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IUCN Directory
of South Asian
Protected Areas
Compiled by The World Conservation Monitoring Centre
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_ |UCN - The World Conservation Union
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge
http://www.archive.org/details/iucndirectoryofs90gree
IUCN Directory of South Asian
Protected Areas
IUCN - THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION
Founded in 1948, IUCN — the World Conservation Union — is a membership organisation
comprising governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and
conservation agencies in 120 countries. The Union’s objective is to promote and encourage the
protection and sustainable utilisation of living resources.
Several thousand scientists and experts from all continents form part of a network supporting
the work of its six Commissions: threatened species, protected areas, ecology, sustainable
development, environmental law and environmental education and training. Its thematic pro-
grammes include tropical forests, wetlands, marine ecosystems, plants, the Sahel, Antarctica,
population and sustainable development, and women in conservation. These activities enable
IUCN and its members to develop sound policies and programmes for the conservation of
biological diversity and sustainable development of natural resources.
WCMC - THE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between the three
partners in the World Conservation Strategy, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its
mission is to support conservation and sustainable development by collecting and analysing
global conservation data so that decisions affecting biological resources are based on the best
available information.
WCMC has developed a global overview database of the world’s biological diversity that
includes threatened plant and animal species, habitats of conservation concer, critical sites,
protected areas of the world, and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and products.
Drawing on this database, WCMC provides an information service to the conservation and
development communities, governments and United Nations agencies, scientific institutions,
the business and commercial sector, and the media. WCMC produces a wide variety of specialist
outputs and reports based on analyses of its data.
IUCN Directory of South Asian
Protected Areas
Compiled by
Michael J.B. Green
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
With financial support from
Norwegian Agency for International Development
IUCN —- THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION
1990
Published by: IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK.
Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, and published with financial support
from the Norwegian Agency for International Development
A contribution to GEMS — the Global Environment Monitoring System.
Gs
Copyright: 1990 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non- commercial purposes is authorised
without prior permission from the copyright holder.
Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written
permission of the copyright holder.
Citation: IUCN (1990). IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. xxiv + 294 pp.
ISBN: 2-8317-0030-2
Printed by: Unwin Brothers Woking, U.K.
Cover photos: Sundarbans, Bangladesh/India, Rangdum S.(proposed), India,
Horton Plains N.P., Sri Lanka, by M.J.B. Green. Lalsohanra N.P.,
Pakistan by Mauri Rautkari/WWF.
Cover design by: Jo Taylor, IUCN Publications Services Unit
Compiled by: Michael J.B. Green.
Available from: IUCN Publications Services Unit
219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K.
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, WCMC or other
participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RE eee ee ce a ds ea ee ds ao Re an oe a i
ARMM RAENENCRT Ee cg Sot ppacpee Te) Hol ine Se) ee ee iii
PRC RARO OCCU ICTIEGN cae als Jag) Sayin, so Oe le ele pel ier 9 en iv
Managing information on protected areasatWCMC ....... Vii
Information sheets: guidelines to their contents ........... ix
Information sheets on protected areas systems ............... ix
infonmguonsheetsion protected areas). 49>. 2 2) Sa ake Se ee xi
ei NA iE ae clo Tal ja) x, 4 3. n,m gc Aw aye eee XV
Annex 1 Categories and management objectives of protected areas. . xvi
Annex 2 IWCN threatened species categories... 10 222s ee XVil
oo GUS 1 DIS 2 Sa Se ee EE eed a ote pest 0: 1
Map.of protectediareas Of Bangladesh 2. 2k. wi es es ee 6
Summary of protected areas of Bangladesh ................ q!
SAAR ASA OMIE AERA Ni sth so vn! weir mh gaa oS es eke ole Biuale, gl ane 9
Char Kukri-Mukri Wildlife Sanctuary”. ...............-. 10
Pern illic Sanctilary: a). asl a ae so a eit eo Sustag dl aie fo 12
ical El teat WV ite SARCIUALY) vuoi. <a Soy we Seite ie whe pe ee 14
act zita kadad WAIST SATICUMATY 06 Wis yo ieBeg s\n, <2 x oa ein vot mug ee 16
Saas fa STP AEN fo) hh cabins os aaa 0 oh at pubis el Bt Bilan 18
Madhupur National Park 202. Se ee en 20
Pablabhala Wildlife PAnChAry 2 ek es te ee trae 23
Rampahar-Sitapahar Wildlife Sanctuary .....--.-.---++-++-- 26
AISA AT NANONAU PATE sia ei dye pena dys ys tuieele cs ele = lave a 27
Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary ........---+-+----+++: 28
Sundarbans East, West and South Wildlife Sanctuaries ......... 31
Se mnaIAGAMe RESCIVE: bo ee ss) e es ole leis Bos es ose 8 38
TN NUR tee Wired See ite ii tras Al spe): 3 ja vai ie nite =) parca, Raia fe 43
Summary of protected areas of India .....-.-- +--+ +--+ e-- 54
B/N Sheil We Ue. etal Naess Med ae a ee me teA cP OLY ee Ena NED e 69
Map of national parks of Pakistan .....-- +--+ e+e seers 76
Map of wildlife sanctuaries of Pakistan ..-.-.----+--+-+++:- 77
Wap Of Paine TESErVes OF PAmistain sos tee ees se es ee ae 78
Summary of protected areas of Pakistan ..........--2-206. 79
PiskOr idliill Giatne REMI Soc tes sare se ts suites ss sypumelees 86
Astor Wildlife Samctary as. sks jclctyar ass. eal otab hie aoe ays 3 87
Baltistanswildlife Sanctuary. gcse Cce tetas, fs sie lie os, ne tals epee 88
Bund Khushi Kiran Game Reseme = io wee sog Os. ees ae eg ss 90
@hashmaWake Wildlife; Sanetuanyess ainsi. see jesus) sees eee 91
errisei/Peavishidar Gramie RESCIVE cfc sa) lon as Sea, + + 2 + ahs when 94
Crntral sel Nanonal Park 25 JP Rio. 5% a als ese eek 6 oo ee dee 95
anyon Dinltah Game Resenye ei 5s fen sw 6a vohcd 3 =. eee a atts 24)
rok ake Witte SaRGUsdey) tk cee ete ene ose ed nee 99
Hab Dam waldlife:Sanctilary:, sgegeastecs: = ba ohn siaie Sea tee 101
Madero lake Wildlite sanctuary, ests t. yc e.c scas ie) « « & susbe 6 cue eG 103
Bigles Take Wirdiife sanctity slots sate. sy ator ays is, ore cose ok wyenethe 105
PIAWKEN ay SAMESUD TSE RC DOS oe ek ie ke Sw MM ws ce 108
Hazat Ganji- Cinttan National Park Vay. «aes ene bas, oe. sive 2 eysoeted. 110
Head Islam/Chak Kotord Game Reserve. es i ws 113
Ines iver Gumi ESE ss. Ss ee seen ele eee ee a ia 115
Peat tel Cad ONIN cree aaa. a ea eke se he ce Sols Cah Maes 117
Kealabag hu Gamer esenveim cre cbsrs: sites. (oes tists. a cs tere eas) es 119
PEAR AT NAN ates tow ss LoS saa reas ome Sg et cual ee, sa 6 eee ae 121
Karcah Wildite Sanettanyin’. i860 seate ae ee nre Ee, 6 5 ee we Se 122
Keti Bundar North and South Wildlife Sanctuaries ........... 123
Nnabbeke LakesWaldliteanctllany s.-24 4% 2.4 < a cles sy clclanaee 126
meharar Cake Witte sanetiary.> ... i. 6-3, wale nas te eee 2 ee 128
Peres RESeEv Oi ce ah rea Pete Pe eae 'olene ye, Scie an SEO hats 130
Khwnjerab NationgPeie ee. aes ere ee oe won 130
Kerhk/Mintaka Gant Reserve. cs...) 95 ho. ee pe es 135
Kinjhar (Kaln) Lake Wildite Sanctuary, 2055's... «4. sss s+ 136
Karthar National Pati: 35 Seay ec ae AA eA) ale esd 139
Lal. Suhanra National Parkae gis). fra. gros ais ww ls sheds, oie. sume date 144
Langh (Lungh) Lake Wildlife Sanctuary ................. 148
Midcinare Grauie RESERVEN aii. S aotce) So ea a ew 8 a, Ce 150
percreeerae ATIC Wi oe 5. 5 bi ses x ihe pShereseya wince wane sana A Oe ake 152
Beans? Wilditte; sanctuary 9). J. .<.... 4.2.. Se lone ene 154
Marsala Hills; National Park... ............... . S90 lagu. a ae 156
Mattar Wildlife Sanctuary }\5-409 0s 2 ieee Aa eee 159
iar/Ghoro Nallah’Game Reserve >... ......<.« Sec. eee Z 160
iNazbar Nallah Gamie Reserve. 30.6.2)... dys)» STRUIOORE e 161
NMemal Cake Wildlife Sanctugry |. .......s:..,.. dense ale uae bokbiee Oe 163
Rakora Game Reserves ict Siar do a Se ee so 165
Rasool Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary .................... 166
Satpard Wildlife Sanctuary’). 30. 6 so Oe OO ee ee 168
Sheri@illahiGame Reserve: ; :tii-n ec) cus Camedia tet koe ee ee 169
aad aan eye iS ks RA SG Rae I ae 171
Banos Game RESCIVE 65 us cee «oye js oe sae PES, SRO ROE 173
Daunsa Barrage Wildlife’Sanctuary’ ¢... ..... 7 Lee eee 174
hanadarwala\ Game RESERVE ee 3a i= js = seranit «ORAS eee 176
Mang Nawar Game Reserve, ... . yeeessand sins 4 Sei ae 178
Ziarat Juniper Wildlife Sanctuary — .. ..... ». .. 21S bale ies ema 180
SRIAINIR AG OS .)62 So speeulemey aioe al A ek ye Re FB 183
Map of protected areas of Sri Lanka. ..:..4. 4). opi a ae 192
Summary of protected areas of SriLanka .........-..---. 193
Bellanwilla-Attidiya Marshes Sanctuary ..........-..----- 196
BinGalaSARCtUALY (oes jee ese: Ss Sy agi sa sp mgsyans Boa (i see 198
Ce Tape tS Ata ANC OAL, iin cae Sachin che ners calohanl eke) oll gated esieammenacinss 201
Pigod Piams National bark Sen. 3 kee le, a we eae es 202
Gal Oya National Park, Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary ........ 206
Gal Oya Valley North-east and South-west Sanctuaries ......... 206
Slant Ss abatik SANCtAALY, 0. Xs seesacngaeiiswers\yaics. “Thay BRS EN RSLS aioe 210
Hakeala Strict Natural Reserve’... 2... 6 ee es 211
Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary, including
Rocky Islets (Ambalangoda) Sanctuary ....------+++-:- 214
Horton Plains National Park. 0. a ee 216
Hurulu RorestiReserves ic... cox Scie hi eee «sre Beets 220
Kalametiya Kalapuwa Sanctuary ......--- ++ s +e eee eee 222
Ae AIA ot psi alidlnck si hike Voting Wehintetetahs va’ a « OOCIR MAREN 224
Lahugala Kitulana National Park ........ 0.000.000.2205 226
Madurm Ova National Park 4... 22-000 :.:.%<00 BUS ORAM, Gong, CEG 228
Minneriya-Giritale Sanctuary). 04.64.5640 54 50. CRORE OE TA 232
Peak: Wildemess Sanctuary .....2)...\.). RP REOR O Rea at 234
POlOMMArU Wa SANCOlALy ous. cide ues ads ke ss «ON RES A GRY gs 237
itieala Strict Natural Resetve...,.\:.-... ... Yaeronies DOU. see Tag 239
Ruhuna (Yala) National Park, Yala Strict Natural Reserve ....... 242
metiwila-Allai Sanctuary... wc... PORIRUA pyeTiEh, leg 247
Pb ya SANCHIANY), oh ons igyels aes etd conde . MUMQU WEG QU ap 249
Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area .............. 250
Somawathiya Chaitiya National Park .................. 256
amkonamady Natire RESERVE (6 oc .2 vs vs nero, to cw 1. SV VORA LD BR 259
Uda Walawe National Park :............ . qRoaRO DIY pee cag 261
Pidawattekele Sanctyary yn: ion. ces. ssn « « AVL lee ew en 263
Victoria~-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary ............... 265
Wassomuwa National Park oo. ci... 5 RUA oe 267
Wilpattu National Park and Wilpattu North Sanctuary .......... 271
Wirawila-Tissa Sanctuary | .... ......:. wdtsd He hare Does 275
fala Bast National:Park . .... ... .stdoJ nd dean eric ep rae 277
Generaphical index . ..........: 2 .we/ane? eadewMiagiind allio 279
TARO ING OK caw ok Bae , VC ee 281
FOREWORD
The Indomalayan Realm, corresponding approximately with tropical Asia, represents one of the
biggest paradoxes in conservation. On the one hand, it extends over a number of densely settled
nations, including three of the world’s most highly populated (China, India and Indonesia),
while, on the other, it supports perhaps the richest and most diverse biological communities on
earth - moist tropical forests. The wealth of plant and animal species is due to many factors:
great topographic diversity from sea level to the Himalayas, an enormously varied climate from
the dry Thar desert to the world’s wettest areas, and to plate tectonics which are responsible for
the mosaic of shifting land masses and island archipelagos. The peripheral regions have gained
much of their flora and fauna from the neighbouring cold Palaearctic, the hot, dry Afrotropics,
and to a lesser extent from the Australian realm. But Indomalaya is the richest of these realms,
at the heart of which lies its tropical forests - the "world’s rain forests of grandest structure and
of probably greatest richness in both animal and plant life" (T.C. Whitmore, Tropical rain forests
of the Far East, 1975). The most diverse portion is Malesia, which is estimated to contain over
25,000 species of plants (about 10% of the world’s total) and about 300 mammal species.
Protected areas are predominantly natural areas established and managed in perpetuity, through
legal or customary regimes, primarily to conserve their natural resources. Despite the acute
pressures of rapidly increasing human populations, more and more protected areas are still being
declared in the Indomalayan Realm. Here, it is worth remembering that the concept of protecting
natural areas in tropical Asia is very ancient and may have taken root in the Indian sub-continent,
where the practice of affording special protection to patches of forest can be traced back several
thousand years to hunter-gatherer societies. Many hundreds of ‘sacred groves’, so-called
because they are dedicated to deities, still exist today.
Traditional conservation practices, of ‘locking away’ areas are becoming increasingly
inappropriate, however, due to ever-mounting human pressures on natural resources. They are
being superceded by more strategic approaches, enshrined in the World Conservation Strategy
(1980) and based on managing natural areas to support sustainable development. The
fundamental contribution of protected areas to sustainable development was reaffirmed by
participants at the 3rd World Congress on National Parks held in Bali, Indonesia (1982). In the
Bali Action Plan, a target was set for 10% of each terrestrial ecosystem to be under some form
of protection to stem the trend towards species depletion. This recommendation, considered to
be realistic for many countries, has since been endorsed by UNEP and the Brundtland
Commission.
The way in which protected areas networks have been rapidly developed in the Indomalayan
Realm over the last few decades bears testimony to their importance being increasingly
recognised by governments, aid agencies, non-governmental organisations and the public. In
this directory for the South Asian region, the status of existing networks in Bangladesh, India,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka is described as fully as the available information permits. In the case of
India, protected areas are not individually described because the Ministry of Environment and
Forests is supporting the production of a series of state directories. These are being prepared by
the Environmental Studies Division of the Indian Institute of Public Administration, and follow
on from the Directory of National Parks and Sanctuaries in India produced in 1985.
The JUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas is the third in a series of regional directories
prepared by the Protected Areas Data Unit, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, in
collaboration with the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. It builds on
the foundation provided by the United Nations List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves
(first published in 1961 and periodically updated since then) and the World Directory of National
Parks and Other Protected Areas (1975, 1977), and a draft Directory of Indomalayan Protected
Areas presented at the 25th Working Session of the IUCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas held in Corbett National Park, India in February 1985. Further directories
covering other parts of the world are planned for publication in time for the 4th World Congress
on National Parks and Protected Areas, to be held in Venezuela in February 1992. The goal of
the next Congress will be to further promote the effective management of the world’s natural
habitats. Basic information on protected areas, such as is provided in these directories, is a
prerequisite for assessing the contribution of protected areas to the conservation of biological
diversity and, ultimately, to sustaining human society.
Samar Singh
Vice-Chairman, Indomalayan Realm
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
INTRODUCTION
As recognised by participants at the 3rd World National Parks Congress, the ready availability
of comprehensive good-quality information on the world’s protected areas is essential to a wide
range of international organisations, governments, protected area managers, voluntary bodies
and individuals. Such information is a prerequisite for assessing the coverage and status of
protected areas from regional and global perspectives. Moreover, monitoring protected areas is
vital to ensure that those areas allocated to conserve the world’s natural resources meet the needs
of society.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is gradually expanding its capabilities as
an international centre for information on protected areas, which is managed by its Protected
Areas Data Unit (PADU). As part of the WCMC core programme, PADU is gradually compiling
a series of regional protected areas directories, with priority addressed to tropical countries where
much of the world’s biological diversity is to be found. Past work has been focussed on the
Neotropics and Afrotropics, culminating in protected area directories published for each of these
realms. Efforts have subsequently been concentrated on the Indomalayan Realm, beginning
with the production of a draft Directory of Indomalayan Protected Areas circulated for review
to participants at the 25th Working Session of the IUCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas held in Corbett National Park, India in February 1985. Since then, the original
material has been extensively revised and up-dated, with the incorporation of much additional
material, commensurate with WCMC’s developing capabilities.
The Directory of South Asian Protected Areas is the first in a series of volumes covering the
Indomalayan Realm. It is due to be followed by a second volume for Mainland South-east Asia,
already drafted and reviewed but awaiting funds for publication. It is anticipated that further
volumes in this series will cover Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, but these have yet to
be drafted.
The present volume covers the protected areas systems of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka. Summary data are presented for all protected areas known to exist in these countries but
only 100 properties are described in detail. This is largely a reflection of the availability of
information, documentation on many of the less significant properties (often the smaller sites)
being non-existent or not easily obtainable. That said, all 12 existing protected areas in
Bangladesh and over half (36) of Sri Lanka’s properties are described. Descriptive information
for Pakistan is less comprehensive but the main protected areas are covered, with the exception
of a few of the more recently notified national parks. No attempt has been made to compile
descriptive information on Indian protected areas because such initiatives are already underway
in-country. The Government of India has already supported the production of a Directory of
National Parks and Sanctuaries in India(1985), and a series of state directories is now being
prepared by the Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration.
ili
The way in which information on protected areas is managed at WCMC is described in the next
chapter, and the structure and contents of the standard-format information sheets are outlined in
the subsequent chapter. The directory is organised into chapters for each country. Each chapter
comprises a description of the national protected areas system, accompanied by a summary list
and map of protected areas, and is followed by descriptions of individual properties in
alphabetical order. Geographical and taxonomic indexes enable the reader to refer quickly to
individual properties and plant or animal species, respectively.
Acknowledgements
This directory has benefited from a temendous amount of cooperation from within the South
Asian region, highlighted in the case of the Sri Lankan authorities by the convening of a meeting
specifically to review draft material. Many people have contributed to the preparation of the
directory through reviewing or compiling material and providing new information. Their
assistance is greatly appreciated. Those who spring to mind in the final hours of its preparation
are listed below under respective country chapters. To others, whose contributions may have
been overlooked inadvertently in the course of time, sincere apologies are due.
Bangladesh Mr Abdul Wahab Akonda (Department of Forests-Wildlife, Government of
Bangladesh), Mr John Blower (FAO Consultant), Mr G.S. Child (Forestry Department- Wildlife
and Protected Area Management, FAO), Dr Zakir Hussain (Department of Forests, Government
of Bangladesh), Mr Fazlul Karim (Society for Conservation of Nature & Environment,
Bangladesh), Dr Md Ali Reza Khan (Al Ain Zoo and Aquarium, Abu Dhabi), Dr M Salar Khan
(Bangladesh National Herbarium), Dr Egbert Pelinck (Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken,
Netherlands), Mr S.A. Rahman (Department of Forests-Wildlife, Government of Bangladesh),
Dr Sultan H Rahman (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies), Mr Haroun Er Rashid
(Polli Unnayan Sangstha, Bangladesh), Mr S.M. Saheed (Soil Resources Development Institute,
Bangladesh), Mr R.E. Salter (UCN Consultant). Particular thanks are due to Mrs M. Nazneen
Mansur-Azim (IUCN Programme Coordinator, Bangladesh) for her efforts in helping with the
collection of information, and to Dr Monowar Hossain (Multidisciplinary Action Research
Centre, Bangladesh) for coordinating in-country review of draft material.
India Mr AG Oka (Department of Environment, Forests & Wildlife, Government of India),
Mr H S Panwar (Wildlife Institute of India), Dr M.K. Ranjitsinh (Department of Environment,
Forests & Wildlife, Government of India), Dr W.A. Rodgers (Wildlife Institute of India), In
particular, a strong link has been developed with the Environment Studies Division, Indian
Institute of Public Administration and its database on Indian protected areas, thanks to the help
of Dr Shekhar Singh and Mr Ashish Kothari.
Pakistan Mr James Burt (formerly World Pheasant Association-Pakistan), Dr Abdul Aleem
Chaudhry (Wildlife Department, Government of the Punjab), Mr Peter Conder (UK),
Mr D.M. Corfield (formerly Asian Study Group, Islamabad), Mr Guy Duke (International
Council for Bird Preservation), Mr W.D. Edge (Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research
Unit, USA), Mr I.R. Grimwood (Kenya), Mr Mazhar Hussain (Capital Development
Authority-Environment Directorate, Islamabad), Mr Al Lee (World Pheasant
iv
Association-Pakistan), Mrs Aban Marker Kabraji (IUCN, Pakistan), Mr Mumtaz Malik
(formerly Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, USA), MrZ.B. Mirza (WWF-Pakistan),
Dr Yasin J Nasir (National Herbarium, Islamabad), Dr B.W. O’Gara (Montana Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit, USA), Prof G. Pilleri (Hirnanatomisches Institut, Switzerland),
Mr Abdul Latif Rao (National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Government of Pakistan),
Mr Per Wegge (IUCN Consultant), Dr M. Woodford (IUCN Consultant). In particular,
considerable assistance has been received from Mr M. Hamid Ali (National Council for
Conservation of Wildlife, Government of Pakistan), Mr Ghulam Rasul (Wildlife Warden,
Northern Areas and compiler of a directory entitled National Parks and Equivalent Reserves in
Northern Areas of Pakistan) and Mr T.J. Roberts (UK).
Sri Lanka Dr K.R. Ashby (University of Durham, UK), Mr J.D.N. Banks (formerly Ceylon
Bird Club), Dr Cyrille Barrette (University of Laval, Canada), Mr J.W. Bright (US National Park
Service, Colorado), Mr R.D.A. Burge (formerly University of Durham, UK),
Mr S.R.B. Dissanayaka (Department of Wildlife Conservation, Government of Sri Lanka),
Mr A.B. Fernando , Prof. I.A.U.N. Gunatilleke (University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka),
Dr A.H.M. Jayasuriya (National Herbarium, Sri Lanka), Mr Childers Jaywardana (Department
of Wildlife Conservation, Government of Sri Lanka), Dr R.P. Jayewardene (Natural Resources,
Energy & Science Authority of Sri Lanka), Mr R.I.C. Kuruppu (Mahaweli Environment Project,
Government of Sri Lanka), Ms M.J.McDermott (formerly Oxford Forestry Institute, UK), Major
General M. Madawela (formerly Department of Wildlife Conservation, Government of Sri
Lanka), Mr V.R. Nanayakkara (Forest Department, Government of Sri Lanka),
Mr A.S.A. Packeer (Mahaweli Environment Project Consultant, Government of Sri Lanka),
Mr Sherley Perera (Department of Wildlife Conservation, Government of Sri Lanka),
Mr S Sahajananthan (Forest Department, Government of Sri Lanka), Mr Charles
Santiapillai (WWF-Indonesia, Bogor), Mr David Sheppard (National Parks and Wildlife
Service, New South Wales, Australia), Mr H.D.V.S. Vattala (Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Government of Sri Lanka), Mr S. Wazeer (Department of Wildlife Conservation,
Government of Sri Lanka), Ms S.M. Wells (Consulant, UK), Dr W.L. Werner (University of
Heidelberg, West Germany). The timely support of Dr S.W. Kotagama (Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Government of Sri Lanka) and Dr N. Ishwaran (Division of Ecological Sciences,
Unesco) in organising a workshop at which the Sri Lanka material was reviewed is particularly
acknowledged. Special thanks are also due to Mr M.A.B. Jansen (US Mission to Sri Lanka) for
preparing some of the Sri Lanka material, and to Mr T.W. Hoffmann (Ceylon Bird Club) for
extensive review comments and provision of a considerable amount of published and
unpublished documentation.
A number of present and previous staff of PADU have been involved in the preparation of this
directory. The first preliminary draft, presented at the 25th Working Session of the IUCN
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, Corbett National Park, India, 1985 was
prepared by my predecessor Sally Ward. Other technical assistance has been provided by Harriet
Gillett and James Paine, with secretarial support from Clare Billington and Alison Suter.
Particular thanks are due to Jeremy Harrison, mentor and facilitor, and also Head of PADU.
Others in WCMC who have contributed their expertise include Mike Adams, Steve Davis, Brian
Groombridge, Tim Inskipp, Martin Jenkins, and Duncan Mackinder, and also Richard Grimmett
and Tim Johnson from the International Council for Bird Preservation, and Derek Scott from
the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau. The support of our colleagues at
IUCN headquarters is also acknowledged, notably Vitus Fernando, Jeffrey McNeely and
James Thorsell. The final copy was prepared for publication by Jo Taylor, IUCN Publications
Services Unit, and Alison Suter helped with proof reading.
Funds for publishing this directory have been provided by the Norwegian Agency for
International Development, and financial assistance towards the final preparation of the Sri
Lanka material has been received from the World Heritage Fund.
Not withstanding the significant contributions of those mentioned above, errors and omissions
must remain the responsibility of the compiler. Corrections and additional material is always
very welcome and can be sent to PADU at the address below.
Michael J B Green
WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit
219(c) Huntingdon Road
CAMBRIDGE CB3 ODL
United Kingdom
Tel. 0223 277314
Fax 0223 277316
Tlx 817036 SCMU G
vi
MANAGING INFORMATION ON PROTECTED
AREAS AT WCMC
Institutional background
The IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) has been actively
involved in the collection and dissemination of information on protected areas ever since it was
set up in 1960 to serve as the "leading international, scientific and technical body concerned
with the selection, establishment and management of national parks and other protected areas".
Over the years CNPPA’s information management role increased to the extent that in 1981 it set
up the Protected Areas Data Unit to undertake this service. Support for this initiative was
forthcoming from the United Nations Environment Programme, as part of its Global
Environmental Monitoring Programme. Originally part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre, PADU is now an integral part of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, restructured
in July 1988 as a joint venture between the three partners in the World Conservation Strategy,
namely IUCN-The World Conservation Union, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Objectives
WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information on protected area systems of the world
for use by its partners (IUCN, WWF and UNEP) in the support and development of their
programmes, other international bodies, governmental and non-governmental organisations,
scientists and the general public. Such information covers the entire spectrum of protected areas,
from national parks and sanctuaries established under protected areas legislation or customary
regimes to forest reserves created under forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned
reserves in which nature is protected.
PADU has an integral relationship with CNPPA. In particular, PADU is responsible to CNPPA
for producing the United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas (1982, 1985, 1990),
which is periodically generated from its protected areas database currently totalling some 20,000
records. This database, together with supporting documentation, includes comprehensive
information on natural sites designated under international conventions and programmes,
namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(World Heritage Convention), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially
as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Thus,
PADU cooperates closely with the Division of Ecological Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining
information on Biosphere Reserves and World Heritage Sites accorded by the MAB Secretariat
and World Heritage Committee, respectively. Likewise, it is responsible to the Ramsar Bureau
for managing information on Ramsar Wetlands.
vii
Information capture, management and compilation
Information is collected from official sources, viz. national agencies responsible for
administering protected areas, and other sources through a global network of contacts ranging
in profession from policy-makers and administrators to land managers and scientists. It is also
obtained from published and unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and other
relevant scientific and technical meetings provide valuable opportunities for making new
contacts and collecting fresh information.
Information, ranging from books, reports, management plans, scientific papers, and maps, is
stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on individual protected areas are extracted and,
after verification, entered in a protected areas database. This computerised database can be used
for generating lists of protected areas meeting pre-defined criteria, together with summary
statistics, as well as performing more complex tasks. In addition, boundaries of protected areas
are gradually being digitised, using a Geographic Information System, in order to be able to
generate computerised mapped output. The raw information is also used for compiling
information sheets on national protected areas systems (protected areas systems information
sheets) and on individual protected areas (protected areas information sheets). These
information sheets are compiled according to standard formats developed over the years by
PADU in collaboration with CNPPA, details of which are given elsewhere in this directory.
Dissemination of information
Compiled information is periodically published in the form of regional or thematic directories,
with sections on individual countries comprising a protected areas system information sheet, a
protected areas list with accompanying map, and a series of protected areas information sheets
covering at least the more important properties. Prior to releasing or publishing documents,
draft material is circulated for review by relevant government agencies and experts to help ensure
that compiled information is accurate and comprehensive. Regional and thematic directories
published to date are as follows:
IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas (1982)
IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas (1987)
MAB Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 4 (1986)
Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990)
Directory of Wetlands of International Importance (1987, 1990)
Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World (1987)
Information is also made available to a wide range of users, including international organisations,
governments, protected area managers, conservation organisations, commercial companies
involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and the media and general public. It may
be consulted by arrangement. Material may be prepared under contract: for example, PADU
regularly provides UNEP with summary data on protected areas for its biennial Environmental
Data Report. PADU is experimenting with providing outside users with direct access to its
protected areas database. Trials have been ongoing with the US National Park Service since
1986 and it is hoped to be able to extend this service to other users in due course. PADU is also
able to disseminate information through the CNPPA Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case
of the latter, PADU has recently assumed responsibility for compiling Clipboard in which world
news on protected areas is featured.
Viii
INFORMATION SHEETS:
GUIDELINES TO THEIR CONTENTS
Information Sheets on Protected Areas Systems
COUNTRY '
- Full name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (1982)
AREA
- Area of country or political unit according to the Times Atlas of the World (Seventh
Edition, 1986), unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial and marine
components are distinguished, if appropriate.
POPULATION
- Population of country or political unit and its rate of natural increase according to the
Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC, whose data are based on those of the
United Nations Statistical Office. Year of census or estimate is indicated in parentheses.
If another source has to be used, it is cited.
GNP
- Gross national product in US dollars, with year in parentheses, of country or political unit
according to the Population Reference Bureau.
POLICY AND LEGISLATION
- Information on aspects of the constitution that are relevant to protected areas
- Details of national policies that relate to nature conservation, particularly with respect to
the protection of ecosystems. Policies relating to environmental impact assessments and
national/ regional conservation strategies are outlined.
- Brief historical account of national legislation and traditions that relate to the estab-
lishment of the protected areas system, with dates and numbers of acts, decrees and
ordinances. Legislation covering forestry and other resource sectors is included, in so far
as it provides for protected areas establishment. Procedures for the notification and
declassification of protected areas are summarised.
- Outline of legal provisions for administering protected areas.
1 ‘In the case of countries with federal systems of government, a single information sheet describes
the protected areas system at both federal and state levels, except in the case of geographically
disjunct regions .
- Legal definitions of national designations of protected areas, together with the names of
the authorities legally responsible for their administration, are summarised. National
designations are cited in the original language or transliterated, followed in brackets by
the English translation as appropriate. Details of activities permitted or prohibited within
each type of protected area and penalties for offences are outlined.
- Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are noted with deficiencies in prevailing
provisions highlighted.
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
- Participation in international conventions and programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar
conventions, MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme) and regional agree-
ments (African, ASEAN, Berne, FAO Latin American/Caribbean Technical Cooperation
Network, South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme, South Pacific, Western
Hemisphere) relevant to habitat protection is summarised, with details of dates of
accession or ratification etc.
- Outline of any cooperative programmes or transfrontier cooperative agreements relevant
to protected areas
ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
- All authorities responsible for the administration and management of protected areas are
described, including a brief history of their establishment, administrative organisation,
staff structure, budget and any training programmes. Authorities responsible for different
types of protected areas are clearly distinguished.
- Outline of the role of any advisory boards
- Cooperative agreements between management authorities and national or foreign univer-
sities and institutes, with details of any research underway or completed.
- Details of non-governmental organisations concerned with potected areas, including
reference to any national directories of voluntary conservation bodies
- Effectiveness of protected areas management, noting levels of disturbance and threats to
the national network. Attention is drawn to any sites registered as threatened under the
World Heritage Convention, or by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected
Areas.
SYSTEMS REVIEWS
- Short account of physical features, biological resources, and land use patterns, including
the extent and integrity of major ecosystems. (Appropriate sources of information include
IUCN’s Plants in Danger, protected areas systems reviews, and wetland and coral reef
directories.)
- Brief historical account of nature conservation, so far as it relates to the establishment and
expansion of the national protected areas network. Emphasis is given to any systems
reviews or comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with details of major recom-
mendations arising from such studies.
- Threats to the protected areas system beyond the control of the management agencies are
outlined.
OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION (optional)
- Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected areas system, if applicable
- Other items, as appropriate
ADDRESSES
- Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and FAX nos, and cable) of authorities
responsible for administering protected areas, including the title of the post of the chief
executive)
- Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and FAX nos, and cable) of non- governmental
organisations, including the title of the post of the chief executive, actively involved in
protected areas issues
REFERENCES
- Key references (including all cited works) to the protected areas system, in particular, and
nature conservation, in general, are listed. Those not seen by the compiler are marked as
‘unseen’.
DATE
- Date of last extensive ‘review’ and the most recent ‘update’
DOCUMENT
- Reference number of the file in which the document is held on computer.
Information Sheets on Protected Areas 2
COUNTRY
- Short name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (1982)
NAME
- The name of the property or properties (including any collective name, if applicable), as
designated in the original language or transliterated. Where appropriate, the English
translation is given underneath. In the case of transliteration, standard systems are used.
IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY
- The property is assigned to the most appropriate [UCN management category (see Annex 1)
in collaboration with the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE
- The biogeographical code, followed by the name of the province in brackets (after
Udvardy, 1975)
2 Sheets contain information on individual protected areas or clusters of such properties that form
discrete conservation units. ‘No information’ is entered under any heading for which no data are
available.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
- The general location of the property within the country, including province and/or
administrative district, proximity to major towns and/or topographical features, and means
and ease of access. The location of different units is described, if applicable.
- The boundary of the property is briefly described, its relation to any significant political
boundaries noted, and geographical coordinates are given.
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT
- The date of establishment, together with the act, decree or ordinance number of the original
and subsequent legislative articles relating to its establishment. Proposed extensions or
upgradings are detailed.
- A brief chronological history of previous designations, together with details of subsequent
additions (including their sizes in hectares).
- If applicable, dates of inscription as World Heritage Site, Biosphere Reserve, Ramsar
Wetland or other appropriate international and regional designations are given.
AREA
- The best estimate of total area in hectares (ha), together with sizes of individually gazetted
units, if applicable. If this differs from the total area as notified, the discrepancy is
indicated. The extent of terrestrial and marine components is specified, if appropriate.
- Contiguous or otherwise associated protected areas are noted and their sizes given in
hectares (ha) in parentheses, including any lying across international borders.
LAND TENURE
- Land ownership (e.g. state, provincial, freehold, private, customary etc.), including sizes
or proportions of respective areas if owned by several authorities
ALTITUDE
- Maximum and minium altitude in metres (m)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
- General description of abiotic features, covering geology, topography, geomorphology,
soils and hydrology
CLIMATE
- Seasons, annual precipitation, and maximum and minimum temperatures, with respect to
altitude if appropriate. Other outstanding climatic features are noted.
VEGETATION
- Main vegetation types are briefly described, including their approximate coverage and
state of preservation. Characteristic species are noted.
- Communities and species of particular interest, including endemic, globally threatened
(see Annex 2), economically important and potentially economically important (e.g. crop
relatives), and invasive or introduced species. Any nationally threatened species of direct
relevance to management are also mentioned.
- References to vegetation descriptions and species inventories are included in the above.
NB Names of genera and families are based on Mabberley (1987).
xii
FAUNA
- Mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish and invertebrate faunas are described in relation
to the different habitats, with emphasis on dominant, endemic, globally threatened (see
Annex 2), economically important, and introduced or re-introduced species of particular
interest. Where relevant, information is given on the use certain species make of habitats
for breeding, stopover, migration, etc. Population sizes are given in the case of key
species, with details of trends over specified periods of time.
- References to species inventories are included in the above.
NB Scientific nomenclature of species is based on Honacki et al. (1982) for mammals, Moroney
et al. (1975) for birds, Frost (1985) for amphibians, Nelson (1984) for fishes and Parker (1982)
for invertebrates. The preparation of a taxonomic reference for reptiles is being coordinated by
The Association of Systematics Collections.
CULTURAL HERITAGE (if relevant)
- Archaeological features and cultural monuments
- Ethnic groups and their traditions
- Historical features
LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION (if relevant)
- Size of the human population resident, transhumant or nomadic within the property,
together with details of the number and distribution of settlements
- Livelihoods of local populations are briefly described in relation to any zonation of the
property, with details of land use (e.g. numbers of livestock and amount of land under
permanent or shifting cultivation).
- Land use is described for the area surrounding the property, particularly as it impinges on
the integrity of the property.
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES (if relevant)
- Annual number of visitors, together with proportions of nationals and foreigners for the
latest year. Total revenue accruing from tourism is also indicated. Significant trends over
specified periods of time are noted.
- Types of accommodation available on site (or nearby), with details of location and amount
if it is particularly limited
- Availability and location of interpretation programmes, including visitor centres, educa-
tional facilities and museums
- Any other recreational facilities of particular interest
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES
- A brief historical account of research undertaken, together with details of ongoing studies.
Bibliographies, if compiled, are cited.
- Laboratories and other facilities, including accommodation, available to scientists
CONSERVATION VALUE
- Geological, scenic, biological, cultural and socio-economic values of the property, and
justification for its conservation
- In the case of World Heritage sites, all natural and cultural criteria are outlined, based on
the IUCN evaluation of the nomination submitted to the World Heritage Committee.
xiii
CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
- A brief history of the conservation of the property, including any reasons for its original
establishment where these differ from its present conservation value. Any legal provisions
specific to the protection of the property are mentioned, together with details of activities
(e.g. hunting, fishing, grazing) specifically permitted or prohibited.
- Administrative structure and management, including location of main facilities (e.g.
headquarters)
- Management objectives, as drawn up in the management plan, and their degree of
implementation. (The existence or absence of a management plan or ‘statement of
objectives’ is noted and, if appropriate, the authority responsible for its implementation.)
- Major management activities (e.g. controlled burning, culling)
- Any system of zonation, including function and size of zones
- Significant training, interpretative and extension programmes
- Recommendations, particularly those made in the management plan, for future conserva-
tion and management of the property
MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS
- Past and current problems are briefly described, such as invasive species, poaching, fire,
pollution, disease, agricultural encroachment, impact of tourism, relationship between
management authorities and local people, lack of trained manpower or equipment, and
proposed developments (e.g. roads, dams), with emphasis on the main types of threat and
their extent. Threats from within and outside the property are distinguished.
- If a property is registered as threatened by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas or under any national or international convention (e.g. World Heritage),
details are provided.
STAFF
- Numbers of staff allocated to each position and, if applicable, details of voluntary staff
for the latest year, with trends if significant
BUDGET
- Annual budget for the latest year (in parentheses) in local currency, and in US dollars for
ease of comparison. Capital (e.g. construction of facilities) and recurrent (e.g. salaries)
costs are distinguished. Significant trends are noted.
- Financial support from outside sources
LOCAL ADDRESSES
- Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, FAX nos, and cable) of the local authorities
responsible for the day-to-day administration and management of the property, including
the title of the post of the chief executive (i.e. park warden or equivalent)
- Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, FAX nos. and cable) of any local non-
governmental organisations directly involved in the protection and management of the
property, including the title of the post of the chief executive
REFERENCES
- Key references, including management plans, reports, scientific monographs, bibliog-
raphies and handbooks, in addition to other scientific papers or popular articles and books
specifically about the property. Particularly relevant references not available for consult-
ation are also listed and cited as ‘unseen’.
xiv
DATE
- Date of last extensive ‘review’ and the most recent ‘update’
DOCUMENT
- Reference number of the file in which the document is held on computer.
REFERENCES
Frost, D.R. Ed. (1985). Amphibian species of the world: a taxonomic and geographical
reference. Allen Press and The Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas,
USA. 735 pp.
Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. and Koeppl, J.W. (1982). Mammal species of the world: a
taxonomic and geographic reference. Allen Press and The Association of Systematics
Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.
IUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R.
(Eds), National parks, conservation, and development. The role of protected areas in
sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53.
IUCN (1988). 1988 IUCN Red List of threatened animals. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 154 pp.
Mabberley, D.J. (1987). The plant-book. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 706 pp.
Morony, J.J. Jr, Bock W.J. and Farrand Jr (1975). Reference list of the birds of the world.
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 207 pp.
Nelson, J.S. (1984). Fishes of the world. John Wiley, New York.
Parker, S.P. (1982). Synopsis and classification of living organisms. 2 volumes. McGraw
Hill, New York.
Udvardy, M.D.F. (1975). A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. [UCN
Occasional Paper No. 18, Morges, Switzerland. 48 pp.
United Nations (1982). Names of countries and adjectives of nationality. Terminology Bulletin
No. 327.
XV
Il
IV
VI
Vil
ANNEX 1
Categories and management objectives of protected areas
Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to protect nature and maintain natural pro-
cesses in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the
natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education,
and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state.
National Park: to protect natural and scenic areas of national or international significance
for scientific, educational and recreational use.
Natural Monument/Natural Landmark: to protect and preserve nationally significant
natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics.
Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary: to assure the natural conditions necess-
ary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, or
physical features of the environment where these require specific human manipulation for
their perpetuation.
Protected Landscape or Seascape: to maintain nationally significant natural landscapes
which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing
opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal life
style and economic activity of these areas.
Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent
or contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the establishment
of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge and planning.
Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve: to allow the way of life of societies living
in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology.
VIII Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area: to provide for the sustained
IX
production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor recreation, with the conservation of
nature primarily oriented to the support of economic activities (although specific zones
may also be designated within these areas to achieve specific conservation objectives).
Biosphere Reserve: to conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of
representative biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems, and to
safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends.
World Heritage Site: to protect the natural features for which the area is considered to
be of World Heritage quality, and to provide information for world-wide public enlightenment.
Abridged from IUCN (1984)
Xvi
ANNEX 2
IUCN Threatened species categories
Species identified as threatened by IUCN are assigned a category indicating the degree of threat.
Definitions are as follows:
(Ex) Extinct: species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years.
(E)
(V)
(R)
(1)
(K)
(T)
(C)
Endangered: taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if causal factors
continue operating.
Vulnerable: taxa believed likely to move into the ‘Endangered’ category in the near future
if causal factors continue operating.
Rare: taxa with small world populations that are not at present ‘Endangered’ or ‘Vulner-
able’ but are at risk.
Indeterminate: taxa known to be ‘Endangered’, ‘Vulnerable’ or ‘Rare’ but where there
is insufficient information to say which of these categories is appropriate.
Insufficiently known: taxa that are suspected, but not definitely known, to belong to any
of the above categories because of lack of information.
Threatened: threatened is a general term to denote species which are ‘Endangered’,
‘Vulnerable’, ‘Rare’, ‘Indeterminate’ or ‘Insufficiently known’. It is used to identify taxa
comprised of several sub-taxa which have differing status categories.
Commercially Threatened: taxa not currently threatened with extinction but most or all
of whose populations are threatened as a sustainable resource, or will become so unless
their exploitation is regulated.
Abridged from IUCN (1988)
XVii
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BANGLADESH
Area 144,000 sq.km
Population 114,700,000 (1989) Natural Increase 2.8% per annum
GNP US$ 160 per capita (1987)
Policy and Legislation Environmental policy in Bangladesh is based on the following three
broad principles: precautionary, whereby harm to the environment is avoided; originator,
whereby the costs of ameliorating damage to the environment are borne by those responsible;
and cooperation, whereby relevant bodies are involved in planning for environmental protection
(Rahman, 1983).
The need for an explicit national policy on environmental protection and management has been
repeatedly highlighted (BARC, 1987), and is presently under consideration by the government.
Objectives of such a policy will be as follows: to create, develop, maintain and improve
conditions under which man and nature can thrive in productive and enjoyable harmony with
each other; to fulfill the social, economic and other requirements of present and future gener-
ations; and to ensure the attainment of an environmental quality that is conducive to a life of
dignity and well-being (Rahman, 1983).
Environmental impact assessment for anticipating adverse impacts has not yet been incorporated
into the development planning process, nor is it a mandatory requirement of project-approving
agencies. According to government policy, sanctioning agencies should ensure that project
proposals contain adequate environmental safeguards but, in practice, this is not strictly followed
(BARC, 1987).
Bangladesh has completed the first phase of a national conservation strategy aimed at integrating
conservation goals with national development objectives and overcoming identified obstacles
to sustainable development (BARC, 1987). Some twenty sectors in the current Third Five Year
Plan are identified for critical analysis during a second phase, including the conservation of
genetic resources, and wildlife management and protected areas. The Bangladesh Agricultural
Research Council, Ministry of Agriculture is the lead agency for the implementation of Phase
II which began in October 1989.
There is no national wildlife conservation policy. The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)
Order, 1973, promulgated under Presidential Order No. 23 on 27 March 1973 and subsequently
enacted and amended in two phases as the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment)
Act, 1974, provides for the establishment of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, game reserves
and private game reserves. A national park is defined as a comparatively large area of
outstanding natural beauty, in which the protection of wildlife is paramount and to which the
public may be allowed access for recreational and educational purposes. A wildlife sanctuary
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
is an area closed to hunting and maintained as an undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the
protection of all natural resources, including vegetation, soil and water. A game reserve is an
area in which the wildlife is protected but hunting is allowed on a permit basis. Under Article
23, cultivation, damage to vegetation, killing or capturing wild animals within a radius of 1.6km
outside its boundary, and pollution of water is not allowed in either a national park or wildlife
sanctuary. Entry or residence, introduction of exotic or domestic species of animals and lighting
of fires is prohibited in wildlife sanctuaries, but not national parks. By contrast, firing of guns
or other forms of disturbance to wild animals is prohibited in national parks, but not wildlife
sanctuaries. No specific rules are detailed for game reserves. The Article makes provision,
however, for the Government to relax any of these prohibitions for scientific, aesthetic or other
exceptional reasons, and to alter the boundaries of protected areas. Under Article 24, provision
is made for the establishment of private game reserves upon application by the landowner. The
owner of a private game reserve may exercise all the powers of an officer provided under the
Act. Proposals are being drawn up to strengthen the existing legislation, largely through raising
fines and terms of imprisonment for offences.
Conservation, use and exploitation of marine resources are provided for under the Territorial
Water and Maritime Zones Act, 1974. According to provisions in this Act, conservation zones
may be established to protect marine resources from indiscriminate exploitation, depletion or
destruction. At present, there is no legal provision for the management of coastal zones.
The Forest Act, 1927 enables the government to declare any forest or waste land to be reserved
forest or protected forest. Activities are generally prohibited in reserved forests; certain
activities, such as removal of forest produce, may be permitted under license in protected forests
while others, such as quarrying of stone and clearing for cultivation, may be prohibited. The
rights of government to any land constituted as reserved forest may be assigned to village
communities, with conditions for their management prescribed by government. Such forests
are called village forests. Under the Forest (Amendment) Ordinance, 1989, penalties for
offences committed within reserved and protected forests have been increased from a maximum
of six months imprisonment and a fine of Tk 500 to five years imprisonment and a Tk 5,000
(US$ 1,700) fine. In accordance with the National Forest Policy, adopted in 1979, effective
measures will be taken to conserve the natural environment and wildlife resources. The Policy
does not, however, deal explicitly with the need to set aside special areas as protected forests,
as distinct from productive forests, to preserve genetic diversity and maintain ecological
processes within the context of sustainable development (BARC, 1987).
Other environmental legislation less specifically related to protected areas is reviewed elsewhere
(DS/ST, 1980; Rahman, 1983).
International Activities Bangladesh is party to the Convention concerning the Protection of
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) which it accepted on
3 August 1983. No natural sites have been inscribed to date. Bangladesh participates in the
Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Apart from a couple of reserved forests proposed as
candidate sites by the Bangladesh MAB National Committee in the late 1970s, there does not
appear to have been any significant development in recent years. A proposal to become a party
to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(Ramsar Convention) was submitted to the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry by
the Forest Department and awaits approval. It is proposed to nominate the Sundarbans mangrove
Bangladesh
forests as a wetland of international importance, in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
Convention (Rahman and Akonda, 1987).
Administration and Management Wildlife conservation, including the management of
protected areas, is the responsibility of the Forest Directorate within the new Ministry of
Environment and Forests formed in 1989. Previously, the Forest Directorate came under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Forests while the former Department of Environmental Pollution
Control, concerned largely with environmental pollution, was under the Ministry of Local
Government and Rural development.
In 1976 a Wildlife Circle was established within what was then known as the Forest Department,
with specific responsibility for wildlife matters under the charge of a Conservator of Forests
responsible directly to the Chief Conservator of Forests. A $13.3 million scheme, entitled
"Development of Wildlife Management and Game Reserves", was incorporated within the
country’s First Five Year Plan, but reduced to $92,000 in the subsequent Two Year Approach
Plan (Olivier, 1979). The Wildlife Circle was subsequently abolished in June 1983, allegedly
in the interests of economy and following the recommendations of the Inam Commission. The
post of Conservator of Forests (General Administration and Wildlife) remains but the incumbent
has many other administrative duties unrelated to wildlife. Following its general down-grading
within the Forest Department, wildlife conservation has become the theoretical responsibility
of the various divisional forest officers (Blower, 1985; Husain, 1986). Separate staff are
deployed for protection purposes in a number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (Sarker
and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)(Amendment) Act, 1974 also provides for the estab-
lishment of a Wildlife Advisory Board, which was set up in 1976 under the chairmanship of the
Minister of Agriculture. The Board is supposed to approve important wildlife management
decisions and directives (Olivier, 1979). Although it still exists, it does not appear to be a
dynamic force (Blower, 1985; BARC, 1987).
In view of the low priority accorded to protected areas, a Task Force was formed by the Ministry
of Agriculture in 1985 to identify institutional and other measures needed to improve current
provisions for wildlife conservation. Recommendations of the Task Force, submitted to the
government in July 1986, await approval by the competent authority. They include a plan to
immediately revive the erstwhile Wildlife Circle, review Phase II of the Wildlife Development
Project and secure protection of 5% of the total land area of the country for conservation purposes
(Rahman and Akonda, 1987).
The principal non-governmental conservation organisations within the country are the Society
for Conservation of Nature and Environment (SCONE), which is mainly concerned with
environmental pollution, and the Wildlife Society of Bangladesh. Pothikrit, based in Chunati,
and Polli Unnayan Sangstha (POUSH), founded in 1984, are both involved in promoting the
adoption of sound management practices in and around protected areas. Their efforts are
presently focussed on Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary and Teknaf Game Reserve.
Given that wildlife resources are vested largely in reserved forests, their conservation has in the
past been diametrically opposed to forest management practices. Few, if any, protected areas
are effectively managed and protected. Lack of personnel trained in wildlife conservation is a
further handicap (Olivier, 1979; Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985). The very low priority
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
apparently now accorded to wildlife conservation is reflected in the recent abolition of the
Wildlife Circle, the reassignment of staff to normal duties, the lack of any separate financial
provision within the Forest Directorate’s budget and the now moribund Wildlife Advisory Board
(Blower, 1985).
Systems Reviews Some 80% of Bangladesh is lowland, comprising an alluvial plain cut by
the three great river systems (Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna) that flow into
the Bay of Bengal. Typically, at least one-half of the land is inundated annually, with one-tenth
subject to severe flooding. The entire flood plain was well-vegetated, but much of the forest
has been replaced by cultivations and plantations in recent decades due to mounting pressure
from human populations. Here, the only extensive tract of forest remaining is the Sundarbans.
Hills are confined chiefly to the east and south-east, notably the Chittagong Hills where forest
cover is among the most extensive in the country.
According to the 1987 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, forests cover 2.1 million hectares or
14.7% of total land area but this represents neither the area under forest nor that under the control
of the Forest Department (Rashid, 1989). In 1980, Gittins and Akonda (1982) estimated
remaining natural forest to be 4,782 sq.km (3.3%) and scrub forest 9,260ha (6.5%). Actual forest
cover is presently estimated to be 1 million hectares or 6.9% of total land area, a reduction of
more than 50% over the past 20 years (WRI/CIDE, 1990).
The major forest types are mangrove, moist deciduous or sal Shorza robusta, restricted to the
Madhupur Tract and northern frontier with Meghalaya, and evergreen forests found in the eastern
districts of Sylhet, Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts. A small amount of freshwater swamp
occupies the basins of the north-east region.
Wetlands, variously estimated as covering between seven and eight million hectares or nearly
50% of total land area, support a variety of wildlife, as well as being of enormous economic
importance (Scott, 1989).
The only known coral reef is around Jinjiradwip (St Martin’s Island) in the Bay of Bengal. It is
reputed to be a submerged reef but little is known about it (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Conservation efforts began in 1966, prior to independence, when the Government of Pakistan
invited the World Wildlife Fund to assess its wildlife resources and recommend measures to
arrest their depletion. Two expeditions were mounted (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968) and
the severity of the situation confirmed, whereupon the Government was urged to appoint its own
Wildlife Enquiry Committee. The committee was established in 1968 and by 1970 had drafted
areport. That part relating to East Pakistan was published as a separate report (Government of
East Pakistan, 1971). Considerable progress was made with the establishment of several
protected areas (Mountfort, 1969), research undertaken on the Sundarbans tiger population of
East Pakistan (Hendrichs, 1975), and technical input from UNDP/FAO (Grimwood, 1969).
Then, in 1971, came the War of Liberation which inevitably disrupted subsequent progress. In
spite of political instability, however, the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order was pro-
mulgated in 1973 and an ambitious programme of wildlife management developed, followed
by the formation of a Wildlife Circle in 1976 and further technical assistance from UNDP/FAO
(Olivier, 1979). Economic constraints, however, have subsequently been responsible for the
loss of much of this initiative (Blower, 1985).
Bangladesh
The existing system of protected areas has recently been reviewed (Green, 1989). It is not
comprehensive, having been established with little regard to ecological and other criteria, and
falls well below the target of 5% recommended by the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture Task
Force. Some effort has been made to include representative samples of the major habitats but,
for example, marine and freshwater areas have been largely neglected (Olivier, 1979; Gittins
and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985; Rahman and Akonda, 1987). Priorities to develop the present
network of protected areas are identified in the IUCN systems review of the Indomalayan Realm
(MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and further recommendations are made in the Corbett
Action Plan (IUCN, 1985), many of which are based on earlier recommendations by Olivier
(1979). More recently, wetlands of conservation value have been identified (Scott, 1989). Of
outstanding importance is the need to prepare a plan for the development of the country’s
protected areas network.
Addresses
Conservator of Forests (General Administration and Wildlife), Office of the Chief Conservator
of Forests, Bana Bhawan, Gulsham Road, Monakhali, DHAKA 12 (Cable FORESTS; Tei.
603537)
Chief Conservator of Forests, Forest Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Bana
Bhawan, Gulshan Road, Monakhali, DHAKA 12 (Cable FORESTS)
Polli Unnayan Sangstha, 43 New Eskaton Road, DHAKA (Tlx 642639 OCNBJ; Tel. 402801,
406628)
Pothikrit, CHUNATI VILLAGE, Chittagong District
Secretary General, The Society for Conservation of Nature and Environment, 146 Shanti Nagar,
DACCA 17 (Cable ENVIRON DHAKA; Tel. 409119)
General Secretary, Wildlife Society of Bangladesh, c/o Department of Zoology, University of
Dhaka, DHAKA 1000
References
BARC (1987). National conservation strategy for Bangladesh. Draft prospectus (Phase I). Ban-
gladesh Agricultural Research Council/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 154 pp.
Blower, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in
the Sundarbans. Project Report 151. ODA Land Resources Development Centre, Surbiton,
UK. 39 pp.
DS/ST (1980). Draft environmental profile on Bangladesh. Science and Technology Division,
Library of Congress. Washington, DC. 98 pp.
Gittins, S.P. and Akonda, A W. (1982). What survives in Bangladesh? Oryx 16: 275-281.
Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-committee for East Pakistan
of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
Green, M.J.B. (1989). Bangladesh: an overview of its protected areas system. World Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 63 pp.
Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife Conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research
and Training Project Report No. 17. FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans
mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 23: 161-199.
Husain, K.Z. (1986). Wildlife study, research and conservation in Bangladesh. Eleventh Annual
Bangladesh Science Conference Section 2: 1-32.
IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp.
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
rotected reas
Existing
Circle area equates
to actual park area
Less than 50 sq.km.
Proposed
Less than 50 sq.km.
Protected areas of Bangladesh
Numbers correspond to those in the summary.
Bangladesh
Summary of Protected Areas of Bangladesh
National designation IUCN Management Area Year
Name of area and map reference category (ha) notified
National Parks
1 Bhawal* Vv 5,022 1982
2 Himchari* Unassigned 1,729 1980
3 Madhupur* Vv 8,436 1982
4 Ramsagar* Unassigned 52 1974
Subtotal (% total land area) 15,239 (0.1%)
Wildlife Sanctuaries
5 Char Kukri-Mukri* IV 40 1981
6 Chunati* IV 7,764 1986
7 Pablakhali* IV 42,087 1983
8 Rema-Kalenga* IV 1,095 1981
9 Sundarbans East* IV 5,439 1977
10 Sundarbans South* IV 17,878 1977
11 Sundarbans West* IV 9,069 1977
Subtotal (% total land area) 83,369 (0.6%)
Game Reserves
12 Teknaf* VII 11,615 1983
Subtotal (% total land area) 11,615 (0.1%)
Proposed
13 Hail Haor Wildlife Sanctuary* Proposed 1,427
14 Hazarikhil Wildlife Sanctuary* Proposed 2,903
15 Rampahar-Sitapahar Wildlife Sanctuary* Proposed 3,026
TOTALS
Existing areas (% total land area) 110,226 (0.8%)
Proposed areas (% total land area) 7,356 (0.1%)
1, ocations of protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
* Site is described in this directory.
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Furture conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.),
Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 114-122.
MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-
Malayan Realm. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 284 pp.
Mounffort, G. (1969). Pakistan’s progress. Oryx 10: 39-43.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife
Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project No. BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Rahman, S. (1983). Country monograph on institutional and legislative framework on environment,
Bangladesh. UN/ESCAP and Government of Bangladesh. 76 pp.
Rahman, S.A. and Akonda, A.W. (1987). Bangladesh national conservation strategy: wildlife and
protected areas. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Dhaka. Unpub-
lished report. 33 pp.
Rashid, H. Er (1989). Land use in Bangladesh: selected topics. Bangladesh Agriculture Sector
Review. UNDP Project No. BGD/87/023. Pp. 106-155.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Protected areas of Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W.
(Ed.), Conserving Asia’ s natural heritage. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 36-38.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambidge,
UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 389 pp.
WRI/CIDE (1990). Bangladesh environment and natural resource assessment. Draft for review.
World Resources Institute/Centre for International Development and Environment, Washington
DC. 86 pp.
Date July 1984, updated August 1990
Bangladesh
BHAWAL NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies in Dhaka Forest Division, about 40km north of the capital city
of Dhaka, from where it is easily accessible throughout the year by road. 24°01’N, 90°20’E
Date and History of Establishment Established and maintained as a national park since 1974
but not officially declared as such until 1982, under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)
(Amendment) Act, 1974.
Area 5,022ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Up to 4.5m
Physical Features The topography is characterised by low hills which rise 3.0-4.5m above the
surrounding paddy fields. These hills or ridges, locally known as ‘chalas’, are intersected by
numerous depressions or ‘baids’. The soil is yellow-red, comprising sandy clay mixed with
magniferous iron ores.
Climate Conditions are moderate, the coldest and hottest months being January (down to 10°C)
and April (up to 37°C), respectively. The cold season lasts from November to January. Mean
annual rainfall is 2500mm, most of which falls in the monsoon between June and September.
Vegetation Most of the original sal Shorea robusta forest has been destroyed. It has been
protected from further destruction and now, due to extensive regeneration, coppiced and seedling
sal covers 90% of the area (Womersley, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Fauna Mammal diversity is low. Species include fox Vulpes bengalensis, jackal Canis aureus,
small Indian civet Viverricula indica, wild boar Sus scrofa and black-naped hare Lepus
nigricollis. The avifauna is similar to that found in Madhupur National Park (Sarker and Fazlul
Hug, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Some 2,000 people reside and cultivate land in the national park.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Public usage is intense, with 25,000 visitors recorded at
weekends (Womersley, 1979). Accommodation includes four rest houses and two cottages.
Recreational and educational facilities include some 25km of trails, an artificial lake, two ponds
and two observation towers.
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Scientific Research and Facilities A wildlife survey was carried out by the Forest Directorate
in 1981 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Conservation Value Bhawal is not an important wildlife conservation area but, being close to
a large urban centre, it is valued for recreational purposes (Olivier, 1979).
Conservation Management Recreational and educational facilities were improved and de-
veloped under the management of the Forest Department, but plans were subsequently discon-
tinued. Forestry operations are limited to re-forestation of damaged areas (Olivier, 1979;
Womersley, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Management Constraints The original forest vegetation has been removed and wildlife
severely depleted.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and
national parks. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong.
71 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
CHAR KUKRI-MUKRI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies on Char Kukri-Mukzsi Island, in southern Charfession Upazilla,
Bola District, some 130km from Barisal Town in the Gangetic Delta of southern Bangladesh.
21°55’N, 90°38’°E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1981 under the Ban-
gladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. Also referred to as Charfession
Wildlife Sanctuary.
10
Bangladesh
Area 40ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features Char Kukri-Mukzi, lying in the outer Gangetic Delta, is a small low-lying
island (2,500ha) with extensive mudflats. At high tide much of it is under water, apart from
agricultural land. The sanctuary is dissected by small khals or creeks (Sarker and Fazlul Huq,
1985; Scott, 1989).
Climate Rainfall is heavy and humidity high due to the influence of the Bay of Bengal. Mean
annual rainfall is likely to be in the region of 2790mm, with 80% falling in the monsoon from
June to September, as recorded on the Sundarbans coast (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983).
Vegetation Comprises mangrove forest. Patches of hogla Typha elephantina and horgoja
Acanthus illicifolius occur in places; keora Sonneretia apetala is widespread; and khalisha
Aegiceras maius is also present. A thick growth of the small spiny ‘tamfulkanta’ tree covers
much of the sanctuary (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Fauna Common mammals include fishing cat Felis viverrina and Oriental small-clawed otter
Aonyx cinerea. More than eight species of heron breed in the sanctuary. Other waterfowl
include egrets, bitterns and grey pelican Pelecanus philippensis. All three monitor species
known for Bangladesh are reported from this sanctuary, Varanus salvator, V. bengalensis and
V. flavescens (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1983). Furthez details of the waterfowl are given by Scott
(1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The sanctuary is not inhabited but the south-west of the island is
settled and plantations cover 1,500ha. Much of the surrounding land has been cultivated (Sarker
and Fazlul Huq, 1985; Scott, 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some preliminary floral and faunal surveys have been
undertaken (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Value Char Kukri-Mukri is an important wetland site (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management The best area of mangrove forest in the island is included within
the wildlife sanctuary. No forestry activities are carried out in the mangroves apart for the
purpose of conserving wildlife populations (Scott, 1989).
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
11
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Local Addresses No information
References
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Seidensticker, J. and Hai, M.A. (1983). The Sundarbans Wildlife Management Plan: conservation
in the Bangladesh coastal zone. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 120 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
CHUNATI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies about 70km south of Chittagong Port, Chittagong and Cox’s
Bazaar districts. The eastern boundary is formed by the Chittagong-
Cox’s Bazaar Highway. 22°08’-22°53’N, 91°58’-92°05’E
Date and History of Establishment Formerly part of the reserved forests of Chittagong Forest
Division, the area was designated a wildlife sanctuary on 8 March 1986 (Notification No.
XII/For-1/84/174).
Area 7,763.97ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Up to 90m
Physical Features The sanctuary is bisected along its north-south axis by a range of hills, some
60-90m high. Spurs projecting from this range are separated by deep ravines. The area is drained
by four major streams.
Climate No information
Vegetation The area used to support subtropical semi-evergreen forest, dominated by garjan
Dipterocarpus spp. Associates were ratkan Lophopetalum spp., jam Syzium spp., uriam Man-
gifera spp., chapalish Artocarpus spp., simul Salmalva spp., korai Albizia spp. and toon Cedrela
spp. Bamboos and grasses were profuse. Much of the original vegetation has been heavily
disturbed through commercial exploitation, illegal felling and encroachment (Jalil, n.d.).
12
Bangladesh
Fauna Wildlife populations are depleted due to heavy disturbance to the habitat. Some 26
species of mammals are reportedly present, including rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, common
langur Presbytis entellus, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), dhole Cuon alpinus (V), fox
Vulpes bengalensis, leopard Panthera pardus (T), tiger P. tigris (E), Indian elephant Elephas
maximus (E), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor (Ahmed, n.d.).
A resident herd of 15 to 30 elephant is present, as well as a dozen of the nationally rare serow
Capricornis sumatraensis. Tiger Panthera tigris (E), last recorded in 1983, may also be present
(IUCN, 1990).
Some 40 species of birds have been recorded, including a variety of birds of prey, pheasants and
fish-eating species (Ahmed, n.d.).
Cultural Heritage ‘“Chuna’ means chosen and, according to legend, Chunati was chosen by
members of Shah Shuja’s caravan who remained in the area while the Prince continued his
journey to Arakan to flee from his brother, Aurangzeb. The history of the region has since been
recorded in Persian by scholars from the region (Rahman, 1989).
Local Human Population Surrounding areas are settled. About 500 households distributed
among 10-12 villages depend on the sanctuary’s wood resources as a source of income (IUCN,
1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities A preliminary inventory of the mammals and birds has
been compiled (Ahmed, n.d.).
Conservation Value Chunati lies at the northern edge of one of the most dense tropical rain
forests in Bangladesh. It supports a rich flora and fauna and its diminishing resources are vital
for the poor and landless (Rahman, 1989; IUCN, 1990).
Conservation Management A citizens committee, known as Pothikrit, was responsible for
persuading the government to declare the area a wildlife sanctuary. Since then, Pothikrit has
been raising the level of awareness among the poor and landless farmers about the need to
conserve forest resources. For example, poor people dependent on the sanctuary’s wood
resources have been engaged in forestry activities in peripheral areas to plant and raise trees. In
time, this may ease pressure on the sanctuary and adjacent forests (Anon., 1990; IUCN, 1990).
Chunati has not been subject to any management regime since its inception. Plans have been
drawn up, however, to restore the sanctuary to its original condition but await sanctioning.
Priorities include the provision of adequate staffing and quarters, development of pastures and
waterholes for wildlife, and construction of visitor facilities (Jalil, n.d.).
Management Constraints Encroachment has been a persistent problem in and around the
sanctuary. The forest has been cleared for cultivation by wealthy land-owners. Timber and
firewood resources have been legally and illegally extracted for many years, this being the major
cause of depletion and loss of wildlife habitat. Timber traders represent a strong vested-interest
group and are located near the sanctuary. Impoverished fuelwood gatherers have also tradition-
ally depended on the resources of the sanctuary, as it represents their major source of income,
particularly outside the agricultural season. In addition, wildlife is under constant threat from
13
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
chronic hunting and poaching. The Forest Department has so far proved to be ineffective in
arresting deforestation and the decline of wildlife within the sanctuary and, at present, there is
no management plan. Unless new management measures are implemented soon, it is anticipated
that the sanctuary will be destroyed within 15 years. These constraints are addressed in a project
proposed by IUCN (1990) to assess the forest resources in Chunati and the dependence of the
local people on them, and to prepare a management plan.
Staff Presently staffed by one honorary wildlife warden but one assistant conservator of forests,
one forest ranger, one forester, forest guards and honorary wildlife wardens are proposed
(Jalil, n.d.).
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Chittagong Forest Division
References
Ahmed, M. (n.d.). Introducing the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. Forest Research Institute,
Chittagong. Unpublished report. 6 pp.
Anon. (1990). Participatory forestry. Bangladesh Environmental Newsletter 1(1): 5.
IUCN (1990). Applied research and management plan for Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Chitta-
gong. Bangladesh. Project Proposal. 8 pp.
Jalil, S.M. (n.d.). Chunati Game Sanctuary. Chittagong Forest Division. Unpublished report. 4 pp.
Rahman, S.H. (1989). About Pothikrit and Chunati. Unpublished paper presented at the
Seminar on Forest Resources Management, Chittagong, February 1989. 4 pp.
Date July 1989, updated August 1990
HAIL HAOR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Hail Haor, a wetland, lies 3km north-west of Srimangal and 14km
south-west of Moulavi Bazar in Moulavi Bazar District, Sylhet. 24°18’-24°26’N, 91°38’-
91°45°E
Date and History of Establishment No existing conservation status
Area An area of 1,427ha is proposed for designation as a wildlife sanctuary. The area of the
wetland varies from a minimum of 3,643ha in the dry season to a maximum of 8,906ha in the
rainy season.
Land Tenure State
Altitude c.5m
14
Bangladesh
Physical Features Comprises a large shallow lake in a saucer-shaped depression, bounded in
the south, east and west by low hills and in the north by the plains of the Manu and Kushiara
rivers. The haor is almost encircled by a chain of tea estates and natural forest blocks. Gopla
River flows through the wetland in a north-south direction. The lake floods during the rainy
season to a maximum depth of 3m, and almost dries up during the dry season. Land exposed
as the water level recedes is converted to rice paddies. Much of the lake’s surface is overgrown
with lotus and water hyacinth.
Climate Conditions are subtropical monsoonal, with a mean annual rainfall of approximately
4000mm. Temperatures at Srimangal normally vary between a maximum of 32.8°C and a
minimum of 9.0°C.
Vegetation The aquatic vegetation includes Typha elephantina, Trapa bispinosa, Nelumbo
nucifera, Hygrorhiza aristata, Eichhornia crassipes and species of Utricularia, Ceratophyllum,
Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Najas, Potamogeton, Nymphoides, Pistia, Lemna and Azolla. Plant
communities in adjacent areas include Bambusa spp., Musa spp., Mangifera indica, Erythrira
spp. and Crataeva nurvula.
Fauna _ In the 1960s, it was estimated that some 100,000 lesser whistling duck Dendrocygna
javanica, 1,000 fulvous whistling duck D. bicolor and 40,000-50,000 migratory ducks fre-
quented the lake in early winter. In recent years, however, the number of Anatidae visiting the
lake has decreased dramatically, although there may still be 10,000-15,000 ducks present in late
November and even larger numbers in late February and March. Lesser whistling duck and
cotton pygmy goose Nettapus coromandelianus are common residents, breeding at small lakes
and ponds throughout the region and congregating in large numbers at Hail Haor during the cold
season. Fulvous whistling duck is a cold season visitor, usually arriving in January and
sometimes in very large numbers. Much the commonest migrant ducks are garganey Anas
querquedula, northerm pintail A. acuta, and northern shoveler A. clypeata, although common
teal A. crecca and pochard Aythya nyroca sometimes occur in large numbers. Gadwall Anas
strepera, spotbill duck A. poecilorhyncha and tufted duck Aythya fuligula are regular visitors in
small numbers. Bar-headed goose Anser indicus was formerly a regular winter visitor to the
area, but now occurs only as an occasional passage migrant in flocks of up to 40 birds. Greylag
goose Anser anser, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos,
teal Anas falcata, mallard A. platyrhynchos, red-crested pochard Netta rufina, common pochard
Aythya ferina and Baer’s pochard A. baeri have been recorded as rare visitors. Haii Haor is also
important for many other species of waterfowl such as little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, little
cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, Indian pond heron Ardeola grayii, cattle egret Bubulcus ibis,
little egret Egretta garzetta, intermediate egret E. intermedia, great egret E. alba, water cock
Gallicrex cinerea, moorhen Gallinula chloropus, purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio,
common coot Fulica atra, pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus, bronze-winged
jacana Metopidius indicus, painted snipe Rostratula benghalensis, red-wattled lapwing Vanellus
indicus, a wide variety of migratory shorebirds, and whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida.
Open-bill stork Anastomus oscitans is a regular visitor, and the rare Goliath heron Ardea goliath
and Blyth’s kingfisher Alcedo hercules have been recorded. Birds of prey include osprey
Pandion haliaetus, Eurasian marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus and pied harrier C. melanoleucos.
Other wildlife known to occur in the area includes a variety of snakes, monitor lizards, freshwater
turtles, tortoises and frogs. Fishes include Catla catla, Labeo rohita, L. calbasu, L. gonius,
Cirrhina mrigala, Barbus spp., Wallago attu, Mystus tengra, M. aor, Oampok pabda, Gadusia
15
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
chapra, Clupea spp., Notopterus notopterus, Clarius batrachus, Heteropnuestes fossilis, Chan-
na spp., Anabas testudineus and Colisa fasciata. Freshwater shrimps of the genus Macrobra-
chium are common.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Fishing is the principal activity, but this is declining due to large
portions of the lake basin being leased to local people for cultivation. During the dry season,
aquatic vegetation is collected for the preparation of compost. There is also a considerable
amount of legal and illegal hunting at the lake. Surrounding areas are under cultivation, mainly
for rice.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some research has been carried out on the waterfowl
populations, notably a study by the Forest Department in 1980 and a survey by scientists from
the Bangladesh Zoological Society in 1985. Mashu Kabir made regular observations of the
Anatidae between 1973 and 1987. Botanical studies have also been carried out.
Conservation Value Hail Haor is one of the most important wetlands in the Sylhet Basin for
both resident and migratory waterfowl. The lake is particularly important as a refuge in periods
of drought, when many other wetlands in the area dry out completely.
Conservation Management The Forest Department has established a centre for the protection
of waterfowl from illegal hunting and trapping.
Management Constraints The level of the wetland is rising as a result of increased siltation
caused by soil erosion in the water catchment area, and large areas of the lake basin are being
converted to agricultural land. There is considerable disturbance to waterfowl populations from
hunting, fishing and agricultural activities throughout the year. Very heavy huuting pressure on
both resident and migratory species of waterfowl reportedly occurred in the winter of 1984/85.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date March 1989, updated August 1990
16
Bangladesh
HAZARIKHIL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies in the Ramgarh-Sitakunda forests, 45km north of Chittagong
Port in south-east Bangladesh. 91°40’E, 22°40’N
Date and History of Establishment Proposed as a wildlife sanctuary in 1967. Maintained
since the mid-1970s by the Forest Directorate.
Area 2,903ha. According to a report by the Divisional Forest Officer, the proposed area is
2,033ha (Olivier, 1979).
Land Tenure State
Altitude Mean altitude is 350m.
Physical Features The terrain is irregular, comprising ridges from which numerous spurs
protrude in various directions. Soils vary from clay to clay-loam on level ground, and from
sandy loam to coarse sand on the hills. The sandy soil is often impregnated with iron.
Climate Conditions are moist tropical. Mean annual rainfall is 3000mm, falling mainly
between June and September (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Predominant tree species are
Dipterocarpus spp., Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Cedrela toona, Mesuaferrea,
Eugenia spp., Ficus spp. and Albizia procera. The undergrowth is dominated by bamboos and
Eupatorium odoratum (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985).
Fauna Mammals known to be present include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatia, capped langur
Presbytis pileata, dhole Cuon alpinus (V), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), wild boar Sus scrofa
and Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985). Hoolock gibbon
Hylobates hoolock (V), leopard Panthera pardus (T), and Phayre’s leaf monkey Presbytis
phayrei may also be present (Olivier, 1979), as may sambar Cervus unicolor (S.M. Saheed, pers.
comm., 1989). Indian python Python molurus (V) is reported to be present but low in number
(Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
17
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Scientific Research and Facilities Limited census of the wildlife has been undertaken (Olivier,
1979).
Conservation Value The area is reportedly rich in wildlife (Olivier, 1979).
Conservation Management Though not yet notified a wildlife sanctuary, forestry operations
have been suspended (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985) and some 12km of the boundary demarcated
(Olivier, 1979).
Management Constraints No information
Staff Quarters for staff have been constructed (Olivier, 1979) but the present level of staffing
is not known.
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
HIMCHARI NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies 1.5km to the south of Cox’s Bazar township in the Chittagong
Hill Tracts. Forms part of Cox’s Bazaar Peninsular Reserved Forest. 21°22’N, 92°02’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park in 1980 under the Bangladesh
Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. Previously established as a reserved forest
under the Forest Act, 1927 and subsequently declared a game reserve, with an area of 2,331ha.
Area 1,729ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
18
Bangladesh
Physical Features The terrain is irregular with steep-sided hills aligned in a north-to-south
direction, and bounded on the west by the Bay of Bengal. Soils comprise clay loams and loams
on hills, and sands along beaches.
Climate Conditions are moist, humid and maritime, with little temperature variation. Rainfall
is high, falling mainly between May and October.
Vegetation Characteristically comprises tropical semi-evergreen forest, which is dense and
multi-storeyed. Deciduous trees predominate in the upper canopy, common species including
Albizia procera, Artocarpus chaplasha, Salmalia malabarica and Sterculia alata. The
sub-canopy is dominated by a great variety of evergreen species including Quercus, Castanopsis,
Eugenia, Lannea, Lagerstroemiaand Amoora spp. The undergrowth consists mainly of bamboo
(Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Fauna Mammals include gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), capped langur Presbytis pileatus,
thesus macaque Macaca mulatta, leopard Panthera pardus (T), dhole Cuon alpinus (V), leopard
cat Felis bengalensis, jungle cat F. chaus, fishing cat F. viverrina, sloth bear Melursus ursinus
(1), elephant Elephas maximus (E), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and wild boar Sus scrofa
(Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985). Hog-badger Arctonyx collaris and pangolin Manis sp. may also
be present (S.M. Saheed, pers. comm., 1989). There are many species of birds. The reptile
fauna is rich and includes Indian python Python molurus (V) (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value Limited due to the poor quality of the habitat and its isolation (Olivier,
1979).
Conservation Management Blocks 34, 35 and 37 (totalling 2,331ha) were originally recom-
mended as a ‘Class A’ national park (Government of East Pakistan, 1971). In the event, Blocks
35 and 37, which still contained commercially valuable forest, were rejected in favour of Blocks
30, 32 and 33, which consisted of poor-stature, partially-logged, semi-swamp forest whose
further exploitation had been abandoned. Thus, not only does the area afford poor habitat for
wildlife, but itis isolated from all other forests within the division (Oliver, 1979). A development
scheme prepared for the park and to be executed by the Divisional Forest Officer has not yet
been approved (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Management Constraints The park is encroached by hundreds of villagers entering daily to
cut timber (Rashid, 1990).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Cox’s Bazaar Forest Division
19
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
References
Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub- committee for East Pakistan
of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Rashid, H. Er (1990). Note on an environmental study visit to Cox’s Bazar in February 1990.
Unpublished report. Polli Unnayan Sangstha, Dhaka. 5 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
MADHUPUR NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated in the Madhupur tract (Mymensingh Forest Division), some
160km north of the capital city of Dhaka and 32km south-west of Mymensingh Town. The park
is bounded by the Mymensingh-Tangail road to the south-east, forest to the north-west and by
agricultural land and settlements on other sides. It is easily accessible throughout the year and
is bisected by an 8km-long semi-metalled road from Rasulphur to Dokhola. 24°45’N, 90°05’E
Date and History of Establishment First established as a national park in 1962 but not
officially declared as such until 1982, under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amend-
ment) Act, 1974. Received special protection as a vested forest in 1959 under the provisions of
the East Pakistan Private Forest Ordinance, 1959.
Area 8,436ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Rises up to 15m above sea level.
Physical Features The local topography is characterised by flat topped ridges, known locally
as “chalas’, intersected by numerous depressions or ‘baids’. Two small rivers, Banar and
Bangshi, flow through the eastern and western portions of the park, respectively. Soils are
mostly pale brown to yellow-red (acidic) clay-loams to clays on ‘chalas’ and grey, silty
clay-loams to clays in valleys.
Climate Conditions are moderate, with April the hottest month (maximum of 37°C) and
January the coldest (minimum of 10°C). The cold season lasts from November to February.
Mean annual rainfall is 2500mm, most of which falls between June and September.
20
Bangladesh
Vegetation Some 40% of the forest cover comprises sal Shorea robusta in association with
Dillenia pentagyna, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Adina cardifolia, Miliusa velutina, Lannea
grandis, Albizia spp., Bauhinia variegata, Spondias mangifera, Butea frondosa and Barringto-
nia acutangula. Species commonly occurring in the undergrowth include Eupatorium odora-
tum, Pennisetum setosum, Asparagus racemosus and Rauwolfia serpentina (Sarker and Fazlul
Hug, 1985). Some areas are planted with Tectona grandis, Cassia siamea, Morus spp.,
Terminalia arjuna, Syzygium cumini and Lagerstroemia speciosa. A total of 149 tree species
has been recorded (Akonda et al., 1989).
Fauna _ The area used to be rich in wildlife, but Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E)
disappeared in the last century and, more recently, tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard Panthera
pardus (T), elephant Elephas maximus (E), all species of deer native to Bangladesh, wild buffalo
Bubalus bubalis (E), and peafowl Pavo sp. have become locally extirpated (Reza Khan, 1985).
Characteristic mammal species still remaining include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, capped
langur Presbytis pileatus (V) (formerly one of the densest populations surviving in Bangladesh),
jackal Canis aureus, fox Vulpes bengalensis, small Indian civet Viverricula indica, wild boar
Sus scrofa, Irrawaddy squirrel Callosciurus pygerythrus, porcupine Hystrix indica and black-
naped hare Lepus nigricollis (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985; Khan, 1985). The capped langur
population is thought to have declined in recent years - 548 individuals were counted in 1986
(Akonda et al., 1989). Species inventories of 21 mammals and 29 reptiles have been compiled
by Akonda et al. (1989). Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V) and Indian python Python
molurus (V) may also be present (S.M. Saheed, pers. comm., 1989).
Some 140 species of birds were recorded in 1974-1975 by Hossain and Hoque (cited in Akonda
et al., 1989), of which 116 are residents and 24 migrants. According to Khan (1985), about 200
species are present.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Some 4,500 Garos (tribals) were allowed to settle inside the park
(Mountfort and Poore, 1968) but about 850 families have been resettled (Womersely, 1979). In
1989 there were some 14,000 Garos within the park, plus additional numbers of Bengalis. Rice
is grown in low-lying areas, and pineapples and cassava on higher ground for commercial
consumption. The surrounding area is densely populated (Green, 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are three rest houses and a youth hostel providing
overnight accommodation. Seven picnic spots have been provided by the Forest Directorate.
The zoo is ina poor state. Visitor use is high, with many bus loads of holiday makers appearing
on public holidays (Olivier, 1979; Womersley, 1979; Green, 1989).
Scientific Research and Facilities A wildlife survey was carried out by the Forest Directorate
in 1981 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). The capped langur population has been censused at
various times, latterly in 1986 (Akonda et al., 1989), and a preliminary ecological study
undertaken (Stanford, 1989).
Conservation Value Madhupur features and best remaining patch of sal forest in Bangladesh
(Khan, 1985). It is also important for its capped langur population (Akonda et al., 1989)
21
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Conservation Management The forests of Madhupur were formerly rich in wildlife and were
a favourite tiger-hunting area (Olivier, 1979). By 1967, however, the area had lost much of its
value for wildlife, owing to considerable disturbance, but its potential for recreation and
education was recognised (Mountfort and Poore, 1968). Subsequently, it was recommended
that Madhupur be established as a ‘Class B’ national park to provide "recreational and
educational interest for the youth and people of urban areas" (Government of East Pakistan,
1971). In 1974-75 a programme was initiated to preserve the wildlife and to provide recreational
and educational facilities for the local people and other visitors. With the establishment of the
national park, all flat areas suitable for growing paddy were excised and 850 families of Garos
were resettled (Womersley, 1979).
Trees have been planted in disturbed areas and an artificial lake created for migratory waterfowl
(Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Madhupur warrants conservation priority over other areas of
sal forest. It needs to be enlarged and brought under an effective wildlife management regime
(Khan, 1985).
Management Constraints Management has always been problematic due to the large number
of Garos settled in the park. Only about 1,300ha is under effective management, the rest of the
park is in the hands of the Garos. The situation may improve with the recent tightening of the
forestry legislation, with much heavier penalties for illicit felling. Also, initiatives are underway
to enable local people to benefit from the park’s resources (Green, 1989).
Staff A total of 60 staff, including two range officers and one deputy ranger, administers the
three ranges (Headquarters, Dokhola and Arankhola).
Budget Tk 12 lakh (US$ 40,000) is budgeted for staffing the three ranges (1989).
Local Addresses Officer-in-Charge, Madhupur National Park Headquarters, P.O. Gobtali,
District Mymensingh
References
Akonda, A.W., Rashid, S.M.A. and Stanford, C.B. (1989). Capped langur (Presbytis piteatus) in
the Madhupur National Park. In: Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds),
Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka
University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 169-176.
Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-Committee for East Pakistan
of the Wildilfe Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
Green, M.J.B.(1989). Bangladesh trip report. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge.
7 pp.
Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Future conservation priorities for Bangladesh. Paper prepared for the 25th
Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett
National Park, India. 4-8\February 1985. 15 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. Unpublished report. Pp. 23-24.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
22
Bangladesh
Stanford, C.B. (1989). The conservation of capped langur (Presbytis pileatus) in Bangladesh. In:
Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh.
German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Ban-
gladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 90-93.
Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and
national parks. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong.
71 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
PABLAKHALI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies at the northern end of Kaptai Reservoir in the south-eastern part
of Kassalong Reserve Forest in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, some 112km from Rangamati Town.
The western boundary is formed by Kassalong River. 23°08’N, 92°16’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1983 under the Ban-
gladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. First established as a game sanctuary
in June 1962.
Area 42,087ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from 100m to 300m.
Physical Features The topography comprises a complex of hills and valleys aligned north-
south, with spurs branching from the ridges. The hills are rugged and steeply sloping to the
north, and smaller with gentler slopes to the south. Some 3,885ha in Working Unit I have been
under water since 1963, following the construction of a dam at Kaptai as part of the Karnafuli
hydro-electric project (Olivier, 1979). Soils are typically clay or clay loams in the valleys, and
pale brown to yellow-red (acidic) clay loams and loams in the hills with localised concretions
of iron-manganese.
Climate Conditions are typically sub-tropical with a long dry season lasting from November
to May. Mean annual rainfall is 2500mm. Mean temperature ranges from 23°C in December
to 35°C in May. Humidity is high throughout the year.
Vegetation Three forest types can be distinguished. Tropical wet evergreen forest commonly
occurs in valleys and on sheltered slopes with a plentiful water supply. The irregular canopy,
characterised by emergent trees, is dense and rich in species. Typical trees include civit
Swintonia floribunda, garjan Dipterocarpus spp., Pterygota alata, Quercus spp. and Castanop-
sis spp. Tropical semi-evergreen forest, the most extensive forest type in the sanctuary, includes
23
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
a significant proportion of deciduous canopy species. The predominant tree genera are Diptero-
carpus, Mangifera, Amoora, Cinnamomum, Syzygium, Tetrameles, Artocarpus, Salmalia and
Albizia. Tropical moist deciduous forest is confined to new alluvial areas near rivers and streams.
The trees are scattered and interspersed with extensive patches of khagra and nal grassland and
stands of wild banana. Characteristic tree genera include Albizia, Salmalia, Terminalia and
Ficus. Bamboo grows beneath the canopy of all three forest types (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985).
Fauna _ According to reports in old district gazetteers, Kassalong Valley used to be rich in
wildlife, with tiger Panthera tigris (E), two species of rhinoceros Rhinocerotidae spp., gaur Bos
gaurus (V) and banteng B.\javanicus (V) present in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Tiger,
gaur and banteng were last seen in the early 1970s (Khan, 1985), but tiger and also leopard
Panthera pardus (T) are reported to still occur (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Most important
is the small population of Asian elephant Elephas maximus (E) that commonly uses the southern
part of the sanctuary, probably because of the mosaic of habitats and permanent water supply
(Olivier, 1979). Many other large mammals are present, including rhesus macaque Macaca
mulatta, capped langur Presbytis pileata, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), dhole Cuon
alpinus (V), small cats, otters and wild boar Sus scrofa (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985), and also
Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor (Olivier, 1979). Hague (1989)
lists 61 species of mammals recorded in the late 1970s.
Some 133 bird species have been recorded from the sanctuary (Husain, 1975). This total
includes 25 species previously reported by Mountfort (1969). Following the formation of Kaptai
Reservoir and with the continuing reduction of former wintering grounds in Sylhet and
Mymensingh, the sanctuary supports increasing numbers of resident and migratory waterfowl
(Olivier, 1979), notably little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, a variety of herons and egrets,
common moorhen Gallinula chloropus, common coot Fulica atra and Asian openbill stork
Anastomus oscitans (Scott, 1989). White-winged wood duck Cairina scutulata (V) used to be
common but the population has declined in recent years, most probably due to systematic
clear-felling of primary forest and its replacement with commercially viable timber species
(Khan, 1986). Some five pairs were present up to 1979, but the status of the species has since
become uncertain owing to political disturbances (Khan, 1985). Khan (1986) estimates there to
be some 20 pairs within an area of 240 sq.km in and around the sanctuary.
Of the reptiles, Indian python Python molurus (V) is common (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Part of the sanctuary has been allotted to settlers from the plains.
Rebel tribal groups operate in the area (Khan, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Access to the Chittagong Hill Tracts has been restricted since
1982 for security reasons. There are two rest houses.
Scientific Research and Facilities The elephant population was surveyed by the Forest
Directorate in 1978 (Olivier, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). The status of white-winged
wood duck was first investigated by Husain (1975, 1977) and subsequently by Khan (1986)
between 1978 and 1981. Its population dynamics and breeding behaviour were examined by
an university student in 1976-1977 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
24
Bangladesh
Conservation Value Pablakhali contains some of the finest lowland forest remaining in
Bangladesh and is also an important wetland site (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management Under the working plan, due to expire in 1988/1989, the sanctuary
is divided into two working units. Some 25,900ha are allotted to Working Unit I, in which
wildlife is protected and forestry operations are prohibited. In the remaining area allotted to
Working Unit Il, it is intended that wildlife preservation proceed alongside normal forestry
operations. Working Unit I comprises some 3,885ha of reservoir, 1,554ha of teak plantation
and 20,461ha of natural forest. This is nowhere more than 5km wide and runs north-south along
the eastern edge of Working Unit I; to the east is unclassed state forest, which has been heavily
disturbed by local hill tribesmen. Conversion of Working Unit II to plantations has been
proceeding steadily (Olivier, 1979).
Some 7,770ha (Compartments 23-30) within Working Unit I were proposed as an elephant
sanctuary, but the area was considered far too small and devoid of much suitable habitat. This
proposal is thought to have arisen as a result of the Technical Sub-Committee of the Wildlife
Enquiry Committee having originally proposed Compartments 23-30 as Pablakhali Wildlife
Sanctuary (Olivier, 1979).
Management prescriptions include strict protection of the wildlife and provision of artificial
feeding sites, waterholes and salt-licks. It was planned to limit forestry operations to thinning
of existing plantations and impose a three-year cycle for collection of bamboo (Olivier, 1979).
Management Constraints Few of the original management prescriptions have proved possible
to implement. Rice was cultivated beside the reservoir, grass cut for fodder and thatching
material, and cattle roamed freely inside the sanctuary. Most serious is the encroachment on the
narrow strip of natural forest running north-south. In many places, this had either gone or been
reduced to a few hundred metres in width, thereby isolating the smaller southern part of the
sanctuary from the rest and threatening the free movement of elephants to and from preferred
feeding areas (Olivier, 1979). In the mid-1980s the government began to lease out forest lands,
both within the sanctuary and neighbouring areas, to plains-dwellers for settlement at the rate
of 2.5ha per family, as a counter-measure to tribal insurgency. This policy is very detrimental
to wildlife, and much encroachment has resulted. Locals hunted white-winged wood ducklings
with dogs in 1981 and this practice may be continuing (Khan, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forestry Officer, Chittagong Hill Tracts (North) Forest Division
References
Haque, M.N. (1989). The mammalian fauna of Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Karim,
G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh.
German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Ban-
gladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 133-139.
Husain, K.Z. (1975). Birds of Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. (The Chittagong Hill Tracts).
Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 3: 155-157.
Husain, K.Z. (1977). The white-winged wood duck. Tigerpaper 4(1): 6-8.
25
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Future conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.)
Conserving Asia's natural heritage: the planning and management of protected areas in the
Indomalayan Realm. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 114-122.
Khan, M.A.R. (1986). The threatened white-winged wood duck Cairina scutulata in Bangladesh.
Forktail 2: 97-101.
Mountfort, G. (1969). The vanishing jungle. Collins, London. 286 pp.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangaladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission
on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp.
Date June 1987, updated March 1989
RAMPAHAR-SITAPAHAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies 48km north-east of Chittagong Port. Approximately 22°30’N,
92°20°E
Date and History of Establishment Presently classified as reserved forest, Rampahar-Sita-
pahar has not yet been designated a wildlife sanctuary under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preser-
vation)(Amendment) Act, 1974 but has been maintained as such by the Forest Department since
1973 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Area 3,026ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features Comprises low, gently sloping hills which are steeper in Sitapahar block
than Rampahar block. The Karnaphuli River flows through the area. Soils are clays or clayey
loams in valley bottoms and mostly pale brown (acidic) clay loams and loams on hills (Sarker
and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Climate Conditions are typically sub-tropical with a long dry season from October to May.
Mean temperatures vary from 24°C in December to 35°C in May. Mean annual rainfall is
2500mm.
Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Predominant tree species are
Dipterocarpus spp., Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Cedrela toona, Mesuaferrea,
Eugenia spp., Ficus spp. and Albizia procera (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
26
Bangladesh
Fauna Mammals include capped langur Presbytis pileatus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1),
Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor. Reptiles include python Python
molurus (V) (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Maintained as virgin forest by the Forest Department.
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Date March 1989, updated August 1990
RAMSAGAR NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies in Dinajpur District, about 9km from Dinajpur Town, in the
extreme north-west of Bangladesh. 25°40’N, 88°30’E
Date and History of Establishment First established in 1960 but not officially notified as a
national park until 1974.
Area 52ha
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features Ramsagar is a lake surrounded by high embankments. The embankments
are flat-topped ridges, which slope gently down to the lake, and cover 50% of the area. The soil
is red-yellow clay (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Climate No information
Vegetation Forest is absent. The flora consists of ornamental and fruit trees (Sarker and Fazlul
Hug, 1985).
Fauna The diversity of mammals, birds and reptiles is low; such species as are present occur
widely throughout the country (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage It is believed that the lake was excavated by King Ramnath, Maharaja of
Dinajpur, before the Battle of Plassey.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is one rest house, and five picnic sites have been
constructed by the Forest Department.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value Minimal
Conservation Management It was originally recommended that Ramsagar be developed as a
‘Class B’ national park for purposes of recreation and education (Government of East Pakistan,
1971). Subsequently, under a separate development plan, the site was proposed as a recreation
centre (Olivier, 1979). Information concerning the present management is not available.
Management Constraints No information
Staff / Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-Committee for East Pakistan
of the Wildilfe Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
28
Bangladesh
REMA-KALENGA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the Tarap Hills of Sylhet District in eastern Bangladesh,
adjacent to the international border with India. The sanctuary is difficult to reach, particularly
in the monsoon season. 24°05’N, 91°37’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1981 under the Ban-
gladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, having previously been part of
Kalenga (Tarap Hill) Forest Reserve.
Area 1,095ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features The Tarap Hills are dissected by numerous valleys, separated by ridges
rising some 50m above them. The hills are generally low and gently sloping. Soils range from
clay loams on level ground to pale brown (acidic) clay loams and loams on the hills. Red sandy
clay contains granules of magniferous iron ore.
Climate Conditions are warm and humid, with a mean annual rainfall of 28300mm, most of
which falls between June and September. April and May are the warmest months, and December
and January are the coolest (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985).
Vegetation Comprises tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Sarker and Fazlul Huq,
1983). The flora is very rich (Mountfort and Poore, 1968).
Fauna _ Five species of primate are present, namely slow loris Nycticebus coucang, rhesus
macaque Macaca mulatta, pig-tailed macaque M. nemestrina, capped langur Presbytis pileata
and dusky langur P. phayrei. Other mammals include jackal Canis aureus, Indian muntjac
Muntiacus muntjak, wild boar Sus scrofa, porcupine Hystrix indica and black-naped hare Lepus
nigricollis (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Capped langur, leopard Panthera pardus (T), muntjac
and several species of squirrel were numerous, at least one tiger Panthera tigris (E) was recorded,
sambar Cervus unicolor were occasionally seen, and it was in this region that the Asiatic golden
cat Felis temmincki (I) was sighted during the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan (Mountfort and Poore, 1968). Dhole Cuon alpinus (V) and at least one species of bear
are also reported to have been present (Olivier, 1979).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
The primary forest harboured a great variety of birds, including kalij pheasant Lophura
leucomelana, red junglefowl Gallus gallus, scarlet-breasted trogon Trogon sp. and many species
of pigeons, barbets, sunbirds, flycatchers and flowerpeckers (Mountfort and Poore, 1968).
Reptiles include Indian Python Python molurus (V) (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a rest house belonging to the Forest Department.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The sanctuary contains the last remaining patch of primary forest in the
Sylhet region. Even this has been considerably reduced in extent since 1967 (Olivier, 1979),
when some 2,072-2,590ha within Kalenga (Tarap Hill) Forest Reserve were originally recom-
mended for total protection as a wildlife sanctuary. The rest of this forest reserve was under
teak monoculture (Mountfort and Poore, 1968). By 1978, primary forest existed only in
Compartment 8 (1,036ha) (Olivier, 1979).
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Olivier, R.C.D.(1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Sarker and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission
on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5
Pp.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
Bangladesh
SUNDARBANS EAST, WEST AND SOUTH WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location The three wildlife sanctuaries lie on disjunct deltaic islands in the
Sundarbans Forest Division of Khulna District, close to the border with India and just west of
the main outflow of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. Sundarbans West lies between
the Raimangal and Malancha rivers at 2142’-2147’N, 8912’-8918’E; Sundarbans South,
including Putney Island, lies between the Malancha and Kunga rivers at 2144’-2155’N,
8919’-8928’E; and Sundarbans East consists of that portion of Compartment 6 lying between
the Katka and Supati Khals (creeks) at 2150’-2157’N, 8945’-8950’E. All three sanctuaries are
bounded to the south by the Bay of Bengal.
Date and History of Establishment All three wildlife sanctuaries were established in 1977
under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, having first been
gazetted as forest reserves in 1875. The entire Sundarbans is reserved forest, established under
the Forest Act, 1927.
Area Sundarbans West 9,069ha
Sundarbans South 17,878ha
Sundarbans East 5,439ha
A proposed extension to Sundarbans East would enlarge its total area to 18,538ha (Blower,
1985). Sundarbans National Park (133,010ha), a World Heritage Site, lies to the west in India
but is not contiguous with Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh.
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 3m.
Physical Features The Sundarbans, covering some 10,000 sq.km of land and water, is part of
the world’s largest delta (80,000 sq.km) formed from sediments deposited by three great rivers,
the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, which converge on the Bengal Basin (Seidensticker and
Hai, 1983). The total area of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is 5,771 sq.km, of which 4,071 sq.km
is land and the rest water (Christensen, 1984).
The land is moulded by tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiography. The whole area is
intersected by an intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channels
of often a mile or more in width run in a generally north-south direction. Innumerable small
khals drain the land at each ebb. Rivers tend to be long and straight, a consequence of the strong
tidal forces and the clay and silt deposits which resist erosion. Easily eroded sands collect at the
river mouths and form banks and chars, which are blown into dunes above the high-water mark
by the strong south-west monsoon. Finer silts are washed out into the Bay of Bengal but, where
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
they are protected from wave action, mud flats form in the lee of the dunes. These become
overlain with sand from the dunes, and develop into grassy middens. This process of island
building continues for as long as the area on the windward side is exposed to wave action. With
the formation of the next island further out, silt begins to accumulate along the shore of the island
and sand is blown or washed away (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Apart from Baleswar River,
which flows into the Bay of Bengal just east of Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, the
waterways carry little freshwater as they are cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has
shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels in India progressively eastwards since the 17th
century. They are kept open largely by the diurnal tidal flow (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983).
Alluvial deposits are geologically very recent and deep. The soil is a silty clay loam with
alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the seaward side of islands
in the coastal limits, where sandy beaches occur. In the eastern part of the Sundarbans the surface
soil is soft and fertile, whereas it is harder and less suitable for tree growth in the west
(Choudhury, 1968). The pH averages 8.0 (Christensen, 1984).
Climate Rainfall is heavy and humidity high (80%) due to the proximity of the Bay of Bengal.
About 80% of the rain falls in the monsoon, which lasts from June to October. Mean annual
rainfall varies from about 1800mm at Khulna, north of the Sundarbans, to 2790mm on the coast.
There is a six-month dry season during which evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. Con-
ditions are most saline in February-April, the depletion of soil moisture being coupled with
reduced freshwater flow from upstream. Temperatures rise from daily minima of 2-4°C in winter
to a maximum of about 43°C in March and may exceed 32°C in the monsoon. Storms are
common in May and October-November and may develop into cyclones, usually accompanied
by tidal waves of up to 7.5m high (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Climatic data for Khulna are
summarised by Christensen (1984).
Vegetation The mangroves of the Sundarbans are unique when compared to non-deltaic coastal
mangrove forest. Unlike the latter, the Rhizophoraceae are of only minor importance and the
dominant species are sund’ri Heritiera fomes, from which the Sundarbans takes its name, and
gewa Excoecaria agallocha. The reason for this difference is the large freshwater influence in
the north-eastern part and the elevated level of the ground surface. The Sundarbans can be
classified as moist tropical seral forest, comprising a mosaic of beach forest and tidal forest
(Champion, 1936). Of the latter, there are four types: low mangrove forests, tree mangrove
forests, salt-water Heritiera forests and freshwater Heritiera forests. Choudhury (1968), on the
basis of water salinity, recognises three zones. Sundarbans East falls within the freshwater zone,
which is dominated by H.\fomes. Gewa occurs in varying amounts, and passur Xylocarpus
moluccensis and kankra Bruguiera gymnorrhiza occur in more frequently flooded areas. The
understory comprises singra Cynometra ramiflora on dry soils, amur Amoora cucullata on
moister soils and goran Ceriops decandra especially in the more saline areas. Sundarbans South
lies in the moderately salt-water zone, in which Excoecaria agallocha is dominant. It is mixed
with Heritiera and has a dense understory of Ceriops. Xylocarpus is more frequent in this zone.
Sundarbans West occurs within the salt-water zone, which supports sparse E.\agallocha, a dense
understory of Ceriops, and dense patches of hantal palm Phoenix paludosa on drier soils.
Dhundal and passur Xylocarpus spp., and Bruguiera occur sporadically throughout the area.
Sund’ri and gewa cover most of the Sundarbans but Oryza coarctata, Nypa fruticans and
Imperata cylindrica are prevalent on mud flats (Khan, 1986). Large stands of keora Sonneratia
apetala are found on newly accreted mudbanks and provide important wildlife habitat (RE.
Salter, pers. comm., 1987).
32
Bangladesh
An account of the flora of the mangrove forest of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta is given by
Prain (1903). Seidensticker and Hai (1983) report a total of 334 plant species, representing 245
genera, present in the Bangladesh portion of the delta, and list principal woody and herbaceous
species. Chaffey and Sandom (1985) provide a detailed list of trees and shrubs in the Bangladesh
portion. Islam (1973) provides an account of the algal flora of the mangroves.
Fauna The Sundarbans is the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a great
variety of faunal species. The presence (or former presence) of at least 40 mammal species has
been documented (Sarker, 1986). Of these, no less than five spectacular species, namely Javan
rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus (E), water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E), swamp deer Cervus
duvauceli (E), gaur Bos gaurus (V) and probably hog deer Axis porcinus have become locally
extirpated since the beginning of this century (Salter, 1984). The only primate is rhesus macaque
Macaca mulatta, considered by Blower (1985) to number in the region of 40,000 to 68,200,
based on surveys by Hendrichs (1975) and Khan (1986), respectively, as compared to the much
higher estimate of 126,220 derived by Gittins (1981).
The Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India support one of the largest populations of tiger Panthera
tigris (E), with an estimated 350 in that of the former (Hendrichs, 1975). Again, Gittins’ estimate
of 430-450 tigers may be over-optimistic (see Blower, 1985). Spotted deer Cervus axis,
estimates of which vary between 52,600 (Khan, 1986) and 80,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), and wild
boar Sus scrofa, estimated at 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), are the principal prey of the tiger, which
also has a notorious reputation for man-eating. Of the three species of otter, smooth Indian otter
Lutra perspicillata, estimated to number 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), is domesticated by fisher-
men and used to drive fish into their nets (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Other mammals include
three species of wild cat, Felis bengalensis, F. chaus and F. viverrina, and Gangetic dolphin
Platanista gangetica, which occurs in some of the larger waterways. Species accounts and a
check-list are given by Salter (1984).
The varied and colourful bird-life to be seen along its waterways is one of the Sundarbans’
greatest attractions. Over 270 species have been recorded (Scott, 1989), including about 95
species of waterfowl (Scott, 1989) and 38 species of raptors (Sarker, 1985b). Among the many
which may be readily seen by the visitor are no less than nine species of kingfisher, including
brown-winged and stork-billed kingfishers, Pelargopsis amauroptera and P. capensis, respec-
tively; the magnificent white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster which, at a density of
one individual per 53.1km of waterways (Sarker, 1985), is quite common; also the much rarer
grey-headed fish eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Pallas’s fish-eagle Haliaeetus ieucoryphus
and several other raptors. Herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers, whimbrel, curlew and numerous
other waders are to be seen along the muddy banks and on the chars or sandbanks which become
exposed during the dry season. There are many species of gulls and terns, especially along the
coast and the larger waterways. Apart from those species particularly associated with the sea
and wetlands, there is also a considerable variety of forest birds such as woodpeckers, barbets,
shrikes, drongos, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others (Salter, 1984). Further details of
the avifauna are given by Scott (1989).
Some 45 reptile species and 11 of amphibians have been recorded (Sarker, 1986). Of these
mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) is now extinct, probably as a result of past over-exploitation,
although it still occurs in at least one location nearby (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). Estuarine
crocodile C. porosus (E) still survives but its numbers have been greatly depleted through
hunting and trapping for skins. There are also three species of monitor, Varanus bengalensis,
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
V. flavescens and V. salvator, and Indian python Python molurus (V). Five species of marine
turtle, namely loggerhead Caretta caretta (V), green Chelonia mydas, hawksbill Eretmochelys
imbricata, olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea, have been
recorded from Bangladesh waters in the Bay of Bengal and are reported to occur along the
Sundarbans coast. River terrapin Batagur baska (E) is also present. The eighteen recorded
snake species include king cobra Ophiophagus hannah and spectacled cobra Naja naja, three
vipers and six sea-snakes (Salter, 1984).
Over 120 species of fish are reported to be commonly caught by commercial fishermen in the
Sundarbans (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). According to Mukherjee (1975) only brackish water
species and marine forms are found in the Indian Sundarbans, freshwater species being totally
absent. This may be assumed to apply also to the Bangladesh Sundarbans, except possibly in
the eastern portion where there is freshwater in Baleswar River. Mention should also be made
of mud-skippers or gobys which occur in large numbers and are a characteristic feature of
mangrove swamps.
Crustacea account for by far the largest proportion of animal biomass, with an estimated 40
million kg of fiddler crabs and 100 million kg of mud crabs (Hendrichs, 1975). The nutrient-rich
waters of the Sundarbans also yield a considerable harvest of shrimps, prawns and lobsters. The
area supports a varied insect population including large numbers of honey-bees, honey and
beeswax being among the economically important products. It appears, however, that the insect
life of the Sundarbans has so far been little studied.
Cultural Heritage There is archaeological evidence of earlier human occupation on the deltaic
islands. The human settlements are indicative of the former presence of abundant freshwater,
both from the Ganges and from non-saline ground water. Human occupation ceased in the 17th
century, reportedly due to pirate attacks (Christensen, 1984).
Local Human Population There are no villages in the Sundarbans, but it provides a livelihood
at certain seasons of the year for an estimated 300,000 people, working variously as wood-cutters,
fishermen, and gatherers of honey, golpatta leaves (Nipa fruticans) and grass. Fishermen come in
their boats from as far away as Chittagong and establish temporary encampments at various sites
along the coast, where they remain until the approach of the monsoon season in April before
returning to their homes. Apart from the large numbers of people employed by contractors in
the commercial exploitation of sund’ri and other tree species, the local people are themselves
dependent on the forest and waterways for such necessities as firewood, timber for boats, poles
for house-posts and rafters, golpatta leaf for roofing, grass for matting, reeds for fencing and
fish for their own consumption. The season for collecting honey and wax is limited to two and
a half months commencing annually on 1 April. Thousands of people, having first obtained
their permits from the Forest Department, enter the forest in search of bee nests which are
collected and then crushed to extract the honey and wax. The total quantity of these commodities
collected during the 1983 season was 232 tonnes, which at a market price of 30 Tk (US$ 1) per
ser (approximately 0.9 kg) represents an appreciable source of income to local communities
(Blower, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Few tourists visit the Sundarbans due to the difficulty and cost
of arranging transport and to the lack of suitable accommodation and other facilities. The area
has no potential for mass tourism but it does offer obvious possibilities for limited special-interest
tourism from October to April or May. The use of launches equipped with catering and sleeping
Bangladesh
facilities is considered more practicable than permanent land-based facilities and would provide
greater flexibility. There is, however, a large well-equipped rest house belonging to the Port
Authority at Hiron Point, Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary, and a smaller one belonging to
the Forest Department at Katka in Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1985).
Scientific Research and Facilities Considerable research has been carried out on the Sundar-
bans ecosystem and its wildlife. A three-month field study of tiger, concentrating on the problem
of man-eating, and other vertebrates and invertebrates, was undertaken by Hendrichs (1975) in
1971. Other faunal surveys include those of Gittins (1981) and Khan (1986) for rhesus macaque,
Khan (1986) for spotted deer, Sarker and Sarker (1986) for birds, and Sarker (1985a, 1985b)
and Sarker and Sarker (1985) for birds of prey. Further details of wildlife studies and surveys
can be found in a synopsis compiled by Salter (1984).
Conservation Value The mangrove forests of the Sundarbans are among the richest and most
extensive in the world. The Bangladesh portion, covering 6% of total land area, represents over
half of the country’s remaining natural forest. The forests and waterways support a wide range
of fauna, including a number of species threatened with extinction. As one of the most
biologically productive of all natural ecosystems, it is of great economic importance as a source
of timber, fish and numerous other products (Blower, 1985).
Of the three wildlife sanctuaries, Sundarbans East appears to be most valuable in terms of
diversity of habitat and scenic attraction but is considered too small to be effective. Itis unclear
whether or not the small island known locally as Putkadya, about 2km offshore, is included
within this sanctuary but it should be in view of its suitability as habitat for waders and as a
nesting site for marine turtles. Sundarbans West and Sundarbans South would seem to be of
adequate size (Blower, 1985).
Conservation Management Sundarbans East is administered from offices at Katka and Tiger
Point, and Sundarbans South from Hiron Point. No office has yet been established within
Sundarbans West. There are no recognised local rights within the reserved forest, entry and
collection of forest produce being subject to permits issued by the Forest Department. The
Department may issue hunting licences under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)
(Amendment) Act, 1974, but in practice none is issued and the whole Sundarbans is thus effectively
closed to legal hunting. Under the provision of this Act, various activities are prohibited within
the wildlife sanctuaries, including inter alia residence, cultivation of land, damage to
vegetation, hunting, introduction of domestic animals and setting of fires. Any of these
prohibitions may be relaxed, however, for scientific purposes, aesthetic enjoyment or "improve-
ment" of scenery (Blower, 1985).
The Sundarbans has been the subject of a series of successively more comprehensive working
plans since its declaration as reserved forest, the most recent of which points out the importance
of the tiger in controlling the spotted deer population, and also mentions the intention of
establishing compartments 3-7 as a ‘game sanctuary’, a total area of some 52,320ha (Choudhury,
1968). In the event, when Sundarbans East was eventually established it included only a part
of Compartment 6, only one-tenth of the area originally proposed. A likely explanation is that
the recommended areas contain high-quality timber relative to that gazetted, indicating that
Sundardans East was chosen on the basis of its unimportance to forestry, rather than value to
wildlife. Sundarbans South and West may have been selected for the same reason, as timber
within both sites is of lower quality (Olivier, 1979). A plan relating specifically to wildlife
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
conservation was prepared under the joint sponsorship of the World Wildlife Fund and the
National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Emphasis is
directed towards managing the tiger, together with all wildlife, as an integral part of forest
management that assures the sustainable harvesting of forest products and maintains this coastal
zone in a way that meets the needs of the local human population. The Sundarbans Forest
Development Planning Mission, carried out by FAO in conjunction with the Bangladesh Forest
Department in February-May 1984, collected all available data related to the use and manage-
ment of forest products, wildlife and fisheries, assessed development potential and prepared
proposals for further integrated development and conservation of the natural resources of the
area (Christensen, 1984; Salter, 1984). More recently, Blower (1985) reviewed wildlife con-
servation in the Sundarbans Reserved Forest as part of the Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project,
carried out by the Bangladesh Forest Department and the Land Resources Development Centre
of the UK Overseas Development Administration. The main purpose of the project is to provide
the necessary data on which to base future exploitation of the forest for sustainable use of timber,
fuelwood and other forest produce, with due consideration to wildlife conservation and the social
amenity value of the area. It has been recommended that the Sundarbans be managed as a single
unit with full protection afforded to both wildlife and habitat in the wildlife sanctuaries, and with
forest resources exploited at sustainable levels but wildlife protected elsewhere in the reserved
forest. The establishment of intermediate buffer zones, in which disturbance is kept to a
minimum through restriction of access, is recommended in areas peripheral to sanctuary
boundaries. A new working plan is due to be prepared, based on data collected by the project,
and is expected to include detailed prescriptions concerning the conservation and management
of the sanctuaries (Blower, 1985). Formulation of a strategy and integrated plan for the sustained
multiple-use, conservation and management of natural resources in the Sundarbans Reserved
Forest is due to commence shortly with funding from UNEP (Project: BGD/84/056/A/01/12).
Management Constraints A long-term ecological change is taking place in the Sundarbans,
due to the eastward migration of the Ganges, abandonment of some distributaries, diversion of
water and withdrawals for irrigation. (Up to 40% of the dry season flow of the Ganges has been
diverted upstream, following the completion of the Farraka Barrage in India in 1974.) Decreased
freshwater flushing of the Sundarbans results in increased saline intrusion, particularly in the
dry season. Concern has been expressed about recent indications of apparent deterioration in
the flora, including localised die-back of sund’ri, commercially the most valuable of tree species.
Top-dying of sund’ri is most likely associated with the decrease in freshwater flow, either as a
direct effect of increasing salinity or other associated edaphic changes. A gradual replacement
of Heritiera with Excoecaria, therefore, is a likely long-term effect (Christensen, 1984). While
deterioration in the vegetation is already well-documented (International Engineering Company,
1977, 1980) and is the subject of continuing study, no attention has yet been given to the possible
effects which these changes might have on the fauna. It is perhaps significant, however, that
the stocking of spotted deer appears lower in western areas, where salinity is highest, than in the
east where it is lowest. Oil spills are another potential threat and could cause immense damage,
especially to aquatic fauna and seabirds and probably also to the forest itself (Blower, 1985).
Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-face, and are reported
to result occasionally in considerable mortality among spotted deer. The most immediate threat
is over-exploitation, both of timber resources, which may have already taken place, and also of
the fauna. Agricultural encroachment has already occurred to a limited extent on the eastern
and western boundaries and, with increasing population pressure in surrounding settled areas,
could reach serious proportions unless checked. Fishermen’s camps are a major source of
36
Bangladesh
disturbance. There is extensive hunting and trapping, not only by fishermen and woodcutters
but also reportedly by naval and military personnel from Hiron Point in Sundarbans South
Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1985). A total of 118 offences was recorded and over 3,300m of
deer nets removed between 1981/82 and 1986/87 (Habib, 1989). The capture of adult marine
turtles and Batagur in fishing nets and their subsequent killing and marketing for food is a
potentially serious problem (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987).
The Sundarbans has been notorious for its man-eating tigers since the 17th century. Numbers
of reported deaths has varied from 0 to 47 (mean = 22.1) per annum during the period 1947-1983
(R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). In 1988, 65 deaths were reported during a four-month period
(The Guardian, 28 December 1988). Noting that tigers that hunt man like any other prey
occurred only in the south and west, Hendrichs (1975) hypothesised on a possible linkage
between high salinity levels, due to the absence of freshwater, and man-killing. This is not
substantiated by more recent analyses, which suggest that man-killing may be at least partly
correlated with the availability of easy prey (humans) and the frequency of man-tiger interactions
(Salter, 1984; Siddiqi and Choudhury, 1987).
Staff Sundarbans East: one deputy ranger, one forest guard; Sundarbans South: one forest
ranger, two forest guards; Sundarbans West: one deputy ranger, one forest guard. Staff are
responsible for the protection of the sanctuaries but, in practice, they are involved primarily with
collection of revenue and other normal Forest Department duties (Blower, 1985).
Budget No information
Local Addresses _ Assistant Conservator of Forests, Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary,
Sarankhola, Khulna District; Assistant Conservator of Forests, Sundarbans South Wildlife
Sanctuary, Nalianala, Khulna District; Range Officer, Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary,
Burigoalini, Khulna District
References
Blower, J. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in the
Sundarbans. Project Report 151. Overseas Development Administration, Land Resources
Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. 39 pp.
Chaffey, D.R. and Sadom, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forestry Inventory Project. A glossary of
vernacular plant names and a field key to trees. Overseas Development Administration, Land
Resources Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. 23 pp.
Champion, H.G. (1936). A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian Forest
Record (New Series) 1: 1-286.
Choudhury, A.M. (1968). Working plan of the Sundarban Forest Division for the period from
1960-61 to 1979-80. Vol. I. Government of East Pakistan, Forest Department, Dacca. 82 pp.
Christensen, B. (1984). Ecological aspects of the Sundarbans. FO: TCP/BGD/2309 (Mf). FAO,
Rome. 42 pp.
Gittins, S.P. (1981). A survey of the primates of Bangladesh. Unpublished report. Fauna Preser-
vation Society, London. 64 pp.
Habib, M.G. (1989). Wildlife management of the Sundarban - a case study. In: Karim, G.M.M.E.,
Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. German Cultural
Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Dhaka.
Pp. 161-168.
Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans
mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 23: 161-199.
37
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Husain, K.Z. Sarker, S.U. and Rahman, M.M. (1983). Summer birds of the Sundarbans’
‘Nilkamal Sanctuary’, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 11(1): 48-51.
International Engineering Company (1977). Special studies. Bangladesh Water Development
Board, Dacca.
International Engineering Company (1980). Southwest regional plan. Bangladesh Water Devel-
opment Board, Dacca.
Islam, A.K.M.N. (1973). The algal flora of the Sundarbans mangrove forests, Bangladesh. Ban-
gladesh Journal of Botany 2(2): 11-36.
Khan, M.A.R. (1986). Wildlife in Bangladesh mangrove ecosystem. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 83: 32-48.
Mukherjee, A.K. (1975). The Sundarbans of India and its biota. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 72: 1-20.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project No.
BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Salter, R.E. (1984). Integrated development of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh: status and utilization
of wildlife. FO: TCP/BGD/2309(MF). Report No. W/R0034. FAO, Rome. 59 pp.
Sarker, S.U. (1985a). Ecological observation on the endangered whitebellied sea eagle Haliaeetus
leucogaster (Gmelin) in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. In: Symposium on endangered marine
animals and marine parks. Vol. 4. Endangered and/or vulnerable other marine invertebrates
and vertebrates. Paper No. 58. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin.
Sarker, S.U. (1985b). Density, productivity and biomass of raptoral birds of the Sundarbans,
Bangladesh. Proceedings of SAARC Seminar on Biomass Production, 15 April 1985, Dhaka.
Pp. 84-92.
Sarker, S.U. (1986). Management of wildlife in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Paper presented at
the International Seminar cum Workshop on Wildlife Conservation in Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1-4
December 1986. 7 pp.
Sarker, S.U. and Sarker, N.J. (1985). Birds of prey and their conservation in the Sundarbans
mangrove forests, Khulna, Bangladesh. ICBP Technical Publication No. 5. Pp. 205-209.
Sarker, S.U. and Sarker, N.J. (1986). Status and distribution of birds of the Sundarbans, Ban-
gladesh. The Journal of Noami 3: 19-33.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Seidensticker, J. and Hai, M.A.(1983). The Sundarbans Wildlife Management Plan: conservation
in the Bangladesh coastal zone. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 120 pp.
Siddiqi, N.A. and Choudhury, J.H. (1987). Maneating behaviour of tigers (Panthera tigris Linn)
of the Sundarbans - twenty-eight years’ record analysis. Tigerpaper 14(3): 26-32.
Date February 1987, updated August 1990
TEKNAF GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies 80km south of Cox’s Bazaar in the Teknaf Peninsula of
south-eastern Bangladesh. Stretches from Thainkhali in the north to Teknaf township in the
south, all of which is within Cox’s Bazaar Forest Division. 21°00’N, 92°20’E
38
Bangladesh
Date and History of Establishment Teknaf is a reserved forest which was declared a game
reserve in 1983 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. It
includes an area formerly referred to as the Thainkhali Game Reserve (7,770ha) (Government
of Bangladesh, 1973).
Area 11,615ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from 5m to 700m.
Physical Features The terrain is rugged, with undulating hills aligned in a north-to-south
direction and bordering the Bay of Bengal to the west. Soils on the hills are predominantly pale
brown (acidic) clay loams and loams developed from shales and siltstones. Perennial water
courses, known as ‘charas’, in the forested hilly areas are the only dependable source of water
for elephants in the vicinity.
Climate Moist tropical maritime conditions prevail, with a mean annual rainfall of 4060mm
and mean humidity of 81.2% (Khan and Rashid, 1983).
Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen secondary forests, which have regener-
ated following clear-felling, and teak Tectona grandis plantations. The tropical wet evergreen
forest is characterised by chapalish Artocarpus chaplasha, telsur Hopea odorata, chundul
Tetrameles nudiflora, pitraj Amoora wallichi, uriam Mangifera longipes, civit Swintonia flori-
bunda, toon Toona ciliata and jam Syzygium spp. It is now confined to deep valleys and shaded
slopes with good water supplies. The dense multi-storeyed semi-evergreen forest, typical of the
peninsula, ranges in height from 20m to 45m. The top canopy, which includes several deciduous
species, is characterised by baitta garjan Dipterocarpus scaber, telya garjan D. turbinatus, dulya
garjan D. alatus, koroi Albizia procera, chukka k’oroi A. chinensis, chapalish, uriam, civit,
shimul Bombax ceiba and B. insigne, bandarholla Duabanga grandiflora and narikeli Sterculia
alata. The second storey is dominated by evergreens, such as batna Quercus sp., jam, Casta-
nopsis sp., jarul Lagerstroemia speciosa, bena Macaranga denticulata, kamdeb Calophylum
polyanthum, hargoza Dillenia pentagyna, dharmara Pterospermum personatum, moos P. pa-
niculata, Sterculia villosa, S. colorata, konak Schima wallichii, nageshwar Mesua ferrea, bahera
Terminalia bellerica, haritaki T. chebula, champa Michelia champaca, gamar Gmelina arborea
and bot Ficus spp. Saplings predominate below the second storey, together with adaliya
Meliosma pinnata, naricha Musa ramentacea, dormala Callicarpa arborea, goda Vitex glabrata,
kestoma and kechua Glochidion spp., sheora Streblus asper, jalpai Elaeocarpus spp. and bela
Semicarpus anacardium. The undergrowth of both evergreen and semi-evergreen forests is
dominated by bamboo, the commonest species being muli Melocannia bambusoides, mitenga
Bambusa tulda, kaliserri Oxytenanthera auriculata, daloo Teinostachyum dulooa and orah
Dendrocalamus longispathus (Khan and Rashid, 1983).
Fauna Teknaf Peninsula still has quite a rich fauna. Moreover, it provides a vital refuge for
elephant Elephas maximus (E), estimated in 1982-1983 to number 101, of which 71 resided
within an area of 55,000ha and the rest came from the Arakan area of Burma (Reza Khan and
Rashid, 1983). Other mammals include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, capped langur
Presbytis pileata, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1),
hog-badger Arctonyx collaris, crab-eating mongoose Herpestes urva, civets (Viverridae), small
39
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
cats Felis spp., flying squirrel Petaurista sp. and Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor (Khan,
1985a). Ungulates present in that part of the park which used to be known as Thainkhali Game
Reserve include Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor and wild boar Sus
scrofa (Olivier, 1979). Leopard Panthera pardus (T) and possibly dhole Cuon alpinus (V) are
also present (Olivier, 1979).
The avifauna is diverse and includes kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelana, fruit pigeons,
hornbills and woodpeckers (Khan, 1985a).
Reptiles include Malayan box turtle Cuora amboinensis, uncommon in Bangladesh, Indian
python Python molurus (V) and monitor Varanus sp. (Khan, 1985a).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are 25-30 villages within the forests of the Peninsula and
some 50 villages on their peripheries. Local people, who are largely dependent on forest
resources for their livelihood, grow rice, millet, vegetables and pan in the valleys (Khan and
Rashid, 1983).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve has potential for tourism, particularly since Cox’s
Bazaar, renowned as being the only health resort in the country, is a tourist centre (Khan and
Rashid, 1983). There are two rest houses in the vicinity, at Inoni and Teknaf (Olivier, 1979).
Scientific Research and Facilities The elephant population was studied between May 1982
and April 1983 (IUCN/WWF Project 3038) and a management strategy developed to conserve
the species (Khan and Rashid, 1983).
Conservation Value Teknaf Peninsula contains the most important tracts of evergreen and
semi-evergreen forests in south-eastern Bangladesh (Khan and Rashid, 1983) and about one
third of the country’s total elephant population, estimated at 300 animals (Khan, 1985b). The
Peninsula is also an important wetland site (Scott, 1989), although the wetlands themselves lie
outside the reserve.
Conservation Management The reserve was established to protect the elephant population,
but the Forest Department continues its operations in the area. Preliminary recommendations
for elephant management include: replacing clear-felling with selective felling; replanting
cleared areas with indigenous species of trees; establishing corridors to facilitate movement of
elephants and other wildlife between cleared areas; and controlling encroachment, grazing by
livestock and extraction of bamboo (Khan and Rashid, 1983).
Management Constraints There has been considerable pressure on minor forest products from
the coastal people who either fished or grew pan Piper betle. Removal of the forest understorey,
to meet local demands for timber, firewood and bamboo, has interfered with natural regeneration.
Large areas of forest have been turned into plantations (teak) and, since 1976, Burmese refugee
camps have had a severe local impact on forests (Womersley, 1979). Most accessible areas on
the Peninsula have been clear-felled or subjected to shifting cultivation, with the result that little
virgin forest remains. Regeneration is hindered, due to the pressure of livestock and other forms
of disturbance, and the vegetation is changing towards a drier scrub-forest or savannah,
characterised by sungrass Jmperata cylindrica, bhat Clerodendrum infortunatum, Lantana
40
Bangladesh
camara, Eupatorium odoratum, Melostoma sp. and others. The main elephant food, bamboo,
has largely been extracted and replaced by unpalatable plants, such as Lantana and Eupatorium.
This has probably been responsible for the increased raiding of crops, particularly by solitary
elephants. Oil palm has recently been introduced to a 4,000ha area but is damaged by migratory
elephants and, to a much greater extent, by porcupines. In 1978-1983, over 400ha of forested
land was encroached by villagers with the authority of the Forest Department and others.
Bamboo is extracted at an estimated rate of 10,000 canes per week, and some 8,000 cattle and
water buffalo are taken daily into the forests for grazing, except possibly from January to April
(Khan and Rashid, 1983).
Staff Forest guards
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Government of Bangladesh (1973). Development of wildlife management and game reserves.
Forest Department, Dacca.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project
BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Khan, M.A.R. (1985a). Future conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.)
Conserving Asia’s natural heritage: the planning and management of protected areas in the
Indomalayan Realm. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 114-124.
Khan, M.A.R. (1985b). Mammals of Bangladesh. Nazma Reza, Dhaka. 92 pp.
Khan, M.A.R. and Rashid, S.M.A. (1983). Development of an elephant management plan for the
Cox’s Bazar Forest of Bangladesh. Unpublished report to WWF/IUCN, Gland. 13 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February
1985. 5 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK
Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and
national parks. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong.
71 pp.
WWFIUCN Project No. 3033. Bangladesh, Cox’s Bazar Forest, elephant management plan.
Date May 1987, updated August 1990
41
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INDIA
Area 3,166,830sq.km
Population 835,000,000 (1989) Natural Increase 2.2% per annum
GNP US$ 300 per capita (1987)
Policy and Legislation A commitment to protect and enhance the environment is enshrined
within India’s Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1977, as follows:
"The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests
and wildlife of the country." (Article 48A); and
"It shall be the duty of every citizen of India ... (g) to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures."
(Article 51A).
There is no provision, however, which enables the union government to enact legislation
pertaining to environmental issues that is uniformly applicable to all states and union territories.
In addition to the separate federal and state jurisdiction, there exists a concurrent list of legislative
powers which, since 1976, includes inter alia forests and the protection of wild animals and
birds. The concurrent list gives over-riding power to the federal government but executive
authority lies with the state governments (Dwivedi and Kishore, 1984). The constitutional
directives have provided a strong basis for the enactment of legislative measures for environ-
mental protection. The need to integrate environmental considerations with economic develop-
ment was explicitly articulated for the first time in the 4th Five-Year Plan, 1969-1974 (Biswas
and Bannerjee, 1984). There is no statutory requirement for environmental impact assessment
at present but a mechanism has been initiated whereby assessment is an integral part of the
planning process, with appraisals of major projects being the responsibility of the Department
of Environment, Forests and Wildlife (Dwivedi and Kishore, 1984). Among the recommenda-
tions of the Tiwari Committee, a high-powered committee appointed by the government in
February 1980 to suggest administrative and legislative reforms to improve environmental
protection in the country, was the introduction of environment protection in the concurrent list
of the Constitution.
The National Environment Policy envisages conservation and development, as well as equity
among the people sharing the environment, but these tend to be mutually incompatible under
much of the existing legislation (Singh, 1985). India is in the process of formulating a national
conservation strategy.
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in Indian history. Wise use of natural resources
was a prerequisite for many hunter-gatherer societies which date back to at least 6000 BC. The
43
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
most notable of such traditions are sacred groves, totally inviolate to any human interference,
and village groves where only limited use by members of the community is permitted. Many
of these are still in existence. Extensive clearance of forests accompanied the advance of
agricultural and pastoral societies in subsequent millenia, but an awareness of the need for
ecological prudence emerged and many so-called pagan nature conservation practices were
retained (Gadgil, 1989). Among the earliest provisions for the establishment of protected areas
are those codified in the Arthasashtra, India (321-300 BC), written by Kautilya, reputedly the
Prime Minister of King Chandra Gupta Maurya. Prescriptions included rules for the adminis-
tration and management of forests, and provisions for three classes of forests, namely those
reserved for the king, those allocated for ascetics and those for the public which could be used
only for hunting purposes. Kautilya is also the first-recorded person to have advocated the
creation of ‘Abhayaranyas’, or sanctuaries for wildlife. The following century, during the reign
of Emperor Ashoka, the first-recorded conservation measures for wildlife were enacted, and
reserves were established for wild animals (Singh, 1986; Mitra, 1989). Hindu, Moslem and,
latterly, British rulers continued these traditions in subsequent centuries, setting up reserves for
privileged hunting over much of India. As more and more land became settled or cultivated, so
these hunting reserves increasingly became refuges for wildlife. Many of these reserves were
subsequently declared as national parks or sanctuaries, mostly after Independence in 1947.
Examples include Gir in Gujarat, Dachigam in Jammu & Kashmir, Bandipur in Karnataka,
Evarikulum in Kerala, Madhav (now Shivpuri) in Madhya Pradesh, Simlipal in Orissa, and
Keoladeo, Ranthambore and Sariska in Rajasthan. The fact that the great majority of the Indian
population is vegetarian (devout Hindus and Jains) has undoubtedly helped to preserve that part
of India’s natural heritage which remains today (Singh, 1985; Gadgil, 1989).
Following Independence, a number of states (Goa, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Mysore, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) enacted
wildlife preservation acts, while others (Assam, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) continued to
enforce the Government of India Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912. National park
acts were enacted by a few states but only five national parks were established under these acts,
namely Kanha, Bandhavgarh and Shivpuri in Madhya Pradesh, Taroba in Maharashtra and
Hailey (now Corbett) in Uttar Pradesh. The Hailey National Park Act of 1936 was probably the
first law in India intended for the exclusive protection of wildlife and its habitat (IBWL, 1970;
Kothari et al., 1989).
A National Wildlife Policy for India was first formulated by an Expert Committee of the Indian
Board for Wildlife in 1970 (IBWL, 1970). A major aim was to reserve at least 4% of the total
land area for wildlife, both plants and animals - an objective which has recently been exceeded.
Much of this policy was subsequently enshrined in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The
Act provides the necessary uniform legislation for the establishment of protected areas and has
since been adopted by all states and union territories. Provisions include inter alia the
constitution of state wildlife advisory boards and the notification of sanctuaries, national parks,
game reserves and closed areas by state governments. A sanctuary is defined as an area of
“adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance."
Setting up a sanctuary involves settling all private rights, either allowing them to continue or
acquiring them after adequate compensation. Hunting, entry with any weapon, causing fire, and
using substances potentially injurious to wildlife are prohibited, while fishing and grazing by
livestock may be allowed on a controlled basis. Permission to enter or reside in a sanctuary may
be granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden for purposes of photography, scientific research,
tourism and transaction of lawful business with any person residing in a sanctuary. A national
India
park is defined similarly to a sanctuary. Similar provisions apply but hunting and cattle grazing
are prohibited. In addition, exploitation or removal of any wildlife, or its habitat, is prohibited
within a national park. Moreover, only a completely unencumbered area, in which all rights
have become vested in the state government, can be declared as a national park. Once
established, its boundaries may not be altered except through a resolution passed by the state
legislature. A game reserve is an area in which only licensed hunting is permitted, and a closed
area is one which is closed to hunting for such periods as may be specified in the notification.
State-owned land leased or otherwise transferred to Central Government may be declared as a
sanctuary or national park by the federal authority.
The basis to present nature conservation policy in India is the National Wildlife Action Plan
(Department of Environment, n.d.). Drawing on the World Conservation Strategy launched by
TUCN in March 1980, the Bali Action Plan arising from the 3rd World Parks Congress in October
1982 and the World Charter for Nature adapted and proclaimed by the United Nations General
Assembly in October 1982, it was adopted by the Government of India in October 1983 on the
recommendation of the Indian Board for Wildlife. Objectives include the establishment of a
representative network of protected areas and development of appropriate management systems
(together with the restoration of degraded habitats), and the adoption of a National Conservation
Strategy.
The Indian Forest Act, first enacted in 1865 and succeeded by a more comprehensive act in
1927, provides significant protection to wildlife through the provision for reserved and protected
forests to be established in any forest or waste lands belonging to the government, or over which
the government has proprietary rights. Some states enacted their own forest legislation after the
National Forest Policy was announced in 1952, while others amended the Act to suit their own
requirements. Activities prohibited within reserved forests include: making fresh clearings or
breaking up land for cultivation; kindling or carrying fire; trespass and cattle grazing; felling or
otherwise damaging any tree; quarrying stone, burning lime or charcoal; removing forest
produce; and hunting, shooting, fishing, trapping and poisoning water. In general, activities
prohibited within reserved forests are subject to regulations in protected forests. In addition, in
protected forests, any trees, class of trees or portion of forest may be temporarily closed to all
forms of exploitation, including the quarrying of stone and burning of lime. The Act also makes
provision for the rights of government over land constituted as reserved or, in the case of a few
states, protected forest to be assigned to village communities. Such village forests are subject
to all provisions of the Act that relate to reserved (or protected) forests. The Forest (Conserva-
tion) Act was promulgated in 1980 to stem the indiscriminate diversion of forest land to
non-forestry purposes. Under this Act, no forest land can be de-reserved or diverted to
non-forestry purposes without the approval of Central Government. Other initiatives include a
moratorium, imposed since 1983, on the felling of trees at altitudes of 1,000m and above
(Ministry of Forests and Wildlife, 1985). The 1952 National Forest Policy was superceded by
a new National Forest Policy (Resolution No. 3-1/86 FP) on 7 December 1988. Objectives
include the maintenance of environmental stability, conserving the nation’s natural heritage by
preserving remaining natural forests, preventing soil erosion and denudation of catchment areas, and
creating a mass people’s movement with the involvement of women to achieve such aims and
minimise pressure on existing forests. A target has been set for one-third of the total land area of the
country to be under forest, as originally stipulated in the 1952 National Forest Policy, but in the hills
and mountainous regions the target is two-thirds. In addition, forest management must provide
‘corridors’ to link protected areas and thereby maintain genetic continuity between artificially
45
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
separated subpopulations of migrant wildlife. Also, full protection of the rights and concessions
of tribals and poor people dependent on forests is advocated (Government of India, 1988).
A selected list of other environmental legislation is given in A Second Citizen’ s Report (CSE,
1985). Of particular note is the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which provides a focus for
environmental issues in the country and plugs loopholes in the existing legislation (Ministry of
Environment and Forests, 1987a).
Inadequacies in the existing nature conservation legislation are reviewed by Dwivedi and
Kishore (1984) and by Singh (1986). The recognition of only wild animals and birds, without
reference to plants, is an important omission from both the Wild Life (Protection) Act and the
Constitution. Uniform and comprehensive forest legislation is urgently needed, with emphasis
on forest conservation rather than the existing system of resource exploitation. Both acts are
currently under revision.
International Activities India ratified the Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 14 November 1977. Five natural
sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to date, namely Kaziranga, Keoladeo,
Sundarbans and Nanda Devi national parks and Manas Sanctuary.
India acceded to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Water-
fowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 1 October 1981, at which time Chilka Lake and Keoladeo
National Park were designated as wetlands of international importance. Four more sites (Harike,
Logtak, Sambhar and Wular lakes) were designated on 23 March 1990.
Participation in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme began in 1972 with the constitution
of the Indian National MAB Committee. The Indian Biosphere Reserves Programme will
operate within the ambit of existing state and federal legislation; separate legislation for
biosphere reserves is not envisaged (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1987b). Thirteen
potential biosphere reserves have been identified, of which the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is the
first to have been established but has yet to be nominated for inclusion in the international
biosphere reserve network.
Administration and Management The Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife
within the Ministry of Environment and Forests was created in September 1985. It serves as the
administrative focus within Central Government for planning, promoting and coordinating
environmental and forestry programmes, including the preservation and protection of wildlife
and the biosphere reserve programme (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1987a). Pre-
viously, wildlife management was the responsibility of the Forest Department within the
Ministry of Agriculture. Following recommendations made by the Tiwari Committee, a separate
Department of Environment was constituted on 1 November 1980 to which wildlife management
was transferred in September 1982. This Department became part of a new Ministry of
Environment and Forests, constituted under Presidential Notification No. 74/2/1/85-Cab. dated
4 January 1985. At that time, the Ministry consisted of two departments, namely Environment
and Forests & Wildlife, but these were merged later that year (Government of India, n.d.;
Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1986, 1987a). Departments of environment have also
been set up in a number of states (Biswas and Bannerjee, 1984).
46
India
Wildlife, together with forestry, has traditionally been managed under a single administrative
organisation within the forest departments of each state or union territory, with the role of Central
Government being mainly advisory. There have been two recent developments. Firstly, the
Wild Life (Protection) Act has provided for the creation of posts of chief wildlife wardens and
wildlife wardens in the states to exercise statutory powers under the Act. This has largely been
responsible for the creation of wildlife wings within each state headed by a chief wildlife warden.
Under this Act, it is alsc mandatory for the states to set up state wildlife advisory boards.
Secondly, the inclusion of protection of wild animals and birds in the concurrent list of the
Constitution, has provided the Centre with some legislative control over the states in the
conservation of wildlife (Pillai, 1982). Guidelines specifying that the management of protected
areas should be under the remit of the wildlife wings were issued by Central Government in
1975, but progress in implementing them was slow. This prompted Central Government to
threaten cessation of financial assistance to states which had not transferred protected areas to
their respective wildlife wings. The situation has since improved, all states and union territories
with national parks or sanctuaries having set up wildlife wings. However, by 1987, three states
(Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu) had not transferred control over any protected area
to their respective wildlife wings, while eight others (Bihar, Gujarat, Kamataka, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) had transferred only some of their
national parks and sanctuaries (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1987a; Kothari et al.,
1989). Management of protected areas in individual states and union territories is summarised
by Pillai (1982).
The Indian Board for Wildlife under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister, is the main advisory
body to the Government of India on wildlife matters. First constituted in 1952 as the Central
Board for Wildlife, it was later re-designated as the Indian Board for Wildlife. Among its various
achievements, it has been instrumental in the formulation of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, the
establishment of many new protected areas (including tiger reserves), and in the formation of
separate departments for wildlife conservation both at the Centre and in the states. State wildlife
advisory boards have been constituted under statutory provisions of the Wild Life (Protection)
Act to advise state governments (Saharia and Pillai, 1982).
The administration of Project Tiger, initiated as a Central Sector Scheme in 1973, is overseen
by a Steering Committee headed by the Minister of State for Environment and Forests. The
Director is responsible for coordinating the Project within Central Government. Execution of
the Project is the responsibility of the chief conservators of forests in the relevant states, with
tiger reserves managed by field directors. The Project’s present status is that of a centrally-
sponsored scheme, with costs shared equally between the union and state governments (Panwar,
1982).
Training in wildlife management is undertaken at the Wildlife Institute of India, which became
an autonomous institution of the Ministry of Environment and Forests with effect from 1 April
1986. Its objectives include training in protected areas management, research and extension
services, building a computerised wildlife information system, and providing advisory services.
The Institute offers a one-year post-graduate diploma course for forest officers, a three-month
certificate course for forest rangers and an M.Sc. Wildlife Biology course (WII, 1987).
There are many non-governmental organisations involved in nature conservation. The oldest is
the Bombay Natural History Society, established in 1883 and currently comprising about 3,000
members. Whereas work undertaken in its early years was concentrated on collecting, ident-
47
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
ifying and documenting India’s flora and fauna, the emphasis has shifted to conservation-
oriented research in recent decades, particularly threatened species and habitats. Long-term field
studies are based in a number of protected areas, such as Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan),
Mudumalai Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu) and Dalma Sanctuary (Bihar). The Society’s Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society is widely circulated in India and overseas.
World Wide Fund for Nature-India (formerly World Wildlife Fund-India), established in 1969,
has quickly developed to become the largest non-governmental nature conservation organisation
in India, with 20 branches and a total staff of about 130. Its activities include ecological research
and surveys, policy reviews, conservation projects, nature education and responsibility to the
Ministry of Environment and Forests for environmental information relating to federal and state
legislatures, NGOs and the media. Two recent initiatives underway are the establishment of the
Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre and the launch of a Community Biodiversity
Conservation Movement.
The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, constituted in January 1984, has rapidly
emerged as one of the most progressive and influential conservation bodies in India. It has 150
regional chapters spread over India’s 32 states and union territories, the ultimate goal being to
establish a chapter in each district. Its aim is to develop an awareness among the public of India’s
cultural and natural heritage and to promote its conservation. The Trust set up a Natural Heritage
Cell in May 1985 which promotes land-use planning and management in areas of critical
conservation importance.
The Centre for Science and Environment aims to publicise topical environmental issues, as well
as promoting people’s participation in environmentally-sound rural development. Its findings
are documented in its citizens’ reports, two of which have been published to date (CSE, 1982,
1985).
Other national conservation organisations include the Wildlife Preservation Society of India,
founded in 1958 and publisher of the journal Cheetal. Another is the Indian Society of
Naturalists, which publishes Environmental Awareness. Details of some 700 environmental
non-governmental organisations can be found in a directory produced by WWFE-India.
Protected areas are often poorly managed, with little consideration given to the local people
living in and around them (Singh, 1986). The legal, ecological and management status of
protected areas has recently been examined by the Environment Studies Division, Indian
Institute of Public Administration (Kothari et al., 1989). The study was commissioned by the
National Committee on Environmental Planning in 1984 and sponsored by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests. The survey shows, for example, that only 40% of 52 national parks
and 8% of 209 sanctuaries have completed legal procedures for their establishment. Only 43%
of national parks and 28% of sanctuaries surveyed have management plans; in many cases they
are cursory documents and have never been approved by the state government. Many of the
deficiencies in protected areas management reflect a lack of commitment of resources on the
part of state governments. For example, in 1983-84, expenditure on protected areas was 1.5%
of forest department budgets. The Environmental Studies Division is currently engaged in a
series of in-depth studies of management issues in a selection of India’s major protected areas.
Systems Reviews India is a nation of extraordinary diversity, the seventh largest and second
most populous in the world. Its relief can be conceptualised in terms of three well-defined
48
India
regions: the Himalayan mountain system along its northern margin; the Gangetic Plain, which
extends some 2,400km from Assam in the east to the Punjab in the west and southwards to the
Rann of Kutch in Gujarat; and the Deccan Plateau which is flanked on either side by the Western
Ghats and Eastern Ghats (Mani, 1974). Its rich diversity of ecosystems, which range from
tropical rain forests to deserts, and from marine and coastal systems to high mountains, support
an estimated 5-8% of the world’s known flowering plant and animal species, of which a
significant proportion are endemic (Gadgil and Meher-Homji, 1986). Important centres of
biological diversity, particularly for plants, are the Western Ghats, north-eastern India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Nayar, 1989).
Forest once covered most of India but much of it has been destroyed or severely degraded as a
result of human population pressures, particularly in the fertile lowlands which are among the
most densely populated areas in the world. For example, 4.1 million hectares of forest were
cleared mainly for agriculture between 1951 and 1980 (Vedant, 1986; Singh, 1986). Probably
less than 1% of the total land area is covered by primary forest (Mani, 1974). Forests are
estimated to have covered 64.01 million hectares in 1985-1987, or 19.5% of total land area
comprising 11.5% dense forest (at least 40% crown density), 7.8% open forest (at least 10%
crown density) and 0.1% mangrove forest (FSI, 1989).
The total area of wetlands (excluding rivers) in India is 58,286,000ha, or 18.4% of the country,
70% of which comprises areas under paddy cultivation. A total of 1,193 wetlands, covering an
area of 3,904,543ha, were recorded in a preliminary inventory coordinated by the Department
of Science and Technology, of which 572 were natural. In a recent review of India’s wetlands,
93 are identified as being of conservation importance (Scott, 1989).
Coral reefs occur along only a few sections of the inainland, principally the Gulf of Kutch, off
the southern mainland coast, and around a number of islands opposite Sri Lanka. This is due
largely to the presence of major river systems and the sedimentary regime on the continental
shelf. Elsewhere, corals are also found in the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep groups,
although their diversity is reported to be lower than in south-east India (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
Historically, conservation in India stems mainly from the creation of large forest reserves in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries to safeguard timber, soil and water resources. Superimposed
on this network of reserved forests has been a much smaller number of national parks and
sanctuaries where the value of the biological resource has persuaded authorities to reduce the
level of forest product utilisation (Rodgers, 1985). Both the adoption of a National Policy for
Wildlife Conservation in 1970 and the enactment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act in 1972 lead
to significant growth in the protected areas network. The network was further strengthened by
a number of national conservation projects, notably Project Tiger, initiated on 1 April 1973 by
the Government of India with support from WWF (IBWL, 1972; Panwar, 1982), and the
Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, launched on 1 April 1975 with technical assistance
from UNDP/FAO (Bustard, 1982). Project Tiger has been acclaimed as an internationally
outstanding conservation success story. Its achievements and shortcomings are reviewed by
Panwar (1984) and Singh (1986). More recently, the Government of India has initiated a Snow
Leopard Conservation Scheme along the lines of Project Tiger, but with the emphasis on
resolving conflicts between wildlife and resident human populations without having to relocate
villagers from within protected areas (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1987a).
49
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
In fulfillment of one of the major objectives of the National Wildlife Action Plan (Department
of Environment, n.d.), the existing protected areas system has been reviewed and plans
formulated for a comprehensive network which covers the full range of biological diversity in
the country (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). In mid-1987, there were 426 national parks and
sanctuaries covering a combined area of 109,652 sq.km, or 3.3% of the country. Major gaps in
the network included inadequate representation ( 1%) of the following biotic provinces: Ladakh,
South Deccan, Gangetic Plains, Assam Hills and Nicobars. Recommendations in the review
bring the total number of protected areas to 651, covering 151,342 sq.km or 4.6% of the country.
Particular emphasis is given to protecting sites of high species diversity and endemism, as well
as ecologically fragile areas. These proposals supercede previous recommendations emanating
from the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985) and the IUCN systems review of the Indomalayan
region (Mackinnon and Mackinnon, 1986). They also endorse the earlier work of Gadgil and
Meher-Homji (1986), in which representation of the main vegetation types of India within the
protected areas network is assessed. A number of states are now implementing many of the
recommendations made in the protected areas plan, to the extent that total coverage by national
parks and sanctuaries now exceeds 4%.
Addresses
Joint Secretary (Wildlife), Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road, NEW DELHI
110 003 (Cable: PARYAVARAN, NEW DELHI; Tlx: 3163015 WILD IN; Tel: 306156)
Inspector-General of Forests, Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road, NEW DELHI
110 003 (Cable: AGRINDIA, NEW DELHI)
Director, Project Tiger, Bikaner House, New Delhi-110011
Director, Wildlife Institute of India, PO New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 (Cable: WILDLIFE;
Tlx 585238 PRES IN, 585258 FRIC IN; Tel. 27021-8, 28760, 27724)
Chief Wildlife Warden, P O Chatham, PORT BLAIR, Andaman & Nicobar 744 101 (Union
Territory)
Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), HYDERABAD, Andra Pradesh 500 004
Chief Wildlife Warden, ITANAGAR, Arunachal Pradesh 791 111
Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, Retabari, GUWAHATI, Assam 788
735
Chief Wildlife Warden, PO Hinoo, RANCHI, Bihar 834 002
Divisional Forest Officer and Chief Wildlife Warden, Estate Office, Sector 17, CHANDIGARH
160 017 (Union Territory)
Chief Wildlife Warden, SILVASSA, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 396230 (Union Territory)
ADM and Chief Wildlife Warden, Room 39, Ist Floor, Western Wing, Tis Hazari, DELHI 110
054 (Union Territory)
Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, Wildlife and Parks Division, Junta House,
3rd Floor, PANAJI, Goa 403 001
Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, Kothi Annexe, BARODA, Gujarat
390 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, Kothi 70, Sector 8, PANCHKULA, Haryana 134 109
Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, Talland, SIMLA, Himachal
Pradesh 171 002
Chief Wildlife Warden, Tourist Reception Centre, SRINAGAR, Jammu & Kashmir 190 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, 11 Floor, Aranya Bhawan, 18th Cross, Malleshwaram, BANGALORE,
Karnataka 560 003
Additional Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, TRIVANDRUM, Kerala
695 001
50
India
Administrator, Via KAVARATTI, Lakshadweep 673 555 (Union Territory)
Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, Forest Department, 1st
Floor, B-Wing, Satpura Bhawan, BHOPAL, Madhya Pradesh 462 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, Nature Conservation, MS, NAGPUR, Maharashtra 440 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, PO Sanjenthong, IMPHAL, Manipur 795 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, Risa Colony, SHILLONG, Meghalaya 793 003
Chief Wildlife Warden, AIZAWAL, Mizoram 796 001
Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), DIMAPUR, Nagaland 797 112
Additional Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, 315 Kharvel Nagar,
BHUBANESHWAR, Orissa 751 001
Chief Wildlife Warden, PONDICHERRY 605 001 (Union Territory)
Chief Wildlife Warden, Punjab SCD 2463-64, Sector 22C, CHANDIGARH, Punjab 160 022
Chief Wildlife Warden, Van Bhawan, Bhagwan Das Road, JAIPUR, Rajasthan 302 001
Conservator of Forests (Fish and Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, GANGTOK, Sikkim 737101
Additional Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, 571 Tiruchi Road,
COIMBATORE, Tamil Nadu 641 045
Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, PO Kunjaban, AGARTALA, Tripura
799 006
Chief Wildlife Warden, 17 Rana Pratap Marg, LUCKNOW, Uttar Pradesh 226 001
Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, P-16 Exchange Place Ext., New CIT
Building, CALCUTTA, West Bengal 700 073
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Curator, Hombill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,
BOMBAY 400 023 (Cable: HORNBILL; Tel. 243869, 244085)
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Director, F6 Kailash Colony, NEW DELHI (Tel.
6438109)
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), Director-Natural Heritage, 71
Lodi Estate, NEW DELHI 110 003 (Tel. 611362, 618912, 616581)
Indian Society of Naturalists (INSONA), Oza Building, SALATWADA, Baroda 390 001
Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Honorary Secretary, 7 Astley Hall, DEHRA DUN (Tel.
5392)
Worldwide Fund for Nature-India (WWF-India), Secretary General, Secretariat, 172-B Lodi
Estate, NEW DELHI 110 003 (Fax 626837; Tel. 616532, 693744)
References
Biswas, D.K. and Bannerjee, P.K. (1984). Environmental programmes of the Government of India.
In: Singh, Shekhar (Ed.), Environmental policy in India. Indian Institute of Public Administra-
tion, New Delhi. Pp. 97-115.
Bustard, H.R. (1982). Crocodile breeding project. In Saharia, V.B. (Ed), Wildlife in India. Natraj
Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. 147-163.
CSE (1982). The state of India’s environment 1982. A first citizens’ report. Centre for Science and
Environment, New Delhi.
CSE (1985). The state of India’s environment 1984-85. A second citizens’ report. Centre for
Science and Environment, New Delhi. Pp. 343-351.
Department of Environment (n.d.). National Wildlife Action Plan. Government of India, New
Delhi. 28 pp.
Dwivedi, O.P. and Kishore, B. (1984). India’s environmental policies: areview. In: Singh, Shekhar
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FSI (1989). The state of forest report 1989. Forest Survey of India, Government of India, Dehra
Dun. 50 pp.
51
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Gadgil, Madhav (1989). The Indian heritage of a conservation ethic. In: Allchin, B., Allchin, F.R.
and Thapar, B.K. (Eds), Conservation of the Indian Heritage. Cosmo Publishers, New Delhi.
Pp. 13-21.
Gadgil, Madhav and Meher-Homjji, V.M. (1986). Role of protected areas in conservation. In:
Chopra, V.L. and Khoshoo, T.N. (Eds) Conservation for productive agriculture. Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Pp. 143-159.
Gadgil, Madhav and Meher-Homnji, V.M. (1986). Localities of great significance to conservation
of India’s biological diversity. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal
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Government of India (n.d.). Department of Environment: a profile. Government of India, New
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Government of India (1988). National Forest Policy 1988. Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, New Delhi. 13 pp.
IBWL (1970). Wildlife conservation in India. Report of the Expert Committee. Indian Board for
Wildlife, Government of India, New Delhi. 149 pp.
IBWL (1972). Project Tiger. A planning proposal for preservation of tiger (Panthera tigris tigris
Linn.) in India. Indian Board for Wildlife, Government of India, New Delhi. 114 pp.
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Kothari, A., Pande, P., Singh, S., Variava, D. (1989). Management of national parks and
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MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-
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Saharia, V.B. and Pillai, V.N.K. (1982). Organisation and legislation. In Saharia, V.B. (Ed.),
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53
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Summary of Protected Areas of India
National/International designation IUCN Management’ Area
Name of area category (ha)
Ramsar Wetlands
Keoladeo National Park II 2,873
World Heritage Sites
Kaziranga National Park > 4 42,996
Keoladeo National Park xX 2,873
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary »4 39,100
Nanda Devi National Park xX 63,033
Sundarbans National Park xX 133,010
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS UNION TERRITORY
National Parks
Marine (Wandur) II 28,150
Middle Butten Island II 65
Mount Harriet Island II 4,622
North Butten Island II 44
Saddle Peak II 3,255
South Butten Island II 4
Sanctuaries
Arial Island IV BD)
Bamboo Island IV Be)
Barren Island IV 810
Battimalve Island IV 223
Belle Island IV 8
Benett Island IV 346
Bingham Island IV 8
Blister Island IV 26
Bluff Island IV 114
Bondoville Island IV 255
Brush Island IV 23
Buchanan Island IV 933
Chanel Island IV 13
Cinque Island IV 951
Clyde Island IV 54
Cone Island IV 65
Crocodile (Lohabarrack) IV 10,600
Curlew (B.P.) Island IV 16
Curlew Island IV 3
Defence Island IV 1,049
Dot Island IV 18
54
Year
notified
1972
1985
1985
1985
1982
1984
1983
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1987
1987
1977
1985
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1983
1987
1987
1987
1987
Dottrel Island
Duncan Island
East (Inglis) Island
East Island
Egg Island
Entrance IslandS
Flat Island
Gander Island
Goose Island
Gurjan Island
Hump Island
Interview Island
James Island
Jungle Island
Kwangtung Island
Kyd Island
Landfall Island
Latouche Island
Mangrove Island
Mask Island
Mayo Island
Megapode Island
Montogemery Island
Narcondum Island
North Brother Island
North Island
North Reef Island
Oliver Island
Orchid Island
Ox Island
Oyster Island-1
Oyster Island-2
Paget Island
Parkinson Island
Passage Island
Patric Island
Peacock Island
Pitman Island
Point Island
Potanma Island
Ranger Island
Reef Island
Roper Island
Ross Island
Rowe Island
Sandy Island
Sea Serpent Island
Shark Island
Shearme Island
55
India
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1985
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1985
1987
1977
1987
1987
1977
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Sir Hugh Rose Island IV 106 1987
Sisters Island IV 36 1987
Snake Island-1 IV 3 1987
Snake Island-2 IV 73 1987
South Brother Island IV 124 1987
South Reef Island IV 117 1987
South Sentinel Island IV 161 1977
Spike Island-1 IV 42 1987
Spike Island-2 IV 1,170 1987
Stoat Island IV 44 1987
Surat Island IV 31 1987
Swamp Island IV 409 1987
Table (Delgarno) Island IV 229 1987
Table (Excelsior) Island IV 169 1987
Talabaicha Island IV 321 1987
Temple Island IV 104 1987
Tillanchong Island IV 1,683 1985
Tree Island IV 3 1987
Trilby Island IV 96 1987
Tuft Island IV 29 1987
Turtle Island IV 39 1987
West Island IV 640 1987
Wharf Island IV 11 1987
White Cliff Island IV 47 1987
Subtotal 81,650
ANDRA PRADESH STATE
Sanctuaries
Coringa IV 23,570 1978
Eturnagaram IV 81,259 1953
Kawal IV 89,228 1965
Kinnersani IV 63,540 1977
Kolleru IV 90,100 1963
Lanjamadugu IV 3,620 1978
Manjira IV 2,000 1978
Nagarjunasagar Srisailam IV 35,689 1978
Neelapattu IV 453 1976
Pakhal IV 86,205 1952
Papikonda IV 59,068 1978
Pocharam IV 12,964 1952
Pranhita IV 13,603 1980
Pulicat IV 58,000 1976
Rollapadu IV 614 1988
Siwaram IV 2,992 1978
Srivenkateswara IV 50,700
Subtotal 673,605
56
ARUNACHAL PRADESH STATE
National Parks
Mouling
Namdapha
Sanctuaries
D’Ering Memorial
Itanagar
Mehao
Pakhui
Subtotal
ASSAM STATE
National Parks
Kaziranga
Sanctuaries
Barnadi
Dipor Beel
Garampani
Laokhowa
Manas
Nameri
Orang
Pabha
Pobitora
Sonai Rupai
Subtotal
BIHAR STATE
National Parks
Palamau
Sanctuaries
Bhimbandh
Dalma
Gautam Budha
Hazaribagh
Kabar
Kaimur
Koderma
Lawalang
Mahuadaur
Nagi Dam
Nakti Dam
Palamau
Parasnath
57
<eeeeeeeeeeee
48,300
198,524
19,000
14,030
28,150
86,195
394,199
42,996
2,622
4,000
600
7,014
39,100
13,707
7,260
4,900
3,883
17,500
143,582
21,300
68,190
19,322
25,948
18,625
20,400
134,222
India
1986
1983
1978
1978
1980
1977
1974
1980
1989
1952
1979
1928
1985
1985
1987
1934
1986
1976
1976
1976
1976
1986
1978
1985
1978
1976
1983
1985
1976
1984
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Rajgir
Topchanchi
Udaipur
Valmikinagar
Subtotal
CHANDIGARH UNION TERRITORY
Sanctuaries
Sukhna
Subtotal
DELHI UNION TERRITORY
Sanctuaries
Indira Priyadarshini
Subtotal
GOA STATE
National Parks
Bhagwan Mahavir
Sanctuaries
Bhagwan Mahavir
Bondla
Chorao
Cotigao
Subtotal
GUJARAT STATE
National Parks
Bansda
Gir
Marine (Gulf of Kutch)
Velavadar
Sanctuaries
Kachchh Desert
Khijadiya
58
<ede<
<<<2 5
2egacag2 <2 Fe
3,584
875
874
46,160
507,195
2,542
2,542
1,320
1,320
115,342
654
18,066
750,622
605
1978
1978
1978
1978
1978
1967
1969
1988
1968
1976
1975
1982
1976
1979
1982
1987
1965
1980
1978
1986
1981
India
Marine (Gulf of Kutch) IV 29,303 1986
Nal Sarovar IV 12,082 1969
Narayan Sarovar IV 16,579 1981
Rampura IV 1,501 1988
Ratanmahal IV 5,565 1982
Wild Ass IV 495,370 1973
Subtotal 1,618,738
HARYANA STATE
Sanctuaries
Bhindawas IV 513 1986
Bir Shikargah IV 1,093 1975
Chautala IV 11,396 1987
Chhilchhila IV 43 1986
Nahar IV 212 1987
Sultanpur IV 121 1971
Subtotal 13,378
HIMACHAL PRADESH STATE
National Parks
Great Himalayan II 60,561 1984
Pin Valley II 80,736 1987
Sanctuaries
Bandli IV 3,947 1962
Chail IV 11,004 1976
Churdhar IV 5,659 1985
Daranghati IV 2,701 1962
Darlaghat IV 9,871 1962
Gamgul Siya-Behi IV 10,546 1949
Gobind Sagar IV 12,067 1962
Kalatop & Khajjiar IV 3,069 1949
Kanawar IV 6,157 1954
Khokhan IV 1,760 1954
Kias IV 1,220 1954
Kugti IV 33,000 1962
Lippa Asrang IV 2,953 1962
Majathal IV 3,164 1962
Manali IV 3.127 1954
Naina Devi IV 3,719 1962
Nargu IV 24,313 1962
Pong Dam IV 32,270 1983
Raksham Chitkul IV 3,827 1962
Renuka IV 478 1964
Rupi Bhabha IV 85,414 1982
Sechu Tuan Nala IV 65,532 1962
59
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Shikari Devi
Shilli
Simbalbara
Simla Water Catchment Area
Talra
Tirthan
Tundah
Subtotal
JAMMU & KASHMIR STATE
National Parks
City Forest
Dachigam
Hemis High Altitude
Kishtwar
Game Reserves
Bohu
Boodhkharbu Chakar
Brain
Chashul Wetland
Daksum
Dara
Gaurana Wetland
Honlei Wetland
Hygam
Jawahar Tunnel
Kanji
Khangurd
Khirram
Khrew
Kokarian Wetland
Koritaroh
Limber
Lung Nag
Mirgrind Wetland
Nadoora Wetland
Nangachantar Wetland
Noorichang Wetland
Pampore-Kranchoo Wetland
Panyar
Pargawal Wetland
Sabu Chakar
Sangral Wetland
Shallabug Wetland
Shang
Shikargah
Sudh Mahadev
222-222
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
531,255
2,800
10,165
1962
1963
1958
1958
1962
1976
1962
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1980
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
Thain
Tsomarari Wetland
Sanctuaries
Baltal
Changthang
Gulmarg
Hirapora
Hokarsar
Jasrota
Karakoram
Lachipora
Limber
Nandini
Overa
Overa-Aru
Ramnagar
Surinsar-Mansar
Tongri
Trikuta
Subtotal
KARNATAKA STATE
National Parks
Anshi
Bandipur
Bannerghatta
Kudremukh
Nagarahole
Sanctuaries
Adichuncha Nagiri
Arabithittu
Bhadra
Biligiri Ranga Swamy Temple
Brahmagiri
Cauvery
Dandeli
Ghataprabha
Melkote Temple
Mookambika
Nugu
Pushpagiri
Ranebennur
Ranganthittu
Sharavathi Valley
Shettihally
Someshwara
Talkaveri
61
Unassigned
Unassigned
1V
IV
eddeeeeeeees
Se2eeeqedededdddddddd SSRs
India
1981
1981
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1981
1981
1987
1981
1981
1981
1987
1974
1974
1987
1975
1981
1974
1974
1974
1987
1975
1974
1974
1974
1974
1987
1974
1940
1974
1974
1974
1987
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Tungabadra
Subtotal
KERALA STATE
National Parks
Eravikulam
Periyar
Silent Valley
Sanctuaries
Aralam
Chimony
Chinnar
Idukki
Neyyar
Parambikulam
Peechi Vazhani
Peppara
Periyar
Shenduruny
Thattekkad Bird
Wynad
Subtotal
MADHYA PRADESH STATE
National Parks
Bandhavgarh
Fossil
Indravati
Kanger Ghati
Kanha
Madhav
Panna
Pench
Sanjay
Satpura
Van Vihar
Sanctuaries
Achanakmar
Badalkhol
Bagdara
Barnawapara
Bhairamgarh
Bori
Gandhi Sagar
Ghatigaon Great Indian Bustard
62
Seeeecaace << Ses
CAAA AAA ARE
—]
assigned
<2eeeeee
22,422
1,154,822
44,884
27
125,837
20,000
94,000
15,615
542,666
29,286
193,801
52,437
445
55,155
10,435
47,890
24,466
13,895
51,825
36,862
51,200
1978
1982
1980
1984
1984
1984
1976
1958
1973
1958
1983
1950
1984
1983
1973
1968
1983
1978
1982
1955
1959
1981
1977
1981
1981
1979
1975
1975
1978
1976
1983
1977
1974
1981
India
Gomarda IV 27,782 1972
Karera Great Indian Bustard IV 20,221 1981
Ken Gharial IV 4,500 1981
Kheoni IV 12,270 1982
Narsingarh IV 5,719 1974
National Chambal IV 42,300 1978
Noradehi IV 118,696 1975
Pachmarhi IV 46,086 1977
Palpur (Kuno) IV 34,468 1981
Pamed IV 26,212 1983
Panpatha IV 24,584 1983
Pench IV 11,847 1977
Phen IV 11,024 1983
Ratapani IV 68,879 1976
Sailana IV 1,296 1983
Sanjay (Dubri) IV 36,459 1975
Sardarpur IV 34,812 1983
Semarsot IV 43,036 1978
Singhori (Sindhari) IV 28,791 1976
Sitanadi IV 55,336 1974
Son Gharial IV 4,180 1981
Tamor Pingla IV 60,852 1978
Udanti IV 24,759 1983
Subtotal 2,154,835
MAHARASHTRA STATE
National Parks
Gugamal II 36,180 1987
Nawegaon II 13,388 1975
Pench II 25,726 1975
Sanjay Gandhi II 8,696 1983
Tadoba II 11,655 1955
Sanctuaries
Andhari IV 50,900 1986
Aner Dam IV 8,294 1986
Bhimashankar IV 13,100 1985
Bor IV 6,110 1970
Chandoli IV 30,900 1985
Chaprala IV 13,500 1986
Gautala Autram IV 26,100 1986
Great Indian Bustard IV 849,644 1979
Jaikwadi IV 34,105 1986
Kalsubai Harishchandragad IV 36,200 1986
Karnala IV 448 1968
Katepurna IV 1,500
Koyna IV 42,400 1985
Malvan IV 2,912 1987
63
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Melghat
Nagzira
Nandur Madmeshwar
Painganga
Phansad
Radhanagari
Rehekuri
Sagareshwar
Tansa
Yawal
Subtotal
MANIPUR STATE
National Parks
Keibul Lamjao
Sirohi
Sanctuaries
Yagoupokpi Lokchao
Subtotal
MEGHALAYA STATE
National Parks
Balphakram
Nokrek
Sanctuaries
Bagmara
Nongkhyllem
Siju
Subtotal
MIZORAM STATE
Sanctuaries
Dampa
Subtotal
NAGALAND STATE
Sanctuaries
Fakim
Intanki
Puliebadze
159,733
228uuesese
5
17,752
1,522,994
—
aan SE
IV 68,100
68,100
642
20,202
923
<2c
1985
1969
1986
1986
1986
1958
1980
1985
1970
1969
1977
1982
1989
1986
1985
1984
1981
1979
1985
1983
1975
1979
India
Rangapahar IV 470 1986
Subtotal 22,237
ORISSA STATE
National Parks
North Simlipal II 84,570 1978
Sanctuaries
Balimela IV 16,000
Balukhand IV 7,200 1984
Bhitar Kanika IV 17,000 1975
Chandaka Dampada IV 22,000 1982
Chilka IV 1,553 1987
Debrigarh IV 34,690 1985
Hadgarh IV 19,160 1978
Kapilasa IV 12,600 1970
Karlapat IV 25,500 1969
Khalasuni IV 11,600 1982
Kondakameru IV 43,000
Kotgarh IV 39,950 1981
Kuldiha IV 213275 1984
Lakhari IV 11,835 1985
Mahanadi Baisipalli IV 16,835 1981
Nandankanan Unassigned 1,402 1979
Saptasajya 1V 2,000 1970
Satkosia Gorge IV 79,552 1976
Simlipal IV 135,500 1978
Sunabeda IV 44,213 1983
Ushakothi IV 30,403 1987
Subtotal 683,838
PUNJAB STATE
Sanctuaries
Abohar IV 18,824 1975
Bir Bunerheri IV 829 1952
Bir Gurdial Pura IV 847 1977
Bir Motibagh IV 524 1952
Harike Lake IV 4,300 1982
Subtotal 25,324
RAJASTHAN STATE
National Parks
Desert II 316,200 1981
Keoladeo II 2,873 1981
65
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Ranthambore II 39,200 1980
Sariska Il 27,380 1982
Sanctuaries
Bandh Baretha IV 19,276 1985
Bassi IV 15,290
Bhensrodgarh IV 22,914 1983
Darrah IV 26,583 1955
Jaisamand IV 5,200 1956
Jamwa Ramgarh IV 30,000 1982
Jawahar Sagar IV 10,000 1980
Keladevi IV 67,600 1983
Kumbhalgarh IV 57,826 1971
Mount Abu IV 28,884 1960
Nahargarh IV 5,000 1980
National Chambal IV 28,000 1983
Phulwari IV 51,141 1983
Ramgarh Bundi IV 30,700 1982
Sanjjangarh IV 519 1987
Sariska IV 49,200 1958
Sawai Mansingh IV 10,325 1984
Shergarh IV 9,871 1983
Sita Mata IV 42,294 1979
Sunda Mata IV 10,700
Tal Chapar IV 710 1962
Todgarh Raoli IV 49,527 1983
Van Vihar IV 5,993 1955
Subtotal 963,206
SIKKIM STATE
National Parks
Khangchendzonga II 84,950 1977
Sanctuaries
Fambong Lho IV 5,160 1984
Kyongnosla IV 401 1984
Maenam IV 3,534 1987
Singba IV 3,250 1984
Subtotal 97,295
TAMIL NADU STATE
National Parks
Guindy Unassigned 271 1976
Indira Gandhi II 11,808 1989
Marine (Gulf of Mannar) II 623 1986
Sanctuaries
Anamalai IV 84,935 1976
66
Mundanthurai
Point Calimere
Pulicat
Srivilliputhur
Vedanthangal
Vettangudi
Subtotal
TRIPURA STATE
Sanctuaries
Gumti
Roa
Sepahijala
Trishna
Subtotal
UTTAR PRADESH STATE
National Parks
Corbett
Dudwa
Nanda Devi
Rajaji
Valley of Flowers
Sanctuaries
Askot
Binsar
Chandra Prabha
Govind Pashu Vihar
Hastinapur
Kaimur
Katarniaghat
Kedarnath
Kishanpur
Mahavir Swami
National Chambal
Nawabganj
Ranipur
Samaspur
Sohagabarwa
Sonanadi
Subtotal
67
<eeeeeeeee
<<d<
<eddeeeeeeeeddd se FRA
42,820
30,118
737,944
India
1976
1940
1982
1962
1967
1980
1988
1925
1977
1988
1988
1987
1987
1936
1977
1982
1988
1982
1986
1988
1957
1954
1986
1982
1976
1972
1972
1977
1979
1984
1977
198
1987
1987
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
WEST BENGAL STATE
National Parks
Neora Valley II 8,689 1986
Singalila II 7,860 1986
Sundarbans I 133,010 1984
Sanctuaries
Ballavpur Unassigned. 202 1977
Bethuadahari IV 120 1980
Bibhutibhusan IV 64 1980
Buxa IV 31,452 1986
Chapramari IV 960 1976
Gorumara IV 862 1984
Halliday Island IV 583 1976
Jaldapara IV 11,563 1941
Lothian Island IV 3,885 1976
Mahananda IV 12,722 1976
Narendrapur IV 11 1982
Parmadan IV 198
Raiganj IV 128 1985
Ramnabagan IV 14 1981
Sajnakhali IV 36,234 1976
Senchal IV 3,860 1976
Subtotal 252,417
TOTALS
National parks (% total land area) 3,524,856 (1.1%)
Sanctuaries (% total land area) 9,981,364 (3.2%)
Games reserves (% total land area) 120,829 (0.0%)
Note: Maps showing the locations of national parks and sanctuaries are presented for each state
in Rodgers and Panwar (1988), and other summary data can be found in Variava and Singh
(1985). No further details of Indian protected areas are given in this directory because the
Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration is in the process of
producing a series of protected areas directories for each state. The first for Himachal Pradesh
has recently been published (Kothari et al., 1990), and others for the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Gujarat and Karnataka are forthcoming.
68
PAKISTAN
Area 803,940 sq.km
Population 110,400,000 (1989) Natural Increase 2.9% per annum
GNP US$ 350 per capita (1987)
Policy and Legislation Environmental protection and ecology are included in the concurrent
legislative list of Pakistan’s 1973 constitution. This initiative, together with the formation of an
Environment and Urban Affairs Division in 1973, was largely responsible for the enactment of
the Environment Protection Ordinance, 1983. The Ordinance is a landmark in Pakistan’s
legislation and represents official recognition of a holistic approach to environmental issues
(Mumtaz, 1989). It provides for the control of pollution and preservation of a comprehensive
national environmental policy, and filing of detailed environmental impact statements by
proponents of projects likely to adversely affect the environment. The main drawback of the
Ordinance, however, is its much narrower scope - focussing on anti-industrial pollution - than
was envisaged in the original draft, which included legal provisions for the protection of
Pakistan’s natural resource base (Mumtaz, 1989).
A significant step towards meeting the environmental challenge was taken in 1988, with the
support of IUCN, by initiating the National Conservation Strategy development process. A
secretariat has been set up in the Environment and Urban Affairs Division (Ministry of Housing
and Works), which reports to a high-level steering committee comprising representatives of eight
ministries directly concerned with natural resources, and five from the private sector. The NCS
development process represents an unique policy review of economic issues and their collective
impacts on the environment. Public consultations are an integral part of this review and planning
exercise (Kabraji, 1986; Mumtaz, 1989). As part of the review process, a national workshop
was held in 1986 (IUCN/GOP, 1987). The first phase of the development process, namely the
formulation of Pakistan’s NCS, was completed in 1990 (JRC, n.d.).
Early Hindu and Muslim rulers, recognising the inadvisability of uncontrolled hunting, were the
first to set aside game reserves wherein hunting was restricted during breeding seasons. By the
late 16th century, the Mughals had codified regulations pertaining to hunting and these policies
were adopted by succeeding Sikh and British administrations (ALIC, 1981). Indiscriminate
exploitation of forest resources during the 19th century led to the realisation of the need for a
forest policy. Although not of direct relevance to Pakistan, the first forest policy directive issued
by the Government of India was in the form of a Memorandum (3 August 1855) for the protection
and extraction of teak. It restricted the rights of forest dwellers to conserve the forests.
Government of India Circular No.22-F (19 October 1894) represented a more comprehensive
forest policy statement, which emphasised management of forests for timber production,
watershed protection and maintenance of productive capacity. It also provided guidelines on
basic principles associated with rights of people living adjacent to forest lands (Mumtaz, 1989).
69
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Among the first pieces of legislation that directly benefited wildlife were the rules and regulations
formulated in Sind under the Indian Forest Act in 1887 and later incorporated in the Bombay
Forest Manual. Under this legislation, forests were protected from grazing by livestock but
hunting was not legally controlled. Hunting and other forms of resource exploitation were
subsequently controlled within areas declared as reserved or protected forests under the Indian
Forest Act, 1927, the title of which was changed to Pakistan Forest Act, 1927 following
Pakistan’s adoption of the act after partition in 1947 (Ferguson, 1978; Rao, 1984). The 1927
Act sought to "consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty
leviable on timber and other forest produce." It further "empowers the government to set aside
forests reserves, appoint officers charged with the management of those territories, enforce rules
governing the use of forests, determine the degree to which timber and other products may be
exploited, and regulate the movement of cattle upon these lands. Moreover, the Act authorises
the Government to punish violators of the stipulations contained in it." The 1927 Act has since
been amended by the West Pakistan Goats (Restriction) Ordinance of 1959 and the West Pakistan
Goats Restriction Rules of 1961, which enable the government to protect rangelands from
grazing damage by goats through limiting their numbers and movements.
The 1927 Act is not conservation-oriented, commercial forestry interests being foremost.
Subsequent forest policy, under the directives of 1955, 1962 and 1980, has attempted to bring
forests under sound scientific management and included provisions for the creation of national
parks to conserve major ecosystems, but it has not been successful (Mumtaz, 1989). The need
to reassess and redefine policy is being addressed by the Forest Department, following on from
a recent evaluation of Pakistan’s forest policy at an international seminar organised by the
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives in 1989.
Wildlife conservation legislation inherited from British India was superceded by the now
obsolete West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1959 and the West Pakistan Wildlife
Protection Rules, 1960 issued under that ordinance. Apart from prohibiting the killing of certain
species of fauna, this legislation made provision for the declaration of game sanctuaries, in which
hunting was prohibited, and game reserves, in which hunting was controlled under license, but
did not protect the habitat against settlement, cultivation, grazing and other forms of exploitation.
Furthermore, both the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance and the Pakistan Forest Act
applied only to the settled areas of Pakistan (i.e. the flood plains of the Kabul and Indus rivers
and all the land to the east of them); neither were applicable to the Special/Tribal Areas, which
constituted most of the mountainous half of the country to the west of the Indus and where much
of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife was to be found (Grimwood, 1969).
A Wildlife Enquiry Committee was set up in 1968 to review inter alia the existing conservation
legislation, based on recommendations by World Wildlife Fund (Mountfort and Poore, 1967,
1968). Legislation was drafted by this committee (Government of Pakistan, 1971) and, with
minor modifications, was subsequently adopted at provincial level through the provision of
various acts and an ordinance, namely: Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972, Punjab
Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1974, Baluchistan
Wildlife Protection Act, 1974, and North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection, Preser-
vation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1975. Separate laws were passed for the Northern
Areas, Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir and Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad. These are
the Northern Areas Wildife Preservation Act, 1975, Azad Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Act,
1975 and the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management)
Ordinance, 1979 (Rau, 1984). This is the first time in the history of Pakistan’s wildlife legislation
70
Pakistan
that an attempt has been made to provide for the conservation of habitat (although limited to
protected areas) and species other than game species.
All of these statutes provide for the creation and management of national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries (synonymous with wildlife reserves in the Northern Areas Act), game reserves
(synonymous with controlled hunting areas in the Northern Areas Act) and, in the case of the
Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Islamabad legislation, private game reserves. A
national park is a comparatively large area of outstanding scenic merit and natural interest,
wherein the primary objective is to protect the landscape, flora and fauna in its natural state and
to which the public are allowed access for purposes of recreation, education and research. No
hunting or trapping of animals or birds is permitted. Harvesting of forest produce ona sustained
basis is allowed provided national park values are not jeopardised. Construction of access roads,
accommodation facilities and public amenities should be carefully planned so as not to impair
the primary objective of a park’s establishment. A wildlife sanctuary is an area set aside as an
undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the protection of all natural resources, to which public
access is prohibited or regulated. Whereas settlement and grazing by domestic livestock is
allowed in national parks (see Grimwood, 1972, for a discussion of the implications arising from
this aspect of the legislation), such activities are prohibited within wildlife sanctuaries. A game
reserve is an area wherein controlled hunting and shooting is permitted on a permit basis. A
private game reserve is an area of private land set aside by its owner for the same purpose as a
game reserve. Parts of areas protected under some statutes may be denotified under pressure
for agricultural extension or land development (Ullah, 1970; Government of Pakistan, 1971;
Rao, 1984; Khan and Hussain, 1985). To date, there are no notified private game reserves but
a number exist in Baluchistan (e.g. Goth Raisani, Serajabad, Nasirabad area) and Sind (e.g.
Khairpur), where there is no legal provision for their establishment, and in Punjab (e.g.
Kalabagh). Existing wildlife legislation is reviewed by Rao (1984). Model legislation (Pakistan
Wildlife Protection Act) is currently being prepared by the National Council for Conservation
of Wildlife (Rao, 1987).
International Activities Pakistan ratified both the Convention Concerning the Protection of
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on
23 July 1976. No natural sites have been inscribed to date under the World Heritage Convention.
Nine wetlands were designated at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention,
of which two (Kandar Dam and Kheshki Reservoir) are no longer considered to be of interna-
tional importance (Scott, 1989). Pakistan participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere
Programme, but there does not appear to have been any significant development in recent years.
Pakistan also participates in the South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme.
Administration and Management Originally, the Game Department was responsible for
administering the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance up until 1967, when it was
absorbed into the Forest Department (Grimwood, 1969). Following the recommendations of
the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (Government of Pakistan, 1971), a National Council for
Conservation of Wildlife was established on 7 July 1974 within the then Federal Ministry of
Food and Agriculture. It has an advisory board, and is responsible for co-ordinating central and
provincial government effort in the formulation and implementation of wildlife policies. The
Inspector General of Forests is assisted by a Conservator of Wildlife, who acts as an adviser on
wildlife, but the actual management of wildlife is handled by the provincial forest (wildlife)
departments. Sind, Punjab and Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir have separate wildlife
71
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
administrations, but in North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan and Northern Areas wildlife
is administered by branches of the respective forest departments. In practice, forest staff look
after wildlife in reserved or protected forests, and wildlife staff are responsible for protecting
wildlife in other protected areas and elsewhere. In North-West Frontier Province, wildlife staff
are responsible for wildlife everywhere. Within the Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad, the
Directorate of Horticulture is responsible for the administration of protected areas. Legal
provision has been made for the creation of wildlife management boards to approve wildlife
policies and monitor development activities in Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province and
Islamabad. Sind has an effective wildlife management board, while those of North-West
Frontier Province and Punjab are progressing. Boards exist in Baluchistan, Azad State of Jammu
& Kashmir and Northern Areas but only in an advisory capacity. That for Islamabad is not yet
active. Provision has also been made for the appointment of honorary officers to help implement
wildlife legislation in all areas except Baluchistan and Islamabad. The idea was first introduced
in Sind in the 1970s and proved to be very successful in Kirthar National Park, resulting in the
recovery of markhor and other large mammal populations. It has since been adopted in Punjab
and Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, with the appointment of local dignitaries as honorary
game wardens invested with considerable legal power to help enforce the law within protected
areas (Ferguson, 1978; NCCW, 1978; Roberts, 1983; Rao, 1984).
The Environmental Protection Ordinance is enforced by the Pakistan Environment Protection
Council, but this has not yet been formed. The Council is also responsible for establishing a
national environmental policy, providing direction to conserve renewable and expendable
resources and ensuring that environmental considerations are incorporated within national
development plans and policies. Administration of the Ordinance is the responsibility of the
Pakistan Environment Protection Agency. Provincial Environment Protection Agencies have
been set up, but other implementation procedures have yet to be streamlined (Mumtaz, 1989).
Among the non-governmental organisations involved with conservation is the Pakistan Wildlife
Conservation Foundation, a registered charity established in 1979. Its president is appointed by
aresolution of the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. A main objective is to promote
wildlife conservation activities through provision of funds in accordance with the policies of the
National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. The International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (The World Conservation Union) has a regional office in Karachi.
Field programmes concerned with protected areas management issues are focussed on
Korangi/Phitti Creek in the Indus Delta, juniper forests in Baluchistan and Khunjerab National
Park in the Northern Areas. World Wide Fund for Nature-Pakistan (formerly World Wildlife
Fund-Pakistan) has offices in Lahore and Karachi. Two bodies are concerned specifically with
promoting the conservation of pheasants, namely the World Pheasant Association (Pakistan)
and the Pheasant Conservation Forum.
Emphasis on the management of national parks has been given to the development of recreation
facilities for tourists rather than nature conservation as, for example, in Lal Suhanra and Margalla
Hills national parks. Management categories need to be modified (Grimwood, 1972; Rao, 1984),
perhaps by the introduction of nature reserves and country parks to replace wildlife sanctuaries.
Protected and reserved forests continue to be managed under forest working plans after being
designated national parks or wildlife sanctuaries, thereby undermining the purpose of their
re-notification. Hunting in game reserves is not controlled on a sustained yield basis, permits
being issued arbitrarily and subject to political influence (Rao, 1984). The Government of
Punjab, however, has restricted the number of shoots under an amendment to the Punjab Wildlife
72
Pakistan
Act (Khan and Hussain, 1985). Weak enforcement of the law is an overall constraint, but also
safeguards against habitat degradation within protected areas are inadequate (Rao, 1984).
Systems Reviews Predominantly arid and semi-arid, Pakistan is a land of great contrasts.
Nearly 60% of the country consists of mountainous terrain and elevated plateaux; the rest is
lowland, generally below 300m. The highlands comprise: the Himalaya and adjacent mountain
ranges to the north, rising to 8,611m at the top of K2, the world’s second highest peak; the central
Sulaiman Range and its southern extensions (Ras Koh, Siahan and Kirthar tanges); and the
western Baluchistan Plateau. The lowlands comprise the Indus River plain and a narrow stretch
of coastline bordering the Arabian Sea.
Pakistan is poor in forests. In 1984, they comprised 1.3 million ha of productive forests and 3.0
million ha of protective forests, covering 4.8% of the country, and were estimated to be shrinking
at the rate of 1% per year (Government of Pakistan, 1984). In North-West Frontier Province,
however, forests are more extensive and cover 11.8% of total land area (Nawaz, 1985).
Pakistan possesses a great variety of wetlands distributed throughout much of the country.
Inland waters cover 7.8 million ha, over half of which comprises waterlogged areas, seasonally
flooded plains and saline wastes. Coastal mangrove swamps cover at least 260,000ha. Pakis-
tan’s wetlands are important for waterfowl, particularly those of the Indus Valley - a major
wintering ground for a wide variety of central and northern Asian species, as well as being of
socio-economic value (Scott, 1989).
Most of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife is to be found in the mountainous country west of the
Indus, where human pressure has not been as great as in the plains. The two regions of
outstanding importance are the Himalayan and Karakoram massifs in the extreme north and the
desert in the south-west of the country (Grimwood, 1969). To the east of the Indus, Hazara
Division in North-West Frontier Province and several areas in Punjab have a considerable
amount of wildlife (M.M. Malik, pers. comm., 1987), as does the Neelum Valley in Azad State
of Jammu & Kashmir (G. Duke, pers. comm., 1990). Wildlife resources and their exploitation
have been reviewed for Baluchistan (Roberts, 1973; Mian and O’Gara, 1987; Groombridge,
1988) and Sind (Roberts, 1972). Major irrigation systems, built to tap the water resources of
the Indus and its tributaries to meet the demands of an increasing human population, have
resulted in the disappearance of extensive tracts of the original tropical thorn scrub, riverine
swamp and forest in the plains (Roberts, 1977). In a recent review of critical ecosystems in
Pakistan, Roberts (1986) identifies the Indus riverine zone, and the Chaghai Desert and juniper
forests of Baluchistan as being of unique ecological interest and international conservation
importance.
Prior to 1966, Pakistan had taken no significant steps towards establishing a protected areas
network. That year, at the invitation of the Government of Pakistan, the World Wildlife Fund
carried out a survey of the country’s wildlife resources and recommended measures to arrest
their deterioration (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). These included the establishment of two
large national parks and eight wildlife sanctuaries. This initiative was followed by the constitu-
tion of a Wildlife Enquiry Committee in 1968, which made further recommendations for the
establishment of 4 national parks, 18 wildlife sanctuaries and 52 game reserves (GOP, 1971).
These recommendations have been substantially exceeded: 4 national parks, 44 wildlife sanc-
tuaries and 65 game reserves had been declared by 1978 (ALIC, 1981). During the period
1968-1971, various techincal assistance was received from the Food and Agricultural Organi-
73
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
sation of the United Nations, which latterly included the appointment of an adviser to the Wildlife
Enquiry Committee (Grimwood, 1969, 1972).
Protected areas have been created haphazardly, often in the absence of any criteria for their
selection, and boundaries drawn with little or no ecological basis. Priorities to develop the
existing network of protected areas are identified in the IUCN systems review of the
Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and further recommendations are
made in the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985). While most major habitats are represented
within the existing protected areas system (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986), a comprehens-
ive systems review has never been carried out at the national level. Clearly, this is a priority in
order to plan the further development of Pakistan’s protected areas network.
Addresses
Conservator (Wildlife), National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food,
Agriculture and Cooperatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 ISLAMABAD (Cable AGRIDIV; Tlx
5844 MINFA PK; Tel. 829756)
Wildlife Warden, Wildlife Wing, Forest Department, Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, MU-
ZAFFARABAD (Tel. 18)
Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife), Forestry & Wildlife Department, Government of Baluchis-
tan, Spinny Road, QUETTA (Tel. 71298)
Director, Environment Directorate, Capital Development Authority, Sitara Market, ISLAMA-
BAD (Tel. 826397)
Conservator of Forests, Northern Areas, PO Box 501, GILGIT (Tel. 360)
Conservator (Wildlife), Forest Department (Wildlife Wing), Government of NWFP, Shami
Road, PESHAWAR (Tel. 73184)
Conservator of Forests (Parks & Wildlife), Wildlife Department, Government of Punjab, 2 Sanda
Road, LAHORE (Tel 61798/63947)
Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Sind Wildlife Management Board, Aiwan-e-Saddar Road, PO
Box 3722, KARACHI 1 (Tel. 523176)
Inspector-General of Forests, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, Room 323, Block
B, Pakistan Secretariat, ISLAMABAD (Cable AGRIDIV; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Tel.
825289)
IUCN (The World Conservation Union), Country Representative, 1 Bath Island Road, KARA-
CHI 75530 (Tlx 24154 MARK PK; Tel. 573046/79/82)
Pakistan Wildlife Conservation Foundation, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 ISLAMABAD (Cable AG-
RIDIV; Tix 5844 MINFA PK; Tel. 829756)
Pheasant Conservation Forum, Secretary, c/o National Council for Conservation of Wildlife,
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 ISLAMABAD (Cable
AGRIDIV; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Tel. 829756)
World Pheasant Association (Pakistan), Chairman, 7 Aziz-Bhatti Road, The Mall, LAHORE
WWF-Pakistan, 1 Bath Island Road, KARACHI 75530 (Tlx 24154 MARK PK; Tel.
573046/79/82)
WWF-Pakistan, Director, P.O. Box 5180, LAHORE (Tlx 44866 PKGS PK; Fax 370429; Tel.
851174, 856177)
References
ALIC (1981). Draft environmental profile: the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. US Agency for
International Development/US National Park Service/US Man and the Biosphere Secretariat.
Arid Lands Information Centre, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson,
USA. 227 pp.
74
Pakistan
Ferguson, D.A. (1978). Protection, conservation, and management of threatened and endangered
species in Pakistan. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC. Unpublished report. 62 pp.
GOP (1971). Summary of Wildlife Enquiry Committee Report. Printing Corporation of Pakistan
Press, Islamabad. 44 pp.
GOP (1984). Forest watershed, range and wildlife management in Pakistan. Pakistan Forest
Institute, Peshawar. Unpublished report. 18 pp.
Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research
and Training Project Report No. 17. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
Grimwood, I.R. (1972). Wildlife conservation and management. Report No. TA 3077. FAO,
Rome. 58 pp.
Groombridge, B. (1988). Baluchistan Province, Pakistan: a preliminary environmental profile.
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Unpublished report. 104 pp.
IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp.
IUCN/GOP (1987). Towards a national conservation stategy for Pakistan. Proceedings of the
Pakistan Workshop 1986. Asian Art Press, Lahore. 367 pp.
JRC (n.d.) Towards sustainable development: the Pakistan National Conservation Strategy.
Journalists’ Resource Centre, IUCN Pakistan, Karachi.
Kabraji, A.M. (1986). A national conservation strategy for Pakistan. In: Carwardine, M. (Ed.), The
nature of Pakistan. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 69-71.
Khan, A. and Hussain, M. (1985). Development of protected area system in Pakistan in terms of
representative coverage of ecotypes. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural
heritage. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 60-68.
MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas systems in the
Indo-Malayan realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 284 pp.
Mian, A. and O’Gara, B.W. (1987). Baluchistan and wildlife potentials. University of Baluchistan,
Quetta, Pakistan and University of Montana, Missoula, USA. Draft manuscript. 32 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife
Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Mumtaz, K. (1989). Pakistan’s environment: a historical perspective. In: Shirkat Gah-Women’s
Resource Centre, Pakistan’s environment: a historical perspective and selected bibliography
with annotations. Journalists’ Resource Centre-IUCN Pakistan, Karachi. Pp. 7-38.
National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (1978). Wildlife conservation strategy: Pakistan.
National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad, Pakistan. Unpublished report. 73 pp.
Nawaz, M. (1985). National parks and reserves for Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province. Parks
10(1): 6-7.
Rao, A.L. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Pakistan. MSc. thesis, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, UK. 66 pp.
Rao, A.L. (1987). Nature conservation in Pakistan. In: Towards a national conservation strategy.
Pp. 223-250.
Roberts T.J. (1972). A brief examination of ecological changes in the province of Sind and their
consequences on the wildlife resources of the region. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 22: 89-96.
Roberts, T.J. (1973). Conservation problems in Baluchistan with particular reference to wildlife
preservation. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 23: 117-127.
Roberts, T.J. (1977). The mammals of Pakistan. Emest Benn, London. 361 pp.
Roberts, T.J. (1983). Problems in developing a national wildlife policy and in creating effective
natural parks and sanctuaries in Pakistan. Paper presented at Bombay Natural History Society
Centenary Seminar. Powai, Bombay, December 1983. 9 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Ullah, Ch. I. (1970). National parks, past, present and future. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 20:
361-368.
75
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
National Parks of Pakistan
Numbers correspond to those in the summary.
76
Pakistan
Wildlife Sanctuaries of Pakistan
Numbers correspond to those in the summary.
77
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
99 ezs
9S/L3 @ @ -
Game Reserves of Pakistan
Numbers correspond to those in the summary.
78
Pakistan
Summary of Protected Areas of Pakistan
National/International designation IUCN Management’ Area Year
Name of area and map reference category (ha) notified
Biosphere Reserves
95 Lal Suhanra National Park* Ix 31,355 1977
Ramsar Wetlands
144 Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary* IV 164 1976
150 Haleji Lake Wildlife Sanctuary* IV 1,704 1976
Kandar Dam* Unassigned 251 1976
107 Khabbeke Lake Wildlife Sanctuary* IV 283 1976
Kheshki Reservoir* Unassigned 263 1976
156 Kinjhar(Kalri) Lake Wildlife Sanctuary* IV 13,468 1976
Malugul Dhand* Unassigned 405 1976
Tanda Dam* Unassigned 405 1976
90 Thanadarwala Game Reserve* Unassigned 4,047 1976
AZAD JAMMU & KASHMIR
Wildlife Sanctuaries
1 Salkhala IV 810 1982
Game Reserves
2 Ghamot Unassigned 27,283 1982
3 Hillan Unassigned 423 1982
4 Machiara* Unassigned 13.53) 1982
5 Moji Unassigned 3,861 1982
6 Mori Said Ali Unassigned 243 1982
7 Phala/Kuthnar Unassigned 324 1982
8 Qazi Nag Unassigned 4,832 1982
9 Vatala Unassigned 450 1982
Unclassified
10 Neelum Valley National Park Proposed
Subtotal 50,953
BALUCHISTAN
National Parks
11 Dhrun It 167,700 1988
12 Hazar Ganji-Chiltan* Vv 15,555 1980
13 Hingol II 165,004 1988
Subtotal 348,259
79
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Wildlife Sanctuaries
14
Buzi Makola
Chorani
Dureji
Gut
Kachau
Khurkhera
Koh-e-Geish
Kolwah Kap
Maslakh
Raghai Rakhshan
Ras Koh
Sasnamana
Shashan
Ziarat Juniper*
Subtotal
Game Reserves
28
Bund Khush Dil Khan*
Gogi
Kambran
Wam
Zangi Nawar*
Zawarkhan
Subtotal
Unclassified
Astola Island (Haft Talar)
Chagai-Seistan Desert
Goth Raisani Game Reserve
Jiwani Beaches
Ormara Beaches
Nasirabad area
Pasni Coastline
Serajabad Game Reserve
FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY
National Parks
42
Margalla Hills*
Wildlife Sanctuaries
43
Islamabad
Games Reserves
44 Islamabad
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Recommended
Recommended
Private
Recommended
Recommended
Private
Recommended
Private
Vv
IV
Unassigned
80
145,101
19,433
178,259
165,992
21,660
18,345
24,356
33,198
46,559
125,425
99,498
6,607
29,545
37,247
951,235
1,296
ias
211,433
10,364
1,060
3,887
235,813
17,386
7,000
69,800
1972
1972
1972
1983
1972
1972
1969
1972
1968
1971
1962
1971
1972
1971
1983
1962
1983
1962
1982
1963
1980
1980
1980
NORTHERN AREAS
National Parks
45 Khunjerab*
Wildlife Sanctuaries
46 Astore*
47 Baltistan *
48 Kargah*
49 Naltar*
50 Satpara*
Subtotal
Game Reserves
51 Askor Nallah*
52 Chassi/Baushdar*
53 Danyor Nallah*
54 Kilik/Mintaka*
55 Nar/Ghoro Nallah*
56 Nazbar Nallah*
57 Pakora*
58 Sher Qillah*
59 Tangir*
Subtotal
NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
National Parks
60 Ayubia
61 Chitral Gol*
Subtotal
Wildlife Sanctuaries
62 Agram Basti
63 Borraka
64 Manglot
65 Manshi*
66 Sheikh Buddin
Subtotal
Game Reserves
67 Bagra
68 Bilyamin
69 Darmalak
70 Drosh Gol
71 Gehrait Gol
81
II
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
a<
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
226,913
41,472
41,457
44,308
27,206
31,093
185,536
12,955
37,053
44,308
65,036
7,255
33,425
7,515
16,842
14,251
238,640
1,684
7,750
9,434
29,866
2,025
715
2,321
15,540
50,467
2,560
4,047
9,788
2,061
4,800
Pakistan
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1984
1984
1983
1976
1976
1977
1977
1987
1974
1987
1979
1979
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Ghorazandi
Goleen Gol
Indus River
Jabbar
Kacha Marai
Makhnial
Maraiwam
Nizampur
Purit Gol/Chitral Chinar Gol
Qalandar Abad
Rakh Sardaran
Rakh Topi
Resi
Shewaki-Chukhtoo
Shina-Wari Chapri
Sudham
Swegali
Teri/Isak Khumari
Thanadarwala*
Tooshi
Totalai
Zarkani
Subtotal
PUNJAB
National Parks
94
95
Chinji
Lal Suhanra*
Subtotal
Wildlife Sanctuaries
96
Bajwat
Bhakkar Plantation
Changa Manga Plantation
Chashma Lake*
Chichawatni Plantation
Cholistan
Chumbi Surla
Daphar
Depalpur Plantation
Fateh Major Plantation
Kamalia Plantation
Khabbeke Lake*
Khanewal Plantation
Kharar Lake *
Kundian Plantation
82
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
IV
Unassigned
Unassigned
IV
Unassigned
IV
IV
IV
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
IV
Unassigned
6,649
49,750
81,000
13,288
5,300
4,148
5,300
780
6,446
8,490
4,200
17,600
5,050
11,379
1,000
11,500
1,820
19,966
4,047
1,545
17,000
12,800
312,314
6,095
37,426
43,521
5,464
2,124
5,064
33,084
4,666
660,949
55,945
2,286
2,928
1,255
4,397
283
(pea le
235
7,800
1987
1982
1987
1987
1984
1977
1984
1976
1979
1980
1986
1984
1976
1987
1974
1984
1984
1987
1976
1979
1984
1984
1987
1972
1964
1986
1986
1974
1986
1981
1978
1978
1986
1986
1971
1967
1986
1971
1986
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Machu Plantation
Mitha Tiwana Plantation
Nemal Lake*
Rajan Shah Plantation
Rasool Barrage*
Sodhi
Taunsa Barrage*
Tehra Plantation
Subtotal
Game Reserves
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
£33
134
135
136
137
Abbasia
Bahawalpur Plantation
Bheni
Bhon Fazil
Chaupalia
Cholistan
Daulana
Diljabba-Domeli
Gat Wala
Head Islam/Chak Kotora*
Head Qadirabad
Indo-Pak Border
Kala Chitta*
Kathar
Khari Murat
Kot Zabzai
Pirawala Kikarwala
Rahri Bungalow
Thal
Subtotal
Unclassified
138
Kalabagh Game Reserve*
SIND
National Parks
139
Kirthar*
Wildlife Sanctuaries
140
Bijoro Chach
Cut Munarki Chach
Dhoung Block
Dograyon Lake
Drigh Lake*
Ghondak Dhoro
Gullel Kohri
83
Unassigned
Unassigned
IV
Unassigned
IV
IV
IV
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Private
II
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
4,109
1,116
486
2,110
1,138
5,820
6,567
339
815,378
10,067
514
2,068
1,063
9,857
2,032,667
2,429
118,106
5,883
3,132
2,850
132,611
1,141
5,618
10,118
506
5,464
71,306
2,415,400
1,550
308,733
Pakistan
1986
1986
1970
1986
1974
1983
1972
1978
1979
1978
1955
1978
1960
1974
1979
1972
1978
1978
1978
1980
1983
1978
1964
1978
1978
1978
1978
1966
1974
1977
1977
1977
1978
1972
1977
1977
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
Gulsher Dhand
Hab Dam*
Hadero Lake*
Haleji Lake*
Hilaya
Keti Bunder North*
Keti Bunder South*
Khadi
Khat Dhoro
Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake*
Kot Dinghano
Lakht
Langh (Lungh) Lake*
Mahal Kohistan
Majiran
Marho Kohri
Miani Dhand
Mohabat Dero
Munarki
Nara Desert
Norang
Runn of Kutch
Sadnani
Samno Dhand
Shah Lanko
Takkar
Subtotal
Game Reserves
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
Deh Jangisar
Deh Khalifa
Deh Sahib Saman
Dosu Forest
Hala
Indus River*
Khipro
Mando Dero
Mirpur Sakro
Nara
Pai
Surjan, Sumbak, Eri and Hothiano
Tando Mitha Khan
Subtotal
Unclassified
186
187
Hawkes Bay/Sandspit Beaches*
Khairpur Game Reserve
84
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
Recommended
Private
12
738,628
314
429
349
2,312
954
44,200
3,885
1,234
777
109,966
1,969
40,632
5,343
212,364
1977
1972
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1977
1972
1977
1977
1977
OTF
1977
1980
1977
1980
1977
1977
1977
1968
1965
1965
1966
1973
1965
1974
1972
1965
1962
1976
1976
188 Pir Mahfooz Game Reserve
189 Pir Pagara Game Reserve
TOTALS
National parks (% total land area)
Wildlife sanctuaries (% total land area)
Game reserves (% total land area)
TOTAL PROTECTED AREA
*Site is described in this directory.
Private
Private
954,246 (1.2%)
2,749,054 (3.4%)
3,535,284 (4.4%)
7,238,584 (9.0%)
1, ocations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying maps.
Date August 1986, updated September 1990
85
Pakistan
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
ASKOR NALLAH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Situated in Baltistan District, 105 and 137 km by road from the towns
of Skardu and Gilgit, respectively. Approximately 35°10’N, 75°04’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in on 22 November 1975.
Area 12,955ha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,424m to 4,242m.
Physical Features Occupies the entire Askor Nallah and contains rugged and precipitous
slopes. The area is composed of meta-sedimentary, sedimentary and various types of igneous
rocks. Schistose, quartzite and other quaternary lake deposits, alluvium and stream gravels are
present (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Mean annual precipitation ranges from 76mm to 102mm, mostly in the form of snow.
Winters are dry and severe, while summers are mild (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Includes species of juniper Juniperus, birch Betula and willow Salix. Ground flora
comprises Artimesia and a variety of grasses (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex and snow leopard
Pantherauncia (E). Avifauna includes chukar partridge Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa
lerwa and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy
concessions to collect fallen dead wood, cut grass and graze livestock (Rasul, 1985).
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Pakistan
Management Constraints Poaching is a problem due to the shortage of manpower (Rasul,
1985).
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
ASTORE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in the catchment area of Astore Nallah, between Nanga Parbat
(8,126m) to the west and the Plains of Deosai to the east, and about 11 km from the town of
Bunji. Approximately 35°38’N, 74°40’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975.
Area 41,472ha. The sanctuary is contiguous to Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary (41,457ha) to the
north-west.
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,212m to 6,060m.
Physical Features Comprises rugged and precipitous terrain, mostly composed of meta-
sedimentary rocks, schistose gneiss and quartzite intruded by some basic dykes. The area
contains a sequence of sedimentary and meta-sedimentary and several types of igneous rocks.
Late cretaceous sediments overlay the green stone complex, while quaternary deposits, lake
deposits, stream gravel and alluvium cover the bed rock in valleys (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Mean annual precipitation is 254-38 1mm, most of which falls as snow from November
to January. Rain falls during the months of March, April and May, whilst August, September
and October are the driest months. July and August are the hottest months (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Fraxinus, Olea, Juniperus, kail, Picea, Julgoza, Lonicera
and Rosa. Artemisia is prominent among the herbs, along with a variety of grasses.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, musk deer Moschus
chrysogaster (V), snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, lynx Felis lynx,
wolf Canis lupus (V) and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such
as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., monal
pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None.
Conservation Value The site was originally proposed as part of a much larger national park
on account of the spectacular scenery and large mammal populations (Mountfort and Poore,
1968).
Conservation Management There is no management plan. Local people enjoy concessions
to extract timber and firewood, graze livestock and cut grass (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and encroachment (Rasul,
1985).
Staff One range forest officer, one game inspector and one game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 66,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. WWF, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
BALTISTAN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, 193km and 48km from the towns of Skardu
and Gilgit, respectively. Approximately 35°36’N, 75°08’E
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Pakistan
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975
Area 41,457ha. The sanctuary is contiguous with Astore Wildlife Sanctuary (41,472ha) to the
south-east.
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,515 to 5,527m.
Physical Features The sanctuary lies in Rondu Valley where the terrain is rugged, with
precipitous mountain slopes. Rocks are meta-sedimentary, schistose and quartzite and also
include a sequence of sedimentary, meta-sedimentary and igneous types. Quaternary lake
deposits, stream gravel and alluvium are present in valleys. The major source of water is glacial
meltwater, springs and snow (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102mm, most of which falls
as snow during the months of November, December and January. Winters are severe (Rasul,
1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Juniperus, Olea, Fraxinus, Lonicera and
Artemisia (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, musk deer Moschus
chrysogaster (V), urial Ovis vignei, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos,
wolf Canis lupus (V) and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such
as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., raptors
and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The sanctuary supports populations of a variety of threatened animal
species.
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. No management plan exists
for the area. People living within an 8km radius of the sanctuary enjoy concessions to extract
timber and firewood, graze livestock and cut grass (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and encroachment.
Staff One range forest officer, one game inspector and one game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 66,000 p.a. (1985)
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
BUND KHUSH DIL KHAN GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.20.08 (Anatolian-Iranian Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in an inland drainage basin in the hills, 50km north-north-west
of Quetta, Pishin District. 30°36’N, 66°45’E
Date and History of Establishment The reservoir was declared a game reserve in 1983.
Area 1,296ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Baluchistan)
Altitude 1,460m
Physical Features Comprises a water storage reservoir, with fringing reed-beds and several
small islands constructed about 50 years ago to provide water for irrigation purposes. The
reservoir is fed by local rainfall and seasonal flood waters from the surrounding hills. Depth of
water is 2m-3m, but in dry years much of the reservoir dries out and only small scattered pools
remain.
Climate Conditions are arid sub-tropical, with hot summers, cool winters and a short rainy
season in summer. Mean annual rainfall is approximately 200mm. Temperatures range from a
minimum of -10°C to a maximum of 35°C.
Vegetation Comprises reed beds with Phragmites karka and Typha angustata. Surrounding
areas are Cultivated.
Fauna _ The wetland is a breeding area for spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha and purple
gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio, a very important staging area for migrating black stork Ciconia
nigra, crane Grus grus, ducks and shorebirds, and an important wintering area for ducks and
coot Fulica atra. Shelduck Tadorna tadorna and marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris
have nested, and over 10,000 ducks and coots have been recorded in winters when water levels
have been high. Over 4,800 waterfowl were recorded in mid-January 1987, including 3,200
mallard Anas platyrhynchos and nearly 1,000 common pochard Aythya ferina. Further details
of the waterfowl are given in Scott (1989).
Pakistan
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The reservoir provides water for irrigation and human consumption,
and outdoor recreation. Surrounding areas are cultivated and grazed by livestock.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Annual mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
in recent years.
Conservation Value The wetland is an important wintering, staging and breeding area for a
variety of waterfowl.
Conservation Management No management plan exists. It has been proposed that the reserve
be upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary.
Management Constraints The reservoir is silting up and the extent of wetland habitat is
decreasing. There is a considerable amount of illegal waterfowl hunting as well as disturbance
from settlements around the reservoir.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
CHASHMA LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies on the Indus River 25 km south-west of Mianwali. 32°25’N,
71°22’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1974 and re-notified in
July 1984.
Area 33,084ha
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab). Adjacent areas are partly state-
owned and partly privately owned.
Altitude 225m
Physical Features Chashma is a large reservoir which was completed in 1971. It comprises
bunds (embankments) which, at low water levels, divide the reservoir into five shallow lakes,
each of up to 250ha in area. Maximum flooding occurs in spring; as the water recedes, exposed
land is leased to local farmers for agricultural purposes. The depth of the five lakes varies from
0.2m in the dry season to 8.0m at the height of the flood season; the depth of the main river
channel varies from 4.6m to 8.8m. The pH value ranges from 6.5 to 7.2.
Climate Conditions are dry sub-tropical, with hot summers and cool winters. Annual rainfall
varies from 300mm to 500mm. Mean maximum temperature in June is 41°C and mean minimum
in January is 4.5°C.
Vegetation The aquatic vegetation consists of Hydrilla verticillata, Nelumbium speciosum,
Nymphaea lotus, Typha angustata, Phragmites karka, Potamogeton pectinatus, Saccharum
spontaneum, Vallisneria spiralis and Zannichellia palustris. The natural vegetation of the region
is a mixture of subtropical semi-evergreen scrub and tropical thorn forest, with species such as
Olea ferruginea, Acacia modesta, A. nilotica. Adhatoda vasica, Dodonea viscosa,
Gymnosporea royleana, Prosopis cineraria, Reptonia buxifolia, Salvadora oleoides, Tamarix
aphylla, T. dioica, Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia, Chrysopogon aucheri, Lasiurus
hirsutus, Heteropogon contortus and Panicum antidotale. Prosopis glandulosa has been intro-
duced to the area. Most of the natural thorn forest on the plains to the east of the Indus has been
cleared for agricultural land and for irrigated plantations of Dalbergia sissoo and other species.
Fauna _ The wetland regularly supports over 50,000 Anatidae and coots in mid-winter, and in
some years many more. Over 114,000 birds were present in January 1975, and about 100,000
in January 1987 and January 1988. The most abundant species are wigeon Anas penelope, teal
A. crecca, pintail A. acuta, pochard Aythya ferina and coot Fulica atra. There is a small
wintering flock of greylag goose Anser anser, and bar-headed goose A. indicus occasionally
occurs on passage and in winter (recent maxima of 277 in 1982 and 65 in 1985). Peak counts
have included: 1,800 great egret Egretta alba, 13,000 wigeon, 1,250 gadwall A. strepera,
16,300 teal, 3,900 mallard A. platyrhynchos, 10,100 pintail A. acuta, 2,300 shoveler A. clypeata,
25,000 pochard Aythya ferina, 3,100 tufted duck A. fuligula and 61,500 coot Fulica atra. Other
regular winter visitors include great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus, black-necked grebe
P. nigricollis, cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo and many species of shorebirds, gulls and terns.
The wetland is also an important staging area in spring and autumn for cranes Grus grus and
Anthropoides virgo. Further details of the waterfowl are given by Scott (1989).
Indus dolphin Platanista indi (E) occurs in some stretches of the Indus upstream of the barrage
and has been recorded at Chashma, but no estimate of its population size is available. Other
mammals present in the area include wild boar Sus scrofa, hog deer Axis porcinus, jackal Canis
aureus and smooth-coated otter Lutra perspicillaia.
The fish fauna is rich and includes Gadusa chapra, Notopterus notopterus, N. chitala, Catla
catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, C. rebo, Abeo rohita, L. microphthalamus, Puntius ticto, P. stigma,
Barilius vagra, Wallago attu, Rita rita, Bagarius bagarius, Mystus aor, M. seenghala, Heterop-
92
Pakistan
neustes fossilis, Eutropiichthys vacha, Nandus nandus, Mastacembelus armatus, M. pancalus,
Ambassis nama, A. ranga and Channa punctatus. Other aquatic fauna includes Hirudinaria sp.,
Palaemon dayanus, P. lamarrei, Rana tigrina, Kachuga smithi, Trionyx gangeticus and Lisse-
mys punctata.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The local people fish in the lake and harvest reeds (Phragmites
karka, Typha angustata and Saccharum spp.) for use in cottage industries.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Annual mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
since 1971. The status of the Indus dolphin is currently being assessed by the Punjab Wildlife
Department and Zoological Survey Department.
Conservation Value The wetland is a very important staging and wintering area for a wide
variety of waterfowl. It is also of socio-economic importance for flood control, storage of water
for irrigation, generation of electricity and fisheries production (some 636 metric tonnes of fish
were harvested in 1984). The marsh vegetation supports a local weaving industry and the barrage
also provides excellent opportunities for scientific research and conservation education.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints There were plans to construct a large storage dam upstream of
Chasma at Kalabagh, but these have been shelved. The construction of this dam would have
affected the water regime at Chashma Barrage and limited its use for water storage. Fishing
activities at the wetland and livestock grazing cause a considerable amount of disturbance. The
marked fluctuations in water level and harvesting of reeds have an adverse impact on the aquatic
vegetation.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
CHASSI/BAUSHDAR GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 160km by road from the town of Gilgit.
Approximately 36°11’N, 72°55’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game sanctuary on 22 November 1975
Area 37,053ha. Contiguous to Nazbar Nallah Game Reserve (33,177ha).
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 2,878m to 5,151m.
Physical Features The terrain is generally flat, with barren cliffs and scree slopes. Sedimentary
and meta-sedimentary rocks and a sequence of quartzite, schistose and limestone are present.
Baushter Nallah is perennial.
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation ranges from 127mm to 254mm,
most of which falls as snow. Winters are severe and long, while summers are short and mild.
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include stunted Juniperus, Fraxinus, Betula, Salix and Rosa.
Herbs include Artemisia, Stipa and other grasses.
Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear
Ursus arctos and fox Vulpes vulpes. Of the avifauna, there are a variety of game birds, such as
chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. (Rasul,
1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and the reserve is completely
closed to hunting and shooting. No management plan exists at present. Local inhabitants enjoy
concessions to extract firewood, graze livestock and cut grass (Rasul, 1985).
94
Pakistan
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
CHITRAL GOL NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Chitral, the northernmost district of North-West Frontier
Province, about 3km west of Chitral Town. Approximately 35°50N, 71°47’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park in 1984. Originally established
as a private hunting reserve in 1880 by the Mehtars, the ruling family of the former State of
Chitral. Subsequently declared a wildlife sanctuary on 23 December 1971 (Akbar, 1974).
Area 7,750ha
Land Tenure The entire Chitral Gol became state property in 1975, except for 8ha of cultivated
land and several houses which still belong to the ex-Mehtar (Malik, 1985).
Altitude Ranges from about 1,500m at Hyrankot to 4,979m above Dunduni Gol; 24 peaks
exceed 3,000m.
Physical Features Chitral Gol is a narrow valley, its gorge running for some 18km before
broadening out into a basin surrounded by high peaks. Numerous tributaries drain into the
Chitral Gol, which flows southwards into the Kunar River. Parent rock comprises shale and
limestone from which are derived fairly fertile soils of up to a metre in depth on gentle slopes.
The soil is porous and fragile, easily eroded by rainwater.
Climate Conditions are dry temperate and not influenced by the monsoon. Climatic data are
available from Chitral Town (1,436m) where mean annual rainfall is 462mm, with a range of
between 218mm (1905) and 675mm (1931). Mean annual temperature is 16.8°C, ranging from
a maximum of 43.3°C to a minimum of 12.2°C. Most of the park is under snow from December
until March (Akbar, 1974; Malik, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Vegetation The dry temperate oak Quercus ilex forest of lower altitudes merges into temperate
coniferous forest above 2,400m, with the addition of Cedrus deodara and Pinus gerardiana. At
higher altitudes, pine is replaced by Juniperus macropoda scrub. Above the tree-line at 3,350m
occur Salix spp., Viburnum cotonifolium and Juniperus communis, along with numerous herbs
(Akbar, 1974; Aleem, 1977a).
Fauna _ Chitral is famous for its markhor Capra falconeri (V). Schaller and Mirza (1971)
estimated 100-125 in 1970, and Aleem (1976) 225 in 1975. A more recent estimate indicates a
population size of 650 (Malik, 1985). Other ungulates, such as ibex Capra ibex and urial Ovis
vignei, occur in very small numbers, as do black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (Aleem, 1977a;
Malik, 1985). The status of snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) changed from tenuous security
in 1970 to seriously threatened by 1974 (Schaller, 1976). The species does not appear to be
resident, visiting the park occasionally (Malik, 1985). Wolves Canis lupus (V) are seen less
frequently following restrictions on grazing by livestock (Malik, 1985).
Game birds include Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis, a small remnant popula-
tion of Himalayan monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa and
rock partridge Alectoris graeca (Akbar, 1974; Khan, 1976; Malik, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population None - the five families remaining in the park with their 40 cattle
and 500 goats were evicted in December 1984. Seven villages with 300 families occur on the
periphery of the park but their associated 100-150 cattle and 3,000-4,000 sheep and goats are
no longer allowed to seasonally graze inside the park (Malik, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Include two hunting lodges, originally built by the Mehtars.
Scientific Research and Facilities Large mammal populations were surveyed in the 1970s
(Schaller and Mirza, 1971; Aleem, 1976; Schaller, 1976). The impact of grazing by domestic
livestock on the vegetation, soil and wildlife has been examined (Aleem, 1977a). There are no
research facilities.
Conservation Value The park is representative of an ecosystem that is unique in Pakistan.
Conservation Management Originally declared a wildlife sanctuary in order to protect the
markhor. Objectives are to: preserve the landscape in its natural state, along with indigenous
flora and fauna; manage wildlife populations, particularly the markhor, to maximise their
production; and to develop facilities for research and tourism. Top priority has been given to
controlling poaching and the government has decided to acquire all private lands and houses
within the park. Concessions for firewood have been withdrawn in the case of inhabitants of
villages peripheral to the park. Persons affected by these measures are receiving financial and
other compensation to help offset losses, and former residents are being given preference for
employment opportunities in the park. A special project to develop the park is planned to last
until June 1988 at a cost of 4.8 million rupees. Apart from improving facilities (roads, footpaths ©
and visitor accommodation), game reserves will be established in areas adjacent to the park to
act as buffer zones (Malik, 1985).
96
Pakistan
Management Constraints Former management problems associated with land tenure, live-
stock grazing, firewood collection and poaching have largely been alleviated (Malik, 1985).
There is some concern about the markhor population which is presently managed for trophy
hunting. In the 1985/86 winter, four permits (at US$ 10,000 each) were issued to Shikar Safari
Club International by the Conservator of Wildlife (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm.).
Staff Deputy ranger, head wildlife watcher and 12 wildlife watchers (1985)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife), Chitral Gol National Park, Chitral,
North-West Frontier Province
References
Akbar, A. (1974). Chitral Gol Sanctuary for markhor. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 24: 209-212.
Aleem, A. (1976). Markhor in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 26: 117-128.
Aleem, A. (1977a). The ecological impact of domestic stock on Chitral Gol Game Sanctuary,
Pakistan. Tigerpaper 4(3): 26-29.
Aleem, A. (1977b). Population dynamics of markhor in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of Forestry
27: 86-92.
Beg, A.R. and Ilahi Bux (1974). Vegetation of scree slopes in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of
Forestry 24(4). (Unseen)
Khan, Y.M. (1976). A comprehensive report on wildlife resources (wildlife population census) of
Chitral. Forest Department, Peshawar. Unpublished report. 11 pp.
Malik, M.M. (1985). Management of Chitral Gol National Park, Pakistan. In: McNeely, J.A.,
Thorsell, J.W. and Chalise, S.R. (Eds), People and protected areas in the Hindu Kush -
Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation and International Centre for Inte-
grated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 103-106.
Schaller, G.B. (1976). Mountain mammals in Pakistan. Oryx 13: 351-356.
Schaller, G.B. and Mirza, Z.B. (1971). Observations on urial and markhor in West Pakistan. New
York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished report. 4 pp.
WWFIIUCN Project 562. Chitral Gol Reserve, Pakistan.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
DANYOR NALLAH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 6km from the town of Gilgit. It is accessible
only by bridle path. Approximately 35°55’N, 74°07’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 44,308ha
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,454m to 7,575m.
Physical Features The topography is undulating and rugged. In some places there are steep,
precipitous slopes, becoming gentler at their upper limits. There are sedimentary, meta-
sedimentary and igneous rocks with schist, quartzite and limestone. Alluvial deposits and
stream gravels are also present in valleys (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Mean annual precipitation is 76-102mm, most of which
falls as snow during the months of November, December and January.
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Salix, Juniperus, Olea, Pistacia, Hippophae,
Fraxinus, Rosa and Betula. Ground flora comprises Artemisia, Haloxylon, Stipa and other
grasses (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, urial Ovis vignei,
snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game
birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp.
and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and hunting is banned. No
management plan exists for the area. Local people have concessions to collect firewood and
timber and to also graze livestock.
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
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Pakistan
DRIGH LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Situated in Sind Province about 32km north-west of Larkana. The
eastern boundary of the sanctuary is defined by an earthern bund constructed to help retain the
water, and the northern boundary by the Larkana-Qanber road. Approximately 68°05’E,
27°34°N
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in October 1972 under
Section 14 of the Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972. Designated a Wetland of Interna-
tional Importance at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July
1976.
Area 164ha of lake, surrounded by a buffer zone of 5km radius. (NB The area is given as
182ha in the management plan.)
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind). Public rights of access are limited to
the public thoroughfare, which passes through the northern end of the lake, and a dirt road which
runs just outside the western boundary of the sanctuary.
Altitude 50m
Physical Features Drigh is a small, slightly brackish lake with extensive marshes on the flood
plain of the Indus River. Formerly an ancient arm of the Indus, it now lies about 30km from the
river. The lake is situated in a region of cultivated plains, generally divided into small fields for
rice cultivation. The limestone and sandstone hills of the Kalat Range lie some 80km to the
west. In 1977, the clay and silt soils of the region were heavily impregnated with salts following
heavy flooding. The lake is fed by monsoon rains, several small streams entering along the
western side, and by water from a small canal to the north. There is no outlet channel. During
the dry pre-monsoon period in early summer, some parts of the lake dry out. The lake has
decreased in size in recent years as a result of the diversion of flood water for irrigation purposes,
and is now almost completely overgrown with emergent vegetation.
Climate Conditions are arid subtropical. Mean rainfall for the region is 178mm, most of which
falls during the monsoon season. Summers are hot with maximum temperatures up to 49°C in
the shade. Winters are cold with a mean minimum of 2.2°C in January. Prevailing winds are
north-east in winter and west-south-west in May-September (Sorley, 1968).
Vegetation Comprises dense growths of aquatic vegetation including Cyperus alternifolius,
Hydrilla verticillata, Najas minor, Scirpus littoralis, Ipomoea aquatica, Juncus articulatus,
J. maritimus, Nymphaea lotus, Potamogeton pectinatus, Typha angustata and Tamarix dioica.
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Much of the wetland has become overgrown with Typha and Tamarix in recent years. High
ground within the sanctuary is covered with Saccharum sp.
Fauna Drigh is a breeding area for a variety of resident waterfowl, a very important roosting
site for night heron Nycticorax nycticorax, and formerly a very important wintering area for
ducks and common coot Fulica atra. Over 32,000 ducks and coots were present in January
1973, but numbers then declined rapidly as the area of open water diminished. Less than 7,000
ducks and coots were present in 1975 and 1976, and only 820 were recorded in January 1987.
However, large numbers of ducks were again present in the winter of 1987/88. Over 17,400
waterfowl were recorded in mid-January 1988, including: 6,500 common teal Anas crecca, 2,750
common pochard Aythya ferina, and 3,560 tufted duck A. fuligula. Very large numbers of night
heron have roosted in the marshes for many years. About 1,500 were present in January 1987,
and over 2,750 in January 1988. Details of other waterfowl known to occur in the sanctuary are
given by Scott, 1989. The sanctuary is rich in birds of prey such as osprey Pandion haliaetus,
Eurasian marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus, greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga, tawny eagle
A. rapax and imperial eagle A. heliaca. Little is known about the other fauna of the sanctuary.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Rice cultivation is the principal activity in surrounding areas.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a rest house just outside the western boundary.
Scientific Research and Facilities Regular mid-winter counts of the waterfowl have been
carried out by the Sind Wildlife Management Board since the early 1970s. There are no scientific
facilities.
Conservation Value Drigh is an important breeding area for waterfowl but, with the partial
drying out of the lake, its value as a wintering area for ducks has diminished (Roberts, 1984).
Conservation Management Cultivation of land, destruction of vegetation, hunting, shooting
and trapping are prohibited. A management plan was prepared in 1977, in accordance with
which objectives are: to provide optimum conditions for the large numbers of resident and
migratory birds, particularly waterfowl; to provide for a limited amount of shooting on special
occasions; and to provide facilities for scientists and the public to study and enjoy the wildlife
(Conder, 1977). Recommendations for improved management include the construction of an
embankment around the sanctuary with sluices to facilitate the control of water levels, and
provision of observation towers and other facilities for visitors.
Management Constraints The diversion of water for irrigation purposes has resulted in lower
water levels in the sanctuary. The area of open water has decreased in recent years, and much
of the wetland is now overgrown with dense stands of Typha and Tamarix. Grazing pressure is
reported to be heavy inside the sanctuary.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Larkana, Sind Province
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References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Conder, P.J. (1977). Lake Drigh Wildlife Sanctuary (Management Plan). [UCN/WWF Project No.
1360. 11pp.
Roberts, T.J. (1984). Brief review of the status of wetlands in Pakistan. 10th Asian Continental
Section Conference, ICBP, Cambridge. Unpublished report. 6pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sorley, H.T. (1968). The former Province of Sind (including Khairpur State). Gazetteer of West
Pakistan. Publication of the Government of West Pakistan. 809 pp. (Unseen)
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
HAB DAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 04.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies on the Hab River, 40km north of Karachi, on the border between
Baluchistan and Sind provinces. 25°15’N, 67°07’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1972.
Area 27,219ha. It is contiguous with Kirthar National Park (308,733ha).
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind). Adjacent areas are privately or com-
munally owned.
Altitude 150m
Physical Features Hab Dam is a large water storage reservoir constructed in 1981. The Hab
River rises in the Kirthar Range of eastern Baluchistan, and enters the Arabian Sea just west of
Karachi. The water level in the reservoir fluctuates widely according to rainfall in the water
catchment area; the maximum depth is 46m and the average drawdown 19m.
Climate Conditions are arid sub-tropical, with very hot summers, mild winters, and a mean
annual rainfall of less than 200mm.
Vegetation There is reported to be an extensive growth of aquatic vegetation, but no details
are available. The natural vegetation of the surrounding areas is open forest dominated by Olea
ferruginea and Acacia senegal in association with Tamarix aphylla, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia
jacquemontii, Zizyphus nummularia, Euphorbia caudicifolia, Cymbopogon jwarancusa,
C. schoenanthus, Lasiurus hirsutus and Eleusine compressa.
Fauna Some 48,500 waterfowl were present in January 1987, and over 53,500 in January 1988.
Maximum counts included up to 2,870 little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, 2,200 white pelican
Pelecanus onocrotalus, 2,400 wigeon Anas penelope, 1,570 mallard A. platyrhynchos, 2,150
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pintail A. acuta, 1,200 shoveler A. clypeata, 9,300 pochard Aythya ferina, 5,800 tufted duck
A. fuligula and 32,000 coot Fulica atra.
The dam holds about 100 mugger Crocodylus palustris (V), and there are tentative plans to
commercially ranch crocodiles (M. Woodford, pers. comm., 1990). The reservoir has been
stocked with a variety of exotic fishes such as Labeo rohita, Cyprinus carpio and Tilapia
mossambica.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Hab Dam is used for fishing and has the highest fishery potential
of the smaller reservoirs in Pakistan.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
in recent years.
Conservation Value Hab Dam is an important staging and wintering area for grebes, pelicans,
ducks, cranes and coots. It also supplies drinking water to Karachi City and water for irrigating
agricultural land in Lasbella District, Baluchistan.
Conservation Management There are plans to intensify the management of the sanctuary and
to develop the area as a resort for outdoor recreation. Reafforestation is required in the water
catchment area to reduce erosion and sustain stream flow throughout the year.
Management Constraints Fishing activities cause some disturbance to waterfowl. The dam
has had a detrimental effect on the ecology of the estuarine system downstream.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
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Pakistan
HADERO LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Situated in Sind Province about 85km east of Karachi, Hadero is
accessible via the Makli Hills-Thatta-Jungshahi metalled road. It is within 6km of Haleji Lake
Wildlife Sanctuary and about 16km to the south-west of Kinjhar Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.
67°52’E, 24°49°N
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in March 1977 under
Section 14 of the Sind Province Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972. First protected as a game
sanctuary on 2 October 1971 under Section 15 of the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection
Ordinance, 1959.
Area 1,32lha
Land Tenure The lake and stony desert to the north and west are state-owned (Provincial
Government of Sind).
Altitude 60m
Physical Features The lake, probably no deeper than 1.5m, is a natural body of water set in a
shallow depression on the edge of the stony desert. The bedrock is composed primarily of
alternating layers of limestone and sandstone; the long peninsulas which jut out into the lake are
capped by layers of limestone, while the lower lying areas of desert have exposed outcrops of
sandstone. The northern and western shores are rocky and sandy, and border on stony desert;
the southern and eastern shores are gently shelving, with saline mud and silt in an area of
abandoned cultivation. The lake is fed by the SLM drain, which links up with the Jam Branch
Canal, and by a few small streams on the north shore. There is no outlet.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical monsoonal with hot summers and cool winters. Mean
annual rainfall for the region is about 185mm, most of which falls in the monsoon season.
Temperatures range from a maximum of 47°C in the shade in summer to a mean monthly
minimum of 2.2°C in winter. Prevailing winds are north-east in December-January and
west-south-west in May-September (Sorley, 1968).
Vegetation There is relatively little aquatic vegetation, apart from extensive beds of Potamoge-
ton pectinatus and, at the southern end of the lake near the mouth of the SML drain, fringing
beds of Juncus maritimus and stands of Tamarix dioica. Natural vegetation in the surrounding
area includes tropical thorn forest dominated by Acacia nilotica on the plains and Olea
-A. senegal forest on the hills.
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Fauna The lake regularly held between 10,000 and 20,000 waterfowl in mid-winter during the
early 1970s, since when numbers have increased. In January 1987, almost 49,000 birds were
present, and in January 1988, the number of birds exceeded 55,000. Maximum counts include:
1,370 great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, 15,000 Eurasian wigeon Anas penelope, 1,900
common teal A. crecca, 4,000 northern pintail A. acuta, 1,700 northern shoveler A. clypeata,
4,900 tufted duck Aythya fuligula, 6,200 common pochard A. ferina and 24,000 common coot
Fulica atra. Further details of the waterfowl are given by Scott (1989). Birds of prey are
common, particularly osprey Pandion haliaetus. The stony deserts around the lake support
wintering populations of Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata and cream-coloured courser
Cursorius cursor. Further details of the avifauna are given by Scott (1989).
The lake is reported to be well stocked with fish (Conder, 1977). Tilapia has been introduced
and attracts good numbers of cormorants and pelicans (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Kalri Village lies adjacent to the south-west corner of the lake.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities | Mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
regularly since 1971.
Conservation Value The lake is an important wintering area for a variety of waterfowl, notably
pelicans, flamingos, ducks and coots. It also provides excellent opportunities for research.
Conservation Management Hunting, shooting and any other forms of disturbance to the
wildlife is prohibited but commercial and sport fishing are permitted. A management plan was
prepared in 1977, according to which the principal objective is to protect natural habitat in and
around the lake in order to provide optimum conditions for the wide variety of resident and
migratory birds, particularly waterfowl. Recommendations include the establishment of a
no-fishing and no-boating zone in the north-east corner of the lake, banning of quarrying
activities close to the sanctuary, and inclusion of some stony desert within the sanctuary. The
stony desert to the north and west has a fauna and flora of special interest, and is covered by a
Protection Ordinance.
Management Constraints Fishing and boating activities cause considerable disturbance to
the waterfowl, and there have been reports of illegal hunting. In particular, the activities of
Mohanas (fisherman tribe) living beside the lake are a constant source of disturbance to
waterfowl (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). There has been some excavation of roadstone
materials within the sanctuary, and the landscape of surrounding hills has been marred by
indiscriminate quarrying of limestone and dumping of unusable stone.
Staff The appointment of a sanctuary warden, two to three deputy sanctuary wardens, and
seven assistant wardens to cover both Haleji and Hadero wildlife sanctuaries and replace the
existing game watchers has been recommended (Conder, 1977).
Budget No information
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Pakistan
Local Addresses No information
References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Conder, P.J. (1977). Lake Hadero Wildlife Sanctuary (Management Plan). IUCN/WWF Project
No. 1360. 7pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sorley, H.T. (1968). The former Province of Sind (including Khairpur State). Gazetteer of West
Pakistan. Publication of the Govemment of West Pakistan. 809 pp. (Unseen)
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
HALEJI LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in Sind Province some 75km east of Karachi and 16km from the
town of Thatta. Access is via a 5km long track leading off the main Karachi-Thatta highway at
the 47th mile post. 67°47’E, 24°48’N
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in March 1977 under
Section 14 of the Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972. Together with Chateji Dhand, first
protected as a game sanctuary on 2 October 1971 under Section 15/1 of the West Pakistan
Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1959 (Notification No: 26(2)20 AA & FTI(FT)/71). Designated
a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar
Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area _ 1,704ha of lake, surrounded by a buffer zone of 5km radius which was extended from
1.6km in 1975 (Notification No. WL & FIT(DCF-GEN/75). Chateji Dhand lies within the
boundaries of the sanctuary.
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude 60m
Physical Features Haleji is a perennial freshwater lake, with associated marshes and adjacent
brackish seepage lagoons, set in a stony desert of limestone and sandstone bedrock. Originally
a saline lagoon formed by seasonal rainwater collecting in a shallow depression, the lagoon was
converted into a reservoir in the late 1930s to provide an additional water supply for Karachi.
The salt water was drained, bunds (embankments) constructed around the lake, and the Jam
Branch Canal carrying water from Kinjhar Lake diverted to it. This canal remains the principal
source of water. The lake is drained by a link canal in the south-west corner. Maximum depth
is 5-6m and the water level fluctuates by 1.0-1.5m. Salinity is 0.1-0.2 p.p.t. and pH ranges from
6.5 to 8.0. The bunds surrounding the lake carry a road lined with trees. Beyond are three
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brackish seepage lagoons, originally the borrowpits from which the earth was removed to
construct the bunds. The lagoons are fed by the monsoon rains, water discharged from the main
lake via the by-pass regulator, and possibly seepage through the bunds. To the west of the lake,
the land rises by about 12m and is capped with limestone. To the north, the land is more fertile
but elsewhere water-logging and saline soils preclude agriculture. A short distance to the
north-east in the vicinity of Kalri Village lies Chateji Dhand, a smaller lake about 3.2km long,
1.6km wide and up to 1.8m deep. This normally only floods after exceptionally heavy monsoons
but can be filled from Haleji Lake via the by-pass regulator.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical monsoonal. Mean annual rainfall for the region is
178mm, most of which falls during the monsoon season. Summers are hot with maximum
temperatures of up to 49°C in the shade. Winters are cold with a January mean minimum of
2.2°C. Prevailing winds are north-east in December-January and west-south-west in May-
September (Sorley, 1968).
Vegetation The lake supports abundant aquatic vegetation including extensive beds of Phrag-
mites karka, Typha angustata, Ipomoea aquatica, Cyperus sp., Scirpus littoralis and Polygonum
barbatum, and patches of Nymphaea lotus and Eichhornia crassipes. Submerged aquatic
vegetation includes Potamogeton pectinatus, P. perfoliatus, P.lucens, Vallisneria spiralis,
Hydrilla verticillata, Najas minor, Lemna minor, Ceratophyllum demersum and Myriophyllum
spicatum. Juncus maritimus grows around the brackish seepage lagoons. Ornamental trees such
as Acacia nilotica, Ficus sp. and Casuarina sp. have been planted on the bunds around the lake.
The natural vegetation of surrounding areas includes Acacia senegal, Tamarix dioica, Commi-
phora mukul, Prosopis cineraria, Euphorbia caudicifolia, Eleusine compressa, Pennisetum sp.,
Salvadora oleoides and species of Cymbopogon, Calotropis, Alhagi, Zizyphus, Salix, Sagittaria
and Salsola.
Fauna Mammals known to be present include mongooses Herpestes spp., jackal Canis aureus,
wild boar Sus scrofa and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis.
A wide variety of migrant waterfowl, particularly ducks and common coot Fulica atra, use Haleji
Lake and the surrounding seepage lagoons. The sanctuary is also a breeding area for herons and
egrets, cotton pygmy goose Nettapus coromandelianus (up to 55), spotbill duck Anas poecilor-
hyncha (up to 60), purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio (up to 1,470), and pheasant-tailed
jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus (up to 850). Many thousands of night heron Nycticorax
nycticorax roost in the marshes. During the 1970s, the sanctuary regularly held between 60,000
and 100,000 ducks and coots in mid-winder. Over 53,000 waterfowl were present in early
January 1987, and over 103,000 in late January 1988. Maximum counts of wintering birds have
included: 1,160 little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, 2,020 great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo,
12,800 Eurasian wigeon Anas penelope, 6,000 common teal A. crecca, 1,300 spotbill duck,
2,700 gadwall A. strepera, 1,230 mallard A. platyrhynchos, 6,800 northern pintail A. acuta,
7,900 northern shoveler A. clypeata, 9,300 common pochard Aythya ferina, 9,000 tufted duck
A. fuligula, 76,600 common coot, and 2,000 whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus. Further details
of the waterfowl are given in Scott (1989).
The sanctuary is particularly rich in birds of prey, the commonest species being osprey Pandion
haliaetus and marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus. At least 20 other species have been recorded
including Brahminy kite Haliastur indicus, Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus, white-
tailed eagle H. albicilla, pallid harrier Circus macrourus, greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga,
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Pakistan
imperial eagle A. heliaca, tawny eagle A. rapax, red-necked falcon Falco chicquera and pere-
grine falcon F. peregrinus. Some 222 species of birds have been recorded by T.J. Roberts in
the immediate vicinity of Haleji Lake and these are listed in Khan and Haleem (1986).
The lake supports a small population of the mugger Crocodylus palustris (V). Common cobra
Naja naja, water snakes and common monitor Varanus bengalensis also occur.
The fish fauna includes Notopterus notopterus, N. chitala, Gadusia chapra, Labeo gonius,
L. rohita, L. fimbriata, Catla catla, Europhiichthys vacha, Mystus gulio, M. tengara, M. aor,
M. vittatus, Channa marulius, C. striatus, C. punctatus, Nandus nandus, Puntius (Barbus)
sarana, P. ticto, P. stigma, Badis badis, Glossogobius spp., Crossocheilus latius, C. mrigala,
Ambassis nama, A. ranga, Rasbora rasbora, R. daniconius, Xenentodon cancila and Mastacem-
belus armatus. Tilapia mossambica, Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idellus have been
introduced.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are four small villages and several nomadic settlements
within the buffer zone (Conder, 1977).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are rest houses at Haleji Camp belonging to the Karachi
Development Authority and a local tea house by the entry gate (Conder, 1977). An impressive
information centre, with restaurant and observation tower, has been established by the Sind
Wildlife Management Board and this was inaugurated in February 1982.
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts have been conducted regu-
larly since 1971 by the Sind Wildlife Management Board and Zoological Survey Department,
and a limnological survey carried out by Karachi University. A project to study the common
monitor has been initiated by the Zoological Survey Department in collaboration with the US
Fish and Wildlife Service.
Conservation Value Haleji and the surrounding seepage lagoons are an internationally
important staging and wintering area for a variety of waterfowl. Situated only a short distance
from Karachi, the sanctuary provides excellent opportunities for conservation education and
scientific research.
Conservation Management The main purpose of the lake is to supply Karachi with freshwater
for about 15 days in the year, usually in April when the canal from Kinjhar Lake, which normally
supplies Karachi, is being cleaned out. The sanctuary is managed by the Sind Wildlife
Management Board in agreement with the Karachi Development Authority, according to a
management plan prepared by Conder (1977). Objectives outlined in the management plan are:
to protect the habitat for the benefit of the large numbers of resident and migratory birds,
particularly waterfowl: and to provide facilities for naturalists and interested members of the
public to study and enjoy the wildlife. Shooting, cutting and lopping of trees, boating,
commercial fishing and reed cutting for thatch are prohibited but angling is permitted under
license to the Karachi Development Authority. The lake is dredged from time to time to remove
silt from the channel along its eastern and southern sides. The extensive Phragmites beds have
been cut annually since 1977, except near the tail regulator where there was a large roost of night
herons. The roost has since been abandoned due to harassment by house crows Corvus splendens
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(T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). The Karachi Development Authority is proposing to build
another reservoir alongside Haleji.
Management Constraints There have been some incidences of unauthorised access, illegal
fishing, hunting and cutting of trees at Haleji Lake, and considerable disturbances from nomadic
settlements and illegal hunting at Chateji Dhand which is easily accessible from the Jungshahi-
Thatta road. Recently, university scientists reported to a local Karachi newspaper their concern
about plastic bags littering the fringe of the lake, dead turtles and the uncontrolled growth of
Hydrilla and Typha (Dawn, 18 July 1989).
Staff No recent information. It has been recommended that a sanctuary warden, two or three
deputy sanctuary wardens and seven assistant sanctuary wardens replace existing game watchers
to cover both Lake Halji and Lake Hadero (Conder, 1977).
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Conder, P.J. (1977). Lake Haleji Wildlife Sanctuary (Management Plan). IUCN/WWF Project
No. 1360. 15 pp.
Khan, S.I. (1985). A note on the birds of prey of Haleji Lake and its surrounding areas. Records
of the Zoological Survey of Pakistan 10: 75-80.
Khan, M.K. and Haleem, I. (1988). Haleji Lake: where all God’ s creatures enjoy the right to live.
Sind Wildlife Management Board, Karachi. 25 pp.
Roberts, T. (1984a). Pakistan’s wildlife today. World Wildlife Fund Monthly Report, January 1984.
Roberts, T.J. (1984b). Brief review of the status of wetlands in Pakistan. 10th Asian Continental
Section Conference, ICBP, Cambridge. Unpublished report. 6 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sorley, H.T. (1968). The former Province of Sind (including Khairpur State). Gazetteer of West
Pakistan. Publication of the Government of West Pakistan. 809 pp. (Unseen)
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
HAWKES BAY/SANDSPIT BEACHES
IUCN Management Category Recommended
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies on the Arabian Sea coast and stretches from Manora Point, at the
mouth of Karachi harbour, westwards as far as Buleji Point. 24°47’-24°52’N, 66°50’-66°59’E
Date and History of Establishment Recommended as a reserve for marine turtles.
Area 20km stretch of beach and c. 2,000ha of tidal creeks
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Pakistan
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features Comprises a gently sloping sand beach, with open sandy approaches amd
some submerged rocks offshore. The eastern part of the beach (Sandspit) is entirely sand; the
western part (Hawkes Bay) has some rocky areas. The beaches are backed by a narrow, low
primary dune ridge, behind which is a complex of sandy plains and tidal marshes. The beach
platform is high enough to remain above the high tide mark at all times of the year except during
the monsoon when it can be inundated by high tides.
Climate Conditions are arid subtropical with temperatures remaining high throughout the year.
Mean annual rainfall is 125mm, and mean annual temperature 32°C.
Vegetation Dunes are consolidated in patches by [pomoea pescaprae and grasses; the sandy
plains support Acacia; and the tidal marshes are dominated by mangrove Avicennia marina.
Fauna The beach is a very important nesting site for green sea turtle Chelonia mydas (E) ana
olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (E); Kabraji and Firdous (1984) estimated that some 6,000
green sea turtle and 200 olive ridley came to the beach to nest each year during the period
1981-1983. Thirty two-species of shorebirds have been recorded, including crab plover Dromas
ardeola. The commonest species are snowy plover Charadrius alexandrinus, lesser sand plover
C. mongolus, sanderling Calidris alba, little stint C. minuta and dunlin C. alpina. Over 52,000
waterfowl were recorded in mid-January 1975, including at least 5,000 snowy plover and sand
plover, 1,650 pintail Anas acuta, 2,000 little stint, 20,000 dunlin, 10,000 unidentified small
shorebirds and 7,880 black-headed gull Larus ridibundus. No comparable censuses have been
carried out since 1975, but 2,100 and 1,700 waterfowl were recorded during partial surveys in
January 1987 and January 1988, respectively.
Cultural Heritage Turtle meat and eggs are not considered religiously desirable to eat by the
local Muslims, but eggs are sometimes used in indigenous medicines (Kabraji and Firdous,
1984).
Local Human Population Areas of urban development exist along the northern and eastern
shores of the creek system.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are many holiday houses along the beach, which is used
for recreation and fishing.
Scientific Research and Facilities Marine turtles have been surveyed by Salm (1981) and
their conservation requirements assessed by Kabraji and Firdous (1984). The Zoological Survey
Department is carrying out a research project on the shorebirds of the Karachi coast.
Conservation Value The site is of international importance for green sea turtle. The creek
system is one of the most important areas for wintering, passage and summering shorebirds in
Pakistan, and also supports significant numbers of cormorants, flamingos, ducks, gulls and terns.
It has been recommended that the property be declared a turtle reserve (Salm, 1981).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Conservation Management A marine turtle conservation project, initiated by WWF and
implemented by the Sind Wildlife Management Board, has been in operation since 1980. One
of the main aims of the project has been to protect turtle eggs from depredation; this has been
achieved by collecting eggs from the wild, hatching them in enclosures, and then releasing the
hatchlings into the sea. The beaches are patrolled and feral dogs are controlled to reduce
predation levels. The project also includes a conservation education component.
Management Constraints The beaches are a prime recreational site for the citizens of Karachi.
Settlements are springing up along the beach, and the levels of disturbance and pollution are
continually increasing. Principal threats to the marine turtles are disturbance from recreational
activities and predation by humans and feral dogs. Turtles and their hatchlings frequently lose
direction and orient themselves towards the bright lights of Karachi City to the north-east. The
mangroves have been severely denuded as a result of grazing by camels and cutting for fodder,
and there is a considerable amount of domestic and industrial pollution in the creek system.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Sind Wildlife Management Board, P O Box 3722, Stratchen Road, Karachi 1
References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Kabraji, A.M. and Firdous, F.(1984). Conservation of turtles: Hawkesbay and Sandspit, Pakistan.
WWF-International/Sind Wildlife Management Board, Karachi. Unpublished report. 52 pp.
Salm, R.V. (1981). Coastal resources in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan: description, use and
management. US Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Pp. 91-95.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
HAZAR GANJI-CHILTAN NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.20.08 (Anatolian-Iranian Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in Baluchistan Province, some 20km south-west of the provincial
capital of Quetta. The boundaries of the original area of 12,56lha are described in the
management plan (Rana, 1981). 29°59’-30°07’N, 66°24’-66°54’E
Date and History of Establishment Notified a national park on 15 January 1980 (Notification
No. SOA(IV) 133/79-Forest Vol.1). Hazar Ganji was originally declared a state forest in 1890
and Chiltan a protected forest in 1964. Hazar Ganji was subsequently notified a game reserve
in 1959 and later declared a wildlife sanctuary (Rana, 1981; Rafiq, 1985).
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Pakistan
Area 15,555ha. The original area of 12,561ha, comprising Hazar Ganji State Forest (2,201ha)
and Chiltan Protected Forest (10,360ha) (Rana, 1981), was extended to 13,761ha in the early
1980s (Shafique, 1984) and subsequently to its present size. There are plans to increase the area
to about 150,000ha (Rafiq, 1985).
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Baluchistan)
Altitude Ranges from 1,680m to 3,313m (Chiltan Peak).
Physical Features The area is mountainous with precipitous slopes divided by ravines. The
Chiltan Hills and Hazar Ganji Range lie west and east, respectively, of the north-south Chiltan
divide. Bedrock is sedimentary limestone and soils on the flats are sandy loam (Rafiq, 1985).
Climate Mean annual precipitation is 200-225mm, most of which falls in winter when snow
remains on the higher peaks from December until the end of March. Temperatures rise to a
maximum of 40°C in summer and fall to a minimum of -12°C in winter (Rafiq, 1985).
Vegetation Forest cover is sparse and generally confined to gullies (Rana, 1981). Scrub forest
occurs at low altitudes, with an open canopy of Pistacea khinjak, P. cabulica and Fraxinus
xanthoxyloides, and a second storey of Sophora griffithi, Artemisia maritima, Prunus brahuica,
Ephedra sp., Holoxylon griffithi and Perovskia striplicifolica (Shafique, 1984). Juniperus
macropoda occurs in the higher reaches of the park. The fencing along the southern border of
the park has had a dramatic effect on the recovery of the vegetation, with many showy flowers
in spring, such as Gentiana livieri, Ixiolirion montanum, Ferrula oopoda and Salvia spp. (T.J.
Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Some 225 plant species have been recorded by the Botany
Department of the University of Baluchistan (Shafique, 1984).
Fauna The Chiltan Hills harbour the largest remaining population of Chiltan markhor Capra
falconeri chialtanensis (V). In the 1950s it was said to exceed 1,200 (Rana, 1981), but in
November 1970 the population was estimated to number about 200, based on a total count of
107 individuals (Schaller and Mirza, 1971). Subsequently, Mirza (1975) counted 168 animals.
The population is presently estimated at about 300 (Valdez, 1988). The Suleiman markhor C/f.
jerdoni(V) is also present in the northern part of the Chiltan Range and a few urial Ovis orientalis
still survive on the western slopes between 1,500m and 2,100m (Shafique, 1984). Carnivores
include hyaena Hyaena hyaena and fox Vulpes vulpes. Three species of sand rat are present:
Meriones persicus above 1,830m, and lower down M. libycus and M. crassus occur in more
exposed places (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986).
The scops owl Otus scops is present and sympatric with striated scops owl O. brucei. Other
noteworthy birds include common cuckoo Cuculus canorus, European bee-eater Merops apias-
tur, rock partridge Alectoris graeca, European nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus unwini, long-
billed pipit Anthus similis, orphean warbler Sylvia hortensis, variable wheatear Oenanthe picata,
blue rock thrush Monticola solitarius, stonechat Saxicola torquata, and Lichtenstein’s desert
finch Rhodospiza obsoleta (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986).
Cultural Heritage Neighbouring areas are inhabited by Shahwani tribals.
Local Human Population No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The national park is accessible by road from Quetta and attracts
many visitors. Facilities include a museum, picnic spots and accommodation in rest houses.
Scientific Research and Facilities Preliminary surveys of the flora have been undertaken by
the Botany Department of the University of Baluchistan. The dynamics of rodent populations
in Hazar Ganji have been studied by the Vertebrate Pest Research Institute, University of
Karachi. The status of the Chiltan markhor population was assessed by Schaller and Mirza
(1971) and subsequently by Mirza (1975). The Forest Department has agreed to establish a
captive population of Chiltan markhor for taxonomic studies and to provide stock for possible
re-introduction programmes (Valdez, 1988). A hut is available for visiting scientists.
Conservation Value The park is most important as a refuge for the largest remaining
population of Chiltan markhor.
Conservation Management Although a state forest for many decades, the forests of Hazar
Ganji were never exploited on a commercial scale. Nevertheless, the habitat became degraded
and wildlife populations reduced due to over-exploitation . Park development began in 1978.
Objectives outlined in the management plan include protecting the wildlife, improving and
restoring its habitat and improving the amenity value of the area for the benefit of the residents
of Quetta. Efforts to protect the park, including the erection of 30km of boundary fencing, have
resulted in a marked recovery of the vegetation and an increase in the Chiltan markhor
population. Other initiatives include planting of fodder trees and high-yielding nutritious grasses
on the flats and the provision of waterholes and two reservoirs. Livestock grazing and wood
cutting are prohibited but the Shahwanis are allowed to collect the fruit of shina Pistacea khinjak
(Rana, 1981; Shafique, 1984; Rafiq, 1985). A system of zonation is proposed with recreation
zones of varying intensities of use, a wilderness area and special areas of scientific importance.
Adjoining areas within an 8km radius of the national park will serve as a buffer zone within
which shooting will be prohibited (Rana, 1981).
Management Constraints The ecosystem, fragile on account of the aridity, was heavily
over-exploited up until 1977 when controls were introduced. The vegetation is recovering as
witnessed by the sharp contrast between the healthy vegetation within the park and the eroded
landscape beyond (Shafique, 1984). The Forest Department’s plans to extend the area of the
park to about 150,000ha is likely to conflict with the interests of the local human population
(Rafiq, 1985).
Staff No information
Budget Annual expenditure of Rs 1.2 lakhs increasing to 3.6 lakhs proposed for the period
1981/82-1985/86 (Rana, 1981).
Local Addresses No information
References
Mirza, Z.B. (1975). A census of Chiltan markhor Capra hircus in Chiltan Range, Quetta. Pakistan
Journal of Zoology 7: 214-216.
Rafiq, M. (1985). Management of Chiltan-Hazraganji National Park in Baluchistan. In: McNeely,
J.A., Thorsell, J.W. and Chalise, S.R. (Eds), People and protected areas in the Hindu Kush-
112
Pakistan
Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation and International Centre for Inter-
grated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 101-102.
Rana, M.M. (1981). Management plan of Hazar Ganji-Chiltan National Park. National Council
for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad. 55 pp.
Schaller, G.B. and Mirza, Z.B. (1971). Observations on urial and markhor in West Pakistan. New
York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished report. 4 pp.
Shafique, M. (1984). Hazaraganji-Chiltan National Park. World Wildlife Fund Pakistan Newslet-
ter. 3(4): 8-10.
Valdez, R. (1988). Wild Caprins of Pakistan. A report. Caprinae News 3(1): 2-6.
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
HEAD ISLAM/CHAK KOTORA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies 30km south-east of Vehari. 29°50’N, 72°34’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in 1978 and re-notified in 1983.
Area 3,132 ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab). The reservoir is under the
authority of the provincial Irrigation Department; adjacent agricultural land is privately owned.
Altitude 139m
Physical Features Head Islam is a water storage reservoir on the Sutlej River, from which
water is distributed by canal for irrigation purposes. Two embankments project out into the
reservoir and hold back shallow lagoons as the water level in the main river channel recedes.
The combination of shallow water areas, rich aquatic vegetation and wet agricultural land
provides excellent habitat for waterfowl during the autumn migration season. The lagoons dry
out completely towards the end of December, however, when the area becomes less suitable for
wintering birds. The depth of water in the main channel varies from 3m to 6m, and that in the
seepage lagoons from 0.1m to 3m.
Climate Conditions are dry sub-tropical, with an annual rainfall of 200-300mm. Minimum
temperatures in January range from 5.5°C to 18°C, and maximum temperatures in June from
32°C to 46°C.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation includes Hydrilla verticillata, Juncus sp., Nelumbium specio-
sum, Phragmites karka, Potamogeton spp., Typha angustata, Zannichellia palustris, Desmos-
tachya binata and Cynodon dactylon. Land around the reservoir is mainly under cultivation for
cotton, rice, wheat, sugar cane and fodder crops. The natural vegetation of the surrounding plains
is tropical thorn forest with Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix aphylla, T. dioica,
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Salvadora oleoides, Capparis aphylla, Zizyphus nummularia, Aristida mutabilis, Cynodon
dactylon, Eleusine compressa and Pennisetum divisum.
Fauna Some 1,150 waterfowl were recorded in early January 1987, with a high species
diversity. Counts included 140 little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, 125 cormorant Phalacroco-
rax niger, 180 herons and egrets of 5 species, 110 spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, 190 common
coot Fulica atra, 38 black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus and small numbers of various
species of ducks and shorebirds. Similar numbers of birds were present in January 1988.
Mammals include hog deer Axis porcinus, greatly reduced in number, jackal Canis aureus,
jungle cat Felis chaus, wild boar Sus scrofa and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis. Gharial
Gavialis gangeticus (E) formerly occurred in the main river channel, but disappeared after the
construction of a dam upstream.
Fishes include Ambassis nama, A. ranga, Bagarius bagarius, Catla catla, Channa marulius,
C. punctatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, C. reba, Heteropneustes fossilis, Labeo calbasu, L. micro-
phthalmus, L. rohita, Mastacembelus armatus, Mystus aor, Nandus nandus, Notopterus chitale,
N. notopterus, Puntius sophore, P. ticto, Rita rita and Wallago attu.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The reservoir is used for fishing and as a water supply for
surrounding areas. Land exposed at low water levels is leased for the cultivation of cotton, rice,
wheat and fodder crops.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Annual mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
in recent years.
Conservation Value The wetland is an important staging area for migratory waterfowl,
particularly Anatidae and shorebirds, during the autumn migration season. Most birds depart
when the seepage lagoons dry out in December. The reservoir is an important source of water
for irrigation and supports a small commercial fishery. The site has some value for outdoor
recreation, including bird-watching and boating.
Conservation Management It has been proposed that ownership of the area be transferred
from the Irrigation Department to the Wildlife Department, and that the area be managed as a
wildlife sanctuary in the interests of its hog deer, partridges Francolinus spp. and waterfowl.
There is no management plan.
Management Constraints Agricultural activities around the seepage lagoons and fishing in
the reservoir disturb the waterfowl, and there is some illegal hunting. The wide fluctuations in
water level make the site less attractive for waterfowl during winter.
Staff No information
Budget No information
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Pakistan
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
INDUS RIVER GAME RESERVE
TUCN Management Category No category assigned
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Comprises a 170km stretch of the Indus River between Guddu and
Sukkur barrages in Sind Province. 27°40’-28°26’N, 68°53’-69°46’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 24 December 1974 (Govern-
ment of Sind Notification No. WL & FT (DCF-GEN-767) 74).
Area 44,200ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude 50m
Physical Features The Indus and its main tributaries are perennial, the volume of water
discharged varying in relation to seasonal meltwater and rainfall. The maximum volume (50%)
of the annual discharge of the Indus is observed in the summer monsoon months of July-
September and only 15% in the winter season from October to March, when its width varies
from 50m to 1km, its current speed from 0.1 to 1.5m per sec and its depth is not less than 6m.
As a result of the very gentle gradient of the Indus in the Punjab and Sind, and the enormous
quantity of detritus borne downstream, the river bed is raised above the level of the surrounding
plains. The river bed comprises mud and sand. Owing to the high amount of detritus, the water
is extremely turbid and the visual range from the surface downwards is only about Scm (Pilleri
and Zbinden, 1973-1974).
Climate Water temperature in winter ranges from a minimum of 12°C at night to a daytime
maximum of 24°C, while the air temperature varies from 2°C to 35°C (Pilleri and Zbinden,
1973-1974.)
Vegetation The following plants are associated with areas of inundation and marshland along
the Indus: Saccharum spontaneum, Phragmites communis, Tamarix dioica, Typha elephantina,
T. angustata, Arundo donax, Paspalum ditichum and Erianthus spp. The freshwater flora is
limited to planktonic forms.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Fauna The Indus dolphin Platanista indi (E) is a blind cetacean endemic to the Indus River
and found in greatest numbers between Guddu and Sukkur barrages. About 150 were censused
in January 1974 (Pilleri and Zbinden, 1973-1974), 187 in April-May 1977 (Pilleri and Bhatti,
1978), 241 in May 1978 (Pilleri and Bhatti, 1978), 292 in June 1979 (Pilleri and Bhatti, 1980),
346 in April 1980 (Bhatti and Pilleri, 1982) and 429 in 1986 (Khan, 1986). There is some doubt
as to the comparability of these census data due to differences in the reliability of survey
techniques; neverthless, it is believed that the population has actually increased following the
strict protective measures afforded to the species since 1974 (Khan and Niazi, 1989). Other
aquatic vertebrates include turtles (Kachuga smithii, Trionyx gangeticus and Lissemys punctata)
and gharial Gavialis gangeticus (E), which locally is almost extinct. Aquatic birds include large
colonies of Laridae and egrets. Common species of fish are mali Wallago attu, singari Macrones
aor and marakho Catla buchanani, all of which are taken by the Indus dolphin (Pilleri and
Zbinden, 1973-1974).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Mohanas (Mohammedans of the Jubbah caste) used to catch
dolphins, being mainly dependent for their livelihood on the sale of dolphin oil for medicinal
purposes and on its meat for food.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities The Indus dolphin population has regularly been censused
since 1974. In 1977, a research project to identify the species conservation requirements was
initiated by World Wildlife Fund, with support from the Volkart Foundation in Karachi, and
subsequently financed by Sind Wildlife Management Board (Khan, 1981).
Conservation Value The reserve was established for the protection of the Indus dolphin.
Conservation Management Construction of a series of barrages across the Indus River, to
supply energy and facilitate irrigation of the Sind Desert, had split the Indus dolphin population
into completely isolated groups. Development of irrigation systems in the middle and upper
reaches of the river had drastically lowered the water level further downstream, making
conditions unsuitable for the species. With the added pressure of hunting, numbers had declined
to a perilously low level. On 23 December 1974, all hunting of the Indus dolphin in the waters
of Sind Province was prohibited (Notification No. WL & FT (DCF-GEN-762)74) and, on 24
December 1974, the waters of the Indus River between Guddu and Sukkur barrages were
declared a game reserve. The species is now well protected within the reserve and no incidences
of poaching have been reported in recent years (Pilleri and Bhatti, 1978; Bhatti and Pilleri, 1982).
The status of the Indus dolphin further upstream in Punjab Province, however, is critical and it
has been recommended that the adjacent stretch of the Indus from above Guddu Barrage to
Taunsa Barrage be established as a reserve (Pilleri and Bhatti, 1980; Khan and Niazi, 1989).
Management Constraints At least 50 Indus dolphins are estimated to have been taken from
between Sukkur and Guddu each year (Pilleri and Zbinden, 1973-1974) but poaching is now
under control (Pilleri and Bhatti, 1978; Bhatti and Pilleri, 1982). There is no large-scale
commercial fishing, although a great number of fish are caught in pools left after flooding. This
and limited human recreational activity (e.g. bathing) do not seem to be detrimental to the
dolphins. Several stretches of the river now dry up in winter and habitat is being reduced as
116
Pakistan
increasing amounts of water are withdrawn for irrigation purposes. Increasing pollution of the
Indus from domestic sewage and industrial waste may represent a serious long-term threat (Ali,
1986).
Staff One divisional forest officer/research officer and four game watchers (1980)
Budget Rs 100,000 per year (1981)
Local Addresses No information
References
Ali, A.A. (1986). The Indus dolhin. In: Carwardine, M. (Ed.), The nature of Pakistan: a guide to
conservation and development issues No. 1. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 72 pp.
Bhatti, M.U. and Pilleri, G. (1982). Status of the Indus dolphin population (Platanista indi Blyth,
1859) between Sukkur and Guddu barrages in 1979-1980. Investigations on Cetacea 13:
245-252.
Khan, K.M. (1980-1986). Annual reports of Indus dolphin project. Sind Wildlife Management
Board, Karachi. (Unseen)
Khan, K.M. (1981). Wildlife management in Sind. Paper presented at IUCN/SSC Technical
Meeting, New Delhi, February 1981. Pp. 7-8.
Khan, K.M. and Niazi, M.S. (1989). Distribution and population status of the Indus dolphin,
Platanista minor. In: Perrin, W.F., Brownell, R.L. Jr, Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang (Eds),
Biology and conservation of the river dolphins. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 77-80.
Pilleri, G. (1972). Field observations carried out on the Indus dolphin Platanista indi in the winter
1972. Investigations on Cetacea 4: 23-29.
Pilleri, G. (1980). Secrets of the blind dolphin. Sind Wildlife Management Board, Karachi.
(Unseen)
Pilleri, G. and Bhatti, M.U. (1978). Status of the Indus dolphin population (Platanista indi Blyth,
1859) between Guddu Barrage and Hyderabad in 1978. Investigations on Cetacea 9: 25-38.
Pilleri, G. and Bhatti, M.U. (1980). Status of the Indus dolphin (Platanista indi Blyth, 1859)
between Sukkur and Taunsa barrages. Investigations on Cetacea 11: 205-214.
Pilleri, G. and Zbinden, K. (1973-1974). Size and ecology of the dolphin population (Platanista
indi) between the Sukkur and Guddu barrage, Indus Rivers. Investigations on Cetacea 5: 59-69.
WWFEIIUCN Project 1221. Indus dolphin - ecological study.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
KALA CHITTA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category No category assigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the Kala Chitta Hills of Punjab Province, about 60km
south-west of Islamabad and 20km south-east of Campbellpur. Approximately 33°38’N,
72, 51'E
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in 1983, having previously been
protected as a reserved forest.
Area 132,61lha
Land Tenure _ State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude Ranges from 250m to 710m.
Physical Features Kala and Chitta are two distinct ranges. Parent rocks are limestone and
sandstone. The soil is thin and shallow in limestone areas but adequate for tree growth. That
in sandstone areas is devoid of humus and supports only xerophytes (Aleem, 1977).
Climate Conditions are subtropical continental. Base on meteorological data for a 40-year
period from Campbellpur, mean annual precipitation is 584mm, with nearly 50% falling in
July-September, monthly mean maximum temperature is highest (40.8°C) in June, and monthly
mean minimum temperature is lowest (2.2°C) in January (Aleem, 1977).
Vegetation The Kala Chitta Hills are covered by dry subtropical broad-leaved forest. In
limestone areas, Olea cuspidata is dominant on northern aspects and Acacia modesta on southern
aspects (Champion, Seth and Khattak, 1965).
Fauna The area is important for Punjab urial Ovis orientalis punjabiensis and chinkara Gazella
gazella. In January 1976, some 47 urial were counted and 20-25 chinkara estimated within an
area of 50 sq.km. Carnivores include jackal Canis aureus, Bengal fox Vulpes bengalensis,
yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula and leopard Panthera pardus (T). The black-naped
hare Lepus nigricollis is also present (Aleem, 1977).
Birds of prey include lanner falcon Falco biarmicus and peregrine falcon F. peregrinus.
Common game birds are chukar partridge Alectoris chukar, see-see partridge Ammoperdix
griseogularis and grey francolin Francolinus pondicerianus (Aleem, 1977).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The area is sparsely populated (Aleem, 1977) but it is grazed by
some 3,000 sheep, goats, cattle and camels (Pakistan Forest Institute, 1977).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The urial population was censused on January 1976 and
the vegetation sampled for palatible species (Aleem, 1977; Pakistan Forest Institute, 1977). It
was subsequently censused in the winter of 1985/1986 by a team from the University of
Edinburgh.
Conservation Value The reserve supports small populations of Punjab urial and chinkara.
Conservation Management Shooting of urial is prohibited. Grazing conditions are good,
with little sign of overgrazing. The available forage was considered adequate to support
domestic livestock and wild ungulate populations in 1976 (Aleem, 1977).
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Pakistan
Management Constraints The vegetation is subject to felling and cutting practices, and
poaching is commonplace (Aleem, 1977). Recent reports indicate that the urial population has
been decimated (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Aleem, A. (1977). Punjab urial in Chak Jabbi Area - Kala Chitta Range. Pakistan Journal of
Forestry 27: 130-138.
Champion, H.G., Seth, S.K. and Khattak, G.M. (1965). Forest types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest
Institute, Peshawar.
Pakistan Forest Institute (1977). Annual Progress Report 1975-76. Pp. 19-21.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
KALABAGH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned (Private)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies at the western extremity of the Salt Range some 30km south-east
of Kalabagh Town. Approximately 32°50’N, 71°38’E
Date and History of Establishment Originally created a reserve in 1966 by the late Nawab
of Kalabagh and recognised as such by the international conservation community (Mountfort
and Poore, 1968). The reserve has not been notified a private game reserve under the Punjab
Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1975.
Area Approximately 1,550ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab). The land is leased from the
government by the Malik family.
Altitude Approximately 300-1,000m
Physical Features Hills rise gently from a flat plain, then enter a rugged area of small plateaux,
whose edges drop vertically to boulder-strewn stream beds of sharply tilted strata of rock and
limestone bluffs, and culminate in a series of ridges (Schaller and Mirza, 1974).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Climate Conditions are arid, with an annual rainfall of 500mm or less, most of which falls in
July and August. Temperatures reach 40°C or more during the hot season (Schaller and Mirza,
1974).
Vegetation Comprises Acacia scrub woodland, dominated by A. modesta which grows scat-
tered on the slopes and along stream beds often in association with Salvadora oleioides, Zizyphus
nummularia and other trees. Shrubs are sparse, except in some ravines and high ridges where
Dodonaea viscosa is prominent. Grasses include Aristida depressa, Cenchrus pennisetiformis,
Eleusine flagellifera and Cymbopogon jawarancusa (Schaller and Mirza, 1974).
Fauna The reserve is noted for its large populations of Punjab urial Ovis orientalis punjabiensis
and chinkara Gazella gazella bennetti. Populations of both species have been reduced or
extirpated throughout much of their former range elsewhere in Pakistan. About 500 urial
inhabited the reserve in 1970 (Schaller and Mirza, 1974), and 75-100 chinkara were recorded
within an area of 7.5 sq. km in 1970-1974 (Schaller, 1976). Carnivores include jackal Canis
aureus and fox Vulpes vulpes, but leopard Panthera pardus (T) was eliminated from the area
prior to 1970 (Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1976). Blackbuck Cervus cervicapra has
been introduced to the reserve as part of a national effort to re-establish the species in Pakistan
(Anon., 1987).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population § The land is grazed by livestock belonging to the Malik family.
Lower slopes and a few level terraces are partially cultivated but most of the area is too arid and
rocky for anything except livestock grazing (Schaller and Mirza, 1974).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a rest house belonging to the Malik family.
Scientific Research and Facilities Schaller and Mirza (1974) conducted a one-month beha-
vioural study of the Punjab urial in 1970, and Schaller (1976) also made some preliminary
observations of chinkara over a three-month period in 1970-1974.
Conservation Value Kalabagh’s scenery is imposing. The reserve represents the last remain-
ing refuge of the Punjab urial in the Salt Range and holds the largest known population.
Conservation Management The reserve was created specifically to protect the Punjab urial
(Mountfort and Poore, 1968), but wildlife inhabiting the property of the late Nawab of Kalabagh
had been protected for at least the previous 30 years (Schaller and Mirza, 1974). Livestock
belonging to the Malik family are raised in the reserve but managed in the interests of wild
ungulate populations.
Management Constraints Poaching is a persistent problem, particularly in the more isolated
mountainous areas, and sometimes involves the armed forces. Even when offenders are brought
to trial, little or no action is taken by the relevant authorities (M.A. Khan, pers. comm., 1986).
The world’s largest dam was due to be constructed on the Indus just above Kalabagh township.
With access to the construction site planned via the reserve, it was anticipated that the wildlife
would be heavily poached (M.A. Khan, pers. comm., 1986). The project proved to be very
controversial and has since been shelved for the time being (Hussain, 1988; Mumtaz, 1989).
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Staff Several game guards (1986)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Kalabagh Estate, District Mianwali, Punjab
References
Anon. (1987). Pakistan restores blackbuck. Oryx 21: 251.
Hussain, Z. (1986). The Kalabagh Dam. In: Carwardine, M. (Ed.), The nature of Pakistan. UCN,
Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 60-61.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. WWF, Morges,
Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. WWF, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Mumtaz, K. (1989). Pakistan’s environment: a historical perspective. In: Shirkat Gah-Women’s
Resource Centre, Pakistan’ s environment: a historical perspective and selected bibliography
with annotations. Journalists’ Resource Centre-[UCN Pakistan, Karachi. Pp. 18-22.
Schaller, G.B. (1976). A note on the population of Gazella gazella bennetti. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 73: 209-211.
Schaller, G.B. and Mirza, Z.B. (1971). Observations on urial and markhor in West Pakistan. New
York Zoological Society and Punjab University. Unpublished report. 4 pp.
Schaller, G.B. and Mirza, Z.B. (1974). On the behaviour of Punjab urial (Ovis orientalis
punjabiensis). In: Geist, V. and Walther, F. (Eds), The behaviour of ungulates and its relation
to management. TUCN, Morges. Pp. 306-323.
Date August 1990
KANDAR DAM
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies south-east of Kohat. 33°36’N, 71°29’E
Date and History of Establishment Designated a Wetland of International Importance at the
the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 25lha
Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province)
Altitude 255m
Conservation Value Kandar is a small water storage reservoir of minor importance for
waterfowl as a staging and wintering area. Only 90 waterfowl were recorded in January 1987,
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and only two birds (greenshank Tringa nebularia) were seen in January 1988. It is no longer
considered to be of sufficient importance to merit designation as a Ramsar site.
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
KARGAH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in the Northern Areas, 5km from the town of Gilgit. Approxi-
mately 35°56’N, 74°06’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975.
Area 44,308ha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,515m at the mouth of Kargah Nullah to 4,242m at Chilali.
Physical Features The sanctuary comprises the catchment area of the Kargah Nullah. The
meta-sedimentary and sedimentary sequence includes slates, quartzites, limestone and gneiss of
pre-Carboniferous age. There are granodiorite and horn-blended granite intrusions. Igneous
rocks are post Permo-Carboniferous in age (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Annual precipitation in the valley is 152-203mm, most of which falls as snow during
the severe winter months of December and January. June and July are the hottest months (Rasul,
1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Fraxinus, Salix, Olea, Pistacia, Juniperus, kail, Picea,
Betula, Rosa and Daphnes oleides. Ground cover consists of Artemisia, Stipa, Haloxylon and
other grass species.
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, musk deer Moschus
chrysogaster (V) and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). The avifauna includes chukar Alectoris
chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. Monal pheasant Lopho-
phorus impejanus is seen occasionally (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
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Pakistan
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The sanctuary provides a refuge for a variety of threatened mammals.
Conservation Management No management plan exists. Wildlife is afforded full protection.
People living near the forest and in the town of Gilgit enjoy concessions to extract firewood and
graze livestock. Residents of Kargah benefit from timber for domestic use (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and agricultural
encroachment.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
KETI BUNDAR NORTH AND KETI BUNDAR SOUTH
WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Situated in the Outer Indus Delta, south-east of Karachi. 23°45’-
24°45’N, 67°10’-68°15’E
Date and History of Establishment Both Keti Bundar North and South were declared wildlife
sanctuaries in 1977. They lie within Keti Bundar North Protected Forest (80,487ha) and Keti
Bundar South Protected Forest (183,616ha), respectively.
Area Keti Bundar North Wildlife Sanctuary: 8,948ha
Keti Bundar South Wildlife Sanctuary: 23,046ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude Sea level
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Physical Features The Outer Indus Delta is a vast complex of tidal river channels and creeks,
low-lying sandy islands, mangrove swamps and intertidal mudflats stretching for over 150km
from near Korangi Creek in the north-west to Sir Creek on the Indian border. In the south-east,
the landward edge of the mangrove forest borders on the vast salt flats of the Great Rann of
Kutch. The water levels and salinities in the delta fluctuate widely according to the flow of the
Indus.
Climate Conditions are arid subtropical, with a mean annual rainfall of 204mm, a mean relative
humidity of 76%, a mean air temperature of 28.8°C, a mean mud temperature of 28.1°C, and a
mean surface water temperature of 27.8°C.
Vegetation The Outer Indus Delta supports extensive mangrove forests consisting almost
entirely of Avicennia marina (99.9%). There are some localised patches of Ceriops tagal,
particularly in the Shahbunder area in the south-east. Aegiceras corniculatum formerly occurred
in the delta, but has now been almost exterminated from the Sind coast. Salsola foetida and
marram grass Ammophila sp. grow on some of the sandy islands. The dominant seaweeds are
species of Ulva and Enteromorpha.
Fauna The mangrove forest provides nesting sites for several species of herons and egrets, the
intertidal mudflats support major concentrations of wintering shorebirds, and the brackish
lagoons behind the mangroves sometimes hold large numbers of ducks and flamingos. Species
recorded regularly in the area include Dalamatian pelican Pelecanus crispus, cormorant Phala-
crocorax carbo, western reef heron Egretta gularis, little egret E. garzetta, great egret E. alba,
grey heron Ardea cinerea, white spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, greater flamingo Phoenicopte-
rus ruber, oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus, avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, little ringed
plover Charadrius dubius, Kentish plover C. alexandrinus, Mongolian plover C. mongolus,
godwit Limosa limosa, bar-tailed godwit L. lapponica, whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, curlew
N. arquata, redshank Tringa totanus, greenshank T. nebularia, sanderling Calidris alba, little
stint C. minuta, dunlin C. alpina, curlew sandpiper C. ferruginea, Indian black-headed gull
Larus brunnicephalus, black-headed gull L. ridibundus, herring gull L. argentatus, lesser black-
backed gull L. fuscus, Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia, gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica,
common tern Sterna hirundo and little tern S. albifrons.
Three species of cetaceans, plumbeous dolphin Sousa plumbea, finless porpoise Noemeris
phocaenoides and bottle-nosed dolphin Turciops aduncus, have been recorded in the delta
region. Jackal Canis aureus occurs on some of the islands and feeds on sand rat Meriones
hurrianae. Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus also survives on some of the islands. Seven species
of sea-snakes have been reported, the commonest being Enhydra schistosa, Hydrophis cyan-
ninctus and Microphalophus gracius.
Mudskippers Periophthalmus sp. are abundant throughout the mangroves. Other species of fish
recorded in the Shah Bundar area include Nematalosa nasus, Anodontosoma chacuada, Thryssa
hamiltonii, T. purava, T. malabarica, Mugil tade, M. subviridis, Liza vaigiensis, Polynemus
plebeius, Pomadasys argyreus, Jhonius belangerii, Pampus argenteus, Platycephalus scaber
and Euryglossa orientalis. Fishes known to occur elsewhere in the delta include Culpea chapra,
C. lile, C. fimbriata and Synaptura orientalis.
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Pakistan
Common invertebrates include crabs of the genus Uca; shrimps of the genera Penaeus and
Metapenaeus; and squids of the genus Sepia. Ghost crabs Ocypoda rotundata and Neptunus
pelagicus are abundant on the sandy islands.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are many small fishing villages and other settlements in the
delta and extensive agricultural lands to the north. Mangroves are grazed by domestic livestock
(cows, buffaloes and camels) and also cut for cattle fodder.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities A major programme of research is currently being de-
veloped with a view to the preparing a management plan for the Indus Delta. The Zoological
Survey Department has recently initiated a detailed study of the mangrove forest and its
vertebrate fauna in the Shahbunder area.
Conservation Value The delta contains by far the the most extensive tracts of mangrove forest
in Pakistan, with large areas still in a relatively undisturbed condition. It is also an extremely
important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl of a wide variety of species. The
mangrove ecosystem is of considerable importance as a breeding and nursery ground for both
shrimp and fin fish, which support a major fishery along the coast of Sind. Mangroves also
provide protection against storms and tidal waves, and under proper management could be an
extremely valuable fodder and timber resource.
Conservation Management A management plan for the mangrove forests has been prepared
by the Sind Forest Department, but has yet to be implemented. A project for the management
of the mangrove ecosystem of the Indus Delta has been drawn up in collaboration with
TUCN/UNEP, and is currently being considered by the Government of Pakistan. The main
objective of the project is to check and reverse the problems of over-exploitation and pollution.
Management Constraints Major threats to the Indus Delta are pollution, over-exploitation of
the mangrove and fishery resources, and increasing salinity. The Indus River and its distribu-
taries carry an immense load of urban, industrial and agricultural effluents into the coastal
wetlands. Excessive grazing pressure and the large-scale cutting of mangroves for fodder have
already denuded much of the mangrove vegetation in peripheral areas. Over-fishing, especially
in the breeding season, is posing a serious threat to the sustainability of the resource over the
long term. The freshwater flushing of the mangroves has been disrupted as a result of the
construction of barrages on the Indus River and diversion of water for irrigation. The resultant
increasing salinity may now be threatening the continued survival of the mangrove forest.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
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References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
KHABBEKE LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Unassigned)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the Salt Range, 10km north-east of Nowshera and 38km
north-north-west of Khushab, Khushab District. 32°37’N, 72°14’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1967 and re-notified on
17 November 1975. Designated a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s
ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976. However, the wildlife sanctuary is due
to be denotified because of changes in its ecological character and the decline in numbers of
wintering waterfowl.
Area 283ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab). Adjacent agricultural land is
privately owned, and the forests and range lands in the watershed are communally owned.
Altitude 978m
Physical Features Khabbeke is a shallow brackish lake which is fed by local rainfall and
several intermittent streams rising in the surrounding hills. The water level has risen by 30-60cm
in recent years, increasing the lake’s size and decreasing its salinity. Its maximum depth is now
about 10.5m. A salinity of 5.2 p.p.t. was recorded in April 1987, and a pH of 7.2 in January
1987.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical with hot summers and cool winters. Annual rainfall
varies from 300mm to 800mm. Temperatures range from a mean minimum of 0.5°C in January
to a mean maximum of 36°C in June.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation includes Carex fedia, Hydrilla verticillata, Juncus sp., Phrag-
mites karka, Potamogeton crispus, Saccharum spontaneum, Typha angustata, Vallisneria
spiralis and Zannichellia palustris. The natural vegetation of the region is a mixture of
subtropical semi-evergreen forest and tropical thorn forest, with species such as Acacia modesta,
Adhatoda vasica, Dodonea viscosa, Gymnosporia royleana, Olea ferruginea, Reptonia buxifo-
lia, Tamarix aphylla, Withania coagulans, Zizyphus mauritiana and Z. nummularia. Most of
the natural vegetation around the lake has been cleared for agriculture.
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Pakistan
Fauna As many as 8,700 waterfowl were recorded in the early 1970s, but numbers have fallen
drastically in recent years. No white-headed duck Oxyura leucocephala (V) or greater flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber have been recorded for several years, and only 100 waterfowl were present
in January 1986. During censuses in January 1987 and January 1988, respectively, 1,390 and
2,310 waterfowl were counted.
Mammals and amphibians known to occur in the area include jackal Canis aureus, fox Vulpes
vulpes, Indian hare Lepus nigricollis and frog Rana tigrina. Introduced fishes include Labeo
rohita, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The lake now supports a commercial fishery. It is also used for
domestic washing and illegal hunting. Principal activities in surrounding areas are agriculture
and livestock grazing.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl censuses have been carried out
annually since 1971.
Conservation Value The lake used to be a very important wintering area for white-headed
duck, and a regular wintering area for greater flamingo and many other species of waterfowl.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Changes in the salinity and water level have altered the ecology of
the lake, and this has been compounded by large-scale stocking with herbivorous fish species.
It is believed that direct competition between the introduced fishes and waterfowl for food has
been responsible for the decline in waterfowl numbers in recent years. Fishing activities cause
a considerable amount of disturbance to waterfowl, particularly in November when wintering
birds first arrive at the lake. There is some illegal hunting. Pollution from domestic waste is
also reported to be a problem.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
KHARAR LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies on the plains to the south of the Ravi River, 20km north-east of
Okara, Okara District. 30°53’N, 73°35’E
Date and History of Establishment The lake was first designated as a wildlife sanctuary in
1971; the sanctuary was re-notified in June 1983.
Area 235ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab)
Altitude 180m
Physical Features Kharar is a shallow brackish/saline lake, with associated brackish marshes.
It was created in 1945 as a result of water-logging, and is fed by local run-off and seepage from
adjacent irrigated agricultural land. During the flood season, excess water from adjacent land
is diverted to the lake, causing a reduction in salinity. The depth of water varies from 0.2m to
3.0m. A pH value of 8.0 was recorded in October 1986.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with a mean annual rainfall of 225mm. Mean
minimum temperature in January is 9.5°C, and mean maximum in June is 35°C.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation includes Carex fedia, Chara sp., Cynodon dactylon, Hydrilla
verticillata, Juncus sp., Phragmites karka, Potamogeton spp., Saccharum spp., Typha angustata
and Zannichellia palustris. Surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for cotton, rice,
wheat, and sugar cane. The natural vegetation of the surrounding plains is tropical thorn forest
with species such as Tamarix aphylla, Prosopis cineraria, Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia,
Acacia nilotica, Crotolaria burhia, Aerua javanica, Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola foetida, Eleusine
compressa and Panicum antidotale. Pennisetum typhoides and Triticum aestivum are widely
cultivated.
Fauna Over 66,000 waterfowl were recorded in mid-January 1987, of which the most
numerous species were wigeon Anas penelope (3,870), gadwall A. strepera (5,860), teal A. crec-
ca (21,200), pintail A. acuta (8,730), shoveler A. clypeata (3,600), coot Fulica atra (12,600) and
pochard Aythya ferina (10,300). A particularly noteworthy winter visitor is white-headed duck
Oxyura leucocephala (V), with 48 recorded in 1987.
Mammals known to occur in the area include wild boar Sus scrofa, jackal Canis aureus, jungle
cat Felis chaus and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis.
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Pakistan
Fishes include Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngo-
don idella and Wallago attu. Other aquatic fauna includes Hirudinaria sp., Rana tigrina and
Trionyx gangeticus.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Annual mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
since 1971. The Punjab Fisheries Department has been conducting a study of the fishes and
gathering data on salinity levels.
Conservation Value The lake is an important wintering area for waterfowl, particularly
Anatidae, and a staging area for migratory shorebirds. It is one of three wetlands in Pakistan
where the threatened white-headed duck winters in significant numbers. The wetland supports
an important fishery, and provides excellent opportunities for scientific research, conservation
education and nature-oriented recreation.
Conservation Management In 1984, the Fisheries Department initiated a three-year project
to develop the fishery resources of the lake. Exotic fish species are being introduced for
recreational purposes.
Management Constraints The diversion of flood waters into the wetland causes wide
fluctuations in water level and sudden changes in salinity. Although there are no immediate
plans to drain the area, the lake is situated in the midst of agricultural land and could be drained
at a later date. Fishing activities cause some disturbance to waterfowl, and the harvesting of
aquatic vegetation may be excessive. Poaching has declined somewhat since the wetland was
declared a wildlife sanctuary.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
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KHESHKI RESERVOIR
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies on the Kabul River, 40km east of Peshawar. 34°02’N, 72°01’E
Date and History of Establishment Designated a Wetland of International Importance at the
time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 263ha
Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province)
Altitude 300m
Conservation Value Kheshki is a small water storage reservoir with some fringing reed beds.
It is only of minor importance as a staging and wintering area for small numbers of migratory
waterfowl. It is so degraded that it is no longer considered a wetland habitat and, therefore, does
not merit designation as a Ramsar site. Counts of waterfowl have never exceeded 500, and only
220 birds were recorded in January 1987. Moreover, the lake is polluted with effluents from a
nearby paper mill and sugar refinery, and is subject to considerable disturbance from human
activities in the area.
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
KHUNJERAB NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Situated 269km north-east of Gilgit, in the former Hunza State. The
park lies in the upper Khunjerab and Shimshal valleys in the extreme north-east of the Northern
Areas. Its northern and eastern boundaries follow the Pakistan-China border, its southern
boundary is delineated by the divides between the upper Shimshal Valley and Hisper and other
glaciers while its western boundary is more irregular. Starting at the northern end, the western
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Pakistan
boundary includes the Dhi Valley and the mouth of the Ghujerab Valley, then runs eastwards
along the divide between the Ghujerab and Shimshal drainages, finally dipping southwards to
include the upper Shimshal Valley. 36°50’N, 75°35’E
Date and History of Establishment Designated a national park on 29 April 1975.
Area Officially cited as 226,913ha but this figure is considered to be an underestimate (Wegge,
1988). It is recommended that the park be enlarged in the south-west to include the whole of
the Shimshal Valley (Wegge, 1988). The park is adjacent to Taxkorgan Natural Reserve
(1,400,000ha) in China.
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas). Local people enjoy traditional
grazing rights.
Altitude Ranges from about 3,200m at the entrances to the park to over 6,000m. Over half of
the park is above 4,000m (Wegge, 1988). Khunjerab Pass, the gateway to China via the
Karakoram Highway, is at 4,934m.
Physical Features The physiography of the park can be divided into three main parts: in the
north, the Khunjerab Valley with its narrow nullahs opens out into undulating meadows near
the Pass; in the centre, the Ghujerab River drains the high mountain massifs and glaciers of the
Chapchingal and Ghujerab; and in the south, the Shimshal Valley with its many impressive
glaciers. The main Khunjerab, Shimshal and Ghujerab rivers flow westwards and drain into the
Hunza River. All the waterways are perennial but the upper reaches freeze during the winter
fall in temperature. There is a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Soils
are generally shallow and immature, containing fragments of rocky material, drifted sand and
clay. They are formed mainly by deposition of glacial material carried downstream in large
quantities. Soils are deeper in the upper Khunjerab Valley and support good meadows.
Cloudbursts and ice-falls from glaciers frequently wreak havoc in the area. Rivers and streams
become blocked by debris, and subsequent flooding occurs when the water breaks through these
blockades.
Climate The nearest meteorological station is at Misgar, which is about 32km from the park
entrance in a separate valley towards the south-west. Conditions vary considerably with altitude.
Winter is long and severe and summer is cold and dry. The minimum temperature during winter
(December and January) is -12°C. July and August are the hottest months, with a mean
temperature of 14°C. Most precipitation falls during the winter.
Vegetation Following the classification of Beg (1975) and Roberts (1977), four main vegeta-
tion types can be distinguished. Permanent snowfields and cold desert cover an estimated
25-30% of the park, mainly above 4,000m. The latter is very sparsely vegetated by species such
as Salix spp., Potentilla desertorum, Mertensia tibetica and a few grasses and sedges. Alpine
meadows (20% total cover) are confined to level ground and depressions above 3,500m and
along glaciers. They are generally rich in plant biomass due to an adequate moisture regime and
are therefore important food habitats for both domestic and wild herbivores. Sedges and grasses
dominate, but forbs such as Potentilla spp., Saxifraga sibirica, Primula macrophylla, Sedum
spp. and Polygonum spp. are also common. Sub-alpine scrub and birch forest (20% total cover)
occur as narrow belts along stream bottoms and in ravines throughout most of the altitudinal
range of the park. Characteristic species are birch Betula utilis, willow Salix spp., tamarisk
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Myricaria germanica, buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides and water-dependent forbs and grami-
noids. Alpine dry steppe (15-20% total cover) is found at medium and low elevations on
south-facing and dry slopes not covered by sub-alpine scrub and forest. It is sparsely vegetated
by junipers Juniperus spp. and Artemesia spp.
Fauna A total of 15 mammal species is known to reside in the park and several others are likely
to be present (Wegge, 1988). Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii (1), now one of the rarest
mammals in Pakistan, occurs in the vicinity of Khunjerab Pass. According to the Mir of Hunza,
the population was around 400 but had dropped to below 180 by the time of the completion of
the Karakoram Highway (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1988). A herd of almost 75 Marco Polo
sheep was recorded in the spring of 1984 (Islam and Islam, 1984) and park staff saw at least 50
crossing the Pass in May 1989 (P. Wegge, pers. comm.). The species also occurs in the
headwaters of Karchanai Nullah in the north-west corner of the park, where 28 females and
young were sighted in June 1986 (Nissar Ullah Beg, cited in Wegge, 1988). Pakistan’s only
population of bharal Pseudois nayaur occurs at the western limit of its range in the upper
Ghujerab and Shimshal valleys (Schaller, 1974). The Shimshal population had declined to an
alarming extent because of hunting (Rasool, 1981), but it has responded to subsequent protection
measures and a total of 170 was tallied in 1986 (Rasul, 1986). Wegge (1988) recorded 133
bharal within less than 40 sq. km of the Chatpert drainage, and estimates a total population of
1,500-2,000 animals for the upper Ghujerab, Pamir and Chatpert. Kiang Equus kiang used
occasionally to visit the Shimshal Pass area from China (Schaller, 1974). There are reliable
reports of a small population of 20-25 animals between the lower Baraldo and Mustagh rivers
on the Pakistan side of the border (Rasul, 1988; Wegge, 1988). Snow leopard Panthera uncia
(E) is considered to be common. There is recent indirect evidence that the park supports one of
the densest snow leopard populations in Asia (Wegge, 1988). Also present are fox Vulpes vulpes,
wolf Canis lupus (V), which preys on Marco Polo sheep and domestic livestock, brown bear
Ursus arctos, considered to be threatened with extinction in Pakistan (Schaller, 1974), alpine
weasel Mustela altaica, over 2,000 ibex Capra ibex, widely distributed and abundant in the park
but absent from neighbouring China, brown hare Lepus capensis and a variety of rodents
including long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata (Rasool, 1981; Mallon, 1987; Wegge, 1988).
There are local reports indicating that wild dog Cuon alpinus (V) is present (P. Wegge, pers.
comm., 1989).
Mallon (1987) recorded 66 bird species from the park and adjacent area. Additional records are
given by Wegge (1988) and T.J. Roberts (pers. comm., 1988). Game birds such as Himalayan
snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis and chukar Alectoris chukar are common (Rasool, 1981;
Wegge, 1988).
Cultural Heritage A useful account of Hunza culture and history is given by Bamber et al.
(1984). The economy has always been primarily based on subsistence-level farming. With the
completion of the Karakoram Highway, the degree of acculturation has been considerable. Since
1970, many people have resettled in Gilgit and men have sought employment elsewhere, some
40% spending 5 years or more away from the Hunza Valley and often in the army. The Aga
Khan Foundation, which aims to benefit the religious and secular life of Ishmaeli muslims and
the wider community, is having an increasing role in the development of the region and has
essentially replaced that of the Mir who traditionally played a central part in Hunza life.
Local Human Population There are no permanent settlements, although a few shepherds move
between different localities inside the park throughout the year. The nearest village is Shimshal
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Pakistan
on the park boundary, with 120 households and 1,000-1,200 people. Road maintenance gangs
live more or less permanently along the Karakoram Highway inside the park. Some 8,000
domestic stock from seven villages south of the park graze its pastures during the summer.
Grazing rights in the Dih and Barakhun valleys in the north are allocated by the former Mir. In
the Shimshal catchment, there are an estimated 8,000 goats, 2,000 sheep, 1,500 cattle and 500
yaks at a density of 10 animals per sq.km during the three-month summer (Wegge, 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Khunjerab Valley, accessible from the Karakoram Highway,
receives more and more visitors each year, but numbers are still low. Shimshal Valley remains
relatively inaccessible and receives 30-50 tourists annually. There are three economy-style
lodges/hotels at Passu on the Karakoram Highway. An access road to Shimshal is under
construction; when finished, this attractive mountain valley is expected to become very popular
among tourists (Wegge, 1988).
Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife was surveyed in 1974 (Schaller, 1974, 1976).
Censuses of large mammal populations have been conducted on a regular basis since 1978
(Rasool, 1981). In autumn 1987 the park was included in a preliminary survey of the large
mammals of northern Hunza, as part of Operation Raleigh (Mallon, 1987). Recently, in
October-November 1988, Wegge (1988) assessed the status of natural resources and land use
practices with a view to identifying management priorities.
Conservation Value The park was established primarily to protect Marco Polo sheep and snow
leopard, besides preserving the high mountain environs in a near undisturbed condition. It is
also the only known refuge for kiang in Pakistan. With the construction of the Karakoram
Highway over the Khunjerab Pass and establishment of Taxkorgan Natural Reserve across the
border in 1984, the foundation for an international peace park was laid, giving Khunjerab added
conservation significance.
Conservation Management A 12km zone in the vicinity of Khunjerab Pass was closed for
domestic stock grazing in order to protect Marco Polo sheep (Rasool, 1981). Little or no
development of park infrastructure or management took place until 1988 when a Directorate of
Khunjerab National Park was formed as a semi-autonomous organisation within the Forest
Department of the Administration of Northern Areas (Wegge, 1988). A workshop was held in
the park in 1989 to draft a managment plan; this has yet to be finalised. There are plans to
develop the park, including 162ha of reafforestation (Rasul, 1985). Wegge (1988) suggests that
the park be zoned into core, protected and hunting areas, with all activities prohibited in the core
zone, grazing and fuelwood collection allowed in protected zones, and controlled hunting and
other activities permitted in the hunting zone. The establishment of a hunting programme,
including subsistence hunting, would help compensate for restrictions on previous grazing
rights. High priority actions identified by Wegge are: cooperating with Chinese authorities for
the joint protection of Marco Polo sheep and kiang, controlling hunting and grazing in the 12km
protection zone by the Pass, instigating a ‘no-stop’ regulation for motorists travelling between
Kuksil and the Pass (to reduce disturbance to Marco Polo sheep), providing adequate transport
and equipment for field staff, and undertaking thorough field studies of Marco Polo sheep and
kiang to assess their status and habitat requirements.
TUCN is developing a sustainable forestry project in the upper Hunza Valley as part of the Aga
Khan Rural Support Programme (IUCN, 1987). In the long term, this should help to reduce the
depletion of forest resources in and around the park.
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Management Constraints Some 66km of the Karakoram Highway runs through the park.
This has contributed to the decline of Marco Polo sheep, largely as a result of hunting and general
disturbance. Further disturbances are anticipated now that Pakistan and China have signed an
agreement to establish a trade-free zone on the Chinese side of the Khunjerab Pass. Some
pastures are overgrazed, including those within the 12km protected zone where restrictions on
livestock have been violated. Illegal hunting still takes place but at insignificant levels, that of
Marco Polo sheep by Pakistanis having stopped. Over-collection of fuelwood has also con-
tributed to degradation of vegetation cover in some areas. Snow leopard accounts for a
significant offtake of livestock, thought to be about 10% annually. Relatively few snow leopards
are killed in retaliation because it is difficult and time-consuming (Wegge, 1988). The construc-
tion of a motorable road up the Shimshal Valley will have an enormous impact on the bharal
population unless protection measures are adequately enforced. The presence of a permanent
police quarters within the park is a source of friction, particularly as police regularly hunt ibex
(T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1988).
Staff Total field staff is 14, comprising one park ranger, six game watchers and seven
chowkidars (Wegge, 1988).
Budget Rs 0.3 million (1985)
Local Addresses Director, Directorate of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit. (Field staff are
stationed at Dih under the charge of a field ranger.)
References
Bamber, J., Bishop, K., Holmes, R., Mayers, J. and Thomas, P. (1984). The Cambridge
Karakoram Expedition 1984. Final report. Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge. 92 pp.
Islam, S-U and Islam, Z. (1984). Sighting of Marco Polo sheep in Khunjerab. WWF-Pakistan
Newsletter 3: 11-13.
TUCN (1987). Sustainable forestry development in the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme,
Northern Areas, Pakistan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 85 pp.
Mallon, D. (1987). A survey of the large mammals of northem Hunza. Unpublished report. 8 pp.
Rasool, G. (1981). Khunjerab National Park. Divisional Forest Office, Gilgit. Unpublished report.
5 pp.
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Rasul, G. (1986). Population status of blue sheep in Shamshal Valley. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter
5: 1-2.
Rasul, G. (1988). Tibetan wild ass - verging on extinction. Unpublished report. 4 pp. (Unseen)
Schaller, G.B. (1974). The Marco Polo sheep in Pakistan. New York Zoological Society, New
York. Unpublished report. 5 pp.
Schaller, G.B. (1976). Mountain mammals in Pakistan. Oryx 13: 351-356.
Schaller, G.B., Li Hong Talipu, Lu Hua, Ren Junrang, Qiu Mingjiang and Wang Haibin (1987).
Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological Conservation
42: 53-71.
Wegge, P. (1988). Assessment of Khunjerab National Park and environs, Pakistan. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
134
Pakistan
KILIK/MINTAKA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Hunza, Gilgit District, on the Pakistan-China border, 225km
from the town of Gilgit. The northern boundary runs along the international border between
Kilik and Mintaka passes. Access is from Misgar Village by bridlepath. Approximately
36°56’N, 75°04’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 65,036ha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 4,545m to 6,060m.
Physical Features The main north-south-oriented valley is forked, with the Kilik and Mintaka
passes lying at the head of each branch. The terrain is rugged and mountainous. There is a
variety of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, and a mixture of rock and mineral
deposits (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Temperatures at higher elevations remain below freezing point for most of the year.
Winters are severe, and summers cold and dry. Most precipitation is in the form of snow.
Vegetation Higher altitudes are devoid of higher plants. Lower areas contain patches of
Juniperus, Artimesia, Haloxylon, Salix and a variety of grasses (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii (I), ibex Capra ibex, snow
leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, wolf Canis lupus (V) and fox Vulpes
vulpes (Rasul, 1985). In 1974, only a few Marco Polo sheep from neighbouring China were
reported to frequent the vicinity of Kilik Pass. At that time, ibex were the most numerous
ungulate with 59 recorded between Murkshi and Kilik Pass (Schaller, 1974). The avifauna
includes a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa
and snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population In 1974, the Kilik Pass area was frequented by some 3,000 head of
livestock belonging to the Mir of Hunza and people of Misgar (Schaller, 1974).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Scientific Research and Facilities The Kilik Pass area was surveyed by Schaller (1974) in
November 1974.
Conservation Value The reserve is particularly important as a refuge for Marco Polo sheep,
in view of which it has been recommended that the reserve be included within Khunjerab
National Park (P. Wegge, pers. comm., 1989).
Conservation Management The area was first proposed as a game reserve, with provision for
licensed hunting of Marco Polo sheep and ibex, in an attempt to conserve these species (Schaller,
1974). Wildlife is now afforded full protection. Local people enjoy concessions to collect
firewood and graze livestock. There is no management plan, but limited manpower is available
for protecting the area (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Marco Polo sheep in particular, and also ibex populations had
dwindled by the early 1970s due to severe hunting pressures. In addition, habitat of the former
species was heavily disturbed and overgrazed by domestic livestock (Schaller, 1974).
Staff The staff of Khunjerab National Park are responsible for the game reserve.
Budget Included in annual budget for Khunjerab National Park (Rs 0.3 million in 1985).
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Schaller, G.B. (1974). The Marco Polo sheep in Pakistan. New York Zoological Society, New
York. Unpublished report. 5 pp.
Date September 1988, updated August 1990
KINJHAR (KALRI) LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in Thatta District, Sind Province about 113km by road east-north-
east of Karachi. Its southern end is about 19km north of the town of Thatta on the Hyderabad
Road. 68°03’E, 24°56’N
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in March 1977 under
Section 14 of the Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972. First protected as a game sanctuary
in 1971, under Section 15/1 of the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1959. The
sanctuary was initially surrounded by a buffer zone of 1.6km radius, but this was increased to
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Pakistan
5km in July 1975. Designated a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s
ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 13,468ha of lake surrounded by a buffer zone of 5km radius. It has been recommended
that the boundaries of the sanctuary should be extended up to the canal along the Thatta-
Hyderabad road (Conder, 1977).
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind)
Altitude 70m
Physical Features This is the largest freshwater lake in Pakistan, having been created from
two smaller lakes, namely Kinjhar and Kalri, in the 1930s following the construction of a dam
at Chilia Bangla and a 13km-long bund (embankment) along the east side. The lake is set in the
stony desert, which is composed of alternating layers of fossil-bearing limestone and sandstone.
Higher ground, often forming peninsulas, is usually capped with limestone. Much of the
low-lying western shore is predominantly sandstone. Generally, the strike of the limestone beds
forming the peninsulas is north-north-east to south-south-west, the beds dipping gently to the
west. The eastern sides of the peninsulas feature steep escapments. The lake is fed from the
north-east corner by the KB feeder and by many small seasonal streams on the west and north
sides. The only outlet from the lake is through the dam and via the Jam Branch Canal in the
south-east corner. There are three seepage lagoons beyond the new canal, constructed in
1976/1977.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical monsoonal. Mean annual rainfall for the region is
178mm, falling mainly during the monsoon season. Summers are hot, with maximum tempera-
tures reaching 49°C in the shade. Winters are cold with a January mean of 2.2°C. Prevailing
winds are north-east in December-January and west-south-west in May-September (Sorley,
1968).
Vegetation Comprises extensive beds of Phragmites karka, Typha angustata and Juncus
articulatus, and a rich growth of submerged and floating aquatic vegetation including Hydrilla
verticillata, Potamogeton pectinatus, P. perfoliatus, Polygonum barbatum, Nymphaea lotus,
Vallisneria spiralis and Zannichellia palustris. Tamarix dioica grows along the shoreline. The
natural vegetation of the region is tropical thorn forest, with species such as Acacia nilotica,
A. senegal, Commiphora mukul, Prosopis cineraria, Euphorbia caudicifolia, Cenchrus ciliaris,
Salvadora oleoides and Dicanthium annulatum.
Fauna Mammals known to occur in the area include jackal Canis aureus, fox Vulpes vulpes,
mongoose Herpestes sp. and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis.
Some 65 species of waterfowl have been recorded. Breeding species include night heron
Nycticorax nycticorax (up to 5,000), cotton pygmy goose Nettapus coromandelianus (up to
1,290), purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio, and pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus
chirurgus. Mid-winter counts in the 1970s produced totals of between 50,000 and 150,000
waterfowl. Over 135,000 birds were present in January 1987, and over 205,000 in January 1988.
Maximum counts include the following: 1,580 great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, 1,640
little cormorant P. niger, 4,500 gadwall Anas strepera, 20,500 Eurasian wigeon A. penelope,
3,500 common teal A. crecca, 1,950 northern pintail A. acuta, 1,680 northern shoveler A. cly-
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peata, 23,000 common pochard Aythya ferina, 22,000 tufted duck A. fuligula, and 131,000
common coot Fulica atra. Many birds of prey have been recorded, marsh harrier Circus
aeruginosus being particularly common.
Reptiles include cobra Naja naja.
The fish fauna is rich and includes Ambassis nana, Badis sp., Puntius (Barbus) sarana, P. ticto,
P. sophore, Catla catla, Channa sp., Cirrhinus mrigala, Ctenopharyngodon idellus, Gadusia
chapra, Glossogobius spp.,Labeo rohita, L. gonius, L. fimbriata, Notopterus notopterus, N. chi-
tala, Rasbora rasbora, Tilapia mossambica and Xenentodon cancila.
Cultural Heritage Pir Amir, an Ishmaeli shrine, is a prominent landmark on the northern shore.
Local Human Population There are some 15 villages on the edge of the lake whose inhabitants
depend to some extent on fishing for their livelihood (Conder, 1977).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A tourist complex, comprising rest houses, restaurant and
theatre, is being established by the Pakistan Tourist Development Corporation at Hillaya
(Conder, 1977).
Scientific Research and Facilities Annual mid-winter waterfowl counts have been conducted
since 1971 and the avifauna has been well documented. The zooplankton has been studied,
particularly copepods which have a significant role in the food-chain of fishes and other higher
consumers (Baqai and Rehona, 1973, 1974).
Conservation Value Kinjhar is an extremely important breeding, staging and wintering area
for a wide variety of waterfowl. It is also an important source o° Arinking water for Karachi and
supports a major fishery. Being close to the capital, it offers excellent opportunities for
nature-oriented recreation, conservation education and research.
Conservation Management The sanctuary is administered according to a management plan
prepared by Conder (1977). Commensurate with the primary management objective of provid-
ing Karachi with its freshwater supply, the habitat should be protected for the benefit of the large
numbers of resident and migratory birds, particularly waterfowl, and facilities provided for the
public to observe and learn more about the wildlife. Hunting is prohibited but not commercial
fishing, rights to which are contracted out by the Karachi Development Authority. Bathing and
other activities likely to pollute the lake are restricted by the Authority. Conder has recom-
mended that the sanctuary be enlarged to include the three seepage lagoons between RD 10 and
38, and that management activities be concentrated on these lagoons rather than the main lake
where fishing is a major disturbance.
Management Constraints Fishing acitivties are a source of almost continuous disturbance to
waterfowl: some of the larger villages have up to 30 boats in operation and there are 56 large
circular nets set permanently in the lake. There is also some encroachment by grazing cattle,
and an increasing amount of disturbance from recreational activities (Conder,1977).
Staff It has been recommended that game watchers be replaced by a sanctuary warden, two or
three deputy sanctuary wardens and 10 assistant sanctuary wardens, and that a research biologist
be appointed (Conder, 1977).
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Pakistan
Budget No information
Local Addresses _ No information
References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Bagqai, I.U. and Rehana, I. (1973). Seasonal fluctuation of fresh-water copepods of Kinjher Lake,
Sind, and its correlation with physico-chemical factors. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 5: 165-168.
Bagqai, I.U. and Rehana, I. (1974). Quantitative and qualitative studies of the fresh water calanoid
zooplankton of Kinjher Lake. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 6: 69-72.
Conder, P.J. (1977). Lake Kinjhar Wildlife Sanctuary (Management Plan). TUCN/WWF Project
No. 1360. 12 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sorley, H.T. (1968). The former Province of Sind (including Khairpur State). Gazetteer of West
Pakistan. Publication of the Government of West Pakistan. 809 pp. (Unseen)
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
KIRTHAR NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies 80km north of Karachi in the south-west of Sind Province, within
Karachi and Dadu districts. It comprises the south-east extension of the Kirthar Range, to the
west of the River Indus. The western boundary is the provincial border between Sind and
Baluchistan. 25°10’-26°05’N, 67°10’-67°55’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park on 31 January 1974 (Government
of Sind Notification No. WL & FT (SO1-DCF-993)74). Attempts to restrict the decline in
wildlife date back to the Sind Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act of 1940, and possibly
even earlier, when game guards were privately employed by families owning land in the Kirthar
region. Much of what is now the park was originally classified as government wasteland, but
in 1965 that area lying in Karachi District was reclassified as protected forest. Most of the tract
was declared a game reserve in 1970 and Murri Mongthar a wildlife sanctuary in 1971. The
present area (excluding a small strip of land in the south-west and a block in the north-east comer,
to the east of Suk Nai) was declared a wildlife sanctuary on 28 October 1972 under the Sind
Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972.
Area 308,733ha. The park is part of a 447,161ha protected areas complex, being contiguous
with Mahal Kohistan Wildlife Sanctuary (70,577ha) to the south and Hab Dam Wildlife
Sanctuary (27,219ha) to the south-west. Surjan, Sumbak, Eri and Hothiano Game Reserve
(40,632ha) lies just to the east of the park.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Sind). In 1972, 66,793ha of land were leased
by the government for cultivation and stock grazing and 35,874ha were privately owned
(Holloway and Khan, 1973). The present status of these lands is not known.
Altitude Ranges from about 70m at Hab Dam to 1,004m on Karchat Mountain, which is at the
south-eastern extremity of the Kirthar Range.
Physical Features Comprises a number of north-south-aligned hill ranges separated by wide,
undulating valleys. Drainage in the north and central sectors follows a south-westerly direction
via the Baran Nadi to the Indus River and thence to the Arabian Sea. The west-central and
south-west regions are drained by the Mahr and Hab rivers, respectively, which follow a
southerly course to the sea. Principal geological formations are calcareous. Limestone predomi-
nates in the hill ranges and recent calcareous deposits are common in the valleys. Sandy
limestones, shales, sandy shales and sandstones also occur throughout the range, particularly in
the south-west and lower foothills. Grey sandstones occur together with limestone in the
north-east. Underground water, which has been tapped in many places, tends to be brackish in
limestone and fresh in sandstone formations. The abundance of foraminiferous, lamellibranch,
echinoid, gastropod and arthropod fossils is evidence that the Kirthar Range once formed the
bed of the Tethys Sea. Soils contain fragments of rocky material, much of which is limestone.
They contain about 90% sand and 10% clay at the surface. Considerable erosion has occurred
on the plateaux, hill flanks and plains but good soil depths remain in the valleys and depressions
protected from wind or running water.
Climate There are four climatic seasons: winter (December-March), summer (April-June),
monsoon (July-September) and autumn (October-November). There is no meteorological
station within the park but data are available from nearby at Thano Bula Khan, for the period
March 1955 to September 1959, and from Hyderabad. Mean annual precipitation is 150-
200mm, most rain falling in July and August. Drought conditions, with less than 25mm of rain,
occur at least once every ten years and during 1979-1982 no rain was recorded in the park.
Temperatures are often extreme, exceeding 38°C during most of the summer in Thano Bula
Khan. Humidity is lowest in summer and highest in the monsoon. Strong, dry and dessicating
winds prevail during much of the year, except in July and August (Holloway and Khan, 1973).
Plans are underway to establish one or two meteorological stations at Karchat or Khar.
Vegetation Open communities of deciduous xerophytic trees and shrubs are predominant.
Three principal communities have been recognised: Acacia arabica-Indigofera oblongifolia-
Zizyphus nummularia, a post-climax, closed community that often occurs on mesic sites such
as seasonally-flooded depressions; Capparis decidua-Prosopis spicigera-Commiphora mukul,
a climax community which occurs on sites with deep sandy soils with weak structure and low
calcium, magnesium and carbonate content at the surface; and Euphorbia caudicifolia-Grewia
tenax-Acacia senegal, a sub-climax community associated with shallow loamy soils, with low
carbonate and high potassium content. There is evidence that this region was fairly humid and
supported tropical forest up until about 500 BC (Holloway and Khan, 1973). In common with
arid regions in general, species diversity is relatively low. Holloway and Khan list some of the
trees, shrubs and herbs found in the park.
Fauna Some 30 species of mammals have been recorded (W.D. Edge, pers. comm., 1987), of
which 26 are listed by Holloway and Khan (1973). There is a good variety of predators but
larger species are either extremely rare, such as the wolf Canis Iupus (V) and striped hyaena
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Pakistan
Hyaena hyaena, or may have become locally extirpated, such as leopard Panthera pardus (T)
(the last leopard was shot in 1977) and caracal Felis caracal. Approximately 500 wild goat
Capra hircus occurred on Karchat Mountain in 1970-1971, out of an estimated total population
of 1,200 in the park and nearby Surjan, Sumbak, Eri and Hothiano Game Reserve. About 70
urial Ovis orientalis were recorded on the Murri Mongthar mountain ranges in 1971 and small
numbers on Karchat, Dunbar and Kambhu mountains. Chinkara Gazella gazella occurred in
low numbers on the plains and hill flanks. In 1977, 1,480 wild goat and 430 urial were counted
in the park and 2,141 chinkara in the park and adjacent Surjan, Sumbak, Eri and Hothiano Game
Reserve (Mirza and Asghar, 1980). There are now over 5,000 wild goat, about 1,250 urial and
less than 150 chinkara in the park, and a further 400 wild goat and 70 urial in the game reserve
(M. Woodford, pers. comm., 1990).
Of the 58 species of birds identified by T.J. Roberts (Holloway and Khan, 1973), long-legged
buzzard Buteo rufinus, Bonelli’s hawk-eagle Nisaetus fasciatus, imperial eagle Aquila heliaca,
tawny eagle Aquila rapax, cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus,
lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, lagger falcon Falcon biarmicus, red-headed merlin Falco
chicquera, kestrel Falco tinnunculus, see see partridge Ammoperdix griseogularis, grey par-
tridge Francolinus pondicerianus, stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus, Indian sand grouse
Pterocles exustus, coronetted sand grouse P. coronatus, painted sand grouse P. indicus, eagle
owl Bubo bubo, Sind pied woodpecker Dendrocopos assimilis, Hume’s chat Oenanthe al-
boniger, brown rock pipit Anthus similis and striped bunting Emberiza striolata are noteworthy.
Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos has also been recorded (T. J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Apart
from ocean birds and many waterfowl, most species recorded by Roberts et al. (1986) in the
Karachi and lower Sind area occur in the park.
Freshwater turtles (Trionychidae) probably still occur in Hab River and starred tortoise Geo-
chelone elegans inhabits the Hab Valley. Other reptiles likely or known to be present are
Dunsterville’s gecko Stenodactylus orientalis, garden lizard Calotes versicolor, spiny-tailed
lizard Uromastix hardwickii, red-throated agama Agama rubigularis, desert monitor Varanus
griseus (V), yellow monitor V. flavescens, three-toed skink Mabuya macularia, Indian python
Python molurus (V), saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus, Sind krait Bungarus caerulens and royal
rat snake Spalerosophis diadema. Mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) is almost extinct from the
stretch of the Hab River bordering the park but it survives further upstream in Baluchistan
(Holloway and Khan, 1973). There are about 100 mugger in Hab Dam, where there are tentative
plans to establish a commercial crocodile farm (M. Woodford, pers. comm., 1990). Other
reptiles recorded by W.D. Edge (pers. comm., 1987) include common monitor Varanus
bengalensis, Indus toad Bufo andersoni, skittering frog Rana cyanophlyctis, warty rock gecko
Gymnodactylus kachhensis, Persian gecko Hemidactylus persicus, Indian fringe-bed sand lizard
Acanthodactylus cantoris, brilliant agama Agama agilis, A. nupta, Afro-Asian sand snake
Psammophis schokari, Indian sand boa Eryx johni, Mediterranean dwarf skink Ablepharus
pannonicus and orange-tailed skink Eumeces schneideri.
Despite their seasonality, few of the larger rivers ever dry up completely. Thus fish and other
aquatic life are able to survive the dry season in deep pools of water which collect at bends and
depressions in the river bed. A number of species of fish, principally of the carp Cyprinidae
family, have been recorded from the Kirthar Range (Holloway and Khan, 1973).
Cultural Heritage Archaeological remains of habitation near Koh-Tarash date back to
pre-Islamic and even pre-historic periods (3500BC). The presence of a number of tombs at
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Taung, similar in design to those at Makli Hills in southern Sind, suggests that the area has been
settled for at least several hundred years. Rannikot Fort, covering an area of about 47 sq.km in
the north-eastern tip of the park, is reputedly the largest fort in the world and provides a
remarkable example of the defence system of the late Muslim rulers of Sind (Haleem and Khan,
n.d.).
Local Human Population In 1989 the resident human population in the park was approxi-
mately 16,000, distributed among 118 permanent villages, and about 64,000ha of park land was
under cultivation (M. Woodford, pers. comm.). This is significantly higher than in the early
1970s when the resident population totalled about 10,500, with an additional 3,000 migrant
herdsmen present from July/August until November/December. At that time there were 93
permanent villages in the park and a further 124 settlements temporarily occupied by herdsmen
for part of the year. Stock grazing was the most widespread form of land use and greatly in
excess of carrying capacity. In the post-monsoon season of 1971 domestic livestock totalled
27,749 cows, 588 buffalo, 77,497 sheep, 86,277 goats, 5,731 camels, 1,480 donkeys and 226
horses. Some 102,667ha of land was privately owned or leased from the government, of which
114ha were under permanent cultivation and the rest subject to shifting cultivation (Holloway
and Khan, 1973).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Despite its proximity to Karachi, the park receives only 2-3
visitors per month (M. Woodford, pers. comm., 1990). The best season to visit is from
mid-October to mid-March. There are visitor centres at Karchat and Khar, both of which are
run by the Sind Wildlife Management Board. The centres offer cottage and dormitory accom-
modation and guides are available. There are some 671km of unmetalled roads within the park,
most of which are negotiable only by four-wheel drive vehicle.
Scientific Research and Facilities The behaviour and ecology of the wild goat and urial have
been studied (Schaller and Laurie, 1974; Edge and Olsen-Edge, 1989; Edge eral., 1989, in press).
Wildlife counts, initiated by the Forest Department in 1970, are still undertaken. The fossil
fauna has been studied by the Geology Department of the University of Sind. Extensive
botanical collections have been made within the park and its environs, notably by the University
of Karachi. An ecological survey of the park was begun in 1981 with financial support from
WWF-Pakistan (Ahmad, 1982). There are no research facilities but accommodation is available
for visiting scientists.
Conservation Value _Kirthar is an area of outstanding beauty and cultural heritage which
provides important habitat for a variety of mammals, birds and reptiles characteristic of the arid
subtropics.
Conservation Management There is an out-of-date management plan, according to which
management objectives are: to conserve native fauna, flora and scenic features in perpetuity;
and to promote regulated use of the natural resources and historic cultural sites for aesthetic,
educational, recreational and scientific purposes. A system of zonation has been recommended,
with zones of varying intensity of use by visitors buffered by wildlife sanctuaries and a game
reserve (in which controlled hunting should be allowed) on the periphery. Full protection of
core areas in the mountainous region, including cessation of grazing by domestic livestock, has
enabled the habitat and its ungulate populations to recover. It is recommended that residents
should ultimately be provided with the opportunity to move to better managed rangelands or
cultivated areas peripheral to the park; meanwhile, to prevent encroachment by outsiders, no
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Pakistan
further extension of land under cultivation should be allowed (Holloway and Khan, 1973;
Kermani and Khan, 1985). Resettlement is now considered unrealistic; a more appropriate
strategy might be to re-define the park’s boundaries in the light of prevailing socio-economic
constraints (M. Woodford, pers. comm.). Assistance from World Bank may be forthcoming as
part of a possible environmental programme in Pakistan.
In October 1984, 15 blackbuck Antilope cervicapra from the USA were brought to Khar visitor
centre for captive propagation (Haleem and Khan, n.d.). It is planned to introduce the species
to the park but most potential blackbuck habitat is overused by the human population
(M. Woodford, pers. comm., 1990).
Management Constraints In the past, considerable damage has been caused by cultivation,
overgrazing, wood cutting and overhunting. Encroachment has been controlled in the more
strictly preserved mountainous region, but elsewhere it remains a serious problem.
Staff Office staff comprise a park director, an assistant and four others. Field staff total two
park managers, two park rangers and 102 others including wildlife watchers (1989).
Budget Rs 900,000 per year (approximately US$ 8,500) in 1981. The development plan as
envisaged will cost Rs 24,500,000 (Kermani and Khan, 1985).
Local Addresses Park Director, Kirthar National Park, Karchat
References
Ahmad, M. (1982). Study of bioecology of Kirthar National Park: a WWF-Pakistan project. World
Wildlife Fund Pakistan Newsletter 1(2): 6.
Edge, W.D. and Olson-Edge, S.L. (1989). Ecology of wild goats and urial in Kirthar National Park.
Final Report. University of Montana, Missoula, USA.
Edge, W.D. » Olson-Edge, S.L. and Ghani, N. (1989). Response of wild goats to human disturbance
near a waterpoint in Kirthar National Park, Pakistan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society 85: 315-318.
Edge, W.D., Olson-Edge, S.L. and Ghani, N. (in press). Biology and behaviour of wild goats and
urial at a waterpoint in Kirthar National Park, Pakistan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society.
Haleem, I and Khan, MLK. (n.d.). Kirthar National Park - the great outdoors next door to Karachi.
Oscar Advertising Company, Karachi.
Holloway, C.W. and Khan, M.K. (1973). Management plan for Kirthar National Park, Sind,
Pakistan, 1973-78. Sind Wildlife Management Board, Karachi. 53 pp.
Kermani, W.A. and Khan, M.K. (1985). Protected areas and local populations in Kirthar National
Park, Pakistan. In: McNeely, J.A., Thorsell, J.W. and Chalise, S.R. (Eds), People and protected
areas in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation and
Intemational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 59-61.
Mirza, Z.B. and Asghar, M. (1980). Census of Sind ibex (Capra hircus blythi) and some estimate
of population of Chinkara (Gazella gazella) in Kirthar National Park and Sumbak Game
Reserve, Sind. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 12: 268-271.
Roberts, T.J., Passburg, R. and Van Zalinge, N.P. (1986). A checklist of birds of Karachi and
lower Sind. WWF-Pakistan, Karachi. 37 pp.
Schaller, G.B. and Laurie, A. (1974). Courtship behaviour of the wild goat. Z. Saugetierkunde
39: 115-127.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
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LAL SUHANRA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V and IX (Protected Landscape and Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in the south-east of Punjab Province, 32km north-east of
Bahawalpur City along the Bahawalpur-Bahawalnagar road, from where the park is accessible.
Approximately 27°30’N, 72°20’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park on 26 October 1972 (Govern-
ment of Punjab Notification No. SOF (EXT)XII-23/72), following recommendations made by
the Wildlife Enquiry Committee in 1971. The plantation has been a reserved forest since 5 July
1947 although its legal status appears to be uncertain (Masud, 1980). The Cholistan Desert was
originally preserved as a hunting ground by the nawabs of the former state of Bahawalpur.
Subsequently, in 1968, it was declared a game reserve. Designated a biosphere reserve in 1977.
Area 37,426ha. Originally, the park comprised an area of 31,355ha, of which 20,932ha were
desert, 8,488ha irrigated forest plantation and 1,934ha reservoir (Masud, 1980); it was due to
be enlarged by 22,680ha.
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Punjab)
Altitude 110m
Physical Features The Cholistan Desert is relatively flat and interspersed with sand dunes up
to 1,000ha in extent and 4m in height, some of which are unstable. It is crossed by the dried-up
bed of the Hakra River and features an important wetland, Patisar Lake (see Scott, 1989 for
further details). The lake (1,935ha), originally built as a storage reservoir, is fed by the Desert
Branch of the Bahawal Canal and also receives excess water from irrigated land nearby. The
depth of the water table (3-12m below ground level) varies directly with the distance from
Bahawal Canal. Soils are predominantly sandy loam, with clay flats (dhars) between the sand
dunes (Masud, 1980).
Climate Conditions are arid subtropical/continental, characterised by low sporadic rainfall, hot
summers, low relative humidity, high evaporation rates, strong summer winds and mild winters.
There are five distinct seasons: winter (December-February), spring (March-April), summer
(May-October), autumn (November) and monsoon (July and August). Climatic data are
available from Bahawalpur. During the period 1946-1962, mean annual precipitation was
214mm, mean monthly maximum temperature highest (46.1°C) in May and mean monthly
minimum temperature lowest (-0.2°C) in January (Masud, 1980).
Vegetation The main plant communities include tropical thorn forest, dominated by Acacia
nilotica, Suaeda-Salsola scrub and riverine Tamarix forest. The plantation, which is irrigated
by the Desert Branch of the Bahawal Canal, consists mainly of shisham Dalbergia sisso, together
144
Pakistan
with toot Morus alba, kikar Acacia arabica, frash Tamarix articulata, jal Salvadora oleoides,
jand Prosopis spicigera, karir, and jandi Prosopis glandulosa. Of the numerous herbs, khubal
Cynodon dactylon and puth kanda Achyranthes aspera are important. Dense stands of kana
Saccharum spontaneum grow along the margins of Patisar Lake and Salvinia natans covers
much of the shallower waters (Sheikh, 1982). Some 135 species of plants have been recorded
in the park, 39 of which are known for their medicinal properties (Anon., n.d.).
Fauna Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra became virtually extinct in the Cholistan Desert but the
species has been re-introduced within large enclosures, together with chinkara Gazella gazella,
nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, hog deer Cervus porcinus and Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros
unicornis (Roberts, 1975; Sheikh, 1982). Other mammals present include long-eared hedgehog
Hemiechinus auritus, wolf Canis lupus (V), jackal C. aureus, Bengal fox Vulpes bengalensis,
fox V. vulpes, ratel Mellivora capensis, otter Lutra perspicillata, small Indian civet Viverricula
indica, Indian grey mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus, caracal Felis caracal, jungle cat
F. chaus, desert cat F. libyca, wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian crested porcupine Hysterix indica
and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis (Masud, 1980).
Patisar Lake regularly holds between 10,000 and 30,000 ducks and common coot Fulica atra
in mid-winter. Over 13,00 waterfowl were present in January 1987, of which the most numerous
species were mallard Anas platyrhynchos (1,410), common pochard Aythya ferina (4,500) and
common coot (5,300) (Scott, 1989). The lake used to support a small population of marbled
teal Marmaronetta angustirostris but this duck has not been seen in the area for many years.
An unsuccessful attempt was made to re-introduce the species in 1970 using birds provided by
the Waterfowl Trust, Slimbridge, UK (Bokhari, 1970b). The park supports a large population
of birds of prey including osprey Pandion haliaetus, Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus,
marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus, greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga, imperial eagle A. heliaca,
and tawny eagle A. rapax. Noteworthy land birds include great Indian bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps (V), arare resident, and houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata, a winter visitor (Scott,
1989). Over 160 species have been recorded by T. J. Roberts (pers. comm., 1986).
Reptiles include turtles, tortoise, monitors Varanus spp., lizards of the genus Calotes, cobra Naja
naja, saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus, krait Bungarus sp., watersnake, gamasnake Boiga sp.,
wolfsnake Lycodon sp. and John’s sand boa Eryx johni.
The lake contains large fish populations of carp (Cyprinidae), catfish (Siluriformes), catla Catla
catla, murrel Ophicephalus marulius, rohu Labeo rohita, mullet Vallago attu, mirgal Cirrhina
mirgala and trikanda Rota rita. Other species known to occur are listed by Scott (1989).
Cultural Heritage There are archaeological remains of an ancient civilization which once
flourished along the Hakra River.
Local Human Population About 20 families cultivate some 810ha of land in the vicinity of
Patisar Lake. .
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a visitor centre and children’s park near the main
entrance. Overnight accommodation is available at Hermitage Rest House by the reservoir, the
Irrigation Department’s lodge on Whispering Hill and at the new tourist hut beside the Desert
Branch Canal. Other facilities include four camp sites, two watch towers, two fishing sites and
boating on the lake (Masud, 1980; Shah, 1984).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Scientific Research and Facilities The availability and selection of food by blackbuck has
been studied (Mirza and Waiz, 1973). A study of the behaviour of chinkara and blackbuck is
in progress, jointly supported by Punjab Government and US Fish & Wildlife Service. Prelimi-
nary observations have been made on houbara bustard (Mirza, 1985).
Conservation Value The area was first identified as being suitable for breeding blackbuck and
as an important wetland site in 1966 (Mountfort and Poore, 1967), since when its conservation
status has progressively been upgraded. Patisar Lake is a very important wintering area for
waterfowl, particularly ducks, and a staging ground for large numbers of birds, especially in
autumn (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management The park is fully protected; furthermore, hunting and cutting of
vegetation is prohibited within a 5km radius of the park’s boundary (Sheikh, 1982). It is
managed according to objectives outlined in the master plan (Masud, 1980). These include
protecting and restoring the endemic fauna and flora, providing recreational and educational
facilities for the local people (and also for tourists) and accommodating scientific research. A
system of zonation has been proposed, whereby the entire Cholistan Desert is incorporated
within a wilderness zone in which development is not permitted, enclosures established for the
blackbuck breeding programme are included within special areas to which entry is restricted,
and the Desert Branch Canal is encompassed within recreation zones of varying intensities of
use. A new management plan has since been prepared by Khan and Chaudhry (1987) and submitted
to the authorities for approval. The plantation is being managed for commercial purposes according
to objectives outlined in the working plan (Qazi, 1967). Of the additional 5,100ha earmarked
plantation by 1987/88, 1,862ha has already been planted with trees (Shah, 1984).
A programme to re-introduce blackbuck to the park began in 1970 with an initial shipment of
10 animals (seven females and three males) from a Texas ranch. (These blackbuck were the
descendants of 35 blackbuck presented to Texas in 1940 by the late Amir of Bahawalpur.)
Survival of young proved to be low and so, in 1980, a further five females and one male, donated
by Copenhagen Zoo, were added to the stock, since when numbers had increased to some 48 by
1982. Another breeding nucleus was established in a separate enclosure in 1982 with animals
from Copenhagen Zoo and Western Plains Zoo, New South Wales (Ahmad, 1983; Aleem, 1978;
Sheikh, 1982).
Management Constraints The plantation comprises mostly introduced species, including the
dominant shisham, toot, simal Salmalia malabaricum and Eucalyptus spp.. Problems of
encroachment exist in several places and some areas continue to be cultivated. The reservoir
could be expanded in the future with the increased demand for water to irrigate the Cholistan
Desert as it becomes more extensively populated (Masud, 1980).
Staff Comprises an administrator with an office wing of 11 staff, a forestry wing of 71 staff
(including one divisional forest officer, three range officers, 10 foresters and 18 forest guards)
and a wildlife wing of 12 staff (including one assistant game warden, one game inspector, three
game watchers and two fishery watchers) (Shah, 1984).
Budget No recent information. Rs 5,368,000 were provided by the provincial government for
the period 1975/76 to 1978/79.
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Pakistan
Local Addresses Administrator, Lal Suhanra National Park Head Office, Bahawalpur, Punjab
Province
References
Ahmad, Ashiq (1983). A note relating to some problems with the re-introduced blackbuck at Lal
Suhanra in Bahawalpur. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 33: 87-90.
Aleem, Abdul (1978). Re-introduction of blackbuck in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 28:
11-115.
Anon (n.d.). List of plants, medicinal plants, reptiles, mammals and avifauna of Lal Sohandra
National Park. Unpublished. 14 pp.
Bokhari, A.S. (1970a). Re-introduction of blankbucks (Antilope crevicapra) in Lal Sohanra Game
Sanctuary of Bahawalpur District. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 20: 393-5.
Bokhari, A.S. (1970b). Re-introductoin of marbled teals (Anas angustirostris) in Lal Sohanra Game
Sanctuary (District Bahawalpur). Pakistan Journal of Forestry 20: 383-386.
Khan, A.A. and Chaudhry, A. Aleem (1987). Management plan for Lal Suhanra National Park.
Punjab Wildlife Department. Unpublished report.
Masud, R.M. (1980). Master plan for Lal Suhanra National Park, Bhawalpur-Pakistan 1980 to
1985. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife in Pakistan, Islamabad. 55 pp.
Mirza, Z.B. (1985). A note on houbara bustards in Cholistan, Punjab. Bustard Studies No. 3. Pp.
43-44.
Mirza, Z.B. and Waiz, A. (1973). Food availability for blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) at Lal
Suhanra Sanctuary, Pakistan. Biological Conservation 5: 119-122.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). Report on the 1966 World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund Project 311. Pp. 18-19.
Qazi, I.A. (1967). Working plan for irrigated plantations of Bahawalpur Forest Division (1964-65
to 1983-84). Mananagor, Government Printing Press, Bahawalpur.
Roberts, T. (1975). Blackbucks retum to Pakistan. In: Sitwell, N. (Ed.) The World Conservation
Yearbook. The Danbury Press, UK. Pp. 50-55.
Roberts, T. (1984). Pakistan’s wildlife today. World Wildlife Fund Monthly Report, January, 1984.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Shah, M.H. (1984). Lalsuhanra National Park, Bahawalpur-Punjab, Pakistan. Unpublished Report.
5 pp.
Sheikh, K.H. (1982). Lal Suhandra National Park. World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan Newsletter 4-6:
4-8.
WWF/IUCN Project 474, Lal Suhanra National Park - reintroduction of blackbuck.
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
LANGH (LUNGH) LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category UA
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Situated in Sind Province, 19km west of Larkana from which it is
accessible by metal road. An unmetalled road runs along the northern and western boundaries
of the sanctuary and in one part actually passes through it. 68°03’E, 27°30’N
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary 1972 (Notification No.
26(2) SWL & FT/72) and re-notified in 1980.
Area 19ha (formerly lake) surrounded by a 47ha buffer zone of 5km radius
Land Tenure Land within the sanctuary belongs to the state (Provincial Government of Sind),
which in 1977 was in the process of purchasing the surrounding buffer area from private
landowners.
Altitude 50m
Physical Features The lake was formerly part of the Indus river-bed, now 32-48km to the east.
It lies in the fertile silt soils (comprising about 20% sand and 80% clay and silt) of the Indus
flood plain. The area of open water is 20-30m across. Land surrounding the lake is generally
flat, with the limestone and sandstone hills of the Kalat Range some 80km to the west in
Baluchistan. The flood plain is divided into small fields, which are irrigated by a network of
canals and used mainly for growing rice. The lake is fed by monsoon rain, and water also enters
via a small canal to the north. Apparently there is no outlet channel. The boundary of the
sanctuary is partly surrounded by a bund which helps to retain the water. Parts of the lake
normally dry out in the summer months.
Climate Conditions in the region are extreme, with temperatures reaching 47°C in the shade
in summer and falling to a mean minimum of 2.2°C in January. Mean annual rainfall is about
178mm, most of which falls in the monsoon season. Prevailing winds are north-east in winter
and west-south-west in May-September (Sorley, 1968).
Vegetation There were three principal habitat types: open water, formerly the arm of the Indus,
with stands of Typha angustata and Juncus spp. on the edge; swamp, dominated by Tamarix
dioica; and areas dominated by Juncus spp. which were rice fields prior to being flooded in the
early 1960s (Conder, 1977). In recent years, water supplies have been diverted for use elsewhere
and the lake has become completely overgrown with Typha and Tamarix (Scott, 1989).
Fauna The lake used to support very large numbers of waterfowl in addition to large
populations of non-migratory species and Palaearctic migrant warblers of the genera Acroce-
phalus, Hippolais, Phylloscopus and Sylvia (Conder,1977). Up to 200 mallard Anas platyrhyn-
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Pakistan
chos, 25,000 common teal A. crecca, 200 garganey A. querquedula, 500 gadwall A. strepera,
19,000 northern pintail A. acuta, 8,000 northern shoveler A. clypeata, 40 marbled teal A. angus-
tirostris (one of the rarest Palaearctic ducks to visit the Indian subcontinent), 50 tufted duck
Aythya fuligula, 3,000 common pochard A. ferina and the occasional ferruginous duck A. nyroca
were recorded during counts in 1973-1977. The lake was also important for other waterbirds,
notably night herons Nycticorax nycticorax, with up to 1,100 recorded. Other species included
great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, Indian cormorant P. fuscicollis, little cormorant P. niger,
darter Anhinga anhinga, grey heron Ardea cinerea, purple heron A. purpurea, pond heron
Ardeola grayii, great egret Egretta alba, intermediate egret E. intermedia, little Egret E. garzet-
ta, glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, as well as a variety of waders including painted snipe
Rostrulata benghalensis, white-tailed plover Chettusia leucurus and pheasant-tailed jacana
Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Birds of prey included osprey Pandion haliaetus, greater spotted
eagle Aquila clanga, imperial eagle A. heliaca, tawny eagle A. rapax, white-tailed eagle Ha-
liaeetus albicilla, Brahminy kite Haliastur indus, black kite Milvus migrans, long-legged
buzzard Buteo rufinus, pallid harrier Circus macrourus, marsh harrier C. aeruginosus and saker
falcon Falco cherrug. The Tamarix area was an important wintering ground for many smaller
birds, including Palaearctic warblers. Nothing has been documented about the other fauna. The
only waterfowl present in January 1987 were 27 herons and egrets and 12 shorebirds. In January
1988, there were about 200 birds, mainly cormorants, herons and egrets (Scott, 1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is one rest house.
Scientific Research and Facilities The waterfowl has been regularly censused since the early
1970s. There are no research facilities.
Conservation Value The lake was an important staging and wintering area for a wide variety
of waterfowl (Conder, 1977), but the wetland has almost completely disappeared and it is no
longer of importance to waterfowl (Roberts, 1984; Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management A management plan was prepared by Conder (1977), according
to which objectives were: to conserve and protect the natural habitat to provide optimal
conditions for the large numbers of resident and wintering birds, particularly waterfowl; to
provide for a limited amount of shooting on special occasions; and to provide facilities for
scientists, naturalists and interested members of the public to study and enjoy the wildlife without
disturbing it.
Management Constraints The lake has shrunk considerably in area as it is no longer
maintained by regularly diverting water. Disturbance by grazing livestock is excessive.
Staff Honorary district game warden, game inspector and game watchers (1977)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Larkana, Sind Province
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References
Conder, P.J. (1977). Lake Langh Wildlife Sanctuary (Management Plan). IUCN/WWF Project
No. 1360. 13 pp.
Roberts, T.J. (1984). Brief review of the status of wetlands in Pakistan. 10th Asian Continental
Section Conference, ICBP, Cambridge. Unpublished report. 6 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sorley, H.T. (1968). The former Province of Sind (including Khairpur State). Gazetteer of West
Pakistan. Publication of the Government of West Pakistan. 809 pp. (Unseen)
Date August 1986, updated August 1990
MACHIARA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in Muzaffarabad District of Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir.
34°31’-34°34’N, 73°32’-73°39°E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in 1982.
Area 13,537ha
Land Tenure State (Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir). Traditional grazing rights are exercised
by the local people.
Altitude Ranges from 2,134m to the peak of Mushan at 4,733m (Roberts, 1984).
Physical Features The sanctuary encompasses the watershed of Machiara Nullah, a tributary
of the Neelum River.
Climate Conditions are temperate. Meteorological data are available from Naran which lies
at about 1,000m in the adjacent Kaghan Valley. Here, annual precipitation is 1340mm, of which
almost 60% falls between February and April. Mean monthly maximum and minimum
temperatures range from 3.3°C and -6.9°C, respectively, in January to 25.6°C and 12.6°C in
August (Khan, 1989).
Vegetation Deciduous forest occurs at lower altitudes (2,400-2,800m). It is dominated by
almost pure stands of horse chestnut Aesculus indica, with the occasional walnut Juglans regia,
ash Fraxinus sp., and maple Acer caesium, and an understorey of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana,
Jasminium humile and Berberis spp. Middle altitudes support dense mixed forests, with oak
Quercus semecarpifolia on more exposed ridges (near the westernmost limit of this Himalayan
oak) and a dense shrub layer of Lonicera webbiana, Abelia triflora, Viburnum cotinifolium and
V. nervosum in the steeper ravines. Cedar Cedrus deodara grows alongside blue pine Pinus
excelsa on drier southern slopes, and silver fir Abies pindrow and spruce Picea smithiana occur
on northern or moister slopes. Birch Betula utilis is predominant above 3,300m, with extensive
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Pakistan
patches of creeping juniper Juniperus communis and, in damper areas, dense clumps of willow
Salix denticulata. Alpine pastures, with patches of dwarf rhododendron Rhododendron antho-
pogon, extend to the snowline (Roberts, 1984; Duke, 1988).
Fauna Machiara is noted for its diverse fauna. Large mammals include common langur
Presbytis entellus, yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula, leopard Panthera pardus (T),
brown bear Ursus arctos, Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, Himalayan musk deer
Moschus chrysogaster (V), and ibex Capra ibex. Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, wolf Canis
lupus (V), and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) are also reported to be present (Roberts, 1984;
Grimmett, 1987; Duke, 1988).
Roberts (1984) and Duke (1988) each recorded some 40 species of birds during brief surveys,
but most Western Himalayan species are likely to be found in the reserve (G. Duke, pers. comm.).
Machiara is the second most important known refuge of western tragopan Tragopan melanoce-
phalus (E). Islam and Crawford (1987) recorded a minimum of 22 birds within their 8 sq.km
study area. Koklass pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha, Himalayan monal Lophophorus impejanus,
possibly cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii (E) and snow partridge Lerwa lerwa are also present
(Roberts, 1984; Duke, 1988).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Machiara Village lies outside the reserve, but there are a number
of temporary settlements on the periphery and within the reserve which are used by Bakarwal
herdsmen during the summer months (Roberts, 1984; Duke, 1988).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife has been briefly documented by Roberts
(1984), Grimmett (1987) and Duke (1988). Pheasant populations were censused by Qayyum
(1980) in 1977-1979. More detailed studies of the western tragopan have been conducted by
Islam (1983, 1985, 1987) and Islam and Crawford (1984-1985, 1987).
Conservation Value Machiara is considered to be one of the most important protected areas
in Pakistan. Its Himalayan forests are relatively intact and support a diverse assemblage of faunal
species characteristic of the temperate zone. The reserve is a particularly important refuge for
the endangered western tragopan, and also for Himalayan musk deer (Roberts, 1984).
Conservation Management There is no management plan for the reserve. The wildlife wing
of the Provincial Forest Department, aware of the international importance of Machiara, is
planning to upgrade the reserve to wildlife sanctuary status. Plans have stalled due to difficulties
with settling existing grazing, felling and shooting rights (Grimmett, 1987; Duke, 1988). It has
been recommended that ultimately Machiara should be extended as far east as Kuttan and
designated a national park, both to provide a large enough area to support a viable population
of western tragopan and to serve as a corridor for the species to disperse to and from the Kaghan
and Neelum valleys to the west and east, respectively (Grimmett, 1987; Islam and Crawford, in
press). Machiara is included in the ICBP/Pakistan Himalayan Jungle Project, which will focus
on core area protection, associated rural development, training of wildlife staff and conservation
education (G. Duke, pers. comm., 1990).
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Management Constraints The activities of graziers result in considerable disturbance to the
vegetation and wildlife within the reserve (Roberts, 1984; Duke, 1988).
Staff One wildlife watcher
Budget No information
Local Addresses Range Officer, Forest Office, Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
References
Duke, G. (1988). A short note on Machiara Game Reserve. Unpublished report. 7 pp.
Grimmett, R. (1987). Notes on a visit to Machiara Game Reserve, Pakistan. Unpublished report.
2 pp.
Islam, K. (1983). Distribution, habitat and status of the western tragopan in Pakistan. In: Proceed-
ings of Jean Delacour/IFCB Symposium on Breeding Birds in Captivity, California. Pp. 37-44.
Islam, K. (1985). Habitat use by western tragopans in northeastern Pakistan. MS thesis, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon.
Islam, K. (1987). Status and distribution of the westem tragopan in northeastern Pakistan. In:
Savage, C.D.W. and Ridley, M.W., Pheasants in Asia 1982. World Pheasant Association,
Lower Basildon, UK. Pp. 44-51.
Islam, K. and Crawford, J.A. (1984-1985). Brood habitat and roost sites of western tragopan in
northeastern Pakistan. World Pheasant Association Journal 10: 7-14.
Islam, K. and Crawford, J.A. (1987). Habitat use by westem tragopans Tragopan melacocephalus
(Gray) in northeastern Pakistan. Biological Conservation 40: 101-115.
Islam, K. and Crawford, J.A. (in press). Summary of western tragopan project in Pakistan with
recommendations for conservation of the species. In: Ridley, M. (Ed.), Pheasants in Asia 1986.
World Pheasant Association, Basildon, UK.
Khan, M. (1989). Revised working plan for Palas forests of Kohistan Forest Division. NWFP
Forestry Pre-investment Centre, Peshawar.
Qayyum, S.A. (1980). The status of pheasants in Azad Jammu and Kashmir with special reference
to the western tragopan. Paper presented to the Conference on Game Animals, Peshawar. 4 pp.
Date August 1990
MALUGUL DHAND
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the Kurram River valley about 20km north-west of Lakki in
Bannu District. 32°46’N, 70°51’E
Date and History of Establishment Malugul Dhand has no protected status but was designated
a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar
Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 405ha
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Pakistan
Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province)
Altitude 305-390m
Physical Features Malugul Dhand is a dead arm of the Kurram River which fills up during
the spring floods to form a shallow brackish/saline lake, about 1m deep. The lake usually dries
up during the dry season. The wetland also receives some water from seepage of nearby
irrigation canals. The pH value is 8.5.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with very hot summers and cold winters. Mean
maximum temperature in June is 42°C, and mean minimum in January is 0.5°C. Mean annual
rainfall is 338mm.
Vegetation Dominant aquatic plants include Typha angustata, Phragmites karka, Trigonella
monantha, Phyla nodiflora and species of Chara, Chenopodium and Cyperus. Woodland in the
area is dominated by Prosopis cineraria and Tamarix aphylla.
Fauna Up to 350 ducks, mainly wigeon Anas penelope, teal A. crecca, mallard A. platyrhyn-
chos and pintail A. acuta, have been recorded at Malugul Dhand in mid-winter, along with small
numbers of white stork Ciconia ciconia, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus and several
other species of shorebirds.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Most of the land surrounding Malugul Dhand is cultivated.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Malugul Dhand is a popular area for outdoor recreation.
Scientific Research and Facilities The Pakistan Forest Institute carried out mid-winter
waterfowl counts at Malugul Dhand in 1979 to 1981, and the Zoological Survey Department
has conducted annual counts since then.
Conservation Value Malugul Dhand is important for waterfowl. It also provides opportunities
for outdoor recreation, including sport hunting.
Conservation Management The wetland is managed by the provincial Wildlife Department.
Management Constraints Numbers of waterfowl have fallen drastically in recent years due
to livestock grazing and recreational activities. Salinity levels have increased as a result of
extensive irrigation in the area.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
MANSHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Kaghan Valley on the east bank of the Kunhar River, 12km
north of Paras Village in Hazara District, North-West Frontier Province. It is close to the border
with Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir. The sanctuary is accessible via Paras along a very poor
track, which is impassable during winter snow. 34°48’N, 73°34’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. Originally
designated a reserve for a five-year period ending in 1973.
Area 2,321ha. Forms part of Manshi Reserved Forest.
Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province)
Altitude Exceeds 4,000m
Physical Features The Kaghan Valley, through which flows the Kunhar River, is steep-sided
and aligned north-south. Surrounding ridges form a natural amphitheatre, opening to the south
and broken only in the north-west where a side valley leads up to Mount Musa-ka-Mussallah.
Climate No information
Vegetation Lower Kaghan Valley is characterised by Himalayan moist temperate forest, with
oak Quercus dilatata, sycamore Acer caesium, poplar Populus ciliata, yew Taxus baccata and
walnut Juglans nigra predominant and some scattered blue pine Pinus wallichiana, cedar Cedrus
deodar, spruce Picea smithiana and silver fir Abies alba. This vegetation type is replaced by
dry temperate coniferous forest in the upper reaches, where blue pine forest is interspersed with
cedar, spruce and silver fir. Above 2,500m are alpine meadows, with a rich herbaceous flora,
including an abundance of peony Paeonia sp. (Wayre, 1971; Roberts, 1977).
Fauna The mammals have not been surveyed, but are known to include common langur
Presbytis entellus and Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei (Wayre, 1971). Himalayan black bear
Selenarctos thibetanus, Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V) and occasionally
leopard Panthera pardus (T) are also present (M.M. Malik, pers. comm., 1987). The avifauna
is rich in species. There is prime habitat for koklass pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha and monal
pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, both of which are numerous (Wayre, 1971; T.J. Roberts, pers.
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Pakistan
comm., 1986). The sanctuary is one of the few known breeding locations in Pakistan for
white-bellied redstart Hodgsonius phoenicuroides. Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus and
lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus also breed here (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Five species
of fish occur in Kaghan Valley but their distribution within the sanctuary is not specified (Mirza
and Hussain, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are no permanent settlements within the sanctuary but Gujars
live lower down in the valley. These graziers spend the summer (June-July) in the sanctuary
with their cattle, buffalo, goats and sheep (Wayre, 1971).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a Forest Department rest house and youth hostel at
Sharan.
Scientific Research and Facilities Parts of Manshi Forest Reserve were surveyed for pheasants
in 1971 (Wayre, 1971).
Conservation Value This part of Manshi Forest Reserve was recommended as being the most
suitable area in Kaghan Valley for protecting high-altitude-pheasants. The relative inaccessi-
bility of the valley, coupled with the presence of snow during winter, facilitates protection of
the sanctuary.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints The lower reaches of Kaghan Valley are the site of a West
German-funded project to produce virus-free seed potatoes. A large area of forest has been
cleared within the forest reserve and camps established for imported local labour, all of which
are jeopardising the integrity of the sanctuary (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Grazing by
domestic livestock is not controlled.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Range Officer, Balakot Range, NWFP Forest Department
References
Mirza, M.R. and Hussain, S. (1985). A note on the fish fauna of Kaghan Valley, Pakistan, with
the record of Schistura nalbanti. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 17: 101.
Roberts, T.J. (1977). The Mammals of Pakistan. Emest Benn, London. Pp. 6-7.
Wayre, P. (1971). Pheasant conservation in Pakistan. WWF Project 1563. Pp. 17-21.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
MARGALLA HILLS NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Comprises the hill ranges immediately to the north of the Federal
Capital of Islamabad. 33°48’N, 73°10’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park on 27 April 1980 under Section
21(1) of the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Conservation and Management) Ordinance, 1979.
Prior to 1960, much of the area was reserved forest. Subsequently, it was declared a wildlife
sanctuary under the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1959.
Area’ 17,386ha. The park comprises compartments 2-5, 7-23, 28, 30-38(i) and 41(ii) of
Margalla Forest Reserve, compartments 1-25 of the Military Grass Farm and various other lands
making a total area of 14,786ha, together with Rawal Lake and a surrounding buffer area of 2km
from the high water mark. Rawal Lake is not contiguous with the rest of the park, the intervening
area constituting part of Islamabad Game Reserve (69,800ha).
Land Tenure State (Federal Government). Land transferred to the Capital Development
Authority in 1961, when Islamabad was declared the capital of Pakistan, includes 4,794ha of
reserved forest, 3,315ha managed by the Military Farm Authorities and 3,636ha under private
ownership (Masud, 1979).
Altitude Ranges between 456m and 1,580m.
Physical Features The topography is rugged, with numerous valleys and many steep and even
precipitous slopes. The area is drained by the River Kurang and its tributaries, which flow into
the River Soan. Rocks are Jurassic and Triassic in age, limestone being characteristic of the
Margalla Range (though shales, clays and sandstones are also present). Soils are dark, with a
high mineral content, and are capable of supporting good tree growth despite being shallow.
Climate Lying in the monsoon belt, the area experiences two rainy seasons. Winter rains last
from January until March and summer rains from July until September. Based on climatic data
from Rawalpindi for 1951 to 1965, mean annual rainfall is 951mm and mean monthly maximum
and minimum temperatures range from 16.9°C to 40.1°C and from 3.1°C to 24.7°C, respectively
(Masud, 1979).
Vegetation The two distinct types of vegetation are subtropical dry semi-evergreen forest and
subtropical pine forest. The former is dominated by phulai Acacia modesta and kao Olea
ferruginea, associated with sanatha Dodonaea viscosa, granda Carissa spinarum and ber
Zizyphus jujuba, and having an undergrowth of bhekar Justicia adhatoda, gunger Sageratia
thea, mullah Zizyphus nummularia and khokhal Myrsine africana. About 50 species of grass
are present, the most common being dhauloo Chrysopogon serrulatus, palwan Bothrichloa
156
Pakistan
pertusa, survala Heteropogon contortus, maniara Pennisetum orientale and loonder Themeda
anthera. Introduced ornamental tree species include: silver oak Grevillea robusta, gulenishtar
Erythrina suberosa, jacaranda Jacaranda mimosoefolia, bottle brush Callistemon viminalis,
sakar Ehretia laevis, chir pine Pinus roxburghii, Cassia glauca, Porgania glabra and Eucalyptus
sp. Subtropical pine forest occurs above 1,000m, chir pine Pinus roxburghii being the charac-
teristic canopy species with an undergrowth of Myrsine africana, Woodfordia fruticosa, Berberis
lycium and granda Carissa spinarum. Forests are well-stocked on cooler aspects but those on
the hotter southern slopes with poor soils are sparse and mixed with scrub.
Fauna Margalla Hills are unique in Pakistan, being rich in Sinohimalayan fauna, some species
(especially birds) of which are at the western extremity of their distribution. Larger mammals
are known to include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, leopard Panthera pardus (T), wild boar
Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Munitacus muntjak and goral Nemorhaedus goral. Noteworthy birds
include white-eyed buzzard Butastur teesa, lannar falcon Falco biarmicus, black-shouldered
kite Elanus caeruleus, kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelana, black partridge Francolinus fran-
colinus, sirkeer cuckoo Taccocua leschenaultii, jungle nightjar Caprimulgus indicus, long-tailed
nightjar C. macrurus, lesser golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense and lanceolated
jay Garrulus lanceolatus. A list of mammals and birds believed to be found in the park is given
in the master plan (Masud, 1979). Further details of the avifauna can be found in Corfield (1983).
Cheer pheasant Catreus wallichi (E), reared at Dhok Jewan and Jabri, are being released into
the park. The re-introduction programme is being carried out by the World Pheasant Association
in collaboration with the Capital Development Authority (Howman, 1985; Anon., 1987).
Cultural Heritage There are a number of historical and religious sites but their importance
needs to be evaluated. Shah Faisal Mosque lies outside the southern boundary of the park.
Local Human Population Shadarah is the only village remaining in the park; it is due to be
relocated. Formerly, there were over a dozen villages inside the park, and the residents of
Phulgran retained traditional rights to graze cattle in compartments 1 & 6 of Margalla Reserved
Forest (Masud, 1979).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Large numbers of residents from Islamabad and Rawalpindi,
as well as foreigners, visit the park due to its proximity to the capital. There is a small zoo near
the park entrance which will eventually be transferred to Islamabad Zoo and located in Islamabad
Game Reserve. A visitor centre is planned for Daman-E-Koh, providing lounge accommodation
and an information service. Lodges, camping grounds and picnic sites are also planned and the
provision of a chair lift may be considered.
Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife was surveyed in December 1977 by WWF in
collaboration with the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. The avifauna is well-
documented (Corfield, 1983).
Conservation Value In its report of 1971, the Wildlife Enquiry Committee recommended that
the park should be established in the interests of the people of Islamabad. It is also an extremely
important watershed for the capital. With regard to its fauna, Margalla Hills is one of the richest
areas for birds in Pakistan.
Conservation Management Margalla Hills has been managed by the Capital Development
Authority since 1961 when it was declared a ‘green’ area. Reserved forests, rakhs (military grass
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
farms) and chaks (private holdings) have since been taken over by the Authority. Much of the
original forest has been removed, even prior to the transferral of the forests to the Forest
Department in the late 19th century (Elahi, 1970), but is gradually reverting to its original
condition under the present management regime. The loss of grass habitat on southern slopes
(former rakhs) is likely to be associated with the disappearance of cheer pheasant and the
difficulties experienced in trying to re-introduce it (Young, 1986).
Objectives outlined in the master plan include restoring the vegetation and wildlife to its previous
condition, stopping erosion, conserving the water supply and meeting the increased demand for
outdoor recreation through the development of proper visitor facilities (Masud, 1979). A system
of zonation, based on areas of varying intensities of visitor use, has been proposed to facilitate
management. This includes a 3,100ha enclosure for captive breeding and re-introduction
purposes, and wilderness areas (comprising 70% of the park area) in which development is
permitted. It is proposed that the park be surrounded by a buffer zone of 8km, in which shooting
is prohibited. An enclosure, with a 14km perimeter, is due to be sited in Dhoke Jewari Valley,
as part of a plan to re-introduce muntjac and goral to the park.
Management Constraints Being adjacent to Islamabad, the park is subject to very high levels
of use by visitors. [legal grazing and collection of fuelwood are persistent problems. Large-
scale planting of ornamental trees by the Horticultural Directorate detract from the integrity of
the area (Masud, 1979).
Staff One deputy director, one assistant director, one veterinary officer, six range officers, 11
foresters, 43 forest guards, approximately 60 permanent labourers and an additional 120 casual
labourers in April-June for fire-control work (1986)
Budget Recurrent expenditure (including upkeep of the zoo) of Rs 4.7 million is met by the
Capital Development Authority; capital expenditure of Rs 2 million for the re-introduction of
goral, chinkara, cheer pheasant and development of public amenities is met by this Authority
and the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife in equal proportions (1986).
Local Addresses Deputy Director, Margalla Hills National Park, Capital Development Auth-
ority, Sitara Market, Islamabad
References
Anon. (1987). Summary of radio tracking of cheer pheasants in the Margalla Hills, Pakistan. World
Pheasant Association News 15: 16-17, 20-21.
Corfield, D.M. (1983). Birds of Islamabad, Pakistan and the Muree Hills. Asian Study Group,
Islamabad.
Elahi, M. (1970). Working plan for the scrub forest of Rawalpindi District: 1966-67 to 1975-76.
Government Printing Press, Lahore. (Unseen)
Howman, K.C.R. (1985). Cheer pheasant release project Margallah Hills, Pakistan. Review of
cheer pheasant reintroduction programme in Margallah Hills, Islamabad, Pakistan. World
Pheasant Association News 7: 8-10.
Masud, R.M. (1979). Master plan for Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan 1979 to
1984. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad. 48 pp.
Roberts, T. (1984). Pakistan’s wildlife today. World Wildlife Fund Monthly Report. January, 1984.
Young, L. (1986). Forest history of the Margalla Hills. Draft report. 3 pp.
Date July 1986, updated August 1990
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Pakistan
NALTAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies close to Hunza Valley in northern Pakistan, 45km from the town
of Gilgit. Approximately 36°07’N, 74°14’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975.
Area 27,206ha. Contiguous to Sher Qillah Game Reserve (16,842ha) and Pakora Game
Reserve (7,515ha).
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,972m to 5,926m at Shanni Glacier.
Physical Features Naltar Valley lies at about 3,000m and is aligned in a north-west to
south-east direction, with mountains on either side rising to about 5,800m (Winser and Winser,
1985). This fluvio-glacial valley follows the southern limbs of the Kailas Range for about 24km
until its confluence with the Hunza River. The profile of the upper portion is glacial and typically
‘U’-shaped, while that of the lower portion is ‘V’-shaped due to river erosion. The meta-
sedimentary and sedimentary sequence includes slates, quartzites, limestone and gneiss of
pre-Carboniferous age. There are green stone, granodiorite and horn-blended granite intrusions.
Igneous rocks are post Permo-Carboniferous in age. Late Cretaceous sediments overlay the
green stone complex in Yasin Valley. The upper reaches of the Naltar River freeze during winter
(Rasul, 1985).
Climate Annual rainfall ranges from 254mm to 381mm. Winter is severe (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation The area falls within the dry temperate zone, but because of high rainfall supports
luxuriant forests and ground cover (Rasul, 1985). Trees and shrubs include species of Pistacia,
Olea, Fraxinus, Sageratia, Eurotia, Juniperus, Picea, Betula, Salix and Populus. Herbs include
Artemisia, Stipa and Haloxylon.
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, snow leopard
Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, fox Vulpes vulpes, wolf Canis lupus (V), stone
marten Martes foina and leopard cat Felis bengalensis (Rasul, 1985). Some 35 species of birds
have been recorded (N. MacCallum, pers. comm.).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are a number of settlements in Naltar Valley, those higher
up being used only in summer (Winser and Winser, 1985).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities An expedition from Aberdeen University carried out
ecological studies on the pika Ochotona roylei and choughs Pyrrhocorax spp., and made
collections of mosses, spiders and pseudo-scorpions (Winser and Winser, 1985).
Conservation Value Naltar is part of a protected areas complex which is important for a variety
of threatened mammal species.
Conservation Management Wildlife is given complete protection. People residing within an
8km radius of the sanctuary enjoy concessions to extract timber and firewood, graze livestock
and cut grass. A conservation management plan and plan for the establishment of a mini-zoo
are being prepared (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and agricultural en-
croachment (Rasul, 1985).
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Winser, N. and Winser, S. (Eds) (1985). Expedition Yearbook 1984. Expedition Advisory Centre,
London. Pp. 111-112.
Date September 1988
NAR/GHORO NALLAH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, about 26km by road from the town of
Skardu. Approximately 35°06’N, 75°12’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 7,255ha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
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Pakistan
Altitude Ranges from 2,424m to 4,242m.
Physical Features The terrain is rugged and precipitous. Stream deposits of alluvium and
gravel cover valley bottoms. Sedimentary, meta-sedimentary and igneous rocks are present
(Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102mm, with most falling
as snow. Winters are severe and summers mild (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Juniperus, Betula, Salix and Fraxinus. Ground flora
consists of Artemisia and various grass species (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V) and
snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). The larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow
partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp. and various raptor species (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and the reserve is closed to
hunting. Local people enjoy concessions to collect firewood, graze livestock and cut grass.
Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
NAZBAR NALLAH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Yasin Tehsil of Gilgit District, 137km by bridle path from
Gilgit Town. Approximately 36°22’N, 73°19’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 33,177ha. The reserve is contiguous to Chassi/Baushdar Game Reserve (37,053ha).
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 2,039m to 5,212m.
Physical Features The Nazbar catchment area includes numerous side nullahs with rugged,
undulating topography.
Climate The climate is dry, with an annual precipitation of 127-254mm, most of which falls
as snow. Winters are severe and summers mild (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Trees include Juniperus (sporadic and stunted), Salix , Rosa, Fraxinus and Populus
Ground flora includes Artemisia, Stipa and other grasses.
Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), lynx Felis
lynx and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa
lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp. and various raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Local inhabitants cultivate in the lower part of the reserve and graze
livestock in the upper part (Rasul, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value No information
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy
concessions to extract firewood and timber for domestic use, graze livestock and cut grass. There
is no management plan (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
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Pakistan
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
NEMAL LAKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies 29 km east-north-east of Mianwali. 32°41’N, 71°49’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1970, and re-notified in
January 1979.
Area 486ha
Land Tenure The lake is state-owned (Provincial Government of the Punjab). Adjacent
agricultural land is privately owned, and forested hill slopes and range lands are state-owned.
Altitude 352m
Physical Features Nemal is a shallow brackish lake, partly impounded by a dam in one corner,
and fed by a small spring and several intermittent streams rising in the low hills of the Salt Range
to the south-east. Maximum depth of the lake is 5.8m, and the mean 4.6m. The water level
fluctuates widely, and is partially controlled by the removal of water for irrigation. The water
is slightly saline (3.2 p.p.t. in 1964), and has a pH value of 7.3.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with an annual rainfall of between 300mm and 600mm.
Minimum temperatures in January range from 1°C to 5°C, and maximum temperatures in June
from 40°C to 45°C.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation consists of Carex fedia, Hydrilla verticillata, Juncus sp.,
Phragmites karka, Potamogeton crispus, Saccharum spontaneum, Typha angustata and Zanni-
chellia palustris. The natural vegetation of the region is a mixture of subtropical semi-evergreen
scrub and tropical thorn scrub with species such as Acacia modesta, A. nilotica, Adhatoda vasica,
Dodonea viscosa, Gymnosporia royleana, Olea ferruginea, Prosopis cineraria, Reptonia bux-
ifolia, Salvadora oleoides, Tamarix aphylla, T. dioica, Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia,
Chrysopogon aucheri, Lasiurus hirsutus, Heteropogon contortus and Panicum antidotale.
Prosopis glandulosa has been introduced to the area. Most of the land adjacent to the lake has
been cleared for agriculture.
Fauna The lake was an important wintering area for Anatidae, with between 2,000 and 5,000
birds present in mid-winter in the early 1970s. Smew Mergus albeilus and white-headed duck
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Oxyura leucocephala (V) were regular winter visitors in small numbers, with maximum counts
of 79 and 127 respectively. The number of birds visiting the lake has decreased, however, since
the construction of Chashma Barrage on the Indus River. A flock of up to 50 greylag goose
Anser anser continues to winter in the area, along with small numbers of a wide variety of other
waterfowl. Further details are given in Scott (1989).
Mammals known to occur in the area include jackal Canis aureus, fox Vulpes vulpes and
black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis. Fishes include Catla catla, Channa marulius, Cirrhinus
mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, Salmo faria, Tilapia mossambica and Labeo rohita.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Sulphur springs along the irrigation canal attract visitors
seeking medicinal treatment.
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out since
1971.
Conservation Value The lake supports a variety of waterfowl but is no longer important as a
wintering area for ducks. It supports a commercial fishery and provides opportunities for
outdoor recreation, as well as being important for irrigation.
Conservation Management Protection of the sanctuary has improved considerably since its
re-notification. Fishing is permitted under licence from the Punjab Fisheries Department. The
Department has recently developed a project to improve stocks of commercially important
species. Livestock are grazed on the surrounding range land, and some leases have been granted
to mine in the nearby hills.
Management Constraints Fishing, grazing and agricultural activities around the lake cause
some disturbance to waterfowl. The wide fluctuations in water level and changes in salinity
may be having a detrimental effect on the habitat. There is some illegal hunting.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
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Pakistan
PAKORA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 97km by road from the town of Gilgit. The
reserve is located in Ishkuman, 47km from Gakuch Punial. Approximately 36°24’N, 73°53’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 7,515ha. The reserve is contiguous to Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary (27,206ha).
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 2,333m to 4,848m.
Physical Features Pakora Nullah is very narrow at its mouth, which is flanked by steep slopes.
Higher up it opens out, giving way to gentle slopes. Schist, quartzite and limestone are present
in sedimentary, meta-sedimentary and igneous rocks (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation ranges from 127mm to 254mm,
most of which is in the form of snow. Winters are severe and summers cool (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Juniperus, Fraxinus, Olea and Rosa. Artemisia, Stipa
and other grasses are present (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), wolf Canis
lupus (V) and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge
Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp. and various raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The reserve is part of a protected areas complex which is important for
a variety of threatened mammal species.
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy
concessions to extract firewood and timber and graze livestock. The reserve is completely closed
for hunting. No management plan exists.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
RASOOL BARRAGE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated on the Jhelum River, 30km downstream from Jhelum and
52km west-north-west of Gujrat. The reservoir abuts the Salt Range to the north-west and
cultivated plains to the south-east. 32°43’N, 73°33’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1974. It was re-notified
in September 1984.
Area 1,138ha
Land Tenure The reservoir is state owned (Provincial Government of the Punjab). The hills
to the north-west are state-owned, and agricultural land to the south-east is privately owned.
Altitude 190m
Physical Features Comprises a water storage reservoir with associated marshes and extensive
sand banks, created by the damming of the Jhelum River for irrigation purposes. Shallow
lagoons are maintained by two embankments, which hold back the water as the level of the main
channel falls. The water level fluctuates by about 2m, its maximum depth is 6.5m. The pH
value varies between 6.8 and 7.2.
Climate Conditions are subtropical monsoonal, with hot summers and cool winters. Annual
rainfall varies from 200mm to 500mm. Mean minimum temperature in January is 5.5°C, and
mean maximum in June 40°C.
Vegetation Aquatic vegetation includes Carex fedia, Hydrilla verticillata, Nelumbo nucifera,
Nymphaea lotus, Phragmites karka, Potamogeton crispus, P. pectinatus, Typha angustata,
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Pakistan
Vallisneria spiralis and Zannichellia palustris. The hills of the Salt Range to the north-west
support subtropical semi-evergreen forest dominated by Olea ferruginea, Acacia modesta and
Dodonea viscosa. The natural vegetation of the plains to the south-east is tropical thorn forest
with species such as Acacia nilotica, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix aphylla,
Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia, Calotropis procera, Eleusine compressa, Erianthus sp.,
Panicum antidotale and Saccharum spp. Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia nilotica have been
extensively planted alongside roads and agricultural land.
Fauna Mid-January waterfowl censuses in 1987 and 1988 produced totals of 52,400 and
43,000, respectively, of which the most numerous species were: wigeon Anas penelope (nearly
1,000), teal A. crecca (12,375), pintail Anas acuta (15,050), pochard Aythya ferina (8,480), and
coot Fulica atra (18,000). Further details of the waterfowl are given by Scott (1989).
Mammals known to occur in the area include wild boar Sus scrofa, jackal Canis aureus and
jungle cat Felis chaus. Hog deer Axis porcinus is believed to have been extirpated from the
region.
The rich fish fauna includes Notopterus notopterus, Labeo rohita, L. gonius, L. microphthalmus,
Barilius vagra, B. chilwa, Cirrhinus mrigala, Tor tor, Puntius ticto, Catla catla, Channa
marulius, Cyprinus carpio, Salmo faria, Eutropiichthys vacha, Mystus bleekeri, M. seenghala,
Macrognathus aculeatus, Mastacembelus pancalus, Bagarius bagarius, Sisor rabdophorus,
Gagata cenia and Sicamugil cascasia. Other aquatic fauna includes Hirudinaria sp., Palaemon
dayanus, P. lammarrei, Rana tigrina, Kachuga smithi and Lissemys punctata.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Fishing is permitted under licence, and reeds and rushes are
harvested for local cottage industries. Adjacent areas are used for cattle grazing, forestry and
agriculture.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts have been carried out
regularly since 1974.
Conservation Value The shallow lagoons provide excellent wintering habitat for large
numbers of waterfowl, mainly Anatidae. The reservoir is important for flood control and as a
source of water for irrigation. It supports an important fishery, and has considerable potential
for scientific research and education.
Conservation Management The reservoir is under the control of the Irrigation Department.
Since the re-notification of the sanctuary in 1984, the level of protection has improved. Stringent
measures are now being taken to manage the area.
Management Constraints Fishing activities cause some disturbance to waterfowl. There are
occasional incidences of illegal hunting.
Staff No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
SATPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, 3km from the town of Skardu. Approxi-
mately 35°12’N, 75°07E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975.
Area 31,093ha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 2,691m to 4,242m.
Physical Features The site consists of the catchment area of Satpara Nullah and lake, and
borders on the Deosai Plains. The terrain is rugged with scree slopes. Sedimentary and
meta-sedimentary rocks with schist and quartzite, as well as various types of igneous rocks, are
found in the area. Stream deposits of alluvium and gravel occur in valley bottoms (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102mm, most of which falls
as snow in December and January. Winters are dry and severe, while summers are mild
(Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Comprises stunted juniper Juniperus, birch Betula and Rosa. (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V) and
urial Ovis vignei. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and
a variety of raptors and vultures.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
168
Pakistan
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The site was originally proposed as part of a much larger national park,
on account of its spectacular scenery and large mammal populations (Mountfort and Poore,
1968).
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local people enjoy conces-
sions to collect fallen dead wood for fuel and graze livestock. No management plan exists for
the area (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower.
Staff One game watcher under the control of a Forest Range Officer (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses Forest Range Officer, Wildlife Headquarters, Skardu
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to
Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
Date September 1988
SHER QILLAH GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Ghizer Forest Division about 48km from the town of Gilgit.
Approximately 36°24’N, 73°53’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 16,842ha. The reserve is contiguous to Nalter Wildlife Sanctuary (27,206ha).
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas)
Altitude Ranges from 1,983m to 5,818m.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Physical Features The terrain is rugged and mountainous. Sedimentary, meta-sedimentary
and a sequence of quartzite, slate and limestone rocks are present, all with intrusions of
granodiorite and horn-blended granite of Tertiary age (Rasul, 1985).
Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation varies from 254mm to 381mm,
most of which falls as snow during the severe winter.
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Juniperus, Betula, Salix, Fraxinus and Olea.
Herbs include Haloxylon, Artemisia and Stipa (Rasul, 1985).
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, snow leopard
Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, lynx Felis lynx and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger
birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp.
and a variety of raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The reserve falls within a protected areas complex which is important
for a variety of threatened mammal species.
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded complete protection and the area is closed to
hunting. Local people enjoy concessions to collect firewood and timber for domestic use and
for livestock grazing. No management plan exists at present.
Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
170
Pakistan
TANDA DAM
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies east of Barh Village, 7km west of Kohat. The wetland is bounded
by the cultivated areas of Shahpur to the south and Bai to the west. 33°35’N, 71°22’E
Date and History of Establishment Designated as a Wetland of International Importance at
the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 405ha. According to Scott (1989) the area of the dam is 644ha.
Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province)
Altitude 528m
Physical Features Tanda is a small freshwater reservoir which lies in a shallow valley
surrounded by hills rising to 700m. The reservoir is fed by the Kohat Toi and local run-off. Mud
banks are exposed at low water levels. Mean depth is about 30.5m, the water level fluctuating
according to local rainfall and flooding of the Kohat Toi. The pH value is 6.5.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with an annual rainfall of 250-760mm (average
300mm). Temperatures range from 0°C to 20°C in winter, and from 24°C to 45°C in summer.
Vegetation There is very little submerged vegetation and there are no large areas of marsh
vegetation. Aquatic vegetation consists of Cyperus sp., Phyla nodiflora, Polygonum plebejum,
P. glabrum, Pulicaria crispa and Typha angustata. The natural vegetation of the region is
tropical thorn forest intergrading with dry subtropical broad-leaved forest. Dominant species
include Acacia modesta, Dodonea viscosa, Adhatoda vasica, Withania coagulans, Sageretia
theezans, Rhazya stricta, Zizyphus nummularia and Z. mauritiana. Parkinsonia aculeata,
Prosopis glandulosa and Tamarix dioica have become naturalised in the area. Much of the
natural vegetation around the reservoir has been cleared for agriculture.
Fauna The reservoir is a wintering area for small numbers of migratory waterfowl, notably
black-necked grebe Podiceps nigricollis, great crested grebe P. cristatus, great egret Egretta
alba, grey heron Ardea cinerea, shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, teal Anas crecca (up to 180),
mallard A. platyrhynchos (up to 780), pintail A. acuta, pochard Aythya ferina (up to 180), tufted
duck A. fuligula and black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus. Other birds recorded in the
area include black partridge Francolinus francolinus, Indian grey francolin F. pondicerianus
and white-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis.
Mammals include jackal Canis aureus, wolf C. lupus (V), fox Vulpes bengalensis and black-
naped hare Lepus nigricollis.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Fishes include Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Channa marulius, Cyprinion sp., Cyprinus
carpio, Labeo rohita, Salmo faria, Tilapia mossambica and Tor tor.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Activities include fishing, recreation and harvesting of reeds
(Typha) for a small cottage industry. Livestock graze the marshes, and the surrounding area is
cultivated.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out by the
Pakistan Forest Institute from 1978 to 1981, and have been undertaken annually since then by
the Zoological Survey Department. Regular censuses need to be carried out during the migration
seasons because the wetland may be more important as a staging than a wintering area for
waterfowl.
Conservation Value Tanda Dam is an important wintering and staging area for waterfowl.
The reservoir provides a source of water for irrigation, and serves a valuable function in flood
control. It supports a small fishery, and provides opportunities for outdoor recreation.
Conservation Management Administration and management of the wetland is the responsi-
bility of the provincial Wildlife Department. A four-year project for the afforestation of the
water catchment area was initiated in 1984, and a reserved forest area of 162ha has been
established in the adjacent hills. The area has been proposed as a wildlife sanctuary. The
Fisheries Department has established a fish hatchery at the reservoir. Despite stocking, fish
production is low because of the paucity of aquatic vegetation.
Management Constraints Fishermen are a constant source of disturbance to the waterfowl,
and disturbance from recreational activities could become a problem in the future. Livestock
grazing and the cutting of reeds are excessive.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
172
Pakistan
TANGIR GAME RESERVE
TUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands)
Geographical Location Lies in Diamer District on the boundary with Swat, some 113km and
274km from the towns of Chilas and Gilgit, respectively. It is accessible only by foot.
Approximately 35 °36’N, 73° 24’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975.
Area 14,25lha
Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas). Some land is privately owned.
Altitude Ranges from 1,515m to 4,545m.
Physical Features Terrain is mostly mountainous with rugged, steep slopes. Rocks are
igneous, sedimentary and meta-sedimentary, with schist, quartzite and limestone deposits.
Climate Annual rainfall ranges from 254mm to 381mm. Snow falls during the severe winter
months of November and December, and light showers are characteristic of the summer
monsoon season. Summers are mild (Rasul, 1985).
Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Olea, Quercus, Pistacia, Lonicera, Salix, Betula, Junipe-
rus, Pinus gerardiana, Deodar and Rosa. Ground flora comprises Ferula, Artemisia, Stipa and
other herbs.
Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), snow leopard Panthera uncia
(E), Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, fox Vulpes vulpes, wolf Canis lupus (V) and
lynx Felis lynx. Of the avifauna, there are a variety of pheasants, including chukar Alectoris
chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp. and monal pheasant Lopho-
phorus impejanus (Rasul, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The reserve supports a variety of threatened mammal species.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Hunting is banned. Local
inhabitants enjoy concessions to graze livestock, cut grass and collect firewood and timber for
domestic use. There is no management plan (Rasul, 1985).
Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching.
Staff One game watcher (1985)
Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985)
Local Addresses No information
References
Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife
Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp.
Date September 1988
TAUNSA BARRAGE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.15.07 (Thar Desert)
Geographical Location Lies behind a barrage on the Indus River near the town of Taunsa,
20km north-west of Kot Adu, Muzaffargarh District. 30°42’N, 70°50’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1972 and re-notified in
April 1983.
Area 6,567ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of the Punjab)
Altitude 139m
Physical Features Taunsa Barrage was constructed for irrigation purposes. Five embankments
project into the reservoir and retain shallow lagoons as the water level in the main river channel
recedes. The depth of water in the main channel varies from 5.0m to 11.5m, depending on flood
levels; in the seepage lagoons it varies from 0.2m to 5.0m. The pH value is 6.5-7.0.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with an annual rainfall of 200-450mm. Mean
minimum temperature in January is 4.5-5.5°C, and mean maximum in June is 42.0-45.0°C.
Vegetation The aquatic vegetation in the seepage lagoons includes Carex fedia, Hydrilla
verticillata, Nelumbium speciosum, Nymphaea lotus, Phragmites karka, Potamogeton crispus,
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Pakistan
P. pectinatus, Ranunculus aquatilis, Saccharum spontaneum, Typha angustata, Vallisneria
spiralis and Zannichellia palustris. Much of the land adjacent to the reservoir is cultivated,
mainly for cotton, sugar cane, wheat and fodder crops. Riverine forest along the Indus is
dominated by Dalbergia sissoo and Populus euphratica, in association with Tamarix dioica.
Other natural vegetation includes Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Pisum arvense, Salsola
barysoma, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine compressa and Panicum antidotale.
Fauna_ Up to 430 bar-headed goose Anser indicus were recorded in the early 1970s, but
numbers have shown a serious decline in recent years. Lesser whistling duck Dendrocygna
javanica is a common breeding summer visitor. The rare marbled teal Marmaronetta angusti-
rostris is a regular passage migrant and winter visitor in small numbers. Over 24,000 waterfowl
were present in mid-January 1987, the most numerous species including: Eurasian wigeon Anas
penelope (2,780), common teal A. crecca (4,880), northern pintail A. acuta (1,660), common
pochard Aythya ferina (4,690), common coot Fulica atra (7,510). Further details of the
waterfowl are given in Scott (1989).
Mammals include small numbers of Indus dolphin Platanista indi (E), smooth-coated otter Lutra
perspicillata and hog deer Axis porcinus. Other mammals include jackal Canis aureus, jungle
cat Felis chaus, wild boar Sus scrofa and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis. Reptiles include
gharial Gavialis gangeticus (E), two adults having been reported at the barrage in about 1980.
Fish species known to inhabit the river and lagoons include Ambassis nama, A. ranga, Bagarius
bagarius, Barilius vagra, Catla catla, Channa marulius, C. punctatus, Cirrhinus mrigala,
C. reba, Eutropiichthys vacha, Heteropneustes fossilis, Labeo calbasu, L. microphthalmus,
L. rohita, Mastacembelus armatus, M. pancalus, Mystus aor, M. seenghala, Nandus nandus,
Notopterus chitale, N. notopterus, Puntius sophore, P. ticto, Rita rita and Wallago attu. Other
aquatic fauna includes Hirudinaria sp., Rana tigrina, Kachuga smithi, Hardella thurgi, Geocle-
mys hamiltonii, Trionyx gangeticus, Lissemys punctata and Natrix piscator.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Land exposed at low water levels is leased to local farmers for
cultivation during the dry season. The reservoir is used for fishing and recreation, and its reeds
are harvested. Surrounding land is cultivated, grazed and used for forestry.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl censuses have been carried out
regularly since 1973. The Punjab Fisheries Department has conducted research on the fishery
resources, and a joint project on the Indus dolphin is being developed by the Punjab Wildlife
Department and the Zoological Survey Department. A study of migrant cranes is due to
commence shortly.
Conservation Value The wetland is a very important wintering area for waterfowl, notably
Anatidae, a breeding area for several species, particularly lesser whistling duck, and a staging
area for cranes (Grus grus and Anthropoides virgo) and shorebirds. It is also the most important
wintering area in Pakistan for bar-headed goose and an important refuge for Indus dolphin. The
reservoir supplies water for irrigation, and supports a fishery worth more than one million rupees
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
per year. It also provides excellent opportunities for scientific research and conservation
education.
Conservation Management No management plan exists. The Punjab Wildlife Department
plans to erect nest-boxes for lesser whistling duck.
Management Constraints The main threat to the wetland at present is the occasional burning
of vegetation in the seepage lagoons. Fishing activities and illegal hunting by local people cause
some disturbance, and there have been reports of waterfowl drowning in fishing nets. There is
a proposal to construct a new flood barrage further upstream on the Indus, and this could result
in reduced water levels at Taunsa Barrage.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
THANADARWALA GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies at the junction of Gambilla and Kurram rivers, 15km east of
Lakki in Bannu District. 32°37’N, 71°05’E.
Date and History of Establishment Thanadarwala was declared a game reserve in 1976, and
subsequently designated a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s
ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976.
Area 4,047ha
Land Tenure The wetland is under communal ownership; surrounding areas are owned by
local villagers.
Altitude 303m
Physical Features Thanadarwala comprises a shallow, fresh to brackish seepage lagoon and
an extensive marshy area. The depth of water fluctuates from 0.1m to 1.5m according to the
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Pakistan
supply of flood water from the two rivers, their levels rising in March and again in July-
September. The pH value is 9.0. Surrounding areas are mostly saline.
Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with a mean annual rainfall of 250mm. Temperatures
range from 4°C to 18°C in winter and from 25°C to 47°C in summer.
Vegetation The marsh vegetation includes Tamarix dioica, Typha angustata, Phragmites
karka, Cyperus laevigatus, Kochia indica, Desmostachya bipinnata, Imperata cylindrica and
species of Chara, Launaea, Phoenix, Potamogeton, Ranunculus and Saccharum. Much of the
surrounding area is cultivated for wheat and other crops. The natural vegetation of the region
is tropical thorn forest, with dominant species including Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix aphylla,
Zizyphus nummularia, Calligonum polygonoides, Rhazya stricta, Aerua javanica, Chenopodium
album, Cassia obovata, Heliotropium sp., Tribulus terrestris, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Cenchrus
ciliaris and Dactyloctaenium scindicum.
Fauna _ The reserve is a wintering area for great egret Egretta alba and Anatidae, notably
shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, teal Anas crecca, mallard A. platyrhynchos, shoveler A. clypeata,
pochard Aythya ferina and ferruginous duck A. nyroca. Waterfowl recorded during the mid-
January censuses in 1987 and 1988 included up to 600 shorebirds of eight species and small
numbers of three species of Ardeidae, white stork Ciconia ciconia, three species of Anatidae
and purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio. Other fauna includes agamid Uromastix sp. and
common monitor Varanus bengalensis.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Activities include cutting of Typha and Saccharum for a local
cottage industry, and hunting (shooting and trapping) of waterfowl. Surrounding areas are
cultivated and grazed by livestock.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out by the
Pakistan Forest Institute in 1979-1981, and have been undertaken annually since then by the
Zoological Survey Department.
Conservation Value Thanadarwala is important for waterfowl and under proper management
could become important for fish conservation.
Conservation Management Information about the management of the property is not avail-
able. Proposals have been made for the reclamation of saline soils for agriculture, and for the
afforestation of saline and water-logged areas. There are also plans for a watershed management
project to control erosion and reduce siltation.
Management Constraints Include hunting, cutting of aquatic vegetation and excessive
grazing by domestic livestock (goats, sheep, cattle and camels). Salinity levels are increasing,
and there is a possibility that the wetland will be drained if public pressure for the reclamation
of land continues to increase.
Staff No information
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Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date August 1990
ZANGI NAWAR GAME RESERVE
IUCN Management Category Unassigned
Biogeographical Province 2.20.08 (Anatolian-Iranian Desert)
Geographical Location Lies 48km west-south-west of Nushki in Chaghi District, northern
central Baluchistan Province. 29°27’N, 65°47’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in 1982.
Area 1,060ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Baluchistan)
Altitude 975m
Physical Features Zangi Nawar is a brackish wetland which lies in a desolate region of stony
peneplain alternating with low ridges of sedimentary rocks. The lake comprises a chain of
lagoons extending some 12.8km along an east-west axis. It is surrounded on all sides by high,
windblown sand dunes and fed by the Bohr Lora, which drains the hills to the north-east. The
surface area and depth of the lake fluctuate widely according to rainfall. After heavy rains the
lake covers some 2,070ha at a mean depth of 1.07m, while in the summer months it shrinks to
some 770ha at a mean depth of 0.9m. The water is saline, with a pH of 9.2 and dissolved solids
of mostly bicarbonates (Roberts, 1984, 1985).
Climate Conditions are arid subtropical, with a mean annual rainfall of 76mm at Nushki. There
is no monsoon influence nor any season of reliable rainfall but showers usually occur in winter
and spring. Mean temperatures in the hottest months of June and July are around 39.6°C,
reaching a maximum of 42°C, and in January and February are 3.3°C, falling at night to as low
as -4°C (Roberts, 1984, 1985).
Vegetation The shores are fringed with a deciduous tamarisk Tamarix articulata, while the
numerous lagoons and islets are covered by reedbeds of Phragmites karka, the dominant
emergent vegetation in the lake, and stands of reedmace Typha angustifolia. The lake is
eutrophic; its bottom is carpeted with green algae and the aquatic weed Ruppia maritima, along
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Pakistan
with smaller patches of Potamogeton pectinatus, forms a mat on the surface. Sand dunes
surrounding the lake support thinly scattered clumps of the xerophytic grass Eleusine compressa
and stunted bushes of the woody Calligonum polygonoides (Roberts, 1984, 1985).
Fauna Zangi Nawar is the only known wetland in the Indian sub-continent visited by whooper
swan Cygnus cygnus in recent decades. It is the breeding home of probably the major population
of marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris (over 250 in 1984) within the region, including
adjacent Afghanistan and Iran, and is the only known breeding locality for white-tailed lapwing
Vanellus leucurus (25). Large numbers of little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis (4,000), coot
Fulica atra (2,000) and moorhen Gallinula chloropus (4,500) also breed at the lake. The number
of birds occurring on the lake during autumn and spring passage is more than double the
mid-winter estimate of 22,000 duck and 66,000 coot. Other notable species recorded include:
peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus (V), marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus (over 50) and white-
eyed pochard Aythya nyroca (over 30). Roberts (1984, 1985) lists both visiting and breeding
species recorded during his 1984 visit.
Mammals present in the vicinity of the lake include: jackal Canis aureus, brush-footed jerboas
Jaculus blandfordi and desert pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhli. Reptiles include Central Asian
monitor Varanus griseus caspius(V), yellow-speckled toad agama Phrynocephalus luteoguttatus(V),
Turkestan plate-tailed gecko Teratoscincus scincus, reticulate desert lacerta Eremias acuti-
rostris and leaf-nosed viper Eristicophis macmahoni (Roberts, 1984, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The immediate area surrounding the lake is uninhabited except for
a few Afghan refugee camps along the western shore.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities Avifaunal surveys have been carried out by Christison
(1941) and Roberts (1984, 1985).
Conservation Value Zangi Nawar is a wildfowl refuge of international importance. It is a
vital staging area for migrant waterfowl, as well as an important breeding area for a host of
unusual Palaearctic birds and an impressive number of Palaearctic wintering visitors, due to its
rich and diverse planktonic and micro-crustacean fauna and the absence of alternative wetlands
within a radius of at least 300km (Roberts, 1984, 1985). It has been recommended that the
reserve be designated a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention
(Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management A management plan has yet to be prepared. Protection is reported
to be ineffective. Staff are few and poorly equipped, lacking transport facilities and equipment.
Plans are being developed to provide a permanent water supply for the lake to maintain the
wetland habitat (Scott, 1989).
Management Constraints The wetland can dry up almost completely during periods of
prolonged drought, as in January 1985 when it shrunk from about 1,000ha to just over Sha. At
such times, birds become concentrated and are particularly vulnerable to poaching (Ahmad,
1986). Roberts (1984, 1985) found ample evidence of illegal shooting on islets in the lake, while
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in February 1985 Ahmad (1985) observed that duck were virtually absent from the lake due to
high hunting pressure. Settlements have been established on the western borders of the lake,
and water from the stream feeding the lake is now being used for domestic consumption and for
irrigation (Scott, 1989).
Staff Four game watchers (1984)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Chief Conservator of Forests, Department of Forestry, Nushki, Chaghi
District
References
Ahmad, A. (1985). Recent tragedies with the waterfowl population on some of their wintering
habitats in Pakistan. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter 5(2): 4-8.
Christison, A.F.P. (1941). Notes on the birds of Chagai. [bis 1941: 531-556.
Roberts, T.J. (1984). Zangi Nawar - portrait of an unique lake in the desert. World Wildlife Fund
Pakistan Newsletter 3(2): 9-14.
Roberts, T.J. (1985). Zangi Nawar - portrait of a unique lake in the desert. Jounal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 82: 540-547.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date July 1986, updated August 1989
ZIARAT JUNIPER WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.20.08 (Anatolian-Iranian Desert)
Geographical Location Lies in the vicinity of Ziarat, Sibi District, some 90 km east-north-east
of Quetta. Approximately 30°24’N, 67°44’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1971. Originally
afforded some protection as reserved forest.
Area 37,247ha
Land Tenure State (Provincial Government of Baluchistan)
Altitude Ranges from about 2,000m to 3,487m (Khalifat)
Physical Features The tract is mountainous. In general, soils are shallow and poor, derived
from Siwalik conglomerates, sandstones and shales. They comprise calcareous clay-loams
overlying mainly soft shale (Khan, 1977; Khan, 1980).
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Pakistan
Climate Conditions are of the dry Mediterranean type, with an annual rainfall of 250-350mm,
depending on altitude. Mean maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively, are highest
in July/August (c. 27°C) and lowest in January (c. 1°C). Winds are predominantly northerly and
average 132km per hour (Khan, 1977; Khan, 1980).
Vegetation Mountain valleys and slopes at 2,200m support pure stands of Juniperus macro-
poda (excelsa), with specimens up to 1.5m in girth at the base and many known to be over 2,500
years old (Hafizullah Khan, cited in Roberts, 1986). In the more sheltered ravines or on moister
northern slopes, there is some admixture of Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Pistacia cabulica,
while the more conspicuous shrubs scattered among the junipers are almond Prunus eburnea,
Berberis baluchistani, Lonicera hypoleuca, Rosa beggeriana, Buddleia crispa and Cotoneaster
pruinosa (Stewart, 1982). A conspicuous feature of the landscape are the numerous spiny
hassock-shaped plants, such as Astragalus spp., Onobrychis spp. and Acantholimon spp. Spring
is marked by a variety of bulbs colouring the landscape, with Ferula oopoda, foxtail lily
Eremurus stenophylla, Iris spp., Allium spp. and Tulipa spp. (Roberts, 1986). Details of the
plant communities are given by Khan (1980).
Fauna The area has no endemic vertebrate species but has acted as a corridor for southwards
invasion of Sino-Himalayan species able to cope with the harsh dry climate. Himalayan black
bear Selenarctos thibetanus and markhor Capra falconeri (V) both occur as distinctive sub-
species, as well as such birds as streaked laughing thrush Garrulax lineatus, Simla black tit
Parus rufonuchalis and bar-tailed tree creeper Certhia himalayana. Little known Central Asian
species include Pallas’s cat Felis manul, of which an erythristic form is frequent, marbled polecat
Vormela peregusna and Afghan pika Ochotona rufescens. There are many representatives of
the western Palaearctic fauna with restricted distributions, including forest dormouse Dryomys
nitedula, migratory hamster Cricetulus migratorius and breeding birds such as black redstart
Phoenicurus ochruros and red-billed chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. Other breeding birds
include white-winged grosbeak Mycerobas carnipes, olivaceous leaf warbler Phylloscopus
griseolus, plain leaf warbler P. neglectus and white-cheeked tit Aegithalos leucogenys. Reptiles
include Persian horned viper Pseudocerastes persicus and Caucasian rock agama lizard Aegi-
thalos caucasia (Roberts, 1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of the juniper forests include those of Repp and
Khan (1960), Khattak (1963), Ali (1966) and Repp and Beg (1966). Other research includes
surveys of the vegetation of Khalifat in 1977 to identify good markhor habitat (Khan, 1980),
and of a 27-year old exclosure at Bastargi (Khan, 1977).
Conservation Value The juniper forests of north central Baluchistan are identified as one of
three critical ecosystems of international importance in Pakistan (Roberts, 1986). They are
believed to have been the most extensive in the world (A.S. Swathi, cited in Roberts, 1986) and,
according to the Baluchistan Gazetteer of 1908, covered 29,267ha of reserved forests at the
beginning of this century. These forests support an unique flora and fauna, having acombination
of Sino-Himalayan elements as well as Central Asian and Irano-Turanian affinities. The area
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offers intriguing insights into corridors of range extension for the zoogeographer and adaptation
to extreme climatic conditions for the ecologist (Roberts, 1986).
Conservation Management There is no management plan.
Management Constraints The juniper forest is severely depleted, with very little natural
regeneration occurring due to heavy grazing pressure from sheep and goats. Cutting of trees for
fuelwood by the local people is not restricted but there is no large-scale commercial exploitation
of juniper timber (Roberts, 1986). In an attempt to control infestation of parts of the juniper
forest by dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium oxycedri, the government has in recent years ordered
the felling of over 5,000 juniper trees (Hafizullah Khan, cited in Roberts, 1986).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Ali, Zulfiqar (1966). A note on silvicultural characteristics of J. macropoda Boiss. Proceedings
of the 2nd Silvicultural Conference, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar: 197-202.
Khan, M. Hakim (1980). Plant communities of the Juniper forests in Khalifat, Ziarat (Baluchistan).
Pakistan Journal of Forestry 30: 167-175.
Khan, S. Maqsood (1977). Evaluation of twenty seven year Bastargi exclosure in Ziarat juniper
forests in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 27: 190-197.
Khattak, G.M. (1963). Working plan for Juniperus forest of Quetta Civil Division from 1961-1962
to 1975-1976. Government Printing Press, West Pakistan, Lahore. 115 pp.
Repp, G.I. and Beg, A.R. (1966). Preliminary ecological observations in the juniper forests of
Ziarat, Baluchistan. Proceedings of the 2nd Pakistan Silvicultural Conference, Pakistan Forest
Institute, Peshawar: 245-253.
Repp, G.I. and Khan, A.A. (1960). Studies on the vegetation and ecological pathology in the Ziarat
juniper forests. Unesco Technical Report No. 9.
Roberts, T.J. (1986). Critical ecosystems in Pakistan. Report to World Resources Institute,
Washington D.C. Unpublished. 10 pp.
Date March 1988
182
SRI LANKA
Area 65,610 sq.km
Population 16.9 million (1989) Natural Increase 1.6% per annum
GNP US$ 400 per capita (1987)
Policy and Legislation The 1978 Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri
Lanka provides the foundation for the government’s policies on conserving the environment.
According to Chapter 6 Article 27(14) of the Constitution, "The State shall protect, preserve and
improve the environment for the benefit of the community", and under Article 28F it is
recognised that: "The exercise and enjoyment of rights and freedom is inseparable from the
performance of duties and obligations and accordingly, it is the duty of every person in Sri Lanka
to protect nature and conserve its riches."
The National Environment Act, 1980, provides a legal and institutional framework for
coordinating environmental agencies and policies under the Central Environmental Authority.
A serious drawback of the Act, however, is the lack of legal provisions to ensure compliance
with environmental requirements. The Central Environmental Authority is also responsible for
developing guidelines for environmental impact assessments, with appraisal, approval, and
monitoring of development projects delegated to 15 Project Approving Agencies under various
ministries. Environmental impact assessments were made mandatory for all development
projects in 1984, but only the Coast Conservation Department has made provisions to enforce
compliance with such assessments (Jansen, 1989). A synopsis of a national conservation
strategy for Sri Lanka has recently been prepared by a task force under the Central Environmental
Authority (CEA, 1988). It includes directions for the establishment of a comprehensive system
of protected areas and, in the forestry sector, for the identification of forests for protection by
Statute.
Conservation of nature and culture are ancient traditions in Sri Lanka. King Pandukabaya
marked out sanctuaries for aborigines, who always enjoyed royal protection, in the 4th century
BC. One of the world’s first wildlife sanctuaries was established in the 3rd century BC by King
Devanampiyatissa in whose reign Buddhism was introduced to the country. Succeeding kings
continued to uphold the Buddhist precept of forbidding the killing of any form of life, as is
recorded on rock inscriptions throughout the country. In the 12th century AD, King Kirti-
Nissanka-Mala proclaimed that no animals should be killed within a radius of seven gav
(35.7km) from the city of Anuradhapura. Large tracts of forest, such as Udawattekele and
Sinharaja, were protected as reserves by Sri Lankan rulers, sometimes serving as refuges for
themselves, and privileged hunting was enjoyed from the earliest times in preserves specifically
created for such purposes. It was not until 1885, however, with the enactment of the Forest
Ordinance (No. 10), that legal provision was made to protect wildlife through the establishment
of sanctuaries, first Yala (Block II of Ruhuna National Park plus the strict natural reserve) in
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1900 and then Wilpattu in 1905 (Hoffmann, 1969; Crusz, 1973; Gour-Tanguay, 1977; Padmalal,
1989).
Game sanctuaries were abolished with the passing of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance
(No. 2) in 1937. This Ordinance, last amended in 1970, makes provision for national reserves,
embodying only crown land, and sanctuaries, comprising both crown and private land. Full
protection is afforded to wildlife in both reserves and sanctuaries, but in sanctuaries the habitat
is totally protected on land belonging to the state while traditional human activities may continue
to be practised on privately-owned land. Three categories of national reserve, viz strict natural
reserve, national park and intermediate zone, were identified in the original legislation and a
further two, viz nature reserve and jungle corridor, were introduced in an amendment to the
Ordinance in 1964. All national reserves enjoy total habitat protection, with entry by permit
only. The highest level of ecosystem preservation is afforded to strict natural reserves, with
entry permitted only for scientific research. National parks provide for visitor entry (by permit)
exclusively for observing the flora and fauna. Nature reserves are similar to national parks except
that human activities traditionally permitted on crown land are allowed to continue. Jungle
corridors provide for the safe movement of wildlife, particularly migratory elephant, in areas
where human activity is permitted. Intermediate zones were formerly envisaged as buffer zones,
providing for controlled hunting, but this category has since been deleted from the latest revision
of the Ordinance. Activities prohibited within strict natural reserves, national parks and
sanctuaries include: hunting, killing or removing any wild animal; destroying the eggs or nests
of birds and reptiles; and disturbing the wild animals or interfering with the breeding of any
animal. Other activities prohibited in strict natural reserves and national parks are: felling or
otherwise damaging any plant; breaking up land for cultivation, mining or any other purpose;
kindling or carrying fire; and possessing or using any trap, explosive or poison to damage plant
or animal life. National reserves and sanctuaries may be declared, altered or abolished by
ministerial order. The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance is administered by the Department
of Wildlife Conservation.
The need for a wildlife conservation policy has long been recognised (Hoffmann, 1973). A new
National Policy for Wildlife Conservation was approved by the Cabinet in June 1990. Eleven
specific policy items are identified, of which the following relate specifically to protected areas:
to formulate a manifesto of varied objectives which would suit each area declared for protection;
to reassess ways and means of enabling existing and proposed protected areas to meet their
objectives; to identify and control sustainable uses of resources within protected areas that are
compatible with their objectives; to permit sustained multiple use of resources within protected
areas, and zone protected areas accordingly; and to effectively manage protected areas to
maintain their resource potential at natural levels. It is proposed that this policy should be
incorporated into an effective Conservation Act, which should be sufficiently flexible to permit
a variety of conservation practices as advocated in the policy, but should provide strong punitive
measures aginst those who wilfully destroy national wildlife reources through personal greed or
prospects of commercial gain (DWC, n.d.).
The national forest policy dates back to 1929, since when it has been modified in the 1970s and
later in 1980 (Pushparajah, 1985). A salient feature of the present policy is "To maintain,
conserve and create forests for the preservation and amelioration of the environment, soil and
water resources and for the protection of the local fauna and flora when they are required for
aesthetic, scientific, historical and socio-economic reasons." The Forest Ordinance No. 16,
1907, as amended by Act No. 13 of 1966, makes provision for the establishment of reserved
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Sri Lanka
forests and village forests, and for the protection of forests and their products. The primary
function of the Ordinance, however, has always been to provide for the controlled exploitation
of timber. Both reserved and village forests may be declared, altered or abolished by ministerial
order. The term reserved forest is interpreted as including plantations and chenas (cultivations
established under slash-and-burn practices). Activities prohibited within reserved forests in-
clude: trespass by persons or their cattle; felling trees or collecting forest produce; poisoning
water; quarrying stone and burning lime or charcoal; making fires or fresh clearings; breaking
up land for cultivation or any other purpose; constructing temporary or permanent buildings,
Sawpits, or roads; and pasturing cattle, hunting, shooting or fishing in contravention of any
ministerial regulations. Any portion of a forest may be constituted a village forest for the benefit
of a village community. Activities prohibited within village forests include: poisoning of water,
and injuring by fire or other means any tree listed in Schedule I of the Ordinance. Management
of village forests, including pasturing of cattle, is subject to ministerial regulations.
To overcome the inherent weaknesses in the Forest Ordinance, the National Heritage Wilderness
Areas Act, No. 3 was passed in 1988. Any piece of state land having unique ecosystems, genetic
resources or outstanding natural features (including the habitat of threatened species) may be
declared a national heritage wilderness area by the minister, subject to the approval of the
president and endorsement by parliament. Other provisions include the acquisition of land, the
preparation of a management plan by the competent authority (Conservator of Forests) in respect
of areas declared under the Act, and the over-riding of anything contradictory in the provisions
of any other written law other than the Constitution. Entry to a national heritage wilderness area
is by permit and restricted for purposes of observing the fauna and flora or conducting scientific
research. Both the Forest Ordinance and National Heritage Wilderness Areas Act are adminis-
tered by the Forest Department.
Other legislation concerned with the conservation of natural resources is reviewed by Crusz
(1973), Gour-Tanguay (1977), NPS (1985), Jansen (1989) and, in the case of marine resources,
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Special attention has been given to coastal and marine areas under the
Coast Conservation Act (No. 57), 1981, which provides for the protection of the coast from
erosion or encroachment by the sea and includes the planning and management of development
activity within the coastal zone, defined as the area between 300m landwards of the mean high
water line and 2km seawards of the mean low water line (Wijewansa, 1985). Under this Act,
which is administered by the Coast Conservation Department, sites can be designated as critical
habitats for protection (non-development areas).
In general, much of the legislation relating to natural resources has not kept abreast with the
changing needs of society and is oriented towards the exploitation rather than sustainable use of
such resources. Some laws have suffered from a lack of implementation for social, economic
or political reasons, while others have remained fragmentary, with responsibilities spread among
a multiplicity of agencies and institutions (Jansen, 1989). In the case of the Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance, the lack of any criteria to differentiate between the various designations
of protected area has resulted in inconsistent application of this system of classification. The
national park designation, for example, has been used for some areas which are uninhabited and
others, notably in the Mahaweli development area, which have a human population (Bere, 1959;
Alwis, 1969; NPS, 1985). The Ordinance is being amended to provide inter alia for the creation
of new categories of reserve, such as buffer zones, refuges, wetlands and marine reserves, and
to enhance the present grossly inadequate penalties for infringements (Hoffmann, 1983; Jansen,
1989).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
International Activities At the international level, Sri Lanka has entered a number of
obligations and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is party to the Convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Conven-
tion) which it accepted on 6 June 1980. One natural site, Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness
Area, has been inscribed to date and initiatives are underway to nominate several more natural
sites.
Sri Lanka became a contracting party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 15 October 1990, at which time
Bundala Sanctuary was included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance established
under the terms of the Convention.
Sri Lanka participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme (Bharathie, 1979). To date
47 national biosphere reserves have been declared by the Forest Department, of which Sinharaja
and Hurulu are designated as part of the international biosphere reserve network.
Sri Lanka is one of seven countries cooperating in the South Asian Cooperative Environmental
Programme, which was launched in the 1980s to ameliorate the environment in the region,
particularly regarding montane, mangrove, island and marine ecosystems, through legislation,
education and training (Rau, 1984).
Administration and Management Under the provisions of the Fauna and Flora Protection
Ordinance, the Department of Wildlife Conservation is responsible for wildlife conservation
and protected areas management. The Department was set up in 1949 as the Wildlife Conser-
vation Department, prior to which all matters relating to wildlife fell within the remit of the
Forest Department. The first warden (director) was appointed in December 1950, and the
Department became fully functional as an independent unit in 1957 (Bere, 1959; Alwis, 1969).
Originally under the Ministry of Lands and Land Development, and subsequently the Ministry
of Tourism and Shipping (1970-1977) and Ministry of State (1960s and 1980s), the Department
of Wildlife Conservation was transferred to the Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli
Development in 1989. It is headed by a director, under whom are three deputy directors in
charge of administration, technical, and veterinary and research divisions, respectively. Field
staff are deployed mostly in the national reserves and marginally outside them. The Department
has recently taken on responsibility for the Mahaweli Environment Project, begun in 1982 as
part of the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme. The Mahaweli Environment
Project has been concerned with the development and management of a system of protected
areas in the Mahaweli Ganga and adjacent river basins. The Department is presently being
re-structured in view of the urgent need to upgrade and develop its services. A five-year
development plan has been prepared for submission to donor agencies for funding (Kotagama
et al., 1990).
The Forest Department, under the provisions of the Forest Ordinance, is inter alia responsible
for the protection and management of natural and plantation forests, including any declared as
biospere reserves. It is headed by a conservator of forests, supported by seven deputy conser-
vators of forests, 13 assistant conservators of forests, and a number of foresters and forest rangers.
The recent Forestry Master Plan, 1985-2020 (Jaakko Poyry International Oy, 1986) has received
much criticism because of its bias towards the exploitation of timber and fuelwood, with little
regard to the ecological, hydrological, social and aesthetic values of forests (Fernando and
Samarasinghe, 1988; Jansen, 1989). In response to public agitation, the Plan was reviewed by
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Sri Lanka
IUCN and a conservation strategy for natural vegetation types is now due to be incorporated
into the Plan. In the meantime, an immediate moratorium on further selective logging or
conversion to other any form of land use has been recommended, until such time as natural
forests are evaluated with regard to their conservation value in maintaining biological diversity
and environmental stability (IUCN, 1989).
Conservation of natural resources outside protected areas falls within the mandate of a number
of other agencies. The Coast Conservation Department, Ministry of Fisheries, is responsible
for planning and managing activities within the coastal zone, including the conservation of
marine and coastal resources. Similarly, the National Aquatic Resources and Research Agency,
set up under the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency Act (No. 54),
1981, is concerned inter alia with the management and conservation of aquatic resources in the
inland waters, 200-mile exclusive economic coastal zone and in the deep seas. The Natural
Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka was set up to coordinate scientific activity
within the country and to advise the President on matters pertaining to the application of science
and technology. It has ten working committees, including one for natural resources, and also
functions as the focal point for international activities in science and technology. The National
MAB Committee, for example, is placed under this authority. The Central Environmental
Authority, created in 1981, was intended to be at the apex of governmental agencies concerned
with environmental matters. Included within its mandate has been the preparation of a national
conservation strategy. To date it has served largely in an advisory capacity, its effectiveness
having been limited by its inability to influence the actions of agencies outside its own Ministry
of Local Government and Housing (Jansen, 1989).
Non-governmental organisations have recently played an active role in mobilising public
opinion and lobbying government on national conservation issues, often successfully as in the
case of the Sinharaja rain forest or the national Forestry Master Plan. They have also directly
supported various conservation programmes, complementing the work of government agencies.
Most non-governmental organisations are registered with the Central Environmental Authority.
Some of the more important ones are represented on various national committees, such as the
Fauna and Flora Advisory Committee, and the Environmental Council of the Central Environ-
ment Authority.
By far the largest and oldest conservation non-governmental organisation is the Wildlife and
Nature Protection Society. Originally established on 23 May 1894 to cater for sport-hunting
interests, and later incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1968, the Society has become increas-
ingly concerned with the conservation of the island’s biological resources through negotiation
and cooperation with the state. The Society has about 4,000 members. It produces a biannual
wildlife journal, Loris. More recently, in 1980, March for Conservation was set up to focus
attention, through education, training and research, on the rapid degradation of the island’s
natural resources. Its particular strength lies in the university basis of its 300 members, providing
it with a strong research capability. Members have undertaken research in the Sinharaja rain
forest, national parks, coastal zones and the Mahaweli development area. The organisation
publishes scientific literature on natural resource issues, and has been instrumental in forming
tural-based conservation societies, particularly in the vicinity of the Sinharaja rain forest. The
Nation Builders Association is a rural-based organisation, composed largely of village youth
and involved in forestry activities mainly in Kandy District. The Sri Lanka Environment
Foundation provides the legal teeth to the non-governmental environmental movement. It
comprises a group of young lawyers with a mandate to protect the country’s natural resources
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
from damaging activities through legal action. Other non-governmental organisations include
the Sri Lanka Assocation for the Advancement of Science, which provides a forum for scientists
of all disciplines to promote and advance the sciences, and the Ceylon Bird Club, which has
maintained bird records for nearly 50 years and has organised mid-winter waterfowl counts since
1983. Limited financial resources and the lack of time of volunteer members to devote to the
conservation effort is a serious constraint. A step in the right direction was taken in 1985 when
a number of these voluntary groups joined together under the umbrella of the Sri Lanka
Environment Congress in order to pool their resources to generate a more powerful and united
front to the environment movement. Further details of these and other voluntary organisations
are given elsewhere (Hoffmann, 1969; Wijewansa, 1985; Jansen, 1989).
There are a number of constraints to the effective protection of reserves. Both the Department
of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department are severely handicapped by a lack of
financial resources to administer such areas effectively. Forest reserves, in particular, are often
unstaffed with the result that few of the smaller ones exist on the ground, while many of the
larger ones are heavily encroached. Enforcement measures are handicapped by the absence of
clear-cut boundaries that are easily recognisable on the ground. Lack of local involvement in
protected areas is limiting their effectiveness. Political interference is a further obstacle to
natural resource conservation (Anon., n.d.; Hoffmann, 1983; Jansen, 1989).
Systems Reviews Sri Lanka became an island probably in the late Miocene. It consists of a
south-central massif, rising to some 2,500m, surrounded by a coastal plain which encompasses
about 75% of the total geographic area. The massif has a major influence on the climate, with
conditions ranging from wet in the south-west to dry in the north and east. Radiating from this
massif is a network of major rivers (Fernando, 1984). These features are largely responsible for
the wide variety of ecosystems present in Sri Lanka and the associated rich diversity of plants
and animals, many of which occur in the wet zone and are endemic (Wijesinghe et al., 1989).
The pattern of land use has been strongly influenced by the different climatic zones. The first
major changes in land-use patterns took place during the colonial era when forests in the wet
zone were Cleared for cultivation of coconut and rubber in the lowlands and coffee, later to be
replaced by tea, in the uplands (Jansen, 1989). The wet zone, which receives in excess of
2540mm of rainfall per year, is now densely populated and intensively used for agriculture, with
little potential for further expansion. The dry zone, on the other hand, until about the 13th century
AD the centre of a highly advanced civilisation based on irrigated agriculture, receives less than
1905mm of rainfall annually, is sparsely populated and offers the greatest opportunities for
agricultural expansion in conjunction with irrigation schemes. In the face of a lack of food,
overpopulation and unemployment in the wet zone, the former colonial government devised a
scheme under the Land Development Ordinance, 1935, to translocate peasant farmers and the
unemployed from the wet zone to the dry zone (Drijver et al., 1985). After independence, the
Sri Lankan government developed the scheme into the much more ambitious Mahaweli
Development Programme, with the accelerated phase scheduled for completion in 1986-1987.
This is one of the largest development schemes ever undertaken in South Asia, with 360,000ha
of land in the basins of the Mahaweli Ganga and the south-eastern rivers irrigated for agricultural
purposes for the benefit of nearly one million peopie to be settled in the area (Wijewansa, 1985).
A major limiting factor, however, is the availability of water which will be enough for year-round
irrigation of only 200,000ha (Perera, 1984).
188
Sri Lanka
The main forest types are the tropical wet evergreen (below 1,000m) and montane (above
1,000m) forests of the wet zone, tropical moist/wet semi-evergreen forests of the intermediate
zone, tropical dry mixed evergreen forests of the dry zone and semi-evergreen thorn forest of
the arid zone. Large tracts of forest have been cleared during the last hundred years to
accommodate the growing human population, which has risen from 3.5 million in 1900 through
5 million in 1950 to nearly 15 million by 1980. Natural forest cover has dwindled rapidly from
an estimated 89% in 1889 to 46.5% in 1956 and 28% in 1981-1983 (Nanayakkara, 1987). The
annual rate of deforestation of closed forest (3.5%) was among the highest in the world for the
period 1981-1985 (Repetto, 1988). It has been estimated from the Forest Cover Map produced
by the Survey Department in 1981, which is based on satellite imagery supplemented by
ground-truthing, that natural forest cover had shrunk to 24.9% by 1981, of which only 1.5%
comprised lowland wet-zone forest, biologically the most valuable forest type. This estimate is
lower than the later figure of 28% natural high forest for mid-1983 derived from the FAO
inventory (Forest Department, 1986). According to the latest available data, natural forest cover
is about 22% (Somasekaram, 1988).
The wetlands of Sri Lanka comprise a variety of coastal and inland systems, ranging from
estuaries, lagoons and mangroves to rivers, villus and tanks (reservoirs). Many of the tanks date
back 1,500 years when they formed part of an intricate irrigation system for rice cultivation. In
recent decades, several large reservoirs have been constructed as part of large-scale hydro-power
and irrigation projects, notably in the Mahaweli catchment area. There are over 10,000 tanks
in Sri Lanka, of which 3,500 are considered to be significant water bodies. Only 60 of these
exceed 300ha in size. The wetlands support a variety of wildlife, as well as being of socio-
economic importance, particularly for irrigation purposes (Scott, 1989).
Coral reefs are reported to be most extensive off the eastern coast, although the Basses off the
south-east coast and those of Dutch Bay off the north-west coast are among the most spectacular.
Reef resources are reviewed in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
The present growing awareness of the need to conserve the island’s natural resources can be
traced back to at least 1873 when the colonial government warned against the replacement of
natural forests with plantations in view of its serious impact on the climate (Hooker, 1873 cited
in Jansen, 1989). Many years later, in 1938, a law prohibiting the clearing of forests above
1,500m was enacted. Despite such efforts, forests continued to be maximally exploited for
timber until the 1960s. A major initiative begun in the early 1980s was the provision of a network
of protected areas under the Mahawali Environment Project to mitigate the impact of the
Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme (Jansen, 1985). This initiative followed in the
wake of environmental assessments carried out by TAMS (1981,1982), and needs for environ-
mental action were subsequently identified in a study commissioned by the European Com-
munity (Driver et al., 1985).
Sri Lanka currently has a fairly extensive system of protected areas, covering over 12% of its
total land area, but it is not comprehensive. Priorities to develop the existing network are
identified in the IUCN systems review of the Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon,
1986), and specific recommendations are made in the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985). While
most habitats are represented within the existing protected areas system, most of the major
conservation areas lie within the dry zone. Coverage of tropical wet evergreen and hill forests
is still far from adequate (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). Here lie a number of floristically
important regions, such as the forests of Kottawa, Hinidumkanda, Kanneliya and Gilimale,
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
which have not been allocated for conservation (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). In the case
of the Knuckles Range, it is to be the subject of a conservation plan. Demarcation of protected
areas in the wet zone is considered to be a high priority in the new national wildlife conservation
policy (DWC, n.d.). Other gaps in the network include coastal and marine protected areas, the
only one established to date being Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary (Kotagama et al., 1990). In
the dry zone, important areas with inadequate conservation status include the Samanalawewa
area in the Walawe Ganga basin and the core of the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve (T.W.
Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990). Clearly, these and other deficiencies in the existing network
need to be addressed through a comprehensive systems review which has never been carried out
at the national level.
Addresses
Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli
Development, 82 Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla, COLOMBO 6 (Cable WILDLIFE;
Tel. 566601)
Chief Conservator of Forests, Forest Department, Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli
Development, 82 Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla, COLOMBO 6 (Tel. 566631-3)
Director, Coast Conservation Department, New Secretariat, Maligawatte, COLOMBO 10
Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Director General, Maligawatta New Town,
COLOMBO 10 (Tel. 549455/6, 437488/9)
Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka (NARESA), Director General,
47/5 Maitland Place, COLOMBO 7 (Tel. 596771-3)
Ceylon Bird Club, Chairman, PO Box 11, COLOMBO (Cable LANKABAUR; Tlx 21204
BAURCO CE; Tel. 20551)
March for Conservation, c/o Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Minidas
Kumaratunga Mawatha, Colombo 3 (Tel. 549136)
Sri Lanka Environment Foundation, Coordinating Secretary, 215, G-2/5 Park Road,
COLOMBO 5
Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society of Sri Lanka, President, Chaitiya Road, Marine Drive,
Fort, COLOMBO 1 (Tel. 25248)
References
Alwis, L. de (1969). The national parks of Ceylon: a guide. Department of Wildlife Conservation,
Colombo. 89 pp.
Anon. (n.d.). Draft environmental report on Sri Lanka. Paper presented at 25th Working Session
of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India,
4-8 February 1985.
Anon. (1988). Management policies for national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries in Sri Lanka.
Draft. 10 pp.
Bere, R.M. (1959). Some of the wild life problems of Ceylon. Oryx 5: 126-137.
Bharathie, K.P. Sri (1979). Man and Biosphere Reserves in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester 14:
37-40.
CEA (1988). The national conservation strategy for Sri Lanka: a synopsis. Central Environmental
Authority, Colombo. 28 pp.
Crusz, H. (1973). Nature conservation in Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation 5: 199-208.
Drijver, C., Toornstra, F. and Lionel Siriwardena, S.S.A. Mahaweli Ganga Project in Sri Lanka:
evaluation of environment problems and the role of settler-households in conservation. Centre
for Environmental Studies, State University of Leiden. 77 pp.
DWC (n.d.). A national policy for wildlife conservation of Sri Lanka. Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development. 11 pp.
Gour-Tanguay, R. (Ed.)(1977). Environmental policies in developing countries. Erich Schmidt
Verlag, Berlin. Pp. 818900/00-81900/10.
190
Sri Lanka
Guntilleke, I.A.U.N. and Guntilleke, C.V.S. (1990). Threatened woody endemics of the wet
lowlands of Sri Lanka and their conservation. Biological Conservation 55 (in press).
Fernando, C.H. (Ed.)(1984). Ecology and biogeography in Sri Lanka. Dr W. Junk, the Hague.
505 pp.
Fernando, R. and Samarasinghe, S.W.R. de A. (1988). Forest conservation and the forestry
master plan for Sri Lanka - a review. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka,
Colombo. 76 pp. (Unseen)
Forest Department (1986). A national forest inventory of Sri Lanka 1982-85. GOSL/UNDP/FAO
Project SRL/79/014. Forest Department, Colombo. 238 pp.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1969). The Wildlife Protection Society of Ceylon: some historical reflections on
the occasion of its 75th anniversary. Loris 11: 1-13.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1973). The need for a policy. Loris 11: 10-15.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1983). Wildlife conservation in Sri Lanka: a brief survey of the present status.
Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Seminar (1883-1983). Powai, Bombay, India, 6-10
December 1983.
IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp.
TUCN (1989). Forest Sector Development Project: Environmental Management Component.
IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 42 pp.
Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks for Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 12(1): 4-7.
Jansen, M. (1989). Sri Lanka - biological diversity and tropical forests. Status and recommended
conservation needs. Revised version USAID/Sri Lanka, Colombo. Unpublished Report. 70 pp.
Jaakko Poyry International Oy (1986). Forestry Master Plan for Sri Lanka. Forest Resources
Development Project, Ministry of Lands and Land Development. Unpublished. 146 pp.
Kotogama, S.W., Fernando, V.P. and Ishwaran, N. (1990). A five-year development plan for the
wildlife conservation and protected area management sector of Sri Lanka. Ministry of Lands,
Irrigation and Mahaweli Development, Colombo. 50 pp.
MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected area system in the Indoma-
layan Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 284 pp.
Nanayakkara, V.R. (1987). Forest history of Sri Lanka. In: Vivekanandan, K. (Ed.), 1887-1987
100 years of forest conservation. Forest Department, Colombo. (Unseen)
NPS (1985). Policy recommendations for national reserves and sanctuaries of Sri Lanka. Draft.
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 32 pp.
Padmalal, U.K.G.K. (1989). Some aspects of wildlife management and conservation in Sri Lanka.
In: Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Ban-
gladesh. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of
Bangldesh/Unesco, Dacca. Pp. 71-78.
Perera, N.P. (1984). Natural resources, settlements and land use. In C.H. Fernando (Ed.), Ecology
and biogegoraphy in Sri Lanka. Dr W. Junk, The Hague. Pp. 453-492.
Pushparajah, M. (1985). Forest policy and management of wet zone forests. Sri Lanka Forester
17: 6-8.
Rau, A.L. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Pakistan. M.Sc. thesis, University of
Edinburgh, Edinburgh. 66 pp.
Repetto, R. (1988). The forest for the trees? Government policies and the misuse of forest resources.
World Resources Institute, Washington. 105 pp.
Scott, D.A. (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
1,186 pp.
Somasekaram, T. (Ed.) (1988). The national atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department, Colombo.
TAMS (1980). Environmental assessment - Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme.
Volume 2. Terrestrial Environment. Tippets, Abbet, McCarthy and Stratton, New York.
(Unseen)
191
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Protected Areas
BAY estating
a
Proposed
(7a indicates protected area where the boundary is not shown
Protected Areas of Sri Lanka
Numbers correspond to those in the summary
192
Sri Lanka
Summary of Protected Areas of Sri Lanka
National/International designation IUCN Management Area Year
Name of area and map reference category (ha) notified
Biosphere Reserves
Hurulu Forest Reserve* IX 512 1977
17 Sinharaja Forest Reserve* IX 8,864 1978
Ramsar Wetlands
21 Bundala Sanctuary* IV 6,216 1990
World Heritage Sites
17 Sinharaja National Heritage
Wilderness Area* »4 8,864 1988
National Parks
1 Flood Plains * II 17,350 1984
2 Gal Oya * II 25,900 1954
3 Horton Plains * II 3,160 1988
4 Lahugala Kitulana * il 1,554 1980
5 Maduru Oya * II 58,850 1983
6 Ruhuna (Yala)* II 97,878 1938
7 Somawathiya Chaitiya * II 37,762 1986
8 Uda Walawe * II 30,821 1972
9 Wasgomuwa * II 37,063 1980
10 Wilpattu * II 131,693 1938
11 Yala East * II 18,149 1969
Subtotal (% total land area) 460,180 (7.0%)
Strict Natural Reserves
12 Hakgala * I 1,142 1938
13 Ritigala * I 1,528 1941
14 Yala * I 28,904 1938
Subtotal (% total land area) 31,574 (0.5%)
Nature Reserves
15 Minneriya-Giritale IV 7,529 1988
16 Tirikonamadu * IV 25,019 1986
Subtotal (% total land area) 32,548 (0.5%)
193
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
National Heritage Wilderness Areas
17 Sinharaja * IV 7,648 1988
Subtotal (% total land area) 7,648 (0.1%)
Jungle Corridors
18 Nilgala Unassigned 10,360 1970
Subtotal (% total land area) 10,360 (0.2%)
Sanctuaries
19 Anuradhapura IV 3,501 1938
20 Buddhangala IV 1,841 1974
21 Bundala * IV 6,216 1969
22 Chundikulam * IV 11,150 1938
23 Gal Oya Valley North-East* IV 12,432 1954
24 Gal Oya Valley South-West * IV 15,281 1954
25 Galway’s Lands IV = 1938
26 Giant’s Tank * IV 3,941 1954
27 Great Sober Island IV 65 1963
28 Hikkaduwa Marine * IV 45 1979
29 Honduwa Island IV 8 1973
30 Horagolla IV 13 1973
31 Kalametiya Kalapuwa * IV 712 1984
32 Katagamuwa IV 1,004 1938
33 Kataragama IV 838 1938
34 Kegalle IV ris 1941
35 Kimbulwanoya IV 492 1963
36 Kokilai * IV 2,995 1951
37 Kudumbigala IV 4,403 1973
38 Little Sober Island IV 6 1963
39 Madhu Road IV 26,677 1968
40 Mahakandarawewa IV 1966
41 Maimbulkande-Nittambuwa IV 23 1972
42 Mihintale IV 1,000 1938
43 Minneriya-Giritale * IV 6,693 1938
44 Padaviya Tank IV 6,475 1963
45 Pallekele-Kahalla-Balaluwewa IV 21,690 1989
46 Pallemalala IV 14 1942
47 Parapuduwa Nuns Island IV 190 1988
48 Parititivu Island IV 18 1973
49 Peak Wilderness * IV 22,380 1940
50 Pigeon Island IV 5 1974
51 Polonnaruwa * IV 1,523 1938
52 Ravana Ella IV 1,932 1979
53 Rocky Islets (Ambalangoda)* IV 1 1940
54 Sagamam IV 616 1963
55 Senanayake Samudra * IV 9,324 1954
56 Seruwila-Allai * IV 15,540 1970
194
57 Sigiriya *
58 Sri Jayewardenepura
59 Tangamalai (Adhisham)
60 Telwatte
61 Trincomalee Naval Headworks
62 Udawattekele *
63 Vavunikulam
64 Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe *
65 Welhella-Katagille
66 Wilpattu North *
67 Wirawila-Tissa *
Subtotal (% total land area)
Proposed
21 Bundala *
68 Lunugamvihira
69 Riverine
70 Bellanwila-Attidiya Marshes*
71 Dutch Bay (+ Portugal Bay)
TOTALS
Existing areas (% total land area)
Proposed areas (% total land area)
<eeeeeeddde
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
798,734
28,697
1, ocations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map.
*Site is described in this directory.
References (cont)
Sri Lanka
1990
1985
1938
1938
1963
1938
1963
1987
1949
1947
1938
(3.9%)
(12.2%)
(0.4%)
TAMS (1981). Environmental plan of action - Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme.
Tippets, Abbet, McCarthy and Stratton, New York. (Unseen)
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. TUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 389pp.
Wijesinghe, L.C.A. de S., Guntilleke, I.A.U.N., Jayawardana, S.D.G., and Guntilleke, C.V.S.
(1989). Biological conservation in Sri Lanka (A national status report). Natural Resources,
Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 64 pp.
Wijewansa, R.A. (1985). Sri Lanka: natural resources expertise profile. CDC/IUCN Gland,
Switzerland. Unpublished report. 130 pp.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
BELLANWILLA-ATTIDIYA MARSHES SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category Proposed
Biogeographical Province 4.02.01 (Ceylonese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated on the coastal plains of the wet zone in the south-eastern
outskirts of Colombo, east of Attidiya, Colombo District, Western Province. 6°50’N, 79°54’E
Date and History of Establishment Proposed as a sanctuary by the Department of Wildlife
Conservation.
Area 60ha
Land Tenure The marshes are state owned; surrounding areas are mostly privately owned.
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features Comprise a complex of shallow freshwater ponds, marshes and seasonally
flooded grasslands, with scattered shrubs and small trees. Bolgoda Canal divides the marshes
into almost equal portions. Numerous shallow pools and muddy areas have been created by
water buffalo. The area was cultivated for rice until 1980, but has since reverted to marshland.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
Vegetation Open water areas are almost entirely covered by Salvinia sp. and Eichhornia
crassipes. Most of the marsh is covered with low reeds and grasses, with some patches of tall
reeds and bushes.
Fauna The marsh supports small numbers of a wide variety of waterbirds, and is an important
roosting site for herons and egrets. Some 43 species of waterfowl were recorded in 1986 and
1987. These included several species scarce in Sri Lanka, such as Indian cormorant Phalacro-
corax fuscicollis, blue-breasted banded rail Rallus striatus and ruddy-breasted crake Porzana
fusca, as well as grey pelican Pelecanus philippensis, black bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis, painted
stork Mycteria leucocephala, Asian open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans, Oriental ibis Thres-
kiornis melanocephalus, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, Indian whistling duck Dendrocygna
javanica, water cock Gallicrex cinerea, purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio (a common
breeding bird), pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus, painted snipe Rostratula
benghalensis and a variety of migratory shorebirds.
Mammals include otter Lutra sp., mongoose Herpestes sp., jackal Canis aureus and mouse deer
Tragulus meminna. Mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) is present (Sumanasena, n.d.). Thirty-
nine species of fishes have been recorded, including four of Sri Lanka’s endemic species. The
marsh is alsorich in butterflies (52 species including nine endemics) and dragonflies (37 species).
196
Sri Lanka
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Less than 20 people live in the marshes, but over 10,000 live in the
immediate vicinity. Activities include fishing for finfish and shrimps, livestock grazing (water
buffalo and cattle), and cutting of reeds and shrubs for fuel. The surrounding areas are settled
or cultivated.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Members of the Young Zoologists’ Association in
Colombo carried out an ecological study of the marsh in 1986-1987.
Conservation Value The marshes are among the most important of the few remaining wetlands
around Colombo. Because of their easy access and close proximity to Colombo, they have
excellent potential for conservation education and scientific research.
Conservation Management Various recommendations for managing the proposed sanctuary
have been outlined by Gunawardana (1988).
Management Constraints Effluents from a nearby garment factory are discharged into
Bolgoda Canal, resulting in high fish mortality. Several species of fishes, including two of Sri
Lanka’s endemic species Aplocheilus dayi and Ehiwara fluviatilis, and the economically
important freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium rosenbergii, have been almost exterminated from
the marshes. The dumping of domestic waste along adjacent roads has also contributed to the
pollution. Most of the larger trees have been cut down for firewood. There is a considerable
amount of hunting of large waterbirds, using snares, nets and catapults, and some egg-collecting.
Staff None
Budget None
Local Addresses None
References Unless otherwise indicated, information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Gunawardana, J. (1988). A general assessment of the Bellanwila-Attidiya Marshes. Ceylon Bird
Club, Colombo. Unpublished report. (Unseen)
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Sumanansena, A.H. (n.d.) Bellanwila-Attidiya Marshes. Department of Wildlife Conservation,
Colombo. Unpublished report. 2 pp.
Date September 1990
197
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
BUNDALA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies on the south coast in South Province, about 274km from
Colombo. Stretches from the vicinity of Bundala Village in the east to that of Hambantota
township in the west. Part of the northern boundary is contiguous with the A2 main road.
6°07’-6°14’N, 81°07’-81°17’°E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 5 December 1969 (Gazette No.
44,883). Designated a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Sri Lanka’s ratification
of the Ramsar Convention on 15 October 1990.
Area 6,216ha
Land Tenure Land is state owned, except for the lands along the northern boundary between
Koholankala and Pallemalala released to villagers for settlement, and the paddy fields at
Koholankala and Malala. Bundala, Koholankala, and Mahalewayas have been leased to the
National Salt Corporation for salt production.
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 10m.
Physical Features The sanctuary contains five shallow, brackish lagoons with salt pans in
three, interconnecting channels and marshes including the adjacent coast. The easternmost
lagoon, Bundala Lewaya, was originally a brackish lagoon of about 520ha in extent, separated
from the sea by a natural sand-bar and with a mean depth of less than 1m. A large part of this
lagoon has now been converted to salt pans by a series of earth bunds, and developed as a saltern.
Immediately to the west is Emilikala Kalapuwa, a fresh/brackish lagoon of about 430ha. It is
1-2m in depth, and overflows into Malala Lagoon via a natural channel. Malala Lagoon, in the
middle of the sanctuary, is about 650ha in extent, fresh/brackish, and 1-2m in depth. It is fed
by the Malala Oya, which receives drainage water from both the Walawe Multipurpose Irrigation
Development Scheme and the Kirindi Oya Irrigation Settlement Scheme. Thus, fresh water
inflow to Embilikala and Malala lagoons has increased considerably with the result that
fluctuating salinity levels have adversely affected their ecology. Malala Lagoon, which is
separated from the sea by a naturally-formed sand-bar, only drains into the sea during floods or
when the sand-bar is breached by local fishermen to facilitate fishing in the lagoon. Koholankala
Lewaya, about 390ha in extent, drains into Mahalewaya (260ha) in the extreme west of the
sanctuary. Koholankala Lewaya and Mahalewaya have been almost totally developed for salt
production. Both lagoons are less than 1m deep and subject to wide fluctuations in water level.
Salinity in Koholankala Lewaya exceeds 30 p.p.t. during dry periods. The terrain surrounding
the lagoons is generally flat, with sand dunes along the coast and sparse dry evergreen Acacia
scrub inland. Fresh water springs are found along the dune belt.
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Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal, with a mean annual temperature of 27°C. Annual
rainfal ranges from 900mm to 1300mm, with an extensive dry period from May to September.
Vegetation The phytoplankton in all the lagoons is dominated by blue-green algae, such as
Microcystis, Nostoc and Oscillatoris, while hydrilla abound in Embilikala and Malala. Marshes
and streams contain water hyacinth, water lilies and reed beds of Typha javanica. The arid
vegetation consists largely of grass flats studded with Acacia scrub, comprising andara Dich-
rostachys cinerea, kukuruman Randia dumetorum, eraminiya Ziziphus sp., Ceymnosporia
emarginata, karamba Carissa spinarum, Capparis zeylanica and Cassia spp., and stands of
forest scrub, comprising maila Bauhinia racemosa, mallittan Salvadora persica, weera Drypetes
sepieria, palu Manilkara hexandra and less frequently satin Chloroxylon sweetania, kohomba
Azadirachta indica and divul Feronia limonia.
Fauna The forest still harbours a few elephant Elephas maximus (E), and migratory herds of
up to 80 animals have been seen in the area (Banks and Banks, 1985). Other mammals include
endemic toque macaque Macaca sinica, common langur Presbytis entellus, jackal Canis aureus,
leopard Panthera pardus (T), fishing cat Felis viverrinus, rusty-spotted cat Felis rubiginosa,
mongoose Herpestes spp., wild boar Sus scrofa, mouse deer Tragulus meminna, Indian muntjac
Muntiacus muntjak, spotted deer Cervus axis, sambar C. unicolor, black-naped hare Lepus
nigricollis, Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata and porcupine Hystrix indica (N. Ishwaran,
pers. comm., 1986.).
Noteworthy amphibians include the endemic frog Bufo athukoralei. Among reptiles, mugger
Crocodylus palustris (V), estuarine crocodile C. porosus (E), common monitor Varanus ben-
galensis and star tortoise Testudo elegans have been recorded (Banks and Banks, 1986). Reptiles
also include python Python molurus (V), rat snake Pytas mucosus, endemic flying snake
Chrysopelea taprobana, cat snakes Boiga spp. and whip snakes Dryophis spp. (Banks and
Banks, 1986; M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986). The beach along the coastal belt is a favourite
nesting ground for sea turtles.
The sanctuary is the home of every species of waterbird resident in the country and, during the
northern winter, it is the final destination for countless numbers of waders of most species
recorded in Sri Lanka. The rare black-necked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus is an infrequent
visitor. Vagrants turn up occasionally and among those reliably reported from the area are
Caspian plover Charadrius asiaticus, common ringed plover C. hiaticula, spotted redshank
Tringa erythropus, terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus, red knot Calidris canutus, broad-billed
sandpiper Limicola falcinellus, buff-breasted sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis, red-necked
phalarope Phalaropus lobatus, spoon-billed sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, common
avocet Recurvirostra avosetta and Eurasian oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus. Both white-
bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster and brahminy kite Haliastur indus are breeding
residents (Banks and Banks, 1986, pers. comm., 1986). Up to 2,000 greater flamingos Phoeni-
copterus roseus have been seen during the north-east monsoon (A.B. Fernando, pers. comm.,
1990). Details of waterfowl counts are given by Scott (1989).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population From time immemorial the lagoons have supported a subsistence
fishery for the local inhabitants. Village cattle are also allowed to graze in the sanctuary; dead
wood is gathered from the periphery for use as fuel; and medicinal herbs and honey are collected
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by the people living on the edge of the sanctuary. Rice is grown on the northern shores of
Embilikala, Malala and Koholankala, but the crop often fails due to high salinity levels.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities From 20 to 30 parties visit the sanctuary in jeeps daily. Visitors
may walk in the sanctuary. The National Salt Corporation has a circuit bungalow at Bundala
Lewaya. Accommodation is available outside the sanctuary at Tissamaharama, Wirawila and
Hambantota, from where jeeps can be hired. There used to be an airstrip at Wirawila suitable
for two-seater aircraft.
Scientific Research and Facilities Numerous waterfowl and shorebird censuses have been
carried out. A National Sea Turtle Conservation Project was started at Bundala in 1987 by the
National Aquatic Resources Agency with the support of the Department of Wildlife Conserva-
tion. A research hut was constructed and preliminary surveys undertaken, but suspended
temporarily mid-1988 due to security problems.
Conservation Value Bundala is the most important wetland for birds in Sri Lanka outside the
Northern Province. Its lagoons are among the most important wintering areas for migratory
shorebirds in the country, regularly accommodating over 15,000 shorebirds at any one time. It
is the last refuge of the greater flamingo in this part of the island, as well as being important for
elephant and a variety of threatened reptiles. Dense thorny scrub provides a natural barrier to
the gale-force winds that would otherwise accelerate desertification in this arid countryside.
Conservation Management’ The sanctuary was established iargely to protect migratory
waterfowl, an initiative which originally attracted a considerable outcry from sportsmen (Anon.
1964). At present, fishing in the lagoons and visitation for study, observation and photography
are permitted without any restriction. A proposal has been made to upgrade the sanctuary to a
national park, but, in view of the traditional activities presently enjoyed by the local people and
the salt production operations of the National Salt Corporation, it is felt that initially the sanctuary
should be upgraded to a nature reserve and human activities controlled to some extent. While
more wildlife staff need to be stationed at strategic locations in the area to afford it the necessary
protection, it is also important to provide some basic facilities for campers and other visitors for
study and observation of wildlife, photography and particularly bird watching. It is also of
paramount importance to restore two or three small waterholes with windmill-operated tube
wells and create freshwater sources for wildlife.
Management Constraints The degree of protection afforded to the sanctuary is limited. Apart
from the traditional activities of the local people, such as subsistence fishing in the lagoons,
grazing livestock and collecting fuelwood, other activities such as fishing by migrant fishermen,
mining, collection of mollusc shells for lime and tourism have increased considerably in recent
years. A firing range, recently opened in the sanctuary by the Sri Lanka Air Force, has been
closed down following representations by the Department of Wildlife Conservation and other
conservation bodies. The Department has also been successful in stopping the Ceramic
Corporation issuing permits for mining molluscs from beds in the sanctuary, but one or two
private lime kilns still continue to operate at Fallemalala. While poaching, cutting and removal
of timber, and encroachment of land are minimal, uncontrolled tourism is the source of much
disturbance. Tour operators, based at Tissamaharama and Hambantota, harass elephants and
drive off the tracks for the benefit of their clients. Recently, a foreign tourist was trampled and
killed by a bull elephant.
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Staff One senior wildlife ranger based at Hambantota, and one range assistant and three game
guards based in Bundala Sanctuary
Budget No information
Local Addresses Senior Wildlife Ranger, Bundala Sanctuary, Southern Headquarters, Depart-
ment of Wildlife Conservation, Hambantota
References Information is taken from the Ramsar nomination, unless otherwise indicated.
Anon. (1964). Proposed bird sanctuary at Bundala. Loris 10: 107-112.
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). Bundala Bird Sanctuary. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo. Unpub-
lished fact sheet. 1 p.
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1986). Sri Lanka - a note on some birdwatching areas. Oriental Bird Club
Bulletin 3: 18-22.
Perumal, S.K. (1985). Bundala: an omithologist’s paradise. Loris 17: 57.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
CHUNDIKKULAM SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated at the base of the Jaffna Peninsula, east of Elephant Pass,
Jaffna District, Northern Province. 9°26’-9°32’N, 80°24’-80°37’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary for birds under the Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance on 25 February 1938.
Area 11,150ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features Comprises a large brackish lagoon with some fringing mangroves and
seagrass beds. The lagoon was saline, having once formed part of the Jaffna Lagoon system.
The extensive Government saltern (salt producing area) on the western side of Elephant Pass
causeway has permanently disrupted the former tidal connection between Chundikkulam and
Jaffna lagoons. With the closure of Elephant Pass causeway at the west end, the salinity of the
lagoon is said to have decreased, and large areas now dry out during the dry season (April to
September). Numerous small streams enter the lagoon along its southern shore.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
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Vegetation Consists of mangrove swamps and seagrass beds, with plantations of palms
Palmyra and scrub forest in surrounding areas.
Fauna _ The avifauna includes a wide variety of waterfowl, notably painted stork Mycteria
leucocephala, Oriental ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, mi-
gratory ducks, coot Fulica atra, migratory shorebirds, gulls and terns. Waterfowl observed in
the winter of 1982/1983 included 4,000 pintail Anas acuta and 6,300 garganey A. querquedula.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Activities include prawn fishing, salt production and cultivation of
palms in adjacent areas. The lagoon supports a subsistence fishery.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some waterfowl censuses have been carried out.
Conservation Value The sanctuary is of great importance for a wide variety of waterfowl.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints The isolation of the lagoon from tidal influence has undoubtedly
had major ecological consequences, but these have never been studied. A salt water exclusion
scheme was started but later abandoned. There are plans to revive the scheme again, but the
Ceylon Bird Club has strongly protested against this initiative prior to assessing carefully
environmental impact. The sanctuary has never been adequately protected, and has been open
to a variety of abuses. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the surrounding forests
are being cleared.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date September 1990
FLOOD PLAINS NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
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Geographical Location Spans the Mahaweli Ganga in Polonnaruwa District, North Central
Province. The township of Manampitiya lies just outside the eastern boundary of the park, a
stop-over on the Batticaloa-Polonnaruwa road and on the railway which pass through the park.
7°57’-8°04’N, 81°03’-81°1VE
Date and History of Establishment Created a national park on 7 August 1984.
Area Covering 17,350ha and lying in the Mahaweli protected areas complex, it links Wasgo-
muwa National Park (37,063ha) to the south with Somawathiya Chaitiya National Park
(37,762ha) to the north.
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from 20m to 60m, with an occasional rock outcrop.
Physical Features The Mahaweli Ganga flows from south to north through the centre of the
park. The flood plains of rich alluvial soil flanking the river are characterised by numerous
shallow marshy depressions known as ‘villus’. The prolonged periods of inundation of these
low-lying areas, together with the nutrients carried in by the water, are largely responsible for
the exceptionally high level of net primary productivity (Jansen, 1981). In addition to being
flooded in the wet season, the villus are also inundated during the dry season because the
headwaters of the Mahaweli Ganga experience the south-west monsoon at this time of year. Up
until the recent diversion of the Mahaweli Ganga for irrigation purposes, the villus were
particularly important as dry season grazing areas (Ishwaran, 1985).
Climate Being in the dry zone, there is only a north-east monsoon from October to late-January.
This is followed by a dry season lasting from May to September.
Vegetation Saturated soils and flooding prevent tree growth and enhance the growth of
water-tolerant grasses and aquatic plants. The vegetation of the villus shows definite patterns
of zonation, with creeping grasses, such as Cynodon dactylon, and essentially terrestrial annual
plants on the margins; hydrophobic species, such as Alternanthera sessilis, Polygonum spp.,
berudiyanilla Jussiaea repens, kankun Ipomoea aquatica, diyahabarala Monochoria hastata and
Scirpus grossus, and grasses, such as gojabba Hygrorhyza aristata, Brachiaria mutica, Echi-
nochloa colonum, Paspalum vaginatum, Digitaria longflora and Paspalidium spp., further
inwards; floating plants, such as kekatiya Aponogeton crispum, A. natans and Nymphoides sp.,
occur along with Nelumbo nucifera in deeper water; and an association of manel Nymphaea
stellata and the submerged floating plant Ceratophyllum demersum in the deepest water.
Common floating forms found in all zones are water lettuce Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta,
diya nidikumba Neptunia oleracea and ikiliya Trapa bispinosa. The original riverine forest on
the levees has been almost completely removed to make way for tobacco fields. Between the
levees and the marshes of the villus, the vegetation resembles that of swamp forests, due to
periodic inundation, with species such as kumbuk Terminalia arjuna, helamba Mitragyna
parvifolia, makulu Hydnocarpus venenata, mee Madhuca longifolia and mudilla Barringtonia
asiatica being the most common. Clumps of rattan (cane) Calamus rotang are also common in
the area. About 25 plants of a rare herb Pentapetes phoenicea are found at three different sites
in the swamp forest (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1985). The vegetation of the flood plains is further
described by Scott (1989). Elsewhere, there is monsoon forest on higher ground and gallery
forest along river banks.
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Fauna The rich vegetation in the villus attracts large numbers of grazing animals and birds and
supports a higher annual biomass than any other type of habitat within the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Project area. The flood plains, with their abundant supply of water and grasslands,
are an important habitat for elephant Elephas maximus (E), as well as providing a corridor for
elephants ranging between Somawathiya Chaitiya and Wasgamuwa national parks. Other
mammals commonly encountered in the flood plains are fishing cat Felis viverrina, jungle cat
F.. chaus, rusty-spotted cat F. rubiginosus, jackal Canis aureus, wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian
muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor, spotted deer C. axis and water buffalo
Bubalus bubalis (E). The marshes support a large population of reptiles including natricine
water snakes, mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) and estuarine crocodile C. porosus (E). Import-
ant fish species of the villus are climbing perch Anabas testudineus, snake heads Ophiocephalus
striatus and O. parulius, freshwater shark Labeo sp., branded etroplus Etroplus surantensis,
butter catfish Ompok bimaculatus and the introduced tilapia Tilapia mossambica. The flood
plains are particularly important for the diversity and abundance of their avifauna, particularly
migrant birds. It is estimated that around 75 species winter in the marshes of the flood plain.
Commonly seen migrants are marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis, wood sandpiper T. glareola,
Asiatic golden plover Pluvialis dominica, garganey Anas querquedula, osprey Pandion ha-
liaetus and black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa. Common residents are eastern large egret
Egretta alba, little egret Egretta garzetta, cattle egret Bubulcus ibis, painted stork [bis leucoce-
phalus, pond heron Ardeola grayii, eastern grey heron Ardea cinerea, pheasant-tailed jacana
Hydrophasianus chirurgus, purple coot Porphyrio porphyrio, Indian darter Anhinga rufa, little
cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, Indian shag P. fuscicollis, Indian cormorant P. carbo sinensis,
brahminy kite Haliastur indus, painted snipe Rostratula benghalensis, black-winged stilt
Himantopus himantopus and red-wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1985). Further details of the avifauna are given by Scott (1989).
Cultural Heritage There is no special evidence of historical ruins. This section of the
Mahaweli Ganga was connected to the ancient irrigation network in the vicinity. On the right
bank of the river, at the edge of Mutugalla Villu, are ruins of an ancient cave monastery with
inscriptions dating back to between the 2nd and 7th century BC.
Local Human Population Muslim migrants have traditionally cultivated tobacco along the
river banks, but at increasingly intense levels. More recently, brick-making has been introduced
from the west coast, and in 1987 the Housing Development authority built eight houses in the
Manampitiya area of the park for its workers. Other settlements within the park include an army
camp and boutiques. Dairy Farming, fishing, and cane extraction also contribute to the local
economy (Jansen, 1981; Hoffmann, 1988; R.L.E. Kuruppu, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are no facilities as yet but bungalows and campsites are
planned.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The park is central to the integrity of the Mahaweli system of protected
areas, both for its unique villus and as a corridor for wildlife migration between grazing lands
in Wasgomuwa and Somawathiya Chaitiya national parks. It is particularly important for the
long-term survival of elephants within the Mahaweli catchment. Together with the adjacent
Somawathiya Chaitiya National Park, Flood Plains provides a refuge for a wide variety of
resident and migratory waterfowl (Scott, 1989).
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Sri Lanka
Conservation Management There is an overall systems plan for protected areas within the
Mahaweli region (NPS, 1986) but, as yet, there is no management plan for Flood Plains National
Park. For purposes of management, it is proposed that the northern half of the park is treated as
part of Somawathiya Chaitiya National Park and the southern half as part of Wasgomuwa
National Park (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Management Constraints Dam construction on the Mahaweli Ganga will inevitably decrease
water flow and thereby reduce the magnitude and duration of flooding downstream. This
dramatic change in the water regime of the villus will transform the rich grasslands into poor
quality grazing grounds, which in turn will be detrimental to the wildlife. This has been accepted
as an unavoidable consequence of the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme.
The park was added to the IUCN/CNPPA Register of Threatened Protected Areas of the World
in 1989, in view of its integrity being severely threatened by increasing levels of exploitation of
its resources by settlers from far-off townships such as Kuliyapitiya. Over 200 tobacco plots,
each 1.2ha in area, were set up within the park, apparently with the approval of the Department
of Wildlife Conservation, and an additional 230 plots have been unofficially established by
migrants (Anon., 1985). About 6,000 halmilla saplings are used for fencing the perimeter of
each plot, irrigation of plots by an ingenious lifting technique erodes the banks of rivers, and
fuelwood is used for curing the tobacco. Brick-making is rampant and also relies on fuelwood
resources for baking bricks. Elephants have fallen into the holes created by the hundreds of
kilns and died. Thousands of dairy cattle roam the villus (Hoffmann, 1988; C. Santiapillai, pers.
comm., 1986). These activities are due to be phased out, or strictly controlled, to enable the
ecosystem to recover, but little action has been taken under the Mahaweli Environment
Programme to date. Effective management is hampered by political and security problems in
the region.
Staff One game ranger (1990)
Budget The park budget is being planned with help from US-AID.
Local Addresses Assistant Director, Flood Plains National Park, Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Mahaweli Environment Project, Polonnaruwa New Town, Polonnaruwa District,
North Central Province
References
Anon. (1985). Animals dumb witnesses in natinal park. The Island. 11 August 1985.
Hemapriya, B.H. Ed. (1983). Mahaweli projects and programmes. Ministry of Lands and Land
Development and Ministry of Mahaweli Development, Columbo. 102 pp.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1978). Down the Mahaweli. Loris 14: 377-343.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1988). The Flood Plains National Park. Unpublished report. 11 pp.
Ishwaran, N. (1985). Ecology of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State
University, East Lancing, USA. (Unseen)
Jansen, M. (1981). Villus of the floodplains of the Mahaweli Ganga. Loris 15: 337-340.
Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks of Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 12: 4-7.
NPS (1986). Systems plan. Mahaweli national parks region. US National Park Service/Department
of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 44 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date November 1985, updated September 1990
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
GAL OYA NATIONAL PARK, SENANAYAKE SAMUDRA SANCTUARY,
GAL OYA VALLEY NORTH-EAST SANCTUARY AND
GAL OYA VALLEY SOUTH-WEST SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category
Gal Oya National Park: II (National Park)
Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary: IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary: IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Gal Oya Valley South-West Sanctuary: IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lie in the south-east of the island, in Eastern and Uva provinces. The
town of Amparai is adjacent to the eastern extremity of Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary,
and Sellaka-Oya is near to Gal Oya Valley South-West Sanctuary. Gal Oya National-Park
encompasses Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary. 7°01’-7°22’N, 81°20’-81°39’E
Date and History of Establishment The national park and three sanctuaries were all estab-
lished by the Gal Oya Development Board on 12 February 1954, mainly to protect the catchment
area of Senanayake Samudra Reservoir, and handed over to the Department of Wildlife
Conservation in 1965. Two tanks (small lakes), Amparai and Konduwatawana, which used to
be sanctuaries prior to the region coming under the authority of the Gal Oya Development Board,
are now included within Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary. Boundaries of the proposed
Nilgala Jungle Corridor, which is intended to link the protected areas complex with Madura Oya
National Park to the north-west, were marked out in August-October 1985.
Area Gal Oya National Park: 25,900ha
Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary: 9,324ha
Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary: 12,432ha
Gal Oya Valley South-West Sanctuary: 15,281ha
The total area of the protected areas complex is 62,936ha. It is proposed to link Gal Oya National
Park with Maduru Oya National Park (58,850ha) via Nilgala Jungle Corridor (10,360ha).
Land Tenure Gal Oya National Park and Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary are state owned.
Some land in Gal Oya Valley North-East and Gal Oya Valley South-West sanctuaries is private,
the rest belongs to the state.
Altitude Ranges from about 30m to over 500m. Senanayake Sumadra lies at about 80m. The
top of Govindahela, the highest point in the area but outside the protected areas complex, is at
573m.
Physical Features Comprises the catchment of the Senanayake Samudra, a large waterbody
with an impressive backdrop of rocky, forested hills. Two general zones can be distinguished.
To the east the peneplain is low (30-80m) and broken by a few solitary remnants of erosion and
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Sri Lanka
many smaller (15-30m) bare rocks known as turtle-backs. West of a line passing approximately
from Divulana via Inginiyagala to Buddama, the peneplain is higher (150-250m) and clusters
of erosion fragments form the dominant relief. Erosion fragments have one or more steep sides
of bare rock but most have at least one side with gentle, invariably boulder-strewn, forested
slopes. The Gal Oya basin consists of the Gal Oya and three lesser streams which flow eastward.
The Gal Oya was dammed at Inginiyagala in 1948 to form Senanayake Samudra, and the other
two streams have since been dammed (McKay, 1973). Senanayake Samudra has a maximum
depth of 33.5m and a catchment area of about 100,000ha. The water is fresh, with a pH of 6.8
(Scott, 1989). Geologically, the area consists mainly of the Vijayan series, a variety of Lower
Palaeozoic gneissic rocks. Soils are predominantly reddish brown, with alluvium along river
beds (Panabokke, 1967).
Climate The area falls within the dry zone, and is subject mainly to the influence of the
north-east monsoon. Mean annual rainfall for Gal Oya National Park was 1766mm in 1967-1976
(Ishwaran, 1981).
Vegetation About 45% of Gal Oya National Park is forest, 33% savanna, 9% grassland, and
2% chena (forest disturbed by shifting agriculture). The rest (10%) consists of waterbodies.
The forest is generally evergreen, of medium stature (30-40m) with a dense closed canopy layer
dominated by Artocarpus sp., Berrya cordifolia, Euphorbia longana, Mangifera zeylanica and
Diospyros spp. Shrub and sapling layers comprise Mallotus repandus, Polyalthia spp. and Celtis
cinnamomea, among others. The savanna (Sinhalese: talawa), is found mainly in the west.
Dominant species of tree are Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica and Pterocarpus marsupium, all
of which have products of medicinal importance. Shrubs include Phyllanthus emblica and
Ziziphus sp. The dominant ground vegetation consists of tall, perennial grasses, the commonest
of which are Cymbopogon confertiflorus and Imperata cylindrica. Themeda sp. is more patchily
distributed. The grassland, which occurs mostly around waterbodies, is entirely secondary.
Annuals, such as Eragrostis and Eleusine, tend to be common on low lying areas which are
flooded for long periods annually. In the higher areas, which may not be submerged every year,
perennials, such as Cynodon dactylon and Brachiaria sp., are more common. The reservoir
supports relatively few aquatic macrophytes. Coelosphaerium, Microcystis and Melosira are
abundant in the phytoplankton (Scott, 1989). A vegetation map of the park has been produced
(McKay, 1973) based on aerial photographs taken in 1956 and published by the Ceylon Survey
Department (Scale 1: 31680). More recent material is available.
Fauna _A total of 32 species of terrestrial mammals has been recorded in the Gai Oya region
(McKay, 1973). The most prominent species are common langur Presbytis entellus, endemic
toque macaque Macaca sinica, leopard Panthera pardus (T), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1),
elephant Elephas maximus (E), wild boar Sus scrofa, three species of deer and water buffalo
Bubalus bubalis (E). The size of the elephant population, estimated at 260-300 animals
including adult males (McKay, 1973), has probably remained much the same over the last ten
years, although in Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary numbers may have decreased by about
160 (Vancuylenberg, 1974) to just under 100 elephants (Ishwaran, 1981).
Of the more than 300 species of birds which occur regularly in Sri Lanka, 150 have been observed
in the Gal Oya region (McKay, 1973). Particularly noteworthy is red-faced malkoha Phoeni-
cophaeus pyrrhocephalus, endemic to Sri Lanka and South India, and endemic Sri Lanka
spurfowl Galloperdix bicalcarata (Atapattu and Wickremasinghe, 1974). The endemic painted
francolin Francolinus pictus ssp., for which this area is the last refuge (T.W. Hoffmann, pers.
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comm., 1989), and brown-capped babbler Pellorneum fuscocapillum are also present. Two
ecological categories of birds deserve mention. First are the large numbers of fish-eating birds
which occur in and around the tanks. Besides the numerous pelicans (notably Pelecanus
philippensis), cormorants (three species), herons and fishing eagles (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
and Haliaeetus leucogaster), there are large numbers of Brahminy kites Haliastur indus around
Senanayake Samudra and the occasional migrant osprey Pandion haliaetus. The second group
consists of frugivorous birds, such as hornbills Tockus griseus and Anthracoceros coronatus,
pigeons Ducula aena and Treron spp., parrots Psittacula spp. and Loriculus beryllinus, and
barbets Megalaima spp.
Among the reptiles present, mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) is locally common in tanks and
irrigation ditches and common monitor Varanus bengalensis is abundant in drier areas. Rat
snakes Ptyas mucosus, python Python molurus (V) and the venomous snakes Naja naja and
Viperarusselli are common. Several species of gekko are present and agamids Calotes spp. and
skink Mabuya sp. are abundant. Freshwater turtles Melanochelys trijuga and Lissemys punctata
are numerous in irrigation canals, and star tortoise Testudo elegans is present. Amphibians
include Bufo melanostictis, Rana tigrina, R. limnocharis, R. gracilis and Rhacophorus cruciger
(McKay, 1973). Freshwater fish include mainly Wallago attu valleya, and introduced carps
(Cyprinidae), gouramis (Belontiidae) and Tilapia mossambica. Of the invertebrate fauna, only
those forms of particular importance to the elephant, such as termites and biting arthropods, are
mentioned by McKay.
Cultural Heritage Gal Oya is the only valley in Sri Lanka which can claim to have given
shelter to Sinhala kings in three different locations; namely to King Tissa at Digha Vapi in the
2nd century BC, to King Buvanekabahu on the summit of Govindahela in the 13th century, and
to the self-proclaimed King Dore Swamy at Nilgala in the 19th century. The Digha Vapi Dagoba,
built in the 2nd century BC to mark the spot where the Lord Buddha is supposed to have sat
during his last visit to Sri Lanka, attracts thousands of pilgrims (Szechowycz, 1958). The hilly
country in the west was one of the last strongholds of the Veddas. Henebedde Cave near
Vadinagala has a drip ledge and contains a Brahmin inscription (Hoffmann, 1978). Near the
Cave are a moonstone, guardstone and balustrade stone. Ruins of an ancient structure are close
by.
Local Human Population The park is uninhabited, the small settlement of aboriginal Veddas
on the northern boundary having been evacuated. Some 2,000 villagers lived in the neighbour-
ing Gal Oya South-West Sanctuary in 1954; subsequent efforts by the authorities to resettle
them have so far failed. The valley area below the reservoir has been developed intensively for
agricultural purposes under the Gal Oya Development Scheme begun in 1949.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is largely undeveloped for tourism. Accommodation
is not available within any of the protected areas, but there is a Wildlife Department bungalow
at Engal Aru and rest houses are available outside the park at Inginiyagala and Amparai. Boats
can be hired on Senanayake Samudra.
Scientific Research and Facilities Extensive research was conducted in 1967-1969 (McKay,
1973) as part of an elephant study programme organised by the Smithsonian Institute. Sub-
sequent work has also been focused on the elephant population (Vancuylenberg, 1977; Ishwaran,
1981, 1983). There are no research facilities.
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Sri Lanka
Conservation Value The park was established to protect the catchment area of the Senanayake
Samudra, constructed as part of a development scheme to open up some 162,000ha of forest for
agricultural and industrial purposes. It is considered to be among the most scenically beautiful
landscapes in Sri Lanka (Hoffmann, 1973). Senanayake Samudra supports an important fishery,
with fish production estimated at 873 metric tonnes per year, and is a valuable source of water
for irrigation (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management The park is buffered by sanctuaries on all but its western
boundary. Nilgala Jungle Corridor in the north-west is planned to provide a route for elephants
moving between Gal Oya and Maduru Oya national parks. Similarly, in the south, a corridor
for elephants is proposed, to link Gal Oya and Yala East national parks via Lahugala-Kitulana
National Park. These corridors were planned some ten years back but no progress has been
made in recent years.
Management Constraints Subsistence hunting, collection of food, medicinal products and
fuelwood from the forests and cattle grazing are traditional activities of the local people. Burning
of grasslands to improve pastures for cattle, illicit gemming along water bodies, collection of
rattan and poaching are particular problems. Inadequate protection of the catchment area from
settlement and gemming has led to massive erosion and siltation of the Senanayake Samudra
(Department of Wildlife Conservation, pers. comm., 1990). A joint venture between the
Department of Wildlife Conservation and a private company (Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge) to
construct a 50-bed safari lodge in the park (Atapattu and Wickremasinghe, 1974) was approved
by the Cabinet, but subsequently shelved following objection by the Wildlife and Nature
Protection Society (Fernando, 1983).
Staff Park warden with a staff of 41, including 4 game rangers (1985)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Park Warden, Gal Oya National Park, IDQ 2, Inginiyagala, Amparai
References
Alwis, L. de (1978). Some wild life reserves in danger of destruction. Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Colombo. Unpublished report. 5 pp.
Atapattu, S. and Wickremasinghe, C.S. (1974). Sri Lanka’s Gal Oya National Park: aspects and
prospects. Biological Conservation 6: 219-222.
Fernando, R. (1983). Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Personal
communication to G. Lucas. WWF, Kew Gardens, UK.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1973). The Gal-Oya National Park. Loris 13: 70-79.
Ishwaran, N. (1981). Comparative study on elephant populations in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka. Biological
Conservation 21: 303-313.
Ishwaran, N. (1983). Elephant and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka. Biological
Conservation 26: 255-270.
McKay, G.M. (1973). Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon.
Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 125: 1-109.
Norris, C.E. (1956). A new wildlife reserve in Ceylon: Gal Oya National Park and sanctuaries.
Oryx 3: 212-213.
Panabokke, C.R. (1967). Soils of Ceylon and fertiliser use. Ceylon Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Colombo.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Szechowycz, R.W. (1958). The past history of Gal Oya Valley. Loris 8: 87-93.
Vancuylenberg, B.W.B (1974). The feeding behaviour of the Asiatic elephant in south-eastern
Ceylon. M.Sc. thesis. University of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya.
Vancuylenberg, B.W.B (1974). Feeding behaviour of the Asiatic elephant in relation to conserva-
tion. Biological Conservation 12: 33-54.
Date May 1986, updated September 1990
GIANT’S TANK SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated on the coastal plain of north-western Sri Lanka, about Skm
from the sea near Murukkan, 18km south-east of Mannar, Mannar District, Northern Province.
8°52’N, 80°02’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 24 September 1954.
Area 3,941ha
Land Tenure The tank is state owned; surrounding areas are partly state owned and partly
private.
Altitude Less than 25m
Physical Features The sanctuary includes an ancient tank (water storage reservoir), now
heavily silted. The tank is fed by an ancient canal, recently restored, which carries water from
Malwatu Oya River (Aruvi Aru). It has a catchment area of 9,850 ha, a maximum depth of 3.2m,
and a pH of 7.5. The water level fluctuates widely according to irrigation needs and monsoon
rainfall.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal with mean annual rainfall of 1051mm and mean
annual temperature of 27.8°C.
Vegetation The tank is surrounded by rice paddies and dry scrub forest. There are few aquatic
macrophytes; the phytoplankton includes Oscillatoria, Microcystis and Hyella.
Fauna Elephant Elephas maximus (E) occurs in the vicinity of the tank. Details of the avifauna
are limited. An estimated 11,000 ducks were present in 1965, including 1,000 cotton pygmy
goose Nettapus coromandelianus. In February 1984, 1,800 wigeon Anas penelope and 1,100
garganey A. querquedula were recorded. Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos has been reported.
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Sri Lanka
Commercially important fishes include Labeo dussumieri, Puntius sarana (abundant), Puntitius
dorsalis, Ompok bimaculatus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Tilapia mossambica and Ophicephalus
Striatus.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The tank is used for fishing, as a domestic water supply and for
irrigation. It supports an important fishery; production is estimated at about 200 metric tonnes
per year.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Some studies have been carried out at the tank, mainly on
the fisheries.
Conservation Value The tank is known to be important for a variety of waterfowl and
shorebirds.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Siltation, due to forest clearance in surrounding areas, and eutro-
phication are the main problems.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
i ie Ned A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
Date September 1990
HAKGALA STRICT NATURAL RESERVE
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies 6km south-east of Nuwara Eliya in Central and Uva provinces.
6°53’-6°57’N, 80°46’-80°50’E
Date and History of Establishment Designated a strict natural reserve on 25 February 1938.
The adjacent botanical gardens were founded in 1860.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Area 1,142ha. Contiguous to Hakgala Botanical Gardens
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from about 1,650m to 2,178m, at the top of Hakgala Peak.
Physical Features The reserve lies on the south bank of the Sita-Eliya and consists almost
entirely of the Hakgala massif with its three prominent peaks, among the highest in the country.
These are said to resemble the jaw of an elephant, hence the Sinhalese name hak (jaw) and gala
(rock) (Alex Sylva, 1986). Soils are red-yellow podzols.
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 2400mm. Rain falls on 211 days of the year (Meijer,
1980/1981).
Vegetation Consists of botanically-rich montane cloud forest which is noted for its endemic
archaic Monimiaceae Hortonia floribunda and abundance of orchids. Common species are
keena Calophyllum walkeri, Syzygium irotundifolium and Elaeocarpus montanus. The under-
growth consists of various species of niloo Strobilanthes. Two forest types have been described:
dwarf forest, characterised by low-growing species such as Osbeckia buxifolia; and a taller forest
(10-20m), comprising Rhododendron zeylanicum and Actinodaphne speciosa (Meijer,
1980/1981).
Fauna Mammals include a variety of endemics such as purple-faced langur Presbytis senex,
toque macaque Macaca sinica, Sri Lanka spiny rat Coelomys mayori, Sri Lanka bi-coloured rat
Srilakmys ohiensis, Kelaart’s long-tailed shrew Feroculus feroculus, Sri Lanka long-tailed shrew
Crocidura miya and Pearson’s long-clawed shrew Solisorex pearsoni (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1986). Other mammals include leopard Panthera pardus (T), fishing cat Felis viverrina, wild
boar Sus scrofa, sambar Cervus unicolor, highland flying squirrel Ratufa macroura, large Sri
Lanka flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista and grizzled pipistrel Pipistrellus mordax. Elephant
Elephas maximus (E) was still present in 1939 (Werner, 1988).
Amphibian species include endemics such as Bufo kelaarti, Rhacophorus cruciger, R. micro-
tympanum, Philautus schmardanus, Ramanella palmata and Microhyla zeylanica, along with
Rana limnocharis and Hylarana temporalis. Among the noteworthy reptiles are the following
endemics: Uropeltis melanogaster, Rhinophis blythi, Aspidura brachyorrhas, A. trachyprocta,
viper Hypnale nepa, geckos such as Calotes nigrilabris, Cophotis ceylanica and Ceratophora
stoddarti, and skinks such as Sphenomorphus striatopunctatus (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
The avifauna is varied and of high endemicity. Noteworthy species include mountain hawk
eagle Spizaetus nipalensis, endemic junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, wood pigeon Columba tor-
ringtoni, highland nightjar Caprimulgus indicus, endemic blue magpie Kitta ornata, endemic
yellow-eared bulbul Pycnonotus penicillatus, endemic brown-capped babbler Pellorneum fus-
cocapillum, endemic rufous babbler Turdoides rufescens, endemic dusky-blue flycatcher Mus-
cicapa Sordida, endemic Sri Lanka warbler Bradypterus palliseri, endemic Sri Lanka arrenga
Myiophonus blighi, spotted-winged thrush Zoothera spiloptera, blackbird Turdus merula and
endemic hill white-eye Zosterops ceylonensis. Commoner birds include orange minivet Peri-
crocotus flammeus, small minivet P. cinnamomeus, black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis,
common scimitar babbler Pomatorhinus horsfieldii, grey-headed flycatcher Culicicapa cey-
lonensis, pied bush chat Saxicola caprata and scaly thrush Zoothera dauma. A large number
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Sri Lanka
of migrant bird species visit the area, of which the most interesting include India pitta Pitta
brachyura, brown flycatcher Muscicapa tatirostris, Kashmir red-breasted flycatcher M. subru-
bra, Indian blue chat Erithacus brunneus, pied ground thrush Zoothera wardii, hill munia
Lonchura kelaarti and large-billed warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1986).
Cultural Heritage Many prominent peaks are sites of Hindu worship. The nearby Sita Eliya,
a Hindu temple, on the main Nuwara Eliya-Welimada road, has a tradition which goes back to
the legend of Rama and Sita, the ‘Ramayana’ (Alex Sylva, 1986).
Local Human Population The reserve was uninhabited, but huts and houses have been built
by encroachers (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a well-maintained trail to the summit, but no other
facilities. There is a circuit bungalow belonging to the Department of Agriculture inside the
botanical gardens. Hotel accommodation is available at Nuwara Eliya.
Scientific Research and Facilities Scientific facilities are available at the botanical gardens.
Conservation Value Hakgala is an important but isolated reserve for cloud forest, which
supports a diverse fauna including a number of endemics. Its small size and isolation, however,
jeopardise its long-term viability.
Conservation Management The Department of Wildlife Conservation is in the process of
evicting encroachers.
Management Constraints [Illicit felling by vegetable farmers (J. Banks, pers. comm., 1986;
Werner, 1988a) and die-back of the cloud forest (Wemer, 1988b) are threatening the existence
of this small reserve. Restriction on entry to the reserve from the botanical gardens is not
enforced.
Staff Five (1985)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Park Warden, Horton Plains National Park, Ohiya, via Haputala
References
Alex Sylva, J. (1986). Exploring the forest-cloud heights of Hakgala. Sri Lanka Wildlife 2: 21-23.
Meijer, W. (1980/1981). The preservation and study of the montane flora of the Nuwara-Eliya
region. Phyta 2: 21-24.
Werner, W.L. (1988a). Human impact on natural environment in the Central Highlands of Sri
Lanka. Universitas 30: 29-37.
Werner, W.L. (1988b). Canopy dieback in the upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka. Geo
Journal 17: 245-248.
Date April 1986, updated September 1988
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
HIKKADUWA MARINE SANCTUARY, INCLUDING
ROCKY ISLETS (AMBALANGODA) SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category
Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary: IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Rocky Islets Sanctuary: IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.02.01 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies on the south-west coast in Southern Province, approximately
65km south of Colombo and north of Galle. The marine sanctuary is located at 6°08’N, 80°05’E
and Rocky Islets Sanctuary at 6°09’N, 80°08’E.
Date and History of Establishment Created a marine sanctuary on 18 May 1979 (Gazette No.
37). The boundaries are based on those of a previous ‘Fishery Protected’ area declared under
Section 26 of the Fisheries Ordinance on 3 March 1961 (Gazette No. 12304). Rocky Islets was
previously declared a sanctuary on 25 October 1940 (Gazette No. 8675). The first steps towards
establishing the area as a marine park have been taken by the National Aquatic Resources Agency
(UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Protection is partial: whereas removal of coral, sand or other substance
from the area is prohibited under the Crown Lands Ordinance, Sections 63 and 66 (Salm, 1975a),
fish are not legally protected. The terrestrial parts of Rocky Islets Sanctuary are protected under
the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, Gazette No. 8675.
Area 45ha, including Rocky Islets Sanctuary (1.2ha)
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features The reef at Hikkaduwa extends about 130m seawards before dropping
sharply to soft substrate at 7-10m. In the north the reef is separated from the shore by a 3-4m
deep channel, whereas in the south the reef flat abuts directly onto the shore. Spur and groove
formations are found on the seaward face of the reef, particularly in the southern part. Rocky
Islets comprises a small cluster of rocks several hundred metres offshore. Just beyond Rocky
Islets and at a depth of about 20m is a series of sandstone reefs, scattered with occasional coral
colonies and gorgonians (Mergner and Scheer, 1974). Further details of the reef structure are
given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Climate No information
Vegetation Rocky Islets is devoid of vegetation. Inshore, reefs feature a narrow band of
seagrass before a Halimeda zone. On seaward slopes, the algae Halimeda and Caulerpa may
be common (UNEP/IUCN, 1988).
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Sri Lanka
Fauna A full description of the coral fauna is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs in the
lee of Rocky Islets were still intact and flourishing in 1981; others were in less good condition
(Jonklaas, 1981). The islets used to be an important roost for seabirds until the number of visiting
holiday-makers increased. Fish are abundant and include a wide variety of reef species, with
68 recorded to date (De Silva and Rajasuriya, 1985).
Cultural Heritage None
Local Human Population Rocky Islets is uninhabited but the coastal area is heavily populated
as the reef lies off the holiday resort of Hikkaduwa.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area receives numerous visitors as Hikkaduwa is a major
tourist resort with about 150 hotels along the sea front. There are at least three dive operators
(Hughes, 1985), organised boat tours, and excursions in glass-bottom boats (Jonklaas, 1981).
Scientific Research and Facilities These are the only reefs in Sri Lanka which have received
detailed biological study (Mergner and Scheer, 1974), and in 1985 they were surveyed by the
National Aquatic Resources Agency. They were once visited by a student cruise ship (Jonklaas,
1981), but educational use of the reefs has since lapsed (R.D.A. Burge, pers. comm., 1986).
Conservation Value Hikkaduwa is of high scientific and recreational value. Rocky Islets was
originally protected for its seabird colonies (De Silva and Rajasuriya, 1985).
Conservation Management There is no management plan, but it has been recommended that
the area should be managed as a marine park, rather than sanctuary, with two zones for general
use, one of which would cover Rocky Islets Sanctuary, and one for research (De Silva and
Rajasuriya, 1985). Other recommendations are made by Jonklaas (1981).
The sanctuary is not protected. Its boundaries were once demarcated by two buoys but these
were swept away and have not been replaced since 1966 (De Silva and Rajasuriya, 1985).
Supervision of the sanctuary should be the responsibility of the village council under the
Department of Wildlife Conservation but there is currently no wardening (S.M. Wells, pers.
comm., 1986). A sign in the grounds of the Coral Gardens Hotel indicates that spearfishing,
and coral and shell collecting are prohibited. In early 1986, some fishermen using dynamite
were apprehended as a result of action taken by one of the commercial diving operators. The
Teserve is mentioned in tourist leaflets but otherwise is not publicised (Hughes, 1985).
Management Constraints Reefs in the lee of Rocky Islets Sanctuary were intact and flour-
ishing in 1981, but there was some damage from recreational activities (Jonklaas, 1981). Fish
collecting was taking place in the 1970s and Salm (1975b) noted a paucity of small, colourful
reef fish of the type caught extensively for the aquarium trade. Visitor impact on the reefs may
not be severe but damage to corals by breakage is evident (Hughes, 1985). Coral is damaged
by boats, through anchoring and pollution in the reef lagoon. Damage to coral has also been
recorded adjacent to a freshwater outlet polluted by coconut husk retting (De Silva and
Rajasuriya, 1985). The reefs have apparently been stripped of shells; local shops, hotels and
people sell both shells and corals (Jonklaas, 1981) although corals no longer seem to be sold on
the beach (S.M. Wells, pers. comm., 1986); spiny lobster has also been overcollected by
glass-bottom boat operators for sale to customers on board (De Silva, 1985). Spearfishing is
common (Hughes, 1985) and the larger territorial fish are said to be scarce (Jonklaas, 1981).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Seabirds no longer visit Rocky Islets Sanctuary due to excessive numbers of visitors. Coral
quarrying is extensive in the region and many of the buildings use crushed corals as hard standing
(Hughes, 1985); erosion of the coast is becoming a serious problem.
Staff None
Budget No information
Local Addresses None
References
De Silva, M.W.R.N. (1985). Status of the coral reefs of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 5th
International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti 6: 515-518.
De Silva, M.W.R.N. and Rajasuriya, A. (1985). Management plans for the proposed marine park
at Hikkaduwa. Paper presented at 41st Annual Session of Sri Lanka Association for Advance-
ment of Science, 9-13 December.
Jonklaas, R. (1981). Hikkaduwa Reef Sanctuary. Loris 15: 293-294.
Hughes, T.G. (1985). Report to IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre on trip to Sri Lanka.
Unpublished. 11 pp.
Mergner, H. and Scheer, G. (1974). The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of
some south Indian and Ceylon reefs. Proceedings of the 2nd International Coral Reef
Symposium, Brisbane 2: 3-30.
Salm, R.V. (1975a). Critical marine habitats of the northern Indian Ocean, including Sri Lanka,
Western India and Pakistan. Unpublished report.
Salm, R.V. (1975b). A preliminary survey of existing and potential marine parks and reserve sites
in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Paper distributed at the IUCN Regional Meeting on Marine
Parks and Reserves, Teheran, 1975.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 327-329.
Date May 1986, updated December 1988
HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies about 32km south of Nuwara Eliya in the Central Highlands of
Central Province. 6°47’-6°50’N, 80°46’-80°50’E
Date and History of Establishment Upgraded to national park status on 16 March 1988,
having previously been created a nature reserve on 5 December 1969. Like other catchments
in the hills, the area had previously received some protection under an administrative order issued
in 1873, which prohibited clearing and felling of forests above 5,000 ft (1,524m). This was
based on the advice of the botanist Sir Joseph Hooker, who urged the then Colonial Government
"to leave all Montane Forests above 5000 ft. undisturbed" (Wijewansa, 1983). The place is
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Sri Lanka
named after Sir Robert Horton, a former British Governor, who travelled to the area to meet the
Ratemahatmaya of Sabaragamuwa Province in about 1836 (Anderson, 1982).
Area 3,160ha. Adjoins the eastern edge of Peak Wilderness Sanctuary (22,380ha).
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from about 1,800m to 2,389m at the top of Kirigalpota. The plateau, at
2,100m, is the highest tableland in Sri Lanka.
Physical Features Horton Plains comprises a gently undulating highland plateau at the
southern end of the central mountain massif of Sri Lanka. It is dominated to the north by Mount
Totupolakanda (2,357m) and to the west by Mount Kirigalpota (2,389m), Sri Lanka’s third and
second largest peaks, respectively. Tributaries of three major rivers originate from within the
reserve, the Mahaweli Ganga flowing to the north, the Kaleni Ganga to the west and Walawe to
the south. Belihul Oya, a small stream feeding the Walawe, tumbles over a cliff as a large and
spectacular waterfall. Rocks are of Archaean age, belonging to the high series of the pre-Cam-
brian, and include khondalites (metasediments) and charnokites. They have been subject to
folding and plication on a vast scale in pre-Cambrian times (Jayasekera, 1970). The red-yellow
podzols are characterised by a thick, black, organic layer at the surface (Wijewansa, 1983).
Climate Annual rainfall in the region is about 2540mm (Wijewansa, 1983), but for Horton
Plains may exceed 5000mm (Rotnayeke and Balasubramaniam, 1989). Rain occurs throughout
most of the year but there is a dry season from January to March. Temperatures are low, with
an annual mean temperature of 13°C, and ground frost is common in February (Silva, 1982).
Vegetation The plateau supports grassland fringed and interspersed with patches of dense
montane cloud forest. The forest canopy grows to about 20m and is dominated by the endemic
keena Calophyllum walkeri, in association with varieties of Myrtaceae (Syzygium rotundifolium
and S. sclerophyllum) and Lauraceae (Litsea, Cinnamomum and Actinodaphne speciosa).
Strobilanthes spp. (Acanthaceae) dominate the undergrowth, except when in competition with
dwarf bamboo (Indocalamus and Ochlandra spp.). The dense nature of Strobilanthes vegetation
inhibits the development of a herb layer. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa bushes characteristically grow
along the forest margins and near the summits of mountains. “Patnas’ or plains vegetation occurs
above 1,500m. Tussock grasses, such as Chrysopogon zeylanicus and Cymbopogon conferti-
florus, predominate except in damp hollows where pure stands of Chimonobambusa
(Arundinaria) densifolia have developed. A rich herbaceous flora flourishes on the patnas with
numerous species of both temperate (e.g. Ranunculus, Pedicularis, Senecio, Gentiana and
Alchemilla) and tropical (e.g. Eriocaulon and the rare endemic daffodil orchid [psea speciosa)
origin. Gordonia sp. and Rhododendron arboreum, now common on the plateau, have spread
to Sri Lanka via the mountains of southern India from the Himalayas (Werner and Schweinfurth,
1985). Ratnayeke and Balasubramanian (1989) have recorded 54 woody species, of which 27
(50%) are endemic to Sri Lanka, 21 (39%) are restricted to the forests of South India and Sri
Lanka, and the remaining six species (11%) are ubiquitous to the forests of South-East Asia.
The cloud forest features a number of wild relatives of cultivated plants, such as pepper, guava,
tobacco and cardamon.
The origin of the montane grasslands has long been debated (Chambers, 1980), some workers
(Pearson, 1899; Holmes, 1951; Werner, 1982; Wijewansa, 1983) opining that the grasslands are
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
an artificial community created by forest clearance and maintained by burning, while others
(Szechowycz, 1954; Rosayro, 1961; Hoffmann, 1987) consider them to be the natural vegetation
of these uplands. Such opposing views are to some extent reconciled by Perera (1969) who
maintains that the grasslands comprise several communities, those of dry slopes having been
created by forest clearance and maintained by burning and grazing, and those of depressions
being natural communities where conditions are too wet to allow the development of forest.
Frost and soil erosion may be additional limiting factors (Werner, 1982).
Fauna Elephant Elephas maximus (E) disappeared from the region some 50 years ago, or
earlier. Mammals which still occur in reasonable numbers include Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew
Feroculus feroculus (a monotypic genus endemic to the montane regions of Sri Lanka), slender
loris Loris tardigradus (absent from neighbouring Peak Wilderness Sanctuary), endemic toque
macaque Macaca sinica, purple-faced langur Presbytis vetulus, rusty-spotted cat Felis rubigi-
nosus, fishing cat F. viverrinus, leopard Panthera pardus (T) (estimated at 30 individuals), wild
boar Sus scrofa, otter Lutra lutra, stripe-necked mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Indian spotted
chevrotain Tragulus meminna, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor and
long-tailed giant squirrel Ratufa macroura (Werner and Schweinfurth, 1985; Wilson, 1988).
The contiguous areas of Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Horton Plains National Park contain
all 21 bird species endemic to Sri Lanka, of which the following are recorded only for Horton
Plains: Sri Lanka blue magpie Kitta ornata, dusky blue flycatcher Muscicapa sordida, Sri Lanka
white-eye Zosterops ceylonensis and Sri Lanka wood pigeon Columba torringtoni (Werer and
Schweinfurth, 1985). Other endemics include Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloperdix bicalcarata, Sri
Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, yellow-fronted barbet Pycnontus penicillatus, rufous bab-
bler Turoides rufescens, Palliser’s warbler Bradypterus palliseri and Bligh’s whistling thrush
Myiophoneus blighi (J.D.N. Banks, pers. comm., 1986). Numerous birds overwinter in the
highlands, migrating from Europe and northern Asia. Swiftlet Collocalia sp. and Alpine swift
can be seen circling over the patnas, as can various raptors such as crested serpent eagle Spilornis
cheela and mountain hawk eagle Spizaetus nipalensis, black-winged kite Elanus caeruleus,
peregrine Falco peregrinus, and various species of harriers and buzzards.
Among reptiles are snake Aspidura brachyorrhos and the widespread agamid Calotus nigrila-
bris.
The only fish is the introduced rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. The distribution of the endemic
freshwater shrimp Caridina singhalensis is believed to be confined to a 10km stretch of river
within the park (Silva, 1982).
Cultural Heritage Stone tools dating back to the Balangoda culture of prehistoric times have
been found in the area. The Sinhalese settled in the lowlands up to an altitude of 700m,
sometimes frequenting higher altitudes to dig for gems or iron ore, graze cattle, construct
irrigation canals and fell trees for timber. Several patnas existed at that time in regions above
1,800m (W. Baker, cited in Werner, 1982).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Accommodation is available at Ginihiriya (Anderson) Lodge
and Farr Inn (an old hunting lodge built by Thomas Farr early this century and now run by the
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Sri Lanka
Ceylon Hotels Corporation), and there is a rest house belonging to the Department of Wildlife
Conservation. Camping and fishing is allowed on a permit basis.
Scientific Research and Facilities Faunal studies include research on purple-faced langur
(Rudran, 1979) and freshwater shrimp (Silva, 1982). The structure of the vegetation and
die-back phenomenon has been examined by Werner (1988) and Ratnayeke and Balasubrama-
niam (1989).
Conservation Value Horton Plains, its surrounding forests and the adjoining Peak Wilderness,
constitute Sri Lanka’s most important catchment area. The plains are also of outstanding scenic
beauty and conservation importance, containing most of the habitats and endemic plants and
animals representative of the country’s wet and montane zones (Hoffmann, 1987). The western
slopes support the most extensive area of montane cloud forest surviving in the country (Wemer
and Schweinfurth, 1985).
Conservation Management Horton Plains formed part of a large system of similar plains and
dense forest including the Bopats, Agrapatnas, and Moon and Elk plains, which were discovered
by British residents at the beginning of the last century. Between 1831 and independence in
1948, Horton Plains became hunting grounds for sambar and, to a lesser extent, elephant and
wild boar. During this time the lower slopes were gradually cleared and converted to coffee and
subsequently tea plantations; Horton Plains and Peak Wilderness are now isolated by a contigu-
ous belt of plantations and settlements. In the late 1960s the Department of Agriculture
established an extensive seed potato farm. About half of the open plains were under potato
cultivation by 1977, when the farm was closed down. Potato fields have since reverted to
grassland but former land use practices remain evident (Hoffmann, 1987). Following the recent
upgrading of Horton Plains to national park status, there are plans to re-introduce the elephant
(Wilson, 1988).
Management Constraints A fairly recent phenomenon, first observed in Totupolakanda and
reported by Perera (1978), is the dying of the cloud forest on all peripheral aspects of the plateau
(Ratnayeke and Balasubramaniam, 1989). This has reached serious proportions, with a 50%
reduction of forest cover in some places (Hoffmann, 1988a). Water deficit is believed to be the
main cause of the die-back, droughts having become noticeably more frequent during the last
few decades. Regeneration of cloud forest is impeded by frost, which may be becoming
increasingly more severe (Werner, 1988; Ratnayeke and Balasubramaniam, 1989). Other
problems include increasing disturbance from visitors, poaching deer for meat, increased
gemming around Governor’s Pool, annual fires caused by miscreants and localised spread of
introduced exotics such as black wattle Acacia mollissima (Hoffmann, 1987, 1988a; Wilson,
1988).
Staff One park warden, one deputy park warden, two wildlife range assistants, eight wildlife
guards and ten ancillary staff, housed since the 1970s in the old potato plantation workers
buildings.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Park Warden, Horton Plains National Park, Ohiya, via Haputala
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References
Anderson, G. (1946). Horton Plains. Loris 4: 307-308. (Unseen)
Anderson, G. (1982). Horton Plains. Loris 16: 7.
Chambers, M.R. (1980). Horton Plains - to bum or not to burn. Loris 15: 181-183.
Gramen, L.H. (1977). The significance of the indigenous flora in the areas of the Mahaweli
complex. Sri Lanka Forester 13: 9-18.
Hoffmann, T. (1986). Horton Plains: bring back the elephants. Sri Lanka Wildlife 3/4: 13.
Hoffmann, T. (1987). The Horton Plains. Unpublished report. 6 pp.
Hoffmann, T. (1988a). Horton Plains. Unpublished report. 3 pp.
Hoffmann, T. (1988b). Report on the southern and western boundaries of the Peak Wilderness
Sanctuary. Unpublished report to Secretary, Ministry of State. 10 pp.
Holmes, C.H. (1951). The grass, fern and savannah lands of Ceylon. Their nature and ecological
significance. Paper No. 28. Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Jayasekera, R.D.B. (1970). Horton Plains. Loris 12: 79-81.
Pearson, H.W. (1899). The botany of the Ceylon montane grasslands. Journal of the Linnaean
Society 34: 300-325 and 35: 430-463.
Perera, W.R.H. (1978). Thotupolakanda - an environmental disaster? Sri Lanka Forester 13:
53-55.
Ratnayeke, S. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1989). The structure and floristic composition of the
montane forest in the Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. Institute of Fundamental Studies, Colombo, Sri
Lanka. Unpublished report. 14 pp.
Rosayro, de R.A. (1961). The nature and origin of secondary vegetational communities in Ceylon.
Ceylon Forester 5: 23-49.
Rudran, R. (1970). Aspects of the ecology of two subspecies of purple-faced langurs (Prebytis
senex). M.Sc. thesis, University of Ceylon, Colombo. 211 pp. (Unseen)
Rudran, R. (1979). Whoops! Animal Kingdom 82(5): 19-22.
Silva, de K.H.G. (1982). Aspects of the ecology and conservation of Sri Lanka’s endemic freshwater
shrimp Caridina singhalensis. Biological Conservation 24: 219-231.
Szechowycz, R.W. (1954). Some observations on climate, soil and forest climax. Ceylon Forester
1: 131-141.
Werner, W.L. (1982). The upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Forester 15: 119-129.
Werner, W.L. (1988). Canopy dieback in the upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka. Geo Journal
17: 245-248.
Werner, W.L. and Schweinfurth, U. (1985). Naturreservate im Hochland der Insel Ceylon (Sri
Lanka): Peak Wildemess und Horton Plains. Natur und Museum 115: 65-76.
Wijewansa, R.A. (1983). Horton Plains: a plea for preservation. Loris 16: 188-191.
Wilson, J. (1988). Sri Lanka declares a new national park. Oryx 22: 193-194.
Date May 1986, updated September 1990
HURULU FOREST RESERVE
IUCN Management Category VIII and IX (Multiple Use Management Area and Biosphere
Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies within Hurulu Forest between mile posts 120 and 122, along the
Trincomalee-Colombo main road in North Central Province. 08°05’-08°20’N, 80°47’-80°55’E
220
Sri Lanka
Date and History of Establishment Part of the forest reserve was declared a biosphere reserve
in January 1977.
Area The 512ha biosphere reserve is surrounded by some 25,500ha of forest reserve.
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from 90m to 150m.
Physical Features The terrain of the forest reserve is flat to gently undulating and forms a
long, shallow basin between discontinuous parallel ridges to the east and west. Main rock types
are crystalline limestones, quartzites and charnockites. The whole of the central basin is drained
by the Alut Oya, Halmilla Oya and Gal Oya (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 1600mm. Mean annual temperature is 27.3°C.
Vegetation The forest reserve contains tropical dry evergreen forest, with a typically layered
structure comprising an upper canopy of moderately large trees, a sub-canopy and a distinct herb
layer. The upper canopy is comparatively dense, about 15-20m in height and interrupted at
intervals by emergents, of which satin Chloroxylon swietenia and palu Manilkara hexandra are
typical. Other common species are wira Hemicyclia sepiaria, which comprises about 30% of
the trees in the forest, ebony Diospyros ebenum, penela Sapindus emarginatus, kuma Glenica
unijuga, welang Pterospermum canescens, milla Vitex pinnata and halmilla Berrya cordifolia.
The sub-canopy is characterised by species such as korakaha Memecyclon spp., kunumella
Diospyros ovalifolia and weliwenna Dimorphocalyx glabellus (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 1986).
Some 17 shrub species have been identified, together with 41 herbaceous species, of which the
orchid Dendrobium maccarthiae is noteworthy.
Fauna Mammals include pygmy white-toothed shrew Suncus etruscus, common langur
Presbytis entellus, endemic toque macaque Macaca sinica, loris Loris tardigradus, sloth bear
Melursus ursinus (1), jackal Canis aureus, rusty-spotted cat Felis rubiginosus, Indian fishing cat
F. viverrina, Indian grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsi, Indian brown mongoose H. fuscus,
ruddy mongoose H. smithi, leopard Panthera pardus (T), elephant Elephas maximus (E), water
buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E), wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar
Cervus unicolor, spotted deer C. axis, porcupine Hystrix indica, pangolin Manis crassicaudata,
black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis and bandicoot rat Bandicota sp. (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1986).
The avifauna includes mainly forest species such as endemic Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus
lafayettei, rare rufous woodpecker Micropternus brachyurus, endemic spurfowl Galloperdix
bicalcarata, blue-faced malkoha Rhopodytes viridirostris, raquet-tailed drongo Dicrurus para-
diseus, grey hornbill Tockus griseus and Malabar pied hornbill Anthracocerus coronatus (M.
Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The reserve is uninhabited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
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Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The forest fauna includes a variety of endemic birds.
Conservation Management The site is partially protected under the provisions of the Forest
Ordinance. The forest reserve surrounding the biosphere reserve acts as a buffer zone. About
3,000ha of the forest reserve has been replanted with exotic teak Tectona grandis and Eucalyptus
camaludensis and the indigenous margosa Azaradicta indica (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Management Constraints Areas within the reserve have been logged and are subject to chena
(shifting cultivation).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, North Central Division, Trincomalee
References
Bharathie, K.P. (1979). Man and biosphere reserves in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester 14: 37-40.
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1986). Biosphere reserves. Compilation 4. Unesco, Paris.
Pes55:
Date August 1986, updated December 1988
KALAMETIYA KALAPUWA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.02.01 (Ceylonese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies on the south coast, about 20km west of Hambantota, Hambantota
District, Southern Province. 6°05’-6°06’N, 80°56’-80°59’E
Date and History of Establishment Renotified a sanctuary on 28 June 1984 after a prolonged
campaign by conservation bodies, having originally been declared a sanctuary in 1940 and
subsequently de-notified in 1946 because of opposition from local people.
Area 712ha
Land Tenure The lagoons are state owned; surrounding areas are partly state owned and partly
private.
Altitude Sea level
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Sri Lanka
Physical Features The wetland comprises two coastal lagoons west of the mouth of the
Walawe Ganga. Lunama Kalapuwa is a brackish lagoon with extensive mangrove swamps;
Kalametiya Kalapuwa is a permanent, slightly brackish lagoon with abundant aquatic vegetation
and a mangrove fringe. Both are fed by several small streams, and have maximum depths of
2-3m.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
Vegetation Includes mangrove swamps at both lagoons, and reed beds and abundant sub-
merged aquatic vegetation at Kalametiya Kalapuwa. The mangrove vegetation at Kalametiya
is in good condition, with a full range of successional stages. There are rice paddies, other
cultivated land, grassland, scrub and coconut plantations in surrounding areas.
Fauna Kalametiya Kalapuwa supports breeding colonies of pelicans, herons, egrets, and
open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans, and large wintering populations of migratory ducks and
shorebirds. It is the only place in Sri Lanka where glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus has been
regularly reported in recent years. A flock of 26 was observed in 1982, and smaller numbers
have been reported on several occasions since then. Some 5,000 ducks were recorded in January
1983, but few were present in the following year, presumably because of heavy hunting pressure.
Waterfowl recorded during mid-winter censuses in 1986, 1987 and 1988 included 560 herons
and egrets of nine species (mainly cattle egret Bubulcus ibis and little egret Egretta garzetta)
and 2,000 garganey Anas querquedula, 1,000 American golden plover Pluvalis dominica and
1,000 Mongolian plover Charadrius mongolus. Atleast 17 other species of migratory shorebirds
have been recorded in small numbers.
Lunama Kalapuwa is also an important wintering area for migratory ducks and shorebirds,
although numbers are usually much smaller than at Kalametiya. Waterfowl recorded during
mid-winter censuses in January 1987 and January 1988 included 1,200 garganey, along with
small numbers of five species of herons and egrets, 13 species of migratory shorebirds and four
species of terns.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Activities include fishing, especially for prawns, shifting cultiva-
tion, rice cultivation and excavation of shells in adjacent areas. The lagoons formerly supported
important prawn fisheries, but these have declined in recent years.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The nearest accommodation is at Tangalla, some 16km distant.
Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl censuses have been carried out in
recent years. The Ministry of Fisheries maintains a circuit bungalow at the nearby village of
Gurupokuna.
Conservation Value Both Kalametiya Kalapuwa, in particular, and Lunama Kalapuwa are
important wetlands for both resident and migratory waterfowl.
Conservation Management No information
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Management Constraints The area of open water in both lagoons has decreased by more than
50% during the past 30 years, mainly because of siltation. Further growth of mangroves at
Kalametiya has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats include disturbance from
fishing activities, excavation of mollusc shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice
cultivation, and pollution by pesticides originating from the agricultural Walawe Development
Scheme to the north. Excessive hunting was reported to be a problem prior to re-notification of
the Sanctuary in 1984.
During the late 1950s or early 1960s, excess freshwater from Uda Walawe Reservoir was
diverted into Kalametiya Kalapuwa. Subsequently, a groyne and canal were constructed to
ensure drainage of water from the lagoon into the sea. As a result, the salinity was permanently
depressed and the recruitment of penaeid prawn post-larvae and fish severely obstructed. The
fishery that existed prior to these changes collapsed, and now fishing is only a marginally
important subsistence activity.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date September 1990
KOKILAI SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated on the north-east coast, south-east of Nayaru Lagoon and
north-west of Pulmoddai, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts, Northern and Eastern provinces.
8°56’-9°03’N, 80°52’-80°58’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 18 May 1951.
Area Full Supply Level (approximately 2,995ha)
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features Kokilai is a large estuarine lagoon with extensive seagrass beds and some
small patches of mangrove swamp and mudflats, particularly along the western and southem
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shores. The lagoon is fed by several small streams and is linked to the sea by a narrow, seasonally
tidal channel. For much of the year the channel is blocked by a sand bar. The maximum depth
near the mouth of the channel is about four metres. The water is brackish, with the salinity
increasing to about 30 p.p.t. seasonally.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
Vegetation There are extensive seagrass beds and some mangrove swamps. The lagoon is
surrounded by cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest.
Fauna Waterfowl include pelicans, cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, ducks and migratory
shorebirds, but no recent information is available. The lagoon was once famous as a wintering
area for large numbers of greater flamingos Phoenicopterus ruber.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The lagoon is situated in a densely populated region with many
small villages. Activities include prawn fishing, rice cultivation and some shifting cultivation
in surrounding areas.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The lagoon is known to be a very important site for a wide variety of
waterfowl.
Conservation Management The degree of protection is reportedly very low.
Management Constraints In some years, the connection with the sea remains permanently
blocked by a sand bar, preventing recruitment of penaeid post-larvae. Regular marinal breaching
is required to sustain shrimp productivity. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the
adjacent patches of forest are being cleared for cultivation. The lagoon supports a major prawn
fishery.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date September 1990
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LAHUGALA KITULANA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the basin of the Heda Oya, 16km inland from the coastal town
of Pottuvil in Eastern Province. The Pottuvil-Moneragala trunk road runs through the south-
eastern sector of the park. 6°53’-6°55’N, 81°40’-81°42’E
Date and History of Establishment Created a national park on 31 October 1980, having
originally been established as a sanctuary on 1 July 1966.
Area 1,554ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features The terrain is flat with occasional rock outcrops. The park features three
tanks, Lahugala (243ha), Kitulana and Sengamuwa, which ultimately drain into the Heda Oya.
These tanks are largely silted up and support an abundance of beru grass.
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 1650mm (McKay, 1973). There are two dry periods: from
May to October and from mid-January to March. The north-east monsoon lasts from November
to the end of December (Banks and Banks, 1985).
Vegetation Lying in the dry zone, the vegetation surrounding the tanks is dry mixed evergreen
forest with scrub. Common species include weera Drypetes sepiaria, palu Manilkara hexandra,
halmilla Berrya cordifolia, milla Vitex pinnata, satin Chloroxylon swietenia and ehala Cassia
fistula. Beru Sacciopelsis interrupta, a tall reedy grass, covers the tanks. Rivers are fringed by
gallery forest.
Fauna Lahugala is traditionally used as a feeding ground by elephant Elephas maximus (E).
Herds of up to 150, attracted by the beru grass, were a common sight at Lahugala Tank during
July and August in the 1980s (G.V. Samarkoon, pers. comm.). Other mammals include endemic
toque macaque Macaca sinica, common langur Presbytis entellus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus
(I), jackal Canis aureus, rusty-spotted cat Felis rubiginosa, fishing cat F. viverrina, leopard
Panthera pardus (T), wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, spotted deer
Cervus axis, sambar C. unicolor, pangolin Manis crassicaudata and black-naped hare Lepus
nigricollis.
The avifauna is diverse and includes a variety of waterfowl, and the usual dry zone forest birds.
Wetland species include pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus, purple heron Ardea purpurea, painted
stork Mycteria leucocephala, lesser adjutant stork Leptoptilos javanicus, teal Anas sp., white-
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Sri Lanka
bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster, grey-headed fishing eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus,
common kingfisher Alcedo atthis, stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis and white-
breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis. The last recorded sighting of comb duck Sarkidiornis
melanota, now thought to be extinct in Sri Lanka, was at Lahugala (Banks and Banks, 1985).
Other birds include the rare red-faced malkoha Phoenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus and the
endemic Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloperdix bicalcarata.
Amphibians include frogs such as the endemic Bufo athukoralei, Rana limnocharis, Rhacopho-
rus maculatus, Kaloula pulchra and Microhyla rubra. Noteworthy reptiles include python
Python molurus (V), rat snake Pytas mucosus, flying snakes Chrysopelea spp., cat snakes Boiga
spp., whip snakes Dryophis spp. and Russell’s viper Vipera russelli (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1986).
Cultural Heritage Nearby is the historic site of Magulmahavihara, built for the occasion of
King Kavantissas’ marriage to Vihavamaha Devi.
Local Human Population None within the park, but there is a small settlement on the
boundary.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Accommodation was available at Lahugala Lodge, but this has
been destroyed during the recent civil unrest. Other accommodation can be found at Pottuvil.
Scientific Research and Facilities Some research on elephant ecology and behaviour was
conducted in 1967-1969, as part of the Smithsonian Institute’s elephant study programme
(McKay, 1973).
Conservation Value The park constitutes one of Sri Lanka’s smallest but most valuable
conservation areas for elephants and endemic birds.
Conservation Management It is proposed to create jungle corridors to link Lahugala with Gal
Oya and Yala East national parks.
Management Constraints Poaching, timber extraction for house construction, fuelwood
collection and grazing by livestock persist on a limited scale (Department of Wildlife Conser-
vation, pers. comm., 1990; Katugaha, 1982). A major potential threat is the proposed Heda Oya
Scheme and development of the lower Uva Basin, which will result in an expansion of cultivated
land and further isolate the park and its elephant population (Hoffmann, 1977).
Staff Twenty staff, headed by a ranger (1985)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Park Warden, Lahugala, Amparai District
References
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). Lahugala National Park. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo. Unpub-
lished fact sheet. 1 pp.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1977). Major threat to oldest wildlife reserve. Loris 14: 133-137.
Katugaha, H.L.E. (1982). Lahugala revisited. Loris 16: 64, 65, 102.
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McKay, G.M. (1973). Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon.
Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 125: 1-109.
Date May 1986, updated September 1990
MADURU OYA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location The park lies between the Polonnaruwa-Batticaloa road and Mahiy-
angana-Padiyatalawa road in the districts of Amparai, Badulla and Polonnaruwa and spans the
border between Eastern and Uva provinces. It is surrounded on the west and north by Mahaweli
development areas and on the south and east by teak plantations and jungle, which is subjected
to repeated slash-and-burn practices. Main access, from the north, is 25km by road from
Mannampitiya, located on the Polonnaruwa-Batticaloa highway. 7°23’-7°35’N, 81°05’-
81°20°E
Date and History of Establishment Notified a national park on 9 November 1983 (Gazette
No. 270/9) under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, having been acquired from crown
lands pursuant to the Mahaweli Authority Act, 1979.
Area 58,850ha. The park was extended in the east from its original size of 51,468ha on
16 September 1985 (Gazette No. 367/3) in order to provide additional habitat for wildlife and
to ensure protection of the immediate catchment of the NDK reservoir. It is proposed to link
the park with Gal Oya National Park (25,900ha) in the south via Nilgala Jungle Corridor
(10,360ha).
Land Tenure State
Altitude Most of the park lies between 30m and 150m. Maximum altitude is 685m.
Physical Features Degradation of the pre-Cambrian rock has resulted in the formation of a
mature mantled and undulating peneplain, broken by a number of prominent remnants of erosion
(rock outcrops and ridges). The dominant topographic feature is the 8km-long range of rocky
mountains in the south-west of the park. The geological regime comprises alluvium deposits
and Miocene limestone. Red earth, relatively fertile but easily eroded, is the predominant soil
type. Waterbodies, constituting over 15% of the park, include the Maduru Oya (6,100ha),
Ulhitiya (2,300ha), Ratkinda (1,100ha), NDK (800ha) and Henanegala (700ha) reservoirs and
tributaries of the Mahaweli and Maduru Oya river systems (MEP/DWLC, 1985, 1987a).
Climate Conditions are influenced largely by the north-east monsoon, or Maha, which lasts
from October to late-January. Mean annual rainfall is 1650mm. Annual evapotranspiration
rates normally exceed precipitation levels. Mean annual temperature is about 27°C
(MEP/DWLC, 1987a).
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Sri Lanka
Vegetation The park is located entirely within Sri Lanka’s dry zone, although its southern edge
borders on the intermediate zone. The climax community of the area is tropical dry mixed
evergreen forest, characterised by weera Drypetes sepiaria, buruta (satin) Chloroxylon sweite-
nia, palu Manilkara hexandra, velang Pterospermum canescens, divul (wood apple) Feronia
limonia, ehela Cassia fistula and weliwenna Dimorphocalyx glabellus. However, a major part
of the forest within the park had been heavily exploited in the past for shifting cultivation. This
has resulted in areas of secondary vegetation and vast stretches of open plains, dominated by
the grasses illuk Jmperata cylindrica, guinea grass Panicum maximum and Pennisetum species.
The herbaceous stage is succeeded by shrubs, such as Lantana camara, Ziziphus species and
Cassia auriculata. The thicket stage is characterised by Trema rientalis. Among the first trees
to appear is Pterospermum canescens, followed by Drypetes sepiaria and Manilkara hexandra.
Madura Oya Dam is surrounded by parkland, maintained by periodic fires. A rare and endemic
tree Vatica obscura, the only species of the Dipterocarpaceae to occur in the dry zone, is found
in restricted locations on the banks of the Maduru Oya and Gallodai Aru. A large plantation of
teak Tectona grandis, an exotic, is included in the north-eastern part of the park (M. Jansen,
pers. comm., 1985; MEP/DWLC, 1987a).
Fauna The park is important for its rich wildlife, which includes a variety of endemic species.
Threatened species of mammal include elephant Elephas maximus (E), of which there were
150-250 prior to the park’s establishment, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), leopard Panthera
pardus (T) and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E). Other mammals include slender loris Loris
tardigradus, toque macaque Macaca sinica, a Sri Lankan endemic, common langur Presbytis
entellus, jackal Canis aureus, fishing cat Felis viverrina, wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac
Muntiacus muntjak, spotted deer Cervus axis and sambar C. unicolor. Small mammals include
porcupine Hystrix indica, black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis, Indian pangolin Manis crassicau-
data, squirrels, rats and mice. The rich aquatic avifauna includes painted stork Mycteria
leucocephala, white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster, grey pelican Pelecanus philip-
pensis, great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo and little cormorant P. niger. Noteworthy forest
species are the endemic Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, the rare broad-billed roller
Eurystomus orientalis (possibly the only location in the dry zone), common tailor-bird Ortho-
tomus sutorius, shama Copsychus malabaricus, black-hooded oriole Oriolus xanthornus and
woodpecker Dendrocopos nanus. Red-faced malkoha Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus, en-
demic to Sri Lanka and S. India, is also present. Reptiles include tortoise Geochelone elegans,
common monitor Varanus bengalensis, water monitor V. salvator, python Python molurus (V),
krait Bungarus spp., common cobra Naja naja, mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) and estuarine
crocodile C. porosus (E). Of fishes, barbs Barbus spp., giant gourami Osphronemus goramy
(possibly introduced), snakeheads Channa spp., catfish (Siluriformes) and tilapia Tilapia
mossambica (an exotic) are predominant in the reservoirs (M. Jansen, 1984; M. Jansen, pers.
comm., 1985; MEP/DWLC, 1987a).
Cultural Heritage Ruins at Henanigala, Kudawila, Gurukumbura, Uluketangoda, Werapoku-
na and several other places include ancient Buddhist shrines, temples, dagobas, statues and
hermitages from different eras in Sri Lankan history. An ancient sluice on the old breached
earthen bund of the Maduru Oya was discovered recently. The sluice, consisting of stone slabs
and bricks, is about 30ft high, 30ft wide and 219ft long. The upper sluice was built in two stages,
the first of which dates back to before the 6th century BC. The lower sluice is believed to be
even older. Another ancient bund, known as Watawala Kandiya, is situated 23km south of the
Maduru Oya Dam. Ruins of an ancient dewalaya are at Verapokuna in the south. Early Brahmin
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inscriptions, from the first to third century BC, have been discovered at Kandegamakanda
(MEP/DWLC, 1985).
Veddas, aboriginals, numbering less than a thousand people, lived in Kandeganwela, Kotatala-
wa, Dambana and other places in the park prior to its declaration. The temple of Mahiyangana,
of great religious significance to the Veddas, is located outside the park. The Veddas, believed
to have descended from King Vijaya and Queen Kuwana, were present in Sri Lanka long before
the arrival of the Sinhalese from India in 543 BC. Traditionally hunters and gatherers, they have
increasingly relied on small scale cultivations for their livelihood (MEP/DWLC, 1985; Hemi-
priya, 1985). Families living at Dambana have retained a traditional lifestyle to some extent
(Uragoda, 1969).
Local Human Population A few Vedda families still reside in the south-west of the park.
Legal action has been taken and it is likely that they will be resettled in the Mahaweli area
(Department of Wildlife Conservation, pers. comm., 1990).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is due to be opened to the public shortly (Department
of Wildlife Conservation, pers. comm., 1990). A full range of visitor facilities and accommo-
dation are nearing completion.
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of the elephant population under WWF/IUCN
Project 1783 (Ishwaran, 1985) were instrumental in the park’s establishment. An environmental
impact assessment, sponsored by US-AID, has been carried out by TAMS (1980). Further
research requirements, as applied to management, have been identified (MEP/DWLC, 1985).
The Open University of Colombo and the Eastern University, Batticaloa, are conducting studies
on the flora and fauna (Scott, 1989), and the Department of Wildlife Conservation on the
avifauna (S.R.B. Dissanayaka, pers. comm., 1990). Some facilities for scientists are available
at Kandeganwila.
Conservation Value As well as providing a refuge for wildlife, particularly elephants, this
new park is designed to protect the immediate catchments of five reservoirs, developed under
the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme. Conservation of these catchments is crucial to the
success of the project.
Conservation Management A draft management plan was prepared in October 1985
(MEP/DWLC, 1985) and subsequently revised during a series of planning and development
workshops, culminating in a final plan in June 1987 (MEP, DWLC, 1987a). Objectives extend
beyond maintaining biological diversity and water quality and quantity to habitat enrichment,
reforestation, developing waterholes in dry areas and reducing exotic fauna and flora, notably
teak and Salvinia. Socio-economic objectives include developing visitor facilities, expanding
the conservation education programme within the local community and providing it with benefits
from the park. The park consists of a complex of ecosystems, both natural and man-modified,
and has been divided into natural, cultural resource and development zones, with a surrounding
buffer zone to facilitate management. Plans to develop the administrative infrastructure are
based on the park’s division into three management units, two of which (Ulhitiya and Bogama)
will be administered from new ranger stations. The third, Madura Oya Range, will be admin-
istered from park headquarters, to be established just south of the complex built to service the
construction of the dam and now occupied by the army (MEP/DWLC, 1987b). Once military
230
Sri Lanka
use of the area ceases, it is proposed that this facility is returned to MEP/DWLC control
(MEP/DWLC, 1987a).
Management Constraints An increase in spontaneous colonisation of land in the park by
persons hoping to obtain title deeds to land under the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme resulted
in considerable disturbance to the wildlife. Forests were cut and burned, cash crops grown and
homes built in the park. The squatters, numbering about 1,500, have since been moved to newly
established Mahaweli settlements (Jansen, 1984). As part of the Accelerated Mahaweli Pro-
gramme, 70 Vedda families from the villages of Kandeganwila, Kotabankina, Keragoda and
Koteyaya have been resettled nearby at Henangala (Hemapriya, 1983), but the head of the
community, Tissahami, has opted to remain (MEP/DWLC, 1985). The removal of Veddas has
been much publicised (Anon, 1984; M. Colchester, 1984). Hunting is a major threat. Feared
consequences of the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme include conflicting interests between
wildlife and settlers in sections of the park that abut the development area: elephant and wild
boar damage and raid crops, while livestock and other domestic animals trespass into the park.
The new road connecting Maha Oya through Aralaganwila to the existing road near Polannaruwa
bisects the north-eastern part of the park. Construction of dams, tunnels and roads has resulted.
in badly scarred landscapes, particularly at Henanegala, Enderawetamulla and along the Maha
Oya-Ardaganwila highway. All of these sites have been recommended for reclamation. The
steep-sided irrigation channels are a hazard to wild (and domestic) animals, which occasionally
fall into them and are unable to climb out. Maduru Oya Reservoir is covered with the noxious
floating weed Salvinia molesta. Measures for its physical eradication are underway
(MEP/DWLC, 1985, 1987a). The Sri Lankan army has appropriated a portion of the park at its
north entrance (Hoffmann, 1987).
Staff One park warden, four rangers, five range assistants, 38 game guards and ancillary staff
(1990)
Budget Funds are being provided by US-AID through the Mahaweli Environment Project up
until 1991. The budget for 1986 includes estimates for capital investment (Rs 3,080,000),
natural resources development (Rs 1,910,000), equipment (Rs 1,482,625), technical assistance
including training (Rs 3,687,500 for all four national parks within the Mahaweli development
area) and recurrent costs (Rs 5,340,000). The total cost of funding the park development
schedule is estimated to be Rs 26,448,000 (MEP/DWLC, 1987a).
Local Addresses Warden, Maduru Oya National Park, Madura Oya, Aralaganwila
References
Anon. (1984). Proposed Maduru Oya National Park. Communication to H. Jungius. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Colchester, M. (1984). Survival International for the Rights of Threatened Tribal People, London.
Personal communication to J. Harrison. IUCN, Cambridge, UK.
Hemapriya, B.H. (1983). Mahaweli projects and programme. Ministry of Lands and Land
Development and Ministry of Mahaweli Development, Columbo. 102 pp.
Hemapriya, B.H. (1985). Veddahs move out of Dambana. Sri Lanka Wildlife 1: 17-18.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1987). Report on circuit of MEP areas, 20th-25th January 1987. Mahaweli
Environment Project. Unpublished. 7 pp.
Ishwaran, N. (1985). Ecology of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State
University, East Lansing, USA. (Unseen)
Jansen, M. (1984). Maduru Oya National Park. Loris 16: 223-226.
231
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks of Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 12(1): 4-7.
Jayawardhana, S. (1982). History of Maduru Oya. Cultural Publications, Sri Lanka. (Unseen)
McNeely, J.A. (1982). Bringing the benefits of nature conservation to the people: a technical
analysis of the Mahaweli Environment Project. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished report.
45 pp.
MEP/DWLC (1985). Master plan: Maduru Oya National Park. Revised December 1985. Ma-
haweli Environment Project/Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 80 pp.
MEP/DWLLC (1987a). Master plan: Maduru Oya National Park. Revised June 1987. Mahaweli
Environment Project/Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 62 pp.
MEP/DWLC (1987b). Development concept plan: headquarters area and ranger stations, Madura
Oya National Park. Revised June 1987. Mahaweli Environment Project/Department of Wil-
dlife Conservation, Colombo. 35 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
St. John, R.B.L. (1985). Maduru-Oya: our seventh national park. Sri Lankan Wildlife 1: 8.
TAMS (1980). Environmental assessment: Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme. Tip-
pets-A bbott-McCarthy-Stratton, New York. (Unseen) .
Uragoda, C.G. (1969). Present-day Veddhas of Dambana. Loris 11: 278-279.
WWFIIUCN Project 1783. Elephant management, Sri Lanka.
Date April 1985, updated September 1990
MINNERIYA-GIRITALE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated 20km north-west of Polonnaruwa, Polonnaruwa District,
North-Central Province. 7°59’-8°04’N, 80°52’-80°54’E
Date and History of Establishment Minneriya-Giritale was declared a sanctuary on 29 July
1938, part of which was designated a national biosphere reserve in the late 1970s (Bharathie,
1979). The nearby Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve (7,529ha), established on 12 February
1988, has been recommended for upgrading to a national park in view of its conservation
importance (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989).
Area 6,693ha. The national biosphere reserve covers 809ha (Bharathie, 1979).
Land Tenure Minneriya and Giritale tanks are state owned; surrounding areas are partly
state-owned and partly privately-owned.
Altitude Ranges from approximately 100m to 885m at the top of Wenigala Peak.
Physical Features The topography is varied, with hills, patnas and talawas. Minneriya is an
ancient irrigation tank, with a capacity of 2,550ha when full and a catchment area of 24,000ha.
The main source of water is from a diversion of the Amban Ganga, along the Elahara Channel.
232
Sri Lanka
Maximum depth is 10.7m; the water is fresh with a pH of 7.5. Details of Giritale Tank are not
available.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal climate. Mean annual rainfall is about 1146mm
and mean annual temperature 27.5°C.
Vegetation Minneriya Tank is surrounded by dry mixed evergreen forest. The phytoplankton
is dominated by Microcystis and Melosira. No information is available on the aquatic macro-
phytes.
Fauna Much of Sri Lanka’s wildlife, including elephant Elephas maximus (E), is found in the
nature reserve (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989). Minneriya Tank is known to support small
numbers of a wide variety of waterfowl including pelicans, cormorants and storks, but no details
are available.
Economically important fishes include Labeo dussumieri, Puntius sarana, P. dorsalis, P. chola,
Cyprinus carpio, Wallago attu, Ompok bimaculatus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Macrones vittatus,
Tilapia mossambica, Etroplus suratensis, Osphronemus goramy, Ophiocephalus striatus, Glos-
sogobius giuris and Mastacembelus armatus.
Cultural Heritage Minneriya was built by King Mahasena in the 3rd century AD. A small
temple was built in his memory (Hulugalla, 1973).
Local Human Population Minneriya tank is situated in a fairly densely inhabited area. It is
used for fishing, and as a water supply for irrigation, domestic use, and brick-making at low
water levels during the dry season. Annual production of fish is estimated at 873 metric tonnes.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities The Mahaweli Environment Project Systems Centre, with
research, educational and meeting facilities, is being built on the shores of Minneriya tank.
Conservation Value The core of the nature reserve is an uninhabited area in one of the
country’s most diverse natural systems, with intermediate forest, bamboo stands, patnas and
talawas. Nowhere else does it seem that such diversity is represented within a single protected
area, particularly in such an intact state (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989). The tanks support
a variety of waterfowl, as well as being of socio-economic value.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints Include dumping of paddy husks.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
References Unless otherwise indicated, this information is taken directly from Scott (1989).
Bharathie, K.P. (1979). Man and biosphere reserves in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester 14: 37-49.
Hulugalla, H.A. (1973). Guide to Ceylon (Sri Lanka). 2nd edition. Lake House Investments,
Colombo. Pp. 97-98.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date September 1990
PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the centre of the western ridge of the Central Highlands,
north-east of Ratnapura, and straddles the border between Central and Sabaragamuwa provinces.
To the north is the tea-growing area of Hatton Plateau. 6°44’-6°54’N, 80°25’-80°49’E
Date and History of Establishment 25 October 1940
Area 22,380ha. Horton Plains National Park (3,160ha) adjoins the eastern boundary.
Land Tenure State, including state-owned tea and forest plantations
Altitude The Peak Wilderness Range rises steeply from the southern lowlands (50m) near
Ratnapura to a plateau, averaging 600m and interrupted by such mountains as Sri Pada (Adam’s
Peak) at 2,238m.
Physical Features It is an important watershed for three major river systems: the Kelani Ganga,
which flows north-westwards; the Kalu Ganga, which flows southwards and supplies Ratnapura;
and the Walawe Ganga, which drains into the Uda Walawe Reservoir to the south-east.
Underlying the entire area is the Highland Series of pre-Cambrian rocks, which are highly
crystalline and non-fossiliferous. Soils are red-yellow podzols.
Climate Peak Wilderness has been described as "the most constantly wet part of Asia west of
Bomeo" (Greller et al., 1987). Mean annual rainfall is 5123mm at Hapugastenne Estate (594m),
308 1mm and at Maskeliya Hospital (1,280m). Mean annual temperature ranges between 27.2°C
in Ratnapura (40m) and 15.4°C in Nuwara Eliya (1,900m).
Vegetation Peak Wilderness is one of the few remaining areas in Sri Lanka with continuous
tracts of altitudinally graded forest, ranging from lowland rain forest to high altitude cloud forest.
Lowland forest is restricted to a few small areas on the lower slopes of the Peak Wilderness
Range. The continuous, 30-40m high canopy is interrupted in places by taller individual
emergents rising to 60m. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarpus, Shorea and endemic species of
Doona) predominate, interspersed with representatives of the genera Cullenia, Mesua,
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Sri Lanka
Palaquium and Semicarpus. Due to the dense nature of the canopy, the shrub layer is poorly
developed. Gaps in the canopy, both natural and man-induced, are invaded by saplings of
Calamus sp., which form impenetrable thickets. From 600m to 900m the lowland forest
gradually gives way to montane rain forest, characterised by a lower canopy of Doona and
Stemonoporus rigidus (rediscovered in 1981) with Garcinia echinocarpa and the vine
Leucocodonzeylanicum. Shorea gardneri survives on the more sheltered slopes up to an altitude
of 1700mm, the known limit for this tropical dipterocarp in Asia. Other species growing with
Doona include Litsea sp., Actinodaphne sp. and Cinnamomum, Syzygium spp., Myristica
dactyloides, Fahrenheitia (Ostodes) zeylanica, Semecarpus nigroviridis and Palaquium
rubiginosum.
Montane cloud forest, which occurs above 1,700m, is confined to a narrow strip along the ridge
line and slopes of Adams Peak. Its composition differs considerably from that of the high altitude
forests of the Nilgiris and Palnis in nearby South India and is characterised by Calophyllum
walkeri and C. trapezifolium. Extensive marshland occurs on the plateau, together with stunted
trees of Syzygium revolutum and Gordonia speciosa and shrubs such as Hedyotis spp. and
Osbeckia walkeri. Typical marshland species include rush Juncus prismatocarpus, sedges
Scirpus fluitans and Carex sp., grass Garnotia mutica, clubmoss Lycopodium carolinianum and
ferns Histiopteris sp. and Gleichenia (Dicranopteris) linearis. Characteristic flowering plants
are Impatiens spp., Exacum walkeri, Sonerila spp., Vernonia spp., Senecio ludens, Emilia glabra
and orchid Phalus tancarrvilleae. A small population of the uncommon Burmannia coelestis
is present, as well as several interesting species of Eriocaulon (Greller et al, 1981). The flat
areas of the plateau and the hilly spurs support communities of Garcinia echinocarpa, in
association with prickly palm Oncosperma fasciculatum and with a straggling undergrowth of
Strobilanthes brushwood. A noteworthy shrub is the bushy Schwmacheria alnifolia, endemic
to Sri Lanka, which is host to the climbing Freycinetia spp.
Fauna Elephant Elephas maximus (E) has virtually disappeared from the region, but aremnant
population, estimated at 30-50 individuals, still survives in the sanctuary (T.W.
Hoffmann,pers.comm., 1988). Mammals still present in reasonable numbers include Kelaart’s
long-clawed shrew Feroculus feroculus (a monotypic genus endemic to the montane regions of
Sri Lanka), toque macaque Macaca sinica (endemic), purple-faced langur Presbytis senex and
leopard Panthera pardus (T). The contiguous areas of Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Horton
Plains Nature Reserve contain all 21 species of bird endemic to the country, of which Sri Lanka
coucal Centropus chlororhynchus and white-headed mynah Sturnus senex occur only in the
former. One of the strongholds of the greatly endangered broad-billed roller Eurystomus
orientalis is the southern periphery of the sanctuary, which is subject to cultivation (Hoffmann,
1984). Among invertebrates, the Sri Lankan relict ant Aneuretus simoni (K) is reported from
the area (Wells et al., 1983).
Cultural Heritage Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) is sacred and for centuries has attracted Buddhist,
Hindu and Moslem alike. It is thought that pilgrims used to travel via Horton Plains along the
ridge of Peak Wilderness to reach Sri Pada, a route that is no longer evident (Werner, 1982).
According to legend, the tomb of Adam is found here. Also present is the outline of a footprint,
claimed by some to be that of Gautama Buddha and by others to be that of Siva (Holugalla,
1973).
Local Human Population No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Large numbers of pilgrims and tourists visit Sri Pada. Facilities
are limited to tea stalls along the trails to Sri Pada during the pilgrimage season.
Scientific Research and Facilities Includes studies of floristic composition and the status of
Stemonoporus-dominated forests (Greller et al., 1981, 1985, 1987).
Conservation Value Peak Wilderness is considered to be the most valuable conservation area
in Sri Lanka, with the highest number of endemics, notably birds, reptiles and amphibians, and
the greatest biological diversity due to altitudinal and climatic factors. Together with adjoining
forest reserves, such as Gilimale and Kelani Valley, it covers the entire range of Wet Zone forests
from the foothills right up to the highest peaks (Hoffmann, 1984, 1988).
Conservation Management It has been suggested that a new Highland National Park be
established, comprising Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and the adjacent Horton Plains National
Park. It is considered that this site merits inscription on the World Heritage List. Various
extensions and alterations to the existing boundaries have been recommended, to enhance the
biological integrity of the site (Hoffmann, 1988).
Management Constraints The main encroachments are the planting (pine and eucalyptus
plantations) and felling activities of the Forest Department, carried out in direct contravention
of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. By comparison, encroachments by villagers are
negligible and confined mostly to the Maliboda area on the western boundary (Hoffmann, 1984,
1988). The annual pilgrimage to Adam’s Peak, when thousands of tea stalls and shops are
erected along the route, is a source of considerable disturbance and results in the cutting of forest
and unsightly litter (Hoffmann, 1988). Former gem mining activities have disturbed the
marshland habitat on the plateau, by interfering with normal hydrological processes, but these
gem pits are gradually being recolonised by the vegetation (Greller et al., 1981). However, gem
mining persists (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986).
Staff Eleven
Budget No information
Local Addresses Game Ranger, Sri Palabaddala
References
Greller, A.M., Balasubramaniam, S., Gunatilleke, S. and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. (1981). A
botanical excursion across Peak Wildemess. Loris 15: 263-264, 276.
Greller, A.M., Balasubramaniam, S., Gunatilleke, S., Gunatilleke, N. and Jayasuriya, A.H.M.
(1985). Exploring for Stemonoporus (Dipterocarpaceae) forests in the Peak Wildemess. Loris
17: 5-7.
Greller, A.M., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Jayasuriya, A.H.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Balasubrama-
niam, S., and Dassanayake, M.D. (1987). Stemonoporus (Dipterocarpaceae)-dominated mon-
tane forests in the Adam’s Peak Wilderness, Sri Lanka. Journal of Tropical Ecology 3: 243-253.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1984). National red data list of endangered and rare birds of Sri Lanka. Ceylon
Bird Club and Wild Life and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1988). Report on the southem and westem boundaries of the Peak Wildemess
Sanctuary. Unpublished report to Secretary, Ministry of State. 10 pp.
Hulugalla, H.A. (1973). Guide to Ceylon (Sri Lanka). 2nd edition. Lake House Investments,
Colombo. Pp. 97-98.
236
Sri Lanka
Schmidt-Kraepelin, E. (1973). Peak Wildemess - Wasserscheide der vier Strome. Erdkundl.
Wissen 33: 352-397. (Unseen)
Wells, S.M., Pyle, R.M. and Collins, N.M. (1983). The IUCN invertebrate red data book. TUCN,
Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 493-494.
Werner, W.L. (1982). A forgotten trail to Adam’s Peak. Loris 16: 6-7. (Unseen)
Werner, W.L. and Schweinfurth, U. (1985). Naturreservate im Hochland der Insel Ceylon (Sri
Lanka). Peak Wilderness und Horton Plains. Natur und Museum 115(3): 65-76.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
POLONNARUWA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the north-west of the dry zone near the township of Polonna-
tuwa. 07°56’N, 81°00’E
Date and History of Establishment Created a sanctuary in 1938. The Ancient City of
Polonnaruwa was designated a cultural World Heritage Site in 1982.
Area 1,523ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Less than 10m above sea level.
Physical Features Topography is generally flat. Soils are typically reddish brown earths.
Climate Temperature ranges from 26°C to 30°C. Mean annual rainfall over 42 years is
1671mm, with a period of marked drought from May to September.
Vegetation Following the abandonment of the ancient capital of Polonnaruwa some 700 years
ago, secondary semi-evergreen forest has developed and been maintained subject to some
removal of the shrub layer in the vicinity of archaeological sites. Dittus (1977) recorded 61 tree
species within a study area of 3 sq.km, representing 50 genera and 25 families. Drypetes
sepiaria, with a relative density of 21%, is predominant. Other trees, with a relative density of
5% or more, are Premna tomentosa, Vitex pinnata, Cassia fistula, C. roxburghii and Grewia
polygama. Species occurring exclusively on the periphery of Parakrama Samudra Lake or along
the banks of the irrigation channel that borders the study area are: Morinda tinctoria, Azadirachta
indica, Streblus asper, Madhuca longifolia, Eugenia bracteata, Lannea coromandelica and
Alstonia scholaris (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Fauna The reserve is rich in primates, which include slender loris Loris tardigradus, toque
macaque Macaca sinica, common langur Presbytis entellus and, at a density of 215 ani-
mals/sq.km (Rudran, 1979), purple-faced langur P. senex. Both toque macaque and purple-
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
faced langur are endemic to Sri Lanka. Other large mammals are absent, with the exception of
mouse deer Tragulus meminna, and perhaps spotted deer Cervus axis and wild boar Sus scrofa.
Some 146 species of birds have been recorded, of which 74 species breed in the sanctuary (M.
Jansen, pers. comm., 1986). Most of the avifauna characteristic of the low country dry zone is
represented. Noteworthy species include little minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus, white-
breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis, large cuckoo shrike Coracina novaehollandiae, black-
headed oriole Oriolus xanthornus, shikra Accipiter badius, brown-headed barbet Megalaima
zeylanica, crimson-breasted barbet M. rubricapilla, red-backed woodpecker Dinopium ben-
ghalense, brahminy kite Haliastur indus, white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster,
white-bellied drongo Dicrurus caerulescens, thick-billed flowerpecker Dicaeum agile, Jerdon’s
chloropsis Chloropsis cochinchinensis, Pompadour green pigeon Treron pompadora and two
species of parakeet Psittacula spp. (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Reptiles include a variety of snakes, such as python Python molurus (V) and cobra Naja sp.
(Department of Wildlife Conservation, pers. comm., 1990).
Cultural Heritage Polonnaruwa first became a royal residence in 368 AD, when the lake of
Topawewa was formed, but it did not become the capital until the middle of the 8th century.
The principal ruins are of a later date, however, being chiefly of the time of Parakrama Bahu
(1153-1186). Polonnaruwa seems to have been abandoned in about 1288, owing to a breach in
the dam, but has recently been recolonised. Further details of the site are given by Hulugalla
(1973) and Rushbrook Williams (1975).
Local Human Population None within the sanctuary
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Hotel accommodation is available nearby. A hostel for
Buddhist monks is under construction near Gal-Vihara. Well-maintained gravel tracks provide
easy access to the cultural sites. Guides are available.
Scientific Research and Facilities Excavations and restoration work are being carried out
under the Cultural Triangle Project. The primate community is the subject of a long-term
ecological/behavioural study supported by the Smithsonian Institution.
Conservation Value The sanctuary was established to protect the ancient city of Polonnaruwa
which is of world cultural importance. It is also important for its relatively high diversity of
primates.
Conservation Management The ruins of Polonnaruwa are being restored under the Cultural
Triangle Project sponsored by Unesco. They are fenced off and protected.
Management Constraints Cutting of young trees for construction-poles is not always
prevented. The vegetation is subject to disturbance from archaeological work. Pressure from
the large number of visitors is high.
Staff Eight
Budget No information
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Sri Lanka
Local Addresses Game Ranger, Polonnaruwa Sanctuary, Circular Road, Polonnaruwa
References
Dittus, P.J. (1977). The ecology of a semi-evergreen forest community in Sri Lanka. Biotropica
9: 268-286.
Hulugallu, H.A. (1973). Guide to Ceylon (Sri Lanka). 2nd edition. Lake House Investments,
Colombo. Pp. 94-96.
Rudran, R. (1970). Aspects of the ecology of two subspecies of purple-faced langurs (Presbytis
senex). M.Sc. thesis. University of Ceylon, Colombo. 211 pp. (Unseen)
Rudran, R. (1979). Whoops! Animal Kingdom 82(5): 19-22.
Rushbrook Williams, L.F. (Ed.)(1975). A handbook for travellers in India, Pakistan, Nepal,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. John Murray, London. Pp. 736-739.
Date April 1986, updated December 1988
RITIGALA STRICT NATURAL RESERVE
IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in the Anuradhapura District of North Central Province, about
27km north of Dambulla and 36km south-east of Anuradhapura. It is accessible from the
Habarana-Kekirawa highway near Yakkala. 8°05’-8°09’N, 80°38’-80°40’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a strict natural reserve on 7 November 1941
(Gazette Notification No. 8809). The reserve takes its name from riti Antiaris toxicaria, a tree
species characteristic of the middle slopes (Fernando, 1968).
Area 1,528ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from 125m to 766m at the top of Ritigala, which is the highest peak in the
dry zone of Sri Lanka.
Physical Features Ritigala stands out as a prominent erosion remnant on the island’s lowest
peneplain. The 6.5km-long, isolated hill range is divided by the shallow Maha-degala gorge
into southern and northern blocks. Ritigala is drained by tributaries of the Malwata Oya. The
range is underlain by pre-Cambrian, metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks, mainly
charnokite, quartzite and marble, of the Highland Series (Cooray, 1967). Further details of the
geology and topography are given by Fernando (1968) and Jayasuriya (1984), respectively.
Soils are generally acidic podzols with a pH of 4.7-6.8 (Panabokke, 1967). The steep slopes are
highly eroded, and covered in boulders, and the plains have an alluvial upper layer. Soil depth
varies from 50cm to 200cm.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Climate Data are not available. Those for Maha-Dlupallama, which is in the lowlands 24km
to the south-west, are probably representative of a warmer climate. Mean annual rainfall is about
1475mm, 55% of which occurs in October-January and 25% in March-May (Muller-Dombois,
1968). Similarly, 1444m has been recorded from the nearest station at Maradan Kadawala
(Fernando, 1968). Mean air temperature is 27°C, with distinct diurnal and seasonal fluctuations.
Wind velocity is highest from June to October (Jayasuriya and Pemadasa, 1983).
Vegetation Ritigala has an unique and interesting flora and is often referred to as a refugium
for many rare and threatened species of plants. The hill range provides a variety of environments,
influenced by altitude, precipitation, temperature, wind and edaphic factors, simulating a
zonation from dry to humid climates and supporting numerous species which are otherwise
distributed over a vast area with diverse climates. Jayasuriya (1980, 1984) recorded over 400
taxa from this reserve of which about 80 are non-flowering species. Of 329 flowering plants,
54 (16.4%) species are endemic to Sri Lanka. Species such as Anodendron rhinosporum, Ipomea
jacunda, I. wightii, Strobilanthes stenodon, Cleidion nitidum, Acampe rigida, Bulbophyllum
crassifolium, and CheiroStylis parvifolia are extremely rare or extinct elsewhere, not having been
recorded outside Ritigala during this century. Three species, namely Coleus elongatus, Mad-
huca clavata and Thunbergia fragrans var. parviflora are known only from Ritigala.
The lower slopes comprise dry mixed forest and grade into an intermediate forest, in which
canopy trees include Madhuca longifolia, Pterospermum canescens, Dialium ovoideum, Hydno-
carpus venenata, Berrya cordifolia, Diospyros ebenum, Tetramelis nudiflora, Mangifera zey-
lanica, Mesua ferrea and Pterygota thwaitesii. This forest is tall and luxuriant and the canopy
reaches over 30m. In the lower strata, species such as Dimorphocalyx glabellus, Mischodon
zeylanicus, Drypetes sepiaria, Cleistanthus patulus, Streblus taxoides, Vitex altissima, Polyal-
thia korinti and P. coffeoides are common. Forest above 300m gradually diminishes to 15-20m
in height and common species include Pterospermum canescens, Sageraea thwaitesii, Myristica
ceylanica, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Dimocarpus longan and Ficus microcarpa. The lower
strata are species such as Mallotus rhamnifolius, Cleistanthus patulus, Streblus taxoides, Ardisia
missionis and Excoecaria crenulata. Vegetation on the summits and higher slopes is affected
by the wind, higher rainfall, lower temperatures, and frequent cloud cover, as indicated by its
composition and the dense, dwarf nature of its arboreal component. Species such as Cleistanthus
patulus, C. pallidus, Neolitsea cassia, Eugenia rotundatata, Syzgium zeylanicum, Erythroxylum
obtusifolium, Glochidion stellatum and Salacia reticulata form the matrix of the forest while
shrubs such as Lasianthus strigosus, Psychotria nigra, Polyalthia korinti, and Ardisia missionis
constitute the undergrowth. The abundant epiphytic flora is indicative of the higher precipitation
at upper altitudes, and consists of lichens, bryophytes, ferns and orchids. Quantitative data show
that Cleistanthus patulus is the most abundant tree species, while Euphorbiaceae is the important
family (Jayasuriya, 1980, 1984; Jayasuriya and Pemadasa, 1983).
Fauna _ Ritigala harbours a variety of large mammals, notably the endemic toque macaque
Macaca sinica, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (I), leopard Panthera pardus (T) and elephant
Elephas maximus (E). Other mammals include slender loris Loris tardigradus, common langur
Presbytis entellus, jackal Canis aureus, rusty-spotted cat Felis rubiginosa, fishing cat Felis
viverrina, striped-necked mongoose Herpetes vitticollis, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak,
spotted deer Cervus axis, sambar C. unicolor, wild boar Sus Scrofa, porcupine Hystrix indica,
pangolin Manis crassicaudata and several species of bats (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
240
Sri Lanka
The avifauna includes several species endemic to Sri Lanka, namely spotted-winged thrush
Zoothera spiloptera, Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei and Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloperdix
bicalcarata. Other species are raquet-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus, grey hornbill Tockus
griseus, Malabar pied hombill Anthracocerus coronatus, blue-faced malkoha Rhopodytes
viridirostris, rufous woodpecker Micropternus brachyurus, rufous-bellied hawk-eagle Hier-
aaetus kienerii, black eagle Ictinaetus malayensis, and mountain hawk-eagle Spizaetus nipalen-
sis (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Among the amphibians are a variety of anurids: Rhacophorus leucomystax, Kaloula pulchra,
Bufo fergusonii, Rana hexadactyla, R. limnocharis, Hylarana temporalis, Philautus variabilis
and Ramanella variegata. The reptile fauna is varied and includes gekkos such as the endemic
Gekoella yakhuna, Hemidactylus lesehenaulti, H. triedrus, endemic Gymnodactylus frenatus
and Cnemaspis kandianus. Skinks include Mabuya carinata, M. macularia and Riopa punctata,
while the snakes commonly seen are python Python molurus (V), rat snake Pytas mucosus, flying
snake Chrysopelea ornata, Forsten’s cat snake Boiga forsteni, Russell’s viper Vipera russelli,
endemic green pit viper Timeresurus trigonecephalus, green whip snake Dryophis nasutus and
brown whip snake D. pulverulentus. Common among the lizards is Calotes versicolor (M. Jan-
sen, pers. comm., 1986).
Cultural Heritage The ruins of Ritigala are of archaeological interest and mostly comprise
the remains of an ancient Buddhist monastery founded in the first half of the 9th century by the
forest-dwelling sect of monks known as Pamsukulika bhikkus. The earliest inscriptions,
however, date back to the 4th century BC (Jayasuriya, 1984).
Local Human Population None
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are no facilities. Accommodation is available at
Habarana for tourists visiting the monastic ruins.
Scientific Research and Facilities There have been several intensive floristic surveys of
Ritigala (Trimen, 1889; Willis, 1906, 1922; Jayasuriya, 1935.) More recently, the flora and
ecology of the forest communities has been studied (Jayasuriya, 1980, 1984; Jayasuriya and
Pemadasa, 1983).
Conservation Value Ritigala is one of very few high altitude forests representative of the dry
zone in Sri Lanka, another being Moneragala. It is extremely important, not only as a refugium
for many rare and threatened species, including a number which are endemic to the locality, but
also because its isolation provides ideal conditions for the evolution of species. In particular,
the flora of Ritigala is unique, being of great evolutionary and ecological interest (Jayasuriya,
1984).
Conservation Management Legally, entry to the reserve is prohibited except for scientific
tesearch purposes. In practice, no effective management regime has been established. It has
been recommended that the reserve should be enlarged to include the peripheral hills of
Kumbukwalahinna to the north, Bathalanwala to the south, and Madu-kanda to the west to form
an effective buffer (Jayasuriya, 1984). It has also been suggested that Ritigala should be linked
to Hurulu Biosphere Reserve by means of a corridor (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986).
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Management Constraints Unauthorised entry, illicit timber felling, poaching and encroach-
ment from chena (shifting cultivation) are the main threats. Extraction of timber from the lower
slopes was brought to the attention of the Prime Minister who ordered an official inquiry into
the matter. Poachers frequently gather rattan Calamus thwaitesii, medicinal products and honey.
Vigilance by the Department of Wildlife Conservation has been lacking (T.W. Hoffmann, pers.
comm., 1986; N. Ishwaran, pers. comm., 1986; A.H.M Jayasuriya, pers. comm., 1986).
Staff Eleven
Budget No information
Local Addresses Game Ranger, Anuradhapura
References
Cooray, P.G. (1967). The geology of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica 31(1). Ceylon Government Press,
Colombo. (Unseen)
Fernando, S.N.N. (1968). Ritigala. Loris 11: 187-189.
Jayasuriya, A.H.M. (1980). Studies on the flora and ecology of Ritigala Strict Natural Reserve.
M.Sc. thesis, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (Unseen)
Jayasuriya, A.H.M. (1984). Flora of Ritigala Natural Reserve. Sri Lanka Forester 16: 60-156.
Jayasuriya, A.H.M. and Pemadasa, M.A. (1983). Factors affecting the distribution of tree species
in a dry zone montane forest in Sri Lanka. Journal of Ecology 71: 571-583.
Jayasuriya, P.C.R. (1935). In the home of wild orchids - Ritigala mountain. Orchidologia
Zeylanica 2: 165-169.
Panabokke, C.R. (1967). Ceylon general soil map. Ceylon Survey Department, Colombo. (Un-
seen)
Trimen, H. (1889). Notes on the botany of Ritigala. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon) 11:
6-9. (Unseen)
Willis, J.C. (1906). Flora of Ritigala, a study in endemism. Annals of Royal Botanic Garden,
Peradeniya 3: 271-302. (Unseen)
Willis, J.C. (1922). Age and area. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
RUHUNA (YALA) NATIONAL PARK,
YALA STRICT NATURAL RESERVE
IUCN Management Category
Ruhuna National Park: II (National Park)
Yala Strict Natural Reserve: I (Strict Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese monsoon forest)
Geographical Location Lies 24km north-east of Tissamaharama on the south-east coast of Sri
Lanka and spans Southern and Uva provinces. Yala Strict Natural Reserve is an integral part
of Ruhuna National Park, which is contiguous to Yala East National Park (18,149ha). 6°16’-
6°42’N, 81°15’-81°41’E
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Sri Lanka
Date and History of Establishment Block I of Ruhuna National Park was established on
25 February 1938, having previously been a Resident Sportsmen’s Shooting Reserve in 1900.
Further blocks were established in subsequent years: Block II on 3 September 1954 (originally
proclaimed as Yala Sanctuary in 1900), Block III on 28 April 1967, