IUCN Directory of
Protected Areas
in Oceania
Compiled by the
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
IUCN — The World Conservation Union
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas
in Oceania
IUCN - THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION
Founded in 1948, [UCN — the World Conservation Union — is a membership organisation
comprising governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and
conservation agencies in over 100 countries. The Union’s objective is to promote and encourage
the protection and sustainable utilisation of living resources.
Several thousand scientists and experts from all continents form part of a network supporting
the work of its six Commissions: threatened species, protected areas, ecology, strategy and
planning, environmental law, and education and communication. Its thematic programmes
include forest conservation, wetlands, marine ecosystems, plants, the Sahel, Antarctica, and
population and sustainable development. These activities enable IUCN and its members to
develop sound policies and programmes for the conservation of biological diversity and
sustainable development of natural resources.
WCMC - THE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between the three
partners in the World Conservation Strategy, IUCN — the World Conservation Union, the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Its mission is to support conservation and sustainable development by collecting and analysing
global conservation data so that decisions affecting biological resources are based on the best
available information.
WCMC has developed a globa! overview database of the world’s biological diversity that
includes threatened plant and animal species, habitats of conservation concern, critical sites,
protected areas of the world, and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and products.
Drawing on this database, WCMC provides an information service to the conservation and
development communities, governments and United Nations agencies, scientific institutions, the
business and commercial sector, and the media. WCMC produces a wide variety of specialist
Outputs and reports based on analyses of its data.
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas
in Oceania
Compiled by
James R. Paine
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
in collaboration with the
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
and the
South Pacific Regional Environment Programme
IUCN — The World Conservation Union
1991
Published by:
Prepared by:
Copyright:
Citation:
ISBN:
Compiled by:
Printed by:
Cover photos:
Produced by:
Available from:
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
Production of this Directory was supported in part by the East-West Center of
Honolulu, Hawaii, through a grant to the Center from the John D. and Catherine
T. MacArthur Foundation.
A contribution to GEMS — the Global Environment Monitoring System.
eC @
MONITORING CENTRE
(1991) International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial
purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder.
Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without
the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
IUCN (1991). IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania. Prepared by the
World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. xxiii + 447 pp.
2-8317-0069-8
James R. Paine
Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd., UK
Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of Palau.
WWFE/IIUCN: Douglas Faulkner
IUCN Publications Services Unit on desktop publishing equipment purchased
through a gift from Mrs Julia Ward
IUCN Publications Services Unit,
219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK
or
IUCN Communications Unit
Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or WCMC or other
participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
CONTENTS
Page
Pemarerel emer dine essed te: eas ei tateieell. reuse cee Oer te el orl SP cameanya: Gals Mawel Vii
Rareoimriemirte: Sor foe fost Ate, Bic See) abs SE oe BS: SiS asa em ee nee ix
Peel ledneaients, bie tert Cd alates asd eet: Since aoe aie Joe aan ce at epee x
Managing information on protected areasatWCMC .........--.---++:. xiii
Information sheets: guidelines to theircontents ...........---++---- XV
Information sheets on protected areas 2 ee XVii
RRS HICCS Ot Fan Wee se ee tances os Hg Val ig Se Uh Soe Se, Anite, fe, ere oe Xx1
Annex 1: Categories and management objectives of protected areas ......... xxii
Annex 2: IUCN threatened species categories ........-..-----2200- XXlil
DURIRCAESIAINES erty, cis Rak ics rayne Stes dis! ebay aod, aa ake teed, Se nee ee 1
Sraminary Of ROLGCiEd ATEAS fs ws 5 ee on, 9) sigan laurel nin Eietananeiye fe 8
BiamiOL PrOlecied ATEAS! ow ae ea 8 ee He eB wie Caplan: wilepiaiynlbe ieee 9
ME ATTLIONA SHICELG 4 Beese nde ste es wx Sees. 30S RS eee aaa eee 10
Federated States of Micronesia ............. 0.002 eee eee eee eee 21
i LEDERER ye eg ine aa eee nie are hee ren hve omen 25
Summary of-protected areas © =. . 2. 6 5 6 ee we es le ole ee se me ee 30
INExOLPIOISCtEd AREAS 2 i ase. se a 5 sie EE ww Fa ew 6a ep milan! iy a een wel a2
Med aTTIALIGHSNCEIS Rati Sune oat Rc aleee Secce kai Sn CE cise sere 33
France — French Polynesia... .. 2... 2.2 ee eee eee ee eet tee 45
Summary of protected areas... 6. = sw hs + ancien ees tine Te lepenene ey 49
ML DUOC CLE ATE AS eos ams Bo ae 4, sa oiin in’ 0c pauieiiaray einem erga) ee 50
AHPSEATIA RIOT STIEETS) oes, cd sy se 5x le «5 gee sst ition ix Sh Sige Uae ee Piece tnertme tas 51
Mrance—iINew Caledomia):: .f..c 6 6. 5 ee ee ee oe we le See fe iyo 2 59
Summiaryiofiprotected@areas 2. 2 sacs 5h ae ew ele fo ati pajerge Be eae eiies 64
MNapor protected areas, x... 5... + so oem oe oe Jo jnilinty oh Biatiege yeep sus 66
SHEIRAHOA SHCCIS@ erred SOS See ws ccna eae elites oe Rhee aaa rane ome 67
France — Wallisand Futuna ...... 2.2... 2 22 eee eee ee eee renee 89
Summary of protected areas 2 we eee es 92
Maabats, Republicof (sf v2 ee ce eae ee ee RT A ees 93
Summary of/protected areas... sw ee ote we ee ee 98
Map of protectedateds 9. 5. ee a es 0 8 nn + © opens at alone 99
BPGRIANORISHCEIS, cic. eos a. cl oc wmddew a) ap dG. 6 os cope ane b ale uanenn ince tieantes 100
Marshall Islands, Republicof ..........-.- 5 ee ee eee ee ees 119
Summary of protected:areas, 0... 26 eee wes ie esi Seow ele ae aiel 122
Map of protected aFeaS, ... on. 22 ee 88 se 8 we 8 ow aye cael ails ayes 123
MGECSTITIATIOMSHEELS: oo 5 ois 6) ee we des Sonae co) ww ia pealemniat a ean cettemye'ad 9 et pei Dea 124
ANE AE Oe tees obese aaah on gees at eea: ible ene D eat, a alate npedts) eae 131
ME Fee Fk PORE te eh Tg tM al ots al ain st suelo VaLal Wes, 0) acs ge ante, GMeibcbas fers 135
Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of .........---2+++e+055 139
Summary of protected areas... 1. et ee ees 142
Map Of protected areds . 8 ee eg ee aye ee ee ere 143
ARfOURIAGION SHES) = we ee fee eo ow he dw: Witlage. @ eer elo: Sea = ve 144
Polat MeRUBNC OS 5 v5 oc csc a es oko eRe 6 6 © Rawal ee +. 3.0 5s een 157
Sommmary of protected Areas ncrs.adens, bhecoetcs-< neeele Seen, ER +> ae tee 160
Mup OL prmiecied dtegs. 6508 Se leo 8 weet e se ote o> ol waa s. ore eee 161
Information sheets o.°. FOS Ps A CE TS FS ees 162
Pana New Guin@a' on... apse Se es 8 he sae es so aaa 167
Summary Of protected ACeas ss. Spee sh ge, cn aitias Scenpn reve eel ave n arlle 177
Rap OF rOtec ter ane AS a ais Perea ol epi aS No inn in i) a eal a 181
INGGTIMALON SHEEES: 5%. o.'s cs ics ales) oS 0 genie Rano oats eae ee 182
CE lS 239
Summary of protéectediareas a. May 27s. oe A eer eke ae toh ee 247
PMR as oe ae Ss Ts TRS See ene ee Cs oe ene oe eee 253
‘Toned; Kingdom of. <1. '.>. wretora eet. of Nae a 257
Suminary of protected Areas eia) ceo teach. is eta fhe a's ant 2 Peep oe oe oy Me 265
IMapiGr prolecten areas! 22724. ©... te te ss why oo ls 0 12 7e Ter ee e 266
Information SHEETS. (7 ea Se It Pe 267
Wavelets. 1) SE eee hoe. sere ta tet Ta Ne ‘sake tore! cnet cg ae oho eee! 281
SA = Ammerienamieg oa suis bso lc, oem fon, Sac cee hs siya tess We tata 285
SlmimmanyiOrprotectem areds:” 759. oS eta: Te e's Ge we ee ena ee 290
Map Ghprotecice areas: "SRF ete tat es ee anaes we eer oe ee 291
ENTORINABO SECIS? 5757. Bt Nat oe eG ae os one ee 292
UWA Ginn if hike io a fet ofan ake eet ede ae tas bagnecet ee ce eee 301
summary of.protected areas. 8.6. ake es lee es ee eee 306
IMapiel protected areas” Far. 6.858 ath ele ea. Mates boaters 307
information Sheets © sgagisis hee te as lets eee lel te ala ae ee ee ee 308
Eirer— cacrwnn. 98 "6 8 Pea ats Moet, CEs Tae ee 327
Summary Of protected areas” “9.9. ota ttt. en reine ee en 335
Manor Protected Areas 2h. stdte ia". tele". "ssf atele Qe ete ene 338
PneORMAOD SHOES, 67"... ee te ete a's elec states 5 we Cen Ce 339
TE ae RM a hl rai rl eS ae carne che er eset acini 371
summary of protected areas’ 9" tc ee et ee eee 378
Map sof protected areas ics oi. mg ve sic oe nine po,e) Suma tihe os oncteiaeane, Bea 379
TREQHTAAHONSHCEIS i ee «cia uns So tims e) bn iy veges vaya +sv eds, Re EON eae 380
Western Samaa!:> °°." tattoo eh ee eee Oe 387
elfamary Of protected'areas! i. SSS. ee 395
Map of protected'aneat Syhs5 92 ol oe ohn... eee obaen 397
AnfOrMAtion SHEE... os... sack eusachende-yk-cdspeaeecys RHs, DORE OQ eee 398
Other Pacific Islands” °.°0° a) cee ete tener ete, Oe Se ae 407
Summary of protected areas! "Tees ee ee es hoe 407
Map QE protected areas: ,.... ae b-ices ste ra WOK: oo 0nd es nsicoceucsducesveb ive skencnnene 408
antoralation sheets: os eee. ss ee UE ee ere 409
Gesoraphicatiades "OUR oe: . ce een a oa cae ee 431
Taxonomic Index
Vi
FOREWORD
The islands of the Pacific conjure up visions of warmth, beauty and colour set in a vast
ocean . . .a paradise captured in words by James Michener and Oscar Hammerstein. This image
perhaps accounts for the fact that, for too long, Oceania has been a backwater in the world’s
conservation priorities. It has considerable conservation needs, but lacks the large animal species
which capture public imagination and funding support.
Oceania is blessed with great diversity but saddled with the vulnerability of small islands
and the limited resources of micro nations, while many of its people seek a consumer-oriented
lifestyle.
Fortunately, in-country government and NGO efforts, backed by regional initiatives and growing
international support, are tackling the particular problems which beset conservation in this vast
region of scattered islands.
The publication of this JUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania is a positive step in
building up public awareness in the Pacific nations and territories, in the Oceania region and in
the world at large.
Oceania, as covered by this Directory, extends from its largest land mass in Papua New Guinea
in the east to Chile’s Isla de Pascua (Easter Island) in the west and from the islands of Hawaii in
the north to Australia’s Lord Howe Islands and New Zealand’s Kermadecs in the south.
Settled initially some 20,000 years ago and subsequently colonised by voyagers across its vast
expanse of water, most of the habitable islands of Oceania were occupied by around 1000 AD
variously by Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian people. Their island homes were diverse.
Low coral islands or atolls, coral islands or reefs lifted from the ocean floor, emerging as high
atolls on limestone platforms, islands of volcanic origin, and continental islands. Isolated islands
saw the evolution of unique flora and fauna with many endemic species.
Traditional constraints on resource use and, in larger areas and surrounding seas, an abundance
of natural resources meant that communities lived in relative harmony with their environment.
European "discovery" between the 16th and 18th centuries and then Western colonisation
impacted significantly on the situation, with the introduction of alien species, changing patterns
of resource use, and exploitation of forests combining to have a devastating impact on many
indigenous species and their often small and fragile habitats.
Independence brought a new range of challenges to often tiny nations made up of small island
communities across an ocean whose fisheries attracted sometimes destructive fishing techniques
from outside the region and whose community-based land tenure systems found it hard to cope
with Western concepts of private ownership.
In such a context, regional cooperation and innovative approaches to resource management and
protected areas are vital and are having a positive impact, as the Directory shows, with progress
in the establishment of protected areas, including some with a distinctive South Pacific character,
such as Papua New Guinea’s wildlife management areas established and managed by customary
land owners.
Vii
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
In 1975, New Zealand hosted the First South Pacific Conference on National Parks and Reserves
in Wellington and in 1976 a key initiative was taken by the South Pacific Forum, the political
association of independent Pacific countries. Consultation with other regional bodies, including
the South Pacific Commission (SPC), led in 1982 to a decision to set up a South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP) located with SPC in Noumea, New Caledonia. The small
SPREP Secretariat implements a wide-ranging work programme among which the field of
protected areas and nature conservation is of particular importance. Related SPREP projects deal
with problems of introduced species, bird conservation, and the establishment and effective
management of terrestrial and marine protected areas.
The Second South Pacific conference on protected areas was held in Australia in 1979, but, since
its establishment, SPREP has taken the lead in organising the two subsequent such conferences
at ministerial level, held in Western Samoa in 1985 and Vanuatu in 1989. SPREP works, too, to
implement two regional conventions, the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South
Pacific (Apia Convention) and the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and
Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention).
While SPREP does not quite cover the whole of the Oceania region dealt with in the Directory,
its definition of the South Pacific is wide enough to cover 22 island states or territories across
29 million sq. km of ocean, approximately the size of Africa.
The most encouraging sign for the future is the confidence the Oceanic states have in SPREP as
a coordinating and innovating body working in cooperation with UNEP, IUCN — The World
Conservation Union, and other bodies such as the Honolulu-based East-West Center, the World
Wide Fund for Nature and other non-governmental organisations.
The publication of this Directory is welcomed by IUCN and its Commission on National Parks
and Protected Areas, whose Vice-Chair for Oceania, Iosefatu Reti of Western Samoa, is a former
SPREP Coordinator.
The confident hope is that the Directory will encourage the island states and territories to focus
even more on the importance of protected areas, working through SPREP’s coordinating efforts
and with greater support from the world conservation community. Such areas are vital to preserve
the biological diversity which is the region’s often unique natural heritage and to provide a base
for environmentally sensitive tourism which can capitalise on the world’s positive image of
Oceania as a region of beauty and peace.
P.H.C. Lucas
Chair, IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
Wellington, New Zealand
Vili
INTRODUCTION
Participants at the World National Parks Congress, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1982, recognised
that the ready availability of good-quality information on the world’s protected areas was
essential to a wide range of international organisations, governments, protected area managers,
voluntary bodies and individuals. Such information is a prerequisite for assessing the coverage
and status of protected areas from regional and global perspectives. Moreover, monitoring
protected areas is vital to ensure that those areas designated for conservation of the world’s natural
resources continue to meet the needs of society.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is gradually developing its capabilities as
an international centre for information on protected areas. Working in collaboration with the
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, the WCMC Protected Areas Data
Unit (PADU) is compiling a series of regional protected areas directories, with priority addressed
to tropical countries where much of the world’s biological diversity is to be found. Past work
has been focused on the Neotropical and Afrotropical realms and South Asia, culminating in the
publication of protected area directories for each region.
The Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific, adopted by the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference held in Apia, Western Samoa in 1985, identifies a
number of specific activities at national, regional and international levels, which are important
steps in the establishment and effective management of protected areas in the region. One of the
activities identified for implementation by IUCN was to develop a protected areas database from
information collected by governments and other sources, and publish relevant data as a
"Directory of South Pacific Region Protected Areas".
A draft directory had, in fact, been prepared prior to the 1985 conference, and was discussed
with participants at that meeting. Also, the format of the country reports which participants were
asked to present to the Conference was designed with the update of the draft directory in mind.
It had been intended that the directory would be revised following the Conference, using the
information provided in the country reports and by participants. Unfortunately, however, funds
were not available to complete the work at that time.
Since then, the original draft has been extensively revised and up-dated, with the incorporation
of much additional material. This has been made possible both by the increased levels of core
funding now available to WCMC, and through a collaborative project with the US Fish and
Wildlife Service (funded by US-AID). This project led to the preparation of overviews of the
protected areas system of ten South Pacific countries, for use as briefing documents for US-AID
personnel. This effectively funded revision of the texts for ten countries, carried out in
collaboration with appropriate individuals in each of the countries concerned.
The draft overviews, and a revised draft protected areas directory, were presented at the Fourth
South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas held in Vanuatu in 1989.
This led to further review of the text, both as a result of papers presented by participants, and
through interaction with a wide range of contacts made at the conference. Presentations were
also made at two other Pacific meetings, to ensure people were fully aware of the project, and
to stimulate a wider response to appeals for information. These were the US National Park Service
workshop, “Interpreting critical issues in resources management" (War in the Pacific National
ix
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Historical Park, Guam, April 1990), and the "Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism"
(East-West Center, Honolulu, May 1990).
This Directory covers the protected areas systems of American Samoa, Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia,
Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, Western Samoa
and some of the Pacific islands of Australia, Chile, New Zealand and the United States. Summary
data are presented for all protected areas known to exist in these countries, although only a limited
number of properties are described in detail (largely a reflection of the availability of information,
documentation on some sites being non-existent or not easily obtainable).
The Directory is organised into chapters for each country. Each chapter comprises a standard
format description of the national protected area system, accompanied by a list of protected areas,
and a map of protected areas (for widely scattered islands and atolls a general map depicts the
geographical location). In cases where there are no formal protected areas, no list or map is
provided. This section is followed by descriptions of individual properties in alphabetical order.
Geographical and taxonomic indexes enable easy reference to individual properties and plant or
animal species mentioned in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Directory has to a large extent been a cooperative effort, benefiting from a tremendous
amount of assistance from within the Pacific region. Many people have contributed to the
preparation of the Directory through reviewing or compiling material and providing new
information. Their assistance is greatly appreciated. Those who spring to mind in the final hours
of its preparation are listed below under respective country chapters. To others, whose
contributions may have been overlooked inadvertently in the course of time, sincere apologies
are due.
Viane Ali (Fiji); Sebastian Anefal (FSM); Graham Baines (Solomon Islands); Ernest Bani
(Vanuatu); Bruce Beehler (Smithsonian Institution); Everett Bishop (Western Samoa); Michael
Brooke (Henderson Island); Marcus Chambers (Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea); Richard Chesher
(Tonga); Gilbert Child (FAO); Earl of Cranbrooke (Vanuatu); The Reverend Canon Crutwell
(Papua New Guinea); Jean-Louis d’Auzon (New Caledonia); Chris Dahl (FSM); Nancy
Daschbach (American Samoa); Peter Eaton (Papua New Guinea); Lou Eldredge (Pacific Science
Association); Netatua Fifita (Tonga); Gladys Fullman (Fiji); Frederick Green (Guam); Larry
Hamilton (East-West Centre); M. Harber (Guam); Bryan Harry (Hawaii); Roger Hicks (Papua
New Guinea); Heidi Hirsh (Guam); Erik Holm-Petersen (Tourism Council of the South Pacific);
Jack Hopa (Vanuatu); H. Hopkins (Papua New Guinea); Henry Isa (Solomon Islands); Roy Kam
(Hawaii); Kelese Kolone (Tuvalu); Guy Kula (Papua New Guinea); L. Lamothe (Papua New
Guinea); Annette Lees (Maruia Society); David Lotz (Guam); Harley Manner (Palau, Guam);
Anthony Mariano (Guam); George Marshall (Papua New Guinea); Adrian Marshall (Vanuatu);
Gerald McCormack (Cook Islands); James Miculka (Guam); Warwick Murray (New Zealand);
Audrey Newman (Hawaii); P. Osborne (Papua New Guinea); Demei Otobed (Belau); Sia Paopao
(American Samoa); Malcolm Payne (Countryside Commission for Scotland); Sam Pearsall
(TNC); Kalati Poai (Western Samoa); Nick Polunin (Papua New Guinea); James Reichel
(Northern Marianas); Iosefatu Reti (Western Samoa, SPREP); Guy Salmon (Maruia Society);
Elizabeth Schreiber (Kiribati); Birandra Singh (Fiji); Philippe Siu (French Polynesia);
Introduction
Neil Stronach (Papua New Guinea); Suliana Suwatibau (Fiji); G. Talagi (Niue); Katino Teeb’aki
(Kiribati); Peter Thomas (SPREP); Peter Vaughan (Solomon Islands); Yolande Vernaudon
(French Polynesia); Bonnie Vittery (Henderson Island); Dick Watling (Fiji); Neva Wendt
(SPREP); Lauren Wenzel (Fiji); Gary Wiles (Guam).
A number of present and previous staff of PADU have been involved in the preparation of this
directory. In particular, the preliminary draft presented at the Third South Pacific National Pakes
and Reserves Conference was prepared by Jeremy Harrison.
Particular thanks are again due to Jeremy Harrison, in his role of Head of the Protected Areas
Data Unit, being a tireless source of advice and support. Michael Green and Sara Day compiled
the chapter on Papua New Guinea and Peter Gorbutt compiled the data sheet on J.H. Garrick
Memorial Reserve, Fiji. Other past and present members of staff in WCMC who have contributed
their expertise by reviewing draft information sheets and providing further information, include
Steve Davis, Brian Groombridge, Martin Jenkins, Tim Inskipp and Sue Wells, and Tim Johnson,
from the International Council for Bird Preservation. Mike Adam and Gillian Bunting (WCMC),
gave generously of their time and patience as they struggled with the cartographical puzzle that
scatters such small islands across the immensity of the Pacific. Secretarial support was most ably
given by Alison Suter, assisted by Debbie Rothera. Thanks also go to my colleagues Clare
Billington and Donald Gordon for their moral support. The support of our colleagues at IUCN
headquarters, notably Vitus Fernando and James Thorsell, is also acknowledged.
The final copy was prepared for publication by Barbara Lambert, IUCN Publications Services
Unit, and Alison Suter assisted with proof-reading.
The production of this Directory was supported in part by the East-West Center of Honolulu,
Hawaii, through a grant to the Center from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
We are happy to acknowledge the assistance of Larry Hamilton in securing this support.
This Directory is not a final statement and in no way represents a cessation of interest in the
Pacific region on the part of WCMC. There will always be new developments in the field of
protected areas, perhaps even more so now that both the Apia Convention and the SPREP
Convention have entered into force. Thus, there is a continuing need to maintain and update the
WCMC files. With this Directory goes a plea for corrections, comments and additional material,
in order that WCMC can carry out its mission as effectively as possible. By the same token,
WCMC offers an information service that covers an increasingly wide range of topics. All parties,
from individuals to government departments, are invited to contact WCMC with their enquiries
at the address below.
Notwithstanding the significant contributions of those mentioned above, errors and omissions
remain the responsibility of the compiler.
James R. Paine
WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit
219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK
Tel: (0223) 277314
Fax: (0223) 277316
Telex: 817036 SCMUG
E-mail: jimp@wcmc.uucp
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MANAGING INFORMATION ON PROTECTED
AREAS AT WCMC
Institutional background
The TUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) has been actively
involved in the collection and dissemination of information on protected areas ever since it was
set up in 1960 to serve as the "leading international, scientific and technical body concerned with
the selection, establishment and management of national parks and other protected areas". Over
the years CNPPA’s information management role increased to the extent that in 1981 it set up
the Protected Areas Data Unit to undertake this service. Support for this initiative was
forthcoming from the United Nations Environment Programme, as part of its Global
Environmental Monitoring Programme. Originally part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre, PADU is now an integral part of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, restructured
in July 1988 as a joint venture between the three partners in the World Conservation Strategy,
namely IUCN — The World Conservation Union, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Objectives
WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information on protected area systems of the world
for use by its partners (UCN, WWF and UNEP) in the support and development of their
programmes, other international bodies, governmental and non-governmental organisations,
scientists and the general public. Such information covers the entire spectrum of protected areas,
from national parks and sanctuaries established under protected areas legislation or customary
regimes to forest reserves created under forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned
reserves in which nature is protected.
PADU has an integral relationship with CNPPA. In particular, PADU is responsible to CNPPA
for producing the United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas (1982, 1985, 1990),
which is periodically generated from its protected areas database currently totalling some 24,000
records. This database, together with supporting documentation, includes comprehensive
information on natural sites designated under international conventions and programmes, namely
the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Thus,
PADU cooperates closely with the Division of Ecological Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining
information on Biosphere Reserves and World Heritage Sites accorded by the MAB Secretariat
and World Heritage Committee, respectively. Likewise, it is responsible to the Ramsar Bureau
for managing information on Ramsar Wetlands.
Information capture, management and compilation
Information is collected from official sources, viz. national agencies responsible for
administering protected areas, and other sources through a global network of contacts ranging
in profession from policy-makers and administrators to land managers and scientists. It is also
obtained from published and unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and other
xiii
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
relevant scientific and technical meetings provide valuable opportunities for making new
contacts and collecting fresh information.
Information, ranging from books, reports, management plans, scientific papers, and maps, is
stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on individual protected areas are extracted and,
after verification, entered in a protected areas database. This computerised database can be used
for generating lists of protected areas meeting pre-defined criteria, together with summary
statistics, as well as performing more complex tasks. In addition, boundaries of protected areas
are gradually being digitised, using a Geographic Information System, in order to be able to
generate computerised mapped output. The raw information is also used for compiling
information sheets on national protected areas systems (protected areas systems information
sheets) and on individual protected areas (protected areas information sheets). These information
sheets are compiled according to standard formats developed over the years by PADU in
collaboration with CNPPA, details of which are given elsewhere in this directory.
Dissemination of information
Compiled information is periodically published in the form of regional or thematic directories,
with sections on individual countries comprising a protected areas system information sheet, a
protected areas list with accompanying map, and a series of protected areas information sheets
covering at least the more important properties. Prior to releasing or publishing documents, draft
material is circulated for review by relevant government agencies and experts to help ensure that
compiled information is accurate and comprehensive. Regional and thematic directories
published to date are as follows:
IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas (1982)
IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas (1987)
MAB Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 4 (1986)
MAB Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990)
Directory of Wetlands of International Importance (1987, 1990)
Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World (1987)
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas (1990)
Information is also made available to a wide range of users, including international organisations,
governments, protected area managers, conservation organisations, commercial companies
involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and the media and general public. It may be
consulted by arrangement. Material may be prepared under contract: for example, PADU
regularly provides UNEP with summary data on protected areas for its biennial Environmental
Data Report. PADU is experimenting with providing outside users with direct access to its
protected areas database. Trials have been ongoing with the US National Park Service since 1986
and it is hoped to be able to extend this service to other users in due course. PADU is also able
to disseminate information through the CNPPA Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case of
the latter, PADU has recently assumed responsibility for compiling Clipboard in which world
news on protected areas is featured.
Xiv
Information management
INFORMATION SHEETS
GUIDELINES TO THEIR CONTENTS
INFORMATION SHEETS ON PROTECTED AREAS SYSTEMS
Country!
— Full name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (1982).
Area
— Area of country or political unit according to the Times Atlas of the World (Seventh Edition,
1986), unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial and marine components are
distinguished, if appropriate.
Population
— Population of country or political unit and its rate of natural increase according to the
Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC, whose data are based on those of the United
Nations Statistical Office. Year of census or estimate is indicated in parentheses. If another
source has to be used, it is cited.
GNP
— Gross national product per capita in US dollars, with year in parentheses, of country or
political unit according to the Population Reference Bureau.
Policy and Legislation
— Information on aspects of the constitution that are relevant to protected areas.
— Details of national policies that relate to nature conservation, particularly with respect to the
protection of ecosystems. Policies relating to environmental impact assessments and national/
regional conservation strategies are outlined.
— Brief historical account of national legislation and traditions that relate to the establishment
of the protected areas system, with dates and numbers of acts, decrees and ordinances.
Legislation covering forestry and other resource sectors is included, in so far as it provides
for protected areas establishment. Procedures for the notification and declassification of
protected areas are summarised.
— Outline of legal provisions for administering protected areas.
— Legal definitions of national designations of protected areas, together with the names of the
authorities legally responsible for their administration, are summarised. National
designations are cited in the original language or transliterated, followed in brackets by the
English translation as appropriate. Details of activities permitted or prohibited within each
type of protected area and penalties for offences are outlined.
1 In the case of countries with federal systems of government, a single information sheet describes the
protected areas system at both federal and state levels, except in the case of geographically disjunct regions.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are noted with deficiencies in prevailing
provisions highlighted.
International Activities
Participation in international conventions and programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar
conventions, MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme) and regional agreements
(African, ASEAN, Berne, FAO Latin American/Caribbean Technical Cooperation Network,
South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme, South Pacific, Western Hemisphere)
relevant to habitat protection is summarised, with details of dates of accession or ratification,
etc.
Outline of any cooperative programmes or transfrontier cooperative agreements relevant to
protected areas.
Administration and Management
All authorities responsible for the administration and management of protected areas are
described, including a brief history of their establishment, administrative organisation, staff
structure, budget and any training programmes. Authorities responsible for different types
of protected areas are clearly distinguished.
Outline of the role of any advisory boards.
Cooperative agreements between management authorities and national or foreign universities
and institutes, with details of any research underway or completed.
Details of non-governmental organisations concerned with potected areas, including
reference to any national directories of voluntary conservation bodies.
Effectiveness of protected areas management, noting levels of disturbance and threats to the
national network. Attention is drawn to any sites registered as threatened under the World
Heritage Convention, or by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.
Systems Reviews
Short account of physical features, biological resources, and land use patterns, including the
extent and integrity of major ecosystems. (Appropriate sources of information include
TUCN’s Plants in Danger: What do we know?, protected areas systems reviews, and wetland
and coral reef directories.)
Brief historical account of nature conservation, so far as it relates to the establishment and
expansion of the national protected areas network. Emphasis is given to any systems reviews
or comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with details of major recommendations
arising from such studies.
Threats to the protected areas system beyond the control of the management agencies are
outlined.
Other Relevant Information (optional)
— Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected areas system, if applicable.
Other items, as appropriate.
XVi
Information management
Addresses
— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and FAX nos, and cable) of authorities responsible
for administering protected areas, including the title of the post of the chief executive).
— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and FAX nos, and cable) of non-governmental
organisations, including the title of the post of the chief executive, actively involved in
protected areas issues.
References
— Key references (including all cited works) to the protected areas system, in particular, and
nature conservation, in general, are listed. Those not seen by the compiler are marked as "unseen".
Date
— Date of last extensive "review" and the most recent "update".
INFORMATION SHEETS ON PROTECTED AREAS 2
Country
— Short name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (1982).
Name
— The name of the property or properties (including any collective name, if applicable), as
designated in the original language or transliterated. Where appropriate, the English
translation is given underneath. In the case of transliteration, standard systems are used.
IUCN Management Category
— The property is assigned to the most appropriate IUCN management category (see Annex 1) in
collaboration with the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.
Biogeographical Province
— Thebiogeographical code, followed by the name of the province in brackets (after Udvardy, 1975).
Geographical Location
— The general location of the property within the country, including province and/or
administrative district, proximity to major towns and/or topographical features, and means
and ease of access. The location of different units is described, if applicable.
2 Sheets contain information on individual protected areas or clusters of such properties that form discrete
conservation units. "No information” is entered under any heading for which no data are available.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
— The boundary of the property is briefly described, its relation to any significant political
boundaries noted, and geographical coordinates are given.
Date and History of Establishment
— The date of establishment, together with the act, decree or ordinance number of the original
and subsequent legislative articles relating to its establishment. Proposed extensions or
upgradings are detailed.
— A brief chronological history of previous designations, together with details of subsequent
additions (including their sizes in hectares).
— If applicable, dates of inscription as World Heritage Site, Biosphere Reserve, Ramsar
Wetland or other appropriate international and regional designations are given.
Area
— The best estimate of total area in hectares (ha), together with sizes of individually gazetted
units, if applicable. If this differs from the total area as notified, the discrepancy is indicated.
The extent of terrestrial and marine components is specified, if appropriate.
— Contiguous or otherwise associated protected areas are noted and their sizes given in hectares
(ha) in parentheses, including any lying across international borders.
Land Tenure
— Land ownership (e.g. state, provincial, freehold, private, customary etc.), including sizes or
proportions of respective areas if owned by several authorities.
Altitude
— Maximum and minium altitude in metres (m).
Physical Features
— General description of abiotic features, covering geology, topography, geomorphology, soils
and hydrology.
Climate
— Seasons, annual precipitation, and maximum and minimum temperatures, with respect to
altitude if appropriate. Other outstanding climatic features are noted.
Vegetation
— Main vegetation types are briefly described, including their approximate coverage and state
of preservation. Characteristic species are noted.
— Communities and species of particular interest, including endemic, globally threatened (see
Annex 2), economically important and potentially economically important (e.g. crop
relatives), and invasive or introduced species. Any nationally threatened species of direct
relevance to management are also mentioned.
— References to vegetation descriptions and species inventories are included in the above.
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Information management
NB: Names of genera and families are based on Mabberley (1987).
Fauna
— Mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish and invertebrate faunas are described in relation
to the different habitats, with emphasis on dominant, endemic, globally threatened (see
Annex 2), economically important, and introduced or re-introduced species of particular
interest. Where relevant, information is given on the use certain species make of habitats for
breeding, stopover, migration, etc. Population sizes are given in the case of key species, with
details of trends over specified periods of time.
— References to species inventories are included in the above.
NB: Scientific nomenclature of species is based on Honacki et al. (1982) for mammals, Moroney
et al. (1975) for birds, Frost (1985) for amphibians, Nelson (1984) for fishes and Parker (1982)
for invertebrates. The preparation of a taxonomic reference for reptiles is being coordinated by
The Association of Systematics Collections.
Cultural Heritage (if relevant)
— Archaeological features and cultural monuments.
— Ethnic groups and their traditions.
— Historical features.
Local Human Population (if relevant)
— Size of the human population resident, transhumant or nomadic within the property, together
with details of the number and distribution of settlements.
— Livelihoods of local populations are briefly described in relation to any zonation of the
property, with details of land use (e.g. numbers of livestock and amount of land under
permanent or shifting cultivation).
— Land use is described for the area surrounding the property, particularly as it impinges on
the integrity of the property.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities (if relevant)
— Annual number of visitors, together with proportions of nationals and foreigners for the latest
year. Total revenue accruing from tourism is also indicated. Significant trends over specified
periods of time are noted.
— Types of accommodation available on site (or nearby), with details of location and amount
if it is particularly limited.
— Availability and location of interpretation programmes, including visitor centres, educational
facilities and museums.
— Any other recreational facilities of particular interest.
Scientific Research And Facilities
— A brief historical account of research undertaken, together with details of ongoing studies.
Bibliographies, if compiled, are cited.
— Laboratories and other facilities, including accommodation, available to scientists.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Conservation Value
Geological, scenic, biological, cultural and socio-economic values of the property, and
justification for its conservation.
In the case of World Heritage sites, all natural and cultural criteria are outlined, based on the
IUCN evaluation of the nomination submitted to the World Heritage Committee.
Conservation Management
A brief history of the conservation of the property, including any reasons for its original
establishment where these differ from its present conservation value. Any legal provisions
specific to the protection of the property are mentioned, together with details of activities
(e.g. hunting, fishing, grazing) specifically permitted or prohibited.
Administrative structure and management, including location of main facilities (e.g. headquarters).
Management objectives, as drawn up in the management plan, and their degree of
implementation. (The existence or absence of a management plan or "statement of objectives"
is noted and, if appropriate, the authority responsible for its implementation.)
Major management activities (e.g. controlled burning, culling).
Any system of zonation, including function and size of zones.
Significant training, interpretative and extension programmes.
Recommendations, particularly those made in the management plan, for future conservation
and management of the property.
Management Constraints
Past and current problems are briefly described, such as invasive species, poaching, fire,
pollution, disease, agricultural encroachment, impact of tourism, relationship between
management authorities and local people, lack of trained manpower or equipment, and
proposed developments (e.g. roads, dams), with emphasis on the main types of threat and
their extent. Threats from within and outside the property are distinguished.
If a property is registered as threatened by the [UCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas or under any national or international convention (e.g. World Heritage),
details are provided.
Staff
Numbers of staff allocated to each position and, if applicable, details of voluntary staff for
the latest year, with trends if significant.
Budget
Annual budget for the latest year (in parentheses) in local currency, and in US dollars for
ease of comparison. Capital (e.g. construction of facilities) and recurrent (e.g. salaries) costs
are distinguished. Significant trends are noted.
Financial support from outside sources.
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Information management
Local Addresses
— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, FAX nos, and cable) of the local authorities
responsible for the day-to-day administration and management of the property,
including the title of the post of the chief executive (i.e. park warden or equivalent).
— Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, FAX nos. and cable) of any local non-
governmental organisations directly involved in the protection and management of the
property, including the title of the post of the chief executive.
References
— Keyreferences, including management plans, reports, scientific monographs, bibliographies
and handbooks, in addition to other scientific papers or popular articles and books specifically
about the property. Particularly relevant references not available for consultation are also
listed and cited as "unseen".
Date
— Date of last extensive "review" and the most recent "update".
REFERENCES
Frost, D.R. Ed. (1985). Amphibian species of the world: a taxonomic and geographical reference.
Allen Press and The Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.
735 pp.
Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. and Koeppl, J.W. (1982). Mammal species of the world: a
taxonomic and geographic reference. Allen Press and The Association of Systematics
Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.
IUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R.
(Eds), National Parks, Conservation, and Development. The role of protected areas in
sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53.
TUCN (1990). 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 228 pp.
Mabberley, D.J. (1987). The Plant Book. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 706 pp.
Morony, J.J. Jr, Bock W.J. and Farrand Jr (1975). Reference list of the birds of the world.
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 207 pp.
Nelson, J.S. (1984). Fishes of the World. John Wiley, New York.
Parker, S.P. (1982). Synopsis and classification of living organisms. 2 volumes. Mcgraw Hill,
New York.
Udvardy, M.D.F. (1975). A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. JUCN
Occasional Paper No. 18, Morges, Switzerland. 48 pp.
United Nations (1982). Names of countries and adjectives of nationality. Terminology Bulletin
No. 327.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
II
VI
vil
vill
ANNEX 1
Categories and management objectives of protected areas
Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to protect nature and maintain natural
processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples
of the natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring,
education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary
State.
National Park: to protect natural and scenic areas of national or international
significance for scientific, educational and recreational use.
Natural Monument/Natural Landmark: to protect and preserve nationally
significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics.
Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary: to assure the natural conditions
necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic
communities, or physical features of the environment where these require specific
human manipulation for their perpetuation.
Protected Landscape or Seascape: to maintain nationally significant natural
landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while
providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the
normal life style and economic activity of these areas.
Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent
or contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the
establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge and planning.
Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve: to allow the way of life of societies
living in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by moder technology.
Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area: to provide for the
sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor recreation, with the
conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of economic activities (although
specific zones may also be designated within these areas to achieve specific
conservation objectives).
Biosphere Reserve: to conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity
of representative biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems,
and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution
depends.
World Heritage Site: to protect the natural features for which the area is considered to
be of World Heritage quality, and to provide information for world-wide public
enlightenment.
Abridged from IUCN (1984)
XXxii
Information management
ANNEX 2
IUCN threatened species categories
Species identified by IUCN as threatened are assigned a category indicating the degree of threat.
Definitions are as follows:
(Ex) _ Extinct: species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years.
(E) Endangered: taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if causal
factors continue operating.
(V) Vulnerable: taxa believed likely to move into the "Endangered" category in the near
future if causal factors continue operating.
(R) Rare: taxa with small world populations that are not at present "Endangered" or
"Vulnerable" but are at risk.
¢9) Indeterminate: taxa known to be "Endangered", "Vulnerable" or "Rare" but where
there is insufficient information to say which of these categories is appropriate.
(K) Insufficiently known: taxa that are suspected, but not definitely known, to belong to
any of the above categories because of lack of information.
(T) Threatened: threatened is a general term to denote species which are "Endangered",
Vulnerable", "Rare", "Indeterminate" or "Insufficiently known". It is used to identify
taxa comprised of several sub-taxa which have differing status categories.
(C) Commercially threatened: taxa not currently threatened with extinction but most or
all of whose populations are threatened as a sustainable resource, or will become so
unless their exploitation is regulated.
Abridged from IUCN (1990)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
ADDENDUM
1989 Action Strategy for Nature Conservation in the South Pacific
Readers should be aware that since the completion of this Directory the 1989 Action Strategy
for Nature Conservation in the South Pacific has become available. This represents a thorough
revision of the 1985 Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region, referred
to throughout the Directory.
The 1989 Strategy was developed and adopted by participants at the Fourth South Pacific
Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, representing 20 of the 27 member
countries of SPREP and some 36 international and regional non-government, conservation and
development assistance organisations. It was endorsed for adoption within the SPREP Work
Programme for 1991/1992 which was due to be have been developed at the SPREP
Intergovernmental Meeting in September 1990. The Strategy aims to provide a work programme
to help implement the nature conservation and protected area objectives of SPREP’s Action Plan
for Managing the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific. It also incorporates
the views of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. The Strategy
recognises the importance of the human dimension in natural resource conservation, and
acknowledges the strong potential of traditional knowledge and custom to assist in the
development of sustainable resource use practices appropriate to the special circumstances of
the island countries of the South Pacific. The need to consider more flexible protected area
categories is recognised with the use of the term "conservation area" as opposed to "protected
area".
The Strategy has seven goals, concerned with national strategies for sustainable resource use;
establishing representative conservation area systems; promoting the integration of traditional
knowledge and resource conservation; fostering links between conservation and tourism,
improving public environmental awareness; developing training and education in nature
conservation and conservation area management; and promoting regional and international
co-operation. Each goal includes a number of objectives under which activities needed at
national, regional and international levels are listed.
Specific project suggestions are listed in Appendix 1 of the Strategy for the following countries:
American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Guam,
Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga,
Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Regional Programmes for marine turtle and avifauna conservation
are given in Appendices 2 and 3, respectively. Readers are urged to acquaint themselves more
fully with the goals, objectives and proposed activities by consulting the Strategy.
References
SPREP (1985). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). Action strategy for nature conservation in the South Pacific. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 49 pp.
XX1V
COOK ISLANDS
Area The territorial seas and Exclusive Economic Zone cover nearly 2 million sq. km, whilst
total land area is only about 240 sq. km (Utanga, 1989).
Population 17,463 (SPREP, 1989) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation The Cook Islands Act (1915) constitutes the earliest conservation
legislation. Sections 356 and 357 cover the acquisition and reservation of land for public
purposes, such as recreation. Section 487 provides for the establishment of native reserves to
protect sites of historic or scenic interest and sources of water supply. Local Island Council
Ordinances also make provision for the reservation of land for public purposes. The 1915 Act
was effectively superseded by the Conservation Act (1975) which became the principal
legislative instrument for the conservation of nature and natural resources, protection of historic
sites and the environment, and the establishment of national parks and other protected areas
(SPREP, 1985b).
The 1975 Act was largely unused and was repealed and replaced in April 1987 by the 1986-87
Conservation Act. The 1986-87 Act is essentially similar to the 1975 Act, but is equally binding
on both government and the public. The principal difference is that the Conservation Service is
established as an independent corporation, whereas previously it was within the Ministry of
Internal Affairs and Conservation. The Act, which applies in full only to Rarotonga and Aitutaki,
provides for the post of Director of Conservation with wide-ranging powers to protect, conserve,
manage and control parks, wildlife, forests, water catchments and resources. Under the Act
(Sections 27 and 28), any land, lagoon, reef or island, or portion of the seabed with its superjacent
waters, can be declared a national park or reserve. The Director is obliged to prepare a
management plan for any national park or reserve declared under the Act and, after approval, to
implement it. National parks, as defined in Section 30, are intended for the protection,
conservation and management of wildlife and natural features, the encouragement and regulation
of the appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the park by the public and the protection
of special features, e.g. archaeological sites, water catchments and soil resources. The Act does
not, however, define the purpose of reserves. There are also specific provisions for the protection
of the coastal zone and Cook Island waters from unauthorised activities. Finally, the Act has
provisions for the control of soil erosion, siltation, aggregate extraction, pollution and agricultural
encroachment.
As the Conservation Act (1986/87) does not provide adequate protection for the Outer Islands,
the Conservation Service, in liaison with each Island Council, has started preparing separate
conservation plans for these islands. The Service has proposed developing legal mechanisms
under which parks and reserves could be established on native freehold land. The outline concepts
include land-leasing and shared-management regimes (McCormack, 1989).
The traditional system of resources management was based on the subdivision of land on high
islands with boundaries running along dividing ridges to include entire valleys, alluvial plains,
storm ridges on the coastal plain, the beach and lagoons fronting the valley and out to the outer
edge of the reef. Such subdivisions, known as ra’hui, and invested with supernatural powers
(tapu or taboo), were held by a Sub-Chief (Mataiapo or Rangatira) under a Chief, for members
of the tribe. Tribal members were allocated different areas for planting, gathering and fishing.
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
In addition, areas within the sub-division could be set aside for exclusive use of the Chief, and
comparable prohibitions on removing specific natural resources, such as brilliant plumage
required in ceremonies, fruits, trees, ferns or medicinal plants, animals and others. This system
was curtailed when all land below mean high water mark was defined as Crown property, and
in the Southern Group is largely used today for the control of trespass, and conservation of fruit
trees, fruit bats, wildfowl and other game. In contrast, the traditional systems of resource
conservation are more intact in the northern atolls, for example Pukapuka. Although there has
been some codification of ra’hui as Island Council by-laws, a system of reserved areas for the
protection of food plants, fishing grounds, sea birds, coconut crab, and turtles controlled by the
community, is essentially traditional. The management of natural resources allows an usually
high population to inhabit a relatively small island (Utanga, 1989).
Other legislation affecting protected areas includes the 1966 Local Government Act, which
provides for the creation of Island Councils and enables them to regulate the use of any reserve
or park under their control. Under the Trochus Act, 1975, three fishing reserves have been
established, at Aitutaki, Palmerston and Manuae, respectively, in which unlicensed diving and
fishing for trochus shell is prohibited. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act,
1979, controls the management, conservation, exploitation and exploration of marine resources
within the territorial sea.
International Activities The Cook Islands is not yet party to any of the international conventions
or programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
Ata regional level, the Cook Islands ratified the 1976 Convention on the Conservation of Nature
in the South Pacific on 24 June 1987. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during
1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first
attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it
encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The Cook Islands is also party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
and the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention) was signed on 25 November 1986 and ratified on 9
September 1987. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon
the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened
or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of
activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes
being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by
definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and
the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which the
Cook Islands is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management The 1986-87 Conservation Act is administered by the
Conservation Service. The Conservation Service is run by a Council appointed by the Minister
of Conservation. The Director, responsible for administration of the Service, is the Chairman of
the Council (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1989). The function of the Conservation Service is
to promote the conservation of the environment for the use and enjoyment of present and future
Cook Islands
generations. Within the Conservation Act there are specific regulations concerning some aspects
of the environment, but there are also provisions under which the Conservation Service can
establish additional regulations (McCormack, 1989).
Systems Reviews The Cook Islands are extremely remote oceanic islands, lying approximately
3,000km north-east from the nearest major land mass, namely New Zealand, and are defined by
Statute as all islands lying between 08°S and 23°S and 156°W and 167°W. It is divided
geographically into a Northern Group, comprising atolls, and a Southern Group, mainly
comprising high volcanic islands, but also Manuae, an atoll and Takutea, which is a sand cay.
The depths of the surrounding ocean, reaching 1,300-1,500m, precluded the formation of land
bridges during glacial periods. The islands are also remotely located on a biological diversity
gradient which diminishes west from continental land masses, and both north and south away
from the equator. These biogeographical dimensions have contributed to distinctive ecosystems,
which are also shaped by annual periodic climatic effects, and episodic events such as drought,
inundation and cyclones, but the principal influence on biological diversity is the physical
structure of the Cook Islands. The Cook Islands, however, have a long history of human
habitation and consequently much of the natural environment has been modified, especially on
coastal flats (Dahl, 1980a).
Vegetation varies from montane rain forest on Rarotonga (Merlin, 1985), through lowland
limestone rain forest on Mauke, beach forest on atolls and reef islets, to scrub and grassland
formations. Freshwater marsh is found on Mangaia, Rarotonga, Mauke, Mitiaro and Atiu, whilst
tidal salt marsh is restricted to Ngatangiia Harbour, Rarotonga (Dahl, 1980a). Natural vegetation
on coastal flats has been largely modified by man (Stoddart, 1975c) and lowland forest has been
almost totally destroyed (Davis et al., 1986). However, upland forest above 250m remains largely
intact (Sykes, 1983) and the fores: cover of deep valley heads and sharp ridges and peaks appears
to be pristine (Philipson, 1971). Coastal vegetation on Rarotonga has been heavily modified and
burning has spread to such a degree that valleys are covered by introduced grasses and weeds.
Hills near the sea mostly support Gleichenia thickets or forest (G. McCormack, pers. comm.,
1989). The mainland and reef island vegetation of Aitutaki is described by Stoddart (1975b and
1975c).
All Cook Islands feature coral formations, which are frequently fringing and lagoon reefs. Within
the southern Cooks, windward and leeward atoll reefs are restricted to Manuae and Palmerston,
whilst barrier reefs are found only at Aitutaki (Dahl, 1980b). UNEP/TUCN (1988) provides a
brief summary of each island’s reefs, and more detailed accounts for Aitutaki, Manihiki,
Ngatangiia Harbour and Muri Lagoon, Pukapuka and Suwarrow Atoll National Park. Crossland
(1928) and Dana (1898) gave early descriptions of the fringing reefs around Rarotonga and more
recent work has been carried out by, for example, Dahl (1980b), Gauss (1982), Lewis et al. (1980)
and Stoddart (1972 and 1975a; 1975b; 1975c).
Proposals to designate protected areas in the central uplands of Rarotonga date back to the 19th
century, but Suwarrow Atoll National Park is the only major gazetted protected area at present.
Previously recorded as having an area of 13,468ha, a recent legal clarification has reduced this
to only 160ha, comprising the land area above mean high water mark. This represents 0.07% of
the terrestrial Cook Islands and an even less significant proportion of the marine area, and whereas
previously algal ridge, reef flat, patch reef and open lagoon were protected these are now excluded
from the protected areas system.
One of the most recent proposals, originating in the Department of Internal Affairs and
Conservation, envisaged a 1,000ha kakerori reserve specifically for the conservation of
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Rarotongan flycatcher Pomarea dimidiata (Anon., 1985; SPREP, 1985a). Difficulties in
establishing agreement between customary land owners and the government have led to this
proposal being dropped in favour of two smaller sites in the same area (McCormack, 1988).
Proposals to gazette Takutea Island, and Rarotonga water catchment and wildlife reserves have
been identified as priority actions (SPREP, 1985a).
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific (SPREP, 1985a), provides a work
programme to implement conservation and protected areas objectives. The principal goals of the
strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy development, establishment of
protected areas, protected area management and regional and international cooperation. Priority
recommendations for the Cook Islands are as follows: conduct baseline survey, prepare
management plan and recruit and train personnel for Suwarrow Atoll National Park; establish
Kakerori Reserve on Rarotonga Island, including completion of baseline survey, preparation of
management plans, and conducting a public education and awareness campaign; develop and
implement a public education and awareness campaign for the establishment of Rarotonga Water
Catchment and Wildlife Reserve; develop a national conservation strategy; designate Takutea
Island as a wildlife sanctuary through negotiation with customary land owners and a public
awareness campaign followed by preparation of management plans (SPREP, 1985a).
Despite poor cooperation between private land owners and the government (G. McCormack,
pers. comm., 1989), considerable progress was made in implementing these priorities during the
period 1985-89. This included the establishment of the Conservation Service; development of
Suwarrow National Park; control of rats threatening Rarotongan flycatcher (kakerori) and the
preparation of a concept document detailing proposals for a kakerori reserve; preparation of
proposals for Takutea and Te Manga nature reserves; and preparation and implementation of
species management plans and public education and awareness programmes (SPREP, 1989).
Dahl (1986) recommends as priority the establishment of a major protected area in central
Rarotonga. Further recommendations include protection of endemic species in natural areas in
Mangaia, Mitiaro and possibly other islands, and the establishment of coastal and marine
reserves, as contributions to enhanced environmental management (Dahl, 1986). These are based
largely on early, more extensive and specific recommendations which include proposals to
protect higher areas, swamps, marshes and other terrestrial vegetation, endemic bird habitats,
elevated limestone (makatea) regions, barrier and fringing reefs, lagoons, motus (islets), banks
of major streams and historical features (Dahl, 1980a).
Rarotonga, as the capital and most densely populated island, exhibits the most pronounced
development and the severest environmental problems. The traditional subsistence economy has
long since been replaced with a commercial plantation export economy. The deeply incised,
mountainous interior, rising to 652m, restricts agriculture to a circumferential belt some 1km
wide (Johnston, 1959). Reefs, reef flats and lagoons play a leading role in protein supply in the
Cook Islands (Hambuechen, 1973a). Islanders may depend on marine resources for 90% of their
protein in the northern group and 60% in the southern group. In addition to fish, turtle meat, but
not eggs, is consumed on Palmerston and in the Northern Cook Islands (G. McCormack,
pers. comm., 1989).
Airport and hotel construction, port improvement, pollution and soil erosion have contributed to
coastal degradation in Rarotonga. The reefs are considered to be in an advanced stage of
degradation (Dahl, 1980b). Chemical run-off may be a significant problem (Hambuechen, 1973a
and 1973b), and problems created by the increased use of pesticides are described by
Hambuechen (1973b). Fish poisoning and dynamiting has been reported (Dahl, 1980b;
Cook Islands
Hambuechen, 1973a). Phosphate mining, a potentially serious environmental threat, may be
investigated on Rakahanga and Manihiki (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
A major crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci plague occurred on the north-west reefs of
Rarotonga during 1972-73; there was a minor infestation on Aitutaki in 1973. There were no
known previous infestations and there have been none since (G. McCormack, pers. comm.,
1989). Other marine threats actually or potentially include offshore activities such as aggregate
extraction, eutrophication and inappropriate recreational use. Fish poisoning and dynamiting has
occurred and pearl oyster stocks have been depleted. Principal threats on land include agricultural
encroachment into remaining forest, indiscriminate burning, deforestation and propagation of
exotic pests such as rhinoceros beetle, rats and feral animals. Coastal resource management is
weak due to a division of administrative responsibilities and a lack of legislated authority (CSC,
1985a and 1985b; Dahl, 1980b; SPREP, 1985b; UNEP/TUCN, 1988). There is a risk of severe
economic and social disruption in the event of increased sea level rises caused by global warming
of the atmosphere (Pernetta, 1988). The agricultural belt of Rarotonga could be reduced in size
and altered in profile by enhanced erosion (Nunn, 1988). More catastrophically, low-lying
islands, such as Suwarrow or Takutea, could be inundated and completely destroyed (Pernetta,
1988)
Protected habitats are restricted to beach and wet atoll forest (Dahl, 1980a), in addition to
important seabird breeding areas on Suwarrow (SPREP, 1985b). Omissions from the protected
area system include lowland rain forest on Aitutaki and Mauke, limestone forest, the montane
and ridge rain forest of central Rarotonga, freshwater marsh, tidal salt marsh, permanent lake,
mountain stream, closed lagoon and fringing reef (Dahl, 1980a and 1986).
Addresses
The Director, Conservation Service, P O Box 371, Tupapa, Rarotonga
References
Anon. (1985). Endangered species management needs in the Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J.
(Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference.
Volume II. Collected key issue and case study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. Pp. 271-275.
CSC (1985a). Environmental planning programme: coastal zone management of tropical islands.
Proceedings of the workshop/planning meeting on coastal zone management of the South
Pacific region, Tahiti. Commonwealth Science Council Technical Publications Series,
London. No. 180.
CSC (1985b). Environmental planning programme: coastal zone management of tropical
islands. SOPACOAST: the South Pacific coastal zone management programme. CSC
Technical Publications Series, London. No. 204.
Crossland, C. (1928). Coral reefs of Tahiti, Moorea and Rarotonga. Journal of the Linnean
Society 36: 577-620. (Unseen).
Dahl, A.L. (1980a). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980b). Report on marine surveys of Rarotonga and Aitutaki (November 1976).
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK. 328 pp.
Dana, J.D. (1898). Corals and Coral Islands. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York.
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Gauss, G.A. (1982). Sea bed studies in nearshore areas of the Cook Islands. South Pacific Marine
Geology Notes, CCOP, ESCA 2: 131-154. (Unseen).
Hambuechen, W.H. (1973a). Cook Islands. Proceedings and Papers, Regional Symposium on
Conservation of Nature — Reef and Lagoons, 1971. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. (Unseen).
Hambuechen, W.H. (1973b). Pesticides in the Cook Islands. Proceedings and Papers, Regional
Symposium on Conservation of Nature — Reef and Lagoons, 1971. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen).
IUCN (1988). From Strategy to Action: How to Implement the Report of the Commission on
Environment and Development. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 116 pp.
Johnston, W.B. (1959). The Cook Islands: land use in an island group in the south-west Pacific.
Journal of Tropical Geography 13: 38-57.
Lewis, K.B., Utanga, A.T., Hill, P.J. and Kingan, S.G. (1980). The origin of channel-filled sands
and gravels on an algal-dominated reef terrace, Rarotonga, Cook Islands. South Pacific
Geology Notes 2: 1-23
McCormack, G. (1988). Kakerori Nature Reserve. A concept document. Cook Islands
Conservation Service. Unpublished. 4 pp.
McCormack, G. (1989). Cook Islands Conservation Service: two years under the 1986/87 Act.
Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 5 pp.
Merlin, M.D. (1985). Woody vegetation in the upland region of Rarotonga, Cook Islands. Pacific
Science 39: 81-99. (Unseen).
Nunn, P. Potential impacts of projected sea level rise on Pacific Island States (Cook Islands, Fiji,
Kiribati, Tonga, and Western Samoa): a preliminary report. In: MEDU joint meeting of the
task team on the implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia,
3-7 October. Pp. 53-81.
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for the
countries of the Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the implications
of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. Pp. 1-11.
Philipson, W.R. (1971). Floristics of Rarotonga. Bulletin of the Royal Society of New Zealand
8: 49-54. (Unseen).
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council of
the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1985b). Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
SPREP (1989). Cook Islands. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1972). Reef islands of Rarotonga, with list of vascular flora by F.R. Fosberg.
Atoll Research Bulletin 160: 1-14.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975a). Scientific studies in the Southern Cook Islands: background and
bibliography. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, P.E. (Eds), Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies
in the Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 190: 1-30.
Cook Islands
Stoddart, D.R. (1975b). Mainland vegetation of Aitutaki. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, PE.
(Eds), Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies in the Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll
Research Bulletin 190: 117-122.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975c). Vegetation and floristics of the Aitutaki motus. In: Stoddart, D.R. and
Gibbs, P.E. (Eds), Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies in the Cook Islands, South Pacific.
Atoll Research Bulletin 190: 87-116.
Sykes, W.R. (1983). Conservation on South Pacific islands. In: Given, D. R. (Ed.), Conservation
of Plant Species and Habitats. Nature Conservation Council, Wellington, New Zealand. Pp
37-42. (Unseen).
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Utanga, A. (1989). Customary tenure and traditional resource management in the Cook Islands.
In: SPREP, Report of the workshop on customary tenure, traditional resource management
and nature conservation. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp 101-105.
Venkatesh, S, Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
Wilder, G.P. (1931). Flora of Rarotonga. Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum 86. 113 pp.
(Unseen).
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Conservation Act 1986-87
Date: 15 April 1987
Brief description: An Act to establish a Conservation Service as a corporation and to make
provision for the conservation and protection of the environment and national resources, and
the establishment of national parks and reserves.
Administrative authority: Conservation Service (Director)
Designations:
National park Any land, lagoon, reef, or island, or any Cook Islands waters, or portion of
the sea-bed of those waters may be proclaimed as a national park subject to the Act.
National parks, as defined in Section 30, are intended for the protection, conservation and
management of wildlife and natural features, the encouragement and regulation of the
appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the park by the public and the protection of
special features, e.g. archaeological sites, water catchments and soil resources.
Reserve Any land, lagoon, reef, or island, or any Cook Islands waters, or portion of the
sea-bed of those waters may be proclaimed as a reserve subject to the Act.
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Title (English): The Cook Islands Act
Date: 1915
Brief description: Constitutes the earliest conservation legislation
Administrative authority: Island Councils
Designations:
Recreation reserve Established under Sections 356 and 357
Native reserve Established under Section 487 for protection of sites of historic or scenic
interest and sources of water supply.
Title (English): Trochus Act
Date: 1975
Brief description: Provides for the establishment of fishing reserves.
Administrative authority: No information
Designations:
Fishing reserve Unlicensed diving and fishing for trochus shell is prohibited.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Suwarrow Atoll* IV 160 1978
Proposed
2 Takutea Nature Reserve* Proposed (150)
3 Te Manga Nature Reserve* Proposed (100)
4 Kakerori Reserve* Proposed (255)
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
Cook Islands
poady - pajursg a709
Lojdo say :uorqzoaloid
agante oninesiazen
Protected Areas of the Cook Islands
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
KAKERORI RESERVE (PROPOSED)
IUCN Management Category (Proposed)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Situated in central, south-east Rarotonga. The boundary is marked by
a number of peaks: Te Kou in the west, Toroume in the east and Te Manga in the north. The
coast, and a number of coastal villages lie some 1-2km to the south and east. Approximately
21°11’S, 159°46’W
Date and History of Establishment Proposals to designate protected areas in the central
uplands of Rarotonga date from the 19th century. Current proposals to gazette the area under the
1975 Conservation Act are given in the Proceedings of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference (Anon., 1985) and as a priority action in the Action Strategy for
Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985).
Area 255ha (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1990)
Land Tenure The reserve is proposed for an area currently under Native Customary and Native
Freehold land (Anon., 1985). The more recent proposal covers large parts of three sections of
land, namely Turagaare, Totokoitu-ki-uta and Arakuo harika-ki-uta. The first is owned by two
families, whilst the latter two sections were both leased to the Cook Islands Government Property
Corporation in 1970 by their respective owners.
Altitude Ranges from approximately 100m to 427m
Physical Features The Turagaare section comprises the western side of the upper Avana Valley.
The Totokoitu-ki-uta section to the west includes the upper part of the Totokoitu Valley, whilst
the southerly Arakuo Karika-hi-uta section occupies the whole upper part of the Turoa Valley.
The southerly-flowing Totokoitu and Turoa, and the Avana which drains to the east, are all
perennial (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1989).
Climate The mean daily temperature is 24°C, similar to northern Rarotonga, although cloud
cover can reduce the temperature range. The area is one of the wettest on the island, with some
4,000mm precipitation annually (Anon., 1985).
Vegetation Homalium montane tropical forest is the principal formation, dominated by mato
Homalium acuminatum. Other species include Weinmannia samoensis, karaka Elaeocarpus
tonganus, pua Fagraea berteriana, neinei Fitchia speciosa, rata Metrosideros collina, matira
Canthium barbatum, kavakava Pittosporum arborescens, Coprosma laevigata, itoa Ixora
bracteata, Meryta pauciflora and Xylosma gracile. Ground cover shrubs consist of anae
Angiopteris longifolia, maire rakau Alyxia elliptica, kavakava atua Macropiper latifolia. A
common sprawling vine on ridges is kiekie Freycinetia wilderi. The vegetation is mostly
undisturbed, although areas have been grazed by cattle, and is very largely native. Introductions
include ’au Hibiscus tiliaceus in the valleys, whilst guava Psidiwm guayava and P. cattleianum,
and tataramoa Lantana camara are spreading into lower areas. Cyrtandra rarotongensis,
Sclerotheca vividiflora and Euodia cf. bracteata are of conservation value due to extremely
limited distributions (Anon., 1985).
Fauna The reserve has been proposed principally for conservation of Rarotongan flycatcher
(kakerori) Pomarea dimidiata (E). It has probably been rare for most of this century and a survey
10
Cook Islands
in 1983 located only 21 birds and two nests, the first ever recorded; the bulk of the population
occurs in the Totokoitu and Taipara valleys (Hay, 1986), although they may also occur in the
upper valleys of the Turoa, some unnamed streams west of the Turoa and in some eastern valleys
of the Avana (Anon., 1985). A 1987/88 survey found 35 birds in 2 sq. km in south-east Rarotonga,
probably the wettest part of the island (Hay et al., 1989). Other land birds include Rarotonga
starling Aplonis cinerascens (E), Rarotonga fruit dove Ptilinopus rarotongensis and Pacific
imperial pigeon Ducula pacifica. Long-tailed koel Eudynamys taitensis, a nesting migrant from
New Zealand, is also present during winter months. Seabirds in the proposed area are common
noddy Anous stolidus and white tern Gygis alba, whilst white-tailed tropic bird Phaeton lepturus
also nest on some of the cliffs on the Te Manga-Te Atukura divide. Native mammals are restricted
to flying fox Pteropus sp. Feral cats are uncommon or absent (Anon., 1985).
Cultural Heritage No sites of cultural significance have been identified in the proposed area,
although there is a marae (historic site) close by (Anon., 1985).
Local Human Population The reserve is uninhabited, with the nearest dwellings about 1km
from the southern perimeter (Anon., 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities At present, visitors are limited to hikers. A road running up the
Avana Valley to a water intake in the south-east of the reserve provides access (Anon., 1985).
Scientific Research and Facilities Surveys of Rarotongan flycatcher have been carried out in
1983 (Hay, 1986), 1987 (Collar and Andrew, 1988) and 1988/89 (Hay ef al., 1989). A
colour-banding programme has been in operation since 1987 and over half the population is now
individually recognisable. Nesting success, which is extremely low, has been monitored, and the
impact of feral cats has been investigated (Hay et al., 1989). Completion of baseline surveys of
the reserve have been identified as priority activities in the 1985 Action Strategy for Protected
Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985). Totokoitu Research Station has basic
laboratory facilities and accommodation for two scientists (Anon., 1985).
Conservation Value The reserve has been proposed principally for conservation of Rarotongan
flycatcher but secondary values include the conservation of herald petrel and the protection of
watersheds.
Conservation Management The original proposal to gazette 1,000ha has been replaced by
more recent proposals to establish a smaller, single objective nature reserve, specifically for the
protection of Rarotongan flycatcher. The higher altitude Te Manga Nature Reserve has also been
proposed for the protection of flora and fauna included in the original Kakerori Reserve proposal
(G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1989). Activities proposed in 1988 (McCormack, 1988) include:
that a management committee be established consisting of a representative of the owners of each
section of land, the leaser and the Director of Conservation; the management committee
immediately approach the Minister to have the small area with kakerori set aside as Kakerori
Nature Reserve; the management committee immediately begin the preparation of amanagement
plan, as specified in the 1986-87 Conservation Act; while the management plan is being prepared,
the management committee prohibit any activity in the reserve which would work against the
survival of the kakerori and the committee encourages and monitors activities which favour the
survival of the kakerori.
Principal management activities have included controlling rats and conducting research on the
biology of the kakerori (Hay et al., 1989). The reserve will be under the control of the
Conservation Service and Totokoitu Research Station.
11
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Management Constraints There are at least three flying fox colonies which may require
periodic control. Rat and feral cats threaten Rarotongan flycatcher. Rat poisoning programmes
do not appear to be effective (Hay et al., 1989). A number of introduced plant species are
encroaching on the reserve (Anon., 1985).
Staff There are no full-time staff, although personnel from the Conservation Service and
Research Station undertake day-to-day management (Anon., 1985).
Budget A project to conserve Rarotonga flycatcher has been funded by the New Zealand
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and SPREP.
Local Addresses Director, Conservation Service, PO Box 371, Rarotonga; The Manager,
Totokoitu Research Station
References
Anon. (1985). Case Study: endangered species management in Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J.
(Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference.
Volume II. Collected key issue and case study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. Pp. 271-275.
Collar, N.J. and Andrew, P. (1988). Birds to watch: the ICBP World Checklist of threatened
birds. Technical Publication No. 8. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge,
UK. 303 pp.
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific Islands. Study Report No. 7. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Hay, R., Robertson, H. and McCormack, G. (1989). Conservation of the Kakerori. Case Study
26. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
McCormack, G. (1988). Kakerori Nature Reserve. A concept document. Cook Islands
Conservation Service. Unpublished. 4 pp.
SPREP (1985). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
Date September 1988, December 1990
SUWARROW ATOLL NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Suwarrow Atoll, islets and superjacent waters lie approximately 950km
north-north-west of Rarotonga in the territorial sea of the Cook Islands and on the south-west
rim of the Manihiki Plateau. The mean high water mark around the islets defines the boundary,
the remainder of the reef flat and lagoon being excluded. Approximately 13°14’S, 163°06’W
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park, pursuant to Section 11(1) of the
1975 Conservation Act, on 29 June 1978, as ’Suwarrow Islands and its superjacent waters in the
territorial sea of the Cook Islands’. Contrary to popular opinion, the Crown Solicitor’s Office
12
Cook Islands
has advised that only land above the mean high water mark is included within the park, and thus
the lagoon and reef flat is excluded (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1990).
Area 160ha. Suwarrow lagoon has an area of 9,624ha, while the total reef flat (including the
reef-islands) is 2,912ha. The reef-islands, comprising the legally designated national park, have
a total area of 160ha (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1990).
Land Tenure Crown (state) land.
Altitude Ranges from the mean high water mark to 2-4m above mean sea level.
Physical Features Comprises a typical low coral atoll atop an extinct submarine volcano that
rises from a depth of some 3,000m (SPREP, 1985a). The atoll rim, 0.5-1km wide, is continuous
and encloses a 10km wide lagoon which reaches 80m in depth. Twenty-two islands occur on the
rim, most featuring limestone exposures 0.5-1.5m above sea level, including Anchorage, Motu
One, One Tree, Gull, Whale and the Seven Sisters. Limestone types include in situ raised reefs
of faviids; boulder rocks of massive and branching corals that cap the in situ raised reefs; three
prominent developments of encrusting, coralline algal ridges that occur in parallel sets on the
atoll rim; and contemporary beachrock, predominantly on the oceanward sides of larger islands.
Inconsistencies in the levels and ages of the raised in situ reefs imply recent tectonic disturbance
of the atoll, a suggestion corroborated by the presence of large-scale fractures in the reef flat and
tilted patch reefs in the lagoon (Scoffin et al., 1985). Anchorage Islet, located close to the lagoon
entrance in the north-east, comprises unconsolidated broken coral, gravel, sand, and a lagoon
beach of fine coral sand (Wood, 1967), in addition to limestone exposures mentioned above.
The lagoon, which has a very irregular seabed due to the presence of patch reefs, has active water
exchange with the sea via a wide, 10m deep pass near Anchorage Islet. The range of spring tides
is approximately 1m (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Several major hurricanes during the last 100 years
may have reduced both the size and numbers of islands on the atoll rim. Most damage seems to
have been caused by a 1942 hurricane, when more than half the land area was washed away
(Wood, 1967), although this is not confirmed by maps dating from the 1920s (McCormack, pers.
comm., 1989). Popular accounts are given in Helm and Percival (1973) and Neale (1966).
Climate Climatic data are not available for Suwarrow. However, data collected over 37 years
at Aitutaki indicate a mean annual rainfall of 1984mm, with a dry season from June to September.
Mean daily temperature is 25.6°C with a maximum of 37.2°C recorded in October and a minimum
of 12.8°C in July (Johnson, 1967). Suwarrow is located in a cyclone zone (Dahl, 1980).
Vegetation Sand on the leeward side of the islets support a scrub of Pemphis sp., beach
heliotrope, Lepturus sp. grass, native pigweed and sometimes Boerhavia sp. Some islets support
more complex woodland, usually comprising a Cocos-Pandanus-Pisonia-Guettarda
community, with small areas of Cordia sp. The only tree which remains in the understorey is
Indian mulberry. Ground covers comprises fern Phymatosorus sp. and large patches of bird’s
nest fern Asplenium nidus. The central woodland is surrounded by lower, more tolerant plants,
including Pemphis sp., beach heliotrope and Scaevola. Exposed rubble or sand may support
Triumfetta sp. vine, native pigweed, Boerhavia sp., grass Lepturus sp. and occasional sedge
Fimbristylus sp. Elsewhere, parasitic Cassytha sp. is common whilst grand morning glory is
largely restricted to Anchorage. Numerous species have been introduced, including Polynesian
arrowfoot, Colubrina sp., breadfruit Artocarpus sp., Hibiscus sp., banana and lemon and others
(McCormack, 1986).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Fauna Mammals are limited to a population of rat Rattus exulans restricted to Anchorage Islet,
Entrance Island and Motu Tou (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Five lizard species occur: two skinks and
three gecko (McCormack, 1986). The atoll is a turtle nesting site, principally for green turtle
Chelonia mydas (E) on Turtle Island (McCormack, 1986).
All the islets, especially Manu and Turtle, but with the exception of Anchorage, are major
breeding areas for 11 seabirds. The most common bird on Suwarrow is sooty tern Sterna fuscata,
with a conservative estimate of 200,000 nests in 1985. The next most abundant species is brown
noddy Anous stolidus with more than 3,000 nests. Birds having about 1,000 nests include
red-footed booby Sula sula, lesser frigate bird Fregata ariel, greater frigate bird F. minor and
white tern Gygis alba. Red-tailed tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda may have 500 nests. A small
number, possibly one hundred, brown booby Sula leucogaster are present. The two rarest
seabirds in 1985 were masked booby S. dactylatra and reef heron Egretta sacra. Black noddy
A. minutus has been recorded on Suwarrow, although there was no evidence of nesting.
Black-naped tern Sterna sumatrana and crested tern S. bergii may have nested on Suwarrow,
but were not in evidence in 1985. Non-nesting migrant species included long-tailed cuckoo
Eudynamis taitensis which migrates from New Zealand to the Southern Pacific islands during
the austral winter. Other migrants, from the Arctic Circle, include golden plover Pluvialis
dominica, wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus, bristle-thighed curlew Nwmenius tahitiensis
(R), turnstone Arenaria interpres and sanderling Calidris alba (McCormack, 1986). Additional
bird records are given in Batham and Batham (1973). Coconut crab Birgus latro (R) is especially
abundant on Turtle Island and Motu Tou and to a lesser extent on Anchorage, Entrance Island
and Moto Oneone.
The islets also support abundant populations of about five terrestrial hermit-crabs. Tentative
identifications include Carcinus rugosa, C.perlata and possibly C. brevimana. The most
common diurnal crab on Suwarrow is the mauve cardisoma Cardisoma sp. particularly on moist
ground in the wooded areas of the Northern Atolls. Three species of grapsid occur, namely
weak-shelled rock crab, land rock cray and purple rock cray. Horned ghost crab Ocypode sp. and
ghost crab both live in burrows in the sand which they excavate when the tide is out, especially
at night. A single small colony of fiddler crab Uca sp. has been found on the southern end of
Whale Island (McCormack, 1986).
Small giant clam Tridacna maxima (K) beds are found in the lagoon and on the reef
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Black-lipped pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera (CT) was previously
abundant but has declined due to heavy exploitation from the mid-19th century until 1967. Reef
fish are described by Grange and Singleton (1985).
Cultural Heritage The atoll was named in 1813 when visited by the Russian ship Suvorov,
although earlier occupation by Polynesians and later by Europeans may have occurred
(McCormack, 1986). Some evidence remains of a coal bunking station operated by the British
Navy in the 19th century. In 1902, part of Anchorage Islet was reserved as a Reserve for Imperial
Naval and Military Defence. Pearl fishing was an important activity during the last 100 years
(SPREP, 1985a).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The atoll is a popular stopover for yachts, although these visits
are illegal. Between 1952 and 1985 at least 50 yachts a year stopped over at the atoll. Nearly all
yachts visit during the May to October hurricane-free season. It is not uncommon for several
yachts to be moored illegally in the atoll at any one time (McCormack, 1986). Facilities are
14
Cook Islands
limited to a rain-fed freshwater tank, constructed during World War Two when Anchorage Islet
was used as a coastal watch and weather-reporting station (SPREP, 1985a).
Scientific Research and Facilities The heavy metal content of Tridacna and Caulerpa in the
lagoon has been studied by Khristoforova and Bogdanova (1981). A joint New Zealand
DSIR/Royal Society of London Northern Cook Islands cruise visited the atoll in 1981.
Black-lipped pearl oyster stocks have been surveyed and growth studies have been conducted
by the Ministry of Marine Resources (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Conservation Value Primarily valued for the sea bird colonies.
Conservation Management The park is under the joint control of the Conservation Service
assisted by Government departments (McCormack, 1986). The atoll was completely protected,
with a number of limited exceptions. Exploitation of fish and other resources by visitors for
immediate use is permitted, but commercial exploitation is prohibited. Section 55 of the
Conservation Act 1986/87 permits any individual to fish in any waters and to take turtles.
Consequently, green turtles are not protected (McCormack, 1986). Licences can be issued for:
mother-of-pearl and trochus harvest and culture; other limited economic uses such as copra
production; coconut crab culling; and rat control on Anchorage Islet. The area is zoned for pearl
culture and commercial pelagic fishing (SPREP, 1985b). The recent clarification of the extent
of the park has permitted the exploitation of the reef and lagoon. Completion of a baseline survey,
preparation of a management plan and the recruitment and training of personnel for the park has
been identified as a priority action under the Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South
Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b). Trochus Trochus niloticus introductions were successfully
carried out in 1985 and 1987; attempts to introduce goldlip pearl oyster Pinctada maxima have
been unsuccessful (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). At present, a US-AID project is being implemented by
the Cook Islands Department of Marine Resources to develop black-lip pearl oyster farms in the
lagoon. The project includes construction of a conservation caretaker’s house in the personnel
complex, a limit to the number of buildings erected, and a provision for the Conservation
Service to monitor the project to ensure that it does not interfere with the seabird colonies
(G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1990).
Management Constraints The park is threatened by the introduction of exotic species by
illegally visiting yachts and fishing vessels. Coconut termite has been present since 1915, and
paper hornet and red ant have also been introduced (McCormack, 1990). Also of particular
concern is the containment of rats to Anchorage Islet and the control of rhinoceros beetle, which,
although currently absent from the park, has been introduced to the Cook Islands. The islands
are potentially threatened by fires started by unsupervised visitors and poaching on the clam beds
of Suwarrow Reef and lagoon (SPREP, 1985a). The establishment of pearl fishing is unlikely to
affect the bird colonies adversely, but there is some concern that personnel will want to visit
reef-islands for coconut crab, coconut, green turtle, crayfish, fish, sooty tern eggs and fledging
birds of various types and that some form of control will be required (G. McCormack,
pers. comm., 1990).
Staff There is one warden intermittently present for up to nine months annually (SPREP, 1989).
Budget No information
Local Addresses Conservation Service Director, PO Box 371, Rarotonga; Ministry of Marine
Resources (Fisheries), Rarotonga
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
References
Batham, J. and Batham, A. (1973). Field notes on birds observed on the "motus" of two atolls
(Penrhyn and Suwarrow) in the northern Cook Islands. Notornis 20: 97-101.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft check list of Pacific oceanic islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463.
Grange, K.R. and Singleton, R.J. (1985). A guide to the reef fishes of Palmerston and Suwarrow
Atolls, Cook Islands. NZOI. Oceanographic Field Report 21. DSIR, New Zealand. 24 pp.
Helm, A.S. and Percival, W.H. (1973). Sisters in the Sun—the story of Suwarrow and Palmerston
Atolls. Robert Hale & Co., London/Whitcomb and Tombs Ltd., New Zealand. (Unseen)
Johnston, K.M. (1967). Village agriculture in Aitutaki, Cook Islands. Pacific Viewpoint
Monographs 1: 1-122. (Unseen)
Khristoforova, N.K. and Bogdanova, N.N. (1981). Environmental conditions and heavy metal
content of marine organisms from atolls of the Pacific Ocean. Proceedings of the Fourth
International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila 1: 161-162.
McCormack, G. (1986). Suwarrow National Park. Report to the Secretary of Internal Affairs.
Unpublished. 14 pp.
McCormack, G. (1989). Cook Islands Conservation Service: two years under the 1986/87 Act.
Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
Neale, T. (1966). An Island to Oneself. Collins, London/Sydney. (Unseen)
Scoffin, T.P., Stoddart, D.R., Indhope, A.W. and Woodroffe, C.D. (1985). Exposed limestone
of Suwarrow Atoll. Abstract. Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress,
Tahiti 2: 348.
SPREP (1985a). Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 60-75.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). Cook Islands. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wood, B.L. (1967). Geology of the Cook Islands. New Zealand Journal of Geology and
Geophysics 10: 1429-1445.
Date September 1988, updated June 1989 and February 1990
TAKUTEA NATURE RESERVE (PROPOSED)
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
16
Cook Islands
Geographical Location In the southern Cook Islands, approximately 215km north-east of
Rarotonga. Approximately 19°26 S, 158°10’W
Date and History of Establishment Proposed by the Conservation Service in 1988.
Area Approximately 150ha
Land Tenure Takutea was gifted to the King by Ngamaru Ariki on 31 March 1903, for the
benefit of the people of the Cook Islands. In 1938 the island was freed of all trusts and reservations
and its ownership opened for investigation. As a result, in 1950, the Aronga Mana of Atiu were
appointed "as Trustees for all the native land owners of Atiu and their descendants". At present,
the following representatives of the Aronga Mana are listed in the Land Court as Trustees of
Takutea: Ada Ngamaru Ariki, Maka Kea Rongomatane Ariki, Mataio Kea Parua Ariki and
Tangata Simiona Tinokura Mataiapo. The following titles are not at present represented: Makopi
Mataiapo, Paerangi Mataiapo and Aumai Mataiapo (McCormack, 1988).
Altitude No information
Physical Features Comprises an oval sand cay on a coral foundation, with lithified beach rock
on the northern beach (Wood, 1967). A reef flat entirely surrounds the island extending up to
800m in width to the south-east (McCormack, 1988) and growing around narrow, elongated,
curved submarine ridges between 6m and 20m deep, presumably also coral, which trend west to
north-west (Wood, 1967).
Climate Data specific to Takutea are not available. The mean annual temperature at Aitutaki,
approximately 200km to the north-west, is 25.6°C. Mean daily maxima exceed 30°C during
January to April and mean daily minima fall below 22°C during June to October; absolute
maxima and minima are 37.2°C and 12.8°C, respectively. The 37-year mean annual rainfall at
Aitutaki is 1984mm (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation A coastal scrub of Scaevola, beach Heliotrope and Suriana is found. Tree species
include Pisonia, Messerchmidia, Pandanus and coconut (McCormack, 1988).
Fauna The island is the most important seabird breeding area in the Southern Group of the Cook
Islands. Five of the eight breeding species do not breed elsewhere in the southern Cooks. A large
colony of red-footed booby Sula sula nests in Pisonia trees in the south-west. A small colony of
about 50 great frigate bird Fregata minor occurs within the red-footed booby colony. Some 20
brown booby Sula leucogaster nest under Messerchmidia trees on the beaches to the west and
north-west. Approximately 50 pairs of white-capped noddy Anous minutus nest over the
north-east of the island within about 150m of the shore. One or two pairs of masked booby
S. dactylatra probably nest on Takutea. Three species present on Takutea also breed elsewhere
in the southern Cook Islands. Over 1,000 red-tailed tropic bird Phaeton rubricauda nest mainly
under the coastal scrubs and brown noddy Anous stolidus is common, nesting in Pandanus and
coconut. White tern Gygis alba is present in moderate numbers throughout the Cook Islands,
including Takutea. Land birds are restricted to reef heron Egretta sacra which breeds on Takutea,
and the migrant New Zealand long-tailed cuckoo Eudynamis taitensis which nests in New
Zealand. A number of species migrate from Alaska for over-wintering, including bristle-thighed
curlew Nwmenius tahitiensis, golden plover Pluvialis sp. and wandering tattler Heteroscelus
incanus.
Cultural Heritage No information
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Preliminary surveys of the flora and fauna were carried out
in April 1986 (McCormack, 1988), whilst a brief account of the geology is given by Wood (1967).
Conservation Value The island is particularly valued as a major part of the natural heritage of
the Cook Islands.
Conservation Management A number of specific management proposals have been made
pursuant to the 1986-87 Conservation Act, viz. that a management committee be established
consisting of the trustees of Takutea, the Cao of Atiu, the Atiu Conservation Officer and the
Director of Conservation; that the management committee immediately approaches the Minister
to have Takutea set aside as Takutea Nature Reserve; that the management committee
immediately begins the preparation of a management plan, as specified by the 1986-87
Conservation Act; that while the management plan is being prepared the committee prohibits
any activity in the park which would interfere with the seabirds on the island and encourages
and monitors activities which favour the survival of the seabirds on the island (McCormack,
1988).
Management Constraints Four of the five species restricted to within the southern Cook Islands
occur in small or very small colonies and might desert the island if disturbed (McCormack, 1988).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Conservation Service, Box 371, Rarotonga
References
McCormack, G. (1988). Takutea Nature Reserve: a discussion document. Cook Islands
Conservation Service, Rarotonga. 5 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975a). Scientific studies in the Southern Cook Islands: background and
bibliography. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, P.E. (Eds), Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies
in the Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 190: 1-30.
Wood, B.L. (1967). Geology of the Cook Islands. New Zealand Journal of Geology and
Geophysics 10: 1429-1445.
Date July 1989
TE MANGA NATURE RESERVE (PROPOSED)
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
18
Cook Islands
Geographical Location Central uplands of Rarotonga, the nearest coastline lying about 24km
to the south. The park boundary follows the 400m contour circumvallating the three major peaks.
Approximately 21°14’S, 159°47’W
Date and History of Establishment Proposed by the Conservation Service in 1989.
Area Approximately 100ha
Land Tenure Native customary and native freehold land
Altitude Ranges from 400-653m
Physical Features The whole of Rarotonga is the summit portion of an extinct Tertiary volcano
that may have attained 1,000m in height before dissection and erosion by streams. Te Kou is the
eroded remnants of a small volcanic cone and flow sheets ejected from centres both within and
outside the main crater (Wood, 1967). The proposed reserve includes Rarotonga’s two highest
peaks and comprises a north-south oriented ridge running between Te Manga (653m) and Te
Atakura (638m). Another ridge branches to the south-west, rising to Te Kou (588m). The land
drops away steeply on all sides, isolating the proposed reserve. The headwaters of a number of
perennial streams are found in or immediately below the 400m contour, namely the Papua,
Taipara and Avana to the south, the Turangi and the Matavera to the east, and Tupapa and
Takuvaine to the north (McCormack, 1989). Most hill slopes in Rarotonga have a moderate
thickness of red soil resting on weathered volcanic rocks, but near the crests of the ridges,
boulders and pebbles are common and the ridge crests are chiefly masses of broken rock held
together by tree roots. Geology is further discussed by Wood (1967).
Climate The area is distinguished by having the highest rainfall, 3500mm per year, the lowest
level of sunshine, the strongest winds and most rapid changes of humidity in Rarotonga
(McCormack, 1989).
Vegetation The proposed reserve supports a small, isolated mist community which includes
numerous species not found elsewhere in the mountainous interior of Rarotonga. Nine
Rarotongan native flowering plants are typically restricted to the mist zone. Rarotongan chloris
Chloris cheesemanii, Rarotongan garnotia Garnotia cheesemanii, mist cyrtandra Cyrtandra
lillianae and Rarotonga sclerotheca Sclerotheca viridiflora are all endemic to the island and rare.
Mist orchid Liparis clypeolum is a very rare Polynesian endemic that has not been found since
1899. The very rare mist bulrush Scirpus nodosus, Pacific blueberry Vaccinium cereum,
omalanthus Omalanthus nutans and ascarina Ascarina diffusa are widespread and typical of the
mist zone. Thirteen native ferns, of which three are endemic to Rarotonga, are typically restricted
to the proposed reserve. The three endemics, Rarotongan filmy-fern Hymenophyllum
involucratum, mist-valley fern Pseudophegopteris sp. and mist phymatodes Phymatodes sp., are
all uncommon. The Cook Islands endemic pale-stem fern Acrophorus leucorhachis is very rare
and typically restricted to the mist zone. A number of Polynesian endemic ferns occur, including
sheet filmy-fern Trichomanes digitatum, glossy tongue-fern Elapho glossum, a very limited
number of hairy tongue-fern E. savaiense and Polynesian dryopteris Dryopteris fatuhivensis. A
number of more widespread ferns are also present, including mist tree fern Cyathea affinis,
winged filmy-fern Trichomanes cf. maximum, the very rare Asplenium lunulatum, mist blechnum
Blechnum procerum and mist grass-fern Gramnmitis hookeri. The mist zone is not generally
invaded by weedy introductions, although tracks, clearings and slips can allow such plants to
gain a foothold. In some areas the following weeds are common: T-grass Paspalum conjugatum,
kopi-’enua Zingiber zerumbet and mile-a-minute weed Mikania micrantha. The South American
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
tree Cecropia palmata, which is now present throughout most of the rugged inland, is uncommon
and does poorly in the mist zone (McCormack, 1989).
Fauna The reserve includes one of the few known breeding grounds of herald petrel (koputu)
Peterodroma arminjoniana which was recorded as extinct in 1899. Nowadays it is not
uncommon to see about 20 herald petrels soaring over the main Te Manga-Te Atukura breeding
ground in the late afternoon. Smaller colonies exist on Maungatea, and possibly on Maungaroa.
Mist landsnail Tekoulina sp. is uniquely viviparous, and endemic to the proposed reserve
(McCormack, 1988).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The area is uninhabited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The flora and fauna have been surveyed, but more specific
information is not available.
Conservation Value The mist community found within the proposed area is the most restricted
and scientifically interesting assemblage in inland Rarotonga. The presence of restricted species
and general absence of human impact and introduced weeds adds to its conservation value.
Conservation Management A number of specific management proposals have been made,
pursuant to the 1986-87 Conservation Act, viz. that a management committee be established
consisting of a representative of the owners of each section of land, a representative of Te Koutu
Nui, and the Director of Conservation; that the management committee immediately approaches
the Minister of Conservation to have the Queen’s Representative declare the area of Te Ko’u
and the Te Manga-Te Atukura Ridge above 400m as the Te Manga Nature Reserve; and that the
management committee immediately begins the preparation of a management plan as specified
by the Conservation Act (McCormack, 1989). The extent to which these proposals have been
implemented is not known.
Management Constraints The proposed reserve was included in a 1985 proposal to gazette a
1,000ha kakerori reserve in the central Rarotongan uplands. However, since no progress was
made, this much smaller single-objective reserve has been proposed (McCormack, 1989).
Staff No information
Budget None
Local Addresses Conservation Service, Box 371, Rarotonga
References
McCormack, G. (1989). Te Manga Nature Reserve: concept document. Cook Islands
Conservation Service, Rarotonga. 6 pp.
Wood, B.L. (1967). Geology of the Cook Islands. New Zealand Journal of Geology and
Geophysics 10: 1429-1445.
Date July 1989
FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA
Area 702 sq. km
Population 86,094 (1988) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation The Federated States of Micronesia consists of the states of Yap, Truk,
Pohnpei and Kosrae and became a independent nation in free association with the USA on
3 November 1986, having previously been part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the
Pacific Islands. Legally a sovereign nation, the Federation is loose, with each state having an
elected governor and a unicameral assembly (Paxton, 1989), and in general the national
government is relatively weak compared to the USA (C. Dahl, pers. comm., 1990).
Some United States Federal legislation and Trust Territory legislation applied while this country
was a part of the Trust Territory. This included the Trust Territory Environment Act enacted by
the former Congress of Micronesia in 1972. This provided for the establishment of a Trust
Territory Environmental Protection Board. However, neither the Act, nor the work of the Board
related specifically to protected areas. The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Public
Law 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of land or water for the purpose of conserving
threatened species. Other relevant Trust Territory Acts included the Fishing Law and the Land
Use Planning Act, both 1972. US legislation relevant to the Trust Territories included various
pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act and the
National Environmental Policy Act. With the termination of the Trust Territory, US Federal
provisions only apply to the now very limited US actions within the Federation and do not apply
to private individual or national government actions.
Neither the legislation, nor the policy on protected areas was clear while the country was a part
of the Trust Territory, and no protected areas were actually established. This is largely because
the United States, while administering the Territory, did not own property and hence had no
direct jurisdiction to cover designation of protected areas. Virtually all land and reefs and coastal
areas are in private or traditional ownership and this has continued to inhibit the establishment
of protected areas (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., 1990).
Legislation to support a coastal resource management programme in Kosrae has been drafted
and submitted to the legislature. However, it will be some time before the bill is acted upon, and
even if passed, there is likely to be a considerable delay before any protected areas are established.
In Pohnpei, a watershed management act was passed in 1987 which gave the state government
substantial authority to protect much of the island’s interior and mangrove areas. However,
implementation is slow and there is little awareness among the populace that the uplands are
off-limits for traditional agricultural use (C. Dahl, pers. comm., 1990).
International Activities The Federated States of Micronesia is not yet party to any of the
international conventions or programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas,
namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
‘
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The Federated States of Micronesia is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme (SPREP) and the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and
Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (9 April 1987)
and ratified (29 November 1988). The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article
14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems
and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and
the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and
biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the convention
areas, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of
marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Administration and Management Pohnpei State has a Division of Parks and Recreation within
its Department of Lands.
Systems Reviews The Federated States of Micronesia includes most of the Caroline Islands,
running west-north-west from Kosrae to Yap, and consists of volcanic and metamorphic islands
and atolls. "Almost atolls" are also present, making the group one of the more typical island
chains. The development and origin of the Caroline Islands is described by Scott and Rotondo
(1983); general information is given in SPREP (1980). The island’s traditional economies have
been undermined by a century of foreign influence, trade, control and warfare. The Japanese in
particular disrupted land-use controls and ownership customs, permitted greater public access to
resources and undermined traditional conservation (Maragos, 1986).
The islands support a rich flora and fauna with many endemic forms. Major ecosystems include
lowland, montane, cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and atoll forest, savanna and grassland,
seagrass beds, lagoons, and extensive coral reefs (Dahl, 1980). Much of the natural vegetation
has been cleared for coconut plantations (e.g. on Yap and Puluwat) or disturbed by phosphate
mining (e.g. on the raised coral island of Fais). Few areas of native vegetation remain on the
Truk Islands, except on the high volcanic islands of Moen, Dublon, Uman, Fefan, Udot and Tol.
Although the lowland forests on the Pohnpei Islands have been much disturbed, both Kusaie and
the island of Pohnpei retain upland forests (IUCN, 1986). A description of forests and
conservation problems is given by Fosberg (1973). An account of the reefs and reef resources is
given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Environmental issues, reviewed by Maragos (1986), include poorly-planned coastal
development leading to degraded or destroyed mangoves, reefs and sea grass beds and
consequently reduced fisheries output, and the disposal of wastewater discharges and solid waste.
Crowding and land shortages in Pohnpei has spurred immigration from the outer atolls and led
to additional landfilling along the shorelines and mangrove areas in the Kolonia-Sokehs area for
residences. This has not yet had serious environmental consequences but the rapidly expanding
population may have escalating effects in the future. A major emerging problem is the increased
fishing pressure from rising populations and over-fishing of preferred species. Truk is
economically severely depressed and overcrowded conditions on some islands in the lagoons
are affecting health and welfare. In particular, water supply and quality are unreliable. Truk has
also experienced considerable reef degradation through dynamiting.
22
Federated States of Micronesia
Some degree of protection has been recommended for Gaferut (Dahl, 1980) although this has
not been implemented, and turtle and bird populations are still traditionally exploited by the
owners (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., 1990). Turtle reserves have been recommended for Elato,
Pikelot, West Fayu, all in Yap State, and Orulok. At present no turtle sanctuaries have been
established in Yap State (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., 1990). Dahl (1980 and 1986) stresses that
there is an urgent need to inventory the biomes of the Federated States of Micronesia in view of
the great richness of the area and the likelihood of increasing pressure in the near future.
Yap State’s Marine Resources Management Division is working on a Marine Resources Coastal
Management Plan, incorporating traditional customs and laws (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., 1990).
This is likely to include recommendations for the protection of specific areas. However, a strong
system of reef ownership still exists in Yap so the establishment of protected areas in Yap is
likely to be on a significantly different basis than elsewhere (C. Dahl, pers. comm., 1990).
The Pohnpei Coastal Resources Management Plan (1987) recommended numerous marine areas
for protection, although these recommendations have not been acted upon. There has also been
some interest at community level in the establishment of a mangrove reserve in Pohnpei, with
the intention of generating revenues from tourists. Protected status has been conferred on inland
areas of Pohnpei Island which contains a range of tropical high island forest, important both as
wildlife habitat and watershed protection (Anon, 1989). Surveys of Oroluk Atoll are planned for
1991, with the intention of recommending some form of protection. The traditional management
of resources, and the pressures placed upon on it by economic and social pressures, is discussed
by Yinug et al. (1989) with the conclusion that some form of legislated resource management is
becoming necessary. A coastal resource management plan for Kosrae is being developed (Dahl,
1989) which includes proposals for the establishment of a contiguous marine reserve and
terrestrial park and a resource reserve on the south coast of the island in which subsistence use
would be allowed.
Addresses
Department of Human Resources, PO Box 490, Kolonia, Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Islands
96941, FSM
Yap Institute of Natural Resources, PO Box 215, Yap, West Caroline Islands 96943, FSM
References
Anon. (1989). Progress with the action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific.
Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas system in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Dahl, C. (1989). Developing a coastal resource management plan for Kosrae State, Federated
States of Micronesia. Case Study No. 23. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 7 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1973). On present condition and conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific
Science Association, Planned Utilisation of the Lowland Tropical Forests. Proceedings of
the Pacific Science Standing Committee Symposium, August 1971, Bogor, Indonesia.
Pp. 165-171.
23
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Maragos, J.E. (1986). Coastal resource development and management in the US Pacific Islands:
1. Island-by-island analysis. Office of Technology Assessment, US Congress. Draft.
Paxton, J. (1989). The Statesman’ s Yearbook 1989-1990. The Macmillan Press Limited, London.
1691 pp.
Scott, G.A.J. and Rotondo, G.M. (1983). A model for the development of types of atoll and
volcanic islands on the Pacific lithospheric plate. Atoll Research Bulletin 260. 33 pp.
SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Country Report 14. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Yinug, M., Falanruw, M., Manmaw, C. (1989). Traditional and current resource management in
Yap. In: SPREP, Report on the workshop on customary tenure, traditional resource
management and nature conservation, Noumea, 28 March-1 April. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea. Pp. 113-116.
Date December 1989, updated 1991
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve and Mangrove Protection Act
Date: 1987
Brief description: Provides for the protection of soil, water and mangrove ecosystems in
Pohnpei State
Administrative authority: No information
Designation:
Watershed forest reserve Designated in areas of soil instability, permitted uses include
limited agriculture, research, dispersed recreation, gathering of wild plants, and some timber
harvesting, provided environmental protection requirements are met. Forbidden uses include
permanent occupancy, pesticide use, unauthorised tree-cutting, land clearing with fire, and
grazing.
Important watershed areas Areas which have already been settled; restrictions include no
additional building of roads or structures, no rebuilding or improvement of existing
structures, and strict enforcement of other regulations.
Unauthorised cutting of trees in watershed forest reserves and in mangrove forests carry
mandatory fines of one thousand dollars per tree cut.
24
FIJI
Area 18,330 sq. km
Population 732,000 in 1988 (World Bank, 1990) Natural increase: 2%
GNP. US$ 1,520 per capita (1988) (World Bank, 1990)
Policy and Legislation Government policy on establishment of protected areas, as expressed
in Development Plan DP8 and DP%9, is to conserve and protect important and unique aspects of
the country’s natural heritage through the establishment of a comprehensive system of parks and
reserves. It is intended that a National Parks and Reserves Act will be enacted which will
"effectively provide for the preservation and protection of the natural environment including
unspoilt landscape, reefs and waters, indigenous flora and fauna, habitats and ecological systems,
features of scenic, historic or archaeological interest or other scientific interest". In addition, the
bill would allow the use of the parks by the public for enjoyment, recreation and education
purposes (Rabuka and Cabaniuk, 1989).
Legislative Council Paper No. 5 (1950) describes the Government of Fiji’s forest policy, which
includes the following aims: to protect and develop natural vegetation where its retention is
necessary for climatic reasons and for the conservation of resources of soil and water for
agriculture and to ensure adequate and continuous supplies of forest produce; to maintain and
improve the fertility of the soil by preserving and, where necessary, extending the forest cover,
to check soil erosion and to recover areas already eroded; and to provide and preserve amenities.
The Ministry of Forestry has recognised the need to set aside forest from production and the
currently proposed ten-year development plan for the Extension Division for Conservation,
Environment and Parks Service outlines plans to set aside 15% of the total natural forest for
permanent protection, with a suggestion of 7,000ha to be set aside annually for 20 years.
Eighty-three per cent of land is under constitutionally-inalienable native communal ownership,
ten per cent is freehold and seven per cent is Crown (Government) land. Native land owned by
indigenous people is reserved for use only by native Fijians, although areas may be leased through
the Native Land Trust Board. Much of Fiji’s native forest is "privately" owned in communal
tribal tenure which severely constrains the Forestry Department’s ability to manage forest
resources. In view of this, the Native Land Trust Board prepared and approved a Forestry Policy
in 1985. The main objectives include: ensuring that the forest is managed in accordance with
sound forest management and land conservation practices; protecting the environment; and
establishing a sound forest management policy to provide the basis for a national integrated land
use policy. Both the Native Land Trust Board’s Forestry Policy and Tourism Policy lend support
to protected areas establishment, and the establishment of forest parks and reserves in particular
(Rabuka and Cabaniuk, 1989).
Relevant legislation, described in Annex 1, comprises the 1923 Birds and Game Protection Act,
the earliest nature conservation law, the Native Land Trust Act (1940), the Forest Act (1953)
and the National Trust for Fiji Act (1970). The Native Land Trust Act provides for the
establishment of the Native Land Trust Board, the principal agency through which Fijian land
claims are administered. The Forest Act provides for the constitution of nature reserves, and the
protection of any unalienated Crown land, or land leased to the Crown, as a reserved forest.
Furthermore, nature reserves may be declared within reserved forests. Protected forests may also
be established on native land, with the consent of the Native Land Trust Board (Sloth, 1988).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
The Forestry Act, however, has a number of serious weaknesses. For example, legal loopholes
permit clearfelling of forests over which the Forestry Department has no control and all protected
areas established under the provisions of the Forestry Act are subjected to dereservation at
ministerial level; reserve forests have frequently been dereserved. This indicates an inadequate
level of protection for sites of national or international importance (Watling, 1988a). The
National Trust for Fiji Act provides for the preservation, protection and management of natural
heritage in general.
In addition, the 1953 Land Conservation and Improvement Ordinance (Cap 120) provides for
the establishment of a Land Conservation Board with powers to issue conservation orders
prohibiting or controlling land clearance for any purpose, and also makes provision for the
appointment of conservation officers. The 1946 Town Planning Ordinance (Cap 109) provides
for the conservation of the "natural beauties of the area" in the preparation of town planning
schemes.
International Activities Fiji is not yet party to either the Unesco Man and the Biosphere
Programme or the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention), international conventions that directly promote the conservation
of natural areas. However, a Cabinet decision to accede to the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) has been
taken.
At a regional level, Fiji signed the 1976 Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South
Pacific on 18 September 1989. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990.
The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Fiji is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and has ratified
(18 September 1989) the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and
Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention), which entered into force
during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect
rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment
of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species,
ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to
the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which Fiji
is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management The National Trust for Fiji has broad legal responsibility
for nature conservation and comprises a council of ten members, including a chairman and
vice-chairman, appointed by the Minister for a period not exceeding two years. The National
Trust is currently responsible for three reserves. The Forestry Department, under the Ministry of
Forests, is primarily concerned with the management of indigenous forests and plantations for
commercial production purposes, but is also responsible for administering nature reserves, as
well as recreation and amenity areas (Dunlap and Singh, 1980; SPREP, 1985b). The Department
currently administers seven nature reserves, established within forest reserves, under the 1953
Act (SPREP, 1985b), 18 forest reserves and a number of forest parks and amenity reserves.
26
Fiji
Although the Native Land Trust Board has no specific nature conservation policy, its stated role
in protected areas establishment is to lend support to and facilitate the efforts of the National
Trust and the Forestry Department in securing native lands for parks and reserves via the native
lands leasing procedure (Rabuka and Cabaniuk, 1989). Protected area establishment on native
reserves must proceed through established leasing procedures, to ensure that the landowners are
fully aware from the outset as to the purpose of such areas and as to the benefits (socio-economic,
environmental and otherwise) which will accrue to them through their lands being given
park/reserve status; the landowners are fully aware of the implications of protected area status
as it affects customary land use rights; landowner benefits are maximised, not only in terms of
lease premiums, income, and visitor receipts, but also with regard to employment and, if
appropriate, training opportunities; the lessee receives long-term security over the lands in
question; and should any dispute arise between the landowners and lessee, both sides have
recourse to arbitration through the Native Land Trust Board. It should be noted that Namenalala
Island Nature Reserve (43ha, established in 1984 through lease agreement between the Native
Land Trust Board, the landowners and Namenalala Island Resort Ltd) is the only protected area
to have been established in Fiji to date through the Native Land Trust Leasing Procedure (Lenoa
et al., 1989).
There are also lease agreements between the Forestry Department, the Fiji Pine Commission,
and the Native Land Trust Board on the lease of land for 50 years for afforesting grasslands and
re-afforesting logged areas with hardwoods.
Addresses
Conservator of Forests, Ministry of Forests, PO Box 2218, Government Buildings, Suva
National Trust for Fiji, PO Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva
Native Land Trust Board, PO Box 116, Suva
References
Ash, J. and Ash, W. (1984). Freshwater wetland vegetation of Viti Levu, Fiji. New Zealand
Journal of Botany 22: 337-391.
CMC (1987). Conservation issues in Fiji. A briefing document prepared for Deutsche
Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Unpublished report. 33 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Drysdale, P.J. (1988). Rainforest management and conservation in Fiji: a prescription for action.
In: Proceedings of the Second National Conservation Congress 9-10 June. Volume 2.
National Trust for Fiji, Suva, Fiji. Pp. 1-264.
Dunlap, R.C. and Singh, B.B. (1980). A national parks and reserves systems for Fiji. A report
to the National Trust for Fiji. Three volumes. 117 pp.
Forestry Department (1989). Annual report for the year 1989. Paper No. 21 of 1990. Ministry
of Forests, Suva. 22 pp.
27
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Juvik, J.O. and Singh, B. (1989). Conservation of the Fijian crested iguana: a progress report.
Case Study 22. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 7 pp.
Lenoa, L., Waqaisavou, T. and Lees, A. (1989). A representative national parks and reserves
system for Fiji. Case Study 7. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and
Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. 15 pp.
Maruia Society (1989). A representative national parks and reserves system for Fiji’s tropical
forests. Maruia Society Policy Reports Series No. 9. 110 pp.
National Trust for Fiji (1988a). Fiji’s rainforests: our heritage and future. Proceedings of the
Second National Conservation Congress, Suva, Fiji, 9-10 June. Volume 1. National Trust
for Fiji. 189 pp.
National Trust for Fiji (1988b). Fiji’s rainforests: our heritage and future. Proceedings of the
Second National Conservation Congress, Suva, Fiji, 9-10 June. Volume 2. National Trust
for Fiji. 264 pp.
Parham, J.W. (1972). Plants of the Fiji Islands. Suva, Government Press. 490 pp. (Unseen).
Rabuka, M. and Cabaniuk, S. (1989). The role of the Native Land Trust Board in the
establishment of parks and reserves in Fiji. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the workshop
on customary tenure, traditional resource management and nature conservation. SPREP,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 71-86.
Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji
Islands and Solomon Islands. In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical forest ecosystems. Unesco,
Paris. Pp. 654-683.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council of
the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1985b). Fiji. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
SPREP (1989). Progress with the action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific.
Information Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation
and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK and UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S, Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
Watling, D. (1988a). The forestry sector development study. FIJ/86/004. Report of the
environmental scientist. Unpublished Report. Suva, Fiji. 44 pp.
Watling, D. (1988b). The effects of logging on Fijian wildlife. In: Proceedings of the Second
National Conservation Congress 9-10 June. Volume 2. National Trust for Fiji, Suva, Fiji.
25 pp.
World Bank (1990). World Tables 1989-1990 Edition. John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore. 646 pp.
28
Fiji
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Birds and Game Protection Act
Date: 1923
Brief description: Proscribes hunting of specified bird species, establishes closed seasons
and quotas for others, and enables the Minister to establish reserved areas. Original
legislation is not available.
Administrative authority: No information
Designation:
Reserved areas Details not available
Title (English): Native Land Trust Act
Date: 1940/1943
Administrative authority: Native Land Trust Board
Description: Establishes and requires the Native Land Trust Board to declare and
administer native reserves for the use, maintenance and support of Fijian owners. Original
legislation not available.
Designation: Native reserves may be declared on any native land.
Title (English): An Act Relating to Forest and Forest Produce (The Forest Act)
Date: 1 October 1953, last amended 1978
Administrative authority: Conservator of Forests, Ministry of Forests
Description: Provides for the protection of any unalienated Crown land, or land leased to
the Crown, as a reserved forest, which may also be sub-classified into nature reserve,
protected forest and silvicultural area.
Designation:
RESERVED FOREST
Nature reserve Part of a reserved forest not being a silvicultural area. Excludes people
except between 6am and 9pm. Prohibits logging and other damage and the Conservator may
approve operations only if they protect flora and fauna. The Native Land Trust Board’s right
of de-reservation is not specified.
Protected forest Established with Native Land Trust Board consent on any native land not
being part of a reserved forest or alienated and not being part of a silvicultural area. Once
protected, the Native Land Trust Board may not alienate without consent of the Conservator.
Licences may be issued but illegal logging and grazing are prohibited.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Silvicultural area Part of a protected forest so declared. Excludes people except between
6am and 9pm. Objectives are not clearly stated, but may suggest production forestry or
conversion to plantation.
Section 12 defines offences against the Act. In addition to the restricted times of entry, the
following general activities are forbidden: grazing; cutting or damaging any trees or forest
produce; erecting buildings; setting fires; clearing land; constructing or obstructing roads;
setting or possessing traps etc.; entering areas closed under forest regulations; damaging
forest property; hunting and fishing.
NB: All areas protected under the Act are subject to de-reservation by the Minister of
Forestry.
Title (English): The National Trust for Fiji Act
Date 1970
Brief description Makes provision for the establishment of the National Trust for Fiji, a
statutory body under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development.
Administrative authority National Trust for Fiji (Chairman)
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map? Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
National Park and Reserve
1 Sigatoka Sand Dunes* Unassigned 240 1988
Nature Reserves
2 Draunibota and Labiko Islands I 2 1959
3 Nadarivatu I 93 1956
4 Namenalala Island Il 43 1984
5 Nagarabuluti I 279 1958
6 Ravilevu I 4,020 1959
7 Tomaniivi I 1,322 1958
8 Vunimoli I 19 1966
9 Vuo Island I 1 1960
10 Yadua Taba Island Crested Iguana Reserve* IV 70 1981
Forest Reserve
11 J H Garrick Memorial* IV 428 1983
Parks
12 Colo-i-Suva Forest* Unassigned 91 1972
30
Fiji
Map* Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Amenity Reserves
13 Lololo Unassigned 1
14 Lomolomo Unassigned 1
15 Nukulau Island and Reef Unassigned 6 1970
16 Saweni Beach Unassigned 1
17 Tavakubu Unassigned 1
Proposed
Bird Island, Beqa Lagoon Proposed
Bouma Forest Park and Reserve Proposed
Gau Proposed
Lower Vunivia Catchment Proposed (4,250)
Moturiki Proposed
Mount Evans Forest Park Proposed
Mount Tomanivi Proposed (3,300)
Mount Washington, Kadavu Proposed
Mubulau Island Proposed
Nadrau Plateau (Western Sector) Proposed (3,370)
Namena Lala Island Proposed
Nanuku Islet Proposed
Naulu-Lokia Swamps Proposed
Navua Swamp Proposed
Neoveitchia Storckii Palm Reserve Proposed
Nukubasaga and Bukubalati Proposed
Nukutolu Islets Proposed
Ogea Levu Proposed
Rokosalase Proposed (350)
Selala Mangrove Reserve Proposed
Silktail Reserve Proposed
Sovi Basin Proposed (19,260)
Sovu Islands Proposed
Taqua Rocks Proposed
Taveuni Proposed (15,309)
Vatu-i-Lami Island Proposed
Vatu-i-Ra Island Proposed
Vatura Forest Amenity Reserve Proposed
Waikatakata Archaeological Park
and Forest Park Proposed (638)
Wainikavika National Park Proposed
Waisala Forest Park Proposed (120)
Waisali Forest Amenity Reserve Proposed (50)
White Rock Proposed
Yabu Island Proposed
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
31
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Prepared by Departrent of
GS Protected Areas
PROJECTION : MERCATOR
Date Printed : Merch 1991
Porcsts, Fiji 1990
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Protected Areas of Fiji
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Fiji
COLO-I-SUVA FOREST PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location The site is located 18km from Suva in south-east Viti Levu. It is
bounded to the south by the Kalabu road and to the west by the Colo-i-Suva Forest Station.
Approximately 18°00’S, 178°30’E
Date and History of Establishment No information
Area 91ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude 120-200m
Physical Features The park comprises the entire upper drainage of the Waisila Creek, and
includes a number of waterfalls, streams and canyons (Dunlap and Singh, 1980; Kay, 1986).
Climate Mean annual temperature is 24°C, varying by only 2°C between February and July, the
warmest and coolest months, respectively (Kay, 1986). No further details specific to the area are
available.
Vegetation The area was originally lowland tropical forest. This has been selectively felled and,
during the 1950s, replanted with mahogany Swietenia mahogoni.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage There is no known cultural value (G. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Facilities include a 0.5km nature trail and over 3.6km of other
gravelled hiking trails. Natural pools have been developed for swimming. Other amenities
include picnic and car parking areas. Camping facilities used to be available, and visitors are still
allowed to pitch tents within the park. Transport to the site is by bus or car from Suva where the
nearest accommodation is available (Dunlap and Singh, 1980; Kay, 1986). A total of 16,440
people visited the site in 1985, 5,099 more than in 1983 (Cabaniuk et al., 1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities The forestry station at Colo-i-Suva has undertaken some
silvicultural studies (Dunlap and Singh, 1980). The Forestry Department Environmental
Education Officer uses the park for school nature study.
Conservation Value Principally valued for recreation.
Conservation Management The site is protected under the Forest Act and is maintained by the
Forestry Department as a recreational area and nature reserve.
Management Constraints According to a popular account extensive tree felling in the past has
had a significant effect on the natural history of the area (Kay, 1986).
Staff Wardens are based at the Colo-i-Suva forestry station.
33
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Budget The National Trust has assisted the Department financially by contributing towards the
development and management of the site. It also arranged for the development of a nature trail,
financed by the WWF and IUCN (NTF, 1978). However, no specific details are available.
Local Addresses Ministry of Forests, PO Box 2218, Government Buildings, Suva
References
Cabaniuk, S, Tamani, A., Vulu, E. and Ratabua, A. (1986). A [draft advisory] plan for the
conservation and development of the Sigatoka Sand Dunes for National Park and Reserve
purposes. Prepared for the National Trust of Fiji by the Directorate of Town and Country
Planning, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. Suva, Fiji. 129 pp.
Dunlap, R.C. and Singh, B.B. (1980). A National Parks and Reserves System for Fiji. A report
to the National Trust for Fiji. Three volumes. 117 pp.
Kay, R. (1986). Fiji, a travel survival kit. Lonely Planet, Australia.
National Trust for Fiji (1978). National parks and related reserves — Fiji island. Situation report
of the National Trust for Fiji. 3 pp.
Date October 1988, revised July 1989
J.H. GARRICK MEMORIAL RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on the south side of high ground in central Viti Levu, 7km
north of Navua Town, the reserve lies within the Tikina of Veivatuloa, in the province of Namosi.
The fully demarcated boundary follows the eastern bank of Wainikavika Creek in the west, and
compass bearings elsewhere. Access is via the Navua/Namosi Road and Queen’s Road.
Approximately 18°19’S, 178°19’E
Date and History of Establishment The reserve was donated to the National Trust for Fiji in
1984.
Area 429ha
Land Tenure Owned freehold by the National Trust for Fiji
Altitude Approximately 15m-800m
Physical Features The reserve has two contrasting features: the valley bottom with restricted
views of forested ridges dominated by the peaks of Kadawa and Koromalewei; and the steep
slopes of the reserve leading to the upper ridge. The geology includes rocks, exposed at
Wainikavika and the surrounding area, which are volcanic, of two distinct ages and belonging
to two lithostratigraphic groups: the Wainimala group and the Medrausucu group. Soils are
classified as predominantly clay and bouldery clay humic latosols with stony, sandy clay
red-yellow podzols. Within the reserve, which forms one-third of the Navua Irrigation Dam
catchment, a small dam and an intake has been constructed on a tributary. The reserve is situated
34
Fiji
in a sensitive area, evidenced by the large number of natural landslides. Further details are given
in Watling et al. (1989).
Climate The reserve is exposed to prevailing south-east trade winds, and rainfall is high and
fairly consistent, with a drier period between June and August. Mean annual rainfall, recorded
over 15 years, ranges from 3925mm at Navua Reservoir (10m above sea-level) to 5002mm at
Wainikavika (80m above sea-level), indicating a considerable increase in rainfall with altitude
(Watling et al., 1989).
Vegetation The reserve is mostly forested but has been disturbed by logging and road building;
small areas in the north might be pristine. There are three distinct vegetation communities:
tropical moist rain forest, riparian community and the vegetation of severely disturbed sites. The
tropical moist rain forest is typical of south-east Viti Levu. The most common large trees
are nutmeg (kauolamu) Myristica castaneifolia, laubu Garimia myrtifolia, sisisi Girroneira
celtidifolia, yasiyasi Sysygium effusum, mavota Gonystylus punctatus, kuluva Dillenia biflora
and dulewa Xylopia pacifica. The most common species of the riparian community, on
flood-prone river banks, are Acclypha ribularis, Bambusa vulgaris and several species of fig
including Ficus vitiensis, F. smithii and F. storckii. Tree ferns Cyathea hornei and C. alata are
common with other ferns including Culcita straminea, Blechnum orientale and B. milnei on river
banks. Finally, severely disturbed sites support a vigourous community of weed species, the
majority of which are exotic. The most common are Clidemia hirta, Crassocephala crepidioides,
Commersonia bartramia, Desmodium heterophylla, Dicramopteris linearis, Dipteris conjugita,
Hyptis pectinata, Ludwigia octovalvis, Lycopodium cernum, Mimosa pudica, Mikania
micrantha, Miscanthus floribundus, Piper aduncum, Culita straminea and Solanum torvum. The
only large exotic tree is Spathodea campanulata, restricted to disturbed sites. Bamboo Bambusa
vulgaris on the southern boundary provides evidence of earlier disturbance.
Areas subject to light selective logging in the 1960s and 1970s do not have a visibly different
community structure and composition than unlogged areas. However, recent mechanised logging
has more severely affected one-third of the reserve, although it is too early to predict how the
forest will regenerate. The composition and viability of the regenerated community will depend
on the extent of rehabilitation works especially fire prevention and control of exotic weeds, the
rapidity with which they are undertaken and the degree of future disturbance.
There are no rare or endangered species within the reserve. The two palms Neoveitchia storckii
and Gulubia microcarpa, found in south-east Viti Levu, are not found within the reserve.
Degeneria vitiensis, one of only two species of the Fijian endemic family Degeneriaceae, is found
in the reserve (Watling et al., 1989).
Fauna Both species of flying fox found on Viti Levu, insular flying fox Pteropus tonganus (1)
and Samoan flying fox P. samoensis (E), have been observed. Feral pig Sus scrofa are commonly
found but have been heavily hunted, making them wary and seldom observed. Feral cat Felis
domesticus is also present. Introduced mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus is frequently seen in
disturbed vegetation along the north road and river bank, probably occurring at low densities in
forest throughout the reserve. Mongoose and feral cat have decimated the native ground
herpetofauna, for example banded iguana Brachylophus fasciatus (V). Skinks Emoia concolor,
E. parkeri and E. cyanura are quite common. Iguana and Pacific boa Candoia bibronii were not
observed but may be present. Fijian burrowing snake Ogmodon vitianus (1) endemic to Viti Levu,
was found in the Namosi area and therefore probably occurs in the reserve. Fiji tree frog
Platymanitis vitiensis is found in vegetation on creek banks and in canopy foliage. The introduced
cane toad Bufo marinus is also present.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
The reserve has the expected complement of Fijian forest avifauna. However, black-faced shrike
bill Clytorhynchus nigrogularis, collared lory Phigys solitarius and pink-billed parrotfinch
Erythrura kleinschmidti (K) were not observed during the survey in 1989 but are believed to be
present. Introduced red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer and jungle mynah Acridotheres fuscus
are restricted to Wainikavika Creek, but sometimes range over the whole reserve. Red-throated
lorikeet Charmosyna amabilis may visit the reserve occasionally.
No detailed study of arthropods has been carried out. Nanai Baiateana knowlesi, a cicada with
a mass hatching cycle of eight years, is thought to occur in the reserve and is expected to hatch
next in 1993 (Watling et al., 1989).
Cultural Heritage The reserve was owned by the Garrick family, long-standing European
settlers in Fiji, until donated to the National Trust for Fiji in 1984.
Local Human Population There are no settlements within the reserve, but it is used by local
people for hunting feral pigs and for access to the upper reaches of Wainikavika Creek for
prawning and fishing (Watling et al., 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are no visitors or facilities. A number of proposals have
been made by Watling et al. (1989), including the provision of camping and picnic facilities,
forest trails, an interpretive centre and nature trail focusing on either the valley bottom or ridge.
The proposed Wainikavika National Park would increase recreation facilities.
Scientific Research and Facilities Preliminary studies have been made of the flora and fauna
and a summary of geological studies is available (Watling et al., 1989).
Conservation Value The reserve, despite its small area, is the most important protected area
for the long-term protection of tropical moist rain forest in Fiji due to freehold ownership and
consequent freedom from any management consideration other than conservation. Specifically,
the reserve is important for the protection of a representative example of the tropical moist rain
forest community of south-east Viti Levu; it forms a large part of the Navua irrigation dam
catchment which needs to be conserved; it is ideally located close to Suva and Navua for the
tourist development of Pacific Harbour; and it is a key component of the proposed Wainikavika
National Park. However, damage caused by mechanised logging has diminished its conservation
value (Watling et al., 1989).
