  also  as  in  itself  an  essential  part  of  a  complete 
education.  In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  Commission, 
new  regulations  have  been  issued,  providing  for  instruction  throughout  the 
six  standards  in  kindergarten  methods  and  manual  training,  drawing,  object 
lessons,  and  elementary  science,  and  for  girls,  needlework,  cookery,  and 
laundry  work.  This  instruction,  it  is  obvious,  is  not  intended  in  any  way  as 
technical  education.  Its  object  is  to  train  the  intelligence  and  observation, 
and  to  produce  habits  of  neatness,  dexterity,  and  carefulness  in  the  National 
school  children,  so  that  when  they  leave  school  they  will  not  be — as  the 
Report  declares  they  are  at  present — "  unfit  to  enter  a  technical  school,  even 
if  they  had  one  at  their  door."  Shortly  after  <his  another  Commission  was 
appointed  in  1898  to  inquire  into  the  subject  of  Intermediate  Education  m 
Ireland.  One  of  the  recommendations  contained  in  the  Report  was  that  a 
Modern  Course  should  be  established,  in  which  science  would  play  an  im- 
portant part,  and  no  doubt  these  recommendations  will  have  the  effect  of 
giving  considerable  encouragement  to  science  teaching. 

The  Science  and  Art  Department  plays  a  large  part  in  encouraging 
science  teaching  in  England  by  means  of  grants  av/arded  for  attendance  at 
a  school  which  conforms  to  the  regulations  contained  in  the  Science  and 
Art  Directory.  At  one  time  Ireland  earned  its  proportionate  share  of  these 
grants.  The  first  change  occurred  when,  owing  to  the  stress  of  educational 
circumstances  in  England,  and  notably  the  opinion  that  the  primary  schools 


160  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


were  sufficiently  catered  for  by  the  Education  Department  and  by  the  local 
authorities,  the  standard  was  raised  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  Department 
cf  Science  and  Art  decided  to  pay  in  future  for  first  class  passes  only,  and 
not  for  second  class  passes,  as  had  been  its  practice.  As  the  former  dis- 
tinctions were  difficult  to  obtain,  especially  in  primary  schools,  the  Irish 
grants  decreased,  for  many  of  the  secondary  schools  preferred  to  follow  the 
curriculum  of  the  Intermediate  Board  (estabhshed  in  1878).  This  course 
was  very  generally  adopted  after  1890,  when  the  endowments  of  that  Board 
v;ere  increased  by  the  residue  of  the  Irish  share  of  the  beer  and  spirit  duties, 
which,  in  England,  were  mainly  devoted  to  technical  education.  The  Irish 
secondary  schools  now  found  it  much  more  profitable  (from  the  "  results 
fees  "  point  of  view)  to  follow  the  "  Grammar  School "  curriculum,  favoured 
by  the  Intermediate  Board,  in  which  science  subjects  were  insufficiently 
recognised.  The  late  Dr.  Preston,  the  Irish  Inspector  of  the  Science  and 
Art  Department,  in  his  last  report  (published  June,  1 899),  again  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  serious  decrease  in  the  number  of  schools  in  connection  with  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  and  in  the  number  of  pupils  under  instruction, 
as  well  as  in  the  total  amount  of  the  grants  earned  in  science,  which,  he 
declared,  is  likely  to  continue  under  existing  conditions  until  science  teach- 
ing becomes  practically  extinct  in  Irish  schools,  a  point  which  he  considered 
was  being  rapidly  approached.  The  following  figures  are  significant  in  this 
respect : — 

In  the  year  1879-80  the  number  of  students  under  instruction  in  England 
and  Wales  was  41,384,  and  the  science  grants  earned  were  ;i^29,899,  whilst 
the  corresponding  figures  in  Ireland  were  5,232,  and  ;^5,079,  i.e.,  Ireland  had 
1 1.2  per  cent  of  the  students,  and  earned  14.5  per  cent,  of  the  grants. 

In  the  year  1889-90  the  figures  were:  England  and  Wales,  91,246 
students,  and  ;^75,684  ;  Ireland,  9,531  students,  and  £7,2^6,  i.e.,  the  English 
students  had  increased  120.4  P^r  cent,  and  the  Irish  82.2  per  cent.  The 
grants  earned  in  England  had  increased  153.1  per  cent.,  and  those  in  Ireland 
43.4  per  cent.  The  Irish  students  now  formed  9.2  per  cent,  of  the  whole, 
instead  of  1 1.2  per  cent.,  and  the  Irish  grants  were  8.8  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
instead  of  14.5  per  cent,  as  in  1879-80. 

In  the  year  1897-8  the  English  and  Welsh  students  amounted  to  154,383, 
and  the  grants  earned  to  £16^,4.14.,  while  the  Irish  students  numbered  3,787, 
and  the  grants  were  ;^2,io8,  i.e.,  in  eight  years  the  number  of  English  and 
Welsh  students  increased  66.6  per  cent.,  and  their  grants  12 1.2  per  cent., 
whilst  the  number  of  Irish  students  decreased  63.7  per  cent.,  and  their 
grants  71.0  per  cent. 

Thus,  whilst  eighteen  years  ago  the  Irish  students  formed  11.2  per  cent, 
of  the  total  number  of  students,  and  their  grants  amounted  to  14.5  per  cent, 
of  the  total  grants,  the  proportions  now  are  only  2.3  per  cent,  and  1.2  per 
cent,  respectively. 

Art  teaching,  judged  from  the  same  standpoint  of  grants  earned,  shows  a 
similar  decline  in  the  last  two  decades,  and  those  other  forms  of  technical 
instructions  which  do  not  form  part  of  the  ordinary  syllabus  of  the  Science 
and  Art  Department,  appear  to  have  been  similarly  neglected.  A  return 
dated  19th  October,  1899,  shows  that  the  total  amount  of  the  residue  under 
the  Local  Taxation  (Customs  and  Excise  Act)  received  by  the  County 
Councils  in  England  for  the  year  1897-8  was  ^^"834,826  19^.,  of  which 
;;{J"759,400  15.^.  4^.  was  appropriated  to  Technical  Instruction,  in  addition  to 
£^64,029  Ss.  lod.  contributed  out  of  the  local  rate  levied  under  the  Technical 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  161 


Instruction  Acts,  1889  and  1891.  In  Ireland,  however,  where  the  residue  of 
what  is  commonly  known  as  the  Beer  and  Spirit  duties  was  not  handed  over 
to  the  local  authorities  to  be  applied  as  in  England,  but  was  given  to  the 
Commissioners  of  National  Education  and  the  Board  of  Intermediate 
Education  as  part  of  their  endowments,  the  expenditure  on  Technical 
Instruction  amounted  during  the  same  year  to  only  a  little  over  ^^7,000.  Of 
this  sum  £^4,577  Qs.  3^.  was  contributed  out  of  the  local  rate  levied  in  some 
dozen  districts  under  the  Technical  Instruction  Acts,  which  was  supple- 
mented by  a  grant  in  aid  from  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  amounting 
to  ;^2,6l3  los.  id. 

This  contribution  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department  is  a  survival  of  the 
old  Parhamentary  grant  which  was  made  under  the  provisions  of  the  Tech- 
nical Instruction  Act,  1889,  and  which  was  withdrawn  as  regards  England, 
when  the  residue  of  the  Beer  and  Spirit  duties  became  available  as  men- 
tioned above  for  the  promotion  of  technical  instruction  in  England.  The 
grant  was  continued  in  Ireland  by  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art 
under  a  minute  issued  in  April,  1892,  which  provided  that  a  grant-in-aid 
would  be  made  to  schools  aided  by  the  local  authority,  and  would  be  equal 
in  amount  to  the  sum  contributed  by  the  local  authority  for  instruction  in 
subjects  other  than  those  ordinary  Science  and  Art  subjects  for  which  the 
Department  gave  its  ordinary  Science  and  Art  Grants,  provided  that  the 
Department  approved  of  the  subjects  taught  in  each  district,  and  of  the 
accommodation  provided,  etc.  The  administration  of  this  grant  in  aid  of 
Technical  Instruction  and  of  the  ordinary  Science  and  Art  grants,  and  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Science  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland  by  the  Act  of  1 899,  which  also  placed 
at  the  Department's  disposal  an  annual  income  of  ;£^5 5,000  to  be  expended 
in  conjunction  with  local  contributions  on  the  promotion  of  Technical 
Instruction. 

The  following  extract  from  the  First  Annual  General  Report  gives  a  good 
general  idea  of  the  main  lines  on  which  the  Department  will  work  both  in 
the  administration  of  its  various  Technical  Instruction  and  Science  and  Art 
grants  and  endowments  : — 

While  agencies  for  technical  instruction  may  do  much  to  assist  existing 
industries  and    promote  new  ones,   especially  in  those 
Aims  of  Technical    localities  where  commercial  knowledge  and  experience 
Instruction.  are  not,  so  to  say,  intensified,  it  should   be  fully  under- 

stood that  the  main  direct  object  of  technical  instruction 
is  to  give  a  training  in  those  principles  which  govern  industrial  processes,  and 
which  determine  the  conditions  of  commerce  and  influence  its  flow.  In  fact 
the  increase  of  useful  knowledge,  but  especially  the  development  of  practical 
intelligence,  of  manual  skill,  and  of  an  enlightened  attitude  towards  industrial 
and  commercial  problems  form  the  essential  purposes  of  any  system  of  tech- 
nical instruction. 

With  such  ends  in  view  technical  instruction,  as  a  rule,  assumes  two  forms. 

(i)  Instruction  of  a  general  nature,  involving — {a)  the  teaching  of  practical 
science,  {b)  practice  in  exercises  requiring  skill  of  hand  and  eye,  such 
as  the  various  forms  of  drawing  and  designing,  and  manual  instruc- 
tion in  wood,  metal,  leather,  and  other  kinds  of  material,  and 
(c)  instruction  in  Economics.  This  form  of  technical  instruction  is 
educational ;  it  concerns  itself  with  the  development  of  practical 
intelligence,  of  the  intelligent  disposition,  and  of  manipulative  skill  ; 

M 


162  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


and  while  it  has  no  direct  bearing  upon  one  specific  industry  or  com- 
mercial undertaking,  it  must  be  regarded  as  an  essential  preliminary 
for  all.  Technical  instruction  of  this  form  is,  as  a  rule,  provided  in 
day  institutions  for  young  persons  who  have  not  yet  entered  on  an 
industrial  or  commercial  career.  It  is  the  form  in  which  the  Secondary 
Schools  of  the  country  can  chiefly  contribute  to  the  efficiency  of  a 
national  system  of  technical  instruction. 

(2)  The  second  form  of  technical  instruction  has  more  direct  bearing  on 
specific  industries  :  and  to  this  form  the  term  technical  instruction  is 
often  restricted.  Thus,  in  connection  with  agriculture,  experiments 
may  be  conducted,  and  the  lessons  learned  therefrom  may  be  directly 
brought  before  the  notice  of  farmers  and  others  interested.  Lessons 
may  be  given  in  engineering,  materials  tested  on  a  commercial  scale, 
and  the  methods  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  machinery  and  designing 
new  forms  practised  in  the  school  workshops.  Students  of  the 
building  trades  may  be  taught  the  mechanics  of  structures,  may  test 
the  strength  and  properties  of  materials,  and  learn  how  to  design 
buildings  with  due  regard  to  strength  and  ornamental  features  suit- 
able to  the  object  in  view.  The  boot  and  shoe  operative  may  be 
instructed  in  the  anatomical  construction  and  functions  of  the  human 
foot  ;  last  making,  cutting  of  skins,  preparing  of  uppers,  the  mechanism 
of  the  machines,  the  use  and  construction  of  tools,  materials,  &c., 
would  all  form  the  subjects  of  lessons.  Again,  the  business  man  may 
study  the  principles  of  book-keeping,  the  principles  which  underlie  the 
flow  of  trade,  commercial,  shipping,  or  banking  law,  with  statistics 
and  economic  science  generally.  In  the  same  way  household  subjects 
may  be  taught,  especially  cookery,  laundry,  and  dressmaking.  In 
short,  whenever  and  wherever  an  industrial,  commercial,  or  domestic 
class  of  students  can  be  found,  instruction  of  a  kind  which  enables 
them  to  do  their  work  more  efficiently,  and  thus  holds  out  a  prospect 
of  improvement  in  earnings  or  position,  should  be  one  of  the  first 
considerations  of  a  scheme  of  technical  instruction. 

These  are  the  usual  forms  of  technical  instruction.  But  the  conditions  of 
industry,  especially  in  the  rural  districts  of  Ireland,  will  for  a  time  necessitate 
some  departures  from  these  forms  in  this  country.  The  funds  of  the  Depart- 
ment will,  to  a  certain  extent,  and  at  first  tentatively,  have  to  be  employed  in 
assisting  local  eff"ort  in  inquiries  designed  on  the  one  hand  to  spread  a  know- 
ledge of  markets  for  existing  industries,  and  of  the  readiest  means  of  reaching 
them  ;  and  on  the  other  to  discover  whether,  say,  the  nature  of  certain  soils, 
the  natural  products  of  a  locality,  the  accessibility  of  power,  or  the  conditions 
and  amount  of  labour  available,  would  favour  the  introduction  of  new  and 
profitable  industries. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  is  a  large  and  complex  problem,  and  that  the 
preliminary  steps  towards  solving  it  must  be  slow  and  carefully  measured,  if 
permanent,  and  not  a  specious  and  ephemeral  success,  is  to  be  secured. 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  technical 

instruction  in  Ireland  in  connection  with  industries  other 

Conditions  than  agriculture,   presents  exceptional  difficulties.      In 

of  the  Problem.  England  and  Scotland  the  growth  has  been  gradual,  and 
in  both  these  countries  ordinary  educational  facilities 
existed  which,  it  may  be  said  without  reproach,  were  far  superior  to  those  of 
Ireland.  Before  the  widespread  movement  of  some  dozen  years  ago  in  favour 
of  technical  instruction,  a  system  of  science  and  art  instruction  had  for  many 
years  been  at  work  in  those  countries.       Further,  in  both  were  the  widespread 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  163 


and  diversified  industries.  To  establish  a  system  of  technical  instruction 
which  shall  dovetail  into  and  supplement  the  work  of  existing-  workshops  and 
factories  is  an  easy  matter  compared  with  establishing-  a  system  in  a  country 
in  which  there  is  a  general  absence  of  manufactures.  The  limitations  which 
have  been  natural  for  technical  instruction  in  England  and  Scotland  would 
therefore,  to  a  large  extent,  be  out  of  place  in  Ireland  :  and  to  increase  the 
difficulties  ot  the  problem  in  Ireland  the  Councils  (County  and  Urban),  through 
whom  it  is  proposed,  as  far  as  possible,  to  work  schemes  of  technical  instruc- 
tion, are  themselves  new  to  their  duties  ;  in  fact,  they  are  in  their  first  period  of 
office.  The  Department,  however,  as  already  indicated,  desire  to  enlist  the 
co-operation  of  local  authorities  as  much  as  possible  in  this  work,  and  have, 
with  this  view,  delegated  to  them  important  functions — the  preparation  and 
administration  of  local  schemes.  In  order  to  suggest  action  to  the  local  bodies, 
and  to  serve  as  a  guide,  a  pamphlet  of  "  Suggestions  "  was  issued  to  them  at 
an  early  date  ;  and  it  was  followed  later  on  by  a  memorandum  on  the  powers 
of  these  bodies,  and  the  procedure  to  be  followed.  In  most  cases,  however,  it 
was  found  both  practicable  and  advisable  to  meet  the  local  authorities  in 
conference,  and  to  explain  to  them  the  provisions  of  the  Acts  dealing  with 
technical  instruction,  to  make  a  statement  as  to  the  funds  available,  and  to 
indicate  the  kind  of  action  to  be  taken.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  a 
scheme  based  on  a  survey  of  the  local  conditions  and  local  institutions  has,  at 
the  request  of  the  local  committees,  been  suggested  by  the  Department.  These 
conferences  occupied,  and  are  still  occupying,  a  large  part  of  the  time  of  the 
Department's  officers.  An  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  this  is  the  case  may  be 
g-athered  from  the  fact  that  one  inspector  from  the  Technical  Instruction  Branch, 
between  September,  1900,  and  March,  1901,  attended  62  conferences,  and 
visited  152  institutions  in  connexion  with  local  schemes. 

The  Countv  Naturally,  the  six   county  boroughs  (where  the  con- 

Boroutfhs  ditions  of  the  problem  were  not  unlike  those  of  England 

°     *  and  Scotland)  first  occupied  a  share  of  attention. 

The  County  Borough  of  Dublin  has  not,  so  far,  [August,  1901,]  sub- 
mitted a  scheme  for  approval. 

The  County  Borough  of  Belfast,  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Department,  formed  a  Technical  Instruction  Committee  of  twenty-one  mem- 
bers, fifteen  of  whom  were  members  of  the  Corporation,  and  six  were  co-opted 
members.  They  also  took  a  step  of  great  interest,  and  worthy  of  imitation  in 
other  places,  in  forming  two  Consultative  Committees,  one  of  manufacturers, 
and  one  of  educationists,  to  advise  the  Technical  Instruction  Committee. 
These  Consultative  Committees  have  been  found  of  much  service  in  the  actual 
work  of  planning  out  the  scheme  for  Belfast.  Several  conferences  took  place 
between  the  Department  and  the  Technical  Instruction  Committee  of  Belfast, 
and,  after  some  time,  a  comprehensive  scheme  for  the  borough  was  formulated 
as  the  result  of  these  conferences  and  approved  by  the  Department.  This 
scheme  involves  the  erection  of  a  Central  Municipal  Technical  Institute,  at  an 
estimated  cost  of  ;j^  7  1,000.  The  money  for  the  building-  of  this  Institute  is 
being  raised  on  loan  by  the  Corporation,  and  will  constitute  part  of  the  local 
contribution  to  the  scheme. 

At  an  early  stage  of  the  work  the  Belfast  Council,  on  the  suggestion  of  the 
Department,  resolved  to  appoint  a  principal  for  their  Technical  Institute,  so 
that  they  might  have  the  assistance  of  an  expert  in  the  org-anisation  of  the 
scheme  from  the  beginning,  and  in  the  work  of  stimulating  the  existing  day 
and  evening  schools  of  the  borough  in  the  essential  function  they  have  to  fulfil 
as  feeders  to  the  central  institution  when,  a  year  or  two  hence,  its  doors  are 
open  to  receive  pupils.  After  a  consideration  of  the  various  candidates  who 
applied  for  the  post,  and  whose  names  were  submitted  to  the  Department,  the 


164  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


Council  determined,  with  the  approval  of  the  Department,  to  appoint  Mr. 
Forth,  whose  experience  as  principal  assistant  in  the  Manchester  Technical 
Institute,  seemed  precisely  of  the  character  to  suit  the  industrial  conditions  of 
a  larg-e  manufacturing"  centre  like  Belfast. 

The  Technical  Instruction  Committee,  at  their  earlier  meetings,  agreed  that 
the  efforts  of  the  institute  should  be  mainly  directed  towards  the  needs  of  the 
staple  industries  and  trades  of  the  city,  while  at  the  same  time  giving  such 
instruction  and  knowledge  as  would  facilitate  the  development  of  new  indus- 
tries. The  instruction  to  be  given  will  be  open  to  both  sexes,  and  will  comprise 
complete  evening"  courses  in  Science  and  Technology,  the  subjects  being 
grouped  under  the  headings  :  Preparatory,  Mathematical,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neering, Naval  Architecture,  Textile  Industries,  Electrical  Engineering  and 
Applied  Chemistry,  commercial  subjects,  women's  work,  and  Art.  The  Art 
department  has  been  specially  provided  for  :  new  buildings  have  been  secured, 
and  four  masters,  specialists  in  designing,  drawing  from  life,  painting-  and  still 
life,  and  modelling,  respectively,  have  been  eng^aged.  With  a  view  to  securing 
that,  when  built,  the  Institute  would  be  filled  with  pupils  in  a  condition  to  take 
advantage  of  special  instruction,  the  Committee  have  gradually  induced  and 
enabled  the  various  teaching  institutions  of  the  borough  to  take  their  proper 
place  in  the  general  scheme.  The  coming  session  will  see  an  org-anised  system 
of  instruction  at  work  in  various  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

The  following  institutions  have  been  merged  in  the  general  scheme  : — The 
Government  School  of  Art,  the  School  of  Applied  Science  (Model  School),  the 
Technical  School  (Hastings  Street),  the  Evening  Technical  School  of  Science 
(the  Royal  Academical  Institution),  and  the  Working-  Men's  Institute.  No 
institution  giving  evening  technical  instruction  now  remains  outside  the 
g-eneral  scheme.  The  Committee  have  further  allocated  ;^  1,900  of  the  first 
year's  g-rant  in  capital  sums  to  day  secondary  schools  for  equipment  and 
apparatus,  in  order  to  enable  these  schools  to  meet  the  difficulties  of  initial  cost 
in  connection  with  the  Department's  new  reg-ulations  and  programme. 

The  Borough  Council  of  Cork  have  likewise  done  a  good  year's  work. 
They  formed  a  new  Technical  Instruction  Committee,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
Department,  and  this  Committee  has  formulated  a  scheme  for  the  borough,  of 
which  the  Department  has  approved.  The  scheme  includes  the  establishment 
of  a  central  Municipal  Technical  School,  and  a  system  of  co-ordination  with 
existing-  educational  institutions  similar  to  that  which  has  been  adopted  in 
Belfast.  There  already  existed  in  Cork  the  nucleus  of  a  central  Technical 
School  in  the  Municipal  Schools  of  Science  and  Art.  These  schools,  better 
known  as  the  Crawford  Municipal  Technical  Schools,  were  presented  to  the 
City  of  Cork  by  the  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Crawford,  in  1884.  The  buildings  are 
excellent  in  quality,  and  comprise  Sculpture  and  Picture  Galleries,  Library, 
Lecture  Theatre,  Class  Rooms  for  Art,  and  some  rooms  for  Science  and 
Technology.  The  Art  School  is  fairly  well  equipped,  and  possesses  a  fine  set  of 
casts  taken  directly  from  the  antique,  under  the  personal  supervision  of  Canova. 
These  were  presented  by  the  Pope  to  George  IV.,  and  given  by  that  King  to 
the  City  of  Cork.  The  buildings,  however,  will  be  quite  insufficient  in  size  for 
the  proposed  development.  Accordingly,  the  Technical  Instruction  Committee 
in  Cork  are  considering  the  best  means  of  providing-  further  accommodation 
for  their  central  Technical  Institute. 

In  Cork,  also,  the  Municipal  Council  have  appointed  a  Head  Science 
Master  for  their  proposed  Technical  Institute,  who  will  render  the  same  service 
as  in  Belfast  in  the  organisation  of  the  scheme,  and  in  the  aiding  and  stimula- 
tion of  the  existing  schools,  which  should  do  their  part  as  feeders  to  the  central 
Institute  when  it  is  fully  at  work.  The  same  procedure  was  adopted  in  the 
appointment  of  this  principal,  and,  after  due  consideration  of  the  candidates, 
Mr.  O'Keeffe,  a  technological  teacher  who  has  had  fifteen  years'  experience  at 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  165 


Finsbury  Technical  College,  London,  was  appointed  by  the  Committee,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Department. 

Out  of  the  first  year's  grant  the  Technical  Instruction  Committee  allotted 
to  different  secondary  schools  a  sum  of  ;^i,6oo  for  equipment  and  apparatus,  in 
order  to  enable  them  to  serve  the  purposes  of  co-ordination  with  the  system  of 
technical  instruction  already  described.  In  future  years  it  is  the  intention 
practically  to  reserve  the  whole  of  the  technical  instruction  grants  for  the  central 
municipal  schools.  These  schools  will  include,  besides  the  School  of  Art, 
technological  classes  in  subjects  which  it  is  believed  will  be  of  direct  value  to 
existing  and  future  industries  and  manufactures  in  Cork. 

The  School  of  Art  has  in  the  past  done  excellent  work  ;  but  the  Science 
classes,  on  the  whole,  have  been  starved.  In  the  direction  of  Science  and 
Technological  instruction  great  changes  may  be  expected.  On  the  industrial 
side  of  the  school  there  are  classes  for  Lace-making  and  Crochet.  These 
classes  are  largely  attended,  and  most  of  the  designs  are  supplied  by  students 
of  the  Design  Class  in  the  School  of  Art.  A  good  feature  of  the  School  of  Art 
is  the  system  of  scholarships  in  connection  therewith.  In  1892  ten  free 
studentships  were  offered  to  pupils  of  National  Schools  in  the  city,  admitting 
to  evening  classes.  A  preliminary  test  examination  in  freehand  enabled  the 
Committee  to  select  the  best  candidates.  In  respect  of  scholarships  the 
Exhibition  of  1S83  had  important  influence  on  the  work  of  the  School.  It  was 
decided  that  a  surplus  remaining  from  the  fund  raised  for  the  Exhibition  should 
be  devoted  to  the  endowment  ol  two  scholarships  of  ;^5o  each,  to  enable 
successful  candidates  to  receive  a  year's  training  at  the  Royal  College  of  Art, 
South  Kensington.  At  first  these  scholarships  were  limited  to  young  men 
(industrial  students  or  artisans),  but  in  1889-90  one  of  the  scholarships  was 
offered  to  women  students.  These  scholarships  have  been  of  great  benefit  to 
many  of  the  successful  candidates  ;  several  have  won  scholarships  in  the 
College  of  Art,  South  Kensington,  and  have  obtained  appointments  under  the 
London  School  Board. 

The  Technical  Instruction  Committee  of  Limerick  County  Borough  have 
moved  with  a  greater  deliberation,  but  a  comprehensive  scheme  is  now  under 
consideration. 

At  Londonderry  the  School  of  Art  has  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  new  scheme, 
which  will  include  a  large  development  in  science  and  technical  classes,  chiefly 
in  Naval  Architecture,  Engineering,  Carpentry  and  Joinery,  and  the  erection  of 
a  Municipal  Technical  School  suitable  to  the  requirements  of  the  city.  The 
site  for  this  school  has  been  obtained,  and  plans  are  being  discussed. 

The  scheme  for  VVaterford  City  involves  the  erection  of  a  central  Municipal 
Technical  School.  Meanwhile  four  Secondary  Schools  have  received  grants 
for  apparatus  and  equipment.  The  School  of  Art  is  to  be  used  as  the  nucleus 
of  the  science  and  art  and  technical  evening  schools. 

After  the  six  county  boroughs  come  in  importance  the  large  urban  centres. 

With  a  view  to  enabling  the  Technical  Instruction  Com- 

The  other  Urban      mittees  to  obtain  information  on  the  actual  working  of 

Centres.  technical   instruction  which  would  be  of  use  to  them  in 

the  preparation  of  their  own  schemes,  the  Department 

suggested  the  sending  of  deputations  to  visit  certain  centres  in  England  and 

Scotland  where  schemes  of  technical  instruction  could  be  seen  in  operation. 

This  suggestion  was,  in  the  first  instance,  made  to  the  Technical  Instruction 

Committees  of  the  County  Boroughs  of  Cork,  Limerick,  Londonderry,  and 

Waterford.     Dublin  and  Belfast  had  already,  on  their  own  initiative,  sent  such 

deputations   to   England  and  elsewhere.     The  County  Boroughs  of  Limerick, 

Londonderry,  and  Waterford  adopted  the  suggestion  of  the  Department,  and  a 

deputation  from  these  three   cities,  accompanied  by  the  Chief  Inspector  of 


166  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


Technical  Instruction  of  the  Department,  visited  Birmingham,  Manchester, 
Bohon,  Long-ton,  and  Bursleni.  A  Cork  deputation  was  formed  at  a  later  date 
to  visit  centres  in  England  and  Scotland. 

The  results  of  these  visits  were  very  satisfactory,  and  it  was  decided  to 
organise  other  visits  of  inspection  on  similar  lines.  In  April  four  deputations, 
each  accompanied  by  an  officer  of  the  Department,  visited  centres  in  England 
and  Scotland.  One  deputation  consisted  of  seven  members  of  the  Rathmines 
Technical  Instruction  Committee  :  this  deputation  visited  schools — chiefly 
Schools  of  Commerce — in  Liverpool,  Leeds,  Bradford,  and  London.  The 
second  deputation  consisted  of  fourteen  members  of  Technical  Instruction 
Committees  from  Pembroke,  Kingstown  and  Blackrock  :  technical  schools  in 
Longton,  Leek,  Radcliffe  and  Heywood  were  visited.  The  third  deputation 
consisted  of  nine  members  of  Technical  Instruction  Committees  from  Bally- 
mena,  Coleraine,  and  Lurgan  :  the  members  of  this  deputation  visited  technical 
schools  in  Glasgow,  Leith,  Paisley,  and  Dunfermline.  The  fourth  deputation, 
consisting  of  seven  members  of  Technical  Instruction  Committees  from 
Dundalk  and  Wexford,  visited  technical  schools  in  Bath,  Swindon,  Worcester, 
and  Birmingham. 

As  to  the  actual  schemes  of  technical  instruction  formulated  by  the  urban 
centres  and  considered  by  the  Department,  those  of  Wexford,  Armagh, 
Ballina,  Ballymena,  Blackrock,  Coleraine,  Kingstown,  Lurgan,  Rathmines, 
Tipperary  (including  the  rural  district)  have  been  approved.  In  each  case 
there  were  several  conferences  with  the  officers  of  the  Department,  resulting  in 
a  discussion  of  their  reports  on  the  local  circumstances  and  needs,  and  a 
decision  as  to  the  types  of  schools,  and  the  appointment  of  head  instructors 
and  organisers. 

As  the  Wexford  scheme  was  the  first  of  those  approved  of,  the  outlines 
may  be  given  here  as  illustrating  the  method  followed  of  adapting  schemes  of 
technical  instruction  where  local  industries  exist  to  the  needs  of  these  industries. 

The  central  idea  of  the  scheme  is  a  small  School  of  Engineering.  Wexford 
has  a  population  of  about  12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  centre  of  much  indus 
trial  activity.  The  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  building,  and 
repairing-engineering,  and  coach-building,  are  the  most  important  industries. 
The  well-known  works  of  Messrs.  Pierce  and  Co.,  William  Doyle,  Thompson 
Brothers,  R.  &  R.  Allen,  and  those  of  the  Wexford  Engineering  Company 
(which  are  about  to  be  transferred  to  the  town  of  Wexford),  and  Cooper's 
Cement  Works  at  Drinagh,  employ  about  1,000  hands,  and  of  these  a  good 
proportion  are  men  whose  work  demands  skill  and  experience  with  engineering 
tools.  It  is  proposed  to  build,  at  a  cost  of  ;^2,ooo,  a  new  school,  which,  it  is 
hoped,  may  be  open  in  September  or  October,  1902.  The  subjects  to  be  taught 
in  the  school  would  include  Workshop  Mathematics,  Drawing  (not  only  of  a 
special  character  for  artisans,  but  such  as  would  be  of  use  to  ordinary  students), 
Practical  Geometry,  Physics,  Manual  Instruction,  Mechanical  Engineering, 
Coach-building,  and,  from  time  to  time,  as  occasion  may  desire,  other  subjects 
of  a  more  important  character.  Instruction  in  technical  subjects  was 
commenced  temporarily  in  the  Town  Hall  in  September,  igoi. 

The  scheme  for  Athlone  is  an  interesting  illustration  of  how  local  contribu- 
tions from  other  sources  than  the  rates  can  be  utilised  in  this  work.  In  that 
town  a  local  manufacturer  of  public  spirit,  has  supplemented  the  money  in  aid 
of  the  scheme  from  the  Urban  District  Council  rate  by  subscribing  a  capital 
sumof  ;£^^5Co,  and  an  annual  sum  of  ;£^i5o,  and  the  Department  have  arranged 
to  include  this  handsome  contribution  in  the  finance  of  the  scheme.  The 
scheme  includes  provision  in  the  existing  schools  for  day  and  evening  instruc- 
tion in  Science,  Drawing,  and  manual  work,  and  for  the  establishment  of  a 
technical  school,  in  connection  with  the  school  of  the  Marist  Fathers,  in  which 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  167 


Wood-carving',  Furniture-making',  Basket-makingf,  and  other  industrial  subjects 
can  be  taught.  It  also  includes  provision  for  instruction  in  Cookery,  Laundry- 
work,  Domestic  Economy,  Needlework,  &c.,  in  the  girls'  schools. 

The  majority  of  the  smaller  Irish  towns,  whose  character  is  more  rural  than 
industrial,  will,  in  all  probability,  come  within  county  schemes,  and  of  schemes 
of  technical  instruction  which  include  such  towns,  typical  examples  will  be 
found  under  the  next  heading. 

The  counties  have  been  active  in  their  requests  for  the  assistance  of  officers 
of  the  Department  in  the  formulation  of  schemes.  The 
The  Counties.  position  of  the  counties  in  reference  to  schemes  of  Tech- 
nical Instruction,  and  to  Agricultural  schemes  under  the 
Department,  involves  a  complication  which  it  is  not  always  easy  for  the  repre- 
sentatives of  rural  districts  to  appreciate.  Schemes  for  counties  are  chiefly 
aided  from  that  portion  of  the  Department's  funds  which  is  administered  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  Agricultural  Board,  the  proportion  of  the  Department's 
funds  coming  through  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction  generally  being 
considerably  smaller  in  rural  districts.  Rural  Councillors  are  sometimes  apt, 
in  consequence,  to  feel  a  reluctance  in  approving  of  a  County  Council  rate 
being  applied  in  aid  of  technical  instruction  schemes  in  the  urban  districts  of 
the  county.  It  is  necessary  to  make  it  very  clear  that  the  funds  of  the 
Department,  no  matter  which  channel  they  come  through,  are  meant  to  be 
regarded  as  a  whole,  and  that  the  schemes  under  the  Act  to  which  a  county 
rate  applies  include  schemes  for  the  benefit  of  rural  districts  for  which  moneys 
come  that  are  not  available  for  urban  schemes.  Moreover,  as  pointed  out  in 
Part  I.  of  the  Report,  the  country  towns  in  Ireland  are  intimately  bound  up  in 
many  ways  with  rural  life,  and  are  natural  centres  for  many  forms  of  technical 
instruction  of  which  pupils  from  rural  districts  can  avail  themselves.  In  most 
of  these  towns  a  large  proportion  of  pupils  from  siirrounding  rural  districts 
attend  the  schools  ;  by  a  system  of  bursaries  or  scholarships  pupils  from  more 
distant  rural  districts  can  be  helped  to  avail  themselves  of  the  teaching  of  these 
schools ;  and  a  system  of  technical  instruction  by  means  of  itinerant  teachers 
visiting  rural  districts  or  rural  schools,  usually  can  best  be  directed  from  such 
centres.  The  Department,  accordingly,  in  considering  schemes  of  technical 
instruction  for  counties,  is  obliged  to  arrange  for  the  closest  co-ordination 
between  the  work  ot  its  Agricultural  Branch  and  that  of  its  Technical  Instruc- 
tion Branch  ;  and  the  Department's  scheme  for  a  county  as  a  whole  must  be 
looked  for  under  both  heads.  The  schemes  for  which  the  funds  of  the  Board 
of  Technical  Instruction  are  available  in  counties  have  been  conceived  with 
this  idea  carefully  in  mind.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  task  of  organising 
Technical  Instruction  in  the  counties  is  one  which  will  naturally  take  a  longer 
time  to  complete  than  in  urban  centres.  Considerable  progress  has,  neverthe- 
less, been  made. 

Twenty-four  counties  have  had  schemes  under  consideration,  and  many  of 
these  are  well  advanced.  About  half  of  them  are  so  far  forward  that  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  scheme  will  be  in  operation  during  the  school  session 
igoi-2.  Five  counties,  viz.,  Carlow,  Fermanagh,  Galway,  Meath,  and  Water- 
ford,  have  had  schemes  fully  approved  ;  and  those  for  Clare,  Kerry,  Louth, 
Queen's  County,  Sligo,  and  Tipperary  North,  are  almost  complete. 

An  instance  of  a  county  scheme  of  Technical  Instruction  (as  distinct  from 
Agriculture)  which  deals  with  some  of  the  small  provincial  towns  is  that  for 
North  Tipperary.  This  scheme  includes  the  towns  of  Nenagh,  Thuries,  and 
Roscrea.  An  economic  system  of  co-ordination  has  been  arranged  with  the 
County  Council  Committee,  of  which,  for  example,  an  instructress  in  Cookery, 
Laundry-work,  and  Home-sewing  can  give  lessons  in  these  centres,  and  other 
centres  of  the  county,  such  as  Templemore,  Borrisoleigh,  and  Borrisokane. 


168  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


(Under  the  Agricultural  scheme  for  such  a  county  these  lessons  would  be  supple- 
mented by  itinerant  instruction  in  Dairying,  Poultry-keeping,  &c.)  Similarly, 
co-ordination  can  be  effected  in  the  teaching  of  Drawing  in  the  different  centres. 
The  Christian  Brothers'  Schools  at  Nenagh  and  Thurles  are  introducing  the 
teaching  of  Practical  Science,  Drawing,  and  Manual  Instruction,  and  of 
Technical  Subjects  suited  to  the  local  trades.  The  Lace  class  at  the  Presenta- 
tion Convent  in  Thurles  is  being  improved  by  aid  for  additional  equipment  and 
teaching",  and  a  Day  Technical  School  for  domestic  servants  is  being  organised 
at  the  Mercy  Convent,  Nenagh. 

SCIENCE    AND    ART    GRANTS. 

Besides  its  special  endowment  for  technical  instruction,  to  which  the  fore- 
going relates,  and  the  grant  under  the  Technical  Instruction  Act  of  1889  in 
Ireland,  the  Department  now  administers,  as  from  the  ist  of  April  of  this  year, 
the  grant  for  Science  and  Art  in  Ireland  hitherto  administered  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  South  Kensington.  This  is  a  Parliamentary  grant  in  aid  of  Science 
and  Art  Instruction  in  day  schools  and  in  evening  schools,  and  in  some 
institutions  (for  example.  Schools  of  Art),  in  which  instruction  is  given  partly 
in  the  day  time  and  partly  in  the  evening.  It  is  an  educational  endowment 
which  is  capable  of  being  utilised  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  has  hitherto 
been  in  Ireland,  both  for  the  purposes  of  a  liberal  education  and,  indirectly, 
for  those  of  a  system  of  technical  instruction.  Ireland,  in  1900,  only  earned 
;^3,840  from  this  grant;  while  Scotland,  in  1899  (the  latest  year  for  which 
figures  are  available),  earned  from  it  ;^38,8oo. 

Instruction  in  Science  and  Art  in  Ireland  has  of  late  years  fallen  to  a  very 
low  ebb.  Ten  years  ago,  in  1891,  the  Science  and  Art  grants  in  Ireland 
amounted  to  ;^8,:\^8i,  a  sum  which,  though  small,  was  twice  the  figure  to  which 
the  grants  have  since  declined.  In  1891  the  number  of  boys  presented  for 
Science  in  the  Intermediate  Examinations  was  2,885;  the  number  in  1899  was 
673,  less  than  one-fourth.  In  i89ithe  total  number  of  boys  presented  at  these 
examinations  was  3,856,  whilst  in  1899  it  was  5,726. 

Such  was  the  situation  of  Science  and  Arr  instruction  in  this  country  when 
the  Department  took  up  its  work  as  administrator  of  the  Science  and  Art 
grant.  Happily,  it  was  a  situation  the  mischiefs  of  which  had  already  begun 
to  be  recognised  by  educational  authorities  in  Ireland.  For  the  Primary 
Schools  under  their  control  the  National  Commissioners  of  Education,  following 
the  recommendations  of  the  Manual  Instruction  Commission,  were  engaged  in 
introducing  a  new  Programme,  in  which  elementary  Science  and  Manual 
Instruction  are  leading  features.  For  Secondary  Schools  the  Intermediate 
Education  Commission  had  reported  strongly  in  favour  of  Natural  Science 
teaching  ;  and  an  Act  of  Parliament  had  just  been  passed  to  enable  an  enlarged 
Intermediate  Education  Board  to  carry  out  the  summary  of  conclusions  of  the 
Report.  These  facts,  together  with  the  statutory  means  for  educational  co- 
ordination provided  in  the  Act  which  created  this  Department,  rendered  the 
occasion  propitious  for  reform. 

The  Department  accordingly  proceeded  to  revise  the  system  on  which  the 
rpi^  Science  and  Art  grant  had  previously  been  administered 

New  Programme      •'"     1^-^?"^'.    ^"d    to  draw    up  a   new    Programme   of 
°  ■     instruction  in  the  subjects  for  which  the  grant  might  be 

earned  in  Secondary  Day  Schools  (the  revision  of  the  system  as  regards  Evening 
Schools  being  left  over  for  the  time  being).  This  Programme  was  conceived 
with  the  two-fold  object  of  rendering  it  less  difficult  for  Irish  schools  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  Science  and  Art  grant,  and  of  helping  them  at  the  same  time 
to  introduce  into  their  curriculum  an  element  of  great  value  both  to  general 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  169 


education  and,  subsequently,  to  specialised  practical  instruction.  As  stated 
earlier  in  the  Report,  the  Department  approach  this  subject  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Science  and  Art  grant  primarily  from  the  point  of  view  of  general 
education.  They  desire  it  to  be  understood  that  they  regard  a  liberal  intro- 
duction to  general  culture  as  the  essential  foundation  for  all  sound  forms  of 
systematic  specialised  instruction  whatsoever,  and  that,  in  their  opinion, 
Science  and  Art  instruction  cannot  be  a  substitute  for  humane  letters  in  such 
a  general  course.  It  can,  however,  they  believe,  be  made  a  powerful  ally. 
Apart  from  its  utility  in  teaching  facts,  Science  instruction,  if  it  be  given 
through  the  laboratory  (where  the  teacher  does  not  dogmatise  but  stimulates 
and  directs  inquiry),  rather  than  through  the  lecture-room,  and  if  it  be  accom- 
panied by  a  certain  amount  of  instruction  in  drawing  and  manual  work, 
becomes  a  valuable  mode  of  intellectual  training.  It  gives  full  opportunities 
for  creating  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  it  draws  out  his  powers  of  obser- 
vation, puts  him  in  the  attitude  of  a  seeker  after  knowledge,  and  gives  him 
accurate  and  orderly  habits  of. thought.  Having  done  its  part  side  by  side 
with  Literary  instruction,  in  a  course  of  general  education.  Science  and  Art 
instruction  will  have  prepared  the  pupils  who  have  received  it,  when  the  age 
for  specialisation  comes,  for  those  practical  and  technical  courses  towards 
which  it  is  so  important  in  Ireland  to  direct  much  of  the  teaching  power  of  the 
country,  and  which  it  is  the  particular  duty  of  this  Department  to  organise. 
The  new  Programme  of  Experimental  Science,  Drawing,  Manual  Instruction, 
and  Domestic  Economy,  which  the  Department  prepared  for  the  administration 
of  the  Science  and  Art  grant,  was  conceived  with  a  view  to  serving  these 
purposes  in  the  Secondary  Day  Schools. 

It  was  essential  that  in  this  matter  there  should  be  no  over-lapping  of  efforts 
nor  divergence  of  aims  on  the  part  of  the  Department  and  the  Intermediate 
Education  Board.  Accordingly  the  Department  submitted  their  programme  to 
the  Intermediate  Education  Board,  and  the  Board  in  its  turn  appointed  a  sub- 
committee to  confer  with  the  officers  of  the  Department  on  the  subject.  As  the 
result  of  these  negotiations  the  Intermediate  Board  resolved  to  adopt  the 
programme  of  the  Department,  and  made  it  a  part  of  their  curriculum. 

The  following  are  the  special  Regulations  of  the  Board  as  to  Experimental 
Science  and  Drawing,  Drawing,  Domestic  Economy,  and  Botany  : — 

"  Drawing  shall  be  allowed  as  a  separate  subject  in  all  grades. 

"  The  courses  in  Experimental  Science  and  Drawing,  and  in  Drawing 
"as  a  separate  subject,  shall  be  those  adopted  by  the  Department  ot 
"  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 

"  Experimental  Science  cannot  be  taken  without  Drawing. 

"  The  examinations  in  the  subject  of  Experimental  Science  and  Drawing, 
"  and  in  Drawing  as  a  separate  subject,  will  be  held  by  the  Department  of 
"  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland.  The  Board  will  not 
"  hold  any  examinations  in  these  subjects, 

"  Every  candidate  who  will  be  certified  by  the  Inspector  of  the  Depart- 
*'  ment  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland  to  have  worked 
"  satisfactorily  through  a  practical  course  on  the  lines  set  out  in  the  pro- 
"  gramme  for  Experimental  Science  and  Drawing  of  the  Department,  and 
"  to  have  been  present  at  the  final  inspection,  shall  be  deemed  to  have 
"  passed  the  examination  in  that  subject. 

"Candidates  for  Honours,  Prizes,  and  Exhibitions  who  take  up  the 
"  subject  of  Experimental  Science  and  Drawing  will  be  examined  indi- 
"  vidually  by  an  Inspector  of  the  Department,  and  the  marks  assigned  by 


170  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


"  the  Department  shall  be  treated  as  if  the  examination  in  these  subjects 
"  had  been  held  by  the  Board. 

"  In  the  year  1902  the  course  in  Experimental  Science  and  Drawings  for 
"  all  Grades  shall  be  the  First  Year's  Course,  as  set  out  in  the  Programme 
"  of  the  Department.  In  the  year  1903,  the  course  for  the  Preparatory 
"  Grade  shall  be  the  First  Year's  Course  of  the  Department,  and  for  the 
"  other  Grades  the  Second  Year's  Course  of  the  Department. 

''  In  the  years  1902  and  1903  the  examination  and  inspection  of  the  higher 
"  Grades  will  be  more  searching-,  in  consideration  of  the  students  having 
"reached  a  more  advanced  stage. 

"The  subjects  of  Domestic  Economy  and  Botany  will  be  ultimately 
"included  in  the  Programme;  but  in  the  year  1902,  pending  the  com- 
"  pletion  of  arrangements  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical 
"  Instruction,  and  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  inspection,  the  Board 
"  will  not  examine  in  these  subjects,  except  as  provided  in  Rule  53." 

By  this  arrangement  between  the  Intermediate  Board  and  the  Department 
a  strong  reinforcement  of  the  new  reform  has  been  secured,  and  a  close  co- 
operation, which  must  prove  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  interest  of  educational 
progress,  has  been  established  between  the  two  authorities. 

This  arrangement  has  one  great  advantage  for  the  schools.     It  provides 

that  the  rules  and  regulations  governing  the   adminis- 

Aid  to  the  Schools,    tration  and  distribution  of  Science  and  Art  grants,  and 

also  the  inspection  of  all  science  and  art  instruction  in 

Secondary  Schools  in  Ireland,  are,  for  the  time  being,  entirely  under  the  care 

of  one  authority.     The  Department   took  the   earliest  steps  to  facilitate  the 

introduction   of  the   Programme  into    the  schools.     It  was  clear  that  as  the 

natural  result  of  the  previously  existing  situation  of  science  and  art  instruction 

the  schools    were   ill  prepared  for  the  change  proposed.     They  suffered  from 

three  serious  drawbacks  : — 

(i)  They  were  without   definite  aims  in  such   Science  and  Art  instruction 
as  they  had  been  giving; 

(2)  They  had,  as  a  rule,  neither  laboratories  nor  specialised  art  rooms  ; 

(3)  There  was,  on  the  whole,  a  dearth  of  science  teachers  with  experience 

of  experimental  work. 

The  Department  endeavoured  to  meet  the  first  of  these  drawbacks  by 
publishing  with  their  Programme  a  pamphlet  setting  forth  the  aims  of  the 
instruction,  and  suggested  syllabuses  of  the  first  two  years'  work  ;  and  at  the 
same  time,  by  taking  the  heads  of  schools  into  direct  conference  on  the  subject. 
This  latter  was  a  new  and,  it  is  believed,  a  useful,  step  in  the  action  of  an 
educational  Department  of  the  State  in  these  countries  towards  the  schools 
with  which  its  work  is  concerned.  A  conference  of  some  thirty  representatives 
of  the  more  important  day  schools  was  arranged  at  the  offices  of  the  Depart- 
ment. The  members  of  the  Sub-Committee  of  the  Intermediate  Education 
Board  and  the  chief  officers  of  the  Department  attended.  A  day  or  two  before 
the  conference  the  pamphlet  referred  to  was  in  the  hands  of  the  members  ;  at 
the  conference,  lasting  some  three  hours,  the  contents  were  submitted  to 
criticism  ;  and  to  ease  down  the  difficulties  of  introducing  the  system,  several 
important  details  were  altered. 

With  regard  to  apparatus  and  equipment,  the  Department  propose  to  help 
the  schools   on    the   one  hand   by  means  of  financial  grants,  and  on  the  other 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  171 


with  expert  advice.  Having  regard  to  the  fact  that  no  system  of  technical 
instruction  can  be  efficient  for  a  country  until  the  general  schools  of  the  country 
have  incorporated  in  their  regular  curriculum  a  sound  system  of  teaching  in 
science  and  drawing,  the  Department  felt  that  part  of  its  first  year's  endow- 
ment for  technical  instruction  which  could  not  be  expended  on  schemes  before 
ist  April,  1901,  might  be  applied  in  aiding  the  Secondary  Schools  to  acquire 
the  apparatus  and  equipment  necessary  for  the  new  Programme.  They  accor- 
dingly, with  the  concurrence  of  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction,  made  such 
aid  a  feature  of  schemes  in  most  localities  throughout  the  country.  They  had, 
moreover,  a  small  allowance  for  apparatus  and  equipment  under  the  Science 
and  Art  grant,  which  was  similarly  applied.  At  the  same  time  the  Depart- 
ment had  prepared  dimension  drawings  of  typical  laboratories  and  issued 
them  to  the  heads  of  schools  asking  for  them.  Suggestions  with  regard  to 
the  equipment,  and  a  list  of  indispensable  apparatus  for  the  first  two  years' 
work  in  Science,  accompanied  by  a  statement  of  the  probable  cost,  were  issued 
to  the  Managers  of  all  Secondary  Schools  in  Ireland.  Further,  the  schools 
were  invited  to  send  dimensioned  drawings  of  the  rooms  proposed  to  be  con- 
verted into  laboratories.  At  the  moment  of  writing  one  hundred  cases  of 
provision  of  laboratories  have  been  dealt  with.  A  suggested  arrangement 
(with  accompanying  notes,  hints,  and  advice  with  regard  to  equipment  and 
necessary  apparatus)  has  been  supplied  to  the  school.  Where  necessary,  an 
officer  of  the  Technical  Instruction  Branch  of  the  Department  visited  the  school 
and  gave  the  Managers  the  benefit  of  his  experience  on  the  spot.  The  arrange- 
ments finally  decided  on  have  been  approved.  The  number  of  laboratories  to 
be  dealt  with  in  this  way  is  daily  increasing,  and  shows  that  the  work  of 
Science  and  Art  instruction  in  Day  Secondary  Schools  is  largely  to  be  taken  up 
in  the  coming  session. 

As  to  the  provision  of  teachers,  it  was  decided  to  meet  this  difficulty  by 
holding  short  courses  of  instruction  during  the  months 
Special  Courses  for  of  July  and  August,  with  a  view  to  enabling  teachers  who 
Teachers.  who  had  already  received  a  training  in  Science  to  obtain 

the  necessary  knowledge  and  skill  to  give  the  first  year's 
instruction  in  the  new  Programme  of  Introductory  Physics  or  Drawing.  It 
should  be  understood  that  these  short  courses  were  not  to  be  given  to  teachers 
in  a  subject  v^'^ith  which  they  had  not  been  previously  conversant.  They  were, 
rather,  courses  to  train  teachers  in  a  special  application  of  a  subject  which  they 
were  already  qualified  to  teach.  It  was  found,  on  communicating  with  the 
schools,  that  there  were  a  very  considerable  number  of  teachers  who  had 
already  had  sufficient  training  to  enable  them  to  benefit  by  the  special  course. 
Further  courses  will  be  given  to  the  same,  and  to  other  teachers,  to  prepare 
them  for  giving  the  second  and  further  years'  instruction  in  the  new  Pro- 
gramme. 

Courses  in  Experimental  Science  (Introductory  Physics)  were  held  in 
Dublin,  Belfast,  and  Cork.  A  course  of  twenty  days' instruction,  from  10  a.m. 
to  4  p.m.  each  day  (Saturdays,  10  a.m.  to  i  p.m.),  was  arranged  for  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin,  in  charge  ot  Professor  Barrett  and  seven 
assistants.  For  this  course  seventy  teachers  were  accepted.  A  course  for 
forty  teachers,  also  in  Introductory  Physics,  was  arranged  for  at  Queen's 
College,  Belfast,  in  charge  of  Professor  Morton  and  three  assistants  ;  and  a 
similar  course,  also  for  forty  teachers,  was  arranged  for  at  the  Christian 
Brothers'  School,  Cork.  The  Professor  in  charge  at  this  centre  was  Mr.  John 
Buchanan,  d.sc,  of  Gordon's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  was  assisted  by  three 
demonstrators.     These  courses  have  been  most  successful. 

With  a  view  to  placing  similar  opportunities  for  instruction  within  the  reach 


172  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


of  the  nuns  of  the  various  teaching  Orders,  courses  were  organised  at  four 
centres,  and  given  successfully. 

Practical  and  written  examinations  were  held  at  the  close  of  each  course  ; 
the  teachers'  work  during  the  course  and  the  results  of  the  practical  examina- 
tions being  determined  by  the  Professor  in  charge,  the  written  papers  being 
valued  by  examiners  unconnected  with  any  of  the  classes. 

A  course  of  four  weeks'  instruction  for  teachers  of  Drawing  was  organised 
at  the  Metropolitan  School  of  Art,  Dublin.  The  course  was  in  charge  of  Mr. 
Brenan,  the  headmaster,  assisted  by  four  members  of  his  regular  staflF,  Eighty 
teachers  attended  this  course. 

In  all  these  courses  no  less  than  293  teachers,  representing  196  schools 
have  been  in  attendance ;  and  it  has  been  gratifying  to  find  that  a  large 
number  of  teachers  were  willing  to  sacrifice  their  holidays  in  the  work  of 
preparation  for  the  coming  session.  They  attended  the  courses  with  admirable 
punctuality  and  regularity  ;  and  in  work,  beyond  the  regular  hours  of  the 
course,  displayed  a  keenness  and  enthusiasm  which  were  remarkable,  and 
augur  well  for  the  future  of  Science  and  Art  instruction.  As  the  results  of 
this  form  of  instruction  are  to  be  tested,  and  grants  paid  mainly  on  inspection, 
a  great  responsibility  is  thrown  on  the  teachers  and  on  the  inspectors  of  the 
Department.  The  teachers  have  shown  their  willingness  to  share  the  burden  ; 
it  is  hoped  that  the  steps  already  taken  by  the  Department  in  the  direction  of 
establishing  the  new  scheme  by  training  teachers  and  offering  advice  as  to 
equipment  of  laboratories,  &c.,  may  be  continued  and  supplemented  during 
the  coming  session  through  the  Department's  inspectorate,  whose  duties  will 
be  largely  of  a  constructive  character. 

The  need  for  revising  the  system  of  grants  for  Science  and  Art  instruction 
to  schools  other  than  day  schools  was  not  immediately 
Evening  Schools,      urgent,  and  it  was,  therefore,  decided  to  continue  sub- 
stantially the  same  regulations   as  had  hitherto  applied 
fthose  of  the  Science  and  Art  Directory  of  the  Board  of  Education,  South 
Kensington)  for  the  session   1901-2.      It  is  hoped  by  another  session  that  the 
officers  of  the  Department  will  have  had  sufficient  experience  of  the  needs  and 
possibilities   of  evening  instruction  in   Ireland  to   enable   them  to  advise  the 
Department  in  regard  to  a  revised  system. 

The  academic  year  just  closing  was  the  first  in  which  grants  were  to  be 

paid  on  the  results  of  inspection  alone.     The  changes  in 

The  Work  of  the      the  inspectorate   during  the  year  and   the  exceptional 

Session  1900-1901.    pressure  of  work  resulted   in   the  inspection  being  far 

less  thorough  than  was  intended. 

Science  and  Art  classes  in  connection  with  the  Board  of  Education  (South 

Kensington),  as  shown  in  the  following  statement,  were  in  existence: — 


Science  and  Art  Schools  and  Classes  in  L 

Total  number,     . 

Number  giving  evening  instruction, 
,,  ,,  day  instruction, 

,,  ,,  Art  instruction  only, 

"  Schools  of  Science,"  .... 


'eland. 


127 

35 
92 

2 


The  number  of  large  institutions  is  small.  In  some  of  these  very  good 
work  is  done  ;  in  others  the  work,  as  a  whole,  is  poor. 

In  Day  Secondary  Schools  in  connection  with  the  Board  of  Education 
(South  Kensington)  practical  instruction  in  Chemistry  was  given  in  only  four 
cases  ;  in  Physics  in  two   cases  only.     In  no  other  schools  was  practical  in- 


SCIENCE  TEACHING.  175 


struction  gfiven.  Of  the  laboratories  in  which  this  work  was  carried  out,  two 
only  could  be  described  as  satisfactory  in  regard  to  size  and  equipment.  The 
usual  subjects  taught  in  these  day  schools  were  Mathematics,  Practical  Plane 
and  Solid  Geometry,  and  Mechanics  (Solids  and  Fluids).  Physiography, 
Electricity,  and  Magnetism  and  Chemistry  were  next  in  order  of  frequency. 
Mathematics,  in  general,  was  efficiently  taught,  the  Euclid  being,  as  a  rule, 
very  sound. 

Instruction  in  Practical  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry  suffered  much  fromi 
want  of  illustrative  models ;  and,  as  a  rule,  the  Solid  Geometry  was  left 
untouched.  In  most  schools  the  instruction  in  Mechanics  and  Chemistry  was 
mainly  in  preparation  for  the  written  examination  of  the  Intermediate  Educa- 
tion Board.  In  some  few  cases,  the  school  possessed  no  apparatus  at  all  ;  in 
most,  far  too  little  use  was  made  of  that  which  they  did  possess.  In  a  very 
few  cases  only  were  note-books  systematically  and  regularly  kept. 

Much  earnest  and  painstaking  work  was  done  in  the  Art  classes  throughout 
the  session.  Improvements  in  method,  however,  are  possible,  and  it  is  felt 
that  the  development  of  these  classes  will  receive  fresh  impetus  under  the 
Department's  new  Programme. 

Technical  Schools  were  allowed,  during  the  past  session,  an  equivalent  grant 
under  Sections  LXXXVI.  a.  and  LXXXVI.  b.  of  the  Directory  of  the  Hoard 
of  Education,  South  Kensington.  Mucii  of  the  work  assisted  in  this  way  was 
distinctly  good.     In  a  few  cases  the  work  requires  reorganisation. 

RURAL    INDUSTRIES. 

Out  of  the  sum  voted  by  the  Agricultural   Board  for  rural  industries,  to  be 

administered    with    the    concurrence    of  the     Board    of 

Lace,  Crochet,  and    Technical     Instruction,    twenty-one     Home    Industries 

Needlework.         societies   and    classes    were    assisted.      The    industries 

promoted  by  these  societies  are  mostly  those  which  can 

be  carried  on  by  women  of  the  rural  classes,  such  as  lace,  crochet,  embroidery, 

needlework;  and  the  aid  consisted  chiefly  of  a  grant  to  meet  the  salary  of  the 

teacher  giving  the  necessary  technical  instruction.     These  societies  and  classes 

are  distributed  over  eleven   different   counties.     The  approximate  number  of 

workers  involved   is   i,oii.     The   workers,  who  are  chiefly  the  daughters   of 

small  farmers  and   labourers,  help  on  the   farm  during  the  busy  season  of  the 

year,  and  resume  the  industry  when  pressure  of  work  it  over.     Few  devote  all 

their   time  to  the  industry;  it  is  rather  the  occupation  of  their  leisure  hours, 

and  is  thus  distinctly  supplementary  to  agriculture. 

The  lace  and  crochet  industry  is  capable  of  much  development  in  Ireland. 
Crochet,  moreover,  can  be  produced  under  difficult  conditions,  and  is  adapted 
to  all  classes  of  workers.  The  finer  varieties  of  crochet  require  as  much  care 
and  as  delicate  handling  as  any  other  sort  of  lace,  but  ordinary  crochet  \n 
white  thread  can  be  washed,  steeped,  even  boiled  and  bleached  before  it  is  sent 
to  market.  This  fact  alone  enables  the  crochet  industry  to  be  carried  on  in 
many  a  poor  cabin  where  lacemaking  would  be  impossible.  But  to  establish 
these  industries  on  a  permanent  basis  a  high  standard  of  quality  must  be 
maintained.  To  this  end  a  knowledge  of  drawing  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  all  workers,  in  enabling  them  to  reproduce  patterns  with  truth,  accuracy,  and 
artistic  feeling.  Girls  who  can  draw,  and  who  are  good  at  plain  sewing,  are 
able  to  produce  saleable  work  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  others.  For  crochet 
a  knowledge  of  drawing  is  even  more  important  than  for  lace,  for  the  crochet- 
worker  has  often  to  form  her  own  pattern,  and  join  her  details  to  fit  into  certain 
shapes,  as  best  she  may,  without  plan  or  guidance.  Such  work,  to  be  done  in. 
the  best  manner,  calls  for  some  knowledge  of  design,  as  well  as  of  drawing 


174  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


To  meet  these  requirements  the  Department  have  sent  to  lace  and  crochet 
classes,  whenever  possible,  teachers  who  possessed  a  knowledge  of  drawing  and 
design,  and  they  have  under  consideration  special  courses  of  instruction  in 
design  to  be  given  at  the  Metropolitan  School  of  Art  to  lace  and  crochet 
teachers.  At  the  same  time  the  introduction  of  the  Department's  new  Pro- 
gramme of  Drawing  into  the  schools  will  have  an  important  influence  upon 
the  position  of  these  industries,  as  well  as  on  the  prospects  of  other  artistic 
industries  in  Ireland. 

PIONEER    LECTURES. 

During  the  winter  a   scheme  of  "Pioneer  Lectures"  was   organised,  in 
order,   as    stated    in    a   prospectus  sent  to   every  local 
Technical  authority,  "to   illustrate   the  need  and  use  of  scientific 

Instruction — Pioneer  instruction      in     agriculture     and     industries,    and    to 
Lectures.  explain   to  local  authorities  and    the    public  generally, 

and  especially  to  the  working  classes,  the  manner  in 
which  the  Department  can  aid  in  supplying  this  need."  The  syllabus  of 
Pioneer  Lectures  was  divided  into  two  sections,  under  the  headings,  respec- 
tively, of  Agriculture  (including  Veterinary  Science)  and  Technical  Instruction, 
the  former  being  intended  for  rural  audiences  and  the  latter  for  townspeople. 
In  both  cases  the  kind  of  audience  which  the  Department  had  mainly  In  view 
was  one  composed  of  farmers  and  artisans,  and  the  subjects  were,  therefore, 
treated  in  a  strictly  practical  manner,  and,  where  suitable,  were  accompanied 
by  lantern  illustrations.  The  Department  supplied  the  lectures  free  to  any 
County  Council  or  other  local  authorities  applying  for  them,  on  the  latter 
undertaking  to  provide  a  suitable  hall,  and  to  meet  all  purely  local  expenses, 
including  advertising. 

Up  to  the  31st  March  a  considerable  number  of  lectures  from  the  Technical 
Instruction  Syllabus  had  been  delivered  in  large  and  small  towns  throughout 
all  parts  of  Ireland  on  the  subject  of  the  Textile  Industries,  the  Building 
Trades,  the  Machine  Trade,  the  Electric  Current,  Art  in  application  to  Industry, 
Science  In  the  Household  and  the  general  principles  of  Technical  Instruction 
as  applied  to  Industry.  The  lecturers  were — Professor  Beaumont,  of  the 
Yorkshire  College,  Leeds  (the  Textile  Industries)  ;  the  Rev.  P.  J.  Dowling, 
CM.  ;  Professor  James  Lyon,  m.a.,  Royal  College  of  Science,  and  Mr.  William 
Gray,  m.r.i.a.  (Technical  Instruction)  ;  Mr.  William  Tatlow,  m.a.  (the  Electric 
Current)  ;  Mr.  R.  C.  Orpen,  c.e.  (the  Building  Trades)  ;  Miss  O'Conor-Eccles 
(Science  in  the  Household),  and  Mr.  T.  W.  Rolleston,  m.r.i.a.  (Art  and 
Industry).  Professor  Lyon  also  lectured  on  the  Machine  Trades.  Among  the 
places  visited  by  lecturers,  on  Invitation  of  the  local  authorities,  were — 
Armagh,  Athlone,  Ballymena,  Banbrldge,  Belfast,  Clonakilty,  Clonmel,  Cole- 
raine,  Cork,  Drogheda,  Dungannon,  Ennlscorthy,  Galway,  Kilkenny,  Killarney, 
Limerick,  Nenagh,  Skibbereen,  Sligo,  Thurles,  Tralee,  Waterford,  Youghal  ; 
the  lecturing  centres  being  distributed  very  evenly  throughout  the  country. 
The  lectures  were  In  general  largely  attended,  and  excellently  reported  in  the 
provincial  Press,  which  thus  helped  materially  in  enabling  the  objects  of  the 
scheme  to  be  fulfilled.  In  almost  every  case  the  Committee  In  charge  of  the 
local  arrangements  were  cordial  In  their  co-operation  with  the  Department, 
and  carried  out  the  duties  which  devolved  upon  them  ably  and  successfully. 
From  Press  reports  and  other  information  received  by  the  Department,  it  is 
clear  that  the  lectures  have  been  of  much  service  in  bringing  the  value 
and  meaning  of  technical  instruction  before  the  working  classes,  especially  in 
the  smaller  centres  of  population,  and  they  have,  in  many  cases,  been  followed 
by  requests  for  guidance  in  the  drawing  up  of  schemes  of  technical  instruction. 


THE   ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY.  175 


THE    ROYAL    DUBLIN    SOCIETY. 

The  Royal  Dublin  Society  owes  its  origin  to  some  fourteen  citizens  of 
Dublin,  who  met  in  the  rooms  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege on  June  25th,  1731,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  how  they  could  best 
"  promote  improvements  of  all  kinds."  The  outcome  of  their  deliberations 
was  the  estabUshment  of  "  The  Dublin  Society  for  improving  Husbandry, 
Manufactures,  and  other  Useful  Arts  and  Sciences."  The  original  founders 
of  the  Society,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  titles  of  the  papers  read  before  its 
Science  Section  in  the  early  days,  had  a  just  idea  of  the  importance  ol 
developing  the  scientific  side  of  practical  industries.  The  first  paper  read 
was  one  by  Thomas  Prior  upon  "  A  New  Method  of  Draining  Marshy  and 
Boggy  Lands."  Then  there  was  a  paper  by  the  same  author  on  the  culti- 
vation and  management  of  hops,  and  one  by  Dr.  Steevens  (the  founder  of 
Steevens'  Hospital),  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  on  Dyeing,  and  the  several 
materials  made  use  of  in  Dyeing,  and  particularly  Woad."  Other  papers  on 
various  scientific  subjects  occupied  the  attention  of  the  Society  in  the  first 
few  months  of  its  existence. 

The  Society,  at  an  early  stage  in  its  history,  became  the  medium  for  the 
administration  of  funds  for  the  encouragement  of  Science,  Art,  and  Industry. 
These  funds  were  originally  provided  by  the  members  themselves,  but  m 
1 76 1  the  Irish  Parliament  voted  the  Society  a  sum  of  ;£'2,ooo.  This  grant 
was  gradually  increased  until  1800,  when  it  amounted  to  ;£"  15,500.  The 
Imperial  Parliament  varied  the  grant  considerably,  which  in  1832  only 
amounted  to  ^^3,000 ;  but  it  was  subsequently  increased  to  a  little  over 
^^"6,000.  Originally,  most  of  the  money  available  was  spent  on  premiums, 
which  were  awarded  for  a  variety  of  subjects.  Thus,  in  the  year  1765,  a 
Fum  of  i^  1,2 1 5  was  devoted  to  Agriculture  and  planting.  This  included 
premiums  for  the  reclamation  of  bog  and  mountain  land,  the  growth  of 
cereals  and  root  crops,  the  planting  of  fruit  and  forest  trees,  the  fencing  and 
irrigation  of  land,  the  improvement  of  bee-keeping  and  the  growth  of  dye- 
stuffs. 

In  1 77 1  a  committee  was  appointed  "  to  consider  in  what  manner  it  might 
be  expedient  to  give  encouragement  for  the  establishment  of  good  public 
breweries  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom."  They  reported  shortly  after- 
wards that,  in  their  opinion,  "  the  discouragement  of  the  consumption  of 
low-priced  spirituous  liquors  in  the  country  is  an  object  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence to  the  health  and  morals  of  the  people,  as  well  as  to  the  police  and 
manufacturers  of  this  kingdom,  and  of  course  highly  deserving  of  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Dublin  Society."  Also  "  that  the  erection  of  new  breweries,  for 
a  good  kind  of  malt  liquor,  in  the  several  provinces  of  this  kingdom  would 
be  the  most  likely  means  to  promote  this  desirable  end."  The  Report  was 
adopted,  and  a  premium  of  4^".  per  barrel  was  offered  for  the  first  1,000 
barrels  brewed  in  a  new  brewery  and  sold  at  30^".  a  barrel.  The  Society 
continued  its  efforts  in  this  direction  for  some  time,  i"ill  the  brewing  industry 
became  firmly  established  in  the  city. 


176  THE   ROYAL  DUBLIN   SOCIETY. 


Various  premiums  were  offered  for  Manufactures,  including  the  manu- 
facture of  broad-cloths,  wool  combs,  stocking  frames,  felt  hats,  pearl  barley, 
tanning,  knitting,  and  the  production  of  saltpetre  and  smalt.  One  of  these 
premiums,  that  would  not  commend  itself  to  modern  ideas,  was  for  the 
person  who  should  employ  the  greatest  number  of  children  not  exceeding 
1 3  years  of  age.  The  premiums  for  the  encouragement  of  fisheries  amounted 
to  i^i50,  and  were  offered  for  the  promotion  of  new  fisheries,  and  for  the 
largest  takes  of  fish.  A  sum  of  ;^ioo  was  also  offered  for  the  discovery  of 
black  lead  mines,  beds  of  fireclay,  and  for  the  production  of  fuller's  earth, 
whilst  a  premium  of  £^0  was  offered  to  the  author  who  should  produce  the 
best  Natural  History  of  any  county,  and  ;^22  15^-.  to  the  author  of  the  best 
"  Farmer's  Monthly  Kalendar." 

Meanwhile  the  Society  had  acquired  a  local  habitation.  The  first  meet- 
ings were  held  in  the  rooms  of  the  Philosophical  Society  in  Trinity  College, 
and  then,  for  a  time,  it  met  in  one  of  the  Committee  rooms  of  the  Parliament 
House.  On  account  of  its  development  the  Society  acquired  premises  of 
its  own  in  1756,  in  Shaw's-court  (now  the  site  of  the  Commercial  Buildings). 
In  1768  the  Society  moved  to  more  commodious  premises,  at  No.  114, 
Grafton-street.  In  their  turn  these  premises  were  found  to  afford  insuffi- 
cient accommodation,  and  the  Society  erected  a  large  building  in  Hawkins- 
street  and  Poolbeg-street.  This  house,  which  subsequently  became  the 
old  Theatre  Royal,  was  not  long  occupied,  and  in  181 5  the  Society  pur- 
chased the  city  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Leinster,  in  Kildare-street,  and 
since  that  date  Leinster  House  has  been  the  Society's  headquarters.  In 
1732  a  field  at  Ballybough  Bridge  was  taken  by  the  Society  for  "  a  nursery 
for  raising  several  sorts  of  trees,  plants,  and  roots  which  do  not  at  present 
grow  in  this  kingdom,  but  are  imported  from  abroad,  and  when  raised  in 
such  nursery  may  be  dispersed,  to  be  propagated  in  the  country."  This  was 
the  first  step  in  the  estabHshment  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens.  In  1736 
four  acres  of  land  near  St.  Martin's-lane,  Marlborough-street,  were  taken, 
and  in  1795  the  Society  secured  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  gardens  at 
Glasnevin. 

From  the  very  beginning  books  were  purchased,  and  some,  such  as  Jethro 
Tull's  Treatise  on  Husbandry,  were  printed  and  distributed  at  the  expense 
of  the  young  Society.  Models  and  specimens  began  to  accumulate,  and 
with  the  permission  of  the  Lords  Justices,  they  were  deposited  for  public 
inspection  in  a  vault  of  the  Parliament  House.  Such  was  the  beginning  of 
the  Library  and  Museum.  A  catalogue  of  the  Library  about  the  year  1740 
which  is  extant  includes  eighteen  folio  volumes,  eleven  quartos,  and  seven 
octavos,  published  between  the  dates  161 8  and  1736. 

Arthur  Young,  in  his  Tour  in  Ireland,  published  in  1780,  was  already 
able  to  extol  the  Society's  work : — "  Great  honour,"  he  writes,  "  is  due  to 
Ireland  for  having  given  birth  to  the  Dublin  Society,  which  has  the  undis- 
puted merit  of  being  the  father  of  all  the  similar  societies  now  existing  in 
Europe.  .  .  .  For  some  years  it  was  supported  only  by  the  voluntary  sub- 
scriptions of  the  members,  forming  a  fund  much  under  ;^  1,000  a  year;  yet 
was  there  such  a  liberality  of  sentiment  in  their  conduct,  and  so  pure  a  love 
of  the  public  interest  apparent  in  all  their  transactions,  as  enabled  them, 
with  that  small  fund,  to  effect  much  greater  things  than  they  have  done  in 
later  times,  since  Parliament  has  granted  them  regularly  ^^  10,000  a  session." 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  number  of  inspectors  were  appointed  to 
make  statistical  surveys  of  the  different  counties,  and  twenty-one  volumes  of 


THE  ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY.  177 

these  surveys  were  published  by  the  Society.  They  are  now  important 
works  of  reference,  and  interesting  records  of  the  industrial  state  of  Ireland 
nearly  a  century  ago.  Out  of  this  work  arose  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Ireland.  It  began  with  the  survey  of  the  County  Kilkenny,  which  was 
entrusted  by  the  Society  to  Mr.,  afterwards  Sir,  Richard  Griffith,  the 
Society's  Mining  Engineer.  The  survey  was  extended  to  the  rest  of  Ire- 
land, and  Griffith's  Geological  Map  is  still  a  standard  work.  -A  difficulty 
arose  in  this  work  through  the  lack  of  proper  maps  of  the  country.  The 
Society  commenced  a  trigonometrical  survey,  and  after  considerable  progress 
had  been  made  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  the  Government  took  over  the  work. 
Thus  commenced  the  survey  now  carried  on  by  the  Ordnance  Department^ 
which  has  its  head  quarters  in  the  Phoenix  Park. 

The  Irish  Parliament  had  already  entrusted  the  Society  with  the  forma- 
tion and  management  of  Drawing  Schools,  and  of  a  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  in  connection  with  which  Professorships  of  Chemistry,  Mineralogy, 
Natural  History,  and  Botany,  were  also  established.  In  1845  the  Govern- 
ment decided  to  create  in  Ireland  an  institution  similar  to  the  Museum  of 
Practical  Geology  in  London,  and  a  house  in  St.  Stephen's-green  was  taken 
for  this  purpose.  Its  original  scope  was,  on  the  recommendation  of  its  first 
Director,  Sir  R.  Kane,  extended  and,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Museum  of 
Irish  Industry  and  Government  School  of  Science  applied  to  Mining  and 
the  Arts,"  it  embraced  the  whole  range  of  the  Industrial  Arts.  In  1853  it 
was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art.  The 
inter-relations  of  this  Museum  and  those  institutions  of  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  which  were  partly  maintained  out  of  State  money,  became  rather 
complicated,  and  in  1865  a  re-adjustment  had  to  be  effected.  The  Institu- 
tion in  St.  Stephen's-green  ceased  to  be  developed  as  a  Museum,  and  its 
"  School  of  Science  applied  to  Mining  and  the  Arts  "  was  converted  into  the 
Royal  College  of  Science,  and  the  greater  part  of  its  collections  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  The  funds  required  for  this 
Institution,  the  Botanic  Gardens,  and  the  Library,  were  henceforth  entirely 
provided  by  the  State,  which  also  defrayed  most  of  the  expenses  of  the 
School  of  Art,  whilst  the  Society  was  responsible  as  trustees  for  the  adminis- 
tration. In  1877  it  was  found  necessary  to  make  a  fresh  arrangement,  with 
the  result  that  the  Government  took  over  the  control  of  the  Museum,  the 
Metropolitan  School  of  Art,  the  Library,  and  the  Botanic  Gardens,  and 
acquired  the  Leinster  House  and  the  adjoining  premises.  The  Government, 
besides  making  certain  payments,  arranged  to  give  the  Society  such  accom- 
modation in  the  Leinster  House,  free  of  rent  and  taxes,  as  might  be  sufficient 
for  the  functions  of  the  Society,  on  conditions  similar  to  those  accorded  to 
the  learned  Societies  accommodated  in  Burlington  House. 

The  Society  nominates  a  large  number  of  the  Council  of  Trustees  of  the 
Botanic  Gardens  and  the  Library  (now  known  as  the  National  Library  of 
Ireland),  and  of  the  Board  of  Visitors  of  the  Science  and  Art  Museum,  and 
so  still  exercises  a  considerable  influence  over  these  institutions.  The 
Museum,  which,  under  the  title  of  the  Science  and  Art  Museum,  was  greatly 
extended  and  improved  by  the  addition  of  the  fine  collection  of  Irish  Anti- 
quities formerly  belonging  to  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  was  placed  under 
the  care  of  a  Director,  appointed  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department. 
After  much  discussion  as  to  the  advisability  of  building  on  the  Leinster 
Lawn,  two  wings  were  added  to  Leinster  House.  The  wing,  extending 
from  ;^ildare-street  nearly  up  to  the  National  Gallery,  was  devoted  to  the 

N 


178  THE  ROYAL  DUBLIN   SOCIETY. 


National  Library  and  the  Metropolitan  School  of  Art,  whilst  the  south  wing 
and  the  annexes  smce  added  (extending  from  Kildare-street  up  to  the  rear 
of  Upper  Merrion-street)  were  devoted  to  the  Museum.  In  pursuance  of  the 
Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  (Ireland)  Act,  1899,  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art,  with  regard  to  these  institu- 
tions and  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  have  been  transferred  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland. 

The  separation  effected  in  1877  between  the  Society  and  the  Science  and 
Art  institutions  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Society.  The 
increased  freedom  and  independence  of  the  Society  enabled  it  to  strike  out 
new  lines  of  action,  and  to  devote  itself  more  particularly  to  agricultural  and 
scientific  pursuits,  notably  to  its  famous  Horse  Show.  Despite,  or  perhaps 
in  consequence  of,  the  laige  sums  of  money  which  have  been  expended  upon 
the  Show  buildings,  the  Society  is  in  a  most  flourishing  financial  condition, 
with  a  large  capital  fund,  and  a  yearly  income  of  about  ;^2  5,000.  This 
money  is  spent  in  the  promotion  of  Science  and  its  apphcations.  Agriculture, 
Art  and  Industries.  These  departments  are  under  the  control  of  three 
distinct  sections  of  the  Council ;  the  three  sections,  meeting  jointly,  along 
with  the  honorary  officers,  constitute  the  governing  body  of  the  Society,  a 
parhament  in  which  the  control  and  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  cor- 
poration is  completely  vested.  Each  section  of  the  Council  is  the  nucleus 
of  a  Committee  which  is  intrusted  with  the  detail  work  of  the  department  to 
which  it  belongs.  The  Council  and  the  additional  members  to  form  the 
Committees  are  elected  annually  by  the  Society. 

Of  all  the  Society's  undertakings  the  annual  Horse  Show  is,  without 
doubt,  the  best  known  in  this  and  other  countries.  In  the  fifth  volume  of 
the  late  Sir  John  Gilbert's  edition  of  the  Dublin  Calendar  an  interesting 
letter  of  Sir  William  Temple's  is  quoted  urging  on  the  Earl  of  Essex,  the 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  the  day,  the  advisability  of  holding  both  a  "  horse  fair 
and  races  "  every  year  for  the  space  of  a  week  in  the  "  fairest  green  near  the 
city  of  Dublin.  At  each  race  may  be  two  plates  given  by  the  King,  one  of 
thirty  pounds,  and  the  other  of  twenty  (besides  the  fashion),  as  the  prizes  for 
the  first  and  second  horse  .  .  .  Besides  these  plates  the  wagers  may  be  as 
the  persons  please  among  themselves  ;  but  the  horses  must  be  evidenced  by 
good  testimonies  to  hav'c;  been  bred  in  Ireland. 

"  For  honour  the  Lord  Lieutenant  may  ever  be  present  himself,  or,  at 
least,  name  a  deputy  in  his  room,  and  two  judges  of  the  field,  who  shall 
decide  all  controversies,  and,  with  sound  of  the  trumpet,  declare  the  two 
victors.  The  masters  of  these  two  horses  may  be  admitted  to  ride  from  the 
field  to  the  Castle  with  the  Lord  Lieutenant  or  his  deputy,  and  to  dine  with 
him  that  day,  and  there  receive  all  the  honour  of  the  table.  This  to  be  done 
what  quality  soever  the  persons  are  of ;  for  the  lower  that  is,  the  more  will 
be  the  honour,  and  perhaps,  the  more  the  sport ;  and  the  encouragement  of 
breeding  will,  by  that  means,  extend  to  all  sorts  of  men. 

"  For  the  fairs  the  Lord  Lieutenant  may  likewise  be  present  every  day 
in  the  height  of  them,  by  himself  or  deputy  ;  and  may  with  the  advice  of  the 
two  chief  officers  in  the  Army  then  present  chuse  out  one  of  the  best  horses 
and  two  of  the  best  geldings  that  appear  in  the  fair,  not  under  four,  and  not 
above  seven  years  old,  for  which  shall  be  paid  to  the  owners  of  them,  after 
sufficient  testimony  of  their  being  bred  in  Ireland,  one  hundred  pounds  for 
the  horse,  and  fifty  pounds  apiece  for  the  geldings. 

"  The  benefit  of  such  an  institution  as  this  will  be  very  great  and  various  : 


UN  SITY 

THE  ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY. 


179 


for,  besides  the  encouragement  to  breed  the  best  horses,  from  the  honour 
and  gain  ah'eady  mentioned,  there  will  be  a  sort  of  public  entertainment  for 
one  whole  week,  during  which  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  the  Lord  Mayor  of  the 
city,  and  the  great  officers,  both  civil  and  military,  ought  to  keep  open  table 
for  all  strangers.  This  will  draw  a  confluence  of  people  trom  all  parts  of  the 
country.  Many,  perhaps,  from  the  nearer  parts  of  England  may  come,  not 
only  as  to  a  public  kind  of  solemnity,  but  as  to  a  great  mart  of  the  best 
horses.  This  will  enrich  the  city  by  the  expense  of  such  a  concourse,  and 
the  country  by  the  sale  of  many  norses  mto  England,  and,  m  time,  mto 
foreign  parts." 

These  acute  anticipations  of  more  than  two  centuries  ago  have  been  more 
than  realized  to-day.  Not  only  from  the  "  nearer  parts  of  England,"  but 
from  nearly  every  country  in  Europe,  and  from  America,  visitors  come  to 
enjoy  the  matchless  display  offered  every  August  by  the  Horse  Show  of  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society.  The  first  Show  was  held  by  the  Society  in  July, 
1868,  when  368  horses  were  entered,  and  prizes  were  awarded  to  the  value 
of  ;^470.  The  Show  was  held  each  year,  up  to  1880,  at  the  Society's  Agri- 
cultural buildings  in  Kildare-street,  on  the  site  of  the  present  Museum.  In 
consequence  of  the  changes  made  in  1877,  the  present  splendid  premises 
at  Ball's  Bridge  was  acquired,  upon  which  a  sum  of  nearly  ^^^70,000  has  been 
expended.  How  the  Show  has  since  prospered  is  best  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing figures,  which  speak  for  themselves : — 


Entries. 

Attendance 

1868,  First  Show,  Kildare-street,                   368 

— 

1880,  Last  Show,  Kildare-street, 

600 

— 

1 88 1,  First  Show,  Ball's  Bridge, 

589 

17,736 

1882, 

694 

14.973 

1883, 

733 

19,980 

1884, 

806 

26,558 

1885, 

761 

22,481 

1886, 

837 

24,251 

1887, 

950 

26,244 

1888, 

1051 

32,534 

1889, 

1075 

36,711 

1890, 

1324 

43,438 

1891, 

1325 

46,083 

1892, 

1304 

■     53-457 

i893> 

1156 

49,856 

1894, 

1081 

50,250 

189=;, 

1402 

58,636 

1896, 

1363 

58,728 

1897, 

1431 

66,167 

1898, 

1367 

59,252 

1899, 

1397 

59,276 

1900, 

•     1322 

•     55,326 

1901, 

1277 

56,694 

The  Society  also  holds  a  Spring  Show  of  Breeding  Cattle,  Implements, 
etc.,  and  a  Winter  Show  for  Fat  Cattle,  Poultry  and  Farm  Produce.  These 
Shows,  though  not  so  popular  as  the  Horse  Show,  are  of  greater  agricultural 
interest.  They  originated  late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  in  the  efforts  of  a 
body  known  as  the  "  Farming  Society,"  which  was  carried  on  under  the 


180  THE  ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY. 

patronage,  and  with  the  financial  support,  of  the  Dublin  Society.  The 
Spring  Show  has  gradually,  but  steadily  developed,  and  can  now  claim  to 
be  one  of  the  largest,  if  not  the  largest.  Show  of  breeding  cattle  in  the 
world.  The  Society  administers  a  yearly  Government  grant  of  ^^5,000  for 
the  improvement  of  the  Breed  of  Horses  and  Cattle.  It  has  also  carried  out 
some  useful  agricultural  inquiries  and  experiments,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  prevention  of  the  potato  disease,  and  with  example  holdings.  The 
Society  gives  assistance  to  a  number  of  Provincial  Farming  Societies,  and 
employs  a  Chemical  Analyst  and  a  consulting  Entomologist  and  Botanist. 
Other  branches  of  the  Society's  work  include  the  holding  of  Exhibitions  of 
Lace  and  Wood-carving,  at  which  liberal  prizes  are  offered.  A  survey  of 
the  fishing  grounds  of  the  west  and  south-west  coast  of  Ireland  has  been 
conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society,  which  defrayed  half  the 
expenses,  the  rest  being  borne  by  the  Government. 

The  w^ork  of  the  Society  in  Science  is  carried  on  at  evening  Meetings,  at 
which  original  communications  are  read  and  discussed.  The  papers  are 
subsequently  published  in  the  Scientific  Transactions  and  Proceedings,  and 
the  Economic  Proceedings  of  the  Society,  and  by  a  system  of  exchange 
these  publications  are  distributed  amongst  about  400  of  the  leading 
Scientific  Societies  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Systematic  courses  of  Science 
lectures  for  young  people,  and  popular  courses  on  subjects  of  scientific 
interest  are  delivered  each  Session.  Art  is  encouraged  by  Scholarships 
and  Prizes,  and  the  Recitals  of  Classical  Music,  which  are  given  during  the 
Session,  are  said  to  have  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  development  of 
Music  in  Dubhn.  The  Members  and  Associates  (numbering  about  four 
thousand)  have  also  at  their  disposal  reading  rooms  and  a  library  containing 
over  20,000  volumes,  which  includes,  along  with  works  of  general  interest, 
the  most  important  collection  in  Ireland  of  the  publications  of  Learned 
Societies. 


ROYAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  181 


THE    ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL    SOQETY    OF 

IRELAND. 

Amongst  the  great  voluntary  Societies  aiming  directly  at  the  improvement 
of  Irish  husbandry,  an  important  place  must  be  accorded  to  "  The  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland,"  founded  in  the  year  1841.  The  original 
conception  of  this  body  was  due  to  the  practical  sense,  the  enthusiasm,  and 
philanthropic  spirit  of  the  late  Peter  Purcell.  This  gentleman  (whose 
Memorial  Tablet  may  be  read  in  the  Roman  Catholic  pro-Cathedral,  Marl- 
borough-street),  was,  in  addition  to  being  a  large  landed  proprietor,  an 
owner  of  stage  coaches,  a  mail  contractor,  and  a  large  employer  of  labour  in 
Dublin.  He  was  a  man  of  great  public  spirit,  and,  in  his  economic  ideas, 
was  ahead  of  his  time. 

In  the  early  part  of  1841  a  well  attended  public  meeting  was  held  in  the 
Royal  Exchange,  Dublin,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Duke  of  Leinster. 

Mr.  Peter  Purcell  gave  a  brief  account  of  the  proceedings  that  had  led  up 
to  the  formation  of  the  Society,  and  announced  the  formation  of  provisional 
Committees  and  gave  some  details  of  the  work  already  done.  It  was 
resolved  that  all  donations  to  the  Society  should  be  funded  at  once  with  a 
view  to  securing  financial  stability,  and  "  that  nothing  but  the  interest  of  the 
money  and  the  annual  subscriptions  should  be  applied  to  current  expendi- 
ture." The  Duke  of  Leinster  suggested  the  propriety  of  "  giving  honorary 
rewards  as  much  as  possible  to  the  gentry,  and  the  money  and  more  sub- 
stantial prizes  to  the  farmers  and  the  labourers."  Mr.  Naper,  one  of  the 
Vice-Presidents  of  the  Dublin  Society,  said  that  a  resolution  had  been 
passed  by  that  Society  that  it  "  was  ready  and  wiHing  to  give  such  aid  and 
co-operation  as  its  means  and  premises  might  afford  to  the  new  Agricultural 
Improvement  Society  of  Ireland."  It  was  further  announced  that  the  sub- 
scriptions and  donations  promised  amounted  to  £'i,gS2,,  of  which  sum  as 
much  as  ;^3,i99  had  then  been  lodged  in  La  Touche's  Bank,  and  that  forty- 
six  annual  subscribers  had  sent  in  their  names  to  the  Society.  A  large  corres- 
pondence was  then  read,  including  letters  from  the  Bishops  of  Kildare  and 
Derry  and  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Primate  and  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishops  of  Elphin,  Kildare  and  Leighlin,  Achonry, 
and  Raphoe,  besides  several  of  the  most  influential  of  the  clergy,  gentry, 
and  landed  proprietors  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 

So  great  was  the  desire  to  communicate  with  this  Society  that  numerous 
applications  were  forwarded  from  various  quarters,  particularly  from  the 
local  Agricultural  Societies  already  in  existence,  seeking  for  support. 

A  number  of  letters  were  read,  some  describing  works  of  Agricultural 


182  ROYAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY. 

improvement  in  progress,  others  suggesting  schemes  of  Agricultural  im- 
provements and  development.  Among  the  correspondents  were  Mr.  Blacker, 
Market  Hill,  County  Armagh,  Mr.  Justin  Brenan,  and  Dr.  Edward  Bewley, 
Secretary  to  the  Moate  Agricultural  Society. 

The  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  Society  were  then 
read,  and  the  primary  objects  of  the  corporation  were  discussed  and  decided. 
The  following  were  among  the  chief  provisions  : — 

1.  The  establishment  of  at  least  one  Annual  Agricultural  Show,  to 
be  held  each  year,  and  as  far  as  possible,  in  each  of  the  four  provinces 
alternately. 

2.  The  founding  of  Local  or  District  Agricultural  Societies,  to 
act  in  co-operation  with  the  parent  Society  for  the  improvement  of 
husbandry,  farming,  and  the  breeding  of  cattle. 

3.  The  establishment  of  an  Agricultural  Museum  in  Dublin  for  the 
exhibition  of  the  newest  and  most  improved  implements  of  husbandry 
"  similar  to  that  in  Stirling." 

4.  The  encouragement  and  circulation  of  practical  and  useful  know- 
ledge connected  with  husbandry  and  Agriculture  in  all  branches 
through  the  medium  of  cheap  periodical  publications  and  the  formation 
of  an  Agricultural  Library  in  Dublin. 

Information  as  to  the  transactions  and  enterprises  of  the  Highland 
Society  of  Scotland  was  received  and  discussed,  and  it  was  decided  to  work 
as  far  as  possible  on  the  lines  of  that  Society. 

It  was  further  resolved  that  the  first  great  Agricultural  Meeting  and 
Cattle  Show  should  be  held  by  the  Society  in  some  large  and  central  town, 
in  one  of  the  four  provinces,  in  1 842  ;  that  the  prize  list  and  regulations 
should  be  published  at  least  six  months  before  the  Show. 

Whilst  assisting  Local  Societies  with  aid  and  advice  it  was  determined  to 
avoid  exercising  anything  like  dictation,  control,  or  any  direct  interference 
in  the  rules  or  regulations  of  such  Societies  beyond  what  the  Society  might 
deem  absolutely  necessary.  As  an  illustration  of  the  method  to  be  followed 
in  aiding  Local  Societies  it  was  suggested  that  if  a  County  Association 
should  enter  into  communication  with  the  Central  Society  for  Ireland  in 
Dubhn  and  prove  to  its  satisfaction  that  their  Annual  Exhibition  or  Cattle 
Show  was  to  take  place  on  a  certain  day,  and  under  certain  regulations,  and 
that  a  fixed  sum  had  been  collected  or  subscribed  for  the  purpose,  that  the 
head  Society  should  offer  to  give  certain  premiums  or  prizes  of  a  specific 
kind  to  be  competed  for  under  certain  rules  and  conditions.  An  arrange- 
ment was  also  suggested  for  the  classification  of  the  prizes  of  Local  Societies 
that  were  to  be  aided  from  the  funds  of  the  general  Society,  with  a  view  to 
meeting  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  each  locality.  For  instance,  in  low 
or  marshy  counties  prizes  for  land  drainage  were  to  be  given,  and  water 
meadows  and  irrigation,  where  suitable,  were  to  be  encouraged.  The  use 
of  bulls  and  rams  of  breeds  suitable  for  the  various  districts ;  and  in  the 
North  of  Ireland  flat  cultivation,  on  improved  principles,  were  to  receive 
assistance,  and  improvement  in  the  methods  of  green  crop  cultivation  was  to 
form  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  Society,  as  this  was  considered  to  be  an 


ROYAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  183 


excellent  mode  of  securing  the  permanent  and  lasting  improvement  of  Agn- 
culture. 

In  consideration  of  the  great  difficulty  in  inducing  the  peasantry  to  adopt 
improvements  in  Agricultural  tools  and  implements,  the  establishment  of  an 
Agricultural  Museum  in  Dublin,  and  afterwards  in  the  provinces,  was 
decided  upon.  This  idea  was  not  carried  out  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Improvement  Society,  but  was,  as  is  well  known,  subsequently  realised  by 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society  on  their  premises  in  Kildare-street.  The  Society 
also  made  one  of  its  principal  objects  the  publication  and  distribution  of 
practical  knowledge  by  the  publication  of  Essays  by  competent  persons,  and 
afterwards  by  the  starting  of  a  journal  of  the  Society  in  which  papers  written 
for  meetings  of  the  Society  and  the  discussions  following  were  published. 
The  first  measure  discussed  for  the  amelioration  of  Agriculture  "  was  the 
formation  of  an  establishment  of  a  collegiate  nature  in  the  form  of  an  Agri- 
cultural School  or  College,  on  an  extensive  scale,  for  the  education  of 
farmers'  sons  in  all  the  different  branches  of  husbandry,  so  as  to  qualify 
them  hereafter  as  practical  farmers  in  different  parts  of  the  country." 
The  want  of  such  an  institution  had  been  long  felt,  and  its  necessity  ni 
some  central  part  of  the  country  was  fully  recognised.  The  Glasnevin 
Agricultural  School  had  been  just  estabhshed  at  this  time,  but  as  this  insti- 
tution was  intended  solely  for  teachers  it  was  considered  inadequate  to  meet 
the  necessities  of  Agricultural  instruction  for  farmers'  sons.  The  general 
plan  of  the  proposal  to  establish  an  Agricultural  College  was  discussed,  and  a 
sub-committee  was  arranged  to  prepare  details.  It  was  hoped  that  after- 
wards provincial  schools  might  follow,  but  the  Society  would  for  the  present 
confine  itself  to  the  promotion  of  one  large  Agricultural  College  and  allow 
Model  Farms  and  Agricultural  Schools  to  develop  with  time.  It  was  con- 
sidered inexpedient  that  the  funds  of  the  Society  should  be  applied  under 
any  circumstance  to  the  foundation  of  such  an  establishment ;  but  the 
Society  hoped  that  when  its  prospective  benefits  were  known  and  fully 
appreciated,  the  most  ample  means  would  be  forthcoming  for  its  institution 
and  support.  As  an  outcome  of  the  discussion  upon  the  necessity  for  a 
great  Agricultural  College  for  Ireland,  a  committee  of  the  Society  was 
formed  which  included  the  names  of  Acheson  Lyle,  Chairman,  the  Provost 
of  Trinity  College,  Thomas  Hutton,  George  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  James 
Redmond  Barry,  gentlemen  who  at  this  period  were  well  known  as  leading- 
philanthropists.  A  large  farm  was  secured  at  Leopardstown,  County  Dublin, 
the  property  of  Mr.  Anthony  Hawkins,  a  prospectus  was  issued,  and  the 
College  opened. 

The  Society  recognised  the  great  desirability  of  encouraging  improve- 
ment in  the  social  condition  of  the  Agricultural  labourers  and  small  farmers 
of  Ireland.  "  They  are  therefore  firmly  persuaded  that  no  measures  can  be 
adopted  for  permanently  and  effectually  promoting  the  Agricultural  interests 
in  Ireland  which  do  not  tend  to  advance  the  moral  and  social  condition  of 
the  labouring  population  and  to  elevate  them  in  society,  so  that  they  may 
learn  to  feel  that  the  interests  of  all  classes  are  identified." 

During  the  remainder  of  the  year  1841  considerable  energy  was  exercised 
in  placing  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  of  Ireland  on  a 


184 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


satisfactory  basis.     The  existing  Local  Societies  came  forward  for  affiliation 
and  support.     The  Societies  were  : — 

Name  of  Society.  County. 

North  Inishowen  _  _  -      Donegal 

Ballytore  _  ..  .      Wicklow 

Moate  -  _  -  _       Westmeath 

Portlaw  .  _  _  -      Waterford 

Barrymore  and  Imokilly 

Tullamore         _  _  _  _       King's 

Wicklow  _  _  .  -      Wicklow 

Kells  and  Callan 

Galmoy 

Ballinasloe  Union         _  _  -       Galway 

Upper  Ossory  _  _  _       Kilkenny 

Dromore 

West  Carbery  _  _  _       Cork 

Mallow  -  -  _  _       Cork 

Fingal  _  _  _  _       Dublin 

Innistiogue  _  _  _       Kilkenny 

Shillelagh  and  Cashaw  -  -       Wicklow 

Louth  -  _  _  _       Louth 

County  of  Cork 

Newport  Pratt 

Limerick 

Clara,  and  Tipperary 

Nenagh  Union 

Drogheda,  Meath,  and  Louth 

Of    the    Local  Societies  then  existing,  twenty  became    affiliated    and 
received  premiums  for  distribution  in  their  respective  districts  as  follows : — 


STOCK. 

For  the  best  Bull  in  district.     The  Society's  Silver  Medal. 

For  the  best  Breeding  Cow,  the  property  of  a  farmer  holding  not 

more  than  40  acres.     £1  10s. 
For  the  best  Yearling  Heifer,  under  similar  conditions.     £1  los. 
For  the  best  Breeding  Sow,  under  similar  conditions.     £1  los. 


HUSBANDRY. 

For  the  best  5  acres  of  Turnips.     The  Society's  Silver  Medal. 
For  the  best  half  acre  of  Drilled  Turnips,  the  property  of  a 

farmer,  as  before.     £2. 
For  the  best  half  acre  of  Red  Clover,  same  conditions.     £1  10s. 
For  the  best  acre  of  Drilled  Potatoes,  same  conditions.     £1  los. 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  185 


Before  the  end  Q.f  1841  twenty-two  Local  Societies  in  addition  to  those 
that  had  received  aid  for  prizes  became  connected  with  the  Central  Society, 
these  were : — 


Name  of  Society. 

County. 

Antrim  Union               _             _             _ 

Antrim 

Bandon  Union              .             -             _ 

Cork 

Bangor                            _             _             _ 

Antrim 

Ballymoney 

Antrim 

Carickfergus  and  Kilroot 

Down 

Donegal  (Ballyshannon) 

Donegal 

Donoghmore 

Tyrone 

Duhallow           _             _             -             - 

Cork 

Enniscorthy                   _             _             . 

Wexford 

Fartullagh                      _             _             . 

Armagh 

Hollywood                     .             -             - 

Down 

Killyleagh,  Killinchy,  Kilmood,  Tully- 

nakillen  Farming  Soc. 

Lifford               -             .             .             - 

Donegal 

Lisnaskea                       _             _             _ 

Fermanagh 

Maryborough                 _             _             _ 

Queen's  County 

North  Wexford 

Wexford 

South  Tipperary 

Strade  and  Ballivint 

Tanderagee                    _             -             _ 

Down 

Thurles              _             _             _             _ 

Tipperary 

Tuam  Union 

Gal  way 

Westmeath 

This  makes  a  total  of  forty-five  Societies  in  connection  with  the  Central 
Society  at  the  end  of  1841. 

In  the  correspondence  and  communications  during  184 1  some  valuable 
suggestions  were  made  indicating  the  great  interest  that  had  been  aroused 
in  the  country  through  the  initiation  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement 
Society  of  Ireland.  The  desirability  of  co-operating  with,  and  substantially 
aiding,  the  Loan  Fund  Societies  of  the  country  was  urged  by  Mr.  Gustavus 
Lambert  of  Beauparc.  Mr.  Blacker,  of  Market  Hill,  suggested  a  method  of 
itinerant  Agricultural  Instruction. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  in  the  Minutes  of  valuable  aid  received  from 
the  Highland  Society,  through  Sir  Charles  Gordon,  the  Secretary,  and  from 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  who  furnished  information  on 
their  methods  of  procedure.  Dr.  Robert  Kane  (Sir  R.  Kane),  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy  to  the  Dublin  Society,  presented  the  Society  with  his 
voluminous  work  Elements  of  Chemistry,  and  intimated  his  intention  of 
devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  for  the  future,  and 
Professor  Apjohn,  of  Trinity  College,  undertook  the  analysis  of  the  newly 
imported  manure  called  guano.  A  set  of  very  valuable  reports  which  had 
b  en  published  and  circulated  on  the  estates  of  Lord  Clif den,  and  which 
had  a  most  beneficial  effect  in  stimulating  and  encouraging  the  tenants  on 
the  property  and  in  inducing  them  to  adopt  the  different  new  and  improved 
modes  of  husbandry,  were  furnished  by  Mr.  Martin  Dwyer. 

The  Council's  Minute  Book  also  states,  "  It  is  difficult  to  enumerate  the 


186  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY 


various  communications  that  have  been  received  from  all  quarters  botli  m 
England  and  Scotland,  but  among  the  rest  the  Council  feel  bound  to  men- 
tion the  letters  of  Mr.  Edward  Carroll,  Agricultural  Superintendent  on  the 
estates  of  Sir  William  Wrexon  Beecher,  Bart.,  near  Mallow,  which  are  full  of 
the  most  practical  and  useful  suggestions.  Among  the  rest  Mr.  Carroll  has 
sent  up  no  less  than  twenty  names  of  tenants  on  the  above  estates  who  had 
subscribed  £2  iSi".  in  small  contributions  in  order  to  form  a  connection  with 
the  Central  Society — an  example  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  generally 
followed." 

Arrangements  were  made  for  the  Agricultural  Show  to  be  held  in  1842. 
It  was  decided  to  give  medals  and  money  prizes  in  the  classes  for  breeding 
animals,  and  medals  only  in  the  classes  for  fat  stock.  In  the  former  classes 
money  to  the  amount  of  £a^%a^  was  to  be  awarded,  together  with  ig  Silver 
and  2  Gold  Medals.  In  the  classes  for  fat  stock  there  were  to  be  awarded, 
13  Silver  Medals  ;  2  Gold  Medals. 

The  classes  provided  for  were  : — 
CATTLE. 

Shorthorned  swine. 

Hereford 

Longhorned  No  particular  variety. 

Ayrshires  named 

Devons  horses. 

West  Highlands  ^    4.  tlt 

T^  *="  Cart  Horses 

^„   __  Thoroughbred 

SHEEP.  ^ 

Leicester  Cotswold  and  other 

Longwoolled. 
Southdowns  Spanish 


DONKEYS. 


The  interesting  peculiarity  of  the  provisions  of  the  schedule  is  the  high 
value  of  the  first  prizes — 25  and  20  Sovereigns ;  the  providing  prizes  for 
Longhorned,  Ayrshire,  Devon,  and  West  Highland  cattle  ;  the  giving  of 
prizes  for  plough  oxen  that  had  been  fattened,  and  in  the  sheep  classes  the 
offering  of  prizes  for  fat  sheep  of  two  and  three  years  only.  For  pigs,  prizes 
were  offered  for  fat  pigs  two  years  old,  and  the  lowest  age  for  competing 
fat  swine  was  thirteen  months. 

Ten  Silver  Medals  were  provided  as  prizes  for  essays  and  works  as 
follows : — 

1.  An  essay  on  Manures,  showing  methods  of  use. 

2.  Essay  on  Neat  cattle.     Kinds  most  adapted  to  Ireland. 

3.  Essay  on  the  general  diseases  of  cattle  and  their  remedies. 

4.  Essay  on  the  draining  of  land  and  its  effects. 

5.  Essay  on  the  improvement  of  waste  and  bogland  in  Ireland. 

6.  Essay  on  the  building  of  cottages  suited  to  small  farmers  and  the 
labouring  classes. 

7.  To  the  proprietor  who  in   1841-42  has  erected  on  his  property 
the  greatest  number  of  the  best  cottages. 

8.  The  proprietor  or  tenant  who  shall,  in  1841-42,  plant  trees  on  the 
greatest  number  of  acres,  not  less  than  50. 

9.  The  proprietor  or  tenant  who  shall  have  successfully  executed  the 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  187 


greatest  quantity  of  drains  (not  being  less  than  ten  miles)  on  lands 
owned  by  him  or  in  his  occupation  in  1841-42. 

10.  The  proprietor  or  tenant  who  shall  have  brought  into  profitable 
tillage,  or  pasture,  within  three  years  preceding,  the  greatest  extent  of 
waste  and  hitherto  uncultivated  land  or  bog,  not  being  less  than  50 
acres. 

Lord  Cloncurry  offered  two  prizes  of  ^^50  each  for  the  following : — 

For  the  most  approved  practical  grammar  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  or 
essay  on  Manures  as  applicable  to  Ireland. 

For  the  best  Report  on  the  construction  of  Roads  in  Ireland,  and  the  best 
materials  to  be  employed  in  their  formation. 

An  important  communication  was  received  from  the  Right  Hon.  T.  F. 
Kennedy,  of  the  Treasury  Chambers,  Dublin  Castle,  suggesting  measures 
for  the  future  conducting  of  the  affairs  of  the  Society  in  the  interests  of  Irish 
Agriculture.     Briefly  stated  the  suggestions  were  : — 

1.  Each  Local  Agricultural  Society  to  have  a  definite  and  not  too 
extensive  boundary. 

2.  That  the  limits  of  Poor  Law  Unions  appear  suitable  for  these 
boundaries. 

3.  That  it  is  expedient  to  establish  an  Agricultural  Society  in  each 
Poor  Law  Union. 

4.  That  it  is  desirable  to  have  each  Union  Society  affihated  to  the 
Central  Society. 

5.  That  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  Agricultural  Superintendent 
attached  to  each  Local  Society ;  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement 
Society  to  render  assistance  and  to  aid  in  the  selection  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Superintendent. 

6.  That  it  is  expedient  that  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement 
Society  should  offer  premiums  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Local  Agri- 
cultural Societ}'. 

7.  That  the  Local  Society  should  furnish  reports  to  the  Central 
Society  periodically,  setting  forth  the  condition  of  the  district  in  all 
matters  of  rural  economy  in  order  that  the  aid  of  the  Central  Society 
might  be  duly  considered  and  profitably  applied. 

Mr.  Kennedy  furnished  a  draft  of  a  letter  which  he  proposed  should  be 
sent  to  each  Chairman  of  Boards  of  Guardians  in  Ireland.  This  letter 
explained  the  policy  involved  in  the  work  of  the  Agricultural  Superinten- 
dents that  had  been  proposed  for  work  with  Local  Agricultural  Societies, 
their  duties,  etc.  The  letter  ran  as  follows : — "  The  Society  can  entertain 
no  doubt  that  an  active,  intelligent,  and  faithful  person  being  located  in  a 
district  could  not  fail  successfully  to  encourage  and  to  direct  most  valuable 
improvements,  and  that  under  his  guidance  a  spirit  of  emulation  would  be 
g^enerated  such  as  must  conduce  greatly  to  the  best  interests  of  all  classes  of 
Society,  and  above  all  of  the  labouring  classes,  for  whom  extensive  employ- 
ment and  payment  of  wages  could  not  fail  to  arise.  In  making  this  state- 
ment the  Society  have  contemplated  individuals,  landlords,  and  tenants,  and 
landlords  for  their  tenants,  applying  for  and  receiving  advice  and  assist- 
ance ;  and  that  many  such  would  exist  they  entertain  a  confident  hope." 


188  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 

The  question  of  utilising  funds  from  the  Loan  Fund  Board  for  the  pur- 
pose of  encouraging  Agricultural  progress  in  connection  with  the  new  move- 
ment was  raised  by  Mr.  Kennedy  at  a  meeting  of  the  Loan  Fund  Board  in 
1 841.  As  a  member  of  the  Loan  Fund  Board  Mr.  Kennedy  had  ample 
opportunity  for  studying  its  workings  and  bearing  upon  Agriculture,  and  in 
urging  the  application  of  funds  from  the  Loan  Fund  Societies  to  Agricul- 
tural Society's  projects,  he  stated  that  a  loan  fund,  duly  constituted  and 
administered  was  to  the  small  local  economist  and  capitalist  a  most  secure 
and  convenient  Savings  Bank,  paying,  and  very  able  to  pay  to  the  deposi- 
tors or  debenture  holders,  a  very  high  rate  of  interest,  5  or  6  per  cent. 
So  far  it  is  to  them  most  advantageous  and  offers  great  facility  to  their 
valuable  habits  of  economy  and  saving.  The  Loan  Fund  distributes  its 
loans  and  receives  its  payments  on  a  system  which  when  well  administered 
confers  the  greatest  benefits  on  the  parties  borrowing."  It  was  suggested 
that  the  net  profits  of  the  Loan  Fund  Societies  should  be  applied  to  paying 
the  salaries  of  the  Agricultural  Superintendents  that  were  to  be  engaged 
for  each  Union  Agricultural  Society.  Mr.  Kennedy  remarks,  "  If  these 
profits  were  appropriated  as  I  contemplate,  to  a  purpose  highly  reproductive 
oi  advantage,  they  would  tend  directly  to  the  aggrandisement  and  profit  of 
the  many  persons  who  exist  either  as  small  farmers  or  day  labourers.  In 
the  one  case  by  improving  their  culture  and  increasing  their  produce,  in  the 
other  by  creating  a  demand  for  labour  which  would  be  required  to  carry  into 
effect  the  improvements  suggested  and  guided  by  the  skill  and  practical 
knowledge  of  the  Agricultural  Superintendent." 

The  project  of  appointing  Agricultural  Superintendents  to  Local  Agri- 
cultural Societies  was  much  discussed  in  the  early  years  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Improvement  Society.  Mr.  Blacker,  of  Market  Hill,  who  took  an 
extremely  lively  interest  in  the  Society  urged  the  matter  with  much  energy. 
The  Ballinasloe  Agricultural  Union  Society  had  made  a  start  in  Agricultural 
instruction  and  aid  in  its  district.  This  as  an  exemplar  afforded  Mr.  Blacker 
opportunity  for  urging  his  views.  In  his  letter  to  the  Society  Mr.  Blacker 
states  that  responding  to  the  efforts  of  the  Ballinasloe  Society  and  the 
appointment  of  an  Agriculturist  to  give  instruction,  438  farmers  had  cordially 
received  Mr.  Clapperton,  the  Agriculturist,  nearly  the  whole  of  whom  pro- 
mised to  follow  advice.  Out  of  which  number  202  had  actually  commenced 
the  new  system,  which,  considering  the  novelty  of  the  undertaking,  the  want 
of  manure,  the  absence  of  preparations  made  by  loans  of  seed,  lime,  bone- 
dust,  or  any  other  assistance  to  enable  persons  to  follow  his  advice,  was  as 
large  a  number  as  could  be  expected. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  about  this  time  Pleuro-pneumonia  was  first 
general  in  Ireland.  This  fearful  plague  which  afterwards  caused  such  havoc 
commenced  in  Cork.  Its  outbreak  was  said  to  have  been  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  Dutch  cattle  which  were  imported  to  Cork  County  in  conse- 
quence of  their  reputation  as  dairy  cattle.  In  the  County  of  Cork,  from 
whence  the  first  announcement  of  the  evil  came,  nothing  could  exceed  the 
alarm  of  the  farmers,  one  of  whom — Mr.  John  Jeffreys,  of  Blarney,  lost 
eighteen  of  the  finest  cows  out  of  one  dairy  alone,  without  a  single  one  of 
those  attacked  recovering.  Following  the  notes  of  the  Society  come 
reports  upon  the  disease  from  Messrs.  Olden,  the  then  eminent  Veterinary 
Surgeons  of  Cork,  and  Dr.  William  Faussett,  a  Licentiate  of  the  Royal 
College  in  Ireland.     These  reports  and  suggestions  gave  evidence  of  much 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  189 

careful  study,  but  read  in  the  light  of  modern  research  they  appear  very 
wide  of  the  true  dia^osis  of  the  affliction. 

The  first  great  Agricultural  Show  of  the  Society  was  held  in  Cork  in  1842, 
and  Deputations  from  the  Royal  EngHsh  Society  and  the  Highland  Society 
of  Scotland  attended  this  meeting.  Considerable  interest  was  manifested 
in  Cork  city  and  county  in  the  advent  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improve- 
ment Society,  and  on  the  arrival  in  Cork  of  the  Council  a  few  days  previous 
to  the  Show,  they  found  preparations  made  for  their  reception  upon  a  scale 
such  as  had  seldom  been  witnessed  in  this  country.  The  catalogues  were 
made  out  with  the  greatest  care,  and  the  cattle  were  classified  and  arranged 
in  perfect  order.  The  different  edifices  connected  with  the  meeting  were 
fitted  up  in  the  most  splendid  style,  and  nothing  was  left  undone  to  secure 
the  success  and  brilliancy  of  the  undertaking.  "  As  stock  and  implements 
were  to  be  exhibited  from  three  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  Council  thought 
it  advisable  to  have  judges  chosen  indifferently  from  each."  Some  of  the 
most  eminent  of  England's  and  Scotland's  Agriculturists  were  invited,  and 
Sir  Percy  Nugent,  Mr.  William  Cooke-Collis,  and  Mr.  William  Fishbourne 
acted  for  Ireland. 

The  proceedings  began  by  a  Council  dinner  at  which  250  persons 
attended.  This  banquet  was,  in  respect  of  menu  the  subject  of  high  lauda- 
tion by  Thackeray,  who  was  then  making  his  first  visit  to  Ireland,  but,  with 
his  usual  cynicism,  the  great  novelist  could  not  close  his  eyes  to  some  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Irish  ways  : — 

"  '  Sir,'  says  a  waiter  whom  I  had  asked  for  currant  jelly  for  the  haunch 
(there  were  a  dozen  smoking  on  various  parts  of  the  table)  '  Sir,'  says  the 
waiter,  *  there's  no  jelly,  but  I've  brought  you  some  very  fine  lobster  salad.' 
I  think  this  was  the  most  remarkable  speech  of  the  evening,  not  excepting 
that  of  my  Lord  Bernard,  who  to  three  hundred  gentlemen,  more  or  less 
connected  with  farming,  had  actually  the  audacity  to  quote  the  words  of  the 
great  agriculturist  poet  of  Rome,  *  O  fortunatos  nimium,'  etc.  How  long  are 
our  statesmen  in  England  to  continue  to  back  their  opinions  by  their  Latin 
grammar  ?  Are  the  Irish  Agriculturists  so  very  happy  if  they  did  but  know 
it,  at  least,  out  of  doors.     Well,  those  within  were  jolly  enough." 

The  financial  results  to  the  County  Cork  Agricultural  Show,  which  had  to 
provide  for  an  expenditure  of  ii^ioog  is.  6d.,  were  satisfactory,  as  they  had  a 
credit  balance  of  i^iog  i  is.  gd.  The  Central  Society  also  had  a  satisfactory 
balance  sheet,  which  showed  a  sum  of  ;£"iii  to  its  credit.  The  success  of 
the  Cork  Show  gave  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  a  status 
in  the  country  which  ensured  success.  Enthusiasm  was  manifested  in  all 
quarters.  Local  Societies  were  formed  and  became  affiliated  to  the  Central 
Society  as  follows  : — 


Local  Agricultural  Societies. 


1841  -  -  -    23 

1842  -  -  -    50 

1843  -  -  -    80 

1844  -  -  -  100  "still  increasing." 

The  Show  at  Belfast  in  1843  was  also  a  very  considerable  success.     Iru 


190  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


addition  to  live  stock,  prizes  were,  at  Belfast,  awarded  for  flax  and  for 
home  industries.  The  department  of  the  Showyard  which  excited  the 
greatest  interest  was  naturally  that  in  which  the  implements,  flax  seeds, 
butter,  etc.,  were  exhibited.  The  local  Committee  received  for  this  Show 
;£3,354  i6s.  lid.  The  expenditure,  including  ;^5oo  to  the  Central  Society 
was  ^2,954  3J".  id.  The  home  mdustries  exhibited  were — i.  Sewed  collars  ; 
2.  Sewed  trimming  or  insertion ;  3.  Sewed  babies'  robes ;  4.  Sewed  babies' 
caps  ;  5.  Open  or  oblique  work  ;  6.  Sewed  cambric,  bleached  or  unbleached. 
Amongst  exhibits  not  for  competition  were  damask,  cambric,  and  yams. 
The  following  extract  from  the  report  is  interesting.  "  The  yarn  was  the 
finest  ever  spun  in  this  country,  and  fully  equalled,  if  not  surpassed,  what  is 
usually  imported  from  Germany  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  Irish 
cambric.  The  flax,  from  which  it  was  spun,  was  of  Irish  growth  and  prepara- 
tion." Curiously,  the  judges  awarded  the  "  Royal  Society's  Medal  '  to 
Miss  Donovan  for  work  sent  from  the  Clonakilty  National  School,  County 
Cork,  for  the  best  and  most  meritorious  lot  of  needlework  exhibited  at  the 
Show.  That  Munster  workers  should  excel  those  of  Ulster  in  this  par- 
ticular class  of  work  is  at  the  present  time  rather  astonishing.  For  land 
reclamation  there  was  only  one  entry,  the  quantity  of  land  (200  acres)  to  be 
reclaimed  was  rather  prohibitive.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  Mr.  William 
Stewart  Trench,  Queen's  County,  whose  reclamation  works  in  Ireland  were 
most  valuable. 

Consequent  upon  the  duplication  of  prizes,  through  the  local  Societies 
offering  prizes  for  live  stock  at  the  joint  Shows  of  Central  and  Local  So- 
cieties, it  was  considered  expedient  for  the  Central  Society  to  confine  their 
prizes  to  husbandry  and  to  allow  the  Local  Society's  prizes  to  be  applied 
mainly  to  live  stock.  (A  very  curious  competition  was  proposed  by  Dr. 
Bewley  (a  Quaker)  in  1843.  "  To  the  person  who  shall  before  the  ist  Octo- 
ber, 1843,  prosecute  to  conviction  the  greatest  number  of  turnip  stealers, 
not  less  than  twenty,  £^  given  by  Dr.  Bewley.") 

The  Cattle  Shows  subsequently  held  by  the  Society  continued  extremely 
satisfactory.  Competition  increased  as  travelling  facilities  were  improved, 
and  the  number  of  entries  of  live  stock  from  England  and  Scotland  grew  to 
good  proportions.  The  stimulus  of  these  competitions  gave  rise  to  an 
interest  in  stock  breeding  in  Ireland  such  as  had  not  existed  previously. 
The  number  of  shorthorn  herds  for  breeding  purposes  that  were  founded 
augured  well  for  future  improvement  in  Irish  stock.  The  alternating  of 
Shows  of  stock  in  various  districts  has  doubtless  been  of  immense  service  to 
Irish  Agriculturists  through  bringing  under  the  notice  of  persons  who  other- 
wise could  not  become  acquainted  with  them  the  best  types  of  different 
breeds. 

The  hopes  of  the  Society  as  to  the  foundation  of  an  Agricultural  College 
were  realised  in  1844.  The  prospectus  was  published  in  the  Farmers 
Gazette,  and  the  College  was  shortly  afterwards  opened.  Owing  to  un- 
toward circumstances  this  College  had  but  a  short  existence,  but  the 
changing  of  the  system  of  Agricultural  teaching  at  the  Agricultural  Institu- 
tion, Glasnevin,  under  the  Commissioners  of  National  Education,  by  which 
pupils  other  than  teachers  were  admitted,  rendered  the  closing  of  the 
Leopardstown  Agricultural  College  an  event  of  less  serious  importance 
than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 

As  this  Prospectus  is  an  interesting  document  in  the  history  of  Irish 
Agricultural  education,  it  is  given  here  in  full. 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETY.  191 


Prospectus   of  the   Leopardstown  Agricultural  College. 

'*  Under  the  patronag^e  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Improvement  Society  of  Ireland  ;  and  under  the  management 
of  a  Committee  consisting  of  the  following  gentlemen  : — Robert  Archibold, 
Esq.,  JNI.P.,  Davidstown,  Co.  Kildare  ;  Charles  Doyne,  Esq.,  Newtown  Park, 
Co.  Dublin  ;  Christopher  Fitzsimon,  Esq.,  J. P.,  GlencuUen  House,  Co.  Dublin  ; 
L.  E.  Foot,  Esq.,  Fitzwilliam-street,  Dublin  ;  John  Hawkins,  Esq.,  Henrietta- 
street,  Dublin;  A.  J.  Hawkins,  Esq.,  Leopardstown,  Co,  Dublin;  William 
•  Sherrard,  Esq.,  Kilbogget,  Co.  Dublin;  D.  H.  Sherrard,  Esq.,  Thorndale, 
Co.  Dublin;  John  W.  Stubbs,  J. P.,  Esq.,  Rollistown,  Co.  Dublin;  Edmund 
Murphy,  Secretary. 

"  Leopardstown — the  property  of  John  Hawkins,  Esq.,  and  formerly  the 
residence  of  Lord  Castlecoote — is  situated  one  mile  from  Stillorgan,  two  miles 
from  the  Railway  Station,  Black  Rock,  three  from  Kingstown,  and  five  from 
the  Post  Office,  Dublin.  The  Demesne  (which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  twelve 
feet  high)  contains  327  Statute  Acres  of  Arable  and  Pasture  Land,  of  various 
qualities  ;  a  first-class  Mansion,  peculiarly  suited  to  a  Public  Institution  ; 
excellent  Garden,  with  Hot-houses  ;  and  Plantations  containing  nearly  every 
kind  of  Tree  and  Shrub  which  will  bear  this  climate  ;  and,  at  the  distance  of  half 
a  mile  from  the  Mansion,  and  central  with  respect  to  the  Arable  Land,  an 
excellent  Farm-house  and  suitable  Steading. 

"The  Farm-house  is  well  suited  for  affording  accommodation  to  Masters  ; 
and  a  School-room,  Dining-room,  and  Dormitory  have  been  fitted  up  for  the 
immediate  reception  of  Fifty  Pupils.  An  extension  of  accommodation  is 
contemplated.  This  branch  of  the  Establishment  will  be  opened  on  the  first  of 
January,  1845,  for  the  reception  of  Pupils; 

"  No  Pupil  will  be  received  under  the  age  of  fifteen  years,  and  who  cannot 
read  and  write  ;  nor  without  a  written  engagement  signed  by  parent  or 
guardian  that  he  will  be  amenable  to  the  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Estab- 
lishment. 

"Terms,  p^i6  per  annum,  payable  by  quarterly  payments  of  ^4  each  ;  for 
which  the  Pupils  will  be  found  in  Diet,  Lodging,  and  Washing  ;  be  instructed 
in  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  Improved  Agriculture,  and  receive  a  good 
English  Education,  together  with  instruction  in  Practical  Land-surveying  and 
Mapping,  Levelling,  Road-making,  Book-keeping,  &c. 

"The  Pupils  will  be  employed  during  the  half  of  each  day  in  Manual  Labour 
and  the  Ordinary  Operations  of  the  Farm  and  Garden,  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  Head  Agriculturist.  The  other  half  of  each  day  will  be  devoted 
to  the  acquisition  of  Literary  Knowledge  in  the  School-room.  The  F'arm  will 
be  arranged  so  as  to  afford  examples  ot  the  various  Rotations  (one  of  which 
will  include  the  Cultivation  of  Flax).  A  sufficient  extent  will  be  devoted  to 
Experimental  Farming,  of  the  operations  of  which  the  Pupils  will  be  required 
to  keep  journals. 

•'Thorough-draining,  Deepening  Land,  Irrigation,  House-feeding,  and  the 
Management  of  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  will  engage  most  particular  atten- 
tion ;  and  a  few  of  each  of  the  approved  breeds  of  Cattle  and  Sheep  will  be 
kept  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing  rhe  Pupils  with  the  peculiar  habits  ot  the 
breeds.  A  Chemical  Laboratory  and  a  collection  of  rocks  and  earths  will  be 
provided.  In  a  word,  every  effort  will  be  made  to  inculcate,  along  with  habits 
of  industry,  order  and  attention,  a  sound  practical  knowledge  of  the  best 
system  of  Husbandry,  so  as  to  enable  them  in  after  life  to  accomplish  the  great 
object  of  Improved  Farming,  viz., 

"  To  raise  the  largest  crops  at  the  least  expense,  and  with  the  least  possible 
injury  to  the  land. 


192  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


RULES    AND    REGULATIONS. 

"  I.  Pupils  to  rise  at  half-past  five  o'clock  in  summer  and  at  daylight  in 
winter. 

'*  2.  In  half  an  hour  after  the  dressing-bell  has  rung,  one  half  or  portion  of 
the  pupils  shall  be  on  the  ground  ready  to  commence  work,  or  in  the  house, 
where  they  will  be  provided  with  various  industrial  employments  (should  the 
weather  not  permit  of  out-door  occupation),  the  other  half  or  portion  shall, 
within  the  same  period,  repair  to  the  school-room  and  commence  business 
there. 

'  *  3.  The  bell  shall  ring  at  nine  for  breakfast ;  three-quarters  of  an  hour  shall 
be  allowed  for  that  meal,  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  classes  shall  return  to 
their  respective  occupations,  as  before  breakfast. 

"  4.  At  one  o'clock  the  bell  shall  ring  for  dinner  ;  one  hour  shall  be  devoted 
to  this  meal  and  to  relaxation ;  at  two  o'clock  the  classes  shall  exchange  ; 
thus,  the  portion  which  was  at  work  in  the  farm  in  the  forenoon  shall  remain 
in  the  school,  and  that  portion  which  was  in  the  school  shall  go  to  work 
in  the  farm. 

"  5.  At  six  o'clock  in  summer  and  at  dusk  in  winter  the  bell  shall  ring  for 
leaving  off  work.  Supper  shall  be  ready  at  eight  o'clock  ;  and  the  period 
between  leaving  off  work  and  supper  time  in  winter,  shall  be  occupied  in  the 
study  of  agricultural  chemistry,  geology,  botany,  &c. 

"  6.  All  controversial  discussion  on  religious  or  political  subjects  is  strictly 
prohibited. 

"7.  The  pupils  in  the  farm  and  those  in  the  school  shall  be  under  the  sole 
control  of  the  respective  masters,  for  the  time  being. 

"  8.  The  masters  will  be  required  to  the  best  of  their  ability  and  in  a  kind  and 
affable  manner  to  impart  instruction  to  the  pupils,  and  to  report  to  the  Com- 
mittee any  instance  of  insubordination,  misconduct,  or  absence  from  the 
institution  without  permission  of  the  Committee,  who  may,  should  they  see 
fit,  punish  by  expulsion  from  the  College,  for  the  infringement  of  the  rules  or 
regulations. 

"  9.  Any  pupil  expelled  the  College,  shall  forfeit  any  sum  which  he  or  his 
friends  may  have  paid  for  him  in  advance. 

"  10.  On  Sundays  the  pupils  shall,  accompanied  by  one  or  other  of  their 
masters,  or  by  a  monitor,  repair  to  their  respecti\'e  places  of  public 
worship. 

"11.  Each  pupil  shall  come  provided  with  four  shirts,  four  pairs  of  stock- 
ings, two  pairs  of  shoes  and  a  working  and  Sunday  dress. 

"  12.  A  certificate  will  be  given  at  the  discretion  of  the  Committee  to  pupils 
who  have  resided  three  years  in  the  institution. 

"13.  A  vacation  of  a  fortnight  at  Christmas  will  be  allowed  to  such  of  the 
pupils  as  choose  to  avail  themselves  of  it. 

"  14.  The  Committee  shall  have  power  from  time  to  time  to  vary  the 
foregoing  rules  and  to  make  others,  and  also  such  bye-laws  as  may  appear 
necessary. 

DIETARY, 

"  Breakfast— Stirabout  or  Bread  and  Milk. 

"  Dinner — Three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  Corn  Beef  or  Pork  with  vegetables 
and  potatoes,  on  three  days  of  the  week.  Fresh  Meat  on  Sunday,  Soup  on 
Monday,  and  on  the  other  two  days,  butter  and  milk  will  be  substituted  for 
flesh  meat. 

"  Supper — Bread  and  Milk  or  Flummary  and  Milk. 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETY.  193 


UPPER    OR    FIRST    CLASS    DEPARTMENT. 

"Arrangements  will  be  made  for  opening-  this  branch  of  the  institution  for 
the  education  of  the  sons  of  gentry,  as  soon  as  it  shall  appear  that  such  would 
be  likely  to  be  supported.  The  course  of  education  in  this  branch  is  proposed 
to  embrace  the  Classics,  Mathematics,  Mechanics,  Drawing-,  Engineering-,  as 
connected  with  the  improvement  of  landed  property,  and  the  French  and 
German  Languages.  The  sciences  more  immediately  bearing  on  agriculture, 
such  as  Chemistry,  Geology,  Botany,  Physiology,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
diseases  of  Cattle,  will  be  taught  by  competent  lecturers,  and  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  practice  of  improved  agriculture  will  be  acquired  by  the 
pupils  in  their  walks  for  exercise  and  by  attending  the  lectures  on  the  theory 
and  practice  of  agriculture,  common  to  all  classes. 

FORM    OF   APPLICATION    FOR    ADMISSION. 

"I  do  beg  to  recommend  aged  as 

a  fit  and  proper  person  to  be  received  as  a  pupil  in  the  Leopardstown  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  I  hereby  undertake  that  he  shall  be  amenable  to  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  institution,  which  I  have  read. 

"  Application  for  Admission  to  be  addressed  to  the  Secretary,  at  the 
Farmers  Gazette  Office." 

As  might  be  expected  the  year  1845  proved  an  intensely  anxious  one  for 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society.  From  its  formation  the 
Society  had  a  run  of  splendid  successes  ;  its  connection  with  Local  Societies 
brought  it  into  touch  with  all  parts  of  the  country.  Its  Provincial  Shows, 
of  which  four  had  already  been  hela,  had  stimulated  a  desire  for  Agricultural 
improvement.  The  prizes  offered  for  land  reclamation,  drainage,  and  good 
tillage,  were  earnestly  competed  for.  The  reports  received  from  Local 
Societies  contained  matter  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  character, 
which  was  disseminated  by  Press  reports  and  subsequently  in  the  published 
transactions  of  the  Society.  But  '45  arrived  and  with  it  the  fearsome 
"  blight."  The  Society  took  early  action.  Special  meetings  of  the  Council 
were  held,  the  situation  discussed,  and  remedial  measures  suggested.  Lest 
a  panic  might  be  created,  by  the  publication  o^  alarming  reports  that  had 
reached  it,  the  Society,  in  spite  of  frequent  suggestions,  refrained  from 
making  public  the  information  that  had  been  received  regarding  the  myste- 
rious disease.  Professor  Kane  (afterwards  Sir  Robert)  reported  proceed- 
ings of  sub-committee  that  had  been  nominated  to  watch  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  and  a  number  of  experiments  were  suggested  as  to  treatment  of 
potatoes  that  were  slightly  affected.  Treatment  by  salt,  hme,  chloride  of 
lime,  drying  by  artificial  heats,  parboiling,  crushing  and  drying  the  meal 
(farina),  covering  up  tubes  in  ground  with  earth  or  straw  in  order  to  keep 
them  dry,  all  these  were  suggested,  but  needless  to  say  their  adoption  was 
not  successful  in  result.  Considerable  attention  was  given  to  the  idea  of 
securing  by  crushing  and  drying  the  potato  starch,  and  prizes  were  offered 
by  the  Society  for  machines  suited  to  this  purpose  ;  but  although  several 
machines  were  sent  in  for  competition,  the  process  did  not  appear  to  be 
taken  up  generally,  probably  because  of  the  absence  of  adaptability  of  the 
people  to  meet  such  exceptional  circumstances  as  now  existed.  Viewed  by 
the  light  of  subsequent  events,  and  the  knowledge  afforded  by  scientific 
research  and  teaching,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  much  of  the  dreadful 
suffering  that  occurred  during  the  famine  years  in  Ireland  might  have  been 

o 


194  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


averted  if  the  suggestion  of  "  Professor  Kane  "  to  the  Agricultural  Society 
as  to  drying  the  farina  of  the  potato  had  been  extensively  carried  out. 

Towards  the  end  of  1 845  the  Society,  at  the  suggestion  of  "  Pierce 
Mahony,"  a  member  of  Council,  placed  themselves  in  communication  with 
Her  Majesty's  Government  with  the  view  of  urgin<T  the  employment  of  the 
people  in  works  of  land  drainage  and  reclamation  and  the  cheapening  of 
procedure  in  availing  of  the  Drainage  Acts,  5  and  6  Vic,  c.  89.  Strong  re- 
presentations were  urged  at  the  reception  of  a  deputation.  Sir  T.  Free- 
mantle  promised  to  have  the  matter  brought  under  the  notice  of  H.  M. 
Government.  Professor  Kane  reported  that  a  committee  consisting  of  Pro- 
fessor Lindley,  Professor  Lyon  Playfair,  and  himself  were  sitting  at  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society,  having  been  nominated  by  the  Government,  to  in- 
quire into  the  scientific  aspect  of  the  potato  Qisease.  Professor  Kane  wrote 
suggesting  the  growing  of  new  varieties  of  potatoes  from  the  seed  of  the 
piotato  apple.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  offered  prizes  of  ;£'500  for  the  raising 
of  new  varieties  of  potatoes  and  for  land  dramage. 

Various  conflicting  reports  on  the  potato  disease  were  received,  but  on 
the  whole  the  situation  in  this  regard  was  considered  most  serious.  Sug- 
gestions were  sent  out  from  Societies  urging  circumspection  and  recom- 
mending the  sowing  of  Swedish  turnips,  Aberdeens,  or  cabbages  at  once  on 
land  where  the  disease  appeared. 

Early  in  1847  Mr.  C.  V.  Trevellyan  of  the  Treasury  sends  to  the  Society 
extracts  and  papers  from  Miss  Martineau  and  Mr.  Buckland  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  farming  classes.  During  1 847  the  Local  Societies  increased  con- 
siderably in  number  for  affiliation.  Most  interesting  reports  showing  much 
enthusiasm  were  received  from  them. 

The  Society  presented  an  address  of  welcome  to  Lord  Clarendon,  who, 
during  his  Vice-Royalty  gave  rrost  earnest  attention  to  Irish  affairs.  His 
Excellency  gave  a  long  and  sympathetic  reply  in  which  he  commends  "  The 
zeal  and  perseverance  with  which  you  labour  not  only  to  introduce  improve- 
ment in  Agriculture  and  to  diffuse  sound  practical  knowledge,  but  to 
combat  want  of  support  and  the  apathy  of  those  from  whom  you  had  a  right 
to  expect  far  different  conduct ;  but  that  this  blindness  to  their  own  interests 
should  long  continue  on  the  part  of  landowners  I  hold  to  be  impossible,  for 
they  must  know  that  we  live  in  times  of  active  competition  when  all  who  will 
not  be  distanced  in  the  race  must  exert  every  energy."  The  question  of 
bringing  mstruction  to  the  small  farmers  and  to  districts  out  of  touch  with 
improved  methods  had  not  hitherto  been  considered.  In  a  long  and 
thoughtful  letter  to  the  Council  of  the  Society  Lord  Clarendon  notes, 
"  The  means  for  bettering  the  condition  of  the  Irish  people  must  for  a 
long  time  be  looked  for  in  the  improvement  of  the  processes  adopted  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,"  and  urges  "  a  sound  practical  instruction  as  to  the 
well  established  principles  upon  which  their  operations  should  be  based." 
He  suggests  the  autumn  for  practical  instruction  by  competent  persons  who 
should  impress  upon  the  people  the  means  to  be  adopted  for  good  cultiva- 
tion the  following  year.  The  instructors,  he  goes  on  to  say,  should  be  able 
to  speak  with  authority,  and  the  lectures  should  give  information  on  such 
subjects  as — 

1.  Draining  and  subsoiling. 

2.  Rotation  and  green  cropping. 

3.  Economy  of  manuring,  and  housef ceding  cattle. 


ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  195 

"  Lectures  should  not  be  delivered  in  an  abstract  or  purely  scientific  form, 
but  suited  to  the  educational  condition  of  the  people  ;  simple  language 
should  be  used,"  and  practical  demonstrations  given  in  each  locality.  The 
Society  not  having  funds  for  the  purpose,  the  Lord  Lieutenant  subscribed 
;^50,  and  suggested  that  the  Duke  of  Leinster  and  others  should  assist,  as 
the  Government  could  not  find  funds.  It  was  arranged  that  the  balance  of 
Lord  Heytesbury's  fund  for  land  drainage  should  be  applied  to  the  scheme 
of  practical  instruction. 

In  November  of  this  year  (1847)  there  were  appointed  five  Practical  In- 
structors. All  of  these  were  men  of  high  professional  status  who  had  been 
practically  engaged  in  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  works  on  estates  and 
farms  in  Ireland ;  the  salaries  were  ;£"20  a  month,  which  sum  was  to 
cover  all  expenses  incident  to  the  office.  A  large  number  of  proprietors, 
including  William  Smith  O'Brien,  M.P.,  applied  for  the  services  of  the  prac- 
tical instructors.  The  five  who  had  been  appointed  were  allotted  to  the 
poor  districts  in  Mayo,  West  Limerick,  Clare,  and  South  Kerry.  The 
reports  received  from  the  Practical  Instructors  on  their  first  visits  were  full 
of  interesting  information  and  enthusiasm  by  reason  of  the  warmth  of  their 
reception  at  Show  stations.  Largely  increased  numbers  of  applications 
were  now  daily  received  for  Practical  Instructors,  and  considerable  financial 
support  was  received  from  the  country.  In  the  beginning  of  1848  His 
Excellency  Lord  Clarendon  contributed  £1,000,  and  suggested  increasing 
the  number  of  Practical  Instructors  in  consequence  of  the  success  of  the 
scheme.  He  also  recommended  the  issuing  of  short  tracts  on  Agricultural 
subjects.  Mr.  Todhunter,  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  suggested  that  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  should  allow  their  Practical  Instructors  to  aid  in 
the  relief  measures  that  were  instituted  by  the  Society  of  Friends,  by 
receiving  consignments  of  seeds,  etc.,  at  depots  and  distributing  same  in  a 
methodical  manner.  It  was  decided  to  advertise  for  further  Instructors,  the 
salary  to  be  a  maximum  oi  £100  z  year,  and  minimum  £'80.  It  was  found  in 
November,  1848,  the  balance  in  hand  for  Practical  Instructors  was  i^  1,348 
I2S.  2,d.  The  scheme  for  Practical  Instruction  had  throughout  1848  most  suc- 
cessful results.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  gave  another  sum  of  £"1,000  for  the 
year.  The  Society  of  Friends  contributed  "  in  kind,"  most  Hberally,  one  gift 
of  seeds,  being  60  cwt.  of  mangold  seeds  ;  24  cwt  of  carrots ;  6  cwt.  of 
spinach.  The  latter  item  indicates,  no  doubt,  good  intention  but  small 
knowledge  of  dietetics  for  a  starving  people.  The  Relief  Committee  also 
gave  considerable  quantities  of  turnip  seeds  to  be  distributed  by  the  Prac- 
tical Instructors. 

Towards  the  close  of  1849  the  system  of  Practical  Instruction  appeared  to 
be  in  danger  from  want  of  funds.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  again  sent  iT  1,000 
and  numerous  contributions  were  received  in  money  and  kind ;  but  still  the 
funds  available  were  found  to  be  insufficient  for  carrying  on  the  work. 
In  September,  1850,  the  Committee  of  the  Society  entrusted  with  the 
management  of  the  Practical  Instruction  scheme  expressed  regret  that  for 
want  of  funds  all  the  Instructors  must  be  withdrawn,  which  was  (they 
added)  regrettable  at  a  period  of  the  year  when  their  services  were  most 
required,  and  at  a  time  when  the  class  for  whose  benefit  they  were  most 
particularly  employed  was  becoming  sensible  of  the  advantages  of  their 
advice.  As  much  as  ;^8oo  worth  of  green  crops  seeds  had  been  distributed 
at  a  reduced  price  in  the  season  (1850).  With  these  seeds  9,000  acres  of 
green  crops  have  been  raised  on  land  which  in  all  probability  would  have 


196  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


been  uncultivated  but  for  the  exertions  of  the  Practical  Instructors,  it 
was  estimated  that  the  system  of  Practical  Instruction  could  not  be  carried 
on  at  a  cost  less  than  £"2,600  per  annum — i.e.,  £"2,000  for  instruction 
and  £600  for  seeds,  etc.  The  report  of  the  Committee  was  sent  to  His 
Excellency  the  Lord  Lieutenant  who  subscribed  £1,000.  The  Society 
reduced  the  number  of  instructors  from  20  to  10,  which  number  would 
absorb  His  Excellency's  subscription.  The  subsequent  work  of  the  Prac- 
tical Instruction  scheme  though  brief  was  full  of  usefulness.  Taken  as  a 
whole  this  project  was  one  of  the  most  beneficent  and  far-seeing  for  the 
agriculture  of  Ireland.  All  classes  united  to  take  advantage  of  the  instruc- 
tion, and,  fortunately,  there  were  means  available  for  teaching  work,  because 
of  the  system  of  apprenticeship  to  agricultural  horticulture  which  then 
existed.  Landed  proprietors  generally  kept  up  establishments  in  the 
country.  At  these  the  steward,  or  the  man  who  held  the  combined  office  of 
steward  and  gardener  took  apprentices  to  his  work.  A  very  considerable 
number  of  these  agriculturists,  stewards,  and  gardeners  were  men  of  good 
education,  who  had  themselves  been  trained  to  their  business  ;  many  having 
passed  through  apprenticeship  in  farming  along  with  a  service  and  instruc- 
tion in  the  Trinity  College  or  Glasnevin  Botanic  Gardens.  Some  English- 
men and  Scotchmen  were  amongst  the  class.  Thoughtful,  intelligent,  and 
industrious,  they  were  eminently  suited  to  the  work.  The  subsequent 
career  of  these  Practical  Instructors  gave  evidence  of  the  high  class  men 
that  were  engaged.  On  their  being  disbanded  almost  all  of  them  became 
well  settled,  being  employed  upon  estates  as  agents,  agriculturists,  stew- 
ards, or  drainage  engineers.  Several  were  offered  valuable  farms  with  aid 
towards  stocking  them  on  estates  where  their  services  had  been  appreciated 
during  their  service  as  Instructors. 

If  the  work  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  had  termin- 
ated with  the  scheme  of  Practical  Instruction  alone,  its  existence  would 
have  been  justified ;  but  its  efforts  on  behalf  of  the  improvement  of  farm 
stock  during  a  time  when  the  difficulties  of  travelling  and  the  movement  of 
stock  were  enormous  were  admirably  conceived  and  carried  out. 

It  was,  however,  in  what  may  be  called  its  moral  influence  that  the  greatest 
usefulness  of  the  Society  was  manifested.  Here  was  a  Society  composed  of 
all  classes,  brought  together  for  the  industrial  development  of  the  whole 
country,  in  which,  throughout  its  existence,  almost  complete  harmony  pre- 
vailed. This  is  an  influence  that  cannot  be  statistically  expressed,  but  it  was 
none  the  less  real  for  that ;  and  though  its  action  was  silent  it  was  also  signi- 
ficant and  widespread.  A  time  came,  however,  when,  from  a  variety  of 
causes,  financial  and  other,  the  Society  could  no  longer  usefully  carry  out  the 
trust  it  had  undertaken.  Happily,  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  many  of  whose 
Council  members  were  also  on  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
considered  that  an  amalgamation  of  the  Societies  might  be  usefully  effected  ; 
and,  as  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  had  recently  developed  a  spirit  of  agri- 
cultural aid,  the  members  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  were  on  the 
whole  not  adverse  to  the  proposed  union.  Accordingly,  in  1887,  an  agree- 
ment was  entered  into  between  the  two  great  Societies  that  an  amalgama- 
tion by  Royal  Charter  should  be  brought  about. 


NORTH-EAST   AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION.  197 


THE   NORTH-EAST  AGRICULTURAL   ASSOCIATION. 

The  operations  of  the  late  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland  having 
been  found  so  extensive  and  costly  as  to  prevent  the  great  body  of  practical 
farmers  from  participating  directly  in  its  benefits,  and  the  smaller  local 
societies  being  necessarily  too  restricted  in  their  funds  and  operations  to 
effect  much  permanent  advantage,  several  landed  proprietors  and  others 
interested  in  agricultural  pursuits,  entertained  a  conviction  that  an  inter- 
mediate society  might,  as  a  connecting  Hnk,  become  the  means  of  extending 
the  benefit  of  the  Great  National  Society  on  the  one  hand,  and  stimulating 
the  energies  of  local  societies  on  the  other  hand.  Acting  upon  this  idea, 
the  following  met  in  Hillsborough,  County  Down,  on  the  21st  September, 
1854: — The  Marquis  of  Downshire,  Very  Rev.  Dean  Stannus,  Lisburn  ; 
John  Waring  Maxwell,  Finnebrogue ;  A.  H.  Montgomery,  Tyrella ;  H. 
Stanley  McClintock,  Randalstown ;  S.  K.  Mulholland,  Eglantine ;  S.  D. 
Crommelin,  Carrowdore  Castle  ;  Rev.  Dr.  Montgomery,  Dunmurry ;  Jona- 
than Richardson,  Glenmore ;  William  Charley,  Seymour  Hill ;  and  Fitzher- 
bert  Filgate,  Hillsborough. 

The  Marquis  of  Downshire,  who  took  the  chair,  read  a  great  number  of 
letters  from  the  leading  landed  proprietors  of  the  counties  of  Down  and 
Antrim,  approving  of  the  views  above  stated,  and  it  was  unanimously 
resolved  that  steps  should  be  taken  t  wards  the  formation  of  a  Society,  to 
be  entitled  "  The  North-East  Agricultural  Association  of  Ireland,"  em- 
bracing the  counties  of  Down,  Antrim,  Armagh,  and  Monaghan,  and  having 
for  its  general  objects,  (i)  the  improvement  of  stock  and  farm  produce  by 
holding  an  annual  show  for  their  exhibition  ;  (2)  the  encouragement  of  the 
manufacture  of  implements  suitable  to  the  North-eastern  counties  of  Ire- 
land, and  (3)  the  dissemination  of  practical  and  useful  knowledge  con- 
nected with  agriculture  in  its  various  branches. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  resolution  of  this  preliminary  meeting,  a  general 
meeting  of  those  favourable  to  the  establishment  of  such  an  association  was 
held  in  the  Town  Hall,  Belfast,  on  20th  October,  1854,  to  consider  its  organ- 
isation, and  the  principles  and  regulations  on  which  its  proceedings  should 
be  conducted  and  based. 

At  this  meeting,  presided  over  by  the  Marquis  of  Downshire,  there  was  a 
very  large  attendance  of  those  interested.  Resolutions  embodying  the 
objects  named  were  adopted,  and  the  rules  submitted  to  the  meeting  as  the 
constitution  of  the  Association  having  been  approved  of,  office-bearers  were 
elected. 

The  first  Show  of  the  Association  was  held  at  Belfast  on  23rd  and  24th 
August,  1855,  when  there  were  offered  for  competition  in  the  various  classes 


198  NORTH-EAST  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION. 

204  money  premiums,  amounting  to  £216;  93  medals,  and  74  certificates. 
In  drafting  the  prize  list,  the  committee  acted  upon  the  principle  of  havmg 
two  distinct  classes,  viz. : — one  for  the  amateur,  and  another  for  the  working 
farmer.  To  the  former  they  allotted  of  the  money  premiums  £28,  and  to 
the  latter  ^^^138.  Instead  of  giving  a  few  large  money  premiums,  they  sub- 
divided the  sum  allocated  into  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  thereby  distri- 
buting the  prizes  over  a  greater  number  of  exhibitors,  which  they  considered 
the  most  likely  plan  to  secure  an  extensive  competition.  There  were  506 
entries  at  this  Show,  which  were  classified  according  to  the  followmg 
summary : — 

Amateur  Classes. 

Bulls,           -  -           -  -  -  23 

Cows  and  Heifers  -             _   .  _  -  84 

Horses,         -  -             -  -  -  29 

Sheep,          -  -  ,      -  -  -  68 

Swine,          -  -            -  -  -  32 


—236 


Farmers'  Classes. 


Bulls,  -  -  -  -  -    19 

Cows  and  Heifers,  -  -  -  -     43 

Horses,         -  -  -  -  -     42 

Sheep,  -  -  -  -  -     17 

Swine,  -  -  -  -  -     13 

Poultry,        -  -  -  -  "59 

Butter,  -  -  -  -  -     36 

Flax,  -  -  -  -  -       8 

Flax-seed,  -  -  -  -       4 

— 241 

Implement  Stands,  -  -  -  29 


Total,         -  -  -         506 

With  a  view  to  carrying  out  the  third  object  of  the  Association,  viz.,  the 
diffusion  of  practical  and  useful  knowledge  connected  with  agriculture,  the 
committee  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  the  Chemico-Agricultural  Society 
of  Ulster,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  whether  they  could  have  a  joint  journal 
for  the  two  Societies.  After  a  good  deal  of  consideration  and  discussion, 
it  was  concluded  that,  although  it  would  be  most  desirable  to  have  a  medium 
through  which  to  communicate  the  transactions  of  the  Association  to  the 
public,  the  funds  were  not  sufficiently  ample  to  warrant  them  at  that  time 
embarking  in  such  an  undertaking. 

By  the  constitution  of  the  Association,  its  operations  were  limited  to  three 
objects — the  holding  of  an  annual  show,  the  encouragement  of  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  and  the  dissemination  of  practical  and 


NORTH-EAST   AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCL\TION.  199 


useful  knowledge  connected  with  agriculture.  These,  while  primary  objects 
in  the  extension  of  agricultural  improvement,  did  not  embrace  all  that  was 
requisite  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  Association.  The  committee, 
therefore,  decided  to  offer  premiums  for  such  objects  as  might,  from  time  to 
time,  appear  best  calculated  to  improve  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, the  breeds  of  stock,  and  the  general  husbandry  of  the  country,  and 
they  considered  it  would  be  desirable  to  offer  prizes  for  the  best  managed 
farms.  To  carry  this  into  effect,  each  county  was  divided  into  three  districts,, 
as  nearly  as  possible  of  equal  extent ;  and  as  the  best  defined  boundaries, 
the  baronial  divisions  were  selected,  grouping  together  those  that  were  con- 
tiguous to  each  other.  The  competitions  in  each  district  were  divided  into 
two  sections— one  for  holdings  containing  above  forty  statute  acres,  and 
another  for  holdings  containing  not  more  than  forty  statute  acres  ;  to  each 
section  there  was  allocated  three  premiums.  These  competitions  were 
carried  on  from  1857  to  1867,  but  at  no  period  did  they  come  up  to  the 
expectation  formed  at  their  institution,  the  entries  having  been  much  more 
limited  than  might  reasonably  have  been  expected. 

In  1857  the  committee  called  attention  to  the  desirability  of  having  a 
uniformity  of  weights  and  measures  for  the  sale  of  agricultural  produce 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  A  report  was  submitted,  showing  the 
variety  of  systems  in  use  in  a  number  of  the  principal  centres  and  towns  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland.  This  report  was  printed  and  circulated 
amongst  the  members  of  the  Society,  and  sent  to  the  Grand  Juries,  Corpo- 
rations, and  other  municipal  bodies  in  Ireland,  several  of  whom  signified' 
their  approval  of  the  movement,  and  steps  were  taken  to  bring  the  subject 
before  Parliament.  The  principle  recommended  by  the  Association  was,. 
"  That  all  agricultural  produce  should  be  sold  by  weight  alone,  irrespective 
of  measure,  and  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  abolish  the  system  of  barrels." 
In  1 861  a  Bill  for  the  Regulation  of  Markets  and  Fairs  was  brought  before 
Parliament  by  the  Chief  Secretary  (Mr.  Cardwell),  which,  however,  did  not 
contain  any  provision  for  the  regulation  of  weights  and  measures.  The 
Association  appointed  a  special  sub-committee  to  consider  the  clauses  of 
the  Bill,  and  a  report  was  issued,  a  copy  of  which  was  sent  to  every  Member 
of  Parliament  for  Ireland,  and  a  request  made  for  their  co-operation  in 
obtaining  the  introduction  of  clauses  into  the  Bill  with  regard  to  weights 
and  measures.  No  enactment,  however,  was  passed  during  that  Session. 
In  1862  the  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  (Sir  Robert  Peel)  introduced  a  Bill 
for  the  Regulation  of  Markets  and  Fairs,  which  was  subsequently  with- 
drawn, and  introduced  a  Bill  for  the  Regulation  of  Weights  and  Measures, 
the  clauses  of  which  were  not  merely  in  accordance  with  the  principle  con- 
tended for,  but  were  in  many  cases  couched  in  the  very  language  in  which 
the  views  of  the  Association  were  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Govern- 
ment. This  Act  having  been  passed  through  Parliament,  is  now  the  law  of 
the  land,  and  thus  the  many  years'  labour  of  the  Association  were  finally 
crowned  with  success. 

The  dissolution  in  1859  of  the  Royal  Flax  Improvement  Society  had  left 
Ulster  without  any  established  body  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  this  valu- 
able crop,  and  consequently  loud  complaints  had  been  made  by  farmers  in 
various  places.  A  special  committee,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Jonathan  Rich- 
ardson, Glenmore,  Lisbum ;  William  Charley,  J.P.,  Seymour  Hill,  Dun- 
murry ;   and  John  Borthwick,  Prospect,  Carrickfergus,  were  appointed  and 


2C0  NORTH-EAST   AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION. 

authorised  to  take  such  steps  as  they  might  consider  desirable  for  promoting 
the  growth  of  Irish  flax.  This  committee,  feehng  that  it  was  advisable  to 
proceed  gradually  and  cautiously  in  carrying  out  any  extensive  measures 
involving  a  heavy  expenditure,  more  especially  as  the  funds  at  their  disposal 
were  so  very  limited,  confined  themselves  to  revising  and  publishing  in  their 
amended  form  the  instructions  compiled  by  the  late  Royal  Flax  Improve- 
ment Society.  These  instructions  met  with  general  approval,  inasmuch  as 
applications  for  supplies  were  received  from  the  farmers,  local  societies,  flax 
merchants,  and  spinners  throughout  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  from  Russia 
and  other  European  States  and  America.  In  addition  to  these  labours  the 
Association  made  a  large  increase  at  the  annual  show  to  the  prizes  offered 
for  Irish  flax  and  flax-seed,  and  had  the  gratification  of  learning  that  those 
efforts  met  with  the  approval  of  the  landed  proprietors  of  Ulster,  many  of 
whom,  although  not  residing  nor  having  property  within  the  district  of  the 
Association,  united  themselves  with  it  as  members.  According  to  the  Agri- 
cultural Returns,  it  appears  that  the  extent  of  land  under  flax  in  i860  was 
128,595  acres,  and  in  1861,  147,866  acres,  showing  an  increase  of  19,271 
acres  in  the  latter  year.  This  satisfactory  result  was  mainly  owing  to  the 
efforts  made  by  this  and  other  kindred  associations,  aided,  no  doubt,  by  the 
remunerative  prices  of  the  fibre  during  the  preceding  season.  The  diffusion 
of  instruction  and  information  on  the  subject  of  flax  cultivation,  especially  in 
the  south  and  west  of  Ireland,  where  such  instruction  had  been  most 
required,  occupied  for  many  years  the  attention  of  the  Association,  and  the 
committee  had  the  gratification  of  learning  from  many  growers  in  those 
provinces  that,  by  simply  following  the  printed  "  directions  "  supplied  to 
them,  and  without  any  further  aid,  they  had  succeeded  in  producing  good 
and  remunerative  crops,  for  which  they  had  found  a  ready  sale  by  consigning 
it  to  Belfast.  In  all  cases  the  committee  took  particular  care  to  caution 
growers  against  placing  more  than  a  small  proportion  of  their  respective 
holdings  under  flax,  in  consequence  of  the  uncertain  character  of  the 
crop. 

A  winter  show  of  fat  stock,  poultry,  roots,  cereals,  flax,  flax-seed,  butter, 
and  cheese  was  held  by  the  Association  on  5th  December,  i860.  From  the 
unfavourable  character  of  the  previous  year,  which  had  proved  detrimental 
to  similar  exhibitions  held  elsewhere,  the  committee  did  not  expect  a  large 
exhibition,  but  even  taking  this  drawback  into  consideration,  the  success  of 
the  show  was  not  sufficiently  marked  to  warrant  its  continuance. 

In  connection  with  the  annual  show,  held  in  1 870,  the  Association  inaugu- 
rated a  trial  of  mowing  machines  and  double  furrow  ploughs.  There  were 
twenty-five  of  the  former  and  nineteen  of  the  latter  entered.  The  ground 
selected  was  the  Ulster  Model  Farm,  Balmoral,  Belfast,  generously  granted 
for  that  purpose  by  the  Commissioners  of  National  Education.  The  nature 
of  the  soil  was  such  as  to  fully  test  the  capacity  of  the  most  improved  imple- 
ments. This  test  of  the  practical  working  powers  of  the  several  machines 
afforded  great  gratification  to  the  farming  public,  many  of  whom  came  from 
great  distances  to  witness  the  trial.  Trials  of  mowing  machines,  hay  ted- 
ders, and  horse  rakes  were  held  with  marked  success  on  the  Model  Farm 
in  1 87 1  and  1873.  ^^  ^^e  former  year,  forty-seven  machmes  were  entered 
for  competition,  and  fifty-five  in  the  latter.  Although  no  prizes  were  offered, 
many  eminent  makers  from  England  and  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  Ireland, 
were  represented.  The  committee,  however,  had  been  appealed  to  to  dis- 
pense with  these  exhibitions  in  consequence  of  the  disadvantage  under 


NORTH-EAST  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCLATION.  201 


wliich  manufacturers  at  a  distance  laboured  in  competing  with  those  located 
in  Belfast  or  the  neighbourhood. 

In  1 87 1  a  most  influential  deputation,  representing  the  railway,  banking, 
and  commercial  interests  of  Belfast,  waited  upon  the  Committee,  requesting 
them  to  invite  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland  to  hold  their  exhi- 
bition in  conjunction  with  that  of  the  Association's  in  Belfast  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  Committee,  fully  sensible  of  the  benefits  likely  to  result  not 
only  to  the  commerce  of  Belfast,  but  also  to  the  agriculture  of  Ulster,  by  the 
holding  of  such  an  exhibition,  gave  the  subject  their  earnest  consideration, 
and  unanimously  passed  a  resolution  deciding  to  invite  the  Royal  Society 
to  Belfast,  and  to  give  the  usual  guarantee,  provided  there  was  a  reasonable 
prospect  of  the  necessar}^  funds  being  raised  by  the  town  of  Belfast  and  the 
province  of  Ulster  generally.  Acting  upon  that  resolution,  a  requisition 
from  the  merchants  of  Belfast,  and  High  Sheriffs  and  Members  of  Par- 
liament of  adjoining  counties  and  boroughs,  were  presented  to  the 
Mayor  of  Belfast,  who  accordingly  convened  a  public  meeting  in  the  Town 
Hall,  at  which  the  feeling  was  unanimous  in  favour  of  the  united  exhibitions. 
The  Committee  of  this  Association  accordingly  transmitted  the  invitation, 
and  gave  the  usual  preliminary  guarantee  to  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society,  by  wdiom  the  invitation  was  accepted  in  the  most  compli- 
mentary manner,  under  the  personal  presidency  of  His  Royal  Highness  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  The  show  was  held  in  Ormeau  Park,  Belfast,  on  the  7th, 
8th,  and  9th  August,  1 872.  The  display  in  the  live  stock  classes  was  credit- 
able, but  in  the  whole  fell  short  of  what  might  have  been  expected.  This, 
however,  was  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease 
existed  among  stock  at  that  period  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Government 
Veterinary  Department  deemed  it  incumbent  upon  them  to  appoint  an 
officer  specially  to  attend  the  show. 

In  1 89 1  a  circular  was  issued  to  the  members  of  the  Association,  as  well 
as  to  the  general  public  of  Belfast  and  the  North  of  Ireland,  with  the  view  of 
raising  a  fund  sufficient  for  the  acquisition  and  fitting  up  of  new  premises  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Belfast,  which  would  afford  more  ample  space  for  the 
Association's  shows,  and  more  particularly  for  the  development  of  its  horse 
shows,  which  the  markets  of  the  Belfast  Corporation,  in  which  the  shows 
were  always  held,  were  not  adapted  for.  The  Committee  were  pleased  to 
find  that  the  response  to  the  first  issue  of  that  circular  elicited  subscriptions 
to  an  amount  which  gave  them  every  confidence  that  in  a  short  time  the 
amount  required  would  be  subscribed.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1894  that 
a  sum  sufficient  to  justify  them  in  proceeding  with  the  undertaking  was 
forthcoming,  and  in  1895  thirty  acres  of  ground  were  taken  at  Balmoral, 
Belfast,  from  Mr.  A.  Hamill,  D.L.,  a  Vice-President  of  the  Association. 
These  grounds  are  in  every  way  suitable  for  the  purpose  and  most  con- 
veniently situated  as  regards  tramway  and  railway  accommodation.  A  sum 
of  upwards  of  ;£"2  8,000  has  since  been  expended  in  putting  them  into  proper 
order  and  erecting  permanent  buildings  and  stands. 

The  annual  show  was  held  on  the  17th,  i8th,  and  19th  June,  1896,  and 
was  a  memorable  one,  on  account  of  its  being  the  first  held  in  the  new  pre- 
mises, and  also  by  its  being  extended  to  three  days.  The  value  of  the 
prizes  offered  amounted  to  nearly  ;^i,ooo,  and  the  number  of  entries  was  a 
very  great  advance  on  that  of  any  show  previously  held  by  the  Association. 


202 


NORTH-EAST  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION. 


It  may  be  interesting  here  to  note  the  number  of  entries,  and  the  amounts 
offered  in  prizes  since  the  first  show  was  held. 


C 

+:> 

i 

i-s 

-d 

Yeab 

0 

~   1 

.2^ 

s 

0 

p. 
Si 

c 
1 

li 

P 

a 
►2 

c6 

0 

00 
eS 

a1 

a 

t 
0 

i 

m 

< 

S 

w 

CO 

CO 

fc 

« 

U 

E 

fe 

fe 

H 

Oh 

i«55 

89 

28 

52 

71 

85 

45 

59 

36 



8 

4 

29 



506 

£ 
216 

1856 

94 

66 

93 

112 

100 

77 

123 

50 

— 

5 

4 

64 

5 

793 

273 

1857 

73 

63 

82 

76 

89 

67 

88 

46 

— 

5 

4 

39 

12 

644 

297 

1858 

76 

6i 

82 

85 

119 

52 

70 

37 

— 

52 

5 

639 

289 

1859 

107 

76 

45 

91 

6q 

60 

97 

35 

• — 

3 

2 

51 

— 

636 

385 

i860 

99 

67 

50 

72 

59 

69 

102 

34 

— 

— 

— 

48 

7 

607 

314 

1861 

*  

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1862 

102 

61 

45 

74 

54 

77 

120 

16 

— 

4 

2 

40 

8 

603 

453 

1863 

52 

84 

112 

62 

63 

56 

145 

15 

— 

4 

4 

50 

— 

647 

372 

1864 

64 

86 

104 

40 

64 

45 

226 

25 

— 

11 

— 

40 

— 

705 

331 

1865 

77 

76 

75 

76 

67 

30 

168 

29 

— 

II 

— 

32 

3 

644 

326 

1866 

t  — 

— 

-1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1867 

61 

41 

79 

55 

81 

18 

164 

24 

— 

3 

— 

36 

2 

564 

310 

1868 

69 

50 

56 

67 

80 

26 

121 

23 

— 

9 

— 

40 

— 

541 

278 

1869 

78 

37 

60 

40 

76 

32 

120 

19 

— 

8 

— 

47 

— 

517 

289 

1870 

72 

37 

89 

48 

55 

34 

126 

14 

— 

8 

— 

66 

— 

549 

261 

1871 

67 

37 

43 

58 

45 

54 

158 

9 

— 

16 

— 

73 

— 

560 

254 

1872 

t     - 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

no 

1873 

73 

26 

39 

60 

34 

iZ 

89 

30 

— 

13 

— 

62 

— 

459 

343 

1874 

84 

21 

54 

70 

62 

39 

73 

32 

— 

9 

— 

60 

— 

504 

390 

1875 

90 

30 

37 

75 

41 

30 

107 

29 

— 

14 

— 

55 

— 

508 

439 

1876 

96 

25 

39 

121 

38 

42 

68 

26 

— 

9 

— 

59 

— 

523 

437 

1877 

93 

47 

35 

122 

29 

42 

85 

33 

— 

10 

— 

66 

— 

562 

450 

1878 

117 

36 

40 

98 

68 

37 

89 

39 

— 

8 

— 

66 

— 

598 

452 

1879 

81 

32 

57 

131 

63 

35 

103 

37 

— 

10 

— 

57 

— 

606 

452 

1880 

70 

30 

43 

100 

59 

35 

86 

38 

— 

9 

— 

56 

— 

526 

402 

1881 

79 

28 

45 

79 

39 

42 

116 

29 

— 

5 

■^ 

60 

— 

522 

396 

1882 

61 

30 

42 

95 

58 

53 

108 

34 

— 

— 

— 

59 

— 

540 

400 

1883 

64 

26 

54 

83 

55 

33 

83 

41 

— 

— 

— 

58 

— 

497 

384 

1884 

91 

23 

54 

78 

52 

41 

117 

27 

— 

— 

— 

66 

— 

549 

409 

1885 

72 

21 

37 

92 

57 

31 

114 

29 

— 

— 

— 

66 

— 

519 

422 

1886 

84 

22 

41 

109 

45 

23 

108 

39 

— 

— 

— 

58 

— 

529 

421 

1887 

72 

34 

63 

106 

69 

44 

lOI 

49 

10 

— 

— 

63 

— 

611 

425 

1888 

72 

24 

45 

82 

76 

42 

72 

20 

14 

27 

— 

71 

— 

545 

413 

1889 

85 

22 

86 

88 

80 

28 

179 

38 

7 

41 

— 

66 

— 

720 

462 

1890 

95 

24 

102 

178 

130 

58 

152 

26 

12 

53 

— 

66 

— 

896 

461 

1891 

81 

26 

72 

139 

108 

34 

125 

45 

9 

35 

— 

71 

• — - 

745 

458 

1892 

61 

22 

69 

158 

95 

21 

145 

26 

18 

33 

— 

80 

— 

728 

457 

1893 

55 

20 

75 

210 

lOI 

20 

248 

28 

20 

55 

— 

68 

— 

goo 

494 

1894 

58 

20 

63 

199 

94 

— 

281 

38 

10 

46 

■ — 

66 

— 

875 

426 

1895 

56 

12 

69 

193 

100 

32 

312 

24 

— 

28 

— 

82 

— 

908 

466 

1896 

63 

30 

113 

486 

105 

47 

405 

27 

10 

27 

" 

78 

1.391 

978 

*  Show  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland.  f  No  Show  on  account  of  Rinderpest. 

J  Show  held  in  conjunction  with  Show  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland. 


The  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  (Mr.  Gerald  Balfour),  in  the  course  of  his 
speech  introducing  the  Agriculture  and  Industries  (Ireland)  Bill  during  the 
last  Session  of  Parliament  in  1897,  made  a  gratifying  allusion  to  the  work  of 
the  Association,  and  at  the  same  time  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  called 
for  an  expression  of  expert  agricultural  opinion  upon  the  measure  then 
before  the  House.     In  obedience  to  this  call,  the  Council  appointed  a  com- 


NORTH-EAST   AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION.  203 


mittee  to  prepare  a  memorandum  on  the  Bill  for  submission  to  the  Govern- 
ment, and  appointed  a  deputation  for  this  purpose  to  wait  upon  Mr.  Balfour 
in  London.  The  deputation  was  headed  by  the  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of 
Londonderry,  K.G.,  President  of  the  Association. 

Owing  to  the  financial  clauses  of  the  Bill  not  being  considered  satisfac- 
tory, the  Bill  was  eventually  withdrawn.  Nevertheless,  the  necessity  for 
the  establishment  of  a  Board  of  Agriculture  seemed  to  the  Council  to  be  as 
urgent  as  ever,  and  the  pledges  which  the  Government  had  given  upon  the 
subject  in  two  Queen's  Speeches  remained  as  guarantees  that  this  important 
legislation  was  not  finally  abandoned.  The  Council,  therefore,  six  months 
later,  on  receiving  an  invitation  from  the  Belfast  Chamber  of  Commerce  to 
co-operate  with  that  body  and  with  the  Dublin  Chamber  for  the  re-intro- 
duction of  the  Bill  with  some  necessary  amendments,  appeared  by  deputa- 
tion before  the  Chief  Secretary  at  Dublin  Castle,  in  company  with  many 
associations  representative  of  agriculture  and  commerce  throughout  the 
country.  This  deputation,  the  largest  and  most  representative  ever  received 
at  Dublin  Castle,  met  with  a  cordial  reception  from  Mr.  Balfour,  who 
renewed  the  pledges  on  behalf  of  the  Irish  Government  to  take  up  their 
agricultural  programme  so  soon  as  the  exigencies  of  Parliamentary  time 
should  admit. 

In  1892  a  Parliamentary  Commission  met,  with  power  to  incorporate 
under  the  Educational  Endowments  (Ireland)  Act,  1885,  such  educational 
and  other  societies  as  it  might  deem  qualified.  The  effect  of  such  incorpo- 
ration is  to  relieve  the  committee  and  members  of  those  societies  of  liability 
beyond  the  funds  available  by  the  societies  which  they  represent. 

Steps  were  taken  to  obtain  for  the  Committee  a  similar  exemption,  and  an 
application  was  made  to  the  Educational  Endowment  Commissioners  to 
draft  a  scheme  for  the  incorporation  of  the  Association.  The  draft  was 
accordingly  prepared,  and  was  finally  approved  of  by  an  Order  in  Council, 
dated  21st  May,  1894.  Under  this  Act  the  Association  was  to  be  after- 
wards designated  the  "  North-East  Agricultural  Association,"  and  the  Com- 
mittee the  "  Council." 

In  1899,  Mr.  Balfour  introduced  a  Bill  for  Establishing  a  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  other  Industries  and  Technical  Instruction  in  Ireland,  and 
for  other  purposes  connected  therewith.  This  Bill  having  passed  through 
Parliament,  the  Council,  in  conjunction  with  the  Belfast  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, decided  to  invite  Mr.  Balfour  to  come  to  Belfast  in  January,  1900, 
and  explain  at  length  the  object  and  provisions  of  the  Act,  concerning 
which,  naturally,  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  prevailed.  Mr.  Balfour  kindly 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  his  address  was  followed  with  close  attention. 

In  order  that  the  aims  of  the  Association  might  be  more  fully  accom- 
phshed,  the  Council  decided  in  1897  to  hold  two  shows  during  each  year — 
one  in  spring  for  draught  horses,  cattle,  swine,  poultry,  dairy  produce,  im- 
plements, and  machinery ;  the  other  in  summer  for  light  horses  and  sheep, 
and  it  is  gratifying  to  state  that  this  departure  has  been  attended  by  most 
encouraging  results. 


204 


NORTH-EAST    AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION. 


The  following  Tables  give  the  number  of  entries  and  amount  of  prizes 
offered  since  the  show  was  split  up  into  two  separate  groups : — 


The  Spring  Show. 


S^ 

c 

^ 

Year. 

0 

■l-t 

0 

p. 

i 
0 

60 

CO 

G 

03 

•B 

0  ffl  c6 

■a 
pi 

eg 

0 

m 

3 

6 

'A 

So 

0 

11 

>> 

9 

1 

So 

a 
,2 

a 
1 

0 

es; 

A 

p 

'o 

cS 

% 

^ 

0 

fH 

0 

pi 

a 
1— 1 

0 

t^ 

H 

Q 

^ 

0 

oc 

0 

p 

w 

1-5 

Q 

Ph 

pq 

m 

H 

^ 

1897, 

* 

.3.3 

16 

200 

* 

41 

* 

96 

* 

67 

14 

361 

200 

* 

73 

1,101 

£ 
638 

1898, 

17 

30 

21 

21.5 

* 

.52 

* 

«.5 

.51 

92 

9 

3.54 

163 

* 

78 

1,170 

701 

1899, 

15 

29 

21 

292 

6 

43 

19 

109 

5& 

1.3.5 

10 

466 

176 

24 

68 

1,469 

923 

1900, 

13 

29 

18 

?,?,?, 

9 

48 

3« 

78 

44 

93 

48 

480 

212 

18 

72 

1,533 

990  ! 

1901, 

9 

40 

2b 

361 

9 

29 

t 

82 

5t> 

46 

13 

465 

249 

31 

75 

1,491 

963 

'No  classes  given. 


t  Classes  cancelled.        Jumping  Competitions  held  on  one  day  of  the 
Show  only  in  1901. 


The  Horse  and  Sheep  Show.  • 


1^  A 

<B 

rj, 

v 

<D 

§j3 

.a 

tS 

• 

0^ 

3 

§ 

i 

-d 
a 
m 

_o 
3 

_o 

m 

Hii  . 

-d 

-d 

CO 

CO 

P. 

+3 

Year. 

£ 

1s^ 

£« 

0  . 

0  CO 

2 

0 

i 

u 

g 

P. 

a 

00 

0) 

•a 
pi 
0 

1 

eq§ 

0  C 

11 

05 

.5 

1 

0 
ic 
c 
ft 

a 

d 
1-5 

0 
0 

be 

C 

P 

p. 

v 

-d 

CO 

1 

.£3 

a 

0 
'S 

1897, 

18 

32 

28 

10 

22 

91 

76 

96 

119 

21 

lOI 

* 

92 

* 

709 

786  \ 

1898, 

19 

23 

20 

24 

12 

104 

62 

94 

103 

19 

III 

* 

137 

* 

731 

866 

1899, 

21 

27 

27 

24 

18 

125 

80 

88 

104 

19 

100 

* 

117 

* 

750 

891 

1900, 

18 

18 

21 

13 

9 

104 

76 

106 

113 

14 

103 

18 

158 

90 

861 

949 

1 901, 

19 

24 

32 

20 

17 

112 

76 

104 

94 

10 

134 

15 

120 

112 

889 

795 

''  No  classes  given. 


The  total  number  of  members  on  31st  December,  1901,  was  866,  and 
there  were  83  lady  associates. 

It  is  nearly  half  a  century  since  the  Association  came  into  active  operation. 
At  its  formation  there  was  but  little  expectation  that  it  would  assume  the 
dimensions  to  which  it  has  expanded,  and  in  now  taking  a  survey  of  the 
past,  the  members  have  every  reason  to  be  gratified  at  the  enlarged  field  of 
usefulness  to  which  it  has  extended  its  labours,  and  the  singular  success  that 
has  marked  its  career. 


THE   FLAX   SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION.  205 


THE    IRISH    FLAX    INDUSTRY    AND    THE    FLAX 
EXTENSION    ASSOCIATION. 

No  single  event  in  recent  years  caused  greater  disturbance  in  the  Irish 
flax  industry  than  the  Civil  War  in  America,  which  for  a  time  almost  com- 
pletely prevented  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  and  led  to  the  destruction  of 
large  quantities  already  harvested  in  the  Southern  States  ;  the  effects  of  this ' 
were  felt  wherever  the  raw  material  of  any  textile  manufacture  was  pro- 
duced in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  recognised  as  a  distinct  branch  of  pro- 
ductive labour,  and  in  Ireland,  where  for  a  century  and  a  half  the  manufac- 
ture of  linen  had  been  almost  a  national  industry,  the  scarcity  of  cotton  led 
to  marked  fluctuations. 

The  area  under  flax,  which  was  128,595  acres  in  i860,  rose  in  1864  to 
301,693  acres,  an  increase  of  134  per  cent.  As  might  be  expected,  this 
enormous  increase  had  a  tendency  to  check  the  inflation  of  prices  which  had 
taken  place  in  '62  and  '63,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  cotton  alluded  to  above  ; 
in  point  of  fact,  the  balance  between  supply  and  demand  was  completely 
overturned,  a  state  of  affairs  which  must  always  produce  harmful  results. 

In  i860,  Ireland  had  about  600,000  spindles  in  active  employment,  con- 
suming roughly  32,000  tons  of  flax ;  of  this,  the  home  supply  was  24,000 
tons,  or  about  three-fourths,  between  that  year  and  1864.  However, 
spindles  had  increased  by  50,000,  or  say  8^  per  cent.,  whereas  the  area 
under  flax  had  gone  up  to  301,693  acres,  with  a  total  production  of  64,500 
tons,  an  increase,  compared  with  i860,  of  170  per  cent. ;  or  in  another  form, 
the  supply  in  i860  was  about  6.4  stones  per  spindle,  and  in  1864  about  15.8 
stones  ;  and  assuming  for  the  moment  that  Irish  flax  only  was  used,  the 
consumption  could  not  exceed  34,500  tons,  leaving  a  nominal  surplus  of 
30,000  tons  ;  but  as  the  quantity  of  foreign  flax  which  was  used  at  that  time, 
and  estimated  at  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  consumption,  must  be  taken 
into  account,  the  surplus  would  approach  40,000  tons. 

Taken  by  itself,  perhaps,  the  large  sowing  of  1864  was  not  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  disastrous  destruction  of  cotton  and  waste  in  the  labour 
available  for  cotton-growing,  but  the  possibility  of  judiciously  substituting 
flax  for  cotton  was  lost  sight  of,  or,  perhaps,  never  thought  of  at  all,  by  the 
Irish  farmer  when  he  hurriedly  increased  his  sowing,  expecting  as  a  matter 
of  course  to  reap  a  profitable  harvest. 

Capital,  however,  cannot  be  manipulated  so  quickly ;  neither  private 
enterprise  nor  limited  companies  could  secure  funds,  organize  plans,  con- 
struct or  equip  factories  speedily  enough  to. save  the  situation;  it  is  highly 
probable  that  if  this  could  have  been  done,  the  outlay  would  have  repaid 
itself.  It  may  be  well  to  point  out  here,  also,  that  there  was  no  regular 
export  trade  established  to  assist  in  removing  what  must  have  proved  a 
glut  in  the  market,  and  the  inevitable  now  occurs,  the  price  of  raw  material, 
which  had  been  high  in  1862  and  1863  and  in  the  spring  of  1864,  begins  to 
show  symptoms  of  weakness,  and  in  the  end  of  the  season,  by  which  time  the 


206  THE    FLAX   SUPPLY   ASSOCIATION. 

big  harvest  is  ensured,  prices  go  down  with  a  rush,  the  difference  in  the  rate 
between  the  opening  months  of  the  year  and  the  end  of  the  season  is  nearly 
20  per  cent. 

This  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  unfortunate  events  in  connection  with 
the  Irish  flax  industry  which  history  will  have  to  record  ;  and  looking  back 
dispassionately  at  all  the  events  which  led  up  to  it,  and  the  critical  position 
of  trade  prospects  at  that  immediate  period,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  things 
could  have  turned  out  otherwise.  In  the  early  months  of  1864,  prices  were 
at  a  fairly  encouraging  level,  and  the  prospects  of  a  supply  of  cotton  were 
so  gloomy,  that  it  is  not  surprising  the  Irish  farmer  over-estimated  the 
reasonable  possibilities  of  an  increased  demand  for  flax.  There  is  this  much 
to  be  said  in  their  favour,  the  sowing-time  was  at  hand,  and  the  farmers  of 
one  district,  knowing  little  of  what  was  going  on  in  other  districts,  and  having 
no  very  clear  data  to  guide  them,  made  a  very  natural  mistake ;  one  course 
only  could  have  helped  to  keep  up  the  price  of  flax,  viz.,  speculative  buying 
and  storing  up ;  but  this  was  evidently  too  risky  to  find  favour  with  capi- 
talists— a  collapse  of  the  war  in  the  "  States,"  or  another  crop  in  Ireland 
approaching  the  one  in  question,  would  have  led  to  a  very  great  loss. 

The  flax-grower  did  not,  however,  repeat  his  mistake,  for  in  1865  the 
area  sown  with  flax  seed  fell  off  16  per  cent.,  and  the  harvest-time  being 
unfavourable,  the  total  production  was  still  further  reduced — the  result  was 
a  supply  23  per  cent,  smaller  than  the  previous  year's.  The  effect  of  this 
was  that  prices  again  took  a  sharp  turn  upwards,  and  remained  excep- 
tionally high  during  1866  and  into  the  spring  of  1867,  notwithstanding  that 
the  supply  was  fully  equal  to  the  demand. 

Enough  has  been  written  in  relation  to  the  raw  material  to  indicate  what 
preceded  and  partly  led  up  to  the  formation  of  the  Flax  Extension  Asso- 
ciation in  1867  ;  but  another  side  of  the  subject  not  yet  touched  upon  has 
still  to  be  dealt  with  ;  the  business  of  the  spinner  and  manufacturer  is  two- 
sided — his  wares  have  to  find  a  profitable  outlet,  and  the  difficulties  he  has 
to  contend  with  in  this  direction  are  as  pressing  as  the  acquisition  of  raw 
niaterial,  if  not  more  so. 

The  export  of  linen  manufactures  of  all  kinds  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
which  had  been  steadily  increasing  from  1861  till  1866,  began  to  flag.  The 
value  of  these  exports  in  the  first  year  named  was  ;£'3,852,34i  ;  in  1866  it 
had  risen  to  ;£^9,576,245,  an  increase  of  148  per  cent.;  during  1867,  how- 
ever, there  was  a  falling-off  exceeding  two  millions  sterling.  This  pressed 
with  telling  force  on  the  entire  trade,  and  the  idea  spread  rapidly  that 
something  should  be  done  to  steady  and,  if  possible,  increase  the  supply  of 
home-grown  flax.  The  following  advertisement  which  appeared  in  the  Bel- 
fast papers  brought  the  scheme  into  public  notice  : — 

"  Having  been  requested  to  appoint  a  day  of  meeting  to  discuss  the 
desirability  of  forming  an  association  for  the  extension  of  the  growth 
of  flax,  I  hereby  invite  all  who  take  an  interest  in  the  subject  to  meet 
me  at  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  on  Friday,  the  i6th  inst.,  at  i  p.m. 


"1867." 


"  John  Lytle, 
"  President,  Chamber  of  Commerce. 


THE   FLAX   SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION.  207 


A  most  successful  meeting  was  held  in  accordance  with  this  invitation, 
and  the  following  resolutions  unanimously  agreed  to : — 

1 .  "  That  the  formation  of  an  association  in  Belfast  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  quality  of  flax  grown  in  Ulster,  and  extending  the 
cultivation  of  the  crop  elsewhere,  is  calculated  to  be  productive  of 
much  benefit,  not  only  to  the  trade  in  general,  but  also  to  the  agricul- 
tural community." 

2.  "  That,  for  the  promotion  of  the  general  aims  of  this  association,  it 
should  co-operate  as  much  as  possible  with  the  landlords,  agricultural 
societies,  and  all  organisations  which  have  taken,  or  may  hereinafter 
take,  practical  steps  for  the  extension  and  improvement  of  flax  culture." 

3.  "  That,  as  one  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  growth  of  flax  has 
hitherto  been  the  difficulty  of  sale  in  outlying  districts,  the  association 
should  take  such  steps  as  would  enable  the  farmers  in  those  districts  to 
dispose  of  their  crop  to  the  best  advantage." 

4.  "  That,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  preparation  of  the  flax  for  sale, 
this  association  should  afford  such  encouragement  as  might  be  in  its 
power  for  the  erection  of  scutching  machinery  in  new  districts." 

5.  "  That,  while  encouraging  the  saving  of  home-grown  seed  (chiefly 
for  feeding  purposes),  the  association  should  afford  all  possible  assist- 
ance to  landlords  and  farmers  in  procuring  a  supply  of  the  best  descrip- 
tion of  foreign  seed  for  sowing  on  the  most  favourable  terms." 

6.  "  That  the  following  gentlemen  be  requested  to  act  as  a  committee 
for  the  purpose  of  framing  rules  and  regulations  for  the  association,  and 
for  further  carrying  out  the  object  in  view."  (It  is  unnecessary  to  give 
the  names  after  such  a  lapse  of  time.) 

7.  "  That  the  committee  be  authorized  to  apply  for  subscriptions  for 
the  carr^ang  out  of  the  objects  of  the  association." 

These  resolutions  are  sufficiently  explicit  to  foreshadow  the  operations 
contemplated  by  the  gentlemen  forming  the  association,  but  a  statement 
which  appeared  in  the  Belfast  papers  a  short  time  previously  was,  no  doubt, 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  took  part  in  the  meeting ;  it  contained  among 
other  statistics  the  following  figures : — 

Relative  acreage  under  flax  to  total  acreage  under  crops  in  1866 

and   1867. 

1866.  1867. 

In  Ulster  under  flax,  -  13-04  per  cent.  12.69  P^r  cent. 

In  Munster  „  -       0.32        „  0.25 

In  Leinster  „  -       0.46        „  0.51         „ 

In  Connaught     „  -       0.93        „  1.03         „ 

From  these  figures  it  is  manifest  at  a  glance  that  there  was  ample  scope 
for  extension.  In  Munster  alone,  with  its  area  of  6,000,000  acres,  there  was 
a  million  and  a  quarter  acres  under  crops,  and  only  3,248  acres  m  flax ;  the 
area  under  flax  could  be  increased  here  on  a  very  liberal  scale,  and  interfere 
with  no  other  interests. 

The  question  which  naturally  follows  is,  how  to  commence  and  carry  out 
successfully  the  proposed  extension  ?     The  first  step  decided  upon  was  to 


208  THE    FLAX   SUPPLY   ASSOCLATION. 

approach  the  "  Joint  Flax  Committee  "  in  DubHn.  The  sum  of  ;£"2,ooo 
having  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant  in  1864  by  the 
Government  for  promoting  the  cultivation  of  flax  in  the  South  and  West, 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  were  con- 
sulted, each  appointed  a  committee,  the  two  were  amalgamated,  forming  a 
"  Joint  Flax  Committee,"  authorized  to  look  after  the  arrangements  for 
giving  effect  to  the  wishes  of  the  Government.  At  the  time  under  review 
this  committee  had  benefited  by  three  or  four  years'  experience,  and  co- 
operation with  the  Northern  association,  could  not  be  otherwise  than  bene- 
ficial to  both.  A  deputation  from  Belfast  waited  upon  the  "  Joint  Flax 
Committee,"  and  received  a  favourable  hearing,  and  as  a  result  the  opera- 
tions carried  on  by  the  Flax  Extension  Association  were  calculated  to  in- 
crease the  usefulness  of  what  was  being  done,  and  supply  the  links  needed 
to  make  flax-growing  a  complete  industry. 

The  reports  of  the  Joint  Flax  Committee  show  that  the  movement  carried 
on  by  them  did  not  go  beyond  sending  into  certain  districts  a  class  of  men 
termed  instructors ;  they  were  drawn  principally  from  the  North  of  Ireland, 
where  flax  cultivation  was  widely  pursued  and  well  understood ;  they  were 
adapted  for  the  work  entrusted  to  their  care,  and  were  described  at  the 
time  as  "  able,  intelligent,  and  well-informed." 

In  the  first  year  (1864)  twenty-nine  were  employed,  but  only  for  some 
three  months,  and  their  sphere  of  action  was  limited  to  Munster  and  Con- 
naught.  In  the  second  year  (1865)  fifty- four  were  appointed,  and  remained 
at  their  posts  for  a  term  of  six  months.  During  the  third  year  (1866)  forty- 
two  instructors  were  selected  for  employment ;  they  arrived  at  the  Poor 
Law  Unions  to  which  they  were  allotted  on  the  ist  March,  and  being  only 
engaged  for  eleven  weeks,  retired  on  the  15th  May,  but  returned  to  their  dis- 
tricts on  the  15th  July  and  carried  out  another  spell  of  duty,  also  for  eleven 
weeks. 

In  the  fourth  year  (1867)  twenty-eight  were  sent  out  in  spring  and  thirty- 
nine  in  the  autumn,  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  the  Flax  Extension  Associa- 
tion comes  on  the  scene,  and  prepares  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mittee by  providing  scutch  mills,  markets,  etc.,  the  want  of  which  was  much 
felt  from  the  first. 

Before  entering  into  particulars  respecting  the  operations  carried  on  by 
the  Association,  it  may  be  inquired  what  were  the  results  of  the  four  years' 
labours  of  the  instructors.  It  must  be  confessed  they  were  not  encouraging. 
In  1 864,  when  the  work  was  commenced,  the  area  under  flax  in  Munster  and 
Connaught  amounted  to  16,162  acres;  in  1867  it  had  fallen  to  10,569  acres 
—a  decrease  of  36.6  per  cent. 

To  turn  now  to  the  details  of  the  work  which  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  Association.  In  a  report  prepared  by  a  special  committee  and  presented 
at  a  general  meeting  held  in  January,  1868,  the  following  passages  occur, 
and  give  a  pretty  accurate  indication  of  the  scheme  recommended  to  the 
Association : — 

"We  now  approach  the  more  irrimediate  sphere  of  the  Association.  The 
scutching  in  Ireland,  as  a  rule,  is  not  at  all  what  it  should  be  ;  and  this  Asso- 
ciation should  satisfy  itself  with  the  supply  of  machinery  to  new  mills.  It 
should  endeavour  also  to  effect  a  reform,  where  needed,  in  the  old. 

"  Attempts  have  been  made  by  your  Committee  to  encourage  monthly  flax 
markets  in  outlying  districts  ;  and  some  of  the  leading  spinners  and  merchants 
in   Belfast  have  sent  their  buyers  to  these  markets,  and  even  attended  them 


THE   FLAX   SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION.  209' 


themselves  regardless  of  inconvenience  or  expense.  But  such  efforts  can  only 
be  spasmodic  so  long  as  there  is  no  certainty  of  a  supply  of  well-scutched  flax 
being-  met  with,  sufficient  to  make  the  attendance  on  these  markets  a  matter  of 
pure  commercial  advantage." 

In  the  direction  of  supplying  machinery  during  the  year  1868,  grants,  or 
rather  loans,  for  long  periods,  free  of  interest,  were  made  towards  this 
object,  as  follows  : — 

For  a  mill  at  TuUa,  Co.  Clare,        _  _  _     £e^o 

„  Borrisokane,  Co.  Tipperary,  -      100 

„  Skibbereen,  Co.  Cork,  -        60 

Prizes  for  dressed  flax  to  the  amount  of  ;;^58  were  paid  away  during  the 
year  for  competition  at  the  following  places : — ■ 

Londonderry,  Co.  Londonderry  -  -  -  ;^io 

Strokestown,  Co.  Roscommon,  -  -  -  10 

Waterford,  Co.  Waterford,  -  -  -  10 

Cork,  Co.  Cork,        -             -  -  -  -  10 

Skibbereen,  Co.  Cork,         -  -  -  -  10 

Limerick,  Co.  Limerick,       -  -  -  -  8 

A  series  of  markets  were  also  eurranged  in  conjunction  with  the  local 
authorities  to  be  held  in  Cork,  Ballineen,  and  Limerick,  regularly  in  the  four 
winter  months,  viz. :— October,  November,  December,  and  January.  These 
markets  were  attended  by  two  or  three  buyers  from  the  large  spinning  mills 
in  rotation. 

In  June  it  was  resolved  that  a  careful  inspection  of  the  South  and  West 
should  be  made  in  the  interests  of  the  Association  at  as  early  a  date  as 
possible.  Two  experienced  persons  were  shortly  appointed — one  to  travel 
through  Connaught.  and  the  other  through  Leinster  ;  the  Secretary  of  the 
Association  undertaking  a  similar  duty  in  Munster.  A  fund  of  very  useful 
information  was  thus  acquired  for  the  use  and  guidance  of  the  Association 
in  the  succeeding  years. 

In  July  a  collection  of  samples  from  waters  intended  for  retting  purposes 
was  secured,  and  a  comparative  analysis  carried  out  in  the  Queen's  College, 
Belfast,  to  test  their  fitness  for  the  purpose  in  view.  They  comprised  twa 
from  King's  County,  one  each  from  Tipperary,  Waterford,  and  Roscommon, 
seventeen  from  Cork,  two  from  Kerry  and  two  from  Clare. 

Considerable  attention  was  also  paid  in  the  spring  to  the  matter  of  having 
good  seed  available  for  the  farmer  in  all  hkely  districts,  but  the  care  neces- 
sary to  carry  out  in  detail  the  plans  sketched  in  the  extracts  given  above 
occupied  the  chief  attention  of  the  Secretary  and  his  assistants. 

In  1869  work  of  a  similar  character  was  continued.  The  loans  were  as 
follows  :— 

For  a  mill  at  Rosscarbery,  Co.  Cork,  -  -  £-^^0 

Mallow,                     „  -  -  60 

Kilworth,                   „  -  -  60 

„            Skibbereen,              „  -  -  50 

„             Rosscarbery,             „  -  -  60 

Killala,  Co.  Mayo,  -  -  78 


210  THE    FLAX   SUPPLY   ASSOCL\TION. 


£^3 

10 

0 

IS 

0 

0 

15 

0 

0 

IS 

0 

0 

13 

2 

6 

16 

0 

0 

14 

5 

0 

15 

0 

0 

A  much  larger  sum  was  devoted  to  prizes  this  year — the  total  amounts  to 
^^■116  lys.  6d. : — 

Mountmellick,  Queen's  County, 
Waterford,  Co.  Waterford, 
Cork,  Co.  Cork, 
Limerick,  Co.  Limerick, 
Mohill,  Co.  Leitrim, 
Longford,  Co.  Longford, 
Strokestown,  Co.  Roscommon, 
Skibbereen,  Co.  Cork, 

Prizes  were  also  offered  in  Dundalk,  Co.  Louth,  and  Ballina,  Co.  Mayo, 
but  they  were  not  taken  advantage  of. 

The  markets  arranged  in  the  previous  year  (1868)  were  very  well  sup- 
ported the  next  season,  the  following  firms  having  sent  buyers : — 

Whiteabbey  Spinning  Company,  Limited. 

Northern 

Wolfhill 

Bessbrook 

Braidwater 

Ligoniel 

Phihp  Johnston  and  Son,  Limited. 

J.  Savage  and  Company,  Limited. 

Dunbar,  M'Master,  and  Company,  Limited. 

In  the  Spring  the  Secretary  made  a  tour  in  Connaught  and  a  part 
of  Leinster,  and  visited  the  following  places : — Strokestown,  Roscommon, 
Ballaghadereen,  Ballina,  Killala,  Crossmolina,  Boyle,  and  Sligo ;  and  later  m 
the  year  he  also  visited  Belgium  and  Holland  with  the  object  of  studying 
the  careful  way  in  which  the  details  in  handling  flax  are  carried  out  in  these 
countries,  and  being  an  experienced  and  successful  grower  of  flax  himself, 
he  was  able  to  grasp  the  entire  subject  and  apply  his  knowledge  to  further 
the  aims  of  the  Association. 

1870. — The  routine  of  the  work  was  very  much  the  same  as  during  the 
preceding  year.  In  the  month  of  May  the  Secretary  made  a  journey  in  the 
South  and  West ;  it  was  principally  with  the  object  of  inquiring  about 
scutching  accommodation.  Among  the  places  visited  were  New  Ross, 
County  Wexford ;  Fermoy,  Mallow,  Cork,  Dunmanway,  Brookville,  Kilkeel 
(near  Bantry),  County  Cork ;  Castlebar  and  Ballyvary  in  County  Mayo. 
During  the  year  loans  were  made — 

For  Scutch-mill  at  Dunmanway,  Co.  Cork,        -  -  £yS 

„                   Castlelyons,             „              -  -  150 

„                    Kildorrery,               „               -  -  60 

„                   Mountcharles,  Co.  Donegal,  -  100 

The  amount  paid  in  prizes  this  year  was  £1^1  5s.  In  addition  to  the 
places  mentioned  in  the  last  season  are  the  following : — - 

Dundalk,  Co.  Louth, 
Castlebar,  Co.  Mayo, 
Maryborough,  Queen's  County, 
Ballina,  Co.  Mayo, 


£^S 

0 

0 

I 

15 

0 

15 

0 

0 

30 

0 

0 

THE   FLAX   SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION.  211 


The  markets  established  at  Cork,  Ballineen,  etc.,  were  attended  by  the 
usual  buyers,  and  rather  more  flax  was  on  sale  than  on  previous  occasions. 

The  year  1871  was  a  more  eventful  one.  There  was  a  falling  off  in  the 
acreage  in  flax  in  Munster,  Leinster,  and  Connaught — from  14,477  acres  in 
1870,  to  9,578  acres — a  decrease  of  33.7  per  cent.  The  "Joint  Flax  Com- 
mittee "  attribute  this  to  several  causes — the  want  of  scutch-mills  and 
markets,  sufficiently  numerous  and  convenient,  bad  seed,  and  the  low  price 
of  flax  in  the  end  of  the  previous  season.  Whether  the  general  results 
appeared  unsatisfactory  to  the  Government  or  not  is  unknown  ;  but,  at  all 
events,  no  further  grant  was  made,  and  the  operations  of  this  Committee 
ceased  with  this  year. 

The  executive  of  the  Flax  Extension  Association  were  also  somewhat 
disheartened,  but  they  resolved  to  continue  their  efforts  for  some  time 
longer.     The  loans  for  scutch-mills  were  still  large,  as  the  following  shows : 

For  a  mill  at  Mountcharles,  Co.  Donegal,  i^ioo 


Clonakilty,        Co. 

Cork, 

50 

Rosscarbery, 

)> 

30 

Kildorrery, 

»• 

40 

Killala,              Co. 

Mayo, 

84 

Rosscarbery,     Co. 

Cork. 

50 

Skibbereen, 

)) 

30 

The  prizes  this  year  were  given  in  the  districts  already  enumerated,  and 
amounted  to  £i4g. 

With  respect  to  the  markets,  the  small  supply  was  beginning  to  be  felt 
disadvantageously,  and  a  practice  referred  to  in  an  extract  from  the  Annual 
Report,  as  follows,  had  also  a  tendency  to  injure  them  : — 

"  It  IS  with  reg^ret  that  allusion  must  be  made  to  a  practice  which  has 
recently  prevailed,  and  which,  if  persevered  in,  will  preclude  this  Association, 
through  their  Secretary,  incurring-  the  responsibility  of  inducing  spinners  to 
send  buyers.  The  practice  alluded  to  is  selling  the  choice  samples  of  flax  at 
the  scutch-mills,  and  at  the  farmers'  homes  ;  spinners  cannot  be  expected  to 
send  buyers,  at  a  cost  of  both  time  and  money,  and  find  little  but  low-class 
flax  in  the  markets,  the  bulk  of  the  better  quality  having  been  bought  up  in 
the  interval  between  each  monthly  market." 

Change  of  Title. — "  Extension  "  having  proved  impracticable,  and  the 
Association  having  become  extremely  useful  in  various  ways  for  the  benefit 
of  the  spinning  and  manufacturing  industry  generally,  the  title  was  changed 
to  "  Flax  Supply  Association,"  as  analogous  to  the  "  Cotton  Supply  Asso- 
ciation." 

No  new  departure  having  taken  place  in  the  succeeding  years,  it  is  un- 
necessary to  dwell  on  them  at  any  length.     In  1872  the  loans  were  : — 

For  a  mill  at  Mallow,  Co.  Cork,  £100 
„  Kilworth,  „  20 

The  grants  were  larger  in  1873,  amounting  to  ^^"470: — 

For  a  mill  at  Rosscarbery,  Co.  Cork,  £40 

„          Leap,                               „  100 

„           Castletownroche,             „  160 

„           Kilworth,                          „  140 

- '                    »               »                                    »  j^ 


212  THE   FLAX   SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION. 

From  this  time  forward  the  amounts  began  to  fall  off,  for  in  1874  ^^^Y 
three  mills  were  supplemented— 

Dunmanway,   Co.   Cork.  ;^90 
Rosscarbery,  „  60 

Kilworth,  „  20 

No  loans  were  made  in  1875,  and  in  1876  there  were  only  two  small  sums 
disposed  of  amounting  to  £yo. 

In  1872  the  amount  allotted  for  prizes  was  £g^,  and  in  1873  it  had 
dwindled  down  to  £'^y.  Abuses  commenced  to  creep  in,  and  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Secretary,  prize-giving  was  discontinued. 

In  the  report  of  the  latter  year  (1873),  the  Secretary,  after  referring  to 
unfavourable  seasons,  enhanced  cost  of  labour,  and  increased  value  of  stock, 
writes  as  follows  : — "  Viewing  these  facts,  flax  culture  in  Ireland  is  in  a  some- 
what uncertain  condition,  and  resolves  itself  into  a  question  of  maintenance, 
rather  than  of  extension." 

In  the  end,  the  executive  committee  recommended  that  the  Association 
should  be  kept  in  working  order  so  as  to  be  ready  to  embrace  any  opportu- 
nity to  foster  flax  in  the  South  and  West,  and  in  the  meantime  turn  atten- 
tion to  the  much-needed  improvement  in  the  manipulation  and  scutching  of 
flax  in  the  North,  where  it  is  still  largely  grown. 


NORTH-WEST  OF  IRELAND  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.    213 


NORTH-WEST    OF    IRELAND    AGRICULTURAL 

SOQETY. 

This  Society  was  established  in  the  year  1821  and  extended  its  opera- 
tions in  the  promotion  of  its  various  objects  through  the  Counties  of  Lon- 
donderry, Tyrone,  and  Donegal.  It  originated  at  a  meeting  of  gentlemen 
residing  at  Londonderry,  whose  views  on  the  possibilities  of  agricultural 
development  in  the  North-West  were  warmly  seconded  by  a  number  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry  of  the  above  counties.  The  prime  object  of  the  Society 
was  to  investigate  the  condition  of  the  district  with  a  view  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  resources,  and  its  attention  was  especially  directed  to 
the  state  of  the  fisheries,  manufactures,  agriculture,  and  cattle  breeding.  A 
school  for  the  instruction  of  boys  of  the  middle  class,  in  the  agricultural 
knowledge  necessary  to  fit  them  for  land-stewards  or  scientific  farmers,  was 
established  by  the  Society  at  a  place  called  Templemoyle,  about  five  miles 
from  the  city  of  Londonderry.  This  School  of  Agriculture  continued  for 
many  years  to  do  a  useful  work  in  the  betterment  of  farming  methods,  and 
only  ceased  to  exist  some  three  years  ago.* 

The  work  of  the  Society  was  conducted  by  a  committee,  who  met 
quarterly  in  Londonderry,  and  whose  proceedings  were  reported  to  the 
general  meetings  convened  in  April  and  September.  In  connection  with 
these  general  meetings  Shows  of  Cattle  were  held,  specimens  of  agricultural 
produce  and  rural  manufactures  exhibited,  challenges  issued  for  future 
competition  and  premiums  awarded.  In  the  first  )'ear  (1821)  the  number 
of  subscribers  was  220,  among  them  being  the  Hon.  the  Irish  Society,  as  an 
extract  from  their  minutes  will  show,  viz.,  24th  July,  1821,  Mr.  Thomas 
Saunders  laid  before  the  Court  of  the  Irish  Society  a  printed  paper  respect- 
ing the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  society  in  the  North-West  of  Ireland. 
Moved,  that  it  be  referred  to  a  Committee  to  examine  and  report  on  the 
propriety  of  this  Society  patronising  the  same.  6th  September,  1821,  the 
Hon.  the  Irish  Society  granted  the  sum  of  twenty  guineas  as, a  present  dona- 
tion to  the  funds  of  the  establishment  at  Londonderry,  of  a  Society  called 
the  North-West  of  Ireland  Agricultural  Society,  for  the  encouragement  of 
agriculture,  arts,  manufactures,  and  fisheries,  and  in  future  an  annual  sum 
of  ten  guineas  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Society. 

In  1823  the  North-West  Society  established  a  monthly  publication, 
called  the  "  North-West  Society's  Magazine,"  which  was  discontinued  in 
1825.  Other  series  were  attempted  but  were  abandoned  in  1829,  and  the 
Society  confined  itself  to  practical  departments.  Branch  Societies  were 
established,  amongst  which  the  Tirkeeran,  the  Kenmaught,  the  Cumber,  and 
Banagher,  and  the  Coleraine  Farming  Societies,  have  done  useful  work  in 
aiding  agriculture  in  the  County  of  Londonderry. 

These  branch  Societies  received  from  the  parent  Society  prizes  of  money, 
and  a  volum.e  of  the  Society's  Magazine.     No  member  of  the  parent  Society 

*  See  also  article  on  Agricultural  Education,  p.  137. 


2U        NORTH-WEST  OF  IRELAND   AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


was  admissible  to  pecuniary  competition  in  any  of  the  branch  Societies. 
Premiums  were  oifered,  it  is  important  to  note,  for  the  best  statistical 
reports  on  any  parishes  within  the  three  counties.  The  following  extract 
from  one  of  the  Society's  reports  will  exemplify  the  extent  of  the  premiums 
awarded  for  rural  manufactures  : — 

"  Imitation  of  Legfhorn  Hats  from  Irish  Grown  Materials. — For  the  best  set 
of  hats  of  not  less  than  twelve,  manufactured  from  grass  or  straw,  First  Prize, 
£g.     For  the  second  best  ditto,  ;£r6.     For  the  third  best  ditto,  ;£^3. 

"Woollen  Manufacture. — To  the  person  residing  in  the  North-West  district, 
who  shall  manufacture  the  best  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  not  less  than  twenty- 
five  yards,  First  Prize,  ;^.$.     Second  best  ditto,  ;f.2.     Third  best  ditto,  £i." 

Such  is  a  very  brief  note  on  the  Society  during  the  earlier  years  of  its 
existence. 

During  more  recent  times,  much  has  been  done  towards  encouraging  the 
improvement  of  all  classes  of  Live  Stock,  Farm  and  Dairy  Produce,  and  to 
educate  the  farmers  in  the  use  of  the  latest  agricultural  implements  and 
machinery.  A  Summer  Show  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  butter, 
farriery,  green  flax,  and  agricultural  implements,  horse  jumping,  riding  and 
driving,  etc.,  is  held  annually  at  Londonderry,  and  the  turn-out  of  young 
horses  and  shorthorns,  and  cross-bred  dairy  cattle  is  always  a  particularly 
good  one.  A  Spring  Show  of  pure-bred  pedigree  bulls  is  also  held,  both 
Shows  being  open  to  all  comers.  Of  late  years  the  Society  has  extended 
its  boundaries,  the  Counties  of  Londonderry,  Donegal,  Tyrone,  and  Fer- 
managh, now  being  included  in  its  district.  The  Society  has  a  most  satis- 
factory membership  roll,  and  a  substantial  balance  to  credit  on  the  past 
year's  work.  For  much  of  the  information  contained  in  this  sketch,  more 
especially  with  respect  to  the  earlier  portion  of  the  Society's  history,  I  must 
express  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  Robert  Bailey  of  Fawnay,  one  of  the 
leading  and  most  progressive  farmers  in  Londonderry. 


COUNTY  OF  CORK  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  215 


THE  COUNTY  OF  CORK  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY* 

The  County  Cork  Agricultural  Society  has  had  a  long,  useful  existence. 
In  the  statistical  survey  of  the  County  Cork,  published  in  1810,  it  is  men- 
tioned in  the  following  terms : — "  The  establishment  of  a  farming  society, 
though  its  beneficial  influence  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  reached  the  lower 
orders,  has,  however,  done  material  service.  It  has  excited  a  spirit  of  useful 
competition  among  the  higher,  and  rendered  rural  economy  a  favourite  and 
fashionable  pursuit." 

In  1 842  the  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  reports  : — "  The 
County  of  Cork  Agricultural  Society,  a  large  and  influential  body  comprising 
the  entire  of  that  great  County  and  a  number  of  smaller  local  societies 
within  its  sphere,  undertook  to  provide  the  necessary  accommodation  for 
the  Show  (of  the  Agricultural  Improvement  Society)  in  the  City  of  Cork,, 
and  to  pay  the  Central  Society  the  sum  of  ;^500  in  addition  towards  the 
expense  of  the  premiums  that  were  offered  and  other  incidental  expenses 
that  may  be  incurred  on  the  occasion."  The  Show  was  held  in  Cork  in 
1 842.  It  was  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the  series  of  Agricultural  Shows 
that  subsequently  were  held  alternately  in  the  premises  by  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  Ireland.  Very  considerable  improvements  and  advan- 
tages to  Agriculture  accrued  through  the  influence  of  the  Agricultural 
Society.  Mr.  Farmer  Lloyd,  the  energetic  Assistant  Secretary  knew  the 
Agricultural  requirements  of  the  county,  and  the  Society  was  brought  into- 
relationship  with  these.  On  the  establishment  of  the  chair  of  Agriculture 
in  the  Queen's  College  in  Cork,  an  harmonious  v/orking  took  place  between 
this  department  of  the  College  and  the  Society.  Mr.  Bennett,  who  became 
Secretary  subsequently  to  Mr.  Farmer  Lloyd,  gave  considerable  attention 
to  the  work  of  developing  Agriculture  in  the  county  through  the  influence 
of  the  Society. 

In  1856  the  Society  appears  to  have  entered  upon  a  new  phase  of 
enlightened  progress.  It  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  exertions  of  the  late 
Messrs.  W.  R.  Meade  and  Thomas  Garde  that  this  was  brought  about,  and 
much  of  its  success  for  several  years  afterwards  was  due  to  the  energy  and 
ability  of  these  gentlemen.  Mr.  Meade,  who  was  a  distinguished  breeder 
of  shorthorns  and  Leicester  sheep,  lived  near  Kinsale ;  he  held  the  confi- 
dence of  all  classes  in  the  county.  Mr.  Garde,  who  was  an  equally  dis- 
tinguished breeder  of  Leicester  sheep,  lived  near  Midleton.  From  1856 
down  to  1 890  the  Shows  were  held  in  the  grounds  of  the  Com  Market.  In 
this  space  there  was  sufficient  lOom  for  an  ordinary  Cattle  Show ;  but  when 
the  Society,  following  the  lead  of  the  Metropolitan  ones,  increased  its  area 
of  operations  and  adopted  the  idea  of  holding  horse-jumping  contests,  the 
enclosure  m  the  Com  Market  was  found  to  be  too  limited.  The  Society,  for 
the  next  few  years,  held  its  shows  in  the  racing  ground  in  the  Park  ;  but  as 
it  was  thought  there  was  a  great  loss  in  the  annual  erection  of  temporary 
structures  it  was  decided  to  come  to  terms  with  the  Corporation  of  Cork 


216  COUNTY  OF  CORK  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


and  lease  a  piece  of  ground  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Park  for  the  purpose  of 
converting  it  into  a  permanent  Show  ground.  The  idea  was  well  received 
by  the  Corporation,  and  a  piece  of  ground  containing  some  twenty  acres 
was  leased  to  the  Society  at  an  annual  rent  of  i^20.  On  this  ground,  which 
is  within  a  mile  of  the  city,  the  Society  expended,  in  1892,  ;£"5,300  in  build- 
ings, cycle  and  driving  tracks,  and  enclosures.  The  funds  were  raised  in 
shares  bearing  interest  at  5  per  cent.  The  Cork,  Blackrock  and  Passage 
Railway  passes  by  the  Showyard,  and  a  special  platform  has  been  erected 
for  the  use  of  visitors  and  others  attending  the  Show.  The  great  drawback 
to  the  Showyard  is,  that  it  is  a  portion  of  land  reclaimed  from  the  tide.  In 
wet  weather  it  becomes  quite  sodden,  and  as  the  Society  have  not  been  over 
fortunate  in  their  fixtures  in  the  matter  of  weather,  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  wetness  of  the  ground  injuriously  affects  the  attendance.  To  meet 
this  the  Society  have  entered  into  arrangements  with  some  companies  in 
Cork  to  deposit  road  scrapings  and  rubbish  on  the  low-lying  parts  of  the 
grounds,  so  that  in  a  fev/  years  the  grounds  will  be  much  improved. 

In  order  to  encourage  cattle  breeding  a  Spring  Show  for  breeding  animals 
has  been  tried  for  the  past  few  years,  but  it  was  not  well  supported,  and 
entailed  a  financial  loss.  A  special  Butter  Show  was  also  held  in  connection 
with  the  Irish  Dairy  Association,  a  few  years  since,  and  it,  too,  resulted  in  a 
loss.  The  same  may  be  said  of  experiments  tried  in  the  way  of  Root,  Frurt, 
and  Grain  Shows.  Dog  and  Poultry  Shows  are  occasionally  held  in  con- 
junction with  the  Horse  and  Cattle  Shows.  The  indebtedness  of  the 
Society  at  present  is  about  ^^350.  The  Shows  of  the  County  Cork  Agricul- 
tural Society  were  open  to  exhibitors  from  all  parts  of  Ireland,  and  some  of 
the  best  animals  in  Ireland  stood  in  its  rings.  The  show  of  hunters  is 
always  a  particularly  good  one.  The  show  of  cattle  lately,  however,  has  not 
been  up  to  the  mark.  We  have  no  breeders  in  Munster,  now,  to  replace 
Messrs.  Welsted,  Campion,  Crosbie,  Gumbleton,  Meade,  Smith,  or  Downing. 

Besides  the  holding  of  exhibitions,  papers  on  various  subjects  have  from 
time  to  time  been  read  by  the  members  of  the  Society,  and  resolutions 
dealing  with  the  principal  agricultural  topics  of  the  day  have  been  passed 
and  forwarded  to  the  proper  authorities.  One  of  the  subjects  which  engaged 
the  attention  of  the  Society  for  a  number  of  years  was  the  anomalous  con- 
dition of  the  Cork  Butter  Market,  under  which  there  were  several  grievances 
in  respect  of  the  butter  industry.  Another  question  which  was  warmly 
taken  up  was  a  recommendation  to  the  Government  of  the  day  to  take  steps 
to  establish  cordons  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infectious  disease  among 
farm  animals.  But  the  greatest  achievement  of  the  Society  was  its  success- 
ful effort  to  save  the  Munster  Agricultural  and  Dairy  School  from  extinction. 
The  Government,  at  one  time,  were  credited  with  the  intention  of  discon- 
tinuing all  the  agricultural  schools  in  Ireland,  Cork  among  the  number,  but 
some  public-spirited  members  of  the  County  Agricultural  Society  came  to 
the  rescue,  and  by  liberally  subscribing,  the  first  established  dairy  school  in 
the  United  Kingdom  was  opened.  The  Cork  School  was  the  pioneer  one 
in  the  undertaking.  Its  success  as  a  dairy  school  is  proved  by  the  number 
-of  imitators  it  has  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  Society  has  600 
members  on  its  rolls. 

Though  the  Society  has  not  been  uniformly  successful  its  prospects  are 
now  bright.  The  Cork  County  Council  has  allocated  to  the  County  Cork 
Agricultural  Society  a  sum  of  ;£"56o  out  of  the  funds  available  under  the 
schemes  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     Of  this  sum  £2iS4  is  set  apart 


COUNTY  OF  CORK  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.  217 


for  cattle  premiums,  ^^"140  for  horses,  ^35  for  sheep,  and  £^i  for  swine. 
The  debt  due  at  present  by  the  Society  is  ;^350;  but  with  the  increase  of 
numbers  and  the  subsidy  above  referred  to,  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  con- 
tinued, the  debt  is  likely  to  be  wiped  out  this  year.  As  the  number  of 
thoroughbred  herds  of  cattle  in  the  south  of  Ireland  has  fallen  off  owing  to 
agricultural  depression,  the  number  exhibited  at  the  April  Show  was  not, 
by  any  means,  as  numerous  as  might  be  expected  in  a  pastoral  district, 
being  fewer  than  at  Dublin  or  even  Belfast.  Nevertheless,  the  exhibit  of 
pure-bred  stock  was  a  great  improvement  in  respect  of  quality  on  the  Shows 
hitherto  held.  Under  the  stimulating  influence  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, the  Spring  Show  at  Cork  in  future  should  rank  among  the  best  of 
their  kind.  Owing  to  the  offer  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  of  six  service 
premiums  of  ;^50  each  to  the  Cork  Society,  a  record  exhibit  of  stallions 
took  place,  namely  31  thoroughbreds,  7  agricultural,  and  3  half-bred  sires. 
These  were  notably  mentioned  by  the  English  Judge  as  the  best  class  he 
had  yet  seen. 

With  the  capacious  show  ground,  with  large  and  commodious  buildings, 
and  backed  up  wath  a  substantial  grant  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  County  Council,  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  the  Society  will  enter 
upon  a  new  career  of  usefulness.  The  local  Societies  newly  formed  at 
Skibbereen,  Clonakilty,  and  Mallow,  as  well  as  those  in  the  adjoining 
counties,  should  assist  as  feeders  to  the  Cork  Show,  which  should  be  the 
4:hief  one  in  the  province. 


218  AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND. 


AGRICULTURAL    CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND. 

The  Work  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society. 

The  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society  was  founded  in  April,  1894, 
to  carry  on  a  movement  which  had  been  promoted  during  the  five  previous 
years  by  a  few  individuals,  but  which  had  assumed  too  large  proportions  to 
be  carried  further  without  additional  support. 

The  objects  of  the  movement  were  stated  in  the  Rules  of  the  Society  to 
be  "  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  agricultural  population  of  Ireland,  by 
teaching  the  principles  and  methods  of  co-operation  as  applicable  to  farming 
and  the  allied  industries  ;  to  promote  industrial  organisation  for  any  pur- 
poses which  may  appear  to  be  beneficial ;  and  generally  to  counsel  and 
advise  those  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits." 

The  originators  of  this  programme  held  that  combination  was  as  neces- 
sary to  the  welfare  of  agriculture  as  its  general  adoption  proved  it  to  be  to 
that  of  all  other  industries.  They  saw  plainly  the  economic  advantage  that 
could  be  derived  from  co-operation  in  every  branch  of  the  farmer's  business, 
and  a  study  of  the  co-operative  movement  in  England  convinced  them  that 
the  discipline  of  combination  for  material  advantage  would  be  followed  by 
an  all-round  improvement  in  the  business  habits  and  methods  of  the  indi- 
vidual. There  were,  however,  immense  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in 
inducing  Irish  farmers  even  to  consider  co-operative  action.  In  the  first 
place,  voluntary  association  for  industrial  purposes  was  unknown  in  Ireland, 
and  almost  every  man  who  prided  himself  on  special  knowledge  of  the  Irish 
people,  confidently  declared  that  it  was  altogether  alien  to  the  national 
temperament  and  habits.  Moreover,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  leaders  of 
the  English  movement  had  utterly  failed  to  apply  their  principles  to  the 
farming  industry. 

The  task  before  the  originators  of  the  movement  in  Ireland  seemed, 
indeed,  almost  impossible  of  accomplishment.  However,  seeing  no  other 
resource  in  the  prevailing  depression,  and  being  satisfied  that  their  scheme 
was  economically  sound,  and  that  it  would  appeal  as  such  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  farmers,  they  determined  to  enter  upon  a  vigorous  propaganda,  and 
persist  in  it  until  their  programme  had  been  adopted  or  finally  rejected. 

The  modus  operandi  previously  employed  and  now  followed  by  the 
Society  need  not  be  detailed,  but  the  following  extract  from  the  speech  of 
the  President,  at  the  inaugural  meeting  on  April  iSth,  1894,  will  at  least 
indicate  the  reasons  why,  and  the  spirit  in  which,  the  work  of  organisation 
was  undertaken : — 

"The  keynote  of  our  proposals  is  the  proposition  that  the  Irish  farmers 
must  work  out  their  own  salvation,  and  further,  that  this  can  only  be  done  by 
combination  among  themselves.  I  am  quite  aware  of  the  difficulty  which  at 
once  suggests  itself.  It  will  be  pointed  out  that  effective  combination  for 
productive  or  commercial  purposes  is  not  to  be  accomplished  simply  by  a 


AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  219 


recogriition  of  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  combine.  An  association, 
which  is  not  to  be  a  mere  debating-  society,  but  which  is  to  be  capable  of  joint 
action,  must  be  organised  on  certain  well-known,  but  rather  complicated  lines 
in  order  to  be  permanent.  The  farmers,  from  the  nature  of  their  occupation, 
are  incapable  of  evolving"  for  themselves  the  principles  which  must  be  observed 
in  framing"  such  rules  as  will  do  justice  between  man  and  man,  and  harmonize 
the  interests  of  all  concerned.  Even  when  a  farmer  grasps  the  idea  that  he 
ought  to  combine  with  his  neighbours,  he  cannot  put  before  them  an  intelligible 
and  working"  scheme.  Now,  here  is  the  point  at  which,  without  any  inter- 
ference with  his  business,  without  weakening  his  spirit  of  independence,  without 
any  departure  from  the  principles  of  political  economy,  we  can  do  the  Irish 
farmer  a  great  service.  To  bring  to  the  help  of  those  whose  life  is  passed  in 
the  quiet  of  the  field  the  experience  which  belongs  to  wider  opportunities  of 
observation,  and  a  larger  acquaintance  with  commercial  and  industrial  affairs 
— that,  gentlemen,  is  the  object  and  aim  of  this  society." 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  original  promoters  of  the  programme  which  the 
Society  had  taken  over,  were  for  some  years  quite  unaware  that  they  had 
evolved  out  of  a  study  of  conditions  at  home,  the  industrial  remedy  which 
was  already  being  applied  in  foreign  countries.  Of  course,  when  this 
became  known  to  them,  and  the  knowledge  came  from  the  researches  of  the 
Vice-President,  Father  Finlay,  they  became  far  more  confident  of  ultimate 
success,  and  redoubled  their  efforts.  For  it  then  became  simply  a  question 
whether  the  superior  natural  intelligence  of  the  Irish  farmer,  in  which  they 
confidently  believed,  could  off-set  the  higher  technical  and  commercial 
education  of  his  foreign  competitor. 

At  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Society,  the  work  of  organisation  had 
been  confined,  for  reasons  not  necessary  to  enlarge  upon  here,  to  the  pro- 
motion of  Co-operative  Creameries — that  is,  creameries  owned  and  managed 
by  the  farmers  themselves— thirty  having  been  established  by  the  end  of 
1893.  The  original  scheme  contemplated,  as  soon  as  sufficient  organising 
help  could  be  obtained,  the  extension  of  the  co-operative  principle  to  every 
branch  of  the  farmer's  business.  It  was,  However,  necessary  to  show,  before 
practical  men  would  support  a  more  extended  programme,  that  the  success 
already  achieved  by  the  Co-operative  Creameries  warranted  the  anticipation 
of  similar  success  in  the  other  projected  developments.  A  close  study  of  the 
audited  accounts  and  published  statements  with  regard  to  these  creameries, 
brought  out  some  remarkable  facts  and  figures.  At  the  end  of  1893,  the 
accounts  of  these  30  creameries,  with  their  6  branches,  showed  the  following 
satisfactory  results : — 

Total  number  of  shareholders  _  _  _  1,509 
Paid-up  capital  _  _  .  _  _  ;;^  13,845 
Loan  capital  _  _  .  _  _  7,746 
Value  of  buildings  and  plant,  after  allowing  for  de- 
preciation -  -  -  -  24,872 
Milk  purchases  (7,575,036  gallons)  -  -  123,780 
Butter  sales  (1,273  tons,  6  cwt.,  3  qrs.,  20  lbs).  -  140,780 

The  farmers  supplying  milk  to  these  creameries,  variously  estimate  the 
increased  profit  on  the  return  from  their  cows  at  30  per  cent,  to  35  per  cent. 
This  profit,  whatever  its  amount,  could  only  be  realized  by  the  farmer 
through  co-operation — a  lesson  which  he  was  not  slow  to  take  to  heart. 

The  societies  were  not  numerous,  but  they  were  widely  scattered  and 


'220  AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND. 

representative.  A  distinct  step  had  been  taken.  It  could  be  generally 
stated  that  a  highly  technical  manufacture  had  been  conducted  on  sound 
commercial  principles  by  associations  of  farmers  acting  through  com- 
mittees elected  under  their  rules  from  among  themselves.  Their  product 
was  excellent,  and  the  venture  was  highly  remunerative.  There  was  not 
the  slightest  indication  of  even  the  average  percentage  of  commercial 
failure  being  mcurred.  This  result  had  been  accomplished  without  any 
•external  aid  whatsoever,  except  the  advice  and  exhortation  of  the  apostles 
of  co-operation. 

The  Co-operative  Creameries  had  proved  to  the  farmers  the  advantage 
which  accrued  to  the  individual  from  combination  in  the  production  of  their 
t)utter.  The  societies  were  still,  though  in  a  less  degree,  subject  to  the 
same  disadvantages  as  the  individual,  in  its  distribution.  The  waste  of  and 
damage  to  their  product,  incidental  to  the  local  butter  market  was,  it  is  true, 
obviated  by  the  creamery  system,  which  enabled  them  to  sell  their  butter 
in  bulk  to  the  commission  men.  But  they  had  not  the  means  of  testing  the 
solvency  of  these  men,  or  of  keeping  in  touch  with  the  English  markets. 
In  fact,  the  local  committees  had  learned  much,  but  had  not  commercial 
experience.  Several  of  the  societies,  therefore,  federated  themselves  to- 
gether in  a  selhng  society,  called  the  Irish  Co-operative  Agency  Society, 
which  started  in  the  autumn  of  1892,  with  its  head  office  in  Limerick,  and  a 
store  in  Manchester.  This  venture  was,  perhaps,  premature,  and  too  bold. 
It  resulted  disastrously  at  first.  The  society  became  involved  in  lawsuits, 
contracted  bad  debts,  and,  in  its  first  year,  lost  all  its  capital.  However,  the 
farmers  recognised  the  necessity  for  independent  distribution  of  their  co- 
operative product,  and  persevered  with  their  new  departure,  giving  remark- 
able proof  of  the  thoroughness  with  which  they  were  imbued  with  the  co- 
operative spirit. 

The  accompanying  Map*  shows  graphically  the  remarkable  extension  of 
the  work  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society.  In  order  to  give 
the  reader  an  idea  of  the  scope  of  that  work,  the  following  account  (mainly 
taken  from  the  Report  of  the  Organisation  Society  for  the  fifteen  months 
ending  31st  December,  1900,  and  consequently,  so  far  at  least  as  the  statistics 
■quoted  are  concerned,  not  quite  up  to  date)  has  been  compiled : — 

The  actual  number  of  Dairy  Societies  in  existence  [i.e.  in  December,  1900] 

_   .       «     .  ^.  was  2  ^6,  and  their  distribution,  membership,  and  trade 

Dairy  Societies.       ^^^  ^^  f^ij^^^ ._ 

Province.  Societies.  Membership.  Trade, 

Leinster 

Munster  -  wy  3,^/^  ,        ^        r.  ^ 

Ulster  -  lOQ  10,825  (       ^/03.»20 

Connaught 

t  Totals,  236  26,577 

From  the  statistics  it  appears  that  the  26,577  members  of  these  Societies 
had  invested  no  less  a  capital  than  ;^74,223,  which  is  held  by  them  in  fully  or 

*  The  statistics  on  which  the  Map  is  based  have  been  brought  up  to  date. 
+  The  total  trade  (;f  703,826)  given  here  only  represents  the  total  trade  of  those  Societies 
furnishing  complete  returns. 


Societies. 

Membership. 

25 

1,903  ] 

69 

5474 

109 

10,825 

33 

8,375  ^ 

Map  showing  the  position  of  Societies. 


Dalrv  &  A^lcultaral  Socletlea 

Auxiliaries 

Agricuitur&l  Societies 

Co-operative  Banks 

Poultry  Societiee    ■.. 

Miscellaneous 

Federations 

Total  Ko.  of  Bocieties  ... 

Total  Membership 


1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1 

1 

17 

ib 

30 

33 

56 

61 

83 

123 

153 

171 

187 

8 

9 

10 

13 

38 

65 

81 

10 

31 

4€ 

77 

99 

106 

106 

1 

2 

3 

16 

48 

76 

102 

3 

16 

21 

29 

4 

10 

18 

36 

46 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

17 

25 

31 

34 

76 

104 

148 

243 

374 

477 

553 

50 

50 

850 

1,050 

^,i5Q 

1,656 

3,800 

10,120 

14  290 

27,322 

36,683 

46,206 

51,000 

EXPLANATION    OF    MAP. 


Dairy  and  Agricultural  Bocietiea 

Aoxiliaries 

A^icultural  Societies 

Co-operative  Banks 

Poultry  Societies 

Miscellaneous 

Federations 


Societies  registered  prior  to  31st  March,  1900, 
marked  in  red.  Societies  registered  since  tliat 
date  and  up  to  31st  Dec,  1901,  marked  black.  At 
the  date  of  compilation,  April,  1902,  the  Societies 
number  628. 


^ 


D, 


D  O. 


k'*J 


/M 


\36 


.15 


o 


if  22 


■f4^m 


O 


sM 


ROSCOMflfOA/ 


iLOA/SFORDjf 


Af£A  TH 


s 


v'^. 


/f//V<?3J|    CO. 


iza 
*K/LDAR£\ 

74\ 


C   L.  A    R    £ 


Cfe 


Av/c/rz.o>v 


J.^^< 


;^ 


^     £      R 


%fo'\ 


%^ 


.2^ 


.>H 


AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  221 


part-paid  shares.  This  share  capital  has  been  augmented  by  the  sum  of 
;^46,262  loan  capital,  making  altogether  ;^i 20,485,  invested  by  Irish  farmers 
in  the  development  of  this  branch  of  their  industry.  The  value  of  buildings 
and  plant  after  depreciation  was  returned  as  ;^i 29,528,  but  it  was  estimated 
to  greatly  exceed  this  figure,  as  many  Dairies  were  in  course  of  equipment 
at  the  date  to  which  the  returns  refer.  Turning  to  the  actual  trade  done  by 
Dairy  Societies,  we  find  that  they  received  35,629,743  gallons  of  milk,  from^ 
which  they  produced  13,601,184  lbs.  of  butter,  or  4,177  tons.  The  farmers 
supplying  milk  realised  an  average  price  per  gallon  of  3.84<3'.,  with  the  sepa- 
rated milk  and  buttermilk  given  back  free.  The  working  expenses  amounted 
to  ^^74,259 — roughly  9>2  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  output,  which  realised 
the  large  figure  of  ^^703, 826.  A  net  profit  of  £12,472  was  earned  on  the 
}'ear's  trading,  which  is  available  for  allocation  among  the  members  of  the 
Societies,  whose  reserve  and  accumulated  profit  now  amounts  to  ^^^19,545. 
The  price  received  for  butter  was  10.84^.  per  lb. — a  shade  less  than  the  price- 
received  in  1899,  which  was  10.92^.  The  average  yield  of  butter  from  the^ 
milk  is,  however,  high,  6.59  ozs.  being  produced  from  a  gallon.  With  the 
exception  of  1893,  the  yield  per  gallon  has  gone  up  steadily  since  a  record 
began  to  be  kept  m  1892. 

This  increase  is  clear  gain  to  the  farmer,  and  is  the  result  of  improved 
machinery,  greater  care  in  separating  and  churning,  and  paying  for  milk 
strictly  according  to  its  quality.  There  appears  to  be  no  longer  any  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  new  creameries  will  enhance' the 
productiveness  of  milk  by  at  least  i  oz.  per  gallon,  while,  if  the  farmer  pays 
greater  attention  to  regularly  testing  the  milking  qualities  of  his  dairy  herd, 
he  will  be  able  to  obtain  far  greater  profits  than  he  now  can  realise  without 
any  additional  expenditure,  merely  by  weeding  out  bad  milkers  and  by 
using  suitable  fodder.  It  has  been  proved  conclusively,  by  experiments  at 
Wisconsin  and  elsewhere,  that  by  the  mere  process  of  selection,  together 
with  judicious  feeding  and  careful  management,  it  is  possible  to  increase  the 
productiveness  of  the  milk  of  a  herd  of  dairy  cows  by  25  per  cent. 

A  very  pleasing  feature  in  the  development  of  the  creamery  .system  is 
the  opportunity  which  it  has  given  to  labourers  to  become  cow-owners. 
Numbers  of  them  now  have  cows,  and  one  case  has  been  reported  where  a 
man,  living  in  an  ordinary  way-side  cottage  with  one  acre  of  land,  has  been 
enabled  to  own  eight  milch  cows,  from  the  milk  of  which  he  has  realised 
£jQ)  in  cash  during  the  past  year.  This  man's  case  is  typical  of  many  others. 
From  grazing  one  cow  by  the  roadside — on  the  "  long  farm,"  as  it  is  called 
in  the  country — he  was  enabled  to  buy  additional  cows  and  rent  grazing  for 
them  through  the  profits  he  derived  from  the  Creamery.  The  gain  per  cow 
over  the  old  butter-making  methods  is  pretty  generally  estimated  at  30^-. 
per  annum,  but  in  some  cases  milk  suppliers  put  it  down  at  a  much  higher 
figure. 

The  Co-operative  Creameries  are  gradually  taking  up  other  branches  of 
the  farmer's  business.  There  is  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  which 
now  transact  "  agricultural "  business ;  others  have  introduced  schemes  for 
the  improvement  of  their  members'  live  stock  ;  others  again  are  developing 
the  Q^^  and  poultry  industry ;  while  some  are  establishing  Agricultural 
Banks  to  be  worked  as  an  adjunct  to  their  ordinary  business.  Little  advance 
has  been  made  in  the  fresh  cream  trade,  the  success  of  which  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  pasteurisation.  The  Co-operative  Dairies  have  had 
in  some  places  to  encounter  very  keen  competition,  owing  to  the  extension- 


222  AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND. 

of  other  creameries  worked  on  the  proprietary  system.  It  may  be  said  at 
once  that  the  Irish  dairying  industry,  and  indeed  the  entire  agricultural 
industry,  is  suffering  from  the  want  of  capital ;  but  if  the  investment  of 
capital  from  outside  deprives  the  farmer  of  the  power  to  control  his  industry 
it  can  bring  him  but  little  pecuniary  benefit,  while  it  places  him  in  the  posi- 
tion of  a  servant  rather  than  that  of  a  partner  in  the  attempt  to  develop  it. 
In  short  his  industry  is  merely  being  developed  in  the  interest  of  the  entre- 
preneur proprietor,  who  competes  with  a  Co-operative  Society,  to  pay  prices 
for  milk  which  are  beyond  the  power  of  the  Society  and  which  are  sufficient 
to  tempt  unthinking  men  to  leave  their  own  Creamery  for  the  sake  of  a 
small  immediate  gain,  and  if  this  policy  is  successful  it  ultimately  leads  to 
the  failure  of  the  Co-operative  Creamery,  which  must  die  of  inanition,  and 
thus  leave  to  the  enterprising  and  wealthy  proprietor  undisputed  possession 
of  the  district.  This,  from  every  point  of  view,  must  be  regarded  as  a  mis- 
fortune to  the  farmers  whose  apathy  or  shortsightedness  has  allowed  them 
to  let  the  control  of  their  industry  slip  out  of  their  hands.  It  is  undesirable 
that  the  investment  of,  say,  i^i,000  in  the  erection  and  equipment  of  a 
Creamery  should  entitle  the  investor  to  control  an  industry  in  which  the 
farmers  supplying  milk  have  invested,  in  the  form  of  cows  and  land,  a 
capital  to  the  extent  of  i^20,000.  It  has  been  already  argued  that  our 
farmers  either  have,  or  can  command,  the  required  capital ;  the  success  of 
their  own  Creameries  proves  that  they  also  possess  the  necessary  business 
intelligence. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  development  of  Co-operative 
Dairying  is  the  extension  of  the  "  Auxiliary  "  system 

The  "Auxiliary"  which  is  the  best  proof  that  it  is  working  satisfac- 
System.  torily.     There  is  still  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to 

what  is  the  best  working  arrangement  between  Auxili- 
aries and  Central  Dairies.  As  the  organisation  of  Dairy  farmers  into 
Societies  for  the  improvement  of  their  industry  by  mutual  help  rather  than 
the  creation  of  a  centralised  system  of  butter-making  on  a  large  scale  (which 
is  apt  to  come  under  the  sole  control  of  the  local  committee  and  thus  lose, 
to  some  extent,  its  co-operative  character)  appears  to  be  more  properly  the 
function  of  the  Society,  the  registration  of  Auxiliaries  as  independent,  self- 
governing  Societies  is  generally  advocated.  But  two  serious  difficulties  pre- 
sent themselves :  {a)  that  of  exercising  a  certain  amount  of  control  by  the 
Central  Dairy  over  the  purely  technical  work  of  the  Auxiliary,  without,  how- 
ever, impairing  its  co-operative  character,  lessening  the  sense  of  responsibility 
of  its  members,  or  unduly  interfering  with  its  independence  ;  and  {b)  that  of 
arranging  an  equitable  basis  upon  which  both  Societies  may  work  harmo- 
niously. Now  that  the  Societies  are  obliged  in  many  instances  to  compete 
with  dairies  owned  by  individual  capitalists  or  corporations  they  are  forced, 
to  some  extent  at  all  events,  to  imitate  the  methods  of  their  competitors ; 
they  must  centralise  their  manufacture,  they  must  adopt  a  uniform  system 
of  working  in  their  branches  or  Auxiliaries,  and  they  must  strive  by  every 
means  in  their  power  to  make  their  business  as  profitable  as  possible  by 
cutting  down  working  expenses,  by  increasing  their  output,  and  by  improv- 
ing its  quality.  To  attain  this  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  skilled  Manager 
and  Staff  at  the  Central  Dairy  and  to  ensure  that  the  results  of  this  skilled 
labour  shall  not  be  impaired  by  any  slovenliness  or  neglect  at  the  branches. 
To  do  this  without  causing  friction  requires  not  only  a  good  system  but  also 


AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  223 


tactful  management.  What  appears  to  be  the  best  plan  is  to  give  the 
Manager  of  the  Central  Dairy,  subject  to  the  approval  of  his  committee  (on 
which  the  Auxiliaries  ought  to  be  invariably  represented),  supreme  authority 
over  the  Managers  of  the  Auxiliaries  so  far  as  relates  to  dairying  business 
only.  This  arrangement  we  believe  to  be  absolutely  necessary  and  need 
cause  no  disagreement  between  the  two  bodies  or  their  respective  Managers 
if  the  duties  of  the  Auxiliary  Manager  and  the  powers  of  the  Central 
Manager  are  clearly  defined  in  the  first  instance.  But  the  maintenance  of 
harmonious  relations  between  the  Central  Dairy  and  its  Auxiliaries,  wdthout 
which  the  system  must  break  down,  mainly  depends  upon  two  factors  :— 
(a)  the  basis  upon  which  the  cream  is  received  by  the  Central  Dairy,  and 
(d)  the  subsequent  division  of  profits  between  the  Societies.  The  ideal  plan 
seems  to  be  for  the  Central  Dairy  to  purchase  the  cream  from  the  Auxiliary 
at  the  same  price  per  lb.  for  butter  fat  contained  as  that  which  it  pays  to  its 
own  milk  suppliers,  allowing,  of  course,  for  cost  of  sepcuration  and  cartage  to 
the  Central  Dairy.  The  Auxiliary  is  thus  put  on  a  par  with  the  ordinary 
milk  supplier,  for  it  receives  payment  for  the  butter  fat  contained  in  its 
cream  regularly  once  a  month,  and  participates  in  the  profits  of  the  Central 
Dairy  at  the  end  of  the  year.  There  are  two  difficulties,  however,  which 
have  to  be  overcome.  One  is,  to  ascertain  the  just  proportion  of  expenses 
to  be  allowed  by  the  Central  Dairy  to  the  Auxiliary  for  separation  (which, 
of  course,  must  include  depreciation,  interest  on  capital,  etc.),  and  for  carting 
the  cream ;  the  other  is,  to  determine  accurately  the  percentage  and  weight 
of  butter  fats  contained  in  the  cream.  Testing  cream  is  immeasurably 
more  troublesome  and  less  accurate  than  testing  milk,  but  if  both  Societies 
are  really  determined  to  work  together  for  their  common  good  it  ought  to 
prove  easy  enough  to  check  the  cream  tests  by  the  simple  process  of 
churning  the  cream  and  weighing  the  butter  produced.  The  cream  should 
also  be  tested  before  being  sent  from  the  Auxiliary  to  the  Central  Dairy. 
There  is  another  drawback  to  the  Auxiliary  system  which  pasteurisation  at 
the  Auxiliary  itself  will  remedy :  this  is  the  injury  to  cream  in  transit  by 
partial  churning  where  it  has  not  been  at  first  pasteurised,  or  at  all  events 
properly  cooled.  If  the  Auxiliary  system  is  to  be  perfected  each  Creamery 
must  be  fitted  up  with  pasteurising  machinery,  and,  though  the  first  cost  will 
be  heavy,  it  will  unquestionably  be  repaid  by  the  improved  quality.  Pas- 
teurising involves  the  use  of  an  artificial  "  starter  "  to  set  the  true  lactic 
ferment  at  work  in  the  cream,  by  which  means  only  butter  of  an  uniformly 
excellent  flavour  and  quality  can  be  produced.  Without  this  precaution  it 
would  be  quite  possible  for  the  Central  Dairy  to  inflict  a  very  great  injustice 
upon  its  Auxiliaries,  for  there  would  be  nothing  to  prevent  it  from  churning 
the  cream  before  it  was  properly  ripened,  or  at  too  high  a  temperature,  and 
this  would,  of  course,  result  in  a  diminution  in  the  produce.  In  order  that 
the  arrangement  between  the  Central  Dairy  and  its  Auxiliaries  should  be  as 
perfect  as  possible,  the  representatives  of  the  latter  should  be  permitted  to 
take  samples  of  the  buttermilk  after  churning,  for  the  purpose  of  analysis, 
and,  if  necessary,  to  supervise  the  process  of  churning  itself.  There  appears 
to  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  Auxiliary  system  will  become  practically 
universal  in  the  future.  The  principle  of  centralisation  is  economically 
sound,  and  all  that  is  required  is  to  evolve  a  scheme  of  working  which  will 
prove  as  satisfactory  to  the  Auxiliary  Creameries  and  the  Central  Dairy  as 
the  existing  Independent  Creamery  system  is  found  to  be  to  a  Creamery  and 
its  suppliers. 


224  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION    IN   IRELAND. 


The  number,  membership,  and  trade  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  in  1900, 
_     .     ,,       ,  as  compared  with   1809,  is  shown  in  the  appended 

Agricultural  statement  :- 


Societies. 


Number.  Membership.  Trade. 


On  31st  Dec,  1900  -         106  11,961  £j/[,2Q2 

On  31st  Dec,  1899  -         104  11,606  68,217 


Increase,     -  2  355  ^^5.985 

They  are  distributed  among  the  four  provinces  thus : — Leinster,  26 ; 
Munster,  17;  Ulster,  9;  and  Connaught,  54. 

The  two  developments  of  their  business  which  call  for  special  notice  are 
the  improvement  of  live  stock,  and  the  establishment  of  "  experimental 
plots." 

Hitherto  far  too  little  importance  has  been  attached  by  our  Societies  to 
the  improvement  of  live  stock,  and  it  has  been  left  almost  entirely  to  indi- 
viduals to  breed  and  maintain  pure-bred  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep, 
a  most  costly  undertaking,  and  one  quite  beyond  the  means  of  the  average 
farmer.  The  Royal  Dublin  Society  has  rendered  a  signal  service  to  the 
country  in  this  direction,  but  we  believe  that  in  future  by  doing  this  work 
in  conjunction  with  the  Agricultural  Societies  its  value  to  Irish  farmers  will 
be  greatly  enhanced.  Without  any  external  assistance  the  Societies  have 
in  many  cases  enabled  small  farmers  to  provide  themselves  at  a  moderate 
cost  with  pure-bred  bulls,  boars,  rams,  and  even  stalHons,  and  this  most 
valuable  work  is  being  now  undertaken  by  Societies  in  the  very  poorest  parts 
of  the  country  where  improvement  was  needed  most.  It  is  quite  impossible 
to  estimate  the  extent  to  which  the  hve  stock  of  the  Irish  farmer  may  be 
capable  of  improvement  through  the  judicious  introductions  of  strains  suited 
to  the  conditions  of  each  district.  The  improvement  of  stock  is  a  branch  of 
the  farmers'  business  which  can  be  well  and  economically  effected  by  co- 
operation, but,  like  the  Agricultural  Banks,  the  good  results  will  not  all  at 
once  be  noticeable,  and  cannot  be  expressed  in  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence. 
The  Department  of  Agriculture  will  make  the  improvement  of  live  stock 
part  of  its  programme,  and  it  will  find  no  more  valuable  auxiliary  in  this 
work  than  Societies,  whose  members  know  what  they  want,  and  whose 
business  training,  and  methods  of  self-help  will  enable  them  to  show  far 
better  results  from  a  small  but  judicious  expenditure  than  could  possibly  be 
expected  from  a  much  larger  outlay  upon  an  unorganised  community. 

In  their  initial  stages  our  Agricultural  Societies  naturally  find  it  somewhat 
difficult  to  obtain  the  accommodation  which  they  require  in  their  business 
from  the  existing  Banking  institutions  in  the  country  but  as  the  true  char- 
acter of  these  Societies  becomes  more  manifest  this  difficulty  tends  to 
disappear,  as  it  has  invariably  done  in  other  countries.  Societies,  therefore, 
are  forced  to  obtain  such  accommodation  on  the  joint  and  several  security 
of  the  members  of  their  Committees  at  current  bank  rates,  to  enable  them 
to  give  their  members  the  credit  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed  in  the 
past.  Short  of  a  rigid  cash  basis,  this  is  decidedly  the  best  plan  for  an 
Agricultural  Society  to  adopt  in  financing  its  business.  The  loan  is  in  the 
form  of  an  over-draft,  and  interest  is,  of  course,  only  paid  upon  what  is 
actually  due  to  the  bank  for  the  time  being.     This  arrangement  enables  a 


AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  225 


Society  to  purchase  its  members'  requirements  for  cash  and  upon  the  very 
best  terms,  and,  actually  in  some  cases,  to  earn  a  small  percentage  of  profit 
on  each  transaction  where  the  trade  cash  discount  is  higher  than  the  interest 
paid  to  the  bank.  Societies  do  not  as  yet  universally  appreciate  the  value 
of  the  commercial  standing  which  a  cash  system  of  trading  will  enable 
them  to  acquire.  Their  members  have  been  accustomed  all  their  lives  to 
take  as  much  credit  as  they  could  get  without  enquiring  too  closely  into  the 
price  which  they  were  paying  for  the  accommodation.  Capital  can  now  be 
procured  for  business  purposes  at  much  cheaper  rates  than  ever  before,  but 
still  the  majority  of  the  farmers  of  Ireland  prefer  to  deal  on  credit.  If  the 
Agricultural  Societies,  therefore,  did  nothing  more  than  to  put  an  end  to 
such  a  wasteful  and  extravagant  system  of  doing  business  they  would  have 
rendered  a  signal  service  to  the  agricultural  industry  of  the  country. 

One  very  important  branch  of  business  has  been  developed  by  the  Agri- 
cultural Societies,  viz. : — the  sale  of  bacon  pigs.  Arrangements  have  been 
made  by  which  Societies  can  now  send  their  pigs  direct  to  the  curers, 
receiving  payment  for  them  in  accordance  with  quality  and  weight.  The 
modus  operandi  is  to  collect  a  sufficient  number  of  pigs  to  fill  one  or  more 
railway  trucks,  each  member's  pig  or  pigs  being  ear-marked  with  a  tin  label 
bearing  a  certain  number  to  identify  his  lot.  When  the  pigs  have  been 
killed,  cleaned,  and  cloven,  a  return  of  their  weight  is  prepared,  and  cheques 
are  made  out  in  payment  for  each  lot  at  the  current  market  prices.  The 
curers  report  on  the  returns  as  to  the  quality  of  the  pigs  when  killed  and, 
of  course,  the  price  is  regulated  by  the  quality  ;  they  point  out  to  the  Society 
from  which  the  pigs  come  the  shortcomings  of  any  particular  member's  lot, 
and  thus  pig-feeders  obtain  what  was  never  before  available  to  them,  an 
expert  opinion  on  the  quality  of  the  pigs  they  supply.  This  enables  them 
to  correct  errors  in  feeding,  etc.,  and  it  gives  to  the  careful  feeder  the 
proper  value  of  his  pig.  The  curer  who  buys  the  pigs  allows  a  commission 
of  li'.  per  pig  to  the  Society,  which,  in  the  case  of  many  Societies,  has 
provided  sufficient  funds  to  remunerate  their  Secretaries.  On  the  whole 
this  system  works  well,  for  it  has  resulted  in  the  members  of  Societies  in 
remote  districts  obtaining  far  better  prices  for  their  pigs  than  they  ever 
before  received.  There  is  still,  however,  a  very  great  difficulty  in  disposing 
of  heavy  pigs  which  are  over  the  weight  required  by  the  curers  for  bacon 
piu-poses  ;  these  are  mostly  sold  in  Scotland  at  present,  and  at,  compara- 
tively speaking,  low  prices.  It  is  hoped  that  Societies  may  take  up  the 
industry  of  killing  and  curing  such  pigs  for  the  use  of  their  members  and 
thereby  displace  a  very  large  quantity  of  the  inferior  American  salt  pork, 
which  at  present  finds  its  way  into  the  country,  and  is  actually  bought  at  a 
higher  price  than  that  realised  by  the  sale  of  these  heavy  pigs. 

Payment  being  made  direct  by  the  curers  to  the  pig-feeders  in  these 
cases  precludes  the  possibility  of  including  the  sale  of  pigs  in  the  returns 
of  their  trade,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive  at  even  an  approximation  of 
the  extent  of  the  business  thus  done,  but  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  amounts 
to  several  thousands  of  pounds  sterling. 

In  a  few  Societies  some  dissatisfaction  exists  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
pigs  are  bought  on  a  dead-weight  basis  and  at  a  price  fixed  absolutely  by 
the  curers,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  pigs  should  be  bought  alive  and 
by  live  weight.  At  present  the  curers  do  not  see  their  way  to  agree  to  this 
system  of  doing  business,  which,  however,  is  that  which  governs  the  far 
larger  transactions  of  such  centres  of  bacon-curing  in  Chicago,  and  it  is  to 

Q 


226  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN  IRELAND. 


be  hoped  that  they  may  see  their  way  to  meeting  the  demand  of  the  pig- 
feeders,  which  appears  to  be  perfectly  reasonable.  If  pigs  can  be  bought 
by  weight  and  the  quality  judged  while  alive  in  the  market  elsewhere,  it 
ought  not  to  be  impossible  to  adopt  a  similar  custom  in  Ireland. 

The  returns  of  the  business  done  by  the  Agricultural  Societies  give  but 
a  faint  idea  of  the  amount  of  good  which  they  have  accomplished,  for  their 
effect  has  been  to  reduce  prices  of  agricultural  commodities  not  only  to 
members  of  Societies  but  also  to  those  who  are  not  members  but  who  live 
in  districts  where  the  influence  of  a  Society  is  felt.  Farmers,  whether 
members  of  Societies  or  not,  are  now  becoming  more  critical  purchasers, 
and  unless  they  are  deeply  indebted  to  the  merchant  from  whom  they 
obtain  supplies,  are  now  much  more  particular  as  to  the  quahty  of  the 
goods  which  they  purchase.  As  far  as  possible  it  has  always  been  the 
desire  of  the  Society  to  encourage  Home  Manufacture  in  manures,  cakes, 
etc.,  in  order  to  keep  the  money  in  the  country,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  manufacturers  are,  at  last,  becoming  alive  to  the  importance  of 
the  Co-operative  trade,  and  evince  a  far  greater  desire  to  cater  for  the 
wants  of  Societies  than  hitherto.  As  the  Societies  are  bound  to  increase 
rapidly,  it  behoves  Irish  manufacturers  to  leave  nothing  undone  to  render 
it  unnecessary  for  our  Societies  to  look  anywhere  outside  Ireland  for  their 
supplies,  and  the  least  that  can  be  expected  of  them  is  that  they  will 
put  the  Societies  upon  trading  terms  as  favourable  as  those  enjoyed  by 
ordinary  dealers  in  their  products. 

The  Co-operative  Poultry  Societies  now  number  21,  with  a  membership 
of  2,569.     These  Societies  have  been  formed  for  the 
P     If       ^     'pf         double  purpose  of  improving  the  breeds  and  methods 
^  ■    of  rearing  and  fattening  poultry,  and  improving  the 

methods  of  placing  poultry  and  eggs  on  the  market. 
With  these  objects  in  view,  this  Society  has  employed  Poultry  Experts  who 
impart  Technical  Instruction  to  the  Societies  in  the  form  of  lectures  and  by 
demonstration.  One  of  these  experts — Mr.  Viggo  Schwartz — has  been 
brought  from  Denmark  especially  to  teach  the  Societies  the  Danish  methods 
of  selecting,  grading  and  packing  eggs  for  exportation.  Besides  these 
twenty-one  Societies  specially  formed  for  carrying  on  this  business,  twenty 
Dairy  and  Agricultural  Societies  have  taken  it  up.  Most  of  the  Poultry 
Societies  have  been  but  a  short  time  at  work,  and  their  total  trade  turnover 
for  I  goo  only  amounted  to  ^^9,47  5.  This  comparatively  small  trade  was 
mainly  due  to  the  difficulties  which  they  had  to  encounter  in  obtaining  due 
recognition  for  the  excellence  of  their  eggs  on  the  English  markets — the 
past  barbarous  system  of  packing  and  exporting  eggs  from  Ireland  having 
almost  forced  down  Irish  eggs  to  the  lowest  position  on  the  markets.  An- 
other cause  which  militated  against  them  was  the  determined  opposition  of 
the  egg  dealers  who  offered  prices  far  in  excess  of  what  they  had  been 
paying  before  the  Societies  were  started,  and,  even  in  some  cases,  beyond 
the  real  value  of  the  eggs. 

When  it  was  decided  to  take  up  the  re-organisation  of  the  egg  and  poultry 
industry  some  years  ago  a  crisis  had  arisen  in  the  Irish  Egg  Export  Trade. 
The  Liverpool  and  Glasgow  egg  merchants  had  issued  a  circular  to  the 
^  Irish  Egg  Shippers  informing  them  that  on  and  after  a  certain  date  they 
would  cease  to  buy  Irish  eggs  unless  they  were  fresh,  clean,  properly  packed 
in  clean  dry  straw,  or  "  wood-wool  "  and  in  non-returnable  cases  of  the 
pattern  used  by  Continental  shippers.       Though  this  resolution  was  not 


AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  227 


universally  adhered  to  by  the  trade,  it  created  a  considerable  sensation 
among  the  Irish  Egg  Shippers,  who,  realising  at  last  that  their  methods  of 
doing  business  had  almost  destroyed  their  trade,  held  several  meetings  and 
passed  many  resolutions  pledging  themselves  to  carry  out  the  necessary 
reforms  so  as  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  English  and  Scotch 
buyers.  Hitherto  the  practice  all  over  Ireland  among  farmers'  wives  had 
been  to  hold  their  eggs  until  they  had  a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  it  worth 
while  taking  them  to  market,  particularly  when  prices  were  going  up.  The 
egg  buyers'  circulars  and  resolutions  made  no  impression  whatever  on  them, 
for  no  guarantee  was  given  that  better  prices  would  be  paid  for  fresh,  clean 
eggs,  than  had  been  hitherto  paid,  and  so  they  continued  to  send  their  eggs 
to  market  as  before,  where  they  were  dealt  with  as  before.  The  injury 
done  to  the  trade  by  the  perpetuation  of  this  abominable  system  of  "  holding 
up  "  eggs  was  enormous.  The  Irish  egg — under  proper  conditions  the  best 
in  the  world — was  sold  at  the  lowest -market  price,  and  was  difficult  to  sell 
even  then.  Poultry-keepers  grumbled  at  the  low  prices  and  threatened  to 
give  up  the  egg  business,  and  the  egg  buyers  seemed  equally  dissatisfied. 
Both  had  contributed  to  ruin  a  profitable  industry  ;  neither  appeared  capable 
of  restoring  it  to  a  proper  basis. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  the  Poultry  Societies  began  to  be  formed  with 
the  object  of  bringing  co-operation  among  the  poultry  keepers  and  better 
methods  of  trading  to  bear  on  the  business.  They  at  once  started  on  com- 
pletely new  and  improved  lines  which  practically  amounted  to  a  revolution — 
they  bought  the  eggs  from  their  members  dy  weight  instead  of  by  the 
dozen  or  score  ;  they  refused  to  take  any  but  perfectly  fresh  and  perfectly 
clean  eggs,  and  they  packed  them  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  given 
by  the  expert,  Mr.  Schwartz,  on  the  Continental  plan,  in  non-returnable 
cases  and  in  wood-wool.  But  the  mischief  wrought  by  the  old  system  made 
it  hard  for  the  Societies  to  develop  their  trade. 

The  Societies'  business  so  far  has  been  mainly  confined  to  the  collection 
and  sale  of  eggs,  but  some  are  talking  up  the  table  poultry  trade — a  business 
which  is  far  more  difficult  and  risky,  but  which  can,  without  doubt,  be 
developed  very  considerably.  The  fowls  are  bought  by  weight,  killed, 
plucked,  properly  trussed,  and  packed  for  market,  instruction  being  given 
by  experts  as  in  the  egg  business.  The  sales  of  poultry  have  not  been 
as  yet  very  large,  but  they  are  steadily  increasing,  and  profits,  hitherto 
unknown,  are  being  realised.  The  Newmarket  Society  reports  that  on  one 
trial  consignment  alone  a  profit  of  one  hundred  per  cent,  over  the  prices 
that  could  be  obtained  locally  was  realised.     This  is,  of  course,  exceptional. 

Attention  is  being  directed  at  present  to  the  establishment  of  central  egg 
packing  depots  to  be  supplied  by  local  federations  of  small  Poultry 
Societies,  so  as  to  minimise  working  expenses,  and  to  secure  greater  effi- 
ciency in  management.  The  local  Societies  will  thus  act  merely  as  collect- 
ing centres  where  the  eggs  and  poultry  are  bought  and  paid  for  by  weight, 
and  then  forwarded  in  patent  returnable  cases  by  cart  to  the  packing  depot 
where  the  eggs  and  poultry  are  again  weighed  and  paid  for,  and  are  pre- 
pared for  shipment.  At  these  packing  centres  poultry  fattening  will  in  all 
probability  be  carried  out  in  the  near  future,  and  a  poultry  farm  will  be 
attached  1*^0  each,  where  chickens  can  be  artificially  hatched  and  reared,  so  as 
to  command  the  top  market  prices,  and  from  which  the  members  of  the  local 
Societies  may  obtain  sittings  of  eggs,  and  stock  birds  of  the  breeds  most 
suited  to  their  requirements,  at  moderate  prices.     These  central  depots  will 


228  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN  IRELAND. 

also  aiford  those  who  wish  to  take  up  poultry  keeping  the  means  of  acquiring 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  industry  in  all  its  branches. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  England  paid  to  foreign  countries  and  the 
colonies  in  1898  £4,4.^2,1  ly  for  eggs  alone,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  Socie- 
ties have  a  future  before  them  which  is  only  second  in  importance  to  that  of 
the  Co-operative  Creameries. 

One  of  the  most  encouraging  successes  is  that  of  the  Irish  Co-operative 
Agency  Society.  This  body  was  established  in  1 893  by 

Trade  Federation,  a  number  of  the  Dairy  Societies  which  found  it  neces- 
sary to  form  a  federation  for  the  purpose  of  jointly 
selHng  their  produce  in  the  large  English  markets,  and  of  establishing  a 
distinctive  reputation,  and,  if  possible,  a  national  brand,  for  unadulterated 
Irish  Creamery  butter.  Repeated  difficulties,  incidental  to  a  totally  novel 
and  extensive  class  of  business  undertaken  by  farmers  hitherto  inexperi- 
enced in  large  commercial  transactions,  beset  the  earHer  years  of  this 
enterprise.  Among  these  troubles  were  costly  lawsuits  resulting  from  the 
acts  of  unsatisfactory  officials ;  the  difficulty  of  fincincing  in  Ireland  an  un- 
precedented undertaking  of  the  kind  ;  and,  worse  than  all,  the  apathy, 
perhaps  not  surprising  at  the  outset,  of  the  Dairy  Societies  generally  towards 
the  venture.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  persevering  determination,  the 
caution  and  the  natural  business  capacity  of  its  Committee,  seconded  by  the 
zeal  and  ability  of  its  present  manager,  Mr.  Roche,  the  Agency  Society 
gradually  overcame  all  its  difficulties,  and  to-day  it  occupies  a  perfectly 
sound  financial  position,  and  its  reputation  as  a  trading  body  stands  high  in 
the  business  world. 

Its  growth  may  be  best  illustrated  by  the  following  figures  : — 

Year.  SALES.  £ 

1893  .  .  .  .  _  45,5;4 

1894  -  -  -       •     -  -  64,85; 

1895  -  _  -  .  _  75,922 

1896  _____  110,726 

1897  _____  116,238 

1898  _____  133,010 

1899  _____  159,401 

1900  _____  177,205 


Total  Sales  for  seven  years       ;^882,933 


Bad  Debts  for  this  period  ;^i68 

No  better  proof,  could  be  furnished  of  the  solid  business  qualities  of  the 
Irish  farmers  who  direct  this  Society  than  their  having  incurred  so  extra- 
ordinarily small  a  proportion  of  bad  debts  as  £i6S  in  a  volume  of  trade 
amounting  to  over  three-quarters  of  a  million  sterling. 

The  Agricultural  Societies  now  formed  a  federation  for  the  purpose  of 

The  Irish  Agricul-    transacting  the  business  of  joint  purchase  of  their 

tural  Wholesale      requirements  and  joint  sale  of  their  produce  on  lines 

g     .  ,  somewhat  similar  to  those  on  which  the  Creameries 

society.  Yiaive  established  the  Co-operative    Agency    Society. 

This  federation,  under  the  name  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Wholesale  Society, 


AGRICULTURAL   CO-OPERATION    IN    IRELAND.  229 


has  been  at  work  now  for  some  years  and  is  steadily  proving  its  utility  to 
the  Societies.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Agency  Society  its  earlier  stage  has 
been  attended  by  some  difficulties ;  but  there  is  every  confidence  that,  like 
the  Agency  Society,  when  it  has  bought  its  experience,  it  will  overcome  all 
its  difficulties  and  occupy  a  position  of  great  importance  in  the  development 
of  the  commercial  side  of  the  Agricultural  industry.  Its  chief  difficulty  for 
some  time  to  come  will  be  finance,  and  it  is  necessary  to  impress  upon  local 
Agricultural  Societies  the  necessity  for  providing  sufficient  capital  either 
by  shares  or  loan,  or  through  a  system  of  cash  payments  by  their  members, 
to  enable  them  to  deal  on  a  cash  basis  with  the  Agricultural  Wholesale 
Society,  and  thus  secure  the  fullest  benefit  in  price  and  quality  which  a 
cash  system  of  trading  alone  can  render  possible. 

The  trade  turnover  of  the  Wholesale  Society  for  1900  amounted  to 
^36,763.  It  has  secured  new  and  commodious  premises  at  151  Thomas 
Street,  Dublin,  and  the  business  management  of  the  Society  is  under  the 
charge  of  Mr.  A.  O.  Watkins,  whose  reputation  in  the  agricultural  trade  is 
well  known. 

Side  by  side  with  its  programme  of  organisation  the  Society  has  found 

The  Educational  ^^  necessary  to  undertake  a  good  deal  of  directly 
educational  work,  including  a  considerable  system  or 
01  tne  Technical  Instruction,  in  order  that  the  Societies  which 
MoYement.  [^  organises  may  be  properly  able  to  fulfil  the  indus- 

trial purposes  for  which  they  have  been  formed. 

This  fact  will  have  been  made  sufficiently  apparent  from  various  par- 
ticulars mentioned  in  the  preceding  portions  of  this  article,  but  it  is  desirable 
to  make  a  more  direct  reference  to  this  branch  of  the  work  here. 

The  purposes  of  these  Societies,  we  may  recapitulate,  are  the  manufacture 
of  their  butter  on  the  best  and  most  scientific  principles  in  creameries ; 
joint  purchase  of  their  Agricultural  requirements  and  the  sale  of  their  pro- 
duce ;  the  improvement  of  their  live-stock,  including  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
swine,  and  poultry ;  the  acquisition  of  machinery,  such  as  steam-threshers, 
potato  sprayers,  etc.,  for  the  joint  use  of  their  members  ;  the  improvement 
of  their  methods  of  tillage ;  the  development  of  early  market  gardening ; 
the  introduction  of  the  Continental  system  of  collecting,  grading,  and  pack- 
ing eggs  for  high-class  English  markets  ;  the  establishment  of  experimental 
farms  under  the  direction  of  the  Organisation  Society's  expert  instructors ; 
the  formation  of  Co-operative  Rural  Banks  on  the  Raiffeisen  principle  ;  the 
promotion  of  rural  industries,  such  as  lace-making,  weaving,  crochet,  em- 
broidery, and  needlework  generally,  for  the  employment  of  women  in  rural 
districts  when  not  otherwise  engaged.  To  forward  these  aims  the  Society 
employs  a  number  of  expert  instructors,  and  carries  out  a  regular  system  of 
technical  instruction  in  addition  to  its  work  of  organising. 

Even  in  the  early  stages  of  the  movement  it  was  seen  that  the  mere  organ- 
isation of  a  certain  number  of  farmers  into  Societies,  the  framing  of  an 
equitable  constitution  for  these  bodies,  the  drafting  of  rules  which  would 
provide  for  every  contingency  which  might  arise,  were  but  the  first  and 
easiest  steps.  Once  a  Society  is  organised,  the  technical  instruction  begins 
with  the  teaching  of  business  methods  and  the  keeping  of  accounts,  and 
extends  through  every  phase  and  detail  of  the  industry  for  which  the 
Society  is  formed. 

So  much  for  the  statistical  and  technical  sides  of  this  great  co-operative 
agricultural  movement.     To  understand  its  inner  spirit — its  philosophy,  so 


230  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN   IRELAND. 


to  speak — and  the  less  obvious  causes  of  its  success,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
reader  should  read  the  following  able  review  of  these  causes  which  has 
been  extracted  from  an  address  on  "  The  Trend  of  Co-operation  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,"  delivered  by  the  Right  Hon.  Horace  Plunkett,  as 
President  of  the  National  Co-operative  Festival  Society,  1901-2: — 

"To  understand  the  Irish  movement,  you  must  realise  that  the  problem  to 
be  dealt  with  In  Ireland  was  wholly  different  to  that  which  confronted  the 
pioneers  of  the  Eng-Jish  movement.  The  need  for  co-operation  in  distribution 
was  not  urgent  in  Ireland,  and,  even  if  it  had  been,  the  business  of  shop-keeping 
would  not  have  appealed  to  the  Irish  imagination  in  a  way  calculated  to  bring 
out  the  qualities  which,  as  will  be  seen,  other  forms  of  co-operation  evoked. 
Ireland  is  occupied  by  a  scattered  population,  with  a  low  standard  of  comfort, 
themselves  producing  a  good  deal,  though  a  diminishing  quantity,  of  their  own 
essential  dietary.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people  live  directly  upon  agricul- 
ture, and  almost  all  classes  depend  directly  upon  that  industry.  The  country 
being  practically  devoid  of  coal  and  iron,  and  having  few  important  manufac- 
tures, its  wealth  can  almost  be  measured  by  the  output  from  the  land.  Any 
movement,  dependent  for  its  establishment  on  a  permanent  basis  upon  economic 
advantage,  would  stand  or  fall  by  the  influence  it  exercised  upon  the  habits  and 
methods  of  the  wealth-producers  of  Ireland — the  farmers  and  farm  labourers. 

"  While  any  such  movement  must  be  kept  wholly  apart  from  politics,  one 
of  its  chief  initial  difficulties  was  incidental  to  the  political  attitude  of  the  Irish 
mind.  The  history  of  the  country  has  taught  the  Irish  people  to  attribute  all 
their  industrial  shortcomings  and  their  commercial  disadvantages  to  the  action 
of  the  Government.  Their  political  leaders  quite  sincerely  teach  them  that  a 
Parliament  of  their  own  would  quickly  repair  the  injuries  inflicted  by  past  mis- 
government.  When  this  attitude  of  mind  had  been  successfully  dealt  with, 
when  the  all-sufficiency  of  political  remedies  had  been  disposed  of,  we  had  to 
reckon  with  the  still  more  formidable  opposition  of  those  who  openly  declared 
that  any  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  farmer  would  only  postpone  the 
day  when  all  agricultural  problems  would  be  solved  by  the  abolition  of  land- 
lordism. Lastly,  when  the  political  and  the  agrarian  objections  had  been  met, 
there  was  the  large  human  problem,  so  well  known  to  co-operative  propagan- 
dists, still  to  be  solved.  Did  the  Irish  farmers  possess  the  qualities  out  of 
which  co-operators  were  made  ?  They  had  no  commercial  experience  or 
business  education  :  had  they  business  capacity?  Would  they  ever  display 
tJiat  confidence  in  each  other  which  is  essential  to  sustained  association  for 
business  purposes,  or,  indeed,  that  confidence  in  themselves  which  must 
precede  business  enterprise?  Could  they  be  induced  to  form  themselves  into 
societies,  adopt,  and  loyally  abide  by  those  rules  and  regulations  by  which 
alone  an  equitable  distribution  of  responsibility  and  profit  among  the  partici- 
pants in  the  joint  undertaking  can  be  assured,  and  harmonious  and  successful 
working  be  rendered  possible?  We  never  doubted  their  capacity  to  fulfil  all 
these  conditions,  but  few  in  Ireland,  and  none  in  England,  shared  our  confi- 
dence. Some  sympathised  with  our  enthusiasm,  others  laughed  at  our 
ignorant  optimism.  The  pioneers  of  co-operation  in  Ireland  had,  to  all  appear- 
ances, an  uphill  fight  before  them. 

"  But  it  was  a  fight  well  worth  making.  For,  apart  from  the  other  good 
results  we  looked  for,  the  success  of  organised  self-help  was  an  essential 
element  in  the  solution  of  a  phase  of  the  Irish  land  question  which  is  fraught 
with  great  importance  for  the  future  of  our  country — I  mean  the  gradual 
creation  in  Ireland  of  a  system  of  peasant  proprietorship.  Now,  paradox 
though  it  seem  in  expression,  I  have  long  been  convinced — though  I  do 
not  remember  to  have  said  so  before — that  while  under   existing  economic 


AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION   IN   IRELAND.  231 


conditions  in  the  world's  markets  a  peasant  proprietor  is  impossible,  a 
peasant  proprietary  is  not  only  possible  but  desirable.  Co-operation  solves 
this  paradox.  By  mutual  help,  and  by  common  organisation  for  common 
objects,  the  isolated  and  unprogressive  peasant  owner,  while  not  sinking  but 
strengthening  his  individuality,  is  lifted  to  a  competitive  level,  from  which 
he  can  conduct  his  industry  on  the  most  advanced  lines,  and  with  every 
resource  that  rivalry  in  the  modern  market  requires. 

"  When  I  look  back  over  the  work  of  the  last  twelve  years,  I  see  that? 
although  we  had  much  to  contend  with,  we  had  also  many  important  advan- 
tages. Whatever  your  leaders  thought  of  the  prospects  of  success,  we  had  not 
only  the  moral,  but  the  financial  support  of  the  Co-operative  Union,  and  the 
invaluable  guidance  in  details  of  organisation  of  Mr.  Vansittart  Neale,  and  his 
former  understudy,  now  his  worthy  successor,  Mr.  J.  C.  Gray.  There  is  much 
in  the  genius  and  tradition  of  the  Irish  farmer  which  fits  him  for  combination. 
The  old  clan  spirit  is  by  no  means  dead  in  him.  Isolated,  the  Irish  farmer  is 
conservative,  sceptical  of  innovation,  a  believer  in  routine  and  tradition  ;  in 
union  with  his  fellows,  he  is  progressive,  open  to  ideas,  and  wonderfully  keen 
at  grasping  the  essential  features  of  any  new  proposal  for  his  advancement. 
He  was,  then,  eminently  a  subject  for  co-operative  treatment.  The  smallness 
of  his  holding,  his  lack  of  capital,  the  backwardness  of  his  methods,  made  him 
helpless  in  competition  with  his  rivals  abroad,  who  were  either  favoured  by 
natural  conditions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  United  States  and  the  Colonies,  or  were 
organised  on  the  very  best  lines  for  co-operative  success,  as  in  the  case  of 
many  European  countries,  notably  Denmark.  And  remember  that  co-operation 
in  agriculture  means,  nowadays,  not  merely  organisation  for  strictly  productive 
purposes,  but  also  joint  effort  in  the  preparation  of  produce  for  rapid  distribu- 
tion in  large  centres  of  population.  The  distributive  needs  of  a  modern  market 
in  a  great  city  demand,  as  you  know,  above  everything  else,  a  commodity 
consigned  in  bulk,  and  of  such  a  uniform  quality  that  the  merchant  can  take 
his  sample  as  genuinely  characteristic  of  the  whole  consignment.  Now,  the 
middleman  can  do  this  for  a  consideration,  and  the  organised  farmers  can  do 
it — the  individual  farmer  cannot.  It  was  our  conviction  that  the  farmers  of 
Ireland  could,  by  associative  effort,  intercept  the  intermediate  profit  by  carrying 
the  productive  process  a  step  further,  and  applying  the  principles  of  co-operation 
to  the  marketing  of  their  joint  produce,  no  less  than  to  the  preliminary 
processes  of  their  industry.  Their  foreign  competitors  had  done  so  with  signal 
success,  and  we  were  determined  to  imitate  them  in  this  also,  recognising  it  to 
be  the  necessary  corollary  of  our  earlier  efforts. 

"  It  happened  that  at  the  time  we  commenced  our  Irish  work,  a  belated 
industrial  revolution  was  taking  place  in  one  great  farmers'  industry.  The 
event  is  of  special  interest,  because  one  reason  why  the  co-operative  movement 
in  England  has  not  touched  the  agricultural  classes  is,  that  in  the  agricultural 
industry,  with  this  exception,  there  has  been  no  industrial  revolution,  for  this 
reason  amongst  others,  that  in  agriculture  division  of  labour  cannot,  from  the 
nature  of  the  industry,  be  carried  very  f^r.  But  in  this  case  a  recent  invention 
had  changed  butter-making  from  a  home  to  a  factory  industry.  Ignorant  of 
the  principles  of  co-operation,  the  farmers  had  to  look  on  while  capitalists 
introduced  the  new  system.  They  were  tempted  to  go  out  of  the  butter- 
making  business,  and  send  their  milk  to  be  manufactured  by  others.  The 
result  was  found  to  be  that  they  remained  with  all  that  part  of  the  dairying 
industry  which  agricultural  depression  had  made  unprofitable,  while  the  making 
and  marketing  of  butter,  which  science,  combined  with  commercial  enterprise, 
under  joint-stock  organisation,  had  rendered  profitable,  had  passed  out  of  their 
hands.  Here  was  an  ideal  opportunity  to  test  the  value  of  co-operative 
principles. 


232  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN  IRELAND. 


*'  And  now  let  us  see  how  the  experiment  works  out.  You  find  in  a  backward 
parish,  say,  lOO  farmers,  struggling  with  antiquated  methods  and  out-of-date 
appliances,  marketing  their  inferior,  rapidly-depreciating  produce  through  a 
host  of  middle-men,  and  realising  a  miserable  price.  You  go  back  in  two 
years,  and,  perhaps,  happen  to  be  present  at  the  annual  general  meeting  of  the 
new  society,  held  in  the  new  building  among  the  steam-driven  separators, 
butter-workers,  and  churns,  and  all  sorts  of  scientific  appliances  unavailable  to 
the  isolated  farmer,  but  well  within  the  means  of  the  associated  lOO  farmers. 
Here  are  your  loo  newly-fledged  co-operators,  with  their  democratically- 
elected  committee,  on  which  you  find  the  best  business-men  in  the  community, 
be  they  landlord  or  tenant,  Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic,  Unionist  or 
Nationalist,  in  co-operative  peace  and  harmony.  You  have  only  to  listen  to 
their  deliberations  to  see  that  a  change  has  come  over  the  spirit  of  the  scene 
which  would  delight  the  co-operator's  heart.  You  find  these  men  showing  a 
rare  capacity  to  understand  all  the  complicated  technical  details  of  the  manu- 
facture, and  shrewd  in  the  discussion  of  the  commercial  questions  which 
surround  the  disposal  of  their  product.  Here  is  a  picture  which  will  revive  the 
recollection  of  the  older  co-operative  faith.  And,  as  if  to  point  the  moral 
which  I  am  seeking  to  enforce,  you  may  see  alongside  of  this  attempted  realisa- 
tion of  old  co-operative  ideas,  the  newer  tendencies  in  full  work  in  this  outpost 
of  the  co-operative  world.  You  may  see  some  eighty  creameries,  chiefly  owned 
by  the  English,  but  a  few  of  them  by  the  Scottish  Wholesale,  in  which  the 
farmers  supply  their  milk  as  they  do  to  any  other  capitalist  who  gives  them 
their  price,  but  in  which  they  have  no  share  in  either  management  or  profit,  in 
which  they  take  no  pride,  from  which  they  learn  no  lesson.  When  Congress 
endorsed  this  action  of  the  Wholesale,  the  Irish  section  of  the  Co-operative 
Union  ceased  to  exist,  and  we  went  in  for  co-operative  Home  Rule.  For- 
tunately, our  movement  was  fairly  launched  before  the  Irish  policy  of  the 
Wholesale,  which  might  have  frustrated  our  earliest  eff"orts,  was  developed. 
That  policy  naturally  aroused  some  bitter  feelings,  for  we  did  not  then  under- 
stand the  change  which  was  coming  over  the  British  movement. 

"  It  was  an  extraordinary  piece  of  good  fortune  for  us  to  find  such  an 
opportunity  for  our  first  experiments  as  the  crisis  in  the  dairy  industry  afforded. 
Our  scheme  made,  it  is  true,  a  large  demand  upon  co-operative  qualities  com- 
pared with  those  which  are  necessary  to  start  a  store.  But  that  consideration 
was  quite  ignored  by  my  friends  in  view  of  the  social  and  economic  improve- 
ment which  would  result  from  the  success  of  these  voluntary  associations. 
They  knew  that  if  the  co-operative  dairy  societies  were  to  succeed  com- 
mercially, the  organisation  of  societies  for  other  purposes  connected  with 
agriculture  would  be  a  matter  of  comparative  ease. 

"We  never  indulged  the  dream  of  co-operative  agriculture  in  the  sense  of 
joint  ownership  and  joint  management  of  farming  lands.  But  we  saw  our  way 
clear  to  the  association  of  farmers  for  the  improvement  of  every  branch  of  their 
industry.  I  have  no  time  to  give  you  any  further  account  of  how  the  move- 
ment was  started,  or  any  description  gf  its  subsequent  progress.  Anything 
more  than  a  brief  summary  of  the  position  it  occupies  to-day  would  be  beyond 
the  scope  of  this  address.  A  few  facts  and  figures  will  aff"ord  a  general  idea  of 
how  far  we  have  travelled  towards  the  goal  we  have  set  before  us.  The  latest 
returns  I  have  deal  with  546  societies,  with  some  54,000  members.  Of  these 
societies,  193  are  central  creameries  and  77  auxiliaries,  as  we  call  them— that 
is,  societies  which  separate  the  milk  from  the  cream  and  send  the  latter  to  be 
churned  at  a  central  creamery.  There  were  1 1 1  agricultural  societies,  whose 
chief  function  is  the  cheapening  of  production  by  the  joint  purchase  of  honest 
seed  and  manures,  of  implements  and  general  farming  requisites.  In  some 
cases    these   societies   undertake    the    sale    of  produce.     Then    there    are    78 


AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN  IRELAND.  233 


miscellaneous  societies  which  carry  on  various  rural  industries,  from  flax- 
scutching-  to  the  making-  of  lace,  and  also  include  the  improvement  and 
marketing  of  poultry  and  eg-gs.  Lastly — they  come  last,  but  had  I  realised  their 
enormous  educational  value,  they  should  have  preceded  all  other  forms  of  asso- 
ciation— come  87  agricultural  banks.  These  societies  exist  for  the  sole  purpose 
ot  creating  funds  to  be  lent  out  to  their  members.  The  loans  are  made  chiefly  on 
the  security  of  the  character  as  to  honesty  and  industry,  of  the  borrowers,  but 
only  when  the  committee  is  satisfied  that  the  purpose  to  which  the  loan  is  to 
be  applied  is  a  productive  one,  and  that  it  can  be  repaid,  interest  and  principal, 
out  of  such  application.  When  I  tell  you  that  these  associations  are  registered 
with  unlimited  liability,  that  thousands  of  loans  have  been  made  by  them  to 
their  members,  that  the  cases  of  unpunctual  repayment  are  rare,  and  that 
default  is  unknown,  that  the  system  flourishes  best  and  is  productive  of  the 
greatest  good  in  the  poorest  districts,  I  think  you  will  fancy  that  there  must 
be  something  very  like  magic  in  the  agency  which  converts  hopelessly  insolvent 
individuals  into  a  community  to  which  capital  can  be  advanced  with  the 
certainty  of  repayment.  And,  surely,  the  transformation  scene  is  remarkable. 
You  find  a  desperately  poor  community  owned  body  and  soul  by  the  local 
trader,  who  systematically  keeps  his  customers  just  up  to  their  necks  in  debt, 
and  then  supplies  them  with  barely  enough  to  keep  them  alive,  taking  in 
exchange  everything  they  have  got,  from  their  poultry  and  eggs  to  their 
labour.  If  you  could  analyse  the  accounts  in  which  these  barter  transactions 
are  recorded,  you  would  find  revealed  a  system  of  usury  more  ingenious  than 
any  which  Shylock  knew.  I  leave  to  your  imagination  the  economic  and  social 
effect  produced  when,  by  co-operative  organisation  of  the  intelligence  of  these 
poor  but  honest  and  would-be  industrious  folk,  payment  in  cash  is  supple- 
mented for  a  barter  credit,  when  the  functions  of  capital,  and  the  meaning  and 
the  proper  proportions  of  interest  come  to  be  understood,  and  when  the 
diff"erence  between  borrowing  to  spend,  and  borrowing  to  make,  so  brightens 
the  mental  horizon  that  the  man  who  has  always  hidden  his  indebtedness,  as 
he  would  an  unsightly  sore,  now  parades  his  credit  as  the  sign  that  by  virtue 
of  his  honesty  and  liis  industry  he  is  given  by  his  fellows  the  opportunity  of 
becoming  a  wealth-producer  in  the  community. 

"  There  is  one  factor  in  the  Irish  problem  which  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
stimulated  the  Irish  pioneers,  which  appealed  equally  to  the  comprehensive 
sympathies  of  Lord  Monteagle  and  Father  Finlay,  the  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society,  to  Mr.  Anderson  and 
Mr.  Russell,  its  Secretary  and  Assistant  Secretaty,  and  which  in  some  measure 
directed  the  trend  of  the  Irish  movement.  Our  population  is  melting  away  as 
fast  as  yours  is  being  reinforced.  The  drain  from  Ireland  is  worse  from  the 
standpoint  of  quality  even  than  from  that  of  quantity,  for  the  active  and  enter- 
prising leave  us  with  an  undue  proportion  of  the  very  old  and  very  young,  of 
the  mentally  and  physically  unsound.  These  leaders  and  their  associates 
realised  that  in  addition  to  organised  self-help,  which  was,  I  need  hardly  tell 
you,  their  chief  reliance,  the  economic  condition  of  the  country  required  a 
measure  of  State  aid — a  slight  departure  from  your  idolised  laissez  faire — not 
by  any  means  as  a  substitute  for,  but  as  a  stimulant  and  supplement  to,  asso- 
ciated eff"ort.  This  principle  was  accepted  by  the  Recess  Committee,  a  self- 
appointed  body  of  Irishmen  representing  all  shades  of  opinion,  which,  you 
will  remember,  issued  a  unanimous  report  calling  upon  the  Government  to 
create  a  new  Department  of  State.  Mr.  Gerald  Balfour,  with  a  statesmanship 
quite  new  to  us  in  Ireland,  conceded  an  Irish  demand  so  novel  in  its  unanimity, 
and  in  the  non-political  arguments  upon  which  it  was  founded.  Now  State  aid 
to  agricultural  industry  unless  accompanied  by  a  growing  spirit  of  self-reliance 
would,  in  our  opinion,  be  as  disastrous  as,  properly  administered,  it  ought  to 


234  AGRICULTURAL  CO-OPERATION  IN  IRELAND. 


be  beneficial.  If  I  may  be  pardoned  a  personal  allusion,  I  happen  myself  to  be 
an  illustration  of  the  working  of  this  principle,  a  strange  proof  that  the  doctrine 
of  self-help,  if  not  generally  very  clearly  formulated,  is,  at  least,  mentally 
accepted  by  Irish  public  opinion.  For  circumstances — chiefly  the  fact  that  I 
was  an  idle  man,  with  plenty  of  money  to  spend  upon  my  social  ideals — have 
pitchforked  me  out  of  the  Chairmanship  of  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation 
Society  into  the  working  headship  of  the  new  Department.  And  although  this 
ofiice  is  properly  a  Parliamentary  one,  I  am  allowed  by  the  Government,  with 
popular  sanction,  to  hold  on  to  my  post  until  the  Department  is  fully  launched, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  co-operative  education  has  so  demoralised  my 
politics  that  I  am  a  political  outcast.  But  you  may  take  it  from  me  that  every 
week  which  passes  brings  fresh  evidences  of  the  close  relationship  which  exists 
between  successful  administration  of  State  aid,  and  the  exercise  of  organised 
voluntary  effort.  I  cannot  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  rapid  spread  of 
these  farmers'  associations  at  this  juncture.  The  value  and  potency  of 
organised  effort  (whether  for  business  or  pleasure)  have  been  brought  home  to 
the  people,  and  no  lesson  was  more  needed  amongst  the  poor,  spiritless,  and 
isolated  peasantry  of  rural  Ireland.  The  effect,  too,  of  the  new  spirit  upon  the 
newly-constituted  local  bodies  is  manifest  at  least  to  the  student  of  social 
economics.  And  not  only  as  the  condition  precedent  of  State  aid  was  the 
co-operative  movement  required  to  stay  the  drain  of  emigration.  We  hope  to 
use  the  societies,  whose  primary  function  is  business  purposes,  for  the 
brightenmg  of  rural  life  on  the  purely  social  and  domestic  side." 


THE  DAIRYING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  235 


THE    DAIRYING   INDUSTRY    IN   IRELAND.* 

In  every  country  dairying,  in  a  more  or  less  developed  form,  is  one  of  the 
earliest  industries  to  spring  up,  and  Ireland  is  no  exception  to  the  rule. 
Indeed,  in  this  country  dairying  was  carried  on  at  a  very  early  period,  and 
the  ways  of  making  butter  practised  by  the  early  Irish  are  minutely  de- 
scribed in  the  ancient  histories  of  the  countr}^  At  what  date  butter  was  first 
exported  from  Ireland  is  doubtful,  but  we  know  that  a  flourishing  export 
trade  existed  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  trade  gradually 
increased  in  importance,  a  hundred  years  later  it  had  assumed  considerable 
dimensions,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  an 
important  item  in  the  national  economy.  How  the  trade  developed  at  a 
later  period  can  be  seen  from  the  following  figures  given  by  Arthur 
Young : — 

1768  -  '-  -     ;^I73.259 

1769  -  -  -        260,357 

1770  -  -  -  149.464 

1771  -  -  -  236,403 

1772  -  -  -  204,810 

1773  -  -  -  229,528 

1774  -  -  -  211,152 

1775  -  -  -  245,624 

1776  -  -  -  237,926 

Most  of  this  butter  was  sent  from  the  ports  of  Cork  and  Waterford. 
From  1790  to  1825  there  was  a  large  increase  in  the  export  trade,  as  the 
following  figures  show : — 

CWTS. 

Annual  average  of  3  years  to  1790  -  -       198,149 

215,100 
225,187 

-  303,586 

-  330,635 
365,226 

-  442,883 

After   1825  there  is  no  record  of  the  Irish  exports,  as  subsequently  the 
traffic  between  the  two  Kingdoms  was  treated  as  a  coasting  trade. 

*  [This  article  on  the  Dairying  Industry  in  Ireland  is  largely  historical.  The  statistics  of 
the  great  Cork  Butter  Market  deal  with  its  best  period,  and  one  not  meant,  of  course,  to 
illustrate  existing  conditions.  For  an  account  of  the  Creamery  movement  the  reader  is 
referred  to  p.  218. —  Ed.] 


3 

1 80c 

5 

1805 

5 

1810 

5 

1815 

5 

1820 

5 

1825 

236  THE   DAIRYING  INDUSTRY   IN   IRELAND. 

The  foreign  butter  trade  was  also  of  considerable  importance,  and  the 
West  Indies,  Spain,  Portugal,  Brazil,  etc.,  took  a  large  quantity  of  Irish 
butter  mainly  because  the  art  of  making  butter  of  good  keeping  quality, 
such  as  would  not  deteriorate  on  long  sea  voyages,  was  principally  confined 
to  Ireland.  Chaptal,  a  French  writer  on  scientific  agriculture,  mentions  that 
the  art  of  salting  butter  was  better  known  in  Ireland  than  in  any  other 
country.  The  methods  of  butter  making  in  Ireland  varied  considerably, 
the  most  striking  difference  being  between  the  methods  in  use  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  country  and  those  practised  in  the  South.  Whilst 
the  whole  of  the  milk  was  prepared  for,  and  churned  to  extract,  butter  in 
the  North  of  Ireland,  the  Southern  dairy  farmer  "  set "  the  milk  in  vessels 
and  churned  the  cream  only.  There  were  strenuous  advocates  of  both 
methods,  but  the  different  districts  kept  to  their  systems  until  the  coming  of 
the  creamery  system,  which  to  a  large  extent  revolutionised  dairying  all 
over  the  country.  The  first  attempts  to  systematise  and  improve  dairying 
in  Ireland  were  made  in  Cork  about  the  year  1770,  and  the  Cork  Butter 
Exchange  was  established  about  this  time  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the 
butter  trade  in  the  city.  It  is  probable  the  first  attempts  at  regulating  the 
butter  trade  in  Cork  originated  through  a  desire  to  safeguard  the 
interests  of  the  city  in  the  tolls  of  the  Cork  Butter  market.  Very  soon,  how- 
ever, the  Butter  Exchange  was  made  an  important  factor  in  the  dealings 
between  the  butter  maker,  the  butter  merchant,  and  the  butter  exporter. 
Mr.  Maguire,  in  his  "  Notes  on  the  Industrial  Movement  in  Ireland,  as  illus- 
trated by  the  National  Exhibition  of  1852,"  describes  the  Cork  Butter 
Weigh-House  and  its  functions  as  follows  : — 

"  Every  firkin  of  butter  that  passes  through  the  Cork  VVeigh-House — and 
nearly  every  firkin  that  enters  this  city  passes  through  it — is  rigidly  examined 
and  its  quality  accurately  determined,  and  when  this  butter  is  received  by  the 
foreign  buyer  he  has  a  sufficient  guarantee  as  to  the  character  and  quality  of 
the  article  in  the  well-known  brand  upon  its  cask.  The  farmer,  the  merchant, 
and  the  foreign  buyer  are  equally  protected  against  fraud  by  the  rigid  system 
of  inspection  which  has  rendered  this  market  famous. 

"  The  inspector  declares  the  exact  quality  of  the  article — whether  it  is 
entitled  to  the  first,  or  ought  to  be  degraded  to  the  sixth  quality  ;  and  the 
market- -z>.,  the  committee — fixes  the  price  which  the  farmers  ought  to  receive 
and  which  the  merchant  must  pay.  Did  it  stop  here,  and  were  the  local  seller 
and  buyer  alone  protected  from  mutual  injustice,  the  system  would  be  sadly 
deficient.  But  it  does  not.  The  brand  of  the  market  protects  the  foreign 
dealer  from  the  possible  fraud  of  a  dishonest  merchant  who  might — that  is, 
who  cou/d— without  such  vigilant  inspection  as  is  maintained  to  the  very 
moment  of  shipping  the  article  from  the  quays,  '  decant '  inferior  butter  into 
high-brand  firkins,  and  thus  impose  for  once,  at  least,  on  the  foreign  dealer. 
The  committee  of  merchants  are  the  body  responsible  to  all  parties  for  the 
character  of  the  Cork  Butter  Market,  and  it  is  their  pride  as  well  as  their 
interest  to  encourage  honesty  in  dealing  and  to  punish  every  attempt  at  fraud 
with  rigorous  severity. 

''  Fully  conscious  of  their  responsibility  to  all  classes,  they  have  brought 
the  system  of  inspection  to  the  greatest  perfection,  by  the  necessity  of  which 
tedy  have  made  it  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  improve  the  quality  of  his  make, 
anh  to  avoid  the  slightest  attempt  at  fraud  or  adulteration,  inasmuch  as  if  his 
butter  be  declared  a  'first,'  he  is  entitled  to,  say,  795.  ;  if  'third,'  to  705-.  ;  if 
'  fifth,'  to   56.^.  ;    if  '  sixth,'  to  46.^.  ;    so  that  it  is  clearly  his  interest  to  devote 


THE  DAIRYING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


237 


his  best  attention  to  its  improvement,  to  the  care  and  feeding  of  his  cattle,  and 
to  the  cleanliness  and  general  management  of  his  dairy." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  way  in  which  business  was 
conducted  in  the  Cork  Butter  Market  under  the  direction  of  the  committee 
of  merchants,  was  satisfactory  for  a  long  period,  and  that  considerable  im- 
provement was  induced  in  the  butter  manufacture  by  the  system  of  inspec- 
tion, fixing  the  qualities,  and  arranging  the  prices  to  be  paid  for  the  butter 
of  the  market  each  day.  But  a  time  came  when  the  exigencies  of  trade 
required  a  re-organisation  of  the  market,  and  in  1884  an  Act  of  Parliament 
was  obtained  which  regulates  its  conduct,  and  by  which  many  of  the  rules 
of  the  "  committee  of  merchants  "  are  set  aside.  Before  that  date  butter 
could  only  be  sold  in  the  market  which  was  subjected  to  inspection  and 
branding  according  to  quality  ;  now  a  portion  of  the  market  is  set  aside  for 
open  sale,  in  which  free  buying  and  selling  may  take  place.  Formerly  a 
"  member  "  of  the  Butter  Exchange  only  could  buy  in  the  market.  He  was 
called  the  "  butter  merchant,"  and  from  him  the  "  exporter  "  had  to  buy  his 
butter  for  exportation.     Now  the  exporter  may  purchase  in  open  market. 

The  business  transacted  in  the  Cork  Butter  market  is  of  enormous  pro- 
portions. Considering  its  magnitude,  the  regularity  and  freedom  from 
difficulties  are  matters  for  congratulation.  The  following  Table,  compiled 
from  the  Report  upon  the  Cork  Industrial  Exhibition  of  1883,  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  operations  in  the  Cork  Butter  Exchange  at 
that  date : — 

Cork   Market,   Season    1883-84. 


Quality  of  Butter. 

Kegs. 

Firkins. 

Total 
Quantity. 

Total  Value. 

Price  per  Cwt. 

Average. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Heavy  Salted- 

Cwts. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s.      d. 

£  s. 

£  s. 

First 

159 

104,135 

69,784 

377,240 

16 

5 

5 

8     li 

7   4 

4  15 

Second  . . 

547 

123,949 

83,180 

418,843 

17 

3 

5 

0    8| 

7   5 

4     8 

Third     . . 

1.525 

70.859 

47.954 

216,822 

3 

3 

4 

10    5 

5  10 

3  15 

Fourth   . . 

796 

11,659 

8,070 

27.408 

0 

0 

3 

7  " 

4  12 

2  14 

Fifth       . . 

128 

1,483 

1,035 

2,731 

14 

10 

2 

12     9 

3  12 

2     0 

Mild  Cured— 

Superfine 

20 

7,292 

4,889 

29.218 

II 

5 

5 

19     6 

7   4 

5     6 

Fine  Mild 

27 

15,020 

10,066 

55,952 

2 

10 

5 

II     2 

7   7 

4  17 

Mild       . . 

82 

7,083 

4.769 

24,862 

8 

5 

5 

4     4l 

7  II 

4  10 

Total  Quantity- 

Heavy  Salted   . . 

3.155 

312,085 

210,025 

1,043,046 

II 

9 

4 

19   3i 

— 

— 

Mild  Cured 
Total  of  all  kinds  . . 

129 

29,395 

19,726 

11,028 

6 

4 

5 

II     61 

— 

— 

3.284 

341,480 

229,751 

1.153,374 

18 

I 

5 

0     5 

— 

— 

The  following  interesting  return,  published  some  time  ago,  will  give  an. 


238 


THE  DAIRYING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


idea  of  the  proportions  of  the  trade  done  in  the  Cork  Butter  Exchange  at  a 
period  when  its  prosperity  was  at  its  height,  viz.,  in  1886 : — 

Price  per  cwt.  of  "  Salt  "  and  "  Mild  Cured  "  Butter,  in  Firkins,  at  the  Cork  Butter 
Market,  on  the  ist  and  15th  days  of  the  Months  specified  in  the  Year  1S86. 

Showing  the  Prices  in  shilUngs  per  cwt.  for  1st,  2n(i,  3rd,  and  4th  QuaUties  on  the  1st  and  loth 

of  each  Month. 


SALT    BUTTER. 

Date  in  Month. 

JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

MARCH. 

ISt 

15th 

1st. 

2nd. 

109 
109 

3rd. 

77 
63 

4th. 

49 
41 

1st. 

2nd. 

115 
123 

3rd. 

74 
89 

4th. 

46 
48 

1st. 

2nd. 

119 
117 

3rd. 

89 
95 

4th. 

54 
66 

- 

APRIL. 

MAY". 

JUNE. 

ist 
15th 

122 
107 

109 

80 

64 
59 

47        87        73 
43        78        60 

51 
51 

46 
39 

70 
65 

58 
51 

52 
52 

41 

42 

- 

JULY. 

AUGUST. 

SEPTEMBER. 

ISt 

15th 

67 

63 

60 
60 

54 

55 

48 
52 

73 
81 

64 
67 

58 
61 

51 
52 

80 
91 

69       62 
76        63 

54 
53 

- 

OCTOBER. 

NOVEMBER. 

DECEMBER. 

ISt 

15th 

105 

91 
92 

77 
77 

63 

64 

105 
104 

99 
90 

90 

82 

74 
74 

114 
124 

92 

98 

78 
85 

73 

74 

MILD    CURED    BUTTER. 

- 

JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

MARCH. 

ISt 

15th 

Sup. 

Fine. 

Mild. 
109 

Sup. 

1 
Fine. 

Mild. 

Kegs. 
113 

Sup. 

Fine. 

Mild. 
Ill 

- 

APRIL. 

MAY. 

JUNE. 

ISt 

15th 

127 

107 

78 

98 

88 

82 
77 

51 
51 

89 

74 

65 
63 

53 
52 

- 

JULY. 

AUGUST. 

SEPTEMBER. 

ISt 

15th 

79 
92 

69 
69 

57 
56 

86 
89 

74 
84 

69 
70 

94 
100 

79 
90 

69 

78 

- 

OCTOBER. 

NOVEMBER. 

DECEMBER. 

ISt 

15th 

iiS 

118 

105 
107 

90 
91 

114 

103 
99 

94 
87 

123 
131 

102 
112 

91 
95 

THE   DAIRYING  INDUSTRY   IN   IRELAND. 


239 


No.  of  Packages,  arranged  according  to  Quality,  received  Monthly  during  the 
Year  1886,  at  the  Cork  Butter  Market. 


SALT   BUTTER. 

1886. 

Quality. 

Total. 

1 

1st.                     2nd. 

3rd. 

4th. 

5th. 

January 

—                           73 

1. 103 

640 

89 

1,905 

February 

—                         243 

980 

533 

64 

1,820 

March 

S                      1,102 

2,552 

458 

41 

3,861 

April 

652                      6,307 

6,159 

681 

37 

13,836 

Mav 

6,862                    16,656 

5.950 

734 

59 

30,261 

June 

20,711                    18,695 

4.073 

445 

42 

43,966 

July 

20,745                    22,407 

4.946 

395 

17 

48,510 

August 

16,772                    14,281 

3.640 

348 

24 

35,065 

September 

14,881          ]           16,400 

5.941 

613 

32 

37,867 

October 

16,000 

12,294 

.  4.142 

520 

17 

32,973 

November 

5.444 

14,861 

4.299 

439 

33 

25,076 

December 

119 

4.211                 5.123 

811 

46 

10,310 

102,194 

127,530              48,608 

6,617 

501 

285,450 

MILD    CURED   BUTTER. 

1886. 

Superfine.        Fine  Mild. 

Mild. 

Total. 

January     . . 

_ 

I 

30 

31 

February 

— 

5 

8 

13 

March 

— 

13 

76 

89 

April 

8 

93 

534 

735 

May 

797 

2,163 

1,296 

4,556 

June 

2,158 

4,211 

1,667 

7,536 

July 

1,792 

4,163 

1.427 

7,382 

August 

2,035 

4.139 

1,233 

7,407 

September 

1.793 

3. 711 

1,564 

7,068 

October     .  . 

1,706 

2,go6 

961 

5.5-^3 

November 

1           700                 1,785 

859 

3,344 

December 

i             27                    252 

449 

728 

11,016 

23,842 

! 

9.604 

44,462 

Returns  of  a  like  character  to  above  would  show  that  a  considerable  pro- 
gressive improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  quality  of  the  butter  now 
coming  to  the  Cork  market,  evidenced  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
packages  of  butter  of  high  quality  put  upon  the  market.  In ."  salt  butter  " 
there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  first  quality  equal  to  7.3  per  cent.  ;  the 
increase  in  second  equals  12.5  ;  whilst  there  have  been  decreases  of  25,  38, 
and  63  per  cent,  respectively  in  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  qualities. 

The  Cork  butter  merchant  who  purchased  from  the  farmer  was  in  many 
cases  a  medium  for  instruction  in  butter  making.  The  following  Memo- 
randum, prepared  by  a  firm  of  butter  merchants  in  Cork  as  early  as  1843, 
was  circulated  amongst  the  dairy  farmers  that  did  business  with  this  firm. 
This  method  of  instruction  which  was  practised  by  the  most  advanced 
butter  merchants,  must  have  had  considerable  influence  upon  the  butter 
making  industry  in  Munster.  Holland,  noted  for  its  superior  butter,  was 
selected  whence  instruction  in  butter  making  should  be  sought. 


240  THE  DAIRYING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


"method  of  making  'dutch'  butter. 

"The  dairy  should  be  very  cold,  clean,  and  of  equal  temperature,  with  very 
little  light  and  no  sunshine  getting  on  any  part  of  it.  A  good  current  of  air 
should  pass  through  the  dairy. 

"In  milking,  put  one-eighth  of  an  ounce  of  pure  ground  saltpetre  in  a 
vessel  that  will  contain  about  eight  gallons  of  the  milk  ;  use  more  or  less  salt- 
petre in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  vessel  to  be  filled.  Strain  with  care  into 
coolers  perfectly  sweet  and  dry,  and  keep  the  whole  thus  from  two  to  four  days, 
when  all  the  milk  should  be  churned,  and  not  skimmed. 

"After  churning  the  milk  should  be  withdrawn  and  the  butter  divided  and 
placed  in  pans  of  pickle,  made  from  pure  water  and  fine  salt. 

"  The  butter  should  then  be  well  worked  with  the  hand,  frequently 
changing  the  pickle  until  all  the  milk  is  worked  out.  The  butter  should 
be  cured  with  two  pounds  of  the  finest  stoved  salt,  with  which  should  be 
mixed  two  ounces  of  powdered  refined  sugar,  then  well  packed  down  into  a 
white  firkin,  which  ought  to  be  filled  a  few  days  previously  with  strong 
pickle. 

"Cork,   igth  October,  1843." 

The  port  of  Waterford  was  also  largely  used  for  butter  exportation,  the 
markets  of  Tipperar}*,  Clonmel,  and  smaller  towns  in  the  Counties  of 
Waterford  and  Tipperary  contributing  very  large  quantities  of  butter  for 
exportation  from  this  port. 

Time  changes  all  things,  and  scientific  methods  of  dairying  quickly 
brought  reformation  in  dairying  methods  in  Ireland.  Not  alone  were 
methods  of  dairying  changed,  but  in  some  districts  that  formerly  ranked 
high  both  as  regards  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  butter  produced,  the 
industry  has  at  present  almost  completely  died  out  through  the  dairy  farmers 
in  those  districts  refusing  to  recognise  the  altered  conditions  and  require- 
ments of  the  markets  in  the  matter  of  dairy  produce.  Ireland  has,  however, 
fully  awakened  to  the  necessity  for  change  in  dairy  methods.  Already 
market  quotations  reveal  a  satisfactory  state  of  affairs  in  the  prices  of  Irish 
butter  as  compared  witii  those  of  its  most  formidable  competitors ;  and 
this  is  as  it  should  be,  for,  with  the  undoubted  advantages  possessed  by 
Ireland  for  the  production  of  the  best  butter,  it  is  certain  that  in  this  country 
dairying  must  continue  to  hold  an  important  place  in  the  national  economy. 
The  systems  of  butter  production  in  Ireland  may  be  classed  under  two 
headings : — 

{a)  The  Home-dairying  method,  in  which  butter  is  made  in  varying  quan- 
tities and  sold  either  in  (i)  large  packages,  firkins,  or  boxes,  or  (2)  m 
lumps  to  be  blended  and  packed  for  the  markets. 

{b)  The  Creamery  method,  in  which  milk  is  sent  to  centres  in  which  the 
cream  is  separated,  prepared  for  churning,  and  the  butter  made  up  and 
prepared  for  different  markets  either  by  being  put  into  (i)  firkins  or  boxes, 
or  (2)  made  up  as  rolls. 

The  Creamery  system  is  gradually  but  surely  extending  in  the  country, 
and  is  conducted  in  several  ways — by  co-operative  methods,  by  joint  stock 
companies,  and  by  large  farmers  who  can  afford  to  set  up  the  machinery 
necessary  for  this  system.  The  accompanying  map  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  proportion  and  territorial  distribution  of  the  systems  now  existing  in 
Ireland. 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY.  241 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY, 

In  the  records  that  have  been  handed  down  to  us  there  is  abundant 
evidence  that  the  pig  has  always  formed  an  important  element  in  Ireland's 
domestic  economy,  whether  roaming  in  herds  in  the  forest  of  the  Chieftain 
or  acting  as  a  savings  bank  for  the  cottager.       But  it  was  only  in  more 
modern  times  that  the  Irish  pig  succeeded  in  making  himself  so  universally 
known  in  the  form  of  the  now  celebrated  Irish  mild  cured  breakfast  bacon. 
Much  labour  and  money  had  to  be  expended  on  him  before  this  was  accom- 
plished.    The  old  Irish  hog  was  so  ill  shaped  that  we  doubt  if  all  the  skill 
and  accumulated  experience  of  our  present-day  curers  could  succeed  in 
turning  him  into  marketable  bacon.     There  is  nothing  to  show  when  the 
first  efforts  were  made  to  improve  him,  yet  we  think  we  are  safe  in  saying 
that  little  was  done  in  this  direction  until  early  in  the  last  century.     After 
that  the  owners  of  large  estates  seem  to  have  occasionally  imported  some 
specimens  of  the  improved  breeds  from  England  for  the  use  of  their  tenants. 
However,  any  good  that  was  accomplished  practically  disappeared  again 
owing  to  the  strained  relations  that  arose  over  the  land  question.       The 
boar-keepers  then  having  no  means  of  securing  new  blood  continued  to 
breed  from  their  own  stock,  and  deterioration  in  shape  and  quality  followed 
as  a  result  of  in-and-in  breeding.     This  neglect,  although  not  universal,  was 
pretty  general,  particularly  in  the  West  of  Ireland.     In  Leinster  and  Ulster 
there  was  a  fairly  continuous  importation  of  improved  English  breeds  by 
private  individuals.     The  effect  of  this  must  have  been  felt  outside  these 
provinces,  as  Irish  swine,  except  in  remote  districts,   began  to  lose  their 
resemblance  to  the  greyhound  for  which  they  had  formerly  been  so  remark- 
able. 

A  very  interesting  statistical  review  of  the  Irish  Bacon  and  Provision 
trade  was  made  in  the  year  i860  by  the  then  Solicitor-General  for  Ireland, 
in  a  paper  which  he  read  before  the  Social  Science  Congress  that  met  in 
Dublin  in  that  year.  As  many  parts  of  this  paper  have  an  historical  interest 
and  will  further  help  to  throw  light  on  the  present  position  of  the  bacon- 
curing  industry,  discussed  in  this  article,  several  excerpts  from  it  are  here 
inserted. 

"  During  the  Peninsular  War  Ireland  possessed  a  great  trade  in  curing 
beef  and  pork.  Cork,  Waterford,  Limerick,  and  Dublin,  all  afforded 
their  quota  of  beef  to  the  English  navy.  Upon  the  proclamation  of  peace 
this  trade  fell  off  greatly,  and  the  introduction  of  steam  navigation,  in 
1825,  tended  still  further  to  diminish  the  trade,  for  thus  a  ready  market 
was  opened  in  England  for  the  live  animal.  Again,  the  repeal  of  the  laws 
prohibiting  the  import  of  foreign  cattle  and  provisions  still  further  affected 
this  trade,  or  so  much  of  it  as  was  left,  and  thus  the  supplying  of  beef  has 
passed  into  foreign  hands.  Live  animals  and  bacon  now  form  the  staple 
article  of  the  Irish  provision  trade.  The  existence  of  this  trade  appeared 
to  be  perilled   by  the  potato  failure.     Previously  to  it  many  cottier  tenants, 

R 


;242  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


and  even  those  who  had  no  land  at  all,  kept  their  pig,  and  in  fact  the  pig 
was  often  depended  on  for  paying  the  rent. 

The  entire  number  of  pigs  in  Ireland,  in   i8^i,  was  1,412,813 
Of  these  there  were  owned  by  persons  holding  under 

one  acre      _ 355'977 

By  those  holding  from  one  to  five  acres 2^4, ^^i^y 

By  those  holding  from  five  to  fifteen  acres    ....  342,436 

Making  a  total  of  952,850  pigs  owned  by  those  holding  under  fifteen  acres 
each,  and  only  459,963  by  those  holding  over  fifteen  acres. 

The  effect  of  the  failure  of  the  potato  was  to  prevent  the  production  of  pigs 
and  to  force  a  sale  of  those  on  hand.  The  export  of  live  pigs  to  England  in 
the  year  1846  was  480,827,  and  the  number  of  pigs  in  Ireland  was  reduced  in 
1848  to  565,629,  the  decrease  being  847,184  animals.  Of  these  323,337  were 
from  the  cottier  class,  each  of  whom  held  less  than  an  acre  ot  land  ;  223,882 
were  from  those  holding  from  one  to  five  acres,  and  260,882  from  those  who 
held  from  five  to  fifteen  acres  of  land  each  ;  thus  showing  that  the  potato  failure 
had  swept  away  the  principal  live  stock  of  the  poorer  classes. 

There  was  at  this  time  an  increase  in  the  number  owned  by  those  holding 
over  fifteen  acres  of  land.  Persons  prophesied  that  the  race  of  pigs  would  disap- 
pear with  the  cottier  class,  but  we  shall  find  that  it  has  not ;  and  on  the  contrary, 
its  production  and  fattening  is  now  looked  upon  as  a  profitable  branch  of  trade 
by  the  farmer  having  larger  holdings.  During  the  four  years  from  1847  to  185 1, 
the  number  of  pigs  in  Ireland  ir.creased  steadily  :  in  1848  they  were  565,629  ;  in 
1849,  795,463  ;  and  in  1850,  923,502.  The  export  of  live  pigs  during  this 
period  was  very  short  of  the  export  of  1846.  Thus,  in  1847  it  was  106,407  ; 
in  1848,  110,787;  in  1849,68,053;  and  in  1850,  109,170;  the  total  exports  for 
the  four  years  being  39^,417  pigs,  while  in  1846  alone  the  export  of  live  pigs 
was  480,872. 

"  Confining  our  attention  at  present  to  the  export  of  live  pigs  and  the 
annual  produce  of  the  country,  w'e  have  returns  which  show  a  steady 
increase  in  the  export  of  live  pigs,  without  reducing  materially  the  stock, 
as  will  appear  by  the  following  returns  :  — 

Date. 

185X 
1S52 
1853 
1854 
1S55 
1856 
1S57 
1858 
1859 
i860 

"The  natural  inference  from  the  foregoing  figures  would  be,  that  as  the 
stock  has  not  increased  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  export  trade, 
there  has  been  a  falling  off  in  the  quantity  of  bacon  prepared  ;  but  in  the 
absence  of  absolute  data  we  should  be  slow  to  adopt  this  conclusion, 
especially  when  we  find  that  the  quantity  of  Irish  bacon  arriving  in  London 
(which  is  the  principal  market)  has  been  steadily  increasing  since  1851. 
^Ve  should  therefore  rather  attribute  the  increased  exports  to  the  earlier 
maturity  of  pigs  in  consequence  of  the  improvement  of  the  breed,  and  to 
the  greater  care  bestowed  upon  them  while  young. 


No.  of  Figs 

Kxijoi-ts  to 

in  liclaiul. 

Kiigland. 

1,084,857 

136,162 

1,072,658 

151.895 

1,444,925 

101,396 

1-342,549 

170,188 

1,177,605 

254.054 

918,525 

299,638 

1,255.186 

269,125 

1,409,883 

369,041 

1,265,751 

368,275 

1,268,590 

— 

THE    BACON   CURING    INDUSTRY.  243 


"The  subject  under  consideration  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
branches  :—ist,  as  to  the  annual  production  of  pigs;  2nd,  as  to  their 
g'eographical  distribution  ;  3rd,  as  to  the  changes  and  improvements  that 
have  taken  place  in  the  manufacture  of  provisions. 

•'  In  the  first  class  there  are  a  large  number  so  young  that  they  will  not 
be  fit  to  kill  within  the  year,  the  average  age  at  which  pigs  are  killed  being 
about  fifteen  months,  consequently  the  available  product  of  each  year  will 
be  less  than  the  return  by  about  one-fifth.  In  the  return  for  1859,  the 
number  under  twelve  months  old  is  stated  at  942,769,  and  if  one-fifth  be 
deducted  for  those  under  three  months  old  it  would  leave  754,215  of  this 
class  as  the  available  produce  of  the  year  :  in  the  other  class,  that  over 
twelve  months  old,  the  numbers  are  stated  to  be  322,982.  Of  these,  about 
one-third — say  100,000 — are  breeding  sows,  but  222,982  would  probably 
be  left  for  conversion  into  bacon,  thus  making  the  total  annual  produce 
of  pigs  fit  for  sale  at  fifteen  months  old,  977,197.  If  the  breeding  stock 
be  100,000  and  the  annual  average  produce  ten  for  each  sow,  we  shall 
nearly  arrive  at  the  same  result — viz.,  about  one  million  pigs  per  annum. 
The  export  of  live  pigs  in  1859  was  368,275,  thus  leaving  for  the  home 
provision  trade  about  650,000  animals  per  annum. 

"  We  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  pigs  are  the  only  description  of 
stock  which  is  fattened  and  finished  for  the  markets  of  Great  Britain  in 
Ireland.  There  is  a  large  export  from  Ireland  of  cattle  and  sheep,  but  the 
bulk  of  these  shipments  are  stores — that  is,  animals  not  fit  for  the  butcher 
and  which  go.  to  England  to  be  finished.  There  are  but  a  few  fat  oxen 
and  sheep  shipped,  while  all  the  pigs  which  are  exported  are  fit  to  kill ; 
thus  the  provision  trade  confers  vast  benefit  on  the  agricultural  classes  in 
•oftering  a  ready  market  tor  this  finished  produce.  On  an  average,  pigs  at 
twelve  months  old  are  worth  about  40s.  each  ;  they  are  then  put  in  and 
fed  on  corn  food  for  two  months  or  ten  weeks,  and  then  sold  at  an  average 
of  ;£,3  loy.  ;  so  that  the  farming  classes  receive  about  /^3, 500,000  per 
iinnum  from  this  branch  of  trade. 

"  Secondly,  as  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  pigs.  The  influence 
x)f  the  large  curing  establishments  of  Waterford,  Cork,  Limerick,  and 
Belfa^5t,  on  the  production  of  pigs  is  very  great.  The  number  of  pigs  in 
Ireland,  in  i860,  was  1,268,590;  the  area  of  the  country  is  20,815,111 
acres,  and  on  an  average  there  was  one  pig  to  each  sixteen  acres  of  land. 
In  Waterford  county  there  was  one  pig  to  each  eight  acres,  being  double 
the  average  of  the  whole  of  Ireland ;  in  the  neighbouring  counties  of 
Kilkenny  and  Wexford  the  average  was  one  pig  to  ten  acres.  Going 
further,  we  find  that  in  Cork,  Tipperary,  and  Limerick,  there  was  one  pig 
,for  twelve  acres  ;  in  Clare,  one  pig  for  twenty  acres ;  and  in  Kerry,  one 
pig  tor  twenty-two  acres.  These  eight  counties,  containing  7,154,312 
acres,  had  a  pig  population  of  507,21 1,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  pig  to  each 
fourteen  acres;  while  the  rest  of  Ireland,  having  an  area  of  13,660,801, 
.had  only  7^1,379  pigs,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  pig  to  each  nineteen 
acres. 

"'  Waterford  produces  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  Irish  bacon  imported  into 
London,  and  the  pigs  supplied  by  the  adjacent  counties,  Waterford,  Kil- 
-kenny,  and  Wexford,  not  being  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  trade, 
Waterford  buyers  attend  the  fairs  in  Carlow,  Tipperary,  Cork,  and  Lime- 
,rick,  extending  their  journeys  at  times  into  the  midland  counties,  into 
Connaught.  If  pig-feeding  be,  as  no  doubt  it  is,  profitable  to  farmers,  it 
follows  that  facility  of  access  to  the  principal  market  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  them.  The  risk  from  delay,  the  loss  of  interest  on  the  money 
.employed,  and   the   expenses   of  conveyance,  have  all  to  be  calculated  by 


244  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY 


the  purchaser,  so  that  a  farmer  at  a  distance  practically  pays  the  cost  of 
the  carriao^e  of  the  pig  to  Waterford. 

"  The  pigs  which  come  to  Waterford  market  all  arrive  alive  and  are 
killed  and  cured  at  the  provision  stores,  but  those  which  reach  Belfast 
market  are  brought  in  dead  and  are  only  cured  by  the  exporters.  Belfast 
is  the  only  place  in  Ulster  where  a  large  provision  trade  is  carried  on,  and 
its  exports,  partly  of  hams,  are  considerable,  while  in  Munster  there  are 
large  establishments  at  Waterford,  Cork,  and  Limerick. 

"  A  large  proportion  of  the  bacon  and  hams  cured  in  Belfast  is 
exported  to  the  colonies,  and  the  remainder  finds  consumption  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  in  Lancashire  and  the  north  of  England.  A  similar 
trade  to  that  of  Belfast  has  been  carried  on  in  Limerick  for  many  years.  In 
the  north  the  pigs  are  killed  by  the  farmers  at  their  own  homesteads  and 
then  brought  to  market  ;  while  in  Limerick  they  are  slaughtered  in  the 
curing  establishments.  In  both  cases  the  bristles  are  removed  by  scalding, 
previous  to  curing,  while  those  animals  intended  for  bacon  for  London 
must  have  the  bristles  taken  off  by  singeing.  Slight  as  this  difference 
•may  appear,  bacon  prepared  in  the  former  way  will  not  sell  in  the  London 
market.  Belfast  bacon  and  hams  are  shipped  in  a  finished  condition,  dried 
and  smoked,  while  that  from  the  south  of  Ireland,  with  the  exception  of  a 
portion  of  that  manufactured  in  Limerick,  is  shipped  in  an  undried  state, 
and  is  dried  and  smoked  at  the  other  side.  The  bacon  cured  in  the  south 
is  sent  chiefly  to  London  ;  it  differs  from  that  cured  in  the  north  in  another 
particular,  namely,  that  the  ham  is  not  separated  from  the  flitch  ;  it  \» 
shipped  in  bales,  each  bale  consisting  of  the  flesh  of  two  pigs. 

"  There  has  been  an  increased  demand  for  and  consumption  of  bacon  in 
London,  which  has  enhanced  the  price  ;  but  even  this  inducement  has 
failed  to  increase  materially  the  supply  from  Ireland,  and  the  deficiency  is 
met  by  much  larger  foreign  arrivals.  I'he  London  price  for  bacon  on  the 
ist  October,  1858,  was  50^-.  to  615-.  per  cwt.  ;  at  the  same  date  in  1859, 
it  was  56^.  to  bys.  per  cwt.  ;  and  in  i860,  yos.  to  y^s.  per  cwt.  :  the  quota- 
tion for  July,  1861,  was  75 y.  to  795.  per  cwt.  This  advance  in  price  has 
produced  an  increase  in  the  imports  of  foreign  bacon  into  London.  In 
the  year  1855  they  were  20,306  bales  ;  in  1856,  19,891  ;  in  1857,  26,425; 
in  1858,  18,664  f  i"  ''859,  23,411  ;  in  i860,  43,770,  Of  the  Irish  supply  to 
the  London  market  considerably  more  than  one-half  is  cured  in  Water- 
ford. 

"Third,  as  to  the  recent  improvements  in  the  mode  of  curing  bacon. 

"  Previous  to  the  application  of  steam  to  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  the 
only  mode  of  intercourse  between  Ireland  and  the  sister  isle  was  by  sailing 
ships  :  and  as  their  passage  was  more  or  less  doubtful  and  protracted,  it 
was  necessary  that  bacon  should  be  salted  sufficiently  to  bear  the  longest 
voyage.  Subsequently,  a  regular  line  of  fast-sailing  ships  was  put  on  the 
the  berth  between  Waterford  and  London,  sailing  once  a  week,  whether 
fully  loaded  or  not.  This  was  a  vast  improvement  in  the  mode  of  transit, 
and  enabled  the  curers  to  moderate  the  amount  of  salt  used  ;  but  since 
ihe  introduction  of  steamers,  by  which  alone  provisions  are  now  conveyed, 
the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  prevent  over  salting,  and  an  article  is  now 
produced  by  the  Irish  curers  which  brings  the  highest  price  in  the  best 
markets  in  the  world.  The  usage  of  the  trade  some  years  ago  was  10 
suspend  working  about  the  ist  of  May,  and  to  resume  about  the  beginning 
of  October.  Most  of  the  men  employed  in  curing  were  only  engaged  for 
the  season  ;  a  few  of  the  best  hands  were  retained  during  the  summer,  at 
reduced  wages.  Several  modes  of  curing  bacon  in  summer  were  suggested 
and   tried ;    many   of  them   failed,    and    at   length    a  Waterford   curing 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY.  245 


establishment  discovered  a  method  of  applying  ice  in  the  process, 
which  has  been  wonderfully  successful.  This  invention  has  conferred 
material  benefit  on  the  Irish  farmer,  as  he  can  now  find  a  market 
for  his  pigs  through  the  entire  year. 

"  The  pig  requires  a  good  deal  of  warmth  while  fattening  in  winter  ; 
this  warmth  has  to  be  produced  by  food  ;  it  follows  that  a  much  greater 
quantity  is  necessary  to  bring  up  a  pig  to  a  given  weight  in  winter  than  in 
summer;  consequently  the  summer  feeding  is  the  most  profitable,  and  the 
introduction  of  a  mode  of  curing  which  enables  the  process  to  take  place 
in  summer  has  proved  a  source  of  vast  profit  to  the  farmer,  as  well  as  a 
great  boon  to  the  working  men  who  now  have  constant  employment  in 
place  of  the  intermitting  engagements  of  former  times.  The  bacon  which 
is  cured  by  ice  is  treated  in  this  manner: — The  flitches  are  carefully  piled 
in  large  tanks  ;  pickle,  which  has  been  brought  to  a  given  temperature  by 
the  use  of  ice  and  salt,  is  then  poured  in,  and  as  the  temperature  is  raised 
by  the  warmth  of  the  atmosphere  or  of  the  article  operated  on,  further 
cooling  is  effected  from  time  to  time.  The  process  in  very  warm 
weather  is  more  tedious  and  difficult  than  during  the  cooler  part  of  the 
summer.  The  ice-cured  bacon  is  sound  and  firm,  and,  consequently, 
much  prized.  The  farmers  in  the  south  of  Ireland  have  not  been  slow  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  offered  by  a  summer  market,  and  we 
find  that  the  proportion  of  pigs  over  twelve  months  old  is  much  greater 
in  the  southern  counties  than  in  the  west  or  north  of  Ireland. 

"The  returns  are  taken  in  the  month  of  June,  and  the  pigs  which  are 
enumerated  as  being  over  twelve  months  old  are,  with  the  exception  of 
breeding  sows,  animals  that  will  be  killed  in  the  summer  and  autumn 
months.  In  June,  1859,  when  the  return  was  taken,  there  were  in  Ireland 
pigs  over  twelve  months  old,  322,982. 

Of  these  there  were  in  Munster       ....     150,097 
,,  in  County  Kilkenny  .  .        10,515 

,,  „         Wexford  i-)97o 


Total  in  eight  southern  counties  .  .      173,582 


Leaving  for  the  rest  of  Ireland    ....      149,400 

"  The  very  high  price  of  pigs  which  prevailed  in  the  spring  of  i860,  and 
the  scarcity  of  food,  reduced  the  stock  of  animals  of  the  age  under  con- 
sideration, and  we  find  that  in  June,  i860,  there  were  in  Ireland  pigs  over 
twelve  months  old,  274,116. 

Of  these  there  were  in  Munster       ....      124,782 
,,  in  County  Kilkenny  .  .  8,800 

,,  ,,         Wexford  .         .       10,096 


Total  in  eight  southern  counties   .         .     143,678 


Leaving  for  the  rest  of  Ireland        ....     130,438 

'*  The  above  figures  show  very  decisively  the  beneficial  effect  which  the 
system  of  summer  curing  by  ice  has  had  on  the  farming  operations  of  the 
south  of  Ireland.  It  enables  the  pig-farmer  to  economise  food  by  fattening 
these  animals  during  the  summer ;  it  offers  to  them  the  advantage  of  an 
immediate  sale  as  soon  as  the  pig  is  ready  for  market,  whereas,  formerly, 
they  had  to  be  fed  until  the  usual  winter  season  opened  in  October,  though 
the   increase   in  weight  was  far   from  proportionate  to  the  cost.     The 


246  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY 


consumer   also    reaps    advantages   in   having  delicious   mild  food  at   all 
seasons,  instead  of  highly  salted  and  overheld  bacon." 

An  important  step  in  the  direction  of  swine  improvement  was  taken  at 
the  Albert  Institute,  Glasnevin,  County  Dublin,  in  the  sixties. 

The  present  herd  of  pigs  at  the  Albert  Farm  has  been  in  existence 
for  a  long  time.  About  forty  years  ago  the  late  Prince  Albert  sent  from  his 
herd  at  Windsor  several  anmials  of  the  type  then  known  as  the  Improved 
Yorkshire.  The  foundation  of  the  Glasnevin  herd  was  laid  by  crossing 
these  Windsor  pigs  with  the  best  animals  from  Irish  herds.  The  Large 
Yorkshire  pigs  were  unknown  in  Ireland  until  the  early  fifties,  when  Wain- 
man,  of  Yorkshire,  and  Duckering,  of  Lincoln,  had  produced  a  variety  of 
Yorkshires  of  enormous  proportions.  Other  breeders  followed,  notably  the 
Earl  of  Ellesmere,  Mr.  Sanders  Spencer,  of  Huntingdonshire,  and  Mr.  John 
Barron,  Barrowash,  Derby,  from  whose  herds  the  best  animals  were  selected 
about  twenty  years  ago.  By  the  selection  of  sires,  discarding  at  once  any 
animal  that  showed  the  least  trace  of  the  Smaller  York  breed,  and  by  care- 
fully selecting  the  true  type  of  Large  York,  a  herd  has  been  secured  which 
possesses  all  the  characteristics  of  the  best  strains  of  the  Large  White 
Yorkshire  pigs.  The  object  kept  prominently  in  view  has  been  to  produce 
animals  that  will  grow  quickly,  and  attain  to  a  great  size  and  weight  with  a 
minimum  amount  of  offal.  All  the  stock  pigs  now  on  hands  are  remarkable 
for  their  even-fleshed  bodies,  good  hams,  straight  legs,  thin  skins,  and 
large  quantity  of  silky  hair.  The  herd  is  kept  in  a  normal  breeding  condi- 
tion, and  none  of  them  are  made  up  for  show. 

A  few  photographs  of  swine  from  the  Glasnevin  herd  accompany  this 
article. 

About  1 877  some  of  the  bacon  curers  in  Munster  made  efforts  to  improve 
the  pigs  in  the  districts  from  which  they  drew  their  supplies,  but  it  was  not 
until  about  ten  years  later  that  any  organised  effort  was  made  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  provision  curing  trade  to  get  the  farmers  to  breed  the  class  of 
pigs  most  profitable  to  themselves  and  most  suitable  for  the  production  of 
high  class  bacon.  Munster  had  taken  the  lead  in  the  bacon  curing  business, 
owing,  probably,  to  its  being  the  best  dairying  district  in  the  country,  but  a 
great  part  of  its  supplies  of  pigs  was  drawn  from  Connaught.  There  the 
pigs  had  remained  poor  in  quality,  bad  in  shape,  and  black  in  colour.  Boars 
of  the  Large  White  Yorkshire  breed  were  imported  and  sent  to  remedy  this, 
but  for  a  very  long  time  much  difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  the 
farmers  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities  for  improving  the  pigs.  They 
still  clung  to  the  long-legged,  flat-hammed  animal,  whose  unthriftiness  was 
in  sad  contrast  to  his  appetite,  with  the  result  that  for  years  the  prices 
quoted  by  the  bacon  merchants  for  Connaught  pigs  were  always  a  couple  of 
shiUings  per  cwt.  under  the  prices  quoted  for  those  in  Munster.  Perse- 
verance eventually  conquered,  and  to-day  as  fine  pigs  can  be  found  in  Con- 
naught as  in  any  other  province. 

The  South  of  Ireland  Bacon  Curers'  Pig  Improvement  Association  has 
three  breeding  establishments,  one  at  Limerick,  one  at  Cork,  and  another 
in  Waterford.  To  each  of  these  is  attached  a  skilled  inspector  whose  duty 
it  is  to  keep  in  constant  touch  with  the  boar-keepers  in  his  district,  to  supply 
them  with  boars  bred  at  these  establishments  or  purchased  from  the  herds 
of  reliable  breeders,  such  boars  being  calculated  to  rectify  the  faults  that 
may  be  noticed  generally  in  the  pigs  of  districts  where  they  are  stationed, 
and  to  prevent  in-and-in  breeding.     We  are  informed  that  this  Association 


"ALBERT  GF.M   -BOAI!  FOUR  YKAKS  OLD. 


:*P 

iHr 

.V|m^Sk^ 

rj^ 

^^^■^  j^^ 

^  J^^H 

i 

^^H^^^ 

^^  JmR^^^^^^^^H 

THREE  YOUNG  SOWS,  FIVE  MONTHS  OLD. 


'ALBERT  WONDER  III."— SOW,   FOUR  YEARS  OLD. 


.m^'^ 


'^'.^;^ 


ALBERT  WONDER  V.   —SOW,  THREE   YEARS  OLD. 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY.  2i7 


has  up  to  the  present  spent  iT  13,000  in  their  improvement  schemes,  and 
that  for  the  past  four  years  they  have  sent  out  over  1,420  boars,  which  were 
placed  as  follows  :—Tipperary  231,  Galway  lis,  Clare  188.  Roscommon  28, 
Limerick  133,  Kerry  6;.  Sligo  24,  King's  County  51,  Cork  91,  Mayo  74, 
Queen's  County  ;;,  Kildare  2;,  Wexford  115.  Waterford  71,  Kilkenny  108, 
Carlow  18. 

Of  late  years  the  Congested  Districts  Board  have  included  the  distribu- 
tion of  boars  in  the  good  work  in  which  they  have  been  engaged,  having 
placed  230  boars  ;  Donegal  having  received  3;,  Cork  15,  Kerry  18,  Mayo  83, 
Galway  40,  Sligo  7,  Leitrim  15,  Roscommon  15. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  issued  its  first  si-heme  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  breeding  of  swine  in  May,  1901.  The  Department  believe  the 
number  of  well-bred  boars  in  Ireland  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  them  in 
hoping  that  a  very  large  number  of  premiums  for  these  sires  can  be  taken 
up  for  the  next  few  years  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  offering  of  the  pre- 
miums will  have  the  effect  of  inducing  more  farmers  to  go  in  for  the  breed- 
ing of  pure-bred  animals.  Should  it  be  possible  to  relax  further  the* 
restrictions  on  the  importation  of  swine  from  Great  Britain,  this  class  of  live 
stock  may  also  be  improved  by  the  importation  in  greater  numbers  of  pure- 
bred boars. 

The  text  of  the  Department's  scheme  for  1902  is  given  hereunder  : — 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION 

FOR  IRELAND. 

Schemp.  for  Encouraging  Improvement  in  the  Breeds  of  Sivme. 

1902. 

SWINE. 

'*  I.  The  joint  fund  available  under  this  scheme  for  encouraging'  im- 
provement in  the  breeds  of  swine  shall  be  applied  chiefly  in  providing 
premiums  for  selected  pure-bred  boars  ;  and  the  remainder  may  be  offered 
in  prizes  for  swine,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  Department's 
scheme  of  prizes  at  county  and  local  shows  (see  Clause  13,  section  iv.  of 
that  scheme). 

"2.  Under  exceptional  circumstances  the  Department  may  provide  for 
a  county,  as  far  as  funds  will  permit,  and  under  certain  conditions  to  be 
prescribed  by  them,  by  granting  a  loan  for  a  short  period  to  enable  a 
representative,  appointed  by  the  County  Committee,  and  an  Inspector  of 
the  Department,  to  import  suitable  boars  into  the  county  on  behalf  of 
approved  applicants. 

"  3.  Subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Department,  premiums  may  be 
restricted  to  any  one  or  more  pure  breeds  of  swine. 

"  4.  Only  boars  eligible  for  entry  in  the  Register  of  Pigs  of  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society  shall  be  selected  for  premiums.  The  owner  of  a  boar 
selected  for  a  premium  must  have  the  animal  entered  in  said  Register. 

"  5.  Boars  belonging  to  any  Society  or  to  any  Association  of  Farmers 
shall  be  eligible,  if  pure-bred,  to  compete  for  premiums. 

"  6.  The  value  of  a  county  premium  shall  be  ;£S'  tenable  lor  one  year. 

"  7.  A  boar  which  was  awarded  a  county  premium  in  1901  shall  not  be 
eligible  for  a  premium  under  this  scheme. 

'•  A  boar   which   may   be   awarded   this  year  a  premium   out  of  funds 


248  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


administered  by  any  other  body  shall  not  be  eligible   for  a  premium  under 
this  scheme. 

"  8.  The  County  Committee  shall  appoint  a  judge  (who  must  be  non- 
resident in  the  county)  to  select  boars  for  premiums  along  with  the  Depart- 
ment's Inspector,  and  the  selection  of  the  judge  and  the  Department's 
Inspector  shall  be  final. 

"  In  the  event  of  the  judge  appointed  by  the  County  Committee  being 
absent  for  any  reason,  the  Department's  Inspector  shall  judge  alone,  and 
his  selection  shall  be  final. 

"9.  Boars  shall  be  selected  at  the  principal  shows  and  at  local 
exhibitions. 

"  ID.  On  consecutive  dates  and  at  places  to  be  at  first  approved  of  by 
the  Department  (in  writing),  one  or  more  special  local  exhibition  of  boars 
may  be  held. 

"  (i)  Local  exhibition  of  boars  must  be  advertised  by  posters  or  in  the 
local  newspapers,  at  least  five  weeks  before  the  dates  fixed  for  the  exhi- 
bition. (2)  Entries  for  these  exhibitions  must  be  made  on  forms  to  be 
supplied  by  the  Secretary  of  the  County  Committee.  Such  a  form  must 
be  signed  by  the  owner  of  each  boar,  and,  if  required,  he  must  sign  a 
statutory  declaration  to  the  effect  that  the  particulars  given  in  the  entry 
form  are  correct.  (3)  Boars  from  all  parts  shall  be  eligible  to  compete 
provided  they  are  to  serve  in  the  county.  (4)  Whenever  practicable,  and 
in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  expense,  two  exhibitions  should  be  held  on 
one  day  at  two  centres,  />.,  one  in  the  morning  and  one  in  the  afternoon. 
(5)  Supplemental  exhibitions  will  not  be  sanctioned.  (6)  The  selection 
made  for  premiums  at  these  exhibitions  shall  be  provisional.  (7)  The 
County  Committee  shall  meet  immediately  after  the  last  exhibition  and 
iillocate  the  available  premiums,  having  regard  to  the  condition  of  each 
part  of  the  county.  (8)  Not  later  than  six  days  after  the  holding  of  the 
last  exhibition  the  Secretary  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  Department 
a  complete  list  of  the  boars  recommended  by  the  County  Committee  for 
the  season. 

"II.  The  entry  fee  for  premiums  shall  not  exceed  2s.  6d.  per  boar. 
"12.  No  person    shall   possess  two  premium   boars  of  the  same  breed 
unless  located  at  least  three  miles  from  each  other. 

"  13.  The  selections  under  Clauses  9  and  10  will  not  be  final  until  the 
approval  of  the  Department  has  been  given  in  writing. 

"  14.  The  Secretary  of  the  County  Committee  shall,  as  soon  as  the 
Department  have  approved  of  the  boars  selected,  supply  the  owner  of  each 
premium  boar  imder  this  scheme  with  posters  which  such  owner  must 
undertake  to  distribute  in  the  district  in  which  the  boar  is  to  serve. 

"  15.  Each  premium  boar  shall  serve  not  less  than  thirty  sows.  The 
service  fee,  inclusive  of  all  charges,  for  this  number  of  sows  shall  not 
exceed  u.  for  each  sow.  After  the  minimum  number  of  sows  have  been 
served,  the  owner  of  the  boar  may  fix  such  fee  as  he  desires. 

"16.  The  County  Committee  may  make  such  provision  as  they  think 
necessary  with  regard  to  the  maximum  number  of  sows  which  may  be 
•served  during  the  season. 

"17.  Each  sow  shall  be  the  property  of  a  farmer,  the  aggregate  tene- 
ment valuation  of  whose  holding  or  holdings  wherever  situated,  and  for 
which  he  is  rated,  does  not  exceed  the  limit  fixed  by  the  County  Committee. 
"  Herds,  ^(9«rt^</^  agricultural  labourers,  and  artisans  may  obtain  service 
for  their  sows  on  the  same  terms  as  a  farmer. 

"  18.  The  term  '  farmer '  is  to  be  understood  to  mean  a  person  who 
derives  his  means  of  living  mainly  from  farming. 

"19.  The  owner  or  owners   of  a  premium    boar  shall  not,  before  the 


THK    BACON    CURIiNG    INDUSTRY.  249 


stipulated  number  of  sows  have  been  served,  reserve  the  use  of  the  boar 
for  the  sows  of  any  nldividual  or  of  the  members  of  any  Society.  Subject 
to  the  provisions  of  Clause  2;^,  sows  must  be  served  by  a  premium  boar  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  presented. 

"  20.  The  Department  reserve  the  right  to  brand  or  mark  premium  boars, 
and  to  inspect  them  from  time  to  time. 

"  21.  (i.)  Not  earHer  than  ist  September,  1902,  and  not  later  than 
ist  December,  1902,  the  owner  of  each  premium  boar  shall  forward  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  County  Committee  a  form  containing  a  return  of 
the  names,  addresses,  and  valuations  of  the  persons  whose  sows  have 
been  served  by  the  premium  boar,  at  the  fee  named  in  Clause  15,  together 
with  a  statutory  declaration,  signed  before  a  magistrate,  other  than  the 
f)wner  of  the  boar,  certifying  that  the  said  sows  have  been  served,  and 
that  all  the  regulations  of  this  scheme  have  been  complied  with.  (2.)  The 
Secretary  of  the  County  Committee  shall  examine  and  check  all  these 
documents,  and  when  correct  shall  forward  same  to  the  Department. 
{3.)  As  soon  thereafter  as  the  Department  are  satisfied  as  to  the  fulfilment 
<if  the  conditions  of  this  scheme,  their  share  of  the  grant  payable  thereunder 
will  be  transmitted  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  County  Committee  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Technical  Instruction,  and  the  Secretary  shall  be  notified  that 
•payment  may  be  made  to  owners  of  boars  by  that  Committee  of  the  pre- 
•miums,  or  part  of  the  premiums,  payable  under  this  scheme.  (4.)  Any 
premium  not  applied  for  on  or  before  the  ist  December,  1902,  shall  be 
considered  as  having  lapsed. 

"  Forms  tor  the  declaration  required  by  this  clause  may  be  had  on 
application  to  the  Secretary  of  the  County  Committee. 

'•  2;;.  In  the  event  of  a  boar  being  unable,  from  any  cause,  to  complete 
the  prescribed  number  of  services,  the  Department  reserve  the  right  to 
withhold  the  premium,  or  any  part  of  it,  or  in  any  other  way  to  deal 
specially  with  the  case,  according  as  the  circumstances  may  require. 

"  23.  The  owner  of  a  premium  boar  has  the  right  to  refuse  the  use  of  his 
boar  in  any  case  where  he  is  satisfied  that  the  service  would  be  prejudicial 
to  the  animal.  The  reason  for  such  refusal  must,  however,  be  communi- 
cated to  the  Department  and  to  the  County  Committee,  immediately  on 
the  refusal  of  the  application. 

"  24.  The  service  season  for  premium  boars  shall  close  finally  on  30th 
November. 

"25.  Pigs  to  be  eligible  for  a  prize  or  commendation  shall  be  of  such 
conformation  as  the  judge  or  judges  and  the  Department's  Inspector  con- 
sider suitable  for  the  improvement  of  swine  in  Ireland. 

"  26.  In  all  cases  of  dispute  in  matters  connected  with  this  scheme  the 
decision  of  the  Department  shall  be  final. 

In  the  North  of  Ireland  no  organised  effort  to  improve  the  breeds  of 
swine  was  made  ;  but  the  farmers  there  took  the  matter  in  their  own  hands 
and  have  succeeded  in  maintaining  a  fair  standard  of  quahty  in  their  pigs. 
With  regard  to  the  present  condition  of  the  Irish  bacon  trade  generally,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  Large  White  Yorkshire  is  the  breed  best  fitted  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  the  pigs  of  the  country  ;  or  rather,  we  should  say, 
the  improved  Large  Yorkshire,  the  original  pig  of  this  type  being  a  coarse 
animal  with  heavy  jowl  and  ears,  which  did  not  mature  until  a  great  weight 
had  been  reached,  much  greater  than  is  needed  by  modern  requirements. 
The  nearest  approach  to  perfection  is  something  between  the  Large  and 
the  Middle  York  breeds,  and  this  has  not  alone  been  produced  by  some 
breeders,  but  has  been  successfully  maintained.     The  Berkshire,  although 


250  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


an  excellent  type  and  very  popular  with  the  English  curers,  has  failed  to 
"  nick  " — as  the  breeders'  expression  is — with  the  common  Irish  pig.  The 
Tam worth  has  also  been  tried  and  found  wanting,  while  the  Suffolk  has  been 
rejected  on  account  of  its  black  colour  and  large  proportion  of  fat  to  lean 
meat ;  and  therefore  the  York  at  present  holds  the  field.  The  cross 
betw(  n  boars  of  this  breed  and  native  sows  has  been  found  most  successful 
both  .rom  the  farmer's  and  the  curer's  point  of  view.  It  possesses  a  vigorous 
constitution,  is  d  capital  feeder  with  a  good  digestion,  a  quick  thriver,  and 
very  prolific.  It  suits  the  curer  because  in  it  the  more  valuable  cuts  pre- 
dominate, and  the  offal  is  light.  It  suits  the  feeder  because  it  finishes 
quickly  and  gives  proportionately  good  weight  for  the  amount  of  food  it 
consumes.  Beyond  what  was  done  by  the  Bacon  Curers'  Association  little 
or  no  effort  was  made  otherwise  to  encourage  the  breeding  of  the  proper 
class  of  pigs,  compared  with  what  has  been  done  for  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  The  labourer  or  cottager  whose  pig  not  alone  represented  his 
largest  investment  in  live  stock,  but  also  the  foundation  of  the  country's 
bacon  curing  industry,  was  seldom  if  ever  reached  by  the  few  prizes  that 
were  offered  at  the  annual  shows  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  or  at  the 
limited  number  of  shows  held  irregularly  in  the  provinces.  For  many  years 
prizes  were  aw^arded  to  pigs,  not  because  they  possessed  the  points  looked 
for  in  a  good  bacon  pig,  but  because  they  were  fatter  than  their  competitors. 
There  was  no  Irish  herd  book ;  and  a  pig  with  a  pedigree  was  not  thought 
of  except  by  the  few  well-to-do  breeders  who  registered  their  pigs  across 
the  Channel.  In  fact  the  quality  of  the  products  of  the  animal  appears  to 
have  been  overlooked  for  its  appearance  and  fatness. 

The  herd  book  recently  started  by  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  the 
scheme  of  Service  premiums  now  established  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  explained  in  the  scheme  quoted  above,  are  distinctly  moves  in 
the  right  direction.  Much  care  will,  however,  require  to  be  taken  that  the 
County  Councils  are  not  led  by  those  who  admire  pigs  of  a  particular  breed, 
and  whose  ambitions  are  to  produce  animals  showing  in  the  greatest  per- 
fection the  points  associated  with  this  particular  breed,  regardless  of  the 
great  ultimate  end  of  all  pigs — pork  and  bacon. 

Each  breed  has  its  own  advocates,  but  it  is  not  too  much  to  ask  that  the 
judges  in  such  an  important  matter  should  be  those  whose  business  is  to 
make  the  most  money  in  the  shortest  time  out  of  the  animal  alive,  viz. — 
the  feeders,  and  those  who  are  compelled  to  stand  the  brunt  of  a  vigorous 
competition  in  selling  him  when  manufactured  into  bacon,  viz. — the  curers. 

Denmark,  which  has  been  Ireland's  greatest  competitor  for  the  English 
trade  in  bacon  since  1887,  has  not  been  idle  in  the  matter  of  improving  its 
swine.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  same  description  might 
be  applied  to  the  Danish  as  applied  to  the  old  Irish  pig.  It  was  hardy,  but 
ill-shaped,  and  very  unthrifty.  In  1887,  when  Germany  prohibited  the  im- 
portation of  swine,  and  the  raw  products  from  swine,  Denmark  turned  its 
attention  to  the  English  bacon  market.  It  imported,  with  State  assistance, 
specimens  of  the  best  English  breeds  of  swine,  and  has  succeeded  in 
changing  the  character  of  its  swine  as  regards  appearance  and  quality.  It 
has  now  about  100  breeding  centres  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  the  best 
class  of  pig  suitable  for  producing  pork  to  be  manufactured  into  the  highest 
class  bacon,  and  raises  more  than  double  the  number  of  swine  it  did  twenty 
years  ago,  the  production  increasing  from  1,200,000  to  2,043,000  in  five  years. 
It  has  now  25  co-operative  slaughter-houses,  which  annually  deal  with  from 


THE    BACOX    CURING    INDUSTRY.  251 

."oo.ooo  to  725,000  pigs,  and  employ  from  500  to  ',50  hands  exclusive  of  the 
clerical  staffs.  In  Ireland,  not  nicluding  a  number  of  small  curers,  who  kill 
merely  to  supp!)'  a  limited  local  trade,  there  are  20  factories,  being  all  either 
Limited  Liability  Companies  or  private  concerns  except  one  started  a  short 
time  ago  in  Tralee  in  the  English  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society.  These 
factories  deal  annually  with  about  850,000  pigs,  and  employ  over  1,600 
hands,  not  including  the  clerical  staffs. 

The  greater  number  of  hands  employed  in  Ireland  is  accounted  for  by  the 
number  of  minor  industries  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  bacon  factories 
in  this  country,  which  either  do  not  exist  or  exist  only  to  a  very  small  extent 
in  Denmark.  Ihe  average  number  of  pigs  produced  in  Ireland  for  the 
twenty  years  ending  1900  was  1,322,480.  while  in  1901  the  number  fell 
to  1,219,135,  being  a  reduction  of  103,345.  During  this  period  the  shipping 
of  pigs  alive  to  Great  Britain  has  increased  rapidly,  the  average  number 
shipped  during  the  first  five  years  being  440,432,  the  second  five  years 
504,778.  the  third  518,659,  and  the  fourth  659,687.  In  1900  there  were 
shipped  715,202,  but  last  year  the  number  fell  to  596,129.  Looking  back 
a  couple  of  years  it  would  at  the  first  glance  appear  that  this  trade  depends 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  supply  of  pigs  in  Great  Britain,  as  we  find  that  the 
decrease  there  under  the  average  for  the  20  years  was  313,921  for  the  past 
two  years,  while  for  the  same  period  the  increase  in  the  shipping  trade  over 
the  average  was  320,673.  Ireland  during  those  two  years  was  157,496  short 
of  its  normal  supply,  which  with  the  increased  shipping  meant  that  there 
were  over  478,000  less  to  be  turned  into  Irish  bacon.  But  going  back 
further,  say  five  years,  we  find  that  the  total  number  shipped  over  the 
average  is  more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  total  shortage  under  the  average 
supply  in  Great  Britain  during  the  same  time.  It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that 
serious  inroads  are  being  made  into  the  Irish  curers'  supplies  of  raw  material. 
The  killings  in  .'reland  increased  steadily  from  1880  to  1890,  the  province  of 
Munster  alone  accounting  for  787,223  pigs  in  1890,  as  against  486,400 
last  year. 

Much  of  the  'ncrease  in  the  shipping  of  pigs  from  Ireland  may  have  been 
due  to  the  very  severe  restrictions  imposed  in  England  on  the  movements 
of  swine  from  one  district  to  another  in  the  effort  to  stamp  out  swine  fever 
there.  In  Ireland  this  was  done  much  more  successfully ;  and  a  well 
deserved  tribute  is  due  to  the  Veterinary  Department  (now  under  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture),  for  the  able  manner  in  which  they  have  combated 
the  disease.  The  increase  may  also  be  accounted  for  (a)  by  the  increase  in 
the  consumption  of  pork  in  England ;  (d)  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
bacon  curing  establishments  in  England. 

The  supply  of  pigs  in  Ireland  has  in  the  past  been  looked  on,  to  a  great 
extent,  as  depending  on  a  good  or  a  bad  potato  crop ;  but  as  we  have 
already  pointed  out,  Denmark,  whose  chmatic  conditions  are  not  at  all  as 
favourable  to  pig  raising  as  Ireland's,  and  which  is  not  a  potato-growing 
country,  and  in  extent  but  very  little  larger  than  the  province  of  Munster, 
succeeds  in  producing  annually  50  per  cent,  more  pigs  than  the  whole  of 
Ireland.  Denmark,  it  must  be  remembered,  how^ever,  grows  feeding  barley, 
and  this,  with  the  large  supply  of  skim  milk  available  enables  the  Danes  ta 
compete  with  Irish  bacon  curers  and  farmers  who  use  potatoes,  etc.,  instead 
of  barley. 

Tradition  has  it  that  the  birthplace  of  the  bacon  curing  industry  w^as  Bal- 
tinglass  in  the  (.ounty  Wicklow,  and  that  that  county  was  at  one  time  the 


252  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


scene  of  operations  of  a  large  number  of  small  curers,  who  cured  long  sides 
for  the  Dublin  )narket.  This  particular  "  cut  "  of  bacon  is  still  being  turned 
out  although  with  waning  prosperity. 

The  greatest  impetus  given  to  bacon  curing  was  undoubtedly  the  rapid 
advance  made  by  the  dairying  industry  in  Ireland  generally,  the  province  of 
Munster  being  particularly  forward  in  this  direction.  One  of  the  best  ways 
to  utilise  the  waste  products  of  the  dairy  was,  no  doubt,  in  pig-feeding,  and 
consequently  the  pig  became  a  necessary  adjunct  to  every  dairy  farm.  The 
largest  curing  centre  in  Ireland  is  Limerick,  the  annual  turnover  there  being 
about  equal  to  that  of  Cork  and  Waterford  together.  These  cities  come  next 
to  it  and  each  deals  with  about  *he  same  number  of  pigs.  Next  come  Belfast, 
Londonderry,  Dublin,  Tralee,  Enniscorthy,  DunJalk,  Ballymena,  and  New 
Ross.  The  system  of  marketing  in  the  North  of  Ireland  differs  very  con- 
siderably from  that  in  the  centre  and  South.  In  the  North  the  farmers  kill 
and  clean  the  pigs  themselves,  and  bring  them  to  the  markets.  The  "  offal  " 
of  the  pig  in  Ulster  is  utilised  as  food  at  the  farm  l.cuse  where  the  pig  is  fed, 
which  is  a  distinct  advantage  to  the  small  feeder  in  providing  a  wholesome 
and  economical  addition  to  his  diet.  All  through  the  rest  of  the  country  the 
pigs  are  sold  "  on  their  feet,"  that  is  to  say,  they  are  driven  or  conveyed  to 
the  markets  alive  to  be  sold  to  the  buyers  who  purchase  either  for  the 
home  curers  or  for  exportation  to  the  bacon  curers  or  fresh  pork  butchers 
in  England. 

The  farmer  who  keeps  a  breeding  sow  generally  markets  the  bonhams  or 
*'  slips,"  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  at  ten  weeks  old,  after  which  they  are 
kept  by  the  purchasers  who  feed  them  until  they  are  sixteen  weeks  old, 
when  they  are  sometimes  brought  to  the  market  a  second  time  and  sold  as 
"  stores."  The  purchaser  of  the  stores  feeds  them  until  they  are  properly 
finished  which  should  be,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  attained,  when  they 
are  between  five  and  a-half  and  six  months  old,  and  then  disposes  of  them 
at  the  markets  or  fairs  to  the  regular  pig  buyers,  who  buy  either  as  commis- 
sioners for  the  home  or  English  curers.  The  purchaser  of  the  fat  pigs 
sometimes  buys  on  his  own  account  to  sell  the  pigs  again  by  dead  weight  at 
some  of  the  Irish  bacon  factories.  The  original  breeder,  or  more  probably 
the  man  who  purchased  the  bonhams  at  ten  weeks  old,  frequently  feeds  the 
pigs  until  they  are  fully  finished  and  ready  for  the  bacon  curer.  This  has 
been  found  the  most  general  as  well  as  the  most  profitable  way  of  dealing 
with  the  fattening  of  pigs.  In  districts  of  small  farms  where  each  farmer 
fattens  one  or  two  pigs,  it  is  universally  the  system  pursued. 

Of  late  years  a  system  has  come  into  vogue  around  Limerick  and  Water- 
ford  of  sending  the  pigs  when  fattened  direct  to  the  curers  either  in  the 
owners'  cars  or  by  rail  from  long  distances.  Most  of  the  large  merchants 
have  agents  in  the  surrounding  towns,  who  quote  the  current  prices  each 
week.  The  farmer  hands  his  pigs  to  the  agent,  who  attaches  a  numbered 
tin  label  to  an  car  of  each  animal,  loads  and  consigns  them  at  the  railway 
station  to  the  bacon  curer,  giving  the  owner  a  receipt  which  notifies  (a)  the 
numbers  on  the  labels  which  have  been  attached  to  the  pigs'  ears ;  (d)  the 
conditions  on  which  they  are  received,  and  the  current  price  for  each  quality 
of  pig.  The  agent  sends  the  same  particulars  to  the  firm  for  which  he  acts. 
The  animals  are  killed  and  weighed  on  the  day  following  their  purchase,  and 
cheques  for  the  amounts  they  realise  are  at  once  posted  to  the  owners  to- 
gether with  a  ticket  showing  the  weight  of  each  pig,  and  the  quality  in  which 
he  was  classified. 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY.  255 


These  selecdons  of  quality  are  : — "  sizeable,"  "  stout,"  "  overweights," 
"  heavy  overweights,"  "  unfinished,"  "  sixes,"  and  "  Berwick."  "  Sizeable," 
are  those  pigs  that  generally,  because  of  suitability  to  public  requirements,, 
command  the  highest  price  all  the  year  round.  Though  well-finished,  they 
must  not  be  over  fat,  and  must  turn  the  scale  dead  weight  at  about  1 2  stone,, 
which  indicates  that  they  should  weight  from  15J2  to  16  stone  alive. 
"  Stout,"  (j  cwt.  2  qrs.  15  lbs.  to  i  cwt.  3  qrs.)  and  "overweights  "  i  cwt.  3  qrs. 
I  lb.  to  I  cwt.  3  qrs.  14  lbs),  are,  as  a  rule,  2^^.  to  3^".  under  the  top  price,  as^ 
the  bacon  manufactured  from  them  is  inferior  and  has  to  be  sold  at  con- 
siderably less  than  best  quality  in  the  English  markets.  "  Heavy  over- 
weights "  (over  I  cwt.  3  qrs.  14  lbs)  are  of  little  or  no  value  for  high-class 
bacon,  and  are  taken  at  4^-.  to  6s.  per  cwt.  under  the  top  quotation.  "  Sixes" 
(under  i  cwt.  i  qr.)  sometimes  command  top  price,  but  in  some  seasons, 
notably  the  Spring,  they  are  quoted  2s.  to  5^-.  per  cwt.  less,  and,  of  course,  it 
then  pays  the  farmer  to  keep  them  for  a  few  weeks  longer  even  if  he  has  ta 
purchase  food  for  them. 

These  five  selections  are  for  the  English  long-side  "  singed  "  trade,  while 
"  Berwicks  "  are  for  the  Irish  "  middle  "  and  "  ham  "  trade.  The  "  Berwick  " 
are  small  plump  pigs,  averaging  about  i  cwt.  dead  weight,  that  is  to  say, 
ranging  between  7  and  8j<  stone.  As  a  rule  they  fetch  the  same  price  as 
'  sizeable  "  bacon  pigs,  but  occasionally  are  quoted  2s.  per  cwt.  more  or  less 
according  to  the  supply.  "  Unfinished  "  pigs  are  thin,  coarse-legged,  thick- 
skinned,  pigs  of  soft  fat,  that  through  being  badly  bred  or  badly  fed,  or 
both,  do  not  "  finish  "  properly.  These  are  almost  valueless  to  the  bacon 
curer.  One  of  the  leading  bacon  curers  has  described  the  points  of  a 
perfect  pig  as  follows : — Neat  in  the  head,  light  in  the  neck  and  shoulders, 
deep  in  the  region  of  the  heart  and  well  sprung  in  the  ribs,  thick  in  the 
loin,  stout  in  the  thighs,  short  in  the  leg,  and  long  and  silky  in  the  hair. 

The  method  of  sending  pigs  through  agents  direct  to  the  curer  is  said  to 
have  had  a  wonderful  educational  effect  on  the  f aimers  of  the  districts  in 
which  it  is  practised,  from  a  commercial  as  well  as  an  agricultural  point  of 
view,  teaching  them  to  be  excellent  judges  of  the  probable  weight  of  their 
pigs  when  killed,  and  impressing  on  them  the  absolute  necessity  of  proper 
breeding  and  proper  feeding  if  they  wish  to  have  their  pigs  ready  for 
market  in  the  shortest  time  and  obtain  the  highest  current  prices  for  them 
when  ready. 

In  olden  times  bacon  was  cured  "  hard  salted,"  as  owing  to  the  slow  and 
uncertain  means  of  transit  it  was  required  to  keep  much  longer.  The 
process  of  curing  was  very  primitive.  The  pig  having  been  stunned  by  one 
or  more  blows  of  a  mallet,  as  the  case  might  be,  its  throat  was  cut  and  the 
blood  allowed  to  flow^  The  carcase  was  then  surrounded  by  a  quantity  of 
straw  or  reed,  which  was  set  on  fire  in  order  to  burn  the  hair  off  the  skin, 
which  was  then  scraped  after  hot  water  had  been  thrown  upon  it  and  it 
had  been  hung  up  by  the  hind  legs.  Having  been  disembowled  and  left 
suspended  in  the  hanging  house  for  twenty-four  hours,  it  was  weighed  and 
paid  for  as  dead  v/eight.  The  shoulder  blade  bones  and  loin  bones  were 
then  removed,  the  sides  were  laid  on  a  flagged  floor  in  what  was  practically 
an  open  shed,  and  salt  and  saltpetre  scattered  over  them.  There  being  no- 
artificial  way  of  producing  cold,  the  curing  could  be  carried  on  only  for  six 
months  of  the  year.  The  Berwick  pigs  were  treated  in  much  the  same  way,, 
except  that  instead  of  the  hair  being  burned  off,  the  slaughtered  pig  was 
thrown  into  a  wooden  vessel  of  boiling  water  and  left  there  until  the  hair 


254  THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


would  come  freely  off  when  it  was  scraped,  and  the  sides  cut  into  three 
pieces  before  being  put  into  salt. 

The  introduction  of  ice-curing  came,  as  will  have  been  seen  from  the 
quotation  at  the  beginning  of  this  article,  about  i860,  and  this  system,  too, 
was  carried  on  in  a  very  crude  way  at  first,  the  ice  being  simply  left  in  open 
crates  in  the  centre  of  the  building  where  the  curing  was  in  progress,  in  order 
to  keep  the  air  cool.  The  next  step  was  the  Harris  patent  Ice  House.  This 
consisted  of  large  chambers  on  iron  floors  supported  by  heavy  beams  or 
uprights ;  the  necessity  for  strong  supports  will  be  understood  when  we 
mention  that  one  of  these  floors  had  to  bear  as  much  as  i,ooo  tons  of  ice  at 
a  time  in  the  bacon  curing  season.  The  bacon  was  piled  in  cellars  under- 
neath these  chambers,  the  cold  air  from  the  ice  overhead  descending  through 
the  iron  floor  and  keeping  the  temperature  low  during  the  summer  months. 
In  winter  the  use  of  ice  was  of  course  not  necessary. 

It  was  thought  the  limit  of  improvement  in  this  direction  had  been 
reached;  but  about  1887  a  complete  revolution  was  caused  in  the  arrange- 
ments existmg  in  the  factories  by  the  introduction  of  elaborate  machinery 
for  the  production  of  cold  by  the  ammonia  or  carbonic  acid  process.  The 
initial  cost  of  these  systems  was  heavy,  coming  to  over  ^^  100,000  in  the 
bacon  curing  establishments  of  the  South  of  Ireland ;  but  it  has  proved  to 
be  money  well  spent,  the  work  now  being  done  much  better  and  at  half  the 
cost  of  the  old  methods.  The  regulation  of  the  temperature  being  under 
such  complete  control  makes  the  modern  refrigerating  plant  admirably 
adapted  for  use  in  connection  with  the  production  of  the  mild  cured  bacon 
which  the  public  now  so  generally  insist  on  having.  The  hard  cured  bacon 
ct  former  days  would  now  be  looked  on  as  akin  to  Lot's  wife,  and  it  was  by 
mere  chance  that  the  change  in  taste  was  brought  about. 

About  twenty  years  ago,  a  struggling  Limerick  curer,  vvlio  has  long  since 
joined  the  majority,  being  on  an  occasion  unusually  short  of  money,  in 
■order  to  turn  his  bacon  into  cash  was  obliged  to  turn  it  out  in  what  was 
then  considered  a  half -cured  condition.  Strange  to  say  those  who  got  this 
bacon  liked  it,  and  more  was  asked  for.  The  other  curers  having  heard  of 
the  matter,  followed  their  neighbour's  unintentional  lead,  with  the  result  that 
the  consumption  of  bacon  of  this  character  has  been  quadrupled.  The 
manufacture  of  mild  cure  has  now  been  brought  to  such  perfection  that  it 
can  be  sent  into  tropical  climates  for  consumption  within  a  reasonable  time. 

The  modern  method  of  the  bacon  manufacture  is  very  different  from  the 
crude  system  we  have  already  described.  A  bracelet  arrangement  is 
fastened  to  one  of  the  pig's  hind  legs.  This  is  attached  to  a  steam  hoist, 
which  quickly  suspends  the  animal  on  a  sliding  bar  head  downwards.  By  a 
slight  thrust  of  a  knife  in  the  throat,  the  jugular  is  pierced,  the  blood  flows, 
and  the  animal  dies  quickly.  If  intended  for  the  "  singed  "  or  "  long  side  '' 
trade,  the  carcase  is  passed  into  a  patent  furnace  ^nd  comes  out  in  a  quarter 
■of  a  minute  thoroughly  singed  or  "  s wealed."  It  next  goes  under  a  self- 
acting  shower  bath,  after  which  the  singed  hair  is  scraped  off  by  one  man, 
who  passes  the  carcase  along  the  overhead  rail  to  another  who  disembowels 
it.  It  is  then  weighed,  and  the  weight  stamped  on  it.  An  endless  ratchet 
•chain  takes  it  further  along  the  bar  to  the  branding  stage.  Here  a  great 
•saving  of  time  and  labour  has  been  effected  by  the  introduction  of  gas 
brands ;  the  branding  formerly  had  to  be  done  by  solid  iron  brands  which 
were  constantly  reheated  during  operations.  The  carcase,  after  singeing,  etc., 
is  suspended  in  the  hanging  house  for  a  period  of  twelve  to  twenty  hours. 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY.  255 


to  reduce  it  to  the  temperature  of  the  air.  It  is  then  cloven  in  two.  The 
liead  having  been  taken  off.  the  sides  are  sent  into  the  chill  room,  in  which 
they  are  hung  at  a  temperature  approximating  to  ireezing  point  for  another 
twenty  hours.  From  this  the  sides  are  sent  to  the  curing  cellars,  where  they 
are  first  "  pumped,"  as  it  is  called.  This  consists  of  injecting  into  the 
thicker  portions  of  the  meat,  through  a  strong  hollow  needle,  a  strong  pickle 
consisting  of  salt  and  saltpetre.  The  sides  are  then  piled  six  layers  high, 
salt  being  spread  between  them  particularly  on  the  flank  and  thinner  por- 
tions which  have  not  been  injected  with  brine.  The  temperature  of  the 
chill  room  or  curing  cellars  is  maintained  at  about  42°  F.,  and  the  sides  are 
left  in  them  for  some  fourteen  days,  when  they  are  taken  out  of  the  salt, 
wiped  and  packed  in  bales  containing  four  sides  each,  and  shipped  to 
London  or  other  markets.  When  "  smoked  bacon  "  is  required,  it  is  usually 
smoked  by  the  wholesale  buyers  to  whom  it  is  sold.  Bacon  of  this  class,  if 
"  smoked  "  on  this  side  of  the  Channel,  would  lose  considerably  in  appear- 
ance through  rough  usage  111  transit.  The  Berwick  pigs,  killed  for  the 
Irish  trade,  are  treated  pretty  much  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  described 
up  to  a  certain  point ;  the  difference  being  that  the  pig  is  put  into  a  cauldron 
of  scalding  water,  after  which  the  hair  is  scraped  off.  The  singeing  in  a 
furnace  is  not  done.  The  sides  are  cut  into  hams,  middles,  shoulders  or 
fore-ends,  and  are  finished  and  smoked  in  the  factories  in  which  they  are 
cured.  They  are  not  pumped  or  injected  with  pickle,  the  hams  in  par- 
ticular never  being  treated  in  this  way,  being  entirely  what  is  termed  dry  salt 
cured.  The  curing  of  hams  takes  a  much  longer  time  to  finish  than  the 
other  portions  of  the  pig. 

The  bye-products  form  a  very  importsnit  portion  of  the  trade,  nearly 
every  portion  of  the  carcase  being  turned  to  some  useful  purpose.  Sausage 
and  pudding  making  in  the  curing  house  form  a  little  industry  in  themselves, 
employing  a  large  number  of  women  ;  while  tinned  meats,  such  as  brawn, 
ham  and  chicken,  etc.,  are  also  made,  principally  for  export.  The  livers  are 
shipped  to  Germany,  there  to  be  made  into  liver  sausages,  esteemed  a  great 
delicacy  in  that  countr\',  but  not  generally  appreciated  by  the  people  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  They  are  also  used  in  the  minufacture  of  sauces.  The 
sweetbreads  or  pancreas  are  utilised  by  manufacturing  chemists  in  the 
making  of  pepsine. 

Judging  from  the  steady  decrease  in  the  killing  cf  pigs  for  the  past  twelve 
years,  it  would  seem  that  Ireland  is  losing  its  hold  on  this,  one  of  its  most 
important  industries  ;  thus  1  educing  an  area  which  gives  employment  to  a 
host  of  operatives,  male  and  female,  along  with  Mgbuyers,  pig  drovers,  etc. 
Were  it  not  for  the  money  spent  by  the  Irish  curers  in  improving  the 
quality  of  the  breed  of  swine  in  Ireland,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Irish  bacon 
would  have  ere  this  lost  its  prestige.  It  is,  however,  to  be  hoped  that  the 
trade  will  share  in  the  better  times  looked  forward  to  under  the  auspices 
of  our  new  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  again  attain  to,  if  not  exceed, 
the  proportions  it  did  in  i8go. 

Before  long  the  County  Councils,  bacon  curers,  and  others  interested  in 
the  improvement  of  swine,  will  be  face  to  face  %■  ith  the  necessity  of  pro- 
viding new  and  totally  fresh  blood  for  the  country,  as  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  breeding  of  nearly  all  the  Large  White  Yorkshire  pigs  in  the 
kingdom  is  in  the  hands  of  but  a  few  persons,  thus  rendering  it  not  improb- 
able that  "  in-and-in  breeding "  may,  within  a  brief  period,  cause  serious 
deterioration  to  the  breeds  of  pigs  that  are  now  rapidly  approaching  a  state 


256 


THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


of  perfection  in  respect  of  their  suitability  for  the  present  requirements  of 
the  bacon  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  following  Tables  may  serve  to  illustrate  seme  aspects  of  the  extent 
and  distribution  of  the  pig  industry  in  Ireland  :— 


Table  A. — Showing  the  Number  of  Pigs  in  Ireland  in  the  Year  1841  ;  the  Average 
for  the  Three  Years  1847-49-50  ;  and  the  Average  for  each  Quinquennial  and 
Decennial  Period  in  the  Fifty  Years  1851-1900;  together  with  the  Number  per 
Head  of  Population  during  the  same  period. 


i                    Period. 

1 

*Ko   of  Piei                 No.  per  Head  of 
AO.  01  iig.s.                     Population. 

1                 1 84 1  (only) 

1. 413                  1 

17 

1 1 847— 50 

7S1 

10 

1S51— 55 

1,165 

19 

1856—60 

1,224 

20 

!                1S61— 65 

1. 137 

20 

i                1866—70 

1,229 

22 

;                       1871—75 

1,281 

24 

'                       1876—80 

1,217 

23 

1881—85 

1,290 

26 

1886-90 

1,404 

29 

1891—95 

1,272 

28 

1896 — 1900 

1.324 

29 

I 85 I — 60 

1,194 

20 

1861  —  70 

1,183 

21 

1871—80 

1,249 

24 

1881—90 

1.347 

27 

1891  — 1900 

1,298 

1 

28 

'■'  000  omitted. 

■f  Exclusive  of  the  year  : 

848, 

Table  B. 


-Showing  the  Number  of  Pigs   in    Ireland,    and  the   Number  Exported 
during  each  of  the  Years  1880-1901  inclusive. 


Year. 

Number  of  Pigs. 

Number  Exported. 

1880 

850,269 

372,890 

1881 

1,095,830 

382,995 

1882 

1,430,128 

502,906 

1883 

1,348,364 

461,017 

1884 

1,306,550 

456,678 

1885 

1,269,092 

398,564 

1886 

1,263,142 

421,285 

1887 

1,408,456 

480,920 

1888 

1.397.825 

544.972 

1889 

1,380,670 

473.551 

i8go 

1,570,366 

603,162 

1 891 

1. 367.712 

503.584 

1892 

1,113,472 

500,951 

1893 

1,152,417 

456,571 

1894 

1,389,324 

584.967 

1895 

1.338,464 

547.220 

1896 

1,404,586 

610,589 

1897 

1-327,450 

695.307 

1898 

1,253,912 

588,785 

1899 

1. 363.310 

638,553 

1900 

1,268,521 

715,202 

1901 

1. 219.135 

596,129 

THE    BACON    CURING    INDUSTRY. 


257 


Table  C. — Showing  the  Number  of  Pigs  in  each  County  per  i,ooo  Acres  of  Total 
Area,  and  also  the  Counties  Classified  in  the  order  of  the  Density  of  their  Pig 
PoDulations. 


Counties. 

No.  of  Pigs 
per  1,000  acres. 

COUNTIKS. 

Density  of  Pig 
Population. 

Antrim 

83.              ! 

Wexford 

One  to    S  acres. 

A  rmagh 

85.8 

Cavan 

8     ,, 

Carlovv 

101.3 

Monaghan 

9     .> 

Cavan 

120.3 

Carlow 

10     ,, 

Clare 

55  3 

Longford 

,        II      ,, 

Cork 

72.1 

Armagh 

12     „ 

Donegal 

23-1 

Antrim 

I       12     „ 

Down 

68.9 

Louth 

13     >. 

Dublin 

39.6 

Waterford 

,       13     ,, 

Fermanagh     . 

48.2 

Cork 

, 

,       14     „ 

Galway 

47-7 

Queen's 

,           14       n 

Kerry 

50.2                  j 

Roscommon   . 

' 

,           14       » 

Kildare 

28.4 

Tipperary 

, 

,            14        M 

Kilkenny 

70.0 

Kilkenny 

14       >. 

King's 

54-2 

Down 

, 

,           15       n 

Leitrim 

68.7 

Leitrim 

, 

15       » 

Limerick 

67.4 

Limerick 

,           15       -. 

Londonderry 

67.0 

Londonderry 

, 

15       ,. 

Longford 

88.4 

Sligo 

' 

.           15       „ 

Louth 

79.0 

Mayo 

,           18       „ 

Mayo 

56.3 

Clare 

,           18       „ 

Meath 

22.0 

King's 

,           19       ,. 

Monaghan 

106.7 

Tyrone 

19       ,, 

Queen's 

70.8 

Kerry 

I           20       ,, 

Roscommon  . 

70-5 

Fermanagh     . 

)          21       ,, 

Sligo 

65-7 

Galway 

,          21       ,, 

Tipperary 

70.3 

Dublin 

,          25       „ 

Tyrone 

52.9 

Westmeath     . 

, 

,          25       „ 

Waterford 

75-6 

Wicklow 

, 

,          26       „ 

Westmeath     . 

39-4 

Kildare 

, 

>          35       n 

Wexford 

128.5 

Donegal 

.       43     .. 

Wicklow 

38.0 

Meath 

, 

,    46  „ 

Ireland 

I 
62.4 

Ireland 

„       16     „ 

258       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 


THE    CONGESTED    DISTRICTS    BOARD    FOR 

IRELAND. 

The  Congested  Districts  Board  was  called  into  existence  in  the  year  1891 
to  ameliorate  the  conditions  of  life  of  the  inhabitants  of  certain  of  the 
poorest  districts  of  the  western  coast  of  Ireland.  The  36th  section  of  the 
Purchase  of  Land  (Ireland)  Act,  1891,  declared  that  where  more  than  20  per 
cent,  of  the  population  of  any  county  in  Ireland  live  in  Electoral  Divisions 
of  which  the  total  rateable  value,  when  divided  by  the  number  of  the  popu- 
lation, gives  a  sum  of  less  than  thirty  shillings  for  each  individual,  such 
Electoral  Divisions  shall  be  deemed  to  form  a  separate  county,  known  as  a 
Congested  Districts  County.  The  districts  which  accordingly  have  been 
declared  congested  embrace  part  of  each  county  in  Connaught,  and  part  of 
Clare,  Cork,  Kerry,  and  Donegal,  with  an  area  of  over  three  and  a  half 
million  acres,  and  a  population  of  over  half  a  million  ;  the  poor  law  valuation 
of  these  districts  amounts  to  about  ;^i  per  individual.  It  will  be  observed 
from  these  figures  that  the  population  is  congested  not  as  regards  its 
density,  that  is,  the  number  of  persons  per  square  mile,  but  rather  as  regards 
the  insufficiency  of  the  land  for  their  support ;  the  great  want  is  not  more 
land,  but  rather  more  good  land. 

The  Board  consists  of  seven  permanent  and  three  temporary  members, 
of  whom  two  are  ex-officio  members,  one  being  the  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  for  the  time  being,  and  in  his  absence  the  Under  Secretary,  and  the 
other  a  Land  Commissioner,  who  is  nominated  to  especially  represent  agri- 
culture and  forestry. 

The  annual  income  of  the  Board  from  all  sources  has  hitherto  been  a 
little  less  than  ^^55,000,  consisting  of  ,-^41,250,  interest  on  the  "Church 
Surplus  Grant,"  about  ;£^7,ooo  a  year  derived  from  repayments  of  loans, 
£1,000  interest  from  Stock,  etc.,  and  ;£'5,6oo  voted  by  Parliament  in  aid  of 
the  cost  of  the  staff.  From  the  ist  October,  1899,  however,  a  new  Parlia- 
mentary Grant  of  i^2 5,000  was  substituted  for  the  former  one,  so  that 
the  annual  income  of  the  Board  is  now  nearly  ;^75,ooo.  The  Irish  Repro- 
ductive Loan  Fund,  amounting  to  about  ;^66,ooo  in  securities,  cash,  and  out- 
standing loans,  and  about  ;^  18,000  belonging  to  the  Sea  and  Coast  fisheries 
Fund  were  also  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board. 

The  Board  was  empowered  to  direct  its  efforts  first,  as  regards  agri- 
culture, towards  increasing  the  size  of  small  holdings  (chiefly  by  means  of 
the  amalgamation  of  small  holdings  and  migration  to  available  land),  im- 
proving live  stock  and  methods  of  cultivation ;  and  in  the  second  place 
towards  aiding  and  developing,  by  indirect  as  well  as  by  direct  means,  all 
suitable  industries,  such  as  fishing,  weaving,  spinning,  etc. 

In  order  to  understand  why  the  Board  worked  upon  certain  lines,  and  to 
appreciate  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  bring  about  a  progressive  and 
lasting  improvement  in  these  districts,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  what  was 
the  actual  state  of  affairs  with  which  the  Board  found  itself  confronted  ten 
years  ago. 


MAP  OF  IRELAND 

SHOWING 

CONBESTED  BISTRICTS. 


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THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 


259 


The  Struggle  for 

Existence 

in  the  West. 


The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  were  in  pc-ssession  of  small  plots — 
they  could  hardly  be  called  farms — generally  about 
two  to  four  statute  acres  in  extent.  The  rents  for 
these  holdings  varied  from  a  few  shillings  to  several 
pounds  a  year;  in  most  cases  rights  of  turbary  (i.e., 
rights  of  cutting  turf  for  fuel)  and  rough  commonage 
grazing  rights  were  appurtenant  to  the  holdings,  and  frequently  the  tenants 
possessed  the  right  of  cutting  and  gathering  seaweed  for  manure  or  kelp 
burning.  The  plots  were  usually  planted  with  potatoes  and  oats,  and  the 
methods  of  cultivation  were  extremely  primitive ;  there  was  no  rotation  of 
crops,  no  adequate  supply  of  manure,  and  no  proper  system  of  drainage, 
whilst  the  breeds  of  live  stock  were  worn  out  and  of  little  value.  The  result 
was  that  the  inhabitants  were  forced  to  depend  very  largely  upon  certain 
secondary  sources  of  income  of  an  uncertain  and  varying  nature.  Many 
"  congests,"  as  they  are  locally  known,  received  occasional  gifts  from  rela- 
tives in  America,  whilst  weaving,  knitting,  and  sewing  formed  other  small 
subsidiary  sources  of  income.  The  results  of  sea-fishing  helped  the  families 
dwelling  along  the  coast  to  eke  out  a  scanty  living,  whilst  those  living 
inland  depended  largely  upon  the  wages  earned  during  some  months  of  the 
year  as  migratory  agricultural  labourers  in  England  or  Scotland.     Thus  in 


Gweebara  Bridge,  Co.  Donegal. 
Built  by  the  Congested  Districts  Board. 

most  cases  the  people  did  not  really  live  on  the  produce  of  their  holdings, 
but  rather  on  some  secondary  source  of  income,  such  as  field  labour  in 
England  or  Scotland ;  they  paid  a  rent  for  their  holding,  generally  not 
because  of  its  agricultural  value,  but  rather  becau^se  it  was  necessary  to  have 
some  home  for  their  family.  In  a  "  good  year  "  many  of  the  inhabitants 
were  little  more  than  free  from  the  dread  of  hunger,  whilst  a  bad  year, 


260       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 


arising  from  the  complete  or  partial  failure  of  their  crops,  produced  a  con- 
dition of  semi-starvation.* 

The  Board  collected  and  published  in  its  first  report  considerable  infor- 
mation as  to  the  income  and  expenditure  of  typical  families  in  the  con- 
gested districts.     Four  of  these  "  family-budgets  "  are  reproduced  below  : — 

No.  I. 

Receipts  and  Expenditure  of  a  Family  in  comparatively  good  circumstances,  the  Receipts 

being  derived  from  Agriculture,  Migratory  Labour,  and  Home  Industries. 


RECEIPTS. 

EXPENDITURE. 

£  s. 

d. 

£ 

5. 

d. 

Sale  of  Cattle, 

6    o 

0 

Flour  or  baker's  bread, 

9 

2 

0 

Sheep, 

2    lO 

0 

Tea, 

6 

I 

4 

„       Pigs, 

3     o 

0 

Indian  meal,     . . 

3 

18 

9 

„       Eggs. 

4     0 

0 

Sugar 

2 

3 

4 

Migratory  earnings  of  men. . . 

lO       0 

0 

Fish  and  bacon, 

2 

0 

0 

Children's  earnings  as  servants 

,     6     o 

0 

Salt  and  soap. 

0 

10 

0 

Knitting,  sewing,  &c. 

7  lo 

0 

Oil  and  candles. 

0 

15 

0 

Miscellaneous   sales   of  kelp, 

Clothing    (exclusive    of    pui 

butter,  fish,  fowl,  &c.,    . . 

2       0 

0 

chases  by  migratory  laboui 

ers  while  absent  from  home 

)         6 

0 

0 

Rent 

I 

10 

0 

County  Cess,    . . 

0 

5 

0 

Church  dues,  &c. 

I 

0 

0 

Tobacco, 

3 

0 

0 

Furniture,  &c. 

I 

0 

0 

For  replacing  or   exchangin 

g 

cattle. 

2 

0 

0 

Young  pig, 

I 

0 

0 

Bran,     . . 

I 

0 

0 

Carts,  implements,  &c. 

I 

0 

0 

£4^     0 

0 

Artificial  manures,     . . 

I 

0 

0 

A2 

15 

0 

The  home  produce  consumed  by  the  family  was  valued  at  from  ;^i2  to  /^2o. 

No.  2. 

Receipts  and  Expenditure  of  a  Family  in  ordinary  circumstances,  the  Receipts  bein§ 

derived  from  Agriculture,   Fishing,   and  Home  Industries. 


RECEIPTS. 

EXPENDITURE. 

£  s. 

d. 

£  s.   d. 

Sale  of  heifer  or  bullock, 

4   10 

0 

Rent, 

200 

,,       five  sheep, 

3  15 

0 

County  Cess,   . . 

058 

„       pig. 

3   10 

0 

Tea, 

5  17   0 

„       eggs. 

2     4 

4 

Sugar,    . . 

I  19   0 

,,       flannel  or  tweed, 

3  10 

0 

Meal, 

7  14    0 

,,       corn. 

0  15 

0 

Flour,    . . 

I   17     6 

„       fish. 

8     0 

0 

Clothing,           

6     8     6 

,,       knitting,  &c.  . . 

I     0 

0 

Tobacco, 

One  young  pig, 

2     7     8 
0  15     0 

Implements,  &c., 

I     4     9 
£30     9     I 

£^7     4 

4 

The  home  produce  consumed  by  the  family  was  valued  at  from  £^  10s.  to  £10. 

*  The  following  significant  description  of  the  poverty  prevailing  in  the  Congested  Districts-  - 
compiled  from  the  evidence  of  Mr.  W.  L.  Micks,  given  before  the  Royal  Commission  on  Local 
Taxation — is  incorporated  in  the  Special  Report  presented  by  Lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh,  and 
Lord  Blair  Balfour: — •'  In  the  Congested  Districts  there  are  two  classes,  namely,  the  poor  and 
the  destitute.  There  are  hardly  any  resident  gentry  ;  there  are  a  few  traders  and  officials  ;  but 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  either  poor  or  on  the  verge  of  poverty.  .  .  The  people  are  very 
helpful  to  one  another — the  poor  mainly  support  the  destitute." 


THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 


261 


No.  3. 


Receipts  and  Expenditure  0 

a  Family  in  very  poor  circumstances,  the  Receipts  being 

derived 

from  Agriculture  and  Fishing. 

RECEIPTS. 

EXPENDITURE. 

/    s.    d. 

/      5.      d. 

Sale  of  calf,     . . 

200 

Rent 

I   10    0 

,,       two  sheep. 

0  16    0 

County  Cess,    . . 

020 

„      pig  (profit) 

200 

Clerical  charges,  &c., 

060 

,,       fish. 

300 

Meal, 

200 

„       eggs. 

200 

Flour,    . . 

I   10    0 

Groceries,  &c., 

0  10     0 

Clothing, 

300 

Lights, 

050 

Utensils,  tools,  &c.     . . 

0  10     0 

£9  16    0 

Tobacco, 

160 

£^0  19    0 

The  home  produce  consumed  by  the  family  was  valued  at  from  £12  to  £17. 


No.  4. 


Receipts  and  Expenditure  of  a  Family  in  the  poorest  possible  circumstances,  the  Receipts 
being  derived  from  Agriculture  and  Labour  in  the  locality. 

RECEIPTS. 

£    s.    d. 

Eggs, 130 

Sixty  days'  labour  at  15.        . .         300 
Herding  cattle,            . .          . .         400 

EXPENDITURE. 

/    s.    d. 
Rent,     . .          . .          . .          . .         100 

County  Cess,   . .          . .          . .         020 

Meal,     ..          ..          ..          ..         5170 

Clothing,           . .          .  .          . .         0  10     0 

Groceries,         . .         . .         . .         400 

£8     3     0 

/ri     9     0 

The  home  produce  consumed  by  the  family  was  valued  at  about  £6. 

These  facts  and  figures  speak  eloquently  for  themselves  and  show  that 
in  some  congested  districts,  at  the  tim.e  the  Board  was  established,  the 
value  of  the  produce  of  some  of  the  small  holdings,  together  with  the 
earnings  and  receipts  of  the  family  from  every  other  source,  did  not  exceed 
a  total  of  £1^  a  year.  Even  in  the  less  distressed  portions  of  the  con- 
gested districts  the  standard  of  living  was  low,  the  diet  of  the  poorest 
section  of  the  people  being  altogether  vegetable,  with  the  exception  of  salt 
fish  or  bacon  at  times,  which  was  used  more  as  a  relish  than  as  aii  article  of 
food.  The  houses,  furniture,  and  bedding  were  too  often  unhealthy, 
mean,  and  comfortless,  and  the  clothing  frequently  ragged  and  scanty. 


Enlargement  of 
Holdings. 


Some  of  the  best  work  of  the  Board  has  been  done  in  connection  with 
the  improvement  and  enlargement  of  holdings.  The 
Board  has,  first  of  all,  to  arrange  with  the  landlord  for 
the  purchase  of  his  interest.  Guaranteed  Land  Stock 
being  advanced  by  the  Land  Commission  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  Board  proceeds  to  re- arrange  and  enlarge  the  holdings  and  then 
to  re-sell  them  to  the  tenants.  When  there  is  in  proximity  to  the  holdings 
any  grazing  or  other  land  in  the  Board's  hands  as  owners,  or  any  land  vacated 
by  large  tenants  who  have  been  bought  out  by  the  Board,  it  is  generally 
utilised  for  enlarging  the  holdings  that  are  being  re-sold ;  but  this  simple 


262       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 

procedure  is  often  impossible,  and  then  the  Board  has  to  carve  out  a  new 
farm  from  unoccupied  land  and  build  a  new  house  for  one  of  the  tenants  in 
order  to  induce  him  to  give  up  his  original  farm,  which  is  then  divided 
amongst  the  adjoining  lioldings.  The  difficulties  of  "  re-striping "  the 
estate,  i.e.,  squaring  and  re-arra.nging  the  holdings  so  as  to  make  them 
compact  and  large  enough  to  be  of  use,  are,  of  course,  enormously  increased 
by  the  way  in  which  farms  that  were  originally  compact  have  been  sub-divided 
from  time  to  time. 

On  many  estates  in  the  West,  especially  w^here  the  land  is  poor  and  a 
dense  population — dense,  that  is  for  the  quantity  of  the  land  cultivated — has 
been  in  undisturbed  possession  for  many  generations,  the  people  have  sub- 
divided the  holdings  from  time  to  time  in  their  own  way,  and  the  result  is 
that  often  the  holding  of  one  tenant  does  not  consist  of  one  or  two  or  even 
three  separate  portions  of  land,  but  of  many  detached  fields,  or  plots  within 
fields,  lying  amongst  similar  fragments  of  other  scattered  holdings.  A  field 
of  one  acre  may  belong  to  a  dozen  persons,  each  of  whom  owns  his  own 
particular  plot,  and  very  frequently  matters  are  still  further  complicated  by 
"  undivided  shares  "  in  various  fractions  of  plots,  such  as  three-fourths  of 
one  and  one-sixteenth  of  another. 

In  order  to  ensure  that  the  new  holding  which  is  to  be  offered  to  the 
tenant  is  of  at  least  the  same  value  as  the  old,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to 
estimate  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  land  in  each  plot,  but  due  con- 
sideration has  also  to  be  given  to  rights  that  may  be  possessed  of  com- 
monage grazing  or  of  cutting  turf  and  seaweed ;  and,  after  all  these  more  or 
less  technical  difficulties  have  been  surmounted,  the  Board  may  find  their 
plans  upset  and  their  progress  stopped  by  some  one  unreasonable  person 
who  refuses  to  accept  the  new  holding  or  to  give  up  the  old  one  ;  thus  on 
one  estate  considerable  trouble  arose  from  such  action  on  the  part  of  an  old 
woman  who  held  a  strip  of  land  completely  surrounding  a  small  village, 
each  inhabitant  of  which  had  houses  or  land  both  inside  and  outside  the 
encircling  holding.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the  tenants  is,  however, 
quite  exceptional,  now  that  they  understand  that  the  measures  adopted  are 
for  their  ovvoi  good,  and,  despite  other  difficulties,  the  Board  has  persevered 
in  the  work  of  purchasing,  improving,  and  then  re-selling  holdings  to  the 
tenants,  as  it  wisely  considers  such  a  scheme  likely  to  prove  the  most  per- 
manently beneficial  measure  it  can  take  in  order  to  better  the'  condition  of 
the  small  occupiers  in  the  congested  districts.  This  is  specially  applicable 
to  the  inland  districts,  where  agriculture  must  always  be  the  chief  industry, 
and  where  a  very  large  number  of  occupiers,  beyond  all  doubt,  have  not 
sufficient  land,  regard  being  had  to  both  quantity  and  quality,  to  give  full 
employment  to  their  labour  or  to  afford  them  a  bare  subsistence.  Accord- 
ingly, from  the  beginning  the  Board  has  recognised  that  in  many  cases  any 
scheme  which  merely  fixed  these  men  as  peasant  proprietors  in  their  hold- 
ings without  some  collateral  proposal  to  improve  the  farm  or  to  increase 
its  size  would  but  intensify  the  troubles  of  the  situation. 

Clare  Island,  which  was  purchased  for  iJ"5,ooo,  affords  a  good  example  of 

the  Board's  procedure.     The  extent  of  the  island  is 

p,        J  ,      ,  nearly  4,000  statute  acres,  with  a  Poor  Law  Valuation 

oiare  isiana.        ^^  _^^^^  ^g^^  ^^^  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^g^  ^^     One-fifth 

of  the  area  was  held  in  commonage  and  the  remainder 
consisted  of  holdings  occupied  by  ninety-five  tenants.     As  Mr.  Doran,  the 


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THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND.         263 


Board's  Inspector,  writing-  in  May,  1 894,  declared,  "  From  an  agricultural 
point  of  view,  Clare  Island  is  not  an  inviting  place.  Nature  did  little  for  it, 
and  mankind  has  robbed  it  of  all  it  could."  The  whole  island  was  held  in 
randale ;  no  one  knew  where  his  land  began  or  ended ;  he  only  knevv^  that 
he  had  certain  grazing  rights  ov2r  certain  parts.  There  were  no  fences,  and 
the  cattle  strayed  practically  unrestrained,  even  over  whatever  arable 
patches  there  were  ;  the  holdings  were  wretchedly  small,  and  over  two  years' 
arrears  of  rent  were  due.  The  first  work  undertaken  was  the  building,  at 
a  cost  of  ;^i,6oo,  of  a  strong  stone  wall,  about  five  miles  long,  across  the 
island  to  separate  the  pasture  from  the  tillage  lands.  This  was  necessary 
as,  owing  to  the  fact  that  there  were  no  fences,  cattle  and  sheep  roamed  over 
the  whole  island,  and  when  the  crop  was  in  the  ground  the  tillage  land  had 
to  be  guarded  against  the  cattle  by  the  members  of  the  tenants'  families. 
Under  the  supervision  of  the  Board's-  Inspector  all  this  has  been  changed. 
Cattle  sheds  have  been  built,  main  drains  opened,  holdings  extended,  the 
striping  carried  out,  and  over  fifty  miles  of  fences  constructed.  The  wages 
earned  by  the  islanders  engaged  on  these  works  enabled  them  to  pay  their 
rent,  includmg  the  arrears  :  but  now  since  these  wages  have  ceased,  the  rent 
has  to  be  raised  out  of  the  holding  itself.  It  is  satisfactory  to  learn 
from  the  last  report  of  the  Board  that  the  tenants  have  paid  every  penny  of 
rent  demanded  from  them  during  the  four  years  they  were  the  tenants  of  the 
Board,  and  that  it  is  expected  that  they  will  in  future  discharge  the  lighter 
burden  of  purchase  annuities,  amounting  to  only  £'^2^  a  year,  with  equal 
punctuality.  A  useful  provision  of  the  Land  Purchase  Acts  which  prohibits 
the  sub-division  of  a  holding  so  long  as  any  of  the  purchase-money  remains 
unpaid,  will,  it  is  hoped,  check  the  propensity,  so  noticeable  in  the  past,  of 
sub-dividing  the  land. 

Up  to  1899  the  Board  had  purchased  estates  to  the  extent  of  25,000  acres, 
and  in  that  year  they  greatly  extended  the  range 
fpu  rk'ii  m  +  4-  o^  their  operations  in  this  direction  by  the  purchase  of 
The  Dillon  Estate.  ^^^^  j^^u^^  Y.s1^\.&  of  over  90,000  acres,  chiefly  in 
County  Mayo,  for  the  sum  of  ^^290,000,  which 
amounted  to  sixteen  years'  purchase  of  the  net  rental.  The  tenants  on  this 
estate  number  4,200,  of  whom  more  than  half  pay  rents  of  £\  or  less,  whilst  a 
still  larger  majority  are  migratory  labourers  whose  holdings  are  too  small  to 
support  them.  Most  of  the  holdings  consist  of  poor  land,  capable  of  con- 
siderable improvement  by  reclamation,  drainage,  and  improved  methods  of 
husbandry.  The  first  necessity  was  drainage,  some  thousands  of  acres  of 
low  land  being  practically  useless  owing  to  constant  flooding.  The  tenants 
individually  could  not  make  the  necessary  main  or  arterial  drains,  or  deepen 
the  beds  of  the  rivers — such  works  could  be  carried  out  only  by  the  owner 
of  the  estate.  In  view  of  these  circumstances  the  Board  have  conducted 
extensive  drainage  operations,  and  by  the  expenditure  of  a  few  hundred 
pounds  the  productive  value  of  hundreds  of  acres  in  different  parts  of  the 
estate,  has  already  been  doubled.  Although  the  progress  made  in  the  im- 
provement works  was  such  that  a  large  number  of  holdings  were  ready  for 
sale  towards  the  end  of  1900,  no  purchase  had  been  completed  on  the 
31st  March,  1 901,  as  many  difficulties  arose  in  connection  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  sporting  rights — which  should  form  a  valuable  asset  of  the  newly 
constituted  peasant  proprietors — the  apportionment  of  turbary  and  other 
questions ;  but  these  difficulties  have  now  been  overcome  and  the  re-settle- 
ment of  the  Dillon  Estate  is  well  on  the  road  to  completion. 


264       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  policy  of  enlarging  holdings  and  of  migra- 
tion to  lands  purchased   by  the  Board,   it  is  often 
necessary    to    effect    a    change    in    some    holdings 
Migration.  on     neighbouring     estates     which     have     not     been 

purchased  by  the  Board.  To  bring  about  these 
enlargements  it  is  necessary  to  induce  a  tenant 
to  surrender  his  holding  in  the  "  congested  "  area  and  to  remove  to  a  new 
holding  which  has  been  prepared  for  him  on  the  Board's  land,  and  his  old 
holding  is  then  divided  up  among  the  adjoining  farms.  By  removing  a  few 
families  from  a  badly  congested  district  to  new  holdings  in  another  and  less 
crowded  district,  it  is  thus  possible  to  better  the  condition  both  of  the 
migrants  and  of  those  who  are  left  behind.  The  action  of  the  Board  is 
confined  of  course  to  cases  where  the  landlord  will  consent  to  these  changes, 
and  the  Board  have  also  to  arrange  so-  that  the  landlord  shall  get  from  all  the 
enlarged  holdings  the  same  amount  of  rent  which  he  had  previously  derived 
from  all  the  original  holdings.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  selection  of  migrants, 
where  the  changes  are  not  confined  to  tenants  on  estates  purchased  by  the 
Board,  is  a  troublesome  matter  and  requires  much  careful  negotiation. 
Another  point  to  which  the  Board  has  to  attend  in  nearly  every  case,  is  that 
the  tenants  thus  settled  have  some  working  capital,  without  which  the  land 
is  of  little  use  to  them.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  Board  have  co-operated 
with  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society  in  founding  and  aiding  co 
operative  credit  associations.  The  Board  has  allowed  banks  in  congested 
districts  to  borrow  loan  capital  from  it  to  the  extent  of  ;^3,ooo.  The 
amount  lent  to  the  individual  societies  varies  from  ;^50  to  iJ^200,  on  which 
they  pay  interest  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent.  These  small  deposits  serve  as  a 
nucleus  round  which  other  sums  gather  by  degrees,  until  a  sufficient  capital 
will  be  in  time  acquired.  The  Raiffeisen  banks  thus  aided  issue  numerous 
small  loans  to  their  members — the  very  poor — who  could  not  obtain  credit 
elsewhere.  The  profit  to  the  individual  borrowers  is  generally  very  con- 
siderable, and  so  far  no  losses  have  been  incurred  by  the  banks — indeed,  in 
every  case  a  small  profit  has  been  made  and  carried  to  the  reserve  fund.  It 
is  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  effect  a  well  organised  system  of  agricultural 
credit  would  have  upon  the  West  of  Ireland.  Many  of  the  migratory 
labourers  who  go  to  Great  Britain  in  search  of  work  are  landholders  whose 
farms  would  profitably  respond,  were  capital  available,  to  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  intelligently  applied  labour.  But  at  present  the  lack  of  capital 
and  the  inability  of  a  small  landholder  to  wait  over  a  season  for  the  reward 
of  his  industry  turns  the  balance  of  advantage  in  favour  of  migration. 

The  Board,  of  course,  has  paid  particular  attention    to    improving  the 
methods  of  cultivation  in  vogue  in  the  congested  dis- 

A.  .     ,,  tricts.        For     several     years      seven      Agricultural 

°  ■  Inspectors  have  been  employed,  and  in  addition  to 

advising  small  landholders  as  to  the  management  and 
improvement  of  their  land  and  stock,  and  lending  farm  implements,  they 
inspect  animals  issued  under  the  various  schemes,  and  have  had  charge  of 
nearly  forty  example  holdings,  and  about  five  hundred  experimental  and 
example  plots.  The  work  on  some  example  holdings  consists  chiefly  of  per- 
manent improvements,  such  as  draining,  levelling,  and  clearing  away  rocks  ; 
in  others  small  grants  of  seeds  and  manures  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
ducing the  occupiers  to  try  a  better  rotation  of  crops,  or  to  grow  crops  such 


THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND.         265 


as  mangolds  or  new  varieties  of  potatoes,  which  may  not  be  sufficiently 
known  in  the  district.  Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  potatoes, 
which  form  the  staple  crop  in  large  districts,  and  on  which  many  are  entirely 
dependent  for  food.  In  view  of  the  almost  invariably  beneficial  effects  of 
spraying,  and  of  the  ever-recurring  danger  of  a  wet  season,  every  effort  has 
been  made  to  encourage  the  practice  of  spraying,  and  about  ;^4,ooo  has 
been  spent  in  this  connection.  Numerous  experiments  are  carried  out  to 
test  the  suitability  of  different  artificial  manures  or  the  relative  merits  of 
different  varieties  of  seeds,  and  recently  investigations  have  been  tried  to 
test  the  efficiency  of  certain  remedies  for  the  prevention  of  "  smut  "  in  oats. 
The  Board  are  also  taking  steps  to  encourage  the  planting  of  fruit  trees  and 
the  growth  of  forest  trees  by  small  occupiers.  In  the  case  of  forest  trees 
grants  are  made  to  small  occupiers  on  the  sole  condition  that  the  plantation 
is  properly  fenced. 

One  of  the  chief  needs  of  the  congested  districts  was  an  improvement  in 
the  quality  of  the  live  stock,  especially  of  the  horses. 
Horse-breeding  ^"  ^^^^"^  ^°  promote  the  horse-breedmg  industry,  the 
°*  Board  bought  a  large  number  of  stallions  which  are 
stationed  during  the  season  at  different  places  in  the 
congested  districts  for  the  purpose  of  serving  mares  belonging  to  the  in- 
habitants at  a  very  small  fee.  These  operations  have  been  carried  out  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  about  ;^48,ooo  has  been  expended  up  to  31st  March, 
igoi,  in  this  direction.  The  selection  of  stallions  for  the  congested  districts 
has  been  considerably  criticised,  and  though  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the 
state  of  affairs  in  the  congested  districts,  especially  the  small  and  weedy 
class  of  mares  so  common  there,  called  for  different  methods  from  those 
prevailing  in  the  great  hunting  centres,  the  large  number  of  hackney  sires 
bought  by  the  Board  renewed  "  the  Battle  of  the  Stallions."  Some 
have  objected  altogether  to  the  introduction  of  hackneys,  and  others, 
whilst  admitting  that  they  might  benefit  the  breed  common  in  the  West  of 
Ireland,  base  their  objection  on  the  danger  of  the  h.ackney  strain  spreading 
from  the  congested  districts  into  the  great  hunter-raising  districts.  It  is 
satisfactory  to  learn  from  the  Reports  of  the  Board  that  the  young  stock  got 
by  these  stallions  have  been  carefully  watched,  and  that  in  no  case  has  any 
want  of  staying  power  in  the  half-bred  hackneys  been  alleged.  The  Board's 
chief  difficulty  was,  and  is,  the  tendency — -not  confined  to  the  congested  dis- 
tricts— shown  by  small  landholders  of  selling  the  best  fillies  and  keeping  the 
worst,  generally  the  unsaleable  ones,  for  breeding  purposes.  The  ninth 
Report  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board  points  out — "  It  must  always  be 
borne  in  mind  that  our  work  in  connection  with  horse-breeding  was  com- 
menced in  a  falling  market,  and  that  the  tide  only  began  to  turn  about  a 
year  ago,  a  fresh  demand  for  cobs  for  mounted  infantry  having  arisen  since 
last  season.  Many  of  the  best  of  the  remounts  purchased  came  from  those 
districts  in  the  West  of  Ireland  which  are  served  only  by  our  horses,  and  in 
consequence  the  applications  for  horses  to  be  sent  to  those  and  other 
districts  have  never  been  so  urgent  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  present 
year." 

It  is  stated  that  owing  to  the  demand  for  horses  and  the  large  number  of 
Irish  cobs  that  have  been  sent  to  South  Africa  the  horse-breeding  industry 
in  the  West  has  received  a  great  stimulus,  and  the  people  are  more  than  ever 
anxious  to  breed  a  foal.     It  is  feared  that  the  good  prices  have  tempted 


266       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 


many  to  sell  their  best  mares,  and,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  the 
serious  drawback  to  horse-breeding  in  the  West,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of 
Ireland,  is  the  wretched  quality  of  the  mares,  and  the  belief  that  any  mare 
will  do  to  breed  from  if  she  has  the  chance  of  a  good  horse.  This  tells  most 
unfairly  on  the  stallions,  as  only  in  rare  cases  have  they  mares  sent  to  them 
from  which  a  good  foal  can  be  fairly  expected,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
the  wonder  is  that  the  results  are  so  favourable. 

Since  the  Board  commenced  its  work  nearly  ;^20,ooo  has  been  expended 
in  aid  of  the  breeding  of  live  stock  other  than  horses. 
,  .       cf    ]r  '^^^  method  of  improving  cattle  found  to  be  most  suc- 

liiYe  o  oc  .  cessful  is  the  purchase  by  the  Board  of  good  bulls  at 

an  average  price  of  over  ^^30.  These  animals  are 
then  re-sold  to  farmers  in  the  congested  districts  at  less  than  half  the  original 
price,  the  money  being  paid  in  two  or  thi'ee  instalments.  The  chief  con- 
dition of  sale  is  that  the  purchaser  shall  keep  the  bull  in  the  congested 
districts  for  at  least  two  or  three  years,  during  which  time  it  is  to  be  available 
each  year  for  the  service  of  a  stipulated  number  of  cows,  belonging  to  small 
farmers,  at  a  maximum  service  fee  of  2s.  6d.  The  farmer  usually  receives  a 
subvention  of  £2  or  £4  towards  the  cost  of  keeping  the  bull  during  the 
third  year.  Nearly  nine  hundred  bulls  have  been  sold  outright  under  this 
system. 

A  new  scheme  has  been  approved  under  which  owners  of  approved  bulls 
may  arrange  with  the  Board  to  give  the  services  of  their  bulls  for  the  benefit 
of  small  occupiers  in  their  districts  subject  to  a  maximum  fee  of  2s.  6d.,  the 
Board  undertaking  to  pay  certain  subsidies  varying  according  to  the  breed 
of  the  bull  and  the  number  of  animals  served.  It  is  believed  that  this  system 
will  work  well  in  cases  where  the  bull  owner  wishes  to  reserve  the  bull  tor  a 
large  number  of  his  own  stock,  and  it  enables  those  w-ho  wish  to  do  so  to 
select  their  own  bulls.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  is  still  the  almost  universal 
custom  for  breeders  to  sell  their  best  heifers,  instead  of  keeping  them  to 
breed  from ;  but  it  is  believed  that  by  slow  degrees  the  breeding  stock  in 
congested  districts  will  be  graded  up  by  the  Board  continuing  to  supply 
pure-bred  bulls. 

Similar  measures  have  been  taKen  to  improve  the  breed  of  sheep  and 
pigs,  by  increasing  the  number  of  well-bred  ram.s  and  boars  in  the  con- 
gested districts ;  and  the  efforts  of  the  Board  to  encourage  the  practice  of 
dipping  sheep  have  met  with  considerable  success. 

Over  i^4,ooo  has  been  expended  in  improving  the  poultry  and  egg  in- 
dustry.      At  first  the  Board  adopted  the  system  of 
p     ,,  distributing  among  the  people  a  large  number  of  suit- 

y*  able  fowl,  but  this  method  was  soon  found  to  be  both 

too  liberal  and  too  expensive.  Under  the  scheme 
adopted  in  1893  a  limited  number  of  birds,  generally  twenty-two,  of  an 
approved  breed,  are  sent  out  to  one  selected  farmer  or  cottager  in  each 
small  district.  From  the  centre  thus  formed  eggs  of  the  pure  breed  are 
distributed,  for  hatching,  to  as  many  as  possible  of  the  surrounding  cottagers. 
The  inducement  offered  heretofore  has  been  one  penny  paid  by  the  Board 
to  the  distributor  for  every  egg  of  the  good  breed  issued  by  him,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  he  is  entitled  under  the  arrangement  agreed  upon,  to  get  an 
^SS  of  ^^^  common  country  breed  in  exchange. 


UNIVCRSITY  j 
THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOAR^FOR^'IRELAND.        267 

This  system  has  now  been  some  years  in  full  operation,  and  in  the  two 
years  ending  31st  March,  1901,  over  ^^"900  was  paid  for  eggs  distributed,  the 
number  of  eggs  issued  being  about  230,000.  The  results  are  seen  in  the 
marked  increase  in  the  size  of  the  eggs  in  many  districts  ;  and  when  the  new 
system  of  grading  eggs  for  market  according  to  size  becomes  more  general, 
the  improvement  effected  will  be  better  appreciated  by  the  people.  It  is 
stated  in  the  ninth  Report  that  arrangements  were  made  for  reducing  the 
rate  of  payment  from  id.  to  %d.  per  ^gg  issued,  but  this  system  of 
paying  poultry  farmers  for  the  eggs  issued  is  beheved  to  be  in 
many  respects  unsatisfactory,  and  it  is  therefore  proposed  that,  in  the  case 
of  all  poultry  farms  to  be  established  in  future,  the  system  of  paying  for 
each  egg  distributed  will  be  discontinued,  and  that  in  lieu  thereof  the  poultry 
farmer  shall  be  allowed  to  sell  eggs,  subject  to  a  maximum  price  approved 
by  the  Board,  or  to  exchange  them  for  their  full  value  in  ordinary  eggs.  In 
addition  he  will  receive  a  small  cash  bonus  each  year,  provided  that  the 
directions  given  for  the  management  of  the  poultry  and  the  distribution  of 
eggs  are  properly  carried  out. 

The  Board  employs  a  poultry  expert  to  visit  and  supervise  these  small 
poultry  farms,  arid  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  management  of  fowl,  whilst 
considerable  assistance  has  been  given  in  the  direction  of  marketing  the 
eggs. 

The  Board  made  a  start  in  1893  towards  developing  the  bee-keeping 
industry  by  supplying  swarms  of  bees  and  suitable 
„      ,        .  bar-frame  hives  to  about  a  dozen  cottagers,  who  were 

eeping.  ^^^  instructed  in  the  proper  management  of  bees,  and 
this  experiment  was  attended  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. In  the  following  year  the  operations  were  extended,  especially  in. 
County  Donegal,  and  a  number  of  persons  were  supplied  with  bee-keeping 
appliances  and  stock,  which  were  paid  for  on  the  instalment  system.  As 
the  industry  spread  it  was  seen  by  the  Board  that,  in  order  to  make  the 
keeping  of  bees  a  profitable  occupation  for  people  in  remote  parts  of  the 
country,  it  was  necessary,  for  some  years  at  all  events,  to  assist  in  marketing 
the  honey  of  any  bee-keepers  who  were  themselves  unable  to  find  a  pur- 
chaser, and  this  the  Board  undertook  to  do.  Over  eight  tons  were  thus 
disposed  of  im  1900,  and  twelve  tons  in  190 1.  A  number  of  local  instructors 
are  now  spread  all  over  the  congested  districts,  and  a  series  of  lectures, 
with  magic  lantern  views,  have  helped  to  spread  information  on  the  subject,, 
and  to  increase  the  popularity  of  the  industry,  the  rapid  development  of 
which,  in  the  last  few  years,  is  shown  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of  bar- 
frame  hives  sold  in  the  congested  districts,  which  has  arisen  from  80  in  1895 
to  246  in  1900.  Owing  to  the  unusually  long,  dry  and  warm  summer  the 
season  of  1899  was  a  most  prosperous  one  for  Irish  bee-keepers.  Many  of 
the  bee-keepers  were  beginners,  yet  the  average  produce  per  hive  (nearly 
66 j'^  lbs.)  was  remarkably  high,  if  not  unprecedented,  and,  owing  to  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  industry,  the  number  of  hives  in  use  was  much  larger 
than  in  any  former  year.  The  statistics  obtained  from  bee-keepers  working 
in  connection  Vv^th  the  scheme  shows  that  the  total  quantity  of  honey  sold 
by  them  was  59,936  lbs.  In  1898  the  production  of  honey  was  only 
22,925  lbs.,  and  the  average  only  54^2  lbs.  per  hive,  and  in  neither  year  do- 
these  figures  include  more  than  one-third  of  the  honey  produced  in  the- 
congested  districts. 


268       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 

One  of  the  first  steps  taken  by  the  Congested  Districts  Board  was  to 

develop   the   resources    which   in  the   shape    of    sea 

The  fisheries  lay  almost  at  the  door  of  so  many  of  the 

Fishing  Industry.  "  Congests.'"  In  considering  the  potentialities  and 
drawbacks  of  this  industry,  the  sea-coast  of  the  con- 
gested districts  may  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  in  one  of  which,  consist- 
ing of  Galway,  Mayo,  and  Donegal,  transit  for  fish  and  marketing  facilities 
were  defective ;  while  in  the  other  division,  comprising  Kerry  and  Cork,  the 
means  of  transit  both  by  rail  and  by  steamship  were  far  more  complete,  and 
in  this  district,  therefore,  a  much  more  profitable  market  already  existed 
than  in  the  northern  congested  districts.  Speaking  generally,  the  Kerry 
and  Cork  fishermen  needed  landing  accommodation  for  boats  more  than 
market  facilities,  while  as  regards  the  coast  north  of  Galway  the  establish- 
ment of  a  market  was  the  chief  necessity,  though  at  the  same  time  piers  and 
boat  slips  were  much  wanted  at  some  places. 

The  requirements  of  the  fresh  fish  trade  were  of  course  different  from 
those  of  the  cured  fish  trade.  The  fresh  fish  trade  requires  quick  and 
regular  means  of  carriage  to  the  English  markets,  and  expensive  plant — - 
such  as  ice-hulks,  ice,  and  packing  boxes — is  also  necessary.  The  cured 
fish  trade,  on  the  other  hand,  involves  the  erection  of  fish  curing  sheds  and 
stores,  the  hiring  of  fish-curers,  and  the  purchase  of  salt,  but  there  is  not  any 
necessity  for  rapid  or  regular  transit  to  market,  and  a  steamship  or  even  sail- 
ing vessel  can  be  chartered  occasionally  to  take  pickled  or  dried  fish  to  the 
market.  A  start  was  made  by  the  Board  in  Galway  Bay,  but  it  was  soon 
evident  that  even  there,  where  transit  facilities  were  comparatively  favour- 
able, little  less  than  the  creation  of  the  local  industry  was  the  task  awaiting 
the  Board ;  for  to  promote  the  fishing  industry  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  it 
ultimately  self-supporting,  it  was  not  only  necessary  to  provide  boats,  but  the 
men  had  to  be  shown  also,  to  a  large  extent,  how  and  especially  when  to  fish. 
Thus,  though  the  Aran  islanders  were  accustomed  to  avail  themselves  in  an 
elementary  way,  of  the  Autumn  Mackerel  Fishery,  they  scouted  the  idea  of 
Spring  fishing.  Another  difficulty  arose  from  the  fact  that  most  West  of  Ire- 
land men  are  not  sailors  but  only  boatmen,  and  consequently  are  by  nature 
disinclined  and  unfit  for  fishing  away  from  home.  Fortunately  the  Board 
did  not  start  their  work  of  encouraging  deep-sea  fishing,  as  was  suggested  by 
some,  by  establishing  schools  to  teach  boys  how  to  fish  on  dry  land.  Instead 
of  this,  seven  Arklow  crews,  accustomed  to  deep-sea  fishing,  were  subsidised 
to  exploit  the  Spring  Mackerel  Fishery,  and  the  Board  bought  a  steamer  to 
help,  as  well  as  boats,  nets,  boxes,  and,  not  least  important,  a  cargo  of  ice. 
After  much  weary  waiting  the  mackerel  came,  and  since  then  the  fishing 
has  flourished  and  become  profitable  on  a  self-supporting  basis,  for  the 
Board  has  now  ceased  to  act  as  the  universal  buyer,  and  private  traders  with 
their  own  steamers  and  agents,  have  taken  its  place.  The  Board  still  sup- 
plies boats  by  means  of  loans  from  the  Reproductive  Loan  Fund,  or  the 
Sea  and  Coast  Fisheries  Fund,  repayable  by  half-yearly  instalments.  Two 
instructors  generally  form  part  of  the  crew,  who  teach  the  natives  the  com- 
plete art  of  fishing,  and,  above  all,  how  to  look  after  the  gear  and  how  to 
mend  the  nets. 

These  methods  have  been  pursued  with  considerable  success  in  most  of 
the  other  fishing  centres  of  the  congested  districts.  Recently  a  new 
mackerel  fishery  has  been  opened  at  Blacksod  Bay,  and  though  the  first 
season's  working  resulted  in  a  loss  of  over  i^i,8oo,  the  Board  very  justly 


THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND.         269 

regard  this  as  an  investment  which  may  in  future  years  add  considerably  to 
the  resources  of  the  large  and  very  poor  population  of  the  locality ;  and  the 
fishing  last  year  resulted  in  considerable  profits  being  earned  by  the  men 
engaged.  The  conger,  skate,  cod,  ling,  and  glasson  fishing  at  Teelin  and 
Aran  is  very  promising,  cind  there  is  a  very  important  herring  fishery  off 
Donegal,  where  the  take  last  year  was  quite  unprecedented,  the  net  receipts 
of  the  fishermen  being  over  ^^25,000,  in  addition  to  which  about  ;£"5,ooo  paid 
to  persons  on  shore  for  curing  and  carting. 

The  curing  of  mackerel  caught  in  the  autumn  has  been  a  flourishing 
industry  during  the  past  fifteen  years  on  the  south  coast  of  Ireland  owing  to 
the  constant  demand  for  the  American  market,  but,  unfortunately  for  all 
concerned  in  the  fishery  in  this  country,  the  mackerel  after  appearing  in 
American  waters,  for  many  years  only  in  small  numbers,  suddenly  returned 
in  immense  quantities  in  1900,  and  the  result  was  that  the  price  fell  from  14 
dollars  per  barrel  to  9  dollars  ;  and  merchants  are  unwilling  to  open  curing 
stations  and  pay  the  fishermen  4s.  per  hundred  for  the  fish  so  long  as  they 
receive  only  9  dollars  per  barrel  in  America.  In  June,  1901,  Mr.  A.  T. 
Duthie,  one  of  the  Board's  Inspectors  of  Fisheries,  undertook,  on  behalf  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction,  an  inquiry  in  the 
United  States  into  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  pickled  mackerel  and 
cured  herring  market.  He  subsequently  made  a  very  exhaustive  and  valu- 
able report  which  must  prove  of  great  asistance  to  both  merchants  and 
curers  engaged  in  this  trade.  1  he  report  was  printed  in  full  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  82,, 
£/  se<2. 

In  the  same  year  inquiries  were  made  through  some  of  the  British  Con- 
sular agents  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  market  in 
those  countries  for  Irish  mackerel  or  herrings,  but  owing  to  the  cheapness  of 
dried  cod-fish  and  to  the  customs  duty  on  imported  fish,  there  seems  to  be 
little  chance  of  creating  a  profitable  market  there  for  Irish  fish. 

The  Board  has  since  its  inception  expended  over  £"100,000  in  engineering 
works,  including  marine  works  such  as  piers,  harbours,  drainage  works, 
and  roads  and  bridges.  These  works  are  not  of  the  class  known  as  "  relief," 
but  have  been  undertaken  rather  with  a  view  to  develop  and  open  up  the 
resources  of  the  districts  by  offering  facilities  to  fishermen  and  agriculturists. 

An  important  part  of  the  Board's  work  is  concerned  with  the  practical 
instruction  which  is  given  in  the  industries  intimately  connected  with  fishing,, 
viz. : — net  making,  barrel  making,  and  boat  building.  Cooperages  have  been 
established  for  many  years  at  Burtonport  and  Teehn  in  Donegal,  where 
about  11,000,  barrels  "  half  barrels,"  and  carrier  barrels  have  been  made 
annually,  which  have  produced  a  yearly  return  of  about  £"2,200.  The 
Board  have  also  imported  several  large  cargoes  of  Norwegian  barrel-staves 
for  their  own  cooperages  and  for  sale  to  coopers  at  various  places  in  Cork 
and  Kerry,  'i  wenty-three  decked  fishing  boats  have  been  built  at  ship 
yards  on  the  coast  of  Connemara  and  Killybegs  in  Donegal,  where  building 
was  first  started  under  instruction  provided  by  the  Board.  Including  these 
twenty-three  boats  the  total  number  of  fishing  boats  built  to  the  Board's 
order  in  Ireland  and  elsewhere  is  ninety-one,  which  cost,  without  their  nets, 
and  gear,  nearly  £15,000 


270       THE  CONGESTED  DISTRICTS  BOARD  FOR  IRELAND. 

The  development  of  home  and  cottage  industries,  such  as  spinning, 
weaving,  knitting,    and    other    industrial  enterprises, 

Home  Industries     constituted  perhaps  the  most  difficult  duty  entrusted 

and  to  the  Board  both  as  regards  the  selection  of  fields  of 

Domestic  Training,  work  and  the  carrying  out  of  schemes  for  affording 

assistance.    Besides  the  well-known  woollen  factory  at 

Foxford  and  the  hand  tuft  carpet  making  business  at  Killybegs,  knitting, 

crochet  and  lace  work,  kelp  making,  basket  making,  carpentry,  and  other 

home  and  cottage  industries  have  all  been  started  or  developed.     In  some 

cases  the  Board  found  it  necessary  to  give  some  direct  assistance  to  the 

nascent  industry,  but  in  other  cases  technical  instruction  was  the  chief  need  ; 

and  when  this  was  facilitated  by  the  Board  the  industry  required  little 

further  assistance.     In  most  of  these  industries  the  actual  pursuit  of  the 

trade  and  technical  instruction  in  its  wider  sense  seem  now  to  go  thoroughly 

hand  in  hand. 

A  great  boon  was  conferred  upon  girls  in  the  congested  districts  by  the 
starting  of  "  Domestic  Training "  classes.  These  classes  have  without 
-exception  been  very  well  attended,  and  435  pupils  in  all  have  been  in- 
structed. As  an  instance  of  the  anxiety  of  the  young  women  to  obtain  the 
benefit  of  this  course  it  may  be  mentioned  that  at  Sneem  in  County  Kerry 
sixteen  of  the  pupils  at  the  evening  class  lived  at  an  average  distance  of  4% 
miles  from  the  class-room  and  therefore  walked  over  nine  miles  a  day  for 
four  months  in  the  winter.  One  girl  walked  sixteen  miles  a  day  and 
attended  on  seventy-two  days  out  of  eighty-one.  It  was  the  custom  for 
many  of  the  girls  to  go  to  the  "  hiring  fairs  "  and  engage  themselves  for 
service  in  the  neighbouring  counties.  As  the  cottages  in  which  the  girls 
live  when  at  home  give  them  no  opportunity  of  learning  the  ordinary  work 
of  domestic  service,  they  are  quite  untrained,  and  are  consequently  put  to 
rough  work,  and  can  obtain  only  low  wages.  Whilst  one  of  the  primary 
objects  of  the  instruction  given  is  to  improve  the  homes  and  habits  of  the 
people  by  raising  the  standard  of  their  ideas  as  to  comfort  and  health, 
another  object  which  is  perhaps  more  directly  attainable  is  to  teach  these 
girls  cooking,  laundry  and  general  housework  and  to  train  them  in  habits  of 
^.neatness  and  order  so  as  to  enable  them  to  get  better  wages. 


DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE,  Etc.,  FOR  IRELAND.      271 


THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE    AND 
TECHNICAL    INSTRUCTION. 


Various  suggestions  had  from  time  to  time  within  the  past  decade  or  two 
been  mooted  for  the  estabhshment  of  a  State  Board  or  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  Ireland.  These  suggestions  first  took  practical  shape  when  a 
number  of  Irishmen,  representative  of  different  political  parties,  resolved  to 
form  a  Committee,  for  the  promotion  of  measures,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
country,  in  support  of  which  a  common  agreement  could  be  secured.  This 
Committee,  which  was  formed  during  the  Parliamentary  recess  of  1896,  was 
known  as  the  Recess  Committee,  and  it  consisted  of  the  following  members : 

Hon.  Horace  Plunkett,  M.P.,  Chairman. 

The  Earl  of  Mayo. 

The  Lord  Monteagle,  K.P. 

Right  Hon.  the  LORD  MAYOR  of  DUBLIN. 

Right  Hoa  The  O'Conor  Don,  H.M.L. 

Right  Hon.  JOSEPH  M.  Meade,  LL.D. 

Right  Hon.  THOMAS  SINCLAIR,  D.L. 

Sir  John  Arnott,  Bart.,  D.L. 

Sir  Thomas  Lea,  Bart.,  M.P. 

John  Redmond,  M.P. 

John  H.  Parnell,  M.P. 

Richard  M.  Dane,  Q.C,  M.P. 

William  Field,  M.P. 

Hon.  Mr.  JUSTICE  Ross. 

Right  Rev.  MONSIGNOR  MOLLOY,  D.D. 

Thomas  Andrews. 

Valentine  B.  Dillon. 

C.  Litton  Falkiner. 

Rev.  T.  A.  FiNLAY,  S.J.,  F.R.U.I. 

Thomas  P.  Gill. 

Joseph  E.  Kenny,  M.D. 

H.  Brougham  Leech,  LL.D.     , 

Count  Moore,  D.L. 

An  Ulster  Consultative  Committee  was  formed  in  Belfast  for  the  purpose 


272    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 


of  corresponding-  with  the  General  Committee.     The  following  were  the 
members  of  the  Ulster  Committee  : — 

James  Musgrave,  D.L.,  Chairman. 

Thomas  Andrews. 

James  Dempsey. 

Sir  Daniel  Dixon,  Knt ,  D.L. 

Sir  W.  Q.  EWART,  Bart.,  D.L. 

John  t  agan. 

Maurice  Fitzgerald  (Professor,  Queen's  College,  Belfast^ 

Rev.  R.  R.  Kane,  D.D. 

Robert  MacGeagh,  J.P. 

R.  J.  M'CONNELL,  J.R 

Alex.  Robb. 

Thomas  Roe,  J.P. 

Right  Hon.  Thomas  Sinclair,  D.L. 

John  F.  Small. 

Mr.  Horace  Plunkett  was  chosen  as  Chairman  of  the  Recess  Committee, 
and  Mr.  T.  P.  Gill  acted  as  Hon.  Secretary.  The  Committee  set  themselves 
to  study  systematically  the  methods  adopted  by  the  State  in  other  countries 
for  the  development  of  agricultural  and  industrial  resources,  and  to  consider 
whether  these  methods  might  be  adopted  and  adapted  to  the  special  con- 
ditions of  Ireland.  As  a  result  of  their  deliberations  the  Recess  Committee 
drew  up  and  presented  to  the  Irish  Government  a  "  Report  on  the  Establish- 
ment of  a  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Industries  for  Ireland,"  which 
made  the  following  recommendations  : 

(i.)  That  the  administration  of  State  aid  to  Agriculture  and  Industries 
in  Ireland  on  the  principles  to  be  described  can  be  most  effect- 
ively carried  out  by  including  the  two  branches  of  Agriculture 
and  Industries,  and  the  Technical  Instruction  relating  thereto, 
under  the  care  of  one  Department  of  Government  specially 
created  for  the  purpose  ;  and 

(2.)  That  this  Department  should  consist  of  a  Board  with  a  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Industries,  responsible  to  Parliament  at  its  head, 
and  assisted  by  a  Consultative  Council  representative  of  the 
agricultural  and  industrial  interests  of  the  country. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Committee,  were  taken  up  warmly  by  public 
opinion  of  all  shades  in  Ireland,  and  especially  by  the  bodies  representative 
of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  industry.  A  very  important  deputation 
organised  by  the  Chambers  of  Commerce  of  Dublin,.  Belfast,  and  Cork,  and 
representing  the  agricultural  and  commercial  interests  throughout  the 
country  generally,  waited  on  the  Chief  Secretary,  Mr.  Gerald  Balfour,  in 
January,  1897,  who  received  them  graciously,  and  promised  legislation  on 
the  part  of  the  Government. 

In  the  Session  of  1 899  the  Chief  Secretary  introduced  and  carried  through 
Parliament  a  Bill  for  the  establishment  of  a  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland,  which  embodied  the  main  features  of  the 
Recess   Committee's  recommendations,   and    adapted  them    to    the    new 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE.  Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     273 


circumstances  created  in  Ireland  by  the  Local  Government  Act,  which  the 
same  Minister  had  carried  through  Parliament  the  previous  Session.  A 
brief  outline  of  the  varied  duties  and  functions  of  this  new  State  Depart- 
ment is  given  here — though  it  must  necessarily  be  of  a  very  summary  char- 
acter. One  side  of  the  duty  of  the  Department  is  to  carry  on  certain 
veterinary,  fisnery,  statistical,  and  educational  work,  which  was,  at  the  time 
of  the  passing  of  the  Act,  divided  up  amongst  some  half-dozen  State  depart- 
ments, but  a  large  share  of  its  duties  is  almost  entirely  new,  so  far  as  State 
action  is  concerned,  and  is  connected  with  the  development  of  "  Agriculture 
and  other  Industries  and  Technical  Instruction,"  words  which  receive  a  very 
liberal  interpretation  in  the  definition  clause.  Towards  carrying  out  this 
work,  the  Department  received  a  capital  sum  of  about  ^^200,000,  and  has  an 
annual  endowment  of  i^  166,000.  The  salaries  and  allowances  of  the  staff 
required  for  the  work  of  the  Department,  including  the  transferred  duties, 
are  voted  by  Parliament  and  included  in  the  ordinary  Civil  Service  Esti- 
mates. The  Department  consists  of  a  President  (the  Chief  Secretary  for 
the  time  being)  and  a  Vice-President,  who  are  assisted  by  a  Secretary,  two 
Assistant  Secretaries,  one  in  respect  of  Agriculture  and  one  in  respect  of 
Technical  Instruction,  together  with  a  number  of  "  Inspectors,  Instructors, 
Officers,  and  Servants." 

The  very  nature  of  the  work  which  the  new  Department  was  called  into 
existence  to  accomplish  made  it  absolutely  essential  that  the  Department 
should  keep  in  touch  with  the  public  opinion  of  the  classes  whom  its  work 
would  concern,  and  without  whose  active  co-operation  no  lasting  good 
could  be  effected.  The  machinery  for  this  purpose  was  provided  by  the 
establishment  of  a  Council  of  Agriculture  and  two  Boards,  one  connected 
with  Agriculture  and  the  other  with  Technical  Instruction.  These 
representative  bodies,  whose  constitution  is  interesting  as  marking  a  new 
departure  in  the  administrative  system  of  the  United  Kingdom,  were 
adapted  from  Continental  models.  As  the  Vice-President  said  m  his 
opening  address  at  the  inaugural  meeting  of  the  Council  last  year : — 
"  Similar  Councils,  to  advise  and  influence  similar  Departments,  have  been 
found  by  experience  in  the  Continental  countries,  who  are  Ireland's  econo- 
mic rivals,  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  all  means  whereby  the  administration 
keeps  in  touch  with  the  opinions  of  the  agricultural  and  industrial  classes, 
and  becomes  truly  responsive  to  their  needs  and  wishes." 

The  Council  of  Agriculture  is  mainly  elective,  and  is  built  out  of  the 
newl)^-established  system  of  Local  Government.  It  consists  of  104  mem- 
bers, of  whom  68  are  elected  by  the  County  Councils,  and  34  are  nominated 
by  the  Department.  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Department 
ajre  ex-ojficio  members  of  the  Council  and  of  both  Boards.  The  members  of 
the  Council  are  elected  for  a  term  of  three  years,  and  according  to  the  Act, 
'Shall  meet  at  least  once  a  year  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  matters  of 
public  interest  in  connection  with  any  of  the  purposes  of  this  Act." 

Where  the  Council  differs  from  its  foreign  prototypes  is,  mainly,  in  the 
greater  amount  of  direct  power  which  has  been  entrusted  to  it.  Besides  its 
advisory  powers — and  the  importance  to  be  attached  to  the  deliberate 
opinion  of  such  a  representative  body  is  naturally  very  great — the  Council 
itself  creates  the  larger  portion  of  the  Agricultural  Board,  and  shares  with 
the  County  Boroughs  the  appointment  of  the  majority  of  members  of  the 
Board  of  Technical  Instruction,  and  to  these  Boards  is  entrusted  the  control 
of  the  funds  with  which  the  Department  has  been  endowed.       The  two 

T 


274     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

Boards  consist  of  14  and  23  members  respectively,  of  whom  two,  as  already 
noted,  are  ex-ojficio,  four  are  nominated  by  the  Department,  and  the  re- 
mainder are  appointed  either  by  the  Council  of  Agriculture  or  directly  by 
the  Councils  of  the  County  Boroughs  and  Urban  Districts,  whilst  the  Com- 
missioners of  National  Education  and  the  Intermediate  Education  Board 
each  send  one  representative  to  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction.  The 
members  of  the  Council  and  of  the  two  Boards  are  unpaid,  and  receive  only 
the  usual  travelling  and  subsistence  allowances  when  engaged  upon  their 
official  duties.  In  addition  to  special  advisory  powers,  the  two  Boards,  as 
was  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Gerald  Balfour,  the  first  President  of  the  Depart- 
ment, occupy  precisely  the  same  position  in  reference  to  the  Department  as 
regards  financial  matters  that  the  House  of  Commons  holds  in  reference  to 
the  Government  of  the  day.  No  money  can  be  spent,  except  as  regards  a 
few  mmor  matters,  without  their  consent.  Of  the  Department's  annual 
income  of  p^  166,000,  the  sum  of  ;6^5 5,000  is  ear-marked  for  technical  instruc- 
tion. This  sum  is  to  be  divided  into  portions,  to  be  determined  every  three 
years  by  the  Department,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Board  of  Technical 
Instruction.  As  regards  one  portion,  the  Board's  functions  then  cease. 
This  portion  is  divided  among  the  six  County  Boroughs,  viz. : — Belfast, 
Cork,  Dublin,  Limerick,  Londonderry,  and  Waterford,  according  to  their 
population,  "  in  or  about  the  time  of  distribution,"  and  is  applied  by  the 
Councils  of  these  boroughs  (through  a  Technical  Instruction  Committee), 
as  they  think  fit,  to  any  scheme  of  Technical  education  which  meets  with 
the  approval  of  the  Department.  The  other  portion  is  to  be  appHed  for 
the  purposes  of  Technical  Instruction  elsewhere  than  in  the  County  Bor- 
oughs, subject  to  the  concurrence  of  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction,  who 
thus  occupy  with  regard  to  this  portion  the  position  of  the  Department  in 
reference  to  the  other  portion. 

The  Agricultural  Board  has  a  power  of  veto  over  the  expenditure  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Department's  funds.  As  already  explained,  these  funds 
consist  of  a  capital  sum  of  about  i^200,ooo,  and  an  annual  income  of 
;^ 1 66,000.  Of  the  capital  sum,  ;^  15,000  was  assigned  by  the  Act  to  the 
Royal  Veterinary  College  of  Ireland,*  and  ;;^  10,000  was  allocated  to  certain 
purposes  in  connection  with  the  development  of  the  Munster  Institute.  Of 
the  annual  income  of  ;£"  166,000,  the  sum  of  iJ^5 5,000  is,  as  already  men- 
tioned, to  be  devoted  to  Technical  Instruction,  and  ;^  10,000  to  Sea  Fisheries. 
The  residues — about  ;:^  175,000  (capital  sum)  and  iJ"  10 1,000  (annual  sum) — 
are,  after  meeting  the  cost  of  a  few  minor  items,  to  be  devoted  by  the 
Department  "  for  the  purposes  of  Agriculture  and  other  rural  industries  or 
Sea  Fisheries,"  subject  to  the  concurrence  of  the  Agricultural  Board.  It 
may  be  noted  here  that  it  is  specifically  provided  in  the  Act  that  none  of 
the  funds  thus  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Department  are  to  be  spent  in 
Congested  Districts,  which  is  especially  provided  for  by  the  Congested  Dis- 
tricts Board.  To  prevent,  however,  any  overlapping  of  the  work  of  this 
Board  and  the  Department,  it  is  provided  that  the  latter  may  undertake  any 
of  the  Board's  powers  and  duties  at  its  request,  but  any  expense  which  is 
incurred  in  performing  these  functions  must  be  provided  by  the  Board  or 
from  local  sources,  t 

*  The  Royal  Veterinary  College  of  Ireland  was  incorporated  by  Charter  in  1895,  but  was 
formally  opened  only  in  igoo.  It  has  no  power  of  granting  Diplomas,  but  is  affiliated  to  the 
Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

t  The  Agricultural  and  Technical  Instruction  (Ireland)  Bill,  1902,  which  at  time  of  writing 
(June,  1902,)  awaits  the  Royal  Assent,  will  remove  the  difficulties  referred  to  in  the  text. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     276 

It  was  not  at  all  desired  by  the  members  of  the  Recess  Committee,  nor 
was  it  intended  by  the  Government,  that  the  Department  should  ever 
become  a  body  existing  merely  for  the  purpose  of  administering  State  sub- 
sidies :  its  function  was  rather  in  the  words  of  the  Vice-President  to  be  that 
of  "  helping  people  to  help  themselves."  Hence  the  Act  expressly  pro- 
hibited the  Department  from  applying  (except  in  special  cases)  any  of  its 
funds  to  schemes  in  respect  of  which  aid  is  not  given  out  of  money  provided 
by  local  authorities  or  from  other  local  sources.  Accordingly,  the  Act  em- 
powers local  authorities  to  levy  a  rate  of  one  penny  in  the  pound  for  the 
purposes  of  the  Act,  and  it  also  provides  that,  notwithstanding  anything  in 
the  Technical  Instruction  Acts,  1889  and  1891,  the  rate  raised  for  the  pur- 
poses of  those  Acts  in  a  rural  District  may,  if  the  County  Council  think  fit, 
be  applied  for  any  of  the  purposes  of  this  Act. 

The  result  is  that  the  Councils  of  every  urban  district  and  of  every  county 
may  levy  a  rate  of  twopence  in  the  pound  (consisting  of  one  penny  levied 
under  the  Technical  Instruction  Acts,  1889  and  1891,  and  one  penny  levied 
under  the  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  (Ireland)  Act,  1889),  and 
the  sum  thus  raised  may  be  applied  in  urban  districts  for  Technical  Instruc- 
tion, and  in  rural  districts  for  Technical  Instruction  and  for  the  purposes  of 
agriculture  and  other  rural  industries.  Extensive  borrowing  powers  for  the 
same  purposes  are  also  conferred  by  the  Act  upon  the  local  Councils.  An 
universal  rate  of  one  penny  in  the  pound  all  over  Ireland  would  produce  a 
sum  of  nearly  ;j^6o,ooo,  and  as  the  Department's  contribution  to  any  par- 
ticulcir  scheme  will  in  general  be  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  local  aid 
forthcoming,  the  local  Councils  throughout  Ireland  have  the  power  of  setting 
free  a  very  considerable  amount  of  money  to  assist  in  the  work  of  national 
development. 

The  powers  of  the  Councils  are  not  confined  to  deciding  whether  any 
district  will  tax  itself,  and  so  become  eligible  to  share  in  the  benefits  that 
may  result  from  the  action  of  the  Department.  These  Councils  will  be  the 
real  executive.  To  the  Councils,  or,  rather,  to  committees  appointed  by 
the  Council  to  represent  the  various  interests  in  any  district,  is  entrusted  the 
task  of  preparing,  in  conjunction  with  the  Department,  schemes  for  the 
furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  Act,  cind  to  these  same  bodies  will  be 
entrusted  the  administration  of  the  schemes.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the 
successful  working  of  the  Act,  and,  indeed,  its  working  at  all,  depends 
mainly  upon  the  co-operation  of  local  bodies. 

The  transferred  powers  and  duties  of  the  Department,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made,  may  be  considered  in  five  classes  :— 

I.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Veterinary  Department  of  the  Privy 
Council.  These  powers  arise  chiefly  out  of  various  Diseases  of  Animals 
Acts  the  object  of  which  was  to  stamp  out  certain  infectious  disease 
amongst  animals.  These  powers  are  very  extensive,  and  include 
the  right  of  prohibiting  the  importation  into  this  country  of  animals 
from  foreign  countries  ;  of  declaring  that  any  area  in  Ireland  is  affected 
with  a  particular  disease,  and  of  regulating  the  movement  of  animals  in 
such  area ;  and  of  slaughtering  every  animal  affected,  or  suspected  to 
be  affected,  with  certain  diseases  ;  in  such  cases  compensation  is  made 
to  the  owner,  partly  out  of  money  provided  by  Parliament,  but  partly 
out  of  a  fund  raised  by  local  assessments.       These  measures  have 


276     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

resulted  in  freedom  from  pleuro-pneumonia*  for  over  eight  years  and 
from  foot  and  mouth  disease  for  about  seventeen  years,  though  the 
latter  has  more  than  once  made  its  appearance  in  Great  Britain  durin^ 
this  time.  Swine  fever  and  sheep  scab  are  the  diseases  which  now 
cause  most  trouble,  and  the  estimates  for  the  year  190 1-2  include  a 
sum  of  £i2,oon  for  expenses  in  connection  with  the  suppression  of 
swine  fever.  Other  duties  of  the  Privy  Council  which  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Department  are  connected  with  the  supervision  of  the 
transit  of  animals  both  by  land  and  sea,  and  with  the  carrying  out  of 
the  Destructive  Insect  Act  and  the  Fertilisers  and  Feedings  Stuffs  Act. 
The  former  Act  was  intended  to  prevent  the  introduction  and  spread 
of  the  Colorado  beetle,  which  is  very  destructive  to  the  crops.  The 
latter  Act  was  aimed  at  securing  the  purity  of  substances  sold  either 
for  enriching  the  land  or  for  feeding  animals,  and  the  Department  is 
authorised  to  prosecute  in  cases  of  fraud  and  adulteration. 

In  addition  to  these  transferred  powers  the  Department  also  pos- 
sess important  powers  under  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  1875 
to  1899.  Under  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  1899,  which  came 
into  operation  on  the  ist  January,  1900,  the  Department  are  em- 
powered in  relation  to  any  matter  appearing  to  them  to  affect  the 
general  interests  of  agriculture  in  the  country,  to  direct  their  officers  to 
procure  for  analysis  samples  of  any  article  of  food,  and  the  result  of 
any  such  analysis  is  to  be  communicated  to  the  Local  Authority,  whose 
duty  it  thereupon  becomes  to  take  proceedings  as  if  they  had  caused 
the  analysis  to  be  made. 

The  same  Act  further  provides  that  if  the  Department,  after  com- 
munication with  a  Local  Authority,  are  of  opinion  that  such  Local 
Authority  has  failed  to  execute  or  enforce  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
.Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  in  relation  to  any  article  of  food,  and  that 
their  failure  affects  the  general  interest  of  agriculture  in  the  country, 
the  Department  may  empower  one  of  their  ofhcers  to  execute  and 
enforce  those  provisions  at  the  expense  of  the  Local  Authority. 

The  Department  are  authorised  to  make  regulations  for  determining 
what  deficiency  in  any  of  the  normal  constituents  of  genuine  milk, 
cream,  butter,  or  cheese,  or  what  addition  of  extraneous  matter  in  any 
samples  of  these  substances  shall  raise  a  presumption  that  the  milk, 
cream,  butter,  or  cheese  is  not  genuine  or  is  injurious  to  health. 

The  officers  of  the  Department  are  also  empowered  to  inspect  the 
register  required  to  be  kept  by  manufacturers  of,  or  wholesale  dealers 
in  margarine  or  margarine  cheese ;  and  to  inspect  any  process  of 
manufacture  of  those  substances,  and  to  take  samples  for  analysis. 

2.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Inspectors  of  Irish  Fisheries.  These 
inspectors  were  first  appointed  in  1869,  when  they  took  over  the  duties 
of  various  Commissioners  in  relation  to  fisheries,  and  they  have  been 
chiefly  concerned  with  the  administration  of  the  rather  complicated 
fishery  laws,  which  are  contained  in  some  eighteen  statutes,  ranging 
from  1 842- 1 898.     Under  the  i6th  section  of  the  Act,  an  annual  sum  of 

*  The  Contagious  Diseases  (Pleuro-Pneumonia)  Act,  came  into  operation  on  ist  September, 
1890,  and  the  disease  was  completely  eradicated  in  two  years.  During  this  time  over  10,000 
cattle  were  slaughtered,  the  act  compensation  for  which  amounted  to  over  ^'70,000. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE.   Etc.,    FOR   IRELAND.     277 


;^  1 0,000  is  to  be  devoted  out  of  the  Department's  income  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Irish  Fisheries,  and  a  special  advisory  committee  has  been 
appointed  by  the  Department  to  help  in  this  work.  A  Bill  has  been 
introduced  into  Parliament  to  extend  the  Department's  powers  in  con- 
nection with  trawling,  and  'n  consequence  of  the  necessity  of  having  a 
steamer  to  carry  out  fishery  investigations  and  general  marine  superin- 
tendence (work  which  m  Scotland  keeps  three  cruisers  belonging  to  the 
Fishery  Board  busily  employed),  the  steam  yacht  Helga,  a  very  speedy 
steel  twin-screw,  schooner-rigged  boat,  with  a  tonnage  (yacht  measure- 
ment) of  345  tons,  has  been  purchased. 

3.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Registrar-General  for  Ireland  and  of 
the  Irish  Land  Commission  with  reference  to  the  collection  and  publica- 
tion of  agricultural  and  cognate  statistics,  and  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  Land  Commission  under  the  Market  and  Fairs  Acts  of  1887  and 
1 891.  These  Acts  impose  upon  the  Market  authorities  the  duty  of 
keeping  machines  for  weighing  cattle  (except  when  exempted  by  the 
Central  Authority),  and  of  furnishing  certain  returns  as  to  the  animals 
sold  in  each  market. 

A  Statistics  and  Intelligence  Branch  has  been  formed  by  the  Depart- 
ment, as  recommended  in  the  Report  of  ihe  Recess  Committee,  to  deal 
with  all  Irish  agricultural  and  industrial  statistics.  The  Branch  carries 
on  the  compilation  of  the  general  Agricultural  Statistics  which  have 
been  collected  by  successive  Registrars-General,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  police,  who  act  as  enumerators,  for  over  half  a  century.  A  prelimi- 
nary report  is  published  in  the  autumn,  which  shows  by  provinces  and 
counties  the  area  under  each  crop,  and  the  number  of  live  stock.  A 
return  is  publisheii  later  showing  the  estimated  rate  of  produce,  and 
finally,  the  complete  report,  which  contains  information  as  to  the 
division  of  land,  the  acreage  under  crops  and  pasture,  the  extent  of 
woods,  plantations,  bogs,  and  waste  land,  and  the  number  of  occupiers 
and  the  size  of  their  holdings.  It  gives  also  details  of  the  produce  of 
the  crops  and  of  the  number  of  live  stock  in  the  country,  and  of  other 
matters  relating  to  agriculture.  This  Branch  also  prepares  the  statistics 
of  the  imports  and  exports  of  live  stock,  which  are  embodied  in  the 
report  of  the  Veterinary  Branch.  An  annual  report  upon  the 
Migratory  Labourers,  a  report  upon  the  average  prices  obtained 
at  the  chief  markets  for  live  stock,  and  certain  kinds  of 
agricultural  produce,  and  two  half-yearly  reports  upon  the  banking, 
railway,  and  shipping  statistics  of  Ireland  are  also  issued.  The  5th 
section  of  the  Act  authorises  the  Department  to  make,  or  aid  in  making, 
any  mquiries,  experiments,  and  research,  and  to  collect  any  information 
that  may  be  deemed  important  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and 
rural  industries,  and  this  is  carried  out  chiefly  by  the  Statistics  and  In- 
telligence Bra-nch,  which  is  in  touch  with  similar  institutions  in  the 
Colonies  and  abroad,  and  which  disseminates  the  information  acquired 
by  means  of  leaflets  and  other  publications,  including  its  Quarterly 
Journal  of  which  eight  numbers — forming  Vols.  I.  &  II. — have  already 
appeared.  The  Vice-President  of  the  Department,  in  his  opening  speech 
at  the  inaugural  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Agriculture,  laid  particular 
stress  upon  the  importance  of  the  Intelligence  Branch.     "  Not  less  im- 


278     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 


portant,"  he  said,  "  than  the  statistical  work  of  the  Department  will  be 
that  of  its  Intelligence  Bureau.  For  we  are  suffering,  not  merely  from 
our  lack  of  scientific  methods,  but  also  from  the  competition  of  State- 
aided  rivals  the  world  over — men  who  have  had  the  start  of  us  indus- 
trially, and  who  are  alert  to  avail  themselves  of  every  assistance  that 
science  and  Government  supervision  can  bring  to  their  industry.  We 
have  the  experience  of  these  men  and  these  countries  to  draw  on,  and 
we  intend,  through  our  Intelligence  Bureau,  to  draw  on  it  largely.  By 
leaflet,  by  bulletin,  through  its  Journal  and  other  publications  the 
Department  will  make  a  constant  effort  to  bring  home  to  every  farmer 
in  the  country  the  progress  of  his  rivals,  and  to  interpret  for  him  how 
the  causes  of  such  progress  may  be  applied  to  his  own  conditions  or 
modified  to  meet  varying  circumstances." 

4.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Commissioners  of  National  Educa- 
tion with  regard  to  practical  Agricultural  Education.  These  Commis- 
sioners have  charge  of  the  Irish  primary  schools,  and  at  one  time  carried 
on  a  fairly  extensive  system  of  agricultural  instruction,  both  in  the 
primary  schools  and  in  some  twenty  provincial  model  farms.  Of  these 
latter,  two  only  have  survived,  the  Albert  Institution  near  Dublin,  and 
the  Munster  Institution  near  Cork,  and  in  the  primary  schools  object 
lessons  and  elementary  science  (with  special  reference  in  rural  districts 
to  the  principles  underlying  agriculture  and  horticulture)  have  been 
recently  substituted  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  itself. 

One  of  the  various  grants  which  go  to  make  up  the  total  income  of 
the  Department,  a  sum  of  i^6,ooo  represents  the  annual  amount 
hitherto  spent  on  the  Albert  and  Munster  Institutions,  which  are  to  be 
carried  on  and  developed  by  the  Department  in  connection  with  its 
great  work  of  developing  Irish  agriculture,  and,  as  already  noted,  a 
capital  sum  of  ;£^  10,000  is  to  be  devoted  towards  the  development  and 
extension  of  the  Munster  Institution. 

5.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art  in 
relation  to  the  institutions  in  Ireland  under  their  control.  These  are 
the  Royal  College  of  Science,  the  Science  and  Art  Museum,  the 
National  Library,  the  Metropohtan  School  of  Art,  and  the  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens  at  Glasnevin.  Most  of  these  institutions  are  offshoots 
of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  an  account  of  them  will  be  found  else- 
where. 

6.  The  administration  of  the  grants  for  Science  and  Art  and  for 
Technical  Instruction  in  Ireland,  which  were  formerly  administered  by 
the  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  English  Board  of  Educa- 
tion (South  Kensington).  Some  information  as  to  the  state  of 
Science  Teaching  and  Technical  Instruction  in  Ireland  is  contained 
in  the  article  on  this  subject,*  which  gives  the  history  of  these  grants  in 
Ireland,  and  points  out  that  they  have  not  been  availed  of  as  much  as 
•they  might  have  been,  largely  because  the  conditions  imposed  upon 
classes  were  not  suitable  to  the  needs  of  Ireland.     The  Department 

*  See  pages  155 — 176. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  Etc.,  FOR  IRELAND.     279 


have  already  issued  new  Regulations  for  these  grants  because,  as  they 
state  in  a  circular  letter  to  the  managers  and  head  teachers  of  secondary 
schools,  they  consider  that  the  methods  of  assessing  the  grants  might 
with  advantage  be  changed  in  order  to  render  it  more  directly  appli- 
cable to  existing  educational  needs  in  Ireland.  In  the  main,  the  new 
Regulations  form  a  scheme  of  payments,  based  on  the  results  of  in- 
spection, for  instruction  in  Experimental  Science,  Drawing,  and  Manual 
Work  or  Household  Economy.  A  detailed  programme  of  study  which 
all  schools  should  follow  has  not  been  issued,  as  the  Department  are  of 
opinion  th.it  it  is  advantageous  that  the  variety  of  arrangements,  made 
possible  by  an  elastic  system  of  payments,  no  less  than  the  variety  of 
schools,  should  lead  to  variety  of  programme  ;  and  it  is  hoped  that,  in 
this  way,  opportunities  will  be  afforded  to  each  school  to  stamp  its 
individuality  on  the  character  of  the  instruction,  and,  accordingly, 
managers  will  be  allowed  considerable  latitude  in  modification  of 
details. 

The  various  local  authorities  throughout  Ireland,  both  in  the  county 
boroughs  and  elsewhere,  have  framed  in  conjunction  with  the  Depart- 
ment, schemes  for  the  promotion  of  Technical  Instruction,  for  which,  as 
already  noted,  one-third  of  the  income  of  the  Department  is  specifically 
assigned.  The  expression  "  Technical  Instruction  "  includes  instruction  in 
the  principles  of  science  and  art  applicable  to  industries,  and  in  the  appli- 
cation of  special  branches  of  science  and  art  to  specific  industries  or  employ- 
ments, as  well  as  instruction  in  the  use  of  tools,  and  modelling  in  clay,  wood, 
or  other  material,  but  it  does  not  include  instruction  given  in  elementary 
schools  or  teaching  the  practice  of  any  trade  or  industry  or  employment. 
These  schemes  will  no  doubt  be  framed  with  due  regard  to  the  desirabihty 
of  enabling  the  classes  started  under  them  to  qualify  for  these  remodelled 
Science  and  Art  grants,  so  far  as  the  syllabus  of  the  school  coincides  with 
the  subjects  for  which  these  grants  are  given,  and  the  sum  of  ;;^5 5,000  will 
of  course  be  also  supplemented  by  the  Technical  Instruction  grant  men- 
tioned on  pages  160  and  161,  as  well  as  by  local  contributions.  A  Depart- 
mental Committee  is  at  present  inquiring  into  the  whole  subject  of  the 
reorganisation  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  which  will  carry  on  the 
higher  scientific  and  technical  instruction,  and  form,  as  it  were,  the  apex 
of  the  educational  structure  over  which  the  Department  exercises  direct 
control. 

The  23rd  section  of  the  Act  established  a  consultative  Committee  of 
Education,  consisting  of  the  Vice-President  of  the  Department  and  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Commissioners  of  National  Education,  the  Intermediate 
Education  Board,  the  Agricultural  Board,  and  the  Board  of  Technical 
Instruction.  This  Committee  is  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  co-ordinating 
Irish  educational  administration.  It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  intimate 
connection  between  the  different  educational  interests  represented  on  the 
Committee.  The  article  on  Science  Teaching  and  Technical  Instruction  in 
Ireland,*  already  alluded  to,  shows  how  this  class  of  education  has  been 
affected  by  the  nature  of  the  Primary  and  general  Secondary  education  in 
Ireland.  Accordingly,  the  operations  of  this  Committee  are  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  already,  as  a  result  of  their  deliberations,  an  arrangement 

*  See  pages  155 — 176. 


280      DEPARTiMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,    FOR  IRELAND. 

has  been  arrived  at  between  the  Intermediate  Education  Board  and  the 
Department  for  co-ordinating  the  Science  syllabus  of  the  two  bodies.  The 
Intermediate  Education  Board  have  decided  that  Natural  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,  and  Drawing  shall  be  replaced  in  their  Programme  by  one 
subject,  viz. : — "  Experimental  Science  and  Drawing,"  and  that  after  the  year 
igOT  the  Board  shall  not,  until  further  notice,  hold  any  examination  in  this 
subject,  but  shall  accept  the  inspection,  and  where  necessary  the  examina- 
tion of  the  Department. 

Whilst,  as  regards  urban  industries,  the  action  of  the  Department  is 
restricted  to  the  promotion  of  technical  instruction  in  connection  with  them, 
there  are  no  such  restrictions  as  to  developing  agriculture  and  other  rural 
industries,  an  expression  which  is  defined  in  the  Act  as  including  the  aiding, 
improving,  and  developing  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  forestry,  dairying, 
the  breeding  of  horses,  cattle  and  other  live  stock  and  poultry,  home  and 
cottage  industries,  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  flax,  inland  fisheries, 
and  any  industries  immediately  connected  with  and  subservient  to  any  of 
the  said  matters  and  any  instruction  relating  thereto,  and  also  the  aiding 
or  facilitating  of  the  carriage  and  distribution  of  produce.  Special  Com- 
mittees have  been  formed  by  the  Department  from  the  members  of  the 
Council  of  Agriculture  and  other  experts  to  deal  with  important  questions, 
such  as  horse-breeding,  live  stock  other  than  horses,  fisheries,  and  flax.  These 
Committees  have  drawn  up  special  schemes  for  improving  the  breeds  of 
horses  and  other  animals,  which  include  the  nomination  of  mares  for  service, 
at  reduced  fees  by  approved  sires,  and  the  awarding  of  prizes  to  young 
stock  at  local  agricultural  shows.  The  Department  and  the  Agricultural 
Board  have  allocated  over  i^  17,000  out  of  the  Department's  income  in  aid 
of  these  schemes,  which  are  also  helped  in  the  different  counties  by  con- 
tributions out  of  the  rates.  The  Department  secured  the  services  of 
Professor  Nocard,  the  eminent  veterinarian,  to  direct  the  investigation  which 
they  carried  out  as  to  the  causes  of  the  excessive  calf  mortality  in 
Ireland,  and  an  inquiry  has  been  already  held  into  the  quality  of  the  flax 
seed  usually  supplied  to  the  Northern  farmers,  and  into  the  suitability  of 
Ireland  for  tobacco  culture.  Sufficient  time  has  not  yet  elapsed  for  many 
local  authorities  to  put  in  force  the  various  schemes  which  they,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Department,  have  been  preparing,  but  it  is  understood  that 
these  schemes  M^ien  fully  completed  will  embrace  an  extensive  system  of 
agricultural  education,  as  well  as  the  establishment  of  experiment  and  seed- 
testing  stations,  and  example  plots,  with  peripatetic  lectures  to  explain 
the  practical  bearing  of  the  experiments — in  fact,  all  the  methods  which 
experience  has  shown  elsewhere  to  be  most  efficacious  for  developing  agri- 
culture in  all  its  phases. 

Finally,  the  Department  is  given  certain  powers  as  regards  transit  facili- 
ties, and  is  authorised  to  take  such  steps  as  it  thinks  proper  for  appearing 
as  complainant  en  behalf  of  any  persons  aggrieved  in  reference  to  any 
matter  (other  than  a  matter  affecting  the  Postmaster-General),  which  the 
Railway  and  Canal  Commissioners  have  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  determine. 
These  Commissioners  have  jurisdiction  over,  inter  alia,  the  following 
matters : — 

(1)  The  failure  of  any  railway  or  canal  company  to  afford  reasonable 
facilities  for  the  receiving,  forwarding,  and  delivering  of  traffic  upon  the  rail- 
ways or  canals  worked  by  it. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     281 


(ii.)  Any  undue  preference  given  to  any  particular  person  or  companies, 
or  to  any  particular  traffic  whatsoever. 

(iii.)  Any  failure  of  a  railway  or  canal  company  to  afford  all  due  and 
reasonable  facilities  for  receiving  and  forwarding  through  traffic,  or  to  fix 
and  establish  just  and  reasonable  through  rates. 

(iv.)  Any  contravention  by  a  railway  or  canal  company  of  any  enactment 
contained  in  their  special  Act : — 

(a)  Relating  to  traffic  facilities  and  undue  preference  ; 

(d)  Requiring  it  to  provide  any  station,  road,  or  other  similar  work 
for  public  accommodation  ;  or 

(c)  Imposing  upon  it  any  obligation  in  favour  of  the  public,  or  any 
individual. 

(vi.)  Any  neglect  on  the  part  of  a  railway  or  canal  company  to  publish 
and  keep  at  its  stations  and  wharves  books  of  rates  for  public  inspection, 
and  printed  copies  thereof  for  sale. 

(vii.)  Any  charge  sought  to  be  made  by  any  railway  or  canal  company  in 
respect  of  the  carriage  of  goods  or  animals,  or  in  respect  of  terminal  services, 
which  such  company  is  not  entitled  to  make. 

The  Commissioners  have  power  to  order  any  company  to  fulfil  its  duty, 
•or  to  grant  an  injunction  restraining  it  from  disobedience  ;  and  in  certain 
cases  they  can  award  damages  to  the  party  aggrieved.  They  are  further 
empowered  to  direct  two  or  more  companies  to  carry  out  any  order  which 
they  may  make,  and  for  that  purpose  to  submit  a  joint  scheme  for  their 
approval. 

In  order  to  give  the  reader  an  insight  into  the  organisation  and  working 
of  the  Department,  the  following  passages  from  the  First  Annual  General 
Report  are  appended  to  the  foregoing  analysis  of  the  Act  of  1899. 


I.    Council  of   Agriculture   and   Boards. 

Immediately  after  the  Department  came  into  being-  the  necessary  steps 
Avere  taken  to  constitute  the  Council  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural  Board 
and  Board  of  Technical  Instruction,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  Section 
7  of  the  Agricultural  and  Technical  Instruction  Act.  The  Department,  as 
empowered  by  Section  24  of  the  Act,  made  and  issued  to  the  County  Councils 
and  County  Borough  Councils  regulations  for  the  appointment  of  members  of 
these  bodies. 

By  the  second  week  of  May  (1900)  the  County  Councils,  having  completed 

the  election  of  their  68  representatives  to  the  Council, 

Council  of  and  the  Department  having  nominated  34  representatives 

Agriculture.  from  the  different  provinces,  the  Council  of  Agriculture 

was  fully  constituted. 

The  first  meeting:  of  the   Council  of  Asfriculture  was  summoned  for  the 


282     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR   IRELAND. 

29th  May,  1900.  It  was  held  in  the  building's  of  the  Royal  University,  which  the 
Senate  of  the  University  kindly  lent  to  the  Department  for  the  purpose.  All 
the  members  of  the  Council  but  five  attended,  and  the  keenest  interest  was 
taken  in  the  proceeding's.  The  meeting  was  opened  by  an  address  from  the 
Vice-President,  in  which  he  explained  the  general  purpose  of  the  new  Act,  and 
the  procedure  to  be  adopted  by  the  Council,  The  principal  business  of  the 
first  meeting  of  the  Council  was  to  elect  two-thirds  of  the  Agricultural  Board, 
and  four  representatives  to  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction.  The  members 
representing  each  province  constitute  separate  Committees  on  the  Council, 
styled  the  Provincial  Committee  of  the  respective  Provinces,  and  it  is  the 
function  of  these  Provincial  Committees  to  appoint,  each,  two  persons  to  be 
members  of  the  Agricultural  Board,  and  one  person  to  be  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Teehnical  Instruction.  For  the  purpose  of  this  election  the  Council 
separated  into  four  Committee  rooms,  and  there  appointed  their  respective 
representatives.  The  names  of  the  persons  chosen  to  serve  on  the  two  Boards 
will  be  given  lower  down. 


The  appointments  to  the  Agricultural  Board  by  the  Provincial  Committees 

were    made   at    the    first    meeting  of   the    Council    of 

The  Agricultural     Agriculture,    as    above     described.     The    Agricultural 

Board.  Board,  as  fully  constituted,  consisted  of  the  following 

members  : — 


Name. 

Address. 

By  whom  appointed. 

Byrne,  James,  j.p.,     - 

Wallstown     Castle,     Castle- 
townroche,  co.  Cork. 

The  Department. 

Clark,  Alexander  L., 

Moyola  Lodge, Castledawson, 
CO.  Londonderry. 

The  Department. 

Esmonde,    Sir  Thomas    H. 
Grattan,  Bart," m. p.. 

Ballynastragh,  Inch  R.S.O., 
CO.  Wexford. 

Leinster  Provincial  Committee. 

Everard,  Colonel  N.  T.,  d.l., 

Randalstown,      Navan,      co. 
Meath. 

The  Department. 

Gore-Booth,      Sir     Josslyn, 
Bart., 

Lissadill,  Sligo. 

The  Department. 

Healy,  Most  Rev.  John,  d.d. 
Lord  Bishop  of  Clonfert. 

Mount  St.  Bernard,  Ballina- 
sloe,  CO.  Galway. 

Connaught  Provincial  Com- 
mittee. 

Kelly,  Most  Rev.  Denis,  d.d. 
Lord  Bishop  of  Ross, 

Skibbereen,  co.  Cork. 

Munster  Provincial  Committee. 

*Magee,  Michael  J.,    - 

Ashgrove,  Newry,  co.  Down 

Ulster  Provincial  Committee. 

Montgomery,  H.deF.,  d.l.. 

Blessingbourne,        Fivemile- 
town,  CO.  Tyrone. 

Ulster  Provincial  Committee. 

Moore,  Count,  d.l.,  - 

Mooresfort,  Tipperary. 

Munster  Provincial  Committee    , 

Nolan,    Colonel     John    P., 

M.P. 

Ballinderry,Tuam,  co. Galway 

Connaught  Provincial  Com- 
mittee. 

O'Neill,  Patrick  J.,  j.p., 

Kinsealy    House,    Malahide, 
CO.  Dublin. 

Leinster  Provincial  Committee. 

*  Since  deceased. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE    Etc..   FOR  IRELAND.     283; 


m'     T>        J    am     -L.    •     1       The  appointment  of  members  to  act  on  this  Board 
Tne  Board  Of  Technical  ^^^  ,oni^^leted    by  the  end  of  May,  and  the  Board, 
instruction.  ^^   ^j^^^    constituted,  consisted  of  the  following  :— 


Name. 


Address. 


By  whom  appointed. 


Barbour,  Frank, 
Beamish,  Ludlow  A., 

Clancy,  Most  Rev.John,  d.d. 
Lord  Bishop  of  Elphin. 

Daly,  Alderman  John,  Mayor 
of  Limerick. 

Dempsey,  Alderman  James, 

i 
Dowd,  Alderman  Patrick,     - 

Finlay,  Rev.  T.  A.,  m.a., 

FitzGerald,  Alderman 
Edward, 

'Fitzgerald,  George  F.,  f.r.s., 

Goff,  William  G.  D., 

Harrington,  Timothy,  m.p., 

Jaffe,  SirOtto,  J.P.. 

Lally,  Very  Rev.  P.,  p.p.,     - 

M'Learn,  Sir  William, 
Mayor  of  Londonderry. 

Martin,  Rev.  William  Todd, 

D.D., 

Monteagle,  Rt.  Hon.  Lord, 

K.P., 

Musgrave,  Sir  James,  Bart., 

D.L., 

Pile,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Thomas, 
Bart.,  Lord  Mayor  of 
Dublin, 

Starkie,     William     J.    M, 

LiTT.D., 

Taylor,  Alexander,    - 
Wallace,  William,     - 


Hilden,  Lisburn,  co.  Antrim. 

Ashgrove,    Queenstown.    co. 
Cork. 

Sligo.  -  -  -  - 

Mayor's  Office,  Limerick. 

York  road,  Belfast. 

32,     South     City     Markets, 
Dublin. 

University  College,  Dublin.  - 
Geraldine-place,  Cork. 

7,  Ely-place,  Dublin. 
Glenville,  Waterford. 

6,  Cavendish-row,  Dublin. 

10,  Donegall-square,  S.,  Bel- 
fast. 

Galway. 

Carrickmore  House,  London- 
derry. 

College  House,  College-green, 
Belfast. 

Mount   Trenchard,    Foynes, 
CO.  Limerick. 

Drumglass  House,  Belfast. 
Mansion  House,  Dublin. 


Tyrone  House,  Marlborough- 
street,  Dublin. 

46,  Agnes- street,  Belfast 


Dunleary  House.Monkstown, 
CO.  Dublin. 


Ulster  Provincial  Committee. 
The  Department. 

Connaught    Provincial     Com- 
mittee. 

Limerick      County      Borough 
Council. 

Belfast        County        Borough 
Council. 

Dublin        County        Borough 
Council. 

Leinster  Provincial  Committee. 
Cork  County  Borough  Council. 


The  Department. 

Waterford     County     Borough 
Council. 

Dublin        County        Borough 
Council. 

Belfast        County        Borough 
Council. 

The  Department. 

Londonderry  County  Borough 
Council. 

Intermediate  Education  Board. 


Munster  Provincial  Committee. 


The  Department. 


Dublin        County        Borough 
Council. 


Commissioners  of  National 
Education. 

Belfast  County  Borough 
Council. 

Joint  Committee  of  Councils  of 
the  County  Dublin  Urban 
Districts. 


*  Since  deceased. 


284     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,    FOR   IRELAND. 


By  Section  23  of  the  Act  provision  was  made,  as  has  been  said,  for  the 
formation  of  a  Consultative  Committee  of  Education, 
consisting  of  the  Vice-President  of  the  Department  as 
Chairman,  and  one  person  appointed  by  each  of  the 
following  bodies  : — The  Commissioners  of  National 
Education,     the    Intermediate     Education     Board,     the 

Agricultural  Board,  and  the  Board  of  Technical  Instruction.     This  Committee 

was  fully  constituted  early  in  May  as  follows  : — 


The  Consultative 

Committee  of 

Education. 


Name. 

Address. 

By  whom  appointed. 

The  Right  Hon.  Horace 
Plunkett,  M.P.,  Vice- 
President  of  the  Depart- 
ment. 

The  Most  Rev,  William  J. 
Walsh,  D.D.,  Archbishop 
of  Dublin. 

William     J.     M.      Starkie, 

LiTT.D. 

Rev.  W.  Todd  Martin,  d.d. 
T,  P.  Gill,      - 

Department    of    Agriculture 
and  Technical  Instruction, 
Dublin. 

Archbishop's  House,  Drum- 
condra,  co.  Dublin. 

Tyrone  House,Marlborough- 

street,  Dublin. 
College  House,College-green, 

Belfast. 
Department    of    Agriculture 

and  Technical  Instruction, 

Dublin. 

Ex-officio. 

Intermediate  Education  Board. 

Commissioners     of     National 

Education. 
Board  of  Technical  Instruction. 

Agricultural  Board. 

2.  Organisation  of  the  Department. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  essential  unity  of  purpose  which 
underlies  and  controls  the  various  functions  of  the  Department,  and  consti- 
tutes an  intimate  relationship  between  them.  This  is  the  leading  principle  cf 
the  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  Act.  Though  the  Act  creates  new 
machinery  and  new  powers,  a  large  portion  of  its  intention  is  to  bring  order 
and  simplicity  into  branches  of  administration  where  co-related  action  was  not 
properly  provided  for  before.  The  statutory  aim  of  the  Department  is  to  pro- 
mote, as  far  as  may  be  proper  to  such  a  Department,  the  industrial  development 
of  the  country.  To  that  purpose  all  the  various  powers  entrusted  to  it  not 
only  are  capable  of  being  applied,  and  should  be  applied,  but  it  would  be 
impossible  to  exercise  any  of  them  thoroughly  well  in  the  general  interest  unless 
they  were  all  included,  as  they  are  here,  under  a  common  direction.  The 
amalgamation  of  analogous  functions  hitherto  scattered  amongst  several 
departments  was  an  obvious  step  towards  efficiency  and  economy,  and  the 
manner  in  which  this  part  of  the  work  has  been  given  its  place  in  the  system 
of  the  Department  will  be  found  explained  in  the  account  of  the  Branches 
amongst  which  that  work  has  been  distributed.  As  to  the  new  or  more  special 
work,  or  those  of  the  transferred  functions,  which  have  more  direct  bearing 
upon  the  nev,'  work  than  others,  such  as  the  administration  of  the  Science  and 
Art  grant,  and  the  management  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  the  Metro- 
politan School  of  Art,  the  Museum,  at  every  step  the  need  for  co-ordinate 
administration  is  apparent.  In  a  country  like  Ireland,  where  there  are  not 
extensive  manufactures,  and  where  the  majority  of  the  provincial  towns  are  as 
iiiuch  rural  as  urban  in  their  economic  characteristics,  the  problem  of  Technical 
Instruction,  for  example,  must  largely  be  a  problem  how  to  provide  a  popula- 
tion mainly  agricultural  with  a  training  that  will  not  only  fit  them  to  give  new 
developments  to  agriculture,  their  chief  existing  industry,  but  that  will  give 
them  in  addition  aptitudes  for  industries  which  do  not  yet  exist,  and  which 
their   trained   intelligence   must   be   the   principal   factor  in  creating.     Thus  it 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     285 


happens  that,  from  the  Science  and  Art  Institutions  in  Dublin  down  to  the 
secondary  school  in  a  little  semi-rural  town  in  the  provinces,  the  agricultural 
and  the  industrial  features  of  technical  instruction  are  continuously  interwoven, 
and  must  be  considered  with  a  common  thought  for  both.  Similarly  with 
regard  to  the  action  of  the  Department  in  matters  other  than  educational.  In 
the  stimulation  of  local  industrial  enterprise  in  town  and  country  ;  in  the  exten- 
sion of  rural  industries  supplementary  to  agriculture  ;  in  the  supervision  of  the 
conditions  under  which  cattle,  and  agricultural  and  industrial  produce  are 
carried  by  the  public  companies  ;  in  the  administration  of  the  laws  for  guarding 
the  interests  of  such  produce  in  the  markets  ;  in  the  dissemination  of  informa- 
tion ;  in  scientific  and  other  inquiries  and  researches — in  all  these  purposes  the 
same  general  idea  must  be  constantly  operative.  It  is  found  to  be  not  less 
necessary  where  different  industrial  interests  sometimes  clash,  and  where, 
without  effective  co-ordination,  one  interest  might  be  pursued  by  its  own 
partisans  or  its  own  experts  unduly  at  the  expense  of  another.  Thus  the 
Department  during  the  year  has  been  obliged  to  safeguard  before  Parliamen- 
tary Committees  the  interests  of  the  inland  fisheries  as  against  promoters  of 
enterprises  for  the  use  of  water  power  and  the  generation  of  electricity,  and  to 
do  this  safeguarding  in  such  a  manner  that  these  enterprises  should  find  no 
obstacle  to  their  introduction  into  Ireland  but  those  which  may  belong  to  the 
commercial  and  other  difficulties  naturally  inherent  in  them. 

The  organisation  of  the  Department  has  been  devised  with  a  view  to  giving 
effect  to  this  administrative  principle.  The  different  sections  of  its  work  have 
been  allotted  to  a  number  of  separate  Branches,  and  each  Branch  is  manned  by  a 
specially  qualified  staff,  and  has  at  its  head  an  Assistant  Secretary  or  Head  of 
Branch,  who  is  a  highly  trained  expert  or  administrative  officer.  Each  Branch 
is  thus  in  a  position  to  concentrate  its  entire  energy  and  expert  skill  upon  its 
special  task,  as  if  it  were  a  distinct  department  in  itself,  while  at  the  same  time 
its  work  is  brought  into  harmony  with  the  general  purpose  of  the  Act,  and 
gains  from  having  behind  it  the  resources  of  the  whole  Department.  The 
machinery  for  general  direction  and  co-ordination  of  the  work  of  the  Branches 
is  provided  in  the  offices  of  the  Vice-President  and  of  the  Permanent  Secretary. 

The  clerical  work  of  the  Department,  and  certain  administrative  work  is 
placed  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Chief  Clerk,  while  its  financial 
work  is  entrusted  to  a  Clerk  in  Charge  of  Accounts. 

The  Branches  amongst  which  the  Department  has  so  far  divided  its  work 
are  the  following  :  — 

I.  Agricultural  Branch. 
II.  Technical  Instruction  Branch. 

III.  Fisheries  Branch. 

IV.  Statistics  and  Intelligence  Branch. 
V.  Veterinary  Branch. 

VI.  Accounts  Branch. 

Other  Branches  will  be  formed  as  the  organisation  of  the  Department 
proceeds. 

The  value  of  guiding  its  action  by  the  advice  of  the  best-qualified  of  those 
who  are  directly  concerned  in  the  business  to  which  that  work  relates,  is  fully 
recognised  by  the  Department.  They  have,  accordingly,  as  it  seemed 
advisable,  appointed  Special  Advisory  Committees  of  Experts,  and  invited 
conferences  of  representatives  of  the  classes  concerned.  Thus  Special 
Committees  on  Live  Stock,  on  Horse  Breeding,  and  on  Flax,  have  been 
appointed  in  connection  with  the  Agricultural  Branch,  and  a  special  Committee 
on  Fisheries  has  been  associated  with  the  Fisheries  Branch. 


:286     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

It  will  be  understood  that  during  the  first  year  of  their  existence,  the  De- 
partment were  largely  occupied  in  constructing  and  organising  their  machinery, 
^nd  planning  and  laying  down  the  principles  of  their  future  action. 

3.  Local  Initiative  and  Central  Direction. 

In  the  scope   of  work  and  effective  powers  which   have  been   confided  to 
them,  involving  a  commission  to  attempt   not  only  to 
Principles  of  develop  the  industrial  resources  of  the  country,  but  to 

Administration.  influence  in  vital  ways,  the  education  of  the  people,  the 
Department  realise  how  much  may  depend  for  good  or 
ill  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  discharge  their  trust.  Feeling  the  weight 
of  this  responsibility,  they  have  resolved  to  proceed  with  the  utmost  possible 
caution,  even  at  the  risk  of  sometimes  taxing  the  patience  of  local  authorities 
and  others  by  an  insistence  on  certain  principles,  and  by  a  hesitation  to  approve 
of  schemes  which  have  been  submitted  to  them  until  they  have  satisfied  them- 
selves, so  far  as  may  be  possible,  of  their  soundness  in  all  particulars.  The 
Department  consider  that  in  such  matters  a  false  step  in  the  beginning  would 
be  dearly  purchased  by  the  country.  Two  principles  of  procedure  are  clearly 
indicated,  as  well  by  the  situation  the  Department  have  to  deal  with  as  by  the 
legislation  they  are  required  to  administer. 

1.  Administration  of  this  kind  must  fail  in  its  best  result  unless  it  seeks  to 
evoke  and  fortify  the  self-reliance,  enterprise,  and  sense  of  responsibility  of  the 
people.      Both  economic  and  social  laws  dictate  this  principle. 

2.  In  encouraging  local  initiative  and  responsibility  the  danger,  on  the 
other  side,  of  an  indiscriminate  multiplication  of  unrelated  local  schemes  must 
be  guarded  against  by  a  due  conservation  of  the  principle  of  central  direction. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  Department  to  keep  In  mind  the  national  as  well  as  the 
local  point  of  view,  and  to  bring  to  bear  on  schemes  and  problems  that  power 
of  co-ordination  and  that  expert  aid  which  the  resources  of  a  Central  Authority, 
acting  and  thinking  with  and  for  the  whole  country,  can  command.  The 
importance  of  this  principle  is  well  illustrated  in  the  efficiency  of  the  Continental 
systems  of  State  aid  for  Technical  Instruction  and  Agriculture,  on  which  the 
constitution  of  this  Department  has  been  to  some  extent  modelled. 

Both  these  principles  are  provided  for  in  the  Act  in  such  a  way  as  mutually 
to  strengthen  each  other.  The  advisory  Boards  ot  the  Department,  who 
control  the  expenditure  of  its  Endowment  Fund,  are  mainly  constituted  by  the 
local  self-governing  bodies  of  the  country.  A  Department  so  constructed 
should  be  in  a  favourable  position  for  guiding,  in  regard  to  its  work,  the  action 
of  local  bodies  over  whom  it  exercises  no  compulsory  powers,  and  who  are 
entirely  free  to  adopt  or  take  no  part  in  the  schemes  of  which  it  may  approve. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  local  authorities  are  empowered  by  the  Act  to  raise 
rates  and  borrow  money  for  the  purposes  of  schemes  approved  by  the  Depart- 
ment;  and  in  order  to  evoke  such  local  effort  and  co-operation  for  local 
schemes,  Section  16  (6)  of  the  Act  provides  that  the  Department  "  shall  not, 
in  the  absence  of  special  considerations,  apply  or  approve  of  the  application  of 
money  under  this  section  to  schemes  in  respect  of  which  aid  is  not  given  out  of 
money  provided  by  local  authorities,  or  from  other  local  sources." 

The  Agricultural  and  Technical  Instruction  Act  is,  so  to  speak,  built  into, 
as   well  as  out   of,  the  system   of  representative   local 

Relations  with       government  established  by  the  legislation  of  1898.    The 

Local  Authorities.    Department,  paying  due  regard  to  this  fact,  has  studied, 

in  administering  the  Act,  and  in  so  far  as  the  nature  of 

its  functions  permitted,  to  extend  the  responsibilities  of  the  local  authorities, 

and  it  looks   forward   to   having  their  aid  in  many  ways  in  strengthening  the 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     287 

spirit  of  economic  and  social  self-help  among-st  the  people  generally.  The  Act 
contemplates  that  the  six  County  Boroughs  should  formulate  their  own 
schemes ;  and  the  Department  desires,  in  the  area  outside  the  County 
Boroughs  as  well,  to  stimulate  local  initiative  in  the  preparation  of  schemes  of 
Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction.  It  delegates  to  them,  moreover,  the  local 
administration  of  such  schemes,  and  has  assisted  them  to  construct  a 
machinery  for  this  administration  in  the  shape  of  County  Committees  for  Live 
Stock,  and  for  Agricultural  and  Technical  Instruction,  and  Urban  Committees 
for  Technical  Instruction.  This  course  has  an  educational  value  of  importance, 
inasmuch  as,  on  the  one  hand,  it  gives  the  Department  the  benefit  of  local 
opinions  and  experience,  and,  on  the  other,  it  brings  the  local  bodies  themselves 
into  contact  with  the  difficulties  of  the  problems  to  be  dealt  with.  It  helps, 
besides,  to  produce  in  the  country  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  neces- 
sarily tedious  process  by  which  sound  reforms  of  this  kind  are  accomplished. 

With  a  view  to  rendering  its  advice  more  effective  and  better  informed,  the 
Department  consider  it  wise  to  establish,  through  their  officers,  direct  and 
pergonal  relations  with  the  local  authorities,  societies,  schools,  and  those 
classes  of  the  people  generally  with  whom  their  work  has  to  do.  It  is  felt  that 
correspondence  alone  would  be  an  inadequate  means  of  explaining  a  new  and 
complicated  Act,  and  of  working  out  highly  technical  schemes  with  bodies  who 
are  under  no  obligation  to  adopt  them.  The  Department  have,  consequently, 
in  the  person  of  their  representatives,  been  ready  to  visit  every  local  authority, 
confer  with  them  on  the  spot,  and  aid  them  with  expert  advice  after  thorough 
inspection  and  examination  of  local  conditions.  Practically  all  the  County 
Councils  and  Urban  Councils  or  Technical  Instruction  Committees  in  Ireland 
have  thus  been  visited  by  the  Department — some  of  these  bodies  many  times — 
and  very  numerous  personal  conferences  have  taken  place  at  the  ofifices  in 
Upper  Merrion-street  between  the  Department's  officers  and  representatives  of 
local  committees.  The  great  majority  of  the  schools  and  educational  institu- 
tions in  Ireland  above  the  primary  grade  have  likewise  been  visited  by  their 
Inspectors.  It  is  gratifying  to  have  to  report  that  the  relations  thus  established 
have  proved  of  the  most  satisfactory  kind.  While  they  create  a  human  link 
between  the  Department  and  the  local  bodies,  they  keep  the  Department  itself, 
as  no  other  method  could,  in  intimate  touch  with  the  actual  conditions  of  the 
country.  In  no  other  way  would  it  have  been  possible  to  make  such  progress 
with  the  local  authorities  as  has  been  made.  Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  this 
progress  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  every  local  authority  in  Ireland 
resolved  to  raise  a  rate  for  the  purposes  of  the  Act  within  the  first  financial 
year  ;  and  that  the  only  large  general  schemes  which  the  Department  issued  to 
the  local  authorities  from  itself — those  for  Encouraging  Improvement  in  the 
breeds  of  Horses,  and  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine — were  adopted  by  all  the 
County  Councils  in  Ireland,  save  two.  It  will  take  considerable  time  and  a 
certain  amount  of  inevitable  friction  before  a  system  of  complex  and  very 
technical  administration  is  got  to  work,  but  it  is  felt  that,  in  the  manner 
described,  a  mutual  confidence  will  steadily  be  engendered  between  the 
Department  and  those  with  whom  it  has,  locally,  to  deal. 

4.  DiRETT  Means  of  Action. 

It  is  thus  fundamental  in  the  constitution  of  the  Department  that  the 
interest  and  responsibility  of  the  people  themselves,  through  the  central 
Boards  and  through  the  local  Councils  and  Committees,  should  be  engaged  in 
its  work.  The  chief  means  by  which  it  is  hoped  that  work  may  in  time  be 
accomplished  will  be  found  indicated  in  more  detail  in  the  account  which 
follows,  of  what  has  actually  been  done   during  the  period  covered  by  this 


288     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

Report.  These  means,  it  will  be  seen,  fall,  roughly  speaking-,  into  two  broad 
divisions — direct  measures  tor  improving  agricultural  and  industrial  conditions  ; 
and  indirect  measures,  which  may  be  generally  summed  up  in  the  word, 
Education.  To  these  may  be  added  a  third  most  powerful  agency,  the  value 
of  which,  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture,  its  own  experience  has  demon- 
strated to  the  Department,  viz.,  Organisation.  Nearly  all  of  these  means,  it  is 
important  to  observe,  must  be  slow  in  their  results.  Even  the  direct  means 
involve,  for  the  most  part,  bringing  various  applications  of  science  and,  in 
the  case  of  industries,  of  art  as  well,  to  the  aid  of  our  agriculture  and  indus- 
tries, and  that  cannot,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  be  a  simple  or  rapid 
process.  It  will  be  therefore  necessary  for  the  Department,  for  some  years  to 
come,  to  depend  a  good  deal  upon  the  patience  and  the  faith  of  the  Irish  public 
as  regards  the  work  which  they  will  together  be  endeavouring  to  do. 

Amongst  the  direct  means  are  such  schemes  as  those  for  encouraging 
improvement  in  the  breeds  of  live  stock,  for  itinerant  instruction  of  the  farmers 
themselves  with  direct  reference  to  the  cultivation  of  their  own  holdings,  for 
the  development,  through  itinerant  instruction  and  otherwise,  of  rural  and  other 
industries,  and  all  the  efforts  which  can  be  made  for  improving  the  transit  of 
agricultural  and  industrial  produce  and  the  conditions  under  which  such 
produce  is  placed  on  the  markets.  Though  some  subjects,  coming  within  the 
functions  of  the  Department,  such  as  transit  and  forestry,  would  require 
special  legislation  for  their  treatment  on  comprehensive  lines,  the  Department 
is  able  to  do  much  that  is  useful  in  connection  with  them  with  its  present 
powers.  Steps  have  been  taken,  and  others  are  in  contemplation,  for  improving' 
the  position  of  the  sea  and  inland  fisheries  in  such  directions  as  opening  new 
markets,  the  extension  of  loans  for  the  purchase  of  boats  and  gear,  the 
technical  instruction  of  fishermen,  the  erection  of  hatcheries  for  the  artificial 
propagation  of  salmon  and  trout,  experiments  in  oyster  culture,  the  protection 
of  the  fishing  grounds  from  illegal  trawling  and  poaching.  No  action  of  any 
consequence  has,  as  yet,  been  taken  with  regard  to  tree-planting,  but  schemes 
for  work  with  the  County  Councils  in  this  particular  are  being  matured.  There 
is  an  important  class  of  industries,  which  it  is  hoped  may  be  promoted  in 
Ireland,  that  require  co-operation  between  rural  and  urban  communities.  To 
the  coming  together  of  town  and  country  in  such  enterprises  for  their  common 
benefit  the  Department  will  attach  importance,  in  view  of  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  Ireland,  and  the  difficulty  which  the  task  of  establishing  a  system  of 
technical  instruction  meets  here,  through  the  lack  of  industries  in  provincial 
towns. 

The  important  part  which  the  organisation  of  a  Government  Department 
can  play  in  bringing  the  manufactures  and  resources  of  a  country  under  the 
notice  of  capital  by  means  of  exhibitions,  and  in  spreading,  by  the  same  means, 
information  useful  to  trade  and  industry  at  home,  is  recognised  by  the  Depart- 
ment. They  accordingly,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Agricultural  Board, 
resolved  to  take  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  Glasgow  International 
Exhibition,  and  to  erect  there  an  Irish  Pavilion,  in  which  would  be  shewn  a 
representative  exhibit,  principally  of  the  smaller,  or  cottage,  industries  which 
have  been  developed  in  Ireland  of  recent  years,  and  of  mineral  and  other 
resources.  The  Congested  Districts  Board  co-operated  with  the  Department 
in  this  project ;  and  the  railway  and  shipping  companies,  who  found  it  a 
valuable  opportunity  for  bringing  Irish  scenery  and  travelling  facilities  to  the 
attention  of  tourists,  aided  in  the  work.  The  Irish  Pavilion  was,  necessarily, 
in  all  the  circumstances,  conceived  on  a  modest  scale,  but  the  authorities  of 
Glasgow  have  declared  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  successful  features  of 
the  Exhibition,  and  it  has  already  brought  about  a  marked  increase  in  the 
demand  for  the  classes  of  products  exhibited. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  Etc.,  FOR  IRELAND.     289 

Belong-ing'  also,  rather  more  to  the  direct  than  to  the  indirect  means,  are 
those  scientific  investig-ations,  surveys,  and  experiments  related  to  agriculture, 
fisheries,  and  other  industries,  which  can  only  be  rightly  carried  out  for  a  country 
with  the  aid  of  the  State.  Several  undertakings  of  this  kind  have  been  set  on 
foot  during  the  past  year  by  the  Department,  details  of  which  will  be  given 
further  on.  One  of  these  investigations,  which  dealt  with  the  terrible  and, 
hitherto,  mysterious  epidemic  amongst  the  calves  of  the  Munster  dairy  farms, 
has  already  had  a  strikingly  successful  result.  In  this  case  the  Department 
acted  in  co-operation  with  the  highest  available  scientific  authority,  and  the 
discovery  in  which  the  inquiry  resulted  will  be  of  invaluable  utility  to  stock- 
breeders, not  only  in  Ireland  but  in  every  country.  Monsieur  Nocard,  the 
French  veterinary  bacteriologist  to  whom  the  investigation  was  entrusted,  has 
discovered  absolutely  the  cause  of  the  malady,  and  has  prescribed  an  effectual 
and  simple  method  for  its  prevention.  When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the 
mortality  amongst  calves  in  the  affected  districts  has  in  many  years  reached  an 
average  of  80  per  cent.,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  one  investigation,  undertaken 
during  the  Department's  first  year  of  existence,  will  have  been  the  means,  if  its 
lesson  be  applied,  of  saving  immense  annual  sums  to  the  farmers  of  Munster, 
as  well  as  of  making  a  valuable  addition  to  the  stock  of  veterinary  knowledge. 

These  various  direct  means  of  assisting  the  development  of  agriculture  and 
industry  will  be  pursued  by  the  Department  with  careful  regard  to  the  limits 
which  it  is  desirable  to  observe,  even  in  Ireland,  where  exceptional  action  in 
this  respect  is  justified,  in  the  relations  of  the  State  with  the  domain  of  private 
enterprise.  It  is  a  chief  aim  of  the  Department  to  stimulate,  rather  than  to 
weaken,  the  spirit  of  industrial  self-help,  and  its  action  will  be  governed  by  this 
idea.  Its  endeavours  will  be  mainly  confined  to  removing  the  obstacles  which 
at  present  hinder  in  Ireland  the  due  exercise  of  initiative  in  industrial  matters, 
and  to  creating  a  state  of  things  in  which  private  enterprise  can  act  with 
confidence  and  freedom. 


5.  Educational  Policy. 

To  the  educational  part  of  its  work  the  Department  looks  as  the  most 
powerful  and  abiding  means  of  promoting  the  end  in  view.  In  a  country 
which  is  so  industrially  depleted  as  Ireland,  and  in  which  the  economic  drain 
is  still  continuing,  the  direct  measures  for  improving  industry  above  referred 
to,  however  valuable,  and  however  they  may  extend  as  the  work  progresses, 
and  as  legislation  creates  new  opportunities,  cannot  by  themselves  alone 
produce  very  great  or  deep  results,  and  large  expectation  based  upon  them 
may  lead  to  disappointment.  But  a  proper  system  of  education,  which,  while 
paying  due  heed  to  the  training  of  the  character  and  the  will,  will  train  the 
intelligence  to  deal  with  concrete  things  as  well  as  with  ideas,  and  which  will 
give  to  the  generation  receiving  its  skill  and  knowledge  that  which  will  bring 
out  and  make  them  conscious  of  their  own  powers  and  resources  in  practical 
affairs,  cannot  have  disappointing  results.  Experience  has  amply  proved  that 
it  is  to  the  individual  and  national  resourcefulness  and  the  confident  character 
thus  developed  by  an  educational  system,  more  than  to  any  other  cause, 
countries  which  have  in  recent  times  achieved  marked  industrial  success  owe 
their  progress.  The  Department,  accordingly,  feel  that  however  imperfect 
other  forms  of  effort  may  be,  or  whatever  the  conditions  which  may  prevail  in 
Ireland,  if  the  people  be  placed  in  full  possession  of  the  benefits  of  such  an 
educational  system,  they  will  have  the  instrument  of  their  own  salvation  in 
their  hands.     Supplemented  by  such  a  system  moreover,  and  directed  by  a 

U 


290    DEPARTiMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

public  opinion  instructed  on  economic  subjects,  all  other  forms  of  State  action 
in  relation  to  industry  becomes  immensely  more  effectual.  For  this  reason  the 
Department  lay  stress  on  the  educational  work  which  they  have  been  com- 
missioned to  do  in  co-operation  with  the  other  educational  authorities  of  the 
country. 

The  educational  duties  of  the  Department  include  the  administration  in 
Ireland  of  the  Grant  for  Science  and  Art  (an  elastic  Parliamentary  grant  the 
amount  of  which  depends  on  how  far  it  is  utilised  by  schools  and  classes  ;)  the 
management  of  institution's  for  higher  teaching  in  science  and  art,  amongst 
them  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  the  Metropolitan  School  of  Art,  the  Botanic 
Gardens,  and  the  Museum  ;  and  the  organisation  of  a  system  of  technical 
instruction  applied  to  industries  and  agriculture.  In  undertaking  these  duties 
the  Department  will  act  on  the  view  that  the  education  of  a  countr}^  should  be 
considered  as  a  whole,  and  that  it  is  a  grievous  fallacy  to  expect  sound  results 
from  any  special  scheme  which  is  not  made  an  organic  part  of  the  general 
educational  system.  The  experience  of  countries  which  have  given  most 
attention  to  the  connection  between  education  and  industrial  development 
shows  that  the  best  results  in  this  direction  are  due  to  the  secondary  school 
and  the  university  or  higher  technical  college.  When  the  secondary  school, 
on,  at  least,  one  of  its  "sides,"  is  permeated  with  the  practical  spirit,  and 
deliberately  related  to  the  real  economic  and  social  needs  of  the  country,  it 
becomes  possible  to  produce  leaders  of  industry,  that  is,  men  who  have  learned 
to  apply  intellect  and  science,  as  well  as  enterprise,  to  the  callings  of  com- 
merce, manufactures,  and  agriculture  ;  and  when  properly-trained  leaders  of 
industry  are  available  for  a  country  reforms  in  all  the  grades  of  practical 
education  inevitably  follow.  Again,  that  great  undeveloped  resource,  the 
latent  intellect  and  artistic  and  mechanical  skill  of  the  working  classes  of  the 
country  cannot  be  rightly  got  at  until  the  primary  schools,  rural  and  urban, 
fit  their  pupils  to  take  direct  advantage,  whether  of  the  general  schools  or  the 
technical  schools  of  a  complete  system,  with  their  respective  avenues  of  pro- 
gression. There  cannot  be  the  most  useful  educational  ambition  in  a  country 
until  the  pupil  of  talent  in  the  humblest  elementary  school  feels  that  the  way 
is  open  for  him,  so  far  as  educational  opportunities  can  open  it,  to  the  highest 
careers  in  industrial,  agricultural  or  academic  life.  The  primary  school,  the 
secondary  school,  and  the  university  are  thus  regarded  as  having  their  part  to 
do  for  what  is  commonly  called  technical  education,  as  well  as  the  specially 
technical  institutions. 

The  Department  enters  the  secondary  schools  of  the  country,  as  the 
administrator  of  the  Science  and  Art  Grant,  principally  from  the  point  of  view 
of  general  education,  which  is  the  first  concern  of  the  secondary  school,  and 
secondarily  from  the  point  of  view  of  those  specialised  applications  of 
education  to  which  the  secondary  school  should  lead.  With  these  objects  in 
mind  it  has  entirely  changed  the  system  on  which  the  Science  and  Art  Grants 
have  hitherto  been  administered,  and  rendered  these  grants,  it  is  hoped,  more 
favourable  to  freedom  and  individuality  in  teaching,  and  more  suitable  to 
Irish  conditions.  The  new  Programme  of  Experimental  Science,  Drawing, 
Domestic  Economy,  and  Manual  Instruction,  which  the  Department  has 
issued,  is  intended  to  provide,  in  the  first  two  years,  the  secondary  school  with 
that  minimum  ot  scientific  discipline  and  training  of  the  hand  and  eye  which 
educationists  now  generally  hold  should  be  a  part  of  any  broadly-conceived 
scheme  of  general  education.  This  minimum,  it  is  believed,  may  be  given 
without  injury  to  the  essential  function  of  the  humanities  in  the  curriculum  of 
every  secondary  school.  The  Department  do  not  desire  that  Ireland,  at  this 
period  of  transition  in  her  educational  history,  should  fall  into  the  mistake 
which,  it  is  beginning  to   be   recognised,  has  been  committed  elsewhere,  of 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND.     291 

underestimating  the  value  of  the  human  and  ethical  parts  of  education  even  in 
the  direct  production  of  utilitarian  results.     The  Programme,  in  its  subsequent 
years,  will  permit  of  specialisation  according  as  pupils  are  intended  for  various 
practical  callings.     Most  fortunately  for  Irish  educational  reform,  the  Depart- 
ment have  had  the  full  co-operation  of  the  Board  of  Intermediate  Education  in 
this  matter.     That  Board  have  adopted  the   Department's  Programme,  made 
it  part  of  their  own  curriculum  for  the  current  year,  and  resolved  to  accept  the 
inspection  and  examination  of  the  Department  in  the  subjects  which  the  Pro- 
gramme includes.     By  this  means  a  great  impetus  will  have  been  given  this  year 
to  the  introduction  of  practical  features  into  general  secondary  education,  and 
the  way  prepared  for  specialisation  at  later  stages  in  technical  directions.    To 
facilitate  the  schools  in  taking  up  the  new  programme  the  Department  gave  a 
series  of  special  free  courses  to  teachers,  this  year,  in  centres  in  Dublin,  Belfast, 
and  Cork.   These  courses  were  attended  by  teachers  from  196  secondary  schools. 
Besides    this    development   of  secondary  schools,  and  the  promotion   of 
evening   continuation  schools,   to  provide  for  the  education   of  boys  whose 
schooling  has  been  abruptly  cut  short  by  their  going  into  employment,  the 
system  of  the  Department  will  include  the  establishment,  through  the  medium 
of  existing  schools  and  otherwise,  of  special  Technical  Schools  for  Industries 
and  for  Agriculture.    In  connection  with  agriculture — apart  from  the  difficulty 
of  getting  teachers,  which  must  continue,  with  diminishing  intensity,  for  a  few 
years,  until  a  supply  of  expert  agricultural  teachers  has  been  trained — the 
organisation    of  such   technical    schools    presents    a    comparatively   simple 
problem.     Agriculture  is  a  great  and  living  industry,  universally  pursued  in 
Ireland,  and    whether   these    agricultural    schools    arise    in    connection   with 
secondary  schools   or   are   independently  organised — and  probably   they  will 
appear  in  both  forms — their  problem  will  be  to  adapt  their  teaching  to  the 
service  of  the  industry  which  is  at  their  door.     Their  chief  perplexity  will  be 
how,  with   most  economy  and  practical  effect,  to  diversify  their  work  so  as  to 
suit  the  different  agricultural  conditions  of  different  parts  of  the  country,  and 
the  different  classes  of  service,  that  of  the  working  farmer,  that  of  the  agricul- 
tural   scientist,    for   which    knowledge   is    required.       It    is    otherwise    with 
technical    instruction    intended    for    the    purposes    of  industries  other  than 
agriculture.     Outside  the  large  cities  where  Technical  Instruction  schemes  are 
being  successfully  inaugurated,  there  are  few  towns  in  Ireland  where  any  such 
industries  exist.     Moreover,  a  striking  difference,  which  it  is  most  important 
to  appreciate,  thus  appears  between   the   problem  of  technical  instruction  in 
Ireland  and  that  problem  in   Great   Britain.     In   the  towns  of  England  and 
Scotland  technical  instruction  has  but  to  adapt  itself  to  existing  and  flourishing 
manufactures.     In   no  locality  does  any  doubt  or  question   arise  about  the 
industries  to   be  served.     The  scheme  of  technical  instruction  is  called  on  to 
provide  its  pupils  with  skill  and  knowledge,  mainly  imparted  in  the  evening,  to 
be  applied  to  industries  which  they  are  working  at  during  the  day.     In  the 
majority  of  the   provincial  towns  of  Ireland,  beyond  the  artisans  connected 
with  the  building  trades,  there  are  seldom  workers  enough  engaged  in  any 
industry  to  which  technical  instruction  could   properly  be  applied  to  furnish 
pupils  for  a  class  at  a  technical   school.     This  somewhat  baffling  difficulty, 
which  confronts  the  Department  in  the  organisation  of  its  educational  system, 
it  is   desirable  to   have  fully  realised.     It  means  that  part  of  the  problem  of 
technical  instruction  in  such  localitites  must  be,  how  to  promote  industries  to 
which  it  may  be  applied ;  and  that,  consequently,  through  exceptional   Irish 
necessities,  the  Department  may  be  obliged  to  give  more  attention  to  this  mode 
of  action  than  it  might  otherwise  have  found  it  desirable  to  do.     It  means, 
moreover,  that,  outside  the  large  cities,  that  phase  of  technical   instruction 
which  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  direct  teaching  of  trades  or  handicrafts 


292     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 


to  workers  insufficiently  prepared  in  the  elements  of  science  and  art  will  for  a 
time  have  to  be  resorted  to  in  Ireland  than  is  the  case  in  more  developed 
countries.  But  this,  in  its  irregular  applications  at  least,  will  be  but  a 
temporary  phase.  Technical  instruction  in  its  true  and  permanent  conception, 
as  a  specialised  but  organic  part  of  general  education,  whose  aim  is  so  to  train 
a  man  as  to  render  him  morally,  intellectually,  and  physically  master  of  his 
best  aptitudes,  and  able  to  apply  these  aptitudes  in  every  fitting  direction  that 
opportunity  offers,  will  always  be  before  the  mind  of  the  Department.  It  is 
from  men  so  trained,  from  their  inventive  brains,  their  skilful  hands,  their 
developed  and  self-trustful  personality,  conscious  of  powers,  and  seeking  for 
opportunities  to  use  them,  that  the  true  advancement  of  a  nation's  industries 
must  come.  This  has  been  the  history  of  technical  instruction,  even  in 
countries  which,  like  Ireland,  have  started  without  industries,  and  which  have 
also  had  to  try  the  temporary  phase  referred  to. 

For  the   purposes  of  higher  technical  and  scientific  education,  the  Depart- 
ment has  under  its  control,  maintained  from  Imperial  funds,  the  institutions 
already  mentioned,  which  have  hitherto  been  known  as  the  Science  and  Art 
Institutions.     It  is  intended  by  the   Department  to  remodel    and    adapt   all 
of  these  institutions  to  purposes  which  it  was  impossible  for  them  adequately 
to   serve  under  former  circumstances,  and  to  make  them  living  factors  in  the 
promotion   of  practical   education  and  the  industries  and  agriculture  of  the 
country.     The  Royal  College  of  Science,  as  it  has  been  called  up  to  the  present, 
will,  it  is  proposed,  be  made  the  chief  technical  college  for   Ireland,  a  real 
"  polytechnicum  "  or  college  of  science  applied  to  agriculture  and  industries  ; 
and  for  this  purpose  it  will  be  re-organised,  provided  with  new  buildings,  and 
equipped  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  bring  it,  at  least  in  quality,  level  with  the  best 
technical  colleges.      Soon  after  the  Act  came  into  force  a  Departmental  Com- 
mittee was  appointed,  by  minute  of  the  Vice-President,  to  consider  and  report 
as   to   the  best  means  of  carrying  out  this  reform.     This  Committee  consisted 
of  Sir  W.  de  W.  Abney,  K.C.B.  ;  Mr.  T.  P.  Gill,  Secretary  of  the  Department ; 
Captain  T.  B.  Shaw,  then  Assistant  Secretary  in  respect  of  Technical  Instruc- 
tion ;  Mr.  S.  E.  Spring-Rice,  C.B.,  Auditor  ot  the  Civil  List ;  Mr.  J.  G.  Barton, 
C.B.,  Commissioner  of  Valuation  for  Ireland  ;  Sir  James  Musgrave,  Bart.,  of 
Musgrave  Bros.,  Belfast ;  and  Mr.  W.  B.  Harrington,  of  Harrington  and  Co., 
Cork.     Their  labours  resulted   in   a  detailed  Report  which  will  be  a  valuable 
guide  to  the   Department  in  re-organising  this   College.     The  Metropolitan 
School  of  Art,  when,  in  due  time,  it   is  reconstituted   and  brought  into  full 
activity  in  the  work  of  the  Department,  ought  to  become  what  Ireland  has  so 
long  lacked,  a  centre  of  life  and   inspiration  for  Irish  Art,  and  especially  for 
Irish  Art  applied   to   industry.     The   Irish  people  are  said  by  those  who  have 
special  knowledge   of  artistic  handicrafts  to  possess  still  the  aptitudes  which 
the   collection   of  Irish  Antiquities  in  the  Museum  shows  to  have  belonged  to 
their  ancestors  ;  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  in  the  class  of  industries  in  which 
the  individuality  of  the  wor.ker  imparts  a  special  element  of  value  they  may 
achieve  particular  success.      A  national  School  of  Art,  encouraging  local  free- 
dom, aiming  at  distinctive  national  qualities,  having  at  its  hand,  as  part  of  its 
inspiration,  the  beautiful  and  suggestive  objects  in  the   Museum,  taking  its 
place  in  a  system  of  education  in  which  the  teaching  of  Art  was  sympathetically 
encouraged   in   every  part  of  the  country,  might  have  a  great  influence  on  Art 
and  Industries  in  Ireland  ;  and  such  a  centre  it  is  hoped  what  is  now  called  the 
Metropolitan   School   of  Art  may  become.     The  Science   and  Art  Museum,  in 
Kildare-street,   which    already   possesses    collections    of  great   value    to    the 
interests  of  science,  industries,  and  art,   and  the  other   Institutions  will    be 
developed   similarly,  so  as  to  assist  in  their  several  ways  the  work  with  which 
the  Department  has  been  entrusted. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  Etc..  FOR  IRELAND.    293 


6.  Local  Organisation. 

Finally,  the  Department  is  deeply  convinced  that  in  Ireland,  and  especially 
in  relation  to  agriculture  and  to  industries  connected  with  agriculture, 
organisation  has  an  essential  part  to  play  in  the  economic  and  social  elevation 
of  the  people.  Indeed,  it  would  appear  as  if  this  agency  of  progress  had, 
comparatively  speaking,  greater  possibilities  here,  on  account  of  the  racial 
capacities  for  associated  effort  which  our  people  display,  than  even  in  countries 
which,  with  the  aid  of  organisation,  have  succeeded  for  the  time  being,  in 
driving  Irish  agricultural  produce  from  its  due  place  in  the  markets.  The 
Recess  Committee,  in  their  enquiries,  found  that,  in  the  countries  whose 
competition  Ireland  feels  most  keenly,  Departments  of  Agriculture  had  come 
to  recognise  it  as  an  axiom  of  their  policy,  that,  without  organisation  for 
economic  purposes  amongst  the  agricultural  classes.  State  aid  to  agriculture 
must  be  mainly  ineffectual,  and  even  mainly  mischievous  ;  and  that  such 
Departments  devoted  a  considerable  part  of  their  efforts  to  promoting  agricul- 
tural organisation.  Short  a  time  as  this  Department  has  been  in  existence,  it 
has  had  some  striking  evidence  of  the  justice  of  these  views.  As  will  be  seen 
from  the  part  of  this  Report  dealing  specially  with  Agriculture,  it  was  only 
where  the  farmers  were  organised  in  properly  representative  societies  that 
many  of  the  lessons  the  Department  had  to  teach  could  effectually  reach  the 
farming  classes,  or  that  many  of  the  experiments  intended  for  their  guidance 
could  be  profitably  carried  out.  Although  these  experiment  schemes  were  issued 
to  the  County  Councils  and  the  agricultural  public  generally,  it  was  only  the 
farmers  organised  in  societies  who  were  really  in  a  position  to  take  part  in  them. 
Some  of  these  experiments — such  as  that  for  the  trial  of  new  varieties  of 
potatoes,  where  the  societies  paid,  at  cost  price,  for  the  samples  of  the  special 
seed  forwarded  by  the  Department — could  not  be  carried  out  at  all  except 
through  such  societies.  In  fact,  over  a  large  portion  of  its  agricultural 
administration,  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  Department,  and  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  the  County  Councils,  to  work  efficiently  through  isolated  indi- 
viduals. To  attempt  to  do  so  would  require  a  huge  official  staff,  and  a  lavish 
expenditure  of  public  money,  and  the  result  would  be  worse  than  waste,  for 
it  would  be  demoralising  to  the  people  and  ruinous  to  that  spirit  of  self-help, 
without  an  ample  development  of  which  Ireland  will  never  become,  in  any 
sense,  a  progressive  country.  Thus,  for  the  sake  of  efficiency  in  its  educational 
work,  and  of  economy  in  administration,  the  Department  would  be  obliged  to 
lay  stress  on  the  value  of  organisation.  But  there  are  other  reasons  for  its 
doing  so  :  industrial,  moral,  and  social.  Organisation  is  itself  an  agency  of 
the  greatest  power,  and  an  essential  agency,  in  modern  economic  conditions, 
for  the  advancement  of  the  agricultural  industry,  and  of  industries  connected 
therewith,  not  only  rural  industries,  but  undertakings  in  which  town  and 
country  share  ;  and  by  its  means  capital,  as  well  as  directing  skill  and 
economic  management,  is  made  available  both  for  such  undertakings  and  for 
the  most  minute  concerns  of  the  smallest  farmers  and  labourers  to  whom  the 
use  of  helpful  capital  is  possible  through  no  other  channel.  Again,  organi- 
sation is,  perhaps,  the  most  direct  means  of  nourishing  the  self-reliance,  and 
strengthening,  so  to  speak,  the  moral  back-bone  of  the  people  ;  for,  through 
mutual  help,  it  renders  the  self-help  of  a  community  at  once  effective,  and 
brings  the  intelligence  of  the  most  intelligent  to  assist  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  most  backward  individual  who  engages  in  the  common  effort. 
But  not  the  least  important  aspect  of  organisation  for  Ireland,  where  the 
isolation  and  dulness  of  rural  life  have  something  to  do  with  the  continuance 
of  emigration,  is  its   social  side.     Around   every   little  society  through  which 


294     DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,   Etc.,   FOR  IRELAND. 

the  people  of  a  district  have  been  successfully  working  out  their  industrial 
advancement  and  learning  the  powers  which  combination  gives  the  simplest 
and  most  remote  of  communities,  even  in  complicated  business  affairs,  there  is 
an  inevitable  tendency  for  combined  efforts  for  other  purposes  to  group  them- 
selves. In  this  way  opportunities  and  means  for  educational  improvement  and 
social  amenity  are  multiplied  in  places  vi^here  such  means  and  opportunities 
did  not  exist  before  ;  while  the  faculties  of  the  people  are  expanded,  their 
hopefulness  is  increased,  and  life  at  home  on  the  Irish  countryside  is  rendered 
more  attractive.  The  Department,  relying,  as  it  does,  for  the  ultimate  im- 
provement of  the  country  mainly  upon  the  developed  character  of  the  people, 
will  encourage,  as  far  as  it  may,  organisation  which  is  calculated  to  have  such 
results. 

Such  are  the  general  considerations  which  have  guided  the  Department  in 
the  first  year  of  its  work,  and  which  are  intended  to  guide  it  in  future  years. 


THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART.  295 


THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART. 

The  Dublin  Museum  is  one  of  a  great  group  of  institutions  surrounding  a 
fine  old  mansion  known  as  Leinster  House,  for  many  years  the  town  resi- 
dence of  the  Marquises  of  Kildare,  afterwards  Dukes  of  Leinster.  A  great 
part  of  the  gardens  on  the  east  side  are  still  kept  up  as  a  public  recreation 
ground,  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  National  Gallery  of  Ireland,  and  on  the 
other  by  the  Natural  History  portion  of  the  Museum  ;  whilst  on  the  west 
side  lies  the  new  Museum  building  containing  the  Art  and  Industrial  Collec- 
tions, and  opposite  to  this  the  National  Library  of  Ireland  and  the  Metro- 
politan School  of  Art.  Thus  these  Institutions  of  Science  and  Art  form, 
from  the  architectural  and  picturesque,  as  well  as  from  an  educational  point 
of  view,  one  of  the  most  interesting  centres  of  the  city.  The  Museum  has 
to  meet  the  wants  which,  in  Edinburgh,  are  catered  for  by  two  Museums, 
and  in  London  by  five,  and  the  available  space  has  to  be  economised  to  the 
utmost,  and  every  possible  effort  made  to  arrange  all  parts  of  the  Collec- 
tions in  a  very  systematic  manner,  or  they  would  soon  become  almost 
useless  masses  of  heterogeneous  objects.  The  Collections  may  be  regarded 
under  the  following  seven  principal  heads  : — Architectural  and  Decorative 
Art ;  Ethnology  ;  Machinery  and  Mechanical  Arts,  usually  classed  as  Indus- 
trial ;  Irish  Antiquities  ;  Zoology  ;  Botany  ;   Geology  and  ]\Iineralogy. 


ARCHITECTURAL  AND  DECORATIVE  ART. 

Egyptian  Antiquities. — This  collection,  though  small,  contains  many 
objects  of  great  interest,  and  readers  of  books  on  Ancient  Egypt  will  find  in 
it  examples  of  the  Arts  of  tiiat  country  from  prehistoric  to  Roman  times, 
which  will  enable  them  to  understand  better,  and  appreciate  more  fully,  what 
they  read,  and  an  inspection  of  them  may  take  the  place  to  some  extent,  of 
an  examination  of  the  larger  collections  in  the  British  Museum  or  the 
Louvre. 

Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. — These  collections  are  of  very  great 
value,  and  modellers,  jewellers,  and  workers  in  silver  and  bronze  may  derive 
from  their  inspection  many  useful  lessons  ;  while  at  the  same  time  they 
should,  like  the  Egyptian  Antiquities,  enable  classical  students  to  take  more 
intelligent  interest  in  their  studies. 

Irish  Architecture. — Of  the  very  interesting  Irish  Romanesque  which 
flourished  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century  in  this  country,  we  have, 
unfortunately,  no  examples,  except  photographs ;  but  models  are  now  being 
taken  of  the  beautiful  work  in  C-'ormac's  Chapel  at  the  Rock  of  Cashel.  Of 
the  Great  Irish  Crosses  there  is  a  very  good  cast  of  one  of  the  very  best  at 
Monasterboice,  and  many  others  will  be  modelled  shortly. 


296  THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART. 

Gothic  Architecture. — There  are  a  few  specimens  from  the  grand 
French  cathedrals  which  should  be  very  useful  and  instructive  to  ecclesi- 
astical architects,  and  many  casts  of  Gothic  capitals  and  other  details. 

Renaissance  and  Subsequent  Work. — Of  the  works  of  the  great 
sculptors  of  the  fifteenth  and  following  centuries  in  Italy  and  France  there 
are  many  important  copies  in  the  Museum,  comprising  statues  and  other 
objects  by  D.  da  Settignano,  Donatello,  Michael  Angelo,  L.  Delia  Robbia, 
Goujon,  Pilon,  and  others,  and  carefully  coloured  models  of  some  of  the 
most  celebrated  examples  of  decoration  in  Italian  ecclesiastical  buildings. 
The  collections  of  Gems  and  Cameos,  and  of  Coins  and  Medals,  are  good, 
and  very  useful  to  those  who  have  little  opportunity  of  studying  larger 
collections. 

Indian  and  other  Oriental  Art.— The  fine  metal  work  from  various 
parts  of  India  and  from  Thibet,  the  specimens  of  Needlework  and  Textiles, 
and  the  varied  patterns  of  the  delicate  relief  works  of  Moghul  times  in  the 
casts  from  their  ancient  seats  of  government  are  valuable  examples  of 
Oriental  taste,  design  and  workmanship. 

Jewellery. — There  are  four  cases  of  Jewellery  :  Greek  and  Roman  style, 
English  and  Irish,  foreign  and  peasant  Jewellery.  In  the  first  are  a  copy  of 
the  very  fine  Greek  monile  or  necklet  in  the  British  Museum,  and  reproduc- 
tions of  some  of  the  very  remarkable  ancient  Etruscan  ornaments  by  the 
late  Caxlo  Giuliano. 

Musical  Instruments. — Here  there  are  instruments  of  many  primitive 
and  barbarous  nations,  which  are  interesting  to  ethnologists  and  to  those 
who  would  study  how  the  percussion,  wind  and  string  instruments  of  the 
present  European  orchestra  have  been  evolved  from  very  simple  beginnings, 
and  there  are  more  modern  instruments,  which  illustrate  the  history  of  their 
manufacture  in  Dublin,  such  as  the  Irish  harp  at  various  epochs,  the  Irish 
bagpipes  and  spinets  and  early  pianofortes  made  in  Dublin. 

Furniture. — -This  a  branch  of  the  Museum  which  has  been  greatly 
increased  during  the  last  five  years,  and  now  comprises  a  number  of  good 
examples  of  Italian  furniture  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
of  French  chiefly  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  Louis  XV.,  and  Louis  XVI., 
and  of  English  of  the  Stuart  and  Queen  Anne  periods,  and  more  especially 
of  the  times  of  Chippendale  and  his  immediate  successors.  It  is  hoped  that 
these  specimens  will  not  only  serve  as  a  high  standard  of  good  design  and 
fine  workmanship  to  the  furniture  makers  of  Ireland,  but  will  afford,  what  is 
much  more  necessary,  examples  of  good  taste  to  the  public,  on  whom  it  must 
utimately  depend  on  what  lines  the  making  of  furniture  will  be  carried  on  in 
future. 

Pottery  and  Porcelain. — Of  Ceramics  there  is  a  fairly  complete  col- 
lection of  almost  every  make,  in  which  persons  interested  in  this  artistic  craft 
can  see  the  various  materials,  glazes,  and  methods  of  decorating  and  colour- 
ing, as  well  as  the  very  different  roads  by  which  different  peoples  at  dif- 
ferent times  have  imparted,  or  tried  to  impart,  artistic  value  to  their  produc- 
tions. 

In  the  collection  of  GLASS  there  are  numerous  specimens  of  old  Venetian 
of  most  delicate  workmanship,  some  interesting  Persian  pieces,  and  one  of 
the  best  examples  that  can  anywhere  be  seen  of  the  fine  glass  lamps  that 
used  to  hang  in  the  Mosques  of  Cairo,  and  of  which  several  are  now  the 


THE  TARA   BROOCH.  — CIRCA  NINTH  CENTUKV. 

White  Bronze  gilt,  filagree  in  gold,  settings  of  amber,  glass,  and  enamel.    Length  of  Pin,  9  inches  diameter  of  Brooch, 
3§  inches.    Found  near  Bettystown,  Co.  Louth.    Historj-  unknown. 


liAlK    l)K    rill-'.    I'AKA    I'.laiili'll. 


THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART.  297 

glory  of  the  Arab  Museum  in  that  city.  There  are  several  specimens  of 
Irish  manufacture,  chiefly  from  the  factories  which  flourished  in  Waterford 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Arms  and  Armour. — In  this  part  of  the  collection  there  are  chiefly 
reproductions  of  well-known  examples  of  armour,  with  some  fine  swords  and 
curious  early  fire-arms. 

Lace  forms  an  important  part  of  the  collections,  as  this  industry  has  for 
years  flourished  in  Ireland,  and  many  designers  are  trained  in  the  Metropo- 
litan School  of  Art,  and  afterwards  find  employment  in  this  country.  It  is 
essential,  if  a  high  standard  is  to  be  maintained  in  beauty  of  design  and 
workmanship,  that  the  designers  and  students  should  constantly  study  the 
finest  specimens  procurable  of  every  variety. 

The  Embroideries  are  also  valuable  as  examples  of  style  and  workman- 
ship to  schools  and  teachers  of  needlework. 

Enamels  are  not  in  any  great  number,  but  the  principal  kinds  are  repre- 
sented, and  in  the  hope  that  this  beautiful  art,  which  has  for  some  years  not 
been  carried  on  in  Ireland,  may  be  re-introduced,  it  is  intended  to  add  to 
the  collection  as  opportunity  occurs. 

Iron,  Bronze  and  Pewter. — There  are  some  good  examples  of  orna- 
mental wrought  iron,  several  bemg  from  the  Peyre  collection,  and  also  some 
good  locks  and  keys,  bronze  castings  of  various  periods,  and  some  good 
Pewter. 

The  Goldsmith's  and  Silversmith's  Work  comprises  a  fine  assort- 
ment of  electrotypes,  procured  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  of 
famous  examples,  and  a  small,  but  interesting  collection  of  Silver,  Irish 
(which  held  such  a  very  high  position  in  the  eighteenth  century),  English 
and  Foreign,  with  a  case  of  Sheffield  plate.  To  revive  and  assist  this  handi- 
craft in  Dublin  it  is  intended  to  add  considerably  to  the  number  of  these 
examples. 

Bookbinding  is  another  art  which  for  many  years  flourished  here,  and 
recently  many  good  examples  of  Irish,  English  and  foreign  bindings  have 
been  acquired  to  encourage  the  craft,  and  to  give  ideas  to  workers. 

Ivories  are  an  interesting  part  of  the  collections,  and  those  in  Dublin 
are  chiefly  reproductions,  which  are  equally  useful  to  Art  students. 

Photographs  of  BUILDINGS  and  ARCHITECTURAL  Ornament  are  of  the 
greatest  use,  even  to  architects  who  have  travelled  a  good  deal,  and  still 
more  to  the  many  men  connected  with  the  profession  who  seldom  or  never 
see  the  buildings  of  other  countries,  and  for  this  reason  a  collection  is  being 
formed  to  illustrate  all  the  principal  styles. 

Chinese  Art  is  represented  by  some  remarkably  fine  old  Cloisonne 
Enamels,  Jade  Carvings,  and  Embroideries. 

Burmese  Art  is  shown  by  some  very  fine  large  decorative  tiles  and 
other  objects. 

Of  Japanese  Art  the  Dublin  collection  is  very  good  indeed,  comprising 
many  examples  of  the  highest  quality  of  lacquer  and  other  works  of  art ; 
it  is  necessary  to  show  to  the  pubhc  the  very  best  Japanese  work,  as  most  of 
that  produced  since  the  extension  of  European  influence  in  Japan  is  so 
inferior,  and  it  is  a  school  of  art  which  is  producing  a  marked  effect  upon 
every  European  school. 


298  THE   DUBLIN   MUSEUM   OF   SCIENCE    AND  ART. 


ETHNOGRAPHICAL    COLLECTIONS. 

The  Ethnographical  Collections  are  good,  the  valuable  objects 
lent  by  Trinity  College  being  such  as  can  no  longer  be  procured.  They  are 
being  arranged  on  a  special  system  by  which  the  study  of  the  comparative 
civilization  of  the  many  primitive  races  of  mankind  here  illustrated  is  made 
simple  and  easy. 


Ardagh  Brooch,  Silver  Gilt, 

One  of  fmir  Brooches  found  with  the  Ardagh  Chalice,  at  Ardagh,  Co.  Limerick. 

A  portion  only  of  the  pin  is  shown  in  the  engraving.    This  is  the  largest 

Brooch  of  this  form  that  has  been  found  in  Ireland.    Its  measurements 

are,  diameter  5^  inches,  length  of  pin  13  inches. 


81IKINE   OK   HT.    TATKICKS    MKKL.— (IliCA    A.I).    11(1(1, 


Bi-onzc  uiid  SilviT  ;  oiiiiniieiits  on  front  in  gold,  settings  of  stone  and  enamel,  settings  of  crystal  of  later  insertion. 

Made  about  a.d.  KKMJ  to  eiisluine  the  ancient  iron  bell,  traditionally  believed  to  have  belonged  to  St.lPatrick,  and 

jireserved  at  Armagh  till  I'.iS.     Height,  Iftt  inches,  base,  6g  inches  by  ii  inches. 


THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART.  299 


IRISH  ANTIQUITIES. 

The  collection  of  ancient  objects  illustrating  the  life  of  man  in  Ireland 
from  the  earliest  times  of  which  any  trace  of  his  appearance  in  this  country 
can  be  found  will  bear  comparison  with  the  finest  similar  collections  in  any 
country.  The  relics  of  the  Stone  Age  are  from  every  part  of  Ireland,  and 
no  pains  have  been  spared  to  arrange  them  so  as,  with  the  help  of  full 
explanatory  labels,  to  show  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  found, 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  customs  of  those  early  times  which  may  be 
derived  from  them. 

The  Bronze  Age  room  shows  a  most  interesting  series  of  implements  in 
Bronze,  and  a  few  in  Copper,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  magnificent  display 
of  Gold  ornaments  which,  although  they  are  doubtless  but  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  objects  made  of  this  metal  at  this  early  period,  show  in 
what  quantities  it  existed,  and  with  what  skill  it  was  worked  at  least  from 
early  in  the  Bronze  Age  till  its  close.  There  is  also  a  room  devoted  to 
objects,  chiefly  ecclesiastical,  of  late  mediaeval  times,  when  the  curtistic 
workers  of  Ireland  in  Bronze,  Gold  and  Enamels  produced  such  precious 
objects  as  the  Cross  of  Cong,  the  Ardagh  Chalice,  the  Shrine  of  St.  Patrick's 
Bell,  and  the  Tara  Brooch 

These  objects  have  been  collected  chiefly  by  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
and  for  many  years  were  kept  in  the  Academy's  house  in  Dawson-street ; 
but  as  it  was  impossible  to  exhibit  them  there  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
they  were  transferred,  in  1891,  to  the  new  Museum  building. 


ZOOLOGICAL  COLLECTIONS. 

Though  not  so  extensive  as  in  some  of  the  very  large  Natural  History 
Museums  of  Europe,  it  is  believed  that  these  will  compare  favourably  with 
any  in  point  of  arrangement.  The  ground  floor  is  divided  into  three 
sections:  the  first  is  arranged  to  illustrate  the  history  or  evolution  of  animal 
species,  classification,  variation,  natural  selection,  structure  and  instinct,, 
development,  etc.,  and  also  to  show  the  distribution  of  some  typical  species 
in  the  several  regions  into  which  the  earth's  surface  is  divided. 

The  second  and  third  sections  contain  the  Fauna  of  Ireland,  in  the  one 
the  invertebrate  animals,  and  in  the  other  the  vertebrate  ;  the  Irish  birds  are 
a  notable  exhibit,  and  there  are  many  groups  of  birds  with  their  nests  well 
set  up  with  very  faithful  reproductions  of  their  natural  surroundings ;  to 
many  visitors  this  is  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  Museum,  and  it  is 
believed  that  it  does  much  to  awaken  and  develop  a  love  of  natural  history 
in  the  young.  In  the  upper  floor  the  chief  types  of  the  animal  kingdom 
generally  are  displayed  in  regular  order,  and  the  adjacent  annexe  contains 
the  fossil  animals,  a  collection  peculiarly  rich  in  the  various  species  of  flying 
reptiles. 

In  a  very  conspicuous  position  are  exhibited  cases  of  "  Injurious  Insects," 
arranged  to  show  their  life  history  and  the  means  which  should  be  adopted 
for  their  destruction. 


500  THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART. 


BOTANICAL  DIVISION. 

This  has  been  greatly  developed  during  the  past  few  years,  and  it  occupies 
five  rooms. 

Room  I.  is  the  Index  Room  to  help  botanical  classes ;  in  the  v^all  cases 
there  are  specimens,  models,  and  diagrams  illustrating  the  classification  of 
the  Vegetable  Kingdom  (recent  and  fossil),  the  life-history  of  the  different 
groups  of  plants  (root,  stem,  leaf,  flower,  fruit,  germination)  ;  botanical  terms 
with  definitions  of  the  same ;  coloured  drawings  and  specimens  as  types  of 
the  chief  natural  orders. 

In  the  floor  cases  are  collections  of  dried  plants  of  economic  or  general 
interest. 

Rooms  II.  and  IV.  contain  the  Economic  (Botanical)  Collection,  the 
specimens  being  arranged  systematically  in  their  natural  orders. 

1.  Specimens  of  plants  and  parts  of  plants  (raw  and  manufactured) 
of  economic  importance,  e.g.,  the  varieties  of  willow  rods  and  other  illus- 
trations of  the  Osier  industry,  Potato-tubers,  Turf,  Kelp,  Flax,  Tea, 
various  kinds  of  Timber,  Fungi  causing  diseases  of  plants,  etc.,  etc. 

2.  Specimens  of  Fossil  Plants. 

The  Economic  Collection  will,  it  is  hoped,  contain  ultimately  a  complete 
illustration  of: — (i)  All  Irish  industries  into  which  plants  largely  enter; 
(2)  such  plant  industries  as  might  with  advantage  be  carried  on  in  Ireland ; 
and  (3)  food  plants  and  other  plants  of  more  general  interest. 

The  collections  are  for  general  consultation,  and  are  intended  to  be  of  use 
in  the  development  of  the  industries  of  Ireland. 

Room  III.  is  the  Herbarium.  This  room  contains  dried  plants,  illus- 
trating the  flora  of  different  parts  of  Ireland  and  Great  Britain,  and  less 
completely  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  chief  object  of  the  Herbarium 
is  to  be  of  use  to  students  interested  in  Systematic  Botany,  including  Field 
Botany  in  Ireland,  and  to  those  wishing  to  consult  the  collections  in  con- 
nection with  Economic  Botany. 

The  Herbarium  contains  a  small  Working  Library,  Microscopes,  etc. 

There  is  also  a  large  collection  of  named  drugs  of  use  to  pharmaceutical 
and  medical  students. 

GEOLOGY   AND    MINERALOGY. 

The  general  MiNERALOGlCAL  COLLECTIONS  are  in  cases  round  a  map  of 
Ireland  raised  in  relief,  and  coloured  geologically,  and  there  is  also  a  good 
collection  of  Irish  Minerals  arranged  according  to  counties,  and  of  the  Irish 
stones  used  for  ornamental  and  building  purposes. 

There  is  also  a  collection  of  Irish  Rocks  and  Fossils  gathered  and 
arranged  by  the  Officers  of  the  Geological  Survey,  with  a  series  of  coloured 
drawings  to  illustrate  Geological  phenomena. 

INDUSTRIAL   COLLECTION. 

The  Mechanical,  or,  as  usually  called,  Industrial,  Collection,  is  at 
present  very  small ;  but  it  contains  a  variety  of  looms  and  several  fine 
models  of  factories  and  manufacturing  plants.       Great  pains  have  been 


THE  DUBLIN  MUSEUM  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART.  301 

bestowed  on  the  labelling  of  the  latter,  an  explanatory  label  being  attached 
to  each  principal  pipe,  retort,  furnace,  etc.,  etc.,  in  the  model,  numbered  con- 
secutively, so  that  by  reading  the  labels  in  order,  the  visitor  may  follow  the 
process  of  the  manufacture  illustrated  from  beginning  to  end. 

In  the  matter  of  GUIDES  this  Museum  may  claim  to  be  a  pioneer.  For 
one  halfpenny  can  be  bought  a  well-printed  pamphlet  on  good  paper,  by 
which  the  visitor  can  easily  discover  where  to  find  any  particular  class  of 
objects,  and  obtain  a  considerable  amount  of  information  concerning  many 
of  them. 

A  General  Guide  is  being  brought  out  in  parts  and  chapters  at  one  penny,, 
each  containing  a  brief  general  history  of  the  branch  of  art  to  which  it 
belongs  with  references  to  all  the  objects  in  that  part  of  the  Collections. 

Another  special  feature  in  the  way  of  aids  to  the  visitor  is  the  help  given 
in  the  selection  of  books  bearing  upon  the  arts  and  sciences  which  the 
Collections  illustrate.  In  conspicuous  places  are  hung  lists  of  books  in  the 
National  Library,  which  may  be  useful  to  visitors  to  the  Museum,  arranged 
for  the  Art  and  Antiquities  in  forty-one  classes — Renaissance  Art,  Gothic 
Architecture,  Jewellery,  Fans,  Lace,  Ethnography,  etc.,  etc. ;  and  there  are 
similar  lists  for  the  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Mineralogy,  and  copies  of  these' 
lists  can  be  bought  in  pamphlet  form  for  a  penny  each. 

During  the  winter  months  there  are  frequent  Demonstrations,  or  informal 
Lectures,  by  members  of  the  Museum  staff  and  others,  for  which  tickets  of 
admission  are  distributed  free  of  charge,  and  by  these  various  means  it  is 
hoped  that  many  who  would  otherwise  wander  among  the  objects  in  an 
aimless  and  desultory  manner  may  be  induced  to  take  a  real  interest  in  some 
branch  of  industrial  art  or  of  natural  science,  and  that  the  objects  for  whichi 
the  public  maintain  these  Collections  may  thus  be  better  attained. 


302  THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY  OF  IRELAND. 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY  OF  IRELAND. 

The  Royal  Dublin  Society's  Library  was  taken  over  by  the  State  in  1877, 
and  re-named  the  National  Library  of  Ireland.  The  Library  had  been 
explicitly  a  Public  Library,  free  to  respectable  persons,  introduced  by 
members  of  the  Dublin  Society,  since  1836,  when  a  Parliamentary  Commis- 
sion on  the  Society  had  recommended  that  its  Library  should  be  made  the 
National  Library  of  Ireland.  Implicitly  the  Library  had  probably  been 
free  on  the  same  terms  since  ihe  beginning  of  the  century,  for  the  Minutes 
of  the  Library  Committee  include  references  to  the  constant  presence  of 
strangers  in  the  Reading  Room;  and  Stewart's  Dublin  Almanack  of  1820, 
page  181,  under  "Dublin  Society,"  has  the  following  entry: — "DEPART- 
MENTS OPEN  TO  THE  PUBLIC. — The  Library,  on  introduction  to  the  Hbra- 
rian." 

From  1877  to  1900  the  Library  was  administered  by  the  Department  of 
Science  and  Art.  In  1900  (with  the  Museum  and  other  Institutions  of 
Science  and  Art  in  Dublin)  it  passed  to  the  administration  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland.  The  Library  is 
under  the  superintendence  of  twelve  Trustees,  of  whom  eight  are  re-elected 
annually  by  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  while  four  are  appointed  by  the  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  sum  granted  for  book  purchase  is  ;^  1,000  a 
year.  This  has  been  supplemented  by  a  temporary  addition,  to  last  five 
years,  of  £^300  annually.  The  officials  are — a  Librarian,  A  First,  and  a 
Second  Assistant  Librarian,  and  twelve  library-attendants,  these  last  cor- 
responding to  the  junior  library  assistants  of  the  public  libraries  of  England 
and  America. 

Though  founded  in  1877,  it  was  not  until  1890  that  the  Library  entered 
its  new  building,  which  is  still  unfinished.  The  architect,  the  late  Sir 
Thomas  Deane,  formed  his  plan  in  constant  consultation  with  Mr.  William 
Archer,  F.R.S.  The  result  is  a  building  which,  with  some  faults,  is  for  its 
size  one  of  the  very  best  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Its  special  points, 
perhaps,  are :  the  isolation  of  the  large  Central  Reading  Room  (shelved  to 
receive  a  large  number  of  books,  which  are  absolutely  free  to  the  public 
without  intervention),  and  the  adoption  of  the  stack  system  of  book-cases 
in  the  book-store.  A  hydraulic  lift  connects  the  basement  of  the  book-store 
with  the  attic  and  all  intermediary  floors. 

The  books  are  minutely  classified  according  to  subject  on  the  shelves  by 
the  so-called  Decimal  system,  invented  and  developed  by  Mr.  Melvil  Dewey, 
an  eminent  American  Librarian.  The  essential  merit  of  this  classification 
is  that  every  new  book  goes  to  reinforce  the  books  on  the  same  subject 
already  in  the  Library.  A  new  book  on  Infinitesim.als  is  so  marked  that  it 
goes  to  the  place  on  the  shelves  where  other  books  on  Infinitesimals  are — • 
not  merely  to  "  Mathematics,"  not  merely  to  "  The  Calculus."  A  new  life  of 
Cromwell  joins  other  books  on  Cromwell,  a  new  book  on  Cashmere  goes  to 
laooks  on  Cashmere,  not  merely  Travel,  or  Asia,  or  India ;  the  last  book  on 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY  OF  IRELAND.  303 

Free  Trade  joins  older  ones  on  the  same  subject,  and  so  on.  The  technique 
of  this  is  simple,  but  what  will  interest  non-professional  minds  is  the  extra- 
ordinary value  as  an  instrument  of  culture  gained  for  the  Library  by  the 
juxtaposition  in  clusters,  of  books  on  the  same  subject.  The  Decimal 
system  was  introduced  in  the  National  Library  by  Mr.  William  Archer, 
F.R.S.,  the  Librarian  from  1877  to  1895.  It  has  been  adopted  in  several 
admirable  English  Libraries — at  Manchester,  Glasgow,  Croydon. 

The  Library  is  open  from  10  a.m.  to  10  p.m.  daily,  except  on  Sundays, 
and  on  three  weekdays  at  Christmas,  four  weekdays  at  Easter,  and  twelve 
weekdays  in  August.  The  attendances  of  readers  in  1878  numbered 
27,452.  In  1900,  the  twenty-third  year  of  the  Library,  the  attendances 
numbered  148,405.  The  attendances  in  1849  were  estimated  at  over  8,000 
per  annum.  The  number  of  volumes  is  estimated  at  130,000.  In  1849  the 
number  was  estimated  at  19,000.  The  Library  is  still  the  only  considerable 
popular  Reference  Library  in  Dublin.  The  collection  of  printed  books  is 
greater  than  any  other  in  Ireland  (except  that  of  Trinity  College,  where 
there  are  probably  more  than  twice  as  many).  An  effort  is  bemg  made  to 
collect,  bind,  and  preserve  a  considerable  number  of  the  newspapers  of 
Ireland,  and  activity  in  this,  as  in  many  other  directions,  is  conditioned  by 
the  desire  to  make  the  Library  match  the  title  it  bears  and  the  responsi- 
bilities thus  implied.  It  is  the  State  Library — the  tiny  British  Museum  of 
Ireland. 

With  the  accession  of  the  Joly  Collection  the  Library  will  be  very  rich  in 
books  on  Irish  topography,  history  and  biography.  From  its  connection 
with  the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  and  the  Metropolitan  School  of  Art, 
acquisitions  in  Botany,  Zoology,  the  Fine  Arts  and  Archaeology  have  always 
been  frequent.  There  are  very  few  novels  on  the  shelves — practically  only 
the  classics  of  fiction  are  purchased. 


304 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


The   total   area  of  Ireland — according  to  the  figures   supplied  by  the 
Director-General   of   the    Ordnance    Survey   to    the 
Division  of  Land.     S^f"^     Commissioners     in     1891-was     20,32794; 
statute    acres.     Ihe    mclusion  of  5,397  acres  of  re- 
claimed slob  in  the  County  Wexford  brings  the  total 
area  to  20,333,344  statute  acres.     This  total — which  is  that  taken  in  these 
returns  since  1891 — incJades  129,681  acres  under  water,  but  excludes  close 
on  half-a-million   acres  (492,252   is  the  exact  number)  under  the  larger 
rivers,  lakes,  and  tideways.     The  following  statement  shows  the  distribution 
of  this  area  in  1900  and  1901  : — 


1900. 

1901. 

Increase  or  Decrease 
between  1900  and  1901. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

Under  Crops,  including  "  Clover,  Sainfoin, 

and  Grasses /or /fflj," 
Under  Grass,  including  temporary  pasture, 

and  Hay  mown  on  permanent  pasture,     . . 
Under  small  Fruit  and  Fallow, 
Under  Woods  and  Plantations, 
Under  Bog,  Waste,  Barren  Mountain,  Water, 

and  Marsh, 

Total, 

3,100,397 

12,121,707 

12,589 

311,648 

4,787,003 

3,069,789 

12,138,500 

10,886 

309,741 

4,804,428 

16,793 
17,425 

30,608 

1,703 
1,907 

20,333.344 

20,333,344 

— 

— 

"  Hay  mown  on  permanent  pasture "  and  "  temporary  grasses "  when 
grazed  are  in  the  above  Table  put  in  the  category  of  "  Grass "  (though 
technically,  of  course,  as  being  under  rotation,  the  latter  is  a  "  crop  ").  The 
idea  is  to  divide  off  as  far  as  possible  arable  land  from  pasture ;  to  dis- 
tinguish, in  other  words,  land  under  the  plough  from  land  directly  given 
over  to  stock-raising,  or,  as  it  may  be  called,  pastoral  land.  The  division  as 
here  given  is  not  quite  perfect  for  the  reason  just  alluded  to,  that  "  tem- 
porary pastures  "  would  strictly  come  under  the  term  arable  land,  but  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  such  lands  are  often  not  broken  up  in  many  parts  of 
Ireland  for  three,  five,  or  even  ten  years,  during  which  time  a  large  percent- 
age of  them  are  grazed,  the  object  of  the  classification  adopted  is  apparent. 

Changes  in  the  use  to  which  the  land  of  a  country  is  put  affect  its  whole 
social  organisation,  and  of  no  change  can  this  be  said  with  more  truth  than 
of  the  transfer  of  land  from  tillage  to  pasture.  Hence  it  is  important  to 
adopt  a  classification  which  throws  into  bold  relief  the  characteristic 
features  of  our  rural  economy.     According  to  the  estimates  in  the  above 


Di£i  each  of  the  years 


1901 


Ilain  Land,  Bogs,   &c. 


TECHNICAL   INSTRUCTION    FOR    IRELAND. 
NTELLIGENCE     BRANCH. 


Diagram  to  illustrate  the  Division  of  Land  in  Ireland  in  each  of  the  years 

i860,  1880  and  1901. 


i860. 


1880. 


1901. 


EXPLANATION. 

L  The  outer  squares  represent  the  Total  Area  of  Ireland. 

II.  The  coloured  squares  represent  the  Area  under  Crops  and  Grass  ("  Cultivable  Area  "). 

III.  The  uncoloured  spaces  between  the  outer  and  inner  squares  represent   Barren  Mountain  Land, 

(Uncultivable  Area"). 


8,     &fi. 


IV.      ■■     Grass. 
v.       ^^^     Crops  (Oereal,  Boot  snd  Kbre). 
YL      ^H     Meadow  and  Clover. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE   AND   TECHNICAL   INSTRUCTION    rOR    IRELAND. 
STATISTICS    AND     INTELLIGENCE     BRANCH. 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


305 


statement  it  would  appear  that  30,608  acres  of  land  went  from  under  the 
plough  in  1 90 1,  as  compared  with  the  preceding  year,  while  16,793  acres 
seem  to  have  been  added  to  the  area  under  grass.  These  figures  imply  that 
13,815  statute  acres  of  land  went  out  of  cultivation  in  the  year  1901.  It  is, 
however,  possible  that  the  recorded  increase  of  17,425  acres  in  "Bog, 
Waste,  Barren  Mountain,"  is,  in  part,  due  to  a  not  unnatural  divergence  of 
opinion  amongst  the  Enumerators  in  the  different  years  as  to  what  kind  of 
land  exactly  should  be  described  as  "  Barren  Mountain."  A  tract  of  moun- 
tain-side which  carried  a  few  score  sheep  in  one  year  may  not  happen 
to  be  grazed  at  the  time  of  enumeration  in  a  succeeding  season,  with 
the  result  that  it  is  entered  on  the  statistical  forms  in  a  different  column  on 
each  occasion.  Such  indeterminate  grazing  areas  are,  doubtless,  a  source  of 
error  in  comparative  classification  ;  but  every  effort  is  made  by  carefully- 
worded  instructions,  by  queries  to  the  Enumerators  for  purposes  of  veri- 
fication, and  in  other  ways,  to  minimise  the  possibilities  of  serious  error. 
Moreover,  errors  of  classification  of  the  kind  referred  to  would  probably 
tend  to  correct  each  other  when  a  long  series  of  years  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration.* 

*  With  reference  to  the  question  whether  waste  land  is  increasing  or  decreasing  in  Ireland, 
the  following  from  Part  I.  of  Dr.  Grimshaw's  "Facts  and  Figures  about  Ireland"  (Hodges, 
Figgis  &  Co.,  Limited,  Dublin,  1893),  may  be  of  interest.  On  the  showing  of  these  figures  (to 
which  have  been  added  those  for  1901),  it  would  seem  that  a  very  large  amount  of  waste  land 
has  been  reclaimed  during  the  past  sixty  years. 

Division  of  Land  in  1S41,  '51,  '61,  '71,  '81,  '91.  and  1901. 


Division  of   Land. 


1841. 


1851. 


1861. 


1871. 


1881. 


Under  Crops  (in- 
cluding Meadow), 
Under  Grass, 
Woods  and  Plan- 
tations, . . 
Barren   Mountain 

Land ,     . . 
Bog  and  Marsh, . . 
Waste  Land,  &c.. 

Total, 


Statute 
Acres. 


r  13,464,300 
\ 

374.482 


-    6,489,971 


Statute 
Acres?. 

(  5.858.951 

\  8,748,577 

304,906 

5,416,319 


Statute 
Acres. 
5,890,536 

9,533,529 

316,597 

4,588,091 


Statute 
Acres. 
5.621,437 

10,071,285 

324,990 

4,311,041 


Statute  Acres. 

5.195,375 
10,075,424 

328,703 
(2,117,672'^ 

^  1,720,026V  4,729,251 


-s  I,720,( 

(  891,. 


20,328,753 


Division  of  Land. 


1891. 


1901. 


Under  Crops  (including  Meadow), 

,,       Grass, 
Woods  and  Plantations, 
Barren  Mountain  Land, 
Bog  and  Marsh, 
Waste  Land,  &c. 

Total, 


Statute  Acres. 


(    2,2II,34l| 

-)   1,743,923/- 
(      949,491) 


4,818,381 

10,298,654 

311,554 

4,904,755 


Statute  Acres. 


2,223,420"^ 
1,574,202  V- 
1,017  692) 


4,631,051 

10,577,238 

309,741 

4,815,314 


20,333,344  t 


Note. — The  information  for  1841  and  1851,  respectively,  has  bsen  obtained  from  the  Census 
Report  for  those  years  ;  and  that  for  the  subsequent  periods  from  the  Agricultural  Statistics. 

t  The  difference  between  the  total  area  entered  for  1S91  and  1901  and  that  given  for  the 
other  years  is  owing  to  the  adoption  in  1891  of  revised  areas  for  some  counties,  and  the 
inclusion  of  some  reclaimed  slob  lands  in  the  County  of  Wexford. 

X 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


305 


statement  it  would  appear  that  30,608  acres  of  land  went  from  under  the 
plough  in  1 90 1,  as  compared  with  the  preceding  year,  while  16,793  acres 
seem  to  have  been  added  to  the  area  under  grass.  These  figures  imply  that 
13,815  statute  acres  of  land  went  out  of  cultivation  in  the  year  1901.  It  is, 
however,  possible  that  the  recorded  increase  of  17,425  acres  in  "Bog, 
Waste,  Barren  Mountain,"  is,  in  part,  due  to  a  not  unnatural  divergence  of 
opinion  amongst  the  Enumerators  in  the  different  years  as  to  what  kind  of 
Icind  exactly  should  be  described  as  "  Barren  Mountain."  A  tract  of  moun- 
tain-side which  carried  a  few  score  sheep  in  one  year  may  not  happen 
to  be  grazed  at  the  time  of  enumeration  in  a  succeeding  season,  with 
the  result  that  it  is  entered  on  the  statistical  forms  in  a  different  column  on 
each  occasion.  Such  indeterminate  grazing  areas  are,  doubtless,  a  source  of 
error  in  comparative  classification  ;  but  every  effort  is  made  by  carefully- 
worded  instructions,  by  queries  to  the  Enumerators  for  purposes  of  veri- 
fication, and  in  other  ways,  to  minimise  the  possibilities  of  serious  error. 
Moreover,  errors  of  classification  of  the  kind  referred  to  would  probably 
tend  to  correct  each  other  when  a  long  series  of  years  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration.* 

*  With  reference  to  the  question  whether  waste  land  is  increasing  or  decreasing  in  Ireland, 
the  following  from  Part  I.  of  Dr.  Grimshaw's  "Facts  and  Figures  about  Ireland"  (Hodges, 
Figgis  &  Co.,  Limited,  Dublin,  1893),  may  be  of  interest.  On  the  showing  of  these  figures  (to 
which  have  been  added  those  for  1901),  it  would  seem  that  a  very  large  amount  of  waste  land 
has  been  reclaimed  during  the  past  sixty  years. 

Division  of  Land  in  1841,  '51,  '61,  '71,  "81,  'gi.  and  igor. 


Division  of  Land. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

Under  Crops  (in- 
cluding Meadow), 
Under  Grass, 
Woods  and  Plan- 
tations, . . 
Barren  Mountain 

Land ,    . . 
Bog  and  Marsh, . . 
Waste  Land,  &c., 

Statute 
Acres. 

)          , 
-  13,464,300 

374.482 
'-    6,489,971 

Statute 
Acres. 

(  5.S58.951 

1  8.748.577 

304,906 

5.416,319 

Statute 
Acres. 

5,890,536 

9,533.529 
316,597 

4,588,091 

Statute 
Acres. 

5.621,437 
10,071,285 

324,990 
4,311,041 

Statute  Acres. 

5.195,375 
10,075,424 

328,703 
^2,117,672^ 

-s  1,720,026  >  4,729,251 

(  891,553) 

Total, 

20,328,753 

Division  of  Land. 

1891. 

1901. 

Under  Crops  (including  Meadow), 

,,       Grass,             

Woods  and  Plantations, 
Barren  Mountain  Land,     . . 
Bog  and  Marsh, 
Waste  Land,  &c. 

Statute  Acres. 

4,818,381 
10,298,654 

311,554 
(  2,211,341) 

-)   1,743.923^     4.904,755 
(      949,491) 

Statute  Acres. 

4,631,051 
10,577,238 

309,741 
C  2,223,420"! 

-}   i,574,202j-     4,815,314 
(  1,017  692) 

Total, 

20,333,344 1 

Note, — The  information  for  1841  and  1851,  respectively,  has  bsen  obtained  from  the  Census 
Report  for  those  years  ;  and  that  for  the  subsequent  periods  from  the  Agricultural  Statistics. 

t  The  difference  between  the  total  area  entered  for  1891  and  igoi  and  that  given  for  the 
other  years  is  owing  to  the  adoption  in  i8gi  of  revised  areas  for  some  counties,  and  the 
inclusion  of  some  reclaimed  slob  lands  in  the  County  of  Wexford, 

X 


306 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


Adverting-  to  the  contraction  of  the  arable  land  of  the  country — this  is, 
of  course,  the  outstanding  feature  of  these  returns,  especially  when  the 
process  is  regarded,  not  from  year  to  year,  but  as  an  historical  tendency. 
The  tendency  is  not,  however,  confined  to  Ireland  alone  of  the  countries  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  though  nowhere  is  its  extent  so  strikmg.  The  arable 
land  of  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1899,  for  example,  was  the  smallest  on 
record.  Since  1872 — with  four  checks  in  1875,  1885,  1894,  and  1897— the 
extent  of  land  under  the  plough  in  Great  Britain  has  continuously  declined. 
The  following  statement  illustrates  the  relative  position  of  the  countries  of 
the  United  Kingdom  as  regards  the  distribution  of  the  several  areas  be- 
tween arable  and  pastoral  cultivation  :■ — 

Proportion  of  Arable  and  Pastoral  Lands  in  each  Country  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


Arable  Lands,    . . 
Pastoral  Lands, 
Total  Cultivated  Lands, 
Arable  %, 
Pastoral  %, 


England, 
(Average 
1897--99.) 


Wales, 
(Average 
1897--99.) 


11,506,000 

13.257.000 
24,763,000 

46-5 
53-5 


903,000 
1,925,000 
2,828,000 

319 
68. 1 


Scotland, 
(Average 
1897--99.) 


3,508,000 
1,386,000 
4,894,000 

71.7 

28.3 


Ireland 
1899. 


3,146,000* 
12,070,000 
15,216,000 

20.7 

79-3 


United 
Kingdom. 


19,063,000 
28,638,00(7 
47,701,000 

40.0 

60.0 


*  Including  13,086  acres  "under  Small  Fruit  and  Fallow." 

More  than  half  of  the  cultivated  area  of  England  is,  it  will  be  seen,  no 
longer  under  the  plough.  In  Ireland  the  proportion  of  pastoral  to  arable 
lands  is  79.3  to  20.7  per  cent;  in  Scotland  the  proportion  is  28.3  to  Ji.J 
per  100  statute  acres  of  cultivated  land.  I  shall  revert  further  on  to  the 
significance  of  the  very  large  amount  of  tillage  in  Scotland. t  The  geogra- 
phical characteristics  of  Wales  explain  to  a  large  degree  the  very  high  per 
'Centage  of  her  pasture  lands,  which  enable  her  to  produce  close  on  100 
sheep  more  per  1,000  acres  of  total  area  than  the  joint  flocks  of  Ireland  and 
.Scotland  for  the  same  area. 

It  is  noteworthy,  to  introduce  a  comparison  with  a  foreign  country,  that, 
while  the  area  under  meadows  and  pasture  in  Ireland  is  over  eleven  times 
the  similar  area  in  Belgium,  our  herds  of  cattle  number  only  slightly  over 
three  times  as  many  as  those  of  that  country.  No  doubt,  it  is  generally 
recognised  that  with  a  system  of  small  farming,  such  as  is  carried  on  in 
Belgium,  more  cattle  can  be  raised  to  the  acre  by  means  of  tillage  and  house- 
feeding  than  on  the  grazing  system ;  but  the  fact  just  mentioned  points  to 
the  conclusion  that  pastoral  farming — which  means,  so  far  as  Ireland  is 
concerned,  the  production  of  meat,  dairy  products,  and  wool — great  as  its 
expansion  has  been,  has  not,  so  far,  developed  at  the  rate  at  which  the 
agricultural  resources  of  the  country  have  been  passing  under  its  control. 
One  obvious  feature — in  part  a  cause  and  in  part  an  effect — of  the  continued 
contraction  of  the  arable  land  of  a  country  is  a  great  displacement  of  popula- 
tion. The  exodus  from  the  rural  districts  to  the  manufacturing  districts  of 
England  and  the  annual  drain  of  emigration  from  this  country  are  striking 
evidences  of  the  diverse  operations  of  this  tendency  as  it  affects,  on  the  one 
hand,  a  country  with  gieat  manufacturing  resources,  and,  on  the  other, 
-a  country  whose  main  industry  is  agriculture.     The  remarkable  growth  of 

t  See  page  322. 


MAP  to  illustrate  the  relative  proportions  of  Arable  and  Pastoral  Land  in  the 
year,   1901,   in   each   County  and   Province   of   Ireland,  and  for  the  whole  Country, 

N  B. — "Arable  Land"  is  here  used  to  describe  land  under  Cereal,  Root,  and  Fibre  Crops,  and  Hay 
under  rotation.  '  Pastoral  Land  "  includes,  for  the  purposes  of  this  Map,  permanent  pasture  (whether 
mown  for  Hay  or  Grazed)  and  "Clover  Sanfoin  and  Grasses"  (even  when  described  as  "under  rotation") 
which  are  "  not  for  Hay." 


Arable     L J 

Pastoral  I  I 


'DONEGAL      r 

(        TYRONE     /_ 
FERMANAShn-, 


ULSTER 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


307 


such  commercial  centres  as  Belfast  and  Londonderry  affords  some  proof 
that  where  manufacturing  industry  flourished  in  Ireland  the  rural  exodus 
took,  to  some  extent,  the  same  form  as  it  has  done  in  Great  Britain — to  wit, 
immigration  rather  than  emigration. 

The  diagram  of  squares  here  given  illustrates,  graphically,  the  growth  of 
pasture  and  the  shrinkage  of  crop  areas  in  the  years  1880  and  1901  as  com- 
pared with  i860. 


The  following  Table  forms  the  basis  of  this  diagram  :- 


Year. 

Total  Area. 

"  Cultivated 

Area" 

(Crops  and 

Grass.) 

Crops 
(other  than 

Meadow 
and  Clover.) 

Meadow 
and  Clover. 

Grass. 

i860 

20,284,893 

i5,453>773 

4.375.621 

1,594,518 

9,483,634 

1880,       

20,327,764 

15,340,192 

3. 171. 259 

1,909,825 

10,259,108 

1901, 

20,333.344 

15,208,289 

2,452,459 

2,178,592 

10,577.238 

I  have  further  prepared  a  map  showing  for  each  county  and  province  of 
Ireland  and  for  the  whole  country  the  proportion  of  the  cultivated  area 
given  up  to  arable  and  pastoral  uses,  respectively,  in  the  year  1901.  The 
figures  on  which  the  coloured  squares  in  this  map  are  based  are  as  follows : — 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Statute  Acres  devoted  to  Arable  and  Pastoral  uses  in 
each  County  and  Province  of  Ireland,  and  for  the  whole  Country,  1901  (see  Map). 


Counties. 

Arable 

(Statute 
Acres). 

Pastoral 
(Statute 
Acres). 

Counties. 

Arable 

(Statute 
Acres). 

Pastoral 

(Statute 
Acres). 

Antrim, 

Armagh, 

Cavan, 

Donegal, 

Down, 

Fermanagh,  . . 

Londonderry, 

Monaghan,    . . 

Tyrone, 

Total  of  Ulster, 

j 

173.312 

110,827 

78,179 

:     172,305 

245,967 

40,140 

156,783 
96,306 

195,387 

401,828 
161,811 
318,846 
461,971 
266,493 
308,484 
249,547 
187,355 
377,855 

'     Clare, 
Cork, 
Kerry, 
Limerick, 
Tipperary,    . . 
Water  ford,   . . 

Total  of  Munster, 

[ 

Galway, 

Leitrim, 

Mayo, 

Roscommon, 

Sligo, 

i       Total  of  CONNAUGHT, 

Grand   Total    for 
Ireland, 

46,801 

286,503 

68,033 

43.797 

138,941 

68,891 

574,884 
1,109,981 
611,990 
542,490 
734,478 
253,267 

652,966 

3,827,090 

1,269,206 

2,734.190 

Carlow, 

Dublin, 

Kildare, 

Kilkenny, 

King's, 

Longford, 

Louth, 

Meath, 

Queen's, 

Westmeath,  . 

Wexford, 

54,500 
34,645 
1       61,534 
i     101,625 
70,165 
28,180 
70,127 

48,354 
88,221 
36,217 
166,673 
51,618 

138,826 
156,528 
296,392 
352.649 
279,410 

177.545 
101,680 
481,909 
261,580 
326,257 
347.181 
289,789 

111,513 
26,595 

106,259 
51,688 
39,703 

834,798 
265,862 
563.492 
430,981 
272,341 

335,758 

2,367,474 

3,069,789 

12,138,500 

Total  of  Le 

INSTER, 

811,859 

3,209,746 

1  the 
ntry. 

d  Hay 

hether 
ition") 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


307 


such  commercial  centres  as  Belfast  and  Londonderry  affords  some  proof 
that  where  manufacturing  industry  flourished  in  Ireland  the  rural  exodus 
took,  to  some  extent,  the  same  form  as  it  has  done  in  Great  Britain — to  wit, 
immigration  rather  than  emigration. 

The  diagram  of  squares  here  given  illustrates,  graphically,  the  growth  of 
pasture  and  the  shrinkage  of  crop  areas  in  the  years  1880  and  1901  as  com- 
pared with  i860. 


The  following  Table  forms  the  basis  of  this  diagram 


Year. 

Total  Area. 

"  Cultivated 

Area  " 

(Crops  and 

Grass.) 

Crops 
(other  than 

Meadow 
and  Clover.) 

Meadow 
and  Clover. 

Grass. 

i860. 

20,284,893 

15,453.773 

4.375.621 

1.594.518 

9,483,634 

1S80 

20,327,764 

15,340,192 

3. 171. 259 

1,909,825 

10,259,108 

1901, 

20,333.344 

15,208,289 

2.452.459 

2,178,592        10,577,238 

I  have  further  prepared  a  map  showing  for  each  county  and  province  of 
Ireland  and  for  the  whole  country  the  proportion  of  the  cultivated  area 
given  up  to  arable  and  pastoral  uses,  respectively,  in  the  year  1901.  The 
figures  on  which  the  coloured  squares  in  this  map  are  based  are  as  follows : — 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Statute  Acres   devoted  to  Arable  and  Pastoral  uses  in 
each  County  and  Province  of  Ireland,  and  for  the  whole  Country,  1901  (see  Map). 


Counties. 

Arable 

(Statute 
Acres). 

Pastoral 
(Statute 
Acres). 

Counties. 

Arable 
(Statute 
Acres). 

Pastoral 
(Statute 
Acres). 

Antrim, 

Armagh, 

Cavan, 

Donegal, 

Down, 

Fermanagh,  . . 

Londonderry, 

Monaghan,    . . 

Tyrone, 

Total  of  ULSTtR, 

173.312 

110,827 

78,179 

172,305 

i      245,967 
40,140 

156.783 
96,306 

195.387 

401,828 
161,811 
318,846 
461,971 
266,493 
308,484 
249,547 
187,355 
377,855 

Clare, 
Cork, 
Kerry, 
Limerick, 
Tipperary,    . . 
Water  ford,   . . 

Total  of  MUNSTER, 

Galway, 

Leitrim, 

Mayo, 

Roscommon, 

Sligo, 

! 

■'     Total  of  Connaught, 

Grand   Total    for 
Ireland, 

46,801 

286,503 

68,033 

43,797 

138,941 

68,891 

574,884 
1,109,981 
611,990 
542,490 
734,478 
253,267 

652,966 

3,827,090 

1,269,206 

2,734,190 

Carlow, 

Dublin, 

Kildare, 

Kilkenny, 

King's, 

Longford, 

Louth, 

Meath, 

Queen's, 

Westmeath,  . 

Wexford, 

54.500 
34,645 
i        61,534 
!      101,625 
70,165 
28,180 
70,127 

48.354 
88,221 
36,217 
166,673 
51,618 

138,826 
156,528 
296,392 
352,649 
279,410 

177,545 
101,680 
481,909 
261,580 
326,257 
347,181 
289,789 

111,513 
26,595 

106,259 
51,688 
39,703 

834,798 
265,862 
563,492 
430,981 
272,341 

335,758 

2,367,474 

3,069,789 

12,138,500 

Total  of  Le 

INSTER, 

811,859 

3,209,746 

308 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


When  we  come  to  look  into  the  details  of  the  decline  in  the  area  of  the 
cropped  lands  of  Ireland,  we  find,  as  was  to  have 
been    expected,    that  it  is  the  cereals    which    have 
Crop  Areas.  decreased  most  seriously.     From  the  strictly  economic 

point  of  view,  the  yearly  increasing  scarcity  of  agri- 
cultural labour ;  the  fact  that  the  prices  of  com  crops  have  fallen  since  1870 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  the  prices  of  meat-stuffs  or  dairy  produce ; 
and  the  splendid  natural  richness  of  the  pastures  of  Ireland,  point  to  an 
explanation  of  the  deca_>-  of  grain  farming  in  this  country.  Smce  1855  our 
wheat  area  has  shrunk  from  445,775  acres  to  42,934  acres  in  1901  ;  our  oat 
crop  (though  still  pre-eminently  Ireland's  great  cereal)  has  decreased  by 
nearly  50  per  cent.  ;  while  our  barley  (an  industrial  crop  for  which  there  is 
always  a  ready  market  at  home)  has  declined  from  226,620  acres  in  1855  to 
161,534  acres  in  igoi.  I  give  herewith  a  coloured  chart,  which  emphasizes 
at  a  glance  the  tendency  just  referred  to.  That  the  decline  of  the  root 
crops  (including  potatoes)  has,  though  serious,  not  been  so  marked,  will 
appear  from  this  statement : — 

Acreage  under  Cereals,  Roots,  and  Meadow  in  1855  and  1901. 


1855. 
Statute 
Acres. 

1901. 
Statute 
Acres. 

Percentage. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

Cereals, 
Root  Crops, 
Meadow, 

2,832,564 
1,444,390 
1,314,807 

1,317.574 
1.079,443 
2,178,592 

65-7 

53-5 
25-3 

The  details  of  the  changes  for  the  separate  crops  are  clearly  brought  out 
in  the  subjoined  Table,  with  which  the  chart  may  be  compared : — 


Table  showin 

y  the  Area  under  the  principal  Cereal  and  Root  Crops 
in  each  of  the  years  1855,  i860,  1870,  1880,  i8go,  and  1901. 

and  M 

EADOW, 

TEAR. 

Oats. 

Meadow. 

Wheat. 

Barley. 

Flax. 

Potatoes. 

Turnips. 

Mangel 

Wurzel 

&  Beet 

Root. 

Total. 

1855. 

Acres. 
2,118,858 

Acres.      Acres. 

1,314,807  445,775 

Acres. 
226,629 

Acres. 
97,075 

Acres. 
982,301 

Acres. 
366,953 

Acres. 
22,567 

Acres. 

5,574,965 

i860, 
1870, 
1880, 
1890, 
I9OI, 

1,966,304 

1,594,518  466,415 

181,099 

128,595 

1,172,079 

318,540 

32,124 

5,859,674 

1,650,039 

1,773,851 

259,846 

241,285 

194,910 

1,043.583 

339,059 

25,400 

5,527,973 
4,980,878 

1,381,928 

1,909,825  148,708 

218,016 

157.540 

820,651 

302,695 

41,515 

1,221,013 

2,093,634 

92,341 

182,058 

96,896 

780,801 

295,386 

46,457 

4,808,586 

1.099,335 

2,178,592 

42,934 

161,534 

55.442 

635.321 

289,759 

77,457 

4,540,374 

%     ( Increase ) 
£.S               or    > 
e5  )  Decrease) 

De- 
crease 
1.019.523 

In- 
crease 
863,785 

De- 
crease 
402,841 

De- 
crease 

65,095 

De- 
crease 
41.633 

De- 
crease 
346,980 

De- 
crease 

77,194 

In- 
crease 
54,890 

De- 
crease 
1,034,591 

gf    Rate  per) 
S     I       cent,  i 

48-I 

65-7 

90.4 

28.7 

42.9 

35-3 

21.0 

243.2 

18.5 

Restricting  our  survey  to  recent  years,  we  find  that  the  area  under  crops, 
including  meadow  and  clover,  in  1891  was  4,818,381,  while  in  1901  it  was  only 
4,631,051 — a  decrease  of  3.9  per  cent,  m  the  eleven  years.       Taking  100 


1855, 


1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


1890. 


1901. 


\ 1855. 


Oats 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Barley 

Flax 

Pi^atoes 

Tupnips 


Oats 

Meadow 
Wheat 

Bariey     )  I860. 
Flax  / 

Potatoes  I 
Turnips  J 


1870. 


1880. 


Oats 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Barley     \  1890. 

Flax 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Oats 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Barley 

Flax 

Potatoes 

Turnips    , 


1901. 


Diagram  to  illustrate  the  Proportionate  Areas  under  the  Principal  Cereal  and  Root  Crops  and   Meadow  In 
each  of  the  years  1855,   i860,   1870,   i88o,   1890  and  1901. 


Oats 
Meadow 
Wheat 
(  Barley 
Flax 
Potatoes 
Tarnips 

Oats 
Meadow 
Wheat 
I  Barley 
Flax 
Potatoes 
Turnips 

Oats 
Meadow 
Wheat 
I  Barley 
I  Flax 
1  Potatoes 
iTomlpa 

Oats 

Meadow 

Wheal 

Barley 

Flax 

Potatoes 

TurnipB 


a855. 


Oats 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Barley 

Flax 

Potatoes  ! 

Turnips 


1860. 


>1870. 


flSSO. 


1890. 


1901. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE   AND   TECHNICAL   INSTRUCTION    FOR    IRELAND, 
STATISTICS    AND     INTELLIQENCC    BRANCH. 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


309 


statute  acres  of  arable  land  as  the  unit,  we  find  that  there  were  in  each  such 
area  the  following  percentages  devoted  to  the  several  varieties  of  crops  : — 


Cereals. 

Green  Crops. 

Flax. 

Mixed 
Clover. 

1891, 

31.0 

24.7 

1.6 

42.7 

1892,     . . 

30.6 

24.1 

1.4 

43-9 

1893,    . . 

30-5 

23-7 

1.4 

44.4 

1894,     . . 

30.1 

23.6 

2.0 

44-3 

1895.    •  • 

29-5 

23.6 

1.9 

45-0 

1896, 

. .  t          29.3 

23-7 

1-5 

45-5 

1897,    . . 

29.7 

23-5 

•9 

45-9 

1898,     . . 

29.6 

23-5 

•7 

46.2 

1899,     . . 

29.6 

23.8 

.8 

45-8 

1900, 

28.9 

23.6 

I.O 

46.5 

I90I, 

. .  1          28.5 

23-3 

1.2 

47.0 

Net  Changes,   . 

-  2.5 

-  1-4 

-  0.4 

+  4-3 

Comparing  the  year  1901  with  1900  in  regard  to  the  area  under  cereals 
and  green  crops,  we  find  the  following  results 


Cereals— 1901  compared  with  1900. 

Green  CROgs. — 1901  compared  with  1900. 

Barley, 

Wheat 

Oats 

Bere  and  Rye,  . . 
Beans  and  Pease, 

-  12,462 

-  10,887 
-  5.715 

-  433 

-  118 

Potatoes, 

Turnips, 

Vetches  and  Rape, 

Mangel  Wurzel  and  Beet,     . . 

Cabbage, 

"  Other  Green  Crops," 

-  18,758 

-  8,100 
+  269 

+  8,654 
+  607 

-  1,606 

Net  decrease  of  Cereals  in  1901, 
29,615  Acres. 

Net  decrease  of  Green  Crops  in  1901, 
i8,934  Acres. 

The  most  noticeable  features  in  these  Tables  are  the  decreases  in  the 
areas  under  the  cereal  crops,  barley,  wheat  and  oats  (the  last-named  has 
fallen  continuously  from  1,254,837  acres  in  1894  to  1,099,335  acres  in  1901)  ; 
and  the  quite  remarkable  shrinkage  in  the  area  under  potatoes.  The 
present  year  is  the  thirteenth  in  succession  in  which  the  acreage  under 
potatoes  has  decreased.  In  1888  it  stood  at  804,566;  in  1901  it  is  635,321 
— a  decline  of  169,245  acres  in  thirteen  years. 

The  continuing  and  serious  decline  in  the  area  under  turnips  is  also 
worthy  of  attention,  as  is  the  increasing  popularity  amongst  Irish  farmers  of 
mangel  wurzel.  Turnips  and  swedes  have  apparently  been  found  a  pre- 
carious and,  therefore,  an  expensive  crop,  both  in  Ireland  and  Great  Britain, 
if  we  may  judge  from  the  shrinkage  in  the  areas  under  this  class  of  roots. 
Mangel  wurzel  is  less  liable  to  disease,  and  more  and  more  attention  is 
being  devoted  to  its  cultivation  in  this  country.  As  will  be  seen  the  loss  in 
the  area  under  turnips  for  1901  was  practically  identical  with  the  gain  in 
the  area  under  mangel  wurzel. 

Our  industrial  fibre  crop,  flax,  shows,  in  1901  as  compared  with  1900,  an 
increase  of  7,991  acres,  or  16.8  per  cent.,  following  an  increase  of  12,462 
acres,  or  35.6  per  cent.,  in  1900  7is  compared  with  1899.  As  usual,  the  culti- 
vation of  flax  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  Ulster,  the  area  covered  by 
the  crop  being  54,898  acres;  in  Leinster  the  extent  was  only  191  acres; 
in  Munster,  49  acres ;  and  in  Connaught,  304  acres,  to  which  amount  the 
County  Mayo  contributed  273  acres.  In  regard  to  our  chief  cereals,  the  cul- 
tivation of  both  barley  and  wheat — though  more  evenly  distributed  than 
flax — is  still  considerably  localised ;  while  the  culture  of  oats,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  like  that  of  potatoes,  spread  over  almost  every  district  of  the  country. 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


309 


statute  acres  of  arable  land  as  the  unit,  we  find  that  there  were  in  each  such 
area  the  following  percentages  devoted  to  the  several  varieties  of  crops  : — 


— 

Cereals. 

Green  Crops. 

Flax. 

Mixed 
Clover. 

I89I,     .. 

31.0 

24.7 

1.6 

42.7 

1892,     . . 

30.6 

24.1 

1.4 

43-9 

1893.    •  • 

30-5 

23-7 

1.4 

44.4 

1894,     . . 

.. :        30-1 

23.6 

2.0 

44-3 

1895.    .  • 

. .  1          29.5 

23.6 

1.9 

45-0 

1896,     . . 

29.3 

23-7 

1-5 

45-5 

1897,    .. 

..  I          29.7 

23-5 

•9 

45-9 

1898,     . . 

29.6 

23-5 

•7 

46.2 

1899,     . . 

29.6 

23.8 

.8 

45-8 

1900, 

28.9 

23.6 

I.O 

46.5 

I90I, 

28.5 

23-3 

1.2 

47.0 

Net  Changes,   . 

..  '        -  2.5 

-  1-4 

-  0.4 

+  4-3 

Comparing  the  year  1901  with  1900  in  regard  to  the  area  under  cereals 
and  green  crops,  we  find  the  following  results :- 


Cereals— 1901  compared  with  1900. 

Greex  Cross.— 4991  compared  with  1900. 

Barley,  . . 

Wheat 

Oats, 

Bere  and  Rye,  . . 
Beans  and  Pease, 

-  12,462 

-  10,887 
-  5.715 

-  433 

-  118 

Potatoes, 

Turnips, 

Vetches  and  Rape, 

Mangel  Wurzel  and  Beet,     . . 

Cabbage, 

"  Other  Green  Crops," 

-  18,758 

-  8,100 
+  269 

+  8,654 
+  607 

-  1,606 

Net  decrease  of  Cereals  in  1901, 
29,615  Acres. 

Net  decrease  of  Green  Crops  in  1901, 
i8,934  Acres. 

The  most  noticeable  features  in  these  Tables  are  the  decreases  in  the 
areas  under  the  cereal  crops,  barley,  wheat  and  oats  (the  last-named  has 
fallen  continuously  from  1,254,837  acres  in  1894  to  1,099,335  acres  in  1901)  ; 
and  the  quite  remarkable  shrinkage  in  the  area  under  potatoes.  The 
present  yecu-  is  the  thirteenth  in  succession  in  which  the  acreage  under 
potatoes  has  decreased.  In  1888  it  stood  at  804,566;  in  1901  it  is  635,321 
— a  decline  of  169,245  acres  in  thirteen  years. 

The  continuing  and  serious  decline  in  the  area  under  turnips  is  also 
worthy  of  attention,  as  is  the  increasing  popularity  amongst  Irish  farmers  of 
mangel  wurzel.  Turnips  and  swedes  have  apparently  been  found  a  pre- 
carious and,  therefore,  an  expensive  crop,  both  in  Ireland  and  Great  Britain, 
if  we  may  judge  from  the  shrinkage  in  the  areas  under  this  class  of  roots. 
]\Iangel  wurzel  is  less  liable  to  disease,  and  more  and  more  attention  is 
being  devoted  to  its  cultivation  in  this  country.  As  will  be  seen  the  loss  in 
the  area  under  turnips  for  1901  was  practically  identical  with  the  gain  in 
the  area  under  mangel  wurzel. 

Our  industrial  fibre  crop,  flax,  shows,  in  1901  as  compared  with  1900,  aji 
increase  of  7,991  acres,  or  16.8  per  cent.,  following  an  increase  of  12,462 
acres,  or  35.6  per  cent.,  in  1900  aS  compared  with  1899.  As  usual,  the  culti- 
vation of  flax  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  Ulster,  the  area  covered  by 
the  crop  being  54,898  acres;  in  Leinster  the  extent  was  only  191  acres; 
in  Munster,  49  acres  ;  and  in  Connaught,  304  acres,  to  which  amount  the 
County  Mayo  contributed  273  acres.  In  regard  to  our  chief  cereals,  the  cul- 
tivation of  both  barley  and  wheat — though  more  evenly  distributed  than 
flax — is  still  considerably  locahsed ;  while  the  culture  of  oats,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  like  that  of  potatoes,  spread  over  almost  every  district  of  the  country. 


310 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


Barley. 

The  culture  of  barley  on  anything  like  a  large  scale  was  confined  to 
eight  counties.  The  province  of  Leinster  had  under  barley  72  per  cent,  of 
the  total  area  under  that  crop  in  1901,  while  Munster  had  23  per  cent. 
Ulster  and  Connaught  had,  respectively,  3  and  2  per  cent,  of  the  total 
barley  area.  I  append  a  list  of  the  counties  in  which  an  area  of  1,000  acres 
or  upwards  was  under  barley  last  year: — Wexford,  31,000;  Kilkenny, 
19,000;  Queen's  County,  18,000;  Cork  and  Tipperary,  17,000  each;  King's 
County  and  Louth,  14,000  each;  Kildare,  10,000;  Carlow,  5,000;  Galway, 
2,000 ;  Down  and  Kerry,  1,700  each. 

The  following  statement  affords  an  estimate  of  the  total  production  of 
barley  m  Ireland  : — 


YEAR. 

Statute  Acres. 

Yield  (Cvvts.) 

Yield  per  Statute 
Acre  (cwts.) 

Average,  1888-97, 

1898, 

1899, 

,,          1900, 

1901, 

174,000 
158,000 
169,000 
174,000 
162,000 

2,935,000 
2,980,000 
3,040,000 
2,779,000 
2,915,000 

16.9 
18.9 
17.9 
16.0 
18.0 

The  area  under  barley  last  year  was  12,462  less  than  that  for  IQOO,  the 
highest  since  1892  when  the  area  under  that  crop  was  over  175,000  acres. 
The  imports  of  foreign  barley  into  the  United  Kingdom  amount  to  between 
six  and  seven  times  the  total  Irish  produce. 


Wheat. 

While  Ireland  produces  between  one-third  and  one-fourth  of  the  oats 
grown  in  the  United  Kingdom,  her  proportion  of  barley  is  less  than  one- 
tenth,  and  of  wheat  only  about  a  thirty-seventh  part.  Down,  Cork,  Wexford, 
Galway,  Dublin,  Limerick,  Tipperary,  and  Kilkenny  are,  in  the  order  given, 
the  greatest  wheat-growing  districts.  Taking  provinces  as  the  unit,  we 
find  that,  out  of  a  total  area  under  wheat  in  1901  of  42,934  acres,  Munster 
contributed  13,312  acres;  Ulster,  12,498  acres  (Down  alone  having  6,344 
acres,  or  51  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  province) ;  Leinster,  11,885  acres ; 
and  Connaught,  5,239  acres. 


Potatoes. 

The  importance  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland  is  not  so  paramount  as  it 
was  three  or  four  decades  ago,  but  the  potato  still  forms  the  staple  food  of 
a  large  proportion  of  the  poorer  population  of  the  South  and  West  and 
North-west.  As  already  stated,  the  acreage  under  potatoes  in  Ireland  in 
1901  was  635,321  as  compared  with  654,079  in  the  year  1900,  showing  a 
decrease  of  18,758  acres.  Of  the  acreage  under  potatoes  in  1901,  66.4  per 
cent,  consisted  of  "  Champions,"  leaving  only  33.6  per  cent,  for  all  other 
varieties.       From  the  year  1891,  however,  the  proportion  under  "Cham- 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


311 


pions  "  showed  a  gradual  decline  from  79.;  per  cent,  in  that  year  to  66.  i  per 
cent,  in  1900;  but  in  1 901  the  proportion  shows  a  slight  recovery  to  66.4 
per  cent.  Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  season,  the  yield  per  acre  (5.3  tons) 
of  the  potato  crop  in  1901  was  the  highest  in  the  twenty  years  1 882-1 901, 
following  immediately  on  one  of  the  lowest  (2.8  tons)  during  the  same 
period.  The  very  considerable  yearly  fluctuations  in  the  produce  per  acre, 
of  this  staple  crop  is  shown  in  the  following  tabular  statement  i — 


Years 


Tons. 


Year 


Tons. 


Years, 


Tons 


1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886: 
1887 


2.4 
4-3 
3-8 
4.0 

3-3 
4-5 
3-1 


1891, 
1S92, 

1893. 
1894, 

1895. 


3.6 

2-3 
4.0 

3-5 
4.2 
2.6 
4.9 


1897 
1898 
1899, 
1900, 
1901 
Mean, 


3-S 
2.2 
4.4 
4.2 
2.8 
5-3 
3-7 


As  a  general  basis  for  calculating  the  average  annual  value  of  Irish  crops, 
the  following  Table,  prepared  by  Sir  Robert  Giffen  for  the  Financial  Rela- 
tions Commission,  affords  a  careful  estimate  : — 


Quantity  and  Value  of  I 

RisH  Crops  (1889-1893). 

Crop. 

Average 
Annual 
Produce. 

Average 

Price 
Assumed. 

Annual 

Value 

of  Crops. 

Wheat,          

Thousand 
Cwt. 
1,266 

Per  Cwt. 
s.    d. 
7    0 

Thousand 
& 
443 

Oats,             

18,345 

6    6 

5.962 

Barley, 

3.031 

7    0 

1,068 

Bere  and  Rye, 

184 

6    6 

59 

Beans  and  Pease,   . . 

87 

6    6 

29        ; 

Flax,             

314 

55     0 

864 

Potatoes, 

Thousand 
Tons. 

2,669 

Per  Ton. 
s.    d. 
60     0 

8,007 

Turnips, 

4,287 

12     0 

2.572 

Mangold, 

722 

15     0 

542 

Hay,              

4.555 

58     0 

13,210 

Total  Estimated  Value  of  the 

i  Crops, 

32,576 

312  STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


The  estimates  as  to  the  rates  of  produce  of  the  crops  are  necessarily  open 
to  more  objection  on  the  grounds  of  strict  accuracy 

Bates  of  Produce  than  statistics,  for  example,  as  to  the  areas  under 
of  the  Crops.  crops.  The  yield  of  the  crops  depends  not  only  on 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  degree  of  intensive- 
ness  of  the  cultivation,  but  also  upon  climatic  and  seasonal  influences,  and 
consequently  it  is  the  resultant  of  many  variants.  Hence,  no  absolutely 
trustworthy  produce  figures  can  be  obtained  over  a  large  area  without  such 
an  expenditure  of  labour  and  money  as  the  results,  when  attained,  would 
hardly  justify.  At  the  same  time,  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  the  substantial 
truth  of  the  produce  statistics  here  given,  for,  as  already  stated,  they  are 
obtained  by  the  Enumerators  from  practical  farmers  and  other  persons 
qualified  to  form  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  solid 
ground  for  attributing  any  bias,  either  in  the  way  of  exaggerating  or  under- 
estimating the  yield  of  their  crops,  to  those  who  kindly  supply  the  Enume- 
rators with  the  returns. 

Comparing  the  produce  of  the  cereal  crops  in  1901  with  the  produce  in 
1900,  we  find  a  decrease  in  wheat  of  113,656  cwts.,  or  12.6  per  cent.;  in 
bere,  of  337  cwts.,  or  13.5  per  cent. ;  in  pease  of  513  cwts.,  or  8.6  per  cent, 
with  cin  increase  in  oats  of  271,377  cwts.,  or  1.5  per  cent.;  in 
barley  of  136,131  cwts.,  or  4.9  per  cent;  in  rye  of  3,809  cwts., 
or  2.6  per  cent;  in  beans  of  3,169  cwts.,  or  7.3  per  cent  In 
green  crops,  potatoes  show  an  increase  of  1,530,382  tons,  or  83.1  per  cent. ; 
turnips,  an  increase  of  457,874  tons,  or  10.3  per  cent. ;  mangel  wurzel  and 
beet-root,  an  increase  of  265,198  tons,  or  22.3  per  cent.  ;  and  cabbage,  an 
increase  of  19,677  tons,  or  4.4  per  cent  Flax  shows  an  increase  of  495,148 
stones  of  14  lbs.,  or  30.4  per  cent  (following  an  increase  of  483,620  stones,  or 

42.2  per  cent,  in  1900  ;  an  increase  of  69,404  stones,  or  6.5  per  cent,  in  1899  ; 
a  decrease  of  87,707  stones,  or  7.5  per  cent.,  in  1898  as  compared  with  1897  ; 
a  decrease  of  483,213  stones,  or  29.3  per  cent,  in  1897  as  compared  with 
1896;  a  decrease  of  304,173  stones,  or  15.6  per  cent.,  in  1896,  as  compared 
with  1895  ;  a  decrease  of  1,490,281  stones,  or  43.3  per  cent.,  in  1895,  as 
compared  with  1894  ;  and  an  increase  of  980,1 12  stones,  or  39.8  per  cent.,  in 
1894,  as  compared  with  1893) ;  hay  from  clover,  sainfoin,  and  grasses  under 
rotation,  a  decrease  of  59,549  tons,  or  4.4  per  cent ;  and  hay  from  permanent 
pasture  or  grass  not  broken  up  in  rotation,  a  decrease  of  414,677  tons,  or 
10.8  per  cent. ;  the  entire  hay  crop  showing  a  decrease  of  474,226  tons,  or 
9. 1  per  cent. 

The  yield  per  acre  of  cereal  crops  in  1901,  as  compared  with  that 
of  1900,  shows  an  increase  in  wheat  from  16.7  cwts.  to  18.3  cwts.; 
in  oats  from  15.8  cwts.  to  16.2  cwts.;  in  barley  from  16.0  cwts. 
to  18.0  cwts.;  in  bere  from  14. i  cwts.  to  14.4  cwts.;  in  rye  from 
12.8  cwts.  to  13.7  cwts.  ;  in  beans,  from  19.0  cwts.  to  20.8  cwts. ;  in  pease, 
from  13.5  cv/ts.  to  14.8  cwts.  In  other  crops — potatoes  show  an  increase 
from  2.8  tons  to  5.3  tons;  turnips  an  increase  from  14.9  tons  to  16.9  tons; 
mangel  wurzel  and  beet  root,  from  17.2  tons  to  18.8  tons;  and  cabbage, 
from  10.4  tons  to  10.7  tons.  Hay  from  clover,  sainfoin,  and  grasses  under 
rotation  shows  a  decrease  from  2.2  tons  to  2.1  tons;  and  the  yield  of  hay 
from  permanent  pasture  or  grass  not  broken  up  in  rotation,  a  decrease  from 
2.5  tons  to  2.2  tons.     The  yield  per  acre  of  flax  was  38.3  stones,  agamst 

34.3  stones  in  1900,  32.7  stones  in  1899,  31.2  stones  in  1898,  25.6  stones  in 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


313 


1897,  and  22.8  stones  in  1896,  and  20.5  stones  in  1895,  when  the  yield  was 
lower  than  in  any  year  since  iS;i,  with  the  exception  of  1877. 

Statement  showing  the  Estimated  Total  Produce  and  Yield  per  Acre  of  the  principal 
Cereals  in  the  year  1901,  with  comparative  Statements  for  the  year  1900,  and  for 
the  Average  of  the  ten  years  1891-1900,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  and  for  each 
country  separately.  The  figures  for  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Great  Britain, 
have  been  supplied  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  England. 


WHEAT. 

Estimated  Total 
Produce. 

Acreage. 

Estimated  Yield 
per  Acre. 

Average 

of  the 

Ten 

Years 

1891-1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

England,  . . 

Wales 

Scotland,  . . 

Great  Britain,  . . 
Ireland,    . . 

United  Kingdom, 

Bushels.        Bushels. 

49,882,667  [49,528,385 

1,156,673  j   1,332,299 

1,418,262      1,779,125 

Acres. 
1,617,721 
46,882 
36,225 

Acres. 

1,744.556 
51.654 
48,832 

Bushels. 

30.84 
24.67 
39-15 

Bushels. 
28.39 
25-79 
36.43 

Bushels. 
29.91 
24.24 
37.08 

52,457,602   52,639,809 
1,470,127      1,682,284 

1,700,828      1,845,042 
42,934           53,821 

30.84 
34-24 

28.53 
31.26 

29-93 
31.33 

29.97 

53,927,729   54,322,093 

1,743,762      1,898,863 

30-93 

28.61 

BARLEY. 

Estimated  Total 
Produce. 

Acreage 

Estimated  Yield 
per  Acre. 

Average 

of  the 

Ten 

Years 

1891-1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1001.           1900. 

England,  . . 
Wales,       . . 
"Scotland,  . . 

Great  Britain,  . . 
Ireland,    . . 

United  Kingdom, 

49,557.593 
3,016,334 

8,533.696 

1 
50,977,265      1,635,426      1,645,022 
3,341,872         101,907          105,048 
7.995.373  |      235,115         240,195 

30-30 
29.60 
36.30 

30-99 
31.81 

33-29 

33-03 
30.26 

35-79 

61,107,623    62,314,510     1,972,448 
6,530,716     6,225,782         161,534 

1,990,265 
173,996 

30.98 
40.43 

31-31 

35-78 

33-13 

38.34 

67,638,339  168,540,292 

2,133,982 

2,164,261 

31-70 

31.67 

33-53 

OATS. 

Estimated  Total 
Produce. 

Acreage. 

Estimated  Yield 
per  Acre. 

Average 

of  the 

Ten 

Years 

1891-1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

1900. 

England,  . . 
Wales,       . . 
Scotland 

Great  Britain,  . . 
Ireland,    . . 

United  Kingdom, 

67,863,053 

6,490,336 

35,752,141 

73,604,178 

7.238,305 
34,005,054 

1,831,740 
208,773 
956,389 

1,860,513 
216,447 
949.128 

37-05 
31.09 

37-38 

39-56 
33-44 
35-83 

40.38 
33-18 
36.19 

110,105,530 
51,069,002 

"4.S47.537 
50,289,663 

2,996,902 
1.099.335 

3,026,088 
1,105,050 

36.74 
46.45 

37-95 
45-51 

3S-47 
43.61 

161,174.532 

165.137,200 

4,096,237 

4.131,138 

39-35 

39-97 

39.90 

314 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


The  above  estimates  redound  to  the  credit  of  our  Irish  farmers,  as  well 
as  emphasize  the  natural  richness  of  certain  districts  of  Ireland  for  grain 
raising,  and  also  the  differences  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions  between  this 
country  and  Great  Britain.  In  considering  their  significance  regard  must  be 
had  to  the  comparatively  small  areas  under  wheat  and  barley.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  Scotch  farmers  with  a  still  smaller  area  under  wheat,  succeed  in 
raising,  on  an  average,  fully  5  bushels  per  acre  more  than  is  raised  in 
Ireland  ;  while  in  the  case  of  barley,  of  which  cereal  73,000  more  acres  were 
grown  last  year  in  Scotland  than  in  Ireland,  the  estimated  yield  per  acre  for 
this  country  was  but  4  bushels  more  than  that  recorded  for  Scotland.  It  is 
probable,  again,  that  there  is  no  soil  in  the  United  Kingdom  more  suitable 
for  growing  good  barley  crops  than  certain  districts  of  the  County  Wexford, 
the  Cloyne  district  of  County  Cork,  and  portions  of  Lower  Ormond,  in 
North  Tipperary. 

As  illustrating  the  difference  of  gross  yield  in  the  "  extensive  "  farming  of 
a  new  country  as  distinguished  from  "  intensive "  culture,  the  following 
statement  showing  the  estimated  yield  of  the  chief  cereals  in  bushels  per 
acre  for  the  United  States,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  Ireland  in  the  year 
1897  is  of  interest : — 


Average  Yield  per  Acre  (Bushels),  1897. 


United 
States. 

United 
Kingdom. 

Ireland. 

Wheat,             

Barley, 

Oats, 

13.0 
23.8 
26.0 

29.1 
32.9 
38-8 

28.7 
34.0 
39-8 

In  regard  to  green  crops,  while  Ireland  more  than  holds  her  own  in  the 
case  of  turnip  production  per  acre,  the  estimate  of  the  yield  of  the  potato 
crop  in  this  country  is  rem.arkably  lower  than  that  of  England.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  area  under  potatoes  in  Ireland  is,  on  an 
average,  betv/een  three  and  four  hundred  thousand  acres  more  than  the 
same  area  in  England. 

Estimated  Yield  per  Acre  (Tons)  of  certain  Crops.     Average  for  Ten  Years  1889-1898, 


Crops. 

England. 

Wales. 

Scotland. 

Great 
Britain. 

Ireland. 

United 
Kingdom. 

Potatoes, 
Turnips, 

6.05 
12.69 

5-75 
15-13 

5-74 
15.26 

5-95 
13-43 

Z-57 
14-53 

4-58 
13-59 

STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


315 


According  to  the  returns  for  1901,  the  number  of  separate  holdings  was 

590,175,  being  3,458  more  than  in  the  previous  year. 

Namber  of  Holdings   The  holdings  which  decreased  in  number  were  those 

and  "  above  5  and  not  exceeding  15  acres  "  by  333  ;  those 

Number  of  Occupiers,  "above  50  and  not  exceeding  100  acres"  by  169; 

those  "  above  200  and  not  exceeding  500  acres  "  by 

33  ;  and  those  "above  500  acres  by  11."    The  holdings  which  increased  in 

number  were  those  "  not    exceeding    i    acre "    by  2480 ;    those  "  above 

I    acre    and    not  exceeding  5  acres"  by  701;    those  "above  15  and  not 

exceeding  30  acres  "    by  561  ;     those    "  above  30  and  not  exceeding  50 

acres"  by  206;    and  those    "above    100    and  not  exceeding  200  acres" 

by  56. 


Size  of  Holdings. 

Number 
in  1900. 

Number 
in  1901. 

Increase  or  Decrease 
in  1901. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

Not  exceeding  i  Acre, 

71,848 

74,328 

2,480 



Above     I  and  not  exceeding     5  Acres, 

62,154 

62,855 

701 

— 

5             »                    15     ..   •• 

154.751 

154,418 

— 

333 

..       15             ,.                   30     „   .. 

133.530 

134,091 

561 

— 

„      30             „                   50    „   .. 

74,049 

74.255 

206 

— 

„       50             ,,                  100     ,,   . . 

57.576 

57,407 

— 

i6g 

,,     100             „                  200     ,,   . . 

23,051 

23,107 

56 

— 

,,     200             .,                  500     ,,   . . 

8,219 

8,186 

— 

33 

Above  500  Acres, 

1,539 

1,528 

— 

II 

Total,        

586,717 

590,175 

3,458 

— 

As  in  many  instances  landholders  occupy  more  than  one  farm,  and  as  in 
other  cases  farms  extend  into  two  or  more  townlands — the  portion  in  each 
townland  being  enumerated  and  classified  as  a  separate  holding — it  has  been 
considered  desirable,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  number  of  Occupiers, 
and  of  classifying  them  according  to  the  total  extent  of  land  held  by  each, 
to  obtain  a  return  of  the  number  of  persons  having  more  than  one  farm  or 
holding.  Each  Enumerator  is,  therefore,  required  to  furnish  the  name  of 
every  landholder  residing  in  his  district  who  has  two  or  more  farms,  or 
whose  farm  extends  into  two  or  more  townlands,  together  with  the  area  of 
each  portion  and  the  locality  in  which  it  is  situated.  From  the  number  of 
actual  occupiers  thus  arrived  at,  it  appears  that  in  1901  there  were  590,175. 
holdings  in  the  hands  of  543,238  occupiers. 


316 


STATISTICAL   SURVEY  OF   IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


The  number  of  separate  holding's  and  the  number  of  occupiers  in  each 
province  in  1900  and  1901,  respectively,  were : — 


Pkovincks. 

Number  of  Separate 
Holdings. 

Numbers  of  Occupiers. 

1900.                    1901. 

1900. 

1901. 

Leinster, 
Munster, 

Ulster.               

Connaught, 

Total 

128,325 
134,340 
201,280 
122,772 

129,901 
136,168 
201,403 
122,703 

116,104 
122,780 

189,559 
116,116 

116,721 
123,436 
187,904 

115,177 

586,717 

590,175 

544,559 

543,238 

The  total  number  of  occupiers  of  land  returned  in  1901  was  543,238, 
being  1,321  less  than  in  the  previous  year.  Excluding  those  holding  land 
"  not  exceeding  one  acre,"  who  are  to  a  great  extent  merely  occupiers  of 
small  gardens,  the  landholders  numbered  470,004  in  1901,  or  3,452  less  than 
in  1900,  the  number  in  Leinster  having  decreased  by  505 — from  92,039  in 

1900  to  91,534  in  1901  ;  in  Ulster  by  2,198 — from  170,743  in  1900  to  168,545 
in  1901  ;   and  in  Connaught  by  830 — from  109,646  in  1900  to  108,816  in 

1901  ;  but  increased  in  Munster  by  81 — from  101,028  in  1900  to  101,109  in 
1901.  There  \va.=  a  decrease  of  3,750  in  occupiers  holding  land  above  i  and 
not  exceeding  50  acres,  and  the  number  holding  land  exceeding  the  latter 
acreage  increased  by  298. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  occupiers  of  land  in  each 
year  from  1895  to  1901  by  provinces  : — 


Provinces. 

Number  of  Occupiers  in  the  Year. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

Leinster,      . . 
Munster,     . . 

Ulster,         

Connaught, 

Ireland, 

111,573 
116,758 
187,967 
"5,575 

111,856 
117,170 
188,337 
115,680 

112,722 

117,175 
187,963 

"5.654 

113,687 
"7.974 
187,837 
115,860 

117,651 
121,604 
188,742 
"6,157 

116,104 
122,780 

189^559 
116,116 

116,721 
123,436 
187,904 

"5.177 

531,873 

533,043 

533,514 

535.358 

544.154 

544.559 

543,238 

The  number  of  holdings  "  above  i  and  not  exceeding  5  acres  "  diminished 
enormously  between  1841  and  1901.  In  Leinster  the  decrease  was  64.6 
per  cent. ;  in  Munster,  78.8  ;  in  Ulster  80.2  ;  in  Connaught,  87.5  ;  and  in  all 
Ireland  79.8  per  cent.  In  the  same  period  holdings  "  above  5  and  not 
exceeding  1 5  acres  "  diminished ;  the  decrease  in  all  Ireland  was  39.0  per 
cent.  In  Leinster  the  decrease  was  45.0  per  cent. ;  in  Munster,  68.3  ;  and  in 
Ulster  36.6 ;  while  in  Connaught,  on  the  other  hand,  these  holdings  in- 
creased 2.1  per  cent.  Holdings  "above  15  and  not  exceeding  30  acres" 
increased  6.1  per  cent,  in  Leinster ;  1 13.3  per  cent,  in  Ulster  ;  and  486.0  per 
cent,  in  Connaught;  they  decreased  1 2.2  per  cent,  in  Munster.  In  all 
Ireland  they  increased  69.0  per  cent.     Holdings  "  above  30  acres  "  increased 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE.  317 

1 19.4  per  cent,  in  Leinster ;  245.3  i^i  Munster ;  361.5  in  Ulster;  427.7  in 
Connaught ;  and  238.3  per  cent,  m  all  Ireland.  The  total  number  of  hold- 
ings "  above  i  acre  "  decreased  between  1841  and  1901  by  22.5  per  cent,  in 
Leinster;  30.7  per  cent,  in  Munster;  23.2  in  Ulster;  25.5  in  Connaught, 
and  25.4  in  all  Ireland. 

The  question  of  cultivation  on  a  small  and  on  a  large  scale  has  always 
occupied  the  attention  of  economists,  and  is,  beyond  doubt,  one  of  great 
social  and  economic  importance.  The  difficulties  of  any  international  com- 
parisons as  to  size  of  holding,  are,  however,  very  serious.  "  That  the  average 
size  of  a  farm  in  France  is  12}^  acres,  while  in  the  United  States  it  is  137^ 
shows  simply  (it  has  been  well  said)  that  the  two  systems  of  agriculture  are 
entirely  different — nothing  more."*  This  applies  not  merely  to  compari- 
sons between  different  countries,  but  also,  though  probably  in  a  less  degree,, 
to  comparisons  of  different  periods  in  the  same  country.  The  gradual  sub- 
stitution of  pasture  for  tillage  which  has  marked  the  last  half  century  in 
Ireland  was  necessarily  accompanied  by  a  consolidation  of  holdings  and  a 
proportionate  increase  in  the  number  of  the  larger-sized  farms.  Not  many 
people,  perhaps,  realize  the  full  extent  of  this  great  transformation  in  rural 
Ireland.  With  a  view  to  bringing  out  its  magnitude  and  significance,  I 
have  prepared  a  table  showing  the  number  of  each  class  of  holdings  above 
one  acre ;  the  percentage  of  each  class  to  the  total  of  holdings  above  one- 
acre  ;  and  the  decrease  by  decades  in  the  number  of  holdings.  It  will 
be  seen  from  this  Table  that,  while  in  1841  holdings  between  i  and  15  acres 
were  81.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  of  holdings  above  i  acre,  in  1901  they  were 
but  42.1  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  holdings  between  15  and  30  acres 
have  increased  from  11.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  of  holdings  above  an  acre  in 
1 841  to  26.0  in  1901  ;  and  those  above  30  acres  in  the  same  period  from  7.0 
to  31.9.  In  the  decade  1 841 -51 — the  famine  decade — the  number  of  hold- 
ings above  i  acre  shows  the  remarkable  decline  of  120,864 — the  decrease  of 
those  between  i  and  5  acres  reaching  the  extraordinary  figure  of  222,353. 
In  succeeding  decades  the  decreases  are  respectively — 1,854;  24,342; 
17,399;  9'73i'  s"d  finally  1,165  between  1891  and  1901.  From  185 1  to- 
1 89 1  there  was  a  gradual  decline  in  the  absolute  number  of  holdings  between 
15  and  30  acres,  though  the  percentage  of  this  class  of  holding  to  the  total 
holdings  above  an  acre  has  increased  from  24.8  per  cent,  in  1851  to  25.9  in 
1 89 1,  while  between  1891  and  1901  there  has  been  a  small  increase  in  num- 
ber and  percentage,  viz.,  144  and  o.i  respectively.  The  holdings  above  30 
acres,  have,  on  the  contrary,  continuously  increased  both  absolutely  and 
relatively  to  the  total  number  of  holdings  above  one  acre.  In  1851  the 
number  of  this  class  of  holding  was  149,090,  and  the  percentage  of  the  total 
holdings  above  i  acre  26.1  ;  in  1901  the  numbers  were  164,483,  and  the  per- 
centage 31.9.  The  increase  of  large  farms  (that  is,  those  above  30  acres} 
between  1841  and  1901  has  been  at  the  following  rates  per  cent,  in  the 
different  provinces: — Leinster,  119.4  per  cent;  Munster,  245.3  P^r  cent; 
Ulster,  361.5  per  cent ;  and  Connaught,  427.7  per  cent.  The  following 
comparative  statement  is  of  interest  in  this  connection : — 


Persons  engaged  in  Agriculture, 

Farm  Labourers,  Farm  Servants  (Males), 

Holdings  between  One  (i)  and  Thirty  (30)  Acres, 


Mayo-Smith — Statistics  and  Economics,  1899,  p.  152, 


1841. 

1891. 

,844,000 

937,000 

,229,000 

258,000 

643,000 

354.000 

318 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


The  following  is  the  Table  to  which  reference  is  made  above  : — 
Table  showing  the  Size  of  Farms  in  Ireland. 


—  ^ 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Decrease 
in  No.  of 
Holdings 

per 
Decade. 

I84I. 

Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding    5  Acres, 
5  Acres         „           „             15     „ 
„       15       „             „           „             30     „ 
„       30       „              

310,436 

252,799 
79,342 
48,625 

44.9 
36.6 

II-5 
7.0 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

691,202 

1 00.0 

— 

1851, 

Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding    5  Acres, 
„        5  Acres        „          „            15     „ 
„       15       „            „           „            30     „ 
„       30      „             

88,083 
191,854 

141,311 
149,090 

15-5 
33.6 
24.8 
26.1 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

570,338 

1 00.0 

120,864 

1861. 

Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding    5  Acres 
,,         5  Acres         ,,             ,,         15     ,, 
„       15     „              „            „        30     „ 
„      30     „               

85.469 
183,931 
141. 251 
157,833 

15.0 

32.4 

24.8 
27.8 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

568,484 

loo-o 

1,854 

1871. 

Above     I  Acre  and.  not  exceeding    5  Acres 
,,         5  Acres         ,,             ,,          15     ,, 
„       15     „              ,.            „          30     „ 
„       30     „               

74.809 
171,383 
138,647 

159.303 

13-7 
31-5 
25-5 
29-3 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

544,142 

1 00.0 

24.342 

1881. 

Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding  5  Acres 
,,         5  Acres         ,,             ,,         15     „ 
„       15     „              „            „        30     „ 
„       30    „               

67,071 
164,045 
135.793 
159.834 

12.7 

3I-I 

25.8 
30.4 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

526,743 

100.0 

17,399 

1891. 
Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding    5  Acres 
,,         5  Acres         ,,             ,,         15     ,, 
15     „              „             „         30     „ 
,.       30     „               

63,464 
156,661 

133,947 
162,940 

12.3 
30.3 
25-9 
31-5 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

517,012 

100. 0 

9.731 

1901. 

Above     I  Acre  and  not  exceeding    5  Acres 
,,         5  Acres         ,,             ,,         15     ,, 
„       15     „              „             „         30     „ 
,.       30     „               _ 

62.855 

154,418 

134.091 
164,483 

12.2 
29.9 
26.0 
31-9 

— 

Total  above  i  Acre 

515,847                  lOO.O 

1,165 

No  statistics,  unfortunately,  of  the  relative  portions  of  the  area    of  culti- 


STATISTICAL  SURVEV  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


319 


vated  land  comprised  in  each  of  the  above  group  of  holdings  are  available 
for  Ireland.  This  proportion  would  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
before  the  full  significance  of  the  distribution  of  farms  in  this  country  could 
be  appreciated.  The  following  Table,  taken  from  the  French  Statistique 
Agricole,  1897,  brings  out  the  importance  of  this  point,  and  is  of  interest  m 
itself.     The  details  given  are  for  the  year  1 892  : — 


— 

No.  of 
Farms. 

Area  in 
Hectares. 

Per           Per 

Cent,  of    Cent,  of 
No.          Area. 

Average 

Size 
(in  Hec- 
tares). 

Under  i  Hectare  (2^  Acres) 
I  Hectare  to  10  (2^-25  Acres) 
10  to  40  Hectares  (25-100  Acres) 
Over  40  Hectares  (over  100  Acres,) 

2,235,405 

2,617,558 
711,118 
138,671 

1,327,300 
11,244,700 
14,313,400 
22,493,400 

39-2 

45-9 

12.5 

2.4 

2.7 
22.8 
29.0 
45-5 

0.59 

4.29 

20,13 

162.21 

5,702,752 

49,378,800 

1 00.0 

1 00.0 

8.65 

This  Table  shows  that,  while  nearly  two-fifths  of  all  French  farms  are 
below  one  hectare,  or  two  and  a-half  acres,  this  class  of  holding  covers  only 
slightly  more  than  two  and  one  half  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area  of  the 
country.  It  will  further  be  seen  that  the  most  important  category  of  hold- 
ings in  France  seems  to  be  that  of  farms  from  one  to  ten  hectares.  These 
farms  cover  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  under  cultivation,  and  axe 
close  on  half  the  total  number  of  holdings.  The  average  farm  in  France  is, 
it  will  be  noticed,  about  twenty-two  acres ;  in  Great  Britain  the  average 
farm  is  sixty-three  acres  ;  and  in  England  as  much  as  sixty-five  acres. 
Some  interesting  results  bearing  on  the  size  of  holdings  were  brought  out 
by  the  agricultural  statistics  of  Belgium  collected  in  1895.  From  these  very 
full  returns  it  appears  that  the  number  of  agricultural  holdings  in  Belgium 
was  572,550  in  1846 ;  in  1866  it  had  increased  to  744,007,  or  by  30  per  cent. 
From  1866  to  1880  the  increase  went  on  by  more  than  166,000,  or  22.4  per 
cent.  But  the  number  of  farms,  which  had  increased  to  744,007  in  1866, 
and  from  that  to  910,386  in  1880,  falls  in  1895  to  829,625,  a  decrease  of 
nearly  81,000,  or  8.8  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  average  size  of  the 
Belgian  farms  has  increased  in  recent  years.  In  1846  the  average  plot  was 
4.54  hectares;  it  fell  in  1866  to  3.57  hectares;  in  1880  to  2.90  hectares; 
while  in  1895  it  rose  to  3.14  hectares.  It'appears  further  from  the  official 
returns  of  Belgium  that,  while  the  number  of  holdings  has  been  declining 
since  1880,  what  may  be  called  the  medium  farms  (five  to  ten  hectares)  and 
large  farms  (ten  to  twenty  hectares)  are  increasing,  especially  the  latter.  A 
marked  increase  in  the  number  of  Belgian  farms  above  twenty  hectares  is 
a^so  revealed  by  these  statistics,  which  show  generally  a  significant  arrest 
of  that  division  of  property  which  had  gone  on  in  Belgium  without  inter- 
ruption till  1880,  and  a  correlative  tendency  towards  the  concentration  of 
land  in  the  hands  of  medium  and  large  proprietors. 

An  examination  of  the  tables  devoted  to  Live  Stock  will  show  that  64,773 

cattle  were  added  to  our  Irish  herds  in  1901.     This 

forms  the  highest  total — 4,673,323 — ever  recorded  for 

Irish    cattle    since    these    agricultural    statistics    have 

been  first  collected.     The  increase,  it  will  be  seen,  has 

been  progressive  since  1895.     Pigs  have,  on  the  other  hand,  declined  very 

considerably.     At  the  period  of  the  enumeration  in  1901,  the  total  number 

of  horses  in  Ireland  was  564,916,  being  a  decrease  of  2,062  compared  with 


Live  Stock. 


320 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


the  number  for  1900.  There  was  a  decrease  of  17,271  in  the  number  "two 
years  old  and  upwards,"  but  an  increase  of  9,243  in  the  "  one  year  old  and 
under  two,"  and  of  5,966  in  those  "  under  one  year."  The  number  of  Mules 
was  28,882,  or  1,796  less  than  1900,  and  the  number  of  Asses  238,980, 
being  a  decrease  of  3,267.  Horses,  Mules,  and  Asses  taken  together  num- 
bered 839,903  in  1900,  and  832,778  in  1901,  being  a  decrease  of  7,125,  or 
0.8  per  cent,  in  the  latter  year ;  compared  with  the  average  number  for  the 
ten  years  1 891-1900,  they  show  a  decrease  of  28,541,  or  3.3  per  cent.  As 
bearing  on  the  relative  position  of  Ireland  and  other  countries  in  regard  to 
the  proportion  of  her  flocks  and  herds  to  each  1,000  acres  of  their  total 
areas,  the  following  Table,  prepared  by  Major  P.  G.  Craigie  and  quoted  in  a 
paper  read  by  him  as  President  of  the  Economic  Section  of  the  British 
Association  in  1900,  is  of  interest: — 


Per  1,000  Acres  of  Total  Area, 

Persons. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

Ireland, 

Scotland, 

Hungary, 

Denmark, 

France, 

Switzerland,     . . 

Austria, 

Wales, 

219 
220 
232 
248 
293 
311 
320 

345 

230 

64 

85 
186 

103 
132 

117 

147 

215 
390 
100 

"5 

164 

•    27 

43 

685 

60 

7 
92 

88 
48 

57 
48 

50 

On  this  Table  Major  Craigie  commented  as  follows : — 
"  Thus  Wales  bears  easily  the  palm  as  regards  the  total  stock  of  sheep 
carried,  while  Ireland,  with  a  population  practically  bearing  a  similar  ratio  to 
that  of  Scotland  to  her  surface,  has  more  than  three  times  as  dense  a  stock 
of  cattle  and  more  than  eight  times  as  many  pigs,  although  not  more  than  half 
as  many  sheep,  to  1,000  acres.  Although  beaten  as  regards  the  number  of 
pigs  maintained  in  a  given  area  by  Denmark  and  by  Hungary,  Ireland's  cattle 
are  more  than  twice  as  numerous,  relatively,  as  those  of  France,  where  the 
population  is  not  so  very  different  in  proportion  to  the  soil." 

This  is  certainly  satisfactory  so  far  as  the  Live  Stock  columns  in  the 
Table  are  concerned.  Taking  a  wider  survey  of  time,  but  confining  the 
Table  to  Ireland,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  decline  in  population  has  been  as 
continuous  as  the  increase  in  cattle. 

Per  1,000  Acres  of  Total  Area. 


Year. 

Persons. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

1851,  . 

315 

143 

102 

52 

1861,  . 

279 

167 

171 

52 

1871,  . 

260 

191 

203 

78 

1881,  . 

249 

195 

156 

53 

1891,  . 

226 

214 

227 

66 

1901,  . 

219 

230 

215 

60 

Net  Change,     . 

-96=30-5% 

-t-87  =  6o-8% 

4-113  =  110-8% 

+8=15-4% 

The  number  of  Sheep  in  1901  was  4,378,750,  being  8,126  less  than  the 


STATISTICAL  SURVEY  OF  IRISH  AGRICULTURE. 


321 


number  for  the  previous  year,  but  51,947,  or  1.2  per  cent,  more  than  the 
average  for  the  ten  years  1 891 -1900,  the  "one  year  old  and  upwards"  in- 
creased 405,  as  compared  with  the  number  in  1900,  while  those  "  under  one 
year"  decreased  by  8,531,  or  0.5  per  cent.  Pigs  were  returned  as  1,219,935 
in  1901,  showing  a  decrease  of  49,386,  or  3.9  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  the 
previous  year.  The  "one  year  old  and  upwards"  increased  by  31,145,  or 
23.0  per  cent,  while  those  "  under  one  year  "  decreased  by  80,531,  of  7.1  per 
cent.  Comparing  the  number  of  Pigs  returned  in  1901  with  the  average  for 
the  ten  years  1 891 -1900,  we  find  a  decrease  of  78,782,  or  6.2  per  cent. 
The  number  of  Goats  in  1901  was  312,409,  being  6,331  more  than  in  1900, 
and  343  or  O.i  per  cent,  under  the  average  for  the  ten  years  1 891 -1900. 
Poultry  numbered  18,810,717  in  1901,  being  263,410  more  than  in  1900, 
and  1,906,463,  or  1 1.3  per  cent,  over  the  average  for  the  ten  years  1 891 -1900. 
Of  the  18,810,717  Poultry  in  1901,  1,124,975  were  Turkeys;  1,962,359 
Geese;  3,040,880  Ducks;  and  12,682,503  ordinary  Fowl.  Compared  with 
1900  Turkeys  increased  by  16,333,  Geese  decreased  by  45,360,  Ducks  in- 
creased by  13,770,  and  ordinary  Fowl  increased  by  278,667. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  Milch  Cows  in  Ireland  m 
each  year  from  1854 — the  first  year  in  which  Milch  Cows  were  separately 
enumerated — to  1901.  The  average  number  for  the  first  five  years  of  the 
period  v.^as  1,579,851,  and  for  the  last  five  years,  1,450,106,  being  a  decline  of 
129,745,  or  8.2  per  cent.  The  highest  number  in  any  on?  year  was 
1,690,389  in  1859,  and  the  lowest  1,348,886  in  1864.  The  number  for  last 
year  was  1,482,483,  being  42,915  over  the  average  for  the  preceding  five 
years,  and  24,409  over  the  number  for  1900.  The  number  of  Milch  Cows 
enumerated  for  1901  was  higher  than  that  for  any  year  since  1879. 

Statement  showing  the  number  of  Milch  Cows  in  Ireland  in  each  year  from  1854 — 
the' first  year  in  which  the  Milch  Cows  were  separately  enumerated — to  igor,  with 
the  Proportion  per  cent,  each  year  to  the  Total  Cattle  enumerated. 


Proportion 

Proportion 

Yeaks. 

No.  of 

per  Cent. 

Yi 

..,,..         No.  of 

per  Cent, 
to  Total  Cattle 

Milch  Cows. 

to  Total  Cattle 

•"■"•      MUch  Cows. 

enumerated. 

enumerated. 

1S54, 

1,517.672 

43-4 

1878 

1,484,315 

37-2 

1855, 

1,561,296 

43-^ 

1879 

1,46^.818 

36.0 

1856, 

1.579.529 

44.0 

iSSo 

1,398,047 

35-6 

1857, 

1,605,350 

44-3 

1881 

1,392,0x2 

35-2 

185S, 

1,635,409 

44.6 

1882 

1,399,005  ■ 

35-1 

1859, 

1,690,389 

44-3 

1883 

1,402,324 

34-2 

i860, 

1,626,453 

45-1 

1884 

1,356,585 

33-0 

1861, 

1. 545,168 

44-5 

1885 

1,417,423 

33-5 

1862, 

1,486,835 

45-7 

1886 

1,418,644 

33-9 

1863, 

1,396,924 

44.4 

1887 

••  '   1,394,135 

33-5 

1864, 

1,348,886 

41-3 

1888 

..  ,   1,384,771 

33-8 

1865, 

1,387,448 

39-7 

1889 

•  •  '   1,363,781 

33.3 

1866, 

1,482,616 

39-6 

1890 

1,400,527 

33-0 

1867, 

1,521,053 

41.0 

1891 

1,442,268 

32.4 

1868, 

1,476,339 

40-5 

1892 

1,451,059 

32.0 

1869, 

1,506,038 

40-3 

1893 

1,441,329 

32-3 

1870, 

1,529,024 

40.2 

1894 

1,447,441 

33-0 

1871, 

1,545,662 

38.9 

1895 

1,433,988 

32.9 

1872, 

1,551,784 

38.2 

1896 

1,429,795 

32.4 

1S73, 

1,528,136 

36.8 

1897 

1,434,925 

32.1 

1874, 

1,491,375 

36.2 

1898 

1,431,192 

31-9 

1875. 

1,530,366 

37-2 

1899 

1,443,855 

32.0 

1876, 

1,532,974 

37-2 

1900 

..  i   1,458,074 

31.6 

1877, 

1,522,811 

38.1 

1901 

1,482,483 

31-7 

322 


STATISTICAL   SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


A  more  accurate  idea  of  the  number  of  Live  Stock  produced  in  Ireland 
is  furnished  when  we  take  into  account  the  export  trade,  the  extent  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  subjoined  statement : — 

Exports  of  Live  Stock  from  Ireland  to  Great  Britain. 


Average  of  3  Years.                Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Pigs. 

1                                                       : 

1854,  5,  and  6,             . .          24^2,280            482,830            241,293 
1864,  5,  and  6.              ..    1      331,417      [      367,486            408,740 
1874,  5,  and  6,              ..   ;      634,052             783.007            440,423 
1884,  5,  and  6,              ..         691,234             632,196            425,509 
1894,  5,  and  6,              . .          766,707            782,328            580,925 
Year  1901,                   . .         642,638            843,325            596,129 
i                        ''■                        ' 

The  growth  in  the  export  trade  between  1855  and  1875  is  remarkable,  as 
is  also  the  expansion  in  the  export  trade  of  sheep  and  pigs  in  recent  years. 
Another  aspect  of  the  extent  of  the  trade  is  presented  in  the  Table  that  fol- 
lows : — 


Table  showing  the  Percentage  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine  Exported  from 
Ireland  to  Great  Britain  to  the  Total  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine  enumerated 
as  in  Ireland  in  each  of  the  Years  1891  to  1901. 


Year. 

Percentage  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine 

Exported  to  Total  Cattle,  Sheep, 

and  Swine  in  Ireland. 

Cattle.            j            Sheep. 

Swine.    * 

1891,      

1892 

1893.      

1894.      

1895.      

1896, 

1897 

1898,      

1899,      

1900, 

1901,      

14.2 
13.8 

15-4 
1S.8 
18.2 

15-5 
16.7 
17.9 
17.1 
16.2 
13.8 

18.9 
22.4 
25.1 
23-3 
16.7 
18.1 

19-3 
19.4 
20.0 
19.7 
19-3 

36.8 
45-0 
39-6 
42.1 
40.9 
43-5 
52.4 
47.0 

50-5 
56.4 
48.9 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  export  trade  in  cattle  is  a  store  cattle  trade. 
In  1 90 1  the  proportion  of  fat  cattle  to  stores  was  261,690  of  the  former  to 
344.954  of  the  latter.  About  46.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  stores  exported  go  to 
Scotland,  while  as  much  as  74.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  cattle  shipped  to 
Scotland  are  store  cattle.  In  fact  it  would  appear  from  these  figures  that  a 
large  number  of  Scotch  farmers  must  have  given  up  breeding  stock  of  their 
own  since  they  find  such  a  supply  of  young  cattle  raised  on  Irish  pastures 
ready  to  their  hand — a  fact  that  would,  in  a  measure,  explain  the  very  high 
percentage  of  the  cultivated  land  of  Scotland  which  is  under  the  plough. 
The  extensive  pasture  lands  of  this  country  enable  the  farmers  of  Great 
Britain,  and  especially  those  of  Scotland,  to  forego,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  raising  young  stock.  The  frames  of  the  store  cattle 
exported  from  Ireland  are  built  up  out  of  our  Irish  grasslands — the  animals 


ST.\TI.STICAL   SUR\  EV   OF    IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


323 


Forestry. 


being  fattened  and  "  finished  "  in  Great  Britain.  This  interesting  instance 
of  a  territorial  divison  oi  labour,  within  the  sphere  of  agriculture,  between 
different  countries,  affords  evidence,  for  one  thing,  of  the  fine  bone-pro- 
ducing quahties  of  the  great  limestone  plains  of  Ireland.  At  the  same  time 
so  great  an  expansion  of  the  export  trade  in  store  cattle  as  has  now  taken 
place  involves  an  exhausting  dram  on  a  great  natural  resource  of  the  country. 
Only  about  ij4  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  Ireland  is  under  woods, 
while  there  is  over  23  per  cent,  of  uncultivated  land 
in  the  country.  The  woods  in  England  are  5.1  per 
cent,  in  Scotland  4.5,  and  in  Wales  3.8  per  cent,  of  the 
total  areas.  Dr.  Schlich,  in  his  Report  on  the  Affores- 
tation of  Ireland,  1885,  estimates  that  about  2,000,000  acres  of  the  total 
waste  land  of  this  country  could  be  made  available  for  plantations.  Profes- 
sor Fisher,  of  the  Royal  Indian  Engineering  College,  endorses  this  view, 
and  adds :— -"  Tenants  and  graziers  who  would  oppose  the  planting  of 
2,000,000  acres  of  the  waste  lands  of  Ireland,  must  be  extremely  short- 
sighted people  ;  the  greatest  of  all  wants  in  Ireland  is  an  investment  of 
capital  of  this  kind,  an  investment  which  will  yield  an  enormous  return  in 
affording  labour  to  the  people,  and  in  supplying  raw  material  for  industries 
which  cannot  prosper  without  it,  as  well  as  timber  for  export,  and  for  the 
improvement  of  farms  and  dwellings."*  There  is  annually  imported  into 
the  United  Kingdom  from  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  and  other  countries 
timber  valued  at  over  nine  millions  sterling,  of  a  kind  that  could  be  grown 
in  these  islands,  that  is  eliminating  such  exotic  woods  as  teak,  mahogany, 
and  the  hard  woods  of  Australia.  In  view  of  these  considerations,  it  js 
unsatisfactory  to  find  that  there  has  been  a  net  decHne  of  30,117  acres  since 
1880. 

Inquiries  relative  to  woods  and  plantations,  showing  the  extent  in  acres  of 
each  class  of  timber,  were  made  in  connection  with  the  Census  of  1841. 
The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  acreage  under  each  kind  of  tree  (exclu- 
sive of  detached  trees)  in  that  year,  distinguishing  the  periods  in  which  the 
trees  were  planted  : — 


Period  in  which                 >^„,- 
Planted.                  |     O**^- 

Ash. 

Elm. 

Beech. 

■"- 

Mixed.           Total. 

1    Acres.       Acres. 
Previous  to  1 791,         ..:    22,784      2,677 
1791 — 1800,                   ..        1,493         927 
1801— 1810,                   ..       1,327  i       68g 
1811 — 1820,                   ..        1,393         679 
1821 — 1830,                   ..;      1,342  '\      442 
1831— 1840,                   ..'      1,197  j       628 

Acres. 
497 
135 
134 
131 
140 
380 

Acres. 
939 
384 

•  342 
279 

730 
600 

Acres. 
1,612 

1,243 
2,691 

5,496 
7,684 
6,513 

Acres. 

76,587 
22,399 
31,087 
42,878 
51.456 
55,689 

Acres. 
105,096 
26,581 
36,270 
50,856 
61,794 
65,007 

Total,                     . .     29,536      6,042 

1.417        3.274 

25,239    I    280,096 

i 

345,604 

Since  185 1  (with  the  exception  of  the  year  1852)  the  acreage  under  woods 
and  plantations  has  been  ascertained  annually  in  connection  with  the  Agri- 
cultural Statistics;  but  until  the  year  1891  the  total  extent  was  the  only 
information  sought  for,  no  particulars  as  to  the  kind  of  trees  having  been 
obtained.  In  that  year  returns  giving  the  latter  information  were  collected 
and  the  results  were  published  in  a  Table  showing  by  counties  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  various  descriptions  of  trees. 

*  See  Lecture  on  Forestry,  given  before  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  March  3,  1899. 


324 


STATISTICAL   SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE. 


The  following  Table  shows  the  acreage  under  woods  and  plantations  in 
the  year  1851,  and  in  each  year  from  1853  to  1901,  inclusive : — 


Acreage -under  Woods  and  Plantations. 


Year. 

Statute  Acres. 

Year. 

Statute  Acres. 

Year. 

Statute  Acres. 

1851 

304,906 

1868 

322,258 

1885 

329,447 

1852 

No  Return. 

1869 

320,461 

1886 

329,662 

1853 

305,221 

1870 

320,853 

1887 

329.363 

1854 

308,352 

1871 

324.990 

1888 

331.587 

1855 

306,476 

1872 

325.703 

1889 

326,343 

1856 

306,086 

1873 

323.65G 

1890 

327,461 

1857 

313,817 

1874 

322,268 

1S91 

311-554 

1858 

313,271 

1875 

318,665 

1892 

309.586 

1859 

318.874 

1876 

324.152 

1893 

307.386 

i860 

315.324 

1877 

329.53G 

1894 

309.276 

1 861 

316,597 

1878 

328,687 

1S95 

308,928 

1862 

317.345 

1879 

336,846 

1896 

307.407 

1863 

317.134 

1880 

339,858 

1897 

307,441 

1864 

318,983 

1881 

328,703 

1898 

307,661 

1865 

322,152 

1882 

328,999 

1899 

308.495 

1866 

327,890 

1883 

331.245 

1900 

311,648 

1867 

323.420 

1884 

332,006 

1901 

,-5  .. 

309.741 

The  above  statement  shows  that,  during  the  period  1851-1901,  the  num- 
ber of  acres  under  woods  and  plantations  varied  from  304,906  in  1851  to 
339,858  in  1880,  and  that,  comparing  1901  with  185 1,  there  has  been  an 
increase  of  1.6  per  cent.,  the  extent  in  1851  being  304,906  statute  acres, 
and  in  1901,  309,741  acres. 

The  inquiries  into  forestry  operations  instituted  in  1890,  and  continued 
in  the  nine  following  years,  were  repeated  in  1901.  During  the  year  ended 
30th  June,  1901,  1,740  acres  were  planted  with  trees,  1,1 11  acres  more  than 
the  extent  planted  in  the  preceding  year.  In  connection  with  this  subject, 
it  may  be  here  mentioned  that  from  the  passing  of  the  Act  29  and  30  Vic, 
cap.  40,  to  the  31st  March,  1901,  137  loans,  for  ^32,005,  were  sanctioned  for 
planting  for  shelter,  and  of  this  number  four  loans  for  ;^955  were  sanctioned 
in  the  last  year  of  that  period.  The  number  of  trees  felled,  both  for  clear- 
ance and  for  thinning  plantations,  amounted  to  941,132.  The  area  returned 
as  cleared  is  1,212  acres.*  Of  the  trees  felled,  462,481  were  used  for  "  prop- 
ping," which  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  purpose  to  which  the  timber  of 
almost  all  descriptions  was  applied.  The  numbers  applied  to  the  principal 
specified  uses  comprise  also: — 13,722  trees  for  sleepers,  24,712  for  paling, 
27,101  for  fuel,  14,893  for  furniture  and  building  purposes,  4,981  for  carts, 
v.'agons,  etc.,  8,550  for  telegraph  and  telephone  poles,  and  3,615  for  clog 
soles. 

In  addition  to  the  information  regarding  the  total  area  under  woods  and 
plantations,  returns  were  obtained  in  1901  showing  the  proportion  of  the 
area  entered  under  this  heading  occupied  by  each  of  the  various  kinds  of 

*  It  will  be  noticed  that  while,  according  to  the  Table  quoted  above,  there  would  appear  to 
have  been  a  decrease  of  1,907  acres  under  woods  and  plantations,  from  these  forestry  statistics 
there  would,  on  the  contrary,  appear  to  have  been  an  increase  of  528  acres  under  woods. 
This  is  a  somewhat  serious  discrepancy,  but  there  are  very  considerable  difficulties  in  ascertain- 
ing the  area  under  woods  and  plantations  from  a  very  large  number  of  persons,  many  of  whom 
are  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  acreage  under  timber  on  their  holdings. 


STATISTICAL   SURVEY  OF   IRISH   AGRICULTURE.  325 

trees.  According  to  these  returns,  46,175  acres  of  the  total  area  (309,741 
statute  acres)  under  Woods  and  Plantations  were  under  Larch,  35,020  under 
Fir,  15,291  under  Spruce.  3,377  under  Pine,  25,158  under  Oak,  7,398  under 
Ash,  9,826  under  Beech,  2,562  under  Sycamore,  2,750  under  Elm,  4,002 
under  Other  Trees,  and  158,182  were  returned  as  under  Mixed  Trees.  The 
area  under  Woods  and  Plantations  in  Leinster  was  95,447  acres ;  in  Mun- 
ster,  105,411  acres;  in  Ulster,  57,080  acres;  and  in  Connaught,  51,803 
acres. 

The  inquiries  made  in  the  preceding  fifteen  years  relative  to  the  extent  to 

which  bee-keeping  is  followed  in   Ireland  were  re- 
Bee-keeping,         peated  in  1901,  and  according  to  the  returns  received, 

there  would  appear  to  have  been  a  decrease  of  16.4  per 
cent,  in  the  quantity  of  honey  produced  in  1900,  as  compared  with  the 
preceding  year,  the  returns  for  which  showed  an  increase  of  41.7  per  cent, 
as  compared  with  the  quantity  in  1898.  The  quantity  of  honey  produced, 
according  to  the  returns,  was  623,559  lbs.;  of  this,  143,368  lbs.  were  pro- 
duced in  the  province  of  Leinster;  211,821  lbs.  in  Munster ;  155,962  lbs.  in 
Ulster;  and  112,408  lbs.  in  Connaught.  Of  the  623,559  lbs.,  403,207  lbs. 
were  produced  "in  Hives  having  Moveable  Combs,"  and  220,352  lbs.  "in 
other  Hives."  It  was  stated  that  260,074  ^bs.  was  "  Run  Honey,"  and 
363,485  lbs.  "  Section  Honey."  The  number  of  stocks  brought  through  the 
winter  of  1900-1901  amounted  to  33,171,  of  which  16,754  were  in  hives 
having  moveable  combs,  and  16,417  in  other  hives.  According  to  the 
returns  collected,  there  were  6,743  lbs.  of  wax  manufactured  in  1900,  of 
which  3,394  were  from  hives  having  moveable  combs,  and  3,349  lbs.  from 
other  hives.  The  returns  received  in  1900  gave  the  number  of  swarms  at 
work  during  the  season  of  1899  as  23,981  ;  the  quantity  of  honey  as  745,692 
lbs.;  the  number  of  stocks  brought  through  the  winter  of  1 899-1900  as 
31,045  ;  and  the  quantity  of  wax  manufactured  in  1899  as  4,873  lbs. 


326  THE   IRISH   HORSE-BREEDING   INDUSTRY 


THE   IRISH    HORSE-BREEDING    INDUSTRY. 

Irish-bred  horses  enjoy  world-wide  celebrity.  As  "  stayers  "  in  the  hunt- 
ing field  and  as  weight  carriers  in  steeplechases,  they  have  won  enviable 
repute,  and  their  great  wealth  of  bone  and  unquestioned  stamina  and  mettle 
are  to-day,  as  many  years  ago,  the  admiration  of  equine  enthusiasts  the 
world  over.  To  have  Ireland  as  its  birthplace  is  reckoned  as  one  of  the 
best  credentials  which  a  hunter  can  possess,  and,  all  things  else  being  equal, 
a  horse  of  Irish  origin  will  invariably  find  a  purchaser  at  a  substantially 
better  price  than  that  of  any  other  country. 

To  what  is  this  universally  acknowledged  excellence  of  the  Irish-bred 
hunter  due  ?  Much  has  been  written  upon  the  subject,  and  the  number  of 
opinions  expressed  upon  the  point  have  been  so  varied  as  to  be  quite  per- 
plexing. Some  authorities  attribute  it  to  the  special  suitability  of  the  soil 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  country  for  the  production  of  big-boned,  light 
horses ;  others  claim  the  credit  for  the  Irishman's  inherent  love  of  a  good 
horse,  and  his  consequent  good  judgment  and  discernment  in  the  selection 
and  perpetuation  of  animals  possessing  the  best  characteristics  of  the  type 
which  he  favours.  Others,  again,  will  have  no  other  explanation  than  that 
the  Irishman  is  naturally  partial  to  "  a  bit  of  blood,"  and,  as  a  result, 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  thoroughbred  for  imparting  the  necessary 
quality,  pluck,  and  endurance  to  the  animals  bred  by  him. 

In  none  of  these  views,  however,  is  the  correct  solution  of  the  question 
to  be  found,  though  it  cannot  be  denied  that  all  three  help  to  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  evolution  of  the  Irish  hunter.  More  important  than 
any  of  them — possibly  more  important  than  all  three  put  together — is  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  mares  by  which  these  hunters  are  produced. 
There  are  other  countries  than  Ireland  in  which  the  soil  is  largely  cal- 
careous ;  there  are  others  than  Irishmen  in  whom  the  love  of  a  good  horse 
is  not  an  unknown  quantity ;  and  there  are  certainly  other  parts  of  the 
kingdom  in  which  thoroughbred  sires  are  much  more  extensively  employed 
than  in  Ireland ;  yet  in  none  of  these  countries  do  we  find  light  horses 
possessing  anything  like  the  grand  combination  of  speed,  stamina,  and 
carrying  power  for  which  the  Irish  hunter  has  always  been  famous. 

Why  this  failure  elsewhere  to  breed  hunters  able  to  hold  their  own  with 
those  emanating  from  Ireland?  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  explana- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  lack  of  the  mares  which  form  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  structure  of  Irish  hunter-breeding  rests.  It  is  customary  to 
accord  the  credit  for  much  of  the  admitted  excellence  of  the  Irish-bred 
hunter  of  the  present  day  to  the  thoroughbred  sire  by  which  he  is,  in  a 
good  many  cases,  got ;  and  no  one  with  any  knowledge  of  the  subject  will 
for  a  moment  question  the  beneficial  influence  exercised  by  the  thorough- 
bred sire  in  this  connection.  But,  in  considering  this  matter,  it  should  not 
be  overlooked  that  long  before  the  thoroughbred  had  been  heard  of  Irish 
hunters  had  acquired  an  international  celebrity,  and  had  been  largely 
exported  to  different  European  countries  for  use  in  the  studs  of  the  noble 


THE    IRISH    HORSE-BREEDING    INDUSTRY.  327 


and  the  wealthy  there.  This  shows  that  the  reputation  of  the  Irish  hunter 
is  not  of  to-day  or  yesterday,  and  that  it  has  been  acquired  not  altogether 
so  much  through  the  medium  of  the  thoroughbred,  as  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed. 

What  manner  of  mare,  it  may  be  asked,  is  this  famous  "  old  Irish  "  dam 

to  which  the  Irish  hunter  is  said  to  owe  so  much? 

The  Broadly  speaking,  she  is  of  medium  size,  15.1  to  15.2 

"  Old  Irish  Mare."     in  height,  short  in  her  back,  powerfully  knit  across  the 

loin,  and  well-developed  in  her  hind  quarters.  In 
general  outline  she  is  of  the  low  and  roomy  type ;  she  stands  close  to  the 
ground,  is  very  muscular  in  her  fore-arm,  and  clean  and  flat  in  her  bone 
below  the  knee.  Though  so  deep  and  well  balanced  in  outline  as  to  give 
the  impression  of  being  on  the  small  side,  she  covers  a  lot  of  ground,  and 
her  legs  are  devoid  of  anything  approaching  the  nature  of  "  feather."  As  a 
rule,  the  head  is  fine  and  clean  cut  in  outline,  though  "  coarseness  "  is  more 
frequently  seen  in  this  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  body.  The  neck  is 
long,  the  shoulder  well  laid,  and,  as  becomes  mares  specially  adapted  for  the 
production  of  high-class  saddle-horses,  the  withers  are  high  and  the  ribs  well 
sprung.  The  brief  outline  thus  given  of  her  general  appearance  would  not 
go  to  represent  the  Irish  mare  as  possessing  many  special  attributes  cal- 
culated ro  distinguish  her  as  a  hunter-breeder.  Thousands  of  mares  pos- 
sessing the  same  points  in  equal  perfection  are  to  be  met  with  all  over  the 
kingdom,  yet  they  do  not  possess  any  claims  to  special  recognition  as  hunter 
breeders.  But  it  is  not  to  her  looks  alone  but  to  a  natural  hardihood  of 
constitution,  begotten  of  the  conditions  under  which  she  is  kept  and  the 
work  at  which  she  is  engaged,  that  the  progeny  of  the  Irish  mare  are 
indebted  for  many  of  the  good  qualities  possessed  by  them.  Quite  a  large 
percentage  of  the  mares  by  which  Irish  hunters  are  produced  are  the  pro- 
perty of  small  farmers,  who  use  them  for  every  class  of  work  on  their 
holdings — for  ploughing  or  harrowing  one  day,  for  hauling  heavy  loads  of 
farm  produce  the  next,  and  on  the  third,  perhaps,  for  driving  to  market  at 
an  eight  or  nine  miles  an  hour  trot.  The  land  being  for  the  most  part  light, 
the  farms  small,  and  the  number  of  purposes  for  which  the  horses  are 
required  varied,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  type  cultivated  is  of  medium 
size  and  "  handy  "  at  the  performance  of  such  work  as  the  animals  are  called 
upon  to  perform.  Seldom  very  generously  fed,  and  usually  obliged  to 
"  rough  it"  in  all  weathers  these  mares  have  acquired  a  hardiness,  a  staying 
power,  and  a  physical  fitness  which  stands  to  them  in  good  stead  in  their 
capacity  as  breeders.  The  result  is  the  evolution  of  the  clean-limbed, 
hardy,  active,  and  spirited  type  of  horse  which  has  done  so  much  to  help  the 
Irish  hunter  in  establishing  its  great  reputation. 

Unfortunately  for  the  country,  the  breeding  of  these  "  old  Irish  "  mares 
has  not  hitherto  received  the  attention  which  it  merited.  Numbers  of  them 
have  a  dash  of  thoroughbred  blood  in  them,  but  the  majority  are  got  by 
sires  of  such  mixed  breeding  that  from  the  standpoint  of  pedigree  they  are 
but  mere  mongrels.  This  has  told  very  much  against  the  development  of 
the  hunter-breeding  industry  in  Ireland,  because  it  has  rendered  the  business 
so  precarious  as  to  deter  many  from  entering  upon  it.  The  uncertainty  of 
hunter-breeding  as  at  present  carried  on  is  proverbial.  But  it  is  only 
natural.  Stockowners  of  experience  do  not  require  to  be  reminded  that,  in 
breeding  animals  of  any  kind,  no  definite  results  can  be  counted  on  unless 
the  materials  used — the  sires  and  dams  employed — are  purely  bred.       A 


328  THE   IRISH   HORSE-BREEDING   INDUSTRY. 


breeder  can  never  tell  what  typ°  of  animal  he  will  have  presented  to  him  as 
a  result  of  the  union  of  unpedigreed  parents ;  the  progeny  may  "  throw 
back  "  to  an  ancestor  of  several  generations  previously,  and  thus  present 
points  or  characters  altogether  at  variance  with  those  which  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  appearance  of  the  sire  and  dam.  So  it  is  with 
hunter-breeding ;  and  so  it  will  be  unless  steps  are  taken  to  found  or  estab- 
lish a  breed  of  mares  possessing  the  necessary  pedigree,  and  capable  of 
imparting  size  and  substance  to  their  progeny — points  in  which  Irish  mares 
have  always  excelled. 

Because  of  the  great  reputation  which  the  Irish-bred  hunter  has  earned 
abroad,  there  is  a  very  general  impression  that  it  is  only  for  the  production 
of  hunters  that  Ireland  is  worthy  of  notice  as  a  horse-breeding  country. 
This  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Famous  though  the  country  is  for  its 
hunters,  the  number  of  animals  of  this  class  annually  produced  bears  but  a 
small  proportion  to  the  number  of  other  horses  bred.  Last  year  [iQOi]  the 
number  of  horses  in  Ireland  was  about  565,000,  and  of  these  it  may  be 
assumed  that  100,000  were  brood  mares.  Of  the  70,000  odd  foals  produced 
by  these  mares,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  not  more  than 'ten  per  cent,  will 
ever  change  hands  as  hunters ;  of  the  remainder,  the  great  bulk  will  become 
vanners,  troopers,  carriage  horses,  or  animals  retained  for  general  purpose 
work  on  the  thousands  of  small  farms  which  stud  the  country.  A  certain 
percentage  will  also  be  of  the  heavy,  cart-horse  type  ;  but  the  number  of 
heavy  horses  bred  in  the  country  is  very  small — remarkably  so  in  comparison 
with  the  corresponding  figures  for  England  and  Scotland. 

Except  in  a  few  districts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  larger  towns,  the 
breeding  of  cart-horses  of  the  Clydesdale  and  Shire  type  is  but  little  carried 
on  in  Ireland.  Sires  of  these  breeds  have  been  tried  in  many  districts,  and 
in  some  places  they  have  been  found  to  give  good  results  by  imparting  more 
substance  to  the  native  stock ;  but  the  advantage  of  the  influence  exercised 
by  them  in  this  direction  has  been  confined  to  localities  in  which  the  soil  is 
heavy  and  the  farms  of  fairly  large  size.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  neither  of  these  conditions  holds,  and  wherever  the  farms  run  small 
and  the  land  light  the  smaller,  smarter,  and  more  generally  useful  native 
cart-horse  continues  to  more  than  hold  its  own  against  its  massive  rivals, 
the  Clydesdale  and  the  Shire. 

These  native  cart-horses  are  of  very  mixed  breeding.  They  are  got,  for 
the  most  part,  by  common  "  country  sires,"  and  the  latter  are  bred  every  way 
mid  anyway.  Some  of  them  have  a  dash — often  very  remote — of  the 
thoroughbred  in  them,  and  in  many  districts  some  are  not  altogether  free 
from  an  admixture  of  Clydesdale  or  Shije  blood ;  but,  whatever  their  breed- 
ing, it  is  generally  conceded  that  for  whatever  merits  they  possess  as  stock- 
getters  they  are  principally  indebted  to  the  strong  infusion  of  "  old  Irish  " 
blood  which  they  inherit.  It  is  to  this  that  their  progeny  chiefly  owe  the 
strong,  clean  bone,  the  hardy  constitutions,  and  the  great  grit  and  deter- 
mination v/hich  Irish-bred  horses  are  noted  for  displaying  when  called  upon 
to  perform  any  particularly  trying  class  of  work. 

It  is  from  the  ranks  of  these  '"  promiscuously-bred  "  light  horses  that  the 
majority  ot  the  animals  which  are  sold  every  year  at  Irish  fairs  as  troopers, 
vanners,  and  Ccurriage  horses  are  recruited.  Many  of  these,  troopers,  van- 
ners, and  general  purpose  light  horses,  are,  it  is  true,  got  by  thoroughbreds ; 
when  the  gets  of  thoroughbred  sires  fail  to  pass  muster  as  hunters  they  are 
sent  to  join  the  common  throng,  and  are  known  in  the  trade  as  "  mis-fits." 


THE   IRISH   HORSE-BREEDING   INDUSTRY.  329 


Occasionally,  very  fine  heavy-weight  hunters  are  got  by  these  common 
sires  when  mated  with  half-bred  mares,  but,  as  is  well  known,  tip-toppers 
of  this  type  are  distinctly  the  exception.  The  majority  of  the  animals 
owning  these  country  stallions  as  sires  are  usually  found  wanting  in  one  or 
other  of  the  prime  essentials  of  a  high-grade  hunter,  and  when  they  come  to 
be  marketed  they  have  to  take  their  places,  not  with  the  chosen  few  likely 
to  run  into  three  figures,  but  with  the  less  aristocratic,  if  not  less  useful, 
group  to  be  sold  as  troopers,  vanners,  and  general  purposes  light  horses. 

Though  the  Hackney  has  come  very  much  to  the  front  in  Great  Britain 
during  the  past  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  yet  made 
very  much  progress  in  the  country.  That  there  is  a  great  prejudice  agamst 
it  in  the  principal  hunter-breeding  districts  is  indisputable.  A  five  minutes' 
conversation  with  any  one  practically  interested  in  hunter-breeding  in 
Ireland  usually  suffices  to  afford  convincing  evidence  of  this.  So  far,  the 
Hackney's  sphere  of  influence  has  been  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
North.  The  breed  is  practically  unknown  in  the  South :  the  writer  has 
been  a  regular  visitor  to  all  the  Shows  held  in  Ireland  during  the  past 
fifteen  years,  and  in  that  time  he  does  not  remember  to  have  even  once 
seen  a  Hackney  at  a  Show  held  South  of  Dublin.  Some  years  ago  the 
Congested  Districts  Board  for  Ireland  introduced  a  number  of  Hackney 
sires  with  the  object  of  improving  the  horses  and  ponies  kept  by  the  small 
farmers  and  cottiers  living  along  the  western  coast,  but  the  results  do  not 
appear  to  have  altogether  justified  the  expectations  entertained  by  its 
admirers  regarding  the  usefulness  of  the  Hackney  for  that  purpose.  For 
the  present  the  influence  of  the  breed  may  be  said  to  be  confined  to  a  few 
districts  in  Ulster,  and  even  there  the  extent  to  which  it  is  kept  is  but  small 
in  comparison  with  other  breeds. 

In  addition  to  the  thoroughbred,  the  Shire  and  Clydesdale,  the  nature 
cart  horse,  and  the  Hackney,  there  are  also  to  be 
,  .  ,    p     .  found  in  Ireland  several  races  of  ponies  or  small  cobs. 

Among  these  special  mention  deserves  to  be  made  of 
the  Connemara  and  the  Cushendall  ponies — the  first- 
named,  a  native  of  the  bare,  bleak  moors  of  Western  Galway  and  Mayo, 
and  the  other  a  native  of  the  mountainous  districts  of  North  Antrfm. 
Neither  of  these  has,  unfortunately,  been  bred  on  systematic  lines :  both 
may,  indeed,  be  described  as  the  natural  products  of  evolution  and  environ- 
ment Of  the  two  the  Connemara  is  the  best  known.  Animals  of  this 
breed  are  inclined  rather  to  the  cob  than  the  true  pony  in  the  matter  of 
size.  In  their  native  haunts  many  of  them  stand  up  to  14  hands  i  inch  and 
14  hands  2  inches,  and  when  sold  as  yearlings  and  transferred  to  good  land 
they  frequently  grow  to  a  height  of  fully  15  hands.  Connemara  ponies  are 
to  be  obtained  in  all  colours :  grey  seems,  however,  to  be  the  prevailing 
shade.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  systematic  selection  in  their  breeding 
they  cannot  be  described  as  of  a  fixed  or  definite  type.  Some  are  long  and 
loosely  made  in  outline,  while  others  are  short,  stout,  and  quite  cobby  in 
build.  They  are  all,  however,  remarkably  hardy,  and  axe  possessed  of 
more  speed  than  is  usual  in  animals  of  their  class.  They  are  also  noted 
for  their  staying  powers :  in  this  respect,  indeed,  they  excel.  One  of  them 
will  go  through  a  long  and  fatiguing  day's  work,  in  saddle  or  harness,  and 
will  turn  out  next  morning  in  as  fresh  and  fit  a  condition  as  if  it  had  not 
been  in  harness  for  a  week.  Though  not  noted  for  any  brilliancy  of  action 
(showy  action  could  not  reasonably  be  looked  for  in  view  of  the  conditions 


330  THE    IRISH    HORSE-BREEDING    INDUSTRY 


under  which  the  breed  has  been  developed),  Connemaras  are  proverbially 
sure-footed,  and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that,  with  the  exercise  of  more  care 
and  attention  in  their  selection  and  breeding,  they  may  yet  work  their  way 
lO  the  front  as  one  of  the  most  generally  useful  of  the  larger  breeds  of  ponies 
in  the  kingdom.  Already  good  results  have  been  obtained  by  crossing  them 
mth  small  thoroughbreds  for  the  production  of  polo  ponies  :  when  they 
come  of  the  right  type  from  this  breeding,  they  have  the  reputation  of 
being  second  to  none  for  smartness,  lasting  power,  and  "  general  intelli- 
gence "  in  the  polo  field. 

According  to  the  official  returns,  there  were  in  Ireland  last  year  (1901), 
565,000  horses  of  all  kinds.  Horse-breeding  has  long  played  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  Irish  farming  systems ;  but  considering  the  great  change 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  agriculture  of  the  kingdom  at  large  during  the 
past  half  century,  the  position  of  this  industry  in  Ireland  must  be  regarded 
as  having  undergone  very  little  alteration  in  that  time.  In  the  year  1850, 
the  number  of  horses  in  Ireland  was  526,757,  and  at  no  period  in  the 
intervening  years  did  the  numbers  fluctuate  to  any  remarkable  extent, 
though  the  usual  influences  of  supply  and  demand  led  to  repeated  varia- 
tion in  the  numbers  bred  from  decade  to  decade.  High  water  mark  in  the 
country's  history  as  a  horse-breeding  centre  was  reached  in  1895,  when  the 
official  returns  show  Ireland's  equine  population  to  have  amounted  to 
630,287.  The  subjoined  Table  shows  the  average  numbers  of  horses  in  the 
country  at  each  decennial  period  since  185 1  : — 

No.  of  Horses 
Year.  in  Ireland, 

1851,  .  -  .  -  521,706 

1861,  _  -  -  -  614,232 

1871,  _  _  -  _  538,095 

1881,  .  _  -  _  548,354 

189I,  -  _  _  -  592,819 

I9OI,  .  -  -  -  564,916 

The  official  returns  do  not  give  any  clue  to  the  respective  numbers  of  the 
various  breeds  or  types  of  horses  in  the  country.  All  the  information  as  to 
classes  available  is  that  a  certain  number  were  employed  for  agricultural 
purposes,  a  certain  number  for  traffic  and  manufactures,  and  a  certain  num- 
ber for  recreation  and  amusement.  The  figures  given  under  this  heading 
for  last  year  are  as  under  : — 

Agricultural  purposes,               -  -  354-750 

Traffic  and  manufactures,         -  -  46,443 

Recreation  and  amusement,     -  -  27,043 

One  and  under  two-year  olds,  -  73.691 

Under  one-year  olds,                -  -  62,989 


Total,      564,916 

Though  no  particular  county  or  district  can  be  said  to  enjoy  special  dis- 
tinction for  the  production  of  any  of  the  breeds  of  horses  already  referred  to 
as  bred  in  the  country,  Ireland  may  be  divided  into  four  separate  horse- 
breeding  areas.     These  may  be  arranged  as  under : — 

(i.)  The  eastern  seaboard  from  Wexford  to  Londonderry,  for  heavy 
cart  horses ; 


THE   IRISH   HORSE-BREEDING   INDUSTRY.  331 


(2.)  The  midland  and  southern  counties — in  fact  the  whole  country 

south  of  the  Boyne — for  hunters  ; 

(3.)  The  greater  part  of  Ulster,  for  "  general  purpose  "  horses  ;   and, 
(4.)  The   western   seaboard — principally    Galway    and     Mayo— for 

ponies. 

These  divisions  must  not  be  regarded  as  at  all  absolute,  for  many  good 
hunters  are  bred  in  the  North,  just  as  some  good  heavy  horses  are  pro- 
duced in  some  of  the  best  hunter-breeding  districts  in  the  South.  Speaking 
generally,  the  following  counties  may  be  regarded  as  most  noted  for  the 
production  of  the  different  types : — 

Hunters. — Cork,  Limerick,  Tipperary,  Waterford,  Wexford,  Carlow, 
Kildare,  Meath,  Westmeath,  Galway,  and  Roscommon. 

Heavy  Cart  Horses. — Dublin,  Louth,  Antrim,  Down,  and  London- 
derry. 

General  Purposes  Light  Horses. — The  whole  country. 

Ponies. — Western  Galway  and  Mayo,  and  North  Antrim. 

Though  complaints  about  the  decadence  of  the  Irish-bred  hunter  have 
been  frequently  heard  during  the  past  twenty  years,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  at  no  date  within  the  memory  of  the  present  generation  was 
the  horse-breeding  industry  of  the  country  in  such  a  healthily  vigorous  con- 
dition as  at  the  present  time,  and  there  is  also  good  reason  for  the  assertion 
that  at  no  period  for  many  years  was  the  outlook  for  the  future  so  full  of 
promise.  Through  the  medium  of  an  annual  public  grant  of  ;^5,ooo  hereto- 
fore administered  by  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  much  has  been  accom- 
plished in  the  direction  of  encouraging  breeders  to  pay  more  attention  to 
the  selection  of  their  mares  and  to  the  use  of  a  better  class  of  sires,  and  as 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland  is 
making  the  improvemeni:  of  horse-breeding  one  of  the  principal  planks  in  its 
platform,  still  further  advance  in  the  same  direction  may  be  looked  for 
wilhin  the  next  few  years.  The  Department  have  already  formulated  a 
comprehensive  scheme  of  stock  improvement  under  which  small  farmers 
v/ill  be  supplied  with  the  services  of  sires  which  they  could  not  otherwise 
obtain  ;  in  the  case  of  thoroughbred  sires  these  services  will  be  obtainable 
to  three  guinea  horses  at  the  nominal  fee  of  2s.  6d.  This  scheme  is  being 
worked  in  conjunction  with  the  various  local  bodies  throughout  the  country, 
and  it  speaks  well  for  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  work  of  general  stock 
improvement  has  been  taken  up,  that  all  the  County  Councils  have  adopted 
the  scheme,  and  are  actively  engaged  in  giving  it  effect  in  their  respective 
localities. 


332  THE    PONIES   OF   CONNEMARA. 


THE    PONIES    OF    CONNEMARA. 


I. — THE  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  PONIES. 

One  of  the  first  questions  to  be  considered  on  proceeding  to  study  the 
horses  of  any  given  area  is — Do  they  form  a  distinct  indigenous  breed,  or 
are  they  to  a  large  extent  a  mixture  of  several  imported  breeds  ?  Hitherto 
it  seems  to  have  been  commonly  taken  for  granted  that  the  Connemara 
ponies — like  some  of  the  ponies  of  the  Western  Highlands,  and  Islands  of 
Scotland — have  descended  from  Andalusian  horses  which  escaped  in  1588 
from  the  ships  of  the  Spanish  Armada ;  and  further  that  they  deserve  to 
rank  as  a  distinct  breed  side  by  side  with  the  Iceland,  Shetland,  and  Exmoor 
ponies.  An  indication  of  the  prevailing  opinion  as  to  the  ponies  in  question 
may  be  gathered  from  a  recent  paper*  by  Sir  Walter  Gilbey.  In  describing 
the  ponies  ("  Hobbies  ")  of  Connemara,  Sir  Walter  states  that  they  are  from 
12  to  14  hands  high,  generally  of  the  prevailing  Andalusian  chestnut  colour, 
delicate  in  their  limbs,  and  possessed  of  the  form  of  head  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  Spanish  race.  "  It  must  be  regarded  as  remarkable,"  he 
adds,  "  that  these  ponies  should  retain  the  characteristics  of  their  race  for 
so  long  a  period  in  a  country  so  different  from  that  whence  they  were 
derived.  They  have  merely  become  smaller  than  the  original  race,  are 
somewhat  rounder  in  the  croup,  and  are  covered  in  the  natural  state  with 
shaggy  hair  .  .  .  From  mere  neglect  many  of  them  are  extremely  ugly,  yet 
still  conforming  to  the  original  type."  But  while  regarding  these  ponies  as 
essentially  Spanish,  Sir  Walter  believes  they  were  introduced,  not  through 
the  wreck  of  a  ship,  but  direct  by  importation  from  England. 

Had  the  horses  of  Connemara  been  isolated  since  the  time  of  the  Armada, 
or  even  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century — when  Spanish  horses, 
common  in  England,  might  have  found  their  way  to  the  West  of  Ireland — 
they  would  doubtless  have  formed  ere  this  a  perfectly  distinct  and  fairly 
uniform  breed.  However  uniform  and  Andalusian-like  the  Connemara 
hobbies  may  have  been  in  the  past,  there  is  an  amazing  want  of  uniformity 
about  them  to-day,  and  as  a  result  of  this  there  is  in  the  West  of  Ireland  a 
complete  absence  of  agreement  as  to  what  is  or  what  is  not  a  true  Conne- 
mara pony. 

This  is  exactly  what  might  have  been  expected,  for,  in  the  first  place, 
long  before  the  Congested  Districts  Board  set  about  providing  hackney 
and  other  stallions,  foreign  blood  seems  to  have  beaa  again  and  again 
introduced ;  and  in  the  second  place,  no  one  has  yet  done  for  the  Con- 
nemara ponies  what  the  late  Mr.  Knight  did  for  the  ponies  of  Exmoor,  or 
what  Lord  Londonderry  and  others  have  done  for  the  Shetland  ponies — 

*  Ponies  (their  past  and  present  history),  "  Live  Stock  Journal  "  Almanack,  1S96,  p.  45. 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  333 


no  one  has  yet  blended  the  more  marked  characteristics  of  the  various 
kinds  of  Connemara  ponies  into  a  distinct  strain  or  breed. 

During  a  recent  visit  to  the  West  of  Ireland  I  had  the  opportunity  of 
seeing  something  of  the  native  ponies,  the  conditions  under  v^^hich  they  are 
reared  and  maintained,  and  the  kind  of  work  they  are  called  upon  to  per- 
form. Soon  after  reaching  Connemara,  I  was  struck  with  "  the  strength, 
endurance,  and  easy  paces  "  of  the  ponies,  with  their  intelligence  and  doci- 
lity, and  with  the  capacity  for  work  under  conditions  which  would  speedily 
prove  disastrous  to  horses  reared  under  less  natural  conditions.  But,  as 
already  indicated,  I  ascertained  that  even  amongst  the  so-called  real  Con- 
nemara ponies  {i.e.  ponies  which  claim  no  kin  with  what  are  familiarl)- 
known  as  "  Congested  "  horses  recently  introduced),  there  is  an  all  but  com- 
plete absence  of  uniformity  alike  in  size,  make,  colour,  and  disposition. 
From  what  I  saw  of  the  ponies  between  Maam  Cross  and  Leenane  and  at, 
or  on  the  way  to  Cashel,  Carna,  Clifden,  and  other  centres,  I  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  Connemara  ponies,  instead  of  forming  one  breed, 
may  be  said  to  belong  to  five  fairh'  distinct  types,  which  may  be  known  as — 

(i.)  The  Andalusian  type  ; 

(2.)  The  Eastern  type  ; 

(3.)  The  Cashel  type  ; 

(4.)  The  Clydesdale  type  ;  and 

($.)  The  Clifden  type. 


I.— The  Andalusian  Type. 

This  group  includes  what  some  would  probably  call  the  original  or 
old  Connemara  breeds.  In  many  ways  the  members  of  this  section  resemble 
ponies  still  to  be  seen  in  Andalusia,  but  they  also  bear  an  even  more 
striking  resemblance  to  some  of  the  New  Forest  ponies.  They  vary  from 
12  to  13  hands;  some  are  black,  others  grey  or  chestnut,  but  the  most 
characteristic  specimens  are  of  a  yellow  dun  colour.  Fig.  i  represents  the 
most  typical  member  (a  yellow  dun)  of  the  Andalusian  type  I  came  across  ; 
Fig.  2  a  pony  of  a  somewhat  richer  yellow  tint  also  belongs  to  this  section, 
though  finer  in  the  bone  and  with  the  long  pasterns  often  seen  in  New 
Forest  ponies,  while  Fig.  3  is  a  light  grey  with  shorter  pasterns,  and  a 
measurement  below  the  knee  of  7  inches.  The  pony  represented  in  Fig. 
I  measures  ^o}^  inches  {12.2}^  hands)  at  the  withers,  the  girth  is  60  inches, 
the  length  from  the  point  of  the  elbow  to  the  ground  30  inches,  from  the 
point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground  20  inches,  and  the  circumference  below  the 
knee  is  6J2  inches.  From  the  top  of  the  head  (occipital  ridge)  to  a  line 
connecting  the  upper  margin  of  the  nostrils  is  20  inches ;  from  the  inner 
corner  {canthns)  of  the  eye  to  the  upper  margin  of  the  nostrils  9^  inches, 
and  between  the  inner  angles  icanthi)  of  the  eyes  7  inches.  The  ear 
measures  5^  inches. 

The  ponies  represented  in  Figs.  2  and  3  closely  agree  in  size  with  the  one 
described.  All  three  appear  to  be  slightly  roach-backed,  but  this  is  perhaps 
due  to  their  being  decidedly  out  of  condition.  In  many  horses  there  is  a 
slight  rise  in  the  back,  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  croup,  but  as  a  rule 
this  elevation  is  obscured  by  the  spinal  muscles.     Barbs  are  sometimes 


.334  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

.decidedly  roach-backed.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  Connemara  ponies 
have  inherited  this  tendency  from  their  Spanish  ancestors. 

Compared  with  a  Barb  or  a  Spanish  Genet  the  three  ponies  described  are 
relatively  shorter  in  the  neck  and  legs,  deeper  in  the  ribs,  shorter  in  the 
ears,  and  provided  with  more  powerful  jaws.  If,  as  commonly  alleged,  the 
Irish  ponies  are  suiiply  stunted  Andalusian  horses,  they  ought,  one  would 
think,  to  resemble  fairly  accurately  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish  horses, 
which  some  centuries  ago  regained  their  freedom  in  the  New  World.  Fig. 
4  represents  a  mouse-dun  pony,  believed  to  be  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
horses  introduced  mto  Mexico  by  Cortez  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
If  this  figure  is  compared  with  Figs,  i  to  3  it  will  be  evident  that  though 
constructed  on  the  same  general  plan,  the  Connemara  ponies  essentially 
.differ  from  their  New  Mexican  relatives.  It  would  hence  hardly  be  accurate 
to  describe  the  Connemara  "  Hobbie  "  as  a  small  edition  of  an  Andalusian 
horse,  and  yet  it  is  quite  unlike  an  ordinary  Norwegian,  Iceland,  or  High- 
land pony,  and  it  decidedly  differs  from  an  improved  Norwegian,  i.e.,  a 
Northern  pony,  that  by  being  well  fed  and  sheltered  during  colthood  has 
reached  a  siz?  of  from  13  to  14  hands.  It  might,  perhaps,  best  be  described 
.as  a  small  horse,  made  by  mounting  a  sHghtly  altered  Barb  on  pony's  legs. 
Where,  it  may  be  asked,  has  this  pony  got  its  small  ears,  strong  jaws,  and 
short  legs?  Is  it  the  result  of  a  cross  between  an  Andalusian  sire  and  a 
native  pony?  Hybrids  bred  by  crossing  mares  with  a  Zebra  horse  almost 
invariably  in  their  ears,  teeth,  muzzle  and  legs,  resemble  their  sire.  In 
.other  respects  they  may  be  nearly  intermediate  in  their  characters,  or  take 
after  their  respective  dams  ;  the  structures  which  count  most  in  the  struggle 
for  existence  being  most  faithfully  transmitted,  doubtless  because  they  have 
been  most  thoroughly  burned  in.  If  the  Connemara  ponies  under  considera- 
tion are  not,  as  generally  assumed,  stunted  Spanish  horses,  the  probability  is 
they  are  the  descendants  of  crosses  between  Andalusian  horses  and  indi- 
genous Irish  ponies.  It  is  extremely  unlikely  that  the  West  of  Ireland  was 
destitute  of  ponies  until  Spanish  breeds  were  introduced  during  the 
sixteenth  or  seventeenth  centuries,  and  it  is  quite  as  unlikely  that  when 
Spanish  or  other  breeds  found  their  way  to  Ireland,  they  would  completely 
displace,  without  intercrossing  with,  the  native  breeds. 

We  know  that  during  the  early  "  Stone  Age  "  horses  were  common  in 
Europe — the  dismembered  remains  of  thousands  that  served  as  food  for 
Palaeolithic  man,  lie  buried  in  the  Rhone  valley — and  we  know  that  horses 
were  common  in  Britain  before  the  Roman  Invasion,  hence  it  may  safely  be 
assumed  that  if  the  horse  failed  to  reach  Ireland  during  the  "  Great  Ice 
Age  "  it  found  its  way  thither  soon  after. 

It  has  been  long  known  that  in  Miocene  times  two  varieties  of  the  three- 
hoofed  "  fossil  horse "  Hipparion  (which  was  sometimes  14  hands  high) 
flourished  in  south-eastern  Europe,  and  as  already  indicated,  we  know  that 
at  a  later  period  true  horses  (of  about  the  same  size  as  Hipparion)  were 
represented  by  at  least  two  varieties  in  south  and  central  Europe.  It  is 
also  known  that  as  the  Glacial  epoch  came  to  an  end,  and  the  ice  sheet  was 
gradually  rolled  back,  horses,  antelopes,  and  other  mammals  pushed  their 
way  further  and  further  north,  until  the  area  now  occupied  by  the  British 
Islands  was  eventually  reached. 

But  in  at  least  the  case  of  the  horse  the  migration  northwards  was  accom- 
panied by  a  gradual  reduction  in  size,  with  the  result  that  in  the  more 
northern  areas  only  stunted  forms  survived — the  ancestors  of  the  Shetland, 


KiG.  I.    LIGHT  ca;i;v  i  (i.n.ne.maua  i'ony— a.ndall'sian  tvi'K. 


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t-' 

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H^B  fM.  ^^\."- 

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r.     w  ^-^.1  ^n 

2 

KI(;.    in.      CONNEMAKA   I'ONV    (YELLOW    ULN)— ANlJALLSI AX   TVI'i:. 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  335 


Iceland,  and  Norwegian  ponies,  and  of  various  other  breeds  until  recent 
times  common  in  the  more  isolated  portions  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

One  of  these  stunted  or  dwarfed  horses  is  represented  in  Fig.  5.  It  in  no 
way  either  resembles  a  Barb  or  an  Arab  ;  but  in  the  short  neck,*  small 
head,  stout  limbs,  and  relatively  great  girth,  it  strongly  suggests  a  cart 
horse,  of  the  Clydesdale  rather  than  of  the  Shire  breed. 

The  pony  in  Fig.  5  is  a  yellow  dun  from  Iceland,  measuring  48  inches 
(12  hands)  at  the  withers,  and  49  inches  at  the  croup,  with  a  girth  of  62 
inches.  From  the  elbow  to  the  ground  it  measures  28  inches,  from  the 
hock  to  the  ground  17  j^  inches,  and  below  the  knee,  6^-^  inches.  The  head, 
however,  is  short  (18  inches  from  the  occipital  ridge  to  a  Hne  connecting  the 
upper  margin  of  the  nostrils),  and  the  ears  measured  along  their  inner  sur- 
face are  only  5  inches.  Between  the  eyes  the  distance  is  6  inches.  As  it 
happens  the  viean  of  the  measurements  of  this  pony  and  of  a  14-hands 
Barb  very  closely  agree  with  the  measurements  given  above  of  the  yellow 
dun  Connemara  pony.  It  may  hence,  I  think,  be  tal<en  for  granted  that  the 
Andalusian-like  "  Hobbies  "  of  Connemara  are  not  stunted  Spanish  horses, 
but  the  result  of  a  more  or  less  perfect  blending  of  the  aboriginal  West  of 
Ireland  ponies  with  horses  introduced  from  the  East  during  the  mediaeval 
times,  or  from  Spain  during  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  centuries. 

That  the  ancestors  of  all  the  recent  Equid<r.  (Horses,  Zebras,  and  Asses) 
were  of  a  yellowish  dun  colour,  and  more  or  less  richly  striped  is  extremely 
probable.!  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  unlikely  the  foreign  horses  introduced 
into  the  West  of  Ireland,  either  during  the  present  or  earlier  centuries,  were 
of  a  dun  colour,^  and  though  it  is  true  that  some  of  the  descendants  of  the 
horses  introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into  America  are  duns  (Fig.  4),  it  is  more 
likely  that  the  prevalence  of  yellow  ponies  in  the  West  of  Ireland  is  due  to 
the  majority  of  the  aboriginal  horses  being  of  a  dun  colour,  and,  like  some  of 
the  Iceland  ponies  of  to-day,  sufficiently  prepotent  to  hand  on  their  coloura- 
tion to  the  majority  (or  to  a  very  considerable  proportion)  of  their  descend- 
ants. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  yellow  dun-coloured  Connemara  ponies  are 
highly  prized  in  some  districts,  not  only  because  they  are  hardy  and  easily 
kept,  but  also  because  in  staying  power  and  vitality  they  are  more  like 
mules  than  pure  bred  horses.  Of  the  ponies  built  on  the  lines  of  the  three 
represented  (Figs.  1-3)  only  a  remnant  seems  to  be  left,  and  I  was  informed 
that  all  the  survivors  at  present  in  Connemara  are  mares.  Two  of  the  three 
ponies  figured  have  had  foals ;  but  neither  the  foal  (Fig.  2)  said  to  be  by  a 

*  In  mammals  there  is  usually  an  intimate  relation  between  the  length  of  the  neck  and  the 
weight  of  the  head.  In  the  elephant,  e.g.,  in  which  the  head  is  huge,  that  the  trunk  and  tusks 
may  be  effectively  wielded,  the  neck  is  extremely  short — relatively  shorter  than  in  any  other 
land  mammal.  In  the  same  way  in  the  Imperial  Zebra  of  Somaliland,  in  which  the  head  is  of 
great  length,  the  neck  is  also  short.  The  long  neck  in  the  Eastern  and  other  horses  is  mainly 
a  product  of  artificial  selection.  It  has  been  made  possible  by  a  shortening  and  lightening  of 
the  jaws,  and  in  some  cases  an  increase  in  the  length  of  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  in 
the  region  of  the  withers.  In  areas  where,  during  part  of  the  year,  the  food  of  wild  or  semi- 
wild  horses  consists  of  coarse  hard  material,  only  those  provided  with  powerful  jaws  can 
survive,  but  where  all  the  year  round  the  food  is  comparatively  soft  and  easily  obtained  the 
necessity  for  a  long  head  and  a  short  thick  neck  does  not  exist.  In  this  way  we  may  account 
for  some  of  the  Norwegian  ponies  having  long  coarse  heads,  while  the  Iceland  ponies  (where 
fish  takes  the  place  of  coarse  dry  herbage  and  woody  fibres  during  winter)  have  generally  small 
well-moulded  heads. 

tSf£— "  The  Penicuik  Experiments,"  by  J.  C.  Ewart.    A.  &  C.  Black,  1899. 

X  In  Southern  Europe,  as  in  Arabia,  there  seems  to  have  long  been  a  prejudice  against  dun- 
coloured  horses. 


336  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

Welsh  Cob  ("  Express  ")  nor  die  grey  mare's  foal  (by  "  Golddigger  ")  is  a 
very  promising  specimen. 

Before  proceeding  to  refer  to  the  other  types  of  Connemajra  ponies  it  may 
be  as  well  to  indicate  in  what  respects  a  pony  may  be  said  to  differ  from  a 
horse.  While  we  have  no  evidence  that  Palaeolithic  man  possessed  either 
horses,  sheep,  or  cattle,  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  Neolithic  successors  were 
accompanied  in  their  wanderings  by  horses,  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle,  and  by 
at  least  three  kuids  of  dogs,  one  built  on  the  lines  of  the  Irish  wolf-hound. 
The  horse  that  found  its  way  into  Europe  (perhaps  from  Siberia)  in  primeval 
times  was  of  a  considerable  size — which  implies  that  the  Shetland,  Iceland, 
and  other  small  horses  have  sprung  from  fairly  large  ancestors,  that  they 
are  dwarfed  or  stunted  horses,  and  not  special  creations,  as  was  once  sup- 
posed, each  adapted  for  a  definite  habitat.  From  this  it  follows  that  a  pony 
IS  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  small  horse.  Sometimes  one  hears  it  said  of  a 
particular  breed  that  it  consists  more  of  small  horses  than  ponies,  this  gene- 
rally means  that  were  the  legs  longer  they  would  rank  as  horses.  In  such 
ponies  the  dwarfing  has  mainly  affected  the  legs  (as  in  Basset  and  some 
other  hounds),  or,  as  in  the  ponies  already  described,  the  body  of  some  fairly 
large  foreign  breed  has  been  mounted  on  the  legs  of  a  somewhat  small  in- 
digenous breed.  That  the  Shetland,  Iceland,  and  some  of  the  Norwegian 
ponies  are  stunted  horses  is  at  once  evident  if  a  comparative  study  is  made 
of  their  skeletons.  In  the  skeleton  of  a  38-inch  Shetland  pony,  e.g.,  I  found 
that  the  bones  of  the  legs  were  of  relatively  the  same  length  as  "  Eclipse  " 
and  "  Hermit,"  which,  like  the  modern  thoroughbreds,  were  after  all  only 
overgrown  ponies.  This  is,  however,  not  true  of  crosses  between  horses  and 
ponies,  in  some  of  which  the  bones  of  the  limbs  are  relatively  too  long,  while 
in  others  they  are  relatively  too  short. 

In  some  standard  works  a  pony  is  defined  as  a  horse  not  exceeding  52 
inches  (13  hands),  while  a  horse  over  52,  but  not  exceeding  56  inches  (14 
hands),  is  classed  as  a  Galloway.  Now-a-days,  mainly  owing  to  the  influence 
of  polo,  we  often  regard  a  horse  measuring  58  inches  at  the  withers  as  a 
pony.  Sometimes  these  14.2  hands  ponies  are  dwarf  thoroughbred  or  cross- 
bred horses,  sometimes  they  are  true  ponies  that  by  selection  and  improved 
surroundings  have  not  only  reached,  but  actually  surpassed  the  size  of  their 
interglacial  ancestors.  If  a  horse  measuring  58  inches,  or  even  56  inches,  is 
a  pony,  then  all  the  unimproved  domestic  and  semi-wild  horses  of  the  old 
world  may  be  said  to  be  ponies,  and  all  the  wild  horses  striped  and  plain, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Imperial  Zebra  {Equiis  grevyi)  of  Somaliland 
might  also  be  classed  as  ponies.  Evidently,  in  dealing  with  ponies,  it  will 
be  found  useful  not  only  to  note  their  size,  but  also  to  make  out  if  possible 
whether  they  are  the  stunted  descendants  of  primeval  horses,  i.e.,  true 
ponies,  or  the  descendants  of  improved  horses — of  thoroughbreds,  Arabs, 
Clydesdales,  etc.,  or  half-breeds  as,  e.g.,  Montana  and  Argentine  ponies, 
which  are  often  crosses  between  the  descendants  of  the  old  Spanish  horse 
and  English  thoroughbreds. 


2. — The  Eastern  Type. 

This  section  includes  ponies  which  stand  in  very  much  the  same  relation 
to  the  desert  Arab  that  the  Andalusian  section  does  to  the  Barb — an  African 
variety  of  the  Arab  breed. 


FIG.   V.      COXXEMARA  GKLDIXG— CASHEL  TYI 


FIG.   VI.     (OXXE.MAHA  I'O.VV.  BI;KI>  IX  THE  VI(  IXITV   Ol"  t  LIFDEX. 


FIG.   IV.      T.IGIIT  GItEV   fONNKM  AKA    KII.I.V.    KISING  'llll:i;i:   VEAIiS— KASTEHN    1  VI'E. 


^^m'  J 

IHRBBP*nHRRi  /      -.  1 

l--I(i.  \  [J.      A  (MX.VE.MAHA  PONV  THAT  IIA!<  UISTI.VGUISHKD  ITSELF  AS  A  IH'XTEK 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  337 


In  a  former  generation  most  of  the  "  Hobbies  "  of  Connemara  may  have 
been  of  a  chestnut  colour ;  but  to-day,  greys,  if  not  the  prevaihng  colour,  are 
at  least  far  more  common  than  chestnuts.  That  the  grey  colour  persists, 
when  once  introduced  into  a  district  is  widely  recognised  both  in  England 
and  on  the  Continent,  more  especially  when  it  is  the  flea-bitten  grey  of  an 
Arab. 

The  numerous  greys  in  the  New  Forest  are  believed  to  count  Arabs 
amongst  their  ancestors,  while  the  greys  so  frequent  amongst  the  Orlof 
trotters  sometimes  reproduce  the  characters  of  the  Arab  (Smetanka),  largely 
concerned,  more  than  a  century  ago,  in  establishing  this  famous  Russian 
breed. 

When  the  history  of  Irish  horses  is  studied  it  will  probably  be  found  that 
Arabs  were  introduced  into  Connemara  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  now  and  agam  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Otherwise  the 
resemblance  to  Eastern  horses  so  often  noticed  in  Connemara  ponies  could 
hardly  be  accounted  for.  Fig.  6  represents  a  light  grey  filly  brought  into 
the  Clifden  market  during  my  visit  in  September.  This  filly,  now  risings 
three,  reminds  me  strongly  of  a  small  Arab  (Bernabit)  I  received  some  years 
ago  from  Mr.  Wilfrid  Scawen  Blunt,  and  she  in  many  ways  agrees  with 
another  Arab  (Fatimah),  also  received  from  the  famous  Crabbet  Park 
stud. 

Compared  with  the  high-caste  Arab  filly,  the  Connemara  filly  is  i  ^ 
inches  lower  at  the  withers  and  2  inches  lower  at  the  croup.  This  difference 
is  partly  due  to  the  Arab  measuring  one  inch  longer  from  the  elbow  and  half- 
an-inch  more  from  the  hock  to  the  ground.  In  the  ears,  width  between  the 
eyes,  length  of  the  head,  and  girth,  and  in  the  hair  of  the  mane  and  tail,  the 
two  fillies  are  nearly  identical.  The  Arab,  however,  measures  half-an-inch 
less  below  the  knee,  and  is  finer  in  the  lower  part  of  the  face.* 

One  other  difference  between  the  two  fillies  ought  to  be  mentioned,  viz., 
the  greater  relative  length  of  the  neck  in  the  case  of  the  Arab ;  but  in  the 
Irish  filly  the  tail  is  characteristically  Arab,  while  the  mane  is  lank,  and 
clings  closely  to  the  neck  ;  moreover,  she  is  quite  as  intelligent  as  the  Arab„ 
as  the  width  between  the  eyes  so  eloquently  suggests. 

But  the  Connemara  filly  not  only  seems  to  take  a  thoughtful  interest  irr 
her  surroundings,  she  is  extremely  gentle  and  good  tempered.  Until  her 
arrival  in  Clifden  she  had  never  been  handled.  Haltering  proved  a  difficult 
problem — she  fought  bravely  in  defence  of  her  freedom — but  when  once 
subdued  all  resistance  ceased,  and  after  a  few  minutes'  handling  she  was 
mounted.t  Intelligence,  good  temper,  and  courage  seem  to  characterise  the 
majority  of  the  Connemara  ponies.  These  traits  are  doubtless  the  result 
of  careful  selection,  for,  as  a  native  said,  a  bad-tempered,  stupid  pony  that 
requires  to  be  constantly  looked  after  is  worse  than  useless. 


*  The  difference  in  the  face  is  chiefly  due  to  a  difference  in  the  teeth.  The  Arab  filly  was 
extremely  well  done  during  her  first  winter,  and  had  plenty  of  hay  during  her  second.  The 
Connemara  spent,  I  understand,  both  winters  on  the  mountains,  with  the  result  that  in  the  one 
case  (the  Arab)  the  central  milk  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  have  been  displaced  by  permanent 
incisors,  while  in  the  other  all  the  milk  incisors  still  persist. 

t  If  horses  are  intelligent  enough  to  have  confidence  in  their  masters,  in  other  words,  if  the 
element  of  fear  is  eliminated,  it  is  surprising  what  liberties  may  be  taken  with  them  even  when 
unbroken. 


338  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

A  somewhat  different  member  of  the  section  is  represented  by  a 
14-hands,  four-year-old,  dark  grey  stallion.  This  horse  in  his  head  and 
limbs  resembles  the  light,  grey  filly ;  but  while  the  filly  suggests  a  Syrian 
Arab,  the  dark  grey  stallion  in  some  respects  agrees  with  an  Orlof  trotter, 
in  others  with  the  Arab-Barb  crosses  often  seen  in  Algiers.  Neither  the 
light  nor  the  dark  grey  could  very  well  have  been  obtained  by  crossmg  old 
Connemara  duns  (Figs,  i  and  2),  with  an  Arab  ;  such  a  cross  would  refine, 
rather  than  increase  the  bone.  The  Orlof  trotters  having  mainly  sprung 
from  an  Arab  horse  and  certain  Dutch  mares,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the 
Syrian-like  Connemara  ponies  might  include  in  their  ancestry  not  only 
Arabs  and  native  ponies,  but  also  large,  strong-limbed  horses  belonging  to 
other  parts  of  Galway  or  to  some  of  the  adjacent  counties.  On  making 
mquiry,  I  learned  that  both  the  dark  grey  stallion  and  the  light  grey  filly  had 
descended  from  an  old  grey  horse  still  living  at  Cashel.  This  horse  bean 
more  resemblance  to  an  Irish  hunter  than  to  an  Arab,  and  essentially  differs 
from  the  typical  Connemara  breeds.  The  history  of  this  horse  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained ;  but  that  it  has  amongst  its  ancestors  large-boned  horses, 
such  as  Roscommon  is  famous  for,  may  be  safely  assumed.  In  the  size  of 
the  head,  make  and  length  of  the  Hmbs,  he  is  not  unhke  a  first  cross  between 
a  Connemara  pony  and  an  Irish  thoroughbred. 

The  dam  of  the  nearly  white  filly  is  a  small,  grey  Connemara  pony ;  the 
dam  of  the  dark  grey  horse  is  a  bay  Connemara  pony,  the  sire  a  grey  son  of 
the  old  grey  Cashel  stallion.  While  in  the  one  (the  filly)  Arab  ancestors 
seem  to  have  mainly  controlled  the  development.  Barb  ancestors  seem  to 
have  prevailed  in  the  other. 

With  the  four-year-old  stallion  and  several  carefully  selected  mares,  it 
would  be  an  easy  matter  to  fix  and  perpetuate  this  particular  type  of  Con- 
nemara pony,  should  it  be  thought  desirable. 


3.— The  Cashel  Type. 

Two  members  of  this  type  have  already  been  alluded  to — viz.: — (i)  the 
■old  Cashel  stallion ;  and  (2)  the  sire  of  the  dark  grey  stallion. 

A  third  member  of  this  section  is  a  gelding.  This  gelding 
also  a  son  of  the  old  Cashel  Stallion,  has  been  regarded  by  some  as 
one  of  the  best  and  most  typical  living  examples  of  a  Connemara  pony.  It 
is,  however,  very  different  from  the  old-fashioned  dun-coloured  ponies  (Figs. 
[  and  2),  and  it  neither  forcibly  suggests  an  Arab  nor  a  Barb,  nor  yet  the 
short-legged,  highly  characteristic  ponies  (Clifden  variety)  described  below. 
The  gelding  figured  is  a  very  hardy  pony,  strong  and  willing  when  in  har- 
ness, and  pleasant  and  safe  to  ride. 

The  typical  members  of  the  Cashel  group  are  characterised  by  a  long 
head,  high  withers,  and  long  forelegs,  in  all  of  which  points  they  differ  from 
Arabs.  They  also  differ  from  Arabs  in  having  short  ears — -in  this  only 
may  they  be  said  to  agree  with  typical  ponies.  In  the  gelding  the 
measurements  are  as  follows  : — Ears,  $%  inches  ;  head,  from  occipital  ridge 
to  line  between  upper  margin  of  nostrils,  21  inches;  between  the  eye  and 
the  nostril,  1 1  inches ;  between  the  eyes,  7^  inches ;  height  at  withers,  56 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  339 

inches  ;  length  from  elbow,  34  inches ;  and  from  hock,  22  inches ;  girth,  60 
inches  ;  and  circumference  below  knee,  yyi  inches. 

In  measurmg  1 1  inches  from  eye  to  nostril,  and  34  inches  from  elbow  to 
ground,  and  in  having  a  girth  of  only  60  inches,  the  Cashel  type  departs 
decidedly  from  the  pony  standard,  and  in  having  fairly  high  withers — a 
result  of  a  large  head,  and  not  of  a  greater  obliquity  of  the  shoulders — they 
are  unlike  typical  Eastern  ponies.  At  the  present  moment  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  Connemara  ponies  are  the  offspring  of  the  old  Cashel 
stalhon.  When  at  his  best  he  seems  to  have  been  noted  for  his  strength, 
speed,  and  great  staying  power,  and  for  his  impressiveness  as  a  sire.  Of  his 
direct  descendants  I  only  heard  of  two  stallions  of  any  note  ;  but  both,  like 
their  aged  sire,  are  past  their  best. 

Were  enquiry  made  it  might  be  found  that  there  are  a  considerable 
number  of  mares  belonging  to  this  section  of  the  Connemara  ponies.  Care- 
fully selected  mares  built  on  the  Cashel  lines  would,  I  beHeve,  produce 
excellent  stock  if  put  to  a  good  Arab.  One  of  the  great  advantages 
of  the  Connemara  ponies  is  that  they  have  not  suffered  from  in-and-m 
breeding,  hence — unless  they  happen  to  be  naturally  prepotent — they 
readily  assimilate  the  more  marked  points  of  other  breeds.  Mares  ouilt  on 
the  lines  of  the  yellow-dun  would  probably  produce  excellent  stock  to  a  not 
over-potent  Arab,  or  a  stout,  short-legged,  hardy-reared  seven-eighths 
thoroughbred. 


4. — The  Clydesdale  Type. 

In  a  run  through  Connemara  one  sees  at  rare  intervals  stout,  cob-lilce 
ponies  that  seem  to  combine  the  characters  of  a  deer-stalker's  pony  and  of 
the  now  all  but  lost  Douglas  breed  of  horses — p'nies  capable  of  carrying 
heavy  loads,  and  when  occasion  requires  covering  great  distances  at  a  fair 
speed. 

One  of  these  ponies  is  represented  in  Fig.  11,  a  second  and  a  better 
stallion  I  saw  in  the  Joyce  country,  and  a  third  in  Clifden.  They  are  said 
to  inherit  their  strong  limbs,  great  girth,  and  powerful  loins  from  Clydesdale 
sires  introduced  thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  This  explanation  is  supported 
by  the  wealth  of  hair  at  the  fetlocks,  by  the  small  head,  and  by  the  offspring 
varying  considerably — sometimes  presenting  gaudy  colours — e.g.,  a  white 
bald  face,  such  as  one  frequently  sees  in  even  fashionably-bred  Clydes- 
dales. 

All  the  three  seen  were  black,  or  nearly  black,  and  of  about  the  same  size. 
One  of  them  measures  14  hands,  and  has  a  girth  of  70  J^  inches.  The 
head  is  small  (20)^  inches),  with  relatively  short  ears  (6  inches).  The 
length  from  the  elbow  to  the  ground  is  35  inches;  from  the  hock  to  the 
ground,  '22}^  inches ;  the  circumference  below  the  knee  is  8  inches. 

As  two  of  the  three  cob-like  stallions  have  been  at  stud  for  some  years 
(one  in  the  Clifden  district,  the  other  in  the  Joyce  country),  they  have, 
doubtless,  like  the  old  Cashel  horse,  helped  to  considerably  influence  the 
character  of  the  Connemara  ponies. 


340  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 


5. — The  Clifden  Type 

The  ponies  included  in  this  section,  though  but  little  larger  than  the 
members  of  the  Andalusian  (old  Connemara)  type,  are  very  different  in 
build.  The  head  is  beautifully  moulded,  and  the  face  highly  suggestive  of 
marked  intelligence,  the  ribs  are  well  arched,  the  shoulders  good,  and  the 
loins  and  hind  quarters  well  developed,  while  the  short  legs  are  so  con- 
structed that  they  stand  an  enormous  amount  of  wear,  often  looking  as 
perfect  after  a  score  of  years'  continuous  work  as  in  a  three-year-old  colt. 
These  short-legged,  stout  Connemara  ponies,  though  differing  from  Spanish 
ponies,  undoubtedly  belong  to  an  old  strain. 

Those  best  acquainted  with  Irish  ponies  would  probably  regard  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Clifden  section  as  representing  the  best  kind  of  Connemara 
ponies,  as  deserving  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  typical  Connemaras  existing 
at  the  present  day.  It  is  conceivable  that  these  short-legged  horses — for 
though  sometimes  barely  13  hands,  they  are  not  true  ponies,  i.e.,  they  are 
not  merely  stunted  horses,  like  the  Iceland  and  Shetland  ponies — owe  their 
characters  to  the  blending  of  all  the  types  already  described ;  but  it  is  also 
possible  that  while  the  Andalusian-like  ponies  sprang  from  a  light,  indi- 
genous variety,  the  aboriginal  ancestors  of  those  under  consideration 
belonged  to  a  larger  and  heavier  variety.  If  heavy  horses  of  the  Clydesdale 
type  were  only  introduced  some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  it  is  hardly  likely 
the  Clifden  ponies  owe  their  great  girth  and  stout  short  legs  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  Clydesdales.  That  they  are  largely  saturated  with  the  blood  of  the 
ordmary  long-headed  Irish  horse  is  extremely  unhkely,  and  it  is  as  unlikely 
that  they  have  been  much  influenced  by  recent  importations  of  Arab  blood. 
Hence,  although  their  origin  will  probably  remain  a  mystery,  the  evidence, 
such  as  it  is,  points  either  to  (i)  their  foreign  ancestors  differing  from  the 
imported  ancestors  of  the  Andalusian  section,  or  (2),  to  what  is  more  likely, 
that  there  existed  in  the  West  of  Ireland,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  during 
primeval  times,  a  heavy  as  well  as  a  light  variety  of  the  wild  horse  from 
which  the  indigenous  ancestors  of  the  "  real  Connemaras,"  as  they  are  often 
called,  originally  sprang. 

A  typical  member  of  this  section  measures  54  inches  (13.2  hands)  at  the 
withers  and  an  inch  more  at  the  croup.  The  head  from  the  occipital  ridge 
to  the  level  of  the  upper  margin  of  the  nostrils  measures  20^  inches,  the 
distance  between  the  inner  canthus  and  the  margin  of  the  nostril  ioj4 
inches.  The  ears,  Arab-like  in  form,  are  6j4  inches  along  the  inner  surface. 
The  girth  is  from  66  to  68  inches — the  ribs  being  well  arched.  The  fore-leg 
from  the  point  of  the  elbow  to  the  ground  measures  31  inches,  while  from 
the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground  the  length  is  20  inches.  Below  the 
knee  the  circumference  varies  from  7^  to  8  inches.  Judging  from  the 
ponies  I  saw  during  my  visit  to  Connemara  there  is  considerable  variation  in 
size  amongst  the  members  of  this  group.  One  of  the  most  typical  specimens, 
an  old  grey  mare,  with  a  remarkably  intelligent  face,  was  only  12.3  hands  at 
the  withers,  while  another  was  nearly  14  hands.  It  is  more  than  likely 
some  of  the  larger  ponies,  though  conforming  on  the  whole  to  the  Clifden 
type,  are  related  to  the  old  Cashel  horse. 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  341 


That,  as  this  mare  suggests,  there  is  a  considerable  blending  of  types  in 
the  Clifden  breed,  becomes  more  and  more  evident  the  more  it  is  studied. 
Striking  evidence  of  the  blending  we  have  in  a  very  typical  12.3  hands  flea- 
bitten  grey  mare — of  her  three  foals  one  was  a  yellow  dun,  one  a  light  grey, 
and  one  nearly  black.  The  dun  foal  was  said  to  be  the  best  of  the  three ; 
it  perhaps  reproduced  fairly  accurately  the  traits  of  the  indigenous  ancestors 
of  the  Clifden  section  of  the  Connemara  ponies. 

That  the  foal  of  grey  parents  is  sometimes  dun  seems  remarkable  enough, 
but  it  is  really  no  more  remarkable  than  that  the  offspring  of  white  wild 
cattle  should  be  sometimes  red,  or  the  offspring  of  white  rabbits  grey,  or  of 
blue  fantails  being  white — it  is  probably  in  most  cases  due  to  reversion  to 
the  remote  ancestors  controlling  the  development.  Darwin  in  discussmg 
the  colour  of  the  horse,  says,  "  I  have  endeavoured,  but  with  poor  success,  to 
discover  whether  duns,  which  are  so  much  oftener  striped  than  other 
coloured  horses,  are  ever  produced  from  the  crossing  of  two  horses  neither 
of  which  is  dun."*  Had  inquiries  been  made  in  the  West  of  Ireland,  many 
instances  of  dun  foals  from  parents  neither  of  which  was  of  a  dun  colour 
would  doubtless  have  been  heard  of. 

During  my  visit  to  the  West  of  Ireland  I  saw  quite  a  number  of  short- 
legged  mares  that  presented  the  more  striking  characters  of  the  Clifden 
strain ;  but  I  neither  saw  nor  heard  of  any  pure-bred  foals  or  stallions  of 
this,  in  many  ways,  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  types  of  Irish  ponies.  The 
Clifden  breed  seems  to  me  to  be  well  worth  preserving,  not  only  because 
well  adapted  for  the  country,  but  also  because  it  would  prove  invaluable  for 
crossing  with  other  breeds.  There  are  nowhere  else,  as  far  as  I  know,  m 
the  British  Islands,  ponies  with  so  much  stamina  as  those  I  have  included  in 
the  Clifden  section.  As  already  indicated,  they  are  more  horses  on  pony 
legs  than  true  ponies,  which  implies  they  can  be  readily  "  improved  "  either 
by  better  treatment  during  the  first  winter  or  by  crossing.  Some  of  them 
crossed  with  Arabs  would  give,  I  believe,  ideal  ponies  for  mounted  infantry, 
while  others  crossed  with  carefully  selected  hunter  sires,  or  with  hardy,  non- 
impressive  thoroughbred  horses,  would  produce  remounts  for  light  cavalry 
as  large  as  are  likely  to  be  of  use  in,  or  capable  of  surviving  under  the 
trying  experiences  of,  actual  warfare.  When  the  mild  climate  and  the 
extent  of  the  moors  and  mountains  of  Connemara  are  taken  into  considera- 
tion, it  may,  I  think,  be  safely  asserted  that  Connemara  could  produce 
ponies — say  one  thousand  annually — suitable  for  mounted  infantry  (alike  in 
size,  hardiness,  staying  power,  and  intelligence),  at  a  lower  figure  than  any 
other  district  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland. 

Before  concluding  what  I  have  to  say  of  the  different  types  of  Conne- 
mara ponies,  I  ought  to  refer  to  a  small  breed  in  process  of  formation  in  the 
vicinity  of  Clifden.  The  owner  of  these  ponies  informs  me  that  he  has 
always  bred  from  small  mares,  with  the  result,  as  the  figure  suggests,  that 
his  stock  presents  all  the  characters  of  true  ponies,  and  are  hence  in  their 
build  more  like  Shetland  or  Welsh  ponies  than  the  smaller  members  of  the 
Clifden  breed,  and  though  about  the  same  size,  they  differ  considerably 
from  the  old  Connemara  duns  (which  are  supposed  to  bear  the  greatest 
resemblance  to  Andalusian  horses)  and  from  upland  ponies  with  large 
heads  sometimes  seen  in  the  Carna  district 

•"Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication."  vol.  i.,  p.  59. 


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THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  343 

II.    THE   ENVIRONMENT  OF  THE  PONIES. 
Sice   and   Uniformity. 

In  addition  to  considering  the  races  or  breeds  to  which  the  ponies  of  any 
given  district  belong,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration,  amongst 
other  things,  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  bred  and  reared — to  take 
cognizance  of  the  environment  as  well  as  the  ancestry.  But  before  dis- 
cussing the  external  conditions,  I  ought,  perhaps,  to  insist  again  on  the  fact 
that,  whatever  may  have  been  the  case  in  the  past,  a  distinct  breed  of  Con- 
nemara  ponies  does  not  now  exist.  Amongst  Arab  and  other  Eastern 
breeds  there  is  a  considerable  range  of  variation,  just  as  there  is  variation 
amongst  the  oldest  strains  of  Norwegian  and  other  Western  breeds.  Never- 
theless, it  is  generally  possible  at  once  to  say  whether  any  given  horse  is  an 
Arab  or  a  Norwegian.  It  is,  however,  difficult — in  most  cases  impossible— - 
fo  decide  whether  any  given  Irish  pony  has  been  bred  in  Connemara. 
There  is  uniformity  amongst  the  desert  Arabs,  because,  to  begin  with,  they 
have  almost  certainly  sprung  from  the  graceful,  lightly-built  Eastern  horse 
of  the  Post  Pliocene  (Diluvial)  period,  and  because  for  some  thousands  of 
years  the  descendants  of  the  "  Al-Khamseh  "  ("  the  Five  "),  the  so-called 
mares  of  the  Prophet,  have  been  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  used  for  breeding. 

Again,  the  Norwegian  Yellow-duns  are  fairly  uniform,  because  they  are  in 
all  probability  the  direct  descendants  of  the  Western  race  of  the  Post 
Pliocene  horse — of  the  sturdy,  short-legged,  long-headed  race  which  ranged 
over  the  plains  and  valleys  of  Europe  after  the  Great  Ice  Age  came  to  an  end. 

A  century  ago  the  Connemara  "  hobbies  "  may  have  been  a  fairly  uniform 
blend  of  the  slender  Oriental  and  stout  Occidental  races,  but  to-day  ther3 
is  a  complete  want  of  uniformity,  doubtless  because  the  people  of  Conne- 
mara, unlike  the  Anazah  and  other  desert  Arabians,  have  long  been  breeding 
from  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  mares,  and  have  been,  as  a  rule,  strangely 
indifferent  as  to  the  pedigree  of  the  stallions. 

But,  though  more  than  ever  uniformity  is  worth  striving  after  (especially 
by  districts  ambitious  to  supply  small  horses  for  mounted  infantry),  it  is  not 
everything.  Unless  it  is  the  product  of  centuries,  or  the  result  of  extremely 
careful  selection,  it  may  be  a  positive  evil.  When  it  is  the  outcome  of  close 
m-and-in  breeding,  it  but  serves  to  cover  a  multitude  of  sins.  Size,  unifor- 
mity, shapeliness,  and  fine  action  are  excellent,  indeed  indispensable,  in 
horses  taking  part  in  pageants  and  in  park  parades,  as  well  as  in  horses 
harnessed  to  well-appointed  carriages,  but  in  the  small  horses  by  which  the 
world's  work  is  mainly  done,  hardiness,  endurance,  nimbleness,  intelligence, 
and  docility  count  for  infinitely  more  than  make  or  action,  good  looks 
or  a  long  pedigree.  Make,  docility,  intelligence,  and  speed  are  largely 
a  matter  of  inheritance,  while  endurance  and  hardiness  are  mainly  the 
products  of  the  surroundings.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  active,  hardy 
horses  are  found  in  the  less  barren  uplands  of  nearly  all  temperate  and 
sub-tropical  areas,  and  that  degenerate  forms  are  often  met  with  in  certain 
parts  of  India,  and  in  areas  within  the  tropics  where  the  conditions  are 
unsuitable,  and  wherever  there  are  neither  sufficiently  trying  summer 
droughts  nor  winter  frosts  to  eliminate  the  weaklings. 

Have  we,  in  the  West  of  Ireland,  and  more  especially  in  the  west  of 
Galway,  an  environment  likely  to  produce,  without  the  help  of  man,  ponies 


344  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 


as  large,  hardy,  and  vigorous  as  the  Galloways,  so  indispensable  in  many 
parts  of  England  and  Scotland  until  railways  revolutionised  our  modes  of 
travelling  and  transport  ? 

That  the  size  of  horses,  wild,  feral,  and  domestic,  is  intimately  related  to 
the  surroundings  is  widely  recognised.  We  know,  for  example,  that  horses 
left  to  find  their  own  food  and  shelter  seldom  exceed  44  inches  in  Shetland  ; 
48  inches  in  Exmoor ;  and  50  inches  in  Dartmoor ;  and  that  though  on  the 
more  fertile  Welsh  hills  (as  in  the  New  Forest  and  some  of  the  western 
islands  of  Scotland)  a  height  of  52  inches  is  sometimes  reached,  yet  on  the 
more  exposed  and  barren  Welsh  hill  the  ponies  rarely  measure  over  48 
inches  at  the  withers. 

If  in  England  and  Wales  the  native  moor  and  mountain  ponies,  left  to 
find  their  own  food  and  shelter,  are,  as  a  rule,  considerably  under  13  hands, 
i.e.,  are  rarely  within  the  reach  of  the  mounted  infantry  standard,  is  there 
any  likelihood  of  Connemara — in  virtue  of  its  mild  winters,  moist  climate, 
and  rich  pastures — being  able,  without  man's  interference,  to  produce  ponies 
from  13  to  14  hands,  ponies  which,  with  but  little  outlay  during  the  first  two 
winters,  might  easily  reach  a  height  of  58  inches? 

A  satisfactory  answer  to  this  question  can  hardly  be  attempted  without 
a  brief  reference  to  the  more  recent  ancestors  of  the  Equidae,  and  to  the 
geology  and  physical  features  of  Galway. 

The  more  recent  Ancestors  of  the  Horse. 

Up  to  the  end  of  Miocene  times,  the  ancestors  of  the  recent  Equidae  were 
still  three-toed,  and  still  provided  with  relatively  short  and  simple  molars. 
The  three  hoofs  plainly  indicate  that  the  Miocene  horses  lived  near  lakes, 
rivers,  and  marshes,  while  the  short  crowns  of  the  teeth  as  plainly  show 
that  they  fed  throughout  the  year  almost  exclusively  on  soft,  easily  crushed 
plants. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  three-toed  Miocene  horses  gave  place  to  their 
larger  and  more  highly  specialised  one-hoofed  Pliocene  descendants. 

As  the  outer  hoofs  dwindled  in  size,  the  crowns  of  the  molars  (the  six 
large  cheek  teeth)  increased  in  length  and  complexity,  with  the  result  that 
the  Pliocene  horses  were  eventually  splendidly  adapted  for  moving  rapidly 
over  wide  open  arid  plains,  steppes,  and  plateaux,  and  among  the  foot-hills 
of  great  mountains,  and  for  dealing  with  coarse  dry  shrubs  as  effectively  as 
with  grasses  and  soft  herbage. 

Since  the  various  living  breeds  of  the  domestic  horses  are  practically 
identical  with  their  Pliocene  ancestors,  it  follows,  that  in  considering  the 
suitability  of  any  given  area  as  a  centre  for  breeding  and  rearing  an  active, 
hardy  variety,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Equidae,  far  more  than 
sheep  or  cattle,  are  adapted  for  leading  a  wandering,  unfettered  life,  feeding, 
during  at  least  a  part  of  the  year,  not  so  much  on  soft  grasses  (which  more 
often  improve  the  condition  than  the  fitness)  as  on  various  kinds  of  coarse, 
dry  plants  (heaths,  gorse,  roots,  twigs,  and  the  like)  so  hard  and  fibrous  that 
they  gradually  wear  down  the  hard  enamel  ridges  of  their  long-crowned 
complex  teeth. 

The  Physical  Features  and  Climate. 

To  understand  the  physical  conditions  of  the  west  of  Galway,  one  must 
bear  in  mind  that  Ireland  is  especially  characterised  by  a  great  central 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  345 


plain,  which  occupies  about  two-thirds  of  the  total  area.  The  central  plain 
might  be  described  as  a  huge,  shallow,  irregular  basin,  floored  with  carboni- 
ferous limestone,  and  surrounded  by  an  irregular,  highly-embossed,  moun- 
tainous rim,  wide  at  some  parts,  narrow  at  others,  or  altogether  absent  (as 
at  Gal  way  and  between  Dundalk  and  Dublin). 

Connemara  forms  part  of  the  rim  of  the  great  central  plain.  Reference  to 
a  map  shows  that  the  outer  edge  of  the  Galway  section  of  the  rim  or  fringe 
is  indented  by  numerous  bays  and  channels,  many  of  them  studded  with 
rocks  and  islands.  In  the  north  a  long  narrow  channel  (Killary  Harbour) 
separates  Galway  from  Mayo,  while  on  the  east  two  rock-basins  (Lough 
Corrib  and  Lough  Mask)  separate  the  great  plain  from  the  most  western 
part  of  its  rim. 

A  survey  of  the  interior  of  Connemara  shows,  in  the  north,  a  remarkable 
plateau — the  table-land  of  Slieve  Partry  or  "  Joyce's  Country  " — and  ledges 
and  terraces,  extending  from  Lough  Mask  towards  Muilrea  (2,688  feet  high) 
on  the  Mayo  side  of  Killary  Harbour.  Between  the  Partry  table-land  and 
Clifden  lie  the  dome-shaped  Twelve  Bens  or  "  Pins,"  which  in  Benbaun 
reach  an  elevation  of  2,395  feet.  East  of  the  Pins  are  the  Maumturk 
Mountains. 

Between  CHfden  and  Galway  Bay  in  the  south,  hills  and  mountains  occur 
in  every  direction.  Between  the  mountains  are  numerous  valleys,  which 
sometimes  expand  into  wide  moors,  often  divided  into  irregular  patches  by 
small  lakes  and  streams.  Numerous  lakelets  form  the  meshes  of  an  intri- 
cate network  to  the  south  of  Clifden,  and  they  are  also  abundant  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  deep  indentations  of  the  south-western  shore.  It  thus 
.appears  that,  in  having  numerous  hills  and  uplands,  well-watered  valleys, 
and  wide  moors  often  but  little  above  the  sea-level,  Connemara  provides 
sufficient  space  and  variety  for  many  wandering  herds  of  horses. 

It  is,  however,  not  so  much  the  configuration  of  the  country  as  the  climate 
that  claims  consideration.  The  average  w-inter  temperature  is  said  to  be 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  south  of  Europe  (44°  Fahr.).  This  high 
average  it  owes  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  extends  into  the  many  bays  and 
channels,  and  from  the  warm  surface  of  which,  throughout  a  considerable 
part  of  the  year,  soft  moisture-laden  breezes  penetrate  far  inland,  not  only 
in  the  direction  of  Lough  Mask  and  Lough  Corrib,  but  also  beyond  the 
"  Pins,"  towards  the  Partry  table-land.  The  high  temperature,  together 
with  the  moisture,  implies  that  grasses,  heaths,  and  other  plants  begin  to 
grow  early  in  the  Spring,  remain  fresh  and  green  throughout  the  Summer, 
and  retain  their  nutritive  properties  almost  undiminished  during  the  Winter. 
It  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  Connemara  has  the  advantages  over  the 
New  Forest,  Wales,  and  other  pony  districts  in  England,  and  also  over 
Sardinia,  Sumatra,  and  other  Southern  Islands,  in  which,  notwithstanding 
the  high  average  temperature,  the  naturally-reared  horses  are  little  larger 
than  the  dwarf  ponies  of  Shetland. 


The  Soil  and  Underlying  Rocks. 

In  selecting  a  district  for  breeding  ponies  under  natural  conditions,  it  is 
7.S  necessary  to  consider  the  underlying  rocks  and  the  soil  covering,  and  in 
most  cases  derived  from  them,  as  it  is  to  direct  attention  to  the  climate  and 
physical  features. 


346  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

Had  all  the  rocks  in  the  west  of  Galway  consisted  of  quartzite  like  the 
Twelve  Bens,  or  of  granite  such  as  occupies  a  wide  area  to  the  north  of 
Galway  Bay,  or  of  metamorphosed  rocks  such  as  underlie  and  predispose  to 
the  formation  of  the  extensive  bogs  of  Mayo,  Connemara  would  never  have 
been  famous  for  ponies.  Green  plants  are  incapable  of  growing  unless  sup- 
plied with  lime,  and  they  only  flourish  when  lime  is  present  in  the  soil  in 
sufficient  quantity  and  when  it  is  accompanied  by  certain  other  chemical 
substances,  such  as  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  In  most  cases  the  soil 
is  indebted  for  its  lime  to  the  rocks  over  or  near  which  it  lies.  It  is,  how- 
ever, well  to  remember  that  some  limestone  districts  are  extremely  barren, 
while  some  districts  destitute  of  limestone  deposits  are  highly  fertile,  and 
that  in  some  areas  the  whole  of  the  soil  is  of  foreign  origin.* 

In  the  west  of  Galway,  notwithstanding  abundant  evidence  of  glaciation 
and  the  presence  of  numerous  glacial  deposits  in  the  uplands  as  well  as  in 
the  valleys,  the  soil  has,  to  a  very  large  extent,  resulted  from  the  weathering 
of  the  native  rocks.  According  to  the  geological  survey,  a  considerable 
number  of  glacial  deposits  occur  between  Lough  Mask  and  Killary  Harbour 
and  over  the  low-lying  area  extending  between  the  wide  upper  portion  of 
Lough  Corrib  and  the  Atlantic,  i.e.,  in  Connemara  proper.  Other  patches 
of  boulder  clay  occur  in  the  southern  granitic  area  between  Connemara 
proper  and  Galway  Bay.  Some  of  these  deposits  doubtless  consist  of 
drift  boulder  clay  carried  from  the  great  central  plain,  but  the  majority  are 
of  local  origin — relics  of  district  and  local  glaciers.  The  boulder  clay  from 
the  central  plain  is  likely  to  be  rich  in  partially  disintegrated  carboniferous 
limestone,  while  the  local  deposits  north  of  the  granitic  area  are  doubtless 
rich  in  lime-salts  derived  from  the  schists  and  basic  igneous  rocks  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lough  Inagh  and  other  centres  from  which  the  ice  radiated 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  glacial  epoch. 

In  the  extensive  granitic  region  north  of  Galway  Bay  the  patches  of 
boulder  clay  are  mostly  small— they  often  form  fertile  spots  in  an  otherwise 
unproductive  district.  There  is,  however,  a  glacial  deposit  of  considerable 
extent  near  the  centre  of  the  southern  section,  but  owing  to  its  being  in 
great  part  covered  by  bog,  it  is  of  little  value. 

With  the  exception  of  the  boulder  clays,  alluvial  deposits  and  belts  and 
mounds  of  wind-blown  sand,  the  soil  of  Connemara  has  almost  entirely 
been  derived  from  the  weathering  of  schists  and  igneous  rocks. 

A  glance  at  a  geological  map  of  Ireland  shows  that  a  wide  central 
band  of  Lower  Silurian  rocks  extends  right  across  Connemara  from  the 
upper  part  of  Lough  Corrib  to  the  Atlantic.  To  the  north  of  this,  occupy- 
ing the  uplands,  there  is  a  somewhat  crescent-shaped  mass  (about  150 
square  miles  in  extent)  of  Upper  Silurian  rocks,  while  the  south,  as  already 
indicated,  consists  almost  entirely  of  granite.  A  more  careful  inspection 
reveals  the  fact  that  the  Lower  Silurian  and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  Upper 
Silurian  areas  include  a  large  amount  of  limestone  and  numerous  igneous 
dykes.  The  limestone  mainly  occurs  in  narrow,  often  nearly  parallel, 
bands  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  stretch  of  carboniferous  limestone  occupy- 
ing a  triangular  area  between  Lough  Corrib  and  the  railway  from  Galway  to 
Oughterard.  The  limestone  bands  are  especially  abundant  between 
Oughterard  and  Clifden,  to  the  north  of  the  Maumturk  Mountains,  and 

*  A  striking  instance  of  this  we  have  in  the  southern  states  of  New  England,  where  over  an 
area  of  nearly  4,000,000  square  miles  the  soil,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  insignificant  patches, 
consists  of  boulder  clay  carried  thither  by  ice  during  the  glacial  epoch. 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  347 


between  these  mountains  and  the  Twelve  Bens.  They  are  also  plentiful 
between  the  Bens  and  Lough  Kylemore  and  to  the  south-east  of  Ballynakill 
Harbour. 

The  igneous  dykes  (which  often  yield  soil  rich  in  phosphates)  occur  in 
great  numbers  in  the  western  portion  of  Connemara,  more  especially  to  the' 
west  of  a  line  between  Ballynakill  Harbour  and  Cashel  Bay. 

In  addition  to  the  igneous  dykes  there  are  great  masses  of  basic  igneous 
rocks  south  of  the  railway  between  Oughterard  and  Clifden,  but  especially 
to  the  south  and  east  of  Ballynahinch.  The  importance  of  igneous  dykes 
and  of  basic  igneous  rocks  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  In  Norway,  e.g., 
the  villages  string  themselves  along  igneous  dykes,  being  especially  crowded 
where  the  dykes  are  most  abundant  and  richest  in  phosphates. 

The  uplands  extending  between  Lough  Mask  and  Killary  Harbour  in 
many  ways  agree  with  the  Ochills,  Pentlands,  and  the  Southern  Uplands  of 
Scotland.  They  owe  their  fertility  to  the  limestone  schists,  and  other 
phosphate-yielding  rocks  of  the  Upper  Silurian  series.  To  the  south  of  the 
crescent-shaped  Upper  Silurian  area,  which  includes  the  Partry  table-land 
and  Joyces'  country,  lies  the  area  (comprising  Connemara  proper)  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  Lower  Silurian  rocks.  These  rocks  extend  from  Lough 
Corrib  to  the  Atlantic,  and  separate  the  uplands  in  the  north  from  the 
extensive  granitic  area  in  the  south.  On  the  east  the  Lower  Silurian  rocks 
reach  the  lower  end  of  Lough  Mask  ;  south  of  Oughterard  they  come  into 
contact  with  the  triangle  of  carboniferous  limestone  lying  to  the  east  of  the' 
railway.  On  the  Atlantic  side  they  all  but  extend  to  Killary  Harbour  in 
the  north,  and  in  the  south  they  come  into  contact  with  the  granitic  area  in 
Bertraghboy  Bay,  not  far  from  Carna.  In  the  lower  Silurian  area  to  the 
north  of  Ballinahinch  lie  the  Twelve  Bens  ;  further  east  the  equally  barren 
Maumturk  Mountains.  With  the  exception  of  these  sterile  quartzitic  moun- 
tains, the  soil  of  the  Lower  Silurian  section,  wherever  it  exists  in  sufficient 
quantity,  is  wonderfully  fertile.  The  presence  of  limestone  bands,  igneous 
dykes,  and  various  kinds  of  schists  ensures  a  plentiful  supply  of  lime,  potash, 
and  phosphoric  acid.  The  granitic  area  extending  from  the  Lower  Silurian 
section  to  Galway  Bay,  though,  as  a  rule,  but  little  above  the  sea-level,  and 
though  crowded  with  lakelets,  intersected  by  numerous  streams,  and  deeply 
indented  on  the  west  by  bays,  channels,  and  creeks,  is  of  little  value  for 
agricultural  purposes.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  presence  of  extensive  bogs, 
but  chiefly  to  the  rocks  being  incapable  of  yielding  suitable  soil. 

When  the  climate,  physical  features,  and  geological  formations  of  the 
west  of  Galway  are  taken  into  consideration,  there  is  no  escape  from  the 
conclusion  that  Connemara  is  in  many  respects  well  adapted  for  the  breed- 
ing and  rearing  of  stout,  active  ponies,  as  large  as  the  feral  horses  once  so 
abundant  in  the  New  World,  and  as  hardy  as  the  wild  horse  (the  E.  frzewal- 
skii)  of  Central  Asia. 

The  Food  of  the  Ponies. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  horses  seem  to  prefer  short  young 
grasses,  and  soft,  easily-cropped  herbs ;  but,  as  already  mentioned,  the 
length  of  the  crowns  of  the  teeth,  together  with  the  great  length  and 
strength  of  the  jaws,  indicate  that  they  are  well  adapted  for  feeding  on  hard, 
dry  plants,  which  require  to  be  well  crushed  before  they  give  up  theif 
nutritive  constituents. 


548  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 


In  various  parts  of  Africa,  as  in  Central  Asia,  where  wild  horses  still 
survive,  ordinary  grasses  during  the  dry  season  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence.  During  this  dry  period  horses  and  other  non-migratory  ungulates 
would  be  exterminated — as  it  is  they  are  probably  often  decimated — were 
they  unable  to  sustain  life  on  shrubs,  roots,  and  such  desert  plants  as  manage 
to  show  themselves  above  the  parched  dry  ground.  The  instinct  to  feed  on 
hard  fibrous  plants  during  part  of  the  year  survives  in  the  domestic  horse. 
Tn  temperate  regions,  for  at  least  some  weeks  before  the  advent  of  spring, 
horses  living  in  a  semi-wild  state  prefer  hard  shrubs  to  the  rough  and 
probably  tasteless  grasses  still  available.  During  this  trying  period,  when 
the  spring  coat  is  preparing  to  take  the  place  of  the  winter  one,  hill  and 
moorland  ponies  may  be  seen  eating  gorse,  heaths,  and  other  shrubs.  In 
the  absence  of  shrubs,  they  devour  the  bark  of  beech,  and  other  trees,  or  dig 
up  and  deliberately  eat  various  kinds  of  roots  and  underground  stems.  In 
a  mixed  herd  of  Equidae  some  prefer  gorse  and  heaths,  others  as  readily 
take  to  bark  and  the  smaller  branches  of  fallen  trees,  while  others  direct 
their  attention  chiefly  to  underground  stems.  Recently  I  came  upon  a  mixed 
family,  all  in  excellent  condition,  busily  engaged  digging  up  and  eating, 
apparently  with  great  relish,  the  underground  stems  of  nettles.  Not  far 
fiom  this  group  some  zebra  hybrids  were  cutting  off  and  devouring  branches 
(ever  an  inch  in  circumference)  of  a  fallen  beech  tree,  and  in  an  adjoining 
paddock  several  ponies,  instead  of  feeding  on  the  excellent  hay  provided, 
were  directing  their  attention  to  the  fences.  In  Shetland  the  ponies  are 
said  to  consume  sea-weeds,  while  in  Iceland,  when  the  usually  scanty  supply 
of  hay  comes  to  an  end,  they  readily  take  to  eating  cod-heads  specially 
reserved  for  them  during  the  fishing  season. 

It  might  be  said  that  in  the  case  of  the  domestic  horse  the  instinct  to 
feed  on  shrubs,  underground  stems,  branches,  leaves,  etc.,  might  well  have 
been  allowed  to  lapse.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that,  without 
this  instinct,  thousands  of  horses  in  Europe,  and  a  countless  number  in 
Africa  and  Asia,  would  annually  perish,  and  that  our  semi-wild  ponies  prob- 
ably owe  their  hardiness  and  their  freedom  from  various  diseases  largely  to 
their  feeding  on  shrubs  and  other  fibrous  substances  during  the  interval 
between  winter  and  spring.  Without  a  wide  range  of  frequent  change  of 
pasture,  it  is  difficult  to  rear  vigorous,  hardy  horses ;  but  the  wild  herbs  and 
the  dwarf  shrubs  that  occur  so  plentifully  on  uncultivated  moors  and 
uplands  may  be  quite  as  essential  during  colthood  as  a  free  and  unfettered 
existence. 


III.   THE  WORK   OF  THE  CONNEMARA  PONIES. 

Ponies  are  as  essential  to-day  in  Connemara  as  "  Galloways  "  were  a  cen- 
tury ago  in  many  parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  owing  to  the  wild  and 
rugged  nature  of  the  country,  and  the  all  but  inaccessible  position  of  many 
of  the  homesteads  and  cabins,  the  pillion  and  pack-saddle  are  not  likely 
soon  to  disappear  from  the  West  of  Ireland. 

In  England,  as  the  result  of  the  revolution  effected  in  travelling  and 
tiansport  by  railways,  the  existence  of  hardy,  active  ponies  had  almost 
been  forgotten  until  the  South  African  War  proved  how  invaluable  they 
were  for  mounted  infantry.     In  Connemara,  as  in  the  East,  interest  in  ponies 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  34& 


for  purely  practical  reasons  has  continued  undiminished  for  centuries.  One 
important  result  of  this  has  been  that  Connemara,  by  sending  all  over 
Ireland  "  colts  "  reared  under  natural  conditions,  has  helped  to  gain  for 
Irish  horses  their  widespread  reputation  for  vigour,  hardiness,  and  intelli- 
gence— through  Connemara  Irish  horses  have,  as  it  were,  kept  in  touch 
with  Mother  Nature. 

Without  a  pony  the  peasant  farmer  in  the  west  of  Galway  is  all  but 
helpless.  Fortunately,  except  the  original  cost,  there  is  but  little  outlay. 
A  two-year-old  filly  having  been  purchased,  usually  at  a  very  low  figure,  a 
bridle  is  soon  woven  out  of  horse-hair — -after  the  fashion,  but  without  the 
artistic  feeling  that  prevails  in  Arabia — and  a  primitive  pack-saddle  con- 
structed out  of  four  pieces  of  wood.  The  only  additional  pieces 
of  furniture  needed  are  mats  or  sacks  to  place  under  the  saddle,  and  a 
cushion  or  pillion  for  the  hindquarters,  on  which  the  owner  at  times  sits 
when  on  the  way  to  market,  horse-hair  or  ordinary  ropes  hold  the 
various  trappings  in  position.  The  work  of  the  ponies  varies  with  the 
season  of  the  year.  At  one  time  they  may  be  seen  climbing  steep  hillsides 
heavily  laden  with  seaweed,  seed  corn,  or  potatoes  ;  at  another  they  convey 
the  produce  to  market.  Sometimes  it  is  a  load  of  turf,  oats,  or  barley ;  at 
other  times  creels  crowded  with  a  lively  family  of  young  pigs. 

During  summer  and  autumn  the  ponies  are  often  seen  trudging  unsteadily 
along,  all  but  buried  in  a  huge  pile  of  hay  or  oats,  each  with  a  puzzled  foal 
thoughtfully  bringing  up  the  rear. 

Returning  from  market  each  pony  generally  carries  two  men,  one  in 
front  and  the  other  on  the  pillion  behind.  A  good  pony  can  easily  carry 
two  men  thus  disposed  for  a  considerable  distance  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles- 
an  hour.  The  women  seem  to  be  quite  as  much  at  home  on  the  pillion  as 
the  men.  In  Clifden  and  other  centres,  as  on  the  larger  holdings  and  some 
of  the  small  farms  close  to  the  main  roads,  cars,  turf,  and  other  carts  take 
the  place  of  the  pack-saddle  and  pillion. 


IV.   THE   CONSTITUTION,   TEMPERAMENT,   AND   CAPABILITIES   OF  THE 

CONNEMARA  PONIES. 

In  Arabia,  where  horses  are  prized  above  all  other  possessions,  and  in 
England,  where  so  much  is  sacrificed  to  appearances,  make  and  action  are 
often  the  chief  points  looked  for ;  but  in  Connemara  strength  and  staying 
power,  hardiness,  and  tractability  are  the  main  considerations.  If  the 
ponies  happen  to  be  fast  and  shapely,  so  much  the  better. 

All  are  agreed  that  the  better  Connemara  ponies  are  strong  and  hardy, 
and  possessed  of  great  endurance.  But  all  ponies  reared  under  natural" 
conditions  and  in  a  suitable  environment  have,  or  in  course  of  time  acquire, 
these  attributes. 

Though  hardiness,  endurance,  and  strength,  are  of  vital  importance,  they 
often  pass  unnoticed  until  ponies  have  the  opportunity  of  working  alongside 
delicately-reared  thoroughbred  and  large  half-bred  horses.  It  then  becomes 
evident,  as  Sir  Richard  Green  Price  has  pointed  out,  and  as  recent  expe- 
riences in  South  Africa  have  so  abundantly  proved,  that  ponies  "  beat 
moderate  horses  of  double  their  size,"  and  have  "  twice  the  constitution  and 
thrice  the  sense." 


^50  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

The  reason  of  this  difference  is  that  large  horses  are  highly  specialised 
products  of  artificial  selection,  quite  incapable  of  maintaining  themselves  in 
adverse  circumstances.  Nature  makes  short  work  of  large  horses,  and  m 
a  very  few  generations  mercifully  reduces  to  the  pony  standard  any  off- 
spring they  may  happen  to  leave. 

While  one  may  fail  to  appreciate  fully  the  grit  and  stamina  of  the  Con- 
nemara  ponies,  it  is  impossible  to  miss  noticing  their  intelligence  and 
.docility.  In  these  respects  they  agree  with  Arabs,  and  contrast  favourably 
with  thoroughbreds.  Their  docility  is  in  part  hereditary,  and  in  part  the 
result  of  their  upbringing.  From  the  first,  as  in  Arabia,  they  often  form  one 
of  the  family  circle,  and  in  course  of  time  court  rather  than  shun  human 
society.  Ponies  which  have  during  their  youth  acquired  confidence  in  man 
are,  except  in  rare  cases,  far  more  docile  than  ponies  that  run  wild  during 
the  first  year,  or  that  have  a  chance  of  developing  all  their  wild  instincts 
before  they  are  pressed  into  the  service  of  man,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of 
the  Argentine  horses. 

Seeing  that  the  ponies  of  Connemara  belong  to  several  fairly  distinct 
types,  it  will  be  more  profitable  to  consider  what  kind  of  pony  breeders 
should  aim  at  producing  in  the  future,  than  to  discuss  the  points  of  those 
now  in  existence.  In  doing  this,  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  (i)  the 
kind  of  work  that  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  average  Connemara  pony  ;  (2),  that 
.each  mare  is  expected  to  produce  annually  a  foal  that  will  fetch  a  good 
price  when  six  or  eight  months  old ;  and  (3),  that  some  of  the  cross-bred 
foals  will  be  expected,  under  generous  treatment,  to  reach  a  size  of  sixty 
inches,  and  develop  into  light-weight  hunters. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  many  of  the 
ponies  in  the  west  of  Galway  do  the  work  of  pack  horses,  and  require  to  be 
as  strong,  agile,  and  tireless  as  battery  mules.  In  mountain  battery  mules 
one  expects  to  find  powerful  loins,  great  girth,  a  fairly  long  body,  and  short 
strong  legs.  Many  of  the  old  "  hobbies  "  appear  to  have  had  all  the  best 
points  of  a  battery  mule,  united  to  the  temperament  and  much  of  the  grace 
of  an  Arab,  while  some  of  them,  if  one  may  rely  on  Berenger  and  other 
writers,  were  fleet  enough  to  outrun  the  best  of  the  Eastern  horses  on  the 
English  turf  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  To  combine  in  one  breed 
the  strength  of  a  pack  horse  and  the  fleetness  of  an  Arab  may  seem  impos- 
sible ;  but,  after  all,  the  difference  between  a  long,  low  hobby  and  an  Arab- 
like racer  may  be  mainly  a  difference  in  the  length  of  the  legs  and  of  the 
parts  correlated  to  the  legs — the  hobby  may  have  been  sometimes  a  stunted 
Eastern  horse. 

If  this  is  the  case,  it  may  still  be  possible,  out  of  native  material,  to  produce 
a  breed  of  ponies  fairly  uniform  in  make,  size,  and  colour,  and  capable  not 
only  of  performing  the  arduous  work  of  a  small  upland  farm,  but  also,  under 
favourable  conditions,  of  developing  into  hunters,  or,  at  least,  of  producing 
hunters  to  hunter  sires,  remounts  or  riding  ponies  to  Arab  sires,  and  hardy 
ponies  with  good  action  to  Hackney  and  Welsh  cob  sires.  That  this  is  more 
than  probable  will  be  admitted,  when  it  is  remembered  that  during 
recent  years  many  excellent  light  hunters  and  riding  and  driving  ponies 
have  been  bred  in  Connemara.  This  has  been  possible  partly  because  the 
ponies  are,  as  a  rule,  non-impressive,  and  partly  because  many  of  the  mares, 
though  unshapely  and  deficient  in  bone,  belong  to  a  good  stock,  and  are 
seldom  wanting  in  stamina. 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  351 

Before  attempting  to  indicate  the  points  that  should  characterise   the 
ideal  pony  of  the  future,  it  will  be  well  to  submit  evidence  in  proof  of  the 
fact  that  Connemara  has  produced  excellent  ponies  during  quite  recent 
years.     Fig.  7  represents  a  pony  bought  in  1 894  out  of  a  herd  of  Connemara 
foals.     This  pony,  having  been  allowed  to  run  at  grass  until  he  was  four 
years  old,  reached  a  height  of  1 5  hands,  and  in  course  of  time  developed  into 
an  extremely  clever  hunter,  hard  to  beat  as  a  jumper.     Had  he  remained 
amongst  his  native  wilds  at  work  before  reaching  his  second  birthday,  he 
would  most  probably  have  grown  into  a  very  ordinary-looking  hobby.  From 
Mr.  W.  Webber,  of  Kellyville,  Athy,  and  others,  I  have  received  photo- 
graphs of  quite  a  number  of  ponies  with  a  history  and  record  similar  to  the 
one  figured.     One  of  these,  bought  out  of  a  herd  of  foals  in   1890,   Mr. 
Webber  informs  me,  is  perfectly  gentle,  extremely  intelligent,  hard  to  tire, 
and  able  to  jump  anything  a  horse  can  jump.     Another,  bought  in   1892, 
has  been  hunted  regularly  since  it  was  three  years  old,  and  not  only  jumps 
well,  but  is  very  fast,  and  goes  regularly  in  harness  during  the  summer.  Last 
autumn  I  puchased  a  six-year-old  yellow-dun  pony,  which  was  reared,  as 
well  as  bred,  in  Connemara.     It  is  a  blend  of  the  Eastern  and  Cashel  types. 
This  pony,  though  only  14  hands,  would  make  an  ideal  smaH  war-horse. 
As  might  be  expected  from  her  beautiful  head,  she  is  extremely  intelligent 
and  docile,  and  an  experienced  breaker  says  he  never  had  a  more  clever  or 
more  pleasant  hack  in  his  hands.     When  out  with  other  ponies  she  carries 
herself  well,  and  is  as  spirited  and  keen  as  an  Arab.     Yet  in  a  show  of 
riding  ponies  this  yellow-dun  would  entirely  fail  to  find  favour  in  the  eyes 
of  ordinary  judges,  for  in  her  withers,  and  in  the  position  of  the  tail,  she 
falls  short  of  the  sentimental  standard.    In  make  she  closely  resembles  some 
of  the  Arab-Barb  crosses  specially  bred  for  military  purposes  at  the  St. 
George's  Stud  in  Algiers. 

Turning  from  pure-bred  to  half-bred  ponies,  I  may  first  refer  to  Mr. 
William  PalHn's  "  Bog  of  Allen."  This  is  an  extremely  clever  hunter  out 
of  a  Connemara  mare  by  the  well-known  thoroughbred  horse  "  Favo." 
Though  only  58^^'  inches  at  the  withers,  this  horse  has  won  a  three-mile 
steeplechase  carrying  14  stone,  and  several  jumping  prizes. 

A  long  list  of  equally  famous  half-bred  Connemara  ponies  could  easily  be 
given.  Quite  a  number  of  crosses  between  Connemara  mares  and  Eastern 
horses  have  been  bred ;  but  I  have  only  had  the  opportunity  of  examining 
three,  one  by  a  Barb  ("  Awfully  Jolly  "),  and  two  by  an  Arab.  The  Barb 
cross  was  generally  regarded  as  a  failure,  but  the  larger  of  the  two  half 
Arabs  is  a  marked  success.  This  pony  is  now  five  years  old,  of  an 
iron  grey  colour,  and  decidedly  Arab-like  in  make  and  disposition.  Like 
many  Arabs,  she  measures  56  inches  at  the  withers,  has  fine  clean  legs,  well 
let  down  hocks,  and  a  short,  well-rounded  trunk,  the  girth  being  67  inches. 
Though  in  make  unlike  Mr.  Pallin's  half-thoroughbred,  she  is  as  intelligent, 
and  has  already  given  evidence  of  very  considerable  speed  and  great  jump- 
ing powers. 

During  recent  years,  in  addition  to  crossing  Connemara  mares  with  Arab, 
Barb,  and  thoroughbred  horses,  experiments  have  been  made  with  Welsh 
cobs  and  hackneys.  If  Welsh  cob  sires  are  widely  introduced,  in  a 
few  years  the  Connemara  ponies  will  be  crossed  out  of  existence  ;  and  it  by 
no  means  follows  that  their  cross-bred  descendants  will  be  adapted  to  the 
unique  surroundings  of  the  West  of  Ireland,  or  be  capable  of  producing, 


352  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

either  to  thoroughbreds  or  Arabs,  foals  hkely  to  attract  buyers  from  far  and 
near. 

Regarding  crosses  got  by  hackney  sires,  very  different  views  are  held, 
doubtless  because,  like  all  other  crosses,  they  vary  profoundly,  some  being 
hackneys,  pure  and  simple,  others  differing  but  little  from  their  native  dams. 
That  some  of  the  Connemara-hackney  crosses  gallop  and  jump  well  and 
are  stayers  is  as  certain  as  that  they  are,  as  a  rule,  tractable  and  intelligent. 
I  am  able  to  speak  from  personal  knowledge  of  a  light  grey  three-year  old 
filly  purchased  in  Clifden.  This  filly,  out  of  a  stout  grey  mare  by  a  bay 
hackney,  promises  to  be  an  excellent,  docile,  ajid  intelligent  driving  pony. 
In  being  as  intelligent,  self-contained,  and  tractable  as  a  desert-reared  Arab, 
this  Connemara-hackney  cross  very  decidedly  differs  from  some  of  the  Con- 
nemara-thoroughbred  crosses,  which  are  sometimes  less  characterised  by 
sense  than  by  excessive  sensitiveness.  Another  Connemara-hackney  cross 
deserves  mention,  partly  because  she  has  won  many  prizes  at  Hackney 
Shows,  but  chiefly  because  she  has  produced  a  number  of  very  famous 
hackney  colts. 

Though,  during  recent  years  many  excellent  ponies  have  been  reared  or 
at  least  bred  in  Connemara,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  even  a 
fair  percentage  of  the  present  mares  would,  under  more  favourable  condi- 
tions, have  made  light  hunters,  or,  when  crossed  with  thoroughbred  stal- 
lions, produced  high-class  shapely  foals.  A  visit  to  the  Clifton  Winter 
Pony  Fair  makes  it  all  too  apparent  that  the  mares  from  the  upland  farms 
are,  in  most  cases,  unshapely  and  deficient  in  "  bone,"  and  that  in  make,  at 
least,  there  is  room  for  considerable  improvement  in  the  vast  majority  of  the 
foals.  How  gradually  to  improve  the  mares  all  through  Connemara  is  still 
a  pressing  question. 


V.   HOW  TO  IMPROVE  THE  CONNEMARA  PONIES. 

In  some  districts  an  improvement  in  the  native  horses  can  be  gradually 
effected  by  the  introduction  of  carefully  selected  stallions.  The  circum- 
stances in  the  West  of  Ireland  are,  however,  so  peculiar  that  the  placing  of 
thoroughbred  stallions  at  the  disposal  of  the  natives  may  diminish  rather 
than  increase  the  number  of  good  mares. 

On  the  majority  of  small  fcirms  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  keep  a 
foal  as  well  as  a  mare  throughout  the  winter ;  hence,  nearly  all  the  foals  got 
by  stallions  sent  into  Connemara  during  recent  years  are  disposed  of  long 
before  they  reach  maturity.  Recently  the  demand  for  half-bred  Connemara 
foals  has  attracted  buyers  from  beyond  the  confines  of  Ireland,  with  the 
result  that  some  of  the  best  mares,  as  well  as  the  best  foals,  have  been 
carried  off.  It  is,  doubtless,  true,  that  what  is  a  loss  to  Connemara  may  be 
a  gain  to  other  districts ;  but  as  the  demand  for  Connemara-bred  foals  is 
likely  to  increase,  unless  the  leakage  is  checked,  both  Connemara  and  the 
rest  of  Ireland  will  eventually  suffer.  What  makes  matters  worse  is  that 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  replace  a  mare,  instead  of  selecting  a  filly 
belonging  to  a  well-known  local  strain,  as  often  as  not  a  yearling  or  a  two- 
year-old  is  purchased  (often  beyond  the  County  of  Galway)  regardless  alike 
of  make  and  pedigree. 

If  an  attempt  is  to  be  made  to  recover  for  the  ponies  of  Connemara  the 


THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  "  353 


reputation  they  enjoyed  up  to  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
something  more  is  obviously  needed  than  sending  high-class  sires  into  the 
district. 

In  France  there  were  last  year  over  3,000  stallions  (including  262 
thoroughbreds,  265  Arabs  and  half- Arabs,  and  251  half-breds)  maintained 
by  the  Government  in  twenty-two  separate  depots,  at  a  cost  to  the  State  of 
;^93,ooo.* 

Notwithstanding  this  large  expenditure,  only  indifferent  results,  it  is  said, 
have  been  obtained  during  recent  years,  owing  partly  to  the  common  mis- 
take of  supposing  that  a  good  sire  makes  up  for  all  sorts  of  deficiencies  in 
the  dam,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  yet  sufficiently  realised  that, 
given  a  good  dam,  the  less  the  sire  counts  in  the  offspring  the  better. 
Recognising  the  necessity  of  having  a  good  stock  of  brood  mares,  as  well 
as  good  sires,  an  effort  is  now  being  made  in  New  South  Wales  to  have 
Government  stud  farms  established  for  breeding  pure  stock.  Something 
of  this  kind  will  be  necessary  in  the  West  of  Ireland  if  it  is  considered  desir- 
able to  perpetuate  the  best  characteristics  of  the  once  famous  breed  of  Con- 
nemara  ponies. 

There  is  in  Arabia  a  tradition  that  all  the  best  Desert  Arabs  have 
descended  from  seven  mares — sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  Mares  of  the 
Prophet."  A  like  number  of  Connemara  mares  might  be  selected  to  start 
a  new  and  improved  strain  of  Connemara  ponies. 

Given  a  number  of  mares,  the  extremely  difficult  question  arises — "  What 
kind  of  sires  should  they  be  mated  with  ?"  An  answer  to  this  question  can 
only  be  obtained  by  means  of  experiments,  by  breeding  with  native  and 
other  sires,  then  intercrossing  in  various  ways  the  best  of  the  pure  and 
mixed  progeny. t 

An  experiment  of  this  kind  implies  that  we  have  formed  some  idea  as  to 
what  should  be  the  chief  "  points  "  of  the  Connemara  pony  of  the  future. 


VI.  THE  POINTS  OF  AN  IDEAL  PONY. 

The  ideal  pony  has  often  been  described.  One  of  the  latest  descriptions 
is  by  Sir  Richard  Green  Price  (late  President  of  the  Polo  Pony  Society). 
He  assumes  that  an  ideal  pony  should,  amongst  other  things,  be  capable  of 
playing  the  part  of  a  small  war-horse.  Sir  Richard  says  we  can  only  picture 
him  "  as  an  animal  about  14  hands  2  inches,  with  courage  written  on  his 
countenance  and  docility  in  his  eyes,  strong  of  neck,  with  shoulders  well  set 
into  a  short,  powerful  back  and  loins,  wide  in  the  hips,  and  thick-set  in  the 
buttocks,  a  full  well-set  on  tail  (undocked),  his  legs  short  and  straight,  with 
clean  bone  and  sinew  throughout,  and  feet  to  match — in  fact,  a  diminutive 
dray-horse  with  the  activity  of  a  high-class  hunter."  {Live  Stock  Journal 
AlmonaCy  IQCI,  p.  65.) 

In  the  main  this  picture  agrees  with  that  of  a  recent  Australian  writer, 
who  tells  us  the  riding  pony  should  not  be  under  15  hands,  with  a  good 
head  well-set-on,  broad  forehead,  large  brilHant  eye,  wide-open  nostrils, 
round  in  the  barrel,  short  in  the  back,  tail  set  well  up,  deep  in  the  chest, 

*  The  total  sum  (including  prizes  and  premiums  to  owners  of  approved  stallions)  expended 
in  providing  suitable  sires  in  France,  amounted  in  the  year  1900  to  ;^647,ooo. 

t  There  already  exists  a  considerable  amount  of  material  (apart  from  the  native  mares)  for 
experiments  of  this  kind  in  the  West  of  Ireland. 


354  THE  PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA. 

shoulders  set  well  back,  fine  in  the  chine,  standing  over  a  lot  of  ground,  and. 
above  all,  firm,  wiry,  wear-and-tear  legs.  (Sam.  Ainsworth,  Perth,  West 
Australia,  December,  1900.) 

It  will,  I  think,  be  at  once  admitted  that  some  of  the  best  horses  that 
ever  lived  were  far  short  of  these  ideals,  and,  further,  that  many  horses  which 
in  make  all  but  realise  the  ideal  conception  are  of  little  actual  use. 

Nature  never  made  a  horse  combining  the  "  points  "  set  forth  in  these 
and  other  ideal  conceptions,  and  as  ponies  are  hable  to  be  exposed  to  all 
the  hardships  of  their  wild  relatives,  it  is  not  wise  to  insist  too  much  on  non- 
essential characters.* 

I  have  seen  wild  or  semi-wild  horses  with  a  lean  head  well-set-on, 
a  light  neck,  high  fine  withers,  very  oblique  deep  shoulders,  a  straight 
croup,  and  a  well-set-on  tail.  These  are  the  products  of  artificial  selection, 
and  most  of  them  rapidly  disappear  when  natural  selection  comes  into  play. 

If  hardiness  and  endurance  are  the  chief  considerations,  we  must  be  pre- 
pared to  give  up  any  "  points  "  of  a  sentimental  kind  that  directly  or  in- 
directly tend  to  diminish  these  essential  traits.  In  wild  horses  there  is  an 
intimate  relation  between  the  head,  neck,  and  shoulders.  The  size  of  the 
head  (or,  to  be  more  accurate,  the  length  and  strength  of  the  jaws)  depends 
mainly  on  the  food.  As  the  head  increases  in  size,  the  neck  must  either  be 
shortened  or  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  vertebras  (which  form  the  ridge  known 
as  the  "  withers  ")  lengthened  ;  sometimes  both  things  happen.  In  the  old 
long-headed  Irish  horse,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  lengthening  of  the 
vertebral  spmes,  as  well  as  a  shortening  of  the  neck.t 

When  the  withers  are  not  only  high,  but  extend  well  along  the  back,  a 
horse  is  sometimes  said  to  have  a  good  shoulder,  and  it  is  frequently  assumed 
that  high  withers  indicate  speed  or  jumping  power.  The  withers,  however, 
have  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  shoulders,  any  more  than  they  are  in 
any  way  related  to  speed.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  withers  are  un- 
usually long  as  well  as  high  in  riding  ponies,  the  weakest  part  of  the  back 
is  apt  to  be  strained,  or  the  effective  action  of  the  great  muscles  of  the  loins 
interfered  with.  Every  inch  added  to  the  length  of  the  neck,  by  shunting 
forward  the  centre  of  gravity,  increases  the  strain  on  the  forelegs. 

As  the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder  {scapula)  increases,  the  arm  bone  {hu- 
merus) becomes  more  vertical,  with  the  result  that  the  trunk  is  raised  from 
the  ground.  While  very  oblique  shoulders  may  facilitate  galloping  over  a 
flat  surface,  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  the  rough  work  in  a  hilly  country, 
or  for  supporting  a  heavy  weight.  In  some  famous  racers  and  fine  movers 
the  shoulders  have  been  thick  and  straight.  This  is  true  of  "  Touchstone," 
and  of  the  pony  "  Mars  " — one  of  the  finest  movers  ever  bred  in  Scotland. 

Great  stress  is  often  laid  on  having  the  croup  nearly  horizontal.  Whether 
the  tail  is  set  on  high  up,  as  in  many  Arabs,  or  low  down,  as  in  moor  and 
mountain  ponies,  is,  as  far  as  I  can  see,  a  matter  of  but  little  moment.  We 
owe,  I  believe,  the  high  position  of  the  tail  in  many  thoroughbreds  to  the 
influence  of  some  of  their  Arab  ancestors.  Many  Arabian  horses  are  said  to 
be  descended  from  a  mare  that  carried  her  tail  unusually  high.  The  tradi- 
tion is  that  an  Arab,  being  pursued,  "  loosed  his  cloak  to  relieve  his  mare 
from  every  impediment."     On  reaching  his  tent  he  was  surprised  to  find  his 

*  Witness  the  large  head,  short  neck,  straight  shoulders,  and  drooping  quarters  of  moor  and 
mountain  ponies,  which  for  generations  have  lived  in  adverse  circumstances. 

t  The  high  withers  so  often  seen  in  hunters  have  probably  been  inherited  from  the  old  Irish 
horses  that  in  olden  times  occupied  the  great  central  plain. 


THE   PONIES  OF  CONNEMARA.  355 


cloak  caught  by  the  mare's  tail,  which  she  carried  in  her  gallop  high  to  a 
degree.  {Upton ;  Gleanings  from  the  Desert,  p.  327.)  That  a  tradition  of 
this  kind  might  predispose  Arab  breeders  in  favour  of  horses  that  carried 
the  tail  high — which  implies  its  being  well  set-up — is  quite  possible.  In  the 
Barb  the  tail  is,  as  a  rule,  not  "  well-up."  Whether  this  is  due  to  the  Barb 
being  a  cross  between  the  Arab  and  the  primeval  unimproved  horse  of  North 
Africa,  or  to  the  "  Abyan  "  (the  mare  of  the  cloak)  strain  never  having 
reached  Ethiopa,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

In  the  plain  and  striped  Equidce,  specialised  for  life  among  the  moun- 
tains, and  among  most  mules  there  is  a  decided  drop  from  the  croup  to  the 
root  of  the  tail.  Notwithstanding  this  apparent  weakness  of  the  hind- 
quarters, both  asses  and  mules  are  relatively  extremely  powerful  and  well 
adapted  for  moving  both  up  and  down  hills.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
majority  of  the  unimproved  Eastern  ponies  (the  Pegu  and  others  not  yet 
crossed  with  the  Arab),  many  of  which,  notwithstanding  straight  shoulders 
and  drooping,  weak-looking  quarters,  gallop  and  trot  well,  and,  doubtless 
owing  to  their  great  girth  and  powerful  loins,  carry  day  after  day  enormous 
weights  over  long  distances. 

Other  points  often  insisted  on  are  an  Arab-like  forehead,  good  girth,  and 
plenty  of  "  bone." 

In  the  remote  three-hoofed  ancestors  of  the  horse  the  orbits  occupied  a 
lateral  position— z'.^.,  the  eyes  were  less  adapted  for  looking  ahead  than 
sideways.  In  the  old  Irish  and  certain  other  European  breeds,  the  eyes 
were  more  or  less  lateral  in  position  ;  while  in  Arabs,  doubtless  as  the 
result  of  artificial  selection,  they  are  large  and  well  to  the  front. 

In  the  former  case  the  space  between  the  eyes  is  decidedly  convex ;  in 
the  latter  it  is  usually  nearly  flat.  Perhaps  inquiries  might  show  that, 
though  horses  with  laterally  placed  eyes  may  be  shortsighted,  they  are  not 
less  intelligent  than  horses  with  full  prominent  eyes. 

All  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  the  girth  and  the  stronger  the 
loins  the  better.  Ponies  with  weak  loins  and  a  small  girth  may  do  wonders  ; 
but  strong-loined,  deep-ribbed  ponies  last  longest  and  recover  fastest.  The 
lean,  light,  wiry  Australian  Walers  are  excellent  while  in  condition,  but 
when  once  out  of  form  they  are  slow  in  recovering ;  while  ponies  without  a 
•drop  of  thoroughbred  blood — Syrian,  Tartar,  Mongolian,  Burmese,  etc. — 
but  with  strong  loins,  have  often  not  only  marvellous  endurance,  but  as  mar- 
vellous recuperative  powers. 

The  term  "  bone  "  is  apt  to  be  misleading.  The  circumference  of  the 
actual  bone  is  little  more  than  half  the  circumference  of  the  leg  midway 
between  the  "knee"  and  the  fetlock,  e.g.,  in  a  pony  measuring  7^  inches 
in  circumference  below  the  knee,  the  cannon  bone  (third  metacarpal)  may 
measure  only  four  inches.  It  is,  doubtless,  important  to  have  large,  ivory- 
like cannon  bones,  yet  when  the  forelegs  give  way,  the  cause  (unless  tTiere 
are  "  splints  ")  is  generally  due  to  a  breakdown  of  the  ligaments  and  ten- 
dons. The  legs  of  ponies  probably  last  better  than  the  legs  of  tall  horses, 
not  only  because  they  are  shorter,  but  also  because  the  short  neck  tends  to 
reheve  the  strain  on  the  forelegs,  and  because  the  constant  slight  jars  and 
strains  incidental  to  a  semi-wild  life  during  colthood  tend  to  make  the 
tendons  and  ligaments  as  strong  as  fine-tempered  ropes  and  bands  of  steel. 
It  thus  appears  that  ponies  which  very  decidedly  fail  to  reach  the  ideal  of 
Sir  Richard  Green  Price  and  others,  and  Vv^hich  are  not  so  well  adapted  for 
galloping  as  a  race-horse,  may  be  extremely  well  adapted  for  the  work  of 


356  THE    PONIES    OF   CONNEMARA. 

an  upland  farm  in  the  West  of  Ireland.  During  the  last  seven  years  I  have 
had  under  constant  observation  a  great  many  cross-bred  ponies.  Only  one 
of  these  crosses  can  be  said  to  realise  Sir  Richard  Green  Price's  ideal.  This 
is  a  14. 1  bay  pony  by  a  bay  Arab  out  of  a  grey-ticked  mare,  which  resembled 
in  many  ways  the  Galloways  once  so  common  in  the  South  of  Scotland. 
This  cross-bred  bay  pony  might  be  taken  for  a  somewhat  stout  Arab  with 
high  withers,  well  let  down  hocks,  and  wide  open  hoofs.  The  grey  dam 
resembled  the  Cashel  type  of  pony  in  the  shoulder  and  withers  ;  in  other 
respects  she  resembled  some  of  the  larger  yellow-duns  still  occasionally  seen 
in  the  vicinity  of  Maam  Cross  and  Clifden. 

Though  this  half -Arab  is  in  m.any  ways  an  ideal  pony,  she  is  not,  it  seems 
to  me,  the  kind  of  pony  wanted  in  Connemara.  This  is  not  because  she  is 
wanting  in  constitution  (since  1896  she  has  been  living  out-of-doors,  700 
feet  above  the  sea  level),  but  because  she  is  not  sufficiently  like  a  pack  mule 
in  build,  and  because  she  has  failed  to  produce  either  to  thoroughbred  or 
Arab  sires  the  kind  of  foals  likely  to  fetch  a  good  price  m  the  West  of 
Ireland  ;  they  are  not  likely  to  make  hunters,  and  besides  being  expensive 
to  rear,  they  are  too  fine  for  remounts. 

If  the  aim  is  to  produce  a  pony  that  will  be  easily  kept  and  easily 
handled,  and  capable  of  doing  the  work  of  a  small  farm,  as  well  as  of  pro- 
ducing light  hunters  to  thoroughbred  sires,  good  riding  ponies  to  Arab 
sires,  it  will,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  a  pure-bred  Galloway  would  prove 
far  more  suitable  than  a  Galloway- Arab  cross. 

It  may  now  be  asked — "  Are  thoroughbred  sires  more  likely  than  Arabs 
to  produce  the  kind  of  pony  wanted  ?" 

Connemara  thoroughbred  crosses  sometimes  make  excellent  light  hunters, 
and  are  often  very  fast ;  but  they  are  seldom  adapted  for  the  rough  life  of 
a  small  moorland  or  upland  farm.  For  many  generations  breeders  of 
thoroughbreds  have  directed  their  attention  almost  exclusively  to  speed,  and 
some  have  deliberately  practised  close  in-breeding.  One  result  of  breeding 
in-and-in  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  impressiveness  ;  another  is  the  gradual 
refinement  of  all  the  organs  and  tissues,  more  especially  of  the  nervous 
system. 

In  the  case  of  the  horse,  the  closer  the  in-breeding  the  more  sensitive  he 
is  to  all  kinds  of  stimuli,  and  the  greater  the  waste  of  vital  energy,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  greater  the  susceptibility  to  changes  of  habitat,  tempera- 
ture, etc.,  and  the  need  of  a  rich,  highly  nutritive  diet.  Owing  to  the  increase 
in  the  impressiveness  induced  by  in-breeding,  thoroughbred  crosses,  though 
sometimes  wonderfully  hardy  and  vigorous,  have  often  (especially  when  out 
of  light  pony  mares)  all  the  characteristics  of  their  long-pedigreed  pure- 
bred ancestors.  It  would,  doubtless,  be  possible  by  careful  selection  to 
create  a  race  of  hardy  Connemara  thoroughbred  crosses  (for  in  thorough- 
bred, as  in  other  strains,  reversion  to  stout  ancestors  now  and  again  occurs) ; 
but,  for  various  reasons,  this  would  be  extremely  costly,  and  not  altogether 
satisfactory.  I  find  that  in  the  vicinity  of  the  poor  lands,  while  half -Arabs, 
after  the  third  or  fourth  year,  are  hardy  enough  to  live  out-of-doors  all  the 
year  round,  half-thoroughbreds,  unless  stabled  during  winter,  invariably 
succumb.  Further,  compared  with  half-Arabs,  thoroughbred  crosses  are  less 
intelligent,  less  tractable,  have  less  endurance,  and  are  altogether  less  like 
ponies  ;  and  there  is  always  a  danger  of  their  throwing  back  to  some  of 
their  highly  sensitive,  delicate,  and,  it  may  be,  unsound,  pure-bred  ancestors. 
Again,  some  of  the  foals  out  of  half -thoroughbred  ponies  by  thoroughbred 


THE   PONIES   OF   CONNEMARA.  357 


sires  might  develop  into  excellent  polo  ponies,  but  they  would  hardly  suit 
the  buyers  that  at  present  frequent  Clifden  and  other  markets,  or  make 
light  hunters. 

The  Walers,  so  much  in  evidence  in  India  and  more  recently  in  South 
Africa,  are  said  to  be  the  "  produce  of  the  Arab,  the  English  thoroughbred, 
and  the  Clydesdale."  In  Austraha,  where  horses  naturally  tend  to  become 
lean  and  wiry,  Clydesdale  blood  may  prove  useful ;  but,  if  one  may  judge  by 
what  has  already  occurred  in  Ireland,  the  less  Clydesdale  and  Shire  blood 
infused  into  the  Irish  ponies  the  better.  A  cross  I  recently  made  between  a 
small  Clydesdale  mare  and  a  well-bred  pony  is  far  from  shapely.  By  the 
time  the  defects  in  make  are  removed  from  this  cross,  probably  all  the 
Clydesdale  blood  will  have  been  eliminated.  In  most  Walers  the  origi- 
nal Clydesdale  blood  has  probably  been  completely  lost  by  repeated 
crossing  with  the  English  thoroughbred. 

It  hence  follows  that  the  evolution  of  an  ideal  Connemara  pony  is  an 
extremely  difficult  problem.  It  is  not  merely  a  question  of  settling  whether 
thoroughbred,  hackney,  or  Arab  sires  should  be  used,  but  rather  how  all 
the  good  points  in  the  present  ponies  may  be  combined,  the  weak  points 
eliminated,  and  the  improved  blend  perpetuated.  Intercrossing,  unless 
great  care  is  exercised,  almost  invariably  results  in  the  loss  of  the  good 
points  of  at  least  one  of  the  breeds.  A  violent  cross  may  shake  both  breeds 
to  their  foundations,  and  destroy  all  that  has  been  gained  by  careful  and 
prolonged  artificial  selection.  On  the  other  hand,  without  intercrossing  a 
condition  which  is  perhaps  best  described  as  staleness  supervenes.  The  art 
ol  breeding  consists  mainly  in  realising  when  the  rejuvenation  of  a  strain 
is  required,  and  in  using  the  right  kind  of  blood  for  renewing  the  youth, 
i.e.,  getting  rid  of  staleness  due  to  inbreeding  or  to  an  unsuitable  environ- 
ment. 

The  Connemara  ponies  being,  as  a  rule,  non-impressive,  they  would  be 
easily  swamped  by  either  Arabs  or  thoroughbreds.  On  the  Continent  the 
necessity  of  using  non-impressive  sires  seems  to  be  fully  recognised  (a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  French  Government  sires  are  half  breeds)  ;  but,  for 
some  unaccountable  reason,  we  have  not  yet  poX.  the  length  of  establishing 
a  breed  of  hunters,  i.e.,  a  breed  containing  a  more  or  less  definite  proportion 
of  thoroughbred  blood. 

In  order  to  improve  the  Connemara  pony,  two  things  seem  imperative — 
(i)  to  increase  the  "bone,"  and  (2)  to  improve  the  make  without  destroying 
the  hardiness,  stamina,  and  docility.  The  "  bone  "  might  be  increased  in 
various  ways,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  maintain  the  pony  characters — 
the  small  head,  short  legs,  etc.  Probably  the  best  plan  would  be  to  use 
stout,  active  pony  sires.  Had  the  once  famous  Galloways  of  the  Scottish 
Lowlands  been  available,  they  would  have  answered  admirably  ;  but  there 
are  still  powerful,  large-boned  ponies  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The 
"  bone  "  having  been  increased,  the  problem  will  then  be  to  infuse  just 
enough  Eastern  blood  to  give  character  and  shapeliness  to  the  breed.  The 
Eastern  blood  may  be  obtained  from  the  fountain-head — the  Desert  Arab, 
or  from  a  somewhat  contaminated  source — the  English  thoroughbred — or 
perhaps,  better  still,  from  an  Arab  thoroughbred  blend,  such  as  is  largely 
used  in  France. 

One  of  the  lessons  of  the  South  African  War  is  that  steps  should  be 
taken  to  encourage  the  breeding  of  hardy  ponies  in  every  part  of  the 
empire.     It  has  recently  been  pointed  out  (Scottish  Farmer,  April  20,  1901, 


358  THE    PONIES   OF   CONNEMARA. 

p.  307),  that  for  the  breeding  of  ponies  we  want  "  cheap,  rough  land,  a  mild 
climate,  necessitating  little  expenditure  for  hand-feeding  in  winter,  and  a 
hardy,  useful  type  of  brood  mare,"  and  further,  that  "  grazing  among  rocks 
and  bogs  makes  the  animals  active,  sure-footed,  and  clever  in  extricating 
themselves  from  tight  places,  a  very  essential  thing  for  mounted  infantry." 
I  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  all  the  necessary  conditions  for  the  breed- 
ing of  stout,  active  ponies  especially  exist  in  the  West  of  Ireland,  and  I  may, 
in  conclusion,  add  that  Connemara  is  in  a  sense  already  a  huge  stud  farm, 
which  annually  produces  a  large  crop  of  foals. 

With  a  little  organisation,  the  number  of  foals  might  be  considerably  in- 
creased, and  arrangements  made  for  the  best  of  the  colts  running  on  the 
Connemara  moors  and  mountains  until  they  are  old  enough  to  be  trained 
for  mounted  infantry.  In  this  way  remounts  could  be  provided  for  a  rela- 
tively small  sum,  and,  what  is  of  even  more  importance,  they  would  begin 
their  life-work  with  a  constitution  able  to  withstand  all  ordinary  hardships. 
The  only  danger  would  be  that,  by  rich  food,  much  grooming,  and  warm 
stables,  they  would  ere  long  be  as  delicate  as  ponies  reared  in  the  ordinary 
way.  All  that  healthy,  hardy  ponies  require  is  shelter  from  wind  and  rain. 
A  shed  completely  open  on  one  side,  but  with  a  wide  roof,  is  sufficient ;  but 
at  several  centres  a  sort  of  equine  Pantheon,  with  or  without  galleries, 
might  be  constructed  to  serve  as  winter  quarters. 


P.S. — Readers  of  the  above  article  will  be  interested  to  learn  that  the 
Congested  Districts  Board  have  now  (February,  1902),  at  Lough  Glynn, 
County  Roscommon,  a  stud  of  fifteen  Connemara  pony  mares  and  two 
Erris  ponies.  Nine  of  the  Connemaras  are  in  foal  to  an  Arab,  two  to  a 
Connemara  stallion,  and  the  two  Erris  ponies  to  a  thoroughbred.  This 
season  ten  of  the  mares  will  be  put  to  the  Arab,  a.nd  seven  to  a  young  and 
very  promising  Connemara  pony,  and  all  the  results  will  be  watched  and 
carefully  noted. 


THE  IRISH  CATTLE  INDUSTRY.  359 


THE    IRISH    CATTLE    INDUSTRY. 

During  the  past  century  every  acknowledged  breed  in  England  and  Scot- 
land has  been  resorted  to  with  a  view  to  improve  the  cattle  of  Ireland. 
Shorthorn  sires  have  been  so  largely  used  during  the  past  century,  that  the 
ordinary  cattle  of  the  country  may  be  said  to  be  crosses  of  that  breed.  Of 
late  years,  Aberdeen  Angus  and  Hereford  cattle  have  been  increasing  in 
favour  in  those  districts  where  the  production  of  beef  cattle  is  the  principal 
industry  of  the  farmers.  In  other  districts,  where  the  farmers  have  to 
depend  upon  dairy  produce  and  calf-rearing,  the  Shorthorn  sire  is  still 
locked  upon  as  being  the  most  suitable  for  the  production  of  general  pur- 
pose stock.  The  following  records  of  the  number  of  entries  of  the  above 
three  breeds  at  the  Spring  Shows  at  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  in  1891  and 
1 001,  indicate  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  Hereford  and  Aberdeen 
Angus  breeds  amongst  the  Irish  breeders : — 

In  1 891  there  were  233  Shorthorn, 

36  Aberdeen  Angus, 
and         1 9  Hereford  Bulls  entered. 
In  1 90 1,  387  Shorthorn, 

129  Aberdeen  Angus, 
and         67  Hereford  Bulls  were  entered. 

The  number  of  Irish  breeders  making  entries  of  animals  in  the  several 
Herd  Books  during : — 

1895  were  97  entering  Shorthorns, 

34         „         Aberdeen  Angus, 
and      9         ,,         Herefords ; 
while  in  1900  132  entered  Shorthorns, 

81        „         Aberdeen  Angus, 
and     1 1       „         Herefords. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  see  the  increasing  number  of  owners  of  pure-bred 
herds,  seeing  that  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  every  such  herd  is  adding 
to  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  country. 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  while   efforts  were  being  made  in  the 

majority  of  counties  in  Ireland  to  improve  the  cattle 

Kerry  and  Dexter       by  the  introduction  of  fresh  blood  and  new  breeds 

Cattle.  imported  from  England  and  Scotland,  few,  if  any,  of 

these  cross-Channel  animals  were  introduced  into  the 

mountainous  parts  of  Kerry.     Such  was  the  state  of  matters  in  1890,  when 

the  Royal  Dublin  Society  with  a  view  to  stimulate  improvement  of  native 

breeds  of  cattle,  purchased  the  copyright  of  a  record  of  the  breeding  of  a 

small  number  of  Kerry  and  Dexter  Cattle,  which  had  been  compiled  by  the 

Farmer's  Gazette,  and  resolved  to  publish  the  "  Kerry  and  Dexter  Herd 

Book."     A  system  of  annual  inspections  was  organised,  and  such  animals  as 


360  THE  IRISH  CATTLE  INDUSTRY. 

were  considered  eligible  by  competent  judges,  together  with  those  qualified 
by  previous  entry  in  the  Kerry  Register,  were  accepted  for  Registration. 
Nine  annual  volumes  of  this  publication  have  been  issued.  They  contain 
pedigrees  and  other  particulars  of  492  bulls  and  2,870  cows  and  heifers  of 
the  Kerry  breed,  and  443  bulls  and  1,682  Dexter  cows  and  heifers.  The 
publication  of  the  Herd  Book  has  led  to  a  large  number  of  home  breeders 
in  many  parts  of  Ireland  being  induced  to  devote  increased  attention  to  the 
matter  of  selection  and  systematic  breeding,  with  a  view  to  the  improvement 
of  their  cattle,  while  both  breeds  have,  of  late  years,  become  popular  in 
many  parts  of  England.  It  has  been  a  source  of  regret  that  there  has  been, 
and  still  IS,  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  breeders  of  Kerry  to  record  such 
animals  only  as  were  meant  to  be  sold,  and  now,  with  the  restricted  condi- 
tions of  entry  for  the  Herd  Book,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many,  perhaps 
purely-bred,  good  animals  may  fail  to  qualify  for  registration  through  the 
past  neglect  of  their  owners.  No  doubt,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland,  through  the  influence  at  its  command,  will 
be  able  to  bring  before  the  breeders  in  the  remote  districts  of  Kerry  the 
great  advantage  of  care  and  attention  to  the  breeding  and  registration  of 
their  stock. 

The  following  interesting  extracts  axe  from  the  introduction  of  Volume 
I  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society's  Herd  Book  for  Kerry  and  Dexter  Cattle  : — 
"Writing  in    1870  about  the   mountainous  regions  of  West  Kerry,   Isaac 
Wild  says:  — 

"  '  This  country  was  formerly  remarkable  for  a  very  small  and  beautiful 
breed  of  black  cattle  ;  but  the  people  have  been  seized  with  the  spirit  of  improve- 
ment, and  the  true  Kerry  cow,  as  it  is  called,  is  now  rarely  to  be  found, 
excepting  in  the  mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  Bantry  Bay.  The  size  of  this 
animal  does  not  exceed  that  of  an  ordinary  yearling  calf.  From  the  prevalent 
inclination  of  the  people  to  discard  the  native  stock  of  their  hills,  it  is  presumed 
that  they  derive  more  profit  from  the  enlarged  breed  ;  but  there  are  some  of  a 
contrary  opinion,  who  still  maintain  their  attachment  to  the  ancient  race,  and 
who  contend  that,  from  their  hardy  character  and  the  abundance  and  richness 
of  their  milk,  they  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  situation  and  circumstances  of 
the  country.' 

"  In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  under- 
took a  general  survey  of  Ireland,  for  the  purpose  of  developing  the  industrial 
resources  of  the  country.  The  County  Kerry  was  not  separately  surveyed  ; 
but  the  adjoining  County  of  Cork  was  surveyed  for  the  Society  by  the  Rev. 
Horatio  Townsend.  The  author  refers  frequently  in  the  course  of  his  survey 
to  the  partiality  of  the  farmers  for  the  small  breed  of  cattle  for  dairy  purposes. 
These  cattle  seem  to  have  been  closely  related  to  the  Kerries  of  the  present 
day.  Referring  to  the  cattle  of  Carbery,  in  the  south-west  of  the  county,  he 
says  : — 

"  *  The  cattle  of  this  district,  except  those  possessed  by  gentlemen,  are  of  a 
small  size,  seldom  weighing  more  than  three  hundred  and  a-half  weight,  and 
frequently  not  more  than  two.  The  breed  is  now  a  mixed  one,  of  various 
colours  ;  formerly  they  were  all  black.  In  the  more  remote  and  mountainous 
parts  of  the  district  this  colour  still  predominates  ;  but  few,  I  believe,  of  the 
pure  native  breed  at  present  remain.  They  are,  in  general,  good  milkers — 
eight  pottles  or  sixteen  quarts  a  day  being  no  uncommon  produce  from  a  cow 
of  three  hundredweight.  The  usual  price  for  a  new  milch  cow  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  from  eight  to  ten  guineas.     Small  beasts  of  all  kinds  are  preferred  by  the 


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THE  IRISH  CATTLE  INDUSTRY.  361 


farmers,  as  being  better  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the  country,  and  more 
capable  of  enduring  hardship,  and  more  easily  subsisted.'  " 

The  views  expressed  by  David  Low  about  Kerries,  nearly  half  a  century 
ago,  are  of  special  interest  at  the  present  time.     He  says : — 

"  These  cattle  are  hardy  and  capable  of  subsisting  on  scanty  fare.  Although 
stunted  in  size  when  brought  from  the  bogs  and  sterile  pastures  on  which  they 
are  reared,  they  make  a  wonderful  advance  in  size,  even  though  several  years- 
old,  when  supplied  with  suitable  food.  The  fat  of  their  beef  is  well  mixed  with 
the  muscular  parts,  or,  in  technical  language,  marbled  ;  and  they  fatten  well  in 
the  inside,  a  character  which  renders  them  valuable  to  the  butcher,  and 
distinguishes  them  in  a  remarkable  degree  from  the  long-horned  breeds  of  the 
lower  country. 

"  But  the  peculiar  value  of  the  Kerry  breed  is  the  adaptation  of  the  females 
to  the  purposes  of  the  domestic  dairy.  In  milking  properties  the  Kerry  cow, 
taking  size  into  account,  is  equal,  or  superior,  to  any  in  the  British  Islands. 
It  is  the  large  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  so  small  an  animal  which  renders 
the  Kerry  cow  so  generally  valued  by  the  cottagers  and  smaller  tenants  of 
Ireland.  She  is  frequently  termed  the  poor  man's  cow,  and  she  merits  this 
appellation  by  her  capacity  of  subsisting  on  such  fare  as  he  has  means  to 
supply. 

"This  fine  little  breed  has  been  greatly  neglected  ;  scarce  any  means  have 
been  used  to  produce  a  progressive  development  of  form  by  supplying  proper 
nourishment  to  the  breeding  parents  and  the  young,  and  no  general  care  has- 
been  bestowed  on  preserving  the  purity  of  the  stock.  In  almost  every  part  of 
Ireland,  the  breed  has  been  crossed  with  the  long-horns ;  and  a  great 
proportion  of  the  cows  of  the  country  known  under  the  name  of  Kerries  are 
the  result  of  crosses  of  this  kind,  and  have  so  deviated  in  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree  from  the  native  type,  and  almost  always  for  the  worse. 

"  A  few  honourable  exceptions,  however,  exist  to  this  general  neglect  of 
the  mountain  dairy  breed  of  Ireland.  One  attempt  has  succeeded  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  form  a  new  breed,  which  partially  exists  with  the  characters  com- 
municated to  it.  It  has  been  termed  the  Dexter  breed.  It  was  formed  by  the 
late  Mr.  Dexter,  agent  to  Maude  Lord  Hawarden.  This  gentleman  is  said  to 
have  produced  his  curious  breed  by  selection  from  the  best  of  the  mountain 
cattle  of  the  district.  He  communicated  to  it  a  remarkable  roundness  of  form 
and  shortness  of  legs.  The  steps,  however,  by  which  the  improvement  was 
effected  have  not  been  sufficiently  recorded  ;  and  some  doubt  may  exist 
whether  the  original  was  the  pure  Kerry,  or  some  other  breed  proper  to  the 
central  parts  of  Ireland  now  unknown,  or  whether  some  foreign  blood,  as  the 
Dutch,  was  not  mixed  with  the  native  race.  One  character  of  the  Dexter 
breed  is  frequently  observed  in  certain  cattle  of  Ireland,  namely,  short  legs, 
and  a  small  space  from  the  knee  and  hock  to  the  hoofs.  This  has  probably 
given  rise  to  a  saying,  sometimes  heard,  of '  Tipperary  beef  down  to  the  heels. ^ 
However  the  Dexter  breed  has  been  formed,  it  still  retains  its  name  and  the 
roundness  and  depth  of  carcase  which  distinguished  it.  When  any  individual 
of  a  Kerry  drove  appears  remarkably  round  and  short-legged,  it  is  common  for 
the  country  people  to  call  it  a  Dexter.  .  .  .  The  Kerry  cows  afford 
admirable  first  crosses  with  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  and  other  large  breeds. 
Of  these  crosses,  that  with  the  Shorthorn  is  the  most  general,  and  appears  tO' 
be  the  best.  The  crosses  are  found  well  adapted  to  fattening  as  well  as  to 
the  dairy  ;  and  the  profit  from  this  system  is  so  Immediate,  that  it  is  to  be 
believed  that  it  will  be  more  largely  resorted  to  than  a  progressive  improve- 
ment of  the  parent  stock. 


362  THE  IRISH  CATTLE  INDUSTRY. 


"  Nevertheless,  the  cultivation  of  the  pure  dairy  breed  of  the  Kerry 
mountains  ought  not  to  be  neglected  by  individuals  or  public  associations. 
The  breed  is  yet  the  best  that  is  reared  over  a  large  extent  of  country,  from 
its  adaptation  to  the  existing  state  of  agriculture  and  to  the  humid  mountains 
and  bogs  in  which  it  is  naturalized.  Were  it  to  be  reared  with  care  in  a  good 
district,  the  form  would  be  gradually  more  developed,  and  the  Kerry  breed 
might  then  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  mountain  breeds  of  Ireland  that  the 
Castle  Martin  does  to  those  of  Wales,  or  the  West  Highland  to  those  of  the 
North  of  Scotland."* 

Kerry  cows  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Channel  Island  cattle  in 

general  formation,  having  a  hard,  clean-cut  head,  thm 

The  Kerry  Breed  of     muscular  neck,  oblique  shoulders,  narrow  crops,  and 

the  Present  Day.       long,  thin  thighs.     Wherever  care  has  been  bestowed 

in  a  selection  and  breeding,  the  udder  of  the  Kerry 

cow  is  nicely  shaped  and  the  teats  well  set,  indicating  great  milking  capacity, 

and  giving  her  a  right  to  be  termed  a  typical  dairy  animal.     As  a  dairy 

breed  Kerries  have,  no  doubt,  suffered  to  some  extent  from  the  stringent 

colour  rules  as  drawn  up  by  breeders  and  observed  by  inspectors  while 

admitting  foundation  stock  for  the  Herd  Book.     Under  these  rules  white 

markings  on  any  part  of  the  body  other  than  a  small  amount  on  the  udders 

are  sufficient  to  destroy  an  animal's  chance  of  being  accepted   as  bemg 

eligible  for  registration. 

It  may  justly  be  questioned  if  such  stringent  rules  regarding  the  colour 
of  a  breed  of  cattle,  justly  valuable  as  dairy  animals,  can  have  any  real 
practical  value,  while  their  observance  must,  in  many  cases,  debar  what  m 
other  respects  may  be  typical  animals,  simply  because  a  few  white  hairs  may 
appear,  as  they  often  do,  on  some  other  part  of  the  underline  beyond  the 
udder.  For  her  size  and  the  quantity  of  food  she  consumes,  the  Kerry  cow 
holds  a  high  position  as  a  dairy  animal.  In  full  profit  she  gives  from  three 
and  a  half  to  four  gallons  of  rich  milk  per  day,  while  she  will  thrive  and  milk 
well  upon  a  poor  pasture  which  would  be  utterly  unfit  to  maintain  animals 
of  the  so-called  improved  breeds.  Although  the  Kerry  cannot  be  termed 
a  beef  breed  the  quality  of  meat  of  a  well-fed  animal  is  exceptionally  good, 
being  fine  in  the  grain,  the  fat  and  the  flesh  well  mixed,  and  without  that 
>  objectionable  yellow  colour  of  fat  peculiar  to  Channel  Island  cattle. 

No  one  interested  in  cattle  could  fail  to  appreciate  the  many  good  and 
striking  points  of  an  average  specimen  of  the  Dexter 
The  breed.     There  have  been  many  theories  regarding  the 

Dexter  Breed.  origin  of  this  breed,  but  nothing  definite  can  be  said 
on  the  subject.  That  these  cattle  owe  their  diminu- 
tive size  and  great  "  prepotency"  to  in-breeding  cannot  be  questioned,  and 
it  may  be  that  the  great  neglect  and  extreme  carelessness  of  the  small 
farmers  in  the  wilds  of  Kerry  in  the  matter  of  fresh  blood  have  led  to  the 
production  of  a  type  of  animal  now  known  as  the  Dexter. 

Crossed  with  any  one  of  the  larger  breeds,  the  "prepotency"  of  the  Dexter 
is  such  as  to  regulate  the  size  and  transmit  other  peculiarities  belonging  to 
the  Dexter  in  a  remarkable  degree.  In  shape  the  Dexter  differs  much 
from  the  Kerry,  resembling  in  many  points  a  diminutive  Shorthorn.     \VTth 

*  "The  Breeds  of  Domestic  Animals  of  the  British  Islands."  By  David  Low.  London, 
1842.     Vol.  i. 


THE  IRISH  CATTLE  INDUSTRY.  363 


a  short,  broad  face  and  nicely  set  horns,  a  broad  level  back,  long  deep 
quarters,  good  flanks,  and  wide  chest,  a  Dexter  in  good  condition  may  be 
termed  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  butcher's  animal.  While  this  is  so,  the 
rrilking  powers  of  the  ordinary  cows  of  the  breed  are  indeed  great.  Many 
of  these  small  animals,  not  exceeding  forty  inches  in  height,  give  a  milk 
record  of  four  gallons  per  day,  and  continue  to  do  so  for  months  after 
calving. 

Being  small  food  consumers,  good  milkers,  and  possessed  of  a  quiet, 
docile  disposition,  they  have  been  often  spoken  of  as  "  perfect  villa  animals." 
With  a  wider  chest  and  a  stronger  constitution  than  the  Jersey,  they  are 
gradually  displacing  the  more  delicate  Channel  Island  cows  in  many  subur- 
ban districts  in  England. 

Their  colour  may  be  black  or  red,  with  white  markings. 

**A  most  interesting  and  valuable  experiment  in  the  matter  of  cross- 
breeding, or  rather  up-grading,  has  been  carried  out  for 

Dexter  Crosses.  many  years  at  Straffan  House,  County  Kildare,  Ireland. 
Some  thirty  years  ago  Major  Barton  became  possessed 
of  a  small  Dexter  cow,  and,  the  animal  being  a  deep  milker,  her  female  calf 
by  a  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bull  was  retained  in  the  herd.  From  this  foundation 
a  small  herd  of  beautifully  shaped  deep-milking  cattle  has  been  bred,  the 
present-day  specimens  being  Ihe  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  generations  from  the 
original  Dexter  cow.  The  grading-up  has  been  invariably  carried  out  by 
means  of  Shorthorn  bulls  ;  and  while  the  animals  to-day  have  all  the  shapes  of 
high-class  Shorthorns,  they  stand  very  little  higher  than  the  foundation  Dexter 
cow.  As  milking  cattle  they  are,  for  their  size,  truly  wonderful,  several  of 
these  small  cows  giving  five  gallons  of  rich  milk  per  day  when  in  full 
milk."* 

*  "  Food  Supply."     Charles  Griffin  &  Co.,  London,  1898. 


364  SHEEP  BREEDING  IN   IRELAND. 


SHEEP-BREEDING    IN    IRELAND. 

The  great  September  and  October  fairs  of  Ballinasloe,  the  September 
fair  of  Banagher,  the  October  fair  of  Tuam,  and  the  autumn  sales  in  Dublin 
Market,  may  be  considered  the  chief  centres  of  the  sheep  trade  of  Ireland. 
Al  these  marts  the  western  breeders  display  their  store  sheep,  and  find 
purchasers  in  the  graziers  of  eastern,  midland,  and  southern  counties.  The 
system  under  which  the  trade  is  carried  on  is  an  interesting  division  of 
labour.  The  western  graziers,  who  own  the  lighter  lands,  breed  the  sheep, 
and  rear  them  to  two  and  three-year  old,  and  then  sell  them  to  the  eastern, 
midland,  or  southern  graziers,  either  as  ewes  for  breeding  purposes,  or  as 
wethers  to  be  fattened  off.  The  grass  lands  of  the  East,  Middle,  and  South 
of  Ireland  are  capable  of  fattening  sheep  of  any  age  or  class — whether 
lambs  or  hoggets — ewes  or  wethers. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  big  autumn  dispersals  above  referred  to  are  not 
confined  to  two  and  three-year  old  sheep.  They  include  also  lambs  and 
shearlings.  The  bulk  of  the  sheep  sold,  however,  are  two  and  three-year 
olds — ewes  and  wethers,  the  former — ewes  for  breeding  purposes — largely 
predominating.  Of  the  districts  immediately  around  Ballinasloe,  the  coun- 
ties Galway,  Mayo,  and  Roscommon,  furnish  much  the  largest  proportion  of 
these  store  sheep.  Smaller  drafts  come  from  the  County  Clare,  King's 
County,  and  the  portion  of  Westmeath  adjoining  Connaught ;  but  it  is  from 
the  flocks  kept  in  the  former  counties  that  the  majority  of  the  sheep  sold  in 
Ballinasloe,  Tuam,  Banagher,  and  the  Dublin  autumn  sales  are  derived. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  district  around  Ballinasloe,  inasmuch  as  it  supplies 
all  the  other  grazing  districts  of  Ireland  with  breeding  and  store  sheep, 
may  be  said  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the  native  breed  of  Irish  sheep. 

Of  these  western  counties,  Roscommon  takes  the  lead  in  the  matter  of 
sheep-breeding.  The  sheep  bred  in  this  county  have  always  been  regarded 
as  a  distinct  type  and  of  superior  quality,  and  they  have  been  so  much 
sought  after  for  the  purpose  of  infusing  new  blood  into  the  native  sheep  of 
the  surrounding  counties,  that  the  name  "  Roscommon  "  is  now  applied  to 
all  the  native  Irish  sheep  sold  in  Ballinasloe  and  the  other  centres  of  the 
annual  autumn  dispersals.  They  are  the  only  native  breed  which  Ireland 
can  claim,  and  though  Roscommon  is  the  birthplace  of  these  sheep,  they  are 
now  practically  distributed  all  over  Ireland.  Fundamentally,  the  type  is 
the  same  in  all  these  sheep,  but  they  vary  as  regards  size  and  quality, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  pasture  and  soil  on  which  they  are  fed,  and 
it  must  be  said  that  a  great  deal  of  mixing  and  crossing  of  the  breed  has  in 
recent  years  taken  place  in  the  South  and  East  of  Ireland.  UnHke  other 
parts  of  the  country,  Roscommon  has  confined,  and  still  does  mainly  con- 


SHEEP  BREEDING  IN   IRELAND.  365 


fine  its  attention  to  this  breed.  For  generations,  and  even  centuries,  no 
other  sheep  have  been  bred  in  several  districts  in  the  county.  In  1895, 
breeders  of  Roscommon  sheep  formed  themselves  into  an  association  called 
"  The  Roscommon  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,"  with  the  object  of  main- 
taining the  purity  of  the  breed,  and  for  the  promotion  of  its  interests 
generally.  They  adopted  a  thorough  system  of  registration  and  marking. 
All  sheep  entered  in  the  Flock  Book  must  be  registered  and  marked  with 
the  shamrock  perforated  in  the  right  ear,  which  is  a  trustworthy  guarantee 
of  purity.  Fixity  of  type  is  the  key  to  success  in  pedigreed  stock-breeding, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  Flock  Book  has  done  much  in  fixing  the  type  of 
the  Roscommons  in  every  flock,  and  has  enhanced  the  value  of  the  breed 
far  beyond  its  native  county. 

It  is  held  by  some  authorities  that  the  present  breed  of  Roscommons  is 
the   result  of  crossings   of  the  native   Irish   sheep   with   English   blood — 


^^ 


Roscommon  Ewe. 

notably  the  Leicesters.  In  1776,  Arthur  Young  visited  Strokestown,  and 
in  describing  his  visit  there,  says : — Mr.  Mahon's  breed,  both  cattle  and 
sheep,  are  improved  by  a  bull  and  a  tup,  which  he  bought  from  Mr.  Bake- 
well,  and  has  bred  from  them  with  great  success."  Later  on  Youatt 
says : — "  They  (i.e.,  the  Roscommon  farmers)  bred  from  this  valuable  selec- 
tion, and  were  soon  acknowledged  to  be  in  possession  of  a  flock  of 
sheep  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  most  successful  English  breeder."  The 
first  effect  of  the  Leicester  cross  was  a  marked  decrease  of  size  in  the  pro- 
geny, but  this  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  enhanced  quality, 
better  general  conformation,  and  more  early  maturing  properties  which  the 
combination  of  blood  produced. 


366  SHEEP  BREEDING  IN   IRELAND. 

This  crossing  with  the  Leicesters  would  appear  to  have  taken  place 
previous  to  1800,  and  since  then  the  flockowners  in  the  country  have  kept 
the  native  breed  intact,  improving  it  by  judicious  blending  of  the  various 
predominant  qualities  of  the  sire  with  the  flock — that  is,  by  taking  advantage 
of  all  valuable  characteristics,  encouraging  their '  development,  and  by 
degrees  rendering  them  more  permanent.  This  breed,  like  all  classes  of 
stock  bred  in  the  West,  is  kept  in  a  more  natural  way  than  other  breeds  of 
sheep  bred  elsewhere,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have  undergone  as  much 
forcing  and  pampering  as  the  latter,  either  for  the  show-ring  or  the  butcher's 
block. 

As  stock  ewes,  the  Roscommons  are  excellent  nurses  and  milkers,  and, 
consequently,  their  lambs  increase  very  rapidly  in  size  and  condition  when 
the  flock  is  not  pastured  too  thickly  together.  Writing  on  this  breed  of 
sheep  in  1895,  Mr.  Davison,  of  Esker,  Timahoe,  Queen's  County,  says: — • 
"  I  hope  there  will  be  no  tampering  with  the  type  of  those  sheep  in  their 
native  soils,  for  if  this  ewe  was  altered  in  her  present  size,  milking  qualities, 
and  robust  constitution,  it  would  be  a  national  loss."  Early  development 
has  never  been  claimed  for  the  Roscommons  ;  but  like  most  slow-maturmg 
breeds  of  sheep,  their  mutton  is  of  excellent  quality,  well-grained,  and 
evenly  mixed.  The  leading  characteristics  of  the  breed  are  plenty  of  size, 
with  a  good  round  rib,  strong  bone,  and  fine,  long,  staple  wool.  A  feature 
of  the  Dublin  Show  last  August  was  the  magnificent  display  made  by  the 
Roscommons  in  the  sheep  section.  The  larger  proportion  of  the  sheep  oi 
this  breed  exhibited  were  considered  excellent  as  regards  symmetry  and 
general  conformation.  Amongst  the  most  successful  exhibitors  was  Mr.  M. 
Flanagan,  of  Tomona,  Tulsk,  County  Roscommon — the  efficient  and  cour- 
teous Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Roscommon  Sheep  Breeders'  Association — to  whom 
the  writer  is  under  many  obligations  for  his  kindness  in  giving  him  all  infor- 
mation as  regards  the  breed. 

The  Wicklow  Cheviots  are  called  after  the  county  of  that  name,  to  which 
they  are  indigenous.  They  are  much  the  best  class  of  mountain  sheep  bred 
in  Ireland,  and  are  akin  to  the  Scotch  Cheviot.  They  are  a  closely  made, 
short-legged  type,  with  clean,  hardy-looking,  bony  heads.  They  are  not  so 
slow  to  fatten  as  the  other  mountain  breeds,  and  they  carry  a  better  finish 
and  make  more  weights,  and  the  mutton  they  produce  is  of  the  primest 
quality.  They  are  especially  nice  sheep  to  breed  a  market  lamb  when 
removed  to  the  good  grazing  districts,  and  crossed  with  a  pure  bred  ram — 
particularly  the  Shrop.  or  Oxford  Down.  For  this  latter  purpose,  these 
sheep  are  coming  into  more  favour  each  year ;  they  are  excellent  nurses 
and  very  thrifty  to  feed,  and  when  judiciously  mated  with  a  good  Shrop. 
or  Oxford  Down  ram,  and  fed  in  the  good  grazing  districts,  they  produce 
lambs  of  fine  size  and  prime  quality.  It  must  be  said  that  the  bree'd  is 
capable  of  improvement,  and  that  an  expenditure  in  the  direction  of  breed- 
ing and  feeding  would  repay  the  cost. 

The  mountain  sheep  of  the  County  Mayo  are  still  more  of  the  Cheviot 
type  than  those  of  the  County  Wicklow  ;  they  are  smaller  in  size,  longer  in 
the  neck,  and  much  less  symmetrical,  and  are  slower  to  fatten.  There  are 
a  great  many  poor  animals  among  these  County  Mayo  mountain  sheep,  due 
to  their  being  too  much  inbred,  and  not  getting  proper  attention  in  the 
matter  of  feeding,  and  other  respects.  The  Scotch  Hornies  predominate  in 
the   North   of  Ireland — in  the   Counties    Down,    Tyrone,    Armagh,    and 


SHEEP  BREEDING   IN   IRELAND.  367 

Londonderry.  They  vary  much  in  size  and  quaHty,  and,  taken  as  a  whole, 
the  breed  is  capable  of  a  good  deal  of  miprovement.  Drafts  from  these 
northern  mountain  flocks  are  purchased  annually  by  the  Leinster  graziers — ■ 
ewes  for  crossing  with  a  Shrop.  ram  to  produce  market  lambs,  and  wethers 
and  lambs  to  be  fattened  off.  These  latter  make  the  highest  class  mutton, 
but  they  are  very  slow  to  fatten  when  taken  off  the  mountain.  The  Kerry 
mountain  sheep  resemble  the  Scotch,  but  are  somewhat  inferior  in  size  and 
quality,  and  they  are  shorter  in  the  wool. 

Of  the  pure  breeds  of  English  sheep  there  are  numerous  flocks  in  Ireland, 
but  these  flocks  are  only  of  limited  extent,  and  are  kept  exclusively  for  the 
purpose  of  breeding  rams  for  sale.  These  rams  are  usually  sold  as  shear- 
lings, either  by  public  auction  at  the  owner's  residence,  or  at  the  Dublin 
Autumn  sales,  or  by  private  sale,  either  at  home  or  at  the  fairs.  To  ensure 
purity  of  type  in  the  different  flocks,  and  for  the  general  harmonious  work- 
ing of  the  trade,  an  association,  called  "  The  Irish  Ram  Breeding  Associa- 
tion," has  been  formed,  and  a  number  of  rules  laid  down  to  regulate  the  sale 
of  rams  at  the  annual  Dublin  auctions.  One  of  these  rules  states  that : — 
All  sheep  for  sale  must  be  bona  fide  the  property,  and  have  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  member  of  the  association  in  whose  name  the  entry  is 
made  for  six  months  prior  to  date  of  entry,  and  must  be  entered,  or  the 
flocks  from  which  they  came  must  be  entered,  in  the  respective  Flock 
Books  of  their  breeds. 

It  is  a  matter  of  essential  impbrtance  with  these  ram  breeders  to  maintain 
the  purity  of  their  respective  flocks,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  allow  their 
sheep  to  degenerate  in  size,  which  is  a  characteristic  usually  attendant  on 
the  continued  inbreeding  of  pure  breeds  of  English  sheep  in  this  country. 
Tc  obviate  the  latter,  drafts  of  new  blood  are  imported  each  year,  or  every 
alternate  year,  into  the  flocks,  either  from  England  or  from  the  flocks  of 
noted  Irish  breeders.  Some  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  the  Leicesters  were  the 
most  favoured  of  the  English  pure  breeds  for  crossing  purposes  ;  but  they 
were  found  to  grow  too  small,  and  the  mutton  they  produced  was  considered 
too  fat,  and  being  open  in  their  fleeces,  they  were  found  rather  delicate  for 
our  moist  climate.  For  all  these  reasons  their  breeding  was  discontinued, 
so  that  latterly  they  would  appear  to  have  almost  entirely  disappeared  in 
Ireland  as  a  pure  breed.  The  Shropshires  have  taken  their  place,  and  of 
all  the  English  pure  breeds  they  are  now  the  most  extensively  bred  in 
Ireland,  particularly  in  the  good  grazing  districts,  where  they  are  largely 
used  as  rams  to  cross  with  native  Irish  ewes,  for  the  production  of  early 
market  lambs.  The  other  English  pure  breeds  used  for  ram  breeding  are 
the  Lincoln,  the  Border  Leicester,  the  Oxford  Down,  the  South  Down,, 
and  the  Hampshire  Down.  The  rams  from  the  pure  English  breeds  are 
used  by  the  Irish  graziers  for  crossing  with  the  native  ewes,  and  the  Shrop. 
is  the  most  extensively  used.  The  Oxford  Down  ram  is  considered  an 
excellent  cross  with  the  Mountain  or  Cheviot  ewe,  for  the  production  of 
market  lambs,  the  Border  Leicester  ram  being  considered  a  better  cross 
with  these  sheep  for  breeding  store  lambs,  fed  on  stony  mountain  or  rocky 
pasture,  the  latter  breed  having  harder  feet  to  wear  than  the  Shrop.  These 
pure  bred  flocks  are  to  be  found  indifferently  all  through  the  country — the 
eastern,  midland,  and  southern  counties,  where  the  good  grazing  lands  are 
placed,  being  the  chief  centres  of  the  breeding ;  while  Connaught  is  an 
exception,  the  breeders  in  that  province  still  holding  true  in  their  allegiance 
to  the  lordly  Roscommon. 


368 


SHEEP   BREEDING   IN   IRELAND. 


The  following  Table  shows  the  number  of  sheep  in  each  county  of  Ireland 
in  1 900  : — 


N 

0.  of  Sheep  in  each  County,   1900. 

County. 

Number. 

County. 

Number. 

Antrim, 

103,351 

Longford, 

31,621 

Armagh,    . 

24.073 

Louth  (and  Countv  of  the 

Carlow, 

97.945 

Town  of  Drogheda), 

50,099 

Cavan, 

25,562 

Mayo,        

361,978 

Clare, 

117,864 

Meath, 

234,676 

Cork, 

320,361 

Monaghan, 

17.753 

Donegal,   . . 

194,707 

Queen's,    . . 

74,182 

Down, 

122,166 

Roscommon, 

192,459 

Dublin,      . . 

69,578 

Sligo,         

72.572 

Fermanagh, 

11,942 

Tipperary, 

251,202 

Galway,     . . 

653.456 

Tyrone, 

77,680 

Kerry, 

137.943 

Waterford, 

64,504 

Kildare,     . . 

155.157 

Westmeath, 

139.613 

Kilkenny, 

102,283 

Wexford,  . . 

208,423         1 

King's,       . . 

101,730 

Wicklow, 

228,820 

Leitrim,     . . 

17.521 

Limerick, 

58,334 

Londonderry, 

67.321 

Total  for  all  Ireland, 

4,386,876 

The  following  statement  gives  the  number  of  sheep  in  Ireland  for  each 
year  in  the  period  1 880-1 900  : — 


Year. 

Number. 

Year.                                 Number. 

1880, 

3,562,463 

1891, 

4,722,613 

1881, 

3.256.185 

1892, 

4,827,777 

1882, 

3.071.755 

1893,         • 

4,421,455 

1883, 

3.219.311 

i       1894, 

4,105,180 

1884, 

3,245,212 

1895.         • 

3.913.449 

1885, 

3,478,056 

1896, 

4,080,711 

1886, 

3,366,043 

1        1897.         • 

4,157,906 

1887, 

3,377,826 

1        1898, 

4.287,551 

i888. 

3,626,669 

1899, 

4.364,507 

1889, 

3.789.187 

1900, 

4,386,876 

1890, 

4.323.395 

As  regards  wool,  that  of  the  Downs,  Shrop.,  Oxford,  South,  and  Hamp- 
shire, is  at  present  the  most  prized.  Good  Roscommon  hogget  comes  next, 
much  depending  on  how  the  sheep  are  fed.  The  wool  of  Roscommon 
hoggets,  fed  in  Meath,  Westmeath,  and  neighbouring  counties,  is  worth  a 
halfpenny  per  lb.  above  the  same  class  of  wool  from  sheep  fed  in  other 
districts.  Mountain  and  Cheviot  wool  are  worth  about  the  same  price  in 
this  country ;  but  in  Scotland  wool  of  the  same  breeds  is  worth  more,  as 
they  seem  to  breed  and  feed  the  sheep  better  in  that  country.  The  wool 
of  Cheviots  and  Mountainies,  when  fed  on  the  lowlands — Meath,  Kildare, 
etc. — is  called  "  Seaside  ; "  the  same  wool  off  sheep  fed  on  the  mountains  is 
■called  "  Mountain."  The  Scotch  Horny,  which  is  bred  in  the  North  of 
Ireland,  produces  the  lowest  grade  wool.  The  Border  Leicester  and  Lin- 
coln wool  is  considered  rather  too  long  and  coarse  in  texture.  The  wool  of 
aged  Roscommon  sheep  does  not  vary  in  price  as  regards  the  lands  on 
which  they  are  fed  so  much  as  in  the  case  of  hoggets  of  the  same  breed. 
"Foreign  competition  is  the  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  price  of  wool. 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  369 


THE    SEA   FISHERIES    OF    IRELAND. 

L— HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 

In  times  long  prior  to  history  the  coast  inhabitants  of  Ireland  utilized  the 
products  of  the  sea  for  subsistence,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  examina- 
tion of  so-called  kitchen  middens,  or  shell  mounds,  frequently  found  close 
to  where  oysters,  mussels,  or  cockles  abound.  The  remains  of  fish  are  not 
j-o  readily  preserved  as  are  these  shells,  but  it  is  probable  that  these  primi- 
tive people  must  of  tea  have  been  attracted  by  the  shoals  of  fish  which  ever 
and  anon  make  their  appearance,  and  that  they  would  soon  have  learnt 
how  to  catch  them. 

The  Christian  hermits,  who  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  settled  on 
remote  islands  off  the  coast,  must  have  taken  count  of  the  fishing  possibili- 
ties of  their  locations,  and  St.  Enda,  of  the  Isles  of  Aran,  definitely  refers  to 
the  fishermen  of  Galway  Bay.  Later  on,  when  large  abbeys  came  to  be 
built,  how  often  do  we  find  that  the  grey  old  ruins  stand  close  to  a  point  on 
a  river  where  a  salmon  weir  exists,  or  where  salmon  fishing  is  profitable. 
About  this  time  inland  fisheries  came  to  be  dealt  with  as  valuable  property, 
and  in  old  monastic  deeds  they  are  frequently  referred  to.  This  value  was 
probably  of  a  very  local  character,  as  in  those  days,  when  salt  was  difficult 
to  obtain,  and  the  climate  too  humid  for  drying  on  a  large  scale,  there  can 
have  been  no  great  trade  in  river-caught  fish. 

The  Scandinavians  who,  for  centuries  prior  to  the  Anglo-Norman  Con- 
quest, occupied  the  principal  coast-towns  of  Ireland,  probably  carried  on  a 
trade  over-sea  in  fish.  Their  interest  in  fishing  is  testified  to  by  the  struc- 
ture of  stone  fishing  weirs,  and  even  their  language  is  still  perpetuated  in 
the  great  "  Lax  Weir  "  near  Limerick,  "  Lax  "  being  the  Danish  and  Norsk 
word  for  salmon.  In  1437  Irish  sea  fish  and  salmon  were  exported  to  Brabant. 
But  the  earliest  references  of  important  sea-fish  trade  in  progress  are  those 
dealing  with  the  fishing  off  the  West  of  Ireland,  by  Spaniards,  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Philip  II.  paid  ;^  1,000  into  the  Irish 
Treasury  for  permission  to  fish  on  the  Irish  coast ;  but  for  how  long  a  time 
these  Spanish  fishing  boats  had  made  a  practice  of  coming  to  the  coast 
of  Ireland  it  is  difficult  to  say.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  it  was  a 
long-established  institution ;  but,  for  obvious  reasons,  after  the  loss  of  the 
great  Armada,  the  Spanish  fishing  fleets  ceased  their  visits.  The  extent  to 
which  this  business  was  carried  on  may  be  judged  from  a  report  written  to 
the  Queen  by  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  in  which  he  stated  that  600  Spanish 
fishing  vessels  were  then  fishing,  and  he  mentions  Baltimore  and  the  Blas- 
kets  as  centres  of  the  industry ;  and  he  also  states  how  the  Spaniards  com- 
plained that  their  cables  were  often  cut  by  the  natives.  It  would  appear 
from  this  that  there  was  but  little  sympathy  between  the  Irish  and  the 
Spanish  visitors,  or,  perhaps,  the  temptation  of  wrecking  was  too  great  to 

2  B 


370  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 

allow  room  for  any  finer  feelings,  which,  in  the  absence  of  education,  and  ot 
wealth,  it  might  be  unreasonable  to  expect. 

It  is  curious  how  little  real  history  there  is  of  these  times ;  but,  besides  a 
stray  note,  such  as  the  above,  the  impress  of  the  Spanish  type  on  the  people 
in  some  parts  of  the  West,  the  legends  that  hang  about  the  sites  of  the 
permanent  Spanish  fishing  establishments,  the  foundations  of  a  pier  still 
called  by  the  people  a  "  Spanish  pier,"  and  such  like  indications,  give  us 
some  idea  of  this  period  of  great  fishing  activity. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  Dutch  were  granted  a  licence  to  use  the 
Irish  fisheries  on  payment  of  ^^30,000,  and  in  1650  a  similar  licence  was 
granted  to  Sweden. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  among  the  chief  fishers  of  the  Irish  coast 
were  the  French.  One  of  many  places  where  the  French  established 
themselves  was  Portrush,  now  famous  for  its  golf  links  : — "  The  Bretons 
came  every  season  thither  for  dogfish  and  rays,  which,  being  well  handled, 
are  a  very  great  commodity  in  Spain,  especially  in  the  Condado.  The  rays, 
likewise,  sell  well  in  the  river  of  Nantes."  Rays  are  still  a  commodity  at 
Portrush  and  Portstewart,  but  the  taste  for  dog-fish  awaits  revival.  Fishing 
vessels  from  Yarmouth  also  came  to  the  Irish  coast,  looking  for  cod,  ling, 
and  herrings,  and  English  merchants  cured  thousands  of  barrels  of  herrings 
on  the  coasts  from  Wexford  to  Kinsale  for  export  to  the  Continent. 

On  the  whole,  these  were,  for  fishermen,  troubled  times,  as  "  pecharoons," 
or  pirates,  continuously  infested  the  coast,  making  their  headquarters  at 
Leamcon,  in  West  Cork  ;  while  in  time  of  war  the  Dutch  fleets  held  com- 
mand of  the  seas,  and  Anglo-Irish  merchants  wrote  in  vain  to  the  English 
Government  for  protection  of  convoys,  which  the  King  was  unable  to  give. 

As  far  back  as  the  fifth  year  of  Edward  IV.  attempts  were  made  to 
profit  by  this  foreign  fishing  by  Flemings  and  others  by  putting  a  tax  of 
I3J-.  A^d.  on  every  foreign  fishing  vessel  of  over  six  tons,  or  large  enough  to 
carry  a  small  boat,  and  2s.  for  every  boat  less  than  that  size  that  visited  the 
Irish  coast.  These  were  small  craft"  to  come  from  foreign  ports  ;  but  the 
terras  of  the  Act  points  to  their  having  done  so.  "  An  office  was  erected  " 
for  the  collection  of  these  dues.  Queen  Elizabeth  conferred  the  right  of 
collecting  them  on  a  faithful  servant  and  an  intelligent  leaseholder,  under 
this  title,  in  the  following  reign,  attempted  to  exact  the  tax  from  English 
vessels,  which  naturally  led  to  an  outcry  on  their  part.  They  appealed  to 
the  King,  who  thereupon  ruled  that  the  law  should  not  apply  to  any  of  His 
Majesty's  subjects. 

During  intervals  of  peace  the  Hollanders  strengthened  their  position  on 
the  coasts  of  Ireland,  and  went  so  far  as  to  attempt  the  purchase  of  the 
port  of  Galway.  The  price  said  to  have  been  offered  was  as  many  coins 
as,  placed  side  by  side,  would  cover  the  quays.  The  King  accepted  the 
ofter,  provided  the  coins  were  placed  on  edge.  This  terminated  the  nego- 
tiations. With  more  congenial  excitements,  such  as  Tyrone's  Rebellion 
and  Civil  War,  it  seemed  difficult  to  get  the  Irish  to  interest  themselves  in 
fishing.  No  doubt  "  the  trade,"  so  well  understood  by  the  foreigners,  and 
by  the  English,  which  enabled  them  to  turn  the  products  of  the  fishery  into 
money  value,  was  quite  unknown  to  the  native  Irish.  The  want  of  business 
instincts  so  often  bemoaned  in  Ireland  was  then  far  greater  than  in  our 
time,  while  the  Hollanders  were  the  most  skilful  traders  that  the  world  has 
ever  produced.  In  these  times  Scotch  fishermen  fished  for  herrings  in 
Publin  Bay,  and  Sir  John  Temple  states  that  in  1641,  500  of  the  Scotchmen 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  371 


then  fishing  offered  their  services  to  the  State,  but,  "  They  were  so  strangely 
affrighted  one  evening  by  a  false  alarm,  as  that  in  the  night,  on  a  sudden, 
the  entire  Scotch  liost  put  to  sea,  and  quite  disappeared  from  the  Irish 
coast  until  the  following  year." 

About  1625  the  Lord  Deputy  appears  to  have  visited  Mayo,  and  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  developing  the  fishing  industry  there  by  applying  for  "  a 
patent  for  thirty  years  to  some  forty  gentlemen  willing  to  undergo  the 
charge  of  fishing,  and  to  have  a  grant  of  the  district  from  Achill  to  the 
Stagges  of  Broadhaven.  They  doubt  not  they  will  build  fair  towns,  and 
employ  large  numbers  of  people  to  the  benefit  of  the  British  Isles."  The 
projectors  of  this  schem.e  calculated  that  they  would,  in  four  years,  have 
20,000  people  employed.  "  The  Hollanders  return  home  to  repack,  and, 
perhaps,  they  may  be  retarded  by  foul  weather,  in  which  they  cannot  fish, 
while  they,  the  projectors,  will  not  need  to  sail  four  leagues  out  of  the 
harbours  before  they  apply  themselves  to  fishing.  This  fishing  borders  on 
the  County  of  Mayo,  the  inhabitants  the  most  barbarous  and  dangerous  ni 
all  Ireland." 

History  is  silent  as  regards  the  civilizing  and  pacifying  efforts  of  these 
forty  gentlemen,  nor  does  it  say  how  far  they  took  the  gains  from  the 
Dutch,  nor  whether  it  led  to  any  important  development  of  industry  m 
Blacksod  Bay. 

Schemes  to  suppress  foreign  fishing  continued,  and  in  1667  an  Act  was 
passed  against  importing  fish  taken  by  foreigners.  In  1673  Sir  W.  Temple 
proposed  to  Lord  Essex  that  no  one  should  be  eligible  for  the  House  of 
Commons  or  for  the  Commission  of  the  Peace  who  had  not  taken  a  practical 
part  in  the  fisheries.  Times,  how^ever,  again  changed :  England's  policy 
was  influenced  by  the  desire  to  develop  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  and 
bounties  were  actually  paid  on  the  importation  of  fish,  caught  and  cured 
there,  into  Ireland. 

With  the  opening  of  the  century  which  has  just  closed,  we  come  to  a 
period  when  prosperity,  decline,  and  revival  of  the  Irish  fisheries  follow  one 
another  in  rapid  succession.  The  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
the  great  period  for  bounties  ;  various  Acts  were  passed  establishing  them, 
or  when  frauds  reached  too  high  a  level,  regulating  them.  Vessels  were 
built  to  catch  the  bounties  rather  than  the  fish.  Possibly  the  frauds  in  the 
Scottish  fisheries  exceeded  those  in  Ireland  ;  but  a  good  illustration  of  how 
the  bounties  worked  out  is  given  by  Adam  Smith,  writing  in  1759,  where 
he  says,  that  the  Buss  fishery  of  Scotland  in  that  year,  resulted  in  only  four 
barrels  of  herrings,  which  in  bounties  alone,  cost  the  Government  £iS9 
Js  ()d.  per  barrel.  This,  no  doubt,  was  an  extreme  case.  In  Ireland  the 
bounties,  at  first  given  for  the  capture  of  all  deep  sea  fish,  were  subsequently 
restricted  to  fish  for  curing.  This  drove  the  boats  that  used  to  fish  for  the 
local  markets  on  the  east  coast  to  the  west  of  Ireland,  where  fish  was  more 
abundant.  The  Skerries,  Balbriggan,  and  Howth  wherries  went  round  the 
coast  of  Donegal  and  as  far  as  Mayo,  while  hookers  from  Kinsale  and 
other  ports  of  Cork  and  Waterford,  went  round  the  south-west  coast,  and 
were  frequently  found  as  far  as  the  Coast  of  Mayo,  where  Achill  Sound  was 
their  favourite  resort. 

These  Cork  boats  carried  long  lines,  hand  lines,  and  herring  nets,  and 
were  in  those  days  the  only  boats  fishing  with  mackerel  drift  nets  on  the 
west  coast.  The  harvest  fishing  was  the  only  mackerel  fishing  attempted. 
When  the  fishermen  complained  of  being  forced  by  the  bounty  law  to  avoid 


372  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


the  fresh  fish  markets  of  the  east  coast  and  bear  the  hardships  of  the 
Atlantic  storms  in  the  winter  season,  the  law  was  relaxed  and  permission 
was  again  given  to  supply  fresh  fish  to  the  Dublin  market. 

Under  the  bounties  the  number  of  men  engaged  in  the  Irish  fisheries  in- 
creased from  36,159  in  1820,  to  64,771  in  1829.  This  was,  of  course,  a  great 
period  of  activity  in  the  fisheries,  but  the  inflation  brought  about  by  the 
payment  in  bounties  of  ^^"87,989  of  Government  money  made  no  lasting  im- 
piession :  the  prosperity  was  fictitious  because  it  depended  on  an  artificial 
market,  and  there  was  a  complete  collapse  when  the  bounties  .ceased  in 
1829,  and  the  fisheries  had  to  come  down  to  their  commercial  value. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here,  to  contrast  the  creation  of  an  artificial 
market  by  public  expenditure,  with  the  policy  of  later  days,  which  by 
expending  public  money  on  railways,  brought  the  natural  markets  withm 
the  reach  of  the  fishery. 

The  Commissioners'  Report  of  1835  describes  a  sad  state  of  things,  every- 
thing on  the  decline,  the  curing  houses  going  into  ruin,  and  the  large 
decked  boats,  brought  into  existence  by  bounties,  rotting  in  the  harbours. 
In  these  days,  however,  other  influences  profoundly  though  indirectly 
affecting  the  Irish  fisheries  were  at  work,  and  it  is  only  by  glancing  at  these 
circumstances  that  the  various  fluctuations  which  followed  can  be  thoroughly 
understood. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  potato  was  introduced  into  Ireland,  and,  as 
is  generally  understood,  was  planted  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  the  South  of 
Ireland,  on  the  banks  of  the  Blackwater.  Up  to  that  period  the  Irish 
peasants  appear  to  have  been  a  flesh-eating  people.  They  lived,  as  contem- 
porary writers  tell  us,  on  the  produce  of  their  flocks  and  herds.  Campion 
writing  expressively,  if  not  elegantly,  in  1571,  says  that  "  oatmale  and 
butter  they  crame  together.  They  drink  whey,  milke,  and  beef  broth. 
Flesh  they  devoure  without  bread.  Corne,  such  as  they  have,  they  give  to 
their  horses."  He  further  says  they  "  swill  in  aquavitas  by  quarts  and 
pottles."  With  such  a  complete  menu,  varied  in  some  places  by  an  abund- 
ance of  salmon,  sea-fishing  was  an  unnecessary  employment,  and  could  not 
have  been  attractive  to  a  population  mainly  pastoral.  This,  I  think, 
accounts  for  the  sea  fisheries  being  left  in  the  hands  of  Spaniards  or 
Dutchmen,  who  were  encouraged  by  an  over-sea  demand  for  the  products 
of  the  Irish  fisheries. 

For  a  long  time  the  potato  was  only  cultivated  as  a  garden  product,  as  a 
delicacy  for  the  few  ;  not  until  the  eighteenth  century  did  it  become  the 
food  of  the  people.  The  population  of  Ireland,  then  about  three  and  a-half 
millions,  sprang  up  by  leaps  and  bounds,  until,  in  1840,  it  was  over  eight 
millions.  The  "  butter,  beef  broth  and  flesh  "  were  now  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Such  living  might  have  been  possible  for  three  million  people,  when  cattle 
were  not  turned  into  money  by  a  cross-channel  trade ;  but  it  was  clearly 
impossible  for  the  potato-eating  millions  which  had  come  into  existence. 
All  the  resources  of  the  country  had  now  to  be  drawn  on,  and,  as  fish  and 
potatoes  go  well  together,  the  Irish  sea  fisheries  began  for  the  first  time  to 
be  worked  with  vigour  by  the  native  population.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
nineteenth  century  this  demand,  as  well  as  the  bounties  described  above, 
helped  to  keep  up  the  fine  fleets  of  fishing  boats  which  sailed  from  the  Irish 
harbours,  and  the  hardy  race  of  men  which  formed  their  crews.  Cod,  ling, 
hake,  and  herrings  were  caught  and  cured  for  the  local  demand,  and  to  add 


■   N I V  c  n.  i3 1  I  ' 
THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAN-D^^L^^;^  "        373 


to  the  other  causes  of  prosperity,  herrings  visited  the  coast  at  this  time  in 
immense  numbers. 

After  two  or  three  premonitory  symptoms  the  awful  crash  of  the  great 
famine  came  in  1846.  The  potato  crop  failed.  Thousands  of  people  died 
of  starvation  and  disease  resulting  from  it.  Thousands  more  emigrated, 
and,  during  the  ten  following  years,  the  population  dropped  from  over  eight 
millions  to  less  than  six  millions. 

In  those  dark  days  the  Dungarvan  fishermen  who  went  to  America 
introduced  there  the  system  of  long  line  fishing  which  has  ever  since  been 
practised  on  the  New  England  and  Newfoundland  fishing  banks. 

In  the  reports  of  the  Fishery  Commissioners  for  the  years  after  the 
famine  we  note  the  decline  of  the  fishing  fleets.  The  old  order  of  things 
had  changed,  and  until  the  new  came  in  we  see  the  vain  efforts  of  philan- 
thropic people  and  of  the  Government  to  better  matters.  These  efforts 
were  futile,  because  a  great  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men  was  setting  against 
them  and  there  was  no  stemming  it. 

While  these  tragedies,  profoundly  affecting  the  Irish  people,  were  being 
enacted,  problems  of  an  entirely  different  class  were  being  worked  out 
elsewhere.  Folks  of  those  days  might  have  found  it  hard  to  imagine  that 
matters,  mostly  scientific,  could  have  any  practical  bearing  on  the  Irish 
fisheries,  and  yet  it  was  out  of  such  experiments  and  discoveries  that  the 
new  developments  were  to  arise.  George  Stevenson,  in  these  days,  was 
trying  to  adapt  steam  to  railways  ;  while  Bell  and  Symington  were  planning 
the  first  steamers.  The  electric  telegraph  followed  in  due  course,  and  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  fresh  sea  fish  delivered  everywhere 
— fish  packed  in  ice  was  sold  in  towns  and  localities  where  nothing  but  salt 
or  smoked  fish  was  seen  before.  It  saw  special  fish  trains,  special  steamers 
— steam  on  land  and  steam  on  sea — used  in  the  carrying  as  well  as  in  the 
catching — ice  factories  driven  by  steam,  and  the  wants  of  millions  provided 
for  and  arranged  by  telegraph. 

With  all  these  facilities  the  demand  for  fresh  fish  increased  by  rapid 
bounds,  and  the  Irish  fisheries,  for  a  time  lost  to  sight,  were  once  more 
looked  to  for  a  supply.  Irish  herrings  were  sought  for  by  fishing  boats, 
and  in  some  years  not  in  vain  ;  but  the  herring  was  not  on  the  coast  in  the 
quantities  of  former  days.  Herrings  are  fickle  fish :  they  come  for  years 
and  go  for  years,  and  are  not  always  forthcoming  where  the  best  reception 
has  been  prepared.  One  year,  however,  while  fishing  for  herring,  the 
Manx  men  at  Kinsale  reported  that  there  was  an  abundance  of  mackerel — - 
fine  plump  mackerel — on  those  south  coasts,  2j^  lbs.  weight.  The  herring 
nets  were  cast  aside,  ice  provided  instead  of  salt,  fast  steamers  engaged, 
many  others  built  for  the  service,  and  in  three  years  from  the  first  venture 
"  the  great  Spring  Mackerel  Fishery "  was  established.  Boat-building 
then  boomed  in  the  Isle  of  Man ;  boats  from  Arklow,  County  Down,  Cam- 
pelton,  Lowestoft,  Cornwall,  and  France  flocked  to  Kinsale,  so  that  on  one 
day  as  many  as  700  splendid  first-class  boats,  which,  with  nets,  would  be 
worth  over  £^00  a  piece,  have  been  seen  in  that  harbour.  As  the  years 
passed  the  boats  began  to  work  more  to  westward.  Owing  to  the 
munificence  of  the  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  acting  under  the  advice  of  the 
late  Father  Davis,  the  Cape  Clear  fishermen  got  mackerel  boats,  and  Balti- 
more became  a  centre  to  which  some  of  the  buyers  moved  on.  Then  part 
of  the  fleet  wandered  on  and  made  Berehaven  a  centre,  then  Valentia, 
Smerwick,    Fenit,    and   the    Shannon   were   reached.     Smerwick   and   the 


374  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 

Shannon  were  soon  abandoned  as  inconvenient,  and  for  years  Kinsale, 
Baltimore,  Berehaven,  and  Valentia  were  the  chief  centres  of  the  industry. 
All  this  time  a  local  fleet  was  growing  up  along  the  coast,  the  boats  bemg 
obtained  on  Government  loans,  until  at  last  the  number  of  Irish  boats 
exceeded  that  of  all  the  visitors  put  together.  In  1 890,  the  Royal  Dubhn 
Society  began  to  investigate  the  seas  off  Galway  and  Mayo,  and  in  their 
report  for  that  year  it  was  stated  that  "  no  place  seems  so  admirably  suited 
for  a  fishing  station  as  the  Aran  Islands."  In  1892  the  establishment  of  the 
Spring  Mackerel  Fishery  at  the  Aran  Islands  by  the  Congested  Districts 
Board  opened  up  new  possibilities,  and  these  remote  parts  of  the  coast  as 
far  as  the  north  of  Mayo  are  now  rapidly  developing  new  centres  of  the 
trade. 

11..— FISHING  GROUNDS. 

The  Atlantic  sends  in  its  shoals  of  mackerel  with  fair  regularity  twice 
every  year.  Herrings,  too,  appear  in  varying  numbers.  Pilchards  used  to 
come,  but  have  not  done  so  for  many  years,  and,  unfortunately,  dog-fish  follow 
the  pelagic  fish  in  millions.  The  fishing  grounds  around  Ireland  produce  sole, 
turbot,  plaice,  cod,  ling,  haak,  haddock,  conger,  and  ray,  with  a  sprinkling 
of  halibut,  and  in  the  deeper  waters  tusk.  Owing  to  the  contour  of  the  sub- 
marine plateau  on  which  Ireland  stands,  these  fishing  grounds  on  the  western 
side  of  the  island  extend  to  only  a  short  distance  from  shore,  whereas 
on  the  south,  north,  and  east  they  extend  as  far  as  boats  can  go.  The 
water  which  bathes  the  Irish  shores  is  brought  thither  by  the  great  drift 
from  the  ocean  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  and,  being  replete  with  living 
organisms,  an  abundance  of  food  is  always  coming  in  from  outside  the 
fishing  area.  While  an  immense  area  is  thus  available  for  these  fishes 
within  the  depth  limits  at  which  their  existence  is  possible,  it  is  a  very 
common  mistake  to  think  that  fish  are  distributed  equally  over  it.  For 
certain  reasons,  only  partially  understood,  these  various  classes  of  fish  have 
their  favourite  haunts.  In  one  region  at  a  certain  season,  haak  arrive  in 
great  numbers,  at  another  plaice  or  sole  ;  in  one  place  ling  predominate,  in 
another  cod  or  haddock,  but  between  these  haunts,  lines  may  be  set  with 
most  tempting  bait,  or  trawls  shot,  and  the  takes  be  worthless.  The  stock 
of  fish,  therefore,  in  the  fishable  area  is  thus  often  over-estimated,  and  calcu- 
lations made  where  area  is  taken  into  account  may  be  quite  erroneous. 

On  the  Western  Prairies  at  one  time  herds  of  buffalo  roamed,  which 
reasonable  men  held  to  be  interminable,  and  yet  in  one  short  year  modern 
weapons  and  an  organised  attack  swept  them  off  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  at  the  herds  of  fish  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of 
the  buffalo.  Their  numbers,  too,  are  vastly  greater,  and  consequently  they 
may  stand  line  fishing,  with  its  many  delays  and  its  desultory  attacks,  for 
ages  to  come,  as  they  have  done  in  the  past ;  but  when  the  modern  steam 
trawler,  knowing  the  season  when  fish  crowd  into  very  limited  haunts,  gets 
at  these  grounds  with  his  persistence  and  effective  gear,  it  is  not  a  too 
prejudiced  view  to  take  when  we  say  that  an  exterminating  hunt  has  begun. 
A  good  deal  of  the  line-fishing  grounds  around  Ireland  have  thus  been 
invaded,  but  within  the  areas  where  line-fishing  is  safe  and  possible,  there 
is  still  room  for  very  considerable  development. 

Ray  and  conger  have  in  Ireland  generally  been  treated  more  or  less  as 
worthless,  or  only  fit  to  bait  lobster  pots,  but  nowadays  the  fishermen  have 


■      THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


375 


/R/SH  HOOKER  -  20  TDN3 


ARKLOWmCME/^EL  BOAr-4-rrff/VS. 


SCOrCH  H£fi/flNC  BO/ir-SOJDAlS 


MANX  NOeBy  -  20  TONS 


SKIBB£R££N  /^iCH£r-4-5  TONS 


r/JfNCHf^ACHEREl  BDfiT-  70  TONS. 


Types  of  Fishing  Boats. 


376  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 

been  taught  that,  when  got  across  channel  fresh,  there  is  more  trade  in  them 
than  in  cod  and  ling. 

In  the  development  of  line-fishing,  the  bait  difficulty  is  very  great,  and 
provision  to  meet  it  calls  for  further  organisation. 

The  Spring  Mackerel  Fishery. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  spring  mackerel  fishing,  the  fish  were  generally 
expected  to  appear  off  the  South-west  coast  about  the  17th  of  March.  Of 
late  years  they  are  rarely  caught  by  the  large  boats  before  the  first  or 
second  week  of  April,  and  the  fishing  closes  about  the  middle  of  June. 

Stormy  weather  frequently  prevails  in  April,  thus  reducing  what  is  under 
any  circumstances  a  short  season,  to  one  which  leaves  little  time  to  pay 
expenses  and  make  a  profit. 

The  expenses,  in  all  directions,  are  heavy.  The  merchants  must  lay  in 
immense  stores  of  ice  and  boxes,  and  keep  expensive  steamers  in  waiting. 
The  fishermen  have  their  long  trains  of  nets  to  prepare,  nets  useless  except 
for  this  one  venture,  and  in  many  cases  the  boats'  crews  count  on  this  season 
alone  to  give  them  any  profit  above  what  is  necessary  for  the  weekly 
support  of  their  families. 

The  fleets  of  large  deep-sea  fishing  vessels  which  congregate  on  the 
south-west  of  Ireland,  have  recently  been  made  up  in  about  the  followmg 
proportions : — 

Irish  350,  Manx  160,  English  and  Scotch  50,  and  French  70, 

while  on  the  coasts  of  Galway  and  Mayo  about  75  large  boats  owned  and 
fished  locally,  have  recently  come  into  existence.  All  these  vessels  use 
drift  nets,  forming  trains  of  from  one  and  a-half  to  two  miles  in  length,  and 
many  of  them  have  steam  capstans  for  hauling  in  their  gear.  The  value  of 
the  boat  and  her  outfit  varies  from  about  i5^300  to  £600. 

The  mackerel  nets  are  shallower  than  herring  nets :  6  score  of  3-inch 
meshes  deep  being  about  the  standard  size,  and  they  are  set  at  the  surface, 
carrying  the  boat  with  them  as  they  drift  with  the  tide. 

A  great  number  of  row  boats  and  canvas  canoes  join  in  the  sprmg 
mackerel  fishery,  and  they  usually  get  the  fish  close  to  shore,  earlier  in  the 
season  than  the  larger  vessels  can  capture  them  in  the  offing.  After  a  short 
time  the  fishing  moves  off  seaward,  and  the  small  boats,  which  have  secured 
the  high  prices  of  the  early  fishing,  are  then  compelled  to  give  it  up. 

The  largest  vessels  which  join  in  the  spring  fishing  are  those  from  France. 
They  carry  longer  trains  of  nets,  much  larger  crews,  and  salt  the  mackerel 
on  board  until  they  have  a  full  cargo,  when  they  sail  for  home. 

Drift  net  boats  propelled  by  steam  are  the  latest  innovation. 


The  Autumn  Mackerel  Fishery. 

The  spring  mackerel  fishery  lasts,  as  we  have  seen,  for  about  two  months, 
and  is  mainly  a  large-boat  fishery.  The  autumn  fishery,  which  begins  in  the 
end  of  August,  often  lasts  on,  when  weather  permits,  into  the  winter,  and  up 
to  Christmas.  It  is  a  row-boat  and  canoe  fishery,  the  fish  as  a  rule  lying  too 
close  to  the  coast  for  large  boats  to  approach  them  with  safety.     It  is  also 


TYPICAL    FRENCH    MACKEREL    BOAT. 


AltKLOW    MA(  KI'.IiKL   BOAT.        !1'.^J,:  1 


MANX    MArKKT'.KI.    BOAT 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  377 


wide  spread  in  its  distribution,  almost  every  creek  from  the  south  of  Cork  to 
the  north  of  Mayo  taking  part  in  it.  On  the  south-west  coast  the  fishery 
opens  with  seine  fishing,  and  in  September  the  seines — with  which  often  im- 
mense hauls  have  been  made ;  (in  Garinish  in  West  Cork,  50,000  mackerel 
have  been  taken  at  one  sweep  of  the  net) — are  discarded  for  gill  nets.  These 
gill  or  meshing  nets  are  sometimes  drifted,  or  else  anchored  out  at  sundown, 
and  visited  during  the  night  or  in  the  early  morning.  The  fish  are  then 
taken  in  hand  by  the  curers.  They  are  split,  washed,  salt  rubbed  in,  and 
packed,  an  abundance  of  clean,  fresh  water  for  washing  determining  the  site 
of  the  curing  station,  as  it  also  does  to  a  great  extent  the  quality  of  the  cure. 
When  the  final  packing  takes  place,  210  lbs.  of  fish  are  carefully  weighed 
out  for  each  barrel,  which  is  then  filled  up  with  clear  pickle,  and  the  weight 
of  fish  guaranteed  by  the  merchant's  brand  on  the  outside.  Where  railway 
facilities  are  good  a  certain  amount  of  this  autumn  mackerel  finds  its  way 
fresh  to  the  English  markets,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  trade  is  with 
America.  The  price  obtainable  there  has  fluctuated  since  1887,  when  this 
trade  began,  from  ten  to  twenty  dollars  per  barrel.  The  size  of  fish  pre- 
ferred in  America  is  that  which  counts  about  300  to  the  barrel.  The  mack- 
erel caught  on  the  American  coast  run  to  a  larger  size  than  this.  Efforts 
have  been  made  to  place  pickled  mackerel  on  other  markets,  but  ud  to  the 
present  no  better  market  than  the  United  States  has  been  found..  Crushing 
of  barrels  and  consequent  leakage  of  pickle  during  the  voyage  to  America, 
is  one  of  the  difficulties  the  trade  has  to  contend  with. 


Cod  and  Ling. 

Cod  and  ling  frequent  the  coast  in  considerable  numbers,  and  from  almost 
every  creek  where  fishing  boats  can  be  kept  men  proceed  to  neighbouring 
"  banks  "  or  grounds  where,  from  the  nature  of  the  bottom  and  the  presence 
of  suitable  food,  these  fish  congregate  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

The  fishing  is  carried  on  by  means  of  long  lines,  and  the  success  of  the 
industry  depends  largely  on  the  supply  of  bait. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  herring  bait  is  one  of  the  greatest  that  besets 
this  fishery,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the  men  who  could  only  obtain 
lug  worm  or  mussel  bait,  took  to  using  very  small  hooks  on  their  lines,  thus 
hoping  that  small  haddock  or  whiting  would  take  the  hook,  and  in  turn  be 
swallowed  by  a  cod  or  ling.  In  the  reorganisation  of  the  fisheries,  the 
matters  of  first  importance  to  inculcate  have  been  the  procuring  of  proper 
bait,  and  the  use  of  large  hooks,  such  as  are  used  on  the  great  lines  in  the 
North  Sea,  together  with  a  great  extension  of  the  lines.  On  some  portions 
of  the  coast  there  is  considerable  local  sale  for  the  catch,  but  on  the  West 
coast  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  quick  transit  makes  it  frequently  more 
profitable  to  cure  the  fish,  and  at  the  stations  opened  by  the  Congested  Dis- 
tricts Board  this  curing  is  done  according  to  the  most  approved  methods. 


Herring  Fishing. 

The  policy  adopted  by  king  herring,  in  his  treatment  of  the  Irish  coast, 
has  been  most  aggravating,  as  he  has  shown  a  fickleness  quite  different 
from  his  course  of  action  on  the  Scottish  coast.     The  only  explanation  is 


378  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


that  Ireland  being,  a's  it  were,  the  south-western  outpost  of  his  territory,  it 
has  not  always  been  necessary  to  maintain  a  concentration  of  his  forces  in 
that  direction.  Not  being  admitted  to  his  councils,  we  can  do  no  more  than 
feel  the  great  inconvenience  of  herrings  turning  up  in  their  thousands  at  one 
place  for  five,  ten,  or  twenty  years,  and  then  taking  themselves  off  for  half 
a  century.  The  buildings  prepared  for  their  reception  fall  into  ruin,  and 
these  dilapidated,  roofless  stores  adorning  some  of  our  ports,  the  grass- 
grown  quays,  and  the  hulls  of  boats  cast  aside  to  rot,  are  the  only  monu- 
ments that  remain  of  days  when  the  herring  fishery  was  in  full  swing,  and 
the  now  half-deserted  wharves  a  scene  of  bustling  industry.  All  the  same, 
it  is  better  for  herrings  to  come  in  force  occasionally  than  not  to  come  at  all, 
and  they  are  always,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  us. 

Herrings  turn  up  in  April  off  Kinsale,  on  the  coast  of  Cork,  and  are  in 
May  only  fished  for  by  large  herring  boats,  which  come  for  this  particular 
venture  from  the  East  coast  of  Scotland ;  all  the  large  Irish  boats  at  this 
time  being  engaged  in  the  spring  mackerel  fishing.  This  is  a  wholly 
"  freshing "  business,  the  fish  being  despatched  quickly  by  rail  or  fast 
steamers  to  market.  Later  on  in  the  season  herrings  appear  farther  to  the 
eastward,  and  in  July  there  has  been  in  some  years  a  heavy  fishing  on  the 
east  coast  off  Howth,  and  about  thirty  years  ago  that  part  of  the  Irish  Sea 
between  Dublin,  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  Ardglass,  in  the  County  of  Down, 
was  the  scene  of  a  herring  fishing,  to  which  boats  congregated  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  large  earnings  were  made.  During  the  last 
two  years  an  attempt,  promising  success,  has  been  made  to  open  a  Spring 
Herring  Fishery  on  the  coast  of  Donegal.  The  fish  were  cured,  and  fetched 
the  highest  price  in  the  Continental  markets.  Whether  the  shoals  of 
herrings  which  appear  off  the  coast  in  April  or  May,  and  those  upon  which 
this  autumn  fishery  depended,  are  in  any  way  related,  has  frequently  been 
the  subject  of  warm  discussion,  and  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
it  is  wise  to  express  no  opinion.  For  a  great  many  years  the  herring  fishery 
in  this  part  of  the  Irish  Sea  has  failed,  although  recently  it  gives  promise 
of  revival. 

Turning  to  the  North  and  West  coasts  we  have  to  go  back  seventy  years 
and  more  to  find  a  great  herring  fishery.  The  extensive  buildings  now 
indicated  by  fragmentary  ruins  which  stand  on  the  islands  of  the  Rosses  in 
Donegal  were  erected  in  1786,  when  a  prosperous  herring  fishery  was  in 
progress.  Anderson,  in  his  "  Annals  of  Commerce,"  in  1780  states  : — "  The 
Irish  have  a  great  advantage  as  their  herring  fishery,  so  precarious  on  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  is  certain  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  The  Irish  take  a 
larger  quantity  of  fish  in  the  same  space  of  time." 

From  1822  to  1831  there  was  great  fishing  activity  at  Killybegs ;  the 
herrings  then  "took  off  "  for  a  few  years,  but  in  1836  the  fishery  resumed,  and 
the  harbour  was  crowded  with  from  700  to  800  boats,  many  of  them  from 
the  East  coast,  being  of  large  size  and  capable  of  carrying  to  market 
200,000  cured  herrings,  which  they  bought  in  Killybegs  fresh  at  ten 
shillings  per  thousand.  The  local  boats  were  of  about  three  tons  and 
measured  nineteen  feet  on  the  keel.  The  boats  used  by  the  Skerries 
fishermen  were  about  eight  tons  and  measured  twenty-four  feet  on  the 
keel,  seven  feet  ten  inches  beam.  They  worked  with  eight  pieces  of  net> 
thirty  fathoms  long  and  seven  fathoms  deep.  The  local  boats  used  much 
smaller  nets. 

On  the  Mayo  coast  off  Achill,  there  was  good  herring  fishing  from  1800 
to  1 8 10,  then  the  arrival  of  the  shoals  became  later  and  later,  until  in  1829 


'^^JiatTilinl. 


.^ 


8  g- 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  379 

herrings  vanished  not  to  return  until  1836,  when  again  there  was  a  big 
fishing. 

In  Galway,  in  1820,  300  boats  daily  lined  the  quays,  landing  from  10,000 
to  20,000  herrings  each.  At  this  time  herrmgs  were  selling  from  6s.  to 
los.  per  thousand. 

In  1835  and  for  some  years  previous  to  that  date  the  best  winter  fishing 
for  herrings  was  off  the  coast  of  Connemara. 

After  the  famine  years  the  herrmgs  vanished,  and  the  revival  on  the 
Donegal  coast,  in  the  Rosses  and  Sheephaven,  goes  back  for  only  eight 
years  or  less.  Now  it  is  big  enough  to  attract  the  consideration  of  well- 
known  curing  firms,  chiefly  from  Scotland,  and  it  is  a  strange  anomaly  of 
trade  to  see  fast  steamers  daily  starting  for  Glasgow  with  Irish  herrings, 
both  cured  and  fresh,  and  at  the  very  same  time  fish  merchants  in  Ireland 
importing  barrels  of  herrings  in  large  numbers  from  Scotland.  The  her- 
rings of  the  West  of  Ireland  are  of  a  very  high  class,  and  have  taken  top 
prices  in  the  North  German  and  American  markets. 

Besides  the  revival  of  herring  fishing  on  the  Donegal  coast.  West  Mayo 
is  coming  under  its  influence  ;  while  Galway,  Dunmore  East,  and  other 
areas,  which  seem  to  have  their  own  peculiar  herring  fisheries,  good  seasons 
as  bad  ones  have  come  and  gone,  while  far  greater  fluctuations  have  char- 
acterised the  fishing  on  the  outer  coast.  Constancy,  however,  is  unfortu- 
nately conspicuous  by  its  absence  from  the  Irish  herring  fisheries. 


Fluctuations  in  Fisheries. 

The  fluctuations  indicated  by  these  details  are  of  importance  because 
they  point  to  the  fact,  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  when  development 
of  the  fisheries  is  undertaken,  that  certain  species  of  fish  have  periods  or 
cycles  of  abundance  and  of  scarcity.  In  the  case  of  the  herring  these  cycles 
are  discoverable  in  old  records,  but  in  regard  to  other  species,  history 
is  not  so  helpful.  For  two  hundred  years  the  supply  of  mackerel  on  the 
coasts  of  the  New  England  States  has  been  duly  recorded,  and  it  was  fairly 
constant  until  1886,  when  it  for  some  unexplained  cause  utterly  failed.  This 
fishery  on  the  Irish  coast  has  no  history  beyond  the  memory  of  old  men 
still  living ;  but  according  to  some  of  them  mackerel,  like  the  herring,  have 
had  their  periods  of  scarcity  as  well  as  cycles  of  great  abundance.  Abund- 
ance, disappearance,  and  recurrence  of  haddock  is  a  remarkable  instance  of 
fluctuation  in  our  coast  fisheries  well  known  to  sea  fishermen  whose  memo- 
ries can  take  them  back  for  forty  years. 


Trawling. 

Trawling  has  been  practised  on  the  Irish  coast  certainly  for  a  century, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  for  how  long  before.  The  most  primitive  form  is  the 
pole  trawl,  still  used  on  the  South  coast.  In  this  case  the  net  consists  of  a 
bag  and  wings,  the  latter  being  kept  distended  by  poles  projecting  from 
each  side  of  the  hooker  to  which  the  ends  of  the  warps  are  attached.  In 
large  hookers  the  spread  given  by  the  poles  is  about  fifty  feet,  but  the 
distance  apart  of  the  "  hammers  "  or  weights  at  the  ends  of  the  wings  of  the 
net,  could  not,  in  ten  fathoms  of  water,  be  more  than  twenty-five  feet,  and 
in  deeper  water  much  less.     About  thirty-five  years  ago  otters  came  into 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  379 


herrings  vanished  not  to  return  until  1836,  when  again  there  was  a  big 
fishing. 

In  Galway,  in  1820,  300  boats  daily  lined  the  quays,  landing  from  10,000 
to  20,000  herrings  each.  At  this  time  herrmgs  were  selling  from  6s.  to 
JOS.  per  thousand. 

In  1835  and  for  some  years  previous  to  that  date  the  best  winter  fishing 
for  herrings  was  off  the  coast  of  Connemara. 

After  the  famine  years  the  herrmgs  vanished,  and  the  revival  on  the 
Donegal  coast,  in  the  Rosses  and  Sheephaven,  goes  back  for  only  eight 
years  or  less.  Now  it  is  big  enough  to  attract  the  consideration  of  well- 
known  curing  firms,  chiefly  from  Scotland,  and  it  is  a  strange  anomaly  of 
trade  to  see  fast  steamers  daily  starting  for  Glasgow  with  Irish  herrmgs,. 
both  cured  and  fresh,  and  at  the  very  same  time  fish  merchants  in  Ireland 
importing  barrels  of  herrings  in  large  numbers  from  Scotland.  The  her- 
rings of  the  West  of  Ireland  are  of  a  very  high  class,  and  have  taken  top 
prices  in  the  North  German  and  American  markets. 

Besides  the  revival  of  herring  fishing  on  the  Donegal  coast.  West  Mayo 
is  coming  under  its  influence  ;  while  Galway,  Dunmore  East,  and  other 
areas,  which  seem  to  have  their  own  peculiar  herring  fisheries,  good  seasons 
as  bad  ones  have  come  and  gone,  while  far  greater  fluctuations  have  char- 
acterised the  fishing  on  the  outer  coast.  Constancy,  however,  is  unfortu- 
nately conspicuous  by  its  absence  from  the  Irish  herring  fisheries. 


Fluctuations  in  Fisheries. 

The  fluctuations  indicated  by  these  details  are  of  importance  because 
they  point  to  the  fact,  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  when  development 
of  the  fisheries  is  undertaken,  that  certain  species  of  fish  have  periods  or 
cycles  of  abundance  and  of  scarcity.  In  the  case  of  the  herring  these  cycles 
are  discoverable  in  old  records,  but  in  regard  to  other  species,  history 
is  not  so  helpful.  For  two  hundred  years  the  supply  of  mackerel  on  the 
coasts  of  the  New  England  States  has  been  duly  recorded,  and  it  was  fairly 
constant  until  1886,  when  it  for  some  unexplained  cause  utterly  failed.  This 
fishery  on  the  Irish  coast  has  no  history  beyond  the  memory  of  old  men 
still  living ;  but  according  to  some  of  them  mackerel,  like  the  herring,  have 
had  their  periods  of  scarcity  as  well  as  cycles  of  great  abundance.  Abund- 
ance, disappearance,  and  recurrence  of  haddock  is  a  remarkable  instance  of 
fluctuation  in  our  coast  fisheries  well  known  to  sea  fishermen  whose  memo- 
ries can  take  them  back  for  forty  years. 


Trawling. 

Trawling  has  been  practised  on  the  Irish  coast  certainly  for  a  century, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  for  how  long  before.  The  most  primitive  form  is  the 
pole  trawl,  still  used  on  the  South  coast.  In  this  case  the  net  consists  of  a 
bag  and  wings,  the  latter  being  kept  distended  by  poles  projecting  from 
each  side  of  the  hooker  to  which  the  ends  of  the  warps  are  attached,  in 
large  hookers  the  spread  given  by  the  poles  is  about  fifty  feet,  but  the 
distance  apart  of  the  "  hammers  "  or  weights  at  the  ends  of  the  wings  of  the 
net,  could  not,  in  ten  fathoms  of  water,  be  more  than  twenty-five  feet,  and 
in  deeper  water  much  less.     About  thirty-five  years  ago  otters  came  into 


-380 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


.general  use,  giving  a  much  greater  spread  to  the  net,  but  poles  in  the  larger 
boats  are  used  as  well.  On  the  coasts  of  Ulster  the  otters  approved  of  are 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  boats,  and  poles  are  unnecessary.  In 
Dublin,  Galway,  and  Dingle  there  are  fleets  of  beam  trawl  boats  varying 
from  forty  to  seventy  tons,  many  of  them  being  purchased  in  Brixham, 
Lowestoft,  or  Grimsby,  and  a  few  steam  trawlers  are  also  owned  in  Ireland. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Irish  sea  is  a  trawling  ground,  and  is  more  or  less 
a  sheltered  area.  Soles  and  plaice  migrate  within  it  according  to  season, 
and  were  followed  to  their  favourite  haunts  by  the  sailing  trawlers  from 
Dublin,  Liverpool,  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  Spells  of  calms  and  of  storms 
gave  the  fish  a  chance  of  rest,  the  number  of  days  in  the  year  that  trawlers 
could  be  on  their  track  being  comparatively  few.  Now  the  whole  business 
is  changed,  and  the  steam  trawlers  ceaselessly  prowl  to  and  fro — no  calm 


Mackerel  Seine  Boat  and  "  Follyer." 

can  stop  them,  and  only  exceptionally  severe  storms.  The  steam  fleets  are 
growing,  the  demand  for  fresh  fish  appears  to  be  increasing,  the  business  is 
a  thriving  one,  and  the  only  question  is — how  long  can  it  last  ?  The  returns 
of  fish  landed  at  the  great  fish  ports  of  Grimsby,  Hull,  Aberdeen,  Liverpool, 
and  Milford  show  big  figures,  and  a  casual  glance  has  led  many  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  fishing  grounds  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  bearing  the 
strain  fairly  well ;  but  closer  examination  shows  that  these  returns  are  kept 
up  by  hosts  of  steamers  arriving  from  the  coast  of  Ireland  (for  which  Irish 
statistics  show  nothing),  from  Iceland,  Faroe,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  the 
coast  of  Holland,  the  areas  fished  being  a  hundred  times  greater  than  they 
were  fifty  years  ago. 

To  the  south  and  north  of  Ireland  are  great  areas  good  for  trawling,  but 
exposed  to  the  Atlantic  swell,  and  in  the  west  of  Ireland  are  particularly 
rich  grounds,  but  of  small  extent,  on  account  of  the  rapid  deepening  of  the 
ocean  in  that  direction. 

Fish  in  paying  quantities  for  the  steamers,  and  in  some  cases  for  the 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  381 


sailers,  are  still  to  be  found  in  all  these  grounds;  but  in  the  Irish  Sea  the- 
stock  of  fish,  particularly  of  soles,  is  declining,  and  it  is  difficult  to  believe- 
that  in  the  ultimate  interest  of  the  steam  trawling  industry  itself,  as  well  as> 
that  of  the  public  at  large,  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  protected  areas  where 
fish,  whose  numbers  are  limited,  may  have  sanctuary,  and  an  opportunity  to. 
propagate  their  kind. 


Other  Fisheries. 

Lobsters  are  found  in  considerable  numbers  wherever  the  coast  is  rocky,, 
and  at  certain  places  firms  have  made  ponds  for  storing  them. 

Oysters  occur  in  the  sea  off  the  coast,  and  on  the  much-indented  west 
coast  there  have  been  famous  oyster  beds.  Some  are  still  worked,  but 
there  appears  to  be  room  for  effort  in  the  direction  of  restoration  of  stock 
where  the  natural  beds  are  absolutely  free  from  pollution. 

Mussels  in  some  districts  are  largely  exported,  but  for  want  of  means  of 
despatch,  fine  beds  are  in  some  places  unworked. 

A  very  large  quantity  of  periwinkles  are  exported  to  England,  and  to  a- 
very  small  extent,  a  prawn  fishery  is  carried  on. 


/f//i'5M£  MftCKl/i£L  BOAT  riOinq  to  her  nets 


III— TYPES  OF  IRISH  FISHING  BOATS 

The  fishing  boats  to  be  found  around  the  Irish  coast  are  of  a  variety  of 
types.  Some  are  relics  of  bygone  times,  and  survive  because  they  possess 
those  qualities  which  make  them  specially  suitable  for  the  work  they  have 
to  do.  Others  are  of  new  types,  introduced  from  England,  Scotland,  and 
Norway,  and  provide  for  the  requirements  of  the  new  and  more  elaborate- 
modes  of  fishing. 

The  boats  in  use  in  all  countries  are  more  or  less  the  result  of  evolution - 
going  on  for  ages,  and  the  type  is  determined  by  its  environment.  The- 
class  of  fishing  vessel  most  suitable  on  one  part  of  the  coast  may  be  quite 
unsuitable  on  another.  When,  therefore,  the  physical  conditions  and  marker 
facilities  have  been  ignored,  attempts  to  introduce  new  methods  of  fishing- 
have  often  resulted  in  failure. 

In  the  days  when  saws  were  unknown,  planks  were  not  easy  to  make, 
and  primitive  man,  when  he  wanted  to  get  afloat,  had  to  do  one  of  two  > 
things :  he  had  either  to  make  a  canoe  by  scooping  out  a  solid  log,  or  else 
to  construct  a  framework  of  branches  of  trees  and  cover  it  with  raw  hide. 
The  early  Irish,  being  a  pastoral  people,  found  hides  ready  to  hand,  and: 


382  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 

'Consequently  they  constructed  for  sea  use  the  Curragh  or  Canoe.  When 
canvas  came  within  their  reach  it  afforded  a  still  better  covering,  and  it 
stimulated  further  development. 

There  are  many  places  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  where  the  great 
Atlantic  rollers  break  in  such  volume  and  fury  that  it  does  not  do  merely 
to  haul  a  boat  up  clear  of  the  water,  and  leave  her  there.  Boats,  to  be  safe, 
must  be  placed  high  above  the  sea  level.  The  light  and  buoyant  canvas 
curragh  has,  amongst  others,  this  great  advantage :  that  when  the  men  come 
in  from  fishing  they  need  not  go  looking  for  help,  but  simply  turn  their 
•canoe  over  their  heads  and  walk  up  the  rocky  path  or  over  the  boulder 
beach,  and  place  her  in  a  safe  nook  where  no  angry  billows  can  harm  her. 
The  lightness  and  buoyancy  of  the  canvas  canoe  is  unsurpassed,  and,  con- 
sequently, on  those  parts  of  the  coast  where  these  qualities  are  of  the  first 
importance,  the  canoe  still  holds  its  own.  In  some  places  the  primitive 
•one-man  canoe  lingers,  but  in  most  districts  the  curragh  has  developed  into 
a  shapely  canoe  for  four  men.  And  as  they  are  designed  to  go  over  the 
water  rather  than  through  it  they  are,  when  properly  handled,  safe  in  the 
most  stormy  sea,  and  can  face  a  surf  where  any  wooden  boat  would  be 
swamped.  On  the  Kerry  coast  the  canoe  has  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment. 

The  Pookawn  of  the  Connemara  coast  also  represents  an  early  type  of 
craft.  This  coast,  on  account  of  its  extraordinary  indentations  and  channels 
safe  from  the  ocean,  is  the  natural  home  of  the  sailing  boat.  Here  the 
necessity  for  hauling  up  does  not  exist,  and  deep  sail  boats,  from  the 
hooker  of  twenty  tons  to  the  pookawn  of  three,  may  be  found  stowed  away 
in  creeks  close  to  the  cottages  of  the  owners.  The  pookawn,  or  the  glo- 
thogue  (a  small  hooker),  take  the  place  filled  by  the  donkey  and  cart  in 
districts  not  so  cut  up  by  arms  of  the  sea.  The  peat  is  taken  to  market, 
the  weed  gathered  for  kelp,  or  for  manure,  by  these  boats  ;  in  them,  also, 
the  supplies  of  flour  and  meal  arrive,  the  cattle  go  to  the  fair,  and  the 
people  to  Mass.  The  youngsters  quickly  become  sailors,  and  for  excite- 
ment, smart  sailing,  and  close  contest,  nothing  can  beat  a  pookawn  race  at 
one  of  the  local  regattas.  All  these  craft — hookers,  glothogues,  and 
pookawns — are  built  on  exquisitely  graceful  lines  under  water,  but  the 
"  tumble  home  "  above  water  and  the  immense  strength  of  their  frames 
tends  to  give  them  a  clumsy  appearance.  The  rig  of  the  pookawn  is  a  high- 
peaked  dipping  lug,  with  a  peak  halyard  to  support  the  outer  end  of  the 
yard,  and  a  jib.  This  lug-sail  is  evidently  a  modified  lateen,  the  peak 
halyard  testifying  to  the  alterations  made  in  or  after  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, when  jibs  were  invented  ;  therefore  it  seems  as  though  the  pookawn 
is  a  relic  of  Spanish  influence,  the  sails  in  other  parts  of  the  British  Islands 
being  chiefly  referable  to  the  Scandinavian  type.  In  the  Mediterranean 
the  modified  lateen  of  the  pookawn  may  frequently  be  seen. 

Glothogues  and  hookers  are  rigged  in  the  ordinary  smack  or  cutter  rig  of 
the  present  day.  The  sails  of  all  these  craft  are  made  of  strong  calico 
soaked  in  a  composition  of  tar  and  butter,  and  when  freshly  coated  are 
almost  black. 

The  clever  boatwrights  of  this  Connemara  shore  took  quickly  to  the  new 
models  presented  to  them  by  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  and,  with 
little  instruction,  after  being  taught  the  necessity  of  bending  planks  by 
steam,  have  turned  out  Nobbies  and  Zulus  as  well  as  the  best. 

The  managers  of  the  industrial  schools  of  Killybegs  and  Baltimore  have 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  383 


also  established  building-  yards  to  meet  the  demand    awakened    by    the 
opening  up  of  new  centres  of  fishing. 

Leaving  the  Connemara  coast  for  Donegal,  we  meet  with  a  good  class  of 
four-oared  yawl,  pointefl  at  both  ends,  of  great  beam,  and  easy  to  manage 
under  two  spritsails  and  a  jib.  They  are  generally  known  by  the  herring 
fishers  and  line  men  all  along  the  north  coast  as  "  Greencastle  yawls "  ; 
but  at  Greencastle  and  its  neighbourhood,  the  point  from  which  the  type  • 
has  radiated,  they  are  called  "  Drontheim  Boats,"  indicating  clearly  enough 
that  they  have  been  introduced  from  Norway. 

In  West  Cork  and  Kerry  a  long  narrow  six-oared  boat  has  become  preva- 
lent, great  speed  being  required  for  w^orking  the  large  mackerel  seines. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon  the  salmon  fishers  of  the  Cashen  river 
have  adopted  a  highly  specialised  class  of  surf  boat.  The  heavy  Atlantic 
swell  breaking  on  the  bar  frequently  renders  ingress  or  egress  for  any 
ordinary  boat  impossible,  but  these  boats  with  flat  floor  amidships,  and 
sheered  up  to  five  feet  off  the  ground  at  either  end,  can  make  the  passage 
when  nothing  else  could. 

On  the  flat  shores  of  Wexford  flat  double-keeled  boats  are  used  ;  but  in 
the  rest  of  Ireland  the  boats  employed  are  for  the  most  part  the  antiquated 
hooker,  but  more  generally  the  modern  trawler  or  herring  boat,  or  ketch- 
rigged  mackerel  boat  similar  to  those  in  use  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

With  so  many  types  of  boat  in  use  it  is  possible  that  some  one  may  ask 
— why  cannot  some  type  be  found  to  be  less  special,  and  consequently  more 
generally  useful  ?  Some  dependence  of  the  type  on  physical  features  has 
already  been  pointed  out ;  but  there  is  one  more  point.  Taking  boats  of 
large  size  alone,  some  are  wanted  for  drift-net  fishing,  others  for  line-fishing, 
and  others  for  trawling,  according  as  the  facilities  for  following  any  of  these 
fishings  predominate.  And  it  often  becomes  a  most  delicate  calculation  to 
find  out  what  qualities  should,  with  a  view  to  profit,  be  aimed  at.  The 
diversity  of  requirements  between  an  ideal  mackerel  boat  and  a  trawler 
may  thus  be  stated  in  illustration :  a  mackerel  boat,  besides  needing  good 
sea-going  qualities,  which  she  must  have  in  common  with  a  trawler,  must  be 
constructed  to  carry  a  bulky  load  of  nets  and  of  fish,  and  to  put  the 
minimum  strain  on  her  gear  when  in  the  water.  A  trawler,  on  the  contrary, 
must  be  constructed  to  put  the  maximum  strain  on  her  gear,  and  carrying 
capacity  for  her  is  of  little  importance.  Generally  speaking  the  qualities 
desired  are  as  numerous  as  the  types  of  craft  in  use. 

Steam  has  for  many  years  been  used  in  the  ordinary  mackerel  boats  to 
give  power  to  the  capstan  which  hauls  in  the  long  trains  of  nets.  During 
the  last  twenty  years  the  steam  trawler  has  become  more  and  more  the 
craft  on  which  the  permanent  markets  depend ;  and  quite  recently  the 
steam  drift-net  boats  are  coming  to  the  front  and  may  now  be  found  in  the 
springtime  landing  their  catches  of  mackerel  in  our  south-western  ports. 


IV.— DEPARTMENTAL  MARINE  LABORATORY. 

Equipment  for  Fisheries  Investigations. 

Although  Ireland  can  show  a  long  and  honourable  record  of  work  in  the 
field  of  m.arine  biology,  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent  years  that  the 


384  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


practical  utility  of  such  work  in  connection  with  the  administration  and 
development  of  our  fisheries  has  received  public  recognition. 

The  first  step  in  this  direction  was  the  organisation  in  1890  and  1891  by 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society  of  a  survey  of  the  fishing  grounds  on  the  west 
coast.  For  this  purpose  a  steam  yacht  was  chartered  in  each  of  the  years 
mentioned,  and  was  equipped  for  all  descriptions  of  fishing  opyerations,  and 
■  for  biological  and  physical  observations.  The  grounds  were  surveyed  in  as 
thorough  a  manner  as  possible,  and  the  results  carefully  recorded. 

Towards  the  expenses  of  the  survey  Her  Majesty's  treasury  contributed 
a  sum  equal  to  half  of  the  estimated  cost ;  but  as  the  estimate  was  consider- 
ably exceeded,  much  more  than  half  the  actual  cost  was  defrayed  by  the 
Society.  One  of  the  Inspectors  of  Irish  Fisheries  acted  as  director  of  the 
survey,  and  other  gentlemen  were  employed  in  the  capacity  of  naturalists 
and  physicists. 

At  the  time  of  the  survey  there  were  practically  no  fisheries  of  import- 
ance on  the  west  coast,  and  the  great  development  which  has  since  taken 
place  may  be  attributed  in  large  measure  to  the  information  which  was 
obtained  by  the  survey. 

In  1898  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  once  more  entered  the  field  of  fisheries 
research,  and,  having  obtained  from  Her  Majesty's  Treasury  a  grant  of 
money  equal  to  half  the  proposed  cost,  proceeded  to  establish  a  Marine 
Laboratory  for  the  purpose  of  studying,  for  a  period  of  five  years,  the 
various  problems  affecting  the  mackerel  fishery  and  the  proceedings  of 
salmon  in  the  sea.     The  laboratory  commenced  work  in  February,  1899. 

Its  management,  subject  to  the  control  of  a  Joint  Committee  in  regard 
to  the  branches  of  research  mentioned  above,  has  since  been  handed  over  to 
the  Fisheries  Branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

As  the  field  of  observation  was  not  intended  to  be  confined  to  one  par- 
ticular district,  it  was  essential  that  the  laboratory  should  be  capable  of 
being  moved  from  one  place  to  another.  Frame  houses  fulfil  this  condi- 
tion, but  are  understood  to  be  generally  more  easy  to  take  to  pieces  than 
to  put  together  again.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  any  building  on  land,  fresh 
difficulty  and  expense  in  regard  of  site  and  supply  of  sea  water  would  have 
arisen  whenever  the  locus  was  changed. 

A  floating  structure  is  free  of  these  disadvantages,  and,  if  moored  in 
sheltered  water,  is  almost  always  sufficiently  stable  for  the  use  of  delicate 
scientific  instruments. 

The  Fisheries  Department  of  the  Danish  Government  have  for  some 
years  used  a  floating  laboratory,  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  within  the  fjords.  It 
is  a  specially  constructed  floating  house.  In  Scotland  trial  was  made  of 
a  much  smaller  structure  of  a  similar  kind,  but,  possibly  from  want  of  care  in 
the  selection  of  a  site  for  mooring,  the  experiment  was  not  considered  a 
success,  although  no  similar  difficulty  appears  to  have  been  encountered  by 
the  Danish  investigators. 

Considerations  both  of  sea  worthiness  and  economy  suggested  the  con- 
version of  a  sea-going  ship  into  a  laboratory,  and  the  Society  accordingly 
purchased  the  bngantine  Saturn,  of  Galway,  of  about  220  gross  tonnage. 

To  ensure  the  maximum  of  stability  when  at  anchor,  it  was  necessary  to 
sacrifice  all  means  of  locomotion  by  removing  all  overhead  gear,  except  the 
lower  fore-mast,  which  was  required  to  take  a  derrick. 

The  hold  was  floored  throughout,  and  divided  by  a  partition  into  two 
apartments.     The  larger  of  these,  about  35  feet  by  20  feet,  was  fitted  as  a 


TWO  \aEWS  OF  THE  INTERIOR  OK  THE  MARINE  I-ABORATORY  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICCLTURE  AND  TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION  FOR  IRELAND. 


or  THE     ^ 


THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND.  385 


laboratory,  with  four  tables  for  workers,  and  a  large  central  table,  ledged 
and  covered  with  sheet  lead,  for  aquaria.  Overhead  light  is  obtained  from 
a  skylight,  which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  main  hatch,  while  each  worker's 
table  is  lighted  by  a  window  cut  in  the  ship's  side. 

Sea  water  for  the  aquaria  is  led  by  a  pipe,  fitted  with  a  series  of  cocks, 
from  a  reservoir  on  deck,  which  is  filled  by  means  of  a  semi-rotary  hand 
pump,  the  waste  water  draining  by  a  pipe  into  the  bilge.  The  wall  space 
of  the  laboratory  is  occupied  by  bookcases,  cupboards,  and  shelves  for  jars, 
bottles,  etc. 

The  other  division  of  the  hold  is  fitted  as  a  state-room  for  the  scientific 
staff.  A  deck-house,  erected  aft  of  the  pumps,  serves  as  a  dining-room, 
and  is  also  found  convenient  for  the  recording  of  the  routine  meteorolo- 
gical observations. 

The  cuddy,  which,  as  is  usual  on  ships  of  similar  size,  is  of  rather  limited 
dimensions,  is  used  as  a  store-room,  while  the  captain's  cabin  has  been 
converted  into  a  photographic  dark  room. 

The  crew  occupy  the  forecastle,  which  has  not  been  altered  in  any  way. 

While  the  laboratory  serves  as  headquarters,  fishing  operations  are 
carried  on  by  a  number  of  boats.     The  largest  of  these  is  the  Monica,  a 


The   Department's  Nobby,   "  Monica." 

nobby-rigged  mackerel  boat,  thiity-six  feet  on  the  keel.  She  carries  a 
train  of  forty  nets,  and,  in  addition  to  the  usual  accommodation  for  the 
fishing  crew,  has  a  small  state-room,  with  two  bunks  and  cupboards  and 
lockers  for  the  scientific  instruments.     She  carries  a  small  punt. 

The  Marion,  a  sloop-rigged,  half-decked  boat  of  twenty-two  feet  l.o.a., 
the  Conger  and  Mule,  open  boats,  with  standing  lug-sails,  and  a  small  name- 
less dinghey,  complete  the  flotilla. 

The  Laboratory  has  hitherto  been  moored  at  Ballynakill  in  the  winter, 
and  Inisbofin  in  the  summer,  being  towed  from  one  place  to  the  other  by 
the  steamers  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board. 

These  sites  were  selected  on  account  of  their  proximity  to  Cleggan,  which 
is  the  headquarters  of  one  of  the  principal  mackerel  fisheries  of  the  country. 

2C 


386  THE  SEA  FISHERIES  OF  IRELAND. 


They  have  also  been  found  convenient  for  the  study  of  the  movements  and 
habits  of  the  salmonidae  in  salt  water. 

In  regard  to  both  mackerel  and  salmonidae,  observations  have  been  made 
continuously,  while  the  hardly  less  important  study  of  the  general  fauna 
has  been  by  no  means  neglected. 

The  equipment  of  the  Fisheries  Branch  of  the  Department  for  scientific 
research  is  efficiently  completed  by  the  steam  cruiser  Helga,  a  twin-screw 
steamer  of  375  tons.  She  is  a  boat  of  excellent  sea-going  qualities,  and 
capable  of  maintaining  a  high  rate  of  speed,  while  her  low  free  board 
renders  her  most  suitable  for  fishing  operations. 

For  her  duties  in  patroUing  the  waters  closed  to  trawling,  and  in  generally 
enforcing  the  provisions  of  bye-laws  relating  to  sea  fisheries,  she  has  special 
fittings,  with  which  we  are  not  here  concerned. 

For  the  purposes  of  scientific  investigation  of  the  fishing  grounds,  she  is 
completely  equipped  as  a  trawler,  carrying  a  number  of  trawls  of  different 
patterns,  the  largest  having  a  beam  of  forty-one  feet.  Her  winch  has  two 
barrels,  one  holding  a  stout  warp  for  trawling  at  moderate  depths,  the 
other  being  occupied  by  a  fine  warp  for  use  with  lighter  gear  at  great 
depths.  She  is  also  provided  with  dredges  and  tow-nets,  including  self- 
closing  nets  for  use  at  different  depths,  a  deep-sea  sounding  apparatus,  and 
all  necessary  instruments  for  physical  and  microscopical  observation. 


"STEAM    DRIFTERS"    ENGAGED    IN    .MACKEREL    KISIII\(;    AT    KEXIT. 


CAPE  CLEAR   HARBOUR. 


INLAND   FISHERIES.  387 


INLAND    FISHERIES. 

The  inland  fisheries  include  the  Salmon  fishery,  though  this  is  largely- 
carried  on  at  sea,  and  appear  to  be  worth,  in  pecuniary  return,  rather  more 
than  the  sea  fisheries.  The  Salmon  fishery  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  its 
annual  return  being  estimated,  even  in  the  present  somewhat  depressed 
condition,  at  ;^300,ooo,  while  the  number  of  professional  fishermen  em- 
ployed in  it  appears  to  be  about  12,000  or  13,000,  a  number  which,  with 
their  families,  constitutes  a  respectable  proportion  of  the  entire  population. 

The  commercial  Salmon  fishery  is  prosecuted,  as  may  be  supposed,  chiefly 
at  or  near  the  mouths  ol  rivers,  the  engines  most  used  being  draft-nets  or 
seines  (659  in  ipoi)  and  drift-nets  (360  in  1901).  Fixed  engines,  such  as 
weirs,  bag-nets  and  stake-nets,  teing  restricted  by  statute,  are  compara- 
tively few  in  number,  but  in  some  cases  of  great  value.  Snap-nets  (224  in 
1 901)  are  confined  to  the  Waterford,  Lismore,  Limerick,  and  Drogheda 
districts. 

In  Ireland,  under  common  law,  the  public  have  the  right  of  fishing  for 
salmon  with  moving  nets  in  the  sea  and  in  the  estuaries  at  any  place  more 
than  half  a  mile  above  or  below  the  defined  mouth  of  a  river,  except  where 
several  fisheries  ha\'e  been  granted  by  charter,  and  it  follows  that  profes- 
sional fishermen  have  a  very  substantial  interest  in  the  industry.  In  some 
places,  where  a  several  fishery  exists,  fishermen  net  on  their  own  account 
under  license  from  the  owner,  and  probably  in  every  case  of  a  private  net- 
fishery  the  employes  receive  a  certain  sum  for  every  fish  caught  in  addition 
to  whatever  may  be  their  regular  wage. 

The  greater  proportion  of  the  drift-nets  are  in  the  hands  of  fishermen  of 
the  poorest  class,  who  also  hold  most  of  the  snap-nets  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  draft  nets.  In  consequence  the  number  of  these  nets  which  are 
used  fluctuates  considerably  from  year  to  year  in  proportion  with  the 
success  of  the  fishery  and  the  prospect  of  enough  being  earned  to  leave  a 
margin  of  profit  after  payment  of  the  license  duty. 

It  would  be  difiicult  to  attempt  to  localise  the  commercial  salmon  fishery, 
since  it  is  prosecuted  with  more  or  less  success  on  all  parts  of  the  coast,  but 
the  mouths  of  the  Shannon,  Corrib,  Erne,  Foyle,  Bann,  Boyne,  Nore,  Suir, 
Barrow,  and  Blackwater  may  be  cited  as  among  the  most  important  centres. 

Sea  Trout,  always  called  White  Trout  in  Ireland,  are  of  considerable  com- 
mercial value  to  the  country,  the  chief  fisheries  being  on  the  west  coast. 
Brown  Trout,  including  the  large  varieties  found  in  certain  lakes,  and  the 
Slob  Trout  or  "  luogues  "  of  estuaries  are  also  netted  for  market  in  a  good 
many  places,  while  the  Pollen  fishery  engages  the  attention  of  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  Lough  Neagh.  The  Eel  fishery  is  prosecuted 
chiefly  by  means  of  weirs  and  is  of  great  commercial  value.  The  Shannon, 
Bann,  Erne,  and  Corrib  are  important  rivers  in  this  connection. 

Angling  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  of  great  value  from  the  commercial 
point  of  view,  though  a  large  proportion  of  salmon  and  white  trout  caught 


388 


INLAND    FISHERIES. 


by  rod  and  line  find  their  way  to  market,  and  there  are  a  number  of  profes- 
sional anglers  who  fish  solely  for  commercial  purposes. 

As  a  sport,  anglmg  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  country,  since 
nowhere  else  in  the  three  kingdoms  can  the  sportsman  obtain  such  good 
angling  at  so  small  an  outlay.  Famous  fisheries  of  course  command  high 
rents,  but  almost  every  river  holds  salmon,  and  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the 
country  good  sport  can  often  be  obtained  at  no  charge  beyond  the  very 
moderate  bill  of  the  hotel  which  has  leased  the  fishery.  The  complaints, 
so  frequent  in  past  years,  that  the  excellence  of  the  fishing  was  marred  by 
the  uninhabitable  nature  of  the  hotels  has  no  longer  much  justification  in 
fact,  existing  hotels  having  been  improved  and  new  ones  having  sprung  up 
in  all  directions.     The  rivers,  of  course  vary  in  their  season  and  in  the 


Salmon  Pass,  Galway. 


quality  of  fish  which  they  hold,  and  while  a  man  may  hope  to  land  a  forty- 
pounder  in  the  Shannon  he  need  expect  nothing  but  "  peal "  (grilse)  in 
many  of  the  smaller  rivers.  In  the  summer  the  white  trout  angling  is 
excellent  and  accessible  to  the  most  moderate  purse  in  many  rivers  and 
lakes  in  the  West.  Brown  trout  are  in  every  lake  and  stream,  and  leave 
to  fish  for  them  may  usually  be  had  for  the  asking,  where  they  happen  to  be 
preserved  at  all.  In  the  larger  lakes  they  grow  to  a  great  size  and  give 
proportionate  sport.  No  licence  is  required  for  brown  trout  angling,  a 
licence  of  £i  being  payable  for  salmon  or  white  trout  angling  and  applying 
to  the  whole  country. 

Char  are  to  be  found  in  several  lakes,  but  are  little  troubled  by  anglers. 

Unfortunately  those  who  are  interested  in  Pike  need  have  no  difficulty  in 
finding  them,  and  there  is  a  substratum  of  truth  as  to  the  size  of  the  Irish 
pike  quite  sufficient  to  support  a  considerable  edifice  of  piscatorial  romance, 
though  it  may  not  be  every  day  that  one  catches  a  monster  in  whose  mouth 
"  the  spoon-baits  are  jangling  like  the  bells  of  Armagh  cathedral." 


INLAND  FISHERIES. 


389 


Artificial  Propagation. 

The  artificial  propagation  of  salmon  is  carried  on  at  a  number  of  hatch- 
eries, of  which  fourteen  are  on  a  fairly  large  scale,  and  the  hatching  of 
white  and  brown  trout  is  not  altogether  neglected.  The  hatcheries  vary  a 
good  deal  in  structure,  from  the  elaborate  modern  establishments  on  the 
Bann,  Boyne,  and  Foyle,  to  the  somewhat  primitive  but  quite  efficient  open 
air  hatcheries  of  Kerry. 

Formerly  these  hatcheries  relied  for  support  entirely  upon  the  enterprise 
of  private  individuals,  but  during  the  last  two  spawning  seasons  the  Depart- 
ment, recognising  the  public  value  of  the  salmon  fishery,  offered  a  subsidy 
in  respect  of  the  output  of  fry.  This  offer  was  accepted  in  a  number  of 
mstances,  and  the  output  shows  a  considerable  increase.  Under  a  ten 
years'  agreement  with  the  owners  the  Department  has  also  provided  the 
cost  of  enlarging  and  improving  several  hatcheries. 


Arklow  Mackerel  Fleet. 


390  THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


THE    WOOLLEN    INDUSTRY    IN    IRELAND. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  textile  art  had  its  origin  in  plaiting,  and 
the  implements  used  for  weaving  among  savage 
Origin  of  the  races  seem  to  confirm  this  belief.  The  w^ay  to  manu- 
Textile  Art.  facture  some  kind  of  cordage  out  of  rushes  or  grass 

must  have  been  very  early  discovered,  and  it  must 
have  been  soon  found  out  that  cordage  could  be  turned,  by  plaiting,  into  a 
thin,  flexible  sheet  of  material  capable  of  being  used  for  a  great  number  of 
purposes,  and  of  being  richly  ornamented.  Weaving,  in  the  proper  sense, 
occurs  when  there  is  a  fixed  warp  held  in  a  state  of  tension  while  a  weft 
consisting  of  a  contmuous  thread  is  carried  backwards  and  forwards  across 
and  among  the  strands  of  the  warp,  forming  a  selvage  at  the  side  of  the 
web.  It  may  also,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  essential  to  the  true  concep- 
tion of  weaving  (as  distinguished  from  "  darning ")  that  there  should  be 
the  device  known  as  the  "  heddle-leaves,"  for  separating  the  strands  of  the 
warp  so  as  to  permit  the  thread  of  the  weft  to  pass  between  them,  and  then 
re-crossing  them  so  as  to  grasp  that  thread  and  form  an  opening  or,  as  it 
is  technically  called,  a  "  shed  "  for  the  next  one. 

But  before  we  deal  with  weaving  we  have  to  consider  how  the  thread 
intended  to  be  woven  is  produced,  or,  m  other  words, 
r,   .  '  .    .  the  art  of  spinning.     To  obtain  the  fibre  and  to  bring 

^  °'  it  into  a  proper  state  for  spinning,  it  is  necessary,  in 

the  case  of  vegetable  materials,  such  as  flax  or  cotton, 
that  some  process  of  maceration  should  be  gone  through,  while  wool  has 
to  be  cleansed  and  separated  from  dirt ;  and,  whatever  the  material  be,  it 
has  to  be  "  carded  "  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  a  soft,  fluffy  state,  without 
lumps  or  knots,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  twisted  into  an  even  thread.  The 
"  cards  "  consist  of  two  implements,  something  like  wire  hairbrushes,  be- 
tween which  the  wool  is  combed  out  and  then  by  a  dexterous  movement 
turned  off  in  the  form  of  a  little  fluffy  roll,  which,  under  the  manipulation  of 
the  spinner,  resolves  itself  into  an  even  thread.  In  machine-carding,  rollers 
set  with  wire  bristles  take  the  place  of  cards,  but  the  principle  is  quite  the 
same. 

Spinning  can  be  done  by  the  hands  alone  by  merely  taking  up  some  of 
the  fibres  of  the  material  and  twisting  them.  But  at  some  period,  far  earlier 
than  any  record  can  help  us  to  fix,  two  devices  were  introduced  to  meet  the 
two  grand  requirements  of  the  spinner — a  means  of  making  the  rotary  or 
twisting  action  more  or  less  continuous,  and  a  means  of  readily  winding  up 
the  spun  yarn.  These  were  provided  by  means  of  the  combined  spindle 
and  whorl,  of  which  an  illustration  is  here  given  (p.  391).  The  spindle  is 
simply  a  piece  of  wood  about  a  foot  long,  and  the  whorl  a  circular  disc  of 
stone,  clay,  or  metal  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  into  which  the  spindle  is 
firmly  inserted.  A  piece  of  yam  twisted  with  the  fingers  is  first  attached 
to    the   spindle,   a  twirl  is  then  given    to    the    apparatus    which    hangs 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


391 


suspended  by  the  thread  which  it  spins,  and  when  twist  enough  has  been 
given,  the  thread  is  held  at  right  angles  to  the  spindle,  and  the  thread  is 
wound  up.  This  primitive  method  of  spinning  is  still  in  vogue  in  parts  of 
Brittany,  Italy,  etc.,  and  can  be  carried  on  whilst  the  spinner  is  walking 
about  and  minding  other  business. 

The  next  step  in  advance  was  to  separate  the  whorl  from  the  spindle  and 
to  fix  the  latter  horizontally  in  certain  bearings  so  that  it  should  not  have  to 
be  supported  by  its  own  thread.  The  spinner  was  then  not  so  much  at  a 
loss  if  the  thread  broke,  and  she  could  regulate  its  tension  as  she  pleased. 
We  now  find  th*^.  whorl  transformed  to  a  large  fly  wheel  connected  with  the 


Treadle  Wheel,  and  Spindle  with  Whorl. 


spindle  by  means  of  a  continuous  band  or  cord,  and  set  in  motion  by  the 
hand.  The  whole  arrangement  is  set  up  on  a  sort  of  wooden  bench. 
Examples  of  this  "  large  "  spinning  wheel,  which  is  the  next  step  in  evolu- 
tion to  the  spindle  and  whorl,  may  frequently  be  seen  in  cottages  on  the 
west  coast  of  Ireland.  The  spinner  first  lets  the  spindle  twist  the  thread 
sufficiently,  and  then,  holding  the  thread  at  right  angles  to  the  spindle,  lets 
it  run  up. 

The  improved  or  "  small "  spinning  wheel,  which  can  likewise  be  seen 
in  operation  in  Ireland,  especially  in  County  Donegal,  represents  the  final 
step  in  the  perfecting  of  spinning  appliances  until  the  introduction  of  steam 
machinery,  and  is  a  far  more  ingenious  and  complex  piece  of  mechanism 
than  cinyone  would  suppose  who  had  not  studied  its  various  parts.  The 
most  obvious  advance  on  the  hand-wheel  is  the  fact  that  the  rotary  motion  is 


392 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


given  by  the  foot,  by  means  of  a  treadle  connected  with  the  axle  by  a 
crank.  This  makes  the  motion  continuous  and  even,  and  allows  the 
spinner  to  apply  both  her  hands  to  the  manipulation  of  the  wool.  The 
Donegal  spinner  frequently  adds  little  dashes  or  blobs  of  varicoloured  wool 
to  the  thread  she  is  spinning,  and  some  of  the  most  attractive  patterns  are 
produced  in  this  way.     Furthermore,  the  feed  of  the  fresh  material  to  the 


-  ^ 


Plan  of  the  Winding  and  Twisting  Apparatus  of  a  Treadle  Wheel, 

a^a.  Projecting  lugs  of  leather  in  which  the  apparatus  revolves,  b.  Spindle-pulley. 
<.  Bobbin  revolving  loosely  on  spindle-shaft  f.  d.  Pulley  of  bobbin,  e.  Fly  or  "  hack." 
The  whole  apparatus  can  be  disengaged  by  pulling  aside  the  lugs  of  leather.  The 
pulley,  b,  is  fixed  tightly  on  the  shaft,  /,  but  can  be  drawn  off  so  as  to  permit  the  bobbin 
to  be  removed  when  full. 


twisting  thread  is  now  more  regular,  because  the  change  of  position,  to  turn 
the  twisting  motion  into  a  winding  one,  is  no  longer  necessary.  This 
improvement  is  attained  by  separating  the  implement  which  twists  from 
that  which  winds.  At  the  same  time,  although  the  instruments  are  separated. 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  393 

the  movements  which  were  formerly  two  now  go  on  simultaneously. 
Both  instruments  whirl  on  the  same  axis,  one,  the  twister,  or  spindle,  passing 
through  the  winder,  or  bobbin,  which  revolves  loosely  on  it.  But  the  bobbin 
and  the  spindle  are  connected  by  separate  cords  with  the  fly  wheel,  and  the 
grooved  wheel,  or  pulley,  round  which  the  cord  passes  is  in  each  case  of  a 
different  diameter.  The  bobbin  must  revolve  more  quickly  than  the  spindle, 
for  if  it  did  not,  the  thread  would  only  twist  and  would  not  wind.  The 
pulley  wheel  of  the  bobbin  is  therefore  smaller  in  diameter  than  that  of  the 
spindle,  and  the  object  is  thus  attained.  The  twisting  is  really  done  by 
means  of  a  "  fly  "  attached  to  the  bobbin  which  also  keeps  the  thread  at 
right  angles  to  the  latter.  The  spindle  pulley  wheel  (as  here  illustrated) 
sometimes  has  two  grooves  of  different  diameters.  This  is  to  enable  the 
spinner  to  give  a  closer  or  a  looser  twist  to  the  yarn.  The  nearer  the 
spindle  pulley  and  the  bobbin  pulley  approximate  in  size  to  each  other,  the 
closer  will  be  the  twist  and  the  slower  the  work.  The  fly  is  set  with  little 
hooks  along  which  the  thread  is  shifted  according  as  it  gets  sufficiently 
wound  up  on  one  part  of  the  bobbin. 

Nothing  more  ingenious  and  complete  could  well  be  devised  than  the 
arrangements  of  the  "  small  "  spinning  wheel,  which  is  now  in  general  use 
in  the  Donegal  hand-weaving  industry,  though  it  has  not  as  yet  ousted  the 
large  wheel  in  the  other  districts  of  western  Ireland.  In  these  devices  the 
germ  of  all  later  improvements,  whatever  the  motive  power  may  be,  is  fully 
contained.  The  spinning-jenny  invented  by  Hargreaves  is  merely  an 
arrangement  for  enabling  a  single  wheel  to  turn  a  number  of  spindles  at 
once. 

The  development  of  the  art  of  weaving  was  affected  in  recent  times  by 
one  striking  and  epoch-making  invention— that  of  the 
-_.       .  Jacquard  appliance  for  pattern    weaving — but    apart 

°*  from  this,  the  methods  in  use  at  the  earliest  times,  and 

among  savage  races  at  present,  show,  in  principle,  but 
little  difference  from  the  perfected  looms  of  the  present  day.  There  is  a 
Greek  vase  painting  of  about  the  year  400  B.C.,  showing  the  famous  loom  of 
Penelope,  on  which  she  wove  day  by  day,  and  picked  out  night  by  night, 
that  web  of  rich  and  fair  design  at  the  completion  of  which  she  had 
promised  to  make  her  choice  among  the  suitors  who  besieged  her  during 
her  husband's  long  wanderings  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  The  loom  there 
depicted  is  very  similar  to  the  Gobelins  tapestry  looms  used  at  the  present 
day.  In  this  form  of  loom,  and  in  early  looms  generally,  the  warp  is  usually 
set  vertically  to  the  ground,  not  horizontally  as  is  usual  at  present  in  all 
except  tapestry  looms.  Disregarding  the  latter,  which  relate  to  a  very 
special  and  peculiar  branch  of  the  industry,  we  may  say  that  the  modern 
hand-loom  has  to  provide  for  three  distinct  actions  in  order  to  produce  a 
woven  fabric.  There  has  to  be,  in  the  first  place,  a  method  of  separating 
and  recrossing  the  threads  of  the  warp,  without  which  the  shuttle  bearing 
the  thread  of  the  weft  would  have  to  be  laboriously  darned  in  and  out 
among  them.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  "  heddle-leaves  "  already 
mentioned,  which  are  practically  sets  of  strings,  arranged  on  a  wooden 
frame,  with  eyelet  holes  in  the  middle  of  each  through  which  the  threads  of 
the  warp  are  passed.  Each  set  or  "leaf"  of  the  heddles  is  under  control 
of  a  lever  actuated  by  a  treadle  below  the  weaver's  foot,  by  means  of  which 
he  can  raise  or  depress  all  those  threads  of  the  warp  which  pass  through 
the  eyelet  holes  in  that  particular  leaf.     If  two  leaves  only  are  used,  half  the 


394  THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

threads  of  the  warp  going  through  each  leaf,  the  only  cloth  that  can  be 
woven  is  plain  flannel,  without  pattern  of  any  kind.  But  if  the  number  of 
leaves  is  multiplied  it  is  evident  that  by  throwing  up  now  some,  now  other 
threads  of  the  warp,  and  doing  this  in  a  certain  order  of  succession,  patterns 
of  much  variety  can  be  produced.  When  warp  and  weft  are  of  different 
colours,  these  patterns  of  course  are  much  accentuated.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  twills,  herring-bones,  hopsacks,  and  other  varieties  of  textile  patterns, 
including  the  elaborate  designs  of  damask  weaving,  are  produced. 

Secondly,  there  has  to  be  some  convenient  means  of  conveying  the  thread 
of  the  weft  from  side  to  side  of  the  warp.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a 
shuttle.  A  shuttle  is  really  a  huge  needle,  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  having 
in  that  hollow  a  bobbin  or  "  pirn  "  on  which  the  thread  of  the  weft  is  wound, 
unwinding  as  the  shuttle  goes  on  its  journey.  The  old  way  of  passing  the 
shuttle  from  side  to  side  of  the  warp  was  simply  by  throwing  it  from  hand  to 
hand,  and  this  method  can  be  seen  in  the  old-type  hand-loom  in  the  West  of 
Ireland.  The  new  and  much  superior  and  quicker  method  of  jerking  it 
across  by  means  of  a  cord,  attached  to  pieces  of  wood  or  horn  that  strike  the 
shuttle  from  side  to  side,  has  now  been  introduced  there.  The  weaver  uses 
one  hand  only  in  this  operation,  and  keeps  the  other  for  the  sley. 

The  latter  is  simply  a  sort  of  swinging  frame  in  which  a  comb  is  set. 
The  threads  of  the  warp  pass  through  the  teeth  of  this  comb  or  "  reed,"  and 
when  each  thread  of  the  weft  has  passed  across  the  warp  the  reed  is  swung 
up  against  it  so  as  to  press  it  firmly  home  and  make  the  texture  sufficiently 
close.  When  a  few  inches  of  cloth  have  been  thus  woven  they  are  rolled  up 
on  the  "  cloth-beam  "  which  is  placed  under  the  web  close  to  the  weaver's 
knees,  and  a  corresponding  amount  of  yarn  is  unrolled  from  the  "  yam- 
beam  "  at  the  other  end  of  the  loom.  In  the  type  of  hand-loom  intro- 
duced into  Donegal  in  1894  by  the  Irish  Industries  Association,  with  the  aid 
of  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  this  combined  rolling  and  unrolling  action 
is  performed  by  means  of  an  attachment  which  enables  it  to  be  done  auto- 
matically by  the  mere  motion  of  the  sley  without  stopping  the  loom. 

The  explanation  already  given  of  the  way  in  which  patterns  are  produced 
by  working  a  number  of  heddle-leaves  will  enable  the 
The  Jacquard  reader  to  understand  the  principle  of  the  great  inven- 
Loom.  tion  of  the  Jacquard  loom — the  greatest    stride    in 

advance  that  weaving  has  taken  since  the  very  origin 
of  the  art.  It  dates  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
the  discovery  must  be  largely  credited  to  the  French  Government,  which 
commissioned  M.  Jacquard,  a  well-known  inventor  in  the  textile  industry,  to 
produce  an  appliance  which  would  enable  patterns  of  any  degree  of  com- 
plexity to  be  produced  by  one  single  unvarying  action  on  the  weaver's  part, 
just  as  a  tune  is  ground  out  by  turning  the  handle  of  a  barrel-organ — the  old 
method  of  weaving  patterns  being  comparable  to  the  way  in  which  a  tune 
is  played  on  the  piano,  only  with  the  drawback  that  a  single  wrong  note, 
that  is  to  say,  a  single  thread  going  where  it  ought  not,  meant  the  irre- 
trievable defacement  of  the  pattern.  The  Jacquard  invention  consists 
simply  of  a  number  of  perforated  cards  which  are  pressed  in  succession,  by 
the  action  of  throwing  the  shuttle,  against  a  number  of  points  of  wires  con- 
trolling the  raising  or  depressing  of  the  threads  of  the  warp.  The  perfora- 
tions are  different  in  each  card,  and  in  these  perforations  and  the  proper 
succession  of  them,  the  pattern  is  contained,  as  a  tune  is  contained  in  the 
arrangement  of  spikes  on  the  cylinder  of  a  musical  box.     Wherever  a  wire 


LARGE  OR  HAND  SPINNING  WHEEL— AKRAN  ISLES. 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  395 


comes  opposite  one  of  these  perforations  it  passes  through  it — where  it 
finds  no  perfor?.tion  it  is  forced  back — and  the  resuh  with  each  fling  of  the 
shuttle,  is  respectively  an  engagement  or  disengagement  with  certain  levers 
which  control  certain  threads  of  the  warp.  The  weaver,  therefore,  has  no 
more  to  do  with  making  the  pattern  than  the  organ-grinder  has  with  the 
tune  he  grinds  out.  The  tune  or  pattern  in  each  case  has  been  thought  out 
beforehand  and  placed  upon  the  mechanical  appliance  furnished  complete 
to  the  executant.  It  may  be  added  that  this  invention  has  never  found  its 
way  into  the  cottage  weaving  industry  of  the  West  of  Ireland,  nor  are  the 
patterns  of  homespun  complex  enough  to  need  it. 

We  are  here  concerned,  at  present,  with  the  hand  industry,  the  technical 
details  of  which  may  be  seen  practically  illustrated  in  numberless  cottage 
homes  in  the  West  of  Ireland.  They  are  not  only  interesting  in  themselves, 
but  are  worthy  of  observation  as  containing  the  germs  of  the  whole  textile 
industry,  which,  under  the  influence  of  steam  power  and  the  Jacquard  loom, 
has  attained  such  mighty  proportions.  It  may  surprise  many  to  learn  that 
the  hand-loom  and  the  spinning  wheel  are  still  capable  of  holding  their 
own  against  steam  machinery  in  any  quarter  of  the  United  Kingdom,  but 
such  is  the  case  in  some  districts.  Hand-spun  and  hand-woven  cloth, 
dyed  with  the  lichens  and  plants*  which  the  Irish  peasant  has  understood 
how  to  use  from  time  immemorial,  is  not  only  a  peculiarly  pleasant  material 
to  wear,  but  has  a  certain  artistic  character  of  its  own — one  which  is  so  well 
recognised  in  the  trade,  that  attempts  more  or  less  unsuccessful,  are  con- 
stantly being  made  to  imitate  by  machinery  the  effects  of  genuine  home- 
spun, and  power-loom  cloths  are  sometimes  even  fumigated  by  peat  smoke 
in  order  to  further  the  illusion  that  they  have  been  produced  in  a  peasant's 
cottage.  We  speak  here  of  woollens  chiefly,  for  in  linens  the  power-loom 
has  practically  supplanted  the  hand-loom  save  as  regards  the  very  finest 
cambrics,  while  the  linen  spinning-wheel  has  entirely  disappeared  from 
Ireland,  though  in  France  it  is  still  in  use  for  the  production  of  yarns  whose 
delicacy  no  existing  agency  of  a  purely  mechanical  kind  can  approach. 
But  hand-weaving  and  spinning  in  wool  still  hold  their  ground  in  Donegal, 
Connemara,  Kerry,  Mayo,  and  many  other  districts  where  there  is  mountain 
grazing  for  a  hardy  breed  of  sheep,  and  where  there  is  much  labour  running 
to  waste  during  the  winter  months  as  well  as  an  hereditary  aptitude  for 
dealing  with  wool.  It  is  principally  in  County  Donegal  that  we  find  home- 
spun cloth  produced  not  merely  for  local  use,  but  for  sale  outside  the  dis- 
trict— the  local  dealers  having  agents  in  the  principal  cities  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  Irish  Industries  Association,  which  buys  at  the  monthly 
fairs  at  Ardara  and  Carrick,  has  ascertained  that  in  the  southern  promon- 
tory of  County  Donegal — a  very  barren  and  desolate  region  lying  w^est  of  a 
line  drawn  from  Ardara  to  Killybegs,  and  measuring  some  fifteen  by  twelve 
miles — a  sum  of  about  ^8,ooo  is  annually  paid  for  home-spun  cloth,  of  which 
the  Association  accounts  for  about  one-seventh.  The  cloth  is  sold  at  the 
monthly  fairs,  to  which  it  is  brought  in  large  rolls  or  webs,  measuring  gene- 
rally from  twenty-five  to  sixty  yards  in  length,  and  about  twenty-eight 

*  "  Crotal,"  a  lichen  found  on  rocks,  yields  a  beautiful  red-brown  dye.  Heather  gives  bright 
yellow.  Peat  soot,  which  is  lai'gely  used,  gives  a  duller  tone  of  yellow.  Blackberry  root  gives 
a  black-brown;  the  roots  of  the  iris  a  very  dark  blue  ;  bog-ore,  or  ■oubAc,  gives  a  dull  black. 
These,  with  madder  and  indigo,  form  the  principal  Donegal  dyes.  In  Kerry,  spurge  {Euphorbia 
Hibernica),  hemlock  and  fuchsia  are  used,  and  black  is  got  by  logwood  and  copperas.  The 
latter  is  said  to  be  very  injurious  to  the  cloth. 


-396  THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

inches  in  width  Double -width  cloth  is  practically  never  made  on  hand- 
looms  in  Ireland,  as  a  loom  of  the  requisite  size  could  rarely  be  accommo- 
dated in  a  peasant's  cottage  or  weaving-shed.  It  may,  therefore,  be  safely 
■concluded  that  the  term  "  home-spun  "  means  imitation  home-spun,  and  not 
the  genuine  hand-made  article,  if  applied  to  any  Irish  cloth  of  fifty-six 
inches  wide  or  thereabouts. 

Every  home-spun  district  in  Ireland  produces  cloth  of  its  own  special 
character.  In  North  Donegal,  about  Glenveigh  and  Gweedore,  a  heavy, 
well-woven,  substantial  cloth  is  made,  generally  dyed  in  dark  colours,  often 
with  check  or  striped  patterns.  The  market  is  mostly  a  retail  one,  and  the 
sale  of  this  excellent  cloth  has  in  recent  times  been  largely  promoted  by  the 
efforts  of  Mrs.  Adair  of  Glenveigh  Castle.  The  Castlebar  industry,  which 
owes  its  success  to  the  Countess  of  Lucan,  produces  a  similar  cloth  to  that 
•of  north  Donegal,  but  with  brighter  colouring.  In  Connemara  and  other 
parts  of  County  Galway  (especially  Gort,  where  the  Convent  of  Mercy 
fosters  the  industry),  a  great  deal  of  white  flannel  or  bAinin,  pleasant 
to  look  at  and  most  durable  in  texture,  is  produced  for  local  use,  and  finds 
its  way  occasionally  into  the  drapers'  shops  in  Galway.  This  material  is 
sometimes  made  with  a  thick  loosely  spun  yarn,  and  the  surface  then  teased 
up,  producing  the  napped  cloth  known  as  "  Galway  flannel."  It  is  often 
dyed  red,  dark  blue  or  black  ;  and  the  Galway  peasant  woman  with  a 
hooded  cloak  of  this  woolly  material,  dyed  a  rich  black,  and  with  a  scarlet 
petticoat  showmg  underneath,  presents  a  study  in  vivid  colour  not  often 
seen  out  of  Spain.  The  County  Kerry  homespuns  are  well  spun  and 
woven,  but  poor  in  colouring  and  pattern.  Vegetable  dyes  are  little  used — 
a  black  is  obtauied  with  logwood  and  copperas,  and  a  grey-brown  cloth  is 
made  by  a  mi  .>iture  of  natural  brown  and  white  wool ;  but  little  more  is 
attempted  except  ni  one  small  centre  on  Lough  Currane,  where  a  few  webs 
are  made  with  some  attempt  at  artistic  effect,  for  sale  to  summer  visitors  at 
Waterville.  At  Dereen,  on  the  Kenmare  estuary,  a  good  deal  of  white  and 
grey  cloth  is  made  in  connection  with  the  Countess  of  Lansdowne's  industry, 
and  is  afterwards  piece-dyed  and  sold  for  dress  materials  in  London  and 
elsewhere. 

In  all  the  above  cases  the  output  which  finds  its  way  into  the  public 
market  is  merely  the  overflow  of  a  much  greater  body  of  production 
intended  for  local  use.  In  South  Donegal,  however,  we  have  an  example  of 
an  extensive  home-spun  industry  conducted  almost  entirely  for  an  outside 
wholesale  market  and  carried  on  upon  regular  business  lines.  From  the 
fairs  of  Ardara  and  Carrick  nearly  iJ^/oo  worth  of  hand-made  cloth  goes 
every  month  to  London,  Glasgow,  Huddersfield,  Vienna,  Paris,  Melbourne, 
New  York,  Boston,  and  other  centres  of  trade.  It  is  not  a  decaying  in- 
dustry, nor  is  it  in  any  degree  dependent  on  the  social  influence  of  wealthy 
patrons.  Prices  have  rarely  been  so  high  or  demand  so  keen  as  at  the 
present  moment.  At  a  recent  fair  in  Carrick  a  single  dealer  bought  fifty- 
five  webs  of  cloth,  representing  nearly  ^^300,  and  in  about  a  fortnight  after- 
wards had  disposed  of  almost  all  of  them. 

The  present  flourishing  state  of  the  South  Donegal  Industry  must  be 
attributed  largely  to  the  operations  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board  under- 
taken in  the  year  1893.  The  district  was  visited  that  year  by  the  Countess 
of  Aberdeen,  President  of  the  Irish  Industries  Association,  and  from  reports 
drawn  up  by  the  agents  of  the  latter  body,  and  also  by  Mr.  Townsend 
Gahan,  an  Inspector  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  it  appeared  that  the 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  397- 


industry  was  threatened  with  a  serious  decHne.  The  younger  generation 
was  not  taking  it  up,  the  looms  were  antiquated  and  unserviceable,  and 
though  then,  as  now,  the  colouring  and  patterns  of  the  cloth  showed  much 
artistic  feeUng,  there  were  many  technical  defects  apparent  in  the  product, 
especially  the  "  shading  "  of  the  cloth,  i.e.,  bars  of  darker  or  lighter  colour- 
running  across  the  web  owing  to  unevenness  of  texture  or  of  spinning. 
The  principal  measures  recommended  were  as  follows :  (i)  The  introduction 
of  improved  looms ;  (2)  provision  for  instruction  in  the  use  of  them  ;  (3) 
inspection  and  stamping  of  the  cloth  by  a  competent  judge  to  be  appointed 
by  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  with  a  small  bonus  or  prize  to  be  paid  for 
all  webs  of  first-rate  quality ;  (4)  the  establishment  of  carding  machinery 
so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  extremely  toilsome  and  lengthy  process  of  teasing  and 
carding  large  quantities  of  wool  by  hand.  With  the  exception  of  the  last,, 
all  these  recommendations  were  immediately  carried  into  effect.  At  the 
request  of  the  Irish  Industries  Association,  Mr.  W^  J.  D.  Walker  (now 
Inspector  of  Industries  under  the  Congested  Districts  Board),  devised,  after 
many  experiments,  a  strong  and  simple  form  of  hand-loom  with  fly  shuttle 
and  automatic  take-up  motion,  which  could  be  delivered  in  Donegal  for  a 
sum  of  £6.  Loans  were  granted  by  the  Board,  repayable  in  six  half-yearly 
instalments,  to  weavers  who  wished  to  adopt  these  looms,  which  were  exhi- 
bited in  operation  at  Ardara  and  Carrick.  With  one  of  these  looms  it  was. 
possible  to  weave  twenty  to  twenty-five  yards  of  cloth  in  a  day — they  have- 
indeed  been  known  to  do  as  much  as  forty  yards — as  against  eight  to  twelve 
done  by  the  old  looms.  They  were  rapidly  taken  up  by  the  people  and 
have  now  almost  dispossessed  the  old-fashioned  looms  throughout  the 
South  Donegal  weaving  district.  Loans  for  spinning  wheels  were  granted 
on  similar  terms.  The  following  instructions  were  drawn  up,  printed  on 
cards  suitable  for  hanging  up  on  the  wall,  and  circulated  by  the  hundred 
among  the  people  who  came  in  to  sell  cloth  at  the  monthly  fairs : — 

"  Makers  of  Homespun  Cloth  in  South  Donegal  are  strongly  urged  to  attend 
to  the  following  instructions,  both  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  price  for  their 
Webs  and  to  extend  and  improve  the  industry.  They  are  reminded  that  while 
every  good  Web  sent  out  helps  to  spread  the  reputation  of  Donegal  Cloth  and 
to  increase  the  demand,  every  inferior  Web  has  the  contrary  effect,  and  helps 
to  spoil  the  future  market  even  for  good  cloths.  Particular  attention  is- 
required  for  providing  hard  wearing  cloth,  without  which  the  Donegal  Industry 
will  certainly  decline. 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

Wool  should  be  well  scoured  before  Dyeing. 
Mix  and  card  the  wool  with  great  care  so  as  to  avoid  shading. 
Avoid  all  Aniline,  and  other  shop  dyes,  except  Indigo,  Madder  and  Log- 
wood. 
Spin   both   Weft  and  Warp  on  the  Small  Wheel.     Lei  ike  IVeft  be  firmly- 
twisted,  to  ensure  good  7veur.    Weft  and  Warp  should  be  equal  in  Weight 
and  Twist. 
Make  the  Cloth  at  least  34  inches  wide  in  Reed. 
For  Twills,  use  no  Reed  coarser  than  a  16  Reed,  2  in  Split,  or  an  11  Reed,, 

3  in  Split,  with  20  Picks  of  Weft  to  the  inch. 
For  Plains,  use  the  same  Reed  with  18  Picks  of  Weft  to  the  inch. 
Use  good  Olive  oil,  and  clean  the  Web  with  Ammonia. 


398  THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

Have  a  large  Window  In  a  suitable  position  in  the  Weaving-  Room.  It  is 
impossible  to  make  good  and  evenly  coloured  Cloth  without  good  Light. 

With  fancy  colours,  to  avoid  shading,  it  is  much  better  to  have  two  shuttles 
in  Sley." 

The  effect  of  these  operations,  coupled  with  the  extensive  buying  on 
the  part  of  the  Irish  Industries  Association,  was  to  put  new  life  into  the 
industry.  It  has  now  been  found  possible  to  discontinue  the  special  arrange- 
ments for  instruction,  for  stamping,  prize-giving,  etc.,  and  the  industry  is 
making  good  progress  without  these  aids.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that 
much  of  the  cloth  is  still  far  from  what  it  should  be  in  point  of  wearing 
quality.  The  twills,  herring-bones,  and  checks  intended  for  men's  wear  are 
certainly  much  improved,  but  the  plain-textured  flannels,  which  exhibit  the 
most  beautiful  and  characteristic  colouring — the  most  beautiful  fabrics 
made  of  woollen  material,  for  ordinary  wear,  in  Europe — are  still  often  so 
loosely  spun  and  woven  as  to  be  suitable  only  for  ladies'  costumes.  A 
great  market  lies  before  this  class  of  cloth  if,  to  the  hereditary  knowledge 
and  taste  in  colouring  possessed  by  the  Donegal  peasantry,  could  be  added 
the  admirable  spinning  and  weaving  found  in  County  Galway. 

The  utilization  of  the  abundant  water  power  at  Ardara  and  Carrick  for 
carding  machinery  would  also  unquestionably  prove  a  great  boon  to  the 
industry.  In  Galway  and  Kerry  machine  carding  is  very  largely  made  use 
of.  I  am  informed  that  one  mill  in  the  City  of  Galway  sometimes  earns  £^ 
in  a  day  for  carding  the  wool  of  countrywomen  who  mean  to  spin  it  on  their 
wheels  at  home.*  Wool  is  sent  up  there  for  that  purpose  from  places  so 
distant  as  Gort.  Carding  machinery  is  also  common  in  the  weaving  dis- 
tricts of  the  Highlands.  It  is  totally  unknown  in  those  of  Donegal ;  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  Donegal  industry  succeeds  in  coping  with 
the  enormous  difficulty  of  teasing,  carding,  and  mixing  by  hand  labour  the 
large  quantities  of  wool  used.  The  provision  of  suitable  carding  machinery, 
which  would  get  rid  of  all  the  drudgery,  and  enable  a  better  thread  to  be 
spun,  would  seem  to  be  directly  on  the  path  of  advance  for  this  industry. 
Associated  with  this  might  be  the  erection  of  a  simple  dyeing  plant,  in 
which  wool  could  be  dyed  in  larger  quantities  at  a  time  than  the  people 
can  manage  in  their  own  iron  pots.  This,  if  only  the  native  vegetable  dyes 
were  used,  would  in  no  way  interfere  with  the  special  artistic  quality  of  the 
Donegal  hand-made  cloth,  and  would,  no  doubt,  be  largely  made  use  of. 

The  Congested  Districts  Board  is  at  present  extending  the  use  of  the 
new  looms  into  the  more  southern  centres,  a  school  of  instruction  having 
been  lately  established  at  Leenane.  With  this  great  advantage,  and  with 
instruction  in  pattern  making  and  dyeing,  the  County  Galway  and  Kerry 
home-spun  manufacture  should  easily  find  a  much  larger  market  than  it  does 
at  present. 

The  weaving  of  machine-spun  yarns  by  hand  is  not  properly  a  branch  of 
the  home-spun  industry.  The  cloth  produced  is  quite  similar  in  effect  to 
factory  goods,  while  a  piece  of  genuine  home-spun  differs  from  the  latter  in 
the  same  way,  let  us  say,  as  a  page  of  manuscript  differs  from  a  page  of 
print.  Still,  although  the  handloom  in  dealing  with  machine-made  yarns 
has  to  compete  directly  with  the  factory,  it  continues  to  maintain  itself 

*  Prices  are  -zd.  per  lb.  for  white  wools;  3(/.  for  mixed  colours.  Oldfashioned  piecing 
machines,  which  are  discarded  from  modern  factories,  are  the  best  for  preparing  wool  for 
hand-spinning. 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  399 


in  some  districts.  About  Drogheda  a  good  deal  of  woollen  weaving  is 
carried  on  by  hand  on  these  lines,  and  Lurgan  is  a  centre  of  hand-weaving 
in  linen.  The  weavers  in  these  cases,  unlike  the  West  of  Ireland  man,  who 
is  half  farmer,  half  artisan,  are  craftsmen  pure  and  simple ;  and  the  low 
rate  of  w^ages  current,  as  compared  with  that  which  prevails  in  steam 
factories,  is  steadily  reducing  the  area  of  this  industry.  This  low  remunera- 
tion, however,  does  not  depend  so  much  on  technical  as  on  economic 
causes.  The  diffeience  in  speed  of  production  is  not  so  great  as  might  be 
supposed.  But  the  workers  are  scattered,  and  have  little  opportunity  for 
effective  combination,  while  the  employer,  who  purchases  and  gives  out  the 
yarns,  is  not  handicapped  by  the  knowledge  that  he  has  a  costly  plant  to 
keep  up  which  must  always  be  either  making  money  or  losing  it.  A 
Donegal  weaver  in  full  work  can  easily  earn  up  to  20s.  a  week  and  more, 
and  this  is  cheerfully  paid  him  by  peasants  as  poor  as  himself  or  poorer. 
Weavers  who  could  purchase  their  own  yarns,  either  individually  or  as 
members  of  a  co-operative  society,  and  who  could  invent  and  produce  sale- 
able patterns,  might  find  that  their  ancient  industry  has  less  to  fear  from  the 
competition  of  modern  machinery  than  is  commonly  taken  for  granted  at 
present.  The  example  of  the  weaving  district  of  Laichingen  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  shows  how  much  can  be  done  by  the  cultivation  of  technical  know- 
ledge and  artistic  taste  in  the  individual  to  counterbalance  the  economy  of 
force  produced  by  t*ie  massed  and  highly  specialized  labour  and  mechanical 
motive  power  of  the  factory. 

When  we  leave  the  modern  peasant  industry  and  turn  to  consider  Irish 

wool-working  as  carried  on  upon  a  larger  commercial 

The  scale  we  find  that  the  manufacture  of  woollens  was 

Woollen  Factory     one  of  the  historic  industries  of  Ireland.     The  minute 

Industry.  regulations  of  the  Brehon  Laws  regarding  the  colours 

to  be  used  by  different  classes,  and  the  description  in 
the  early  literature  of  ornamental  textures  of  various  kinds  show  a  con- 
siderable development  of  the  industry,  dating  back  at  least  to  the  eighth 
century.  In  later  days  an  export  trade  sprang  up.  Irish  "  frisages  "  were 
so  much  in  favour  in  England  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  that  they  were 
specially  exempted  from  the  prohibition  ordered  by  that  King  against  all 
importation  of  foreign  textiles.  "  An  Italian  waiter  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury," writes  Mr.  Bowes  Daly,*  "  mentions  a  white  serge  which  was  much 
esteemed,  and  which  was  called  Sain  d'  Irlando"  The  exportation  of 
wool,  however,  was  for  long  a  more  important  branch  of  commerce  than 
that  of  manufactured  cloth,  and  the  Irish  wool  was  so  much  esteemed  that 
it  practically  supplied  the  great  woollen  manufacture  of  Holland.  In  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  it  was  said  of  Holland,  "  Ireland  is  her 
sheepwalk  ; "  and  this  state  of  things  continued  down  to  the  time  of  the 
great  struggle  between  the  Netherlands  and  Spain,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  manufactures  of  the  former  country  were  laid  waste,  and  the  market  for 
Irish  wool  ceased.  By  the  time  that  peace  and  freedom  returned  for  the 
Netherlands,  England  had  obtained  a  firm  hold  on  the  woollen  markets 
formerly  supplied  from  Holland.  The  Dutch  promptly  turned  to  other 
branches  of  manufacture — the  delft  industry  was  among  those  which 
sprang  up  at  this  period — while  the  Irish,  with  equal  industrial  alertness, 
immediately  began  to  utilize  their  water  power  for  tuck  mills  f>.nd  to  set  up 

*  "  Glimpses  of  Irish  Industries,"  p.  137. 


400  THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


factories  for  spinning  and  weaving,  so  as  to  turn  to  account  the  great  sheep- 
breeding  industry  which  had  grown  up,  and  which  now  found  itself  without 
an  outlet.  A  flourishing  home  trade  now  sprang  up,  and  an  export  trade 
began  to  attain  dimensions  which  aroused  the  commercial  jealousy  of 
England. 

At  this  point  we  come  to  the  first  systematic  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
English  Government  to  repress  this  growing  industry.  An  Act  of  Charles  I. 
prohibited  the  export  of  Irish  wool  (unmanufactured)  except  to  England 
and  Wales.  This,  of  course,  was  aimed  at  Holland,  but  it  was  followed  by 
Charles  II.  12,  c.  4.,  laying  prohibition  duties  on  the  import  of  Irish  woollen 
goods  into  England,  while  other  Acts  restrained  or  suppressed  trade  with 
the  colonies  and  the  import  of  dye  stuffs  into  Ireland. 

These  Acts,  together  with  the  devastation  wrought  by  the  Jacobite  wars, 
brought  the  Irish  export  trade  very  low.  In  1697  the  exports  of  manu- 
factured woollens  amounted  only  to  ^^23,61 7.*  In  the  following  year  came 
the  well-known  compact  between  the  English  and  Irish  Parliaments  which 
is  so  often,  and  justly,  referred  to  as  the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  the 
Irish  woollen  trade.  The  English  Parliament  were  determined  to  have  no 
interference  with  the  woollen  trade  which  they  had  established  as  the  staple 
industry  of  England,  and  they  accordingly  proposed  to  Ireland  that  the 
latter  country  should  practically  abandon  all  export  trade  in  woollens,  in 
return  for  certain  very  favourable  enactments  as  regards  linen  goods  with 
which  England  did  not  desire  to  compete.  Irish  hnen  was  to  be  admitted 
free  of  duty  into  England,  while  a  duty  of  25  per  cent,  was  imposed  on 
foreign  linens,  and  a  bounty  was  given  on  Irish  exports  from  England. 

The  Irish  Parliament  was  of  course  in  no  position  to  make  a  free  choice 
in  the  matter,  and  probably  their  acceptance  of  the  above  terms  was  the 
wisest  course  they  could  have  followed  under  the  circumstances.  During 
the  next  seven  years  the  Irish  linen  export  trade  expanded  nearly  thirty- 
fold.  The  anti-woollen  legislation  of  1698  and  1699  had  no  reference  to 
manufactures  for  the  home  market,  but  a  home  trade  could  not  flourish 
when  hampered  by  the  unfair  conditions  under  which  it  was  obliged  to 
compete  with  English  imports.  The  better  classes  of  material  ceased  to  be 
made,  and  sheepwalks  were  turned  into  tillage,  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
price  of  wool  in  Ireland  became  considerably  higher  than  in  England.!  A 
temporary  revival  took  place  under  the  auspices  of  Grattan's  Parliament, 
but  it  did  not  endure.  Having  lost  the  foreign  market  the  Irish,  like  the 
Dutch  a  couple  of  centuries  previously,  were  unable  to  recover  it.  The 
industry  had  ceased  to  attract  enterprise  and  could  display  no  adaptability 
to  new  conditions.  Consequently,  when  the  great  era  of  the  development 
in  mechanism  set  in,  the  Irish  manufacture,  free  though  it  now  was,  had 
neither  the  moral  nor  material  resources  necessary  to  meet  it,  and  the  ruin 
which  followed  from  the  operation  of  free  competition  was  more  speedy  and 
complete  than  any  which  had  been  produced  as  the  direct  effects  of  repres- 
sive legislation. 

Since  the  full  development  of  the  mechanical  epoch  this  ancient  Irish 
industry  has,  however,  begun  to  show  considerable  recuperative  power. 
"  Authentic  statistics  on  the  subject  are  scanty,"  as  the  late  Registrar- 
General,    Dr.   T.   W.   Grimshaw,   observes,+    but    from    reliable    statistics 

*  "Memoirs  of  Wool,"  Rev.  Joseph  Smith,  ii.,  34,  244. 
t  Hutchinson  :  '•Commercial  Restraints,"  p.  73. 
j  "Facts  and  Figures  about  Ireland,"  p.  38. 


THE  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


401 


furnished  by  him  it  appears  that  from  1874  to  1889  the  number  of  power 
looms  employed  in  the  industry  increased  from  307  to  925.  There  are  also 
no  small  number  of  looms  engaged  in  the  home  weaving  industry,  both  for 
export  and  for  local  use.  This  is  an  industry  which  has  escaped  statistical 
record,  but  the  importance  of  which  ought  not  to  be  underestimated.  From 
the  investigation  made  by  the  Irish  Industries  Association  and  by  the 
writer,' it  is  certain  that  the  County  of  Donegal  at  this  day  exports  home- 
made cloth  mostly  for  foreign  markets,  amounting  to  nearly  half  the  total 
exports  of  Ireland  at  the  date  of  the  Williamite  legislation  of  1698-99. 
Since  1889  the  factory  industry  has  held  its  own,  but  not  much  more. 
Factories  at  that  date  numbered  82— they  are  now  114.  The  hands 
employed  numbered  3,443 — they  are  now  3,323.  Irish  tweeds  are  noted 
for  their  durability  and  honesty  of  workmanship,  but  have  hitherto  suffered 
from  the  defect  in  designing  power  which  has  beset  all  modern  Irish  indus- 
tries into  which  an  artistic  element  enters,  and  which  have  been  cut  loose 
from  the  traditional  style  that  still  guides  the  Donegal  wool-workers.  Irish 
manufacturers  have  generally  shown  themselves  much  more  alive  to  the 
necessity  of  having  modern  machinery  than  to  that  of  employing  competent 
designers.  This  defect,  however,  is  being  largely  remedied  in  the  present 
day.  Irishmen,  unfortunately,  have  seldom  received  the  training  in  applied 
art  necessary  to  enable  them  to  fill  the  position  of  designers  to  woollen 
factories,  and  at  present,  a  factory  which  is  not  content  merely  to  watch  the 
English  output  and  copy  what  is  going  there,  has  usually  to  import  an 
English  or  Scotch  designer.  In  some  cases  a  marked  expansion  of  business 
has  followed  from  this  step,  and  there  are  now  mills  in  Ireland  which  can  and 
do  turn  out  goods,  particularly  in  cheviots,  equal  in  every  respect  to  the 
finest  woollen  manufactures  of  Great  Britain.  Even  in  the  latter  there  is  a 
very  large  field  for  improvement  and  new  invention  in  the  matter  of  design- 
ing, and  if  Ireland,  where  labour  is  good  and  cheap,  and  where  adulteration 
and  shoddy  are  unknown,  could  develop  original  designing  power  in  this 
branch  of  industry,  the  latter  might  yet  rival  the  linen  manufacture  of 
the  North  as  one  of  the  main  sources  of  Irish  prosperity. 


The  Loom  of  Penelope. 
(From  a  Vase  Painting  400  b.c.) 


2  D 


402  THE   IRISH  MILLING   INDUSTRY. 


THE    IRISH    MILLING    INDUSTRY 

In  reviewing  the  present  condition  of  the  Irish  Milling  Industry,  and  its 
history  during  the  past  thirty  years,  two  salient  facts  present  themselves, 
a  revolution  in  the  process  of  manufacture  of  flour,  and  a  gradual  and 
constant  decline  in  the  industry  during  that  period.  The  change  in  the 
method  of  manufacturing  flour  was  so  complete  that,  before  examining  the 
causes  of  the  decline,  it  will  be  desirable  to  describe  briefly  the  system  of 
milling  in  vogue  thirty  years  ago,  and  that  practically  in  universal  use 
to-day. 

In  Ireland,  up  to  the  years  1875  to  1880,  the  only  method  of  manufactur- 
ing flour  was  by  grinding  the  wheat  between  two  flat  circular- shaped  stones, 
about  four  feet  in  diameter.  These  were  of  a  very  hard  silicate,  and  «were 
formed  of  several  wedge-shaped  pieces  cemented  together  and  bound  with 
iron  hoops.  The  surface  of  each  stone  was  cut  into  a  series  of  alternating 
ridges  and  furrows  radiating  from  the  centre,  and  the  lower  stone  was  fixed 
while  the  upper  was  caused  to  revolve.  The  wheat  was  fed  from  the  centre, 
and  by  means  of  these  furrows  and  ridges  was  pushed  to  the  circumference, 
being  ground  into  flour  and  bran  in  the  operation,  and  the  bran  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  flour  by  means  of  "  separators,"  which  were  at  first  made 
of  wire  and  subsequently  of  silk  gauze. 

The  use  of  iron  rollers  instead  of  stones  was  first  tried  in  Buda  Pesth  as 
far  back  as  the  year  1840,  but  it  was  a  very  long  time  before  the  "  Roller 
System,"  as  it  is  called,  came  into  general  use.  By  the  year  1870  it  was  in 
general  use  throughout  Hungary,  and,  the  superiority  of  the  new  process 
being  very  great,  Buda  Pesth  soon  became  the  great  milhng  centre  of  the 
world.  Briefly,  the  principle  of  the  new  system  was  to  reduce  wheat  to 
flour  and  bran,  not  by  a  single  grinding,  as  was  the  case  in  the  old  method  of 
grinding  by  stones  but  by  passing  the  grain  through  a  series  of  sets  of 
rollers  to  reduce  it  gradually.  The  wheat  is  first  put  through  a  process  of 
thorough  cleansing  or  "  smutting,"  and  the  cleaned  grain  is  then  passed 
through  the  first  series  of  grooved  chilled-iron  rollers,  between  which  it  is 
slightly  broken.  The  product  is  then  sifted,  and  a  proportion  of  flour  is 
separated,  mixed  however  with  a  granular  substance,  composed  of  small 
pieces  of  the  floury  part  of  the  wheat,  and  commonly  known  as  "  semolina" 
As  the  flour  produced  by  this  first  grinding  is  generally  of  a  low  grade,  the 
object  of  the  miller  is  to  extract  as  little  flour  and  as  much  semolina  as 
possible  in  the  first  break  of  the  wheat.  The  broken  grain  is  sent  to  the 
other  rollers,  and  is  again  broken  up  and  its  products  sifted  as  before,  and 
this  is  repeated  from  four  to  seven  times  till  as  much  as  possible  of  the  flour 


THE   IRISH  MILLING   INDUSTRY.  403 


has  been  separated  from  the  husk  or  bran.  The  semoUna  is  separated  from 
the  flour,  and  the  latter  is  then  thoroughly  cleared  of  all  particles  of  bran  by 
machines  called  "  purifiers."  The  flour  is  then  ground  between  a  series  of 
smooth  iron  rollers,  and  the  product  of  this  grinding  is  sifted,  and  the  flour 
thus  produced  is  of  the  highest  quality.  The  great  superiority  of  the  new- 
over  the  old  process  lies  in  the  different  grades  of  flour,  some  being  of  very 
superior  quality,  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  thereby.  In  the  old  method  of 
grinding  by  stones  it  was  only  possible  to  obtain  one  quality  of  flour,  and  the 
tearing  of  the  outside  of  the  wheat  berry  by  the  stones  produced  a  small 
quantity  of  dark  powder,  which  mixed  with  the  flour  and  tended  to  discolour 
it.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  further  into  details,  the  above  description  being 
sufficient  to  show  the  differences  between  the  two  systems,  and  the  superio- 
rity of  the  new  over  the  old. 

The  roller  system  was  introduced  into  Ireland  between  the  years  1875 
and  1880,  and  the  millers  who  hesitated  about  adopting  it  soon  found  that 
they  were  being  outclassed  by  their  more  enterprising  rivals.  Unfortu- 
nately for  some  manufacturers  there  were  several  competing  roller  systems, 
and,  information  as  to  which  was  the  best  being  difficult  to  obtain,  many 
of  them  adopted  a  system  which  was  defective.  The  faulty  system  was 
soon  found  to  be  worse  than  the  old  process,  and  many  millers  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  were  utterly  ruined  by  it,  while  others  after  a  short 
trial  of  it  threw  out  their  new  and  costly  machinery,  and  reinstated  the 
stones.  Those  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  adopt  the  proper  system  at 
first,  or  who,  having  found  that  the  first  machinery  which  they  had  put  in 
was  defective,  had  the  courage  to  face  the  situation,  and  to  replace  it  by 
the  right  system,  soon  reaped  the  benefit  of  their  enterprise.  Its  superiority 
was  so  great  that  those  who,  from  want  of  the  necessary  capital,  or  from  lack 
of  enterprise  did  not  adopt  it,  were  year  by  year  gradually  driven  out  of  the 
trade.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  industries  in  the  country,  most  of  the  mills 
which  were  thus  thrown  idle  have  remained  idle  since,  thus  causing  a 
tremendous  waste  of  capital  sunk  in  the  buildings  and  the  machinery  with 
which  they  were  equipped. 

