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THE
Handbook
^Q,(rrO 77^.6" /6
Harvard College
Library
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FROM THE BEQUEST OF
SUSAN GREENE DEXTER
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V WCLELAND|
5^! VICTORIAS^]
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■J
THE IRISH
LINEN TRADE HANDBOOK AND DIRECTORY.
B 1 ^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC
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THE IRISH
LINEN TRADE HAND-BOOK
DIRECTORY.
By F. W. smith,
8ECRETAEY TO THE LINEN TRADE COMMITTEE,
BELFAST:
W. H. GREER, No. 43, Donegall Place.
1876.
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HAl^ViKRD COLLEGE LIBRARY
DEXTER FUND
■MTMKO AT STATIONIIIt HALL.
BELFAST:
Printed at "The Northern Whig" Office.
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TO
The President and Council
OF
t §tlfut ([;lsiim}stx of (H^ammtxct
THIS UTILE WORK
ON
The Irish Linen Trade
IS
(by permission)
Respectfully Dedicated
BY
THE AUTHOR
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PREFACE.
This little work, which does not pretend to do more than give an
outline of the origin and progress of the Linen Manufacture,
particularly in connection with the Irish branch, it is hoped may
prove useful, and repay the labour of perusal.
I am aware that other and abler pens have already dealt
with the subject ; but there are some matters referred to in this
work which have not been previously touched upon, and, as furnish-
ing a historic epitome of our staple industry, carried down to the
present date, this will be found a handy book for reference.
In the preparation of the work — which occupied a considerable
time — I was indebted to several friends for the use of books Of
reference, and for information on many points ; and, for his kind-
ness in this respect, my acknowledgments are especially due to the
author of " Ireland and her Staple Manufactures."
To a considerable number of our local Manufacturers and
Merchants I feel indebted for the encouragement I received from
the time I commenced the work, and I trust the result of my
labours may not fall very far short of their expectations.
In a future edition I shall have a better opportunity of rendering
the Directory a more complete guide to the trade than it was •
possible to make it in the present one. I feel much obliged to
several correspondents in various places for furnishing information
to enable me to compile this section.
I have omitted referring to the Legislative control of Factories,
and also to some other matters which would have possessed
interest, but these I hope to deal- with on a future occasion.
This work has been published at my own risk, and, it is but
right to add, that for the matter itself I am also solely responsible.
F. W. S.
Belfast, February i, 1876.
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CON TE N TS.
CHAPTER I.
Manufacture of Linen in Ancient Times.
Manufactures in Patriarchal times— Beferences thereto in the Old Testament-<}rowth
of Flax in Egypt— Spinning and Weaylng in that countrj— Besearches of
travellers in ancient and modem times— Catacombs at Thebes— Mummy cloth-
Process of linen manufacture described by Pliny— Clommerce of Egypt with
surrounding nations— The Phoenician cities, and their respectiye trades, Ac-
Enterprise of these people— Decline of the manufacture in ancient Egypt-
Description of the operations carried on, and of the cloth made, &o., - I
CHAPTER II.
Historical Sketch of Flax Spinning and Linen Manufacturing
in Ireland, from the earliest period.
Traditional accounts on this subject— Ck>lonization of Country— Phoenicians and other
early settlers— Ancient laws— Mission of St. Patrick— Manners and Customs—
Beferences to spinning and weaving in Brehon laws— Dyeing of cloths— Lectures
by Professor O'Curry on Dress and Ornaments of ancient Irish— Embroidery
in olden times, &C., 12
CHAPTER III.
Position of the Trade from the Fifth to the Seventeenth
Century.
Textile Manufactures in England at Roman Conquest— Same on the Continent
—Long period of obscurity respecting Irish manufactures— Conquest of
Ireland in 1172— Earliest record of exportation of Irish manufactures — Woollen
trade in France and Belgium— Manufacture of Cambric cloth— Woollen Manu-
factures in Ireland— Unimprored condition of Ireland for seyeral centuries-
Changes effected in reign of James I.— Dress of various classes at this time,
&c.— Lord Strafford's administration— Efforts made to improve growth of
Flax— Spinning of yam, and manufacture of linen cloth— Prejudice against
changes— Compact between Parliaments of England, and Ireland respecting
linen and woollen manufactures— Petitions to William III. by English House
of Conunons- The King's reply— Taxes imposed on woollen manufactures, and
consequent destruction of the trade— Bevocation of Edict of Nantes— The
Huguenot settlement in Ireland— Colony at Lisbum- Crommelin's report on
the linen trade— Encouragement of the trade by English Parliament— Appoint-
ment of Board of Trustees— Names of Ulster representatives, • - . 3 T
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CHAPTER IV.
From the formation of the Irish Linen Trade Board to the
Legislative Union with Great Britain.
PAGB
Organisation of Linen Board in Dublin-^Steps taken to improve cnltivation of Flax—
Also of yam and cloth— Regulations respecting sealing of white linens-
Improvement of the trade in 1741— Protection of same— Cambric factory at
Dundalk— Sealing of brown linen— Opposition on part of the weavers— De-
scription of the manufacture carried on in 1776 at Armagh, Lurgan, Warings-
town, &c.— Sketch of Belfast at this date— Improvement of linen manufac-
tures on Continent, and competition with Irish trade— Removal of commercial
restrictions, and position of trade immediately after— Proceedings of Linen
Board— Applications for grants of money, &c.— Punishment of sealmasters,
&c.— Rebellion of '98— Union with Great Britain, &c., 3"
CHAPTER V.
From the Legislative Union with Great Britain — covering
the period of the Dissolution of the Irish Linen Trade
Board— to end of 1840.
Invention of M. Jacquard— Bounties for saving of flaxseed— Also for erection cl
spindles— Notice of those earliest set up— Statistics of Drogheda trade in
1808-1809— Report of Audit Commissioners on transactions of Linen Board-
Increase of spindles— Tour of Secretary of Board through Ulster in 1816 —
Description of the country markets at this period— Hand spinning in Con-
naught— Value of goods sold at sevraal markets throughout province of Ulster-
Particulars of the various goods made — ^Tour of Secretary in 1821— Ballymena
market at this date— General return of value of linen goods sold in Ireland
this year— Introduction of wet spinning system— Steps taken by the Govern-
ment to reduce Parliamentary grant— Dissolution of the Linen Board— Progress
of wet spinning— York Street mill— State of trade down to end of 1840, - -53
CHAPTER VI.
From the formation of the Flax Improvement Society until
its Dissolution.
Organisation of an Association to promote the cultivation of Flax— Free trade policy
adopted by the trade— Deputation from Flax Society to H.M. the Queen-
Royal patronage obtained— Famine years— Position of the trade during this
period, and general condition of the country— Recovery in 1848-49— Visit
of the Queen to Belfast— Exhibition of flax products at Linen Hall— Report of
Factory Oonmiissioners 1850— Flax spinning mills in United Kingdom at this
date— Great Exhibition of 1861— Irish linen fabrics, and report of jury thereon—
Introduction of power-loom weaving— Dublin Exhibition of 1853— List of
esdiibitors of Irish linen manufactures — United States tariff on linens, and
steps taken to obtain a remission of these— Russian war, its effects on the
trade— Paris Exhibition of 1855— Report of Belfast deputation on linen
machinery and manufactures— Reports of Royal Flax Society— Return of flax
spinning mills and power-loom factories in 1859— Dissolution of Flax Society, 7 7
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IX.
CHAPTER VII.
From the formation of the Indian Flax Company in 1859
to present year.
VAGB.
CtatiTation of Flax in India— Fonnation of a company in Belfiist— Reports from seat of
operations— International Exhibition in London in 1862^Li8t of Irish exhibi-
tors of linen goods— Further reports from India respecting progress of flax
cultivation— OiTil war in America— Its effect on the linen trade— Progress of
Indian Flax Ck)mpany— Betums of flax mills and factories in 1861— Bxhibi-
tion in Dublin— List of exhibitors of linen goodft— Betums respecting mills in
1866— Suitability of climate and soil of Ireland for growing flax— Prosperous
condition of the linen trade at this period— Formation of Flax Extension
Association— Paris Exhibition of 1867— Beport on linen manufactures, home
and foreign— Medals obtained by Irish firms— Depression in 1867 and following
years— Betums of mills and factories in 1868— Dissolution of Indian Flax
Company— Franco-German war— Its effect upon the trade— Becovery of trade
in 1871— Prosperity during that year and the following— Strikes in various
parts of the country— Vienna Exhibition— Names of Irish firms who obtained
medals— State of trade in 1874 and 1876— Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876—
Names of Irish firms who purpose sending goods to this Exhibition, &c. .101
APPENDIX I.
An account of linen cloth (plain; and linen yam exported from Ireland between 1728
and 1821 ^47
Betum of linen yams and linen manufactures exported from the United Kingdom
from 1881 to 1876 . . . . ^
148
APPENDIX II.
Parliamentary report on factories for the spinning and weaving of textile fabrics
abroad — Belgium — Prussia— Austria— Wurtemberg— Saxony— Switserland—
Netherlands— Province of North Brabant— Sweden- Bussia— United States of
America .-. 149
APPENDIX III.
Bates of import duties levied by foreign countries on the linen manufactures of iSie
United Kingdom, compiled from returns presented to Parliament in 1860 - 1 65
Directory of the Irish Linen Trade 171
Names and Addresses of some Continental Firms - - - 199
ADVERTISEMENTS.
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THE IRISH
Linen Trade Hand Book.
CHAPTER I.
Manufacture of Linen in Ancient Times.
HE cultivation of the flax plant and manufacture of
linen cloth must have been carried on in times
of the most remote antiquity. In fact, so far as
investigators have pursued their researches there can
hardly be a doubt that the art was practised anterior
to the deluge ; as the incidental circumstances re-
garding the mode of life and habits of Eastern nations,
referred to in the Book of Genesis, indirectly tell us that
the people of these early days had some knowledge of the manu-
facture of material for clothing and other purposes. Animal fibres,
such as wool and hair, we are told, were originally used in those
early periods of human history, which succeeded the more primitive
form of clothing — the skins of animals — which to this day form the
usual material for such rude garments as are worn in savage life.
After manufactures of wool and hair, the discovery of fibrous
materials, in those plants indigenous to the soil, would engage
attention, and from that most ancient of historical records — the
Bible — we find ample evidence of the extensive consumption of
linen in patriarchal times.
Some of the most studious men of later times entertained
strong opinions on the question. The late Dr. Guthrie, one of the
most eloquent of modern divines, in alluding to Jabal, said " he felt
pretty certain that the founder of tent making must have had
coarse cloth of some description as coverings for his work/' Jabal
lived long before Noah laid the timbers of his great ship, and as
fibrous plants of all descriptions abounded in the land occupied
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2 IklSH LINEN TRADE
by Adam's more immediate descendants, there can be little doubt
that he soon found out the value of such material for the make of
coarse canvas. If Cain was able to design and build a city we
do not see why Jabal should not have exliibited equal ingenuity in
the manipulation and manufacture of hemp. The article produced
was probably the roughest of textiles, still it would have been a
great improvement on the sun-tanned hides.
Granting, however, that manufactures in their rudest state were
known thus early, it is quite certain that until the chosen people
arrived at Palestine they had made but little way as producers of
linen. Egypt was the cradle of the textile arts— Joseph's sojourn
in the land of the Pharaohs led to the Israelites making that
country their home, and ultimately to their captivity ; and there it
was that the sons of Jacob were taught in some of the higher
branches of the trade. Still they never equalled their taskmasters
in either the fine arts or manufactures, and for more than seven
hundred years after the Israelites left Egypt they were in the
habit of sending buyers to that country to purchase cloth and yarn.
To trace through Bible history the various references to this
important textile would doubtless prove interesting, but we can
only glance at some of the more remarkable ones, and these may
form the ground work of a closer investigation, in which those
desirous of tracing the records of this ancient art may wish to
engage.
The first allusion to the flax plant occurs in connection with
the records of the plagues of Egypt — where it is stated that " the
flax and the barley were smitten ; for the barley was in the ear,
and the flax was boiled." In the Book of Job, that patriarch
compares his life to "a weaver's shuttle," and in Proverbs the
virtuous woman is spoken of as one that " seeketh wool and flax,
and worketh willingly with her hands," and as " laying her hands
to the spindle and her hands hold the distaff. . . . She
maketh fine linen and selleth it, and delivereth girdles unto the
merchant." In many other places reference is made to the process
of weaving.
During their captivity the children of Israel learned the art
of spinning flax and weaving it into cloth, and in the Tabernacle
in the wilderness, and afterwards in the Temple services, the use
of linen garments was prescribed for the Priests, as well for
ordinary as for special seasons. The outer covering of the Taber-
nacle was formed of a plain hanging of fine twined linen, which,
according to Josephus, seemed to be wrought in an open or
net-work texture, so as to permit the people without to see the
interior. The veil of the Holy of Holies was also of linen,
embroidered with many designs of the most beautiful flowers, and
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HAND BOOK, 5
interwoven with various ornamental figures, except the forms
of animals, which was doubtless with a view to avoid all
temptation to idolatrous worship.
From other books of the Old Testament, in which reference is
made to the habits and customs of Eastern nations, it would
appear that in those early times, Egypt, the ancient emporium of
this textile, held the foremost rank among the nations. Its linen
yarn was purchased by King Solomon, and Ezekiel speaks of the
embroidered linen from Egypt ; whilst artificers of the highest
skill were brought from that country to Jerusalem, for the purpose
of working the most costly and beautiful designs for the adornment
of the Temple.
Besides the Israelites, the Babylonians and other Orientals
were famed for their textile products, but none ever rose
to the rank and importance maintained by the people of Egypt. .
In the book of Esther, we find a description of some of these in
the palace of King Ahasuerus, " where were white, green, and blue
hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple, to silver
rings, and pillars of marble ; " whilst Mordecai is described as
being clad " in blue and white, with a great crown of gold, and
with a garment of fine linen and purple." In the New Testament
Scriptures as well as in the Old, many allusions are made to the
article linen, and it is also referred to as typical of spotlessness
and purity. Heathen and idolatrous nations, in their religious
ceremonies, used this material as the most suitable for clothing
and decorative purposes, as well as being a cleaner and purer
article than woollen garments.
That the manufacture of linen owes its development to ancient
Egypt is beyond dispute, and to its people, who were skilled in
many arts, we, in modern times, stand indebted to an extent of
which little estimate has yet been taken. The Egyptians derived
many advantages from their soil and climate, but to their sacred
and noble river — the Nile — they owed all these elements of success.
The rich alluvial deposit, formed by the periodical overflow of that
river, possessed fertilising properties which gave the farmers
peculiar facilities for the raising of crops for food, and for furnish-
ing them with material for carrying on an industry which placed
them in the first rank as a manufacturing people.
With the natural advantages which their country possessed, it
is not surprising that they arrived at a very high degree of civilisa-
tion, and possessing all the necessaries, and many of the luxuries
of life, they became self-reliant, and very much isolated from
surrounding nations.
The soil being well adapted for the cultivation of the flax plant,
it was extensively grown, and the mode in which this ancient
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4 Irish linen TkADk
peoJ)le treated it corresponds very closely with that adopted in our
own time. From the words inscribed on monuments and tombs
we trace the various stages through which the raw material passed,
until it was spun into thread, and passed through the subsequent
processes of weaving and finishing. These details are noted with
an accuracy and faithfulness which is truly wonderful. The pulling
of the flax, the steeping, drying, breaking, scutching, and dressing
of the fibre for spinning, are minutely described, and may still be
seen on those imperishable tablets found in the rock tombs of
ancient Thebes.
Sir J. G. Wilkinson, in his researches into the history of this
people, has very fully described and illustrated the mode of treat-
ment, and the stages through which this fibre passed till the cloth
was produced ; and it is interesting to note what very little
deviations have been made in modern times from the process of
manipulation practised some 3,500 years ago.
Pliny -^ the naturalist — explains these different processes,
which form the subject of so many of those old paintings, whose
brilliant colouring to this day retains much of its original freshness.
Speaking of the steeping process, he says " the stalks themselves
are immersed in water, warmed by the heat of the sun, and are
kept down by weights placed upon them, for nothing is lighter
than flax. The membrane or rind becoming loose is a sign of its
being sufficiently macerated. The stalks are then taken out, and
repeatedly turned over in the sun, until perfectly dried, and are
afterwards beaten with mallets on stone slabs. That which is
nearest the rind is called tow, inferior to the inner fibre, and fit
only for the wicks of lamps. It is combed out with iron hooks
until all the rind is removed ; the inner part is of a whiter and
finer quality. After this process it is made up into yarn, and it is
polished by striking it frequently on a hard stone moistened with
water." Wilkinson illustrates these processes, his work showing
the steeping ponds at Beni Hassan, beating the stalks, making of
ropes, and the weaving of cloth. In the finishing processes, which
are shown in other paintings, the beating of the cloth with clubs
and the smoothing of it with wooden instruments to give it a polish
evidences the perfection to which this manufacture was brought.*
As regards the mode of spinning the fibre, the universal plan,
and one which was adopted and practised by all nations down to
comparatively modem times, was by the spindle and distaff!
Around the latter, which was a piece of wood, the prepared flax
was wound, and was held either in the left hand or fastened to the
* Pliny speaks of four descrlptloDs of linen which the Egyptians manufactured ; and
states that the quantity of flax cultiyated in Egypt was acoounted for by their exporting
Uaen to Arabia and also to India.
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HAND BOOK. 5
belt in some manner. The spindles — several illustrations of which
are given by Wilkinson — were 12 to 15 inches long, made of wood,
in a bulbous form ; some were of lighter material, such as rushes,
stained in various colours, they tapered to a point, which was
rendered heavy for the purpose of spinning on the ground, and
increasing the impetus ; to the other end or handle the flax thread
was attached, and by drawing the hand quickly across the spindle,
as it lay on the knee, it was made to spin rapidly in the au: or on
the ground, whilst the flax fibre was drawn from the distaff".
Some of these spindles have been found in the ruins at Thebes,
and are now in the British Museum. Wilkinson himself found one
which had some thread wound on it.
The occupation of spinning was practised in all ages by women,
and as designating the art we have the word "spinner" or "spinster"
applied to females, who doubtless devoted more time to this occu-
pation before domestic affairs connected with married life took
the place of these lighter duties.
Herodotus — who has been called the father of history — in
speaking of Egypt, says — " It claims our admiration beyond all
other countries, and the wonderful things which it exhibits demand
a very copious description. 'J'he Egyptians, bom under a climate
to which no other can compare, possessing a river, different in its
nature and properties from all other rivers in the world, aire them-
selves distinguished from the rest of mankind by the singularity of
their institutions and their manners. In this country the women
leave to the men the management of the loom, in the retirement
of the house, whilst they themselves are engaged abroad in the
business of commerce. Other nations in weaving shoot the woef
above, the Egyptians beneath."
The historian, however, had fallen into error regarding the
relative duties of the sexes, for the paintings give many examples
of women as well as men engaged in weaving ; and the statement
regarding commercial business being confined to women is also
inaccurate.
From the catacombs at Thebes, immense quantities of linen
cloth have in latter times been brought to light. It was the
universal practice among this people, who were so skilful in the
process of embalming bodies — whose wonderful preservation to this
day attests, in no small degree, the extent of their civilization
and knowledge of the art — that they were to be enveloped in
linen, the reason being its known purity, as resisting the deve-
lopment of animal life, which would destroy, in a short time
these bodies, which it was their belief, should be carefully
preserved. From these mummy clothes we gain much of the
knowledge we possess regarding the linen manufacture as practised
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6 IRISH LINEN TRADE
by this people. According to the rank which the person occupied,
there was a corresponding amount of cloth used, varying in texture
from the coarsest up to that of the very finest ; in fact some
samples of the latter have been discovered which in beauty of
texture rival the production of our hand-loom cambric linen.
Some of these linens, when first discovered, were believed
to be mixtures of silk, cotton, or some other fibre than flax, so
doubtful were investigators in believing that the spinning and
weaving of flax had attained to such perfection as was subsequently
admitted, but after careful miscroscopical and chemical analysis,
scientists have affirmed the purity of these textiles, as being free
from admixture of every description. Under the microscope, the
flax fibre shows a peculiar transparency, is cylindrical in form, and
has a jointed appearance resembling the sugar cane. Cotton fibre
has a flat ribband like appearance, and shows what might be
described as a selvage at each side.*
Not only did the Egyptians attain to great perfection in the
treatment of the flax plant, and the art of manufacturing it, but
they were likewise acquainted with processes by which it could be
dyed to various shades, and though they had not the knowledge
we possess of bringing the cloth to that snowy whiteness which
distinguishes our productions, they were, nevertheless, able to
produce a very fair bleach. .
We have again to refer to the writings of Pliny in proof of this.
He states — " In Egypt they stain clothes in a wonderful manner.
They take them in their original state, quite white, and imbrue
them, not with a dye, but with certain -drugs, which have the* power
of absorbing and taking colour. When this is done there is still no
appearance of change in the cloth, but as soon as they are dipped in
a bath of the pigment which has been prepared for the purpose, they
are taken out properly coloured. The singular thing is that, though
the bath contains only one colour, several hues are imparted to tSe
piece, these changes depending on the nature of the drug
employed, nor can the colour be afterwards washed off^ and surely
if the bath had many colours in it they must have presented a
confiised appearance on the cloth."
In the finishing of their linens, the Egyptians had not the skill or
knowledge which we possess. Beetling engines and calenders were
* We think that the microscope, which is every day coming more and more mto popular
nse, as a means of inyestigating the wonders of the animal, vegetable, and mineral creation,
might be tamed to greater practical account than it is ; and, in connection with the analysis
of textile materials, would be useful to merchants and manufacturers, for testing the fibres
of various nmterials, and ascertaining their component parts. To find an instrument suitable
for such purposes, sufficiently simple in its mechanism to be readily used, was a matter into
which the author inquired, and he believes he has succeeded in getting one, which, for all
practical purposes, may be found to an&wer. For a detailed description the reader is referred
to the advertising pages of this work.
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HAND BOOK, 7
unknown to them, and whatever degree of fineness of texture or
glossiness the linen showed, it was imparted in a very laborious,
imperfect, and clumsy manner. In the paintings, various tools for
smoothing and polishing linen are shown, and it is a matter of
surprise that with such rude instruments they were able to give so
good a finish to their cloth.
The Egyptians not only manufactured linen cloth on an ex-
tensive scale for their own use, but the fame of their art having
spread among surrounding nations a very extensive trade was
carried on among them, and though we have no statistical records
to quote regarding this foreign traffic, from all that can be gathered
respecting it, it was very considerable. To Persia, Arabia, Palestine,
Greece, and all along the shores of the Mediterranean their manu-
factures were sent. To Tyre, that ancient city, famous for its rich
dyes, it is probable a large quantity of cloth was exported, and after
being dyed was sold in the various markets with which the Phoeni-
cians traded. In the 27 th chapter of Ezekiel a description is given of
the riches and commerce of Tyre, in connection with the judgments
impending over it (and which were executed by Nebuchadnezzar
572 B.C.), reference is therein made to the fine linen which thfey
brought from Egypt. Besides plain linen for clothing and domestic
purposes, and tor shrouding, the Egyptians manufactured sail cloth
for the galleys of the Mediterranean. One of the paintings repre-
sents a ship in full sail, and the cloth has the appearance of having
been made from hemp, a fibre which also extensively grew in that
country.
Thus we see that this great people, renowned in fine arts and
architecture, were equally skilled in textile manufactures, and as
their temples and monuments have excited the wonder and ad-
miration of all ages, in no less degree have their industrial pursuits
marked them out as a truly original and ingenious race.
It is not our intention to follow up the history of this people
in reference to the special branch of industry in which they have
been our teachers, but merely to glance at the origin of the manu-
facture in this its cradle, and from that to trace its future develop-
ment.
After remaining a monopoly in Egypt for many centuries,
owing to the oppression of rulers in subsequent times, who were
less disposed to cultivate the peaceful arts, this great enterprise
gradually decayed, and with other traces of its former glory
became more and more obscured, until finally it might be con-
sidered as lost, or buried in their rock tombs, only to be brought
to light in modem days, to bear testimony to their civilisation and
industry in dark and barbarous ages. Within the present century
efforts have been made by the Government of the Pasha to re-
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8 IRISH LINEN TRADE
establish the flax industry, and to a limited extent this has been
successful ; still the total value of the exports is only of very
small amount, and the manufacture is almost sblely confined to
coarse cloth.
The value and importance of a manufacture so great as this,
was thoroughly appreciated by that famous race of navigators —
the Phoenicians — who at one time carried on an extensive trade
not only with the surrounding countries, but all along the shores
of the Mediterranean, and who some 2,800 years ago are said to
have pushed beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, and landing on the
poast of Spain, founded a city called Gadir, 896 B.C., subsequently
called Cadiz. To Spain they appear to have traded regularly, and
doubtless, among other articles, bartered for the metals of that
country Egyptian linen.
That surrounding nations had probably at different times
learned the art of flax culture, and linen manufacturing there is
abundant evidence, but none in ancient times bore any comparison
to the Egyptians. Other nations excelled in woollen, silk, and
cotton fabrics, but the seat of the linen industry was essentially
located in Egj'pt, and her commerce in that textile placed her in
the front rank of nations for wealth and intelligence.
The Egyptians were not inclined to push in any vigorous
manner an export trade in their own goods, and being indifferent
navigators, and entertaining a great dislike to the sea, they yielded
to others what would have largely contributed to the maintenance
of their greatness as a manufacturing people— the traffic in their
own products. It is recorded that though at one time they had
carried on a desert trade as far as the western coast of India, they
had ultimately to relinquish it to a people less actuated by nationsd
prejudices and superstitions, and of more friendly and sociable
tendencies than the Egyptians. The Phoenicians on the contrary
entertained none of the scruples or prejudices peculiar to the
Egyptians, and readily seized the advantages thus thrown in theu:
way, for pushing a lucrative trade in merchandise of such essential
importance as linen, and they are said to have taken possession of
the harbours on the Red Sea and elsewhere, which had been
abandoned by the Egyptians.
The chief cities of the Phoenicians were Tyre, Sidon, and
Biblus, and in these ports they built their ships, and traded to all
parts of the then known world. The Phoenicians, or Canaanites
of Scripture, have sometimes been confounded with the Arabians,
who were a different people.
Sidon, which is said to have been founded 2,200 B.C., was a
great naval port. The mountains of Lebanon afforded an inex-
haustible supply of cedar for shipbuilding and other purposes.
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HAND BOOK. 9
Tyre was founded in later times, about 1250 B.C., and ultimately
rose to such greatness and wealth as to eclipse Sidon. Tyre was
long famous for and held an important rank in ancient history for
having discovered, and long retained, the secret by which those
beautiful purple dyes were imparted to various fabrics.
RawHnson writing on Phoenicia, says, about 800-900 B.C.
" The commercial spirit of the Phoenicians was largely exemplified
by the fact of their establishing colonies along the coast of the
Mediterranean, which were rapidly covered with settlements and
cities, built on the shores of the ocean. Factories were established
on the Persian Gulf, and conjointly with the Jews on the Red Sea.
Phoenicia had at this time no serious commercial rival, and the
trade of the world was in her hands. Her commerce was chiefly
a carrying trade, but there were also a few productions of their
own in which their traffic was considerable. The most common of
these was the purple dye, which they obtained from two shell-fish,
the Buccirum and the Murix, and by which they gave a high value
to their textile fabrics Industry and enterprise
reaped their usual harvest of success. The Phoenicians grew in
wealth, and their towns became great and magnificent cities. In
the time when the Babylonian Empire came into being, the narrow
tract of Phoenicia — smaller than many an English county —was
among the most valuable countries of Asia ; and its possession
was far more coveted than that of many a land whose area was
ten or twenty times as great."
In proof of the intrepidity of these ancient navigators we have
a statement by Herodotus, who visited Egypt, that an exploring
expedition was fitted out by Necho, King of Egypt (the Pharoah
Necho of Scripture), by which the Phoenicians were said to have
circumnavigated the coast of Africa about 600 B.C.
The most important colony which this people founded was
Carthage. For about six centuries the Phoenicians held almost
undisputed sovereignty of the sea.; until the time of the Romans,
a people who speedily eclipsed the Phoenicians in their zeal for
discovery and conquest.
The dynasty of the Pharoahs, under whose rule the linen
manufacture was extended and perfected, was overthrown by the
Persians, 525 B.C., to whom it became subjected. Next Egypt
fell under the sway of Alexander the Great, then of Ptolemy
323 B.C., till finally it became subject to imperial Rome B.C.
30. The Romans held the country till seized by the Saracens,
A.D. 640. Under their control, its ancient glory, which had long
been obscured, crumbled away, and became finally extinct, and all
that remained, to attest a once prosperous and distinguished race,
fell under the rule of the Turks in 151 7.
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10 IRISH LINEN TRADE
The mode of manufacture, which is so graphically described
and illustrated by Wilkinson, may prove interesting if more
minutely described in this place.
In one painting, a weaver is represented as sitting on the
ground, and interlacing the warp by throwing through the weft
with his hand, driving the weft home with a kind of lath, which,
like the Irish weavers' "sleys," ran across the warp, and in this case
was placed in the horizontal position. Another painting shows the
warp as upright, and the weft thrown in with a long needle.
Again we have the picture of a woman putting in the weft, whilst
a second female operative strikes it home. As they appeared
unacquainted with the shuttle used in later times, the difficulty
of filling in the weft must have been very great, and as the
operation was necessarily tedious, it is not surprising to find that
the webs were often much below the square, seldom equal to the
warp, and in some descriptions of cloth so low in weft as to be
only about one shot to every four of warp.
But whilst the bulk of their manufactures ranged from low to
medium sets, the Egyptians were likewise adepts in the production
of the finest fabrics, which compare favourably with specimens of
our own cambric looms. In the mummies which have been unrolled
immense quantities of linen cloth have been recovered, and from
the bodies of some as much as 300 hundred yards of material have
been taken, varying in quality, from the coarsest description on the
inside, to the finest towards the outside. The bodies of the kings,
nobles, and priests were enveloped in some of these finest cloths.
Mr. Thompson, writing on the mummy cloth of Egypt, states
that in Belzoni's mummy cloth the warp counted 90 to an inch, and
the weft about half of this ; but specimens have been found with
152 threads of warp to 75 threads of weft ; but even this was not
the finest specimen found. One was discovered at Memphis
which counted 540, or 270 double threads to the inch in the warp,
but only a no in the weft The width varied from about a yard
down to a few inches.
Not only were the Egyptians skilled in the bleaching and
dyeing of cloth, but specimens of cloth dyed in the yarn, and
some very beautiful bordered, coloured, and fringed cloths have
been found, and some of the paintings represent fabrics of these
different descriptions. They were also skilled in embroidering, and
working devices of various kinds in gold thread, at a very early
period, and from them the Israelites learned this art, and after-
wards turned it to account in working the draperies connected
with the Tabernacle, for it is stated, " they did beat the gold into
thin plates, and cut it into wires, to work in the blue, and in the
purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen." The knowledge
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HAND BOOK. 11
of dyeing cloths to various colours necessarily implied a knowledge
of mordants, and the mode in \yhich this process was carried out
has been described by Pliny.
The foregoing will convey but a very imperfect idea of the
ancient linen manufacture, and the great perfection to which it
had been brought by the Egyptians. We are so apt in the present
day, owing to the proud position we occupy as manufacturers
of this textile, to forget that much of the knowledge we possess
regarding it is derived from this ancient people, whose special
industry had attained to a high degree of excellence when the
patriarch Abraham first visited the country ; and when his descen-
dents, in a subsequent age, left it to carve for themselves an im-
perishable name, the manufacture had attained a high degree of
excellence.
Those who wish to obtain a more extended description of
ancient linen, and of the various countries where this manufacture
was carried on in olden times, are referred to the exhaustive work
on the linen trade, by Mr. A. J. Warden, of Dundee, who, as the
result of muc'h painstaking investigation, has produced a valuable
and interesting book on the subject.
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IRISH LINEN TRADE
CHAPTER II.
Historical Sketch of Flax Spinning and Linen Manufacturing in
Ireland, from the earliest period.
5 ERY little of a precise or authentic character is known
respecting the cultivation of the flax plant in Ireland
in ancient times, or of the period in which the art of
weaving was introduced. As a matter of course the
traditional theories handed down to us have been the
subject of much controversy, and like the previous
question regarding the original settlement of people in the
country, have afforded ample scope for debate ; and upon
the materials within our reach, many fanciful histories have been
written. Much of the early annals of Ireland may be regarded as
traditional, and these are embodied in those manuscripts which
date from the fifth to the fifteenth century, in which ancient history
is interwoven with the poetical fancies and mythological creations
of those early settlers in the kingdom. It is true we have archaeo-
logical remains, and works of art, which relate to their true history ;
and it is from these, as well as from the merits of these MSS.
themselves we can gather much to interest, and collect sufficient
material, which disentangled from the web of fiction surrounding
it, remains as imperishable testimony to the great genius and
power of the ancient Irish race.
For the earliest records of our people we have then to trust
largely to the biographies of the saints ; and it is through these
writings we get those glimpses, incidentally thrown in, which form
the historic chain that connects the people of ancient Erin with
those of modern times, as engaged in various handicrafts, carrying
on — amongst others — the manufacture of which this chapter
treats.
As the descendants of Ham have been traced among the
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tiAND Book, Id
Egyptians and neighbouring nations, and those of Shem among
the more eastern portion of Asia ; so the posterity of Japhet are
believed to have migrated towards' the west of Europe, and, as
before stated, many theories have been projected respecting the
first colonisers of our own green Isle.
The researches of Irish scholars of late years, and to whose
works we shall refer, have thrown a flood of light upon the historic
associations of our country, and will well repay a careful study.
Notably among these stand the works of Drs. O'Donovan,
O'Curry, Todd, Graves, and ma,ny others, which supply a collection
of the tnost varied and inexhaustible antiquarian treasure.
To the admirable lectures delivered by the late Dr. O'Curry, in
Dublin, in i860, we propose to make free reference, as in
some of these we have detailed from those ancient MSS., and
from the collection of antiques in the Irish Academy, a most
interesting view of the habits and customs of the people, their
arts and manufactures.
The Phoenicians, to whom reference has been made in the
previous chapter — those intrepid navigators of the high seas — are,
by Bochart and other writers, believed to have traded to Cornwall
for tin as early as A.M. 3,100, or 904 years before the birth of
Christ. This people are credited with having colonised Ireland,
but the question is still involved in much doubt. The Druids
(Rees Cycl) are said to have been a tribe of the ancient Celt, who
emigrated, as Herodotus tells us, from the Danube towards the
more westerly parts of Europe, and settled in Gaul and Britain at
a very early period. The origin of the Druids in Erin (O'Curry
says) is carried back by our ancient writings to the earliest
colonisers of the country, who were all, be it remembered, traced
to the race of Japhet. The Milesian colony — also Japhetians —
passed in their migrations from Scythia into Greece, out of which
they had previously come; thence into Egypt, then into Spain,
and so from Spain into Erin, which they reached about 200 years
after the conquest of the Tuatha de Danann, that is in the year of
the world 3,500, or about 1,700 before Christ, according to the
chronology of the Four Masters.*
* In the Annals of the Four Masters it is recorded— The age of the world was 2,620 when
Parthalon, with his three sons and their four wives, came to Ireland. A foot-note says—
This date wotQd correspond with the 2l8t year of the age of the patriarch Abraham, or 818
years after the deluge. . . . In age of the world 8,500— The fleet of the sons of Milidh
came to Ireland, at the end of this year, to take it from the Tuatha de Dananns. And a foot-
note states —Mageogh^an in his translation of the Annals of Olonmacnoise adds— That the
sons of Miletus (Milesians) arrived in Ireland on 17th May, 1029 years before the birth of
Christ. Another authority states they arrived 1,842 B.O. The chronology of the Fonr
Masters reckons 5,200 years from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ.
Many of these dates are purely apocryphal, and our belief in the accuracy of them is
much shaken by finding the chronological records betrin with the startling statement (recorded
in the ** Book of Leinster ") that OsB^air, the granddaughter of Noah, with a band of fifty girls
and three men, came to Ireland on the Sabbath day, the lAth day of the mocm'a Age, and
/Qr<y dayi b^or€ the Flood*
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14 IRISH LINEN TRADE
" In any case the time has scarcely come for dissecting and
analysing the curious tissues of legends of Uraorians, Fomorians,
Nemidians, Firbolgs, Tuatha de Danann, Milesians, and others,
which constitute the mythical part of Irish history. As in the case
of the other nations of middle and north Europe, true chrono-
logical history began in Ireland either by contact with the Romans
or with the introduction of Christianity. And, like the mediaeval
chronicles of everywhere else, the early Irish Christian chroniclers
and genealogists tacked on the pedigrees of Irish kings and chief-
tains to those of Genesis."*
Whatever doubts exist regarding the early colonisation of Ire-
land, from all that can be gleaned, we find that the manufactures,
of which we at this day are justly proud, can be traced back through
the middle and dark ages ; and in the dim twilight of remote
antiquity, unmistakable traces are found of their existence among
those Celtic tribes, who, no doubt, brought from the East, not
only the seed, but the skill to treat and manufacture the fibre.
From the ancient MSS. before referred to, indubitable evidence
•exists that for centuries anterior to the birth of our Saviour the
inhabitants of this country were acquainted with the art of spinning
and weaving; possibly woollen materials were originally more
extensively used than linen, for in many descriptions given us
respecting the dress of the ancient Celts we are left in doubt as to
the material of which it was composed, but enough may be gleaned
from these writings to justify the claim as to the great antiquity of
the textile upon which we treat.
Among those ancient MSS., tlie Senchus Mor— translated by Dr.
O'Donavan — supplies most interesting particulars. From this we
learn that not only were the ancient Irish acquainted with spinning
and weaving, but with bleaching and dyeing, and the mode of
treating the flax plant, and its manipulation through all after stages
resembled that of Egypt, from which all knowledge of the art is
believed to have come.
The English laws, for long after the conquest of Ireland, being
inoperative beyond the Pale, which comprised the counties of
Louth, East and West Meath, Kildare, Dublin, and Wicklow, all
through the rest of Ireland, down to Elizabeth's reign, the Brehon,
or ancient Irish laws, administered by the Irish judges, called
Brehons, was the recognised code of administration so long as the
sway of the Irish chieftains remained. The proclamation issued
in the reign of James I. set aside those ancient statutes, and in their
place English law was substituted, the entire country being then
completely divided, as at present, ihto its respective counties.
• O'Cuxry^Intro. by O'SnlllTan toL I.
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HAND BOOK. 15
It is impossible to assign a correct period to these ancient
laws, or learn their origin, but so far as can be gathered from the
Senchus tliese laws had been recognised and acted upon long
before the Christian era.
Writers upon the religious history of the country ascribe to the
ancient Irish a high degree of Christianity, and from the records
which have come down to us, chiefly in connection with the mission
of St Patrick, we find the people were brought, at a very early
period, under the influence of the Gospel ; and that, on account of
the readiness with which Christianity was embraced, it has not
inaptly been described as the ** Isle of Saints/'
In the annals of the Four Masters — compiled in 1632 — it is
mentioned. " The age of Christ 438. The Senchus and
Feinechus were purified and written ; the writings, and old books
of Ireland, having been collected and brought to one place, at the
request of St. Patrick. '*
''These were the nine supporting props by which this was
done. Laeghairie, i.e, the King of Ireland, Core and Daire, the
three kings : Patrick, Benen, Caimeach, the three saints : Ross,
Dubhthach, and Fergus, the three antiquaries." This council
appears to have collected and revised the traditionary laws by
which the Island had been governed, and we are told that after
Patrick had preached the Gospel to the natives they then set
about this judicial work. These laws, " founded on the laws of
nature, interpreted by coi^cience, were (instead of ascribing what
was good in the judgment of the Pagan Brehons to direct instruc-
tion in the law of Moses in Egypt) attributed to the influence
of the Holy Spirit upon the just men who before their conversion
to Christianity were in the Island of Erin,*' the reason added,
" for the law of nature had prevailed where the written law did
not reach ; " and, it is further stated, " what did not clash with
the Word of God in the written law, and in the New Testament,
and with the consciences of the believers, was confirmed in the
law of the Brehons by Patrick, and by the Ecclesiastics, and
the Chieftains of Erin ; for the law of nature had been quite right,
except the faith and its obligations, and the harmony of the
church and people. And this is the Senchus.*'
Having briefly alluded to these ancient Irish laws, we shall
refer to such portions as throw light upon the manners and customs
of the people of ancient Erin, especially in reference to their
industrial pursuits.
In the law relating to " Distress" we find many interesting
allusions to manufactures. Under this law, which regulated the
recovery of debt, the creditor was empowered, under certain
conditions laid down, to make a seizure, or distress, upon the
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16 IRISH Lli^ EN TRADR
property of the debtor, which, however, for a period, varying from
one to fifteen days, though legally seized, was under stay of
execution, to afford time to the debtor to discharge the
obligation. As regards seizures made on behalf of women, for
either the value of their work or materials, two days appears to
have been the extent of stay allowed.
With this explanation we quote the law as specially applicable
to such cases as illustrate the subject.
** Distress of two days for the price of the produce of the
hand ; for wages for weaving ; for the blessing of one woman on
the work of another ; for every material which is on the spindles ;
for the flax spinning stick ; for the wool spinning stick ; for the wool
bag ; for the weaver's reed ; for all the implements of weaving ;
for the flax scutching stick; for the distaff ; for the spool stick;
for the flyers of the spinning wheel ; for the yam ; for the reel of
the spinner ; for the border ; for the pattern of her handy work ;
for the wallet with its contents ; fox the basket ; for the leather
scoop ; for the rods ; for the hoops ; for the needle ; for the
ornamental thread, &c.''
The lawful right of the pledged needle of the embroideress is
laid down in the law — ** She is paid the value of an ounce of silver,
in ornamentation, for every needle which she has pledged."
In laws of a similar kind reference is made to spinning, weaving,
and dyeing.
The following are some items, for the recovery of which women
had recourse to the law : —
1. The price [or wages] of hand produce [labour] that is the
price of what she has produced with her hand — namely, teasing
and colouring and weaving (wool), the price or pay being one-
tenth part of each work [/.^., the value of the woven piece]. Also
for napping [or sleeking] the cloth, half the wages of the weaving
women, /.<?., the wages given [/>., the price of weaving].
2. For materials such as grey flax and grey woollen yarn when
upon the spindles,
3. For a flax spinning spindle.
4. For a spindle, /.^., a wool spinning spindle or a spindle of
weft
5. For a foot bag [that is a bag that contains the sorted wool],
and which is placed under {or at) the woman's feet, out of which
she combs (or cards) her materials, that is the combing (or carding)
bag.
6. For a Feith geir, which puts a sharp (smooth) face upon
her weaving. [This, O'Curry adds, was probably the sleeking stick
or bone which weavers still use to close and flatten linen cloth on
the breast beam of the loom while in process of being woven.]
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HAND BOOK. 17
7. For all the weaving implements, />., for all the instruments
used in weaving, including beams and heddles, />., weaving rods.
8. For the flax scutching stick, /.^., by which the flax is scutched.
For the distaff", or flax rock, or for the spindle for spinning wool.
9. For a rolling beam, i.e,^ the beam without the radiating
head, without sharp points.
10. For a border (or fringe) sword, that is the sword or lath
upon which the border or fringe is woven.
11. For materials, />., for the finished material, the material
which wants only to be woven, />., the white balls, the white
(bleached) thread.
12. For the instruments of the manufacturing women — namely,
the winding bars, />., the tree upon which she prepares the yam ;
the winding reel
13. For a border fringe upon itself, /.^., cloth having a border
edge or fringe made of its own warp, and not sewed on.*
In the annals of the Four Masters (p. 43), age of the world
3,656, it is stated that by Tigheammas clothes were dyed purple,
blue, and green.
O'Curry, in his interesting lectiures on the " Dress and Orna-
ments of Ancient Erin,'* says — " The introduction of diversity of
colours in dress is attributed to the monarch Tighearnmas, who is
said to have reigned at the remote period referred to. To the
monarch Eochaidt Edgerdach (or Eochaidt, the * cloth designer*)
is attributed the extension and complete establishment of a
sumptuary law, regulating the colours to be worn in dress, such a
law implying considerable advance in the arts connected with
weaving and dyeing."
The " Book of Leinster," which is the oldest authority, says :-:-
" Tighearnmas, the son of OUaig, then assumed the sovereignty,
and he broke three times nine battles, before the end of the year,
upon the descendants of Eber. It was by him that drinking
horns (or cups) were first introduced into Erin. It was by him
that gold was first smelted (^e word used means literally boiled)
in Erin, and that colours were first put into clothes, namely, brown,
red, and crimson, and ornamental borders."
" We are told by Keating, on the authority of a similar ancient
record, in existence in his time, but now lost, that cloth was first
coloured crimson, blue, and green in Erin, in reign of Eochaidt It
• was by him that various colours were introduced into the wearing
clothes of Erin — namely, one colour in the clothes of servants, two
colours in the clothes of rent paying farmers, three colours in the
clothes of officers, five colours in the clothes of chiefs, six colours
• SenchOB Mor. Harleian MSS., 482, Brit. Mens.
C
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18 IRISH LINEN TRADE
in die clothes of ollamhs and poets, seven colours in the clothes
of kings and queens. It is from this (says the old book) the
custom has grown this day that all these colours are in the clothes
of a bishop/'
** Although the number of colours which are here mentioned
as having distinguished each of the seven classes into which the
people of Erin at so early a period had been divided by the
Milesian colonists, we have no description signifying what these
colours were exactly which were then employed in dress excepting
brown, red, and crimson, which Tighernmas is stated to have
previously established."
. In reference to the war of the Tain Bo Chuailgne* the following
is a description of the chiefs who answered the summons of
Queen Madbh. " The first party came had black hair, they wore
green cloaks with silver brooches, the shirts which they wore next
their skins were interwoven with threads of gold. The second
company had closely cut hair, light grey cloaks and pure white
shirts next their skin. The third and last party had broad cut,
fair yellow golden, loose flowing hair upon them ; they wore crimson
embroidered cloaks with stone set brooches over their breasts
(in their cloaks) and fine long silken shirts falling to the insteps of
their feet."
" It does not appear from the passage in question what the
materials of the robes alluded to were, but we may presume they
were native wool and flax, and probably imported silk * seriac,' as
it is called in some of our ancient tracts."
Loeghairi Buadach, that is Loeghairi, the victorious, the chief
of Immail in Ulster, he had a yellow fringed shirt next his skin.
Seneha, the orator, is described as having a white shirt, with a
collar, next his skin. Other chiefs are "described as having shirts
of striped silk, shirts of kingly silk, turned up with a red hem of
gold, next the skin ; another as having a cloak mottled with the
splendour of all the most beautiful colours. All Ulster chiefs of
various clans — Fergna, the son of Findconna, King of Burach in
Ulster, is described as having a long red cloak, with a clasp
of white silver in it, over his breast, and a linen shirt next his
skin.
These descriptions (says 0*Curry) are surely specific enough to
afiford us a very vivid glimpse of the dress and accoutrements, as well
as the personal appearance, of the Gaedhelic warriors of two thou-
sand years ago.
•An ancient tale (referred to in the *» Book of Leinster") respecting a battle, between the
Queen of Oonnanght and King of Ulster, said to hare be^ fought about 100 years B.O., in
which the extnundinary valour of the Bed branch knights of Ulster and Firbolgs of Con-
naught is narrated with poetic exaggeration.
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\HAND BOOK. 19
" In the extracts from the laws, as well as from the * Book of
Rights/ we have the processes of dyeing, carding, spinning wool,
and weaving it into cloth. The process of preparing flax, the
pulling of it out of the ground, the tying of it in bundles ; the
retting or steeping of it in water, tiie taking of it up, and drying and
tying into bundles again ; the breaking of it with a mallet, and the
scutching of it (the combing and hackling are omitted, unless we
take the combing of the wool to be the hackling of the flax).
" We have it put on the rock or distaff", spun upon the spindles,
formed into cuts from off" the spindles, put upon the vertical reel,
broken off" the vertical reel into skeins (boiled with home-made
potash, and put out on the grass to bleach, which is omitted here,
although the bleached thread is spoken of) We have next the skein
when bleached laid on the horizontal reel, and wound into balls
for warping, as well as for weft (warped upon the wooden pins
either driven into the walls of the house or on a frame specially
made for the purpose), and then into the loom and woven.*'
" No sooner did Christianity raise her heavenly banner over
Ireland than the charming ingenuity of woman was put into
requisition to adorn, with befitting dignity and splendour, the
glorious and devoted soldiers of the cross. St. Patrick kept three
embroideresses constantly at work, with, we may be sure, a
sufficient staff" of assistants. These were Lupait, his own sister,
and Eric, the daughter of King Daire, and Cruimthoris of
Cenngoba. St. Columb Kille had also his embroideresses. . . .
All our ancient histories and romantic tales abound in reference to
splendid vesture and personal ornaments of gold, silver, precious
stones, and fine bronze, from the first battle of Magh-Tuireadh
(said to have been fought more than 1,700 B.C.), down to the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. . . . The ancient Irish goldsmith
appears to have worked at, or near, the mine, and there fabricated
those splendid articles, the delicate mechanism of which puzzles
and astonishes expert workmen of the present day. A goldsmith,
named Len, worked at Loch Lein (now the celebrated lake of
Killamey), 'with his many hammers,' and made all kinds of
ornaments, &c. Len [according to the Four Masters], flourished
about 300 B.C., and far within the sway of the Milesian dynasty."
The foregoing are extracts, from lectures of this able scholar
and antiquarian, who has illustrated, by reference to ancient records
and antiques, the skill and ingenuity of the inhabitants of ancient
Erin, and though these MSB. are interwoven with the poetic
creations for which the native race has ever been famous, there
still remains much of a deeply interesting nature bearing upon
their knowledge of various handicrafts, and especially regarding
the manufacture in which we are concerned.
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The popular belief respecting the origin of our lin en manufacture —
which did not attain to any great importance till the seventeenth
centiuy — is that it can only be traced back to about the thirteenth.
The researches, however, of late years have quite dispelled this
notion, arid we now learn that long before "her faithless sons
betrayed her " the inhabitants of the green Isle were skilled in this
maniiacture ; and far beyond the dark ages, and centuries before
the Christian era, we trace its origin, and link its history with the
founders of the art in the East.
It will be recollected that some thirty years ago, when the sewed muslin
trade gave employment to many thousands of females in different parts of Ire-
land, we had writers on the subject alluding to embroidery work as something
new in Ireland. But all such statements were incorrect, and showed what
imperfect knowledgje existed regarding this handicraft. The art of producing
pictorial designs with the needle on fine linen was practised in this island in
ages over which the mists of time have long cast their shadows. Even in still
later periods of history, when robes for the higher order of the Catholic priest-
hood were elaborately decorated with purple and gold, needlewomen itinerated
Jrom one diocese to another, and found regular employment in furnishing new
robes or repairing old ones. Indeed it is very doubtful that the embroiderers
of modem times surpass or even equal the needlewomen of olden times,
who worked those splendid vestments which adorned the kings and chieftains,
and even St Patrick himself, when that apostle won over the ancient race to
the Christian faith.
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CHAPTER III.
Position of the Trade from the Fifth to the Seventeenth Century.
^ AVING got a glimpse of the flax industry as carried on
in ancient times in Ireland, the present section is
devoted to a sketch of the period between the intro-
duction of Christianity to the close of the seventeenth
century, a very long one, no doubt, to grasp, but as
the materials which throw light upon it are few, and the
facts relating to the history of the trade mere specks in
this long vista of time, our labour in supplying details
will be correspondingly light
We have seen that centvuies before the birth of Christ the
inhabitants of ancient Erin were skilled in various arts and manu-
factures, which were carried on down to the advent of St. Patrick,
and no doubt for long after his death, though traces of them were
all but lost subsequently; we have now to refer to English history to
supply the connecting link between that period and modern times.
The Phoenicians, who for thirteen centuries navigated the high
seas, held a long intercourse with Britain, to which they traded for
tin ; in exchange they doubtless bartered much Egyptian linen,
together with other articles which the natives required.
Whether the early inhabitants of England were acquainted with
the art of weaving previous to the Christian era is a matter of some
doubt, and if either woollen or flaxen manufactures were carried
on they must have been on a very small scale, for when the Roman
Empire extended as far westward as Britain, we are informed that
Julius Csesar in B.C., 54, found the inhabitants of the interior
clothed in the skins of animals, and with their bodies painted, a
practicje, which Pliny remarks, they continued long after continental
nations had abandoned it.
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22 IRISH LINEN TRADE
The history of every race furnishes similar evidence of
progress. In the lowest state of civilised life, as already stated,
skins were used; then clothing material made of hair and wool,
and lastly the products of fibrous plants, the rarest of these being
regarded as the greatest luxury.
So far as Britain is concerned, it is probable then that
previous to the Roman conquest very little manufacturing was
carried on, the inhabitants being content to exchange the natural
products of the country for the manufactures of other nations ;
accordingly we find that these nations attained to a considerable
degree of excellence in textile products long before Britain took
any steps to vigorously carry them on.
Skill in the manufactures of wool and flax was acquired
by the Belgic race at an early period, and by them these in-
dustries were actively prosecuted, so that for ages the Britons
received from the north-western parts of ICurope supplies of the
greater portion of the clothing material which they used. From
what formerly constituted the Netherlands, the finest products of
wool and flax used in England were imported, and it is conjectured
that the Belgians, who were experts in weaving, on coming to
England prior to the Romans, spread the knowledge of cultivating
the flax plant, which is indigenous to these islands, and probably
whatever manufactures of the kind were carried on at the Roman
conquest were done by these colonists.
The Romans doubtless used their power and influence to extend
these infantile manufactures, and train their subjects in them, as they
did in improved modes of agriculture; but, besides this, the Roman
army appears to have estabhshed a manufactory of woollen and
linen cloth at Winchester, and from this centre, no doubt, the
knowledge of manufacturing would be extended.
The Druids are described as clothed in white, and as linen
garments were prescribed for the use of the priests of Israel, and
were also worn by pagan priests, it is concluded that the Druids'
clothing was also linen, but whether of native or eastern manufac-
ture is involved in doubt. In all probability it was the latter.
Macpherson, in his annals of commerce, states that about A.D.
500 " cloaks or plaids of wool were commonly worn both in Eng-
land and in Ireland, and that they were adorned with a variety of
colours, and probably of home manufacture. They had also fine
linen at this period, which, with other sumptuous articles of
dress, may be presumed to have been imported. The bodies of
the dead, at least those of rank, were wrapped in fine linen.*'
Whatever knowledge may have been possessed by the people
of Britain in these times, certain it is that the traces of native
manufacture arc so few, we are led to conclude that, for the greater
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part of their clothing material they had to depend upon continental
and eastern countries. With the irruption of the northern hordes
which overran Europe in the fifth century, and ultimately led to
the withdrawal of the Roman power from the west, and its final
overthrow, progress in commerce and manufactures was arrested,
and for some centuries a withering blight was cast over southern
and western Europe, firom which it began but slowly to emerge in
the thirteenth century. During this period our information is
scant, and the records which have come down to our time afford
but little insight into tlie state of commercial intercourse among
the nations, especially in reference to our subject -Such historic
evidence as we possess, for the greater portion of this time, refers
chiefly to wars and pillage, to massacres on sea and land, burnings
and laying waste, oppressive taxation and levies by those tribes of
Scandinavians, who were constantly making incursions into these
islands, and impoverishing its inhabitants.
A long hiatus must, therefore, occur in the historic records of
those peaceful arts, which are fostered and extended only where
protection from external rapine is afforded.
Speaking of the antiquity and remains of the city of Winchester,
Cambden says — " That there the Roman Emperors seem to have
had their imperial weaving houses for cloths of both woollen and
linen, for the Emperors and the army, and most probably that
necessary art was preserved in Britain after the Romans quitted it,
though perhaps in a plainer kind, till the fourteenth century, when
Edward III. introduced the fine manufactures firom the Nether-
lands.''
About the opening of the ninth century, Voltaire, in his history
of Europe, states that **at Lyons, Aries, and Tours, in France,
and at Rome, Ravenna, <fec., they manufacture woollen stuffs, but
that silk was not then woven in any town in the Western Empire
till nearly 400 years afterwards." The same author alludes to the
scarcity of linen, in mentioning that St Boniface, in a letter to a
German bishop, desires the bishop to send him a cloth (woollen it
is supposed), with a large nap in it, to use when washing his
feet. ** Probably," adds Voltaire, " this want of linen was the cause
of all the diseases of the skin known by the name of leprosy, so
common at that time." The same author also writes that " nothing
but poverty, confusion, and barbarism were to be seen in France
both in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the fine manufactures
being still confined to Greece and Italy — tie French towns being
poor, and almost depopulated."
In the latter part of the tenth century we find that woollen
manufacturing had taken the lead in Flanders. The city of Y'pres,
said to have been built A.D. 960, was long fiimous for its linen
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24 . IRISH LINEN TRADE
and woollen products, tke former being called cloth dVpres ; from
which place we obtained the knowledge of manufacturing what is
now known by the name of Diaper.
For 400 years the famous manufactures Qjf the Netherlands
were used by France, Germany, and England, and from that part
of the Continent was imported the finer descriptions of linen, for
whatever manufactures of the latter were carried on in England or
Ireland at this period, were, only of the coarser descriptions.
1253. — According to Maddox (Hist. Exch. Chap, x.), "Henry
III. in the 37th year of his reign directed the sheriffs of Wilts and
Sussex, to buy for him, each of his respective county, 1,000 ells
of fine linen, and to send it to his wardrobe at Westminster."
The fine linen here referred to we would probably consider very
coarse now.
The position of Ireland, with regard to her manufactures, had
been exceedingly low for a very long time. Incursions of piratical
hordes, and civil feuds had so impoverished it for centuries, that
from the conquest by the English, in 1172, and for a hundred
years after, it offered but little temptation to the English to develop
its resources, or encourage industrial or agricultural pursuits.
The people were of warlike tendencies, and looking with
distrust and disrelish upon their new masters, were but little
inclined to do more than maintain a guerilla-like existence, regarding
with suspicion every overture of friendship, and resenting, with
four-fold vengeance, every act of oppression and wrong.
The traditionary recollections of these bitter strifes are kept
alive to the present day. The light of Christianity, which at pne
time shone so brightly in our Island, became dim in after times,
and with the departure of the native race from the simple faith of
their forefathers, their arts and letters decayed, and the polish of
earlier days as well as their religion gave place to gross superstition
and barbarity, so that the country was an easy prey to the handful
of adventurers who claimed it as a dependency of the crown of
England.
From the conquest of the country until the close of the
thirteenth century, Ireland was in an unimproved condition, as
England took but little interest in its affairs, and though it
garrisoned the country, it did not for a long period of time take
steps to reduce it to entire subjection.
Mr. M*Call, in his interesting work on " Ireland and her Staple
Manufactures," mentions that " during the time of the Anglo-
Norman invasion the city of Armagh, then considered very rich in
ecclesiastical property, was ruthlessly pillaged ; and so maddened
did the natives become at seeing the sacred edifices swept of their
contents by the ruthless marauders that, in order to disappoint the
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further ravages of their avaricious enemies, they actually set their
own houses on fire, and in that self-sacrifice vast quantities of
private property, and * much linen, yam, and cloth,' shared the fate
ot the libraries of the monks, and many records of the ancient
cathedral. Walter de Burgo, Earl of Ulster, had large parcels of
linen woven for the use of his household in Bally-lis-nevan about
the year 1245, and it is certain that considerable quantities of
flaxen goods had been made in the venerable seat of education
called Beann-char at a much earlier period. The famous monastery
erected there was opened in the sixth century, and it is recorded
that the abbots were most anxious to encourage local enterprise.
Seeing, therefore, that the robes worn by the higher order of the
clergy were all made of Irish linen, there can be no doubt that
the distaff and loom were amongst the most popular sources of
industry in the households of the farmers. When Bangor was
plundered by the Danes, the sacredness of the abbey did not
protect it from becoming common spoil; every comer of the
building was ransacked, and among the property carried off there
were many vessels of gold and silver, and vast quantities of fine
linen and scarlet robes."
1272. — It is recorded by Macpherson that cloth of Ireland
is mentioned as being stolen at Winchester, with cloth of Abindon
& Burrell, of London, and, he adds, " I beHeve this is the earUest
notice we have of any exportation of Irish manufacture." It is
not certain what description of cloth this was, but in all probability
it was wool, as the manufacture of cloth of that description had
taken a lead in Ireland, and for a considerable period was her chief
manufacture.
1299. — ^Table linen is stated to have been very scarce in Eng-
land at this time.
1360. — About this period the woollen manufacture in Ireland
had attained to a position of comparative importance. Macpherson
states that stuffs called Fays, made in that country, were in such
request that they had been imitated by the manufacturers of
Catalonia, who were in the habit of making the finest woollen goods
of every kind ; they were also esteemed in Italy, and were worn
by ladies of Florence, a city abounding with the richest manufac-
tures, in which the luxury of dress was carried to the greatest height.
1375. — ParHament encouraged the manufacture of Irish fiieze
by passing an Act this year relieving it from subsidy and aulnage,
and also from the operations of the stat. 50 Edward III., c. 8, for
regulating the length and breadth of the cloth.
1382. — The agent of the Pope, we are told, collected this year,
among other things, five mantles of Irish cloth, one of them bound
with green cloth ; one mantle of mixed coloured cloth, also lined
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26 IRISH LINEN TRADE
with green ; one gannent of rasset, lined with Irish cloth, and other
articles, which were probably of Irish manufacture, though not
exactly so specified.
1386, — In the ninth year of Richard II. a company of linen
weavers appears to have been established in London. They were
formed of the most part of those weavers who had been brought
over from the Netherlands by Edward III.
In this year a rebellion broke out in Ireland, which retarded,
for a time, the prosecution of the peaceful arts.
1399. — The manufacture of woollen fabrics is recorded as
having been brought to great perfection in England at this date.
14T0. — Irish cloth (Macpherson states) must have been pretty
common in England at this period, as we find it charged equally
with worsted stuffs, canvas, and some other articles, 2d. per hundred.
1429. — ^Whilst France at this period is represented as being in
an impoverished and wretched condition, Flanders and Brabant,
owing to the development of their splendid woollen and linen
manufactures, abounded in riches and plenty, so that during the
reign of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, their cities and towns had
risen to a position of great wealth. It was chiefly owing to these
woollen manufactures they acquired this position, and on the
occasion of the marriage of that monarch, to mark the great value
attached to them, a new mihtary order was created, called " the
Golden Fleece."
1430. — ^Among the commercial commodities described in
Hakluts (I. vol., p. 187), brought to England at this time, we
have enumeiated. " From Flanders the Spanish ships trade home-
wards with fine cloth of Y'pres and of Courtray, of all colours ;
much furniture, and also linen cloth Bretagne supplies
Flanders with salt, wines, linens, and canvass Scot-
land's commodities are wool, woolsels, and hides. Their wool is
sent to Flanders to be draped, though not so good as the English
wool, with which it is there worked up Ireland's
commodities are hides and fish, as salmon, herrings, and hake ;
wool, Unen cloth, and skins of wild beasts."
1448. — England had, however, not been indifferent to the
proud position occupied by the manufacturers of the Netherlands,
for we find that the latter, taking alarm at the great and rapid
improvements effected by the English in their manufactures, passed
certain Acts which virtually prohibited the imports of English cloth
to Brabant, Holland, and Zealand ; so that, as a retributary mea-
sure, we find an Act in the 27th of King Henry VI. excluded the
merchandise of the Netherlands from being sent to England under
pain of forfeiture.
1467. — The Netherlands province (Anderson states), and more
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especially Flanders and Brabant, were at this time in their meridian
of glory, having prospered extremely in their vast manufactures
of woollen and linen. For although by the increase of English
woollen manufactures they had lost to a great extent their trade
therein, they extended it to other parts of Europe, as they did also
their linen manufactures ; but twenty years after this (viz., 1487) a
quarrel arose with the Archduke Maximilian, King of the Romans,
which led to the ruin of the famous and wealthy city of Bruges.
1506. — A treaty was made at this period, by virtue of which
EngUsh merchants were free to sell their commodities in Flanders,
provided they did not do so by retail or smaller quantities than an
entire piece of cloth.
1560. — From an old record of this period it appears the exports
from Ireland, so far as textile manufactures were concerned, were
not of much importance, in all probability nearly all the cloth
made in this country, whether of flax or wool, was consumed at
home. Antwerp is stated to have taken from Ireland skins and
leather of divers sorts, some low-priced cloths, and other gross
things of little value. Antwerp sent to Ireland much the same
commodities as sent to Scotland, which were, among other things,
serges, linen, and mercery. Wool does not appear to have been
exported to any extent at this time, so that it is inferred that frieze
cloth and other clothing made from wool consumed the greater
portion of the raw material. It was not until more than 60 years
after this that the exportation of Irish wool had been of such im-
portance as to arouse the jealousy of England, but we find that in
1627 an Act was passed prohibiting the exportation of wool from
Ireland except by license.
1588. — ^The production of cambric linen, so called from the
city of Cambrai, rose to such a degree of importance at this time,
it is stated that 60,000 webs were annually manufactured in that
city, representing about ;^24o,ooo, a very large sum at this period.
The manufacture of woollen and linen cloth was also much
extended in France.
16 1 2.— The position of Ireland for a very long time had been
exceedingly unfortunate. The English having taken no trouble to
reduce the entire country to subjection, so that even within the Pale
the old race of EngHsh settlers had become degenerated. As
little interest was taken in its internal affairs, opportunity was
afforded for the constant outbreak of feuds and animosities, which
kept the country in a ferment, impeding agricultural and
manufacturing industry^. The* native inhabitants are represented
as being extremely wild and unsettled in their habits, and with little
disposition to do more than engage in those pursuits of hunting,
fishing, and rearing of cattle, as sufficed to meet their necessities.
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Sir James Ware states that in Elizabeth's reign, " within a period of
fifteen years, the money sent to Ireland amounted to ;£^497,779
7s 6d, whereas all the revenue Ireland produced during that period
was ;^i 20,000. But in the reign of James I. Ireland had
become very much reduced in population by former wars and
rebellions, and the King, now finding it at peace, appointed regular
circuits of judges, and divided the country into counties. The
benefit and protection of English laws were extended to all,
whereby the Irish were reclaimed from their wildncss, induced to
cut oflf their glibbs or long hair, and to make their mantles into
cloaks.* Encouragement was also given to trade, &c., so that until
this reign Ireland was never entirely subdued to the Crown of
England."
Those inhabitants of Ulster who had been of a rebellious
disposition were all transplanted into Connaught, and the London
corporations, which had obtained royal grants of land in Ulster,
sent over, in 161 2, a colony of 300 persons, of different handi-
crafts and occupations, for the purpose of repeopling Deny (which
afterwards got the name of Londonderry) and Coleraine, and a
corporation was established in London called the Irish Society.
The Lord Lieutenant on 20th May, 161 5, issued an order that
all persons attending sessions, or term sittings, should use and wear
English attire and apparel, and that punishment, by fine and im-
•Walker, in his Hist. Essay on the dress of the ancient and modem Irish (pnb. 1788), says
— ** Amongst the early Irish the beiu:d was cherished with as much solicitade as formerly
amongst the Orientals. Nor did the Irish restrain the growth of the hair on the head, bnt
throwing it back off the forehead allowed it to flow about the neck, calling those suspended
locks Coluns or Olibbs, and taking an honest pride in them. In the poems of Ossian frequent
allusion is made to the Gllbb, equally worn by both nations In the reign of
Elizabeth the men wore linen shirts, exceedingly laiige, stained with saffron ; the sleeves were
wide, and hanging to the knees ; straight and short trusses, plaited thick on the skirt ; their
breeches close to their thighs, and mantles most times cast over their heads. The women
wore their hair plaited in a curious manner, hanging down tiieir backs and shoulders, under
folden wreaths of fin^ linen, rolled about their heads; rather loading the wearer than
delighting the beholder." A writer in the reign of James I. said—" That the English-Irish,
forgetting their own country, are somewhat ixif ected with the Irish rudeness, and, with them,
are delighted in simple colours, as red and yellow. The Irish gentlemen, or lords of counties,
wore close breeches, and stockings of the same piece of cloth, of red or such like oolour ; a
loose coat, and a three-cornered mantle, commonly of coarse light stuff, made at home.
Their linen was coarse and slovenly. I say slovenly, for they seldom put off a shirt till it is
worn, and those shirts, in our memory, were made of some 20 or 80 ells, folded in wrinkles,
and coloured with saffron. The ladies had their heads covered after the Turkish manner,
with many ells of Unen, only the Turkish heads or turbans are round in the top, but the
attire of the Irish women's heads is more flat on the top, and broader at the sides, not much
unlike a cheese, if it had a hole in it to put in the head. The women's ancient head-dress so
perfectly resembled that of the Egyptian Isis, it cannot be doubted but that the modes of
Egypt were preserved among the Irish. Crowning the heads with rolls or folds of linen being
so noted a mark of the Eastern custom that its source cannot be disputed. In the more
remote parts of the country, where the English laws and manners were unknown, it was
stated that— the chiefe of the Irish went naked, even in the winter time." Leland disputes
the accuracy of the statement about the Irish chiefs in the remote districts being naked, and
says— ** There is no doubt but that in the reign of Elizabeth, even the old natives had
degenerated, and that the wars of several centuries had reduced them to a state inferior to
that in which the English found them, in the days of Henry U., yet the fact i« totally incredible
about their being naked, as the climate of Ireland must at all times have forced the most
barbarous to some covering, even in their most retired chambers,"
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prisonment, would be inflicted upon all such as would appear
before the Courts attired in mantles or robes, and not having
their hair cut.
1636. — Lord Strafford, who was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at
this time, did all in his power to discourage the woollen trade,
which was then beginning to rise into importance, but on the other
hand he used every means he thought fit to promote and improve
the linen industry ; and, to assist in developing it, he spent out
of his own means above ;^5 0,000. His first movement was
directed towards the improvement of flax in the field, and for this
purpose he imported seed from Holland, and likewise brought
over Dutchmen to instruct the Irish farmers in the best mode of
growing the crop. This led to a largely increased production of
yarn, and gave a much more extended employment to women and
children at the spinning wheel ; but though the yarn was more
plentiful it was found extremely difficult to improve the quality of
the cloth or much increase its production. The exertions he used
were in many respects praiseworthy, for besides selling the seed
(which he imported) to the farmers, at cost price, he is credited with
having succeeded in bringing the flax from an average of twelve
inches in length to three feet; the yarn spun being also more
regular in every respect, and the cloth much better, its breadth
having been increased from about twelve to twenty inches. But
the prejudice of an ignorant class, not only against the English-
man's rule, but also against the ideas he entertained, which were
so contrary to the long established and conventional system pursued
by the native population, -stirred up their opposition and produced
bitter strife, whilst many sad tales of suffering and cruel oppression
are recorded as having been endured by the poor people who
refused to comply with his arbitrary commands. Had conciliatory
measures been adopted, and his agents instructed to temper
moderation with all their efforts to overcome the deeply-rooted
prejudices of the people, against innovations of the kind, he would
doubtless have largely succeeded in bettering their condition, and
improving still more the linen industry. But his ukases — such as
this, " any farmer, weaver, or linen draper, who manufactured flax
fibre by any other mode than that which he prescribed should be
punished with the severest penalties the law could inflict," —
administered with Russian severity, provoked their animosity, and
only produced a more determined resistance to his rule.
The increased production of yam, therefore, not being worked
up into a corresponding increase in cloth, it was sought after by
English buyers, for we find in an account written by one Louis
Roberts, respecting the trade of the city of Manchester at this
time, that " Manchester buys lynnen yarne off" the Irish in great
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30 IRISH LINEN TRADE
quantity^ and weaving it into cloth, returns the same again in lynnen,
into Ireland to sell.'*
The rebellion in 1641, and massacre of many thousands of
Protestants, was followed by the confiscation of two and a half
million acres of land, and, as the industry of the country had been
all but destroyed, Ireland was reduced to a very low condition.
Nine years after this, home and foreign manufactures of all
kinds had greatly extended, and a glut appears to have occurred
in many of the markets of the world, for we find Sir Wm. Temple
mentions that at this time " Sweden and Denmark, France and
England had more than ever busied themselves about trade,
that there seemed to have grown too many traders for the trade of
the world, so that they can hardly live one by another." The
woollen manufactures of Holland were pushed on vigorously, and
competed seriously with England, so much so that an attempt was
made to prevent the supplies of wool being sent from Spain to
Holland.
A series of wars between the English and Dutch soon after
followed, which crippled the resources of the latter ; but though
the English woollen manufactures were still in a flourishing state
the Dutch held their own in point of finish ; for the finer descrip-
tions of English woollen cloth — for many years after peace was
re-established — were sent over to Holland to be dyed and finished.
1660. — ^With all the advances towards improvement made in
Ireland, down to this period it was still very far behind in com-
merce of all kinds. Sir J. Child mentions that " the people were
poor, ill-clothed, and their houses worse provided, money 10 to 12
per cent, and intolerably scarce, notwithstanding the great plenty
of provisions." Postage on letters from England to Dublin was
2S per oz., and i6d per oz. for internal postage over forty miles
distance. But twenty years later, linen .and woollen manufactures
became greatly extended in Ireland, and the country generally had
made considerable progress \ the woollen trade in the southern
districts had been gradually attaining to importance, and the ex-
portations, year by year, increasing to such an extent as to cause
great jealousy among the trade in England. Cheaper living and
lower wages attracted capitalists from England and the Continent,
so that the Irish woollen trade, especially friezes and coarse cloths,
for which it had been long celebrated, defied competition, and
threatened materially to curtail demand for English products. The
manufacture of linen goods had also made considerable progress,
and, owing to the reduced cost of production, EngUsh manufac-
turers complained that their trade was rendered unprofitable.
A kind of compact was then entered into between the Parlia-
ments of England and Ireland, by which the latter, in 1698, imposed
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duties on the exportation of their own woollen manufactures, be-
lieving, no doubt, that in giving up or reducing this trade, in order
to promote the linen industry, they were doing the wisest thing
which the circumstances of the time required, and public policy
dictated. It is, however, a matter of deep regret that our Legisla-
ture was so short-sighted as comply with the demands of the
English Parliament, and, by a suicidal act destroy a great industry,
to please the manufacturers of Yorkshire, with the vain hope of
buying a kind of monopoly in the manufacture of linen goods ;
for one great inducement was that England would give up the
latter trade.
This last part of the compact was never observed by the
manufacturers of England, and had it not been that Irish linens
could be produced so much cheaper in this country, as to give our
people a practical advantage, in all probability the fate of the
woollen trade would have been followed by the destruction of the
linen industry also. As the native Parliament had voluntarily
surrendered this one trade, the Imperial Legislature could not,
with any sense of public justice, pass measures to cripple the
other \ but many obstacles were thrown in the way of establishing
it. However, so far as the King was concerned, he did much —
as we shall presently see — towards extending and improving the
linen trade.
It has been alleged that, as the woollen manufacture was chiefly
confined to the south and west of Ireland, where the inhabitants
were nearly all Roman Catholics, the policy adopted was to favour
one party at the expense of the other. Though, no doubt, at the
time many approved of this course, few at the present day would
be found to justify such an act of oppression towards a class of
their countrymen, whose party had been displaced by the revolution,
which left uncontrolled power in Protestant hands.*
As it may prove interesting to some of our readers, we here
insert the proceedings, by petition, at this time, which ultimately
led to the enactment of those laws which extinguished the
important woollen industry, that at one time flourished in the
country.
*Wm. ni., thoTigh yielding to his Parliament, in their attempt to crash the woollen
trade^^was far from being an intolerant monarch, and it was not until the reign of Queen
Anne that penal lawR, against the Boman Catholics, were enacted ; and that the linen trade
came to be regarded as a Protestant industry, and as such deserving of encouragement.
Arthur Young, commenting on the religion of Ireland at this time, says — "Flushed with
success, after the victory of the Boyne, and animated with the recollection of recent injuries,
it would not have been surprising, if the triumphant party had exceeded the bounds of
moderation towards the Catholics ; but the amazing circumstance is that the great category
of persecuting laws was not framed during the life of that monarch, who wisely was a
friend to toleration, but during the next reign, and that such a system should haye beea
embraced, six or seven years after the King's death, is not easily accounted for."
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32 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Arthur Young, an English gentleman, who made a tour through Ireland
between 1776 and 1779, and compiled a large vol. on the state of the country
at that period, writing on this subject says : — The Earl of Strafford Lord
Lieutenant in Charles I. reign passed several laws, and took various measures
to encourage the linen manufacture, insomuch that he has by some authors been
said to have established it originally. At the end of the last century, in king
William's reign, it arose to be an object of consequence, but not singly so, for
it appears from a variety of records, in both kingdoms, that the Irish had then
a considerable woollen manufacture for exportation, which raised the jealousy
of the English manufacturers in that commodity so much that they presented so
many petitions to both lords and commons, as to induce those bodies to enter
fully into their jealousies and illiberal views ; which occasioned the famous
compact between the two nations brought on in the following manner.
On 9th June, 1698, the Earl of Stamford reported from the Lords
committees (appointed to draw up an address to be presented to his Majesty,
relating to the woollen manufacture in Ireland) the following address, (z/w. )
*WE, the lords spiritual and temporal in parliament assembled, do
humbly represent unto you*- Majesty, that the growing manufacture of cloth in
Ireland, both by the cheapness of all sorts of necfessaries of life, and goodness
of materials for making of all manner of cloth, doth invite your subjects of
England, with their families and servants, to leave their habitations to settle
there, to .the increase of the woollen manufacture in Ireland, which makes your
loyal subjects in this kingdom very apprehensive that the further growth of it
may greatfy prejudice the said manufacture here ; by which the trade of this
nation and the value of lands will very much decrease, and the numbers of your
people be much lessened here ; wherefore, we do most humbly beseech your
most sacred Majesty, that your Majesty would be pleased, in the most public
and effectual way, that may be, to declare to all your subjects of Ireland, that
the growth and increase of the woollen manufacture there, hath long, and will
ever be looked upon with great jealousy, by all your subjects of this kingdom :
And if not timely remedied may occasion very strict laws, totally to prohibit
and suppress the same, and on the other hand, if they turn their industry and
skill, to the settling and improving the linen manufacture, for which generally
the lands of the kingdom are very proper, they shall receive, all coimtenance,
favour and protection from your royal influence, for the encouragement and
promoting of the said linen manufacture, to all the advantage and profit, that
kingdom can be capable o€
To which the house agreed.'
** It is ordered by the Lords spiritual and temporal in parliament assembled,
That the Lords, with white staves, do humbly attend his Majesty with the
address of this house, concerning the woollen manufacture in Ireland.
loth June, 1698: — *' The lord Steward reported his Majesty's answer to the
address, to this effect (viz,)
THAT his Majesty will take care to do what their lordships have desired.
Petition from the English House of Commons to Wm. III.
30^>4 June^ 1698 : — " Most Gracious Sovereign^
"WE, your Majesty's most dutifid and loyal subjects, the Commons in
parliament assembled, being very sensible that the wealth and power of this
kingdom do, in a great measure, depend on the preserving the woollen
manufacture, as much as possible entire to this realm, think it becomes us, like
our ancestors, to be jealous of the establishment and increase thereof elsewhere;
and to use our utmost endeavours to prevent it.
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HAND BOOK, 33
"And, therefore, we cannot without trouble observe, that Ireland, is
dependent on, and protected by England in the enjoyment of all they have ;
and which is so proper for the linen manufacture, the establishment and growth
of which there would be so enriching to themselves, and so profitable to
England, should of late apply itself to the woollen manufacture, to the great
prejudice of the trade of this kingdom ; and so unwillingly promote the linen
trade, which would benefit both them and us.
" The consequence whereof, will necessitate your parliament of England, to
inteipose to prevent the mischief that threatens us, unless your Majesty, by your
authority and great wisdom, shall find means to secure the trade of England,
by making your subjects of Ireland to pursue the joint interest of both
kingdoms.
"And we do most humbly implore your Majesty's protection and favour in
this matter ; and that you will make it your royal care, and enjoin all those you
employ in Ireland, to make it their care, and use their utmost diligence, to
hinder the exportation of wool from Ireland, except to be imported hither, and
for the discouraging the woollen manufactures, and encouraging the linen
manufactures in Ireland, to which we shall always be ready to give our utmost
assistance."
Resolved, That the said address be presented' to his Majesty by the whole
house.
2nd July,
HIS MAJESTY'S ANSWER.
" Gentlemen,
"I shall do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen
manufacture in Ireland, and to encourage the linen manufacture there ; and to
promote the trade of England."
Thursday^ 2*jth September^ 1698.
Part of the Lord Justices Speech to the Irish Parliament.
" Amongst these bills there is one for the encouragement of the linen and
hempen manufactures. At our first meeting, we recommended to you that matter,
and we have now endeavoured to render that bill practical and useful for that
effect, and as such we now recommend it to you. The settlement of this
manufacture will contribute much to people the country, and will be found much
more advantageous to this kingdom than the woollen manufacture, which being
the settled staple trade of England, from whence all foreign markets are
supplied, can never be encouraged here for that purpose, whereas the linen 'and
hempen manufacture will not only be encouraged, as consistent with the trade
of England, but will render the trade of this kingdom both useful and
necessary to England. "
The Commons of Ireland returned the following answer to the speech
from the throne.
** WE pray leave to assure your Excellencies that we shall heartily endeavour
to establish a linen and hempen manufacture here, and to render the same
useful to England, as well as advantageous to this kingdom, and that we hope
to find such a temperament in respect to the woollen trade here that the same
may not be injurious to England." — And they passed a law that session,
commencing 25th March, 1699, laying 4s. additional duty on every 20s. value
of broad-cloth exported out of Ireland, and 2s. on every 20s. value of serjges,
baize, kerseys, stuffs, or any other sort of new drapery made of wool, or mixed
with wool (friezes only excepted) which was in effect a prohibition. And in the
same session a law was passed in England, restraining Ireland from exporting
those woollen manufactures, including frieze to any other parts except England
and Wales.
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34 IRISH LINEN TRADE
^ Arthur Young adds: -1* The addresses of the two Houses to the King
carry the clearest evidence of their source, the jealousy of merchants and
manufacturers ; I might add their ignorance too. They were dictated upon the
narrow idea that the prosperity of the woollen fabrics of Ireland was inconsistent
with the welfare of those of England ; it would at present be fortimate for both
kingdoms if these errors had been confined to the last century. There is an
equal mixture of falshood also in the representations ; for they assert that the
cheapness of necessaries in Ireland drew from England the woollen manufacturers,
but they forgot the cheapness of labour in Ireland, to which no workman in the
world ever yet emigrated. The Irish were engaged in various slight fabrics
not made in England; but had they been employed on broad cloth for
exportation, the English manufacturers would well have bore it, they did at that
time and afterwards bear a rapid increase of the French fabrics, yet flourished
themselves. We have had so long an experience of markets increasing with
industry and inventions that the time ought to have passed away long ago for
viewing competitors with the eye of jealousy."
1699. — The Act, which levied duties on wool and woollen
goods, having been evaded to a large extent, it was found neces-
sary to limit the places of export ; accordingly an Act was passed
this year by which these goods could only be shipped from the
ports of Dublin, Drogheda, Waterford, Youghal, Kinsale, and
Cork, to the ports of Bridgewater, Bristol, Bideford, Minehead,
Milford-haven, Chester, and Liverpool, under forfeiture of ship
and cargo, and £s^^ penalty."
The revocation of die Edict of Nantes (in 1685) having driven
a large number of Protestant families from France at this period,
very many came to this country; amongst them were skilled work-
men, and weavers of wool, silk, and flax. The immigration of
these people was specially advantageous to the linen trade, which
soon after exhibited a considerable extension by the fresh blood
thus infused into it. A great many of these weavers, and their
families, came to the north of Ireland, and settled about Belfast,
Lurgan, and Lisburn. In this last-named place, which was their
great centre, they commenced their weaving operations, and soon
greatly advanced the manufacture of cloth in this country, by the
improved methods they introduced.
Louis Crommelin, one of these French settlers,* who afterwards
became a very distinguished person, owing to the part he took in
promoting and improving the trade, wrote an account of the
position in which he found it, and the means he had adopted for
•Orommelin at first fled from France to Holland, and while there became personally,
acquainted with WtUiam Prince of Orange. After the latter was raised to the British
throne a correspondence was kept up by the King with his old friend, and in 1698 Orommelin
was induced by his Majesty to come to Ireland, and take charge of all the Huguenot coloniest
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HAND BOOK, 35
its extension. He stated that having come over to the north of
Ireland, with his son, after making a survey of various localities he
selected Lisnagarvey (now Lisburn) as the best. Afterwards, owing
to the encouragement given him, he brought over from Holland a
considerable number of the French artisans who had settled there,
and also a large number of spinning wheels and looms of a better
description than had been previously in use in Ireland. These
people founded a colony in Lisburn, where they erected a church of
their own, and had a French chaplain to conduct the services. The
Crommelinfamilyhaving removed much of their wealth out of France,
before the troubles came upon the Protestants of that country,
were not only skilled in the method of spinning and weaving,
but were able to bring over a considerable amount of capital, and
it is stated that Louis Crommelin expended ;£"! 0,000 in pushing
on the trade. King William granted him a pension of ^200 a
year, and he not only enjoyed the personal favour of his Majesty,
but received a vote of thanks from the Irish Parliament in 1707 for
his exertions in promoting the linen industry.
1700. — The Commissioners of Trade having recommended
King William to allow Crommelin ;£'8oo per annum for ten years,
being interest at 8 per cent, on the ;£"! 0,000 which he had laid
out, the King complied with the recommendation. A patent was
also granted this year to those French people who were to settle
in the kingdom, and instruct the Irish in improving their linen and
hempen manufactures.
In Crommelin's essay (published in 1705), we find a sketch
of the position of the trade, in some of its departments, at the
time he came to this country. He says —
"The people are entirely ignorant of the mysteries relating to the manu-
facture, .... The flax being managed by women altogether ignorant
as to their choice of the seed or soil, for which reason their flax is too short,
and unfit for making good yam ; they do not know when or how to pull their
flax, whereby their seed degenerates, and their flax wants strength and sub-
stance. .... They have no judgment when or how to water or grass
their flax, so as to give it a natural colour ; and what is yet worse than all,
they constantly dry their flax by the fire, which makes it impossible to bleach
cloth made of their yarns ; for let all the skill and judgment of the world be
used to bleach cloth made of diffSerent sorts of flax, you can never bring it to a
good colour ; for till such time as it is woven and bleached, the best artist in
nature cannot discover the mischief. .... They also use, in cleaning
their flax, things which they call "breaks," which I can in no Way approve of.
. . . . They spin tlieir long and short flax athwart, which is extremely
preposterous, as the flax cannot be spun fine ; so the linen is cottony
The wheels used in spinning are turned by the foot, and have two cords, one
going round the wheel, and the whirl of the spindle, and the other going round
3ie wheel, and whirl of the spool, which overtwists the thread. Tneir manner
of reeling yam is one of the greatest grievances, as many honest, industrious
men are undone by the deceitful methods now used by the crafty and unfair
people in this particular ; as for instance, there is no standard for the measure
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36 IRISH LINEN TRADE
of reels, and everybody uses such reels as they thmk fit ; for which reason a
stranger to the market is imposed upon to his ruin* The cuts and hanks are
reeled by several threads, through laziness or wickedness, to the utter ruin of
the poor dealers who buy yam, and think they have good and marketable
goods for their money ; but find that the whole hank ravels altogether, and
becomes entirely unserviceable, or at the best so troublesome to wind that it
is as eligible to lose it as it is to spend so much time and pains to wind it.
They ought to mark each cut, or six score threads, as they reel them, and not
afterwards, as they now do ; which they might do without difficulty. They do
likewise intermix, in one and the same hank, yam of several degrees of fineness,
which is a cheat intolerable to buyers. .... The looms generally em-
ployed in this kingdom for the making of all sorts of linen cloth (excepting
diaper and damask) are looms properly disposed, and invented for the making
of woollen cloth (save only that they changed the gear, and wrought promis-
cuously linen and woollen therein) ; therefore, it is impossible to use one and
the same loom to both material with good success The reeds are
uneven and too thick, .... and they make a stuff, of water and meal,
without judgment, wherewith they stiffen their warps ; and the cloth is made
too thin and sleazy; and woven where the weather affects it The
manner of mixing their ashes and yams together in the keeve, purely through
ignorance, or laziness, makes their yam fret and cotton for ever."
Crommelin got up a bleach green at Lisburn on the improved
plan with which he was acquainted, and he with the small colony
referred to, in the course of twelve or fourteen years, effected
considerable improvements in the linen manufacture.
The patent, however, of William III., granting Crommelin
;;^8oo a year of a subsidy for ten years, over and above the pension,
was, owing to the King's death, not carried into effect, and in
Queen Anne's reign Crommelin complained that the subsidy was
reduced to ;^40o, which only gave him about four per cent, on
his capital instead of eight The amount was afterwards increased
to ;^5oo' per annum.
A colony of Huguenots settled at Waterford in 1693, and
carried on tiie manufacture of linen cloth there ; but owing to
various causes the manufacture did not seem to thrive to any
extent out of Ulster.
1 701. — ^At the close of the seventeenth century the English
Parliament began to show encouragement to the linen trade, and
in 1701 an Act was passed for this purpose. But as the death of
William III. took place the following year no steps were taken to
put this Act into operation.
1710. — In the reign of Queen Anne a new Act was passed,
following up the action taken in the previous reign, and with a view
to promote the growth of flax in Ireland, and improve the manu-
facture of linen and hemp. By virtue of this Act, certain duties,
granted by former Acts for the encouragement of the linen manu-
focture were continued, and certain other and additional duties
were also granted for the same purpose. The Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland was enabled ''to appoint certain Trustees for the disposal
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HAND BOOK. 37
and management of the said duties, according to certain trusts and
powers ; the Trustees to consist of an equal number of persons in
each of the four provinces in the kingdom, and to settle and adjust
such matters as may be most reasonable and conducive to the
establishing and carrying on the said manufacture in this kingdom,
and for preventing all abuses that might happen in the same."
Under the authority of this Act, the Duke of Ormonde, Lord
Lieutenant, issued a warrant on 6th October, 171 1, appointing a
number of noblemen and gentlemen in each of the provinces to
act in the capacity of Trustees. In Leinster, Munster, and Con-
naught eighteen were appointed in each, and the same number
also in Ulster, the names of the latter being — The Earl of Mount
Alexander, Earl of Abercom, Viscount Mountjoy, Viscount
Masserene, Lord Conway, Edward Southwell, Thomas Coote,
Charles O'Neill, Joshua Dawson, Dr. Marmaduke Coghill, Wm.
Brownlow, Samuel Waring, Hawkins Magill, Matthew Forde,
James Topham, Charles Campbell, Robert Clements, and Michael
Ward.
The Board was formed principally from among the Lords and
Commons of the Parliament of Ireland, their rank and influence
in the country being the chief guarantee that the trusts would be
properly administered.
From this period a new era opened for the trade, and we shall
take the commencement of it as furnishing fresh material for a new
chapter on our staple industry.
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38 IRISH LINEN TRADE
CHAPTER IV.
From the formation of the Irish Linen Trade Board to the
Legislative Union with Great Britain.
HE creation of the Board of Trustees of the Linen
and Hempen Manufactures of Ireland, in 1711,
formed an important land-mark in the history of the
linen trade ; and as the close of the seventeenth
century witnessed the extinction of the woollen
industry, except in a few localities Where it still
struggled for existence, the flaxen manufacture started
"^w on a fresh course, acquiring as years rolled on increased
vitality.
Whatever opinions may be entertained at the present day,
regarding the wisdom of granting subsidies or state aid towards
developing industrial operations, it will scarcely be denied that at
this particular period in the history of the linen manufacture, the
fostering care of the state, considering the circumstances of the
times, was a wise and judicious measure.
At that time Ireland laboured under great disadvantages, and
had not material aid been liberally administered, it would have
been a long and difficult struggle to compete with the manufactu-
rers of France and Belgium, who for centuries held the leading
position in the world as producers of the finest linens.
Ireland's metropolis was constituted the head-quarters of the
trade, and through it, for a century, the greater portion of all the
business in finished linens was carried on. Thither buyers from
the English and Foreign markets resorted, until improvements in
steam navigation and other facilities for communication had
grown up, so that this centralization was no longer endurable.
The Trustees set to work in right earnest, and held their first
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meeting in October, 171 1, at which the following resolution was
passed : — " That the seed merchants of the city be sent for, and
spoken to concerning the importing of hemp and flaxseed."
The Board, having first of all taken steps regarding the seed,
imported a large supply from Holland and Russia. Next they
induced well experienced Dutchmen to come over to Ireland, and
these were appointed to superintend the culture of flax on the
most approved method. They also distributed funds to purchase
implements and weaving utensils ; scutch mills were erected, and
bounties and premiums were given in various ways, as will be
afterwards detailed, thus using their extensive powers to encourage
by every means this industry.
County workhouses were then in existence in several parts of
Ireland; some of the masters of these institutions applied for
situations as itinerant flax and hemp instructors, but the Board did
not consider it judicious to employ them, especially as the applicants
expected to get the salary of the new office in addition to the one
they held.
The annual revenue which the Board had under their control
fluctuated a good deal in amount, but between duties appropriated
to their use, for the benefit of the trade, as well as direct Parlia-
mentary grants, it appears that from 1711 to 1777 they had
received over a million and a quarter sterling, and that about the
last-named year they were disbursing some ;2^33,ooo per annum.
The formation Of this patriotic Board, at this period of our
national history, was productive of much benefit to the country, and
though many abuses subsequently crept in,, and its funds were often
carelessly administered, there can be no doubt that a considerable
stimulus was given to the trade. By monetary assistance to men
of ability, who required capital to carry on their business, it not
only pulled up in the race with continental countries, but before
the Board passed out of existence, the Irish linen trade had been
brought to so important a position that its fabrics were fast
displacing the products of all other linen-producing countries in
the markets of the world.
Another very important power vested in this Board related to
the appointment of persons to examine all white cloth before
being offered for sale ; to measure same, and to stamp the webs
with a seal. White goods were at first dealt with, and the seals
put upon them were a warrantry as to the genuine character of the
linen.
1 7 19. — Accordingly in this year the act 6 George I., cap. 7,
was passed ; section 7 related to the appointment of a lapper,
whose duty it was to measure, examine, stamp, and lap or fold up
the web.
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40 IRISH LINEN TRADE
The section ran as follows : —
** And for the more effectual preventing of frauds and abuses, in making
and bleaching of linen cloth, and bringing the same into better repute, be it
enacted, that it shall and may be lawful to and for the Trustees appointed for
encouraging the hempen and flaxen manufactures of this kingdom, or any five or
more of them, to licence and appoint such fit and proper person or persons in such
places of this kingdom as they shall judge most convenient, to view, examine,
and measure all and every such piece or pieces of linen cloth, as shall be
produced and offered to him or them ; and if such cloth appears to be
merchantable, and pursuant to the good laws for regulating the linen
manufacture, in force in this kingdom, then, and not otherwise, such person or
persons licensed to be lappers, as aforesaid, shall and may lap, and make up
the same, and mark thereon the number of yards each piece containeth in
length ; and seal or stamp both ends thereof with the name of such lapper,
and the c©unty in* which he resides, or such other impression as the said
Trustees shall think fit and appoint ; for all which such lapper shall and may
demand and take the sum of twopence, and no more, unless he beetle the same,
and then one penny more, oy&c and above the said twopence."
To cany out the provisions of this Act, the Board drew up a
code of instructions for these lappers, and divided them into two
classes — public lappers and private lappers — their regulation with
regard to the latter being contained in the following minute, passed
1 6th January, 17x9 :—
" If anyone who keeps a bleach yard, and gives the Board satisfaction that
he is qualified to be a lapper, and applies for a stamp and conmiission, they will
X appoint him ; provided that he lap up and stamp no cloths, but such as are
bleached in his own bleach yard, except there be no public lapper within six
miles of him."
1720. — ^The Board established this year spinning schools in
each province, and provided wheels and reels for the scholars.
The mistress of each school had ;^io a year, besides certain profits
arising from the sale of yarns. She was to pay the spinner four-
pence for each hank of eight hank yarn ; sevenpence for twelve
hank yam ; and elevenpence for twenty hank yarn. Hemp spinning
schools were also started, and as a liberal bounty was paid by the
State for the encouragement of canvas and sailcloth productions,
those hemp schools became objects of attention on the part of the
Trustees. Some matters were carried with a high hand by these
functionaries, as the following order, given to the County Inspector,
will show : — " You are to see whe5ier any person, who has not
served an apprenticeship of five years to the trade, ^YidXi. presume
io weave linen doth, and when such a person is found, you are to
bring him before the next justice of the peace, and punish him
according to law."
1730. — Macpherson records that during the month of May
this year, the imports into London of fine linen from Holland
amounted to 66,286 yards, and Irish linen 179,114 yards.
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HAND BOOK, 41
A writer about this time states that the population of Ireland
was computed to amount to, in 1672, 1,100,000; in 1684,
1,200,000; but soon after King William reduced the country to
subjection the population had fallen to about 1,040,000 (occasioned
doubtless by so many Catholics leaving the country, owing to the
destruction of the wopllen trade and other causes);, but in 1725 it
rose to 1,670,000, and about 1733, owing to the encouragement
given to the Protestant settlers, and by the erection of schools for
the working classes, the population had grown to about 2,000,000,
of which it was estimated 600,000 were Protestants.
1739. — The embargo laid upon woollen manufactures, pre-
viously alluded to, necessarily left on hand a large quantity of the
raw material, which could not all be consumed at home ; con-
siderable quantities were therefore, in contravention of the various
Acts, clandestinely sent out of Ireland, chiefly to foreign ports.
An Act was passed this year abolishing the duties which had been
levied on the export of woollen yams, and increasing the ports to
fourteen from which woollen goods might be shipped.
1 741. — The increase in the Irish linen trade appears by this
time to have greatly alarmed all the foreign linen countries, for it
appeared that, whilst at the accession of William III. Ireland did
not export more than the value of ;£"! 2,000, in 1701 the total was
;^i4,i2o, and in 1706 there were 530,858 yards sent away, valued
at ioJ^dperyard;andin 1741 7,207,741 yards of linen, and 21,665
cwts. of yarn, were exported, the value of which was half-a-million
sterhng.
The observations of Sir William Temple, made sixty years
previously respecting the linen trade, appear to have been verified
in a remarkable manner. Writing in 1 681, he says — " No women
are apter to spin linen thread so well as the Irish, who labouring
little in any kind with their hands have their fingers more supple
than other women of the poor condition amongst us, and this may
certainly be advanced and improved into a great manufacture of
linen, so as to bear down the trade of both France and Holland ;
and draw much of the money, which goes from England to those
parts, into the hands of his Majesty's subjects of Ireland, without
crossing any interest of trade in England ; for besides what has
been said of flax and spinning, the soil and climate are proper for
whitening, both by the frequent brooks and also winds in that
country."
1742. — The British Parliament this year laid a duty of 2s lod
on every web of foreign linen imported ; and established a bounty
of one penny a yard on all British and Irish linen exported. Five
years afterwards threepence per yard was given as bounty on the ex-
port of all goods valued fromoneshillingtoone-and-sixpenceperyard.
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42 IRISH LINEN TRADE
1760. — The writer of an essay at this time thus refers to the
Irish Board : — " In this reign (Geo. II.), and not before, our linen
manufacture, in many respects one of the most profitable branches
of our national comiherce, had received all the encouragement
from Royal bounty and Parliamentary sanction that could be
reasonably hoped for. Persons of the highest rank, dignity, and
fortune were appointed Trustees for the propagation, encourage-
ment, and diffusion of this beneficial trade throughout the respec-
tive provinces. The I^inen Hall was erected in Dublin, under as
just and well arranged a system of regulations as any commercial
house in Europe. The north of Ireland, which owing to the want
of industry business and tillage had been almost neglected, now
began to wear an entirely new aspect. Ulster became a populous
scene of improvement, traffic, wealth, and plenty ; and is at this
day a well planted district, considerable for numbers of well
affected useful and industrious subjects. We no where, abstracted
from our own country, met with a set of such pious patriots (as
the ever honourable Dublin Society) who from their funds ad-
vanced this country in general in every degree and branch of
industry and improvement, and inspired with sentiments truly
public and social, munificently rewarding their countrymen of
whatever denomination without favour or distinction."
1 76 1. — Scotland in the meantime had progressed considerably
in her linen manufactures, and through Government assistance
her trade in this branch had increased about five times what it was
in 1728. It was assumed that this increase was telling against the
Irish trade to some extent, for the exports from Ireland showed a
falling oflf compared with 1757.
To encourage the manufacture of linen cambric cloth — a species
of fine linen for which Cambrai, in France, had long been famous
— the Board granted a sum of ;^ 1,375 to assist in establishing a
manufactory at Dundalk, but the enterprise was not a successful
one.
1764. — The provisions of the act of 1719 regarding the sealing
of white cloth, were subsequently extended to embrace the brown
or " green cloth," exposed for sale in the country markets, and
several acts were passed bearing upon this branch of the subject,
but the one which was finally agreed upon, as embracing all the
provisions necessary to meet the case, was the act of 3 George III.,
chap. 34, and which received the Royal assent on 12th May, 1764.
Under this act the Trustees had powers to appoint sealmasters
of brown linen, the section running as follows : —
** For the more effectual prevention of all jfrauds and abuses in the said manu-
fectures, the Trustees, or any five of them may appoint during their pleasure, such
fit and proper persons, and in such places as they shall judge convenient, to be
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HAND BOOK. 43
sealmasters of brown and unbleached Imen appoint rules to
direct and govern them .... require security by bond from them . .
. . may administer oath of office . •. . . and punish them for neglect
of duties .... and recal their seal^, &c."
The duties of sealmasters were defined as follows : —
** Every sealmaster of brown linen must carefully view, examine, and
measure every piece of linen cloth that shall be produced and offered to him ;
and if merchantable, and in every respect conformable to law, he must fold and
stamp the said piece as therein directed .... and no sealmaster shall
buy, or suffer to be bought, in his house, any brown linen that shall be brought
to him to be sealed .... nor sell, nor lend, nor suffer his seal to be
used by any other person whatsoever, under pain of forfeiting ;^20. ....
And he may demand and take for every piece of unbleached Hnen, containing
twenty-five yards and under, the sum of one penny, and no more, and so in
proportion for a greater quantity."
The penalties against selling unsealed linen were contained in
the following section :< —
** No person shall sell or expose for sale, or buy any green or unbleached
linen, or hempen cloth, that shall not at the time thereof be sealed and marked
as before directed, under pain of forfeiting the sum of ;^5 for every such piece."
At first 'these acts met with violent opposition on the part of
the weavers, who assembled in tumultuous mobs chiefly about
I^isburn, and committed various outrages. They seized the linen
drapers, who were about to dispose of their webs, and forced many
of them to swear they would not recognize the sealing of the
brown goods ; they attacked and maimed many others, even the
Earl of Hillsborough narrowly escaped the fury of a mob on one
occasion. They attacked tlie house of Mr. Williamson, the
proprietor of an extensive bleach green at Lambeg, and only
desisted from destroying his house on finding it was well defended.
They then attempted to destroy his bleach green, but were
prevented by similar precautions.
This is only a sample of the senseless opposition on the part
of the weavers, against regulations which were 'intended as much
for their own protection as anything else. Before this act was
passed they were entirely at the mercy of the buyers, many of
whom used no just standard of measurement for their work, and
very often when a proper yard-stick was not at hand they would
cut a stick out of the nearest hedge, and which was often an inch .
or two longer than the statute yard. In measuring, also, it was
stated that by sleight of hand they could often take from half to a
whole yard above the just measure, and as the breadth of the thumb
was allowed in each yard, anyone favoured by nature with an
exceptionally large one was placed on the hi^ road towards
attaining a fortune.
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44 IRISH LINEN TRADE
But in a very short time the weavers, seeing that this opposition
to the Board was not only fruitless but contrary to their best
interests, quickly came to a state of repentance for the acts of
folly and wickedness previously committed.
We extract from official records of the Board the following
addresses, which exhibit the penitential frame of mmd they
afterwards showed.
One of them is entitled : — " The thankful address of the
Towns of Banbridge, Loughbrickland, Newry, and counties adja-
cent, &c." :— .
** Most worthy Gentlemen, — We beg leave to return you our most hearty
and sincere thanks for the many good laws and regulations you have made for
the good of the linen trade, and especially for your late good Act in causing all
brown linen to be sealed.
"We indeed confess there were some hot-headed persons amongst us
who did not at first see the general good the honourable Board designed in this
good and just law ; but a very short experience has fully convinced us of the
benefit we now reap by it ; for we find we have been greatly imposed upon by
too many of the drapers, when they had the measuring of our cloth in their own
power. In several markets, too, in this and other parts of the country, they
nad a custom that they would have half a yard, or a yard, or two yards for
nothing into the piece ; and, having all in their own power, some of them often
defrauded us as much more by too long measure ; and they would not measure
our cloth with the statute yard, but in all markets they had a yard considerably
longer ; thus, in what they took by way of gift, they had a piece or two of
cloth off us for nothing in every twenty-four pieces they bought. But now,
thank God, and the honourable Board, and all the worthy members of it, who
had the interest of their country so much at heart, we are relieved from all these
heavy and unjust burdens, Sec"
Another address, from the town and neighbourhood of Lisbum,
thus proceeds : —
** May it please your Honours, — ^We should have been amongst the first to
express our sincerest gratitude and thankfulness for the happy relations you
have made in our trade, had not grief and shame for the late enormities com-
mitted in, and about this place, withheld us from presuming to lift up our
faces before you and the public
** When we consider that it was here, and here alone, where the laws you
had ordered to be enadtcd were so madly opposed; when we plainly see (as we
now do) the benefits intended for us by the same ; but, above all, when we
reflect on the manner in which a truly noble and right honourable member of
your Board, the great friend of our trade, was treated amongst us, our faces are
not only covered with shame, but our hearts are penetrated with concern and
grief. And when we also consider the great good that was then a-doing, and
which, notwithstanding our unworthiness, has since been done for us ; and the
lenity and mercy that has since also been shown, in return for indignities and
base ingratitude, we are so confounded that we know not what to say, nor how
to address ourselves to your honours.
** Suffer us, however, humbly to assure your honours that it was only the
lowest and most ignorant of our body who,' by being deceived by wicked false-
hoods propagated amongst us, were brought to be concerned in those shameful
disturbances, in order, as they weakly believed and imagined, to save themselves
and their families from oppression and ruin."
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HAND BOOK. 46
Owing to the great improvements which, in 1764, a Lurgan
carpenter, named Thomas Turner (a special protegd of Louis
Crommelin), made in the old spinning wheel, yams of a higher
count could now be spun, and a child was able to produce twice
the quantity which a grown person previously did with the ancient
Irish machine ; an advantage of no inconsiderable importance in
these days when all the yarn spun was by hand labour.
In this year it is also recorded that Dr. Ferguson, of Belfast,
received from the Linen Board a pension of ;^3oo, for the successful
application of lime for bleaching purposes, a discovery of very
considerable importance to the trade. A few years after this, he
discovered the use of sulphuric acid as an agent in the bleaching
process, and one which was much more expeditious in its action
than the butter-milk which previously, and from time immemorial,
had been employed.
Whilst it was conceded that the use of lime for bleaching was
a valuable discovery, much difference of opinion soon after arose
regarding its use, it having been found in practice too dangerous
an agent, except in the most skilled hands. Many instances having
arisen showing the injury which cloth sustained where the manipu-
lations were not most carefully attended to, an Act of Parliament
was passed prohibiting the use of this agent altogether.
It was not until the close of this century, when chlorine, in
combination with lime, was found a superior chemical, that its
use was sanctioned, and soon after became the recognised agent
in the bleaching of cloth and yams.
Some years before this, *William Coulson, the founder of the
Lisbum damask factory, commenced work with a small number of
looms, which he erected in a large building convenient to the
County Down bridge in that town. Reference is made further on
to this important branch of the trade.
1772. — From the records at this time it appears that Irish linen
to the extent of 2,000,000 yards was during this year sent to
London, and of this quantity 776,625 yards were sent from Belfast.
Besides the direct shipments to London, large quantities were sent
to Chester to be forwarded to London.
Dulness in trade set in about this time, and a desire to emigrate
seemed to take possession of the people throughout the north,
caused by a falling off in demand in the labour market.
It appears from official returns that the exports of linen manu-
factures for 1773 were more than a fourth less than what they were
in 1 77 1. The consequence was that three-fourths, and in some
places more than this proportion of looms throughout the north
^Ireland and her staple manufactures.
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46 IRISH LINEN TRADE
were silent This so alarmed the weavers that a great exodus
immediately set in. From Belfast alone, it is stated in* the Parlia-
mentaryreports, that between 1771 and 1773 about 3,541 persons
left for America ; about 6,000 left the port of Deny, and from
Ulster alone at least 30,000 people emigrated, about one-third of
whom were weavers, many of them carrying their utensils of trade
with them. The depression in the linen trade was, however, not
confined to Ireland ; England and Scotland came in for their
share. From evidence given before a committee of the English
House of Parliament in 1774 it appeared that 600 out of 1,800
spinners had emigrated from one district in Sutherland. Cloth
which sold in 1769 for i2^d per yard fell to 9 ^d in 1774, and
in four shires in Scotland, which included Glasgow and Paisley,
out of 6,000 looms 2,500 were employed, and in general one-third
or more of the looms were idle throughout Scotland and the north
of England.
This decline of the linen industry has been stated by some
writers to have arisen from an over-production, which, for several
years, had previously characterised the trade, and ultimately led to
a glut of linen goods in all the markets. Whilst these stocks were
working down, business was seriously curtailed, many and heavy
losses being sustained. The disputes between England and
America, which ultimately led to the independence of the United
States, had also much to do with the depression in trade at this
period.
1775. — Demand began to revive slowly during this year, and
Ireland was allowed to clothe and accoutre that portion of the
army which was paid for by her, though serving out of this country.
As a further encouragement to grow flax, an additional bounty of
5s per hhd. was allowed on flaxseed imported into Ireland during
1776 and 1777, and this bounty was afterwards extended down to
1780.
Before the war with America, flaxseed was imported from that
country to the extent of about 255,000 bushels annually; but after
the outbreak of hostilities the necessity of saving the seed of the
plant was forced on the farmers of this country, and large quantities
were preserved, which soon proved highly successful.
Arthur Young in his travels through Ireland in 1776 gives
passing sketches of the linen trade in the various towns he visited,
and though he looked with no favourable eye upon the manufacture
(alleging that it was carried on to such an extent in Ulster that
agricultural pursuits were seriously neglected), the details he has
supplied, and of which we make a few extracts, will be interesting,
in comparing the state of the manufacture now with what it was
exactly one himdred years ago.
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HAND BOOK. 47
In Armagh he says — "The manufacturers are generally Protestants; and
their wives drink tea for breakfast. The price of cloth woven here is from
lojd to 11^ a-yard, brown, the state in which they sell it. The fixed price for
weaving it is 2jd per yard When the weaver has made his piece
of cloth he goes into the market of Armagh on a Tuesday, and sells it to the
draper, as he would any other commodity. .... The draper generally
hafi a bleach green, and the expense to hun of bleaching is £^ ics to ;^5 a pack
of 30 pieces, or 3s to 3s 2d a piece. After bleaching he either sends it to
factors in London Or Dublin, or sells it at the Linen-hall in Dublin. Some go
over to Chester for themselves and dispose of it there. In London he gives
seven months* credit ; in Dublin two or three, but if he goes himself to the
Hall he gets part ready money. The London factor has six per cent, for selling
it and advancing the money as soon as sold, and a half per cent for warehouse
room and insurance from fire The spinners in this district earn
from 3d to 4d per day, and weavfers lod to is 4d.
The weavers in the country on the road to Lurgan keep a pack of hounds ;
every man has a hound, and joining them together they hunt hares. The pack
is no sooner heard than all the weavers leave their looms, and away they go
after them by hundreds. This much amazed me, but I was assured it was very
common.
At Lurgan Mr. Brownlow walked with me to the market, to show me the
way the linens were sold. The cambrics are sold early, and through the whole
morning, but when the clock strikes eleven, the drapers jump upon stone
standings, and the weavers instantly flock about them with their pieces ; the
bargains are not struck at a word, but there is a little altercation whether the
price will be one halfpenny or one penny a yard more or less, which appeared
to be useless. The draper's clerk stands by him, and writes his master s name
on the pieces he buys, together with the price ; and giving it back to the seller
he goes to the draper's quarters and awaits his coming. At twelve it ends, and
then there is an hour for measuring the pieces and paying the money, for nothing
but ready money is taken, and this is the way the business is carried on at all
the markets. 3,000 pieces are sold a week at 35s each on an average, or about
£^,2<p equal to ;^273,ooo per annum, and this all made in a circumference of
not many miles.
At IVaringstowit the linen made is from 8^^ to to 2400, yard wide, and 25
yards long. 49 hanks of yarn will make a 1400, which sells at 2od per yard —
brown. The weaver is paid ids for weaving it, and he will weave it in nine
days. Much done by drapers advancing the yam and paying for the weaving.
800 2jd a yard ; iqoo 3jd ; 1300 3I ; 1600 yd ; i8op io| ; 2400 i/yjd. When
weaving fine linen going from it to the plough or spade hurts their hands so
much that they do not recover it for a week Bleach greens
sometimes belong to the drapers, and sometimes not.
The bleaching process is then described :—
When at Lisburn the Bishop of Down was so obliging as to send for an
intelligent linen draper to give me such particidars as I wanted about the
manufacture here. About this place chiefly fine cloth from 1400 to 2100 is
made. The spinners are generally hired by the quarter, at from ids to I2s,
with lodging and board, and engaged to spin 5 hanks of 8 hank yam in a week,
. . . . For 1 800 linen a woman spins 6 hanks a- week, which weigh a
pound ; at the price of 8d per hank .... The drapers advance the
yarn, and pay for the weaving by the yard.
Reached Belfast on 31st July, 1776. The town and trade are described as
follows : — Belfiist is a very well built town of bricks, thev having no stone
quarry in the neighbourhood. The streets are broad and straight, and the
inhabitants amount to 15,000, and make it appear lively and busy. The public
buildings are not numerous, nor very striking, but over the Exchange Lord
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48 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Donegall is building an assembly room His Lordship is also
building a new Church The town entirely belongs to him. Rent
of it ;^20,ooo a-year. His estate extends from Drumbridge, near Lisbum, to
Lame— 20 miles in a right line, and is 10 miles broad. The number of ships
belonging to Belfast are about 50 sail, from 20 to 3CX) tons. A vessel of 200
tons, half-loaded, may come to the quay, there being 9^ to 10 feet of water.
In 1 771 when the linen trade was brisk there were 3CX) looms in Belfast, but in
1774 there were only 180.
Belfast being the place where the emigrations were greatest, I made
inquiries concerning them, and found that they have for many years had a
regular emigration of 2,000 annually, but owing to the decline in the linen trade
4,000 left in 1773.
Prices of provisions at Belfast. — Potatoes 9d a-bushel; Salmon 2d a-Ib ;
Lobsters 6d each ; Plaice, %^ per lb ; Beef, 2^d, Mutton, 3d, and Butter Sd
per lb ; Geese I4d, Turkeys is, and Chickens 2>^d each ; Oysters is to 4s per
hundred. Oatmead |^d lb ; Coals 13s a-ton. Labour the year round, i/id in
the town, and 8d a-day in the county. Spinners earned 3d a-day and weavers
i/ld."
The Irish Parliament, in 1780, to further encourage the growth
of home seed, and at same time promote the manufacture of
cloth, not only repealed the bounty given for importing foreign
seed, but laid a duty on imported linseed oil, and applied these
two funds to stimulate the exportation of cloth to foreign countries.
The trade by this means was materially benefited, and in addition
duties were levied upon foreign linens. The wisdom of this latter
step was, however, a doubtful one, as foreigners to protect them-
selves placed restrictions on all English woollens.
Linen manufacturing on the Continent having been much im-
proved, it was found very difficult at this time to compete with it.
In a report by the Lords of Trade it appeared that though our
trade was favoured, between bounties and duties, to the extent
of about 15 per cent., yet with all this the foreigners were able to
keep up a competition, especially in the fine linens ; and that a
small reduction in the duties would have brought them as cheap
as ever to Great Britain. Having observed that our linen bounties
and linen duties, though possibly in many cases exceptional in
the great scale of commercial policy, have proved an essential
encouragement to the Irish staple, they said, " we think it right to
add that it has also been the means of forcing forward an extensive
linen manufacture in Ireland, though struggling under great
disadvantages as to the growth and supply of tihe raw material."
1780. — Potash appears to have been used for the first time as
a ley for boiling yams and cloth.
1782. — An act was passed this year (22 George III., c. 53.)
repealing 6 George I., and freeing Ireland from all commercial
dependence on Great Britain, for up to this period shipments to
most of the British Colonies and Dependencies could only be
made through English ports. The Irish Parliament, to mark their
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HAND BOOK, 49
appreciation of this favour, immediately voted 20,000 men for the
British Navy.
1784. — In their great delight at the unrestricted freedom to
caiTy on a direct foreign trade, Irish merchants at once largely
embarked in the export busiQess,and shipped considerable quantities
of goods of all classes to America, and other foreign countries,
forgetting, in the excitement which appeared to take hold of the
trade, that a sudden and greatly increased demand did not
necessarily follow the accumulation of goods in any of the
markets to which these consignments were made. The
consequence was that the markets abroad became overstocked,
and the shipments were so slowly realised, in those days when
banking facilities such as we possess were unknown, that
manufacturers found themselves seriously crippled for want of
capital, which was thus locked up abroad.
Though the monetary institutions of our day were unknown at
the period, looking back at this distance of time it may be
a matter rather for congratulation than otherwise, for had advances
been readily obtaiued the evil of excessive consignments might
have gone on unchecked for years, until a terrible disaster had
perhaps fallen upon the trade, and thrown back its progress for
perhaps a century. As matters stood, the evil was soon detected,
and the recovery set in earlier, so that the blow was far less severe
than it might otherwise have been.
A good deal of clamour was then raised, and a strong
protectionist party was quickly organised who tried to get the Irish
Parliament to enact protection duties, but this they refused to do;
but they levied duties on British sugar, beer, wine, and printed
calicoes, in order to give a preference to our own manufactures.
Non-importation agreements were voluntarily entered into by the
people to a large extent, and anyone found violating these
agreements exposed himself to popular indignation, and if caught
was liable to be tarred and feathered.
Turning to the records of the Linen Board at this time, we
select a few examples to illustrate the modus operandi by which
aid was obtained from this body towards the encouragement of
the trade.
In February, 1784, M. W. presented a memorial praying aid to
extend the cotton manufacture. F. Y. for aid to extend linen and
cotton, M. S. and W. J. for same. W. C. H. asking a grant of 50
wheels and 20 reels, to enable him to give employment to a number
of poor manufacturers. A. C. praying aid to purchase machinery to
enable him to extend manufacture of crossbarred, striped, and
other lawns. F. A. praying aid to extend the manufacture of linen
and cotton. F. H. praying the Board to grant him four stocking
£
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50 IRISH LINEN TRADE
looms. M. J. and others, for a spinning and carding machine for
cotton. W. & M. C, tape, thread, and garter manufacturers,
, praying the Board to enable them to take a number of apprentices.
D. B. and others, praying for a hot and cold calender. These,
and a host of others, were chiefly from spinners and weavers of
the poorer class. C. O. H. asked for a number of looms to
distribute among his poor tenants. H. M*C., damask weaver, for
aid to extend his manufacture.
On 13th Februar}', 1784, the Board passed a resolution which
became a standing order, " That to every grant of wheels, reels,
looms, jennies, and carding machines, the person to whom the
same shall be granted, shall make it appear by affidavit that 20s had
been added to every 50s the said grant contains." Looms were
to be of value of JQ2 15s at least, jQ\ 15s of which the Board
contributed to persons who had obtained a grant.
Juries were appointed to examine cloth which was reported to
be unmerchantable, and their verdicts were handed in to the
Board, who thereupon decided what fines should be imposed. As
an example, we find oii i6th March, 1784, that the Board having
taken into consideration the opinions of several juries appointed
to examine fraudulently lapped and damaged linens : —
" Resolved, that the following seal masters of white linens be fined in the
sums respectively affixed to their names for frauds committed by them in the
execution of their office.
G. T. on 46 pieces tender and unmerchantable, ... ^yj 7 6
S. & T. 34 ,, small holes and tender, ... 1700
S. & T. 45 „ mildewed and stained, ... 10 o o
J. T. 20 „ tender and unmerchantable, ... 20 o o
R. K. 29 ,, tender and mildewed, ... 14 10 o
And on 13th April 1784 we find
H. D. fined for passing i piece with concealed holes and rotten, 315 10^
J. D. ,, 2 „ short measure, ... 400
J. J. „ 29 „ unmerchantable, ... 52 10 2
343 pieces were condemned as tender and unmerchantable, and were ordered
to be cut, to prevent their being exported.
The precaution taken to prevent the exportation of bad cloth was
a very wise and judicious one, and did much towards maintaining
the first-class reputation which Irish linens had long enjoyed in
the markets of the world.
It is much to be regretted, that owing to the rapid manner in
which cloth is pushed forward at the bleach-greens at the present
day, a quantity is more or less unavoidably injured ; the great
whiteness to which linen is required to be brought being at the
risk of damage to the fabric. These risks are sometimes borne
by the bleacher, and sometimes by the owner, but in either case a
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HANDBOOK. 51
good deal of damaged cloth is thrown on the market, to the injury
of the great bulk of genuine cloth, the value of which is in some
measure affected. The question is one which in no small degree
concerns the trade, and deserves consideration, with a view to
maintain the character and value of our Irish linen.
There were eleven bleach-greens along the river Lagan in 1784.
Three of these turned out 24,000 webs this year ; one finished
10,000, and another bleached 8,000 : two finished 5,000 each,
two 4,000, and two 3,900 each. The exports of linens from
Ireland amounted this year to 24,961,898 yards.
The patents which Arkwright secured for his spinning engines
having expired about this time, a very considerable increase
followed in the production of cotton fabrics; as cotton yam could
be spun so much more cheaply than linen, cotton goods
competed to a considerable extent with the linen fabrics, and took
the place of cambrics, lawns, and the finer and more expensive
classes of linen goods.
About this period also the art of dyeing turkey red was
introduced into Glasgow by a French artist, and a great business
was in a few years developed in this branch of trade. Macpherson
states that it was a disputed point whether Manchester or Glasgow
had the honour of first introducing this art, as it appears that a firm
in the first-named city got a premium of ^2,500 from Parliament
for the discovery.
1787. — A commercial treaty was concluded this year with
France ; the laws prohibiting the importation of French cambrics
and lawns were repealed.
1 791. — Improvements were effected in the mechanism of
looms, by which two webs of cotton or linen could be woven at
same time, another was an improved method of bleaching, by
which cotton goods could be bleached in five hours.
1795. — Cloride of lime was first used this year in the process
of bleaching cloth and yarns, and the discovery proved of very
great value to the trade.
1796. — An active business marked the history of this year;
farmers had enjoyed improved markets for their produce ; the
people had inuch better employment, and the home trade for
linen goods was very favourable. Exports had run up to 46,705,319
yards, the highest ever before reached, and much above the top
figures attained for twenty years afterwards. An old linen draper
mentioned some years ago to a friend of the author that the brown
cloth markets of 1796 were stirring in the extreme. The gentle-
man to whom we refer was among the earliest makers of fine
cambric, and had frequently sold webs for twenty-five guineas each,
or at the rate of one guinea a yard.
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62 IRISH LINEN TRADE
1798. — ^The exports of linen cloth fell this year, owing to the
disturbed state of the country, to 33,497,171 yards, and in conse-
quence of a greatly reduced production of cloth nearly twice the
quantity of linen yam, compared with 1797, was exported. This
memorable year, with its insurrection, and all the ills consequept
on such wild projects, was marked by much disaster to the trade of
the country, and no branch suffered more than the linen manufac-
ture.
The Utopian idea of uniting men of all creeds and classes in
Ireland, and forming a grand political organisation to redress the
evils which were then held to exist, and to effect legislative reform,
occurred to some active spirits in the north a few years previously.
Industry was neglected in many districts ; ploughs lay rusting in
the field, and hundreds of looms ceased to ply the shuttle. At
first the organisation merely sought an extension of political rights,
and a fairer field of commerce, but no long time elapsed when it
became evident that the ideas of the confederation were outstripped
by those who afterwards joined it, until at last it drifted into an
avowed hostility against British rule, and a revolt was popularly
advocated.
We need not do more than make a passing reference to the
results. A rebellion broke out in the spring but, owing to the
vigorous steps taken by the Government, it was put down in the
course of a few months. Many excesses were commited on both
sides, and whilst the riot and confusion lasted trade and agriculture
greatly suffered.
If the opening ot this century was full of promise to the linen
industry, the close was marked by difficulty and depression, but
the trade in the meantime had acquired great strength, and had
taken so deep a root in the country that the effects of this storm
were but temporary. In a few years it again put forth fresh and
vigorous shoots, and bid fair for a long time to come to hold its
own against all competitors.
The political convulsion of '98 was followed by a treaty between
the Parliaments of England and Ireland, which resulted in the
union of the two countries under one Legislature.
In ** Ireland and her Staple Manufectures" the author has
graphically sketched several scenes which took place at this period,
in many of which persons connected with the linen trade were
mixed up.
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HAND BOOK, 68
CHAPTER V.
From the Legislative Union with Great Britain — covering the period
of the Dissolution of the Irish Linen Trade Board— to end of 1840.
j-T is not within the scope of this little work to enter
upon or discuss the various questions raised at this
period respecting the political movements which cul-
minated in the extinction of the Irish Parliament,
and consequent fusion of our Government with that
of Great Britain. Whatever views may be entertained
regarding the wisdom of this Act, it cannot be denied
that very great commercial advantages resulted from the
xinion of the weaker with the stronger power, and though measures
of relief, and the adjustment of old grievances, were but slowly
doled out, the country now enjoys unrestricted political and com-
mercial freedom.
1805. — The staple trade had very much improved this year, so
that exports of cloth were more than five millions of yards over the
quantity in the previous year.
An important invention, brought out in t8oi by M. Jacquard, of
Lyons, proved of very great value to the linen trade, so far as the
production of damask and fancy goods was concerned. Previous
to this, in the weaving of figured goods, it was necessary to employ
" draw bo)^" — as the apprentices were called who attended the
weavers — and their duty was to draw up the warp threads by means
of cords or pulleys, according to the pattern indicated. Jacquard's
invention superseded those draw boys, and by a system of per-
forated cards (cut according to the special pattern intended to be
woven), strung together so as to form an endless band, which were
pressed against the levers of the warp threads, raising all, except
those which passed through the holes, by. means of pedals, lihder
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54 IRISH LINEN TRADE
the control of the weaver, these cards did the work mechanically
which was formerly done by the draw boy.
This system is now universally adopted for weaving all figured
goods, but the description given will scarcely be intelligible without
an inspection of the mechanism of the damask looms now in use.
The production of flaxen yams by machinery had been in
operation in England, and also in Scotland, firom the close of the
past century, and for about twenty years afterwards a considerable
trade in coarse warps and wefts was carried on with Irish linen
manufacturers.
The Linen Trade Board had made several attempts to introduce
this system by offering premiums of thirty shillings per spindle, for
all such machinery set up in any mill, but it was not until this year
that we find any practical result Prejudice, which stood in the
way respecting any interference with the time-honoured system of
hand-spinning, was extremely difficult to overcome, and it is not
to be wondered at that an invention which threatened the extinction
of the ancient art, and the throwing idle of many thousands of hands
in every province, should meet with great opposition. In this
country, in common with all others, hand-spinning firom time im-
memorial had been practised by women and children in their
cottages and homesteads all over the land, and the yams were
brought to the nearest towns, and there sold to the weavers ; very
often the females of the family spun the yam whilst the males
worked it into cloth. At this period a great deal of yam was spun
in Connaught, where the trade, so far as the coarse numbers were
concerned, had become centralised; from this province these yams
were sent to Ulster for the manufacture of the coarser classes of
linens, but a good deal was also sent to Scotland.
This year, however, a Cork man set up 2 1 2 spindles for canvas
yarns, and so many others followed his example that in four years
a considerable number of spindles were at work, all of which were
driven by water power.
1809. — A sum of ^20,000 having been granted by Parliament
this year, " to be applied towards the encouragement of the saving
of flaxseed for sowing in Ireland,'* the Board issued a notice of
instmctions respecting the claims for bounties on the saving of
the seed, with a view to extend the growth of flax in Ireland, and
render the linen manufacture independent of foreign countries for
the supply of seed.
At this time, the gentlemen farmers stated that Irish saved seed
was found equal, if not superior, to any foreign seed; and if
properly saved did not degenerate. In order, however, to produce
the best seed, they stated the flax straw should be stacked till
Febmary, but as this was out of the power of poor cottagers, the
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HAND BOOK, 66
saving of the seed from home fibre could only be done by gentle-
men and wealthy farmers, who could afford to hold their stock
from autumn till spring. The bounty for home saved seed was 5s
a bushel, if taken after ist February, or 2s 6d if taken before.
The claims for bounty had to be made up on certain forms, sworn
to and certified, before the amount of bounty could be claimed.
Petitions under sanction of an oath, especially in the case of
poor persons, was the usual mode of making application to the
Board, for a grant of public money, to purchase wheels, looms,
and other appliances connected with the trade. The following
will illustrate the mode of doing business : —
An application from Margaret Davitt, a female weaver, was presented to the
Board, and is as follows : —
" Sheweth, — That she, this petitioner, is a linen weaver by trade, and has
learned the same several years ago ; that she applied to the Right Hon. Isaac
Corry three years ago, in or about the month of July, 1806, and at that time
she, this petitioner, made affidavit on the Holy Evangelists, before John Duff,
Esq., Justice of the Peace, that she wove two hundred yards of linen and up-
wards, within the space of one year, whereupon she did apply for to get a loom
from the Board.
"Said petitioner began a second year, and made a second affidavit that
she wrought and wove two hundred yards more of linen, and upwards, within
the space of one year ; which, affidavit was also sworn before the aforesaid John
Duff, Esq., and given to Mr. Joseph Weir, to put it forward for petitioner, but
when petitioner asked for the affidavits the said Mr. Weir told her that he mis-
laid the papers, and could not find them.
" And now a third time she, this petitioner, is willing to make affidavit
that she wove and wrought two hundred yards of linens, and upwards, within
the space of one year ; also, she, this petitioner, has learned some apprentices
(as it is her common emplojrment those many years past), and expects, with the
assistance of God, to learn more yet.
"Therefore, she, this petitioner, applies herself to the Right Hon. Isaac
Corry to encourage her to get a loom from the Board, and in compliance thereof
she, this petitioner, will proceed to work at the weaving business ; and that she
will learn more to weave during the residue of her life time, and, as in duty bound,
she will faithfully fulfil said promise.
Her
"(Signed) MARGARET + DAVITT."
Mark.
** Margaret Davitt came this day and voluntarily made oath that the above
petition is in substance true, and that she wove the quantities of linen specified.
" Sworn before me this 27th August, 1809.
"ISAAC CORRY.*'
Whereupon the Board ordered — "That the sum of £6 be granted to
Margaret Davitt for the purchase of a loom.*'
1810. — From the records of the Board in April of this year, a
County Cork firm drew a pretty large sum in the shape of
premiums for erecting spindles, and for weaving cloth.
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66 IRISH LINEN TRADE
P. Besnard, a premium, in foil, for manufecturing and selling, in
tht year 1809, 32,558 yards of duck, and 17,959 yards of sail-
cloth, at 2d per yard, in the County of Cork, ;^420 19 6
Julius Besnaru, a premium, in foil, for manufacturing and selling,
in the year 1809, 38,293 yards of sailcloth, at 2d per yard, in
the County of Cork, 319 2 2
P. & J. Besnard, a premium, in full, for erecting in the County of
Cork, in the year 1809, 264 spindles for spinning yam by mill
machinery, at 30s per spindle 396 o o
In May the Inspector-General reported that the claims for
saving flaxseed would come to about ;;^ 18,000, and the following
abstract of the flax returns for 1809 show the extent sown, and
the number of claimants for the bounty : —
No. of rPAffti a/m»a ^^* ^^<^ claimed
Province. persons who TriSh^m bounty for saTing
^SSSTfuS: Irish sown.
the seed.
Ulster, 55,943 62,441 11,256
Munster, 4,063 3,7i6 i»S7o
Leinster, 17,178 4,107 1,169
Connaught, 24,547 6,485 3,991
101,731 76,749 17,986
The town of Drogheda had long been famous for linen manu-
factures, and owing to its contiguity to the metropolis, a ready
market was found for many classes of goods suitable for home
trade use, such as towellings, dowlas, sheetings, &c. At the pre-
sent day several factories are in full work, and afford emplo)aiient
to a considerable number of hands.
Statistics of Drogheda trade for 1808 and 1809 show a very
satisfactory state of things, though a smart falling off" appears
between these years.
1808. — 10,649 pieces of sheetings, dowlas, sailcloth, ticken,
duck, &c., sold and exported, ;f 103,633 10 o
— — 64,226 pieces i and | market linen, sold at Drogheda, 256,904 o o
1809. — 5, 724 pieces of sheetings, &c., 58,574 o o
— — 5 1,086 i»eces of I and I market linen, 204,344 o o
;f623,455 10 o
Before the sale of white cloth became centered in Belfast — ^for
which purpose the White Linen Hall was built — the number of
cases forwarded to Dublin was very large. The returns at this
time show the following comparative view of linen, received at
the Linen Hall, Dublin, for one year ended ist March, 18 10, with
1809 : —
Inwards, ist March, 1810, 10,371 boxes, &c, average value ;fi 50,... ;f 1,555,650
Do., do., 1809, 10,227 do., do. ;f 160,... ;f 1,636,320
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HAND BOOK, 67
The boxes for 1810 were valued at £,\o less, linen having
fallen in price.
In the report of the Commissioners of Accounts for Ireland,
appended to the transactions of the Board for 18 10, charges of
great mismanagement were freely made against the Board, for not
properly attending to their duties ; great inattention as to money
matters, and deficient supervision of the officers, and the negligence
and inefficiency of several of them. As regards the Trustees, this
Parliamentary report goes on to say : — " The Trustees are too
numerous, too fluctuating, have too great a variety of opinions,
and frequently counteract each other. They seldom attend in
proper numbers, they frequently, in our opinion, act in direct
opposition to the law, as appears on the face of their minutes,
particularly in the most essential points of making grants, and
paying money. They have no emolument but such as they derive,
in common with the public, from their own grants, and, therefore,
cannot be expected to give due attention to the performance of so
very laborious a duty." Then follow specific charges of neglect
of duty on the part of officers of the Board.
It need, however, scarcely cause surprise that in attempting to
nurse an important industry like this, irregularities and mismanage-
ment should arise in administering the trusts of this department, and
distributing its funds and patronage, when the Board was com-
posed of noblemen and gentlemen scattered all over the country,
practically unacquainted with the trade, and who did not go to
Dublin often enough to attend to their duties. In fact, the whole
machinery seems to have been kept going for a long time through
the united efforts of the chief officials — viz., inspector-general,
architect, and secretary. These officers had very large powers,
and doubtless took things easy, making their offices as pleasant as
circumstances would admit
By means of the bounty offered for the erection of spindles
the number this year appeared to have risen (from 212 spindles
in 1805) to 6,369, and mills were now running at Buncrana,
Ballymoney, Dungannon, Comber, Cork, &c.
181 5. — ^At this period it appears there were five mills in
Ulster, two in Leinster, and seven in Munster; but, owing to
depression in trade, only one of the mills in Munster was in full
work.
181 6. — From the minutes of the Board, we find that in October
of this year they instructed their secretary (Mr. James Corry) to
make a tour of inspection throughout the province of Ulster, and
to report generally on the position of the trade. From this report,
dated December, 181 6, we propose to make some extracts, which
win give a good idea of the condition of the manufecture jit this
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58 IRISH LINEN TRADE
period, and will explain the old brown cloth market system, which
has been completely revolutionised since power-looms were intro-
duced.
County Armagh. — The principal markets in this county were
Armagh (which at the present day keeps up a struggling existence),
Lurgan, Tandragee, and Portadown. The secretary found that
the brown seals in a few instances got into improper hands, and
where the hurry of the market happened to be great, and the
number of sealmasters in attendance insufficient for the business
to be done, the word of the weaver was too often taken as to the
length of the web, and the seal had been put on before the web
was measiured. On all such occasions the length that was marked
exceeded, as might be expected, the actual length, which the
weaver afterwards strove to make good by forcibly stretching the
web, and thereby injuring the fabric. The disputes at these
country markets used sometimes to be so numerous as to require not
only the attendance of the district inspector, but the local magis-
trates; for the secretary reports that ** the exertions of an inspector,
however active, cannot much or at all avail in any market when a
magistrate is not at hand, easy of access, ready to hear and deter-
mine the mutual complaints of merchants, manufacturers, and in-
spectors which arise out of the transactions of a market. Those
gentlemen, therefore, who devote their time and attention to these
subjects may be considered the benefactors of the trade."
Among the establishments visited by Mr. Corry in his tour a
brief description of a few may be interesting.
We visited the concerns of the respectable company of Messrs. Nicholson
& Sons at Bessbrook, on Saturday, the I2th October, 1816. Their concerns
are about three miles from Newry, and are of considerable extent. They con-
sist of a spinning mill, a scutch mill, a hackling house, and sundry other
buildings necessary to such an establishment, but they have no weaving depart-
ment attached, their yam being given out to weavers in the country. This
establishment received from the Board between the years 1806 and 1809 inclu-
sive the sum of ;f 1,758 12s lod by way of bounties for having erected 1,216
spindles within these periods, and the further sum of ;£i,8ii ^s 4d from i8n
to 1 8 14 for the manufacturing of canvas and duck. Further details are then
given respecting the machinery, &c.
The concerns of Mr. James Nicholson, of New Holland, near Keady, were
visited. In this concern there were at this time 5CX) spindles, twelve frames
for line, and four for tow, with the necessary preparing machinery. Weaving
done throughout the country, the chief manmacture being duck.
Co, Tyrone, — Principal markets were Dungannon, Strabane,
Newtownstewart, Fintona, Ballygawley, Cookstown, and Stewarts-
town. Jobbers appear to have been regular attenders at these
country markets, their operations being considered more or less
injurious to the trade, although regular buyers found it a con-
venience at times to get cloth through those under agents, who
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HAND BOOK. 69
visited out of the way places where regular buyers seldom went
Many of these jobbers were honest and really respectable traders,
but their peculiar calling had strong temptations to take advantage
of sellers in small towns where they happened to be the only pur-
chasers. They acted as middlemen, and those of them who were
unscrupulous members of the brotherhood cheated the poor weaver
of a fair price, and the buyer of his profit. Other irregularities are
noted, such as entering into an agreement with the weaver before
the market began as to the purchase of his webs, and thus depriv-
ing the regular buyers of the advantages of open market \ but this
was only practised by under agents, or commissioners, as they
were called, and not by the bleachers or principal buyers. All
these irregularities were found to exist more or less in Dungannon
market. Brown seals also got at times into improper hands, and
the impression was often so illegible on the webs as to make it
difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain the name of the sealmaster,
who, to conceal defects in the web, gave the seal a twist in making
the impression so that his name could not be read.* This was an
offence against 3 George III., cap. 34, which required sealmasters
to affix a fair impression, <kc. At this time it appeared that thQ
County Tyrone spun but a small proportion of the great quantity
of yams which it manufactured, it being supplied principally from
the Counties of Fermanagh, Leitrim, and Donegal.
Cooksiown market was reported as well conducted and free of
irregularities, but at Strabane and Newtownstewart some weavers
used to plaster their webs with flour or potatoes, which, in the
words of the report, gave the web " an artificial substance to the
eye of the buyer." The magistrates found a difficulty at first in
dealing with such cases, as they were doubtfiil if they came within
the meaning of the Act which prohibited " the dyeing or staining
of yarn or cloth, which made the yarn or cloth difficult to bleachy^
and this plastering, although the bleachers said that many of the
webs had a black appearance when laid out, did not appear to be
*This was an old trick, for by a placard in our possession, dated 22nd October, 1804,
sealmasters got the following caution :—
"A CAUnON TO IGNORANT AND FBATJDULBNT SBALMASTBBS.
" Whereas, it has been a practice for some time past in many of our markets to expose
for sale brown linens upon which it is impossible to read either the name or place of abode
of the sealmaster, which may happen sometimes through negligence, but from dear bought
experience we generally find it to arise in the fraudulent intention of the sealmaster, who
knowiogly makes up linen with bad ends, concealed damages, and short measure ; then wil-
fully blots the seal lest the buyer, when he discovers the fraud, should be able to ascertain
and punish the offender, WE, the undersigned linen drapers, in order to put a stop to this
improper practice, do pledge ourselyes to each other that from henceforth we will not
knowingly buy, or suffer to be bought for us, any brown linens except such as have the
impression of the seal in legible characters on the outside, as directed by the Linen Board ;
and, also, that we will strictly examine every such piece to discover the frauds which this
artiiSoe is intended to conceaL
" Qiven under our hands this 22nd October, 180i."
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60 IRISH LINEN TRADE
reached by the Act. A case was, however, submitted for the opinion
of the law officers of the Board, who stated that such practices
did contravene the statute, and were punishable accordingly.
At Ballygawley marked plastered webs had been exposed, but
owing to timely exertion, and giving premiums to weavers, the
irregularities had been discontinued. .
Co, Dawn. — The markets were Banbridge, Newry, Hillsborough,
Rathfriland, Downpatrick, Kilkeel, Kirkcubbin, Ballynahinch, and
Castlewellen. The report regarding the county is a short one,
but of ia favourable character. Respecting Banbridge market it
states : " The gentlemen assembled at Banbridge instructed me to
say that the condition and quality of the webs, brought to this mar-
ket, might be improved by local grants of looms and wheels, given
for the use of the market, and placed at the disposal of the trade."
Co, Antrim, — The chief markets were Belfast, Lisbum, Bally-
mena, Ballymoney, Portglenone, Randalstown, and Ahoghill.
Lisbum, — An extended report is given respecting Messrs. J. &
W. Coul son's damask factory at Lisbum, by which it appeared
that since 1759 the manufacturing of damask table linen had been
carried on by members of the family.
In a memorial dated December 8, 18 12, this firm applied to the Linen
Board for grants to extend this important manufacture, which at great risk and
expense they had brought to its then position entirely through their own efforts,
and stated that they were ** using every exertion in their power to excel and
fully to supersede the demand for the long established manufacture of Germany ;
which, notwithstanding the many local advantages, the damask manufacturers
of the continent possess .... they were sanguine of being enabled to
accomplish. They had recently, after trying various experiments in complicated
and expensive machinery, produced such damasks as the specimens which they
laid before the Board for their inspection." This memorial, as it well deserved,
was most favourably received, and from the minutes we find this record, that
"a drawing of the plan of the damask looms used by Messrs. Coulson was
presented to the Board, with an estimate for erecting the same, in the most
improved and perfect manner, and the Board having considered the foregoing
memorial, plan and estimate annexed, and having viewed sundiy specimens
of damask, in preparation for the table of His Royal Highness the Prince Regent,
submitted to them by the Messrs. Coulson — Resolved unanimously — That this
Board highly approve of the plan of the damask loom this day submitted by
Messrs. Coulson, of Lisbum, and that the specimens of damask this day
exhibited by them afford the highest satisfaction to this Board, as being fully
equal, in their opinion, to the finest foreign damasks that have been hitherto
imported into these countries, and that their exertions, therefore, are deserving
the aid and encouragement of the Board." And a grant was in accordance
therewith made.*
*Mr. M'Call, of Lisbum, (in some articles which appeared in the Linen Trade Circular in
1870) mentions that during Lord Hertford's vice royalty that nobleman brought under the
notice of George the Third " the superiority of Coulson's table linen, and an order was sent to
Lisbnrn for a large lot of goods, which were to be specially got up for the Royal household.
The Ungly patronage gave additional eclat to the damask factory, and when the cloths and
napkins were delivered at St. James's they gave snoh satisfaction that a highly complimen-
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HAND BOOK, 61
Belfast, — This market was visited by the secretary of the Board
on 2Sth October, 1816, and after the brown market, which was
held in Donegall Street, was over, he attended a meeting of the
principal merchants assembled at the White Linen Hall. At this
meeting complaint was made that the linens, shipped on bounty
from Belfast, were required to be examined at the Custom House,
which was a place very inconvenient to shippers, and it was thought
that the same indulgence which was given to the export merchants
of Dublin might, with equal safety to the revenue, be granted to
the trade of Belfast, and the secretary advised the Board that a
communication should be made to the Commissioners of Customs
requesting to know if they would have any objection to allow the
White Linen Hall at Belfast to be in future the place for examin-
ation of cloth shipped on bounty. In a letter addressed by an
extensive linen merchant in Belfast to the secretary of the Board,
it appeared " that almost all the linens exported from Belfast at
this time were upwards of 25 inches wide, and some were over 36
inches wide, such as sheetings and diapers.
Bally mena, — Complaints were made to the secretary that the
robbery of bleach greens frequently occurred in this locality, and
that the law, which, as it then stood, gave as a punishment for the
offence, imprisonment for seven years up to transportation for life,
was found not sufficiently deterrent, and the trade here wished to
go back to the old law, which treated the offence as a felony,
punishable by hanging, and without the benefit of clergy. The 5 1
Geo. HI. c. 39, passed in 18 11, repealed the Act of the Irish Par-
liament 3 Geo. III. c. 34. At the present day it Causes a shudder
to reflect upon the severity of the law as it stood at the close of
the past century, when punishment by death was inflicted for
thefts which in our day would be treated as comparatively small
offences.*
Robbing bleach greens had a kind of attraction in former
days, which the depraved and desperate looked upon as the very
chivalry of crime. But early in the present century John
tmry letter was sent to the manufacturer, stating how much Queen Charlotte was pleased
with their design and workmanship. *
The fame of Gonlson's damask rapidly rose after the satisfactory accomplishment of the
Boyal order, anji not only the leading peers of Q-reat Britain, but several of the continental
potentates, were found among his patrons. When any of these eminent personages visited
the north of Ireland one of the speciEil objects of their curiosity was the Lisbum damask
works."
»At the March Assizes, held in Downpatrick in 1785, John Johnston and David Dogherty
were found guilty of stealiug in Eathfriland one piece of muslin and one piece of lawn from
a pedlar named M'MuUen, and for that crime they were sentenced to death, and executed.
Thomas Keough, for stealing two bullocks, value £5, was hanged on 7th May. William
Curry for highway robbery was also executed. At the Kihuainham Assizes, in August, the
same year, five men were sentenced to death for highway robbery. One of the culprits
stated just before he was executed that he had himself robbed a man at Kilmacree, for
which crime Timothy Murphy and two others had been hanged in the wrong.
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62 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Hancock, of Lisbum, a Quaker gentleman; John M'Cance, of
Suffolk, near Belfast; John S. Ferguson, of Belfast; and other
benevolent linen bleachers, set about the noble work of having
the law relating to such robberies changed for a less sanguinary
code, and ultimately succeeded in their praiseworthy efforts.
We need hardly add that the suggestion made by the Bally-
mena people was not acted upon, and that the machinery of the
Board was not put in motion to reinstate the hangman in his
office. As a natural reflex of the sanguinary spirit of the last
century, we have at the present an increasing public opinion in
favour of the total abolition of capital punishment. Previous to
the alteration of the law relating to bleach green robbery, it was
not unusual for two or three executions to follow each Assize on
the north-east circuit; but under the more merciful code the plunder
of bleach-fields is of rare occurrence, although the punishment
seldom exceeds a few months in jail. •
Complaints having been made at Ballymena that the sealmasters
in that district fi-equently used a common stick as a yard measure,
and which was not always the length of the statute yard, it was
suggested that no yard-stick should be used save such as was
branded by the inspector. In some cases it was proved that dis-
honest sealmasters hired their seals to equally disreputable drapers,
and for a time bleachers who had purchased fraudulently made up
webs suffered great losses in consequence of the linen having been
returned on their hands. A county inspector (Mr. Fowler) caused
one sealmaster to pay £^o as compensation for certain delinquen-
cies of which he had been guilty.
The visit of the secretary to a couple or three factories which
existed in Belfast is next given. In one of these we are told that
32,952 yards of sail cloth were made in one year, 11,572 yards
of which were made from mill spun yarn, upon which bounty was
paid to the extent of £<)6 8s 8d, another got £1^1 14s 2d.
Details of visit to Ballymoney are next given. At Balnamore
mill 420 spindles had been set up, and 13 looms for making
canvas bagging. At Knockboy 222 spindles were reported as
having been set up in 1808; at Crumlin, 768 spindles in 1809;
Cushendall, 512 in 1809, and 222 at Knockboy, near Ballymena.
Reports follow respecting the markets of Deny, Coleraine,
Letterkenny, and Buncrana. At the latter, sail cloth and duck
were made which was fully equal to Russian cloth. The details
are pretty similar to those given in connection with other markets,
of which we have furnished a sufficient number of examples to
enable an estimate to be formed of the position of the trade at
this period, so far as buying at open markets was concerned.
ng
S/4
At Ctotehtll, where 5/4 and 6/4 sheetings were made, the
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HAND BOOK. 63
report states that they were brought to market in a very irregular
condition, many of them had bad ends; of unequal fineness
throughout, and all of them varied in length and breadth. A
London factor, who happened to be in the district at the time,
stated to the secretary that the Cootehill sheetings were likely to
become less favourites than heretofore in the English markets from
these circumstances, if not remedied in time, and that the sheet-
ings of Yorkshire and Lancashire had already begun to interfere
with them.
At Ballibay irregularities of jobbers and sealmasters were
complained of, and that the flax was brought to market in an
unclean and unmerchantable state, which depreciated its value
very much, so that demand for the English market was falling
oflf. Monaghan market exhibited irregularities regarding flax
similar to Ballibay, and at Enniskillen a good deal of jobbing
was complained of.
From general observations, which form the third part of the
secretary's report, we add some extracts :
Rough Flax, — Export of flax to Great Britain rough from the scutch had
within these 9 or lo years back become a great branch of trade in this country.
Great Britain not only offered a market for all we could send there, but she
imported largely from foreign countries. In 1814 Ireland sent to England and
Scotland 22,426 cwt., and in 1815, 29,291 cwt., exclusive of exports to other
countries. The market price of flax in Ireland during this period might be
averaged at £1 los. per cwt. It has fallen in price since then ; but taken at
the price of the day, the sales of rough flax to Great Britain amounted in these
two years to upwards of ;f 181,000.
Then follow suggestions with regard to the extension of flax
culture in the south of Ireland to supply the home demand, and
exclude the foreigner. Respecting the quality of the Irish flax at
this period the report says : —
The quality of our Irish flax is admitted to be greatly superior to that of the
foreign. The flax of the County Armagh is the favourite in the Dublin market,
particularly that from Tandragee, which some of the buyers do not hesitate
to call the best flax in the world, possessing more staple than any foreign
flax whatever. The manner, however, in which the foreign flax comes to the
market compels the English buyer to give it a reluctant preference. It comes
in a form and condition that renders it a more disposable article of commerce.
Complaints were made to me in every market which I visited of the irregular
manner in which it is brought for sale. The rough flax, they say, comes m so
unclean and so unmerchantable a state that nothing but the superior quality of
the article preserves a demand for it in the English market. The demand, tiiey
fear, wiU decline unless the markets are placed under legislative regulation in
favour of the better mannered, but inferior, flax of the continent. Some of it
comes in bundles, the bundles varying in size and weight; some in sacks, the
flax loosely thrown into them ; some in apronsfuU, and some in handfuls. All
being sold by weight, various expedients are used to increase it, and every
ezp^ient is injurious, particularly the damping of it, a very common practice
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64 IRISH LINEN TRADE
which makes the flax afterwards heat The inside of every bundle is often ftiU
of the shoves, pebbles, and dirt of various kinds.
Very great improvements have taken place since this period in
the handling of flax, and the manner in which it is brought to
market, but frequently we hear of complaints at the present day of
badly deaned fibre ; and that owing to carelessness in the handling
of it in some of the stages the value is often very n^uch depreciated,
and though the farmer is disappointed at the result the fault in
most instances Hes at his own door, and is capable of removal by
proper care.
Scutch mDls are next treated of in this report, and then a section
is devoted to hand spun yarn, which at this period was a branch of
trade extensively carried on in several parts of Ireland, for until
1828 all the mill spun yarn was of coarse quality, and spun dry.
Complaints were frequently made respecting the hand spinning
branch, and it is to be regretted that owing to these irregularities
the trade in yams, both on home and export account, was much
injured.
From memorials appended to the report we learn— That a
great portion of the coarse linens of Ireland were manufactured
from yam spun in Connaught, and that almost the whole of the
yarn of that province was made up contrary to the law, and that
yarn called " spangle yarn" was fraudulently made up, so that
English and Scotch manufacturers were to a great extent obliged
to give up buying it, and to import yarn from the Continent, even
though at a dearer rate and of an inferior quality. But on account
of its being always regularly reeled and brought to market in a
• saleable state they bought it, though they would willingly pay 10
per cent more for the Irish yarn if properly reeled than for any
foreign yam.
The want of employment and .depressed state of trade in Con-
naught at this time was alleged to be owing to the dishonest way
in which these yarns were made up, and the remarks conclude
with the words — " If the Irish yarn was all made of one length in
the slip^ and fairly and strongly divided in the aU^ it would keep
the foreign yarn away altogether."
The trade in hand-spun yarn in Connaught as well as in Ulster
is now a thing of the past. The mill-spun yarn speedily drove it
out of existence, and although it is greatly to be regretted that the
trade suffered so much injury, owing to the fraudulent practices
and irregularities complained of, the extinction of the industry was
rapidly approaching, and no efforts, however directed, could have
saved it from annihilation. If, however, at this period, our
continental competitors were beating us in tbe hand-spun branch of
trade, we took a good start of them at mill-spinning, and fortunate
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HAND BOOK,
66
it is that this was done, as it quickly turned the scale in our favour,
so that Irish linens speedily took the lead of foreign goods in the
markets of the world, and retain to this day their name for superior
bleach and finish.
Brown Linen Markets, — Under this head the secretary gives
detailed reports regarding the class of linen goods made in the
various districts he visited, and the estimated quantities sold at-
each of the markets in the year 1816. As the figures possess much
interest we insert the Return in full.
Value of Linens sold at each Linen Market in the Province of Ulster,
in 1816.
County.
Armagh.
Tyrone.
Down.
Antrim.
Value of Sales
Value of
Market.
at each Market.
Armagh
;63,8oo
;ii97,6oo
Lurgan
1,850
96,200
Tandragee
1,000
52,000
Portadown
150
7,800
;^353,6oo
Dungannon
4,000
208,000
Strabane
2,380
123,760
Cookstown
1,300
67,600
Stewartstown
630
32,760
Newtownstewart 400
20,800
Fintona
1,600
41,600
Omagh
920
47,840
Ballygawley
650
16,900
;^559,26o
Banbridge
1,038
53,976
Newry
922
47,944
Downpatrick
750
39,000
Kilkeel
400
20,800
Rathfriland
66
3,432
Ballynahinch
1
884
Hillsborough
416
7,800
Kirkcubbin
300
;fi74,252
Belfast
4,000
208,000
Lisburn
S,ooo
260,000
Ballymena
2,500
130,000
Ballymoney
2,200
52,800
Portglenone
1,200
28,800
AhoghiU
1,500
18,000
;^697,6oo
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66
IRISH LINEN TRADE
County.
Derry.
Donegal.
Cavan.
Monaghan.
Fermanagh.
Market.
Derry
Coleraine
Moneymore
Maghera
Magherafelt
Kilreagh
Rathmelton
Letterkenny
Stranorlar
Cootehill
Ballynagh
Killeshandra
Arvagh
Monaghan
Ballybay
Castleblayney,
Clones
Glasslough
Valae of Sales
at each Market.
Value of
Annual Sales.
1,130
850
2,500
1,000
1,600
i,ckx>
58,760
44,200
30,000
12,000
19,200
12,000
;fi76,i6o
227 10
160
130
11,830
8,320
6,760
;^26,9IO
1,000
500
400
400
52,000
26,000
20,800
20,800
;f 1 19,600 O O
1,000 o o
1,200 O O
850 O o
650 o o
240 o o
52,000 o
62,400 o
44,200 o
33,800 o
12,480 o
Enniskillen
450 o o
;f 204, 880 O O
11,700 o o
;fll,700 o o
Total, ;f 2, 323,962 o o
The Secretary adds —
"The foregoing account of the sales of the Province is subject to this
observation, namely, that linen bought by the jobbers in one market, and sold
by them in another, may be said to be twice entered. I do admit it, but still I
think the sum here stated is rather within than without the truth, because the
sales of linen at all the great fairs of the Province, which are not included here,
are so considerable, and so much more than countervail any reduction to be
made on the other hand, that instead of deducting from the general amount I
should rather be disposed to add to it, and say that the total value of the home
sales of Brown linen in the Province of Ulster amounted annually to about two
millions and a-half sterling. "
The number of white seals, issued from 1782 to this time, were
1,596, and brown seals sent into Ulster to this date, since 1802,
were 1,616.
From the appendix to the report we tabulate some particulars
respecting the class of linen g<jods made at this period in a few of
the districts of Ulster, which will close our sketch of the trade as
it stood in 1816.
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liAND BOOJC,
6r
Brown Cloth Manufactured in some of the Principal Districts of
Ulster in i8i6, and Sold at the undernoted Markets.
Towns.
Descriptio
of cloth.
° QuaUty.
Brown
Width
Inches
Lengtl
Yards.
L Average
Price.
Obsbbvations.
Per yard \
Armagh
Linen
500 to 600
34/35
51/54
6Jd to 8d 1 5s to 8s principally
Do.
700 to 1 200
35/38
24/27
9d to IS 4di for half bleaching for
Lawns
7^ to loo'
34/36
25/27
home trade ; 9s to
i28forfullblg. Sold
by factors in Dublin,
London, & Glasgow,
and for export to
America. Lawns
washed and beetled.
Lurgan
Lmen
1400 to 1600
37J/38
24/25
2s od
Lawns when bid.
Lawns
...
26/30
25/27
IS iid
sold in United King-
Diapers
...
21/26
50/59
IS I Id
dom ; usedfor printed
hkfs. and children's
use, &c. Diapers
when bid. used as
table cloths, towel-
Tandragee
Linen
Do.
800
iiooto 1400
35/36
37/38
%%\
9idtois6d
ling, &c.
88 sent to England
and West Indies.
Some half bid. ; lis
to 148 bid. for home
and export trade.
Portadown
Do.
500 to 600
34/35
50/'54
7d
J'or half big. for
home trade.
Dungannon
Do.
600 to iioo
%
48/52
Tow yam
clothabout
5Kd ; flax
9ci to I3id
Yam changed.
Some of the linen
half bid.
Strabane
Tow yam
Middling
28
52/100
6dto8d
Yam tolerably well
bid. for English mkt.
Linen
Pretty good
32
52
I4d to 20d
Chieflyfor full big.
Cookstown
Do.
600 to iiOo
H
52
8id
Yam partly bid.
Do.
800 to 12O0
n
52
I4id
Per web
For home use, for
army shirting and
American and West
Indian mkts. when
bid.
Banbridge
Do.
700 to 800
37i/38
25
;f I .
Made of yam boiled
Do. 1
300 to 1700
25
£2 I
mpotasli, and spread
9n grass for a few
days.
Lawns
Do.
800 to 1600
26
1
261
26|
£1 13 4
Lawns for export*
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IRISH LINEN TRADE
Brown Cloth Manufactured in some of the Principal Districts of
Ulster in i8i6, and Sold at the undernoted Markets. —
( Contintted. )
Towns.
Description
of clotb.
QoaUty.
Brown
Width
Inches.
Length
Yards.
Average
Price.
Obsebyations.
Newry
D.patrick
Belfast
Lisbum
B.mena
B. money
Linen
Do.
Do.
Do.
*Stout linen
chiefly.
Fine linen
Lawns
Dowlas
Do.
Linen
Do.
Do.
Do.
600 to 800
looo to 1400
Coarse
36/38
36/38
28I/30
25
25
40/80
Per web
£\
£1 17 6
;f 2
600 to 1700
35/38
25
Per yard
7dto2siod
1600 to 2200
38
25
3s 4cl
Sets not gvn
Do.
Do.
Do.
38
30
35
35
.1
27
62/78
3s 3ici
2s 4d
IS Id
iid
Do.
Do.
28
38
50/52
25
Per web
;f 2
£2 10
Do.
Do.
28
32
50/52
52
;f I 6
;f 7
Coarse goods half
bid. for English mkt
Fine goods full bid.
for home and export
For half and full
bid. for home trade
shirting linen.
Some sold brown
and some half white,
small portion of
brown sent to Scot-
land ; prime stout
fabrics for London
and south of Eng-
land; slight texture
for America and
West Indies.
For home and ex-
port trade.
Consumed at home
or exported in mkt.
state. Some dyed
and sent to West
Indies.
When bid. sold at
home, and exported
to American mkts.
3/4 finished brown
for Dublin, England,
and America. 7/8
bid. for home and
export.
« Report states— The market is held in a commodious hall, off Donegall Street, enclosed
with high walls and arched shades for the accommodation of buyers in bad weather. It was
first built1)y the late Marquis of Donegall, and since rebuilt by the linendrapers of Belfast.
.... Most linens come in brown state, but others grey or half white, for use of the
common people, who loudly complain of the rotten state of the linens retailed in a grey
state in the streets, alleging that they give no wear from being bleached with lime.
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HAND BOOK, 69
1821. The secretary made another tour of inspection through
' Ulster, commencing the 9th May and ending the 6th August this
year, and presented to the Board in March, 1822, a voluminous
report (extending over 330 pages of printed folio), and from which
we make some extracts.
Much of the report is taken up with detailed accounts of the
various seals issued by the Board at different periods, and the
difficulties experienced in carrying out the rules respecting the
stamping of goods. The first seal granted to a Brown lapper was
issued on the nth May, 1762. This seal was subsequently
recalled, and after the Act 21 & 22 Geo. III., cap 35, came into
force, a seal of a different form was issued on 22nd July, 1782.
The measuring and stamping of brown linen in the province of
Ulster continued, for fifteen years, to be carried out after the passing
of this Act, by a number of sealmasters in each of the market
towns, but in the other provinces sole sealmasters (that is only one
for each district) were appointed, with a number of assistants.
These seals were square, two-and-a-half by two inches, had the
name and address of the sealmaster surrounding a device of a
spinning wheel, and spaces for entering the length and breadth of
the web, which was done either by type or ink. This last-named
seal was recalled, and a new one issued in 1798. The recalling
of the seals was the plan adopted for checking abuses which would
from time to time grow up. When once a seal was recalled it was
a punishable offence to use it, and in that way sealmasters who
had been guilty of irregularities found themselves deprived of
office. The seal of 1798 was oval shaped, with the words, " Trustees
linen manufacture," surrounding the device of an Irish harp with
the crown, and instead of the name of the sealmaster being given a
number was adopted, and the seals were duplicated for the use of
the sealmasters' assistants. A new form of bond was required to
be entered into by the sealmaster and his deputies at this period.
The regulations in respect to this seal having been evaded,
and the change by which a principal sealmaster, with a number of
assistants under him, appointed to each district not having given
satisfaction to the trade, and that by reason of the reduction in
the number of seals, a good deal of cloth was sold under the old
seals, or without any seals at all, it was found necessary to cancel
the whole of the arrangements of 1798, and to go back to the
previous system of appointing a number of independent brown
cloth sealmasters. Accordingly a circular seal was adopted which
had the name of the sealmaster on it, with the words " seal of
1799" in the centre. This was the year in which the change was
made, although the seal was not issued till 21st February, 1800.
This seal continued in force lor two years, when its form was
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70 IRISH LINEN TRADE
altered, and a square one was adopted, with the words in the centre,
"Seal of 1802." The minutes of the Board narrate numerous
instances of the steps taken to enforce this law. Many were the
appointments made, and many cases are recorded of punishments
and dismissals of persons entrusted with these brown seals. Mr.
Greer, the Inspector-General, mentioned in a report that " many
abuses prevailed respecting the brown seals, such as lending them
out, stamping without measuring, and overlooking defects by not
tal^ng sufficient time to examine the linens brought to be sealed."
Independent of those who held the office of public sealmasters,
the Board issued seals to manufacturers of standing, and in whom
they reposed confidence, and these were permitted to seal their
own cloth.
Extended reports are given of meetings held at the various
towns through which the secretary passed, and so far as we can
judge no trouble was spared to collect as much information as
possible, and from all persons connected with the trade, with a
view to improve matters; and there can be no doubt that had a
number of practical men, well acquainted with the technicalities of
the trade, been at the head of affairs in Dublin the staple industry
would have been much more efficiently looked after. But the
cumbrous machinery, originally devised with the best intentions,
was practically inefficient, so that laxity permeated every depart-
ment, and this tone reached down to the lowest official connected
with the Board.
Space will not permit of more than a few extracts being made
regarding the manner in which business was carried on at some
of these country markets. We select Bally tnma market, as it still
survives, whilst all others have passed out of existence, by changes
which sprung up in later times respecting the mode of carrying
on the trade: —
Minutes of public meeting at Ballymena, July 7, 1821. — A large number
of manufacturers and weavers attended. A paper was read representing the
views of a section of the manufacturers, who complained that the appointment
of a sole sealmaster who acted in this district did not give satisfaction. " Before
this regulation took place we measured, and sealed our cloth the evening before
the market at our own homes, and on coming here had full liberty to attend to
the purchasing of yam until the commencement of the cloth market, but now
when our cloth comes to town we are obliged, often to our loss, to attend no
longer to the yarn market, but instantly to mind the getting of our cloth pre-
pared for the market, .... which often requires some time, the press
and confusion being very great ; we have also to pay for the service done by
the sole sealmaster, and however trifling the sum may be we think that in the
present depressed state of trade every fair means should be resorted to were it
only to save one penny. We also think that by putting us again into a capacity
of sealing our own cloth no injury to the purchaser of the linen could possibly
arise, as we humbly conceive any of us are ftdly equal to answer any mistake
that might happen, and on the shortest notice."
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HAND BOOK,
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Another body of manufacturers and weavers, who differed in some respects
from these views, made a separate statement. In it they mention that " the
average length of the coarse yard wides and of the three-quarter yard wides
may be said to be 52 yards, for breadthing, measuring, and stamping of which
we are charged 2d and no more. The average length of the fine yard wides is
25 yards, and for every web of this description we have been also charged the
same price until this day, when the charge fell to id. An effort was made
many years ago to raise the charge upon the double webs to 3d, but it did not
succeed; and we have been told that in former times it was not more than what
the single webs now pay. The usual demand on us for the House, which is at
the rate of 2d for every double and id for every single web, is the only other
charge to which our webs are subject.
**With respect to the accommodation afforded to the weavers of the town,
for the measuring and lapping of their webs, we cannot all speak alike, because
some of us are allowed by Mr. Hogg (the sealmaster) to measure our own webs
at home, and type the lengths upon them, to which he afterwards affixes his
crown stamp, on our coming into town, on the faith of our accuracy, we paying
him id for the same ; but such of the present committee as have not this ac-
commodation from him must say that the inconveniences felt on a market
morning are very severe. The different deputies who are employed by Mr.
Hogg as his measurers do their business in different parts of the town; most of
those houses are roomy enough, but the distance of many of them from Mr.
Hogg and his assistants to get his stamp put on is productive of great delay.
.... As soon as our webs are sold we hurry to the measurer, and when
we are done with him, we run back to Mr. Hogg's place for his stamp, and
then to the merchant to be paid To avoid this confusion many of
the manufacturers and weavers travel between twenty and thirty miles to Belfast.'*
Other papers were handed in from the buyers and bleachers of
the district, and also one from Mr. Hogg, jun., the sole sealmaster,
but enough has been extracted from the report to enable our
readers to obtain an insight into the position of the market at
this period.
Appended to the report of the secretary is a general return of
sales in the several linen markets of Ireland for the year ended
5th January, 1822.
The following is a general abstract under the respective
counties : —
Cavan
;fii6,626 5 5
East Meath
;f 900
d
Monaghan
142,952 12 I
23,386 10
Louth
212,062
7
Fermanagh
King's County
22,161 I
4
Tyrone
395,809 6 II
Longford
43,269 18
4
Donegal
33,076 6 II
Kildare
1,125
Londonderry
231,219 12 4
Kilkenny
1,345 15
Antrim
345,504 16 10
Westmeath '
3,683 9
6
Down
214,199 3
Wexford
807 10
Armagh
570,348 2 10
;f2,073,I22 i6 4
Total for Leinster
Total for Ulster
^^285,354 14
9
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72 IRISH LINEN TRAIIE
Cork
Clare
^49,i»3 3
i8 19
I
Limerick
5,627 I
8
S5"7
13,019 II
6
Tipperary
994 15
10
Waterford
27 I
8
Sligo
;t26,785 9
II
Mayo
71,526 13
I
Galway
8,421 16
8
Leitrim
723 13
4
Roscommon
10,207 I
Total for Mmister ;f68,87o 13 9 Total for Connaughtjfi 17,664 14 o
Total sales of brown linen cloth in Ireland for the year
ended 5th January, 1822 ;f2,545,oi2 18 10
1825. — Up to this period all the mill-spun yarn produced was
on the dry system, and unless an improvement had been effected
by which the flax could be drawn out into finer threads than it
had to this been possible to do, hand-spinning would, for the finer
classes of linen goods, have lasted much longer as a handicraft, or
we should have had to continue to import fine numbers from the
Continent for linens and cambrics. But now English and Scotch
spinners had adopted the wet system, and were beginning to send
over their yarns to Ireland, and it did not take long to prove
that our hand-spun yams could not compete with this great
improvement.
1826. — The time was now approaching when it was felt that a
continuance of State aid, on behalf of an industry which had
attained such proportions as this, could no longer be defended,
either on the grounds of public policy or commercial principles,
and this view was shared to a large extent by the trade. The
administrative department at headquarters had been, for years
previously, falling into decay ; and frequently, when meetings
were summoned for the despatch of most important business, out
of seventy-two members, it was found impossible to collect more
than three or four, sometimes only two attended. It is most
surprising that the original machinery was preserved intact imtil
the day it was broken up, and that no attempt was made to reduce
the directorate to a sound and practically efficient basis ; but
possibly the growing dislike against such a control prevented any
steps being taken in later times to improve, and therefore prolong
its existence. Accordingly, we find that Government took the
initiative step, and on the 23rd of August this year the Chief
Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant addressed a communication to
the Trustees, intimating that the Lords Commissioners of his
Majesty's Treasury having considered that the grant heretofore
made to the Linen Board, for the support of that branch of
industry, could not be continued any longer ; and, as his Excel-
lency concurred in the opinion that there were many objections to
the continuance of the grant, but, at the same time, not to sud-
denly stop it, he informed the Trustees that the amount would be
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HAND BOOK. 75
limited to ;^ 10,000 for 1827. Nothing appears to have been done
in reference to this letter until the following year.
1827. — At a meeting of the Linen Board on 6th February the
communication from the Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant,
of 23rd August, 1826, was taken into consideration.
A letter from Mr. Corry, the secretary, was also read, and in
this he reviewed the position of the Board, in reference to its
surveillance of the trade ; and— although he had been in their
service for nearly thirty-two years, and had the best opportunities
of judging of the working of the establishment, "which for
more than one hundred years had been entrusted with the
protection and management of the linen manufacture of Ireland" —
he admitted there was a popular opinion abroad unfavourable to
the continuance of the Board, and he agreed in the view that
after a certain point of prosperity has been attained the less any
manufacture was encumbered with legislative regulation the better.
A special meeting of the Trustees was convened for the loth
February, "to consider whether it would not be expedient to
propose to the Government of Ireland the dissolution of this
Board." However, on this occasion it was resolved — "That it is
not expedient to make such a proposition to Gove^jiment."
Nothing further was done until the 7th August, when a letter
from Dublin Castle was laid before the Board. In this the
Lord Lieutenant intimated that it was not the intention of his
Majesty's Government to recommend that any grant should be
proposed to Parliament for the encouragement of the linen manu-
facture for the year 1828.
A copy of this letter was sent to all the members of the Board,
requesting each to give his opinion thereon in the fullest manner,
and in an appendix to the transactions of the Trustees for 1827 a
large number of replies were published, not only from individual
members of the Board, but also from linen merchants and manu-
facturers, whose opinions, regarding the control of the trade in
future, were also elicited. The substance of these replies shows an
unmistakably adverse feeling regarding the central control, but, at
the same time, it was generally admitted that a local control, to
some extent, was still absolutely necessary.
The opinion of the trade was also collected by the Board,
as to the wisdom of retaining certain portions of the Act, and
a system of county inspection was suggested, which met with
general approbation.
After taking these replies into consideration, at a meeting held
on the 14th September, it was " Resolved unanimously : — ^That
legislative provisions continue to be essentially required for the
protection and regulation of some branches of the linen trade
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74 IRISH LINEN TRADE
of Ireland, particularly with reference to the sealing and measuring
of linen cloth brought to market, and for detecting and punishing
frauds in the manufacture and making up linen cloth and yarn,
and in the preparation and manner of exposing flax for sale.
And resolved — that such parts of the Act of 6 Geo. IV. cap. 122,
as relate to the foregoing resolution, ought to be retained or
re-enacted as law, together with such additions as may be deemed
advisable for the protection of the trade."
A Bill was accordingly drafted and submitted to Parliament
the following year.
1828. — On 15th July, the Act 9 Geo. IV. cap. 62, was passed.
Sec. 2 — Dissolved the Board,* and all their property reverted to
the Crown. But a very comprehensive legislative control was still
kept up, as by sec. 3 — All flax sold in fairs or markets was to be
of equal cleanness and quality throughout, under penalty not
exceeding one shilling per stone. Sec. 4. — Magistrates might
cause flax to be examined. Sec. 9. — Weavers to put their names
on each web they wove, also to mark length and breadth ; penalty
for neglect not exceeding ;^i. Sec. 10. — Regulated the breadth
of goods known as yard wides, 7/8, 3/4, 9/8, 6/4, &c. Sec. 12. —
Linen to be ofc equal fineness throughout, and not to be pasted,
dyed, or stained. Sec. 14. — On complaints being made to magis-
trates they had power to refer disputes to arbitration of three
persons skilled in weaving, their opinion being final. Sec. 19. —
Lord Lieutenant had power to appoint twelve persons in each
county to be a committee for controlling brown linen sealmasters,
who were continued in office. Sec. 26. — No person to sell or buy
any unbleached linen not sealed. Sec. 27. — Nothing beyond
breadth of the thumb to be allowed with the statute yard.
These provisions for regulating the trade were to be in force
for three years. The Act was renewed on three occasions, viz.,
2 and 3 Wm. IV. cap. 77, 5 and 6 Wm. IV. cap. 27, and
I and 2 Vict. cap. 52, the latter continuing for five years, when
it was allowed to lapse.
The improvements effected in mill-spinning were this
* As it may be interesting, we note the names of the Trustees at the period when the
Board was dlBsoIved, and which were as follows : J/ar^ifuex— Downshire, Donegal, Thomond,
Sligo, Oonyngham, Ormonde. J&arJ*— Granard, Oarrick, Shannon, Oonrtown,Charlemont,
Kingston, Roden, Longford, EnniskiUen, Bme, Glare, Leitrim, Belmore, O'Keil, Oaledon,
Qosford, Charleyille, Olengall, Kihnorey, Norbury. FMcoi«n<»— Forbes, Clermont, Northland,
Hawarden, Ferrard, Lorton, Ennismore. Bw/*op«— The Primate, Meath, Derry, Kilmore.
5ar<m* -Blayney, Oarbery, Famham, Dnflerin, Dunally, Oriel. CornmonenS'a N. 0.
Colthorst, Bart., M.P.; Right Hon. Sir Gteoige F. Hill, Bart., M.P.; Right Hon. The Knight
of Kerry, M.P. ; Right Hon. J. 0. Vandeleur; Right Hon. James Fitzgerald; Hon. R.
Ward; Hon. H. R. Pakenham; George R. Dawson, M.P.; James Browne, M.P. ; James
Daly, M.P.; Arthur French, M.P.; Owen Wynne, M.P.; James Cuff, M.P.; Charles Brownlow,
M.P. ; General Archdall, M.P. ; B. A. M'Naghten, M.P.; P. La Touche, jun.; 0. P. Leslie,
Matthew Forde, Nathaniel Sneyd, J. C. Beresford, H. J. Clements, Thomas; Vemer William
O. Gore; Darid Kerr, B. M'Donnell; R. S. Tighe; Cornelius Bolton.
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HAND BOOK. 75
year turned to practical account in this country, through the
enterprise of Mr. James Murland, of Castlewellan, who in the
most spirited manner, erected, at his own cost, and without any
subsidy from the Board, a wet-spinning mill, driven by steam
power. The time when the mill was started appeared a most
favourable one, as demand for suitable warp yarns was active, and
the raw material was cheap, so that the enterprise was rewarded
by handsome profits on the undertaking.
1830. — The example set by Mr. Murland was quickly followed by
another leading firm, then engaged in the cotton trade — the Messrs.
Mulholland — who first set up about 1,000 spindles in a small mill
situate in Frances Street, Belfast, and subsequently erected 8,000
spindles in Yo;k Street Mill.
At this interesting period in the history of the flax-spinning
trade we cannot do better than refer to " Ireland and her Staple
Manufactures," for a description of the Messrs. MulhoUand's
mercantile spirit, and the concern over which they presided.
* * Having tested the principle and found it likely to succeed, the firm of
Mulholland had the new establishment (their old mill, a cotton one, had been
burned down on the loth June, 1828), fitted up with superior machinery for
flax-spinning, and in the spring of 1830, the first bundle of yam was made up
from the steam driven spindles of York Street Mill Many cautious
men of that day considered the flaxen yam project as a very hazardous under-
taking, but the sturdy perseverance and mercantile energy which distinguished
the house of Mulholland, while they were engaged in the cotton trade, did not
wane when they set to work in the other line, and not only did flax-spinning
by mechanical power succeed beyond the most sanguine expectations of the
firm, but the yam produced was so much cheaper, and so superior to the finger-
spun article, that it gave quite a new impulse to the manufacture of linen.
Demand increased enormously, and although the prosperity of the York Street
Mill caused many other men of enterprise to follow in the same course, it was
difficult to keep pace with the wants of manufacturers. Belfast spun yams were
much sought after, as well by local makers of linen as by the trade at a distance ;
orders poured in firom the Scotch houses, and large quantities were sent to
English firms. When the York Street Mill commenced flax-spinning the total
exports of Yam from Ulster did not exceed one million pounds. In 1865
nearly twenty-eight millions of pounds were exported from Belfast alone. . . .
The success of the Messrs. Mulholland as the introducers of the new mode
of flax-spinning into Belfast was quite equal to their enterprise
and the profits of the concern exceeded the dreamiest imaginings of the
proprietors The York Street Mill commenced with about 8,000
spindles, these were time after time added to (Later on we shall
note the progress of this concern. ) . . . . Belfast can never forget how
much she owes to the house of Mulholland. What the firm of Marshall did for
Leeds, and that of Baxter for Dundee, the brothers Mulholland accomplished for
Belfast, in leading the way in flax spinning. When their new concern com-
menced work in 1830 the population of the borough was under 50,000, and the
exports annually sent away barely amounted to four millions sterling
Mr. Andrew Mulholland lived to see Belfast become the great centre of Ireland's
linen trade and the chief seat of flax spinning."
1835. — '^^^ rapid improvement in linen manufacturing which
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followe4 the introduction of the wet-spinning system, and the
cheapness with which yarns were produced, and the great regularity
in regard to weights, counts, &c., as compared with the hand-spun
material, enabled manufacturers to considerably reduce the price
of cloth. Irish cloth was now rapidly cutting out German cloth
abroad, and some of the South American markets, which formerly
took the manufactures of Silesia, Brabant, &c., were now supplied
with Irish Silesians, Brabantes, &c.
The relative prices, at different periods, of some of the leading
sets of linen are given in the following table : —
Yard Wide Family Linen per Yard.
H**** iS*** 20*** 22'"' ^ 24*»*
i8oS,
2/-
3/4
44
S"
10/6
i8i5.
2/-
3/1
3/9
S/3
9/6
1820,
1/6
2/10
3/6
s/-
9/6
1830,
»/4l
2/6
3/2
4/6
8/6
1835.
2/1
2/10
V2
6/-
1836 — 1840. — Trade in 1836 showed satisfactory progress,
the exports of both cloth and yarn being considerably in excess of
the previous year; however, 1837 turned out unfevourable, as
the terrible calamity which came over financial affairs in America
told so severely on the Irish linen trade, that exports of cloth
fell off enormously, and home demand for yarns being much
reduced, nearly double the quantity, compared with previous
year, was exported. A recovery took place in 1838, and
trade gradually improved down to close of 1840, a steady tone
being maintained in all departments.
On 15th October, 1835, a great fire broke out in New York, which
destroyed 674 buildings. . . . About i,ocx). mercantile firms were dii-
lodged. . . . The fire burned over an area of 52 acres, comprising a
densely-built and exclusively mercantile portion of the city. . . . The
property destroyed was valued at 20,000,000 dollars. 1836.— Active measures
having been taken to rebuild the burned portion of the city, the ground was
this year nearly covered by new and handsome erections. 1837. — During this
year a financial crisis occurred in America. . . . All the banks suspended
specie payments, and very extensive failures took place, the eflfects being very
severely felt in Great Britain. At Manchester, 50,000 hands were thrown out
of emplo3rment, and most of the large establishments were working only half
time. (Extracts from **Aimual Register" and **Brit Almanac and Com-
panion" at this period. )
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HAND BOOK, 77
CHAPTER VI.
From the formation of the Flax Improvement Society until
its dissolution.
k ROM the dissolution of the Linen Trade Board in
1828 there appears to have been no public body
specially identified with our staple industry, and
save the Royal Dublin Society, which offered prizes
at their exhibitions for flax products, the trade seems
to have been left entirely to itself. Possibly the
feeling of dissatisfaction which had been gaining strength
for years previous to the extinction of the Board, and the
opposition to the continuance of extraneous aid and control, which
was then no longer needed, may have been unfavourable, for a
long time after, to the establishment of any new organisation to
watch over the interests of the trade. Be that as it may, we find
that after it had been freed from all restriction, and released from
the nursing which, for 117 years, had been carried on, commercial
men set to work, and with their own resources, skill, and enter-
prise, in a very short space of time quite revolutionised the spinning
branch, and gave an immense impetus to the weaving. The
factory was now taking the place of the old hand lab.our system
which had been spread over the country, and every year witnessed
an immense increase to the population of Belfast, where labour
was attracted through the rapid extension of the spinning mills.
1 84 1. — The opening of this year witnessed an effort to organise
a Society to take charge of an important branch of the trade, and
to draw greater attention to what was admitted to be of vast
consequence to the future progress of our industry, namely, the
promotion and improvement of the growth of flax in Ireland.
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78 IRISH LINEN TRADE
A Society was accordingly formed for this purpose, and from
the preliminary prospectus we make the following extract, which
sets forth the objects and plans proposed : —
**The linen trade is admitted by all to have been the greatest benefit to
Ireland, particularly to Ulster ; it is, therefore, a strange fact that little atten-
tion has been paid to the improved cultivation of flax, and its culture is totally
neglected in the most fertile part of the country. Were the sale of the article
limited, or the grower not fairly remunerated, this state of things could be
easily accounted for ; but the contrary being the case, it is a matter of astonish-
ment to all strangers, and is not to be explained either easily or satisfactorily.
Partial failures have occasionally occurred from very dry weather in seed time
and early spring, or from the use of bad seed ; but the chief sources of failure
are attributable to carelessness and mismanagement in preparing the ground,
weeding, steeping, grassing, and swingling the flax. These being all faults,
referable to the farmer himself, he willingly excuses by blaming the soil, the
season, the water, or anything but his own ignorance or indolence, and is
perfectly satisfied that a crop of flax cannot be rendered as profitable here as
it is on the Continent, where attention worthy the importance of the subject
is paid.
For the purpose of correcting such erroneous views, and, if possible,
of forcing conviction on the most prejudiced, a society is in process of forma-
tion whose objects will be to show what actually can be done by establishing
model farms in different districts .... by sending intelligent persons
to witness the management of the flax crop as practised in Holland, Belgium,
and France ; for the purpose of instructing the farmers of our own country
hereby to produce flax equal to the finer sorts of the Continent, keeping the
money at home, which is now sent to those places; and little doubt can be
reasonably entertained that we should shortly supply our English and Scotch
neighbours, and thus add an increased wealth to our farmers, and of employ-
ment to our labouring population."
The Society was launched under most favourable auspices,
and proved a very great success. The donations and subscriptions
amounted during the first year to ;^i,i6i 6s iid. Public
meetings were held in various places, with a view to disseminate
as much information as possible, and the society worked most
energetically for many years.
1843. — Through the exertions of the Society, the increase in
the growth of flax in Ireland this year was estimated at 14,270
tons, but complaint was made that the public did not support the
Society to the extent it deserved.
1845. — It may be interesting, in connection with the move-
ment which resulted in the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the
adoption of the policy of free trade, to here refer to the fearless
position taken up by those interested in the linen manufacture, as
showing what little grounds of apprehension were entertained
respecting foreign competition. In a petition, presented to Parlia-
ment, and numerously signed by spinners and manufacturers, it was
stated ** That the growers of flax do not enjoy any protection
against foreign competition (a duty of ;^io a ton, which was
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HAND BOOK, 79
formerly levied on foreign flax, had been abolished), and that the
crop is extensively cultivated, and^has proved in general more
remunerative to the farmer than those crops which have hitherto
been largely protected. That experience having clearly proved to
petitioners that the linens of Ireland can successfully compete
with those of any other country, petitioners are prepared to
relinquish all protection as applied to them ; and they therefore
pray that in the adoption of any measures regulating the commer-
cial policy of Great Britain, the free system under which the
growth of flax has flourished may be applied to the linen manu-
factures of Ireland/'
From the report of the Flax Society for this year, it appears
that the value of the flax crop was estimated at ;^ 1,750,000.
1846. — A deputation, consisting of the President (the Marquis
of Downshire) and the Secretary, waited upon H.R.H. Prince
Albert, in October, with a view to explain the position and
prospects of the Society, and to endeavour to obtain Royal
patronage. On this occasion they submitted to Her Majesty the
Queen specimens of damasks, cambrics and linens, — which had
gained the medals of the Society at their exhibition in Belfast the
previous year, — and requested the honour of their acceptance by
Her Majesty. In the address which accompanied the presentation
the following paragraph occurs : —
This Society, established in 1841, has introduced into Ireland the Belgian
mode of managing the flax crop, in the growth and preparation for the textile
manufactures, such as are now submitted for your Majesty's acceptance.
Previous to that period the quality of the fibre was not such as to adapt it for
these fine fabrics, which were then exclusively made of foreign flax, but
tlie Society has now succeeded, by the improvements it has introduced, in
enabling the manufacturers to substitute the home grown material.
The samples of Irish manufactures accepted by the Queen
were damasks, made by Mr. Andrews at Ardoyne \ cambric, by
Mr. Henning, of Waringstown ; and linen, by Messrs. Thomas
M*Murray & Co., Dromore. Her Majesty the Queen and His
Royal Highness Prince Albert afterwards consented to become
patrons of the Society, which was then called " The Royal Society,
for the promotion and improvement of the growth of flax in
Ireland."
Many scutch mills were erected in 1846 in various parts of the
south of Ireland, but by the failure of the potato crop, embarrassing
both farmers and landowners, the Society had great difficulty in
pursuing its labours, owing to curtailed receipts, and in obtaining
supplies of foreign seed. They accordingly presented a memorial
to the Government, and obtained a grant to assist in carrying on
their labours. The high price to which food products rose, on the
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80 IRISH LINEN TRADE
failure of the potato crop tempted farmers, for years after, to sow
grain more freely, to the neglect of flax.
In November, 1846, handscutched inferior quality flax sold
from 6s 3d to 6s 6d per stone of 16 lbs.; middling, 6s 6d to
6s 9d ; fine, 6s 9d to 7s 8d ; milled flax, low middling quality,
7s 6d to 8s ; middling, 8s 3d to 8s 9d \ good, 8s pd to 9s 3.d ;
best, 9s 3d to 9s 9d; fine, los to iis 6d ; line yams, loo's, 4s 9d
to 6s 6d ; tows, 25's, 5s to 5s 3d.
We cannot pass over this period in the history of our country
without alluding to the failure of the potato crop, which produced
such widespread distress at the time, and greatly retarded the
development of trade and agriculture.
In 1845 there had been a partial failure of the crop, but the
effects would not have been seriously felt had this not been fol-
lowed by a sudden and total destruction of the natipnal esculent
in 1846. A writer,* who has given much attention to social and
commercial questions relating to the well-being of Ireland, com-
piled a treatise on the condition of the country at this period, and
some of the reforms he advocated were soon afterwards com-
menced. From the part he took, as one of the secretaries to the
Central Relief Association of the Society of Friends, and his
acquaintance with the circumstances of the times, he was able to
furnish very full details respecting this period of national distress,
and from the work referred to we extract the following ; —
"The Summer of 1845 had been cold. It was said that there had been
frosts at night, and to this cause some attributed the injury to the potato crop.
The Summer of 1846, on the contrary, was unusually warm. The wheat
appeared particularly fine, and the appearance of the potatoes was most
favourable, when suddenly they seemed blasted, as if by lightning. The
leaves withered, the stalks became bare and black, the whole plant was dead,
while the tubers were in many places scarcely formed, and in no part of the
country were the late potatoes fully grown. The crop was destroyed, and the
food of a whole people was cut off. It now appears extraordinary that the
alarm was not more immediate and more general. The calamity had proved
less serious the previous year than had been anticipated at first, therefore, .
many hoped that the present accounts were exaggerated. Even those who
saw that the crop was lost, could not believe that the consequences would be
so serious. Perhaps none were able fully to anticipate the awful reality.
Ireland had lost in potatoes and in oats to the value of at
least ;^i6,ooo,ooo. The difficulty was greatly increased by the peculiar cir-
cumstances of the crop which had failed. It constituted the food of the great
mass of the population, and it was essentially the property of the poor.
Cultivated by their own hands, in their own gardens, it was their capital, their
stock-in-trade, their store of food for themselves, their pigs, their poultry, and,
in many cases, for their sheep and cattle. When it was gone they had no
other resource. They had believed themselves comfortable, and felt secure of
having enough of food, and now, by a sudden and unexpected dispensation of
* Oondltlon and Prospects of Ireland. By Jonathan Pirn (late MP. for Dublin).
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HAND BOOK, 81
Providence, they were at once reduced to poverty The
first frightfiil tales of suffering which burst on us from the wild and ill-cultivated
districts of the west, were quickly echoed from the richer and more fertile
counties of Leinster. The distress extended itself among the industrious
manufacturing population of Ulster, and the artisans and workpeople of the
towns and cities. Want and misery spread throughout the land. The fol-
lowing statement of distress in a manufacturing district of the County Armagh
is extracted from a letter, addressed by a clergyman of the Church of England
to the Relief Committee of the Society of Friends. It is dated February 23,
1847 : — * The population of this parish has been hitherto chiefly supported by
weaving, carried on in their own houses. The weaver at present can only earn, by
weaving a web of sixty yards, two shillings and sixpence to four shillings and
sixpence, which employs him nearly a whole week in preparation, while at
present prices such wages will not support the mere weaver without a family.
Even with such wages, I can state it as a fact, having come under my own
immediate observation, that weavers are sitting up three nights per week, in
order by any means to procure food for their families. There is scarcely a
family in the parish in which there is not one or more members of the family
sitting up nightly. I have seen them on returning to my own home (from
visiting the sick) at two a.m. working as busily as in the day time. In several
cases I have relieved individuals in their own houses, who, from exhaustion
had been compelled to lie down, and could no longer continue to work at the
loom. This has been, and is now, the only means of employment. There are
no private or public works carrying on, or about to be carried on in the district,
and even this mode of scanty and insufficient emplo)niient is now rapidly
ceasing.* (Then follow very harrowing details.) One of the poorhouses <Jf
the district — Lurgan — is shut for egress or ingress ; seventy-five died in one
day. In Armagh poorhouse forty-five die weekly, &c We
are, in short, rapidly approaching, and, if unassisted, must arrive at the worst
of the pictures that have been presented to the public from the County
ofCork.^'
Many and large were the contributions which were sent to the
country at this period of national distress ; and Ireland should
never forget with what a liberal hand England came to the rescue.
Among foreign contributors, America stands forward by her
noble donation of food and money, and from Continental
countries and far oflf islands the sympathies of a common brother-
hood were called forth. In our own country many philanthropists
came to the front, and notably among them, members of the Society
of Friends, in that broad spirit of Christian benevolence which has
ever characterised that body, and did great service at this sad and
distressing period. 5ut with all the exertions used, the wants of
three railUons of people was a question which taxed to tha utmost
all the resources then available, whilst the melancholy fate of
thousands of our people, struck down by famine and fever, marks
this as a time of terrible disaster and suffering.
A mass of information is supplied by Mr. Pim respecting this
period of dreadful distress, which — though now reading of what
took place thirty years ago — produces such a sickening feeling that
we turn with a sense of relief to the picture of prosperity which
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82 IRISH LINEN TRADE
our country presents to-day ; and though our staple trade, like
many others, has been passing through one of those epochs of
commercial depression which come to all, our artisans and work-
people generally are well paid, comfortable, and independent ;
and whatever drawbacks do exist they have been felt more by the
capitalist than the labourer.
The consequences of the famine were disastrous to the trade
and commerce of the country. The poor were unable to do more
than provide themselves with food ; the small shopkeepers in the
country towns lost their trade ; landlords to a large extent not
only lost their rents, but were saddled with enormously increased
rates for the relief of the poor, which in many instances swamped
their property. The agricultural and manufacturing industry was
paralysed, and the want of employment added greatly to the
universal distress, which, in a greater or less degree, affected every
rank and class.
In alluding to the domestic manufactures of Connaught
Mr. Pim said : —
** The peasantry of Connaught usually make their own clothing, consisting
of linen, knitted stockings, a coarse but very serviceable flannel for women's
clothes, and a good frieze for men These articles were regularly
offered for sale in all the markets and fairs of the West, and formed no incon-
siderable source of traffic. They constituted a domestic manufacture, which
having existed from time immemorial, still maintained a precarious existence,
in competition with the cheaper but less durable fabrics of England. The
fleece of his own sheep, spun and woven in his own house, at seasons when
otherwise he would have been unemployed, enabled the cottier and peasant farmer
to provide comfortable clothing for his family, which was hardly possible for
him to obtain in any other way. Such a manufacture must, no doubt, eventu-
ally yield before the spread of that civilisation which, in the division of labour,
restricts each individual to one occupation, and thus increases his capabilities
and his skill ; but it would be a cause of much regret if the present circumstancs
should destroy this ancient home manufacture before the natural period of its
decay. There is much danger that the looms and spinning wheels which have
been broken up or sold may not be replaced, in which case the industry of our
Connaught peasantry will be even lower than it has hitherto been."
These anticipations were fully realised, as the manufacture
never recovered the blow which it received at this period. After
detailing the condition of Ireland, the author, in succeeding
chapters^ reviews the industrial resources of the country— the
woollen, cotton, and linen manufactures — much of which possesses
interest, but space will not allow more extended extracts.
The prospects of a scarcity of flax at this time, and the small
supplies on hand of both home and foreign material, contributed
to embarrass the linen trade in 1847. To prevent the export from
Belgium, the Government of that country imposed a duty of ;£ 10
a ton on all flax shipped ; the result was that some of the mills in
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HAND BOOK. 83
Ireland were obliged to stop for want of the raw material. From
returns for 1847 it appeared that the acreage of flax was 58,312.
Complaints were pretty general at this time respecting the high
protection duties imposed by Continental countries on our linen
manufactures, owing to which they were in a great measure shut
out of these markets; but looking to the march we stole upon them
in our export trade with countries from which they long derived a
rich return, it is not surprising that, whilst endeavouring to regain
their balance, they practically denied us all share in their home
profits.
1848. — In January of this year line yarns No. 100 ranged from
4s to 5s 6d. Tow No. 25, 4s 6d to 5s. Inferior hand-scutched
flax, 4s 3d to 4s 6d; best, 5s 6d to 6s 6d. Low quality milled flax,
5s 3d to 5s 9d; fine, 8s 6d to 9s 6d per stone of i61bs.
1849. — Trade began to revive this year, and the quantity of
land sown with flax-seed exceeded the preceding year by some
6,400 acres. The exports of linen yarn and linen goods also
showed a very large increase, compared with 1848, and trade kept
steadily improving for several years.
On the nth of August Her Majesty the Queen and His Royal
Highness Prince Albert, on the occasion of their first visit to
Ireland, came round by sea from Kingstown to Belfast. On
landing, Her Majesty was received by the Mayor, Mr. William
Gillilan Johnson, and the various officials, and representatives
of local bodies, officers of state, &c., and met with an enthusiastic
reception by the inhabitants of Belfast. On this occasion, the
honour of knighthood was conferred on Mr. Johnson by Her
Majesty.
From the newspaper reports we give an account of the Exhi-
bition of flax products — held at the White Linen Hall— specially
got up for Her Majesty's inspection.
Messrs. S. G. Fenton & Co. and Sadler, Fenton & Co. (now
Fen ton, Connor <fe Co.), having placed at the disposal of the
Managing Committee their rooms in the Linen Hall, the various
specimens were displayed therein to the best advantage.
" The Queen and Prince Albert drove in the carriage of the Marquis of
Londonderry, and arrived at the Linen Hall at five minutes to three o'clock.
The President of the Royal Flax Society, the Marquis of Downshire,
led the way through the Exhibition. The floors of the long passages were
carpeted with yard wide bleached damask, edged with crimson cloth . . .
the floor of each room being covered with unbleached damask . . . the
tables were covered with blue, which was in keeping with the walls. In the
general plan of the exhibition the committee endeavoured to show every stage
of the flax plant in its natural order.
The first room contained samples of flaxseed, and its products— linseed
oil and cake for feeding cattle ; flax in various stages of growth, &c. Second
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room had series of samples of scutched home and foreign flax, the home fibre
being so arranged as to show the improvements effected by the society in r^ard •
to the treatment of the flax. Third room contained samples of hackled flax,
both Irish and foreign, also samples of dressed flax. Fourth room had
samples of yams, both line and tow, and also sewing thread. The mill-spun
yam ranged from i^ lea to 400 lea, and hand-spun from 240 to 800 lea. The
threads were shown both bleached and dyed. Fifth room contained several
articles of flax manufacture, not otherwise classified, such as a delicately-
worked scarf of fine mill -spun yam, half bleached to imitate colour of Mechlin
lace ; woven shirt fronts ; flax tubing, woven without seam ; patent flax
belting ; medical buck towels, mats, rugs, &c. , made of tow yams. Sixth
room contained a. large number of samples of unbleached goods of all descrip-
tions, such as plain bleaching cloth, diapers, hoUands, drills, huckabacks,
sheetings. In rooms seven and eight the bleached linens were laid out Room
nine contained specimens of brown damask of beautiful design. Room ten
had bleached damasks. Room eleven — assortment of cambric handkerchiefs,
bleached and unbleached, printed handkerchiefs, and linen cambric dresses ;
and room twelve exhibited printed lawns and cambrics for ladies' dresses, hem-
stitched handkerchiefs, &c.
Among the exhibitors of flax, linen yam, and linen goods of all descrip-
tions, we find the names of Messrs. Michael Andrews, Royal Factory,
Ardoyne ; James Brown, Waringstown ; J. Brown & Sons ; William Barbour
(now William Barbour & Sons), Lisbura ; James Coulson, damask manufac-
turer to Her Majesty, Lisbura ; J. & W. Charley & Co. ; Dunbar, Dicksons,
& Co. (now separate firms, Dicksons, Ferguson, h Co., and Wm. Spotten & Co.);
Dunbar, M*Master, & Co.; Thomas Ferguson & Sons ; Gradwell, Chadwick,
& Co., Drogheda; John Henning & Sons, Waringstown; William Kirk & Son,
Keady ; A. Mulholland & Sons (now York Street Flax Spinning Co., Limited);
S. K. Mulholland and Hinds (now John Hind & Sons); James Malcolm,
Lurgan (now Malcolm & Pentland); T. M'Caw ; John Preston & Co. ;
J. J. Richardson, Lisbum ; Richardson & Co., Lisbum ; J. N. Richardson,
Sons, & Owden ; Sadler, Fenton, & Co. (now Fenton, Connor & Co.); and
several other firms, some of whom are not now in existence.
Mr. Preston had charge of the room in which the prepared flax was, and
her Majesty appeared greatly interested, and made several inquiries of him ;
and When he exhibited the specimens of flax grown on Prince Albert's Flemish
farm, her Majesty turned to Prince Albert, and appeared at once surprised and
gratified.
In addition to the exhibition of flax products, there was also an exhibition
of sewed ^nd embroidered muslins, the specimens being greatly admired by the
Queen, who selected several of them. Mr. J. Lindsay (R. Lindsay & Co.),
J. Holden, S. R. Browne, &c., contributed to this department, which was
under their care.
On leaving the exhibition, the Queen expressed to Lord Downshire, as
President of the Flax Society, the great pleasure she had experienced in
witnessing so interesting an exhibition of the staple industry of the province.
During the Queen°s visit to the exhibition. Lord Downshire stated to her
Majesty that the Society would be happy to present to her any specimens of
flax fabrics which might be pleasing to her. Her Majesty having expressed
her willingness to accept them, his Lordship laid aside the articles which more
particularly attracted the Queen's or Prince Albert's notice. Two parcels of
goods were afterwards made up, and carried by members of the Committee to
the yacht Fairy,
The following is a portion of the address which was presented, on this
occasion, to the Queen by the Royal Society : —
" It is with feelings of lively satisfaction that we receive your Majesty, in
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85
a building erected by the merchants of Belfast, for the purposes of the linen
trade, to exhibit to you therein some specimens illustrative of our staple
manufacture ; and we feel assured your Majesty's visit will act as a useful
stimulus to those engaged in the various arts by which our native productions
may be advanced and improved. In condescending to become patron of this
Society, your Majesty has recognised the importance of our labours in
developing one of the great national resources of this country, by promoting
the cultivation, on Irish soil, of a plant which, in its subsequent manufacture,
affords so much emplo3nnent to the Irish population. We feel an honourable
pride in directing your Majesty's attention to the happy influence which the
linen trade has exercised, in contributing to raise the Province of Ulster to that
comparative position of prosperity, which contrasts so favourably with the
distress and misery, the existence of which we deplore, in other parts of Ireland.
We have been sedulously labouring to ex-tend the culture of the flax plant to
those poor and remote localities, as the four or five millions now annually paid
to foreigners for .the material would, if expended at home, by exerting feelings
of self-reliance amongst the people, tend to show them that the valuable
resources of the country are amply sufficient, if fully developed, to support her
population, and would prevent them from looking for eleemosynary relief from
strangers. From the sowing of the seed to the finishing of the fabric, all the
operations connected with the plant are performed at home, affording employ-
ment alike to the farmer, agriculturist, labourer, and artisan, creating an
intelligent, enterprising middle-class of manufacturers, the want of which is so
much felt in other districts in Ireland, and the exportation of the products
contributing to the employment of a mercantile navy, affording an item of
exchange for the production of foreign countries."
1850. — From the report of the Factory Commissioners, dated
July, 1850, we find that the number of spindles in Ireland had
reached to a very respectable figure, and was in excess of those of
both England and Scotland, though the numerical strength of the
mills was considerably less, the average number of spindles was
much in excess of those of Great Britain. Ulster farmers had
fairly recovered from the losses suffered during the famine years,
and were able to devote more time as well as a wider area of land
to the culture of flax. The crop turned out favourably, prices
were remunerative, and the buyers were well pleased with the
quality of the fibre ; demand for yarns was very active, every
bundle thrown off the spindles found ready sale, and manufac-
turers and bleachers had no cause of complaint, either in reference
to the home or the export trade, which showed most gratifying
results.
The following is an abstract of the Factory Commissioners
Report on Flax Spinning in the United Kingdom at this period : —
FLAX SPINNING MILLS.
No. of
No. of
Spindles
Motive
persons
IdiUs
power
employed
In Ireland, 69
326,008
3,380
21,121
„ Scotland, 189
303,125
265,568
6,425
28,312
„ England and Wales, 135
4,487
19,001
393
894,701
14,292
68,434
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86 IRISH LINEN TRADE
1851. — The improvement in trade since 1848 had made
steady progress, and under the fostering care of the Royal
Society the breadth of land sown had been rapidly enlarging,
so that this year we find the acreage considerably more than
double what it was in 1849. ^"^ ^^^ report for 185 1 we find
the following statement : —
" The present demand for flax in Ireland is about double what
it was when the Society was established in 1841, when the Irish
spinning trade numbered 250,060 spindles. Now they are close
upon half a million. In place of 1 6,000 tons of flax, which was
the estimated consumption in 1841, 32,000 tons are now required
by the Irish trade. The entire consumption of the United King-
dom would at present require 500,000 acres of flax. annually, and
it is progressively increasing at a perfectly rapid rate."
When the Flax Society was formed in 1841, the flax cultivated
in Ireland was about 80,000 acres, but in 1843 ^^ breadth had
risen to 112,000, and in 1844 122,000 acres were under flax. In
consequence of the scarcity of seed and unprincipled practices
of some dealers, who made up old seed in foreign barrels, a partial
failure followed, and a smaller breadth was sown the following
year; the total area in 1845 being only 96,000 acres. In 1846
the crop both at home and on the Continent turned .out much
below the average, adding to the general distress which prevailed
at that period. The consequence was that in 1847 we find the
sowing was reduced to 58,312, and still lower in 1848, when only
53,863 were sown; but it took an upward turn again in 1849,
when 60,314 were sown; 1850, 91,040, and 1851, 140,536 acres
were sown.
During this year (1851) the Great Exhibition of all nations
was opened in Hyde Park, London, and our merchants and
manufacturers maintained the high reputation which the trade
enjoyed.
When His Royal Highness, the late Prince Consort, conceived
the idea of collecting together specimens of the art treasures of
all nations, and exhibiting the triumphs of skill in ingenuity,
whether in illustration of the great discoveries in the domain of
science, or in reference to tiie appliances appertaining to our
domestic economy,^any difficulties were suggested, and doubts
expressed, regarding the wisdom of the scheme, and feasibility
of carrying it out. We are familiar with the details respecting
the building itself, and the great name which its designer acquired,
whilst the success of the undertaking is a matter of history, and
the beneficial effects which resulted far exceeded the most sanguine
anticipations of its originator. It has been said that the first
idea the Prince got of this great project, which was carried to
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HAND BOOK. 87
such a successful issue, was suggested by the exhibition of the
Royal Flax Society, on the occasion of the visit of Her Majesty
and himself to Belfast in 1849. Be that as it may, we know that
the scheme was matured soon after this visit, and Belfast, which
produced such a creditable display in 1849, was not behindhand
in furnishing evidence in 1851 of her manufacturing skill and
native talent, in the field of enterprise in which she was now
distinguished.
From the Jurors' Report (published in the official records of
the Exhibition) on manufacturers of flax and hemp, we make some
extracts, and find several Irish firms obtained medals and honour-
able mention.*
The names of the jurors were — Count F. E. van Harrach, of Prague,
Chairman ; Charles Tee, Bamsley, Deputy-Chairman ; William Charley,
Seymour Hill, Belfast, Joint Reporter ; G. Lefevere, Ghent, Joint Reporter ;
Legentil, Paris; John M*Master, Gilford; John Moir, Dundee; Carl
Noback, German Commissioner ; Alexander Scherer, Minister of Finance,
Russia; John Wilkinson, J. P., Leeds
** The Royal Flax Improvement Society of Ireland have exhibited a very
interesting series of patterns of flaxen manufactures characteristic of that
country, comprising sacking, huckabacks, drills, ticks, linens, lawns, hollands,
&c
The Jury regret that the specimens of good flax from Ireland are so few
jn number. Those exhibited by Messrs. Bernard & Co., of Belfast, and retted
on Schenck's patent hot water steeping process in sixty hours, are the best
samples ; and those of Mr. Gailey, of Coleraine, retted on the cold water
principle, are good specimens of the material prepared in that way. Both are
worthy of commendation, and the Jury make honourable mention of them. . .
The Jury awarded prize medals to the following Irish exhibitors in the
various sub-divisions : —
Michael Andrews, Ardoyne, Belfast, for excellence in double damask
tablecloths and napkins ; Clibbom, Hill, & Co., Banbridge, for an excellent
assortment of bleached diapers ; James Coulson & Co., Lisbum, for an
extensive and admirable exhibition of fine, well-made damask tablecloths and
napkins ; John Henning, Waringstown, for damask tablecloths of superior
patterns and quality, bleached, brown, and mixed colours ; Wm. Kirk & Son,
Armagh, for brown linens of l6w descriptions and prices; hollands, brown,
black, and slate coloured, &c.; Thomas M'Cay, Dromore, for an exceedingly
fine piece of fi-onting linen, made of mill-spun warp and hand-spun weft,
exhibited brown ; Thomas M 'Murray & Co., Dromore, for a superior assortment
of fine linens, bleached ; J. N. Richardson, Sons, & Owden, Belfast, for a
superior assortment of light shirting linens for export, bleached ; Sadler,
Fenton, & Co. (now Fenton, Connor, & Co.), Belfast, for a superior assortment
of heavy shirting linens, for home trade, bleached.
The Jury made honourable mention of the following exhibitors : — T.
Bell & Co., Lurgan, for a good assortment of cambric handkerchiefs;
Bernard & Co., Belfast, for good hot water steeped flax ; Corry, Blain, & Co.,
Belfast, for good damasks, made with power-looms, and a beautifiil and novel
design, on paper, for tablecloth, not yet executed in cloth ; William Coulson,
»Mr. Charley, in his work on "Flax and its Products in Ireland," gives the Jurors'
report in full.
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88 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Lisbum, for a very fine damask cloth ; D. Gailey, Coleraine, for flax steeped
upon the cold water system ; John Henning, Waringstown. Honourable
mention is here made, as this exhibitor is awarded a medal for damasks, which
also includes the variety of cambrics and printed goods he has exhibited in this
sub-division. J. Malcolm, Lurgan, for a good variety of bleached lawns and
handkerchiefs ; J. & T. Richardson & Co., Lurgan, for cambric handkerchiefs;
Richardson & Co., Lisburti, for excellency of bleach, shown in fine linens;
Royal Flax Improvement Society of Ireland, for the specimens before men-
tioned (Council medal awarded in Class IV).
The Jury awarded the sum of £\o each to the following :— Ann Harvey,
Belfast, for perfection and quality of hand-spun flax (exhibited by Royal Flax
Society) of about 600 lea ; Jane Magill, Belfast (84 years of age), for fine
hand-spun flax yam of 760 lea, also exhibited by Flax Society.
In October of this year a deputation from the Flax Society
waited upon the Lord Lieutenant (the Earl of Clarendon) at the
Vice-Regal Lodge, Dublin, for the purpose of presenting him with
an address and testimonial, in recognition of his exertions on behalf
of the society. The deputation consisted of the Marquis of
Downshire, President; the Earl of Erne, Vice-President; Very
Rev. the Dean of Ross; W. Sharman Crawford, M.P.; S. K.
Mulholland, William Dargan, William Coates, John Charters,
John Herdman, James Grimshaw, jun., James Campbell, John
M^Master, John Hancock, Robert M'Kibben, M.D., and James
M'Adam, jun., Esqrs.
In the address, which the Marquis of Downshire read, we find
the following paragraphs : —
"We have been deputed, by a number of members of the Royal Society
for the promotion and improvement of the growth of flax in Ireland, to beg
your Excellency's acceptance of a silver vase, a set of damask table linen, and
a case of cambric handkerchiefs, as a slight but sincere testimony of our appre-
ciation of your exertions, to advance the great material object which we have in
view That portion of the presentation which consists of the finest
linen fabrics made in Ireland, represents the products of the great and flourish-
ing textile manufacture, whose twofold connexion with the agriculture and
commerce of this country has been often adverted to by your Excellency, and
whose future progress you have strenuously endeavoured to aid by encouraging
a more careful and extended home production of its raw material, and by giving
your influence, both as a member of Parliament and an individual, to the freer
admission of its products among foreign consumers. To the piece of plate
which accompanies these articles the artist has endeavoured, through one of the
materials employed, and by the general design, to give both a particular and
a national signification. Several ornamental details, both of the vase and of
the woven fabrics, have been furnished by pupils of the Belfast Government
School of Design, for the foundation of which the town is chiefly indebted to
your Excellency's good ofiices."
In reply, his Excellency said — "It is impossible to see without
surprise and r^et the vast annual importation from abroad of a raw
material, for the production of which the soil and climate are eminently
suited, and with respect to which experience has proved that foreign
rivalry need not be apprehended. I accordingly could not hesitate to aid by
every means in my power the patriotic and meritorious labours of the Roysi
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HAND BOOK, 89
Flax Society of Belfast in extending the growth of flax, and thus to bring the
agricultural and manfacturing interests of Ireland into harmonious action with
each other, and to give to the land its share and its profit in those manufactures,
which have been carried to perfection by the national skill and industry, and
for which, throughout the markets of the world, there appears now to be an
unusually increasing demand. With such fabrics as that of which, through
their kindness I now possess so beautiful a specimen, the manufacturers of
Ireland may fearlessly challenge all competition." ....
1852. — ^We next find that the Society applied to the Govern-
ment for a continuance of the grant of ;^i,ooo per annum, which
since 1848 had been given to them for the purpose of paying flax
instructors, sent out through various parts of Ireland, particularly
the south and west, and owing to the exertions of the next Viceroy
(the Earl of Eglinton) they succeeded in getting it continued.
Great efforts had been made to revive the cultivation of flax
in the County of Cork, and a local association, formed at Bandon,
ably supported by the noblemen and gentlemen of that locality,
effected much good, and after a trial of four years the Society was
able to congratulate the flax growers of the district on the success
which followed their exertions; for it appeared that the specimens
forwarded to Belfast had shown that the flax grown about Bandon
could bear comparison with that grown in any part of Ireland.
Though the extent of land under flax in the County Cork in 1852
exhibited a falling off compared with 185 1 (which was an excep-
tionally large average) the breadth for 1852 was more than double
that of 1850.
The Earl of Eglinton and Winton, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland,
visited Belfast this year, and the Royal Flax Society presented
him with an address in the library of the Linen Hall.
Early in the year a Committee was formed, under the sanction
of the Belfast Chamber of Commerce, with a view to take steps
to supply information of general interest to the trade, and for the
purpose of drawing up a weekly Circular, for private circulation,
which would fairly represent the state of business from week
to week, and be a more reliable chronicle of the trade than news-
paper reports could possibly be. Also to collect statistical infor-
mation, prices, &c. ; and furnish information relating not only to
the home trade, but also as to the position and progress of linen
manufacturing on the Continent ; the state of trade in various
foreign markets, as affecting the home demand, and thus form a
recognised official publication, for the general benefit of the Irish
linen industry. The first number was issued on Friday evening,
February 20th, 1852, and the Circular was regularly published
each Friday evening down to 17th March, 1856, when, in order
to secure more complete information for it, the day of publication
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90 IRISH LINEN TRADE
was changed to Monday evening, which has been the day of issue
ever since.
In the first number, we find it stated that the country markets
•were well supplied with flax ; and under head of linen yams, that
the mills were at full work ; stocks in spinners' hands moderate;
rather under an average, and that a steady demand from manu-
facturers had hitherto prevented accumulation. The demand for
export had improved, and was then good. Value of 55's to 8o*s
wefts, 3s 6d per bundle, with 7j4 per cent, discount, and prices
stationary. Brown linens in country markets were reported as
without much change. White linens — Stocks generally moderate.
. . . . . . The demand for the home market fair; but
light linens for export were dull. Prices remained without change.
Advices from abroad reported Mexico and Havanna markets as
dull, especially the former. The opening of the Spring trade in
the United States had been retarded by the unusual severity of
the weather, and this affected the Irish brown markets, as
exporters could not calculate on the extent and tendency of sales
across the Atiantic.
Spinning by machinery having made rapid progress of late
years, an estimate is here given of the comparative position of
the trade at home as well as on the Continent at this period ; —
Estimated Spindles in Ireland, ...
500,000
England,
265,568
Scotland,
303,125
1,068,693
On Continent—
France, ...
350,000
Belgium, ...
100,000
Germany,
80,000
Russia, ...
50,000
Austria, ..
30,000
Switzerland,
8,000
Holland, ...
6,000
Spain,
6,000
Estimate for Continent,
630,000
Do. United States of America,
14,550
Total,
1,713,243
Up to 1850 — as appeared by the Factory Inspectors' report —
whilst Scotland had gone into weaving by power, and had some
2,529 looms running, and England had 1,131, there were only 58
in Ireland. The great cheapness of labour in Ireland had deterred
capitalists from embarking in factories for weaving by power, but the
famine, followed as it was by a large stream of emigration, produced
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HAND BOOK, 91
such a revolution in the condition of the working classes that the
cost of production to manufacturers was enhanced, so far as wages
were concerned, some 20 to 30 per cent, at this period. The spinning
power was also running beyond the manufacturing, so that yams
in the early part of 1852 were in such slow request, that in June
about 120,000 spindles were working on short time; however,
when the weavers returned to their looms, after the field work in
July, the mills were in full operation. The power-loom, when first
applied to the production of flaxen goods, was only capable of
working the coarsest and heaviest descriptions of cloth, for owing
to want of that elasticity in flax yarns which cotton possessed,
it was a long time before the difficulties, which stood in the way
of substituting power for hand labour, could be overcome. The
subject was now, however, forcing itself upon the trade, and the
importance of supporting the spinning branch was also becoming
more strongly recognised.
In November, 1852, a proposition was made by a writer in
the Linen Trade Circular, that some 10 or 12 firms should join
in getting up in Belfast, or the neighbourhood, a factory of 120
looms, to cost ;^3,ooo or ;^4,ooo ; the concern to be let to some
good manufacturer at a fair rent, or wrought for the owners;
provision being made that within five years, or three years, or
sooner, the establishment should be sold and the company dis-
solved. This letter drew on a correspondence, from which it
appeared that the difficulty lay in there not having, to that time,
come under the notice of the trade a thoroughly good and efficient
description of loom. One writer said, ** It is true there are power
looms at work, here and elsewhere, capable of weaving certain kinds
of linen, but what is required is a power loom that will weave
ordinary qualities of linen yarn into ordinary descriptions of linen
cloth ; and so far as he was aware no power loom had yet been
erected which would accomplish this." A suggestion was then
made that a prize of ;^i,ooo should be offered for the best power
loom which should be first produced in Belfast, with warping and
dressing apparatus complete.
The attention thus drawn to the subject led to the holding
of a large meeting of the trade, at the offices of the Royal Flax
Society, when a committee was appointed to collect information
regarding the looms then in use, and to take further steps in the
matter.
The general aspect of the trade for 1852 compared favourably
with the preceding year, but the manufacturing branch was in a
more satisfactory state than the spinning. In reviewing the
position of both during this year the Circular stated that " The
discovery of new gold regions, and the buoyancy of the money
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92 IRISH LINEN TRADE
market added to the general healthy state of trade and tended
throughout the year to create facilities for the application of
capital, and to give a wholesome tone to business transactions.
The full employment of all those classes of the community who
depended on trade for their support, and the excellent yield of
the principal crops, together with advanced prices for all agricul-
tural products, had a very beneficial effect on the home demand
for linen, which exceeded all former years. The condition of
foreign markets was also improved, and the exports of linens and
yams both showed an increase, although this increase was much
greater in the latter than the former."
Wefts which at beginning of year, from ss's to 8o's, were
3s 4 J^d to 3s 6d, sold freely at close of year from 3s 10 J^d to 4s.
1853. — In May of this year we find that trade had shown much
briskness. Brown cloth at the country markets was in good de-
mand, and bleached goods were also moving off freely. The great
improvements effected in the bleaching process enabled mer-
chants to get round their goods very much quicker.
An Industrial Exhibition, promoted by the late William
Dargan, was held in Dublin this year, on which occasion her
Majesty the Queen and his Royal Highness, the late Prince
Consort, visited it ; and in recognition of the distinguished abilities
of Mr. Dargan, and of his munificence in erecting, at his own
cost, the Exhibition building, and for the success of the under-
taking, her Majesty paid him a private visit at his country seat ;
the first visit, it is stated, which had been paid by a British
Sovereign to a commoner in modern times.
Among the various sections on textile products, we find, in the
official records of the Exhibition, one on the manufactures of flax,
and in connection with an excellent article on the subject —
written by Mr. Macadam, the Secretary of the Royal Flax
Society — the names of the following firms appear, amongst others,
who were contributors to this department ; —
Michael Andrews, Royal Manufactory, Ardoyne, Belfast, super-extra
double damask tablecloth, the "Clarendon Pattern," the shamrock and flax
plants, interwoven with each other — also, two table napkins to match, one
with, and one without sprigs. This pattern was specially designed for the
table linen presented by the Royal Society to the Earl of Clarendon, when
Lord Lieutenant. Super-extra double damask tablecloth, the "Ardoyne
Exhibition Pattern," a very rich pattern, composed of a great variety of flowers
from nature, grouped in a new style, with two table napkins to match. Double
damask tablecloth, new pattern, the "Fern Rustic Pattern," composed of a
great variety of ferns picturesquely grouped ; table napkin with coat of arms,
and another with emblems of Ireland. Thomas Bell & Co., Bellevue, Lurgan,
manufacturers — Cambric handkerchiefs bordered, printed, hemstitched, tucked,
and embroidered (in the loom); printed dresses, also embroidered (in the lo6m).
Clibbom, Hill, & Co., linen merchants and bleachers, Banbridge, manu-
facturers — Bird-eye diapers, manufactured from prime linen yam.
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James Coulson, & Co., Lisbum, manufacturers — Specimens of superfine
damask tablecloths, napkins, appropriately ornamented with armorial bearings,
badges, devices, and inscriptions, similat to those prepared for her Majesty
and the leading nobility and gentry.
Fenton, Son, & Co. (now Fenton, Connor, & Co. ), Linen Hall, Belfast —
Case of linen fabrics ; prize linen of the Exhibition of 185 1 ; family and light
linen, for the home and foreign trade.
Gradwell, Chadwick, & Co. (St. Mary's Flax Spinning Co. ), Drogheda,
manufacturers— Linen yams, 100 to 520 lea, in different stages of manufac-
ture, from Irish and Courtrai flax.
Harrison, Brothers, Dromore, County Down, manufacturers — lanen shirt
frontings, in various patterns, all woven in the loom ; frontings, embroidered,
veined, printed, &c. '
"William Kirk & Son, Annvale, Keady, County Armagh, manufacturers —
Rough brown linens, linen Hollands, bleached linen diapers, lining, family and
fronting linens, unions.
J. Leadbeater & Co., Belfast — Specimens of yam and linen ; cloth
manufactured of flax, prepared by the patent process of exhibitors,
H. Murland, Castlewellan, bleacher and producer — Irish linens for the
United States market.
Royal Flax Society, Belfast — Line rovings for 130 lea and 260 lea yams ;
line and tow yams from 6 lea to 280 lea ; specimens of unbleached and bleached
fabrics, including heavy and light linens, drills, diapers, damasks, lawns,
cambrics, mosquito netting ; specimens of fancy, dyed, or printed fabrics,
including drills, bedticks, floorcloths, lawns, cambrics, linens ; case of speci-
mens of linen yarns, &c., the manufacture of Messrs. Gradwell, Chadwick,
& Co., Drogheda ; case of specimens of linen fabrics, &c., the manufacture of
Messrs. John Hind & Sons, Belfast ; specimens sent in 1 774 to the Society of
Arts, by Lady Moira, comprising — coarse wrappings for linens for furniture
from the backings of tow ; coarse dimity for upper petticoats, and a piece of
Lady Moira's own gown.
In October the Belfast Chamber of Commerce, on behalf of
the linen trade, memorialised the Government respecting the
United States tariff on linen manufactures, praying that representa-
tions might be made to the Government of that country for a re-
mission of the duties same as between the period from 1832 to
1842. Previous to 181 2 the duties were 5 per cent., but they
were then raised to 37^. In 1832.— The duty on linen goods
was abolished. In 1842. — 25 per cent, was put on, which was
afterwards reduced in 1846 to 20 per cent, at which it stood in
1853. The Foreign Office instructed Her Majesty's representative
at Washington to support the prayer of the memorial, but the
efforts used were unsuccessful.
The general position of the manufacturing branch was most
satisfactory this year, and showed a steady progressive movement.
The acreage of land sown with flaxseed was considerably more
than a fourth over that of 1852. The yield of Irish flax for 1853
was estimated at 43,374 tons, which, as the produce of 174,000
acres, exceeded that of any season from the commencement ot
the Flax Improvement Society's labours in 184 1. In addition to
the supply of home grown seed the foreign imports for 1853 were
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94 IRISH LINEN TRADE
about 94,146 tons. The spinning branch was, however, not remune-
rative Uiis year, production being still in advance of the manufac-
turing power; yams were depressed, and during November and
December a large number of spindles were running only ^ time.
The number of power looms had increased from 58 to 218; but as
at this period weaving by power was still on its trial the progress
in developing that branch of the trade was slow up to this point;
however, great improvement having been effected in the power-
loom it was in contemplation to set up 1,103 looms next year. In
closing the leview of the trade for 1833, the Circular records that
" the year was memorable as that in which the last remnant of
import duties on foreign linen manufactures which had been much
reduced at previous intervals, were swept away by the Chancellor
of the Exchequer; and in which the United Kingdom entered into
a perfectly open competition in every article with the countries of
the globe, and that were this example followed by other states
much advantage would accrue to the trade of Great Britain and
Ireland as well as to the population of all countries which consume
linen." It was also noted, with satisfaction, that of late years
although the ZoUverein States had increased their import duties on
this article, Holland and Belgium, Spain and Portugal, Sardinia,
Austria, Russia, and Norway had relaxed them to a greater or less
extent. The Government of the United States had recommended
to Congress a total abrogation of duty on the import of flax and
linen fabrics, a measure which, if carried out, would be of vast ad-
vantage to our linen trade. Exports to the colonies were also
increasing steadily; those of Australia to a very surprising extent.
Finally, the prospects of the trade, as drawn from the augury ot
the past year's events, were promising, and though temporarily em-
barrassed, its high state of efficiency, and constant efforts at
improvement inspired confidence in its innate power to secure a
future progress equal at least to the past
1854. — In March of this 'year difficulties in the East led to a
war with Russia, the immediate effects, so far as the linen trade was
concerned, being the enhanced value of flax, which was followed
by a little improvement in demand for yarns, but which was not
maintained, and cloth was but slightly affected. The prospect of
supphes of the raw material, so far as Russia was concerned, being
cut off, caused for a time much uneasiness throughout the trade.
Prices of Irish flax, while the panic lasted, ran up to jQ6^ per ton,
which in the previous year brought only ;^56, and in 1852 jQ^o.
In May demand for yams was much less active, and as flax had
reached so high a point, the spinning department was losing heavily.
The panic, however, regarding flax, did riot last very long ; and in
the course of the summer, when it was ascertained that supplies
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HAND BOOIC, 95
from Russia would come through Prassian ports, Irish flax dropped
in a short time about £^\2 per ton, but recovered to the extent of
about ;^5 by the close of the year. The yeUr altogether was a
most unfavourable one to the trade. The Circular stated — " The
spinning trade suffered much during this year. Nine firms, repre-
senting about 39,000 spindles, stopped payment, and several of
their mills were idle. About 65,000 spindles in other mills were
standing, so that at that time between a fifth and a sixth of the entire
spinning machinery of Ireland was not at work. The year began
with short time (45 hours per week), which measure was continued
by about 370,000 spindles until late in February. Full time was
then resumed until the beginning ,of November, when a conside-
rable proportion of the Belfast factories again went on short time.
Towards the close of the year, however, symptoms of a better de-
mand for yarns having appeared, full work was generally resumed.
With scarcely an interval of animation, the demand for yarns
throughout the year was very languid, both on home and export
account. As might have been anticipated, considering the state of
trade, no new mills were erected in 1854, and the additions made
to existing ones only reached to 6,222 spindles. In yams the
fluctuations in prices were but trifling, but the leading numbers of
weft were throughout the year selling at 3d to 4j^d per bundle
under the average of 1853, whilst the increased cost of the raw
material combined to make it one of the most unsatisfactory years
to spinners that had been remembered."
In the manufacturing department a languid demand was ob-
servable during the greater part of the year, so that manufacturers
considerably reduced the number of hand-loom weavers which
they employed, this forced a large number to enlist, and also to
emigrate, whilst the general dulness of trade stopped for a time
any further extension of power-loom weaving.
1855.- — It is recorded this year that a Frenchman having in-
vented a loom, on the principle of Jacquard's patent, had adapted
its mechanism to a system by which the looms could be worked by
electro-magnets Great interest was manifested with regard f o it ;
however after a few trials the invention was not found to be of any
practical advantage, and the matter was soon after quite lost sight
of.
The Exhibition in Hyde Park resulting in such success, stimu-
lated other countries to follow the example. Accordingly we find
that Paris was the centre of attraction this year, and as usual the
Royal Flax Society put in an appearance, having contributed
samples of the fibre in ditferent stages of preparation. Messrs,
John Preston & Co. exhibited flax from different districts of Ire-
land ; Messrs. W, Kwart & Son ; Herdmans & Co.; Wolfhill Spin-
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96 JRISH LINEN TRADE
ning Co.; John Hind & Sons ; Johnston & Carlisle (now Brook-
field Linen Co., Limited), and J. Preston & Co. exhibited linen
yams ; and John Hind & Son, JafF(^ Bros., Johnston & Carlisle,
York Street Flax Spinning Co., Fenton,Son & Co. (now Fenton, Con-
nor & Co.), J. Preston & Co., J. N. Richardson, Sons & Owden,
Michael Andrews, Clibbom, Hill & Co., and other firms exhibited
samples of linens and damasks, &c., both brown and bleached.
A deputation, appointed by the Belfast Chamber of Commerce,
visited Paris in September, and reported on the linen machinery
and linen manufactures which were exhibited. From this report
we find they stated that —
The linen machinery exhibited was not extensive. Some power-looms
for weaving linen deserved attention, as the trade must soon adopt this system
of weaving in order to keep up a r^^lar supply and uniform quality of goods.
. . . . France was well represented in her linen goods, which were in
almost every instance of excellent quality ; they had little starch or finish ;
made of a firm round thread of yam ; and, although well adapted for inunediate
use, were not so sightly as Irish linens The linens of Hanover
were well represented Wurtemburg, Saxony, and Rhenish-
Prussia exhibited a great variety of fabrics, from the coarsest to the finest. The
lower and medium goods were similar to our own ; but they exhibited specimens
of very fine linen which, it was feared, our manufacturers would have difficulty
in equalling, being made of fine hand-spun yam, regardless of expense, for the
Russian market. One piece, equal to a 4/4 3800, was 15/- a yard; 4/4 28<»,
6/9 ; 2600, 3/9 ; 24W, 3/4. In the linens made for exportation they imitated
the Irish marks and finish, and in many instances even the same paper orna-
ments as used by the Irish trade. This was an interesting phase in the history
of the linen trade, that Germany, from whom we borrowed the name of a great
variety of our linen fabrics, and still exported them under these names, was, in
her turn, borrowing from us, and imitating our goods, both in names, material,
and finish. Some of the Saxon damask was beautifully fine ; but, in design,
the Scotch and Irish goods were quite superior. Austria made a very creditable
display of linens and linen yams, the latter were particularly clean, and free
from imperfections Belgium made a large display of goods, and
appeared a formidable competitor. This did not refer to the finer linens and
cambrics, for which at all times there must only be a limited eonsumption ;
but in the lighter export goods, lapped in the Irish fonn, and with Irish labels,
the prices were quoted nearly as low as they could be purchased in Belfast.
. . . . The exhibition of linens and canvas from Dundee, and damasks
from Dunfermline, were reported as highly creditable to the Exhibition, a con-
siderable portion of the goods being woven by the power-loom
The display of Irish goods was, however, on a limited scale, and the arrange-
ment did not do justice to our important industry ; and the report states that
it would have been most desirable that our superiority should have been better
displayed in a place where such a display might have led to important com-
mercial advantages Still in price, colour, and finish, our Irish
linens can compete successfiilly with any others exhibited in Paris. The report
concluded by drawing the attention of our trade to the great eflforts which
Belgium and Germany were making to extend their export linen trade. We
have already stated that they are imitating our finish and quality, they are also
encouraging intelligent persons, from the neighbourhood of Belfast, to settle in
both countries, to instruct them in the various processes of spinning, weaving,
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HAND Book, 97
and bleaching, and are in many instances introducing the power-loom, to
cheapen production and improve quality. A general opinion appears to prevail
that, as the power-loom gave a new impetus to the cotton trade, a similar
effect will be produced when it is generally employed in the manufacture ot
linen. It will require our manufacturers, therefore, to see that our Continental
neighbours do not get before them in the march of improvemei>t ; and we
would recommend their adoption of every new principle of production that
ensures economy and . despatch, and so by progressive advancement maintain
the advantageous position they now possess.
This Report was signed by Messrs, John Herdman, James Grimshaw
jun., and John Patterson.
The Royal Society reported that the flax crop for this year had
been considerably less than the preceding year ; the causes being
stated that farmers were disheartened by the turn out of 1853 and
1854, and the good prices which they realised for their cereal
crops, owing to the war.
From the report of the linen trade for 1855* we learn that,
while manufacturers, bleachers, and shippers did a more satisfac-
tory business than in 1854, spinners, except in particular classes
of yarns, had a very unremunerative trade. The high cost of flax,
and the indifferent spinning quality of the Irish crop of 1854, were
both very adverse to them, while the caution exercised throughout
the year by manufacturers, and the reduced makes of goods,
caused a languid demand for yarns, and maintained prices at a
low point, when put in comparison with the price of the raw mate-
rial. A scarcity of weavers had been felt throughout the
year, and wages rose at least 10 per cent. Although the trade
had been healthier than in 1853, it did not participate in the
prosperity extended to Scotland, the leading fabrics made in Ire-
land not being of that heavy, coarse class so largely required for
the Government contracts Power-loom weaving was
tried with varied, but, on the whole, satisfactory results. Several
firms who had erected power-looms had succeeded in making a
fair quality of light linens, at a price which would leave an addi-
tional margin of profit over hand-loom goods, and some being so
well satisfied with these results, were about to increase their
machinery.
1856. — The Royal Society had to report an increase of 10
per cent, in the breadth of land sown with flax this year ; and if
the treaty of peace with Russia had been concluded earlier in the
season the Society expected the acreage would have been much
larger, although the high prices of grain gave way more slowly
than was anticipated. The grant of ;^i,ooo was continued by
the Government down to this period.
All average business was done throughout the greater part of
the year, and a healthy tone pervaded all departments. In the
H
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©8 IRISH LINEN TRADE
spinning branch there had been little change ; no new mills were
erected, nor had any addition been made to the number of spindles.
Flax was about j[,i per ton cheaper than in 1855, ^^d> ^^^ ^^
treaty of Paris being confirmed, there was a good demand for
yarns, although prices did not advance much over ij^d per
bundle. Considerable progress was made in power-loom factories,
about 25 firms being engaged in the trade, and 2,200 loonas
running. Many improvements were effected in the looms, in
adapting them to weave light linens for export. A large propor-
tion were running on drills, heavy linens and coarse goods ; and -
all were using common qualities of weft yarns, with superior
warps. The Circular stated that " hand-loom weavers had become
so scarce, and their wages so high, that were it not for the hkeli-
hood of power-looms coming more and more into use, the cost of
production might be such as seriously to interfere with the
prospects of the export trade, while there would be considerable
difficulty in securing a sufficient make of goods."
1857. — From the report of the Royal Society we find that the
hopeful anticipations indulged in that an increasing acreage of flax
would be sown after the termination of the Russian war, were not
fulfilled ; but, on the contrary, there was a decrease of upwards of
8,000 acres. This was accounted for by the high prices of grain
which had been maintained since the close of the war, and also
owing to the unremunerative character of the flax crops in previous
years, together with a scanty supply, and high prices of foreign seed
this year. The quality of the fibre was stated to have been
above an average.
The manufacturing department was making a rapid progress,
and between 700 and 800 power-looms had been set up, making
in all 2,781, which were all in full operation, and preparations were
being made for a large addition, when a financial crisis in America
arose in October, which produced a paralysing effect upon trade
at this side, and brought everything to a stand-still. Spinners
held a meeting to consider the propriety of reducing production,
and " from the 30th November, almost all the mills in Belfast and
its neighbourhood, with many in the country, went on short time."
The panic lasted for about seven weeks ; but at the close of the
year a better feeling had sprung up. A review of the trade for
this year concluded by stating that, "While, no doubt, our great
staple manufacture had its share of trial and suffering, and while
not only had spinners, manufacturers, and shippers all lost more or
less money, but the working classes also felt the effects of the
crisis very severely ; yet it is satisfactory to state that the trade has
been in so sound a condition, that as few failures have occurred as
during the same period of ordinary times. The trade had stood
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HAND BOOIC. 99
the shock, and our banking institutions were never in a more
prosperous condition. The manner in which the Irish linen trade
had passed through this severe ordeal was such as to show its
innate soundness, and to lead to the best anticipations respecting
its future progress when matters at home and abroad regain their
normal condition, and leave freer scope for its great and solid
resources."
1858. — The extent of land under flax showed a further falling
off this year, amounting to upwards of 6,000 acres, traceable to
the better return which cereal crops still yielded ; but, though the
acreage was less, the yield was superior to previous years, which
more than compensated for the short sowing. As there was a
falling off in the Continental flax crops this season, in consequence
of long-continued drought, prices of home fibre were much more
remunerative to the farmers, and ruled very high, from the opening
of the market to the close of the season, owing to the brisk export
demand. Yarns were low in January, and only advanced i^d in
the first half-year ; but towards the close of the year a good trade
sprung up, following the tone of the flax market, and yarns sold at
an advance of about 4^d to 6d a-bundle, on prices current in
January. Line wefts, 75*5 to 120% at close of year were 4s 6d, as a
minimum, and tows, 25's, 6s 7^d to 7s 3d. Demand for cloth early
in the year was dull ; but, as spring advanced, an improvement
set in, which was steadily kept up, and ** the year closed with
considerably higher values for all goods, with little ox no stock in
the hands of manufacturers, and, on the average, unusually light
stocks with bleachers."
1859. — From an abstract of the returns respecting spinning
mills and power-loom factories in Ireland, on the ist of May,
1859, we find the following in the Linen Trade Circular : —
Spindles employed. Spindles idle. Total.
82 Flax-spinning Mills, 560,642 91,230 651,872
Looms employed. Unemployed.
28 P.-L. Factories, 3,124^ 509 3,633
Although the acreage this year showed an increase of 49 per
cent, the quality of the flax crop was inferior to that of previous
year. Prices at close of 1858 had ** advanced to a height rarely,
if ever attained, since the general introduction of spinning by
machinery," and during the early part of 1859 they went up still
higfeer ; in the course of the year a reaction set in, and, at the
close, prices were much lower, though compared with quotations
of yams, were regarded as extravagantly high. Yarns slightly
advanced early in the year, but subsequently fell, and a drop of
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lOO IRISH LINEN TRADE
9d on ordinary line wefts, and 6d on tows, was recorded as the
difference between commencement and close of the year. Manu-
facturers appear to have done very fairly this year ; power-loom
cloth was in good request, and the new system was giving
satisfaction. The Continental trade was not so good, but the
United States market was regarded as satisfactory. The only
drawback appeared to be the inordinately high figures ruling for
the raw material.
The Royal Sociey, which had worked so energetically in behalf
of the trade since 1841, was this year dissolved. During the
period of its existeAce considerable improvement had been effected
regarding the culture and after treatment of the flax plant, and
the blank which this society left appears to have been greatly
felt. The president —the Marquis of Downshire — gave it much
support, and ably co-operated in advancing the interest of the
trade over which it watched. Mr. M*Adam, the secretary, was
also most eflftcient, and we believe that the difficulty of finding
a successor equal to him when he resigned was the main cause
which led to the breaking up of this very useful body.
Mr. Charley mentions in his work* that "the society might
have gone on for years, and might have undergone such useful
reforms in the constitution and management as the progress of the
age required ; but the sudden retirement of the active and intelli-
gent secretary brought on a crisis, and a collapse of the whole
affair followed.''
With the dissolution of the Society we conclude this chapter,
noting the names connected with the Board during the last year
of office : —
Patrons — Her Majesty the Queen ; H.R.H. Prince Albert. Vice-Patron —
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. President — The Marquis of Downshire.
Vice-Presidents — Marquises — Waterford and Hertford ; Earls — Erne, Ranfurlyj
and Bandon ; Viscounts — Masserene and Dungannon ; Lords — Rossmore,
Lurgan, Monteagle, and Bishop of Down. Sir Robert Kane, Sir J. M.
Stronge, Bart. ; Sir Robert Bateson, Bart. ; Sir William Vemer, Bart., M.P. ;
W. S. Crawford, D.L. ; Veiy Rev. Dean of Ross ; Lt.-Col. A. Shafto Adair ;
H. M *C. Cairns, M. P. Committee — H. Anderson ; W. G. Anderson ; John
Bimey; Rev. F. Blakeley ; John Borthwick ; James Campbell ; John Charters ;
G. J. Clarke ; John S. Crawford ; William Dargan ; William Ewart, jun. ;
F. Filgate ; R. F. Gordon j George Greer ; John Hancock ; John Herdman ;
James Hind ; Victor C. Kennedy ; S. K. MulhoUand ; J. M. Carten ; Thomas
M*Clure; John Preston; J. T. Reilly ; J. J. Richardson, Esqrs.
• flax and Ita Products in Ireland, by William Charley, J.P , Soyinouf Hill.
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HAND BOOK, lOl
CHAPTER VII.
From the formation of the Indian Flax Company in 1859
down to the close of the past year.
r N the preceding chapter we noticed the dissolution
of the Royal Society for promoting and improving
the growth of flax in Ireland, and the same year
that witnessed the extinction of this association gave
rise to another, but with a different object in view,
though in the main to increase, for home consumption,
the supply of the raw material.
1859. — Attention having been drawn to the suitabiUty
of the soil of the Upper Punjab, East India, for growing flax,
and owing to representations made to the trade by Sir John
Lawrence, Governor of the Punjab, and Mr. D. M'Leod, Financial
Commissioner at Lahore, a public meeting was convened on 13th
Dec, 1859, i'^ the Council Room of the Chamber of Commerce,
Belfast, when the question was fully discussed, and the following
resolution adopted : — " Resolved — That this nieeting is of opinion
that t"he very unsatisfactory state of the linen trade arises chiefly
from a deficiency of the raw material, and that an abundantisupply
at a lower average cost would tend materially to the prosperity of
the trade, this meeting therefore recommends the promotion of a
company, with limited liability, and a capital of ;^5o,ooo, in ;^to
shares, for the purpose of obtaining a supply of flax, and other
fibres, from India."
A company was accordingly formed for the purpose, and
considerable efforts were put forth to carry on the scheme, but
which, as we shall afterwards learn, did not turn out a success.
i860. — General business, in the several departments of trade
during this year, was on the whole fairly satisfactory, and a gradual
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102 IRISH LINEN TRADE
tendency towards improvement was observable. The old com-
plaint about the short sowing of flax was renewed, as the falling
off amounted to nearly 8,000 acres. The yield to farmers was,
however, good, but the fibre came out unfavourably from the
hackle, causing great disappointment to spinners ; the cleaning
was also defective, and at the close of the year, taking quahty into
account, prices were very high. Yarns, 75's to loo's, ordinary
wefts, opened at 3s 9d per bundle, and during the year crept up in
price, closing firm at 4s 3d, showing an advance of 6d per bundle
in the 12 months. Linens were in good request from commence-
ment of the year up to middle of December. - Linen handker-
chiefs being particularly active, and damasks were also in brisk
demand, and became considerably enhanced in value. Power-
looms were increasing, and all of them were well employed.
In December the Board of Trade published details respecting
the reduction in duties, so far as affected the linen trade, and
which had been the result of a commercial treaty entered into
between France and the United Kingdom. The important conces-
sions established by this treaty were rightly regarded as likely
to be of great advantage to the Irish linen trade. The reduction
in duty on yams was about 65 per cent, and the duties on linen
goods were also largely cut down.
1861. — In connection with the Indian Flax Company's scheme
it may be interesting to insert some extracts from letters received
at this period from the seat of operations, detailing progress made,
and which were published in the Circular,
*' Sealkote, 15th April, 1861. — I commenced to harvest flax on ist inst.,
and have had the four bullocks on the road ever since. I start them at 3 o'clock
in the morning, and they are in before the day becomes very hot. It is very
warm now ; 130 degrees in the sun at 11 o'clock, and 95 in the shade, so that
there is no European goes out after 8 o'clock, or before 5 in the evening.
I have mounted several ripples, and the farmers prefer taking off the seed
themselves, which, when they clean, I will buy from them There
has been a great failure in the produce of native seed this year. As the season
was dry it came to perfection too soon. I am afraid one half will not come
up to two feet long. The produce of foreign seed is all we could wish it to be ;
three and a half feet long is the minimum, and some have even attained four and
a half feet. I see part of the late sown flax has failed. It should be all sown
before the 20th October, in order to be ripe before the warm weather sets in ."
Under date 29th April, same writer states — ** Where the flax and seed are good
I generally give the. farmers a small ** baksish," or present, and they are better
pleased with this than with the whole price of their flax. The heat is very
oppressive on oxen, and if caught out in the middle of the day they lie down
and will not rise. The temperature has suddenly risen, and is much warmer
than it has been for many years at this season. It is now 12 o'clock, 136
degrees in the sun; 115 in the sh^de, and 98 inside the house, with all the
appliances to keep the air cool. AH the residents who can get away are off
to the hills. The public offices are now open from 6 a.m. till 11, when they
shut for the day.* This will continue until the coming of the rains in July."
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HAND BOOK. 103
In a review of the trade we find that there had been an
interruption of accustomed mercantile operations with America,
consequent on the political complications by which that country
had been distracted. The average export trade in linen shipped
from the United Kingdom to the United States showed that
during five years ending December 31, i860, over 41 percent,
was taken by America, whilst this year the percentage had
fallen to 18 — a very serious drop, and, in consequence operated
most unfavourably on the trade at this side, so much so that
Ballymena linen declined 25 per cent, in price, and Lurgan
damasks even more. Superior goods and heavy makes, suitable
for home and continental markets, held pretty steadily all through,
the decline being most marked in cloth suitable for shipment to
America.
Owing to this falling-off in the export cloth trade, yams declmed
from 4s 3d for 75s to loos (at which they stood at beginning of year)
to 3 s 9d at close. Though flax showed a larger acreage this year,
the yield did not exceed that of 1866. Very much of it was of
inferior quality, and produce after hackling was below an average.
The year was therefore very much against spinners, and several
times short running seemed all but inevitable ; however this was
not resorted to.
1862. — Another International Exhibition was held in London
this year, and in the list of awards made, by the jury, we find the
names of several firms connected with our trade «rho obtained
medals and honourable mention.
The Belfast Indian Flax Company obtained a medal for various sampliss of
flax grown in the Punjab. The following firms were also awarded medals : —
Messrs. Wm. Barbour & Sons, Lisbum, sewing and other threads — for general
excellence. R. Bell & Co.', "Whitehouse and Belfast, damask goods — ^for fine
assortment and good manufacture. Brown & Liddell, Lurgan and Belfast (now
John Brown & Sons, and Wm. Liddell & Co. ), diapers, and finish of linen — for
general excellence. Clibbom, Hill & Co., Banbridge, bird's-eye diaper, bleached
— for fine assortment and variety. Foster Connor, Belfast, printed drills — for
general excellence. Dunbar, Dicksons & Co., linen shirtings, cambrics, &c. —
for great excellence. Dunbar, M 'Master & Co., linen yams and threads — for
great general excellence. Fenton, Son & Co. (now Fenton, Connor & Co. ),
plain linen — for general excellence. John Hind & Sons, brown and bleached
linens and cambric yarns — for excellence in fine yams. Johnston & Carlisle
(now Brookfield Linen Co. Limited), yams and bleached linens — for general
excellence. H. Matier & Co., linen and handkerchiefs — a good variety, espe-
cially in fine handkerchiefs. J. N. Richardson, Sons & Owden, linens — for ex-
cellence in bleaching and finishing. Honourable mention — Belfast Local Com-
mittee. Flaxseed fibre, yam, and Jinen. For very complete examples from
flaxseed to finished fabrics. Jaffe Bros — Linens and linen cambric handerchiefs.
Moore & Weinberg — for great variety and nice imitation of foulards. Preston,
Smyth & Co., flax, yam, linen, and cambrics — for great variety and perfect
finish.
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104 IRISH LINEN TRADE
The Jurors were G. Mevissen (chairman), Zollverein ; Erskine Beveridge
(deputy-chairman), Dunfermline ; M. Alcan, France ; Marquis Luigi Cusani,
Italy ; William Charley, Belfast ; Ch. de Brouckere, Belgium ; J. Moir,
Dundee ; C. Oberleithner, Austria ; Hon. Frederick vSmyth, United States.
Jurors were precluded from being competitors for prizes.
In an Indian paper, " The Scindian Kurrachee," the following
report on the Indian Flax Company (Limited) appeared at this
time : —
"KuRRACHEE, 23RD JULY, 1862. — In October, i860, the Company
deputed to the Punjab their first agriculturist, Mr. J. Wightman, with a view to
ascertain and report upon the capabilities of that country for the successful pro-
duction of flax. On his arrival at Sealkote, this gentleman found a small
quantity of acclimated seed — 4 or 5 maunds —the only kind capalle of producing
fibre. This was sown, and the produce was 36 maunds seed, and 22 maunds
fibre, which is now on its way home, with 350 bushels of native seed, and 28
maunds of native fibre, as the result of the experiments of the first season. In
the month of October, the 36 maunds of seed were distributed to the zemindars
of the Sealkote district, and during the present season Mr. Wightman purchased
the produce at the average rate of one rupee for 3 maunds of flax straw, and 5
rupees per maund for seed. This has produced on an average a return of about
40 rupees per acre to such of the cultivators as took care and paid attention to
the cultivation of it ; and the farmers are now impressed with the conviction
that the flax crop is far superior in comparison with the results of grain culti-
vation, and have evinced an arxiety to continue its cultivation on a large scale.
To meet the deficiency of seed, the Company have forwarded from Belfast a
supply of Russian seed, to the extent of 150 barrels, and to secure its reaching
in good condition, the consignment has been sent by the P. and O. Company's
steamers to Alexandria, thence to Egypt and Suez. Two consignments have
already arrived at Kurrachee, and the third is expected to arrive by the next
mail steamer at Bombay. Mr. Wightman was directed to proceed to Bombay
to take charge, and see to its being tiansmitted safely to its destination at
Sealkote. Two lots have been received by him, one lot is on its way up the
Indus, the second is at Kurrachee, where it has to be dried before shipment,
and the third consignment is expected to come to hand in a few days. . . .
The Company are very sanguine of success in their operations, on receipt of
this large accession to their stock of seed. The climate and the soil are also
well adapted for the production of this very useful fibre. They have also had
tanks made at Sealkote where they can steep any quantity of flax, and are now
engaged in the erection of flax machinery, imported from M*Adam & Co.,
Belfast, which, when completed, will be worked by oxen. It is of the most
simple, and, at the same tirtie, most effective description. The Punjab Govern-
ment, we are happy to record, are giving every encouragement to the succesful
carrying out of the Company's interests, thus aiding in the development of the
resources of that rich and fertile province."
In the Spring of 1862, owing to a great falling off in supplies
of raw cotton from the Southern States of America, and conse-
quent enhancement in value of all products of that plant — caused
by the difficulties which were gathering in that country, and
which culminated in a civil war — flax goods of all classes were
considerably stimulated, and the raw material steadily advanced
in price from that period down to September. A reaction then
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HAND BOOK, 105
took place, but in November an upward movement again set in,
and at close of the year prices stood at a high point. Yarns
participated in the excitement, and fluctuations in price
were of a violent and unprecedented character. 75's to loo's
common wefts opened in January at 3s 9d, rose in February to
3s loj^d, at which point they kept pretty steady down to June.
Early in July they advanced to 4s, in August to 4s i^d, but after
this a wild feeling took possession of the market, a rapid rise
ensued, and these numbers rose to 6s as a minimum on 15th
September, holding firm at this rate till the 6th October ; after-
wards a quieter feeling set in, and speculative buying having
fallen off, quotations receded to 5s 3d on 3rd November, 4s gd
on I St December, the year closing with an improvement on this
price, when some spinners were asking 5s for 75's to loo's.
On the first indications of political disturbance in the United
States, the utmost depression was felt throughout the linen trade,
at the anticipated loss which would be sustained by reason of a
falling off in demand from a market which consumed so large a
proportion of our goods. But the disruption of their own domestic
manufactures, and the stoppage of supplies of raw cotton soon
disproved these gloomy anticipations, and instead ot disaster
overtaking our trade, the contrary effect was quickly experienced.
Demand for linen goods of all kinds, but especially cloth suitable
for clothing, and coarse goods became most active, and
before the close of the year a considerable advance in prices had
been established. Power-loom manufacturers were busily
employed, 6,000 looms having been the estimated number nmning
at this time. The flax crop did not yield well, although there had
been an increase of about 2,000 acres compared with previous
year.
1863. — The Indian Flax Company continued its operations,
though the prospects of success seemed rather discouraging. We
find in the Circular a communication from Mr. D. F. M*Leod,
Financial Commissioner of the Punjab, Lahore, addressed to the
Secretary of the Company, at Belfast, and dated Lahore, October
6, 1863. It mentions the arrival of Mr. John Montgomery, who
had passed through Lahore on his way to the flax fields at
Sealkote. The letter urged the Company to send out more men
to assist Mr. Wightman " to be instructed in all that is peculiar
to the work in India — to learn the language, and make the
acquaintance of the people, and the best modes of dealing with
them.'' The writer goes on to say — " It is now very apparent
that in the present generation, at all events, the conduct of this
matter cannot be safely entrusted to natives. The extent of
operations that can be controlled effectively from one spot is, of
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106 IRISH LINEN TRADE
course, limited ; fresh centres of operation must be taken up from
time to time, and each must be superintended by a European
overseer, thoroughly instructed in all appertaining to the growth
and manipulation of flax. To whatever extent, therefore, the
Association desires to extend its operations efficiently, to supervise
these, good European supervisors should be speedily sent out, and
subjected to one or two year's training at the Sealkote head-
quarters." . . . He next recommended that a good mechanist
be sent out . . . and, speaking of the difficulties which had
to be contended with, stated — " It must be difficult, if not im-
possible, for those surrounded by all the appliances of European
civilisation to estimate the amount of discouragement and difficulty
which must be experienced by a man situated like Mr. Wightman,
inaugurating a new experiment in a foreign land, amongst a people
who have but very little in common with us ; in a climate not
congenial to the European constitution, and with few or none of
his own countrymen around him, moving in the same sphere with
himself, from whom to meet sympathy or receive encouragement
or support." As. regards the seed, he mentions
" that the ton of seed sent out by the Association this year had
arrived in good order, but a ton sent out by Dr. F. Watson, for
the Punjab Government, had again in a great measure failed. Now
that a good beginning had been made, and a large quantity of
acclimated seed had been raised, which would rapidly increase
from year to year, the yearly shipment of a ton or two of good
seed would doubtless be all that would be required to keep up
the supply." The letter concluded by remarking that though the
project was then but in its infancy, he thought the prospect
of success was good.
The position of the linen trade this year was most gratifying
and encouraging ; the improvement which had set in early in the
previous one was not only fully maintained, but was followed up
by most signal success. The disaster which overtook the cotton
trade, and the widespread distress which arose in Lancashire among
the operatives thrown out of employment there, and the losses
entailed on millowners and others connected with that great
industry, formed a strange and remarkable contrast with the extra-
ordinary impetus which was imparted to all branches of the linen
trade, as flax goods now largely filled the place of cotton manu-
factures, which, by reason of their greatly enhanced value, came
less into competition with linen.
Encouraged by the favourable state of the market for 1862,
farmers went more extensively into flax this year, and we accord-
ingly find the area increased by upwards of 64,000 acres, and the
largest crop, to this point, ever grown in Ireland. The yield
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HAND BOOK. 107
likewise showed great improvement, compared with that of pre-
ceding year, and the prices obtained were also high. Spinners
had a good year of it, and though no additions were made to the
spindles it was estimated that 650,000 were fully employed.
The export trade in yarns from the United Kingdom for the
twelve months had risen up to ;£'2, 530,404, against ;£'i,85 2,451,
in 1861, and ;^i,622,2i6. in 186 1. Line wefts fell from 5s at
opening of the year to 4s 3d in September, but ralUed in October,
and at close of year were back to 4s Qd to 5s. It was not, however,
in this class of yarns that the greatest fluctuations were observable.
The demand for power- loom goods and coarse fabrics being most
active, we find that 30^ line weft, which were 7s to 7s 3d at beginning
of the year, were quoted at 9s 6d at the close ; 50^ which were
5s 3d to 5s 6d rose to 6s6dto6s9d. On tow yarns a great advance took
place, 25S which sold in January from 7s 3d to 8s 3d rose to los 6d to
IIS 6d at close of year. The review of the trade for this year, as
given in the Circular, closed with this very -jubilant paragraph : —
" There are many circumstances in the history of the past year,
the retrospect of which cannot but afford satisfaction. With an
increased acreage under flax-^with a healthful demand for yarns —
with linens of almost all descriptions in active request ; and with
spinners, manufacturers, and merchants receiving a fair remunera-
tion for the investment of capital and the exercise of intellect and
labour, all interested have reason to regard with satisfaction and
thankfulness the operations of the year."
The Indian Flax Co. received a communication from their
agriculturist at Sealkote, dated i8th December, 1863, in which
he reported that they had held their annual meeting on the 12th
of that mohth, and by way of encouragement to the native farmers
prizes had been distributed. " There was a large assemblage of
farmers present, but not as many as on the last occasion. . . .
The number of premiums was 47, divided into four classes.
. . . The first premium was a cart and yoke of oxen; 2nd,
a milch cow and calf; 3rd, ditto.; 4th, a cashmere shawl; 5th,
a silk ditto, &c., &c. . . . The value of the premiums — which
were presented by Sir Robert Montgomery — came to about ;^i2o."
The agriculturist adds, " I have been out in the country much
during the last fortnight, and find the flax in a very promising
state. It is both thick and healthy, without one exception, much
better than any we have" had heretofore."
1864. — In May of this year the Linen Trade Committee pub-
lished in the Circular an abstract of returns which they received
from proprietors of mills and factories in Ireland, as to the number
of spindles and looms engaged in the trade. Comparing the
figures as they stood in 1859, we find the following result : —
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106 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Mills
Spindles
Spindles
Total
Proposed
employed
unemployed
extension
18S9
82
560,642
9I>230
651,872
—
1864
74
641,914
8,860
650,774
50,638
In addition to the preceding there are —
Employed in twisting thread, ... ... 14,648 spindles
5 mills in course of erection, capable of containing, 45,000 ,,
Power-loom factories —
Factories
Looms
employed
Unemployed
Total
Proposed
extension
1859
28
3»i24
509
3,633
—
I86I
35
4,609
324
>933
—
1864
42
7,929
258
8.187
6185,
At the Industrial Exhibition held in Dublin this year, about
eighteen Irish firms were contributors of specimens of flax goods.
In a report supplied by the Freeman's journal at the time, we
find the following notice of the exhibits of some of our manu-
facturers : —
" . . . . The charmingly finished cases, in which the several
specimens are contained, are in themselves worthy of much praise ; but it is
with their contents we have to deal. Messrs. Dunbar, M 'Master & Co. treat
us to samples of flax, linen, yarn, and thread Dunbar, Dicksons
& Co. (now Dicksons, Ferguson & Co. and William Spotten & Co ), samples
of brown linen, bleached linen, cambric and linen handkerchiefs ; printed
lawns, damasks, drills, ducks, sheetings, etc. In this collection we have the
manufacture of linen in all its shapes, from the coarse brown up to that worn
by Royalty itself. .... Next, a case exhibited by J. & W. Charley &
Co., who show several pieces of medium and heavy linens, from 31 to 36 inches
wide ; also, lawns and cambrics, etc. In the competitive examination in this
great brancli of industry, where all competing specimens are so excellent, it
would be hard to make an award Next, we find a splendid and
similar collection of goods exhibited by T. N. Richardson, Sons, & Owden. We
'have here goods made for the home, English, Scotch, American, and Conti-
nental markets. We have also cambrics, damasks, and printed linens of many
patterns. .... Jaffe, Bros., of Belfast, and Banford Bleach Works,
come out very strong in white and printed linens, cambrics, etc., all ot excel-
lent manufacture We now stop before a most attractive upright
case, Johnston & Carlisle (now Brookfield Linen Co., Limited), in which
specimens of finest linens are made up in admirable style. Also, samples of
flax in all stages, etc. . . . . William Barbour & Sons exhibit specimens
of linen threads, of all .shades and colours. Preston, Smyth & Co. exhibit
linen of various qualities, of excellent manufacture. J. Hind & Sons, samples
of flax and yams, brown, dyed, and bleached linens, lawns and cambric hand-
kerchiefs. W. Sprott & Co., linens and woven shirt fronts. Malcomson,
Bros., sundry samples of linen and cotton goods. GradweU, Chadwick & Co.,
H. Hull & Co., and several other Drogheda firms, are likewise noted as
exhibitors of yams and linen goods.
The joint stock limited liability principle having gained in ■
populai* favour since its recognition by the Act of 1862, we find
that the very satisfactory and progressive improvement in the
linen trade induced many to apply this principle towards the
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HAND BOOK. 100
fonnation of local companies in connection with the trade.
Accordingly, in July of this year, the York Street Flax Spinning
Co. was started, " for the purpose of acquiring a property (accord-
ing to the prospectus) consisting of the largest flax mill and linen
factory in the North of Ireland, covering about four acres of land,
in the town of Belfast, and consisting of a mill, weaving factory,
stores, lapping rooms, and furniture, suitable for conducting the
mercantile department of the business, to which was attached a
valuable and extensive connection of 35 years' standing." 'i1ie
large concern of the Messrs. Mulholland was accordingly converted
into a limited company, and the prosperity which marked its
progress under its founders has continued down to the present
day.
The general position of trade throughout this year was most
satisfactory, and if it had not been that owing to the financial
crisis in London, which caused the rate of discount to advance to
9 per cent, the profits would have been much larger. To begin
with the raw material, farmers being in such good heart by the
result of previous years' crop, they required no further stimulus to
convince them that they best served their own interests by extend-
ing the acreage this year, and we accordingly find that the total
breadth sown reached the highest ever known, viz., 301,693,
being 87,594 acres of an increase compared with 1863. The
season was, however, not favourable for steeping or scutching, so
that the increased value of the crop this year did not correspond
with the increased area, and a great deal brought to market was
of indifferent quality, and badly handled. Prices opened pretty
high in August, but dropped later in the season, rallying again at
close of year.
The spinning department continued in a very healthy condition
all this year, and most spinners held orders so far ahead as to take
off all production to the close of year. In August tow yams had
reached the highest point ever known, 25's being quoted los 4^d
to IIS 3d; and 35's, 9s 6d to los ; 25's line weft, iis to iis 6d ;
35's, los; 50's, 8s 6d ; 75's, 6s 9d to 6s io)4d ; loo's, 5s 7j^d
to 5s 9d; i2o's, 5s 3d to 5s 6d. These extreme rates checked
demand, and a reaction took place, the year closing with 25's
tow, 8s io)^d to los; 25's line wefts, 9s 6d to 9s 9d ; 75's,
5s 7j^d to 5s 9d ; and a range from no's to 170's were 5s as a
jninimum.
The export trade in yarns from the United Kingdom reached
the highest point ever recorded, being in value ^^3,010,109,
against ;£2, 530,404 in 1863.
Power-loom manufacturing kept steady pace with the spinning
trade, but hand-loom fabrics did not partake of the general
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no IRISH LINEN TkADE
prosperity, and production this year had very much fallen off.
But the comparative smallness in demand for fine goods was quite
lost sight of in the active trade which kept all the power-looms so
well occupied. The trade of the United Kingdom in linen goods
shows a surprising increase this year, the value exported being
;^8,i58,545, against ;^6,5o8,973 in 1863. The United States
taking value amounting to ;^2,48i,i99, against j(^2,o'j6,y6i the
previous year.
1865. — The prosperity which marked the course of our staple
trade during the past year was followed up by increased activity
this year, and although peace was restored in the United States, it
had no immediate effect in checking business, but rather the con-
trary, the fall demand for linen fabrics being so very large that prices
rose up to an extreme point, and supplies fell short of require-
ments. Trade in linen goods with the United States for the
twelve months increased from ^2,481,199 in 1864 to ;^3, 635,362
this year.
The area of flax showed a considerable falling off, as compared
with 1864. Farmers were probably disappointed in the return of
the previous year's crop, and that the results had fallen short of
what they had anticipated, looking to the great prosperity of the
linen trade. As prices generally obtained were so low, it was
therefore not surprising to find that they reduced the quantity this
year about 50,000 acres, seeing that quotations stood at from
3s 6d to los 3d per stone in the Spring. The partial failure, however,
of the Continental flax crop this year gave a great start to our home
produce, so much so, that by the close of the year prices ran up
to from 7s 6d to 19s 3d per stone. Yarns opened in January at 5s
for no's to 170's, and 25's tow at 8s loj^d, but gradually receded
in price down to May, when a range of wefts from 55's to 160
were quoted 4s 7>^d, and 25's tow, 5s 9d. Reports coming from
France, Holland, and Belgium, that dry weather and the fly were
doing much injury to the growing flax, prices of the raw material
took a great start, and from May to July Dutch flax rose ;^i4 to
;^i6 per ton, and our own markets also followed the same course
down to November, when prices reached their maximum, being
further stimulated by the reported short supplies of Russian
produce. Yarns had now advanced to 7s for a range of wefts
from 115's to 170's, and 25's tow yarns to 8s 4j4d. A reaction
set in about the middle of November, and at close of year they
were slightly lower.
Another Exhibition was held in Dublin this year, and from
newspaper files we find several reports, of which the following
is a condensed summary : —
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HAND BOOK, 111
The Belfast linen firms have done the Exhibition in some cases the service
of sending flax dressed and undressed, in the raw state and in its different
processes, which much increases the interest and educational value of the
aepartment. Among the principal exhibitors Messrs. Jaffe, Brothers, Belfast,
illustrate the universality of the operations of trade, in these days of rapid commu-
nication with distant countries, by showing turbans manufactured in the capital of
Ulster for the Moslems of Africa and Asia.
No person who was unacquainted with the subject could fail to be struck
with inscriptions in different languages, which attest the growing extent of the
linen trade. Under a name which fairly describes its true importance, "La
perla de Irlanda" finds its way to Brazil, and rough drills obtain entrance into
the beleaguered Confederate States to clothe the negro labourers. The variety
of the fabrics made from flax is really surprising. In the stand of Messrs.
Dunbar, Dicksons, & Co. (now Dicksons, Ferguson, & Co., and William
Spotten & Co.), of Belfast, are samples of flax, dressed and undressed, of
hnen yarn and thread, of strong brown and bleached linens, of handkerchiefs
which exhibit remarkable finish and design, and of splendid diapers of the
fern leaf pattern
Equally fine, but in some respects different, is the collection contained in
the case of Messrs. J. & W. Charley & Co., also of Belfast. Here is illustrated
the possibility of imitating cotton fabrics in linen. Several splendid diapers
show the number of patterns which can be suitably applied by the designer,
and two fine pieces ot lawn may be safely compared with the softest and
whitest cambric.
The great firm of Richardson, Sons, & Owden have a large stand taste-
fully furnished with shirting and fronting linen, bird-eye diapers, and splendid
brown damasks. Notable in this collection are the fine stitched and woven
fronts. At first sight it could scarcely be credited that the latter were produced
in the loom, so closely do they imitate the best needlework. The decorations
and quality of the damasks are particularly fine, and even in the small articles,
doyleys, an amount of taste and ingenuity is displayed exceedingly creditable
to the firm. 1 he stand of Messrs. Jaffe, Brothers, of Banford Bleach Works,
County Down, is no less attractive. The history of this firm is a remarkable
instance of enterprise and perseverance. Its founder gradually made his way
to the establishment of factories in Belgium and Hanover, and when well
established in trade, changed his headquarters to Belfast, and placed his
extensive works in Banford. The white handkerchiefs in the case, alternated
with printed handkerchiefs, exhibit the utmost fertility of design and cultivation
of taste. Messrs. Johnston & Carlisle (now Brookfield Linen Co., Limited)
_ take a still wider ground. Specimens of flax in the straw, scutched and
hackled, occupy one comer. Yams of flax and tow puzzle the uninitiated to
tell which is produced from good material and which from the refuse.
Messrs. Fenton, Son, & Co. (now Fenton, Connor, & Co. ) exhibit flax in
the raw state, and in the difterent processes — yams, damask tablecloths, and
Indian scarfs of beautiful and showy patterns. Messrs. Moore & Weinberg, of
the same town, exhibit linen yarns and damask table-linens. There are only
two representatives of the Drogheda trade in the Exhibition. This trade is
(^uite distinct from that of Belfast, and competes principally against Scotch
Imens. . , .
Mr. Henry Hull has a pre-eminence in the class of goods which come
under the head of sheetings, and several fine pieces of diaper will bear com-
parison with any exhibited elsewhere
In the Belfast damasks, there are very few objectionable patterns, no
excessive ornamentation, no obtrusive attempts to fix attention. On the con-
trary, there is evidence that "art'' in this branch has reached its highest
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112 IRISH LINEN TRADE
point. Where there are flowers they are disposed in the best taste, without
crowding or unsuitable grouping. Some of these designs, it is well known,
are very costly, and cannot be produced by ordinary men.
1866. — In January of this year the Linen Trade Committee
again collected statistical information respecting the spinning and
weaving branches of trade, and the following abstract shows the
progress made in two years : —
Tifiii^ Spindles Spindles rr«i.„i Proposed
^^^'* Employed Unemployed ^^^^ Extension
1864 74 641,914 8,860 650,774 50,638
1866 86 759,452 11,362 770»8i4 103,792
In addition to the preceding, there were em-
ployed in twisting thread — 17,786 4*656
In course of erection, mills capable of
containing — — 62,000
FarfAriM Looms Looms rp_^_i Proposed
j?actones Employed Unemployed '^'^^^ Extension
1864 42 7,929 25 s 8,187 1,685
1866 44 10,538 266 10,804 6,484
In course of erection, factories capable of containing 1,400
In the Linen Trade Circular of 12th November, we find an
interesting communication from Dr. W. Neilson Hancock on the
suitability of the south and west of Ireland for growing flax. As
the letter touches upon some important points in reference to flax
culture, we reproduce the communication in its entirety.
''Dublin, Nov. 9, 1866.
**To the Secretaiy, Linen Trade Committee, Belfast —
"Dear Sir, — In reply to your inquiries as to my latest impressions
regarding the effect of climate on the growth of flax, the impression left on my
mind by the who'e history of Government encouragement to the growth of
flax since 1846, and of the earlier encouragement to the linen tiade, for about a
century before 1825, is that the greater part of the south, and part of the west
of Ireland are too warm for the profitable growth of flax, as a Summer crop,
in competition with other produce.
•' As far as my information extends, the line of profitable Summer growth
of flax cuts Ireland in two, crosses England, and takes in part of the north of
France, then nins up through Germany to Russia.
** Nearly all the flax imported to England comes from north of this line,
and our great countries for flaxseed are Russia and Holland. The only place
south of this line from which England appears to import any considerable
quantity of flax is Egypt. But in Egypt there are two crops in the year, and
flax is a winter crop. The same happens in India. In the plains of Hindostan,
flax is a winter crop, as is also the case (as you stated to me) in the warm and
low-lying plains of the Punjab.
** The growth of flax in Egypt as a winter crop is as old as the time of
Moses, for in the Bible narrative (Exodus chap. ix. ) of the plagues of Egypt,
it is incidentally mentioned that the flax and the barley were destroyed by the
hail, whilst the wheat and the rye escaped, and the reason is stated that * the
flax was boiled' (li^., swollen, or the seed vessels formed), * and the barley was
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HAND BOOK. 118
in the ear,* but the wheat and rye were not grown up. The explanation of
this being that the flax and barley were then, as now, winter crops in Egypt,
and wheat and rye summer crops.
** This affords a suggestion which I have made for Algeria, and which
may be applicable to India, to try flax at whatever season or place barley
succeeds best, and to avoid the season or place where wheat or rye is most
successful.
" I annex an extract from my official report on the statistics of flax
culture in Connaught and Munster in 1865, in which the climate for flax is
considered.
'* The statistics for 1866, as far as I have examined them, are pot so
encouraging, as those for 1865, with respect to the attempt to grow flax out of
Ulster. — Yours very truly, W. Neilson Hancock."
Extract from Dr. Hancock's official report, as referred to in
his letter.
The effect of climate in determining the district for flax: —
**The very marked difference as to the growth of flax between some
countries and others, and between baronies in the same county, suggested an
inquiry whether there was any general principle by which the diflference might
be accounted for.
"There is a very considerable local difference in the climate of Ireland,
arising from the direction of the mountain ranges, with reference to the warm
winds from the South and West, and the cold winds from the North and East.
Lands lying to the North and East of mountains and hills, and valleys sloping
towards the North and East are colder than the Southern and Western faces of
mountain ranges, and of hills sloping towards the South and West.
** There are many indications that flax requires a colder climate than
wheat. In Egypt, from which we import both flax and wheat, there are two
crops in the year, a Winter and a Summer crop, and in Egypt flax is a Winter
crop and Wheat a Summer one.
"Again, we import our flaxseed from Riga, in Russia, and from Holland.
We get little wheat from Holland and the Northern parts of Russia ; we get
it from the United States of America, the Southern parts of Russia, from the
countries adjoining the Black Sea, from France, Egypt, and Turkey.
** In Ireland, again, the counties remarkable for wheat are those where the
least flax is grown, and vice versa, Thus the greatest wheat cultivation is in
Kilkenny, where there are 30,823 acres of wheat and only 255 acres of flax.
In Tyrone, on the other hand, where there are 36,685 acres of flax, there are
only 1,420 acres of wheat,
** In consequence of the active competition between Ireland and warmer
countries in the production of wheat, the extent of land under crop still existing
may be taken as a measure of the climate of the different districts, and accord-
ingly the county in Munster where the acreage under flax is least is that where
the acreage under wheat is greatest. "
The state of trade this year was also satisfactory, and the
export demand for linen goods was not only lively, but returns
showed an improvement compared with 1865. The home demand
for the same period, although not of a very active character, was
steady, and values were fully maintained.
I
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114 IRISH LINEN TRADE
The prices obtained for flax in 1865, which were £,\o to £,\2
per ton higher than what farmers got in 1866, had the effect of
checking any considerably extended acreage, though we find an
increase amounting to about 5 per cent. ; the yield was, however,
less, and quality inferior to that of 1865. The Continental flax
crops were much better than previous year, and prices of foreign
as well as home produce fell this season.
Yarns were in good request at opening of the year, a range of
wefts from 120's to 170's being 8s 3d to 9s, and 25's tow weft,
8s 4>^d a bundle. Prices began to droop in March, and continued
to fall until July, when wefts were quoted from 4j4d to is lower.
A recovery afterwards set in ; but again in November and part of
December a considerable amount of dulness existed, with a tend-
ency to lower prices, but as the year drew to a close improvement
in demand became manifest, and considerable animation prevailed,
with a marked upward tendency in prices. The Bank rate was
very high during the greater part of the year, having reached 10
per cent in June, at which point it remained till August The
expoi t trade in yarns showed a further falling off, principally on
French and German account
The turn-out of cloth from the power-looms had further in-
creased this year, and demand appeared to have been brisk for
three-fourths of the year, the American trade being reported as
singularly good down to September ; some manufacturers of cloth
suitable for this market having forward orders from 3 to 6 months.
But the trade received a check when it became known that the
United States Government contemplated an advance in the duties.
The Continental trade, except on French account, was not so
good this year, the falling-oflf being attributed to the war. Stocks
throughout the year were, in general, very moderate; prices
opened high at commencement, became easier during the year,
but at the close were pretty firm.
In the Report of Mr. Baker, Inspector of Factories, we find
some useful remarks on the culture of flax ; and also respecting
the popular ideas of farmers, especially those of the South and
West, as to the growth and treatment of the plant. As much of
what was then stated is equally applicable now, we insert the
section which deals with the subject.
The increase of spindles and looms in Ireland for Flax spinning and
weaving, and the supply of raw material for them, are questions of the deepest
interest. Whether under the circumstances which loom at present about the
growth of cotton, or whether with reference to the efforts which Ireland has
made and is making to bring linen into successful competition with the cotton
Manu&cture, there can be no doubt that much of the anxiously desired success
of the Irish linen trade depends upon the readiest method of obtaining raw
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material cheaply, and yet not so cheaply as to deter the indigenous growth
for want of a remunerative profit. The Irish agricultural mind is one sui generis,
and seems at present to be in a very peculiar state on the cultivation of Flax,
especially in the south. The large acreage sown over the whole country in
1864, the diminished growth of 1865, and the increase again in 1866, preplexes
it very much. It is not certain whether to treat the introduction of this fibre
into so many new districts, and the growth of patches so much larger than
formerly in the old ones, as an innovation, or a fact which it ought to act upon.
The farmer clings to the old method ef cropping his land, as if it were the only
possible one to pursue, and as if the profits of certain Flax crops, of which he
hears by chance, belong to a newer and better mode of culture, or are dreams
only, and not realities. If he yields to the impulse to try a small patch and
accidentally grows it very superiorly, and sells it for what appears to him
fabulous prices in comparison with his former attempts, he will perhaps try it
again the second year, leave it almost to cultivate itself when once the seed is in,
and then, when it is gathered, asks the same fabulous price lor a worse quality
of product, and wonders why he does not get it ? In this state of bewilderment
he doubts and mistrusts and relapses. He is playing a game, and cannot
understand the moves. He is ever calculating, as he sells his crop, wherein
lies the advantage to the buyer, and what wiil turn up next ? If he is treated
fairly by the purchaser in order to encourage him in the cultivation of this
valuable fibre, and is given the full value for his crop, which in his ignorance
he has not ventured to ask, he just accepts it and says, ** did you ever see the
like of that ?** but is not thereby induced to apply his mind to the reason why
he has been so favoured. And perhaps it will be years before he will attain
to a knowledge of the effect of climatic influences, of the exhaustion of the
soil by weeds, and of the repairing help it wants to enable it to respond to the
expectations which he has formed of its capabilities. It seems to be with
respect to agriculture as to most other things (of course there are exceptions
in all) that, whatever is done, is a makeshift. If it prospers, it is luck ;
if it fails, it is providential. A farmer in the neighbourhood of Drogheda
last year sowed a field of two acres, by way of experiment, one with
oats and one with Flax. There was the same soil and cultivation for both
crops. He sold the Flax for £l^ los. and the oats for ^^5, and even was
then hard to convince of the value of Flax as a remunerative crop. Such
examples are constantly occurring. If the soil and climate were less adapted
to grow Flak than they are, if labour was not generally cheap and ready,
except in the time of Flax harvest, and if Flax was a product for export
and not for home consumption, one could understand why so much persuasion
was necessary to effect a radical change in the farmer's inclination. But with
the actual profitable results in hand, and oftentimes a successionat crop within
the same year, his obtuseness is remarkable.
It is true that, occasionally. Flax is taken to market and returns unsold ;
and that this is disappointing to the farmer's expectations. Whereupon he
writes a letter to the nearest newspaper, to complain of the treatment he has
received, and to threaten a discontinuation of the growth next year, not only of
his own crop, but of that of the whole country. He forgets that markets
fluctuate, and that spinning companies have other engagements to meet than
those of Flax buying, and that there are many causes arising to them which
interfere with his present want of success, but are unavoidable.
It is, however, not only in the growth of Flax, but in the subsequent
manipulation ot it, that the cause of failing markets is to be sought for. I was
shown in Belfast a strick of Flax grown in England, and manipulated there,
placed side by side with one of the same quality of Flax grown and scutched in
Ireland, and the difference between them accounted at once for the disappoint-
ment in prices which the Irish fanners have from time to time sustained. The
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116 IRISH LINEN TRADE
fibres of the English Flax were clean, and long, and parallel, and of a capital
colour ; whilst tnose manipulated in Ireland were matted, full of shove, and
requiring considerable additional labour and expense by the manufacturer, to
bring it to a marketable equality with the English sample. It was then I
could at length comprehend why a large spinner in the south of Ireland, with
every desire to spin Irish Flax instead of Courtrai, and who regularly visits the
Belfest Flax market to make purchases suitable to his purpose if he can,
declared it impossible to procure Irish Flax sufficiently clean for his machinery.
On pursuing the inquiry further with a most intelligent scutcher whom I met
when near Belfast, and who had followed his avocation in several European
countries, I learnt that, no process of reasoning can as yet induce the Irish
farmer to comprehend that, sixpence extra spent upon dressing the Flax care-
fully, though it might lose him sixpence in weight, would bring him
half-a-crown a stone extra in the value of his raw material when exposed for
sale.
But this is not all. One of the most important elements in Flax growing,
if not the most important, after due attention to soil and climate, is the
selection of the seed ; but the practices prevalent with regard to the seed appear
to be, not only most disreputable, but prejudicial to the character of the
product itself. In fact, it seems in vain to talk of soils, manures, croppings,
rettings, and scutchings if, in the first instance, the seed is comparatively
valueless. And yet, great pains have been taken with the Irish farmer in the
distribution of information of every kind, plain, simple, and instructive, on all
the points material to a successful cultivation of good Flax ; and, amongst other
things, to the preliminary and paramount necessity of good, sound, and
thoroughly sifted seed. There are crops of such seed under well known brands
I am informed, which are considered a guarantee of quality in most markets in
Ireland, and agents residing here and there who are responsible for it. But
although the Irish farmer knows well enough how important it is to possess
such seed, he will often buy his of some huxter, who plants himself down in the
open market, at the very door, perhaps of one of these agents, with seed alike
only to the other in colour, but sadly deficient in every other quality, for a
penny or twopence less per measure, in preference. He thus buys discourage-
-ment for himself, and disappointment for his country. This is one source of
failure which those that are interested in the growth of Flax in Ireland have to
provide against.
1867. — Since the dissolution of the Royal Flax Society, in
1859, there was no public body to watch over this special depart-
ment of our trade. The late Mr. M*I1 wrath wrote a small
pamphlet giving directions as to the growth and management of
, the flax crop, and the Linen Trade Committee had it freely dis-
tributed, and in various ways they assisted, as far as possible, in
disseminating information of a useful nature. The North-East
Agricultural Society endeavoured to promote and encourage the
growth of flax, but their means of operation were too limited to
have any important influence.
Mr. Wm. Charley drew attention in 1862 to the importance of
forming a large central society to fill the gap which the Royal
Society left It was not, however, until this year that any steps
were taken to supply the acknowledged want, when a pubUc
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HAND BOOK. 117
meeting was convened, in the Chamber of Commerce, Belfast, on
the 1 6th August, 1867 (the President of the Chamber, John
Lytle, Esq., being chairman), and it was decided that the forma-
tion of such a society was absolutely necessary. The following
resolutions, which were passed unanimously at the meeting, will
fully explain the objects of the proposed association : —
** 1st — ^That the formation of an association in Belfast for the purpose of
improving the quality of flax grown in Ulster, and extending the cultivation of
the crop elsewhere, is calculated to be productive of much benefit, not only to
the trade in general, but also to the agricultural community."
"2nd.— That, for the promotion of the general aims of this association, it
should co-operate as much as possible with landlords, agricultural societies, and
all organisations which have taken, or may hereafter take, practical steps for
the extension and improvement of flax culture."
** 3rd. — That as one of the chief obstacles to the growth of flax has
hitherto been the difficulty of sale, in outlying districts, the association should
take such steps as would enable the farmers in those districts to dispose of their
crop to the best advantage."
" 4th. — That, in order to facilitate the preparation of the flax for sale, this
association should afford such encouragement as might be in their power for
the erection of scutching machinery in new districts.
**5th. — That, while encouraging the saving of home-grown seed (chiefly
for feeding purposes), the association should afford, all possible assistance to
landlords and farmers in procuring a supply of the best description of foreign
seed, for sowing, on the most favourable terms.
" 6th. — That a committee be formed for the purpose of framing rules and
regulations for the association, and for further carrying out the objects in view."
An International Exhibition was held in Paris this year, and a
good many representatives of our trade put in an appearance.
A report, supplied by John Stevelly, Esq., of Paris, to the
Linen Trade Committee, gives such very full information on the
various branches of the linen trade, and the progress which Conti-
nental countries were making in respect to this manufacture, that
we insert the greater portion which treats upon the subject.
PARIS INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1867. — FLAX MANUFACTURES.
We find in the Exhibition of this year the great number of 621 exhibitors
in this class, without counting the Belfast trophy, which does not appear in the
catalogue ; and, although Scotland, England, and America are unrepresented,
we have still a show of linens which would have been believed impossible in
185 1 or 1855. This exhibition confirms what we already know by experience —
that Great Britain, although doubtless the largest manufacturer of linen goods
in the world, has been hitherto by no means a great consumer.
The cotton famine has now forced many to use linen who previously used
cotton ; and these, I hope we have secured as permanent customers for our
linen manufactures. Such a crisis was not needed to induce the consumption
of linens on the Continent, where a cotton blouse or a cotton shirt has long
been a mark of exceptional poverty.
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118 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Commencing our circuit of the gallery on our left hand, we come to
France, whose linen manufactures we shall first consider, not only because we
are at present the guests of Fiance, but also on account of their importance.
Then follow Holland, Belgium, Prussia, and the Northern States of Germany
and Austria ; and, passing through several countries of minor importance as
linen manufacturers, including our own colonies, we come to Ireland, almost
at the point at which we started. I say Ireland advisedly, for the absence of
Dundee, Dnnfermline, Bamsley, and a host of other places celebrated for
their linens, leaves a woeful want in the British class 28, as it appears in the
Champ de Mars. The unrepresented members of our trade urge their expense,
labour, and loss of time at former exhibitions, and the small appreciable
advantages which they derived therefrom, as an unanswerable argument against
their exhibiting. I believe this, however, to be a mistake. Even in an
economical point of view, it is certainly the cheapest and most telling
advertisement. . . .
France has not underrated the importance of exhibiting a complete series
of her linen manufactures, but, in common with Belgium and Prussia, she has
devoted to it the largest space allotted to any one industry. Certainly the
linens exhibited by France have nothing in common with our makes or con-
sistent with our ideas of what she would find most profitable ; we must, how-
ever, study these French manufactures as they are, and try to imitate them if we
wish France to become to any extent our customer. . . . The Belgians, it is
true, are aided by cheap labour ; but we have, on the other hand, our immense
development of power-looms. What we have neglected to acquire is the
experience which the Belgians possess both in producing the goods demanded
by the French trade and in adapting themselves to the fancy tariffs of the
French Custom-honse. In the present report I should wish to draw special
attention to those particular classes of goods which appear to me the most
important for our manufacturers to become acquainted with and which it would
be most easy for them to make their own ; so that, in case of a sudden suspen-
sion of purchases on the part of a large customer, such as America, or of the
reduction or abolition of the present French tariff, they might be able to avail
themselves in some measure of the outlet which France affords them.
Allow me to say a word on the subject of the French duties. The present
French Government carried in i860 a comparatively liberal measure in spite of
a formidable opposition. A tariff on the principle of a 15 per cent, maximum
rate was far from a radical measure ; but at that time the intelligent Minister,
now the Minister of State, held out the hope that, if the powerful band of
manufacturers who opposed any ghange were neither ruined nor seriously
affected by the modification of the tariff, the further reduction of the duty
would be limited only by the fiscal wants of the country.
During the seven years of the new regime the spindles have increased
from 400,000 to 700,000. The power-looms have taken a firm place in the
country. The exports of linen yarn and thread have increased from a nominal
quantity to 4,ooo,ooolb., and the export of linen has reached the enormous
amount of 9,ooo,ooolb. The sudden general demand for linen might diminish
the value of these facts^ were it not that precisely the same results have fol-
lowed in the cases of the cotton and the woollen trades. The French Govern-
ment has partly recognised these results, first, in the treaty with Belgium, when
certain duties were modified, especially on low plain goods and drills ; and,
secondly, in the beginning of this year, when 20 per cent, reduction was made
on the finest class of linen, in the special Austrian treaty. Under these cir-
cumstances I believe that the time has arrived when it would be most important
to urge on the French Government to abolish protective duties which the
French manufacturers no longer require, or, at all events to place them at the
lowest per centage which they believe the financial arrangements of the country
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HAND BOOK, 119
to justify. A 5 per cent, maximum rate would in all probability greatly
increase the revenue. In making such a representation I would especially call
attention to the case of heavy m3kes of coarse linens, and to drills, which are
bo^h virtually excluded, and also to the importance to the French manufacturers
of having extended to them the beneficial eflfects of the article 40 in the Belgian
law on entrepots, which allows them to take out of bond, duty free, )rarns
destined for the manufacture of linens for export. This would allow the French
manufacturers to compete on terms of equality with other nations in the markets
of the world.
I hope the reporter of class 43, to Vhom this more properly belongs, will
. excuse my making a few remarks on the important subject of the **raw
material." At the beginning of the present century, during the wars of the
Empire, owing to the want of labour the growth of flax was small in France,
each household only growing what it required for its own use. Little or none
' could be (exported. In 1822 we find, however, some 35,000 acres under flax,
but in 1845 the area falls to 11,000 acres in consequence of the slowness of
the French in following the lead given by England and Ireland in adapting
machinery to spinning flax. At this time our sales of yams to France reached
in one year the large amount for the period of i io,ooo tons. It was now clear
that hand-spinning was doomed, and, with the erection of mills, we find the
culture of flax gradually increasing. In 1864, in the Department du Nord*
alone, there were 45,000 acres devoted to flax ; and in 1066 we may safely
assume that France had at least 60,000 acres under the same crop, besides
importing 312,000 tons of flax, principally from Belgium and Russia, 74,000
tons of hemp, and 169,000 tons of jute. The exportations during the same
period reach in the aggregate, exclusive of flax straw, 74,000 tons. Notwith-
standing these figures, the supply of flax was so evidently inadequate that a
few enterprising spinners and merchants of Lille formed, a few years ago, a
company lor the culture of flax in the colony of Algeria, where the plant was
remarked to grow abundantly in a wild state. The success of this speculation
is worthy of notice, for last year, three years after their modest commence-
ment, they sold 1, 000 tons of flax fibre. We find exhibited, not only by several
spinners, but by the "Compagnie de la Culture du Lin et Coton d'Algerie,"
besides exceptional samples spun into yarns, numbering frofla 100 to 300, a
good quantity of medium flax, suitable for spinning wefts, forty to seventy, of
good colour, resembling in many respects those better marks of Russian flax,
which of late years have become so scarce. They have great facilities for the
weeding and pulling of flax in Algeria in the large native population, who do
this kind ot work well, cheaply, and quickly. The water for steeping is good,
and the scutching-machines used are the best that can be had. As the crop is
gathered in May, the produce can be early in the market. The seed also
deserves notice ; for the grain originally imported from Riga has so much
improved after its third year in Algeria that, when tried with freshly imported
Riga seed, it gives flax not only 10 inches longer, but with a finer fibre. Trials
of this seed, under official surveillance, have been made both in France and
Belgium with the like result. Messrs. Droulers et Agache give us examples of
this flax spun. And they exhibit likewise an extensive range of well-spun
yams, extending from 10 to 300, shown so as to make the difference between
the qualities of flax grown in different districts easily appreciable. Messrs.
Le Blan Freres have also a very creditable collection of yarns. The principal
honours of the French department, both as spinners and manufacturers, must,
however, be reserved for Messrs. Wallaert Freres, who exhibit a collection
of family linens and sheetings, all power-loom goods, which certainly show
considerable progress, although closely followed by the large manufacturers of
Armentieres, Messrs. Beglin Duflos, Victor Pouchain, and Mathieu-Delangre.
Normandy was the cradle of these household Linens, under the name of
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120 IRISH LINEN TRADE
* Cretonnes ;" and these Norman combinations are more or less those copied at
Lille. Foremost among the large houses of Normandy are the old house
of Laniel, the first to employ P(nver-looms in France, and still ready to adopt
every improvement ; M. Fouixict and Messrs. P. Marie et Cie., both of Lisie\;x,
who have seen nearly all their smaller neighbours disappear in the unequal
struggle between Hand and Power-looms. Even they, with their powerful
organization, have to contend with the high rate of wages, or rather with the
difficulty of finding skilled labour in a region so far removed from the present
centre of the Linen trade. In these goods, whether they be from Lille or
from Normandy, the base is the same. The lower sets are 42 in. wide, the finer
36 in., and a little is made 32 in. The Yams are well boiled, and we get
some idea of the qualities employed by examining the samples exhibited by
Messrs. Mery, Samson, Rattray, et Cie., an establishment founded by Messrs.
Duffin, of Belfast, and making Yams specially for these goods in 25-40 line. . . .
Messrs. Jongley-Hovelacque, Cam Cardon, et Cie., and Messrs. Duhamel
Fr^res, give us all the types of cloth used in the naval and military services,
both of which, as well as the hospitals, prisons, and other public departments,
unlike our own, have always employed linen in preference to cotton. These
types have a special interest for our manufacturei*s at present, from the fact
that, in the last adjudication of a linen contract, the French military authorities,
contrary to their invariable rule since 1840, left out the clause in the conditions
requiring the contractor to guarantee that the goods are bona fide of French
manufacture. Of this return to a liberal spirit we cannot speak too highly,
and we accept it as a good omen for the future.
Messrs. J. Scrive et Fils and a nmnber of others show samples of blouse
linens, blue, slate, and drab, in all variety of shades. These cloths arc gene-
rally made 41 inches to 42 inches wide, although a small portion are in $5
inches ; but for our purpose we can study such goods more profitably in
Belgium, where the manufacturers, without neglecting the preference given in
France to heavy linens, have at the same time kept the French tariff in view.
The heavy linens made of dry spun yam, although forming an important part
of the French consumption, have less interest for us than the preceding descrip-
tions ; still we cannot pass over the exhibitions of Messrs. Dickson et Cie.,
and of the ** Soci^t^ Liniere du Finisterre," from their well-known position in
the trade of France. Besides the goods they sell for shirts and sheets in the
agricultural districts, they are the principal linen contractors for the navy ; and
their sailcloth competes with the best marks of Dundee in every market.
Nothing could more thoroughly prove the absurdity of their being still " pro-
tected" by a 15 per cent, duty in France
We find eight exhibitors of fancy drills. Two districts appear to mono-
polise this trade — Roubaix, in the immediate neighbourhood of Lille ; and
Laval, in Mayenne. In both the arrangements of colour are tasteful, and the
goods are well made and cheap. Fancy drilis, either in the piece or in made-up
articles of clothing, form a large item in the linen exports of France. Let me
especially draw attention to Messrs. Parent et Danchin, who show very nice
fancy drills, 24 in. wide, linen warp and jute weft, at 7^d to I id, a new and
very useful combination.
In the Cholet district the trade in light linens and in linen handkerchiefs
gives emplojrment to about 20,000 looms. There they make also checked
Madras handkerchiefs, the colours dyed in the yarns. For these they have an
outlet not only in France, but in the remoter districts of Wales, Germany, and
Spain, where snuff-taking still lingers. This class of goods is, I believe,
unknown to our manufacturers. Cambrai is also an important centre for the
finer handkerchiefs, and for fine linens. The wages are higher than in the
Cholet district, and the weavers are singularly intelligent. Eight manufac-
turers give a proof of this in a veiy varied exhibition. The three of those first
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HAND BOOK, 121
on the list, Messrs. Vinchoii et Basquin, M. Bricont-Molet, and M. Bertrand
Milcent, show a beautiful, series of **batistees," which are made from hand-
spun yam, and to which the town of Cambrai has given its name, and also of
ordinary fabrics
The progress which has been made during the last. ten years in the damask
trade in France is most remarkable, and the dazzling show of French damasks
in the Exhibition, and the number and importance of the exhibitors, show that
damask goods are now fast taking their proper place with the consumers, and
replacing the plain linens and low diapers which were formerly in almost
universal use as table linen. The show of every- day damasks of Messrs. J.
Casse et Fils is very creditable, without considering their two chef-d'oeuvres,
which it would require the more authorised pen of an art critic to discnss ; as
also are those of Messrs. Deneux Freres, Messrs. Danset Freres, who need fear
no competitor in their ordinary sorts, and M. J. Joanard, of Paris, whose,
desigus are very beautiful, and so varied that every taste may be satisfied
except that of the admirer of geometrical patterns, of which I do not see
a single example.
An honourable mention is due to Mr. Turquet, of Senlis, who has devoted
himself to bleaching and finishing damask goods. Those in this Exhibition
are nearly all bleached by him and do him great credit, although his name
does not appear in the catalogue.
Algeria has ' nothing worthy of note. The few wretched examples of
native manufacture are most uninteresting. I sought in vain for something
analogous to the "Algerian stripes'* made at one time largely in Belfast,
of which the Arabs make the unique article of clothing wont in the tents
during the hot weather. The interest in this country is more in its flax, to
which I have already alluded. It is singular that, during the plague of locusts
which devastated Algeria last year, i\ hile every other green thing was devoured,
the flax plant was generously spared.
Holland being our custoftier for ;f 250,000 worth of yams yearly, I cannot
speak evil of her linen manufactures ; but, as I cannot praise them, I have
no other course than to proceed to the next country on our circuit.
Belgium shows much in common with the Lille district. Tbe separation
of French Flanders is of coniparatively recent dale ; and the foundation of the
linen manufacture in this part of the Continent is attributed to certain bar-
barous tribes from the region of the Caspian Sea, who are said to have settled
in this district some 300 years betore the Christian era. Whether there may
be truth in this legend or not, it is certain that Flanders linen can be traced
back to a very early period. At the time of the first invasion of Gaul by the
Romans these northern people wore the '* sagum," or blouse, which is still
the national dress. Belgium offers many advantages for the development of
the linen trade. The climate is very suitable to the growth of flax, which is
accordingly of excellent quality ; the water for steeping it is well suited to the
purpose, and abundant ; and a great amount of care and skill is employed in
its cultivation and preparation. The inhabitants are naturally industrious, and
are well trained by centuries of traditions ; and the Belgian flax has always
been esteemed the best in the world. The quality has, however, of late years
been below the average, from, the desire of the farmers to produce the greatest
possible quantity on a given surface, which could only be effected at the
expense of the quality by the emplojrment of guano and artificial manures,
whose effect is no longer doubtful. The growth of flax has by no means
increased in the same ratio as the prices. In 1840 we find the production
estimated at 210,000 tons ; while in 1864, with the prices trebled, the quantity
grown is estimated at 250,000 tons. The larger proportion of the finer
descriptions finds its way to Belfast and England^ the middle sorts and the
coarse flax are bought by the Lille spinners, or go to supply the 250,000
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122 IRISH LINEN TRADE
spindles which turn in Belgium itself. The total exportation of grey yam is
to an amount of about ^ 600,000, and of bleached yam and thread about
;f 400,000, making in round numbers a total of about £ 1,000,000. Of this
nearly half is sold to the neighbouring Prussian State, and the remainder is
divided between Holland, France, aud Switzerland. The exportation of linen
from Belgium reached in 1864 the imposing amount of ;f 1,600,000. France
heads the list of customers by taking ;f 440, 000 worth ; Holland buys nearly
as much, while the wonderful little Island of Cuba absorbs ;f 185,000. Prussia
and Switzerland take ;£'ioo,ooo each ; and, although the Hanse Towns figure
for over ;f 160,000, a large portion of that sum must, no doubt, be attributed
to Russia, as she only received directly for £^o, The remaining ;f 175,000 are
distributed over the globe. These results are really surprising in a country
with a population of four n^Uions and a half.
Amongst the most remarkable of the Belgian manufacturers is the well-
known name of M. Rey Aine, of Brussels, who, after a long life devoted to
this trade, finds himself, as he tells us, at the head of 750 power-looms, and
nearly double the number of hand-looms, employing some 4,000 workers, and
producing over 11,000,000 yards of linen annually, embracing nearly every
class of goods. I propose drawing attention to the most remarkable varieties
of Belgian linens only, and to those manufacturers who appear to me to
succeed best in their specialities.
Amongst these I class shirtings as the most important ; and the combined
exhibition of Courtrai and Roulers gives us ample means of judging both •f
their merits and of their defects. Among the latter I would class an inferior
bleach, and perhaps a somewhat smaller quantity of weft, than we are accus-
tomed to, and an over-boiling of the yam, which renders it soft, and gives it
a tendency to form small lumps in the after processes. The yams are, however,
excellent, the cloth is well woven, and the prices are moderate, as may be
judged by the quotations of more than one of the exhibitors
In the sheetings exhibited, and in those of M. Dathes, and M. Denys, we
have examples of goods used largely on the Continent, especially in Spain,
Italy, and Germany, which are little made with us. They command a large
sale, for they are of good material, and lighter and cheaper than goods of the
same class of British make. Many houses exhibit blouse linen, of which the
sale is very important ; it will be sufficient to mention M. Tant-Verlinde and
Messrs. Van Damme Freres, of Roulers, M. Parmentier, of Iseghem, and M.
H. Van Brabander of the Belgian catalogue. The immense sale of these
goods naturally draws our attention particularly to them, and, seeing them, a
manufacturer will have little difficulty in imagining that Belfast, paying the
same duties for their entrance into France, cannot sell a single piece, and, after
many trials, has fairly given up the attempt as hopeless. The whole of the
trade is thus left in the hands of Belgium, whose sales are estimated by
millions yearly in this one article, the range being io<w to 18*®, and nine-tenths
of the sales in the three middle numbers, 13, 14, and 15
The cheap labour in Belgium is doubtless a difficult element to contend
with ; but sooner or later it must follow the general advance. Although the
goods produced by our power-looms are now more costly, their price is
diminishing day by day by new inventions and by the improving skill of the
weavers ; and they are at all times more regular. All these considerations
should encourage us to emulation.
The Belgian drills, of which, however, we have but few examples in the
Exhibition, are remarkably good value. We have an opportunity of judging
of them in the samples of Messrs. Comille-Bartholomeus, et Bartholomeus
Freres, and one or two others
The Belgian handkerchiefs are but poor ; and the damasks, of which there
are several exhibitors — the best, perhaps, Messrs. Noel Freres, of Alost, and
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M. Brandt — but are indifferent in pattern, and detestable in bleach.
From France and Belgium we have much to learn ; I have therefore thought
myself justified in studying their productions somewhat in detail
Prussia and the northern States of Germany, however, still present
important fields of manufacture, of which the nearest home is Bielefeld, whose
linens are well known, not only in Germany and Russia, but also in France
and Italy. The celebrity of this region for fine linens dates from the time of
hand -spun yams. Of this we have many proofs even in this Exhibition.
Above 2\^ these linens are admirable ; below that number I think their prices
must shut them out from every market where an old and honourable connection
does not weigh in their favour. Of these fine linens we can have no better
example than those of the old house of F. G. Kreonig, whose existence dates
from the year 1763 ; and of Bertelsmann and Son. The sale of this very fine
linen is of course limited. Here they push it by turning it into shirt-fronts by
the aid of sewing machines. Herr Westermann, and Herr Heidsieck give us
some good examples of well-executed damask, which appears, however, to be
an accidental article of manufacture in this country, entirely devoted to plain
fine linen. Side by side with these fine goods and this old-fashioned trading,
we find modern industry represented by several large flax-spinners and power-
loom manufacturers such as the Bielefeld Company, the Ravensberg Company,
the Vorworts Company, Herr Mevissen, and Herren Schoeller, Mevissen, and
Buckler, of Duren, who average 20,000 spindles each, and many of them have
large power-loom factories. These establishments, put up recently on our own
models, only interest us as a pupil's success must always interest his teacher.
Passing north from Bielefeld we reach Osnabruck, where we find that the
old-fashioned manufacture of that name is still a reality. The Hanoverian
market officers, who measured and sealed only a part of their cloth last year,
state that the value of the linen which passed through their hands amounted
to ;f 1 70, 000. In this neighbourhood Herr Aschrott, of Cassell, is certainly
the most remarkable manufacturer. He appears to make every kind of goods,
from white shirtings to hessians, at 4d a yard, including dowlas, Russians, and
many other familiar names. I particularly noticed a hessian made nine yards
wide on a five yard-wide loom by the system of doubling, long since applied
to silk.
Leaving Hanover, we come to the classic land of damasks. Saxony,
which, however, leaves its reputation in the hands of but few exhibitors. Herr
Joseph Meyer, of Dresden, besides his special piece, Rembrandt and his Wife,
gives us many cloths excellent both in design and bleach ; and Herr Proelss is
a manufacturer above the average. The 2,000 looms of Herr Fraenkel, of
Neustadi enable him, with bis ordinary goods, to make, perhaps, the best
show of damasks from the district ; at all events, they justify his success as a
manufacturer, for he commenced in 1855 with two looms, and gradually
extended his trade to its present importance. The exhibition of ihe above-
named Dresden houses is no doubt creditable ; but I should have liked to have
seen more numerous samples from Zittau and its neighbourhood, where damask
manufacturers are plentiful, to have compared their goods with those of France,
and thus to have been enabled to judge what portion of the old and widespread
reputation of Saxon damasks is real, and how much is kept up through
tradition. H. Waentig k Co., of Zittau, show an excellent collection of fancy
drills, both linen and mixtures, for which they have a sale of 30,0000 pieces
yearly, and in plain power- loom goods Herren Kaemelo, Erben, & Co., of
Gross Schoneau,^ make a very saleable article at 8d to is 6d a yard. Herr
C. T. Matthes and Herr Neumann, of Eylau, have an excellent display of
** listadoes," used like those we make ourselves, for negro clothing in the West
Indies. In Germany they have given a much greater variety to these goods,
and have thus secured a larger share in the trade than we have done inr Ireland.
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124 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Nos. 45 to 50 form the collective exhibition of Lauban, and are almost entirely
devoted to linen handkerchiefs. These goods are perfectly got up — weaving,
bleaching, and finishing. Many manufacturers employ 300 or 400 looms, and
the manufacture of these goods fully justifies the lavour in which they are held
by all, and especially by their Russian neighbours.
In the Russian trade, Irish linen handkerchiefs have always found them
their most formidable competitors. We are also favoured with an exhibition of
the products of the ** kramsta," one of the largest houses in Germany, if not
in the world. The mill, it is true, has only 17,000 spindles on flax, and the
power-looms are only 500 in number on linen goods ; but, between their linen
and cotton manufactures, they give employment to 10,000 persons, and are
buyers of 420,000 bundles of English yam yearly. Erdmannsdorf, the King
of Prussia's model flax mill, is a large concern, on which nothing has been
spared to put it on the best footing. Some 4,000 persons are employed, and
they give us a good idea of their makes in drills, diapers, and family linens.
Before leaving Prussia, I must express my regret that the exportation from
England for this country, as for many others, appears under the head of
** Hanse Towns." This prevents us firom knowing exactly what sum we sell
to each country. I think our trade with the Silesian part of Prussia is im-
proving under the present tariff", although a wide margin is still left for
reduction
Leaving here the order of the catalogue, which separates Prussia from her
late adversary by the Kingdom of Wirtemberg, it will be simpler to cross the
Austrian frontier. Here a close resemblance to what we have seen in Prussian
Silesia points clearly to the common origin of the manufactures of both sides
of the mountains. In this industrious and thriving country the standard of
living is low, and the present rate of wages reminds one of the scale. in Ireland
fifteen years ago. The war of last year fell heavily on the inhabitants of this
district, and nealy every village, known before only for its linens — Trautenau,
Nachod, Hermannseifen, Rumburg, and many others — has now given its name
to a battle. As it has turned out, the war has proved only an episode, and the
number of mills built or now building will, no doubt, in a few years, make a
great change in the linen industry in this patriarchal country, for which nature
has done so much. The great manufacture, both of this district and of
Moravia, is fine linen, and the principal peculiarity of the manufacture is the
common use of bleached yarns ; these they handle in a very superior way,
otherwise their weaving them at all would be impossible, as they use daily
yarn as fine as 180 in the weft. The exhibition is wanting both in a series 0/
manufactured goods and in samples of the yarn ; still, a poorer show of linen
than that of Austria might be redeemed by the goods of Herren Rayman and
Regenhart, as their quality places them first of their kind amongst the Con-
tinental exhibitors. The variety is not great — a tablecloth made for the
Emperor of Austria, with a few plainer damasks, a range of linen handkerchiefs,
and some fine light linens — but every one must be struck by the perfection of
bleach of these latter. A. Kufferle & Co. , a Vienna house, who have their
manufactory at Frievaldau, a village in Silesia, amply prove that the art of
making good damasks and cheap handkerchiefs, with a bleach only to be found
elsewhere in Ireland, has taken deep root in the country.
Wirtemberg has in Herr A. F. Lang a manufacturer of more than ordinary
merit. He shows excellent reproductions of. our own Light Linens, made
by both power and by hand labour. The Damasks of Herr Faber, of Stutgard,
and the fancy drills of Herr Kissel are very excellent.
Switzerland, the next country in the list, has also cheap labour ; but I
could only find in her exhibition the Fancy Drills of M. Schoop-Vonderwahl,
worthy of notice. Spain, by poor samples of manufacture, shows the effect of
a long-continued system of protection.
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HAND BOOK. 126
Portugal buys nearly all its Linens from England, amounting in value to
about ;f 50,000 a year. The climate does not seem to suit the manufacture of
anything except the very coarsest Towelling, ^Hessians, Sailcloth, and such
coarse fabrics.
In Greece I could see no sign of the exhibition announced in the catalogue.
Sweden shows us some Damasks and plain Linens, made apparently a
century ago ; but the Sailcloth of Messrs. W. Gibson & Sons might have come
from Dundee.
Russia is certainly advancing. She employs good materials, and makes an
excellent article both in Yam and Cloth. Both the Baltic and Tammerfors
Companies give excellent samples ; the former in Yams, the latter both in
Yams and Linens, fine and coarse. The native manufacturers in White Shirt-
ings, Hessians, &c., present some interest, but perhaps the most important
e^iibitor is the Russian Government, who show the types of the linen they
employ in their naval and military services, giving the weight, width, and price
of every article.
In the Italian section I was stmck with the quantity of embroidered
Towels, of which many were at one time made in Ireland. The Italian Linen
manufacturers may have held a high rank in past ages ; they certainly have but
little in common with the present.
Turkey has thirty-seven exhibitors, but their collective productions would
go into a carpet bag. The primitive appearance of these goods is their principal
merit.
The United States did not even put in an appearance. They are too
intelligent not to feel that, even with their natural advantages and Saxon
industry, their protective system prevents their competing on an equal footing
with European nations, and they are too proud to figure by the side of Spain or
Italy
It is greatly to be regretted that Barasley, Dundee, Dunfermline, and the
other minor centres of the Linen manufacture of England and Scotland are un-
represented : in their absence, however, the credit of the British trade is fiiUy
sustained by the unrivalled exhibition of Linen goods from Belfast. Crowded
into this small court we had every article which can be made from Flax, each
unsurpassed of its kind, from nail-bags, made of scutchers tow, to the finest
Linens and Damasks.
In the Exhibition of 1867, the manufacturers of linen and yam of the
North of Ireland have received four gold medals, and one silver medal, an
amount of honour higher than has been awarded to any other district or to
any other industry.
Lest any one unacquainted with the machinery employed in the distri-
bution of these prizes should ascribe any portion of that success to partiality
on the part of the judges, it is right to state that of the eight members of the
linen jury only one was an Englishman ; and it is said that he, with laudable
delicacy, allowed his colleagues to decide upon the merits of his countrymen.
Belfast may now certainly be said to have fully established her position as the
metropolis of the linen trade
The most striking among the gold medallists is undoubtedly the Belfast
" trophy," or collective exhibition, to which thirty of the leading firms of the
Belfast district are contributors, and which forms a small museum of the
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126 IR2SI} LINEN TRADE
products of the trade. It contains samples of power-loom warps, first, second,
and third qualities, from fine to coarse, with the wefts to suit j strong and
light linen warps, with fine wefts up to 300; and the different qualities
of tows.
Perhaps the power-loom linens may be found the most interesting item. "
They are in all descriptions, f^ to 2oO<>, narrow and wide, from lawns to strong
makes. In fineness and regularity in weaving these goods are not only
xmequalled, but unattempted elsewhere, and yet nothing in the case is made
specially for the Exhibition — z, thousand pieces of each could be produced of
exactly the same quality, on the shortest notice.
In fine fronting linens and lawns, Belfast has kept up its old reputation ;
and cambric and linen handkerchiefs, white, printed, sewn, and embroidered,
are shown in every form. The damasks are also in great variety ; but, unfor-
tunately, the small space prevents their being seen to advantage ; even those
selected for the most prominent place, and made for crowned heads, are
exhibited rather for the bleach, and only a judge can appreciate the perfection
of the execution.
The one peculiarity of all the Irish exhibitions, which strikes every
passer-by, is their splendid bleach. This seems natural to the country, and for
perfect colour, unaltered strength of the tissues, and cheapness of production,
forms a wonderfid contrast to the foreign courts.
In the Belfast court we have such a multitude of goods for different
purposes, and for the use of different nations, that it is hopeless to attempt to
notice all, though each is of vast importance as an article of trade. We have
linens for American clothing ; drills equal in quality to any made at Bamsley,
and produced in Belfast at a much cheaper rate ; towelling, sheeting, tailors'
and shoemakers' thread ; the goods sold in South America and the West
Indian markets ; from the Listadoes, for the clothing of the, negroes to the
Creas, or the Platillas, Silesias, Estopillas, and Grano di oras, half hidden in
their rich ornaments ; and printed linen cambric dresses, an article hitherto almost
unknown, which has found many admirers among the foreign ladies. These
types are to be found repeated more or less fully in all the Irish exhibitions,
except, perhaps, in that of Mr. John S. Brown, who has won hb medal
through the special merits of his damasks. Mr. W. Girdwood, of Belfast,
gives the only examples of linens printed in anything like variety. Mr.
Girdwood's skill as a printer is too well known to require praise, and the
samples which he has shown are neither better nor worse than his everyday
work. He deserves double credit for the beauty of the linens which he has
selected for the purposes of his art.
The honours accorded to Belfast must be accepted as addressed more to
the trade generally than to individuals, else we could scarcely explain the
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HAND BOOJC, 127
distributive justice which adjudges a silver medal only to the unsurpassed
exhibition of Messrs. Henry Matier & Co., of Belfast; and Mr. Ainsworth,
I cannot but think, with due respect to a decision which is now irrevocable,
that they deserved something more than a mere ** honourable mention."
The linen trade of Great Britain cannot but be gratified by the generous award
of the International jury.
GOLD MEDALS OBTAINED BY BELFAST EXHIBITORS.
Class 28 — Flaxen Thread and Fabrics.
18 Gold Medals in all were awarded in this class, of which
four were obtained by Belfast exhibitors, viz. : —
The Belfast Linen Trophy. (To get up which a sum of ;^2,3oo
was subscribed by the trade.) The first gold medal.
J. & VV. Charley & Co., Wellington Place, Belfast, and
Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, gold medal.
Fenton, Son & Co. (now Fenton, Connor & Co.) Linen Hall,
Belfast, gold medal.
John S. Brown (now John S. Brown & Sons) Belfast and
Edenderry, gold medal.
Henry Matier & Co., Clarence Place, Belfast, silver medal.
The unexampled prosperity which had arisen in connection
with the linen trade from the outbreak of hostilities in America,
caused by the falling off of supplies of raw cotton from the
Southern states, continued, as we have seen, down to the close
of 1866 ; for even after peac^ had been proclaimed a considerable
period of time elapsed before work was resumed on the extensive
scale which formerly existed in the South ; and with the new social
status involved in the enfranchisement of the negro population,
it was slow and uphill work to regain the lost commercial position
which the South enjoyed previous to this unfortunate war ; all this
time the linen trade derived substantial advantages, and enjoyed
unprecedented prosperity.
In consequence of this exceptional state of things a very large
and excessive amount of capital was drawn into the Irish trade,
and every effort was strained to avail of the goldien opportunities
of prosperity, and which continued so long as to almost completely
deceive even the wisest and most far-seeing men connected with
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128 IRISH LINEN TRADE
the business.* We were not singular in this respect ; the Scotch
trade was likewise abnormally expanded under the unhealthy
stimulus thus imparted ; whilst in England, and on the Continent,
great efforts were made by flax spinners and manufacturers to
obtain a share of the general prosperity which thus suddenly and
unexpectedly shone upon linen manufacturing.
But with the revival of the commercial position of the Southern
States, and the largely increased supplies of cotton which were
forthcoming in 1867, prices of that staple fell considerably, and
proportionately enlarged the margin between cotton and linen
products. A reaction at once set in, and so sudden and serious
was the rebound, that depression and gloom settled over the trade
which had previously enjoyed such unmixed prosperity.
In reviewing the position of business for the year, as recorded in
the Linen Trade Circular, we find it states that ** in the mercantile
history of the nineteenth century the year 1867 will occupy a
place painfully prominent, by the disastrous events which its
records will of necessity unfold. After a period of great pros-
perity, the sinews of industry had become paralysed, as the
partially silent spindle and noiseless loom only too clearly testify ;
and during at least nine months of the year, neither the merchant
nor the manufacturer was accorded those rewards which the
investment of capital and the exercise of industry should have
secured." With a falling off in demand for the market which had
taken such largely increasing supplies of goods, during the previous
three years, it was not surprising that accumulating stocks at home
broke down prices very considerably ; the principal shrinkage in
value being in power-loom goods, and the coarser descriptons of
hand-loom makes ; fine goods suffered but little, as the production
of these had not been stimulated to any degree corresponding with
medium and coarse fabrics.
« We find it needful to qualify these remarks on coining across a commonication from
a gentleman largely interested in the trade (Mr. J. G. Richardson, of Bessbrook) who foresaw
difficulty at least a year previously, and sounded a note of warning. .
Writing on the subject of flax supply to the "Northern Whig," on 8rd Feb. 1866, he
said :— " The war being over, the enterprising American will without doubt return to the
production of cotton with double energy, and in course of a little time as la^e a crop will
be thrown on the world as was ever yet produced. At the same time I am quite ready to
admit that, if we could have had flax at moderate rates, we should have held some of the
ground we have gained in favour of linens With regard to the possibUity of a
commercial disturbance from undue speculation, it does seem but too true, in our experi-
ence, that about every ten years we require to be kept in order by a monetary crisis— at
least it has been so since I have been in business— 1837, 1847, and 1857. Now who can say
that it is not possible before 1867 ? The working of the new joint-stock principle of limited
liability will have to be tested by a crisis, ere it will find its proper level ; and, therefore,
let us in the North of Ireland be wise and prudent, and show a good practical example to
tiie community at large, and prove to the world we can calmly and temperately bear proch
perity, as well as suffer adversity when it comes "
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HAND BOOK. 129
The depression in the manufacturing department quickly told
on the spinning, the report stating that " during tlie months of
July and August intense depression prevailed, which was only to
some extent, and for a while dissipated by the very judicious
adoption, on the part of spinners generally, of working two-thirds
time, commencing in August." At close of the year the spinning
trade revived a little. loo's line wefts opened in January at
6s 3d, but fell to 4s 3d in December, and 25's tow weft fell from
7s to 5s 4>^d.
The dirop in prices naturally reached down to the raw material,
which opened rather high in August, but fell quickly during the
following months, rallying a little at close of year, as things began
to wear a somewhat brighter aspect.
J 868. — From returns rendered to the Linen Trade Committee
in January, the following comparison is made with the figures as
returned in 1866 : —
«.,,^ Spindles Spindles m_,..i Proposed
^*^ Employed Unemployed ^^^ Extension
1866 86 759»452 11,362 770,814 103,792
1868 90 841,867 60,439 902,306 15,032
Spindles adapted for twisting thread 18,830
-Pa/wfyxw^ Looms Looms fr«*«i Proposed
Factories ^^^^^^^ Unemployed ^otal Erte^on
1866 44 10,538 266 10,804 6,484
1868 66 11,087 4,130 15,217 996
The Indian Flax Company having been unsuccessful in their
efforts to promote the growth of flax, on a profitable scale, in the
Punjab, it was resolved to wind up the Company, and for this
purpose a meeting was convened on the 24th July, 1868, when a
resolution to that effect was unanimously adopted.
This Company certainly deserved very great credit for the
efforts they made to grapple with the enormous difficulties which
such an enterprise naturally involved; and from the extracts
previously given, we obtained a glimpse of some of those difficulties,
it is therefore not at all surprising to find that the project proved a
financial failure.
Now that this experiment is a matter of history, and whilst the
adventure was a courageous one, and quite in keeping with that
enterprising spirit for which Belfast has ever been famous, it may
be questioned whether, on patriotic grounds, the step was a wise
one to have taken.
The plentiful supply of the raw material has been over and
over again dwelt upon as of vital importance to the due mainten-
ance of our linen trade, and looking to tbe fact that not one-half
of the supply required is grown in Ireland, it has become a
question of constant recurrence — how far this deficiency can be
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130 IRISH LINEN TRADE
made up by other countries. We do not, however, find in the
past history of the trade that, save in the year 1847, there was any
actual want of supplies; and, as we have Russia, France, Belgium,
and Holland, all willing to send us fi-om their surplus stocks, and
with smaller contributions from other countries, no fears are now
entertained that our spindles will be under-fed, much less starved,
as was the case in Lancashire during the American war.
This being admitted, the question arises as to how far steps, if
any, should be taken by capitalists at home to promote and
encourage the growth of flax outside our own country.
It is well known that the flax grown in Ireland, despite of all
the means used both by state aid and private enterprise, only
at best comes up to a medium quality on the average, and that
heretofore farmers have failed to fully profit by the instruc-
tion and lecturing they have received ; that their efforts, from
first to last, should be directed to bring the crop to the highest
degree of perfection, and that in proportion to the care bestowed
upon its culture and after treatment, the value in a great measure
depends, these means being largely within their own control.
This matter was again prominently dilated upon by the president
of the Flax Association (Mr. Mulholland, M.P.) at the annual
meeting last year.
This Indian Company at first contemplated growing a descrip-
tion of flax of a similar class to that which we get from Russia ;
but if only this class had been grown it is extremely improbable
it could ever have competed with the produce of the Muscovite
empire, where the farmers for generations had been trained in the
cultivation of the crop ; on the other hand, if a superior class
of fibre had been aimed at, it would have competed with our
home growth, and the inference drawn is that the success of the
scheme in the one place would have been counter-balanced by a
correspondmg falling off" in the other, a result which, we need
hardly add, would have been very unfortunate.
Had success followed the attempt to grow flax in that remote
part of the world, where, it was contended, labour was so cheap,
and at the present day is, in many parts, merely nominal, a much
more serious state of things than the mere falling off" of our home
growth might have arisen, for with a decreasing supply of the raw
material at home, and an increasing production and cheaper labour
abroad, it cannot be doubted that in a very short time capital,
for manufacturing purposes, would have been attracted to the
spot, and perhaps by this time we might have been chronicling
that the flax spindles of the Punjab had reached a quarter of a
million, with a proportionate number of power-looms consuming
the yams. When too late we should probably have seen — what
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HAND BOOK, 131
has taken plax:e in the jute trade, machinery and capital trans-
ferred from Dundee to the banks of the Ganges — Bombay
competing with Belfast in flax manufactures.
These views will be taken for what they are worth, but they
have arisen out of a consideration of the eflforts of this Indian
company to promote the growth of flax in that part of the world.
The year 1868, though by no means presenting so gloomy
a picture as T867, was still very far from being a satisfactory one
to either spinners or manufacturers. The former had to contend
against an increase in cost of the raw material of from 20 to 30
per cent, which, though some rise followed in yams, left a very
small margin of profit compared with previous year. The home
crop showed a falling off" of about 23 per cent, notwithstanding
efforts of the new flax Association, but prices being comparatively
lower in 1867, it produced the result usually noticed — a reduced
acreage the succeeding year.
Yams opened in January at 4s 3d for 6o's to loo's, closing in
December at 5s 3d for the lower number, and 5s for the higher.
25's tow opened at 5s 7}4d, advanced to 7s in May, and closed
at 6s lo^d in December. The bank rate during eleven months
of the year was only 2 per cent
The home demand for linens was of a satisfactory nature. The
Continental varied very much, being at one period active, and
afterwards depressed. American demand showed a further falling
off, and prices realised were unremunerative.
1869. — The result of this year's business, instead of showing
any improvement on that of the year preceding, was generally
regarded as being less favourable, but the depression felt through-
out the linen trade was not confined to that branch of our home
manufactures, as in various other industrial operations in the
United Kingdom a very dull feeling existed.
We assume that the high prices paid for the raw material had
a stimulating effect upon farmers in 1869, as the increased breadth
sown amounted to about 1 1 per cent But the flax crops on the
Continent having turned out very good this year, prices of both
home and foreign produce fell considerably, spinners demand
being very slack, owing to the falling off" in trade. Home fibre,
which ranged from 8s to i6s per stone in 1868, fell to 5s to iis
in 1869.
Yarns opened at 5s in January for a range of wefts from 70*5
to loo's, but at close of the year 70's to 130's could be bought at
4s, and 25's tow dropped from 7s i^d to 6s. The greater part of
the year a depressed feeling existed, and to reduce production a
resolution was adopted in September, by spinners representing
690,000 spindles, to mn only 40 hours per week for ten weeks,
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132 IRISH LINEN TRADE
commencing 20th September. Besides this, a large number of
spindles were stopped altogether. In November, finding that
little improvement had shown itself, spinners unanimously resolved
to continue to curtail their production one-third — either by short
time or stoppage of machinery. A little improvement in demand
sprung up about middle of December, and prospects looked more
cheerful as the- year terminated. The export trade in yams kept
up very well throughout the year, and the slight recovery in
December brought up the total exports a little in excess of the
figures of 1868.
In the manufacturing department, prices showed a down-
ward tendency during the greater part of the year, and at
the close of it the leading classes of power-loom goods were all
more or less cheaper. The home trade kept pretty steady, but
the Continental demand fluctuated a good deal, dulness being
frequently felt in this branch. As regards the American market,
although the advices throughout the greater part of the year were
of an unfavourable character, we find the shipments of linen
goods from the United Kingdom were, during the first six months
of the year, actually one-third over the corresponding period of
1868, and this in the face of a very dull spring demand there.
Owing to the immense expansion which the export trade with
America received during the war, the productive power which
was developed at that period, it was found impossible to contract
in the same ratio, now that a reaction in the demand for that
market had set in. In times gone by, when such a state of things
arose, although it would have doubtless pressed hard upon the
weavers throughout the country, the curtailment of production
would have been much more rapidly effected than its expansion,
and whilst the loss would have been shared more equally by all,
trade would have recovered its lost ground much sooner ; but the
unyielding nature of the factory system, thus put to its first
practical test, soon became apparent ; and the centralised power
was slow to accommodate itself to die altered circumstances of
the times Whatever advantages power-loom weaving had in
comparison with the more ancient one of hand labour — and those
advantages are admittedly great — its concentrated powers were
evidendy unfavourable to capitalists, when brought face to face
with a suddenly reduced demand.
This being the position of matters, though some curtailment
of production undoubtedly took place, the exports to America,
which formed some 45 per cent of the total export trade of the
year, showed the comparative helplessness of manufacturers to draw
in their producing power to balance the Intimate demand. We
accordingly find that to dispose of those surplus stocks of goods
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HAND BOOK, 133
manufactured for a special trade, as no other way of escape from
the difficulty seemed left, a large proportion was consigned, on
chance of sale, to that market. The result was unfortunate in
every way, as prices broke down there, when, in the face of a
dull demand, stocks were found accumulating in the bonded
warehouses.
In the closing paragraph of the review of the linen trade for
the year, we find this admission, that '* a large quantity of the
goods exported to America had not passed into healthful con-
sumption, but remained in the extensive stores of that country as
a supply anticipatory of future wants, and therefore authorising
the presumption that future exports to that country may, in con-
sequence, be of a comparatively restricted character."
1870. — Compared with 1869 our staple trade showed symptoms
of recovery, and though it can hardly be said to have been
remunerative, much fewer losses were sustained than in former
years. The outbreak of the Franco-German war in July caused,
for a time, much disturbance, and until its possible results became
more accurately estimated, business in all departments was much
curtailed. Spinners did tolerably well during the spring, but
from the commencement of the war until close of the year, both
home and cross-channel trade fell oflf considerably ; Continental
demand kept up very well, and the exports for the 12 months
showed but little dimunition. Wefts opened at 4s in January, and
receded to 3s 6d in December ; 25's tow showed a drop of 3d from
the commencement to close of year. The flax crop, both home
and foreign, turned out satisfactory this year, the yield and quality
of the home growth being excellent ; but the dull demand for yarns
during the second half of the year, coupled with an enormous
increase in imported flax (about 75 per cent, up to November over
corresponding period in 1869) broke down home prices, so that
in December Irish fibre sold from 5s to 9s 6d, against 6s 6d to ios9d
the previous year.
In linens the home trade demand was very satisfactory, and
the result of the years' trading was of a gratifying and encouraging
character. The Continental demand had also improved up to
the time of the war, when it then received a check, but a recovery
set in about close of the year. The position of the American
trade was, however, anything but satisfactory ; the loaded state
of that market in the spring, owing to the stocks in bond held
over from previous year, resulted in forced sales by auction, pro-
ducing most irregular prices, causing much disturbance to business,
and resulting in losses to many shippers. Matters looked a little
better in the fall, and general stocks held at close of the year
were somewhat reduced, though not to any large extent, as goods
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134 IRISH LINEN TRADE
were still consigned throughout year, though probably not to the
same extent as in 1869.
1871. — Trade throughout the United Kingdom began to
recover this year, and our staple industry shared to a considerable
extent in the returning prosperity — a cheerful feeling pervading
most departments. Spinners had a very satisfactory business, the
market gradually rising from beginning to the close of year. Line
wefts opening at 3s 6d and closing at 4s pd, and weft tows advanced
IS per bundle. A check was, however, felt in September, when,
tempted by the advancing state of the market, large parcels of
Continental yams were sent over ; still prices were not affected,
a firm and upward tendency ruling the market at close of year.
The acreage of flax showed a falling off of about 20 per cent.,
and the crop for this year was deficient in yield and quality ; the
season was an unfavourable one, and some of the Russian seed
was stated to have been deficient in quality. As the spinning
trade was healthy, demand for the raw material was well sustained,
and the diminished home supply helped to force up prices, so
that quotations in December were from 7s to 13s 6d, against
Ss to 9s 6d in 1870.
Power-loom manufacturers were well employed during the
greater part of the year, and very large orders were placed for
linen suitable for dress purposes, which had come into great
favour, and to a largely increased extent j the general home
trade demand also was most satisfactory. Altogether, the recovery
was in the home market this year, and this improvement indirectly
affected the export ^rade, and stimulated demand somewhat ; but
the continuance of the Continental war operated against any
extensive traffic under this head.
The American trade was rather better also, but the overstocked
state of this market with European products retarded recovery,
though buyers for the spring trade of 1872 operated much more
freely than they did for the fall of 187 1.
1872. — This year opened with a buoyant feeling ruling the
market, and prices of cloth and yarns continued to advance.
The president of the Chamber of Commerce (William Spotten, Esq.)
on retiring at expiration of his year of office in February, alluded
to the revived position of the linen trade, and his address on that
subject, which we reproduce here, will be interesting.
The President, in moving the adoption of the report, said — It is now my
duty to move the adoption of the report which has just been read, and I ask
your indulgence while I make some observations which may be of importance
to all engaged in commerce in this thriving and prosperous portion of the
empire.
It is not our habit in Belfast to indulge in boasting, nor to trumpet the
progress of our national industry ; but I think I may safely assert that there
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HAND BOOK, 136
are few, if any, towns in the empire more solid in its commercial greatness,
a.nd none more trusted abroad for honesty and integrity in its business transac-
tions. We certainly have all had our share of business trial and adversity for
some years past, owing to the great and unduly sudden increase in our powers
of production, caused by the American civil war, and the extraordinary and
inflated demand which then existed for all classes of our manufactures ; but,
notwithstanding, few indeed, and unimportant, were the disasters which occurred
during those long years of business depression, and now, I believe, I can con-
fidently state that there is not a loom or spindle in the North of Ireland which
cannot be employed to advantage and profit. The Linen Trade— and I give
it prominence here, for on its soundness and progress our prosperity as a com-
munity to a great extent leans — has seldom been in a more healthy state.
Spinners, manufacturers, and merchants are foresold for a considerable time.
Stocks of yarns and linens there are none of any importance, unless those held
in the bleached and finished state, and even these are in the smallest possible
compass ; while abroad, judging from the retail character of the orders we
are receiving fi*om our friends there, owing, no doubt, to the present high prices
ruling here, they hold no stock of Irish goods in excess of their wants. I may
truly state, therefore, that our staple trade is enjoying and likely to enjoy for some
years a fair share of uninterrupted progress and profit, and in that our working
population are getting a full share of its benefits. Wages never were so high,
and our people never had more cause to be contented, happy, and prosperous.
It may be of interest for me to state that our exports of linen goods from
Belfast during the past year were ;^2, 300,000 in excess of 1870, and ^3,400, 000
in excess of 1869, facts which speak for themselves ; while the amount of
capital now employed in our producing powers considerably exceeds ;£"5,ooo,ooo
sterling; and although our progress in manufactures is considerable, that in
population outruns it. Belfast itt 1861 numbered 121,000; in 1871, 175,000—
a proportionate increase unequalled in any part of the empire, except in one
city — ^and buildings still grow up around us with marvellous rapidity, and
houses are inhabited as quickly as they are built. And here I had better state
that, although the prices of our fabrics have advanced too rapidly and seriously,
still we have not much to fear in this respect with regard to competition, for
other fabrics have in general at least kept pace with us. Cotton has advanced
about 50 per cent. ; cotton yarns, 30 per cent. ; and manufactured goods, 15
per cent, to 20 per cent ; wool about 65 per cent. ; woollen yarns, 60 per
cent, to 70 per cent. ; and manufactured goods, 35 per cent. Whether the
high prices now ruling will continue, or whether they may check consumption,
remains to be seen ; but that a reaction after a time may set in is more than
probable, all experience in business having shown that such is the invariable
result of high prices. I now come to refer to the source of the wealth and
future prosperity of the manufacturing industry of this province, which is of
the most vital importance to all engaged in it. The cultivation of flax, and
those engaged in spinning will admit that the fibre which is the product of
Irish soil, although generally defective in preparation, is pre-eminently adapted
for a large portion of our production of yarns ; but, unfortunately, the short
acreage in Ireland in 1871 and diminished yield has seriously curtailed the
supply. The year 1871, as compared with that of 1870, shows a dimunition
of about 62 per cent, in production, and 19^ per cent, in area appropriated
to the crop. Many causes have conspired to produce this unfavourable result,
and the most serious has been a succession of adverse seasons for the growth
of the flax plant. This cannot continue, and with a revival of favourable
yield, farmers, it is to be hoped in their own interest, will be encouraged to
resume the culture on the same scale as they did in former years. The prices
which were obtained this season, and which the present prosperous condition
of the linen trade may reasonably cause them to expect for the produce of next
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186 IRISH LINEN TRADE
summer's crop, should check the curtaihnent of the area, which has been too
apparent for the past two years. The report of the Flax Supply Association
is reassuring that our spin'" Is will not be starved for want of ntiaterial, but
this feeling of security, c. i.siuering the increased demand which now exists
for our fabrics, should not cause a suspension of efforts to increase our home
supply of flax, which for suitability is on what we have mainly to depend.
The great activity which prevailed in every department of the
staple industry, owing to the civil war in America, had the effect
of stimulatmg several other branches of trade in various parts of
Ulster. Lurgan extended its borders, and Portadown spread out
its boundaries. Old mills were enlarged, new ones erected ; and
power-loom factories reared their tall chimneys where never before
the steam-engine was known. All this caused extra demand for
hands connected with the building trade, and wages rose fifty, and,
in some cases, one hundred, per cent. Wages of factory hands
had also been increased considerably. By way of comparison,
we may mention that when the Messrs. Mulholland commenced
mill spinning in 1830, 7s to 9s a week formed the range for men;
4s to 5 s for women, and 2 s 6d to 4s for boys and girls under 16
years of age. In April, 1872, the scale of remuneration, which
had been from time to time raised by the employers, exceeded
that of 1830 by 1007 150, and,, in some instances, 200 per cent.
Early in this year, owing to the greatly improved state of trade
in all branches throughout the United Kingdom, extravagant views
were put forth by the operatives in the manufacturing districts of
England for an advance in wages, and by means of well-organised
federations of workmen, capital was suddenly brought face to face
in a determined struggle with labour.
The metal trades being extremely active in the spring, wages in
the mining districts rose rapidly, and in addition to this the men
only worked half time, so tiat with a greatly curtailed supply of
coal, prices advanced until they were double the rates ruling the
previous year. Next, in all departments of manufacture, whether
textile, mechanical, or by whatever designation known, a general
advance was demanded, and to accomplish this result the more
quickly, strikes, on a scale never before dreamt of, were the imi-
versal levers employed.
The advance in labour enhanced the value of products of all
descriptions, and, as a natural effect, this great social movement
permeated every class and section of the community. Of course,
our trade could not expect to escape the influence of such a
disturbance, and we accordingly find that a class of workmen in
the spinning mills, called "flax roughers,'* not succeeding in
obtaining the full advance they demanded, struck work in May.
Finding they would not abate their demands, spinners were driven
to the necessity of stopping their machinery, and in June about
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HAND BOOK, 137
400,000 spindles were silent. This state of things, however, only
lasted a couple of weeks, as the roughers yielded to the terms
originally proposed by the millowners, which was an advance of
2S per week on the rates previously current. Other mill and
factory hands also obtained an advance, so that with increased
cost of production in coal and wages, spinners and manufacturers'
profits were considerably reduced.
Demand for yams fluctuated very much during the year, but
prices kept tolerably steady, and at its close stood nearly as high
as at the commencement, whilst the tone of the market was firm.
Though the breadth of flax skowed a decrease, the quality and
yield were far superior to 187 1, which was estimated at only 14
stones to the acre, against 25 this year. Prices in 187 1 were
comparatively high, but taking into account the small yield per
acre, the' crop was not so remunerative to the farmer ; and
though quotations dropped is to is 6d per stone in 1872, the
crop was a very much more profitable one.
The home department of trade throughout the year, though
by no means so lively as during the preceding, was neverthe-
less characterised by much steadiness. There was a falling off in
demand for fine shirting linens, but coarser fabrics, roughs and
dress linens, moved oflf freely.
Owing to increased cost of production, prices of cloth kept
high, and as the labour movement had not spread among the
masses on the Continent so quickly as at home, our manufac-
turers were placed at a disadvantage, and trade with Germany,
Italy, and Russia exhibited a marked decrease.
Demand for the American spring trade having been fairly
active, exports for the first six months showed a large increase, but
trade in the autumn being much quieter, a falling oflf in the
second half of the year took place.
i873.-^The unfavourable features which appeared in 1872 in
reference to the demands of labour, and the consequent general
rise which followed in every department, enhancing the cost of
production, and seriously reducing the profits on capital, continued
to operate with increased severity during 1873. Against this
general advance our trade had ^ to contend, and, to add to the
difficulties of the position, a panic of unusual severity took place
in New York in September, mainly arising from excessive and
wild financial speculations in railways and other public under-
takings. This reacted severely on business, and resulted in extensive
and widespread disturbance throughout every rank and class, every
department of commerce feeling the pressure. . Our staple industry
felt the shock very severely, and for many months transactions were
greatly curtailed, and shipments for the remainder of the year
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138 IRISH LINEN TRADE
much reduced. The general trade of the United Kingdom with
the United States showed a considerable falling off this year. The
aggregate of failures throughout the States was very large, and
many extensive dry goods importers were obliged to sacrifice their
stocks at low prices, the market being so completely disorganised.
Great shrinkage in values followed this disruption, and as indus-
trial operations and public works were suddenly contracted, or
altogether suspended, immense numbers were thrown out of
employment. Economy and retrenchment followed in every
department, and with an overstocked market in nearly all commo-
dities before the panic, this sudd^ and unexpected reduction of
the consuming capacity of the United States produced widespread
and long-continued depression. Our manufacturers had, of course,
to share to a large extent in the losses and consequent curtail-
ment of trade which naturally followed ; and whilst prices of cloth
were drooping in the latter half of the year, yams kept very
high.
The home trade demand was large throughout the year, and
the increased business in linens for dress purposes, which sprung up
during the five years previous, was well sustained, and gave a large
amount of employment to our power-looms, making up to some
extent for the loss on American account. General trade with the
Continent showed further falling off, which must in some measure
be attributed to the effects of the war and the advance in labour
which was also taking place on the Continent.
A small increase was observable in the extent of flax-grown
in Ireland this year ; but the quality and yield were much inferior
to those of the previous crop. This, coupled with an increase on
the imports of foreign fibre, and a falling oflf in trade, told upon
prices; but the difference was small compared with 1872. In
concluding their review, the Linen Trade Committee stated,
** That the year was both for manufacturers and merchants, one
of discouragement, nor could the greatest prudence and caution
have prevented the difficulties which arose. Many manufacturers
had, for the greater part of the year, to contend against prices of
yarns beyond the proportionate prices of cloth, in addition to
which tjjey were saddled with a larger stock of cloth than usual,
owing to a restricted demand, whilst merchants, in order to effect
sales, had to submit to prices which were not remunerative."
An International Exhibition was held this year at Vienna, and
several Irish firms contributed samples of Linen Manufactures.
By the official report we find that medals were awarded to Messrs.
George Betzold & Co., Dicksons, Ferguson, & Co., Fenton,
Connor, & Co., Jaffe Bros., and Moore & Weinberg, all of Belfast,
for the excellent quality of the goods they exhibited.
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HAN,D BOOK, 139
1874. — The disturbance "which trade suffered by reason of the
rapid advance in value of labour, culminated, as we ha^e seen,
in a crisis in the United States, September, 1873, the reflex of
which on the home market soon became apparent. With the
collapse of many great railway enterprises demand for iron and
steel, and all manufactures of that kind, fell off considerably ;
this brought about a reaction in the iron and coal trades, and
a long and determined struggle was now entered upon between
employers and employed. If the power of combination was
often exercised in an unreasonable manner, to effect a rise in wages
which circumstances did not warrant, fierce and prolonged was
the resistance, to prevent the reduction which was now inevitable
As labour rose much more slowly on the Continent than in
the United Kingdom, we had to contend not only against a greatly
reduced demand for our staple products, but had to witness many
of the orders previously placed in English markets sent to foreigners,
and in the spring of this year Belgian iron could be sold in London
at lower rates than the prpduction of Staffordshire. Being thus
undersold in the leading products of the kingdom, nothing remained
but a reduction of wages, or blowing out of furnaces, and in
numerous instances the latter had to be resorted to as the only
argument to convince the international combination of workmen
that prices had been pushed to a point that prohibited traffic in
those commodities in which, though constituting the main stay of
England's commerce, they possessed no monopoly.
Sad, indeed, it is to reflect on the enormous waste of national
wealth which followed the self-enforced idleness of tens of thousands
of labourers, not only in the coal and metal trades, but also in the
textile and other industrial works of England, Scotland, and
Ireland. But if the national loss through unproductive labour
was great, the loss in individual instances was, to untold numbers,
the savings of a lifetime ; whilst the ultimate issue, which they
were powerless to resist, widened, in many instances, the breach
between employers and employed, which this clash of interests
involved.
Our trade suffered in some measure from the effects of
this struggle ; but as this brings us to a period which is still fresh
in our recollection, we shall take leave to here insert the report
of the Linen Trade Committee, on the position of business
during 1874 : —
In common with almost every other mercantile and manufacturing industry
in the United Kingdom, the Irish linen trade suffered from the wide-spread
depression which prevailed, not only at home, but abroad, during the past
year. Labour rose so rapidly in the various markets of the world, but especi-
ally in the United Kingdom during the three preceding years, as not only to
paralyse, but in some instances to completely check trade in many departments.
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140 IRISH LINEN TRADE
. . . . Combinations of trade unions, and organised strikes, on a scale
never before attempted, were the agencies employed by labour in the war
waged against capital ; but when the inevitable reaction came, in spite of all
the resistance offered, a readjustment set in between the two elements, showing
how essentially inter- dependent the one is upon the other, to sustain the
prosperity of both. Labour has, consequently, been steadily falling in various
branches of trade, in a greater or less degree corresponding with the previous
rise. . . . There is, however, another element in connexion with our trade
to be taken into account, considering how dependent it is, for the consumption
of so large a proportion of its products, upon the American market, whatever
interferes with the general prosperity of trade on that gp:"eat continent affects
our industry in a corresponding measure.
The position of matters in the States, and the events which have transpired
during the past year and a half, are too well known to require to be enlarged
npon here. The great advance in labour, coupled with reckless speculation,
were the main elements which contributed to the financial panic of September,
1873, from the effects of which the country is but slowly recovering. ....
Our trade keenly sympathised with the state of trade in the American market,
and naturally to so good a customer we look for an impetus to renewal of life
at home.
At the commencement of the year there was a slight indication of im-
provement in demand, but as the year advanced the dulness, which had
characterised trade for a long time previous, increased, and was heightened
during the summer by a strike, against a reduction in wages, among our mill
and factory operatives, which lasted for about two months, ending in a com-
promise. Towards the close of the year a better feeling seemed to spring up,
and transactions were entered upon with more spirit ; prices of both cloth and
yams became firmer.
Liften Yarns. — Trade during the past year was generally of an unsatis-
factory character, the causes which affected the demand for linen manufactures,
and their decline in value, reacted upon the yarn market, which, for the greater
portion of the year, had to contend against drooping prices and curtailed
consumption.
In sympathy with a slight improvement in trade at the beginning of the
year, quotations kept pretty steady until March, though production ^was in
excess of consumption. Prices then became easier, and before April closed
quotations of line wefts were 4^d to 6d per bundle lower than at the com-
mencement of the year. Tow warps kept firm during this time, but wefts
receded i>^d. From this period down to end of June, general demand, both
on home and export account was dull Although the strike
in July and August (which lasted generally about seven weeks) was estimated
to have reduced production of yams by about one-and-a-half million of bundles,
trade continued quiet, and prices without change till end of September.
Demand then slackened, and prices became easier ; stocks gradually creeping
up from that time to middle of November, when a turn for the better set in,
and considerable parcels of lines and tows were bought by merchants and
manufacturers. Several spinners cleared off their stocks, and prices slightly
hardened, a firm tone being imparted to the market, which it generally retained
down to the close of the year.
Home and Export Linen Trade. — The year opened with a very fair
consumptive demand for various classes of fabrics, especially medium and low
priced goods, the finer descriptions not moving so freely. During the greater
part of the year, a steady trade continued to be done, though at times buying
was restricted to small parcels for immediate requirements. At same time, the
amount of stock turned over was quite equal to previous year, the healthy tone
being fully sustained all through, with indications of improvement at the clos«,
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HAND BOOK. 141
Continental. — The actual stocks placed in Continental markets were quite
equal to previous year, and the Board of Trade returns show that the exports
from the United Kingdom were in excess ; Russia, Germany, France, Spain,
and Italy all taking larger supplies.
l^est Indian, — The great falling off in demand for these markets has been
severely felt by our trade. The unfortunate condition of Spanish affairs
reduced the consumptive demand for the principal market of Havana to half of
what it was two years ago, however, at the close of the year, there were some
signs of improvement. Trade with Hayti and other islands has also greatly
diminished.
South America. — These markets likewise show falling off in demand, the
exports being only about one- half of what they were two years ago. The
chronic political disturbances in most of the Spanish settlements seriously
retard development of trade.
Australia. — This market, which ranks among our best customers, and
stands equal to Germany in the amount of goods taken last year, shows an
mprovement compared with 1872.
United States of America. — The markets of this- country occupy the first
rank, in point of importance, for consumption of all classes of linen fabrics,
and though the past year shows a falling off of about 3^ per cent, in the
quantity exported from the United Kingdom, the actual money value is i^
per cent, higher. Compared with 1872, the exports were about 17X per cent,
less in value. That year, however, should not be taken as a fair criterion of
demand, as there is reason to suppose consignments were much heavier than
for the past two years.
1873. — On the 22nd January the Flax Supply Association
held their eighth annual meeting in the Chamber of Commerce,
Belfast— John Mulholiand, Esq., M.P., President, being in the
chair.
This Society, which we saw was formed in 1867, very much
extended its field of action, and has been every year gaining in public
favour, and much interest attaches to the official information
which from time to time emanates from it. Mr. Andrews, the
Secretary, wrote a pamphlet — giving instructions regarding the
culture of the flax plant — which has been extensively and gratui-
tously distributed by the Association. The statistical and historical
information, embodied in their annual reports, will form interesting
material in foUowmg up the history of the trade in future years.
The report presented at this meeting stated that the flax crop
of last year gave a very fair average yield, but not equal to what
the length and bulk of the straw indicated. And though there
was a decrease in the acreage sown, amounting to over 17 per
cent., the superior yield of the crop reduced the actual decrease
in the quantity of fibre to about 5 per cent.
For yarns the year opened with an improved demand, and
prices kept steady till March, when an easier turn took place, and
in April the range of line wefts had dropped from 3s loj^d in
January to 3s 9d; 25's tow wefts firom 6s 4j^d to 6s 3d. A
recovery took place in May, and prices advanced i j^d to ^d per
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142 IRISH LINEN TRADE
bundle. In July the range of wefts stood at 4s, and 25's tow
weft 6s 4j^d, with a fair demand on home and export account
Owing to the partial failure of the flax crops on the Continent, the
raw material began to advance from this month, and kept steadily
rising down to the close of the year. This affected the home
markets, and Irish flax advanced on an average about £,1^
per ton between August and December. The position of
the market for the raw material stimulated trade in yams, and
during the second half of the year a very large turn over of stock
took place, prices gradually creeping up until the range of wefts
reached 4s 4 J^d, as a minimum ; other numbers in proportion ;
and 25's tow weft, 6s 9d.
Linens sympathised with the upward movement which set in
in July, and brown power-loom cloth for bleaching, dyeing, and
dress purposes advanced considerably in price, and held firmly to
the top rates down to close of the year. The home and export
demand for finished brown goods was also of a very fair character,
and the position of this branch of trade showed a decided
improvement compared with previous year. Bleached goods
were, however, much slower in responding to the improved
position of the brown cloth market, and though some improve-
ment in demand set in, and slightly better prices were obtained,
the advance was not at all in proportion to that which the goods
showed in the loom state. The anticipated recovery in trade in
the United States was not realised, and demand both for the
spring and fell season was of a very dull character ; the effects of
the panic of 1873 being much more widespread and long continued
than had been at all anticipated. We can only indulge the
hope that by this time the force of this severe reverse Has almost
spent itself, and that the year 1876 will witness a brighter state of
things, and a gradual improvement in the industrial and com-
mercial resources of that great country. The Exhibition in
Philadelphia, which will be opened in May — in commemoration of
the declaration of independence made a century ago — ^we think
must give a fillip to trade, and stimulate commerce. Throughout
the United Kingdom the year closes with a rather dull feeling, but
though returns of trade exhibit a falling off" in nearly all the textile
manufactures of the United Kingdom, the exports of linen yams
and linen cloth show an improvement compared with last year.
Our industry is in a much healthier condition than it was, and
though financial difficulties involved the suspension of a few firms of
long standing, the innate soundness of the trade has not been in any
way affected. We therefore look forward with a hopeful feeling
that, in recording the history of our staple industry next year, we
shall have the satisfaction of noting a decided advance compared
with the one which has passed away.
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HAND BOOK, 143
Though the flax crop of this year showed a decrease in the
acreage sown of 5,702 acres, the yield was far superior to that of
1874 ; and as farmers realised very high prices all through the
season, it is fully expected that there will be a considerable
increase in the acreage sown next year.
1876. — In the year 187 1 steps were taken by the Legislature
of the United States of America to commemorate, in the year
1876, the one hundredth anniversary of American independence.
An Act was, accordingly, passed, by the Senate and House of
Representatives, in Congress assembled, the preamble of which
runs as follows : —
*' Whereas, — The Declaration of Independence of the United States of
America was prepared, signed, and promulgated in the year 1776, in the City
of Philadelphia ; and, whereas, it behoves the people of the United States to
celebrate by appropriate ceremonies, the centennial anniversary of this memor-
able and decisive event, which constituted the 4th day of July, 1776, the
birthday of the nation ; and, whereas, it is deemed fitting that the completion
of the first century of our national existence shall be commemorated by an
exhibition of the natural resources of the country and their development, and
of its progress in those arts which benefit mankind, in comparison with those
of older nations ; and, whereas, no place is so appropriate for such an exhibition
as the city in which occurred the event it is designed to commemorate ; and,
whereas, the Exhibition should be a national celebration, in which the people
of the whole country should participate, it should have the sanction of the
Congress of the United States. Therefore — Section i. Be it enacted. . . .
That an Exhibition of American and Foreign arts, products, and manufac-
tures shall be held, under the auspices of the Government of the United
States, in the City of Philadelphia, in the year 1876."
Then follow details respecting the arrangements, &c.
In 1874 the President was authorised by an Act of Congress
" to extend, in the name of the United States, a respectful and
cordial invitation to the Governments of other nations, to be
represented and take part in the International exposition."
Our Government having accepted the invitation, the British
section is under the direction of the Lords of the Committee of
Council for Education. His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G.,
Lord President of the Council, and Colonel Herbert Sandford,
R.A., and Professor T. C. Archer, F.R.S.E., Joint Executive
Commissioners.
A brief description of the building in which the Exhibition
will be held may be interesting.
The main exhibition building is in the form of a parallelogram,
extending east and west 1,880 feet in length ; and north and south
464 feet in width. The larger portion of the structure is one
storey high, and shows the main cornice upon the outside
at 45 feet above the ground ; the interior height being 70 feet.
Upon the corners of the building there are four towers 75 feet in
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14A JRISH LINEN TRADE
high. The roof over the central part, for 184 feet square, has
been raised above the surrounding portion, and four towers 48
feet square, rising to 1 20 feet in height, have been introduced at
the corners of the elevated roof. The areas covered are as
follows : —
Ground floor, 872,320 square feet, 20.02 acres
Upper floors in projections, 37,344 » '85 ,,
Do. in towers, ... 26,344 „ .60 „
936,008 21.47
Besides the main building, there is an Art Gallery, which is
one of the affixes to the Great Exhibition, and is located on a line
parallel with and northward of the main building. The materials
are granite, glass, and iron; no wood is used in the building.
This structure is 365 feet in length, 210 feet in width, and 59 feet
in height, over a spacious basement 1 2 feet in height, surmounted
by a dome. There is also a Horticultural building, 383
feet long, 193 feet wide, and height to top of the lantern 72 feet.
Besides this, there are Agricultural and Machinery buildings,
to provide for the various departments; the following being a
summary of the total available space : —
Main building, ... covering 21.47 acres
Art gallery, ... „ 1.05 „
Machinery building, „ 14. „
Horticultural building, ,, 1.05 „
Agricultural building, ,, 10.15 ,,
The Exhibition will be held at Fairmount Park, in the City of
Philadelphia, and will be opened on the loth of May, 1876, and
closed on the loth of November following.
In the departments there are ten classifications. Of these No. I.
is devoted to raw materials — mineral, vegetable, and animal;
and No. III. to textile and felted fabrics, apparel, costumes, and
ornaments for the person.
We have much pleasure in being able to announce that
the Irish linen trade will be represented in this Exhibition,
and although the number of exhibitors will be few, we have little
doubt that our staple industry will, so far as excellence is con-
cerned, fare well at the hands of those firms who, at very great
trouble and expense, have imdertaken to contribute samples on
this occasion.
From inquiries which we have made we may mention the
names of some of these, and also the goods which they intend
sending out. The high position they hold is a sufficient
guarantee that in the textile section our national reputation will
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HAND BOOK, 145
be fully sustained ; and we heartily wish these spirited firms the
first rank in this special department.
Messrs. John S. Brown & Sons, of Bedford Street, Belfast,
will exhibit damasks, diapers, linens, and sheetings, in white and
brown state, also handkerchiefs, &c.
Messrs. Dicksons, Ferguson, k Co., Belfast, intend exhibiting
linens unbleached and bleached ; sheetings, handkerchiefs, drills,
glass towels, huckaback towelling ; also bleached damasks, Turkish
towels, &c.
Messrs. Dunbar, M*Master, & Co., Gilford (County Down),
Ireland, flax spinners, linen thread manufacturers, and bleachers,
will exhibit linen thread for hand and machine sewing, for knitting,
and crochet ; for lace ; for fishing nets, <kc. ; for shoe and saddlery
purposes, &c. Grey and bleached yarns for weaving linens,
damasks, drills, cambrics, &c.
Messrs. Fenton, Connor, & Co., Linen Hall, Belfast, intend
exhibiting linens of all kinds, brown, white, and printed ; also
damasks, handkerchiefs, drills, &c.
Messrs. Henry Matier & Co., Clarence Place, Belfast, will
exhibit handkerchiefs of all kinds, bleached, hemmed, hemstitched,
printed, tucked, and embroidered ; bleached and printed linens,
printed dresses, damasks, &c.; also embroidered cuffs and collars
for ladies. In these samples of linens and handkerchiefs some of
the finest manufactured goods will be shown.
Messrs. J. N. Richardson, Sons, & Owden, Belfast, will show
samples of shirting and fronting linens, diapers, damasks of finest
makes, cambric and linen handkerchiefs, bordered and hemstitched ;
pillow linens, sheetings, dress linens, hollands, &c. ; amongst these
will be found samples of the most superior manufacture.
Our little work has now come to a close, and we hope that the
information collected may be found useful. In endeavouring to
grasp a comprehensive subject like this, where an attempt has
been made to compress a large amount of matter into narrow
bounds, the difficulty of selecting materials from a mass of
information, scattered through an innumerable number of books and
documents of various kinds, was very great. Without unnecessarily
encumbering the work with details, our aim has been to supply just
sufficient to illustrate it in its several stages, and at same time, as
far as practicable, to preserve an unbroken chain in the historic
sketch. How far we have succeeded in this respect our readers
will judge. The subject deserved better treatment than it has
received; but, within the limits prescribed, we trust a fair view
K
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146 JRJSH UNBN TRADE
has been presented of the linen manufacture in ancient and
modern times.
Appended to the Handbook will be found tables showing
the Export trade in Linen Yarns and Cloth, during the past and
present century.
In another Appendix a condensed report is given of the textile
factories of the Continent, and of the United Slates of America,
compiled from Parliamentary blue books published in 1873.
In addition to this, tables of Duties, charged by foreign countries,
on the Flax Manufactures of the United Kingdom, are supplied.
The Directory of the Irish Linen trade forms the concluding
portion of our work. The names are not as complete as could be
wished, but it was impossible in the first edition of the book to
make this section quite accurate. In our next edition we hope to
rectify any errors and omissions which were unavoidable in this,
and shall be obliged if any of our readers will kindly supply us
with the necessary information for this purpose.
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HAND ^OOk,
147
APPENDIX I.— LINEN TRADE— IRELAND.
An Account of Linen Cloth Plain, and Linen Yarn, Ex-
ported FROM Ireland, between 1728 and 182 i.*
TeRTs
ending at
LINEN PLAIN
LINEN tarn
Years
LINEN PLAIN
LINEN YARN
ending at
Lady-day
Exported
Exported
Lady-day
Exported
Exported
Yards
c. q. lbs.
Yards
c. q. lbs.
1728
4.692.764
ii.4<;o 6
1775
2D 205.087
30.598 3 5
1729
3.927.918
11.855 3 I
10.088 I 9
1776
20. 502. 587
36.152 2 5
1730
4.136.203
1777
19.714.638
29.698 I 10
1731
3.775.830
13.746 6
1778
21.945.729
28.108 3 10
1732
3.792.551
15.343 2 16
1779
18.836.042
35673 15
1733
4.777.076
13.357 2 21
18.122 22
1780
18.746.902
42.369 3 25
1734
5.451.758
1781
14.947.265
37.202 2
1735
6.821.439
15.900 3 20
1782
24.970.303
28.187 3
1736
6.508,151
6.138.785
14.743 3 13
1783
16.039.705
24.961.898
35.812 3 23
1737
14.695 2 II
1784
33.013 2 15
1738
5.175.744
*i5 945 3 3
1785
26.677.647
28.842 I 5
1739
5.962.316
18.200 I 6
1786
28.168.666
31.062 20
1740
6.627.771
18.542 3 8
1787
30.728.728
31.049 2
1741
7.207.641
21.656 3 14
• 1788
35.487.691
27.275 II
1742
7.074.168
16.330 2 22
1789
29.344.633
28.742 2
1743
6.058.041
14.169 I 10
1790
37.322. 1^5
31.572 3 20
1744
6.124.892
18.01 1 I
1 791
39.718.706
26.999 2 15
1745
7. 171.963
22.066 I 25
1792
45.581.667
17.190 2 14
1746
6.836.667
27.741 3 20
1793
43.312.057
16.644 2 3
1747
9.633.884
28.910 2 20
1794
43.257.764
19.056 I 20
1748
8.692.671
19.418 6
1795
42.780.840
22.730 3 10
1749
9.504.339
21.694 20
1796
46.705.319
20.601 5
1750
11.200.460
23.373 5
1797
36.559.746
12.865 I
1751
12. 891. 318
23.743 20
1798
33.497. 17*
20.330 2 15
1752
10.656.003
23.407 5
1799
16.850 3 5
1753
10.41 1.787
23.238 5
1800
35;676'.9o8
12.201 I
1754
12.090.903
22.594 2
1801
25.041.516
II. 135 I
1755
13.379.733
27.948 3 7
1802
37.767.077
23.492 I
1756
11.944.328
26.997 15
1803
35.491. 131
9.315
1757
15.508.709
31.078 8 15
1804
37.432.365
7.847
1758
14.982.557
31.995 15
1805
42.988.621
8.967
1759
14093.431
27.571
1806
43.534.971
7.075
1760
13.375.456
12. 048.881
31.042 I 15
1807
39.049.727
8.705 2
1761
39.699 2 25
1808
40.901.442
12.443
1762
15.559.676
35.950 I 25
1809
43904.382
25.392
1763
16.013. 105
34.468 7
1810
37.061.859
13.701
1764
15. 201.081
31.715 1 25
181I
36.846.971
6.049 0.
1765
14.355.205
17.892.102
26.127
1812
31.392.845
9.282
1766
35.018 I
1813
35.787.671
21.043 I
1767
20.148.170
30274 3
1814
38.994.381
19.123
1768
18.490.019
32.590 I 25
1815
42.964.064
11.362
1769
17.790.705
37.037 20
1816
43-383.732
11.9340
1770
20.660.754
33.417 15
1817
45.617.854
13.852
1771
25.376.808
34.166 10
1818
55.770.656
14.008 3
1772
20.599.178
32.441 2 25
1819
50.805.586
10.626 3
1773
18.450.700
28.078 3 25
1820
37.464.279
5-553 I 14
1774
16.916.674
39.194 I 10
182I
43.507.928
9.256 3 7
• From Betonu published by Linen Trade Board in 1881.
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148L
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Return of Linen Yarns and Linen Manufactures Exported
FROM the United Kingdom from 1831 to 1875.
LINEN YARN.
LINEN manufactures.
Tearg.
Quantity (lbs.)
Declared Value.
Quantity (yds.)
Declared Value.
1831
69.283.892
;£"2.46l.704
1832
no. 188
/8.'705
49.531057
1.774.727
• 1833
935.682
72.006
63.232.509
2.167.024
1834
1-533.325
136.312
67.834.305
2.443.346
1835
2.611.215
216.635
77.977.089
2.992.143
1836
4.574.504
318.772
82.088.760
3.326.325
1837
8. 373. TOO
479.307
58.426.333
2.127.445
1838
14.923.329
746.163
77.195.894
2.820.272
1839
I6.3I4.6I5
818.485
85.256.542
3,414.967
1840
17.733.575
822.876
89.373.431
3.306.088
184I
25.220.290
972.466
90.321.761
3347.555
1842
29.490.987
I.025.551
69.232.682
2.346.749
18I3
23.358.352
898.829
84.172.585
2.803.223
1844
25.970.569
I 050.676
91.283.754
3024.800
1845
23.288.725
1.060.566
88.401.670
3.036.370
2.830.808
1846
19.484.203
875.405
84.799.369
1847
12.688.915
649.893
89.329.310
2.958.851
1848
11.722. 182
493.449
89.002.431
2.802.789
1849
17.264.033
732.065
1 11.259. 183
2.493.829
1850
18.220.688
881.312
122.342.516
3.947.682
1851
18.841.326
9';i.426
129.106.753
4.107.396
1852
23.928.592
1. 140. 565
133.192.627
4.231.786
1853
22.893.586
1. 154.977
134. 165.291
4.758.432
1854
17.696.867
944-5^2
1 1 1. 648. 657
4. 119. 043
1855
18.177.484
932.981
118.039. 721
4.118.013
185S
25.118.349
1.365.980
146.410. 188
4.887.780
1857
28.847.811
1.647.953
133.687.197
4,516.880
1858
32.047.492
1.746.340
122.561.748
4.124.356
1859
27 290.387
1.674.602
138.120.498
4.590.698
i860
31. 210.612
1.801.272
^43.996.773
4.774.669
1861
27.981.042
1.622.216
116.322.469
3.840.909
1862
32.584.676
1.854.866
156.871.020
5 131. 104
1863
38.553.643
2.535.728
180.395.967
6.448.126
1864
40.510.967
3.010. 109
209.859.714
8.158.545
9.155.358
1865
36.777.334
2.505.497
247.012.329
1866
33.666.338
2.380.032
254.943.531
9.576.163
1867
1868
34.103.859
2.453.684
211.972.840
7.473.106
32.857.117
2.309. Ill
209.380.250
7.094.319
1869
34.565.542
2.328.778
214.925.554
6.798.373
1870
37.122.747
2.233.826
226.470.696
7.378.284
1871
36.397.781
2. 220. 103
220.966!ioi
7.521.561
1872
31.218.749
2. 141.649
245.019.404
8.247.664
1873
28.730.138
1.975738
208.123.476
7.295.121
1874
27.164.268
1. 72 1. 205
194.682.464
7.123.596
187s
27.814.636
1.854.804
204.444.130
7.270.644
The figures from 1881 to 1868 are thoM giren in " Warden's Linen Trade.'
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HAND BOOK. 149
APPENDIX IL
PARLIAMENTARY REPORT ON FACTORIES FOR THE SPINNING
AND WEAVING OF TEXTILE FABRICS ABROAD.
The National Association of Factory Occupiers in Great
Britain and Ireland having, on the nth July, 1872, presented a
Memorial to the Government, praying ^*that authentic and
reliable information might be obtained and published as to the
hours of labour, the rates of wages, and the progressive increase
of production in factories for the spinning and weaving of textile
fabrics on the Continent, especially in Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Holland, France, and Switzerland," the Secretary of State for
the Home Department caused circular letters to be addressed to
her Majesty's representatives abroad, requesting that they would
furnish the Government with such information on the subject as
they could ascertain. Accordingly, in the latter end of 1872, and
during 1873, reports were forwarded to the Government, and
from the Parliamentary books, published in 1873, we present the
following abstract, so far as relates to flax spinning and weaving,
and trust that the condensed summary will be found useful.
This is the latest information we have of an official nature,
and although published about two years and a half ago, in all
probability the state of these factories on the Continent shows very
little difference from the position then recorded ; as since that
period trade all over Europe has been in a stationary position, or
has barely maintained itself at the point reached when these
reports were compiled. There is no report on the Manufactures
of France, as when these books were published the Government
had not received information on the subject.
BELGIUM.
Almost the whole population of the two Flanders may be said to be
engaged, directly or indirectly, in the linen trade, from the cultivation of flax
on the banks of the Lys and steeping it in the adjoining ditches till the
manufactured article is ready for sale. Almost all the finer qualities of Belgian
flax, called "Flax of the Lys," from its being steeped in that river, is bought
by England, and partly returned as yarn, Belgian spinners importing coarse
Russian, and confining themselves ta the production of coarse yams. The
spinning is done in eighteen or nineteen steam-power mills, containing about
222,000 spindles, and employing 1 0,000 hands. The weaving, on the contrary,
is mostly done by hand by the men working at home or in "ateliers
d'apprentissage." There are, indeed, only three or four large steam-power
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150 IRISH LINEN TRADE
weaving factories in Belgium, it being the custom for manufacturers to supply
artisans with yams to weave at home.
With the exception of three large factories at Alost, producing linen
sewing thread, the flax spinning trade has of late years been concentrated at
Ghent, which city contains, among many others, two mills of great size,
working 51,000 and 44,000 spindles respectively, and each employing 2,000
operatives.
In one of the smaller spinning mills, employing about 300 hands and
working 700 spindles, I observed that in the first process, i.e., the cutting and
cleaning of the flax, none but boys were employed, who earned from 50 to 75
c. a day. The men employed for dressing and classifying the flax earned up
to 2. 50 fr. per day. The rest of the work was done by women, who were
paid up to 2 fr. per day.
The hands worked for twelve hours daily, ue.y from 7 to 12 a. m., and
from I to S p.m. without interruption, the occupier having suppressed the
usual periods of repose at S a.m. and 4 p.m. at the request of his workmen,
who preferred leaving ofl" work a little sooner.
The wages in this mill are perhaps a little below the average, as only the
coarser qualities of flax are employed. But 2 fr. per day are considered good
wages for a woman in Ghent, and the Chamber of Commerce of Courtrai
mentions, as a proof of the prosperity of trade in 1871, that weavers earned
2 fr. 50 c. per day. I have obtained the following information respecting the
wages, hours of labour, and expenses of the hands in a large linen factory in
Ruysbroeck, near Brussels, employing about 800 operatives.
Foremen receive 5 fr. and upwards per day, 1st class hands receive per
day, 2 fr. 75 c; 2nd class, 2 fr.; 3rd class, I fr. 25 c; women, 1st class, 2 fr.;
women, 2nd class, I fr. 75 c. ; women, 3rd class, i fr.
During seven months of the year, working hours are from 6.30 a.m. to
5.30 p.m., broken by intervals of repose, viz., at 8 a.m., half-an-hour ; at
noon, one hour ; and at 4 p.m., a quarter of an hour.
During the five summer months, the hours are from 5.30 a.m. till 7 p.m.,
with the same wages and intervals of repose. Extra work is paid for at the
rate of 25 c. per hour. Children under 12 years of age are not, as a rule,
admitted.
The rent of a small house of four or five rooms, with a little garden,
cellar, and garret, is from 10 to 12 fr. per month.
The principal articles of food are bread, potatoes, bacon, cofiee, chicory,
and white cheese. Chicory and bread for breakfast, potatoes and vegetables
cooked with bacon at noon, and vegetable soup with bread and white cheese
for supper. Light beer and water are the chief beverages.
By joining a family, it is possible^for a single man to be lodged and fed
for 35 fr. per month.
The following remarks apply to the busy manufacturing towns of Alost,
Ninove, Termonde, St. Nicolas, and Lokeren, lying together in East Flanders,
the most densely populated portion of Belgium. The factories in these towns
are not of great size. They manufacture goods of flax, cotton, wool, and
mixed stuffs. The most important of these industries are the manufacture of
blankets at Termonde, of sewing thread at Alost and Ninove, and the coloured
cotton and wool mixed tissues at St. Nicolas.
Alost contains four factories, employing about 2,500 hands, and Ninove
nine, on a smaller scale, with 1,000 hands in all. These two towns contain
nearly all the factories in Belgium for the manufacture of cotton and linen
sewing thread. There are likewise sewing thread factories in West Flanders,
near Roulers, but they are not flourishing, owing, it is said, to the greater
importation of late of English thread, which is but lightly taxed in Belgium.
The year 187 1 was favourable to this manufacture at Alost. From thc
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HAND BOOK, 151
month of March the demand was well sustained, and the rise in the price of
flax foreshadowing a rise in that of linen thread, increased the demand. This
prosperity is, however, due to temporary causes, and manufacturers complain
much of the heavy duties which prevent their competing freely with neigh-
bouring countries, as also of that on certain yams imported from England for
manufacturing purposes.
Here, and in many parts of East and West Flanders, a good deal of hand
weaving is done at home, and some communes have established industrial
schools to encourage the trade, such as those of Ypres, Passchendal, and
Becelaire, the two former of which are doing well, but the latter is languishing,
owing to the superior popularity of the trade of flax-peeling. These private
looms work principally for manufacturers, the quantity sold on the market
being quite insignificant.
The "ateliers d'apprentissage," or schools where weaving is taught partly
at the expense of the State and partly of the commune, were established by
government during a period of distress amongst operatives in the flax trade,
and have been productive of good results. The pupils are admitted at the age
of 12, and receive a practical professional education in diff"erent branches of
weaving. On leaving the school, if efficient weavers, the pupils receive a
certificate. There are between 70 and 80 of these industrial schools, chiefly
in West Flanders, all working for manufacturers, who provide the yam. By
means of these schools a constant supply of good weavers is assured to linen
manufacturers.
This trade has made great advances in the last two years, the Alost factory
having increased the number of its looms from 60 to 100, during that period
producing linen tissues of great width and all qualities.
The great demand for these articles during the late war induced a larger
supply than could well be disposed of, but the steam factory at Alost is in a
flourishing state, paying its hands 2 fr. per day. It may be noted that a daily
increasing quantity of jute enters into the composition of these coarse fabrics.
Alost possesses three factories of damask linen, all in good work, and a
certain amount is also produced by private hands. Table cloths, napkins, and
towels, grey and white, are the principal produce, for the latter of which,
during the past year, the demand almost exceeded the power of supply.
Damasked tissues for mattrasses are in little demand, being now for the
most part replaced by stripped ticking.
In the four large sewing thread factories of Alost, the wages and hours of
labour are the same. The largest one employs 1,000 men and boys, and 150
women. The men and boys are divided into five, and the women and girls
into three classes.
Children are employed from six and seven years of age and upwards.
During the six summer months work commences at 6 a.m. and finishes
at 8 p.m., with an hour's repose at noon, and a quarter of an hour at 8 a.m.
and 4 p.m.
During the winter months work commences at 7.3c a.m. and closes at
8 p.m. ; with same intervals for repose.
The factory operatives here live wretchedly ; their chief food consists of
potatoes and dry bread. They inhabit small huts, many of them unfloored,
and sleep on sacks filled with straw, with a sort of blanket made of coarse
tow for bed-covering. Lodgings, composed of two rooms, can be had at 6 fr.
per month. A young single workman, by joining a family, can be lodged and
fed for I fr. 25 c. (is to is id) a day. All mill hands wear blouses and wooden
shoes. A spinner can clothe himself at an average expense of 50 fr. a year.
Provisions cost the same as at Ruysl^roeck, excepting that potatoes are a
trifle cheaper. Butter-milk, costing about i^d per pint, enters largely into
the daily consumption of food.
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152 IRISH LINEN TRADE
At Ninove, where there are five mills for spinning sewing thread, the
largest employs 400 operatives. Foremen receive per day, 3 fr. 50 c. All
other fill! grown operat ves earn from i fr. 50 c. to 2 fr. Children are admitted
into the mill at eight )ears of age, and receive at once from 3 to 4 fr. a week,
but after four or five years' employment they earn up to 12 and 13 fi-. a week,
and are considered to be in their prime. Hardly any women are employed
here.
All hands work twelve hoiurs a day ; for any overtime work an extra
quarter of the daily wage is paid.
The ignorance and misery of the operatives is here great. Their lodging
and food are the same as at Alost, but Ninove being a small country town,
most families possess a plot of ground where vegetables are grown for family
consumption.
Termonde contains several factories of both cotton and flaxen goods.
The principal trade of the town is in cotton blankets, which employs a large
number of hands.
With respect to wages and hours of labour, they are the same as at Alost
and Ninove, excepting that at Termonde the operatives are sometimes em-
ployed for fifteen hours a day in times of great activity.
In these three places, and in the small factories abounding in this part of
Flanders, the proportion of children employed is very large, and has a marked
effect both physical and moral on the people.
The position of the operative is perhaps worse here than elsewhere in
Belgium. A first-class hand earns on an average about 700 fr., or £2%, a year ;
whilst the smallest sum on which it is calculated a man can exist involves an
expenditure of about 500 fr. (;^2o) a year (i fr. 25 c. for board and lodging
per day, and 50 fr. per annum for clothing). Indeed, the possibility of exis-
tence on such wages is only to be explained by the large proportion of children
employed, who add to the resources of their families, and also in the country
and smaller manufacturing towns, by the possession of a small garden, where
vegetables, chiefly turnips and carrots, and sometimes potatoes, are raised.
At Lokeren there is one mill for flax and four for hemp and tow ; at
Tamise two for hemp and jute. These trades all prospered during 1871, the
trade of Italy and Germany with France having been diverted to Belgium for
such articles as saddlers' and shoemakers' thread, while the quantities of sack-
ing demanded for the army gave an impetus to the coarser yarns.
With the exception of the long-established export trade of Belgian jvooUen
yams to Scotland, I may state, as the result of my inquiries, that there is little,
if any, regular exportation of Belgian textile fabrics to Great Britain for con-
sumption there. Occupiers of factories at Verviers assured me that they never
exported a piece of cloth directly to England ; and the same story was repeated
to me by millowners at Ghent in regard to yarns and tissues both of flax and
cotton. One cotton mill at Ghent is said to have exported manufactured goods
to Manchester to the amount of ;f40,ooo during 1871, but this was stated to
be exceptional, and owing to the special circumstances of that year. I was
also informed at Ghent that a certain amount of flax yam was regularly exported
to Scotland, there to be mixed with cotton, and afterwards re-exported to
Belgium for making lace.
The reasons for the possible successful competition of Belgian with British
textile fabrics must be sought for in the lower rate of wages, the longer hours
of labour, and the. cheaper railway transport in Belgium as compared with
Great Britain.
But, notwithstanding these apparent advantages, it does not appear British
manufacturers have anything to fear from their rivals in Belgium.
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HAND BOOK. 163
PRUSSIA.
The Prussian factories are not generally concentrated in districts, one
branch here, another there, and a third somewhere else, and so on ; but they
are situated more or less equally over certain provinces, and no special branch
is confined to one special district.
In many of the Prussian industrial centres all branches are equally repre-
sented.
Generally I am informed that there is a tendency to diminish the hours of
labour to twelve, including two hours for rest, and to raise the rate of wages;
but this increase, which is considerable in the case of male factory hands, is
small as regards the women, who nevertheless form the greater portion of the
hands employed in the spinning and weaving factories in this country.
Girls from 14 to 16 years of age can never be made to work more than ten
hours a day. The police come once a month, at least, to examine them and
see that all the different provisions of the " gewerbe ordnung" (Industrial Code
of 1869) are complied with. Girls under 12 cannot be admitted as factory
hands, nor can any girl be employed in a factory until she has completed her
schooltime and been confirmed. Certificates to this effect must be furnished to
the employer before he ean admit any applicant, and must always be attached
to the passbook of each child, which passbook the police examine and sign at
each monthly visit.
In addition to these monthly visits, quarterly inspections of the factory
children are also made by superior officers of police. There is as yet no offcial
supervision for women above sixteen years of age. They are left to make what
bargains they choose with their employers, and practically work the same
number of hours as the men.
In some few cases these reports enter more into detail ; the Breslau
report, for instance, says that at the flax spinning factory of Messrs. Gruschwitz
& Sons, at Neusalz, the hands work from twelve to thirteen hours a day,
women receiving from 6 to 13^ groschens. (7X<1 to i6d) per day, and the men
receiving from 12 to 25 groschens (is 3d to 2s 6d) per day. These employers
provide lodgings, which are let out at reduced rates to the persons employed in
their factory.
A factory owner who has kindly given me a good deal of information
as^res me that, in his experience, so far from production having increased (I
mean, of course, in ratio to the numbers employed) since wages have been
raised, the contrary is the case. He finds his hands work less willingly and
less carefully, are more insubordinate, and refuse to jdeld the same obedience
which they formerly did. They know full well that if they are dismissed from
the factory they can immediately find employment elsewhere in the large town
on the outskirts of which his works are situated. The result, therefore, is,
that /or higher wages he gets less work done than before, and if it were not for
the improvements which have been invented in machinery, and which more
than counter-balance the bad work of his factory hands, he would be carrying
on his business at a loss. This gentleman also tells me that his workpeople
are becoming more irregular in their attendance, especially on Mondays, and
that they often refuse to work overtime in spite of the extra payment which
they would receive for it.
Wages paid in Messrs. Gruschwitz & Son's flax spinning mill— Girls, 3s
9^d to 8s; women, 3s 9/^d to 8s; men, 7s 6d to 15s 6d.
Great difficulty was experienced in getting statistical information regarding
the flax factories in Prussia, and no details given in this report.
AUSTRIA.
Work in the Austrian weaving establishments goes on throughout the
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164 IRISH LINEN TRADE
whole year, with the exception of Sundays, the Church festivals, and oertain
national or local festivals.
The number of working days, therefore, in most manufactories is about
300. It exceeds this average in some, while in others it sinks to 290. The
daily hours of work amount to 12 here and there, more especially in summer
to 13 in other places, and in winter to 10 or 11.
The rate of wages varies according to the fluctuation of the average market
price and the price of provisions in different districts. It adjusts itself further
according to the description and sex of the labourer. In the year 1870 the
daily wages of a labourer employed in the manufacture of textile fabrics, at their
highest average, were as follows : —
Kreutzers.
Lower and Upper Austria ... ... ... 80 to I florin.
Voralberg ... ... ... ... 65
Tyrol ... ... ... ... .. 60
Bohemia (flat, or low, country) ... ... 50
Galicia ... ... ... ... ... 40 to 45
Other districts ... . ... .. 55
Since then there has been everywhere an increase in wages, which amounts
to and even exceeds 20 per cent.
With reference to the question of the increase of the produce of the loom
in Austrian manufactories, no sufficient information can be given, because it is
only latterly that statistical data have been collected on the advancement of
industrial products. As far as can be gathered from them, the production of
flax manufactures in Austrian establishments during the year 1870 are valued at
5,cxx),ooo florins of Austrian currency.
The manufacture of linen, especially in Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia, is
carried on principally by means of hand looms.
Spinning by machinery is being only very slowly established. The number
of machine looms in use amount to 346, of which 294 are in Silesia, 30 in
Moravia, and 22 in Tyrol.
In the year 187 1 there were about 25,000 joch (one joch equal to about two
acres) under flax cultivation in Hungary and Transylvania; in the former
country the average yield was 6*65 cwt. seed, and 3*16 cwt. flax per jocH, in
the latter 379 cwt. seed and 3*15 flax.
The following countries are those in which the greatest extent of land was
under flax cnltivation : —
Joch.
Zips ... ... ... ... ... 3,343
Eisenburg ... ... ... ... ... 2,091
Sdros ... ... ... ... ... 1,947
Jorda .. ... ... ... ... 1,671
Pest ... ... ... ... ... 1,486
Ama .. ... ... ... ... 1,037
Csongrad ... ... ... ... ... 1,027
Trenesin ... ... ... ... ... 1,025 .
In none of the okher countries did the extent of land so cultivated exceed
1,000 joch.
The amount of linseed produced in Hungary and Transylvania was 105,668
cwt., and the amount of flax was 30,309 cwt.
As regards textile fabrics it must be remarked that in the northern districts
of Hungary and Transylvania a considerable quantity of flax is woven by the
pea.sants in their leisure hours, and that the comparatively small number of
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HAND BOOK. 165
professional weavers is a matter of little import. Their number may be stated
at 7,970» but many of them only work in winter. *
The number of looms is much greater, as in the above-mentioned districts
almost every peasant's house is provided with a loom, from which during the
winter the members of the family not only supply their own wants, but also
produce fabrics of very fair quality for sale.
The produce of flax in Croatia, Slavonia, and the military frontier, amounts
to about 60,000 cwt
WURTEMBERG.
The manufacture of linen is verjr ancient in this country, a damask weav-
ing factory and a linen company havmg been founded by Duke Frederick I,, in
Urach, as early as 1597. Once the glory of Wurtemberg, it had already, at the
commencement of this century, dwindled from its former high position ; nor
did its decrepitude stop then. The Napoleonic wars and continental system,
the competition of England in transatlantic markets, her application of me-
chanism to flax spinning, above all, the extraordinary development of the cotton
industry — nay, even the very whims of modem fashion — all contributed to its
decay. The whole of Europe participated in the results produced by the above
circumstances, under which England attained and maintained llmt prepon-
derance against which, with varying effect, the struggle is continued up to the
present day. In this peaceful conflict Wurtemberg has played a gallant, though
a modest, part ; and as long ago as the Munich Exhibition, she had the satis-
faction of hearing the judgment that, in the imitation of Irish bleaching, finish-
ing, and preparing for market, the Wurtembergers carried off" the palm.
This was a great step towards recovery of lost ground, but it was not
made in a day. First among the measures which prepared the regeneration of
the linen industry, was the introduction of machine spinning. Up to the year
1840 the yarn was all prepared by hand. After two unsuccessful attempts in
earlier years, a mechanical flax-spinning factory was at length successfully es-
tablished, with the help of Government assistance, in Urach, in the year 1840,
employing 4,200 spindles. In this same year was organised a society *' for
the improvement of flax eultivation and the linen industry." The finest seed
was next brought from Kiga; premiums were given for the cultivation of the
plant; and Government introduced the latest machinery for its preparation.
The second measure, and that which mainly contributed to insure the
above award at Munich, was the amelioration of the processes of bleaching,"
preparing, and finishing up of linen goods for market. This too was the work
of the Government which introduced an Irish expert in the trade together with
English machines, and established the now celebrated bleaching establishments
in Blaubeuren and Heidenheim, equal to the best in Germany in those arts,
which if they add but slightly to the worth, increases so much the beauty of
linen goods.
Another establishment which has become the property of the State exists
at Weissenau, and there is also a very ancient one at Urach, besides many
others less important in differeni parts of the country.
By the year 1861, the number of flax-spinning factories had only advanced
to three workings, in all 5,896 spindles. In 1865 arose another factory with
1,752 spindles, and in 1868 a fifth with 1,000 spindles making the total at this
latter date 10,944 spindles, or 5,048 more than in 1861.* At the same time
the number of hands employed in the spinning of flax, hemp, and tow was 756
including women and children.
In Wurtemberg linen weaving is .still at the present day mostly done by
^Xbese Btatistics include the spinuing of hemp aud tow.
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166 IRISH LINEN TRADE
hand. Until the establishment of- the mechanical weaving factories at Blaa-
beuren in 1858, thi^was universally the case. Besides the larger manufacturers
and dealers, the trade is followed by the so-called ** Kaufweber** who either,
work on their own account for sale in the country markets, or by commission
for private persons, or for larger dealers, and themselves employ a certain
number of hired weavers usually paid by the piece. The more important
dealers both employ hands in factory buildings, and also give out yam to be spun
at home. A decided majority of the weavers work in summer in the fields, and
the largest portion of the looms are only in motion some 60 or 80 days per annum
(1861). Now, as a loom, to give a man a living, must be worked 280 or 300 days
in the year, it was calculated, in 1861, that not above 3,000 master weavers
could be said to live by weaving alone. Formerly, the weavers were much in
the habit of wandering over the country to effect a sale of their wares, by
peddling in which more evil was done against good manners than gain secured
•by good bargains;
The number of weavers, including those who lived by the trade, and those
who only worked at it occasionally, was estimated in 1829 at 29,804; in 1835
at 24,441; in 1852 at 26,000, and in 1861 at 19,507, showing, after some
fluctuations, a decrease of over 8,000 persons in thirty years. In the latter
year the number of looms was 19,379, 43*1 P^r cent, of which were calculated
to be regularly worked, and 56*9 per cent, only as an auxiliary means of live-
lihood. The amount produced was estimated at 22,304,040 ells, worth
7,261 000 fl. (about ;f 605.080). The large decrease of numbers after 1850 may
in great measure be accounted for by the fact that, at that time, a great number
of weavers, seeing the promise of obtaining more ample means of subsistence
in that direction, went over to the cotton trade.
Exact statistics of the condition of this branch of industry later than the
above do not exist, and German conscientiousness is not easily brought to
approximate estimates, every fraction of which cannot be sworn to.
As in the spinning so in the weaving trade, the increase in the number
or size of the better kind of establishments has of late years gone steadily
on, and though it may be long before the poor weaver has altogether
given place to the power-loom, the small end of the wedge is well in.
In 1866, forty new looms were added at Blaubeuren and more in 1871.
The reports of 1869 and of 1872 also speak of increase in the amount
produced in the country. At the end of 1868 a second mechanical
weaving establishment arose at Ravensburg, twenty looms being then
at work out of eighty which it was proposed to set up. In Laichingen,
one of the principal seats of the manufacture of sheets, damask, quilts, &c ,
there were in 1871, 621 looms (still divided among 254 establishments) all the
pattern and broad looms, and twenty of the smaller ones being of Irish con-
struction. Here the employment of bleached yam seems to be coming more
and more into favour. A Laichingen manufacturer informed me that most of
the produce of that place found a market in the country, being either too little
known or too costly to bear a distant destination ; a small portion, however,
finds its way to Italy.
The principal wares produced are : — Household linen, unbleached or half-
bleached, and, of a very solid description, linen for shirts and pocket handker-
chiefs, table linen of good quality, Jacquard damask, packing stuff for sacks,
&c., and stiff linen cloth.
SAXONY.
In the spinning factories the time of labour which formerly used to vary
from thirteen to fourteen hours a day (deducting the intervals allowed for
breakfast, dinner, and tea), has been reduced to twelve hours, especially since
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BAND BOOK. 157
187 1. The efforts made by the working men in some places — for instance, in
Chemnitz — in the sense of a further reduction have as yet proved ineffectual.
In some factories for the spinning of flax, on the contrary, the time of
work has been reduced to ten hours.
In weaving manufactories where machines are used, the time of labour
likewise extends now mostly to twelve hours a day. Altogether, where opera-
tives are kept working together, the hours of labour are generally the same in
the various industrial establishments of a place, whatever may be the branch of
industry to which they belong.
In some few places, e.g.y in the neighbourhood of Zittau, the time of labour
has been reduced from twelve to ten hours.
The spinning of flax, which is, for the present moment, rather in an un-
favourable position, has taken much greater dimensions since the last ten or
twelve years ; in the year 1861 there were 13,000 spindles — now we may safely
assume that there are 36,000.
SWITZERLAND.
Switzerland, in spite of her remote inland position, the conformation of
her soil, which presents great obstacles to internal communication, her want of
capital, as of most of the first elements of commercial prosperity, has, after a
long and severe struggle, become entitled to rank as an important manufacturing
State. Her textile fabrics, for instance, penetrate to the most distant quarters
of the globe, where they now find as ready a sale as others longer and better
known. Her silk manufacturers boldly assert that, especially as regards cheap
silks and silk ribbons, they are able at last not only to undersell on the Con-
tinent the British producer of similar articles, but even to compete with him in
the home markets of Great Britain. In the production of all goods, em-
broidered whether by machine or by hand, she has completely distanced her
Scotch and Saxon competitors, and now has a virtual monopoly of this im-
portant branch of industry.
Silk holds the first place, owing as much to the great value as to the
enormously increased exportation of the manufactures of this staple. Cotton
manufactures are the next in importance to silk. The exports of woollen yams
and manufactures have increased even at a more rapid rate than those of silk
and cotton, but the total amount is insignificant, and scarcely deserving of
notice.
The exports of linen fabrics is even less than that of woollen as the follow-
ing 'figures will show : — Quantity exported in i860, 296,4261bs. ; in 1871,
3i9j392lbs. ; increase, 7g per cent. ; estimated value, ;^26,928 in i860, ;f 25,888
in 1 87 1 ; decrease, 3* per cent.
Up to the present moment, the average length of the working day through-
out Switzerland is twelve hours, exclusive of the time necessarily required for
the different meals, and a short rest in the middle of the day. Although the
rates of wages in Switzerland have risen rapidly within the last two or three
years, they must even now be at least from 40 to 50 per cent, below those
actually ruling in England. The exports both of linen and woollen fabrics are
so unimportant as not to require any special notice. These two branches of
Swiss industry are in a comparatively backward state, and their produce gene-
rally of a coarse quality, is mostly consumed in the country itself.
NETHERLANDS.
Labour throughout the Netherlands is comparatively cheap, and wages,
notwithstanding the rise which has taken place in some of the large towns, are
still considerably below those paid in England.
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15S Irish unen TkADk
As a general, indeed almost invariable, rule, the Dutch as well as the
foreign employers dispense with any but native labour, except in the case of
skilled foremen.
The question of wages has been occupying public attention for some time
past, and it is not improbable that before long the position of the working
classes may be improved in this respect ; directly, through a general advance
on the present rate ; indirectly, by the lowering of prices through the estab-
lishment of co-operative stores, and by the formation of industrial schools,
where the workman may have the opportunity of increasing his knowledge,
and thereby the productiveness of his labour.
There is a general opinion, not unfrequently shared by the workmen them-
selves, that the Dutch labourer is not equal in point of skill to the foreign
workman — that he is slower at his work, and turns it out in a less finished
state. Possibly there may be some grounds for this opinion as regards highly
skilled and factory hands ; but with respect to the ordinary labourer, it is
doubtful whether any very marked difference exists.
The system of paying labour in the Netherlands is either by the week, or
by the hour, or by the piece ; the two latter plans having become very general
of late, especially that of pa)ring by the hour, as it is found that the men have
an interest in working as long as their employers will permit.
There is no law limiting the hours of labour, or prohibiting children under
a certain age from working in the factories. As a general rule, the hours of
labour vary from ten to fifteen a day, including intervals for at least two meals.
The variation in the rate of wages is so great in different factories that it
would be a difficult matter to strike a very exact average.
Statistics of cotton and woollen manufactures are given, but none regarding
flax.
In the larger towns, and in districts where skilled labour is in demand, a
good factory hand may be supposed to earn, on an average, from I2s to 15s a
week, in other places from 8s to los. In no factory, however, could the
maximum wage exceed 20s a week (i2fl.).
Factory hands are kindly treated by their employers, and although their
wages are lower and their hours of labour longer than in England, they will
generally be found to be a more contented class than the workmen at home.
Doubtless their claim to higher wages will shortly receive favourable con-
sideration; but, except in the case of children, it is unlikely that the Legislature
will interfere in the matter of hours of labour.
PROVINCE OF NORTH OF BRABANT.
Husking (Coarse Linen) and Linen Weaving. — This branch of industry,
which in North Brabant provides for the support of so many families, is not in
a flourishing state. Ever3rwhere complaints are made of the diminished demand
for this article, by which the production decreases.
Foreign competition, especially by Belgian linen, appears to contribute
much to this state of affairs; according to the opinion at least of some manufac-
turers in this province, foreign markets may be regarded as closed with respect
to these manufectures by the higher import duties levied in other countries on
this article, whilst the corresponding dues with us are so much lower, and
therefore facilitate importation.
On the weavers, who with one, two, or at the most three looms work at
home with the help of their families, these unfavourable circumstances operate
very injuriously. Their number seems to become le^ every year.
All these weavers work by the piece, and are paid by the metre, from 10
cents (2d) to 25 cents (Sd). The price, of course, is regulated according to
the greater or less fineness of the linen.
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HAND Book. 159
These linen weavers are met with in many districts in this province.
Some of them work for manufacturers, some for mdividuals, but mostly for
the latter.
The farmers in this province have very touch the practice of cultivating a
little flax and having it woven. But this custom also decreases, for the farmers
of sandy soils are brought slowly to the conviction that linen acquired in this
way costs them very dearly.
A weaver working at home, and clever at his work, appears to be able to
earn about lo cents (2d) per hour. For husking, or coarse linen, and damask
weaving, skilful hands are able to stipulate for higher wages.
The condition of the linen factory at Stryp is stationary, at the same time
fears are entertained that the future will bring rather a diminution than an
increase of production.
SWEDEN.
It is difficult to furnish the approximate rate of wages paid to factory
hands in Sweden; it depends mainly on the locality. The further north, the
higher the wages.
There is no restriction as to the hours of labour in Swedish factories
affecting adults of either sex, but a Royal Statute dated the i8th of June, 1864,
prescribes that children who have not completed their twelfth year may not be
employed in factories, nor can workmen under eighteen years of age be em-
ployed for night work (9 o'clock p.m. to 5 o'clock. a.m.). During^ the current
year the hours of labour have been generally reduced, sixty-five hours may be
taken to represent the present fixed amount of weekly labour in Swedish
factories.
lonsered's factory, near Gothenburg (flax and hemp spinneries). There is
also a weaving house for sail cloth, tent cloth, sack cloth, and linen fabrics.
It works 10,000 spindles and 100 power looms, and employs 600 hands.
Flax factories are very few, and the information given in the report for
this country relates chiefly to cotton fabrics.
RUSSIA.
The linen industry is the most truly national one.
Flax is a growth especially suited to the soil and climate of the Northern
Governments of Russia. The Baltic Provinces and the neighbouring Govern-
ments supply the best ; the more Northern Governments, such as Viatka, the
coarser qualities. Flax is also grown in the Governments bordering on the
Black and Azov Seas.
The value of the flax and linseed exported from Russia may be taken on
an average as forming rather more than a quarter of the total exports.
Owing to the inferior quality, or preparation of Russian flax, the finer
sorts of linens are still brought from abroad, yet the extension of the Russian
linen trade has been most considerable, and the exports, notably of the coarser
kinds, promise large development.
Linen was manufactured in Russia in the reigns (1645-76) of Michael and
Alexis Romanow, who may almost be called the founders of the Russian
manufacturing industry. Ever since that time it has made progress ; but it
was the war in the United States, causing the temporary cessation of the
imports of American cotton, which gave the greatest impetus to the Russian
linen trade. During this crisis much capital was invested in linen mills
(especially in the Kostroma Governments) and peasants in certain districts
sowed every available acre with flax, tempted by the high prices which then
prevailed.
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160 tklSM LINEN TRADE
The statistics of Russian industry are still sbmewhat rough and imperfect,
and there exists considerable divergence between the two most reliable and
official sources of information — viz., the statistical work of M. Timiijasew,
published in 1869, and the report dated 1870 of the Ministry of Finance.
Thus, according to the latter, Russia, including Finland and Poland, had ic8
flax and linen mills, emplo)dng 27, 700 hands, and producing annually goods
to the value of ;f 1,432, 600; whilst M. Timirjasew states that, in 1867 (the
latest date of the return) the number of mills, exclusive of those in Finland and
Poland, was iii, with only 18,723 hands, and a production of ;£"!. 400,000. It
is presumable, however, that the figures of both, even for 1867, were consi-
derably below the truth ; for the number of hands employed by only 28 linen
mills, represented at the St. Petersburgh Exhibitiion of 1070, and the value of
their production, considerably exceeded that given by M. Timirjasew for the
whole of Russia three years previously.
The amount of linen cloth manufactured at home by peasants cannot be
estimated, and there can be no doubt that, in Russia and Finland, home woven
linen forms a very large part of native manufactures.
The flax and linen industries have made most advance in the Jaroslaw and
Moscow Governments, whilst in the St. Petersburgh Government they do not
seem to thrive so well, some mills having of late stopped work.
The linen manufacture is almost entirely in . the hands of the Russians ;
which fact, though accounted for by the connection of this industry with the
agricultural interest, is deserviug of mention, as so many branches of industry
in this country are to a great extent followed by foreigners.
The insufficient machinery employed, indeed its almost total absence in
some districts, accounts for the great differences between the productiveness of
labour in the different Governments. Jaroslaw is evidently the most advanced
as regards the system of linen manufacture, since the value of production per
workman in its flax spinning mills is, according to Timirjasew, about £20% in
the linen mills ;^I20 ; whilst the Government of Wladimir is almost the last,
for the average production of each workman is only ;f 59 in the spinning, and
about ;^3i in the linen mills.
It is, perhaps, by comparing the number of hands employed with the
results obtained that the healthy progress of the Russian manufactures may be
tested ; and there is no doubt that in this as well as ia all other branches of
Russian industry, there is at present immense waste of labour, and consequent
room for improvement. Still the state of the linen industry in Russia is emi-
nently healthy, and the only limit to its development will be found in the
tendency of cotton to supplant linen in many articles of use, and the general
consequent torpor of the linen fabrication. In the coarser linen goods Russia
should always hold her own.
On the whole, it may be said of the Russian linen manufacture, that it has
at length reached a point at which it is equal, so far as regards the middling
and coarser qualities, not only to sustain foreign competition at home, but also
to take part in foreign markets ; the more so, as Russian linen has already the
character, unlike the Silesian and many German linens of being remarkably
pure and free from mixture of cotton and other materials.
Averse to allow Russia to depend entirely upon foreign manufacture for the
principal want of its people, the Imperial Government has protected by duties,
which in most cases are virtually prohibitive, the native manufacture. Under
this forcing system the cotton industry in this empire has thriven amazingly
during the last twenty or thirty years. Much foreign capital has, in conse-
quence, been attracted to this country, and a large number of workmen are
giving during the whole year, under the comparative discipline of the mills, a
greater amount of useful agricultural pursuits ; for not only is the Russian
peasant, as a rule, loth to till more land than is absolutely necessary for his
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HAND BOOK. 161
own modest wants, but, owing to the severity of the cKmate, his agricultural
pursuits are suspended during a great portion of the year.
As an incentive to labour is the great desideratum in RussFa, it may not be
for the present an unmixed evil that the Russian peasant may be forced to give
a higher price for the native manufacture than that which, under a free trade
system, he would pay for foreign. The more his wants are increased, the more
labour he is forced to give to his land or his trade.
It is for the future to justify or condemn the policy of the Imperial Govern-
ment in thus declining to be led by the liberal commercial principles held as
axioms in some countries, who are at a more advanced stage of their develop-
ment; at present it is only evident that Russia, with her newly-emancipated
peasantry, should not be judged by exactly the same rules, as regards the appli-
cation and productiveness of labour, as the older European nations or even
other younger countries, such as the United States of America or the Austral-
asian Colonies, peopled by an energetic and self-reliant population.
As a general rule, in the cotton and linen trades the mills, except in dis-
tricts where hand-loom spinning and weaving prevail, are on a far larger scale
than is usual in England; that is to say, more capital is required, so that a
laige proportion of the mills are owned by companies. Indeed, it has been
found that small undertakings are frequently unsuccessful in Russia. The
chief reason for that is the general want of capital amongst the middlemen,
which compels the manufacturer to sell his goods at long credits; this system,
as the commercial exactitude of the native trader is too frequently lax, results
in an accumulation of bad debts, which, to a small industrial, might prove
destructive.
Regarding labour, besides Sundays, there are about twenty-four holy days
in the year when no work is allowed. Some are Saints* days, others State
holidays. In some localities one day is made a holiday, in another a different
holy day may be observed; but, on the whole, it may be stated that, for the
purpose of industry, there are somewhat less than 290 working days in the
year.
In the central Governments many cotton mills work night and day; in
this case the hours of labour are naturally shorter than those given above, the
hands relieving each other every twelve hours.
There is, perhaps, no country where the hours of labour in every branch
of industry are so long- as in Russia; thirteen hours per day being the general
average, children generally working the same time as men.
As before stated, there is great waste of labour in all the Russian industries.
The first and principal cause of this is the want of proper mechanical appliances;
but even in the mills where the best and newest machinery is used, it is found
necessary to have a larger number of hands than is actually required, and this
on account of the irregularity in attendance of the hands. Indeed, it has been
found necessary in some cases to limit the gains of the piece workers. For
instance, in England a spinner at the mules, with his helps, will attend to
about 2,cxx) spindles; in Russia he is never given more than 1,000 spindles —
generally 500. Again, in the weaving mills a Russian rarely has the care of
more than two looms, whilst in Engjand a weaver will frequently look after six;
had the Russian six looms under his care he would earn about 6s or 7s a-day
(he can weave a piece, for which he receives a little more than is, at each loom
daily). These large earnings would find their way to the **vodki" (brandy)
shop) and irregularity of attendance would be the result.
Strikes are by no means unusual in Russia, but there is no general
organisation of the labouring classes; strikes when they occur are generally
partial.
The Russians, being quick to learn and naturally fine-fingered, show con-
siderable aptitude for factory labour, and they are especially good mechanics;
L
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162 IRISH LINEN TRADE
indeed, in this latter particular they are scarcely surpassed; but they have little
pride in their work and are careless, which latter fault often causes great losses
in the mills.
English, German, or other foreign foremen are generally employed; in the
larger mills the former earn from ;^30O to ;^45o per annum, with lodging, fuel,
&c.; but this is often not the case: thus one of the largest mills in the St.
Petersburg Government — the GoIenischtchefT cotton mill — employs exclu-
sively Russians. .
In conclusion, it may be stated, that in general the textile industries in
Russia have of late years made considerable advance.
The condition of the linen industry is especially healthy; but more care in
the preparation of the raw material, and better machinery in the manufacture,
are still urgently required, the latter want being felt in all the Russian textile
industries.
The price of labour varies enormously in different parts of the Empire and
according to circumstances; and it would be extremely difficult, indeed almost
impossible, to give a correct general average of the wages paid in each branch
of the textile industries of Russia.
Wages are highest in the St. Petersburg district, lowest in the country
districts of the centre. In and about St. Petersburg they have risen, on an
average, about 15 per cent, within the last three years.
As a market for foreign textile fabrics, Russia will probably, for a long
period, continue to be a consumer of the finer descriptions of manufactures
from abroad; but it is scarcely likely, unless an entire change of the tariff
system should take place, that the lowest priced classes of foreign textile goods
will ever, to any large extent, be imported to this country.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
The linen industry has not as yet attained to any position of importance
in the United States.
The progressive production, according to the census statistics is as follows: —
1850 i860 1870
' % £ % £ $ £
Flax dressing, ) (165,404= 34,400 815,010=142,700
Linen goods > 351,808 = 73,000 <
and thread ) (655,000=136,400 2,178,775 = 372,700
The hemp and cordage have remained stationary. The linen manufectures
have increased 170 per cent, since i860, and the jute industry has sprung up
since that year. It consumed, in 1870, 5,800 tons of jute ; and its value is
included in the returns for bagging and hemp dressing.
In i860 it was remarked that, ** the manufacture of linen goods has made
little progress in this country. A {^\^ mills, chiefly in Massachusetts, make
crash and other coarse fabrics ; the largest two in the State produced 6,000,000
yards in i860. Others are extensively engaged in making twines, shoe, and
other threads. It is' to be regretted that the manufacture of flax has not
attained greater magnitude in a country where the raw material is so easily
and cheaply grown. Farmers throughout the West have raised the crop simply
for the seed, and thrown out the fibre as valueless."
As regards the manufacture of linen goods, I think that it is fair to say
that there is no manufacture of fabrics from flax of any importance, excepting
** crash" and bagging. An attempt by manufacturers of wealth, a few years
ago, to establish the manufacture of the finer linens failed within a short
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HAND BOOK, 163
period. The protected products could not compete with the English goods.
The failure was owing in a great degree to a duty, running up to 300 per cent,
on fine yarns, which could not be spun in the States ; and also to the determi-
nation of the imported hands, who soon found out their power, to obtain
higher and yet higher wages. The machinery was, of course, also imported.
As to the growth of flax for the linen manufacture, I beg to quote the
following remarks, which, although made in 1856, are said to be almost equally
applicable at the present time : —
"The cultivation of flax has fallen off, not because it yielded no return
for capital and labour, but because other crops yielded a much larger return
In other words, *it did not pay,* and the farmers have ceased to raise it.
Flax is a profitable crop to raise in Europe — why is it unprofitable here ?
Because of the difference in climate and soil ; of the want of the skill and
knowledge, acquired only by long experience, reauisite to its successful cultiva-
tion and preparation for the spindle ; because of the differences in the character,
habits, and wants of the agricultural population, male and female, in the two
countries ; because cotton is relatively higher there than here, and because of
many other reasons apparent to the thoughtful mind.
**I was not long in arriving at the conclusion that, under this state of
things, no bleached fine linen goods could be profitably made in this country.
The only road which seemed to run out of this difficulty was the one leading
to such improvements in the husbandry and preparation of ilax for the spindle
as would reduce its price. After visiting most of the flax-growing districts in
the United States, it appeared evident that the chief causes of the greater cost
of producing flax here than abroad, was due to the greater cost of pulling and
retting it.
" In many parts of the country, particularly in Ohio, flax is largely sown
for the seed only. It is mown in the same manner as grass, and thrown upon
the threshing floor, and cattle are driven over it until it is threshed, and the
straw, tow and all, is thrown into the roads for their improvement. Latterly,
attention has been turned to the saving of this waste product, and a kind of
tow has been reclaimed, to some profit, from which coarse goods have been
successfully made. It has been thought that fine, or a good quality of white
paper, could be made from this material, but the difficulty of bleaching the
*' shoves," without destroying the fibre, has been found to be so great that the
attempt has been abandoned.
** It is not probable that fine linens can be profitably made from flax grown
in this country for a number of years ; but there is no doubt but that coarse and
cheap goods, for which there is a large demand, if advantage is taken of all the
knowledge we now possess of the growth and preparation of flax, can be made
with a fair margin of profit.
** After our farmers have been educated, for a generation, in the cultivation
and husbandry of flax, and our mechanics and artizans have had the same
length of time in which to acquire experience and knowledge relating to its
manufacture, the production of finer fabrics can be profitably maintained, and
not till then." . . . " I do not think that in the present condition of this
country the European methods of cultivating and husbanding of flax, which
are the only ones that can succeed where the finer qualities are sought for, can
be profitably introduced."
As to wages, I can quote the following particulars : —
In Massachusetts they were in 1871-72, on an average — Men, 7s 8^d ;
women, 3s 8^d ; young persons, 3s 4d ; children, 2s iX^-
The hours of labour in mills were per week, 72 in 1839, 66 in 1849 and
1859. In 1869 they were usually 66, but are now (in 1873) in many cases
reduced to 64^, in some mills to 62, and in some hosiery and thread mills to
^. In this last case the day averages 10 hours, and in the other cases there
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IRISH LINEN TRADE
are five days of 1 1 hours and a short Saturday. In a few cotton mills, in seve-
ral woollen mills, and in some other mills, the hours of labour exceed 66 hours,
and reach sometimes even to 72 hours a-week.
The flax mills in the United States in 1872 appeared to be as follows :—
No.
Remarks.
Connecticut
2
I trimmings, I cord, &c.
Illinois
Indiana
10
16
5 tow, I bagging.
6 tow, I bagging.
Iowa
3
I tow.
Kentucky
Maine
I
I flax and hemp bagging.
I crash and table-cloths.
Massachusetts
II
3 crash, &c., I linen goods, i braids.
Michigan
Minnesota
I
2
1 bagging.
2 tow.
Missouri
New Hampshire
New Jersey*
New Yorkt
3
3
3
49
3 bagging.
I linens, 2 burlaps, carpets, &c.
I bagging, 2 cordage and twine.
3 linens and yarn, 6 twine, Ac.
Ohio
Vermont
45
I
35 tow, 7 bagging.
I thread.
Wisconsin
2
2 tow.
153
* In New Jersey are also 3 mills making flax, hemp, and jute goods,
t In New York the goods made at 35 of the mills are not known to me.
As regards the future position of the linen industry, it will, I think, be
evident from what has already been stated, that there is no immediate prospect
of the uprising of an important linen manufacture in the United States.
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HAND BOOK.
165
APPENDIX 2.
Rates of Import Duties levied by Foreign Countries on the Linen
Manufactures of the United Kingdom. Compiled from Returns
presented to Parliament in 1869.
NOTB.— J< ihitH tableg cure the latest ones of an official nature^ published by Parliament^ we
believe they will be found substantially correct. We shall, however, be obliged, if any of our readers
detect errors^ that they will be good enough to notify Mtne, with a view to correction in subsequent
edition.
LINEN YARNS AND THREAD.
Tariff Classification.
Tariff Rates
of Duty.
English
BqulTalents.
Russia : —
Rbl. cop.
£ s d
Yams and threads, all kinds
Poud 4 00
Cwt. r 19 5
Sweden : —
R.d.m ore.
Linen yams, undyed or unbleached
Skal. 10
„ 13 4
„, dyed or bleached
„ 20
,,167
'
Sewing thread, unbleached ....
„ 20
,,167
,, bleached or dyed .
» 30
„ I 19 II
•
Norway :—
Spd. sk.
Yams and threads, undyed* ....
Fund 02
,,078
„ I 18 2
„ dyed and twisted .
„ 10
Denmark : —
Rd, sk.
Yams and threads, undyed ....
» 03
„ 08
,,072
dyed ....
„ 19 I
*
Zollverein : —
Thlr. sgr.
Yams and threads, single unbld. machine spun
Centr. 15
„ I 6J
„ „ hand spun .
Free
Free
„ bleached, improved or dyed
„ I 20
,,051
„ twisted, all kinds
„ 4 00
„ 12 2
Hamburg : —
Yams and threads, all kinds
Free
Free
Bremen :—
Yams and thread, stamp or registration duty .
On first transfer and sale .
«1 grot per 1001
I dollars value)
5d^i6 13 4
^Voodval.
/j 0/0 adval.
On subsequent transfers
\%adval.
J 0/0 ad vol.
Holland:—
FL cts.
Unbleached yam
Free
Free
Sewing thread and shoemakers' thread .
iooPd.io 00
Cwt.o 8 6
3ailpm ..,,.,.
„ I op
M Q IQ
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IRISH LINEN TRADE
TarifC Olassiflcatioii.
Tariff Bates
of Duty.
EquiTalents.
Belgium : —
Measuring 20.000 mkres, or less, to the kilo,
giamme, or 2J lbs. avds. .
Not twisted nor dyed .
Twisted or dyed
Measuring more than 20.000 metres to the
kilogramme, or 2J lbs. avds.
Not twisted nor dyed .
Twisted or dyed
France:—
Unbleached of 6,000 metres or less to the
kilogramme, or 2J lbs. avds.
Above 6,000 metres and under 12,000
„ 12,000 „ „ 24,000
,. 24,000 „ „ 36,000
„ 36,000 „ „ 72,000
„ 72,000 „ and above .
Bleached or dyed. Of 6,000 metres or less to
the kilogramme ....
Above 6,000 metres and under 12,000
„ 12,000 „
„ 24,000 „
„ 36,000 „
„ 72,000 „
Portugal : —
Single, unbleached
„ bleached
„ dyed
Twisted, imbleached
„ bleached
„ dyed
Glossed
an$l above
24,000
36,000
72,000
Spain : —
Single, unbleached, bleached, half bleached,
or dyed
Twisted of two or more strands, unbleached, '
bleached, or dyed - - - .
Italy :—
Single, unbleached, improved or bleached
» dyed
Twist, unbleached, improved or Reached
Papal States :—
Unbleached, single ....
„ twisted - - - -
Bleached or dyed • . • •
Frs, cts.
100 Ks. 10 06
„ 15 00
20 00
30 00
15 00
20 00
30 00
36 00
60 00
100 00
20 00
27 00
40 00
48 00
80 00
133 00
Reis.
p6
515
1030
1545
„ 2060
824
In Spanish
Vessels.
Esc, Mill.
iooKs.ii 000
„ 49 000
In Foreign
Vessels.
Esc. Mill.
i00Ks.1i 500
„ 49 500
Lire cts.
looKs. II 50
„ 17 10
„ 23 10
Kolog.
100 Lbe. 7 50
„ 10 00
„ 20 00
£ s d
Cwt. 041
„ o 6 I
082
o 12 2
061
082
o 12 2
•o 14 8
2 o 5
8
II
16
19
12
H
9
3
9
6
3
o
5
„ 2 18
,,48
» 5 17
» II 15
„ 17 13
« 23 II
„ 9 7, .
In Spanish
Vessels.
£ s d
Cwt o II 2
„ 2 9 10
In Foreign
Vessels.
£ s d
Cwt o II 8
„ 2 10 4
,,048
,,070
,,094
„ o 8 n
„ O II II
f, I 3 "
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ler
Tariff Classification.
Austria : —
Handspun, unbleached - - - -
Machine spun, not bleached, dyed, or twisted
Bleached, improved or dyed, but not twisted
Twisted
Switzerland :—
Coarse yam, for making packing cloth -
Single, unbleached and undyed.
Bleached or dyed, all kinds - - -
Greece : —
All yams (except for embroidery) with 500/0 de-
duction for reels - . - -
,, fine for embroidery
Turkey : —
All kinds - -
United States:—
Carpet yafns not exceeding 8 lea, and valued
at 24 cents, or less per lb. -
,,^ above 24 cents per lb.
Flax or Imen thread, not otherwise provided for
Tariff Bates
of Duty.
Fl kr.
Free
Centner o 75
i> 2 50
,, 6 00
Swiss Fr. cts.
Quintal o 30
„ 2 00
» 3 50
Dr, lep,
Oke I 00
„ 4 00
7.20 0/0 advcU
30 0/0 adval
35 *^/o adval,
40 0/0 adval.
English
Equivalents.
£ s d
Free
Cwt. o I 6J
,,051
„ o 12 2
7.20 0/0 adval
30 0/0 ad vol,
35 0/0 ad val,
40 0/0 ad val.
LINEN MANUFACTURES.
Russia : —
Tissues, twilled, or with woven patterns, such
as table linens and towels, also painted or
printed linens
Drills of all kinds
Sailcloth, ticking; dmggeting and carpeting,
either of all flax or mixed - - - -
Coarse linen bags
Batiste and lawn, white linens and Unen hdkfs.
Sweden : —
Canvas, sacking, &c. - - - - -
Ticking . ----.-
Batiste, cambric> muslin, linen cloth, and damask
Sail and tent cloth ---..-
Other kinds, including diapers and drills
Norway : —
Drills and damasks, also handkerchiefs not
otherwise provided for - - - -
Close woven tissues weighing 1 1 lods or more
per square ell (6,0504 per 4X square feet)
bleached or not
Unbleached - -
Dyed, of one colour, or bleached -
Do., several colours, not printed - - -
Printed
Rbl cop.
Funt
65
45
„ o 15
M o 30
30 0/0 adval,
R.d.m ore,
Skalp. o 15
„ o 40
» o 75
„ o 08
» o 65
Spd, sk.
Fund o 16
£ s d
Cwt.io 16 o
„ 7 10 o
„ 2 10 o
,,368
30 0/0 ad val,
Cwt o 19 II
„ 2 13 2
»» 4 19 9
,, o 10 8
»» 4 6 5
3 I
078
15 3
1 10 6
2 5 6
3 16 4
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IRISH LINEN TRADE
Tariff Classification.
Tariff Bates
of Duty.
English
Equivalents.
Denmark ; — Rd, sk.
Unbleached tissues, containing less than 24
threads to the square % inch, or weighing
44 quints. (3^ lbs. avds.) or above to square
ell 24|< inches Fund o 02
Damask, drills, &c. „ o 20
Undyed plain tissues ,,012
Zollverein :— Thlr» sgr.
Unbleached linen, twilling, or drilling - - Centnr.4 00
Bleached, printed, or dyed, or otherwise
dressed; table, bed linen and towelling
unbleached, bleached or made up - - ,, 10 00
Batiste and lawn „ 10 00
Hamburg :—
Atlas drill, batiste, cambric, lawn, damask,
ticking, drill, towelling, Russia duck, shirts,
handkerchiefs, &c. Free
Other kinds ioj^advaL
Bremen :—
Manufactures of all kinds . ^ ,
Stamp or registration duty - - - -{dffiTaluej
Duty on transfer or sale :
On first transfer or sale - - - ' I2 ^/° ^ ^^*
On subsequent transfers • - - - \^Jq ad vol,
Holland :— F7. cts.
Sailcloth Roll o 30
All other manufactures ^ oJq ad vaL
Belgium :—
Manufactures of all kinds (except lace) - - 10 0/0 ad vol,
France : —
Tissues of linen, plain linens and diapers, having
in the warp in the space of 5 millimetres (i-5th
of an inch) : — '
Unbleached : Frs, cts,
5 threads or less lOoKls. 5 00
6, 7, and 8 threads - - - - ,, 28 00
9, 10, and II threads - - - - ,, 55 00
12 threads „ 65 00
13 and 14 threads - - - - ,, 90 00
15, 16, and 17 threads -. - - „ 115 00
18, 19, and 20 threads - ^ - „ 170 00
21, 22, and 23 threads - • - „ 260 00
24 threads and above - - - - „ 300 00
Bleached, dyed, or printed :
8 threads or less - - - - „ 38 00
9, 10, and II threads - - - - „ 70 00
12 threads »» 95 00
13 and 14 threads ----,, 120 00
15, 16, and 17 threads -^ - - „ 155 00
18, 19, and 20 threads - - - ,; 230 00
£ s d
Cwt 049
,,279
,,187
„ o 12 2
I 10 6
I 10 6
' Free
i 0/0 ad vol,
^^/i6 13 4
5 oJq ad vol,
J 0/0 ad vol.
Roll 006
5 0/0 ad vol,
10 0/0 ad vat.
Cwt.
2
oi
II
5
I
2
4
I
6
5
I
16
7
2
6
9
3
9
I
5
5
8
6
I
II
15
5
I
8
5
I
18
7
2
8
10
3
3
4 13
6
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Tarifl Classiflcation.
Tariff Rates
of Duty.
Knglish
Eqaiyulents.
France — Tissues of Linen, &c. — contintud,
21, 22, and 23 threads
. 24 threads and above - - - -
Drills, plain or figured, unbleached, bleached,
dyed, or printed
Damasks -
Cambrics and lawns
Handkerchiefs, bordered, not embroidered
„ embroidered
Drill or damask for clothing ...
Other linen
Note, — Unbleached linen and unions are ad-
mitted free when temporarily sent to be
printed or dyed for re-exportation.
Portugal : —
Packing, and other coarse cloth
Sailcloth, bleached or not - - - -
Holland
Unbleached linen - . - - - . -
Bleached - - - -
Damasks • - - - •
Spain : —
Tissues plain, up to 10 threads inclusive in the
square of six millimetres
,, „ 1 1 to 24 threads
,, ,» 25 threads and over
Tissues, twilled or figured
Italy :—
Tissues of Pure Linen :- -
Of less than 6 threads in the warp in the
space of 5 millimetres (i-5th of an inch):
Unbleached or bleached
Dyed or made of dyed threads -
Of 6 threads or more in the space of 5
millimetres :
Unbleached, bleached, or half-bleached
Dyed or made of dyed threads -
Printed
Papal States : —
Coarse unbleached cloth - - - .
Linen cloth dyed, or in any way dressed -
Tissues of linen, white or grey, plain or worked,
or woven in colours
Frs. cts.
lOOKs.350 00
„ 400 00
160/0 ad vol.
£ s d
Cwt. 723
,,827
16 0/° ad vol.
Same duty as on plain linens
10 0/0 adval. 10 0/0 ad vol.
16 0/0 adval. 16 0/0 adval,
15 ^\q adval. 15 0/0 adval.
Kilog.
Reis.
72
154
257
463
566
772
In Spanish
Vessels.
Esc, mill.
Kilog.o 500
„ I 000
„ I 700
,, o 800
Foreign
Vessels.
Esc. mill.
Kilog.o 505
I 005
I 705
o 805
Lire cts.
lOoKs. 23 10
» 38 00
• ,. 57 75
„ 90 00
„ 115 00
Lire cts.
iooLib.17 90
» 32 25
M 53 75
£ s
Cwt. o 16
d
6
1 15 I
2 18 9
5 5 II
695
8 16 6
Spanish
e&sels
Spa
Ves
Cwt 2 10 10
,,518
„ 8 12 9
» 4 I 4
Foreign
Vessels.
Cwt. 211 4
,,522
.» 8 13 3
,,419
094
o 15 5
1 16 7
269
I I 4
I 18 6
3 4 3
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IRISH LJNEN TRADE
Tariff Glaasification.
Tariff Rates
of Duly.
English
Equiyalents.
^wvssFrs.cts.
quintal 8 oo
» o 75
Dr, Up,
Oke 8 oo
Austria : — PL kr.
Linen cloth bleached, dyed, or printed, up to
50 warp threads, per Vienna inch - - Centnerio 00
Batiste, lawn, gauze, and other open woven
wares (with certain exceptions) - ■ „ 60 00
Switzeriand : —
Stuffs and ticking, bleached, dyed, dressed, or
printed, batiste, lawn, and handkerchiefs,
without embroidery
Common unbleached packing cloth, not ex-
ceeding 25 threads in warp and wefts in
space of I Swiss inch (1.39 sq. inch) -
Greece :—
Batiste of all kinds
Drills, ducks, ravenducks, linen cloth for
sailors, &c.
Cloth, of all kinds, for shirts, sheets, table-
cloths, cloths and other tissues lor dresses,
pure or mixed with cotton - - -
Handkerchiefs, common ....
,, fine (batiste) plain -
,, head
Turkey : —
Linen, brown or white, with coloured stripes,
25 to 27 inches wide
Irish linen cloth and sail-cloth . - -
Ravenduck, 25 to 27 inches wide, 36 to 40 yards
United States :—
Canvas, black, woven, or made in forms or
patterns of such size and shape exclusively
for buttons, shoes, or bootees ...
Brown and bleached linens, ducks, canvas,
diapers, crash huckaback, handkerchiefs,
lawns, or other manufactures not otherwise
specified, or which flax, hemp, or jute is
the chief component material :
Valued at 30 cents or under per square
yard
„ at over 30 cents per square yard -
Russia and sheetings
Ravenduck and sail-cloth - - - .
Bagging or other similar material composed
wholly or in part of hemp, jute, or flax :
Valued at less than ro cents per square yard
„ above 10 cents per square yard -
All other manufactures of linen, flax, hemp,
or jute, pure or mixed with cotton, of which
linen is the chief ccwnponent material -
o 80
, I 06
, I 50
, 9 00
, 3 00
JHastasp.
Yard o 94
T.200joadval.
Piece 7 88
10 0/0 advoL
35 °/o adval.
40 0/0 adval,
35 **/o adval.
30 0/0 adval,
Doll, cts.
Lb. o 03
„ o 04
40 0/0 adval.
£ s d
Cwt. I o 4
„ 6 I II
,,066
,,007
,, II 6 8
..128
,,254
,,226
„ 12 15 o
,,450
Yard 002
J. 200/0 ad vol.
Piece o i 5
10 0/0 ad val.
35 °/o ad vol.
40 0/0 ad val,
35 0/0 ad val,
30 0/0 ad vtU,
Cwt. o 13 10
., o 18 5
40 0/0 ad val.
Digitized by
Google
THE
IRISH LINEN TRADE
DIRECTORY.
Digitized by
Google
^^ In the general Alphabetical List of NamiSy a fuller description of
many Firms will be found,
Tht names of Scutch-mill proprietors an not included in the general list.
Digitized by
Google
THE IRISH LINEN TRADE DIRECTORY.
SCUTCHING MILLS-PROPRIETORS OF.
The following is a List of Names of the Proprietors of Scutch Mills in
Ireland^ so far as could be collected for present edition. With a viav to make the
next list more complete, correspondents will much oblige by furnishing names of
those omitted, and also by noting any corrections required to be made in this.
Abbot, Francis, Legacuny, Lisbum.
Adams, John C, Milltown, Monaghan.
Allen, Edward, Drumnabruze, Liirgan.
Allen George, near Comber.
Anderson, George, Tullywiggan^ Cooks-
town.
Anderson, J., Drumacanver, Madden,
Co. Armagh.
Anderson, J., Ballyloughan, Richhill.
Andrews, W., Templemoyl, Dungiven.
Annesley, Geo., Drumenagh Flax Mill,
Portadown.
Armour, John, Top, Ballymoney.
Baird, Wm., Castlefin, Strabane.
Baird, Captain, Tullyard, Strabane.
Ballagh, John, Moys, Castleshane.
Barefoot, H., Killyleasky, Cookstown.
Baron, Newel, Q.C., J. P., King Hill,
Rathtriland.
Basken, Moses, Ballynamullen, Omagh.
Baxter, Jas. B., Breagh, Taitmayham,
Portadown.
Beckett, John, Dervock, Ballymoney.
Bell, J., Coagh.
Bennett, John, Solitude, Ballygowan.
Bennett, T. Clonakilty.
Best, James & Sons, Armagh.
Birch, Miss, Lurganearly, Castleblayney.
Black, Richard, Coikhill, Cookstown.
Black, J. B., Broughshane, Ballymena.
Boyd, John, Kirkcubbin.
Boyd, Wm., Bally william, Comber.
Boyland, Chas , Batteagh, Macosquin.
Boyle, Alex., Drumsurn, Limavady.
Boys, James, Money more.
Brady, H., Millquarter, Toome Bridge.
Bratton, John, Garmullen, Fintona.
Brown, John, Knockalery, Cookstown.
Bryan. J. J., Kill)meill, Silverstream.
Buchanan, Wm., Raphoe, Strabane.
Burnett, Robert, Ahoghill.
Cambell, Robert, Tullyown, Strabane.
Campbell, — near Downpatrick.
Campbell, Wm. , Tamlagh, Limavady.
Carbrey, Wm. Tullynure, Cookstown.
Cargill, Wilson, near Glasslough.
Carmichael, D. & W., Millisle, Co.
Down.
Carraher, Arthur, Cremarten, Castle-
blayney.
Carson, C. L., Lissaginny, Clontibret.
Carson, Thos., Ballaghy, Armagh.
Casey, Richard, Dunmore, Cookstown.
Caughey, — Ballywalter, near Down-
patrick.
Chambre, J. Stewartstown.
Charles, R., Knockalery, Cookstown.
Chesnut, J. , Dungorberry, Ballymoney.
Clarke, Wm., Ballymorran, Armagh.
Clement, R. S., Blackforth, Fintona.
Cokely, Dan, Rosscarb'ery.
Coleman, Alex., Killigan, Cloughmills,
Colhornn, Robt., Carrick, Strabane.
Connolly, Thos., Shantonagh, Castle-
blayney.
Cook, Andrew, Dungiven.
Corbitt, R., J. P., Lisnasreay House,
• Rathfriland.
Corrigan, Samuel, Fairlawn, Moy.
Cotter, Joseph, Dunmanway.
Cotton, Geo., Dunnard, Cookstown.
Coulter, John, Killinchy, Co. Down.
Cowan, John, Annahavill, Cookstown.
Cowan, W., Drumrankin, Cullybackey.
Cox, James, Artigarven, Strabane.
Coyle, James H., Coleraine.
Craig, Robt., Ballymarlow, Ballymena.
Cramsie, Alex., Coldah, Ballymoney.
Crawford, Chas., Aughafatton, Brough-
shane.
Crawford, Jas., Knockmughy, Omagh.
Crawford, Joseph, Straw, Dungiven.
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174
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Cromey, Mrs.. Balljmamagne, Rathfri-
land.
Grieve Scutch Mills, Ballybay.
Crooks, Wm„ Mone)nnore.
Crouthers, S., Bally loughan, Richhill.
Cunningham, D., Dyan Mills, Caledon.
Cunningham, J., Dullehan, Dromore.
Curry James, Bushmills.
Davison, A., Mill Brook, Randalstown.
Delayney, Patrick, Hilltown.
Devenny, Robert, Strabane.
Dickson, A., Tulnacross, Cookstown.
Dinsmore, J. D., Killigan, Cloughmills,
Belfast.
Dinsmore, Wm., Dimley, near Belfast.
Donnelly, Chas., Castleroddy, Omagh.
Donnelly, John, Mullaghmore, Omagh.
Dougan, Samuel, Mohan, Armagh.
Dougan, Wm., Drummully, Emyvale.
Douglas, Henry, Glenbum, Tassagh,
Armagh.
Douglas, J. S., Rosebrook, Dungiven.
Dugan, James, Ardma, Downhill.
Dunbar, J. M., Ballina.
Duncan, Andrew, Gardum, Dromore,
Co. Tyrone.
Duncan, J. , Ballypatrick, Ballycastle.
Dunlop, John, Rasharkin.
Dunlop, Joseph, Killigan, Cloughmills,
Belfast.
Dunlop, Mrs., Dernaghey, Lisbum.
Eaton, John, Killyrea, Clough.
Eccles, Samuel, Kildress, Cookstown
Eakin, Charles, Glennan, Glasslough.
Evans, David, -Ballynabuoy, Cullan.
Ewart, Captain, Donaghadee.
Ewart, F., near Millisle, Co. Down.
Farreli, G., Corlelackagh, Castleblayney.
Feagan, T., Drumlough, Rathfriland.
Ferguson, R., near Ncwtownards.
Finlay, Robert, Tullyrap, Strabane.
Finlay, J., Killinchy.
Fitzherbret, Thomas R., Shantonagh,
Castleblajmey.
Fletcher, Mr., Glascar, Rathfriland.
Frazer, John, Legacurry, Lisbum.
Gage, W. C, Ballykelly.
Galway, Mrs., Millmount, Dundonald.
Gardner, Robert, Lisnoe, Lisbum.
Gardner, William, Ravamette, Lisbum.
Gault, John, Harr3rville, Ballymena.
Given, Wm., Terrydremout, Limavady.
Glasgow, Mrs., Rasharkin.
Glass, Hugh, Clady, Armagh.
Glenn, Robert, Tullyard, Strabane.
Gormley, R., Ballymagony, Strabane.
Grahames, Jas.,Ballyboggy, Bushmills,
Grehames, M., Burren, Ballymadigen,
Garvagh.
Gray, Gordon, Clady, Armagh.
Gray, James, Bryandram, MarkethilL
Gregg, John, Tellydinnell, Raphoe,
Strabane.
Greer, Mrs., Annarca, Richhill.
Gribben, A. , Aughafatton, Broughshane.
Haire, James, Rosskey, Monaghan.
Hall, IL T., Hilltown.
Hamilton, Jas., Mosside, Ballymoney.
Hamilton, M., Trenta, Strabane.
Hamilton, Mrs., Drumbeg, Strabane.
Hamilton, R., Skerry, Broughshane.
Hanna, Aiidrew, Cloughmills.
Hanna, — Strangford.
Hanna T., Ballynamagne, Rathfriland.
Harkness, Wm., Tintagh, Cookstown.
Harper, John, Caddy, Randalstown.
Harpur, Joseph, Greenhill, Raphoe,
Strabane.
Harris, A., Tullyhamet, Castleblayney.
Harrison, W., Dram leek, Castleljlayney.
Hart, S., near Ballymoney.
Heney, Patrick, Tintagh, Cookstown.
Holland, Wm., Ballylintagh, Coleraine.
Hooey, Thos., Ballyloughan, Richhill.
Hood, John, Cloughmills.
Hunter, A., Corratduty. Castleblajmey.
Hunter, John, Chattam Hall, Annoy,
Ballymoney.
Hunter, John, Straidarren, Feeny.
Hunter, Leslie, MuUaliinch, Aghadowey,
Ballymoney,
Hutchinson, W. F., Stranocum, Bally-
money.
Hutchinson, William, Markethill.
Hyde, Robert, Cranagill, Loughgall.
Irwin, James, Drammond, Limavady.
Jamison, Robt, Quiglough, Ballinode.
Johnston, G. P., Bally macash, Lisbum.
Johnston, Wm., Dunded, Cookstown.
Jolly, W. J., Ballyboy, Ballycastle.
Kenedy, John, Lackan, Rathfriland.
Kennedy, H., Moneynick, Randalstown.
Kennedy, Samuel, Caheney, Kilrea.
Kerr, Jas., Creggan. Randalstown.
Kerr Robert, Articlave, Garvagh.
Kidd, Mrs., Tassagh, Armagh.
Kiigore, Wm, Balljrmahoy, Strabane.
Killen, John, The* Green, Strabane.
Killen, William, Flushtown, Strabane.
Kilpatrick, John, Clady, Armagh.
Kilpatrick, Wm., Cullybackey.
King, Michael, Dungiven.
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DIRECTORY.
176
Kinison, W., Doneymanagh, Strabane.
Kinkead, Wm., Sloyback, Strabane. i
Kircubbin Coy., Limited, Kircubbin,
Co. Down. i
Kirkpatrick, Saml., Balnahone, Pharis,
Ball)maoney. I
Kirkpatrick, Wm., Drumrankin, Cully- '
backey. j
Kyle, J., Tullynahinan, Portglenone. !
Lamont, John, Granshaw, Comber. i
Lavelle, James, Corfinlough, Ballibay. ;
Lavender, A , Knockboy, Ballymena.
Leckey, James, Dromore, Strabane.
Leckey, Robert, Carrick, Strabane.
Lees, John, Ringsend, Garvagh.
Lepper, Jas., Wellbrook, Cookstown.
Lindsay, The Misses, Ballyaughian,
Hilltown.
Lorden, John, Enniskean.
Lougherry, W., Walkmills, Limavady.
Lowry, Henry, Drumcaw, Strabane.
Lowry, H., Castlemellon, Strabane.
Lowry, — Kilmore, near Crossgar.
Lowry, Mrs., Balljrmaconnell, Bangor.
Lynd, John, Killure, Coleraine.
Lyons, Mrs., Tullyquilly, Rathfriland.
Macauley, John, Bushmills.
Magaw, J., Moneymore.
Magill, Patrick, Cullane, Pharis, Bally-
money.
Mallon, James, Drumart, Loughgall.
Marks, W. J., Camearney, Ahoghill.
Marshall, Roger, TuUyglush, Kane,
Middletown.
Martin, Israel, Ballyhenry, Limavady.
Marten, Samuel, Milltown, Strabane.
Martin, John, Hilltown.
Martin, J. . near Killyleagh.
Martin, Mrs., Dunmore, Cookstown.
Martin, Samuel, Clady, Armagh.
Martin, Wm., Laughan, Coleraine.
Millar, — near Portaferry.
Millar, Wm., Galvin, Dungiven.
Millar, Alexander, Killycan, Dungiven.
Miller, T., Back, Cookstown.
Minnis, Michael, Rosscarbery.
Montgomery, J., Tamlat, Monaghan.
Mooney, John, Macosquin.
Moore, A., Broughshane, Ball3rmena.
Moore, J., MuUaghduff, Armoy, Bally-
money.
Moore, L., Dervock, Ballymoney.
Moore, Samuel, Laughan, Coleraine.
Moore, William, Loughness, Strabane.
Moore, W. J., Advemess, Macosquin.
Morris, James, Leap.
Morrow, James, Windsor Hill, Rath-
friland.
Morrow, Robert, L^acurry, Lisbum.
Moses, David, Leskinore, Fintona.
Muldoon, Mrs. , Gortreragh, Cookstown.
Munford, J., Broughshane, Ballymena.
M*Alister, J., Beragh.
M'Alister, R., Beragh.
M*Alister, J., Dunsemick, Ballintra.
M'Alister, R., Bushmills.
M'Alister, Robert, Clare, Cookstown.
M'Alister, S. & J., Tirkeeran Mills,
Garvagh.
McAllister, Alex., Tirkeeran, Garvagh.
M'Aughey, Saml., Broughshane, Bally-
mena.
M*Beth, Robt, Ballendrait, Strabane.
M*Bimey, A., Culloville, Castleblayney.
M*Bride, William, J.P., Moneyslone
House, Rathfriland.
M'Camon, Andrew, Nulgrove, Seaford.
M *Caw, John, Drumnefivey, Stranocum,
Ballymoney.
M*Can, T., Killycogan, Portglenone.
M*Cauley, John, Bushmills.
M*Cleery. R., Magherahand, Strabane.
M*Clelland, J., Balljrmore, Limavady.
M'Closkey, J., J. P., Keeley, Aghadoey,
Ballymoney.
M*Clure, D., DerryhuUough. Randals-
town.
M'Clure, J., Ballycregagh, Stranocum,
Ballymoney.
M'Conaghy, Dr., TuUydonnell, Raphoe
Strabane.
M'Cormick, T., Brookend, Cookstown.
M'Crea, Robert, Lisan, Cookstown.
M'Croberts, L., Rideman, near Cross-
gar.
M*Crum, James, Drummond, Madden,
Co. Armagh.
M*CulIoch, T., Derryvally, Ballibay.
M*Cullough, John, Mountnorris.
M*Cullough, John, Granshaw, Comber.
M*Dowell, W.J., Granshaw, Comber.
M*Fadden, J., Ballywollen, Garvagh,
M'Fetridge, Thos., Brookficld, Agha-
doey, Ballymoney.
M *Ginnis, Michael, Shanmullagh,
Clontibret.
M'Grath, Mr., Tynan.
M 'Guile, Robert, Warren, Ballycastle.
M'llhatten, A., Kingariff, Stranocum,
Ballymoney.
M'llhone, Mrs., Lisan, Cookstown.
M'llwaine, William, Dundonald.
Digitized
d by Google
175
IRISH LINEN TRADE
M'Kane, John, Raheney, Fintona.
M*Kay, junr., Geo. Portinaghy, Glass-
lough.
M*Kay, Joseph, Drumsum, Limavady.
M*Kean, Henry, Benburb, Co. Armagh.
M'Kee, Wra., Tullycarey, Greyabbey.
M'Keever, Hugh, Cloughmills.
M *Kibbin, Samuel, near Comber.
M'Kindry, Edward, Lurgan More,
Castleblayney.
M'Kinlay, William, Rasharkin.
M'Kimer, Miss, Rasharkin.
M'Losky, J., Feeggaron, Cookstown.
M'Laughlin, Mr., Aughadarra, Dro-
more, Co. Tyrone.
M*Mahon, Thomas, Tandragee.
M'Math, Andrew, Thomford House,
Castleblayney.
M'Mordie, — near Crossgar.
M'Morran, George, Comber.
M*Neill, John, Buckna, Broughshane.
M 'Reynolds, P., Altmover, Dungiven.
M*Reynolds, Thomas, King's Mill,
Cookstown.
Neill, George, Ballybreagh, Richhill.
Nery, Robt., Little Bridge, Cookstown.
Newell, Wm., Derriaghy, Lisbum.
Nevin, James, Camglass, Portrush.
Nevin, James, Walkmill, Bushmills.
Nevin, J., Greenshields, Bally money.
Nugent, James, Edagold, Fintona.
Nugent, Thos., Castleroddy, Omagh.
Oliver, Joseph, Readuff, Castleblayney.
O'Rourk, B., Inniskee, Dundalk.
Orr, Blakely, Ballystockard.
Osborne, Wm., Altmover, Dungiven.
Parker, J., Kells Water, Ballymena.
Parks, Mrs., Walk Mill, Strabane.
Parks, Joseph, Ballinderry.
Patten, Wm., Gortileck, Strabane.
Patterson, William, Killinchy.
Perkins, T. C, Ballina.
Perry, Joseph, near Downpatrick.
Porter, A., Kate's Bridge, Rathfriland.
Price, John, Ballinlea, Moyarget,
Ballymoney.
Priestly, Mn, Saintfield.
Quin, James, Downhill.
Quin, James, Douglass, Strabane.
Rankin, Samuel, Rustican, Strabane.
Rea, Mrs., Ballyholy, Strabane.
Reed, Thomas, Lemreulla, Ballinode.
Reed, Thomas, Teravety, Scotstown.
Redmond, John Walter, Sandymount,
Richhill.
Reade^ R., near Ballygowan.
Robb & Reade, Ballygowan.
Robertson, J. , Ballyteagh, Middletown
Robinson, Mr., Craigs, Cully backey.
Robinson, Thomas, Killinchy.
Ross, David, Jonagh, Fintona.
Ross, David, Raheney, Fintona.
Roulston, A., Castletown, Strabane.
Roulston, Robert, Ardagh, Strabane.
Ruddell, John, Ballybay Flax MUl,
Portadown.
Russell, James, Killen, Strabane.
Rutherford, Wm., near Cookstown.
Sayers, Hugh, Cloughmills.
Scott, Robert, Knockmaghy, Omagh.
Shaw, Fred, near Killinchy.
Shaw, James, Buckna, Broughshane.
Silcock, James, near Crossgar.
Simpson, George, Moyasick, Ahoghill.
Simpson, Robt., Kingsmill, Cookstown.
Sinclair, Mr., Spamount, Cookstown.
Sinton, Thomas, Hamiltonbawn, Co.
Armagh.
Small, James, Straid, Ahoghill.
Smith, Hugh, Drummond, Madden,
Co. Armagh.
Smith, Thomas, Bolea, Limavady.
Smyth, E., Clonakilty.
Smyth, James, Ballyrashane, Coleraine
Smyth, William, Altrest, Strabane.
Smyth, William, Drumenie, Strabane.
Smyth, Wm., Kirkistown, Coleraine.
Spamount Spinning Co., Spamount,
Castlederg.
Stewart, G., Galvin, Dungiven.
Stewart, Hugh, Cloughmills.
Stewart, William, Boghill, Coleraine.
Stewart, Wm., Shankey, Cookstown.
j Stinton, John, Dunman, Cookstown.
I Stockdale, George, Downpatrick.
I Story, Robert, Coagh.
\ Strahan, Thomas, Corby, Clough.
I Strahan, Thomas, Clinty, Ballymena.
I Stuart, John, Cloughmills.
Stuart, Wm., Ballyrashane, Coleraine.
I Swanzy, Hugh, Castleblayney.
Thomson, George, Moycraig, Mosside,
Ballymoney.
Thompson, S. , Ballymadigan, Garvagh.
Thompson, W., Buckna, Broughshane.
Todd, William, Fryfin, Castlederg.
Toner, Thos., Rosebrook, Dungiven,
Waddell, Robert, J.P., M^heralin.
Wallace, H., J. P., Morenis, Garvagh.
Wallace, John, Crockindolg, Garvagh.
Wallace, Wm., New Mills, Portglenone.
Wallace, Wm., Forth, Limavady.
Digitized by
Google
J^IRECTORY.
177
Walsh, Alexander, Fintona.
Warden, James, Cunningbum, Ards.
Warnock, Thomas, Corclea, Keady.
Wamock, Thos.,.Laughan, Coleraine.
Waterson, Jas., Ballynagappog, Rath-
friland.
Watson, Henry, Rock, Cookstown.
Webb, Bros., Randalstown.
Weir, Alex., Straid, Ahoghill.
White, Geo., Thorn Hill, Strabane.
White, Robert, Kenbilly, Ballymena.
Wiggins, H., Eglinton, Derry.
Wightman, J., Springmount, Clough-
mills.
Wilson, Charles, Milltown, Raphoe,
Strabane.
Wilson, James, Ballyaggon, Garvagh.
Wilson, James, Shanevagh, Dromore,
Co. Tyrone.
Wilson, Mrs., Meath Park, Coleraine.
Wilson, Mrs. Maria, Collins, Aghadoey,
Ballymoney.
Wilson, Thos., Drummond, Madden,
Co. Armagh.
Wilson, Thos., Derrycheer, Dungiven.
Wilson, Wm., Ardbrim, Rathfriknd.
Wilsom, William, Drumaney, Raphoe,
Strabane.
Woodbum, Wm., Gortfad, Garvagh.
Woods, Wm., Rathfriland.
Wright, Thos., Drumilly, Loughgall,
Co. Armagh.
Young, John, Cavanalee, Strabane.
Wholesale Flaxseed Merchants and Agents.
Andrews, S., Victoria st, Belfast.
Beattie, James, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Bell, Richard, & Co., Linen Hall,Belfast.
Boyd, Robert, Armagh.
Brown, Corbitt, & Co., Victoria st,
Belfast.
Dickson, Thomas A., Dungannon.
Faren, Joseph, & Sons, Waring street,
Belfast.
Fiddes & Co., M. J., Donegall place,
Belfast.
Finlay, Brown, & Co., Police square,
Belfast.
Glenn, James, Corporation st, Belfast.
Harper, Martin, & Son, Victoria street,
Belfast.
Henderson, David, lo, Corporation st,
Belfast.
Hunter, John, jun., & Co., Corporation
street, Belfast.
Lytle, John, & Sons, Victoria street,
Belfast.
Mead ley, Thomas, Corporation street,
Belfast.
MuUan, William, Victoria st, Belfast,
Munster, Alfred, Victoria st, Belfast.
M*Blain & Co., Newry.
M*Causland, Samuel, Victoria street,
Belfast.
Patterson, R. Lloyd, & Co., Corpora-
tion street, Belfast.
Preston, John, & Co., Calender street,
Belfast.
Reynolds, Archibald, Corporation st,
Belfast.
Richardson, Bros., & Co., Donegall pi,
Belfast, and Dublin, Corl^ and
Gal way.
Smith, J. & T., Tomb street, Belfast.
Smith, John A., & Co., Londonderry.
Flax and Tow Merchants and Commission Agents.
Adams, William, Strabane.
Beattie, James, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Bell & Co., Richard, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Bell, Timothy, Corporation st, Belfast.
Beverley, Alexander, Belfast.
Bingham, G. Gerald, Waring street,
Belfast
N
Boyd, Robert, Armagh.
Connolly, Henry, Eliza street, Belfast.
De Bruyn, H. T., Victoria st, Belfast.
Devlin, W. J., Cookstown.
Finlay, Brown, & Co., 20, Police sq,
Belfast
Grailey, Daniel, Coleraine.
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Google
178
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Gordon, George, & Son, Ann street,
Belfast
Halferty & Son, John, Londonderry.
Henry, Bernard, Cookstown.
. Henderson, David, lo, Corporation st,
Belfast.
Hogq: & Co., John, 2, Corporation st,
Belfast.
Hunter, jun., & Co., John, Corporation
street, Belfast
Hyndman, James, Commercial court,
Belfast.
Kamcke & Co., W. R., Linen Hall,
Belfast.
Kelly. Francis, & Co. , Monaghan.
Lavender, Wm. J., Ballymena.
Linden & Co., AC R., 35, Police sq,
Belfast.
MacGeagh & MacLaine, Ann st, Belfast
Meadley, Thomas, Corporation street,
Belfast.
M*Closkey, James, Ballymoney.
M'CuUough, Archibald, Commercial
court, Belfast.
M 'Donald, Francis, Cullingtree road,
Belfast
M'Kinley, David, & Son, Armagh.
M*Mahon, James, Armagh.
Nicholl, Parker, & Co., Donegal! st,
Belfast
Oulton & Co., John, 37, Don^^all st,
Belfast
Patterson & Co., R. Lloyd, 22, Cor-
poration street, Belfast
Plunkett & Son, F. , Corporation street,
Belfast
Preston & Co., John, 20, Calender st,
Belfast
Rafter, W. P., Wellington pi, Belfast
Reade, Clarke, & Co., 62, Upper Queen
street, Belfast
Reilly, Edward. Waring st, Belfast
Reynolds, Archibald, Corporation st,
Belfast
Richardson, Bros., & Co., Donegall pi,
Belfast.
Savage & Co., Sir John, 46 k 48,
Victoria street Belfast.
Smyth & Co., J. A., Londonderry.
Stevenson & Douglass, Dungannon.
Thompson, W.*G., Moneymore.
Trimble, James, Strabane.
Williamson, J. , 28, Grattan st, Belfast
Wilson Bros., North street, Belfast.
Wilson, John, Newry.
Woods, James, Cootehill.
Flax and Tow Yam Spinners.
Adair, Thomas, & Co., Cookstown.
Andrews, John, & Co , Comber.
Barbour, William, & Sons, I^isbum.
Belfast Flax and Jute Co. (Limited),
Belfast.
Bells and Calvert, Whitehouse.
Bessbrook Spinning Co., Bessbrook.
Blackstaff Spinning and Weaving Co.
(Limited), Durham street, Belfast
Braid water Spinning Co. (Limited),
Ballymena.
Broadbent, Samuel E., Cogry, Doagh.
Brookfield Linen Co. (Limited), Done-
gall street, Belfast.
Balnamore Spinning Co., Ballymoney.
Buncranagh Spinning Co., Buncranagh.
Campbell, Henry, & Co., Mossley Mill,
Belfast
Craig, Samuel, Ballymoney.
Dempster, Robert, Newry.
Duff Bros., Coagh, Moneymore.
DuflRn, Charles, ^ Co., Lagan village,
Belfast
Dunbar, M'Master, & Co., Gilford.
Edenderry Spinning Co. (Limited),
Crumlin road, Belfast.
Eliza Street Spinning Co., Eliza street,
Belfast.
Emerson, John, Ballysillan, Belfast.
Ewart, William, & Son, Crumlin road,
and Bedford street, Belfast
Falls Flax Spinning Company (Limited),
Conway street, Belfast.
Fenton & Co., S. G., Lmen Hall,
Belfast.
Gordon & Co., North Howard street,
Greeves, J. & T. M., Falls rd, Belfast
Gunning & Campbells (Limited), North
Howard street, Belfast.
Hale, Martin, & Co., Dungannon.
Hay, James, Grove Mill, Belfast.
Hayes, F. W., & Co., Banbridge.
Herdmans& Co., Sion Mills, Strabane.
Hind, John, & Sons, Durham st, Belfast.
Hursts, Drumaness, Ballynahinch.
^Irvine, Hill, .Newry.
Digitized by
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DIRECTORY,
179
Island Spinning Co. (Limited), lisburn.
Johnston, Philip, & Sons, Jennymount,
Belfast.
Killyleagh Flax Spinning Company
(Limited), Killyleagh.
Kirk, W. M., & Co., Darkley, Keady.
Lawrence Bros., Coleraine.
Ligoneil Spinning Co ,Ligoneil, Belfast
Limavady Spinning & Weaving Co.
(Limited), Limavady.
Lisdourt Spinning Co., Ballygawley.
Martin, John, & Co. (Ld. ), Killyleagh.
Milewater Spinning Co., Milewater,
Belfast.
Milfort Spinning Co., Falls rd, Belfast.
Mitchell Bros., Crumlin road, Belfast.
Moore, W. T., & Co., Ld., Monkstown
Mill, Belfast.
Moreland Brothers, Loopbridge Mill,
Belfast.
Murland, James, Castlewellan.
Murphy & Reynolds, Armagh.
M'Cleery & Reynolds, Doagh.
M'Kean, Sons, & Co., Ca>tleblayney.
Northern Spinning & Weaving Co.
(Limited), Falls road, Belfast.
Roan Spinning Company, Coalisland,
Dungannon.
Ross, William; & Co., Clonard Mill,
Belfast. '
Savage, Sir John, & Co., Crumlin rd,
Belfast.
Shaw, Edward, & Co., Celbridge and
Belfast.
Shaw, Joseph, Celbridge.
Shaw, William, & Co., Cork.
Sinton, Thomas, Tandragee.
Smithfield Flax Spinning & Weaving
Co. (Limited), Smithfield, Belfast.
Smyth, Robert, Emyvale.
Spamount Spinning Co., Spamount
Mill, Castlederg.
Stewart, Robert, & Sons, Lisburn.
St. Mary*s Flax Spinning • Co.,
Drogheda.
Taylor, James, & Sons, Carrickfergus.
Ulster Spinning Co. (Limited), Bath pi,
Falls road, and Linfield, Belfast.
Walker, George, Newtownards.
Wallis & Pollock, Cork.
Weir, A. C, & Co., Dmimurry.
Whiteabbey Flax Spinning Co. (Ld),
Whiteabbey, Belfast.
Whitehouse Spinning Co., Whitehouse,
Belfast.
Wilson, Abraham, Newry.
Wolfhill Spinning Company, Wolfhill,
Belfast.
York Street Flax Spinning Company
(Limited), Henry street, Belfast.
Linen Yam Merchants and Commission Agents.
Anderson, James, Lurgan.
Anderson, Wm. Ballymena.
Bell & Co., R., Linen Hall, Belfast.
Betzold & Co., George, Fountain lane,
Belfast.
Brookfield Linen Co. (Ld.), Donegall
street, Belfast.
Capper May, & Co., Upper Queen St.,
Belfast.
Close, Robert, Ballymena.
Collins, & Co., John, Queen street,
Belfast.
Dickson, Robt., Donegall sq. North,
Belfast.
Duffin & Co., Charles, Waring street,
Belfast.
Ewart & Son, Wm., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Fenton & Co., S. G., Lmen Hall,
Beliast.
Fiddes & Co., M. J., Wellington pi.,
Belfast.
Finlay Bros. & Co., Corporation st,
Belfast.
French, Duncan & Co., 31, Rosemary
street, Belfast.
Gaffikin & Co., Thos., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Herdmans & Co., Donegall sq. south,
Belfast
Hunter, jun., & Co , John, Corporation
street, Belfast.
Jaffe Bros., & Co., Donegall sq. east,
Belfast.
Johnston, W. Sibbald, Bedford street,
Belfast.
Johnston & Allen, Lurgan.
Kamcke & Co., W. R., Linen Hall,
Belfast.
Lipman ^ Co., Bedford street, Belfast.
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180
IRISH LINEN TRADE
MacGeagh & MacLaine, Ann street,
Bel&st.
Moore & Weinberg, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Moreland Bros., Donegall pi., Belfast
Murphy, Joseph, Lurgan.
Patterson, White, & Co., Corporation
street, Belfast, and Lurgan.
Pirn Bros, & Co., Upper Queen street,
Belfast.
Preston & Co., John, Calender street,
Belfast.
Reade, Clarke, & Co., Up. Queen st.,
Belfast.
Richardson Bros, k Co., Donegall pi.,
Belfast.
Richardson, Grubb, & Co., Donegall
sq. south, Belfast.
Savage k Co., Sir J., Victoria street,
Belfast.
Shaw & Co., Edward, Victoria street,
Belfast
Ulster Spinning Co. (Ld.), Falls road,
Belfast
Vance, Gilbert, Donegall street,
Belfast.
Wallis & Pollock, Cork.
Wilson Bros., Winecellar entry, Belfast
Wood, John, Donegall square North,
Belfast
Workman J. & R., Bedford street,
Belfast
York Street Flax Spinning Company
(Limited), Henry street, Belfast
Linen Manufacturers (Power and Hand-loom), Linen
Merchants, and Commission Agents.
Acheson k Smith, Castlecoalfield, Dun-
gannon.
Adair & Son, Thomas, Greenvale,
Cookstown.
Adams, R. J., Howard street, Belfast.
Adams & Co., John, Ballydevitt, Bally-
money.
Addy, Wm., Allistragh, Armagh.
Agnew, Wm., Ahoghill.
Aickin, William, Cullybackey.
Alexander, Saml. Maxwell, J. P., D.L.,
Limavady.
Anderson, J., Ahoghill.
Anderson, J., Tubberhead, Maghera-
felt, Co. Deny.
Andrews, Archibald, near Ballymena.
Andrews, M., Ardoyne, Belfast.
Andrews, W. J., near Ballymena.
Armstrong, Robt.y Hudson St. Factory,
Belfast.
Arthur k Son, John, Strabane.
Banford Bleach works Co mpy., Banford
Green, Gilford, Co. Down.
Bann View Weaving Factory, Gar-
vaghey road, Portadown.
Barcrofts & Co., Redford Mills, Moy.
Barklie, J. & A., Inver, Lame.
Barklie & Co., Thomas, MuUamore,
Ballymoney.
Bedford Street Weaving Co., Bedford
street, Belfast,
Begg k Co., Alexander, Londonderry.
Bellas, J. H. & G., Ballymena.
Bell k Co., Thomas, Lurgan.
Bell & Co., R., Linen Hall, Belfast
Bell, W. L. & H. H. & Co., Bedford
street, Belfast.
Bessbrook Spinning Co., Bessbrook,
Newry.
Best & Co., W. J., Dunadry.
Betzold & Co., Geoi^e, Fountain lane,
Belfast.
Black & Co., Jas., Dunmaul House,
Randalsto\ra.
BlackstafF Spinning and Weaving Co.
(Limited), Durham street, Belfast.
Blakely, Thomas, Bleary, Lurgan.
Boal, J. & H., Slatt, Ballymena.
Brookfield Linen Company (Limited),
Donegall street, Belfast.
Brown & Co., Drapersfield, Cookstown.
Brown, J. S., & Sons, Bedford street,
Belfast
Brown, Robt., k Co., Donegall square
north, Belfast.
Bryson, Wm. , Waring street Belfast.
Bullock, G. A., Bedford street, Belfast
Bullock Bros., Donegall square south,
Belfast.
Bullock k Co., Linen Hall st, Belfast.
Bums & Macaulay, James st. South,
Belfast
Digitized by
Google
DIRECTORY.
181
Calder k Co., J. M., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Calwell, Andrew, Clough.
Cameron, James, Bally money.
Cameron, Hugh, Ballymena.
Campbell, B., Clare, Laurencetown.
Can'pbell, S., Ballylumin, Ahoghill.
Carey, M'Clelland, & Co., London-
derry.
Carter & Sons, Thos. Up. Queen St.,
Belfast.
Caruth, R., Craigywarren, Ballymena.
Castleisland Linen Co., Office— Linen
Hall, Belfast ; and Portadown.
Cautherwood, M.,Craigs, Cullybackey.
Chaine & Son, William, Muckamore,
Antrim.
Charley, & Co., J. & W., Dunmurry.
Charley, Telford, & Co., Howard St.,
Belfast.
Charley, Wm., & Co., Lisbum.
Chesney, R., Grange Comer, Toome
Biidge.
Christian, j. R., 8, Donegall sq. south,
Belfast.
Cinnamond, Park, & Co., Linenhall
street, Befast.
Clark, Robert, Moy, Co. Tyrone.
Clarke, John, Dromore.
Clarke, William, Portrush.
Clendinning, J., High St., Lurgan.
Clibbom, Hill, & Co., Banbridge.
Close, Robert, Ballymena.
Conland & Sons, John, Alfred street,
Belfast.
Connor, Foster, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Cordner, Alexander, Lurgan.
Coulson, & Co., James, Lisbum.
Coulson, William, & Sons, Lisbum.
Cowdy, Anthony, Portadown.
Craig, Mrs., Strabane.
Crawford & Co., Glenbana, Gilford.
Crawford & Co., George, Hazelbank,
Laurencetown.
Crawford & Lindsays, Banbridge.
Crosbie, G., Dromore.
Currell Jt Co., Daniel, jr., Linenhall St.,
Belfast.
Currell, Andrews, Ballymena.
Curry, Samuel, Ballymena.
Darbishire Bro., Fountain lane, Belfast.
Davison, M., Ballyscullian, Co. Derry.
Davison & Co., Robert, Bedford street,
Belfast.
Dawson, T., Charles street, Portadown.
Pevlin, James, Cookstown.
Dickson & Sons, Peter, Castledawson.
Dickson, Robert, Bedford st., Belfast,
Dickson, Thos. A., Milltown Factory,
Dungannon.
Dicksons, Ferguson, & Co., Linenhall
street, Belfast.
Dixon, John M., Tullycaim, Dromore.
Doherty, James, Finvoy, Ballymoney.
Doherty, John, Rasharkin.
Douglas, T., Donegall street, Belfast,
Douglas, John, & Sons, Lurgan.
Duffin, E. G., & Co., Little Sackville
street, Belfast.
Duke, Graham, & Lockwood, Clarence
street, Belfast.
Dunbar, M*Master, & Co., Gilford.
Dunlop, Wm., Kells, Ballymena.
Dunlop, W. H., Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Dunseath & Sons., James street South,
Belfast.
Eakin, S., Rock Spring, Moneymore.
Eakin, Samuel E., Coagh.
Easdale, Wm., Castledawson.
Eliza Street Spinning Co. , Eliza street,
Belfast.
Elliott, John, Lurgan.
Elliott, John, & Co., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Ellison, John, Flax Works, Lisbum.
English, Wm., Howard St., Belfast.
Ennis, Thomas, & Co. , Drogheda.
Ewing, Son, & Co., Donegall square,
south, Belfast.
Falloon, John, Lurgan.
Falls Flax Spinning Co., Falls road,
Belfast.
Fenton, Connor, k Co., Linen Hall,
Belfast.
Ferguson, J. , & Co. , Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Ferguson, & Co.. T., Edenderry.
Ferris & Co., Linenhall street, Belfast
Fiddes, M. J., & Co., Wellington pi.,
Belfast.
Finlay Bros. & Co., Corporation st.,
Belfast.
Fleming, James, Franklin pi., Belfast.
Flinn & Co., N., Drogheda.
Forestbrook Linen Co., Rostrevor.
Fulton, Joseph, & Co., Howard street,
Belfast.
Gaffikin, Thos., k Co., Bedford st.,
Belfast.
Gamble, Shillington, k Co., Broadway,
Belfast.
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182
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Gibson, George, & Co., Queen street,
Belfast.
Gibson, Ranger, & Co., Londonderry.
Gibson, Robert B., Londonderry.
Giffen, James, Ballymena.
Gihon, W., jun., Clonavon, Ballymena.
Gilles Linen Co., Armagh.
Gilmer, William, Ballymena.
Girdwood, Maxwell, & Co., Linen
Hall, Belfast.
Glass Bros. & Co., Franklin street,
Belfast.
Glass, J., & Co., Portglenone.
Glass, John, King street, Belfast
Glass, R., & Co., West st, Portadown.
Goodbody, J. & F., Clara, King's Co.
Gordon Brothers & Co., Lawn brook
Factory, Belfast.
Grant & Co., Alex., Londonderry.
Gray, George, & Sons, Glenanne,
Markethill.
Grenier, P. & Co., Franklin pL, Belfast.
Greenham, George, Athy.
Greenmount Spinning Co., The, Up.
Queen street, Belfast.
Gribbon, Alexander, Bedford street,
Belfast.
Gribbon Edward, & Sons, Coleraine.
Guild, Alexander, ifc Co., Bedford
street, Belfast.
Gunning & Son, John, Cookstown.
Guynet & Co., L. H., Chichester st.,
Belfast.
Hale, David, Drumavaddy.
Hanna, William, jun., Castlewellan.
Hanna, William J., Cloughmills.
Harbison, James, Magherafelt.
Harden, Charles, Thomas st., Porta-
down and Tandragee.
Harrison, Brothers, Dromore.
Harden Bros., Harrison & Co., Belfast
and Lurgan.
Hazelton, Dawson, Killyman, Moy.
Henderson, J., Sherrygroom Factory,
Dungannon.
Henning & Son, John,-Waringstown.
Henry, A. & S., &Co., Wellington pi.,
Belfast.
Henry & Haig, Bedford Street, Belfast.
Henry, James, Tyanee, Co. Derry.
Henery,Thos., Ballygronan, Co. Derry.
Herd, M. C. Franklin street, Belfast.
Heron & Lutton, Lurgan.
Heron, W. & Co., William st., Lurgan.
Hind & Sons, J., Durham St., Belfast.
Hilton, John, Portglenone.
Hilton & Co., J., Portglenone,
Hilton, Robert, Cullybackey,
Houston, W. W. & Co., James street
south, Belfast.
Hughes, George, & Co., Donegall sq.
south, Belfast.
Hull, Henry, & Co., Drogheda.
Hutchinson, Richard, Broughshane,
Ballymena.
Island Spinning Co. (Ld.), Island
Mills, Lisbum.
Jaffe Bros., Donegall sq. south, Belfast
Jardine, William, Dromore.
Jefferson, Wm., & Co., Foyle street,
Londonderry.
Johnston, Jas., Commercial Chambers,
Belfast.
JohnstoQ, James, Castledawson.
Joy mount Manufacturing Co., Carrick-
fergus.
Kamcke & Co., W. R., Linen Hall,
Belfast.
Kelly, D., Sandymount, Castledawson.
Kelly, James, Ball)mease, Co. Derry.
Kelly, T., New Ferry, Toome Bridge.
Kennedy, D., Church street, Belfast.
Kennedy, H., Milltown, Toome Bridge.
Kennedy, James, Strabane.
Kennedy, Patrick, Grange, Milltown,
Toome Bridge.
Kemahan, Thomas, Portadown.
Kirk, David, Moorfield, Ballymena.
Kirk, W., & Son, Bedford St., Belfast,
and Keady.
Kidd, Tassie & Co. Bedford street,
Belfast
Lamont, & Son, Samuel, Eden, Bally-
money.
Langtry, Fred, Moira.
Lawson, Alexander, Lurgan.
Lecky, F. B., Donegall square north,
Belfast.
Lee, James, Randalstown.
Liddell, William, & Co., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Lindsay, G. & J., Banbridge.
JLindsay, Maurice, Dromore.
Lindsay, R., & Co., Victoria st, Belfast
Lipman & Co., Bedford street, Belfast.
Livingston, J., Fountain St., Belfast
Livingston, T. , & Co., Linenhall street,
Lennon, T. & Co., Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Luke, Joseph, Ahoghill, Co. Antrim.
Lutton, Andrew J., & Son, Linenhall
street, Belfast.
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Google
DIRECTORY,
183
Lyn, Wm., Little Bridge, Cookstown.
Maclean, S. T., Linenhall St., Belfast.
Macoun, W. & J. Lurgan.
Macoun, & Co., James, Lurgan.
Macoun, John R., Lurgan and Belfast
Macneary, Henry, Coleraine.
Magee Bros. & Co., Lurgan.
Magee, & Co., Jas. R., Bedford St., Belfast
Magee, Thos. H., Clarence St., Belfast.
Magee, W. J., Lisburn.
Major Bros., James st. south, Belfast.
Malcolm «fc Pent land, Bedford street,
Belfast and Lurgan.
Malcolmson Bros., Portlaw.
Mann, W. C, Hill Head, Castledawson.
Martin, H., & Co., Clarence place,
Belfast.
Martin, R. & D., Linenhall st, Belfast.
Masson, Kennedy, & Co., Strabane.
Matier, & Co., Henry, Clarence place,
Belfast.
Mawhinney, Wm., Hill Head, Castle-
dawson.
Maxwell, William, Lurgan.
Miller, H., Greenhall, Castledawson.
Miller, T., Greenhall, Castledawson.
Mitchell, Bros., Crumlin Road, Belfast.
Monejrpenny & Watson, James street
south, Belfast.
Montgomery & Co., Linen Hall, Belfast.
Moore, Jas., jun., Ballyconley, Cully-
h3,ckey.
Moore, J. & J. R., Ballyconley, Cully-
backey.
Moore & Weinberg, Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Moreland Bros., Donegall pL, Belfast.
Morton, James, Bellaghy, Co. Deny.
Murland, James, Annsborough, Castle-
wellan.
M*Bride, Robert, & Co., Bedford street,
Belfast.
M*Bride, S. W., & Co., Lurgan.
M*Caughey & Co., Lui^an.
M*Caw, W. & J., Portglenone.
M*Clelland, Robt, & Sons, Banbridge.
M*Convill, Thomas. Lurgan.
M*Corry, Jas., & Co., Linenhall street,
Belfast, and Lurgan.
M*Cosh, R., Broughshane, Ballymena.
M'Crory & Sons, William, Lurgan.
M*Crum, Robert, & Co., Armagh.
M*Crum, Watson & Co., Bedford st,
Belfast.
M*Cullough, R.y -14, James st south,
Belfast.
McDonald, J., near Moy.
M*Fadden, James, Portglenone.
M*Ferran & Co., J. H., Donegall sq.
west, Belfast.
M'Gaghey, Robert, Cookstown.
M*Geagh, John, Cookstown.
M 'Govern, M., & Son, Drogheda.
M*Guckin, Neal, Ballinderry Bridge,
Moneymore.
M'llveen, H. & S., Donegall sq. north,
Belfast
M 'Ilveen, J. T. , Donegall square north,
Belfast
M'Intyre, Hogg, A Co., Londonderry.
M'lver, Robert, Cookstown.
M*Kane, R., Tullygarley, Ballymena.
M*Kean, Hall, & Co., Clarence place,
Belfast.
M*Kean, Sons, & Co., Castleblayney.
M'Lernen, Hugh, Ballymoney.
M'Master & Gray, Portadown.
M*Mullan, James, Portglenone.
M 'Murray, Thos., & Co., Dromore.
M*Neay, H., Aghadowey, Ballymoney.
M*Neice, James, near Moy.
M*Whirter, Thomas, Ballymena.
Nelson, H., Crosskeys, Toome Bridge.
Nelson, M., Crosskeys, Toome Bridge.
Nelson, T., Crosskeys, Toome Bridge.
Nelson, W. R., Lurgan.
Nicholl, W., Ballyconley, CuUybackey.
Northern Spinning and Weaving Co.
(Limited), Falls Factory, Belfast.
O'Neill, H., Moy.
O'Neill, J. B. , Donaghmore.
O'Neill, John, & Co., Foyle street,
Londonderry.
Orr, Joseph, Loughgall.
Orr & Sons, Strangmore, Dungannon.
Pauley & Sands, James street south,
Belfast.
Patrick, John, & Sons, Balljnnena.
Patterson, D., Rasharkin, Ballymoney.
Paul, William, Cookstown.
Perry, Miss, Strabane.
Philipp& Co., Linenhall st., Belfast
Pike & Son, Jonathan, Dungannon.
Pirn Bros., & Co., Upper Queen street,
Belfast.
Preston, Smyth, & Co., Donegall sq.
south, Belfast
Reid & M*Ilveen, Linenhall st., Belfast.
Reade, Clarke, & Co., Upper Queen
street, Belfast
Richardson Brothers & Co., Donegall
place, Belfast
\
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184
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Richardson & Niven, Lambeg Factory,
Lisbum.
Richardson, R. K., Franklin street,
Belfast.
Richardson, Sons, & Owden, J. N.,
Donegall square north, Belfast.
Robb, Hamilton, Portadown.
Ross, John, Kells, Ballymena.
Ross, John, & Co., Lurgan.
Savage, John, Point.
Sayers, Andrew, Cloughmills.
Sefton, J. R., & Co., Adelaide place,
Belfast.
Shaw, Edward, & Co., Victoria street,
- Belfast
Shillington Bros., I, Adelaide Place,
Belfast and Lur^n.
Shillington, Henry, Aghalee.
Shillington, J. J., & Co., Broadway,
Belfast.
Shillington, J. W., Adelaide pi., Belfast.
Sinclair, S. & Co., Franklin St., Belfast.
Sinton, .Thomas, Tandragee.
Smithfield Flax Spinning Co. (Limited),
Smithfield, Belfast.
Smyth, John, Clady, Co. Derry.
Smyth, Robert, Broughshane.
Smyth, Thos., Hazelview, Rasharkin.
Sm)rth, William, & Co., Banbridge &
Donegall square west, Belfast.
Sprott, Wm., & Co., Dromore, Co.
Down.
Stevenson & Clarke, Coalisland, Dun-
gannon.
Stevenson, Douglass, & Co., Dun-
gannon.
Stewart, A. T., & Co., WeUington pL,
Belfast.
Stewart, John, Clintagh, Coleraine.
Stewart & Co., R. W., Donegall street,
Belfast.
Stewart, S., & Co., Donegall street,
Belfast.
Stewart & Sons, Wm., Bedford street,
Belfast, and Lurgan.
St. Mary's Flax Spinning Company,
Drogheda.
Thompson, W. G., Coagh, Moneymore.
Thompson, James, & Sons, Ormeau
Road, Belfast.
Thompson, Joseph, Balljonena.
Thompson, R., Son, & Co., Don^^
square south, Belfast.
Thompson, William, k Co., Lagan
* Factory, Lisbum.
Thompson, Kelly & Co., Linenhall
street, Belfast.
Tillie & Henderson, Londonderry.
Tilly, James, Gaskin place, Belfast.
Todd, M*Call A Co., Lmenhall street,
Belfast.
Trinker, Wm., & Co., James street
south, Belfast.
Turtle, William L., Aghalee.
Ulster Damask and Linen Co., Linen
Hall, Belfast.
Vallely, J. L., Glengall place, Belfast.
Vance, Gilbert, Donegall street and
York lane, Belfast.
Walker, Wm., & Co., Banbridge.
Watson, Armstrong, & Co., Donegall
square west, Belfast, and Portadown.
Watson, W. K., Franklin st, Belfast.
Wasson, Samuel, Ballymena.
Watson & Sons, R, Lurgan.
Watson, Valentine & Co., Amelia st.,
Belfast.
Waugh & Co., Wm., Banbridge.
Webb Brothers, Randalstown.
Weir, James, Ahoghill.
Weir, William, Cookstown.
Welch, Margetson, & Co., Londonderry.
Whearty, John, & Co., Duleek, near
Drogheda.
Whiteabbey Bleaching Co., White-
abbey, Belfast.
Whiteside, Mrs., Prockless, Randals-
town.
Wilkinson & Turtle, Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Woodlock, Duke, & Co., Lurgan.
Woods, C, Moygashel, Dungannon.
Wood, J., Donegall sq. north, Belfast.
Wylie, Samuel, Ballymena
Wynne, Thomas, & Co., Armagh.
York Street Flax Spinning Company
(Limited), Henry street, Belfast.
Young, J. & R., Ballymena, and
Donegall square north, Belfast.
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DIRECTORY,
185
Bleachers^ Dyers, Printdrs, &o.
Adams, J., <Sk Co., Ballydevitt, Bally-
money, and Howard street, Belfast.
Addy, Wm., AUistragh, Armagh.
Andrews, Michael, Ardoyne, and Kal-
root, Carrickfergus.
Banbridge Bleaching Company, Ban-
bridge.
Banford Bleach Works Co., Banford
Green, Gilford.
Barbour, Samuel, Clanwilliam,Lisbum.
Barbour, W., & Sons, Lisburn.
Barcrofts & Co., Dundrum Bleach
Works, Keady, and Redford Mills,
Moy.
Barklie, T. & A., Inver, Lame.
Barklie, Thos., & Co., blrs., MuUamore,
Ballymoney.
Best, W. J., & Co., Dunadry.
Brookfield Linen Company (Limited),
Donegall street, Belfast.
Brown, John S., & Sons, Bedford street
and Edenderry, Belfast.
Burrows, Thos., Stoneyford, Lisburn.
Carey, M*Clelland, & Co., Ardmore
Green, Londonderry.
Chaine, William, & Son, Muckamore.
Charley, J. & W.,& Co., 22, Wellington
pi., Belfast, and Dunmurry.
Charley,- Telford, & Co., 14, Howard
street, Belfast.
Clady Bleach Works Co., Dunadry.
Clarke, John A., & Co., Castledawson.
Clonard Print Works Co., Falls Road,
Belfast
Connor, Foster, Linen Hall, Belfast.
Crawford, Thomas, Dunmurry.
Crawford & Lindsays, 3, Adelaide place,
Belfast, and Banbridge.
Darbishire Bros., 9, Fountain lane,
Belfast.
Dicksons, Ferguson, & Co., Linenhall
street, Belfast, and Banbridge.
Dickson, T. A., Milltown Factory,
Dungannon.
Dunbar, M 'Master, & Co., Gilford.
Ewart, Wm., & Son, Bedford street,
Belfast, and Glenbank.
Ewing, Son, & Co., Donegall square
south, Belfast.
Fenton, Connor, & Co., Linen Hall,
and Hyde Park, Belfast.
Fenton, S. G., & Co., Lmen Hall,
Belfast.
Ferguson, John S., & Co., Linen Hall,
Belfast.
Ferguson, James, & Sons, Newforge,
Belfast.
Gihon, Wm., jun., Lisnafinlen Bleach-
ing Company, Ballymena.
Glenalina Bleaching Co., Bedford St.,
Belfast.
Glenwood Dye Works Co., Shankhill
road, Belfast.
Gordon Bros. & Co. (Ld. ), Lawnbrook
Factory, Belfast.
Gribbon, Edward, & Sons, Bleach
Green, Dundarg, Coleraine.
Gunning, J., & Son, Millburn Works,
Cookstown.
Hanna, John, Kildrum, Ballymena.
Hilton, John, Portglenone.
Hyde Park Bleaching Co., Mallusk,
Belfast.
Jaffe Brothers, Donegall square south,
Belfast, and Gilford.
Joymount Finishing Co., Carrickfergus.
Kennedy, W. J., Moorfields, Ballymena.
Kirk, Daniel, Tannybrake, Ballymena.
Kirk, W., Crevilly Valley, Ballymena.
Kirk, W., & Son, Bedford St., Belfast.
Lee, J., HoUybrook House, Randals-
town.
Liddell, Wm., & Co., Bedford street,
Belfast.
Lisnafillan Bleaching Co., Ballymena.
Malcolm & Pentland, Bedford street,
Belfast, and Lurgan.
Malcomsom, Wm., & Co., Donegall
square west, Belfast.
Martin, R. & D., Rostrevor, and
Linenhall street, Belfast
Matier, H., & Co. , Clarence pi., Belfast.
Moore, D., Ballyleyland, Ballymoney.
Moore & Weinberg, Linenhall street,
Belfast.
Morton & Simpson, Cullybackey.
Murland, James, Annsborough, Castle-
wellan.
M'Kean, Sons, & Co., Lara Mills,
Castleblayney.
M*Murray, Thomas, & Co., Dromore,
Co. Down.
Old Park Printing Co. (Ld.) Old Park,
Belfast.
Pike, J., & Son, Dungannon, Co.
Tyrone.
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186'
IRISH LINEN TRADE
Preston, Smyth, k Co., Donegall square
south, Belfast.
Richardson & Co., Lambeg, Lisbum.
Richardson, J. N., Sons, & Owden,(Ld).
Donegall sq. north, Belfast. Bleach-
works Lisbum.
Sloan, J., & Sons, Cookstown.
Ross, John, Kildrum, Ballymena.
Smyth, Gilmore, & Co., Ballymena.
Smyth, Wm., & Co., Milltown, Ban-
bridge.
Sprott, Wm., & Co., Dromore.
Springfield Bleaching Co., Donegall sq.
west, Belfast.
Stewart, Robt. , & Sons, Lisbum.
Stevenson, Douglass, & Co., Dun-
gannon.
Suffolk Linen Co., Dunmurry.
Ulster Damask and Linen Co. , Linen
Hall, Belfast.
Uprichard, J. T. & H., Springvale and
Millbank, Gilford.
Wallace & Magill, Kells, Ballymena.
Webb, Bros., Randalstown.
Whiteabbey Bldlachmg Co., White-
abbey, Belfast.
Whitewell Printing Co., Whitewell,
Belfast.
Wynne, J., Ballyards, Armagh
Wynne, T., & Co. , Lislea, Armagh.
York Street Flax Spinning Co. (Ld. )
Belfast.
Young, J. A R., Ballymena.
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Google
DIRECTORY. 187
GENERAL ALPHABETICAL LIST
(Exclusive of Scutch Mill Proprietors).
Abbreviations.— p. l, mfrs.t power loom manufacturers; h, I, n^frs.y hand loom fnanu-
facturers; I. y. mcht., linen yarn merchant; hlr.^ bleacher.
Acheson & Smith, p. 1. mfrs., Castlecoalfield, Dungannon
Adair, Thos., & Co., spinners, Greenvale Mills, Cookstown
Adair, Thos. , & Son, p. 1. linen manufacturers, Cookstown
Adair, Thos., & Son, linen merchants. Cookstown
Adams, J , & Co., nifrs. and blrs., Ballydevitt, Ballymoney, and Howard St.,
Belfast
Adams, Wm., flax mcht, Strabane
Addy, Wm., mfr. &c., Allistragh, Armagh
Agnew, Wm., h. 1. mfr., &c., Ahoghill
Aicken, Wm., h. 1. mfr., &c., Cullybacky
Alderdice, Thos., lin. com. agt., Franklin street, Belfast
Alexander, Saml. Maxwell, p. 1. mfr., Limavady
Anderson, J., h. 1. mfr., Ahoghill
Anderson, James, 1. y. mcht., Lurgan
Anderson, J., h. 1. mfr., Tubberhead, Magherafelt
Anderson, William, 1. y. mcht., Ballymena
Andrews, Archd., h, 1. mfr., near Ballymena
Andrews, John, & Co., flax and low spinners, Comber (Co. Down)
Andrews, S., f.seed mcht., Victoria street, Belfast
Andrews, Michael, linen and damask manufacturer and bleacher, Ardoyne,
Belfast. London warehouse, 25, Milk street, Cheapside, E.C.
Andrews, W. J., h. 1. mfr., near Ballymena
Armstrong, Robt., mfr., Hudson St., Belfast
Arnold, Edgar, lin. com. agent, Brunswick street, Belfast
Arthur, John, & Son. shirt mfrs., Strabane
Balnamore Spinning Co., spinners, Ballymoney
Banbridge Bleaching Co., bleachers, &c., Banbridge
Banford Bleach Works Co., linen merchants and blieachers, Banford Green,
Gilford (Co. Down) '
Bann View Weaving Factory, Garvaghey road, Portadown
Barbour, Samuel, bin, &c., Clanwilliam, Lisbum
Barbour, Wm., & Sons, flax spinners, yam bleachers, dyers, and thread manu-
facturers, I-.isburn
Barcrofts & Co., p. 1. mfrs. and finshrs., Redford Mills, Moy
Barklie, J. & A., mfrs. and blrs., Inver, Lame
Barklie, Thos., & Co., mfrs., &c., MuUamore, Ballymoney
Beattie, James, fseed and flax commission merchant. Linen Hall, Belfast
Bedford St. Weavmg Co., mfrs. andmchts., Bedford St., Belfast
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188 . IRISH LINEN TRADE
B^g, Alex., & Co., mfrs., Londonderry
Belfast Damask and Linen Co., Linen Hall. Belfast
Belfast Flax and Jute Co. (Ld.) spinners, Donegall place, Belfast
Belfast Linen Collar Co. , Franklin street, Belfast
Bellas, J. H. & G., p. 1. mfrs., Ballymena
Bell, Richd., & Co., f.seed, yam and lin. mchts.. Linen Hall, Belfast
Bell, Thos., & Co., linen and cambric handkerchief manufacturers, &c.,
Bellevue, Lurgan
Bells & Calvert, spinners, Whitehouse
Bell, Timothy, flax mcht.. Corporation St., Belfast
BeU, W. L. & H. H., & Co., lin. mchts., Bedford st., Belfast
Bessbrook Spinning Co., spinners and p. L mfrs., Bessbrook
Best, W. J., & Co. , mfrs. and finishers, Dunadry
Betzold, George, & Co., manufacturers of linens and handkerchiefs, and linen
yam merchants, 24 and 26 Fountain street, Belfast
Beverley, Alex., flax mcht.. North street, Belfast
Bingham, G. Gerald, flax com. agt.. Waring st, Belfast
Black, James, & Co., manufacturers of 18 to 43 inch plain linen, linen and cotton
checks, linen stripes, hair cord, huckaback towels, drill, Arabian stripes,
mosquito nettings, unions, Indian scarfs, linen handkerchiefs, lawns, &c,
Dunmaul House, RandalstowTi
Blakely, Thos., mfr.. Bleary, Lurgan
Blackstaff" Flax Spinning and Weaving Co. (Ld.) Durham St., Belfast
Boal, J. & H., h. 1. mfrs., Slatt, Ballymena
Boyd, Robert, f.seed and flax mcht., Armagh
Braid water Spinning Co. (Ld.) The, spinners of line and tow yams, Ballymena.
Agents in Belfast — ^James and Robert Young
Broadbent, Samuel E., flax spinner, Cogry mills, Doagh
Brookfield Linen Co. (Ld. ) flax spinners, power loom linen manufacturers,
linen and linen yam merchants, Donegall st., Belfast
Brown, Corbett, & Co., f.seed mchts., Victoria st, Belfast
Brown & Co., mfrs., Drapersfield, Cookstown
Brown, J. S., & Sons, p. 1. mfrs. and mchts., Bedford st., Belfast
Brown, Robt., & Co., mchts., Donegall square north, Belfast
Bryson, Wm., fancy linen manufacturer, 20, Waring St., Belfast
Bulloch, G. A., mfrs. and mchts., Bedford st, Belfast
Bulloch Bros., mfrs. and mchts., Linen Hall St., Belfast
Bulloch & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Donegall square s., Belfast
Buncranagh Spinning Co., Buncranagh
Bums & Macaulay, mchts. , James st. south, Belfast
Burrows, Thomas, finishers, &c., Stonejrford, Lisbum
Calder, J. M., & Co , p. 1. mfrs. and mchts., Bedford street, Belfast
Calwell, Andrew, h. L mfr., Clough
Cameron, Hugh, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Cameron, James, h. 1. mfr., Ballymoney
Campbell, B., h. 1. mfr., Clare, Laurencetown
Campbell, Henry, & Co., flax and tow spinners, Mossley, Belfast. Town
office — Castle Buildings
Campbell, S., h. 1. mfr., Ballylumin, Ahoghill
Capper May, & Co., 1. y. mchts.. Upper Queen street, Belfast
Carey, M*Clelland, & Co., linen manufacturers and linen merchants, bleachers
and finishers, Ardmore Bleach Green, Londonderry
Carter, Thos. & Sons, h. 1. mfrs.,&c.,Portadown and Upper Queen street, Belfast
Camth, R., h. 1. mfr., Craigy warren, Ballyjnena
Castleisland Linen Co., p.L mfrs. and mchts., Portadown, and Linen Hall, Belfast
Catherwood, M., h. I. mfr., Craigs, Cullybackey
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DIRECTORY. 189
Chaine, Wm., & Son, linen merchants and bleachers, Muckamore, Antrim
Charley, J. & W., & Co., linen merchants and bleachers, Dunmurry, near
Belfast, and 22, Wellington place, Belfast
■ Charley, Telford, k Co., mchts. and blrs., Howard street, Belfast
Chesney, R. , h. 1. mfr. , Grange Comer, Toome Bridge
Christian, J. R., & Co., mchts., Donegall sq. south, Belfast
Cinnamond, Park, & Co., mchts., &c., Linenhall street, Belfast
Clady Bleach Works Co., Dunadry
Clark, R., mfr., Moy
Clark, John A., & Co., dyers, finishers, and mchts., Castledawson
Clark, Wm., mfr., Portrush
Clarence Street Weaving Co., p. 1. mfrs., Clarence street, Belfast
Clendinning, James, cambric handkerchief manufacturer, 54, High street,
Lurgan. Agents — W. Wallace, 12, Bread Street, London. Duke,
Graham, & Lockwood, 84, Leonard street. New York.
Clibbom, Hill, & Co., linen merchants, Banbridge
Clonard Print Works Co., bleachers, dyers, printers and finishers of linen and
cotton goods, cambric handkerchiefs, lawn dresses, padded and printed,
drills, &c.. Falls road, Belfast
Close, Robert, lin. andl. y. mcht., Ballymena
Collins, John, & Co., 1. y. mchts., Upper Queen street, Belfast
Conland, John, & Sons, mchts., Alfred street, Belfast
Connor, Foster, mfr., bin, and mcht. Linen Hall, Belfast
Connolly, Henry, flax merchant, Eliza street, Belfast
Cordner, Alexander, mfr., Lurgan
Coulson, James, & Co., damask, sheeting, and linen manufacturers, Lisbum ;
London, 11, Pall Mall East, S.W.
Coulson, Wm., & Sons, mfrs., Lisbum
Cowdy, Anthony, & Sons, mfrs., Portadown
Craig, Samuel, tow spinner, nail bagging manufacturer, Liscolman Mills,
Ballymoney
Crawford, Thomas, printer of linen, cambric, cotton, and hemstitched handker-
chiefs, in all styles and colours ; dyer and finisher of linens, lawns, unions,
drills, duck coating, French elastic canvas, &c , Dunmurry, Belfast
Crawford, Geo., & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Donegall square south, Belfast
Crawford & Lindsays, mfrs., mchts., and blrs., Banbridge
Currell, Daniel, jr., & Co., p. 1. mfrs., Linenhall street, Belfast
Curry, Samuel, L 1. mfr., Ballymena
Darbishire Bros., manufacturers, bleachers, and finishers, 9, Fountain lane,
Belfast
Davison, M., h. 1. mfr., BallyscuUian, Co. Derry
Davison, R., & Co., linen mchts, Bedford street, Belfast
Dawson, T., h. 1. mfr., Charles street, Portadown
De Brayn, H. T., flax, hemp, tow merchant and agent, 16, Victoria chambers,
Belfast
Dempster, Robert, spinner of dry spun tows in flax, hemp, jute, &c., Spinning
Mills, Newry
Devlin, James, h.-l. mfr., Cookstown
Devlin, W. J., flax mcht., Cookstown
Dickson, Peter, & Sons, h. L mfrs., Castledawson
Dickson, Robert, 1. y. mcht., Bedford street, Belfast
Dicksons, Ferguson, & Co., linen and damask manufacturers and bleachers,
Linenhall street, Belfast. Works at Banbridge, Co. Down. London, 49,
Bread street, E.C. Manchester, 76, Mosley street
Dickson, Thomas A., linen manufacturer, by power, of damasks, drills, ducks,
diapers, huckabacks, and plain linens, Dungannon, Co. Tyrone
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190 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Dixon, John M., h. 1. mfr., Tullycaim, Dromore
Doherty, James, h. 1. mfr., Fin voy, Ballymoney
Doherty, John, h. 1. mfr., Rasharkin
Donnelly, John, flax com. agt., Omagh
Douglas, John, h. 1. mfr., Donegall street, Belfast
Douglas, John, & Sons, h. 1. nifrs., Lurgan
Duff Bros., spinners, Coagh, Moneymore
Duffin, Charles, & Co., tow and jute spinners, Lagan village, Belfast
Duffin, E. G., & Co., mfrs., Little Sackville street (Wilson street) Belfast
Duke, Graham, & Lockwood, lin. mchts., Clarence street, Belfast
Dunbar, M*Master, & Co., spinners, and power loom manufacturers, and bleachers,
Gilford, Co. Down
Dunlop, Wm., h. 1. mfr., Kells, Ballymena
Dunlop, W. H., mcht., Linenhall street, Belfast
Eakin, S., h. 1. mfr.. Rock Spring, Moneymore
Easdale, Wm. , mfr., Castledawson
Edenderry Spinning Co. (Ld.), The, flax and tow spinners. Messrs. Richardson
Bros. & Co., Belfast, agents for sale of yarns
Eliza Street Spinning Co. , spinners, Belfast
Elliott, John, & Co., mfrs. & mchts., Bedford street, Belfast, and Lurgan
Ellison, John, mfr. , Lisbum
Emerson, John, spinner, Ballysillan
English, Wm., & Co., collar mfrs., Howard St., Belfast
Ennis, Thomas, & Co., mfrs., Drogheda
Ewart, Wm.', & Son, spinners, p. 1. manufacturers, bleachers, and merchants,
Bedford street, Belfast
Ewing, Son, & Co., lin. merchants, &c., Donegall square south, Belfast
Falls Flax Spinning Company (Ld.), spinners & mfrs., Conway street, Belfast
Faren, Joseph, & Sons, f.seed mchts.. Waring street, Belfast
Fenton, Connor, & Co., spinners, manufacturers, bleachers, dyers, and
finishers of all classes of linen and union goods, for home and foreign
markets. Linen Hall, Belfast
Fenton, S. G., & Co., linen yam merchants, Linen IJall, Belfast
Ferguson, J. S., & Co., lin. mchts., Linen Hall, Belfast
Ferguson, t., & Co., lin. mchts., Linenhall street, Belfast
Ferguson, James, & Sons, linen, and linen yarn bleachers, Newforge, Belfast
Fiddes, M. J., & Co., flaxseed, linen yam, and linen mchts., Wellington
Place, Belfast
Finlay Bros. & Co., linen, and linen yam commission merchants, £6, Corporation
street, Belfast
Finlay, Brown, & Co., flaxseed and flax merchants, Police square, Belfast
Flinn N., & Co., lin. mfrs., Drogheda
Forestbrook Linen Co., p. 1. mfrs., Rostrevor
Franklin Street Collar Co. (Ld. ) Franklin street, Belfast
French, Duncan, & Co., 1. y. com. agts., 31, Rosemary street, Belfast
Fulton, Joseph, & Co., lin. mchts., Howard street, Belfast
Gafiikin, Thos., A Co., lin. and 1. y. mchts., Bedford St., Belfast
Gailey, Daniel, flax merchant, Coleraine
Gamble, Shillington, & Co., Broadway damask factory, Belfast
Gibson, George, & Co., mchts., Up. Queen street, Belfast
Giffen, James, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Gihon, Wm., jun., linen merchant, Clonavon, Ballymena
Gilles Linen Co., mfrs., Armagh
Gilmer, William, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Gird wood, John, & Co., 1. y. mchts.. Linen Hall, Belfast
Girdwood, Maxwell, & Co., p. 1. mfrs., &c., Linen Hall, Belfast
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DIRECTORY, 191
Glass Bros. & Co., merchants, Franklin street, Belfast
Glass, J., h. 1. mfr., Portglenone
Glass, James, & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Bedford street, Belfast, and Lurgan
Glass, R. , & Co. , mfrs. , Portadown, and Donegall square East, Belfast
Glenalina Bleaching Co.. bleachers and mchts., Bedford street, Belfast
Glenn, James, f.seed mcht.. Corporation street, Belfast
Glen wood Dye Works Co., Shankhill road, Belfast
Goodbody, J. & F., mfrs., Clara
Gordon Brothers & Co. (Ld.) mfrs., blrs.,and finishers, Lawnbrook, Belfast
Gordon, George, & Son, flax mchts., Ann street, Belfast
Gordon & Co., spinners. North Howard street, Belfast
Gray, George, & Sons, p. 1. mfrs., Glenanne, Markethill
Greenmount Spinning Co., The: cotton spinners; cotton and linen manufac-
turers of damasks, drills, ducks, towellings, plain linens, &c.. Up. Queen
street, Belfast. Factory at Harold's Cross, Dublin
Greeves, J. & T. M., flax and tow spinners, Belfast ; Agent for France and
Belgium — Thomas MacGeagh & Co., Courtrai. Agent for Westphalia —
William Gnuse, Bielefeld
Grenier, P. & Co., mchts., Franklin place, Belfast
Gribbon, Alexander, lin. mcht., Bedford street, Belfast
Gribbon Edward, & Sons, mfrs., Coleraine
Gunning, John, & Son, linen merchants, manufacturers and finishers, by power,
of plain linens in all widths : Milburn Works, Cookstown. Agents in
London — Gunning & Quarrell, 31, King street, Cheapside, and 12,
Lawrence Lane. Manchester — A. B. Moore, 116, Portland street
Gunning & Campbells (Ld.), spinners, North Howard street, Belfast
Guynet, L. H., & Co., lin. mchts, &c., Chichester street, Belfast
Hale, David, h. 1. mfr., Druinnavaddy, Lurgan
Hale, Martin, & Co., spinners, Dungannon
Halferty, John, & Son, flax mchts., Londonderry
Hanna, John, dyer, &c., Kildrum, Ballymena
Hanna, W. J., h. 1. mfr., Cloughmills
Harbison, James, flax mcht. and h. 1. mfr., Magherafelt
Harden, Charles, h. 1. mfr., Portadown and Tandragee
Harden Bros., Harrison & Co.. linen and cambric handkerchief manfrs.,
Franklin street, Belfast, and Lurgan
Harper, Martin, & Son, fseed mchts., Victoria street, Belfast
Harrison Bros., h. 1. mfrs., Dromore
Hay, James, spinner. Grove Mill, Belfast
Hayes, F. W., & Co., spinners, Banbridge
Henderson, David, flax, tow, and flaxseed merchant, 10, Corporation street,
Belfast
Henderson, John, manufacturer of linen and cotton tapes, Venetian webs,
chairwebs, mattress bindings, &c., frame tapes, stay bindings; agent in
London — Charles Sessons ; agent in Glasgow — A. M. Stewart, Virginia
Buildings. Works — Sherrygroom Factory, Dungannon
Henning, John, & Son, h. 1. mfrs., Waringstown
Henry, A. & S., & Co., lin. merchants, &c., Wellington place, Belfast
Henry, Bernard, flax mcht., Cookstown
Henry & Haig, linen collar manufacturers, 33, Bedford street, Belfast
Henry, James, h. 1. mfr., Tyanee, Co. Deny
Henrey, Thomas, h. L mfr., Ballyronan, Co. Deny
Herd, M. C, lin. mcht, &c., Franklin street, Belfast
Herdmans & Co., spinners, Sion Mills, Strabane. Office — Donegall square
south, Belfast
Heron k Lutton, h. 1. mfrs., Lurgan
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192 IRIS ff LINEN TRADE
Heron, W., & Co., h. 1. mfrs., Lurgan
Hilton, John, dyer, &c.,*PortgIenone
Hilton, J., & Co., h. 1. mfrs., Portglenone
Hilton, Robert, h. 1. mfr., Cullybackey
Hind, John, & Sons, spinners, p. 1. manufacturers and merchants, Durham st ,
Belfast
Hogg, John, & Co., flax and tow merchants, 2, Corporation street, Belfast
Holland, Wm., lin. mcht., &c., Linen Hall, Belfast
Holmes, W. P., & Co., lin mchts.. Upper Queen street, Belfast
Houston, W. W. & Co., h. 1. mfrs., James street south, Belfast
Hughes, George, & Co., lin. mchts., Donegall square south, Belfast
Hull, Henry, & Co., linen manufacturers (by hand and power) of sheetings,
diapers, hucks, bed ticks, rollerings, Drogheda linens, and bordered and
check glass cloths. West street, Drogheda. Agent in London— Mr Edward
Willcocks, 4, Gresham street
Hunter, John, jun., & Co , f*seed, flax and 1. y. mchts., Corporation St., Belfast
Hunter, B. M., flax com. agt. Limavady
Hunt, Nicholson, & Co., mchts., Bedford street, Belfast
Hursts, spinners of line yams from No. 50 to No. 120, and tow yams from
14s to 30s, Dramaness Mills, Ballynahinch
Hutchinson, Richard, h. 1. mfr., Broughshane, Ballymena
Hyde Park Bleaching Co. , bleachers and finishers, Hyde Park, Mallusk, Belfast
Hyndman, James, flax mcht.. Commercial court, Donegall street, Belfast
Irish Linen Shirt Co., shirt and coll. mfrs., Great Victoria street, Belfast
Irvine, Hill, flax spinner, Dromalane Spinning Mill, Newry
Island Spinning Co. (Ld.), spinners, Lisburn
Jaffe, Bros., & Co., 1. y. mchts., Donegall square east, Belfast
Jaffe Bros., 10, Donegall sq. south, Belfast. Manufactory at Lurgan. Bleach-
works at Gilford
{ardine, William, mfr., Dromore
efierson, Wm., & Co., lin. mfrs., Londonderry
Johnston <fc Allen, 1. y. mchts., Lurgan
Johnston, Allen & Co., manufacturers, Lurgan
Johnston, Jas., & Co., lin. mchts., &c., Waring street, Bel^t
Johnston, James, mfr., Castledawson
Johnston, Philip, & Sons, spinners, Jennymount, Belfast
Johnston, W. Sibbald, 1. y. mcht., &c., Bedford street, Belfast
Joymount Finishing Co., Carrickfergus
Kamcke, W. R., & Co., flax, linen yarn, and linen merchants, Linen Hall,
Belfast
Kelly, Francis, k Co., flax mchts., Monaghan
Kelly, D., h. 1. mfr., Sandymount, Castledawson
Kelly, James, h. 1. mfr., Ballynease, Co. Derry
Kelly, T., h. 1. mfr., New Ferry, Toome Bridge
Kelly, Thomson, & Co., linen manufacturers, merchants, and bleachers, 22,
Linenhall street, Belfast. Agents — George W. Wilson & Co., 69,
Piccadilly, Manchester. Frederick Knight, 3, Carey lane, London
Kennedy, H., h. 1. mfr., Milltown, Toome Bridge
Kennedy, James, shirt mfr., Strabane
Kennedy, Patrick, h. 1. mfr.. Grange, Toome Bridge
Kennedy, W. J., dyer, &c., Moorfield, Ballymena
Kemahan, Thomas, h. 1. mfr., Portadown
Kidd, Tassie, & Co., lin. merchants, &c., Bedford street, Belfast
Killyleagh Flax Spinning Co. (Ld)., Killyleagh
King Street Embroidered Linen Co., King street, Belfast
Kir^ Daniel, dyer, &c., Tannybrake, Ballymena
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DIRECTORY, 193
Kirk, David, h. 1. mfr., Moorfield, Ballymena
Kirk, Wm., & Son, linen manufacturers by power, bleachers, dyers, and
finishers, Bedford St., Belfast. Works — Annvale, Keady
Kirk, W., dyer, &c., Crevilly Valley, Ballymena.
Kirk, W. M.j & Co., spinners and mfrs., Darkley, Keady
Lamont, Samuel, & Pon, h. 1. mfrs., Eden, Ballymoney
Law, W., linen merchant, Donegall square south, Belfast
Lavender, Wm. J., flax mcht., Ballymena
Lawrence Bros., spinners, Coleraine
Lawson, Alexander, mfr., Lurgan
Lecky, F. B., lin mcht., &c., Donegall square north, Belfast
Lee, James, h. 1. mfr., finisher, &c., Randalstown
Lennon, T. &'Co., mchts., &c., Linenhall street, Belfast
Ligoneil Spinning Co., spinners and mfrs.,Ligoneil, Belfast
Liddell, William, &Co., p. 1. mfrs., mchts., &c.. Bedford street, Belfast
Limavady Spinning & Weaving Co. (Lcl.) Limavady
Linden, M. R., & Co., flax mchts., Police square, Belfast
Lindsay, Maurice,* h. 1. mfr., Dromore
Lindsay, Robt., & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Victoria street, Belfast
Lipman & Co., lin. mchts, &c., Bedford street, Belfast
Lisdourt Spinning Co., Ballygawley
Lisnafillan Bleaching Co. , bleachers, dyers, and finishers, Ballymena
Livingston, J., h. 1. mfr., Linenhall street, Belfast, and Lurgan
Luke, Joseph, h. 1. mfr., AhoghiU
Lutton, Andrew J., & Son, linen manufacturers and merchants, 7, Linenhall
street, Belfast. Manufactory at Portadown
L)m, William, h. 1. mfr., Little Bridge, Cookstown
Lytle, John, & Sons, f. -seed mchts., Victoria street, Belfast
MacGeagh & MacLaine, flax, tow, and lin. y. mchts., Ann street, Belfast
Maclean, S. T., com. mcht., Linenhall street, Belfast
Macoun, James, & Co., p. 1. mfrs., &c., Lurgan
Macoun, John R., mfrs., &c., Moyraferty, Lurgan, and Belfast
Macoun, W. & J., mfrs., &c., Lurgan
Macneary, Henry, h. 1. mfr., Coleraine
Magee Bros., & Co., mfrs., &c., Lurgan
Magee, Jas. R., & Co., lin. mchts., &c., Bedford street, Belfast
Magee, Thos. H., lin. mchts., &c., Clarence street, Belfast
Major Bros., lin. mchts., &c, James street south, Belfast
Malcolm & Pentland, manufacturers and bleachers of cambric, Imen and
cambric handkerchiefs, lawn, &c., Bedford street, Bellast. London, ,
31, King street, Cheapside, E.C. Works at Lurgan
Malcomson Bros., spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Portlaw
Malcomson, Wm., & Co., mfrs. and mchts., &c., Donegall square west, Belfast
Malcomson & Wilson, h. 1. mfrs., Portadown
Mann, W. C, h. 1. mfr.. Hill Head, Castledawson
Martin, John, & Co. (Ld. ) spinners, Killyleagh
Martin, R. & D., linen merchants and bleachers, Kilbroney Rostrevor, and
12^, Linenhall street, Belfast. Agent in London — W. G. Coles, 7a Falcon
square, E.C.
Masson, Kennedy, & Co., shirt mfrs., Strabane
Mantel, Louis, & Co., lin. com. mchts., &c., Donegall sq. east,' Belfast
Matier, Henry, & Co., manufacturers and bleachers of cambric and linen
handkerchiefs, linens, &c., Clarence place, Belfast
Mawhinney, Wm., mfr., Hill Head, Castledawson
Maxwell, William, mfr., Lurgan
Maze, S. & Son, mfrs. and mchts., Clarence Place, Belfast
P
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194 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Meadley, Thomas, f.seed and flax mcht., Corporation street, Belfast
Milewater Spinning Co., spinners, Milewater, Belfast
Milfort Spinning Co., spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Donegall square west, Belfast
Miller, Wm., & Co., lin. mchts., Donegall sq. s., Belfast '
Mitchell, Bros., spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Crumlin road, Belfast
Monej^enny & Watson, lin. mchts., &c., James street south, Belfast
Montgomery, C, & Co., lin. mchts, &c.. Linen Hall, Belfast
Montgomery, Druitt, & Co., lin. mchts., &c.. Linen Hall, Belfast
Moore, D., dyer, Ac., Ballyleyland, Ballymoney
Moore, James, jun., h. 1. mfr., Ballyconley, Cullybackey
Moore, J. &J. R., h. 1. mfr., Ballyconley, Cullybackey
. Moore, W. T., & Co. (Ld.) spinners, Monkstown Mill, Belfast
Moore & Weinberg, manufacturers, bleachers, and merchants, Linenhall street,
Belfast
Moreland Bros., spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Donegall place, Belfast
Morton, James, linen manufacturer, Bellaghy, Co. Derry
Morton & Simpson, dyers, Ac, Cullybackey
MuUan, William, f seed mcht. , Victoria street, Belfast
Munster, Alfred M., & Co., f seed mchts., Victoria street, Belfast '
Murland, James, spinner, linen manufacturer, and bleacher, Annsborough,
Castlewellan. Agents in London — Messrs Gunning AQuarrell. New York —
Mrjno. Stewart. Berlin — Mr D. Gidion
Murphy, Joseph, 1. y. mcht., Lurgan
Murphy & Reynolds, spinners, Armagh
Murphy, Wm., & Co., mfrs., Donegall square north, Belfast
M*Blain & Co., f seed mchts., Newry
M*Bride, Robert, & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Bedford street, Belfast
M'Caughey & Co., cambric handkerchief and linen manufacturers, Lurgan
M*Causland, Samuel, f seed mcht., Victoria street, Belfast
M*Caw, W. & J., h. 1. mfrs., Portglenone
M*Caw & Carlisle, h. 1. mfrs., Lurgan
M*Cleery & Reynolds, spinners, Doagh
M*Clelland, Robt., & Sons, p. 1. mfrs., Ac, Banbridge
M*Closkey. James, flax mcht., Ballymoney
M*Conville, Thomas, mfr., Lurgan
M*Corry, James, & Co., mfrs, &c., Linenhall street, Belfast, and Lurgan
M'Cosh, K., h. 1. mfr., Broughshane, Ballymena
M'Crory, William, & Sons, mfrs., Lurgan
M*Crum, Robert, & Co., p. 1. mfrs., Armagh
M*Crum, Watson & Co., p. 1. mfrs., &c., Bedford street, Belfast
M'CuUough, Archd., flax mcht., Commercial court, Belfast
M'Donald, Francis, flax and tow com. mcht., Cullingtree road, Belfast
M*Elderry, T. &J., flax com. agts., Ballymoney
MTadden, James, h. 1. mfr., Portglenone
M*Ferran, J. 11., & Oo., lin. comn. agt., Donegall sq. west, Belfast
M*Gaghey, Robert, mfr., Cookstown
M*Geagh, John, mfr., Cookstown
M'Govern, M., & Son, mfrs., &c., Drogheda
M*Guckin, Neal, h. 1. mfr., Ballinderry Bridge, Monejmaore
M*Ilveen, H. & S., mchts., &c., Donegall sq. north, Belfast
M'llveen, J. T., mfr. and mcht, Donegall square north, Belfast
M*Intyre, Hogg, A Co., shirt mfr."., Londonderry
M*Kane, R., h. 1. mfr., Tullygarley, Ballymena
M'Kean, Sons, A Co., flax, tow, and jute spinners and manufacturers, Lara
Mills, Castleblayney
M'Kinley, David, & Son, flax mchts., Armagh
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J
DIRECTORy. 195
M*Lernen, Hugh, h. 1. mfr., Ballymoncy
M*Mahon, James, flax mcht., Armagh
M* Master & Gray, p. 1. mfr., Portadown
M*Mullan, James, h. 1. mfr., Portglenone
M 'Murray, Thos., & Co., linen and cambric manufacturers and bleachers,
Dromore, Co. Down
M*Neay, H., h. 1. mfr., Aghadowey, Ballymoney
M *Neese, Felix, h. 1. mfr., near Moy
M'Whirter, Thomas, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Nelson, H., h. 1. mfr., Crosskeys, Toome Bridge
Nelson, M., h. 1. mfr,, Crosskeys, Toome Bridge
Nelson, T., h. 1. mfr., Crosskeys, Toome Bridge
Nelson, W. R., mfr., Lurgan, and Clarence street, Belfast
Nicholl, Parker, & Co., flax mchts., Donegall street, Belfast
NichoU, W., h. 1. mfr., Ballyconley, Cullybackey
Northern Spinning and Weaving Ca. (Ld.), Falls Factory, Belfast; office— 9,
Donegall square west
O'Brien, Geo., & Co., mchts., &c., Franklin St., Belfast
Old Park Printing Co., Ld., Old Park. Office-— Calender street
O'Neill, H., h. 1. mfr., Moy
O'Neill, J. B., h. 1. mfr., Donaghmore
O'Neill, John, & Co., h. L mfr., Londonderry
Orr, Joseph, h. 1. mfr,, &c., Loughgall
Orr & Sons, mfrs., Strangmore, Dungannon
Oulton, John, & Co., flax and tow commission merchants, 37, Donegall street,
Belfast
Patterson, D., h. 1. mfr., Rasharkin, Ballymoney
Patterson, R. Lloyd, & Co., flaxseed and flax mchts., 22, Corporation street,
Belfast
Patterson, White, & Co., linen yam merchants, 22, Corporation street, Belfast,
and Lurgan
Paul, Wm., mfr., Cookstown
Pauley & Sands, h. 1. mfrs. and mchts., James st. south, Belfast, and Porta-
down
Perry, Miss, shirt mfr., Strabane
Philipp & Co., 1. mchts., Linenhall street, Belfast
Pike, Jonathan, & Son, manufacturers, bleachers, and finishers of linens, lawns,
handkerchiefs, &c., also finishers of brown goods, brown dress linens and
unions. Postal address — Dungannon, Co. Tyrone. Telegraph address
— Coalisland only. Agents in Manchester — S. Daniel & Sons,
Pim Bros, & Co., linen yarn and linen merchants, and commission agents.
Upper Queen street, Belfast
Plunkett, F., & Son, flax mchts., Corporatipn street, Belfast
Portadown Linen Co., mfrs., Portadown, and Upper Queen street, Belfast
Preston, John, & Co., linen yarn, flax and flaxseed merchants, and agents,
20, Calender street, Belfast
Preston, Smyth, & Co, linen manufacturers, bleachers, dyers, and finishers,
Donegall square south, Belfast
Rafter, W. P., flax com. mcht., Ac, Wellington place, Belfast
Reade, Clarke, & Co., linen, yam, and flax commi.ssion merchants, 62, Upper
Queen street, Belfast
Reid & M*Ilveen, linens, lawns, cambric, and linen handkerchief manufacturers,
17, Linenhall street, Belfast, and Portadown
Reilly, Edward, flax mcht.. Waring street, Belfast
Reynolds, Archibald, flax merchant— agent for A, Ellerman, Rotterdam —
Rosemary street, Belfast
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196 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Richardson, Bros., & Co., linen yarn, linen, flax, and flaxseed merchants and
commission agents, 30, Donegall place, Belfast
Richardson & Co., blrs., Lambeg, Lisburn
Richardson, Grubb, & Co., 1. y. inchts., Donegall square §outh, Belfast
Richardson & Niven, p. 1. mfrs., Lambeg Factory, Lisburn
Richardson, J. N., Sons, & Owden, (Limited), linen manufacturers and
bleachers of all classes of Irish linens, sheetings, table damasks, diaper,
linen and cambric handkerchiefs, dowlas, &c. Warehouse — i & 3,
Donegall square north, Belfast. Manufactory at Lurgan. Bleachworks
at Lisburn. London warehouse at 36, Bread street. New York warehouse,
at 62, White street
Roan Spinning Company, spinners, Coalisland, Dungannon
Robb, Hamilton, h. h mfr., Portadown
Ross, John, h. 1. mfr. finisher, Kells, Ballymena
Ross, John, & Co., h. 1. mfrs., Lurgan
Ross, William. & Co., flax and tow spinners, Clonard Mill, Belfast
Savage,. John, h. 1. mfr., Point
Savage, Sir John, flax mcht. and spinner, Victoria street, Belfast
Sayers, Andrew, h. 1. mfr., Cloughmills
Sefton, J. R., & Co., mfrs. and mchts., Adelaide place, Belfast
Shaw, Edward, & Co. , spinners, linen yam, and linen merchants, Victoria
street, Belfast
•Shaw, Joseph, spinner, Celbridge
Shaw, William, & Co., spinners, Cork, and Donegall square south, Belfast
• Shillington Bros. , linen and handkerchief manufacturers, i, Adelaide place,
Belfast. Manufactory, Craigvilla, Lurgan.
Shillington, J. J., & Co., 1. y. mchts., &c., Broadway, Belfast
Sinclair, S. & Co., mchts., Franklin street, Belfast
Sinton, Thomas, spinner and p. 1. mfr. , Tandragee
Sloan, Black, & Co., mchts.. Upper Queen street, Ftelfast
Sloan, J. & Sons, finishers, &c., Cookstown
Smithfield Flax Spinning and Weaving Co. (Ld.), spinners and p. 1. mfrs.,
Smithfield, Belfast
Smith, J. & T., fseed mchts.. Tomb street, Belfast
Smyth, Gilmer, & Co., bleachers, &c., Ballymena
Smyth, John A., & Co., f.seed and flax mchts., Londonderry
Smyth, J., h. 1. mfr., Clady, Co. Derry
Smyth, Robert, h. 1. mfr., Broughshane
Smyth, Robert, spinner, Emyvale
Smyth, Thos., h. 1. mfr., Hazelview, Rasharkin
Smyth, Wm. , & Co. , linen manufacturers, bleachers, and merchants, Milltown,
Banbridge, and 2, Donegall square west, Belfast. 5a, Lawrence lane,
London, and 23, Brown street, JVIanchester
Spamount Spinning Co. , spinners, Spamount, Castlederg
Springfield Bleaching Co. , Donegall square west, Belfast
Sprott, Wm., & Co., linen, sheeting, cambric handkerchief and shirt front
manufacturers, and bleachers, Dromore, Co Down. London warehouse —
26, Aldermanbury, E.C. Glasgow warehouse — 77, Queen street
Stevenson & Clarke, p. 1. mfrs., Coalisland, Dungannon
Stevenson & Douglass, flax dressers, flax and tow merchants, dressed flax of
every description kept in stock or made to order ; sorts suitable for sail-
cloth yarns, threads, &c., always in stocky Dungannon, Co. Tyrone
Stevenson, Douglass, & Co. , linen manufacturers by power, bleachers, dyers,
and finishers, Moygashel Mills, Dungannon
Stewart, A. T., & Co., linen merchants, &c., Wellington place, Belfast
Stewart, John, h. l. mfr., Clintagh, Coleraine
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-DIRECTORY. 197
Stewart, R. & W., & Co., mfrs., &c., Donegall street, Belfast
Stewart, Robert, & Sons, spinners, &c. , Lisburn
Stewart, S., & Co., linen, and linen drill manufacturers, 103, Donegall street,
Belfast
Stewart, Wm., & Sons, mfrs. and tnchts., &c., Bedford street, Belfast, and
Lurgan
St. Mary*s Flax Spinning Company (late Gradwell, Chadwick, & Co. ) flax
spinners and linen manufacturers, Drogheda
Suffolk Linen Co., finishers, &c., Dunmurry
Taylor, James, & Sons, spinners, Carrickfergus
Thompson, James, & Sons, 1. mchts., &c., Havelock street, Ormeau road,
Belfast
Thompson, Joseph, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Thompson, Robt., Son, & Co., 1. mchts, &c., 1 1, Donegall square south,
Belfast
Thompson, Wm. , k Co. , p. 1. mfrs. , Lagan Factory, Lisburn
Thompson, W. G. , flax mcht. and mfr. , Coagh, Moneymore
Tillie & Henderson, shirt mfrs., Londonderry
Todd, M*Call 4 Co., lin. mchts., &c., Linenhall street, Belfast
Trimble, Jariies, flax mcht., Strabane
Turtle, William L., h. 1. mfr., Aghalee
Ulster Damask and Linen Co., mfrs. and mchts, &c.. Linen Hall, Belfast
Ulster Spinning Co. (Ld.), spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Bath place. Falls road, and
Linfield, Belfast
Uprichards, J. T. & H., bleachers, Springvale and Millbank, Gilford
Vallely, J. L., linen manufacturer, &c., 4, Glengall place, Belfast
Vance, Gilbert, 1. y. mcht., power and hand loom linen and cotton manufac-
turer, Donegall street and York lane mills, Belfast
Wallace ^ Magill, dyers, &c., Kells, Ballymena
Wallis & Pollock, flax spinners and rherchants, Cork
Walker, George, spinner, Newtownards
Walker, William, & Co., manufacturers, by hand and powet-loom, of linens,
sheetings, cambric and linen handkerchiefs, &c., Banbridge
Wasson, Samuel, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Watson, Armstrong, & Co., p. 1. mfrs. and mchts., Portadown and Donegall
square west, Belfast
Watson R., & Sons, mfrs., Lurgan, and Amelia Street, Belfast
Watson, Valentine & Co., p. 1. mfrs., mchts.*, &c., Amelia street, Belfast
Watson, W. K., 1. mcht., Franklin street, Belfast
Waugh, Wm., & Co., mfrs., &c., Banbridge
Webb Brothers, manufacturers of plain linens, Randalstown. Agencies — Belfast,
Manchester, and London
Weir, A. C, & Co., spinners, Dunmurry
Weir, James, h. 1. mfr., Ahoghill
Welch, Margetson, & Co., 1. mchts., Londonderry
Whearty, John, & Co., mfrs., Duleek, near Drogheda
Whiteabbey Bleaching Co., bleachers and linen merchants, Whiteabbey: office,
Clarence street, Belfast
Whiteabbey Spinning Co. (Ld.), spinners and p. L mfrs., Whiteabbey, Belfast
Whitehouse Spinning Co., spinners and p. 1. mfrs., Whitehouse, Belfast
Whiteside, Mrs., h. 1. mfr., Prockless, Randalstown
Whitewell Printing Co., printers and finishers, Whitewell
Wiggelsworth, A., & Co., lin. mchts., James street south, Belfast
Wilkinson & Turtle, linen collar and cuff manufacturers, I, Alfred street,
Belfast
^Williamson, J., flax mcht, 28, Grattan street, Belfast
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198 IRISH LINEN TRADE
Wilson, Abraham, spinner, Newry
Wilson Bros. , flax and 1. y. mchts. , North street, Belfast
Wilson, Irvine & Co., manufacturers, Portadown
Wilson, John, flax mcht., Newry
Wolfhill Spinning Company, flax spinners, Wolfhill Mill, Ligoniel, Belfast
Woods, C. , h. 1. mfr. , Moygashel, Dungannon
Woods, John, flax mcht., Newry
Wood, Jphn, lin. yam, and com. mcht, Donegall square north, Belfast
Woodlock, Duke, & Co., mfrs., Lurgan
Workman, J. & R., mfrs., &c., Bedford street, Belfast
Workman, W. S., mchts., Bedford street, Belfast
Workman, T. & G. A., mfrs., Bedford street, Belfast
Wylie, Samuel, h. 1. mfr., Ballymena
Wynne, J., blr. and fin., Ballyards, Armagh
W)mne, Thos., & Co., blrs., mchts., Ac, Lislea, Armagh
York Street Flax Spinning Co. (Limited), flax spinners, and linen manufac-
turers, and bleachers, Henry street, Belfast Branch Hovises — New York,
154, Church street ; Paris, 38, Rue des Jeuneurs. Agencies — London,
2, Russia Row, Milk street, E. C. Manchester, 12, Piccadilly
Young, J. & R., mfrs., blrs., and mchts, Ballymena, and Donegall square
north, Belfast
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DIRECTORY. 199
CONTINENTAL FIRMS.
BELGIUM.
JANSSENS, FRERES, Courtrai, Belgium.— Linen Manufacturers,
Linen Yam Merchants, and Flax Commission Merchants.
Agents for Brookfield Linen Co. (Limited), Belfast; Messrs. Kay
■& Co., Pendleton Flax Mills, Manchester, and Messrs. John
Birley & Sons, Kirkham, Lancashire.
FRANCE.
TH. BOITTIAUX, Lille, Rue du Molinel, 57 & 61. Flax and Tow
Merchant. Irish Agent — ^James Beattie, Linen Hall, Belfast.
CURTIS & CIE, Lille. — Agents de Maisons Russes, pour Lins Chanvres et
Graines. N^gociants Commissionaires en Fils de Lin et Toiles
de Jute.
GALLAND RUSKONE & FILS, Cambrai (Nord.)— Importation et Ex-
portation. Fils de Lin et D'Etoupes, Fran^jais, Beiges et An-
glais. Specialite de Fils Fins pour Nouveaute Toile et Batiste.
L. LEROY-CREPEAUX, Lille. —Flax Merchant. Store in Courtrai, Rue
Neuve 4.
AUGte. LONGHAYE, Lille— N^gociant en Lins, Fils, Graines; Agent de
Maisons Russes.
GERMANY.
\VEBERVEREIN SELBSTHULFE ZU HEEPEN, Eingetragene
Genossenschaft, in Bielefeld, — Fabrikation durch Hand-
weberei von Bielefelder rohen und gebleichten Leinen, geklarten
und ungeklarten Creas, Dre"llen, und Taschentuchem in alien
Breiten und Groesseii.
S. MEYER & CO., A Bielefeld.— Manufacture de devants de chemises
cousus, brodes d la main et d la mecanique, faux cols et
manchettes pour hommes et dames; festons et entre deux en toile
et en cambrique.
PREUSS ET BRAUNS, Bielefeld (Preussen.)— Fabrikanten von
Leinen, fertigen Hemden und Hemden Einsatzen (Devants de
chemises).
MORITZ ROSENBLUM, Hamburg, Wilhelminenstr 38.— Handlung
in deutschen Flachsen, feinen und mittel Heeden.
WILH. FRCEMBLING, Bielefeld.— Maschinen Werkstatt fiir Herstellung
und Reparatur von Spinnerei Maschinen.
A. W. KISKER, Bielefeld.— Hoflieferant Sr. Majestat des Deutschen
Kaisers und Konigs. Fabrik von Drell-Jacquard,-und Damast-
Tischzeugen und Leinen.
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200 CONTINENTAL FIRMS— GERMANY.
ROMMEI^ NAGEL & CO., Coln.— Mechanische Weberei, SpeciaKtat
Segeltuch Drell und Wagendecken.
CARL HEIDSIECK, Bielefeld.— Fabrikant von Tischzeugen und Hand-
tuchem in Drell, Jacquard und Damast, I^incn, Taschentuchern,
Hemdeneinsatzen und anderen Wascheartikeln.
S. A. STERN, Senr., Bielefeld.— Leinen, Damast, Drell, und Einsatz,
Fabrik.
OERTMANN & BAUMHOFENER, Bielefeld.— Leinenfabrik und
Wasche Spezialitat : Hemdeneinsatze in alien Genres.
GOTTLIEB BRACKSIECK, Bielefeld.— Fabrik von Leinen, Tischzeugen
und Wasche.
JULIUS WEISS, Bielefeld. — Fabrikation von Leinen, Einsatzen und
fertigen Hemdeh.
HEINRICH LANDWEHR, Civil Ingenieur Bielefeld.— Spezialitat ;
Anlage von Flachsspinnereien, Webereien, Bleichen und
Appretur Anstalten.
GUST HERM SCHMIDT, Bielefeld. — Fabrikation von Bielefelder
Leinen, Taschentuchern und Hemden, Einsatzen.
HOLLAND.
B. BAKKER, BZn., Rotterdam (Late Partner of Paul Gransberg k
Co.) Formerly Flax Buyer of Messrs. Robert Twiss & Sons.
Telegraph Address — Bakker, Flax Merchant, Rotterdam.
PAUL GRANSBERG & CO., Flax Merchants, Rotterdam. Also branch
house in Friesland.
P. J. LUCARDIE & SONS, Flax, Tow and Flaxseed, Rotterdam
(Holland), Leeuwarden, Dokkum, (Friesland.) Agent in
Belfast— James Beattie.
ARTHUR MAINGAY & CO., Flax Merchants, Rotterdam and
Leeuwarden.— Agents in Belfast— Messrs. John Oulton &
Co., Donegall Street.
E. & S. A C. St. MARTIN & CO., Flax Tow and Flaxseed Merchants,
Rotterdam — Branch houses at Leeuwarden and Dokkum,
(Friesland.)
C. E. MOLL & CO., Rotterdam, Flax and Flaxseed and General Com-
mission Merchants. Agents in Belfast — for Flaxseed— Messrs.
M. J. Fiddes & Co. ; for Flax— Messrs. Reade, Clarke, & Co.
L. AUG. MULLER k CO., Antwerp, Agents and Commissioners for
Russian*and Belgian Flax.
JAN VAN WAGENINGE & ZOON, Flax, Flaxseed, and Hemp Merdiants,
Zalmhaven, Rotterdam.
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"^lakxiismtnis.
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AD VERTISEMENTS,
The First Prize Awarded for Flax, Tow & Jute Card Clothing
and Belting, at the Yorkshire Exhibition, 1875, was given to
SOLE MAKERS OF
IRON ORASS FACED CARD CLOTHING,
Which from its cheapness and greater durability has for a number of years been
used by many of the largest consumers in preference to " Leather" Filleting.
SOLE MAKERS
of a Special
WATERPROOF BELT
extensively used for
WET SPINNING, &C.
Every variety of
Iron & Steel
CARD TEETH,
HACKLING SHEETS,
STRAP BUTTS,Ac.
I ESTABLISHED 1780. i
MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF
WOOD MO LEATHER
CARD CLOTHING.
(Set with Needle^ Diamond, Sectoral or other Points,)
FOR CARDING FLAXJOW, JUTE,&c.
Running Board Leathers, and other Loom Furnishings.
All kinds of Silk Machine Cards with Steel Teeth.
SUPERIOR SINGLE, DOUBLE AND TREBLE
LEATHER
DRIVING BANDS,
All BELTS stretched, and made any width to 48 inches,
stitched with Lace, Wire, or Hemp, as required.
To insure prompt execution of orders^ a large stock of the above
always on hand. Samples and List of Prices on application,
LIVERSEDGE, YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND.
Coogle
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ADVERTISEMENTS.
ESTABLISHED OVER 80 YEARS.
VIENNA EXHIBITION MEDAL, 1873— First Prize for Card
Clothing Awarded for Excellence of Manufacture. PARIS, ist Prize,
SILVER MEDAL, 1875.— Do. do.
MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OP
CARD CLOT HINB FOR FLAX. TOW, & JUTE CARDIHB MACHINERY.
THOMAS FLEMING & SON,
WEST GROVE MILL,
HALIFAX, ENGLAND,
Card Clothing in Leather, Wood, Cloth, &c. — Brass & Iron Faced,
&c. — for Flax, Tow, Jute, Shoddy, &c.
MAKERS OF SILK'COMBS, SILK COMB TEETH, & ALL SORTS OF NEEDLE POINTED
CARDS FOR CARDING, COMBING, AND DRESSING SILK.
Patent Diamond Point Needle Pointed Sectoral Knife Wire, Flat
Wire, Oval Wire, &c., for Takers in, for Cotton and
Woollen Carding Engines.
NEEDIiE POINT TEETH HIAKERS.
MAIN LEATHER DRIVING BANDS
Single, Double, and Treble, any width up to 48-in., and any strength. A trial
solicited for these Heavy Main Driving Bands, made from the Best English Butt Leather.
PATENT STEAM PUMPS.
Awarded Special Prize Medal at the
L Machinery Exhibition, Manchester.
The simplest and most durable Pump
for Boiler Feeding, and Fire Engine
purposes, at Mills, Chemical, Bleach, and
Dye Works, Breweries, Collieries, Gas and
Water Works, etc., etc.
Makers of Horizontal and Vertical Steam
Engines.
PBICBS AMD TESTIHOMIALS 02? Applicatioh
PATENTEES,
Willburn Iron Works,
WILLBURN STREET, REGENT ROAD,
SAL.FORD, MANCHESTER,
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4 ADVERTISEMENTS.
WHITE. CHILD. & CO..
22, COLLEGE HILL, •
Ij o 2sr 15 o :^T .
BRANCH ESTABLISHMENTS.
In FRANCE, ... LILLE (Nord.)
„ BELGIUM, .. COURTRAI.
„ GERMANY, ... BIELEFELD, WESTPHALIA.
MACHINERY & FITTINGS
Of all kinds, for Flax-spinners & Linen Manufacturers.
PURE GUTTA PERCHA BOSSES FOR SPINNING
(SPECIAL MANUFACTURE.)
Child's Patent Measuring Apparatus
rOR ALL KINPS OF FABRICS,
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ADVER 7ISEMENTS.
THOMAS JENNINGS k SONS,
Albert Pacpne ani C00I SKarfes,
HUNSLET ROAD, LEEDS,
MACHINERY MERCHANTS,
VALUERS, AND
TOOL MAKERS, &c., &c.
MAKERS OF
WINDING, TWISTING, POLISHING,
AND
BALLING MACHINES FOR TWINES,
ALSO, OF IMPROVED SELF-ACTING POWER REELS.
DEALERS IN EVERY DESCRIPTION OF
Flax, Hemp^ Tow, & jfute Machinery ,
A large Stock of which (Second hand) is always on hand.
LISTS ON APPLICATION.
Machinery promptly Repaired, and all kinds of Mill
Furnishings supplied.
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AD VERTISEMENTS.
PISTONS AND AIR-PUMP BUCKETS,
For Land and Maf^ine jEngines,
FITTED WITH
W¥^ latent ^lastk Pttal |at%
{0/ which 8,583 have been made to December, 1875),
CYLINDERS AND PUMP BARRELS
RE-BORED IN THEIR PLACES.
IMPROVED VALVES A TAPS FOR STEAM, WATER 4. CAS
MATHER & PLATT,
ENGINEERS AND MACHINE MAKERS TO CALICO PRINTERS,
BLEACHERS, DYERS, AND FINISHERS,
Salford Iron Works, Manchester.
PRICES AND PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.
B E li T I N O versus O K A R I IV G •
LEA-THEK, 3D:RT^TXlSrC3t BELTS
(Sampson 8f Co.*s Patent, without Cross Joints. )
THB Belts are made from the best English Leather, any width, length, or strength
required, without cross joints, and of eren thickness throughout. For large Main
Driying Belts running direct from the fly-wheel of engine this Patent Belting is especially
adapted, and can refer to a great number of firms who are turning from 60 to 350-h.p.
(indicated) by Belts from 10 to 24 28, 30, 36, and 38 inches wide.
AWARDED SIX FIRST-CLASS PRIZE MEDALS,
Vat prices and all information, apply to
W.J. EDWARDS, 20, Market Place, Manchester.
SCHIELE'S PATENT SILENT FANS
For Blowing and Exhausting; Drying by Hot or Cold Air; Drawing off Dust,
Steam and Heat ; Ventilating Mills and Rooms; Blowing Smithy Fires and
Cupolas. Full List and details on application.
THE UNION engineering CO. (C. Schiele & Co.),
2, Clarence Buildings, Booth Street, Manchester.
C. H. HANDASYDE & CO.,
BOILER COMPOSITION MANUFACTURERS,
®tl, Iron, anb Steel |tterci)antjS,
Agent-'Nu. R. REA, Belfast. DALKEITH, N.B.
PRICES ON application. '
Pinion and Cog Wheel Greases ; Iron and Steel Hoops for Baling, &c.
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A D VER Tl SEME NTS,
PATENTS AND TRADEMARKS.
♦
W. P. THOMPSON, C.E.,
6, Lord Street, Liverpool,
SOLICITOR OF BRITISH & FOREIGN PATENTS A TRADEMARKS,
Has Branch Offices or Agents for taking out and selling Patents in
LONDON, PARIS, BBtJSSELS, FRANKFORT, VIENNA, TURIN, ST. PBTBRS-
. BURGH, STOCKHOLM, WASHINGTON, MONTREAL, MELBOURNE, CALCUTTA,
and other Cities. MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS GRATIS.
DESIGNS AND TRADE MAR KS REGISTE"RrD UNDER THE NEW LAW.
Note.— Trademarks to be binding must be registered afresh under the Act of 1875,
Send stamp for Pamphlet " All about Trademarks.''
NOTE.— Residents abroad (whether the actual inventors or otherwise) sending a full clear
description of a new invention (with explanatory sketches or drawings where necessary) can
have immediate protection and subsequent patent (no oath or power of attorney required)
cost, £10 (50 dols. Gold or 250 francs) in advance, and £34 (170 dels. Goldpr 860 francs) any
time before the end of four months from date of application. Search for novelty always
included. If found clearly old, the money, minus £4 (cost of search) will be returned.
HANDBOOK OF PATGMT IiAl¥>
Published by W. P. THOMPSON, C.E., 6, LORD STREET, LIVERPOOL. Is. post free.
" The Manual is a very valuable one, and gives evidence of having been prepared with great
care, and a thorough knowledge of the subject."— i/tntuflr Journal,
" The pitfalls into which an unwary inventor will run a risk of stumbling are pointed out
and good advice given. ... A trustworthy guide to Patentees.— i^'ngr/wA Mechanic.
8^" Mr. Tkoufson frequently visits Belfast and Dublin for the purpose of securing
Patents, Circular^ viithfull particularSf supplied gratis.
ESTABLISHED OVER A QUARTER OF A CENTURY.
Thomas Firth,
FOR
MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS, AND MAKERS-UP OF LINEN
AND MUSLIN GOODS,
BATH BUJJJDIN^^
T. P. begs to say that he makes these Gold and Silver Embossed and Plain Desigm •
by a new process of his own, by which he can produce them more expeditely, consequently
cheaper, than any other house in the trade.
Manufacturer also of GOLD AND SILVER LETTERS for Manufacturers and Shipping
Merchants, of WooUen, Worsted and Stuff Goods, Cassinetts. Cassimeres, &c.
T. P. begs to say that, by his NEW AND IMPROVED MOVABLK-LETTER MACHINE,
he is in a position at any given time to supply (in 8 or 10 different designs) any word, names
of firms, Ac, &c., in any language.
GOLD AND SILVER LETTERING is rapidly taking the place of the old-fashioned
and slow process of Silk Lettering. The especial advantages in the use of the former are
their simplicity, cheapness, beauty, and despatch, in which the Silk Lettering cannot
possibly compete.
All orders with Private Trade Marks or Names Executed with the Strictest Secrecy.
Bar Please Note the Address—
THOMAS FIRTH,
FANCY STATIONER,
BATH BUILDINGS, HUDDERSFIELD.
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ADVER7ISEMENTS.
Cifuncil Medaly i%$i. First Class Medal, Paris ^ 1%$$. Prize Medal, London^
1862. Gold Medal, Paris^ 1867. For excellence of their Microscopes and
cheapness of their Manufactures,
R. & J. BECK,
81, CORNHILL, LONDON, E.G.,
BEG to direct the attention of the Linen Trade to
the suitability of their new
MICROSCOPE,
which possesses ample power for analysing the
various Vegetable Fibres :—
FLAX, HEMP, JUTE, COTTON, &c.
and its use will be found advantageous to
Manufacturers, by assisting them in determin-
ing the component materials of
CLOTH AND YARNS.
It is simple in construction ; easily
adjusted; and anyone unuspd to
Instruments of the kind can readily
acquire, in a short time, skill in
analysing these fibres, which sever-
ally possess distinct characteristics.
Explanation.— K, heavy horse shoe base,
at bend of which is a firm pillar B, having
at its top a hinge-joint 0, which allows the
body D to be inclined at any angle. The
Body is supplied with a drawer or length-
ening tube B, which must be pulled out zo
give the full power to the Objett glass F.
The Quick-foeuuing movement is produced
by sliding the body D up and down in the
tube G-, and the $U>w motion is^ven by the
tube H sliding over the inner stem with a
spring ioside, and adjusted \>j the milled
head I . The stage K has two S] )rings L L
for holding objects. M nurror %vhich can
be adjusted to any angle to reflect the light.
S condensing lens for uping with opaque
objects.
For an Instrument of superior [t
Power and Finish like this the price H
has been made as low as possible.
With Two Eye Pieces and Half-inch Object Glass ; Fine Adjustment ;
Pliers, Forceps, Glass Plate and Condensing Lens, in Mahogany Case, £6 12s
6d. With Inch or Quarter Inch Object Glass, ;^5 12s 6d.
AGENT IN BELFAST FOR THIS SPECIAL INSTRUMENT,
F. W. SMITH, 43, Waring Street, Belfast,
WHKKB ONE CAN BK SEEN.
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AD VER 7ISEMENTS,
Contractors for ROOFING FELT to the Inter-
national Exhibition of Paris, 1867.
BY HER majesty's Jj^jf J^L ^^ k SEVERAL
fiOYAL LETTERS PATENT ^*^^^^^g^ PRIZE MEDALS
dTaNDERSON & SON^
MANUFACTURERS AND ONLY PATENTEES OP THE
IMPROVED PATENT
ASPHALTE ROOFING FELT,
Price Eightpencc per Bannine Yard, or One Penny per Square Foot, making a light,
clean, ecoaomical and durable Roofing, in Rolls of 23 to 35 yards, 82 inches wide.
Improved Patent Bituminous Waterproof Felt, Free
from Unpleasant smell ; for Lining Damp Walls, laying under
Carpets, Floor-Cloths, <kc. Price 8d per yard, 32 inches wide.
Iinproved Non-Conducting Hair Felt, for Clothing Boilers,
Cylinders, Pipes, &c., which effects a saving of one-fourth in Fuel.
Price, from Seven to Fifteen Pence per Sheet, according to
thickness.
Improved Patent Sheathing Felt, for Ships' Bottoms, under
Copper or Wood. Made in Double Sheets and in Rolls. Price
Twopence and Twopence Halfpenny per sheet of 32 x 20 inches.
Asphalte Flagging, recommended for Flooring Cellars, Mills,
Bams, &c. Price lod to 5 s per Square Yard.
CONTRACTORS FOR THE ERECTI ON OF CIRCULAR ROOFS, SHEDS, 4c.
Refined COAL TAR, at 6d per Gallon ; Prepared COATING
MIXTURE, at 8d per Gallon; PATENT ASPHALTE COATING
VARNISH, at 12s per cwt. All in Quantities to suit.
Samples and InttrueUons sent gratis (o any part of the Town or Country on application to
D. ANDERSON & SON,
LAGAN FELT WORKS, BELFAST
AND 23 4 23i BILLITER STREET, LONDON.
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10
ADVERTISEMENTS.
A.GOODALL&SONS
CLIFTON
BRIDGE MILL
Paris Exhibition
PRIZE MEDAL
BRIGHOUSE,
YORKSHIRE.
For Quality and
General Excellence
of Manufacture.
ESTABLISHED 1800. %
MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF
WOOD AND LEATHER
CARD COVERINGS,
FOR CARDING
FLAX, TOW, JUTE, WOOL, SILK, COTTON, k SHODDY.
'sole makers of
PATENT SECTORAL POINTED STEEL PINNED
WOOD CARDS FOR CARDING JUTE.
Silk Combs, with best tempered Steel Teeth, set in
LEATHER OR VULCANISED INDIA RUBBER,
FOR DRESSING SILK.
ALL KINDS OF NEEDLE POINTED IRON AND
STEEL TEETH, STEEL FJNS, 6r*c.
Double and Single Leather Driving Straps (Joints
Sewn or made with Stapples) made from Bark
Tanned Leather of Superior Quality. Endless
Leather Sheets, &c.
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ADVER USE MEN TS,
11
A.GOODALL&SONS
CLIFTON
BRIDGE MILL
Paris Exhibition
PRIZE MEDAL
BRIGHOUSE,
YORKSHIRE.
For Quality and
General Excellence
of Manufacture.
i ESTABLISHED 1800."~t
FABRICANTS DE TOUTES SORTES DE
GARNITURES DE GARDES
EN
BOIS ET E1^T OXJIE,
POUR LE GARBAGE DES ETOUPES DE LIN ET DE
CHANVRE, DE JUTE, LA LAINE, DE LA
SOIE, DU COTON, ET DE LA LAINE FOURBANDR^E.
CARTES *' SECTEURS'' GARNI EN BOIS BREVETEES
POUR LE PEIGNAGE DE JUTE.
Peignes \ soie, k dents d'acier bien tremp6, et months sur cuir ou sur
caoutchouc survulcanise, pour Tappret de la Soie.
Toute especes de dents habillees en fer et en acier. Epingles d'acier, &c.
Courroies, simples et doubles, en cuir tannee de quality sup6rieure. Courroies
sans fln, &c.
FABRIKANTEN VON ALLEN ARTEN
HOLZ UND LEDER EINQEFASSTEN
KRATZEN-VERKLEIDUNGEN
FiiR
FLACHS, WERG, JUTE, SEIDE, WOLLE, BAUMWOLLE
UND SHODDY.
Patentirten gespitzten Holz-Kratzsectoren zum Jute-Krampeln.
Gezahnten Seidenkammen, aus dem bisten geharteten Stahl verfertigt, und
entweder in Leder oder homisirten Kautschuk eingesetzt.
Allen Arten fein-gespitzten Eisen-und-Stahl-Knltzen. Stablemen Nadeln, &c.
Einfachen und doppeeten Riemen, aus vorzuglich gegerbten Leder. Endlase
Gurten, w s. w.
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12
ADVERTISEMENTS.
BOOKS.
o o
WILLIAM HENRY GREER,
43, DONEQALL PLACE, BELFAST,
RESPECTFULLY solicits the attention of Merchants to his stock of Books
adapted to the specialties of the Linen trade. Books not in Stock
promptly procured (if obtainable) to order.
THE FOLLOWING IS A SELECTION FROM. HIS STOCK :-
The Linen and Linen Yam Trades Ready Reckoner, by Jas. B. White £\
The Weight Calculator ; showing at one reference the exact value of
any weight from i lb. to 15 tons, from id. to 168 shillings percwt,
by Henry Harben . - . - -
Laurie's Interest Tables - - - ' -
Wood's Discount Tables - - - , -
Page's Fractional Calculator - - . ,
Practical Book-keeping, adapted to commercial and judicial account
ing, by F. Hayne Carter - - - - -
Calvert's Pocket Wages Table, 56^ hours -
Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing, by W. Crookes, F. R. S.
Manual of Colours and Dye Wares, by J. W. Slater
The Dyers' Handbook, by F. J. Bird ' - - -
Workshop Receipts for manufacturers and others, by E. Spon
The Textile Colourist ; a journal of bleaching, printing, djreing, etc.
by Charles O'Neil, F.C.S., monthly ...
Select Method in Chemical Analysis, by Wm. Crookes, F.R.S.
The Art of Weaving, by John Watson
The Factory and Workshops Act, by G. J. Notcutt
The Law of Private Trading Partnership, by J. W. Smith, LL.D,
The Law of Joint- Stock Companies, by J. W. Smith, LL.D.
Elements of Chemistry, by Wm. Allen Miller, 3 vols.
Dictionary of Chemistry, and the allied branches of other sciences,
by Henry Watts, F.C.S., 6 vols, and 2 supplements to 1875
Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, enlarged, by R. Hun,
F.R.S., 3 vols. - - - , .
Ireland and her staple Manufactures : Sketch of the history and
progress of the Linen and Cotton Trades
Flax and its Products, by W. Charley
o
o
o
o
6
3
o
6
o
o
6
6
6
o
o
o
o
12 18 6
550
W. H. GREER, k I'honneur d'announcer aux Manufacturiers et aux n^ociants
en toile a I'etranger qu'il tient en vente les ouvrages ci-dessus nomm^s, et qu'il
s'empressera de les envoyer, au re9u d'un Bon sur la Poste, soit directement ou
inclus daus leurs balles de marchandises selon I'ordre qu'il recevra.
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ADVERTISEMENTS, 13
Imperial Jfire Insurance Cnntpnj,
1, OLD BROAD STREET, LONDON.
INSTITUTED 1803,
MODERATE RATES. UNDOUBTED SECURITY.
PROMPT AND LIBERAL SETTLEMENT OF CLAIMS.
District Agents :
18, TOMB STREET, BELFAST.
Agents :
WILLIAM MONTGOMERY, 103, Donegall Street, BELFAST.
WILLIAM EMERSON, 13, Donegall Quay, BELFAST.
Beg to call the attention of Householders and all Owners of Property to the
Protection afforded by this Institution against the calamitous ravages of Fire,
\ehich in a short time may lay waste the fruits of a whole life of Industry.
Special attention is given to insurances on Flax Mills,
Flax, Linen, and Yam Warehouses.
The experience of many years has made manifest to the public the
promptitude and liberality with which all losses have been adjusted and paid by
the Imperial Fire Office. The security afforded to the Public comprises that
of a large and wealthy proprietary, in addition to a Subscribed Capital of
ONE MILLION SIX HUNDRED THOUSAND POUNDS.
Steam Thrashing Machines allowed on Farms without extra charge.
Indemnity for Loss or Damage to buildings, or Property contained therein,
caused by explosion of gas in such buildings;
Rates and particulars of Insurance may be had as above, where any order
or instructions that may be addressed will meet with immediate attention.
All Policies now .issued free of duty.
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14 ADVERTISEMENTS,
ROYAL INS URANCE COMPANY.
HEAD OFFICES:
Royal Insurance Buildings, Liverpool, and
Lombard Street, London.
Extracts from the Report for the Year, 1874.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.
Pire Premiums for the Year - £774,63110 2
Losses ----- 402,191 18 11
LIFE DEPARTMENT.
lucome from Preminms, after deducting re-assurances £240,635 19 1
DECLARATION OF BONUS for.the Quinquennium ending 31st Dec, 1874^
£1 10s per cent, per annum on Sum assured.
Upon all policies entitled to participate.
A valuation of the liabilities has been obtained from an independent actuary, in addition
to the ordinary valuation by the Officers of the Company. The two valuations are nearly
identical in their results, but the figures of Mr. Baden, the consulting Actuary, have in every
instance been adopted.
The Life Profit for the Five Years was £273,607
FUNDS.
After providing for payment of the Dividend and Bonuses, the funds of the Ck>mpany will
stand as follows :—
Capital Paid-up - - - £289,545
Fire Fund ^l - - - 354,637 10
Reserve and Profit and Loss - 459,981 O 4
Life Funds - - - - 1,853,011 2
£2,957,174 12 4
The valuation above referred to was made by the Tables of the Institute of Actuaries (HM>
EXTRACT FROM AUDITOR'S REPORT.
** We have examined and counted every Security, and have found
all correct and in perfect order, and that the present aggregate market value
thereof is in excess of the amounts in the said Balance Sheets."
"JOHN H. McLaren, Manager.
ROYAL INSURANCE BUILDINGS, 45 DAME STREET, DUBLIN.
LOCAL BOARD.
WILLIAM MALCOMSON, Esq., Portlaw, Co. Waterford.
OH AS. B. MARTIN, Esq. (Messrs. T. & C. Martin) North Wall, & 12, Pitzwilliam PI. Dublin
THOMAS PIM, Jun., Esq., 22, William Street, Dublin ; and Windsor House, Monkstown.
THOMAS VANCE, Esq., Lower Bridge Street, Dublin ; and Blackrock House, Blackrock.
BANKERS.
ULSTER BANKING COMPANY. | NATIONAL BANK.
SOLICITORS.
Messrs. WILLIAM PINDLaTER & Co., 35, Upper Ormond Quay.
LOCAL MANAGERS.
Messrs. SHELDS & STRIDE.
AGENTS AT BELFAST.
y. PLUNKETT & SON, I CHARLEY & MALCOLM, j SAMUEL BLACK.
8, Corporation St.- | ^ Donegall Quay. | Town Hall.
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ADVERTISEMENTS. 15
Rational ^esurancc Company of Jirelau^.
Head Office: 3, COLLEGE GREEN, DUBLIN.
INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER. ESTABLISHED 1822.
CAPITAL-ONE MILLION STERLING,
Paid-up Capital, £100,000
Uncalled Capital, 900,000
Subscribed Capital, £1,000,000
Accumulated Reserves, 1 r^gg got
exclusive of Capital. J » »y
By the last Returns presented to Parliament, in March, 1874, it appeared that the
accumulated " Life Fimds " of the National Assurance Company of Ireland amounted to
tnpwards of 85 per cent, of the total sums assured.
Independent of the " Life Funds" the Company has other large reserves which afford
A security almost without parallel.
AGENT IN BELFAST :
F. W. SMITH, 43, Waring Street.
THE BELFAST LINEN TRADE CIRCULAR,
BRAWN UP BY A COMMITTEE OF THE LINEN TRADE,
APPOINTED UNDER THE SANCTION OP
The Belfast Chamber of Commerce,
Published every Monday Evening at the Offices^
43, V/ARING STREET, BELFAST.
P*;v Annum
Subscription for Great Britain or Ireland, - - £1 2 6
Foreign, --------150
F. W. SMITH, Secretary.
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16 ADVERTISEMENTS,
DER LEINEN INDUSTRIELLE
Wochentlich erscheinendes Organ des Deutschen und Oesterreichischen
Leinen Industrie Vereins
bringt regelmassige und ausfiihrliche Marktberichte aus alien bedeutenderen
Productionsorten
DEUTSCHLANDS, OESTERREICHS,
ENGLANDS, SCHOTTLANDS & IRLANDS,
RUSSLANDS, HOLLANDS, BELGIENS, FRANKREICHS DND ITALIENS,
iiber FLACHS, WERG, HANF, JUTE, GARN und LEINEN und in einem
zweiten Blatte Abhandlungen iiber Flachsbau, Flachsbereitung und alle die
Gam, und Leinen Industrie betreffenden technischen und wirthschaftlichea
Fragen, neue Erfindungen, etc.
Gegen Zahlung von . 30 Mark pro Jahr wird das Blatt jeden Sonnabend
franco zugesandt und zugleich das Recht erworben Ankiindigungen in demselben
Kostenfrei zu erlassen so wie an den Versammlungen des Vereins Theil zu
nehmen.
Anmeldungen sind zu richten an die Redaction des LEINEN INDUS-
TRIELLEN zu BIELEFEI^D (Westfalen.)
aPECIUES GRATIS OUT RECEIPT OF BUSINESS CARD ,,
The Textile Manufacturer
A 7 rode Journal /or Millowners^ Machinists^ Dyers ^ Bleachers, &^c,
THIS Journal embraces every trade of which Cotton,Wool,6iU:,Plax^einp, Jate,or any other
fibrous material forms the basis, and it is the only publication in the United Kingdom
devoted to the same industries THM Tbxtilb MANUFACTURBa deals with the Raw
Materials, with the Machinery, Apparatus, Tools, and Processes (Illnstrate<l) employed in
their conversion ; with &1 ill Architecture (occasionally Illastrated) with tlie Manufactured
Goods, and with Chemicals, Dyeing, and DyestufEs. The statistics relating to Imports and
Bxports, as also the Prices Current of each branch, are carefully collected, tabulated and
reviewed, and Monthly Lists of British and Foreigq Patents, Bankruptcies, Liquidations,
Bills of Hale, &c., are also given, tc^ethcr with a mass of other reliable information of great
value : in fact, no subject of interest to those engaged in any department of Textile
Manufacture is neglected. The advertisements are strictly confined to announcements of
Machinery, Steam Apparatus, Fiant^ and oiher material used by Manufacturers, Dyers
Bleachers, Calico Printers, 6(c.
Chief Office— 15, MARKET STREET. MANCHESTER.
London Office— 138, FLEET STREET.
Published on the \ 5th of each month. Subicriptioru lOs. per year, payable in advance, commencing
from any date, Postjree to every country in the world. Single Copies, \s . each.
Textile Manufacturers being greater users of Steam Power and Machinery than any
other class, the advertisements are strictly confined to announcements of Machinery, Steam
Apparatus, Plant, and other materials used in the Cotton. Woollen, Worsted, Silk, Linen
and Jiite Trades, and in Djeing, Bleaching, and Calico Printing.
By the adoption of this role it is intended that these Advertisements shall form quite an
Illustrated Catalogue of Plant connected with the Trades, thus becoming a Guide to
Mumfactnrers before purchasing new appliances.
All communications must be addressed and remittattoes made payable to W. T. Emmott
lb. Market Street, Manchester.
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ADVERTISEMENTS, 17
WILLIAM W. CLELAND,
MANUFACTURING AND EXPORT STATIONER,
j&team-$ot»er$rlntei:, |LttI)09rapI)er, Xllumtnator, Pratigl)t!etman,
ISookbintiec ant) |lccount<r|Sook |naker^
20, GREAT VICTORIA STREET, OPPOSITE ULSTER RAILWAY STATION,
BELFAST,
SAMPLE CASES FOR THE LINEN TRADE-A SPECIAL FEATURE,
LAPPING PAPERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION,
PRICE LISTS, CLOTH AND YARN TJCKETS, Ac, &o.
LEROY'S IMPROVED PATENT NON-CONDUCTING COM-
POSITION for COATING BOILERS, STEAM PIPES, and other
highly heated surfaces.
Much superior to Felt, or any other composition as regards Economy, Lightness, Dura-
bility, Adhesiyeness, and Effectiveness, to prevent the radiation of Heat, save Fuel, increase
the power of Steam, and keep the Stoke Hole and Engine Boom cool ; it will at once show
a Leak ; it cann«t catch or communicate fire. Can be seen in places where it has been on
for Bight years.
USED IN H.M. GOVERNMENT IN THE DOCKYARDS, &G., &G.
Agents for E. VoislN's FLAMBLBSS CUPOLA FURNACE, by which Iron is cast with
a maTJmnm of 180 lbs. of Coke to the ion of iron put into the furnace, or no charge is
made for Royalty, (General Agents— Jules MAQNY & Co., 1 Langham-pl, London, W.)
7 Hundreds of references and testimonials^ and all information at
LEROY & CO., Sole Manufacturers, 12, Gray Street, near Philpot Street Road, Lon-
don, E.,-and 2, Great Clowes Street, Lower Broughton, Manchester.
WRITING PAPER AND ENVELOPES,
PRODUCED FROM PURE- DNWORN LINEN CUTTINGS.
"A peculiarly substantial and elegant description of stationery, on which it is an
abBolute luxury to write,"— Z>ai/y Telegraph,
** Precisely the kind of surface which is so agreeable to the ready or unready writer."—
Morning Post,
WATERMARK (as above) and "Marcus Ward and Co." in every
octavo sheet. Watermark in the Second Qualitv, ** Pure Flax.^'
Sample Packet of all Varieties, 6d. post free. Wholesale of the Manufacturers,
MARCUS ward & CO.,
LONDON; & ROYAL ULSTER WORKS, BELFAST
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18 ADVERTISEMENTS.
FRANCIS RITCHIE & SONS,
BlSIiFAST*
I I ■ <! i I
MANUFACTDRERS OF
Tltrlollzed Bone CompouiidfSuitable for all Crops.
Potato Maiilirey for raising a large and healthy Crop.
O^rBSS ]IEaitlire5 for giving a large Crop of Hay and im-
proving Pasture Land.
Oraln HEaniiref for increasing Straw and Grain.
Bone VloiU*9 containing all the elements oi the Plant.
Bone llea.15 Guaranteed made from Pure Bones.
Cmsliedl Bones^ of any degree of Fineness.
tfiilHttlar, si\ Imu mi
A SPECIAL DESIGN,
Applicable to all cases where great Economy of Cost, Clear Wide
Space, without Centre Supports from below, are reqtdi^d.
ROOFI N Q FEL T.— a Light and Durable Covering for Roofs.
BROWN SHEATH I NO FELT.-For Ship^ use.
BLACK 8HEATHINQ FBLT. -For Ships' use.
'/NO DO ROUS FELT.—^or Lining Damp Walls.
8ARKI NQ FELT. —For Putting under Slates.
ASPHALTE. — Eor Flooring Stores, Warehouses, Granaries, 6r*c.
DRY HAIR FEL T— For Covering Steam BoUers & Steam Pipes.
BROWN AND BLACK MINERAL PAINTS,
FOR OUTSIDE WORK.
Felt Tariilsli« — For Felt Roofs, &c.
FIRE LIGHTS. — For Kindling and Reviving Fires.
Prospectuses, with Prices, Free by Post.
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This book should be retume'
the Library on or before the last
stamped below. j
A fine of five cents a day is incij
by retaining it beyond the spec
time.
Please return promptly.
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Econ 7725.16
The Irish linen trade hand-book and
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