Conservation Management Under the terms of the National Trust Act, the reserve provides
for the permanent preservation of land for the benefit of the nation, to preserve its natural aspect
and features, to protect animal and plant life and to provide for the recreation, access and
enjoyment of the public. The South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) was
requested by the Fiji Government to compile a management plan in 1987/1988. This was not
carried out until 1989 when a management plan was prepared (Watling et al., 1989). However,
the National Trust for Fiji does not at present have the resources to manage the reserve. Possible
alternatives to rectify this are either to strengthen the National Trust and initiate management
of the reserve, or seek another organisation to assist or take over management. Immediate
management requirements are the appointment of a warden to prevent further logging and the
need to control access by repairing gates and physically closing the logging road. The objectives
of the plan are the conservation of a tropical moist rain forest community and all its ecological
values; second, to encourage scientific and educational enquiry and research into Fiji’s tropical
moist rain forest, and the promotion of an appreciation and enjoyment of Fiji’s wildlife and forest
through recreation; and third, the enlargement of the reserve to a more viable conservation unit,
the incorporation of Melimeli freshwater swamp and the establishment of Wainikavika National
36
Fiji
Park incorporating areas of undisturbed forest to the north and west . The reserve lies within a
declared “irrigation area" under the Irrigation Act (No. 32 of 1973), empowering the
Commissioner for Irrigation to carry out functions under the Act.
Management Constraints Recent mechanised logging, affecting about one-third of the reserve
in the north and east, has led to accelerated erosion, the spread of exotic weeds and a loss of
conservation value. Approximately 400m of the Wainikavika Creek above the reserve’s southern
boundary will be subject to flooding when Phase III of the Navua Irrigation Dam is constructed.
The main threat is from logging which was revealed during the preparation of the management
plan in January 1989 (Watling et al., 1989). This encroachment occurred due to incorrect
boundary marking (B. Singh. pers. comm., 1990).
Staff Part time warden (B. Singh, pers. comm., 1990)
Budget No information
Local Addresses National Trust for Fiji, PO Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva
References
Watling, R., Vodonivalu, S., Balawa, J., Singh, B. and Rodda, P. (1989). A management plan
for the Garrick Memorial Reserve, Fiji. Environmental Consultants (Fiji) Ltd. Suva. 32pp.
Date October 1990
SIGATOKA SAND DUNES NATIONAL PARK AND RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on the south-west coast of Viti Levu, approximately 3km
south-west of Sigatoka. The park is bounded by the Suva-Nadi Highway to the north-west, and
the Pacific Ocean to the south. The Sigatoka River mouth lies 1.5km to the east. Approximately
177°30’E, 18°20’°S
Date and History of Establishment May 1988
Area Approximately 240ha
Land Tenure Crown Land without Title. The National Trust was negotiating in 1988 for 18.9ha
freehold land under private ownership to the east, and 38.9ha of native land in the west to be
included in the park and reserve (G. Fullman, pers. comm., 1989).
Altitude Sea-level to approximately 50m
Physical Features Comprises a series of parabolic sand dunes of various ages and activities,
derived from magnetite deposits produced by fluvial erosion of the Sigatoka River catchment.
Wave-driven longshore drift then transports this material onshore. The dunes have been reworked
by wind and are aligned with prevailing south-easterly winds. Approximately half the area is
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
unstable, especially in the east (Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1981). The width of the complex system
of dunes and interdunal hollows varies from approximately 200m in the east to 800m in the west.
The south and eastern dunes have gentle slopes, while those in the west have gradients
approaching the maximum possible for sand. The dunes, composed largely of eluvial sands,
overlay deltaic and beach deposits. Stratified marly sandstones of the Cuvu series, visible only
at the western end of the dune system, form the bedrock. A wide, steeply-shelved beach of clean,
non-organic sands is present along the entire 5km dune frontage with the ocean. Heavy,
wind-driven rollers and surf are present owing to the absence of fringing coral reefs and the
consequently exposed nature of the coastline (Cabaniuk et al., 1986). The mouth of the Sigatoka
River coincides with the only major gap in the reefs which extend virtually unbroken for 63km
(Ryland, 1981). Ithas been suggested that Fiji’s early settlers played a major role in the formation
of the dunes through deforestation of the catchment of the Sigatoka River’s (Cabaniuk et al.,
1986)
Climate The local climate is strongly influenced by the mountainous nature of Viti Levu, which
acts as a barrier to prevailing south-east trade winds, creating a "dry zone" along the south-west
coast. Mean annual rainfall at Sigatoka is 1862mm, with well-marked November to April wet
season and May to October dry season. The mean monthly rainfall during December to April,
the wettest period, ranges between 200mm and 300mm. The driest period occurs from June to
August, when mean monthly rainfall varies from 75mm to 70mm, respectively. Diurnal and
seasonal temperature variations are small, due to the neighbouring ocean. The warmest period,
December to March, has a mean maximum temperature of 31°C and a mean minimum of 23°C.
The coolest period, July and August, experiences a mean maximum temperature of 27°C and a
mean minimum of 18°C. Absolute maxima and minima may approach 40°C and less than 10°C,
respectively. The mean monthly relative humidity varies from 75% during February to March
to 65% in August. Prevailing winds throughout the year are east or south-east trades, although
winds from the north can occur during the wet season. Tropical cyclones occasionally arise
between November and April (Cabaniuk et al., 1986).
Vegetation Comprises forest dominated by native trees and shrubs, coastal communities
dominated variously by native and introduced species, and grassland dominated by introduced
species. Seven major vegetation types occur: closed forest of Dysoxylum richii, Calophyllum
inophyllum and Syzgium richii occurs in patches to the west and north. Degraded closed forest
includes areas in which closed forest stratum has been reduced in density, either patchily by fire
in the west or uniformly by grazing and cutting in the east. Open forest, dominated by Casuarina
equisetifolia attaining 10-14m, usually has a sparse stratum of Leucaena leucocephala, which
in turn is underlain by a 30-70% cover of Panicum maximum. Low open-woodland, dominated
by 5-8m tall Pandanus sp. with P. maximum grassland as ground cover, occurs in the west. Open
grassland is dominated by Brachiaria reptans to the east and P. maximum to the west.
Anthropogenic open-herbland has formed in areas where reclamation was carried out in the
1950s. Coastal vegetation is complex due to the nature of the dune system and the effect of
prevailing winds, and comprises [pomoea brasiliensis-Canavalia maritima open-herbland,
Spinifex hirsutus-I. brasiliensis open-herbland, Scaevola taccada closed-heath, Vitex
trifoliata-Hibiscus tiliaeceus open-heath, H. tiliaceus closed-scrub and Pandanus open-scrub,
the approximate order being from coast to inland (Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1981). Some 130
species have been recorded, of which 64 are exotic introductions. The majority of native species
are common throughout the coastal regions of Fiji and no rare or endemic species were recorded
(Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1981; Cabiniuk ef al., 1986). Further details, including a species list,
are given in Kirkpatrick and Hassall (1981).
38
Fiji
Fauna Only very little is known about the diversity and abundance of wildlife in the park and
reserve. A brief zoological survey was carried out in 1979. Bats, of unidentified species, represent
the only native Fijian mammals. Rat and mongoose are present, and feral horses and both
domestic cattle and horses use dunal vegetation for shade and grazing. Information on birds,
reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates is very poor. Geckoes and skinks occur, and Pacific boa
Candoia bibroni, banded iguana Brachylophus fasciatus (V) and frogs may be present (Cabaniuk
et al., 1986).
Cultural Heritage Sigatoka Sand Dunes are the location of one of Fiji’s earliest recorded
prehistoric sites, and contain a wealth of Fijian material culture. Comprehensive excavations
were carried out in 1965 and 1966 (Birks, 1968) indicating successive human occupation from
2,500 BP. The site was probably used as a camp for turtle catching, and the dunes may have been
used for salt production (Cabaniuk et al., 1986). Another major archaeological excavation was
carried out in 1986 (D. Watling, pers. comm., 1989). A burial ground dating from 1,800 BP has
been excavated and negotiations are being held with the landowner on the best way to protect
the site (SPREP, 1989).
Local Human Population The north-eastern margin of the dunes is contiguous with intensively
settled and farmed land, largely devoted to sugar cane (Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1981). There
has been a squatter settlement in the west since 1982, comprising 26 households in 1986. Most
squatters formerly resided locally and are in casual or low-paid employment. The nearest
settlement is Kulukulu to the north, which had a population of 1,137 in 1984.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is ready access to the dunes via the Suva-Nadi Highway,
and the coastal tramline, which both cut through the western portion of the park and reserve, and
via the Kulukulu Road from the north. Numerous paths and tracks ramify throughout the area.
There is no accommodation available within the park, although much of the coast is developed
for tourism. Approximately 6ha of land in the west has been allocated to the Fiji Sports Council
by the Lands Department for recreation. Preliminary management objectives include the
provision of intensive recreational facilities in the west, with the remainder of the park zoned for
extensive recreation and nature conservation. Other management recommendations also include
the provision of facilities, including toilets, changing rooms and food service concessions, to be
housed in a combined administration/services building in the west, and accommodation for
educational purposes only (Cabaniuk et al., 1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities The geology of the dunes has been studied by Hirst and
Kennedy (1962) and the vegetation by Parham (1972). Kirkpatrick and Hassall’s (1981) study
is the first quantitative vegetation analysis of any area in Fiji. A brief zoological survey of the
dunes was undertaken by the Institute of Natural Resources of USP, as part of a baseline
environmental study commissioned by Manganex Ltd (Layton and Associates Ltd., 1979).
Conservation Value Sigatoka Sand Dunes has considerable development potential for nature
conservation, historic site preservation, outdoor recreation and education. It also forms a unique
part of Fiji’s natural heritage and comprises a coastal landscape of great natural beauty. The
dunes’ mature beach forest is ecologically important and the sand hills are also the location of
one of the country’s earliest known and most important prehistoric sites.
Conservation Management No agricultural leases, grazing or cutting licences have been
issued, thus making these activities illegal without recourse to the National Park and Reserves
Bill, which has yet to be passed. The 1986 draft advisory plan (Cabaniuk et al., 1986), referring
to a slightly larger area than that gazetted in 1988, proposes a zonation system that broadly divides
39
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
the dunes into an intensive recreation area in the west, managed nature reserve to the immediate
east and a strict nature reserve area in the central dunes. Although the site has been gazetted, its
legal status is not clear. The 1986 draft advisory plan includes a series of objectives and
recommendations for the conservation and development of the dunes. Objectives include
securing the permanent legal protection of the dunes for educational, scientific and recreational
purposes and for ecological, geological and wildlife value.
Management Constraints Local farmers use the dunes for grazing cattle and horses and are
responsible for numerous fires, the effects of which are now evident in vegetation patterns. A
quarry, rubbish tip and scrap vehicle dump are located near the main road in the west, and the
sand dunes, rich in iron, may be mined in the future (Hirst and Kennedy, 1962; Kirkpatrick and
Hassall, 1981).
Staff It is proposed that two rangers be appointed (B. Singh, pers. comm., 1990).
Budget A small funding package has been made available by the South Pacific Culture Fund
and further external assistance is being sought (B. Singh, pers. comm., 1990).
Local Addresses National Trust for Fiji, PO Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva
References
Cabaniuk, S$, Tamani, A., Vulu, E. and Ratabua, A. (1986). A [draft advisory] plan for the
conservation and development of the Sigatoka Sand Dunes for National Park and Reserve
purposes. Prepared for the National Trust of Fiji by the Directorate of Town and Country
Planning, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. Suva, Fiji. 129 pp.
Hirst, J.H. and Kennedy, E.M. (1962). Sigatoka iron sands. Economic investigation.No. 1.
Geological Survey Department, Suva. (Unseen).
Kirkpatrick, J.B. and Hassall, D.C. (1981). Vegetation of the Sigatoka sand dunes, Fiji. New
Zealand Journal of Botany 19: 285-297.
Layton and Associates Pty. Ltd. (1979). Baseline environmental study of SPL.1077Ba and
SPL1009, Sigatoka, Fiji for Manganex Ltd. (Unseen).
Parham, J.W. (1972). Plants of the Fiji Islands. Suva. Government printer. (Unseen).
Ryland, J.S. (1981). Reefs of southwest Viti Levu and their tourism potential. In: Dogma, I.J.
(Ed.), Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium. Volume 1. Manila.
Pp. 293-298.
SPREP (1989). Fiji. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
Date November 1988, revised July 1989, February 1990
YADUA TABA CRESTED IGUANA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Fiji
Geographical Location Yadua Taba lies 200m off the south-west coast of the much larger
Yadua Island, and approximately 20km west of Vanua Levu in Fiji. Approximately 16°50’S,
178°20°E
Date and History of Establishment 7 August 1980. Gazettement was negotiated between The
National Trust for Fiji, the Government and the indigenous landowners of Yadua.
Area 70ha (comprises the whole island)
Land Tenure Comprises property belonging to the indigenous Fijian people of Nakorolevu
Village on neighbouring Yadua Island (NTF, 1981). The island has yet to be made the subjeci
of a formal lease agreement between the National Trust for Fiji and the Native Land Trust Board
(Lenoa, 1989).
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 100m.
Physical Features Yadua Taba is a small, rocky volcanic island within the Yadua fringing coral
reef (IUCN/UNEP, 1988). It is low-lying in the west with coves and beaches, rising to cliffs,
covering 5.5ha (Laurie et al., 1987), to the south and south-east. A crater in the south-east attains
100m and is the highest part of the island. The soil is sandy, reaches a depth of 50cm in places,
and is interspersed with rocky outcrops (Gibbons, 1981).
Climate The island lies in the rain shadow of Vanua Levu. Consequently, precipitation,
averaging 1800mm per annum, is low for the region. The October-March hurricane season is the
wettest period. Air temperatures range from a minimum of 16°C during July and August to a
maximum of 31°C from January to February. Neither extreme is encountered under forest canopy
(Gibbons, 1984a).
Vegetation The island vegetation is a complex mosaic of primary forest, secondary scrub and
grassland which has been heavily modified since the introduction of goats in the 1950s (Singh,
1985). Five principal communities have been described: primary dry beach forest (24.8ha)
characterised by cevue Vavaea amicorum; dry, exposed or disturbed areas (17.4ha) dominated
by Casuarina equisetifolia; areas of scrub and small trees on exposed slopes and ridges with
poor soil (10.2ha); grassland, mainly a result of burning (10.8ha); and small (1.3ha) coastal copra
plantations (Gibbons, 1984a; Laurie et al., 1987). Forests are now regenerating.
Fauna The island supports a substantial population of Fijian endemic crested iguana
Brachylophus vitiensis (V), estimated in 1983 at 2,000 to 5,000 individuals (Cogger and Sadlier,
1986). More recent estimates indicate that the population certainly exceeds 4,000 and is probably
around 6,000 (Laurie et al., 1987). Crested iguana are distributed throughout the island, with the
exception of coastal cliff and coconut fringes. Population densities are estimated at 140 per
hectare in beach forest, 105 in Casuarina forest, 87 in coastal scrub and 23 in grassland. The
species flourishes on Yadua Taba because its major predators, feral cat Felis domesticus,
mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus, pig Sus scrofa and Pacific boa Candoia bibroni, have not
been introduced (Gibbons, 1984a). Mammals include a colony of 1,500-3,000 Pacific flying fox
Pteropus tonganus, abundant Polynesian rat Rattus exulans and a limited number of goat
Capra sp. The composition of the avifauna is poor and very largely shared with Yadua. Both
islands are relatively isolated, being 17km from Vanua Levu, and there is an almost complete
lack of forest on Yadua. A preliminary list of 24 bird species is given by Laurie et al. (1987).
Swamp harrier Circus approximans, barn owl Tyto alba and reef heron Egretta sacra are all
potential predators of the crested iguana and its hatchlings. The scincid fauna is exceptional since
all species appear to be abundant, namely, Emoia trossula, green tree skink E. concolor,
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
blue-tailed skink E. cyanura, snake-eyed skink Cryptoblepharus boutonii and Pacific gecko
Gehyra oceanica. There is some evidence of turtle nesting (Laurie et al., 1987).
Cultural Heritage The crested iguana is the totem of local people, who consequently will
neither kill nor eat specimens (Eaton, 1985).
Local Human Population Yadua Taba is uninhabited. Yadua Village is located on the far side
of Yadua Island, itself separated from Yadua Taba by only 200m of shallow water (Juvik and
Singh, 1989). The villagers exploit the sanctuary for copra, but only under supervision (B. Singh.
pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities Crested iguana was discovered and described as a new
species in 1979 (Gibbons, 1981). A survey carried out in 1983 indicated that the population was
increasing (Gibbons, 1987). Subsequent surveys have been undertaken (Laurie et al., 1987;
Juvik, 1988; Juvik and Singh, 1989) indicating a stable crested iguana population.
Conservation Value The sanctuary was established to protect the endangered crested iguana
and is also noted as Fiji’s first wildlife reserve.
Conservation Management In 1980, WWF funded a project to pay Yadua villagers to remove
their goats from Yadua Taba; to cease burning and felling on the island; and to prevent
unauthorised access (NTF, 1981). The importance of Yadua Taba for crested iguana is not
diminished by the discovery of the species in the Yasawa Group. These islands are relatively
densely populated and have little forest. The Yadua Taba population is the only viable one with
good prospects for survival. The pockets of beach forest remaining on Yadua Taba are good
examples of what is undoubtedly Fiji’s most critical habitat. These have been replaced by coconut
plantations throughout the country and the small cover remaining on Yadua Taba is particularly
valuable as it includes very little exotic vegetation (Laurie et al., 1987). Permanent transects have
been established and, following the training of a local warden, routine population estimates can
be made. The honorary warden has been equipped with a motor boat (B. Singh, pers. comm.,
1990).
Management Constraints The island was once stocked with up to 300 goats; although most
have been removed, attempts to shoot remaining individuals have failed for various reasons.
Accidental fires have destroyed extensive forest tracts (Gibbons, 1987). The crested iguana
population, by virtue of its density and small area occupied, is extremely vulnerable to chance
introduction of predators or pathogens, or to the destruction of habitat (Cogger and Sadlier, 1986).
As vegetation regenerates, there is a risk of "hot" burns which would seriously damage the beach
forest, the most important crested iguana habitat. The National Trust for Fiji has been unable to
sustain active management and there is an urgent need for a management plan. Villagers from
Yadua continue to exploit the island for copra, building timber, fish and turtle eggs (Laurie et al.,
1987).
Staff An honorary warden has been appointed.
Budget The National Trust for Fiji rents Yadua Taba for an annual fee of US$ 1,500. The World
Wildlife Fund provided US$ 12,962 for the initial establishment of the sanctuary. The Honolulu
Zoological Society agreement with the National Trust, if finalised, will provide US$ 1,500
annually for five years, with not less than US$ 350 to be directed annually to provide an official
salary for a sanctuary warden (Juvik and Singh, 1989).
42
Fiji
Local Addresses The National Trust for Fiji, PO Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva
References
Cogger, H.G. and Sadlier, R.A. (1986). Population size and structure of Fijian crested iguana.
In: Rocek, Z. Studies in herpetology. Proceedings of the European Herpetological Meeting.
(Third Ordinary Meeting of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica), Prague 1985. Charles
University. Pp. 507-509.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: protected areas in the South Pacific. Report to
the South Pacific Commission. 103 pp.
Gibbons, J.R.H. (1981). The biogeography of Brachylophus (Iguanidae) including the
description of a new species B. vitiensis from Fiji. Journal of Herpetology 15: 255-273.
Gibbons, J.R.H. (1984a). Iguanas of the South Pacific. Oryx 18: 82-91.
Gibbons, J.R.H. (1984b). Discovery of a brand-new million-year old iguana. Animal Kingdom
87(1): 23-30.
Gibbons, J.R.H. (1985). On the trail of the crested iguana. Animal Kingdom 87(6): 40-45.
Juvik, J.O. (1988). A report to the National Trust for Fiji on issues relating to the protection of
the crested iguana and management of the Yadua Taba Island Reserve. East-West Center,
Environment and Policy Institute, Honolulu. 23 pp. (Unseen).
Juvik, J.O. and Singh, B. (1989). Conservation of the Fijian crested iguana: a progress report.
Case Study 22. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 7 pp.
Laurie, W.A., Uryu, H. and Watling, D. (1987). A faunal survey of Yaduataba Island Reserve
with particular reference to the crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis Gibbons 1981).
Domodomo (Fiji Museum Quarterly) 1-2: 16-28.
Lenoa, L., Wagaisavou, T. and Lees, A. (1989). A representative national parks and reserves
system for Fiji. Case Study 17. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation
and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 15 pp.
National Trust for Fiji (1981). Establishment of reserve for Fiji crested iguana. WWF Yearbook
1980-1981.. Pp. 153-155.
Singh, B. (1985). Owner involvement in the establishment of parks. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.),
Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Conference Report.
Volume II. Collected key issue papers and case study papers. Pp. 269-270.
SPREP (1989). Fiji. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date October 1988, revised July 1989, February 1990
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FRANCE —- FRENCH POLYNESIA
Area 3,521 sq. km (spread over approximately 4,198,000 sq. km of ocean)
Population 188,814 (1988) Natural increase: 1.9% (Dahl, 1986)
GNP Not available
Policy and Legislation The status of French Polynesia, a French overseas territory, under Law
No. 77-772 of 12 July 1972 gives full power to the territory in environmental matters. The
Governor of French Polynesia also has authority for Clipperton Island, some 5,000km north-west
of Tahiti, although this is not part of French Polynesian territory.
There are no laws specifically providing for the creation and management of territorial parks and
other protected areas. There is a general planning code, the Délibération de 1’ Assemblée
Territoriale No. 61-44 of 8 April 1961, which was modified in 1982 to take account of economic
restraints. Book 1, Title 3 of this code makes provision for the creation of protected areas, by
defining the procedure leading to classification of an area. A regulation specifically providing
for the creation and management of protected areas is planned (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989). Law
56-836 of 26 July 1956 gives the Territorial Assembly the power to regulate nature protection.
This is reinforced by the new statute in Law 84-260 of 6 September 1984 which made provision
for the nomination of a Minister of Environment and a Délégation 4 l’Environnement. Legal
power rests with the Territorial Assembly and executive power with the President of the
Territorial Government and the Council of Ministers. Book 1, Chapter VIII, Title V, Articles
D.151 1-14 of the 1984 Code provide for a list of sites and monuments for conservation. The
Article states that a list of buildings and a list of natural sites and monuments of which the
conservation or preservation is of historic, artistic, scientific, legendary or folkloric interest are
established in the territory and published in the Journal Officiel. Inscription on these lists is
announced by decree of the head of the territory in government council following proposal by
the Commission on Natural Sites and Monuments (CNSM) under Article D.100-2 of this Code.
The regional administrative authority will notify the owners of properties, sites and monuments
of inscription. Inscription obliges the owner not to modify the aspect of any natural property,
site or monument, nor to undertake any activity other than normal exploitation, running repairs
and maintenance without advising the interested head of regional administration at least two
months before the proposed date for the start of work.
The procedure for classifying natural protected areas is undertaken by the CNSM, which, since
1985, has been presided over by the Minister of the Environment. On the advice of the CNSM,
and with the approval of the Council of Ministers, the classification of a protected area may be
pronounced after consultation with the Territorial Assembly in the case of public property, or
after informing land owners in the case of private property. In the latter case, a delay of three
months is mandatory to allow representations to be made. An intermediary procedure involves
inscribing proposed sites on a list, after which the site must be maintained whilst legal formalities
are prepared. However, a delay of more than one year will render this null and void (Siu and
Vernaudon, 1989).
The Forestry Regulations, resulting from nine legal instruments dating from 1942 to 1978,
contain provisions for the protection of soil, vegetation and wildlife, and the establishment of
strict nature reserves (réserves intégrales). However, there is no provision for supervision. Other
regulations cover hunting and fishing, but with no provision for protected areas.
45
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Recommendations and outlines of possible protected area legislation has been put to the
government as part of reports prepared and submitted by SPREP (Anon., 1989).
International Activities At the international level, France has entered into a number of
obligations and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is party to the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France became a contracting party to the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) on 1 October 1986. At present there are no World Heritage or Ramsar sites within
French Polynesia. France participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme and the
Atoll de Taiaro in French Polynesia has been inscribed as biosphere reserve.
France signed the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June
1976 with subsequent ratification on 20 January 1989. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered
into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and
represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among
other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and
fauna.
The Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
Region (SPREP Convention) was signed on 25 November 1986 and ratified on 17 July 1990.
The SPREP Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties
to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered
flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely
to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open
ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation
of marine species. However, the instrument of Approval is accompanied by the following
reservation: "The Government of the French Republic, in signing the present Convention,
declares that, insofar as it is concerned, the prescription of the aforesaid Convention will not
cover wastes and other matter entailing a level of pollution caused by radioactivity to a degree
less than that prescribed by the recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency”.
Administration and Management The CNMS was established in 1962 to propose sites for
classification or protection, and to provide advice on environmental issues. The Fisheries
Department manages the marine environment, while the Forest Branch of the Agriculture
Department is responsible for implementation of the Forestry Act. The Délégation a
l’Environnement was created on 30 May 1985 (Délibération 85-1040/AT), responsible to the
Minister of the Environment, with a staff complement that has increased from two in 1985 to
twelve in 1989. Objectives are to: monitor environmental protection and rehabilitation; monitor
environmental risks arising from development; develop or coordinate studies and direct research
into environmental issues; develop training programmes and information services to enhance
environmental awareness; and to identify and classify natural and cultural sites. To achieve these
objectives, the Délégation acts in concert with the relevant ministries and services and
coordinates environmental policies (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
The Délégation has identified certain priorities in applying its statutory powers. It has established
new regulations for environmental protection classification (Délibération 87-80/AT of 12 June
1987), modifying Book IV of the Code de 1’aménagement du territoire. The aim is to increase
the efficiency of pollution prevention with means better adapted to current economic constraints
and local values, while at the same time allowing the development of economic activity in
46
French Polynesia
harmony with the environment. It has also established an environmental charter, of which two
sections are at an advanced stage of preparation: environmental impact assessment and protection
of natural areas (Anon., 1990).
Systems Reviews French Polynesia extends from 134°28’W (Temoe) to 145°40’ (Manuae or
Scilly) and from 7°50’S (Motu One) to 27°36’ (Rapa). The emergent land area (3,521 sq. km) is
augmented by about 7,000 sq. km of lagoon. The islands are situated on a general north-west to
south-east orientation, their age decreasing from north-west to south-east, and they form five
distinctive archipelagos: Society, Tuamotu, Gambier, Marquesas and Tubai or Austral Islands.
There are around 130 islands, of which 84 are atolls; most of the remainder are high volcanic
islands, many being very mountainous with inaccessible interiors.
Habitats range from atoll and lowland rain forest, through riverine and bamboo forest to cloud
and montane formations. Most coastal forest has been destroyed, but that which remains is of
low economic value and relatively unthreatened. Lying at the easternmost extremity on the
Indo-Pacific Province, French Polynesia is at the limit of the axis of decreasing species richness
and has a comparatively poor coral fauna. The main reef formations are found around the high
islands and atolls, although there are several oceanic banks of variable forms (e.g. Ebrill Reef in
the Gambiers and Moses Reef in the Australs). A detailed summary account of coral reefs in
French Polynesia is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
The islands with the highest conservation interest have very few protected areas. On the basis of
biological diversity, endemism and other factors, Nuku Hiva is rated as the most important island
for conservation within the country and one of the most important volcanic islands in the
Oceanian realm. Tahiti, Rapa and Moorea are all at risk from human activities and only Tahiti,
with the recently established Vallée de Faaiti, includes a protected area. All have significant
species endemism, and the establishment of appropriate protected areas should be a priority.
Some habitat restoration may be needed on Moorea and other islands. In addition, protected area
establishment should be considered at least on Raiatea and possibly Huahine and Tahaa. In the
Austral Islands, Rimatara and Raivavai should be given priority for their endemism, as should
Mangareva in the Gambier Islands. The Tuamotu atolls are simpler island ecosystems, with one
reserve at Taiaro Atoll. Additional reserves are needed at least on Matureivavao, Niau, Napuka
and the raised coral island of Makatea, which, despite former mining damage, retains some
conservation value. The Marquesas are quite distinctive biologically and the four present island
reserves are inadequate: protected areas should be established on each island. In addition to Nuku
Hiva, priority should be given to protected areas on Hiva Oa and Ua Pou, and to the general
control of the feral animals which are causing great destruction. A representative system of
marine reserves across the great expanse of French Polynesia should also be developed (Dahl,
1986). Currently proposed protected areas comprise a territorial park at Atimaono, Pari Historic
and Archaeological Site, Atoll de Scilly, Atoll de Tetiaroa, and Hemeni and Keokeo Ilets in the
Marquesas for the protection of sea birds, particularly Sterna fuscata. The establishment of
marine reserves and other terrestrial protected areas is being studied (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
The Délégation a 1’Environnement has become actively involved inter alia in the organisation
of environmental courses ranging from primary to university level, providing material for
television broadcast, posters, information signs and the organisation of an annual environment
day (SPREP, 1989).
Nooverall environmental policy has existed for many years, although protection has been applied
ad hoc for a certain number of problems. Principal environmental problems include introduced
mammals (particularly rats) and birds, and soil erosion and consequent sedimentation of lagoons
47
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
caused mainly by terracing undertaken during urbanisation. The recent expansion of Miconia
calvescens (Melastomataceae), introduced in 1937 for its ornamental value, now threatens the
indigenous flora of the islands of Tahita, Moorea and Raiatea. Arrété territorial No. 290 of
14 March 1990 taken by the Council of Ministers forbids its propagation on the other Polynesian
islands and a research programme by ORSTOM over the last two years continues to seek a
method of counteracting the plant.
Addresses
Délégation a l’Environnement, Ministére de 1’Environnement, BP 4562, Papeete, Tahiti
References
Anon. (1989). Progress with the action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific.
Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
Anon. (1990). Législation et administration du milieu naturel. Unpublished. 6 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Paxton, J. (1989). The Statesman’ s yearbook: 1989-90. MacMillan Press Ltd., London. 1691 pp.
SPREP (1980). French Polynesia. Country Report 5. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 11 pp.
SPREP (1989). Polynésie Francaise. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September 1989. 5 pp.
Siu, P and Vernaudon, Y. (1989). Programme de mise en place d’un systéme de périmétres
protégés en Polynésie Francaise. Case study No. 18. Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
48
French Polynesia
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Internation designation: Biosphere Reserves
1 Atoll de Taiaro (W.A. Robinson)* Ix 2,000 1977
Strict Nature Reserves
1 Atoll de Taiaro (W.A. Robinson)* IV 2,000 1977
Nature Reserves
2 Eiao Island* IV 5,180 1971
3 Hatutu Island IV 1,813 1971
Parks
4 Vallee de Faaiti* II 750 1989
Unclassified
5 Mohotani IV 1,554 1971
6 Sable Island (Motu One) IV 1971
7 Scilly Atoll (Manuae) IV 200 1971
Proposed
Hemeni Islet Proposed
Keokeo Islet Proposed
*Site is described in this directory.
fLocations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
49
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
,
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{1 Vostok Island (Kiribati)
PROJECTION : MERCATOR
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Protected Areas of French Polynesia
50
French Polynesia
ATOLL DE TAIARO (RESERVE INTEGRALE W.A. ROBINSON)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve); IX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location In the Tuamotu Archipelago in the west Pacific, 540km east-north-east
of Tahiti and 230km east of Raroia Atoll. Approximately 15°42’S, 144°34’W
Date and History of Establishment The lagoon was proclaimed a strict reserve (Réserve
Intégrale W.A. Robinson) by its owner, with the agreement of the Governor of French Polynesia
by Decree No. 2456/AA of 1 August 1972 (Journal Officiel de la Polynésie Francaise). The
reserve was extended to cover the entire atoll and a surrounding 1km protective offshore buffer
zone on 14 February 1973. Accepted in January 1977 as a biosphere reserve.
Area 2,000ha
Land Tenure Private property
Altitude From a recorded maximum depth of 29m in the lagoon to 5m
Physical Features An almost circular atoll 5km in diameter entirely enclosing a lagoon
(previously connected by several channels) with water slightly saltier (43 ppt) than that of the
ocean (36 ppt), due to excess rainwater evaporation. The lagoon is permanently isolated except
possibly during severe storms. The emergent belt of the atoll measures 700m from the sea to the
lagoon at its widest part, and has a circumference of about 12km. The lagoon bottom, at between
22m and 25m depth, is apparently homogenous in its morphology.
Climate No information
Vegetation This atoll is unusual in that it is covered, not with coconut palms Cocos nucifera
like most Tuamotu and Pacific atolls, but mainly with an open bush vegetation, including
the following species: Lepidium spp., Morinda citrifolia, Pandanus spp., Suriana spp., Pemphis
acidula, Erithalis polygama, Petesia carnosa, Guettarda speciosa, Scaveola sp.,
Tournefortia spp., Pentacarya anoniala, Myoporum spp., Boerhavia spp., Achyrantes spp.,
Cassytha spp., Euphorbia ramosissima, Urtica spp., Digitaria spp., Psilotum spp.,
Polypodium spp., Asplenium spp. and Ramalina spp., as well as coconut.
Fauna There is an abundance of fauna in the lagoon, including the molluscs small giant clam
Tridacna maxima (K), Pinctada maculata, Codakia divergens, and Gafrarium pectinatum (23
species in total), the echinoderm Holothuria atra and fish (50 species), but with a relative paucity
of corals, with only Porites lobata present, down to a depth of 1.5m. Coconut crab Birgus latro
(R) is present. Abundant coral fauna are found in the outer reefs, with a well-developed algal
crest in the windward parts (south and south-east) of the island. On the sheltered western side,
the reefs have a much richer and more diverse coral and mollusc fauna (Chevalier and Richard,
1976). Below 20m little living fauna is found (Poli and Salvat, 1976).
Cultural Heritage The history of the island from the time of the first Polynesians is told in
Robinson (1972). During the 1700s the island was the centre of a small but flourishing Polynesian
kingdom, and is now of some archaeological interest (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
sl
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Local Human Population The only permanent inhabitant was the guardian and his family, but
according to Siu and Vernaudon (1989) the atoll has been uninhabited during the last few years.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The earliest scientific work — botanical and malacological
(mollusc) collections — dates from 1839 (US Exploring Expedition). In 1970 an experiment was
begun to study competition between two mosquito species: Aedes polynesiensis, an abundant
resident species and a vector of the human filariasis, and A. albopictus, which was introduced
into the island. This research was conducted by the Pacific Research Section of the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases based at Honolulu, Hawaii. In 1972, a scientific
mission was sent to the atoll by the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris) and the Ecole
Pratique des Hautes Etudes (Tahiti). Its purpose was to construct a floristic and faunistic
inventory of the lagoon and the reefs and to study the distribution and ecology of species living
in the marine environment, the geomorphology of the atoll, and the hydrology of the lagoon. The
owner of the island provides housing for visiting scientists.
Conservation Value The atoll offers opportunities for research into the ecology and evolution
of atoll lagoon coral ecosystems as well as the archaeology of the region.
Conservation Management There is close cooperation between the owner of the property, the
Administrative Committee of the sanctuary and the Governor of French Polynesia for the
protection of the atoll, lagoon and surrounding sea and a buffer zone around the atoll. Access to
the reserve is restricted to scientific researchers who have been granted permission by the
Committee (Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990). A permit is required to visit the reserve. It has
been recommended that the atoll be re-surveyed to assess any changes that have taken place since
it was last studied in 1972, and to re-affirm its importance as a protected area (UNEP/IUCN,
1988). The management objectives are currently being reviewed (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
Management Constraints In the past, several plant species (especially coconut) appear to have
been introduced onto the atoll.
Staff A guardian and his family. Transient scientific missions.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Management Committee Secretariat, Conservateur, Délégué de la
Commission des Monuments Naturels et Sites, BP 866, Papeete, Tahiti
References
Anon. (n.d.). Réserve intégrale W.A. Robinson. (Contains a description of the island, its history,
and reports on research). 27 pp.
Chevalier, J.P. and Richard, G. (1976) Les récifs extérieur de 1’atoll de Taiaro: bionomie et
évaluations quantitatives. Cahiers du Pacifique 18(1): 143-158. (Unseen).
Chevalier, J.P. and Salvat, B. (1976). Etude géomorphologique de |’atoll fermé de Taiaro.
Cahiers du Pacifique 19: 169-201.
Pickering, C. (1876). The geographical distribution of animals and plants, Part II. Plants in their
wild state. Pp. 227-228.
Poli, G. and Salvat, B. (1976). Etude bionomique d’un lagon d’ atoll totalement fermé: Taiaro.
Cahiers du Pacifique 19: 227-251. (Unseen).
Robinson, W.A. (1972). Return to the sea. John de Graff Inc., Tuckhoe, New York.
a2
French Polynesia
Siu, P. and Vernaudon, Y. (1989). Programme de mise en place d’un syst@me de périmétres
protégés en Polynésie Frangaise. Case study No. 18. Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date September 1986; reviewed February 1990
EIAO ISLAND NATURE RESERVE
TUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located at the north-western end of the Marquesas Archipelago. The
nearest island is Nuku Hiva, 104km to the south-east. Approximately 08°02’S, 141°41’W
Date and History of Establishment 29 July 1971. Established under Order No. 2559/DOM.
Area 5180ha
Land Tenure Owned by the Territoire de la Polynésie Francaise
Altitude Sea level to 557m
Physical Features Comprises a remote volcanic island, the centre of which is an extensive
plateau, with three distinct summits, Mo’u’atiketike, the highest, Tohuanui and Tetiaenui. The
coasts have high cliffs cut with valleys at Avaneo, Vaituha and Opituha which give access to the
sea. There are only two permanent water bodies (Thibault, 1990).
Climate The Marquesas Archipelago is situated at the southern edge of an arid zone and receives
irregular rainfall. There are no meteorological records from Eiao, but together with Hatuta’a and
Mohotani, it constitutes one of the dry islands (Decker, 1973).
Vegetation The vegetation is xerophilic, with some 70 species present, including introductions.
The tree layer is dominated by Pisonia grandis, the shrub layer by Cordia lutea and the herb
layer by Eragrostris xerophila and Portulaca spp. The island is too low for the development of
high altitude "cloud forest" found on other islands in the archipelago. The vegetation has been
severely damaged, principally due to the introduction of sheep in 1880, and the distribution of
most of the vascular plants has been reduced to a few inaccessible areas. Some species only
survive on cliffs, with their numbers reduced to a few individuals, for example Bidens sp. and
Oxalis gagneorum. The plateau of Mo’u’atiketike to Tetiaenui, as well as that of the eastern part
of the island, has only bare soil, with the exception of groves of Thespia populnea and Hibiscus
tiliaceus (introduced by the Polynesians) on Tetiaenui and Tohuanui. Pisonia grandis stands on
the coast and plateau, and the forests in Opituha gorge all show symptoms of senescence and an
absence of regeneration. The only exceptions are the trees on the cliffs between Opituha and
Vaituha which are inaccessible. Groves of Pandanus tectorius, present in 1922, have been
reduced to a few isolated individuals. Introduced Loecenia has become established on several
53
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
islands in the archipelago and is widespread at Vaituha and is colonising the plateau. Coconut
Cocos nucifera is at present restricted to scattered individuals between Tohuanui and
Mo’u’atiktike and Vaituha (Thibault, 1990).
Fauna There are 11 species of breeding seabirds, some being pan-Pacific, while others, such as
endemic white tern Gygis alba microrhynca, are localised to the Marquesas Archipelago. The
only native passerine is the endemic long-billed warbler Acrocephalus caffer aquilonis; it is
restricted to areas that are still wooded, and had a population in 1987 estimated at only 100-200
pairs. Red jungle fowl Gallus gallus and Marquesas ground dove Gallicolumba rubescens (R)
have become extinct during the present century, and an endemic subspecies of iphis monarch
Pomarea iphis fluxa (R) has become locally extinct within the last few years. Chestnut-breasted
mannikin Lonchura castaneothorax has recently been introduced into the archipelago and has
colonised Eiao. Reptiles are very diverse with nine out of the ten species in Polynesia being
present, viz., four skinks and five geckoes. However, all reptiles are threatened by habitat loss
and are at present restricted to localised patches of woodland. The four mammal species that are
present have all been introduced and include feral cats, Polynesian rat Rattus exulans, wild pig
Sus scrofa, a Polynesian introduction, and sheep (Thibault, 1990).
Cultural Heritage Eiao supported a considerable pre-European Polynesian population, which
established numerous stone pavements across the island. Stone working sites and debris give
evidence that the island was an important location for tool-making (Candelot, 1980). Annexed
by France in 1842, Eiao has served successively as a prison settlement (1850s), for pastoral
farming (Hart concession in 1876) and as a plantation in the 1920s (Thibault, 1990).
Local Human Population Uninhabited at present
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Occasionally visited by passing yachts, and Marquesas people
from Nuku Hiva (Thibault, 1990).
Scientific Research and Facilities The island has been visited by naturalists several times
during the 20th century, allowing the condition of the island to be assessed over time. The most
important avifauna study was made by Rollo H. Beck during the Whitney South Sea Expedition
in 1922. Later work included visits from A.M. Adamson in 1929 (Adamson, 1936 and 1939).
Botanical studies were undertaken by Decker (1973).
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Proposals to rid the island of introduced species have been made
on a number of occasions. Thibault (1990) advocates the successive elimination of sheep, pigs
and cats by hunting, trapping and the use of pathogens. This could lead to the recovery of plants
that have become very localised and to the reintroduction of bird species that have been
extirpated.
Management Constraints The continuing presence of introduced mammals has severely
reduced the conservation value of the island. Sheep, present throughout the island and numbering
not more than 1,000 in 1987, are the principal cause of vegetation loss and associated soil erosion.
Pigs prevent birds nesting on the ground, while cats further restrict birds to the highest part of
trees, particularly boobies Sula spp., great frigate bird Fregata minor, noddies Anous spp., and
white tern Gygis alba, while sooty tern Sterna fuscata nests only on inaccessible ledges along
the rocky coasts (Thibault, 1990).
Staff No information
54
French Polynesia
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Adamson, A.M. (1936). Marquesan insect environment. Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop
Museum 139. (Unseen).
Adamson, A.M. (1939). Review of the fauna of the Marquesas Islands and discussion of its
origin. Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum 159. (Unseen).
Candelot, J.-L. (1980). Contribution a la prospection archéologique des files Marquises: I’ile
d’Eiao. Journal Société Océanistes 37: 105-121.
Decker, B.G. (1973). Unique dry-island biota under official protection in north-western
Marquesas Islands (Iles Marquises). Biological Conservation 5: 66-67.
Thibault, J-C. (1990). Eiao (Eastern Polynesia): an island which urgently needs a conservation
plan. Unpublished manuscript. 11 pp.
Date February 1990
PARC NATUREL TERRITORIAL DE FAAITI
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location The Vallée de Faaiti is situated in the drainage basin of the River
Papenoo in Tahiti. The boundary is defined to the west by the ridge running between mounts
Pitohiti (2,110m) and Pihaiateta (1,742m); to the north by the ridge of Mount Pihaiateta and the
confluence of the Vaipaea and Vaituoru rivers; and to the south by the Teivimarama ridge of
Mount Pitihoto and the confluence of the Vaipaea and the Vaituoru rivers. Access is only possible
on foot or in four-wheel drive vehicle by crossing eight fords in the River Papenoo.
Approximately 17°40’S, 149°30’W
Date and History of Establishment Established by Decree No. 678/CM on 5 June 1989.
Area 750ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Attains 2,110m
Physical Features The valley is oriented from the north-east to south-west and widens upstream
to an impressive cirque marked by waterfalls. Its gradient is between 25° and 50° for 2km
upstream, with projections and abrupt falls, decreasing downstream to 3° to 10°. The gradient is
sufficient to produce rapid water flow and the effect of a mountain torrent hindered by large
rounded rocks. The relief is no different to that of other valleys on Tahiti which reflect the
geological characteristics of Tahiti Nui volcano, created in several phases over 950,000 years.
Following an underwater volcanic episode, activity above ground 1.25 to 0.9 million years ago
created an enormous volcanic cone reaching 3,000m which was the site of vigorous erosion
55
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
creating radiating valleys and causing the summit craters to collapse to produce a caldera of
7-8km in diameter 0.9-0.7 million years ago. Later "post-caldera" activity, between 0.7 and 0.3
million years ago, deposited various materials (basalt, lahars etc) in the valleys (Bonvallot, 1989).
Climate Within the country as a whole, annual rainfall affects the mean temperature through a
warm rainy season from November to April and relatively cool and dry season from May to
October. The eastern trade winds predominate from October to March. From April to June there
are long calm periods broken by occasional cyclones, which generally arrive from the north-east
and north-west. Average annual precipitation is 5300mm (ORSTOM, 1989). Other information
specific to the reserve is not available.
Vegetation Geographical isolation has ensured that original vegetation is still preserved (Siu
and Vernaudon, 1989; Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990). Introduced Miconia calvescens is not
much in evidence although the rest of the Papenoo valley is beginning to be invaded. Previous
human occupation is evident in the lower valley (Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990).
Fauna Geographical isolation has ensured that endemic fauna are still present (Siu and
Vernaudon, 1989; Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990).
Cultural Heritage Preliminary work in 1988 has revealed important cultural and archaeological
structures such as alluvial terraces, dwellings, platforms, and erect stones (Siu and Vernaudon,
1989). Two small "marae" (religious structures) have recently been discovered near the
park headquarters (Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990). The Charter calls for an extensive
archaeological inventory to be undertaken by the Archaeological Department of the Polynesian
Centre for Human Science (Anon., 1990).
Local Human Population The valley is uninhabited but hunting and collection occurs
(Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is open to visitors. Facilities include a marked trail
from the valley entrance to the foot of the waterfalls, and shelters. Construction of park
headquarters is planned at the entrance to the Valley, to house the park warden and information
and education facilities. Within two years it is hoped to construct a network of footpaths, shelters,
a picnic area, and erect information boards, and to develop educational and training programmes
(Y. Vernaudon, pers. comm., 1990).
Scientific Research and Facilities The park administration will direct research towards those
activities it intends to carry out in different fields, such as archaeology, education, ecology etc.
(Anon., 1990). Authorisation for research projects is accorded by the park consultative
committee.
Conservation Value Geographical isolation has ensured that endemic fauna and original
vegetation is still preserved.
Conservation Management A charter for the park was compiled in February 1990 by the
Ministry of the Environment and put to the Council of Ministers for approval before 5 June. The
Ministry is responsible for this project, in conjunction with the park’s consultative committee
and all interested individuals. Chapter I of the charter sets out the responsibilities of the
Délégation 4 l'Environnement, consultative committee and personnel with regard to
administration, relations with outside bodies, civil responsibilities etc. (Anon., 1990). Currently,
the only legal reference is the Code de 1’ Aménagement du Territoire Title II which provides for
a classification procedure for natural monuments and sites. In the absence of any more precise
56
French Polynesia
legislation concerning protected areas, Vallée Faaiti has been established voluntarily. The current
classification defines park boundaries, general objectives and administrative organisation. With
regard to general objectives, the charter details the location of different zones; equipment
programme and financing, and the management of the park interior (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
Management objectives include the protection and preservation of ecosystems and landscapes,
the survey, protection and conservation of the park’s archaeological and historical resources,
development of educational, recreational and tourist activities and scientific research (C.E. Payri,
pers. comm., 1989). The charter sets out measures to be taken to protect and conserve ecosystems,
preserve the natural equilibrium by controlling the introduction of exotic plant and animal species
to the park, authorise reintroduction and eradication programmes (Anon., 1990).
Agricultural, silvicultural, industrial, economic, mining activities and construction of dams are
forbidden within the park. Fishing, hunting and collection, however, are authorised but can be
forbidden temporarily by the park administration should overexploitation occur (Anon., 1990).
Management Constraints Feral pigs and goats have been reported (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989)
but there are at present no noteworthy management problems (Anon., 1990).
Staff One person part-time within the Délégation 4 l’Environnement
Budget A total of FCP 20 million (approximately US$ 165,000) was available in 1989. FCP
1.8 million (US$ 14,850) is to be spent on the construction of a model of the park, a short film
in French and Tahitian, and public education programmes. FCP 6.5 million (US$ 53,625) is
already assigned to archaeological studies which will be carried out by the Polynesian Academy
of Human Sciences (Siu and Vernaudon, 1989).
Local Addresses Délégation 4 1’Environnement, BP 4562, Papeete
References
Anon. (1990). Charte du Parc naturel territorial de Faaiti. Délé gation a1’ Environnement, Papeete.
Unpublished. 8 pp.
Bonvallot, J. (1989). Considérations géomorphologiques préliminaires sur la Vallée
Faaiti-Tahiti. ORSTOM. Unpublished. 3 pp.
ORSTOM (1989). Caractéristiques hydrologiques de Vlle Faaiti. Organisation de Recherches
scientifiques et techniques d’Outre Mer. Unpublished. 1 pp.
Siu, P and Vernaudon, Y. (1989). Programme de mise en place d’un systéme de périmétres
protégés en Polynésie Francaise. Case study No. 18. Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.
Date February 1990, reviewed January 1991
57
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‘
FRANCE —- NEW CALEDONIA
Area 19,000 sq. km
Population 164,173 (April 1989) (Institut Territorial Natural increase: No information
de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, Noumea)
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853 and became an Overseas
Territory in 1958. Following constitutional changes in 1985 and 1988, the Territory is divided
into three autonomous provinces, administered by a High Commissioner assisted by a
four-member Consultative Committee. Law No. 88.1028 of 9 November 1988 gives the three
provinces full powers in environmental matters.
Protection of natural heritage is one of the objectives of the "long-term economic and social plan
for New Caledonia" adopted by the Territorial Assembly on 21 February 1979. Revised
legislation pertaining to parks and reserves came before the Territorial Assembly in 1980
(Délibération No. 108 of 9 May 1980 enforced by Decree No. 1504 of 21 May 1980). Previously,
existing laws covered establishment of complete reserves, botanical reserves, forest reserves and
marine reserves. The revised legislation introduced the terms réserve naturelle intégrale (strict
nature reserve), parc territorial (territorial park) and réserve spéciale (special reserve), and
provided more complete definitions of these terms, which in principal relate to IUCN
management categories I (strict nature reserve), II (national park) and IV (managed nature
Teserve), respectively (see Annex 1).
Protected areas can only be established on land belonging to the Territory, to the State, or on
public land. The establishment of such protected areas on private property may be allowed on
demand of private individuals. Reserves are not protected against mining activity unless located
within mining reserves established under the mining laws (Decree No. 54-1110 of 13 November
1954).
Protection zones can also be established under the Water Resources and Pollution Law
(Délibération No. 105 of 26 August 1968), whereby activities likely to endanger water quality
can be prohibited or controlled. Decree 51-100 of 26 January 1951 lays down conditions for
forest classification. Areas of archaeological, historic or tourist interest can also be declared as
classified sites under Law No. 56-1106 of 3 November 1956 and Délibération No. 225 of
17 June 1965.
There are a few small zones where activities are restricted for the purpose of "good management
of public land". These are afforestation zones and lands allocated to the Forestry Department for
the production of timber in which certain measures for the protection of wildlife may also be
applied (SPREP, 1985a).
International Activities At the international level, France has entered into a number of
obligations and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is party to the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France became a contracting party to the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) on 1 October 1986.
59
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
France signed the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June
1976, and subsequently ratified it on 20 January 1989. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered
into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and
represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among
other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and
fauna.
France also signed the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment
of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) on 25 November 1987, with ratification on
17 July 1990. The convention entered into force during August 1989. Article 14 calls upon the
parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or
endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of
activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes
being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by
definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and
the conservation of marine species. It should be noted that the instrument of Approval is
accompanied by the following reservation: "The Government of the French Republic, in signing
the present Convention declares that, insofar as it is concerned, the prescription of the aforesaid
Convention will not cover wastes and other matter entailing a level of pollution caused by
radioactivity to a degree less than that prescribed by the recommendations of the International
Atomic Energy Agency”.
Administration and Management The Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et
Réserves (Direction du Développement Rural) is responsible for the administration of parks and
reserves which are controlled on a day-to-day basis by individual forestry districts, divided
between three administrative centres. Délibération No. 38-90/APS of 28 March 1990 makes
provision for the creation of a Comité pour la Protection de l’Environnement dans la Province
Sud. This body comprises a number of members from government departments, ORSTOM and,
at present, the President of the Association pour la Sauvegarde de la Nature Néo-Caledonienne.
The Committee’s rdle is largely to act in an advisory capacity to the provincial authorities.
Systems Reviews The natural vegetation comprises tropical evergreen rain forest up to 1,000m
and tropical montane rain forest above 1,000m. A variant of evergreen rain forest, sometimes
with Araucaria columnaris, is dominant near the coast on raised coral, especially in the Loyalty
Islands and Ile des Pins. Dry sclerophyllous forest is characteristic of drier western slopes.
Various types of scrub on acidic and ultrabasic rocks cover about 30% of the land area.
Mangroves occur along western coasts. According to a 1974/75 forest inventory, the major
vegetation types are dense evergreen forest (22.8% of total land area), Niaouli savanna woodland
(13.8%), low scrub in mining areas (25.1%), savanna grassland (21.7%) and scrub (8.3%)
(SPREP, 1989). Hunter Island has some grassland with occasional trees; Walpole Island is
covered by dense scrub; and Matthew Island has almost no vegetation (Davis et al., 1986). A
more detailed vegetation account and vegetation maps are given by Schmid (1978).
A summary account of coral reefs is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988), with specific descriptions of
Chesterfield Islands, D’Entrecasteaux Reefs, Great Reef Marine Reserve (Réserves Tournantes
sur le Grand Recif), Maitre and Amédée Islets Nature Reserves and Yves Merlet Marine Reserve.
Grande Terre is surrounded by a barrier reef, more than 1,600 km in length, which borders a
lagoon of clear and rather shallow water covering 16,000 sq. km, second in size only to the
Australian Great Barrier Reef (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
New Caledonia
The protected areas system has relatively good coverage, although most sites were established
to protect areas of botanical interest. However, enforcement is weak and it is not certain that the
existing system is adequate to continue to protect such a rich and localised flora.
The two principal threats to the natural flora and fauna are mining and bushfires. Since mining
is the basis of the country’s economy, measures taken to conserve natural areas do not necessarily
include the exclusion of mining activities. In these cases, no disturbance is permitted without
prior review and approval. Moreover, before any mine can be developed an environmental impact
assessment is carried out by the Commission de Prévention des Dégiats miniers. The
environmental impact of mining in New Caledonia is discussed by Dupon (1986). Large areas
are burnt annually, frequently deliberately, to attract rain, encourage fresh grass growth or to
clear undergrowth. This has led to habitat destruction, denudation of soils and progressive
shrinking of forests. There is now pressure for logging in many areas and, as there is still no
complete forest classification, destruction can occur without the Department being empowered
to take action. Forest exploitation has been uncontrolled and contributed to the destruction of
forests, or depletion of the more valuable species. Today, the Direction du Développement Rural
exercises control to prevent indiscriminate or excessive felling (SPREP, 1989).
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, protected areas management and regional and
international cooperation. Priority recommendations for New Caledonia are intensification of
education and public information activities relating to nature conservation, with special attention
being paid to school text-books for use at all levels; adoption of a Territorial "charter" on the
protection of the natural and cultural heritage; establishment of new protected areas as follows:
a bird reserve on Chesterfield Islands, rotating marine reserves in reef areas, extension of Riviére
Bleue Territorial Park and preservation of the lake ecosystems of the Plaine des Lacs; legislative
measures to ensure permanency of parks and reserves, redrafting of forestry legislation, taking
into account customary ownership; protection of endemic endangered species; establishment of
a central structure for the management and planning of protected areas; and support of SPREP’s
activities and promotion of co-operation among international scientists and experts with a view
to furthering knowledge in the field of ecology. The extent to which these objectives have been
achieved is not known. It has also been recommended that a protected area be established on
Huon Island, to the north of the Territory for the protection of marine turtles (J-L. d’ Auzon, pers,
comm., 1991).
Addresses
Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du Développement
Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Dupon, J.F. (1986). The effects of mining on the environment of high islands: case study of
nickel mining in New Caledonia. Environmental Case Study No. 1. SPREP, South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 5 pp.
Paxton, J. 1989. The Statesman’s Yearbook 1989-90. MacMillan Press Ltd., London. 1691 pp.
61
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji
Islands and Solomon Islands). In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical forest ecosystems. Unesco,
Paris. Pp. 654-683.
SPREP (1980). New Caledonia. Country Report 8. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia.
SPREP (1985a). New Caledonia. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 125-133.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). New Caledonia. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas,. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September 1989. 11 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Délibération No. 108
Date: 9 May 1980
Brief description: Introduced and defined the terms réserve naturelle intégrale (strict nature
reserve), parc territorial (territorial park) and réserve spéciale (special reserve), and provided
more complete definitions of these terms, which in principal relate to IUCN management
categories I (strict nature reserve), II (national park) and IV (managed nature reserve),
respectively. Enforced by Decree No. 1504 of 21 May 1980.
Administrative authority: Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves
(Direction du Développement Rural)
Designation:
Réserve naturelle intégrale (Strict nature reserve) Areas in which all hunting, fishing,
forestry, agriculture or mining, all activities likely to modify the landscape or vegetation,
disturbance to flora and fauna, all floral and faunal introductions, whether indigenous, wild,
exotic or domestic, and collection of botanical and geological samples are strictly forbidden.
It is also forbidden to enter, move about, camp, or carry out scientific research in such
reserves without written permission of the Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs
et Réserves, and flying over the reserves is regulated. Réserves naturelles intégrales may not
be established except where all prospecting, mineral research or exploitation have been
prohibited under Article 2210-1 of the present code.
Parc territorial (Territorial park) Set aside for the conservation of flora and fauna but also
to cater for public education and recreation. Flora and fauna are fully protected and gathering
of botanical or geological samples is forbidden without express permission of the Service
62
New Caledonia
de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves and only for scientific purposes. There
is provision for permission to be given by the service for facilities such as roads, paths,
restaurants, hotels and associated infrastructure to be built for educational and recreational
purposes. NB Subsequent to the recently introduced constitutional changes, parc territorial
might be more properly termed parc provincial, although it is not known if this is the case.
Réserve spéciale (Special reserve) Areas where certain activities may be prohibited or
regulated for specific environmental protection objectives. Réserves spéciales are divided
into:
e Réserve spéciale botanique (Special botanical reserve) created for the restoration and
conservation of habitats, and the conservation of rare, noteworthy or threatened plant
species. It is expressly forbidden to modify the landscape or carry out any acts detrimen-
tal to the vegetation except with authorisation given by the Head of the Service de
l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves.
¢ Réserve spéciale de faune (Special faunal reserve) in which particular measures for the
protection of one or more animal species may be taken. Réserves spéciales de faune
include a number of marine areas and islands that are totally or partially protected both
for the purpose of species conservation and for stock management and scientific studies.
¢ Réserve spéciale marine (Special marine reserve)
63
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Strict Nature Reserves
1 Montagne des Sources* I 5,870 1950
Special Botanical Reserves
2 Cap Ndua (Southern Botanical Reserve #5) IV 830 1972
3 Chutes de la Madeleine* IV 400 1990
4 Fausse Yaté (Southern Botanical Reserve #2) IV 386 1972
5 Forét Cachée (Southern Botanical Reserve #7) IV 635 1972
6 Forét Nord (Southern Botanical Reserve #4) IV 280 1972
7 Forét de Sailles IV 1,100 1983
8 Mont Humboldt* IV 3,200 1950
9 Mont Mou* IV 675 1950
10 Mont Oungoué (Southern Botanical IV 307 1972
Reserve #3)
11 Mont Panié IV 5,000 1950
12 Pic Ningua IV 350
13 Pic du Pin (Southern Botanical Reserve #6) IV 1,482 1972
14 Yaté Barrage (Souther Botanical Reserve #1) IV 546 1972
Special Fauna and Flora Reserve
15 L’Tlot Maitre Vv 154 1981
16 Mont Do IV 300 1981
Special Faunal Reserve
17 Aoupinie* IV 5,400 1975
18 Haute Yaté (Includes Riviére Bleue IV 15,900 1960
Territorial Park)*
19 L’Etang de Koumac Vill 53 1989
20 L’le Pam IV 460 1966
21 L’ Dot Leprédour IV 760 1941
Special Marine Reserves
22 La Dieppoise Vv 1 1990
23 Réserve Spéciale Tournante de Marine Faune* VIII 35,570 1981
24 Yves Merlet* I 16,700 1970
Territorial Parks
25 Quen-Toro II 44 1989
26 Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud: Amédée Islet* V 154 1981
27 Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud: Bailly Island V 314 1989
28 Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud: Canard Island V 50 1989
29 Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud:
Laregnare Island Vv 362 1989
30 Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud: Signal Island V 181 1989
New Caledonia
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
31 Riviere Bleue* IV 9,054 1980
32 Thy* II 1,133 1980
Forest Reserves
33 "South" of New Caledonia Vill 4,665 1980
34 Col d’Amieu Vol 12,368 1970
35 Kuebini Vil 58 1980
36 Mont Mou IV 4,363
37 Ouenarou Vol 1,171 1959
38 Povilla Vill 600 1971
39 Tangadiou Vill 1,016 1970
40 Tango Vill 29,089 1979
41 Tiponite Vill 1,085 1970
Unclassified
42 "Michel Corbasson" II 35
43 Amoa/Tchamba Unassigned 43,000 1972
44 Boulouparis-Bourail Unassigned 245,000 1981
45 Branch Nord Dumbea et Couvelee VI
46 Haute Doutio Unassigned 7,000 1972
47 Koumac Unassigned 26,300 1975
48 Nord Cote Est Unassigned 89,000 1972
49 Ora Peninsula Unassigned 848
50 Paita-Dumbea-Mt Dore - Unassigned 71,000 1975
51 Ponerihouen Unassigned 33,880 1972
52 Pouembout Unassigned 35,800 1975
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
65
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
“DaunON ‘auualuopa)D)-oay
aunjDN Dd} ap apanBaanvg 0} snod
uorpDia0ssy woLf pantadas : ad4nog
166) Asonsgag : pajussg apog
YOLVOUEA * NOILOS(OUd
aDa4y pazIaj,04g &
Protected Areas of New Caledonia
66
New Caledonia
AOUPINIE SPECIAL FAUNA RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE DE FAUNE DE L’AOUPINIE)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location On the eastern flank of Mount Aoupinié in central New Caledonia,
above Ponerihouen. Approximately 21°10’S, 165°18’E
Date and History of Establishment 14 November 1975 by Délibération 234; confirmed by
Délibération 108 of 9 May 1980.
Area 5,400ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 65m-1,021m
Physical Features Comprises steep mountain slopes and upper watersheds. The underlying rock
comprises sandstones.
Climate Mean annual precipitation is 2000mm.
Vegetation Rain forest which is more or less undisturbed
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The nearest settlement is Goapin, to the south.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Article A 1324-4 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de
l’Environnement prohibits all unauthorised entry and Article A 1324-3 prohibits hunting.
Bringing either arms or dogs into the reserve is also forbidden. Those holding titles permitting
forest exploitation, mineral prospecting and officials are permitted entry and the site is not
currently protected under the mining laws.
Management Constraints Mining and logging may be allowed under permit.
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea (Province Nord)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
SOUTHERN SPECIAL BOTANICAL RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE BOTANIQUE DU SUD)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.6.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location The reserve comprises seven areas as follows: No 1: Yaté Barrage
(22°09’S, 166°54’E); No. 2: Fausse Yaté (22°13’S, 166°56’E); No 3: Monts Oungoué (22°17’S,
166°54’E); No 4 Forét Nord (22°19’S, 166°55’E); No 5: Cap Ndua (22°22’S, 166°55’E);
No 6: Pic du Pin (22°15’S, 166°47’E); and No 7: Forét Cachée (22°11’S, 166°46’E).
Date and History of Establishment 17 August 1972 by Arrété 72-395/CG as a mining reserve;
9 May 1980 by Délibération 108 as a special botanical reserve.
Area Total of 4,466ha comprising Yaté Barrage (546ha), Fausse Yaté (386ha), Monts Oungoué
(307ha), Forét Nord (280ha), Cap Ndua (830 ha), Pic du Pin (1,482ha), and Forét Cacheé (635ha).
Land Tenure Public
Altitude Sea level to 669m
Physical Features Comprises six physically separate mountainous area and one coastal area on
the southern plateau.
Climate Mean annual precipitation varies between 2500 to 3500mm.
Vegetation Yaté Barrage, Fausse Yaté and Monts Oungovué, all support lowland rain forest and
serpentine scrub; Cap Ndua includes coastal rain forest and serpentine scrub; Pic du Pin,
serpentine scrub with many endemic species; and Forét Cacheé, forest and serpentine scrub.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There is a small settlement within the Yaté Barrage area.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management All disturbance of the vegetation is prohibited and all mineral
prospecting and mining is prohibited.
68
New Caledonia
Management Constraints The Yaté Barrage area is transected by a road and includes the
settlement of Yaté Barrage.
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, reformatted January 1990
RESERVE SPECIALE BOTANIQUE DE LA CHUTE DE LA
MADELEINE (LA CHUTE DE LA MADELEINE SPECIAL
BOTANICAL RESERVE)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Located on the north-north-west border of the Plaine des Lacs, in the
south of Grand Terre, and bordered in part by the Riviére de Lacs. Approximately 22°15’S,
166°50’E
Date and History of Establishment Established on 28 March 1990 by Délibération 39-90/APS.
Area Approximately 400ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Averages 240m-260m, with the Pic du Pin at 600m
Physical Features The topographical complex known as the Plaine des Lacs is drained by the
Riviére des Lacs from its source in the Lac en Huit across the northern edge of the plain. After
the 10m drop of La Chute de la Madeleine (Madeleine waterfall), the river enters the Yaté dam
reservoir beyond its confluence with Pernod Creek which drains the exterior of the north-west
slopes of the Plaine des Lacs. The geological substrate comprises peridotites, and soils are
ferrallitic and very poor in all chemical elements except magnesium, iron and chrome.
Concentrations of nickel and manganese are also higher than normal.
Climate Annual rainfall on the plain varies between 2500mm and 3000mm and the mean annual
temperature varies from 22°C to 23°C.
Vegetation Comprises maquis minier formations of evergreen sclerophyllous-heliophyllous
shrubs. Several characteristic types can be distinguished. First, the Gymnostoma deplancheanum
group dominates the ferrallitic plain over the falls associated with more common species such
69
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
as Tarenna leiloba, Gardenia aubryi, Agathis ovata and Exocarpus pseudocasuarina. The
herbaceous layer is less important (coverage less than 10%) and comprises principally Gahnia
novocaledonensis, some common ferns such as Schizaea dichotoma, S. laevigata, Adiantum
fournieri and a special monotypic Gleicheniaceae Stromatopteris moniliformis which is endemic
to New Caledonia. The ground is covered in parts by lichens of the genus Cladonia and Cladina.
The presence of some gum oaks Arillastrum gummiferum bears witness to the forested nature of
climax vegetation and the recovery of degraded zones by plantation of large trees such as gum
oak and kaori in exposed areas. Second, the Neocallitropsis pancheri group occupies the
ferrallitic plateau. The vegetation cover averages between 2m and 5m in height and is
discontinuous with bare patches. It comprises the principal species of the previous group but is
distinguished by the presence of N. pancheri and of hygrophilous species such as Melaleuca
gnidioides, Styphelia longistyles and Costularia fragilis. N. pancheri is a gymnosperm of the
Cupressaceae family endemic to New Caledonia. The wood of this conifer is odiferous and it is
the only species specifically protected in New Caledonia. Third, the Nageia minor and
Dacrydium guillauminii community occupies an alluvial zone 1-5m wide along the river banks
which is flooded during high water. D. guillawminii is endemic to the banks of the Riviére des
Lacs. The shrub layer, between 3-5m high, comprises these two gymnosperms which are amongst
the most rare species in New Caledonia, the principal populations of which are located upstream
of the falls. The low discontinuous shrub layer comprises Melaleuca brongnartii, Xanthostemon
aurantiacum, Homalium kanaliense, Pancheria communis, Cloezia aquarum. The herbaceous
layer, which is absent on gravelly soil but continuous on alluvial soil, comprises the Cyperaceae
Costularia xyridioides, Schoenus brevifolius, Chorizandra cymbaria, Tricostularia guillauminii
and the Xyridaceae Xyris pancheri and X. neocaledonica. Fourth, the aquatic vegetation is poor
in species and not abundant, but is no less remarkable for the presence of a carnivorous species
Utricularia of the Lentibulariaceae family and of a relatively rare aquatic fern Blechnum francii.
There is also one species, Eriocaulon, endemic to the south of the Grande Terre. A detailed
inventory of the flora has revealed 168 species of phanerogam and ferns belonging to 53 families,
of which 95% are endemic to New Caledonia and about 20 locally endemic to the south of the
Grande Terre. A full list is given in Jaffré (1988).
Fauna The area is notable for a population of fish of the genus Galaxias, an endemic and
nocturnal living fossil from the Tertiary age, which is probably the same species as that in the
Lac en Huit, G. neocaledonicus. Also of scientific interest are two shrimp, one sponge and one
crustacean species.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The vegetation and flora have been studied by the
Laboratoire de Botanique (ORSTOM) (Jaffré, 1988).
Conservation Value The site is considered exceptional for the richness and diversity of the
flora, the high concentration of gymnosperms and for the presence of many rare species such as
the aquatic fern B. francii and the carnivorous aquatic plant Utricularia sp.
Conservation Management Establishing legislation prohibits the collection, removal,
displacement or harvesting of any mineral or vegetation and the use of motor vehicles away from
roads. The boundary will be marked by signs indicating these restrictions and any infringement
is punishable.
70
New Caledonia
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
Anon. (1990). Journal officiel de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Pp. 1217-1218.
Jaffré, T. (1988). Vegetation et flore de la Chute de la Madeleine. Etude en vue d’ une proposition
de mise en réserve. Laboratoire de Botanique, ORSTOM. 11 pp.
Date February 1991
HAUTE YATE SPECIAL FAUNA RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE DE FAUNE DE LA HAUTE-YATE)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location South-central New Caledonia. The border is defined in Article A
1321-2 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de l’Environnement. Includes Parc Territorial
de la Riviére Bleue. Approximately 22°08’S, 166°40’E
Date and History of Establishment 3 February 1960 by Délibération 184, confirmed by
Délibération 108 of 9 May 1980.
Area 15,900ha; Parc Territorial de la Riviére Bleue: 9,054ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude Approximately 160m to 785m
Physical Features Includes the watersheds of the western end of the artificial Lake Yaté, ranging
from hill ridges to the lakeshore. The underlying rocks are ultrabasic.
Climate Mean annual rainfall is more than 3000mm.
Vegetation Mostly forest scrub including Podocarpus and Agathis spp. There is some
freshwater marshland fringing the Riviére Blanche.
Fauna A number of endemic birds are present but specific details are not available.
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population None
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Under Article A 1321-4 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature
et de l’Environnement, entry into the reserve is regulated and only holders of titles for forestry
or mining, and staff of La Société d’Energie Electrique are permitted to visit the area regularly.
Hunting and fishing are prohibited. Permission may be given by the Head of the Service des
Eaux et Foréts for scientific or tourist visits under Article 1321-5 of the Code.
Management Constraints Mineral prospecting and fires have degraded parts of the area. Lake
Yaté flooded a rich forest in the valley bottom. There has been some forest exploitation in the
past. The legal protection prohibits neither mineral prospecting or exploitation, nor forestry.
Staff One forest officer is assigned to the Parc territorial de la Riviére Bleue.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea; Service des Eaux et Foréts, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
PAM ISLAND SPECIAL FAUNA RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE DE FAUNE DE L’ILE DE PAM)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Located at the northern end of New Caledonia, in the mouth of the
Diahot River. Approximately 20°15’S, 164°18’E
Date and History of Establishment 29 December 1966, by Arrété 66-603/CG; confirmed by
Délibération 108 of 9 May 1980.
Area 460ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude Sea level to 166m
Physical Features Steep island bordered by mangrove and reef
Climate Mean annual precipitation is 1200mm
72
New Caledonia
Vegetation Mangrove and secondary vegetation
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population None on the island
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Entry and hunting are prohibited
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea (Province Nord)
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
LEPREDOUR ISLET SPECIAL FAUNA RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE DE FAUNE DE L’ILOT LEPREDOUR)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed nature reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location [ot Leprédour is just off the west coast of New Caledonia in the Baie
de St Vincent, near Bouloupari. Approximately 21°58’S, 166°0’E
Date and History of Establishment 12 September 1941 by Arrété 985; confirmed by
Délibération 108 of 9 May 1980
Area 760ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude Sea level to 225m
Physical Features Comprises a limestone and sandstone island with steep slopes fronted by
mangroves.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Climate Annual rainfall varies between 600mm and 800mm
Vegetation Includes niaouli Melaleuca savannah and mangroves, but very disturbed.
Fauna Includes introduced deer.
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population There has been a settlement but the reserve is currently not populated
(J-L. d’Auzon, pers. comm., 1991).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Management The area was created as the governor’s hunting reserve. Article A
1322-2 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de 1’Environnement prohibits disembarkation
or approach on the seaward side within 100m. All game hunting is prohibited under Article A
1322-3 throughout the year, except with permission of the Service de l’Environnement et Gestion
des Parcs et Réserves and the High Commissioner.
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de l’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
MONT HUMBOLDT SPECIAL BOTANICAL RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE BOTANIQUE DU MONT HUMBOLDT)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonia)
Geographical Location Mount Humboldt in south central New Caledonia. Approximately
21°53’S, 166°25’E
Date and History of Establishment 7 July 1950 by Arrété 931; confirmed by Délibération 108
of 9 May 1980.
Area 3,200ha
74
New Caledonia
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 400m-1,618m
Physical Features Comprises the summit and steep-sided ridges of Mount Humboldt in the
centre of the Humboldt Massif. Ultrabasic rocks constitute the underlying geology.
Climate Rainfall exceeds 3000mm annually.
Vegetation Includes Araucaria humboldtensis cloud forest, Araucaria rulei and other important
species.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Two huts have been constructed by JEAN’s, the young persons
section of the Association pour la Sauvegarde de la Nature.
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Management All disturbance of the vegetation is prohibited. Not currently
protected under the mining laws.
Management Constraints Mining prospecting is authorised under permit, but no disturbance
is permitted without prior review and approval.
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, reformatted January 1990
MONT MOU SPECIAL BOTANICAL RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE BOTANIQUE DU MONT-MOU)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Geographical Location Northern and western slopes of Mount Mou in southern New Caledonia
near Paita. The reserve is entirely surrounded by Mont Mou Forest Reserve. Approximately
22°04’S, 166°20’E
Date and History of Establishment 7 J uly 1950 by Arrété 931; confirmed by Délibération 108
of 9 May 1980.
Area 675ha; Mont Mou Forest Reserve: 5,038ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 320m-1,211m
Physical Features Summit and upper slopes of Mount Mou, comprising ultrabasic rocks.
Climate No information specific to the reserve
Vegetation Botanically rich area including cloud forest with mosses.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population Paita village lies to the south-east whilst the Saint-Laurent tribe
dwells on the western side (J-L. d’ Auzon, pers. comm., 1991).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A footpath exists.
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Management All disturbance of vegetation is prohibited. The area is not
currently protected by mining laws.
Management Constraints Mining prospecting is authorised under permit, but no disturbance
is permitted without prior review and approval.
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
76
New Caledonia
MONT PANIE SPECIAL BOTANICAL RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE BOTANIQUE DU MONT PANIE)
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Mount Panié on the north-east coast of New Caledonia, north of
Hienghéne. The boundary is defined by the course of the Coulna and Boualabio rivers and
elsewhere by the 400m contour. Approximately 20°36’S, 164°46’E
Date and History of Establishment 7 July 1950 by Arrété 931; confirmed by Délibération 108
of 9 May 1980.
Area 5,000ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 400m-1,628m
Physical Features Comprises the summit and flanks of Mount Panié, the highest mountain in
New Caledonia. The underlying rock is micaschist.
Climate There is heavy annual rainfall of 4000mm.
Vegetation Rich forest with many endemics and unique palms
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities Considerable botanical collecting
Conservation Management Mineral prospecting is authorised under permit, but no disturbance
is permitted without prior review and approval. The Head of the Service de 1’Environnement et
Gestion des Parcs et Réserves may forbid mineral workings, although there is a right of appeal
to the Comité Consultatif des Mines.
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Wi
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
MONTAGNE DES SOURCES STRICT NATURE RESERVE
(RESERVE NATURELLE INTEGRALE DE LA MONTAGNE
DES SOURCES)
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonia)
Geographical Location Upper Dumbea basin in south-central New Caledonia near Nouméa.
The boundary is defined in the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de 1’Environnement.
Approximately 22°08’S, 166°34’E
Date and History of Establishment 7 July 1950 by Arrété 931, confirmed by Délibération 108
of 9 May 1980. Complete protection under mining law by Arrété 58-101/CG of 26 March 1958.
Area 5,870ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 117-1102m
Physical Features A complete upper watershed in the southern massif, comprising ultrabasic
and basic rocks.
Climate The reserve has one of the highest rainfalls on the island, averaging 3000mm/year.
Vegetation Includes montane rain forest and scrub with some cloud forest on the summits. The
parasitic and endemic gymnosperm Parasitaxis ustus is reported within the reserve.
Fauna An important habitat for endemic birds, but no list is available.
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management In addition to regulations covering strict nature reserves in the
Code de la Protection de la Nature et de 1’Environnement, it is forbidden to fly over the reserve
at an altitude of less than 1,300m. Mineral prospecting and extraction is prohibited.
Management Constraints An access road and 200ha for a high altitude station have been
excluded from the reserve.
Staff None
78
New Caledonia
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
None listed
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
MAITRE ISLET SPECIAL FAUNA AND FLORA RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE DE FAUNE ET DE FLORE DE L’ILOT
MAITRE)
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.6.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Mot Maitre lies in the lagoon off Noumea, the boundary approximately
following the 10m isobath. Approximately 22°20’S, 166°25’E
Date and History of Establishment 2 July 1981 by Délibération 231. The original designation
was for the Maitre and Amédée Islets Special Fauna and Flora Reserve. However, Amédée Islet
has since been redesignated under Délibération No. 73 of 26 January 1989 to form part of the
Parc Provincial du Lagon Sud. Maitre Islet has since been dereserved due to pressure from tourist
developments, such that only the reefs remain protected.
Area 610ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 10m depth to 2m
Physical Features Comprises low lagoon islets with sand beaches and fringing coral reefs.
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 1000mm.
Vegetation Vegetation on the island comprises tall trees, shorter trees, lianas, shrubs, a herb
layer and beach strand vegetation, with some 31 recorded native species. Introduced Agave sp.
and Opuntia sp. are invasive and a threat to the native flora.
Fauna Faure et al. (1981) and Thomassin and Coudray (1981) describe reef coral assemblages
on the windward slope of Maitre Reef. The inter-tidal reef flat has less than 20% coral coverage
as a result of its sheltered position, and has abundant algae Sargassum and Turbinaria. Between
1m and 2m depth coral cover is still low and is predominantly short-branched species such as
Acropora digitifera, Pocillopora damicornis and P. verrucosa, massive faviids and some
branched and tabular Acropora (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The intertidal reef flat around Maitre islet
has high coral coverage, due to its sheltered location. A survey in 1988 revealed the presence of
14 bird species (J-L. d’ Auzon, pers. comm., 1991)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Cultural Heritage The 56m high Amédée lighthouse was constructed during the reign of
Napoleon III in 1865.
Local Human Population Comprises the lighthouse keeper on Ilot Amédée who is permitted
to maintain a garden for subsistence purposes, and hotel staff on Tot Maitre.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A very popular area due to its proximity to Noumea, with some
40,000 visitors annually. A hotel was constructed on Ilot Maitre in 1983, which has since been
extended to cover the entire island, leading to the declassification of the island as a reserve
(J-L. d’Auzon, pers. comm., 1991).
Scientific Research and Facilities Extensive research has been carried out in this area by
ORSTOM scientists. Growth studies have been carried out on trochus on Amédée (Bour et al.,
1982). The islet has been mapped using SPOT-LANDSAT satellite imagery (Bour et al., 1985).
There are no special scientific facilities.
Conservation Value The reserve was created to protect both terrestrial and marine flora and
fauna and to provide for public education and recreation.
Conservation Management Plants, animals and marine life are totally protected. Tourist
development, recreation and management to further conservation aims are permitted.
Management Constraints [ot Maitre (and Ilot Amédée) are the most heavily exploited tourist
destinations in New Caledonia, with large numbers of international visitors and local Noumeans.
Corals on the reef are broken and collection of corals and shells and fishing take place
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988); these activities are all illegal. A large coral head was recently sawn off
and displaced to make a safer approach to the hotel on Tot Maitre.
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
Bour, W., Gohin, F. and Bouchet, P. (1982). Croissance et mortalité naturelle des Trocas
(Trochus niloticus L.) de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Haliotis 12: 71-90. (Unseen).
Bour, W., Loubersac, L. and Rual, P. (1985). Reef thematic maps viewed through simulated data
from the future SPOT satellite. Application to the biotope of topshell (Trochus niloticus) on
the Tetembia reef (New Caledonia). Proceedings of the Fifth Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti
4: 225-230.
Faure, G., Thomassin, B.A. and Vasseur, P. (1981). Reef coral assemblages on windward slopes
in the Noumea Lagoon (New Caledonia). Proceedings of the Fourth Coral Reef Symposium,
Manila 2: 292-301.
Thomassin, B. A. and Coudray, J. (1981) Presence of wide hardground areas on lagoonal
bottoms of the coral reef complexes of Noumea (south-west New Caledonia). Proceedings
of the Fourth Coral Reef Symposium, Manila 1: 512-522.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
80
New Caledonia
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
MARINE FAUNA ROTATING RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE TOURNANTE DE FAUNE MARINE)
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.6.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Comprises a barrier reef, lying parallel to the south-west of New
Caledonia, near Noumea. Three narrow, rectangular sectors straddle the reef, as follows: Sector
A includes Annibal Reef and Mbere Reef; 22°15’S, 166°10’E. Sector B includes Aboré Reef and
Tabu Reef; 22°28’S, 166°22’E. Sector C includes To Reef, le Sournois Reef, Toombo Reef and
Kué Reef; 22°35’S, 166°30’E. A detailed description of the boundaries is given in Article A
1313-1 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de 1’Environnement.
Date and History of Establishment 2 July 1981 by Délibération 230 and reconfirmed under
Délibération 104.90 APS of 31 August 1990.
Area 35,570ha, comprising Sector A (12,190ha), Sector B (10,960ha) and Sector C (12,420ha)
Land Tenure Public
Altitude Up to sea level
Physical Features Comprises major sections of the Great Southern Reef, their outer slopes,
adjacent lagoon bottom and surrounding waters. A general discussion of the New Caledonian
reefs, including the Great Southern Reef, is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Climate There are two principal seasons: a December to March hot season, and an April to
November dry season. Mean daily temperatures range from 26.1°C in February to 19.9°C in July.
Vegetation No information
Fauna Typical species in the vicinity of the reserve include Acropora digitifera, A. humilis,
Pocillopora spp., Porites lutea, Platygyra daedalea, Leptoria phrygia and faviids. Further details
are given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population The territorial capital, Noumea, is some 15km to the north-east of
Abore Reef.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is very popular for recreational and fishing activities,
on account of its accessibility from Noumea (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities Extensive research has been carried out in the area by
ORSTOM, but there are few if any publications referring directly to this reserve (UNEP/IUCN,
1988). There are no special scientific facilities.
81
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Conservation Value Principally scientific research and recreation (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Conservation Management The capture or destruction of marine animals, including the
collection of coral, is completely prohibited consecutively for three year periods in each of three
sectors. In those areas where the closed season is not in force, collecting may take place according
to normal fisheries regulations. Under the new (1990) legislation Section B is to be protected
between August 1990 and August 1993; Section C from then until August 1996; and Section A
subsequently until August 1999. Revision of the legislation will then be required. Although there
has been no scientific monitoring of this reserve so far, divers from ORSTOM and the Noumea
Aquarium, as well as many fishermen, reported a marked improvement in the condition of the
reef since 1981 (Jourde, 1985).
Management Constraints The areas have been heavily fished in the past and a decline in species
abundance and diversity was apparent in the late 1970s. The choice of a three-year closed period
for each sector was made empirically on the assumption that good recruitment to fish populations
would occur in this time span. However, there has been little quantitative research to support
this. The great species diversity and the complexity of the interactions between the three reef
sections has made the quantitative assessment of exploitable stocks virtually impossible (Jourde,
1985). Enforcement is difficult, particularly as boat traffic is still allowed to pass through the
area.
Staff No information
Budget No special allocation
Local Addresses Service de la Marine Marchande et des Péches Maritimes, Noumea; in
cooperation with the Service des Eaux et Foréts, Noumea
References
Jourde, J-l. (1985). Marine reserves in New Caledonia. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the
Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserve Conference. Volume I. Collected key issue
and case study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 74-78.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date September 1983, updated January 1990
RIVIERE BLEUE TERRITORIAL/PROVINCIAL PARK
(PARC TERRITORIAL/PROVINCIAL DE LA RIVIERE BLEUE)
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Located in south-central New Caledonia, and entirely enclosed within
the Réserve Spéciale de Faune de Haute Yaté. The boundary is defined in Article A 1210-2 of
the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de l’Environnement. Approximately 22°06’S, 166°38’E
82
New Caledonia
Date and History of Establishment 3 February 1960 by Délibération 184 as part of Haute Yaté
Hunting Reserve; 17 August 1972 by Arrété 72-396/CG as a complete mining reserve; 9 May
1980 by Délibération 108 as a territorial park. Law No. 88.1028 of 9 November 1988 gives the
three provinces full powers in environmental matters and thus this site may be properly titled a
parc provincial, although this not clear.
Area 9,054ha; included within Haute Yaté Reserve (15,900ha)
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 156m-1,250m
Physical Features Comprises upper watersheds on the eastern slopes of the Montagne des
Sources and is bordered by mountains up to 1,000m in height. Geologically, the area forms part
of the ultrabasic rock of the southern massif, with significant alluvial deposits in the valley bottom
of the Riviere Bleue.
Climate Average rainfall is estimated at 3000mm, reaching 5000mm at higher elevations.
Vegetation The park protects the most important remnant of the once extensive southern forest
and its associated fauna, and includes 6,000ha of thick rain forest (Anon., 1989). The area was
logged in the 1930s and includes secondary growth. Over 400 plant species are known, of which
over 80% are endemic to New Caledonia. The following vegetation zones have been
distinguished: rich forest of the alluvial plain, with a dense canopy at 25-30m, not counting
emergents such as kaori Agathis lanceolata, one of which attains 40m in height; forest of the
lower mountain slopes; steep slope forest from 180-500m with a canopy at 15-20m height; open
vegetation of the lower ridges 250-450m, with small trees of 5-10m height; high ridge scrub
(maquis) above 550m with conifers such as Agathis ovata, Araucaria muelleri and Dacrydium
araucarioides; and scrub on ultrabasic rocks (maquis minier) typical of the southern massif. Rare
species such as Libocedrus yateensis and the parasitic gymnosperm Parasitaxis ustus occur in
the park.
Fauna The park is the only reserve in the country containing all the endemic bird species of
New Caledonia. It is a major breeding ground, and rehabilitation site, of the endemic flightless
kagu Rhynochetos jubatus (E), the sole representative of the family Rhinochetidae. The 1989
population in the park was estimated at 200 individuals. A sample plot of 1,500ha has been
monitored for kagu since 1980, and the number of recorded birds has increased from 21 in 1980
to 49 in 1989, reflecting the success of sustained predator control programmes and the
contribution of captively bred birds to the wild population (Anon., 1989). The park also supports
the largest remaining population (20-30 individuals) of crow honey-eater Gymnomyza aubryana.
Cultural Heritage There are the relicts of lumbering which took place during the 1900s
(J-L. d’Auzon, pers. comm., 1990).
Local Human Population The park is uninhabited and there are no villages in the immediate
vicinity.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The number of visitors varies between 10,000 and 12,000
annually (J-L. d’Auzon, pers. comm., 1990). There is a recently constructed refuge for visitors
within the park on the north bank of the Riviére Bleue, and a network of trails, including 60km
suitable for motor vehicles, provides easy access. The Refuge de la Riviére Blanche is located
to the south of the boundary.
83
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Scientific Research and Facilities Research on kagu began in 1980 with a population count.
A census of kagu throughout the park, and in other selected parts of the country, was conducted
between September 1989 and January 1990. The first three chapters of kagu study in the park
have been published, covering feeding behaviour, diet and vocal activity and protection
measures. Botanical studies have also been undertaken. There are no specific facilities.
Conservation Value Particularly valued for the presence of all endemic bird species including
the kagu.
Conservation Management Total legal protection, including prohibition of prospecting and
mining. The kagu is totally protected by Territorial Assembly Resolution No. 387 of 26 April
1972, brought into effect by Government Council Order No. 1017 of 4 May 1972. It is forbidden
to hunt, capture and hold kagus, except by special authorisation which may be granted for
purposes such as scientific research. Conservation of kagu has been actively pursued throughout
the 1980s, with release of captively bred birds, radio tracking and predator control (Anon., 1989).
Management Constraints Much of the valley bottom was logged earlier this century, but this
ceased in 1975 and the forest is regenerating. Lake Yaté, created by a hydroelectric scheme in
1959, penetrates a short distance into the park. Further hydroelectric development within the
park has recently been avoided. The kagu is threatened nationwide by introduced dogs, cats, pigs
and rats and by habitat destruction.
Staff One forest officer and some labourers. The Department of Forests has assigned a full-time
member of staff to the conservation of kagu.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
Anon. (n.d.). Parc Territorial de la Riviére Bleue. District Forestier de Noumea. Brochure.
Anon. (1989). New Caledonia: conservation of the kagu. Case Study 11. Fourth South Pacific
Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12
September. 5 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1983). Etude préliminaire de l’impact du projet Ouinné-Pourina sur l’environnement
et en particulier sur le Parc Territorial de la Riviére Bleue. Unpublished report to Service
des Eaux et Foréts, Noumea, New Caledonia. 112 pp.
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
THY TERRITORIAL/PROVINCIAL PARK
(PARC TERRITORIAL/PROVINCIAL DE THY)
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
84
New Caledonia
Geographical Location South-west New Caledonia near Noumea. The boundary is defined in
Article A 1220-2 of the Code de la Protection de la Nature et de l’Environnement. Approximately
22°11’S, 166°32’E
Date and History of Establishment 28 February 1978 by Arrété 420 as a forest reserve; 9 May
1980 by Délibération 108 as a territorial park. Law No. 88.1028 of 9 November 1988 gives the
three provinces full powers in environmental matters and thus this site may be properly titled a
parc provincial, although this not clear.
Area 1,133ha; contiguous to Montagne des Sources Reserve (5,878ha)
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 110m-1,079m
Physical Features Comprises a steep upper watershed with distinctive microclimate, and soils
derived from both acidic (granodiorite) and ultrabasic rocks.
Climate Mean annual rainfall is some 2000mm.
Vegetation The chief vegetation types are rain forest, scrub and Niaouli Melaleuca
quinquenervia savanna. Some 425 native vascular plants and 50 ruderals have been reported.
Pteridophyta and conifers are ecologically important. Families typical of New Caledonia, for
example Myrtaceae, Cunoniaceae and Araliaceae dominate the vegetation. Three of five endemic
families and a third of all endemic genera are represented. There are rarities especially among
the 50 orchids found in the park.
Fauna Some endemic birds occur within the park, but more specific information is not available.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The Saint-Louis tribe live some 5km from the park (J-L. d’ Auzon,
pers. comm., 1991).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a network of marked trails and facilities for public
access.
Scientific Research and Facilities A detailed botanical inventory (Brinon, 1983) has been
compiled for the park.
Conservation Management The site is totally protected under forestry laws, but not protected
under mining laws and mining could theoretically take place.
Management Constraints Much of the park was previously logged. There are two enclaves,
covering 46ha, in the Vallée de Thy, approached by two access roads 10m wide and belonging
to the Commune du Mont-Dore.
Staff None
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de 1’Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
85
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
References
Brinon, H. (1983). An inventory of plants in the Thy River valley, New Caledonia. 15th Pacific
Science Congress, Abstracts. 26 pp.
Date September 1983, updated February 1991
YVES MERLET MARINE RESERVE
(RESERVE SPECIALE MARINE YVES MERLET)
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Located on the south-western barrier reef between the Canal de la
Havannah and the Passe de la Sarcelle, in the waters between the main island and the Ile des
Pins. The boundary comprises a five-pointed polygon, the coordinates of which are given in the
Code de la Protection de la Nature et de 1’Environnement. Approximately 22°25’S, 167°08’E
Date and History of Establishment 17 July 1970 by Délibération 244, confirmed by
Délibération 108 of 9 May 1980
Area 16,700ha
Land Tenure Public
Altitude 75m depth to 2m above sea-level
Physical Features Includes two islets, Amere and Kié, and a complex of reefs. The reserve
protects the waters and bottom of a major section of barrier reef, with a rich variety of reef types
and two coral islets.
Climate No information specific to the reserve
Vegetation The islets are covered by atoll/beach forest with Araucaria columnaris. The reef
and lagoon bottom are rich in algae.
Fauna Representative colonies of some of the more common species of seabird and osprey
Pandion haliaetus are found. There is a great diversity of corals, fishes and other marine life.
The volute Cymbiola rossiniana is found only in the area between the Ile des Pins and the Passe
de Boulari.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Growth rates of trochus have been studied within the reserve
(Bour et al., 1982). The legislation allows for the management of the reserve to be contracted to
a private research organisation.
86
New Caledonia
Conservation Value The reserve constitutes a representative sample of New Caledonia’s
marine heritage and is a valuable area for biological and ecological studies on reef lagoon systems
(Jourde, 1985).
Conservation Management Fishing, capture and collection of all animals is prohibited. The
area is out of bounds to boats either for passage or for anchoring near the islands or emergent
reefs, although these regulations may be waived for traditional canoes and customary fishing
activities (Jourde, 1985). Local people may visit the reserve once a year to collect trochus
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The area is relatively undisturbed because it is too far from Noumea for
weekend boat excursions, and the complex reef topography within the reserve means that the
few small boats which reach it generally keep to its perimeter (P. Bouchet, in litt., 1987).
Management Constraints A traditional right of passage through the reserve is permitted.
Enforcement from the mainland is difficult and fishing by people from Touaorou and Goro
continues illegally (UNEP/IUCN, 1988) although not destructively (P. Bouchet, in litt., 1987).
Staff None
Budget No information
Local Addresses Service de l'Environnement et Gestion des Parcs et Réserves, Direction du
Développement Rural, BP 256, Noumea
References
Bour, W., Gohin, F. and Bouchet, P. (1982). Croissance at mortalité naturelles des Trocas
(Trochus niloticus L.) de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Haliotis 12:71-90. (Unseen).
Jourde, J-L. (1985). Marine reserves in New Caledonia. Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume 2. Collected key issue and case study
papers. SPREP, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 74-78.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date September 1983, updated January 1990
87
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FRANCE — WALLIS AND FUTUNA
Area 210 sq. km
Population 13,000 (1986) (SPREP, 1986) Natural increase: 4.0% (Dahl, 1986)
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Wallis and Futuna is an Overseas Territory of France but the legal status,
as provided for by Law 61-814 of 29 July 1961, gives the Territory jurisdiction in environmental
affairs. As all matters relating to land tenure lie exclusively within the jurisdiction of the
traditional leaders, the administration’s scope of action is extremely limited. Traditional law is
applied to the day-to-day settlement of local affairs. There is no written protected area legislation.
As a result of population increases and the Territory’s exposure to outside influences, traditional
laws no longer provide a sufficient means of control to preserve the existing land and sea
resources. Supplementary legislation is desirable in respect of town planning and the protection
of wooded areas, the water table, water catchments and coastal zones etc. (SPREP, 1982).
The Long-term Economic and Social Development Plan, passed by the Territorial Assembly
on 24 July 1979, includes a chapter on the protection of the natural heritage of the islands
(Chapter 9). Two of the priorities listed are protection of the coastal zone, and protection of
natural sites (Alofi Forest). Restrictions and regulations are applied to specific areas and are
decreed orally by the King and the Council of Ministers and relayed by word of mouth by the
district or village chiefs to their subjects. To-day, radio broadcasts are also used to disseminate
such instructions (SPREP, 1985).
International Activities At the international level, France has entered into a number of
obligations and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is party to the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France became a contracting party to the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention) on 1 October 1986.
France signed the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June
1976, and subsequently ratified it on 20 January 1989. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered
into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and
represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among
other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and
fauna.
France also signed the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment
of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) on 25 November 1987, with ratification on
17 July 1990. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the
parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or
endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of
activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes
being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by
definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and
the conservation of marine species. It should be noted that the instrument of Approval is
accompanied by the following reservation: "The Government of the French Republic, in signing
89
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
the present Convention, declares that, insofar as it is concerned, the prescription of the aforesaid
Convention will not cover wastes and other matter entailing a level of pollution caused by
radioactivity to a degree less than that prescribed by the recommendations of the International
Atomic Energy Agency".
Administration and Management No department has overall responsibility for coordination
of activities relating to national environmental policy.
Systems Reviews Wallis and Futuna comprises three main islands: Uvea (Iles Wallis), Futuna
and the uninhabited Alofi (Iles de Horne).
Uvea (96 sq. km) is a low volcanic island, with a maximum altitude of 145m, with volcanic lakes
and seasonal springs. It is surrounded by a barrier reef, some 3-4km offshore, with about 22 reef
islets. By contrast, Futuna (80 sq. km) and Alofi (36 sq. km), 250km to the south-west, are
mountainous, with steep slopes interrupted by a series of uplifted coral tiers, reaching 524m and
416m, respectively.
When the islands were first settled the natural vegetation appears to have consisted largely of
forest, today in great jeopardy. Still used for supplying timber for building, it has also been cleared
for agricultural land. The harmful effects of systematic and localised clearing of the vegetation
have been further aggravated by bushfires occurring during the dry season. In the entire
low-altitude zone that is permanently settled, the primary vegetation has been radically modified
by pre- and post-European plant introductions and the large-scale extensions of coconut groves.
Evergreen closed forest covered about 15% of Uvea in 1983, the remainder including secondary
forest and toafa (a poor, scrubby formation) with Pandanus, grasses and ferns (Morat et al.,
1983). Much of the original vegetation has been cleared for coconut, breadfruit and bananas. The
establishment of two airfields and a network of roads during World War Two increased the
damage described by Burrows (1937). Now only patches of forest remain in the southern central
and western region. Everywhere else, the forest has been replaced by gardens, fallow areas
carrying a secondary bush, and, especially in the northern half of the island, by very poor lands
on which only toafa grows.
In Futuna, which is believed to have been settled earlier than Uvea, the primary forest has receded
to the upper parts of the hills and into almost inaccessible gorges. About 30% of Futuna still has
dense forest cover, particularly in the montane regions above 400m (Davis et al., 1986), but an
extensive area of the central plateau bears only the very poor toafa vegetation. The steep outer
slopes running down to the coast are cleared and given over to dryland crops grown under often
quite difficult conditions (SPREP, 1986).
Alofi, which is uninhabited due to the lack of reliable water supplies, continues to support primary
rain forest (Dahl, 1986) on as much of 70% of its surface (SPREP, 1986). Despite this
predominance, toafa vegetation exists in a few places in central areas.
Analysis of aerial photographs suggests that the limits of toafa on Uvea and Futuna have not
greatly changed during the last 20-40 years, possibly due to the unsuitability of soils for further
agricultural expansion. However, aerial photography also confirms the diminishing primary
cover on Uvea, being replaced by perennial plantations or secondary fallow cover. Although
shortening of the fallow period to less than ten years is likely to lead to the appearance of toafa
vegetation, reafforestation with pines accompanied by the development of a thick undergrowth,
coconut plantations and trials with fodder crops have been successful in the toafa areas of both
Uvea and Futuna (SPREP, 1986).
90
Wallis and Futuna
An account of the coral reefs, which occur extensively around Uvea and Futuna and the
north-west of Alofi, is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The local population obtains the greater
part of its protein from marine products, particularly fish, and reefs and lagoons have been heavily
fished. Fishing is carried out mainly by line, net, speargun or harpoon. Deep water bottom fishing
is increasing. Trochus spp. from Uvea lagoon are exported in large numbers to New Caledonia
(SPREP, 1982).
Although there are no designated protected areas, the "Vao Tapu" forests are protected by
customary taboos. In the Uvea districts, utilisation of the primary forest is subject to control of
the customary authority, but damage appears to have increased since the mid-1960s, particularly
as a result of the extension of individual houses along roads, which in turn is directly related to
the increase in motor vehicles and extension of water and electricity supplies.
Despite as much as half of the population living overseas, there is a serious question over the
long-term availability of land. Consequently, there is an awareness that all land requires some
form of protection. Customary leaders attempt to dissuade the sale of land to foreigners, in order
to better meet the future needs of the indigenous population (SPREP, 1985). A discussion of
environmental issues is given in SPREP (1982). Major problems include damage caused by
semi-feral pigs, soil erosion, loss of forest on Wallis and Futuna, and overfishing around Futuna.
In general, the modest level of development and inhospitable terrain, for example on Alofi, has
led to few severe environmental problems. However, with increasing pressure for land, resources
and development, the current situation may change rapidly.
Addresses
Chef de la Mission des Affaires intérnationales et de la Coopération, Direction de 1’Espace
rural/Forét, Ministére de l’Agriculture, 1 ter Ave. de Lowendal, 75700 Paris, France
References
Burrows, E.C. (1937). Ethnology of Uvea (Wallis Island). Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop
Museum. No. 138. 239 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? TUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Morat, P. Veillon, J.M. and Hoff, M. (1983). Introduction a la végétation et a la flore du territoire
de Wallis et Futuna. ORSTOM, Nouméa, New Caledonia. 24 pp. (Unseen).
SPREP (1982). Wallis and Fortuna Islands. Country Report 19. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. 14 pp.
SPREP (1985). Wallis and Futuna. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 229-231.
SPREP (1986). Wallis and Futuna: man against the forest. South Pacific Study No. 2. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 6 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
91
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Name of area IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
Forest Reserves
Wallis Toafa Unassigned (i)
Unclassified
Lalolalo Vao Tupu (Forbidden Forest) I 30
*Site is described in this directory.
NB: Due to the absence of any legally gazetted protected areas in Wallis and Futuna no map is provided.
92
REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI
Area The total land area is approximately 684 sq. km, scattered over more than 5 million sq. km
of ocean.
Population 66,250 (1987 estimate) (Paxton, 1990) Natural increase: 2.1% (Dahl, 1986)
GNP US$ 649 per capita (1988)
Policy and Legislation In 1980 the Government of Kiribati published a statement of its policy
concerning nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix Islands. This recognised the need to
integrate conservation and development with respect to the islands’ natural resources. The role
of conservation was defined in terms of providing for the present and future social and economic
needs of the country (Garnett, 1983).
The legal basis for nature conservation is the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance (1975), amended
in 1979. Under the new Ordinance, the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds
Protection Ordinance was repealed and the status of bird sanctuaries was changed to wildlife
sanctuaries. The 1975 Ordinance makes, inter alia, the following provisions. First, all 31
regularly occurring bird species, and their nests and eggs, are fully protected throughout Kiribati.
All turtles are fully protected on land, although it is not clear from the legislation whether
protection extends to marine areas. Secondly, under Section 8(1), wildlife sanctuaries may be
declared and closed areas may be declared within such wildlife sanctuaries. Thirdly, Section 11
provides wildlife wardens with powers of search and arrest.
This current legislation is weak, because measures for the protection of vegetation, prohibiting
the introduction of plants and animals, preventing fire, removal of soil, and dumping of refuse,
and the control of vehicles are lacking. In particular, there is a lack of effective protection for
wildlife sanctuaries, within which it is possible to clear vegetation without contravening the law.
It would seem that under current legislation, the only areas adequately protected are those
additionally designated as closed areas.
It should be noted that although Article 14(1) of the Constitution guarantees freedom of
movement, restrictions required in the interests of environmental conservation are deemed not
to be in contravention of the Article.
Prior to contact with Europeans, land owners in Kiribati held tenure of reefs and lagoons adjacent
to their lands and had exclusive rights to fisheries and passage. Most land, particularly in the
South Gilberts, was owned by groups of extended families (utu) who lived in small, scattered
hamlets (kaainga), although in the northern atolls the ruling king had control of a large area of
land, reefs and lagoons and dispensed fishing rights to the various clans in the domain. In the
late 19th century this system began to break down: under British colonial rule, sea tenure per se
was not recognised, although there was an attempt to modify traditional fishing rights and the
government did recognise tenure of fish weirs, reclaimed areas, fish ponds and other accretions
(Zann, 1985). However, there are still a number of laws and customs regulating different aspects
of fishing activities on many of the atolls. These are frequently formulated and applied by
individual Island Councils.
International Activities Kiribati is not yet party to any of the international conventions or
programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
Ataregional level, Kiribati has not ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the
South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Kiribati is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) but has not
ratified the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered into force during August
1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile
ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected
areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems
and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the
Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Kiribati is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, established in 1977 under
the Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands and based on Kiritimati, is the only Government
division responsible for conservation management in the Line and Phoenix Islands (Garnett,
1983). In 1985 the Unit comprised one wildlife warden and two assistants. The bulk of the Unit’s
work is on Kiritimati; the other sanctuaries being protected by their remoteness (SPREP, 1985a).
The Unit hasas its principal responsibilities enforcement of the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance,
education/public awareness, survey and research, advice to governments, control of introduced
species, and tourism, though it is not the only agency concerned in each of these activities. There
is no administrative body responsible for conservation in the Gilbert Islands.
Systems Reviews The Republic of Kiribati comprises all the Gilbert and Phoenix Islands, eight
of the eleven Line Islands (the other three, Jarvis, Palmyra and Kingman Reef being dependencies
of the USA) and Banaba (Ocean Island), lying approximately between longitudes 169°E and
147°W and latitudes 5°N and 12°S. The islands extend nearly 5,000km from east to west and
straddle both the Equator and the International Date Line. All the islands are low-lying coral
atolls (UNEP/IUCN, 1988), rising to no more than 3-4m above mean sea level, with the exception
of Banaba which is a raised reef.
Most of the natural vegetation of the larger islands has been replaced by coconut plantations,
breadfruit and Pandanus spp. (Davis et al., 1986). However, considerable ecological diversity
remains on the different islands, largely because they fall within a zone of steep rainfall gradients.
Thus, Kiritimati has tracts of open scrub and grassland, whilst Teraina, 380km to the north-west,
has a freshwater lake surrounded by peat bogs and woodland rich in epiphytes and fern
undergrowth (Perry, 1980). There is relatively little information on the marine environment,
although reefs at Tabuaeran, Teraina, Tarawa and Onotoa have been described (UNEP/IUCN,
1988).
The current protected areas network comprises wildlife sanctuaries covering the whole of three
of the Phoenix Islands and four of the Line Islands. In addition, closed areas have been established
94
Kiribati
within Kiritimati Wildlife Sanctuary, and covering all of Malden and Starbuck islands. There
are no protected areas in the Gilbert Islands.
Most habitats found in Kiribati are represented in the protected areas system, although five are
omitted: Guettarda forest, Pemphis acidula scrub; freshwater marsh; freshwater lake; and
brackish lagoon. The existing network includes some of the most important sea bird colonies in
the Pacific (Hay, 1986).
The most profound threat, both to protected areas and the country as a whole, lies in the putative
rise in sea levels, caused by global climatic warming. This could lead to salinisation of freshwater
aquifers, increased erosion and possibly inundation rendering the country uninhabitable
(Pernetta, 1988). Alien species introduced by man affect all islands in the Line Group, with the
exception of Vostok Island. Feral cats, which may number up to 2,000 on Kiritimati, have driven
10 or 11 bird species (out of 18) to nest only on isolated islets (Perry, 1980). Cats appear to be
increasing in numbers, and bird populations are also threatened by poaching, especially red-tailed
tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda, red-footed booby Sula sula and masked booby Sula dactylatra.
Many new vehicles have been brought to the island, facilitating much greater human access to
the bird colonies (E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989). Exotic plant species have been extensively
introduced. Although the majority may have no effect on sea birds, a few may be deleterious.
Other natural threats include periodic droughts (Dahl, 1986) and climatic perturbations such as
the El Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The latter is believed responsible for the precipitous
decline in sea bird populations on Kiritimati in 1982-83 (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1984). The
1986-1987 ENSO set back the recovery of bird populations from the 1982-1983 ENSO
(E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989)
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been
developed. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, protected area management and regional and
international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Kiribati are as follows: formulate a
national conservation strategy; and implement the Feral Animal Eradication Programme on
Kiritimati. Proposals for a cat eradication programme were prepared by the Wildlife
Conservation Unit in 1983 in conjunction with the New Zealand Wildlife Service (SPREP,
1985a). However, this has not yet been implemented (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Dahl (1980) recommends both the upgrading of the existing network and the establishment of
new reserves, to include appropriate samples of atoll, forest, marine and lagoon environments.
This would entail a communication link and surveillance centre on Kanton, retaining the extant
reserves on Birnie, McKean and Rawaki (Phoenix) and creating new sites on Enderbury, Orona
and possibly Manra. Most of the Line Islands, in particular Caroline and Malden, are considered
candidates for reserve status, especially if existing predators can be controlled. Flint, Caroline,
Kanton and Enderbury require protection as turtle breeding areas. The bogs, and possibly the
lake on Tabuaeran, including adequate areas of Polynesian warbler habitat, should be protected,
in addition to seabird breeding areas (Dahl, 1980).
Garnett (1983) makes a comprehensive set of recommendations, principally covering Kiritimati,
which addresses aspects of legislation, development and land use planning, and conservation
management. Specific recommendations include: amending Section 8 of the 1975 Wildlife
Conservation Ordinance to give adequate protection to important ecosystems; gazetting
Enderbury Island as a wildlife sanctuary and closed area; upgrading Birnie, McKean, Rawaki
and Vostok islands to closed area status; and designating specific areas on Kiritimati as wildlife
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
sanctuaries and closed areas, as opposed to the whole island as is currently the case (Garnett,
1983).
Dahl (1986) notes that there are no protected areas in the Gilbert Islands and suggests that small
forested islands with seabird rookeries on Butaritari and Nonouti might be considered forreserves
under local management. Marine reserves may be required for fisheries management. The
principal omissions from the protected areas systems are bogs in the Line and Phoenix Islands
and other natural habitats on Teraina (Dahl, 1986).
Addresses
The Director, Wildlife Conservation Unit, Kiritimati
References
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Checklist of Pacific Oceanic Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463.
Fosberg, F.R. (1953). Vegetation of central Pacific atolls. Atoll Research Bulletin 23: 1-26.
(Unseen)
Garnett, M.C. (1983). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Two volumes. Unpublished. 436 pp.
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific Islands. ]CBP Study Report No. 7. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for
countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the
implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October.
Pp. 1-11.
Paxton, J. (Ed.). (1990). The Statesman’ s Yearbook. 127th Edition. Macmillan Press, London.
1690 pp.
Perry, R. (1980). Wildlife Conservation in the Line Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formerly
Gilbert Islands). Environmental Conservation 7: 311-318.
Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1984). Central Pacific seabirds and the El Nifio Southern
Oscillation: 1982-1983 perspectives. Science 225: 713-716.
SPREP (1985a). Kiribati. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 115-124.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S., Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental legislation in the
South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. 63 pp
96
Kiribati
Zann, L.P. (1985). Traditional management and conservation of fisheries in Kiribati and Tuvalu
atolls. In: Ruddle, K. and Johannes, R.E. (Eds), The traditional knowledge and management
of coastal systems in Asia and the Pacific. Unesco/ROSTEA, Jakarta. Pp. 53-77.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Wildlife Conservation Ordinance
Date: 1975, amended in 1979
Brief description: Under the Ordinance the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Wild
Birds Protection Ordinance was repealed and the status of bird sanctuaries was changed to
wildlife sanctuaries.
Administrative authority: The Director, Wildlife Conservation Unit, Kiritimati
Designation:
Wildlife sanctuary Under Section 8(1), the Minister of the Line and Phoenix Islands, after
consultation with the Council of Ministers, may declare any area to be a wildlife sanctuary.
Under Section 8(2), it is stipulated that "no person shall in a wildlife sanctuary hunt, kill or
capture any bird or other animal (other than a fish) or search for, take or wilfully destroy,
break or damage the eggs or nest of any bird or other animal, except under and in accordance
with the terms of a valid written licence granted to that person by the Minister under this
section".
Closed area The Ordinance makes further provision by allowing closed areas to be declared
within wildlife sanctuaries. With the exception of appropriate officials and licensed
individuals, entry into a closed area is prohibited under Section 8(6).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management
ref. category
Closed Areas
1 Cook Islet Closed Area (Kiritimati WS) I
2 Motu Tabu Islet Closed Area (Kirimati WS) I
3 Motu Upua Closed Area (Kiritimati WS) I
4 Ngaontetaake Islet Closed Area I
(Kiritimati WS)
Wildlife Sanctuaries
5 Birnie Island* IV
6 Kiritimati* Unassigned
7 Malden Island (Closed Area)* I
8 McKean Island* IV
9 Phoenix Island (Rawaki)* IV
10 Starbuck (Closed Area)* I
11 Vostok Island* IV
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
98
Area
(ha)
Nhe W
Year
notified
1975
1975
1975
1979
1975
1960
1975
1975
1975
1975
1979
Kiribati
of Ll
FUSNTD ONIMOSINON
AHS VAUIENOD ATH0K
f Kiribati
Ico
Protected Areas of the Republ
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
BIRNIE ISLAND
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located in the Phoenix Islands, in the central Pacific, and encircled by
five other islands. These are Kanton Island 80km south-south-east, Enderbury Island 67km
south-west, Rawaki 90km west, Maura 100km north-north-west and Oronoa 120km north-east.
Approximately 3°35’S, 171°33’W
Date and History of Establishment 21 June 1938. The island was declared a bird sanctuary
under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance. This protected
status was reconfirmed under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance when the area was
re-designated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1975.
Area Approximately 20ha
Land Tenure Government of Kiribati
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 4m on the eastern beach crest.
Physical Features This is the smallest of the Phoenix Islands, measuring only 1.2km by 0.5km.
A small, shallow, land-locked saline lagoon which, despite being stream-fed often completely
dries out, occupies a depression in the south-east. The northern half of the island is flat, fairly
smooth and covered in uniform vegetation. The east coast is rocky and consists of a steep beach
of coral sandstone and coral fragments whilst the west coast is low and sandy (Garnett, 1983a).
Climate No data specific to the island are available. Birnie is one of the drier Phoenix Islands,
with an inferred mean annual rainfall of between 600mm and 800mm or less, owing to the high
ground-surface albedo. The prevailing winds are easterly trades (Garnett, 1983a).
Vegetation The vegetation cover is considered to be of international significance (Garnett,
1983b). It is extremely simple and much of the island is covered uniformly by low herbs,
dominated by Portulaca lutea and some Boerhavia albiflora. These occur as pure stands, or in
varying codominant mosaics. The beach, beach crest and lagoon flats have either sparse or no
vegetation cover, whilst the lagoon shoreline has an interrupted strip of uniform Sesuvium
portulacastrum. This also occurs in a number of shallow depressions. Scattered dwarf scrub Sida
fallax and bunch grass, probably Lepturus sp., have been recorded but have since become locally
extinct. There are no trees or shrubs (Garnett, 1983a).
Fauna Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is the only mammal. Six species of seabird breed, but none
in large numbers. Populations of 100 brown booby Sula leucogaster and 100 blue-grey noddy
Procelsterna cerulea are considered to be nationally important, whilst 350-800 masked booby
Sula dactylatra may be internationally important. Other breeding and non-breeding species are
listed in Garnett (1983a). Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) nests on the island. Invertebrates are
poorly studied, but include a mite and two parasitic fly species (Garnett, 1983a).
Cultural Heritage No archaeological remains or artefacts have been found, and the only
evidence to suggest prehistoric visits by Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers is the presence of
Polynesian rat, introduced at an unknown date. The island was discovered by Europeans in 1823
and named after an Australian merchant. Birnie was bonded under the 1856 American Guano
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Kiribati
Act on 8 February 1860, and was formally placed under British protection on 10 July 1889. The
rights to exploit the island passed through a number of commercial concerns in the 19th and early
20th century, although no activities were undertaken. Colonisation by Gilbert and Ellice Islanders
was considered in 1937, but not implemented. Since an unsuccessful attempt to establish coconut
palms in 19339, the island has remained uninhabited, unused and only seldom visited (Garnett,
1983a).
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Few people have ever visited the island. There is no anchorage,
but landings can be made on the sandy west coast in normal easterly weather (Garnett, 1983a).
Scientific Research and Facilities Only limited research has been undertaken and there are no
facilities. A bibliography is given in Garnett (1983a).
Conservation Value The island is valued for its vegetation, supersaline lagoon, bird and turtle
populations.
Conservation Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, based on Kiritimati, has
administrative responsibility for the sanctuary. Current legislation makes no provision for the
protection of habitat although the island particularly requires protection due to extreme ecological
simplicity which confers a natural fragility (Garnett, 1983b). Details about management activities
are not available, although the remoteness and inhospitable nature of the island are its major
source of protection. Garnett (1983b) recommends the erection of multilingual noticeboards
advising visitors, for example long-distance yachtsmen and fishermen from Japanese, Taiwanese
and Korean fleets which are active in the region, of the importance of the island for science and
nature conservation, and of the wildlife laws.
Management Constraints Active law enforcement programmes are impractical, due to the
island’s remoteness (Garnett, 1983b).
Staff No staff are assigned specifically to the sanctuary.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
References
Garnett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1 Description. Unpublished. Pp. 129-138.
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
Date June 1985, revised December 1988
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
KIRITIMATI (CHRISTMAS ISLAND) WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category No category assigned to the wildlife sanctuary as a whole.
Cook Island, Motu Tabu, Ngaon te Taake, North-west Point and Motu Upua closed areas are
Category I (Strict Nature Reserve).
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Kiritimati is located about 285km south-west of Tabuaeran, 670km
north-north-west of Malden Island, 2,500km south of Honolulu and 2,700km north of Tahiti.
Approximately 2°00’N, 157°20’W
Date and History of Establishment 20 December 1960. Christmas Island was gazetted as a
bird sanctuary under the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds Protection
Ordinance. The three principal lagoon islets of Cook Island, Motu Tabu and Motu Upua were
declared reserves with restricted access. Under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance the
entire island was re-gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary on 29 May 1975, with five areas designated
as closed areas.
Area 32,100ha (Cook Island 19ha, Motu Tabu 3.5ha, Ngaontetaake 27ha, Motu Ubua 19-20ha)
Land Tenure State
Altitude From below sea level to 13m
Physical Features Kiritimati has the largest land area of any coral atoll in the world, with an
approximately equal area of saltwater and supersaline lagoons. In common with the other
northern Line Islands, it was formed between the Cretaceous and Eocene divisions of the late
Mesozoic and early Caenozoic periods as part of a line of submarine volcanoes, and consists of
coral and other biogenic formations overlying volcanic rocks. The coral overlay varies from 30m
to 120m in depth. The single, large, flat island is D-shaped, with a stem oriented south-east, and
has a large tidal lagoon, covering 160 sq. km, opening to the north-west. The eastern end of this
lagoon consists of several hundred smaller land-locked lagoons, occupying 168 sq. km,
delimited by causeways and larger tracts of land. The lagoon system is extensive, with
considerable variation in water area, and unique to the Line and Phoenix Group. These tidal and
land-locked lagoons contain hundreds of islets which are critical to the seabird breeding colonies,
the three principal ones being Cook, Motu Tabu and Motu Upua. Extensive intertidal mudflats
also occur. There are substantial areas of fossil reef and rubble scree, as well as beach-rock. The
island reaches 7-13m in height along the north coast of the South-east Peninsula, where there
are dunes. Garnett (1983a) classifies, and briefly describes, 13 different physical units, namely:
seaward reef; seaward beach; beach crest, coastal dunes and boulder rampart; coastal plain;
central ridge and inland dunes; lagoon scarp and lagoon dunes; lagoon flats and beach; and lagoon
reef. Freshwater lenses occur, with salinity varying between 0 and 3,500+ ppm Cl, and with a
water table generally between 0 and 2m depth.
Soil development is poor due to the limited supply of organic matter. Variously described as
entisols, lithosols or regosols, they are composed of more or less chemically unaltered tests of
foraminifera and shell fragments of molluscs, coral and other marine animals. Garnett (1983a)
distinguishes several soil types, principally by fragment size. These include oceanic deposits
comprising coral sands, gravel, rubble and coral rubble in varying textures and locations, and
lagoon deposits, composed of lagoon mud with, and without, hardpan. A reef platform extends
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Kiribati
30m to 120m from the shoreline around the whole island, being widest along northerly coasts.
The seaward margin is characterised by a spur and groove formation which is most strongly
developed on the lee side of the island. Along the windward coast, and especially in the Bay of
Wrecks, there are ridges, covered with red-purple algae, which are emergent at low tide. On the
sheltered eastern side of the main lagoon, the lagoon reef is moderately well developed.
Elsewhere, the high turbidity and rate of sedimentation inhibits coral growth. Patch reefs and
coral heads are found in the western part of the main lagoon where conditions are favourable
(Garnett, 1983a).
Climate Kiritimati lies witnin the equatorial dry zone. Mean annual rainfall is 873mm, varying
widely between a minimum and maximum of 177mm and 2621mm, respectively. Rainfall is
usually heaviest in March and April, and lightest in October and November. The temperature is
constant, ranging diurnally between 24°C and 30°C, with little seasonal variation. The relative
humidity is unfluctuating at about 70%, maintained by constant easterly trade winds which blow
perennially at a mean speed of 14 kph (Garnett, 1983a).
Vegetation The vegetation is generally not vigorous and, due to the island’s extremely remote
position and harsh environment, is low in diversity. Garnett (1983a) lists some 69 species, whilst
Dahl (1986) gives figures of 18-41 native species and 50 introductions. Perry (1980) discusses
the introduction of alien species, most of which arrived in the 20th century. Native vegetation
generally follows a regular pattern from ocean coast to the lagoon, and is closely correlated with
soil type, depth and salinity, factors which are themselves closely correlated. Communities may
be broadly defined as forest, scrub, dwarf scrub, grassland and herb communities. Indigenous
forest is restricted to three small Pisonia grandis groves, attaining 10m, at South-east Point, Motu
Tabu and near North-west Point.
The dominant scrub found over most of the island, on all landform types, is Scaevola taccada,
in either pure stands or with Messerschmidia argentea and Suriana maritima. Lower lagoon flats
are dominated by Suriana, growing to a maximum height of 2m. Messerschmidia is found on
all landform types, but most commonly on the beach ridge, coastal plain and lagoon shores. Sida
fallax, reaching 2m, is abundant on the coastal plain to the south, and on sandy soils elsewhere.
Heliotropum anomalum forms a dwarf scrub on beach ridges and boulder ramparts, mixed with
sparse Portulaca lutea and P. oleracea, and elsewhere. Extensive Sida dwarf scrub, mixed with
Heliotropium, Boerhavia repens, Portulaca, Cassytha filiformis and Lepturus repens, is found
in the South-east Peninsula and southern coastal plains. Lepturus-dominated grasslands cover
large areas of the coastal plains, excluding the South-east Peninsula. A number of other species,
viz. Boerhavia, Portulaca, Cassytha, Tribulus, Heliotropium, scattered clumps and individual
bushes of Messerschmidia and Scaevola also occur, giving the appearance of a savannah. The
principal herbaceous community is dense Sesuviwm pertulacastrum mat which frequently covers
the low-lying, waterlogged lagoon shore soils.
Approximately 52 sq. km in the west have been planted with coconut palm Cocos nucifera (Dahl,
1986). A variety of introduced plants occurs around villages, old nuclear bomb test installations
and other disturbed areas (Garnett, 1983a). A total of 18 species is believed to be indigenous,
and a species list is given in Garnett (1983a). Most formations and some half dozen species are
considered to be of international, or national importance (Garnett, 1983b). Cuscuta campestris
is endemic (Dahl, 1986). Distribution maps are included in Garnett (1983a).
Fauna Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is widespread and abundant, occurring on the mainland
and many of the small islets. Black rat R. rattus has been recorded in the past, but apparently no
longer persists. Small numbers of feral pig occur, although numbers have declined recently due
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
to eradication programmes (Garnett, 1983b). Feral cats are widespread, with a distribution closely
correlated with that of nesting seabirds (Garnett, 1983a).
Thirty-seven bird species, listed in Garnett (1983a), occur, with nineteen breeding. Kiritimati
has the widest variety and some of the largest populations of tropical seabirds anywhere in the
world. However, 11 out of the 18 resident seabird species are restricted to nesting on islets due
to predation by cats. The most noteworthy species, according to Dahl (1986), include sooty tern
Sterna fuscata, which nests in a number of discrete colonies on Cook Island, North-west Point,
Paris Peninsula and at various localities on the South-east Peninsula. The total population was
estimated at 15 million birds in the 1960s. This has since declined to 4-6 million, but remains
the largest known population in the world. An estimated 100,000 pairs of sooty tern nested on
Cook Islet every six months in the past, but since 1982 fewer than 3,000-8,000 adults have been
present each nesting season. Predation by cats and frigate birds has subsequently limited the
reproductive success of this species (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1987). Phoenix petrel Pterodroma
alba breeds only on islets in the main and land-locked lagoons, but the population of 20,000 to
25,000 birds is still the largest known. Approximately one million wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus, the largest population in the Pacific and possibly the world, breed in scattered
colonies in the remoter parts of the mainland and on islets. Black shearwater Puffinus nativitatus
nests only on lagoon islets and numbers 6,000 to 15,000 individuals. Christmas Island warbler
Acrocephalus aequinoctialis has a restricted distribution, being most abundant at the western
end of the island, with a population of approximately 1,000 individuals (Garnett, 1983a). This
species only occurs elsewhere on Tabuaeran (Collar and Andrew, 1988). Internationally
significant populations of a number of other species occur, including white-throated storm petrel
Nesofregetta albigularis, red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda, masked booby Sula
dactylatra, great frigate bird Fregata minor, lesser frigate bird F. ariel, grey-backed tern Sterna
lunata and blue-grey noddy Procelsterna cerulea (Garnett, 1983a), although to a greater or lesser
extent all bird populations have remained relatively low since the 1982-83 ENSO (Schreiber and
Schreiber, 1987) and the populations of most species remain below 1981 levels (E.A. Schreiber,
pers. comm., 1989). Seabird population estimates for 1982-83 and 1984 are given in Schreiber
and Schreiber (1986b). Threatened scarlet-breasted lorikeet Vini kuhlii has been introduced but
remains scarce, and is globally threatened (Collar and Andrew, 1988). Frequently-observed
migrants include golden plover Pluvialis dominica, turnstone Arenaria interpres, bristle-thighed
curlew Numenius tahitiensis (R) and wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus.
A small population of green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) is present, sporadically nesting on beaches
in the Bay of Wrecks and between Poland and Paris villages. Mourning gecko Lepidodactylus
lugubris and snake-eyed skink Ablepharus boutonii are abundant and widespread. The only other
recorded reptile species is stump-toed gecko Gehyra mutilata.
Noteworthy invertebrates include land crab Cardisoma carnifex and land hermit crab Coenobita
perlata, both of which are abundant and widespread. Land crab Geograpsus grayii is also widely
found. Coconut crab Birgus latro (R) is present, occurring infrequently in coconut plantations
near Poland village. Ghost crabs Ocypode spp. are abundant on sandy beaches. Spiny lobster
Panulirus sp. is present on the reef. No detailed studies have been made of the insect fauna,
which is probably impoverished owing to the dry climate and paucity of vegetation (Garnett,
1983a). Plant and animals species lists are given in Garnett (1983a).
Cultural Heritage Archaeological research (Emory, 1934) indicates that Kiritimati was visited
by Polynesians during prehistory, but not settled for any prolonged period. Remains include two
sites which may have been villages, and a number of stone structures. The island was discovered
by Captain James Cook on 24 December 1777, and named Christmas Island following his
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Kiribati
landing the next day. Kiritimati was bonded under the 1856 American Guano Act on 20 June
1858, after which it was sporadically exploited for phosphate. A British claim was made on
17 April 1882, since when the island has been occupied more or less continuously. By 1886,
some 18,000-20,000 coconut palms had been planted, and 200 tons of pear shell exported. Formal
British possession was established on 17 March 1888. A number of commercial concerns were
licensed to exploit the island, with some 70,000 coconut palm planted at the turn of the century,
although only 25% survived due to severe drought. From 1905 to 1912 the island was
uninhabited, but following that, 560,000 coconut were planted by Central Pacific Coconut
Plantation Ltd, with 400,000 surviving. Greater government control was achieved by bringing
the islands into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony in 1919. During World War Two Kiritimati
was used by Allied forces, with up to 2,621 personnel on the island. During this period,
engineering works, such as construction of a 2,100m runway, were undertaken. Following the
war, Gilbert and Ellice Islanders were settled on the island which was being managed as a coconut
plantation. From 1956 to 1958, atmospheric nuclear bomb tests were conducted by the UK 30
miles south of the island, and up to 4,000 servicemen were present. During 1962 US bomb tests
were conducted, and again, several thousand servicemen occupied the island. Military interest
ceased in 1969 (Garnett, 1983a).
Local Human Population The 1983 population numbered some 1,500 people, the great
majority of whom lived in London, Banana and Poland villages in the west. Most residents are
Kiribati government workers and their families. The principal economic activity has been copra
production, although during the 1960s this became less viable due to very low productivity and
high labour and shipping costs. Since 1980 the industry has been under the control of the Ministry
of the Line and Phoenix Islands, and licences are issued to individuals for copra production. This
has been more successful financially. Other recent developments include small-scale vegetable
production and the export of live crayfish, chilled reef and ocean fish. A pilot project to determine
the potential for salt production has been undertaken (Garnett, 1983a, 1983b).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A 48-bed hotel and improved air connections with Honolulu
have enabled the development of small-scale tourism for sport fishing and naturalists. There is
another surfaced airstrip at Aeon Field in the South-east Peninsula. The harbour has a 1.5m
maximum draft access channel into the lagoon and a deep water jetty is proposed. There is an
extensive road system. Specialist wildlife tours consist of six-day guided visits to reserves, reefs
and the South-east Peninsula (Garnett, 1983a, 1983b).
Scientific Research and Facilities Kiritimati has been the subject of numerous studies and
surveys. A 1971 University of Hawaii expedition investigated production of brime shrimp
Artemisia salina; a commercial implementation of the project was abandoned in 1978. A
preliminary assessment of natural resources and development potential was undertaken in 1978
(Floyd, 1978). The University of Hawaii has several projects in the Line Islands, which use
Kiritimati as a shipment and marshalling point; a meteorological observatory and projects on sea
level and water temperature are based on the island. The New Zealand Meteorological Office
maintains a weather station in London (Groves, 1983). A bibliography of studies on the flora,
fauna and past and present human use is given in Garnett (1983a).
Conservation Value Kiritimati is valued principally for the diversity, and rarity, of natural
habitats, native plants and breeding birds, and for the abundance of certain other breeding
birds.
Conservation Management A Wildlife Conservation Unit was established on Kiritimati in
1977. The Unit is represented on the Kiritimati Development Committee and the Local Land
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Planning Board. In addition to blanket wildlife protection under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation
Ordinance, entry into the discrete closed areas is prohibited. These were designated for the
protection of sooty terns. However, as the birds have not used these areas fully an alternative
policy has been implemented. Areas used seasonally by sooty terns have and will continue to be
declared "closed areas" — usually a total of five or six areas each season (K.Teeb’aki, pers. comm.,
1989). Management activities include feral animal eradication (Anon., 1985), flora and fauna
surveys, law enforcement, education programmes and provision of advice to the Government
(Garnett, 1983b). Although the entire island is gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary, several areas are.
in effect, zoned for human activities. Garnett (1983b) recommends that the island as a whole
loses its wildlife sanctuary status, and that a number of specific areas be gazetted, namely: all
islets; central lagoons, North-west Point, Paris Peninsula and South-east Peninsula. Within these
proposed wildlife sanctuaries it is recommended that the following areas be declared closed areas:
Cook Island, Motu Tabu, Motu Ubua, Ngaontetaake, Frigatebird Island; and all sooty tern
colonies. Garnett also proposed a five-year management plan (1983-1987) involving law
enforcement, education and public awareness, surveys and research, advice to government,
control of introduced species and appropriate development of tourism. A grant has been made
available by New Zealand to fund feral cat and pig eradication programmes, which have met
with success, although anti-poaching patrols have been less effective (E.A. Schreiber, pers.
comm., 1989).
Management Constraints Unusual weather conditions were experienced during the abnormal
1982-1983 El Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with a high sea level and very high rainfall
(Groves, 1983). This led directly to 90% mortality and no reproductive success in a number of
seabird species (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1984). Previous ENSOs in 1940-41, 1957-58 and
1963-65 had little apparent effect on bird populations (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1987). Both
numbers and reproductive activity increased in 1983, but recovery was set back by the
1986-1987 ENSO (E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989). Evidence suggests that food supplies
were poor (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1986a), although the relationship between primary
productivity and food availability to birds is not yet understood (Schreiber and Schreiber,
1987). Feral cats and pigs have had a deleterious effect on terrestrial flora and fauna and cat
populations are currently increasing. An increase in fishing activity has led to many
additional vehicles being brought to the island, with consequent ease of access to the seabird
colonies. This has contributed to increased levels of bird poaching particularly in red-tailed
tropic bird, red-footed booby and masked booby colonies. There is little prospect of these
populations recovering to pre-1981 levels whilst both feral cats and poaching are prevalent,
and there may be a possibility of their extirpation (E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989). Only
limited patrolling has been undertaken in recent years. It is not known if the island was
adversely affected by atmospheric nuclear bomb test programmes during 1956-58 and 1962
(Garnett, 1983a).
Staff The Wildlife Unit was established with three full-time and one part-time staff members.
Although the Unit’s activities concentrate on Kiritimati, it is also responsible for other wildlife
sanctuaries in the Republic (Garnett, 1983b).
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
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Kiribati
References
Anon. (1985). Feral animal eradication programme Kiritimati, Kiribati. Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume 2. Collected key issue and case study
papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 276-277.
Collar, N.J. and Andrew, P. (1988). Birds to watch: the ICBP world check-list of threatened
birds. Technical publication No. 8. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge,
UK. 304 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Emory, K.P. (1934). Archaeology of Pacific Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 123.
(Unseen)
Floyd, C.H. (1975). Christmas Island (Gilbert Islands): Physical Planning Report. UNDAT
Report. (Unseen).
Garnett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1: Description. Unpublished. Pp. 2-92.
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
Groves, G.W. (1983). Opportunities for scientific research at Kiritimati Island. Atoll Research
Unit. Technical Report. Tarawa. (Unseen).
Perry, R. (1980). Wildlife Conservation in the Line Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formerly
Gilbert Islands). Environmental Conservation 7: 311-318.
Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1984). Central Pacific seabirds and the El Nifio Southern
Oscillation: 1982 to 1983 perspectives. Science 225: 713-716.
Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1986a). Unusual seabird breeding parameters on Christmas
Island. Climate Diagnostics Bulletin. NOAA/National Weather Service. No 64/4. 1 pp.
Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1986b). Christmas Island (Pacific Ocean) seabirds and
El Nifio oscillation (ENSO): 1984 perspectives. NATO ASI Series, Volume G12.
Pp. 397-408.
Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1987). Tropical seabirds and the El Nifio: 1983 and 1986
perspectives. In: Proceedings of the Jean Delacour/International Foundation for the
Conservation of Birds Symposium on Breeding Birds in Captivity, 12-15 February, North
Hollywood, California, USA. Pp. 352-359.
General notes on Kiritimati closed areas
Cook Islet Narrow 1km long islet at the entrance of the main lagoon harbour. The 19ha of the
islet support a colony of 200,000 sooty tern Sterna fuscata, the only colony of crested tern
Thalasseus bergii in the Line Islands and the largest breeding numbers of white-capped noddy
Anous minutus and white tern Gygis alba on Kiritimati, and smaller populations of brown and
blue-grey noddies Anous stolidus and Procelsterna cerulea.
Motu Tabu This 3.5ha triangular-shaped islet lies within the lagoon and has a small central
wooded area with planted Pisonia grandis. There are large colonies of wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus and Phoenix petrel Pterodroma alba in the open areas. Other breeders include
Christmas Island shearwater Puffinus nativitatis, white-throated storm petrel Nesofregetta
albigularis and white tern Gygis alba.
Ngaontetaake This 27ha islet is situated in the eastern part of the central lagoon and was gazetted
in 1979. It has 300 pairs of red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda and some great frigatebirds
Fregatta minor and red-footed boobies Sula sula.
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Motu Upua This is a 19-20ha islet covered with mixed Messerschmidia, Heliotropium, Suriana
and Scaevola scrub and scattered coconut palms. It supports the largest colonies of Phoenix petrel
Pterodroma alba and Christmas Island shearwater Puffinus nativitatis.
North-west Point This area, declared in 1975 but since degazetted (K. Teeb’aki, pers. comm.,
1989), lies between the main road and the sea, 5-9km north of the village of London. It supports
up to 250,000 sooty tern Sterna fuscata. Cat eradication and egg collection control is being
undertaken.
Date June 1985, updated December 1988, July 1989, February 1990
MALDEN ISLAND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Lies in the central Pacific Ocean, 200km north-north-east of Starbuck
Island and 670km south-south-east of Kiritimati in the Line Islands. Approximately 4°03’S,
155°01"W
Date and History of Establishment 29 May 1975. Gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary and closed
area under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance.
Area 3,930ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Maximum elevation of 8m is attained on the beach crest.
Physical Features Comprises a low, roughly triangular-shaped island, measuring about 8km
from east to west and 6km from north to south. A prominent feature is a series of sand and coral
boulder ridges which forms a circumferential beach crest. The island contains an enclosed and
very saline lagoon covering approximately 13 sq. km, connected to the sea by underground
channels, and with numerous small coral islets. There may be a freshwater lens. The soil is
composed of course coral gravel and sand, and lagoon mud. Soils are finer inland and interspersed
with exposed outcrops of coral rock where phosphate was removed. The fringing reef is about
100m wide and extends 300m-400m at its north-western and south-eastern points (Garnett,
1983a).
Climate Meteorological records were kept from 1890 to October 1919. The mean temperature
was 29.3°C, with a minimum and maximum of 23.8°C and 37.2°C, respectively. Prevailing winds
were easterly trades and severe storms were extremely rare. The mean annual rainfall was
726mm, but varied between 101mm in 1890 and 2394mm during January to October 1919, after
which records ceased. The wettest period was usually between January and May and periods of
drought also occurred (Garnett, 1983a).
Vegetation Dominant vegetation cover is stunted Sida fallax scrub, with low herbs and grasses.
Three or four clumps of Pisonia grandis, historically extensive but reduced through
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Kiribati
indiscriminate felling and introduction of goats in the 19th century, remain in the north-east,
although these may be dying. Parts of the lagoon flat are devoid of vegetation. A total of 16
species has been recorded, of which seven are introductions (Garnett, 1983a).
Fauna The only mammals are feral cats and house mouse Mus musculus, since previously
recorded feral pigs and goats and Polynesian rat Rattus exulans have become locally extinct. The
island has large seabird colonies with 11 species recently recorded as breeding. One species may
breed but two or three species, which formerly bred, are now extinct. A population of 300-3,000
masked booby Sula dactylatra is considered of international importance (Garnett, 1983b). A
number of other populations may be nationally or internationally important, although size
estimates vary greatly. These include 0-2,000 brown booby S. Jeucogaster, 500-5,000 red-footed
booby S. sula, 4,500-7,000 lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel, 10,000-300,000 sooty tern Sterna
fuscata, 200-2,500 grey-backed tern S. unata and 120-200 blue-grey noddy Procesterna cerulea
(Garnett, 1983a).
Two species of lizard, mourning gecko Lepidodactylus lugubris and snake-eyed skink
Ablepharus boutonii, have been recorded. Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) breeds in small
numbers. Hermit crab Ceonobita spp. and a brown libellulid dragonfly have been recorded
(Bloxham, 1925), but there are no records of other invertebrates (Garnett, 1983a).
Cultural Heritage Twenty-one archaeological sites, with a total of over 70 ruined buildings
and other stoneworks, indicate that the island was populated by Polynesians for several
generations. A series of impressive marae (Polynesian temples) is found in the north-west, whilst
other ruins are scattered circumferentially around the entire coast (Emory, 1934, cited in Garnett,
1983a). However, when the islands were discovered by Europeans in 1825, they were deserted.
The island was bonded in 1860 under the 1856 American Guano Act, and heavily exploited for
phosphate from 1860 until 1927. Malden was occupied during 1956-1959 by British servicemen,
in order to monitor the Christmas Island atmospheric nuclear bomb test programme, and was
itself used as a target for some of the larger detonations (Garbett, 1983).
Local Human Population The island has been unpopulated since the departure of British
servicemen in 1962 (Garnett, 1983a).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities An airstrip was constructed for the atomic weapons testing base
in 1958 and was in regular use until July 1979. There is no anchorage, and landing is difficult
and dangerous (Garnett, 1983a).
Scientific Research and Facilities The island was visited by personnel from the Smithsonian
Institution’s Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program on several occasions in the 1960s, by the
Line Islands Expedition in September 1974 and by staff of the Wildlife Conservation Unit on a
roughly annual basis. The US mineral exploration company GEOMAREX surveyed in the island
in 1980 and found substantial gypsum deposits which might be worth exploiting commercially
in the future (Garnett, 1983a).
Conservation Value The island has large seabird colonies with 11 species recently recorded as
breeding.
Conservation Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, located on Kiritimati, has
administrative responsibility for the island. The island is gazetted under the 1975 Wildlife
Conservation Ordinance, which has no provision for the protection of habitat. Nevertheless, the
inhospitable nature and remoteness of the island ensure there is little disturbance. A herd of five
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feral pigs was extirpated by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Party in 1964 (Garnett, 1983a).
A bibliography is given by Garnett (1983a).
Management Constraints Potholes and trenches, dating back to phosphate mining days, mar
the interior of the island. The original vegetation cover has been severely damaged by phosphate
workings, indiscriminate felling and feral animals. There is little, if any, standing freshwater
(Garnett, 1983).
Staff There are no staff permanently assigned to the island.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati
References
Bloxham, A. (1925). Diary of Andrew Bloxham, naturalist of the "Blonde" on her trip from
the Hawaiian Islands from England, 1824-1825. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special
Publication 10.
Emory, K.P. (1934). Archaeology of Pacific Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 123.
(Unseen).
Garnett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1: Description. Unpublished. Pp. 129-138.
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
Date June 1985, updated December 1988, July 1989
McKEAN ISLAND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location This is the most westerly of the Phoenix Group, lying 280km
west-south-west of Kanton Island and 125km north-north-west of Nikumaroro in the central
Pacific Ocean. Approximately 3°35’S, 174°02”W
Date and History of Establishment 21 June 1938. The island was declared a bird sanctuary
under the Gilbert and Ellice Island Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance of 1938. The area
was designated a wildlife sanctuary in 1975 under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance.
Area 57ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 5m on the northern beach crest.
Physical Features Comprises a flat, sand and coral island, approximately circular in shape, with
a diameter of some 800m. The beach is largely composed of reef rock and coral rubble, and rises
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Kiribati
sharply to a circumferential crest, within which the land is concave. The interior basin has been
further depressed by extensive 19th century phosphate workings. There is no information about
soils, but these probably consist of coral sand and rubble, with little humus. There is no standing
surface freshwater, nor any evidence of a freshwater lens. A small, shallow, landlocked and
highly saline lagoon occupies the centre of the island. The depth of the lagoon, which fills the
area of the former phosphate workings, fluctuates with the tide, reaching a maximum depth of
60cm at high water. McKean is surrounded by a fringing reef of between 100m and 200m width;
the landward 30m dries at low water (Garnett, 1983a).
Climate No data specific to the island are available. The inferred mean annual rainfall is 800mm.
The prevailing winds are easterly trades (Garnett, 1983b).
Vegetation Comprises stunted Sida fallax scrub, with low herbs and grasses, and is considered
to be of international conservation importance. Seven species have been recorded in five
vegetation types, although distinctions between them are not always clear. The western part of
the island is covered by an extensive mat of Tribulus cistoides, while inland saline flats support
Sesuvium portulacastrum. Most of the remainder of the island supports a mixture of Portulaca
lutea and Boerhavia albiflora. The highest ground is covered by Digitaria pacifica grass with
scattered mats of Boerhavia and Tribulus on a coarse coral rubble substrate. Stunted Sida fallax
between the two complexes of ruins supports a frigatebird colony. Lepturus pilgerianus is located
mostly on the west coast of the island, mixed with Tribulus cistoides (Garnett, 1983a).
Fauna Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is the only mammal. The island supports 17 breeding
seabird species, with six occurring in internationally important colonies. These comprise 5,000
Audubon’s shearwater Puffinus I’herminieri, 1,000 white-throated storm petrel Nesofregatta
albigularis, 40,000 lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel, one of the largest populations in the world,
23,400 grey-backed tern Sterna lunata, 20,000 brown noddy Anous stolidus and 15,000
blue-grey noddy Procelsterna cerulea, one of the largest colonies in the central Pacific. Breeding,
migrant and visiting bird species are listed by Garnett (1983a). Reptiles are restricted to mourning
geckoes Lepidodactylus lugubris. Detailed information on invertebrates is not available,
although species recorded include hermit crab Coenobita perlata, land crabs, including
Geograpsus grayii and at least 15 insects (Garnett, 1983a).
Cultural Heritage No archaeological evidence has been found to suggest that McKean was
ever settled in prehistoric times. The presence of Polynesian rat may indicate that the island was
visited, or that canoes were wrecked there. The island was discovered by Europeans on 28 May
1794, and bonded under the 1856 American Guano Act on 14 March 1859. Phosphate was
exploited between 1839 and 1870, by which time all reserves were exhausted. A year after
annexation to the United Kingdom in 1936, the island was investigated for colonisation by Gilbert
and Ellice Islanders. However, it was considered too small and dry and was consequently
designated as a bird sanctuary. A scheme to introduce coconut was prevented by the outbreak of
World War Two (Garnett, 1983a).
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The island has seldom been visited, and there is no infrastructure.
There is a reasonably good anchorage off the west coast, and landing is comparatively easy
(Garnett, 1983a).
Scientific Research and Facilities McKean has been visited by the Smithsonian Institution’s
Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program. Bird populations have been surveyed by inter alia
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Sibley and Clapp (1967), King (1973), Crossin (1974) and Nelson (1978). There are no scientific
facilities. A bibliography is given in Garnett (1983a).
Conservation Value The sanctuary is valued for its various habitats, the diversity, rarity and
abundance of various breeding birds, its naturalness and ecological fragility (Garnett, 1983a).
Conservation Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, based on Kiritimati, has
administrative and managerial responsibility for the sanctuary. Current legislation protects
species, but has no provisions for habitat. Information on current management activities is not
available, although the remoteness and inhospitable nature of the island is its main source of
protection. Garnett (1983b) makes a number of general management recommendations for the
Phoenix Islands, including erection of multilingual notice boards advising visitors, for example
long-distance yachtsmen and fishermen from Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean fleets which are
active in the region, of the importance of the island for science and nature conservation, and of
the wildlife laws.
Management Constraints The islands are too remote for any law enforcement or other
conservation activities (Garnett, 1983b).
Staff No staff are assigned specifically to the sanctuary.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
References
Crossin, R.S. (1974). The storm petrels (Hydrobatidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
158: 154-205.
Garnett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1 Description. Unpublished. Pp. 129-138.
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
King, W.B. (1973). Conservation status of birds of central Pacific islands. Wilson Bulletin 85:
89-103.
King, W.B. (1974). Wedge-tailed shearwater (Puffinus pacificus). Smithsonian Contributions to
Zoology 188: 53-95.
Nelson, J.B. (1978). The Sulidae. Oxford University Press for the University of Aberdeen.
1012 pp.
Sibley, F.C. and Clapp, R.B. (1967). The distribution and dispersal of central Pacific lesser frigate
birds Fregata ariel. Ibis 109: 328-337.
Date June 1985
PHOENIX ISLAND (RAWAKI) WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
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Kiribati
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location The island is the most easterly of the Phoenix Islands, lying in the
central Pacific, 74km south-east of Enderbury Island, 90km east of Birnie Island and about
180km south-east of Kanton. The sanctuary includes the entire island. Approximately 3°42’S,
170°43’W
Date and History of Establishment 21 June 1938. Declared a bird sanctuary under the Gilbert
and Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (1938). The island was designated
a wildlife sanctuary in 1975 under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance.
Area 6,500ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 6m on the beach crest.
Physical Features Comprises a small island, measuring about 1.2km along its north-west to
south-east axis, by 0.8km, with a circumferential beach crest. Inland areas slope gently
downwards to a 20ha, landlocked, shallow supersaline lagoon which occupies much of the centre.
There is no surface freshwater and probably no freshwater lens. The steep beach is fringed by a
narrow platform reef, 30m to 100m wide, and on the east coast there are storm ridges of broken
coral (Garnett, 1983a).
Climate No data specific to the islands are available. Phoenix is one of the drier islands in the
Phoenix Group, with an inferred mean annual rainfall of 800mm. Prevailing winds are easterly
trades (Garnett, 1983a).
Vegetation Vegetation patterns are simple, comprising low herbs, grasses and stunted Sida
fallax. These mainly form single species stands, although mixtures of Lepturus pilgerianus and
Sesuvium portulacastrum, and of Boerhavia sp. and Portulaca lutea, also occur. The windward
east coast outer ridge is covered with Lepturus, and the inner ridge with sparse Portulaca and
Boerhavia mixture. The trough between the ridges supports a Boerhavia mat. Inland, pure
Portulaca stands and Portulaca-Boerhavia mixture occur. A broad belt of Sesuvium is found
along the lagoon shore. The leeward west coast ridge is lower and further inland, with Lepturus
forming broad belts from the shore almost to the lagoon, with localised patches of Boerhavia
and Portulaca. A narrow belt of mixed Sesuvium-Lepturus occurs along the lagoon shore. Two
large patches of Sida scrub are located near the north end of the lagoon, with another at the
northern end of the island. Portulaca-Boerhavia mixture is found in the south near the lagoon.
Vegetation patterns vary with climatic conditions, and after droughts Sida and Lepturus die back,
leaving Sesuvium, Portulaca and Boerhavia at a competitive advantage. Triumfetta procumbens
has become locally extinct during this century (Garnett, 1983a).
Fauna European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus was introduced in the 1860s and currently
numbers between 100 and 1,000 individuals. Altogether, 18 seabird species breed, with some of
the largest populations in the central Pacific. Noteworthy populations include 10,000
wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus, 3,000 Christmas shearwater P. nativitatis, 12,000
Audubon’s shearwater P. I’ herminieri, 400 white-throated storm petrel Nesofregatta albigularis,
850 masked booby Sula dactylatra, 16,000-45,000 lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel, 250,000
sooty tern Sterna fuscata and 500 Bulwer’s petrel Bulweria bulwerii, the largest Line and Phoenix
Island population of this species. Other breeding, non-breeding migrants and visitors are listed
in Garnett (1983a). Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) nests in small numbers. Insects are abundant,
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but exhibit low species diversity, and principally comprise Cicadellidae, Mallophaga, Coleoptera
and Diptera (Garnett, 1983a). Plant and animal species lists are given in Garnett (1983a).
Cultural Heritage No prehistoric remains or artefacts have been reported, and there is no
evidence to suggest that the island was ever visited in prehistoric times. European discovery of
the island has been dated to either 1794 or 1815, and it was probably known to whalers who
frequented the region in the early years of the 19th century. Phoenix was bonded under the 1856
American Guano Act in 1859 and 1860. Phosphate extraction commenced in 1862 and continued
until August 1871, by which time reserves had been exhausted. Some 20,000 to 40,000 tonnes
were exported during this period. On 29 June 1889, Phoenix was annexed to Great Britain and
until 1938 various commercial concerns were licensed to develop the island, although no
activities were undertaken. In 1937 it was surveyed for possible colonisation by Gilbert and Ellice
Islanders, although it was considered unsuitable. In 1939, an unsuccessful attempt to establish
coconut was made, regardless of the bird sanctuary status. However, the outbreak of World War
Two prevented any planting (Garnett, 1983a).
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The island is seldom visited and there are no buildings or
infrastructure. There is no anchorage, but landing is comparatively easy in moderate weather
through a small break in the reef on the south-west side, or on the east coast (Garnett, 1983a).
Scientific Research and Facilities The Smithsonian Institution’s Pacific Ocean Biological
Survey Program survey teams visited several times in the 1960s. The Line Islands Expedition
visited Phoenix on 13 October 1974. The joint Royal Society/Smithsonian Institution expeditions
visited in 1973 and 1975. Studies of birds include Crossin (1974), King (1973, 1974) and Nelson
(1978). There are no scientific facilities.
Conservation Value The sanctuary is valued for its various habitats; the diversity, rarity and
abundance of various breeding birds; its naturalness; and ecological fragility (Garnett, 1983a).
Conservation Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, based on Kiritimati, has
administrative and managerial responsibility for the sanctuary. Current legislation protects
species, but makes no provisions for habitat. Information on current management activities is
not available, although the remoteness and inhospitable nature of the island is its main source of
protection. Garnett (1983b) makes a number of general management recommendations for the
Phoenix Islands, including erection of multilingual notice boards advising visitors, for example
long-distance yachtsmen and fishermen from Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean fleets which are
active in the region, of the importance of the island for science and nature conservation, and of
the wildlife laws.
Management Constraints The islands are too remote for any law enforcement or other
conservation activities (Garnett, 1983b).
Staff No staff are assigned specifically to the sanctuary.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
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Kiribati
References
Crossin, R.S. (1974). The storm petrels (Hydrobatidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
158: 154-205.
Gamett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1 Description. Unpublished. Pp. 129-138.
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
King, W.B. (1973). Conservation status of birds of central Pacific islands. Wilson Bulletin 85:
89-103.
King, W.B. (1974). Wedge-tailed shearwater (Puffinus pacificus). Smithsonian Contro. Zool.
188: 53-95.
Nelson, J.B. (1978). The Sulidae. The Oxford University Press for the University of Aberdeen.
1012 pp.
Date June 1985
STARBUCK ISLAND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Remotely located in the central Pacific, 830km south-south-east of
Kiritimati in the Line Islands. The wildlife sanctuary and closed area covers the entire island.
Approximately 5°37’S, 155°56’W
Date and History of Establishment 29 May 1975. Established as a wildlife sanctuary and
closed area under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance.
Area 16,200ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level to 6-8m on a steep bank behind the reef
Physical Features Comprises a low, dry, flat coral island, extending 8.9km from east to west,
and up to 3.5km from north to south. Fringing reefs are about 100m wide, with offshore reefs
located 400-600m south of the southernmost point and 1.4km east of the most easterly point of
the island. The beach is steep and backed by a 6-8m high bank, composed of large, sharp coral
fragments. This rampart drops 2.5m to the flat interior, which is largely composed of broken,
black coral pieces. Several small, shallow and highly saline lagoons are found in the east. There
is no free-standing freshwater, although a lens may form. Soils appear to be mainly coral sand
interspersed among larger areas of coral rag and broken reef rock (Garnett, 1983a).
Climate Starbuck is one of the drier Line Islands with an inferred mean annual rainfall of about
800mm. The prevailing winds are easterly trades (Garnett, 1983a).
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Vegetation With the exception of a limited number of Cordia subcordata bushes, the vegetation
consists entirely of stunted Sida fallax scrub with low herbs and grasses. Five other species have
been tentatively identified: a bunch-grass, probably Lepturus repens; Bidens pilosa; Portulaca
lutea; Tribulus cistoides, and Ipomoea sp. Bidens, Ipomea and Tribulus are all likely to have
been introduced, whilst the other species are probably indigenous (Garbett, 1983a).
Fauna Polynesian rat Rattus exulans and three feral cats were sighted in 1974 and are the only
known mammals (Garbett, 1983a). The island is noted for its avifauna, principally sooty tern
Sterna fuscata, estimated at 1.5 million pairs in 1974 (Garnett, 1983a). A number of other species,
including petrel, booby, frigate bird and noddy also occur, and are listed by Garnett (1983a).
Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) has been recorded but there is no information on its status. There
is no information about the invertebrate fauna (Garnett, 1983a).
Cultural Heritage The presence of Polynesian rat suggests the island may have been visited
during pre-historic time. However, no archaeological remains or artefacts have been recorded
and it is unlikely that it was inhabited by Polynesians. Starbuck was discovered by Europeans
in February 1819 and was named after Captain V Starbuck of the whaler "L’Aigle", who visited
in 1823. The island was bonded under the 1856 American Guano Act and mined for phosphate
from 1870 to 1893 by British interests. The rights to exploit the island passed through a number
of companies until 1920, since when no action has been taken to develop or use the island in any
way. The remains of numerous wooden sailing ships are found on the northern shore, thrown
bodily over the beach rampart by violent storms (Garnett, 1983a).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The island has seldom been visited in recent years. There is no
safe anchorage. A landing has been blasted through the reef on the north coast, but it is difficult
and at times dangerous to negotiate (Garnett, 1983).
Scientific Research and Facilities The Line Islands Expedition visited Starbuck in 1974
(Garnett, 1983a).
Conservation Value The island is valued for its sooty tern colony which is thought to be of
international significance.
Conservation Management The island is the administrative responsibility of the Wildlife
Conservation Unit, Kiritimati. There are at present no management activities on the island. The
elimination of feral cats would considerably enhance the nature conservation value of the island
(Garnett, 1983b).
Management Constraints No information
Staff There are no staff assigned to the island.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
References
Garnett, M.C. (1983a). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1: Description. Unpublished. Pp. 129-138.
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Kiribati
Garnett, M.C. (1983b). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Parts 2 and 3. Policy and Recommendation. Unpublished. 131 pp.
Date June 1985
VOSTOK ISLAND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location The island is situated in the southern Line Islands, 158km north
north-west of Flint Island, 230km west of Caroline Island, 709km south south-east of Malden
Island and 1,490km north-west of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands. The sanctuary comprises the
entire island. Approximately 10°06’S, 152°23’W
Date and History of Establishment 19 June 1979. Gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary under the
1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance.
Area 24ha
Land Tenure State; leased to a private individual in Moorea, French Polynesia (Garnett, 1983)
Altitude Sea level to 5m
Physical Features Comprises a small, triangular, low, sand and coral island with no standing
freshwater and no lagoon. There is no evidence of a freshwater lens, although peat in the forest
is moist at 30cm depth. The beaches are widest (45m) to the south and the west and rise abruptly
at the edge of the forested interior. Sunken reefs are found at the northern, south-western and
south-eastern comers and extend 500m offshore. Outside the forest soils are a mixture of coral
sands and rubble. Inside the Pisonia forest, layers of peat, up to 1m in depth, cover a phosphatic
hardpan (Garnett, 1983; Clapp and Sibley, 1971).
Climate No data specific to the island are available.
Vegetation The vegetation is extremely simple. The central portion of the island is occupied by
a pure stand of Pisonia grandis forest. This has been sheared by prevailing easterly winds and
reaches its maximum density, and a height of 30m, at the edge of the western beach. A small
cover of Boerhavia repens grows on the sandy edges of clearings in the forest, but the most
vigorous growth is in a stand 3m to 10m wide extending from the north to the south-east point
of the island. The low-growing succulent herb Sesuvium portulacastrum may be present (Clapp
and Sibley, 1971).
Fauna Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is abundant and apparently feeds largely on leaves and
stems. Eight seabird species breed in small numbers, although population estimates vary
considerably. The approximately 400 masked booby Sula dactylatra, 3,000 red-footed booby
Sula sula and 4,500 great frigatebird Fregata minor are considered to be of national importance
(Garnett, 1983). Other breeding species include brown booby S. leucogaster, lesser frigate bird
F. ariel, brown noddy Anous stolidus, black noddy A. minutus and white tern Gygis alba.
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Non-resident golden plover Pluvialis dominica, bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis (R),
wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus and sooty tern Sterna fuscata have been recorded. The
only terrestrial reptile recorded is azure-tailed skink Emoia cyanura. Green turtle Chelonia mydas
(E) has been seen offshore, but there is no record of nesting. Terrestrial invertebrates are
represented solely by a nationally important population of coconut crab Birgus latro (R).
Cultural Heritage There are no known archaeological sites, although the presence of rats
suggests that Polynesians may have visited the island in pre-historic times. The island was first
sighted by Europeans on 3 August 1820, and bonded under the 1856 American Guano Act in
1860. A British claim was made in 1873, although it is unlikely that phosphate deposits were
ever worked. A cursory, and unsuccessful, attempt was made in 1922 to establish a coconut
plantation. No use has been made of the island since (Garnett, 1983).
Local Human Population Uninhabited (Perry, 1980)
Visitors and Visitor Facilities With the exception of scientists, there are no visitors. There is
no anchorage but landings can be made in calm weather through a break in the reef at its
southwestern point (Garnett, 1983).
Scientific Research and Facilities Plant specimens were collected on 22 March 1935 for the
Berenice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. More recently, Vostok has been visited by the
Smithsonian Institution’s Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program on 15-16 June 1965, the
Line Islands Expedition on 7 September 1974 and by Wildlife Conservation Unit staff on 11
November 1977. There are no facilities (Garnett, 1983).
Conservation Value Vostok is valued as the least disturbed of the Line Islands, and for its
natural vegetation.
Conservation Management The Wildlife Conservation Unit, Kiritimati, has administrative
responsibility for the island. There are no management activities, but the island is protected by
its remoteness and inhospitable nature (Garnett, 1983).
Management Constraints No information
Staff No staff are specifically assigned to Vostok.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Wildlife Conservation Unit, Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Kiritimati
References
Clapp, R.B. and Sibley, F.S. (1971). The vascular flora and terrestrial vertebrates of Vostok
Island, South-central Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 144: 1-9.
Garnett, M.C. (1983). A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix
Islands. Part 1. Description. Unpublished. Pp. 164-172.
Perry, R. (1980). Wildlife conservation in the Line Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formerly Gilbert
Islands). Environmental Conservation 7: 311-318.
Date June 1985
118
REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS
Area 181 sq. km
Population 40,609 (July 1988) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Since October 1986 the Marshall Islands have been a sovereign state in
free association with the United States which remains responsible for defence and provides
financial support. A number of Trust Territory regulations remain in force, but will be revised
in due course and cover topics such as water supply, pesticides and sewage disposal. The Trust
Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Public Law 6.55 of 1975), which allowed for acquisition
of land or water for the purpose of conserving threatened species, is no longer applicable.
US regulations still apply at the Kwajalein Missile Range and other areas, and Kwajalein is likely
to experience considerable development pressure due to activities relating to the Strategic
Defence Initiative. Other US legislation relevant to the Trust Territories includes the National
Environmental Protection Act, enacted by the Nitijela (Parliament) on 19 December 1984. This
Act includes many Trust Territory regulations which are under review such that the act will
address the needs of the Marshall Islands in a more specific manner (SPREP, 1989). The National
Environmental Protection Act, along with the Coastal Conservation Act (1988), charges the
Marshall Islands Environmental Protection Authority with responsibility to, inter alia,
"preserve and improve the quality of the environment". Amongst other measures the Act makes
provision for the preservation of important historical, cultural and natural aspects of the nation’s
heritage.
There is currently no protected areas legislation, although most other environmental issues are
quite well covered by existing legislation. Protected areas established prior to independence are
no longer recognised. Thus, two reserves, Bokaak (Taongi) and Bikar, set up by Order of the
District Administrator during the 1950s, are not recognised by the government nor by the Irooj
Laplap (paramount chief of the Ratak Chain). At present (1990) it is not clear whether protected
areas legislation will take the form of additional regulations within the National Environmental
Protection Act, or be part of an entirely new Conservation Act. Thomas et al. (1989) present a
suggested outline of legislation which would enable the establishment of a legal and
administrative framework for the coordinated development and implementation of policies and
programmes for nature conservation and protected areas in the Marshall Islands. Virtually all
land is held in traditional ownership and any legislation must make provision for strong
landowner involvement in protected area management.
International Activities The Marshall Islands are not party to the three major international
conventions concemed with the protection of nature, namely the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Unesco
Man and Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed and was ratified on 4 May 1987. The Convention
entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate
measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna
through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an
adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as
this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most
likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Administration and Management Until independence, this role would have been the
responsibility of the Chief Conservationist for the Trust Territory. The Director of Coast
Conservation, who may be the General Manager of the Environmental Protection Authority, is
responsible for submitting a comprehensive Coastal Zone Management Plan, and permits for
development activities consistent with that plan. The Environmental Protection Authority is an
autonomous body established under the provisions of the 1984 National Environmental
Protection Act, with a broad remit in environmental protection and management, including,
potentially, the protection of natural sites. The General Manager heads a staff of ten, including
a full-time Public Education Officer, two Environmental Specialists, a Consultant to the General
Manager and two US Department of the Interior assisted positions (Director of Water Quality
Monitoring and Legal Counsel) (SPREP, 1989). Thomas et al. (1989) propose a three-fold
administrative structure comprising an ad hoc National Conservation Service, local Atoll
Conservation Authorities and a Conservation Service within the Ministry of Resources and
Development or the Environmental Protection Authority.
Systems Reviews The Marshall Islands are the easternmost island group of Micronesia,
comprising two island chains, Ralik (18 atolls) and Ratak (15 atolls), between 8°-12°N and
162°-172°E. Small remnants of atoll/beach forest (mostly comprising pan-Pacific species) occur
on some of the northern atolls, for example Wotho, Ujae, and some of the islets of Kwajalein.
Small areas of mangrove forest are found on Jaluit, Ailinglaplap and Mejit (Dahl, 1980).
Vegetation on almost all the Marshall Islands has been extensively modified; most atolls have
coconut and breadfruit plantations. Fosberg (1973) provides an account of the condition and
status of the forests and brief summaries for each of the islands are given by Dahl (1986) and
Douglas (1969). There have been few descriptions of the coral reefs, but in general windward
ocean reef slopes have submarine terraces and often descend gradually, in contrast to leeward
ocean reef slopes which descend nearly vertically. Detailed accounts for Bikini, Kawajalein,
Enewetak, Majuro and Amo are given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
The Marshall Islands have abundant marine resources and the potential for commercial fisheries
and mariculture is high. Copra production could be developed further. There may be some
important mineral resources, including deep sea cobalt-rich manganese crust deposits and
possibly some phosphate rock deposits in the lagoon. However, the potential for developing
mineral resources is either unknown or not economically feasible at present. Consequently, the
major options for economic development appear to lie in increased use of living marine resources,
coastal tourism, mariculture and enhanced low-input agriculture. Most of the atolls and individual
islands are inhabited, and potable water is available on the southern islands but scarce in the
northern islands. Only six atolls and one island are currently unoccupied, namely: Ailinginae,
Bikar, Bikini, Erikub, Rongerik, Taka and Taongi Atolls, and Jemo Island (L.S. Hamilton,
pers. comm., 1989).
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Marshall Islands
Bikini and Enewetak were used as atomic weapon test sites by the USA from 1946 to the 1960s.
The full extent of the disruption to the atoll ecosystems has not been fully documented or
evaluated. The 1954 Bravo test, the first and largest thermonuclear explosion by the US, spread
fallout to several of the northern Marshall atolls and caused inestimable damage and social
disruption to many reef and island communities (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The potentially most
threatening environmental hazard is that posed by increasing sea-levels due to global warming.
Threats to freshwater supplies, land loss and episodic destruction through hurricanes may make
the country uninhabitable if worst case scenarios are realised (Pernetta, 1988).
The Marshall Islands were included in a review of the protected areas systems of Oceania (Dahl,
1986), which indicated a need to reinstate the protected status of Taongi and Bikar as well as
gazetting protected areas for the conservation of birds, remaining natural vegetation and at least
one major coral reef. A more recent and more detailed review of the biological diversity of the
northern atolls and their potential as protected areas (Thomas et al., 1989) also confirms the
significance of Taongi and Bikar and identifies sites of special conservation significance,
especially for seabird protection. The survey, a cooperative venture, indicates a willingness on
the behalf of the government to contemplate the establishment of protected areas.
Following independence there has been a strong desire to establish the economic foundation
for the future prosperity of the nation, indicating a need for careful natural resource management.
Neither the legislation, nor the policy, on protected areas was clear while the country was a
part of the Trust Territory, and this is one reason why so few protected areas were actually
established. This is largely because the United States, while administering the Territory did not
own property, and hence had no direct jurisdiction over designation of protected areas. However,
there is a strong possibility that a protected areas system will be implemented in the near future
(L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989).
Addresses
Ministry of Resources and Development, Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands, RMI 96960
Environmental Protection Authority, PO Box 1322, Majuro, RMI 96960
References
Douglas, G. (1969). Check list of Pacific Oceanic islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. SPC/TUCN Technical
Paper No 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1973) On present condition and conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific
Science Association, Planned Utilisation of Lowland Tropical Forests. Proceedings of the
Pacific Science Standing Committee Symposium, Bogor, Indonesia, August 1971. Pp.
165-171.
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for
countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the
implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October.
Pp. 1-11.
SPREP (1989). Republic of the Marshall Islands. Paper presented at the Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. 7 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Thomas, P.E.J., Fosberg, F.R., Hamilton, L.S., Herbst, D.R., Juvik, J.O., Maragos, J.E.,
Naughton, J.J. and Streck, C.J. (1989). Report on the Northern Marshall Islands natural
diversity and protected areas survey: 7-24 September 1988. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia and East-West Center, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 133 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map? Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Unclassified
1 Bikar Atoll* Unprotected 5,631
eh Bokaak (Taongi) Atoll* Unprotected 10,697
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations are shown in the accompanying map.
122
Marshall Islands
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Protected Areas of the Republic of the Marshall Islands
123
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
BIKAR ATOLL
IUCN Management Category Unprotected
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Bikar is the second most northern atoll of the Marshall Islands, lying
some 320km south of Taongi. 12°10’-12°19’N, 170°04’-170°08’E
Date and History of Establishment Established in 1958, by order of the District Administrator
of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands administration, but no longer recognised since
independence in October 1986. It is expected that the atoll will be restored to its protected status
in the near future (L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989).
Area Lagoon area: 5,631ha; dry land: 53ha
Land Tenure Traditionally under the control of the Irooj Laplap (paramount chief of the
northern Ratak chain)
Altitude 0-6m
Physical Features The atoll is oval, or diamond, in shape, 11-13km long, 6.5-8km wide, with
its long axis oriented north/south and with a reef morphology very similar to that of Taongi. The
reef is almost fully circumferential and is broken only by one narrow forked passage on the
western side. There are five distinct islets, although with the inclusion of exposed reef areas at
low tide, seven or eight can be identified. The largest islet, Bikar, is oval-shaped with a large
expanse of sand and beach on the northern end and extensive reef flats to the south and south-west.
The centre of the islet is relatively high at 4.5-6m. Jabwelo and Almani, the second and third
largest islets, respectively, are separated only by a narrow channel at low tide and have more
exposed aspects with extensive reef flats on their eastern shores. Jaboero, the smallest islet, is a
simple sand/gravel cay of only 2-3m elevation. A feature of the soils on the islets is the presence
of a thick layer of raw-humus over phosphate hard pan, characteristic of the Jemo soil series
which builds up under Pisonia forest. The narrow channel makes access very difficult and at
times hazardous, especially at ebb tide, when the outflowing current becomes very strong and
lagoon water level is 0.5m higher than the ocean. The lagoon is relatively shallow with fine
bottom sediments and the occasional coral head (Thomas et al., 1989).
Climate Although moderately dry, Bikar receives more rainfall than Taongi, which has a mean
annual rainfall of approximately 1100mm. More specific details are not available.
Vegetation Biogeographically, the atoll is linked to the islands of the Radak chain to the south
rather than the dryer Taongi to the north. Previously only nine species of plants were recorded
from the atoll (Fosberg, 1988), namely Pandanus tectorius, Lepturus repens, Cocos nucifera,
Boerhavia repens, Pisonia grandis, Portulaca lutea, Triumfetta procumbens, Tournefortia
argentea and Scaevola sericea. All except Pandanus tectorius were observed during the 1988
survey, with Triumfetta being very rare. Bikar is recorded as having dense, healthy Pisonia forests
covering much of its interior. However, the survey revealed that the forests were devastated by
a cyclone some time since 1978 when they appeared still intact in aerial photos. The Pisonia
forest included trees 18m tall surrounded by a narrow zone of Tournefortia. Few of the downed
Pisonia trees or their limbs have rooted, and most are dead or partially decayed. Tournefortia is
invading the devastated areas and young trees 2m tall are scattered throughout. Several of the
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Marshall Islands
mixed-age Cocos trees planted on the north side of the islet were also uprooted. Little ground
cover persists on Bikar and even Portulaca, Lepturus and Boerhavia are uncommon (Thomas
et al., 1989). On Jabwelo, an estimated 80-90% of the Pisonia forest was devastated with many
fallen trees littering the centre of the islet. Completely open, it had a dense growth of Boerhavia
covering or growing around the rotting fallen logs. Some Pisonia remained on the north-eastern
(ocean) side where it was protected by a narrow fringe of Tournefortia. A few isolated Pisonia
trees remained, nearly all along the margin of the forest. A dense pure stand of Portulaca, ringed
by a dense growth of Lepturus, covered the large sand apron to the south of the islet (Thomas
et al., 1989). An estimated 60%-70% of the Pisonia forest on Almani Islet was destroyed. Some
large trees (12m-17m tall) remained, but little regeneration of the forest is taking place.
Tournefortia shrubs were growing in the open devastated areas (Thomas et al., 1989). Jaboero
Islet, the smallest, supports only Portulaca lutea. There is no vegetation on the small sand cay
to the north-west.
Although the vegetation of Bikar lacks the number of distinct semi-arid associations found on
Taongi and has lost substantial ecosystem biomass with the recent loss of mature Pisonia grandis
forest, it is still, by Pacific atoll standards, relatively undisturbed by invasive exotics. The
destruction of the Pisonia forest (doubtless a natural periodic event), and its subsequent
regeneration or replacement by other species, is of considerable scientific interest and should be
the subject of further study (Thomas et al., 1989).
Fauna Mammals are restricted to Polynesian rat Rattus exulans, which is common on Bikar and
Jabwelo. Twenty-three species of birds are listed by Amerson (1969), of which 19 were observed
during a survey in September 1988. Previous observers had sighted large numbers of great frigate
bird Fregata minor and red-footed booby Sula sp. on all three main islets and these birds are the
main large nesting species on the atoll. Although abundant, the numbers present appear to be
less than those recorded previously, perhaps due to the destruction of the Pisonia forests.
Red-tailed tropic bird Phaeton rubricauda was seen in flocks of 20+ on Bikar and Jabwelo and
in smaller numbers on Almani. However, white-tailed tropic bird Phaethon lepturus, recorded
as being present in large numbers in April and May of 1964 and 1967 (1,000+), was not common,
with only three birds being observed. Masked booby Sula dactylatra was present on all islets,
but notcommon. Brown booby Sula leucogaster was common but in considerably fewer numbers
than recorded in 1964 or 1967. Of the smaller resident breeding birds, white tern Gygis alba was
the most common, numbering in the thousands for the atoll. Brown noddy Anous stolidus was
also abundant on the three main islands, with perhaps 1,000 for the atoll. The numbers of these
species were in keeping with those observed in 1967 (Amerson, 1969). In past surveys, very
large numbers of sooty tern Sterna fuscata were observed in rookeries on Jabwelo (35,000 in
1967) and Almani (17,000 in 1967), but these numbers have declined greatly and only one small
rookery (500-800 birds) was observed in 1988 on the sand apron at the south-west end of the
island, with none sighted on Almani. Migrants common to these islands include ruddy turnstone
Arenaria interpres, wandering tattler Hetreroscelus incanus, bristle-thighed curlew Numenius
tahitiensis (R), lesser golden plover Pluvialis dominica and Pacific reef heron Egretta sacra, but
these are present only in small numbers. The most significant feature of Bikar’s fauna is the
relative abundance of green sea turtle Chelonia mydas (E). Over 264 sets of nesting tracks were
observed in 1988 around the perimeters of Bikar (176), Jabwelo (74), Almani (14), together with
numerous new and old nest sites. The coral fauna is generally depauperate and shows signs of
frequent storm damage. Although the corals are not considered unusual for this habitat, it is
interesting to note that Bikar contains several genera not reported for Taongi, providing further
evidence of the biogeographical isolation between these atolls. Three marine sites are considered
to have exceptional features worthy of protection. The diversity of fish is much greater than
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Taongi. Lutjanus bohar, L. gibbus, leopard groupers, humphead parrot fish Bolmetapan
muricatus are present at Bikar but all are absent at Taongi. These species indicate a faunal break,
at least in fish fauna, between Taongi and the rest of the Marshall Islands. Although gastropod
molluscs are uncommon, small bivalves, including black-lipped pearl oyster Pinctada
margaritifera (CT), are fairly common. No giant clams were found but smaller clam species
were very abundant, particularly Hippopus (1) and Tridacna maxima (K), and top shell Trochus
is found. No marine mammals are evident in the vicinity of the lagoon (Thomas et al., 1989).
Cultural Heritage No archaeological remains have been identified (Thomas et al., 1989). The
wreck of the Noho Maru No. 11 Japanese fishing boat lies in the north fork of the reef passage.
Local Human Population Although occasionally visited by the Marshallese, there is no resident
human population and little possibility of intensive use of Bikar because of the lack of water and
the susceptibility of the atoll to cyclone and storm disturbance (Thomas et al., 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None (L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989)
Scientific Research and Facilities The biogeographical importance of Bikar is revealed in its
marine environment, which was studied for the first time in September 1988 (Thomas et al.,
1989).
Conservation Value Turtle nesting activity at Bikar Atoll is apparently much greater than on
any atoll in the Marshall Islands surveyed, clearly justifying its protection solely on these
grounds. Bikar is also a bird rookery of considerable importance, ranking second only to Taongi
in terms of species diversity and abundance and thus complements Taongi as an undisturbed
breeding refuge for sea birds (Thomas et al., 1989).
Conservation Management As with Taongi, the natural diversity of Bikar Atoll, in terms of
species numbers, is relatively low in comparison with other atolls of the Marshall Islands. Bikar
has the rare distinction of a virtually undisturbed, pristine natural environment, due mainly to its
isolation and hazardous access. These factors, together with its inhospitable climate and the
frequency of tropical storms and cyclones, render it unsuitable for human occupation or
development and has tended to ensure the protection of its natural diversity over the years. The
protection of Bikar as a national preserve would complement the diversity of species and habitat
proposed for protection at Taongi, and would ensure that a significant proportion of the range of
habitats and natural diversity represented in the northern Marshall Islands was under the same
category of protection.
It has been recommended that: Bikar Atoll and its surrounding ocean waters be designated a
national preservation area; all visitation be prohibited; the introduction of exotic flora and fauna
be prevented; fishing boats, yachts and other unauthorised vessels be expressly excluded;
dredging or enlarging of the existing channel be prohibited; special consideration be given to the
conservation of green turtle; the recovery of the Pisonia grandis forests on Bikar, Jabwelo and
Almani islets be monitored; and that, in the longer term and following establishment of the
preservation area, consideration be given to its nomination, together with Taongi, as a World
Heritage Site under the Unesco World Heritage Convention (Thomas et al., 1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget None
126
Marshall Islands
Local Addresses No information
References
Amerson, A.B. (1969). Ornithology of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin
127. 348 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1988). A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Report prepared
- for the East West Center/MacArthur Foundation/SPREP Northern Marshall Islands natural
diversity and protected area survey. East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. Unpublished.
(Unseen).
Thomas, P.E.J., Fosberg, F.R., Hamilton, L.S., Herbst, D.R., Juvik, J.O., Maragos, J.E.,
Naughton, J.J. and Streck, C.F. (1989). Report on the Northern Marshall Islands natural
diversity and protected areas survey: 7-24 September 1988. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia and East-West Center, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 133 pp.
Date November 1989, updated February 1990
BOKAAK (TAONGD ATOLL
IUCN Management Category Unprotected
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location The most northerly of the Marshall Islands, approximately 240km
north-north-west of Bikar Atoll, its nearest neighbour in the Radak chain, in the western Pacific
Ocean. 168°53’-169°01’E, 14°32’-14°43’N
Date and History of Establishment Originally established in the 1960s under the Trust
Territory of the Pacific administration. This designation has not been recognised since the
creation of the Republic in 1986 and the atoll is not currently a legally constituted protected area,
although its reinstatement has been recommended (L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989).
Area 10,697ha; total dry land area 376ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude Sea level to 6m
Physical Features The atoll is roughly crescent-shaped, measuring about 18km by 9km, and
oriented in a north-south direction. The convex side to the east extends for approximately 34km,
while the concave side to the west is about 22km long. The atoll reef is unbroken except for a
20m-wide channel in the west. Ten islets lie on the southern part of the eastern reef. At low tide
several of the smaller islets join with the larger adjacent islets. Sibylla is the largest, measuring
approximately 7.2km in length and up to 305m in width. Kamwome Islet to the north-east of
Sibylla is the second largest, while Taongi (Pokak), after which the atoll is named, lies to the
south of Sibylla. High boulder ridges and sand ridges indicate a history of severe storms and are
a feature of the islets. The northern two-thirds of Sibylla is backed by a very large boulder ridge
up to 6m high. Large boulders are also scattered inland, carried by storm waves. The seaward
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
sides of most of the islets have two, or more, concentrically parallel boulder and cobble ridges.
Inland on the wider islets are sand and rubble flats, while back from the lagoon sides are low
sand and gravel ridges. On both eastward and lagoon sides are stretches of exposed rock platform
comprising coral conglomerate. Soils are mostly very immature, generally belonging to the
Shioya Series, and characterised by a mixture of coarser coral sand and gravel of various textures
with very little humus accumulation. Large areas of fine sand show little development beyond
the stage of unaltered coral sand. The lagoon is shallow, probably not exceeding 30m depth, and
has many coral heads and patch reefs, some reaching the surface. The lagoon water level is up
to 1m higher than the surrounding ocean due to an influx of wind-driven waters over the
windward ocean reef and the presence of only one narrow reef passage on the leeward side. Water
cascades over the coral-covered rim and flats of the sloping leeward reef. A massive algal ridge
lines the outer edge of the windward reef, while the south and west reefs are coral-covered narrow
flats where landings can be made in quiet weather. A very small algal rim, 10-15cm high, on
lagoon shores of the westernmost islets, on east-facing lagoon reef-fronts and on the windward
edges of coral patches in the lagoon, may be a feature unique to Taongi. This rim is maintained
by the constant flow of water over the reef flat at virtually all stages of the tide (Thomas et al.,
1989).
Climate Taongi is the driest of the Marshall Islands atolls, having a semi-arid character
(Thomas et al., 1989). Mean annual temperature is approximately 28°C, mean annual rainfall
approximately 1100mm and prevailing winds are north to north-easterlies (Fosberg, 1955a,
1955b).
Vegetation Taongi supports just nine plant species, all native to the Marshall Islands and is
entirely undisturbed by exotics. Six vegetation types occur, each dominated by a different species
and in a variety of combinations. The most characteristic formation is a low, sparse scrub forest
of Tournefortia argentea, 2-6m tall, with occasional taller trees. The understorey typically
comprises Scaevola sericea, or sparse Lepturus gasparricensis, L. repens, Portulaca lutea, Sida
fallax or Boerhavia repens, the latter being more abundant on broken coral rubble substrate. A
small stand of Pisonia grandis is found on Kamwome Islet and another very small stand on
Sibylla. In 1988 the larger stand was found to contain many dead individuals and a dense stand
of L. repens was forming the ground cover. Pure stands of very dense Scaevola sericea shrubland,
sometimes with Tournefortia trees, are predominant and cover 50-75% of southern, and nearly
100% of north-eastern Sibylla. The other woody type is a lower stature, more open Sida fallax
shrubland, 0.5-1.0m high. This may occur in practically pure stands but more often includes
scattered Tournefortia trees. Other associated species include Lepturus, Portulaca or Boerhavia
in any combinations. Extensive tracts are found on sandy beaches, usually on the lagoon side of
the broader islets, and is the dominant formation on Sibylla. Sida often grades into a bunch-grass
savanna with one or more species of Lepturus. The Tournefortia, Scaevola, Sida dominated
shrublands and the sandy bunchgrass savanna (Lepturus spp.) represent the finest examples of
such vegetation in the Marshalls and probably the entire Pacific region. The final vegetation type
is a pioneer community of Portulaca lutea, existing in pure stands on the lagoon side, on rubble
and even on pure broken coral, and elsewhere may form a sparse ground cover under Sida shrub
and Tournefortia forest. The vegetation of the shallow edges of the lagoon is sparse nodular
lithothamnion, encrusting fragments of coral, shell etc., and patches of Caulerpa. In the passages,
also, Caulerpa, Lithothamnion and Turbinaria occur (Thomas et al., 1989).
Fauna The atoll supports an abundant seabird and shorebird fauna, with up to 26 species
present (Amerson, 1969). Species confirmed as breeding during 1988 included brown booby
Sula leucogaster, red footed booby S. sula, great frigate bird Fregata minor, red-tailed tropic
128
Marshall Islands
bird Phaethon rubricauda, sooty tern Sterna fuscata, white tern Gygis alba, brown noddy Anous
stolidus, and possibly reef heron Egretta sacra. Migratory birds present during 1988 included
bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis (R), turnstone Arenaria interpres, Heteroscelus
incanus, Asiatic golden plover Pluvialis dominica and Crocethia alba. In total, 20 species were
recorded and birds were present in the greatest densities on the three islets to the north of Sibylla:
North (Kita), Kamwome and an unnamed islet. Taongi is the only known breeding ground of
Christmas Island shearwater Puffinus nativitatus and possibly Bulwer’s petrel Bulweria bulwerii.
Other terrestrial fauna includes Polynesian rat Rattus exulans on Sibylla but the more aggressive
R. rattus appears to be absent. A small lizard Cryptoblepharus boutonii poecilopleurus and large
hermit crabs Coenobita perlata are common. The 1988 survey confirmed the absence of marine
turtles noted in the 1950s, both on land and in surrounding waters. Smaller clam species are very
abundant, particularly Tridacna maxima (K), T. squamosa (1), Hippopus (1), but giant clam
T. gigas (V) was entirely absent. Gastropod molluscs (cowries, cones, lambis etc) were generally
lacking although smaller bivalves were present. The very abundant reef fish population is
dominated by Lethrinids, Scarids and Lutjanus fulvus and is relatively low in diversity. Other
noteworthy species included moray eel Gymnothorax javanicus and grey reef shark Carcarhinus
amblyrhyachos. The coral fauna is healthy, but generally depauperate and of low diversity,
possibly due to the atoll’s extreme isolation. Approximately 100 coral species in the families
Acroporidae, Astrocoeniidae, Pocilloporidae, Poritidae, Siderastreidae, A gariciidae, Fungiidae,
Mussidae, Merulinidae, Faviidae, Helioporidae, Milleporidae, Tubiproidae, Dendrophyllidae
and Stylasteridae, and two soft coral species, are present; a species list is given in Thomas et al.
(1989).
Cultural Heritage The atoll is traditionally used for hunting and gathering, particularly
sea birds, controlled by the Irooj Laplap (paramount chief of the northern Ratak chain). There
appear to be no traditional Marshallese artefacts present. Historic remains include an abandoned
camp/homestead, several wrecked ships and the remnant of a former World War Two Japanese
communication outpost (Thomas et al., 1989).
Local Human Population The atoll has never been inhabited and the harsh, desiccating climate,
lack of significant sources of potable water and the poverty of the soils indicate that the atoll will
probably remain uninhabited (Thomas et al., 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None. The potential for tourist development is severely limited
by the dangerous boat passage and lack of anchorage (Thomas et al. , 1989)
Scientific Research and Facilities The atoll has been surveyed a number of times in the past
(Amerson, 1969; Fosberg, 1955a, 1955b, 1957, 1965) and more recently (Thomas et al., 1989).
An historical account of ornithological work is given in Amerson (1969).
Conservation Value The principal values of the atoll are the entirely natural vegetation,
abundance of birds, unique reef, shoreline and water circulation characteristics, its
biogeographical significance and its importance as a resource sanctuary or gene pool (Thomas
et al., 1989).
Conservation Management There is currently no management, although the atoll is protected
by its remoteness from human populations. Despite this, it has been recommended that the
Republic reinstates its protected area status, possibly as a national preservation area, and
considers nomination of the atoll for inscription on the Unesco World Heritage List
(L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989). Further specific management recommendations included
in Thomas et al. (1989) cover prohibition of most visitation, control of introduced species,
129
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
opposition to inappropriate development and the disposal of unexploded munitions abandoned
after World War Two.
Management Constraints There was a proposal to dump 25 million tons of unspecified waste
from the mainland US into the lagoon and to build a town, resort and golf course on the resulting
landfill (Fosberg, 1989; Thomas et al., 1989). However, this project has subsequently been
cancelled (J. Thorsell, pers. comm., 1991).
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses No information
References
Amerson, A.B. (1969). Ornithology of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin
127. 348 pp.
Fosberg. F.R. (1955a). Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Atoll Research
Bulletin 38. 37 pp
Fosberg. F.R. (1955b). Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Atoll Research
Bulletin 39. 22 pp
Fosberg, F.R. (1957). Description and occurrence of atoll phosphate rock. American Journal of
Science 255: 584-592.
Fosberg, F.R (1965). Northern Marshall Islands land biota: birds. Atoll Research Bulletin 114.
35 pp
Fosberg, F.R. (1989). Garbage dump in the Marshall Islands? Environmental Conservation
16: 79-79.
Thomas, P.E.J., Fosberg, F.R., Hamilton, L.S., Herbst, D.R., Juvik, J.O., Maragos, J.E.,
Naughton, J.J. and Streck, C.F. (1989). Report on the Northern Marshall Islands natural
diversity and protected areas survey: 7-24 September 1988. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia and East-West Center, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 133 pp.
Date November 1989, updated February 1990
130
REPUBLIC OF NAURU
Area 20.7 sq. km
Population 8,100 (1983) (Paxton, 1989) Natural increase: No information
GNP US$ 9,091 per capita
Policy and Legislation Information on policies is not available. There is no protected areas
legislation.
International Activities Nauru is not yet party to any of the international conventions or
programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Nauru is party to the South Pacific Regional Enviroenment Programme (SPREP), and the 1986
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (15 April 1987) but not yet ratified. The
Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all
appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora
and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to
have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open
ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation
of marine species.
Administration and Management Not applicable
Systems Reviews Nauru is a single raised coral island in the west-central Pacific Ocean located
at 0°32’S, 166°56’E. The highest point is 71m, surrounded by a terrace and fringing reef. The
plateau is largely composed of phosphate rock and is encircled by cliffs which give way toa flat,
fertile coastal belt, 90-270m wide. The soil is an a mixture of sand and fine corals, which with
an irregular rainfall, restricts cultivation of the coastal belt (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Vegetation comprises mixed plateau forest, dominated by Calophyllum, a few remaining areas
of atoll forest, with Pandanus and Cocos (Douglas, 1969) and just two hectares of mangroves
(Dahl, 1986). The vegetation in the interior has been greatly modified by phosphate mining
although the extent to which vegetation has re-established on the worked-out phosphate pits has
been examined by Manner et al. (1984). Land with little or no top soil has been denuded to allow
mining but there has generally been no run-off as the bedrock is very porous (Manner et al.,
1984). Continuing denudation may cause long-term environmental micro-climate changes but
there has been no monitoring of the impact of phosphate mining on the island (UNEP/IUCN,
1988).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
There is no true reef and no lagoon; the island is surrounded by an almost consistent 150-200m
wide intertidal platform, cut into the original limestone of the island and typified by the presence
of numerous emergent coral pinnacles. The platform is dominated by large yellow-brown algae
and little or no coral growth occurs on the reef flat. However, a rich fauna is evident in deeper
water, although species diversity has not been documented. The benthic fauna is quite well
represented with many common Indo-Pacific species. Reef crabs and other crustaceans are found
as well as molluscs, urchins, sea cucumbers and other invertebrates. There around 80 commonly
caught fish species (Petit-Skinner, 1981; UNEP/IUCN, 1989).
Most of the population, which enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, lives
near the main coastal road and/or shoreline. There is no evidence of over-exploitation of marine
resources. Coastal waters are relatively unpolluted although there may have been one or two
instances of silt accumulating on some parts of the reef flat. To date there has been no recorded
damage to reef flora and fauna (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Phosphate is the only significant resource
on Nauru, and therefore commercial development of phosphate mining takes priority over the
conservation of the natural environment. It was stated at the Second South Pacific Conference
on National Parks and Reserves that it was not possible to consider conservation of the remaining
phosphate-bearing areas on the island. About 60% of the island is phosphate bearing, and of this
about two-thirds has already been mined.
Restoration of mined land is a key environmental problem. A Commission of Inquiry into the
Rehabilitation of the Worked-Out Phosphate Lands in Nauru has been established to look at the
issue of rehabilitation of the island and its cost and feasibility (Anon., 1987). It was charged with
examining all forms of alternative land usage, including agriculture, and the impact of phosphate
mining on fisheries and marine resources. Financial compensation is being sought from Australia,
United Kingdom and New Zealand, the main consumers of phosphate. An account of the British
Phosphate Commissioners, responsible for phophate extraction prior to independence, with
reference to the extensive mining on Nauru and other Pacific islands, is given by Williams and
Macdonald (1985). A study should be started immediately to provide baseline data for future
environmental impact monitoring. Efforts should be made to establish protected areas, including
reefs and important cultural sites (Dahl, 1980) and any forested areas should be protected from
any further mining (Dahl, 1986).
Addresses
No information
References
Anon. (1987). Commission of Inquiry into the Rehabilitation of Worked-out Phosphate Lands
in Nauru. Republic of Nauru.
Anon. (1989). Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National Parks and
Reserves, 24-27 April 1979. Situation Report Nauru. National Parks and Wildlife Service,
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
132
Nauru
Manner, H.I, Thaman, R.R and Hassall, D.C. (1984). Phosphate mining induced changes on
Nauru Island. Ecology 65(5): 1454-1465.
Petit-Skinner, S. (1981). The Nauruans. MacDuff Press, San Francisco. (Unseen).
Williams, M and Macdonald, B. (1985). The Phosphateers. Melbourne University Press. Carlton,
Australia. 586 pp. (Unseen).
Date December 1989
133
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NIUE
Area 260 sq. km
Population 2,270 in 1989 (G.S.T. Talagi, pers comm., 1990) Natural increase: —3.7%
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Niue is a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand.
The 1980-1985 Niue National Development Plan (NNDP) had a number of objectives relating
to the environment "as government is aware of the dangers from unwise practices" (Sloth, 1988).
The 1985-1990 NNDP emphasises socio-economic development and social services and does
not specify protection of the biological environment, although it is recognised in one chapter.
The role of traditional law in the management of island affairs is very strong. Traditional
conservation measures are in effect for different times of the year and for different species
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Customary restrictions, or "fono", are applied from time to time in certain
temporary "reserves" which allow the recovery of exploited resources (Yaldwyn, 1973). There
is no protected areas legislation and no formally protected areas, although there is a "tapu" forest
area. Despite a lack of government legislation under which reserves may be created, the existing
tapu forest is probably secure. Niueans and the Government own all the land; no alienation is
permitted, although the government may lease areas for up to 60 years (Hay, 1986; UNEP/IUCN,
1988; SPREP, 1980).
International Activities Niue is not yet party to any of the three major international conventions
concerned with with the conservation of nature, namely the Unesco Man and Biosphere
Programme, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention).
At a regional level, Niue has neither signed nor ratified the Convention on the Conservation of
Nature in the South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during
1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first
attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it
encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Niue is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) but has neither
signed nor ratified the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment
of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered into force
during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect
rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment
of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species,
ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to
the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Systems Reviews Niue is a single, isolated island located at 169°53’W, 19°03’S, 480km
north-east of Tonga and 560km south-east of Western Samoa. The island is roughly circular and
comprises a raised atoll of coralline limestone about 62m high with coastal terraces, the most
prominent being 20-28m above sea level. A number of submerged terraces also occur. The island
135
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
has a slightly depressed upper surface representing the "lagoon" of the original atoll (Yaldwyn,
1973).
The original tropical high rain forest which once covered the island has now been reduced to
fragments, generally in the east, and totalling 3,200ha (12.3% of total land area) in 1981. There
is also a narrow (200m-800m width) strip of coastal forest encircling the island’s lower terrace.
This forest is still largely intact and covered some 2,500ha (9.6%) in 1981. Second-growth or
regenerating forest is more widespread, totalling 12,000ha (46.2%) in 1981.
Unproductive "fernland", principally comprising Nephrolepsis hirsutula, covering
approximately 3,200ha (12.4%), is found largely in the south in the old lagoon basin. This is
generally thought to have arisen as a result of prolonged burning, overcropping and subsequent
soil impoverishment (Wodzicki, 1971; Yaldwyn, 1973), and early attempts at mechanised
cultivation using bulldozers and discing equipment (G.S.T. Talagi, pers. comm., 1990).
There is no true reef or lagoon. The island is partly surrounded by a platform reef, varying from
a few metres to several hundred metres in width and cut in the limestone of the island. Large
parts of this are subtidal, the remainder being intertidal. Much of the south and east sides of the
islands are entirely devoid of reef flats; some parts have 1m-8m wide pools about 1.5m-2.5m
above sea level. The flat has a thin discontinuous veneer of living corals on its upper (intertidal)
surface and rich coral growth over the edge in sub-tidal waters. At least 43 coral genera occur
and there is a rich, though largely undocumented, invertebrate fauna (UNEP/IUCN, 1988;
Yaldwyn, 1973).
Principal environmental issues include forest destruction by clearing and milling; soil loss due
to inappropriate cultivation; and decline in bird and flying fox populations through habitat loss
and over-hunting. Reef blasting has been strictly limited in extent (van Westendorp, 1961;
Yaldwyn, 1973).
The existing protected areas network is restricted to Huvalu Tapu Forest, and temporary "fono"
marine reserves. Dahl (1986) identifies five ecosystems, viz. limestone rain forest, coastal forest
on terraces, secondary formations, scrub and fern, and fringing reefs. Only the first of these
ecosystems is protected within Huvalu Tapu Forest. Nevertheless, Huvalu probably provides
adequate protection for Niue’s original terrestrial habitat (Hay, 1986). Dahl (1980) recommends
a number of specific sites for designation as protected areas. These include: caves, reefs, historic
sites, coastal features, chasms and freshwater springs. Huvalu is one of the few remaining
traditional taboo protected areas in Oceania. Dahl (1986) recommends that it should be
maintained, and reinforced with legislation if necessary. Other sites may also need protection if
they are being degraded. Forest reserves additional to Huvalu would help conserve the Polynesian
triller sub-species (Hay, 1986).
Other Relevant Information Huvalu Tapu Forest — comprises approximately 150ha (0.6%
of total land area) of Huvalu Forest, which covers 800-1,200ha (3.1%-4.6%), in eastern-central
Niue (Wodzicki, 1973). The forest was set aside as a tapu area in pre-European times, and is
believed to house the remains of pre-Christian gods. The tapu still exists, and the area represents
a fragment of primeval Niuean forest which has survived since before the arrival of the
Polynesians (Wodzicki, 1971). The site is maintained by the Village Council of Hakupu which
lies some 3km to the south. Human entry and any use of the forest is forbidden, except very
occasionally in the case of privileged individuals who have been permitted to enter. The forest
is pristine and contains very large trees and an abundant fauna including pigeon and flying fox
as well as diurnal, as opposed to the more usual nocturnal, land crabs (Yaldwyn, 1973).
136
Niue
Addresses
The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, P O Box 74, Alofi
Secretary to Government, Administrative Department, Alofi
References
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific Islands. Study Report No. 7. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.
Schofield, J.C. (1959). The geology and hydrology of Niue Island, South Pacific. New Zealand
Geological Survey Bulletin 62.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the island Pacific. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1980). Niue. Country Report No. 4. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 7 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
van Westendorp, F.J. (1961). Agricultural development on Niue. South Pacific Bulletin 11:
67-69. (Unseen).
Yaldwyn, J.C. (1973). The environment, natural history and special conservation problems of
Niue Island. In: SPC, Regional symposium on conservation of nature: reefs and lagoons.
Part 2. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 49-55.
Wodzicki, K. (1971). The birds of Niue Island, South Pacific: an annotated checklist. Notornis
18(4): 291-304.
137
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COMMONWEALTH OF THE
NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS
Area 477 sq. km
Population 20,350 (1985 estimate) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) was
officially granted the status of a Commonwealth of the USA in October 1986, having previously
been part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands; it had, however, been functioning as a
Commonwealth since 9 January 1978 (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Prior to October 1986, the islands were formally under United States federal legislation and Trust
Territory legislation. This included the Trust Territory Environment Enabling Act, enacted by
the former Congress of Micronesia in 1972, which provided for the establishment of a Trust
Territory Environmental Protection Board. However, neither the Act, nor the work of the Board
related specifically to protected areas. The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Public
Law 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of land or water for the purpose of conserving
threatened species. Other relevant Trust Territory Acts included the Fishing Law and the Land
Use Planning Act, both 1972. US legislation relevant to the Trust Territories included various
pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act and the
National Environmental Policy Act. Neither the legislation, nor the policy, on protected areas
was Clear while the country was a part of the Trust Territory, and this is why so few protected
areas were actually established over the whole area. Furthermore, the United States, while
administering the Territory, did not own property, and hence had no direct jurisdiction over
designation of protected areas. New national legislation is under development.
Under the original constitution, passed on 5 December 1976, the islands of Managaha, Sariguan
(sic) and Maug were protected, with the provision that Sariguan might be substituted by another
island by the legislature in due course. This substitution did not occur until the constitutional
amendment of 3 November 1985 which removed Sariguan’s protected status. The island was
considered a poor candidate for protection due to the depredations of past human habitation,
large populations of rats and goats and the destruction of many native species and habitats. In
place of Sariguan, which was opened for possible development, Uracas (Farallon de Parajos),
Asuncion and Guguan, as well as Maug, were given strict protection under the Constitution
(Anon., 1985).
Thus, Section 2 of Article XIV of the Commonwealth Code, as amended in 1985, states that "the
island of Managaha shall be maintained as an uninhabited place and used only for cultural and
recreational purposes. The islands of Maug, Uracas, Asuncion, Guguan and other islands
specified by law shall be maintained as uninhabited places and used only for the preservation
and protection of natural resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife and plant species".
Public Law 1-8, Chapter 13, Sections (a), (b), (c), (e) and (f) empowers the Department of Natural
Resources to protect and enhance natural resources. Public Law 2-51 establishes the Division of
Fish and Wildlife within the Department of Natural Resources and mandates this Division to
provide for the conservation of fish and wildlife and to acquire areas for the protection of fish
and wildlife resources (SPREP, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
International Activities The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands is not yet directly
party to any of the international conventions concerned with protected areas, namely, the Unesco
Man and Biosphere Programme, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) or the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention).
The compact between the USA and CNMI leaves international pacts and conventions in the
control of the former which itself is a party to all three conventions. However, it is not clear
whether the conventions are applicable to CNMI (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). At a regional
level, CNMI has neither signed nor ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the
South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
CNMI is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) but has neither
signed nor ratified the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment
of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered into force
during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect
rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment
of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species,
ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to
the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Administration and Management Administration of official parks and reserves lies in the
CNMI Department of Natural Resources, which includes Divisions of Fish and Wildlife, Parks
and Recreation and Plant Industry (Forestry). All lands not held with deeds by other agencies
are controlled by the Marianas Public Land Corporation (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989).
Systems Reviews Vegetation comprises pioneer stands of Casuarina sp., broad-leaved
evergreen thickets, mixed scrub forest, with some Miscanthus sp. and Nephrolepsis sp.
herbaceous communities on the northern islands. Broad-leaved evergreen forest on old lava flows
and Miscanthus sp. and tree ferns on ash slopes of those northern islands with dormant volcanoes
are found (Douglas, 1969). Tinian has mostly secondary forest while Rota has some closed
evergreen and limestone forests (Fosberg, 1973). Small areas of cloud forest occur on the volcanic
islands of Saipan, Agrihan, Alamagan and Anatahan (Dahl, 1980). The lower slopes of many
islands have been cleared for cultivation (Davis et al., 1986) and Saipan, Rata, Tinian and
Aguijuan are much disturbed. Remaining areas of natural vegetation, mostly on cliffs, contain
rare native and endemic species of plants and birds. The islands to the north, from Farallon de
Medinilla to Uracas, are less disturbed and are of prime interest for the study of biotic colonisation
under natural conditions (Dahl, 1980). Coral reefs around Rota, Tinian, Saipan and elsewhere
are described in UNEP/TUCN (1988).
There are permanent human populations on only the three largest islands to the south, namely
Saipan, Tinian and Rota, but two other islands (Almagan and Agrihan) are regularly inhabited.
Pagan was continuously inhabited by the largest of the northern island’s populations until an
eruption in May 1985 forced evacuation of the island. Over 87% of the population lives on
Saipan, where tourism is the main source of income; 163,000 tourists visited Saipan in 1986, the
majority being Japanese IUCN/UNEP, 1988). There has subsequently been a considerable
140
Northern Mariana Islands
increase, with 233,291 tourists visiting during 1988 and an estimated 300,000 during 1989
(L. Eldredge, pers. comm., 1989).
Moves to protect some of the northerly islands commenced in the 1960s, when Farallon de
Medinilla, Guguan, Maug and Uracas were designated as "islands for science" through the efforts
of the International Biological Programme and IUCN. Subsequently, Farallon de Medinilla lost
its conservation importance due to military training exercises.
Addresses
Division of Parks and Recreation, Department of Natural Resources, Saipan, MP 96950, USA
References
Anon. (1985). CNMI northern islands win preservation. Coastal Views 8(3): 1, 8-9.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/TUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission. Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463.
Fosberg. F.R. (1973). On present condition and conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific
Science Association Standing Committee on Pacific Botany Symposium: planned utilization
of the lowland tropical forests, August 1971. Bogor, Indonesia.
Owen, R.P. (1973). A conservation program for the Trust Territory. Country Report. Regional
Symposium on Conservation of Nature - Reefs and Lagoons. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia.
SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Country Report 14. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
SPREP (1985). Northern Mariana Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South
Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 159-161.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Commonwealth Code
Date: 5 December 1976; Amendment No. 37 passed 3 November 1985
Brief description: Section 2 of Article XIV states that "the island of Managaha shall be
maintained as an uninhabited place and used only for cultural and recreational purposes.
The islands of Maug, Uracas, Asuncion, Guguan and other islands specified by law shall be
141
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
maintained as uninhabited places and used only for the preservation and protection of natural
resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife and plant species".
Administrative authority: Not specified
Designation: Not specifically stated
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map' Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Preserves
1 Asuncion Island* I A22 1985
2 Guguan Island* I 412 1985
3 Maug Island* I 205 1976
4 Uracas Island (Farallon de Pajaros)* I 202 1985
Proposed
Bird Island Wildlife Reserve Proposed (90)
Kagman Peninsula and Forbidden Island Proposed (105)
Kastiyu Wildlife Area Proposed (200)
Marpi Wildlife Area Proposed (150)
Mt Tapotchau Wildlife Area Proposed (317)
Naftan Point Wildlife Area Proposed (195)
Saguagaha Wildlife Area Proposed (150)
Marpi Commonwealth Forest Proposed (463)
Rota Commonwealth Forest Proposed (500)
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
142
Northern Mariana Islands
0 40 80 120km
— a |
Data source: Canrormealth Code (1985)
Article XIV (Section 2)
= PROJECTION : MERCATOR 4
Date Printed : March 199/
(SAIPAN
WORLD Cowseava rion. i G U A M >
MONITORING CENTRE
146°
Protected Areas of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
143
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
ASUNCION ISLAND
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location An island in the northerly part of the Marianas island chain, flanked
by Maug to the north and Agrihan to the south. Approximately 19°40’N, 145°24’E
Date and History of Establishment Established as a preserve under Article 14 of the
Commonwealth Code, following its amendment on 3 November 1985.
Area 722ha
Land Tenure Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Altitude Sea level to 891m
Physical Features A nearly conical, currently quiescent volcanic island. The extreme southern
tip and a large portion of the east coast comprise rock cliffs and loose scree slopes which are
largely devoid of vegetation (Pratt and Lemke, 1984). A hot water spring periodically floods at
least one inter-tidal pool, killing all transient animals
Climate Data specific to the island are not available but the following figures are generally
applicable. The mean air temperature is 26.4°C, mean water temperature is 26.9°C and mean
annual rainfall is 1567mm (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Vegetation The island is forested on the lower slopes to the west with large coconut groves.
The native forest is dense with a low canopy of less than 10m. Dominant tree species include
Hibiscus, Pandanus, Neisosperma, Erythrina, Terminalia and Phyllanthus. Ferns are acommon
understorey plant. The ridge line and ravine mixed forest eventually reaches a broad band of
swordgrass near the top of the island (Pratt and Lemke, 1984). Further information is given by
Fosberg (1960).
Fauna There is an estimated population of 400 Mariana flying fox Pteropus mariannus (E) on
the island (Wiles et al., 1989). Twenty-five bird species are known to use the island, although a
number do not breed there. Common bird species include migratory wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus, Matsudaira’s storm-petrel Oceanodroma matsudairae and ruddy turnstone
Arenaria interpres. Resident and breeding species include white-tailed tropic bird Phaethon
lepturus, brown booby Sula leucogaster, sooty tern Sterna fuscata, brown noddy Anous stolidus,
white tern Gygis alba, collared kingfisher Halcyon chloris, Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca
and Micronesian honeyeater Myzomela rubrata (Reichel and Glass, in press). A checklist of
pelagic, deep water bottom and reef fishes has been compiled by Bryan and Falig (1987).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. There are no developments on the island.
Scientific Research and Facilities The island has been the subject of a number of surveys,
although there is little published material. There are no facilities.
144
Northern Mariana Islands
Conservation Value Asuncion is little disturbed and not easily accessible, being north of the
most northerly inhabited island. Vegetation is abundant and includes a number of endemic
species (Eldredge, 1977).
Conservation Management Access is restricted but there are no other management activities
(J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). Section 2, Article 14 of the Commonwealth Code states that
"Asuncion (and other islands) . . . shall be maintained as uninhabited places and used only for
the preservation and protection of natural resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife
and plant species”.
Management Constraints Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is present in very small numbers and
may cause the loss of seabirds. Poaching may occur sporadically (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm.,
1989).
Staff None on the island
Budget There are no specific allocations for any of the protected islands
Local Addresses CNMI Division of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan
References
Bryan, P. and Falig, C. (1987). Checklist of pelagic, deep water bottom and reef fishes. CNMI
Division of Fish and Wildlife. Five year report: FY 83-87. Unpublished.
Eldredge, L.G. (1977). Comments on preserving uninhabited islands of the Commonwealth of
the Northern Mariana Islands. University of Guam Marine Laboratory. Unseen.
Eldredge, L.G., Tsuda, R.T., Moore, P., Chernin, M. and Neudecker, S. (1977). A natural history
of Maug, Northern Mariana Islands. University of Guam Marine Laboratory Technical
Report 43. 87 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1960). The vegetation of Micronesia. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History 119: 1-75.
Pratt, T.K. and Lemke, T.O. (1984). Wildlife field trip report from the Townsend Cromwell
Raioma cruise, 18 February-5 March, 1984. Division of Fish and Wildlife; Department of
Natural Resources. Unpublished report. 49 pp.
Reichel, J.D. (in press). The status and conservation of seabirds in the Mariana Islands. In: Status
and conservation of the world’s seabirds, part 2. ICBP Technical Bulletin. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Reichel, J.D. and Glass, P.O. (in press). Checklist of the birds of the Mariana Islands. ’ Elepaio.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. Villagomez, S.C. Glass, P.O. and Aldan, D.T. (1987). Field trip report:
Northern Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 15 pp.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. and Glass, P.O. (1988). Wildlife Unit field Trip Report: Northern
Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 13 pp
Wiles, G.J., Lemke, T.O., Payne, N.H. (1989). Population estimates of fruit bats (Pteropus
mariannus) in the Mariana Islands. Conservation Biology 3: 66-76.
Date February 1990
145
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
GUGUAN ISLAND
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location An island in the central part of the Marianas chain in the western Pacific
Ocean. Flanked by Alamagan to the north and Sarigan to the south. Approximately 17°19’N,
145°51’E
Date and History of Establishment Established as a preserve under Article 14 of the
Commonwealth Code, following its amendment on 3 November 1985.
Area 412ha
Land Tenure Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Altitude Sea level to 301m
Physical Features A volcanic island that may have been active as recently as the early 1900s.
It comprises two humps with an old vent on the south side and a more recent vent on the north.
A recent lava flow covers much of the north-east side which is barren. There are unstable rock
cliffs to the south and east (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989).
Climate Data specific to the island are not available but the following figures are generally
applicable. The mean air temperature is 26.4°C, mean water temperature is 26.9°C and mean
annual rainfall is 1567mm (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Vegetation The south is well forested with Pandanus, Erythrina, Terminalia, Ficus,
Neisosperma and Morinda among other species. Relatively small patches of swordgrass are
interspersed throughout the south. Forest fills a number of narrow ravines leading to the
south-west and south-east coasts. A low canopy of trees covers the flat plateau in the south-central
and south-east of the island (Pratt and Lemke, 1984). Further information is given in Fosberg
(1960).
Fauna There is an estimated population of 400 Mariana flying fox Pteropus mariannus (E)
distributed around the centre and southern part of the island (Wiles et al., 1989). Guguan is
amongst the important bird colonies in the Mariana Islands (Reichel, 1988). Some 25 species
are known to use the island, although a number do not breed there. The most common bird species
include migratory great frigatebird Fregata minor, lesser golden plover Pluvialis dominica and
ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres. Resident and breeding species include white-tailed
tropicbird Phaethon lepturus, red-tailed tropic bird P. rubricauda, brown booby Sula
leucogaster, red-footed booby S. sula, Micronesian megapode Megapodius laperouse (R),
grey-backed tern Sterna lunata, sooty tern S. fuscata, brown noddy Anous stolidus, black
(white-capped) noddy A. minutus, white tern Gygis alba, white-throated ground dove
Gallicolumba xanthonura, Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca and Micronesian honeyeater
Myzomela rubrata (Reichel and Glass, in press). A more detailed account of the abundance and
distribution of bird species is given by Villagomez et al. (1986). A checklist of pelagic, deep
water bottom and reef fishes has been compiled by Bryan and Falig (1987).
Cultural Heritage No information
146
Northern Mariana Islands
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. There are no developments on the island.
Scientific Research and Facilities The island has been the subject of a number of surveys,
although there is little published material. There are no facilities.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Access is restricted but there are no other management activities
(J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). Section 2, Article 14 of the Commonwealth Code states that
"Guguan (and other islands) . . . shall be maintained as uninhabited places and used only for the
preservation and protection of natural resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife and
plant species".
Management Constraints Polynesian rat Rattus exulans is present in very small numbers and
may cause the loss of seabirds. Poaching may occur sporadically (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm.,
1989).
Staff None on the island
Budget There are no specific allocations for any of the protected islands
Local Addresses CNMI Division of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan
References
Bryan, P. and Falig, C. (1987). Checklist of pelagic, deep water bottom and reef fishes. CNMI
Division of Fish and Wildlife. Five year report: FY 83-87. Unpublished.
Eldredge, L.G., Tsuda, R.T., Moore, P., Chernin, M. and Neudecker, S. (1977). A natural history
of Maug, Northern Mariana Islands. University of Guam Marine Laboratory Technical
Report 43. 87 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1960). The vegetation of Micronesia. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History 119: 1-75.
Pratt, T.K. and Lemke, T.O. (1984). Wildlife field trip report from the Townsend Cromwell
Raioma cruise, 18 February-5 March, 1984. Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of
Natural Resources. Unpublished report. 49 pp.
Reichel, J.D. (in press). The status and conservation of seabirds in the Mariana Islands. In: Status
and conservation of the world’s seabirds, part 2. ICBP Technical Bulletin. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Reichel, J.D. and Glass, P.O. (in press). Checklist of the birds of the Mariana Islands. ’ Elepaio.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. Villagomez, S.C. Glass, P.O. and Aldan, D.T. (1987). Field trip report:
Northern Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 15 pp.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. and Glass, P.O. (1988). Wildlife Unit field Trip Report: Northern
Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 13 pp
Wiles, G.J., Lemke, T.O., Payne, N.H. (1989). Population estimates of fruit bats (Pteropus
mariannus) in the Mariana Islands. Conservation Biology 3: 66-76.
Villagomez, S., Glass, P. and Palacios, T. (1986). Field trip report: Guguan Island. CNMI
Division of Fish and Wildlife and Division of Plant Industry. Unpublished report. 8 pp.
Date February 1990
147
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
MAUG ISLAND
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location One of the 15 islands in the Mariana chain in the western Pacific Ocean.
Maug lies at the northern end of the chain, flanked to the north by Farallon de Pajaros and to the
south by Asuncion Island. Approximately 20°01’N, 145°13’E
Date and History of Establishment Maug Island was designated "an island for science" in
November 1968 at the "Technical Meeting on Conservation of Pacific Islands" held at Koror,
Palau and Guam. This has no legal standing, but the island is also protected under the national
constitution. Maug Island is listed in the 1976 Constitution (Article XIV, Natural Resources) as
an area "to be maintained as an uninhabited place and used only for the preservation of bird, fish,
wildlife and plant species”.
Area 205ha
Land Tenure Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Altitude Sea level to 227m
Physical Features Maug island comprises three steep-sided islets, North Island (227m), East
Island (215m) and West Island (178m), encircling a central lagoon. They represent the remains
of a volcano which probably collapsed following a massive and explosive eruption. Much of the
shoreline comprises large rounded boulders or low, consolidated headlands. The islets rise
steeply from the sea, often as near vertical or undercut cliffs. There are a few small "beaches"
along the coastline of East Island and a man-made bulk-head has been constructed near the
northern end of the island. Since the geology is of volcanic origin the vertical basalt dykes with
intermittent stratified unconsolidated material are a particularly interesting feature of the
landscapes of North and West Island. There is a narrow, smooth terrace of limestone extending
some 10m (25m depth) from the eastern shore of West Island (Eldredge, 1983). No true coral
reef exists within the crater lagoon; sediments and basaltic boulders, products of terrestrial
erosion, inhibit its development (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Climate Data specific to the island are not available but the following figures are generally
applicable. The mean air temperature is 26.4°C, mean water temperature is 26.9°C and mean
annual rainfall is 1567mm. Approximately four typhoons occur each year within 300 miles of
the island (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Vegetation East and West Islands have a similar vegetation pattern. The steep valleys on the
lagoon side are matted by a variety of low growing grasses, sedges, herbs and climbers. Three
notable species of fern grow in rocky crevices and the bases of valleys, namely Asplenium nidus,
Polypodium scolopendria and Pteris quadriaurita. Interspersed among this low growth are
stands of Terminalia catappa, Morinda citrifolia, Pipturus argenteus, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pisonia
grandis, Vitex negundo and Crinum asiaticum. There is a large plantation of Cocos nucifera in
the central part of East Island, with thick stands of Pandanus tectorius and Crinum asiatica on
the lower slopes. Species found on West Island, but not on East, include Canavalia sp., Hedyotis
sp., Capsicum sp., Scaevola taccada, Gossypium hirsutum and Achyrantes canescens. The
summit of North Island is covered predominantly with communities of Jpomoea pes-caprae,
148
Northern Mariana Islands
Cyperus javanica, Fimbristylis cymosa (endemic to Northern Marianas) and Capparis cordifolia.
Large stands of Crinum asiatica grow on the lower slopes, with Terminalia catappa and Pisonia
grandis at higher elevations. Four grasses are known from Maug, Digitaria mariannensis
(endemic to the Marianas) sword grass Miscanthus floridulus, Stenotaphrum micranthum and
temple grass Zoysia matrella. Other species common to all three islets include sedge Cyperus
javanica, the four climbers, Wedelia biflora, wood rose Operculina ventricosa, Colubrina
asiatica and Ipomoea pes-caprae, the shrub Capparis cordifolia (considered threatened in the
southern Marianas), the herbs Vernonia cinerea, Phyllanthus marianus (endemic to the
Marianas), P. amarus, Hyptis pectinata and three species of Portulaca. Fifty-nine species of
terrestrial plants have been identified from Maug, none of which is endemic to Maug Island
alone. Eldredge et al. (1977) includes a checklist of terrestrial vascular plants found on the island.
During their stay on the island, the Japanese inhabitants introduced Cocos nucifera, Hernandia
sonora, Melochia compacta, Neiosperma oppositifolia, Trema orientalis and Cordia subcordata.
The marine benthic algal flora is also described in Eldredge et al. (1977). Some 75-95% of the
basalt boulder and pavement in the lagoon is covered by a mat of red algae Gelidiopsis intricata,
Tolypiocladia glomerulata, Jania capillacea and Polysiphonia sp. and brown alga Lobophora
variegata. Of the 60 species identified from Maug, the following are of particular interest: red
algae Laurencia succisa, considered rare on Maug; brown algae Homoeostrichus flabellatus,
otherwise known in Micronesia only from Guam; and Stypopodium hawaiiensis, a new record
for the Marianas.
Fauna The only indigenous mammal known from Maug Island is Mariana flying fox Pteropus
mariannus (E), a species endemic to the Mariana Islands. Surveys undertaken during 1984 failed
to locate any bats during three days searching, and the population was estimated at less than 25
individuals (Wiles et al., 1989). Sheath-tailed bat Emballonura semicaudata has been recorded
on East Island (Lemke, 1986), a considerable northerly extension to this species’ range.
Some 25 bird species have been identified (with population estimates and status from Reichel
(1988) and Reichel and Glass, in press): wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus (uncommon,
migrant), Matsudaira’s storm petrel Oceanodroma matsudairae (common, migrant), red-tailed
tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda (200 pairs, possibly breeding), white-tailed tropic bird
P. lepturus (15 pairs, possibly breeding), masked booby Sula dactylatra (250 pairs, migrant),
red-footed booby S. sula (1,000 pairs, possibly breeding), brown booby S. leucogaster (130
pairs, breeding), great frigatebird Fregata minor (uncommon, migrant), sooty tern Sterna fuscata
(common, possibly breeding), brown noddy Anous stolidus (6,000 pairs, possibly breeding),
black (white-capped) noddy A. minutus (150 pairs, migrant), white tern Gygis alba (100 pairs,
possibly breeding), lesser golden plover Pluvialis dominica (uncommon, migrant), wandering
tattler Heteroscelus incanus (uncommon, migrant), grey-tailed tattler H. brevipes (uncommon,
migrant), ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres (common, migrant), reef heron Egretta sacra
(uncommon, breeding), Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca (common, breeding), white-collared
kingfisher Halcyon chloris (common, resident), Micronesian honeyeater Myzomela rubrata
(common, breeding), white-throated ground dove Gallicolumba xanthonura (rare, breeding) and
Micronesian megapode Megapodius laperouse (R) (rare, possibly breeding) which is listed under
the US Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) has been reported from the island. The marine fish
fauna has been extensively surveyed. The herbivorous kyphosids and acanthurids are
predominant in all habitats. Dominant species include Kyphosus cinarascens, Acanthurus
lineatus, A. leucopareius, Ctenochaetus striatus and Naso lituratus. Two species, Chromis
caerulea and Pomacentrus melanopterus, are found on the seaward side of West Island but not
149
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
in the lagoon. The checklist in Eldredge et al. (1977), derived from five expedition surveys,
comprises 232 species of fish. The marine invertebrate fauna is typical of other Indo- West Pacific
coastal areas. So far, 130 species have been identified, including 24 species of opisthobranchs,
collected in only four hours in 1972, indicating a particularly rich opisthobranch fauna worthy
of further investigation. Within the lagoon only a few localised coral communities have been
identified; there is no true coral reef development. Predominant species include Millepora
platyphylla, Acropora spp., Porites lutea, Goniastrea retiformis, Pocillopora spp., and Favia
spp. A narrow but well developed fringing reef extends along the southern seaward shore of West
Island, characterised by massive growths of many of the species found within lagoon,
complemented by Lobophyllia spp., Diplastrea heliopora and Heliopora coerulea.
Cultural Heritage Discovered by Europeans on 17 August 1669, when Diego de Sanvitores
named the island San Lorenzo (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Local Human Population Uninhabited; the native population was removed from the island by
the Spanish in 1695. A weather station and fish processing plant were established by the Japanese
in 1939, but these have since been abandoned.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities Maug Island was first described in 1907 by Governor
G. Fritz, the administrator of the Marianas. A magnetic survey team from Japan further described
the general and submarine topography in 1922. The next major survey was not until 1971, when
a team from the University of Guam and Guam’s Fish and Wildlife Division made collections
of the fish and coral fauna. Another group visited Maug aboard the ’Wanderer’ and collected
terrestrial plants, algae and invertebrates (Fosberg et al., 1975). The University of Guam Marine
Laboratory undertook a broad-based marine survey of the Mariana island chain in 1975. This
was followed in the same year by some detailed studies of marine algae (Tsuda and Tobias, 1977a
and 1977b) and terrestrial flora (Fosberg et al., 1977). Sir Peter Scott and R. and V. Taylor visited
Maug twice in August 1976 aboard the "Lindblad Explorer". Based on their brief observations
of the fish and avifauna, they recommended to the Resident Commissioner that the island be
protected. An on-site environmental survey was carried out in November 1977 (Eldredge et al.,
1977). Virtually no studies have been made of the terrestrial vertebrates, gastropods or insects.
Conservation Value Maug is amongst the important bird colony locations in the Mariana
Islands (Reichel, 1988).
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Several exotic plant species were introduced by the Japanese and a
few Polynesian rats have been reported; none is believed to pose a particularly serious threat to
the native flora and fauna (Eldredge et al., 1977). The presence of goats has been reported
(Reichel et al., 1987), although this was not confirmed on subsequent visits (Reichel et al., 1988).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
150
Northern Mariana Islands
References
Anon. (1978). Maug, a wildlife preserve in the Northern Marianas Commonwealth. Pacific
Science Association Information Bulletin 30(2): 17-18.
Eldredge, L.G. (1983). Summary of environmental and fishing information on Guam and the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical background, description of the
islands and review of the climate, oceanography and submarine topography. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum, National Marine
Fisheries Service. University of Guam Marine Laboratory.
Eldredge, L.G., Tsuda, R.T., Moore, P., Chernin, M. and Neudecker, S. (1977). A natural history
of Maug, Northern Mariana Islands. University of Guam Marine Laboratory Technical
Report 43. 87 pp.
Fosberg, F.R., Falanruw, M.V.C. and Sachet, M.H. (1975). Vascular flora of the Northern
Mariana Islands. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 22:1-44.
Fosberg, F.R. Falanruw, M.V.C. and Sachet, M.H. (1977). Additional records of vascular plants
from the Northern Mariana Islands. Micronesica 13(1): 27-31.
Lemke, T.O. (1986). Distribution and status of the sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicaudata)
in the Mariana Islands. Journal of Mammalogy 67: 743-746.
Owen, R.P. (1977). A checklist of birds of Micronesia. Micronesica 13(1): 65-81.
Reichel, J.D. (1988). The status and conservation of seabirds in the Mariana Islands. Division
of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan. Unpublished manuscript. 5 pp.
Reichel, J.D. and Glass, P.O. (in press). Checklist of the birds of the Mariana Islands. ’Elepaio.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. Villagomez, S.C. Glass, P.O. and Aldan, D.T. (1987). Field trip report:
Northern Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 15 pp.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. and Glass, P.O. (1988). Wildlife Unit field trip report: Northern
Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 13 pp
Tsuda, R.J. and Tobias, W.J. (1977a). Marine benthic algae from the Northern Mariana Islands,
Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Phycology 25(2): 67-72.
Tsuda, R.J. and Tobias, W.J. (1977b). Marine benthic algae from the Northern Mariana Islands,
Cyanophyta and Rhodophyta. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Phycology 25(3): 155-158.
Wiles, J., Lemke, T.O and Payne, N.H. (1989). Population estimates of fruit bats (Pteropus
marianus) in the Mariana Islands. Conservation Biology 3: 66-76.
Date 1977, reviewed February 1990
SARIGAN ISLAND (DEGAZETTED)
IUCN Management Category Degazetted
Biogeographical Province 5.2.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location An island in the Northern Marianas chain in the western Pacific Ocean,
flanked to the north by Guguan Island and to the south by Anatahan Island. Approximately
16°42’N, 145°47’E
Date and History of Establishment The island is no longer officially designated a protected
area, but was formerly protected under the national consitution, in which it was listed under
Article XTV (Natural Resources) as an area "to be maintained as an uninhabited place and used
151
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
only for the preservation of bird, fish, wildlife and plant species". On 3 November 1985 the
Constitution was amended such that Sarigan (Sariguan) was opened for development.
Area 500ha
Land Tenure Government
Altitude Sea level to 549m
Physical Features Sarigan Island is an extinct volcano with no historical record of volcanic
activity. The irregular shoreline is primarily of high cliffs and steep slopes, with a small stretch
of low-lying old lava flow along the south-west coast. The island rises to the extinct cone in the
south. Much of the upland area is at various stages of erosion.
Climate No information
Vegetation Fosberg et al. (1975) list 128 species of terrestrial vascular plants for the island.
Fauna In 1978 some 10-15 adult Micronesian megapode Megapodius laperouse (R) were
reported.
Cultural Heritage Extensive archaeological remains have been found on the island, including
latte stones and pottery.
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities There have been a few brief visits paid to the island in the
past. Fosberg et al. (1975) describes the flora. Bats, birds and reef fish communities are being
studied by staff from the Division of Fish and Wildlife (L. Eldredge, pers. comm., 1989).
Conservation Value Conservation value has been lost to such an extent that the island is no
longer protected.
Conservation Management An active goat control programme was being implemented during
1989 (L. Eldredge, pers. comm., 1989).
Management Constraints Numerous goats were seen grazing on the island slopes during a
brief visit to Sarigan in 1975. More recent reports indicate that goats and rats have proliferated,
at the expense of endemic flora and fauna, leading to erosion (Anon., 1985). Sarigan was a poor
candidate for conservation status since many native species and habitats have either been
disturbed or destroyed.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Anon. (1985). N. Islands slated for preservation. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Coastal Resources Management Programme. Coastal Views 7(2). 12 pp
152
Northern Mariana Islands
Eldredge, L.G. (1983). Summary of environmental and fishing information on Guam and the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical background, description of the
islands and review of the climate, oceanography and submarine topography. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum, National Marine
Fisheries Service. University of Guam Marine Laboratory.
Fosberg, F.R., Falanruw, M.V.C. and Sachet, M.-H. (1975). Vascular flora of the Northern
Mariana Islands. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 22: 1-44.
Date 1983, updated October 1989, February 1990
URACAS ISLAND
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location The northernmost of the Marianas island chain, in the western Pacific
Ocean, also known as Farallon de Pajaros. Maug lies to the south. Approximately 20°32’N,
144°54’E
Date and History of Establishment Established as a preserve under Article 14 of the
Commonwealth Code, following its amendment on 3 November 1985.
Area 202ha
Land Tenure Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Altitude Sea level to 319m
Physical Features Comprises a nearly conical, currently active, volcanic island. Over 90% of
the island is lava, cinder and ash associated with the formation of the present volcanic cone (Pratt
and Lemke, 1984).
Climate Data specific to the island are not available but the following figures are generally
applicable. The mean air temperature is 26.4°C, mean water temperature is 26.9°C and mean
annual rainfall is 1567mm (Eldredge et al., 1977).
Vegetation Two small, hard rock outcroppings along the south coast (perhaps the remnant of a
volcanic plug and flows from an earlier cone) are covered with some vegetation (Pratt and Lemke,
1984). Species include Pipturus argenteus, Morinda citrifolia, Scaevola taccada, Colubrina
asiatica, Rhynchospora corymbosa, Brasiliensis sp., Wedelia biflora, Phymatodes scolopendria,
Asplenium nidus, Miscanthus floridulus (Reichel et al., 1987).
Fauna Some 20 bird species have been identified. Common migrants include great frigatebird
Fregata minor and ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres. Common resident and breeding species
include red-tailed tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda, white-tailed tropic bird P. lepturus, masked
booby Sula dactylatra, red-footed booby S. sula, brown booby S. leucogaster, brown noddy
Anous stolidus, white tern Gygis alba, Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca, white-collared
kingfisher Halcyon chloris, Micronesian honeyeater Myzomela rubrata and Micronesian
153
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
megapode Megapodius laperouse (R) (common, breeding) which is listed under the US Federal
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Reichel and Glass, in press).
A checklist of pelagic, deep water bottom and reef fishes has been compiled by Bryan and Falig
(1987). Surveys undertaken in 1983 and 1984 located no fruit bats Pteropus sp. (Wiles et al.,
1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Uninhabited
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. There are no developments on the island.
Scientific Research and Facilities The island has been the subject of a number of surveys,
although there is little published material.
Conservation Value Uracas is amongst the important bird colonies in the Mariana Islands
(Reichel, 1988).
Conservation Management Access is restricted but there are no other management activities
(J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). Section 2, Article 14 of the Commonwealth Code states that
"Uracas (and other islands) . . . shall be maintained as uninhabited places and used only for the
preservation and protection of natural resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife and
plant species".
Management Constraints Norway rat Rattus norvegicus is present in very small numbers and
may cause the loss of seabirds (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff None on the island
Budget There are no specific allocations for any of the protected islands.
Local Addresses CNMI Division of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan
References
Bryan, P. and Falig, C. (1987). Checklist of pelagic, deep water bottom and reef fishes. CNMI
Division of Fish and Wildlife. Five year report: FY 83-87. Unpublished.
Eldredge, L.G., Tsuda, R.T., Moore, P., Chernin, M. and Neudecker, S. (1977). A natural history
of Maug, Northern Mariana Islands. University of Guam Marine Laboratory Technical
Report 43. 87 pp.
Pratt, T.K. and Lemke, T.O. (1984). Wildlife field trip report from the Townsend Cromwell
Raioma cruise, 18 February-5 March, 1984. Division of Fish and Wildlife; Department of
Natural Resources. Unpublished report. 49 pp.
Reichel, J.D. (1988). The status and conservation of seabirds in the Mariana Islands. Division
of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan, CNMI. Unpublished manuscript. 5 pp.
Reichel, J.D. (in press). The status and conservation of seabirds in the Mariana Islands. In: Status
and conservation of the world’s seabirds, part 2. ICBP Technical Bulletin. International
Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Reichel, J.D. and Glass, P.O. (in press). Checklist of the birds of the Mariana Islands. ’Elepaio.
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. Villagomez, S.C. Glass, P.O. and Aldan, D.T. (1987). Field trip report:
Northern Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 15 pp.
154
Northern Mariana Islands
Reichel, J.D., Taisacan, S. and Glass, P.O. (1988). Wildlife Unit field Trip Report: Northern
Islands. Unpublished manuscript. 13 pp
Wiles, G.J., Lemke, T.O., Payne, N.H. (1989). Population estimates of fruit bats (Pteropus
mariannus) in the Mariana Islands. Conservation Biology 3: 66-76.
Date February 1990
155
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REPUBLIC OF PALAU
Area 492 sq. km
Population 13,873 (1986); 14,106 (1988 estimate) Natural increase: —0.3%
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Prior to 1981, some United States federal legislation and Trust Territory
legislation was applicable, including the Trust Territory Environment Enabling Act enacted by
the former Congress of Micronesia in 1972. This provided for the establishment of a Trust
Territory Environmental Protection Board. However, neither the Act, nor the work of the board
related specifically to protected areas. The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Public
Law 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of land or water for the purpose of conserving
threatened species. Other relevant Trust Territory Acts included the Fishing Law and the Land
Use Planning Act, both 1972. US legislation relevant to the Trust Territory included various
pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act and the
National Environmental Policy Act. Prior to 1981, neither the legislation, nor the policy on
protected areas was clear, with the result that few areas were actually established. This is largely
because the United States, while administering the Trust Territory, did not own property, and
hence had no direct jurisdiction over designations of protected areas.
The Republic of Palau was established as a constitutional democratic government on 1 January
1981. Article VI of the Constitution places responsibility upon the national government to take
postive action to conserve a "beautiful, healthful and resourceful natural environment". There
are 16 states within the Republic, each with an individual constitution; 14 states are within the
Palauan archipelago and two are in the South-east Islands group (BRD, 1989). On 21 February
1986 Palau and US Government representatives formally signed a Compact of Free Association.
To date, six plebiscites have been held on the Compact, but the constitutionally mandated 75%
approval vote has not been achieved. A subsequent simple majority vote has been overturned in
the courts as unconstitutional. Consequently, Palau has continued to be a remnant of the former
Trust Territory of the Pacific.
National protected areas legislation includes Palau National Code, Title 24, Division 3 (Reserves
and Protected Areas), Chapter 30 (Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve), Sections 3001 to
3004, which provides for the creation, prohibitions, penalties and regulations relating to
Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve. As of 1988, Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve was
the only legally established perennially protected natural area in the Republic of Palau (Thomas
et al., 1989). Palau National Code, Sections 3101 to 3103 provide for the seasonal protection of
the Ngerumekaol grouper spawning area. There are also a number of State Ordinances, including
Ordinance of Koror No. 150-69 (48-69) which provides for the establishment of Trochus
sanctuaries in Koror. Legal instruments which provide for the protection of cultural and sunken
resources include, for example, the Palau Lagoon Monuments Law (Palau National Code,
Section 301). A fuller listing of environmental legislation is given in BRD (1989).
International Activities Palau is not yet party to the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme,
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(Ramsar Convention) or the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention). It has been recommended that Palau become a
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State Party to the World Heritage Convention in order that Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve
can be inscribed on the World Heritage List (Thomas et al., 1989).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Palau signed the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the
South Pacific (SPREP Convention) on 25 November 1986, although this has not been ratified.
Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile
ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected
areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems
and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the
Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Administration and Management Prior to independence a Conservation Officer for Palau, and
the rest of the Trust Territory, was hired to work under the Chief of Agriculture for the Trust
Territory. Management of parks, recreation areas and historical sites fell under the Bureau of
Community Services in the Ministry of Social Services, while responsibility for conservation
areas was placed upon the Bureau of Resources and Development in the Ministry of Natural
Resources. Enforcement of the laws pertaining to these areas was the responsibility of the Bureau
of Public Safety in the Ministry of Justice (SPREP, 1985).
Since 1981, Ngerukewid Islands and Ngerumekaol have been administered by the Division of
Marine Resources, Bureau of Resources and Development, Ministry of National Resources.
Parks and recreation areas are administered by the Chief of the Division of Parks and Recreation
in the Bureau of Community Services, Ministry of Social Services. The Division of Conservation
and Entomology, also within the Bureau of Resources and Development, was created under
Executive Order No. 70, with a broad remit to prepare conservation programmes and pest control
and entomological activities (Otobed, 1989). Trochus breeding sanctuaries are under the
protection of the governors of each State (BRD, 1989). In general, surveillance and patrolling
activities have been hindered by a lack of staff and resources (D. Otobed, pers. comm., 1989).
Systems Reviews Palau comprises an archipelago of 8 large and 18 small high volcanic islands,
a number of low limestone islands and about 350 islets surrounded by a complex of fringing and
patch reefs. Babeldaob is the largest island, covering 397 sq. km. The climate is maritime, tropical
and wet, with only small seasonal and diurnal temperature fluctuations. Rainfall is high
throughout the year but especially intense during the June to October monsoon (Smith, 1977).
Undisturbed forest is predominant, varying little between the high volcanic islands and low
platform islands. Principal formations are species-rich broadleaf lowland rain forest on weathered
basalt, limestone forest on coralline limestone with very little soil, dense riverine forest along
rivers on all high islands and mixed broadleaf atoll and beach forest on the central portion of
atolls and islets and on level areas behind the sand beaches of high islands (Dahl, 1980). Some
75% of Babeldaob is covered by mature forest in upland, mangrove and swampy areas (Merlin
and Keene, n.d.), and mangroves occur along as much as 80% of the coast of Babeldaob although
they are not prevalent around the shorelines of the limestone islands (Smith, 1977). Palau is
considered to have the richest coral reefs in the Pacific with the highest diversity (Faulkner, 1974;
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Palau
Smith, 1977); 300 species have been recorded. A summary account is given in UNEP/IUCN
(1988), including detailed accounts of the Chelbacheb and Helen Island reefs.
In general, Palau’s natural environment remains in good condition, partly due to a low population
density. Abundant and diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems occur, particularly the very
widespread reefs and lagoons. This natural beauty, and the numerous islands and beaches, give
the country considerable tourism potential. There have been a number of major capital projects
and there is now a risk that unplanned development could have serious environmental
consequences. The improvement of living standards on Koror, the capital island where some
40% of the population dwells, is a major priority. The provision of sewage and waste disposal
facilities, and the disposal of hazardous waste and unexploded munitions, such as on Peleliu,
constitute major environmental issues (Maragos, 1986). The compact of Free Association
between Palau and the United States entitles, inter alia, the latter to use large areas of the
archipelago for military purposes (Caufield, 1986) which may lead to environmental degradation.
Smith (1977) provides an overview of the major natural resources and some of the threats to
them.
Palau has been included in a recent review of the protected areas systems in Oceania (Dahl,
1986), and the establishment of terrestrial reserves on Babeldaob and in the Chelbacheb Islands,
including marine lakes, is recommended. The richness of the marine environment warrants
protection in some significant marine reserves at sites such as Ngemlis. Helen should probably
also be protected because of the problem with poaching.
Addresses
Division of Conservation and Entomology, PO Box 100, Biology Laboratory, Koror 96940, USA
References
Bureau of Resources and Development (1989). Palau. Country Review No. 10. Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea. 12 pp.
Caufield, C. (1986). Peace makes waves in the Pacific. New Scientist 3 April.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Faulkner, D. (1974). This living reef. Quadrangle/New York Books, New York. 179 pp.
Merlin, M. and Keene, T. (n.d.). Dellomel er a Belau: plants of the Belauan Islands. East-West
Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii and Office of the Chief Conservationist and Bureau of Education,
Oreor, Belau. 48 pp.
Smith, S.V. (1977). Palau environmental study: a planning document. Contribution to the IUCN
Marine Project 3.7.70. 102 pp.
SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Country Report 14. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
SPREP (1985). Republic of Palau. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 162-174.
Thomas, P.E.J., Holthus, P.F. and Idechong, N. (1989). Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve:
proposed management plan. IUCN/World Wide Fund for Nature/South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 43 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Otobed, D. (1989). Conservation in Palau — rebuilding the Conservation Service. Case study
No. 34. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port
Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 3 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Palau National Code
Date: Not known
Brief description: Division 3, Title 24, Chapter 30 provides for the creation (S.3001) and
protection (S.3002-3004) of Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve
Administrative authority: Division of Marine Resources, Ministry of National Resources
Designations: The Ngerukewid Islands Preserve is hereby established to include all land,
water, reef and underwater areas of the island group known as Ngerukewid (Orukuisu)
Islands, bounded by the grid coordinates 91 and 94 and 18 and 22 on sheets 1043-I SW and
1043 II NW on Army Map Series W 856. The preserve is henceforth to be retained in its
present primitive condition where the natural plant and animal life shall be permitted to
develop undisturbed.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Wildlife Reserves
1 Ngerukewid Islands* Il 1,200 1956
Sanctuaries
2 Trochus Sanctuaries (n=21) Unassigned
Spawning Areas
3 Ngerumekaol Grouper Spawning Area Unassigned 259
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
160
PROJECTION : MERCATOR
Date Printed : March (99/
Data source: Tharas P.£., Holthus P.F. and
Idechong N. (1989)
Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife
Preserve Managarent Plan.
South Pacific Regional Environment
Progranre, Nownea, New Caledonia.
The Ministry of Natural Reserves,
foror.
e
FORLD COMSEAVATION
MowtroRivc CENTRE
Protected Areas of the Republic of Palau
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Palau
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
NGERUKEWID ISLANDS WILDLIFE PRESERVE
IUCN Management Category III (Natural Monument)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Situated within the Palau barrier reef, approximately 15km south-west
of Koror, 7km west of Mecherechar and 13km north of Peleliu. The current boundary is described
in the enabling legislation as Grid Coordinates 91,94, 18 and 22 on Sheets 1043-I SW and 1043-II
NW on US Army Map Service Series W856. These coordinates describe a rectangle measuring
4km by 3km and includes the main Ngerukewid Islands, several patch reefs and fringing reefs
of varying sizes and a large body of open water. Approximately 7°10’N, 134°15’E
Date and History of Establishment 1956. Established by the Palau District Legislature and
formally established in law in Palau District Code 201. Following the establishment of a
Constitutional Government in 1981 and a subsequent review of all former legislation, the Palau
National Code (PNC) was promulgated. Modern legislation relating to the preserve is
promulgated under Palau National Code, Title 24, Chapter 30, paragraphs 3001-3004.
Area 1,200ha, of which 90ha is terrestrial
Land Tenure Koror State
Altitude Ranges from approximately 22m below sea level to 80m (Thomas et al., 1989).
Physical Features Comprises a cluster of small, high limestone islands characterised by steep
slopes and undercut notches at sea level. The largest island is deeply embayed with sheltered
coves. The limestone consists of clastic carbonate material from calcareous algae, corals,
foramnifera and other organisms (US Army, 1956) cemented by secondary deposition. Rift and
shear faulting associated with tectonic and volcanic activity has elevated the islands. Sea level
fluctuations have successively exposed and submerged limestone areas, alternately subjecting
them to subaerial erosion and marine reef building. Differential erosion and freshwater solution
have modified exposed limestone and created a jagged pit and pinnacle topography, solution
fissures, sink holes and caves. Marine solution and biological activity have combined to undercut
the limestone at sea level, giving the islands a characteristic "mushroom" shape. Beaches
composed of reef rubble and sand often form in coves and other locations where reef material is
deposited by waves and currents. Back beaches contain well-drained Ngedebus soils, which are
derived from wind and wave deposited coralline sands. These are classified as isohyperthermic
Typic Tropopsamments (Smith, 1983). About six small pocket beaches are found at the
shoreward portion of reef flats along the convoluted shoreline of the main Negerukewid Islands.
Some beaches appeared to be undergoing moderate erosion in January 1988.
The main islands share a common reef platform and ridges of scattered coral growth connect
many of the islands. Between these ridges are shallow basins, 5-10m deep, which are slowly
filling with coralline sand. The shallow sand and rubble dominated reef flat extends to the reef
edge, which dips lagoonward with increased coral cover. At lower depths along the slope, sand
and rubble become predominant and the sand lagoon floor is encountered at 8-10m depth
(Birkeland and Holthus, 1989). The preserve contains numerous patch reefs of various sizes and
shapes, similar in construction to the fringing reef platform. The shallow (0.5- 1.0m) reef interior
consists of coral sand and rubble deposits and low coral cover. Some patch reefs, or portions of
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Palau
reefs, are more submerged and support much greater coral coverage. Sand and rubble deposits
become increasingly dominant on the lower slope (Birkeland and Holthus, 1989).