Let  us  now  endeavour  to  analyse  the  causes  which  led  to  the  decHne  in 
the  industry,  which,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  has  been  a  constant 
feature  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  chief  reasons  of  the  decline 
were  two — the  steady  decline  in  the  population  of  Ireland,  which  has  been 
going  on  since  1845,  ^"d  the  keen  competition  of  imported  against  Irish- 
made  flour.  Of  the  tw),  the  first,  the  falling  off  in  the  population  of  the 
country,  has  undoubtedly  been  the  more  potent  cause  of  the  dechne  in  our 
milling  trade,  inasmuch  as  this  meant  a  falling  off  in  the  numbers  of  the 
consumers.  Up  to  about  the  year  1877  Ireland,  and  especially  the  South  of 
Ireland,  actual'y  had  a  considerable  export  trade  in  flour,  and  sent  large 
quantities  annually  to  Wales,  Liverpool,  and  other  places  in  the  West  of 
England,  and  even  as  far  north  as  Glasgow.  Up  to  that  period  these 
localities  had  not  sufficient  milling  capacities  of  their  own,  and  Ireland, 
which  was  then  growing  nearly  five  times  as  much  wheat  as  at  the  present 
time,  supplied  the  deficiency.  America  had,  however,  adopted  the  roller 
system  before  it  had  been  introduced  into  the  United  Kingdom,  and  by 
1875  it  had  been  generally  adopted  in  the  great  wheat-growing  States  of 
that  country.  The  mills  which  were  erected  had  a  capacity  far  beyond  the 
requirements  for  home  consumption,  and  were  getting  good  prices  for  what 
they  sold  at  home,  and  they  were  thus  enabled  to  employ  their  surplus 


404  THE  IRISH  MILLING  INDUSTRY. 


produce  in  opening  up  a  foreign  trade.  With  their  great  advantages  in 
being  situated  in  the  heart  of  one  of  the  greatest  wheat-growing  districts 
an  the  world,  having  ample  supplies  of  the  best  qualities  of  grain  at  low 
prices,  and  with  a  market  at  home  for  the  bulk  of  their  produce  in  which 
they  were  getting  very  remunerative  prices,  it  is  little  wonder  that  they 
■were  able  with  their  surplus  produce  to  cut  out  from  those  niarkets  in 
England  and  Scotland,  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  the  Irish  miller, 
who  had  to  import  practically  all  the  wheat  he  required.  Moreover,  these 
•districts  gradually  erected  mills  to  supply  their  own  requirements,  so  that 
Ireland  soon  lost  all  her  export  trade  m  flour.  The  cutting  off  of  this 
■outlet  left  our  millers  only  the  home  market  for  their  product,  and  this 
market  was  being  every  day  contracted  owing  to  the  decline  in  the  popula- 
tion of  the  country.  The  official  returns  show  that  in  1871  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Ireland  was  5,412,377;  in  1881  it  had  fallen  to  5,174,836;  in  1891 
to  4,704,750,  and  1901  to  4,456,546.  The  dechne  in  the  population,  there- 
fore, since  1871  has  been  955,831,  which  is  equivalent  to  over  17.6  per  cent. 
In  addition  to  the  loss  of  the  export  trade,  and  the  contraction  in  the 
numbers  of  the  consumers  at  home,  the  Irish  millers  had  to  contend  against 
the  competition  of  imported  flour  in  their  own  narrow  market.  The 
Americans  were  not  content  with  sending  their  surplus  produce  to  England, 
but  they  sent  it  to  this  country  also,  and  this  competition  has  continued 
down  to  the  present  day.  The  competition  referred  to  has  been  greatly 
developed  by  the  extremely  low  freights  at  which  flour  has  been  brought 
from  America  by  the  Trans-Atlantic  passenger  steamers  within  recent  years. 
The  flour  has  often  been  brought  at  a  merely  nominal  freight,  practically  as 
ballast,  and  this  has,  of  course,  been  an  enormous  advantage  to  the  American 
miller  in  enabling  him  to  compete  on  more  advantageous  terms  with  the 
home  manufacturer.  He  gains  another  advantage  also  in  the  low  through 
freight  given  by  some  of  the  Cross-Channel  Steamship  and  Irish  Railway 
Companies,  so  that  he  is  often  able  to  send  his  flour  from  the  docks  at  some 
English  port  into  a  country  town  in  Ireland  at  a  lower  freight  than  the 
miller  in  that  town  has  to  pay  on  his  foreign  wheat  from  the  Irish  port  of 
discharge. 

The  decline  in  wheat  growing  in  Ireland  has  been  an  undoubted  injury 
to  the  smaller  of  our  millers  in  country  districts.  The  opening  up  of  foreign 
•wheat  markets  in  the  United  States,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  has  caused  a  considerable  fall  in 
the  price  of  that  article  within  the  past  twenty  or  thirty  years,  and  this  fall 
Tendered  the  extensive  growing  of  wheat  at  home  unprofitable.  Irish  wheat 
is  of  a  soft  nature,  and  before  it  could  be  used  for  milling  it  had  to  be  dried, 
and  the  cost  of  this  drying  and  the  loss  of  weight  in  the  process  handi- 
capped it  considerably  in  competition  with  foreign  wheat,  which  is  for  the 
most  part  put  on  the  market  fit  for  milling  without  having  to  go  through 
any  process  of  kiln-drying.  The  farmers  practically  gave  up  the  growing 
■of  wheat,  and  the  country  miller  lost  a  source  of  supply  in  his  own  district 
where  he  was  saved  the  heavy  cost  of  carriage,  which  he  had  to  pay  on 
imported  wheat.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  complete  figures  showing  the 
number  of  mills  at  work  thirty  years  ago,  and  those  working  at  the  present 
time,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  number  shut  down  during  that  period 
was  very  considerable.  Taking  one  particular  district  in  the  south,  there 
were  twenty-seven  flour  mills  in  that  district  in  the  year  1874,  while  to-day 
'there  are  only  three.     Probably  the  output  of  the  three  mills  at  work  to-day 


THE   IRISH  POLLING  INDUSTRY.  405 


does  not  fall  far  short  of  the  quantity  of  flour  produced  by  the  twenty- 
seven  mills  at  the  earlier  period  ;  but  we  must  remember  that  once  a  mill 
is  shut  down  it  is  very  rarely  ever  turned  to  account  again  for  milling  or  for 
any  other  industry,  so  that  there  has  been  a  very  serious  loss  of  the  national 
capital  in  the  shape  of  the  buildings  of  those  derelict  mills,  and  the  valuable 
machinery  with  which  they  were  equipped.  As  against  the  decline  in  flour 
milling,  however,  it  is  only  right  to  set  the  increase  in  the  quantity  of  maize 
ground.  Indian  meal  as  a  cheap  and  good  food  for  cattle  has  rapidly  grown 
in  favour  within  the  last  twenty  years,  and  the  increase  in  our  cattle  trade 
has  naturally  increased  the  demand  for  meal.  This  does  not,  however,  com- 
pensate the  miller  for  the  dechne  m  the  demand  for  his  flour,  the  machinery 
used  for  grinding  meal  being  less  elaborate  and  considerably  less  costly 
than  that  required  for  the  manufacture  of  flour,  has  made  competition  in 
this  branch  of  the  business  very  keen,  and  his  profits  in  this  case  leave 
him  nothing  to  compensate  him  for  the  interest  on  the  capital  which  he  has 
sunk  in  his  flour  plant. 

Complete  returns  showing  the  total  quantities  of  wheat  and  flour  im- 
ported into  Ireland  are  difficult  to  obtain ;  but  perhaps  it  may  be  permis- 
sible to  take  the  figures  of  the  importations  into  one  port  as  a  typical 
example.  The  quantity  of  W'heat  grown  at  home  being  so  small  may,  for 
practical  purposes,  be  disregarded,  and  the  figures  showing  the  imports  of 
flour  and  wheat  into  the  port  of  Cork  for  twenty  years  since  i88i  are 
eloquent  in  showing  how  the  industry  has  declined  in  the  South  of  Ireland, 
Taking  Cork  and  Kerry  as  the  two  counties  which  are  principally  served 
from  the  port  of  Cork,  let  us  first  examine  the  variation  in  the  populations 
of  these  counties.  The  figures  as  given  in  "  Thorn's  Directory  "  for  1902; 
are : — 


1881. 

1891. 

1901. 

Decrease 
since  1881. 

Cork  (City  and  County) 
Kerry 

-  495,60; 

-  201,039 

438,432 
1/9,136 

404,813 
165,331 

90,794 
35,708 

696,646    617,568     570,144     126,502 

The  decrease  in  the  population  of  these  two  counties  for  the  twenty  years 
since  188 1  amounts  to  126,502,  or  over  18  per  cent. 

Now  taking  the  figures  of  the  importations  of  wheat  and  flour  into  Cork^ 
taking  them  on  an  average  of  ten  years,  we  find  that  between  the  years  1881 
and  1 89 1  the  average  annual  imports  of  wheat  were  80,971  tons,  and  flour 
14,063  tons,  while  from  1891  to  1901  the  averages  were — wheat,  63,708 
tons,  flour  22,502  tons.  These  figures  show  that  while  the  populations  of 
the  two  counties  have  been  decreasing  the  importations  of  flour  have  been 
increasing.  The  average  annual  importation  of  wheat  shows  a  falling  off 
of  17,263  tons,  while  flour  importations  have  increased  8,439  tc>J^s  per 
annum.  No  mere  words  could  give  a  better  picture  of  the  decline  in  the 
milling  trade  than  these  figures.  In  the  first  ten  years  under  consideration 
wheat  was  85.2  per  cent.,  flour  14.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  the  two 
articles  imported,  and  in  the  second  ten  years  wheat  had  fallen  to  73.9  per 
cent,  while  flour  had  increased  to  26.1  per  cent.  The  following  Tables 
show  the  importations  of  corn  into  Dublin  and  Belfast  respectively  in  the 
years  1896- 1900. 


406 


THE  IRISH  MILLING  INDUSTRY 


Table  A. — Showing  the   Quantities  and  Value   of   Corn    Imported  direct  from  Foreign 
Countries  and  the  Colonies  into  Dublin  in  the  years  1896  to  1900,  inclusive. 


Corn. 

Quantities. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Wheat, 
Barley,  . . 

Oats, 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn, 
Wheatmeal  and  Flour, 
Oatmeal    and    Groats, 

Cwts. 

1,551,700 

329,060 

29,900 

1,903,100 

616,740 

9,940 

Cwts. 

1,285,700 

249,040 

25,000 

1,815,100 

594,440 

20,540 

Cwts. 

1,310,000 

145,650 

39,800 

1,217,900 

865,870 

36,500 

Cwts. 
1,629,500 
80,060 

1,768,300 

840,700 

19,900 

Cwts. 

1,314,400 

272,580 

35.200 

1,182,800 

897,600 

43,900 

Corn. 

Value. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Wheat, 
Barley, 

Oats, 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn, 
Wheatmeal  and  Flour, 
Oatmeal    and    Groats, 

£ 
516,260 
103,604 

7,368 
379,458 
275,947 

4,702 

£ 
483.097 
83.413 

5.436 
314,980 
320,159 

7,748 

£ 

548,575 
49,065 
12,946 

250,050 

523,971 
17,396 

£ 
557,990 
31,138 

367,826 

428.792 

9,754 

£ 
450,023 

91,266 

10,000 
278,925 
456,362 

22,173 

Table   B. — Showing  the  Quantities  and  Value   of  Corn   Imported  direct  from   Foreign 
Countries  and  the  Colonies  into  Belfast  in  the  years  1896  to  1900,  inclusive. 


Quantities. 

Corn. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Cwts. 

CM'tS. 

Cwts. 

Cwts. 

Cwts. 

Wheat, 

230,700 

198,600 

114,900 

113,100 

201,600 

Barley, 

216,960 

374.230 

388,005 

297,790 

415.740 

Oats 

38,700 

26,100 

48,000 

4,900 

51,600 

Rye 

264,500 

301,900 

276,800 

328,500 

234,500 

Peas, 

8,600 

16,920 

4,630 

13,420 

20.220 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn, 

2,498,800 

3,190.600 

3,389.000 

3,986,200 

3.539,700 

Wheatmeal  and  Flour, 

946,300 

1,017,740 

791,850 

1,229.760 

1,268,300 

Oatmeal    and    Groats, 

10,800 

6,160 

18,250 

4.360 

13,100 

Meal,   unenumerated, 

47,400 

102,800 

1,500 

50,220 

11,000 

Value. 

Corn. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Wheat, 

71,595 

75.800 

42,339 

38,358 

73,255 

Barley, 

50,306 

81,481 

98,347 

82,970 

123,731 

Oats, 

8,677 

7,492 

15.737 

1,512 

15,382 

Rye 

63,422 

73,065 

75 ,660 

96,423 

67,718 

Peas,     . . 

3,110 

5-S23 

2.053 

5,189 

7.817 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn, 

501,501 

549.360 

673,272 

809,714 

783,506 

Wheatmeal  and  Flour, 

418,037 

579,565 

471,075 

685,711 

689,376 

Oatmeal    and    Groats, 

4.324 

2.503 

9,833 

2.415 

6.741 

Meal,    unenumerated, 

11,106 

23,081 

375 

11,069 

2,225 

THE   IRISH  MILLING   INDUSTRY. 


407 


The  present  position  of  the  miller  is  that,  on  the  one  side,  he  sees  the 
numbers  of  his  customers  gradually  dwindling  away,  while,  on  the  other,  he 
is  menaced  by  increasing  competition  from  foreign  made  flour.  In  addition 
to  this,  technical  knowledge  in  milling  is  becoming  more  necessary  every 
day,  while  the  rapid  improvements  in  machinery  make  it  necessary  that  the 
miller  should  have  a  large  capital  in  order  to  enable  him  to  keep  abreast 
with  these  improvements,  and  to  meet  foreign  competition. 

The  following  Table  gives  some  idea  of  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  Milling  Industry  in  Ireland  since  1891.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  majority  of  these  Mills  are  very  small  concerns : — 

Table  C. — Showing  the  Number  of  Corn  Mills  for  the  years  1891  to  igor,  inclusive, 
classified  according  to  the  Power  used,  the  kind  of  the  Corn  chiefly  ground,  and  the 
Average  Quantity  (in  cwts.)  ground  per  week  when  the  Mills  are  at  work. 


Description  of  Power 

Kind  of  Corn  chiefly 

Average  quantity  Groiind  per       | 

Total 

used. 

Ground. 

week  when  at  work. 

t3 
C    . 

A 

? 

^ 

25 

50 

100 

200 

500 

No. 

=*fl 

0 

0 

i^S 

and 

and 

and 

and 

cwts. 

Yeah.s 

of 

u 
S 

'6 
c 

0)  £ 

0 

'/ 

s 

0 

under 
50 

under 
100 

under 
200 

under 
500 

and 
up- 

Mills. 

$ 

^ 

asm 

^ 

a 
0 

c 

< 

ID 

cwts. 

cwts. 

cwts. 

cwts. 

wards. 

Number  of  Mills. 

Number  of  Mills. 

Number  of  Mills. 

1891 

1,482 

1,319 

68 

20 

75 

228 

1,003 

249 

2 

91 

151 

297 

434 

305 

204 

1892 

1.497 

1,322 

87 

21 

67 

255 

1.043 

194 

5 

89 

168 

328 

426 

270 

216 

1893 

1,533 

1,342 

92 

22 

77 

292 

999 

236 

6 

94 

160 

348 

421 

290 

220 

1894 

1,478 

1,302 

82 

19 

75 

385 

884 

151 

58 

91 

147 

349 

442 

236 

213 

1S95 

1,504 

1,327 

8b 

16 

75 

217 

1,039 

201 

47 

104 

196 

325 

435 

245 

199 

1896 

1,474 

1,284 

88 

19 

83 

196 

958 

274 

4b 

97 

170 

353 

398 

256 

200 

1897 

1,434 

1,251 

90 

23 

70 

209 

950 

246 

29 

107 

ib8 

358 

371 

227 

203 

1898 

1,412 

1,234 

93 

18 

67 

195 

965 

237 

15 

121 

159 

375 

339 

217 

201 

1899 

1,397 

1,216 

99 

17 

05 

215 

932 

23b 

14 

114 

ibi 

.351 

343 

224 

204 

1900 

1,389 

1,214 

98 

18 

59 

217 

874 

281 

17 

119 

182 

314 

374 

212 

188 

1901 

1,351 

1,167 

99 

14 

71 

189 

908 

250 

4 

119 

185 

323 

325 

218 

181 

In  conclusion,  there  is  one  feature  in  connection  with  the  use  of  foreign 
flour  in  Ireland  which  is  generally  lost  sight  of,  and  more  especially  by  the 
Irish  farmer.  Ireland  has  developed  considerable  importance  as  a  country 
for  the  raising  of  cattle  and  pigs,  and  these  must  be  finished  off  for  the 
market  on  bran,  tailings,  etc.  These  commodities  are  the  bye-products  of 
the  manufacture  of  flour,  a  given  quantity  of  wheat  yielding  about  70  per 
cent,  of  flour,  and  30  per  cent,  of  bran,  pollard,  and  tailings.  If,  therefore, 
the  home  production  of  flour  is  curtailed,  it  follows  that  the  farmer  must  pay 
higher  prices  for  these  bye-products,  while  the  American,  whose  flour  our 
farmer  is  consuming,  has  these  food-stuffs  for  his  cattle  at  a  lower  rate  in 
consequence  of  the  manufacture  of  a  quantity  of  flour  in  America  for  the 
foreign  market.  This  enables  the  American  farmer  to  put  his  beef  and 
pork  into  competition  with  Irish  beef  and  pork  on  more  favourable  terms. 
This  is  a  matter  which  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  Irish  farmer,  and 
it  frequently  happens  that  bran,  etc.,  is  sold  at  far  lower  rates  in  neighbour- 
ing countries  than  in  this,  owing  to  the  increasing  importations  of  foreign 
flour,  and  the  consequent  decline  in  Irish  milling. 


408      THE  IRISH  LEATHER  AND  BOOT-MAKING  INDUSTRY. 


THE    IRISH    LEATHER    AND    BOOT-MAKING 

INDUSTRY. 

Until  about  thirty  years  ago  the  tanning  industry  in  Ireland  was  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  and  despite  the  startling  decrease  in  population 
which  followed  the  famine,  the  making  of  leather  was  carried  on 
all  over  the  country  under  sound  financial  conditions  and  with  a  large 
measure  of  prosperity.  Up  to  about  1870  most  of  the  leather  required  for 
use  in  Ireland,  including  that  used  for  the  "  uppers  "  and  soles  of  boots  and 
that  required  for  harness  making  was  produced  in  this  country.  The  heavy 
"  sole  leather  "  made  in  Ireland,  chiefly,  from  South  American  hides,  was  of 
excellent  quality  and  particularly  suited  to  the  requirements  of  an  agricul- 
tural population.  A  lighter  class  of  sole  leather  was  manufactured  out  of 
Irish  hides  and  was  used  principally  for  female  wear.  For  upper  leather 
the  demand  was  chiefly  for  a  strong  water-resisting  article  called  "  brogue  " 
leather.  Calf  skins  were  also  tanned,  and  these,  with  sole  and  harness 
leather,  were  manufactured  in  almost  every  part  of  Ireland ;  while  Dublin, 
Cork,  and  Limerick  could  boast  of  quite  a  number  of  tanneries,  each 
working  to  the  full  extent  of  its  capacity.  Indeed  many  small  towns  had 
tanneries  of  their  own.  Such  imports  as  there  were  at  this  time  were 
confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  lighter  classes  of  upper  leather,  very  little 
of  other  kinds  of  leather  coming  from  abroad. 

The  chief  centres  of  production  were  Dublin,  Cork,  and  Limerick,  which 
turned  out  large  supplies  of  the  kinds  above  mentioned.  Cork  was  par- 
ticularly noted  for  the  production  of  one  class,  of  which  the  southern  city 
made  a  specialty.  This  was  "  satin-calf "  which  is  still  produced  there, 
though  in  limited  quantities  as  compared  with  its  former  output.  Bandon 
was  known  as  the  chief  centre  for  the  manufacture  of  "  brogue  leather," 
and  in  that  town  five  and  twenty  years  ago,  there  were  four  tanneries, 
working  full  time  and  all  doing  remarkably  well.  Their  leathers  were 
known  well  and  found  a  ready  market.  Dunmanway,  in  the  same  county, 
had  a  thriving  tannery.  Clonmel  in  the  heart  of  Tipperary  had  three. 
Further  east,  Wexford  and  New  Ross  turned  out  excellent  leather.  So 
did  Kilkenny  on  even  a  larger  scale.  Ballytore,  in  the  County  Kildare, 
which  is  still  working,  was  noted  for  its  tanned  goods,  and  these  may  be 
taken  as  fair  samples  of  the  widespread  distribution  of  this  once  important 
industry.  Drogheda  also  had  at  least  one  tannery,  and  the  same  might  be 
said  of  numerous  other  towns  in  which  this  industry  gave  employment 
to  large  numbers.  In  Limerick  there  were  three  tanneries  which  did  a 
brisk  trade  in  sole,  harness,  and  upper  leathers.  Two  of  these  are  still  in 
existence  and  in  full  working  order. 

The  tanneries  in  Ulster,  situated  at  Belfast,  Lisburn,  DoMmpatrick, 
Carrickfergus,  Coleraine,  Newry,  and  Richhill,  County  Armagh,  were  work- 
ing in  the  eighties.     A  few  of  them,  as  will  be  seen,  survive  at  the  present 


THE  IRISH  LEATHER  AND  BOOT-MAKING  INDUSTRY.      409> 


day,  but  the  output  is  not  very  large.  So  far  as  the  North  is  concerned,  the 
tanneries  showed  signs  of  decay  soon  after  the  Crimean  war.  In 
their  hey-day  they  produced  leather  from  Irish  and  South  American  hides, 
chiefly  for  home  consumption. 

A  notable  feature  in  the  manufacture  of  leather  was  that  the  production, 
on  the  one  hand  of  sole  leather,  and  on  the  other  hand  of  upper  and  harness 
leathers  was  as  a  rule  a  distinct  undertaking.  The  two  last-named  classes 
were  usually  manufactured  side  by  side,  as  the  general  manipulation  of 
both  is,  in  a  great  measure,  similar,  and  a  factory  turning  out  one  descrip- 
tion could  with  advantage  produce  the  other.  The  same  conditions  prevail 
to-day,  and  outside  of  Ireland  it  is  an  unusual  thing  to  find  sole,  upper  and 
harness  leather  manufactured  by  the  same  firm.  Another  fact  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  isolation  of  currying — or  the  finishing  processes.  Outside  of 
Ireland  the  currying  is.  in  many  cases,  carried  on  by  firms  other  than 
tanners.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  operations  necessary  after  the 
tanning  is  complete  are  numerous  and  complex.  In  dealing  with  some 
classes  of  upper  and  many  other  leathers,  such  for  instance  as  bag  leathers' 
and  enamelled  or  patent  goods,  the  finishing  operations  are  so  exceedingly 
technical  that  special  expert  knowledge  and  the  use  of  numerous  machines 
are  necessary  for  their  successful  completion,  and  this  is  generally  regarded 
as  quite  outside  the  tanner's  calling.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  finishing  or  "  currying "  processes  may  know  nothing' 
whatever  about  the  tanning,  which  can,  to  a  large  extent,  be  carried  on  with 
the  aid  of  unskilled  labour. 

Thirty  years  ago  a  very  large  amount  of  capital  was  sunk  in  the  tanning" 
industry  in  Ireland,  which  was  the  means  of  giving  a  great  deal  of  employ- 
ment throughout  the  country.  None  but  men  of  capital  were  able  to 
embark  in  this  trade,  as  the  long  period  covered  by  the  various  stages  of 
manufacture,  particularly  in  the  case  of  sole  leather,  made  large  capital  an 
essential  condition.     The  same  remarks  are  still  applicable  to  the  industry. 

As  already  mentioned,  Irish  leather  was  noted  for  its  excellence,  which 
was  to  be  attributed  to  the  superior  methods  of  manufacture.  The  tanning 
materials  used  were  those  which  even  now,  in  the  light  of  the  most 
searching  scientific  examination,  are  considered  the  best  procurable.  The 
tanning  was  done  with  oak  bark,  cork  tree  bark,  and  valonia,  mostly  the- 
two  first  named.  Cargoes  of  cork  tree  bark  were  imported  from  Algeria,, 
and  sufficient  oak  bark  was  easily  procurable  in  various  parts  of  Ireland.. 
The  tannin  extracted  from  oak  and  cork  tree  barks  was  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  upper  and  harness  leathers,  and  these  two  combined  with  valonia, 
which  is  the  cup  of  the  acorn  brought  from  the  vast  oak  forests  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  which  has,  for  many  years,  been  imported  largely  into  these 
countries,  were  the  materials  with  which  most  of  the  sole  leathers  were 
tanned.  Sumach  from  Palermo  in  Sicily  was  used  with  calf  skins.  Of 
late  years  much  scientific  research  has  been  devoted  to  the  leather  indus- 
tries, and  several  new  tanning  materials  of  considerable  value  have  been 
placed  at  the  tanner's  disposal,  which  with  improved  manipulation  of  the 
hides  in  course  of  manufacture  and  the  aid  of  more  machinery,  has  consider- 
ably lessened  the  time  employed  and  lowered  the  cost  of  production.  Stiff 
the  tanning  materials  above  mentioned  are  at  the  present  day  in  universal 
use.  though  in  many  cases  in  combination  with  cheaper  substitutes. 

A.bout  1870  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  in  Ireland  was  an  im- 
portant industry,  and  gave  an  immense  amount  of  labour,  not  only  in  the 


410      THE  IRISH  LEATHER  AND  BOOT-MAKING  INDUSTRY. 

centres  of  laige  population,  but  in  many  towns,  villages,  and  hamlets 
throughout  the  country.  So  far  as  the  making  of  footgear  was  concerned, 
Ireland  may  be  considered  as  self-providing  up  to  the  end  of  the  sixties. 
It  is  true  that  the  wearing  of  boots  was  not  as  general  then  as  it  is  to-day. 
The  small  farmers,  cottiers,  and  agricultural  labourers  could  not  in  many 
instances  afford  to  buy  them,  and  accordingly  the  number  of  people,  more 
especially  children,  to  be  seen  in  their  bare  feet  was  very  much  greater  then 
than  now.  Those  who  did  wear  boots  or  shoes,  chiefly  the  latter,  patron- 
ized a  strong  coarse  class  suitable  for  wear  in  a  humid  climate  such  as  that 
of  Ireland.  "  Factory  "  goods  were  tiien  unknown,  and  practically  all  the 
boots  worn  in  the  country  were  made  at  home.  The  temptation  to  buy 
cheap  footgear  was  not  present,  and  the  people  were  content  to  use  the 
same  styles  which  had  been  in  vogue  for  generations.  This  support  of 
home  manufacture  was  not  confined  to  any  class.  The  gentry  and  people 
of  moans  generally  patronized  local  industry,  their  boots  being  made  from 
the  finer  classes  of  upper  leather  made  in  Cork  and  other  smaller  towns. 
From  all  this  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  leather  industry  and  the  allied 
trades  were  in  a  thoroughly  healthy  condition  at  this  period.  There  was 
a  good  return  on  capital  invested,  a  large  amount  of  employment 
given,  and  the  money  thus  circulated  throughout  the  country  had  a  bene- 
ficial effect  on  the  general  prosperity  of  Ireland.  Then  came  the  lean 
years.  Great  Britain,  and  more  especially  England,  is  known  to  have 
reached  high-water  mark  in  commercial  development  in  the  early  seventies, 
and  this  was  exactly  the  period  that  witnessed  the  undermining  and 
eventually  the  downfall  of  the  leather  industry  in  Ireland.  Commercial 
energy  across  the  Channel,  and  more  markedly  in  the  midlands  of  England, 
was  not  confined  to  the  textile  trades,  although  these  were  the  first  to  take 
advantage  of  the  great  wave  of  prosperity  which  swept  with  astonishing 
results  over  the  country.  Immense  boot  factories  were  erected  in  various 
centres  between  Leeds  and  Northampton,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  other 
parts  of  England.  The  introduction  of  modern  machinery  cheapened 
production  enormously,  and  the-  Irish  market  was  flooded  with  machine- 
made  boots  and  shoes  at  prices  which  made  successful  competition  by  the 
Irish  boot  makers,  who  did  not  adopt  similar  methods  of  production,  impos- 
sible. In  Ireland  boot-making  which  had  been  largely  a  cottage  industry 
■ — many  men  and  their  families  working  in  their  homes — was  ruined  by  the 
march  of  modern  mechanical  invention,  and  the  factory  system  which  in- 
evitably followed.  This  state  of  affairs  was  not  long  in  re-acting  on  the 
Irish  leather  industry  itself.  About  the  same  time  too  were  occurring 
those  changes  in  the  manufacture  of  leather  abroad,  which  resulted  in  very 
considerable  reductions  in  the  prices  of  all  leather  goods.  Thus  every 
year  witnessed  a  decline  in  the  profits  of  the  Irish  tanner,  and  at  the  same 
time  his  output  was  gradually  but  effectually  being  reduced.  Many  of  the 
Irish  tanners  at  this  critical  epoch  were,  it  is  to  be  feared,  not  equal  to  the 
occasion.  They  were  essentially  conservative  in  their  ideas  and  adhered 
to  the  old  fashioned  methods.  The  result  was  lamentable,  but  it  was  in- 
evitable. The  ordinary  sources  for  consumption  of  their  goods  were  no 
longer  available.  No  new  markets  v/ere  opened,  and  the  natural  conse- 
quence was  that  trade  shrank  rapidly.  Many  of  those  whose  capital  was 
sunk  in  tanneries  withdrew  it  from  the  languishing  industry,  and  thus,  in 
many  towns,  what  had  been  previously  a  thriving  trade,  was  reduced  to  the 
last  stages  of  decay.     Some  few,  here  and  there,  took  up  a  more  intelligent 


THE  IRISH  LEATHER  AND  BOOT-MAKING  INDUSTRY.       411 


attitude.  They  went  with  the  times,  adopted  modern  methods,  and  they 
have  survived. 

The  manufacture  of  leatli^r  in  Ireland  at  present  is  confined  to  a  few 
locaUties.  Limerick,  which  is  the  most  important  centre  of  the  industry, 
has  two  tanneries  which  produce  over  30,000  heavy  hides  per  annum.  The 
major  portion  of  this  is  sole  leather  of  good  quality  made  from  Irish  and 
South  American  hides.  Harness  leather  of  different  classes  is  manufac- 
tured exclusively  from  Irish  hides,  and  upper  leather  suitable  for  the 
strongest  classes  of  boots  is  also  produced,  but  not  in  great  quantities. 
Cork  has  three  tanneries  still  manufacturing  considerable  quantities  of 
calf-skins,  and  one  of  these  turns  out  a  good  deal  of  best  heavy  sole 
leather  mostly  from  South  American  hides.  A  progressive  tannery  is  still 
working  actively  in  New  Ross,  nanufacturing  Irish  hides  and  "  kips  "  into 
sole  and  upper  leathers  mainly  for  local  consumption.  There  are  leather 
factories  also  in  the  following  towns  tanning  Irish  hides : — Dunmanway 
and  Bantry,  in  County  Cork  ;  Clonmel,  in  County  Tipperary ;  Mountmel- 
lick,  in  Queen's  County ;  Ballytore,  in  County  Kildare ;  Dublin,  Drogheda, 
Newry,  Belfast,  Derry,  Coleraine  and  Richhill,  County  Armagh.  In 
Dubhn  one  tannery  produces  leather  for  bookbinding  from  sheep  and  calf- 
skins, also  "  basils  "  for  the  saddlery  and  harness  trade.  The  products  of 
the  only  tarmery  in  Belfast  consists  mainly  of  upper  leathers.  Derry  con- 
fines itself  to  sole  leather.  New  Ross,  as  mentioned,  and  Ballytore  manu- 
facture sole  and  upper  leather.  Excepting  Limerick  and  Cork,  almost  the 
entire  output  is  in  the  other  towrxS  confined  to  upper  and  harness  leathers. 
This  exhausts  the  list  of  tanning  centres  in  Ireland  at  the  present  moment. 

The  sole  leather  manufactured  is  of  a  superior  quality  for  wearing,  but  the 
upper  leathers  are  mostly  heavy  and  of  a  coarse  finish,  and  harness  leathers, 
too,  are  not  as  well  finished  as  English  and  Scotch  goods.  In  justice 
to  the  Irish  tanner  it  must  be  remarked  that  much  of  this  is  not  his  fault, 
because  his  raw  materials,  Irish  hides — which  are  devoted  to  this  branch — - 
are  generally  so  cut  and  injured  by  the  butchers  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
for  him  to  produce  first  class  goods.  Outside  of  Limerick  and  Dublin 
it  is  difficult  indeed  to  procure  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  Irish  hides  even 
passibly  well  taken  off.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  sole  leather  made 
from  Irish  hides,  which  yields  not  within  two  pence  per  pound  of  its  foreign 
made  rivals  of  similar  quality.  In  upper  leather  made  from  Irish  hides 
most  of  these  knife  cuts  can  be  got  rid  of  when  the  goods  are  being  shaved 
down  to  the  required  substance,  which  is  always  less  than  the  natural 
thickness  of  full  or  partly  grown  hides. 

The  outlook  of  the  Irish  leather  industry  is  not  without  its  encouraging 
aspects,  for  a  small  export  trade  to  England  and  South  Africa  is  done  in 
sole  and  harness  leather,  and  Irish  manufactured  leather  in  competition 
with  the  products  of  other  countries,  England  and  elsewhere,  finds  a  ready 
sale.  Moreover,  it  is  reasonable  to  note,  that  with  the  better  flayed  hides 
which  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  Irish  Department  of  x\griculture  and  Technical 
Instruction  will  cause  to  be  obtained,  the  output  of  Irish  tanneries  will  be 
greatly  increased.  More  enterprise,  too,  in  seeking  new  markets  could  not 
fail  to  bear  fruit  in  finding  an  outlet  for  any  surplus  produced.  It  may 
here  be  mentioned  that  it  is  estimated  that  butchers  lose  at  present  from 
IS.  6d.  to  2s.  6d.  per  hide,  which,  at  a  modest  calculation,  represents  a  total 
annual  loss  of  about  i;"20,ooo  per  annum  to  Ireland.  This  is  only  the  direct 
loss ;  for  as  the  tanner  cannot,  with  the  material  at  his  command,  get  more 


412      THE  IRISH  LEATHER  AND  BOOT-MAKING  INDUSTRY. 

than  a  small  percentage  of  his  goods  classed  as  best,  most  of  his  production 
must  of  necessity  be  secondary  no  matter  what  excellent  tanning  may  be 
given  or  how  highly  finished  his  leather  may  be. 

Turning  again  to  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  it  must  be  noted 
that  there  are  at  this  moment  a  number  of  successful  boot  factories  in 
Dublin,  Belfast,  Cork,  Derry,  Waterford,  Ballymena,  Lisburn,  Mullingar 
and  Killarney,  equipped  with  modern  machinery.  They  produce  boots  and 
shoes  suited  to  the  requirements  of  this  country,  and  their  products  find  a 
ready  sale.  It  is  well  known  in  the  boot  trade  that  Irish-made  goods  are 
more  reliable,  and  so  they  command  a  better  price  than  those  made  abroad. 
It  is  also  satisfactory  that  although  any  increase  in  the  output  of  machine- 
made  boots  in  Ireland  is  slow,  it  is  nevertheless  going  on  steadily,  perhaps 
in  proportion  to  the  spread  of  knowledge  in  their  manufacture.  This 
success  is  a  guarantee  that  with  energy,  intelligence,  and  enterprise,  the 
boot-making  industry  could  be  largely  developed.  The  multiplication  of 
boot  factories  would,  of  course,  re-act  on  the  leather  industry,  and  thus,  in 
addition  to  keeping  in  the  country  the  money  now  spent  on  imported 
boots  and  shoes,  the  spread  of  this  industry  would  have  a  most  beneficial 
effect  on  the  Irish  tanning  trade. 


THE  BELFAST  LINEN  INDUSTRY.  413 


THE    BELFAST    LINEN    INDUSTRY, 

Whether  the  art  of  linen-making  was  carried  directly  from  Egypt  to 
Europe,  or  whether  it  was  introduced  by  weavers  from  Carthage  is  doubtful ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  linen  manufacture  was  first  practised  in  Ancient  Egypt. 
That  it  was  one  of  the  earliest  Egyptian  arts  is  proved  by  the  examination  of 
mummy  cloths  ;  and  the  fineness  of  many  of  these  wrappings  shows  that  a 
high  degree  of  skill  was  attained  in  linen  manufacture.  The  Egyptian 
cloth,  however,  differs  in  structure  from  modern  linen  ;  for  while  the  weft 
of  the  Egyptian  linen  often  counts  only  one-third  of  the  warp,  the  weft  of 
the  modern  material  generally  counts  as  many  threads  to  the  inch  as  the 
warp. 

It  is  said  that  the  Romans  introduced  linen-making  into  England  soon 
after  their  conquest  of  that  country ;  and  though  this  is  doubtful,  it  is 
certain  that  flax  culture  was  practised  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  Ireland 
from  an  early  date.  Indeed  by  the  Brehon  Laws  the  Irish  "  Brughairs  "  or 
farmers  were  obliged  to  learn  and  practise  flax  culture.  Flax  was,  how- 
ever, never  extensively  grown,  and  for  the  past  half  century  the  flax  crop 
area  has  shown  a  great  and  continued  decline.  In  i860  there  were  128,595 
acres  under  this  crop,  and  in  1864  the  area  so  cultivated  had  increased  to 
over  300,000  acres,  in  consequence  of  the  impetus  given  to  the  linen  trade 
by  the  scarcity  of  cotton  ;  but  this  increase  was  followed  by  an  immediate 
reaction,  which  has  since  continued,  despite  the  fact  that  the  moist,  mild 
climate  of  Ireland  is  well  suited  for  flax  growing.  The  area  under  this 
crop  reached  its  lowest  level  in  1898,  when  flax  was  grown  on  only  34,469 
acres.  In  the  following  year,  however,  there  was  an  increase  of  520  acres, 
and  in  1900  the  area  had  increased  to  47,451  acres.  In  1901  there  was  a 
further  increase  of  over  8,000  acres,  the  area  under  flax  in  that  year  being 
55,471  acres.  The  diminution  in  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  has  been 
attributed  amongst  other  causes,  to  the  large  supply  of  cheap  fibre  from 
Russia,  the  better  quality  of  the  Belgian  fibre,  and  the  consequent  unre- 
munerative  return  to  the  farmer  for  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  in  Ireland. 

As  is  well  known,  a  temperate  climate  appears  to  be  the  most  congenial 
to  the  production  of  a  strong  and  fine  fibre  of  flax.  We  are  sorry  to  say, 
that  though  our  chmate  does  its  duty  to  the  flax  plant,  our  farmers  do  not 
quite  equal  to  those  of  France,  Belgium,  or  Holland,  in  the  after  processes 
of  pulling  the  plant,  watering  and  scutching  it.  These  operations  have 
been  generally  conducted  in  Ireland  in  a  more  or  less  careless  manner, 
involving  a  great  loss  to  the  farmer  himself,  and  seriously  injuring  the  linen 
trade  of  the  country.  The  process  of  scutching  being  generally  conducted 
in  mills  driven  by  water-power,  often  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
farmer's  house,  the  unscutched  flax  has  to  be  carted  there,  and  remains  often 
for  months  unscutched  and  exposed  to  damage.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction 
is  conducting  experiments  in  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  manures  best  suited  for 
the  flax  plant.     These  two  essentials  in  the  successful  growth  of  flax  have 


414  THE  BELFAST  LINEN  INDUSTRY. 

not  always  received  the  attention  required.  The  system  of  retting,  or 
rotting,  in  dug-out  ponds,  is  primitive,  and  is  the  same  as  the  inferior  "  blue"' 
system  in  Belgium.  Double-retting,  in  a  slowly  running  river,  as  carried  to 
perfection  in  Belgium,  at  Courtrai,  in  the  river  Lys,  is  nowhere  practised 
(legally)  in  Ireland.  With  the  discovery  of  the  retting  bacterium,  and  the 
conditions  of  its  life,  by  Winogradsky,  it  is  hoped  that  some  artificial  system 
of  retting  may  be  commercially  possible  ultimately.  The  valuable  manures 
contained  in  the  retting  water,  and  the  flax  seeds,  so  useful  as  sources  of  oil, 
oil  cake,  and  manure,  are  at  present  generally  lost  in  Ireland.  An  inquiry 
instituted  in  igoo,  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruc- 
tion for  Ireland,  showed  that,  as  a  rule,  the  flax  seed  imported  (very  Uttle 
home-grown  is  used),  is  fairly  pure  and  of  good  germinating  power,  but  that 
it  is  inferior  in  weight,  indicating  that  the  seed  imported  is  not  allowed  to 
ripen  fully  in  the  field,  but  is  the  seed  taken  from  the  flax  plants  when  the 
fibre  is  at  its  best  for  textile  purposes,  and  before  the  plants  and  their  seeds 
are  quite  ripe.  The  linen  industry  of  Belfast  and  the  surrounding  district 
thrives  well,  but  its  supply  of  raw  flax  fibre  is  now  largely  continental. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  neither  the  cultivation  of  flax 
nor  the  manufacture  of  linen  appears  to  have  obtained  much  footing  in 
England,  as  it  was  then  a  question  whether  it  would  be  for  the  benefit  of 
the  country  or  not.  People  were  afraid  that  it  would  interfere  with  what 
was  called  "  our  noble  and  ancient  woollen  manufacture."  Though  twenty 
acres  of  land  were  required  to  obtain  wool  for  setting  to  work  the  same 
number  of  hands  which  an  acre  of  flax  would  employ,  yet  it  was  stated  that 
"  the  woollen  manufacture  would  be  found  to  employ  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  hands  in  the  end,  and  yield  the  most  profit  to  the  public,  as  well 
as  to  the  manufacturers."  On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in 
1685,  it  was  recorded  that  about  seventy  thousand  Protestant  artificers 
from  France  settled  in  England,  where  they  introduced  new  manufactures 
and  improved  old  ones.  Linen,  for  which  they  had  long  been  famous,  was 
among-  these  new  industries. 

In  the  history  of  Ireland  linen-making  is  very  similar.  The  industry  was 
carried  qn  from  an  early  time — it  was  certainly  practised  in  the  thirteenth 
century — and  in  the  fifteenth  century  linen  cloth  was  exported  to  England. 
In  this  connection  the  following  verse  from  an  old  work  written  about  1430, 
and  dealing  with  the  trade  of  Chester  is  interesting  :— 

"  Heides  and  fish — salmon,  hake,  herring — 
Irish  wool  and  linen  cloth,  faldinge 
And  marterns,  good  be  her  marchandie  ; 
Herts  hides,  and  others  of  venerie. 
Skins  of  otter,  squirrel,  and  Irish  hare, 
Of  sheepe,  lambe,  and  foxe,  is  her  chaffare,  &c.,  &c. 
Fells  of  hides  and  conies  great  plentie." 

We  know  too  that  O'Neill  and  the  other  Irish  chieftains  who  appeared  at 
the  court  of  Elizabeth  were  "  clothed  in  vestures  of  yellow  linen,"  but  it  was 
not,  however,  until  the  destruction  of  the  woollen  trade  that  linen-making 
assumed  any  importance  in  this  country.  In  1636  Strafford  brought  over 
Dutch  farmers  to  instruct  the  Irish  in  the  best  methods  of  flax  culture,  and 
though  his  efforts  were  doubtless  caused  by  his  desire  to  more  effectually 
kill  the  woollen  trade — by  supplanting  it — still  he  proved  his  sincerity  in 
wishing  the  linen  trade  well  by  investing  a  large  private  sum  in  the  project. 


THE  BELFAST  LINEN  INDUSTRY.  415 

In  1697  an  Act  was  passed  containing  various  enactments  intended  to  aid 
the  linen  industry.  King  William  III.  invited  Louis  Crommelin  and  twenty- 
five  Huguenot  families  to  come  from  Holland,  where  the  linen  trade 
flourished,  and  carry  on  the  industry  in  this  country.  In  1699  a  patent 
was  granted  to  Crommelin  declaring  that : — 

"  A  grant  of  £800  per  annum  be  settled  for  ten  years  as  interest  at  8  per 
cent,  for  ;^io,ooo  advanced  by  the  said  Louis  Crommelin  for  making  a  bleach- 
yard  and  holding  a  pressing-house,  and  for  weaving  and  cultivating  and 
pressing  flax  and  hemp,  and  making  provision  for  both  to  be  sold  and  ready 
prepared  to  the  spinners  at  reasonable  rates  and  upon  credit,  and  providing  all 
tools  and  utensils,  looms  and  spinning-wheels,  to  be  furnished  at  the  several 
costs  of  persons  employed,  by  advances  to  be  repaid  by  them  in  small 
payments  as  they  are  able  ;  advancing  sums  of  money  necessary  for  the 
subsistence  of  such  workmen  and  their  families  as  shall  come  from  abroad, 
and  of  such  persons  in  our  kingdom  as  shall  apply  themselves  in  families  to 
work  in  the  manufactories.  Such  sums  of  money  to  be  repaid  without  interest, 
and  to  be  repaid  by  degrees.  That  ^.200  per  annum  be  allowed  to  said  Louis 
Crommelin  during  pleasure  for  his  pains  and  care  in  carrying  on  said  work, 
and  that  .1^120  per  annum  be  allowed  to  three  assistants,  together  with  a 
premium  of  ^60  per  annum  for  the  subsistence  of  a  French  clergyman." 

Crommelin  started  the  linen  industry  at  Lisburn  and  at  Hilden  where 
Messrs.  Barbour's  famous  mills  now  are.  Under  his  wise  direction  the 
industry  flourished;  and  when  he  died  in  1727,  it  was  continued  and  in- 
creased by  his  nephews.  In  171 1  the  Linen  Board  was  appointed  to 
encourage  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  control  the  flax  and  hempen  manufac- 
tures of  Ireland.  The  Board  met  every  week  in  the  White  Linen  Hall  in 
Dublin,  now  the  Linen  Hall  Barracks,  and  was  entrusted,  until  its  dissolu- 
tion in  1828,  with  the  distribution  of  Parliamentary  grants,  which  varied 
from  ;^ 1 0,000  to  ;^3 3,000  a  year.  About  the  same  time,  the  Duke  of 
Ormonde,  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  with  the  intention  of  aiding  the 
industry,  directed  that  hat-bands  and  scarfs  of  /inen  should  be  used  at 
funerals  ;  and  this  custom,  though  it  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  is  not  yet 
extinct.  The  exports  of  Hnen  from  Ireland  in  1690  were  estimated  at 
300,000  yards,  and  had  increased  in  1720  to  2,400,000  yards,  valued  at 
i^ 1 00,000.  The  returns  kept  by  the  Linen  Board  from  1728  to  182T  show 
how  enormously  the  export  trade  developed.  In  1728  there  were  4,692,764 
yards  of  plain  linen  exported  ;  in  less  than  twenty  years  the  figures  were 
doubled;  in  1821  there  were  43,507,928  yards  exported.  In  1739  the 
export  of  linen  from  Ireland  amounted  in  value  to  over  ;^6oo,ooo.  In  the 
same  year  the  Brown  Linen  Hall  was  established  and  the  industry  became 
recognised  as  a  staple  one.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
the  industry  received  many  benefits  and  much  encouragement  from  the 
then  Earl  of  Donegall. 

The  linen  manufacture  increased  in  importance  until  the  latter  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  it  was  seriously  threatened  by  the  cotton  industry, 
and  about  the  year  1800  many  linen  makers  dropped  that  industry  and 
devoted  themselves  to  cotton-weaving.  However,  after  nearly  thirty  years 
of  great  prosperity — at  one  time  there  were  over  100,000  spindles  at  work — 
the  cotton  industr)^  began  to  decline,  and  when  the  spinning  of  flax  by 
machinery  was  introduced  it  rapidly  fell  into  decay ;  until  at  present  cotton 
manufacture  has  practically  ceased  to  exist. 


me 


THE  BELFAST  LINEN  INDUSTRY. 


Flax  Spinning. 


Flax  spinning  by  machinery  was  not  introduced  into  Ireland  until  shortly 
after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  in  the  first  five  years 
ending  December  31,    18 10,   bounties  amounting  to 
£g,6iS  had  been  paid  by  the  Government  for  the 
erection  of  6,369  flax  spindles,  and  preparing  machi- 
nery  for   different   manufacturers.       These    spindles 
^were  all  for  what  is  termed  "  dry  spinning,"  which  is  the  system  still  in  use 
in  some  places  where  coarse  yarns  are  produced  for  certain  classes  of  goods. 
On  the  introduction,  between  the  years  1825  and  1830,  into  Ulster  of  the 
■'  wet  spinning  "  process,  which  was  invented  by  Kay  and  Marshall  of  Leeds, 
.a  great  advance  was  made  in  spinning  the  finer  descriptions  of  linen  yarns. 
Since  that  time  the  trade  has  become  in  reality  a  national  one,  and  the 
linen  manufactures  of  Ireland  are  now  known  in  every  civilized  country. 
From  the  peculiarity  of  the  climate,  its  linen  can,  when  adequately  treated, 
"be  brought  to  a  snowy  whiteness,  which  no  other  country  can  equal.     From 
Russia,  Prussia,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  FrEince,  we  import  flax,  and  yet  to 
:all  these  countries  we  are  sending  our  yarns  and  linen.     Italy  and  Spain 
also  take  a  share  of  our  exports ;   and  had  the  people  of  Great  Britain  as 
great  a  taste  for  fine  linen  and  cambric  as  the  Spaniards,  our  home  trade 
would  be  trebled.     Linen  fabrics  are  really  cheaper  than  cotton  or  "  union '' 
•goods  when  the  greater  endurance  and  the  greater  beauty  of  the  texture  are 
taken  into  account. 

The  following  figures*  indicate  the  extent  of  the  linen  manufacture  in 
Ireland  for  the  past  twenty  years. 


Spinning  Mills. 

Power-loom  Factories. 

Years. 

Spindles 
employed. 

Spindle.s 
unemployed. 

Total 
Spindles. 

Years. 

Looms 
employed. 

1882,  . 

1883,  . 

1884,  . 

1885,  . 

1886,  . 

1887,  . 

1888,  . 

1889,  . 
1890, 
1891, 

1892,  . 

1893,  . 

1894,  • 

1895,  . 

1896,  . 

1897,  ■ 

1898,  . 

1S99,       • 

1900, 

1901, 

853,106 

816,334 
816,334 
810,456 
803,026 
803,026 
803,026 

827,451 
815,685 

827,451 

837,642     ! 

837,642 

846,642 

846,642 

846,642 

869,056 

846,100 

835,100 

835,100 

835,100 

20,136 

58,454 
50,454 
63,454 
70,754 
40,564 
27,561 

7-456 
11,766 

9,000 
9,000 

873,242 

874,788 

866,788 

873,910 

873,780 

843,590 

830,590 

830,907 

827,451 

827,451 

846,642 

846,642 

846.642 

846,642 

846,642 

869,056 

846,100  . 

835,100 

835,100 

835,100 

SbcA         Btitf 

1882,  . 

1883,  . 

1884,  . 

1885,  . 

1886,  . 

1887,  . 

1888,  . 
1S89,         . 
1890, 
189I, 
1892, 

1893,  . 

1894,  • 

1895,  • 
1896, 

1897,         • 
1898, 
1899,          . 
1900, 
I9OI, 

21,779 
23,676 

24,300 
24,300 
25,300 
25,000 
26,360 
26,592 
26,592 
28,233 
28,233 

28,733 
28,764 
29,000 
31,484 
31,484 
31-484 
31.484 
31.484 

■  These  figures  are  taken  from  the  "Belfast  and  Province  of  Ulster  Directory"  for  1902. 


THE  LONDONDERRY  SHIRT-MAKING   INDUSTRY.  417 


THE    LONDONDERRY  SHIRT-MAKING   INDUSTRY. 

The  shirt-making-  industry  of  Londonderry  succeeded  in  point  of  time 
two  other  industries,  which  deserve  more  than  a  passing  reference,  namely 
the  Linen  industry,  which  flourished  during  the  eighteenth  and  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  the  Sprigging  industry,  which  though  short-Uved, 
yet  filled  a  gap  between  the  decay  of  the  linen  mdustry,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  what  is  now  a  unique  and  progressive  industry. 

Sir  Robert  Slade,  Secretary  to  the  Irish  Society,  in  a  narrative  of  a 
journey  which  he  made  to  the  North  of  Ireland  in  the  year,  1 802,  says : — 

"  The  Linen  Market  of  Londonderry  forms  an  object  of  great  curiosity  ;  it 
is  held  twice  in  every  week,  and  lasts  for  two  hours  only,  within  which  short 
period  of  time  I  was  assured,  linens  were  purchased  in  single  webs  of  the 
manufacturers  to  the  amount  of  ;^5,ooo  and  upwards  in  ready  money. 
These  workers  do  not  reside  in  the  City,  but  are  dispersed  in  cabins  round 
its  neighbourhood,  where  they  have,  each  of  them,  a  few  acres  of  land,  for  the 
sake  of  keeping  a  cow,  and  raising  some  potatoes  and  flax,  and  for  which,  by 
means  of  their  looms,  they  are  enabled  to  pay  a  heavy  rent  ;  it  is  this  circum- 
stance of  the  Linen  manufacture  that  makes  the  Society's  lands  so  valuable. 
Each  man  brings  his  web  or  piece  of  cloth,  and  is  eager  to  lay  it  before  the 
factor,  the  bargain  is  made  or  rejected  in  a  few  seconds,  almost  in  a  whisper, 
and  the  linens  thus  purchased  are  conveyed  to  the  bleaching  grounds,  which 
add  great  additional  value  to  the  land."* 

From  the  above  narrative  one  can  imagine  what  a  sad  calamity  would  be 
the  decay  of  an  industry,  which  was  paying  i^  10,000  per  week  in  ready 
money,  for  labour  alone,  in  the  City  of  Derry  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Such  a  calamity  did  actually  occur,  and  it  synchronised  unfortunately  with 
the  decay  of  the  potato  crop. 

In  1840  the  Brothers  Lindsay  started  the  Sprigging  industry,  which, 
for  a  time,  gave  employment  to  a  considerable  number  of  females,  who  had 
been  thrown  out  of  employment  owing  to  the  decay  of  the  linen  industry. 
About  the  same  time  a  Mr.  William  Scott  started  a  shirt-making  factory 
in  a  street  where  the  Abercorn  and  Carlisle  Roads  have  now  their  junction, 
at  the  approach  to  the  Carlisle  Bridge.  Mr.  Scott's  first  order  for  shirts,  it 
is  interesting  to  note,  was  from  a  Mr.  McCarter,  to  send  to  a  son  in  Australia, 
who  was  in  business  there.  For  a  time  the  two  infant  industries  competed 
for  existence,  but  finally  shirt-making  held  the  field.  Soon  Mr.  Scott's  trade 
outgrew  his  accommodatioft  and  he  removed  to  Bermet-street,  where  he 
carried  on  an  ever  increasing  business,  and  was  paying  in  wages  for  hand- 
made shirts,  ;^500  per  week.  Mr.  Scott's  trade  continued  to  increase  by 
leaps  and  bounds  ;  his  business  prospered,  and  he  was  soon  able  to  retire. 
It  was  not  until  1850,  however,  that  shirt-making  assumed  any  great 
importance.     About  that  year,  however,  the  industry  took  a  new  phase  ;  for, 

*  "Concise  View  of  the  Irish  Society,"  p.  ccvi 

2  E 


418  THE  LONDONDERRY  SHIRT-MAKING  INDUSTRY. 


whilst  up  to  that  time  shirt-making  had  been  carried  on  chiefly,  if  not 
exclusively,  m  the  homes  of  the  peasantry,  after  1850  it  was  to  a  great  and 
gradually  increasing  extent  practised  m   factories   and  workshops   m   the 

towns. 

As  a  result  of  this  change  of  policy  the  trade  attained  great  importance, 
until  at  present  in  the  Counties  of  Londonderry,  Donegal  and  Tyrone — 
where  the  industry  chiefly  flourishes — there  are  not  less  than  80,000  persons 
engaged  in  shirt-making.  This  number,  of  course,  includes  the  great 
number  of  women  who  work  in  their  homes.  Indeed  Derry  City,  which  may 
be  called  the  capital  of  the  industry,  is  the  great  centre  from  which  the 
trade  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  Continent,  and  the  Colonies  is  supplied. 
Great  too,  as  the  industry  has  become,  it  is  still  growing ;  for  whilst  in  1870 
there  were  about  10,000  persons  employed  in  the  various  factories,  in  1897 
the  number  had  reached  13,000,  and  to-day  more  than  18,000  persons  are 
engaged  in  shirt-making  in  the  Derry  factories.  Moreover,  many  of  the 
manufacturers  complain  that  they  cannot  get  a  sufficient  number  of  workers. 
This  difficulty  is  to  some  extent  inherent  in  the  trade  itself,  for  this  reason — 
that  considerably  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  persons  engaged  are  females,  and  it 
is  always  difficult  to  get  a  large  supply  of  female  labour  unless  there  is  work 
in  the  neighbourhood  for  their  male  relatives.  In  this  respect  Derry  com- 
pares very  unfavourably  with  Belfast.  Belfast  is,  indeed,  singularly  fortunate, 
for  whilst  the  women  and  girls  are  employed  in  the  linen  trade,  the  males  of 
the  various  families  find  occupation  in  the  shipbuilding  and  allied  trades. 
Derry,  on  the  other  hand,  though  there  are  ship  yards  and  railway  works, 
cannot  provide  work  for  many  men. 

Some  details  as  to  the  position  of  the  workers  may  be  interesting.  Girls 
when  they  first  enter  the  factories  are  called  learners,  and  are  placed  under 
the  supervision  of  a  trained  worker ;  whilst  learning  their  trade  they  receive 
about  four  shillings  a  week.  Afterwards  when  they  become  proficient  they 
rank  as  full  paid  "  hands  "  and  their  earnings  depend  upon  their  skill  and 
energy.  After  about  six  months  a  girl  is  generally  able  to  earn  about  12s. 
a  week  ;  but  the  average  wage  does  not  much  exceed  nine  shillings  a  week. 
Usually  good  workers,  however,  frequently  earn  about  a  pound  a  week ; 
but  these  are  mostly  engaged  on  "  finishing."  It  may  be  mentioned  that  to 
earn  nine  shillings  a  week  a  girl  has  to  sew — with  a  machine  of  course — 
about  two  dozen  to  two  and  a  half  dozen  shirts. 

The  first  cost  of  a  shirt  of  average  quality  is  about  three  shillings  and 
sixpence,  of  which  about  two  shillings  and  sixpence  is  for  material  and  a 
shilling  for  labour.  The  latter  sum  paying  not  only  for  the  sewing,  but  for 
the  cutting  out,  finishing,  and  packing  for  transit  as  well. 

The  industry  is  divided  into  three  branches — first,  the  cutting  out  of  the 
material,  which  is  done  exclusively  in  the  factories  ;  secondly,  the  sewing, 
which  is  done  partly  in  the  factories,  but  largely  in  the  homes  of  the 
workers  ;  and  lastly,  the  laundry  and  finishing  for  market ;  this  last  opera- 
tion is  carried  out  wholly  in  factories,  and  is  the  best  paid  part  of  the  work. 
The  rural  workers  within  a  radius  of  five  miles,  carry  the  unmade  work  to 
their  homes,  and  when  made  up  return  it  to  the  factory,  where  they  are  paid 
for  the  work.  To  the  rural  stations  distant  from  eight  miles  to  thirty-five, 
the  unmade  work  is  conveyed  by  rail  or  horse  van  (mostly  by  horse  van), 
and  in  like  manner  conveyed  back  again  to  the  head  centre  (Londonderry). 
At  the  rural  stations  a  competent  examiner  receives,  and  pays  for  the  work 
v.'hen  returned  duly  made  up.     The  work  supplied  to  the  rural  stations  is 


/^. 


f</^ 


afL 


■  ^-    /^ 


I 


§1    II II  fill 


Ju 


TWO  TYl'ICAL  I.OXDOXDKIira'   SHIKT-MAKIXG  KACTOUIES 


i 


THE  LONDONDERRY  SHIRT-MAKING   INDUSTRY.  il9 


all  cut  out  in  dozens,  and  require  only  ta  be  put  together ;  therefore  the 
same  skill  is  not  required  in  the  rural  districts  as  is  required  in  the  city. 

The  following  short  account  of  some  of  the  chief  firms  engaged  in  the 
industry  may  be  not  uninteresting.  Soon  after  1850  two  Scotch  lads  arrived 
m  Londonderry,  and  established  themselves  there,  each  starting  a  factory 
for  shirt-making,  one  of  them  being  the  present  William  Tillie,  Esq.,  D.L., 
the  other  the  late  Adam  Hogg.  How  Mr.  TilHe's  business  has  increased 
from  small  things  may  be  seen  by  a  look  at  his  block  of  buildings  at  the 
city  end  of  the  Carlisle  Bridge,  whilst  the  business  of  the  late  Adam  Hogg 
has  also  become  very  extensive  ;  one  of  his  "  branches,"  which  extends  from 
Sackville-street  to  Great  James's-street,  is  126  feet  long  by  120  feet  wide, 
and  is  five  stories  high.  The  other  branch  is  one  of  the  largest  factories  in 
the  city,  having  a  frontage  of  309  feet,  with  a  breadth  of  about  78  feet, 
there  being  four  flats.  Ebrington  Factory  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  river.  The  newest  establishment  in  Derry  is  the  "  Star  Factory."  In 
the  erecting  of  the  "  Star  Factory,"  everything  that  money  and  brains  could 
do  for  tlie  proper  equipment  of  the  building  and  the  comfort  of  the  workers 
was  done.  Other  prominent  firms  are  those  of  A.  B.  Grant  and  Sons, 
and  Welch,  Margetson  and  Co. 

So  ably  guided  has  been  the  shirt  industry  of  Derry,  that  it  is  little 
wonder  that  it  has  increased,  as  it  has  done,  from  five  unpretentious  factories 
in  the  fifties  till  there  are  now  (including  laundries  engaged  in  the  shirt 
trade),  thirty-  eight  splendid  ones,  with  1 1 3  rural  branches^  paying  consider- 
ably over  ^300,000  per  annum  in  wages  alone. 

An  important  allied  trade  is  the  making  of  collars^  fronts  and  cuffs. 
This  industry  is  carried  on  in  Belfast  as  well  as  in  Derry,  and  in  the  two 
towns  over  60,000  dozen  of  collars,  fronts,  and  cuffs  are  made  each  week, 
representing  an  annual  value  of  over  ;^ 600,000. 


420  THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY. 


THE    MODERN    IRISH    LACE    INDUSTRY, 

Lace,  from  the  antiquarian  point  of  view,  has  furnished  a  subject  for  some 
learned  treatises ;  but  I  rather  desire  to  speak  of  the  various  laces  w^hich  are 
at  present  made  in  Ireland,  and  shall  only  refer  to  antique  examples  where 
it  IS  necessary  to  illustrate  varieties  of  lace,  or  show  differences  which  exist 
between  the  Irish  lace  and  that  from  which  it  may  be  said  to  have  been 
derived. 

True  lace  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  one  made  by  means  of  the 
needle,  and  called  "  needle-point  lace." 

Fig-.  I  is  from  a  piece  of  Italian  (Venetian)  needle-point  lace  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  pattern  is  floral,  and  very 
•   f  T  simple  in  its  character.     The  lace  has  that  peculiar 

Needle-point  Lace,  fl^^ness  which  is  observable  m  the  Venetian  needle- 
point laces.  Note  the  fine  ground  which  has  been 
made  altogether  by  means  of  the  needle.  The  open  work  contrasts  with 
this  ground,  and,  in  addition  to  forming  the  edge,  is  carried  at  intervals 
across  the  lace.  There  is  a  very  effective  hexagonal  filling  occurring  chiefly 
at  the  edge  ;  it  is  used  sparingly,  however,  and  affords  a  good  example  of 
the  restraint  exercised  by  the  old  lace-makers. 

The  other  class  of  lace  is  made  by  the  twisting  or  plaiting  of  threads  ; 

it  is  known  as  "  pillow  lace,"  or  sometimes  "  bobbin 

Pillow  Lace.  lace,"  from  the  fact  that  the  threads  are  twined  round 

small    bobbins    of    bone,  wood,  or  ivory.      In    both 

these  laces  the  whole  of  the  fabric  is  made  by  hand.     This  is  not  the  case 

in  the  so-called  Limerick  and  Carrickmacross  laces. 

Fig.  2  is  from  a  piece  of  Italian-Genoese  pillow  lace  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  pattern  consists  of  a  flowing  scroll  with  conventional  flowers 
and  leaves.  It  is  very  even  in  its  workmanship,  and  has  peculiar  raised 
portions  in  some  of  the  flowers.  It  is  not  cut  up  by  the  insertion  of  many 
fillings,  and  the  pattern  is  relieved  clearly  and  effectively  against  the  ground. 

The  needle-point  lace  is  at  present  commonly  subdivided  into  two  classes, 
flat  and  raised  needle-point ;  and  although  there  is  a  considerable  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  the  two,  yet  both  are  made  in  the  same  way,  that  is. 
by  means  of  the  needle,  the  raised  appearance  in  the  latter  being  obtained 
by  working  over  cords  of  varying  thickness. 

The  growth  of  lace-making  can  be  distinctly  traced  from  its  origin  in 
embroidered  linen.  At  first  portions  of  the  linen  were  cut  away,  leaving 
the  embroidery.  Threads  were  also  drawn  from  the  linen,  and  in  the 
spaces  so  formed  needlework  was  inserted.  In  order  to  avoid  the  trouble 
of  withdrawing  the  threads,  an  open  reticulated  ground  was  made  called 
"  lacis,"  and  upon  this  ground  little  devices  were  worked.  All  these  varie- 
ties were  found  in  use  at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  linen, 
as  a  basis,  v/as  gradually  dispensed  with,  and  the  tooth-shaped  borders 
(dentelles)  came  on  the  scene  as  the  first  appearance  of  true  lace. 


^< 


a-   c 
w  .2 

'a 


kk;.  ii.  -(;i;.\()ese  tillow  lace,  sevkntki;ntii  centiry. 
Museum  of  St-ience  and  Art,  Dublin. 


FIG.    III.— GKOS   I'OINT   I)E   VENISE,  Si:\  E.NII  .ICN  11 1    CENTrRY. 

Miiseiuii  of  Science  iind  Ait,  I)ul)liii. 


THE  MODERN    IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY.  421 


Thus  from  these  small  beginnings  were  gradually  evolved  in  response 
to  the  demands  of  fashion  the  wonderful  productions  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries. 

I  trust  my  lady  readers  will  pardon  me  for  saying  that  it  has  been  noted 
as  a  curious  fact  that  lace  showed  little  artistic  character  until  men  adopted 
the  fashion  of  wearing  it.  It  was  for  the  great  noble  and  the  prelate  that 
the  magnificent  specimens  of  "  Point  de  Venise  "  were  made  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  We  read  that  a  collar  made  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Venice  cost 
£60,  a  large  sum  of  money  at  that  time.  The  fashions  in  those  days 
changed  as  surely  though  rather  more  slowly  than  in  our  time  ;  and  the 
heavy  laces  were  gradually  supplanted  by  the  laces  having  meshed  grounds. 
As  men  wore  less,  women  wore  more  of  them,  and  so  laces  of  lighter  texture 
were  sought  after.  The  heavy  Venetian  points  gave  place  to  the  lighter 
"rose  point."  In  France  such  laces  as  the  "Points  d'Alencon "  and 
"  d'Argentan  "  and  many  other  subordinate  varieties  rose  into  a  position  of 
importance. 

Fig.  3  is  from  a  fine  specimen  of  Gros  Point  de  Venise  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  is  only  a  small  portion  of  the  collar  ;  the  design  is  composed  of 
fine,  bold  forms  peculiar  to  this  description  of  lace.  The  raised  portions 
give  an  effect  of  richness  ;  the  closeness  and  solidity  of  the  work  are  remark- 
able. The  fine  diapers  and  patterns  formed  by  small  holes  on  the  flowers 
and  leaves  are  wo-rthy  of  notice,  as  well  as  the  deUcate  cresting  which  sur- 
rounds some  of  the  forms.  There  are  very  few  "  brides  "  or  "  ties  "  ;  the 
ornament  is  so  designed  that  its  forms  mainly  support  each  other. 

Fig.  4  is  also  a  piece  of  needle-point  lace,  Venetian,  seventeenth  century. 
It  is  probably  a  little  later  in  period  than  the  preceding  specimen.  The 
forms  have  become  smaller,  and  more  delicate,  and  consequently  many  more 
brides  or  ties  are  required  to  hold  them  in  position.  The  workmanship  is  of 
the  choicest ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  greatest  triumphs  of  the  needle,  so 
far  as  craft  is  concerned,  have  been  attained  in  this  description  of  lace. 
From  the  numbers  of  httle  crestings  which  surround  the  forms,  suggesting 
the  shape  of  frost  or  snow^  crystals,  this  lace  has  frequently  been  called 
Point  de  Neige.  At  the  right  side  of  the  figure  it  may  be  noticed  that  the 
pattern  is  constructed  on  a  vertical  line  and  is  symmetrical,  from  thence 
branching  off  into  scrolls  which  play  over  the  surface.  These  symmetrical 
portions  occur  at  regular  intervals. 

Flanders  had  almost  always  restricted  herself  to  the  manufacture  of 
pillow  lace.  It  seems  to  have  been  introduced  from  Italy  about  1536,  and 
so  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Flemings  that  they  were  soon  recognised 
as  the  chief  producers  of  this  lace.  At  the  present  time  the  lace  makers  of 
Bruges,  in  common  with  those  at  many  other  places  in  Belgium,  may  be 
seen  busily  engaged  in  the  production  of  pillow  lace. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  piece  of  Brussels  pillow  lace  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  pattern  is  floral,  composed  of  sprays  which  intertwine  with  the  meander 
VN'hich  separates  the  two  grounds.  There  are  also  small  detached  sprays. 
This  contrast  of  a  fine  with  a  coarser  ground  is  very  effective,  and  may  be 
seen  in  the  earlier  French  needle-point  laces.  It  is  well  to  note  how  spar- 
ingly the  fillings  are  used  in  all  these  antique  laces. 

Fig.  6  represents  a  border  of  Mechlin  lace,  of  possibly  an  early  date. 
The  forms  are  large,  and  rather  clumsily  drawn.  The  pattern  would  seem 
to  have  been  made  for  an  insertion  rather  than  a  trimming  border,  as  the 
ornament  does  not  form  the  edge. 


422  THE  MODERN   IRISH  LACE   INDUSTRY. 

It  may  be  of  some  interest  to  describe  briefly  the  method  of  making  lace. 

In  needle-point  lace  the  pattern  is  carefully  drawn 

T  f   rf         upon  a  piece  of  glazed  calico,  parchment,  or  paper ; 

Jjace-maKing.        ^^^   former  is   commonly  used   in   the   present  day. 

This  is  laid  upon  a  piece  of  calico  and  the  pattern  is 

carefully  outlined  or  "  traced,"  as  it  is  termed  by  the  worker  with  a  thread  ; 

this  thread  is  the  framework  or  skeleton  on  which  the  lace  is  made.     When 

the  work  is  completed,  the  lace  is  released  from  the  calico  by  cutting  with  a 

sharp  knife  between  the  two  pieces.     In  large  pieces  of  work  considerable 

skill  is  required  in  so  cutting  up  the  patterns  into  different  pieces,  to  be 

made  by  different  workers,  that  they  can  be  easily  joined  together  in  such 

a  manner  as  not  to  exhibit  the  line  of  junction.     In  some  of  the  meshed 

hexagonal  grounds  of  modern  French  lace  this  is  done  in  a  truly  surprising 

manner,  not  the  least  appearance  of  a  joining  being  visible. 

In  pillow  lace  the  pattern  is  drawn  (preferably)  on  a  piece  of  parchment. 
It  is  then  pricked  over  by  an  expert,  and  placed  upon  the  cushion  ;  in  each 
of  the  holes  a  fine  pin  is  inserted,  and  upon  the  pins  the  threads  are  plaited 
and  twisted  by  means  of  the  hands  ;  the  various  methods  of  twisting  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  holes  resulting  in  the  varieties  of  grounds  and 
finings.  Children  commence  to  learn  pillow  lace-making  in  Belgium  at  the 
age  of  five  years. 

In  the  year  1883  the  Cork  Exhibition  was  held,  and  I  had  the  honour  of 
a  seat  on  the  Executive  Committee  of  that  under- 

Improvement  in  taking.  As  part  of  my  duty,  I  went  to  South  Ken- 
Design,  sington  to  ask  for  a  loan  collection  from  the  Museum. 
In  conversation  with  General,  now  Sir  John  Donnelly, 
K.C.B.,  he  mentioned  the  fact  that  Mr.  Alan  S.  Cole  intended  paying  a 
Aasit  to  Limerick  in  the  summer  of  that  year,  and  delivering  two  lectures  on 
lace-making,  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  an  advantage  if  Cork  had  the 
-opportunity  of  hearing  these  lectures  also.  I  promised  to  bring  the  matter 
before  the  Committee  on  my  return.  On  doing  so,  they  heartily  agreed 
with  the  suggestion,  and  Mr.  Cole  was  invited  to  deliver  two  lectures  on 
lace-making  in  the  Exhibition  building.  Lace,  embroidery,  plain  and  fancy 
needlework  formed  an  important  section  of  the  Exhibition,  and  almost  all 
the  convents  in  the  South  of  Ireland  were  exhibitors.  I  proposed  to  Mr 
Cole  that  we  should  have  a  walk  through  the  Lace  Section  of  the  Exhibi- 
tion. We  noticed  the  excellence  of  the  work,  so  far  as  the  use  of  the  needle 
was  concerned,  and  found  it  combined  with  poverty  of  design  and  very  bad 
drawing.  The  result  of  our  conversation  was  that  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  improve  the  character  of  the  design  and  the  quality  of  the  drawing ;  and 
as  a  commencement  it  was  decided  that  a  letter  should  be  sent  to  the  con- 
vents which  had  exhibited,  asking  them  whether  they  would  be  willing  to 
£rant  an  interview  to  Mr.  Cole  and  myself  in  order  that  we  might  have  a 
talk  about  the  necessity  which  existed  for  such  an  improvement,  and  if  they 
thought  well  of  it,  that  some  arrangement  might  be  made  by  which  the 
■convents  should  form  classes  for  instruction  in  drawing  and  design. 

In  the  early  spring  of  1884  visits  were  made  to  several  convents  which 
liad  replied  favourably,  and  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Cole  I  submitted  a 
scheme  to  the  Department  by  which  I  might  commence  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion to  these  convent  classes.  It  was  to  be  a  system  of  peripatetic  teaching, 
if  I  may  so  call  it.  I  was  well  aware  that  in  many,  if  not  all  the  convents, 
there  were  ladies  who  had  received  a  certain  amount  of  art  education,  which 


■k;.  IV.    ■•sNow-i'oi.NT,    VENETiAX,  SK\K.\ii:i:.vn I  ii:niii^>v. 
^Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Dublin. 


Klli.  \'.      BKLSi^ELS  I'lLLUW   l.At'E,    EIliHTEKXTlI  CENTL'ItV. 

Museum  of  Science  and  Art.  Dublin. 


FIG.   VI.      MECHLIN  PILLOW    \..\(K. 

Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Dublii 


kk;.  \  it.    om)  ki.a'I'  i'oint. 
Presentation  C'on\eiit,  Youglial. 


THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY.  423 


only  wanted  direction  in  order  to  produce  good  results  ;  and  knowing  this 
I  proposed  the  formation  of  classes  which  should  be  taught  by  certain  of  the 
Sisters,  who  would  themselves  commence  a  course  of  study  which  would 
enable  them  to  qualify  for  the  Art  Class  Teacher's  Certificate.  I  was  to 
visit  each  class  once  a  month,  inspect  the  work  done  by  pupils  and  nuns, 
lecture,  give  directions  as  to  the  work  for  the  ensumg  month,  and  generally 
guide  their  efforts. 

The  course  of  study  which  I  adopted  was  as  follows : — During  the  first 
year  they  should  practice  freehand  drawing  from  the  flat,  and  geometrical 
drawing ;  second  year,  model  drawing,  ornament  from  the  cast,  and  the 
practice  of  making  working  drawings  from  photographs  of  antique  lace,  cor- 
recting the  form  when  necessary  ;  third  year,  drawing  plant  form  from  nature, 
and  designing  patterns.  The  Science  and  Art  Department  approved  of 
this  scheme,  and  the  first  class  was  commenced  at  the  Convent  of  Mercy, 
Kinsale,  followed  immediately  by  a  class  at  the  Convent  of  Poor  Clares, 
Kenmare.  Before  two  years  had  elapsed  there  were  classes  in  operation  at 
Killarney,  Tralee,  Youghal,  Thurles,  Skibbereen,  and  St.  Vincent's  and 
Blackrock  Convents,  Cork.  My  idea  was  that  a  class  of  designers  should 
be  formed  in  each  centre,  with  the  work-roora  in  close  proximity,  so  that  it 
would  be  possible  to  make  trial  pieces  from  the  designs.  This  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  order  to  judge  of  the  effect  of  a  piece  of  lace.  ^  have  been 
informed  by  M.  Lefebure,  the  great  lace  manufacturer  in  Paris,  that  he  has 
sometimes  had  as  many  as  five  trial  pieces  made  from  a  design  before  the 
result  could  be  considered  satisfactory.  This  ideal  of  mine  was  realised  in 
some  instances,  notably  at  Kenmare  and  Kinsale. 

The  Committee  of  the  Cork  Exhibition  gave  a  sum  of  i^200,  and  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  an  equal  amount,  for  the  purchase  of  good 
specimens  of  antique  lace  ;  and  thus  a  small  but  valuable  collection  was 
formed.  In  order  to  make  this  available  to  the  classes,  I  arranged  a  system 
of  circulation  by  which  each  convent  had  a  frame  containing  one  or  more 
pieces  of  lace  on  loan  for  a  month,  and  thus  they  had  an  opportunity  of 
studying  from  the  entire  collection. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  Convent  Classes  we  had  endeavoured 
to  form  a  small  class  of  designers  at  the  School  of 
Difficulties  in         Art,  Cork,  with  the  object  of  supplying  designs  for 
Lace  Designing,      lace   and   crochet   to   those   centres   which   were  not 
sufficiently  advanced  to  make  their  own  designs.     I 
selected  a  few  of  the  advanced  students,  and  set  them  to  copy  from  the  lace 
in  the  loan  collection  which  hung  in  the  Exhibition  ;  at  the  same  time  they 
made  themselves  acquainted  with  the  technicality  of  lace-makmg,  and  the 
limitations  of  the  material,  by,  in  several  cases,  actually  learning  how  to 
make  the  lace  for  which  they  were  designing.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  for 
me  to  remark  that  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  absolutely  impossible  for  any  student, 
no  matter  hov/  clever  he  may  be,  to  make  successful  designs  without  fully 
comprehending  the  limitations  of  the  material  in  which  the  design  is  to  be 
carried  out.     I  have  several  times  had  to  combat  an  idea  which  is  enter- 
tained by  some  ;   that  is,  if  a  large  class  of  artisans  is  taught  drawing,  it  is 
possible  to  make  them  all  proficient  at  design.       Like  the  poet,  a  good 
designer  cannot  be  made.     A  notable  instance  occurs  to  me.     I  remember 
two  ladies,  sisters,  who  had  studied  together  ;  both  drew  equally  well  from 
the  cast  and  from  nature,  and  had  passed  through  all  the  elementary  work 
creditably.     They  informed  me  that  they  wished  to  learn  designing  for  lace. 


424  THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY. 

I  set  them,  for  about  a  month,  to  make  working  drawings  from  photos,  of 
old  lace,  restoring  the  good  drawing,  and  studying  the  construction  of  the 
pattern.     At  the  expiration  of  that  time,  I  gave  them  a  space  o'  two  inches 
wide  between  two  horizontal  lines,  and  told  them  to  make  a  design  for  a 
border  for  needle-point  lace,  using  any  arrangement  they  pleased.     One 
sister  had  a  very  good  design  made  in  a  few  hours  ;  the  other  sat,  day  after 
day,  over  the  paper  for  nearly  a  month  without  producing  anything.     At 
the  end  of  that  time,  she  told  me  she  thought  it  would  be  well  for  her  to 
give  up  the  idea  of  designing — a  conclusion  in  which  I  thoroughly  concurred. 
But  if  you  cannot  make  designers  to  order,  there  is  no  doubt  the  practice  of 
drawing  will  improve  anyone  who  has  to  use  head  and  hand.     As  an  illus- 
tration of  the  truth  of  this,  in  the  Convent  at  Kinsale  there  is  a  large  indus- 
trial school  for  girls  ;    when  they  commenced  to  make  the  description  of 
lace,  which  is  known   as  Limerick    lace,    but    which,  as  I   have  said,  is 
really  an  embroidery  on  net,  a  teacher  was  engaged  who  had  made  lace  in 
the  Convent  some  thirty  years  before,  but  who  had,  on  the  decline  of  the 
industry,  married  and  settled  in  Kinsale.     The  little  girls  who  were  selected 
to  learn  lace-making  had  been  taught  to  draw,  and  it  was  pointed  out  to  the 
lace  teacher  that  this,  no  doubt,  would  help  them,  but  she  rather  ridiculed 
the  idea.     She  said  that  when  she  was  taught  lace-making,  there  was  no 
drawing  taught,  and  she  could  not  see  the  necessity  for  it ;    she  said  the 
workers  were  compelled  to  "  stab,"  as  she  expressed  it,  for  about  three 
months,  a  needle  through  a  piece  of  calico  on  which  a  pattern  had  been 
traced,  and  she  proposed  to  commence  this  course  with  the  children.     It 
was  explained  to  her  that  this  had  been  necessary  for  the  reason  that  the 
workers  had  not  been  taught  to  draw,  and  that  she  would  discover  that  the 
girls  who  were  to  commence  lace-making  with  her  would  have  no  difficulty 
in  following  a  pattern.     Reluctantly  and  unbelievingly  she  consented  ;  and, 
to  her  astonishment,  found  that  it  was  perfectly  true.     She  discovered  that 
the  children  could  follow  a  pattern  rather  better  than  she  could,  and  that 
she  need  only  teach  them  how  to  form  the  different  fillings.     She  sent  her 
daughter  at  once  to  the  class  to  learn  drawing,  and  had  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  her  become  one  of  the  best  designers  in  the  class,  where  she  still 
remains.     Visitors  to  the  Horse  Show,  Dublin,  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
seeing  work  designed  by  this  girl,  and  produced  in  the  Convent,  which  has 
more  than  once  carried  off  the  highest  prize  awarded  there. 

I  now  propose  to  point  to  some  of  the  varieties  of  lace  which  have  been 
made  in  Ireland  since  the  establishment  of  these  Art  Classes,  contrasting 
them,  in  one  or  two  instances,  with  specimens  of  an  earlier  date.  Needle- 
point lace  of  the  flat  description  is  made  at  the  Convent  of  Poor  Clares, 
Kenmare  ;  the  Presentation  Convent,  Youghal ;  and  at  the  Convent  of 
Mercy,  New  Ross. 

Fig.  7. — Here  is  a  specimen  of  old,  flat  needle-point  from  Youghal.      I 

consider  this  a  most  instructive  example,  because  it 

V     dli  1  r  shows  clearly  how  much  depends  upon  good  construc- 

°  *        tion  and  good  drawing  in  a  lace  design.     You  can  see 

plainly  that  there  is  no  idea  of  construction  in  this 

design,  each  portion  is  independent,  there  is  no  growth  in  the  pattern  ; 

observe,  on  the  left  hand,  how  a  stem  appears  to  come  out  of  the  side  of  a 

four-sided  form,  which  may  have  been  intended  to  represent  a  flower.     On 

the   right-hand   .side,  where  there  was   a  difficulty  in   forming  the  edge, 

leaves    have    been    inserted    which    do   not   grow   from   any   stem,    and 


-M<jui;i;x  FLAT  POINT,  ruKsKXTArioN  coxvExr,  youuiia: 


^^mmiKi^smmm'^mm 


\^^^-r^ 


4.  ^. 


SAS 


f^^i< 


♦■♦     ♦♦     ♦•*     'T 


*^A 


€ 


.i 


x'yV 


FIG.   IX.      MODERN   ItAISED   NEEDLEPOINT,  VOUGHAL. 


FIG.    .\.      MODERN   FLAT   NEEDLEPOINT,  CONVENT  OF  POOR  CLARES,  KEX.MARE. 


via.   XI.      BIRR  I-ILLOW  CASE. 


FIG.   XII.      Ol.l)  I.I.MEKK'K  TAMKOIR   LACE, 


1<H:.   Xlll.      MODERN    l.I.MEKICK  TAMBOIR    I, ACE 


/  or  THE 

'     UNIVERSITY 


THE  MODERN   IRISH  LACE  INDUST«^klfomii^>^  425 


in  two  places  the  edge  is  actually  formed  by  the  ground.  It  looks  as 
if  the  separate  portions  had  been  taken  from  different  designs,  and  put 
together  on  the  paper  in  a  perfectly  haphazard  fashion,  and,  indeed,  this  is 
the  way  in  which  many  such  designs  were  made.  Novelty  was  obtained  by 
sometimes  borrowing  a  spray  or  two  from  an  old  wall  paper  and  inserting 
them  into  the  body  of  the  design.  Again,  look  at  the  drawing  of  the  forms, 
leaves  of  various  kinds  grow  from  the  one  stem,  worm-like  forms  are  intro- 
duced, and  fillings  are  inserted  without  any  proper  idea  of  their  value.  The 
gound  is  without  regularity.  In  fact,  the  whole  design  shows  the  debase- 
ment of  form  in  a  most  complete  manner,  and  illustrates  what  really  took 
place  in  days  gone  by,  when  designs  were  traced  again  and  again  on  tissue 
paper,  by  those  w^ho  had  never  learned  to  draw,  until  the  original  form  was 
lost,  and  a  medley  of  meaningless  shapes,  such  as  you  see  before  you,  was 
the  result. 

Fig.  8. — Now  turn  to  this  specimen  of  modern  flat  needle-point  from  the 
same  place.  The  lace  is  used  to  trim  a  handkerchief,  which  is  a  square. 
The  border  is  wide  in  relation  to  the  handkerchief,  but  that  is  in  conse- 
quence of  the  dictates  of  fashion  ;  sometimes  the  borders  are  very  narrow, 
sometimes  wide.  You  can  at  once  see  that  there  is  construction  in  this 
design,  the  corners  are  symmetrical,  and  are  formed  on  the  diagonals  of  the 
square,  as  centre  Hnes,  while  the  diameters  of  the  square  again  bisect  the 
forms,  which  appear  in  the  centre  of  each  side.  I  say  nothing  as  to  the 
talent  of  the  designer,  but  here  is  evidence  that  thought  has  been  at  work. 
There  is  a  mixture  of  conventional  with  natural  forms,  which  has  been  well 
managed,  one  contrasting  with  the  other,  and  the  eye  is  carried  pleasantly 
round  the  border,  with  sufficient  accent  on  the  places  where  centre  lines 
would  occur.  The  effect  gained  by  running  the  leaves  with  the  cambric  is 
good,  as  it  helps  to  unite  the  border  with  the  centre  of  the  handkerchief. 
The  little  arch-like  arrangement  of  flowers  in  the  centre  of  each  side  is  well 
conceived,  as  it  leads  the  eye  from  the  edge,  at  the  corners  of  the  hand- 
kerchief, up  into  the  centre,  and  then  down  to  the  opposite  corner,  thus 
giving  a  pleasing  line.  The  forms  are  well  drawn,  the  curves  are  true,  the 
fillings  are  perhaps  a  little  too  freely  used,  but  the  ground  is  very  much  more 
regular  than  in  the  last  example.  After  a  study  of  these  two  patterns,  I 
am  sure  you  will  agree  with  me  that  there  is  some  value  in  good  drawing^ 
and  design,  and  that  it  is  not  without  reason  so  much  has  been  said  as  to  the 
necessity  for  both. 

Fig.  9  is  also  an  example  of  the  improvement  which  has  taken  place  in 
the  designs  for  Youghal  lace.  This  is  a  cuff  of  slightly  raised  needle-point ; 
the  forms  are  accentuated  by  the  raised  outline  w-hich  adds  brightness  ta 
the  lace.  The  design  is  good  ;  and  one  can  see  at  a  glance  that  there  is  no 
haphazard  throwing  together  of  the  forms  in  this  instance,  but  that  the 
whole  arrangement  has  been  carefully  thought  out  Observe  that  although 
the  general  arrangement  is  symmetrical  the  severity  of  such  an  arrange- 
ment has  been  mitigated  by  the  leaf  which  crosses  the  centre  line,  and  hides 
the  curve  at  the  end  of  one  of  the  cornucopias.  The  forms  are  well  drawn,  the 
small  enrichments  on  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  managed 
with  judgment,  and  the  bars  or  ties  are  well  arranged,  and  sufficiently 
enriched  with  picots.  On  the  whole,  I  consider  this  specimen  fit  to  rank 
with  many  of  the  antique  laces,  both  as  regards  workmanship  and  design. 

Fig.  10  represents  a  flounce  of  needle-point  lace  from  Kenmare.  The 
design  is  very  elaborate  and  rich  in  details.     A  ribbon  flows  in  a  scroll-like 


426  THE  MODERN  IRISH  LACE  INDUSTRY. 

manner  along  the  lower  portion  of  the  flounce  in  part  forming  the  edge  ; 
and  at  the  top  we  have  a  narrower  ribbon  which,  in  places,  appears  to  loop 
•over  the  engrelure  ;  small  garlands  and  bouquets  of  flowers  are  attached  to 
this  ribbon. 

The  conventional  ornament  which  separates  the  fine  hexagonal  meshed 
ground  from  the  tied  or  barred  portion  is  carefully  drawn  and  well  arranged  ; 
it  contrasts  successfully  with  the  sprays  and  flowers  which  are  tossed  about 
in  lines  of  playful  growth.     The  workmanship  is  excellent. 

Raised  needle-point,  better  known  as  Inishmacsaint  lace,  is  made  at  Miss 
Maclean's  Class,  Benmore,  Enniskillen.  It  is  also  made  at  Miss  Keane's 
Class,  at  Cappoquin,  County  Waterford,  and  at  New  Ross  Carmelite  Con- 
vent, at  Youghal,  and  at  Kenmare. 

Pillow  lace  is  made  at  the  Convent  of  Mercy,  Birr,  and  was  made  until 
lately  at  Miss  Elwood's  Class,  Cong,  County  Mayo,  and  to  a  small  extent  at 
Golden  Bridge  Convent. 

Fig.  1 1  is  a  specimen  of  a  pillow  lace  trimming  made  at  Birr.     I  do  not 

think  it  fairly  illustrates  the  excellent  work  done  at  that  lace  centre.     The 

design  is  not  quite  satisfactory.     The  forms  seem  to  be  rather  large  for  th? 

depth  of  the  border.     There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  of  construction  in  the 

pattern ;  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  one  great  advantage  which 

hand-made  has  over  machine-made  lace  is  that  the  repeat  need  not  be 

short,  as  it  must  of  necessity  be  in  the  latter.     In  this  border  the  repeat  3o 

much  too  short,  and  so  the  lace  becomes  monotonous.     The  ties  are  not 

well  arranged,  and  the  forms  are  not  remarkable  for  beauty  of  drawing. 

Limerick  lace,  which  is  an  embroidery  or  net,  is  of  two  varieties,  "  run  " 

and  "  tambour."     It  is  made  at  Mrs.  Vere  O'Brien's 

_ .        •  V  T  Class,  and  elsewhere  in  Limerick.     This  lace  is  also 

liimeric        ace.       j^^de  at  the  Dominican  Convent,  Cabra,  at  Kinsale, 

and  at   Golden   Bridge    Convent.       To    Mrs.    Vere 

^O'Brien  the  Limerick  lace  workers  owe  a  great  deal.     Were  it  not  for  her 

sustained  eff^orts  to  benefit  the  workers  during  some  years  past,  the  industry 

in  that  locality  would  have  fallen  into  a  state  of  complete  decay. 

Mrs.  Vere  O'Brien  was  one  of  the  first  to  perceive  the  value  of  change  of 
pattern,  and  the  Cork  School  of  Art  was  indebted  to  her  for  many  encourag- 
ing orders  for  designs. 

Fig.  12  is  an  example  of  old  Limerick  tambour  lace.  The  pattern  con- 
sists of  a  rather  violently  twisted  spray,  and  an  edge  of  detached  blossoms 
which  follow  one  another  in  a  monotonous  fashion.  The  design  is  not 
unsuitable  to  Limerick  tambour  work,  and  no  doubt  was  highly  prized 
before  the  days  of  machine-made  lace.  One  cannot  but  feel,  however,  that 
there  is  not  sufficient  variety ;  any  such  which  may  exist  is  gcdned  by  the 
alternation  of  a  tall  and  short  spray  of  the  same  description  of  foliage.  The 
remarks  which  I  have  before  made  on  the  variety  which  may  be  gained  in 
hand-made  as  opposed  to  machine-made  work  are,  I  think,  equally  well 
exemplified  in  this  illustration. 

Fig.  13. — Modern  Limerick  tambour  lace.  The  pattern  is  well  suited 
to  this  description  of  lace.  The  trailing  arrangement  of  the  sprays,  tied  in 
places  with  bows  of  ribbon,  and  the  strings  of  pearls  combine  to  impart 
grace  and  lightness  to  the  design.  Large  forms  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  well 
rendered  in  this  lace,  and  small  forms,  in  order  to  be  effective,  require  to  be 
separated  from  one  another. 

pig.  14  is  an  example  of  modern  Limerick  run  lace.     The  design  is  based 


'V  V.:.5S^ 


iN    f 


^'^"'^^^fi 


J'v       «~ 


^*> 


FIG.   XV.     OLD  APPLIQUE,  CARRICKMACROSS. 


KIG.   XVIIL     SKETCH  OF  FAN  DESIGN. 

By  Miss  Alice  Jacob 


THE  MODERN   IRISH  LACE   INDUSTRY.  427 

upon  the  idea  which  one  so  often  sees  in  Brussels  laces,  and  which  has  per- 
haps become  a  little  tiresome  from  its  too  frequent  repetition  ;  that  is,  a 
separate  conventional  border  in  which  fillings  are  introduced,  surmounted  by 
sprays  or  garlands  of  leaves  and  flowers.  I  think  a  certain  stiffness  of 
treatment  exists  where  the  curves  above  the  three  flowers  in  the  border  are 
attached  to  the  curves  of  the  conventional  ornament.  In  Limerick  run- 
work,  there  is  always  a  squareness  of  form  which  should  be  taken  into 
account  in  designing  for  it ;  and  forms  which  depend  for  effect  upon  the 
beauty  of  their  curves  are  likely  to  suffer  in  their  translation  into  run  lace. 
The  garlands  of  leaves  and  flowers  are  well  arranged,  and  work  satis- 
factorily. 

Carrickmacross  lace  is  made  at  the  Bath  and  Shirley  School,  Carrickma- 
cross,  at  Crossmaglen,  and  the  surrounding  districts. 
Carrickmacross       It  is  of  two  kinds,  "  applique  "  and  "  guipure."     It  is 
Lace.  not  a  true  lace,  as  the  work,  which  in  needle-point 

would  be  called  the  "  tight-work,"  and  which  is  made 
with  the  needle,  consists,  in  Carrickmacross  lace,  of  cambric.  The  ground, 
also,  where  it  is  "  applique  "  is  a  net  ground.  Very  pleasing  effects,  how- 
ever, are  obtained  l3y  the  use  of  needle-point  filhngs,  brides,  or  ties,  etc. 
Combinations  of  guipure  and  applique  varieties  have  been  tried  with  com- 
siderable  success. 

Fig.  15  is  an  example  of  old  Carrickmacross  applique  on  net.  The  first 
thing  that  strikes  one  is  the  shortness  of  the  repeat,  which  is,  as  I  before 
stated,  a  characteristic  of  machine-made  lace,  and  results  in  monotony. 
The  edge  is  simple,  made  up  of  a  series  of  small  petals,  placed  side  by  side. 
Observe  the  absence  of  construction  in  the  pattern,  which  consists  of  one 
large  three-lobed  leaf,  joined  to  a  spray  containing  leaves  of  a  quite  dif- 
ferent character.  There  are  also  three  detached  flowers  which  apparently 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  spray  nor  with  one  another.  The  practice  of 
cutting  away  the  centre  of  the  leaf  and  inserting  a  filling  was  very  much  in 
vogue  with  the  Carrickmacross  lace-makers  in  former  days.  I  think  it  was 
most  objectionable  ;  no  doubt  it  arose  from  a  desire  to  give  relief  to  the 
leaf  by  making  a  cut  showing  the  place  of  the  midrib  ;  this  was  quite  per- 
missible, but  workers  who  knew  nothing  about  the  midrib  of  the  leaf,  its 
position  or  shape,  cut  avv'ay  the  surface  of  the  leaf  until  a  mere  fringe  of 
cam-bric  was  left,  and  the  leaves  presented  the  appearance  of  having  been 
eaten  away  in  the  centres. 

A  considerable  improvement  has,  however,  taken  place,  as  will  be  seen  by 
reference  to  Fig.  16,  two  lappet  ends  of  modern  applique.  The  design  and 
workmanship  of  these  are  admirable  ;  you  can  notice  the  graceful  climbing 
arrangement  of  the  ornament  constructed  for  a  surface  which  is  to  hang 
v^ertically.  The  midrib  of  the  leaf  is  better  expressed  than  m  the  pre- 
•ceding  example,  less  of  the  surface  has  been  cut  away.  The  design  is  based 
upon  the  arrangement  which  is  seen  in  many  of  the  old  lappets  of  the 
•eighteenth  century.  Richness  is  obtained  by  using  the  fillings  in  panels 
formed  by  the  ornament,  and  monotony  is  prevented  by  the  alternation  of 
the  fillings.  Observe  the  good  drawing  of  the  flowers  and  leaves,  and  the 
well  rendered  curves  of  the  stems.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the 
right-hand  lappet,  at  the  bottom  of  which  a  well  drawn  spray  reflects  great 
credit  upon  both  designer  and  worker. 

Fig.  17  represents  a  portion  of  a  border  of  modern  Carrickmacross 
guipure.     In  this  lace,  portions  of  the  cambric  and  net  are  completely  cut 


428  THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY. 

away,  and  bars  or  ties  are  inserted.  The  design  consists  of  a  combination 
of  conventional  with  floral  forms :  the  edge  is  formed  by  an  arrangement  of 
flowers  placed  side  by  side  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  festoon.  There  is  a 
certain  quaintness  about  the  treatment  of  the  pansies  which  is  not  unpleas- 
ing.  Perhaps  the  only  objectionable  portion  of  the  arrangement  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  stem  starts  from  the  second  flower  at  the  left-hand 
side  (fig.  I7«).  The  difficulty  of  concealing  the  starting-point  of  stems  is 
one  that  has  constantly  to  be  dealt  with  in  designing.  In  this  case  I  cannot 
but  think  that  it  would  have  been  better  to  have  frankly  accepted  the  start- 
hig-point ;  a  small  space  might  have  intervened  not  only  without  detriment 
to  the  design,  but  with  a  positive  advantage  to  the  construction  and  flow  of 
the  curve. 

Fig.  1 8. — Perhaps  it  may  interest  you  to  see  the  preparation  of  a  design. 
Here  is  a  photograph  taken  from  the  first  rough  sketch  of  the  design  for 
Fig.  19.  After  the  shape  of  the  fan  has  been  laid  down,  the  leading  lines  of 
the  pattern  are  sketched  in  v/ith  charcoal ;  these  are  observable  on  the 
right  side  of  the  figure.  As  soon  as  the  leading  lines  are  arranged,  the 
designer  sketches  in  with  charcoal  the  masses  and  chief  features  in  the 
design.  Then,  with  a  brush  and  some  sepia,  the  design  is  advanced  a  step 
further,  as  shown  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  illustration,  all  the  forms  in 
which  have  been  drawn  at  once  by  means  of  the  brush.  Lastly,  an  accurate 
outline  is  made  from  this  sketch,  and  forms  the  working  drawing  which  is 
handed  to  the  worker. 

Fig.  19  is  a  photograph  from  the  finished  fan.  It  is  a  combination  of 
applique  and  guipure,  and  has  worked  out  most  successfully.  The  design, 
which  is  very  good,  M'as  made  oy  Miss  Jacob  of  the  MetropoHtan  School 
of  Art. 

Greek  lace  (so  called)  is  made  at  Miss  Keane's  Class,  Mrs.  Montgomery 
Stewart's  Class,  Strabane,  and  at  Killarney  Presentation  Convent.  It 
resembles  the  earlier  forms  of  lace  and  is  a  true  needle-point.  It  is  often 
used  for  insertions,  and  sometimes  for  trimmings. 

Cut  linen  work  is  made  at  the  Convent  of  Mercy,  Kinsale. 

Crochet  lace  has,  for  many  years,  been  an  important  cottage  industry. 

Some  years  ago  the  demand  for  this  lace  in  the  South  of  Ireland  was  very 

great,   and   several   persons   made   large   fortunes   by 

Crorhpt  La  on         dealing  in  it.     I  have  been  assured  by  a  traveller  for 

one  of  the  large  houses  in  Cork  that,  at  the  flourishing 

period  of  the  trade,  he  could  have  sold  ten  thousand 

pounds'  worth  of  crochet  in  one  day  if  he  had  had  the  material  with  him. 

The  result  of  this   demand  was  that  the  crochet-workers  became   mere 

producing  machines.       No  attention  whatever  was  paid  to  pattern,  and, 

after  a  few  years,  people  refused  to  buy  such  a  carelessly  made  fabric. 

Crochet  lace  is  always  received  with  favour  in  Paris,  where  it  is  known  as 

"  Point  d'Irlande."     I  have  been  told  by  M.  Lefebure  that  Irish  crochet  has 

a  peculiarly  distinctive  character,  which  it  is  impossible  to  imitate  on  the 

Continent ;    and  that  if  the  lace  became  really  fashionable,   and  proper 

attention  was  paid  to  the  effects  which  might  be  produced  in  it  by  careful 

supervision,  it  was  still  possible  to  make  it  one  of  the  leading  and  most 

attractive  of  laces. 

It  is  interesting  to  endeavour  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  peculiar  forms 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  antimacassars  of  bygone  days.  The  original 
patterns  were  derived  from  specimens  of  Venetian  rose-point,  but  they  have 


p 


KIG.   XVI.      -MODERX  AFVLIQUE,   CARKICK.MACKOSS. 


FIG.   XVII.      MODERN  CARRICKM ACROSS  GUIPURE. 


FIG.   XVII((.      MODERN   CARRICKMACROSS  GUIPURE. 


THE   MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY.  429 


become  so  degraded  as  to  be  with  difficulty  recognizable.  Until  lately,  one 
of  the  great  obstacles  to  the  improvement  of  the  crochet  industry  has  been 
to  find  workers  capable  of  translating  crochet  pattern  into  work.  Give  a 
worker  a  piece  of  made  crochet,  and  she  will  have  no  difficulty  m  copying  it, 
while  she  will  probably  find  it  impossible  to  work  from  a  drawing.  When  I 
visited  Clones  a  few  years  ago,  I  could  only  hear  of  one  worker  who  could 
make  crochet  from  a  paper  pattern.  I  am  happy  to  say  that  some  improve- 
ment has  taken  place  in  this  respect.  The  work  produced  in  different 
districts  varies  in  character.  That  made  m  the  South  of  Ireland  is  more 
open,  and  contains  larger  forms  than  the  northern  crochet.  The  Clones 
■crochet  is  very  beautiful,  has  a  distinctive  character,  and  is  in  my  judgment 
capable  of  great  development.  The  chief  centres  for  crochet  making  are 
Cork,  Youghal,  Kinsale,  Crosshaven,  Clones,  Ardara,  and  several  other 
places,  where  it  is  made  in  small  quantities. 

Fig.  20  is  a  border  of  old  crochet.  This  example  does  not  exhibit  the 
•degradation  of  form,  of  which  I  have  just  spoken,  to  the  same  extent  as  one 
may  see  it  exhibited  in  the  large  antimacassars  or  pieces  of  ecclesiastical 
crochet  of  former  days.  Many  of  the  old  crochet  forms  were  evidently 
derived  from  Venetian  or  Spanish  rose-point ;  and  owing  to  the  facts  thai 
the  designer  could  not  draw,  nor  the  worker  render  them  properly,  they 
gradually,  but  surely,  deteriorated  into  the  unmeaning  shapes  observable 
in  crochet.  In  this  lace,  the  forms  are  made  separately  by  the  worker,  and 
the  practice  has  been,  as  I  have  myself  witnessed,  for  the  worker  to  take  a 
large  sheet  of  brown  paper  cut  to  the  size  of  the  flounce  or  trimming,  and  on 
this  to  scatter  crochet  forms,  keeping  them  pretty  evenly  distributed :  they 
were  then  secured  to  the  paper,  and  joined  by  a  ground  made  in  imitation  of 
the  ties  or  bars  seen  in  the  rose-point  lace.  There  was  no  serious  attempt 
at  arrangement,  and  such  principles  of  ornament  as  repetition,  alternation, 
■etc.,  were  not  considered. 

The  piece  illustrated  is  a  border  made  up  of  a  curious  trefoil-shape  sus- 
pended from  a  horizontal  bar,  having  a  pattern  at  one  end.  This  is  appa- 
rently meant  for  a  stalk  carrying  a  leaf  and  a  flower ;  then  there  are  three 
shapes,  which  I  think  are  intended  for  flower  forms,  on  the  ends  of  stems 
which  project  with  great  energy  from  a  common  centre.  The  only  attempt 
at  arrangement  appears  to  be  that  of  alternation,  when  the  trefoil  is  below, 
the  three-armed  form  is  above,  and  vice  versa.  I  am  sure  you  will  recognise 
this  style  of  crochet  pattern  as  one  that  was  in  vogue  for  many  years.  Now 
turn  from  it  to  Fig.  21,  which  also  exhibits  a  border,  made  at  Ardara  from 
an  improved  design.  There  is  no  difference  in  the  method  of  working  ;  the 
forms  are  made  separately  as  in  the  former  instance,  secured  in  their  places 
on  the  pattern,  and  the  ground  worked  between  them.  The  edge  of  the 
border  is  carefully  considered  ;  the  small  scolloped  forms  are  well  rendered. 
We  have  the  principles  of  alternation  and  radiation  exhibited  in  this  pattern 
Observe  the  six  little  trefoils,  they  are  well  made  and  arranged.  One  feels 
instinctively,  on  looking  at  this  pattern,  that  thought,  order,  method  have 
all  been  at  work  in  the  preparation  of  the  design.  The  ground  is  more 
carefully  rendered  than  in  the  preceding  example ;  the  weight  of  the 
pattern  is  at  the  edge  of  the  border;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  ties  are 
lighter,  cloudiness  of  effect  in  the  ground  is  prevented,  and  greater  contrast 
between  the  ground  and  pattern  is  secured. 

Fig.  22  is  an  example  of  New  Ross  crochet,  which  is  made  up  of  simple 
forms,  and  yet  exhibits  the  richness  to  be  secured  when  these  forms  are 
well  arranged  with  due  regard  to  contrast.     The  edge  is  made  up  of  small 


430  THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY. 

trefoils  similar  to  those  used  in  Fig.  21.  The  heart-shaped  forms  contain 
ornaments  which  alternate,  thus  preventing  monotony ;  and  above  these, 
six-leaved  flowers  or  -parterce  alternate  with  floral  forms  arranged  on  the 
diagonals  of  a  square.  These  heart-shaped  forms  are  difficult  to  render 
properly  in  crochet.  Forms  which  depend  upon  beauty  of  curve  alone,  such 
as  scrolls,  etc.,  cannot  be  well  rendered  in  crochet,  and  should  be  avoided, 
or  only  introduced  when  excellently  made  ;  even  then,  the  bars  or  ties 
frequently  pull  them  out  of  shape  when  the  piece  of  work  is  released  from 
the  pattern.  In  this  specimen  the  ground  is  prettily  enriched  by  the  use  of 
little  star-like  forms  which  occur  at  the  junction  of  the  bars,  a  device  which 
may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  Venetian  laces  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Fig.  23.— This  collar  of  Cork  crochet  affords  another  example  of  the 
effect  which  may  be  secured  by  good  arrangement.  There  is  evenness  of 
distribution,  the  forms  are  well  shaped,  and  have  evidently  been  carefully 
made  from  good  drawings.  Observe  the  pretty  effect  gained  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  seven  star-shaped  forms  which  occur  on  each  side  of  the 
conventional  ornament  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  collar,  also  the  well 
arranged  sprays  which  compose  so  well  into  the  angles  at  top  and  bottom 
of  the  illustration.  The  Cvdging  also  is  worthy  of  notice  ;  the  small  five- 
leaved  stars  suspended,  as  it  were,  by  chains  from  the  edge  have  a  rich 
effect.  The  barring  is  well  arranged,  and  the  forms  have  been  put  together 
with  great  care,  testimony  to  which  is  borne  by  the  photograph,  inasmuch  as 
it  has  been  taken  directly  from  the  lace. 

It  would  be  very  remiss  of  me  not  to  mention  the  efforts  which  have  been 

made  for  the  development  of  the  lace  industry  by  Mr. 

Efforts  to  dpvelon     -^^^^^  S-  Cole.     He  has  given  considerable  time  and 

attention    to    this    question.     To    him    was    due    the 

the  Industry.  formation  of  a  Committee  in  London,  in   1885,  the 

raising  of  subscriptions  for  the  purpose   of  offering 

prizes  for  good  designs,  and  the  giving  of  orders  to  the  lace  centres  for 

pieces  to  be  made  from  these  patterns.     In  this  way  the  sum  of  ^^500  was 

expended.     From  1884,  Mr.  Cole  paid  visits  once  or  twice  a  year  to  the 

most  important  centres,  in  order  to  report  on  their  progress,  and  spur  them 

on  to  fresh  exertions.     I  rejoice  to  say  that  these  visits,  after  having  been 

discontinued  for  the  past  three  or  four  years,  have  now  been  resumed,  for  i 

well   know   what   a   stimulating   effect  they   had  upon   both   workers   and 

designers. 

To  the  Countess  of  Aberdeen  great  credit  is  due  for  her  practical  efforts 
to  help  this  along  with  other  industries.  After  Air.  Ben  Lindsey's  death, 
she  purchased  76,  Grafton-street,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  lace 
centres  to  have  an  opportunity  of  disposing  of  their  work ;  and  those  who 
know  of  its  working  can  testify  to  the  fact  that,  if  the  shop  had  closed, 
serious  injury  to  the  lace  trade  would  have  resulted. 

There  is  ample  reward  for  willing  workers.  The  Royal  Dubhn  Society, 
by  its  annual  exhibition  of  Art  Industries  at  Ball's  Bridge  (in  which  lace 
takes  such  a  prominent  part),  and  the  liberal  prizes  it  offers,  is  doing  its 
utmost  to  stimulate  efforts  and  draw  public  attention  to  good  work.  It  is 
spending  over  £200  per  annum  for  this  purpose. 

The  Committee  of  the  Branchardiere  Fund  devotes  the  whole  of  the 
income  arising  from  the  interest  of  that  fund  to  the  following  purposes : — 
It  gives  aid  towards  the  cost  of  trial  pieces  of  lace  made  from  new  patterns ; 
it  gives  rewards  to  the  workers  of  those  pieces  of  lace  and  crochet  which 


Oh     ^- 


^     M 


KIG.   XX.      OLD  CROCHET   LACK. 


FIG.  XXI.      MODERN  CROCHET  LACE. 

Ardara,  Co.  Donogal. 


FIG.   XXII.      -MODKKX  CROCHET   LACE,    .N'liVV  JiOSS. 


THE  MODERN   IRISH   LACE   INDUSTRY.  431 


obtained  prizes  at  the  Royal  Dublin  Society's  exhibition ;  it  gives  grants  to 
enable  iace  mistresses  and  workers  to  obtain  technical  knowledge  m  lace- 
making,  drawing,  and  design ;  and  it  makes  purchases  from  the  designs 
exhibited  at  Ball's  Bridge,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  those  designs  to  the 
lace  makers.  Thanks  to  this  fund,  there  is  thus  a  regular  system  estab- 
lished by  which  it  seems  to  me  that  lace  centres  have  facilities  for  improve- 
ment which  they  never  before  possessed.  Any  lace  centre  may  write  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Branchardiere  Fund  (Irish  Industries  Association,  Dublin), 
for  a  design  for  some  particular  lace.  Aid  will  be  given  towards  the 
expense  of  making  a  trial  piece  from  that  design.  The  Royal  Dublin 
Society  affords  the  means  of  placing  that  lace  before  the  public,  and  gives  a 
reward  to  the  lace  centre  if  the  lace  should  prove  its  superiority.  And, 
lastly,  the  workers  who  make  the  piece  of  lace  receive  rewards.  There  is 
thus  a  continuity  of  action,  which,  if  properly  availed  of,  must,  I  think,  con- 
tribute largely  to  success. 

Having  said  so  much,  there  are,  it  seems  to  me,  two  questions  which  we 
may  fairly  ask :  firstly,  is  the  revival  of  Irish  lace-making  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  lead  to  permanent  results  ?  secondly,  is  it  worth  while  endeavouring  to 
compete  with  machine-made  lace  ?  In  answer  to  the  first,  I  am  of  opinion 
that  much  good  has  resulted  from  the  revival ;  the  character  of  the  lace  has 
been  distinctly  and  admittedly  improved.  One  need  only  look  carefully  at 
the  hand-made  lace  exposed  in  the  shop  windows  and  at  the  Horse  Show  at 
Ball's  Bridge  in  August  of  each  year  in  order  to  see  this,  but,  as  to  the  per- 
manency of  the  movement,  I  confess  to  some  apprehension.  Owing  to  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  Convent  classes  in  which  lace  is  chiefly  made, 
and  their  isolation  from  the  centres  of  industry,  there  is  always  a  danger  of 
their  falling  behind  in  the  struggle  for  perfection.  I  do  not  think  their 
efforts,  of  late,  have  been  marked  by  the  same  persistency  as  in  former 
years.  They  are  easily  discouraged,  and  require  constant  incitement  to 
fresh  enterprise.  The  supervision  of  the  needle-working  in  the  Convent 
classes  is  no  doubt  carried  out  by  the  nuns  who  have  charge  of  the  work- 
rooms, and,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  lace  mistresses  in  the  districts  where 
laces  are  made  in  the  worker's  homes  ;  but  I  am  not  referring  to  this,  which 
is  the  purely  technical  part  of  lace-making.  I  refer  rather  to  the  supervision 
which  makes  itself  acquainted  with  the  demands  of  the  market,  which  takes 
care  thai  none  but  the  best  patterns  shall  be  used,  and  that  these  shall  be 
constantly  changed,  that  the  lace  made  shall  be  even  in  quality,  and  of  the 
best  materials,  that  all  bad  work  shall  be  rejected,  and  that  the  requirements 
of  fashion  shall  be  attended  to.  This  is  the  kind  of  intelligent  supervision  to 
which  I  refer  ;  and  one  which,  if  it  succeeded  in  gaining  the  confidence  of 
the  various  lace  centres  throughout  Ireland,  would,  I  believe,  be  productive 
of  great  results. 

In  answer  to  the  second  question,  I  am  of  opinion  that  machine-made 
lace  will  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  many  ;  but  there  will  always  be  a  certain 
number  of  people  who  will  appreciate  and  demand  the  hand-made  article. 
I  think  that  the  existing  lace  centres  are  quite  adequate  to  supply  the 
present  demand  for  hand-made  lace.  Of  course  no  one  can  say  what  the 
dictates  of  fashion  may  require  in  the  future.  But  the  hand-made  article 
may  never  expect  to  keep  its  place  in  the  market,  unless  it  can  prove  its 
superiority  to  the  machine-made  work.  The  machine  has  no  soul ;  here  is 
where  the  advantage  of  the  woiker  comes  in  ;  the  worker  can  put  thought 
and  intelligence  into  every  form  if  she  feels  a  perfect  interest  in  what  she  is 


432 


THE  MODERN   IRISH  LACE   INDUSTRY. 


doing.  If  she  is  merely  a  lace-producing  machine,  with  no  desire  to  express 
beauty  of  form  in  the  material,  then  the  machine  is  bound  to  conquer,  for  it 
will  certainly  out-nval  her  in  accuracy  and  neatness.  There  is  at  the 
moment  a  revival  in  the  demand  for  hand-made  work  in  many  industries, 
and  all  hand-workers,  no  matter  m  what  material,  must  remember  that 
thought  and  feeling  can  be  expressed  as  well  by  the  stiff,  unyielding  metal 
as  by  the  pliant  and  supple  thread  when  they  pass  under  the  worker's  hand  •' 
and  that  without  this  thought  and  feeling  their  work  is  a  dead  thing  and  it 
were  better  that  it  had  never  been  attempted. 


Irish  Spinniiis;   VVheel. 


FIG.   XXIII.     CORK  CROCHET. 


f--'-^t-rA---  If    liT'lMi'lt  k'^'lli 


lii  iii'iiiiiiiiiBl 


Gcoigina  Sutton. 


DESKiNS   FOR   11  A.\I>KF,HCIIIEK.S  -  XKKDI.K.l'OINT   LACK. 

fork.!Mnnifi])al  Sthool  oi  Art. 


THE    MARKETING    OF    IRISH    LACE.  433 


THE    MARKETING    OF    IRISH    LACE, 

The  workers  in  Irish  lace  have  had  till  recently  many  difficulties  in  reach- 
ing a  market  worthy  of  their  work.  Some  of  the  finest  fabrics  are  produced 
by  country  girls,  who  ply  their  needle  in  very  modest  cottage  homes,  and 
who  often  give  to  lace-making  only  the  hours  which  they  can  spare  from 
their  labour  on  their  father's  farm.  The  guipure  and  applique  of  Louth  and 
Monaghan,  the  beautiful  crochet  of  Monaghan,  Armagh,  and  Fermanagh, 
are,  in  large  part,  manufactured  under  these  conditions.  And  many  of  the 
workers  who  have  been  introduced  to  the  industry  under  the  especially  able 
guidance  of  Mr.  Walker,  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board,  are  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  same  difficulties.  It  is  often  a  matter  of  wonder  to  those  who 
have  looked  into  the  conditions  of  the  industry,  to  find  spotless  pieces  of 
exquisite  work  delivered  from  homes  which  seem  oddly  out  of  keeping 
with  these  dainty  products.  The  point  lace  of  Youghal,  Kinsale,  and  other 
centres  is  produced  in  much  more  favourable  circumstances.  The  industry 
is  here  promoted  by  communities  of  nuns,  and  the  workers  have  the 
advantage  of  a  clean,  well-lighted  workroom  ;  though  in  these  centres,  also, 
much  of  the  work  is  done  in  the  homes  of  the  workers. 

Where  the  officers  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board  are  the  guides  of  the 
workers,  the  marketing  of  the  lace  is  duly  provided  for.  The  workers  are 
not  only  instructed  in  the  methods  of  industry  and  supplied  with  suitable 
designs,  their  work  is  also  sent  to  the  best  markets,  and  they  receive  the 
full  market  value  of  their  products.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  work 
done  in  the  larger  convents  which  have  established  the  industry  on  a  suc- 
cessful basis.  But  in  remote  country  districts  the  supply  of  designs  was, 
till  recently,  both  antiquated  and  madequate,  and  the  lace  was  sold  to  some 
shopkeeper  in  the  nearest  country  town  who  had  trade  connections  with  the 
shops  or  wholesale  dealers  of  Dublin,  Belfast,  or  London.  The  remunera- 
tion of  the  workers  was  not  determined  by  the  competition  of  a  wide 
market,  and  they  suffered  accordingly.  There  were  other  disadvantages 
incidental  to  dealing  with  a  shopkeeper  who  was  first  a  trader  in  grocer's 
or  other  wares,  disadvantages  which  may  be  hinted  at,  but  need  not  be 
further  explained. 

The  Irish  Lace  Depot,  established  in  Dublin  by  the  late  Mr.  Ben  Lindsey, 
did  much  for  the  marketing  of  Irish  lace,  and  helped  largely  to  the  improve- 
ment and  development  of  the  industry.  In  Mr.  Lindsey's  time,  the  institu- 
tions and  the  individual  workers  connected  with  him  had  a  ready  and  remu- 
nerative market  for  their  work.  I  am  acquainted  with  one  institution  which 
sent  all  its  supplies  of  point  lace  to  his  Depot,  and  w^hich  was  able  to  pay 
i^i,500  a  year  in  wages  to  its  workers.  But  after  Mr.  Lindsey's  death  this 
outlet  for  Irish  lace  became  sadly  ineffective.  A  few  years  after  his  death, 
the  institution  to  which  I  have  referred  had  much  difficulty  in  paying  ;£"6oo 
or  £700  a  year  to  the  same  body  of  lace-makers. 

2  F 


434  THE    MARKETING    OF    IRISH    LACE. 

Lady  Aberdeen  in  her  efforts  to  revive  the  decaying  industries  of  Ireland, 
had  opportunity  of  discovering  what  the  gradual  decline  of  the  Lace  Depot 
meant  for  the  lace  industry.  She  was  about  to  leave  Ireland  for  Canada, 
but  before  leaving  she  took  a  step  which  has  had  a  remarkable  influence  on 
the  fortunes  of  the  Irish  lace  industry.  She  purchased  the  Lace  Depot  and 
its  remaining  stock,  and  entrusted  the  business  which  it  carried  on  to  a  few 
gentlemen  who  were  associated  with  her  in  her  philanthropic  undertakings. 
From  her  home  in  Ottawa  she  kept  up  communication  with  her  representa- 
tives in  Ireland,  and  by  her  advice  and  co-operation  largely  helped  to  the 
success  which  they  achieved. 

After  a  fev/  years  Lady  Aberdeen  and  her  helpers  formed  themselves 
into  a  limited  liability  company,  in  order  to  put  their  lace  trade  on  a  strictly 
business  footing.  The  company  was  somewhat  peculiar  in  its  constitution 
and  methods.  All  the  shareholders,  seven  in  number,  were  directors, 
each  of  them  held  a  smgle  £i  share ;  and  the  articles  of  association  pro- 
vided that  no  dividend  should  be  paid  on  the  shares,  and  that  all  profits 
should  be  employed  by  the  directors  to  develop  the  lace  industry  in  Ireland 
and  improve  the  condition  of  the  workers. 

At  the  same  time  that  Lady  Aberdeen  was  carrying  out  this  scheme, 
Mr.  Horace  Plunkett  and  his  associates  were  spreading  the  knowledge  of 
co-operative  methods  and  organising  co-operative  societies  in  the  rural 
districts  of  Ireland.  Co-operative  associations  of  laceworkers  were  formed 
early  in  the  movement,  and  these  increased  in  number  and  efficiency  as  the 
movement  spread  and  took  firmer  and  firmer  hold  of  the  country.  In  these 
co-operative  societies  the  directors  of  the  Lace  Depot  found  steady  sources 
of  supply.  Instruction  could  be  readily  given  to  bodies  thus  organised, 
the  execution  of  large  orders  could  be  counted  on,  and  the  development  of 
a  trade  constantly  increasing  in  volume  and  value  become  possible.  The 
organisation  introduced  by  the  Congested  Districts  Board  coincided  with 
the  growth  of  co-operation,  and  helped  to  the  same  end. 

To  co-operative  societies  of  lace-workers  and  to  other  organisations  of 
lace-workers,  the  Depot  supplied  designs.  From  these  and  from  the 
Schools  of  the  Congested  Districts  it  took  the  lace,  when  manufactured,  at 
market  prices,  and  sold  it  in  the  best  markets  accessible,  and  after  defraying 
expenses  and  providing  for  the  interest  on  borrowed  capital,  gave  the 
societies  of  workers  a  bonus  proportionate  to  the  value  of  the  lace  they  had 
supplied.  It  furthermore  paid  the  salary  of  a  teacher  for  those  organisa- 
tions which  were  unable,  without  this  assistance,  to  procure  competent  in- 
struction in  lace-making.  How  its  operations  under  these  several  heads 
have  grown  since  the  date  of  its  establishment  in  1893-4  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures : — 

Sales.         Grants  to  Workers. 


1895, 

A.230 

— 

i8g6, 

£^,227 

— 

1897, 

^^6,904 

£So 

1898, 

£7^937 

£Ss 

1899, 

£ihi3o 

;^250 

1900, 

i^23,i49 

;^400 

The  development  of  the  Irish  lace  industry  which  the  operations  of  the 
Lace  Depot  have  effected  have  called  into  existence  other  agencies  of  distri- 


THE    MARKETING   OF    IRISH    LACE. 


435 


bution,  which,  by  enlarging  the  market  have  rendered  competition  more 
active.  The  sales  carried  out  in  London  by  the  Irish  Industries  Associa- 
tion, of  which  Lady  Cadogan  is  now  President,  have  largely  contributed  to 
introduce  Irish  lace  to  favourable  markets.  With  twenty-three  co-operative 
societies  of  lace-workers,  sixteen  successful  schools  under  the  Congested 
Districts  Board,  and  large  numbers  of  unorganised  workers  furnishing  an 
abundant  supply,  and  the  Lace  Depot  and  other  agencies  opening  the  way 
to  the  market,  the  prospects  of  the  lace  industry  in  Ireland  are  distinctly 
hopeful. 


436  A  NOTE  ON  THE  POPLIN  OR  TABINET  INDUSTRY. 


A   NOTE    ON    THE    POPLIN    OR   TABINET 
INDUSTRY. 

The  early  history  of  poplin  making  is  unknown  ;  indeed  the  origin  of  the 
name  itself  is  doubtful.  For  while  some  derive  it  from  an  old  French  verb 
se  popiner,  "  to  deck  oneself  out,"  others  associate  its  name  with  the  town  of 
Poperingen,  where  tliey  say  it  was  first  made.  Others  again  assert  that  the 
word  comes  from  papeline,  which  name  they  say  was  given  to  a  fabric  of 
much  the  same  character  made  at  Avignon  during  the  residence  of  the 
Popes  in  that  city.  In  Ireland,  however,  its  history  presents  few  difficulties. 
Like  linen-making  and  silk-weaving  it  owes  its  origin  here  to  the  Edict  of 
Nantes.  Many  Huguenots  settled  in  Dublin,  and  in  1693  we  hear  of 
poplin-making  in  the  "  Liberties,"  which,  as  is  well  known,  was  at 
one  time  an  important  part  of  the  city,  but  which,  when  the  refugees  took  up 
their  residence  there,  was  already  falling  into  decay.  Such,  however,  was  the 
energy  of  the  Huguenots  that  the  district  became  a  hive  of  industry  and 
soon  became  too  small  for  its  inhabitants.  New  streets  were  built,  and 
Spitalhelds,  the  Coombe,  Pimlico,  and  Weavers'  Square  were  crowded  with 
silk  and  poplin-makers.  As  the  names  of  the  localities  would  suggest, 
many  of  the  weavers  came  from  England — where  they  had  first  settled — 
because  of  the  greater  prosperity  of  the  silk-weaving  industry  in  Ireland. 
The  poplin  trade  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  the  "  Liberties  "  and 
its  surroundings  became  one  of  the  most  prosperous  parts  of  the  city.  It 
may  be  mentioned  here  that  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Irish  poplin  manu- 
facturers was  one  of  the  well-known  family  of  La  Touche. 

In  1800,  the  invention  of  the  Jacquard  loom  revolutionised  the  silk 
industry  and  did  much  also  to  help  poplin-making.  At  this  time,  however, 
the  heavy  import  duty  on  the  raw  material  was  a  great  drawback  to  the 
trade.  The  duty  was  ys.  yd.  a  pound  on  foreign  "  thrown  silk,"  ^s.  on  raw 
Bengal  silk,  and  3^'.  6d.  a  pound  on  all  other  kinds  of  raw  silk.  In  1826 
this  duty  was  much  lessened,  but  it  still  affected  the  industry  very  adversely, 
by  encouraging  the  smuggling  of  foreign  goods. 

Poplin  is  a  fabric  composed  of  worsted  made  from  the  finesc  description 
of  wool  and  silk  in  combination.  The  fabric  is  so  woven  that  the  surface 
is  altogether  pure  silk,  while  firmness  is  given  to  the  material  by  the  wool 
in  the  interior.  Poplin  is  of  three  kinds,  single,  double,  and  "  terry."  The 
first  two  are  so  alike  that  few  can  tell  them  apart,  the  difference  being  in 
the  quality  of  the  silk  used  in  the  "  warp."  The  third  is  corded  and  is  the 
kind  that  is  most  associated  with  the  general  idea  of  Irish  poplin.  The 
various  processes  of  making  require  great  skill  and  watchfulness,  which 
is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  peculiar  trade  customs  which  exist. 
For,  whilst  most  industries  are  open  to  all  who  wish  to  engage  in  them,  the 
Dublin  poplin-makers  refuse  to  allow  anyone  who  has  not  served  a  seven 
years'  apprenticeship,  or  who  is  not  the  eldest  son  of  a  poplin-maker,  to 
work  as  a  poplin-weaver. 


A  NOTE  ON  THE  POPLIN  OR  TABINET  INDUSTRY.  437 


Though  most  of  the  silk  used  in  popHn-making  is  of  foreign  manufacture, 
the  Dubhn  weavers  succeed  in  treating  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
Irish  pophn  a  distinct  fabric.     Indeed,  though  pophn  is  made  both  in  France 
and  at   Norwich,  no   makers  but   the   Irish   seem   to   be   ab^e   to   produce 
the  softness  of  texture  and  brilHance  of  colouring  that  is  so  characteristic  of 
the  best  poplin.     The  beauty  of  the  colour  of  Irish  poplins  has  been  attri- 
buted by  some  to  a  peculiarity  of  the  Dublin  water,  but  it  is  much  more 
likely  that  it  is  due  to  the  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  Irish  makers.    Though 
poplin  was  at  first  almost  exclusively  made  in  the  homes  of  the  workers, 
there  are  now  several  factories  engaged  in  poplin-making.     The  prmcipal 
ones  are  those  of  Messrs  Pim,  Atkinson,  Fry,  and  Elliot.     Messrs.  Pim  and 
Co.  are  the  largest  manufacturers,  and  they  export  large  quantities  of  poplin 
to  England  and  the  Continent,  as  well  as  to  Asia,  America,  and  Australia. 
Messrs.  Atkinson  and  Co.  cultivate  more  of  a  private  trade,  and  are  cele- 
brated for  their  choice   designs  in  gold  and  silver  tissues  and  brocades. 
Though  almost  everyone  admires  poplin,  the  trade  cannot  be  said  at  present 
to  be  very  thriving,  a  fact  which  is,  perhaps,  partly  the  fault  of  the  makers, 
but  which  is  principally  due  to  the  misconception  of  the  public.     Many 
people  consider  poplin  expensive,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is 
almost  everlasting  and  in  this  sense  is  highly  economical.     Black  poplin  is 
excellent  for  mourning,  the  dark  shades   being  much  more  intense  than 
those  produced  in  silk.     It  must  of  course  be  acknowledged  that  poplin 
cannot,  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  material,  be  so  variously  treated  in  the 
matter  of  pattern  and  range  of  ornament  as  silk  can,  nor  can  all  the  varied 
"  fabric  effects  "  of  modern  silk-weaving,  foulards,  etc.,  be  obtained  in  poplin. 
None  the  less,  it  is  a  very  beautiful  material,  everlasting  in  wear  and  really 
cheap.     It  is   to  be  hoped,  then,  for  these  reasons  and  because   poplin- 
making  is  a  manufacture  in  which  Ireland  leads  the  world,  that  the  future  of 
the  industry  will  be  prosperous. 


iS3  ART  AND  COTTAGE   INDUSTRIES. 


ART    AND    COTTAGE   INDUSTRffiS. 

After  Home-spun,  the  principal  cottage  industry  of  Ireland  is  that  of 
lace-making.  This  being  fully  dealt  with  in  a  special  article,  it  remains  to 
mention  a  few  other  art  and  cottage  industries  which  are  more  or  less  widely 
practised  in  Ireland.  The  work  of  amateurs,  excellent  as  it  may  be,  is  not 
taken  into  account  here.  Reference  is  only  made  to  industries  which  are 
carried  on  upon  commercial  principles.  The  chief  of  these  are  Hand- 
knitting,  Hand-embroidery,  Iron  Work,  Stained  Glass,  Woodcarving, 
Stone  and  Marble  Carving,  Carpet  Making,  Metal  Repousse  Work,  Cabinet 
Making,  Porcelain,  Silver  and  Goldsmith's  Work. 

Hand-knitting,  in  spite  of  the  growing  severity  of  the  competition  of  the 

knitting    machine,   is   still    widely   spread    over    the 

w      ,  ,     ., ,.    .         country,   and   is   the   means   of  bringing  in   earnings 
Hand-Knitting.       ^^^^^  ^^  l^^jj^  •£  ^^^^j  ^^^^  ^-^^  p^-^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

individual  worker.  The  wild  district  of  Kincasslough, 
in  County  Donegal,  and  Glenties,  in  the  same  county,  are  important  centres 
of  this  industry.  The  Arran  industry  in  County  Mayo  turns  out  elaborate 
and  beautiful  specimens  of  hand-knitting,  and  at  Baronscourt  (County 
Tyrone),  Courtown  (County  Wicklow),  and  Howth  (County  Dublin),  it  is 
practised  with  a  success  which  is,  in  no  small  degree,  due  to  the  market 
provided  by  the  depots  and  sales  of  the  Irish  Industries  Association. 

Hand-embroidery,  in  its  more  artistic  developments,  is  still,  fortunately, 

incapable  of  satisfactory  imitation  by  machinery,  and 

,        u     •  J  must  rank  in  Ireland  as  a  very  considerable  and  by  no 

Hand-embroidery.    ^^^^^     decaying     industry.       The    so-called    Swiss 

embroidery "  has,  no  doubt,  killed  some  of  the 
cheaper  and  poorer  forms  of  white  embroidery  or  "  sprigging,"  but  the  better 
forms  have  shared  in  the  benefit  of  the  reviving  taste  for  genuine  hand- 
work in  industrial  art ;  and  up  to  a  certain  point,  the  work  in  coloured 
embroidery  produced  in  obedience  to  a  large  and  steady  demand,  by  the 
Royal  School  of  Art  Needlework  in  Dublin,  or  the  Garryhill,  Turbotstown, 
Dalkey  or  Kenmare  industries,  is  as  good  as  any  that  we  know  of  in  the 
history  of  the  industry  in  Europe.  The  white  embroidery  and  drawn-work 
produced  for  the  large  Belfast  firms,  as  well  as  at  various  independent 
centres  throughout  the  country,  such  as  SHgo,  Ardara,  Strabane,  Ballintra, 
is  also  of  admirable  quality  in  design  and  execution.  In  this  whole  depart- 
ment of  Irish  art-work  it  may  safely  be  said  that  nothing  approaching  it  for 
excellence  is  to  be  found  anywhere  else  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  not 
very  much  even  in  France  or  Belgium.  The  splendid  embroideries  of  the 
East,  with  their  inimitable  peculiarities  of  style  and  material,  and  such 
examples  of  mediaeval  European  work  as  were  not  only  designed  but 
executed  by  workers  of  high  artistic  training — these  indeed  remain  un- 
rivalled ;  but  any  other  comparison  Irish  art  needlework  of  to-day  may 
safely  endure. 


ART  AND  COTTAGE   INDUSTRIES.  439 


As  types  of  two  different  methods  of  industrial  organisation,  the  following 
account  of  the  Royal  Irish  School  of  Art  Needlework  and  of  the  Dalkey 
Embroidery  Society  may  be  quoted  from  the  pens,  respectively,  of  the 
Countess  of  Mayo  and  the  Lady  Betty  Balfour. 

The  Countess  of  Mayo  writes : — 

"  I    have   been   asked   to   tell  you  the  history  of  the  School  of  Art  Needle- 

■n^ 1  T^-  u  o  1 ^-.1  ^f  work,  over  which  I   preside,  and    I   do   so  all  the  more 

Koyal  Irish  School  Of     ,    j,     u  ^-  In         i     u  u  \a 

Art  Needlework       fe^^^^jy  because    to    me    needlework    has    ever    held    a 
special  attraction. 

"  I  love  those  beautiful  designs — those  delicate  traceries  which  adorn  the 
wonderfully-wrought  vestments,  the  quilts  and  the  screens,  to  execute  which 
(with  marvellous  and  complicated  stitches  introduced)  formed  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  lady  of  the  olden  time.  Her  frame  was  her  close  and 
intimate  companion,  and  these  elaborate  art  pieces  filled  the  long  hours  of 
solitude  imposed  upon  her  by  her  household  tyrant.  Who  can  say  whether 
she  was  a  whit  less  happy  than  we  in  our  advanced  freedom  ? 

*'  Another  well-loved  friend  is  the  dear  old  sampler,  made  beautiful  by  the 
introduction  of  every  possible  combination  of  stitch,  over  which  our  grand- 
mothers spent  many  weary  hours  and  indulged  in  many  a  childish  tear.  The 
sampler  went  out  of  fashion  some  time  in  the  thirties,  and  with  its  departure 
we  must  perforce  associate  the  gradual  decline  in  art  needlework.  Frames 
were  hidden  away  in  lumber-rooms ;  the  covering  of  chairs  and  sofas  with  vile 
pieces  of  tapestry  grounded  in  cross-stitch,  took  the  place  of  the  beautiful 
embroideries  ;  and  the  making  of  crochet  lace  absorbed  all  attention  ! 

"  This  condition  lasted  over  a  long  period,  but  light  began  once  more  to 
appear,  and  refined  art  needlework  again  came  to  the  front.  South  Kensington 
Museum  led  the  way  in  improving  the  standard  of  taste.  Schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  now  there  is  every  prospect  that  if  the  public  will  support  the 
w^orkers,  art  needlework  will  once  more  take  its  place  in  the  front  rank  of  Art. 
The  School  of  Needlework  in  which  I  take  so  deep  an  interest  owes  its  exis- 
tence to  the  Countess  Cowper,  who,  when  in  Dublin,  as  the  wife  of  the  Lord 
Lieutenant,  was  so  much  struck  with  the  skill  displayed  in  the  production  of 
embroidery  by  certain  Irish  ladies  that  she  collected  these  ladies  under  one 
roof,  and  in  1882,  with  a  committee  to  superintend  the  financial  and  business 
arrangements,  inaugurated  the  '  Royal  Irish  School  of  Art  Needlework.'  The 
school  worked  well  for  some  twelve  years,  and  then  the  interest  in  it  began  to 
fail.  There  were  many  reasons  why  it  was  not  so  successful  as  it  had  been. 
In  the  first  place,  the  times  were  out  of  joint,  especially  in  Ireland.  Money 
was  scarce,  and,  above  all,  taste  was  still  struggling  in  the  quagmire  of 
ignorance  ;  while  the  fact  that  the  Art  School  had  been  started  to  relieve  ladies 
who  had  suddenly  become  penniless  gave  to  the  undertaking  an  eleemosynary 
element  fatal  to  success.  The  system  under  which  the  School  was  managed, 
moreover,  was  not  found  to  work  satisfactorily  At  the  same  time  it  was  felt 
that  to  close  it  entirely  would  be  a  great  hardship  to  those  ladies  who  for 
twelve  years  had  been  dependent  upon  it  for  their  livelihood.  It  was,  therefore, 
determined  to  re-organise  the  whole  system,  and  to  re-open  a  school  upon  a 
sounder  financial  basis.  A  small  sum  of  money  was  collected  as  a  starting 
point  and  for  the  purchase  of  stock,  etc.  ;  the  affairs  were  carefully  looked  into, 
and,  with  a  smaller  executive  committee,  the  new  school  was  opened  in  1894, 
with  a  paid  manager  and  fourteen  workers.  Now,  I  am  glad  to  say,  we  have 
twenty-three  workers,  and  the  embroidery  that  is  sent  out  from  our  house  will 
prove  to  future  generations  that  the  women  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  not 
behind  those  of  previous  times  in  the  artistic  and  skilful  use  of  their  needle. 


440  ART  AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES. 


"  Any  work  that  can  be  done  by  the  needle  we  undertake  to  do,  and  in  the 
best  manner.  Books  embroidered  on  parchment  or  satin  are  a  specialty,  also 
church  embroidery  of  all  descriptions.  I  would  particularly  call  attention  to 
an  Altar  frontal  which  we  have  lately  finished,  and  which  can  now  be  seen  in 
Kildare  Cathedral.  It  is  elaborately  embroidered  on  alternate  panels  of 
cloth  of  ^old  and  crimson  damask,  and  I  think  I  may  say,  without  fear 
of  contradiction,  that  it  is  about  as  g"Ood  a  specimen  of  artistic  needle- 
work as  the  present  day  can  produce.  An  equally  rich  and  elaborate 
frontal,  with  a  figure  of  St.  Patrick  in  the  centre  panel,  has  been  more  recently 
made  for  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin.  Under  the  superintendence  of  our 
manager  every  description  of  needlework  is  executed.  Patterns  can  be  sent 
on  approval,  and  we  are  always  glad  to  receive  orders  for  embroidered  dresses 
for  drawing-rooms,  weddings,  &c,  I  may  add  that  we  have  access  to  many 
beautiful  embroideries  in  the  National  Museums  and  in  private  collections. 
We  are  also  in  correspondence  with  some  of  the  best  designers  of  the  day,  so 
that  we  can  copy  or  originate  according  to  the  wish  of  our  patrons.  In  con- 
clusion, I  would  put  forward  one  more  motive  for  giving  support  to  such 
efforts  as  we  are  engaged  upon.  It  is  well  known  that  nothing  lowers  the  tone 
of  the  mind  more  than  a  low  tone  in  the  surroundings  ;  and  it  will  be  remem- 
bered that  it  was  the  rule  in  Greek  domestic  life  that  no  object  in  daily  use, 
however  lowly  it  might  be,  should  be  fashioned  after  a  low  or  sordid  type.  In 
the  poorest  households  the  child's  eye  grew  accustomed  to  forms  of  beauty  and 
art,  fashioned  out  of  the  rudest  material.     So  let  it  be  with  us  !  " 

Of  the  Dalkey  Society,  which  is  a  co-operative  institution.  Lady  Betty 
Balfour  writes : — 

**  I  happened  not  long  ago  to  be  with  a  party  visiting  one  of  the  most 
successful  new  creameries  in  the  West  of  Ireland. 
Dalkey  Co-operative  A  fellow-visitor  then  made  a  criticism  which  struck  me. 
Embroidery  Society.  It  was  to  the  effect  that  though,  no  doubt,  these 
factories  were  beneficial  to  the  trade  of  butter-making, 
they  had  to  a  large  extent  robbed  the  farmers'  daughters  of  their  home 
employment.  The  cow  still  had  to  be  milked,  and  the  milk  conveyed  by  one 
member  of  the  family  to  the  creamery,  but  the  actual  butter-making  which  was 
formerly  carried  on  in  each  individual  farmhouse,  being  now  transferred  to  the 
creamery,  the  girls  at  home  must  sit  with  idle  hands. 

"  The  reply  seemed  obvious.  If  the  fathers  had  found  the  methods  of  co- 
operation unfailingly  successful  in  the  industries  of  butter-making,  bacon- 
curing,  the  cultivation  of  flax,  &c. ,  why  should  not  the  daughters  pronounce 
for  themselves  this  '  open  sesame '  and  co-operate  on  similar  principles  for 
such  industries  as  dressmaking,  embroidery,  needlework,  millinery,  artificial 
flower  making,  basket  work,  lace  work,  &c. 

"  Surely  no  one  will  venture  to  say  that  where  men  have  successfully  com- 
bined for  business-like  purposes,  women  are  incapable  of  doing  so. 

"  Under  this  system  the  skilful  and  capable  girl  need  not  wait  for  an 
employer,  the  willing  but  ignorant  one  for  a  teacher.  Let  them  combine  to 
procure  the  implements,  materials,  and  technical  training  necessary  for  the 
production  of  a  marketable  article,  and  they  will  have  secured  for  themselves  a 
livelihood. 

"  The  suggestion  that  women  as  well  as  men  should  combine  to  work  an 
industry  under  the  new  system  has,  in  one  case,  already  been  most  successfully 
tested. 

"The  Co-operative   Needlework  Society  which  has  been  started  at  Dalkey 
has  set  an  excellent  example  to  girls  elsewhere  in  Ireland. 


ART   AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES.  441 


"A  number  of  girls  who,  in  school  and  afterwards,  had  shown  themselves 
capable  of  doing-  very  highly-finished  needleworlc,  whose  skill  should  have  been 
to  them  a  source  of  income,  yet  found  themselves  without  the  means  of  exer- 
cising their  talents  to  profitable  purpose.  Manufacturers  and  other  employers 
could  not  help  them  ;  it  remained  for  them  to  help  themselves.  The  friends 
of  the  co-operative  movement,  which  was  spreading  so  rapidly  among  the 
farmers  of  the  country,  came  to  their  rescue.  A  meeting  was  held  at  the 
Convent  of  Dalkey,  and  a  society  was  formed  '  to  develope  and  improve 
the  general  needlework  and  art  embroidery  in  Ireland,  to  improve  the 
moral  and  social  status  of  the  workers  engaged  in  such  occupations  by 
imparting  to  them  technical  education  in  all  branches  of  their  business  and 
obtaining  a  market  for  their  work,  and  saving  for  them  the  profits  derived  from 
the  sale.' 

"  The  Loretto  Nuns  at  Dalkey  blessed  the  enterprise,  and  gave  the  workers 
the  use  of  a  building  in  the  convent  grounds,  which  was  fitted  up  as  a  work- 
room. One  of  the  nuns  undertook  the  management,  competent  teachers  were 
secured,  and  the  society  was  started  in  October,  1895. 

'*  The  convent  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  edge  of  the  sea,  and  the  workers 
when  they  lift  their  eyes  to  the  window  can  rejoice  in  the  wide  expanse  of  sea 
and  sky  looking  out  over  the  blue  bay  of  Dublin. 

"  Twenty-five  workers  are  now  employed  there,  but  the  number  varies 
according  to  the  amount  of  work  on  hand. 

"  A  small  capital  was  subscribed  to  start  the  society,  and  it  is  now  self- 
supporting. 

"  Workers  are  not  required,  on  entering  the  society,  to  pay  anything,  but 
they  are  all  obliged  to  become  shareholders.  This  they  can  do  by  allowing 
their  share  of  profits  to  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  their  shares  till  they  are 
fully  paid  up.  This  does  not,  however,  diminish  in  any  way  their  ordinary 
wages. 

"  The  workers  are  paid  according  to  the  amount  and  quality  of  their  work. 
The  profits  of  the  society,  as  ascertained  when  the  accounts  are  made  up  at 
the  end  of  each  half-year,  are  divided  among  the  workers  in  proportion  to  the 
wages  that  each  has  earned  during  the  time. 

"  A  committee  is  elected  by  the  members  of  the  society,  and  the  rules  for 
hours  of  labour  and  the  general  conduct  of  business  are  made  by  the  committee. 
A  member  cannot  be  dismissed  for  any  cause  whatsoever  except  by  a  vote  of 
the  whole  society. 

"  Before  a  worker  is  admitted  a  member  of  the  society  she  must  first  enter 
the  workroom  as  an  apprentice,  or  as  a  paid  hand.  If  she  does  not  prove 
herself  capable  and  industrious  she  will  not  be  admitted  into  the  society. 

"  The  work  I  myself  saw  at  Dalkey  comprised  plain  needlework,  simple 
dressmaking,  and  embroidery.  This  last  was  certainly  the  most  important 
work  of  the  place,  and  the  orders  executed  were,  I  noticed,  almost  entirely  for 
ecclesiastical  purposes.  The  embroidery  of  some  of  the  vestments  showed  the 
most  exquisite  workmanship.  A  magnificent  cope,  ordered  by  the  Countess 
of  Aberdeen,  and  executed  at  Dalkey,  attracted  general  attention  at  the  Horse 
Show  in  1896.  Side  by  side  with  this  beautiful  church  work  it  would  be 
satisfactory  to  see  more  orders  from  lay  members  of  the  community.  As  soon 
as  the  society  becomes  more  generally  known  ladies  will  doubtless  send  orders 
there  for  their  dresses,  and  lovers  of  beautiful  embroidery  would  render  a 
service  by  sending  good  designs  to  be  worked  out  for  curtains,  piano  covers, 
screens,  table  cloths.  I  should  also  like  to  recommend  the  Dalkey  workers  to 
those  who  know  not  where  they  can  get  their  handkerchiefs  cheaply  and 
prettily  marked.  The  specimens  of  this  kind  of  work  which  I  saw  there  were 
admirably  done. 


442  ART  AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES. 

"The  Dalkey  society  has  prospered  continuously  since  it  was  started,  and 
the  work  is  g-ood  enough  to  need  no  extraneous  advertisement  or  help.  It  is 
not  therefore  so  much  for  the  good  of  this  Society  that  its  work  and  history 
need  be  put  before  the  public,  but  rather  for  the  purpose  of  holding  it  up  as  an 
example  which  I  trust  will  be  speedily  followed  by  others,  and  in  the  hope  that 
similar  societies  may  soon  be  started  in  all  parts  of  Ireland  where  the  need  for 
self-help  is  great,  and  where  poverty  is  the  result  of  a  dearth  of  employment 
and  not  of  an  absence  of  skill.  This  result,  above  all  others,  would  be  gratifying 
to  those  who  have  so  eflfectually  watched  over  the  infancy  of  the  Society  of 
Needleworkers  at  Dalkey." 

Since  the  foregoing  account  was  written  the  work  at  Dalkey  has  attained 
notable  developments.  The  department  of  ecclesiastical  embroidery  has 
increased  its  workers,  their  training  has  been  perfected,  and  their  work  can 
more  than  hold  its  own  against  the  imports  from  Lyons  and  Rome.*  An 
altar  frontal  ordered  by  Her  Excellency  Countess  Cadogan  was  exhibited 
by  the  Society  at  the  Textile  Exhibition  in  Dublin,  1897. 

Besides  the  above,  the  work  of  the  Kenmare,  Garryhill,  and  Turbotstown 
industries,  under  the  care,  respectively,  of  the  Convent  of  Poor  Clares,  the 
Viscountess  Duncannon,  and  Mrs.  Dease,  has  formed  a  notable  feature  at 
the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  and  the  Irish  Arts  and  Crafts 
Society,  and  has  set  up  a  standard  of  taste  in  design  and  excellence  of 
workmanship  which  is  of  much  value  to  the  industries  dealing  with  simpler 
forms  of  art-needlework.  The  industries  at  Marlfield  (Clonmel),  conducted 
by  Mrs.  Bagwell,  and  at  Ennis  (the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor),  and  at  Gort 
(Sisters  of  Mercy),  turn  out  children's  frocks,  aprons,  etc.,  in  excellent  style, 
with  simple,  yet  dainty  and  artistic  ornamentation,  and  rich  vestments  are 
also  made  at  Gort. 

The  Hand-tufted  Carpet  Industry  in  Ireland  is  one  of  large  and 
growing  importance.  Introduced  a  few  years  ago  into  Killybegs,  County 
Donegal,  by  Messrs.  Morton  of  Ayrshire,  it  has  taken  firm  root  there  and  has 
doubled  the  number  of  its  workers  since  the  Glasgow  edition  of  this  Hand- 
book was  produced  last  year.  There  are  now  about  300  workers  employed 
at  two  centres  in  South  Donegal  (Killybegs  and  Kilcar),  and  further  exten- 
sions are,  we  believe,  contemplated.  These  beautiful  carpets  are  made 
■entirely  by  hand,  by  the  traditional  method  which  we  find  illustrated  in  a 
Greek  vase  painting  of  2,400  years  ago.t  The  factory  is  a  large,  airy 
building  with  the  vertical  warps  stretching  from  floor  to  ceiling.  At  each 
of  these  a  group  of  girls  is  employed,  knotting  in  the  tufts  of  woollen  yarns 
to  the  threads  of  the  warp  in  accordance  with  diagrams  before  them,  and 
beating  the  weft  close  with  small  heavy  combs,  which  take  the  place  of  the 
"  sley  "  in  the  ordinary  weaver's  loom.  Practically  any  design  which  can  be 
drawn  on  paper  is  capable  of  reproduction  by  this  process.  The  mechanical 
repetitions  of  patterns  in  machine-woven  fabrics  are  not  obligatory  here, 
and  the  carpets  of  the  Donegal  factories  are  artistic  in  effect,  and  are  as 
durable  as  the  Turkey  carpets  whose  processes  of  manufacture  they  repro- 
duce. 

*  The  fruit  of  the  excellent  art  training  given  is  now  being  reaped  in  the  very  beautiful 
designs  which  the  workers  are  able  to  draw  for  themselves,  and  afterwards  to  carry  out  in 
•embroidery.  This  union  of  art  and  craftsmanship,  so  much  to  be  desired  and  aimed  at  in  the 
technical  education  of  our  people,  has  already  been  attained  here  with  the  happiest  results. 

t  See  tail-piece  page  401. 


ART  AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES.  443 


Besides  the  art  and  cottage  industries  already  mentioned,  there  are  others 

which  are   carried  on  in   Ireland  with  more  or  less 

Other  success,   but,   so   far   as   concerns   the   production  of 

Art  Industries.       genuine  works  of  art,  on  a  comparatively  small  scale. 

Among  these  are  stained  glass,  wood-carving,  book- 
binding, wrought-iron,  repousse  brass  and  copper  work,  cabinet-making, 
basket-work,  pottery.  The  STAINED  GLASS  from  Belfast  exhibited  at  the 
Art-s  and  Crafts  Exhibition  (Dublin)  of  1899  was  considered  by  Mr.  Harold 
Rathbone,  who  wrote  the  official  report  of  the  Exhibition  for  the  Com- 
mittee, to  show  remarkable  merit  in  drawing  and  colour.  The  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland  has  lately  pro- 
moted the  development  of  the  industry  in  Dublin  by  oroviding 
the  best  artistic  instruction  obtainable,  and  a  window  made  in  the  school 
thus  started  may  be  seen  in  the  Department's  section  of  the  Cork  Exhibi- 
tion. The  great  ship-building  works  in  Belfast  provide  much  local  employ- 
ment for  Wood  Carvers,  Leather  Workers,  Pyrographers,  etc.,  and 
a  high  standard  of  technique  is  thereby  generally  attained,  though  in 
capacity  for  dealing  with  figure  subjects  Dublin  is  ahead.  Carving  in 
stone  and  marble  for  ecclesiastical  work  is  carried  on  by  several  firms, 
but  hardly  reaches  the  level  of  an  art  at  present,  though  some  carvings 
recently  done  on  the  new  cathedral  at  Letterkenny  show  decided  promise 
in  this  direction.  Artistic  BOOK-BINDING  of  a  high  class  is  done  on  a  small 
■scale  in  Belfast ;  but  on  the  whole,  this  industry,  which  might  so  suitably 
■employ  the  taste  and  skill  of  Irish  workers,  must  be  admitted  to  be  in  a 
backward  condition  in  this  country.  Wrought-IRON  is  made  in  Belfast 
and  in  Dublin,  and,  as  fine  specimens  of  the  achievements  of  these  cities  in 
this  direction  the  visitor  to  Ireland  may  be  referred  to  the  barrier  of  the 
station  of  the  Belfast  and  Northern  Counties  Railway  in  Belfast,  and  to 
the  entrance  gate  of  the  Science  and  Art  Buildings,  Kildare-street,  Dublin. 
The  industry  of  RepoussE  Brass  AND  COPPER  WORK  has  attained  so 
remarkable  an  artistic  development  at  Fivemiletown,  County  Tyrone,  that 
we  may  give  some  details  of  its  origin. 

Cottage   industries  have   flourished   in   Fivemiletown   for  several   years 

under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  Montgomery,  of  Blessing- 

The  Fiyemiletown   bourne,  who  has  organised  embroidery  and   sewing 

Industries.  classes   for  girls.     Mrs.    Montgomery   determined   to 

extend  the  scope  of  her  work,  and  to  find  occupation 
to  which  the  young  men  as  well  as  the  young  women  of  Fivemiletown 
could  devote  their  spare  hours.  She  went  to  London  in  1891,  and  placed 
herself  under  the  tuition  of  a  lady  teacher  in  repousse  metal  work,  who  had 
been  recommended  to  her  by  the  Home  Arts  and  Industries  Association, 
and  by  the  Spring  of  1892  she  was  able  to  start  an  art  metal  work  class  at 
Fivemiletown  itself.  She  was  at  first  the  only  teacher,  but  was  soon  most 
ably  seconded  by  Mr.  Wilson,  the  manager  of  the  Fivemiletown  branch  of 
the  Northern  Bank,  whose  children  also  showed  an  extraordinary  aptitude 
for  the  work. 

The  Home  Arts  and  Industries  Association  supplied  some  of  the  designs, 
others  were  furnished  by  Mr.  H.  de  F.  Montgomery  himself,  others  again 
were  worked  up  by  Mr.  John  W^illiams,  their  main  characteristics  being 
flowery  forms  of  a  bold,  conventional  treatment,  which  were  mainly  derived 
from  Persian  and  Gothic  sources.  Some  again  were  adapted  from  old 
fifteenth  century  patterns,  others  were  original.     The  result  was  that  the 


444  ART  AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES. 


Fivemiletown  Class  made  a  very  creditable  show  at  the  Home  Arts  and 
Industries  Exhibition  at  the  Albert  Hall  in  June,  1893,  and  succeeded  in 
winning  a  gold  star  for  designs  by  Mr.  Montgomery,  and  another  for  work- 
manship earned  by  Mr.  Patrick  Roche.  This,  was,  however,  but  a  begin- 
ning, and  the  reputation  thus  earned  by  the  Fivemiletown  Class  stirred  up 
strangers  to  take  an  interest  in  its  further  development.  Mr.  John  Williams, 
then  Art  Teacher  to  the  Surrey  County  Council,  now  head  of  the  Art 
Department  at  the  Northampton  Institute,  in  Finsbury,  spent  part  of  his 
autumn  holidays  that  year  at  Fivemiletown,  where  he  was  able  to  enjoy  the 
beauties  of  the  Clogher  Valley  in  the  morning,  and  to  devote  his  evenings  to 
developing  the  artistic  faculties  of  the  workers.  His  visits,  repeated  in 
1894  and  1896,  have  done  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  work  to  a  high 
pitch  of  artistic  excellence.  Some  examples  of  the  art  metal  work  of 
Fivemiletown  are  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  plates. 

The  products  of  the  Fivemiletown  Industries  have  elicited  the 
warmest  praise  at  many  exhibitions  in  1895  and  1896,  more  especially  at 
the  Home  Arts  and  Industries  Exhibition  at  the  Albert  Hall,  and  the  Exhibi- 
tion of  Arts  and  Industries,  held  by  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  at  the  same 
time  as  the  Dublin  Horse  Show  at  Ballsbridge.  One  of  the  judges  at  the 
latter  exhibition  gave  expression  to  the  opinion  that  he  had  seldom  seen 
modern  work  approach  so  high  a  standard  of  excellence. 

As  regards  CABINET-MAKING  for  which  Dublin  was  once  so  famous,  it 
may  be  said  that  as  an  art  industry  (save  in  the  sense  of  skilful  reproduction 
of  Chippendale  and  Sheraton  work),  it  hardly  exists  in  Ireland,  except  in 
one  locality — Killarney.  Here,  however,  a  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts, 
founded  by  the  Viscountess  Castlerosse,  and  skilfully  utilising  the  artistic 
traditions  of  the  place,  has  lately  been  producing  work  of  much  promise, 
in  the  shape  of  decorated  bedsteads,  chairs,  tables,  and  other  cirticles  of 
woodwork,  great  and  small,  simple  and  elaborate.  These  are  all  marked, 
if  not  by  great  originality  of  design,  at  least  by  the  apt  and  tasteful  utiliza- 
tion of  models  from  the  best  eighteenth  century  work,  and  they  put  it  in  the 
power  of  the  visitor  to  Killarney  to  obtain  a  fitting  memento  of  his  visit  to 
that  enchanted  region. 

Basket-WORK  of  an  ornamental  as  well  as  useful  character  is  carried  on 
at  Letterfrack,  County  Galwa}^  Beaufort,  County  Kerry,  and  Castlecomer, 
County  Kilkenny.  Much  ingenuity  and  taste  are  displayed  in  adapting 
wicker-work  to  various  purposes,  but  these  industries  have  suffered  hitherto 
from  the  lack  of  native-grown  osiers  of  the  right  quality — a  need  which 
steps  are  being  taken  to  supply. 

The  Belleek  Pottery  ware,  which  has  been  made  so  popular  by  its 
characteristic  lustre  and  tint,  is  the  one  pottery  industry  of  any  considerable 
extent  in  Ireland.  It  suffers  at  present  from  some  lack  of  novelty  in  design- 
ing, but  should  be  capable  of  considerable  extension  if  this  point  were 
attended  to.  Ordinary  household  ware,  as  well  as  ornamental  pottery,  is 
made  with  much  success  at  the  Belleek  works. 

Silver  and  Goldsmith's  Work,  which,  like  furniture-making, 
flourished  so  remarkably  in  Ireland  during  the  eighteenth  century,  is  still 
carried  on  with  a  high  degree  of  technical  skill ;  and  much  good  ecclesi- 
astical brass  work  is  done  by  at  least  one  Dublin  firm.  Here,  however,  as  in 
most  other  departments  of  modern  Irish  art  work,  we  are  struck  by  the 
absence  of  a  native  and  original  school  of  design.  There  is  much  artistic 
knowledge  and  taste  in  the  country,  and  much  excellent  craftsmanship,  but 


« 
o 


ART   AND   COTTAGE    INDUSTRIES. 


445 


the  link  between  the  art  and  the  craft  has  yet  to  be  completed.  The  history 
of  the  establishment  of  this  union  in  the  case  of  the  lace  industry  may  be 
studied  with  advantage  from  this  point  of  view.  It  saved  that  industry  and 
brought  it  to  its  present  flourishing  condition  ;  and  the  application  of  the 
same  methods  to  other  art  industries  is  a  matter  which  manufacturers  and  the 
public  should  lay  to  heart,  if  Ireland  is  ever  to  develop  her  latent  capacities 
in  this  direction. 

Finally,  we  may  mention  the  ILLUMINATING  and  ENGRAVING  work,  of 
which  Ireland  can  furnish  some  admirable  specimens.  A  book  plate  by 
Mr.  John  Vinycomb,  M.R.I. A.,  is  here  reproduced  as  evidence  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  traditions  of  this  art  are  maintained  in  Belfast. 


Book-plate  by  Mr.  John  Vinycomb,  m.r.i.a.»  Belfast. 


446  THE  SHIPBUILDING  INDUSTRY  IN   IRELAND. 


THE    SHIPBUILDING    INDUSTRY    IN   IRELAND. 

L  Belfast. 

The  success  of  the  shipbuilding  industry  in  Belfast  is  a  striking  proof  of 
what  industry  and  perseverance  can  accomplish.  With  few  natural  advan- 
tages— for  in  this  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  neither  coal  nor  iron  is 
found — and  with  a  comparatively  small  foreign  trade,  the  spirit  and  enter- 
prise of  the  people  of  Belfast  has  enabled  them  to  excel  in  two  branches  of 
industry,  linen  and  shipbuilding.  These  industries,  though  apparently  but 
remotely  connected,  have  this  common  factor — that  they  both  demand  skill 
and  care  in  design  and  execution.  It  may  be  noted  here  that,  though  the 
connection  between  these  industries  is  not,  as  we  have  said,  very 
apparent,  much  of  their  success  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  become 
subsidiary  to  each  other — the  non-competents  for  one  industry  finding 
occupation  in  the  other.  Thus  while  the  male  part  of  the  community  is 
engaged  in  shipbuilding  and  kindred  industries,  the  female  and  child  labour 
is  absorbed  in  the  local  textile  trade. 

Shipbuilding  began  in  Belfast,  as  elsewhere,  with  the  building  of  wooden 
ships.  As  far  as  is  known  the  first  vessel  was  launched  in  1636.  The  ship' 
was  of  some  150  tons,  and  was,  it  is  said,  intended  for  a  privateer,  her 
owner,  strange  to  relate,  being  a  Presbyterian  clergyman. 

In  the  year  1682  the  largest  Belfast  ship  was  the  "  Antelope,"  a  Virginian 
trader  of  200  tons  register.  In  1700  the  "Loyal  Charles"  of  250  tons- 
burden  was  launched  ;  but  up  to  1791  there  was  no  regular  place  for  laying 
dov/n  a  vessel.  In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  some  fifty  or 
sixty  vessels  were  built,  the  largest  being  the  "  Hindoo  "  of  about  450  tons 
burden.  The  first  iron  ship  built  in  Belfast  was  the  "Seagull,"  in  1844, 
by  Messrs.  Coates  and  Young,  but  iron  shipbuilding  as  an  industry  did  not 
begin  until  1850,  when  the  Belfast  Ironworks  was  opened  by  Messrs.  Barnes- 
and  Co.  In  1853  Messrs.  R.  Hickson  and  Co.,  of  Queen's  Island,  "laid 
down  "  a  large  vessel — the  "  Mary  Stenhouse  " — the  first  built  on  the  Island. 
Messrs.  Hickson  continued  their  business  with  great  and  growing  success- 
until  in  1858  their  firm — and  that  of  the  Belfast  Shipbuilding  Co. — was 
acquired  by  Mr.  Edward  Harland,  the  founder  of  the  famous  firm  of  Messrs. 
Harland  and  Wolff.  Such  has  been  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  this- 
company  that  from  1 00  hands  in  1858,  the  number  of  persons  employed  has 
increased  to  over  9,000,  and  the  amount  of  tonnage  turned  out  by  the  firm 
during  the  past  seven  or  eight  years  exceeds  the  production  of  any  other- 
yard  in  the  world.  In  this  connection  the  following  figures  are  interesting. 
Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff  turned  out  tonnage  to  the  amount  of  81,316  tons 
in  1896,  84,240  in  1897,  67,905  in  1898,  82,634  in  1899,  73,897  in  1900,  and' 
last  year  they  launched  seven  ships  having  a  gross  tonnage  of  92,316,  or 
including  deck  erections,  98,756;  the  average  size  of  each  vessel  being  thus 
over  14,000  tons. 

The  greatest  successes  of  this  firm  are  associated  with  the  White  Star- 


i 


THE    SHIPBUILDING    INDUSTRY    IN   IRELAND.  447 


Line.  Indeed  the  whole  fleet  (forty-four  ships)  of  the  White  Star  Com- 
pany was  built  by  Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff,  it  was  for  the  White  Star 
Company  that  the  long  type  of  ocean  steamship,  with  saloon  and  first-class 
passenger  accommodation  amidships  was  introduced  in  1870.  This,  though 
a  great  advance  in  ship  construction,  is  only  one  of  the  improvements  due  to 
the  Belfast  firm.  Every  demand,  indeed,  made  by  modern  commercial 
necessities  and  modern  luxurious  ideas  has  been  met  by  Messrs.  Harland 
and  Wolff.  The  world  wanted  big  ships ;  Queen's  Island  built  the 
"  Oceanic  "  and  "  Celtic."  Steady  "  railway  timers  "  were  required,  and' 
the  "  Majestic  "  and  "  Teutonic  "  were  produced.  In  fine,  Messrs.  Harland 
and  Wolff  have  always  shown  themselves  pioneer  builders  of  vessels  of 
great  size  and  extraordinary  speed. 

The  two  great  achievements  of  these  shipbuilders,  however,  were  the  suc- 
cessful launching  and  completion  of  the  new  White  Star  passenger  and  mail 
steamers  "  Oceanic  "  and  "  Celtic."  The  "  Oceanic's  "  dimensions  even 
exceed  the  "  Great  Eastern's."  The  "  Oceanic  "  is  704  feet  long,  and  at  the 
time  of  her  launching  was  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  finest  vessel 
ever  produced,  and  the  crowning  success  of  the  century  in  naval  architecture- 
and  marine  engineering,  reflecting  the  highest  credit  alike  on  the  enterprise 
of  her  owners  and  the  capacity  of  her  builders.  The  only  matter  for  regret 
is  that  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Ismay,  the  founder,  and  until  his  death  the  head  of 
the  White  Star  Line,  should  have  passed  away  within  a  few  months  of  the- 
completion  of  this  splendid  addition  to  his  already  celebrated  fleet. 

This  splendid  ship,  huge  though  its  size,  has  been  surpassed  by  the 
"Celtic,"  launched  on  the  4th  April,  1901.  The  length  of  the  "  Celtic"  is- 
given  as  700  feet  over  all ;  she  is,  therefore,  a  few  feet  shorter  than  the 
"  Oceanic,"  though  still  ahead  of  the  "  Great  Eastern."  In  breadth  she  is 
75  feet — 7  feet  more  than  the  "  Oceanic,"  but  about  the  same  amount  less 
than  the  "  Great  Eastern."  It  is  this  breadth  of  beam  that  makes  her  so- 
much  bigger  than  the  "  Oceanic,"  while  she  surpasses  the  "  Great  Eastern  " 
because  a  section  of  her  amidships  would  be  approximately  a  square, 
whereas  in  Brunei's  boat  it  was  approximately  a  triangle. 

The  "  Celtic  "  has  not  been  designed  with  any  view  of  attaining  high 
speeds ;  her  claim  to  distinction  lies  rather  in  the  fact  that  she  is  the  biggest 
boat  that  ever  has  been  built  or  is  now  in  process  of  construction.  The  only- 
vessel  in  the  past  that  approached  her  was  the  "  Great  Eastern,"  which  had 
a  gross  tonnage  of  18,915  compared  with  her  20,880. 

Besides  the  vessels  built  for  the  White  Star  Company  for  their  Atlantic 
trade,  the  "  Afric,"  "Medic,"  "Persic,"  "Runic,"  and  "  Suevic,"  have  been 
built  for  the  Australian  traffic  of  Messrs  Ismay,  Imrie  and  Co.  So  that 
Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff  have  put  a  girdle  round  the  earth  for  the  White- 
Star  Company.  The  Queen's  Island  firm  are  the  builders  also  of  the 
excellent  vessels  that  are  used  for  the  African  traffic  of  the  Union  Line,  and 
of  some  of  the  vessels  used  by  the  Atlantic  Transport  Company. 

It  is  well  known  that  not  a  little  of  the  success  of  Messrs.  Harland  and 
Wolff  is  due  to  their  astute  and  far-seeing  manager,  the  Right  Hon.  W.  J. 
Pirrie  ;  an  Irishman,  of  whom  another  great  Irishman — Lord  Dufferin — 
said  when  the  degree  of  LL.D.  was  being  conferred  on  the  Chairman  of 
the  firm  of  Mes.srs.  Harland  and  Wolff,  "  that  he  was  a  man  who  by  his 
talents  and  indefatigable  exertions  had  so  stimulated  the  activity  of  his 
town  that  he  lifted  it  from  its  former  comparatively  inferior  position  to  that 
of  being  the  third  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  whole  Empire." 


448  THE  SHIPBUILDING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff  are  the  head  of  the  world's  shipbuilding 
industry ;  and  their  position  is  all  the  more  creditable  from  the  fact  that, 
while  some  of  the  Clyde  shipping  yards  have  to  thank  the  arts  of  war  for 
their  success,  the  Queen's  Island  firm  suppHes  exclusively  peaceful  Argosies. 

Second  in  importance  to  Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff  is  the  firm  of  Messrs. 
Workman,  Clark  and  Co.,  but  though  they  only  take  second  place  in  Belfast, 
they  are  one  of  the  largest  shipbuilding  firms  in  the  world. 

This  firm  commenced  business  in  1879  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  and 
have  ever  since  been  improving  their  status  in  the  shipbuilding  world,  their 
name  now  standing  amongst  the  first  shipbuilders  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  a  short  time  after  this  successful  venture  they  extended  their  works  to 
the  south  side  of  the  river.  The  increase  of  output,  however,  has  compelled 
"them  to  add  considerably  since  then  to  the  capabilities  of  both  yards,  and  to 
tal<e  over  the  property  of  Messrs.  M'llmaine  and  MacColl,  Ltd.,  so  that  the 
firm  possesses  at  the  present  time  no  less  than  five  separate  establishments. 
The  equipments  are  all  up-to-date,  and  calculated  to  ensure  expedition  in 
attending  to  the  various  orders  received.  As  an  instance  of  this,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  yards  are  complete  with  ten  sHps  for  taking  ten  ships  at  one 
time.  Large  engine  and  boiler  shops  have  been  constructed  for  the  build- 
ing of  machinery,  and  these  are  replete  with  every  facility  for  efficiently 
deahng  with  the  work  required.  Since  the  founding  of  the  firm  they  have 
built  sailing  ships,  cargo  and  passenger  steamers  of  from  200  to  1 1,000  tons, 
although  during  late  years  they  have  confined  themselves  to  steamers 
approaching  the  latter  size.  Among  the  steamship  companies  for  whom 
Messrs.  Workman,  Clark,  and  Company  have,  at  various  times,  constructed 
steamers  are  the  Cunard  Steamship  Company,  the  Allan  Line,  the  West 
India  and  Pacific,  the  Ocean  Steamship  Company,  the  Norddeutscher  Lloyd, 
the  Hamburg-American  Line,  the  City  Line,  M.  and  J.  Harrison,  Houlder 
Bros.,  and  Company,  Ltd.,  the  China  Mutual  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
and  others,  including  local  shipowners.  The  following  figures  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  volume  of  the  trade  done  by  this  firm.  In  1896  their  output 
was  38,440  tons,  in  1897  it  was  24,743,  in  1898  over  50,000,  m  1899  more 
than  45,000,  in  1900  the  tonnage  was  62,329,  whilst  last  year  they  launched 
ten  vessels  having  a  tonnage  of  52,711,  or  including  deck  erections,  of  over 
58,000  tons.  These  facts  demonstrate  the  great  success  and  growing  im- 
portance of  this  firm,  and  promise  well  for  its  future  development. 


II.  Londonderry. 

The  shipbuilding  industry  of  Londonderry  dates  back  to  the  early  part  of 
the  last  century.  At  first  the  industry  was  confined  to  the  repairing  of 
vessels,  the  greater  number  of  which  were  at  that  time,  built  of  oak.  The 
methods  in  use  were  rather  primitive,  and  "  dry  docking  "  was  carried  out 
by  excavating  a  site  along  the  slob,  into  which,  at  high  tide,  the  vessel  was 
drawn,  and  there  left  high  and  dry.  When  the  tide  receded,  a  temporary 
obstruction  was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  "  dry  dock, '  to  prevent  the 
water  at  high  tide  from  interfering  with  the  workmen  when  executing 
repairs.  These  methods  were  soon  found  unsuitable  owing  to  the  growth  in 
the  shipping  trade  of  Derry,  and  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Deputa- 
tion of  the  Irish  Society  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  stating  that  the 
memorialists  had  been,  for  sixteen  months,  engaged  in  a  fruitless  corres- 


THE   SHIPBUILDING   INDUSTRY   IN   IRELAND.  449 


pondence  with  the  Corporation  of  Londonderry  respecting  Port  Charges. 
The  memoriahsts  concluded  by  saying  that  "  although  we  have  taken  from 
us  nearly  ,^2,000  per  annum  in  Port  Charges,  we  are  yet  without  a  '  wet '  or 
'  dry  '  dock,  or  even  a  slip,  upon  which  vessels  could  undergo  repairs."*  The 
agitation  was  continued  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Londonderry  (the 
greater  part  of  the  members  of  which  were  shipowners,  and  shippers)  and 
resulted  in  a  contract  being  entered  into  with  Messrs.  Pitt,  Skipton  and 
Co.  to  construct  a  "  patent  slip  dock,"  where  vessels  of  300  tons  register 
could  be  repaired.  This  patent  slip  dock  was  commenced  in  the  year  1830, 
at  an  expense  of  ^^4,000.  In  1834  there  were  31  vessels  of  all  sizes  repaired 
at  the  slip.  In  1835  there  were  13  repaired,  and  about  20  open  boats.  Of 
the  vessels  3  were  put  on  the  slip,  and  10  into  the  dock.  In  1836  there  were 
9  vessels  repaired  (including  2  steampackets),  and  about  20  open  boats. 
Of  the  vessels  6  were  put  on  the  slip,  and  3  into  the  dock  ;  the  slip  was 
found  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  a  dry  dock. 

"  Mr.  Skipton's  partner  was  a  Mr.  Henderson,  an  experienced  lieutenant 
in  the  Navy.  A  foreman  and  a  gang-  of  shipwrights  were  employed  in  the 
general  yard  attached  to  the  establishment,  from  which  a  vessel  of  180 
register  tons  was  launched,  a  handsome  vessel,  built  of  Irish  oak,  and 
calculated  to  carry  259  tons.  The  Naval  stores  were  imported  from  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow,  the  oak  used  was  chiefly  Irish,  being  procured  from  Walworth, 
Killymon,  and  Learmount."t 

Another  Derryman,  Captain  Coppin,  started  shipbuilding  about  1847  or 
1848,  and  succeeded  in  building  a  number  of  smaller  vessels  for  traders. 
In  the  early  fifties,  Captain  Coppin  contracted  with  the  Admiralty  to  build 
a  large  vessel  for  the  Navy,  to  be  called  "  The  Great  Northern,"  which,  when 
completed,  was  condemned  by  the  Inspector  for  not  being  up  to  the 
standard  required.  This  vessel  was  left  in  the  hands  of  Captain  Coppin, 
and  it  not  being  adapted  for  the  shipping  trade,  a  serious  blow  was  struck  at 
the  Derry  shipbuilding  industry.  Public  opinion  at  the  time,  and  the  tradi- 
tion in  Derry  attribute  the  condemnation  of  "  The  Great  Northern "  to 
private  and  political  reasons. 

A  new  local  authority  was  created  by  Act  of  Parhament  in  1855,  entitled 
the  "  Port  and  Harbour  Commissioners,"  whose  business  was  to  look  after 
the  port  and  harbour.  This  new  body  set  to  work  to  improve  the  harbour, 
so  as  to  meet  the  requirement  of  the  increasing  trade  of  the  port.  It  was 
found  that  the  "  Patent  SHp  Dock "  was  insufficient  for  the  repair  of 
large  vessels  coming  to  the  port,  and  that  dry  docks  were  needed.  To 
meet  such  a  want,  the  Harbour  Commissioners  erected  the  present  graving 
dock  in  1862,  at  a  cost  of  ;£'25.ooo,  where  vessels  of  a  very  large  size  can  be 
"  dry-docked  "  for  repairs.  The  Harbour  Commissioners  have  done  all  that 
it  is  possible  to  do  to  revive  the  shipbuilding  industry  in  Londonderry, 
having  spent  iJ"  16,000  in  preparing  the  yard,  and  in  establishing  permanent 
fixtures,  so  as  to  encourage  either  an  individual  or  a  company  to  revive  the 
shipbuilding  industry  in  Londonderry. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1886  an  agreement  was  entered  into  with  Mr.  C.  F. 
Bigger,  and  the  Derry  shipbuilding  yard  was  opened,  under  a  lease  of 
twenty-one  years,  at  a  rent  of  ^^"50.     For  six  years  there  was  much  promise 


*  "  Memoir  of  the  North  Western  Liberties  of  Londonderry,"  p.  129. 
f  Ibid.  pp.  251,  252. 


2  G 


450  THE    SHIPBUILDING   INDUSTRY   IN    IRELAND. 


of  success,  but  unfortunately,  the  shipbuilding  yard  was  closed  in  1892. 
In  i8q8  an  effort  was  agam  made  to  re-start  the  shipbuilding  industry, 
and  3^  Company  called  the  Londonderry  Shipbuilding  and  Engineering 
Company,  Limited,  was  formed.  The  yard  was  re-opened  in  the  early 
part  of  1899,  and  was  so  completely  re-organised,  that  larger  vessels  could 
be  built  than  before.  Since  the  re-commencement,  several  vessels  have 
been  built,  two  of  which  were  over  380  feet  in  length,  one  being  the  "  Egga  " 
(see  illustration). 

Among  the  steamship  companies  for  which  the  Derry  Company  has 
built  are  : — MacVicar  Marshall,  Liverpool ;  Houlder  Bros.,  London  ;  Elder 
Dempster,  Liverpool ;  African  Steamship  Company,  London ;  and  two 
Austrian  firms.  The  Company  has  also  undertaken  a  large  quantity  of 
repairs  and  overhauls,  and  at  the  present  time  has  several  contracts  which 
will  provide  employment  for  many  months.  One  of  the  serious  drawbacks 
of  shipbuilding  in  Londonderry,  is  that  only  the  hulls  are  constructed,  and 
either  the  hulls  have  to  be  towed  over,  mostly  to  the  Glasgow  or  Tyne 
works  for  their  engines,  or  the  engines  have  to  be  brought  to  Londonderry. 
This  causes  considerable  loss  of  time  and  money.  Over  400  men  and  boys 
are  employed,  and  as  the  industry  is  prosperous  and  progressive,  the  number 
of  workers  required  is  increasing. 

Though  Belfast  and  Londonderry  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  industry,  ship- 
building is  carried  on  also  at  Haulbowline,  and  the  industry  is  being  revived 
at  Dublin.  As  regards  Haulbowline,  though  the  place  has  many  advantages 
for  shipbuilding,  and  though  a  certain  amount  of  activity  is  displayed  there, 
the  industry  has  not  attained  any  great  importance  ;  it  promises  well,  how- 
ever, and  the  Irish  Industrial  Revival  will  doubtless  benefit  the  Southern 
"  yard." 

In  Dublin  an  effort  is  being  made  to  revive  the  old  and  once  prosperous 
shipbuilding  industry  on  the  Liffey,  and  an  influentially  supported  Company, 
the  Dublin  Dockyard  Company,  has  been  formed  to  carry  on  the  work. 
The  dockyard  is  being  rapidly  put  into  working  order,  and  much  modern 
machinery  is  being  installed.  As  regards  the  capacity  of  the  dockyard, 
there  will  at  first  be  three  berths  available  for  the  construction  of  vessels 
up  to  300  feet  in  length,  and  m  a  little  time  this  accommodation  will  be 
increased.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  attempt  to  revive  an  industry  of  such 
an  important  nature  will  be  successful,  and  that  it  will  obtain  the  earnest 
support  of  the  Dublin  shipowners,  port  authorities,  and  citizens  at  large. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

or 

i^L  I  FORNIX 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  451 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

The  early  history  of  brewing  is  somewhat  obscure,  owing  in  part  to  its 
very   antiquity,   and   the   history  of  the  rise   of  the   brewing  industry  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  especially  in  Ireland,  has  been  much  neglected. 
Indeed,  until  1889,  when  Mr.  Alfred  Barnard  commenced  his  work  on  "The 
Noted  Breweries  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  but  little  of  importance  had 
been  written  upon  the  subject,  and  even  the  work  referred  to  does  not  deal 
with  the  rise  or  progress  of  brewmg  in  general,  but  only  with  the  develop- 
ment   of    particular    breweries.       It    is,    however,   clear  that  the    art    of 
preparing    an    alcoholic    beverage     from     grain     or 
Antiquity  of         other  saccharine  substances  by  means  of  a  process  of 
Brewing.  fermentation  was  one  of  man's  first  inventions,  and 

in  countries  where  the  vine  did  not  flourish,  and  often,' 
even  where  it  did,  drink  made  from  corn,  generally  barley,  seems  to  have 
been  common  from  the  earliest  times.  The  process  of  making  such  a  bever- 
age was  well  known  among  the  Egyptians  and  from  them  the  Greeks 
derived,  like  so  much  of  their  other  knowledge,  skill  in  the  art  of  brewing. 
In  the  time  of  Tacitus  beer  seems  to  have  been  the  usual  drink  of  the 
Germans,  and  from  the  historian's  description  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
they  understood  the  method  of  converting  barley  into  malt. 

The  art  of  malting  and  the  use  of  beer  are  supposed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  by  the  Romans,  and  a  writer 
The  rise  of  Brewing  in    the    third  century  noted  that  Britain    produced 
in  England.  "  such  an  abundance  of  corn  that  it  was  sufficient  to 

supply  not  only  bread,  but  also  a  liquor  comparable  to 
wine."  After  the  Saxon  Conquest  brewing  was  widely  practised  in  England 
and  ale  soon  became  the  national  beverage.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
mediaeval  records  and  a  statute  passed  in  1272  enacted  that  a  brewer  should 
be  allowed  to  sell  two  gallons  of  ale  for  a  penny  in  the  cities,  and  three  or 
four  gallons  for  the  same  price  in  the  country.  From  a  lease  which  is  still 
extant,  made,  in  1295,  in  favour  of  the  Abbot  of  Burton-on-Trent,  it  is 
evident  that  Burton  was  already  at  that  date  a  brewing  centre,  and  that  the 
monks  made  their  own  malt.  Mary  Stuart,  even  in  the  midst  of  her 
troubles,  was  not  insensible  to  the  attractions  of  English  beer,  for  when  she 
was  imprisoned  in  Tutbury  Castle,  her  secretary  enquired  where  beer  might 
be  procured  for  her  Majesty's  use,  to  which  Sir  Ralph  Sadlier  the  Governor 
made  answer,  "  Beer  may  be  had  at  Burton,  three  miles  off."  A  Brewers' 
Company  was  formed  in  London  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  we  read  that 
they  tried  to  curry  favour  with  the  then  Lord  Mayor  by  making  him  a 
present  of  an  ox  which  cost  21s.  2d.,  and  a  boar  priced  at  30i'.  id.,  "so 
that  he  did  no  harm  to  the  brewers  and  advised  them  to  make  good  ale  in 
order  that  he  might  not  have  any  complaint  against  them." 

The  use  of  hops  in  the  manufacture  of  ale  seems  to  have  been  a  German 

invention  of  the  fourteenth  century,  which  was  not 

-,,  f  H     s      introduced  into  England  for  two  hundred  years.     The 

e  use  0       op  .     ygg  q£  j^^pg  ^j.  |^j.g|.  ^^^  viewed  with  disfavour,  and  in 

1530  Henry  VIII.  prohibited  it  by  statute,  but  hop 
plantations  soon  became  common  in  England.     Hops  made  such  a  change 


452  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


Ill  transforming  the  old  sweet  barley  wine  or  ale  into  clear  tonic-hopped 
beer,  that  it  was  commonly  said — 

"  Turkey,  carpe,  hoppes,  picarel  and  beer, 
Came  into  England  all  in  one  year." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  words  ale  and  beer  were  both  used  in  the 
earliest  times,  but  the  latter  word  almost  entirely  dropped  out  of  use  during 
the  early  Middle  Ages.  Neither  Chaucer  nor  Langland  use  it,  but  in  the 
fifteenth  century  the  word  beer  again  crept  into  use  with  special  reference 
to  a  malt  liquor  containing  an  infusion  of  hops.  Neither  the  word,  nor,  as 
already  noted,  the  article,  was  at  first  approved  of.  Old  Andrew  Boorde, 
in  his  "  Dietary,"  published  in  1542,  declares  that  "Ale  for  an  Englishman 
was  a  natural  drink  .  .  .  Beer  is  made  of  malt  and  hops  and  water.  It  is 
a  natural  drink  for  a  Dutchman,  and  now  of  late  days  is  much  used  in 
England  to  the  detriment  of  many  Englishmen."  But  the  word  and  the 
article  itself  alike  grew  in  favour,  and  the  term  ale  is  now  little  used  except 
in  provincial  dialects  or  as  a  trade  name. 

Stow  says  that  in  1585  there  were  twenty-six  breweries  in  the  city  of 
London  and  Westminster,  and  that  they  brewed  as 

Thp  r  ^rpss  of  i^iuch  as  648,960  barrels  of  beer  in  the  year.  The 
.       .     „  J    extent  of  the  brewing  industry  in  England  even  at  the 

Brewing  m  England,  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  average  amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty 
was  paid  each  year  exceeded  twenty  million  bushels,  which  probably  repre- 
sented an  output  of  about  ten  million  barrels  of  beer. 

In  1760,  according  to  the  Annual  Register,  there  were  fifty-two  breweries 
in  London  alone,  producing  975,217  barrels  a  year.  The  largest  of  these 
were  Calvert's,  Whitbread's,  Truman's,  and  Thrale's — all  of  which  are  in 
existence  at  the  present  day.  On  the  death  of  Henry  Thrale,  the  brewery 
last  mentioned  (supposed  to  be  then  the  largest  in  the  world),  was  sold  by  Dr. 
Johnson  and  his  brother  executor  to  Messrs.  Barclay,  Perkins  &  Co.,  for 
^' 1 3 5,000.*  While  on  his  tour  to  the  Hebrides  in  1783,  Johnson  mentioned 
that  "  Thrale  paid  ;£"20,ooo  a  year  to  the  revenue,  and  nad  four  vats, 
each  of  which  held  1,600  barrels." 

In  order  to  follow  the  vicissitudes  of  the  brewing  industry  during 
the  last  two  centuries,  reference  must  be  made  to  the 

The  Taxation  of  taxes  imposed,  and  indeed  the  development  of  brew- 
Beer,  ing  cannot  be  traced  without  constant  reference  to 
the  beer  and  malt  duties.  Beer  was  first  made  an 
excisable  article  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1643,  and  on  the  Restoration 
in  1660,  an  excise  duty  of  2s.  6d.  per  barrel  on  strong  beer,  and  6d.  per 
barrel  on  small  beer  was  imposed  to  recoup  the  Revenue  for  the  loss  caused 
by  the  abolition  of  the  old  feudal  duties  payable  by  landowners,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  tax  was  extended  to  Ireland.  The  duty  was  increased 
and  varied  greatly  from  time  to  time  ;  in  Ireland  the  duty  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  averaged  about  ^s.  per  barrel  of  strong  beer, 
and  gd.  per  loarrel  of  small  beer.     In  England  the  tax  was  much  higher, 

*  It  is  in  connection  with  this  brewery  that  one  of  Johnson's  characteristic  sayings  was 
deUvered.  Boswell  tells  us  that  at  the  sale,  Johnson,  who  took  the  office  of  executor  very 
seriously,  appeared  bustling  about  with  an  ink-horn  and  pen  in  his  buttonhole,  like  an  excise- 
man, and  on  being  asked  what  he  really  considered  to  be  the  value  of  the  property  which  was 
to  be  disposed  of,  answered :  "  We  are  not  here  to  sell  a  parcel  of  boilers  and  vats,  but  the 
potentiality  of  growing  rich  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice." 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  453 


being  from  5^".  to  Ss.  on  a  barrel  of  strong  beer  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  lOs.  per  barrel  from  1802  to  1830,  when  the  tax 
which  had  been  repealed  in  Ireland  in  1795,  was  repealed  in  England  also. 

For  a  long  time  in  England,  viz.,  from  1697- 1830,  and  for  a  short  time  in 
Ireland,  viz.,  from  1786- 1795,  beer  was  subject  to  a  double  duty,  for  in 
addition  to  the  beer  tax  already  mentioned,  a  tax  on  malt  was  levied  un- 
interruptedly from  1697  in  England,  and  from  1786  in  Ireland,  until  1880. 
The  tax  in  England  was  at  first  6d.  per  bushel,  but  after  sixteen  years  it 
was  raised  to  gd.,  and  then  gradually  increased  until  it  reached  4^-.  ^d.  in 
1804.  At  this  time  the  tax  on  beer  in  England  was  lOs.  per  barrel ;  and  as 
about  two  bushels  of  malt  were  usually  used  in  making  a  barrel  of  beer, 
and  as  hops  were  also  taxed,  and  as  a  license  duty  was  imposed  upon 
brewers  by  Pitt  in  1784,  the  total  amount  of  taxes  levied  on  a  barrel  of  beer 
in  England  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  amounted  to  nearly 
£1  per  barrel,  as  compared  with  a  duty  of  from  three  to  four  shillings  a 
century  earlier. 

The  result  of  this  heavy  taxation  was  that  the  brewing  industry  in 
England  made  little  progress  during  the  eighteenth 
Result  of  Taxation,  century.  The  greatest  production  of  malt  during  the 
century  or  more  of  double  taxation,  when  the  beer 
duty  was  co-existent  with  the  malt  tax,  was  in  1722,  when  32,999,688 
bushels  were  charged  with  duty ;  and  the  lowest  was  in  1 800,  when  the 
amount  was  less  than  half  that  of  1722.  The  amount  of  malt  pro- 
duced in  the  twelve  years  ending  18 16  was  slightly  less  than  the  amount 
produced  in  the  twelve  years  ending  1720,  and  the  average  annual 
production  of  beer — something  like  10,000,000  barrels — remained  fairly 
constant  throughout  the  century,  despite  the  great  increase  in  population. 
This  decrease  in  the  consumption  of  beer  per  head  of  population  was, 
of  course,  partly  due  to  the  increased  use  of  tea  and  coffee,  owing 
to  the  preference  that  was  developed  for  these  beverages,  quite 
apart  from  the  increased  price  of  beer.  In  1722,  when  beer  was  the  com- 
mon beverage  at  every  meal,  the  consumption  of  tea  averaged  but  one 
ounce  per  head;  in  1830  it  had  increased  to  thirty-six  ounces,  and  during 
the  same  time  the  use  of  ardent  spirits  had  increased  from  half  a  gallon  per 
head  to  double  that  quantity.  The  fact  that  the  brewing  industry  made 
little  or  no  progress  during  this  period  is,  however,  mainly  attributable  to  the 
heavy  taxation,  and  it  was  not  until  the  beer  tax  was  repealed  in  1 830  and 
the  licensing  laws  reformed,  that  the  brewing  industry  in  England  began 
again  to  expand. 

The  Progress  of  Brewing  in  Ireland. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  brewing  in  Ireland  where  beer  was 
not  a  national  drink  in  the  same  way  as  in  England.  In  the  reign  of  James  I., 
however,  Dublin  was  noted  for  its  brown  ale,  and  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  estimated  that  the  amount  of  beer  annually  produced  in 
Ireland  was  nearly  half  a  million  barrels,  Dublin  and  Cork  being  the  chief 
brewing  centres,  while  there  was  a  considerable  quantity  of  beer  imported 
Several  of  the  existing  Irish  breweries  can  lay  claim  to  very  considerable 
antiquity.  Thus  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Jameson,  Pim,  and  Co.,  hold  leases 
dating  from  171 5,  and  in  1766  the  Ardee-street  Brewery,  then  owned  by 
Sir  James  Taylor,  headed  the  list  of  the  forty  Dublin  Breweries  which  pedd 


454  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

excise  duty.     Again,  the  Anchor  Brewery  was  founded  in   1740,  and  in 

1759  Mr.  Arthur  Guinness  purchased  Mr.  Rainsford's  brewery,  and  thus 

laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  colossal  establishment  of  Messrs.  Guinness 

and  Co.,  whilst  the  Cork  Porter  Brewery,  at  present  owned  by  Messrs. 

Beamish  and  Crawford,  was  worked  in   17 15  by  one  Edward  Allen,  and 

several  of  the  country  breweries  were  established  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Royal  Dublin  Society  took  a  very  active  part  in  fostering  the  brewing 

industry,  and  as  early  as  1744  granted  premiums  to  brewers  who  used  the 

largest  quantity  of  Irish  hops.     In  1763  out  of  the  ;^8,000  which  was  granted 

How  the  Royal       ^Y  Parliament  to  be  spent  by  the  Society  in  encou- 

Dublin  Society       ^^§^".§'    certain    trades,    ;^200  was   devoted    to    the 

hi     d  fh  brewmg  industry.    In  April,  1764,  the  Society  granted 

f  ^  ®  premiums  varying  from  i^20  to  iJ"l2  to  the  first  five 

Brewing  Industry,    persons  who  sold  by  retail  the  greatest  quantity  of 

Irish  Porter  in  the  year  ending  25th  March,  1764,  and  the  winner  of  the 

first  premium  was  one  Stephen  Malone,  who  sold  24  hogsheads.  In  October, 

1765,  the  Society  granted  to  Mr.  Thomas  Andrews  of  New  Row,  on  the 

Poddle,  a  premium  of  ^^62  6s.  6d.,  being  at  the  rate  of  id.  per  gallon  for 

14,958  gallons  of  porter  brewed  by  him  since  ist  June,  1764. 

In  1 77 1  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  Society  "to  consider  in  what 
manner  it  might  be  expedient  to  give  encouragement  for  the  establishment 
of  good  public  breweries  in  different  parts  of  this  Kingdom." 

The  committee  reported  in  March,  1772,  as  follows  : — 

1.  "  That  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  Committee  that  the  Discouragement  of 
■the  consumption  of  low-priced  spirituous  liquors  in  the  country  is  an  object  of 
the  utmost  consequence  to  the  health  and  morals  of  the  people  as  well  as  to 
the  Police  and  Manufactures  of  this  Kingdom,  and,  of  course,  highly  deserving 
of  the  attention  of  ^/le  Dtihlin  Society y 

2.  "That  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  Committee  that  the  erection  of  new 
Breweries  of  a  good  kind  of  Malt  Liquor  in  the  several  Provinces  of  this  Kingdom 
would  be  the  most  likely  means  to  promote  this  desirable  end." 

3.  *'  That  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  Committee  that  a  premium  of  four  shillings 
in  the  barrel  should  be  given  upon  the  first  1,000  barrels  of  Ale  of  the  value  of 
30  shillings  per  barrel  (first  cost  to  the  Retailer)  which  shall  be  made  and  sold 
out  of  any  one  Brewery  which  shall  be  erected  after  the  25th  of  March,  1772, 
the  Quantity  and  Value  of  said  Malt  Liquor  to  be  ascertained  by  the  certificate 
of  the  Collector  of  the  District  where  such  Brewery  shall  be  established." 

"The  said  Premium  shall  be  given  for  each  of  the  four  Provinces  respec- 
tively." 

These  proposals  were  adopted  with  the  proviso  that  no  brewery  in  the 
city  of  Dublin  or  within  twenty  miles  thereof  should  be  eligible,  and  in  1777 
Mr.  James  Higginson  obtained  a  premium  of  ;^200  for  having  established  a 
fcrewery  in  Lisburn  and  for  having  brewed  the  required  1,000  barrels. 

In  1772  the  Society  entered  into  correspondence  with  Mr.  Combrune*  of 
:the  city  of  London,  as  to  the  best  method  of  brewing  good  beer.  In  a 
very  interesting  letter  dated  9th  July,  1772,  Mr.  Combrune  pointed  out  that 
;the  different  varieties  of  beer  were  due  to  different  combinations  ;  that  there 

*  In  1 761  Mr.  Combrune  had  published  his  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Brewing,"  which  was 
the  first  work  that  attempted  to  treat  of  the  industry  on  scientific  principles.  Although,  as 
already  mentioned,  the  historical  side  of  the  brewing  industry  has  been  neglected,  there  has 
been  no  lack  of  treatises  upon  the  art  of  brewing ;  indeed,  as  early  as  1573,  a  treatise  of  this 
nature  was  published  in  Erfurt,  with  the  quaint  title:  "On  the  Divine  Noble  Gift,  the 
.Philosophical,  the  Mighty,  Dear,  and  Wondrous  Art  to  Brew  Beer," 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  455 


was  no  royal  road  to  good  brewing ;  that  the  only  way  to  succeed  was 
an  observance  of  certain  general  principles,  and  that  though  bad  beer  might 
be  brewed  from  good  malt,  the  foundation  of  brewing  good  beer  was  good 
malt.  He  controverted  the  statement  of  Irish  brewers  that  the  defects  in 
Irish  porter  were  due  to  bad  hops  and  bad  barley,  and  attributed  them  rather 
to  bad  malting,  and  he  pointed  out  that,  with  proper  materials,  suitable 
utensils,  and  a  skilful  "  artist,"  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  it  would  be 
possible  to  brew  in  Dublin  porter  similar  to  that  brewed  in  London. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  brewing  increased  in 
Ireland,  a  number  of  breweries  were  started,  and  Dublin  and  Cork  became 
great  brewing  centres,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  century  the  annual  amount 
of  beer  brewed  in  Ireland  was  about  600,000  barrels  of  strong  beer.  The 
excise  tax  in  Ireland  was  considerably  lower  than  in  England,  and  as 
already  mentioned,  averaged  during  the  eighteenth  century,  about  4.S.  per 
barrel  on  strong  beer,  and  about  gd.  on  small  beer,  and  no  malt  tax  was 
levied  in  Ireland  until  1786.  Still,  despite  the  comparatively  low  duty  and 
the  fostering  care  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  brewing  began  to  fall  off 
in  Ireland,  with  the  result  that  the  amount  imported  from  England  increased 
from  about  15,000  barrels  in  1750  to  about  65,000  in  1785,  and  to  over 
100,000  barrels  in  1792.  The  imposition  in  1786  of  a  tax  of  yd.  per  bushel 
on  malt  accelerated  the  decline,  as  the  tax  on  beer  amounted  to  4s.,  and 
hops  were  also  taxed,  and  the  licence  duty  was  high. 

In  1 79 1  the  condition  of  the  brewing  industry  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  the  Irish  Parliament  The  decline  in 
The  Irish  Parliament  brewing  had  been  accompanied  by  a  great  increase 
and  Brewing.  in  the  consumption  of  spirits.  The  amount  of  whiskey 
charged  with  duty  for  consumption  in  Ireland  had 
risen  from  a  little  over  100,000  gallons  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  duty  was  4d.  per  gallon,  to  over  3,400,000  gallons  in  1790, 
although  the  duty  had  increased  to  li".  i^.'^.d.,  and  it  was  universally 
admitted  that  an  enormous  quantity  of  spirits  was  illicitly  distilled,  whilst 
over  1,000,000  gallons  of  spirits  were  imported.  A  strong  opinion  was 
expressed  throughout  the  country  that  the  best  way  to  discourage  the 
excessive  consumption  of  spirits  was  by  encouraging  brewing.  The  spirit 
duty  at  the  time  was  is.  i]4.d.  per  gallon,  and  the  beer  duty 
4s.  6d.  per  barrel,  and  although  all  malt  whether  used  for  distil- 
ling or  brewing  was  subject  to  the  same  malt  tax  (/d.  per 
bushel  in  1791),  the  distiller  received  a  refund  in  the  shape  of  a  drawback. 
It  was  accordingly  suggested  that  the  beer  duty  should  be  abolished  and 
that  the  tax  on  spirits  should  be  increased.  In  February,  1791,  the  Speaker 
(Right  Hon.  John  Foster,  M.P.  for  Louth  County)  declared  that  the  average 
number  of  barrels  of  beer  annually  brewed  in  Ireland  in  the  past  five  years 
was  only  400,000  as  compared  with  an  average  of  600,000  for  the  period 
1760-65,  and  that  the  decline  was  mainly  due  to  excessive  legislation  and 
oppressive  restrictions.  Mr.  Beresford  urged  in  reply  that  the  apparent 
decUne  in  the  amount  of  beer  brewed  was  due  to  frauds  on  the 
revenue  ;  he  pointed  out  that  of  the  eighteen  hundred  retailing  brewers 
licensed  in  Ireland  at  the  time,  less  than  half  paid  duty  on  even  one  barrel  in 
the  year,  and  "  there  are  besides  these  innumerable  persons  vulgarly  called 
'  shebeeners,'  who  brew  and  sell  without  license  or  duty."  Mr.  Grattan 
declared  that  "  whatever  is  adopted  with  regard  to  spirituous  liquors  would 
be  imperfect,  indeed,  if  nothing  was  done  in  advancement  of  the  breweries. 


456  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

The  state  of  your  brewery  on  a  comparative  with  its  state  thirty  years  ago, 
is  that  of  a  rapid  decline,  the  decrease  is  about  one-third ;  increase  of  im- 
portation nearly  two-thirds ;  whereas  the  increase  of  intoxication,  that  is 
the  increase  of  the  consumption  of  whiskey  in  the  course  of  twenty  years, 
has  been  enormous.  Judge  from  this  growth  of  poison  and  this  decline  of 
nutriment  how  necessary  the  interference  of  Parliament  to  sustain  the 
latter  (i.e.,  brewing)  as  well  as  to  check  the  former  (i.e.,  distilling)." 

After  a  long  discussion  several  resolutions  were  carried  to  the  effect  that 
it  was  desirable  to  curtail  the  present  excessive  use  of  low  priced  spirituous 
liquors ;  and  that  decisive  advantages  should  be  given  to  the  breweries  over 
the  distilleries  by  means  of  alterations  in  the  duties,  so  as  to  secure  a  decided 
preference  for  the  breweries.  Effect  was  given  to  these  resolutions  three 
years  later  when  the  tax  on  beer  was  withdrawn.  It  may  be  noted  here  that 
in  1830  the  beer  tax  was  repealed  in  England  also,  and  that  until  1880  no 
tax  was  directly  levied  on  beer  in  either  country,  though  it  was  indirectly 
taxed  by  means  of  a  duty  on  malt  (which,  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  stood  as  2s.  S%d.  per  bushel),  and  by  taxes  on  hops 
and  sugar  used  for  brewing,  and  by  the  levying  of  licence  duties. 

The  official  returns  as  to  the  amount  yielded  by  the  malt  tax   until  its 

repeal  in  1880,   furnish    the    best    indication    of   the 

The  production      progress  of  brewing.     In  1785,  when  the  malt  tax  was 

of  Malt.  first  imposed  in  Ireland,  the  number  of  bushels  upon 

which  duty  was  paid  was  4,446,343,  and  this  was  about 
the  average  for  the  remainder  of  the  century.  For  some  reason,  which  is  not 
very  apparent,  as  there  is  evidence  to  show  that  brewing  did  not  decline, 
the  quantity  of  malt  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in  Ireland  greatly  declined, 
despite  the  rapid  increase  in  population  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ;  in  1816  the  total  quantity  fell,  for  the  first  time  on  record,  below  the 
2,000,000  bushels  mark,  and  about  this  figure  it  fluctuated  for  some  twenty 
years.  For  the  ten  years  following  the  starting  of  Father  Mathew's  temper- 
ance crusade  in  1838,  the  amount  of  malt  annually  charged  with  duty  aver- 
aged only  about  1,500,000  bushels,  and  it  was  not  until  1859  that  the  2,oco,ooo 
bushels  mark  was  again  exceeded.  The  consumption  of  beer  in  Ireland  had 
just  then  received  considerable  encouragement  from  the  heavy  increases 
which  had  been  made  in  the  spirit  duty,  and  accordingly  the  quantity  of  malt 
on  which  duty  was  paid  steadily  increased,  and  in  1871  exceeded  3,000,000, 
bushels,  whilst  the  average  for  the  decade  immediately  preceding  the  repeal 
of  the  malt  tax  (1871-80)  was  even  higher.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  note 
that  the  amount  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in  England  averaged  about 
25,000,000  bushels  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  century ;  after  the 
repeal  of  the  beer  tax  and  the  reform  of  the  licensing  duties  m  1830,  the 
amount  steadily  rose,  except  for  a  slight  check  during  the  early  forties ;  in 
1 860  it  exceeded  40,000,000  bushels,  and  thirteen  years  later  the  50,000,000 
bushels  mark  was  passed,  and  during  the  last  ten  years  that  the  malt  tax  was 
levied  the  average  annual  amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in  the 
whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  exceeded  56,000,000  bushels. 

The    decline    at    the    beginning    of    the    nineteenth    century    in    the 

amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in  Ireland 

The  Revival  of       of    which    mention    has    been    made    above,    was, 

Brewing  in  Ireland,  no  doubt,  partly  due  to  the  increase  in  the  rate  of 

the  duty  levied  on  malt.  This  duty,  which  averaged 
about    2s.    per    bushel    in    the    ten    years    immediately    following    the 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  457 

repeal  of  the  beer  tax  in  1795,  after  several  fluctuations  became  settled  at 
2s.  yd.,  and  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty  was  paid 
without  doubt  was  due  in  part  to  the  decrease  in  lawful  distillation,  and  the 
increase  in  illicit  distillation  which  followed  upon  the  sharp  increases  in 
taxation  to  which  spirits  became  subject  after  1795,  but  still  it  is  hard  to 
account  for  the  remarkable  decrease  in  the  amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty 
was  paid.  However,  as  already  mentioned,  it  seems  quite  certain  that  the 
decrease  was  not  due  to  any  decline  in  the  production  of  beer.  Brewing 
revived  in  Ireland  after  the  repeal  of  the  beer  duty,  and  porter  brewing  is 
said  to  have  received  a  marked  stimulus  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  from  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  roasted  malt  as  a  colouring  and 
flavouring  material,  though  it  was  not  until  1850-60  that  porter  became  the 
really  popular  drink  in  Ireland  and  that  the  Irish  trade  became  mainly  a 
porter  trade.  Newenham,  in  his  "View  of  Ireland,"  published  in  1809, 
stated  that  according  to  official  estimates  the  beer  made  in  Ireland  in  1808 
exceeded  751,000  barrels  or  nearly  double  what  the  Right  Hon.  John  Foster 
stated  in  the  speech,  already  mentioned,  to  be  the  annual  production  about 
1790.  Newenham  attributes  the  decline  in  the  amoimt  of  malt  charged  with 
duty  to  the  illicit  malting  carried  on  with  the  collusion  of  the  revenue 
officers,  and  declares  that  the  amount  of  beer  brewed  in  Ireland  in  1 808  was 
really  far  greater  than  the  751,000  barrels  stated.  "  It  is  obvious  to  every- 
one," he  wrote,  "  that  the  number  of  breweries  in  Ireland  has  been 
augmented  since  the  year  1792  ;  that  the  additional  ones  are  on  a  much 
more  extensive  scale  than  the  former  ones,  and  that  the  proprietors  resort  to 
every  expedient  (the  writer  hopes  with  increased  success)  to  induce  the 
people  to  prefer  their  liquor  to  whiskey."  In  the  province  of  Munster 
he  states  that  there  was  an  almost  universal  preference  given  to  malt  liquors 
over  spirits,  "  and  the  porter  brewers  of  the  city  of  Cork  alone  almost  vie 
in  extent  with  some  of  the  principal  ones  in  London." 

That  the  brewing  industry  was  rapidly  expanding  in  Ireland  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  despite  the  enormous  decrease  in 

The  Rise  of  the  the  amount  of  malt  which  is  returned  as  having  paid 
Export  Trade.  duty,  is  shown  also  by  the  figures  relating  to  the 
export  and  import  of  beer.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  importation  of  beer  from  England  averaged  over  100,000  barrels  a 
year  about  1790,  but  the  importation  of  beer  declined,  and  Ireland  soon 
began  to.  export  beer  to  England.  The  first  year  when  the  exports  of  beer 
exceeded  the  imports  was  18 14,  when  the  figures  were: — imports  from 
England,  215  barrels;  imports  from  Scotland,  24  barrels;  exports  to 
England,  424  barrels ;   exports  to  Scotland.  46  barrels. 

In  1823  the  exports  of  Irish  beer  first  exceeded  the  1,000  barrels  mark, 
and  in  1828  Ireland  exported  8,035  barrels  to  England,  48  to  Scotland,  and 
3,180  to  foreign  countries,  whilst  the  imports  from  England  were  but  505 
barrels.  Most  of  the  beer  exported  from  Ireland  has  always  been  shipped 
from  the  port  of  Dublin,  and  in  1861  the  quantity  thus  exported  to  Great 
Britain  was  170,384  hogsheads;  the  exports  increased  in  1871  to  281,301, 
in  1 88 1  to  338,690,  and  in  1891  to  460,985  hogsheads.  During  the  last 
decade  there  were  considerable  fluctuations,  the  total  falling  in  1898  to 
368,628  hogsheads,  but  the  last  few  years  has  witnessed  a  revival  in  the 
export  trade,  and  in  1901  the  quantity  exported  was  459,864  hogsheads. 

The  temperance  movement  headed  by  Father  Mathew  of  course  affected 
the  production  of  beer,  though  to  a  less  extent  than  it  affected  the  produc- 


458 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


tion  of  whiskey.  The  amount  of  malt  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in  Ireland 
during-  the  decade  1838-47  was  30  per  cent,  less  than  the  corresponding 
amount  for  the  previous  decade,  and  the  famine  years  and  the  subsequent 
emigration  had  their  effects  upon  the  brewing  trade,  and  numerous  breweries 
v/ere  obliged  to  close.  Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  century,  however, 
the  brewing  industry  began  again  to  expand,  and  the  heavy  increases  made 
in  the  spirit  duty,  especially  in  1858,  when  the  English  and  Irish  rates  were 
equalised,  and  the  rate  fixed  at  Si",  per  gallon,  treble  what  it  was  in  Ireland 
five  years  previously,  tended  to  increase  the  use  of  beer.  The  amount  of 
beer  brewed  in  Ireland  in  1856  was  estimated  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Inland  Revenue  at  926,000  barrels,  and  in  ten  years  this  amount  had 
increased  over  50  per  cent. 

The  growth  of  the  brewing  industry  and  the  regularity  of  the  increase  in 
Ireland  m  the  last  forty  years  is  clearly  shown  by  the  following  figures  : — 


Year. 

Number  of  Barrels  Brewed 

In  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  Ireland. 

1861* 

1871! 
i882t 
1891: 
1901  + 

19,534,460 
26,431,760 
27,687,572 
31,927,303 
36,394,565 

i.437.713 
1,616,656 
2,044,331 
2.555.273 
3''49,i42 

*  Estimated  by  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue  from  the  amount  of  Hcence  duty  charged 
t  ..  ,,  .,  ,.  .1  ..  ..  materials  used. 

I  Calculated      ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  beer  duty  paid. 


Brewers  and  the  Law. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  beer  tax  was  abolished  in  Ireland 
in  1795,  and  in  England  in  1830,  and  was  not  re-imposed  until  1880,  when 
the  malt  tax,  which  had  been  levied  in  England  from  1697,  and  in  Ireland 
from  1785,  was  abolished.  Until  1847  brewers  were  not  permitted  to  use 
any  materials  except  malt  and  hops  in  the  brewing  of  beer  for  sale.  Hops 
also  were  subject  for  a  long  time  to  a  duty  which  was  reduced  in  i860  to 
I  y^d.  per  lb.,  and  finally  abolished  two  years  later.  In  1 847,  under  the  pro- 
visions of  10  Vic,  c.  5,  brewers  were  permitted  to  make  use  of  sugar  in 
brewing.  The  amount  thus  used  in  the  United  Kingdom  averaged  only  about 
35,000  cwts.  a  year  in  the  period  1847-66,  but  in  1867  250,000  cwts.  were 
used,  and  in  1879  the  amount  exceeded  1,000,000  cwts.,  and  last  year  nearly 
treble  this  amount  was  used.  This  increase  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  public 
taste  for  a  sweeter  beer ;  but  it  has  also  been  fostered  by  sugar  refiners 
preparing  a  better  sugar  for  the  use  of  brewers,  and  also  by  the  manufacture 
of  grape  sugar  from  sago,  rice,  and  other  farinaceous  substances.  At  first 
there  was  no  tax  imposed  upon  the  sugar  used  in  brewing,  owing  to  the 
high  customs  duty  paid,  but  afterwards,  owing  to  the  reduction  of  the  sugar 
duty,  a  special  tax  was  imposed  on  all  sugar  used  for  brewing,  and  the  tax 
was  arranged  on  the  assumption  that  210  lbs.  of  sugar  was  equivalent  for 
brewing  purposes  to  a  quarter  of  malt.  The  amount  paid  in  Ireland  for  the 
malt  tax  in  1875  (an  average  year)  was  ;^430,ooo,  and  the  amount  paid  for 
the  tax  levied  on  sugar  used  in  brewing  was  over  ;^3 1,000. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  459 


In  lS8o  a  great  change  took  place  in  the  method  of  taxing  beer,  a  direct  tax 

on  the  beverage  being  substituted  for  the  indirect  taxes 

The  present  method  formerly  levied  upon  the  materials  used.     This  change 

of  Taxation.  had  long  been  advocated  as  the  collection  of  the  malt 

duty  had  necessarily  imposed  oppressive  restrictions 
upon  manufacturers,  and  the  malt  tax  was  objected  to  by  many  as  econo- 
mically unsound,  being  a  tax  on  raw  materials.  The  change  in  taxation, 
however,  was  delayed  for  a  long  time  ov/ing  to  the  practical  difficulties  that 
beset  the  collection  of  a  beer  tax  in  consequence  of  the  great  number  of 
breweries.  This  difficulty  was  largely  obviated  by  the  decline  in  the  number 
of  breweries  (over  50  per  cent.)  which  took  place  in  the  forty  years  preceding 
1880.  This  decrease  in  the  number  of  brewers  from  whom  the  tax  would 
have  to  be  collected,  enabled  Mr.  Gladstone,  as  already  mentioned, 
to  abolish,  in  1880,  the  duties  on  malt  and  sugar  used  in  brew- 
mg,  and  to  substitute  a  direct  tax  of  6s.  T,d.  per  barrel  of  beer, 
the  tax  being  calculated  according  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the  worts 
before  fermentation,  the  standard  barrel  being  one  of  36  gallons  of  worts 
of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.057°  with  an  allowance  of  six  per  cent,  for  waste. 
This  change  in  taxation  which  established  the  principle  of  a  "  free  mash- 
tun,"  at  once  increased  the  rate  of  duty  paid  by  brewers  by  about  10  per 
cent.  Thus,  though  the  quantity  of  malt  and  sugar  used  in  the  four  years 
1 88 1 -4  was  seven  per  cent,  less  than  the  quantity  used  in  the  preceding 
period,  the  total  amount  received  from  brewers  in  the  shape  of  beer  duty  in 
1 88 1 -4  was  considerably  greater  than  the  amount  received  in  1877-80  from 
the  taxes  on  malt  and  sugar.  In  i88g  Mr.  Goschen  altered  the  standard 
specific  gravity,  upon  which  the  beer  duty  is  charged,  from  1.057°  to  1.055°, 
a  change  which  was  equivalent  to  a  further  increase  in  the  duty  of  about 
2}^d.  per  barrel.  In  1894  the  duty  was  increased  by  6d.,  and  in  1900  an 
extra  shilling  was  imposed,  bringing  the  tax  up  to  ys.  gd.  per  barrel.  The 
result  is  that  the  taxes  at  present  levied  on  beer  are  equivalent  to  a  tax  of 
considerably  over  30^'.  per  quarter  of  malt,  or  over  40  per  cent,  more  than 
was  levied  in  the  time  of  the  malt  tax,  just  twenty-two  years  ago.  The  net 
produce  of  the  beer  tax  in  1 900-1 901  was  ;;^i 3,940,5 36,  of  which  ;^449,9i6 
was  paid  over  to  the  Local  Taxation  Account  and  the  remainder  to  the 
Exchequer.  The  net  amount  of  beer  duty  paid  in  Ireland  in  the  year  ended 
31st  March,  1901,  was  ;£"i, 204,670. 

The  practice  of  requiring  persons  engaged  in  the  preparation  or  sale  of 

excisable  commodities  to  take  out  licences,  and  of 

_ .  -^   ,  charging  a  duty  on  such  licences,  existed,  at  least,  as 

y*         early  as  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.     The  principle  was 

not,  however,  very  generally  applied  until  the  budget 
for  1784,  when  at  the  close  of  the  American  War,  Mr.  Pitt  imposed  a  duty 
upon  brewers  which  was  made  to  vary  from  £1  los.  to  £"50  a  year  according  to 
the  quantity  of  beer  brewed.  The  earliest  duties  of  this  description  in  Ireland 
were  stamp  duties,  and  in  common  with  most  of  the  other  licences  duties 
were  of  a  repressive  nature.  On  the  repeal  of  the  beer  duty  in  1830  the 
scale  of  duties  on  licences  was  re-cast,  and  the  number  of  brewers  in  England 
steadily  rose  to  over  49,000  in  1838.  From  that  date  brewers  declined  in 
number,  so  that  in  1879  they  amounted  to  22,000;  at  present  they  number 
over  18,000,  two-thirds  of  whom  are  private  brewers  who  do  not  brew  for 
sale.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  average  number  of  brewers 
licensed  in  Ireland  was  about  220.  After  1838  they  gradually  decreased, 
until  in  1852,  when  they  numbered  only  96,  and  at  present  the  number  is  39, 


460 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


of  whom  two  hold  two  licences  each.  In  1826  the  number  of  retailers 
licensed  in  Ireland  was  over  12,000,  which  increased  to  over  21,000  m  1S38, 
and  then  declined  in  four  years  to  13,000.  The  different  varieties  of 
licences  subsequently  increased  and  the  number  of  persons  holding  different 
licences  to  sell,  under  different  conditions,  beer,  spirits,  or  wine  in  Ireland  is 
now  over  25,000  and  the  total  for  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  over 
230,000. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  number  of  brewers  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  quantities  of  materials  used,  and  the  amount  of  licence  duty  paid  and 
beer  duty  charged  for  the  year  ended  30th  September,  1900. 

Table  showing  for  the  Year  ended  30th  September,  1900: — 

The  Number  of  Brewers  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  each  of  the  undermentioned  classes  ; 

The  Quantities  of  Materials  Used  by  each  class ; 

The  Amount  of  Licence  Duty  Paid  by,   and  Beer  Duty  Charged  on,  each  class. 


iwers  in 
repre- 
Num- 

1  issued. 

Quantities  of  Materials  used. 

Amount  of 

SSSS 

Rice,  Rice 

Licence 

Class. 

Number  of  B 
each  Class  1 
sented  by  tl 

ber  of  Licenc 

Malt. 

Raw 
Grain. 

Grits,  Flaked 
Rice,  Maize 

Grits,  Flaked 
Maize,  and 

other  similar 

preparations. 

Sugar,  in- 
cluding its 
Equivalent 
of  Syrups, 
Glucose,  and 
Saccharum. 

Duty  paid 

and  of 

Beer  Duty 

charged. 

Brewers  for  Sale  who 

Brewed    (reckoning   at 

No. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Cwts. 

Cwts. 

£ 

the    Standard    gravity 

of  1.055")  — 

Barrels.                    Barrels. 

Under   1,000 

4,763 

2,323,353 

418 

8,195 

43,719 

451,040 

1,000  &  under  10,000 

935 

5,151,278 

3,604 

110,229 

289,895 

1,200,134 

10,000         ,,         20,000 

286 

5,658,236 

14,421 

148,633 

323,149 

1,370,467 

20,000         ,,         30,000 

146 

4,955,791 

2,876 

148,266 

300,903 

1,213,829 

30,000         ,,         50,000 

120 

5,398,205 

1,968  . 

168,608 

346,974 

1,339,451 

50,000         ,,       100,000 

III 

7,715,722 

17,284 

222,458 

505,238 

1,916,841 

100,000         ,,       150,000 

27 

3,973,047 

13,084 

49,704 

297,690 

973,400 

150,000         ,,       200,000 

11 

1,436,841 

— 

66,510 

99,420 

383,994 

200,000         ,,       250,000 

9 

1,896,081 

35,160 

49,250 

^33,783 

479,050 

250,000         ,,       300,000 

2 

382,012 

16,391 

18,266 

94,225 

300,000         ,,       350,000 

3 

1,519,032 

— 

48,181 

73,268 

342,609 

350,000         ,,       400,000 

3 

1,168,552 

— 

31,695 

50,647 

270,076 

400,000         ,,       450,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

450,000         ,,       500,000 

5 

1,250,847 

— 

17,840 

119,403 

341,504 

500,000         ,,       600,000 

4 

2,165,547 

98,288 

76,722 

144,994 

595,111 

600,000         ,,       700,000 

5 

2,148,542 

— 

34,114 

90,395 

481,061 

700,000         ,,       800,000 

2 

1,266,368 

— 

3,147 

52,504 

272,700 

800,000         ,,       900,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

900,000         ,,    1,000,000 

— 

— 

__ 

— 

— 

— 

1,000,000         ,,    1,500,000 

3 

1,898,880 

— 

1,902 

68,756 

405,712 

1,500,000         ,,    2,000,000 

4 

2,914,580 

— 

— 

20,708 

570,277 

2,000,000  &  over 
Total, 

I 

3,890,198 

— 

— 

— 

777,916 

6,440* 

57,113,112 

187,103 

1,201,845 

2,979,712 

I3,479,397t 

Brewers  not  for  Sale  : 
Chargeable  with  Beer 

2,756 

54,689 





327 

10,169 

Duty.  J 

Not    chargeable    with 

10,148 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3,013 

Beer  Duty. 

Total, 
Grand  Total,     . . 

12,904 

54,689 

— 

— 

327 

13,182 

19,344 

57,167,801 

187,103 

1,201,845 

2,980,039 

;^i3,492,579 

*  The  actual  number  of  Brewers  to  whom  Licences  were  issued  was  6,290.  A  Brewer  may 
have  more  than  one  Licence. 

t  Including  Licence  Duty  amounting  to  ;^6,440. 

I  Farmers  occupying  houses  exceeding  £10  annual  value,  who  brew  for  their  labourers,  and 
other  private  brewers  occupying  houses  exceeding  ^15  annual  value,  are  liable  to  Beer  Duty. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  461 


Process  of  Brewing. 

While  the  essential  principles  of  brewing  are  of  the  very  simplest  nature, 
yet  the  modern  processes  are  rather  too  complicated  to  be  explained  in  an 
article  which  is  not  of  a  technical  nature.  A  short  description  of  the 
essential  processes  of  brewing,  however,  may  prove  not  uninteresting. 

The  first  step  is  to  make  the  malt.  Malting  and  brewing  are  totally 
separate  operations,  and  are  often  carried  on  as  distinct  businesses.  Malt- 
sters commonly  make  malt  for  brewers  and  distillers  at  a  fixed  charge  per 
quarter,  but  most  brewers,  and  practically  all  Irish  brewers,  make  at  least 
a  portion,  and  some  the  whole,  of  the  malt  they  use.  Malting  is  carried 
on  very  extensively  in  Ireland,  and  in  addition  to  the  thirty  nme  brewers 
who  all  make  malt,  and  a  number  of  distillers,  there  are  over  thirty  firms  in 
Ireland  doing  a  large  business  in  malting,  many  of  whom,  in  addition  to 
supplying  Irish  brewers  and  distillers  with  malt,  export  large  quantities  to 
England.  Nearly  all  kinds  of  grain — wheat,  oats,  maize,  etc. — may  be,  and 
have  been,  used  to  make  malt,  but  barley  is  -par  excellence  the  malting  grain, 
and  in  Ireland  barley  is  almost  exclusively  used.  The  bulk  Df  the  barley 
to  be  used  for  the  entire  malting  season  is  usually  bought  towards  the  end 
of  September  and  during  the  months  of  October  and  November.  The 
barley  should  be  of  good  colour  (straw),  plump  in  the  body,  well  closed  at 
both  ends,  and  with  not  too  thick  a  skin. 

Before  malting  it  is  now  usual  to  put  the  barley  upon  a  kiln  at  a  moderate 
temperature  of  about  ioo°  F.  for  from  12  to  24  hours, 
Drying  the  according  to  the  condition  of  the  barley.     This  drying 

Barley.  process  has  become  more  necessary  in  recent  years 

owing  to  the  introduction  of  the  steam  threshing  mill, 
and  the  hurry  farmers  are  in  to  rush  the  barley  from  the  stooks  into  the 
market.    In  former  times,  when  the  barley  was  threshed  in  the  farmer's  yard 
with  a  hand-flail,  or  wath  a  one-horse  machine,  the  barley  was  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  days  in  the  stooks  in  the  field,  and  was  then  carefully  put 
into   hand   stacks,   where  it  remained  for  a  considerable   time   and  thus 
became  mellowed  and  matured.     It  was  then  put  into  large  stacks  in  the 
haggard,  where  it  sometimes  lay  for  months,  continuing  to  improve  and  go 
through  the  natural  sweat.     The  modern  kiln-drying  is  an  endeavour  to 
imitate  nature  by  taking  the  place  of  this  natural  sweat,  and  it  is  rendered 
necessary  by  the  changed  conditions  of  harvesting  already  referred  to. 
The  barley  is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time  after  being  dried,  and  the 
first  step  is  then  taken  in  the  operation  of  malting,  viz.. 
Malting.  putting  the  barley  into  a  large  cistern  or  steep  where 

it  is  thoroughly  soaked,  the  water  being  changed  once 
or  twice  while  the  barley  is  in  the  steep.  This  process  in  malting  is  a 
forced  vegetation,  the  object  of  which  is  to  produce  that  saccharine  matter 
upon  which  the  value  of  malt  depends.  The  vegetation  is  forced  as  the 
maltster  cannot  wait  for  the  slow  operation  of  nature  ;  hence,  as  a  substitute 
for  the  moisture  of  the  earth  the  grain  is  immersed  in  water  where  a  few 
hours'  infusion  is  equal  to  many  days  employed  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
vegetation.  After  the  expiration  of  from  54  to  60  hours  the  water  is 
drawn  off,  and  the  barley  which  is  now  swollen  and  very  soft  is  put  into  a 
heap  on  the  floor,  or  as  maltsters  term  it,  "couched."  Here  it  stands  for  some 
24  hours,  after  which  it  is  spread  out  on  the  floor  in  a  thick  layer  about  12 
inches  deep.     The  process  of  germination  or  sprouting  now  commences  and 


462  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

goes  on  for  a  period  of  from  eight  to  ten  days,  during  which  it  is  frequently 
turned,  until  the  maltster  considers  the  germination  has  gone  far  enough. 
The  grain  is  then  transferred  to  the  kiln  or  drymg  chamber,  where  it  remams 
for  about  three  days.  The  strong  heat  to  which  the  grain  is  subjected  stops 
further  germination  and  thoroughly  clears  the  grain  of  all  moisture.  If  the 
malt  is  required  for  pale  ale  the  drying  on  the  kiln  is  light  and  the  malt  is 
consequently  pale  in  colour.  Porter  brewers  and  distillers  require  malt  which 
has  been  much  more  highly  dried  and  which  has  consequently  a  browner 
appearance. 

When  the  process  of  drying  is  thoroughly  completed,  the  "  malt,"  into 
which  the  barley  has  now  been  transformed,  is  transferred  to  hermetically 
sealed  bins  or  stores,  where  it  remains  for  a  few  weeks  to  mature.  Gene- 
rally speaking  a  quarter  of  barley  of  448  lbs.  should  yield  a  quarter  of  malt 
which  weighs  about  336  lbs.  It  would  be  quite  outside  the  scope  of  these 
pages  lo  discuss  in  detail  the  chemical  changes  effected  in  barley  by  malting. 
Roughly  speaking,  a  substance  called  Hordein,  a  form  of  starch,  which  con- 
stitutes about  fifty-five  per  cent,  of  the  substance  of  barley  is  by  the  process 
of  malting  transformed  into  sugar  gum  and  starch,  under  the  influence  of 
the  nitrogenous  principle  which  is  contained  in  the  seed,  and  which  is  known 
as  diastase.  The  sugar  in  the  grain  nourishes  the  young  plant,  and  it  is  just 
when  the  sugar  is  most  abundant  in  the  sprouting  barley  that  the  vital 
changes  are  arrested  by  heat,  and  malt  formed.  The  physicial  condition  of 
the  grain  is  also  altered,  the  malt  being  of  a  mealy  nature,  and  having  a 
sweet  taste. 

The  actual  process  of  brewing  involves  about  six  distinct  operations. 

(i)  The  malt  is  passed  into  a  mill  where  it  is  crushed  between  a  pair  of 
rollers  in  order  to  coarsely  bruise  it,  so  as  to  enable  the  warm  water 
(with  which  it  will  be  mixed)  more  easily  and  thoroughly  to  per- 
meate it,  and  extract  its  sweet  or  saccharine  matter. 

(2)  The  grist  is  then  mixed  with  warm  water  in  a  cylindrical  vessel 
known  as  the  masher,  fitted  inside  with  revolving  arms,  which  keeps 
the  grist  and  water  in  constant  motion,  and  prevents  the  former  from 
settling  at  once  to  the  bottom  before  the  water  has  extracted  all 
the  saccharine  matter  which  it  contains.  The  grist  and  water  are 
then  conducted  to  the  mash-tun  proper  which  is  a  cylindrical  vessel 
having  a  false  bottom  percolated  with  holes  or  slots,  and  fitted  with 
revolving  arms  which  further  mash  the  grist  if  necessary.  The 
"  goods,"  as  the  malt  and  water  are  called,  are  allowed  to  stand  for 
about  two  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  the  taps  connected  with  the 
false  bottom  are  turned  and  the  liquor  drained  off  into  the 
"  underback,"  the  grains  being  deposited  upon  the  top  of  the  false 
bottom.  The  liquid  which  has  been  drawn  off — known  as  worts — 
is  in  fact  raw  beer,  and  is  very  sweet  to  the  taste.  If  the  average 
strength  of  it  is  higher  than  the  brewer  requires  for  the  particular 
class  of  beer  he  is  making,  the  malt  in  the  tun  is  sparged,  i.e., 
sprinkled  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  bring  down  the  strength  of 
the  wort.  The  mashing  and  sparging  processes  may  last  from  six 
to  twelve  hours,  but  under  the  Excise  regulations  must  not  exceed 
the  latter  limit. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Inland  Revenue  Act  of  1880  (Sees. 
12  and  13)  enacted  that  every  brewer  shall  be  deemed  to  have 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  46^ 


brewed  a  minimum  quantity  of  36  gallons  of  worts  at  1.057°  for 
every  84  lbs.  of  malt  or  corn  and  for  every  56  lbs.  of  sugar  used. 
In  the  matter  of  duty,  therefore,  apart  from  other  considerations,  it 
is  to  the  interest  of  the  brewer  to  have  at  his  command  such 
apphances  and  skill  as,  within  safe  brewing  limits,  will  ensure  the 
extraction  of  the  maximum  quantity  and  strength  of  worts  from  the 
materials  used,  since  if  he  fails  to  get  the  standard  minimum  and 
is  charged  on  the  materials,  the  duty  becomes  very  heavy. 

The  grains  which  remain  deposited  on  the  false  bottom  are  re- 
moved from  the  mash-tun  as  soon  as  possible.  They  form  the 
most  important  bye-product  in  a  brewery,  and  are  used  chiefly  for 
feeding  cattle.  In  some  breweries  the  sum  realised  by  their  sale 
at  one  time  sufficed  to  pay  the  whole  of  the  wages  bill  of  the  estab- 
lishment. In  Dublin  the  grains  are  bought  chiefly  by  dairymen, 
who  feed  their  cows  upon  it,  and  in  some  country  districts  the 
grains  are  largely  used  for  fattening  ducks.  Generally  speaking 
the  bulk  of  the  grains  turned  out  is  greater  than  the  bulk  of  malt 
mashed ;  sometimes  in  Ireland  the  amount  of  gram  left  after 
mashing  reaches  as  high  a  figure  as  i^  barrels  of  grains  for  each 
barrel  of  malt  mashed,  and  the  average  price  ranges  from  ^d.  to 
\s.  per  barrel,  and  in  some  districts  a  higher  price  is  sometimes 
obtained. 

(3)  The  worts  are  run  as  quickly  as  possible  out  of  the  underback  into 

the  "  Copper,"  which  in  Ireland  is  an  ordinary  big  copper  pot  or 
large  domed  copper  vessel.  The  hops  and  any  sugar  or  other 
saccharine  matter  that  may  be  used  are  now  introduced,  and  the 
whole  is  boiled  for  a  couple  of  hours.  The  effect  of  boiling  is  two- 
fold. It  coagulates  a  substance  called  mucilage,  which  is  always 
present  in  the  worts,  and  which,  if  not  eliminated,  would  spoil  the 
beer  ;  it  also  extracts  from  the  hops  and  imparts  to  the  liquor  the 
flavour  and  essence  of  the  former. 

(4)  The  worts  are  now  run  into  the  hop-back,  a  vessel  provided  with  a 

false  bottom,  which  retains  the  spent  hops  and  allows  the  clear 
liquor  to  pass  into  the  cooler.  These  spent  hops  form  an  unim- 
portant bye-product  and  are  occasionally  used  by  market  gar- 
deners as  manure.  After  the  lapse  of  a  little  time  to  allow  of 
settling,  the  cooling  process  is  rapidly  carried  out  by  means  of 
refrigerators. 

(5)  After  leaving  the  cooler  or  refrigerator  the  worts  are  collected  in 

the  fermenting  vessel,  where  yeast  or  barm  is  added  to  excite  the 
fermentation.  It  is  at  this  point,  before  fermentation,  that  the 
quantity  and  gravity  or  strength  of  the  liquor  are  gauged  by  the 
excise  officer  and  the  duty  assessed  at  the  present  rate  of  Js.  gd 
per  36  gallons  of  worts  of  the  standard  specific  gravity  of  1.055° 
Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the  yeast  the  appearance  of  the 
head  of  the  beer  undergoes  considerable  changes.  There  appears 
towards  the  top  of  the  fermenting  vessel  a  creamy  head  ;  then  in 
about  another  nine  hours  this  head  has  grown  into  a  deep  frothy 
mass,  parts  of  which  constantly  cave  in,  giving  to  the  upstanding 
portions  an  appearance  of  rocky  peaks  of  snowy  whiteness.  When 
the  fermentation  reaches  the  most  active  stage,  bubbles  of  gas  may 
be  seen  breaking  through,  the  carbonic  acid,  mixed  with  air  and 


464  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

alcoholic  gas,  appearing  as  a  bluish  vapour  over  the  surface  of 
the  yeast.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  may  be  pumped  off  from  the 
fermenting  vessels  and  collected  for  compression.  It  forms  a 
valuable  bye-product,  but  the  process  of  securing  it  is  elaborate  and 
profitable  only  in  very  large  breweries.  In  the  year  1 890  Messrs. 
Arthur  Guinness,  Son  and  Co.  first  began  to  utilise  the  acid  given 
off.  It  may  be  used  in  the  artificial  production  of  cold  {e.g.,  for  the 
refrigerators  required  in  the  brewery)  and  it  may  be  reduced  to  a 
liquid  state  in  which  condition  it  is  sold  in  steel  cylinders  for  the 
purpose  of  soda  water  manufacture,  cooling  machines,  etc.  The 
freight  upon  the  cylinders  is,  however,  very  heavy,  and  the  demand 
for  carbonic  acid  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  not  very  extensive, 
and  consequently  it  does  not  form  a  sufficiently  remunerative  bye- 
product  to  induce  most  brewers  to  work  it  up. 

Simply  stated,  the  effect  of  fermentation  is  to  change  a  portion 
of  the  saccharine  in  the  worts  into  alcohol,  and  the  longer  the  fer- 
mentation is  allowed  to  go  on,  the  greater  will  be  the  change.  In 
the  case  of  pale  ales  which  are  comparatively  highly  alcoholic,  and 
in  the  case  of  ales  for  export,  which  require  keeping  qualities,  the 
fermentation,  or  attenuation  as  it  is  called,  is  allowed  to  proceed 
much  further  and  longer  than  when  mild  ale  or  porter  for  im- 
mediate consumption  is  being  brewed. 

During  fermentation  the  worts  throw  off  a  quantity  of  yeast, 
which  rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquor  and  is  constantly  skimmed  off 
and  forms  a  bye-product.  Sometimes  it  is  sold  in  the  liquid  state 
in  which  it  was  removed,  and  is  then  known  as  barm ;  in  other 
cases  it  is  pressed  and  made  into  solid  yeast  cakes,  and  the  liquor 
pressed  out  can  be  worked  up  afterwards.  In  large  breweries  the 
surplus  yeast  not  required  for  producing  fermentation  in  the 
brewery,  is  pumped  by  hydraulic  pressure  through  machines  fitted 
with  swansdown  bags,  until  it  assumes  the  consistency  of  soft 
cheese,  after  which  it  is  packed  into  bags  and  sold  to  distillers. 
(6)  When  the  fermentation  has  proceeded  far  enough,  the  remnants  of 
the  yeast  are  removed  and  the  beer  is  cleansed,  cleared,  and 
sent  on  to  the  fining  or  storage  vessels,  the  temperature,  which 
during  the  fermenting  process  has  ranged  up  to  70°  F.,  being 
brought  to  the  normal  state  of  from  58°  to  60°  F.  The  beer  is  now 
ready  to  be  stored  or  put  into  casks  according  as  it  is  intended  for 
export  or  for  immediate  consumption,  and  according  to  the  nature 
and  quality  of  the  drink. 

As  most  of  the  liquor  brewed  in  Irish  breweries  ii  of  the  class  known  as 

porter,   a   few  words  concerning    this    article    may  not  be  out  of  place. 

Porter  differs  from  ale  in  several  respects,  and  especially  in  the  fact  that 

it  contains  a  greater  amount  of  nutritive  matter,  and  a 

Porter  considerably   less   proportion   of   alcohol.     Its   origin 

dates  back  to  1722,  when  porter  was  first  brewed  by 

Harwood,  a  London  brewer,  who  gave  it  the  name 

of  "  Entire."     This  expression  "  Entire  "  requires  some  explanation.     At 

the  date  referred  to  the  beer  retailers  had  a  custom  of  selling  a  beverage 

called  "  half  and  half,"  i.e.,  half  ale  and  half  "  twopenny  "  (another  kind  of 

beer),  which  had  to  be  drawn  from  two  casks.     The  pubHc  at  a  later  period 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  465 


took  a  fancy  to  "  three  threads,"  a  combination  composed  of  these  two,  and 
a  black  beer.  The  retailer  had  to  draw  this  mixture  from  three  different 
casks,  and  the  process  was  so  inconvenient  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  practice 
of  brewing  a  beer  possessing  the  qualities  of  all  three  varieties.  This  beer 
being  drawn  from  one  cask,  came  to  be  known  by  the  name  of  "  Entire 
Butt,"  an  appellation  to  which  brewers  for  a  long  time  adhered,  and  although 
the  circumstances  which  led  to  this  designation  have  long  ceased,  stat 
nominis  itmbra,  and  the  term  is  still  retained  by  several  brewers  in  London, 
and  may  even  to-day  be  seen  on  the  signs  and  boards  of  many  old-fashioned 
London  taverns.  At  a  later  period  when  this  drink  began  to  become 
popular,  it  acquired  the  name  of  "  porter,"  because  at  that  time  the  porters 
and  labourers  were  the  principal  consumers.  Thus  Malone  says  porter  was 
a  kind  of  strong  beer  so  called  because  it  was  "  much  drunk  by  porters  who 
carry  burdens,"  and  this  appellation  has  been  retained  to  the  present 
time. 

The  term  "  Stout  "  is  often  applied  to  this  class  of  beer.  Johnson  defined 
"  stout  "  as  a  cant  name  for  strong  beer,  and  it  is  used  in  this  sense  by  Swift, 
but  the  term  "  stout  "  is  now  employed  either  as  a  synonym  for  porter,  or  to 
designate  "  Extra  "  porter.  When  it  was  discovered  that  roasted  malt  gives 
a  quite  exceptional  flavour,  the  old  black  beer  was  transformed  into 
modern  aromatic  nutritious  porter,  and  Ireland  soon  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion for  the  quality  of  its  porter,  which  has  been  maintained  to 
the  present  day.  The  Royal  Commissioners  on  Irish  Railways  remarked 
in  their  Second  Report  (1838)  that  "  Irish  porter  is  now  largely  exported  to 
England,  and  the  Dublin  bottled  porter  successfully  rivals  the  London 
porter  even  in  London  itself." 

Ale  is  distinguished  from  porter,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  fact  that  the 
water  employed  in  the  brewing  of  ale  is  generally  hard,  while  softer  water  is 
used  for  black  beer.  A  second  difference  between  the  two  kinds  lies  in 
the  use  of  the  roasted  malt  for  black  beer,  which  gives  it  its  dark  colour  and 
aromatic  flavour.  The  process  of  roasting  the  malt  is  not  unlike  coffee 
roasting.  The  manufacture  of  porter  has  created  a  special  industry,  to 
some  extent  confined  to  Ireland. — the  roasting  of  black  or  patent  malt, 
which  is  carried  on  by  several  firms  in  Ireland,  e.g.,  Plunkctt,  Boydell, 
O'Reilly,  etc.,  whilst  a  considerable  quantity  is  imported  from  firms  like 
Hugh  Baird  and  Son  of  Glasgow.  Black  malt  imparts  a  Favour  to  the 
spent  grains  which  cattle  do  not  like,  and  consequently  the  price  obtained 
for  porter  grains  is  much  less  than  for  grains  used  in  making  ale.  Besides 
these  two  principal  differences  there  are  several  others  of  a  secondary 
character,  which  consist  not  so  much  in  the  actual  process  of  Irewing,  as  in 
the  method  of  fermentation  and  in  the  after  treatment  of  the  worts. 

Good  porter,  well  brewed,  is  said  to  contain  not  only  all  the  qualifications 
necessary  to  sustain  physical  energy,  but  is  also  considered  to  have  intrinsic 
value  as  a  medicinal  beverage,  and  consequently  the  medical  faculty  not 
infrequently  recommend  its  use  for  those  suffering  from  debility  or  ex- 
haustion. 


The  Materials  used  in  Brewing. 

A  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  upon  the  three  chief  consti- 
tuents that  go  to  form  good  beer,  viz.,  barley,  hops,  and  water.     Of  course 

2  H 


466  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

the  character  of  the  beer  is  mainly  determined  by  the  skill  with  which  the 
brewer  conducts  the  varied  and  complicated  processes  of  brewing,  but  it 
may  be  fairly  stated  that,  in  the  words  used  by  Mr.  Combrune,  140  years  ago, 
in  his  letter  to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  which  has  been  already  quoted, 
"  the  foundation  of  brewing  good  beer  is  good  malt,"  and  the  quality  of  the 
malt  depends  primarily  upon  the  nature  of  the  barley  used. 

The  amount  of  barley  grown  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  year  1901  was 
67,638,339   bushels,    and   the    amount   imported   was 

The  Barley  Crop  49,485,027  bushels.  A  very  small  quantity  was  ex- 
of  the  ported,  and  consequently  the  quantity  of  barley  used 

United  Kingdom,  m  the  United  Kingdom  in  1901  was  about  117,000,000 
bushels.  The  official  returns  show  that  over 
57,000,000  bushels  of  malt  were  used  in  making  beer  during  the  year  ended 
30th  September,  1901,  and,  as  a  bushel  of  barley  generally  produces  about 
a  bushel  of  malt,  nearly  one  half  of  the  total  amount  of  barley  grown  in  or 
imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  was  used  for  making  beer,  the  remainder 
mainly  going  into  the  ordinary  consumption  or  being  employed  for  seed  or 
in  making  whiskey. 

The  outstanding  feature  in  the  agricultural  economy  of  Ireland  during  the 
The  Brewing  P^^^  ^^^^  years  has  been,  of  course,  the  conversion  of 
°.  tillage  land  into  pasturage.  Whilst  barley  has  shared 
Industry  and  Irish  ^^  ^^^  general  shrinkage  of  crops,  it  has  done  so  in  a 
Barley.  \q^c,  degree  than  any  other  corn  crop,     in  1855  there 

were  226,629  acres  under  barley,  and  in  1900  the  area  under  that  crop  had 
fallen  to  161,534  acres,  a  decrease  of  28  per  cent.,  but  during  the  same  period 
the  acreage  under  oats  and  wheat  decreased  by  over  48  and  90  per  cent,  re- 
spectively. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  steadiness  exhibited  by  barley  as 
compared  with  oats  and  wheat  is  chiefly  due  to  the  increase  in  brewing,  for, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  figures  below,  over  half  the  barley  grown  in  Ireland 
finds  its  way  into  Irish  breweries.  A  remarkable  proof  of  the  close  con- 
nection existing  between  barley  growing  and  brewing  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  barley  is,  generally  speaking,  grown  only  in  the  brewing  districts. 
Brewing  has  never  been  a  really  flourishing  industry  in  the  North  of  Ireland 
or  Connaught,  and  it  is  accordingly  significant  to  note  that  Ulster  and  Con- 
naught  have  respectively  but  3  and  2  per  cent,  of  the  total  barley  area 
of  Ireland,  although  the  former  is  the  great  tillage  province.  Practically 
all  the  great  Irish  breweries,  past  or  present,  would  he  wdthin  the  triangle 
formed  by  Waterford  and  Cork  as  the  extremities  of  the  base  and  Dundalk 
as  the  apex.  Last  year  the  only  counties  in  Ireland  in  which  over  10,000 
acres  were  under  barley  were  Wexford  (31,360  acres),  Kilkenny  (19,102 
acres),  Queen's  (18,373),  Cork  (17,109),  Tipperary  (17,020),  Louth  (14,345), 
King's  (14,271),  and  Kildare  (10,498).  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  location 
of  many  of  the  country  breweries  may  have  been  determined,  to  some 
extent,  by  the  reputation  of  their  neighbourhoods  as  barley-growing  centres, 
but  still  it  is  evident  that  the  brewing  industry  exercises  an  important 
influence  upon  barley-growing  and  so  tends  to  keep  the  land  under  cultiva- 
tion and  to  keep  the  people  at  home. 

The  amount  of  barley  grown  in  Ireland  in  1901  was  6,530,716  bushels, 
whilst  the  quantity  of  malt  used  in  making  beer  was  5,978,696  bushels,  so 
that  the  amount  of  barley  used  by  brewers  was  not  much  less  than  the  entire 
yield  of  Irish  barley-fields.  All  the  barley  grown  in  Ireland  is  not,  however, 
used  for  the  production  of  beer  ;  some  is  not  suitable  for  malting,  and  a  con- 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  467 


siderable  part  of  the  crop  goes  into  ordinary  consumption  or  is  used  for  seed, 
whilst  a  quantity  of  barley  as  well  of  malt  made  from  barley  is  used  in 
distilleries,  or  is  exported  to  English  breweries,  and  consequently  a  large 
quantity  of  foreign  barley  has  to  be  imported.  In  fact  over  1,300,000 
bushels  of  barley  were  imported  into  Ireland  in  1901  direct  from  foreign 
countries,  and  probably  at  least  as  much  again  was  imported  via  England. 

Though  it  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  what  proportion  of  Irish  barley  finds 
its  way  into  Irish  breweries,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  very  considerably 
over  50  per  cent,  of  the  crop  each  year  is  converted  into  malt  which  is  used 
for  brewing,  and  this  fact  alone  suffices  to  emphasise  the  dependance  of 
Irish  barley-growers  upon  the  brewing  industry. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  good  Irish  barley  possesses  specific  qualities 
,  „  that  render  it  entirely  suitable  for  the  production  of 

T  •  h°B^^l  ™^^^  beverages,  and  owing  to  its  superior  quality,  to 

irisn  uariey.  ^^^  nothing  of  the  desire  to  foster  home  industries, 
Irish  brewers  have  aKvays  shown  a  marked  preference  for  home- 
grown barley,  though  they  are  forced,  owing  to  the  insufficient  supply,  to 
import  foreign  barley.  Whilst  probably  the  supply  of  inferior  Irish  barley 
is  quite  equal  to  the  demand,  and  cannot  be  profitably  increased,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  Irish  breweries  form  a  profitable  market  for  well-grown 
and  cajrefully  harvested  high  class  Irish  barley,  and  that  their  demand  would 
increase  with  any  increase  in  the  supply,  for  at  present  many  brewers 
use  foreign  grain  simply  because  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  class  home- 
grown barley  is  not  available.  The  brewing  quality  of  barley  turns  not  only 
upon  the  suitability  of  the  seed  corn  employed,  but  also  on  the  character  of 
soil,  climatic  conditions,  and  the  care  taken  in  manuring,  harvesting,  stacking, 
and  artificially  sweating  the  grain,  and  many  brewers  throughout  the  country 
have  done  much  good  work  in  assisting  in  bringing  about  an  improvement 
in  the  methods  of  growing  and  harvesting  barley.  Thus  Messrs.  Arthur 
Guinness  Son  and  Co.  have  for  several  years  co-operated  with  the  Irish 
Agricultural  Organisation  Society  and  with  the  Department  f  Agriculture 
and  Technical  Instruction  for  Ireland  in  carrying  out  barley-growing 
experiments,  chiefly  in  County  Cork  and  County  Wexford,  the  objects  of 
which  are  to  test  the  suitability  of  different  artificial  manures,  and  the 
respective  merits  of  different  varieties  of  barley. 

Farmers  find  by  experience  that  some  land  is  not  fit  for  the  growth  of 
barley,  and  maltsters  find  that  if  barley  is  grown  on  certain  soils  it  will  not 
make  good  malt.  Light  calcareous  soil  is  the  best  and  usually  produces 
an  excellent  crop,  as  also  does  well  manured  sandy  soil,  but  cold  clay  land, 
even  when  well  drained,  will  not  produce  the  best  malting  barley.  There 
is  also  room  for  improvement  in  the  present  methods  of  stacking,  dressing, 
and  grading  the  barley  for  market ;  the  mixing  of  first  class  and  second 
class  grain  is  to  be  regretted ;  if  each  were  sold  on  its  own  merits,  the 
farmer  would  obtain  a  higher  price  all  round,  and  would  be  more  certain  of 
obtaining  regular  customers. 

Hops  are  the  second  ingredient  that  calls  for  attention.     On  the  average 

nearly  2  lbs.  of  hops,  as  well  as  about  2  bushels  of 

Hops.  barley  are  generally  used  in  making  a  barrel  of  beer, 

and  it  is  commonly  estimated  that  over  500,000  cwts.  of 

hops  are  used  in  the  United  Kingdom  for  brewing  each  year,  and  the  amourit 

used  in  Ireland  is  probably  not  less  than  60,000  cwts.    The  quality  of  hops  is 


468  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

determined  usually  by  {a)  the  colour,  which  should  be  a  light  yellow ;  (J?)  the 
fulness,  which  can  be  seen  when  a  sample  is  cut  out  of  a  bale  ;  (c)  the 
quantity  of  seed  they  contain,  and  {d)  the  aroma  or  flavour.  The  hops  used 
for  making-  pale  ales  are  finer  in  quality  and  dearer  in  price  than  those 
generally  used  for  mild  ales  and  for  black  beers.  Hops  are  grown  chiefly  in 
America,  Germany,  and  England,  Kent  being  the  chief  centre  of  the  hop 
gardens  in  the  latter  country.  The  area  under  hops  in  England  has 
■during  the  last  thirty  years  ranged  between  70,000  and  50,000  acres,  and 
during  the  last  few  years  it  has  been  just  above  the  latter  figure.  The  labour 
bill  forms  the  chief  item  in  the  price  ;  it  has  been  calculated  that  the  average 
expenditure  upon  wages  is  £2'^  per  acre  of  hops.  During  the  first  few  days 
of  the  season  dozens  of  special  trains  are  run  from  London  to  various 
-stations  in  Kent,  which  convey  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children  to 
assist  in  the  harvesting  of  the  hops.  This  annual  exodus  of  the  very  poor 
from  London  to  the  hop  gardens  of  Kent,  for  a  short  period  of  healthful  and 
profitable  work,  is  an  interesting  example  of  those  temporary  migrations  of 
labour  with  which  we  are  so  painfully  familiar  in  Ireland.  The  crop  is  a  very 
uncertain  one  ;  in  1899  the  yield  in  England  was  661,373  cwts.,  and  in  1900 
only  347,894  cwts.,  though  the  acreage  was  practically  the  same  in  both  years, 
and  in  1901  the  yield  rose  to  some  550,000  cwts.  Last  year  116,042  cwts.  of 
hops,  valued  at  ;£'45 9,051  were  imported,  of  which  two-thirds  came  from 
America,  but  this  quantity  was  little  more  than  half  the  average  quantity 
imported  during  the  past  twenty  years.  Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the 
crop,  the  price  of  hops  is  subject  to  great  fluctuations,  and  consequently 
brewers  carry  a  fair  stock  from  year  to  year  to  guard  against  vicissitudes  ; 
and  the  application  of  the  cold  storage  system  to  hops,  has,  by  decreasing 
the  depreciation  in  strength  caused  by  keeping,  exercised  a  further  steady- 
ing influence  upon  their  price. 

Water  is  the  last  but  not  the  least  important  ingredient  which  may  be 

referred  to.     Generally  speaking  pale  ales  require  a 
Water.  hard  water   and   porter   a   soft  water,   such   as   that 

of  Dublin  and  the  south-east  of  Ireland  generally. 
Brewery  water  is  nearly  always  well  filtered.  Sometimes,  without  any 
known  cause,  the  water  suddenly  goes  wrong  and  as  suddenly  comes  right 
again.  These  occasional  troubles  happen  to  most  brewers  in  both  town 
and  country,  though  perhaps  more  often  to  the  latter  than  to  the  former,  and, 
while  they  last,  they  occasion  great  anxiety  and  loss.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  the  item  "  returned  beer  "  is  an  indication  of  their  effect.  For  the 
purposes  of  brewing  pale  ale,  where  the  water  is  soft,  it  is  sometimes  sought 
to  harden  it  and  render  it  suitable  by  the  introduction  of  chemicals,  and 
n  porter  brewer  troubled  with  hard  water  may  similarly  attempt  to  soften  it. 
It  is,  however,  questionable  if  these  attempts  to  rectify  the  water  to  suit  the 
purpose  required  are  entirely  successful.  A  plentiful  supply  of  naturally  suit- 
able water  is  indispensable  to  successful  brewing.  The  quality  of  the  water  is 
frequently  tested  by  analysis  to  detect  impurities  and  to  prevent  mishaps. 
In  addition  to  the  water  used  in  the  process  of  brewing,  an  immense  quantity 
is  required  for  cleansing  casks,  for  refrigerating,  and  other  purposes. 
Many  town  brewers  get  their  cooling  water  from  wells  and  from  the  rain 
water  which  they  store.  In  the  country,  where  the  water  charges  are  not 
so  heavy,  the  whole  of  the  water  required  is  usually  drawn  from  the  one 
source.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  statistics  as  to  the  quantity  of  water 
■used  in  breweries,  apart  from  the  water  consumed  in  the  actual  process  of 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


469 


brewing.  It  is  probable  that  in  an  average  sized  concern,  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  barrels  of  water  are  required  for  cooling,  washing,  etc.,  for  every 
barrel  of  drink  turned  out ;  that  is  to  say,  a  brewery  turning  out,  say 
100,000  barrels  of  beer  in  a  year,  will  have  a  water  consumption  of,  perhaps, 
over  70,000,000  gallons. 


The  Present  Condition  of  Irish  Breweries. 

Some  account  has  been  already  given  of  the  progress  of  the  brewing 
industry  during  the  last  two  centuries,  and  the  figures  given  on  page  458  show 
the  increase  in  production  by  decades  during  the  last  forty  years,  whilst  the 
following  Table,  which  has  been  kindly  supplied  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Inland  Revenue,  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  present  state  of  the  brewing 
industry  in  Ireland  : — 

Table  showing  for  the  year  ended  30th  September,  1901  : — The  Number  of  Brewers 
in  each  of  the  undermentioned  classes  ;  the  Quantities  of  Materials  Used  by 
each  class;  the  Amount  of  Licence  Duty  Paid  by,  and  Beer  Duty  Charged  on, 
each  class. 


Class. 

Number  of  Brewers  in 
each  Class  as  repre- 
sented by  Mic  Num- 
ber of  Licciiccs  issued. 

Quantities  of  Materials  used. 

Amount  of  Licence 

Duty  paid  and  of 

Beer  Duty  charged. 

Malt 

Un  malted 
Corn. 

Rice,  Rice  Grits, 
Flaked  Rice,  Maize 
Grits,Flakcd  Maize, 

and  other  similar 
preparations. 

Sugar,  including 
its  Equivalent  of 
Syrups,  Glucose, 
and  Saccharum. 

Brewers    for    Sale    who 

brewed  (reckoning  at  the 

No. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Cwts. 

(wis. 

standard        gravity        of 

1055^)  :- 

Barrels.                         Barrels. 

Under     1,000 

4 

2,018 





31 

408 

1,000  and  under  10,000 

16 

144.719 

40 

663 

1,899 

29,743 

10,000     ,,          ,,        20,000 

7 

196,522      1 

— 

2,604 

1,060 

41,264 

20,000     ,,          ,,        30,000 

2 

74,828 

— 

^,765 

4,189 

19,126 

30,000     ,,          ,,        50,000 

4 

338.425 

— 

i>275 

1,482 

69,944 

50,000     ,,          ,,      100,000 

5 

464,941 

— 

— 

963 

92,722 

100,000     ,,          ,,      150.000 

I 

236,603 

— 

— 

48,838 

150,000     ,,          ,,      200,000 

I 

287,288 

— 

— 

— 

58,548 

2,000,000  and  over 
Total 
Brewers  not  for  Sale 

I 

4.233,352 

— 

— 

885,176 

41* 

5,978,696 

40 

6,307 

9,624 

ti, 245, 769 

Nil.                — 

i 

— 

In  order,  however,  to  properly  appreciate  the  present  position  of  Irish 
brewers,  it  may  be  desirable  to  say  something  about  each  of  the  more 
important  breweries.  Ireland,  so  far  as  the  collection  of  the  beer  duty  is 
concerned,  is  divided  into  eight  Collection  Districts,  and  the  following  Table 
compiled  from  Parliamentary  papers,  shows  the  number  of  breweries,  the 

*  The  actual  number  of  Brewers  to  whom  Licences  were  issued  was  39.  A  Brewer  may 
hold  more  than  one  Licence. 

t  The  Licence  Duty  paid  being  at  the  rate  of  £1  per  licence,  amounted  to  £41. 


470 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


quantity  of  (i)  malt,  (2)  unmalted  corn,  (3)  rice,  maize,  and  other  similar 
preparations,  and  (4)  sugar,  etc.,  used  in  each  Collection  District  during  the 
year  ended  30th  September,  igoL 


Common 
Brewers. 

Quantities  of  Materials  used  by  common  Brewers. 

Collection  District. 

Malt. 

Kaw 
Grain. 

Rice,  Rice  Grits, 
Flaked  Bice,  Maize 

Grits,  Flaked 

Maize,  and  other 

similar 

preparations. 

Sugar,  including 
its  Equivalent  of 
Syrups,  Glucose, 

and  Saccharum. 

Ireland — 
Belfast  . . 
Cork      . . 
Dublin  . . 
Dundalk 
Galway 
Kilkenny 
Limerick 
Londonderry 

4 
6 

7 
4 
I 
10 
3 
3 

Bushels. 

58,468 

596,223 

4,754.448 

243,763 

5.632 

219,699 

89,022 

10,881 

Bushels. 
40 

Cwts. 

1,837 
1,500 

1.275 
197 

1,233 
265 

Cwts. 

272 

3.979 

14 

2,518 

1.534 

1,226 

81 

Total  for  Ireland, 
Total  for  United  Kingdom, 

*38 

*5,978.i36 

40 

6,307 

9;624 

1,847 

54,314,687 

165,073 

1,323,287 

2,822,253 

Per-cent/ 

^GE  in 

Ireland, 

2.0 

II.O 

0.024 

0.47 

0.34 

The  difference  between  the  number  of  brewers  and  the  quantity  of  malt  used,  as  set  out  in 
this  table  or  the  preceding  table  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  one  victualler  in  the  Kilkenny 
Collection  District  is  licensed  as  a  brewer  for  safe,  and  is  included  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Inland  Revenue  in  the  preceding  table  but  is  excluded  from  this  table. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  whilst  Irish  brewers  form  only  2  per  cent,  of  the 
total  number  of  brewers  in  the  United  Kingdom,  they  produce  over  8  per 
cent,  of  the  beer  and  use  about  11  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  malt,  an 
almost  infinitesimal  portion  of  the  unmalted  corn,  and  less  than  ^  per  cent. 
of  the  sugar,  rice,  maize,  and  other  substitutes  and  preparations  employed 
by  the  brewers  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


The  Dublin  Collection  District. 

In  dealing  seriatim  with  the  principal  breweries  in  the  chief  Collection 

District,  viz.,  Dublin,  the  first  to  be  noted  is,  of  course, 

p   .  ,    |j  the  great  firm  of  Messrs.  Arthur  Guinness  Son  cind 

uuinness  s  Brewery.   ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  occupy  an  absolutely  unique  position. 

In  the  year  1 900-1 901  there  were  about  37,000,000 
barrels  of  beer  made  by  the  6,440  brewers  of  the  United  Kingdom 
who  brew  for  sale,  and  of  this  total  over  one-twentieth  was 
brewed  by  the  single  firm  of  Guinness,  who  have  by  far  the 
largest  output  of  any  firm  in  the  United  Kingdom  or,  indeed,  in  the 
world.  The  unique  position  occupied  by  Guinness's  Brewery  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  they  manufacture  more  than  two-thirds  of  all  the  beer 
brewed  in  Ireland.  The  first  Guinness  connected  with  the  great  brewery 
was  Mr.  Arthur  Guinness,  who  purchased  the  concern  as  it  then  stood  from 
a  Mr.  Rainsford  in  1759,  and  it  is  understood  that  even  at  that  date  the 
brewery  was  already  long  established.  The  brewery  then  possessed  a 
frontage  of  ninety  feet,  stretched  back  to  a  depth  of  three  hundred  and 
eighty  feet,   and   abutted   on  three   streets.     The  colossal   business   now 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


471 


enjoyed  by  this  firm  is  all  the  more  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  other  brewers  carrying  on  business  in  Dublin  are  of  greater  antiquity, 
and  very  much  exceeded  the  trade  of  the  St.  James's  Gate  Brewery  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  beer  manufactured  consists  of  four  kinds,  viz.,  Porter,  which  is  chiefly 
used  in  Ireland  for  draught ;  Extra  Stout,  which  is  the  article  best  known 
to  the  English  public,  but  which  is  also  largely  used  in  Ireland  ;  Export 
Stout,  which  is  generally  exported  in  wood  ;  and  Foreign  Stout,  which  is 
specially  brewed  in  the  coolest  season,  stored  in  vats  for  a  long  time,  and 
prepared  for  the  bottlers,  chiefly  in  Dublin,  Liverpool,  and  London,  who 
supply  foreign  markets. 

The  trade  of  the  St.  James's  Gate  concern  was  at  first  a  local  one,  but  about 
the  year  1825  English  Agencies  were  established,  and  henceforward  there 
was  a  rapid  increase  in  the  trade  across  the  channel.  In  1834  their  exports 
are  stated  to  have  been  about  34,000  barrels  of  stout  and  porter  per  annum. 
In  1856  the  figure  had  increased  to  62,000  barrels,  while  to-day  the  annual 
export  of  Guinness's  porter  and  stout  is  said  to  amount  to  more  than 
600,000  barrels.  It  was  not  until  about  the  year  i860  that  the  export 
trade  of  Guinness  to  foreign  countries  and  the  colonies  assumed  any  con- 
siderable dimensions ;  but  the  trade  now  done  in  this  direction  is  very 
large. 

The  firm  was  turned  into  a  public  company  in  October,  1886,  with  a 
capital  of  ;^6,ooo,ooo,  divided  into  250,000  Ordinary  Shares  of  ;^io  each, 
;£,"i, 500,000  Five  per  cent.  Debenture  Stock,  and  ;6^20O,O00  Six  per  cent. 
Cumulative  Preference  Shares  of  £10  each.  The  ;£^i, 500,000  Five  per  cent. 
Debenture  Stocks  may  be  redeemed,  at  the  Company's  option,  after  January 
1st,  1907,  at  1 10  per  cent.  The  prospectus  shows  that  the  profit  made  in  the 
five  years  before  flotation  averaged  ^^"45  2,294  a  year,  while  the  profit  made 
the  year  immediately  preceding  the  formation  of  the  new  Company  was 
;^554,327.  To  show  how  this  Company  has  expanded  we  give  a  tabulated 
statement  showing  full  particulars  taken  from  the  balance  sheets  from  1887 
to  the  financial  year  ending  30th  June,  1901. 


Year 

Dividend 

on  Ordinary 

Shares. 

Amounts 

Amounts 

ending 
30th 
June. 

Excise  Duty 
Paid. 

Net  Profits. 

placed  to 
Reserve 
Fund. 

placed  to 

Depreciation 

Fund. 

Balance 
Forward. 

1887 

;^339.443 
for  9  months 
or  at  rate  of 

^52,590 
per  annum 

^544.985 
for  9  months 
or  at  rate  of 
^726,646 

per  annum 

12  per  cent. 

and  2  per 
cent. 
Bonus. 

£ 
200,000 

£ 
20,000 

£ 
20,214 

1888 

457,080 

790,930 

15  per  cent. 

150,000 

30,000 

49,811 

1889 

481,066 

712,035 

15 

125,000 

30,000 

25.641 

1890 

499,408 

719,665 

15 

100,000 

30,000 

32,284 

1891 

524,170 

749,518 

15 

100,060 

30,000 

68,427 

1892 

522,248 

685,609 

15 

100,000 

30,000 

40,975 

1893 

544.709 

703.331 

15 

100,000 

30,000 

31,681 

1894 

535.301 

657,186 

15 

50,000 

30,000 

24,027 

1895 

600,627 

717.259 

16 

75,000 

30,000 

25.193 

1896 

624,964 

741.997 

16 

aioo,ooo 

30,000 

26,554 

1897 

606,417 

790,180 

18 

a  85,000 

25,000 

44.300 

1898 

646,237 

839,182 

19 

ai25,ooo 

25,000 

46,997 

1899 

680,448 

812,699 

19 

a  80,000 

25,000 

66,123 

1900 

743.300 

781,656 

19 

a  80,000 

25,000 

53.359 

1901 

864,123 

850,613 

20        , 

n  1 00,000 

30,000 

48,562 

a  These  amounts  were  placed  to  Reserve  for  Capital  Expenditure  and  Contingencies. 


472  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

The  value  of  the  concern  has  enormously  increased  from  the  six  millions  at 
which  it  was  valued  in  1886.  To-day  it  is  valued  by  the  pubhc  according 
to  the  current  market  prices  at  nearly  twenty  millions  of  money,  and  had 
the  profits  grown  with  the  trade  it  is  hard  to  estimate  what  this  figure  would 
have  been.  In  the  year  ended  30th  June,  1888,  the  Excise  Duty  paid  was 
;^45 7,080,  and  the  net  profits  were  ^^790,930,  i.e.,  the  net  profits  were  almost 
75  per  cent,  more  than  the  duty  paid.  In  the  year  ended  30th  June,  1901, 
the  Excise  Duty  paid  was  ;^864,i23,  and  the  net  profits  were  ^^850,61 3, 
I.e.,  actually  less  than  the  Excise  Duty,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  this 
profit  is  included  the  interest  derivable  from  over  a  million  of  money  held  in 
reserve.  Thus,  whilst  the  amount  paid  in  duty  increased  89  per  cent,  in 
thirteen  years,  the  increase  in  net  profits  during  the  same  time  has  been 
under  10  per  cent.  If,  as  seems  most  probable,  the  increased  taxation  which 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  has  put  upon  the  brewmg  trade  is  the 
cause  of  this  diminution  in  profits,  it  is  evident  how  hard  the  smaller 
breweries  must  be  hit  by  the  increase  m  the  beer  duty. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  firm  use  Irish  barley  as  far  as  possible, 
and  about  60  per  cent,  of  the  malt  used  is  made  from  home-grown 
grain,  but  a  sufficient  supply  of  Irish  barley  cannot  be  obtained,  and  conse- 
quently a  considerable  quantity  has  to  be  bought  in  Great  Britain,  and  a 
small  amount  is  imported  from  foreign  countries.  Like  most  brewers  the 
Company  make  a  large  part  of  the  malt  they  use,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
malt  required  is  made  by  various  firms  throughout  the  country  on  com- 
mission, or  is  bought  in  the  Irish,  Scotch  and  English  markets.  The  hops 
used  are  obtained  from  Kent  and  America. 

The  Grand  Canal  supplies  most  of  the  water  used  for  brewing.  This  water 
is  of  a  moderate  degree  of  hardness  and  is  taken  fjom  filter  beds  at  the  fifth 
lock.  The  Vartry  water,  which  forms  the  main  supply  for  Dublin  is  used 
chiefly  for  boilers  and  other  purposes  where  a  soft  water  is  found  useful. 
The  enormous  amount  of  water  used  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  irrespective 
of  the  produce  of  two  wells  situate  within  the  premises,  the  Company  pay 
over  i^4,000  per  annum  though  the  rates  are  as  low  as  2^<^.  and  4^.  per 
1,000  gallons. 

In  i860  the  premises  occupied  by  the  brewery  covered  about  four 
acres,  but  in  proportion  as  its  trade  increased,  the  firm  gradually  acquired 
tlie  ground  adjacent  to  it,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  extensions  required. 
The  buildings  are  composed  of  two  principal  parts,  the  old  brewery  and 
the  new  brewery,  which  was  built  in  1879  and  subsequently  extended  to 
meet  the  growing  demand  for  accommodation,  and  the  premises  to-day 
occupy  more  than  forty  acres,  and  are  constantly  being  still  further 
e.xtended. 

The  premises  are  situated  on  three  different  levels.  The  first  or  upper  level 
is  about  sixty  feet  above  the  river  quay,  and  comprises  the  two  breweries,  the 
fermenting  rooms,  the  vat  houses,  the  stables,  and  the  malt  and  hop  stores. 
The  second  or  middle  level  contains  the  maltings,  the  grain  stores,  a  vat 
house,  and  other  buildings  ;  while  the  third  or  lower  level  on  the  Victoria 
Quay  consists  of  the  carpentry,  the  cooperage  shops,  the  cask  washing 
sheds,  the  racking  and  filling  stores,  as  well  as  the  platforms  on  which  the 
goods  are  loaded,  according  to  their  destination,  on  dray,  boat,  or  railway. 

The  firm  owns  160  drays  and  floats,  153  horses,  9  steamers,  and  5  motor 
trucks,  and  more  than  120  drays  of  stout  leave  the  establishment  daily, 
whilst  the  principal  railways  in  Ireland  have  connecting  lines  to  the  brewery. 


GUIXNESS'S  BREWERY. 


VIEW  OF   .MASH  TLXS. 


THE  CLEAXSING  HOUSE. 

Tliis  Illustration  depicts  the  Process  of  Skimming  the  Yeast  from  the  Stout. 


GUINXESS'S  BREWERY. 


VIEW  OK  THE  COOPERAGE   YAKD. 


LOADING   WllAKK  ON  'J'lIE   HIVKK   LIFFEV. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  473 


A  special  quay  extends  along  the  Liffey  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  lower 
level  of  the  brewery.  Steam  barges  belonging  to  the  firm  take  the  casks 
from  this  quay  and  bring  them  down  to  the  Channel  steamers  anchored  at 
the  North  Wall,  as  well  as  to  the  numerous  vessels  waiting  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Liffey. 

The  different  levels  of  the  brewery  are  all  united  by  a  miniature  railway 
line  with  a  22  inch  gauge,  and  15  small  engines  and  a  number  of  trucks 
bring  down  the  casks.  A  spiral  tunnel,  similar  on  a  small  scale  to  that  used 
on  the  St.  Gothard  Railway,  gives  the  means  of  running  from  the  middle  up 
to  the  upper  level.  A  great  number  of  industries  are  carried  on  in  the 
brewery  premises.  One  comes  across  engineers,  machinists,  farriers, 
carpenters,  joiners,  brasiers,  plumbers,  painters,  and  other  artisans,  for, 
the  repairs  necessary  to  the  machinery  and  general  plant  are  done  by  the 
workmen  employed  by  the  brewery,  and  over  50,000  casks  were  made  last 
year.  One  vast  building  is  reserved  for  a  printing  plant,  and  extremely 
costly  machinery  has  been  set  up  to  print  the  labels  required  for  the  firms 
engaged  in  the  bottling  of  Guinness's  Extra  Stout.  Over  a  million  of  these 
labels  are  printed  each  day.  A  post  office  adjoins  the  business  offices,  and 
over  300,000  letters  arrive  there  annually,  whilst  the  cost  of  postage  stamps 
alone  amounts  in  the  year  to  nearly  ^^4,000. 

The  laboratory,  that  most  indispensable  and  important  adjunct  to  every 
modern  brewery,  is  on  a  vast  scale.  It  is  separated  from  the  other  depart- 
ments and  contains  a  large  amount  of  special  appliances  adopted  to  the 
study  of  important  processes  relating  to  the  brewing  of  porter. 

The  new  electric  installation,  which  serves  for  lighting  as  well  as  for 
the  transmission  of  power  at  present  contains  plant  of  which  the  total  power 
is  800  units,  and  greater  power  is  being  added.  The  dynamos  are  driven 
directly  by  vertical  steam  engines  of  a  high  velocity  which  work  on  the  three 
wire  system  (with  the  middle  earthed)  at  a  continuous  current  of  420  volts 
across  the  outers. 

The  telephone  and  telegraph  offices  (situated  in  the  main  business  offices) 
comprise  a  central  telephone  office  connected  with  over  forty  branch  stations 
throughout  the  brewery,  and  a  pneumatic  despatch  system  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  letters  from  one  department  to  another  is  also  in  use. 

An  interesting  exhibit  in  the  Cork  Exhibition  is  the  model  of  the  brewery 
which  was  first  shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900,  and  which  gives  a 
very  striking  idea  of  the  huge  establishment  at  St.  James's  Gate. 

The  Phoenix  Brewery  Co.,  Ltd.,  which  claims  to  have  the  second  largest 
capacity  of  the  Irish  breweries,  stands  on  the  opposite 
The  side  of  the  street  to  Guinness's,  and  has  an  imposing 

Phoenix  Brewery,  frontage,  whilst  the  buildings  stretch  back  540  feet 
towards  the  Liffey.  This  brewery  was  founded  in  1778 
by  an  English  brewer  named  Mather,  and  was  afterwards  worked  under  the 
name  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  Jun.  and  Co.  In  1828  the  concern  was  taken  over 
by  Mr.  John  Brennan,  father  of  Mr.  Chas.  Brennan,  who  at  his  father's  death 
became  proprietor  of  the  brewery.  He  considerably  enlarged  and  im- 
proved the  concern,  did  a  very  extensive  trade,  both  home  and 
export,  and  also  enjoyed  a  large  share  of  military  trade.  In  order  to 
make  the  extensions  required  by  the  growth  of  the  business,  Mr.  Brennan 
purchased  and  annexed  the  adjoining  "  Manders  "  Brewery,  which  covered 
six  acres  of  ground.     In  January,  1897,  the  brew^ery  was  converted  into  a 


474  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

public  Company  with  a  share  capital  of  ;;^  190,000  and  ;6^  100,000  4.]/^  per 
cent.  Debenture  Stock.  The  Company  also  acquired  extensive  makings 
at  Monasterevan,  Sallins,  Ballyroe,  and  Skerries,  and  are  large  consumers  of 
home  grown  barley. 

The  Anchor  Brewery,  Usher  Street,  is  one  of  the  oldest  breweries  exist- 
ing in  Dublin,  having  been  founded  so  far  back  as 
The  1740-     The  present  proprietors,  Messrs.  John  D'Arcy 

Anchor  Brewery,  and  Son,  Ltd.,  have  in  their  possession  the  title  deeds 
of  Messrs.  Kavanagh  and  Brett  who  were  the  owners 
in  1782.  Up  to  that  time  it  would  appear  the  liquor  brewed  in  Dublin  was 
ale  and  light  beer,  and  the  following  advertisement  cut  from  Saunder's 
News-Letter,  published  in  Dublin  in  1798,  is  interesting  as  fixing  the  date 
when  the  popular  drink,  for  which  Dublin  has  since  become  famous,  was  first 
brewed  there  : — "  They  {i.e.,  Messrs.  Kavanagh  and  Brett)  are  brewing  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Chas.  Page  of  London,  Porter  of  a  very  superior  quality, 
which  will  be  found  on  trial  to  equal, any  imported  from  England." 

From  Messrs.  Kavanagh  and  Brett  the  Brewery  passed  nto  the  hands  of 
Mr.  John  Dominick  Byrne,  a  practical  brewer  and  excellent  man  of  business 
who  considerably  increased  the  output,  and,  on  his  retirement  in  181 8,  the 
premises  were  purchased  by  Mr.  John  D'Arcy  for  a  sum  of  ;;^3 5,000,  which 
proves  that,  in  those  days  of  many  breweries,  the  business  must  have  been 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  city.  Mr.  D'Arcy  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  late 
Mr.  Matthew  P.  D'Arcy,  in  1864,  who  added  considerably  to  the  property  in 
land,  buildings  and  plant.  The  premises  now  extend  over  5  acres,  and  it  is, 
in  fact,  one  of  the  largest  concerns  of  the  kind  in  the  United  Kingdom.  On 
the  death,  in  1889,  of  Mr.  Matthew  D'Arcy,  M.P.,  who  was  a  very  well  known 
public  man,  his  sons  Messrs.  William  M.  D'Arcy  and  James  F.  D'Arcy,  con- 
tinued the  business  which  they  converted  into  a  private  Limited  Liability 
Company  in  1896. 

The  principal  trade  of  this  brewery  has  always  been  in  Ireland,  but  the 
export  business  has  not  been  neglected,  and  the  quantity  shipped  last  year 
amounted  to  close  on  16,000  Hhds.  The  firm  finds  employment  for  over 
300  people,  and  is  capable  of  turning  out  250,000  barrels  annually.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  this  firm  have  always  been  noted  for  the  very 
high  class  of  horses  (all  Irish  bred)  which  they  use.  These  horses,  one  of 
which  is  shown  in  an  illustration,  have  won  no  less  than  ten  first  prizes  at 
the  annual  Spring  Show  held  at  Ball's  Bridge,  Dublin,  as  well  as  the 
Guinness  Championship  Cup,  for  the  best  horse  and  vehicle,  on  three  dif- 
ferent occasions. 

One  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest  firm  in  Dublin,  is  the  Ardee  Street 
Brewery,  the  property  of  Messrs.  Watkins    and    Co., 

The  Ardee  Street  the  proprietors  being  Mr.  Wellington  Darley  and 
Brewery.  Mr.  Alfred  Darley.     Watkins'  Brewery  can  lay  claim 

to  great  antiquity,  for,  from  papers  held  by  the  firm,  it 
is  believed  that  the  site  of  the  present  brewery  is  the  same  as  the  site  of  the 
Brew  House  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  Thomas  at  the  time  when  the  Monas- 
tery owned  the  "  Liberties "  of  Dublin.  On  the  suppression  of  the 
Monastery  in  1536  their  property  was  granted  to  the  Earl  of  Meath,  under 
whom  Messrs.  Watkins  hold  leases  dating  so  far  back  as  1691,  and  it  is 
believed  that  brewing  has  been  carried  on  continuously  in  the  same  place 
since  1536. 

In  the  year  1766,  when  there  were  forty  brewers  in  Dublin  paying  Excise 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  475 


duty,  Watkins*  Brewery  was  owned  by  Sir  James  Taylor,  who  headed  the 
hst  of  duty  payments,  at  a  time  when  the  present  firm  of  Guinness 
paid  but  a  small  amount.  In  1790  the  number  of  brewers  had  increased  to 
fifty,  paying  between  them  ;6"40,788  19^-.  4}i.d.  Excise  duty,  and  Watkins  still 
headed  the  list  of  duty  payers,  paying  £3,32^,  los.  5^^.,  while  Guinness 
paid  only  ii^744  17s.  0}'2d.  The  concern  came  into  the  ownership 
of  Messrs.  Richard  and  Joseph  Watkins  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century.  The  Darley  family  are  connected  by  marriage  with  the 
Watkins,  and  so  afford  another  example  of  the  hereditary  association  certain 
families  have  had  with  the  brewing  industry  in  Ireland,  for,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Guinness,  D'Arcy,  Cairnes,  Murphy,  Thornhill,  Smithwick,  Macardle, 
Brennan,  Beamish,  Crawford,  Cherry,  Keily,  Cassidy,  Perry,  Sullivan,  and 
other  families,  many  of  the  principal  breweries  in  Ireland  have  been  kept  in 
the  same  families  for  generations.  Messrs.  Watkins  and  Co.  do  not  brew- 
ale,  but  confine  themselves  exclusively  to  stout  and  porter  for  bottle  and 
draught.  They  brew  from  malt  and  hops  only,  and  make  all  their  own  malt 
from  Irish  barley,  grown  mostly  in  the  Counties  of  Tipperary  and  Wexford. 
The  Mountjoy  Brewery  was  founded  in  1852  by  Mr.  Alexander  Findlater, 

a   Scotch   gentleman   who   settled   in   Dublin.       Mr. 

The  Findlater's  name  is  perpetuated  in  Findlater's  Church, 

Mountjoy  Brewery,  a  handsome  building  at  the  corner  of  Rutland  Square, 

which  he  presented  to  the  Presbyterian  community. 
The  brewery  was  formed  into  a  Limited  Company  in  1890,  and  was  very 
fortunate  in  being  bought  at  a  moderate  price,  and  having  only  a  small 
capital  on  v.'hich  to  pay  dividends.  The  brewing  is  in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  J.  R.  Blood,  grand-nephew  of  the  original  proprietor.  The  brewery, 
which  is  situated  in  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  Dublin,  covers  four 
acres  of  ground,  and  has  a  frontage  to  the  main  street  of  240  feet. 
The  makings,  vat  houses,  cooperage,  etc.,  are  situated  at  the  back,  and  the 
whole  is  enclosed  by  a  lofty  stone  wall  and  numerous  buildings.  This  firm 
buy  the  best  malt  and  hops  procurable,  and  notwithstanding  all  the  diffi- 
culties with  which  Irish  brewers  have  to  contend,  are  steadily  making  head- 
way. Nothing  but  stout  and  porter  has  ever  been  brewed  at  the  Mountjoy 
Brewery,  and  the  liquor  is  sold  principally  in  Ireland  and  England.  The 
firm,  however,  ship  a  considerable  quantity  to  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cyprus, 
where  they  have  a  connection  of  many  years  standing.  Their  "  Crown  " 
nourishing  stout  is  a  specialty,  and  their  export  trade  during  1901,  according 
to  the  shipping  returns  of  the  Port  of  Dublin,  published  in  the  daily  papers 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  next  to  Messrs.  Arthur  Guinness  and  Co. 
The  North  Anne  Street  Brewery,  Dublin,  the  proprietors  of  which  are 

Messrs.  Jameson,  Pim  and  Co.,  can  lay  claim  to 
The  North  Anne  very  great  antiquity  ;  they  hold  old  leases  dating  from 
Street  Brewery.      171 5.  and  that  portion  of  their  works  which  embraces 

Hasard's  Brewery,  Beresford  Street,  is  said  to  be  of 
even  earlier  date.  The  business  now  includes  those  of  James  Pim  and  Co.. 
Thunder  and  Co.,  Ally  and  Co.,  and  Robert  Manders  and  Co.,  which  at 
different  times  have  been  absorbed  by  it.  The  present  proprietors  of  this 
brewery  also  own  the  famous  distillery  of  Messrs.  John  Jameson  and  Son, 
Ltd.,  of  Bow-street.  The  premises  and  plant  are  in  excellent  order,  and  are 
being  continually  improved,  and  a  new  main  boiler,  engines,  and  chimney 
shaft  have  just  been  put  in.  All  the  malt  used  is  made  by  the  firm  at 
the  brewery  makings,  almost  entirely  from  Irish  barley,  the  greater  part  of 


476  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


which  is  purchased  at  their  stores  in  Queen's  County  and  Wexford,  and  the 
balance  on  the  Dubhn  Corn  Exchange.  They  malt  about  30,000  barrels 
a  year.  About  200  persons  are  employed  in  the  brewery,  which  is  capable 
of  turning  out  100,000  Hhds.  annually.  In  addition  to  the  home  trade,  the 
firm  exported  21,419  Hhds.  last  year  according  to  the  statistics  published. 
They  have  stores  in  Manchester  and  Bristol,  and  many  agents  throughout 
the  country  both  in  England  and  Ireland. 

The  Cork  Collection  District. 

The  second  largest  Collection  District  is  that  of  Cork,  which  contains 
four  independent  breweries,  where  596,223  bushels  of  malt  were  brewed  in 
the  year  ended  30th  September,  1901.  The  City  of  Cork  has  always  been 
a  great  home  of  the  brewing  industry,  and  now  contains  two  large  breweries. 
A  stranger  landing  in  Cork,  and  driving  through  the  city,  is  met  on  all  sides 
by  the  names  Murphy,  and  Beamish  and  Crawford,  and  it  would  seem  that 
both  these  breweries  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  secure  property  in  a 
large  number  of  licensed  houses,  in  the  City  of  Cork,  and  indeed  all  over  the 
South  of  Ireland. 

The  Lady's  Well  Brewery,  as  Messrs.  James  J.  Murphy  and  Co.,  Ltd., 
designate  their  premises,  is  situated  in  Leitrim-street, 
Lady's  Well  at  the  north  side  of  the  city,  and  is  overlooked  by  the 
Brewery.  old  Steeple  of  Shandon,  famous  for  its  bells.     The 

buildings  are  irregular  and  picturesque,  and  cover 
over  four  acres.  Close  by  is  the  ancient  well  from  which  the  Brewery  takes 
its  name.  The  business  was  established  in  1856  by  Messrs.  James  J., 
William  J.,  Jerome  J.,  and  Francis  J.  Miirphy,  and  was  turned  into  a  private 
Limited  Company  in  1883.  It  has  a  capital  of  iJ'500,000,  divided  thus, 
;;^300,ooo  in  Ordinary  Shares,  i^  100,000  five  per  cent.  Debentures,  and 
;^ 1 00,000  four  per  cent.  Debentures,  which,  considering  the  size  of  the 
brewery,  the  extensive  trade  attached  to  it,  and  the  large  interest  in  licensed 
property  which  they  control,  mu.st  be  much  under  the  value  of  the  concern, 
but  as  the  family  hold  all  the  shares  in  their  own  hands  this  is  immaterial. 
Some  twelve  years  ago  the  brewery  was  remodelled  and  the  plant  renewed, 
and  last  year  Messrs.  Jas.  J.  Murphy  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  acquired  the  St.  Finbarr's 
Brewery,  Cork  (Sir  John  Arnott's)  and  the  Riverstown  Ale  Brewery  and 
Maltings.  They  have  closed  and  dismantled  both  these  breweries,  but  are 
working  the  malt  houses.  The  licensed  property  of  Messrs.  J.  A.  Arnott 
and  Co.,  Ltd.,  in  the  City  of  Cork  was  very  large  and  turned  out  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  trade  of  Lady's  Well  Brewery,  which  now  stands  high  up  m 
the  sale  returns  of  the  breweries  of  the  United  Kingdom.  For  many  years 
Messrs.  Murphy  and  Co.  have  been  competing  successfully  for  the  English 
trade,  notably  in  the  Midlands  and  in  the  South.  They  were  awarded 
Gold  Medals  for  "  highest  excellence "  at  the  Brewers'  Exhibitions  in 
Dublin  in  1892,  and  in  Manchester  three  years  later.  Only  heps  and  malt 
are  used  ;  and  the  Company  who  now  annually  malt  over  40,000  barrels  of 
Irish  barley,  have  done  much  to  promote  barley  growing  in  their  neighbour- 
hood. They  have  a  fine  electric  installation,  electricity  being  largely  used 
in  the  brewing  for  motive  power.  About  200  persons  are  employed  in  the 
brewery  and  cooperage,  irrespective  of  clerks  and  travellers. 

The  local  support  given  to  Murphy's  Brewery  was  well  repaid  by  Mr.  Tames 
J.  Murphy  at  the  time  of  the  failure  of  the  Munster  Bank.     When  the  Share- 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  477 


liolders  Committee  were  unsuccessful  in  forming  a  Directorate  to  restart  it,  he 
took  up  the  undertal^ing  which  appeared  at  the  time  to  be  hopeless,  formed 
a  Board  of  Directors,  and  re-opened  the  Bank  under  the  title  of  the  "  Mun- 
ster  and  Leinster  Bank,"  with  a  very  limited  amount  of  capital  at  its  disposal 
and  in  the  teeth  of  the  most  adverse  criticism.  From  1885  to  1888  he  gave 
the  liquidation  of  the  old  bank  and  the  budding  business  of  the  new  bank 
his  undivided  attention,  and,  before  he  died  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
the  old  bank  satisfactorily  wound  up  and  the  new  one  in  a  sound  financial 
position.  Few  realised  the  far-reaching  view  he  took  of  the  situation  at  the 
time  of  the  failure.  His  opinion  was  that,  unless  the  liquidation  of  the  old 
bank  was  voluntary,  and  the  new  one  started  to  take  over  and  nurse  the 
accounts  locked  up  by  the  closing,  the  South  of  Ireland  would  receive  a 
monetary  shock  from  which  it  would  take  years  to  recover.  Ably  assisted  by 
the  late  Mr.  R.  C.  Hall  of  Cork,  and  Mr.  F.  W.  Pirn  of  DubUn,  he  carried 
through  the  liquidation,  and  undoubtedly  saved  the  province  of  Munster 
and  a  portion  of  Leinster,  from  a  calamity  the  results  of  which  would  have 
been  far-reaching. 

Messrs.   Beamish  and   Crawford,   Limited,  who  own  the  other  brewing 

establishment   in    Cork — the  Cork  Porter  Brewery — 

The  Cork  Porter     is  one  of  the  oldest  firms  in  Ireland.     Records  in  the 

Brewery.  hands  of  the  proprietors  show  that  this  brewery  was  in 

existence  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  that  in  17 15  it  was  in  the  possession  of  one  Edward  Allen.  Later 
documents  prove  that  in  1791  it  became  the  property  of  William  Beamish 
and  William  Crawford,  whose  descendants  have  ever  since  carried  on  the 
business,  and  are  to-day  represented  by  Mr.  Richard  Henrik  Beamish  and 
Arthur  Frederick  Sharman-Crawford.  Writing  in  1809,  Wakefield  states 
that  Guinness  was  then  only  the  second  brewer  in  Ireland,  Beamish  and 
Crawford,  brewing  annually  100,000  barrels,  standing  first.  Considering  the 
great  decline  in  the  population  of  Ireland,  which,  of  course,  brewers  are 
about  the  first  to  feel,  Beamish  and  Crawford  have  held  their  own,  intro- 
ducing every  possible  requisite  to  keep  their  establishment  in  the  front  rank 
among  the  more  important  breweries  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Like  the 
Murphy s,  they  have  gradually  added  licensed  property  after  licensed  pro- 
perty to  their  register,  and  last  year  they  purchased  Lane's  Brewery,  and 
all  the  hcensed  houses  in  Cork  and  the  South  of  Ireland  which  were 
attached  to  this  concern,  so  that  their  output  must  now  rank  among  the 
three  largest  in  Ireland.  In  addition  to  the  large  local  trade,  the  firm  has, 
during  the  last  few  years,  extended  its  field  of  enterprise  by  opening  up 
an  export  trade  in  England. 

In  18(35  the  brewery,  makings,  machinery,  and  plant,  were  almost 
entirely  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  over  ;£"  100,000.  The  Brewery  is  situated  in 
South  Main-street,  and  is  bounded  on  two  sides  by  the  south  channel  of 
the  river  Lee.  which  washes  the  walls.  The  brewery  buildings,  which,  with 
the  yards,  cover  many  acres  of  ground,  are  quite  enclosed  by  houses  and 
high  walls,  and  are  erected  round  two  big  quadrangles.  Both  porter  and 
ale  are  manufactured,  entirely  from  malt  and  hops,  and  the  former  is  sold 
at  home  and  abroad.  The  ale  brewed  is  entirely  consumed  in  Ireland,  and  is 
sold  both  in  cask  and  bottle.  Their  makings  which  are  situated  in  Nile- 
street,  a  short  distance  from  the  banks  of  the  Lee,  cover  some  acres,  and 
are  entirely  enclosed.  They  are  of  very  large  dimensions,  and  consist  of  a 
picturesque  block  of  buildings  formed  round  three  sides  of  a  square  court. 


478  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

The  whole  of  the  machinery  throughout  the  estabhshment  of  Messrs. 
Beamish  and  Crawford,  is  worked  by  electric  motors.  All  casks  used  for 
the  brewery  are  made  on  the  premises  at  the  cooperage,  and  so  pleased  are 
the  Cork  Coopers'  Society  with  the  work  done,  that  they  asked  Messrs. 
Beamish  and  Crawford  to  exhibit  their  oak  casks  at  the  Cork  Exhibition, 
which  they  agreed  to  do.  The  generosity  of  the  firm  is  shown  by  the 
contributions  which  they  have  made  to  the  re-building  of  St.  Fin  Barre's 
Cathedral,  and  to  the  enlargement  of  the  Queen's  College,  Cork ;  whilst 
the  Crawford  Municipal  School  of  Art  perpetuates  the  munificence  of  the 
late  Mr.  W.  H.  Crawford. 

This  brewery  was  estabHshed  over  lOO  years  ago  by  Mr.  Rickard  Deasy, 

the  father  of  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Deasy,  in  conjunc- 
The  Clonakilty      tion  with  the  father  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Stewart,  at  one 
Brewery.  time  Rector  of  Rathbarry,  and  the  business  was  dis 

posed  of,  about  twenty  years  ago,  by  order  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery  and  was  purchased  by  Messrs.  Travers,  Canty,  and 
Wright.  It  is  a  Limited  Liability  Company,  with  a  nominal  capital  of 
£20,000.  In  their  neighbourhood,  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  two 
breweries  have  ceased  working,  one  in  Skibbereen  and  the  other  in  Bandon 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Cork,  and  as  is  always  the  case  in  the  survival  of 
the  fittest,  Messrs.  Deasy  and  Co.'s  trade  has  improved.  This  firm 
purchase  locally  between  5,000  and  6,000  barrels  of  barley  per  annum,  and 
they  axe  particularly  well  situated  for  a  good  supply  of  barley,  as  the  land 
lying  along  the  sea  board  is  especially  suitable  for  its  growth,  and  the  sea 
weed  makes  an  excellent  manure.  They  are  anxious  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  barley  grown,  and  think  that  information  as  to  the  best  seed  and 
where  to  get  it,  and  instruction  as  to  the  sowing,  treatment,  and  dressing  of 
the  crop  would  be  of  material  advantage  to  the  farmers.  This  firm  brew 
exclusively  from  malt  and  hops,  and  use  neither  substitutes  nor  sugar,  and 
have  a  large  business  in  bottled  stout  especially  in  their  neighbourhood. 
They  do  a  large  bottling  trade,  and  make  a  specialty  of  ginger  beer. 
They  obtained  first  class  highest  diploma  medal  at  the  World's  Fair  in 
Chicago,  1893. 

The  Bandon  Brewery  has  been  established  for  close  on  a  century,  but  its 

ownership  changed  about  the  year  1865,  when  it  was 

The  Bandon         acquired  by  its  present  proprietors,  Messrs.  Allman, 

Brewery.  Dowden  and  Co.     It  is  not  a  limited  company  but  a 

private  concern,  and  its  business  has  been  principally 
a  local  one,  but  of  late  it  has  been  extending  considerably  to  the  more 
distant  towns  and  districts  of  County  Cork,  as  well  as  to  other  counties  in 
the  South  of  Ireland.  Its  trade,  like  other  County  Cork  breweries,  is  largely 
a  tied  business.  Lately  its  plant  has  been  completely  remodelled,  and 
improved  with  the  most  up-to-date  machinery,  etc.,  necessitated  by  the 
increased  demand  for  its  produce.  It  is  what  is  known  as  a  twenty-five 
quarter  plant,  capable  of  an  output  of  400  barrels  per  week.  Bemg  situated 
in  the  centre  of  a  fine  barley-growing  district,  the  brewery  is  in  a  position 
to  obtain  its  supplies  of  grain  for  malting  purposes  from  the  local  farmers. 
Nothing  is  used  in  the  manufacture  but  hops  and  malt  produced  from  the 
finest  qualities  of  home-grown  barley,  and  the  output  now  is  increasing 
largely  month  by  month. 

There  were  two  other  breweries  working  in  Cork  until  recently,  but  they 
have  been  amalgamated  with  the  existing  establislj  ments. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  47a- 


The  County  Louth  Breweries. 

The  next  largest  Collection  District  is  that  of  Dundalk,  which  contains 
five  breweries,  all  in  the  County  Louth. 

The  Castlebellingham  and  Drogheda  Breweries  Company,  Limited,  own 
two  breweries,  one  in  Drogheda  and  one  in  Castle- 
The  Castlebelling-     bellingham,  which  were  amalgamated  in  1890.     The 
ham  and  Drogheda    Drogheda  Brewery  is  still  called  Cairnes'  Brewery  by 
Breweries.  many,  owing  to  the  old  association  of  the   Cairnes 

family  with  the  brewery.  The  late  Mr.  William 
Cairnes,  the  grandfather  of  the  present  chairman  of  the  Drogheda  and 
Castlebellinghcun  Breweries  Company,  founded  the  Drogheda  Brewery 
so  far  back  as  1825.  The  founder  of  the  brewery  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Mr.  Thomas  Plunket  Cairnes,  who  devoted  much  of  his  time  to 
public  ciffairs.  The  confidence  felt  by  the  public  in  the  large  and  profitable 
nature  of  the  trade  was  shown  when  the  concern  was  floated  in  1890  as  a 
Limited  Company,  in  conjunction  with  the  Castlebellingham  Brewery,  as 
the  capital  of  ^^265,000  was  eagerly  applied  for  by  the  public.  Mr.  Thomas 
Plunket  Cairnes  died  in  1894  and  was  succeeded  in  the  Chairmanship  of  the 
breweries  by  his  son,  Mr.  William  Plunket  Cairnes.  Mr.  A.  T.  Cairnes  is 
General  Manager  of  the  Company  and  is  assisted  by  Mr.  J.  Cecil  Thornhill 
at  Drogheda,  and  by  Mr.  Charles  Thornhill  at  Castlebellingham.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  brewery,  ale  was  its  principal  manufacture,  and  Drogheda 
Ale  was  celebrated  all  over  Ireland.  From  1850  to  i860,  porter 
became  the  more  popular  drink,  and  Cairnes'  porter  thenceforth 
became  recognised  as  a  sound,  full  bodied,  well-flavoured  article. 
The  firm  a  few  years  ago  were  successful  in  introducing  a  light, 
bright,  highly  hopped  ale,  at  a  moderate  price  to  meet  the  popular 
demand.  The  Cairnes  are  also  large  maltsters,  having  two  houses  at 
the  brewery,  as  well  as  Balfour's  makings,  a  malt  house  at  the 
New  Quay  (formerly  Gernon's  Brewery),  and  the  Linen  Hall  Makings  in 
Drogheda,  which,  of  course,  contribute  in  a  great  extent  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  local  farmers.  The  brewery  premises  are  conveniently  situated ;  the 
north  side  abuts  on  the  river,  and  coals  and  other  imports  can  thus  be 
delivered  direct  into  the  yards,  while  it  is  but  a  comparatively  short  dis- 
tance from  the  railway  station.  The  supply  of  water  from  the  Tubberboice 
Well  is  considered  specially  good  for  brewing,  and  the  Company  have 
added  recently  to  their  supply  by  boring  through  400  feet  of  solid  rock, 
where  eventually  they  tapped  an  excellent  spring.  The  business  of  the 
brewery  extends  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  Company  having  many 
agents  and  travellers  under  the  general  superintendence  of  Mr.  Robert 
IMcIntosh. 

The  Castlebellingham  Brewery  is  situated  close  to  the  river  Glyde,  and 
the  beauty  and  picturesqueness  of  its   surroundings 
The  Castlebelling-       leave  nothing  to  be  desired.    The  buildings,  including 
ham  Brewery.  the  brewery,  the  malthouses,  stables,  and  dwelling- 

houses,  extend  northward  and  cover  an  area  of  several 
acres.  The  business  was  established  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  a 
member  of  the  Bellingham  family,  who  was  succeeded  in  the  ownership  by 
the  Woolsey  family.  In  1888  the  brewery  was  converted  into  a  private 
Limited  Liability  Company,  and  in   1890  it  was  amalgamated  with  the 


480  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


brewery  owned  by  Messrs.  Cairnes  and  Sons,  Drogheda,  and  the  combined 
business  was  turned  into  a  public  company,  with  a  capital  of  ;^265,000. 
Thackeray  was  amongst  the  visitors  to  Castlebellingham,  and  very  pleasant 
allusions  are  made  in  his  "  Irish  Sketch  Book  "  to  the  merits  of  the  Belling- 
ham  ale.  Charles  Lever  also  in  his  last  work,  "  Lord  Kilgobbin,"  speaks 
favourably  of  the  Castlebellingham  brew — 

"It's  downright  good.  Let  us  have  some  more  of  it."  And  he  shouted 
*'  Master  "  at  the  top  of  his  voice.  "  More  of  this,"  said  Lockwood,  touching" 
the  measure.  "  Beer  or  ale,  which  is  it?  "  "  Castlebelling-ham,  sir,"  replied 
the  landlord  ;   "  Beats  all  the  Bass  and  Allsopp  that  ever  was  brewed." 

"  You  think  so,  eh  ?  " 

"  I'm  sure  of  it,  sir.  The  club  that  sits  here  had  a  debate  on  it  one  night, 
and  put  it  to  the  vote,  and  there  wasn't  one  man  for  the  English  liquor." 

Since  Lever's  time  the  business  has  increased  very  considerably,  which 
has  necessitated  extensive  additions  to  the  plant,  premises,  malthouses  and 
stores.  A  notable  feature  of  the  business,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
wholesale  and  export  trade,  is  the  business  done  with  the  army,  and  a  book 
of  testimonials  of  goodly  size  bears  witness  to  the  excellence  of  the  beer 
supphed,  not  only  to  home  stations,  but  also  abroad  in  the  Mediterranean, 
Hong-Kong,  Egypt,  etc.  The  brewery  and  malthouses  employ  a  large 
staff  of  labourers  and  mechanics,  such  as  coopers,  carpenters,  plumbers, 
masons,  harness  makers,  etc. ;  the  principle  observed  being  to  carry  on  the 
industry  with  home  labour  for  the  benefit  of  the  families  in  the  vicinity. 
In  buying  materials  also  the  Company  follow  the  principle  of  encouraging 
home  industries,  and  are  very  extensive  purchasers  of  the  barley,  hay,  and 
oats  grown  by  the  farmers  in  the  district,  Louth  barley  being  held  in  high 
estimation  by  maltsters  and  brewers. 

Tradition  says  that  the  site  of  the  Dundalk  Brewery,  known  as  Cambric- 

ville,  was  originally  a  cambric  factory  established  by 

The  Dundalk         the  Huguenots.     Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  well  known 

Brewery.  that  brewing  was  carried  on  here  in  the  end  of  the 

eighteenth  century,  with  varying  fortunes,  until  the 
time  of  Father  Mathew's  crusade,  when  the  Cambricville  Brewery 
was  closed  like  many  similar  establishments.  But  another  brewery 
in  Dublin-street,  Dundalk,  weathered  the  storm,  and  in  the  fifties 
was  run  by  Messrs.  John  and  Arthur  Duffy  and  Mr.  Edward 
Henry  Macardle,  J.P.,  under  the  style  of  Messrs.  Duffy  and  Macardle. 
About  1859  Mr-  Arthur  Duffy  sold  his  interest  to  the  remaining  partners, 
and  soon  after  Mr.  John  Duffy's  death  his  widow  disposed  of  her 
share  to  Mr.  Macardle,  who  in  1863  formed  a  partnership  with  the  late 
Mr.  Andrew  Thomas  Moore,  J. P.,  of  Ashton,  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin  New 
capital  and  more  energy  being  now  introduced,  the  business  increased,  and  in 
view  of  the  rapidly  increasing  trade,  additional  premises  had  to  be  acquired, 
and  Messrs.  Macardle,  Moore  and  Co.  purchased  the  premises  at  Cam- 
bricville from  the  late  Mr.  James  D.  McAlister.  The  concern  was  converted 
into  a  private  Limited  Liability  Company  in  1894,  under  the  name  of 
Macardle,  Moore,  and  Co.,  all  the  shares  being  retained  by  members  of  the 
two  families,  and  Mrs.  M.  Macardle,  who  is  the  "  Chairman,"  is  said  to  be  the 
only  lady  in  the  United  Kingdom  that  occupies  such  a  position.  The  other 
Directors  are  Messrs.  T.  Callan  Macardle,  J.P.,  J.  St.  P.  Macardle,  M.  J. 
Macardle,  and  T.  Levins  Moore,  B.L.,  and  the  head  brewer  is  Mr.  J.  P. 
Kieran. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  481 


The  brewery  buildings  proper  cover  some  five  acres  of  ground,  and  while 
overcrowding  has  been  carefully  avoided,  the  establishment  is  remarkable 
for  great  compactness  and  ease  of  intercommunication  between  the  different 
departments.  Numerous  extensions  have  been  carried  out  in  recent  years 
under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  J.  St.  P.  Macardle,  one  of  the  firm,  who  is  an 
engineer  by  profession,  and  who  has  invented  a  number  of  labour-saving 
appliances.  His  cask  washing  patents  have  now  been  adopted  by  practically 
all  the  leading  brewers  in  the  country,  including  Messrs.  Arthur  Guinness, 
Son  and  Co.  The  fermenting  room  is  some  500  feet  long,  and  contains  six 
fermenting  vessels,  of  a  capacity  of  500  barrels  each,  ten  fermenting  vessels 
of  a  capacity  of  200  barrels  each,  and  eight  skimming  squares,  while  alongside 
the  fermenting  room  is  the  vat  house,  similar  in  extent,  which  contains  twenty 
large  storing  pieces  where  the  products  of  the  mash  tun  are  matured  before 
being  sent  on  to  the  racking  store.  Close  to  the  hop  store,  erected  to  hold 
some  500  pockets,  and  constructed  so  as  to  keep  this  valuable  and  expensive 
article  as  cool  as  possible,  is  the  racking  store,  and  alongside  the  cask  washing 
shed  is  the  cooperage  and  fitting  shop  where  a  large  number  of  coopers  axe 
constantly  employed,  as  the  firm  import  the  wood  and  make  their 
own  casks.  The  progressive  character  of  the  firm  is  shown  by  the  instal- 
lation of  an  Acetylene  Gas  plant,  which  lights  the  whole  premises  and  is 
undoubtedly  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  Ireland,  while  another  advance  in  the 
direction  of  scientific  methods  is  the  utilisation  of  a  machine  (constructed  on 
Mr.  J.  St.  P.  Macardle's  plans)  for  the  supply  of  pure  sterilised  air  to  the 
refrigerator  and  fermenting  departments.  Being  situated  in  the  heart  of 
one  of  the  best  barley-growing  districts  in  Ireland,  the  firm  buy  their  barley 
direct  from  the  farmers,  and  store  it  in  the  malt  houses  in  Cambricville,  and 
in  the  branch  corn  warehouses  and  makings  at  Anne-street  and  Dublin- 
street,  but  as  they  are  not  able  to  make  sufficient  malt  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  brewery,  plans  are  now  being  made  for  extensive  alterations 
and  enlargements  to  the  DubHn-street  makings. 

Owing  to  the  increase  in  the  volume  of  trade,  horses  and  carts  became 
such  a  very  serious  item  of  expenditure,  that  the  firm  arranged  with  the 
Great  Northern  Railway  to  run  a  special  siding  into  the  brewery,  and  narrow 
gauge  lines  now  thread  their  way  through  every  portion  of  the  premises. 
The  firm  have  a  similar  arrangement  at  their  stores  in  Queenshridge,  Belfast. 
While  spending  large  sums  on  the  improvement  of  the  brewery,  and  new 
machinery,  etc.,  Messrs.  Macardle,  Moore  &  Co.  were  very  fortunate  in  secur- 
ing, in  the  town  of  Dundalk,  many  of  the  best  licensed  properties,  and  now 
that  competition  is  so  keen,  these  properties  are  of  course  an  asset  the  value 
of  which  it  would  be  hard  to  estimate,  and  an  interest  in  many  licensed  houses 
in  the  adjoining  counties,  as  well  as  in  Belfast,  has  been  secured.  They  have 
from  a  very  early  period  done  an  extensive  military  trade,  there  being 
scarcely  a  garrison  town  in  Ireland,  which  at  one  time  or  other  they  have 
not  supplied,  while  they  have  sent  their  brew  to  the  troops  so  far  as  Gib- 
raltar. The  firm  held  the  entire  Curragh  contract  for  two  years,  and  at 
present  hold  the  Dublin  contract  for  the  sole  supply  of  porter  and  stout. 
No  better  idea  can  be  given  of  the  resources  of  the  firm  than  the  ease  with 
which  they  carried  out  the  contract  given  to  them  for  the  sole  supply  of  the 
10,000  troops  called  together  for  the  Irish  mihtary  manoeuvres  in  1899,  in 
the  Abbeyleix  district  of  Queen's  County.  This  entailed  sending  their 
casks  over  the  lines  of  three  railway  companies,  and  necessitated  the 
employment  of  over  sixty  horses  and  drays.     The  Army  and  Navy  Gazette^ 

2  I 


482  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

of  August  26th,  1899,  spoke  highly  of  the  quahty  of  the  beer  and  the 
efiiciency  of  the  arrangements.  The  firm  has  won  several  medals,  including 
the  first  prize  medal  for  porter  at  the  Exhibition  of  Irish  Arts  and  Manu- 
factures of  1882,  the  first  prize  medal  for  superior  quality  of  beer  at  the 
Irish  Artisans'  Exhibition  in  Dublin  in  1885,  and  the  gold  medal  for  ale 
and  stout  at  the  Distillers,  Brewers,  and  Allied  Trades  Exhibition  held  at 
Dublin  in  1892. 

Drogheda  has  a  second  brewery  which  was  founded  in    1840  by  Mr. 

Patrick  Casey.     He  was  succeeded  in  the  business  by 

Casey's  Drogheda     his  nephew,  Mr.  Patrick  Casey  Connolly,  J.P.,  who 

Brewery.  extended  the  trade  m  many  directions  and  turned  the 

brewery  into  a  Limited  Liability  Company  in  1889. 
On  the  death  of  Mr.  Casey  Connolly,  in  1894,  re-organisation  became  neces- 
sary, and  the  present  Company  was  registered  in  July,  of  that  year.  The 
directors,  Messrs.  Christopher  Tighe,  Samuel  Hunter,  William  Bannon,  and 
John  Dolan  are  well  known  local  men,  with  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
trade  in  the  district,  and  every  effort  is  being  made  by  them  to  promote  the 
prosperity  of  the  concern.  The  brewery  buildings  are  situated  in  West- 
street  and  Stockwell-street,  and  the}'  also  have  those  fine  premises  known 
as  the  Mell  Brewery,  where  they  carry  on  their  malting  operations,  buying 
considerable  quantities  of  Louth  barley. 

The  success  attending  the  County  Louth  breweries,  the  splendid  water 

supply  of  Dundalk,  the  fact  that  its  markets  are  well 
The  Great  Northern  supplied  with  high  class  barley,  and  its  favourable 
Brewery  Company,  geographical    position  in  the  centre    of    the    service 

afforded  by  the  Great  Northern  Railway  Company, 
as  well  as  the  fact  of  Dundalk  being  in  direct  communication  with  England 
and  Scotland  by  means  of  the  Dundalk  and  Newry  Steam  Packet  Company, 
induced  some  gentlemen  in  Dundalk  and  its  neighbourhood  to  lease,  in  1897, 
a  very  suitable  site  adjacent  to  the  Dundalk  railway  station,  and  to  form  a 
Company  with  a  capital  of  ;^30,ooo,  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  brewery 
in  Dundalk,  under  the  name  of  "  The  Great  Northern  Brewery,  Limited." 
Whether  from  the  view  of  advertisement  or  convenience  no  better  site 
could  have  been  chosen  ;  and  although  business  in  the  North  of  Ireland  took 
a  turn  for  the  worse  shortly  after  the  concern  started,  in  the  brewing  as  well 
as  other  trades,  owing  to  the  war  and  other  causes,  the  new  Company  have, 
owing  to  the  energy  of  the  Managing  Director,  Mr.  John  M.  Cox,  and  the 
Secretary,  Mr.  F.  H.  Cox,  opened  up  a  business  over  a  wide  area  in  the 
North  and  North-West  of  Ireland.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  competi- 
tion is  keener,  and  old  associations  more  firmly  knit  between  the  trade  and 
already  established  breweries  in  the  County  Louth  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Ireland,  they  have  made  considerable  headway,  and  have  paid  dividends  of 
five  per  cent,  to  the  shareholders.  The  firm  have  a  railway  siding  into  their 
brewery  and  into  their  stores  at  Queensbridge  in  Belfast.  The  barley 
purchased  by  the  Company  has  been  successful  in  obtaining  prizes  at  the 
Spring  Show  in  Dublin. 


The  Kilkenny  Collection  District. 

The  fourth  largest  Collection  District  is  that  of  Kilkenny,  which  contains 
no  less  than  ten  breweries,  all  of  which  are  situated  in  the  heart  of  the 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  483 

barley-growing  district.  Two  of  these  breweries  are  in  the  town  of  Kilkenny 
itself.      The  St.  Francis  Abbey  Brewery,  owned  by 
The  Kilkenny        Messrs.  E.  Smithwick  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  was  founded  in 
Breweries.  1710.     It  is  now  a  Limited  Liability  Company  with  a 

capital  of  ;^75,000,  and  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  one 
of  the  best  barley-growing  districts  in  Ireland,  where  the  Smithwicks  can 
get  an  unlimited  supply  of  the  best  raw  material,  of  which  they  malt  about 
20,000  barrels  per  annum,  and  where  there  is  a  first  rate  supply  of  good  brew- 
ing water.  There  is  nothing  except  the  emigration  from  their  neighbourhood 
to  prevent  them  making  steady  progress.  Their  trade  is  now  to  a  great 
extent  confined  to  Kilkenny  and  the  neighbouring  counties,  the  great 
extension  of  the  tied  house  system  in  England  having  materially  curtailed 
their  trade  in  that  market.  The  Smithwicks  bottle  extensively  and  have  an 
enormous  number  of  drays  continuously  delivering  beer  in  wood  and  bottle 
in  the  surrounding  districts. 

The  other  Kilkenny  brewery,  known  as  the  St.  James-street  Brewery  was 
established  by  the  Archdekins  in  1702,  and  was  ultimately  acquired  in  18 10 
by  the  Sullivan  family  who  are  the  present  proprietors.  The  brewery  does 
a  large  local  business  in  ales  and  stouts  and  also  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  Belfast.  The  manufacture  of  mineral  waters  and  hop  bitters  is  also 
carried  on  and  affords  employment  to  a  large  number  of  hands.  These 
mineral  waters  have  a  high  reputation  and  command  a  ready  sale  in  the 
south-eastern  counties. 

Waterford,  like  Kilkenny,  has  two  breweries,  and  the  name  the  town  won 
TVi     -w  f    f    H       ^^^  brewing  good  beer  dates  back  to  the  beginning  of 
ine  waterrora       ^j^^    century.       Previous    to    that    time    the    town 
Breweries.  depended    upon    London  and  Bristol  for  its  supply 

of  beer  and  porter,  but  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  this  was  no 
longer  the  case  ;  for  an  old  writer  of  the  period,  referring  to  the  brewery 
under  notice,  states  : — "  A  public  brewery  has  been  established  in  Waterford, 
and  brought  to  such  perfection  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  any  importa- 
tion from  England,  for  the  brewery  is  conducted  upon  a  scale  affording  the 
means  of  a  considerable  export  of  beer  to  Newfoundland,  and  latterly  to 
England,  which  is  progressively  increasing."  Another  writer,  referring  to 
the  various  industries  of  Waterford,  says : — "  There  is  also  a  great 
brewery  in  this  town,  where  a  capital  nut-brown  ale  is  manufactured, 
but  the  fires  of  the  distilleries  have  not  survived  Father  Mathew's 
Crusade." 

The  brewery  owned  by  Messrs.  Davis,  Strangman  and  Co.  is  a  Limited 
Liability  Company,  having  a  nominal  capital  of  ;^i 50,000,  of  which  ;£"ioo,ooo 
has  been  subscribed  in  ;£"io  shares.  The  Directors  are  Messrs.  W.  G.  D. 
Goff  (Chairman),  John  Strangman,  Samuel  Strangman,  H.  W.  D.  Goff, 
and  E.  A.  Gibbon.  Anthony  Marmion,  in  his  "  History  of  the  Maritime 
Ports  of  Ireland,"  declares  that  Strangman's  ale  and  porter  are 
held  in  high  estimation,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  This  brewery 
was  acquired  by  William  Strangman  and  Company  in  1792,  and 
in  1888  It  was  formed  into  a  Limited  Company.  The  buildings 
are  imposing,  and  every  modern  requisite  to  produce  a  first-class 
article  has  been  provided  by  the  firm ;  while  their  malt  houses,  cooperage, 
cask  washing  sheds,  industrial  shops  and  stables  altogether  make  this  an 
important  provincial  concern.     Their  malt  house  is  a  fine  block  of  buildings, 


484  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


measuring  151  feet  by  140,  and  is  six  storeys  high.  It  contains  four  malt 
floors,  and  two  barley  granaries,  two  large  mills,  both  of  which  are  connected 
with  the  malt  depot,  and  which  hold  many  thousand  bushels.  The  steeps 
are  capable  of  containing  200  barrels  at  one  time.  The  firm  do  a  large  local 
business,  and  export  large  quantities  to  the  South  of  England  and 
Wales. 

The  second  brewery  in  Waterford  is  St.  Stephen's  Brewery,  which  is 
owned  by  Messrs.  Patrick  Keily  and  Sons,  and  which  is  one  of  the  oldest 
concerns  in  the  trade  in  the  South  of  Ireland.  The  business  was  originally 
founded  over  a  century  ago  by  Messrs.  Condon  Brothers,  and  remained  in 
the  possession  of  that  firm  until  1858,  when  the  property  was  acquired  by 
Mr.  Patrick  Keily,  and  it  has  since  come  into  the  possession  of  his  grandsons, 
who  trade  under  the  name  of  Patrick  Keily  and  Sons.  The  site  of  the 
premises  is  full  of  historic  interest,  having  been  at  one  time  occupied  by  the 
ancient  church  of  Saint  Stephen,  which  suggested  the  title  of  the  brewery, 
and  visitors  are  still  shown  portions  of  the  old  graveyard,  whilst  a  building 
now  used  as  stores  and  stables  was  formerly  an  hospital  for  lepers  in  the  reign 
of  King  John.  The  ground  area  occupied  by  the  brewery  and  makings  is 
about  three  acres  in  extent,  and  the  arrangements  throughout  are  of  the 
most  modern  type,  the  plant  being  one  of  twenty  quarters  capacity.  A 
splendid  supply  of  the  purest  water  is  obtained  from  three  fine  old  wells  in 
the  grounds,  from  which  it  is  forced  by  powerful  pumps  to  all  parts  of  the 
brewery.  Besides  its  trade  m  the  South  of  Ireland  and  in  Belfast  the  firm 
do  an  extensive  export  business  to  the  South  of  England. 

The  St.  Bridgid's  Well  Brewery,  Dungarvan,  once  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing breweries  in  the  South  of  Ireland,  in  later  years 
Dungaryan.  fell  off  from  its  high  estate  through  various  causes, 

and  ran  the  risk  of  collapsing,  when  the  ground 
landlord,  the  Marquis  of  Waterford,  was  approached  by  Sir  Owen  Slacke, 
C.B.,  and  the  late  F.  Weldon  Walshe,  Esq.,  J.P.,  who  pointed  out  that  the 
closing  of  the  brewery  would  throw  many  people  out  of  employment,  and 
remove  the  only  industry  surviving  in  the  town.  His  Lordship  generously 
responded,  and  spent  thousands  of  pounds  in  overhauling  and  remodelling 
the  buildings,  getting  new  plant,  steam  engines,  boilers,  etc.,  and  practically 
transforming  the  old  establishment  into  a  new  brew^ery.  The  malt  house, 
which  had  not  been  used  for  many  years,  was  brought  into  good 
condition,  and  the  necessary  details  attended  to,  so  that  now 
thousands  of  barrels  of  fine  locally-grown  barley  pass  annually 
over  its  floors  and  are  made  into  malt  for  porter  and  ale.  A  very 
extensive  bottling  trade  is  also  carried  on,  and  bottled  stouts  and  ales  are 
turned  out  in  large  quantities.  A  new  mineral  water  plant  has  lately  been 
added,  fitted  with  two  of  Barrett  and  Foster's  engines,  so  that  now  this 
brewery  is  extremely  well  equipped.  Everything  is  done  to  encourage 
local  trade  and  give  employment ;  there  is  a  fine  cooperage  from  which  the 
casks  are  turned  out,  and  all  the  corks  used  in  the  bottling  business  are 
cut  on  the  premises.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  this  brewery  deserves  all  the 
support  it  so  generously  receives,  for,  not  only  does  it  benefit  the  local 
trader  and  the  labourer,  but  is  also  of  immense  benefit  to  the  surrounding 
farmers  whose  barley  it  purchases  readily,  thereby  providing  an  easy,  con- 
venient, and  certain  market. 

The  Monasterevan  Brewery  was  established  by  the  late  Mr.  Cassidy  in 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  485 


i860,  who  also  owned  the  Monasterevan  Distillery  and  anticipated  that 

the  high  duty  put  on  whiskey  and  the  consequent 

Monasterevan.       increase    in    price,    would    cause    less    demand    for 

whiskey,   and   that  the  people  would  drink  ale  and 

porter  instead.     The  present  proprietors  are  Messrs.  Robert  and  Edward 

Cassidy,  who  buy  barley  largely  from  the  farmers  in  the  neighbourhood, 

and  make  it  into  malt,  which  is  used  by  the  firm  for  the  manufacture  of 

whiskey  and  ale  and  porter.     While  Cassidy's  pot-still  whiskey  is  a  well 

known  and  popular  trade  article  in  Dublin  and  the  country,  the  trade  of  the 

brewery  is  more  local. 

The  firm  of  Messrs.  P.  and  H.  Egan,  Ltd.,  Brewers  and  Maltsters,  Tulla- 
more,  was  founded  in  1852,  and  in  1896  was  converted 
Tullamore.  into  a  Limited  Liability  Company,  with  a  capital  of 

;6^8o,ooo.  The  output  of  the  brewery  chiefly  consists  of 
mild  and  bitter  ales.  A  considerable  trade  is  done  both  locally  and 
in  the  West  and  South  of  Ireland.  Strange  to  say,  they  also  send  some  ale 
to  Scotland.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being  in  a  barley  growing  dis- 
trict which  is  second  to  none,  and  they  purchase  from  the  farmers  about 
20,000  barrels  annually.  Besides  the  brewing  business  the  Company  is  also 
engaged  in  malting,  and  in  a  wholesale  wine  and  spirit  business,  and  mineral 
water  manufacture.  No  less  than  seven  breweries,  which  forn-erly  existed 
within  a  20  mile  radius  of  Tullamore,  viz.,  at  Tullamore,  Mullingar,  Athlone, 
Birr,  Mountmellick,  Kilbeggan,  and  Rosenalis,  have  been  closed  within  the 
last  twenty  years. 

The  Creywell  Brewery,  owned  by  Messrs.  Cherry  Bros.,    is    the    only 
brewery   at   present   working   in   New    Ross,    three 
New  Ross.  having  been   shut  up  during  the  last  half  century. 

Originally  built  for  a  distillery,  the  Creywell  Brewery 
was  acquired  over  seventy  years  ago  by  the  ancestors  of  the  present  pro- 
prietors, who  furnish  another  instance  of  the  hereditary  nature  of  the 
brewing  trade  in  Ireland.  The  buildings  occupy  about  five  acres  of  ground, 
and  are  equipped  with  all  modem  appliances.  The  firm  also  work  a  mineral 
water  factory,  and  for  both  businesses  they  have  the  great  advantage  of  a 
supply  of  water  which  is  said  to  be  of  unsurpassable  quality. 

The  only  brewery  at  present  working  in  the  town  of  Wexford  is  that 

owned  by  Messrs.  Wickham  and  Co.,  although  fifty 

Wexford.  years  ago  there  were  no  less  than  six  breweries  in  full 

work  in  this  neighbourhood.     Wickham' s  brewery  is 

one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  district,  having  been  established  over  a 

century   ago.     The   premises   are   centrally   situated   in    Main-street,    and 

extend  in  the  rere  to  the  Quay.     The  brewing  plant  is  modern  and  is  of 

ten  quarter  capacity,  the  machinery  being  driven  by  a  steam  engine,  and  all 

the  necessary  facilities  are  provided  for  cask  washing,  etc.     Adjoining  the 

brewery  are  extensive  maltings,  and  there  are  also  bottling  houses  and 

stores. 

The  Mill  Park  Brewery  in  Enniscorthy  is  owned  by  Mr.  George  Lett, 
and  was  established  seventy  years  ago  by  the  Pounder 
„      .        ,,  family,  whose  interest  was  purchased  in  1864  by  the 

iiinniscortny.         ancestors  of  the  present  proprietor.     The  building  is 
equipped  with  a  modern  plant,  and  the  beer  is  brewed 
from  the  best  malt  and  hops  only.     In  recent  years  a  mineral  water  factory- 
has  been  established  by  the  proprietor  of  the  brewery. 


486  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


The  Limerick  Collection  District. 

The  next  largest  Collection  District — Limerick— contains  three  breweries, 
one  in  Clonmel,  one  in  Carrick-on-Suir,  and  one  in  Rathdowney. 
The  Clonmel  Brewery,  which  is  owned  by  Messrs.  Thomas  Murphy  and  Co., 

Ltd.,  was  first  built  in  1798  upon  a  most  substantial 
Clonmel.  basis,  and  was  enlarged  from  time  to  time  to  keep  pace 

with  the  increased  demand  resulting  from  a  growth 
of  popularity.  In  1829  it  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  was  rebuilt  in 
the  castellated  style  in  which  it  is  now  seen.  From  that  period  to  the 
present  day  improvements  have  been  introduced  into  the  several  depart- 
ments to  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  inventive  skill,  and  as  a  result  the 
brewery  is  splendidly  organised  and  equipped.  There  are  three  large 
malting  houses.  A  portion  of  the  supply  of  barley  is  procured  in  the  local 
market,  but  the  greater  part  is  brought  from  the  Cashel,  Horse  and  Jockey, 
and  Thurles  districts.  Messrs.  Thomas  Murphy  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  are  ale,  stout, 
and  porter  brewers,  and  employ  about  200  hands.  Besides  their  own  imme- 
diate locality  their  business  extends  over  the  entire  County  of  Tipperary, 
Waterford,  Kilkenny,  Cork,  Limerick,  Clare,  Galway,  Mayo,  Sligo,  and  the 
City  of  Belfast,  and  they  also  do  an  export  business  with  England  and  Wales. 
The  casks  are  made  on  the  premises,  and  the  department  from  which 
they  are  turned  out  contains  a  fine  saw  miH,  and  is  not  the  least  interesting  of 
the  features  of  the  brewery.  At  the  Dublin  Artisans'  Exhibition  in  1885, 
a  first  class  certificate  was  awarded  for  the  excellence  of  the  cooper  work 
sent  from  this  establishment.  There  is  also  a  department  for  building 
floats,  carts,  and  cars  of  the  regulation  pattern.  The  water  for  brewing  is 
obtained  from  two  artesian  wells,  one  seventy  feet,  and  the  other  thirty  feet 
deep,  and  high  pressure  water  supplied  by  the  Corporation  from  a  source 
about  three  miles  distant  from  Clonmel.  Within  the  recollection  of  one  of 
the  present  directors,  two  breweries  in  Clonmel,  one  in  Clogheen,  three  in 
Limerick,  and  one  in  Tralee  were  closed. 

There  is  a  very  old  established  brewery  in  Carrick-on-Suir,  of  which 
Messrs.  Richard  Feehan  and  Sons  are  the  proprietors. 
Carrick-on-Suir.       They  brew  ales,  porter,  and  stout,  and  do  a  consider- 
able trade  in  ales.     Nothing  but  malt  and  hops  are 
used,  and  the  firm  make  all  their  own  malt,  and  purchase  all  their  barley 
locally,  principally  from  the  farmers  upon  the  County  Kilkenny  side,  except 
a  little  foreign  barley  which  they  mix  with  the  home  barley  for  the  produc- 
tion of  their  light  ales.     They  have  a  wholesale  whiskey  business  in  con- 
nection with  the  brewery.     Their  business  is  personally  superintended  by 
Mr.  R.  B.  Feehan,  a  thoroughly  practical  brewer  who  obtained  his  experience 
in  England. 

The  Brewery  in  Rathdowney  which  is  owned  by  Messrs.  Robert  Perry  and 

Son,  Ltd.,  Brewers  and  Maltsters,  dates  back  to  the 

Rathdowney.         early  part  of  the  last  century,  when  it  was  founded 

by  a  member  of  the  Perry  family,  who  have  since 

carried  it  on.     The  firm  was  registered  in  1877  as  a  Limited  Company  under 

its  present  title.     The  business  has  been  steadily  progressive,  and  gives 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  467 


extensive  employment.  A  unique  feature  is  the  brewing  of  non-deposit  ale 
under  sole  rights  for  Ireland,  and  the  Company  has  the  distinction  of  holding 
the  Royal  Warrant  as  brewers  to  the  late  Queen  Victoria.  In  connection 
with  the  brewery  are  extensive  makings,  with  branches  at  Donaghmore, 
and  at  Brosna,  Roscrea,  Irish  barley  only  being  used.  The  firm  has  always 
been  noted  for  the  excellence  of  malt  they  make. 


Brewing  in  the  North. 

The  history  of  the  brewing  trade  in  Ulster  has  been  one  sequence  of 
vicissitudes  which  it  is  not  easy  to  explain.  As  fortune  after  fortune  has 
been  made  in  the  whiskey  trade,  and  as  the  increase  in  the  population  of 
Belfast  has  been  phenomenal,  the  failures  which  have  attended  efforts 
to  make  brewing  a  success,  especially  in  recent  years,  is  surprising.  Going 
back  to  the  fifties,  when  the  population  of  Belfast  was  about  one-third  of 
what  it  is  to-day,  there  were  in  full  work  in  Belfast,  Lewers'  Brewery, 
situated  in  Anne-street,  which  had  previously  been  worked  by  Mr.  Lewers' 
brother-in-law,  Mr.  Ledlie  Clarke ;  Messrs.  Mackenzie,  Shaw  and  Co.'s 
Brewery,  Hercules-street ;  Messrs.  Clottworthy  and  Dobbin's  Brewery, 
Smithfield  ;  Messrs.  Henry  Scott  and  Co.'s  Brewery,  Cromac-street ;  Messrs. 
Fordyce  and  Co.'s  Brewery,  Cromac-street ;  Mr.  Johnson's  Brewery,  King- 
street  ;  Mr.  Henry  Murney's  Brewery,  Bank  Lane  ;  and  finally  Mr.  John 
Kane's  Brewery,  North  Street.  The  Belfast  Brewery  Co.  was  built  later 
at  very  considerable  expense,  and  at  one  time  no  less  than  thirteen  breweries 
were  working  in  Belfast. 

There  was  also  a  brewery  in  Comber,  where  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Old  Distillery  st;inds.  while  all  over  the  North  of  Ireland  there  was  a  net 
work  of  breweries.  The  father  of  the  present  Mr.  Jas.  Johnston,  Lurgan, 
had  four  working,  two  at  Lurgan,  one  in  Antrim,  and  one  in  Newtownards. 
There  was  also  one  at  Lisburn  worked  by  Mr.  William  Graham.  Down- 
patrick  had  two  breweries,  Saul's  and  Moore's,  and  there  were  at  least  two 
workine  in  Derry,  viz.,  Carson's  and  Median's.  Coleraine  also  had  a  brewery 
owned  by  Mr.  Jas.  Moore,  and  there  was  one  at  Desertmartin  in  the 
County  Derry,  which  was  owned  by  Mr.  Edward  Kelly,  who  also  had  a 
brewery  at  Limavady ;  whilst  Mr.  James  Colgan  worked  one  at  Bally- 
money.  Lyle's  of  Donaghmore  was  an  important  concern,  and  tradition 
says  that  about  seventy  drays  used  to  start  from  the  brewery  on  a  Monday 
morning  laden  with  beer  for  all  parts  of  the  country.  Then,  again,  there 
was  William  Henry  and  Co.,  who  did  a  good  trade  in  those  days  in  Newry, 
and  Mr.  Arthur  Russell,  father  of  the  late  Chief  Justice  of  England  also 
at  one  time  had  a  brewery  in  the  same  town. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the  comparative  lack  of  success  which  has 

attended  brewing  operations  in  the  North,  whether 
Belfast.  it  be  the  non-suitability  of  the  land  in  the  North  of 

Ireland  to  grow  barley  of  the  kind  required  for  brew- 
ing, or  whether  the  quality  of  the  Belfast  water,  so  admirably  adapted  for 
making  whiskey  and  mineral  waters,  may  not  have  been  quite  so  suitable  for 
brewing,  it  is  quite  certain  that  up  to  a  recent  date  the  only  surviving  brewery 
was  Caffrey's  in  Smithfield,  which  is  owned  by  Mr.  Thos.  R.  Caffrey,  J.P. 
Within  the  last  few  years  Mr.  Caffrey  ceased  brewing  in  Smithfield,  and 


488  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

built  the  Mountain  Brewery,  the  red  brick  buildings  and  chimney  shaft  of 
which,  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountain,  strike  the  eye  as  one  approaches 
Belfast  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway.  The  new  brewery  which  is  con- 
structed on  the  most  modern  principles,  and  which  is  fitted  up  with  the  most 
modern  machinery,  is  said  to  be  a  thriving  concern.  No  doubt,  the  water 
supply  from  the  mountain  was  one  of  the  advantages  which  induced  Mr. 
Caffrey  to  go  out  of  the  city.  The  show  cards  for  Caffrey's  beer  and  2d. 
ale  may  be  seen  in  the  windows  of  a  great  number  of  public  houses  in 
Belfast  and  the  neighbourhood,  whilst  porter  is  of  course  largely  brewed. 

Notwithstanding  the  want  of  success  of  previous  breweries  in  Belfast,  a 
new  firm  has  been  started  within  the  last  few  years,  viz.,  McConnell's 
Brewery,  Ltd.,  which  has  a  capital  of  £"25,000.  The  Directors  are  Messrs. 
Charles  H.  Brett,  Thomas  Andrews,  and  Robert  Montgomery.  The 
brewery  and  makings  are  modern  and  well  equipped  in  every  way  for  doing 
a  successful  business,  and  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  Cromac  water  from  a 
well  500  feet  deep.  The  firm  of  J.  and  J.  McConnell,  Ltd.,  so  well  known 
in  the  whiskey  trade,  is  very  much  identified  with  this  new  brewery,  which 
has  been  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Lagan  adjoining  their  distillery ;  and 
this  firm's  trade  connections  are  so  strong  that  the  product  of  the  brewery 
has  already  got  a  footing  in  the  many  publichouses  in  Belfast.  Not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  there  is  hardly  any  important  brewery  in 
Ireland,  or,  indeed,  in  the  United  Kingdom  that  has  not  agents  in  Belfast, 
this  new  Company  has  already  established  a  satisfactory  reputation  for 
their  products,  and  returned  good  dividends  to  the  shareholders. 

The  third  brewery  in  the  Belfast  Collection  District  is  owned  by  Mr.  Jas. 
Johnson,  whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned.  His  brewery  is  situated 
in  Lurgan,  and  is  said  to  do  a  good  business  in  Lurgan  and  in  many  other 
towns  in  Ulster  such  as  Dungannon,  Armagh,  Portadown,  Lisburn,  Bally- 
niena,  Antrim,  and  Banbridge. 

The  Collection  District  of  Londonderry  contained  three  breweries,  but 

The  Londonderry  °"^^  two  are  at  present  working,  one  vsx  Enniskillen 
^  and  one  in  Sligo.  The  Enniskillen  brewery  belongs 
District.  |.Q  Messrs.  W.  J.  Downes  and  Co.,  and  is  situated 

on  the  banks  of  Lough  Erne.  It  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
present  proprietors  for  a  good  many  years.  They  are  not  so  fortunate  as 
some  of  the  other  brewers  in  the  matter  of  barley,  as  neither  in  quality  nor 
quantity  does  the  local  crop  meet  the  demand  for  malt  which,  of  course,  is 
a  great  loss  to  the  firm.  In  the  entire  County  of  Fermanagh  in  the  year 
1 90 1,  there  were  only  116  acres  under  barley,  so  that  they  have  to  get  most 
of  their  barley  from  a  distance.  Notwithstanding  this  disadvantage  the 
brewery  has  been  doing  a  more  or  less  satisfactory  business.  They  brew  ale 
and  porter,  both  of  which  are  reputed  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

Alderman  Edward  Foley,  ex-Mayor  of  Sligo,  who  does  a  good  local 
business,  owns  the  other  brewery  in  the  Londonderry  Collection  District. 
This  being  one  of  the  two  breweries  working  in  Connaught  (the  other  is  the 
Westport  Brewery,  situate  in  the  Galway  Collection  District),  Mr.  Foley 
has  a  fine  field  for  extending  his  operations.  Many  Irishmen  from  the 
West  of  Ireland  who  find  their  way  to  England  in  the  harvest  time,  learn 
to  follow  the  example  of  the  Englishman  to  drink  beer  rather  than  whiskey. 
The  consequence  is  that  considering  the  poverty  of  the  West  of  Ireland, 
there  is  a  considerable  trade  done  in  Irish  beers  and  porters,  and  Scotch 
and  English  beers  are  also  largely  patronised. 


y----^i^-'-^mm^^smsmmmmmm..-..  . .^.....;.. ...:-...-— .__.^:-  -^mim 


PORTER   BREWERY 

N^-8i,  STEPHEN's-GREEN. 


^^'.^-.^^^-^^^^ix^^^^^^.^. 


IRISH  POR.^,., 

i  At  Two  Guineas  per  Hogfhead, 

FORREADY     MONEY    ONLY. 

PAT.  SWEETMAN  continues  as  ufual  to   have  an   Amy^f 
Stock 'of  Choice  Porter,  ReadT   for  Salu    at    he  ?J  ovc 
low  Price,  Equal  if  not  Superior  to  aiiy  Englifh.      The  Ch.ira.fler  cf 
i    his  Porter  being  now  Eftablifhcd  in  moft  parts  of  the  Kin^^dom     h-;. 
thinks  it  almoft  ncedlefs  to  fay  it  will  be  theAdvanta^e  of  all  Cointy  ; ; 
Dealers  to  apply  to  him. 

Mr.  ScoLLouGTi,    many  Years  head  Cooper  to  Tvlr.  Thrale   of 

~~London,  anu%;yBftV+:o\^ARiv.5' 0'I>;in^      of  Dublin,  atstends  at  his     ! 

Stores  from  8104  o'Ciock  each  Day.  ^       j 

K'   All  Calks  intended  for  tlic  Country  to  be  paid  for, 

;>'".i.'v,    I'r '■'^.i  by  \r-.:,-vv  Carrick  ;ind  Sor-  m  IT^dforo-r'^w.    178.-:.. 

COPY  OF  AX  ADVERTISEMENT  IX  POSSESSION   OF  ^V.   P.   CAIRXES,   ESQ. 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  489 


The  Industrialisation  of  Brewing. 

In  both  England  and  Ireland,  the  present  century  has  witnessed  a  great 
change  in  the  brewing  trade,  which  has  been  affected  like  other  manufac- 
tures by  the  industrial  revolution,  and  what  was  primarily,  especially  in 
England,  almost  a  household  industry,  is  now  conducted  on  the  factory 
system.  Formerly  brewing  was  carried  on  in  nearly  every  large  house- 
hold in  England,  in  the  same  way  as  baking ;  and  the  vast  majority  of  the 
brewers  brewed  only  for  home  consumption  and  not  for  sale,  but  owing  to 
the  changed  character  of  modern  brewing,  this  system  of  brewing  for  house- 
hold consumption  is  dying  out,  though  even  at  the  present  day  there  are, 
roughly  speaking,  over  12,000  brewers  in  England  who  do  not  brew  for 
sale,  as  compared  with  about  6,000  who  do.  This  system  of  private 
brewing  never  prevailed  to  any  appreciable  extent  in  Ireland,  but  none  the 
less,  as  a  result  of  the  change  in  the  nature  of  the  industry,  the  increase  in 
the  size  of  most  brewing  establishments  has  been  accompanied  by  a  decrease 
in  the  number  of  brewers  actually  working.  The  decline  in  the  number  of 
brewers  at  work  in  Ulster  and  round  about  Tullamore  and  Limerick  has 
been  already  noted,  and  in  quite  modern  times,  to  take  the  case  of  Dublin 
only,  the  breweries  owned  by  Messrs.  P.  and  J.  Sweetman*  and  Co.,  Man- 
ders  and  Co.,  J.  R.  Read  and  Co..  Caffrey  and  Co.,  the  Greenmount  Brewing 
Co.,  and  the  City  of  Dublin  Brewery  Co.,  have  been  closed  or  absorbed  by 
other  firms,  and  the  same  fate  has  befallen  numerous  breweries  throughout 
the  country.  This  decline  in  the  number  of  breweries,  whilst  no  doubt  in 
part  due  to  the  decrease  in  the  population  in  rural  districts  and  to  the 
increase  in  taxation,  and  the  exactness  with  which  the  duties  are  collected, 
is  undoubtedly  primarily  due  to  the  industrialisation  of  brewing,  for  the 
quantity  now  produced  is  four  times  as  great  as  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  though  the  number  of  brewers  at  work  in  Ireland  is  less 
than  quarter  of  what  the  number  was  a  century  ago. 

Concurrently  with  the  revolution  caused  in  brewing,  as  in  so  many  other 
trades,  by  the  Introduction    of    machinery,    a    great 
The  Scientific        change  has  taken  place  in  the  nature  of  the  industry 
Brewer.  owing  to  the  practical  application  of  science  to  the 

various  manufacturing  processes.  The  broad  lines 
upon  which  the  operations  of  malting  and  brewing  are  based  had  been 
fixed  by  practical  experience  long  before  anything  was  known  of  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  the  methods  employed,  and  a  number  of  rules 
gradually  came  to  be  formulated  through  the  observance  of  which  the  brewer 
was  enabled,  although  he  might  possess  no  scientific  knowledge,  to  carry  on 
his  operations  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  success.  But  the  brewer  who 
worked  under  such  conditions  was  little  better  than  an  animated  machine  ; 
he  simply  followed  a  certain  routine,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  why  and 
wherefore  of  the  various  processes  going  on  around  him.  When  an  irregu- 
larity occurred,  he  was  no  more  able  to  detect  the  cause  of  his  trouble  with 
a  view  to  its  remedy,  than  an  ordinary  individual  is  to  locate  the  fault  in  his 
watch  when  it  has  stopped  from  some  hidden  cause.     All  this  has  been 

*  The  advertisement  of  Sweetman's  Brewery,  which  is  reproduced  on  accompanying  plate. 
shows  that  in  price,  at  any  rate,  there  has  been  little  change  during  the  last  hundred  years. 


490  THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

changed ;  now  the  smallest  brewer  who  hopes  to  succeed  has  to 
possess  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  daily  routine 
of  his  work,  and  the  greater  that  knowledge  is,  the  better,  as 
a  rule,  is  the  beer,  for  successful  brewing  depends  very  largely  upon 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  constituents  used,  an  appreciation 
of  the  result  of  any  deviation  from  the  normal,  and  an  ability  to  seize  the 
psychological  moment  in  each  operation — qualities  which  are  to  be  found 
only  in  the  scientific  brewer.  The  truth  is,  brewing,  like  so  many  other  im- 
portant industries,  has  now  passed  from  the  empirical  to  the  scientific  stage. 
This  change  was  not  effected  at  a  leap,  but  has  been  necessarily  of  slow 
growth.  Much  prejudice  had  to  be  overcome,  and  for  a  long  time  the  inter- 
vention of  science  was  regarded  with  considerable  distrust.  Now  all  this 
has  changed  ;  the  benefits  which  science  is  able  to  confer  are  generally 
recognised  and  appreciated,  and  where  science  was  formerly  repulsed,  she  is 
now  welcomed  with  open  arms. 

The  Irish  brewing  trade  is  in  many  ways  different  from  the  English  brew- 
ing trade,  and  a  few  distinctive  features  of  the  Irish  trade  may  be  noted  here. 
Th    S  pr'  1  -^^  already  indicated  it  is  mainly  porter  that  is  brewed 

_,  .     .  ..        »     in  Ireland,  though  several  firms  are  steadily  obtaining 

Characteristics  ot  ^  reputation  for  high-class  ales;  but,  perhaps,  the 
iribii  brewing.  most  striking  characteristic  of  Irish  brewing  is  the 
remarkable  purity  of  all  classes  of  Irish  beer.  Most  English  brewers  use  a 
considerable  proportion  of  sugar  in  some  form  other  than  that  contained  in 
malt.  Thus,  in  the  year  ending  30th  September,  1901,  the  brewers  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  producing  some  37,000,000  barrels  of  beer  used  over 
56,000,000  bushels  of  malt,  165,127  bushels  of  unmalted  corn,  1,323,754 
cwts  of  rice  grits,  flaked  maize,  and  similar  preparations,  and  2,858,91 1  cwts. 
of  sugar,  glucose,  saccharum,  etc.  Whilst  the  Irish  breweries  made  about 
8.0  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  beer,  they  used  nearly  ii.o  per  cent,  of 
the  total  amount  of  malt,  but  only  forty  bushels  of  raw  grain,  less  than  0.5 
per  cent,  of  the  maize  and  such  preparations,  and  about  0.3  per  cent,  of 
the  sugar  substitutes.  The  small  proportion  of  sugar  used  in  Irish  breweries 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  every  quarter  of  malt  used  in  each  country, 
42.6  lbs.  of  sugar  were  used  for  brewing  in  England,  20.5  lbs.  in  Scotland, 
and  but  1.4  lbs.  in  Ireland.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Irish  beer  owes 
much  of  the  high  character  which  it  bears  to  its  purity,  arising  from  the 
almost  exclusive  use  of  malt.  Beers  of  saccharine  and  sugary  nature,  not 
produced  from  pure  malt  sugar,  can  hardly  be  described  as  nutritive,  and  it 
is  to  the  absence  of  malt  substitutes,  such  as  are  largely  used  in  England, 
that  Irish  brewers  owe  their  freedom  from  disturbances  such  as  that  recently 
caused  by  the  arsenic  scare  in  Manchester.  Other  interesting  features  of 
the  Irish  brewing  trade  are  the  absence  of  brewing  for  household  consump- 
tion only,  and  the  hereditary  nature  of  the  brewing  trade  in  Ireland  which 
has  been  already  commented  upon. 

There  are  several  reasons  why,  despite  the  excellence  of  their  manufac- 
ture, Irish  brewers  have  more  difl&culty  than  English 
How  the  Irish        brewers  in  making  their  business  pay.     Not  only  is 
Brewer  is  the    population    small,  but,  owing  to  the    fact    that 

handicapped.         whiskey  is  more  commonly  drunk  in  Ireland  than  in 
England,  the  consumption  of  beer  per  head  is  far  less, 
and  owing  to  the  sparse  population,  brewers'  agents  have  to  travel  long 
distances,  and  small  supplies  of  beer  have  to  be  sent  to  distant  parts  of 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  491 


the  country.  This  necessitates  the  investment  of  a  very  large  capital  in 
casks,  and  the  annual  expenditure  on  the  cleaning  and  the  cooperage  is  ne- 
cessarily much  higher  in  most  Irish  breweries  than  in  English  establishments,, 
as  the  casks  in  England  have  not  to  be  sent  so  far,  nor  are  they  subjected 
to  so  much  exposure  to  the  weather.  Another  advantage  which  English 
brewers  possess  over  their  Irish  competitors  arises  from  the  system  of  tied 
houses  which  characterises  nearly  every  English  brewery,  and  which  may  be 
said  to  be  almost  an  exception  in  Ireland.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  more- 
over, that  the  excessive  number  of  public  houses  in  Ireland  unfavourably 
affects  the  brewer  ;  and  if  these  surplus  licences  could  be  abolished  on  pay- 
ment of  a  reasonable  compensation,  brewers,  hke  other  people,  would  benefit 
by  the  change.  For  each  of  the  1,688  common  brewers  in  England  there 
are  66  retailers  licensed  to  sell  beer;  for  each  of  the  I2i  Scotch  brewers 
there  are  91  houses  ;  but  in  Ireland  for  38  breweries  there  are  19,702  persons 
licensed  to  sell  beer,  which  gives  an  average  of  518  houses  for  each  brewery. 
The  enormous  number  of  these  houses  in  Ireland  as  compared  with  Great 
Britain  does  not  cause  a  great  consumption  of  beer  in  Ireland  as  compared 
with  Great  Britain— the  average  consumption  as  a  matter  of  fact  is  little 
more  than  half — but  it  does  show  how  the  Irish  brewer  is  handicapped  by 
having  to  deal  with  a  large  number  of  houses,  each  of  which  requires  only  a 
small  supply,  for,  whilst  an  English  brewer  in  order  to  sell  10,000  gallons  of 
beer  has  on  the  average  to  deal  with  only  about  35  retailers,  the  Irish  brewer 
has  to  deal  with  nearly  twice  that  number.  In  connection  with  the  subject 
of  licences,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  Sale  of  Intoxicating  Liquors 
(Licences),  Ireland,  Bill,  which  at  the  time  of  writing  has  passed  through  the 
House  of  Commons,  will,  it  is  hoped,  in  time  remedy  the  evils  resulting  from 
surplus  licences.  It  may  be  noted  that,  at  present,  when  a  brewer  establishes 
a  district  agency  or  depot  for  the  distribution  of  beer  he  is  obliged  to  take 
out  a  wholesale  licence,  and  the  law  does  not  provide  any  facilities  for 
enabling  him  to  do  so,  but  forces  him  to  go  through  a  troublesome,  expen- 
sive, and  irritating  procedure,  and  he  is  treated  like  an  ordinary  retailer,  for 
his  premises  have  to  be  of  a  fixed  valuation,  and  he  is  supposed  to  be  in 
exclusive  occupation  of  the  premises  for  at  least  three  months  before  he 
can  obtan  the  licence.  The  success  which  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the 
Licensed  Grocers  and  Vintners  Protection  Association  in  promoting  the 
Bill  mentioned  above  will,  possibly,  encourage  the  Secretary  of  the  Associa- 
tion— Mr.  Robert  Russell — to  take  up  this  matter  in  the  interests  of  the  Irish 
brewers  so  as  to  get  a  short  Bill  introduced  which  would  place  this  licence 
on  the  same  footing  as  the  Brewer's  ordinary  licence  or  the  Wholesale 
Spirit  Dealer's  licence,  which  can  be  obtained  on  application  to  the  Inland 
Revenue  authorities. 

It  is  not  easy  to  state  very  accurately  the  actual  consumption  of  beer 

during  the  eighteenth  century  and  earlier  part  of  the 

-,,     p  , .         nineteenth  century  in  any  particular  part  of  the  United 

ine  consumption     j^i^gjom,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  figures  showing 

01  Beer  m  Irelana.  ^^^  production  of  beer  are,  necessarily,  in  the  absence 

of  other  data,  mostly  estimates  based  on  the 
quantity  of  malt  used  or  duty  charged.  These  figures  are  practically  incom- 
plete m  the  case  of  Ireland,  because  a  large  quantity  of  this  malt  must  have 
been  used  for  distillation,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  payment  was  evaded  as  regards  a 
consideiable  proportion  of  the  malt  used.    According  to  the  estimate  of  the 


492 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  i/'gi,  the  amount  of  beer  brewed  in 
Ireland  was  about  400,000  barrels,  and  the  amount  imported  was  about 
100,000  barrels.  As  the  population  was  probably  about  4,200,000,  the  aver- 
age consumption  per  head  of  population  would  appear  to  have  been  less  than 
one-eighth  of  a  barrel ;  but  this  estimate  can  be  but  little  more  than  a  very 
rough  approximation.  According  to  the  returns  quoted  by  Newenham  in 
the  book  previously  mentioned,  the  production  of  beer  in  Ireland  in  1808 
was  751,000  barrels,  the  net  imports  amounted  to  1,755  barrels,  and  the 
population  has  been  estimated  at  about  5,500,000.  These  figures  show- 
that  the  average  consumption  per  head  was  slightly  under  one-seventh  of 
a  barrel,  or  just  about  five  gallons  ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  Newen- 
ham very  emphatically  declares  that  the  production  was  under  estimated,  and 
that  the  actual  amount  of  beer  made  was  about  half  as  much  again  as  the 
amount  given  in  the  returns.  The  difficulty  of  estimating  the  consumption  in 
later  years,  arising  primarily,  as  already  pointed  out,  from  lack  of  accurate 
information  as  to  the  production  of  beer,  is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  no 
official  record  is  kept  of  the  cross-channel  trade  between  England  and 
Ireland.  -  So  long  as  separate  accounts  were  kept  by  England  and  Ireland, 
and  their  revenues  administered  by  separate  Treasuries,  it  was  indispensable 
that  customs  and  excise  duties  should  be  levied  in  the  country  where  the 
dutiable  article  was  consumed,  and  consequently  it  was  necessary  to  keep 
an  exact  account  of  the  cross-channel  trade.  When  the  revenues  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  became  consolidated  in  1817,  new  regulations  were 
frcimed  whereby  all  payment  and  repayment  of  duties  in  the  cross-channel 
trade  were  to  cease,  except  in  the  case  of  articles  which  were  subject  to 
different  rates  of  duties.  As  a  result  of  this  change,  accounts  of  the  quan- 
tities of  articles  shipped  from  Great  Britain  to  Ireland,  and  vice  versa,  ceased 
to  be  kept  after  1825-6,  and  beyond  the  shipping  lists  of  certain  ports, 
there  is  no  official  data  available  since  that  date  for  measuring  the  inter- 
change of  articles  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  nor  consequently 
for  measuring  the  consumption  in  the  two  countries,  except  in  the  case 
of  spirits,  which  can  be  moved  only  under  the  permit  system,  and  in  the 
case  of  live  stock,  statistics  as  to  the  exportation  and  importation  of  which 
have  been  collected  for  a  considerable  period  by  the  Veterinary  Office 
(now  merged  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction 
for  Ireland).  The  result  is  that  no  accurate  statement  can  be  made  as  to  the 
exports  and  imports  of  beer. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  amount  of  beer  brewed  in  Ireland,  in 
1861,  1871,  1882,  1891,  and  1901,  the  population  in  Ireland  in  each  of  these 
years,  and  the  amount  brewed  in  each  year  per  head  of  population. 


Year. 

Number  of 
Ban-els  Brewed. 

Population. 

Amount  Brewed 
per  Head. 

1861 
1871 
1882 
1891 
1901 

1.437.713 
1,616,656 
2.044,331 
2,555.273 
3.149.142 

5.798.564 

5.412,377 

5,150,000* 

4,704,750 

4.456.546 

8.9  gallons. 
10.7        ,, 
14.2 
19.5 
25-4 

*  Estimated. 


The  consumption  of  beer  per  head  was,  of  course,  less  than  the  amount 
brewed,  for  the  quantity  of  beer  exported  from  Ireland  has  for  a  long  time 


THE  BREWING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  49a 


exceeded  the  amount  imported.  At  the  time  of  the  Financial  Relations 
Commission  a  special  inquiry  was  instituted  by  the  Commissioners  of  Inland 
Revenue  to  ascertain  the  actual  incidence  of  the  different  taxes  in  each  part 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  total  amount  of  duty  paid  on  beer  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  the  year  1889-90  was  ;^9,4io,426,  of  which  ;^76i,7i3  was  paid 
in  Ireland.  From  information  furnished  by  the  Collectors  of  Inland  Revenue 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom  after  communication  with  the  different 
traders  in  their  districts,  it  was  estimated  the  duty  paid  in  Great  Britain 
upon  beer  exported  to  Ireland  amounted  to  ;^36,905,  whilst  the  duty  paid  in 
Ireland  upon  beer  which  was  subsequently  exported,  amounted  to  £iy 7, 262 
and  that  consequently  the  duty  paid  upon  beer  consumed  in  Ireland  in  1889- 
90  amounted  to  ^^621, 356.  This  represents  a  consumption  of  1,988,339 
barrels,  the  rate  of  duty  in  1889-90  being  <5s.  -^d.  per  barrel;  and  as  the 
population  may  be  fairly  estimated  at  4,750,000,  the  average  consumption 
in  1889-90  would  seem  to  have  been  about  15  gallons  per  head  of  popula- 
tion. 

The  consumption  is  now  probably  considerably  higher.  The  productiort 
of  beer  in  Ireland  in  1901  shows  an  increase  of  over  20  per  cent,  (nearly 
600,000  barrels)  as  compar  d  with  the  production  in  1891,  and  the  exports 
certainly  have  not  increased  to  that  extent  during  the  last  decade,  whilst  the 
population  has  decreased.  Most  of  the  porter  exported  from  Ireland  is 
shipped  from  Dublin,  and  the  amount  despatched  from  that  port  in  1900- 
1901  was  about  the  same  as  in  1889-90.  Still  the  export  trade  of  Dublin  in 
beer,  as  distinguished  from  the  coasting  trade,  has  undoubtedly  increased, 
for  much  of  the  beer  that  formerly  was  sent  by  boat  from  Dublin  to  Belfast 
and  some  other  parts  of  Ireland,  now  goes  by  rail,  and  there  is  an  increased 
export  of  beer  from  several  other  Irish  ports,  but  it  seems  probable  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  additional  500,000  barrels  brewed  in  1901  as 
compared  with  1891,  was  consumed  in  Ireland,  so  that  the  total  average 
consumption  of  beer  in  Ireland  is  probably  not  less  than  about  17  or  18 
gallons  per  head,  whilst  the  consumption  of  beer  in  Great  Britain  averages 
at  present  about  33  gallons  per  head  of  population. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  Brewing  industry  in  Ireland,  it  may  be- 
noted  that,  though  we  live  in  an  age  of  co-op>eration  when  "  syndi- 
cates," "  combines  "  and  "  trusts  "  are  words  grown  familiar  in  our  mouths,, 
the  brewers  of  Ireland  have  not,  as  yet,  combined  to  form  an  association  to 
guard  and  promote  the  common  interests  of  their  industry.  Although  the 
brewing  trade  is  one  which,  in  some  respects,  seems  peculiarly  to  require 
such  action,  the  County  Louth  Brewers'  Association,  consisting  of  firms  in 
the  Dundalk  Collection  District,  is  the  only  combination  of  brewers  as  yet 
formed  in  this  country,  but  perhaps  it  may  be  destined  to  be  the  nucleus  of 
a  Brewers'  Association  for  all  Ireland. 


494  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


THE    DISTILLING   INDUSTRY    IN   IRELAND. 

The  Distilling  Industry  has  now  reached  enormous  dimensions  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  it  is  only  in  comparatively  recent 
The  Early  History  times  that  distilling  has  attained  to  the  important 
of  Distilling.  position  which  it  now  occupies.  The  art  of  separating 
alcoholic  spirit  from  fermented  liquors  appears,  how- 
ever to  have  been  known  in  the  Far  East  from  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
It  is  thought  to  have  been  first  known  to,  and  practised  by,  the  Chinese ; 
gradually,  a  knowledge  of  the  art  travelled  westward,  and  the  word 
alcohol  is  supposed  to  indicate  that  a  knowledge  of  the  method  of  preparing 
alcoholic  spirit  came  to  Western  Europe,  like  much  other  chemical  learning, 
through  the  Arabs.  The  art  of  distilling  does  not  seem  to  have  been  known 
to  either  the  Greeks  or  the  Romans,  as  nowhere  in  their  writmgs,  which 
have  survived,  is  any  reference  made  to  alcohol  or  any  distilled  spirit,  nor 
have  the  discoveries  of  ancient  cities  and  monuments  during  the  last 
hundred  years  revealed  anything  to  indicate  the  existence  of  a  knowledge 
of  distilled  alcohol  in  Rome  or  Greece.  Arnauld  de  Villeneuve,  a  physician 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  the  first  author  who  speaks  explicitly  of  an 
intoxicating  spirit  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  wine.  He  mentions  it  as  a 
recent  discovery,  and  considers  it  to  be  the  universal  panacea  so  long  sought 
after  in  vain.  His  disciple,  Raymond  Lully  of  Majorca,  declares  the 
essence  of  wine  to  be  an  element  newly  revealed  to  man,  but  hid  from 
antiquity  because  the  human  race  was  then  too  young  to  need  this  beverage, 
which,  he  declared,  was  destined  to  revive  the  energies  of  modern  decrepi- 
tude. 

France  was  for  some  time  the  seat  of  the  distilling  industry  of  Europe, 
as  her  grapes  afforded  a  constant  supply  of  material  for  the  distilla- 
tion of  brandy,  but  as  grain  became  more  plentiful  the  industry  of  distilling 
spirits  from  corn  developed  in  Northern  Europe. 

It  seems  to  be  generally  admitted  that  distilhng  was  practised  in  Ireland 
at  an  earlier  period  than  in  Great  Britain.  When 
T»*  +*ir  rf  •  T  1  A  Henr}^  II.  in  the  twelfth  century  invaded  Ireland,  the 
Distilling  in  Ireland,  inhabitants  were  observed  to  be  in  the  habit  of 
making  and  using  an  alcoholic  liquor  called  Usque- 
baugh (Uisge-beatha,  water  of  life),  a  term  which  is  consequently  synony- 
mous with  the  classical  aqua  vitae.  A  description  of  the  virtues  of  Usque- 
baugh, and  a  recipe  for  making  it  are  contained  in  the  Red  Book  of  Ossory, 
and  it  is  known  that  the  Irish  were  in  the  habit  of  distilling  spirits  from 
malt.  The  word  Whiskey  is  a  somewhat  modern  corruption  of  Usquebaugh. 
Johnson,  in  his  famous  dictionary,  states  that  this  word  is  "  an  Irish  or  Erse 
word  v/hich  signifies  the  waters  of  life.  It  is  a  compounded  distilled  spirit 
being  drawn  of  aromatiks,  and  the  Irish  sort  is  particularly  distinguished 
for  its  pleasant  and  mild  flavour.  The  Highland  sort  is  somewhat  heavier, 
:  and  by  corruption  in  Scotch  they  call  it  Whiskey." 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  495 

Even  before  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  Irish  distilhng  industry  had 
assumed  considerable  proportions,  and  restrictions  had  at  various  times 
been  imposed  upon  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  spirits.  A  statute  was 
passed  at  Drogheda,  in  1556,  restricting  the  manufacture  of  whiskey — "a 
drink  nothing  profitable  to  be  daily  used  and  now  universally  made  through- 
out this  Realm,  especially  on  the  borders  of  the  Irishry,  whereby  much  corn, 
grain,  and  other  things  are  consumed."  A  heavy  penalty  was  imposed 
upon  domestic  distilling,  the  nobility  being  excepted.  It  was  this  statute 
that  made  distilling  without  licence  illicit,  and  the  penalty  of  death  was 
afterwards  enforced  against  illicit  distillers.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  many  licensed  distillers  existed,  and  persons  were  nominated  in  each 
province  who  had  the  sole  power  of  granting  licences. 

The  industry  of  distilling  spirits  from  grain  had  even  before  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  assumed  proportions  sufficiently  great  to  make  spirits  productive 
of  revenue,  and  after  the  Restoration  in  1 660  a  permanent  tax  was  imposed 
upon  every  gallon  distilled.  The  gradual  development  of  the  distilling 
industry  in  Ireland  can  be  best  followed  by  examining  the  official  returns 
relating  to  the  tax.  The  quantity  of  spirits  upon  which  duty  was  paid  in 
Ireland  exceeded  one  million  gallons,  for  the  first  time,  in  1773,  whilst  the 
quantity  made  at  the  end  of  the  century  was  over  four  million  gallons. 

A  number  of  the  most  important  distilleries  in  Ireland  were  started  in  the 

latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.     The  Bushmills 

The  earliest         Distillery  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  Ireland,  as,  in 

Irish  Distilleries,  the  year  1743  it  was  being  worked  by  a  band  of 
smugglers,  but  in  1784  it  was  recognised  as  a  legiti- 
mate distillery,  making  about  16,000  gallons  of  whiskey  per  annum,  most  of 
which  was  exported  to  the  West  Indies  and  America.  A  number  of  other 
distilleries  were  established  about  this  time,  thus  the  Brusna  Distillery, 
Kilbeggan,  was  founded  about  1750;  the  Thomas  Street  Distillery  in 
Dublin  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Peter  Roe  in  1757,  and  the  North  Mall  dis- 
tillery in  Cork  was  erected  by  ]\Ir.  Wyse  in  1779,  whilst  in  Dublin  the  Bow 
Street  Distillery,  the  John's  Lane  Distillery,  and  the  Marrowbone  Lane 
Distillery  were  all  started  before  the  end  of  the  century.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  distilling 
industry  flourished  exceedingly  in  Ireland,  and  the  consumption  of  spirits 
so  increased  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Irish  Parliament,  which,  as 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  endeavoured  to  check  the 
activity  of  the  distillers  by  encouraging  the  brewing  industry. 

Morewood  writing  about  the  distilleries  in  the  South  of  Ireland  in  1838 
mentions  in  his  treatise  on  "  Inebriating  Liquors,"  the  establishments  of 
Wyse,  Callaghan,  Morrogh,  Lyons,  O'Keeff^e,  Shee  and  Daly  as  being  of 
immense  magnitude.  The  concern  of  Murphy,  and  that  of  Hackett  at 
Middleton  were,  he  declared,  little  inferior,  whilst  the  distillery  at  Clonmel 
gave  employment  to  150  hands,  and  at  Brown's  establishment  in  Limerick, 
3,000  tons  of  coal  and  20,000  boxes  of  turf  were  annually  used,  whilst  the 
machinery  and  implements  cost  upwards  of  ;^20,000. 

Morewood  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  materials  used  at  the  best 
Irish  distilleries  about  183S,  and  mentions  as  a  typical  example  the  following 
proportions  : — 

One-fourth  malt  at  32s.  per  barrel  of  ij  cwts.  =  8s. 
One-half  barley  at  18?.         do.  do.  =  gs. 

One-fourth   oats  at  12s.         do.  do.  =  3s. 


496  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 

The  average  cost  per  barrel  of  mixed  materials  was  thus  20s.  The  barrel 
of  mixed  materials  in  the  above  proportions  yielded  7^  gallons  of  spirits 
at  25  over  proof,  so  that  the  materials  for  one  gallon  at  that  strength  cost 
2s.  Sd.  The  duty  at  the  period  referred  to  was  2s.  ^%d.  per  gallon,  and 
the  cost  of  manufacture  was  estimated  by  Morewood  at  4<a?..  so  that  the 
total  cost  to  the  distiller  of  a  gallon  of  whiskey  at  25   over  proof  was 

The  nature  and  conditions  of  the  Irish  Distilling  Industry  have  greatly 
changed  since  the  time  of  Morewood.  The  changes  in  the  duty  and  in  the 
regulations  enforced  by  the  Inland  Revenue  authorities,  as  detailed  below, 
have  had  a  marked  influence  upon  the  fortunes  of  distilling,  and 
the  same  forces  that  brought  about  the  industrialisation  of  the  brewing 
industry  have  had  their  effect  upon  distilleries  also.  Many  of  the  smaller 
establishments  have  ceased  working,  emd  the  larger  distilleries  have  steadily 
increased  their  output,  and  ever  increasing  applications  of  scientific  methods 
have  tended  in  the  same  direction.  The  amount  of  spirits  distilled  is  now 
three  times  as  great  as  the  amount  produced  a  century  ago,  though  the 
number  of  distilleries  at  present  working  is  less  than  one-third  of  the 
number  at  work  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  greatest 
change  in  the  industry  has  been  brought  about  by  the  spread  of  patent 
stills  and  the  use  of  Indian  corn  or  maize,  and  the  consequent  growth  of 
the  blending  and  rectifying  trade. 

According  to  the  returns  of  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue  there 
are  now  thirty   distilleries   in   Ireland,   but  some   of 
Modern   Irish        these  concerns  are  mainly  blending  establishments. 
Distilleries.  Consideration  of  space  prevents  mention  being  made 

of  each  distillery  in  Ireland  in  this  article,  but  a  few 
words  as  to  the  date  of  foundation  and  situation  of  those  concerning  which 
such  particulars  are  readily  available,  may  not  be  out  of  place.  The  best 
known  distilleries  in  Dublin  are,  perhaps,  those  belonging  to  John  Jameson 
and  Son,  Limited  ;  John  Power  and  Son,  Limited ;  the  Dublin  Distillers 
Company,  Limited ;  the  Distillers'  Company  (Phoenix  Park  Distillery) ; 
and  the  Dublin  City  Distillery  Company.  The  two  first-mentioned  distil- 
leries, viz.,  the  Bow  Street  Distillery,  owned  by  Messrs.  John  Jameson  and 
Son,  and  the  John's  Lane  Distillery,  owned  by  Messrs.  John  Power  and 
Son,  date  back  to  1780  and  1791  respectively,  and  are  both  exclusively  Pot- 
Still  establishments.  The  Dublin  Distillers  Company  was  formed  by  the 
amalgamation  of  three  distinct  distilleries,  the  Thomas  Street  Distillery, 
formerly  owned  by  George  Roe  and  Co.,  the  Marrowbone  Lane  Distillery, 
formerly  owned  by  Wilham  Jameson  and  Co.,  and  the  Dublin  Whiskey 
Distillery  at  Jones's  Road.  As  already  mentioned  the  first  two  of  these 
Distilleries  were  erected  in  the  eighteenth  century,  whilst  the  Jones's  Road 
Distillery  is  quite  modem,  having  been  started  as  late  as  1872. 

The  distilleries  in  Ulster  differ  from  those  in  most  other  parts  of  Ireland 
in  two  respects.  They  are  mostly  of  comparatively  modern  establishment, 
though  a  few  are  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  the  patent  stills  are  used, 
either  in  conjunction  with  or,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  pot-still,  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  in  the  rest  of  Ireland.  There  are  four  large  distilleries 
in  Belfast,  viz..  The  Royal  Irish  Distillery,  which  was  built  in  1869,  and  is 
owned  by  Messrs.  Dunville  and  Co.  ;  The  Irish  Distillery,  Limited ;  the 
Avoniel  Distillery  built  in  1882,  and  McConnell's  Distillery. 

Among^  other  distilleries  in  Ulster  may  be  mentioned  the  two  establish- 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  497 

ments  working  at  Comber,  County  Down,  owned  by  the  Comber  Distilleries. 
Company,  and  of  the  two  buildings  one  was  originally  a  brewery  and 
the  other  a  paper  mill  until  1825,  when  distilling  was  started  in  both 
establishments.  The  two  distilleries  in  Londonderry,  one  of  which  dates 
back  to  the  eighteenth  century,  are  owned  by  Mr.  Watt,  and  Messrs.  Young, 
King  and  Co.  have  a  distillery  in  Limavady.  Then  there  is  the  Bushmills 
Distillery  already  mentioned  as  famous  for  being  the  most  ancient  in 
Ireland  ;  it  and  the  Coleraine  Distillery,  owned  by  the  representatives  of 
the  late  Sir  Robert  Taylor,  are  remarkable  as  being  the  only  "  All  Malt "' 
distilleries  in  Ireland. 

Almost  midway  between  Belfast  and  Dublin  there  is  another  well-known 
distillery  at  Dundalk.  owned  by  Messrs.  Malcolm,  Brown  and  Co.,  which 
dates  back  to  the  eighteenth  century.  According  to  the  statistical  records, 
of  Dundalk  this  Distillery,  as  far  back  as  the  year  1837,  employed  lOO  men 
and  used  40,000  barrels  of  grain. 

Cork  is  another  important  centre  of  the  distilling  trade,  and  the  Cork 
Distillers  Company  includes  three  distinct  distilleries.  One  of  these  is  the 
North  Mall  Distillery,  which  was  erected  by  Mr.  Wyse  in  1779.  The  second 
establishment  is  the  Middleton  distillery,  which  is  situated  some  thirteen 
miles  from  the  City  of  Cork  ;  the  buildings  were  originally  used  for  a  woollen 
manufactory,  then  as  barracks,  and,  finally,  they  were  converted  into  a  distil- 
lery sliortly  after  1825.  The  third  distillery,  known  as  the  Watercourse, 
has  not  been  worked  since  1876,  but  is  held  as  a  stand-by.  There  are  two 
other  distilleries  in  the  County  of  Cork,  one  in  Bandon  owned  by  Messrs. 
Allman  and  Co.,  who  fitted  up  the  present  distillery  about  th  year  1826, 
and  one  situated  at  Kilnap,  owned  by  the  Glen  Distillery  Company,  which 
was  started  about  twenty-five  years  ago.  Another  distillery  n  the  South  of 
Ireland  worthy  of  note  is  the  Limerick  Distillery,  owned  by  Mr.  Walker, 
and  situated  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  the  famous  treaty  stone. 
The  Nun's  Island  Distillery  in  Galway,  owned  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Persse,  was 
purchased  by  the  father  of  the  present  proprietor  in  the  year  1840,  and  is 
remarkable  as  being  the  only  distillery  in  Connaught. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Bishop's  Water  Distillery  in  Wexford,  which 
w^as  erected  in  the  year  1827  and  which  is  owned  by  Messrs.  Nicholas 
Devereux  and  Co.,  the  other  provincial  distilleries  are  all  situated  in  the 
Midlands.  Thus  in  Monasterevan  there  is  Mr.  Cassidy's  Distillery  which 
w-as  built  as  far  back  as  1784.  and  which  belongs  to  the  proprietor  of  the 
Monasterevan  Brewery  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  Mr.  Daly's 
Distillery  in  Tullamore,  was  founded  in  the  year  1829,  and  the  Brusna 
Distillery  at  Kilbeggan,  owned  by  Messrs.  John  Locke  and  Co.,  was  estab- 
lished in  the  }/ear  1750,  and  so,  as  already  mentioned,  disputes  with  the 
Bushmills  Distillery  the  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  established  distillery 
in  Ireland  ;  wliilst  the  Birr  Distillery,  owned  by  Messrs.  R.  and  J.  Wallace, 
was  founded  in  the  year  1805. 

The  histor)'  of  distilling  as  applied  to  fermented  liquors  so  far  as  the 
LTnited  Kingdom  is  concerned,  is,  like  the  history  of 
Taxation  and        brewing,    inseparably    connected    with    questions    of 
Production.  taxation  ;   indeed  but  for  this  fact  it  would  be  well- 

nigh  impossible  to  trace  the  gradual  development  of 
the  distiUing  industry.  As  already  mentioned,  even  before  the  Restoration 
taxes  were  levied  upon  the  distilHng  industry,  and  in  1660  a  duty  was 
imposed   on  British  spirits,  which  amounted  in  Ireland  to  /[d.  per  gallon,  and 

•      2K 


498 


THE  DISTILLING   INDUSTRY  IN   IRELAND. 


in  Great  Britain  to  2d.,  ^d.,  or  4^.,  according  to  the  material  used.  In  1724 
(the  first  year  for  which  records  for  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
the  quantity  of  spirits  upon  which  duty  was  charged  are  available),  the  duty 
had  increased  to  "^d. — 6d.  in  Great  Britain,  and  to  8^.  in  Ireland.  In  that 
year  the  quantity  charged  with  the  duty  and  the  duty  paid  was  as  follows  : — - 


Quantity. 

Amount  of  Duty. 

England, 
Scotland, 
Ireland, 

Gallons. 

3,563,625 
145,602 
134,080 

£     s.    d. 

89,735  "    7 
3,504  12  10 

4,469     6  10 

The  duty  in  England  and  Scotland  was  subsequently  increased,  and  in 
175 1  the  figures  were: — 


Quantity. 

Amount  of  Duty. 

England, 
Scotland, 
Ireland, 

Gallons. 

7,049,822 
848,768 
596,090 

£     s.    d. 

357,122  13    5 

16,610  19    5 

19,869  13    5 

In  1773  the  quantity  charged  with  duty  m  Ireland  for  the  first  time 
reached  the  one  million  gallons  mark,  and  though  the  duty  was  raised,  the 
production  as  measured  by  the  quantity  charged  with  duty,  rapidly  increased, 
amounting  to  over  2,000,000  gallons  in  1781,  and  to  over  3,000,000  gallons 
nine  years  later.  These  figures  relate  only  to  the  quantity  upon  which  duty 
was  paid  in  Ireland,  and  no  official  figures  relating  to  the  amount  actually 
distilled  are  available  until  1802,  when  the  number  of  gallons  of  spirits 
manufactured  was  as  follows: — 3,384,742  in  England,  1,344,835  in  Scotland, 
and  4,475,458  in  Ireland. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  rate  of  duty  was  constantly 
changed,  and  ranged  from  over  ^s.  to  over  lis.  in  England,  but  was  much 
lower  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  1821  when  the  duty  was  i  is.  per  gallon  in 
England,  6s.  2d.  in  Scotland,  and  5  j-.  73^*2'.  in  Ireland,  the  quantities  produced 
in  the  three  countries  were: — 2,662,852  gallons  in  England  ;  3, 2iC,858  gallons 
in  Scotland;  and  3,627,552  gallons  in  Ireland.  About  1825  when  the  duty 
was  reduced,  a  great  increase  in  production  took  place,  the  quantity  distilled 
in  that  year  being  2,039,771  gallons  in  England,  8,224,807  in  Scotland,  and 
8,835,027  in  Ireland.  In  1836  the  quantity  made  in  Ireland  amounted  to 
11,894,169  gallons,  which,  until  1879,  was  the  highest  on  record  for  Ireland. 
Then  came  Father  Mathew's  Temperance  Movement,  and  whilst  the 
quantity  of  spirits  made  in  Great  Britain  remained  fairly  stationary,  the 
production  in  Ireland  fell  for  several  years  to  less  than  half  of  what  it  was  in 
1838.  In  a  few  years,  however,  the  manufacture  of  spirits  revived,  and  for 
the  ten  years  after  the  Famine,  it  amounted  each  year  to  over  8,000,000 
gallons. 

The  duty  in  Ireland  was  only  2s.  Sd.  per  gallon  until  1853,  when  it  was 
raised  to  ^s.  4^.,  in  the  following  year  the  duty  was  increased  to  4s.,  and  then 
to  6^-.  2d.,  whilst  in  1858  the  duty  was  raised  to  Ss.,  and  thus  equalised  with 
the  duty  in  Great  Britain.     This  rapid  increase  in  taxation,  the  duty  being 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN   IRELAND. 


499 


thus  trebled  in  five  years,  led  to  a  sudden  fall  in  the  quantity  produced  in 
Ireland,  which  was  accentuated  by  the  further  increase  of  2t.  per  gallon 
imposed  in  i860,  and  for  several  years  the  quantity  made  was  but  one  half 
of  the  average  production  during  the  decade  1849-58.  Thus  in  1863  the 
quantity  made  was  only  4,137,544  gallons,  the  lowest  figure  recorded  since 
1823.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixties  Distilling  revived  in  Ireland,  and 
though  the  duty  has  since  been  raised  to  lis.  per  gallon,  there  has  been  a 
steady  increase  in  the  output  of  Irish  Distilleries,  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures : — 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Gallons  of  Spirits  Distilled  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  during  certain  years. 


England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Total  for  United 
Kingdom 

Year  ended  31st  March,  1861, 

,,                 ,,                 1871, 

iS8i, 

1891, 

„                „                1901, 

7,211,822 

7,576,495 
9,830,636 

10,533,637 
12,603,311 

11,211,648 
14,501,983 
16,752,613 
21,101,023 
30,196,016 

4,801,115 

8,873,545 

9,720,834 

12,988,924 

14,221,520 

23,224.585 
30,952,023 
36,304,083 
44,623,584 
57,020,847 

The  amount  in  warehouses  in  the  United  Kingdom  on  31st  March,  igoo, 
was  157,169,068  gallons,  and,  as  shown  above,  57,020,847  gallons  were 
distilled  during  the  year  ended  31st  March,  1901,  making  a  total  of 
214,190,815  gallons  to  be  accounted  for.     This  was  disposed  of  as  follows: 


Delivered  for  Home  Consumption, 

Exported, 

Used  for  fortifying  \A'^ines  for  Ships,  Stores,  &c. 

Methylated,  

Deficiencies  allowed. 

Total  Distributed, 
Balance  in  Warehouse  on  31st  March,   igor, 


36,703,728  gallons. 
5-773,718       „ 
309,166       ,, 

5-070,713       „ 
4,830,661       ,, 


52,687,986 
161,502,829 


Any  account  of  the  development  of  the   distilHng  industry  in   Ireland 

would  be  incomplete  without  some  mention  of  illicit 

Til-  -i.  rk'  ^-ii   i.'         distillation.     It  is  difficult  in  these  days,  when  illicit 
illicit  Distillation.     1-  .  11  ,•  r       ^        .1  n   •  4. 

distnlation  is  of   comparatively  small  importance,  to 

realise  the  extent  to  which  that  traffic  grew  during 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  produce  of  the  smugglers'  stills,  being 
made  from  malt  alone,  found  a  ready  market  on  account  o  its  distinct 
flavour,  and  the  trade  was  encouraged  by  the  high  rate  of  duty  levied  at 
licensed  distilleries.  Both  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  the  smugglers  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  pioneers  of  the  whiskey  trade.  To  them  is  largely 
due  the  superior  quality  of  the  fine  old  malt  whiskey  that  is  made  nowadays, 
and  the  "  sma  stills  "  and  "  illicit  potheens  "  may  be  said  to  be  the  founda- 
tions upon  which  the  whiskey  distilling  industry  has  been  built.  The 
ilhcit  whiskey  acquired  the  name  of  "potheen"  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
usually  made  in  a  small  pot,  and  it  was  sometimes  called  '  Innishowen," 
from  a  district  in  Donegal  notorious  for  illicit  distillation  and  famous  for 
the  superior  quality  of  its  whiskey. 

Many   interesting   and   curious   facts   have    been   related   of   the    extra- 
ordinary contrivances   of   the   people   to  evade   the  law,   and   to  prevent 


500  THE   DISTILLING  INDUSTRY   IN   IRELAND. 


detection,  such  as  the  artful  construction  of  distilleries  on  the  boundaries  of 
townlands  (in  order  to  evade  the  law  which  imposed  a  fine  on  any  townland 
where  an  illicit  still  was  discovered),  in  the  caverns  of  mountains,  on  islands, 
in  lakes,  on  boats,  and  in  rivers.  Many  stories  have  been  told  how 
Revenue  Officers  have  been  carried  away  and  secreted  for  weeks  together 
in  order  to  prevent  their  giving  evidence,  and  of  various  other  schemes  and 
their  treatment  while  in  confinement,  and  of  the  various  other  schemes  and 
devices  to  defraud  the  Revenue. 

In  the  year  1820  illicit  distillation  had  become  so  prevalent  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  that  more  than  half  of  the  spirits  actually  consumed  were  supplied 
by  the  smuggler,  and  it  was  found  necessary  in  1821  to  appoint  a 
Parhamentary  Commission  to  investigate  the  subject,  and  propose  a 
remedy.  The  result  of  the  new  regulations  which  vv^ere  adopted  was  a 
surprising  increase  in  the  quantity  of  legally  made  spirits.  In  1820 
the  quantity  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  vs^as  g,6oo,ooo  gallons,  and  in 
1826  it  was  18,200,000.  Illicit  distilling  continued  to  be  common  for  some 
time,  but  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  century  it  was  practically  stamped 
out  in  Great  Britain.  In  1850  the  number  of  detections  amounted  in 
England  to  551,  and  in  1869  to  41.  In  Scotland  there  were  14,000  prosecu- 
tions in  1823  for  illicit  distilling  and  malting,  but  in  1856  the  number  had 
fallen  to  48. 

The  efforts  to  suppress  illicit  distillation  have  not  been  so  successful  in 
Ireland.  In  1854,  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary  were,  for  the  first  time, 
employed,  in  addition  to  the  Revenue  Police,  in  the  suppression  of  illicit 
distillation.  In  1 870  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue  stated  (Thirteenth 
Annual  Report,  1870,  C.  82)  "There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  moral  effect 
of  the  employment  of  a  force  so  much  respected,  and  so  closely  connected 
with  the  magistracy  and  the  Vice-Regal  Government  will  have  great 
influence  on  some  classes  in  Ireland  who  have  hitherto  been  too  much 
disposed  to  look  with  indifference  upon  offences  against  the  Revenue  laws. 
Could  we  obtain  the  cordial  co-operation  of  the  owners  and  occupiers  of 
land  in  that  country,  as  we  have  in  most  parts  of  Scotland,  we  should  have 
no  apprehensions  of  the  revival  of  smuggling  to  any  great  extent,  even  if 
the  price  of  grain  were  much  lower  than  at  present." 

Although  the  co-operation  of  most  landowners  has  now  been  obtained 
illicit  distillation  still  occurs  to  some  extent  in  Ireland,  though  the  nature 
and  characteristics  of  it  seem  to  have  largely  changed.  The  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  harvest,  especially  of  oats,  do  not  seem  to  have  the  same 
effect  upon  illicit  distillation  as  formerly,  when  there  used  to  be  constant 
variations  in  the  extent  of  smuggling  in  Ireland,  without  any  other  apparent 
cause  than  an  abundant  or  deficient  crop.  Treacle  and  porter  are  now  the 
materials  generally  employed,  and  the  process  is  so  simple  and  easy  that 
it  may  be  conducted  successfully  in  any  place  where  there  is  a  supply 
of  water,  and  as  illicit  spirits  can  be  sold  with  a  fair  profit  at  about 
5.5-.  a  gallon,  being  us.  (the  amount  of  the  duty)  less  than  legally  made 
spirits  can  be  sold  at,  it  cannot  be  expected  the  practice  will  soon  be  entirely 
suppressed.  In  1850  there  were  3,545  detections,  and  last  year  the  number 
of  seizures  by  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary  was  2,008,  which  is  over  the 
average  for  recent  times,  but  most  of  these  seizures  were  of  a  trifling  char- 
acter, and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  temptation  to  carry  on  illicit 
distilling  is  much  greater  now,  when  the  tax  is  lis.  per  gallon,  than  it  was 
fifty  years  ago,  when  the  tax  was  less  than  one-third  of  this  amount. 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  501 


The  ]\Ianufacture  of  Whiskey. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  course  of  a  short  article  to  give  a  full  account  of 
the  processes  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  spirits,  but  a  short  description 
of  the  main  facts  as  to  the  "  death,  burial,  and  resurrection  of  John  Barley- 
corn "  rnay  prove  not  uninteresting. 

All  substances  containing  either  sugar  or  starch  will  yield  spirits  on  being 
fermented  ;  but  in  the  case  of  grain  and  other  starch- 
The  Production  of  containing  substances,  the  starch  has  to  be  first  con- 
Alcohol.  \erted  into  sugar.  In  France  and  many  other 
countries  a  large  quantity  of  spirit  is  prepared  from 
beetroot,  potatoes,  and  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  and  in  Jamaica 
and  some  other  places,  directly  from  sugar  cane.  In  this  country,  however, 
most  alcohoHc  spirits  are  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  the  fermented 
extracts  of  grain.  The  process  of  miaking  spirits  from  corn  may  be  divided 
into  two  stages,  viz. : — first,  the  formation  of  the  alcohol,  and  secondly,  its 
elimination  from  the  unfermentable  ingredients  with  which  it  is  mixed ;  in 
other  words,  the  whole  process  may  be  divided  into  the  two  stages  of 
brewing  and  distilling.  The  first  step  in  the  former  process  is  to  saccharify 
the  starch  contained  in  the  grain.  The  usual  method  to  accomplish  this  is 
to  mix  malted  barley  with  the  raw  grain,  as  malt  contains  a  substance 
known  as  "  diastase,"  which  has  the  effect,  when  mashed  with  unmalted 
grain  at  certain  temperatures,  of  converting  the  starch  of  the  grain  materials 
into  a  saccharine  extract  capable  of  fermentation.  The  process  of  malting 
and  the  change  produced  in  the  malted  grain  have  been  explained  in  the 
preceding  article  (see  page  461).  The  next  step  in  the  process  is  the 
actual  brewing.  The  raw  grain  is  crushed  in  a  mill  and  then  passed  with 
the  malt  into  the  mash-tun,  where,  as  in  making  beer,  the  meal  is  submitted 
to  the  action  of  water  at  a  certain  temperature,  and  by  means  of  revolving 
arms  the  "  grist  "  is  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  water.  The  insoluble 
starch  in  the  grain  is  thus  converted  into  the  soluble  saccharine  fluid  known 
as  "  wort."  As  this  saccharine  fluid  is  required  by  distillers  for  its  alcohol 
only,  all  Irish  distillers,  w4th  two  exceptions,  use  a  considerable  quantity  of 
unmalted  grain,  and  in  some  Patent  Still  establishments  over  So  per  cent, 
of  the  mixture  mashed  consists  of  raw  grain. 

The  wort  is  run   off  from   the   mash-tun   through   the   perforated   false 

bottom  into  the  underback,  and  the  grains  remaining  in  the  mash-tun  are 

re-mashed  several  times  until  they  are  practically  exhausted  of  all  their 

soluble    constituents,    after    w^hich    the    grains    are    utilised    for    feeding 

cattle.     The  wort,  after  being  cooled,  is  then  passed  into  the  fermenting 

vessels,   and  yeast  being  added,  the  process  of  fer- 

Fermentation.        mentation  begins.     The  chemical  actions  which  take 

place  have  been  already  described  in  the  article  on 

brewing ;   the  main  feature  is  the  conversion  of  the  fermentable  sugar,  by 

the  influence  of  yeast,  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  and  as  the  secondary 

products  are  of  but  small  importance,  the  conversion  may  be  represented  by 

the  following  chemical  equation  : — - 

Ce   H,,  Oe    =    2C,   Kg  O    +  2C  O., 
(Glucose)  (Alcohol)      (Carbonic  Acid) 


502  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY   IN   IRELAND. 

The  degree  to  which  fermentation  is  carried  is  very  different  in  distilling 
from  that  which  prevails  in  brewing.  The  brewer  desires  to  retain  as  fax  as 
possible  the  aroma  of  the  hops  and  malt  and  to  convert  only  a  portion  of  the 
sugar  into  alcohol,  thus  leaving  a  large  proportion  of  the  sugar  and  dextrine 
in  the  beer ;  the  distiller  on  the  other  hand  desires  to  convert  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the  forma- 
tion of  secondary  products,  more  especially  the  oxidation  of  the  alcohol 
into  acetic  acid. 

The  second  stage  in  the  process  now  begins.  The  fermented  wort, 
known  as  "  wash,"  is  a  fluid  containing  varying  pro- 
Distillation  portions  of  alcohol,  unfermentable  grain  extract  and 
water,  and  the  object  of  the  distiller  is  to  isolate  the 
spirit  as  effectually  as  possible.  This  is  done  by 
distillation,  i.e.,  by  converting  the  volatile  constituents  of  the  wash  into 
vapour.  Distillation  is  a  generic  name  for  a  class  of  operations,  all  of  which 
agree  in  one  point,  namely,  that  the  liquid  operated  upon  is  heated  in  a 
closed  vessel  or  still,  and  thereby  wholly  or  partially  convertec  into  vapour 
which  is  then  condensed  by  cold  into  the  liquid  state.  The  distillation  of 
spirits  is,  thus,  the  process  of  separating  alcoholic  spirits  from  fermented 
hquors.  Water  boils  at  212°  F.,  and  alcohol  at  173°,  and  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  water  will  boil  at  the  intermediate  temperature  of  about 
192^;  hence  the  boiling  point  of  "wash"  depends  on  the  proportion  of 
spirit  which  it  contains.  The  more  volatile  spirituous  vapour  first  passes 
over  to  be  condensed  at  a  low  temperature  which  has  to  be  increased  as  the 
spirit  becomes  weaker  by  admixture  with  water.  The  apparatus  is  always 
arranged  in  such  a  way  that  the  vapour  is  cooled  to  condense  'nto  the  liquid 
form  again,  wliich  runs  into  separate  vessels  called  "  Receivers."  In 
whiskey  distilleries  nearly  the  whole  of  the  alcohol  is  separated  from  the 
water  by  repeated  fractional  distillations,  the  distillates  being  collected  in 
several  vessels  as  "  Low  Wines,"  "  Feints,"  and  "  Whiskey." 

All  classes  of  distilling  apparatus  may  be  classified  under  three  heads, 
viz. : — first,  stills  heated  and  worked  by  the  direct  application  of  a  fire, 
secondly,  stills  worked  by  the  action  of  steam  blown  direct  into  the  alcohohc 
solution  from  a  steam  boiler ;  and  thirdly,  stills  heated  by  steam  passing  m 
pipes  through  the  alcoholic  solutions  to  be  acted  upon.  But  the  apparatus 
used  for  the  distillation  of  spirits  are  commonly  divided  into  two  classes : — 
pot-stills    and  patent  stills. 

To  the  first  of  these  classes,  viz.,  stills  heated  by  the  direct  application  of 

fire,  belong  to  the  earliest  and  simplest  forms  of  dis- 

The  Pot  Still         tillatory  apparatus  including  the  famous  "Pot-Still"  so 

generally  used  in  Ireland.       This   still  is  an  almost 

flat-bottomed  copper  pot,  with  a  high  head  to  prevent 

the  fluid  within  from  boiling  over.     From  the  top  of  the  head  runs  the 

"  worm,"  i.e.,  a  tube  connected  with  the  head  and  carried  in  a  spiral  form 

round  the  inside  of  a  vessel  or  tub  filled  with  cold  water,  which  acts  as  a 

condenser.     The  alcohol  leaves  the  still  in  the  form  of  vapour  which  is 

condensed  into  a  liquid  and  cooled  in  its  passage  through  the  "  worm  "  to 

the    Receiver.       The    spirit    thus    collected   has   to   be   re-distilled    until 

it    becomes    much  stronger  and  cleaner.       The  first    distillate    from    the 

still  is  termed  "  Low  Wines,"  and  passes  into  the  "  Low  Wine  Receiver," 

whence  it  is  transferred    to  the  first    "  Low  Wine   Still "    to    be    again 


THE  DISTILLING   INDUSTRY  IN   IRELAND.  503 


distilled.  The  products  of  this  second  distillation  are  collected  in  the 
Feints  Receivers,  and  the  cleanest  and  most  suitable  of  the  "  Feints  "  are 
transferred  into  the  third  still  to  be  ultimately  discharged  as  "  Whiskey." 
In  distilling  with  an  apparatus  of  this  simple  construction  it  is  obvious 
that  at  the  beginning  of  the  operation,  when  the  wash  or  liquid  to  be 
distilled  is  rich  in  alcohol  and  its  boiling  point  low,  the  distillate  will  pass 
over  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature.  As  the  operation  progresses  and 
the  proportion  of  spirit  becomes  less,  the  boiling  point  of  the  mixture  in  the 
still  rises,  and  more  heat  is  required  to  evaporate  it.  As  ihe  alcoholic 
strength  of  the  liquid  which  remains  in  the  still  continually  weakens,  a 
point  is  eventually  arrived  at  when  the  value  of  the  weak  distillate  produced 
will  not  balance  the  expenditure  on  fuel  necessary  to  distill  it. 

The  "  patent  stills  "  of  the  second  and  third  class  are  too  elaborate,  and 

the   method   of  working    is    too    complicated   to  be 

P  f     f  Sf'll  even  briefly  described  in  a  short  article.     The  best 

known  of  these  stills  is  "  Coffey's,"  which  is  the  only 

patent   still   used   in   the    United   Kingdom    for    the 

manufacture  of  "  silent  "  or  rectified  spirit.     It  is  said  to  be  the  speediest 

and  most  economical  device  for  preparing  a  highly  concentrated  spirit  in  a 

single  operation,  as  it  extracts  all  the  alcohol  from  any  fermented  liquid, 

and  only  one  condensation  of  the  distillate  is  necessary.     The  process  of 

distillation,  which  is  carried  on  by  steam,  is  continuous,  and  the  "  low  wines" 

spirit  IS  not  collected  as  in  the  case  of  pot-stills,  but  passes  on  in  the  form  of 

vapour  to  the  rectifying  column  where  it  is  purified  into  strong  spirits.     By 

the  patent  still  a  spirit  is  obtained   almost  destitute  of  flavour  or  smell,  and 

of  a  strength  varying  from  62  to  68  over  proof. 

If  only  alcohol  and  water  passed  over  in  distillation  all  spirits  from  what- 
ever material   derived  would  be   the   same,   but   this 
Whiskey  and        is  not  the  case.     Each  distillate  has  its  own  peculiar 
Patent  Spirit.        flavour,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  materials 
from  which  it  is  extracted,   and   spirits  of  the  high 
strength  produced  by  most  patent  stills  ultimately  pass  to  the  condensers 
at  such  a  low  temperature  that  scarcely  any  of  the  volatile  oils  on  which  the 
peculiar  fla\'Our  of  whiskey  depends,  are  present  with  it ;   hence  the  patent 
still  is  not  adapted  for  the  distillation  of  Fine  Whiskies  which  require  a 
certain  amount  of  these  essential  oils  to  give  them  the  proper  "  whiskey  " 
flavour,  and  patent  spirit  has  usually  to  be  blended  with  fine  whiskey  in 
order    to    be    acceptable    to   the    consumer.       Pot-Still    whiskey    contains 
essential  oils  or  flavouring  matters  in  excess  when  it  is  new,  and  they  require 
to  be  broken  up  and  re-arranged  by  the  spontaneous  action  which  occurs 
between  them  and  the  spirit  with  v/hich  they  are  in  contact.     This  modi- 
fication of  whiskey  takes  place  during  the  period  of  bonding  when  the 
whiskey  is  maturing  in  oak  casks.     It  is  the  presence  of  the  essential  oils, 
and  their  gradual  modification  in  cask,  which  makes  whiskey  so  different 
from  rectified  spirit,  and  the  fact  that  time  is  required  for  this  modification 
is  the  reason  why  whiskey  improves  with  age. 

The  spirits  obtained  from  patent  stills  contain  very  little  of  the  essential 
oils  or  flavouring  constituents  which  ultimately  give  taste  and  aroma  to  the 
matured  whiskey  obtained  from  pot-stills,  where  the  valuable  bye-products 
referred  to  are  kept  and  incorporated  in  the  spirit.  The  difference  between 
the  two  spirits  was  well  put  by  a  witness  before  the  Select  Tommittee  on 
British  and  Irish  Spirits  appointed  in  i8go.     It  was  stated  that  silent  spirits 


504  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


seem  to  act  physiologically  like  other  spirits,  but  are,  owing  to  the  small 
amount  of  bye-products  contained,  insipid  and  flavourless,  just  as  the  extract 
of  meat  is,  unless  condiments  are  added  to  convert  the  extract  into  pleasant- 
flavoured  soup,  and  that  the  bye-products  act  as  the  condiments  to  the 
insipid  alcohol  of  silent  or  patent  spirits.  This  want  of  flavour,  arising  from 
the  absence  of  bye-products,  is  supplied  by  blending.  Most  of  the  patent 
spirit  made  in  Ireland  is  blended,  i.e.,  mixed  with  pot-still  whiskey,  and 
many  distilleries  consequently  use  both  pot-stills  and  patent  stills.  The 
relative  merits  of  "  Self  "  whiskies  and  of  blended  whiskies  has  given  rise  to 
no  small  amount  of  discussion,  both  before  the  Cominittee  mentioned  above 
and  elsewhere.  Many  hold  that  the  pot-still  product  matured  and 
ripened  by  age  is  the  only  spirit  that  should  be  designated  "  whiskey ; "  but 
•of  course  an  examination  of  this  question,  still  less  an  expression  of  opinion, 
is  quite  outside  the  scope  of  this  article.  Much  of  the  patent  spirit  made 
in  England,  especially  in  London,  is  rectified,  that  is,  converted  into 
flavoured  spirits,  such  as  gin  and  factitious  or  British  brandy,  by  the  addition 
■of  juniper  berries  or  other  flavouring  seeds.  Most  of  the  patent  spirit  pro- 
duced in  Scotland,  as  in  Ireland,  is  blended  with  pot-still  whiskey  so  as  to 
lighten  and  cheapen  it.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  marked  difference  in 
flavour  between  Scotch  and  Irish  whiskey  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Scotch  dry  their  malt  with  peat,  which  imparts  a  decidedly  smoky  character 
to  the  Highland  product,  whilst  anthracite  or  smokeless  coal  is  generally 
used  in  Ireland,  with  the  result  that  Irish  whiskey  is  free  from  the  marked 
smoky  taste  of  Scotch  whiskey. 


The  Bye-products  of  Distilling. 

The  following  bye-products  from  distilleries  are  worthy  of  note  : — 

1.  Spent  grains,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  brewers'  grains,  are  sold  as  a 
feeding  stuff.  When  spent  grains  are  sold  direct  from  the  mash-tub,  a 
'distiller  generally  receives  about  6d.  per  bushel,  and  when  they  are  dried, 
•about  4J".  6d.  per  cwt. 

2.  The  spent  wash,  for  which  6d.  to  lod.  per  lOO  gallons  may  be 
-obtained,  in  pot-still  distilleries,  is  largely  sold  for  cattle  feeding  or  for 
use  as  a  land  manure.  Its  utility  as  a  fertiliser  seems  to  have  been  somewhat 

■overlooked,  and  the  remarks  made  by  Frankland  in  1871  upon  this  question, 
are  worthy  of  consideration.  He  stated  ("  Experimental  Researches,"  page 
827)  that  his  analyses  show  distillery  drainage  to  possess  a  high  manurial 
value,  at  least  ten  times  more  valuable  than  sewage,  and  he  asserts  that 
the  waste  of  such  rich  manure  in  country  places  is  simply  disgraceful.     The 

■crops  grown  upon  the  distillery  farm  at  Bushmills  and  on  farms  near  many 

:  Scotch  distilleries,  afford  a  practical  illustration  of  the  high  value  of  the  spent 
wash  as  a  fertiliser.  At  patent  still  distilleries  very  large  quantities  of 
spent  wash  have  to  be  disposed  of,  and  if  they  are  situated  in  towns  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  profitably  use  the  wash  for  manure.  In  such  cases  the 
wash  is  generally  allowed  to  stand,  and  the  clearer  portion  drawn  off,  and 

:run  to  waste,  whilst  the  thick  matters  in  suspension  are  precipitated,  pressed 
-in  bags,  and  sold  as  "  slummage  "  for  mixture  with  cattle  food. 

3.  The  yeast  which  is  used  to  cause  fermentation  is  generally  bought  from 
Brewers,  and  is  at  once  thrown  in  with  the  newly  collected  worts  in  the 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  505 

proportion  of  about  i}^  lbs.  of  pressed  yeast  to  each  barrel  of  wort.  The 
separation  of  yeast  from  the  fermenting  wash  and  its  purification  for  use  by 
bakers,  is  now  a  very  important  branch  of  the  distilling  industry,  and, 
though  by  no  means  a  new  one,  has  been  of  comparatively  recent  intro- 
duction into  Ireland.  A  distiller  is  allowed  by  the  excise  regulations  to 
remove  from  a  washback  any  quantity  of  yeast  not  exceeding  lO  per  cent, 
by  bulk  of  the  wort.  By  special  indulgence  this  limit  is  frequently  extended 
to  15  per  cent.,  and  the  yeast  may  be  removed  by  skimming,  by  decanta- 
tion  of  the  yeast  from  the  wash,  or  by  both  processes.  The  removal  of 
yeast  has  become  a  very  important  industry  in  some  distilleries,  in  fact, 
in  some  patent  still  distilleries  the  natural  order  of  things  almost  seems  to 
be  now  reversed,  and  the  manufacture  of  yeast  seems  to  have  almost  become 
the  primary  object,  and  the  spirits  manufactured  little  more  than  a  mere 
bye-product.  It  is  not  the  custom  in  Irish  pot-still  establishments  to  collect 
the  yeast. 

Among  other  bye-products  mention  may  be  made  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  may  be  colle^^ted  and  utilized  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  which 
obtains  amongst  certain  brewers,  and  which  has  been  described  in  the 
preceding  article. 

Though  the  quantity  of  barley  required  in  Irish  distilleries  is  much  less 

than  the  quantity  used  in  Irish  breweries,  still  there 

Distilling  and        can  be  no  doubt  that  distilling,  like  brewing,  has  a 

Barley-growing,  marked  influence  upon  barley-growing  in  Ireland, 
and  that  much  of  the  comparative  steadiness  exhibited 
by  the  area  under  barley,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  as  compared  with  the 
shrinkage  of  other  cereals,  is  due  to  the  steady  market  and  good  prices 
afforded  by  distilleries.  The  proportion  of  malted  and  unmalted  grain  now 
used  for  making  whiskey  varies  in  each  distillery ;  but,  as  regards  pot-still 
distilleries,  it  may  not  be  inaccurate  to  say  that  the  average  proportion  of 
malt  used  is  from  25  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  mixture  mashed  ;  of 
barley  from  40  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent.,  and  of  oats  somewhere  about  1 5  per 
cent.  Two  of  the  Irish  distilleries  are  all-malt  distilleries,  where  no 
unmalted  grain  is  used.  Thus,  on  the  average,  85  per  cent,  of  the  mixture 
used  in  pot-still  establishments  consists  of  barley,  malted  or  unmalted,  and 
the  barley  thus  used  is  almost  entirely  home-grown. 

In  patent  still  distilleries  the  proportion  of  malt  used  varies  from  15  per 
cent,  to  25  per  cent.,  and  indeed,  with  modern  plant  and  special  mani- 
pulation, smaller  quantities,  it  is  said,  may  be  safely  used.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, from  about  10  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  mixture  mashed  consists  of 
oats,  and  the  remainder,  that  is,  from  about  60  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent, 
usually  consists  of  maize.  Rice,  rye,  unmalted  barley,  and  wheat  are  some- 
times used.  The  making  of  spirits  in  patent  stills  exercises  comparatively 
little  influence  upon  the  agricultural  economy  of  Ireland,  as  compared  with 
the  effect  of  the  pot-still  process,  for,  not  only  does  from  60  per  cent,  to  75 
per  cent,  of  the  mixture  used  in  the  patent  grain  distilleries  consist  of 
an  imported  cereal,  viz.,  maize,  but  moreover  the  malt  used  for  the 
mashing  process  in  these  distilleries  is  largely  made  from  light  foreign 
barley. 

It  is  not  at  all  easy  to  arrive  at  an  even  rough  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
each  variety  of  grain  used  each  year  by  the  Irish  distilleries,  for,  in  the 
first  place,  it  is  laard  to  say  what  proportion  of  the  total  output  of  spirits 


506  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN   IRELAND. 

made  in  Ireland  is  manufactured  in  pot-stills  and  what  proportion  in  patent 
stills.*  Then,  as  already  mentioned,  the  proportion  in  which  the  different 
varieties  of  grain  are  mixed  varies  in  different  distilleries,  and  moreover, 
the  quantity  of  spirit  obtained  from  a  bushel  of  the  mixture  is  by  no  means 
constant,  but  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  materials  used.  However,  as 
an  approximate  estimate  it  may  be  stated  that  about  nine  gallons  or  rather 
more  of  spirit  can  usually  be  produced  from  a  barrel  of  i68  lbs.  of  the  mixed 
meal.  Assuming  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  14,000,000  gallons  of  spirits 
distilled  in  Ireland  last  year  were  made  in  pot-still  distilleries,  it  would 
appear  that  about  2,OCO,ooo  bushels  of  barley  (nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
Irish  yield)  were  used  in  the  distilling  industry,  so  that  distilling  obviously 
exercises  a  marked  influence  upon  the  barley-growing  industry  in  Ireland. 


Distillers  and  the  Law. 

Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  restrictions  imposed  upon  dis- 
tillers in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  with  each  increase  in  the 
taxation  imposed,  these  restrictions  became  more  irksome.  Indeed  the  his- 
tory of  the  Irish  distillers  during  a  large  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  is 
chiefly  a  narrative  of  ever-changing  attempts  at  fraud,  of  consequent  legisla- 
tive restrictions  and  of  complicated  methods  of  assessing  the  duty.  Not  only 
were  the  regulations  inadequate  for  the  collection  of  the  duty,  but  they  were 
also  so  stringent  and  so  ill-contrived  as  to  prevent  the  licensed  distiller  from 
producing  spirits  equal  in  quality  to  those  of  the  smuggler.  The  evil  of 
illicit  distillation  reached  such  an  alarming  height  in  1821  that  a  Parlia- 
mentary Commission  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  laws  governing  distil- 
lation, and  to  propose  amendments.  As  a  result  of  this  inquiry  new  regula- 
tions were  introduced  which  combined  greater  security  for  the  Revenue 
together  with  a  release  for  the  distiller  from  many  of  the  trammels  under 
which  he  hitherto  conducted  his  operations.  Different  methods  of  charging 
the  duty  were  compared,  and  ultimately  that  prevailing  in  Scotland  (which 
had  been  originally  suggested  by  the  distillers  themselves  was  adopted, 
and  further  improvements  followed. 

In  1823  spirits  were  allowed  to  be  warehoused  duty  free  for  home  con- 
sumption in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  1848  the  warehousing  regulations  of 
the  United  Kingdom  allowed  spirit  to  be  bonded  duty-free  for  exportation, 
home  consumption,  for  removal  to  other  warehouses,  etc.,  and  for  use  in 
methylating  One  per  cent,  was  allowed,  too,  for  waste  in  racking  and 
blending  operations.  In  1855  all  consumable  goods  used  by  distillers  were 
allowed  entry  duty  free.     In  i860  the  legislation  concerning  distillers  was 

*  It  was  stated  before  the  Select  Committee  on  British  and  Irish  Spirits  appointed  in 
1890,  that,  in  the  year  i88g,  the  quantity  of  spirits  produced  in  Irish  distilleries  using  pot- 
still  only  was  5  745,764  gallons,  and  in  patent  still  distilleries  1,993,813  gallons,  and  that  in 
distilleries  using  both  kinds  of  stills  3,665,210  gallons  were  produced.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  amount  of  patent  spirit  produced  in  Ireland  has  enormously  increased  during  the  last  ten 
years,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  spirits  now  made  in 
Ireland  are  manufactured  in  patent  stills.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  was  estimated  in  this 
Report  that  of  the  mixed  meal  used  in  Irish  Distilleries,  malt  formed  40  per  cent,  in  pot-still 
manufacturies,  20  per  cent,  in  patent  still  establishments,  and  just  under  30  per  cent,  in 
distilleries  which  use  both  kinds  of  stills. 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  507 

consolidated,  and  majiy  restrictions  abolished  or  partially  relaxed.  These- 
applied,  for  instance,  to  the  removal  of  yeast  from  fermenting  vessels,  to 
the  sale  of  yeast,  to  the  grinding  of  malt  with  stones,  to  the  continuous- 
running  of  pot-stills,  to  alternate  periods  of  brewing  and  distilling,  to  the 
use  of  any  material  for  making  wort,  to  extended  allowances  for  unavoidable 
waste,  and  to  the  loss  of  spirits  through  accidents. 

The  chief  legal  restrictions  which  at  present  govern  the  distillation  of 
spirits  are  set  out  in  the  Spirits  Act,  1880.  In  the  first  place  the  distiller 
has  to  pay  an  annual  sum  of  ;^I0  los.  for  a  licence  and  a  duty  of  lis.  per 
gallon  is  charged  when  the  spirit  passes  into  consumption  from  the  spirit 
store,  or  the  bonded  warehouse,  or  when  they  are  transferred  to  duty-paid 
stock.  An  allowance,  however,  of  ^d.  per  proof  gallon  is  paid  on  the  expor- 
tation of  plain  British  spirits,  and  an  allowance  is  also  made  when  they  are 
shipped  for  ship  stores,  and  when  they  are  used  in  Customs  warehouses  for 
fortifying  wine,  or  are  used  in  other  operations  at  Customs  warehouses,  and 
are  thus  rendered  inadmissable  for  hom.e  consumption.  The  allowance  is 
designed  to  cover  the  extra  cost  of  manufacture  necessitated  by  compliance 
with  the  Excise  regulations,  and  for  the  same  reason  an  additional  import 
duty  is  levied  on  foreign  spirits  (except  Rum  and  Brandy)  of  ^d.  per  proof 
gallon. 

As  regards  distillery  premises,  a  distillery  is  not  entitled  to  a  licence  unless 
the  distillery  is  situated  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  a  market  town,  though 
a  licence  may  be  granted  to  a  distillery  situate  beyond  this  limit  on  suitable 
provision  being  made  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Revenue  Officers.  No 
distillery  may  be  worked  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  a  rectifier's  premises, 
and  a  distiller  must  not  carry  on  in  his  distiller}^  premises  the  business  of  a 
brewer,  nor  that  of  vinegar,  cider,  or  sweet  wines  maker,  nor  that  of  a 
sugar  refiner  ;  and  a  distiller  is  prevented  from  carrying  on  business  on 
premises  which  communicate  with  houses  where  any  of  the  above-mentioned 
trades  are  conducted. 

As  regards  the  processes,  a  distiller  must  not  mash,  brew,  or  use  a  still  of 
any  kind  between  Saturday,  1 1  p.m.,  and  Monday,  i  a.m.  ;  brewing  and  dis- 
tilling operations  must  be  in  distinct  and  alternate  periods,  and  a  still  may 
not  be  used  until  two  hours  have  elapsed  since  the  closing  of  the  brewing 
period.  The  quantity  of  bub  and  other  fermenting  agents  that  may  be  added 
to  wort  in  the  washbacks  must  not  exceed  5  per  cent,  by  bulk  of  the  wort  or 
wash  in  such  vessels.  Its  gravity  must  not  exceed  1 080,  and  it  must  be  all 
placed  in  the  specified  washback  within  twenty-four  hours  of  its  first  being 
made.  The  distillery  is  subject  to  very  keen  supervision  bv  the  Excise 
officers,  to  whom  the  distiller  has  to  give  a  written  notice  of  most  operations, 
and  the  whole  business  of  distilling  is  restricted  by  a  number  of  very  com- 
plicated and  minute  regulations,  from  most  of  which  the  Continental  distiller 
is  free.  Individual  distillers  may  obtain,  upon  proper  application,  special 
indulgences  in  the  way  of  the  relaxation  of  certain  restrictions  in  order  ta 
meet  their  particular  requirements.  The  chief  indulgences  above  referred  to 
are  those  which  extend  the  quantity  of  yeast  legally  removable  ;  those  which- 
curtail  the  interv^al  between  the  brewing  and  distilling  operations  ;  those 
which  extend  the  limits  of  warehousing  strength  ;  those  which  refer  to  the 
use  of  bub,  and  those  which  dispense  with  the  erection  of  spec'fied  vessels 
and  fittings  and  permit  the  erection  of  additional  vessels. 

In  levying  the  duty  the  charge  is  not  made  by  actual  admeasurement  of 
the  spirits,  but  upon  the  quantity  found  according  to  a  certain  standard  of 


508  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


strength  called  proof*  as  denoted  by  Sike's  Hydrometer.  The  principle 
followed,  as  already  indicated,  is  to  prescribe  the  course  of  manufacture  and 
to  establish  such  a  system  of  checks  and  charges  as  shall  render  it  impracti- 
cable for  the  distiller  to  abstract  any  spirits  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture without  the  knowledge  of  the  Inland  Revenue  officers.  The  distiller 
has  to  apprise  the  officers  of  the  quantity  and  gravity  of  the  worts  collected 
in  the  fermenting  vessel,  and  the  wort  is  followed  step  by  step 
until  it  is  distilled  into  spirits.  There  are  three  methods  by 
v/hich  the  duty  is  charged  :  first  upon  the  wash  made  in  the  distillery,  one 
gallon  of  proof  spirits  being  charged  for  every  lOO  gallons  of  worts  for 
every  five  degrees  of  gravity  attenuated  ;  secondly,  from  the  quantity  of 
proof  spirits  calculated  to  be  present  in  the  low  wines  after  deducting 
an  allowance  of  5  per  cent,  for  waste  occurring  in  re-distillation ;  and 
thirdly  from  the  quantity  of  proof  spirits  contained  in  the  spirits  and  feints 
produced  from  the  distillation  of  the  low  wines.  The  distiller  is  charged 
with  duty  on  the  greatest  quantity  arising  from  any  one  of  these  three 
methods  of  charge.  Only  the  first  and  third  of  these  methods  are  applicable 
in  most  distilleries,  as  the  second  can  be  carried  out  only  where  preference 
is  still  given  to  the  older  methods  of  collecting  all  the  low  wines  from  a 
given  quantity  of  wash  before  re-distilling  any  of  them.  The  third  method 
is  generally  considered  to  be  the  fairest,  and  it  is  almost  invariably  the  one 
which  determines  the  actual  charge,  as  it  is  almost  always  the  highest  of 
the  three.  The  first,  or  the  attenuation  method  acts  as  a  valuable  check  in 
comparing  the  brewing  operation  with  the  distilling  operation,  and  of 
tracing  discrepancies  in  either.  The  distiller  is  not  compelled  to  pay  the 
duty  on  his  spirits  immediately  after  they  are  manufactured ;  he  can  deposit 
them  in  bond,  and  defer  paying  the  duty  until  he  takes  the  spirits  out  of  the 
warehouse  for  consumption,  watching  the  market  for  a  convenient  time  and 
■opportunity  to  dispose  of  them  to  the  best  advantage. 


The  Consumption  of  Whiskey. 

The  amount  of  spirits  consumed  in  Ireland  is  very  different  from 
the  quantity  distilled  and  from  the  quantity  upon  which  duty  was  paid 
in  any  one  year.  Irish  whiskey  has  of  course  a  world-wide  reputation, 
and  large  quantities  are  exported  to  Great  Britain,  the  Colonies,  and  Foreign 
Countries.  Thus  last  year,  over  half  the  whiskey  upon  which  duty  was  paid 
in  Ireland  was  exported  and,  indeed,  more  was  sent  to  England  alone  than 
was  consumed  in  Ireland.  No  very  accurate  calculation  can  be  made  as 
to  the  quantity  of  spirits  consumed  in  Ireland,  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
per  head  of  population.  In  i/Qi,  when  the  population  was  about  4,200,000 
it  v/as  stated  in  the  Irish  Parliament,  as  has  been  already  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  article,  that  duty  was  paid  on  over  3,400,000  gallons  of 
spirits,  whilst  over   1,000,000  gallons  were  imported,  so  that  the  amount 

*  The  term  "proof"  is  used  to  express  the  strength  of  the  spirit,  and  has  come  into 
general  use  in  consequence  of  the  Excise  authorities  adopting  it  as  the  standard.  According 
to  the  Act  of  ParUament,  proof  spirit  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0923077  at  51°  F.,  and  at  this 
temperature  13  parts  of  it  weigh  exactly  the  same  as  12  parts  of  pure  water.  When  spirit  is 
said  to  be  30  per  cent,  above  proof,  it  means  that  100  parts  of  this  spirit  and  30  parts  water  will 
yield  130  parts  of  proof  spirits;  and  when  spirit  is  said  to  be  30  per  cent,  under  proof,  it 
means  that  100  parts  of  this  spirit  contains  100  minus  30,  or  70  parts  of  proof  spirit. 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND.  509 


of  duty-paid  spirits  consumed  per  head  of  population  was  over  one  gallon. 
It  was  universally  admitted,  moreover,  that  an  enormous  quantity  of 
spirits  was  illicitly  distilled.  Some  estimates  stated  that  the  amount  illicitly 
distilled  was  even  greater  than  the  amount  upon  which  duty  was  paid. 
In  1811  the  quantity  of  spirits  charged  with  duty  had  risen  to  6,378,479 
gallons  for  a  population  of  5,956,460.  In  1838  when  the  population  was 
about  8,000,000,  the  quantity  of  spirits  charged  with  duty  in  Ireland  was 
over  12,000,000.  About  the  time  of  the  Father  Mathew  Crusade,  the 
quantity  diminished  by  nearly  one-half,  but  in  1851  it  had  risen  to 
7,550,518  gallons  for  6,552,385  persons.  Ten  years  later,  in  consequence  of 
the  increased  taxation,  the  amount  of  spirits  charged  with  dM\.y  for  consump- 
tion in  Ireland,  according  to  the  returns  of  the  Commissioners  of  Inland 
Revenue,  had  fallen  to  under  4,191,560  gallons  for  about  5,798,564  persons. 
The  returns  for  1871  and  1881  showed  a  slight  increase  in  the  quantity  con- 
sumed, but  the  consumption  was  still  under  one  gallon  per  head  of  popula- 
tion. In  1 891,  when  the  population  was  4,704,750,  the  consumption  was 
returned  as  4,821,146  gallons,  but  about  the  time  of  the  Financial  Relations 
Commission  it  was  discovered  that  a  serious  error  had  crept  into  these 
statistics,  and  that  the  consumption  of  whiskey  in  Ireland  has  been  returned 
as  greater  than  it  really  was.  The  following  extract  from  a  Parliamentary 
paper,  issued  by  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue,  shows  how  the 
mistake  arose : — 

"  In  April,  1858,  the  duty  on  spirits  in  Ireland  was  raised  to  the  same  rate 
as  that  prevailing-  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  from  that  time  to  this  the 
duty  has  continued  at  equal  rates  in  the  Three  Kingdoms.  With  the 
equalisation  of  the  rate  it  became  a  matter  of  indifference  to  the  Exchequer 
in  what  part  of  the  kingdom  the  duty  on  any  particular  gallon  of  spirits  was 
paid.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  became  for  the  first  time  necessary,  if  it  was 
desired  to  know  the  true  contribution  of  each  of  the  Three  Kingdoms  to  the 
Excise,  that  the  amount  of  spirits  transferred,  after  payment  of  dutv,  from 
one  to  the  other,  should  be  recorded.  Hence,  in  the  year  1858-9,  the  Board 
of  Inland  Revenue  established  an  account,  intended  to  show  the  amount  of 
spirits  actually  consumed  in  each  of  the  Three  Kingdoms,  as  distinct  from 
the  amount  paying  duty  in  each  of  them.  This  account  has  ever  since  been 
compiled  quarterly,  and  a  summary  of  it  has  been  published  every  three 
months  in  the  Board  of  Trade  Returns,  and  once  a  year  in  our  Annual 
Report. 

"  Unfortunately,  the  details  of  the  account  have,  as  it  now  appears,  been 
often  made  up  with  very  inadequate  care  by  the  officers  responsible  for  them. 
The  reason,  no  doubt,  is  that  they  were  of  no  importance  whatever  to  the 
Revenue.  The  Return  in  question  was  a  return  of  the  movement  of  spirits, 
which,  whatever  might  become  of  them,  had  paid  their  full  due  to  the 
State.  Hence,  the  zeal  of  those  engaged  in  collecting  the  statistics  flagged, 
and  they  did  not  fully  examine  the  documents  from  which  they  were  compiling, 

"  This  was  more  especially  the  case  with  regard  to  the  spirits  removed, 
after  payment  of  duty,  from  dealers'  stores.  When  duty-paid  spirits  are 
removed  from  a  warehouse  they  are  accompanied  by  a  '  permit,'  drawn  up 
by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  warehouse,  and  it  is  easy  for  him  to  keep 
a'  correct  account  of  such  removals.  But  of  the  amount  of  the  removals 
from  dealers'  stores  our  officers  have  no  other  information  than  that  given 
by  the  dealers  themselves,  who  are  bound  by  law  to  send  with  every  con- 
signment of  spirits  a  certificate  stating  the  quantity  and  place  of  destination. 
The  certificates   are  taken  from  the  books   supplied   to   the  dealers   by   the 


;510  THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


Revenue  authorities,  and  containing-  counterfoils,  on  which  the  dealers  fill 
in  details  corresponding  to  those  given  in  the  certificates.  These  counter- 
ioils  are  subsequently  collected  by  the  officers  of  Inland  Revenue,  and  it  is 
in  extracting  the  information  contained  in  them,  a  task  which  is  always 
laborious  and  often  difficult,  that  frequent  mistakes  have  occurred.  It  will 
easily  be  understood  that,  where  the  quantities  under  examination  are  so 
great,  a  number  of  omissions,  each  individually  slight,  may  collectively  pro- 
•duce  a  heavy  per-centage  of  error." 

The  result  of  these  errors  was  that  the  official  returns  had  for  over  thirty 
years   set  out  the  consumption  of  spirits  in  Ireland 
Ine  present  ^^  being  much  greater  than  it  really  was.       It  was 

f  Wli'^k'     in        stated  that  the  "  normal  error  "  during  this  period  had 
Trpland  been   about    lo  per  cent.,   but   owing  to  exceptional 

circumstances  it  amounted  in  the  year  ending 
J  1st  March,  1892,  to  over  600,000.  In  the  last  year  for  which 
returns  are  available,  namely  the  year  ended  31st  March,  1901,  when 
the  population  was  4,456,546,  the  quantity  of  spirits  retained  for  consump- 
tion in  Ireland  as  a  beverage  only  was  4,238,334  gallons,  i.e.,  474,844  gallons, 
(more  than  10  per  cent.)  less  than  the  quantity  consumed  in  igoo.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  quantity  retained  was  considerably  less  than  one-third 
•of  the  quantity  distilled  in  Ireland  during  that  year  (14,221,520  gallons),  and 
less  than  half  of  the  quantity  charged  with  duty  in  Ireland  during  the  year 
(8,931,877  gallons).  The  figures  quoted  show  that  the  average  consumption 
of  spirits  in  Ireland  during  the  last  fifty  years  has  been  considerably  less 
than  the  average  consumption  during  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  that  the  quantity  consumed  per  head  of  population  (.95  of  a  gallon)  is 
now  nearly  the  same  for  Ireland  as  for  the  rest  of  the  United  Kingdom 
(.88  of  a  gallon).  Though  the  consumption  of  beer,  as  has  been  already 
remarked  in  the  preceding  article,  shows  a  great  increase  in  the  last  forty 
or  fifty  years,  it  is  still  far  less  than — indeed  little  more  than  half  of — the 
average  consumption  per  head  of  population  in  the  rest  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  slight  decline  which  has  taken  place  in  the  consumption  of 
spirits  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  since  1825,  when  the  consumption 
was  slightly  over  one  gallon  per  head,  is  not  surprising,  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  during  the  last  fifty  years  the  taxation  on  spirits  has  increased  300  per 
cent,  as  compared  with  an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  on  beer,  and  a  decrease 
•of  over  75  per  cent,  in  the  tax  on  tea. 

Though  this  article  does  not  purport  to  inquire  into  the  comparative  merits 
or  demerits  of  any  beverages,  alcoholic  or  otherwise, 
The  Relative         or  the  grievances,  real  or  imaginary,  of  the  makers. 
Taxation  of  reference  may  be  made  to  the  question  which  has 

Whiskey.  been  so  often  asked,  viz.,  what  is  the  comparative 

rate  of  taxation  to  which  spirits,  beer,  and  tea  are 
subjected?  The  question  has  not,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  been  satisfac- 
torily answered,  though  numerous  comparisons  have  been  instituted,  e.g., 
the  alcohol  present  in  beer  and  spirits  respectively  has  been  calculated,  and 
the  tax  upon  them  has  been  reduced  to  that  standard,  and  thus  it  is  often 
stated  that  the  duty  on  whiskey  is  four  times  the  duty  on  beer  quoad 
alcohol.  Again,  a  comparison  may  be  made  according  to  the  proporton 
that  the  duty  bears  to  the  price.  According  to  this  test  the  tax  on  whiskey 
is  more  than  double  the  tax  on  beer,  as  the  duty  on  whiskey  forms  over 


THE  DISTILLING  INDUSTRY  IN  IRELAND. 


511 


one-half  of  the  retail  price  of  whiskey,  and  the  duty  on  beer  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  price  of  beer. 

Perhaps  a  more  satisfactory  method  would  be  to  compare  such  quantities 
of  the  articles  as  would  usually  be  considered  equivalent  by  the  consumer. 
We  may  suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  labouring  man  might  hesitate  between 
a  pint  of  beer,  a  pint  of  tea,  or  a  glass  of  whiskey.  Now  the  duty  on  beer 
being  /s.  gd.  per  barrel,  it  follows  that  the  taxation  of  a  pint  of  beer  is 
considerably  over  a  farthing,  and  supposing  (which  probably  is  a  large 
estimate),  that  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  tea  is  used  to  produce  a  pint  of  the 
liquid,  the  tax  which  a  pint  of  tea  bears  is  something  less  than  half  a 
farthing.  But  the  glass  of  whiskey  is  burthened  with  over  i  %d.,  and  its 
contribution  to  the  Exchequer  is  (if  we  suppose  that  it  is  retailed  at  about 
20  per  cent,  under  proof),  a  large  percentage  on  the  cost,  and  about  five 
times  as  much  as  is  imposed  upon  the  beer,  and  more  than  twelve  times 
as  much  as  is  imposed  upon  tea. 


*-««CL 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Aberdeen,  Countess  of— 

Donegal  Woollen  Industry,  interest  in  .    396 
Lace-making  Industry,  encouragement 
to     .  .  .  .  .430 

Adair,  Mr.— 

Donegal  Woollen  Trade,  interest  in     .    396 

Adams,  Professor  Leith— 

Mammals  of  Ireland    .  .  .54 

Agriculture- 

Acts  of  Parliament  relating  to— Agi'i- 
cultiire  and  Industries  Bill   .  .    202 

Department     of    Agriculture     and 
Technical  Instruction  (Ireland)  .    203 
Canals,  Value  of,  to  Agriculture  .     101 

Cattle  [see  that  title]. 

Chemistry  of,  Kane,  Sir  Robert,  and  .  18.i 
Congested  Districts  Board,  work  of  .  264 
Crops,  .Statistical  Returns  .  .    308 

Education  [see  that  title] 
England  .  .  .  .64 

Experimental  Plots      .  .  .    224 

Forestry,  Statistics        .  .  .323 

Co-operation,  principle  of,  in  Agricul- 
ture [see  Irish  Agricultural  Organi- 
sation Society] 
Green  Cropping  introduced       .  .    139 

Inland  Navigation  Service,  importance 

to  Agriculture  .  .  .94 

Insect  pests      .  .  .  .62 

Land: 

Division  of,  Statistics  .  .    307 

Reclamation  .  .  190,  305 

Live  Stock : 

Improvement  Schemes,  224,  266,  287,  288 
Statistical  Returns  for  England  319-323 
Meteorological  data,  value  of,  in  Agri- 
culture .  .  .  .42 
People  engaged  in,  percentage  .  65 
Planting,  Royal  Dublin  Society's  Aid  to  175 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland 

[see  that  title] 
Roval  Dublin  Society  (see  that  title) 
Scotland  .  .  .  .64 

Shows : 

Belfast        .  .  .  197,  201 

Cork  .  .  .188,  189,  215 

North-east  Agricultural  Association 

197,  200,  203 
North-west  of  Ireland  Agricultural 

Association  .  .  .    213 

Royal  Agricultural  Society  .    189 

Royal  Dublin  Society  .  .    359 

Statistical  Survey  of  Irish  Agriculture  : 
Bee-Keeping,  Returns         .  .    325 

Crops : 

Average    Annual    Value,    1889- 

1893  (table)    .  .  .311 

Flax      ....    309 
Rates  of  Produce  .  .    312 

Cereals— Average  yield  per  acre 
(bushels).  United  States  and 
British  Isles,  1897  (table)        .    314 
Barley,    total    production     in 

Ireland  (table)  .  .    310 

Decrease   in    acreage    under 

(table)  .  .  .308 

Total   produce   and  yield  per 
acre  in  1901,  with  compara- 
tive statements  for  1600,  and 
for   averages    1891-1900     for 
United  Kingdom  (table)       .    313 
Wheat,  total  area  under  .    310 


PAGE 

Agricu\.tub.k— continued. 
Crops,  Root: 

Acreage  under  (tables)        .  .    308 

Estimated  yield  per  acre  (tons), 
average  for  1889-1898,  British  Isles 
(table)     .  .  .  .315 

Forestry  : 

Acreage  under  each  kind  of  tree 

in  1841  (table)      .  .  .323 

Acreage    under    various    kinds    of 

trees,  1901  .  .  .324 

Acreage  under  woods  and  planta- 
tions in  1851,  and  in  each  year, 
from  1853-1901  (table)        .  .    324 

Holdings  and  Occupiers : 

Agriculture,  persons  engaged  in 
1841  and  1891  (table)  .  .    317 

Belgian  Statistics  .  .  .    319 

Farm    Labourers  in  1841   and   1891 

(table)     .  .  .  .317 

Farms,  size  of,  in  Ireland  (table)     .    319 
French  Statistics  (table)      .  .    318 

Holdings  between  1  and  30  acres  in 

1841  and  1891  (Uible)         .  .    317 

Occupiers  of  land  in  each  year, 
from  1895  to  1901,  by  provinces 
(table)     .  .  .  .316 

Returns  1900  and  1901  (table)  .    315 

Separate  holdings  and  number  of 
occupiers  by  provinces  in  1900 
and  1901  (table)   .  .  .316 

Land,  Division  of : 

Arable  and  Pastoral,  1880  and 
1901,  as  compared  with  1800 
(table)     .  .  .  .307 

Proportions  of  areas  in  1901  (table)  .    316 
United  Kingdom,  each  country  of 

(table)     .  .  .        ■       .    307 

Distribution  of  in  1900-1901  (table)     .    307 

Total  area,  1891        .  .  .304 

Waste  land  reclaimed  during  last 

60  years  (tables)  .  .    305 

Live  Stock : 

Exports  to  Great  Britain  (tables)    .    322 
Flocks,  herds,  and  population  [per 
1,000   acres,    Ireland     from    1851 
to  1901]  (Uible)      .  .  .    320 

Flocks,  herds  [and  population]  per 
IjOOf)  of  total  area,  relative  posi- 
tion of  Ireland  to  other  countries 
(table)     .  .  .  .320 

Milch  cows  in  Ireland,  1854-1901, 
with  the  proportion  per  cent, 
each  year  to  total  cattle  (table)    .    321 

AiNswoRTH,  Samuel— 

Ideal  Pony,  Description  of 


Algae,  Irish 

Allen,  Lough— 
Coal  (Arigna)  . 

Allen,  R.  &  R.,  Wexford 

Allman,  Dowden  &  Co. 
Brewers  and  Distillers 


354 
48 


17 
165 


478,  497 
.   20 


Alum  Clay  (bauxite)  Industry     . 
America— 

American  Animals  and  Plants  inhabit- 
ing Western  Ireland  .  .      61 
Railways  and    Canals— Freight  Rates, 

&c.  (Table  94)  .  .  .      93 

Weather  Prognostication  System  .      44 

Amphibians  and  Reptiles  .  .      56 

2l 


514 


INDEX. 


PACK 

Anderson— 

Herring   Fishing  in   Ireland,  Remarks 

on    .               .               .               .  .    378 

Anderson,  Robert  A.— 

Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society    233 

Andrews,  Thomas— 

Recess  Committee  and  Ulster  Consul- 
tative Committee,  Member  .  .    271 

Animals- 

Arctic  Fauna    .               .               .  .53 
Bibliographj^ : 

Adams,  Professor  Leith       .  .      54 

Harrington,  Mr.       .               .  .      5S 

Beaumont,  W.  I.,  &  Holt,  E.  W.  L.      59 

Calderwood,  W.  L.                .  .56 

Carpenter,  G.  H.    .              .  .      59 

Caiman,  W.  T.       .              .  .59 

Friend,  H.  .               .               .  .60 

Green,  W.  S.             .               .  .60 

Haddon,  A.  C.          .               .  .60 

Halbert,  J.  N.          .              .  .58 

Haliday,  A.  H.         .               .  .58 

Holt.  K.  W.  L.          .               .  .56 

Hanitsch,  R.             .               .  .61 

Johnson,  W.  F.        .               .  .58 

Knowles,  Mr.           .              .  .56 

Kane,  W.  F.  de  V.  .               .  .      58 

More,  A.  G.               .               .  .56 

Nichols,  A.  R.          .               .  .57 

Pocock,  R.  I.             .               .  .59 

Scharff,  Dr.  F.          .               .  .54 

Thompson,  W.         .               .  .57 

Ussher,  R.  J.             .               .  .56 

Warren,  R.                .               .  .56 

Economic  Zoology          .               .  .62 

Invertebrates  found  in  Ireland  :  .      57 

Echinoderms            .               .  .60 

Insects        .              .              .  .58 

Molluscs      .              .              .  .57 
Spiders— Millipedes  and  Crustacea.      59 

Sponges,     .              .              .  .61 

Worms        .               .               .  ,60 

Lusitanian  Fauna          .               .  .53 

Vertebrates  :    .              .              .  .53 

Birds    .       .              .              .  .54 

Fishes          .              .              .  .56 

Mammals    .              .              .  .53 

Reptiles  and  Amphibians    .  .      56 

Antiquities,  Irish— 

Dublin  Museum  of  Science  and  Art  Col- 
lections        ....    295 

Antrim— 

Columnar  Basalts          .              .  .12 

Iron  Ores           .              .              .  .19 

Landslips  on  Coast  Road           .  .      n 

White  Limestone          .              .  .11 

Antwerp  and  Liege— 

Water  Rates  and  Railroad  Rates  .      93 

Apjohn,  Professor— 

Analysis  of  Guano         .               .  .    185 

Electric  Calamine       [.              .  .21 

Arable  Lands— 

Statistics          ...  28, 307 
Aran  Island— 

Spring  Mackerel  fishing           ,  .    374 

Arc'Hep.,  W.— 

Algae,  Records  of          .              .  .49 

National  Library  of  Ireland      .  .    302 

Archibold,  Robert          .             .  .191 
Argall,  Philip— 

Mining,  Ireland,  Remarks  on    .  .      20 

Arigna  Coal        .             .             ,  .9 

Army  and  Navy  Returns,  Omission  of 

from  Census  in  1841  and  1851     ,  .      61 

Arnott,  Sir  John,  Recess  Committee  .    271 
Art— 

Artists,  Famous  Irish  .              .  .146 

Collections  .               .               .  ,    295 
Dublin   Museum  of  Science  and  Art: 

Education  ....    146 


page 
ART~c3ntii>ued. 

Industrial:        .  .  .  .147 

Branchar.liere  Fund  .  .     148 

Pioneer  Lectures    .  .  .174 

Royal  Dublin  Society  .  .     146 

Science  and  Art  Department  .     147 

Taylor  Trust  .  .  .147 

Schools : 

Belfast  School  of  Art  .  .    148 

Cork,  Crawford  School        .  .     149 

Dublin  Metropolitan  .    146,  278,  292 

Artists,  Famous,  Irish,  Trained  in    146 

Art  and  Cottage  Industries    .  .    433 

Basketwork  .  .  .    444 

Belleek  Pottery      .  .  .444 

Bookbinding  .  .  .    443 

Brass  and  Copper  Work,  repousse     443 
Cabinet  Making     .  ,  .444 

Department     of      Agiicultui'e 

Schemes  .  174, 278,  288, 292 

443 
438 
438 
442 
445 
443 
443 
443 

439 
443 
444 
153 
443 

166 

437 

122 

46 


Fivemiletovvn  Industries 
Hand  Embroidery. 
Hand  Knitting 
Hand-T>ifted  Carpet  Industry 
Illuminating  and  Engraving 
Ironwork,  Wrought 
Leather  Workers  . 
P.vrographers 

Royal  Irish  School  of  Art  Needle- 
work     .... 
Stained  Glass  .        . 
Silver  and  Goldsmiths'  Work 
Stone  Carving 
Wood  Carvers        .  ' 

Athlone  Technical  Inst.  Scheme 

Atkinson,  Messrs.,  Poplin  Factory 

Attwood,  Matthias 

Babington,  C.C— 
Flora  of  Ireland 

Bacteria  — 

M'Weeney's   Notes  on  the  Bacteria  of 
Ireland         .... 

Bacon  Curing  Industry— 

Baltinglass,  Birthplace  of  the  industry 
Breeding — Improvement  Scheme 
In-and-in  breeding,  dangers 
Bye-products  of  the  industry     . 
Congested  Districts  Board  distribution 

of  loans  .... 

Dairying  Industry  and 
Decrease  in  killing 
Denmark  Bacon  Trade 
Distribution  of  the  industry  in  Ireland 

(TablesI  .... 

Factories  in  Ireland     . 
Glasnevin  Herd 
"Hard  Salting" 

Herd-book— Royal  Dublin  Society 
Ice-curing         .... 
Large  white  Yorks 

Marketing         .... 
Mild-cured  bacon 
Modern  methods  of  curing 
Munster      Bacon      Curers      and      the 

Connaught  Pig 
Quality  Selections 
Shippings  from  Ireland 
South    of   Ireland   Bacon    Curers'  Pig 

Improvement   Associatioji,  breeding 

establishment 
Statistical  review  of  the  Irish  Bacon 
and  Provision  Trade,  Paper  read  in 
1860  .... 

Badger— 

Ireland  .... 

Bagwell,  Mr.— 

Art  and  Cottage  Industries 

Bailey,  Mr.  Robert— 

North    West   of   Ireland    Agricultural 
Society  .... 

Balfour,  Gerald,  Mr.— 

Agricultural  Legislation  in  Ireland 


251 
246 
255 
255 

247 
252 
255 
250 

256 
251 
246 
253 
250 
245 
246 
252 
254 
254 

246 
252 
251 


246 


53 


442 


214 


202 


INDEX. 


515 


PAGK 

Balfour,  J.  H. 

Flora  of  Ireland 
Balfouk,  Lord  Blair— 

Report  OH  poverty  in  congested  districts 
Balfour,  The  Lady  Bktty— 

Royal  Irish  School  of  Art  Needlework, 
account  of      . 
Balfour  of  Burleigh,  Lord— 

Report  on  poverty  in  congested  districts 
Ball,  Miss  A.— 

Algae,  collection  of      . 
Ballycastle— 

Coal  Beds         .... 
Banks— 

Co-operative : — 

Central  Credit  Organisation,  need  of 
Cerutti's  banks 
Congested  Districts  and 
Credit,  Inaugiu'ation  of,  in  Ii-eland  . 
Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Technical  Instruction,  proposed 
action  .... 
Germany  .... 
Growth  of  Banks  since  189.5  (table)  . 
Irish      Agricultural      Organisation 

Society  Reports  of  banks 
Loans,  typical  instances  (list) 
Italy  .... 

Luzatti's  banks 

Migratory    Labour,    cause    of,    in- 
starnce    .... 
Ralfeisen  System,  origin  of 
Report  on  Migratory  Laboiirers  for 

1900  .... 
"  Schulze  "  Banks  . 

Joint  Stock  :—  .  .  . 

Acts  of  Parliament  relating  to 
Agricultural  Banks 
Bank  of  Ireland 
Belfast  Banking  Co. 
Coinage,  English  and  Irish  assimi- 
lated      .... 
Deposits  and  Cash  Balances,  1901- 

1901  (tables) 
European  banks 
Hibernian,  opening 
Limited  Liability    . 
London  and  Dublin 
Munster  Bank 
Munstcr  and  Leinster 
Names  and  Dates  of  foundations  of 

Banks  whose  statistics  are  given 

in  other  tables  (table) 
National     .... 
Northern  Banking  Company 
Notes,  Bank  of  England's,  not  legal 

tender  in  Ireland 
,,   Banks  authorised  to  issue  (table) 
,,   Permission    to    pay  in.    Act    of 

Parliament   . 
„   Unstamped,    to    be    issued    in 
Ireland 
Position  of  Joint  Stock  Banks  in  19()1 
Provincial  .... 
Roj'al  Bank  of  Ireland 
"Runs"      .... 
Stamp   Duties,   Irish   and   English 

equalised 
Stockholders'  Liability 
Southern  Bank  of  Ireland   . 
Ulster  Bank 
Union  Bank 
Savings  Banks: 

Acts  of  Parliament  relating  to 

First  established 

Interest,  rate  of       . 

Post  Office  Savings  Bank    . 

Post  Office  and  Trustees',  Nimiber 

of  Accounts  remaining  open  in 

each  year  from  1881-1900  (table)    . 
Post    Office    and    Trustees',   ToUil 

Deposits  estimated  in  both  from 

1833-1901  (table)    . 
Post    Office    and    Trustees',  Total 

Deposits  since  1894 
Trustees'    Savings     Banks     (Irish) 

Number  of,  in  1833  .  .    129 


46 


260 


439 
260 


49 


131 
132 
134 
131 


134 
131 
136 

132 
133 
132 
132 

135 
131 

135 
132 

120 
124 
124 
120 
123 

l'2o 

127 
125 
121 
125 
125 
125 
125 


127 
124 
121 

1-26 
128 

123 

125 
126 
121 
127 
122 

125 
125 
124 
125 
125 

1-29 
129 
129 
129 


130 


130 
138 


PAGE 

Barbour,  Frank  — 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 

Basket  Work—  .  .  .  .444 

Bats— 

Ireland  .  .  .  .53 

Batters  and  Holmes  — 

British  Marine  Algae  .  .  .48 

Barley— 

Crop  of  United  Kingdom  .  .  466 
Brewing  Industry  and  Irish  Barley  .  466 
Distilling  and  Barley  growing,  connec- 
tion between  .  .  .  505 
Experiments  in  Barley  growing  .  467 
Process  of  Malting  Barley  .  461,  501 
Total  Production  of,  in  Ireland  (table)  .  310 

Barnes  &  Co.— 

Belfast  Iron-works       .  .  .440 

Barrett,  Profes.sor— 

Experimental     Physics     Coui'se      for 
Teachers        ....    171 

Barrington,  R.  M.— 
Flora  of  Ireland 
Birds  seen  on  Irish  Coast 


.      46 
.      56 

.    106 


Barrow  Navigation 

Barry,  James  Redmond— 

Royal  Agricultviral  Society  Committee  183 
Barton,  Major— 

Dexter  Crosses  .  .  .    363 

Barytes  .  .  .  .22 

Bauxite    .  .  .  .  .13 

Beamish  &  Crawford— 

Brewers  ....    454 

Beamish,  Ludlow  A.— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 

Beans— 

Insect  pests  on  .  .  .62 

Bears— 

Ireland  .  .  .  .53 

Beaumont,  W.  I.  [Holt,  E.W.L.] 

Crustacea  Schizopoda,  Ireland  .      59 

Bee-Keeping— 

Congested  Districts  Board,  work  of       .    267 
Royal  Dublin  Society's  aid  to  .    175 

Statistical  returns  for  Ireland  .    325 

Beecher,  Sir  William  Wrexon  .    186 

Bber  - 

[See  Brewing  Industry.  ] 

Beet— 

Insect  Pests  on  .  .  .      62 

Beetles    .  .  .  .  .59 

Bennett,  Mr.— 

Cork  Agricultural  Society         .  .    215 

Belfast— 

Agricultural  Shows       .  .  189,  197 

Art  Education  in  .  .  .    148 

Flax   Extension   Association,    Forma- 
tion of  .  .  .  .    206 
Linen  Industries  [see  that  title.] 
North  East  Agricultural  Association's 

Premises      ....    201 
Shipbuilding  Industry  .  .    446 

Technical  Inst.  Scheme  .  .    163 

BeUeek  Pottery  .  .  .23 

Bertrand,  M.— 

Moiintain     Ranges   of    Europe,    Four 
Series  of  Main  Folds  .  .       2 

Bewlev,  Dr.  Edward— 

Agricultural  Development       .  128,  190 

Bigger,  Mr.  C.  F.— 

Derry  Shipbuilding  Industry  .  .    459 

Birds— 

English  Birds  that   are  not  found  in 

Ireland         .              .  .              .56 

Irish    .              .              .  .              .54 

Birr—  .^ 

Pillow  Lace     .  .  .  .426 


516 


INDEX. 


PAGE 
.      182 

.    149 
,    337 


Blacker,  Mr.— 

Agricultural  Development 

Blakiston-Hovstox,  Mr.— 

Belfast  School  of  Art,  Prize  for 

Blunt,  Mr.  Wilkrkd  Scawen— 
Arab  horses 

Board  of  Works— 

Constituted      .               .               .  .108 

Bog  Iron  Ore—  .             .             .  .19 

Bonn,  Dr.  Moritz  T.— 

Frankfort-Main  Canal  ti-ade  returns      .    100 

Bookbinding        .             .             .  .413 

Bootmaking         ....  408flF 

Booth,  Mr.  Charles— 

Economic  Distribution  of    Population 

in  Ireland    .               .               .  .64 

Botany — 

Dublin  Museum  Collection        .  .    299 

Boyne  Navigation           .             .  .106 

Brass- work— 

Repousse  ....    443 

Bray  Head— 

Geological  area              .              .  .3 

Brenan,  James— 

Crawford  School  of  Art,  Cork  .    152 

Drawing  Course  for  Teachers  .  .    172 

Brenan,  Mr.  Justin— 

Agricultural  Development       .  .    183 

Brewing  Industry— 

Antiquity  of  Brewing  .               ,  .451 

Beer,  Duty  on,  amount               .  452,  459 

Consumption  and  production  of  in 

Ireland              .               .  .491 

„      Purity  of  Irish  beer           .  .    490 

,,      Taxation,  relative,  on  beer  and 

whiskey             .               .  .    510 
Breweries : 

Bandon       .               .               .  .478 

Belfast        .              .              .  .487 

Carrick-on-Suir  .  .  .486 
Castlebellingham  and  Drogheda      .    479 

Clonakilty.  .  .  .478 
Clonmel      ....    486 

Cork  Porter  .  .  454,  177 
Creywell  ....  485 
Drogheda    ....    479 

Dublin— Anchor      .               .  .474 

Anne-street,  North  .    475 

Ardee-street            .  .    474 
Guinness's            4.V),  470,  471,  473 

Mountjoy.              .  •    475 

Phoenix      .               .  .    473 

Dundalk                   .              .  .479 

Dungarvan                .               .  •    474 

Enniscorthy             .               .  .    485 

Enniskillen                .               .  .488 

Great  Northern  Brewing  Co.  .    482 

KUkenny    .               ,               .  .483 

Mill  Park  .              .              .  .485 

Lady's  Well,  Monasterevan  .  476 
Lurgan        ....    489 

New  Ross   .               .               .  .485 

Rathdowncy             .               .  .    486 

Sligo            .               .               .  .488 

St.  Brigid's  Well     .               .  .484 

St.  Francis'  Abbey  .               .  .483 

St.  James-street      .               .  .483 

TuUamore  .               .               .  .485 

Waterford                 .               .  .    483 

Westport                   .               .  .488 

Wexford                    .               .  .485 
Brewers : 

Allman,  Dowden  &  Co.        .  .    478 

Beamish  &  Cra^vford  .  454,  477 
Caflfi-ey's     ....    487 

Cairnes  &  Sons        .               .  .    479 

Casey  &  Co.             .              .  .    482 

Cassidy,  Messrs.      .               .  .484 

Cherry  Brothers      .              .  .485 

D'Arcy  &  Son           .               .  .474 


page 
Brewing  Industry  (Brewera)— continued. 

Darley,  Messrs.        .  .  .    475 

Davis,  Strangman  &  Co.      .  .    483 

Deasy  &  Co.  .  .  .478 

Downes,  SV.  J.  &  Co.  .  .    488 

Egan,  Messrs.  P.  &  H.  .  .    485 

Feehan  &  Stone       .  .  .486 

Foley,  Alderman  Edward    .  .    488 

454,  467,  470,  473 


Guinness,  Messrs. 

Jameson,  Pim  &  Co.  .  453, 

Johnson,  Mr.  James 

Keily  &  Sons 

Lett,  Mr.  George     . 

Macardle,  Moore  &  Co. 

M'Connell's 

Murphy,  James  &  Co. 

Murphy,  Thomas  &  Co. 

Perry  &  Son 

Smith  wick  &  Sons  . 

Sullivan,  Messrs.    . 

Watkins  &  Co. 

Wickham  &  Co. 
Brewing  Process 

Ale    and    black    beer,   differences 
between 

Drying  the  barley   . 

Malting       .... 

Porter         .... 
Brewers'  Associations,  Co.  Louth 
Collection  Districts 

Belfast         .... 

Cork  .... 

Dublin         .... 

Dundalk     .... 

Galway       .... 

Kilkenny    .... 

Limerick    .... 

Londonderry 
Condition  of  Irish  Breweries  (table) 
Export  trade,  rise  of     . 
Growth  of  industry  in  last  forty  years 

(table)  .  .  .  . 

Hops,  use  of     . 
Industrialisation  of       . 
Irish  Brewer,  how  he  is  handicapped 
Irish  brewing,  special  characteristics    . 
Irish  Parliament  and  Brewing 
License  duty    .... 
Licenses,  surplus  (Ireland) 
Malt,  production  of       . 
Materials  used  in  Brewing 

Barley         .  .  .  . 

Hops  .  .  .  . 

Water         .  .  .  . 

Number  of  Brewers  in    United   King- 
dom; quantities  of  materials  used; 

license  duty  and  beer  duty  for  1900 

(table)  .  .  .  . 

Progress  of  Brewing  in  England 

„  „  Ireland 

Revival  of  Brewing  in  Ireland 
Royal  Dublin  Society  and  Brewing 
Science  and  brewing   . 
Taxation  of  Beer 
Ulster,  decline  of  Brewing  in 
Ulster  Breweries  in  the  fifties 


475 
488 
484 
485 
480 
488 
476 
488 
486 
483 
483 
474 
485 
461 

465 
461 
461 

464 
493 
470 
487 
476 
470 
479 
488 
482 
485 
488 
469 
457 

458 
451 
488 
490 
490 
455 
459 
490 
4,56 
465 
466 
467 
468 


Science   Course   for 


Broadcloth  Manufactures 

BucHAN,  Dr.— 

Anti-trade  winds,  effects  of 

Buchanan,  John- 

Experimental 
Teachers 

Buckland,  Mr.— 

Instruction  of  the  farming  classes 

Building  Trade— 

Persons  employed  in,  decrease  of 

Percentage  (table)  . 
Pioneer  Lecturer  on 

BuRCHETT,  Richard— 

Schools  of  Design,  opinions  on  . 

BuRDETT-CouTTS,  Barouess — 

Cape  Clear'Fishermen,  benefits  to 

Butterflies 


460 
.  452 

.  453 
.  4.56 
.  454 
.  489 
452,  459 
.  487 
.  487 

.  176 


40 


71 
65 
174 


372 
58 


INDEX. 


517 


PAGE 

216,  236 

219,  240 

239,  240 

235 

240 

216 


BlTTKR— 

Cork  Butter  Trade  42,  142, 

Creameries 

Dutch  Butter   . 

Export  Trade 

Home  Dair.ving 

Irisli  Daii'y  Association 

Byrne,  James  (Wallstown  Castle)— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    .  .    282 

Cabbages— 

Insect  pests  on  ...      62 

Cabinet  Making  .  .  .  .444 

Caffrey— 

Brewery  ....    487 

Cairns  &  Sons— 

Brewers  ....    479 

Calderwood,  W.  L.— 

Fishing  Grounds,  Ii-eland  .  .      56 

Calman,  W.  T. 

Irish  Deep  Sea  Crustacea  .  .      59 

Calp— 

Formation  of    .  .  .  .6 

Campion— 

Food  of  the  Irish  in  1571,  description  of     372 

Canals,  fee- 
Acts  of  Parliament  I'elating  to  Railway 
and  Canal  Ti-alHc: 

Act  of  1873.  .  .  .86 

Act  of  1888  .  .  .  .87 

Amending  Act  of  1894  .  .      88 

Boai-d  of  Directors-General  of 
Inland  Navigation  appointed, 
1800-1831  .  .  .107 

Commissioners  appointed,  1729         .    105 
First  Statute  on  Inland  Navigation, 

1715  .  .  .  .104 

Grand  Canal  Act     .  .  .    116 

Agriculture    and   Industry,    value    of 

canals  to       .  .  .  .    101 

Ballinamore  and  Ballyconnell  Naviga- 
tion .  .  .  .108 
History        .               .               .               .113 
Bann,  Lower  and  Upper  Navigation     .    108 
History        .               .               .  .110 
Barrow  Navigation       .               .  .    106 
History,  Mullin's  Account  .  .    116 
Belgium             .               .               .  .103 
Bibliography : 

Corder,  Francis  R.  .  .  .96 

Cotton,  Sir  Arthur  .  .  .82 

Foreign     OfHce     Reports,     Annual 

Scries,  No.  2732   .  .  .101 

Foreign  Oflice  Reports,  No.  366         .    101 
Fran(iueville,  Ch.  de.  .  .      96 

Hicks-Beach,  Sir  Michael    .  .      82 

Johnson,  Prof.  Emory  R.    .  .      93 

Journal    of    the    Royal    Statistical 

Society,  vol.  li.,  pp.  375,  et  seq.     .      99 
Ka!ie,  Mr.  F.  de  Yismes       .  .      82 

M'Cann,  James        .  .  .84 

Monck's,    Lord,    Commission    1883, 

Report  [c.  3173]    .  .  .104 

Morrison,  Mr.  .  .  .85 

Miillins,  M.  B.  .  .  .    116 

Picard,  M.  .  .  .  .99 

Be  V II  e  cles  De  u.r  Mondes,  Feb.,  1%2  .      99 
Rundall,  Lieut-General        .  92 

Thompson,  J.  .  .  .98 

Wells.  Lionel  B.      .  .  .82 

Board  of  Directors-General  of  Inland 

Navigation  appointed  1800-1831  .    107 

Board  of  Trade,  Blue  Books  on,  1890- 

1899  .  .  .  .82 

Board  of  Works  constituted      .  .    108 

Boat  owners  plying  on  tolls       .  .    104 

Boyne  (Upper  and  Lower)  navigation   .    106 
Capital,  ordinary.  Board  of  Trade  Re- 
turn    for     1898,    United    Kingdom 
(table)  .  .  .  .91 

Commodities    carried    by    Canals     in 

Ireland         .  .  .  .94 

Cost,    comparative,   of,    raUroad    and 
water  haulage  .  .  .96 


PAGE 

Canals,  Sec— continued. 

Development  of  Commercial,  Industrial, 
Maritime ,  and  Trallic    Interests    in 
Germany      ....    100 
Economic  functions  of  .  .83 

Farmers,    benefit    of   good  navigation 

service  to     .  .  .  .95 

Foyle  Navigation  .  .  .107 

France.  Canal  de  Sauldre,  Account  of  .     101 
State  Developments  of,  water  facili- 
ties .  .  .  .99 
Traffic  on,  Canals,  analysis  of          .      95 
Germany,  Cost  of  Water  Transport       .    101 
Main  Canalisation,  Freight  returns 

(tables)  .  .  .    10& 

State  Development  of,  in,    .  .      99- 

Grand  Canal  Navigation  .  106,  114 

International  Congress  Resolution        .    104 
Lagan  Navigation         .  .  106,  110 

Legislation  in   United  Kingdom  since 

1845  .  .  .  .85 

Local  Corporations'  and  Private  Com- 
panies' Canals  .  .  .  106 
Lough  Coriib  Navigation  .  108, 118 
Maigue  Navigation  .  .  105,  118 
Monopolies,  evils  of  .  .  .85 
Newry  Navigation  .  .  105,  118 
Northern  Navigation  System  and  Mid- 
land and  Southern  System  .  109 
Railways  and  Canals :  " 

Law  regarding  Railways  and  Canals      88 
Mileage    owned   by  Railway  Com- 
panies   .  .  .  .      90' 
Profitable  and  unprofitable  traffic.  .      96' 
Railway  and  Canal  Commission,   .      87 
Railwa.v  monopoly  of  Canal  interest      84 
Railway  versus  Canal         .               .      90 
Canal  as  a  Regulator  of  Railway 
R'lte.s                                                              92   95 
Royal  Canal  and  M.G.W.  Railway  .   '  98 
Rates — 

Complaints  of   rates   and  charges, 

law  respecting  .  .      89 

Company's  books,  law  regarding  .  86' 
Railway,  Canal  as  a  regulator  of  .92, 95' 
Through  Rates        .  .  .87 

Water  rates  and  railroad  rates, 
Belgium  and  America  (table  94)  93- 
Revival  of  Interest  in  Inland  water- 
ways .  .  .  .84 
Royal  Canal  Navigation  .  76, 107 
Shannon  Navigation  .  .  105, 118- 
Statistical  Information  deficient  .  82- 
Stock,  ordinarv— Board  of  Trade  returns 

for  United  Kingdom,  1898  (table)  90 

Suir  Navigation  .  108,111 

Traffic- 
Canals   and    Railways,    in  1898,  in 

Ireland  .  .  .92 

Independent    and    Railway-owned 
canals  compared  .  .      98 

Transit  facilities,  new  importance  and 

modern  conditions  of  .  .83- 

Transport,    cheap,    importance    of    to 

Ireland  .  .  .  .82 

Treasury  Expenditure  on  Irish  Inland 

Navigation    ....    107 
Tyrone  Navigation       .  .  105,  118 

Ulster  Canal  Navigation  .  108,  111 

United  States  .  .  .103- 

Water     Transport,      Advantages     of, 
Riindell's  Memorandum  on    .  .92 

Cardwelj.,  Mr.— 

Markets'  and  Fairs"  Bill 
State-aided    Agricultural      Education, 
Opposition  to  .  .  . 


Carlow  Flags 

Carpet-making— 

Hand-tufted  Carpets 

Carpenter,  G.  H.— 
Entomology,  Ireland 

Carrickfergus— 
Rock  Salt 

CARRICKM  ACROSS- 

Lace  . 


196 

140 

24 

442 
60 
10 

427 


518 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Cakroll,  I.— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .49 

Carroll,  Mr.  Edward 

Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Interest  in    186 
Carrots— 

Insect  Pests     .  .  .  .62 

Casey  &  Co.— 

Brewery  .  .  .  .482 

Cassidt,  Messrs.— 

Brewery  ....    484 

Distillery  .  .  .  ,497 

Castlerosse,  Viscountess— 

School  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  Killarney     .    444 
Cattle  Industry- 

Aberdeen  Angus  .  .  .    359 

Calf  Mortality.  .  .  .280 

Cattle  Diseases : 

Diseases  of  Animals  Acts    .  .    275 

Foot  and  Mouth      .  .  .201 

Pleuro-pneumonia .  .  .    188 

Dexter  Breed  .  .  .361 

Herefords  ....    359 

Kerries  .  .  .  .359 

Iverries— Present-day  breed      .  .    262 

Royal  Dublin  Society's  Herd  Book  Ex- 
tracts .  .  .  .360 

Royal  Dublin  Society's  Spring  Show, 
1891  and  1901- Breeds  entered  .    359 

Shorthorns       .  .  .  190, 359 

Warble  Fly      .  .  .  .63 

Celery— 

Insect  Pests     .  .  .  .62 

Cerutti,  Father 

Rural  Banks  in  Italy    .  .  .132 

Chandlee,  T.— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .46 

Chaptal,  M. — 

Salting  Butter  in  Ireland,  Acccouut  of     236 
Charley,  William  .  .  .197 

Church  Surplus  Grant  .  .    258 

Cherry  Brothers— 

Brewers  ....    485 

Clancy,    Most     Rev.    John     (Bishop   of 
Elphin)— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member    283 
Clapperton,  Mr.— 

Agricultural  Inspector  .  .    188 

Clare  Island— 

Congested  District  Board  in.  Work  of  .    262 
Clarendon,  Lord— 

Agricultural  Itinerant  Instructors  Ap- 
pointed        .              .              .  .139 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  and  .    194 
Clark,  Alexander  L.— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member.  ,    282 
Clays— 

Brick  Clays     .              .              .  .23 

Kieselguhr       .              .              .  .23 
Porcelain  Clay    (Kaolin)  not  found  in 

Ireland         .              .              .  .23 

Potter  Clay      .              .              .  .23 

Terra  Cotta  Clay          .              .  .154 
Clew  Bay— 

Limestone  Area,  Ancient  Lake  .       9 

Clifden,  Lord    .             .             .  .185 
Climate— 

Aerial  Currents : 

Atmospheric  Moisture,  Effect  of  .      41 

Cyclonic  Storms     .               .  .39 

Equinoctial  Gales  .               .  .41 

Fog,  Cloud,  Mist,  Rain       .  .      42 

Map  (Tables)            .               .  .40 

Rainfall     .              .              .  .43 

Vapour  Condensation,  EfTect  of  .      42 

Winds,  Wet  and  Dry           .  .      43 
Agriculture,  Meteorological  Reports  of 

Service  in                 .              .  36,  44 
Bibliography : 

Buchan,  Dr.             .              .  .40 

Day,  M.  Marie        .              .  .37 


ChiMATK— continued. 

Griffith,  Sir  K.       .  .  .38 

Laughton,  John  Knox       .  ."      36 

Lloyd,  Doctor  .  .  .41 

Loomis,  Professor.  .  .'     40 

Moore,  Sir  J.  W.    .  "      36 

Scott,  R.  H.  .  .  "42 

Seeley,  Professor  .  .  -40 

Smith,  Rupert        .  .  .39 

Changes  in  Climatic  Conditions  during 

Last  Century,  Cause  of  .  .36 

Dublin,  Table  of  Observations  made  at      42 
Meteorological  Stations,  Ireland  .      41 

Temperatiire : 

Aspect,  Effect  on    .  .  .38 

Configuration  of  the  Ground,  Effect 

on  .  .  .  .38 

Gulf  Stream,  Effect  on       '.  '.      37 

Latitude,  Effect  on  .  .37 

Relations  of  Temperatures  of  Air 
and  Soil  .  .  ,        a 

Weather  Prognostication,    Difficulties 
and  Value  of 


44 

187 


Cloncurry,  Lord 

Coal— 

Absence  of  has  Checked  tlio  Formation 

of  Industrial  Centres             .  .17 

Annual  Output  of  Coal  in  Ireland  .      17 

Anthracitic       .               .               .  .17 

Arigna               .               .               .  .9 

Ballycastle  Coal  Beds  .               .  .6 
Ballycastle  and  Carrickmacross  Area  .      17 

Bituminous       .               .               .  .17 

Cavan,  History  of  Find             .  .      19 

Cork,  North- West         .               .  .19 

Dungannon,  Annagher  Seam    .  .      18 

Growth  of  Coal  Measures         .  .        6 

Kerry  X.  and  Clare     .              .  .'19 

Kilkenny           .               .               .  .19 

Lough  Allen    .               .               .  .19 

Lough  Neagh  .              .              .  .18 

Reports  on  Irish  Coalfields      .  .      17 

Scotland,  Annual  Output         .  .      17 

Tyrone               .               .               .  .10 

Coats  &  Young,  Messrs.- 

Shipbuilders,  Belfast                  .  .    446 
Coinage— 

English  and  Irish  assimilated   .  ,    125 

COLBORN,   Z.— 

Locomotive  Engineering           .  .      97 

Cole,  Alan  S.— 

Lace  Making  Schemes               .  .    422 

Colgan,  N.— 

Flora  of  Ireland           .              .  .46 

COMRRUNE,  W.— 

Remarks  on  Good    Beer  .  454,  465 

Congested  Districts  Board— 

Agriculture,  Encouragement  to  .  264 
Bee-keeping  Improvements  .  .  267 
Clare  Island  .  .  .  .202 
Connemara  Ponies,  Improvement  of  .  3-58 
Co-operative  Credit  Banks  of  .  .  134 
Dillon  Estate  .  .  .  .263 
Districts  Included  in  .  .  .  258 
Domestic  Training  and  Home  In- 
dustries .  .  .  .270 
Enlargement  of  Holdings  .  .  261 
"Family  Budgets"  in  Congested  Dis- 
tricts (Tables)  .  .  .260 
Fishing  Industry  .  .  .267 
Glasgow  Exhibition,  Irish  Pavilion  .  288 
Hackneys,  introduction  of  .  .  329 
Home  Industries  and  Domestic  Train- 
ing .  .  .  .  .  270 
Horse  Breeding  .  .  .  265 
Income,  Annual  .  .  .  258 
Lace  Marketing  .  .  .  433 
Live  Stock  Improvements  .  .  266 
Migration  .  .  .  .264 
Objects  of  .  .  .  .258 
Poultry  Schemes  .  .  .  266 
Purchase  of  Land  (Ireland)  Act.  1891  .  258 
Struggle  for  Existence  in  the  West  .  259 
Woollen  Industry,  J]ncouragement  .    394 


INDEX. 


519 


PAGE 


CONNEMARA— 

Marbles  .... 

Ponies 
CooKE-CoLLis.  William  . 
Cooper's  Cement  Works,  Drinagh 
Co-operation— 

[See    Irish    Agricultural    Organisation 
Society] 
Co-operative  Credit  Associations - 

[Sec  Banks.] 
Copper     ..... 
Copper  Work,  Kepousss 
CoppiN,  Captain— 

Derry  Ship  Building    . 
CoRDER,  Francis  R.— 

Railway   and    Canal    Transport,    com- 
parative cost 
Cork— 

Agricultural  Shows 

Art  Education  in  . 

Brewing  Industry         .  .  453, 

Butter  Trade  42,  U-',  21^  21ii,  2:j(j 

Christian  Brothers'  School,  Experimen- 
tal Physics,  course  for  Teachers 

County  of  Cork  Agricultural  Society     . 
Munster  Dairy 

Exhibition  (1883) 

Lace  Making    .... 

Technical  Instruction  Scheme 
Corn  Crops— 

Insect  pests  on 
CoRRiB,  Lough— 

Limestone  area 
Cottage  Industries— 

(See  Art  and  Cottage  Industries] 
Cotton,  Sir  Arthur— 

Tratticand  Communications,  opinion  on 
Craigie,  Major  P.  .1.— 

Live  Stock  Table 
Crawford,  E^benezer 
Crawford,  Mr.  W.  H.-- 

Cork  School  of  Art 

Creameries 

Crochet  Industry 
Crommelin,  Louis— 

Linen  Industry  in  Ireland 
Crommelin,  S.  D. 

Crops : 

Corn,  insect  pests  on 

Manuring   P]xperiments,  utility  of 

soil  maps 
Statistical  Survey  [see  Agriculture] 
Cruise,  R.  J.— 

Arigna  Coal,  analyses 

Crustacea— 

Schizopod,  Mysis  relicta 

Dairying  Industry  in  Ireland - 
Butter  Export  Trade    . 
Butter  Shows  .... 
Creameries,  Co-operative 
Creamery  System 
Cork  Butter  Trade 
Cork  Market  Returns  (tables) 
Dutch  Butter,  Method  of  making 
Home  Dairying  System 
Young,  Arthur,  Account  of 

Dane,  Richard  M.— 
Recess  Committee 


25 
329 

189 
166 


20 
433 


149 


188 
149 
476 


171 
216 
216 
153 
423 
164 

62 


82 


.  320 
.  150 

.  152 

219if,  240 

173,  428,  434 

.  415 
.  197 


18 


235 
216 
219 
240 

42,  142,  216,  236fr 

237 

239 

240 

.  245 


Dalkey   Cooperative  Embroidery  So- 
ciety .  .  .  . 

Daly,  Alderman  John— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  . 

Daly,  Mr.  Bowes— 

Irish  Woollen  Industry,  Remarks  on     , 

Daly,  Messrs.— 

Distillers  .  .  .  . 

D'Arcy  &  Son— 

Brewers  .  .  . 


271 


440 


283 


.399 


497 


474 


page 
Darley,  Messrs.— 

Brewers  ....    475 

Davis,  Professor- 
Rivers  in  South  of  Ireland,  Opinion  of  .  7 
Davis,  Strangman,  &  Co.— 

Brewers  ....     483 

Davis,  Father— 

Cape  Clear  Fishermen,  Benefits  to  .  373 
Davison,  Mr.— 

Roscommon  Sheep,  Remarks  on  .      48 

Davy,  M.  Marie 

Climate,  Remarks  on    .  .  .38 

Dawson,  Turner— 

Mosses  of  Ireland  .  .  .48 

Deane,  Sir  Thomas— 

Architect,  National  Library      .  .    302 

Dealing— 

Increase  of  Persons  engaged  in  (table)  .      67 

Percentage  of  Persons  engaged  (table) .  65 
Dease,  Mrs.— 

Art  and  Cottage  Industries        .  .    442 

Deer— 

Ireland  .  .  .  .53 

Dempsey,  James— 

Technical  Instruction  Board  and  Ulster 
Consultative  Committee,  member 

Department    of    Agriculture    and 
Technical    Instruction— 

Administr.ation,  local  initiative 

Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction 
(Ireland)  Bill,  19112     . 

Agricultural  Board 

Members     .... 

Agricultural  and  Technical  Instruction 
Schemes        .... 

Aims  of  Technical  Instruction  . 

Art  Industries 

Barley-growing  experiments    . 

Bill  passed  by  Parliament 

Board  of  Technical  Instruction 

Membei-s    .... 

Branches  of  Department,  Organisation 
of     . 

Congested  Districts  Board  and 

Co-operative    Credit    Banks,   proposed 
action  with  regard  to 

Cottage  Industries 

Council  of  Agriculture 

County  and  Urban  Councils  and 

Department  of  Agriculture  and  Techni- 
cal Instruction  (Ireland)  Bill 

Destructive  Insect  Act,  Department  of 
Agriculture's  powers  under 

Direct  means  of  action 

Dublin    Metropolitan    School    of    Art 
taken  over  by  .  .  . 

Education  Committee,  members  of    279, 

Educational  Policy 

Endowments    .... 

Fisheries  improvements 

Flax  growing  experiments 

Forestry  improvements 

Glasgow  Exhibition,  Irish  Pavilion 

Horse  breeding  Schemes 

Itinerant  instruction    , 

Lace  and  Crochet  Industry,  aid  to 

Live  Stock  improvement  Schemes 

224,  224, 263,  283,  287, 

Local  organisation 

Officers  of         . 

Pioneer  Lectures 

Recess  Committee,  members  of 

Report,  First  Annual  General  Report, 
extract  from 

Royal  College  of  Science,  reform  in 

Royal  Dublin  Society,  control  of  cer- 
tain sections 

Royal  Veterinary  College 

Science  and  Art  and  Technical  Instruc- 
tion grants,  administration  of 

Science  and  Art  Department  in  relation 
to  the  institutions  under  control 

Sea  Fisheries    .... 

Secondary  Schools,  programme  for 


283 


286 

274 
273 

282 

161 
161 
292 
467 
272 
273 
283 

284 
274 

134 

288 
273 
275 

203 

267 

287 

147 
284 
289 
277 
271 
418 
286 
288 
333 
288 
173 

288 
293 
273 
174 
271 

281 
192 

278 
274 

278 

278 
384 
290 


620 


INDEX. 


PACK 
AND 


277 
247 
279 

275 
280 

271 

275 


496 

302 
361 
123 
271 

263 

275 


505 
.504 


Department     of     Agriculture 
Technical  Instruction— conti/Kfea. 
Statistics  and  Intelligence  Branch 
Swine  Imiirnvcincnt  Hcheiuc     . 
Techniciil  Instruction  Schemes  . 

Transferred  powers  and  duties  of  the 

Department 
Transit  P'acilities  .  •     ,,      • 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee,  Mem- 
bers .  .  ,•     T^  .    ■ 
Veterinary  Department   of  the  Privy 
Council         .              .  •  ■ 
Devereux,  Nicholas,  &  Co.— 

Distillery  .  .  •       .-,     * 

Dewey,    Mr.    Melvil  Library    Classiflca- 
tion  System         .... 
Dexter,  Mr.,  Dexter  Breed  of  Cattle 
Dillon  Malcolm 

Dillon,  Valentine  B.,  Recess  Committee 
Dillon      Estate,      Congested     Districts 

Board,  work  of    . 
Diseases  ok  Animals  Act,  Department 
of  Agriculture's  powers  under     . 

Distilling  Industry— 

Barley-growing  and  distilling  . 

Bye-products  of  distilling 

Distilleries : 

Bandon       ....    497 

Birr              .               .               .  .497 

Bushmills                  .               .  495,  497 
Coleraine    ....    497 

Comber       .              .              .  .497 

Cork            .              .              .  .497 
Dublin         ....    475 

Dundalk     .               .               .  .497 

Galway       .               .               .  .497 

Kilbeggan  .               .               .  .497 

Kilnap        .               .               .  .497 

Limavady                 .               .  .497 

Limerick    .              .              .  .497 

Londonderry            .               .  .    497 

Monasterevan          .               .  .    497 
Output  of  Irish  distilleries,  increase 

in  (tables)              .              .  .499 

Tullamore  .              .              .  .497 

Ulster          .               .               .  .496 

Wexford     .               .               .  .497 

Distillers : 

Allman  &  Co.           .               .  .    497 
Avoniel       ....    496 

Cassidy,  Messrs.      .              .  .497 

Comber  Distilleries  Co.       .  .    497 

Cork  Distillers  Co.                 .  .    497 

Daly,  Mr.    .               .               .  .497 

Devereux,  Nicholas  &  Co.  .  .    497 

Dublin  Citv  Distillery  Co.  .  .    496 

Dublin  Distillers  Co.             .  .    496 

Dun ville,  Messrs.  &  Co.       .  .     496 

Glen  Distillery  Co.                 .  .    497 

Irish  Distillery  Co.                .  .    496 

.Tameson,  John  &  Son  .        .  .     475 

.Tameson,  William  &  Co.     .  .    496 

Locke,  Joiin  &  Co.                 .  .    497 

Distilling : 

Malcolm  Browne  &  Co.  .  .  497 
M'Connell,  Mr.  .  .  .496 
I'ersse,  Mr.  H.  S.  .  .  .  497 
Phoenix  Park  .  .  .496 
Power,  John  &  Son  .  .  496 
Roe,  George  &  Co.  .  .  496 
Taylor,  Sir  Robert  .  .  497 
Walker,  Mr.  .  .  .  «7 
Wallace,  Messrs.  R.  &  J.  .  .  497 
Watt,  Mr.  .  .  .  .497 
Wyse,  Mr.  .  .  .  49.5.  497 
Young,  King  &  Co.  .  .  497 
Beginning  of  Modern  Distilleries  .  495 
Early  History  of  Distilling  .  .  494 
Early  History  of  Distilling  in  Ire- 
land .  .  .  .495 
Extent    of    Distilling     in     Ireland 

(tables)  .              .              .  .499 
Father  Mathew's  Crusade,  effect  of 

on  distilling           .               .  .    499 
Grain,  varieties  and  quantities  used    505 

Illicit  distillation    .               .  .499 

Laws  relating  to  distillers  .  .    506 

Morewood  on           .               .  .    498 


503 
502 
501 
49 
604 


272 
26 


Distilling  Jndvstky— continued. 
Taxation : 

Inland  Revenue  Report,  errors  in 

returns    .  .  .  .509 

Rate  and  Amount  of  Duty  .    497 

Regulations  relating  to        .  .    506 

Relative  taxation  of  whiskey,  beer 

and  tea  .  .  .    510 

Whiskey  Manufacture : 

Blending     .  .  .  .503 

Consumption  of       .  .  .    5(18 

Distillation,  Process  of         .  .    502 

Financial     Relations     Commission 

and  whiskey :  returns      .  .    509 

Fermentation  :  .  .501 

Ireland,  present  consumption  .    510 

Malt,  use  of  .  .  .501 

Materials  used         .  .  501, 503 

Patent-Still  process  ,  .    503 

Patent   spirit   and    whiskey    1 

pared 
Pot-Still  process 
Pi-oduction  of  Alcohol 
Production 
Rectified  Spirit 

Dixon,  Sir  Daniel— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee 

Dolerites 

Domestic  Service— 

Increase  of  persons  engaged  in  .      67 

Percentage  of  (table)     .  .  .65 

Domestic   Training   and   Home  I.ndus- 

TRIES— 

Congested  Districts  Board,  work  of  .  270 
Donegal  and  Mayo  Highlands— 

Caledonian  folds             .               .  .5 

Donnelly,  Sir  John         .             .  .422 

Donovan,  Miss  .  .  .  .190 
DORAN,  M.  — 

Clare  Island,  account  of  .  .  262 
DowD,  Alderman  Patrick— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .  283 
DowLiNG,  Rev.  P.  J.— 

Pioneer  Lecturer  .  .  .  174 
DOWNES,  W.  J.  &  Co.— 

Brewers            .              .              .  .488 

Downshire,  Marquis  of    .              .  .    197 

Doyle,  William,  Wexford .           .  .166 

Doyne,  Charles  ,             .             .  .191 

Dublin 

Brewing  Industry         .  .  .    453 

Distilling  Industry        .  .  .    475 

Dublin,   Wicklow  and   Wexford  Rail- 
way .  .  .  .  .73 
Museum  of  Science  and  Art : 

Architectural  and  Decorative  Art  .    295 
Botanic  Collections  .  .    295 

Ethnographical  Collections  .    298 

Geology  and  Mineralogy     .  .    295 

Irish  Antiquities    .  .  .    295 

Machinery  and  Mechanical  Arts  (In- 
dustrial) .  .  .295 
Zoological  Collections          .  .    295 
Royal  College  of  Science  [see  that 

title] 
Royal  Dublin  Society  [see  that  title] 
Shipbxiilding,    Dublin  Dockyard  Com- 
pany ....    4.50 
Dufferin,  Lord— 

President  Belfast  School  of  Design  .  149 
Duncannon,  Viscountess— 

Art  and  Cottage  Industries       .  .    442 

DuNViLLE,  Messrs.  &  Co.— 

Distillery  .  .  .  .496 

DuTHiE,  Mr.  A.  T.- 

Pickled   Mackerel  and  Cui'ed  Herring 
Report  .  .  .  .369 

DwYER,  Martin  .  .  .  .185 

Dyeing 

Growth    of   Dyestuffs    encouraged  by 
R.  D.  S.         .  .  .  .    175 


INDEX. 


521 


PAGE 

.      60 


echinoderms 

Education—  ,    , 

Agricultural  Education  in  Ireland- 
Albert    Institute 
Colleu'o  of  Science  and 
Department  of  Agricultnve 
English  Agitation  against  State  Aid  UO 
From  lS2ti-9.)  .  .  -137 

Gladstone,    W.    H.,    Departmental 

Committee  Investigation 
Itinerant  Instructors 
Model  Farms  : 

Glasnevin 

Provincial  Model  Farms 

Workhouse  Farms 
Mnnster    Institute,     Cork,     Dairy 
Farming .  .  .  ■ 

National  Hoard 


278 
158 
278 


119 
131 

133 
139 
139 

142 
137 


Art 


Normal  College,  Marlborough-street   13' 
Results  Fees  .  .  .     ' 

Rural  National  Schools 
Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Instruc- 
tors .... 
Spencer,  Lord,  Farm  Prizes  Scheme 
Tcmplemoyle  School 


143 

194 
140 
137 
146 


Science  [See  Science  Teaching,  &c.] 
Egax,  Messrs.  P.  &  H.  - 

Brewery 
Electric  Currents— 

Pioneer  lectures  on 
Elliot,  Messrs.— 

Poplin  Factory 
Embroidery  — 

Hand  Embroidery  Industry      . 
English  Great  Western  Railway— 

System    compared    with    entire    Irish 
System  (Table) 
Entomology  .  .  .08, 59, 62, 

Engravi.ng  &  Illu.minating 
Erne,  Upper  and  Lower  Lough— 

Geological  structure     . 
Esmo.vde,  Sir  Thomas  H.  Grattan 

Agricultural  Board,  Member 
Everard,  Colonel  N.  T.— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    . 
EWART,  J.  C.   - 

Penicuik  Experiments 
EwART,  Sir  W.  Q.— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee 
Fagan,  John— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee 
Fair  Head  - 

Dolerite  Formation 
Falkiner,  C.  Litton— 

Recess  Committee 
Fallow  Lands - 

Acreage 

Fai^na  [see  AnimalsJ. 

Faussett,  Dr.  William— 

0.1  Pleuro-Pneumjnia  in  Cattle 

Feehan  &  Sons,  Messrs.— 

Brewery  .... 

Feldspar— 

Norway's  export  to  France 

Ferns— 

Ireland  .... 

Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act— 

Department    of    Agriculture's   powers 
under  .... 

Field,  Willia.m— 

Recess  Committee 
Filgate,  Fitzherbert     . 
FiNLAY,  Rev.  T.  A.  .  219, 

FisHBOURNE,  Mr.  William 
Fisher,  Professor— 

AfTorestation  of  Ireland,  opinion  on       .    233 
Fishes  in  Ireland  .  .  .56 


485 


174 


437 
438 

79 
276 
445 


282 


282 


335 


272 


12 


271 


28 


183 


486 


102 


47 


216 

.    271 

.    197 

271,  273,  283 

.     189 


page. 
Fishing  Industry— 

Boats,  types  of  Irish  Fishing  Boat  .    380,  382 

Congested  Districts'  Board,  Work  of     .    268 

Deep  Sea  and  Fresh  Water       .  .      56 

Fluctuations  in  Fisheries  .  .    378- 

Inland:  .  .  .  387,389 

Artificial  Propagation  .  .    389 

Chard  .  .  .  .386 

Pike  .  .  .  .388. 

Flies,  artificial         .  .  .    388 

Salmon        ....    387 

Trout  ....    387 

Other  Fisheries  .  .  .    380' 

Persons  employed  in  Fishing,  number 

of  .■  .  .  65,  71 

Potato,     Effect     of     Introduction,    on 

F'ishing  Industry      .  .  .    372 

Royal  Dublin  Society's  encouragement 

ht  .  .  .  .176 

Sea  Fisheries : 

Bounties     ....    371 
Cod  and  Ling  .  .  .376 

Commissioners'  Report,  1835  .    372 

Departmental  Marine  Laboratory  383,  386- 
Dutch  and  Swedish  Fishing  Rights 

in  Ireland  .  .  .    370 

Fishing  Grounds     .  .  .    374 

French  Fishers  oir  Irish  Coast  .    370 

Herring  Fisheries    .  .  373, 377 

Mackerel    .  .  .  373  ff 

Scandinavian  Trade  .  .     359 

Scotch  Fishers  in  Dublin  Bay  .     370 

Spanish  Trade  in     .  .  .    369 

Taxes  on  Foreign  Fishing  Boats       .    370 
Trawling    .  .  .  .379 

Fishguard  and  Rosslare  Schemes        .      77 
Fitzgerald,  Lord  Mayor  Edward  — 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  member  .    283 
Fitzgerald,  George  (the  late)— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  member  .    283 

Fitzgerald,  Maurice  — 

Ulster  Consultative  Committe  .    272 

FiTzsiMON,  Christopher  .  .    191 

Fivemiletown— 

Cottage  Industries         .  .  .    443- 

Flags   .      .     .     .  .24 

Flanagan,  Mr.  M. — 

Roscommon  Sheep,  prizewinners  .    366 

Flemi.ng,  William— 

Railway  Passenger  traftic  .  .    1 96 

Flies    that    are    Enemies    ok    the 
Farmer  .  .  .  .63 

Flax— 

Aci'eage  under  Flax  and  acreage  under 

Crops,  1806  and  1867  .  .  .201 

American  Civil  War,  effect  of  .  .    205 

Belfast,  Flax  Show       .  .  .    L^0 

Flax  Extension  Association,  founding 

of  a  work      ....    206 
Flax  Supply  Association  .         ^     .    211 

Government  grant  for  Sout'n  and  West  208 
Instructors  ....  208 
Joint  Flax  Committee  .  .  .    208 

Land  under,  1860  and  1861  .  .    200 

Linen  Industrv  [see  that  title] 
Markets  establislied  from  1868  to  1871    .    209 
North-East  Agriculttiral  Associations, 

Improvement  Schemes  .  .    199 

Prize-monev    for    dressed    Flax    from 

1878  to  1873   ....    208- 
Royal  Flax  Improvement  Societ.v,  dis- 
solution of   .  .  .  .    199 
Scutch  Mills,   Loans  for,  from  1868  to 
1876                ....    208 

Flora— 

Algae  .  .  .  .  .49 

Bacteria  of  Ireland,  M'Weeney's  Notes 

on    .  .  .  .  .51 

Bibliography : 

Archer,  VV.  .  .  .49 

Babbington,  C.  C.   .  .  .      46 

Balfour,  J.  H.  .  .  .46 

Ball,  Miss  Q.  .  .  .      iS^ 

Barrington,  R.  M.  .  .  .      4& 


.522 


INDEX. 


Flora  {Bih\iogTa.phy)—continvcd 

Batters  and  Holme« 

Carroll,  I.    . 

Chanrtlee,  T. 

Colgan,  N.  . 

Cybcle  Hibernica    . 

Dawson,  Turner 

Grove,  Messrs. 

Hanna,  H.  . 

Hart,  H.  C. 

Harvey 

Hensman,  Miss  B.  . 

Holmes  and  Batters 

Hntohins,  Miss 

Jones,  Admiral 

Knowles,  Miss  M.  C. 

Leighton,  Rev.  W. 

Lett,  Rev.  H.  W.     . 

M'Ardle      . 

Mackay,  J.  T. 

M'Weeney,  Professor  E.  J. 

Moore,  Dr.  D. 

More,  A.  G. 

O'Meara,  Rev.  K.    . 

Phillips,  R.  A. 

Pirn,  Greenwood 

Praeger.  R.  Lloyd  . 

Scully,  R.  W. 

Spence,  Dr. 

Ste^^•art,  S.  A. 

Stewart  and  Corry 

Taylor,  Dr. 

Waddell      . 

Wade,  W.  . 

Watson 

West,  W.    . 

Wright 
<;!ybele  Hibernica,  Authors 
Differences  of  Irish  and  Englis 
Ferns  . 
Fungi,  Lists  of 
Hepaticae,  Rare 
Lichens 

Liveworts,  distribution  of 
Mosses 

Peat  Moss 
North    American    Plants    in    Western 

Ireland 
Praeger "s  Botanical  Divisions  of  Ireland 
True  Hibernians 
Types  of  Distribution  (table) 

I'OLEY,  Alderman  Edward— 
Brewery 

Foot,  L.  F.— 


48 
52 
i8 
52 
48 
47 
46 
iO 
46 
46 
49 
46 
50 
46 
46 
47 
46 


191 


Forestry— 

Statistical  Returns  for  Ireland 


28,  ,S23 


Forests— 

Clearing   Away   of,    Effect   on    Stock 
Rearing        .  .  .  . 

Forth,  Mr.— 

Appointment  as  Principal  of  Technical 
Institute,  Belfast 

Fox- 
Ireland 

Franqueville,  Ch.  de— 
Canal  Traffic,  Expenses 

Freemantle,  Sir  T. — 
Potato  Disease 

Friend,  H.— 

Earthworms,  Ireland. 
Friends,  Society  ok- 

Famine  Relief  Schemes 
Frogs 
Fruit  Trees— 

Insects  Affecting 
Fry,  Messrs.— 

Poplin  Factory 

Fungi— 

Ireland 
•Gahan,  W.  Townsend— 

Donegal  Woollen  Industry,  Report 
jGardp:,  Mr.  Thomas— 

Cork  Agricultural  Society 


36 


164 


52 


194 


195 
56 


63 


437 


50 


3S6 
215 


Gardner,  Starkie— 

Plants  of  Eocene  Period  .  .      13 

Gastrell,  Mr.— 

German  Government  and  Waterways 
Railways     .  .  .  .100 

Geikie,  Sir  Archibald,  .  .  .14 

Geology— 

Age  of  Ireland  proved  by  absence  of 
British  mammals     . 

Alpine  Movement,  Beginning  of 

Anticlinals  and  Synclinals 

Antrim,  Plateaux  Formation    . 

Basaltic  Eruptions,  Date  of 

Basin  shape  of  Ireland 

Bertrand    and    Suess'  Opinion   of    the 
Main  Folds  of  Europe 

Bauxite 

Bibliography : 

Bertrand  and  Suess 
Davis,  Professor     . 
Gardner,  Starkie     . 
Geikie,  Sir  Archibald 
Jukes,  Prof. 

Caledonian  C'hains 

Caledonian  Folding 

Cambrian  Strata 

Carboniferous  Period    . 

Central  Plain    . 

Chalk  Downs,  Formation  of 

Clays  of  Belfast 

Coal  (see  that  title) 

Contorted  Series 

Cretaceous  Period 

Devonian  Period 

Dolerite 

Eocene  and  Pliocene  Periods    . 

Eskers 

European    Continent,  ancient  connec 
tion  of  Ireland  with  . 

Fjords,  Formation  of 

Flint  Gravels,  Formation  of 

(Jlacirtl  Epoch  roches  movtonnees 

Gdtlanilian  Beds,  Uplifted 

GotluTiilian  Upper  Silurian  Strata 

Granites,  Formation  of 

Hercynian  Folding 

Huronian  System 

Ice    Age,  connection  between  Scandi- 
navia, Scotland,  and  Ireland  61, 

Insulation  of  Ireland    . 

Kerry  Mountains,  Stratification 

Liassic  Strata 

Limestone  Region 

Miocene  and  Pliocene  Times     . 

Mountain  Ranges,  Cause  of 

Mourne  Mountains.  Formation 

Murlough  Bay,   "picture  in  little"   of 
Geological  changes  in  Irish  Area 

Obsidian 

Old  Red  Sandstone  Country 

Oolitic  Limestones  in  England 

Ordovician  Strata 

Permian  Sea     . 

Position  of  Ireland- 
Geological  interest  of 
Influence  on  its  History 

Rhyolite 

Rivers,  Course  of  in  South,  how  deter- 
mined 

Stratified  Iron  Ores 

Sea  depth  around  coast 

Triassic  Period 

"Volcanic  Action  and  Results    . 

"Whinstone  Dykes"    . 

White  Liujcstone 

Geological  Collections,  Dublin  Museum 

Geological  Survey 
Germany— 

Canals  and  Waterways  [see  that  title] 

People's  Banks  .  .  .    131 

Giant's  Causeway— 

Columnar  Basalts         .  .  .12 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey— 

Fisheries,    Ireland,    Letter   to   Queen 
Elizabeth     .  .  .  .369 

GiLBEY,  Sir  Walter- 
Co  nnemara  Ponies,  Opinions  on  .    £32 


INDEX. 


523 


PAGK 

Gill,  Thomas  P.  •  .  271,  2^34 

Glasgow  Exhibitiox— 

Irish  Pavilion  ....    288 
Glasnevix  Model  Farm  .  133,  190 

GoFF,  William  O.  D.— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 
Gold  in  Irela.vd  .  .  .21 

Goldsmiths'  a.vd  Silversmiths'  Work  .    441 
Gordon,  Sir  Charles— 

Highland  Society  .  .  .     185 

GoKE-IJooTH,  Sir  Josslyn— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member   .  .    232 

Granite  — 

Important  Industry  in  .  .      25 

Grass  Lands— 

Acreage  .  .  .  .23 

Gray,  Mr.  William— 

Pioneer  Lecturer  .  .  .     174 

Great  Xortherx  Railway  of  Irelano      74 
Great  Southern   and  Western  Rail- 
way OF  Ireland     .  .  .74 
Green,  W.  S.  [Haddon,  A.  C.  andj 

Marine  Fauna  of  Ireland  .  .      60 

Gregan,  Paul— 

Co-operative  Credit  Association  .    138 

Griffith,  Sir  R.— 

Effect  of  Altitude  on  Temperature        .      23 

Irish  Coallields  Report  .  .      17 

Quantity    and    Value   of  Irish  Crops, 
1889— 1S93  (Table)      .  .  .312 

Griffith's  Geological  Map        .  .    177 

Grimshaw,  Dr.— 

"  tracts  and  Figures  About  Ireland  '  .  30") 
Grove,  Messrs.— 

Irish  Algae,  Account  of  .  .50 

Gl'inness,  Messrs.— 

Brewery  .  .  454,467,471-473 

Gl'lf  Stream— 

Temperature  of  Our  Latitudes,  Effect 
on  (table)     .  .  .  .33 

Gypsum    .  .  .  .  .22 

Haddo.n,  a.  C.  [Green,  W.  S.  and]— 

Marine  Fauna,  Ireland  .  .      60 

Halbert,  J.  H.— 

Beetles,  Ireland  .  .  .58 

Haliday,  a.  H.— 

Diptera  and  Hymenoptera,  Irish  .      58 

Hamill,  Mr.  a.—  .  .  .    201 

Hanitsch,  R.— 

Freshwater  Sponges,  Ireland    .  .      61 

Ha  NX  A,  H.— 

Irish  Algae       .  .  .  .48 

Hannan,  Edward— 

American  railroads,  freight  rates  .      94 

Harbours— 

Fishguard  and  Rosslare  .  .      77 

Hardiman,  E.  J. 

Barytes  Mines  .  .  .22 

Hare— 

Ireland  .  .  .  .53 

Harland  &  Wolff,  Messrs.      .  .    446 

Harrington,  Lord  Mayor  Timothy— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  283 
Hart,  H.  C— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .46 

Harvey,  W.  N.— 

Phycologia  Britannica  .  .      48 

Hats,  manufacture  of       .  .  •    176 

Haughton— 

Luganure  Lodes  .  .  .21 

Haulbowline— 

Shipbuilding    ....    459 

Hawkins,  Anthony— 

Leopardstown .  .  .  183,  191 


PAGE 

Hawkins,  John    .  .  .  .191 

Healy,  Most  Rev.  John(Bishopof  Clonfert) 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    .  .    282 

Hedgehog — 

Ireland  ...  53 

Henning,  Mr. — 

Belfast  School  of  Art,  prize  for  .     14!) 

Hensman,  Miss  R.— 

Irish  Algae       .  .  .  .43 

Herbert,  Mr. - 

State-aided  agricultural  education,  op- 
position to   .  .  .  .     140 
Hermann,  O.— 

Saxony,  roads  in,  .  .  .23 

Heytesbury,  Loud— 

Land  drainage  fund      .  .  .    195 

Hicks-Beach,  Sir  Michael— 

Canals  and  Waterways,  Statistics  .      82 

HicKsoN,  R.,  &  Co.,  Messrs. 

Shilpbuilders,  Belfast  .  .  .440 

Highlands  (North), 

Geological,  ouigin  of     .  .  ,3 

Hill,  Mr.  Arthur— 

Crawford  School  of  Art,  Cork  .  .    152 

Hogg,  Adam  — 

Shirt-maker,  Derry       .  .  .     419 

HOLDSWORTH,   JOS.— 

'■  Geology,       minerals,     and     soils    of 
Ireland "       .  .  .  .23 

Holmes  and  Batters— 

British  Marine  Algae   .  .  .48 

Holt,  E.  W.  L.- 

Fishing  grounds,  Ireland  .  .      56 

Holt,  E.  W.  L.  and  Bealtmont,  W.  I.— 

Crustacea  Schizopoda  of  Ireland  .    59 

Home  Industries  and  Do.mestic  Train- 
ing— 
Congested  Districts  Board,  work  of       .    270 
Show,  Belfast  .  .  .  .190 

HORNELL,  Mr.        .  .  .125 

Horse-breeding— 

Aboriginal  horses  .  .  .    334 

Average  number  of  horses  in  Ireland  at 

each  decennial  period  since  1881  (table)    33:J 
Bot-fly  .  .  .  .63 

Cart-horses,  heavy  : 

Counties  that  produce  .  .    331 

Native         ....    328 
Classes  of  horses  in  1900  (table)  .    330 

Congested  Districts  Board,  work  of       .    265 
Department   of    Agriculture's  horse- 
breeding  schemes      .  .  .    331 
France,  Government  expenditure  on     .    353 
General  purpose  light  horses,  counties 

that  produce  .  .  .    331 

Hacknevs  .  .  .  329,  332 

Hunters"  .  .  .  32-5,  331 

Mares,  importance  of   .  .  326,  353 

Mare,  old  Irish  .  .  .    327 

Miocene  and  Pliocene  horses     .  334,  344 

Ponies : 

Advantages  of  over  horses .  .    349 

Connemara  .  .  .    329 

Constitution,  temperament,  and 

capabilities  of  .  349-352 

Crosses,  results  of  351,  352,  353,  357 
Environment,  effects  of  on  343-348 
Famous  ponies,  list  of    .  .    351 

Iceland  pony,  measurement,  and 
various  types  of  Connemara 
(table)  .  .  .342 

Ideal  pony,  points  of      .  353-358 

Improvement  of,  how  to  improve 

352,  356-358 

Types : 

Andalusian    .  .  .    333 

Cashel  .  .  338,  340 

Clifden  .  .  .340 

Clydesdale      .  .  .339 

Eastern  .  .  .337 

Thoroughbreds  .  .    336 

Work  of  .  .  .348 


524 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Horse-Breeding  (Ponies)— eontin  iicd. 

Counties  that  produce  .  .    331 

Definition  of  a  pony  .  .    336 

Exnioor      .  .  .  .332 

Galloways  .  .  .    336 

Iceland       .  .  .  .332 

Iceland :  table  of  measurement  of 
Iceland  pony,  and  various  types 
of  Conneniara      .  .  .    342 

Ideal  pony,  points  of  .  .    353 

Norwegian  .  .  .    33i 

Shetland     .  .  .  .332 

Shire  and  Clydesdale  .  .    328 

Walers        ....    355 
Welsh         .  .  .  .341 

Hull,  Professor- 
Irish  Coal,  opinion  on  .  .  .      17 
HuTCHiNS,  Miss- 
Botanical  Work             .               .  .48 

HUTCHIXSON— 

Wool,  Price  of,  in  Ireland  .  .  40O 
HuTTON,  Thomas— 

Royal  Agricultural  Society  Committee  183 

Illuminating  and  Engraving    .             .  445 

Industrial  Service— 
Persons  engaged  in  : 

Increase  of  (table)   .  .  .67 

Percentage  of  (table)  .  .      65 

Industries— 

[For  particular  industries,  see  under 
name  of  each] 

Alum  Manufacture  .  .      20 

Canals,  \alue  of  to  Industry      .  .    101 

Duttliii  Aluscum  of  Science  and  Art 

Collections  .  .  .295 

Granite  (^luarries  .  .  .25 

Industry— 

Percentage  of  people  engaged  in 
(table)  .  .  .  .65 

Productive  and  non-Productive,  Trans- 
fer of  employed  from  productive 
to  non-productive  industrv  between 
1841-18S1  (table)  .  '  .  .70 

Insect  Pests  of  the  Farmer 


62 


Insects— 

Destructive  Insects  Act 
Found  in  Ireland 


.    276 
58,  59,  62 
Ireland— 

[Agriculture,  Industries,  Geology, 
Minerals,  Flora,  Soils,  Climate,  &c. 
(See  these  titles) 

Irish      Agricultural       Orga.visation 
Society— 
Agricultural  Societies  .  .  .224 

Bacon  Pigs  .  .  .224 

Experimental  Plots      .  .  .    224 

Bank,  Co-operative       .  .    221,  229,  264 

Barley  Growing  Experiments  .  .    467 

Congested  Districts  Board  and  KafTeisen 

Banks  .  .  .  .264 

Co-operation,  Objects  of  .  .    218 

Co-operation,     Trend     of,     in     Great 

Britixin  and  Ireland,  Mr.  Plunkett's 

Speech  .  .  .  .230 

Creameries,  Co-operative  .  .    219 

Educational  Work  of  the  Movement  .  229 
Foundation  of  .  .  .    218 

Irish  A giicultural  Wholesale  Society  .  229 
Irish  Co-operative  Agency  Society  .  220 
Lace    Societies,    Sales    and  Grants    to 

^^'orkcrs  (table)         .  .  .434 

Live  St<ick  Improvement  .  .    224 

Poultry  Societies  .  .  .226 

Trade  Federation  .  .  .228 

Irish  Dairy  Association— 

Butter  Show    .  .  .  .216 

Irish  Industries  Association— 

Donegal  Woollen  Industry        .  394,  398 

Lace  Marketing  .     "  .  .435 

Irish  Reproductive  Loan  Fund  258,  268 

Irish  Society       .  .  ,  .213 


PAGE 

Iron— 

Iron  Ores : 

Antrim        .               .               .  .19 

Glenariff     .              .              .  .13 

Bog  Iron  Ore            .               .  .19 

Iron  Pyrites,  Output             .  ,      20 

Iron  Stone  .               .               .  .18 

Kerry  N.  and  Clare               .  .      19 

Wrought  Iron  Work             .  .    443 

Italy— 

People's  Banks               .              .  .    132 

Jacquard  Loom— 

Poplin  Industry             .              .  .    436 

Woollen  Industry         .               .  .    394 

Jaffe,  Sir  Otto— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 

Jameson,  John  &  Sons— 

Distillers            .               .               .  475,  496 

Jameson,  Pim  &  Co.,  Messrs.— 

Brewers             .               .               .  453,  475 

Jameson,  William  &  Co.— 

Distillery           .               .               .  .496 

Johnson,  Mr.  James— 

Brewery             .               .               .  ,488 

Johnson,  Professor  ExMory  R.— 

Canals  as  Regulator  of  Railway  Rate    .      93 

Johnson,  W.  F.— 

Beetles,  Ireland             .              .  .58 

Jones,  Admiral- 
Lichens,  Collection  of  .               .  .52 

Jukes,  Professor- 
Rivers  in  South  of  Ireland,  Remarks  on       7 

Silvermines      .              .              .  .21 

Kane,  Mr.  F.  De  Visme  s— 

Irish  Canals      .               .               .  .82 

Lepidoptera,  Ireland    .               .  .58 

Kane,  Rev.  R.  R.— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee  .    272 

Kane,  Sir  Robert— 

Irish  Coalfields'  Report              .  .      17 

I'hosjihates,  exhaustion  of  in  Soil  .      31 

Potato  Blight,  184.5  .  .  .193 
Mineral  and  building  materials,  Ireland      26 

Mining  operations  in  Wicklow  .      20 

Museum  of  Natural  History  .  177 
Museum  of  Science  and  Art  Report  .  151 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  interest  in    185 

Kaolin      .              ,              .              .  .23 

Keenan,  Sir  Patrick— 

Agricultu  ral  p]ducation  in  Ireland,1826-99   137 

Irish  National  School  books      .  .    155 

Keily  &  Sons— 

Brewery  ....    484 

Kekewich,  Mr.  Justice  .             .  .125 

Kelly,  Most  Rev.  Denis  (Bishop  of  Ross) 

Agricixltural  Board,  Member   .  .    282 

Ken mare— 

Lace  making    ....    423 

Kennedy,  Right  Hon.  T.  F.- 

Rules     and     Regulations     for    Royal 

Agricultural  Society               .  .187 

Kenny,  Joseph  E.  — 

Recess  Committee        .              .  .271 

Kieselguhr          .              .              .  .23 

Kilkenny,  Rev.  P.— 

Murneen  Bank,  account  of       .  .    133 

KiLLARY— 

Fjord,  example  of         .              .  .15 

KiLLYBEGS— 

Carpet  Industry             .              .  .    442 
Kin  A  HAN,  G.  H.— 

Alum  Industry               .               .  .20 

Bonmahon  Mines          .               .  .21 

Coal,  details  of              ...  .      19 

Gold  in  ^V'icklow           .               .  .21 

Ironstone  in  Drumard                .  .      18 

Minerals,  Ireland           ,               .  .20 

Mining  in  Wicklow     .               .  .20 

Porcelain  clay                ,               .  .23 


INDEX. 


525 


PAGE 
KlXSALE  — 

Luce  making    ....    4"23 

Knight,  Mi-.-- 

Exuioor  ponies,  improvement  of  .    332 

Knitting— 

Hand-knitting  Industry  .  176,  433 

Knowles,  Miss  M.  C  — 

Irish  Algae       .  ,  .  .48 

Knowles,  Mr.— 

Great  Auk  niscovery   .  .  .56 

Lace  - 

Aberdeen,  Countess,  aid  to  theindustry    4:}0 
BraiK-hanlierc  fund       .  .  .     US 

Carrickmacross  lace     .  .  .    -l-i? 

Cole,  Alan  S.,  design,  improvement       ,    4-2 
Co-operative   Lace  Societies      .  .     431 

Crochet  lace     ....    42S 
Cut  linen  work  .  .  .    4-8 

Department  of  Agriculture,  aid  to  lace 

industries  .    173 

Design  : 

Difficulties  in  .  .  .     423 

Dublin  Metropolitan  School  of  Art 
and  .  .  .  .147 

Improvement  in      .  .  .    422 

Greek  lace         ....    42i 
Irish  Industries  Association  and  .    433 

Inishmacsaint  lace        .  .  .     42ti 

Limerick  lace  ....    426 
Machine  made  lace        .  .  .    431 

Markets  .  .  .  .433 

Methods  of  making  lace  .  .    422 

Needle  point     ....    42i) 
Origin  of  lace  making  .  .  .    420 

Pillow  lace        ....    420 
Royal  Dublin  Society's  aid  to  the  in- 

'dustry         ....    430 

Youghal  lace    ....    424 

Lagan  Navigation  .  .  .106 

Lagan  Valley- 

Terra  cotta  clay  .  .  .23 

Lally,  Very  Rev.  P.— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  member  .    2S3 
Lambay  Porphyry  .  .  .4 

Lambert,  Gustavus— 

Loan  Fund  Societies,  suggestion  as  to  .     185 
Landslips,  Ireland— 

Causes  of  .  .  .  .16 

Lansdo\vne,  Countess— 

Woollen  Industry  .  .  .    3J9 

La  Touche  &   Co.  .  .  .    125 

Laughton,  John  Knox— 

Mean  temperatures  are  small  guide  to 
climate         .  .  .  .36 

Lea,  Sir  Thomas— 

Lead    .  .  .  .  .21 

Recess  Committee        .  .  .271 

Leather  and  Bootmaking  Industry     .    408 

Boot  factories  .  .  .  .412 

Boot  and  Shoe  manufacture,   import- 
ance and  decline       .  .  .    409 

Hides,  butchers' injury  to  .  .    4U 

Leather  workers  .  .  .    443 

Methods  of  tanning       .  .  .409 

Present  day  prospects  .  .  .411 

Tanneries,  number  and  importance  of  .    4ii8 
Leech,  H.  Brougham— 

Recess  Committee         .  .  .    271 

Leighton,  Rev.  W.— 

Irish  Lichens    .  .  .  .52 

Leinster,  Duke  of— 

Royal  Agricultm'al  Society  of  Ireland, 
foundation  of  .  .  .    181 

Leopardstown— 

Agricultural  College     .  .  183,  190 

Lett,  Mr.  George— 

Brewery      ...  .    485 

Lett,  Rev.  H.  W.— 

Flora,  Ireland .  .  .  .48 

Library— 

National  Library  of  Ireland      .    176,  278,  302 


I'AGK 

Lice  .  .  .  .  .63 

Lichens,  Ireland  .  .  .  .52 

Lindley,  Professor  — 

Potato  disease  .  .  .    194 

Lindsay  Brothers— 

Sprigging  industry,  Londonderry  .    417 

Lindsay,  Thomas  M.— 

Belfast  School  of  Art,  Master  .  .    150 

Lindsay,  Mr.  Ben— 

Irish  Lace  Depot  .  .  .    433 

Limerick  Technical  Scheme      .  .    166 

Limestone— 

Unsuitable  for  Road  Metal        .  .      23 

Linen  Industry— 

Belfast  .  .  .  .413 

Cotton  industry,  effect  on  linen  trade    .    415 
Crommelin,  Louis  .  .  .    414 

Decline  of         .  .  .  .      i  1 

English  Parliament  and  the  Irish    in- 
dustry ....     400 
Flax  crops         ....    413 
Londonderry  industry  .  .    417 
Manufacture  in   Ireland,   present    day 

(table)  .  .  .  .416 

Spinning  Flax ....    416 
Lloyd,  Doctor— 

Meteorology  of  Ireland  .  .      41 

Lloyd,  Mr.  Farmer— 

Cork  Agricultural  Society        .  .    215 

Locke,  John  &  Co.— 

Distillery  .  .  '  .497 

Londonderry— 

Linen  Indnsti'v  .  .  .    417 

Sliirt-inakin.u:  "industry  .  .     417 

Spng^ink' Inilnstry        .  .  .418 

Technical  Sclicme  .  .  .     165 

Londonderry,  Lord 

Shetland  Ponies,  Improvement  of  .    332 

Loomis,  Professor- 
Cyclonic  Atlantic  Storms  .  .      40 
Loughshinny— 

Copper  Pyrites  .  .  .21 

Low,  David— 

Kerry  Cattle,  Views  on  .  .    361 

Lyburn,  E.  St.  John  — 

Wicklow  Gold  ....      22 
Lyle,  Aciieson— 

Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Committee    183 
Lyon,  Professor  James— 

Pioneer  Lectures  .  .  .74 

Lytle,  John— 

Flax  Extension  Association       .  .    206 

Liverwort  — 

Irish     .  .  .  .  .47 

Lizard— 

Only  Reptile  native  in  Ireland  .  .      56 

Macardle,  Moore  &  Co.— 

Brewery  ....    480 

M'Ardle,  D.— 

Hepaticas,  Ireland,  Distribution  .      47 

M'Cann,  James— 

Irish  Railways  and  Canals         .  .      84 

M'Clintock,  Stanley       .  .  .197 

M'Cloy,  Samuel  .  .  .  .150 

M'Connell,  Mr.— 

Brewery  .  .  .  -    488 

M'Connell,  R.  J.— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee  .    272 

MacGeagh,  Robert— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee  .    272 

M'Cracken,  Henry  Joy  .  .    124 

Machine  Trade— 

Pioneer  Lectm-es  on      .  .  .    174 

Mackay,  J.  T.— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .46 

M'Learn,  Sir  William— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 


526 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

M'Manus,  Henry— 

Dublin  School  of  Design,  Master  .    147 

M'Weeney,  Dr.  E.  J.— 

Bacteria  of  Ireland,  Notes  on    .  .51 

Irish  Fungi,  Lists  of      .  .  .51 

Maoee,  Michael  J.  (the  late)— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    ,  .    282 

Maguire,  Mr.— 

Cork  Butter  Weighhouse,  Account  of   .    236 

Mahon,  Mr.— 

Roscommon  Sheep,  Remarks  on  .    365 

Mahony,  Pierc.;:— 

Evidence  as  to  Banks  in  Ireland  .    123 

Famine  of  1845,  Suggestions  .    194 

Maigue  River— 

Navigation       .  .  .  .105 

Main— 

Canalisation  of,  Freight  Returns  (tables)    1 00 

Malcolm  Browne  &  Co.— 

Distillery  .  .  .  .497 

Mammals  .  .  •  .53 

MacNeill,  Sir  John— 

Ulster  Canal,  Opinion  on  .  .    Ill 

Malt— 

Production  of  .  .  .        4.^6 

Quantity  used  in  Ireland  for  brewing    . 

769,  470,  490 
Quantity  in  the  United  Kingdom  for 

brewing        .  ,  .  .    460 

Quantity  used  in  Ireland  for  distilling  .    505 

Roasted  Malt   .  .  .  •    4a5 

Taxation  of       .  .  .  436,  459 

Malting,  Process  of       .  .  .461 

Malsters  .  .  .  .465 

Mangold  Fly       .  .  .  .62 

Manufactures— 

Broad-cloths ;  Hats,  felt ;  Knitting  ; 
Pearl  barley ;  Salt ;  Saltpetre ; 
Stocking  frames;  Tanning;  Wool 
combs  .  .  •  .    176 

Decrease  of  person*?  employed  in  .      71 

Percentage  of  people  engaged  in  (table)      65 
Textile  .  .  •  71,  174 

Manures—  ,.        ^  „„  „, 

Experiments :  Soil  Maps,  utility  of  33,  34 

Guano,  Apjohn's  analysis  of    .  .    185 

Marbles  .  .  .  .24 


277 
199 


Markets,  Legislation  regarding— 
Markets  and  Fairs  Acts  of  1887  and  1871 
Markets  and  Fairs  Regulations  Bill 
Martin,  Rev.  William  Todd— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  and 
Con-iultati-\'c  Committee  of  Education 
Member  of     .  .  .  283,  284 

Martineau,  Miss- 
Instruction  of  the  1 .      iing  classes 

Mask,  Lough—  :^i<' 

Limestone  Area 
Maxwell,  John  Waring 
Mayo,  Countess  of— 

Royal  Irish  School  of  Art  Needlework 
account  of      . 
Mayo,  Earl  of — 

Recess  Committee 
Mayo-Smith —  „ 

"Statistics  &  Economics,  1899 
Meade,  Joseph  M.— 

Recess  Committee 
Meade,  Mr.  W.  R.— 

C'-irk  A  "-ri  cultural  Society 
Meteo  Table- 

Hoi  1  t  Sunshine  in  Ireland 

li^       '•',-'■ 

Mice— 

Irela;  1. 

Micks,  W.  L.— 

Poverty  in  Congested  districts,  account 
of       . 


194 

-  9 
197 


439 
271 
317 

271 


215 


39 


260 


Midland  Great  Western  Railway  of 

Ireland              .             .             .  .74 

Migratory  Labour,  Cause  of      .  .    135 
Milling  Industry  :— 

Corn  Imports,  Dublin  and  Belfast,  1896- 

19,0  (tables)  .              .               .  .406 

Corn  Mills.  1891-1901  (table)        .  .    407 

Decline  of  Industry,  Causes  of,  .    404 
Early  Methods  of  Manufacturing  Flour    402 

Roller  System                 .               .  .402 

Stock    Raising,    Effect   of   Decline  in 

Flour  Manufacture  on           .  .    407 

Wheat  and  Flour  Imports,  Cork  .    405 

Millipedes           .             .             .  .60 

Mineralogy  :— 

Dublin  Museum  Collection       .  .    300 

Minerals  and  Building  Stones— 

Barytes             .              .              .  .22 

Bauxite             .              .              .  .22 

Bog  Iron  Ore    .              .              .  .19 

Clavs  .              .              .              .  .23 

Coal     .              .              .              .  .17 

Copper               .               .               .  .20 

Dolorites           .              .              .  .26 

Flags    .              .              .              .  .24 

Gold     .              .              .              .  .21 

Granite              .              .              .  .25 

Gypsum  ....      22 

Iron  Ores          .              .              .  .19 

Iron  Stone         .               .               .  .18 

Kieselguhr       .              .              .  .23 

Lead  and  Zinc                .               .  .21 

Limestone         .               .               .  .24 

Marble               .              .              .  .24 

Ochre  .               .               .               .  .19 

Rock  Salt          ...  10,  18 

Sandstone         .              .              .  .24 

Slate    .              .              .              .  .24 

Steatite             .              .              .  .23 

Silver  .               .               .               .  .21 

Tin       .               .               .               .  .      22 

Zinc     .               .               .               .  .21 

Bibliography :                .              .  .26 

Apjohn        .               .               .  .21 

Argall,  Philip          .               .  .20 

Cruise,  R.  J.             .               .  .18 

Griffith,  Sir  R.         .               .  .      17 

Hardman,  E.  T.       .               .  .      22 

Haughton  .               .               .  .21 

Hermann,  O.            .               .  .      23 

Holdsworth,  Jos.     .               .  .      i!5 

Home  Office  Reports,  Records,  &c.  .      27 

Hull,  Ed.    .              .              .  .17 

Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of 

Dublin  .  .  .  .27 
Kane,  Sir  Robert  .  .  .17 
Kinahan,  Mr.  G.  H.  .  .  18 
Lyburn,  E.  St.  John  .  .  22 
Memoirs  to  the  Sheets  of  the  Geolo- 
gical Survey  of  Ireland  .  .  26 
Smyth,  Sir  Warington  .  .  20 
Studdert.  C.  .  .  .  18 
Whitty,  J.  I.  .  .  .19 
Wilkinson,  G.  .  .  .26 
Wynne        .              .              .  .21 

Mining— 

Decrease  of  Persons  employed  in  .      71 

Percentage    of   people     employed  in 

(table)           .              .              .  .65 
School  of   Science  applied    to  Mining 

and  the  Arts              .              .  .177 

Mites        .             .             .             .  .63 

MoLLOY,  Rev.  Monsignor— 

Recess  Committee        .              .  .    271 

Molluscs             .             .             .  .57 

Monaghan— 

Lead    .              .              .              .  .21 

Monteagle,  Lord- 
Irish  Agricultural  Organisation  Society    233 
Recess  Committee         .  ...    271 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  member  .    283 

Monteagle,  Thomas,  Lord            .  .     122 

Montefiore,  Sir  Moses  .             .  .122 


INDEX. 


527 


IWGK 

.    197 
282,  443 

.  443 
.  197 
.     271 

.      46 

.      42 


85 


lol 


Montgomery,  A.  H. 
Montgomery,  Hugh  dE  F. 

Montgomery,  Mis.— 

Fivemiletown  Cottage  Industries^ 

Montgomery,  Rev.  Dr.     . 

Moore,  Count 

Moore,  Dr.  D.— 
Flora  of  Ireland 

Moore,  Sir  J.  W.— 
Climate  of  Ireland 

More,  A.  G.— 

Flora  of  Ireland 
Irish  Birds 

MOREWOOD— 

Irish  Distilleries,  remarks  on    . 

Morrison,  Mr.— 

Canals  and  Waterways,  monopolies 

Morro\v,  Henry  C— 

Belfast  School  of  Art,  teacher  . 
Morton,  Professor- 
Experimental  Science  Coui-se  for 
Teachers  .  .  .  .171 
Mosses,  Irish  .  .  .  .47 
Moths  .  .  •  •  .58 
mulholland,  s.  k.  .  .  .  197 
MuNSTER,  Institute  — 

Dairy  Farming               .  .               .    142 

Murt-ough  Bay— 

"  Picture     in     Little "     of     Geological 
Changes  in  Ireland  .  .  .11 

Murphy,  Edmund  .  .  .198 

Murphy,  James  &  C.i.— 

Brewery  .  .  .  .476 

Murphy,  Mr.  N.  D.— 

Cork  School  of  Art       .  .  .153 

Murphy,  Thomas  &  Co.— 

Brewery  ....    486 

Musgrave,  James—  .  .  .    272 

Music— 

R.  D.  S.  Recitals  of  Classical  Music       .    180 

Naper,  Mr.— 

Vice-President  R.  D.  S. 


.    181 

National  Board  ok  Education  - 

Agricultural  Instruction  .  .  137 

National  Lihrary  ok  Ireland  .  .  302 

Beginnings        ....  176 

Department  of  Agriculture  and  .  278 

Needlework— 

Departments  aid  to        .  .  .  274 

Newenham— 

Beer  made  in  Ireland,  Statement  .  457 

Newry— 

Gi-anite  Quarries  .  .  .25 

Newry  Navigation        .  .  105,  107 

Nichols,  A.  R.— 

MoUusca,  Irish  .  .  .57 

Nocard,  Professor  - 

Calf  Mortality  Experiments      .  280,  289 

Nolan,  Colonel  John  P. 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    .  .    282 

North    East    Agricl^ltural    Associa- 
tion— 
Competitions    ....    193 
Flag  Improvement  Schemes      .  .     199 

Incorporated  under  Educational  En- 
dowments (Ireland)  Act  .  .  203 
Origin  of  .  .  .  .197 
Parliamentary  Legislation  .  .  202 
Premises  ....  201 
Shows.  .  .  .  .200 
Weights  and  Measures'  Regulation  Bill    199 

North- West  of  Ireland' Agricultural 

Society     ....    214 

Nugent,  Sii-  Percy—        .  .  .189 


NuRSEY,  Mr.  Claude  Lorraine— 

Belfast  School  of  Design,  Head  Master      149 
O'Brien,  Mrs.  Vere— 

Limerick  Lace  Industry  .  .      426 

O'Brien,  William  Smith— 

Agricultural  Instructors,  Employment 
of     .  .  .  .  -195 

Ochre       .  .  .  •  .19 


O'CoNNKLL,  Daniel— 

Founder  of  National  Bank 

O'CoNOR  Don,  The— 
Recess  Committee 

O'CoNOR  EccLES,  Miss- 
Pioneer  Lecturer 

Cork  Technical  Institute  Master 


124 


271 


174 


164 

188 


Olden,  Messrs.—  . 
O'Meara,  Rev.  S.— 

Algaj  Collections  .  .  .49 

O'Neill,  Mr.— 

Canal  de  Sauldre,  Account        .  .     101 

O'Neill,  Patrick  J.— 

Agricultural  Board,  Member    .  .    282 

Ormonde,  Duke  of— 

Linen  scarves  at  funerals,  introduced  by    415 

Orpen,  Mr.  R.  C— 

Pioneer  Lecturer  .  .  .    174 

Otter— Ireland  ....  53 
Pallin,  Mr.  William— 

"  Bog  of  Allen  "  Pony    .  .  .331 

Parnell,  John— 

Recess  Committee        .  .  .    271 

Pearl  Barley,  Manufacture       .  .    176 

Peas— 

Insect  Pests  on  ...      62' 

Peel,  Sir  Robert— 

Markets  and  Fairs  Bill  .  .    199 

Opposition  to  State- Aided  Agricultural 
Education  .  .  .     140 

Perky  &  Son— 

Brewery  ....    486 

Persse,  Mr.  H.  S.— 

Distillery  .  .  .  .497 

Phillips,  R.  A.— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .46 

Pierce,  Messrs.  &  Co.— Wexford  .  .    166 

Pigs— 

[See  Bacon  Curing  Industry.] 

Pile,  Sir  Thomas— 

Teehnical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 

PiM,  Greenwood— 

Irish  Fungi  and  Lichens  .  .      50 

PiM,  Messrs.— 

Poplin  Factory  .  .    437 

Pirrie,  Right  Hon.  W 

Belfast  Shipbuildi.        .  .  .447 

Pitt,  Skipton  &  Co.— 

Derry  Patent  Slip  Dock  .  .    449 

Play  FAIR,  Professor  Lyon— 

Potato  Disease  .  .  .194 

Pleaskin  Head— 

Coluiunar  Basalts  .  .  .      l^ 

Plunkett,  Right  Hon.  Horace— 

Consultative  Committee  of  Education, 
Mem'oer        ....    284 

Co-operation,  Trend  of,  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  .  .  .    "230 

Co-operative  Lace  Societies      .  .    434 

Recess  Committee  ^^        ^^  report         •    "^^ 
POCOCK,  R.  I.— 

Irish  Myi'iopada      '  60 

Police      .  .  '  .^^,.,(       67 

Ponies—  "-*  ..^dnafM- 

LSee  Horsebreeding  Indus     "''■'       ' 
Porphyry,  Lambay—      .  .  '.4 

Poplin  Industry  .  .  .    437 


523 


INDEX. 


PAGE 


Population— 

Booth,  Mr.  Charles,  on  .  . 

Census  lieturns,  Army  andAavy  Omit- 
ted from  1841,  1851   . 

Cork  and  Kerry,  decline  since  1881 
(table)  .... 

Decrease;  Dangers 

J]ffect  on  Railway  Companies  . 

Economic  Distribution  of  Population  in 
Ireland  .  .  •  .     • 

Holdings  and  Occupiers,  Statistical 
Returns  for  Ireland 

Means  of  Support  of  the  People  of 
Ireland  by  Percentixge  (Estimate) 
Table  .... 

Non-producers,  Increase  Table 

Numbers,  1841—1881.    Table     . 

Occupations  of  People  in  Ireland  by 
Percentage,  Table    . 

Productive  Industries,  Decline 

Property  Owning,  Increase  of  Persons 
Owning  Property  (table) 

Public  and  Professional  Service,  Per- 
sons Engaged  in  (table) 

Public  and  Professional  Service  : 

Persons    Engaged    in,    Increase  of 

(table)      .... 

Percentage  of  People  Engaged  in 

(table)      .... 

Transfer  of  Employed  from  Productive 
to  Non-productive  Industry  between 
1841  and  1881 

[See  Brewing  Industry.] 

Potatoes— 

"  Blight,"  1845 .... 
Insect  Pests,  Freedom  from 

Potteries,  Pottery  Clay  . 

Poultry- 

Congested  Districts  Board,  Work  of     . 

Pov?ER,  John  &  Son— 

Distillery  .... 

PoTNTER,  Mr.  Ambrose— 

Provincial  Schools  of  Design,  Opinion 

on         . 
Praeger,  R.  Lloyd— 

Flora  of  Ireland 
Preston,  Dr.  Thomas- 

Decrease  in  Science  and  Art  Instruction 
in  Ireland    .... 
Price,  Sir  Richard  Green— 

Ponies,  Points  of  . 

Prior,  Thomas— 

New  Method  of  Lraining  Marshy  and 
Boggy  Lands 

Purcell,  Peter— 

Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland, 
Founding  of  .  .  . 

Pyrography  .... 
Haiffeisen,  Herr  F.  W.  :— 

Origin  of  his  System  of  Banking 

Railways  :— 

Acts  of  Parliament   relating  to  Rail- 
ways and  Canals     . 
America,  Freight  Rates,  &c.   . 

Table  .... 

Bibliography : 

Colborn,  Z.  .         '     . 

Fleming,  William  . 
Hannan,  Edward    . 
"Index  to  our  Railway  System"  . 
Transactions    of    the    Institute    of 
Civil  Engineers . 
QaT.   J . .  M.'j  Railways  [see  Canals  and 

J  cricultural  toociex> 
CC  Table— with  those  of  Great 

■  :.x:  t  Suns  I.  II.) 

Deny  ..... 
Dividemio,    dOO 

Dublin,  Wicklow,  and  Wexford 
Entire    Irish    .System    compared    with 
English      Great     Western     System 
(tabU )  , 


Gi 


405 
(36 

73 

64 
315 


65 
67 
61 

65 
67 


67 
65 

70 

193 

62 

23 
266 
496 

149 
46 

160 
349 


181 
443 


131 


86 
93 
94 

97 

97 


111 
75 
73 


79 


page 
Railways— co/i^i/!  ued. 

thirst  Railwajf  in  Ireland  .  .      73 

Freight  Charges  in  Ireland  »nd  Eng- 
land, Causes  attecting  .  .  98 
Freight  Traffic,  Increase  of  .  .96 
Gauge,  width  of,  may  prove  of  advan- 
tage in  the  future  .  .  .73 
Goods  Traffic,  1871  and  1900  (table)  .  79 
Goods  Traffic,  1898,  in  Ireland  .  92 
Great  Northern  .  .  74,  85 
Great  Southern  and  Western  .  .  74 
Gross  Receipts  in  1871  compared  with 

1900  (Tables)  .  .  .78 

Light  Railways  .  .  .74 

Midland  Great  Western  Co.,  Ireland   .      74 
Mileage  Receipts  and  Expenditure  in 

1900  (Table) .  .  .74 

Northern  Counties  (Ireland)     .  .    Ill 

Passenger  Traffic,  1S71, 1891, 1900  (table)       78 
Population,  Decrease  of,  effect  on  Rail- 
ways .  .  .  "73 
Private  Companies,  Number  of            .      73 
Profitable    and     Unprofitable    Traffic, 

Corder's  Statements  .  .      97 

Railway  and  Canal  Commissioners,  De- 
partment of    Agriculture's  Powers 
with  regard  to  .  .  .    280 

Railway  Servants'  Earnings,  England 
and  Wales,  Ireland  and  Scotland 
(table)  .  .  .  .98 

Rates : 

Canal  as  a  regulator  of       .  .72 

England,    Scotland,  and     Ireland 

compared  (tables)  .  .      79 

Passenger  and  Goods— Reductions       95 
United  States.  Influenceof  Water- 
way Rates  on  Railway  Rates       .      95 
State  Assistance  and  Control    .  .      73 

Tourist  Traffic  .  .  .77 

Raimbach,  David  Wilkie  — 

Belfast  School  of  Design,  Master  .    149 

Rathbone,  Mr.  Harold— 

Irish  stained  glass,  remarks  on  .    413 

Rats— 

Ireland  .  .  .  .54 

Recess  Committee           .             .  .    233 

Members  of      .              .              .  .271 

Redmond,  John— 

Recess  Committee        .              .  .    271 

Reptiles  and  Amphibians          .  .      56 

Richardson,  Jonathan  .             .  .197 

RiSLER,  M.— 

Sources  of  Waste  in  the  Soil    .  .      31 

Roads— 

Stone  used  in  Making  .               .  .23 

Robb,  Alexander— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee  .    272 

Roche,  Mr.  D.  L.— 

Irish  Cooperative  Agency  Society  .    228 

Rock  Salt— 

Carrickfergus  ...  10,  18 

Roe,  George,  &  Co.— 

Distillery           .               .               .  495,  496 

Roe,  Thomas— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee  .    272 

Rolleston,  T.  W^.— 

Pioneer  Lecturer           .              .  .174 

Ross,  Mr.  Justice — 

Recess  Committee        .              .  .    271 

Rosslare  and  Fishguard  Scheme— 

History  of         .              .              .  .77 

Royal  Agricultural  Society— 

Agiicultural  College     .  .      183,190-192 

Agricultural  Library    .               .  .    182 

Boards  of  Guardians,  &c.            .  .    187 

Clarendon,  Lord             .               .  .194 
Instructors        .               .            185,  188,  194,  195 
Kennedy,  Right   Hon.  T.   F.,  Sugges- 
tions             ....    187 

Leopardstown  Agricultural  College  .    198 

Loan  Fund  Societies     .              .  185,  181 


INDEX. 


529 


•     PAGE 

Royal  Agricultural  Society— cox <. 

Local  AgriciilUiral  Societies      .  IS-l,  188 

Moral  Influence  .  .  .     Iit6 

Potato  Blight,  1845         .  .  .     193 

Piircell,  Peter,  Influence  of  in  formation    181 
Royal   Dublin  Society,  Amalgamation 

with  .  .  .  .196 

Rules  and  Regulations  .  .    182 

Shows  .  .  182,  185,  187,  189,  190,  201 

Royal  Botaxic  Gardens,  Glasnevin     176,  278 

Royal  College  of  Science— 

155,  158,  278,  292 
Royal  Dublin  Society— 

Agricultural  Experiments         .  .    180 

Agriculture  and  Planting,  Encourage- 
ment of  .  .  .  .  176 
Art  Scliolarsliips  .  .  .180 
Botanic  (Jardciis  .  .  .  176 
Brewing  Industry,  aided  by  .  175,  154 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Tech- 
nical Instruction,,  and  .  .  178 
Dublin     Calendar,    5th    vol..    Sir    John 

Gilbert's  edit.  .  .  .178 

"  Farming  Society  "  Body  .  .    179 

Geological  Surveys,  beginnings  .     176 

Government  Privileges  .  .     177 

Kerry  and  Dexter  Herd  Book  359,  362 

Leinster  House,  acquisition  of  .  .     177 

Library,  beginning  of   .  .    176,  177,  180 

Live  Stock  Improvement  Schemes        .    224 
Manufactures,  &c.,  Pi-emiums  .    176 

Marine  Laboratory        .  .  384-;^86 

Metropolitan    School    of   Art,   Dublin, 

founded         ....    146 
Museum,  beginning  of  .  .  .    176 

Musical  Recitals  .  .  .180 

Objects  .  .  .  .146 

Origin  ....     175 

Parliamentary  Grants  .  .175 

Premises  in  early  days  .  .    176 

Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Amalgama- 
tion with  .  .  .  .196 
Royal  College  of  Science,  Origination  of  157 
Scientiflc  Transactions  .  .  180 
Shows  .  .  .  178,  179,  180 
Swine  Herd  Book  .  .  .  250 
Young's  "  Tour  in  Ireland,"  mention  of 
Society  in       .               .               .               .     196 

Royal  Irish  Academy— 

Antiquities  added  to  Museum  of  Science 
and  Art         .  .  .  .177 

Royal  Irish   School  ok   Art  Needle- 
work— 
Account  of        .  .  .  .    439 

Rltndall,  Lieut.-General— 

Policy  of  Water  Carriage  in  England, 
Memorandum  .  .  .92 

Russell,  George  W.— 

Irish    Agricultural    Organisation    So- 
ciety .  .  .  .233 

Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  :— 

Department   of    Agriciilture's    powers 
under  ....    276 

Salt— 

Manufacture    ....    176 
Rock  Salt  ...  10,  18 

Saltpetre  .  .  .  .176 

Sauldre,  Canal  de— 
Account  of       . 


Saunders,  Mr.  Thomas  :— 
Irish  Society     . 

Sandstones 

scharff,  r.  f.  :— 

Irish  Land  Planarians  . 

Mammals  not  found  in  Ireland 

Mollusca,  Irish 
Science  and  Art  Museum  :— 

Department  of  Agriculture  and 

Science  in  the  Household  :— 
Pioneer  Lecturer  on 


.  101 

.  213 

.  24 

.  60 

.  54 

57 

278,  292 

.  174 


PAGE 

Science    Teaching  and  Technical   In 
struction  :— 
Agriculture,    Chair   of   in    College    of 

Science  ....    158 

Beer  and  Spirit  Duties,  Application  of     160' 
Bibliography : 

Department  of  Agricultm-e  and 
Technicixl  Instruction,  1st  Annual 
General  Report    .  .  .    161 

Department   of    Science   and    Art 

Reports  (1854)        .  .  .    loT 

Kane,  Sir  R.,  Report  (1855)  .  .    157 

Preston,  Dr.,   Report   Science  and 

Art  Department  (1899)        .  .    160 

Recess  Committee's  Report  (1896)     .    159 
Royal  Commission  Report  on  Tech- 
nical Instruction  (1884)      .  .    155- 
Viceregal  Commissions  (1896-1898)    .    159 
Christian  Brothers'  Schools                      .    156 
Conditions  of  the  Problem         .  ,    162 
Convents    .                     .               .  .156 
Counties  Schemes         .              .  .167 
County  Boroughs  :— 
Deputations'  Visits  to  England           .    165 
Schemes : 

Athlone  .  .  .166 

Belfast  .  .  .163 

Cork      .  .  .  .164 

Dublin  .  .  .163 

Limerick  .  .  .    165 

Londonderry     .  .  .    165 

Urban  Centres,  other     .  .    165 

Waterford  City  .  .    165 

Wexford  .  .  .168 

Department  of  Agriculture  and  Tech- 
nical Instructions  : — 
Aims  of  Technical  Instruction  .    161 

College  of  Science      .  .  .    158 

Department  of  Science  and  Art  .    156 

p]ngland    and     Scotland,    Advantages 
possessed  by  in  Science  Teaching 

155,  160,  163 
England,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  numbers 

and  grants  respectively        .  .    160 

Evening  Schools, 172' 

Government  School  of  Science  Applied 

to  Mining  and  the  Ai-ts,  Dubhn        .    158. 
Interme<liatc     Board     adopts    Depart- 
ments KegulatioTis  as  to  Science  and 
Art  Grant  Administration         .        .    159' 
Intermediate  Schools         .        .        ...    155 
Museum  of  Irish  Industries,  Stephen's 

Green  .  .  .  .157 

National  Board  .  .  .    156 

New  Programme  .  .  .    168 

Pioneer  Lectures  and  Lecturere  .  .  174 
Recess  Committee's  Report  (1896)  .  .  159 
Royal  College  of  Science  (Dublin)  .    155 

Royal  Commission  (1884)  Report  .    155 

Rural  Industries  .  .  .    173 

Schools,  Aids  to.  Conference     .  .    170 

Science  and  Art  Grants  .  .    159 

State  Aid  .  .  .  .156 

Students- 
Taxation,  Money  expended  on  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  .  .  .  160 
Teachers,  Special  Courses  for  .  .  171 
Vice-Regal  Commissions  of  1897  &  1898 .  159 
West  of  Ireland  .  .  .  155 
Women  admitted  to  Royal  College  of 

Science  Lectures     .  .  .    158 

Work  of  Session,  1900-1901  .  .    172 

SOHARFF,  Dr.— 

Irish  fauna 54,  57.  60 

SOHLICH,  Dr.— 

Afforestation  of  Ireland,  report  .    323 

ScHULZE,  Herr— 

People's  Banks  .  .  ,    132 

Schwartz,  Viggo— 

Poultry  Expert  to  the  I.  A.  O.  S.  .226 

Scotland — 

Industrial  Condition     .  .  .66 

Population,  growth  of  .  .64 

Public  and  Professional  Service,  per- 
centage of  persons  engaged  in  (table)       68 
3  M 


sao 


INDEX. 


Scott,  Mr.  William— 

Shirt  making  industry  in  Dervy 

Scott,  R.  H.— 
Cyclonic  storms 

SCRABO— 

Sandstones 
Scully,  R.  W.— 

Flora  of  Ireland 
Sea  and  Coast  Fisheries  Fund 
Seeley,  Professor— 

Classification  of  effects   of  rocks   and 
superficial  deposits  on  local  climate 
Shannon  Navigation 
Shannon  and  Maigue  Navigations— 

Traffic  on         . 
Sharks     .... 
Sheep  Breeding- 

Fairs    .... 

Flies  that  infest  Sheep 

Irish  Ram  Breeding  Association 

Kerry  Mountaiir  Sheep 

Mayo  Mountain  Sheep 

Number  of  in  each  County  in  Ireland 
in  1900  (table) 

Number  of  in  each  year,  1880- 19(X)  (table) 

Roscommon  Sheep 

vScotch  Hornies 

Wicklow  Cheviots 

Wool,  most  prized 
Sherrard,  D.  H.  . 
Sherrard,  William 
Shipbuilding— 

Belfast 

Harland  and  Wolff,  Messrs. 
Workman,  Clark  &  Co.,  Messrs. 

Dublin 

Haulbowline     . 

Londonderry    . 
Shrews— 

Ireland 
Silver— 

Silvermines 

Silver  and  Goldsmith's  Work    . 
Silvermines— 

Silver  and  Zinc 

Sinclair,  Thomas 

Slade,  Sir  Robert— 

Linen  Industry,  Londonderry,  Remark 
on    . 

Slate        .... 

Slugs        .... 

Small,  John  F.— 

Ulster  Consultative  Committee 

Smith,  Adam— 

Fishing  Counties,  Remarks  on 

Smith,  Rupert— 
Equinoctial  Gales 

Smyth,  Sir  Warington,  Miniuj 
on     . 

Snails 

Soils— 

Arable  Lands  . 
Areas,  distribution  of  . 
"Beton  "  Fires,  affect  of 
Bibliography : 

Kane,  Sir  R. 

Risler,  M.  . 

Spaight,  Colonel 

WoUny 
Classification,  Chemical 

Geological 
Crops : 

Acreage  under 

Clover  Crops,  effect  of 

Leguminous,  effect  of 
Drift  Soils,  distribution,  of 
Grass  Lands,  Acreage  . 


Repor 


40 


46 

258 


30 
105 

95 
56 

364 
63 
367 
367 
366 

368 
368 
364 
366 
366 
368 
191 
191 

4K5 
447 

448 
450 
450 
448 

53 

21 
444 

21 

271 


417 
23 


272 
371 


20 
57 

28 
28 
29 

31 
31 
32 
39 
34 
31 

28 
31 
30 
33 

28 


PAGE 

Soils — continued. 

Grass  Land  and  Arable,  Woodland, 
Peat  Bogs,  Waste  Lands  for  1900  and 
1901,  Aggregate  Areas  (table)  .      28 

Fallow  Lands,  Acreage  .  .      28 

Fertility,  Various  Writers  on   .  .28 

Irrigation,  Utility  of    .  .  .35 

Manuring,    Soil    Maps,    Utility   of    in 

Manuring  Experiments         .  33,  34 

Nitrogen,  Value  of        .  .  .29 

Reclamation  of  Peat  and  Moory  Soils  .      35 
Turf  Bog  .  .  .  .28 

^Vaste  Lands    .  .  .  .28 

Woods  and  Plantations  .  .  .28 

Spaight,  Colonel- 
Cattle  rearing  experiment         .  ,      32 
Spencer,  Earl— 

Farm  Prizes  Scheme.  .  .  .110 

Keenan,  Sir  Patrick,  Report  on  Agri- 
cultural Education  in  Ireland,  1826- 
99     .  .  .  .  .137 

Spiders,  Millipedes  and  Crustacea      .      59 
Sponges    .  .  .  .  .61 

Sprigging  Industry— 

Londonderry  .  .  .    417 

Spruce,  Dr. 

Irish  Mosses  and  Hepaticae      .  .      47 

Stamp     Duties,     Irish     and    English 

equalised  .  .  .  .125 

Stannus,  Anthony  C.      .  .  .150 

Stannus,  Dean      .  .  .  .197 

Statistical  Survey  oy  Irish  Agricul- 

TLTRE. 

Agriculture  [See  that  title] 
Stained  Glass  Industry  .  .    443 

Starkie,  William  J.  M.  .  .  .283 

Steatite  .  .  .  .23 

Steevens,  Dr.— 

Paper  on  Dyeing  at  R.D.S.         .  .    175 

Stewart  and  Corry— 

Irish  Mosses     .  .  .  .48 

Stewart,  S.  A.— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .46 

Stocking  Frames  .  .  .176 

Stone— 

Road-metal,  proper       .  .  .23 

Stubbs,  John  W.  ...    191 

Studdert,  L.— 

Arigna  Coal  Analyses  .  .  .18 

Stuttgart— 

British    Consul's    Report  on  Trade  of 
Wurtemburg  .  .  .101 

SuESS,  Professor- 
Mountain  Ranges  of  Europe     .  .       2 
Symons'  Rainfall  Map  .             .             .43 
Tanning  .             .             .             .             .176 
Tatlow,  Mr.  William— 

Pioneer  Lecturer  .  .  .    174 

Taylor— 

Irish  Mosses     .  .  .  *      48 

Taylor,  Alexander— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  Member  .    283 

Taylor,  Alexander— 

Irish  Lichens    .  .  .  .52 

Taylor,  Sir  James— 

Ardee  Street  Brewery  .  .475 

Taylor,  Sir  Robert— 

Distillery  .  .  .  .497 

Taylor  Trust     .  .  .  .147 

Technical  Instruction— 

[See  Science  Teaching  and  Technical 
Instruction] 

Temple,  Sir  William— 

Dublin  Horse  Show,  suggestions  .    178 

Fisheries,  proposition  relating  to  .    371 

Templemoyle  Agricuitural  School    .    138 


INDEX. 


531 


I'AGE 
.        71 


design 


71 
174 


189 


Textile  Manukactures— 

Decrease  of  persons  employed  in 
Textile  Industries : 

Facts  (table) 

Pioneer  lecturer  on 

Thackeray,  W.  M. 

Story  of  a  Cork  Banquet 

Thompson  Brothers, 

Wexford  .  .  .  -1^ 

Thompson,  T.— 

Canals,  value  of  .  .  .      I'S 

Thompson,  W.— 

Distinct  races  of  Irish  fish         .  .      o7 

Tick . 

Grass  tick         .  .  .  .      bi 

Tillie,  Mr.  William— 

Shirt-making,  Deny     .  .  .419 

Tin  .... 

TIPPERAUY,  North— 

Technical  Instruction  Scheme  . 

Toads— 

Natterjack  toad  .  .  .56 

TODHUNTER,  MR.— 

Famine  Relief  Schemes  .  .     195 

Toome— 

Kieselguhr       .  .  '.  .23 

TowNSEND,  Rev.  Horatio— 

Kerry  Cattle,  account  of  .  .    360 

Transit  Facilities— 

Department    of    Agriculture's  powers 
with  regard  to  .  .  .    280 

Transport— 

Percentage  of  people  engaged  in  (table)  65 
Person  engaged  in,  increase  of  (table)  .  67 
Water  Transport  .  .  .92 

Trees— 

Absence  of,  injurious  to  Agriculture  .  63 
Fruit,  insects  affecting  .  .  .63 

Trench,  W.  Stewart 

Land  Reclamation        .  .  .    190 

Trevellyan,  Mr.  C.  V.     .  .  .    194 

Trobridge,  George— 

Belfast  School  of  Ai-t,  Master   .  .    150 

Trout— 

Gillaroo  trout  .  •  .  .65 

Turf  Bog— 
Acreage 

Turnips— 

Insect  Pests,  afTectiug  .  .  .62 

Tyrone— 

Obal  Field         .  .  .  .10 

Tyrone  Na\igation        .  .  .    105 

Ussher,  Mr.— 

Great  Auk,  discovery  .  .  .56 

Vinycomb,  Mr.  John— 
Bookplate  by    . 

Volcanic  Action 

Waddell,  Rev.  C.  H.— 
Irish  Mosses     . 

Wade,  W.— 

Flora  of  Ireland 

Walker,  Mr. 

DistiUery 

Walker,  W.  J.  D.— 

Handloom  for  Ireland, 

Wallace.  Messrs.  R.  &  T 
Distillery 


445 
4,  12,  13 


46 


497 


397 
397 


497 


Wallace,  William— 

Technical  Instruction  Board,  member  .    283 

Walsh,  Most  Rev.  William  (Archbishop 
of  Dublin).— 
Consultative  Committee  of  Education, 
Member  of  ...    284 

Warble  Fly        .  .  .  .63 

Warren,  R.— 

Birds  of  Ireland  ,  .  .56 

Waste  Lands.— 

Acreage  .  .  .  .28 

Waterford  City— 

Technical  School  .  .  .    165 

Watkins,  Mr.  A.  O.— 

Irish  Agricultural  Wholesale  Society    .    229 

Watkins  &  Co.— 

Brewery  ....    474 

Watt,  Mr. 

Distillery        .  .  .  .497 

Watson,  H.  C— 

Flora  of  Ireland  .  .  .49 

Weather.— 
[See  Climate.] 

Webber,  Mr,  W.— 

Connemara  Ponies        .  .  .    351 

Webster.  Sir  Richard  .  .       125 

W^ELD,  Isaac— 

Kerry  Cattle,  description  of      .  .    360 

Wells,  Lionel  B.— 

Canals  .  ,  .  .82 

West,  Mr.— 

Dublin  School  of  Art,  master   .  .    146 

Woollen  Industry— 

Designing,  Necessity  for  Instruction  in    401 
Donegal  Exports  .  .  .    401 

English  Parliament  and  .  .    4rK) 

Factory  Industry  .  .  .399 

Homespuns  : 

Adair.Mrs.,  Donegal  Woollen  Trade, 

Interest  in  .  .  .    396 

Artistic  Value  of    .  .  .    395 

Carding  Machinery  .  .    398 

Connemara  Flannel  .  .    396 

Co-operation  and    .  .  .    39!) 

Donegal      .  .  .    393,  399, 401 

Galway  Flannel      .  .  396, 398 

Irish  Industries  Association  and  394,  398 

Kerry  Homespun  .  .  .    396 

Lansdowne,  Countess,  Industry      .    396 

Vegetable  Dyes      ,  .  .    395 

Jacquard  Loom  .  .  .    394 

Machine-spun  Yarn      .  .  .    398 

Spinning  ....    390 

Textile  Art,  Origin      .  .  .390 

Weaving  .  .  .  .393 

West,  Professor— 

Algae,  Lists  of  .  .  .49 

Wexford— 

Technical  Inst.  Scheme  .  .    166 

Wexford  Engineering  Co.         .  .    166 

Whiskey— 

Consumption  of  .  .  .    508 

Manufacture  of  .  .  .    501 

White  Star  Line  .  .  .    446 

Whitty,  J.  T.— 

Cavan  Coal,  Report  on  .  .      19 

WiCKHAM  &  Co. 

Brewery  .  .  .  485 

WiCKLOW— 

Granite  Quarries  .  .  .26 

Minerals  .  .  .  ,19 


532 


INDEX. 


Wilkinson,  J.— 

Building  Materials  of  Ireland 

Williams,  John— 

Home  Arts  and  Industries  Designs 

Wilson,  Mr.— 

Fivemiletown  Industries,  Interest  in 

Wolff,  Henry  W,— 
People's  Banks 

Wollny— 

Top-dressing   Peat  Soil,  Effect  on  its 
temperature 

Wolves— 

Ireland  ,  .  .  . 

Wood-carving  Industry 

woodlice— 

Injury  to  Garden  Plants 

Woods  and  Plantations- 
Wool  Comb  Manufacture 

Workman,  Clark  &  Co.,  Messrs.— 
Belfast  Shipbuilders    , 


AGE 

Worms     .... 

PAGE 

.      60 

26 

Wright,  Professor  E.  P.— 
Algae,  Ireland 

.      48 

4J3 
443 

WURTEMBURG— 

Trade  Keport,  water  transport 

Wynne- 

Silvermines 

.  101 
.      21 

131 

Wyse,  Mr.— 
Distillery 

495,  497 

39 

53 
443 

62 
28 
176 

448 


YOUATT— 

Roscommon  Sheep,  Remarks  on  .    365 

Young,  Arthur— 

Butter     Export     Trade     in  Ireland, 

Account  of  .  .  .  .    235 

Roscommon  Sheep,  Remarks  on  .    365 

Royal  Diiblin  Society's  Work  .  .    176 

Young,  King  &  Co. 

Distillery  .  .  .  .49? 

Zinc  .  .  .  .  .21 

Zoology— 

Dublin  Museum  Collections  .  .    299 

Econoiuic  .  .  .  .62 


Browne  and  Xolan,  Limited,  I'rinteks,  Duhmn. 


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