The soils which accumulate under the upraised limestone forest have been classified by Smith
(1983) as part of the Rock Outcrop-Peleliu series. These consist of clayey-skeletal, oxidic,
isohyperthermic Lithic Eutropepts which form in residuum derived from coral limestone. Soils
are not found to any large extent on the steep slopes and cliffs. Precipitation percolates rapidly
into the porous limestone and there is very little, if any, surface run-off (Thomas et al., 1989).
There is little published information on the water quality or circulation patterns of Palau’s large
southern lagoon. There is little lagoon current activity generated by the transport of ocean waters
across the wide (2km) barrier reef to the immediate west of the preserve. In general, circulation
is tidal, with a northerly flow on flooding tides and southerly on ebbing tides. The currents are
weak and do not effectively flush the area of naturally occurring suspended materials such as
planktonic, particulate and miscellaneous organic matter resulting in reduced water clarity. The
tidal regime is semi-diurnal, with periodic extreme low tides that can expose coral reefs and may
cause coral bleaching and die-back if coincident with heavy rain (Thomas et al., 1989).
Climate Data specific to the preserve are not available. In general, Palau has a maritime tropical
wet climate, with little seasonal temperature variation. The mean daily temperature throughout
the year is approximately 27°C, with a mean diurnal range of about 7°C. The coolest and warmest
months are January and April, respectively (US Army, 1956). Mean annual rainfall is about
3700mm, ranging from 3150mm to 4400mm. Rainfall is heavy during December and January
with some 300mm monthly, but decreasing markedly when the intertropical convergence zone
moves to the south of the islands. February, March and April are driest, with monthly mean
rainfalls of between 190mm and 230mm (Smith, 1983). Relative humidity is about 90% at night
and 75% to 80% during the day (US Army, 1956). A north-east wind prevails during December
to March, veering to the east during April and the south-east and north-east during May. The
mean wind speed is 13km per hour. Palau is on the southern margin of the north-west Pacific
tropical cyclone zone and is rarely hit by the full forces of typhoons (Smith, 1953).
Vegetation Four terrestrial habitat types have been identified, viz. exposed beach strand,
protected beach strand, cliff and upraised limestone forests (Manner and Raulerson, 1989). All
of these are dominated by indigenous or endemic species and can be considered representative
of the terrestrial habitats and vegetation of Palau’s Rock Islands. Surveys conducted during
January 1988 (Manner and Raulerson, 1989) identified 113 species in 49 genera of which all but
four were indigenous or endemic to Palau. Introduced species include coconut palm Cocos
nucifera, and endemics include the threatened Palau palm Gulubia palauensis.
The beach strand habitat comprises narrow sand beaches and back beaches with support
salt-tolerant species, many of which are pan-Pacific. The protected strand habitat occurs in
sheltered islets and coves within the main island cluster. Reduced wave and current action allow
organic and mineral detritus deposits to accumulate and support a limited area of Rhizophora
mucronata mangroves. Cliff habitat areas support a relatively high diversity of low or shrubby
plants given their near vertical topography, lack of soils and xeric and halophytic conditions. On
less steeply inclined areas a limestone forest occurs. Salt tolerant species predominate at the
lower levels, whilst at mid-elevations up to 30m altitude a mixed forest of trees and shrubs occurs.
On exposed ridges and outcrops a few species form almost pure stands of small, closely spaced
individuals, including Eugenia reinwardtiana, Intsia bijuga and Gulubia palauensis. At higher
elevation a moist, less dense forest is found, with trees up to 20-30m in height. The ground is
covered with root systems and deep leaf litter which supports a wide diversity of ferns and other
herbaceous ground cover.
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The reefs support 22 algae species on interior and outer reefs and 27 species on the fringing reef
perimeter. Overall substrate cover ranges from 7-17%. Only one small sea grass area,
predominantly Syringodium, occurs (Wilkens, 1989).
Fauna Terrestrial mammals appear to be restricted to two bat species, namely an abundance of
Belau fruit bat but relatively scarce insectivorous sheath-tailed bat Emballonura sp. The former
species is not thought to roost in the islands. A survey in 1989 (Wiles and Conry, 1989) indicated
that the preserve may be free of rodents which is possibly unique for Palau and an important
factor for the sustained conservation of the islands. Dugong Dugong dugon (V) has been reported
occasionally. The same 1989 survey revealed the presence of 28 bird species, 23 of which breed
within the preserve, this being some 50% of the total number of species breeding within Palau.
Threatened species found within the preserve include Palau fruit dove Ptilinopus pelewensis,
Micronesian imperial pigeon Ducula oceanica, Nicobar pigeon Caloenas nicobarica (R)
Micronesian scrub fowl Megapodius laperouse (R) and the Palau fantail Rhipidura lepida.
Species endemic to Palau include shrike-thrush Colluricincla tenebrosa, Palau monarch Myiagra
erythrops, dusky white-eye Zosterops finschii (Wiles and Conry, 1989) and Palau scops owl Otus
podarginus (Dahl, 1986). Terrestrial vertebrates are also represented by the endemic Palau frog,
found only on the largest island in the preserve, four species of skink, two geckoes, Pacific island
boa Candoia carinata and Palau tree snake Dendrolaphis lineolatus in the upper slopes of the
highest and largest island. Terrestrial invertebrates are poorly known, but include coconut crab
Birgus latro (R) (Wiles and Conry, 1989), two land crabs, Cardisoma hirtepes and Gecarcoidea
lalandii (D. Otobed, pers. comm., 1990) and members of at least 11 arachnid families (Kerr,
1989).
Little quantitative information is available on the coral communities which may be categorised
into reefs within the island cluster, fringing reefs around the outside edge of the island cluster
and patch reefs. Interior reefs support limited coral communities on submerged reef ridges, with
a patchy coral cover of 5-25% cover. Thickets of Acropora and large Porites mounds and
micratolls are common, with 17 species or species groups being dominant out of a total of 39
recorded for interior reefs. Fringing reefs support 53 species or species groups, with 23 being
dominant and diversity being greatest at 10-15m depth. Patch reefs support up to 60 species or
species groups, with 20 dominant and with the greatest diversity and coverage (40-90%)
occurring below 2-5m (Birkeland and Holthus, 1989). All seven of the known giant clam species
Tridacnidae are found, representing a valuable gene pool. Approximately 200 fish species occur,
representing only 20% of the number expected for Palau and reflecting the limited number of
marine habitats within the preserve (Amesbury, 1989). Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata
(E) and green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) are present and probably all ten beaches in the preserve
and associated islands are used for nesting by hawksbills. Nesting occurs throughout the year
with a peak of activity during July and August (Pritchard, 1981). Estuarine crocodile Crocodylus
pororus (E) has been sighted occasionally although there is apparently no resident population.
Banded sea snake Laticauda colubrina has been recorded (Wiles and Conry, 1989).
Cultural Heritage There has been no systematic survey for archaeological sites and artefacts,
although many sites have been identified in the Rock Islands (Snyder, 1985). Pottery shards of
an unknown age have been found (Manner and Raulerson, 1989). The islands may have been
inhabited for lengthy periods of time but it is unknown whether there are particular histories,
legends or natural features of cultural significance associated with the Ngerukewid Islands
(Thomas et al., 1989).
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Palau
Local Human Population There is no resident population and there is no indication of
permanent habitation in the past (Thomas et al., 1989). The present law prohibits habitation
(D. Otobed, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is regular and increasing visitor use on most days of the
week, but mostly on weekends, with boat traffic passing through the preserve. However, most
visitors do not use the preserve for recreation, probably because there are few beaches or good
landing sites and the preserve is relatively isolated. There are no visitor facilities (Thomas et al.,
1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities Scientists and consultants visit the preserve, usually escorted
by personnel from the Marine Resources Division of the Bureau of Resources and Development,
or the Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Centre (MMDC), who also informally undertake
surveys during these visits (Thomas et al., 1989). There are no scientific facilities.
Conservation Value The preserve has considerable scientific and conservation importance
because pristine and virtually unmodified examples of Palau’s distinctive limestone island
habitats, and many indigenous, endemic and threatened species persist.
Conservation Management The preserve is recognised by both the Koror State and the Palau
National Government as being Koror State Land. The State recognises that, as the preserve is
created under national legislation, its management is the responsibility of a national agency. The
enabling legislation states that the preserve is to be retained "in its present primitive condition
where the natural plant and animal life shall be permitted to develop undisturbed". Although the
title of the preserve suggests its principal function is the preservation of wildlife, a broader
conservation role covering all biota and ecological processes is clearly intended in the legislation.
Other relevant legislation includes Palau National Code Title 31 Land Planning, Division 3,
Koror Zoning, Chapters 30 and 31; and Title 24 Environmental Protection, Division 2, Wildlife
Protection, Chapter 10 (Endangered Species Act), Chapter 12 (Protected Sea Life), Chapter 13
(Illegal Methods of Capture) and Chapter 14 (Protected Land Life). Furthermore, according to
Koror Zoning Law, all the Koror Rock Islands are designated as Conservation Areas (D. Otobed,
pers. comm., 1990).
A management plan has been compiled (Thomas et al., 1989), based on acomprehensive resource
inventory (Birkeland and Manner, 1989). Four broad goals are identified in the plan, namely: to
protect and preserve in perpetuity, as a representative example of Palau’s Rock Islands, the
indigenous flora and fauna, physical features and natural ecological processes of the Ngerukewid
Islands; to expand scientific understanding of the ecosystems and ecological processes of the
preserve in order to aid future management and add to the body of scientific knowledge of tropical
Pacific ecosystems; to expand public awareness and understanding of the preserve and its values
and to foster interest in, and respect for, Palau’s natural heritage; and to develop an effective
institutional framework for the management of the preserve and the overall expansion of nature
conservation activities and capabilities in Palau. The provisions of Palau National code, Title 24,
Chapter 30, under which the preserve is established, need to be amended in order to give legal
Status to the plan and to provide for its implementation. The plan is to cover a five-year period
and makes allowance for review and amendment (Idechong, 1989). One specific
recommendation suggests nomination of the preserve for inscription on the Unesco World
Heritage List, following the Republic of Palau joining the World Heritage Convention as a State
Party.
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Management Constraints Prior to 1981 surveillance and enforcement activities were
undertaken by the Koror-based Conservation Office of the Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands,
but these activities lapsed when the Office was incorporated into the Ministry of National
Resources. The preserve has thus not been actively managed for many years although some
surveillance is undertaken by the Bureau of Resources and Development, Ministry of National
Resources. There is evidence that many people visit the preserve to poach turtles, take turtle and
megapode eggs, hunt coconut crab, fruit bats and pigeons and take clams and fish, sometimes
using illegal methods such as dynamite or poison fishing (Thomas et al., 1989).
Staff Personnel from the Marine Resources Division of the Bureau of Resources and
Development, or the Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Centre visit the site (Thomas
et al., 1989).
Budget No information
Local Addresses Division of Conservation and Entomology, Bureau of Resources and
Development, Ministry of National Resources, PO Box 100, Biology Laboratories, Koror, 96940
References
Amesbury, S.S. (1989). Fishes of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve. In: Resource Survey
of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of Palau. SPREP Topic Review.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen).
Birkeland, C. and Holthus, P. (1989). Coral communities of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife
Preserve. In: Resource Survey of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of
Palau. SPREP Topic Review. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
(Unseen).
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Idechong, N. (1989). The development of Ngerukewid management plan. Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 3 pp.
Kerr, A. (1989). Arachnids of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve. In: Resource Survey
of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of Palau. SPREP Topic Review.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen).
Manner, H.I and Raulerson, L. (1989). Flora and vegetation of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife
Preserve. In: Resource Survey of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of
Palau. SPREP Topic Review. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
(Unseen).
Smith, C.W. (1983). Soil survey of islands of Palau, Republic of Palau. USDA, Soil Conservation
Service. (Unseen).
Thomas, P.E.J., Holthus, P.F. and Idechong, N. (1989). Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve:
management plan. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 43 pp.
US Army (1956). Military geology of Palau Islands, Caroline Islands. Prepared by US Army,
Office of the Engineer and US Geological Survey. (Unseen).
Wiles, G. J. and Conry, P.J. (1989). Terrestrial vertebrates of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife
Preserve. In: Resource Survey of the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, Republic of
Palau. SPREP Topic Review. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen).
Date December 1989, updated March 1990
166
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Area 462,842 sq. km
Population 3,900,000 Natural increase: 2.7%
(Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC, 1989)
GNP US$ 790 per capita (1988)
Policy and Legislation An Environment and Conservation Policy was adopted by the National
Parliament in 1977, in recognition that development must be ecologically, socially and culturally
suitable for Papua New Guinea. The Policy was drawn up in response to the Fourth Goal of the
National Constitution:
"4. Natural Resources and Environment. We declare our fourth goal to be for Papua
New Guinea’s natural resources and environment to be conserved and used for the
collective benefit of us all, and be replenished for the benefit of future generations."
The Fourth Goal provides for: (1) wise use of natural resources, (2) conservation and
replenishment of the environment and (3) protection of flora and fauna for the benefit of present
and future generations (SPREP, 1985b).
In order to implement the constitutionally-based policies, various laws have been introduced. Of
particular relevance to the establishment of protected areas are the National Parks Acct,
Conservation Areas Act and the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act (Venkatesh et al., 1983).
(See Annex 1).
The National Parks Act, 1982 replaced the amended 1971 Act, which in turn superseded the
original National Parks and Gardens Act, 1966. It provides for:
"the preservation of the environment and of the national cultural inheritance by —
(1) the conservation of sites and areas having particular biological, topographical,
geological, historical, scientific or social importance ."
and thereby upholds the Fourth National Goal and Directive Principle of the Constitution.
The Act contains provisions for reserving government land and for leasing and accepting gifts
of land. Powers to make regulations to control hunting, fishing, sports, vehicles and domestic
animals, and law enforcement provisions are contained in the Act. Although comprehensive in
its coverage of different types of protected area, the Act does not define or even list the various
categories nor is there any statutory requirement for the provision of park management plans
(Eaton, 1985; SPREP, 1985b). The procedure for establishment of protected areas under this Act
involves three stages: proposal, approval and declaration (Kwapena, 1984).
The Conservation Areas Act, 1978 has similar objectives to the National Parks Act but is more
comprehensive and, to some extent, remedies deficiencies in the other legislation. For example,
provisions include the establishment of a National Conservation Council to advise on the
identification and management of protected areas, and the formation of management committees
for each area to be responsible for inter alia the production of management plans. Conservation
areas may be established on land under public, private or customary ownership. The Act awaits
implementation due to financial constraints (Eaton, 1985; SPREP, 1985b).
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Although concerned primarily with the protection of endangered species, the Fauna (Protection
and Control) Act, 1966 provides for the establishment of wildlife management areas (WMAs)
on land held under customary ownership, of which there are three categories, defined in
Annex 1. The Act provides for the setting up of wildlife management committees to administer
them, thereby involving customary land-owners in the control of wildlife resource exploitation.
The committees advise on the provision of specific rules for each area for "the protection,
propagation, encouragement, management, control, harvesting and destruction of fauna" (Eaton,
1985; SPREP, 1985b). The procedure for the establishment of WMAs is fully described by
Kisokau and Lindgren (1984) and Asigau (1989), and also outlined by Eaton (1986). The WMA
concept recognises customary land ownership, and places landowners in direct control. Further,
the establishment of WMAs is invariably initiated by the local landowners. The major failings
in the WMA system are the generally inadequate size of each area, lack of local resource
management expertise, delays in responding to requests for WMA establishment, leading to
apathy and weak enforcement of regulations (Asigau, 1989).
The following are the principal classifications and general criteria for protected areas (SPREP,
1985b):
National parks are extensive areas of outstanding scenic and scientific interest which are of
national significance. They should be of at least 1,000ha and preferably in excess of 2,000ha.
Ideally, the whole range of land-forms and environments found in Papua New Guinea should be
represented. National parks have two main functions; first for public use and education and
second, for the conservation of nature through protection of undisturbed habitat.
Provincial parks are less extensive natural areas than national parks; frequently less than 2,000ha
and often less than 1,000ha. Not necessarily of national significance, they are of scenic and
recreational importance at provincial level. Their main role is to provide for outdoor recreation
in a natural setting close to urban centres.
Historical sites are areas of historic significance, covering prehistory and recent history. They
may be of any size and, in many cases, adjacent areas will be developed for recreational purposes.
They should provide for the preservation of areas of historic and prehistoric significance and
their interpretation to the public.
Nature reserves can be areas of any size in which samples of ecosystems and habitats are
preserved, either for their intrinsic value or for the protection of wildlife. Scientific research is
permitted, but access by members of the public is very limited.
National walking tracks are physically challenging and scenic primitive routes through natural
landscape that provide for walking in natural surroundings over long distances. Wherever
possible, there should be a minimum easement of 10m of natural vegetation on either side of
tracks. Advantage may be taken of existing national parks or other large areas of reserved natural
landscape.
Sanctuaries are areas set aside primarily for breeding and research on indigenous wildlife and
its display to the public for education and recreation purposes. They can be of any size but should
contain some natural habitat in addition to the display area.
Wildlife management areas are areas reserved at the request of the land-owners for the
conservation and controlled utilisation of the wildlife and its habitat. Declaration of a wildlife
management area does not in any way affect ownership of the land, only the way in which
resources are used. Thus, wildlife management areas represent an attempt to develop
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Papua New Guinea
conservation on a customary basis, using traditional methods of resource management (Eaton,
1986).
The customary land tenure system and associated subsistence economy traditionally contains
many forms of resource management and conservation. The shifting cultivation system, for
example, with its long periods (10-35 years) of fallow helps to maintain soil fertility. Customary
rules may prevent the felling of trees along river banks. There are also prohibitions against cutting
down trees near villages, while other trees of special economic value or of particular importance
for certain types of wildlife may be protected from indiscriminate felling. In addition to controls
consciously imposed by village societies, there are a great many associated traditional beliefs
and practices that have often proved extremely effective in protecting certain habitats and species.
In many Papua New Guinean societies there are prohibitions or tambu against entering certain
areas or hunting or felling trees within them. These may be sites of old settlements, burial grounds
or physical features, such as mountain tops, caves, ponds and forests. Some areas may be
protected permanently, in others the restriction may be for a limited period as may happen after
a death in the group (Eaton, 1985).
While traditional beliefs and customs have helped to protect the environment in the past and are
often still operative, the integrity of the environment is under increasing threat from pressures
associated with population growth, increased mobility and growth of the cash economy. The
establishment of a protected areas system has proved to be extremely difficult on account of the
traditional land tenure system. New legislation and novel approaches to environmental
management have proved necessary.
Other environmental legislation is reviewed by Eaton (1985). Some of this legislation is relevant
to protected areas. The Forestry Act (Amalgamated), 1973 is the main legislation responsible for
the conservation and management of forest resources. Under this Act the government purchases
timber rights from customary landowners for a certain period and then grants a licence to
commercial companies to extract the timber. Royalties are paid to the government and a
proportion of these is passed on to the provincial government and landowners. Environmental
safeguards are provided for in the agreements between the government and logging companies.
For example, logging is not allowed within 20m of permanent watercourses, or 50m in the case
of major rivers, nor on gradients above 25°-30°. The interests of customary land-owners are also
protected. They retain rights of access for gardening, hunting and collection of wood for fuel and
construction purposes. Reforestation is not provided for in the forestry legislation but depends
on arrangements between the landowners and permit-holders. The Forestry Act is seen to be
inadequate to cope with the modern system of provincial government, and is readily
circumvented by recourse to the provisions of the Forestry (Private Dealings) Act which enables
landowners to enter into private agreements with logging companies with few if any statutory
controls over the scale and manner of the operations (TFAP, 1989). The Act is also discussed
further by Sargent (1989). An important statute is the Environmental Planning Act, 1978 which
calls for an assessment of the impact of a development project on the environment. Both the
Environmental Planning Act and permits issued under the Forestry Act may also require logging
companies to leave certain areas undisturbed as reserves for wildlife (Venkatesh et al., 1983).
There is evidence, however, that much of this legislation is not effectively enforced, with some
70% of logging companies continuing to operate despite the mandatory provision of
environmental impact assessments (Anon., 1990).
International Activities Papua New Guinea is not yet party to any of the international
conventions or programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
At a regional level, Papua New Guinea signed the 1976 Convention on the Conservation of
Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into
force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and
represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among
other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and
fauna.
Papua New Guinea is also party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
and has signed (3 November 1987) and ratified (15 September 1989) the 1986 Convention for
the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP
Convention). The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the
parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or
endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of
activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes
being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by
definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and
the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Papua New Guinea is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management The Department of Environment and Conservation, headed
by a Secretary and with its own Ministry, was originally established in 1974 as the Office of
Environment and Conservation, Department of Lands, Surveys and Mines. It successively passed
through the departments of Natural Resources, Lands, National Mapping & Environment, Lands,
Surveys & Environment, and Physical Planning & Environment before being upgraded to
departmental status in 1985. The constitutional basis for the existence and operations of the
Department of Environment and Conservation is the Fourth Goal of the National Constitution.
The Department is divided into four main divisions: Environment, Nature Conservation, Water
Resources and Management Services (DEC, 1988).
Administration of acts directly concerned with protected areas, i.e. Fauna (Protection and
Control), Conservation Areas, National Parks, is the responsibility of the Nature Conservation
Division, which comprises three branches: Conservation Surveys, National Parks, and Wildlife
Conservation (DEC, 1988). Under the National Parks Act, 1982 the First Assistant Secretary of
the National Parks Service is responsible for the administration and management of national
parks, marine national parks, provincial parks, historical sites, nature reserves, national walking
tracks and other protected areas. This differs from the previous Act whereby powers were
assigned to a National Parks Board (Eaton, 1985; SPREP, 1985b). The National Parks Service
internal revenue, collected from park entrance fees, totals some K 30,000 (approximately
US$ 35,300). Wildlife management areas, which are declared by the Minister for Environment
and Conservation under the Fauna (Protection and Conirol) Act, are managed by the landowners
themselves, who are also responsible for making the rules (SPREP, 1985b; Eaton, 1986).
Systems Reviews Papua New Guinea lies between the Equator and latitude 12°S and between
longitudes 141°E and 164°E. It comprises the eastern half of New Guinea and includes the
Bismarck Archipelago (principally New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover and Manus),
d’Entrecasteaux Islands, the Louisiade Archipelago and the North Solomon islands of
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Papua New Guinea
Bougainville and Buka. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian province of Irian
Jaya.
Forest of some sort, including successional forest, covers 71% (328,617 sq. km) of mainland
Papua New Guinea. Undisturbed rain forest constitutes 65% (300,847 sq. km) of the total area
and man-disturbed lands (grassland, gardens, degraded forest, plantation) some 20%
(92,568 sq. km) (Beehler, 1985). Summary estimates for 1990 indicate natural forest cover of
78% (361,250 sq. km), including 420 sq. km of forest plantation (FAO, 1987). Discrepancies
between the two sets of data can probably be ascribed to different definitions of forests, and
different survey and analytical techniques. Approximately 20% of the total land area of Papua
New Guinea is currently used for agriculture and 10%, or 46,000 sq. km, is under intensive
cultivation (Freyne and McAlpine, 1985). An account of the forests, the threats to them and maps
depicting current distribution is given in Collins et al. (1991).
The following description of the vegetation, based on Johns (1982) and an unpublished account
by M.D.F. Udvardy reflects marked altitudinal zonation. A fringe of mangrove occurs along
much of the coastline. Inland, swamps are extensive and covered by high forest with screw "palm"
Pandanus and sago palm Metroxylon sagu forming a lower canopy. On drier land, mixed lowland
rain forest is widespread and comprises complex communities, with epiphytes, orchids, tree and
ground ferns. In contrast to rain forests elsewhere in Malesia, dipterocarp species are poorly
represented. Throughout the lowlands, rain forests have been extensively destroyed or modified
by shifting agriculture. Few areas of rain forest have escaped some form of cataclysmic
destruction over the past 200-300 years (Johns, 1982). Areas having a markedly seasonal climate
support monsoon forest which is characterised by the presence of a number of species that remain
leafless for prolonged periods. Savanna vegetation, a degraded form of monsoon forest, occurs
in areas receiving an annual rainfall of less than 1000-1300mm. Dominated by Eucalyptus spp.,
it is quite distinct from lowland alluvial plains vegetation elsewhere in Papua New Guinea and
resembles that of northern Australia.
Above 700m coniferous trees appear in the rain forest. Various altitudinally overlapping forest
types can be distinguished within the montane zone, which usually extends from 700m to
2,700-3,000m. The upper montane forest, which may extend to 3,300m, is a cloud forest, with
10-25m tall moss-covered trees and a dense understorey. In the subalpine zone, the "high
mountain forest" has a closed canopy at about 10m, with moss carpeting the forest floor.
Ericaceous (heather family) shrubs supplant the forest near its upper limit at 3,800-4,100m, and
are in turn replaced by grasslands, tarns and bogs (Smith, 1982). These are supplanted by tundra,
which extends from about 4,400m to 4,700m. With the possible exception of the montane
grasslands around Henganofi, all grasslands below 3,000m probably originate from a
combination of agriculture and firing. The vegetation of the various island groups is mainly
lowland rain forest, and at higher elevation, montane rain forest. The enclaves of grasslands and
savannas are likely to be anthropogenous.
The various types of wetlands are described by Paijmans (1976) and Scott (1989), the latter
providing detailed accounts of 33 wetland sites. Among the most extensive are mangrove swamps
which occupy large parts of the coastal areas of Papua New Guinea, predominantly along
protected bays and near the mouths of rivers. The largest expanses are in the south, notably in
the Gulf of Papua with 162,000-200,000ha of mangroves. The north coast is not as rich in
mangroves as the south coast.
The coral reefs of Papua New Guinea are virtually pristine compared to those of many countries,
although they are coming under increasing threat from higher siltation and effluent loads in
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
coastal areas and from commercial exploitation (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The total area of reefs and
associated shallow water to depths of 30m or less is estimated to be 40,000 sq. km (Wright and
Richards, 1985; Wright and Kurtama, 1987), with the greatest concentration (12,870 sq. km)
lying off Milne Bay Province (Dalzell and Wright, 1986).
The present protected areas system is very inadequate, particularly for a country of such
biological importance as Papua New Guinea. Together with the rest of New Guinea, it ranks
third in importance to Lord Howe and New Caledonia among 226 Oceanic islands of particular
conservation interest (Dahl, 1986). The other islands within Papua New Guinea that fall within
the top 12 most important Oceanic islands for conservation are New Britain, Goodenough, and
Bougainville in descending order.
Although Dahl (1986) assesses the conservation importance of the different islands within Papua
New Guinea and the extent of protected areas coverage, gaps in the protected areas system are
not highlighted at national level. Previously (Dahl, 1980), an attempt was made to identify
whether the various habitat types within Papua New Guinea are conserved within protected areas,
but this review no longer reflects the present situation because many protected areas (notably
wildlife management areas) have since been established.
Itis instructive to compare the existing network of protected areas with that proposed by Diamond
(1976). This proposed system, although more extensive, is largely analogous to a scheme earlier
outlined by Specht et al. (1974) in which areas of habitat that might be expected to incorporate
an almost complete range of biogeographical and ecological patterns are defined. The majority
of existing protected areas lie outside the 22 areas of conservation importance identified by
Diamond (1976); moreover, most of these conservation areas are not even represented in the
protected areas network.
The protected areas network proposed by Diamond (1976) is based largely on bird distributions
because these have been studied in most detail. (Available information suggests that fairly similar
patterns hold for other animals and for plants.) Less ambitious and focused principally on
conserving birds of paradise and their rain forest habitat throughout New Guinea is a 4,882 sq. km
system of eight reserves proposed by Beehler (1985). Similarly, Parsons (1983) has proposed
the establishment of a network of 20 reserves to meet the conservation requirements of birdwing
butterflies. Many of these proposed sites coincide or overlap with those recommended under the
schemes already discussed.
An action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region has already been launched
(SPREP, 1985a). Principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation
policies, establishment of protected areas, effective protected areas management, and regional
and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Papua New Guinea are as follows:
review conservation legislation; develop public awareness programmes in environmental
education; review administrative structures to effect efficient implementation of environmental
and conservation policies; review "protected areas register"; draw up a list of endangered species
of plants and animals; review the effectiveness of the current system of protected areas; undertake
a comprehensive survey of terrestrial and marine ecosystems and design a representative system
of protected areas; secure assistance and support for the preparation of management plans for
Mt Wilhelm National Park, McAdam National Park and Mt Gahavisuka Provincial Park; and
develop a national conservation strategy. The outline of an environmental management
programme for sustainable developed has been compiled (Kula, 1989), including a timetable for
its implementation by 1992. However, the degree of progress with this programme is not known.
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Papua New Guinea
Of paramount importance is the need to develop a national conservation plan and identify
priorities for the establishment of a comprehensive protected areas network. Not only are more
protected areas required to conserve the great diversity of life on the mainland, but attention
should also be directed towards developing the network on other large islands such as
New Britain, New Ireland, Manus, Goodenough, Fergusson and Bougainville. Smaller islands
with significant levels of endemism, such as Ninigo Islands and Luf (Hermit) Islands, may require
priority action, however, because they may be under greater relative human threat (Dahl, 1986).
Similarly, marine sites need to be identified and incorporated within the protected areas network
(Genolagani, 1984; Dahl, 1986). Preliminary recommendations from the 1989 Tropical Forestry
Action Plan donor coordination mission suggest that improvements in the existing protected
areas network should receive a higher priority than the establishment of new areas. Twenty
protected areas are identified as suitable for rehabilitation under any TFAP operations (Srivastava
and Biitzler, 1989).
The most significant natural resource problems facing Papua New Guinea are forest depletion,
soil loss and soil fertility in the mid-montane valley systems, degradation from large-scale mining
and agricultural activities, and exploitation of reef fisheries which are among the richest in the
world (Viner, 1984; ADB, 1987; UNEP, 1987). Forests are being destroyed at an estimated rate
of 80,000ha per year, commercial logging accounting for some 60,000ha yearly, and shifting
cultivation 10,000-20,000ha yearly (ADB, 1987; WEI, 1988). This rate is increasing: in
1981-1985, it is estimated to have been 22,000ha per year (Repetto, 1988). These estimates
contrast with the more conservative FAO figure of some 12,000ha deforestation annually, with
a further 60,000ha disturbed in some way by logging (FAO, 1987). About 1,000,000ha of former
have now been converted to grassland as a result of over-intensive shifting agriculture (Collins
et al., 1991). Papua New Guinea is relatively free from industrial pollution, except in coastal
areas where much of the industry is sited. Considerable environmental damage has also been
caused by mining activities, notably those of New Guinea Goldfields near Wau, Bougainville
Copper in the Jaba catchment area and Ok Tedi in the Fly River region (Viner, 1984; ADB, 1987;
WEI, 1988; Hughes, 1989).
Addresses
Department of Environment and Conservation, PO Box 5749, Boroko
References
ADB (1987). Papua New Guinea. Environmental natural resources briefing profile. Asian
Development Bank, Manila. 6 pp.
Anon. (1990). PNG bans logging permits. Christian Science Monitor: 19.
Asigau, W. (1989). The wildlife management area system in Papua New Guinea. Case Study 15.
Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 17 pp.
Beehler, B.M. (1985). Conservation of New Guinea forest birds. CBP Technical Publication
No. 4. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 223-246.
Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) (1991). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical
Forests: Asia and the Pacific. Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature, Switzerland and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Macmillan Press Limited, London. 256 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Cragg, S.M. (1987). Papua New Guinea. In: Umali, R.M. et al. (Eds), Mangroves of Asia and
the Pacific: status and management. Natural Resources Management Center and National
Mangrove Committee, Ministry of Natural Resources, Manila. Pp. 299-309.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific. South Pacific Commission
Technical Paper No. 179. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Dalzell, P. and Wright, A. (1986). An assessment of the exploitation of coral reef fishery
resources in Papua New Guinea. In: Maclean, J.L., Dizon, L.B. and Hosillos, L.V. (Eds),
The first Asian fisheries forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.
DEC (1988). Department of Environment and Conservation Handbook. Department of
Environment and Conservation, Boroko. 64 pp.
Diamond, J.M. (1976). A proposed natural reserve system for Papua New Guinea. Unpublished
report. 16 pp.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: protected areas in the South Pacific. SPREP
Topic Review No. 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 103 pp.
Eaton, P. (1986). Grass roots conservation. Wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. 101 pp.
FAO (1987). Assessment of forest resources in six countries. Special study on forest
management, afforestation and utilization of forest resources in the developing regions. Field
Document 17. GCP/RAS/106/JPN. FAO, Bangkok. 104 pp.
Freyne, D.F. and McAlpine, J.R. (1985). Land clearing and development in Papua New Guinea.
In: Tropical land clearing for sustainable agriculture. IBSRAM, Jakarta.
Genolagani, J.M.G. (1984). An assessment of the development of marine parks and reserves in
Papua New Guinea. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National parks, conservation,
and development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 322-329.
Hughes, P.J. (1989). The effects of mining on the environment of high islands: a case study of
gold mining on Misima Island, Papua New Guinea. Environmental Case Studies 5. South
Pacific Regional Environment Programme, SPC, Noumea, New Caledonia. 6 pp.
Johns, R.J. (1982). Plant zonation. In: Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.), Biogeography and ecology of New
Guinea. Monographiae Biologicae 42: 309-330.
Kisokau, K. and Lindgren, E. (1984). Ndrolowa Wildlife Management Area. A report on
proposals to establish a wildlife management area for a variety of wildlife resources in Manus
Province. Office of Environment and Conservation, Department of Physical Planning and
Environment. 12 pp.
Kwapena, N. (1984). Wildlife management by the people. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R.
(Eds) (1984), National parks, conservation, and development. The role of protected areas
in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 315-321.
Kula, G.R. (1989). Environmental management for sustainable development programme. Case
Study No. 20. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas,
Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 8 pp.
Paijmans, K. (1975). Vegetation map of Papua New Guinea (1: 1,000,000) and explanatory notes
to the vegetation map of Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Land Research Series 35: 1-25.
Parsons, M.J. (1983). A conservation study of the birdwing butterflies Ornithoptera and Troides
(Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in Papua New Guinea. Final Report to Department of Primary
Industry, Papua New Guinea. 111 pp.
Repetto, R. (1988). The forest for the trees? Government policies and the misuse of forest
resources. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. 105 pp.
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Papua New Guinea
Sargent, C. (1989). Papua New Guinea Tropical Forest Action Plan: land use issues. Draft.
International Institute for Environment and Development/United Nations Development
Programme. Unpublished. 78 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.). (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. Pp. 1111-1155.
Seddon, G. (1984). Logging in the Gogol Valley, Papua New Guinea. Ambio 13: 345-350.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as a part of tourism development
in the island Pacific. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
Smith, J.M.B. (1982). Origin of the tropicoalpine flora. In: Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.), Biogeography
and ecology of New Guinea. Monographiae Biologicae 42: 287-308.
Specht, R.L., Roe, E.M. and Boughton, V.H. (1974). Conservation of major plant communities
in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Australian Journal of Botany Supplementary Series
7: 591-605.
SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 21 pp.
SPREP (1985b). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume II. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 175-194.
SPREP (1989). Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 13 pp.
Srivastava, P. and Biitzler, W. (1989). Protective development and conservation of the forest
environment in Papua New Guinea: priority needs and measures proposed under the Tropical
Forest Action Plan. Draft. Unpublished. 40 pp.
TFAP (1989). Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Papua New Guinea: forestry sector review. Draft.
Unpublished. 165 pp.
UNEP (1987). Environmental management in Papua New Guinea. Volume 2. Review of
background information. A programme document submitted by the Government of Papua
New Guinea to the United Nations Environment Programme for funding through the UNEP
clearing house programme. 108 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S., Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
Viner, A.B. (1984). Environmental protection in Papua New Guinea. Ambio 13: 342-344.
WEI (1988). Protecting the environment. A call for support. Wau Ecology Institute, Wau, Papua
New Guinea. 19 pp.
Wright, A. and Richards, A.H. (1985). A multispecies fishery associated with coral reefs in the
Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea. Asian Marine Biology 2: 69-84.
Wright, A. and Kurtama, Y.Y. (1987). Man in Papua New Guinea’s coastal zone. Resource
Management and Optimization 4: 261-296.
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ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The National Parks Act
Date: 1982
Brief description: Replaced the amended 1971 Act, which in turn superceded the original
National Parks and Gardens Act, 1966.
Administrative authority: Nature Conservation Division, Department of Environment and
Conservation
Designation: Not defined
Title: The Conservation Areas Act
Date: 12 September 1978
Brief description: Provides (a) for the preservation of the environment and of the national
cultural inheritance by (i) the conservation of sites and areas having particular biological,
topographical, geological, historic, scientific or social importance; and (ii) the management
of those sites and areas, in accordance with the fourth goals of the National Goals and
Directive Principles; and (b) to give effect to those goals and Principles under Section 25 of the
Constitution, and (c) to establish a National Conservation Council and (d) for other purposes.
NB: The Act awaits implementation due to financial constraints.
Administrative authority: No information
Designation: No information
Title: Fauna (Protection and Control) Act
Date: 1966
Brief description: Although concerned primarily with the protection of endangered
species, the Act provides for the establishment of wildlife management areas (WMAs) on
land held under customary ownership, of which there are three categories.
Administrative authority: The Act provides for the setting up of wildlife management
committees, thereby involving customary land-owners in the control of wildlife resource
exploitation. The committees advise on the provision of specific rules for each area for "the
protection, propagation, encouragement, management, control, harvesting and destruction
of fauna”.
Designation:
Wildlife management area
¢ Category I WMAs are either terrestrial or marine areas reserved at the landowner’s
request for the conservation and controlled utilisation of all wildlife and habitat.
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Papua New Guinea
¢ Category II WMAs (sometimes referred to as "protected areas") are areas where only
specific named species are protected.
e Category III WMAs (or "sanctuaries") are areas where most resources, excluding
specific named animal species, are fully protected.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Jimi Valley II 4,180 1986
2 Kokoda Trail Unassigned
3 McAdam* II 2,080 1970
4 Mt Wilhelm* Unassigned 4,856
5 Varirata* II 1,063 1969
Wildlife Sanctuaries
6 Moitaka Unassigned
Nature Reserves
7, Talele Islands (Bismarck Archipelago)* IV 40 1973
Reserves
8 Namanatabu Historic Reserve* Unassigned 2a 1979
Sanctuaries
9 Baiyer River S Unassigned 120 1968
Scenic Reserves
10 Paga Hill ScR Unassigned 10 1986
Marine Parks
11 Horseshoe Reef MP Unassigned 396
Parks
12 Cape Wom International Memorial Park* Unassigned 105 1973
Wildlife Management Areas (Categories I to III)
13 Bagiai (1)* Vill 13,760 1977
14 Balek (III) IV 470 1977
15 Baniara Island (II) Vill 15 1975
16 Crown Island (II) IV 5,969 1977
17 Garu (I)* Vil 8,700 1976
18 Iomare (1) Vol 3,837 1987
19 Lake Lavu (I) vill 2,640 1981
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Map! Name of area
ref.
Long Island (II)
Maza (I)*
Mojirau (1)*
Ndrolowa (I)*
Neiru (I)
Nuserang (I)*
Oia-Mada Wa’a (1)
Pirung (I)
Pokili (I)
Ranba (I)*
Sawataetae (I)*
Siwi Utame (I)
Tonda (I)*
Zo-Oimaga (I)
Provincial Parks
Mt Gahavisuka*
Nanuk Island*
Talele Islands*
Proposed
Embi Lakes
Lake Dakataua National Park*
Lake Hargy National Park*
Mt Bosavi
Mt Giluwe
Mt Karimui
Ramu
Mt Susu
Abau
Alim Islands
Arawe Islands
Astralobe Bay
Baluan Islands
Calvados Chain
Cape Anukur
Cape Gloucester
Cape Nelson
Chambri Lake
Conflict Group
Coutance Islands
Engineer Group
Feni Islands
Fergusson Islands
Fly Island
Goodenough Islands
IUCN management
category
IV
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
178
Area
(ha)
(4,920)
Year
notified
1977
1978
1978
1985
1987
1986
1981
1989
1975
1977
1977
1977
1975
1981
1989
1973
1973
Papua New Guinea
Map? Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Hansa Bay Marine Park* Proposed
Djaul Islands Proposed
Duke of York Proposed
Hermit Islands Proposed
Hoskins Bay Proposed
Island between New Hanover and Kavieng Proposed
Kerema Proposed
Kikori Proposed
Killerton Islands Proposed
Kulu, Manus, Passu Proposed
Kuvenimas Lake Marine Park* Proposed
Lea Lea Salt Flats Proposed
Lihir Group Proposed
Los Negrosls Proposed
Manam Island Proposed
Mangrove Island Proposed
Milne Bay Islands Proposed
Misima Islands Proposed
Murik Lakes Proposed
Ninigo Group Proposed
Normanby Islands Proposed
Papuan Barrier Reef Proposed
Pinipel-Nassau Group Proposed
Pocklington Reef Proposed
Rambutyo Islands Proposed
Sabben Islands Proposed
Salamaua Peninsula Marine Park* Proposed
Shouten Islands Proposed
St Mathias Group Proposed
Tabar Islands Proposed
Tami Islands Proposed
Tanga Islands Proposed
Trobriand Islands Proposed
Tumelo Ali, Seleo and Angel Islands Proposed
Umboi Islands Proposed
Unei Island Proposed
Vuvulu Islands Proposed
Ware Islands Proposed
Western Islands Proposed
Woodlark Islands Proposed
Yela Islands Proposed
Yimas Lake Proposed
Balabob Proposed
Lou Island* Proposed
Matupit Proposed
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Map? Name of area IUCN management
ref. category
Motupore Island Proposed
Towifro Proposed
Afore Lakes Proposed
Huon Peninsula Proposed
Idlers Bay Proposed
Kinikini Proposed
Labu Proposed
Mt Kemenagi Proposed
Waigani Swamp Provincial Park* Proposed
Taurama Beach Proposed
White Beach Proposed
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of some protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
180
Area
(ha)
(120)
Year
notified
Papua New Guinea
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Protected Areas of Papua New Guinea
181
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
BAGIAI WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on Karkar Island in the Bismarck Sea, Madang Province, some
50km north of Madang town. The site occupies the central and eastern sections of Karkar and
includes two small islands (Tuale and Mangamenek) to the north-east, coastal areas and reefs up
to 2km from the shore. Approximately 4°40’S, 146°E
Date and History of Establishment Bagiai was declared a wildlife management area on
15 January 1977 and gazetted in March 1977. Initiative for its establishment came from the local
people who expressed concern over use of guns for hunting the islands increasingly scarce
wildlife.
Area 13,760ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 1,840m (Mount Kunugui)
Physical Features The interior is mountainous. In the centre is a large volcanic crater over 3km
in width, within which are two cones, Bagiai and Uluman. The volcano is still active and last
erupted in 1979. The black volcanic soil of the island is very fertile (Eaton, 1986).
Climate No information
Vegetation Includes two large plantations, the Bulu and Wadau (Anon., 1978).
Fauna Mammals include wild pig Sus scrofa, dugong Dugong dugon (V), cuscus Phalanger
spp. and flying foxes Pteropodidae. Avifauna includes black kite Milvus migrans, pigeons
Columbidae and sea birds (Eaton, 1986).
Cultural Heritage The volcano is traditionally a sacred place. According to local belief, if
customary rules relating to protection of the wildlife and habitat are broken, the volcano may
erupt (Eaton, 1986).
Local Human Population Bagiai lies in the least populated part of the island and contains seven
villages. The total population of the island is approximately 22,000 (Eaton, 1986). The major
food crops, taro, yams, sweet potatoes and corn, are grown in fenced gardens. Major cash crops
are coconuts Cocos nucifera and cocoa (Eaton, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Information is not available. The local people are keen to
encourage tourism (Eaton, 1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities Volcanologists have visited the site (Eaton, 1986).
Conservation Value The management area was established to protect wildlife. Tuale and
Mangamenek are important nesting sites for sea birds and also for fish, turtles and dugong.
Conservation Management A wildlife management committee comprising 46 representatives
from the different villages has been appointed. Traditional methods of resource management
continue to operate within the management area, with traditional methods of hunting restricted
182
Papua New Guinea
to persons having customary rights to land. Hunting and fishing are only completely unrestricted
from the beginning of December to the end of February. At other times there may be moratoria
as, for example, when a member of the community dies (Eaton, 1986). The use of fire arms is
prohibited except to kill wild pigs on home territories, black kites attacking poultry and flying
foxes destroying cocoa pods. Use of commercially manufactured nets for fishing has been banned
as has the use of kerosene or hurricane lamps to attract fish at night. Restrictions on the use of
derris root poison and the size of mesh of nets for fishing have been examined by the committee
(Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints Few offenders are prosecuted, making enforcement of rules difficult.
It seems that magistrates, court officials and public servants are not always familiar with the rules
of the area and with relevant legislation under the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act, 1966.
Other problems include hunting, over-fishing, and soil erosion where bush has been cleared
(Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Anon. (1978). Wildlife in Papua New Guinea: conservation in wildlife management areas,
sanctuaries and national parks in Papua New Guinea. Department of Lands and
Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. Pp. 25-26.
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife Management in Papua New Guinea. Land
Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 27-32.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
BATYER RIVER SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Occupies part of Baiyer River Valley, in the north-west of the Bismarck
Range, West Highland Province. Approximately 5°09’S, 144°09’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a sanctuary on 13 January 1968 under the
Lands Act 1962-1967.
Area 120ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude 800-1,200m
Physical Features The Baiyer River basin is dissected by numerous creeks and streams.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Climate The pattern of rainfall is seasonal. Of the 2590mm mean annual rainfall, least (100mm)
falls in July, the driest month, and most (367mm) in March, the wettest month. Regular
temperature inversions in Baiyer Valley are responsible for the daily alternating katabatic and
anabatic winds, which give rise to a pattern of clear valley bottoms and clouded slopes in the
morning and clouded bottoms and clear slopes in the evening. Diurnal temperature range is likely
to be greater than the annual range (CSIRO, 1970).
Vegetation Lowland hill forest is contiguous with the forests of the lower Baiyer River which
joins those of the Lai, Jimi, Yuat, and Sepik rivers. Forest within the sanctuary consists principally
of oak Quercus spp., with a canopy at 30m and frequent emergents rising to about 35m. A distinct
lower canopy is present, with shrubby undergrowth and a rather sparse ground cover (Croxall,
1977). Other species of trees include Evodia elleryane, Elmerillia, Gnetum, Casuarina,
Pandanus, Eucalyptus deglupta and Mucuna novoguineensis (MacKay 1980). Forest clearance
has given rise to secondary grasslands dominated by Themeda australis (CSIRO, 1970).
Fauna Eight species of mammal were recorded by Anderson et al. (1985). Species include
rats Melomys rufescens and Parahydromys asper, New Guinea spiny bandicoot Echymipera
kalabu, long-tailed bandicoot Peroryctes raffrayanus and dasyurid marsupial Murexia
longicaudata. Kangaroos and possum are also present (Gorio, S., pers. comm., 1980). Some 185
species of birds have been recorded (MacKay, 1980). Significant populations of lesser bird of
paradise Paradisaea minor and magnificent bird of paradise Cicinnurus magnificus are present
(B.M. Beehler, pers. comm., 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The sanctuary was popular among tourists but has not been
frequented by tours for two years due to security problems (R. Hicks, pers. comm., 1989). There
is a self-catering hostel.
Scientific Research and Facilities Research includes surveys of the birds (Mackay, 1980) and
mammals (Anderson et al, 1985). Various species are bred in captivity including cassowaries
Casuarius sp., and Raggiana bird of paradise Paradise raggiana. Other work includes a study
of phalanger breeding and cassowary diet by faecal analysis (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Facilities include aviaries for research, enclosures for cassowaries and a laboratory (SPREP,
1985).
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Administered by a small trust. A simple system of zonation has
been established consisting of zoo areas, a recreational area and natural environment areas (SPC,
1985).
Management Constraints Threats include hunting by local villagers and disturbance by
domestic pigs (SPREP, 1985). Lack of funds is threatening the survival of the sanctuary
(R. Hicks, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff One superintendent, one ranger, one business manager (SPC, 1985)
Budget K 36,000 NK (1980)
Local Addresses Superintendent, Baiyer River Sanctuary, P O Box 490, Mt Hagen
184
Papua New Guinea
References
Anderson, T., Amos, N., Berry, A. and Cook, J. (1985). A study of the parasitology and behaviour
of forest mammals using spool-and-line tracking. In: de Winser, N. and de Winser, S. (Eds),
Expedition Yearbook 1985. Expedition Advisory Centre, London. Pp. 215-216.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Croxall, J. (1977). Insectivorous rainforest passerines. [bis 119: 115.
CSIRO (1970). Lands of Goroka - Mount Hagen Area, Papua New Guinea. CS/RO Land
Research Series 27: 16-117.
Gorio, S. (1978). Papua New Guinea involves its people in national park development. Parks 3:
12-14.
MacKay, R., (1980). A list of birds of the Baiyer River Sanctuary and adjacent areas. Papua New
Guinea Bird Society Newsletter 167-168: 24-38.
Date June 1980, reviewed January 1989, updated July 1989
CAPE WOM INTERNATIONAL MEMORIAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the north coast of East Sepik Province, 13km from the town
of Wewak. Approximately 3°45’S, 143°40’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as an international memorial park on 8 October
1973, having been originally approved on 24 April 1969.
Area 105ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features A sandy beach lies within the park.
Climate Information is limited to meteorological data from Wewak. Here, mean annual rainfall
is 2093mm, with 95mm falling in the driest month (January) and 246mm in the wettest (May).
Temperatures are uniformly high throughout the year (CSIRO, 1968).
Vegetation Comprises coastal vegetation with species such as Cocos nucifera,
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens and Casuarina sp. (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Fauna Noteworthy fauna includes starlings Aplonis spp., parrots Psittacidae and red imperial
pigeon Ducula bicolor (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Cultural Heritage The park is recognised as the site of the surrender of the last major Japanese
land force to the Australians in 1945. A shrine and war relics are present (SPREP, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Local Human Population There are residential areas within the park.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Facilities include picnic areas.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Gravel is excavated from the park (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Staff One provincial ranger and one park ranger
Budget K 2,000 NGK (1980)
Local Addresses Ranger-In-Charge, Cape Wom International Memorial Park, P O Box 516,
Wewak, East Sepik Province
References
CSIRO (1968). Lands of the Wewak - Lower Sepik Area, Territory of Papua New Guinea. CSIRO
Land Research Series 22: 16-24.
Gorio, S. (1978). Papua New Guinea involves its people in national park development. Parks 3:
12-14.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Park and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Date June 1980, reviewed January 1989, updated July 1989
GARU WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the western side of Willaumez Peninsula, West New
Britain. The site lies within the South Bagum Timber area. It is bounded by Reibek Bay to the
west and a volcanic cone complex to the east running between Mounts Welcker and Krummel.
Kulu River forms the south-western boundary and Garu village is included to the north.
5°00’-5°30’S, 149°30’-151°15’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a wildlife management area in 1976. The site
was established to protect the Bukenga, Pao, Mandagarili and Maga megapode egg-grounds.
Area 8,700ha
Land Tenure Much of the land is government-owned, having been purchased in 1966. The rest
is customary land belonging to the people of Garu, although most of this is covered by timber
rights purchase agreement (Eaton, 1986).
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Papua New Guinea
Altitude 0-1,200m
Physical Features Consists of a coastal plateau which rises to mountainous terrain in the east.
The area is drained by the Vulevulu, Gaivo and Pelnaru rivers (Spring, 1977). The eastern
boundary is dissected by deep gullies originating from the north-south aligned volcanic cone
complex of Mt Welcker (1,200m) and Mt Krummel (980m) (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
Associated thermal areas are found on the slopes of the mountains, including extensive solfataric
fields, while subsidiary vents and hot springs occur sporadically throughout the lowland area
(Spring, 1977). A large tidal swamp is located at the mouth of the Kulu River in the extreme
south-west section of the area (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972). Geologically the area ranges from
basaltic lava deposits interbedded with ash to the alluvial and coralline deposits of the coastal
plain and swamp. Soils are fertile, consisting of multiple horizons of permeable pumice and ash
typical of volcanically active regions (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 4450mm, most of which falls between December and April.
Mean daytime temperature is approximately 31°C and mean minimum night-time temperature
is 23°C.
Vegetation Most of the area is covered by lowland rain forest consisting of Canarium-
Syzygium-Meliaceae associations (Liem, 1976). Other species present include taun Pometia
tomentosa, New Guinea walnut Dracontomelon spp., Myristica spp. and Litsea spp. (Kwapena,
1974). Freshwater swamp forest occurs in the south-west around the lower reaches of the Kule
River. It is characterised by large spreading trees, Buchanania mollis, Campnosperma sp., sago
palm Metroxylon sagu, nipa palm Nypa fruticans and a fern Acrostichum avreum (Liem, 1976).
Mangrove occurs at the mouth of the Kulu and Gaivo rivers and is characterised by Rhizophora
mucronata, Bruguiera parviflora, Sonneratia alba and fleshy-leaf shrubs Acanthus ilicifolius,
with patches of Nypa fruticans (Liem, 1976). Areas previously logged support an
Artocarpus-Horsfieldia-Evodia-Ficus association. Artocarpus incisa, Myristica sp., Evodia
crassiramis and Micromelum pubescens are present in the upper storey. Subdominant trees
include Leea indica, Polyscias sp. and Gretum gnemon. Ground cover is dominated by gingers
Alpinia oceanica and Hornstedtia lycostoma. Various ferns occur under dense canopy, and
non-woody lianes abound (Liem, 1976). To the south of Garu are areas of garden regrowth.
Short-lived shrubs and trees of the families Euphorbiaceae and Urticaceae predominate. Some
grassland also occurs where forest vegetation has been disturbed (Liem, 1976).
Fauna Mammals include wallaby Thylogale, cuscus Phalanger, glider Petaurus and bandicoot
Echympiera. Bats are the most common placentals on the island. There are nine species of fruit
bat including Melonycteris melanops, Rousettus amplexicaudatus, Dobsonia praedatrix,
Macroglossus sp. and Pteropus macrotis (1), and six insectivorous bats including Emballonura
sp. and Hipposideros galeritus. Three unidentified species of rat have been recorded, along with
Uromys neobritannicus. Wild pig Sus scrofa and dugong Dugong dugon (V) are present
(Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
A total of 116 bird species has been recorded (Bishop, n.d.), including dwarf cassowary
Casuarius bennetti and common scrubfowl Megapodius eremita.
Reptiles include crocodiles Crocodylidae and four species of marine turtle, hawksbill turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata (E), green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), leatherback Dermochelys coriacea
(E) and flatback turtle Chelonia depressa (Spring, 1977). Snakes include brown tree snake Boiga
irregularis and tree boa Candoia carinatus, and a third venomous species reported by villagers.
Five lizard species have been collected: Emoia cyanura, E. callistica, Gecko vittatus, Dasia
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
smaragdina and Sephemomorphus elegantulum (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972). Amongst the
amphibians present are several species of frog: Platymantis papuensis, Rana novaebritannae,
Discodeles sp., Oreophryne brachypus and Bufo marinus (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
Cultural Heritage The solfataric regions and a site besides Pao creek, where there are rock
carvings, are very sacred to the Garu people (Kwapena, 1974).
Local Human Population The only settlement within the management area is Garu, with a
human population of approximately 200. The people of the village exercise traditional rights to
hunt, gather wood, collect fruit, megapodes, turtles, eggs and fish (Eaton, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Development of the tourist industry in New Britain is planned
and will be centred on sites of special interest such as Garu (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
Scientific Research and Facilities Research includes a survey of birds of the Whiteman
Mountains (Gilliard and Le Croy, 1967), turtle ecology (Kisokau, 1973), megapode breeding
behaviour (Downes, 1970) and vegetation and habitat (Kwapena, 1974), and habitats and
ecosystems in Garu Wildlife Management Area (Liem, 1976). Bishop (n.d.) has conducted floral
and faunal surveys.
Conservation Value Garu Wildlife Management Area was established to protect major
breeding grounds of the common scrubfowl, one of seven species of incubator birds with a total
world distribution centred upon Papua New Guinea (Miniotas and Lindgren, 1972).
Conservation Management Rules have been drawn up forbidding hunting of megapodes and
restricting collection of eggs to those with customary rights. Collection is restricted to Tuesdays
and Thursdays, and a maximum of 80 eggs per day, with a minimum disturbance to nest burrows.
Use of shotguns is limited to general hunting for those with traditional rights (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints The main threat is from logging. The Peninsular Logging Company
has timber rights to an adjacent area and has constructed a road that runs through the management
area. Villagers have complained that trees within the wildlife management area have been felled
(Eaton, 1986). Fears are that logging will lead to erosion, loss of habitat for megapodes and
changes in the microclimate of megapode nesting grounds.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Anon. (1978). Wildlife in Papua New Guinea: conserving wildlife in wildlife management areas,
sanctuaries and national parks in Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife 78/4. Department
of Lands and Environment, Konedobu. Pp. 21-24.
Bishop, D. (n.d.). Birds of Garu Wildlife Management Area, West New Britain Province, Papua
New Guinea. Unpublished. 2 pp.
Bishop, D. (n.d.) General flora Garu scrubfowl breeding grounds. Unpublished. 2 pp.
Downes, M.C. (1970). A preliminary plan for the management of Nakanai (New Britain)
wildfowl egg-grounds. Division of Wildlife 70/7. Department of Lands and Environment,
Konedobu. (Unseen).
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Papua New Guinea
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife Management Areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 37-40.
Gilliard, E.T. and Le Croy, M. (1967). Results of the 1958-59 Gilliard New Britain Expedition
4. A notated list of birds of the Whiteman Mountains, New Britain. Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History 135: 173-217.
Kisokau, K. (1973). Turtle surveys of Garu village, West New Britain. Unpublished Field Report.
(Unseen)
Kwapena, N. (1974). Ecological analysis of plant communities and vegetation mapping of the
actual wildfowl egg-grounds of Garu, Talasea, West New Britain. Wildlife Publication
77/13. Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Branch, Konedobu. 20 pp.
Liem, D. (1976). Report on the habitat survey and habitat assessment of Garu Wildlife
Management Area, West New Britain. Wildlife Publication 77/6. Department of Natural
Resources, Wildlife Branch, Konedobu. 10 pp.
Miniotas, R. and Lindgren, E. (1972). Joint field report on the Garu egg-grounds and environs,
West New Britain. National Parks Board, Port Moresby. 13 pp.
NPB (1972). Land use on West New Britain. Conservation areas 3: joint field report on the
Kapiuar-Mt Bango area, West New Britain. Department of Agriculture, Stocks and
Fisheries, Port Moresby. Unpublished. 12 pp.
Spring, S. and Turi, M.P. (1977). Wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea: Garu.
Wildlife Publication 77/4. Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu. 5 pp.
Date May 1985, reviewed February 1989, updated July 1989
HANSA BAY MARINE PARK
TUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in Hansa Bay, off the north coast of Papua New Guinea,
between the mouth of the Sepik River and Bogia in Madang and East Sepik provinces. Three
islands lie within the proposed area, Manam, Laing and Boisa. Approximately 4°11’S, 144°55’E;
Manam approximately 4°08’S, 145°00’E and Laing 4°10’S, 144°55’E
Date and History of Establishment The site was recommended as a marine park but no further
action has been taken (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Area No information
Land Tenure Laing Island is privately owned.
Altitude 0-1m
Physical Features The reef string, aligned on a north-south axis in Hansa Bay, may represent
an old coastline which developed during the Holocene transgression. Laing Island is surrounded
by a well-developed fringing reef including a small lagoon (400 x 200m) on the western shore.
The reef flat is emergent at most spring tides. Coral growth is luxuriant and a wide variety of
reef biotopes occur around the island, from exposed reef crest to deep (60m) bank reefs
(Clareboudt, cited in UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Manam Island, an active volcano lying approximately
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
16km from Laing Island, is partially surrounded by fringing reef up to 300m wide. Reef slopes
are usually steep. Fringing reef surrounds Boisa, a small volcanic island, and a shallow bank reef
lies off its north-west coast. Mean depth of Hansa Bay is 25m. Tides have a maximum range of
1.2m. Water quality fluctuates seasonally. During the rainy season (November to April), the
Sepik and Ramu rivers release muddy water, rich in drift material, into the bay. In the dry season
(June to October) currents from the south-east bring clear water, short swells and strong waves.
Mean vertical transparency in the bay is 9m during the wet season and 19m during the dry season,
with an overall range of 2-35m (Kojis et al., 1985). Large amounts of freshwater may be released
by local rivers after heavy rainstorms (Claereboudt, cited in UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Climate No information
Vegetation Laing Island is densely forested and more than 100 vascular plant species have been
recorded. Mangroves occur on the periphery of the island and are extensive at river mouths on
the mainland (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Marine vegetation includes alga Caulerpa (Coppejans and
Meinesz, n.d.).
Fauna A dugong Dugong dugon (V) was recorded in Laing Island Lagoon in February 1987
and there are occasional unconfirmed reports of the species in nearby rivers. Green turtle
Chelonia mydas (E) nest on Laing Island in small numbers, four in 1984.
Common among the avifauna are noddies and terns Laridae, megapodes Megapodius spp.,
sandpipers Scolopacidae, white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster, eastern reef egret
Egretta sacra and frigate birds Fregata spp. Sharks occur in the bay (Claereboudt, cited in
UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Two hundred and fifty species of hermatypic coral, belonging to 73 genera,
have been recorded. Acropora palifera is abundant on partially exposed reefs between 2 and 5m
(Kojis et al., 1984 and 1985). Some portions of reef are densely covered by soft corals (Tursch
and Tursch, 1982). In general, coral cover is very high (more than 60%) in exposed areas, high
on partially exposed areas and moderate in sheltered sites (30-60%).
Cultural Heritage World War Two wrecks lie on the sea bed (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Local Human Population Manam and Boisa islands are inhabited by approximately 5,000 and
700 people, respectively (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Divers visit the war wrecks. The lagoon along the western shore
of Laing Island provides a safe anchorage for vessels up to 21m long (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities A small laboratory (King Leopold III Biological Station)
has been operated by the Université Libre de Bruxelles on Laing Island since 1974. Over 150
scientific papers have been published on research carried out since then, including a large number
on reef systematics. Other topics include: coral-inhabiting gastropods; marine molluscs;
polychaete systematics and ecology; hydrozoan biology, ecology and systematics; echinoderm
studies; plant ecology and systematics; spider systematics; biology, behaviour and systematics
of social insects; herpetology (Anon., n.d.). Until recently, however, little work had been carried
out on reef ecology, distribution or conservation. No scientific work has been carried out on the
reefs around Boisa and Manam.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Catching of adult turtles and consumption of turtle eggs appears
to be traditionally forbidden in the villages around Hansa Bay.
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Papua New Guinea
Management Constraints The possible impact of the active Manam volcano on the reefs
around Laing Island, through acid rain, ashes and lava flows, has not been studied. The only
major human disturbance to the reefs at present is fishing with explosives; this activity is illegal
but is very popular with fishermen, largely owing to the ready availability of explosives from
road construction, mining activities or World War Two ammunition dumps. Some divers are
reported to collect artifacts from the war wrecks in the bay, despite these being legally protected.
The reefs of Madang Province are potentially threatened by possible oil exploitation in the
Ramu-Sepik Basin (M.R. Claereboudt, cited in UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Information for this sheet is based on UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Anon. (n.d.). Publications effectuées a partir de matériel récolté 4 Laing. Unpublished report.
13 pp.
Coppejans, E. and Meinesz, A. (n.d.). A. The Caulerpales of Hansa Bay area (Province Mandang
- Papua New Guinea). The genus Caulerpa. Publication of the King Leopold III Biological
Station, Free University of Brussels.
Kojis, B.L., Quinn, N.J. and Claereboudt, M.R. (1985). Living coral reefs of north-east New
Guinea. Proceedings of the V International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti 6: 323-328.
Kojis, B.L., Quinn, N.J., Claereboudt, M.R. and Tseng, W.Y. (1984). Coral reefs of the Huon
Gulf and Hansa Bay, Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the joint meeting of The Atlantic
Reef Committee and the International Society for Reef Studies. Advances in Reef Science,
Miami, Florida, October 1984.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Tursch, A. and Tursch (1982). Soft corals in Hansa Bay. The King Leopold III Biological Station,
Free University of Brussels.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989
HORSESHOE REEF MARINE PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in Central Province (south-east Papua New Guinea)
approximately 9km east of Port Moresby. Horseshoe Reef constitutes part of the barrier reef
portion of the "Papuan Barrier Reef" and lies off Bootless Inlet and next to Nateavu Reef.
Approximately 9°35’-9°36S, 147°19’E
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Date and History of Establishment The site, first proposed in 1978, was approved as a marine
park by the Department of Lands in July 1981 subsequent to the completion of boundary
descriptions in 1980 (Genolagani, 1984). Establishment procedures have been suspended,
however, due to problems of traditional ownership and the interests of a local diving company
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Also referred to by its local name as Tahiro (Aioro) Marine Park.
Area 396ha. The park is entirely marine.
Land Tenure Customary ownership
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features The portion of barrier reef lying within the park is horseshoe-shaped. The
southern part is exposed during low-water spring tides, but the northern part remains submerged
(Genolagani, 1984). The south-eastern end of the reef abuts adjacent reefs, while the
north-western section borders the Padana Nahua Channel, one of four major channels of the
western sector of the "Papuan Barrier Reef" (Genolagani, 1984). Water temperatures fluctuate
seasonally between 26°C and 30°C, July and December being the coolest and warmest months,
respectively. Surface salinity varies seasonally from approximately 35% to 35.9% during dry
seasons, while during the wet season water becomes increasingly saline with depth. In general,
seas are calm but areas facing east or west are subject to wave action from trade winds
(Genolagani, 1984).
Climate Information is based on meterological data from Port Moresby. Mean annual rainfall
is 1182mm. July is the driest month with a mean monthly rainfall of 22mm and December the
wettest with a mean of 209mm (CSIRO, 1973). Winds blow from the south-east during the dry
season and the north-east during the wet season. Light, changeable winds, and doldrums, occur
in November and May. Early mornings are generally calm with winds increasing from 10 a.m.
onwards (Coleman, 1982). Diurnal temperature range on the coast is approximately 3°C. The
slight seasonality in temperature that does exist tends to be greater for day than night temperatures
(CSIRO, 1973).
Vegetation No information
Fauna Over 500 species have been recorded, 70 of which are corals: 37 hard coral species,
43 species of alcyonarians and seven species of hydroids. The hard corals include
species of Acropora, Seriatopora, Stylophora, Pocillopora, Montipora, Fungia, Herpolitha,
Parahalomitra, Goniopora, Porites, Echinopora, Favia, Hydnophora, Leptiora, Tubastrea
and Turbinaria genera (Genolagani, 1984). The alcyonarians include Echinogorgia spp,
Sinularia sp. and Dendronephthya spp. (Coleman, 1982).
Among fishes are wobbegongs Orectolobus dasypogon, catsharks Hemiscyllium ocellatum and
sharks Sphyrna lewini, Carcharchinus spallanzoni, C. archarchinus sp. and Triaenodon obesus.
Other species include Adioryx spp., Myripristis spp., Sphyraena barracuda, Katsuwonus
pelamis, Caranx spp., Cheilodipterus spp., Epinephelus spp., Lutjanus spp., Caesio spp.,
Scolopsis spp., Plectorhynchus spp., Parupeneus spp., Chaetodon spp., Euxiphipops spp.,
Siganus spp., Acanthurus spp. and Scorpaenopsis spp. (Coleman, 1982). A wreck houses a big
grouper Epinephelus sp., a moray eel Gymnothorax flavimarginatus and a sea snake Laticauda
colubrina (Genolagani, 1984). Numerous invertebrate species are present (Genolagani, 1984).
Cultural Heritage No information
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Papua New Guinea
Local Human Population Fishermen from the coastal villages of Pari, Tubusereia and Barakau
are occasionally seen on the reef, which is also visited by the more recent settlers from Tahira
and Mirigeda areas of Bootless Inlet (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Port Moresby Sub-aqua Club and Tropical Diving Adventures
Company specialise in water-based recreational activities, particularly SCUBA diving and
underwater photography (Genolagani, 1984). There is considerable potential for expansion of
the tourist industry because the area is easily accessible from Port Moresby (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities Research includes surveys of the fauna (Coleman, 1980)
and fishes (E. Lindgren, cited in UNEP/IUCN, 1988), and some studies carried out by the
University of Papua New Guinea. A number of boats have been scuttled to provide the National
Park Service with sites for artificial reef studies.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management The reef harbours a great variety of habitats and species. The park
lies within a traditional fishing zone. The aims of the park are to provide a model for the
conservation of marine resources for recreational and educational purposes. No management
plan has yet been prepared (Genolagani, 1984).
Management Constraints Legal protection of the park is lacking (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). There
is some exploitation by local fishermen on the reef, and by people spearfishing at night.
Fishermen use either spear guns or monofilament gill nets. Other marine resources such as shells
may be collected. The development of Port Moresby increases threats of pollution (Genolagani,
1984).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Provincial Ranger (Central Province), National Parks Service Office, PO Box
6601, Boroko
References
Coleman, N. (1982). Tahira Marine Park: Preliminary underwater fauna survey. Underwater 2:
8-13. Sea Australia Productions, Caringbah, New South Wales, Australia.
CSIRO (1973). Landform types and vegetation of Eastern Papua. CSIRO Land Research Series
32: 7-124.
Genolagani, J.M.G. (1984). An assessment on the development of marine parks and reserves in
Papua New Guinea. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National Parks, conservation
and development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington DC. Pp. 322-329.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World: Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date June 1985, reviewed January 1989, updated July 1989
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LAKE DAKATAUA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the Willaumez Peninsula in West New Britain Province,
55km north of Kimbe. Approximately 5°02’S, 150°05’E
Date and History of Establishment No information
Area 4,920ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 76m
Physical Features Lake Dakataua is a large freshwater lake which fills the caldera at the tip of
the Willaumez Peninsula. A peninsular produced by post-collapse volcanic activity divides the
lake into two basins connected by a narrow channel. The surface area of the lake is 4,800ha and
the maximum depth c. 120m. A bathometric map of the lake has been constructed from
fathometer transects. In October-November 1974, the lake was alkaline throughout, with surface
pH 7.6-8.2; acidity increased with depth to pH 7.1-7.5. Surface temperatures were 30.8-31.9°C.
There were thermoclines at 22m and at 40-45m. Minimum temperature recorded was 26.8°C at
80m. Oxygen saturation curves were similar to the temperature curves, with sharp gradients at
22m and 40-45m and no measurable O2 from 80m downward. Living organisms were common
in dredge hauls to 20m but were not found in those from greater depths. Average Secchi disc
transparency was 11.1m (Ball and Glucksman, 1980).
Climate Conditions are humid tropical with an annual rainfall of approximately 4270mm, most
of which falls during the north-west monsoon from December to March or April. There follows
a transition period prior to the south-east trade season, which reaches its peak in July-August and
dies out by about September. The period after the north-west monsoon is usually one of light,
variable winds. Monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures range from 29.5°C to
30.8°C and from 22.7°C to 23.5°C, respectively (Scott, 1989).
Vegetation Shallow water areas of the lake support a rich growth of Najas tenuifolia, Chara
fibrosa, C. corallina and C. globularis. These plants extend to depths of at least 8m, but appear
to grow best between 2m and 4m. Lemna perpusila occurs in sheltered areas of the lake. Other
plants include Ludwigia octavalvis and fern Nephrolepis biserrata (Scott, 1989).
Fauna The lake supports populations of both estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus (E) and
New Guinea freshwater crocodile C. novaeguineae (V). Water birds recorded during a brief
survey in 1979 by D. Bishop included 57 nesting little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, 68 little pied
cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, 120 wandering whistling duck Dendrocygna arcuata
(reported to be nesting on the island), 35 nesting white-headed stilt Himantopus leucocephalus
and 5,000 red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus. Other waterfowl known to occur at the lake
include Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa, lesser golden plover Pluvialis dominica,
Mongolian plover Charadrius mongolus, large sand plover C. leschenaultii, common sandpiper
Tringa hypoleucos, grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelis brevipes, sharp-tailed sandpiper Calidris
acuminata and crested tern Sterna bergii. No fish are present (Scott, 1989). Amphibians include
two species of frogs. Invertebrates include two species of sponge, a rotifer, an ostracod, six
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Papua New Guinea
species of molluscs, seven species of Cladocera, a copepod, eight species of Hemiptera, two
species of Trichoptera, ten species of Odonata, two species of Coleoptera, and seven species of
Chironomidae (Ball and Glucksman, 1980).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The avifauna was surveyed in 1975 (Bishop, 1983) and the
benthic has been studied (Ball and Glucksman, 1980).
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Some subsistence fishing occurs.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Assistant Secretary, National Parks Service, Department of Environment and
Conservation, P O Box 5749, Boroko
References
Ball, E. and Glucksman, J. (1980). A limnological survey of Lake Dakataua, a large caldera lake
on West New Britain, Papua New Guinea, with comparisons to Lake Wisdom, a younger
nearby lake. Freshwater Biology 10(1): 73-84.
Bishop, K.D. (1983). Some notes on non-passerine birds in West New Britain. Emu 83: 235-236.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989
LAKE HARGY NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in the Nakanai mountains of New Britain, and lies 16km east
of Bialla Plantation, in the district of West New Britain. Approximately 7°06’S, 150°24’E
Date and History of Establishment The National Parks Board recommended in 1972 that the
area be set aside for conservation.
Area The National Parks Board proposes that the entire catchment area of Lake Hargy be
included in the designation.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude The lake lies at 330m.
Physical Features Lake Hargy, a crater lake with a surface area of 930ha, is situated within a
caldera approximately 11km in diameter. Mount Galloseulo, a strato volcano, lies on the western
rim where it is contiguous with the external face of the caldera. The inner north-west wall is steep
and scarred by small surface slides. To the south and east, the rim abuts rugged mountains that
rise to 1,100m. The lake drains through a break in the caldera wall north of Mount Galloseulo,
via the Lobu River. Most rock throughout the area is vesicular basalt, weathered to various
degrees. Soils, which consist of volcanic ash with bands of pumice, are extremely permeable and
unsuitable for agriculture (NPB, 1972).
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 4445mm, most of which falls during the north-west monsoon
from December to April. The south-east trade wind season in July and August is the driest time
of year (Scott, 1989). Mean daytime and night-time temperatures are 31°C and 23°C,
respectively.
Vegetation Comprises lowland rain forest, with Taun as the predominant species (NPB, 1972).
Fauna The avifauna is rich. Fish occur in the lake (NPB, 1972).
Cultural Heritage Access to the area is via a "walking track", part of an ancient network of
routes that once covered Papua New Guinea (NPB, 1972).
Local Human Population There are no settlements within the catchment area. The total
population for the region is small and sparsely scattered (NPB, 1972).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Lake Hargy is easily accessible compared with other crater lakes.
There is no visitor accommodation, but arrangements can be made with Complex Timber for
overnight stays (NPB, 1972).
Scientific Research and Facilities A preliminary appraisal of the hydroelectric potential of
Lake Hargy was made on behalf of Elcom (Commonwealth Department of Works, 1969).
Conservation Value In addition to the site’s scenic and geological value, it supports a diverse
flora and fauna (NPB, 1972).
Conservation Management The crater lake, Mount Galloseulo, which emits steam in several
places, and the caldera wall present a spectacular sight.
Management Constraints The western portion of the catchment area, comprising the lower
slopes of Mount Galloseulo to the lakeside, is under licence to the Complex Timber for logging.
Timber extraction will have dire effects on the ecology of the lake due to soil erosion. Siltation
of the Lobu River will adversely affect its hydroelectric potential. Some hunting and fishing is
carried out by local people (NPB, 1972).
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses First Assistant Director (National Parks), Office of Environment and
Conservation, PO Box 5749, Boroko
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Papua New Guinea
References
Commonwealth Department of Works (1969). Preliminary appraisal of the hydroelectric
potential at Lake Hargy. Elcom, Port Moresby. (Unseen).
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
NPB (1972). Land use on West New Britain conservation areas: joint field report on Lake Hargy,
West New Britain. National Parks Board, Department of Agriculture, Stocks and Fisheries,
Port Moresby. Unpublished report. 8 pp.
Date December 1988, updated July 1989
LAKE LAVU WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.14 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on Fergusson Island, 45km off the eastern tip of the Papuan
mainland, in Milne Bay Province. Approximately 9°31’S, 150°37’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted and declared a wildlife management area in 1981,
following a resolution in favour of its establishment passed by the West Fergusson Island local
government council in November 1975 (Eaton, 1986).
Area 2,640ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 0-40m
Physical Features The freshwater lake occupies a swamp depression in a region of rugged relief,
generally unsuited to agriculture. The waters of the lake are neutral-alkaline. Depth fluctuates
seasonally (Scott, 1989).
Climate Conditions are tropical and monsoonal.
Vegetation Consists of lowland forest and grassland (Scott, 1989).
Fauna The lake supports a rich fauna, with estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus (E) and
New Guinea crocodile C. novaeguineae (V), fishes, eels and waterfowl (Eaton, 1986). Mammals
include wild pig Sus scrofa and cuscus Phalanger. The avifauna includes megapodes
Megapodius spp. and Blyth’s hornbill Rhyticeros plicatus (Eaton, 1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The villages of Lapapai, Niubowo, Masimasi, Ebadidi, Sobakadi
and Yamalele lie in the vicinity of the lake.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
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Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management A wildlife management committee of seven representing the
surrounding villages has been established. Hunting rights are limited to customary land-owners
using traditional methods. Use of shotguns is prohibited, as are spears for hunting crocodile.
Collection of crocodile eggs is forbidden. The wildlife management committee has considered
imposing limits on the numbers of crocodiles taken by individual hunters and proposes that a
small royalty should be paid to the committee, based on size of skins (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints In the past hunting of crocodiles by locals and expatriates has not
been controlled. Current information is lacking.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife Management in Papua New Guinea. Land
Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 49-50.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
LEA LEA SALT FLATS MARINE PARK
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in Central Province, about 30km north-west of Port Moresby.
Approximately 9°18’S, 146°59"E
Date and History of Establishment No information
Area No information
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 0-10m
Physical Features The proposed area includes intertidal sand and mud flats with a complex of
mangrove swamps, salt flats and sandy beach ridges. Parts of the wetland are subject to seasonal
flooding by brackish water (Scott, 1989).
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Papua New Guinea
Climate Tropical monsoonal conditions prevail, with a prolonged dry season from May to
December. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures range from 27°C to 32°C, and
from 22°C to 24°C, respectively (Scott, 1989).
Vegetation Comprises evergreen thicket and low to mid-height mangrove, with Avicennia,
Sonneratia, Rhizophora and Bruguiera represented. Ground cover is absent. Mixed herbaceous
cover occurs on tidal flats. A total of 48 species has been recorded including Imperata cylindrica,
Acacia auriculiformis, Pluchea indica, Acrostichum aureum, Chloris barbata, Avicennia
marina, Sonneratia alba, Nypa fruticans, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Ceriops tagal, Sporobolus
virginicus, Eriochloe procera, Tecticornia cincrea, Themeda novoguineensis and T. australis
(Scott, 1989).
Fauna The wetland supports a wide variety of aquatic birds and is particularly important for
migratory shorebirds (Scott, 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The site is close to Port Moresby, where research facilities
are readily available.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints A salt factory has been proposed.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989
LOU ISLAND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated about 20km south of Manus Island, Manus Province.
Approximately 2°25’S, 147°22’E
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Date and History of Establishment Proposed
Area No information
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude No information
Physical Features There are sand flats and extensive beds of seagrass. The reef extends up to
200m from the shoreline.
Climate No information
Vegetation Includes seagrasses.
Fauna Dugong Dugong dugon (V) and turtles are present, along with a variety of fishes and
invertebrates, including molluscs and corals.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Traditional customs have been eroded and traditional methods of
hunting have been replaced by modern techniques. Natural resources have been over-exploited.
Although Lou islanders traditionally do not eat dugong or turtle meat, persons without traditional
rights to hunt these animals do so.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Anon. (1985). Report on the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference.
Volume II. Collected key issue and case study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. P. 260.
Date February 1989
MAZA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
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Papua New Guinea
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies off the coast of Western Province, in the Torres Strait, to the west
of the mouth of the Fly River. The boundary runs parallel to the mainland coast in the north and
extends as far south as Wapa Reef. Daru and Bristow islands lie within the management area.
Approximately 9°14’S, 143°14’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife management area in 1979. Its
establishment followed negotiations between the local people and Government concerning the
hunting of dugongs. In 1976 the Government included dugong on the list of species protected
under the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act in order to curb hunting, but local people requested
exemption from the Act. The Government agreed on the condition that the local population made
some attempt to manage and control dugong hunting. This was accepted and lead to the
establishment of Maza (Eaton, 1986).
Area 184,230ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude No information
Physical Features The site is exclusively marine and reefs are extensive.
Climate No information
Vegetation Includes large seagrass flats within the WMA and mangroves along Daru and
Bristow Island and the coastline (Asigau, 1989).
Fauna Large vertebrates include deer on the islands, dugong Dugong dugon (V) and turtles.
Crayfish Decapoda sp., prawns and barramundi perch Perca sp. are present.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The area was established to protect dugong.
Conservation Management Administered by a wildlife management committee which has 14
members, representing six villages (Asigau, 1989). Dugong can only be caught using traditional
methods (hand-harpoon from canoe) and must be over 2.4m in length. Females and young are
totally protected. Dugong are sold, only one at any one time, at Daru Market where they are
examined by a Wildlife Officer or member of the committee. A royalty of K5.00 must be paid
for each dugong sold. Likewise, turtles can only be sold at Daru Market and a royalty of K1.00
is charged for each animal sold. Use of nets has been forbidden, except for catching barramundi
perch. Mesh size is limited to Scm for the reefs around Daru and Bristow islands, and 15cm
elsewhere in the management area.
Management Constraints Measures to protect dugong and turtle have had limited success, as
is evident from recent declines in the populations of these species (Eaton, 1986). In 1981, the
chairman of the management committee expressed concern over the activities of commercial
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
fishermen who were using crowbars to break open coral reefs for crayfish. Also, Torres Straits
islanders used rifles to hunt dugong. In 1985, traditional right-owners complained that outsiders
were catching crayfish and prawns from within the wildlife management area (Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Asigau, W. (1989). The wildlife management area system in Papua New Guinea. Case Study 15.
Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 17 pp.
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation, wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 45-47.
Date February 1989, updated February 1990
McADAM NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies between the towns of Wau and Bulolo at the south end of the
Bismark Range, Wau sub-district, Morobe Province. Boundaries to the north-west and south-east
follow ridges. Approximately 7°15’S, 146°39’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a national park on 1 July 1970. Initially
notified in 1962, it was originally declared a national park in 1956 by the Forestry Division of
Papua New Guinea.
Area 2,080ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude 670-1,980m
Physical Features The terrain is mountainous with steep slopes, narrow valleys and steep gorges
and some wide, flat-bottomed valleys. The Bulolo River and its gorge border the park (Gagné
and Gressitt, 1982).
Climate No specific information. The nearest meteorological stations are at Wau and Bulolo
for which climatic tables are available (McAlpine et al., 1975).
Vegetation Consists of submontane mixed mesophyll-notophyll vine rain forest between
600-1500m, with Castanopsis acuminatissima alliances between 600-1,800m (Specht et al.,
1974). Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii and klinkii pine A. hunsteinii are predominant (Hoyle,
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Papua New Guinea
1975). There is some invasion of bamboo. Other species include Pometia tomentosa, Elmerrillia
tsiampacca, Flindersia pimenteliana and Terminalia spp.
Fauna Mammals include marsupials. Noteworthy birds include dwarf cassowary Casuarius
bennetti, New Guinea harpy eagle Harpyopsis novaeguineae (V) and birds of paradise.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Surrounded by settlements and cultivations of the suburbs of Wau
and Bulolo.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is not easily accessible, the gorge is not bridged and
facilities are limited (Gagné and Gressitt, 1982). It tends to attract only keen bushwalkers (Gorio,
1978). It can be reached from the Wau-Bulolo road at the northern end of the park, near Pinetops
Bridge. The western slopes are accessible from logging roads (No. 22).
Scientific Research and Facilities A floral survey was conducted by Womersley and Schodde
(Sprecht et al., 1974). The nearby Wau Ecology Institute provides a base for field studies (Lamb
and Gressitt, 1976). Staff at the Papua New Guinea Forestry College (Bulolo) have conducted
studies in the park and have taken students there for field work.
Conservation Value The park was created to preserve one of the last major stands of Klinkii
and hoop "pine" (Hoyle, 1975).
Conservation Management Information is not available regarding present management.
Management Constraints Problems include uncontrolled development of roads encouraging
settlement by squatters, establishment of garden plots, and hunting (R. Hicks and L. Lamothe,
pers. comm., 1989). In addition, some mining occurs (Viner, 1984). There has also been some
difficulty with logging occurring within (or immediately outside, depending on the outcome of
a boundary dispute) the park on the western slopes. Logging on terrain visible from the park also
reduces its scenic value (L. Lamothe, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff One park ranger, one assistant park ranger (1980)
Budget K 1,000 NGK (1980)
Local Addresses Ranger-In-Charge, McAdam National Park, PO Box 127, Bulolo, Morobe
Province
References
Gagné, W.C. and Gressitt, J.L. (1982). Conservation in New Guinea. In: Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.),
Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea. Monographiae Biologicae 42: 945-955.
Gorio, S. (1978). Papua New Guinea involves its people in national park development. Parks
3(2): 12-14.
Hoyle, M.A. (1975). Wildlife conservation in Papua New Guinea. First impressions. University
of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report. 7 pp.
Lamb, K.P. and Gressitt, J.L. (Eds) (1976). Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea.
Wau Ecology Institute Pamphlet No. 2. IUCN/WWF, Morges. 151 pp.
McAlpine, J.R., Keig, G. and Short, K. (1975). Climatic tables of Papua New Guinea. CSIRO,
Division of Land Use Research, Technical Paper No. 37.
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Specht, R.L., Row, E.M. and Boughton, V.H. (eds) (1974). Conservation of Major Plant
Communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia. Pp.
591-605.
Viner, A.B. (1984). Environmental protection in Papua New Guinea. Ambio 13(5-6): 342.
Date April 1984, reviewed December 1988, updated July 1989, September 1989
MOJIRAU WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Located to the east of the recently constructed Wewak-Angoram road
in East Sepik Province. Approximately 3°47’S, 143°52’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted a wildlife management area in 1978. It was
established by local people concerned about their decreasing wildlife (Eaton, 1986).
Area 5,079ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude No information
Physical Features The landscape is undulating.
Climate No information
Vegetation Consists of tropical rain forest with occasional patches of Kunai grass (Eaton, 1986).
Fauna Eleven mammals, 61 birds, and seven reptile species have been recorded. The avifauna
includes cassowary Casuarius sp., goura pigeons Goura spp., and birds of paradise (Eaton,
1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The villages of Samap, Wau, Wandomi and Yibab lie in the vicinity
of the management area.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Outsiders wishing to visit the area must obtain permission from
the Wildlife Management Committee and pay an entry fee of K2. Camping is not allowed.
Villagers hope to set up a small zoo containing local wildlife species and to charge visitors an
admission fee.
Scientific Research and Facilities A faunal survey was carried out in 1981 by Unkau.
Conservation Value The wildlife management area provides a refuge and breeding site for
wildlife.
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Papua New Guinea
Conservation Management A wildlife management committee representing villagers has been
established. No hunting or egg collecting is allowed within the management area. A buffer zone,
some 2km wide, has been created around the wildlife management area, but has not been
surveyed. Within this buffer zone landowners may hunt using traditional methods. Not all rules
are gazetted, but they seem to be strictly enforced and widely observed. Prosecutions are handled
by the village courts. A cassowary farm has been established (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints Rights to cut timber in the vicinity of the management area and
buffer zone have been obtained. However, logging has been excluded from the management area
and the forest surrounding it (Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget Some financial assistance has been received from the Government for the establishment
of the cassowary farm (Eaton, 1986).
Local Addresses No information
References
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation, wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 33-35.
Unkau, C. (1981). Report on fauna and utilization survey of the Mojirau Wildlife Management
Area, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. Wildlife Division, Port Moresby.
Unpublished. (Unseen)
Date February 1989
MOTUPORE ISLAND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated at the mouth of Bootless Inlet, 15km south-east of Port
Moresby and 1km from the mainland in Central Province. Approximately 9°32’S, 147°17’E
Date and History of Establishment The island has been classified as National Cultural
Property. This designation does not extend to the reefs (Anon., n.d.).
Area No information
Land Tenure Leased by the Government to the University of Papua New Guinea.
Altitude Ranges from sea-level to 60m.
Physical Features The island lies within the lagoon of the Papuan Barrier Reef, and is one of
a cluster of islands which span the entrance to a reef-fringed bay. It is oriented north-south and
consists of a small, hilly, cigar-shaped emergent ridge of steeply-dipping mudstone, 800m long
and 200m wide (Munro, n.d.). Soils are somewhat shallow, varying from calcareous and
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non-calcareous gravelly clay loams to gravelly clays and gravel (Anon., 1984). A fringing reef
lies on the shore platform surrounding the island. Reef crests are exposed at most spring tides
(Munro, n.d.). Between Motupore and the outer barrier are a variety of reefs, with associated
seagrass, algal beds and extensive carbonate sand and mud areas (Anon., n.d.). Surface water
temperatures range from 28°C to 30°C and salinity is 30ppt. Maximum tidal range is 2.9m
(Munro, n.d.). Currents are strong offshore in a few lagoon areas.
Climate During the dry season (May-October), south-east winds are predominant. Waters are
typically clearer throughout this period than in the calmer, wet season (late December-March)
when north-west winds prevail. Doldrums occur from the end of October to mid-December and
from late March to early May (Anon., n.d.).
Vegetation Most of the island is covered by Eucalyptus savannah. Monsoonal scrub and palms
also occur (Munro, n.d.).
Fauna Marine fauna is extremely diverse. The fringing reef surrounding Motupore Island is
well developed and representatives of most coral genera are present (Munro, n.d.).
Cultural Heritage The island is an important archaeological site. A midden extends along the
edge of the hill slope on the north-west side of the island. A stabilised sand-spit at the
north-western tip of the island, occupied almost constantly between 800 and 200 years ago, is
rich in artefacts (UPNG, 1984).
Local Human Population Local people from nearby villages on the mainland fish and collect
shells in the area, often employing traditional methods (Scott, in press).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The University restricts access to the island to research and
training groups, so there is little tourism (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities The island’s archaeological sites have been intensively
studied. In 1983 a long-term project to map the marine habitats around the island was initiated.
Other recent research includes studies of isopod crustacea (Bruce, 1982), maricultural potential
of tridacnid clams (Munro and Gwythen, 1983), productivity of the tropical seagrass Enhalus
acoroides (Aioi, 1983), and algal productivity and fish herbivory (Polunin, 1988). Facilities on
the island are based at a centre and include three dormitory bedrooms, lecture hall, dry and wet
laboratories and workshop. A cottage is available for use by University of Papua New Guinea
staff and post-graduate students. Boats and a limited amount of diving equipment is available.
Conservation Value The island is an important archaeological site and supports a relatively
undisturbed flora and fauna, particularly in the case of corals.
Conservation Management Papua New Guinea appears to lie near to a centre of genetic
diversity for the Indo-Pacific hermatypic scleratinian corals. A nature trail has been laid out and
signposted (UPNG, 1984).
Management Constraints No information
Staff One senior technician, one caretaker/watchman
Budget Recurrent expenditure K9,000 and equipment K5,780. Income from visitor fees for
1983 was K4,574, all but K300 of which had been spent by the end of December (Polunin, 1983).
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Papua New Guinea
Local Addresses Motupore Island Research Department, PO Box 320, University of Papua
New Guinea, Port Moresby
References
Aioi, K. (1983). Growth and production of a tropical seagrass, Enhalus acorides. (L.F.) Royle.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Aquatic Macrophytes, Nijmegen. Pp. 21-24.
(Unseen)
Anon. (n.d.). General information on the Motupore Island Research Station. University of Papua
New Guinea, Port Moresby. 11 pp.
Bruce, N.L. (1982). Records of isopod crustacea (Corallanidae, Cirolanidae) from Papua New
Guinea, with the description of a new species. Journal of Crustacean Biology 2: 612-618.
(Unseen)
Munro, J.L. (n.d.). Motupore Island Research Center on the Papuan Barrier Reef. Geography
of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 1-2.
Munro, J.L. and Gwythen, J. (1983). Growth rates and maricultural potential of tridacnid clams.
Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium 1: 633-636.
Polunin, N.V.C. (1983). Annual report. Motupore Island Research Department.
Polunin, N.V.C. (1988). Efficient uptake of algal production by a single resident herbivore fish
on the reef. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 123: 61-76.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 262-263.
UPNG (1984). Welcome to Motupore Island. University of Papua New Guinea. Brochure.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
MOUNT GAHAVISUKA PROVINCIAL PARK, INCLUDING
LIPIZAUGA BOTANICAL SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the foothills of Mount Otto in the Bismarck Range, Eastern
Highland Province, 8km north of Goroka (11km by road). Approximately 6°00’S, 145°20’E
Date and History of Establishment First proposed as a provincial park in 1982 and officially
declared on 27 March 1983, the park was gazetted in 1989. Lipizauga Botanical Sanctuary was
established as a separate unit following gazettal of the park.
Area Total area of the park is 77ha. Lipizauga Botanical Sanctuary, which is fenced off, occupies
less than Sha and lies within the park.
Land Tenure The land has been leased to the Eastern Highlands Provincial Government for 49
years from 27 March 1983.
Altitude 2,000m-2,600m
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Physical Features The park lies on the steep west-facing slopes of a spur of Mount Otto, called
Mount Gahavisuka. It covers two ridges with two streams and a low-lying bowl where a small
lake is being created. The mountains are geologically recent and deeply tropically weathered.
The subsoil is very deep except at the summit where there are small cliffs of emergent rock.
Saprolyte clays overlay hard basaltic rocks throughout most of the area and there is often a deep
peaty humus layer on tope (J. Gore and N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1985, 1989).
Climate Conditions are cool, and annual rainfall in 1988 was 2500mm at 2,250m altitude
(N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1989). Minimum recorded temperature is 10°C (1989). Relative
humidity is approximately 74% throughout the year (Petr, 1983).
Vegetation About 70% of the area comprises mid-mountain rain forest. Castanopsis
acuminatissima is dominant, with local patches of Lithocarpus rufovillosus. Pandanus spp. also
abound in the damper places. Epiphytes, including orchids and rhododendrons, are abundant.
The lower part of the park comprises anthropogenic grasslands, dominated by Saurauia spp. and
a dense cover of Miscanthus sp. and Gleichenia sp., where terrestrial rhododendrons are common.
Lipizauga Botanical Sanctuary extends into both these habitats and contains highland plants from
throughout the country including many undescribed species especially in the genera
thododendron, schefflera and orchids. There are no exotic species. It is being developed into a
"gene bank" for conservation of threatened and rare species of plants, and is registered with the
IUCN Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat (N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1989).
Fauna Mammals recorded include tree kangaroo Dendrolagus spp., forest wallaby
Dorcopsulus sp., common striped possum Dactylopsila trivirgata, cuscus Phalanger spp., New
Guinea marsupial cat Dasyurus albopuncatus, striped possum, ring-tailed possum and bandicoot
Peroryctes spp. (N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1989). Pig Sus scrofa is also present, both wild
and domestic, which cause much damage. Avifauna includes six species of bird of paradise,
notably Princess Stephanie Astrapia stephaniae, brown sicklebill Epimachus meyeri, Loria’s
bird of paradise Loria loriae, King of Saxony bird of paradise Pteridophora alberti, Lawes’
parotia Parotia lawesii (B.M. Beehler, pers. comm., 1989), as well as cassowary Casuarius sp.
(J. Gore and N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1985). The rare chimaera birdwing Ornithoptera
chimaera (1) and Morphopsis meeki are present (N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1989).
Cultural Heritage Inhabitants of Nagazima Village belong to the Gahuku tribe. Nokondi’s
Cave, believed to be the home of the local masalai or spirits, lies just outside the park
(N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1989).
Local Human Population There are no settlements within the park now but there have been in
the past, long since abandoned. Nagamiza Village is nearby and park workers are recruited there.
The inhabitants take a great interest in the park and are preparing to set up a guest lodge for
visitors just outside the park (Crutwell, 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is relatively inaccessible. Visitor facilities include
tracks, look-outs, shelters, barbecue sites, picnic areas and toilets. Accommodation is not
available. A guest house is planned.
Scientific Research and Facilities A register of plant specimens is currently being compiled
by the curator. Research has been carried out by botanists, zoologists, ornithologists and
entomologists. There are no special scientific facilities.
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Papua New Guinea
Conservation Value The park is noted for its fine scenery, with magnificent views of the valley
and mounts Michael, Kerigomna and Wilhelm. Lipizauga Botanical Sanctuary provides an area
for the display and conservation of Papua New Guinea’s highland flora.
Conservation Management Managed by the Eastern Highlands Provincial Government with
assistance from the National Parks Service. Management activities include patrolling and
maintenance of tracks and buildings. In certain areas selective weeding, cutting and planting is
undertaken. Boundary fencing and irrigation, partially financed by a grant from the Stanley Smith
Horticultural Trust, have been constructed, along with an orchid house, propagation house and
tool shed. A second orchid house is under construction. Proposed development includes
construction of an information centre, camping site, propagation frames, a nursery with plants
for sale, display cases for animals and birds, a small lake and extension of the park (J. Gore and
N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1985).
Management Constraints Domestic pigs straying from local villages dig up soil and vegetation,
and cause damage at construction sites (SPREP, 1985). Access to the park is limited to an 8km
track that becomes impassable during the wet season due to landslides and washout (J. Gore and
N.E.G. Cruttwell, pers. comm., 1985).
Staff One expatriate curator, one assistant curator, one ranger, one assistant ranger
Budget Park maintenance — K20,000, road maintenance — K8,000, curator’s salary — K6,000
and collection of specimens — K1,500 (1985)
Local Addresses Eastern Highlands Provincial Government, PO Box 348, Goroka, EHP;
Provincial Ranger (Eastern Highlands Province), National Parks Office, PO Box 657, Boroko
References
CSIRO (1970). Lands of Goroka — Mount Hagen Area, Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Land
Research Series 27: 16-117.
Petr, T. (Ed.). (1983). The Purari— tropical environment of a high rainfall river basin. W. Junk,
The Hague, The Netherlands. Pp. 9-46.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Date 1984, reviewed January 1989; updated July 1989, September 1989
MT WILHELM NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in Simbu Province, in the Bismarck Range, 100km south-west
of Madang. Approximately 5°47’S, 145°01’E
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Date and History of Establishment Approved as a national park by the Government in 1974
and established in 1976, the site has not yet been gazetted (SPREP, 1985).
Area 4,856ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude Ranges from 2,500m to 4,509m at the top of Mt Wilhelm.
Physical Features Mount Wilhelm is the highest peak in Papua New Guinea. Late Pleistocene
glacial landforms are evident. These include cirques, "U"-shaped valleys, glacial lakes and tarns.
The mountain massif is drained mainly by tributaries of the Kaugal River (Petr, 1983).
Climate Mean annual rainfall at Keglsugl (2,400m), on the eastern slopes of the mountain, is
2314mm, while at 3,480m it is 3000mm (Croxall, 1977). Mean annual rainfall on the mountain
ridge is 4380mm (Hnatiuk et al., 1976). May to August are the driest months (Croxall, 1977).
Frosts are frequent at higher altitudes and snow falls regularly above 4,000m, although it usually
melts during the day (Petr, 1983).
Vegetation Forest cover is minimal (Hoyle, 1977). Undisturbed lower montane forest occurs
between 2,630m and 3,000m. The closed canopy is at approximately 30m, with some emergents,
mainly gymnosperms of the Papuacedrus, Libacedrus and Dacrycarpus genera. The subcanopy
consists of woody undergrowth. Trees are rich in epiphytes and there is an abundant ground flora
including mosses and liverworts (Croxall, 1977). Above 3,050m upper montane forest occurs
consisting of a single dense crowned tree layer, 10-20m high, and a rich undergrowth (Croxall,
1977). At approximately 3,660m, near the tree line, montane forest merges into subalpine scrub.
The dense growth of shrubs and dwarfed trees rise to a canopy of about 6m. Species of Ericaceae,
Epacridaceae and Rubiaceae are predominant. Rhododendron spp., Vaccinium spp., tree ferns
and orchids are also present. The genera Eurya, Olearia, Pittosporum, Schefflera, and Tasmannia
are well represented (Petr, 1983). Primary forest destroyed by fire at higher altitudes has been
replaced by alpine grassland (CSIRO, 1970). Tussock grass and herb associations extend to
greater heights on the warmer and drier east and north-east facing slopes (Petr, 1983).
Fauna Mammals include marsupials. Notable among the avifauna are New Guinea harpy eagle
Harpyopsis novaeguineae (V), long-bearded honeyeater Melidectes princeps (R), Princess
Stephanie’s astrapia Astrapia stephaniae and crested bird of paradise Cnemophilus macgregorii
(B.M. Beehler, pers. comm., 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a mountain hut.
Scientific Research and Facilities Research undertaken include studies of the vegetation
(Hope, 1976), phytoplankton (Thomasson, 1967) and blue-green algae (Watanabe et al., 1979)
of several lakes on Mt Wilhelm. There is an Australian National University field station situated
on the shore of Lake Anude, established in 1966.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management A fire ban has been in operation on Mount Wilhelm for the last
25 years (Petr, 1983).
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Papua New Guinea
Management Constraints There is considerable faunal depletion from hunting (B.M. Beehler,
pers. comm., 1989).
Staff One caretaker
Budget No information
Local Addresses Provincial Ranger, PO Box 657, Goroka, Eastern Highland Province
References
Brass, L.J. (1964). Results of the Archbold expedition, No. 86: Summary of the sixth Archbold
expedition to New Guinea. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 127:145-215.
(Unseen)
CSIRO (1970). Lands of Goroka-Mount Hagen area, Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Land Research
series 27: 16-117.
Croxall, J.P. (1977). Insectivorous Rainforest Passerines. Jbis 119: 116.
Hnatiuk, R.J., Smith, J.M.B. and McVean, D.N. (1976). Mount Wilhelm studies 2: the climate
of Mount Wilhelm. Res. School of Pacific studies. Department of Biogeography and
Geomorphology. Publication BG/4. Australian National University, Canberra. (Unseen)
Hope, G.S. (1976). The vegetational history of Mt Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea. Journal of
Ecology 64: 627-664.
Hoyle, M.A. (1977). Forestry and conservation in Papua New Guinea. Tigerpaper 4: 10-12.
Illies, J. (1969). Trichoptera from the high mountain lakes Pinde and Aunde, New Guinea. Pacific
Insects V: 487-493. (Unseen)
Léffler, H. (1973). Tropical high mountain lakes of New Guinea and their zoogeographical
relationships compared with other tropical high mountain lakes. Artic and Alpine Res. 5(2):
193-A198. (Unseen)
Petr, T. (Ed.). (1983). The Purari, tropical environment of a high rainfall river basin.
Monographiae Biologicae 51: 624.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Thomasson, K. (1967). Phytoplankton from some lakes on Mount Wilhelm, east New Guinea.
Blumea 15: 285-296. (Unseen)
Watanabe, M.., Prescott, G.W. and Yamagishi, T. (1979). Freshwater algae of Papua New Guinea
(3). Blue-green algae from Mt Wilhelm. In: S. Kurokawa (ed.) Studies on cryptogams of
Papua New Guinea. Academia Scientific Book Inc., Tokyo. Pp. 67-85.
Date December 1988, updated July 1989
NAMANATUBU HISTORIC RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Geographical Location Situated in Central Province, 15km north-east of Port Moresby.
Approximately 9°30’S, 147°07’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as an historic reserve on 15 May 1979.
Area 27ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude 160-1,000m
Physical Features A lake lies within the reserve.
Climate Information is based on meteorological data from Port Moresby. Mean annual rainfall
is 1182mm. There is a marked dry period from March to November. Mean monthly rainfall for
the driest month, July, is 22mm and that for February, the wettest, is 209mm. Winds blow from
the south-east during the dry season and the north-east during the wet season. Light, changeable
doldrums occur in November and May (CSIRO, 1973).
Vegetation Savanna grassland covers much of the reserve. Sago palms Metroxylon sagu
surround the lake (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage The reserve is the site of General Blamey’s hide-out and contains relics of
World War Two.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Central Provincial Ranger, National Parks Service, Department of
Environment and Conservation, PO Box 5749, Boroko
References
CSIRO (1973). Landform types and vegetation of eastern Papua. CS/RO Land Research Series
32: 50-57.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Date January 1989
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Papua New Guinea
NANUK ISLAND PROVINCIAL PARK
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated between New Britain and New Ireland, in the St Georges
Channel of East New Britain Province. Approximately 4°10’S, 152°20’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a provincial park on 26 November 1973.
Area 12ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude 0-4m
Physical Features The park consists of a low coralline island covering 4ha, associated reefs
and marine area.
Climate No information
Vegetation Much of the island is covered with coconut palm Cocos nucifera. Natural vegetation
consists of creeping plants at ground level, surrounded by an open-canopied association of tall
trees dominated by Casuarina spp. Some mangrove is present (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Island inhabitants include crows Corvus spp., sunbirds Nectarinia spp. and beach stone
curlew Esacus magnirostris (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Cultural Heritage The island is a staging point, still used today, along an ancient canoe route
between Kopo in East New Britain and the Duke of York Islands (SPREP, 1975).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Threats include the establishment of coconut plantations and fishing
within park boundaries (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Staff One caretaker
Budget K 750 NGK (1980)
Local Addresses No information
References
SPREP (1975). Proceedings of the South Pacific Conference on National Parks and Reserves.
Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington, New Zealand. P. 214.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date June 1980, reviewed December 1988
NDROLOWA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the island of Manus, Manus Province, in the eastern
uplands, 1km south of Lorengau. Approximately 2°03’S, 147°16’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife management area in March 1985,
following proposals in 1983 by representatives of Rossun who were concerned about the
depletion of terrestrial and marine wildlife resources (Eaton, 1986).
Area 5,850ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude No information
Physical Features Ndrolowa Wildlife Management Area consists of terrestrial and marine
components. Inland are hills, deeply dissected by rough valleys with steep slopes. The uplands
are formed mainly of Tertiary tuffaceous clastic sediments, 2-15 million years old. Igneous rock
also occurs. Weathering produces rich red plastic clays. To the east along the coast are alluvial
sediments which have been eroded and deposited within the last two million years. These alluvia
are low-lying and frequently submerged by flood waters or high tides. Penetrating both the upland
and alluvial areas are a number of volcanic intrusions or plugs, often conspicuous, standing well
above the surrounding terrain. The marine component consists of the almost land-locked
Lomucher Inlet, with shallow still waters, Paratau Bay, several islands, open water and reef areas.
The reef platform drops steeply to a sandy bottom at about 20m depth (Kisokau and Lindgren,
1984).
Climate No information
Vegetation Well-developed, secondary forest, with a sparse ground and shrub layer occurs in
upland areas. Taller trees rise to about 25m. Small remnant patches of undisturbed hill rain forest
are found on the steeper areas and volcanic plugs. Dense mangrove occurs on the alluvial
sediments. There is little or no ground cover, apart from the exposed root systems. Swamp forest
occurs in areas prone to prolonged flooding. Tree species present include sago palm Metroxylon
sagu. Areas of regeneration and garden plots are found throughout the more accessible parts of
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Papua New Guinea
the management area. Long-abandoned areas support gingers and fast-growing secondary tree
species (Kisokau and Lindgren, 1984).
Fauna Mammals present include fruit bat, either Pteropus admiraltatum or Dobsonia sp., cuscus
Phalanger maculatus and an unidentified dolphin, possibly Stenella sp. (Kisokau and Lindgren,
1984). Avifauna includes five species endemic to Manus Island: Manus friarbird Philemon
albitorques, Manus pied monarch Monarcha infleix, Manus rufous fantail Rhipidura semirubra,
superb pitta Pitta superba (1) and Meek’s pygmy parrot Micropsitta meeki. Grey imperial pigeon
Ducula pickeringii (R) is also present (Kisokau and Lindgren, 1984).
Four reptiles have been recorded, namely ground boa Candoia aspera, file snake
Acrochordus sp., blue-tailed skink Emoia cyanogaster and green turtle Chelonia mydas (E)
(Kisokau and Lindgren, 1984). Among the insects on record are five species of butterflies:
Danaus hamata, Papilio aegeus, P.ulysses, Ornithoptera priamus and Parthenos sylvia
(Kisokau and Lindgren, 1984). Fourteen freshwater and 181 marine fish have been recorded
(Lindgren and Pasca, cited in Kisokau and Lindgen, 1984). Other marine species include octopus,
cuttlefish Sepia apana, crayfish Panulirus sp., mudcrabs and corals (Kisokau and Lindgren,
1984).
Cultural Heritage People of the Ndrawo, Rossun, Loniu and Warembu clan groups are the
traditional landowning groups in the area.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities A faunal survey was undertaken in 1983 by Lindgren and
Pasca (cited in Kisokau and Lindgren, 1984).
Conservation Value The area has a rich and interesting fauna, including five of the six bird
species endemic to Manus.
Conservation Management The area is administered by a wildlife management committee
comprising 21 representatives of Rossun, Ndrawo and Loniu villages (Eaton, 1986). The rules
proposed prohibit use of firearms, explosives, poisons, chemicals and the use of torches or lamps
for hunting or spear-fishing at night. In addition, commercially manufactured fishing nets and
spear guns are forbidden. Traditional hunting by landowners is allowed, but outsiders have to
purchase a licence to hunt or collect fauna. A system of fines has been established. These are
paid into the consolidated revenue fund (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints Terrestrial and marine resources have been depleted through the use
of root poisons, shotguns, explosives, motor canoes and nets, and spear-fishing with torches or
pressure lamps (Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
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References
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation in Papua New Guinea. Land Studies Centre Report,
89/1. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. Pp. 51-52.
Kisokau, K. and Lindgren, E. (1984). Wildlife Management Area. A report on the proposals to
establish a wildlife management area for a variety of wildlife resources in Manus Province.
Office of Environment and Conservation, Department of Physical Planning and
Environment. Unpublished report. 15 pp.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
NUSERANG WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in the Finschhafen area of Morobe Province. Approximately
6°30’S, 147°46’E
Date and History of Establishment Established as a wildlife management area on
16 September 1986.
Area 22ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 1,000m
Physical Features The region is hilly. Mount Nuserang lies within the area. Caves are present.
Climate Climate is similar to that of northern coastal regions. The management area receives
an annual rainfall of up to 2000mm (P. Eaton, pers. comm., 1988).
Vegetation Consists mainly of lowland hill forest with patches of regrowth resulting from
subsistence farming activities (P. Eaton, pers. comm., 1988).
Fauna The avifauna includes Macgregor’s bowerbird Amblyornis macgregoriae and emperor
bird of paradise Paradisaea guilielmi (P. Eaton, pers. comm., 1988).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are no residents in the area. The Masangko and Maruruo clan
groups have traditional rights of access to the area (P. Eaton, pers. comm., 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No specific information
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Papua New Guinea
Conservation Management The area is administered by a wildlife management committee
consisting of ten representatives of Maruruo and Masangko villages. Killing or collection of all
fauna is prohibited within the management area. Collection and destruction of birds eggs is also
prohibited. Use of bows and arrows, shotguns and catapults is banned. Dogs are not allowed into
the management area or within 500m of the its perimeter. Gardening is prohibited. Collection of
edible plants by customary owners is controlled: villagers wishing to collect must obtain
permission from the wildlife management committee before entering the area. Fires are
prohibited in and around the area. If found guilty, offenders are fined K100 by the village courts
(P. Eaton, pers. comm., 1988).
Management Constraints In the past overhunting has led to depletion of wildlife (P. Eaton,
pers. comm., 1988).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
None listed
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
POKILI WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies on the north coast of West New Britain, just inland from Cape
Hoskins. The Kapiura River forms the south-western boundary. Mount Pago lies at the
westernmost tip. Approximately 5°36’S, 150°38’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared and gazetted as a wildlife management area in
1975. Rules and a committee were established by the local people in 1974.
Area 9,840ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude Mount Pago attains 800m
Physical Features A thermally-active area with spectacular hot springs, geysers, fumaroles and
boiling pools of mud (Bishop, 1980). Mount Pago is an active volcano, and has associated
geothermal areas with small geysers, hot springs and bubbling mud craters. The 9ha known as
Pokili grounds lie around one such area (King, 1990).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Climate The dry season begins in early April and the wet season in late December (Bishop,
1980).
Vegetation Tropical lowland rain forest covers much of the area. Mid-mountain forest with
Calophyllum occurs on the higher slopes, and palm forest and Pandanus forest on the lower
floodplains.
Fauna Includes common scrub hen Megapodius freycinet which incubates its eggs by burying
them in the geothermally warm soil. The breeding grounds radiate out from the thermal area for
up to 2km, and the number of nests is reported to be in the tens of thousands.
Cultural Heritage Village people have collected megapode eggs, to eat and to trade, for
centuries, and have customary egg collection rights (Anon., 1978). In the past wars were fought
and men and women died defending their traditional right to the collect eggs (Bishop, 1980).
Local Human Population Nine villages claim rights to the area, namely Vavua, Galilo,
Komimumu, Makasili, Raparu, Ubai, Gule, Rikau and Lavege, and as many as 200 people may
attend the egg collecting grounds daily. All villages, with the exception of Lavege, are located
outside the management area and have their own customary land for taro gardens and growing
cash crops such as coconuts, cocoa and oil palm. Fishing is important in coastal villages (Eaton,
1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Aspects of the megapode’s biology relevant to its
conservation have been studied (Bishop, 1980) and a review of information relating to the
occurrence of Megapodius freycinet in the islands of Papua New Guinea has been compiled
(Bishop, 1978). Questionnaire surveys were conducted by students from the University of Papua
New Guinea during September 1989 to determine whether there was a widespread understanding
of both the reasons for establishing the wildlife management area and the rules concerning its
management (King, 1990).
Conservation Value Principally valued for the sustainable collection of megapode eggs.
Conservation Management The government was made aware of local concern for the area in
August 1970 when a complaint was made about logging in the egg-grounds. The Pokili
committee comprises representatives from each of the nine land-owning villages. Each village
has a designated egg collecting zone in Pokili Grounds, although the boundaries of the zones
have not been registered. Rules prohibit the hunting of megapodes and only landowners can take
eggs or hunt in the area. Harvesting of eggs is prohibited in August to allow the megapode
population to sustain itself. No trees can be cut within 1,000m of a megapode nesting hole, and
dogs are not allowed within 500m of a hole. There are, however, no rules relating to the wider
habitat of the megapodes outside the egg laying area. A recent addition to the rules, although not
gazetted by the Wildlife Officer at Kimbe, is a restriction on egg collecting on Tuesdays and
Thursdays. Rules are enforced by the committee, or village elders, and offenders may be fined
up to K20 (Eaton, 1986; King, 1990).
Management Constraints For several years, the people of Lavege have been pressing for part
of the boundary to be shifted westward to free their land for development. Realignment of the
boundary would not endanger the megapode nesting grounds. In 1977 the Stettin Bay Lumber
Company felled 26 trees just inside the management area and subsequently paid the committee
K267.58 in compensation. There have been complaints about settlers from the oil palm schemes
218
Papua New Guinea
hunting with shotguns and one village has cleared a patch of forest within the management area
to plant coconuts. In the case of infringements of the rules, warnings have been issued (Eaton,
1986) and a limited number of fines imposed (King, 1990). Results from questionnaire surveys
in 1989 indicate that enforcement of the rules may be weak, that megapode egg collection may
exceed sustainable limits and that outsiders are stealing eggs. There is also evidence that
megapode eggs are becoming increasingly scarce, and that there is some misunderstanding of
the need to conserve an area of undisturbed forest in addition to the egg laying area to support
the megapodes (King, 1990).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Anon. (1978). Wildlife in Papua New Guinea, conserving wildlife in wildlife management areas,
sanctuaries and national parks in Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of
Lands and Environment, Konedobu. Pp. 17-20.
Bishop, K.D. (1980). Birds of the volcanoes - the scrubfowl of West New Britain. The World
Pheasant Association Journal 5: 80-90.
Bishop, K.D. (1978). A review of the information relating to the occurrence of Megapodius
freycinet in the islands of Papua New Guinea. The World Pheasant Association Journal 3:
22-30.
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 41-43.
King, B. (1990). Does wildlife management work: a case study, Pokili Wildlife Management
Area, West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. Tiger Paper. Pp. 1-6.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989, February 1991
RANBA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
(INCLUDING LONG ISLAND AND CROWN ISLAND WILDLIFE
MANAGEMENT AREAS)
IUCN Management Category:
Ranba WMA Vill (Multiple Use Management Area)
Long Island WMA IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Crown Island WMA IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Long Island, which constitutes the whole of Ranba Wildlife
Management Area, lies in the Bismarck Sea off the north coast of Papua New Guinea, about
150km east of Madang. Long Island Sanctuary covers Lake Wisdom in the centre of Long Island.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Crown Island Sanctuary, which occupies the whole island, lies 15km to the north-west of Long
Island. Long Island is at approximately 5°20’S, 147°06’E and Crown Island at 5°08’S, 146°57’E.
Date and History of Establishment The whole of Long Island was declared and gazetted as
Ranba Wildlife Management Area in 1977. Long Island and Crown Island sanctuaries were
declared in 1977.
Area Ranba Wildlife Management Area: 41,922ha; Long Island Sanctuary: 15,724ha; Crown
Island Sanctuary: 5,969ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 0-1,280m
Physical Features Long Island, a Quaternary volcanic island, consists of two strato volcanoes
at either end of a caldera complex. Two peaks, Mount Reamur (1,280m) and Mount Cerisy
(1,112m), are located at the northern and southern ends of the island, respectively (Eaton, 1986).
Lake Wisdom, a large freshwater caldera lake (9,500ha) formed by an immense volcanic
explosion, occupies the centre of Long Island. The outer flanks of the island are covered by a
thick pyroclastic mantle judged to have been deposited during the first half of the period
1700-1827. Subsequent volcanic activity in the southern part of Lake Wisdom resulted in the
formation of Motmot Island, whose eruptions have been recorded in 1953-1955, 1968 and
1973-1974 (Ball and Johnson, 1976).
Climate No information
Vegetation Consists of savanna and woodland. Coconut Cocos nucifera is the main cash crop.
Fauna Mammals include wild pig Sus scrofa, a distinctive subspecies of brown cuscus
Phalanger sp. found on the mainland, fruit bats Pteropdidae, feral dogs Canis familiaris and cats.
Sixty-nine species of birds have been recorded (Ball, 1974), including 11 species of pigeon and
megapode Megapodius sp.
Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) and leatherback
Dermochelys coriacea (E) breed on the northern and north-western beaches of Long Island.
There are said to be no fish in Lake Wisdom, although there are freshwater shrimps and reports
of crocodiles Crocodylus sp. (Eaton, 1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Approximately 1,000 people live on the island. There are five main
villages, Matfun, Bok, Kaut, Malala, Point Kiau, and a number of smaller isolated settlements
around the coast. There are no permanent settlements in Long Island Sanctuary. Crown Island
is uninhabited. Food crops are grown in small scattered gardens. Wildlife provides an important
source of protein. Cuscus or wild pig are eaten at least once a week by most families; some also
eat fruit bats, feral cats and dogs. Turtle and megapode eggs are collected.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Long Island receives only the occasional visitor.
Scientific Research and Facilities Includes studies of the colonisation of Motmot Island and
other islands of Lake Wisdom (Ball and Glucksman, 1978; Bassot and Ball, 1969, 1972), and of
the limnology of Lake Wisdom (Ball and Glucksman, 1978).
Conservation Value No specific information
220
Papua New Guinea
Conservation Management Long Island is rich in wildlife. A wildlife management committee
of six has been appointed to represent the main villages. All wildlife is protected within Long
Island Sanctuary and elsewhere within Ranba Wildlife Management Area hunting is confined
to those with customary rights. There is a complete ban on the ownership and use of shotguns,
which has proven particularly effective, as traditionally bows and arrows are not used. Turtles
can only be taken or killed by hunters with customary rights in that part of the island where they
occur. In addition, a hunting ban is imposed during the breeding season (May to July) and the
sale of turtles is regulated (Eaton, 1986). Fishing is of only limited importance. Traditionally,
hook and line or spears are used rather than nets. Sea shells are collected from Crown Island
Sanctuary by people with traditional rights (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints The rules concerning protection of turtles have not always been
observed. Killing has occurred within sanctuary areas and during the breeding season. There
have been no prosecutions partly because villagers and administrators are unsure of the exact
procedures and rules. An additional problem has been pressure to allow some commercial logging
on Long Island.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Ball, E. (1975). List of the island fauna of Long and Crown Islands, Madang District, Papua New
Guinea. In: Lindgren, E. (Ed.), Long Island Wildlife Report. Department of Agriculture,
Stocks and Fisheries, Port Moresby. (Unseen)
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation, wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1: 22-25.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
SALAMAUA PENINSULA MARINE PARK
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies south of Huon Gulf on the east coast, 37km south of Lae, in
Morobe Province. Approximately 7°00’S, 147°01’E
Date and History of Establishment No information
Area No information
Land Tenure The peninsula is customary land. Information on reef tenureship is not available.
Altitude Ranges from below sea level to 274m
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Physical Features The steep 5.5km-long, steep-sided peninsula is connected to the mainland
by a sandy isthmus about 1m about sea level. The peninsula is fringed by reefs which extend
half way down the isthmus on the north side. Those on the south side are protected from the
south-east swells which occur from June to September. Water currents are generally slight, with
only one notable tidal cycle per day. Maximum spring tidal range at Lae is 1.1m (Kojis and
Quinn, 1984). Visibility is good. Water temperature ranges between 27.5°C and 32°C, being
warmest from December to March and coolest from July to August. Salinity is usually 32 ppt on
the south side of the peninsula.
Climate No information
Vegetation No information
Fauna Coral cover is high (43-58%) at depths less than 20m; moderate (23-28%) at 20-35m
and low (less than 10%) at depths greater than 35m. At 45m there is about 5% coral cover.
Calcareous sand largely replaces the coral substrate below 40m. There is a shallow reef flat
dominated by massive Porites colonies and Acropora palifera which is most abundant in shallow
water is not reported below 15m. Ninety-five species from 48 genera of coral have been recorded
in the Huon Gulf (Kojis et al., 1984), including black coral Anthipathidae (CT).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reefs are popular with snorkelers and SCUBA divers. A
resort, Naus Kibung, has been built and is operated by the Morobe Provincial Government. It
provides a conference venue, accommodation and cooking facilities for tourists, and caters for
about 30 people.
Scientific Research and Facilities Fecundity of Acropora palifera at Salamaua has been
compared with that of a reef at Busama, 28km south of Lae where sedimentation rates are higher
(Kojis and Quinn, 1984); sexual reproduction of A. palifera at both these reefs has been compared
with that at Lizard Island and Heron Island reefs on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Kojis,
1986). The area is used for biology field trips by the University of Technology in Lae and by
high schools.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints There is concern that dredging for the proposed port development
at Lae could cause damage to the reefs. An environmental impact statement was in preparation
in 1981. Slash and burn agriculture on the peninsula could result in siltation of the reefs because
the region is mountainous with high rainfall, as appears to be the case along the coastline to the
north (Kojis and Quinn, 1984).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
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Papua New Guinea
References
Information for this sheet is based on UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Kojis, B.L. and Quinn, N.J. (1984). Seasonal and depth variation in fecundity of Acropora
palifera at two reefs in Papua New Guinea. Coral Reefs 3: 165-172.
Kojis, B.L. and Quinn, N.J., Claereboudt, M.R. and Tseng, W.Y. (1984). Coral reef of the Huon
Gulf and Hansa Bay, Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the joint meeting of the Atlantic
Reef Committee and the International Society for Reef Studies. Advances in Reef Science,
Miami, Florida, October 1984.
Kojis, B.L. (1986). Sexual reproduction in Acropora (Isopora) (Coelentera: Scleractinia). 2.
Latitudinal variation in A. palifera from the Great Barrier Reef and Papua New Guinea.
Marine Biology 91: 311-318.
UNEP/IUCN. (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date January 1989
SAWATAETAE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea, in north-central
Normanby Island, adjacent to Etabu Bay, in Milne Bay Province. Approximately 9°57’S,
151°02’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife management area in 1977.
Management rules were gazetted in 1978. Established on a plantation owned by an expatriate
holding agricultural and pastoral leases (Eaton, 1986).
Area 700ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 0-120m
Physical Features The area is flat and low-lying, becoming hilly further inland (Eaton, 1986).
Wetlands include seasonal, slow-flowing streams, swampy areas and seasonally flooded
grasslands (Scott, 1989).
Climate Conditions are tropical and monsoonal.
Vegetation Plantation covers part of the management area. Natural vegetation consists of
lowland rain forest, secondary regrowth and grassland. In the sheltered waters of the bays
mangroves are extensive (Eaton, 1986).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Fauna Large mammals include wild pig Sus scrofa, cuscus Phalanger spp. and fruit bats
Pteropodidae (Eaton, 1986). The area has a diverse avifauna including waterfowl such as banded
stilt Himantopus leucocephalus, Stiltia isabella, beach stone-curlew Esacus magnirostris,
American golden plover Pluvialis dominica, little ringed plover Charadrius dubius, Mongolian
plover C. mongolus and greater sand plover C. leschenaultii. Birds of paradise namely
curl-breasted manucode Manucodia comrii, cockatoos, parrots, egrets and megapodes, are also
present (Scott, 1989). The wetlands support a small population of estuarine crocodile Crocodylus
porosus (E) (Scott, 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are about 300 residents distributed among the villages of
Sawataetae, Paewese, Eneyai and Gomalimali (Eaton, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management The site is administered by a wildlife management committee. The
major objective of the wildlife management area is to protect wildlife from hunters without
traditional rights. Local taboo forbids eating of crows, eagles and cockatoos. Under the
management rules, traditional land-owners are allowed use of shotguns to kill wild pigs and birds
damaging crops. Restrictions on burning vegetation are imposed. Fires can be lit by customary
owners to clear garden areas only and they must be carefully controlled. In addition to gazetted
rules, the cutting of mangrove has been prohibited. Dynamite fishing has been forbidden but
pressure lamps and root poisons may still be used. Outsiders wishing to fish or gather trochus
shells must obtain permission. It is forbidden to kill megapodes, but no controls are in force
relating to egg collection. Further protection has been extended to all fauna, and only cuscus can
be taken using traditional methods. It also appears that a larger area than gazetted is effectively
included in the wildlife management area. This additionally managed land extends further inland
and includes the coastal waters of Etabu and Sawataetae bays (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints Initial impetus has declined since Milne Bay Province lost its
wildlife officers due to lack of government support (Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife Management in Papua New Guinea. Land
Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 53-55.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date February 1989, updated July 1989
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Papua New Guinea
SIWI-UTAME WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in Ialibu District, South Highlands Province, to the south of
Mount Giluwe. The main road between the provincial capital of Mendi and Mount Hagen runs
through the northern part of the area. Boundaries comprise the Anggura River to the north and
west, Mambu River to the south and the Yorio and Iaro to the east. Approximately 5°50’S,
144°08’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife management area in January 1977,
following negotiations between local people and the Government that commenced in 1974.
Area 12,540ha
Land Tenure Customary land. Kume Wildlife Centre (4ha) is sited on Government land.
Altitude 1,800-2,317m
Physical Features The area features a series of parallel limestone hogback ridges running in a
north-westerly direction and separated by corridors of less resistant rocks such as siltstone,
mudstone and greywacke, partly covered by volcanic products and lahars from Mount Giluwe.
Soils comprise humic brown latosols on well-drained sites, gleyed pelosols on fine-textured
impervious sediments, meadow podzolic and laterite soils on old valley fills, bog soils in
depressions and alluvial soils on level plains (Kwapena, 1982).
Climate Being a highland region, rainfall is typically high with an annual mean of 3000mm.
Mean temperature is 16°C (Eaton, 1986). Relative humidity at Mendi fluctuates between 70%
and 83% throughout the year and mean monthly evaporation ranges between 82mm and 103mm.
Evaporation rates are highest from October to January due to drier conditions (Kwapena, 1982).
Vegetation Consists of anthropogenic grassland, forest margins, secondary growth in logged
areas and mixed broadleaf and Nothofagus forest (Kwapena, 1982).
Fauna Twenty-one mammal species are present, including domesticated pig Sus sp., scrub
wallaby Thylogale stigmatica, mountain wallaby Dorcopsis hageni, jumping mouse Lorentzimys
nouhuysi, bandicoot Peroryctes sp., flying phalangers Petaurus australis and P. breviceps,
ring-tailed phalangers Pseudocheirus albertisi, P. mayeri and Pseudocheirus sp., and rats Rattus
leucopus, R. rattus, R. verecundus, Mallomys argentata, M. hercules, M. rothschildi, Melomys
fellowsi, M. hageni, M. levipes and giant rat Hyomys goliath (Kwapena, 1982).
Some 44 bird species have been recorded, including Macgregor’s bowerbird Amblyornis
macgregoriae, dwarf cassowary Casuarius bennetti, Princess Stephanie’s astrapia Astrapia
stephaniae, eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus, black sicklebill Epimachus fastuosus (R), brown
sicklebill E. meyeri, black-capped lory Lorius lory, Belford’s honeyeater Melidetes belfordi,
canary flycatcher Microeca papuana, hooded pitta Pitta sordida, frogmouth Podargus sp. and
large scrubwren Sericornis nouhuysi (Kwapena, 1982).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Among the reptiles are fence lizard Cryptoblepharus sp., gecko Crytodactylus sp., angle-headed
dragon Gonocephalus sp., scrub python Liasis sp. and an unidentified brown snake. Amphibians
include six species of frogs and cane toad Bufo marinus (Kwapena, 1982).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The area has a total population of about 6,000, distributed among
19 villages. All residents speak the Kawabi language. The main occupation is subsistence
farming, sweet potatoes and taro being the main crops. More temperate vegetables such as
potatoes and cabbage are also grown. There are few sources of cash income, but vegetables,
woven hats, bags, baskets and trays are sold at roadside markets (Eaton, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A wildlife centre has been established at Kume adjacent to the
highway. This attracts a small number of visitors, scientists and educational parties. An entry fee
is charged (Eaton, 1986). Facilities available include an information centre, picnic area and a
small hut where visitors can spend the night. An orchid farm is also being developed (Eaton,
1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities Vegetation and faunal surveys have been carried out
(Kwapena, 1982).
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management The bower bird is traditionally protected. It is believed to have
magic powers, especially in its ability to find wives for young men (Eaton, 1986). The area is
managed by a wildlife management committee, consisting of 14 members representing different
villages. Hunting is restricted to those with customary rights and the use of bows and arrows,
shotguns, slings and metal traps is forbidden. No dogs are allowed in the area and eggs are not
to be taken or disturbed. In addition, trees can only be felled with the landowner’s permission
and special protection is extended to fruit trees, trees harbouring wildlife and bird of paradise
display trees. About 35 people have been charged and prosecuted for breaking the rules. Some
offenders have been fined between K5 and K1,000 by the committee or village courts; others
have been brought before local courts and serious cases heard by district courts (Eaton, 1986).
Cassowaries are reared at Kume wildlife centre. Most are brought when young from other parts
of the Southern Highlands. They are in considerable demand for ceremonies and bride prices.
Management Constraints Population pressure has resulted in forest clearance around the
village of Kirune for subsistence cultivation. The main Mendi-Mount Hagen road makes the area
accessible to outsiders. Birds have been shot from vehicles, but offenders are difficult to
apprehend. There has been some loss of momentum since the end of 1981, when budgetary cuts
reduced the effectiveness of the Ministry of the Environment and Conservation, and wildlife
officers were transferred to the Department of Primary Industry (Eaton, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget Provision of money necessary for the construction of facilities at Kume Wildlife Centre
was partly supported by provincial rural development funds.
Local Addresses No information
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Papua New Guinea
References
Anon. (1978). Wildlife in Papua New Guinea; conserving wildlife in wildlife management areas,
Sanctuaries and national parks in Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of
Lands and Environment, Konedobu. Pp. 29-31.
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation. Wildlife Management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 17-20.
Kwapena, N. (1982). Ecology and conservation of six species of bird of paradise in Papua New
Guinea. Unpublished. Pp. 27-164.
Date 1984, reviewed February 1989, updated July 1989
TALELE ISLANDS PROVINCIAL PARK
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated in the Bismarck Archipelago, East New Britain District, 60km
west-north-west off the northern coast of New Britain. Approximately 4°10’S, 151°35’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a provincial park on 1 October 1973.
Area 40ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features Comprises a group of eight low coralline islands lying on a loosely-connected
steep-sided reef. The islands are noted for their sandy beaches.
Climate No information
Vegetation The islands support mangrove species and beach forest species including Scaevola,
Hibiscus and Eremophylla spp. (S. Gorio, pers. comm., 1980).
Fauna Includes a variety of unidentified seabirds, lizards and turtles along with fringing and
lagoon reefs (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some research has been carried out by the Wildlife Division.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
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Management Constraints Some gardening occurs.
Staff No information
Budget K 750 (1980)
Local Addresses National Parks Service Headquarters, PO Box 6601, Boroko
References
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date June 1980, reviewed January 1989, updated July 1989
TONDA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies in the extreme south-west of Papua New Guinea, bordered by
Irian Jaya to the west and the Mai Kussa River to the east. The site extends inland from the Torres
Straits for about 50km. 8°15’-9°15’S, 141°01’-141°45’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife management area on 6 February 1975,
the rules being gazetted in 1976. Various proposals have been made since 1968 regarding its
designation. In 1971 the Land Development Board approved the establishment of a wildlife
reserve covering approximately 5,000 sq. km, but existing legislation was found to be inadequate
and amendments to the Faunal Protection and Control Act (1966) were necessary (Herington,
1978).
Area 590,000ha
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 0-45m
Physical Features The entire management area lies on the southern margin of the Oriomo Plain,
a relict alluvial floodplain rising to 45m at Morehead Ridge on the reserve’s northern boundary.
The southern boundary is formed by the northern shores of the Torres Straits, the coast being a
narrow band of mudflats backed by low beach ridges. Landward of the beach are seasonal
swamps on recent estuarine and marine deposits, since the coast is one of accretion. Three major
river systems traverse the area from the north: Bensbach River in the west, Morehead River in
the centre and the Wassi Kussa and Mai Kussa estuarine complex in the east. The rivers flow
slowly, meander a great deal and are flanked by conspicuous levees. Impeded drainage causes
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Papua New Guinea
widespread seasonal flooding, although permanent swamps are not extensive. During the dry
season the rivers are tidal in their lower reaches and brackish water may extend inland for over
100km in especially dry years (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988). Soils are described by Bleeker
(1971). Those of the higher ground are freely-draining red and yellow latosols, acid with loamy
topsoils overlying clayey subsoils. Local areas subject to seasonal inundation have gleyed soils.
Soils of poorly drained river floodplains and swamps are organic peats overlying clays
(N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
Climate Conditions are distinctly seasonal, with a wet season lasting from November to March
and a dry season from June to December. Total annual rainfall ranges between 1500mm and
2000mm. Conditions vary from year to year: in 1980 there was a severe drought (Eaton, 1986).
Vegetation The vegetation is similar in physiognomy and species composition to that of
northern Australia, in contrast to that of most of lowland New Guinea. This reflects the strongly
seasonal climate and the history of former land connections with the Australian continent. The
main vegetation comprises various types of forest, savanna and grassland, influenced to a great
extent by anthropogenic fire, the degree of inundation experienced in the wet season, and, to a
lesser extent, the history of human occupation. Henty (1973) recognised four vegetation types
based on physiognomy, following Paijmans (1971). These are subdivided into a total of 14, based
on a combination of physiognomy and species composition (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
1. Forests and woodlands support many species in common but can be distinguished into several
types: (a) Mangrove forest and woodland forming a belt of up to 1km wide along the coast.
Associates include Rhizophora, Avicennia and Ceriops. (b) Littoral forest and woodland, with
mixed species composition trees up to 30m high, and Melaleuca cajaputi and Acacia
auriculiformis are common. (c) Monsoon forest, on sites not subject to flooding, with a canopy
of 25m and emergents reaching 40m, is relatively rich in tree species with Acacia spp., Tristania,
Syzygium, Parinari, Mangifera and others. The soils of this vegetation type are sought after for
cultivation and much has been converted to Jmperata grassland and maintained as such by fires.
(d) Gallery forest and woodland in narrow belts along banks of streams and on levees of major
rivers. Trees include Terminalia, Calophyllum, Acacia, Melaleuca and Tristania, while
Mangifera inocarpoides may be predominant locally. (e) Mixed swamp forest and woodland on
floodplains of major rivers, with a canopy of up to 30m and sometimes with an abundant grass
layer. Associates include Vitex, Sarcocephalus coadunata, Mangifera inocarpoides and Dillenia
alata. (f) Melaleuca swamp forest, consisting almost entirely of Melaleuca spp. on soils subjected
to prolonged flooding of 2m depth or more, especially along the lower Bensbach and Morehead
rivers, although not necessarily close to the rivers themselves.
2. Savanna covers most of the area and is affected by frequent fires. There are several types:
(a) Tall mixed savanna is fairly open, with Acacia spp., Tristania, Xanthostemon, Melaleuca
spp., Alstonia and other trees up to 25m tall and a dense ground layer dominated by grasses.
(b) Low mixed savanna with trees usually less than 20m high, widely spaced on land waterlogged
or flooded in the wet season, intergrading with tall mixed savanna on more nutrient-rich soils,
and consisting of Melaleuca spp., Xanthostemon, Tristania spp., Grevillea glauca, Banksia
dentata, Dillenia alata and Eucalyptus spp. The ground layer is dominated by grasses including
Imperata, Aristada and Eriachne. (c) Melaleuca savanna canopy, usually below 15m, on land
subject to flooding, dominated by thin-stemmed Melaleuca spp., with Dillenia alata and
Tristania suaveolens, and a species-rich ground layer including many sedges and grasses (though
lacking Imperata) and forbs. (d) Monsoon scrub on soils of very low nutrient status and with
impeded drainage, with trees lower than 7m, include Melaleuca viridiflora, Banksia marginata
and Grevillea glauca. Low shrub Synoga lysicephala may form dense thickets and the ground
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layer is dominated by sedges, especially Schoenus and Tricostularia. The insectivorous forbs
Nepenthes and Drosera are conspicuous.
3. Grassland is subject to frequent burning. The largest area forms the Bulla Plains (60,000ha)
between the Bensbach and Morehead rivers. (a) Jmperata grassland occurs south of the Bensbach
River and at Tonda, which are not subjected to flooding. Jmperata cylindrica is predominant but
in various stages of replacement by other grass species through the combined agencies of fire
and grazing by rusa deer. Associates include scattered trees of Sarcocephalus coadunata,
Melaleuca spp. and Corypha. Possibly this vegetation type developed under previous cultivation
and is now being invaded by Melaleuca savanna and forest communities. (b) Swamp grassland
occupies large areas on either side of the Bensbach and Morehead rivers on black soils
continuously flooded for several months each wet season. It is now largely dominated by grass
Pseudoraphis spinescens, with relict patches of Phragmites karka and robust sedges in decline
due to the activities of introduced rusa deer and feral pigs. This grassland type also interdigitates
with other grassland and woodland/forest types along shallow creeks. (c) Sedge grassland
occupies a large area between the Bensbach and Morehead rivers on clay soils of markedly
impeded drainage. It is dominated by sedges and grasses and characterised by scattered Pandanus
and thickets of low Melaleuca viridiflora.
4. Riparian and aquatic vegetation has been greatly modified by the grazing activities of rusa
deer but relict patches survive at inaccessible sites along rivers and in swamps. It consists of
Phragmites karka, Panicum spp., Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, Oryza spp., Cyperus
platystylis and other species often forming floating mats. The tree Barringtonia tetraptera is
often conspicuous, as are Pseudoraphis spinescens, Utricularia aurea, Nelumbo and Nymphaea
in seasonal lagoons (N. Stronach, pers.comm., 1988).
Fauna Knowledge about mammals is based on a few surveys only, and is largely held by the
local people, except in the case of the introduced rusa deer which has been the subject of several
scientific studies. The numbers of all wallaby species are probably depressed by human hunting
close to villages. The monotreme short-beaked echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus is present.
Marsupials are represented by a diversity of small to medium-sized carnivorous and omnivorous
species. Agile wallaby Macropus agilis, typical of savanna and grassland, is abundant on the
Bulla Plains; forest wallabies Thylogale stigmatica and Dorcopsis veterum are common in
monsoon forest. Both rodents and bats are well represented. Rusa deer Cervus timorensis rusa,
which is widespread and commonest around river floodplains, has had fundamental effects on
the ecology of the area. The Bulla Plains has a population of up to 20,000 deer. The deer support
a small harvest for trophies and meat and probably contribute to the very high density of
scavenging birds of prey. Other introduced mammals include domestic pig (in prehistoric times),
which has modified large areas of swamp grassland by its digging, domestic dog (introduced
prehistorically), domestic cat, which has established itself widely in the savanna at least, and
domestic cattle, of which there is a small population in the vicinity of the Bensbach and Tarl
rivers (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
Birds are the only group which is at all well-known, with an expanding check-list of over 250
species for the reserve (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988). Of these, the majority of savanna birds
are typically Australian species, for example wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax, brolga Grus
rubicunda, Australian bustard Ardeotis australis and blue-winged kookaburra Dacelo leachii. A
number of Australian migrants visit the area, most notable being the abundant waterfowl during
the wet season. The most conspicuous Palaearctic migrants are shorebirds, with hundreds of
thousands occupying the tidal mudflats during the northern winter. The Bulla Plains are most
important for much of the world population of little curlew Nwmenius minutus during the late
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Papua New Guinea
dry season. New Guinea endemics are more typical of forest and include New Guinea harpy
eagle Harpyopsis novaeguineae (V), New Guinea flightless rail Megacrex inepta, and a variety
of pigeons, parrots and passerines, including Raggiana’s bird of paradise Paradiseae raggiana.
Southern cassowary Casuarius casuarius is common but numbers, unlike those of other bird
species, may be depressed by human hunting pressure. Transfly endemics known to occur in the
area are spangled kookaburra Dacelo tyro, little paradise kingfisher Tanysiptera hydrocharis
(both species are also found in Aru Islands), Fly River grassbird Megalurus albolimbatus (R)
and white-spotted mannikin Lonchura nevermanni (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988). Scott
(1989) provides details of waterfowl recorded during a survey in 1988.
Amphibians and reptiles are conspicuous. Many species are shared with Australia including
frilled lizard Chlamydosaurus kingi. Large turtles Emydura sp. are common in rivers and snakes
are abundant, including taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus, Papuan black snake Pseudechis papuans
and death adder Acanthrophis antarcticus. Monitor Varanus spp. are abundant; three species are
known from the reserve, while a further three have been recorded from just outside the boundary.
They support a negligible indigenous harvest of skins for kundu drums. Estuarine crocodile
Crocodylus porosus (E) and New Guinea crocodile C. novaeguineae (V) are hunted intensively
for their skins and juveniles are captured to stock village farms. Large male estuarine crocodiles
are undoubtedly removed from the vicinity of villages as they pose a threat to human life and
others have been drowned in nylon fishing nets. The habitat of both species has been degraded
by rusa deer. Cane toad Bufo marinus is known to have been introduced from time to time in
cargoes, but populations are not known to have become established; if they do, they could pose
a serious threat to many species (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
Fish are abundant. The seasonal floodplains are highly productive and are the feeding grounds
of catadromous barramundi Lates calcifer, which supports a modest sport fishery along the
Bensbach River. A commercial fishery, based on Daru, extends along the coast to the east.
Significant natural mortality of fish occurs when water levels fall at the beginning of the dry
season and with the first flow of water at the beginning of the rains (N. Stronach, pers. comm.,
1988). Invertebrates are diverse and little known. Termites, both terrestrial mound-forming and
arboreal, and ants are conspicuous. Freshwater crayfish are abundant, providing a major food
supply for many waterfowl, monitor lizards and fish; they aestivate in the mud when swamps
and floodplains dry out (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Population density is very low as much of the area remains wild and
untouched. There are about 1,200 inhabitants distributed among 16 villages. Ten of these villages
have lands lying completely within the management area and six have lands within the boundaries
and beyond (Herington, 1978). The population is mobile and abandoned villages are evident.
Hunting, fishing and egg-collecting play an important part in subsistence and cash economies.
Shifting cultivation occurs in forest areas, operating with a fallow period of 15-30 years. The
main crops are yams, taro and sweet potatoes. Sago is collected in some areas. Gardening is
carried out on rich soils by river banks (Eaton, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Visitors, consisting mainly of hunters and those wishing to
observe wildlife, are obliged to travel with a paid guide. Tourism is centred on Bensbach Wildlife
Lodge, which handles sport hunting and fishing (Eaton, 1986).
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Scientific Research and Facilities Research includes geomorphological and flora surveys
(CSIRO, 1971) and faunal surveys, notably of waterfowl (Scott, 1989). Downes (1969) studied
the rusa deer population.
Conservation Value The importance of the management area for conservation lies in the
presence of a relict Australian flora and fauna, mixed with those characteristic of, or endemic to
New Guinea.
Conservation Management The rules of the area state that only customary landowners may
hunt freely. Tourists are charged a nominal entry fee of K1 (US$ 1.1), and may only hunt deer,
duck and two species of barramundi; hunters must have a licence for each. A limit of five duck
or deer can be taken. Anyone wishing to use guns must obtain a firearm permit from the police
department. Royalties must be paid for animals caught. Royalties for deer are on a sliding scale,
ranging from K15 for the first deer to K60 for the fifth. K1 must be paid for each duck and 30
toea per kg of fish (Eaton, 1986). According to the rules, hunting is prohibited in the region
between the Bensbach and Morehead rivers and is not allowed from vehicles or boats. These
conditions are inappropriate, and not applied by the local people (N. Stronach, pers. comm.,
1989). The landowners hunt wallaby, wild pig and cassowary using traditional methods, and are
encouraged to hunt deer but prefer indigenous species. Crocodiles killed for their skins provide
a source of cash income. Trade in skins is controlled by the Government through the Crocodile
Trade Protection Act. The only traditional restrictions, varying from village to village, appear to
be bans on food eaten by pregnant women (Eaton, 1986).
Management Constraints The activities of exotic ungulates (deer and pigs) have caused
considerable changes to the habitat and may be affecting the integrity of the area through the
gradual colonisation of the Bulla Plains by trees. Introduced fauna also threaten wildlife. For
example, feral dogs kill wallabies and bandicoots. Feral cats are potentially a much bigger
problem (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1989). Poachers from Irian Jaya have been found setting
nets across the mouth of the Bensbach River. This could have serious effects on the migratory
barramundi. Poachers have also killed deer and caught crocodiles. Some smuggling of outsize
crocodile skins occurs across the border. Cuts in public expenditure and restructuring of
Government departments have meant that the landowners receive little supervision or guidance
in the management of their natural resources; projects initiated with the aid and encouragement
of the Government, such as crocodile, cassowary and butterfly farming, have been allowed to
run down (Eaton, 1986). In addition, rules relating to "traditional" use of natural resources have
been open to interpretation by the local people (N. Stronach, pers. comm., 1988).
Staff One wildlife officer
Budget Licence fees and half the royalties collected are deposited in a bank trust account
(K19,514 in 1983). It is intended that monies raised will be used for the development and welfare
of the management area. The other half is paid to individual owners of the land where hunting
or fishing occurs (Eaton, 1986).
Local Addresses No information
References
Bleeker, P. (1971). Soils of the Morehead-Kiunger area. CSIRO Land Research Series 29: 69-87.
Downes, M.C. (1969). Deer in New Guinea. Part II. A preliminary note on the distribution of
deer in the territory of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal 20:
95-99. (Unseen).
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Papua New Guinea
Eaton, P. (1986). Grassroots conservation, wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea.
Land Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua New Guinea. Pp. 9-15.
Herington, J.G. (1978). Wildlife in Papua New Guinea: Wildlife Management Areas in Papua
New Guinea: 2 Tonda. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment,
Konedobu. 127 pp.
Kwapena, N. (n.d.). The habitat of deer (Rusa Timorensis) in Tonda Wildlife Management Area,
Western District, Papua New Guinea. Wildlife Branch, Department of Agriculture, Stocks
and Fisheries, Papua New Guinea. Pp. 52-64.
Paijmans, K. (1971). Land research of the Morehead-Kiunga Area, Papua New Guinea. CSIRO
Land Research Series 29: 89-90.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date 1984, reviewed February 1989, updated July 1989
VARIRATA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated on the Sogeri Plateau, in Central Province, 48km east of Port
Moresby. 9°26’-9°30’S, 147°20’-147°23’E
Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a national park on 18 December 1969 and
officially opened on 18 October 1973. Land on which the park lies was acquired on 23 October
1986 under Part 2 of the Crown Land Ordinance. The park was originally reserved on 17 February
1963 under the trusteeship of the District Commission, Director of Forest and Ruth Isobel Sefton.
Area 1,063ha
Land Tenure Government expropriated land
Altitude 120-1,065m
Physical Features Lying atop Sogeri Plateau at the edge of the escarpment, the terrain is rugged
and deeply-weathered and characterised by steep precipitous slopes, narrow accordant ridges
and cliffs. Geological features include andesitic tuff, lava and dyke rock, and basaltic and
andesitic agglomerates, such as Astrolabe Agglomerate (Blake et al., 1973).
Climate No meteorological data are available for the park. Nearby, Sogeri receives 2400mm of
rain annually (B.M. Beehler, pers. comm., 1989).
Vegetation Comprises rain forest, savanna grassland, gallery forest and secondary regrowth.
Savanna grassland occurs on hilltops, up to 1,000m. Eucalyptus spp., including E. tereticornis,
are present along with Melaleuca spp. (Specht et al., 1974). Themeda australis, Imperata
cylindrica and Sehima nervosum are the dominant grasses. Climbers and epiphytes, such as
Usnea and Dischidia spp., are present (Paijmans, 1973). Rain forest is confined to the valleys.
Three structural formations can be distinguished. Complex mesophyll vine forest,
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semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest and mixed mesophyll vine forest with an estimated cover
of 10%, 30%, and 40%, respectively. Common genera are Terminalia, Celtis, Myristica,
Castanopsis, Bombax, Erythrina, Ficus and Vitex (Specht et al., 1974).
Fauna Among terrestrial vertebrates are significant populations of lesser forest wallaby
Dorcopsulus vanheurni, Papuan python Liasis papuensis and dwarf cassowary Casuarius
bennetti (B.M. Beehler, pers. comm., 1989). Other mammals present include bandicoots
Peroryctes spp., wild boar Sus scrofa and deer. Nearly 150 species of birds have been recorded
by the Papua New Guinea Bird Society, including five species of bird of paradise, viz. glossy
mantled monucode Monocodia atra, crinkled-collared monucode M. chalybata, magnificent
riflebird Ptiloris magnificus, magnificent bird of paradise Cicinnurus magnificus and Raggiana
bird of paradise Paradisaea raggiana, two species of bowerbird, namely white-eared catbird
Ailuroedus buccoides and fawn-breasted bowerbird Chlamydera cerviniventris, and 60 other
species endemic to New Guinea. Several species reach their altitudinal limits within the park
(M. Hopkins, pers. comm., 1989). For example, rufous whistler Pachycephala rufiventris, leaden
flycatcher Myiagra rubecula and black-backed butcherbird Cracticus mentalis, associates of
eucalypt savannas attain their highest altitude in the park, while rain forest associates, such as
dwarf whistler Pachycare flavogrisea, grey-green scrub-wren Sericornis arfakianus and
bi-coloured mouse-warbler Craterocelis nigrorufa, occur at lower altitudes than elsewhere in
the Owen Stanley Range (R. Hicks and M. Hopkins, pers. comm., 1989).
Cultural Heritage The park lies in the traditional hunting grounds of the Koiari people. A
"walking track", part of an ancient network covering Papua New Guinea, runs through the park,
traditionally a refuge for women and children during inter-tribal fights, but this no longer exists.
The Koiari Tree House remains, however, and is one of the park’s major attractions. This was
used by the Koiari during inter-tribal conflicts to both shelter women and children and to provide
a handy spear-lobbing platform.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Easily accessible along a sealed road, about one hour’s drive
from Port Moresby. The site is well developed, with five walking tracks, six picnic sites, and
camp sites and lodges accommodating ten and six people, respectively. Visitor numbers have
increased steadily from 13,045 in 1974 to 20,629 in 1987 (Nyama, 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities Preliminary surveys have been made of the vegetation
(Schodde and Mackay, cited in Specht et al., 1974) and birds (Dyson, n.d.; Weston, n.d.). Various
studies are undertaken by the Biology Department, University of Papua New Guinea.
Conservation Value The park has three main functions, viz: to preserve natural communities
of plants and animals, and the Koiari culture; to protect an outstanding landscape; and to provide
the opportunity for recreation, research and public education on the concept of national parks
(Nyama, 1989).
Conservation Management Varirata is popular for viewing wildlife and has an important
educational function (Gagné and Gressitt, 1982). Basic policies on land acquisition, planning
and management have been established (Gorio, 1978) and the park is effectively managed
(Diamond, 1982). A simple system of zonation has been established, with recreational, minimum
access and totally restricted areas. Park buildings are of local design and materials (SPREP,
1985), and the Department of Works maintains major vehicular roads and the administration
buildings (Nyama, 1989).
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Papua New Guinea
Management Constraints There is potential conflict between conservation and mining, as
prospecting rights are planned, although there are no settlements or other current land use
activities around the park which conflict with management objectives. Clearing of fire breaks
and culling are used to control the two major problems, namely annual man-made bush fires and
damage to trees by deer (Nyama, 1989).
Staff One Ranger-in-Charge, one artisan and five general workers (Nyama, 1989)
Budget The annual operating budget is K 41,600 (US$ 48,940), of which two-thirds is paid in
salaries. Varirata generates more than 50% of the National Parks Service total internal revenue
of K 30,000. Charges are made for entry and accommodation, and may be set at the discretion
of the Director of National Parks.
Local Addresses Ranger-in-Charge, Varirata National Park, National Parks Service, PO Box
5749, Boroko
References
Beehler, B.M., Pratt, T.K. and Zimmerman, D.A. (1986). Birds of New Guinea. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 293 pp.
Blake, D.H., Paijmans, K. and McAlpine, J.R. (1973). Land form types and vegetation of Eastern
Papua. CSIRO Land Research Series 32: 9-124.
Diamond, J.M. (1982). Biological principals relevant to protected area design in the New Guinea
region. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National Parks, conservation and
development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 330-332.
Dyson, W. (n.d.). Varirata National Park wildlife survey: a bird list for Varirata National Park.
(Unseen).
Gagné, W.C. and Gressitt, J.L. (1982). Conservation in New Guinea. In: Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.),
Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea. Monographiae Biologicae 42: 945-955.
Gorio, S. (1978). Papua New Guinea involves its people in national park development. Parks
3(2): 12-14.
Nyama, V. (1989). Varirata National Park: visitor use and income generation. Case Study 22.
Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 8 pp.
Specht, R.L., Roe, E.M. and Boughton, V.H. (Eds). (1974). Conservation of major plant
communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia. Pp.
591-605.
SPREP (1985). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report on the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 269 pp.
Weston, IL. (n.d.). Papua New Guinea Bird Society, Boroko. Unpublished list of 113 species
of birds. 2 pp.
Date June 1980, reviewed December 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
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WAIGANI SWAMP PROVINCIAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Situated 15km north of Port Moresby in National Capital District.
Approximately 9°22’S, 147°10’E
Date and History of Establishment The area has been approved as a provincial park but not
yet gazetted.
Area 120ha (Waigani Lake)
Land Tenure Customary land
Altitude 5m
Physical Features Waigani is the largest among a complex of shallow, eutrophic, freshwater
lakes and surrounding swamps associated with Laloki River. The swamps are permanent but
subject to marked fluctuations in water level, with high levels from January to April. The wetland
is fed by local rainfall (December-April). Depth is 1-2m; the water is neutral-alkaline. Low Secchi
disc readings (0.07-0.76m) are due to the large populations of phytoplankton occurring with high
loadings of nitrate and total phosphorus. The maximum surface temperature of the open water
ranges from 24.6°C to 33°C (Scott, 1989).
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal, with mean annual rainfall of 1000mm and a
prolonged dry season from May to December.
Vegetation The swamp vegetation is dominated by reeds Phragmites karka and Typha
orientalis, with some Ludwigia adscendens, Ipomoea aquatica and Hanguana malayana.
Nymphoides indica, Ceratophyllum demersum and Nymphaea pubescens occur in undisturbed
lakes. Salvinia molesta has declined under early pilot experiments on biological control. Other
aquatic plants include Marsilea crenata, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Acrostichum aureum,
Ampelopteris prolifera, Cyclosorus interruptus, Sagittaria platyphylla, Alternanthera sessilis,
Pistia stratoites, Cyperus platystylis, Eleocharis dulcis, Scirpus grossus, Hymenachne
acutigluma, Ischaemum polystachyum, Leersia hexandra, Hydrocharis dubia, Spirodela
polyrhiza, Najas indica, Nymphaea dictyophlebia, Ludwigia hyssopifolia, L. octovalvis,
Polygonum barbatum and Monochoria hastata (Scott, 1989). Over the past forty years, dominant
emergent vegetation at Waigani Lake has been replaced by floating-leaved aquatics, which have
subsequently been lost to an open water system (Osborne and Leach, 1983). These changes can
be partly attributed to nutrient enrichment over the period. In early 1984, the lake was covered
for about two months by a dense growth of fern Salvinia molesta which subsequently declined
rapidly to small peripheral patches.
Fauna Crocodile Crocodylus spp. occurs in small numbers. The wetland supports a wide variety
of aquatic birds. Australian grebe Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, pied heron Egretta picata,
wandering whistling duck Dendrocygna arcuata, Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa, dusky
moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa, purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio, comb-crested jacana
Trediparra gallinacea, white-headed stilt Himantopus leucocephalus, masked lapwing Vanellus
miles and whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus are particularly common. Tilapia Oreochromis
mossambicus and common carp Cyprinus carpio have been introduced into the lake (Scott, 1989).
236
Papua New Guinea
Moitaka settling ponds, immediately to the south, drain into Waigani Swamp. They have been
regularly watched by members of the Papua New Guinea Bird Society over the last 25 years,
during which several species, such as redshank Tringa totanus, black tern Chlidonias niger and
starling Sturnus vulgaris, have been recorded in Papua New Guinea for the first time. A total of
119 species, including 18 species of Palaearctic waders and two New Guinea endemics,
orange-fronted fruit-dove Ptilinopus aurantiifrons and white-shouldered fairy wren Malurus
alboscapulatus, has been recorded from these ponds (R. Hicks, pers. comm., 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Much research has been carried out on the ecology of the
wetland, including studies on the effects of eutrophication (Saulei, 1978), changes in the
macrophytic flora and vegetation in response to nutrient enrichment from sewage effluent
(Osborne and Leach, 1983; Osborne and Polunin, 1986), and sediment geochemistry
(Polunin et al., 1988). Research facilities are available at the University of Papua New Guinea
in Port Moresby.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints The lake receives large quantities of untreated sewage effluent from
the capital, Port Moresby. Resultant nutrient enrichment has caused major changes in the aquatic
flora of the lake (Osborne and Leach, 1983; Osborne and Polunin, 1986). A fish-kill that occurred
in 1984 was due to low oxygen conditions resulting from dense growths of Salvinia molesta,
inefficient sewage treatment, and possibly heavy metal contamination (Polunin et al., 1988).
While sewage disposal has reduced the value of the swamp in terms of its aquatic flora, it has
increased it for its avifauna.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Assistant Secretary, National Parks Service, Department of Environment and
Conservation, PO Box 5749, Boroko
References
Osborne, P.L. and Leach, G. (1983). Changes in the distribution of aquatic plants in a tropical
swamp. Environmental Conservation 10: 323-329. (Unseen).
Osborne, P.L. and Polunin, N. (1986). From swamp to lake: recent changes in a lowland tropical
swamp. Journal of Ecology 74: 197-210. (Unseen).
Polunin, N.V.C. (1988). Efficient uptake of algal production by a single resident herbivore fish
on the reef. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 123: 61-76.
Saulei, S. (1978). The effect of eutrophication on a tropical lentic ecosystem: the Waigani Swamp
Lake. Honours Thesis, University of Papua New Guinea. (Unseen).
‘
237
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,197 pp.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989
238
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Area 28,450 sq. km of land distributed over 1,340,000 sq. km of sea
Population 304,000 (1988) (World Bank, 1990) Natural increase: 3.6%
GNP US$ 630 per capita (1988)
Policy and Legislation The Solomon Islands Constitution protects the right of land owners to
utilise their land and forests as they wish. Consequently, any restriction resulting from
designation of a reserve or forest park would impose upon this basic right. Given that some 87%
of all land is held in customary or tribal tenure (C. Turnbull, pers. comm., 1990), it is the attitudes
and activities of local people, not Government, that determine the extent and nature of land
reservation for nature conservation.
Formal protected areas legislation principally comprises two acts, both dating from the colonial
era. The Wild Birds Protection Act (1914) enabled the Minister, under Section 14, to declare any
island or islands, or any part or parts of any island or any district, as a bird sanctuary. The National
Parks Act (1954) makes provision for the establishment of strictly protected natural areas as
national parks. This legislation is considered to be inconsistent with current concepts of resource
use, by making inadequate allowance for genuine customary needs and by placing no obligation
upon the administering agency to manage a national park in accordance with stated park
objectives (SPREP, 1985a). Some provincial governments have passed Ordinances with
provisions for the establishment of protected areas, including Temotu and Isabel provinces
(Leary, 1990). However, provisional legislation is equally subject to the restrictions of the
constitution and traditional practices.
The forest policy of the Solomon Islands was reviewed in 1983, and a National Forest and Timber
Policy was approved by Government in 1984. The policy called for the maximum desirable log
processing, minimum wastage and increased investment in forests, aims that were restated in the
1985-89 National Development Plan. Failure to achieve these and more detailed aims is attributed
to shortcomings in the forest legislation, institutional weakness and a lack of public participation
and awareness. Consequently, a revised forest policy has been promulgated. This identifies six
imperatives, viz. protection, sustainable use, basic needs, development, participation and
distribution. Six objectives are established including "(VI) set aside areas for environmental,
ecological, scientific and heritage reserves taking into account landowner needs and customary
values; protect sensitive areas".
The Forestry and Timber Act, 1969 (amended 1977) has a narrow perspective, but makes some
provision for controlled forest areas for forest water catchment protection. The Forest Resources
and Timber Utilisation (Amendment) Act 1987 was approved in March 1987, with aretrospective
commencement date of 16 June 1978. There was a new Forestry Bill 1989 that was due to go
before Parliament in November 1989, which included provisions for the establishment of
conservation areas. The Town and Country Planning Act (1979) provides for tree preservation
orders for "any tree, groups of trees or woodlands . . . in the interests of amenity". The Lands
and Titles Act (1968, amended 1970) makes provision for preservation orders to be applied to
land of "historic or religious" value, and permits the establishment of nature reserves.
Regulations prescribing measures for the protection and preservation of the marine environment
can be promulgated under the Delimitation of Marine Waters Act (1978). A new forestry bill
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
“was due to be presented to parliament in November 1989. This includes provisions for
environmental protection and the establishment and management of conservation areas (Isa,
1989).
International Activities The Solomon Islands is not yet party to any of the international
conventions or programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The Solomon Islands is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
and has ratified (10 August 1989) the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural
Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention). The Convention
entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate
measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna
through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an
adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as
this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most
likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which the
Solomon Islands is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management General responsibility for environmental matters is part of
the portfolio of the Minister of Lands, Energy and Natural Resources. The Environment and
Conservation Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources has responsibility for environmental
protection and the conservation of natural resources and in 1989 had five members of staff, with
the expectation that this would increase to nine during 1990 (Isa, 1989).
The Solomon Islands Development Trust is a rural development organisation which places its
operations, with a particular focus on community education, in an environmental context and is
a significant influence in the rain forest logging debate (Baines, 1990). Community-based
associations have been formed to counter the growing threat of over-exploitation, including the
Fauro Peoples Association and The Vella 2000. Their principal objectives are to: promote
community unity; promote resource management and utilisation; derive economic returns for
their members; promote resource-management awareness amongst their membership; and
promote respect for traditional values of their communities. In addition, these groups have
approached Government for advice on the establishment and management of protected areas,
with three sites covering 6,000ha already earmarked (Isa, 1988).
Nominal protected areas are few in number and currently cover some 0.2% of the terrestrial
territory of the Solomons, and an even less significant percentage of the total national area. This
can be largely attributed to the failure to consider traditional attitudes toward land and natural
resources and the unwillingness amongst local people to be permanently alienated from their
lands (Isa, 1988). For example, Arnavon Wildlife Sanctuary was gazetted without consultation
with parties claiming rights under customary law, leading to serious management implementation
240
Solomon Islands
problems and a failure to protect the site. A number of other reserves exist on paper but none is
functional. Customary land-owners are frequently willing to grant temporary access rights for
timber felling, but reluctant to be alienated permanently from land following the establishment
of a protected area (Isa, 1989). The best conservation practice at present is that carried out by
some of the customary land-owning groups, although these efforts have thus far escaped
recognition and lack the support of formal legislation (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
However, this is likely to be rectified with formal government recognition of these community
based protected areas (Isa, 1988).
As an additional hindrance to the establishment of formal protected areas, state-owned land
covers only 257 sq. km (9% of total land area), of which 240 sq. km is committed to forestry
plantations or operations (C. Turnbull, pers. comm., 1990). Therefore, at present, there is little
opportunity to develop conservation areas on uncommitted government land (Leary, 1989). The
existing protected areas system is thus very weak, none of the formally gazetted protected areas
is managed or has field staff, and they have very little conservation significance or official
recognition. Indeed, as there are no legally gazetted forest reserves, the Solomon Islands
effectively has no formal protected areas system.
Systems Reviews The Solomon Islands occupies a central position in the Melanesian Arc that
extends from Papua New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east. They consist of two roughly
parallel island chains, forming the western continental margin of the Pacific Basin. The central
archipelago lies between 5°S-12°S and 152°E-163°E. A brief summary of the physical features
and coral reefs is given in UNEP/IUCN, 1988.
Prior to recent, extensive logging, the Solomons supported a rain forest mantle, unbroken except
for areas of, probably anthropogenic, grassland and heath. Grasslands are probably a fire-climax,
with invasion by tree species checked. Lowland formations are largely uniform throughout the
archipelago. There is, however, considerable local variation in the floristics and structure, due
largely to tropical cyclones. There are about a dozen very common tree species which constitute
the lowland forest canopy at 30-45m height. Alluvial valleys sometimes support high forest, to
which a number of large tree species are restricted. In many places, however, valley floors carry
a dense low scrub, presumably the result of former cultivation, or destructive floods. Forests
have also been shaped by natural events. Natural catastrophes, such as earthquakes, landslips,
lightning and cyclone-force winds, are not infrequent; high forest may take decades to recover
from such events (Whitmore, 1969). The mangrove forest has never been heavily exploited and
the canopy is typically 24m tall (Whitmore, 1969). Mangroves around Marovo Lagoon have
been felled due to the mistaken belief that they inhibit coconut plantation production (Baines,
1985) and there is some exploitation for firewood and construction timber in rural areas (Collins
et al., 1991).
Some 24,200 sq. km, 80% of the total land area, were forested in 1976, of which 20,000 sq.km
were accounted for by various communities at low and medium altitudes, on basalts or andesites.
Revised data from December 1988 indicate 25,500 sq. km of forest cover (C. Turnbull, pers,
comm., 1990), of which 23,000 sq. km is unproductive for physical reasons. This discrepancy
does not reflect a substantive increase in forest cover but is most probably the result of different
definitions of forests, and different survey and analytical techniques. By way of illustration, some
95% of logging takes place on land in customary tenure, whilst reforestation on the same class
of land is restricted to just 98ha on Malaita (Wenzel, 1989), indicating a serious imbalance
between reforestation and logging operations.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Prior to the 1970s, forest cover was largely pristine, but has since been heavily exploited by
foreign interests. During the last 20 years, a timber industry has developed. Widespread logging
has resulted in the loss of primary forest on several islands, especially Ghizo and Kolombangara,
with consequent loss of wildlife habitat (Dahl, 1986), soil compaction and erosion, leading to
reef sedimentation (Anon., 1986). Historically, forestry practice has not given due consideration
to the ecological effects of logging, and small-scale operations are underway or planned in several
small areas, rather than utilising larger blocks on larger islands (Hoyle, 1978). However, since
1986 logging companies have been required to fell only trees with a diameter in excess of 60cm,
thus preventing the removal of supersmalls (trees with diameters as little as 35cm) (MNR, 1988).
This regulation is likely to reduce damage substantially to forests during logging and enhance
natural regeneration.
Plantations are being established at the rate of approximately 1,500ha annually (Collins et al.,
1991), with 24,000ha established by December 1989 (C. Turnbull, pers. comm., 1990). It is
hoped that plantations of fast-growing and commercially-valuable introduced species, such as
teak, mahogany and gmelina, will replace the volume felled from natural forests, as a source of
export revenue (Anon., 1988). Extensive plantations are also planned for Kolombangara, in a
joint venture between the Government and the Commonwealth Development Corporation
(G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
Very little scientific work has been carried out on coral reefs. The 1965 Royal Society Expedition,
which produced the only substantial account, found that in general the Solomon Islands lacked
the luxuriant reefs of many parts of the Pacific, due to unfavourable environmental conditions
such as steep and exposed shores with little suitable substrate for coral growth. Coral reefs are
further discussed in UNEP/IUCN (1988), which also gives a detailed account of Marovo Lagoon.
Of the 31 terrestrial and marine habitats identified by Dahl (1980), only three are included within
even nominal protected areas, namely some lowland rain forest types, mixed species montane
rain forest and grassland. The much wider range of habitats which at present receive no protection
broadly include: various lowland rain forest formations, Neonauclea/Sloanea montane rain
forest; cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and atoll/beach forests; Casuarina woodland and scrub;
serpentine vegetation and dwarf-shrub heath; various freshwater habitats; sea turtle nesting areas;
algal and seagrass beds with associated fauna; various reef formations, rocky coast, lagoons,
estuaries and offshore environments (Dahl, 1980). In terms of conservation importance, Rennell
Island is ranked ninth in the entire Oceanian Realm, and is the second most important raised
coral island, after Guam (Dahl, 1986). According to Collins et al. (1991) critically important
sites, none of which is protected at present, include Rennell, the Arnavon islands and the kauri
Agathis macrophylla stands in Santa Cruz. Coastal, mangrove, lowland, freshwater swamp and
montane forests are all critically unprotected.
On the basis of the distribution of birds, Diamond (1976) proposed a system of three large
high-priority, three smaller high-priority and eight medium-priority protected areas. Mammal,
insect and plant species would also benefit as their distribution patterns are probably similar
(Diamond, 1976). Dahl (1980) reiterated these recommendations, but also identifies a number
of and adds reef, lagoon, mangrove and small botanical reserves. Less specific recommendations
in Dahl (1986) include the establishment of protected areas on Rennell, San Cristobal,
Guadalcanal, Malaita and Vanikolo, with smaller areas to protect interesting sites and species on
other islands. Reforestation with native species might be considered alongside Kolombangara
Reserve, to reinforce it and to buffer it from encroachment (Dahl, 1986).
242
Solomon Islands
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, protected area management and regional and
international cooperation. Priority recommendations for the Solomon Islands are as follows:
develop a national conservation strategy, and review all environmental aspects of development;
develop, expand and implementa national environmental awareness programme, including radio
broadcasts, publications and the establishment of a mobile unit; review and update all existing
legislation relating to protected areas and conservation, and, where necessary, draw up new
legislation; undertake staff training in the fields of biology, botany, ecology and park
management; develop the following as protected areas: Oema Atoll and the island of Oema as a
wildlife sanctuary; Mount Austin, Mount Gallego; Island of Arnavon; Lake Te Nggano and its
flora and fauna.
A number of recommendations, constituting a putative conservation strategy, aimed at removing
obstacles to conservation-based development, are made in SPREP (1985a). These broadly
comprise environmental education, environmental surveys, conservation-based rural
development, a zoned forest reserve system and an effective environmental law and policing
system.
A comprehensive survey of conservation area needs and priorities is required prior to
implementing any protected areas network (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). In response to
this need, a SPREP-funded project, in cooperation with the Overseas Service Bureau, Australian
Volunteer Abroad Programme and the National Environment and Conservation Division, has
examined wildlife management issues, with emphasis on species trade, changes in traditional
practice and habitat destruction. The project aims to provide guidelines for the sustainable use
and management of Solomon Islands fauna, possibly stimulating the formulation of a National
Policy on the Environment and Conservation (Leary, 1989) and draws the following broad
conclusions. In the long-term it is a priority that a comprehensive Conservation Act is developed
for the Solomon Islands. Such an act should encompass the establishment of conservation areas,
the protection of flora and fauna, regulation of wildlife trade, and the conservation of traditional
Tesources management knowledge. A system of natural protected areas for the Solomon Islands
urgently needs to be developed. In addition to large scale reserves, consideration needs to be
given to the protection, in terms of good management, of small areas. One such means is the
concept of wildlife management areas which has proven successful in Papua New Guinea. It is
recommended that wildlife management areas legislation be enacted at the provincial or national
level as soon as possible (Leary, 1990).
Rennell has been the subject of logging proposals, which once again were being actively
considered in 1989 (Collins et al., 1991). At one time bauxite mining posed a considerable threat,
particularly to Rennell. However, these proposals have now been dropped. Conversely, there is
a current nationwide threat from gold prospecting and there has been localised environmental
damage from prospecting activities, a notable example being Fauro Island (G.B.K. Baines,
pers. comm., 1989).
Addresses
Ministry of Natural Resources, P O Box G24, Honiara
References
Anon. (1986). Deforestation problems in the Solomon Islands. Forest 15: 11.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Anon. (1987). SPREP makes considerable progress with implementation of action strategy for
protected areas. Environment Newsletter No. 10, South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Anon. (1988). Projects in the Pacific. British Overseas Development: Forestry Supplement.
Overseas Development Administration, London.
Baines, G.B.K. (1981). Environmental management for sustainable development in the
Solomons: a report on environment and resources. Prepared for the Government of the
Solomon Islands. Unpublished. 57 pp.
Baines, G.B.K. (1985). Study Area One: Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Working paper on
pilot project for Commonwealth Science Council. 15 pp.
Baines, G.B.K. (1990). South Pacific Conservation Programme. World Wide Fund for Nature,
Gland, Switzerland and Australia. 50 pp.
Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) (1991). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical
Forests: Asia and the Pacific. Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature, Switzerland and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Macmillan Press Limited, London. 256 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Diamond, J.M. (1976). A proposed forest reserve system and conservation strategy for the
Solomon Islands. Summary. Unpublished report. 19 pp.
Glaser, T. (1987). Solomon Islands: paradise lost and found. The Courier 102: 44-51.
Hoyle, M.A. (1978). Forestry and conservation in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides.
Tigerpaper 5(2): 21-24.
Isa, H. (1988). The current trend in protected area development in Solomon Islands. In: Thomas,
P.E.J. (Ed.) Report on the workshop on customary tenure, traditional resource management
and nature conservation. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Noumea, New
Caledonia. Pp. 97-99.
Isa, H. (1989). Solomon Islands. Country Review 6. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 9 pp.
Leary, T. (1989). Wildlife management in the Solomon Islands. Case Study 10. Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. 6 pp.
Leary, T. (1990). Survey of Wildlife Management in Solomon Islands. SPREP project PA 17.
Final Report. A joint project of Solomon Islands Government, South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme and Traffic (Oceania). SPREP, Noumea, New Caledonia. 74 pp.
Ministry of Natural Resources (1989). Forest policy statement August 1989. Forestry Division.
23 pp.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council of
the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1985a). Solomon Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 115-124.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
244
Solomon Islands
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S, Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in the Pacific: a survey of resource use and policy
in Fiji, Tonga, W. Samoa, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. INR Environmental Studies Report
No. 43. Institute of Natural Resources, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 95 pp.
Whitmore, T.C. (1969). The vegetation of the Solomon Islands. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London B 255: 259-270.
World Bank (1990). World Tables 1989-1990 Edition. John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore. 646 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): The National Parks Act
Date: 1954
Brief description: Makes provision for the establishment of strictly protected natural areas
as national parks.
Administrative authority: Conservation Officer, The Environment and Conservation
Division, Ministry of Lands, Energy and Natural Resources
Designations: National Park
Title (English): The Wild Birds Protection Act
Date: 1914
Brief description: Enabled the Minister, under Section 14, to declare any island or islands,
or any part or parts of any island or any district, as a bird sanctuary. The Act provides
protection for bird species only, and makes no provision for the conservation of habitat.
Administrative authority: Unknown
Designations:
Bird sanctuary Only interference with birds is an offence within sanctuaries.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Title: An Ordinance to Consolidate and Amend the Law on Forests and to
Control and Regulate the Timber Industry and for Matters Incidental Thereto
and Connected (Forests and Timber Ordinance, 1969)
Date: 1969 (amended 1977)
Administrative authority: The Conservator of Forests
Description:
State forest Established under the provisions of S.9, on any land that is public land, land in
which the government holds a freehold interest in land or a leasehold interest in land by or
on behalf of the Government. The Commissioner shall not grant any interest in a state forest
without the Conservator’s consent (S.10). Prohibited activities (S.11) include felling, cutting
etc trees; damaging vegetation; clearing land; residing or erecting buildings; grazing
livestock; possessing any equipment for cutting or working forest produce; constructing
roads, saw pits or workplaces.
Controlled forest Established, in either forests or other vegetation types, for water
catchment protection. Rights which may be exercised in a controlled forest are specified in
the notification of establishment. Activities specifically prohibited under S.16 comprise
felling, cutting etc. forest produce except for personal or domestic use; clearing or breaking
land for cultivation or any other purposes; residing, or erecting any building etc.; grazing
livestock.
NB: Repealed Forests Ordinance (Cap. 71)
Title: The Town and Country Planning Act
Date: 1979
Brief description: Provides for tree preservation orders for "any tree, groups of trees or
woodlands . . . in the interests of amenity"
Administrative authority: Unknown
Designation: Unknown
Title: The Lands and Titles Act
Date: 1968 (amended 1970)
Brief description: Makes provision for preservation orders to be applied to land of "historic
or religious" value, and permits the establishment of nature reserves.
Administrative authority: Unknown
Designation: Unknown
246
Solomon Islands
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Name of area IUCN management Area Year
category (ha) notified
National Parks
Queen Elizabeth* Unassigned 1,090 1954
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Amavon* Unassigned 1,000 1980
Bird Sanctuaries
Tulagi Unassigned 1930
Forest Reserves
Kolombangara Unassigned 500
Unclassified
Dalakalau Unassigned 1954
Dalakalonga Unassigned 1954
Mandoleana Unassigned 1937
Oema Island Unassigned 1931
*Site is described in this directory.
NB: In the absence of any effective protected areas in the Solomon Islands no map is provided.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
ARNAVON WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
Geographical Location Lies in the Manning Straits, about 25km equidistant between northern
Santa Isabel and south-east Choiseul. The boundary is defined by the three islands and includes
encompassed reefs and waters. 7°25’-7°35’S, 157°56’-158°03’E°
Date and History of Establishment Established as a wildlife sanctuary on 17 April 1980 under
the Local Government Ordinance (CAP 14): The Santa Ysabel Province (Wildlife Sanctuary)
Bye-Law 1980. In 1975 the Ministry of Natural Resources designated the islands as "off-limits"
under a trespass law. The islands were included within a provincial Protected Lands Bye-law
during May 1979. Although designated under the 1980 Bye-law, problems relating to customary
land rights have prevented full gazettement (Sloth, 1988).
Area 1,000ha
Land Tenure Customary jurisdiction
Altitude Ranges from the seabed between the islands to 1m above sea level.
Physical Features Comprises three slightly-raised coral reefs, viz. Sikopo, Kerehikapa and
Amavon. The atoll substrate is mostly coral rock and sand. The elevated vegetated areas have
accumulated organic matter, but sand remains a major component and the soil is very salty. A
strong, south-easterly current is funnelled through the strait which frequently causes rough seas
in the passages between the islands. There are several other submerged reefs in the area. The
fringing reefs of all the island are highly attenuated and have extremely steep fore-reef slopes.
There is evidence that the islands are occasionally completely flooded. There is also evidence
that the islands have sunk slightly in recent years as the internal tidal lagoons have expanded,
killing a large number of trees around lagoon peripheries on two of the islands (Vaughan, 1981).
Climate Data specific to the islands are not available. A preliminary account of climate in the
Solomons is given by Brookfield (1969). Mean annual rainfall in the Manning Straits area is
approximately 3000mm. The wettest period is January to April with 1270-1500mm rainfall.
Coastal temperatures throughout the country vary between mean maxima and minima of
approximately 29°C and 24°C, respectively. Prevailing winds are south-easterly trades
(Brookfield, 1969).
Vegetation Comprises mainly trees and bushes of the genera Pisonia, Casuarina, Pandanus,
Callophyllum, Cordia and coconut palm Cocos nucifera. There are also several species of
herbaceous plants, including at least three kinds of grasses and sedges (McKeown, 1977).
Fauna The sanctuary supports a high diversity of bird species, including endemic Solomon’s
sea eagle Haliaeetus sanfordi, Brahminy kite Haliastur indus, osprey Pandion halietus,
megapode Megapodius freycinet, terns Sterna spp. and several pigeons (Columbidae). Many
migratory shorebirds use the islands and tidal flats as feeding and resting areas during November
to January, for example whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, long-billed curlew N. americanus and
common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos (Vaughan, 1981).
248
Solomon Islands
Nesting by hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) and green turtle Chelonia mydas (E)
occurs throughout the year. In the 19-month period from May 1979 to December 1980 (excluding
December 1979), 656 hawksbill turtle nests and 53 green turtle nests were recorded in the
sanctuary. Subsequently, an annual estimate of 560 hawksbill and 45 green nests has been made.
In spite of the predominance of hawksbill on the nesting beach, green turtle is seen much more
frequently in surrounding waters (Vaughan, 1981). The biology of hawksbill turtle on Amavon
is discussed in some details by McKeown (1977).
Estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus (V) no longer inhabits the islands, due to intensive
hunting for skins in the 1960s and early 1970s (Vaughan, 1981).
Cultural Heritage The islands traditionally belonged to the Galicana tribe. Migrations,
inter-marriage and religious changes have dispersed the members of this group who now live on
Santa Isabel, Choiseul and New Georgia. Sea turtles, a noteworthy feature of the sanctuary, have
held a traditional place in local customs and culture (Vaughan, 1981). The island group was an
important stopover point for 19th century headhunting operations, when canoes were en route
between the western Solomons and Ysabel (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
Local Human Population Uninhabited since the Galicana tribe departed in the 1930s
(Vaughan, 1981).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Restricted to those who take turtles, clams and megapode eggs
(G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities The Solomon Islands Turtle Project was initiated in 1975,
with much of the work being carried out in the Arnavon Islands. Research activities have included
nest monitoring, tagging, head starting and surveys of various factors in the surrounding islands.
Facilities include two leaf houses with water catchment tanks and various out-buildings on
Kerehikapa (Vaughan, 1981).
Conservation Value The islands were originally protected in 1975 in response to growing
evidence that Solomon Island hawksbill turtle populations were declining, and that the Manning
Straits may be a significant breeding area. With the exception of Campbell and Long Islands in
Australia, Arnavon may be the most heavily used hawksbill nesting site in the Oceanic Pacific
(Vaughan, 1981).
Conservation Management Since the 1981 incident described below, there has been no
management (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). The administrative responsibility for the
sanctuary is held by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Santa Ysabel Province. The bye-law
establishing the sanctuary prohibits entry other than for: wardens and their immediate families,
persons entering for official or educational reasons; and people in transit whose route passes
through the sanctuary. It was also prohibited to take, disturb or kill any mature, immature or
embryonic forms of flora and fauna, with the exception of all shark species, ghost crab, hermit
crab and rats, which could be killed in control efforts to increase the sanctuary’s potential for
other life forms. Wardens could utilise local resources for personal consumption within the
sanctuary, with the exception of turtles, seabirds and megapodes, and their respective eggs.
Management activities, carried out by Turtle Project staff, included law enforcement to curb
poaching of megapode eggs, shells, fish, turtles and ebony, turtle nest predator control, and
making educational presentations amongst the local populace. The training of four local wardens
was given a high priority. Management recommendations included placing the sanctuary under
the control of a Solomon Islander; establishing a constant presence on the islands to prevent
249
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
poaching; maintaining complete turtle nesting records for Kerehikapa only; continued rat
trapping on Sikopo; head starting of turtles at the discretion of the head warden; tagging of
immature green turtle for growth studies; intensive tagging of nesting hawksbill during June and
July, with less intensive tagging at other times on Kerehikapa (Vaughan, 1981). It has
subsequently been recommended that the sanctuary be reinstated, for the conservation of
hawksbill turtle, but only if this would be in accordance with the wishes of those claiming
traditional ownership (Leary, 1990).
Management Constraints Marine crocodiles have been eliminated by excessive hunting
(Vaughan, 1981). Natural threats include cyclones, earthquakes (Dahl, 1986) and rising sea
levels. The research facilities were destroyed in 1981 by a section of a Choiseul island group
which claimed a customary right of ownership of the islands which had not been allowed for in
the negotiations by Government officers which led to the establishment of the sanctuary
(G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). No attempt has been made to re-establish these facilities
(S. Diake, pers. comm. 1987). Although the islands have been returned to customary jurisdiction,
there remains some dispute as to which groups are entitled to exert customary rights
(G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff There have been no staff since 1981.
Budget No information. The Turtle Project was supported by WWF under Project No. 1452,
with grants totalling US$ 8,078 during 1980 and 1981.
Local Addresses Ministry of Natural Resources, P O Box G24, Honiara
References
Brookfield, H.C. (1969). Some notes on the climate of the British Solomon Islands. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 255: 207-210.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Leary, T. (1990). Survey of Wildlife Management in Solomon Islands. SPREP project PA 17.
Final Report. A joint project of Solomon Islands Government, South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme and Traffic (Oceania). SPREP, Noumea, New Caledonia. 74 pp.
McKeown, A. (1977). Marine turtles of the Solomon Islands. Ministry of Natural Resources,
Honiara. Unpublished. 47 pp.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as a part of tourism development
in the Island Pacific. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Fiji. 82 pp.
Vaughan, P.W. (1981). Marine turtles: a review of their status and management in the Solomon
Islands. Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara. 70 pp.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989, November 1990
QUEEN ELIZABETH NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.01.13 (Papuan)
250
Solomon Islands
Geographical Location Situated on Mount Austin in western-central Guadalcanal, immediately
south of Honiara. Approximately 9°22’S, 160°00’E
Date and History of Establishment 9 June 1954. Established by Proclamation No. 5 of 1954
under the 1954 National Parks Act No. 5 (CAP 34), as Queen Elizabeth Park. The boundary was
amended by Legal Notice No. 29 on 5 April 1973.
Area 1,090ha (reduced from 6,080ha by 1973 boundary amendment)
Land Tenure Public ownership
Altitude 50-200m
Physical Features Comprises a hilly area with numerous ridges and valleys (SPREP, 1985)
Climate Data specific to the park are not available.
Vegetation Originally comprised Pometia pinnata and Vitex coffasus (Collins et al., 1991). The
park supports roughly equal areas of grassland and severely degraded secondary forest,
dominated by the introduced paper mulberry Brousonettia papyrifera in many places (SPREP,
1985).
Fauna No details are available, but numerous bird species are present, in contrast to a paucity
of mammals (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Four enclaves, each containing a village of some half-dozen families,
were included within the original boundary. The subsequent boundary change may have excised
these enclaves. Squatters, within Honiara town boundary, have cultivated substantial areas of
the remaining woodland (SPREP, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are no visitors (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). Access
from Honiara is by way of sealed road, built across Mount Austin to the Lunga Valley to serve
the proposed hydroelectric dam site. Off the road, access is by track and footpath. There are no
visitor facilities (SPREP, 1985).
Scientific Research and Facilities Some forestry planting trials have been conducted on a small
block. There are no facilities (SPREP, 1985a).
Conservation Value The site has been so severely degraded that there is little if any conservation
value remaining.
Conservation Management There is no management structure and no management activities
are carried out.
Management Constraints Although legally gazetted the site is not recognised as such (G.B.K.
Baines, pers. comm., 1989) and is a good example of the futility of establishing protected areas
that largely ignore local practice and requirements. The area has been taken over by squatters
for gardens, or is being stripped for firewood, and has ceased to exist as a protected area (I. Reti,
pers. comm., 1989).
Staff Forestry staff monitor plantation tree species trials (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989).
251
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) (1991). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical
Forests: Asia and the Pacific. Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature, Switzerland and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Macmillan Press Limited, London. 256 pp.
SPREP (1985). Solomon Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 195-209.
Date January 1989, updated July 1989
252
TOKELAU
(NEW ZEALAND OVERSEAS TERRITORY)
Area 12.25 sq. km
Population 3,000 (1982); 1,700 (1988) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory of New Zealand. There is no
protected areas legislation, and apparently no government conservation policy relating to native
species and habitats. Instead, there is a long-standing system of resource management based on
traditional custom, although this is now starting to lose its effectiveness (Toloa and Gillett, 1989).
Traditional marine conservation measures can be considered in two categories: those that are
specifically designed for conservation and those aspects of the traditional system which indirectly
result in a reduced amount of fishing effort on particular species. The most important explicit
conservation measure is the "lafu" system, whereby all types of fishing are banned in specific
areas of the main reef. The decision to establish a "lafu" is made by the Council of Elders. Another
specific conservation measure is the rejection of undersized fish and the prohibition of fish
poisoning. In addition to these specific measures, there is a wide variety of traditional practices
which effectively reduce fishing effort. For example, only certain individuals may capture sea
turtles, and the elevated community status of pelagic fishing relieves pressure from inshore
fisheries (Toloa and Gillett, 1989).
International Activities Tokelau is not yet party to the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(Ramsar Convention) or the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention). It is not known if New Zealand’s active
participation in the latter two conventions has any siginifcance for Tokelau.
At a regional level, Tokelau has neither signed nor ratified the Convention on the Conservation
of Nature in the South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during
1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first
attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it
encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. Tokelau has
not signed the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the
South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention). However, the convention has been signed (25
November 1986) and ratified (3 May 1990) by New Zealand, although again it is not clear if this
places any obligation upon Tokelau itself. The Convention entered into force during August
1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile
ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected
areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems
and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the
Convention areas, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the
establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Administration and Management Responsibility for conservation of natural resources rests
with the Council of Elders, a body comprising most males over 60 years of age and totalling
some 25 individuals from each island. All land is under customary ownership. The Department
253
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
of Agriculture and Fisheries has facilitated resource surveys and provided scientific information
to support conservation and resource management (Anon, 1989).
Systems Reviews Tokelau consists of three small islands set on a north-west to south-east axis
from 8°S to 10°S and 171°W to 173°W. Nukunonu is the biggest atoll at 4.7 sq. km, Fakaofo is
4.0 sq. km and Afafu is 3.5 sq. km. Each atoll consists of a number of reef bound islets encircling
lagoons. These islets vary in length from 90m to 6km and up to 200m in width. At no point do
they rise more 5m above sea level. The atolls comprise coral rubble and sand mixed with a thin
layer of humus and are of generally low fertility.
In general the vegetation has not been greatly modified. Nukunonu includes areas of Cordia,
Pisonia and Guerttarda woodland which is dense and may reach heights of 10m to 20m. Fakaofo
supports a beach scrub of Scaevola and Tournefortia (Davis et al., 1986). An account of the
extent and composition of the vegetation is given in Parham (1971).
There have been few studies of the coral reefs (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Hinds (1969/1971) carried
out a brief survey and reported that coral growth was limited to the upper portions of old coral
growth massifs rising from the floor, the main portions of which were barren. Laboute (in press)
briefly surveyed reefs on all three atolls in 1987 to assess damage caused by Hurricane Tusi. The
degree of destruction was variable, reaching 90% in some places. A significant area of Nukunonu
lagoon reef was damaged by a pesticide spill in 1969: all corals in a 2km section of the lagoon
along Motu Te Kakai died with the exception of Porites. There was little recovery by 1976
(Marshall, 1976). Rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros was accidentally introduced from
Western Samoa to Nukunonu where it spread to all islets, creating a serious risk to coconuts
(Wodzicki, 1971). Control measures have been taken (SPREP, 1980). Turtles are now rare and
there has been serious depletion of giant clam Tridacna spp. (Wodzicki, 1973) but there is no
evidence of depletion of other marine resources (Hooper, 1985). The potentially most threatening
environmental hazard is that posed by increasing sea-levels due to global warming. Threats to
freshwater supplies, land loss and episodic destruction through hurricanes may make the country
uninhabitable, if the worst case scenarios are realised (Pernetta, 1988).
Because of the small size of the island, and the number of people it supports, most conservation
measures reflect the need to protect the "human" environment. For example, tree planting is one
of the principal aims of an annual conservation week. It has recently been reported that some
47ha of land on Nukunonu has been designated a protected area by the local Council of Elders,
with adjoining reef areas to be added at a later date (B. Lear, pers. comm., 1990). More detailed
information is not available. However, this development is in line with previous
recommendations (Dahl, 1986) that remaining forest on Nukunonu should be protected. Dahl
(1986) also suggests that the establishment marine reserves might become necessary if traditional
conservation measures cease to be effectively applied.
Addresses
Director of Agriculture and Fisheries, Office of Tokelau Affairs, Apia, Western Samoa
References
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
254
Tokelau
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Hinds, V.J. (1969/71). A rapid fisheries reconnaissance in the Tokelau Islands, August 18-25,
1971. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen).
Hooper, A. (1985). Tokelau fishing in tradtional and modern contexts. In: Ruddle, K. and
Johannes, R.E. (Eds), The traditional knowledge and mangement of coastal systems in Asia
and the Pacific. Unesco/ROSTEA, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pp. 7-38.
Laboute, P. (in press). Mission to the Tokelau Islands to evaluate cyclone damage to coral reefs.
SPREP Topic Review 31. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Marshall, K.J. (1976). Critical marine habitats and insect control in the South Pacific.
Proceedings of the SPC and IUCN Second Regional Symposium on Conservation of Nature,
Apia, Western Samoa, June. (Unseen).
Parham, B.E.V. (1971). The vegetation of the Tokelau Islands with special reference to plants
of Nukunonu Atoll. New Zealand Journal of Botany 9: 576-609.
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for
countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the
implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yuogslavia, 3-7 October.
Pp. 1-11.
SPREP (1980). Tokelau. Country Report 12. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 4 pp.
SPREP (1989) Tokelau. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 2 pp.
Toloa, F. and Gillett, R. (1989). Aspects of traditional marine conservation on Tokelau. Case
Study 31. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas,
Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wodzicki, K. (1973) The Tokelau Islands — environment, natural history and special conservation
problems. Paper 10, Section 3. Proceedings and Papers, Regional Symposium on
Conservation of Nature — Reefs and Lagoons. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. Pp. 63-68.
Date May 1985, reviewed February 1990
255
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KINGDOM OF TONGA
Area Total land area of 747 sq. km, spread over 347,282 sq. km of sea (IDEC, 1990)
Population Approximately 101,000 1990 (IDEC, 1990) Natural increase: 0.84%
GNP US$ 800 per capita
Policy and Legislation The role of parks, reserves and protected areas, according to IDEC
(1990), is to prevent depletion or extinction of valuable wildlife communities and to enrich and
improve production of land and marine resources; and to protect areas or items of importance
for Tongan cultural heritage and provide the people of Tonga and visitors with places of
recreational, educational and scientific importance.
The legal and land tenure system in Tonga gives the Government considerable powers to acquire
and reserve land for public purposes. All land is ultimately owned by the Crown, but is divided
into four categories: the King’s hereditary estates, Royal family hereditary estates, hereditary
estates for the nobles and matapule, and Government. The latter two are subdivided by law to
provide town and tax (garden) allotments which can only be held by Tongans. The 19th century
land reforms have meant that there is no customary tenure of the type found in many other
countries of the South Pacific and thus the establishment of protected areas is generally easier
than in many Pacific nations because much of the land is owned by the state. The foreshore is
the property of the Crown and is defined in the Land Act as "land adjacent to the sea, alternately
covered and left dry by the ordinary ebb and flow of the tides and all land adjoining thereunto
lying within fifty feet of the high water mark.” All territorial seas and internal waters are the
property of the Crown and may be subject to Government restrictions and regulations. Every
Tongan has the right to fish in these waters. There are no traditional fishing rights giving villages
or individuals exclusive rights to fish or gather shells in certain areas and such rights may have
never existed in the past (Eaton, 1985).
The 1976 Parks and Reserves Act provides for "the establishment of a Parks and Reserves
Authority and for the establishment, preservation and administration of parks and reserves". It
states that every park "shall be administered for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Tonga
and there shall be freedom of entry and recreation therein by all persons. Every reserve, subject
to any conditions and restrictions which the Authority may impose, shall be administered for the
protection, preservation and maintenance of any valuable feature of such reserve and activities
therein and entry thereto shall be strictly in accordance with any such conditions and restrictions"
(SPREP, 1985a).
The 1961 Forest Act provides for the establishment of forest reserves, the conservation of
important "culture trees" used in traditional crafts, and the protection of water catchments (Eaton,
1985).
The 1915/1974 Birds and Fish Preservation Act limits or prohibits the catching or injuring of
certain species of fish, birds and turtles and establishes the legal authority to fine and imprison
offenders, and confiscate equipment used to catch protected animals. Under the provisions of
the Act, the two major lagoons of Tongatapu, Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau, are protected as areas
of environmental importance. The trapping of fish without permit, damaging mangroves, drilling,
dredging, or discharging any effluent is prohibited (SPREP, 1985a), although some of these
257
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
activities continue (P. Thomas, pers. comm., 1989). The Birds and Fish Preservation Act is weak
and it is acknowledged that it requires updating (SPREP, 1980).
The Preservation of Objects of Archaeological Interest Act (1969) provides for the protection of
a number of historical, cultural and archaeological sites, many of which are also protected by
traditional law.
Other legislation with provision for environmental protection is reviewed by Venkatesh et al.
(1983). An Environmental Protection Act and a Fisheries Act were under consideration in 1987
(U.F. Samani, pers. comm., 1987).
International Activities Tonga is not yet party to any of the international conventions or
programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Although Tonga is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), the
1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The convention entered
into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures
to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the
establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect
on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision
only applies to the convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist
with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Tonga is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management Under the provisions of the 1976 Parks and Reserves Acts,
a Parks and Reserves Authority was established in 1989 within the Ministry of Lands, Survey
and Natural Resources to protect, manage and develop natural areas in the Kingdom. The
authority is headed by an ecologist and environmentalist who is directly responsible to the
Secretary of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. There are two park rangers directly
responsible to the head of the Authority. In addition to the general administration of parks and
reserves, the authority is also responsible for environmental impact assessment of all physical
developments, physical planning and environmental education.
Park management is hampered by shortages of funds and personnel, and there has been only
limited development of protected areas. Signposts advertising rules prohibiting the destruction
or removal of marine life have been erected. However, there are no means of enforcing these
tules and people are not always aware of them; shellfish are still collected from the reef in
Ha’atafu Reserve. No biological surveys or inventories of reserves have been carried out
(U.F. Samani, pers. comm., 1987). R.H. Chesher (pers. comm., 1987) reported virtually
complete neglect of park boundaries. The marine parks on the small islands adjacent to Tongatapu
258
Tonga
are regularly and destructively fished. The advent of new fishing technology and increasing
depletion of fisheries resources indicate that these parks are likely to come under greater threat
in the future (IDEC, 1990). There is an urgent need for improved management of existing
protected areas.
No baseline information or inventory has been conducted at any of the marine park sites other
than a brief overview in 1984 (Chesher, 1985), which revealed extensive damage due to
destructive fishing methods in the Pangaimotu reef area, long-term coral damage in the Monuafe
area and extensive coral damage of unknown cause in the Malinoa Island area. A recent review
(Pernetta, 1988) suggests that the potential impact of climate change and sea-level rise could
have severe impacts with economic and social disruption, with inter-island movement of
populations, and emigration. Clearly marine and coastal protected are also under considerable
threat.
Systems Reviews Tonga, the last remaining Kingdom in the South Pacific, lies between
15°30’-22°20’S and 173°00’-176°15’W. There are 17 main islands forming three major groups,
namely the Vava’u Group (143 sq. km) to the north, the central Ha’apai Group (119 sq. km) and
the southerly Tongatapu Group (256 sq. km). The islands are mainly flat, elevated coral reefs
which cap the peaks of two parallel submarine ridges, although some are high and volcanic in
origin.
Brief summaries of the vegetation and coral reefs of most islands are given in Douglas (1969)
and UNEP/IUCN (1988), respectively. The original vegetation on limestone islands comprised
lowland rain forest. However, on the larger islands this has been entirely cleared (A.L. Dahl,
pers. comm., 1989) for settlements and cultivation. According to a 1989 report (Wenzel, 1989),
Tonga’s exploitable indigenous forest was expected to be exhausted within 3-5 years, although
whether this has occurred is not known. The best examples of volcanic island lowland rain forest
are found on ’Eua in the Tongatapu Group (Dahl, 1980). In 1982 some 3,779ha of forest reserve
existed on ’Eau (Larsen and Upcott, 1982) along the eastern ridge of the island. Subdivision of
the area into tax ’apis (leases for agriculture), and deforestation by government and private
logging have reduced the indigenous forest of these reserves (IDEC, 1990).
Moss forest occurs on the summit of Kao, and on Tafahi, to the north of the Vava’u Group.
Coastal scrub is found on most islands, and recent lava flows support Casuarina. The islands of
Tongatapu, ’Eua and Uta Vava’u in the Vava’u Group all have extensive areas of secondary
vegetation, including scrub and grasslands. Mangroves and Cyperus reed swamp are present, the
latter especially around the crater lake on Ninafo’ou, an isolated volcanic island to the north-west
of the Vava’u Group. The crater zones of most volcanic islands have distinct, but sparse
herbaceous flora (Dahl, 1980; IUCN, 1986).
The existing protected areas network covers 4.5% of the terrestrial area of Tonga, but nearly 90%
of the network is accounted for by just one site, namely Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoons
Marine Reserve. Thus, protected habitats are largely marine or littoral and, according to Dahl
(1980), include mangrove forest, possibly non-tidal salt marshes in Fanga’uta Lagoon, sea turtle
nesting areas, sea grass beds, animals in sediments, algal, barrier, fringing and lagoon reef
formations, beach, and open lagoon.
Habitats that are omitted from the protected area system are largely terrestrial and include lowland
Tain forest, savanna, grasslands, freshwater marsh, rock desert, reed swamp, permanent lake,
seabird rookeries, as well as marine lake, offshore environments and submarine trenches (Dahl,
1980). Efforts to incorporate remaining fragments of lowland tropical rain forest in the protected
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areas system included an attempt to establish Vaomapa Park on Tongatapu, although the lease
securing the site has lapsed and the site is no longer protected (SPREP, 1989). A long-standing
proposal to gazette a 1,400ha protected area on ’Eua has not yet been implemented, although
funding for preliminary surveys and facilities has been sought from the New Zealand
Government. The proposed park area includes fringing reefs, coastal regions, eastern ridge and
terrace, and ridge summit, with rain forest and important bird habitats (Dahl, 1980). The park
would also contain some of the last stands of sandalwood remaining in the Pacific, a number of
plant species with restricted distributions and Matalanga-’a’Maui natural limestone bridge
(SPREP, 1985a).
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, effective protected area management and regional
and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Tonga are as follows: develop and
implement intensive public education and training programmes, including radio broadcasts on
environmental conservation, and grants for overseas study on environment-related disciplines;
survey all potential protected areas, followed by preparation of management plans and provision
of funds for management; develop a national environmental strategy; prepare resource
inventories to help identify areas of critical importance for resource conservation; and exchange
between countries in the region of environmental expert staff for short periods, to cooperate in
addressing specific problems and in exchanging ideas (SPREP, 1985b).
A number of these recommendations have been acted upon. A Government department of public
information has been set up in the Prime Minister’s Office to coordinate public education and
the spread of environmental information from government ministries. Radio broadcasting,
however, is seen as less effective than video, itself a very popular medium, for disseminating
environmental information. An aerial photography survey has been completed which may
provide the basis for a nationwide review of potential protected areas (R.H. Chesher, pers.comm.,
1990).
As one response to the Action Strategy, a comprehensive Environmental Management Plan
(IDEC, 1990) was published in 1990, in a cooperative effort between the United Nations
Economic and Social Commission (UN/ESCAP) and the Government of Tonga. The plan was
formally introduced during a three-day symposium in August 1990 in Nuku’alofa. Responsibility
for the compilation of the plan was undertaken by the Interdepartmental Environment Committee
(IDEC), comprising Lands, Survey and Natural Resources (Chairman); Health; Foreign Affairs;
Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry; Works; Labour, Commerce and Industries, Central Planning;
and Tonga Visitors Bureau. The objectives of the environmental management plan are to:
examine the existing state of the environment in Tonga and summarise the relevant existing
information in a single document; determine the environmental participants in the Kingdom and
their resources needs; discover environmental resource needs that are not being met and identify
these as problems; and recommend a plan of action to deal with existing and projected
environmental problems. The plan includes coverage on demography and economics,
geomorphology, mineral resources and coastal processes, fisheries, tourism, wildlife
conservation and management, the institutional and legal framework, and a strategy for
implementing the recommendations in the plan.
A number of recommendations concerning the development of protected areas are made in the
plan. Community participation in the site selection, research, monitoring and protection of parks
and reserves will assist in long-term park management, including establishment of local park or
reserve committees to maintain or assist in the management of local resources. Within the
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Tonga
framework of community parks, new marine and land parks should be gazetted, including Vava’u
Coral Gardens, Neiafu Harbour Wreck and Swallows cave, all on Vava’u. The plan identifies a
number of opportunities for further protected areas, namely microparks, resource parks,
mangrove parks, botanical gardens, steep-slope forest, turtle and wildlife resources islands,
coastal littoral forest and water reserves parks. At present there are no officially designated forest
sanctuaries, although some forests on steep coastal slopes and on some volcanic islands with
difficult or dangerous access are unofficially protected. The remaining indigenous forests should
be divided into parks, reserves and sanctuaries depending on their present condition and status.
The proposed national park on ’Eua, designed to protect forest on the steep slopes of south-east
*Eua and to prevent erosion, should be set up in accordance with the recommendations of the
Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. The proposed ’Ohonua water supply reserve
on ’Eua should be implemented by insisting on the maintenance of a 50m border of forest adjacent
to all streams and tributaries in the area. Compliance by landowners should be enforced and
seedling trees made available to re-plant areas which have already been cleared. Mount Talau
National Park in Vava’u should be established. The plan also makes a series of recommendations
aimed at increasing public involvement, monitoring and research. A series of policy
recommendations covers institutional, legal and regulatory issues, monitoring and assessment,
and research.
Dahl (1980) recommends gazetting the following reserve types: forest reserves on Tafahi or
Niuatoputapu, for endemic birds, and perhaps other volcanic islands, viz. Tofua, Kao, Lalo, ’Ata
or Toku; other areas of ’Eua of botanical interest; samples of other terrestrial biomes not yet
protected; marsh, lake and lagoon habitats, namely Niuafo’ou, Kao and ’Uta Vava’u; and further
marine areas to include a full range of marine biomes, especially outside Tongatapu. Much of
this is reiterated by Dahl (1986) with the recommendation to gazette ’Eua National Park, a
protected area on ’Ata and some protected areas on Niuafo’ou and Kao. Other small reserves
should be considered for particular features, and there should be an extended role for coral reef
reserves in managing coastal fisheries with the support of the local population. It is intended that
the Parks and Reserves Authority will review proposals for terrestrial and marine parks, with a
view to implementation.
Addresses
Parks and Reserves Authority, Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, PO Box 5,
Nuku’alofa
References
Chesher, R. H. (1985). Practical problems in coral reef utilization and management: A Tongan
study. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti. Pp. 213-217.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the South Pacific. SPREP Topic Review 17.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 103 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Interdepartmental Environment Committee. (1990). Environmental Management Plan for the
Kingdom of Tonga. Economic and Social Committee for Asia and Pacific. Bangkok,
Thailand. 197 pp.
Larsen, A. ard Upcott, A. (1982). A study of the forest resources of’ Eualsland and their potential
for future management. Chandler, Fraser And Larsen, Rotorua, New Zealand. 125 pp.
(Unseen).
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for
countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the
implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October.
Pp. 1-11.
SPREP (1980). Tonga. Country Report 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
60 pp.
SPREP (1985a). Tonga. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 211-216.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). Tonga. Paper presented at Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 3 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S., Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific Countries. SPREP Topic Review 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in the Pacific: a survey of resource use in Fiji,
Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. INR Environmental Studies Report
No. 43. Institute of Natural Resources, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 95 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Parks and Reserves Act
Date: 21 September 1976 (Royal Assent: 22 January 1977)
Brief description: Provides for the establishment of a Parks and Reserves Authority and
for the establishment, preservation and administration of parks and reserves. The Authority
may, with consent of the Privy Council, declare any area of land or sea to be a park or reserve
and in the same manner declare any park or reserve to cease to be such.
Administrative authority: Parks and Reserves Authority, established in 1989 within the
Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources.
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Tonga
Designation:
Park Subject to any conditions and restrictions which the Authority may impose, shall be
administered for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Tonga and there shall be freedom
of entry and recreation therein by all persons (s.7).
Reserve Subject to any conditions and restrictions which the Authority may impose, shall
be administered for the protection, preservation and maintenance of any valuable feature of
such reserve, and activities therein and entry thereto shall be strictly in accordance with any
such conditions and restrictions (s.8).
Marine reserve Administered for the protection, preservation and control of any aquatic
form of life and any organic or inorganic matter therein (s.10). (Defined as an area of sea).
All parks and reserves shall be registered and recorded in accordance with the provisions of
the Land Act (s.4.3). Prohibited activities include: alteration, disturbance, destruction or
removal etc. of any feature whether organic or inorganic in any park or reserve; damage etc.
to any notice, fence or building; depositing rubbish in any park or reserve; obstructing,
disobeying etc. any instruction issued by the Authority (s.11).
Title (English): The Birds and Fish Preservation Act
Date: 1915 (amended in 1916, 1934 and 17 September 1974, gaining Royal Assent on
26 June 1975)
Administrative authority: Enforcement officers include police, fisheries and agricultural
officers
Description: Makes provision for the preservation of wild birds and fish
Designation: Not applicable
NB: See The Birds and Fish Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1974
Title: The Birds and Fish Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1974)
Date: 17 September 1974 (Royal Assent 26 June 1975)
Administrative authority: Enforcement officers include police, fisheries and agricultural
officers
Description: Amends the Birds and Fish Preservation Act. The Act is to be read and
construed as one with The Birds and Fish Preservation Act ("the Principle Act").
Section 2 of the Principle Act is amended by defining "protected area”.
Designation:
Protected area Any area comprising land, or water, as specified in the Third Schedule of
the Act. Section 7 prohibits discharge of effluent etc.; erecting buildings etc.; cutting,
damaging, removing or destroying any mangrove; erecting fish fences or fish traps, fish
trawling or commercial fishing; or carrying out any boring, drilling or dredging operations
within a protected area.
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The two major lagoons of Tongatapu, Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau, are declared protected
in the Third Schedule.
Title: Forests Act
Date: 2 November 1961
Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
Description: Provides for the setting aside of areas as forest areas or reserved areas and for
the control and regulation of such areas and of forest produce and related matters (the King
in Council may declare any unalienated land to be a forest reserve or reserved area (s.3) or
may revoke such declarations (s.5)).
Designation:
Forest reserve Any demarcated forest or proclaimed forest reserve but shall not include a
village forest reserve.
Reservedarea Any demarcated area of land or proclaimed area of land which may be under
grass or scrub which may be needed for afforestation in the future.
Village forests Governed by such regulations concerning the protection, control and
management of forest produce as the Minister may prescribe.
Section 4 defines activities prohibited within forest reserves and reserved areas, including
damage to forest produce, grazing, clearing land, killing, taking or injuring animals, setting
fires etc.
Title: Land (Timber Cutting) Act
Date: No information
Administrative authority: No information
Brief description: Regulates cutting and taking of trees. Land (Timber Cutting) Regulations
(G33/43) state that, where permission is granted to cut timber on Crown land, no timber can
be cut within 50 feet (c.15m) of the high-water mark.
Designation: No information
Title: The Preservation of Objects of Archaeological Interest Act
Date: 1969
Administrative authority: Committee on Tongan Traditions
Brief description: Provides for the preservation of objects of archaeological interest.
Designation: Conditions can be specified to protect an object of archaeological interest
from injury or removal.
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Tonga
Miscellany: An Environmental Protection Act and a Fisheries Act were under consideration
in 1987.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area
ref. category (ha)
Marine Reserves
1 Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoons* Vil 2,835
Reserves
2 Ha’atafu Beach* IV 8
3 Hakaumama’o Reef* IV 260
4 Malinoa Island* IV 73
5 Monuafe Island* IV 33
6 Mui Hopo Hoponga V
7 Pangaimotu Reef* IV 49
Sanctuaries
8 Mounu Reef (Giant Clam) Unassigned
Parks
9 Ha’amonga Trilithon Unassigned 19
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
265
Year
notified
1974
1979
1979
1979
1979
1972
1979
1972
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
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266
Tonga
FANGA’UTA AND FANGAKAKAU LAGOON
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Comprises the main lagoons situated in the centre of Tongatapu. The
Birds and Fish Preservation Act (Amendment), 1974, defines the boundaries of the site as the
entire lagoon in Tongatapu, known as Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau, being the area lying to the
south of a straight line drawn from Niutao to the northernmost point of Nukunuku Motu and
including the straits known as Holvea and all mangroves and foreshore. Approximately
175°10’W, 21°10’S
Date and History of Establishment Established under the provisions of the Bird and Fish
Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1974, passed in the Legislative Assembly on 17 September 1974
and receiving Royal assent on 26 June 1975.
Area 2,835ha (Wilkinson, 1977); 3,423ha (Zann et al., 1984)
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from sea level to a maximum depth of some 6m in the Mu’a Branch.
Physical Features The lagoon comprises a shallow, almost enclosed estuarine embayment on
the northern Tongatapu coastline. There are two main branches separated from each other and
from the ocean by a complex system of reefs and channels. The westernmost part, directly to the
south of Nuku’alofa, is made up of a sinuous channel, the Folaha Sector, approximately 0.5km
wide, and a broad, shallow basin, the Pe’a Sector, surrounding Kanate Island, roughly 2km in
diameter. The Mu’a Branch, which connects directly to the sea, can be subdivided into the
southerly Vaini Sector, a shallow basin, and the deeper Mu’a Sector. Water is generally shallow,
reaching only 1-2m depth in the Pe’a and Vaini sectors, 3m in the Folaha Sector and 6m in the
Mu’a Sector. Tidal circulation in the lagoon is constrained by the geometry of the reef flats and
channels, with a range of 0.13m compared to an open sea range of 1.06m. Lagoon tides lag some
3-4 hours behind ocean tides and currents of up to 1.5m/second occur in the main channel. A
mean residence time of 23 days has been calculated, whilst tidal mixing is about 12% efficient.
Freshwater input to the lagoon occurs entirely from the ground water lens, except during heavy
rains. Average input is approximately 26,000 cu.m per day, of which 83% enters through diffuse
subsurface springs and 15% from solution channels onshore. The ground water is rich in nutrients
and provides essentially the entire nutrient supply to the lagoon. The long residence time of water
in the lagoon allows mostnutrients to be incorporated into living organisms and ultimately remain
in basement sediments. This would normally cause the lagoon to infill at the rate of a few
millimetres each century. However, it is highly likely that much more rapid infilling occurs
through erosion and run-off during infrequent heavy storms. The putative 20-40cm uplift in the
lagoon entrance area, some 40-200 years ago, created a damming effect, allowing sediments to
accumulate more rapidly than before the uplift. A number of islands are included within the
lagoon, the principal ones being Nukunuku Motu, Kanatea, Talakite, Mata’aho and Mo’ungatapu
(Zann et al., 1984).
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
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speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the southern summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation Biological processes within the lagoon are controlled by nutrient input, tidal
exchange, water depth and wind. Where the wind influence is strong and water is shallow, as in
the Pe’a Sector, the water is turbid and the bottom has only slight sea-grass cover. The Vaini
Sector is also shallow, but is more protected from wind; a dense mat of sea-grass has developed,
further stabilising the sediments. Thus, while the Pe’a Sector is plankton-dominated, the Vaini
Sector is dominated by benthic processes. The Folaha and Mu’a sectors are both deeper, so
sea-grass cover is restricted to the margins. Plankton growth is more rapid in the Pe’a Sector than
in the Mu’a Sector, probably because of the high concentration of particulate matter, and,
therefore, higher availability of recycled nutrients (Zann et al., 1984). The principal sea-grass
species are Halophilia ovalis and Halodule pinifoliosa. Algae include Caulerpa serratula,
C. racemosa, C. ashmeadii, Cladophora sp., Chorodesmis spp., Halimeda discoidea and
Gracilaria sp. (Brock, 1981). The relative abundance and productivity of these species in the
major lagoon sectors is discussed in Zann et al. (1984). Of the total 58km of Fanga’uta Lagoon
shoreline, 44.5km are covered by a mangrove tidal forest. The coverage is greatest in the
Nuku’alofa branch, being about 30-35km, as compared to the 14km covered of the Mu’a branch’s
24km circumference. The southern coast of the Mu’a branch comprises raised limestone and is
hence less suitable for mangrove growth; where present, the mangrove zone is very narrow.
In the Pe’a Sector Brugiera gymnorhyza is dominant along the water’s edge, with Excoecaria
agallocha present as a secondary canopy. A rich community of creepers and epiphytes is
present. Lumnitzera lottorea and Xylocarpus granatum lie shoreward, with Hibiscus tiliaceus,
Pandanus sp., Acrostichum and Ficus obliqua scrubs further inland.
At ’Alaki, Rhizophora samoensis and R. stylosa dominate the shoreline community; towards the
landward edge the fern Acrostichum aureum and taller Xylocarpus range into the coastal or littoral
forest behind.
The raised limestone shore from Longoteme to "Kauvai" is distinct. Irregular R. samoensis is
found in shallower shoreline areas, but elsewhere Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pandanus and Acrostichum
dominate the coastline. Shoreward lie remnants of the littoral forest, largely cleared and planted
in copra. A species list is given in Zann et al. (1984).
Fauna Invertebrate species with a lagoon-wide distribution include alpheid shrimp Alpheus
mackayi, mantis shrimp Squilla sp. and Lysiosquilla sp. commercially important prawns
Metapenaeus ensis and Penaeus sensculcatus and crabs Scylla serrata, Thalamita prymna,
Calappa hepatica and several species of the Xanthidae family. The holothurian Holothuria atra
is common in parts of the lagoon; H. edulis, H. leucospilota, H. impatiens, Stichopus variegatus
and S. chloronotus are all found on the patch reefs near the lagoon entrance. Starfishes and
Astropecten sp. are common on the intertidal flats and deeper soft-bottom areas of the Vaini,
Mu’a and entrance channel regions. Blue starfish Linckia laevigata and sea urchins Diadema
setosum, Tripnuestes gratilla and Toxopnuestes pileolus are frequently seen on the entrance
channel patch and fringing reefs. A small number of Capitellidae polychaete species are found
in sediments. Sand-trapping chaetopterids are common on the patch and fringing reefs at the
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Tonga
entrance. Several sponges are present on shallow fringing reefs, most commonly near the lagoon
entrance. A number of bivalves are found throughout the lagoon. Small tellinids and
Gafrarium tunidum are common in the sediments of all sectors; towards the lagoon entrance
cockle Anadara maculata, strawberry cockle Fragum unedo, tellin Tellina sp., cockle
Periglypta sp., Lucina sp. and scallop Pecten sp. are found, along with pinna Afrina sp. and pearl
oyster Pinctado marginatifera. Larger gastropods found near the entrance include ringed money
cowry Cypraea annulus, money cowry C. moneta, milk spotted cowry C. vitellus and tiger cowry
C. tigris, spider shell Lambis lambis, humpback strom Strombus gibberulus and cone Conus
pulicarius. Jellyfish Cassiopea sp. is harvested for consumption and is very common in the
Nuku’alofa branch of the lagoon, with local densities reaching 4 per sq.m. The diversity of coral
declines from 10-15 genera at the lagoon entrance, to only one, Porites, in the Mu’a Sector.
Living coral coverage declines from 70% outside the lagoon entrance, to 15-30% at the entrance,
to much less than 0.1% in the lagoon. This reflects the intolerance of coral species to hyposaline
and turbid conditions. The proportion of dead coral increases further into the lagoon. A species
list, including Scleractinia, Alcyonaria and Hydroidea taxa, is given in Zann et al. (1984).
A total of 96 fish species is present in the lagoon, with the greatest diversity occurring to seaward.
A species list is given in Zann et al. (1984).
Fauna associated with fringing vegetation include mudskippers Periophthalmus sp., fiddler crab
Uca lactea, nerites Nerita plicata and N. undata, whelks Cypeomorus and other invertebrates.
Bird species associated with the lagoon include golden plover Pluvialis dominica, Australian
grey duck Anas superciliosa, frigate bird Fregata ariel, abundant crested tern Sterna bergii, fairy
term S. nareis, reef heron Egretta sacra, in both white and grey morphs, bar-tailed godwit Limosa
lapponica, Pacific swallow Hirunda tahitica and white-tailed swiftlet Apus pacificus. Reptiles
include banded sea-snake Laticauda colubrina, seen off the outer lagoon patch reef (Zann et al.,
1984).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population A number of settlements are contiguous to the lagoon including
Haveluloto, a suburb of Nuku’alofa, Nukuhetulu, Mu’a, Pe’a, Talafo’ou and Sifsia, located on
Nukunukumotu Island. The local populace has historically exploited the lagoon resources; Mu’a
was the capital of Tonga for many centuries. The introduction of synthetic monofilament gill
nets, arrowhead fish fences, commercial trawling, and the effects of pollution led to a rapid
decline in reported catches during the late 1960s. A commercial trawling operation for penaeid
prawns began in 1974 but because large numbers of juvenile fish were caught (Braley, 1974)
and the fishery for mullet, milkfish and bonefish continued to decline, the lagoon was gazetted
for protection. Mangroves around the lagoon have been used for fuel and construction purposes
and littoral vegetation has been cleared for agriculture (Zann et al., 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The site was gazetted to protect marine resources and was not
intended as a tourist attraction. Information on facilities and access is not available.
Scientific Research and Facilities The ecology of the lagoon has been investigated by Zann
etal. (1984), including aspects of circulation and hydrology, water chemistry, plankton
abundance and primary production; corals; fish and benthic communities; fringing vegetation;
and fisheries.
Conservation Value The lagoon is valued as a nursery ground for many reef and other food
fishes which are the mainstay of the local subsistence fishery. The lagoon also supports juvenile
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populations of grey mullet Mugil cephalus and several species of penaed prawn, the most
important commercially being Penaeus semisulcatus (De-haan) and Metapenaeus ensis
(De-haan). Important breeding grounds for snappers Lethrinus sp. and Lutjanus sp. are also found
(Wilkinson, 1977).
Conservation Management The 1974 Birds and Fish Preservation (Amendment) Act places
principal responsibility for the lagoon on the Fisheries Division and provides the following legal
protection for the site. No person may, within a protected area, and without the prior consent in
writing of the Prime Minister: discharge or cause to be discharged into the protected area any
effluent or noxious or toxic liquid or substance; erect any harbour, wharf, pier, jetty or other
building works, temporary or permanent, cut, damage, remove or destroy any mangrove; erect
any fish fence, or set any fish trap; or trawl for fish (including shellfish) or engage in any fishing
for commercial purposes; and carry out any boring, drilling or dredging operations. The enabling
legislation does not prohibit subsistence fishing, and many families supplement their diet with
fish and shellfish collected from the lagoon (Zann et al., 1984). A number of recommendations
are given in Zann et al. (1984), including the continued prohibition of commercial fisheries and
dredging, and the development of aquaculture of prawns, shellfish, mullet, milkfish and baitfish.
Management Constraints The lagoon has been overfished, with a consequent gradual decline
in mullet yields. The removal of mangroves, land reclamation and rubbish dumping has caused
localised disturbances. The location of numerous arrow-head fish fences around the entrance
channel, and the subsistence fishery within the lagoon, have prevented fish stocks from
recovering (Zann et al., 1984). A bridge and causeway across the lagoon entrance is planned
(R. Chesher, in litt., 1987). Mangroves have been damaged for fuelwood collection, clearing for
gardens and collection of bark for tapa dye. Effluents are discharged directly into the lagoon
from several sources (P. Thomas, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Fisheries Division, Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources,
PO Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Braley, R. (1974). The present marine turtle situation in Tonga. Fisheries Section, Tongan
Agricultural Department. Unpublished report. (Unseen).
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 181. 8 pp.
Wilkinson, W.A. (1977). Marine conservation in Tonga. Parks 2(2): 11-12.
Zann, L.P., Kimmerer, W.J. and Brock R.E. (1984). The Ecology of Fanga’uta Lagoon,
Tongatapu, Tonga. Sea Grant Cooperative Report UNIHI-SEAGRANT CR-84-04. Institute
of Marine Resources, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji and International Sea Grant
Program, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. 100 pp.
Date January 1989
270
Tonga
HA’ATAFU BEACH RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Situated on the western tip of Tongatapu, off Niuaunofo Point.
The reserve, which includes both beach and reef, is bounded by the following points:
(1) 21°04711.6"S, 175°20°00.3"W; (2) 21°04’05.9"S, 175°20’09.6"W; (3) 21°04’00.1"S,
175°20°04.3"W; (4) 21°04’05.2"S, 175°09’56.1"W
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979. Gazetted under the 1976 Parks and Reserves
Act.
Area 8ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from the beach to approximately 5m depth.
Physical Features Comprises an attractive beach with lagoon and fringing reef (Tongilava,
1979; Eaton, 1985).
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the southern summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation No information
Fauna Fish are abundant and include butterfly fish Chaetodon sp., wrasses Holocentorus sp.,
clown fish Amphrion sp. and damsel fish (Tongilava, 1979). Giant clam Tridacna maxima (K)
and scaly clam T. squamosa (IT) occur (McKoy, 1980). Information on reef structure and corals
is not available.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The nearest settlement is Ha’atafu on the eastern side of Niuaunofo
Point.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The beach is a popular recreation area (Eaton, 1985). A low
impact, small-scale tourist resort is located on land immediately adjacent to the reserve and used
both by local people and international visitors for swimming, picnics, surfing and other activities
(P. Thomas, pers. comm., 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities Giant clams have been surveyed (McKoy, 1980).
271
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management There are no management activities at present. Notice boards
indicating the regulations prohibiting the destruction or removal of marine life have been erected
(Eaton, 1985).
Management Constraints There is reported to have been some damage to corals by
crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (Tongilava, 1979). Shellfish are collected from the
reef (Eaton, 1985).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, PO Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Environmental and ecological report on Tonga. Part 1 Tongatapu. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 48 pp.
Chesher, R.H. (1984). Resource assessment report. Black coral of Tonga. SPREP, South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 30 pp.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the South Pacific. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme. Topic Review 17. South Pacific Commission. Noumea, New
Caledonia. 103 pp.
McKoy, J.L. (1980). Biology, exploitation and management of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the
Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Bulletin 1. Fisheries Division, Tonga. 61 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 181. 8 pp.
Tongilava, S.L. (1979). Development and management of marine parks and reserves in the
Kingdom of Tonga. In: Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National
Parks and Reserves, Sydney 1: 148-152.
Date January 1989
HAKAUMAMA’0 REEF RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location The reserve is 19km north of Nuku’alofa and is bounded by the
following points: (1) 20°59’30.6"S, 175°12’57.3"W; (2) 20°59’30.0"S, 175°12’04.4"W;
(3) 21°00713.2"S, 175°12’03.8"W; (4) 21°00’ 13.7"S, 175°12’56.8"W
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979. Gazetted under the 1976 Parks and Reserves
Act.
Area 260ha
Land Tenure State
272
Tonga
Altitude Ranges between sea-level and a depth of approximately 5m.
Physical Features An isolated, exposed barrier and algal reef, often exposed to strong current
and hurricanes, and which is not associated with an island (Wilkinson, 1977; Dahl, 1978 and
1980).
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the southern summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation No information
Fauna Giant clam Tridacna maxima (K) and scaly clam T. squamosa (I) are present (McKoy,
1980).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Giant clams have been surveyed (McKoy, 1980).
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints The site is virtually undisturbed by man due to its remote location
(Tongilava, 1979).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, P O Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Environmental and ecological report on Tonga. Part 1 Tongatapu. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 48 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980a). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Dahl, A.L. (1980b). Report on marine surveys of Rarotonga and Aitutaki (November 1976).
South Pacific Commision, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the South Pacific. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme. Topic Review 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 103 pp.
273
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
McKoy, J.L. (1980). Biology, exploitation and management of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the
Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Bulletin 1. Fisheries Division, Tonga. 61 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 181. 8 pp.
Tongilava, S.L. (1979). Development and management of marine parks and reserves in the
Kingdom of Tonga. In: Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National
Parks and Reserves, Sydney 1: 148-152.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wilkinson, W.A. (1977). Marine conservation in Tonga. Parks 2(2): 11-12.
Date January 1989
MALINOA ISLAND PARK AND REEF RESERVE
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located 12km north-north-east of Nuku’alofa. The boundary is defined
by the following points: (1) 21°02’24.0"S, 175°07’59.1"W; (2) 21°01°48.7"S, 175°07’59.6"W;
(3) 21°01°48.2"S; 175°07’21.3"W; (4) 21°02’23.6"W, 175°07’20.8"W
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979. Gazetted under the 1976 Parks and Reserves
Act. The island component is gazetted as a national park, and surrounding reef as a reserve
(U. Samani in litt., 1987).
Area 73ha, of which the island covers 0.5ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from the surface of the island to approximately 5m depth.
Physical Features Comprises a small island with fringing reef. Tides create strong currents
(Tongilava, 1979).
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the southern summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation No information
274
Tonga
Fauna The area is said to be rich in fish, octopus, clams and other shellfish (Eaton, 1985). Giant
clam Tridacna maxima (K) is present (McKoy, 1980). It is the only known turtle nesting site in
the Tongatapu Group, although the species concerned are not known (Groombridge and
Luxmoore, in press; Wilkinson, 1979).
Cultural Heritage The graves of six men executed for attempting to assassinate Tonga’s second
Prime Minister, Shirley Baker, in 1886, are on the island (Tongilava, 1979).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The six graves remain clearly marked and are still attended to.
Malinoa is within easy reach of visitors from Nuku’alofa on day trips. Strong tides preclude all
but the strongest swimmers on the reef (Tongilava, 1979).
Scientific Research and Facilities The reefs have been briefly surveyed (Chesher, 1984) as
have giant clams (McKoy, 1980).
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Designation of the island as a park requires it to be available for
recreational use. However, the reserve designation of the reef invokes more rigorous protection.
Signboards indicating the regulations prohibiting the destruction or removal of marine life have
been erected (Eaton, 1985). An 8m boat has been used for protected area surveillance (U. Samani,
pers. comm., 1987), although details are not available.
Management Constraints Coral mortality is high, but the cause is unknown (Chesher, 1984).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, PO Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Chesher, R.H. (1984). Resource assessment report. Black coral of Tonga. SPREP, South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 30 pp.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the South Pacific. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme. Topic Review 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 103 pp.
Groombridge, B. and Luxmoore, R. (in press). The green turtle and hawksbill (Reptilia:
Cheloniidae): world status, exploitation and trade. A report to the CITES Secretariat. World
Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
McKoy, J.L. (1980). Biology, exploitation and management of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the
Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Bulletin 1. Fisheries Division, Tonga. 61 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 181. 8 pp.
Tongilava, S.L. (1979). Development and management of marine parks and reserves in the
Kingdom of Tonga. In: Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National
Parks and Reserves, Sydney 1: 148-152.
Wilkinson, W.A. (1977). Marine conservation in Tonga. Parks 2(2): 11-12.
Date January 1989
275
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
MONUAFE ISLAND PARK AND REEF RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located approximately 6km north-east of Nuku’alofa and bounded
by the following points: (1) 21°06’44.7"S, 175°08’37.0"W; (2) 21°06’12.7"S, 175°08’37.4"W;
(3) 21°06’ 12.5"S, 175°08’20.0"W; (4) 21°06’44.5"S, 175°08’19.6"W
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979. Gazetted under the 1976 Parks and Reserves
Act. The island component is gazetted as a park and the surrounding reef as a reserve (U. Samani,
pers. comm., 1987).
Area 33ha; the island covers 2ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from the surface of the island to a depth of approximately 5m.
Physical Features Comprises a small, sand island, surrounded by a sheltered lagoon reef. It is
situated at the confluence of two main water currents which provide good conditions for reef
growth.
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the austral summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation The island supports a scrub formation, probably dominated by Hibiscus tiliaceus,
in common with other sand cays in the vicinity (Stoddart, 1975).
Fauna The adjacent sand flats are rich in molluscs (Wilkinson, 1977). The giant clam Tridacna
maxima (K) is present (McKoy, 1980) The reef is a small section of a large, very diverse and
vigorous reef. Acropora sp. is dominant, but all coral species known from Tonga are found here
(Tongilava, 1979). The reef to the south and west of Monuafe Island is considered to be one of
the richest in the vicinity of Tongatapu and is a good example of sheltered reef development
(Dahl, 1978).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The reefs have been briefly surveyed (Chesher, 1984) as
have giant clams (McKoy, 1980)
276
Tonga
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No specific details are available. However, an 8m boat has been
acquired for patrolling protected areas (U. Samani, pers. comm., 1987).
Management Constraints The reefs have suffered from the local fishing method ’tu’afeo’
which involves the breaking of coral to scare fish into nets (Wilkinson, 1977). Chesher (1984)
reports that there have been no recent changes in reef condition.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Chesher, R.H. (1984). Resource assessment report. Black coral of Tonga. SPREP, South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 30 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Environmental and ecological report on Tonga. Part 1 Tongatapu. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 48 pp.
McKoy, J.L. (1980). Biology, exploitation and management of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the
Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Bulletin 1. Fisheries Division, Tonga. 61 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 18 1. 8 pp.
Tongilava, S.L. (1979). Development and management of marine parks and reserves in the
Kingdom of Tonga. In: Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National
Parks and Reserves, Sydney 1: 148-152.
Wilkinson, W.A. (1977). Marine conservation in Tonga. Parks 2(2): 11-12.
Date January 1989
PANGAIMOTU REEF RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Lies some 3km north-east of Nuku’alofa and immediately north
of Pangaimotu Island. Navigation beacons at the following points mark the boundary:
(1) 21°07’09.8"S, 175°09’54.1"W; (2) 21°06’56.7"S, 175°09'64.2"W; (3) 21°06’56.4"S,
175°09’29.1"W; (4) 21°07°09.5"S, 175°09 29.0"W
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979. Gazetted under the 1976 Parks and Reserves
Act.
Area 49ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level to a depth of approximately Sm.
277
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Physical Features Comprises a shallow reef, bounded on the northern, seaward side by the deep
Piha Passage; the reef is best developed here (Tongilava, 1979). An outer reef extends into Piha
Passage and sand flats occur (Dahl, 1978; Eaton, 1985).
Climate Data specific to the site are not available. The following is a general account for the
Tongatapu region. The prevailing winds are south-east trades: 60% of wind observations are
from the east and south-east, and about 10% each from the north-east and south. Mean wind
speeds are 7-10 knots. Hurricanes occur infrequently during the southern summer, approaching
Tongatapu from the north and north-west. Mean annual rainfall at Nuku’alofa is 1784mm, being
highest during January to March and lowest in June; annual totals are rather variable. Mean daily
maximum temperatures vary from 25°C in July to September, to 29°C during January to March.
The mean of the highest temperatures recorded in each month reaches 31°C in February to March,
and the mean of the lowest in each month falls to 13°C in July to August. The tidal range at
Nuku’alofa is 1.22m at springs and 0.98m at neaps (Stoddart, 1975).
Vegetation Eel grass beds and mangroves are present (Eaton, 1985). The contiguous northern
shore of Pangaimotu Island supports a coastal woodland, mainly of Hibiscus tiliaceus, but also
with Thespesia, Cordia, Guettarda and clumps of Rhizophora in shallow water offshore
(Stoddart, 1975).
Fauna Fish are abundant, especially Chromis caerulens, Holocentrus, Chaetodon and Amphrion
spp. (Tongilava, 1979). Giant clam Tridacna maxima (K) and scaly clam T. squamosa (I) are
present (McKoy, 1980). Coral is reportedly predominantly Acropora (Tongilava, 1979). The
reef edge has at least 12 genera of coral (Zann et al., 1984). There is good coral cover in shallow
water (Chesher, 1984).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The nearest settlement is located on the southern point of Pangaimotu
Island (Stoddart, 1975).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities In June 1989 an underwater coral trail was established for tourist
use (SPREP, 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities Some of the reefs were briefly surveyed by Zann et al. (1981)
and Chesher (1984). Giant clams have been surveyed (McKoy, 1980).
Conservation Value To protect wildlife, provide undisturbed breeding grounds and provide an
area for research and recreation (Tongilava, 1989).
Conservation Management Signs indicating regulations prohibiting the destruction or removal
of marine life have been erected (Eaton, 1985). An underwater trail has been developed
(Tongilava, 1989), although it appears that this may have been destroyed by disgruntled
fishermen following attempts to enforce regulations prohibiting fishing (Chesher, 1990).
Management Constraints The reef has suffered from overfishing and collecting by tourists
(Dahl, 1978; Tongilava, 1979) and coral breakage and infection with blue-green algae is common
(Chesher, 1984). There are no means of enforcing the regulations and people are not always
aware of them (Eaton, 1985).
Staff None
Budget No information
278
Tonga
Local Addresses Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources, P O Box 5, Nuku’alofa
References
Chesher, R.H. (1984). Resource assessment report. Black coral of Tonga. SPREP, South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 30 pp.
Chesher, R.H. (1990). The giant clams of Tonga: a video proposal. Unpublished. 22 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Environmental and ecological report on Tonga. Part 1 Tongatapu. South
Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 48 pp.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the South Pacific. South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme. Topic Review 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 103 pp.
McKoy, J.L. (1980). Biology, exploitation and management of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the
Kingdom of Tonga. Fisheries Bulletin 1. Fisheries Division, Tonga. 61 pp.
SPREP (1989). Tonga. Paper presented at Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 3 pp.
Stoddart, D.R. (1975). The sand cays of Tongatapu. Atoll Research Bulletin 181. 8 pp.
Tongilava, S.L. (1979). Development and management of marine parks and reserves in the
Kingdom of Tonga. In: Proceedings of the Second South Pacific Conference on National
Parks and Reserves, Sydney 1: 148-152.
Tongilava, S.L. (1989). The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Case study 21. Fourth
South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. 7 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wilkinson, W.A. (1977). Marine conservation in Tonga. Parks 2(2): 11-12.
Zann, L.P. , Kimmerer, W.J. and Brock R.E. (1984). The Ecology of Fanga’uta Lagoon,
Tongatapu, Tonga. Sea Grant Cooperative Report UNIHI-SEAGRANT-CR-84-04. Institute
of Marine Resources, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji and International Sea Grant
Program, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. 100 pp.
Date January 1989
279
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TUVALU
Area 26 sq. km land area in approximately 1.3 million sq. km of territorial waters
Population 8,229 (1985) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Prior to independence on 1 October 1978, Tuvalu was part of the Gilbert
and Ellice Islands, and therefore subject to the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds
Protection Ordinance and the 1975 Wildlife Protection Ordinance; the latter was not enforced.
The Fourth Development Plan 1987-1991 contains a chapter entitled Land Management,
Environment and Conservation. This states that the government’s general aim is to bring about
improved "environmental control through better utilisation of the country’s very meagre land
and environmental resources".
The Prohibited Areas Ordinance and Wildlife Ordinance (1975) provides for the establishment
of wildlife reserves, although none has yet been gazetted, and the protection of seabirds
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
The Ordinance to Provide for the Conservation of Wildlife (1975, revised 1978) lists 32 fully
protected bird species and a number with partial protection. Provision is also made for the
declaration of wildlife sanctuaries (Sloth, 1988). There is, however, no legislation for the
protection of vegetation (Hay, 1986).
The enactment of legislation to better integrate existing laws and to provide for Environmental
Impact Assessments has been recommended (ESCAP, 1988).
International Activities Tuvalu is not yet party to any of the international conventions or
programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Although Tonga is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), the
1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The convention entered
into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures
to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the
establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect
on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision
only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist
with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
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Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Tuvalu is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management No information
Systems Reviews Tuvalu comprises nine islands of fossil coral and other calcareous marine
materials, rarely exceeding 4m in elevation, with a total land area of 2,51 1ha. The islands form
a 570km chain which describes an arc between 176°E and 180°E. Funafuti, Nanumea, Nui,
Nukufetau and Nukulaelae are atolls, generally with narrow strips of land on the east and reefs
with scattered islets on the west. Nanumanga, Niulakita and Niutao are reef islands consisting
of single islets with brackish internal lakes. Vaitupu is intermediate in type, with a large, but
virtually land-locked central lagoon (Douglas, 1969; UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Zann, 1980). Most of
the natural vegetation has been cleared for cultivation, especially for copra production.
Rhizophora mucronata mangrove is found in the central swamp on Funafuti. Niutao is densely
covered by coconut, and Nukunono supports small areas of atoll/beach forest (Douglas, 1969;
Davis et al., 1986; Buckley, 1985).
Tuvalu’s extreme remoteness, small land area and lack of industrial and natural resources pose
special problems for development (Zann, 1980). In common with other Pacific states, budget
deficits recur. The country is thus dependent upon foreign aid and remittances from expatriates
(SPREP, 1981; Paxton, 1985). The major export is postage stamps, earning four times as much
as copra, which is the only natural resource exported at present.
Major environmental problems are both anthropogenic and natural. The only urban area is on
Funafuti and at present this is the only area where human activity is having a noticeable impact
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Water may be contaminated by both saltwater and sewage, and in short
supply during dry spells. Soils are extremely poor and difficult to manage and improve (SPREP,
1981). The impact of new fishing technology, for example outboard motors, is not yet noticeable,
but new management controls and fisheries extension work may be needed (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
There is great concern about the erosion of land areas, but these changes may be natural events
and beyond the control of any reasonable coastal engineering projects. Efforts are being made
to control coastal erosion with gabion sea wall construction on almost all islands, but there is
little understanding of the currents and coastal processes involved (Baines, 1982).
Some of these concerns are reflected in a recent SPREP/ESCAP review of environmental
legislation and issues in Tuvalu (ESCAP, 1988). The major environmental issues were identified
as coastal erosion; detrimental impacts of land reclamation activities; degradation of fisheries
resources; inefficient land use practices; pollution, mainly caused by the absence of a sewerage
system and lack of proper garbage disposal sites; and uncontrolled exploitation of flora and fauna,
particularly of turtles and coconut crabs. Increased mean sea level, due to global climatic
warming, may pose the most serious threat. In the event of severe sea level rises, the loss of
freshwater resources, erosion and increased episodic destruction through hurricanes may force
the evacuation of the country (Pernetta, 1988).
Dahl (1980) recommends the establishment of reserves for small areas of native vegetation,
appropriate series of reef and lagoon environments, perhaps including Kosciusko Bank, and
seabird and turtle breeding areas, if any. Dahl (1986) recommends marine protected areas to help
control overfishing around Funafuti and Vaitupu. A joint Tourism Council of the South
Pacific/Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme attempted to identify sites of
potential tourist interest; suggest development strategies for nature management/conservation
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Tuvalu
programmes; advise on information for visits to nature sites; and carry out background studies
for the establishment of training programmes under nature conservation legislation (Sloth, 1988).
The recent ESCAP (1988) review recommends the establishment of coordinating mechanisms
between those government departments principally charged with responsibility for
environmental issues to ensure more effective resource management. The extent to which these
recommendations have been implemented is not known.
Addresses
Ministry of Commerce and Natural Resources, Vaiku, Funafuti
References
Baines, G.B.K. (1982). Pacific islands: development of coastal marine resources of selected
islands. In: Soysa, C., Chia, L.S. and Coulter, W. L. (Eds), Man, land and sea: coastal
resource use and management in Asia and the Pacific. The Agricultural Development
Council, Bangkok, Thailand. Pp 189-198.
Buckley, R. (1985). Environmental survey of Funafuti Atoll. Proceedings of the Fifth
International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti 6: 305-310
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463.
ESCAP (1988). ESCAP environment mission to Tuvalu, 1988. (Unseen)
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. ICBP Study Report No. 7. International Council
for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.
Paxton, J. (Ed.). (1989). The Statesman’s Yearbook 1989-90. Macmillan Press, London.
1691 pp.
Pernetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea level rise: a relative impact rating for
countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team on the
implications of climatic change in the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October.
Pp. 1-11.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the Island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council
of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1981). Tuvalu. Country Report No. 18. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 13 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S., Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Zann, L.P. (1980). Tuvalu’s subsistence fisheries. Effects of energy crisis on small craft and
fisheries in the South Pacific. Report 4. Institute of Marine Resources, University of the
South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The Prohibited Areas Ordinance and Wildlife Ordinance
Date: 1975
Brief description: Provides for the establishment of wildlife reserves, although none has
yet been gazetted, and the protection of seabirds.
Administrative authority: No information
Designation: No information
Title: Ordinance to Provide for the Conservation of Wildlife
Date: 1975, revised 1978
Brief description: Lists 32 fully protected bird species and a number with partial protection.
Provision is also made for the declaration of wildlife sanctuaries
Administrative authority: No information
Designation: No information
284
USA —- AMERICAN SAMOA
Area 202 sq. km
Population 36,000 (NPS and ASG, 1988) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation American Samoa is a semi-autonomous, unincorporated Territory of
the United States in which most, but not all, of the Articles of the US Constitution apply. A
constitution was adopted in 1960 under which the legislature, executive and judicial branches of
government are created. The traditional form of government, the matai system, primarily
comprises the high chiefs. In matters concerning the use of land the traditional system plays a
pivotal role and decisions regarding land are still controlled by the matai (NPS and ASG, 1988).
Communal tenure exists in American Samoa, with rights to use resources being held in common.
The land tenure system is derived from the structure of the family organisation, usually referred
to as the matai system. The most important social unit is the "aiga", a large extended family
headed by a matai, or chief, who holds the traditional title of that family. Each village has matai
titles and land rights belong to the aiga in perpetuity. Land may be passed from one member of
the aiga to another, or to another family when a new matai is created. Under American Samoa
law, a matai is prohibited from selling, giving, exchanging or in any way disposing of communal
lands to a non-Samoan without the written permission of the Governor. While the American
Samoan constitution protects Samoans against alienation of their land, communal land may be
conveyed or transferred for public purposes to the US government or the government of
American Samoa, although this has never been done on a sufficient scale to establish a protected
area.
The various protected areas in the country have been established under a diversity of legal acts.
Some United States Federal legislation applies, including the 1972 Marine Protection, Research
and Sanctuaries Act (P.L. 92-532; 16 USC 1431-1434), which authorises the Secretary of
Commerce, with Presidential approval, to designate ocean water as marine sanctuaries for the
purpose of preserving or restoring conservation, recreational, ecological or aesthetic values. Such
marine sanctuaries are built around existing, distinctive resources where protection and beneficial
use require comprehensive planning and management. A site can be nominated by a private party,
a state or a state agency. Once a site has been nominated a public hearing must be held in the
area most directly affected (Weiting et al., 1975). Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary was
established under the provisions of this Act.
Rose Atoll is established under provisions of the National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act 1966. The basic statutory protection for wildlife refuges prohibits entry,
disturbance or exploitation of the site, although there are provisions for exceptions to be made.
A number of national natural landmarks have been designated. The objective of the National
Natural Landmark Program, administratively created and not defined in any legislation, is to
assist in the preservation of sites illustrating the geological and ecological character of the United
States, to enhance the educational and scientific value of sites thus preserved, to strengthen
cultural appreciation of natural history, and to foster a wider interest and concern in the nation’s
natural heritage (NPS, 1977).
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American Samoa National Park has been authorised as a national park by the US Congress, under
the provisions of federal legislation.
There is an American Samoa Parks and Recreation Act (1980), with provision for the
establishment of natural preserves, conservation preserves and territorial parks, although none
has been established.
International Activities American Samoa is not yet directly party to any of the international
conventions or programmes that promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World
Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The United States is an active participant in all three conventions although it is not known if this
involves American Samoa in any way.
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified by either the United States or American Samoa. Known as the Apia
Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific
Commission and represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental
matters. Among other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve
indigenous flora and fauna.
The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), and
the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986) but not ratified. The
Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all
appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora
and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to
have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open
ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation
of marine species.
Administration and Management Administration of protected areas falls into two categories:
those that are the responsibility of the territorial government and those that are mandated under
federal legislation. The American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation is principally
concerned with development of recreation, and to date most of the areas designated under the
Parks and Recreation Act are for recreational purposes. Fagatele Bay is administered and funded
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); it is locally administered by
the Economic and Development Planning Office. Rose Atoll is administered by the US Fish and
Wildlife Service and the American Samoa Department of Marine Resources. American Samoa
National Park is the responsibility of the National Park Service. The national natural landmarks
are part of a programme within the National Park Service, although the precise status of each
site is not known.
In 1975 an American Samoa Recreation Area Development Plan was issued which provided for
recreation facilities and also identified national historic landmarks and national natural
landmarks.
Le Vaomatua ("tropical rain forest" in the Samoan language) is an active non-governmental
organisation established in 1985 by local residents concerned with protecting forests, reefs and
marshes. Recent successful activities have included advocacy for the establishment of American
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American Samoa
Samoa National Park and cancellation of the dredging and construction of a harbour in Leone
Bay.
Systems Reviews American Samoa comprises five volcanic islands and two coral atolls, and is
the only United States territory south of the Equator. Principal vegetation types include lowland
tropical evergreen rain forest up to 300m altitude and montane forest at 300-700m. Cloud forest
is found only on Tau and Olosega at 500-930m and small areas of montane scrub occur on Tutuila.
Mangroves, and coastal swamps, largely consisting of sedges and ferns, are found near the coast,
but have been drastically reduced in coverage, being felled for housing and other uses. About
two-thirds of the native vegetation has been disturbed or cleared for settlements or agriculture
and, for example, littoral forest has been almost entirely eliminated from sandy coastal areas.
Most of the interior of Tutuila, the main island, is covered by a patchwork of secondary forest
mixed with primary or primary-like forest on the steeper, more inaccessible slopes. Most of the
remaining primary forest on Tutuila is on the central portion of the north coast (Amerson et al.,
1982).
Although much of the forested interior remains inaccessible due to the steep terrain, an increasing
proportion of marginal areas is being cleared. Furthermore, an estimated 1% of rain forest cover
is lost annually to plantation cover. One of the consequences of this vegetation clearance has
been the increase in erosion, flooding and silting of coastal areas.
Coral reefs, which occur extensively throughout the country, are described in UNEP/IUCN
(1988). Tutuila and Manu’a both have fringing reefs rarely more than 50-100m in width which
are particularly vulnerable to sedimentation and the effect of run-off carrying agricultural
fertiliser, herbicides and pesticides, and animal wastes particularly from piggeries.
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, effective protected area management and regional
and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for American Samoa are as follows:
implement recommendations regarding new areas for reservation and taking fish; possible
reservation of reef area of Ofa; possible reservation of forest on Mount Lata; and implementation
of amanagement programme at the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. In response to both
the general and specific recommendations of the Action Plan, fruit bat surveys have been
undertaken by the US-Fish and Wildlife Service. A recent feasibility study (NPS and ASG, 1988)
identified remaining areas critical for protection, leading to the establishment of American Samoa
National Park. Management activities have been initiated in Fagatele Bay National Marine
Sanctuary.
Dahl (1980) identifies a number of habitat types that were excluded from the protected areas
system prior to the establishment of American Samoa National Park, and provides a list of
potential reserves to remedy these omissions. In a 1986 review, Dahl (1986) states that there is
an urgent need for protected areas on Tau, Tutuila and Ofu. However, the new national park has
included coral reefs, beaches, coastal, lowland, montane and cloud forest and so probably
includes most ecosystems in the country.
The Territorial Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan 1980-85, and the American Samoa
Coastal Management Plan (ASCMP) set out a comprehensive system of parks, forest and nature
reserves (SPREP, 1980). The ASCMP, which is funded under the National and Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration and operates out of the Economic Development Planning Office,
has undertaken some conservation activities. The programme has jurisdiction over all land areas
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
and to the limit of territorial seas. The ASCMP has also initiated a land use permitting system,
known as the Project Notification and Review System (PNRS). The PNRS provides for land-use
reviews for any planned construction, which include environmental considerations. The ASCMP
annually sponsors a three-week coastal awareness programme, highlighting coastal and marine
conservation issues.
Addresses
Department of Parks and Recreation, US Department of the Interior, PO Box 3809, Pago Pago
96799
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration, 3300 Whitehaven NW, Washington DC
20235
National Park Service, Pacific Area Office, 300 Ala Moana Blvd., Box 50165, Room 6305,
Honolulu, HI 96850
References
Amerson, A.B., Whistler, W.A. and Schwaner, T.D. (1982). Wildlife and wildlife habitat of
American Samoa: Environment and ecology. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,
DC. 119 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land Tenure and Conservation: Protected Areas in the South Pacific. Report
to the South Pacific Commission.
Fai’ai, P and Daschbach, N. (1989). American Samoa. Country Review 3. Fourth South Pacific
Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12
September. 10 pp.
Government of American Samoa (1975). American Samoa recreation area development plan:
1975-1980. American Samoa Park and Recreation Board, Pago Pago. 52 pp.
National Park Service and American Samoa Government (1988). National Park feasibility study.
Draft 01/88. National Park Service and American Samoa Government. 139 pp.
SPREP (1980). American Samoa. Country Report 1. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
US Department of Commerce (1984). Final environmental impact statement and management
plan for the proposed Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Sanctuary Programme
Division of the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce, Washington DC.
Weiting, H., Lukowski, S., Buckingham, N., Schamis, M and Humke, J. (1975). Preserving our
natural heritage. Volume 1. Federal activities. The Nature Conservancy and US Man and
the Biosphere Program. 323 pp.
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American Samoa
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Parks and Recreation Act
Date: 1980
Brief description: There is created the American Samoa parks system. The department
shall inventory all properties belonging to the government and with the Governor’s approval
determine which properties are included in the park system. The department keeps a list of
all areas in the park system according to the classification (see "designations"), with correct
and accurate descriptions, and provide the Legislature with a current copy of the list
(18.0204).
Administrative authority: Department of Parks and Recreation
Designation:
Natural preserves which are to remain unimproved;
Conservation preserves which may be improved for the purpose of making them accessible
to the public in a manner consistent with the preservation of their natural features;
Territorial park or community parks which may be improved for the purpose of providing
public recreational facilities in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement
of the natural features;
Territorial recreation facilities or community recreation facilities which may be improved
for the purpose of providing public recreation facilities;
Historical and prehistoric objects and sites which are administered in accordance with
federal guidelines as set by the Department of the Interior;
Seashore reserves which include underwater land and water areas of the Territory of
American Samoa extending from the mean high water line seaward to 10 fathoms is included
within the park system and administered by the Director in accordance with 18.0204.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map? Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 American Samoa National Park* II 3,725 1988
National Wildlife Refuges
2 Rose Atoll* I 653 1973
National Marine Sanctuaries
3 Fagatele Bay* IV 64 1985
National Natural Landmarks
4 Anunu’u Island Unassigned 123 1972
5 Cape Taputapu Unassigned 69 1972
6 Fogama’a Crater Unassigned 196 1972
qi Leala Shoreline Unassigned 14 1972
8 Matafao Peak Unassigned 71 1972
9 Rainmaker Mountain (Mt. Pioa) Unassigned 69 1972
10 Vaiava Strait Unassigned 142 1972
Archaeological Park
11 American Samoa Archaeological Park Unassigned 1
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
290
American Samoa
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
AMERICAN SAMOA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Three units on separate islands, Tutuila, Ta’u and Ofu
Date and History of Establishment Authorised as a national park by the US Congress in
October 1988.
Area Ta’u Unit is 2,100ha, Tutuila Unit is 1,200ha and Ofu Unit is 30ha. About an additional
395ha are ocean.
Land Tenure Waters are territory of American Samoa. Lands are owned by eight separate
traditional villages. Currently lease negotiations are underway involving the US Department of
the Interior, the High Court of American Samoa, the Governor, and the eight villages to negotiate
long-term leases of the lands for national park purposes.
Altitude From below sea level to 966m at the summit of Lata Mountain
Physical Features The sea cliffs along the south coast of Ta’u are spectacular. The shoreline
along the north coast is highly scenic, containing sheer cliffs, knife-like ridges, and sheltered
coves. The Ofu unit has the nicest beach and coral reef in American Samoa.
Climate No specific information
Vegetation The 2,100ha unit on the island of Ta’u is the largest and is mostly undisturbed native
rain forest. The rain forest on Ta’u includes coastal, lowland, montane, and cloud forest
communities, the latter being the largest such community in American Samoa. At lower
elevations littoral forests include fine examples of both Pandanus and Barringtonia
subcommunities. Rain forest communities include predominantly Dysoxylum huntii, Syzygium
samoense, Calophyllum samoense, Canarium samoense, Canthium merrillii, Planchonella
torricellensis, Dysoxylum samoense, and Myristica fatua. Ridge forest communities have
dominantly Dysosylum huntii, Myristica hypargyaea, Canarium samoense, Crossostylis biflora,
Diospyros samoensis, Planchonella linggenensis, Calophyllum samoense, and Syzygium
inophylloides. On Mt Lata the dominant cloud forest plants are S. samoense, Weinmannia affinis,
Astronidium pickeringii, Dysoxylum huntii, Fagraea berteriana, S.samarangense and
Reynoldsia lanutoensis. The Tutuila unit contains a major expanse of undisturbed native rain
forest. The forest here is composed of coastal, lowland, montane, and ridge communities.
Fauna Two flying foxes, Pteropus samoensis (E) and P. tonganus (1) are the most conspicuous
vertebrates. Perhaps these, as fruit-eating pollinators, affect the composition of the Samoan
forests. Birds are less conspicuous, but the park includes an excellent sample of almost the entire
native avifauna and the park contains the most significant seabird nesting site on Tutuila. Wattled
honey-eater Foulehaio carunculata, cardinal honey-eater Myzomela cardinalis, Samoan and
Polynesian starlings Aplonis atrifusca and A. tabuensis, and fruit doves of genus Ptilinopus are
common.
Local Human Population The areas within the park boundaries are unpopulated. Nearby
villages are native Samoan.
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American Samoa
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Adjacent communities and villages offer accommodation.
Scientific Research and Facilities The Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit
(CPSU) at the University of Hawaii is conducting both botanical and archaeological research.
This research is continuing.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints The introduced, noxious weed Koster’s curse Clidemi hirta has
recently invaded Ta’u Cloud Forest.
Staff At present a project manager is the only staff.
Budget US$ 85,000 is the base budget (1991), and science research budget is about US$ 15,000
(1991)
Local Addresses The project manager lives and works on site.
References
Amerson, A.B., Jr., Whistler, W.A. and Schwaner, T.D. (1982). Wildlife and wildlife habitat of
American Samoa. 2 Vols. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC.
Coastal Zone Management (1981). Atlas of American Samoa. Development Planning Office,
American Samoan Government and University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Cole, T. (1987). Vegetation Maps of Tutuila, Ofu, Olosega, and Tau. Institute of Pacific Islands
Forestry, US Forest Service, Honolulu.
Engbring, J. (1986). Observations of fruit bats in Samoa, with emphasis on the status of the
Samoan fruit bat (Pteropus samoensis). Unpublished. US Fish and Wildlife Service,
Honolulu.
Engbring, J. (1986). Samoa forest bird survey data. Unpublished. US Fish and Wildlife Service,
Honolulu.
Frost, J.O. (1976). Summary Report of Archaeological Investigations on Tutuila Island,
American Samoa. New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter 19: 30-37.
National Park Service and the American Samoa Government (1988). National park feasibility
study, American Samoa. Pacific Area Office, National Park Service, Honolulu. 138 pp.
Whistler, W.A. (1980). The Vegetation of Eastern Samoa. Allertonia, Pacific Tropical Botanical
Garden, Kauai, Hawaii.
Date February 1991
FAGATELE BAY NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Situated on the south-western shore of Tutuila, about 12km south-west
of Pago Pago Harbour, the principal township on Tutuila. Access is via the road from Futiga
village to the lighthouse on Steps Point at the southern extremity of the Bay. The nearest village
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
is Taputimu to the north-west, but there is no track leading to the bay. The northern boundary is
defined by the cliff face and by a notional line across the mouth of the bay to the south.
Approximately 14°23’S, 170°46’W
Date and History of Establishment Jointly signed into law by the Governor of the Territory
of American Samoa and the Deputy Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Fagatele Bay was designated a marine park on 13 October 1982 by the
Department of Parks and Recreation, to be included in the American Samoa park system.
Protection was enhanced by the designation of the area as a national marine sanctuary under the
provisions of Title III of the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act. Regulations
came into force on 31 July 1986, although some authorities state that the date of establishment
as a national marine sanctuary was 11 August 1986.
Area 66ha
Land Tenure American Samoan government
Altitude From the mean high water mark to approximately 100m depth
Physical Features The bay was formed in recent geological history when the seaward side of
a volcanic crater of Pliocene/early Pleistocene origin was breached and flooded by sea water.
The bay is defined by steep cliffs of lithic/vitric volcanic tuff derived from the Vailoatai, Fagatele
and Fogama craters. Seumalo Ridge, rising to over 120m, flanks the western and northern sides
of the bay, while the eastern side is bounded by Matautuloa Ridge (up to 60m), culminating in
the rocky Steps Point, the southern limit. Soils on these steep slopes are silty clay loams derived
from basic tuff and basaltic ash. The nature of the landscape makes the bay inaccessible from
the landward side; access is via a dirt trail along Matautuloa Ridge, leading down to the beach
at the base of the cliffs. The beach of calcareous sand, mixed with a small proportion of volcanic
sand, extends some 10m from the shore until it merges with the fringing reef platform of
consolidated limestone and encrusting coralline algae. The platform fringes the interior bay shore
to varying widths, being widest along the eastern shore. At its limit the reef front drops almost
vertically to depths of 1.5m to 3m, subsequently sloping more gradually to depths of 5m to 6m,
some 90m offshore. Nearly vertical basalt cliffs and faces extend from the surface to as deep as
80m along the exposed outer portions of the bay which are characterised by strong currents and
surge in the upper portions. There are no permanent streams discharging into the bay and salinity,
turbidity and nutrient levels remain constant. Sea water temperatures range between 27°C and
28°C with little seasonal or diurnal variation; salinity ranges from 35.5 ppt to 36ppt. Wave action,
normally from the east, is dampened by the encircling reef platform and because the bay faces
south-west. Tides are probably similar to Pago Pago Bay where they are diurnal with mean and
spring ranges of 0.76m and 0.95m, respectively (USDC, 1984).
Climate American Samoa has a warm, humid tropical climate with a mean annual rainfall of
5080mm, mainly from December to March, and an annual temperature range of 21°C-32°C. The
islands are exposed to the south-east trade winds, strongest during winter (June to August). They
also lie in the southern hurricane belt with hurricane force winds (240km/hr) hitting the islands
once every five years or so; Fagatele Bay, however, is protected from the full force of these.
Vegetation The bay is rimmed by undisturbed tropical wet forest surviving on the steep ridges.
The sanctuary, however, only extends up to the high water mark and does not include the cliff
tops.
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Fauna There is a large flying fox colony of some 2,000 or more individuals, principally
comprising Pteropus tonganus (I), on the Seumalo Ridge (N. Daschbach, pers. comm., 1989),
although this is not strictly part of the sanctuary. The bay and adjacent waters are important to a
group of hump-back whales Megaptera novaeangliae (V), members of the Southern Hemisphere
breeding population. The occasional sperm whale Physeter catodon has been sighted offshore,
as have Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncata and spinner dolphin Stenella sp. Around
the bay, the abundant avifauna (both sea and shore birds) use the shore, cliffs and forests for
nesting and/or feeding. The 19 bird species recorded in the vicinity of Fagatele Bay include
brown booby Sula leucogaster, red-footed booby S. sula, grey-backed tern Sterna lunata, black
noddy Anous tenuirostris, brown noddy A. stolidus, blue-grey noddy Procelsterna cerulea, great
frigate bird Fregata minor, white tern Gygis alba, white-tailed tropic bird Phaethon lepturus and
turnstone Arenaria interpres. Five species of marine turtle are known to frequent the waters in
and around Fagatele Bay, namely green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys
imbricata (E), loggerhead Caretta caretta (V), olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (E) and
leatherback Dermochelys coriacea (E). The sheltered bay and its associated coral reefs provide
valuable habitats for the abundant, species-rich fish fauna. A survey in 1978 (Wass, 1978)
recorded 86 species from the Fagatele Bay reef and 114 from the reef platform. Consistently
abundant species include damselfish Stegastes albofasciatus, Glyphidodontops cyanea, and
G. leucopomus, surgeonfish Acanthurus nigrofuscus and wrass Thalassoma hardwickei. Other
conspicuous species include the surgeonfishes Ctenochaetus striatus, Acanthurus lineatus, and
A. triostegus, butterflyfish Chaetodon reticulatus, damselfish Glyphidodontops glaucus, adult
and juvenile parrotfish Scarus sp., and anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus. Damselfish
Plectroglyphidodon dickii and Chromis acares were particularly abundant at the south-eastern
tip of the bay. The most conspicuous coral species found along the eastern reef platform are
Pocillopora verrucosa, Favia sp., Galaxea sp., Goniastrea sp., Acropora humilis, Porites lutea
and the soft coral Palythoa sp.; predominant algae include Cheilosporum sp., Bryopsis sp. and
Halimeda sp. In all, some 172 species of coral have been identified from the area. The Draft
Environmental Impact Statement (1983) provides checklists of fish and coral species collected
from Fagatele Bay (USDC, 1984).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Old maps indicate two villages, Fagale’a and Fagatele, located along
the margins of Fagatele Bay, which have since been abandoned. Today, primary use of the bay
includes sport and subsistence fishing by villagers who live above the bay. Land access is
controlled by these villagers via their traditional land tenure system. Gleaning, principally of
shellfish, such as giant clam Tridacna sp. and algae Dictyota sp., Laurencia sp. and Ulva sp.
from the nearshore reef areas, and pole and line fishing, are the major subsistence activities, while
rod and reel fishing are the dominant sportfishing activities. The most common species caught
include butterfly fish Chaetodon spp., surgeonfish Acanthurus spp., goatfish Parapeneus and
snappers Lutjanus. In 1988 less than 20 people were regularly involved in these activities
(Thomas, 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None at present; the management plan recommends improved
access, provision of mooring buoys and the development of an interpretative centre as necessary
measures to encourage tourism. It is anticipated that most visitors will come by boat from Leone,
which would give the park authority greater control (Eaton, 1985).
Scientific Research and Facilities The marine biota was extensively surveyed in 1978 by a
team from Aquatic Farms and AECOS. The crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci
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population has been studied during the devastating population explosion in 1978 (Marine
Environmental Research Inc., 1978).
The Sanctuary Program of NOAA has funded a long-term resource survey of the bay to track
the recovery of the coral population from the crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak. In addition, fish
populations are surveyed and an invertebrate study has also been carried out. Developed by the
University of Guam, under contract to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and the Development Planning and Tourism Office, the survey is conducted every three years
(Fai’ai and Daschbach, 1989). A study to gather baseline population data was completed in 1985
(Birkeland et al., in press) and the reefs were due to be re-surveyed in 1988 (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Research on coral re-colonisation and changes in the composition and structure of inshore fish
communities is underway. The management plan includes a detailed research programme under
the coordination of a Fagatele Bay Research Committee. There are no facilities at present; the
management plan recommends improved access and the provision of a boat for research teams.
Future research requirements are described in USDC (1984), and range from broad surveys to
monitoring of crown of thorns starfish.
Conservation Value The pristine nature of the bay provides ideal conditions for the study of
coral regeneration following crown-of-thorns starfish predation. The sanctuary has a number of
invertebrates which serve as important subsistence food sources. Subsistence fishing and
recreational activities are both important in the area (USDC, 1984).
Conservation Management Protected under the provisions of Title III of the Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972, regulations prohibit activities which threaten the bay’s
resources, such as dredging and the discharge of pollutants; traditional uses, such as fishing and
recreation, are permitted. Detailed management measures are presented in the final
environmental impact statement (USDC, 1984), although many of the proposals have
subsequently been superseded and may no longer apply. Major aims are to protect Fagatele Bay;
expand public awareness; expand scientific understanding of marine ecosystems; allow uses of
the sanctuary that are compatible with the first three aims; and to give highest priority to
subsistence and public recreational uses. The area is divided into two zones: an outer zone in
which subsistence fishing is permitted, and an inner core zone which is a strict nature reserve.
The Sanctuary Programs Division of NOAA is responsible for overall administration and
programme implementation.
An education programme was scheduled for implementation from 1988. Stage I of the
programme (1988 and 1989) will focus on identifying the sanctuary to the public and
disseminating that information through the development of a marine science curriculum in local
schools, public extension programmes and touring exhibitions. Stage II (1990-1993) will expand
on Stage I to include areas outside the sanctuary, emphasising the cultural and historical aspects
of the bay and similar areas throughout the Pacific (Thomas, 1988).
Management Constraints Human impact on the bay has been minimal due to its inaccessibility.
Increasing visitor pressure could have an adverse impact on the reefs if not regulated. In late
1978 and early 1979 a population explosion of crown-of-thorns starfish devastated the coral
reefs around Tutuila, including 90% of those found in Fagatele Bay. Recent surveys indicate that
the coral cover is recovering (Fai’ai and Daschbach, 1989). In general, human impact has been
minimal, and the bay is considered one of the least disturbed areas on Tutuila, although dynamite
fishing has occurred in recent years.
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Staff A coordinator (manager) was appointed in 1988, and the sanctuary programme was due
to appoint a ranger during 1990 (N. Daschbach, pers. comm., 1989).
Budget US$ 82,500 for 1986-89; US$ 90,000 for 1990
Local Addresses Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary, PO Box 4318, Pago Pago (under
the co-administration of NOAA and the American Samoa Government)
References
Aquatic Farm and AECOS (1980). American Samoa coral reef inventory. US Army Corps of
Engineers, Honolulu District. Prepared for Development Planning Office, American Samoa
Government. (Unseen)
Fai’ai, P and Daschbach, N. (1989). Country Review 3. American Samoa. Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu,
4-12 September. 10 pp.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1985). Fagatele Bay (American Samoa)
designated a national marine sanctuary. US Department of Commerce News. April 29, 1985.
US Department of Commerce (1984). Final environmental impact statement and management
plan for the proposed Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Sanctuary Programme
Division of the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce, Washington DC. 107 pp.
US Department of Commerce (1983). Draft environmental impact statement and management
plan for the proposed Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Sanctuary Programme
Division of the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce, Washington DC.
Marine Environment Research Inc. (1978). Observations concerning the infestation of the island
of Tutuila, American Samoa, by the crown-of-thorns starfish. Preliminary report submitted
to the Government of American Samoa. 4 pp. and maps. Unpublished.
Thomas, W.J. (1988). Fagatele Bay: a sanctuary in Samoa. Oceanus 31: 18-24
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wass, R.C. (1978). Fagatele Bay reef front and flat: list of species recorded along reef front on
September 25, 1978 and along reef flats on February 15, 1978. Office of Marine Resources,
American Samoa Government. Unpublished.
Date June 1985, reviewed October 1989
ROSE ATOLL NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location 241.5km east-south-east of Pago Pago Harbour, Tutuila Island,
American Samoa. The boundary is defined by the extreme low waterline outside the perimeter
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of the reef except at the entrance channel, where the boundary is a line extended between the
extreme low water lines on each side of the entrance channel. 14°32’-14°34’S, 168°08’-168°10’W
Date and History of Establishment 5 July 1973. Originally reserved in the 1960s as an "Island
for Science" under the International Biological Programme.
Area 650ha. Rose Island is 7.29ha with a 1km shoreline; Sand Island is 0.81ha with a 0.5km
shoreline.
Land Tenure US Federal government
Altitude Rose Island rises to 3.1m above sea level and Sand Island to 5.2m above sea level. The
lagoon is 7-8 fathoms deep.
Physical Features Rose Atoll was formed in the late Pleistocene on a volcanic basement and
consists of two low sandy islands on a coralline algae reef that nearly encloses a 2,000m wide
lagoon. A single channel 1.8m to 15m deep links the lagoon to the sea. The emerged reef remnants
indicate about a 1.5m drop in sea level since they were formed. The surface of Sand Island and
the base part of Rose Island are apparently composed of unaltered or slightly altered limestone
debris, largely algal in origin, which is considered to be a Fusi soil type. The soil within the
Pisonia grove on Rose Island is quite distinct, comprising a rich humus of considerable depth in
the south, overlying intermediate horizons and calcium carbonate bedrock. Other features include
reef fronts, reef flats, lagoon pinnacles and sandy lagoon floors. No surface fresh water is present
(Amerson et al., 1982).
Climate Information specific to Rose Atoll is not available. The general climate for the country
is characterised by mean monthly temperatures of 18°C, no winter season and abundant rainfall
that exceeds annual evaporation (Amerson et al., 1982).
Vegetation Rose Island, the only vegetated island in the atoll, has the least and simplest
vegetation of any island in American Samoa. The flora consists of only seven species and two
plant communities, namely sand strand and littoral forest. The littoral forest is the best example
of a Pisonia grandis subcommunity in American Samoa, where it forms dominant dense stands
of trees up to 21m high. The density averages 16.1 trees per 100 sq.m with no ground cover. A
certain amount of dieback was noted in the early 1970s but this had been reversed by 1976. There
are scattered Messerschmidia argentea trees to the north. The sand strand vegetation is dominated
by Boerhavia tetrandra and Portulaca lutea. The simple floral composition may be the result of
the unusually high concentrations of water-soluble salts in the soil (Amerson, 1982).
Fauna Some 97% of the total seabird population of American Samoa is resident on Rose Atoll.
Sooty tern Sterna fuscata, confined to Rose Atoll, comprises more than 85% of the entire seabird
population of American Samoa. In total 20 species of birds have been recorded; 13 are native
resident breeders (12 seabirds and one marsh bird) and 7 are migrants (6 shore birds and 1 land
bird). The large nesting colonies of seabirds consist of great frigate Fregata minor and lesser
frigate bird F. ariel, red-footed booby Sula sula, brown booby S. leucogaster and blue-faced
booby S. dactylatra, red-tailed tropicbird Phaeton rubricauda, white tern Gygis alba, sooty tern
Sterna fuscata, black-naped tern Sterna sumatrana and grey-backed tern S. lunata, and brown
booby Anous stolidus and black noddy A. tenuirostris. Reef heron Egretta sacra nest in the
hollowed bases of Pisonia trees (Amerson et al., 1982). Migratory shore birds include American
golden plover Pluvialis dominica, bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis (R), wandering
tattler Heteroscelus incanus, ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres and sanderling Calidris alba.
White-tailed tropicbird Phaethon lepturus and long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo have also been
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American Samoa
recorded (US-FWS, n.d.). The only terrestrial mammal is Polynesian rat Rattus exulans, living
primarily in the Pisonia forest and the Messerschmidia shrubs. Only four species of reptile are
known, with two geckoes from Rose Island. Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) and
green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) nest on both islands. Over 100 fish species have been recorded
(Wass, n.d. a and b). The lagoon fish fauna is similar to that of the rest of the Samoan Islands,
although there is a lack of damselfish species and biomass within the lagoon, and relatively few
herbivorous fish. The abundance of carnivorous fish is high, possibly due to a lack of fishing
pressure. The fish fauna of the reef front has a low diversity compared with other reef fronts
around Tutuila. Surveys in early 1987 indicated little change in the reef fish community over the
previous six or seven years (Itano, 1987). Giant clam Tridacna maxima (K) is present throughout
the shallow areas of the lagoon; in 1980 about 10% of the population was dead (Wass, n.d. c).
There is an abundant and diverse coral fauna which is briefly described in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Cultural Heritage Rose Atoll was discovered and named by Louis de Freycint on 21 October
1819. The first recorded landing was made by the US Exploring Expedition under Commander
Charles Wilkes aboard the Vincennes in October 1839 (US-FWS, n.d.).
Local Human Population There is no resident population and the atoll has never been inhabited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are no facilities. The number of visitors permitted to camp
on either island is regulated to a maximum of six on Rose Island and two on Sand Island. Group
size is limited to a maximum of ten individuals during the day on Rose Island and six on Sand
Island. Access requires a boat chartered from Pago Pago (Wass, 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities Limited presently to annual resource surveys by US Fish
and Wildlife Service and American Samoan Government personnel, and a study on giant clams
to determine a management strategy. These surveys include coverage of both the outer reef and
lagoon as well as of the terrestrial biota of the islands. The atoll has considerable scientific and
educational value and has been visited by school teachers from the American Samoan
Department of Education (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). A summary of information on Rose Atoll is
given by Sachet (1954).
Conservation Value The refuge was established to preserve the native land and marine
fauna and flora for scientific study, environmental education, and to protect aesthetic values
(US-FWS, n.d.).
Conservation Management It is prohibited for any person to hunt any bird of any kind, or take
eggs, unless specifically authorised by the Territorial Government and the refuge manager.
Turtles are strictly protected, the hawksbill turtle additionally enjoying protection under the
provisions of the 1973 Endangered Species Act. A public use policy statement stipulates a
number of prohibited activities, as follows: all activities conducted within the refuge must be
coordinated through the refuge manager and generally require the issue of a special use permit.
Such permits are only issued for activities beneficial to fish and wildlife resources and the
management of the refuge. Fishing is permitted within the refuge but the catch must be consumed
on site or released, and not transported for personal consumption or sale. No Tridacna clams
may be collected without a permit, and no waste, oil or pollutants may be dumped, spilled or
pumped within the refuge. Particular care must be taken to prevent the accidental introduction
of flora or fauna and camping on the beaches is prohibited during the October to November green
turtle nesting season.
The atoll is managed cooperatively by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the American
Samoan Government (US-FWS, 1985). In 1976 staff members of the Office of Marine Resources
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of the Government of American Samoa were designated as US Fish and Wildlife Service game
wardens; this action was taken to control entry to Rose Atoll. The atoll is entirely zoned as a
strict natural area.
Management Constraints The atoll is very largely undisturbed except for a concrete marker
and a US Fish and Wildlife Service refuge sign. Coconut Cocos nucifera were introduced in
1900, although they have not thrived and do not pose a threat to the native flora (Amerson et al.,
1982). Introduced Polynesian rat Rattus exulans feed on seeds, bird eggs and perhaps birds and
their young. Their population was estimated at 200-300 in 1975-78. There is little direct evidence
of rat predation on birds, their young or on hatchling turtles. Indeed, observations show that four
species of shorebird are largely responsible for most egg damage (Amerson et al., 1982).
Staff None
Budget Approximately US$ 527,000 for refuge complex administration, protection, natural
science studies, interpretation and maintenance budgeted for fiscal year 1981.
Local Addresses Hawaiian Islands and Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex, PO
Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA
References
Amerson, A.B., Whistler, W.A., and Schwaner, T.D. (1982). Wildlife and wildlife habitat of
American Samoa. 1. Environment and ecology. US Department of the Interior Fish and
Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
Anon (n.d.). Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, American Samoa. US Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1 pp.
Itano, D. (1987). Rose Atoll trip —1-87. Unpublished report. 7 pp.
Sachet, M.H. (1954). A summary of information on Rose Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin 29.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
US-FWS (n.d.). Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge: American Samoa. US Fish and Wildlife
Service, Honolulu, Hawaii. 1 pp.
US-FWS (1985). Hawaiian and Pacific Island National Wildlife Refuges. Brochure. US Fish and
Wildlife Service, Honolulu, Hawaii. 1 pp.
Wass, R.C. (n.d. a). The fishes of Rose Atoll — supplement I. Unpublished report. 11 pp.
Wass, R.C. (n.d. b). The fishes of Rose Atoll. Unpublished report. 10 pp.
Wass, R.C. (n.d. c). The Tridacna clams of Rose Atoll. Unpublished report. (Unseen).
Date June 1985, reviewed October 1989
300
USA - GUAM
Area 541 sq. km (marine area 218,000 sq. km)
Population 120,000 (1990 estimate) Natural increase: No information
GNP US$ 19,197 per capita (USA)
Policy and Legislation Guam’s constitutional status is that of an unincorporated territory of the
United States of America; military authorities control about one-third of the island.
The policy on natural resources is that areas important for recreation, and critical marine and
wildlife habitats, "shall be protected through policies and programmes affecting such resources"
(Anon., 1985). Areas managed by the Government of Guam are protected by the provisions of
Public Law No. 12-209 as either natural preserves or as conservation reserves. Natural preserves
are intended to remain unimproved, while conservation reserves may be managed for the purpose
of making them accessible to the public "in a manner consistent with the perpetuation of their
natural features". Multiple-use management or recreation areas (national historic parks and
seashore parks) are created to protect outstanding marine life, terrestrial wildlife, oceanic
Tesources, scenery and cultural heritage, including landscapes resulting from World War II
(Anon., 1985). New protected areas of Government of Guam ownership are added by legislative
or administrative action of the Department of Parks and Recreation.
The Federal Government also administers a number of ecological reserve areas (research natural
areas), which were established on 13 March 1984 by the Chief of Naval Operations, United States
Navy as physical or biological units in which current natural conditions are maintained. There
is no direct legislative protection afforded to such areas, which are established and managed by
virtue of administrative procedures of the appropriate land-holding agency. The US Air Force
has also established a natural area, in 1973, and is responsible for its management. In addition,
Federal Public Law No. 95-348 (1978) created War in the Pacific National Historical Park.
Other relevant legislation specific to conservation in Guam includes the Forestry and
Conservation Laws, Territorial Seashore Act, as well as a number of US federal legislative acts.
There are several relevant Executive Orders signed by the Governor of Guam, including one on
the Protection of Wetlands (Anon., 1985) and Executive Order No 87-36, which established
Anao Conservation Area.
International Activities At the international level, the United States has entered into a number
of obligations and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is party to the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 7 December 1973. The United States became a contracting
party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(Ramsar Convention) on 18 December 1986, although no sites in Guam are included in the List
of Wetlands of International Importance established under the terms of the Convention. The
United States participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. To date, 46
biosphere reserves have been declared as part of the international biosphere reserve network, but
none is located in Guam.
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
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Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and
the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986) but not ratified. The
convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all
appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora
and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to
have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open
ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation
of marine species.
Administration and Management The Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for
the Guam Territorial Park System, which includes three protected areas (Guam Territorial
Seashore Park, Masso River Reservoir Area and Anao Conservation Area).
The development and management of Guam Territorial Seashore Park is divided among several
agencies: the Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for coordination, planning,
facility maintenance, outdoor recreation, historic preservation and scenic resources; the
Department of Agriculture is responsible for wildlife, marine resources, forestry, fire prevention
and soil resources; the Department of Land Management is responsible for leases and land
registration and the Guam Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA) is responsible for water,
air pollution and solid waste disposal (Anon., 1985). The Division of Forestry and Soil Resources
has responsibility for development, management and protection of forests and watershed
resource lands, whilst the US National Park Service is responsible for the management and
development of National Park Service areas which are federal protected lands. Federal protected
areas are also administered by the US Navy and US Air Force (Anon., 1985).
Systems Reviews Guam is the westernmost territory of the United States and has the finest deep
water harbour between Hawaii and the Philippines. With its strategic location and harbour, it can
be expected to assume a growing importance for American military and trade activities in the
western Pacific (Anon., 1986).
Guam is also the largest and southernmost island of the Marianas Archipelago in the Pacific
Ocean, and has been ranked as one of the most important islands for conservation in the South
Pacific (Dahl, 1986). Rain forest originally covered most of the island but much has been logged
and cleared for development. The mixed forests on old volcanic soils have been completely
destroyed, whilst ravine forests survive along river valleys and on some volcanic and limestone
hillslopes. There are also still some small areas of mangrove (Davis et al., 1986). Extensive urban
development around the island, clearance of land for tourism-related facilities and centuries of
slash and burn agriculture have also been responsible for the destruction of natural vegetation
cover (Maragos, 1985; Dahl, 1986). Burning of vegetation is also a major issue, particularly in
the south where ensuing erosion exacerbates the problem. Guam has the highest incidence of
wildfire arson in the US. Other fires are deliberately set for refuse disposal, game flushing and
to stimulate grass regrowth to attract game. Public laws 18-29 and 19-34 Section 28 specifically
address the problem of fires and their prevention (Anon., 1989) but enforcement is weak.
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Guam
Most coral reefs are fringing, although there are two barrier reef lagoons, namely Apra Harbour,
which is now extensively modified, and Cocos Lagoon in the south-west. These, and other reefs,
are discussed in more detail in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The principal threats to coral reefs are
dredging and sedimentation, fertiliser run-off, thermal and other types of water pollution.
The introduced brown tree snake Boiga irregularis has been implicated in the widespread and
severe decline of native bird species, a number of which are now restricted to the northern part
of Guam (Arnett, 1983; Carey, 1988). Consequently, some of the most important areas for
conservation are the northern cliffs and north-western plateau habitats.
The biggest threat to the environment is unregulated development, most of which is geared
towards tourism and its related infrastructure. Guam is presently undergoing a heavy construction
phase, almost all of which is funded by capital originating from outside the territory. There is
some concern amongst those public agencies with responsibilities for environmental issues that
this expansion is damaging natural resources. Permits are required for earthmoving and tree
felling and mandatory mitigative measures may be imposed by the Government, but rarely
enforced (SPREP, 1989). Furthermore, various "development", "master" and "management"
plans have been developed for all or part of Guam, and several of these have included provision
for nature conservation (SPREP, 1985a). However, none of these is followed and most are an
exercise in paperwork (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990).
An action strategy for the development of protected areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP,
1985b), developed by field managers in the region at the technical session of the Third South
Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference, provides a work programme to implement
conservation and protected areas objectives. Priority recommendations for Guam are: toestablish
the Hilaan area as a protected area; to conduct a multimedia public education programme on the
need for further protected areas; to develop tourism programmes to give emphasis to parks and
protected areas; to complete a survey of proposed protected areas; and to facilitate the exchange
of management and resources information, particularly with the Northern Marianas. All these
measures have been initiated to some degree, although very little progress has been achieved
(D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990).
Addresses
Department of Parks and Recreation, 490 Chalan Palasyo Road, Agana Heights, Guam 96919
US National Park Service, War in the Pacific NHP, Marine Drive, Asan, PO Box FA, Agana,
Guam 96910
Guam Aquatic and Resource Wildlife Division, Fish and Wildlife Service, PO Box 23367,
GAMF, Guam MI 96921
Department of the Navy, US Naval Station, FPO San Francisco 96630-100
Department of the Air Force, Headquarters 633D, Air Base Wing (PACAF), APO San Francisco
96334-5000
References
Anon. (1986). Guam Annual Economic Review, Guam Department of Commerce. (Unseen).
Amett, G.R. (1983). Proposed endangered status for seven birds and two mammals from the
Mariana Islands. Federal Register 48 (230): 53729-53733.
Carey, J. (1988). Massacre on Guam. National Wildlife 26(5): 13-15.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Davis, $.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? TUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Maragos, J.E. (1985). Coastal resources development and management in the US Pacific Islands.
Report to US Congress Office of Technology Assessment. Unpublished. 130 pp.
Randall, R.H. and Holloman, J. (1974). Coastal Survey of Guam. University of Guam Marine
Technical Report 14. 404 pp.
SPREP (1980). Country Report 6: Guam. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.
SPREP (1985a). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 93-114.
SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). Guam. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Public Law No. 12-209
Date: No information
Brief description: Provides for the establishment of protected areas by the Government of
Guam
Administrative authority: Department of Parks and Recreation
Designations:
Natural preserve
Conservation reserve
Territorial park
Community park
Recreational facilities (= national historic park, seashore park)
Title: Public Law No. 95-348
Date: 18 August 1978
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Guam
Brief description: Provided for the establishment of the War in the Pacific National
Historical Park
Administrative authority: US National Park Service
Designations: War in the Pacific National Historical Park
Title: Public Law No. 16-62
Date: 9 February 1982
Brief description: An act to amend sections 26003(g), 26007, 26009(b), to add Articles
VI, VII, VIII and IX of Chapter IV, Title XIII all of Government Code, relative to forestry
and conservation programs of the Department of Agriculture.
Administrative authority: Department of Parks and Recreation
Designations:
Conservation reserve The Department, in cooperation with the Department of Parks and
Recreation, shall control and manage lands and water areas that have been set aside by the
government of Guam as conservation reserves. Such control and management shall have as
its objectives, the wise use of the soil, water, plants and animals of the reserves. Consistent
with this objective, the Director, with the concurrence of the Director of the Department of
Parks and Recreation, may establish and enforce rules for economic use.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
i
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
ee on ee eee eee ee
Ecological Reserve Areas
1 Haputo* IV 102 1984
2 Orote Peninsula* IV 66 1984
Natural Reserves
3 Masso River Reservoir Area* IV 67 1976
Natural Areas
4 Pati Point* IV 112 1973
Conservation Reserves
5 Anao* IV 263 1953
6 Bolanos (Chalan Palii) Vill 365
Cotal Vill 223
8 Schroeder Vill 552
9 Y-Piga Vill 45
Territorial Seashore Parks
10 Guam Territorial Seashore Park* Vill 6,135 1978
National Historic Parks
11 War in the Pacific* Vv 779 1978
i
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
306
Guam
Data source : Departrent of Parks and Recreation,
490 Chalen Palasyo Road,
Agana Heights, Agana, Cuan 96910
National Park Service (1988).
War in the Pacific: Statanent
For Managerent.
SPREP =) Cuan. In: Tharas, P.E.J.
(Ed.), Report of the Third South
Coes tional Parks and
Reserves Conference. Yolure [11 .Country
Reviews. South Pacific Cann ssion,
Nourea, New Caledonia. Pp. 93-114.
Protected dreas
PROJECTION : MERCATOR
voaco covseavation <s Date Printed ; April 1991
MOWITORIVC CEvTRE
Protected Areas of Guam
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
ANAO CONSERVATION RESERVE
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Located in north-west Guam in the Municipality of Yigo. Pati Point
Natural Area is adjacent to the north. Approximately 13°32’N, 144°56’E
Date and History of Establishment 1953
Area 263ha
Land Tenure Government of Guam
Altitude Rises from sea level to 161m
Physical Features The reserve rises from the eastern boundary at the coast to 161m above sea
level at the top of the rugged limestone plateau cliffs. A coral reef abuts the ocean (SPREP, 1985).
Climate No information
Vegetation Vegetation communities comprise beach strand and limestone forest. Prominent
species in the beach strand are coconut palm Cocos nucifera, ironwood Casuarina equisetifolia,
nigas Pemphis acidula, beach morning glory Ipomoea pes-caprae, nanaso Scaerola taccada, and
beach sunflower Wedelia biflora. Species in the limestone forest include federico Cycas
circinalis, screw pine Pandanus fragrans, gulos Cyhometra ramiflora, fagot Neisosperma
oppositifolia, kahlao Phymatodes scolopendria, ifil Intsia bijuga, and the scarce and locally
threatened Seriathes nelsonii (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Mammals include Guam deer Cervus sp. and Marianas fruit bat Pteropus mariannus (E).
Birds present include Guam rail Gallirallus owstoni (E), Micronesian kingfisher Halcyon
cinnamomina, Marianas fruit dove Ptilinopus roseicapilla (R), white-throated ground dove
Gallicolumba xanthoura, Guam flycatcher Myiagra freycineti (R), bridled white-eye Zosterops
conspicillata, cardinal honey-eater Myzomela cardinalis and Marianas crow Corvus kubaryi (R).
Notable reptiles include monitor lizard Varanus indicus (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage Contains the site of the old Chamorro village of Mati. Remains include black
midden areas, rock shelters and pottery sherds (SPREP., 1985).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is one hiking trail (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990).
Scientific Research and Facilities None at present
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management The area is managed jointly by the Department of Parks and
Recreation and the Department of Agriculture to make the area accessible to the public (currently
by foot trail) while preserving the natural features (SPREP, 1985).
Management Constraints Illegal hunting, fishing and cutting of trees (SPREP, 1985).
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Guam
Staff None exclusively for the reserve
Budget None exclusively for the reserve
Local Addresses Department of Parks and Recreation, 490 Chalan Palasyo Road, Agana
Heights, Guam 96919
References
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 95-96.
Date December 1989
GUAM TERRITORIAL SEASHORE PARK
IUCN Management Category VII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location The park covers an extensive but irregularly patterned area in the
south-west of Guam, with park areas interspersed with non-park private land. It includes a
contiguous stretch of coastline from Anae Island and Patch Reef, 1km off shore south of Nimitz
Beach Park in the west, southwards to include twenty-two acres (8.9ha) of Cocos Island and all
of the Lagoon, and east to include a portion of Ajayan Bay, just north of Manell Channel. The
area includes Cetti Bay on the south-west coast between Sella and Fouha bays (UNEP/IUCN,
1988). 13°13’-13°25’N, 144°38’-144°44’E
Date and History of Establishment Guam Territorial Seashore Park was established on
12 December 1978 under Executive Order No. 78-42, and is designed to protect the wildlife,
marine life and other oceanic resources and natural environment of south-west Guam. Some
portions have been protected since 1953.
Area The site covers 3,596ha of land and 2,539ha of coast and sea.
Land Tenure Government of Guam. Some areas are claimed by individuals and others are
leased. Cocos Lagoon and one-third of Cocos Island are owned by the Government of Guam;
the remaining two-thirds of the island (not within the park) is privately owned.
Altitude —18.3m to 396m
Physical Features The southern half of the island is largely volcanic in origin, comprising a
series of hills reaching up to nearly 400m and extending along the west side of the island. The
general physical character of the area is determined by volcanic activity modified by limestone
deposits and subsequently cut by erosion. The land area is divisible into three major types —
dissected volcanic uplands, the interior basin, and the coastal lowlands and valley floors. The
coastal areas are of two zonations — the south-west coast and the Cocos Lagoon to Ajayan Bay
area. Anae Island is the only one of the eight islets on the south-west coast which is not associated
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with a fringing coral reef. The western and northern sides of the island and patch reefs slope
steeply to a 30m-deep terrace, while the eastern and southern sides consist of a gently sloping
terrace 3m-8m deep. In these protected waters, large coral mounds, pinnacles and ridges, 6m-8m
high, are separated by sandy floored channels (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Cetti Bay, described by
Randall and Holloman (1974), is surrounded by steep slopes and sandy beaches. The shoreline
consists of rocky volcanic headlands with steep shorelines, bordered by low-lying narrow
limestone terraces. Silt content is high and visibility low in the inner bay, but visibility is good
in other areas.
Cocos Barrier Reef and Lagoon comprises a triangular barrier reef (7.2 sq. km), lagoon and
associated islands. The area has been divided into three biotopes. The terrestrial biotope includes
Cocos Island and a small sand islet at its eastern end, Babe Island, with the landward border
along Cocos Lagoon. This consists of a narrow fringing reef, an intertidal zone dotted with
mangrove patches and seagrasses. A second biotope consists of the deep Mamaon and Manell
Channels and a third includes the lagoon, barrier reef-flat platform and fringing reef-flat
platforms. The barrier reefs are nearly 5km long on the north-west side, 5-6km long on the south
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
The fringing reef platform bordering most of the south-east shoreline is completely cut by the
Ajayan River, forming a small estuary with moderate alluvial silt deposition at the river mouth.
A small islet, Agrigan Island, is located on the south-west reef flat. The channel is characterised
by progressively steeper fringing reef walls seaward to approximately 18m in depth. The floor
of the channel grades from a silt-mud zone to sand approximately midway out. Water visibility
improves seaward. The reef flats are wide and largely covered by seagrass beds. Coral cover on
the reefs of Cocos Barrier Reef and Lagoon is variably dense, based on differing degrees of
reef-flat exposure. In general, there is an increase in coral cover and diversity from the seaward
side to the lagoon side (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Climate Tropical warm and humid throughout the year. Two well-defined seasons occur: a dry
season from January to May and a wet season from July to October. Annual mean temperature
for 1981 was 25.9°C. The coolest months are January, February and March and the warmest
months are May and June. Mean annual rainfall is 2286mm.
Vegetation The area encompassed by the park includes almost every major type of habitat found
on Guam and is representative of all the southern islands of the Marianas. The southern half of
the island has several vegetational zones. The volcanic upland savanna grasslands are dominated
by swordgrass Miscanthus floridulus and scattered Casuarina trees, along with Pennisetum
polystachyon, Lycopodium carnum and the threatened tree fern Cyathea lunulata (Anon., 1985).
This eroded savanna habitat is thought to be the result of repeated burning. The forested ravines,
river valleys and forest patches on the limestone caps of volcanic uplands are characterised by
betel palm Areca catechu but include a variety of trees, such as banyans Ficus benghalensis,
screw-pine Pandanus kirkii and breadfruit Artocarpus altilis, with a lush undergrowth
component. Apart from a couple of mangrove areas, the coast is largely dominated by coconut
Cocus nucifera which sometimes extends up the river valleys. Associated species include
Messerachnidia argentea, Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae (Anon., 1985). The
mangrove swamp is situated between Merizo and the Suyafe River and has Rhizophora,
Bruguiera and Lumnitzera components. The coastal area is important for its seagrass Enhalus
acoroides concentrations which are to be found off the northern end, to the south of Taleyfac
Bay and again near the Ajayan river. Some 90 species of marine plants have been recorded
(Eldredge, 1979; UNEP/TUCN, 1988).
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Guam
Fauna The majority of the native land birds are confined to the north of the island, but some
are found in the park. Cocos Island has number of nesting seabirds including white tern Gygis
alba, brown noddy Anous stolidus, Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca and Pacific reef heron
Egretta sacra all of which are rare or no longer breed on the mainland due to predation by the
introduced brown tree snake Boiga irregularis. The island also harbours several species of skink
and geckoes that do not occur elsewhere in Guam (G. Wiles, pers. comm., 1990). Other species
may include Vanikoro swiftlet Collocalia vanikorensis, white-tailed tropic bird Phaeton
lepturus, brown booby Sula leucogaster and reef heron Demiguetta sacra (Anon., 1985;
UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Marianas fruit bat Pteropus mariannus (V) apparently occurs in the area
(Anon., 1985). The most important conservation areas of the site are on the coast and in particular
around Cocos Lagoon. This is a very rich marine system due to its high diversity and wide range
of habitats. The coral communities are scattered throughout the length of the south-west reef flat
and are usually restricted to holes, depressions and margins. Cocos Lagoon contains one of the
most diverse coral communities on Guam (dominated by Porites) but within the lagoon their
distribution is patchy. Some 159 species of coral have been found, 58 species of gastropods, 49
species of bivalves and 40 species of echinoderms. In the lagoon itself some 267 species of fish
have been identified out of a total of 276 for southern Guam. Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys
imbricata (E) and green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) have been observed and the latter breeds.
Porpoises are regularly seen but dugong Dugong dugon (V) was last sighted in 1974
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Cultural Heritage The park is rich in prehistoric cultural resources. There are numerous ruins
of forts and stone bridges dating from the Spanish period, as well as World War Tworelics, such
as Japanese Zero aircraft (Anon., 1985).
Local Human Population Three villages exist adjacent to the park with a total population in
1980 of 895 people (Anon., 1985). The local economy is based on tourism, agriculture and
employment by the state (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are plans for a full range of interpretive facilities and under
the General Development Plan there are moves to promote recreational use in accordance with
the Land Classification Plan. There are also plans for intertidal reef flat nature trails and a
management plan is proposed for the park in accordance with the appropriate recreation category.
Overnight accommodation is being established in a major resort development on Cocos Island.
At present there are three boat launching sites, with the main site being Merizo Pier Park. Cocos
Lagoon is used for organised (Marianas Yacht Club) and individual water sports including both
motor and sail boat races, diving, snorkelling, water-skiing and fishing (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities Several marine biota studies have been carried out in the
Nimitz Channel, the Taleyfac Bay region, at Sella Bay, Fouha Bay, Umatac and Toguan Bay.
Shellfish and sea urchins studies were conducted in 1978 and the Division of Aquatic Wildlife
Resources carries out inshore creek censuses and periodic offshore aerial surveillance
programmes. Two artificial reefs have been constructed to investigate improved lagoon
management techniques (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Hunting, shelling, fishing, ranching, boating and outdoor
recreation activities are permitted. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency water quality
rating for most of this area is "A", recreational, but for Anae Island and Patch Reef and for Cetti
Bay is "AA", conservation. There are three Natural Landmarks within the Park: Faha Point, Mt
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Lamlam and Facpi Point (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The area between Facpi Point and Fort Santo
Angel and Cocos Lagoon separately have been proposed as national marine sanctuaries under
the Coastal Zone Management Act (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1987). The Master Plan was adopted
in 1979 and encourages multiple use (Anon., 1985). The US Army Corps of Engineers (1983)
has reviewed planning and the management of the entire area. The Department of Parks and
Recreation is responsible for coordination, planning, facility maintenance, outdoor recreation,
historic preservation and scenic resources. The Department of Agriculture is responsible for
leases and land registration. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for water
and air pollution and solid waste. All agencies have active programs in the park in their area of
responsibility (Anon., 1985). Governmental lands are generally semi-natural without
management, whilst private areas are scattered and sparsely populated and include old plantations
and agricultural holdings.
Stojkovich (1977, quoted in UNEP/IUCN, 1988) gives a list of recommendations for the Cocos
Lagoon area which include prohibiting fishing, coral harvesting and shell collecting within the
proposed sanctuary except by special permit; the GEPA water quality classification to be changed
from "A" recreation to "AA" conservation; the establishment of an upper limit on the number
and type of point source discharges into Mamaon and Manell Channels; recreational activities
to be retained but strictly controlled; the establishment of an upper limit on the number of
transport boats and persons using the area at any given time; the establishment of the entire Cocos
area as a marine underwater park with trails and basic information on the geology, physiography
and biota; the placement of artificial reefs and fish traps for scientific and maricultural purposes
to be allowed with issue of a special permit; and strict litter laws to be implemented especially
for waste cans (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Stojkovich also recommended that Ajayan Bay, Anae
Island, and Cetti Bay be established as natural sanctuaries in which no coral harvesting be
allowed; that fishing be allowed only by special permit; that swimming, snorkelling and SCUBA
diving activities be retained; that special care be taken to preserve the seagrass beds and that the
adjacent wetlands be included in any preservation plan. Mooring buoys should be established
and underwater trails developed. A number of these recommendations have been taken care of
in the course of developing the park (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Management Constraints There have been large-scale introductions of flora (300 species),
avifauna (7 species) and mammals (5 species). The accidentally-introduced brown tree snake
Boiga irregularis is a major suspect in the drastic decline of the native fauna. Other introduced
fauna include feral cats, dogs, pigs, rats and a south-east Asian elk. The sponge Terpios was
overgrowing corals at Anae Island at a rapid rate in the early 1970s and its growth rate was
monitored. The increasing popularity of the Merizo coast and of Cocos Island, as a full-time
fishing and tourist operation, could be a threat. Shell populations have been depleted by
collectors, especially popular species such as Cassis cornuta. There is some illegal fishing with
dynamite and bleach (Anon., 1985). However, there was little change between 1975 and 1982
although there had been a substantial increase in tourism in the area (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). There
have also been major pollution and litter problems, as well as major threats from agricultural
encroachment (SPREP, 1985).
Staff One park manager and two ground workers (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990)
Budget US$ 71,133 for the fiscal year 1990 (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990)
Local Addresses Department of Parks and Recreation, 490 Chalan Palasyo Road, Agana
Heights, Guam 96919
312
References
Anon. (1967). A Master Plan for Guam National Seashore. US Department of Interior. National
Park Service.
Eldredge, L.G. (1979). Marine biological resources within the Guam seashore study area and
the War in the Pacific National Historical Park. University of Guam Marine Laboratory.
Technical Report No. 57.
Jenkins, J.M. (1983). The Native Forest Birds of Guam. Ornithological Monographs No. 31. The
American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington DC.
Randall, R.H. and Holloman, J. (1974). Coastal survey of Guam. University of Guam Marine
Laboratory Marine Technical Report 14. 404 pp. (Unseen).
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 93-114.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Wheeler, M.E. and Aguon, C.R. (1978). The Current Status and distribution of the Marianas
fruit bat on Guam. Aquatic and Wildlife Resources Division Technical Report No. 1.
Date August 1987, revised December 1989, February 1990
HAPUTO ECOLOGICAL RESERVE AREA
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Located in the Naval Communication Area Master Station, in the
Finegayan area of Dededo municipality, approximately 8km north of the town of Dededo, on
the north-west coast of Guam. Approximately 13°35’N, 144°50’E
Date and History of Establishment Established by the Chief of Naval Operations, United
States Navy on 13 March 1984. Authority for the establishment of the area is drawn from HR
6502 (National Heritage Policy Act 1979); FR Vol.40, No. 38 (Federal Committee on Ecological
Reserves); 36 CFR 251.23 (Experimental areas and research natural areas); OPNAVINST
5090.1, Chapter 15, paragraph 15304 (5/26/83) — Ecological Reserves; and NAVFAC P-73, Real
Estate Procedural Manual, Chapter 17, pp. 14-15 — Ecological Reserves (NFEC, 1986). A legal
description and geographical definition is given in NFEC (1986).
Area 102 ha, of which 73ha are land and 29ha are water
Land Tenure The entire area is owned by the United States Navy.
Altitude From sea level to 122m
Physical Features The offshore double reef and the adjacent coastline abutting the coral reef
constitutes the marine area. The shoreline consists of rocky limestone cliffs with two sandy beach
coves. Haputo Beach lies in a small embayment, bordered by cut benches and rocky slopes on
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
both the north and south sides, and is described by Randall and Holloman (1974). Double Reef
consists of a narrow fringing reef and adjacent patch reef (Pugua) about 350m off shore.
Freshwater springs are abundant on the reef flat. Inland, the topography rapidly rises to the top
of the limestone cliffs (SPREP, 1985).
Climate No information
Vegetation The offshore area is covered by sand and limestone rock with a wide variety of
corals and algae. On the land, limestone forest predominates with coconut palm Cocos nucifera,
screw pine Pandanus fragrans, hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus, chopa Mannea oderata, bamboo
Bamba vulgaris, limeberry Triphasia trifolia, fish-kill tree Barringtonia asiatica, and federico
Cycas circinalis (SPREP, 1985). The reserve is a well-preserved example of the vegetation type
that formerly occurred extensively throughout the island (NFEC, 1986). Algal cover is also rich
and diverse. Further details are given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Fauna The area supports Marianas flying fox Pteropus mariannus (E), although possibly only
for feeding purposes, and Guam deer Cervus unicolor mariannus NFEC (1986). Land bird
populations were very low in 1986, but sea birds are better represented (NFEC, 1986). Species
include cardinal honey-eater Myzomela cardinalis, Marianas crow Corvus kubaryi, Micronesian
kingfisher Halcyon cinnamomina and white-throated ground dove Gallicolumba xanthonura
(SPREP, 1985). Brown tree snake Boiga irregularis, implicated in the widespread decline of
certain native birds, is probably present. The inshore reef area supports healthy and diverse
populations of reef community fish and associated invertebrates. Double Reef, included within
the reserve, is one of Guam’s few remaining examples of leeward fringing reef in good condition,
and provides a nursery for species of subsistence and commercial fishery value (NFEC, 1986).
The honeycomb structure of the outer reef flat at Double Reef and Haputo Beach has led to a
diverse and very abundant fish fauna, with 108 species recorded at the former and 21 at the latter
(Stojkovich, 1977).
Cultural Heritage The area contains archaeological remains of a Chamorro settlement
including a well, midden concentrations and rock shelters. The area also includes a World War
Two site, Tweed’s Cave, where the United States Navy radioman George Tweed hid from the
Japanese (SPREP, 1985).
Local Human Population The naval station has a population of 3,358 (SPREP, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is very popular for SCUBA diving, fishing and
photography (Stojkovich, 1977).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies have included Stojkovich (1977). There are no
facilities at present (SPREP, 1985).
Conservation Value The reserve was established as one of several mitigation measures which
the US Navy proposed in order to obtain approval from various Federal and Government of
Guam agencies for the construction of an ammunition wharf at Adotgan Point in outer Apra
Harbour. The reserve was also established to protect two separate biological units. The terrestrial
unit supports a remnant of native limestone forest and high cliffs which have the potential to
provide important habitat for native birds. The marine unit contains an excellent example of a
pristine coral community (NFEC, 1986).
Conservation Management A federal ecological reserve is defined as a physical or biological
unit in which current natural conditions are maintained insofar as possible. These conditions are
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Guam
ordinarily achieved by allowing natural physical processes to prevail without human
intervention. As a general rule such reserves should show no evidence of interference by man
during the previous 50 years.
Management responsibility ultimately rests with the Commanding Officer, Guam US Naval
Station, although the Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Pacific Division), US Fish and
Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Services, and the Division of Aquatic and Wildlife
Resources of the Department of Agriculture also have various management roles (NFEC, 1986).
Management recommendations (NFEC, 1986) include compilation of inventories of birds, other
terrestrial fauna, flora, marine resources and historic sites. The reserve is subject to strict control,
with entry by permit only. Permitted activities include recreational fishing, shell collecting and
non-consumptive uses such as snorkelling and bird-watching. Scientific research is subject to
formal authorisation by the Commanding Officer, US Naval Station, Guam (NFEC, 1986).
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget The funding of management activities is the responsibility of the Commanding Officer,
Naval Communications Area Master Station (NFEC, 1986).
Local Addresses Commanding Officer, Naval Communications Area Master Station, Western
Pacific, FPO San Francisco, CA 96630, USA
References
NFEC (1986). Management plan for the Haputo Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area. Naval
Facilities Engineering Command. 12 pp.
Randall, R.H. and Holloman, J. (1974). Coastal survey of Guam. University of Guam Marine
Laboratory Marine Technical Report 14. 404 pp. (Unseen)
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 93-114.
Stojkovich, J.O. (1977). Survey and Species Inventory of Representative Pristine Marine
Communities on Guam. Guam Coastal Management Program Technical Reports, Agana.
(Unseen).
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date December 1989, revised February 1990
MASSO RIVER RESERVOIR AREA
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
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Geographical Location Located within the US Naval Station, Piti. Approximately
13°27’N, 144°41’E
Date and History of Establishment 14 January 1976 by a cooperative agreement between the
Government of Guam and the US Navy for the conservation and management of fish and wildlife
resources (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990).
Area 67ha
Land Tenure United States Navy
Altitude Ranges from 10m above sea level at the north-western boundary to 76m in the
south-east (SPREP, 1985).
Physical Features Masso River Reservoir Area has variable terrain. The park contains three
basic physical features: a partially modified savannah community; a watershed system of two
streams flowing into Masso Reservoir, and Masso Reservoir which was built in the early 1900s
as a potable water resource. The reservoir dike extends 100m, raising the water level by 1.3m.
The dike is of concrete construction, with coral backfilling adjoining a steel sluice gate for water
run-off (SPREP, 1985).
Climate Data for the period 1945-1982 from Agana indicate a mean annual temperature of 30°C,
mean annual precipitation of 2249mm, mean relative humidity of 72-86% and generally easterly
prevailing winds. The rainy season normally begins in July and continues until November.
Tropical storms are frequent during this period, occasionally increasing in intensity to become
typhoons. January to May constitutes the dry season, and June and December are transitional.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation found within the ponding area is dominated by the reed
Phragmites karka in wet areas, and by Leucaena leucocephala on dry ground. Other principal
trees in the area include hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus, screw pine Pandanus fragrans, African tulip
Spathodea campanulata, ironwood Casuarina equitsetifolia, camachile Pithecellobium dulce,
and coconut palm Cocos nucifera (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Aquatic organisms found in the park area and its feeder streams are eels Anguilla
mormorata and A. bicolor, Chonophorus guamemsis, Microsicydium elegans, and Sicypeterus
macrostetholepis, an eleotrid Eleotris fusca, shrimps Atya sp., Cordina sp., and Macrobrodhium
las, tadpoles of Bufo marinas, and a variety of insect larvae and small invertebrates. In addition
to aquatic organisms, there are wild pig Sus scrofa and a variety of small rodents (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage The remnants of Masso Reservoir may have historical significance, since it
is one of the earliest known US Naval engineering structures The Masso area was also a primary
source of potable water in the early 1900s to the surrounding vicinity (SPREP, 1985).
Local Human Population Piti Village, where Masso River Reservoir area is situated, has a
population of 2,866 (SPREP, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Publications include the Department of Agriculture’s
“Aquatic and Wildlife Resources Annual Report Fiscal Year 1976 to 1982", Agana, Guam
(SPREP, 1985).
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Guam
Conservation Value Valued for the conservation and management of fish and wildlife
resources.
Conservation Management The park area is not presently incorporated in a master plan.
However, development and management are distributed among various agencies. The
Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for coordination, planning and facility
maintenance. The Department of Agriculture is responsible for promulgation of the fishing rules
and regulations (SPREP, 1985).
Management Constraints Include illegal fishing (D. Lotz, pers. comm., 1990)
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses Department of Parks and Recreation, 490 Chalan Palasyo Road, Agana
Heights, Guam 96919
References
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 103-104.
Date December 1989, revised February 1990
OROTE PENINSULA ECOLOGICAL RESERVE AREA
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location South-west tip of Orote Peninsula, in the Santa Rita municipality,
approximately 0.6km north-north-west of Apuntua Point, in western central Guam. The
boundary, which follows the cliff edge on the landward side and the 20 fathom (18.3m) depth
contour to seaward, is unmarked, and, in view of the inaccessible cliff area and the extremely
rugged shore, it is recommended that no attempt be made to identify the reserve more clearly
(NFEC, 1986). Approximately 13°26’N, 144°38’E
Date and History of Establishment Established by the Chief of Naval Operations, United
States Navy on 13 March 1984.
Area 66ha, of which 12.1ha is land and 53.8ha is sea
Land Tenure United States Navy
Altitude Ranges from a depth of —18.3m offshore to 61m.
Physical Features The terrestrial unit extends from the upper cliff line boundary to the mean
low water line and includes the limestone cliff face. The marine unit, comprising a submerged
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
limestone terrace, originates at the mean low water mark and extends to the 20 fathom (18.3m)
depth contour (US-FWS, 1988). The limestones drop vertically to the first submarine terrace at
15-20m depth, which is 20-45m wide. A second submarine cliff drops to a second terrace at
about 80m. The submerged terraces have tunnels and caves (Stojkovich, 1977)
Climate Data for the period 1945-1982 from Agana indicate a mean annual temperature of 30°C,
mean annual precipitation of 2249mm, mean relative humidity of 72-86% and generally easterly
prevailing winds. The wettest months are July to October, and August to November is
characterised by a higher than average incidence of tropical cyclones.
Vegetation The beach strand community is composed of nigas Pemphis acidula and nanaso
Scaevola taccada (SPREP, 1985). The terrestrial unit supports marginal stands of remnant native
limestone forest, varying from dense to sparse vegetative cover with little or no soil accumulation.
Specimens of Leucaena leucocephala observed in 1986 along the top of the Orote cliff appeared
to be dead in 1988, although closer examination revealed considerable re-growth. A plant species
list is provided in US-FWS (1986).
Fauna Five bird species were recorded in 1986 (US-FWS, 1986), viz. brown noddy Anous
stolidus, Philippine turtle dove Streptopelia bitorquata, wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus,
great frigatebird Fregata minor and short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris, but only the
first three species were observed in 1988 (US-FWS, 1988). Species seen flying above the reserve
included black francolin Francolinus francolinus, whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, lesser
golden-plover Pluvialis dominica, Philippine turtle-dove, black drongo Dicrurus macrocercus
and Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus. With the exception of the turtle dove, none is
expected to make use of the reserve (US-FWS, 1988). Common tern Sterna hirundo has also
been reported (SPREP, 1985).
Results of both the 1986 and 1988 surveys (US-FWS, 1986 and 1988) failed to detect the presence
of small mammals. Evidence from the 1940s and 1950s suggests that such taxa have been
abundant. Fruit bats are represented on Guam by a single species, Marianas fruit bat Pteropus
mariannus (E), restricted to a single colony on the north coast, but there is no evidence of their
presence in the reserve.
Reptiles and amphibians include house gecko Hemidactylus frenatus and mourning gecko
Lepidodactylus lugubris, abundant four-toed skink Carlia fusca and relatively uncommon
blue-tailed skink Emoia werneri. Monitor lizard Varanus indicus is present but not common.
Only one amphibian is known, giant toad Bufo marinus. There is some suggestion that snake
populations are increasing on Orote Peninsula. Brown tree snake Boiga irregularis, implicated
in the widespread decline of certain native birds, has not been recorded in the reserve for anumber
of years (US-FWS, 1988).
A total of 227 marine fish species was recorded in 1986 (US-FWS, 1986) but only 116 in 1988
(US-FWS, 1988), although there has been little qualitative change in the health of the fish
community. The discrepancy may be due to mistaken identification, less experienced staff, fewer
transects and samples and natural variation in abundance. The most common families in both
surveys were wrasses Labridae and damselfishes Pomacentridae, with 12 species, respectively.
Other well represented families include triggerfish Balistidae, surgeonfish Acanthuridae and
squirrelfish Holocentridae, each with seven species; and butterflyfish Chaetodontidae, jack
Carangidae and goatfish Mullidae, each with five species. The most abundant species in both
surveys were damselfish Chrysiptera leucopomus and Pomachromis guamensis and goby
Pogonoculius zebra (US-FWS, 1988). Species lists for marine algae and fauna recorded in the
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Guam
area are given in Stojkovich (1977). There is a relatively undisturbed coral and algal community
in the submerged area (NFEC, 1986). The upper slope and most of the terrace floor consists of
scattered small Pocillopora colonies. In more protected habitats around fallen blocks and larger
rubble, a much richer coral community is evident. Coral Pachyclavularia violacea was observed
in 1977 (Stojkovich, 1977). Results of a recent survey (US-FWS, 1988) indicate little or no
damage to coral colonies from typhoon storm damage, dynamite fishing or anchors.
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population The Naval Station has a population of 5,633 (SPREP, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies have included those by Stojkovich (1977) and
US-FWS (1986, 1988). A summary account is given in SPREP (1985). There are no facilities at
present (SPREP, 1985).
Conservation Value The reserve was established to protect two separate biological units. The
terrestrial unit supports a remnant of native limestone forest and cliffs which have the potential
to provide important habitat for native birds. The marine unit contains an excellent example of
a pristine coral community (NFEC, 1986).
Conservation Management A federal ecological reserve is defined as a physical or biological
unit in which current natural conditions are maintained insofar as possible. This is achieved by
allowing natural physical processes to prevail. As a general rule such reserves should show no
evidence of interference by man during the previous 50 years.
The reserve was established as one of several mitigation measures which the US Navy proposed
in order to obtain approval from various Federal and Government of Guam agencies for the
construction of an ammunition wharf at Adotgan Point in outer Apra Harbour. Authority for
the establishment of the area is drawn from HR 6502 (National Heritage Policy Act 1979);
FR Vol.40, No. 38 (Federal Committee on Ecological Reserves); 36 CFR 251.23 (Experimental
areas and research natural areas); OPNAVINST 5090.1, Chapter 15, paragraph 15304
(5/26/83) — Ecological Reserves; and NAVFAC P-73, Real Estate Procedural Manual,
Chapter 17, pp 14-15 — Ecological Reserves (NFEC, 1986). A legal description and geographical
definition is given in NFEC (1986).
A management plan has been prepared (NFEC, 1986) and responsibility ultimately rests with
the Commanding Officer, Guam US Naval Station, although the Naval Facilities Engineering
Command (Pacific Division), US Fish and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Services
and the Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources of the Department of Agriculture (DAWR)
also have various management roles (NFEC, 1986). Management recommendations (NFEC,
1986) include compilation of inventories of birds, other terrestrial fauna, flora, marine resources
and historic sites. The reserve is subject to strict control, with entry by permit only. Permitted
activities include recreational fishing, shell collecting and non-consumptive uses such as
snorkelling and bird-watching. Scientific research is subject to formal authorisation by the
Commanding Officer, US Naval Station, Guam (NFEC, 1986).
The original management and monitoring recommendations included annual crown-of-thorns
starfish Acanthaster planci infestation monitoring and quantitative surveys of coral and fish
communities. However, it has been suggested that a five-year cycle may be more cost effective,
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
and the establishment of a cooperative agreement between the Navy and the DAWR for routine
monitoring of marine resources within the reserve is recommended (US-FWS, 1988).
Management activities for the marine unit recommended in the US-FWS 1986 survey remain
valid, and include restricted collecting of live coral and invertebrates; increased patrolling and
banning of certain fishing techniques; prevention of excessive anchor damage; development of
interpretive material for all ERAs; halting the use of Apuntua Point beach as a dumping site; and
restricting dumping within the reserve. The terrestrial unit is biologically very simple and only
requires the prevention of disturbance as a management measure. Recommended management
includes the protection of the brown noddy colony, a survey of a former Navy dump, brown tree
snake control, provision of interpretation material and periodic sampling of terrestrial fauna
(US-FWS, 1988).
Management Constraints The reserve is of inadequate size to protect the land area (SPREP,
1985). A survey in 1988 (US-FWS, 1988) confirmed earlier findings (US-FWS, 1986) that
crown-of-thorns starfish is present but only at the level of one or two individuals. There is
evidence to suggest that local fishermen may have removed individual young clams
Tridacna spp. from the north of the reserve. A beach nearby is being used to dump rubbish, soil
etc. which has lead to reduced water clarity in its immediate vicinity.
Staff None
Budget The funding of management activities is the responsibility of the Commanding Officer,
Naval Communications Area Master Station (NFEC, 1986).
Local Addresses Commanding Officer, US Naval Station, Guam (NAVSTA Guam, San
Francisco, CA 96630, USA)
References
NFEC (1986). Management plan for the Orote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area. Naval
Facilities Engineering Command. 11 pp.
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 101-102.
Stojkovich, J.O. (1977). Survey and Species Inventory of Representative Pristine Marine
Communities on Guam. Guam Coastal Management Program Technical Reports, Agana.
(Unseen).
US-FWS (1986). Fish and wildlife resources of the Orote Ecological Reserve Area. Unpublished
report prepared for the Department of the Navy by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. 60 pp.
(Unseen).
US-FWS (1988). Fish and wildlife resources of the Orote Ecological Reserve Area, US Naval
Station, Guam (NAVSTA). First biennial resurvey June and August 1988. US-Fish and
Wildlife Service, Honolulu. Unpublished. 16 pp.
Date December 1989, revised February 1990, December 1990
320
PATI POINT NATURAL AREA
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Located on the far north-east of Guam and forming a coastal fringe of
the North Field section of Andersen Air Force Base (AFB). The site extends southwards down
the east coast as far as Anao Point, which marks the south-eastern boundary of Andersen AFB.
Anao Conservation Reserve is adjacent to the south. Approximately 13°32’N, 144°56’E
Date and History of Establishment 24 May 1973. Established by administrative action of the
Commander of the US Eighth Air Force, Andersen Air Force Base.
Area 112ha
Land Tenure United States Air Force
Altitude From sea level to 183m on Pati Point
Physical Features Comprises a rugged limestone cliff and coral reef abutting the ocean (SPREP,
1985). Randall and Holloman (1974) describe the geology, hydrology and physiography of the
area. The north coast consists of rugged limestone cliffs bordering intermittent long stretches of
beach with a wide reef flat platform and convex algal ridge. There is heavy surf and strong rip
currents especially near the larger surge channels and near Ritidian Point, beyond the western
boundary. Northern Guam comprises a high, porous limestone plateau. Consequently, rainfall
percolates rapidly through the thin soils and into the bedrock and there are no surface sireams.
Climate Data for the period 1945-1982 from Agana indicate a mean annual temperature of 30°C,
mean annual precipitation of 2249mm, mean relative humidity of 72-86% and generally easterly
prevailing winds. Data from Andersen AFB indicate a mean annual temperature of 26°C and a
mean annual rainfall of 2343mm. The rainy season normally begins in July and continues until
November. Tropical storms are frequent during this period, occasionally increasing in intensity
to become typhoons. January to May constitutes the dry season, and June and December are
transitional.
Vegetation Vegetation communities comprise beach strand and limestone forest. Large trees
include nunu Ficus prolixa, Merrilliodendron megacarpum, Pisonia grandis, wild seeded
breadfruit Artocarpus mariannensis, joga Eleocarpus joga, thought to be a food source for
Marianas fruit bat, faia Tristeropsis obtusangula and ifil Intsia bijuga, Guam’s official tree.
Medium-sized trees include fago Ochrosia oppositifolia and agkag Pandanus fragrans, both
thought to be fruit bat food trees, paipai Guamia mariannae, fadang Cycas circinalis, pago
Hibiscus tiliaceus, pengua Macaranga thompsonii, mapunao Aglaia mariannensis. Species
forming the undergrowth include Piper guahamense, and epiphytic Bikkia mariannensis,
Asplenium nidas, Ophioglossum pendulum and orchids including Taeniophyllum mariannense.
Prominent species in the beach strand are nigas Pemphis acidula, nanaso Scaevola taccada,
Messerschmidia argentea, in addition to coconut palm Cocos nucifera, ironwood Casuarina
equisetifolia, beach morning glory Ipomoea pes-caprae and beach sunflower Wedelia biflora
(H. Hirsh, pers. comm., 1990).
Fauna Mammals include Guam deer Cervus mariannus (C. unicolor), and Marianas flying fox
Pteropus mariannus (E), for which Pati Point is the most important roosting site on the island
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(G. Wiles, pers. comm., 1990). Approximately 500 individuals are present in the colony which
is monitored on a more than weekly basis (H. Hirsh, pers. comm., 1990).
A number of bird species have been recorded in the vicinity of the reserve, or on Andersen AFB,
including Guam rail Gallirallus owstoni (E), last seen on Andersen AFB in 1986 and now thought
to be extinct in the wild, but the subject of a captive breeding and re-introduction programme;
Guam flycatcher Myiagra freycineti (E), formerly abundant but not recorded on Andersen AFB
since 1984; bridled white-eye Zosterops conspicillata, declined from 2,000 individuals in 1981
but not seen in the area since 1983 and now thought to be extinct, cardinal honey-eater Myzomela
cardinalis, restricted to the area and not observed since 1986; Vanikoro swiftlet Aerodramus
vanikorensis, recorded from a single cave on Andersen AFB; Marianas crow Corvus kubaryi,
with up to 50 individuals in the north of the air base; rufous-fronted fantail Rhipidura rufifrons,
last observed in 1984 and probably now extinct; Marianas fruit dove Ptilinopus roseicapillus
(R), last observed in 1985 and possibly now extinct; white-throated ground dove Gallicolumba
xanthonura, last observed on 1 January 1986; Micronesian starling Aplonis opaca, which has
declined rapidly but is occasionally seen on Andersen AFB; and cardinal honeyeater Myzomela
cardinalis, last sighted in 1986 (H. Hirsh, pers. comm., 1990).
Noteworthy reptiles include monitor lizard Varanus indicus (SPREP, 1985) and introduced
brown tree snake Boiga irregularis, a species that has been implicated in the widespread decline
of native bird species (H. Hirsh, pers. comm., 1990).
A summary description of the reef communities is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). Chaetodontid,
pomacentrid, acanthurid and balistid fish are abundant in the moat area of the reef. Fish are also
abundant in the holes, overhangs and crevices of the terrace and slope. Larger game fish and
grey sharks have been recorded and hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (E) has been seen
in deeper slope waters and used to nest on Ritidian Beach, outside the reserve (Pritchard, 1981).
Species lists for marine fauna and flora are given in Stojkovich (1977).
Cultural Heritage Archaeological records suggest that Guam was first occupied around 3,500
years ago by peoples from eastern Melanesia; western contact was made by the Spanish in 1521.
An archaeological survey during 1965-66 identified numerous sites, including stone platforms
in the Pati Point area. During World War Two, Guam was captured from the Japanese, after
which the US Army Corps built and maintained three air bases on the island. On 7 October 1949
two of these, North Field and Northwest Field, were re-designated as Andersen Air Force Base
in honour of Brigadier General James Roy Andersen, who served as the Chief of Staff for
Headquarters, Pacific Ocean Area from 1944 until his death in 1946.
Local Human Population Andersen Air Force Base had a population of 4,183 during financial
year 1990-91 (H. Hirsh, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources and the
University of Guam
Conservation Value Guam’s avifauna has been severely depleted in the last 10-20 years and
many species are now restricted to the north of the island. Although possible reasons for the
decline include habitat destruction, avian disease, and the use of pesticides (Arnett, 1983), it is
most probable that the introduced brown tree snake is responsible (Carey, 1988). Pati Point
Natural Area protects typical Artocarpus forest on cliffs and terraces and thus may provide habitat
322
Guam
for a number of threatened and endemic species. The reserve is also one the last strongholds of
Marianas fruit bat.
Conservation Management Andersen AFB, of which the reserve is a part, is managed in
accordance with numerous Department of Defence directives, Air Force Regulations, Public
Laws, Territorial Laws, provisions of the National Environmental Policy Act and the 1988-1992
Andersen AFB Fish and Wildlife Management Plan. The normal operations of the base have no
detrimental impact on the reserve. The base commander has administrative responsibility for the
area, with full authority to make rules and to place restrictions on the use of the area.
Management Constraints The biological value of the site is threatened by brown tree snake.
Staff Comprises one environmental protection specialist and one natural resources planner,
operating from the Civil Engineering Squadron.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Base Commander, 633 Air Base Wing, Andersen Air Force Base, Guam 96334
References
Arnett, G.R. (1983). Proposed endangered status for seven birds and two mammals from the
Mariana Islands. Federal Register 48 (230): 53729-53733.
Carey, J. (1988). Massacre on Guam. National Wildlife 26(5): 13-15.
Pritchard, P.C.H. (1981). Marine turtles of Micronesia. In: Bjorndal, K.A. (Ed.), Biology and
conservation of sea turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 263-274.
Randall, R.H. and Holloman, J. (1974). Coastal survey of Guam. University of Guam Marine
Laboratory Technical Report 14. 404 pp. (Unseen).
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 97-98.
Stojkovich, J.O. (1977). Survey and species inventory of representative pristine marine
communities on Guam. Guam Coastal Management Program Technical Reports, Agana.
(Unseen).
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date December 1989, revised February 1990, December 1990
WAR IN THE PACIFIC NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location The park lies on the westward side of the island of Guam, by the
Philippine sea. It comprises several units, including two discontinuous shoreline sections: the
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Asan Unit (Adelup Point west to Gapan Islet) and the Agat Unit (Rizal Beach south to Bangi
and Alutom Islands), and several discrete inland units. 13°13’-13°22’N, 144°38’-144°44’E
Date and History of Establishment Established by the US National Park Service on
18 August 1978 under Federal Public Law 95-348 as a "multiple-use management area". The
legislation authorises the inclusion of the reef areas of Agat and Asan.
Area 779ha
Land Tenure US Federal Government (326ha); Government of Guam (353ha); private property
(96ha) and unknown (3.2ha). The land protection plan (NPS, 1984) recommends that privately
owned lands within the park be acquired.
Altitude Approximately 65m below sea level to 313m (Mt Tenjo-Mt Chacao range)
Physical Features The seven physically separate units comprise Asan Beach Unit, Asan Inland
Unit, Fonte Plateau Unit, Piti Unit, Mt Chachao/Mt Tenjo Unit, Agat Unit and Mt Alifan Unit
and include sand beaches, offshore reefs, rugged hills and mountain crests (SPREP, 1985).
Includes the reef areas of Agat and Asan which encompass the shore and reef flats. These units
range from 52m to 978m in width and have a substrate of a combination of scattered sand, gravel,
coral-algal rubble and boulders. The intertidal beaches give way to low limestone cliffs with
occasional volcanic headlands. There are some small offshore islands and raised pinnacle
limestone rocks. Sections of the shoreline have been altered with artificial structures such as sea
walls and sewage outlets (Randall, 1977 quoted in UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Eldredge, 1979).
Climate Tropical, warm and humid throughout the year. Two well-defined seasons occur: a dry
season from January to May and a wet season from July to October. Mean annual temperature
for 1981 was 25.9°C. Coolest months are January, February and March, the warmest months
May and June. Mean annual rainfall is 2286mm.
Vegetation There are scattered patches of seagrass Enhalus acoroides, which becomes the
dominant marine vegetation in places. Some 43 species of marine plant have been recorded. The
sandy beach vegetation is dominated by coconut palm Cocos nucifera, whilst the other areas
consist either of modified limestone forest containing breadfruit Artocarpus mariannensis,
lemonberry Triphasia tritolion and banyan Ficus prolixa, or open savanna vegetation dominated
by grasses Miscanthus floridulus and Pennisetum polystachyon along with ground orchid
Spathoglottis plicata, club moss Lypodium cernum and savanna fern Dicranopteris lincaris
(SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Coral communities dominate the inner reef formations but vary widely in distribution,
and are composed of a moderate number of coral species. Only a few corals are to be found on
the outer reef. However, in total, some 140 species have been identified in the Agat area. Studies
have recorded 75 species of gastropod, 18 species of bivalves, 45 species of echinoderms and
26 fish species on the coastline (Anon., 1985; Eldredge, 1979).
Cultural Heritage Guam’s recapture is an example of island defence and invasion which
characterised World War Two operation in the Pacific theatre. The park comprises invasion
beaches used in the recapture of Guam and the hills which overlook them. The assault of Guam
by US forces in July 1944 was part of the crucial Marianas campaign against Japan’s inner
defence perimeter. A major theme of the park is the bravery and sacrifices made by all Pacific
Island residents, by those who defended as well as those who attacked the islands, and by those
who fought on, over, and under the Pacific waters during World War Two (NPS, 1988a). The
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Guam
park contains Japanese defensive fortifications including pill boxes, coastal defence guns,
military equipment, foxholes and trench works. The two beaches preserved are the assault
beaches of the American invasion of 21 July 1944 (SPREP, 1985). There are underwater historic
features in the Asan and Agat areas associated with the Pacific Theatre of World War Two
(J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). A description of the major World War Two sites is given by
Thompson (1985).
Local Human Population There are four villages adjacent to the park which had a total
population of 6,000 in 1990 (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). Land use of the park is divided
between preservation, agriculture, residential use and commercial activities (Anon., 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park comprises seven units, but only small areas of these
are open to the public, namely Asan Point in the Asan Beach Unit and Apaca Point and Gaan
Point in the Agat Unit. The T. Stell Newman visitor information centre is located on the beach
side of Marine Drive in the Asan Beach Unit. Opened in 1982 it includes static displays and
audio-visual presentations. Four wayside exhibits were installed at the Asan Beach Unit and at
Gaan Point in the Agat Unit. The total number of visitors during FY 1989 was 57,287, of which
50% were Guamanian, and 38% were Japanese (Anon., 1990). Facilities include numerous
snorkel and scuba diving areas in the Asan Beach and Agit Unit areas, along with fishing and
boating. There are also parking areas and numerous scenic points. The World War Two relicts
are well marked (Anon., 1985).
Scientific Research and Facilities The Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources
(Department of Agriculture) has conducted inshore reef research in the Asan Unit. Other surveys
have been undertaken by the Department of Biology, University of Guam (Raulerson, 1979). An
underwater cultural resource survey is underway (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). There is a
library with more than 500 volumes, including archival material, approximately 800 photographs
and slides and some 800 artifacts. The Arizona Memorial Museum Association cooperates with
the park (Anon., 1990).
Conservation Value The purpose of the park is defined in Section 6(a) of Public Law 95-348
as "to commemorate the bravery and sacrifice of those participating in the campaigns of the
Pacific theatre of World War II and to conserve and interpret outstanding natural, scenic, and
historic values and objects on the island of Guam for the benefit and enjoyment of present and
future generations".
Conservation Management The National Historic Preservation Act (1966), as amended and
supplemented by Executive Order 11593, placed all national park operations under the
procedures of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. The entire park is on the National
Register of Historic Places, and six sites are individually listed on the register. The general
management plan for the park has been approved and implemented (NPS, 1983) and a more
recent management statement has been compiled (NPS, 1988b). Conservation management is
specified as being to preserve important natural features such as native plant communities and
Stream and marine bed environments for public use and enjoyment. Shelling, fishing, boating
and outdoor recreation activities are permitted (SPREP, 1985). The primary interpretive theme
of the park is to interpret the nature and sequence of the Pacific War, the nature, sequence and
logistics of the battle for Guam, within the broader Pacific War context, the role of the US-NPS,
and the natural history of Guam (Anon., 1990). A fire management plan has been compiled (NPS,
1989), the central theme of which is to maintain the vegetation as it appeared prior to the
devastating bombardments that preceded the US invasion. The park has a programme to acquire
private land (SPREP, 1985).
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Management Constraints There are some problems from fishing with bleach and dynamite
(Anon., 1985). Sections of the shoreline have been altered by sea walls and sewage outfalls. Agat
Bay is moderately heavily developed (Randall, 1978). Other problems include grassland fires,
poaching, illegal dumping (SPREP, 1985), and resort development and related activities with its
effect on park resources (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). More than 64 tonnes of unexploded
munitions remain within the park’s offshore areas, and some of the historic structures, such as
defensive bunkers, are potentially hazardous (Anon., 1990).
Staff Five permanent members including a superintendent, chief ranger, park ranger and
maintenance and administration staff (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). Other employees are
hired on a limited term contract (SPREP, 1985).
Budget US$ 225,000 for the fiscal year 1990 (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990)
Local Addresses Park Superintendent, War in the Pacific National Historical Park, PO Box FA,
Agana, Guam 96910
References
Anon. (1990). War in the Pacific National Historical Park: statement for interpretation 1990.
Unpublished. 12 pp.
Eldredge, L.G. (1979). Marine biological resources within the Guam seashore study area and
the War in the Pacific National Historical Park. University of Guam Marine Laboratory.
Technical Report No. 57.
Miculka, J.E. (1985). Underwater Resource Survey. Report
NPS (n.d.). War in the Pacific National Historic Park, Guam. National Park Service, US
Department of the Interior. Leaflet. 2 pp.
NPS (1983). Environmental Assessment General Management Plan: War in the Pacific National
Historical Park. National Park Service, US Department of the Interior.
NPS (1983b). General Management Plan: War in the Pacific National Historical Park. US
Department of the Interior.
NPS (1986). Natural Cultural Resource Protection Plan 1984-86.
NPS (1984). War in the Pacific: Land Protection Plan. National Park Service, US Department
of the Interior. 58 pp.
NPS (1988a). War in the Pacific National Historic Park: statement for management. National
Park Service, US Department of the Interior. 50 pp.
NPS (1988b). War in the Pacific National Historical Park: statement for management. National
Park Service, US Department of the Interior. 50 pp.
Raulerson, L. (1979). Terrestrial and freshwater organisms within the limnology and hydrology
of the Guam seashore study area and the War in the Pacific National Historical Park.
Department of Biology, University of Guam.
SPREP (1985). Guam. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks
and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 93-114.
Thompson, E. N. (1985). Historic resource study: War in the Pacific National Historic Park,
Guam. National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. 189 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date August 1987, revised December 1989, February 1990
326
USA - HAWAII
Area 16,760 sq. km (land area)
Population 1,062,000 (1986) Natural increase: No information
GNP No information
Policy and Legislation Legislation exists at both the State and Federal levels. The major texts
covering protected areas include the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (which
requires the inventory, assessment and planning of all federal lands); the Fish and Wildlife Act
of 1956; the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(streamlined in 1982 and supplemented in 1983 by the International Environment Protection
Act); the National Policy Act of 1969; and the Fish and Wildlife Improvement Act of 1978. More
specific acts of the US Congress which affect the conservation of areas include the Wilderness
Act (16 USC 1131), Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 (42 USC 1962), Concessions Policy
Act of 1965 (16 USC 20), and the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 20 October 1965 (PL 89-272).
Other acts include the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which authorises the
Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean waters as marine sanctuaries. In the case of wetland
protection, the main legislative provisions are the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, the
Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934, the Pittman-Robertson Act of
1937 and the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965. Regulations published by the
Department of Agriculture in 1983 called for the maintenance of habitats in order to sustain
viable populations of flora and fauna. The controlling legislation for the activities of the Fish
and Wildlife Service is the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (16 USC 1531) (a
supplement to the 1956 Act) and a number of international treaties.
The State of Hawaii controls land by three principal means: the Land Use Law, the Hawaii
Environmental Impact Statement Law and the Coastal Zone Management Act. The Land Use
Law provides for the creation of a Land Use Commission which has classified some 46% of land
area as conservation area, the use of which is controlled by the governing Board of the Department
of Land and Natural Resources (the Land Board). Land with a Conservation District classification
includes national and state parks, lands with a slope of more than 20 degrees or more, land in
existing forestry or water reserves, and marine waters and offshore islands. In reality, only lands
within the Protective "P" Subzone of the Conservation District are protected for "conservation"
reasons, for example all north-western Hawaiian islands with the exception of Midway Atoll
(Callies, 1989).
The first modern conservation measures in Hawaii were taken in 1903 when the US Forestry
Service established a professional forestry programme. The early focus was on soil and water
conservation rather than natural habitats and included removal of feral cattle from forest areas
and the establishment of fenced forest reserves. Nevertheless, these measures are believed to
have been critical in helping to preserves much of the biological diversity found today (Holt,
1989).
The establishment of national parks in Hawaii was the earliest major project expressly for
habitat conservation (Holt, 1989). Hawaii National Park was created on 1 August 1916 by Act
of the US Congress (39 Stat. 432) and consisted of two units each on different islands; one on
Hawaii Island and the other on Maui Island. The area of the park was more than doubied as a
result of Congressional authorization in 1922 (45 Stat. 503), in 1928 (45 Stat. 424) and in 1938
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(52 Stat. 781). The ’Ola’a Forest Tract was donated in 1951 and 1953 (Executive Order #1640).
The park was split into Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (on Hawaii Island) and Haleakala
National Park (on Maui Island) in 1961 (75 Stat. 577). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is
protected under 16 USC 1 (National Park Service Organic Act) and under the terms establishing
the park as set out in 16 USC 395b, and under several sections of 16 USC 391-396a, which
specifically pertain to Haleakala.
The Hawaii Natural Area Reserves System was established under the provisions of Hawaii
Revised Statute s. 195-1 et seq. in 1970, to "preserve in perpetuity specific land and water areas
which support communities, as relatively unmodified as possible, of the natural flora and fauna,
as well as geological sites of Hawaii".
Marine life conservation districts are created by administrative authority of the Division of Fish
and Game of the Department of Land and Natural Resources, and are established under the
provisions of Hawaii Revised Statute s.190-1. The same Division takes responsibility for state
wildlife sanctuaries, also established by administrative action.
International Activities The US ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitats (Ramsar Convention) on 18 December 1986,
although no sites have yet been listed in Hawaii. The Convention concerning the Protection of
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was ratified on
7 December 1973 and Hawaii Volcanoes National Parks was inscribed on the World Heritage
List in 1987. The US is also party to the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, and Hawaii
Islands Biosphere Reserve, comprising Haleakala and Hawaii Volcanoes national parks, has been
accepted as part of the international biosphere network.
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific has been neither signed nor
ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is
coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt within the region
to cooperate on environmental matters. among other measures, it encourages the creation of
protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, and the 1986
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986) but not yet ratified. The
Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all
appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora
and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to
have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open
ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation
of marine resources.
Administration and Management The National Park Service (NPS) was established by the
Act of 25 August 1916 (39 Stat. 535) under the Federal Department of the Interior. National
parks and other categories of lands within the national park system are established by individual
acts of Congress, except national monuments which can be created by the President on Federal
lands, by proclamation under the authority of the Antiquities Act of 8 June 1906. The Service
manages Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and Haleakala National Park to preserve outstanding
scenic, geological, and biological values, and to ensure their availability for public use and
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Hawaii
enjoyment to the extent compatible with resource preservation. NPS historic areas have different
primary management goals, although natural resource conservation is required.
The responsibility for management and administration of the public lands of the state of Hawaii
rests with the Board of Land and Natural Resources, appointed by the Governor. Actions of the
Board are carried out by the Department of Land and Natural Resources’ six divisions: Land
Management, Conveyances, Forestry, Fish and Game, State Parks, Outdoor Recreation and
Historic Sites, and Water and Land Development (HRS s.171-3). The Division of State Parks,
Outdoor Recreation and Historic Sites carries the responsibilities for preserving state parks "in
their natural condition so far as may be consistent with their use and safety", while making
improvements for the use and enjoyment of the public. The Division of Fish and Game, amongst
other responsibilities, manages marine life conservation districts, wildlife refuges and bird
sanctuaries under authority granted by law through regulations of the Board of Land and Natural
Resources. The Division also acts in advisory capacity to the State Natural Area Reserves
Systems Commission. The Division of Forestry manages the State’s forest resources in a series
of forest reserves, under the principle of multiple use, namely: protection and management of
water resources; forest recreation; forest management, including timbering, fire and pest control
and reforestation; grazing; and protection and conservation of wildlife habitat and natural forest
ecosystems. In the area of flora and fauna preservation, the goal of the Forestry Division is to
"protect and preserves unique native plant and animal species, and examples of relatively
unmodified native forest ecosystems for their productive value to science, education and the
cultural or scientific enrichment or satisfaction of future generations”.
The Natural Area Reserves System Commission, appointed by the Governor of Hawaii, and part
of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, the major state land management
agency, recommends, to the Department and the Governor, areas for inclusion; recommends
policies on controls and uses of areas within the system; advises on preservation of natural areas;
and develops ways to extend and strengthen established natural areas. The Governor must
approve the nominations by Executive Order. Once an area is included in the system, removal,
except through trade for another area, is also through Executive Order. Natural area reserves are
selected on the basis of diversity, rarity and viability (TNCH and DFW, 1989).
The Fish and Wildlife Service administers the National Wildlife Refuge System, including
Hawaiian Islands NWR, which, according to statute, aims to preserve and manage the habitats
of waterfowl, threatened species, big game and other fauna and flora.
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH) was founded in 1980 as an affiliate of a nation-wide,
non-profit conservation organisation which had its beginnings in 1917 and is the leading
non-governmental organisation in the field of nature conservation in Hawaii. The mission of
both the national and Hawaii groups is "to find, protect, and maintain the best examples of
communities and ecosystems, and endangered species in the natural world". Through
conventional real estate negotiations and innovative practices such as "conservation easements"
(paying landowners for allowing use of their land for conservation), TNCH has acquired, and is
continuing to acquire, key natural areas. TNCH makes extensive use of volunteer workers, and
includes a Board of Trustees (largely comprising influential business people) and a Scientific
Advisory Committee, comprising University, State, private and Federal scientists. TNCH has
developed the Hawaii Heritage Program (HHP), a sophisticated inventory and database to
optimise the selection of further acquisitions (Stone and Holt, 1987; Newman, 1989).
Systems Reviews The Hawaiian Archipelago is the longest and most isolated chain of tropical
islands in the world, stretching about 2,300km from Hawaii in the south-east to Kure Atoll in
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the north-west. Considerable geophysical evidence suggests that the entire chain formed as a
result of tectonic motion of the Pacific plate over a relatively stationary hotspot in the mantle of
the earth. Hawaii, the youngest island at about 0.8 million years old, is situated over the hotspot
and contains the most active volcano in the world, Kilauea, included within Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. Steady crustal movement is transporting each island land mass north-westwards,
eventually breaking connection with the hotspot. As a result, the islands to the north-west of
Hawaii become progressively older and more effected by subsidence and erosion. All of the
islands north-west of Gardner Pinnacles, the last island in the chain with subaerial basalts, are
either atolls, coral islands or reefs and shoals of limestone construction. Midway Atoll, the second
to last island in the chain, has been dated at 27+/-0.6 million years old. Beyond Kure Atoll the
chain continues as a series of drowned atolls or seamounts which extend all the way to Kamchatka
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
The geography of the Hawaiian Islands is complex. Those islands to the south-east are the
summits of some of the largest mountains in the world, measured from their bases, Mauna Loa
extending some 9,756m. Some of the older high islands are deeply eroded with spectacular river
valleys such as Waipio Valley in Hawaii, Iao Valley on Maui and Halawa Valley on Molokai.
All of these are heavily vegetated with many endemic species of flora and fauna. A rise in sea
level of approximately 130m during the Holocene has created many bays and estuaries in the
drowned heads of river valley systems, particularly on the older islands. The islands to the
north-west are much simpler because they are low rocky islets or coral islands at sea level. The
climate is mainly tropical but approaches sub-tropical in the extreme north-west. Mild
temperatures, moderate humidity and persistent north-easterly tradewinds are typical, whilst
rainfall patterns that can vary from very heavy to very light, mainly influenced by altitude, have
encouraged the development of a wide variety of terrestrial ecosystems (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
The native vegetation of Hawaii varies greatly according to altitude, prevailing moisture and
substrate. The most recent classification of Hawaiian natural communities recognises nearly 100
native vegetation types categorised in a hierarchy of elevation, moisture and physiognomy.
Within these types are numerous island-specific or region-specific associations: an extremely
rich array of vegetation types occurs within a very limited geographic area. Major vegetation
formations include forests and woodlands, shrublands, grasslands (including savannas, tussock
grasslands, and sedge-dominated associations), herblands, and pioneer associations on lava and
cinder substrates (IUCN, 1991).
Forest formations include subalpine, montane and lowland, extending from sea level to above
3,000m on the slopes of the region’s highest mountain. Coastal forests are found on one of the
north-western Hawaiian Islands, an offshore islet near Molokai, and other main islands of
Kaua’i.O’hau, Moloka’i, Maui and Hawaii. Lowland forest occurs below 1,000m on Kaua’i,
O’hau, Moloka’i, Maui, Lana’i and Hawaii. Historically such forests were present on the islands
of Ni’ihau and Kaho’olawe, but these were lost to development or displaced by alien species.
Montane forests are found between 1,000 and 2,000m and are dry to mesic on leeward slopes
and mesic to wet on windward slopes. Montane forests are well developed on Kaua’i, Moloka’i,
Maui and Hawaii. On the islands of Lana’i and O’hau, the highest forests are similar to montane
wet forests on higher islands, but these forests occupy limited area and include lowland elements.
Subalpine forests are known only from the two largest and geologically youngest islands: Maui
and Hawaii. Shrubland formations are also found, ranging in altitude from sea level to sub-alpine.
Most types are in dry and mesic settings that limit forest formations, or on cliffs or slopes too
steep to support trees. Eleven native Hawaiian grassland types, including sedge-dominated
associations are found in coastal, lowland, montane and subalpine regions. Hawaiian herblands
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Hawaii
are also found across the full altitudinal range. Pioneer vegetation is well developed in the active
and recent volcanic settings of the islands of Maui and Hawaii.
In spite of their low diversity, coral reefs are well developed. Their community structure,
succession and development throughout the archipelago has been reviewed by Grigg (1983).
Reefs are best developed on leeward (south and south-western) coasts or in bays sheltered from
wave action. These include many sites along the Kona Coast and Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii,
Molokini "lagoon", the south-east coast of Molokai, Hanauma Bay and some reefs near Barbers
Point on Ohau, and the lagoons of the north-western Hawaiian Islands, including Midway and
Kure (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Other important coastal ecosystems include marshes, streams and
stream-mouth estuaries, lagoons and beaches.
The Hawaiian biota is characterised by both a high diversity and endemism, caused by 40 million
years of isolation and adaptive radiation. The native flora is estimated at some 1,000-1,500
species, whilst arthropods number 6,500-10,000 and native bird species about 100. However,
extinction, or the threat of extinction, is also characteristic, and although Hawaii possesses only
some 0.2% of the land mass, and 14.3% of the native birds and plants of the United States,
it contains 27.8% of the threatened birds and plants and 72.1% of extinct birds and plants
(DLNR, n.d.). Nine endemic bird species have populations of less than 50 individuals and at
least 57 bird species have become extinct, most in the last 200 years. Ayensu and DeFilipps
(1978) list 646 candidate "endangered" species, 197 candidate "threatened" and 270 presumed
extinct plant species, subspecies and varieties in the Hawaiian islands, which together comprise
some 50% of the total indigenous flora. This is largely due to the impact of introduced flora and
fauna and introductions can be traced back to the arrival of Polynesians around AD400, who
were accompanied by domestic pigs, jungle fowl, dogs, Polynesian rats and various stowaway
geckoes, skinks and snails. The Polynesians also actively cultivated the land and as much as 80%
of the lowland forest was drastically effected. European visitors, from 1778 onwards, introduced
goats (1778), cattle and sheep (1793), horses (1803), axis deer (1867), European pigs and more
recently pronghorn antelope, mouflon sheep, brush-tailed rock wallaby, Rocky Mountain mule
deer and Columbian black-tailed deer (Degener and Degener, 1961) as well as numerous plants.
At least 111 new plant arrivals are recorded between 1778 and 1839 and in total there are some
4,500 exotic plants throughout the islands (Berger, 1975), although only some 2% of these are
serious invaders of native ecosystems (Stone and Loope, 1987). As many as 16 insects are
accidentally introduced annually (Beardsley, 1962). The most severe documented impacts have
been caused by feral goats, through grazing on species that have evolved in the absence of such
pressure, and pigs, by encouraging the dispersal of exotic plant species and the direct effect of
their digging activities (Atkinson, 1977; Stone and Loope, 1987). One specific example of the
impact of introduced species is the severe damage to the fragile ecosystem of Laysan Island by
rabbits; as a direct result of this, several endemic terrestrial birds became extinct, namely Laysan
millerbird Acrocephalus familiaris familiaris, Laysan honeycreeper Himatione sanguinea
freethi, and Laysan rail Porzana palmeri (Anon., 1985)
Terrestrial protected areas management priorities almost invariably include programmes to
control non-native species, and activities including fencing, live- and kill-trapping, baiting and
snaring. Programmes to eliminate exotic flora have been developed, including the use of selective
herbicides. The prospects for long-term survival of native species within protected areas depends
on the intensity of long-term management. There is evidence that native flora will survive if pigs
and goats are held in check, and that native birds in turn will survive if sufficient habitat remains,
as will native invertebrates, although exotic ants, rats and mongooses will have to be controlled
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(Stone and Loope, 1987). It is also common practice to allow hunting by members of the public,
and hunting is frequently carried out by managers of protected areas.
Both national parks were established principally on the basis of their geological interest and while
they also contain significant biological resources they do not protect the entire range of habitat
for native taxa (R. Kam, pers. comm., 1991). Thus the acquisitions and easements of The Nature
Conservancy of Hawaii, the State Natural Areas Reserve System, forest reserves and the national
wildlife refuge are key elements in the conservation of biological diversity. The Natural Areas
Reserves System currently covers 20 sites which were selected on the basis of biological diversity
and relatively undamaged natural conditions. Holt (1989) discusses the effectiveness with which
both State and Federal protected areas achieve conservation goals, and also provides a definition
of protected natural area which demands lasting legal protection from destructive uses and an
active management programme. State forest reserves and conservation districts are judged not
to meet the definition; State natural area reserves, sanctuaries and Alaka’i Wilderness Preserve
meet the definition in general as do the preserves of The Nature Conservancy; National parks,
and the national wildlife refuges are deemed to have effective legal protection and the most
comprehensive management programmes of any class of protected area in the State. The existing
network, which includes Federal, State and private protected areas, is considered to protect 46
of the 180 natural communities recognised by The Nature Conservancy. Some 88 community
types which lie outside the current network are regarded as being in critical need of protection.
Holt (1989) makes three recommendations for the further development of the protected areas
network: the protection of critically imperilled natural communities must be ensured; active
management must be established in existing areas; and conservation techniques for island
ecosystems must be developed.
Demand on land around protected areas is increasing, removing buffering areas and reducing
still further the extent of near-native ecosystems. Other threats include geothermal and other
energy developments, hunting and recreational uses, ranching, agriculture and timber
management, housing and heavy industry (Stone and Loope, 1987).
Addresses
National Park Service, Pacific Area Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Box 50165, Room 6305,
Honolulu, HI 96850
Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Refuge Complex, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, PO
Box 50167, Room 5302, Honolulu, HI 96850
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, 1116 Smith Street, Suite 201, Honolulu, HI 96817 (Tel: 808
537 4508; FAX: 808 545 2019)
Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1151 Punchbowl Street, Honolulu
References
Anon. (1985). Plan approved for three songbirds of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
Endangered Species Technical Bulletin 10 (2): 8-10
Atkinson, I.A.E. (1977). A reassessment of factors, particularly Rattus rattus L., influencing the
decline of endemic forest birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science 31(2): 109-113.
Ayensu, E.S. and DEFilipps, R.A. (1978). Endangered and threatened plants of the United
States. Smithsonian Institution and World Wildlife Fund-US, Washington. 403 pp.
Berger, A.J. (1975). Hawaii: a dubious distinction. Defenders 50(6): 491-496.
332
Hawaii
Callies, D.L. (1989). Land use planning and priorities in Hawaii. In: Stone, C.P. and Stone, D.B.
(Eds.), Conservation biology in Hawaii. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park
Resources Study Unit, Honolulu. Pp. 163-167.
Degener, O. and Degener, I. (1961). Green Hawaii: past, present and future of an island flcra.
Pacific Discovery 14(5): 14-17.
DLNR (n.d.). Preserving Hawaii’s natural treasures: Hawaii’s natural area reserves system.
Department of Land and Natural Resources, Honolulu. Brochure.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson. L., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Grigg, R.W. (1983). Community structure, succession and development of coral reefs in Hawaii.
Marine Ecology Programme Series 11:1-14
Holt, A. (1989). Protection of natural habitats. In: Stone, C.P. and Stone, D.B. (Eds),
Conservation biology in Hawaii. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources
Study Unit, Honolulu. Pp. 168-174.
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii and Division of Forestry and Wildlife (1989). State of
Hawaii, Natural Areas Reserves Systems: Biological Resources and Management Priorities.
Summary Report. 26 pp.
Newman, A. (1989). Biological databases for preserve selection. In: Stone, C.P. and Stone, D.B.
(Eds.), Conservation biology in Hawaii. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park
Resources Study Unit, Honolulu. Pp. 154-157.
Stone, C.P. and Holt, R.A. (1987). Managing the invasions of alien ungulates and plants in
Hawaii’s natural areas. Unpublished report. 23 pp.
Stone, C.P. and Loope, L.L. (1987). Reducing negative effects of introduced animals on native
biotas in Hawaii: what is being done, what needs doing, and the role of the national parks.
Environmental Conservation 14(3): 245-258.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date March 1991
ANNEX 1
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title (English): Rules regulating Wildlife Sanctuaries, Department of Land and
Natural Resources, Title 13, Subtitle 15 Forestry and Wildlife, Part 2 Wildlife,
Chapter 125
Date: No information
Brief description: To conserve, manage and protect indigenous wildlife in sanctuaries
Administrative authority: Board of Land and Natural Resources
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Designations:
Wildlife sanctuaries The following activities are prohibited except for agents of the Board
and except as authorised by the Board or its authorised representative: to remove, disturb,
injure, kill, or possess any form of plant or wildlife; to possess or use any firearm, bow and
arrow, or any other weapon, trap, snare, poison, or any device designed to take, capture or
kill wildlife; to discharge any weapon on or into a wildlife sanctuary; to possess any
explosives or fireworks; to introduce any form of plant or animal life; to start or maintain a
fire; to camp or erect any structure; to enter into any area posted "No Trespassing Area"; to
remove, damage, or disturb any notice, sign, marker, fence, or structure; to dump, drain, or
leave any litter, toxic material, or other waste material except in trash receptacles or areas
designated for the deposit of refuse; to enter or remain upon any surface water area; to park,
land, or operate any air, water, or land vehicle except on roads and in areas designated for
such use.
Title (English): Rules regulating activities within Natural Area Reserves,
Department of Land and Natural Resources, Title 13, Subtitle 9, Chapter 209,
Natural Area Reserves System
Date: No information
Brief description: Regulates and prohibits activities within natural area reserves, including
provisions for excepted-use activities by permit and penalties for violation of the regulation.
Administrative authority: Board of Land and Natural Resources
Designations:
Natural area reserve Those State lands that have been designated as part of the Hawaii
natural area reserves system by the Department pursuant to Section 195-4, Hawaii Revised
Statutes
¢ Permitted activities include hiking, nature study and bedroll camping without a tent or
other temporary structure. Hunting is a permitted activity pursuant to hunting rules of
the department.
¢ Itis prohibited: to remove, injure, or kill any form of plant or animal life, except game
mammals and birds hunted according to Departmentrules; to introduce any form of plant
or animal life, except dogs when permitted by hunting rules of the Department; to
remove, damage, or disturb any historic or prehistoric remains; to remove, damage, or
disturb any notice, marker, or structure; to engage in any construction or improvement;
to engage in any camping activity that involves the erecting of a tent or other temporary
structure; to start or maintain a fire; to litter, or to deposit refuse or any other substance;
to operate any motorised or unmotorised land vehicle or air conveyance of any shape or
form in any area, including roads or trails, not designated for its use; to operate any
motorised water vehicle of any shape or form in freshwater environments, including
bogs, ponds and streams, or marine waters, except as otherwise provided in the boating
tules of the Department of Transportation, State of Hawaii; to enter into, place any vessel
or material in or on, or otherwise disturb a lake or pond.
334
Hawaii
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map* Name of ar2a IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Biosphere Reserves
1 Hawaii Islands (comprises Haleakala Ix 99,545 1980
and Hawaii Volcanoes national parks)*
World Heritage Sites
2 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park* X 92,964 1987
National Parks
3 Haleakala* II 11,728 1916
4 Hawaii Volcanoes* II 91,960 1916
Preserves of The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii
5 Honouliuli* Private 1,495 1990
6 *Thi’ihilauakea* Private 12 1987
7 Kaluahonu* Private 86 1982
8 Kamakou* Private L123 1982
9 Kanepu’u* Private 187 1990
10 Kapunakea* Private 486 1990
11 Maui Lava Tubes* Private 43 1987
12 Mo’omomi* Private 372 1988
13 Pelekunu* Private 2,332 1987
14 Pu’u Kukui Watershed Management Area* Private 3,239 1988
15 Waikamoi* Private Aes le 1983
Marine Life Conservation Districts
16 Hanauma Bay IV 41 1967
17 Honolua-Mokuleia Bay IV 18 1978
18 Kealakakua Bay IV 128 1969
19 Lapakahi IV 59 1979
20 Manele-Hulopoe IV 125 1976
21 Molokini Shoal IV 1981
22 Pupukea IV 1983
23 Wailea Bay IV 14 1985
Natural Reserves
24 Ahihi-Kinau IV 1973
National Wildlife Refuges
25 Hakalau IV 16,706 1985
26 Hanalei IV 393 1972
27 Hawaiian Islands (8 sites)* I 103,068 1945
28 Huleia IV 97 1973
29 James C. Campbell IV 63
30 Kakahaia IV 18
31 Kilauea Point IV 65 1974
335
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Map! Name of area
ref.
32
33
IUCN management
category
Midway Atoll Overlay Unassigned
Pearl Harbour IV
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Kanaha Pond Unassigned
Kipuka Ainahou Nene Unassigned
Paiko Lagoon Unassigned
Marine Reserves
Little Coconut Island IV
National Estuarine Research Reserve
Waimanu Valley IV
State Natural Area Reserves
Ahihi-Kinau* IV
Hanawi* IV
Hono O Na Pali* IV
Kaena Point* IV
Kahaualea* IV
Kipahoehoe* IV
Kuia* IV
Laupahoehoe* IV
Manuka* IV
Mauna Kea Ice Age* IV
Mount Kaala* IV
Olokui* IV
Pahole* IV
Puu Alii* IV
Puu Makaala* IV
Puu O Umi* IV
Waiakea 1942 Lava Flow* IV
West Maui (4 sites)* IV
National Historic Parks
Kalaupapa* II
Kaloko-Honokohau* II
Pu’uhonua o Honaunau* Vv
State Parks
Akaka Falls Unassigned
Haena Unassigned
Hanauma Bay Unassigned
Heeia Unassigned
Honolulu Stadium Unassigned
Tao Valley Unassigned
Kaena Point Unassigned
Kahana Valley Unassigned
336
Year
notified
1988
1976
1973
1986
1983
1983
1987
1983
1981
1983
1983
1981
1981
1985
1981
1985
1981
1987
1974
1986
1980
1978
1961
Map! Name of area
ref.
Kokee
MacKenzie
Mauna Kea
Na Pali
Old Kona Airport
Palaau
Polihale
Sacred Falls
Sand Island
Wahiawa
Waianapanapa
Wailua River
Wailuku River
Waimea Canyon
State Wildlife Sanctuaries
82
83
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
Hawaii State (39 islets)
Kure Atoll
IUCN management
337
category
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Hawaii
Year
notified
1981
1981
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
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338
Hawaii
HALEAKALA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park); [IX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location Maui County in the eastern portion of Maui Island, State of Hawaii.
2039’-2047’N, 15602’-15616’W.
Date and History of Establishment Legal status since 1916 when authorised as part of Hawaii
National Park under Act of United States Congress (39 Stat. 432). Separated from Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park in 1960 and given full national park status in 1981 (75 Stat. 577).
Accepted as a biosphere reserve in 1980, together with Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Area 11,462 ha with biosphere reserve status which applies only to all park land above the 366m
contour line. National park area is 11,605 ha.
Land Tenure Federal 97.8%; private 2.2%. The Federal government has exclusive jurisdiction
over all lands within the park boundaries.
Altitude 0-3,055 m
Physical Features The park extends from the summit of Mount Haleakala, south-eastward to
the coast. The 900m deep "crater" is a water-carved depression resulting from erosion by two
major streams, which has subsequently been partly filled by later lava flows and numerous cinder
cones. The topography of the crater, which is 43km in circumference, consists of vents, lava
tubes and flows, basaltic dikes, and rock, stone and cinder deserts. There is no evidence of major
eruptions in the last 1,200 years, but in 1790 two minor flows at lower elevations appear to have
altered the coastline outside the park. Kipahulu Valley is located on Haleakala’s eastern flank.
As with the crater, it was formed by stream erosion and partly refilled by lava flows, which helped
to produce the distinctive 152m escarpment which divides the area lengthwise. It is characterised
by a large number of small gulches; exceptionally poor vertical drainage; bogs; and deadfall
‘ohi‘a, making this valley one of the most impenetrable and inhospitable areas in the State.
Climate Subjected to the north-east trades for 70% of the time, the climate ranges with altitude
from tropical humid to alpine desert with the mean annual rainfall ranging from 250 to 1000mm;
the mean temperature ranges from OC to 20C. Rain and fog occur all year round.
Vegetation At least nine ecosystems are found in the park, ranging from small enclaves of only
a few hectares to major expanses on the mountain; each comprises its own unique plant and
animal communities. The western slope of Mount Haleakala above 2,833m, and most of the
central and western end of the crater, supports an alpine desert vegetation, including the
threatened Haleakala silversword Argroxiphium sandwicense. Across the crater on the ridges
above Paliku two native Deschampsia grassland communities occur. They are noteworthy in that
one of them represents the highest elevational and least disturbed tussock ecosystem in the State
and it is the only grassland of its kind in the United States. It includes several endemic species,
some of which are threatened. Immediately below the Deschampsia grasslands a narrow band
of alpine shrub-scrub vegetation acts as a buffer between the open summits and the ‘ohi‘a rain
forest. Dominant shrub genera of these upper slopes and crater include Styphelia, Vaccinium,
Coprosma, and Sophora. The Hana ‘ohi‘a rain forest of the north and east slopes stretches from
around 610m up to the trade wind inversion at about 2,074m. Although much of this habitat lies
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
outside the park boundaries, an important segment is found within the north central corner of the
park. This area, with its extremely dense rain forests, high rainfall and precipitous gulches,
represents one of the most inaccessible and consequently most pristine forests in the State and
is the habitat of many rare plants. Below 1,220m the Kipahulu Valley rain forest is characterised
by a koa Acacia koa canopy, with tree ferns, ‘ohi‘a, and many other native plants forming the
understorey. Kipahulu Valley is one of the richest botanical regions in Hawaii, with genera such
a Metrosideros and Cheirodendron. As in the Hana rain forest, this area contains many
uncommon plant species. In the "Waianapanapa" of the Hana rain forest, and to a lesser extent
in Kipahulu Valley, there are a number of bogs and several ponds; one of these being one of only
two natural lakes in Hawaii. Between this feature and the Deschampsia grasslands is Flattop
Bog, at nearly 2,316m the highest altitude bog in Hawaii. These bog areas are believed to contain
valuable pollen records. Nearby is critical habitat for the rare greensword Argroxiphium
virescens, a relative of the silversword. Of the two species originally found here, one is thought
to be extinct as a result of early grazing activities. The Kaupo area supports remnant dryland
forest of Pleomele and Planchonella. Threatened Santalum haleakalae and Geranium arboreum
are found on the north-west slopes.
Fauna Native fauna are limited to birds, insects and a few aquatic organisms present in the
streams of Kipahulu. Threatened birds include Maui akepa Loxops coccinea ochracea (recently
sighted for the first time in 30 years), Hawaiian goose or nene Brania sandvicensis (V), Maui
parrotbill Pseudonestor xanthophrys, crested honeycreeper Palmeria dolei, Maui nukupu’u
Hemignathus lucidus affinus, dark-rumped petrel or uao Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis
(limited to small breeding populations on Haleakala and to a much lesser extent on the islands
of Hawaii and Lanai) and po‘o uli Melamprosops phaeosoma. Other endemic birds are ‘i‘iwi
Vestiaria coccinea, Maui ‘amakihi Loxops virens wilsoni, ‘apapane Himatione sanguinea, Maui
creeper Loxops maculatas newtoni, and pueo Asio flammeus sandwichensis. Indigenous birds
include white-tailed tropic bird Phaethon lepturus dorotheae and golden plover Pluvialis
dominica. The diverse speciation of the invertebrate fauna represents a highly valuable
evolutionary resource. Numerous endemic insects are found, over 20% of them unique to Mount
Haleakala. There are many rare Drosophila flies found only in the Paliku area and Kipahulu
Valley, including the largest Drosophila in the world and the rare freshwater lizard goby Lentipes
concolor. The alpine desert area has flightless forms of 25 insect species. An unusual predatory
caterpillar is also found. Common freshwater fauna include ‘o‘opu (a small goby-like fish), “opae
(a small shrimp), and hihiwai (a freshwater limpet).
Cultural Heritage The cultural heritage of the park is very rich and has been recognised by
listing all of Crater District on the National Register of Historic Places as Crater Historic District.
In addition, the lower portion of Kipahulu District has been determined eligible for the National
Register as Kipahulu Historic District. Nevertheless, the cultural resources of the park have only
been partially inventoried and evaluated.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Two visitor centres and two public campgrounds.
Scientific Research and Facilities A National Park Service scientist has been resident in the
park since 1980. Since 1973, the Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit (CPSU) at
the University of Hawaii has produced numerous technical reports concerning the components
of the park’s ecosystems; this research is continuing. The University of Washington CPSU has
conducted biological studies on two endangered birds, dark-rumped petrel and nene. The US
Fish and Wildlife Service is analysing data from a survey of endangered birds on Haleakala.
340
Hawaii
Independent research projects are being conducted on several general or endemic plant species
including Argyroxiphium, Dubautia, and Tetramolopium. Research is oriented towards study of
the high degree of endemicity, adaptive radiation genetics and evolutionary trends. There is a
small research laboratory facility with office space and an adjoining dormitory for visiting
researchers.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Since 1916 protected under 16 USC National Park Service Organic
Act, also under terms establishing the park as set out in 16 USC 395b, and under several sections
of 16 USC 391-396a which specifically pertain to Haleakala. Section 394 states that "The
regulations promulgated shall provide for the preservation from injury of all timber, birds,
mineral deposits, and natural curiosities or wonders within said park, and their retention in their
natural condition as nearly as possible", while Section 395c states that "All hunting or the killing,
wounding, or capturing at any time of any wild bird or animal, except dangerous when it is
necessary to prevent them from destroying human lives or inflicting personal injury, is prohibited
within the limits of said park in any other way than by hook and line, and then only at such
seasons and in such times and manner as may be directed by the Secretary of the Interior."
Much of the Kipahulu Valley is closed to public entry, access being limited to scientific research
and for purposes of resource management. The Kipahulu Coastal Area is not connected by roads
to the Haleakala Crater.
The park is divided into five management areas: General Outdoor Recreation Area, 280ha;
Natural Environment Area, 1,363ha; Outstanding Natural Area, 4,690ha; Primitive Area
4,712ha; and Historical and Cultural Sites, 1ha. It also contains Kipahulu and Crater Historic
District, totalling 7,263ha, and the designated Haleakala Wilderness of 10,028ha; these areas
overlap for the most part.
Management Constraints Man and introduced feral pigs Sus scrofa, and, in the past, goats,
cattle and horses, have had a serious impact on the mountain area, altering the native ecosystems
through the destruction of the native biota and accelerated erosion. This has allowed exotic
vegetation to establish itself in many areas of the park. Invading species include guava Psidium
cattleyanum, kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum, Yorkshire fog Holcus lanatus, and Maui
pamakani Eupatorium adenophorum. Active management in progress will largely remove
introduced goats within the next few years. Native fauna have also been affected through
predation by such exotic species as rats, mongoose, mice, feral cats and dogs, vespid wasps and
Argentine ants. The native Deschampsia grasslands are ravaged by feral pigs and goats but are
also heavily used by nene Branta sandvicensis.
Staff There are 16 permanent and full-time employees and 12-20 seasonal employees.
Budget Approximately US$ 1,491,000 were budgeted for 1991 with an additional US$ 150,000
for scientific research, and US$ 300,000 for project specific biological resource management.
Local Addresses Superintendent, Haleakala National Park, P O Box 369, Makawao, Maui,
HI 96768
References
Beardsley, J. (1980). Haleakala National Park Crater District resources basic inventory: insect.
Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit Report No. 31. University of Hawaii.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Carlquist, S. (1970). Hawaii, a natural history. American Museum of Natural History. 463 pp.
Conant, S. and Stemmermann, M. (1979). Haleakala National Park Crater District Resources
Basic Inventory: Birds. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit Report No. 26.
University of Hawaii.
Degner, O. (Rev. 1975). Plants of Hawaii national parks. Braun-Brunfield Inc. 312 pp.
Herat, T., Higashino, P.K. and Smith, C.W. (1981). Haleakala National Park Crater District
resources basic inventory: ferns and fern allies. Cooperative National Park Resources
Studies Unit Report No. 39. University of Hawaii.
Higashino, P. K., Cuddihy, L.W., Anderson, S.J. and Stone, C.P. (1988). Bryophytes and
vascular plants of Kipahulu Valley, Haleakala National Park. Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit Report No. 65. University of Hawaii.
Hoe, W. J. 1979. Haleakala National Park Crater District resources basic inventory: mosses.
Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit Report No. 25. University of Hawaii.
Jacoby, J. D. 1989. Vegetation maps of the upland plant communities on the Islands of Hawaii,
Maui, Molokai and Lanai. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit Report
No. 68. University of Hawaii.
MacDonald, G. A. and Abbott, A.T. (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii.
University of Hawaii Press. 440 pp.
Smith, C. W., Williams, J.E. and Asherman, K.E. (1985). Vegetation map and resource
management recommendations for Kipahulu Valley (below 700 meters), Haleakala National
Park. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit Report No. 53. University of
Hawaii.
Stemmermann, L., Smith, C.W. and Hoe, W.J. (1979). Haleakala National Park Crater District
resources basic inventory: 1967-77. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit
Report No. 24. University of Hawaii.
Stemmermann, L., Higashino, P.K. and Smith, C.W. (1981). Haleakala National Park Crater
District resources basic inventory: conifers and flowering plants. Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit Report No. 38. University of Hawaii.
Whiteaker, L. D. (1980). Vegetation map — Haleakala National Park. Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit Report No. 35. University of Hawaii.
Date 1982, revised August 1986, February 1991
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE
Iucn Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location Extends from Nihoa Island to Pearl and Hermes Reef; a gently arching
north-west extension of the main Hawaiian Islands. The reserve includes the northernmost coral
reefs in the Pacific Ocean. 23°04’-27°50’N, 161°55’-175°50’W
Date and History of Establishment 1966. The refuge was first protected in 1909 as the
Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation. In 1940 the area was re-designated the Hawaiian Islands
National Wildlife Refuge and in 1966 it became part of the National Wildlife Refuge System.
Area Total area of 123,159ha, comprising 716ha land and 122,443ha marine
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Hawaii
Land Tenure Federal Government
Altitude Nihoa Island, 277m; Pearl and Hermes reef, 4m. Lagoon depths: Pearl and Hermes
Reef and French Frigate Shoals, variable to 30m.
Physical Features Includes all emergent rocky islands, sandy islets and major atoll lagoons
between the Nihoa Island and Pearl and Hermes Reef in the north-western portion of the Hawaiian
Archipelago. Travelling northwards, the eroded remains change from elevated volcanic islands
to low atolls of sandy islands, or sandy islands with extensive shallow fringing reefs. A more
detailed summary description is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Vegetation Various grasses, for example Eragrostis predominate, with strand vegetation, such
as beach morning glory /pomoea, and inland sandy soil species, such as beach heliotrope
Messerschmidia sp., Boerhavia sp., purslane Poriulaca lutea and puncture vine Tribulus
cistoides. There is an endemic species of palm on Nihoa Island.
Fauna This group of islands is important for the variety of threatened species which survive
here, namely Hawaiian monk seal Monachus schauinslandi (E), Nihoa millerbird Acrocephalus
familiaris kingi (V) and Laysan duck Anas laysanensis (R). Short-tailed albatross Diomedea
albatrus (R), various cetaceans and green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) visit the islands. They are
also a major breeding area for tropical north Pacific seabirds including Laysan albatross
Diomedia immutabilis and black-footed albatross D. nigripes, blue-grey noddy Procelsterna
cerulea, common noddy Anous stolidus, white-capped noddy A. minutus, three species of booby
Sula spp., three terns Sterna spp., various shearwaters Puffinus spp., petrels and frigate bird
Fregata sp. The islands and reefs support a diverse marine flora and fauna, including 600 fish
species and a variety of corals and other invertebrates. The community structure and species
composition of corals in the refuge have been documented by Grigg (1983). In general the coral
fauna is impoverished (43 species) relative to the Indo-West Pacific but most species are found
off all islands.
Cultural Heritage Remains of prehistoric occupation by early Polynesians are protected on
Nihoa and Necker islands.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities There has been scientific study in the islands since 1902,
and a summary of past and present activities is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). There are no
facilities, but the former Coast Guard LORAN Station is used as base camp.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management The refuge is currently under the strict supervision of the US-Fish
and Wildlife Service. In addition to its national designation the site is also protected as a state
wildlife refuge, and the surrounding waters are designated as a marine fisheries management
area by the Division of Aquatic Resources. Zoned for strict natural areas, but proposed as
wilderness. The refuge includes the Pearl and Hermes Reef Natural Area, Laysan Island Natural
Area, Lisianski Island Natural Area, Necker Island Natural Area, and Nihoa Island Natural Area.
The National Marine Fisheries Service has designated critical habitat for the Hawaiian monk seal
to include all waters from the 18.3m depth contour to the vegetation line on all islands and reefs
except Maro Reef (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Management Constraints Previous commercial guano mining resulted in introduction of
exotic species that caused the extinction of Laysan rail, Laysan honey creeper and Laysan
millerbird; the decline of the endangered monk seal is also possibly related to human disturbance.
The former Coast Guard LORAN Station at French Frigate Shoals is an intrusion.
Staff Three seasonal employees covering Tern Island and French Frigate Shoals and one
permanent full-time employee in the Honolulu office
Budget Approximately US$ 527,000 for refuge complex administration, protection, natural
science studies, interpretation and maintenance (1981)
Local Addresses Hawaiian Island and Pacific Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex,
US-Fish and Wildlife Service, PO Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA
References
Bryan, E.H. Jr. (n.d.). The North-western Hawaiian Islands, an annotated bibliography.
US-FWS, Honolulu. 150 pp.
Grigg, R.W. (1983). Community structure, succession and development of coral reefs in Hawaii.
Marine Ecology Programme Series 11: 1-14
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi. Kenya. 378 pp.
US-FWS (1985). Hawaiian and Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuges. Illustrated Brochure.
Date 1981, reviewed March 1991
HAWAII VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park); LX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location Lies in the south-east part of the island of Hawaii (Big Island), the
easternmost island of the State of Hawaii, and includes the summit and south-east slope of Mauna
Loa and the summit and south-western, southern, and south-eastern slopes of the Kilauea
Volcano. The core of the park lies at 19°11’-19°33’N, 155°01’-155°39’W; the ’Ola’a Forest
Tract, to the north-east is centred on 19°29’N, 155°15’W.
Date and History of Establishment Hawaii National Park was created on 1 August 1916 by
Act of the US Congress (39 Stat. 432) and consisted of two units each on different islands, one
on Hawaii Island and the other on Maui Island. The area of the park was more than doubled as
a result of Congressional authorization in 1922 (45 Stat. 503), in 1928 (45 Stat. 424) and in 1938
(52 Stat. 781). The ’Ola’a Forest Tract was donated in 1951 and 1953 (Executive Order #1640).
However, because the tract is not contiguous to the main body of the park, it is not considered
to be within the same legal entity. The park was split into Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (on
Hawaii Island) and Haleakala National Park (on Maui Island) in 1961 (75 Stat. 577). Hawaii
Volcanoes and Haleakala national parks were accepted as Unesco MAB biosphere reserves in
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Hawaii
1980, and combined to form one cluster, Hawaiian Islands Biosphere Reserve in April 1983.
Inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1987.
Area In June 1987 the national park area was recorded as 92,964ha. The biosphere reserve
designation covers 99,545ha.
Land Tenure The park was created from federally-owned land donated by the State of Hawaii,
while the Congressional Act of 1930 (46 Stat. 227) gave exclusive legal jurisdiction to the Federal
government. The Act of 1920 (41 Stat. 452) authorised the acquisition of privately owned land
and rights of way. The owner is the United States Department of the Interior, Washington, DC
and protective custody remains with the National Park Service. The ’Ola’a Forest Tract, being
separated from the core by parcels of private land, is, according to Executive Order #1640, not
technically part of the national park. A land exchange, authorised by Congress and now in
process, will add 2,300ha to the national park. This covers the private land tract. The ’Ola’a
Forest Tract is now apparently out of private ownership.
Altitude From sea level to 4,170m
Physical Features The park extends from the southern coast to the summit calderas of Kilauea
and Mauna Loa volcanoes. Mauna Loa is a massive, flat-domed shield volcano built by lava flow
layers and is considered to be the best example of its type in the world. It extends from 6,096m
below sea level to 4,103m above. These are among the world’s most active volcanoes and exhibit
constantly changing features especially from the two principal rift zones featuring extensive
recent flows. Since 1969 new flows have spread to 78 sq. km. of the park and added more than
81ha of new land to the island. This activity continues. An unusual feature in the park is an area
which has sunk 3.4m into the sea as a result of an earthquake several years ago. The Halemaumau
fire pit was a continuously active lava lake into the early 1900s and others existed along the East
Rift. Eruptive activity, which began in January 1983 in the East Rift Zone, continues at frequent
intervals and has produced extensive new lava flows and a 300m high cinder cone.
Climate The weather is dominated by north-east trade winds. Windward mid-slopes receive a
mean annual rainfall of 3810mm, and leeward areas receive only 10% of that amount. Such
extremes of annual average precipitation produces dramatic climatic and life-zone gradients.
Annual average temperatures range from 22C at sea level to 7C at 3,400m. The summit of Mauna
Loa is cooler still.
Vegetation The park contains a high diversity of plant communities with striking life-form and
physiognomic differences. Doty and Mueller-Dombois (1966) have identified 23 distinct
vegetation types in five major ecological zones, varying from rain forest to desert scrub and
coastal strand to alpine. The spectrum of environments occurring in the tropics, from persistently
wet to seasonably wet, to dry is found in Hawaii, and account for the vegetative diversity. The
range of environments results from temperature and moisture gradients associated with elevation
and exposure differences. Volcanism enhances vegetative diversity, resulting in a mosaic of
successional and climax stages in all park environments.
Endemism rates in flowering plants are extraordinarily high (95%) because of geographic
isolation. Characteristic of islands, the flora is impoverished relative to continental areas, with
greatest diversity in rain forest and lowest diversity in desert or alpine scrub. Similar to other
islands, ferns constitute a significant portion of the native flora, with tree fern-dominated rain
forest reaching its highest development in Hawaii in and adjacent to the park. With imperfect
isolation mechanisms and active speciation, species lines within many genera are difficult to
draw, presenting challenges for evolutionary biologists and systematists in Hawaii.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Introduced plants, stimulated and dispersed by introduced ungulates, have invaded all plant
communities. The park’s flora contains nearly twice as many non-native flowering plants as
native ones. Although some plant communities, especially those below 600m, have been
significantly impacted by introduced plants, others, particularly those above 1,500m, are
essentially native. A significant portion of the park’s flora is threatened by ungulates, introduced
plants and wildfire. There are 41 candidate endangered species, with an additional 40 species
considered to be rare, comprising 30% of the flowering plant flora of the park. Although several
introduced plant species threaten to seriously disrupt native plant communities, control
programmes are underway throughout the park for 41 localised species and in selected areas for
five widespread species.
Fauna Animal life is characterised by paucity of forms and by scarcity of native species. Except
for a single species of bat Lasiurus cinereus semotus, native mammalian forms are absent. Little
is known to date about invertebrate forms. Aquatic animals abound in the coastal water beyond
the park’s 48km coast boundary. Avian forms present interesting and significant examples of
adaptive radiation and of extinction. Most endemic avian species are rare or endangered. Species
which are formally listed in the US include Hawaiian goose, nene Branta sandvicensis (V), a
terrestrial non-migratory goose; Hawaiian hawk, ‘io Buteo solitarius; four honeycreepers, ‘akepa
Loxops coccinea; ‘akiapola‘au Hemignathus wilsoni; o‘u Psittirostra psittacea; and Hawaiian
creeper Oreomystis mana, Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia
sandwichensis, and short-eared owl, pueo Asio flammeus sandwichensis. Other endemic species
include Hawaiian thrush, omao Phaeornis obscurus; and four honeycreepers, ‘apapane
Himatione sanguinea; ‘elepaio Chasiempis sandwichensis; ‘amakihi Hemignathus virens; and
‘i‘iwi Vestiaria coccinea. Introduced pigs, cats, mongooses, dogs, birds, and innumerable
invertebrates have colonised parts of the park environment.
Cultural Heritage The park is rich in remains (88,654ha are included in Puna-Ka’u Historic
District) and particularly so along the coast with native villages, heiaus (temples), graves, paved
trails, canoe landings, petroglyphs, shelter caves, agricultural areas and two major archaeological
sites: Waha’ula Heiau ruins (constructed in 1275) and the Pu’u Loa Petroglyph Field, at 0.2ha
being the largest concentration of "rock carvings" in the park and representing early Hawaiian
culture. Following the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778-79, Christian influences started in
or around 1823, with churches and schools built and the introduction of cattle, goat, and pulu
(tree-fern product) harvesting and the encouragement of visitors. Extensive ruins of stone
structures dating back to the time of Pa’ao (a high priest) in 1275 are present.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Mauna Loa was first climbed in 1794 and, as a result of
descriptions written in 1823, Kilauea Volcano had become a tourist attraction by 1840. The first
Volcano House was constructed in 1866 and successive structures were built in 1877, 1893, and
1941 to serve volcano watching visitors. The 1877 construction is now used as the Volcano Art
Centre; the 1941 construction is the park’s only hotel. Present day facilities include the Volcano
House and two campgrounds. Hiking and fishing are two of the major activities.
Scientific Research and Facilities The park was previously used as a natural arboretum and a
centre for developing both native plant and tree nurseries and native seed sources, but the present
policy is for a reduction in threats from non-native elements and unaided natural processes, and
in fact there has been intensive study of native recolonisation and successions following
eruptions. The next three five-year research programmes will concentrate on the integration of
herbicidal and other control methods, long-term monitoring of effects on native plant species
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Hawaii
(and alien communities) and new herbicidal testing. There is a volcanic geological research
programme, directed by the US Geological Survey scientists based at the Hawaiian Volcano
Observatory (founded in 1912 on the rim of the Kilauea Caldera) and, as a result of work done
at the observatory over many years, Mauna Loa and Kilauea are the most studied and best
understood volcanoes in the world. The observatory has trained most of the volcanic scientists
in the world and developed research techniques that are now standard procedure. Research
conducted here has contributed to understanding of island building through volcanic processes.
The US Fish and Wildlife Service, the US Forest Service, and the National Park Service are
studying endangered birds, and there is a proposal to translocate the ’akiapola’au into the
koa-‘ohi‘a forest of the Mauna Loa section of the park. The University of Hawaii, together with
park staff, is studying exotic plants and animals and methods of their reduction and the restoration
of native species and many of the International Biological Program island ecosystem studies
were based here. The park maintains six weather stations which measure air temperature, rainfall,
wind speed, wind direction, and relative humidity, and six other stations covering rainfall. There
are programmes for the monitoring of feral goat, feral pig, and native Hawaiian goose movement
through the use of radio transmission collars and radio telemetry. Birds are reared and released
from pens outside the park, a programme undertaken in cooperation with the Hawaii Department
of Land and Natural Resources. In addition, there are several vegetation plots with transects and
three quality monitoring stations.
Conservation Value The park is managed to preserve its outstanding scenic, geological, and
biological values and to ensure its availability for public use and enjoyment.
Conservation Management Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is protected under 16 USC 1
(National Park Service Organic Act) and under the terms establishing the park as set out in 16
USC 395b, and under several sections of 16 USC 391-396a which specifically pertain to
Haleakala. Section 394 states that "The regulations promulgated shall provide for the
preservation from injury of all timber, birds, mineral deposits, and natural curiosities or wonders
within said park, and their retention in their natural condition as nearly as possible," while Section
395c states that "All hunting or the killing, wounding, or capturing at any time of any wild bird
or animal, except dangerous when it is necessary to prevent them from destroying human lives
or inflicting personal injury, is prohibited within the limits of said park in any other way than by
hook and line, and then only at such seasons and in such times and manner as may be directed
by the Secretary of the Interior."
The construction of goat and pig fencing, control of feral pigs in newly fenced units and the
maintenance of these structures are the top three management priorities. Feral pig control is
conducted in 140ha to 1,900ha fenced units. The other important management goal is controlling
non-native species and active management to reduce negative effects of invasions by feral
ungulates and alien plants, especially in relatively intact ecosystems. Widespread alien species
control is, however, restricted by current or expected staffing and funding levels. A modest plant
control research programme has produced safe, cost-effective herbicidal control methods for five
alien species in near-native ecosystems. For administrative purposes the park is divided into two
segments; the summits and parts of the flanks of volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea covering
84,033ha; and the ’Ola’a Forest Tract, containing 3,907ha, the latter separated from the major
sector by several small parcels of private land, although a land exchange has been authorised by
Congress and is in progress. The tract is managed for conservation and its protection status is
enhanced under the auspices of the Department of Natural Resources. Act of Congress formally
designated 57% as Wilderness lands (P L 95-625). The park is divided into three land use zones:
primary use zone for concentrated visitor use, interpretive programmes such as the Crater Rim
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Summit loop drive, the Chain of Craters Road corridor, and the Waha’ula Visitor Center areas;
wilderness threshold zone, comprising a self-guiding nature area used almost exclusively by local
island residents and off-island visitors who rent vehicles; and backcountry zone, the largest and
least used zone. There is a special emphasis on the delineation, study and management of special
ecological areas. These are areas largely intact, representing important ecosystems, containing
rare and/or diverse components, and are manageable and of educational potential. Taking of wild
pigs (and goats) by local residents is permitted and control methods, including fencing, baiting,
trapping, snaring and hunting, have resulted in improved conditions in a 4,000ha area of the park.
There are mammal control efforts in the petrel colonies in the park. Threats from geothermal
development on adjacent lands and the intrusiveness of helicopter overflights have been reduced
through political pressure. The ’Ola’a Forest Tract is owned by and is under the protective
custody of the National Park Service although it is not legally part of the national park itself.
Management Constraints Direct removal or alteration of native forest for sugar and pineapple
plantations, ranching and logging, has altered the native biota of the forest habitats, particularly
at low and middle elevations of the Hawaiian Islands. These have been most impacted and the
prospects for restoration are least encouraging. However, other areas are recovering and studies
show that exotics can be controlled and biological integrity restored. Ranching activities and the
introduction of species such as pig Sus scrofa (4,000 at a density of 30-50 pigs per sq. km.) and
goat Capra hircus have been largely eliminated from the park’s lowlands by fencing park
boundaries, construction of barrier fences and by organising hunts (previously 15,000-20,000
now 10 individuals within marked areas and a total of 100 animals residing in the park). The
presence of mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus has had serious biological consequences,
including destruction of native ecosystems and widespread extinction of endemic species. Pox
and malaria disease reservoirs in domestic birds is an added threat. Pockets of standing water,
created by the wallowing of feral pigs, provide breeding places for mosquitoes and result in
serious avian malaria. Approximately 475 non-native plant species occur in the park and at least
40 of these are known to invade native ecosystems. The spread of non-native plant species is
also attributed to dispersion by feral pigs, and to cohort die-back in which large areas of dead
trees are subject to invasion by alien species, a situation particular to ’ohi’a. Non-native species
(on the islands as a whole) outnumber native species by two to one. Mongooses, cats, dogs, and
several species of alien birds and insects continue to disrupt native ecosystems. Argentine ant
Iridomyrmex humilis is a pest (especially around human settlements) and is spreading in native
ecosystems. All eleven major ecological zones in the park have alien plant problems. Those
species currently being controlled in special ecological areas include Psidium cattleianum,
Hedychium gardnerianum, Linociera ligustrina, and Tropaeolum majus. Other ubiquitous aliens
include Pennisetum setaceum and Myrica faya. The effect of the presence of Kilauea Military
Camp is unknown. The park boundaries were drawn primarily to include recent lava flows and
the summits of the volcanoes, hence only including a limited area of potential species diversity.
Staff In 1987 there were 10 permanent staff on resource management/research and about 20
permanent less than full time, 39 seasonal and 50 members from the Young Adult Conservation
Corps (YACC). Individual positions include management ecologist, chief park interpreter,
research scientist, and Pacific area archaeologist.
Budget The park received an annual base budget of US$ 2.5 million in 1991. Additional
biological research programme was about US$ 500,000 (1990) and cultural research programme
was US$ 110,000 (1990).
Local Addresses Superintendent, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, PO Box 52, Hawaii
National Park, HI 96718
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Hawaii
References
Anon. (1970). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park Master Plan. US Department of the Interior,
National Park Service, revised 1973.
Anon. (1973). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii, Natural Resources Management Plan
and Program. Revised/updated in 1978, 1980, annually since 1982 with latest version,
March 1985.
Anon. (1984). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii, Natural Resources Management
Program. November 1984 update. An Addendum to the Natural Resources Management
Plan.
Carlquist, S. (1980). Hawaii: A Natural History. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii: Pacific Tropical
Botanical Garden, Honolulu. 463 pp.
Cuddihy, L.W. and Stone, C.P. (1990). Alteration of native hawaiian vegetation; effects of
humans, their activities and introduction. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit. 138 pp.
Degner, O.M. (1973). Plants of Hawaii National Park. Braun-Brumfield, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Doty, M. S. and Mueller-Dombois, D. (1966). Atlas Bioecological Studies at Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. Hawaii Botanical Science Paper No. 2. University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 507 pp.
Jacoby, J.D. (1989). Vegetation maps of the upland plant communities of the Islands of Hawaii,
Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources
Studies Unit.
MacDonald, G.A. and Abbott, A.T. and Peterson, F.L. (1983). Volcanoes in the Seas: The
Geology of Hawaii. Second Edition. University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii. 400 pp.
Stone, C.P. and Holt, R.A. (1987). Managing the invasions of alien ungulates and plants in
Hawaii’s natural areas.Unpublished report. 23 pp.
Stone, D.P. and Keith, J.O. (1987). Control of feral ungulates and small mammals in Hawaii’s
national parks: research and management. In: Richards, C.G.J. and Ku, J. Y. (Eds), Control
of mammal pests. Supplement 1. Tropical Pest Management 32: 277-287.
Smart, C.D. (1965). The Archaeological Resources of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Department of Anthropology, Bernice P. Bishop Museum. 112 pp.
Smathers, G.A. and Mueller-Dombois, D. (1973). Invasion and Recovery of Vegetation After a
Volcanic Eruption in Hawaii. National Park Service Scientific Monograph Series No. 3.
US National Park Service, Washington DC.
Date 1980, updated 1991
KALAUPAPA NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location Includes the entire Kalaupapa Peninsula and adjoining cliffs of the
north shore of Molokai, Hawaii. Approximately 21°11’N, 157°10’W
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Date and History of Establishment Established on 22 December 1980 as a national historical
park by the US Congress on lands owned by the State of Hawaii (although a large parcel of the
state land is also "Hawaiian Homes Lands" for native Hawaiians).
Altitude Below sea level to 1,287m
Area 4,300ha land, and about 810ha water
Land Tenure 10ha federal in fee; 30ha private; the rest is the State of Hawaii (of which about
500ha is Hawaiian Homes Land)
Physical Features Within the park is the entire Kalaupapa Peninsula, a small shield volcano
built against the base of the Molokai’s great north shore sea cliff. Within the park are those
portions of the sea cliff that abut the peninsula, a few sea stacks, three stream valleys penetrating
the sea cliff, and the adjoining sea habitats.
Climate No information
Vegetation The entire area has a long period of intense human use; hence, little natural habitats
remain. Fine remnants of native vegetation systems remain in an upland near the head of Waikolu
Valley (and is part of the State of Hawaii Natural Area Reserve System), and all along the ocean
strand.
Fauna Unfortunately, now fairly large populations of feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle (all
introduced) dominate the landscape and the vegetation composition. Although technical
solutions exist to the problem, the complex jurisdictions foreclose serious attempts to correct the
matter on a broad scale.
Cultural Heritage The entire site is on the National Register of Historic Places. More than 200
National Register historic structures remain, including Father Damien’s Church. Extensive
prehistoric Hawaiian sites are found throughout the park.
Local Population There are about 90 remaining Hansen’s Disease patients, and a State
Department of Health staff of 30 who still reside at Kalaupapa Settlement within the park.
Visitors And Visitor Facilities There are no visitor facilities at present. For the life of the
remaining Hansen’s Disease patients, the number of visitors to the park is limited to 100 per day.
Scientific Research And Facilities The Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit
(CPSU) at the University of Hawaii has produced numerous technical reports concerning the
components of the park’s ecosystems. This research is continuing.
Conservation Value Principally cultural
Conservation Management All the lands within park boundaries are under the jurisdiction of
the State of Hawaii Director of Health as a Hansen’s Disease (Leprosy) Settlement. The national
park operates on a long-term "cooperative agreement" with the State Director of Health to
continue the Settlement for the life of the last present patients and to concurrently begin operating
it as a national historical park. There are currently active negotiations between the Hawaii Homes
Commission and the National Park Service for the park to lease the Hawaiian Homes Lands
within the park. Although unclear, this legal protection is working in practice.
Through cooperative agreements and contracts, Kalaupapa is jointly administered, by the State
of Hawaii Department of Health for patient medical matters, and by the National Park Service
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relating to park and historic preservation matters. No new patients are assigned to Kalaupapa.
Over time, administration of the area will shift to the National Park Service.
Management Constraints No information
Staff The staff consists of a superintendent, four permanent, and five seasonal employees. The
staff is expanding in numbers.
Budget The base operating budget in FY 1991 is US$ 959,000.
Local Addresses National Park Service, Pacific Area Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room
6305, Box 50165, Honolulu, HI 96850
References
Asherman, K.E., Crummerr, J.M. and Lau, J.Q.C. (1990). A Botanical Reconnaissance of
Kalaupapa National Historical Park, November 17-December 5, 1989. Draft. 30 pp.
Linney, G. and Funk, E. (1986). Botanical Survey of Kauhako Crater, Kalaupapa National
Historical Park. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. University of Hawaii.
Draft report, miméo. 22 pp.
National Park Service (1984). Cultural Resources Management Plan, Kalaupapa National
Historical Park. Kalaupapa National Historical Park. Miméo. 85 pp.
Soulliere, L. E. and Law, H.G. (1977). Building Inventory, Kalaupapa. Western Regional Office,
National Park Service. 3 Vols.
Date February 1991
KALOKO-HONOKOHAU NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location On the west shore of the Island of Hawaii at about 19°42’N and 156°5’W
Date and History of Establishment Established as a national historical park by Public Law
92-346 on 11 July 1972
Area About 266ha land and 204ha water
Land Tenure All but about 10 ha are in either Federal or State ownership.
Altitude From below sea level to about 29m above mean high tide
Physical Features The park comprises low lava flows along the sea at the warm, dry side of
Hawaii. There are three pre-historic man-made fish ponds here, and hundreds of associated
archaeological features.
Climate No information
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Vegetation Except for the native and typical strand vegetation, nearly all other plant
communities are alien.
Fauna The ponds, particularly Aimakapa, are exceptional water and shore bird habitats. Two
endangered birds, Hawaiian coot Fulica alai and Hawaiian stilt Himantopus mexicanus knudseni,
nest here in abundance.
Cultural Heritage The entire park is a designated a national historic landmark and is on the
National Register of Historic Places. It is noted for its great number of archaeological sites
associated with the fishponds.
Local Human Population The park is in the city of Kailua-Kona, a place of ethnic mix and
diversity.
Visitors And Visitor Facilities It is a day-use area. A variety of accommodations and services
is available nearby at Kailua-Kona.
Scientific Research And Facilities The Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit
(CPSU) at the University of Hawaii has produced numerous technical reports concerning the
components of the park’s ecosystems. This research is continuing.
Conservation Value The park is noted for its great number of archaeological sites associated
with the fishponds.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff A local superintendent with four permanent and about five seasonal staff.
Budget Annual base operations appropriation in 1991 was US$ 296,000. Additionally, about
US$ 70,000 a year is spent on biological research and resource management.
References
Honokohau Study Advisory Commission (1974). Kaloko Honokohau. National Park Service.
US Department of the Interior. 85 pp.
National Park Service (1990). Resource Management Plan. Kaloko-Honokohau National
Historical Park. 103 pp.
Date February 1991
PU’UHONUA O HONAUNAU NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK
(FORMERLY THE CITY OF REFUGE NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK)
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
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Hawaii
Geographical Location Pu’uhonua o Hononaunau lies on the western slope of Mauna Loa, on
the south shore of Honaunau Bay of western Hawaii island (County of Hawaii). Approximately
19°26’N, 155°55’W.
Date And History Of Establishment The site was set aside as a national historical park by
Congress on 1 July 1961 (City of Refuge National Historical Park) and renamed Pu’uhonua o
Honaunau National Historical Park on 10 November 1978.
Area 73 ha
Land Tenure Federal Government
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features The park consists of a generally flat coastal area comprising lava formations,
predominantly pahoehoe and a’a types, with occasional pockets of soil material. The shoreline
is flat with many small inlets and patches of sand, rubble, and fringing coral reefs (Anon., 1981).
Climate The average annual temperature is 31°C and the minimum is 18°C, with a diurnal range
of 6°C. The mean annual rainfall is 508mm, with a rainy season from May to September and
hurricane season from June-December. Storms move through the area more frequently from
December to February, bringing high seas, wind and rain from the west and south. Tsunami (tidal
waves) occur infrequently in the Kona Coast.
Vegetation The coastal vegetation of Honaunau Bay is predominantly xerophytic scrub with
some trees, characterised by ekoa Leucaena leucocephala thicket and uncleared opiuma/ekoa
scrub forest. Common plants are passion flower Passiflora sp., morning glory Jpomoea sp., sword
fern Nephrolepis sp., garden spurge Euphorbia hirta, Madagascar periwinkle Catharanthus
roseus and klu Acacia farnesiana. The grass present is mostly red top Rhynchelytrum repens,
noni Morinda citrifolia, hala Pandanus odoratissimus and kou Cordia subcordata. Sedge
Fimbristylis cymosa grows in pockets in the pahoehoe lava close to the sea, and another sedge,
“ahu‘awa Cyperus sp., grows around the brackish pools. The dominant grass is Bermuda grass
Cynodon dectylon (Yen, 1971; Anon., 1981).
Fauna Introduced mammals are plentiful, with mongoose Herpestes griseus, house mouse Mus
musculus, black rat Rattus rattus, and brown rat R. norvegicus. Birds present are the kolea or
Pacific golden plover Pluvialis dominica, ‘akekeke or ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres and
the less abundant ulili or wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus. Common but introduced birds
are turtle dove Streptopelia sp. and Brazilian cardinal Caryothraustes sp. Three species of
geckoes and three species of skinks are known from the park.
Of a total of 609 insect species recorded for the Kona district, only 150 species have been
collected here (72 species are considered native). The ant species Pheidole megacophala is
abundant and has caused the destruction of countless endemic species, especially beetles. The little
silk-spinning embiid has been sighted in the park and is common in the drier lowlands.
Leafhoppers collected in the park are endemic. Only one species of the many native damselflies has
been collected at Honaunau. This species is common and often found from sea level up to the native
forest on the hill slopes. Except for an endemic species of wood borer, all 23 species of beetles from
the park area are non native. Cockroaches, flies and termites thrive in the warm, humid climate.
Cultural Heritage The prime cultural features of the park include the Pu’uhonua sanctuary
building, the temple of Hale o Keawe and Ki’ilae village. The park encompasses a restored
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traditional Hawaiian village and the spiritual sanctuary where defeated warriors or people who
had broken sacred laws could be absolved and allowed a fresh start in the community. The Ki’ ilae
village was completely abandoned in 1926.
Local Human Population The nearby village is still inhabited by indigenous Hawaiians who
continue to practise traditional crafts and skills such as weaving mats and night fishing.
Visitors And Visitor Facilities There are 350,000 visitors annually. The heaviest period of use
is usually mid-day and the pattern is generally an orientation talk, a pre-arranged tour of the
palace grounds, demonstrations of traditional Hawaiian activities and visits to Hale o Keawe and
the Place of Refuge. There are three visitor centres, museums, and horse trails.
Scientific Research and Facilities A Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit with
assistance from the University of Hawaii, Manoa campus, conducts some research.
Researchers at Mauka Botanical Gardens develop and grow native Hawaiian plants for
re-introduction into the park.
Conservation Values The park has been established to "preserve through public ownership and
as part of the American national park system the historical ruins as well as other nearby prehistoric
features"
Conservation Management With the aim to return the landscape to its late 18th century
appearance, the authorities have embarked on a limited programme to clear exotic plants from
around the ruins. By the early 1980s 23ha of land had been cleared of exotic plants such as ekoa
Leucaena glauca, opiuma Pithecellobium dulce, christmasberry Schinus terenthifolia, and kiawe
Prosopis pallida.
Administration of the park is coordinated by the National Park Service and the US Department
of the Interior. The park authorities work in close association with the Waimea Hawaiian Civic
Club and the Hawaii Natural History Association.
Management Constraints No information
Staff In 1990 there were ten permanent full-time staff and five permanent part-time staff.
Budget US$ 601,000 budgeted for fiscal year 1991
Local Addresses Superintendent, Pu’uhonua o Honaunau NHP, P O Box 129, Honaunau, Kona,
HI 96726 (also administers Pu’ukohola Heiau National Historic Site)
References
Bryan, E.H., Wentworth, C.K., Greenwell, A., Neal, M.C., Suehiro, A. and Kay, A. (1957). The
natural and cultural history of Honaunau. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii.
221 pp.
Emory, K. P., Stokes, J.F.G., Barrere, D.B., and Kelly, M.A. (1957). The Natural and Cultural
History of Honaunau, Kona, Hawaii. Volume Two. The Cultural History of Honaunau.
Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. 247 pp.
Yen, D.C. (1971). An ethnobotanical survey of the National Parks at Honaunau and Kalapana
on the Island of Hawaii, and Kipahulu, Maui. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 26 pp.
Date August 1987, revised February 1991
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Hawaii
STATE NATURAL AREA RESERVES:
Summary Information
Source: State of Hawaii, Natural Area Reserves System, Biological Resources and Management
Priorities, Appendices (1989)
AHIHI-KINAU
Island Maui
Size 501ha land, 327ha marine
Altitude Below sea level-152m
Year established 1973
Description Set on the most recent historic lava flow on Maui, Ahihi-Kinau contains anchialine
pools with a high diversity of rare Hawaiian shrimps, and a unique lava tube community that
provides habitat for native Hawaiian cave animals. The marine portion is not characterised here.
Natural communities comprise high salinity lava anchialine pool, Meioneta/Hawaiioscia
lowland lava tube, ’Akulikuli coastal dry herbland, Cacenomobius coastal mesic boulder beach,
low salinity lava anchialine pool and pioneer vegetation on lava. There are 21 native plant taxa,
and 14 native animal taxa.
Management Preserving the integrity of anchialine pools is a major management focus. The
main threats to pools are non-native plants on pool margins, excessive algal mat formation,
introduced fish or invertebrates, and bathing or swimming in the pools. Recommended
management includes erecting new signs to inform people of the unique nature of the pools and
the need to protect them, controlling and monitoring invasive weeds such as sour bush and
mangrove, and removal and monitoring of non-native fish such as mosquito-fish or tilapia. Lava
tubes will not be made accessible to the general public. Guidelines for scientific work in the lava
tubes should be established. Much of the reserve’s vegetation is non-native dominated.
HANAWI
Island Maui
Size 3,036ha
Altitude 610m-2,286m
Year established 1986
Description This reserve extends into subalpine zones of East Maui and includes arare subalpine
grassland, as well as shrublands and montane wet forests. These forests are valuable watershed,
contain rare plants, and provide essential habitat for the state’s largest concentration of rare and
endangered Hawaiian birds. Natural communities comprise Deschampsia nubigena subalpine
mesic grassland, ’Akala montane wet shrubland, Carex alligata montane wet grassland,
Hawaiian intermittent stream, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland wet forest, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane
wet cliff, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest,
*Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest, "Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, Pukiawe subalpine dry
shrubland and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 15 native plant taxa and one native animal
taxa.
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Management The top priority for management is feral pig control. Barrier fences are
recommended to create 623ha of controlled management units in the upper part of the reserve.
An intensive programme of snaring and hunting is recommended for these units. Public and staff
hunting is planned for the rest of the reserve. Monitoring is recommended for pig control and to
track special resources, such as endangered birds, including the Po’ouli. Another aspect of
management is tracking potential weed threats and identifying necessary action such as removal
of blackberry from the Puu Alaea area. Also recommended is an increased public education
programme.
HONO O NA PALI
Island Kauai
Size 1,275ha
Altitude Near sea level-1,280m
Year established 1983
Description Streams and forested valleys of the Na Pali cliffs feed from a remote plateau. The
reserve includes two rare communities (a bog and a stream), as well as representative coastal,
lowland and montane communities. Rare plants and a possible nesting site for Hawaiian
dark-rumped petrel are also known from this reserve. Natural communities comprise Hawaiian
continuous perennial stream, ’Ohi’a mixed montane bog, Hala coastal mesic forest, Hawaiian
intermittent stream, Kawelu coastal dry grassland, Kawelu lowland mesic grassland,
Lama/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, ’Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa
montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There
are 214 native plant taxa and 14 native animal taxa.
Management Feral goats are the major threat to the lower elevations while pigs constitute the
greatest threat to the upland plateau. Goat and pig control is recommended. Short fences may be
required in the lower unit to limit goat movements. A goat exclosure is recommended to assess
their impact on native vegetation. Priority weed management is recommended, especially for
Clidemia, blackberry, firebush, and banana poka. Monitoring programmes are recommended to
assess ungulate and weed control and native species affected. Public education and volunteer
work activities are feasible along the Kalalau trail.
KAENA POINT
Island Oahu
Size Sha
Altitude Sea level-6m
Year established 1983
Description This small reserve includes coastal communities on the western-most point of Oahu,
and provides habitat for rare coastal plants. Natural communities comprise Naupaka mixed
coastal dry shrubland, Cacenomobius coastal mesic boulder beach, ’Ilima mixed coastal dry
shrubland and Naupaka coastal dry shrubland. There are 50 native plant taxa and 9 native animal
taxa.
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Management A barrier has been established to exclude off-road vehicles, which have damaged
the dune ecosystem. Monitoring will be necessary to maintain the barrier, evaluate regeneration
of native communities, and control target weeds. Not all weeds can be removed, especially in
non-native dominated areas, but the most intact areas should be kept weed free. The ’ohai
Sesbania tomentosa population needs monitoring. Other proposed management includes
interpretive signs, fire control and community volunteer programmes.
KAHAUALEA
Island Hawaii
Size 6,772ha
Altitude 518m-1,067m
Year established 1987
Description Kahaualea includes representatives of pioneer vegetation on lava flows, lowland
rain forest and mesic forest in the Puna District. It includes the largest known populations of a
federally endangered fern Adenophorus periens, as well as the currently active flows of the Puu
Oo vent. Natural communities comprise ’Ohi’a/Hapu’u lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Hapu’u
montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe
montane wet forest, pioneer vegetation on lava. There are one native plant taxa and seven native
animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs and cattle are high priority management concerns. Public and staff
hunting should be increased. Programmes to control ungulates may include enhanced access via
new trails, and fencing around key management areas. Stepped up control of marijuana and
prosecution of growers is recommended to allow hunters and the public safe access to the reserve.
A maintained trail to Puu Oo is recommended. Target weeds include Clidemia, golden Himalayan
raspberry, palm grass, Tibouchina, and strawberry guava. Systematic monitoring will be needed
to assess needs and effectiveness of a pig and weed control programme.
KIPAHOEHOE
Island Hawaii
Size 2,260ha
Altitude Near sea level-1,676m
Year established 1983
Description A narrow piece of land running down the south-west slopes of Mauna Loa in the
district of South Kona, Kipahoehoe includes a rare lowland grassland, as well as mesic and wet
forests of ’ohi’a and koa. Recent volcanic flows run through the reserve, leaving a variety of
different aged communities. Natural communities comprise Pili lowland dry grassland,
Fimbristylis coastal dry grassland, Koa/’Ohi’a montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland dry forest,
*Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, pioneer vegetation on lava,
uncharacterised lowland lava tube and uncharacterised montane lava tube. There are 117 native
plant taxa and 8 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs and goats constitute the most severe threats to this reserve. Management
will consist of fencing management units, snaring, staff hunting in key units and increased public
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hunting in others. To increase public hunting, a programme of better access through easements,
trails and special hunts are recommended. Systematic monitoring will assess changes in ungulate
damage, recovery of native vegetation and status of rare plants. Management of priority weeds
such as fountain grass can be part of a public education and volunteer programme.
KUIA
Island Kauai
Size 662ha
Altitude 671m-1,189m
Year established 1981
Description The mesic forests of north-eastern Kokee contain a large number of native tree
species, including a rare red-flowered Hawaiian tree cotton. Natural communities comprise
Kauai diverse lowland mesic forest, Koa/’Ohi’a mixed montane mesic forest, ’A’ali’i lowland
dry shrubland, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest and ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest. There are
160 native plant taxa and 9 native animal taxa.
Management Goats and deer are damaging the lowland forests while pigs constitute the biggest
threat to upland forests. No fencing or snaring is practical at this time. Instead, a programme of
increased public and staff hunting is recommended. Other management recommendations
include increased access, an open hunting season within the reserve, and removing bag limits
for hunting in the reserve. Priority weeds can be removed from areas of fairly intact native forest
only. Target weeds are banana poka, lantana, blackberry, firebush, karaka nut, silk oak, and
strawberry guava. Stakeout and prosecution of marijuana growers are recommended to curtail
incipient growing activities.
LAUPAHOEHOE
Island Hawaii
Size 3,196ha
Altitude 579m-1,420m
Year established 1983
Description On the slopes of windward Mauna Kea, Laupahoehoe includes examples of wet
montane forests of ’ohi’a and koa. The poorly drained portions contain wet grasslands and small
montane lakes. Numerous streams run through the reserve. Natural communities comprise Carex
alligata montane wet grassland, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Hawaiian montane lake,
Koa/’Ohi’a montane wet forest, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, ’Ohi’a/Hapu’u lowland wet
forest, "Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 140 native
plant taxa and 9 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs constitute the most severe management threat. Recommended action
will begin with increased public hunting through enhanced access roads and trails. Special hunts
and an active deputy hunter programme should enhance staff hunting efforts for pig reduction.
In a second phase, snaring in the more remote areas should keep pig populations low. Priority
weeds targeted for removal include Clidemia, blackberry, golden Himalayan raspberry, and palm
grass. Emergent Ficus rubiginosa trees should be girdled. Systematic monitoring will track
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changes in pig populations and key weeds. Public education and a volunteer support group are
also recommended.
MANUKA
Island Hawaii
Size 10,344ha
Altitude Near sea level-1,684m
Year established 1983
Description On the flank of leeward Mauna Loa in South Kona, Manuka encompasses a wide
range of habitats. These include subalpine shrublands and forests, mesic montane kipuka forests,
wet montane forests, lowland mesic forests and lowland dry forests. Recent lava flows add a
variety of pioneer vegetation types, as well as uncharacterised and unsurveyed lava tubes.
Concentrations of the Hawaiian hoary bat occur in the area. A rare lowland grassland and
anchialine pools are included as well. Natural communities comprise Koa/’Ohi’a mixed montane
mesic forest, high salinity lava anchialine pool, Pili lowland dry grassland, ’A’ali’i lowland dry
shrubland, Fimbristylis coastal dry grassland, ’Ilima coastal dry shrubland, Lama lowland dry
forest, Lama/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, low salinity lava anchialine pool, ’Ohi’a lowland dry
forest, "Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, Ohi’a montane mesic forest, ’Ohi’a subalpine dry forest,
pioneer vegetation on lava, Pukiawe subalpine dry shrubland, ?uncharacterised lowland lava
tube, and uncharacterised montane lava tube. There are 187 native plant taxa and 7 native animal
taxa.
Management Staff control of feral pigs at higher elevations and of goats at lower elevations will
be aided by new trails planned for the reserve. Priority weeds include fountain grass, cat’s claw,
banana poka, and Passiflora suberosa. Maintaining the current marijuana control programme is
recommended. Illegal harvesting of native hardwoods from the reserve should be halted through
stepped up enforcement. Systematic monitoring of ungulate and weed control is needed. The
impact of non-native plant species spreading from Manuka State Park should be studied. Guppies
in anchialine pools should be removed as soon as possible.
MAUNA KEA ICE AGE
Island Hawaii
Size 1,577ha
Altitude 3,048m-4,097m
Year established 1981
Description Sparsely vegetated cinder and lava deserts on the southern summit flank of Mauna
Kea include two rare communities: an invertebrate-dominated aeolian desert and the state’s only
alpine lake. Important archaeological and geological features are also present. Natural
communities comprise Hawaiian alpine aeolian desert, Hawaiian alpine lake, ’Ohi’a subalpine
dry forest and Pukiawe subalpine dry shrubland. There are four native plant taxa, and two native
animal taxa.
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Management Managers will need to monitor vehicular trespass, litter and chemical leakage
from nearby buildings, and disturbances associated with continued expansion of summit
astronomical facilities.
MOUNT KAALA
Island Oahu
Size 445ha
Altitude 366m-1,219m
Year established 1981
Description Several wet and mesic shrubland and forest communities typical of the central
Waianae Mountains are found on the wet, flat summit and northern valleys of Mt. Kaala. Among
them are two rare lowland forest communities. Rare plants and snails are also known from the
reserve. Natural communities comprise Lonomea lowland dry forest, Oahu diverse lowland
mesic forest, ’A’ali’i lowland dry shrubland, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland
mesic forest, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff,
*Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane
wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 208
native plant taxa, and 11 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs are a problem in gulches and upper flats. Public and staff hunting will
be increased. Fences are recommended for the summit plateau unit. A management trail is
recommended along the lower contour and easier access to the area via permits is needed. Stray
cattle should be removed from the reserve by ranch personnel. More surveying is recommended
to identify the most intact areas of lowland mesic and dry native forests and only in these areas
are weeds to be removed and kept under control. Target weeds include blackberry, Clidemia,
toon, and Christmas berry. No weed control is recommended for areas dominated by non-native
vegetation.
OLOKUI
Island Molokai
Size 656ha
Altitude Near sea level-1,403m
Year established 1985
Description An isolated plateau set between two of Molokai’s largest and most undisturbed
streams. A pre-dawn infra-red helicopter survey confirmed that the plateau of Olokui remains
one of the few rain forest areas in the state still free from feral ungulates. It is exceptionally intact
as a result, providing examples of native communities and essential forest bird habitat. Rare
snails were observed during a 1989 survey. Natural communities comprise Hawaiian intermittent
stream, Hawaiian mixed shrub coastal dry cliff, Kawelu coastal dry grassland, Lama/’Ohi’a
lowland mesic forest, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff, ?Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane
wet forest, Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, "Ohi’a/Uluhe
montane wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 150 native plant taxa, and nine
native animal taxa.
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Management No feral ungulates have been detected from the summit, which is astoundingly
pristine. Management will concentrate on keeping ungulates from reaching the summit area.
Short fences placed in critical locations are recommended for potential access ridges. Human
access trails to the summit from lower areas should be prohibited. Restricting access will prevent
people from spreading weed seeds. Some monitoring will be needed to keep track of noxious
weeds and ungulates. Aerial hunting is recommended to immediately reduce animal populations
in both Wailau and Pelekunu valleys.
PAHOLE
Island Oahu
Size 266ha
Altitude 335m-792m
Year established 1981
Description A rare dry forest and a rare mesic forest occur in Pahole Valley in the Northern
Waianae Mountains, famous for its botanical richness. In the native communities are many rare
plants and endangered tree snails. Natural communities comprise Lonomea lowland dry forest,
Oahu diverse mesic forest, ’A’ali’i lowland dry shrubland, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest,
*Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland mesic forest, and Hawaiian intermittent stream. Native plants comprise
168 taxa, and native animals 10 taxa.
Management Feral pig control is recommended. Weed control is the highest priority in this
reserve. Weeds are widespread and only the most intact pockets of native forest or rare native
species will receive weed control. Weeds such as Christmas berry, Lantana, and various
non-native trees and grasses are targeted. An education and volunteer programme is
recommended to provide the labour needed to protect and manage key management units.
Predation on endangered tree snails by rats and the non-native snail Euglandina should be
monitored.
PUU ALII
Island Molokai
Size 538ha
Altitude 762m-1,287m
Year established 1985
Description A representative portion of the Molokai summit, Puu Alii lies between Pelekunu
and Waikolu valleys. Its wet plateau is good forest bird habitat and an important part of Molokai’s
watershed. Natural communities comprise Hawaiian intermittent stream, mixed fern/mixed
shrub montane wet cliff, ’Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland,
*Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet
forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 157 native plant taxa, 10 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs and goats represent the biggest threat to the integrity of this remote
reserve. Recommended management action calls for fencing to divide the reserve into two units.
Snaring and hunting by staff hunters are recommended on both sides of the fence. Goat hunting
will be concentrated on the drier ridges and slopes. New management trails and two shelters are
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also recommended. Monitoring will be needed to maintain fences, assess ungulate control, locate
target weeds, and check status of rare species.
PUU MAKAALA
Island Hawaii
Size 4,901ha
Altitude 914m-1,682m
Year established 1981
Description The wet koa and ’ohi’a forests of this reserve on the north-east flank of Mauna Loa
are important habitat for some of Hawaii’s rarest birds, as well as several rare plants. A montane
wet grassland occurs in the poorly drained portions of the reserve. Natural communities comprise
Carex alligata montane wet grassland, Koa/’Ohi’a montane wet forest and ’Ohi’a/Hapu’u
montane wet forest. There are 176 native plant taxa and 9 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pig control is the highest management priority. Barrier fences are
recommended to create five management units. Staff hunting and snaring within certain units
will be needed and continued public hunting outside those units is essential. Maintenance of the
fences and monitoring pig control is proposed. Also recommended is removal and monitoring
of weeds targeted for control. These priority weeds include yellow Himalayan raspberry,
blackberry, Clidemia, and firebush. Public education and a volunteer programme are also
recommended.
PUU O UMI
Island Hawaii
Size 4,106ha
Altitude Sea level-1,603m
Year established 1987
Description This reserve includes the wet summit lands of the Kohala Mountains, with two rare
kinds of montane bog surrounded by ’ohi’a forests, shrublands and grassland. The reserve
extends downslope to the Kohala sea cliffs and a coastal dry grassland there. Rare plants are
known from the bogs and forests. The steep cliffs of Waipio and Waimanu valleys form part of
the reserve boundary. Numerous streams run through the area. The reserve is an important
watershed for the region. Natural communities comprise mixed sedge and grass montane bog,
*Ohi’a mixed montane bog, Carex alligata montane wet grassland, Hawaiian intermittent stream,
Kawelu coastal dry grassland, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff, Naupaka coastal dry
shrubland, ’Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, "Ohi’a montane wet shrubland,
*Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet
forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 124 native plants taxa and seven native animal
taxa.
Management Pig control via fencing, snaring, hunting by staff, and public hunting is needed.
Managers will improve access, enhance trail systems, and establish shelters and helipads. Fenced
management units will be monitored for pig damage, native vegetation recovery, and status of
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Tare species. Targeted priority weed species include broomsedge, gingers, palm grass,
blackberry, and banana poka. Alsorecommended is a public education and volunteer programme.
WAIAKEA 1942 LAVA FLOW
Island Hawaii
Size 259ha
Altitude 908m-1,036m
Year established 1974
Description A recent lava flow being recolonised by young ’ohi’a forest dominates this reserve,
providing good opportunities for the study of revegetation on lava flows. Natural communities
comprise ’Ohi’a/Uluhe montane wet forest and pioneer vegetation on lava flow. No data on
native plants and animals are available.
Management No management plans have been drafted for this reserve. Key threats have not
been confirmed, but weeds that typically compete with native species on pioneer lava substrates
may compromise the quality of this reserve.
WEST MAUI (Honokowai Section)
Island Maui
Size 304ha
Altitude 762m-1,764m
Year established 1986
Description One of four sections that make up West Maui Natural Area Reserve, the Honokowai
Section is on the wet upper northern slopes of the West Maui Mountains. The native communities
include two kinds of rare bogs, as well as wet forests, shrublands and a montane lake. This section
has watershed value and includes many rare plants. Natural communities comprise mixed sedge
and grass montane bog, ’Ohi’a mixed montane bog, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Hawaiian
montane Lake, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff,
*Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe
lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are
15 native plant taxa, and 9 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pig impact is the top management concern in this section. Strategic fencing,
staff hunting, and a snaring programme are recommended. Fence maintenance and ungulate
control monitoring will be needed. Priority weeds such as blackberry and Tibouchina need
removal and monitoring. A public education and volunteer programme may be established.
WEST MAUI (Kahakuloa Section)
Island Maui
Size 1,326ha
Altitude 305m-1,366m
Year established 1986
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Description One of four sections of West Maui Natural Area Reserve, the Kahakuloa Section
lies on wet, windward slopes of the West Maui Mountains. The plateau of Eke Crater is still
undisturbed by feral ungulates. This section includes the upper reaches of two perennial streams,
and includes a rare montane bog surrounded by ’ohi’a wet forests. This section also has watershed
value and includes many rare plants. Natural communities comprise Hawaiian continuous
perennial stream, ’Ohi’a mixed montane bog, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Hawaiian montane
Lake, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff, ’Ohi’a/mixed
shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest,
*Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are 15 native plant
taxa and 9 native animal taxa.
Management Feral pigs are the major threats to this section. Short fence sections have been
constructed to block ungulates from Mt Eke but other sections of fence are still needed. Pig
removal by snaring and hunting both inside and outside the fences seems a feasible strategy, but
fence maintenance and pig control monitoring are needed to assess results. Better access for
public hunting is needed for the lower elevation areas. Priority weeds such as Clidemia and
Tibouchina are targeted for management. An increased programme of public education and
volunteer help is recommended.
WEST MAUI (Lihau Section)
Island Maui
Size 389ha
Altitude 305m-1,279m
Year established 1986
Description The driest of the four sections of West Maui Natural Area Reserve, Lihau is a
steep-sloped volcanic remnant that extends from dry leeward lowlands to a wet summit with
cliffs on all sides. The 1988 survey indicated that the summit of Lihau remains ungulate-free. A
rare grassland and shrubland occur near the lower boundaries of the reserve, and many rare plants
are known from Lihau, including the federally endangered plant Gouania hillebrandii. Natural
communities comprise Ko’oko’olau lowland dry shrubland, Pili lowland dry grassland, ’A’ali’i
lowland dry shrubland, mixed femn/mixed shrub montane wet cliff, ’Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane
wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic shrubland, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest and ’Ohi’a/Uluhe
lowland mesic forest. There are 15 native plant taxa, and 9 native animal taxa.
Management No ungulates occur at the summit of Lihau and many areas appear pristine. Much
of the upper elevation areas are weed free. Recommended management includes monitoring of
priority weeds, especially those present in the lower elevation areas. No fencing is recommended.
Fire pre-suppression measures are recommended because of the potential for dry season fires.
WEST MAUI (Panaewa Section)
Island Maui
Size 695ha
Altitude 472m-1,591m
Year established 1986
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Description One of four sections of West Maui Natural Area Reserve, Panaewa includes a rare
montane bog, as well as representative ’ohi’a forests and shrublands. This section also includes
rare plants. Natural communities comprise ’Ohi’a mixed montane bog, Hawaiian intermittent
stream, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/mixed shrub montane wet cliff,
*>Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane
wet forest and ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest. There are 15 native plant taxa and 9 total native
animal taxa.
Management Few ungulates currently exist in this section and much of the upper area is
relatively pristine. No fencing is recommended, but staff control of ungulates is needed. Priority
weeds such as Tibouchia need control. Monitoring will be necessary to locate priority weeds and
remove them where found.
PRESERVES OF THE NATURE CONSERVANCY OF HAWAII:
Summary Information
Source: Preserves of The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, 1991
HONOULIULI PRESERVE
Island O’ahu
Size 1,495ha
Altitude 366m-945m
Year established 1990
Description Located on the south-east slope of the Waianae Mountains, Honouliuli Preserve is
home to more than 45 rare plant and animal species, and contains some of the last remaining
habitat on O’ahu for native forest birds. It protects three extremely rare Hawaiian plants, and
several species of land snails, two of which are endangered. Natural communities comprise
Kawelu lowland mesic grassland, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, Mamaki lowland wet
shrubland, O’ahu diverse lowland mesic forest, ’Ohi’a lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic
forest, "Ohi’a lowland mesic shrubland, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest and Lonomea lowland
dry forest. There are nine native communities, more than 100 plant species, and six upland bird
species.
Management Historic feral cattle and goat damage was followed by invasion by aggressive
alien plants. Management plans call for active weed control, restoration of rare lowland forest types,
protection of rare plants and endangered snails, and maintenance of intact native vegetation.
*THT? IHILAUAKEA PRESERVE
Island O’ahu
Size 12ha
Altitude 61m
Year 1987
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Description Located in a shallow crater on the dry south-east coastline above Hanauma Bay,
this preserve is a cooperative effort by The Nature Conservancy, the Hawaiian Botanical Society,
and the City and County of Honolulu to protect a one-of-a-kind vernal pool with anhydrobiotic
aquatic crustaceans, and a rare fern, *ihi’ihilauakea Marsilea villosa. Staff and volunteers
organise work parties on the preserve, which also serves as a site for public education
programmes. Natural communities comprise Ihilauakea lowland dry herbland and vernal pool.
There is one rare native community, approximately 12 native plant species. The number and
status of aquatic invertebrates uncertain.
Management Management plans call for protection of the site from off-road vehicle traffic, as
well as control of alien plants invading the Marsilea mats. Protection of the aquatic invertebrates
will be passive: use of chemical control of weeds will be minimised to avoid possible water
contamination.
KALUAHONU PRESERVE
Island Kaua’i
Size 86ha
Altitude 183m-457m
Year 1982
Description The preserve was established through a lease agreement with Grove Farm
Company. It protects the largest privately-owned nesting colony of the threatened Newell’s
shearwater or ’a’o Puffinus newelli (V), a native seabird. Natural communities include
Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are two native
communities, and an estimated more than 50 native plant species. No animal survey has yet been
conducted.
Management The preserve is managed by Kaua’i volunteers with TNC staff supervision, in
cooperation with state wildlife biologists. It is closed to the public to protect the nesting seabirds.
KAMAKOU PRESERVE
Island Moloka’i
Size 1,123ha
Altitude 762m-1,382m
Year 1982
Description Established through a perpetual conservation easement from Moloka’i Ranch Ltd.
The preserve protects native rain forest, shrublands, and bogs near the summit of the island, and
is habitat for five native forest birds (including the endangered Moloka’i thrush, oloma’o), and
several rare plant species. In Kamakou’s remote native rain forests and shrublands live several
hundred species of plants, insects, and land snails found only in Hawaii. The preserve is also a
key watershed for Moloka’i. Natural communities comprise mixed fern/mixed shrub montane
wet cliffs, "Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, "Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a
mixed montane bog, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic shrubland and
Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are more than 350 native plant taxa. The native animals
have not yet been fully catalogued, but includes threatened forest birds, and rare land snails.
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Management Kamakou is managed by TNC staff in cooperation with the state Division of
Forestry and Wildlife. Portions of the preserve with maintained roads and trails are open to the
public.
KANEPU’U PRESERVE
Island Lana’i
Size 187ha
Altitude 500m-518m
Year 1990
Description Established via a perpetual conservation easement from Castle and Cooke Inc.,
Kanepu’ u is the last significant remnant of a once-vast tropical dry forest on Lana’i. Such forests,
composed of rich assemblages of tree species, once covered most of the dry and mesic Hawaiian
lowlands, but have been almost entirely destroyed by fire and grazing statewide. Natural
communities comprise Olopua/Lama lowland dry forest. There is one rare native community.
The native plant species not yet catalogued. The native animals have also not yet been catalogued,
but ’ua’u Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis, a threatened native seabird, may occur.
Management TNC will attempt to restore the Kanepu’u dry forest through fencing (to protect
the remnants from feral deer) and replanting of native trees, and will establish public access to
the preserve.
KAPUNAKEA PRESERVE
Island Maui
Size 486ha
Altitude 488m-1,706m
Year 1990
Description Kapunakea Preserve in the West Maui Mountains above Kaanapali protects at least
25 different types of rare Hawaiian plants, animals, and natural communities, including land
snails, native forest birds, many rare plants, and pristine Hawaiian montane bogs. Kapunakea is
an important link in the protection of more than 5,263ha of summit rain forests, the source of
West Maui’s fresh water. The preserve is not yet open to the public. Natural communities
comprise ’A’ali’i lowland dry shrubland, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Lama/’Ohi’a lowland
mesic forest, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/shrub montane wet cliff, ’Ohi’a
lowland mesic forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic shrubland, ’Ohi’a mixed montane bog, ’Ohi’a/mixed
shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest and ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet
forest. Native plants have not yet been catalogued, there are few birds, and the invertebrates are
not fully censused.
Management Feral ungulates and alien plants threaten native communities. Preventative weed
control and fencing to exclude feral ungulates is recommended.
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MAUI LAVA TUBES PRESERVE
Island Maui
Size 43ha
Altitude Not available (see Management)
Year 1987
Description This preserve, established through a perpetual conservation easement with the
landowner, protects one of Hawaii’s finest known lava tube ecosystems and the uniquely adapted
cave insects that occur only at this site. The ecosystem is so fragile that the preserve’s location
cannot be publicised. Research here promises important new insights into Hawaiian cave species
adaptation and evolution. Natural communities comprise Thaumatogryllus/Cacenomobius
Lowland Lava Tube. Approximately 30 native plant species and several extremely rare cave
invertebrates occur.
Management Maui Lava Tubes Preserve is managed by TNC staff in cooperation with the land
owner. The lead management concerns are disturbance of native surface vegetation via invasion
by alien plants, and disturbance of the caves by human entry. To protect the cave, its location
and elevation are not made available.
MO’OMOMI PRESERVE
Island Moloka’i
Size 372ha
Altitude Sea level-198m
Year 1988
Description On the north-west coast of Moloka’i, the preserve was established through fee
purchase from Moloka’i Ranch Ltd. It protects the finest coastal dune ecosystem in the main
Hawaiian Islands. Its wind-swept dunes shelter five globally threatened plant species. Green
turtle Chelonia mydas (E) nests here and TNC hopes sea birds will recolonise the area. The dunes
also protect important research sites for Hawaiian prehistory, paleontology and geology. Natural
communities comprise ’Aki’aki coastal dry grassland, ’Ilima coastal dry shrubland, Naupaka
coastal dry shrubland, Nehe coastal dry shrubland and Tetramolopium rockii coastal dry
shrubland. There are approximately 36 native plant species.
Management The preserve is managed by TNC staff. The leading management concerns are
disturbance to sea turtle nesting grounds, protection of fragile dune vegetation from vehicular
disturbance, and control of aggressive alien plants.
PELEKUNU PRESERVE
Island Moloka’i
Size 2,332ha
Altitude Sea level-1,514m
Year 1987
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Hawaii
Description Established through fee purchase from Moloka’i Ranch Ltd. Located on Moloka’i’s
rugged north coast, the preserve is accessible only on foot or by boat. The valley’s remoteness
has protected its lowland forests, sea cliffs, and one of Hawaii’s last remaining free-flowing
streams. For safety reasons, public access to the preserve is limited. Natural communities
comprise Hala coastal mesic forest, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Hawaiian continuous
perennial stream, Hawaiian mixed shrub coastal dry cliff, Hawaiian mixed shrub lowland dry
cliff, Kawelu coastal dry grassland, Lama/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland
wet forest and ’Ohi’a/Hapu’u montane wet forest. There are nine native communities and ca.
180 native plant species. The native animals have not been fully catalogued, but include rare
forest birds, land snails, stream fish and invertebrates.
Management Pelekunu is managed by TNC staff. The lead management concerns are the
control of alien stream animals, and aggressive alien plants. Balancing protection of rare taxa
with traditional uses of the valley is another management issue.
PU’U KUKUI WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AREA
Island Maui
Size 3,239ha
Altitude 427m-1,764m
Year 1988
Description Pu’u Kukui Watershed Management Area is a cooperative effort of Maui Land and
Pineapple Company, and The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, to protect the Company’s upland
forest and shrublands as vital watershed and habitat for hundreds of endemic species of plants
and animals. At the request of the land owner, the watershed management area is closed to the
public. Natural communities comprise ’A’ali’i lowland dry shrubland, Hawaiian continuous
perennial stream, Hawaiian intermittent stream, Koa/’Ohi’a lowland mesic forest, Lama/’Ohi’a
lowland mesic forest, Mamaki lowland wet shrubland, mixed fern/shrub montane wet cliff,
*Ohi’a mixed montane bog, ’Ohi’a montane wet shrubland, ’Ohi’a/Uluhe lowland wet forest,
*Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a lowland mesic shrubland, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane
wet forest and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are more than 250 native plant species. The
native animals have not been fully catalogued, but includes few forest birds, five species of rare
land snails, aquatic fauna and many invertebrates.
Management Feral pigs and alien weeds are the two most important threats to the integrity and
long-term survival of the native watershed forest. An aggressive pig fencing and control
programme is being undertaken, accompanied by weed monitoring and control.
WAIKAMOI PRESERVE
Island Maui
Size 2,117ha
Altitude 1,341m-2,438m
Year 1983
Description The preserve, on the north slopes of Haleakala Volcano, was established through
a perpetual conservation easement from Haleakala Ranch Company. It protects native forest and
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shrubland, providing essential watershed protection for East Maui, and is habitat for 12 Hawaiian
birds, several of which are threatened, and numerous other native species. Entry permits are
required to visit this remote, rugged area. Natural communities comprise ’Akala montane wet
shrubland, Carex montane wet grassland, Deschampsia subalpine mesic grassland, Koa/’Ohi’a
montane wet forest, Mamane subalpine dry forest, mixed fern/shrub montane wet cliffs,
*Ohi’a/mixed shrub montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a/’Olapa montane wet forest, "Ohi’a/Uluhe
montane wet forest, ’Ohi’a subalpine mesic forest, pioneer vegetation on lava flows, Pukiawe
subalpine dry shrubland and Uluhe lowland wet shrubland. There are more than 200 native plant
taxa and native animals. Invertebrates have not yet been catalogued.
Management Maintenance of habitat for rare and threatened birds is the primary management
goal. The key threats are feral ungulates, specifically goats at higher elevations, and pigs
throughout the preserve. Invasion by aggressive alien plants is a problem in certain portions of
the preserve, and plant control programmes are also ongoing.
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VANUATU
Area 12,189 sq. km
Population 151,000 (1988) Natural increase: 4.2% (urban) and 3.1% (rural)
(World Bank, 1990) (Dahl, 1986 and IUCN, 1988)
GNP US$ 820 per capita (1988) (World Bank, 1990)
Policy and Legislation The post-independence Constitution devotes a chapter to land issues,
and provides the basis upon which all legislation and policy concerning land tenure in Vanuatu
rests. The salient points are that: all land in the Republic belongs to the indigenous custom owners
and their descendants; the rules of custom form the basis of ownership and use of land; only
indigenous citizens who have acquired land in accordance with a recognised system of land
tenure may have perpetual land ownership; and government may own land in the public interest
(Nalo et al., 1987). Most land is thus in customary ownership and there is little likelihood of
Government acquiring land for protected areas. Such areas would have to be leased or managed
jointly by the government and custom owners (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989). Declaration
of a site as public land could well meet with opposition from custom owners, and could involve
expensive compensation (Nalo et al., 1987).
The issue of land tenure must be seen in the light of customary practice, or strong traditions
concerning land. Although there are certain nationwide principles, such as the important
distinction between use rights and ownership rights, the system is highly fragmented and different
practices may apply amongst the approximately 40 different language groups in the country.
Land tenure, customary tenure, protected areas and conservation are discussed further by Nalo
et al. (1987) and with particular reference to the establishment of Erromango Kauri Reserve
(Barrance, 1989).
Environmental conservation is embodied in the Constitution, which states in Article 7(d) that
every person is obliged "to protect Vanuatu and to safeguard the national wealth, resources and
environment in the interests of the present generation and of future generations". Two of the six
objectives of the Second National Development Plan (1987-1991) specifically address the
attainment of sustainable development. Thus, the third objective is to "increase productive
utilization of the country’s natural resource base as a means of generating viable and sustained
economic growth", and the sixth is to "ensure that Vanuatu’s unique environmental and cultural
heritage is not damaged in the process of economic development and change”.
Legislation for the establishment of national parks and reserves and the protection of land and
water is generally lacking (Nalo et al., 1987). Laws on Vanuatu which were enacted prior to
independence were made by the Resident Commissioners under the provisions of the
Anglo-French Protocol of 1914. Some of these are still in force and several include conservation
measures. The Forestry Joint Regulation (No. 30 of 1964) provides for the establishment of forest
areas, forest lands, and forest reserves (although none have been established), and is incidentally
also used for the protection of wrecks. The intention of this legislation is to ensure that forest
resources are protected and developed in accordance with good forestry principles.
Under Forestry Act No. 14 (1982), the Director of Forests is authorised to enter into forest
plantation agreements with owners to assist reafforestation or to protect threatened forests. Such
areas are subject to state control, and clearance without a permit is prohibited. Agreements may
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be formulated in order to prevent soil erosion, preserve the ecology of an area, conserve land of
particular scenic, cultural, historic or national interest, or for recreational use by the public (Sloth,
1988).
Other environmental legislation includes the Fisheries Act No. 37 (1982) which provides for the
declaration of marine reserves (Section 20) within which no living organism, sand, coral or part
of a wreck may be taken or removed.
Improved legislation for national parks and reserves was under consideration in 1989 (Leaver
and Spriggs, 1989) and a number of potential protected areas have been identified. The National
Conservation Strategy prospectus (IUCN, 1988) states that a project to review the legislation
concerning conservation and environment has been implemented, with the object of making
recommendations for modifications or additions to existing laws. One major piece of legislation
needed is a heritage conservation act that would provide for both cultural and natural
conservation. The act should provide mechanisms whereby custom leaders and land owners
could have sites and objects of special importance registered for protection under the act.
Ownership and management would rest with the custom owners, but with the additional support
of the law for their protection and specified penalties for the violation of that protection.
The contribution made by traditional custom and practice towards protected areas and resource
conservation is significant. For example, seasonal custom taboos are applied in certain coastal
waters for the conservation of dugong, fish and turtle (SPREP, 1989). During colonial times land
in Vanuatu was registered under freehold titles and were mainly held by non-indigenous interests.
Land held by the French, British and Condominium governments prior to independence was
vested in the Vanuatu government for the benefit of the Republic, under Land Reform Regulation
No. 31 of 1980. A significant number of these land parcels comprised long distances of coastal
land about 100m wide. Much of this land has been returned to customary owners, but some has
been retained for the establishment of protected areas. The Land Reform Regulation also
empowers the Minister responsible for lands to declare any land to be public. This is only done
on the advice of the Council of Ministers and after consultation with customary owners.
Following requests by the Local Government Council, proposals to declare parts of Espiritu
Santo as public land for recreational purposes have been made.
International Activities Vanuatu is not yet party to any of the international conventions or
programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither
signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The
Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt
within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages
the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.
Although Vanuatu is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), the
1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The Convention entered
into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures
to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the
establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect
372
Vanuatu
on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision
only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist
with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Vanuatu is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).
Administration and Management The Department of Forestry of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries is responsible for the implementation of the Forestry Act No. 14 of 1982.
The Department of Fisheries of the same Ministry is responsible for the Fisheries Act No. 37 of
1982, and is consequently responsible for marine reserves, whilst the Ministry is charged with
generally overseeing issues concerned with environment and conservation. The administrative
status of currently gazetted recreational reserves rests with a local government council, although
the legal basis for this is not clear.
In September 1986 an Environment Unit was established in the Ministry of Lands, Geology and
Rural Water Supply, with responsibility for coordinating environmental and conservation issues.
The Environment Unit essentially has a single objective: to develop policies and programmes
such that natural resources are managed so that they are not severely degraded by development
activities. Major projects include preparation of a national conservation strategy and
comprehensive environmental legislation; resource surveys of fringing reefs, freshwaters,
Espiritu Santo Island and biological, geological, scenic and cultural heritage sites; dugong
surveys; and surveys of estuarine crocodiles of Vanua Lava (Chambers and Bani, 1987 and 1989).
The Environment Unit will also be made responsible for the management of any parks and
reserves gazetted in the future (SPREP, 1989).
The protected areas system is too small and fails to protect most ecosystems. Existing protected
areas are threatened by inadequate management, whilst the options for selecting new protected
areas must be declining with time. There is an increasingly urgent need to gazette a protected
area on Erromango as there have been recent (1988/1989) proposals to log parts of the remaining
kauri stands. Approval has been given for major logging schemes for parts of Malekula despite
opposition from Government advisors and technical staff from the Environment, Forestry,
Finance, Culture and Labour departments (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989).
Systems Reviews The Republic of Vanuatu, formerly the Anglo-French Condominium of the
New Hebrides, consists of the central and southern part of an archipelago which forms one of
the numerous seismic arcs found in the Western Pacific. The Santa Cruz Islands, politically part
of the Solomon Islands, constitute the northern part of the archipelago (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
The archipelago of about 80 islands forms a bifurcating chain; the larger islands are found in the
west and are made up of extinct volcanoes covered with fossil or modern coral reefs. The island
arc is young and associated with considerable volcanic and seismic activity (Cheney, 1987). The
islands are mountainous by Pacific standards, many island interiors being uninhabited (Anon.,
1989a), and Tabwemasana Peak on Espiritu Santo attains 1,879m. Brief summaries of the
physical characteristics are given by Douglas (1969) and UNEP/IUCN (1988) for most of the
islands.
Some 9,000 sq. km, 74% of total land area, is under natural vegetation (Neill, 1987). Principal
formations are tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, small areas of broadleaved deciduous
forest, closed conifer forest, montane rain forest between 1,000m and 1,500m; cloud forest above
1,500m, extensive coastal forest, swamp forest on Efate; and scattered mangrove forests covering
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
between 2,500 and 3,500ha, of which 2,000ha occur on Malakula (Beveridge, 1975; David, 1985;
Davis et al., 1986).
Although lowland formations have largely been cleared and replaced by anthropogenic
vegetation, forest remains the dominant landscape element on most islands. Surveys conducted
in the mid-1960s indicate that some 180 sq. km of Erromango were occupied by closed climax
forest, including 50 sq. km of kauri pine stands (Johnson, 1981). According to Quantin’s (1976)
maps, high forests are restricted on most of the islands, especially those that are densely populated
(Pentecost, Aoba, Tanna and Shepherd) or have active volcanoes (Ambrym). However, the low
montane forests are generally well preserved, and occupy large areas; dense, secondary woody
formations, often with a thicket Hibiscus community, are extensive.
Forest resources are poor compared with neighbouring countries, due to geological activity,
geographic isolation, hurricanes and shifting agriculture. It is estimated that current exploitable,
natural forest resources will supply domestic needs for at least 20 years. Logging of indigenous
forest has been sporadic, wasteful, largely unprofitable and concentrated on Efate, Espiritu Santo,
Erromango, Aneityum and, to a lesser extent, Malekula and Hui. On Erromango, intensive
exploitation of kauri pine commenced in 1967. Here, the risk of wind damage to residual
vegetation, invasion by weed species and land slips has subsequently increased (Beveridge,
1975), and major stands have been reduced to a single tract. However, a ban on the export of
whole logs was due to be in place by 1990. Similarly, a sandalwood export moratorium is to be
imposed by 1992.
Coral reefs occur throughout the archipelago, encircling some islands, but discontinuous around
active or recently active land masses such as Espiritu Santo, Malakula and Ambrym. Summaries
of vegetation and coral reefs on most islands are given by Douglas (1969) and UNEP/IUCN
(1988), respectively. Details given in UNEP/TUCN (1988) includes particular reference to the
reefs of President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point Reserve and Reef Island.
In general, Vanuatu’s environment is relatively undisturbed (Chambers and Bani, 1987), due to
low population densities (about 10 per sq. km in rural areas), and the limited degree of
development (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989). Nevertheless, this could change due to the
high rate of human population increase and the high proportion (85%) of the population engaged
in slash-and-burn agriculture and subsistence reef fishing. Further, the concentration of the
population in coastal districts, coupled with a reduced fallow period in the slash-and-burn cycle,
has led to soil erosion (Anon., 1989). A broad-ranging discussion of environment, resources and
development is given by Baines (1981), covering topics such as tenure, population,
administration, financial costs and aspects of natural resources including forests, mangroves,
reefs, minerals, wildlife etc. Large-scale agricultural developments are leading to environmental
problems, principally accelerated by forest clearance, soil erosion through poor pasture
management and increasingly heavy use of pesticides and herbicides (IUCN, 1988).
Protected areas are currently restricted to President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point Reserve,
which only includes marine components, and four recreational reserves. The area within the
system amounts to less than 0.1% of the total national area, and much of that is accounted for
by President Coolidge Reserve.
Dahl (1980) lists 37 habitats, including several forest types, scrub, marsh, grassland, volcanic
desert, freshwater and littoral features and various reef formations. With the exception of fringing
reefs, none of these is effectively protected.
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Vanuatu
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, effective protected area management and regional
and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Vanuatu are as follows: develop a
national conservation strategy; establish a kauri reserve on Erromango Island; establish
recreational reserves on Espiritu Santo.
The development of a national conservation strategy was delayed by a lack of funds, but has
since been financed with funds from Australia, channelled through SPREP. An outline draft
National Parks Act has been compiled (Leaver and Spriggs, 1989), although it is not known if
this will be integrated into the national conservation strategy or implemented in any other way.
Negotiations are underway with landowners on the island of Erromango to secure a long-term
lease for the proposed 500ha Kauri Reserve (L. Bule, pers. comm., 1990). SPREP has funded
an inter-departmental team to carry out a survey of three potential protected areas on Ambrym,
Efate and Malakula and it is hoped that these, along with the proposed site on Erromango, will
form the nucleus of a protected areas system (Anon., 1989).
Dahl (1980) has recommended that the protected areas network be consolidated through the
establishment of reserves to protect examples of major forest types, grasslands, swamps, lakes
and marine habitats; forest reserves on each of the main islands for vegetation and birds, such as
2,000ha of forest in southern Erromango and 2,000-3,000ha in central Efate; a cloud forest
reserve on Espiritu Santo, which would be of value for the conservation of Santo mountain
starling (Hay, 1986); and reserves along the north-west coast of Malekula or Santo, where reefs
were elevated over 6m in 1965. Less specific recommendations are made by Dahl (1986) and
include establishing a major protected area on Espiritu Santo, smaller reserves at least on Tanna,
Aneityum and Erromango, a recreation and tourism reserve on Efate, and protection of saltwater
crocodiles on Vanua Lava (Dahl, 1986).
Addresses
Recreational Reserves
Department of Lands, Ministry of Lands, Geology and Rural Water Supply, Private Mail Bag
007, Port Vila
Environmental Unit, Ministry of Lands, Geology and Rural Water Supply, Private Mail Bag 007,
Port Vila
Department of Local Government, Ministry of Home Affairs, Private Mail Bag 036, Port Vila
Marine Parks
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Private Mail Bag 064,
Port Vila
Forestry Reserves
Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Private Mail Bag 064,
Port Vila
References
Anon. (1989). Progress with the action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific.
Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Baines, G.B.K. (1981). Environmental resources and development in Vanuatu. Report to the
Government of Vanuatu with support of UNDAT (United Nations Development Advisory
Team for the Pacific). Unpublished. 26 pp.
Barrance, A.J. (1989). Erromango kauri reserve — a case study in environmental protection on
customary land. Case Study No. 7. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation
and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.
Beveridge, A.E. (1975). Kauri forests in the New Hebrides. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London B 272: 369-383.
Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. (1987). Wildlife and heritage conservation in Vanuatu. Resources
development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 124-133.
Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. (1989). Vanuatu — safe haven for the dugong. The Pilot. September.
Pp. 13-14
Cheney, C. (1987). Geology and the environment. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., Resources
development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 1-16.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
David, G. (1985). Les mangroves de Vanuatu: 2éme partie, présentation générale. Naika
19: 13-16.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463.
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. JCBP Study Report No. 7. International Council
for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.
IUCN (1988). National Conservation Strategy: Vanuatu. Phase I: Prospectus. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. 39 pp.
Johnson, M.S. (1971). New Hebrides Condominium, Erromango forest inventory. Land
Resources Study No. 10. Overseas Development Administration, Land Resources Division,
Surbiton, UK. 91 pp.
Leaver, B. and Spriggs, M. Erromango kauri reserve. Working Paper No. 1. TCP/VAN/6755.
FAO, Rome. 28 pp.
Nalo, C., Hunt, L. and Boote, D. (1977). Land tenure in Vanuatu today. In: Chambers, M.R. and
Bani, E., Resources development and environment., ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 78-92.
Neill, P. (1987). Forestry resources and policies in Vanuatu. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E.,
Resources development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 59-62.
Quantin, P. (1976). Archipel des Nouvelles Hébrides: sols et quelques données du milieu naturel,
Santo. Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique de Outre-Mer, Paris. 37 pp.
Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji
Islands and Solomon Islands. In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical forest ecosystems. Unesco,
Paris. Pp. 654-683.
Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in
the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council of
the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.
SPREP (1985). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.
376
Vanuatu
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Venkatesh, S, Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.
World Bank (1990). World Tables. 1989-90 Edition. The John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore. 646 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The Forestry Joint Regulation (No. 30)
Date: 1964
Brief description: Enacted prior to independence under the provisions of the Anglo-French
Protocol of 1914.
Administrative authority: Director of Forests
Designation:
Forest areas
Forest lands
Forest reserves
Title: Forestry Act No. 14
Date: 1982
Brief description: The Director of Forests is authorised to enter into forest plantation
agreements with owners to assist reafforestation or to protect threatened forests. Such areas
are subject to state control and clearance without a permit is prohibited. Agreements may
be formulated in order to prevent soil erosion, preserve the ecology of an area, conserve land
of particular scenic, cultural, historic or national interest, or for recreational use by the public.
Administrative authority: Director of Forests
Designation: No information
Title: Fisheries Act No. 37
Date: 1982
Brief description: Provides, inter alia, for the declaration of marine reserves (Section 20).
Administrative authority: Department of Fisheries
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Designation:
Marine reserves No living organism, sand, coral or part of a wreck may be taken or removed.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Reserves
1 Naomebaravu-Malo* Unassigned 11 1984
2 President Coolidge and Million Unassigned 100 1983
Dollar Point*
3 Whitesands* Unassigned 39 1984
Recreation Parks
4 Aore* Unassigned 37 1984
5 Bucaro Aore* Unassigned 20 1984
Proposed
Erromango kauri reserve Proposed (500)
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
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Vanuatu
ESPIRITU SANTO I
MALEKULA
2
Source: Proceedings of the Fourth South
Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas
1989
SS Protected Areas
PROJECTION : MERCATOR
vorta covserrarios. Date Printed 2 March 1991
MON(TORIVC CENTRE
167°
Protected Areas of Vanuatu
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
AORE RECREATIONAL RESERVE
(Title No. 414)
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on the south-west coast of Aore Island which, in turn, lies 1km
off the south coast of Espiritu Santo. Luganville is 11km to the north-east. Approximately
167°07’E, 15°36’S
Date and History of Establishment 20 September 1984
Area 37ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea-level
Physical Features Comprises coral formations with sandy beaches.
Climate Annual rainfall varies between 2500mm and 4000mm and temperatures range from
18°C to 33°C (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation Common coastal trees include Barringtonia sp., Calophyllum sp. and Terminalia sp.,
with epiphytic ferns and orchids. Strand vegetation also occurs (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Current knowledge indicates that only common species occur (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage None known
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The site has been designated as a recreational reserve (SPREP, 1989), with
complete protection of vegetation and natural environment intended.
Conservation Management Enactment and enforcement of local bye-laws is undertaken to
prohibit litter, damage to vegetation and the construction of unauthorised buildings (SPREP,
1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Secretary, Santo/Malo Local Government Council, PO Box 239, Luganville
380
Vanuatu
References
SPREP (1985). Vanuatu. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 217-228.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp.
Date November 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
BUCARO AORE RECREATIONAL RESERVE
(Title Nos. 386 and 388)
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on north-east Aore Island which, in turn, lies 1km off the south
coast of Espiritu Santo. Luganville is 4km to the north-west. Approximately 167°13’E, 15°33’S
Date and History of Establishment 20 September 1984
Area 20ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea-level
Physical Features Comprises coral formations with sandy beaches.
Climate Annual rainfall varies between 2500mm and 4000mm and temperatures range from
18°C to 33°C (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation Common coastal trees include Barringtonia sp., Calophyllum sp. and Terminalia sp.,
with epiphytic ferns and orchids. Strand vegetation also occurs (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Current knowledge indicates that only common species occur (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage None known
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The site has been designated as a recreational reserve (SPREP, 1985), with
complete protection of vegetation and natural environment intended.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Conservation Management Enactment and enforcement of local bye-laws is undertaken to
prohibit litter, damage to vegetation and the construction of unauthorised buildings (SPREP,
1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses Secretary, Santo/Malo Local Government Council, P O Box 239, Luganville
References
SPREP (1985). Vanuatu. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 217-228.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp.
Date November 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
NAOMEBARAVU-MALO RECREATIONAL RESERVE
(Title No. 830)
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on eastern Malo Island, which lies 3km south of Espiritu Santo.
Luganville is 19km to the north-west. Approximately 167°15’E, 15°44’S
Date and History of Establishment 20 September 1984
Area l1lha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea-level
Physical Features Comprises coral formations with sandy beaches.
Climate Annual rainfall varies between 2500mm and 4000mm and temperatures range from
18°C to 33°C (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation Common coastal trees include Barringtonia sp., Calophyllum sp. and Terminalia sp.,
with epiphytic ferns and orchids. Strand vegetation also occurs (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna Current knowledge indicates that only common species occur (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage None known
382
Vanuatu
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The site has been designated as a recreational reserve (SPREP, 1985), with
complete protection of vegetation and natural environment intended.
Conservation Management Enactment and enforcement of local bye-laws is undertaken to
prohibit litter, damage to vegetation and the construction of unauthorised buildings (SPREP,
1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff None
Budget None 3
Local Addresses Santo/Malo Local Government Council, P O Box 239, Luganville
References
SPREP (1985). Vanuatu. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission,
Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 217-228.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp.
Date November 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
PRESIDENT COOLIDGE AND MILLION DOLLAR POINT RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Situated off southern Espiritu Santo, approximately 6km east of
Luganville and seaward of the highest water mark of spring tides. The boundary is delimited by
a line from the "white rock", in position 15°31’S, 167°13’E, extending 180° true for 0.3 nautical
miles (556m), then 090° true for one nautical mile (1,853m) and then 000° true to the shore.
Date and History of Establishment Declared a marine reserve on 18 December 1983 by the
Minister of Land and Natural Resources, under the Fisheries Act (1982) for the complete
protection of all marine life and the wreck and all its contents (SPREP, 1989).
Area Approximately 100ha
Land Tenure Part state-owned and part customary land
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Altitude Ranges from the highest spring-tide water mark to 73m below sea level (JNEP/IUCN,
1988).
Physical Features Includes the wreck of the American wartime troopship President Coolidge,
which sank in 1942, and the area known as Million Dollar Point (Crossland, 1984). The wreck,
over 198m long and 24.4m wide, forms an artificial reef in an otherwise barren area. The stern
of the President Coolidge lies in 73m of water (SPREP, 1985). There is a shallow reef within the
reserve (A. Power, in litt., 1987).
Climate Mean monthly temperatures in Luganville range from 23°C in August to 26.5°C in
February. Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures are 20°C in July and 29.7°C in
February, respectively. Mean annual rainfall at Luganville is 3216mm. There is no marked dry
season, although maximum and minimum monthly mean rainfall varies between 450mm in
March and 160mm in June, respectively (Giovanelli, 1966).
Vegetation No information
Fauna The wreck, which is well covered by coral, supports a population of thousands of reef
fish. The largest are two habituated groupers Promicrops lanceolatus. Individual fish, including
angelfish and small cod, are known to have inhabited the wreck for at least 10 years. Grey sharks
Carcharhinus sp., approximately 1.8m long, are frequently seen. Female Carcharhinus sp. and
hammerheads (family Sphyrnidae) congregate in May for breeding. Hawksbill turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata (E) occur, as do a very large number and variety of fish in the shallower
areas. These include an habituated 1.8m moray eel Gymnothorax flavomarginatus (A. Power,
in litt., 1987).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Not applicable
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve is the main tourist attraction of Espiritu Santo. Santo
Dive Tours conduct dives in the reserve (A. Power, in litt., 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities No scientific studies to date
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management Under the 1982 Fisheries Act, marine organisms may not be
removed and it is prohibited to fish, take or destroy coral, dredge sand or gravel, disturb the
natural habitat or take or destroy any wreck or part thereof (Crossland, 1984).
Management Constraints The shallow reef was extensively damaged by Hurricane Nigel in
1985 and regeneration of hard corals has been very slow. Some fish poaching occurs, including
spearfishing and fishing with nylon lines from boats at night. The latter is believed responsible
for elimination of most of a shoal of tame snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus. Yachts moor
directly over the wreck and unsupervised diving occurs. Divers from visiting yachts remove
artefacts and corals, mainly gorgonians, black coral and red Distichopora violacea (SPREP,
1985; A. Power, in litt., 1987); prevention is hampered by staff shortages. Some semi-commercial
black coral and gorgonian collection by local divers occurred during 1975-1980 (Crossland,
1984; A. Power in litt., 1987).
Staff Occasional coverage by Department of Fisheries staff (SPREP, 1985)
384
Vanuatu
Budget None (SPC, 1985)
Local Addresses Secretary, Santo/Malo Local Government Council, P O Box 239, Luganville
References
Crossland, J. (1984). Vanuatu’s First Marine Reserve. Naika (Journal of the Vanuatu Natural
Science Society) 14:2-3.
Giovanelli, J.L. (1966). Dix années d’observations météorologiques aux Nouvelles Hébrides.
Service météorologique, Nouvelle Calédonie, Noumea. 81 pp. (Unseen).
Lee, K.E. (1975). A discussion on the results of the 1971 Royal Society-Percy Sladen expedition
to the New Hebrides: introductory remarks. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
B 272: 269-276.
SPREP (1985). Vanuatu. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Report. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 217-228.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp.
UNEP/TUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp
Date June 1985, reviewed November 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
WHITESANDS RECREATIONAL RESERVE
(Title No. 1258)
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.07.13 (East Melanesian)
Geographical Location Located on the southern coast of Efate Island, 15km south-east of Port
Vila. Approximately 165°25’E, 18°12’S
Date and History of Establishment 27 December 1984
Area 39ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea-level
Physical Features Comprises coral formations with sandy beaches.
Climate Annual rainfall varies between 2500mm and 4000mm and temperatures range from
18°C to 33°C (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation Common coastal trees include Barringtonia sp., Calophyllum sp. and Terminalia sp.,
with epiphytic ferns and orchids. Strand vegetation also occurs (SPREP, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Fauna Current knowledge indicates that only common species occur (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage None known
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The site has been designated as a recreational reserve (SPREP, 1985), with
complete protection of vegetation and natural environment intended.
Conservation Management Enactment and enforcement of local bye-laws is undertaken to
prohibit litter, damage to vegetation and the construction of unauthorised buildings (SPREP,
1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Secretary, Efate Local Government Council, P O Box 239, Port Vila
References
SPREP (1985). Vanuatu. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National
Parks and Reserves Conference. Report. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 217-228.
SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp.
Date November 1988, updated July 1989, February 1990
386
WESTERN SAMOA
Area 2,830 sq. km land area in an Exclusive Economic Zone of 680,000 sq. km
Population 168,000 (1988) (World Bank, 1990) Natural increase: 0.7% (SPREP, 1989a)
GNP US$ 610 per capita (1988) (World Bank, 1990)
Policy and Legislation The Fifth Development Plan (1985-87) stated, inter alia, that the
protection of the environment and conservation of natural resources was a principal national
goal, although overriding priority was to be given to an increase in production, particularly for
export (Firth and Darby, 1988). The Constitution (1960) stipulates that "all land in Western
Samoa is either customary land, private freehold, or public land". The relative proportions of
these different types of tenure are customary land (80.5% of land area), private freehold (3.7%),
Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation (4.5%) and public government land (11.3%) (Eaton,
1985). All land below the high water mark is defined as public land (Pearsall, 1988). The
Constitution also states that customary land may only be acquired compulsorily for public
purposes. Customary land may be leased for an authorised purpose if the lease is in accordance
with Samoan custom and usage, the desires and interests of the owners, or the public interest
(Eaton, 1985).
Legislation which enables Government to acquire customary land includes the Taking of Lands
Act (1964) and Article 102 of the Constitution. The first gives the Government the power to
obtain land for public purposes by negotiation or compulsory processes, although the latter is
rarely used. The 1964 Act could be used as a legal instrument for obtaining land for parks and
reserves (Tiavolo, 1985) and has provision for land to be taken to protect catchment areas,
especially where agricultural development is a threat (Venkatesh et al., 1983).
The principal current legislation for the establishment of protected areas is the 1974 National
Parks and Reserves Act. Section 4 enables the Head of State, acting on the advice of the Cabinet,
to declare any public land to be a national park, provided it is not set aside for any other public
purpose and is not less than 607.5ha (1,500 acres), except in the case of an island. As defined in
Section 5, every national park shall be preserved in perpetuity for the benefit and enjoyment of
the people of Western Samoa and shall be administered so that: it is preserved as far as practical
in its natural state; flora and fauna are preserved as far as possible; its value as a soil, water and
forest conservation area is maintained; and, subject to a number of provisos, the public has
freedom of access. Section 6 provides for the establishment of nature reserves within which either
named species are protected, or all taxa within a specified area are protected. Access may be
restricted, except where a nature reserve is declared in a marine area, in which case customary
fishing rights remain unaffected. Sections 7, 8 and 9, respectively, make provision for the
establishment of recreation reserves, historic reserves, and reserves for other purposes. A site
fully gazetted under the Act can only be degazetted by Parliament. The principal weakness of
the 1974 Act is that it only enables national parks and reserves to be established on public land.
There is no legal mechanism for establishing areas on customary land. For example, a recently
established reserve in Falealupo District, comprising 1,200ha of pristine lowland rain forest, has
no legal basis (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). Environmental and conservation legislation is
currently being reviewed, and the amendment of the National Parks and Reserves Act has again
been recommended with an expectation that it may be completed by the end of 1991 (I. Reti,
pers. comm., 1991).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Habitat protection is also provided for under the 1959 Agricultural, Forests and Fisheries
Ordinance and the 1967 Forests Act. These enable the Forestry Division within the Department
of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries to "conserve, protect, and develop the resources of the
country especially soil, water and forest" and to establish forest reserves for water, soil and
climate protection and a sustained timber harvest. The Forests Act allows for protection of forest
and water catchment areas as "protected land". Large areas of indigenous forest have been
designated as protection forests, although in practice logging has continued (Firth and Darby,
1988).
Other legislation which incorporates measures relating to protected areas includes the 1965 Water
Act, under which watersheds and riparian vegetation may be protected.
A summary review of legislation covering aspects of environmental protection, planning and
tourism is given in Firth and Darby (1988).
At the present time, no protected area in Western Samoa receives full legal protection. It is a
legal requirement that all proposed protected areas are surveyed and that the proposed boundary,
with a written submission, be presented to the Land Board in the Ministry of Lands. Public
comment is duly invited, and, if this is positive, the proposal is submitted to the Head of State
for signature. Subsequently, the Ministry of Lands will amend its land use maps to indicate a
protected area. This process has not yet been completed in any instance. The lack of due process
fails to invoke the full legal protection of the available legislation, and other Government
departments are technically at liberty to propose and implement changes in land use within
nominal protected areas (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989).
International Activities Western Samoa is not yet party to any of the international conventions
or programmes that directly promote the conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention), the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
At a regional level, Western Samoa has signed (12 June 1976) and ratified (20 July 1990) the
Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia
Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific
Commission and represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental
matters. Among other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve
indigenous flora and fauna.
Western Samoa is also party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
and has signed (25 November 1986) and ratified (19 July 1990) the Convention for the Protection
of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP
Convention). The convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the
parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or
endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of
activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes
being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by
definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and
the conservation of marine species.
Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which
Western Samoa is party are reviewed by Venkatesh er al. (1983).
388
Western Samoa
Administration and Management The National Parks and Reserves Act (1974) is currently
administered by the Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, although the Department
of Lands and Environment undertakes all responsibilities (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1991). The
Assistant Director for Forests and Conservation has the overall responsibility for forestry and
national parks (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1989). Management aims are to: establish examples of each
type of reserve, ensuring that as many of the different types of vegetation and wildlife as possible
are conserved; improve and develop appropriate facilities, to enable the full enjoyment and
appreciation of the reserves; and promote public awareness, understanding and appreciation of
these areas. Government departments were being restructured during 1989 and it was intended
that the National Parks and Reserves Section would be transferred from its current ministry to
the Ministry of Lands on 1 January 1990 (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1990).
The National Parks and Reserves section operating budget was reduced in real terms by 93%
between 1979 and 1987, while staff numbers were reduced by 42% in the same period. This
trend is now being reversed and the 1988 budget was 28,000 WS Tala (US$ 14,000), twice that
of 1987. The 1989 budget was 56,000 WS Tala, the proposed 1990 budget was WS Tala 104,000.
Similarly, staff numbers have increased and were proposed to increase from 19 in 1988 to 27 in
1990. Most of these funds were to pay for additional labourers at O’ Le Pupu Pu’e National Park,
installation of a water pipe in Vailima Botanical Garden and the preparation of a poster depicting
Samoan birds (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). Staff levels and annual budgets previously reached
a peak of 30 staff in 1981 and a budget of 66,300 WS Tala in 1979, a period during which
substantial external financial and management assistance was available (SPREP, 1985b). The
Department of Lands and Environment has four staff (1991) and a current six-month budget of
WS Tala 87,610.
A Division of Environment and Conservation has been established within the Department of
Lands and Environment. Its principal function is the provision of advice on: policies influencing
the management of natural and physical resources; impact of private or public development;
means of ensuring public participation in environmental planning and policy formulation; the
control and management of hazardous substances; establishment and naming of national parks;
control of pollution of air, water and land and the control of litter; and research and training
relevant to these functions (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1991).
Systems Reviews Western Samoa, lying between 13°-15°S and 171°-173°W, is situated
approximately 1,000km north-east of Fiji and a similar distance north-north-east of Tonga, and
includes nine islands, the largest being Savai’i (1,709 sq. km) and Upolu (1,118 sq. km). The
biologically related, but politically distinct, American Samoa lies some 100km to the east.
Most of the original lowland tropical forest on Savai’i and Upolu has been cleared or highly
modified. Only two major forested areas, on customary land, persist, namely Tafua and Mt Silisili
on Savai’i (E. Bishop, pers. comm. 1988). Figures given by Firth and Darby (1988) indicate that
approximately 1,500 sq. km remain forested, comprising 550 sq. km of protection forest or
proposed national parks and reserves, and 950 sq. km of commercial forest. However, no firm
commitment has been made to the environmental protection role of protection forests and there
is virtually no primary forest remaining (Firth and Darby, 1988). Montane forests are less
damaged and still contain a rich endemic flora. Cloud forests, montane lava flow scrub and
montane meadows are found in the upland regions. The Aleipata Islands include a number of
littoral communities, as well as Diospyros coastal forests and Dysoxylum lowland forests, which
are otherwise rare in Western Samoa (Whistler, 1983; Davis et al., 1986). Mangroves cover less
than 1,000ha (Bell, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Forest resources, particularly lowland and sub-montane formations, are threatened by both
agricultural encroachment and commercial logging (Pearsall, 1988). In 1977 responsibility for
parks and reserves was transferred to a department which included indigenous forest logging
amongst its primary responsibilities and the momentum of an initially dynamic protected areas
programme was lost. Within a few years, most of the remaining lowland and foothill forest in
Savai’i and Upolu had been destroyed (Firth and Darby, 1988). A recent development has been
the risk of timber concessions being sold for cash remuneration, particularly on Savai’i. The
destruction of lowland rain forest is largely complete, and regions of higher elevations are
threatened by governmental road construction, followed by clearing of large areas in order to
expand plantations or to facilitate cattle farming; commercial logging activities by Australian
and Japanese concerns, formerly engaged in selective felling but currently clear felling; and
uncontrolled clear felling by local families on village-owned land (Beichle and Maelzer, 1985).
The cutting and in-filling of mangroves has been largely uncontrolled (Bell, 1985). Although
the 1976 Forestry Act provides for the exploitation of forests on a sustained yield basis, the
criteria for this to be judged by, for example, annual allowable cut, have never been established
and there is a risk that the bulk of indigenous timber resources may be exhausted by as soon as
1995 (Firth and Darby, 1988).
Coastal and peripheral woodlands have been heavily disturbed by cultivation and lower slopes
around main settlements are cultivated. Approximately 20% of Savai’i is cultivated, whilst the
largest cultivated areas on Upolu are along the north coast around Apia and Satapuala (Douglas,
1969). The coastal district has long been settled and soils around villages have been exhausted
(Firth and Darby, 1988). A process of land tenure conversion is underway, from the traditional
(and legally constituted) system to a de facto system of private control and virtual ownership by
converting land to agriculture.
Western Samoa’s current park and reserve system consists of one national park and five reserves.
A little over 1% of the land area is protected, but O Le Pupu Pu’e National Park alone accounts
for 95% of the protected area. The system’s growth years were 1978-79, when one national park
and three reserves were established. O Le Pupu Pu’e National Park is akey area within the Samoa,
Wallis and Futuna biogeographic province identified by Dahl (1980). Dahl (1980) identifies a
number of habitats as occurring in Western Samoa, including varieties of lowland rain forest,
montane rain forest, cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and atoll/beach forest, scrub, grassland,
freshwater marsh, rock desert, lakes and streams, and a variety of littoral, coastal and marine
habitats, including reefs and lagoons. A significant number are protected within O Le Pupu Pu’e,
namely four lowland rain forest formations, three montane rain forest formations, cloud and
swamp forest, Pandanus sp. littoral scrub, crater meadow, crater marsh, caves and rocky coast
(Dahl, 1980). It also protects populations of all the major forest bird species of Upolu, including
tooth-billed pigeon Didunculus strigirostris and ma’0 Gymnomyza samoensis (Hay, 1986).
Nevertheless, a similar reserve is required on Savai’i, in view of deforestation at the western end
of the island (Hay, 1986). Two sites, one incorporating coastal forest at Tafua, south-east Savai’i,
and another on the slopes of Mt Silisili up to the summit, have been proposed as protected areas
(Holloway and Floyd, 1975) and would preserve the greatest range of habitats (Hay, 1986). These
two sites still support lowland rain forest, but are in the process of being cleared and are on
customary land, thus precluding their designation as national parks or reserves under current
legislation (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). A coastal reserve is particularly important, as are
examples of the high altitude habitats of the island. Such reserves would assist in and may ensure
the protection of species such as Samoan white-eye, tooth-billed pigeon and ma’o, possibly
Samoan wood-rail if its existence is re-confirmed, and other endemic Samoan species (Hay,
1986). A recent development has been the agreement between a private group from the USA and
390
Western Samoa
villagers in the Falealupo District in Savai’i, whereby some 1,200ha of lowland rain forest is
protected in return for financial assistance and restricted exploitation rights (SPREP, 1989).
However, as the site is on customary land it will not be possible to gazette the site under the
provisions of existing legislation. It is not known if this arrangement has any basis in protected
areas legislation.
An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985a) has been
prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy
development, establishment of protected areas, protected area management and regional and
international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Western Samoa are as follows: develop
a national conservation strategy; investigate the remaining traditional marine fishing rights; train
researchers and managers in the marine field; assess conservation status and availability of reef
and lagoon areas; include environmental concerns in education systems; establish an
Environmental Management Unit responsible for environmental assessment, liaison,
environmental education, legislation and environmental reporting; map all national ecosystems;
make an inventory of flora and fauna, particularly threatened species; prepare management plans
for all protected areas; develop a national environmental public awareness campaign to be
implemented through schools, mass media and Pulenu’us; set aside areas which include
ecosystems not covered by existing parks and reserves; complete a review of marine resources; —
and send the Superintendent of Parks and Reserves to the 1987 Parks Management Training
Course in New Zealand.
Regional progress on the implementation of the action strategy has been reviewed (SPREP, 1987
and 1989b). Western Samoa has participated in a sub-regional course in coastal resource
management and planning, emphasising the role of protected areas. A SPREP project to assess
the potential environmental impact of tourism, with emphasis on the protection of critical
habitats, species and potential protected areas, has been completed (Firth and Darby, 1988). An
ecosystem survey was scheduled to commence in 1989, using aerial photographs taken during
1987 (Pearsall, 1989). This is intended to identify a representative system of natural areas. In
conjunction with the Land Use Resource Programme of the Ministry of Lands, it will provide a
powerful resource planning and management tool (Anon., 1989). The compilation of
management plans for each of the five reserves and updating that forO Le Pupu Pu’e was planned
1988-90 (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). An Asian Development Bank funded project on land
use planning commenced in 1989 (1. Reti, pers. comm., 1989).
A major UNDAT survey in the mid-1970s (Holloway and Floyd, 1975) identified 6 potential
national parks, 24 nature reserves, 11 historical sites and 7 archaeological sites. Of these, O Le
Pupu Pu’e, Palolo Deep Marine Reserve and Mount Vaea have been gazetted. Recommended
sites considered to be of particular value include Mt Silisili and Tafua (Hay, 1986). However,
the proposed areas occur on customary land and gazettement under the current 1974 legislation
is precluded. Three methods of protecting the areas were mooted: government purchase of the
land, which would only be possible with outside financial assistance; leasing, which might not
provide the necessary security of tenure; and the dedication of customary land (Holloway and
Floyd, 1975). Dahl’s (1980) proposed reserves reiterate those of Holloway and Floyd (1975),
with the addition of a recommended reserve type aimed at protection of Palolo worm Eunice
viridis (K). Dahl (1986) identifies as highest priority the protection of a major park in central
Savai’i, possibly also including a sample of lowland forest. Protection of both land and marine
areas in the Aleipata Islands should also be considered and a survey of the latter site has been
completed (Andrews and Holthus, 1989).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
The preparation and adoption of a national conservation strategy is recommended by Firth and
Darby (1988) to ensure the sustainable exploitation of natural resources, a call reiterated in
SPREP (1989a). Strengthening the national parks and reserves systems is perhaps more urgent,
and should be addressed as a high priority. This would principally entail; amending the 1974
National Parks and Reserves Act, such that reserves may be established on customary land (not
necessarily with government ownership), provision of adequate funding, the establishment of
some 30 protected areas, the principal one being Mount Silisili National Park on Savai’i, and the
imposition of a moratorium on any further logging in Tafua Forest (Firth and Darby, 1988).
Despite repeated recommendations for the establishment of protected areas, especially Mount
Silisili and the Aleipata Islands, there has been no progress in gazetting either site. Nevertheless,
the establishment of the Division of Environment and Conservation, increased funding and
the adoption of the Lands and Environment Act 1989 indicate a greater willingness on the
behalf of government to give the environment equal priority with other pressing issues (I. Reti,
pers. comm., 1991).
Addresses
National Parks and Reserves, Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, PO Box L1874,
Apia
Division of Environment and Conservation, Department of Lands and Environment, PO Private
Bag, Apia
References
Andrews, G.J. and Holthus, P.F. (1989). Marine environment survey: proposed Aleipata Islands
National Park, Western Samoa. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
67 pp.
Beichle, U. and Maelzer, M. (1985). A conservation programme for Western Samoa. JCBP
Technical Publication No. 4. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Pp. 1-3.
Bell, L.A.J. (1985). Coastal zone management in Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.),
Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume II.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caldenonia. Pp. 57-73.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J.,
Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? TUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.
Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: protected areas in the South Pacific. SPREP
Topic Review No. 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 103 pp.
Firth, N. and Darby, d’E.C. (1988). Environmental planning for tourism in Western Samoa. A
report to the Government of Western Samoa and the South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme. KRTA Limited, Auckland, New Zealand. 124 pp.
Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. CBP Study Report No. 7. International Council
for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.
392
Western Samoa
Holloway, C.W. and Floyd, C.H. (1975). A national parks system for Western Samoa. United
Nations Development Advisory Team for the South Pacific (UNDAT), Suva, Fiji. 71 pp.
Pearsall, S.H. (1988). Western Samoa. Country Report. The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu,
Hawaii. Unpublished report. 75 pp.
Pearsall, S.H. (1989). A system of representative natural areas for Western Samoa. Case Study
29. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila,
Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 12 pp.
SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
SPREP (1985b). Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 232-269.
SPREP (1987). SPREP makes considerable progress with implementation of action strategy for
protected areas. Environment Newsletter. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.
July-September. Pp. 15-22.
SPREP (1989a). Western Samoa. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 13 pp.
SPREP (1989b). Progress with the Action Strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific
Region. Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and
Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
Tiavolo, A. (1985). Land tenure system in Western Samoa. South Pacific Commission, Noumea,
New Caledonia. Unpublished report. 3 pp.
Trotman, I.G. (1979). Western Samoa launches a national park program. Parks 3(4): 5-8.
Venkatesh, S., Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection
legislation in the South Pacific countries. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia. 63 pp.
Whistler, W.A. (1983). Vegetation and flora of the Aleipata Islands, Western Samoa. Pacific
Science 37(3): 227-249. (Unseen)
World Bank (1990). World Tables. 1989-90 Edition. The John Hopkins University, Baltimore.
646 pp.
ANNEX
Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,
together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: National Parks and Reserves Act
Date: 30 December 1974
Brief description: Provides for the establishment, preservation and administration of
national parks and reserves for the benefit of the people of Western Samoa.
Administrative authority: As stated in the Act: Department of Lands and Survey, Minister
of Lands (National Parks and Reserves, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Designation:
National park As defined in Section 5, every national park shall be preserved in perpetuity
for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Western Samoa and shall be administered so
that: it is preserved as far as practical in its natural state; flora and fauna are preserved as far
as possible; its value as a soil, water and forest conservation area is maintained; and, subject
to a number of provisos, the public has freedom of access.
Nature reserves Within which either specified species of flora and fauna are protected, or
all taxa within a specified area are protected. Access may be restricted, except where a nature
reserve is declared in a marine area, in which case customary fishing rights remain
unaffected.
Recreation reserves (S.7)
Historic reserves (S.8)
Reserves for other purposes (S.9)
NB: A site fully gazetted under the Act can only be degazetted by Parliament. The principal
weakness of the 1974 Act is that it only enables national parks and reserves to be established
on public land.
Title: Forests Act
Date: 1967
Brief description: Consolidates the law relating to conservation, protection and
development of natural resources, especially soil, water and forests.
Administrative authority: Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries
Designation:
State forests on customary or freehold land
Protected forestry
Historic, cultural and archaeological sites
NB Source: Firth and Darby (1988); original act not seen’
394
Western Samoa
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map? Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 O Le Pupu Pu’e* Unassigned 2,857 1978
Historic and Nature Reserve
2 Tusitala (comprises 3 parts as follows)* Unassigned 64 1958
Mount Vaea Scenic Reserve Unassigned 51 1958
Stevenson’s Historic Site Unassigned 1 1958
Vailima Botanic Garden Unassigned 12 1978
Reserves
3 Palolo Deep* IV 22 1979
4 Togitogiga Recreation Vv 3 1978
Unclassified
5 Falealupo Forest Private 1,215 1989
Proposed
Cape Puava Forest Proposed
Nu’usafe’e Island R Proposed
Aleipata and Nu’utele Islands MP Proposed
Aganoa Beach Proposed (80)
Aopo Proposed (1)
Apolimafou Wetlands Proposed (50)
Fuipisia/Sopo’aga Gorge Proposed (80)
Fusi-Tafitaola Reef Proposed
Lake Lanoto’o Proposed (1,052)
Lake Mafane Upland Forest Proposed (305)
Lake Olomaga Proposed (1,295)
Lata Forest Proposed (690)
Leanamoea Beach Proposed (140)
Matautu Lowland Swamp Forest Proposed (16)
Mount Silisili Proposed (8,900)
Msngaloa Swamp Forest Proposed (120)
Nu’utele Islands Proposed (170)
Pata Mangroves Proposed (50)
Sa’anapu Mangroves Proposed (65)
Salamumu Proposed
Sato’alepai Mangroves Proposed (20)
Satuimalufilufi-Fuailolo’o Reef Proposed
Tafua Proposed (2,630)
Taupou’s Grave Lava Proposed
Tiavi /gorge and Falls Proposed (80)
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Map! Name of area IUCN management Area Year
ref. category (ha) notified
Tufutafoe Swamp Proposed (40)
Vaipu Wetlands Proposed (120)
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
396
Western Samoa
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397
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
O LE PUPU PU’E NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Situated in southern central ’Upolu Island in Atua and Taumasaga
Districts. Approximately 26km south of Apia (SPREP, 1985). The park is bounded by
government land to the east, north-east, north, north-west and south-west, and customary lands
to the east and south-east (Eaton, 1985). 13°55’-14°02’S, 171°42’-171°45’W
Date and History of Establishment The boundary has been delimited under Court Order 220
(1976), but the park has not been gazetted under the provisions of the 1974 National Parks and
Reserves Act (E. Bishop, pers. comm, 1989).
Area 2,857ha. Adjacent marine areas are not included. Togitogiga Recreation Reserve (3ha) is
contiguous to the east.
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level to 1,075m
Physical Features The park consists of a strip of land 1.5-6km wide, descending from a central
watershed to eroded basaltic cliffs approximately 10m high (Mossman and Berg, 1981). The
broad highland plateau is punctuated by volcanic cones and craters, including Mt Le Pu’e in the
north-west, a remnant of the Salani volcanics, and is cut by several steep valleys. The terrain
dips southward at approximately 8° from the highland plateau to a plain about 300m above sea
level (SPREP, 1985). The partially subterranean Afuiva River drains the northern central area.
Geologically, the island dates back to the Fagaloa Volcanics some three million years ago.
Approximately one million years ago lava from the Salani Volcanics covered much of the older
Fagaloa formation. More recently, 3,000 years ago, the Pu’apu’a Volcanics formed a wide lava
fan in the southern lowlands which has since eroded to form coastal cliffs (Eaton, 1985). Pe’ape’a
Cave, a partially collapsed 1,800m-long lava tube (Trotman, 1979), is located near the centre of
the park. Soils principally comprise weathered basalt and are generally poorly developed and
prone to erosion. Ten different types have been identified, of which only one, present in isolated
patches, is suitable for agriculture (Mossman and Berg, 1981).
Climate Mean temperature range is 22°C-32°C, depending upon altitude and time of year. Mean
annual rainfall is about 3500mm at highest altitudes and mean annual humidity for the island is
83% (Tioa, 1979). There is a marked dry season between May and August, in contrast to
December to March which is hot, wet and windy (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Vegetation Three main vegetation communities are distinguished. Pahoehoe lava of the
Pu’apu’a Volcanics remain bare near the coast, but there is a littoral scrub belt, sheared by salt
winds (Trotman, 1979). The littoral vegetation comprises fourcommunities, Lepturus rock stand,
Scaevola littoral scrub, Pandanus littoral forest and Calophyllum littoral forest (SPREP, 1985).
Further inland is lowland forest comprising four communities, namely Tava lowland forest,
Manalava foothill forest, Mafoa foothill forest and Maotamea montane forest (SPREP, 1985).
At higher altitudes montane swamp forest predominates with tree and ground ferns, lichens and
epiphytes abundant. Species prominent at lower elevations persist and may even be locally
common (Trotman, 1979).
398
Western Samoa
Fauna Indigenous mammals are restricted to three bat species, all of which occur within the
park. These are Samoan flying fox Pteropus samoensis (E), Insular flying fox P. tonganus (1)
and sheath-tailed bat Emballonura semicaudata, which resides in the Pe’ape’a lava tube. The
only other mammals are introduced Polynesian rat Rattus exulans and pig Sus scrofa (SPREP,
1985).
Forty-two bird species have been recorded, including twelve endemic to Western Samoa; three
of these occur only on "Upolu Island (Mossman and Berg, 1981). Endemics include tooth-billed
pigeon Didunculus strigirostris (V) and Samoan starling Aplonis atrifusca, whilst the scarce
ma’o Gymnomyza samoensis, endemic to Western and American Samoa, is also present. The
five most abundant species are cardinal honey-eater Myzomela cardinalis, Pacific pigeon Ducula
pacifica, wattled honey-eater Foulehaio carunculata and white-rumped swiftlet Collocalia
spodiopygia, which inhabits Pe’ape’a Cave (SPREP, 1985).
Four reptiles are present: snake-eyed skink Ablephorus boutonii, azure-tailed skink Emoia
cyanura, Samoan skink E. samoensis and an unidentified skink (SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population A number of small villages are located near the park on the south
coast road (SPREP, 1985). Government land to the north-west has been allocated to various
villages (Eaton, 1985). Customary land lies to the south-east, a government cattle farm to the
east, and an area of state reafforestation and a quarry at Togitogiga lie to the south-west, the latter
being used occasionally. There are numerous small plantations within the park boundary, mostly
scattered peripherally, and four private dwellings are in the vicinity of Togitogiga Recreation
Reserve (Mossman and Berg, 1981).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is not well known and receives few visitors (Mossman
and Berg, 1981). A road runs from Apia through the park and to the coast. An information centre
is located at park headquarters in Togitogiga Recreation Reserve (Mossman and Berg, 1981).
Nature trails, including arough track to Pe’ape’a Cave, have been laid out and are being improved
(Dasmann, 1980). A trail along the coastal cliffs was established in 1980, running through littoral
scrub and Pandanus forest. Approximately 150 visitors used this and the Pe’ape’a trail in 1988
(E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities Eaton (1985) considered land use and tenure at O Le Pupu
Pu’e in a study undertaken for the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. Other
research includes surveys of the flora, fauna and geology (Ollier et al., 1972).
Conservation Value The site is valued because it holds nearly the whole range of forest types
found on "Upolu (Mossman and Berg, 1981). The lowland forest is a remnant of an extensive
tract which covered the south coast of Upolu prior to its clearance (Trotman, 1979).
Conservation Management Under the current legal arrangement, the Ministry of Lands is not
entitled to designate a separate land-use classification for the park. Any government department
wishing to use the land may do so, on the condition that an application is accepted by the
government. However, since the park was established there have been no such applications
(E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). The park is administered from the headquarters at Togitogiga
Scenic Reserve. A management plan has been produced (Mossman and Berg, 1981); objectives
include preservation, education and controlled use of the area by the public. Policies have been
established to: protect the park from detrimental activities; provide for management with an
emphasis on relevant research; and confine public use to sites already developed (Mossman and
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Berg, 1981). Support has been provided through IUCN/WWF-New Zealand Project 1650.
Zoning is addressed by Trotman (1979) who recommends a simple system comprising an upland
wilderness area and an area of more intensive use around the information centre. An updated
management plan is expected to be produced within the next two years (E. Bishop, pers. comm.,
1988).
Management Constraints The Land Board (Ministry of Lands) submitted the proposed
boundary to public scrutiny in the early 1980s. Members of a village neighbouring the site
objected to the location of the boundary and, because the issue was never resolved, the legal
gazettement of the park has been stalled ever since. Ownership claims are also maintained over
about half of the park by local people (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989). Indiscriminate firewood
collection, logging and shooting, particularly of birds, threaten the park (Beichle and Maelzer,
1985). Rapid growth of weed species makes maintenance of tracks and picnic areas difficult
(Dasmann, 1980). Forest clearance and agricultural encroachment have occurred in the south-east
and in areas contiguous to cultivated land outside the park. Prosecution is difficult, however,
because the boundary is not marked (Mossman and Berg, 1981). Approximately 4ha of park land
adjacent to the main road have been felled during a coastal electrification scheme (E. Bishop,
pers. comm., 1989).
Staff A caretaker and ten workers maintain the park and adjacent recreation reserve (SPREP,
1985).
Budget No specific funds are allocated to the park. Expenditure is met from the total national
park and reserves budget, WS Tala 28,000 (US$ 14,000) in 1988. This was expected to double
in 1989, with a significant proportion being assigned to increasing the level of staffing in the
park (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). Financial assistance has been received for various projects;
for example, WWF provided US$ 14,000 in 1979 to fund an expatriate ranger to develop the
park (Dasmann, 1980).
Local Addresses National Parks and Reserves Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, PO Box L1874, Apia
References
Beichle, U. and Maelzer, M. (1985). A conservation programme for Western Samoa. ICBP
Technical Publication No. 4. International Council for Bird preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Pp. 297-299.
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Report on assistance to Western Samoa with national parks and conservation.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 27 pp.
Dasmann, D. (1980). World Wildlife Yearbook 1979/1980. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 96-97.
Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: protected areas in the South Pacific. SPREP
Topic Review No. 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 103 pp.
Holloway, C.W. and Floyd, C.H. (1975). A national parks system for Western Samoa. UNDAT,
Suva, Fiji. 68 pp.
Mossman, R. and Berg, P. (1981). Management plan for the O Le Pupu-Pu’e National Park.
Directorate of Agriculture and Forests, Apia. 27 pp.
Ollier, C.D., Whistler, W.A. and Amerson, A.B. (1972). O Le Pupu-Pu’ e National Park, Samoa.
Volume 1. United Nations Advisory Team, Suva. (Unseen)
Orenstein, R.I. (1979). Notes on the ma’o (Gymnomyza samuensis), a rare Samoan honeyeater.
Notornis 26:181-184.
400
Western Samoa
SPREP (1985). Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 232-269.
Trotman, I.G. (1979). A national park program. Tigerpaper 4:11-14.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date June 1988
PALOLO DEEP MARINE RESERVE
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located approximately 1.6km north-east of Apia, in Vaimanga West
Subdistrict, Tuamasaga District, on the north coast of Upolu. The reserve includes part of the
surrounding reef to the north and south and extends 500m east of the fringing reef (Bell, 1985).
Date and History of Establishment 5 December 1979. Gazetted under the provisions of Section
9 of the 1974 National Parks and Reserves Act.
Area 22ha
Land Tenure State ownership of the seabed, ocean and land below the high water mark, the
remainder comprising customary land.
Altitude Ranges from 0-1m above sea level to a depth of approximately 10m.
Physical Features Palolo Deep is a hole about 200m in diameter and 10m deep within a fold
in the fringing reef which surrounds Pilot Point. There is a small sand beach on the shore
extending onto the reef flat which is dotted with small basalt rocks. On the seaward side of the
deep there is a talus slope of sand and coral debris thrown over the reef (SPREP, 1985). The
fore-reef slope and extensive submarine terraces have rich coral cover (Dahl, 1978).
Climate The mean daily temperature is 27°C, with a range of 22°C to 30°C. The mean annual
rainfall is 2870mm, of which 1900mm falls during October to March. Ocean temperatures range
from 24°C to 30°C (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation The 10m wide access strip has a banana tree overstorey with various ornamental
shrubs as an understorey. A large pulu tree is located near the reserve entrance (SPREP, 1985).
Fauna The reserve is named after the palolo worm Eunice viridis (K), although it is now rarely
found in the locality. There are many corals and abundant fish and invertebrates such as sea
urchins, sea cucumbers, parrotfish, clownfish, pipefish, starfish, lionfish and possibly stonefish
(SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No significant cultural heritage (SPREP, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Local Human Population Palolo Deep is situated within the city of Apia, a collection of about
60 villages with a total population of 35,000 (SPREP, 1985). Matautu Village is contiguous to
the south.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities During 1988 there were approximately 1,500 visitors, of whom
65% were tourists, the remainder being residents. An entrance fee of 1.00 Tala (US$ 0.50) is
charged (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989). Access to the site is via a 10m-wide strip that skirts
around nearby government-owned buildings. Accommodation for visitors is available in Apia.
Tourist brochures have been produced but were inadequately distributed (Johannes, 1982). The
customary owner supplements his income by hiring snorkelling equipment and selling
refreshments from a small store (T. Uli, pers. comm., 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities In the early 1970s, a rudimentary monitoring programme of
Palolo Deep was carried out by the Regional Ecologist of the South Pacific Commission (Hunter,
1977), but this has not been continued. The origin of the Deep is not clear, but it has been
suggested that a freshwater spring occurred there, preventing coral growth (SPREP, 1985).
Conservation Value The site was identified as being of special interest in the 1970s (Holloway
and Floyd, 1975) because it was already being used for wildlife viewing and because of its
proximity to Apia.
Conservation Management According to Firth and Darby (1988), the reserve was started as a
private venture by a Samoan family, and serves as a precedent to demonstrate the potential for
customary resource users to earn a cash income by conserving wildlife resources in their natural
state. The current legal status of the reserve does not prohibit any government department from
applying for a change in land use (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989). An underwater nature trail
was planned in 1978 (Dahl, 1978), established in the early 1980s (Dahl, 1980) and redeveloped
in 1985 with assistance from New Zealand. By 1987 the trail signs were no longer present. A
management plan was due to be compiled during 1988-89 (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988). The
definition of marine reserve is not clear, and in many respects the reserves is a de facto recreational
reserve (Bell, 1989).
Management Constraints The site is affected by pollution, siltation and by problems with
urchins and crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci. Underwater visibility declined between
1970 and 1977 as a result of sedimentation, considered to be due to large-scale reclamation for
an hotel complex in the vicinity (Hunter, 1977). The proximity of the reserve to Apia Harbour
increases its vulnerability. In 1982, the area was being fished illegally, probably at night
(Johannes, 1982). There is reported to be some coral collection (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Trained
management personnel are lacking and a lack of funds for the National Parks and Reserves
Section has meant that the development of the Deep is not a high priority (T. Uli, pers. comm.,
1987).
Staff The owner is paid a government wage, and a caretaker is employed to guard the site at
night (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989).
Budget No budget is allocated specifically to the reserve. The National Parks and Reserves
Section budget for 1988 was 28,000 WS Tala (US$ 14,000) and the proposed 1990 budget was
104,000 WS Tala.
Local Addresses National Parks and Reserves, Department of Agriculture, Forests and
Fisheries, PO Box L1874, Apia
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Western Samoa
References
Bell, L.A.J. (1985). Coastal zone management in Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.),
Report of the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Selected key
issue and case study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
Pp. 57-73.
Bell, L.A.J. (1989). Marine conservation: present status in Western Samoa. In: SPREP, Report
of the workshop on customary tenure, traditional resource management and nature
conservation, Noumea, 28 March-1 April. South Pacific Commission, Noumea. Pp. 87-94.
Dahl, A.L. (1978). Report on assistance to Western Samoa with national parks and conservation.
South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 28 pp.
Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. IUCN/SPC Technical
Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.
Firth, N. and Darby, E.C. (1988). Environmental planning for tourism in Western Samoa. A
report to the Government of Western Samoa and the South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme. KRTA Limited, Auckland, New Zealand. 124 pp.
Holloway, C.W. and Floyd, C.H. (1975). A national parks system for Western Samoa. United
Nations Development Advisory Team for the South Pacific (UNDAT). 71 pp.
Hunter, A.P. (1977). Country Report. Western Samoa. In: Collected Abstracts and Papers of the
International Conference on Marine Parks and Reserves, Tokyo, Japan, May 1975. The
Sabiura Marine Park Research Station, Kushimoto, Japan. (Unseen)
Johannes, R.E. (1982). Reef and lagoon management in Western Samoa. Unpublished report.
South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.
SPREP (1985). Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P-E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 232-269.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Date July 1989
TUSITALA HISTORIC AND NATURE RESERVE
(COMPRISING MOUNT VAEA SCENIC RESERVE, STEVENSON
(TUSITALA) MEMORIAL RESERVE AND VAILIMA BOTANIC
GARDEN)
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location Located in northern "Upolu island, in Vaimanga West Subdistrict,
Taumasaga District and on the eastern slopes and summit of Mt Vaea. The protected area is at
the end of Ala o le Alofa Road and lies 4km inland from Apia. Stevenson Memorial Reserve lies
at the approximate centre of Mt Vaea Scenic Reserve, whilst Vailima Botanic Garden is
contiguous to the south-east. Approximately 5°04’N, 75°57’W
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Date and History of Establishment Originally gazetted on 22 September 1958 as Mount Vaea
Scenic Reserve and Stevenson Memorial Reserve, then redesignated and expanded on 11 October
1978, under the 1974 National Parks and Reserves Act, to include Vailima Botanic Garden. The
site is still marked on Ministry of Lands maps as government land, not national park or reserve.
Consequently, the reserve does not enjoy the full protection available under the 1974 Act
(E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989).
Area Mount Vaea Scenic Reserve 51ha; Stevenson Memorial Reserve 0.5ha; Vailima Botanic
Garden 12ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude 180-400m
Physical Features Mt Vaea is a small remnant of a two million year old volcano, emerging
through younger volcanoes (Kear, 1967; SPREP, 1985) and forming a prominent hill overlooking
the national capital, Apia. The reserve consists entirely of the oldest rock found in Western
Samoa: the Fagaloa Volcanics. There are dense lava flows, and lava flows which contained a
large amount of gas during formation. The latter erodes readily, forming the two waterfalls on
Vailima Stream and shallow, stony soils (SPREP, 1985). The Botanic Garden has a gentle,
northerly aspect and is bounded to the north by Vailima Stream.
Climate The mean daily temperature is 27°C, with a range of 22°C to 30°C. The mean annual
rainfall is 2870mm, of which 1900mm falls during October to March (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation Forest covers about three-quarters of Mt Vaea Scenic Reserve. The original forest
cover has been disturbed and may be classified into three general categories. Plantations were
established along Vailima Stream, principally to protect the watershed after severe storm damage
in 1963 (Trotman, 1979). Predominant species include Cedrella odorata, Albizia chinensis,
A. falcataria, Castilloa elastica, Funtumia elastica, Pinus sp., Eucalyptus sp. and Securinega
flexuosa. Secondary forest, dominated by mature species adapted to germination and growth in
sunny, disturbed areas covers most of Mt Vaea Scenic Reserve. Early stages of secondary forest
host Pipturus argenteus, Kleinhovia hospita, Homalanthus nutans and Hibiscus tiliaceus. Later
stages of secondary forest include Rhus taitensis, Alphitonia zizyphoides, Bischofia javanica,
Macaranga stipulosa, Cananga adorata, Myristica fatua and tree ferns of the genus Cyathea.
Foothill rain forest is found as small patches of native species within secondary forest. No single
species is dominant, although Myristica, Palaquium stehlinii, Syzygium ionphylloides, Canarium
samoense, Barringtonia samoensis and Pometia pinnata are all represented (SPREP, 1985).
Vegetation within Stevenson Memorial Reserve includes lopa, gatae, Asi and breadfruit, in
addition to open areas around the memorial. Vailima Botanic Garden includes many species of
trees, ornamental shrubs, in addition to native and exotic food crops, planted for demonstration
purposes. The garden also includes a cocoa plantation and a forestry trial area (Anon., n.d.).
Fauna Birds commonly seen include wattled honey-eater Foulehaio carunculata, Samoan
starling Aplonis atrifusca, white-rumped swiftlet Collocalia spodiopygia, triller Lalage sharpei,
Samoan fantail Rhipidura nebulosa and red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. Flying fox Pteropus
sp. are present. Reptiles are represented by black skink, Samoan skink and Polynesian gecko
(SPREP, 1985).
Cultural Heritage Stevenson Memorial Reserve includes the tomb of the author Robert Louis
Stevenson, who spent his last years on the island. His former home is now the residence of the
404
Western Samoa
Head of State. The reserve entrance road, Alao le Loto Alofa (Road of the Loving Hearts) was
constructed in Stevenson’s honour, following his involvement in local politics (Anon., n.d.).
Local Human Population The nearest major population centre is Apia, with a population of
some 35,000. The reserves are located just west of a string of small Samoan villages fronting on
Tiavi Road (East Cross Island Road). A few small plantations are interspersed to provide food
for villagers. The Head of State’s residence is immediately south of the reserve entrance road
(SPREP, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is well-used, with activities ranging from hiking to
swimming and picnicking. The annual number of visitors is not known and access is free by road
from Apia. In 1979 there were more than 150 visitors each month (Trotman, 1979). Two trails
lead to Stevenson’s tomb, one of which traverses the west side of Mount Vaea (E. Bishop,
pers. comm., 1989)
Scientific Research and Facilities There are forestry trials at Vailima Botanic Garden
(Anon., n.d.).
Conservation Value The area has been established to safeguard the scenery and countryside
around Robert Louis Stevenson’s home and tomb, as well as to serve as an important recreation
area for the residents of Apia.
Conservation Management The current legal status does not prohibit any government
department from applying for a change in land-use (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989). Management
plans for each of the three sites are due to be compiled within the next three years. Management
objectives have included establishing, by December 1989, displays of native Samoan plants in
the botanical garden, including ornamentals, crops, medicinal species and trees, and the provision
of appropriate staff training (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1988).
Management Constraints The botanical garden was overrun by bush during the 1980s due
to a lack of staff for maintenance work. Much of this was cleared during 1987-89. Local people
have established plantations in the reserve, although these have been removed (E. Bishop,
pers. comm., 1989).
Staff A caretaker, with two labourers, has responsibility for all three sites (SPREP, 1985).
Budget No budget is specifically allocated to the reserves. The National Parks and Reserves
Section had a 1988 budget of 28,000 WS Tala (US$ 14,000) and a projected 1990 budget of
104,000 WS Tala.
Local Addresses National Parks and Reserves Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, PO Box L1874, Apia
References
Anon. (n.d.). Mt. Vaea Scenic Reserve, Vailima Botanic Garden, Stevenson Memorial Reserve.
Pamphlet printed by the National Parks and Reserves Section, Forestry Division, Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
Kear, D. (1967). Geological notes on Western Samoa. New Zealand Journal of Geology and
Geophysics 10(6): 1446-1451.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
SPREP (1985). Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific
National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 232-269.
Trotman, I.G. (1979). Western Samoa launches a national park program. Parks 3(4): 5-8.
Date August 1987, reviewed January 1989, February 1990
406
OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Area
Year
Map? Name of area IUCN management
ref. category
AUSTRALIA
International designation: World Heritage Site
1 Lord Howe Island Group Il/x
(Permanent Preserve)*
CHILE
National Park
2 Rapa Nui* II
NEW ZEALAND
Nature Reserve
3 Kermadec Islands* I
UK PITCAIRN -— Henderson Island
International designation: World Heritage Site
4 Henderson Island* Xx
USA - Minor Outlying Islands
National Wildlife Refuges
5 Baker Island* I
6 Howland Island* I
7 Jarvis Island* I
8 Johnston Atoll* Unassigned
*Site is described in this directory.
Locations are shown in the accompanying map.
407
(ha)
1176
6800
3089
3,700
12,843
13,173
15,183
12,995
notified
1982
1935
1934
1988
1974
1974
1974
1926
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
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Protected Areas of other Pacific Islands
408
Other Pacific Islands
AUSTRALIA
Lord Howe Island Group (permanent Preserve)
IUCN Management Category _ II (National Park)
X (World Heritage Site; criteria i, ii, iii, iv)
Biogeographical Province 5.06.13 (New Caledonian)
Geographical Location Located in the South Pacific Ocean, 700km north-east of Sydney and
included administratively in New South Wales. The preserve includes some 75% of the land area
of Lord Howe Island and all of the offshore islands and rocks of significant size in the region.
These include the Admiralty Group (immediately to the north-east of Lord Howe Island); Mutton
Bird and Sail Rock (just east of the central part of Lord Howe Island); Blackburn (Rabbit) Island
(in the lagoon on the western side of Lord Howe Island); Gower Island (just off the southern tip
of Lord Howe Island); and Ball’s Pyramid (25km south-east of Lord Howe Island), together with
a number of small islands and rocks. The seaward boundary follows the mean high water mark
and consequently excludes all littoral and marine areas (Davey, 1986). A detailed description of
the boundary is given in Schedule 1 of the 1981 Lord Howe Island (Amendment) Act.
31°30’-31°50’S, 159°00’-159°17’E
Date and History of Establishment The preserve was established on 1 January 1982 under
Section 19A of the Lord Howe Island (Amendment) Act, 1981. The Lord Howe Island Board
was originally constituted under Section 4(1) of the Lord Howe Island Act, 1953. The entire
island region was inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1982.
Area Approximately 1,176ha. The World Heritage site includes the whole island region,
covering approximately 1,540ha of land area.
Land Tenure State Government of New South Wales. All permanent private occupation is on
leasehold from the government subject to various conditions (ANPWS, 1981).
Altitude Sea level to 875m (Mount Gower)
Physical Features The main island of Lord Howe measures 10km from north to south and is
little more than 2km in width. It roughly describes a crescent, enclosing a coral reef lagoon on
its south-western side. The island’s topography is dominated by the southerly Mount Gower
(875m) and Mount Lidgbird (777m). Steep cliffs rise several hundred metres to form the seaward
flanks of Mount Gower. Only a narrow isthmus of lowland country in the north-central part of
the island is habitable. The northern tip consists of steep hillsides culminating in extensive sea
cliffs against the northern coastline. Scattered around the main island are several groups of
smaller islands and rocks. The most distant of these is a group of small islets and rock stacks
around the 650m pinnacle of Balls Pyramid, 25km to the south-east of Lord Howe.
Lord Howe Island is the eroded remnant of a large shield volcano which erupted from the sea
floor intermittently for about 500,000 years, 6.5 to 7 million years ago in the late Miocene
(McDougall et al., 1981). The island group represents the exposed peaks of a large volcanic
seamount which is about 65km long and 24km wide and which rises from ocean depths of over
1,800m. The Lord Howe seamount is near the southern end of a chain of such seamounts, mostly
below sea level, extending for over 1,000km. These mark the successive movement of the
Australian tectonic plate over a "hotspot" within the upper mantle below. Four separate series of
volcanic rocks are recognised on the main island group, the oldest being exposed in the Admiralty
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Group and on the north-eastern tip of Lord Howe. These include tuffs, breccia and basalts, with
widespread intrusion of basaltic dykes, and are overlain by progressively younger units to the
south. The youngest volcanic rock is Mt Lidgbird basalt, which is present in lava flows up to
30m thick. Sedimentary aeolian calcarenite or dune limestone characterise the lowland parts of
the main island (Davey, 1986).
The dominant landforming process on Lord Howe since the last of the volcanic eruptions has
been marine erosion, which has cut and maintained major cliffs. Slope failure and accumulation
of talus at the foot of some cliffs, especially in the south, have modified their original shape.
Local variations in lithology are the major determinant of the shape of the irregular rocky
coastline and of the small residual islands and rock stacks. There are numerous resistant
projecting points and sea caves (Davey, 1986).
Subsequent erosion means that the present islands occupy only one-fortieth of the original area.
Lord Howe Island has sedimentary deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene ages, including
cross-bedded calcarenite with intercalated soil horizons, lagoonal deposits, a single sand dune,
and alluvium. The island supports the southernmost true coral reef in the world, which is of
Pleistocene to Recent age and differs considerably from more northerly warm water reefs. It is
unique in being a transition between the algal and coral reef, due to fluctuations of hot and cold
water around the island. The entire island group has remarkable volcanic exposures not known
elsewhere, with slightly weathered exposed volcanics showing a great variety of upper mantle
and oceanic type basalts. Ball’s Pyramid represents the nearly complete stage in the destruction
of a volcanic island. The intercalated soil horizons have yielded important palaeontological data,
with interesting fossil finds such as the shells of land snail Placostylus and the terrestrial giant
horned turtle Meiolania platyceps, which probably became extinct more than 20,000 years ago.
A fossil bat skull, uncovered in 1972, has been described as a new species Nyctophilus howensis;
it may have persisted into modern times. Significant landforms in the preserve are listed in Davey
(1986).
Climate Climate is humid subtropical with a mean temperature of 16°C in August and 23°C in
February. Both diurnal and seasonal temperature range is about 7°C. A temperature of 0°C has
been recorded on the summit of Mount Gower. Mean annual rainfall in the lowlands is almost
1700mm, with a pronounced maximum in winter and a mean rainfall of 100mm in February.
The highest annual rainfall recorded in the lowlands is 2870mm, with a minimum of 1000mm.
The southerly part of Lord Howe Island is generally wetter due to orographic effects. Relative
humidity is high at 75-78% and wind levels average 13 knots in August, 9-10 knots in January
and March. Climatic data and summaries are available in Anon. (1969), Gentilli (1971) and
Pickard (1983).
Vegetation A wide variety of vegetation types has been described for the islands, with the
diversity corresponding with the range of habitats, viz. lowland, montane, valleys, ridges and
areas exposed to the maritime influence. Variable exposure to wind and penetration of salt spray
appear to be the main determinants of vegetation occurrence, structure and floristics. Lord Howe
Island is almost unique among small Pacific Ocean islands in that its mountains have sufficient
altitude for the development of true cloud forest on their summits.
Twenty-five vegetation associations in twenty alliances have been identified (Pickard, 1983).
Fourteen of these associations have endemic species as their dominant components. The slopes
of the northern hills are dominated mostly by Drypetes/Cryptocaria rain forest, with Howea
forsterana palm forest on the flats behind North Bay and H. belmoreana palm forest in the
narrower gullies running down towards Old Settlement Beach. Melaleuca/Cassinia scrubs and
410
Other Pacific Islands
Cyperus and Poa grasslands occur on the exposed slopes of Mount Eliza and along the crest of
the sea cliffs on the northern coast. The southern mountains are covered with a more variable
suite of rain forest and palm associations, often with Pandanus along drainage lines, and with
scrub and cliff associations in the more exposed parts and along the coastline. There are small
occurrences of Poa grassland on Mutton Bird Point (on the east coast) and King Point (at the
southern tip). The upper slopes of mounts Gower and Lidgbird include areas of forest dominated
by another of the endemic palms, Hedyscepe canterburyana. The very humid summit plateau on
Gower and the summit ridge on Lidgbird consist of structurally distinct gnarled mossy forest
(Davey, 1986).
There are 219 native species of vascular plants on the island, including 74 endemics. Sixteen of
these are considered rare, endangered or vulnerable. There are four endemic palm species in three
endemic genera. There are also two other endemic genera in the families Asteraceae and
Gesneriaceae. Other endemic species are widely scattered among families. Endemism is
particularly noticeable among ferns and in the families Asteraceae, Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae and
Rubiaceae. There are 48 species of indigenous pteriodphytes (including 19 endemic ferns)
belonging to 32 genera, and 180 species of angiosperms (56 endemics) in 149 genera. A further
four species are represented by endemic subspecies or varieties; there are no gymnosperms. Some
of the endemics suggest recent speciation, and many have confusing origins, such as the three
endemic palm genera Howea, Hedyscope and Lepidorrhachis, and also Dietes sp., the three
congeners of which are endemic to southern Africa and which has seeds with apparently only
short range dispersal capacity. Other noteworthy endemics are Dendrobium moorei and Bubbia
howeana. Many species are threatened or have restricted distribution on the island; there is only
one known plant of non-endemic Pandanus pedunculatus, and Chionochloa conspicua ssp. nov.
(Poaceae) is an endemic known only from one clump on Mount Lidgbird.
The vegetation has affinities with sub-tropical and temperate rain forests, and 129 plant genera
are shared with Australia, 102 with New Caledonia and only 75 with New Zealand. There are
160 naturalised, introduced plant species, mostly, but not exclusively, in the lowland settlement
area. Weed species of the greatest immediate concern within the preserve are bone seed (biton
bush) and kikuyu grass. Many other species are potentially serious problems (Davey, 1986).
Fauna A small population of little cave eptesicus Eptesicus sagittula still occurs. No other
indigenous native mammals are known. Introduced species, however, include mouse Mus
musculus and rats, feral cat Felis domestica, goat Capra hircus and, formerly, pig Sus domestica.
There are at least 129 native and introduced bird species, mostly vagrants, with 27 breeding
regularly. A partial species list is given in Davey (1986). Lord Howe is now the only known
breeding ground for providence petrel Pterodroma solandri, although it also probably breeds on
Ball’s Pyramid. Fleshy-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes hullianus breeds in substantial
numbers on Lord Howe, with possibly half the world’s population present. Other important
species breeding within the preserve include Kermadec pctrel Pterodroma neglecta,
black-winged petrel P. nigripennis, wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus, little shearwater
P. assimilis, white-bellied storm petrel Fregetta grallaria, masked booby Sula dactylatra,
red-tailed tropic bird Phaeton rubricauda in greater concentrations than probably anywhere else
in the world. Sooty tern Sterna fuscata, noddy Anous Stolidus and grey ternlet Procelsterna
cerula. Several migratory wader species are regular visitors to the island, principally
double-banded dotterel Charadrius bicinctus, eastern golden plover Pluvialis dominica,
turnstone Arenaria interpres, whimbrel Numenius phaeopus and bar-tailed godwit Limosa
lapponica. Four endemic birds are present. Lord Howe Island woodhen Tricholimnas sylvestris,
reduced to some 26 individuals in 1975, has been successfully bred in captivity and now numbers
411
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
around 200. The other endemic land birds are silver-eye Zosterops tephropleura, Lord Howe
Island golden whistler Pachycephala pectoralis contempta, both reasonably abundant, and the
scarce Lord Howe Island currawong Strepera graculina crissalis (Davey, 1986), with only 20
known pairs (ANPWS, 1981).
The islands support two species of terrestrial reptile, skink Leiolopisma lichenigera and gecko
Phyllodactylus guentheri, which are threatened with extinction on the main island but are
abundant on other islands in the group. Many of the endemic invertebrates from the moss forest
on the summit of Mount Gower have been collected and described. The small terrestrial
gastropods (Hydrobiidae) comprise nine species and sixteen subspecies, a greater number of
subspecies than those found on the eastern Australian mainland. The terrestrial molluscs have
suffered from habitat changes; two colonies of large ground snails Placostylus sp. appear to be
maintaining their numbers, though distinct forms seem to have become extinct on other parts of
the island. There are five endemic species of flies (Diptera) and a further nine confined to Lord
Howe and Norfolk islands. Specimens of Lord Howe Island phasmid Dryococoelus australis
(Ex), a large flightless phasmatid thought to be extinct on Lord Howe Island, is known to occur
still on Ball’s Pyramid. Over 50% of more than 100 species of spiders recorded for Lord Howe
Island are thought to be endemic. One endemic species of leech and ten endemic species of
earthworm have also been recorded. The terrestrial and freshwater crustacea are not well known,
but include a freshwater crab Halicarcinus lacustris and a freshwater prawn Paratya howensis.
Three new genera and 12 new species of terrestrial isopod have been recorded and recently a
new species of talitrid amphipod from the top of Mount Gower was described. The waters around
Lord Howe Island provide an unusual mixture of temperate and tropical organisms, 477 fish
species having been recorded in 107 families of which 4% are unrecorded elsewhere other than
in Norfolk Island-Middleton Reef waters. Lionfish Pterois volitans is protected in the marine
waters (ANPWS, 1981).
Cultural Heritage The earliest human discovery of Lord Howe appears to have been in 1788
by the British colonial vessel HMS Supply. There is no recognised evidence of prior Polynesian
or Melanesian discovery or settlement. A small permanent settlement was established in the 19th
century, subsisting on trade with passing ships. With numerous fluctuations over the years, the
settlement slowly expanded and consolidated, developing a distinctive social structure and
culture with the passage of time (Davey, 1986). The island is an interesting example of restricted
island settlement, although the World Heritage nomination was not made on cultural grounds
(ANPWS, 1981).
Local Human Population There is currently a resident population of between 250 and 300
individuals inhabiting the relatively level ground in the central part of the main island. Tourism
is the major component of the island economy, followed by public administration and community
service. Approximately 10% of the main island’s vegetation has been cleared for agriculture,
and another 10% has been subject to physical disturbance. Commercial activities within the
preserve include collection of palm seed, especially Kentia palm Howea forsterana, and cutting
of Pandanus foliage for production of baskets and other craft items, subject to control by the
Lord Howe Island Board (Davey, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Some three or four hundred tourists may be present
simultaneously during the summer (Davey, 1986), although neither the annual total number of
visitors, nor the revenue derived from tourism is known. The principal means of access to the
island for visitors is by light aircraft. There are six licensed guest houses providing full board
accommodation and eleven self-contained apartment complexes (Thompson et al., 1987).
Walking, often for nature study, bird watching or photography, is the major recreation activity.
412
Other Pacific Islands
There is an extensive system of walking tracks ramifying throughout the reserve and a guide
service is available. Scenic flights are available over the entire island group and several
commercial operators offer boat tours. Proposed interpretation and environmental education
activities are outlined in the current management plan (Davey, 1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities There has been considerable scientific interest in Lord Howe
ever since discovery of the island. A succession of scientific expeditions in the 19th century
quickly established the international significance of the island’s natural history. In the early 1970s
the Australian Museum undertook a terrestrial environmental survey of the island for the Lord
Howe Island Board (Recher and Clark, 1974) which included, inter alia, a recommendation to
establish an extensive land reserve for the protection of terrestrial flora and fauna. Land use
planning studies undertaken for the Board (Ashton, 1974) also recommended the establishment
of a substantial reserve on the island. A major research project culminated in the successful
captive breeding of Lord Howe Island woodhen in the early to mid-1970s. A research
bibliography is given in Davey (1986).
Conservation Value The preserve is valued for exceptional natural beauty, a diversity of
landscapes and wide variety of rare flora and fauna.
Conservation Management The affairs, care, control and management of Lord Howe Island,
including the smaller islands offshore, are administered by the Lord Howe Island Board. The
Lord Howe Island (Amendment) Act, 1981, reconstituted the Board, such that one of its members
is an officer of the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, nominated by the
Minister administering the 1974 National Parks and Wildlife Act. Section 15B of the amended
Act provides for the preparation of a management plan in respect of the preserve, prepared by
the Director of Parks and Wildlife, in terms of Part V of the 1974 Act. The plan is to be approved
by the Minister administering the Lord Howe Island Act. The Board has adopted a "land use
policy set", based on a model that proposes that the region comprises two components: the
settlement area, and the preserve. One of the objectives of the land use policy set is "to ensure
that the management plan for the settlement area will complement the future permanent park
preserve plan of management and form a plan of management for the island as a whole".
The Lord Howe Island management plan (Davey, 1986) states that the fundamental management
objectives are to: maintain the natural land-forming processes; protect significant landforms;
maintain natural plant and animal populations; avoid all unnatural disturbances of plant
associations and habitats; protect all individuals and the population of each species from
unnatural disturbances; eliminate human disturbance; restore disturbed areas; control or
eliminate introduced species; preserve outstanding natural scenery and natural character of the
preserve; promote appreciation and enjoyment of the preserve; maintain the full range of plant
genetic diversity; and make provision for continued livelihood of the local populace. Specific
management activities have included the elimination of goats from the Northern Hiils, resulting
in substantial recovery of the understorey and a severe reduction in the number of feral pigs
(Davey, 1986). Funds and labour have been allocated to an intensive effort to control weed
infestations and feral animals affecting native vegetation and birds. However, funding and labour
constraints have so far only allowed the control, and not elimination, of introduced flora and
fauna. The Board is seeking Commonwealth Government funding in order to fully implement
the eradication programme (Anon., 1989).
Management Constraints Nine of the fifteen species of land birds recorded when the Island
was first discovered are now extinct, of which seven were endemics. Their destruction has been
due to hunting, introduction of black rat Rattus rattus, owls and feral cats, or through habitat
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
changes caused by introduced goats and pigs. The size of some seabird colonies on the main
island has also declined. Endemic land snails are less abundant and confined to isolated colonies
although exact details are not known, and the two lizards are very restricted if not extinct on the
main island. There are 175 introduced species of plant, although most of these have not invaded
the indigenous plant communities. In the lower-lying areas, destruction of native vegetation has
been virtually complete where clearings have been made for settlement, grazing and agriculture,
and regrowth tends to be of invading weed species, including introduced plants such as guava,
bitou bush and asparagus fern. However, adequate samples of intact lowland vegetation remain
in less accessible parts of the island, some of them in special flora reserves (ANPWS, 1981).
Staff No information
Budget Approximately 10% and 20% of the Board’s budget (after wages, on-costs and
expenses) has been committed to the eradication of noxious weeds and vertebrate pests,
respectively (Anon., 1989).
Local Addresses Lord Howe Island Board, Lands Department Building, 23 Bridge Street,
Sydney, NSW 2000; New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box N189,
Grosvenor Street PO, Sydney, NSW 2000
References
Anon. (1969). Climatic averages Australia temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. Bureau
of Meteorology, Melbourne.
Anon. (1974). Australian Natural History 18(2), June. (Entire issue devoted to Lord Howe
Island). (Unseen).
Anon. (1989) Information update on the cultural sites inscribed on the World Heritage list: Lord
Howe Island Group. Department of the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and
Territories, Canberra. Unpublished. 3 pp.
Ashton, N. (1974). Report to the Lord Howe Island Board on the future land use and land
management of Lord Howe Island. Sydney, State Planning Authority of New South Wales.
(Unseen).
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (1981). Nomination of the Lord Howe Island
Group for inclusion in the World Heritage List. New South Wales Government. 30 pp.
Brown, I. (1979). Birds of Ball’s Pyramid, Lord Howe Island. Australian Birds 13(3): 41-42.
(Unseen).
Davey, A. (1986). Plan of management: Lord Howe Island Permanent Park Preserve. New South
Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. 118 pp.
Disney, H.J. and Smithers, C.N. (1972). The distribution of terrestrial and freshwater birds on
Lord Howe Island, in comparison with Norfolk Island. The Australian Zoologist 17(1).
(Unseen).
Elenius, E. (1979). Lord Howe Island — World Heritage threatened. National Parks Journal 13:
13-14. (Unseen).
Gentilli, J. (1971). Climates of Australia and New Zealand. In: World Survey of Climatology
Volume 13. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
McDougall, I., Embleton, B.J.J. and Stone, D.S. (1981). Origin and evolution of Lord Howe
Island — South-west Pacific Ocean. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 28:
156-176. (Unseen).
McKean, John L. (1975). The Bats of Lord Howe Island with the description of a new
Nyctophiline bat. Journal of the Australian Mammal Society 1(4): 329-332. (Unseen).
414
Other Pacific Islands
Miller, B. (1981). Liberate the woodhen, the theme of the ’80s. Napawi Staff Newsletter of the
National Parks Wildlife Service, NSW (2): 17-19. (Unseen).
Miller, B. and Kingston, T. (1980). Lord Howe Island Woodhen. Endangered Species of New
South Wales. National Parks and Wildlife Service. (Unseen).
NPWS (n.d.). Walks and tours: Mount Gower Walk. New South Wales National Parks and
Wildlife Service, Sydney. Leaflet. 2 pp.
Pickard, J. (1983). Vegetation of Lord Howe Island. Cunninghamia 1: 133-266. (Unseen)
Pope, E.C. (1960). Australian Museum Magazine 13(7): 207-210. (Unseen).
Rabone, H.R. (1972). Lord Howe Island — Its discovery and early associations 1788-1888.
Sydney, Australia. (Unseen).
Recher, H.F. and Clark, S.S. (1974). A biological survey of Lord Howe Island with
recommendations for the conservation of the island’s wildlife. Biological Conservation 6(4):
263-273. (Unseen).
Recher, H.F. and Clark, S.S. (1974). Environmental survey of Lord Howe Island. A Report to
the Lord Howe Island Board. Australian Museum. (Unseen).
Rodd, A.N. (1981). Field Trip 17 Lord Howe Island Handbook, produced for the XIII
International Botanical Congress, Sydney. (Unseen).
Standard, J.C. (1963). Geology of Lord Howe Island. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales 96: 107-121. (Unseen).
Thompson, D, Bliss, P. and Priest, J. (1987). Lord Howe Island geology. Lord Howe Island
Board, Sydney. Brochure.
Waterhouse, D.R. (1976). A new national park in the Pacific. Tigerpaper (3)1.
Date April 1982, reviewed April and November 1989
CHILE
Isla de Pascua
Name Rapa Nui National Park
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesia)
Geographical Location On Isla de Pascua (Easter Island), 3,600km from the coast of Chile.
Approximately 27°10’S, 109°26’W
Date and History of Establishment 1935 by Decree 103, Ministry of Lands and Colonization
Area 6,800ha
Land Tenure Government
Altitude 0-300m
Physical Features The park mainly covers the coastal areas of the island, together with the col
between the peaks of Terevaka and Poike. The island is volcanic in origin. Rano Kau peak, also
included in the park, is a collapsed cone now in the form of a caldera filled by a freshwater lake;
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the crater of Rano Raruku also contains a lake. There are no perennial freshwater streams. The
coastline is very eroded, consisting mainly of high cliffs.
Climate South-east trade winds dominate from October to April, and winds are mixed from
March to September. Rainfall is about 1250mm each year, with a rainy season in winter. Mean
annual water temperatures range from 19°C in winter to 24°C during summer (UNEP/IUCN,
1988).
Vegetation There are 150 species of plants, 45 of which are indigenous, including three endemic
species of grass. Despite the tropical climate, the whole island is now covered mainly by
grassland. Sophora toromiro was noteworthy, being the only species of tree or shrub known on
the island in historic times, but the species is now generally regarded as extinct in the wild. The
major cover of the dense steppe lands is Stipa spp., Nasella spp. and by introduced Sporobulus
indicus and Cynodon dactilon. A description of the vegetation is given by Etienne et al. (1982).
Fauna There are four species of terrestrial birds and three of marine birds, including greater
frigatebird Fregata minor, red-tailed tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda and Kermadec petrel
Pterodroma neglecta. There are no mammals except introduced rodents and carnivores. Two
terrestrial reptiles, Lepidodactylus lugubris and Ablepharus boutoui poecilopleurus, occur and
three species of marine turtles occasionally visit the park.
Cultural Heritage The archaeological remains are unique and include the particularly
noteworthy large statues characteristic of the island.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Tourism on land is very important on account of the rich cultural
resources. To date, visitors have made little use of the marine environment; a dive facility has
been installed, but diving is difficult and expensive. Islanders sell corals to dealers on the Chilean
mainland and to tourists (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities Research has been very limited, although the cultural
resources are important and of great interest. There are no scientific facilities.
Conservation Value Easter Island, with the small rocky islet of Sala y Gomez, is the most
isolated island in the Pacific Ocean, and is thus of great importance in the study of
biogeographical dispersion and colonisation by marine organisms.
Conservation Management The zoning system comprises intangible, primitive, extensive use,
intensive use, service and special use areas. A large proportion of the extensive use zone (second
in importance to the intangible zone) conforms to the 1976 Management Plan proposals. A
management plan for the park was published with the assistance of FAO in 1976 (CONAF, 1976).
The plan details management objectives and zones the park to help develop these objectives. It
also gives details on most other aspects relevant to park management.
Management Constraints The island was extensively deforested prior to modern times.
Archaeological investigations, erosion and damage caused by visitors are more current problems.
There are many introduced species. Islanders do not recognise the Chilean Government’s
authority to declare their lands a national park and consequently respect few of its rules
(UNEP/TUCN, 1988).
Staff No recent information. Park rangers protect and patrol archaeological sites (UNEP/IUCN,
1988).
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Other Pacific Islands
Budget No information
Local Addresses Corporacién Nacional Forestal, V Regién, Vifia del Mar, Chile
References
CONAF (1976). Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Rapa Nui. Docuwmento Técnico de Trabajo
No. 20. Proyecto FAO/RLAT/TF 199. Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Santiago de Chile.
Etienne, M., Michea, G. and Diaz, E. (1982). Flora, Vegetacién y Potencial Pastoral de Isla de
Pascua. Boletin Técnico no. 47, Universidad de Chile Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias,
Veterinarias y Forestales, Santiago, Chile.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1. Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 420 pp.
Date June 1981, reformatted and updated February 1990
NEW ZEALAND
Raoul Island and Kermadec Group Nature Reserve
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.05.13 (Central Polynesian)
Geographical Location 1,000km north-east of North Cape. Approximately 29°32’S, 177°18’E
Date and History of Establishment 1934. Designated as a marine reserve during 1990,
coincident with the increase in size.
Area 3,089ha. Enlarged during 1990 to 735,000ha.
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 0-516m
Physical Features Comprises two large islands, Raoul and Curtis, covering 2,938ha and 306ha,
respectively, and 15 small islands and islets of the Kermadec Archipelago. Islands are summits
of young, steep-sided volcanic cones, dissected by ungraded streams. Raoul has a large crater
with three lakes, one hot and mineralised. Rocks are basalt, basaltic andesite, obsidian gabbro
and diorites capped by pumice ash. Soils comprise fertile yellow-brown loam and recent soil
from volcanic ash, colluvium and alluvium. Raoul Island has erupted three times since discovery
by the French in 1773, the last eruption occurring in 1964.
Climate Mild, subtropical with mean annual rainfall of 1473mm
Vegetation Coastal vegetation on unstable talus comprises soft brome, iceplant, Jersey cudweed
and salt-tolerant herbs. Coastal scrub includes Kermadec ngaio Coprosma petiolata-Cyperus
ustulatus. Below 244m, Kermadec pohutukawa-Kermadec mapou dry forest occurs, and
pohutukawa/hutu wet forest at the highest altitudes. There are 23 endemic plant species or
subspecies, and 12 threatened plants, as follows: Coprosma acutifolia, Homalanthus polyandrus,
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Pseudopanax arboreus var. kermadecensis, Boehmeria australis var. dealbata, Senecio lautus
esperensis, Pisonia brunoniana, Ipomoea pes-caprae brasiliensis, Cook’s scurvy grass Rorippa
gigantea, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Macrothelypteris torresiana, Christella dentata. Endemic
Hebe breviracemosa survives as a single specimen in the wild, with a number of plants in
cultivation.
Fauna Thirty-five bird species have been reported from the islands, and twenty are known to
breed, including Kermadec petrel Pterodroma neglecta, white-necked petrel P. externa,
black-winged petrel P. nigripennis, wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus and sooty tern
Sterna fuscata. Anthropod fauna is poor and fragmentary (Anon., 1984; W. Murray, pers. comm.,
1990). Some 112 coastal fish species have been recorded in the Kermadecs, with three being
endemic to the islands. A feature of the marine ecology of particular interest is the lack of coral
reefs, even though reef building corals are common. The sub-tidal habitat is, therefore, a
part-tropical, part-temperate transitional habitat. This complex of different elements is
uncommon, and possibly unique worldwide (Anon., 1987).
Cultural Heritage Maori legends tell of Rangitahua, at which canoes called on the long voyage
to New Zealand. Since the Maoris are thought to have come from the general region of the Society
Islands, it is likely that the Kermadecs, particularly Raoul Islands, were a stopping place on the
way to New Zealand.
Some history of early whaling is known, although no actual onshore whaling occurred. There
may have been many attempts to colonise Raoul Island since approximately 1940 (W. Murray,
pers. comm., 1990).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities Research is undertaken by specialised scientific officers
under the jurisdiction of the Department of Conservation. Conservation officers based on Raoul
Island monitor the temperature of the lakes, keep seismological recordings, take air samples for
analysis and compile daily meteorological reports (W. Murray, pers. comm., 1990).
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management An eradication scheme is being undertaken to control noxious
plants such as mysore thorn Caesalpinia decapetala, African olive Olea africana, purple guava
Psidium littorale and Mauritius hemp Furcraea foetida.
Management Constraints Goats had been introduced to Macauley and Raoul islands by 1836
and have posed a serious threat to the flora and fauna. However, goats have now been eradicated.
Cat and Norwegian rat Rattus norvegicus are present on Raoul. Polynesian rat R. exulans exists
on Raoul and Macauley islands. Endemic species on Raoul Island are now endangered by rats
and cats (W. Murray, pers. comm., 1990).
Staff Four conservation officers are stationed on Raoul Island.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Department of Conservation, Auckland Conservancy Office, Private Bag
No. 8, Newton, Auckland, New Zealand
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Other Pacific Islands
References
Anon. (1984). Register of Protected Natural Areas in New Zealand. Department of Lands and
Survey, Wellington. 457 pp.
Anon. (1987). Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve proposal. SPREP Environment Newsletter.
April-June. P. 8.
Date March 1990, updated January 1991
UK
Pitcairn Islands — Henderson Island
Name Henderson Island
IUCN Management Category X (World Heritage)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (Southeastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location Henderson Island is the largest island in the Pitcairn Island group, one
of the remotest groups of islands in the South Pacific, with no major landmass within a 5,000km
radius. The group comprises four islands, with Henderson lying 200km east-north-east of
Pitcairn, 200km east of Oeno and 360km west of Ducie. Only Ducie, and the Chilean islands of
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) and Sala y Gomez lie further to the east within Polynesia.
Approximately 24°22’S, 128°20’W
Date and History of Establishment Henderson Island has not been declared a protected area
as such, although it receives de facto protection from its isolation, and various restrictions on
possession, occupation and transference of lands applied under the Lands and Administration of
Estates Ordinance. Some wildlife protection is provided by part IV of the Local Government
Regulations. Inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1988.
Area Land area 3,700ha
Land Tenure The Pitcairn Island group is a Dependent Territory of the United Kingdom, and
Henderson is Crown Land.
Altitude Up to a maximum of 33m
Physical Features Henderson is an elevated coralline limestone ("makatea") island which rises
as an isolated conical mound from a depth of about 3,500m, and is presumably a reef-capped
volcano. The surface of the island is in large part reef-rubble interspersed with areas of dissected
limestone, surrounded by steep limestone cliffs undercut on all sides except to the north. There
are three main beaches, to the north, north-west and north-east. Tidal range at spring tides is
probably about 1m, and tides are semidiurnal. The central depression is considered to be an
uplifted lagoon. Freshwater is almost completely absent, only occurring as drippings in caves,
and as a spring below high tide level in the north (flow and permanence unknown). The geology
of the island is summarised by Fosberg et al. (1983), who conclude that the limestones are of
late Tertiary age. It is also suggested that much of the inland topography may be karst features.
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
There is a fringing reef at least 200m wide to the north, north-west and north-east sides of the
island, backed by a wide beach (St John and Philipson, 1962). Reefs off the north and north-east
beaches are seawardly sloping reef platforms without reef crests, and are not typical fringing
reefs. Coral cover is about 5%, dominated by Pocillopora with Millepora becoming dominant
at depths greater than 7m (Paulay, 1987). Submassive Acropora colonies are also present on the
buttresses and solid substratum (Richmond in litt., 1987). In total, 19 genera and 29 species of
coral were collected in 1987 (Paulay, 1987). There are two narrow channels through the reef on
the north and north-western coasts (Serpell et al., 1983).
Climate Henderson lies in the south-east trades and probably has a mean annual rainfall of
around 1500mm. No meteorological records are available.
Vegetation The vegetation of the island has not been modified to any significant extent, and
most of the surface of the island is densely vegetated with tangled scrub and scrub forest 5m-10m
tall. The central part of the depression is more sparsely covered. The flora is described by St John
and Philipson (1962), Fosberg et al. (1983) and Flenley et al. (1987). The island has a high degree
of endemicity for its size; out of a total of 51 native flowering plant taxa, ten are endemic. The
tallest trees are screw-pine Pandanus tectorius, and other trees include the endemics Santalum
hendersonense, Myrsine hoskae, Celtis paniculata var. viridis, and two endemic varieties of
Bidens hendersonensis. The last-named species is of particular botanical interest as a woody
member of a mainly herbaceous genus, and also because of its isolation from related genera
within the Compositae.
Fauna Fauna recorded from the island are listed in Fosberg et al. (1983), and variously
commented on by other visitors. There are no native species of land mammal. All four of the
island’s land birds are endemic, comprising flightless Henderson rail Nesophylax ater, Stephen’s
lorikeet Vini stepheni (R), Henderson fruit dove Ptilinopus insularis, and Henderson warbler
Acrocephalus vaughani taiti. Very little information is available on either the ecology or the
status of these four birds. Fifteen seabirds have been recorded, at least nine of which are thought
to breed on the island (Williams, 1960; Bourne and David, 1983); Murphy’s petrel Pterodroma
ultima, phoenix petrel P. alba, herald petrel P. arminjoniana, Kermadec petrel P. neglecta,
shearwater Puffinus pacificus, masked booby Sula dactylatra, red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon
rubicauda, brown noddy Anous stolida, blue-grey noddy Procelsterna caerulea, and fairy tern
Gygis alba. Bourne and David (1983) provide a species list with detailed annotation. Other
terrestrial species are also poorly recorded and understood (including lizards and skinks as well
as invertebrates), and it is likely that the invertebrate fauna is much larger, including several more
endemics. For example, a new species of hawk-moth has recently been identified.
Various records of the marine and littoral fauna have been made by Paulay (1987), and by
Broodbakker (in litt., 1981; 1987) and Richmond (in litt., 1987), and a list of marine molluscs
recorded from Henderson is given in Fosberg et al. (1983). Species of particular note include
coconut crab Birgus latro (R) (identified from remains collected in 1987), at least two coenobite
species (one of which was found to be the commonest crustacean on the island in 1987), and
spiny lobster Panulirus penicillatus (CT). Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) occasionally nests
on the island (Fosberg et al., 1983). Collections of marine molluscs and sponges and of as yet
unidentified caridean shrimps (mostly Alpheids, probably comprising 5-8 species), were made
in 1987. There is a diverse echinoderm fauna. An unidentified holothurian is common on the
northern reef flats, and an echinoid Heterocentrotus sp. (possibly H. trigonarius) is locally
abundant on the sloping marginal reefs and shallow reef flat of the northern beach. Fish are
sparse, with Caranx lugubris being the most common and obvious species. A more
comprehensive account of the corals is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
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Other Pacific Islands
Cultural Heritage The history of the island, which has been uninhabited apart from occasional
visitors, is described in Fosberg et al. (1983). Recently discovered archaeological remains
suggest that Henderson was colonised by Polynesians between the 12th and 15th centuries
(Sinoto, 1983), but their impact would appear to have been slight, although there is some
disagreement over this (Steadman and Olson, 1985; Bourne and David, 1986).
Local Human Population The island is visited by Pitcairn islanders once or twice each year,
chiefly to cut "miro" Thespesia populnea and tao from which carvings are made for sale to visitors
to Pitcairn, and sandalwood Santalum hendersonense.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Cruise ships visit occasionally (M. de L. Brooke, pers. comm.,
1990).
Scientific Research and Facilities Fosberg et a/. (1983) summarise scientific expeditions to
the island, of which the two most important were the Whitney South Sea Expedition in 1922 and
the Mangarevan Expedition of 1934. They also summarise the published information, and
provide nearly 100 references. The island was visited by Operation Raleigh in spring 1987 and
by an expedition from the Smithsonian Institution in the same year.
Conservation Value Henderson is the world’s best remaining example of an elevated coral atoll
ecosystem and is thought to be of outstanding value in this regard (Fosberg and Sachet, 1983).
It remains in an undisturbed state, largely as a result of its remoteness, and its inhospitable nature.
It has suffered little from human modification, and few introduced species exist so the biota has
escaped the fate of similar species on other oceanic islands.
Conservation Management Access to Henderson requires a licence issued by the Governor
following approval by the Pitcairn Island Council (Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1988).
However, the island has no formal conservation status and there is no specific body charged with
conservation. There is no management plan for the island, and no active management, although
the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (1988) suggests that little management would be required
beyond the possible removal of exotic species.
Management Constraints Goats and pigs were introduced to the island early in the century,
but have fortunately not survived (and the keeping of goats on Henderson is now prohibited).
Introduced rats are still present, although this is Polynesian rat Rattus exulans, rather than black
or brown rat. The terrestrial vegetation is still largely pristine, with very few exotics, although
there are two substantial coconut groves at the principal landing sites (Paulay, 1987), and
Cordyline terminalis and Aleurites moluccana have also been deliberately introduced, and
Achyranthes aspera accidentally.
In 1982/1983 the island was potentially under severe threat as a result of a proposal by a wealthy
American to build a house, landing facilities and airstrip (Fosberg and Sachet, 1983). A resolution
at the 15th Pacific Science Congress in 1983 urged the British Government not to permit the
proposed development before a detailed biological survey had been carried out and an assessment
of the impacts made. The proposal was opposed by scientific and conservation bodies who
petitioned the British Government to deny permission to carry out these plans (Serpell et al.,
1983). This they subsequently did and the island was successfully nominated for inclusion in the
World Heritage List in 1988. Had such plans gone ahead, the terrestrial fauna and flora would
undoubtedly have been severely damaged, with likely resulting impacts on the reefs (Serpell
et al., 1983).
Staff None
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Budget None
Local Addresses Pitcairn Island Council, although ultimate authority rests with the Governor,
c/o British High Commission, PO Box 1812, Wellington, New Zealand
References
Bourne, W.R.P. and David, A.C.F. (1983). Henderson Island, Central South Pacific, and its birds.
Notornis 30: 233-252.
Bourne, W.R.P. and David, A.C.D. (1986). Henderson Island. Letter to Nature 322: 302.
Flenley, J., Parkes, A. and Johnson, M. (1987). Vegetation survey of Henderson Island.
Unpublished report to Operation Raleigh, London.
Foreign and Commonwealth Office (1988). Nomination of Henderson Island for inclusion in the
World Heritage List. Submitted by The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth
Affairs, United Kingdom. Prepared by S. Oldfield. Produced by the Nature Conservancy
Council. 21 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1984). Henderson Island saved. Environmental Conservation 11(2): 183-184.
Fosberg, F.R. and Sachet, M.-H. (1983). Henderson Island threatened. Environmental
Conservation 10(2): 171-173.
Fosberg, F.R., Sachet, M.-H. and Stoddart, D.R. (1983). Henderson Island (south-eastern
Polynesia): summary of current knowledge. Atoll Research Bulletin 272. 53 pp.
Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of Paradise. Pisces Publications, Oxford. 192 pp.
Paulay, G. (1987). Comments on the Pitcairn Islands. Unpublished report. 2 pp.
St John, H. and Philipson, W.R. (1962). An account of the flora of Henderson Island, South
Pacific Ocean. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 1: 175-194.
Serpell, J., Collar, N., Davis, S. and Wells, S. (1983). Submission to the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office on the future conservation of Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Group.
Unpublished Report, WWF-UK, IUCN, ICBP. This report has 24 letters annexed to it in
support of the report’s conclusions that settlement on the island would be inappropriate.
Sinoto, Y.S. (1983). Analysis of Polynesian migrations based on archaeological assessments.
J. Soc. Océanistes 39: 57-67.
Steadman, D.W. and Olson, S.L. (1985). Bird remains from an archaeological site on Henderson
Island, South Pacific: Man-caused extinctions on an "uninhabited" island. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Science, USA 82: 6191-6195.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
Williams, G.R. (1960). The birds of the Pitcairn Islands, Central Pacific Ocean. Ibis 102: 58-70.
Date Revised April 1988, May 1990
USA
Outlying Islands
Name Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
422
Other Pacific Islands
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location 2,657km south-west of Honolulu and 500km north-west of the Phoenix
Islands, close to Howland Island. Approximately 0°13’N, 176°29"W
Date and History of Establishment July 1974
Area 11,583ha comprising 124ha land and 11,459ha reef
Land Tenure Federal Government
Altitude Estimated at 5-8m
Physical Features A low-lying oval-shaped island. There is no fresh water on the island.
Climate Very low rainfall and fairly steady winds
Vegetation Mainly low grasses, sparse low brush, and prostrate herbs and vines. Species include
Sida sp. and purslane Portulaca lutea, the vine-like Triumfetta procumbems, Boerhavia diffusa,
puncture vine Tribulus cistoides and grass Digitaria pacifica.
Fauna Eleven migratory seabirds and four migratory shorebirds have been identified. An
estimated 7,000 birds of six species were observed nesting in 1973. These include sooty tern
Sterna fuscata, blue-faced booby Sula dactylatra brown and red-footed booby S. sula and lesser
frigate birds Fregatta ariel. Green turtle Chelonia mydas (E) has been observed inshore. A
diverse fringing coral reef surrounds the island.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The island was colonised in 1935, then occupied by American troops
during World War Two, when an airstrip was constructed. Since then it has been uninhabited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Occasional wildlife monitoring trips are made by the US
Fish and Wildlife Service. There are no facilities.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management In 1986 the US Army Corps of Engineers sponsored a survey and
complete clean-up of oil and fuel on the island. Some 400 of the 3,400 barrels on the island
contained oil or fuel which was burned in situ, and the drums were turned onto their sides to
prevent sea birds falling into them. Cat eradication programmes have apparently been successful
(USACE, 1987).
Management Constraints Guano mining occurred in the late 1800s. Birds were nearly
eradicated during the war but are now recovering.
Staff None
Budget Approximately US$ 527,000 for refuge complex administration, protection, natural
science studies, interpretation and maintenance budgeted for fiscal year 1981.
Local Addresses Hawaiian Islands and Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex,
US Fish and Wildlife Service, PO Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA
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References
Bryan, E.H. Jr. (1942). American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Elepaio, the Journal of the
Hawaii Audubon Society. Tongg Publishing Co. 253 pp.
USACE (1987). Defense restoration account inventory project report: Baker Island National
Wildlife Refuge, Baker Island. Project No. HO9HI000700, Ft. Shafter, Honolulu. (Unseen).
Date 1981, updated 1991
Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location 2,657km south-west of Honolulu and 500km north-west of the Phoenix
Islands close to Baker Island. Approximately 0°48’S, 176°38’W
Date and History of Establishment July 1974.
Area 11,823ha, comprising 89ha land and 11,734ha reef
Land Tenure Federal government
Altitude 4-Sm
Physical Features A low-lying elongated island oriented in a north-south direction. It is
approximately 2.4km long, by 0.3km wide. The substrate is of sand, coral rubble and flat sheets
of guano covered rock and it is surrounded by a 100m-wide fringing coral reef. There is no fresh
water on the island.
Climate Windy and sunny, with low rainfall
Vegetation Almost entirely grasses, prostrate vines or herbs and low shrubs. The principal grass
species are Digitaria sp. and Lepturus sp.; vines include puncture vine Tribulus cistoides and
Triumfettia procumbens; and herbs include Boerhavia diffusa. Purslane Portulaca sp. is also
found.
Fauna An estimated 200,000 sooty tern Sterna fuscata, 6,000 lesser frigate bird Fregata ariel,
1,000 blue-faced booby Sula dactylatra, together with a smaller number of red-footed booby
Sula sula, brown booby S. leucogaster and white tern Gygis alba nest here. In addition, blue-grey
noddy Procelsterna cerutea, wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus, phoenix petrel and
white-throated storm petrel Nesofregatta fuliginosa are also present. In total, some 26 species of
seabird are known from the island. Threatened green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), together with
numerous fish and invertebrate species, inhabits the surrounding coral reef.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The island was colonised in 1935 and American troops occupied the
island in World War Two. Except for rare visits by scientists and Coast Guard, the island has
been uninhabited since the war. An airfield was built in 1937 but is no longer serviceable.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
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Other Pacific Islands
Scientific Research and Facilities Isolation presents severe logistical problems, but
occasionally scientists visit to monitor the wildlife population. There are no facilities.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management A cat eradication programme has been apparently successful. In
1986 the US Army Corps of Engineers turned the 12 or so fuel drums on their side to prevent
sea birds falling into them (USACE, 1987).
Management Constraints Feral cats had previously decimated phoenix petrel Pterodrama alba
populations, prior to control measures. Guano was mined in the 1800s. Although present since
human occupation, Polynesian rat has not harmed the bird population.
Staff No staff assigned
Budget Approximately US$ 527,000 for refuge complex administration, protection, natural
science studies, interpretation, and maintenance budgeted for fiscal year 1981.
Local Addresses Hawaiian Island and Pacific Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex,
PO Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA
References
Bryan, E.H., Jr. (1942). American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Elepaio, the Journal of
the Hawaiian Audubon Society. Tongg Publishing Co. 253 pp.
USACE (1987). Defense restoration account inventory project report: Howland Island National
Wildlife Refuge, Baker Island. Project No. HO9HI000700, Ft. Shafter, Honolulu. (Unseen).
Date 1981, updated 1991
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 5.04.13 (South eastern Polynesian)
Geographical Location 2,093km due south of Honolulu, in the Line Islands, about 300km
south-west of Kiritimati (Christmas Island). Approximately 0°22’S, 160°01’W
Date and History of Establishment July 1974
Area Total of 15,189ha, comprising 445ha land, 14,744ha reef and water
Land Tenure Federal government under jurisdiction of US Department of the Interior
Altitude 6-8m
Physical Features A low-lying sandy island, 3km long and 1.6km wide, with a coral-reef rock
base. A 100m wide shallow fringing coral reef encircles the island. There is no freshwater present
on the island.
Climate No specific information
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IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Vegetation No trees or high bushes. Dominant vegetation consists of prostrate creepers, such
as puncture vine Tribulus cistoides and Boerhavia sp., low succulents, Sesuvium portulacastrum
and Portulaca lutea, grasses Lepturus repens and low sparse shrubs such as Sida spp. and
Abutilon spp.
Fauna Red-footed booby Sula sula, blue-faced booby S. dactylatra, lesser frigatebird Fregatta
ariel, great frigatebird F. minor and sooty tern Sterna fuscata are among the most common of
eight nesting seabirds; six other seabird species visit. The threatened green turtle Chelonia mydas
(E), and a variety of invertebrates and fish, is present in the surrounding coral reef.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Guano was mined between 1857 and 1879. The island was colonised
in 1935 but abandoned in World War Two, and is at present uninhabited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities An annual survey of birds, other wildlife and the plant
population is made. Other studies were undertaken during International Geophysical Year. There
are no facilities.
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Feral cats have now been eliminated from the island, but not before
they decimated the petrel population.
Staff None
Budget Approximately US$ 527,000 for refuge complex administration, protection, natural
science studies, interpretation and maintenance budgeted for fiscal year 1981.
Local Addresses Hawaiian Island and Pacific Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex, US
Fish and Wildlife Service, PO Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA
References
Bryan, E.H., Jr. (1942). American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Elepaio, the Journal of
the Hawaii Audubon Society. Tongg Publishing Co. 253 pp.
Date 1981, reviewed March 1991
Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 5.02.13 (Micronesian)
Geographical Location Over 1,320km south-west of Honolulu, between the Hawaiian islands
to the north and the Line and Phoenix islands to the south. The nearest island to the atoll is the
French Frigate shoals, mid-way along the Hawaiian island chain. 16°41’-16°47’N,
169°24’-169°34"W
426
Other Pacific Islands
Date and History of Establishment Created a Federal bird refuge in 1926 under a Presidential
Executive Order to protect the vast population of breeding seabirds, and has since been placed
under the jurisdiction of the military authorities.
Area 13,252ha; comprising 13,000ha marine and 252ha terrestrial (Johnston Island, 231ha;
Sand Island, 9ha; and the artificial islands of Akau, 7ha; and Hikina, 5ha)
Land Tenure US Federal Government, under the jurisdiction of a joint military task force,
except for Sand Island which is administered as a LORAN station by the US Coast Guard
(Amerson and Shelton, 1976). The islands have been under military jurisdiction (initially US
Navy and subsequently US Air Force) since 1936, with the Defence Nuclear Agency assuming
operational control in 1973. The bird refuge is under the Department of the Interior.
Altitude Below sea level to 4.5m (Summit Peak on Johnston Island rose to 14m before the island
was levelled by military engineers).
Physical Features The isolated atoll comprises a coral platform, with over 130 sq. km
submerged under less than 30m; a marginal reef, only exposed at low tide extends for 14km
along the north-west margin. The platform is supported on a submerged mountain (of the
Hawaiian or Christmas Ridges) of volcanic origins. Johnston and Sand islands lie on a small,
shallow ridge extending west-east from the western end of the marginal reef and enclosing a
lagoon some 3-9m deep. Military occupation and construction during the past forty years has
dramatically altered the physiography of the atoll and little of the original habitat remains. Of
the four islands, only two are natural, but extensively modified. Of these, Johnston Island is the
largest; some four times the size of Sand Island. Both were formed of wind-transported
beachrock-sand and gravel, cemented together by calcium carbonate and loose sand. Between
1939 and 1942 Johnston Island was levelled (formerly, it rose to 14m at the north-west end) and
enlarged to 85ha. An artificial islet was built near Sand Island constructed from coral material
dredged from the lagoon when clearing deep ship channels and seaplane landing areas. By 1944
Johnston Island was fully developed as an airforce base, with a runway, buildings and gun
emplacements (since removed). Another period of construction work (1963-64) further enlarged
Johnston and Sand islands, extended the runway, and produced the totally artificial islands of
Akau (North) and Hikina (East) in the lagoon. The present surfaces of Johnston, Akau and Hikina,
together with the artificial part of Sand Island, consist of hard packed coral debris, ranging in
size from sand to cobble stones. The interior of Sand Island is covered with deep, loose coral
sand, bound by grass roots and perforated by burrows of wedge-tailed shearwater; a layer of
beachrock is exposed around most of the island perimeter. No freshwater is available on the atoll.
Climate Tropical and marine, with little variation in temperature (26°C mean annual
temperature; minimum of 16.5°C in October and maximum of 31.5°C in July/November) or
windspeed, but considerable variation in rainfall, both yearly and seasonal. The mean annual
rainfall is 663mm, though extremes of 1085mm (1968) and 435mm (1969) have been recorded.
Rainfall is greatest during the winter months, December to March, when winds are most variable.
The easterly trade winds are at their strongest during the summer, April to November.
Vegetation Vegetation on the modified and artificial areas is restricted to sparse lawns, scattered
bushes and trees, and sparsely distributed weed species on the least disturbed parts. The interior
of Sand Island supports bunch grass.
Fauna There are no native mammals on the islands; of the six recorded, five were introduced
by man; house mouse Mus musculus, rat Rattus rattus, domestic dog Canis familiaris, domestic
cat Felis domesticus and European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus. Hawaiian monk seal Monachus
427
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
schauinslandi (E) migrated from Hawaii and established breeding in the 1960s. The undisturbed
area of Sand Island is of major importance for its breeding populations of sooty tern Sterna
fuscata. Red-footed booby Sula sula, brown noddy Anous stolidus, wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus and great frigatebird Fregata minor breed in significant numbers. Blue-faced
booby Sula dactylatra, Laysan albatross Diomedea immutabilis and black-footed albatross
D. nigripes stopped breeding on the atoll because of the high level of human disturbance; now
they are only occasional visitors. In all some 56 species of bird have been recorded. During the
breeding season up to 600,000 birds may be present on the atoll. Of the 34 species of waterfowl,
marsh and land bird recorded seven are regular migrants, including bristle-thighed curlew
Numenius tahitiensis (R), which is threatened in its Alaskan breeding territory. Of the five species
of reptile known from the islands all but one, green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), were introduced
by man. Some 194 species of fish have been identified from the atoll lagoon. Two of these species
have not been collected from anywhere else in the Pacific and are possibly endemic, namely
butterfly fish Centropyge nigriocellus and C. flammeus. The invertebrate fauna has not been
extensively studied with most collections being of the phyla Cnidaria (18 species), Mollusca (58
species), Annelida (12 species), Arthropoda (75 species) and Echinodermata (37 species). A
summary description of the coral reefs is given in UNEP/ITUCN (1988). Amerson and Shelton
(1976) give a checklist for all the major faunal groups.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population This uninhabited atoll was discovered in 1796 and claimed by the
United States in 1858. It remained uninhabited, except for occasional visits by guano miners,
until 1936, when it was developed as a military base. It was an important US Naval base
throughout World War Two, after which it was maintained as a lower grade "naval air facility".
The atoll was used as a test area during the atmospheric nuclear tests of the 1950s-1962. In the
early 1970s the atoll began to be used for the storage of various obsolete chemicals. In 1976 the
following groups were based on the atoll, 25 members of the US Coast Guard (maintaining the
LORAN transmitter), US Air Force and Navy units, personnel of the Air Force Defence
Command Space Systems Command and Pacific Missile Range.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities A number of studies have been carried out on the atoll and
these are summarised in Amerson and Shelton (1976) and UNEP/IUCN (1988). The military
installations provide some research facilities.
Conservation Value No specific information
Conservation Management The atoll is divided into three areas operated by different
government/military agencies: natural area, under the Department of Interior; US coastguard
LORAN station; and a US military toxic chemical storage area. There is no management,
although during the nuclear tests of the 1950s elaborate measures were taken to safeguard the
bird colonies; a water sprinkler system was set up, smoke pots were placed upwind to act as a
shade screen and aerial flares were let otf to divert the birds attention from the nuclear flash. In
May 1974 the Environmental Protection Agency began to consider how to safely dispose of the
hazardous chemicals stored on Johnston Island.
Management Constraints The coral reef, benthic communities and terrestrial habitats are
seriously degraded in places and the high level of human disturbance has resulted in at least three
species of seabird no longer breeding on the atoll. There has been extensive dredging and
sedimentation. It has been a military base since 1934. Most of the buildings and gun
428
Other Pacific Islands
emplacements installed during World War Two were removed in the 1950s, but, with its
continuing occupation, there are still accommodation facilities, roadways and an elaborate
LORAN transmitting structure on Sand Island. Following the atomic tests of the 1950s there has
inevitably been some contamination of both terrestrial and marine biotas by radioactive
substances, together with leaks of chemicals. The construction work led to extensive
modification, both of the terrestrial habitat as well as the marine areas.
The major threat to the environment is the military storage area where various chemicals
(herbicides, poisonous gases, etc), left over from recent wars, are kept. An accident in which
stored Agent Orange defoliant was spilt has left areas contaminated. Facilities on the Atoll were
to be developed for the destruction of some 100,000 chemical warheads (7,000 tons), previously
deployed in Europe. There has been concern in the region that these activities may lead to serious
environmental impacts (Brown, 1990) although it is not known if they will go ahead. In view of
the extensive military activities on the atoll, and the threat posed by the storage and disposal of
chemical munitions, no IUCN management category has been assigned.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Hawaiian Island and Pacific Island Wildlife Refuge Complex, US Fish and
Wildlife Service, PO Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96850
References
Amerson, A.B. and Shelton, P.C. (1976). The natural history of Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific
Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin 192. 385 pp. (Includes a bibliography).
Bugglen, R.G. and Tsuda, R.T. (1966). A preliminary marine algal flora from selected habitats
on Johnston Atoll. Technical Report 9: 1-29. Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology.
Brown, P. (1990). Hell fire in the Pacific. The Guardian July 27. Pp. 21.
Bugglen, R.G. and Tsuda, R.T. (1969). A record of benthic marine algae for Johnston Atoll. Atoll
Research Bulletin 120: 1-20.
Date 1981, updated 1991
429
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GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX
Ahihi-Kinau, 355
American Samoa (USA), 285
American Samoa National Park, 292
Anao Conservation Reserve, 308
Aore Recreational Reserve, 380
Aoupinie Special Fauna Reserve, 67
Arnavon Wildlife Sanctuary, 248
Asuncion Island Preserve, 144
Atoll de Taiaro (Reserve Integrale W.A.
Robinson), 51
Bagiai Wildlife Management Area, 182
Baiyer River Sanctuary, 183
Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge, 422
Bikar Atoll, 124
Birnie Island Wildlife Sanctuary, 100
Bokaak (Taongi) Atoll, 127
Bucaro Aore Recreational Park, 381
Cape Wom International Memorial Park, 185
Colo-i-Suva Forest Park, 33
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana
Islands, 139
Cook Islands, 1
Cook Islet Closed Area (Kiritimati WS), 107
Easter Island (Rapa Nui) National Park, 415
Eiao Island Nature Reserve, 53
Faaiti, Parc Naturel Territorial de 55
Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 293
Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoon, 267
Federated States of Micronesia, 21
Fiji, 25
France — French Polynesia, 45
France — New Caledonia, 59
France — Wallis And Futuna, 89
Garu Wildlife Management Area, 186
Guam (USA), 301
Guam Territorial Seashore Park, 309
Guguan Island Preserve, 146
Ha’atafu Beach Reserve, 271
Hakaumama’o Reef Reserve, 272
Haleakala National Park, 339
Hanawi, 355
Hansa Bay Marine Park, 189
Haputo Ecological Reserve Area, 313
Haute Yate Special Fauna Reserve, 71
Hawaii (USA), 327
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 344
431
Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,
342
Henderson Island, 419
Hono O Na Pali, 356
Honouliuli Preserve, 365
Horseshoe Reef Marine Park, 191
Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge,
424
Huvalu Tapu Forest, 136
*Thi’ihilauakea Preserve, 365
J.H. Garrick Memorial Reserve, 34
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge, 425
Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge,
426
Kaena Point, 356
Kahaualea, 357
Kakerori Reserve, 10
Kalaupapa National Historical Park, 349
Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park,
351
Kaluahonu Preserve, 366
Kamakou Preserve, 366
Kanepu’u Preserve, 367
Kapunakea Preserve, 367
Kermadec Group Nature Reserve, 417
Kingdom of Tonga, 257
Kipahoehoe, 357
Kiribati, 93
Kiritimati Wildlife Sanctuary, 102
Kuia, 358
La Chute de la Madeleine Special Botanical
Reserve, 69
Lake Dakataua National Park, 194
Lake Hargy National Park, 195
Lake Lavu Wildlife Management Area, 197
Laupahoehoe, 358
Lea Lea Salt Flats Marine Park, 198
Lepredour Islet Special Fauna Reserve, 73
Lord Howe Island Group, 409
Lou Island Wildlife Management Area, 199
Maitre Islet Fauna and Flora Reserve, 79
Malden Island (Closed Area) Wildlife
Sanctuary, 108
Malinoa Island Park and Reef Reserve, 274
Manuka, 359
Marine Fauna Rotating Reserve, 81
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Marshall Islands, 157
Masso River Reservoir Area Natural Reserve,
315
Maug Island Preserve, 148
Maui Lava Tubes Preserve, 368
Mauna Kea Ice Age, 359
Maza Wildlife Management Area, 200
McAdam National Park, 202
McKean Island Wildlife Sanctuary, 110
Mo’omomi Preserve, 368
Mojirau Wildlife Management Area, 204
Mont Humboldt Special Botanical Reserve,
74
Mont Mou Special Botanical Reserve, 75
Mont Panie Special Botanical Reserve, 77
Montagne des Sources Strict Nature Reserve,
78
Monuafe Island Park and Reef Reserve, 276
Motupore Island Wildlife Management Area,
205
Motu Tabu Closed Area (Kiritimati WS), 107
Motu Upua Closed Area (Kiritimati WS), 108
Mount Gahavisuka Provincial Park, 207
Mount Kaala, 360
Mount Vaea Scenic Reserve, 403
Mount Wilhelm National Park, 209
Nauru, 131
Namanatabu Historic Reserve, 211
Nanuk Island Provincial Park, 213
Naomebaravu-Malo Recreational Reserve,
382
Ndrolowa Wildlife Management Area, 214
New Caledonia (France), 59
Ngaontetaake Closed Area (Kiritimati WS),
107
Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve, 162
Niue, 135
Northern Mariana Islands, Common-
wealth of, 139
North-west Point Closed Area (Kiritimati
WS), 108
Nuserang Wildlife Management Area, 216
O Le Pupu Pu’e National Park, 398
Olokui, 360
Orote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area,
317
Pahole, 361
Palau, 157
Palolo Deep Marine Reserve, 401
Pam Island Special Fauna Reserve, 72
432
Pangaimotu Reef Reserve, 277
Papua New Guinea, 167
Pati Point Natural Area, 321
Pelekunu Preserve, 368
Phoenix Island (Rawaki) Wildlife Sanctuary,
112
Pokili Wildlife Management Area, 217
President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point
Reserve, 383
Pu’u Kukui Watershed Management Area,
369
Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical
Park, 352
Puu Alii, 361
Puu Makaala, 362
Puu O Umi, 362
Queen Elizabeth National Park, 250
Ranba Wildlife Management Area, 219
Raoul Island and Kermadec Group Nature
Reserve, 417
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) National Park, 415
Republic of Kiribati, 93
Republic of Nauru, 131
Republic of Palau, 157
Republic of the Marshall Islands, 119
Riviere Bleue Territorial Park, 82
Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, 297
Salamaua Peninsula Marine Park, 221
Sarigan Island (de-gazetted), 151
Sawataetae Wildlife Management Area, 223
Sigatoka Sand Dunes National Park and
Reserve, 37
Siwi Utame Wildlife Management Area, 225
Solomon Islands, 239
Southern Special Botanical Reserve, 68
Starbuck (Closed Area) Wildlife Sanctuary,
115
Stevenson (Tusitala) Memorial Reserve, 403
Suwarrow Atoll National Park, 12
Takutea Nature Reserve, 16
Talele Islands Nature Reserve, 227
Te Manga Nature Reserve, 18
Thy Territorial Park, 84
Tokelau, 253
Tonda Wildlife Management Area, 228
Tonga, Kingdom of, 257
Tusitala Historic and Nature Reserve, 403
Tuvalu, 281
Uracas Island Preserve, 153
USA — American Samoa, 285
USA — Guam, 301
USA- Hawaii, 327
Wallis and Futuna (France), 89
Vailima Botanic Garden, 403
Vanuatu, 371
Varirata National Park, 233
Vostock Island Wildlife Sanctuary, 117
Waiakea 1942 Lava Flow, 363
Waigani Swamp Provincial Park, 236
Waikamoi Preserve, 369
433
Index
War in the Pacific National Historic Park, 323
West Maui (Honokowai section), 363
West Maui (Kahakuloa section), 363
West Maui (Lihau section), 364
West Maui (Panaewa section), 364
Western Samoa, 387
Whitesands Recreational Reserve, 385
Yadua Taba Island Crested Iguana Reserve,
40
Yves Merlet Special Marine Reserve, 86
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TAXONOMIC INDEX
Ablepharus boutonii, 104, 109, 399
Ablepharus boutonii poecilopleurus, 416
Abutilon, 426
Acacia, 229
Acacia auriculiformis, 199, 229
Acacia farnesiana, 353
Acacia koa, 340
Acanthaster, 295, 295
Acanthaster planci, 5, 272, 295, 319, 401-2
Acanthrophis antarcticus, 231
Acanthurus, 192, 295
Acanthurus leucopareius, 149
Acanthurus lineatus, 149, 295
Acanthurus nigrofuscus, 295
Acanthurus triostegus, 295
Acanthus ilicifolius, 187
Acclypha ribularis, 35
Achyranthes, 51
Achyranthes aspera, 421
Achyranthes canescens, 148
Acridotheres fuscus, 36
Acrocephalus aequinoctialis, 104
Acrocephalus caffer aquilonis, 54
Acrocephalus familiaris familiaris, 331
Acrocephalus familiaris kingi, 343
Acrocephalus vaughani taiti, 420
Acrochordus, 215
Acrophorus leucorhachis, 19
Acropora, 79, 150, 164, 192, 276, 278, 420
Acropora digitifera, 79, 81
Acropora humilis, 81, 295
Acropora palifera, 190, 222, 222, 222
Acrostichum, 268, 268
Acrostichum aureum, 187, 199, 236, 268
Actitis hypoleucos, 248
Adenophorus periens, 357
Adiantum fournieri, 70
Adioryx, 192
Aedes albopictus, 52
Aedes polynesiensis, 52
Aerodramus vanikorensis, 322
Agathis, 71
Agathis lanceolata, 83
Agathis ovata, 70, 83
Aglaia mariannensis, 321
Ailuroedus buccoides, 234
Albizia chinensis, 404
435
Albizia falcataria, 404
Aleurites moluccana, 421
Alpheus mackayi, 268
Alphitonia zizyphoides, 404
Alpinia oceanica, 187
Alstonia, 229
Alternanthera sessilis, 236
Alyxia elliptica, 10
Amblyornis macgregoriae, 216, 225
Ampelopteris prolifera, 236
Amphiprion melanopus, 295
Amphrion, 271, 278
Anadara maculata, 269
Anas laysanensis, 343
Anas superciliosa, 194, 236, 269
Angiopteris longifolia, 10
Anguilla bicolor, 316
Anguilla mormorata, 316
Anous, 54
Anous minutus, 14, 17, 107, 117, 146, 149,
343
Anous stolidus, 11, 14, 17, 107, 111, 117,
125, 129, 144, 146, 149, 153, 295, 298,
311, 318, 343, 411, 420, 428
Anous tenuirostris, 295, 298
Anthipathidae, 222
Aplonis, 185
Aplonis atrifusca, 292, 399, 404
Aplonis cinerascens, 11
Aplonis opaca, 144, 146, 149, 153, 311, 322
Aplonis tabuensis, 292
Apus pacificus, 269
Aquila audax, 230
Araucaria columnaris, 86
Araucaria cunninghamii, 202
Araucaria humboldtensis, 75
Araucaria hunsteinii, 202
Araucaria muelleri, 83
Araucaria rulei, 75
Archaster, 268
Ardeotis australis, 230
Areca catechu, 310
Arenaria interpres, 14, 104, 125, 129, 144,
146, 149, 153, 295, 298, 353, 411
Argroxiphium, 341
Argroxiphium sandwicense, 339
Argroxiphium virescens, 340
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Arillastrum gummiferum, 70
Aristada, 229
Artemisia salina, 105
Artocarpus, 13, 322
Artocarpus altilis, 310
Artocarpus incisa, 187
Artocarpus mariannensis, 321, 324
Ascarina diffusa, 19
Asio flammeus sandwichensis, 340, 346
Asplenium, 51
Asplenium lunulatum, 19
Asplenium nidus, 13, 148, 153, 321
Astrapia stephaniae, 208, 210, 225
Astronidium pickeringii, 292
Astropecten, 268
Atrina, 269
Atya, 316
Avicennia, 199, 229
Avicennia marina, 199
Baiateana knowlesi, 36
Bambusa vulgaris, 35, 314
Banksia dentata, 229
Banksia marginata, 229
Barringtonia, 292, 380-2, 385
Barringtonia asiatica, 314
Barringtonia samoensis, 404
Barringtonia tetraptera, 230
Bidens, 53, 116
Bidens hendersonensis, 420
Bidens pilosa, 116
Bikkia mariannensis, 321
Birgus latro, 14, 51, 104, 118, 164, 420
Bischofia javanica, 404
Blechnum francii, 70
Blechnum milnei, 35
Blechnum orientale, 35
Blechnum procerum, 19
Boehmeria australis, 418
Boerhavia, 13, 13, 51, 103, 103, 111, 113,
125, 128, 343, 426
Boerhavia albiflora, 100, 111
Boerhavia diffusa, 423-4
Boerhavia repens, 117, 124, 128
Boerhavia tetrandra, 298
Boiga irregularis, 187, 303, 312, 314, 318,
322
Bolmetapan muricatus, 126
Bombax, 234
Brachiaria reptans, 38
Brachylophus fasciatus, 35, 39
Brachylophus vitiensis, 41
Branta sandvicensis, 340-1, 346
Brasiliensis, 153
Brousonettia papyrifera, 251
Bruguiera, 199, 310
Bruguiera gymnorhyza, 268
Bruguiera parviflora, 187
Bryopsis, 295
Bubbia howeana, 410
Buchanania mollis, 187
Bufo marinus, 35, 188, 226, 231, 316, 318
Bulweria bulwerii, 113, 129
Buteo solitarius, 346
Cacenomobius, 356
Caesalpinia decapetala, 418
Caesio, 192
Calappa hepatica, 268
Calidris acuminata, 194
Calidris alba, 14, 298
Caloenas nicobarica, 164
Calophyllum, 131,218,229, 248, 380-2, 385,
398
Calophyllum inophyllum, 38
Calophyllum samoense, 292, 292
Campnosperma, 187
Cananga adorata, 404
Canarium samoense, 292, 292, 404
Canavalia, 148
Canavalia maritima, 38
Candoia aspera, 215
Candoia bibroni, 35, 39, 41
Candoia carinata, 164, 187
Canis familiaris, 220, 427
Canthium barbatum, 10
Canthium merrillii, 292
Capparis cordifolia, 149, 149
Capra, 41
Capra hircus, 348, 411
Capsicum, 148
Caranx, 192
Caranx lugubris, 420
Carcharchinus, 384
Carcharchinus amblyrhynchos, 129
Carcharchinus archarchinus, 192
-Carcharchinus spallanzoni, 192
Carcinus brevimana, 14
Carcinus perlata, 14
Carcinus rugosa, 14
Cardisoma, 14
Cardisoma carnifex, 104
Cardisoma hirtepes, 164
Caretta caretta, 295
Carex, 370
Carex alligata, 355, 358, 362
Carlia fusca, 318
Caryothraustes, 353
Cassinia, 410
Cassiopea, 269
Cassis cornuta, 312
Cassytha, 13, 51, 103
Cassytha filiformis, 103
Castanopsis, 234
Castanopsis acuminatissima, 202, 208
Castilloa elastica, 404
Casuarina, 41, 140, 184-5, 213, 248, 259, 310
Casuarina equisetifolia, 38, 41, 308, 316, 321
Casuarius, 184, 204, 208
Casuarius bennetti, 187, 203, 225, 234
Casuarius casuarius, 231
Catharanthus roseus, 353
Caulerpa, 15, 128, 128, 190
Caulerpa ashmeadii, 268
Caulerpa racemosa, 268
Caulerpa serratula, 268
Cecropia palmata, 20
Cedrella odorata, 404
Celtis, 234
Celtis paniculata, 420
Centropyge flammeus, 428
Centropyge nigriocellus, 428
Ceonobita, 109
Ceratophyllum demersum, 236
Ceratopteris thalictroides, 236
Ceriops, 229
Ceriops tagal, 199
Cervus, 308
Cervus mariannus, 321
Cervus timorensis rusa, 230
Cervus unicolor, 321
Cervus unicolor mariannus, 314
Chaetodon, 192, 271, 278, 295
Chaetodon reticulatus, 295
Chara corallina, 194
Chara fibrosa, 194
Chara globularis, 194
Charadrius bicinctus, 411
Charadrius dubius, 224
Charadrius leschenaultii, 194, 224
Charadrius mongolus, 194, 224
Charmosyna amabilis, 36
Index
Chasiempis sandwichensis, 346
Cheilodipterus, 192
Cheilosporum, 295
Cheirodendron, 340
Chelonia depressa, 187
Chelonia mydas, 14, 100, 104, 109, 113, 116,
118, 125, 164, 187, 190, 215, 220, 249,
295, 299, 311, 343, 368, 420, 423-4, 426,
428
Chionochloa conspicua, 410
Chlamydera cerviniventris, 234
Chlamydosaurus kingi, 231
Chlidonias hybridus, 236
Chlidonias niger, 237
Chloris barbata, 199
Chloris cheesemanii, 19
Chonophorus guamemsis, 316
Chorizandra cymbaria, 70
Chorodesmis, 268
Christella dentata, 418
Chromis acares, 295
Chromis caerulea, 149
Chromis caerulens, 278
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, 185
Chrysiptera leucopomus, 318
Cicinnurus magnificus, 184, 234
Circus approximans, 41
Cladina, 70
Cladonia, 70
Cladophora, 268
Clidemia, 357-8, 360, 362
Clidemia hirta, 35, 293
Cloezia aquarum, 70
Clytorhynchus nigrogularis, 36
Cnemophilus macgregorii, 210
Cocos, 13, 125, 131
Cocos nucifera, 51, 54, 103, 124, 148-9, 163,
182, 185, 213, 220, 300, 308, 310, 314,
316, 321, 324
Codakia divergens, 51
Coenobita perlata, 104, 111, 129
Collocalia spodiopygia, 399, 404
Collocalia vanikorensis, 311
Colluricincla tenebrosa, 164
Colubrina, 13
Colubrina asiatica, 149, 153
Commersonia bartramia, 35
Conus pulicarius, 269
Coprosma, 339
Coprosma actuifolia, 417
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Coprosma laevigata, 10
Coprosma petiolata, 417
Cordia, 13, 248, 254, 278
Cordia lutea, 53
Cordia subcordata, 116, 149, 353
Cordina, 316
Cordyline terminalis, 421
Corvus, 213
Corvus kubaryi, 308, 314, 322
Corypha, 230
Costularia fragilis, 70
Costularia xyridioides, 70
Cracticus mentalis, 234
Crassocephala crepidioides, 35
Craterocelis nigrorufa, 234
Crinum asiatica, 148-9
Crocethia alba, 129
Crocodylus, 220, 236
Crocodylus novaeguineae, 194, 197, 231
Crocodylus porosus, 164, 194, 197, 224, 231,
249
Crossostylis biflora, 292
Cryptoblepharus, 226
Cryptoblepharus boutonii, 42
Cryptoblepharus boutonii poecilopleurus,
129
Cryptocaria, 410
Crytodactylus, 226
Ctenochaetus striatus, 149, 295
Culcita straminea, 35
Cuscuta campestris, 103
Cyathea, 404
Cyathea affinis, 19
Cyathea alata, 35
Cyathea hornei, 35
Cyathea lunulata, 310
Cycas circinalis, 308, 314, 321
Cyclosorus interruptus, 236
Cyhometra ramiflora, 308
Cymbiola rossiniana, 86
Cynodon dactylon, 353, 416
Cypeomorus, 269
Cyperus, 259, 353, 411
Cyperus javanica, 149, 149
Cyperus platystylis, 230, 236
Cyperus ustulatus, 417
Cypraea annulus, 269
Cypraea moneta, 269
Cypraea tigris, 269
Cypraea vitellus, 269
438
Cyprinus carpio, 236
Cyrtandra lillianae, 19
Cyrtandra rarotongensis, 10
Dacelo leachii, 230
Dacelo tyro, 231
Dacrycarpus, 210
Dacrydium araucarioides, 83
Dacrydium guillauminii, 70
Dactylopsila trivirgata, 208
Danaus hamata, 215
Dasia smaragdina, 187
Dasyurus albopuncatus, 208
Decapoda, 201
Degeneria vitiensis, 35
Demiguetta sacra, 311
Dendrobium moorei, 410
Dendrocygna arcuata, 194, 236
Dendrolagus, 208
Dendrolaphis lineolatus, 164
Dendronephthya, 192
Dermochelys coriacea, 187, 220, 295
Deschampsia, 339, 339-41, 369-70
Deschampsia nubigena, 355
Desmodium heterophylla, 35
Diadema setosum, 268
Dicramopteris linearis, 35, 324
Dicrurus macrocercus, 318
Dictyota, 295
Didunculus strigirostris, 390, 399
Dietes, 410
Digitaria, 51, 424
Digitaria mariannensis, 149
Digitaria pacifica, 111, 423
Dillenia alata, 229, 229, 229
Dillenia biflora, 35
Diomedea albatrus, 343
Diomedea immutabilis, 343, 428
Diomedea nigripes, 343, 428
Diospyros, 389
Diospyros samoensis, 292
Diplastrea heliopora, 150
Dipteris conjugita, 35
Dischidia, 233
Discodeles, 188
Distichopora violacea, 384
Dobsonia, 215
Dobsonia praedatrix, 187
Dorcopsis hageni, 225
Dorcopsis veterum, 230
Dorcopsulus, 208
Dorcopsulus vanheurni, 234
Dracontomelon, 187
Drosera, 230
Drosophila, 340, 340
Dryococoelus australis, 412
Dryopteris fatuhivensis, 19
Drypetes, 410
Dubautia, 341
Ducula bicolor, 185
Ducula oceanica, 164
Ducula pacifica, 11, 399
Ducula pickeringii, 215
Dugong dugon, 164, 182, 187, 190, 200-1,
311
Dysoxylum, 389
Dysoxylum huntii, 292
Dysoxylum richii, 38
Dysoxylum samoense, 292
Echinogorgia, 192
Echinopora, 192
Echymipera, 187
Echymipera kalabu, 184
Eclectus roratus, 225
Egretta picata, 236
Egretta sacra, 14, 17, 41, 125, 129, 149, 190,
269, 298, 311
Elaeocarpus tonganus, 10
Elapho glossum, 19
Elapho savaiense, 19
Eleocarpus joga, 321
Eleocharis dulcis, 236
Eleotris fusca, 316
Elmerillia, 184
Elmerillia tsiampacca, 203
Emballonura, 164, 187
Emballonura semicaudata, 149, 399
Emoia callistica, 187
Emoia concolor, 35, 41
Emoia cyanogaster, 215
Emoia cyanura, 35, 42, 118, 187, 399
Emoia parkeri, 35
Emoia samoensis, 399
Emoia trossula, 41
Emoia werneri, 318
Emydura, 231
Enhalus acoroides, 206, 310, 324
Epimachus fastuosus, 225
Epimachus meyeri, 208, 225
Epinephelus, 192, 192
Index
Eptesicus sagittula, 411
Eragrostis, 343
Eragrostis xerophila, 53
Eremophylla, 227
Eretmochelys imbricata, 149, 164, 187, 220,
249, 295, 299, 311, 322, 384
Eriachne, 229
Eriocaulon, 70
Eriochloe procera, 199
Erithalis polygama, 51
Erythrina, 144, 146, 234
Erythrura kleinschmidti, 36
Esacus magnirostris, 213, 224
Eucalyptus, 171, 206, 229, 233, 404
Eucalyptus deglupta, 184
Eucalyptus tereticornis, 233
Eudynamis taitensis, 11, 14, 17
Eugenia reinwardtiana, 163
Euglandia, 361
Eunice viridis, 401
Euodia, 10
Eupatorium adenophorum, 341
Euphorbia hirta, 353
Euphorbia ramosissima, 51
Eurya, 210
Euxiphipops, 192
Evodia crassiramis, 187
Evodia elleryane, 184
Excoecaria agallocha, 268
Exocarpus pseudocasuarina, 70
Fagraea berteriana, 10, 292
Favia, 150, 192, 295
Felis catus, 427
Felis domesticus, 35, 41, 411
Ficus, 146, 234
Ficus benghalensis, 310
Ficus obliqua, 268
Ficus prolixa, 321, 324
Ficus ribiginosa, 358
Ficus smithii, 35
Ficus storckii, 35
Ficus vitiensis, 35
Fimbristylis, 13, 357, 359
Fimbristylis cymosa, 149, 353
Fitchia speciosa, 10
Flindersia pimenteliana, 203
Foulehaio carunculata, 292, 399, 404
Fragum unedo, 269
Francolinus francolinus, 318
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Fregata, 190, 343
Fregata ariel, 14, 104, 109, 111, 113, 117,
269, 298, 423-4, 426
Fregeta grallaria, 411
Fregata minor, 14, 17,54, 104, 107, 117, 125,
128, 146, 149, 153, 295, 298, 318, 416,
426, 428
Freycinetia wilderi, 10
Fulica alai, 352
Fungia, 192
Funtumia elastica, 404
Furcraea foetida, 418
Gafrarium pectinatum, 51
Gafrarium tunidum, 269
Gahnia novocaledonensis, 70
Galaxea, 295
Galaxias, 70
Galaxias neocaledonicus, 70
Gallicolumba rubescens, 54
Gallicolumba xanthonura, 146, 149, 308,
314, 322
Gallinula tenebrosa, 236
Gallirallus owstoni, 308, 322
Gallus gallus, 54
Gardenia aubryi, 70
Garimia myrtifolia, 35
Garnotia cheesemanii, 19
Gecarcoidea lalandii, 164
Gecko vittatus, 187
Gehyra mutilata, 104
Gehyra oceanica, 42
Gelidiopsis intricata, 149
Geograpsus grayii, 104, 111
Geranium arboreum, 340
Girroneira celtidifolia, 35
Gleichenia, 3, 208
Glyphidodontops cyanea, 295
Glyphidodontops glaucus, 295
Glyphidodontops leucopomus, 295
Gnetum, 184
Goniastrea, 295
Goniastrea retiformis, 150
Goniopora, 192
Gonocephalus, 226
Gonystylus punctatus, 35
Gossypium hirsutum, 148
Gouania hillebrandii, 364
Goura, 204
Gracilaria, 268
Grammitis hookeri, 19
Grapsidae, 14
Gretum gnemon, 187
Grevillea glauca, 229, 229
Grus rubicunda, 230
Guamia mariannae, 321
Guettarda, 13, 254, 278
Guettarda speciosa, 51
Gulubia microcarpa, 35
Gulubia palauensis, 163, 163
Gygis alba, 11, 14, 17,54, 107, 107, 117, 125,
129, 144, 146, 149, 153, 295, 298, 311,
420, 424
Gygis alba microrhynca, 54
Gymnomyza aubryana, 83
Gymnomyza samoensis, 390, 399
Gymnostoma deplancheanum, 69
Gymnothorax flavomarginatus, 192, 384
Gymnothorax javanicus, 129
Halcyon chloris, 144, 149, 153
Halcyon cinnamomina, 308, 314
Haliaeetus leucogaster, 190
Haliaeetus sanfordi, 248
Haliastur indus, 248
Halicarcinus lacustris, 412
Halimeda, 295
Halimeda discoidea, 268
Halodule, 268
Halophilia ovalis, 268
Hanguana malayana, 236
Harpyopsis novaeguineae, 203, 210, 231
Hawaiioscia, 355
Hebe breviracemosa, 418
Hedychium gardnerianum, 348
Hedyotis, 148
Hedyscepe, 410
Hedyscepe canterburyana, 411
Heliopora coerulea, 150
Heliotrope, 17
Heliotropium, 103, 103, 108
Heliotropium anomalum, 103
Hemidactylus frenatus, 318
Hemignathus lucidus affinus, 340
Hemignathus virens, 346
Hemignathus wilsoni, 346
Hemiscyllium ocellatum, 192
Hernandia sonora, 149
Herpestes auropunctatus, 35, 41, 348
Herpestes griseus, 353
Herpolitha, 192
Heterocentrotus, 420
Heterocentrotus trigonarius, 420
Heteroscelus brevipes, 149, 194
Heteroscelus incanus, 14, 17, 104, 118, 125,
129, 149, 298, 338, 353
Hibiscus, 13, 144, 227, 374
Hibiscus tiliaceus, 10, 38, 53, 148, 268, 268,
276, 278, 314, 316, 321, 404
Himantopus leucocephalus, 194, 224, 236
Himantopus mexicanus knudseni, 352
Himatione sanguinea, 340, 346
Himatione sanguinea freethi, 331
Hippopus hippopus, 126, 129
Hipposideros galeritus, 187
Hirunda tahitica, 269
Holcus lanatus, 341
Holocentrus, 271, 278
Holothuria atra, 51, 268
Holothuria edulis, 268
Holothuria impatiens, 268
Holothuria leucospilota, 268
Homalanthus nutans, 404
Homalanthus polyandrus, 417
Homalium acuminatum, 10
Homalium kanaliense, 70
Homoeostrichus flabellatus, 149
Hornstedtia lycostoma, 187
Howea, 410
Howea belmoreana, 410
Howea forsterana, 410, 412
Hydnophora, 192
Hydrocharis dubia, 236
Hymenachne acutigluma, 236
Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, 230
Hymenophyllum involucratum, 19
Hyomys goliath, 225
Hyptis pectinata, 35, 149
Imperata, 229, 229, 229-30
Imperata cylindrica, 199, 230, 233
Intsia bijuga, 163, 308, 321
Ipomoea, 116, 343, 353
Ipomoea aquatica, 236
Ipomoea brasiliensis, 38, 38
Ipomoea pes-caprae, 148-9, 308, 310, 321
Ipomoea pes-caprae brasiliensis, 418
Irediparra gallinacea, 236
Iridomyrmex humilis, 348
Ischaemum polystachyum, 236
Ixora bracteata, 10
Jania capillacea, 149
Katsuwonus pelamis, 192
441
Index
Kleinhovia hospita, 404
Kyphosus cinarascens, 149
Lalage sharpei, 404
Lambis lambis, 269
Lantana, 361
Lantana camara, 10
Lasiurus cinereus semotus, 346
Lates calcifer, 231
Laticauda colubrina, 164, 192, 269
Laurencia, 295
Laurencia succisa, 149
Leea indica, 187
Leersia hexandra, 236
Leiolopisma lichenigera, 412
Lemna perpusila, 194
Lentipes concolor, 340
Lepidium, 51
Lepidochelys olivacea, 295
Lepidodactylus lugubris, 104, 109, 111, 318,
416
Lepidorrhachis, 410
Leptiora, 192
Leptoria phrygia, 81
Lepturus, 13, 100, 103, 113, 125, 128, 398,
424
Lepturus gasparricensis, 128
Lepturus pilgerianus, 111, 113
Lepturus repens, 103, 116, 124, 128, 128, 426
Lethrinus, 270
Leucaena glauca, 354
Leucaena leucocephala, 38, 316, 318, 353
Liasis, 226
Liasis papuensis, 234
Libocedrus, 210
Libocedrus yateensis, 83
Limosa lapponica, 269, 411
Linckia laevigata, 268
Linociera ligustrina, 348
Liparis clypeolum, 19
Lithocarpus rufovillosus, 208
Lithothamnion, 128
Litsea, 187
Lobophora variegata, 149
Lobophyllia, 150
Loecenia, 53
Lonchura castaneothorax, 54
Lonchura nevermanni, 231
Lorentzimys nouhuysi, 225
Loria loriae, 208
Lorius lory, 225
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Loxops coccinea, 346 Melaleuca viridiflora, 229-30
Loxops coccinea ochracea, 340 Melamprosops phaeosoma, 340
Loxops maculatas newtoni, 340 Melidectes princeps, 210
Loxops virens wilsoni, 340 Melidetes belfordi, 225
Lucina, 269 Melochia compacta, 149
Ludwigia adscendens, 236 Melomys fellowsi, 225
Ludwigia hyssopifolia, 236 Melomys hageni, 225
Ludwigia octovalvis, 35, 194, 236 Melomys levipes, 225
Lumnitzera, 310 Melomys rufescens, 184
Lumnitzera lottorea, 268 Melonycteris melanops, 187
Lutjanus, 192, 270, 295 Merrilliodendron megacarpum, 321
Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 384 Meryta pauciflora, 10
Lutjanus bohar, 126 Messerschmidia, 17, 103, 108, 299, 343
Lutjanus fulvus, 129 Messerschmidia argentea, 103, 298, 310, 321
Lutjanus gibbus, 126 Metapenaeus ensis, 268, 270
Lycopodium cernum, 35, 310, 324 Metrosideros, 340
Lysiosquilla, 268 Metrosideros collina, 10
Macaranga stipulosa, 404 Metroxylon sagu, 171, 187, 212, 214
Macaranga thompsonii, 321 Miconia calvescens, 56
Macrobrodhium las, 316 Microeca papuana, 225
Macroglossus, 187 Micromelum pubescens, 187
Macropiper latifolia, 10 Micropsitta meeki, 215
Macropus agilis, 230 Microsicydium elegans, 316
Macrothelypteris torresiana, 418 Mikania micrantha, 19, 35
Mallomys argentata, 225 Millepora, 420
Mallomys hercules, 225 Millepora platyphylla, 150
Mallomys rothschildi, 225 Milvus migrans, 182
Malurus alboscapulatus, 237 Mimosa pudica, 35
Mangifera, 229 Miscanthus, 140, 208
Mangifera inocarpoides, 229, 229 Miscanthus floribundus, 35
Mannea oderata, 314 Miscanthus floridulus, 149, 153, 310, 324
Manucodia comrii, 224 Monachus schauinslandi, 343, 427
Marsilea crenata, 236 Monarcha infleix, 215
Marsilea villosa, 366 Monochoria hastata, 236
Megacrex inepta, 231 Monocodia atra, 234
Megalurus albolimbatus, 231 Monocodia chalybata, 234
Megapodius, 190, 197, 220 Montipora, 192
Megapodius eremita, 187 Morinda, 146
Megapodius freycinet, 218, 218, 248 Morinda citrifolia, 51, 148, 153, 353
Megapodius laperouse, 146, 149, 152, 154, Morphopsis meeki, 208
164 Mucuna novoguineensis, 184
Megaptera novaeangliae, 295 Mugil cephalus, 270
Meiolania platyceps, 410 Murexia longicaudata, 184
Meioneta, 355 Mus musculus, 109, 353, 411, 427
Melaleuca, 74, 229, 229, 229, 229, 229, 229, Myiagra erythrops, 164
229-30, 233, 410 Myiagra freycineti, 308, 322
Melaleuca brongnartii, 70 Myiagra rubecula, 234
Melaleuca cajaputi, 229 Myoporum, 51
Melaleuca gnidioides, 70 Myrica faya, 348
Melaleuca quinquenervia, 85 Myripristis, 192
442
Myristica, 187, 187, 234, 404
Myristica castaneifolia, 35
Myristica fatua, 292, 404
Myristica hypargyaea, 292
Myrsine hoskae, 420
Myzomela cardinalis, 292, 308, 314, 322,
322, 399
Myzomela rubrata, 144, 146, 149, 153
Nageia minor, 70
Najas indica, 236
Najas tenuifolia, 194
Nasella, 416
Naso lituratus, 149
Nectarinia, 213
Neisosperma, 144, 146
Neisosperma oppositifolia, 149, 308
Nelumbo, 230
Neocallitropsis pancheri, 70, 70, 70
Neoveitchia storckii, 35
Nepenthes, 230
Nephrolepis, 140, 353
Nephrolepis biserrata, 194
Nephrolepis cordifolia, 418
Nephrolepis hirsutula, 136
Nerita plicata, 269
Nerita undata, 269
Nesofregatta albigularis, 104, 107, 111, 113
Nesofregatta fuliginosa, 424
Nesophylax ater, 420
Nothofagus, 225
Numenius americanus, 248
Numenius minutus, 230
Numenius phaeopus, 248, 318, 411
Numenius tahitiensis, 14, 17, 104, 118, 125,
129, 298, 428
Nyctophilus howensis, 410
Nymphaea, 230
Nymphaea dictyophlebia, 236
Nymphaea pubescens, 236
Nymphoides indica, 236
Nypa fruticans, 187, 187, 199
Oceanodroma matsudairae, 144, 149
Ochrosia oppositifolia, 321
Ocypode, 14, 104
Ogmodon vitianus, 35
Olea africana, 418
Olearia, 210
Omalanthus nutans, 19
Operculina ventricosa, 149
Ophioglossum pendulum, 321
Index
Orectolobus dasypogon, 192
Oreochromis mossambicus, 236
Oreomystis mana, 346
Oreophryne brachypus, 188
Omithoptera chimaera, 208
Omithoptera priamus, 215
Oryctes rhinoceros, 254
Oryctolagus cuniculus, 113, 427
Oryza, 230
Otus podarginus, 164
Oxalis gagneorum, 53
Oxyuranus scutellatus, 231
Pachycare flavogrisea, 234
Pachycephala pectoralis contempta, 412
Pachycephala rufiventris, 234
Pachyclavularia violacea, 319
Palaquium stehlinii, 404
Palmeria dolei, 340
Palythoa, 295
Pancheria communis, 70
Pandanus, 13, 17, 17, 38, 38, 51, 131, 144,
146, 171, 184, 208, 218, 230, 248, 268,
268, 292, 390, 398-9, 411-2
Pandanus fragrans, 308, 314, 316, 321
Pandanus kirkii, 310
Pandanus maximum, 38, 38
Pandanus odoratissimus, 353
Pandanus pedunculatus, 410
Pandanus tectorius, 53, 124, 124, 148, 420
Pandion haliaetus, 86, 248
Panicum, 230
Panicum maximum, 38
Panulirus, 104, 215
Panulirus penicillatus, 420
Papilio aegeus, 215
Papilio ulysses, 215
Papuacedrus, 210
Paradisaea guilielmi, 216
Paradisaea minor, 184
Paradisaea raggiana, 184, 231, 234
Parahalomitra, 192
Parahydromys asper, 184
Parapeneus, 295
Parasitaxis ustus, 78, 83
Paratya howensis, 412
Parinari, 229
Parotia lawesii, 208
Parthenos sylvia, 215
Parupeneus, 192
Paspalum conjugatum, 19
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Passer montanus, 318 Pipturus argenteus, 148, 153, 404
Passiflora, 353 Pisonia, 13, 17, 117, 124, 124, 124, 124-5,
Passiflora suberosa, 359 248, 254, 298, 298-9
Pecten, 269 Pisonia brunoniana, 418
Pemphis, 13, 13 Pisonia grandis, 53, 53, 103, 107-8, 117,
Pemphis acidula, 51, 308, 318, 321 124-6, 128, 148-9, 298, 321
Penaeus semisulcatus, 270 Pistia stratoites, 236
Penaeus sensculcatus, 268 Pithecellobium dulce, 316, 354
Pennisetum clandestinum, 341 Pitta sordida, 225
Pennisetum polystachyon, 310, 324 Pitta superba, 215
Pennisetum setaceum, 348 Pittosporum, 210
Pentacarya anoniala, 51 Pittosporum arborescens, 10
Perca, 201 Placostylus, 410, 412
Periglypta, 269 Planchonella, 340
Periophthalmus, 269 Planchonella linggenensis, 292
Peroryctes, 208, 225, 234 Planchonella torricellensis, 292
Peroryctes raffrayanus, 184 Platygyra daedalea, 81
Petaurus, 187 Platymantis papuensis, 188
Petaurus australis, 225 Platymantis vitiensis, 35
Petaurus breviceps, 225 Plectorhynchus, 192
Peterodroma arminjoniana, 20 Plectroglyphidodon dickii, 295
Petesia carnosa, 51 Pleomele, 340
Phaeornis obscurus, 346 Pluchea indica, 199
Phaethon lepturus, 11, 125, 144, 146, 149, Pluvialis, 17
153, 295, 298, 311 Pluvialis dominica, 14, 104, 118, 125, 129,
Phaethon lepturus dorotheae, 340 146, 149, 194, 224, 269, 298, 318, 353,
Phaethon rubricauda, 14, 17, 104, 107, 125, 411
129, 146, 149, 153, 298, 411, 416, 420 Pluvialis dominica fulva, 340
Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, 194 Poa, 411
Phalanger, 182, 187, 197, 208, 220, 224 Pocillopora, 81, 150, 192, 319, 420
Phalanger maculatus, 215 Pocillopora damicornis, 79
Phalaropus lobatus, 194 Pocillopora verrucosa, 79, 295
Pheidole megacophala, 353 Podargus, 225
Phigys solitarius, 36 Podocarpus, 71
Philemon albitorques, 215 Pogonoculius zebra, 318
Phragmites karka, 230, 230, 236, 316 Polygonum barbatum, 236
Phyllanthus, 144 Polypodium, 51
Phyllanthus amarus, 149 Polypodium scolopendria, 148
Phyllanthus marianus, 149 Polyscias, 187
Phyllodactylus guentheri, 412 Polysiphonia, 149
Phymatodes, 19 Pomacentrus melanopterus, 149
Phymatodes scolopendria, 153, 308 Pomachromis guamensis, 318
Phymatosorus, 13 Pomarea dimidiata, 4, 10
Physeter catodon, 295 Pomarea iphis fluxa, 54
Pinctada maculata, 51 Pometia pinnata, 251, 404
Pinctada margaritifera, 14, 126, 269 Pometia tomentosa, 187, 203
Pinctada maxima, 15 Porites, 164, 192, 222, 254, 269, 311
Pinus, 404 Porites lobata, 51
Piper aduncum, 35 Porites lutea, 81, 150, 295
Piper guahamense, 321 Porphyrio porphyrio, 236
Portulaca, 53, 103, 103, 113, 125, 128, 149,
424
Portulaca lutea, 100, 103, 111, 113, 116,
124-5, 128, 298, 343, 423, 426
Portulaca oleracea, 103
Porzana palmeri, 331
Procelsterna cerulea, 100, 104, 107, 109, 111,
295, 343, 411, 420, 424
Promicrops lanceolatus, 384
Prosopsis pallida, 354
Pseudechis papuans, 231
Pseudocheirus, 225
Pseudocheirus albertisi, 225
Pseudocheirus mayeri, 225
Pseudonestor xanthophrys, 340
Pseudopanax arboreus, 418
Pseudophegopteris, 19
Pseudoraphis spinescens, 230, 230
Psidium cattleianum, 10, 348, 341
Psidium guayava, 10
Psidium littorale, 418
Psilotum, 51
Psittirostra psittacea, 346
Pteridophora alberti, 208
Pteris quadriaurita, 148
Pterodroma alba, 104, 107-8, 420, 425
Pterodroma arminjoniana, 420
Pterodroma externa, 418
Pterodroma neglecta, 411, 416, 418, 420
Pterodroma nigripennis, 411, 418
Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis, 340,
346, 367
Pterodroma solandri, 411
Pterodroma ultima, 420
Pterois volitans, 412
Pteropus, 11, 154, 404
Pteropus admiraltatum, 215
Pteropus macrotis, 187
Pteropus mariannus, 144, 146, 149, 308, 311,
314, 318, 321
Pteropus samoensis, 35, 292, 399
Pteropus tonganus, 35, 41, 292, 295, 399
Ptilinopus, 292
Ptilinopus aurantiifrons, 237
Ptilinopus insularis, 420
Ptilinopus pelewensis, 164
Ptilinopus rarotongensis, 11
Ptilinopus roseicapilla, 308, 322
Ptiloris magnificus, 234
Puffinus, 343
445
Index
Puffinus assimilis, 411
Puffinus carneipes hullianus, 411
Puffinus l’herminieri, 111, 113
Puffinus nativitatis, 104, 107-8, 113, 129
Puffinus newelli, 366
Puffinus pacificus, 104, 107, 113, 144, 149,
411, 418, 420, 424, 428
Puffinus tenuirostris, 318
Pycnonotus cafer, 36, 404
Quercus, 184
Ramalina, 51
Rana novaebritannae, 188
Rattus exulans, 14, 41,54, 100, 103, 109, 111,
116, 117, 125, 129, 145, 147, 299-300,
399, 418, 421
Rattus leucopus, 225
Rattus norvegicus, 154, 348, 353, 418
Rattus rattus, 103, 129, 225, 348, 353, 413,
427
Rattus verecundus, 225
Reynoldsia lanutoensis, 292
Rhipidura lepida, 164
Rhipidura nebulosa, 404
Rhipidura rufifrons, 322
Rhipidura semirubra, 215
Rhizophora, 199, 229, 278, 310
Rhizophora mucronata, 163, 187
Rhizophora samoensis, 268, 268
Rhizophora stylosa, 268
Rhododendron, 210
Rhus taitensis, 404
Rhynchelytrum repens, 353
Rhynchospora corymbosa, 153
Rhynochetos jubatus, 83
Rhyticeros plicatus, 197
Rorippa gigantea, 418
Rousettus amplexicaudatus, 187
Sagittaria platyphylla, 236
Salvinia molesta, 236, 236-7
Santalum haleakalae, 340
Santalum hendersonense, 420-1
Sarcocephalus coadunata, 229-30
Sargassum, 79
Saurauia, 208
Scaevola, 13, 17, 103, 108, 128, 227, 254, 398
Scaevola sericea, 124, 128, 128
Scaevola taccada, 38, 103, 148, 153, 308,
310, 318, 321
Scarus, 295
Scaveola, 51
IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania
Schefflera, 210
Schinus terenthifolia, 354
Schizaea dichotoma, 70
Schizaea laevigata, 70
Schoenus, 230
Schoenus brevifolius, 70
Scirpus grossus, 236
Scirpus nodosus, 19
Sclerotheca viridiflora, 10, 19
Scolopsis, 192
Scorpaenopsis, 192
Scylla serrata, 268
Securinega flexuosa, 404
Sehima nervosum, 233
Senecio lautus esperensis, 418
Sephemomorphus elegantulum, 188
Sepia apana, 215
Seriathes nelsonii, 308
Seriatopora, 192
Sericornis arfakianus, 234
Sericornis nouhuysi, 225
Sesuvium, 113, 113, 113
Sesuvium portulacastrum, 100, 103, 111,
113, 117, 199, 426
Sicypeterus macrostetholepis, 316
Sida, 103, 113, 113, 128, 128, 128, 423, 426
Sida fallax, 100, 103, 108, 111, 113, 116, 128
Siganus, 192
Sinularia, 192
Solanum torvum, 35
Sonneratia, 199
Sonneratia alba, 187, 199
Sophora, 339
Sophora toromiro, 416
Spathodea campanulata, 35, 316
Spathoglottis plicata, 324
Sphyraena barracuda, 192
Sphyrna lewini, 192
Spinifex hirsutus, 38
Spirodela polyrhiza, 236
Sporobolus indicus, 416
Sporobolus virginicus, 199
Squilla, 268
Stegastes albofasciatus, 295
Stenella, 215, 295
Stenotaphrum micranthum, 149
Sterna, 248, 343
Sterna bergii, 14, 194, 269
Sterna fuscata, 14, 54, 104, 107-9, 113, 116,
118, 125, 129, 144, 146, 149, 298, 298,
411, 418, 423-4, 426, 428
Sterna hirundo, 318
Sterna lunata, 104, 109, 111, 146, 295, 298
Sterna nareis, 269
Sterna sumatrana, 14, 298
Stichopus chloronotus, 268
Stichopus variegatus, 268
Stiltia isabella, 224
Stipa, 416
Strepera graculina crissalis, 412
Streptopelia, 353
Streptopelia bitorquata, 318
Stromatopteris moniliformis, 70
Strombus gibberulus, 269
Sturnus vulgaris, 237
Stylophora, 192
Styphelia, 339
Styphelia longistyles, 70
Stypopodium hawaiiensis, 149
Sula, 54, 343
Sula dactylatra, 14, 17, 100, 104, 109, 113,
117, 125, 149, 153, 298, 411, 420, 423-4,
426, 428
Sula leucogaster, 14, 17, 100, 109, 117, 125,
128, 144, 146, 149, 153, 295, 298, 311,
424
Sula sula, 14, 17, 107, 109, 117, 125, 128,
146, 149, 153, 295, 298, 423-4, 426, 428
Suriana, 17, 51, 103, 108
Suriana maritima, 103
Sus, 225
Sus domestica, 411
Sus scrofa, 35, 41, 54, 182, 187, 197, 208,
220, 224, 234, 316, 341, 348, 399
Swietenia mahogoni, 33
Synoga lysicephala, 229
Syringodium, 164
Syzygium, 229
Syzygium effusum, 35
Syzygium inophylloides, 292, 404
Syzygium richii, 38
Syzygium samarangense, 292
Syzygium samoense, 292, 292
Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, 236
Tachybaptus ruficollis, 194
Tachyglossus aculeatus, 230
Taeniophyllum mariannense, 321
Tanysiptera hydrocharis, 231
Tarenna leiloba, 70
Tasmannia, 210
Tecticornia cincrea, 199
Tekoulina, 20
Tellina, 269
Terminalia, 144, 146, 203, 229, 234, 380-2,
385
Terminalia catappa, 148-9
Terpios, 312
Tetramolopium, 341
Tetramolopium rockii, 368
Thalamita prymna, 268
Thalasseus bergii, 107
Thalassoma hardwickei, 295
Themeda australis, 184, 199, 233
Themeda novoguineensis, 199
Thespesia, 278
Thespesia populnea, 421
Thespia populnea, 53
Thylogale, 187
Thylogale stigmatica, 225, 230
Tibouchina, 357
Tolypiocladia glomerulata, 149
Tournefortia, 51, 124, 124-5, 125, 128, 128,
128, 128, 254
Tournefortia argentea, 124, 128
Toxopnuestes pileolus, 268
Trema orientalis, 149
Triaenodon obesus, 192
Tribulus, 103, 111, 116
Tribulus cistoides, 111, 111, 116, 343, 423-4,
426
Tricholimnas sylvestris, 411
Trichomanes, 19
Trichomanes digitatum, 19
Tricostularia, 230
Tricostularia guillauminii, 70
Tridacna, 15, 254, 295, 299, 320
Tridacna gigas, 129
Tridacna maxima, 14, 51, 126, 129, 271, 273,
275-6, 278, 299
Tridacna squamosa, 129, 271, 273, 278
Tringa hypoleucos, 194
Tringa totanus, 237
Triphasia trifolia, 314, 324
Tripnuestes gratilla, 268
Tristania, 229, 229, 229, 229
Tristania suaveolens, 229
447
Index
Tristeropsis obstusangula, 321
Triumfetta, 13, 124
Triumfetta procumbens, 113, 124, 423-4
Trochus, 126
Trochus niloticus, 15
Tropaeolum majus, 348
Tubastrea, 192
Turbinaria, 79, 128, 192
Tursiops truncata, 295
Typha orientalis, 236
Tyto alba, 41
Uca, 14
Uca lactea, 269
Ulva, 295
Uromys neobritannicus, 187
Urtica, 51
Usnea, 233
Utricularia, 70, 70
Utricularia aurea, 230
Vaccinium, 210, 339
Vaccinium cereum, 19
Vanellus miles, 236
Varanus, 231
Varanus indicus, 308, 318, 322
Vavaea amicorum, 41
Vernonia cinerea, 149
Vestiaria coccinea, 340, 346
Vini kuhlii, 104
Vini stepheni, 420
Vitex, 229, 234
Vitex coffasus, 251
Vitex negundo, 148
Vitex trifoliata, 38
Wedelia biflora, 149, 153, 308, 321
Weinmannia affinis, 292
Weinmannia samoensis, 10
Xanthostemon, 229, 229
Xanthostemon aurantiacum, 70
Xylocarpus, 268
Xylocarpus granatum, 268
Xylopia pacifica, 35
Xylosma gracile, 10
Xyris neocaledonica, 70
Xyris pancheri, 70
Zingiber zerumbet, 19
Zosterops conspicillata, 308, 322
Zosterops finschii, 164
Zosterops tephropleura, 412
Zoysia matrella, 149
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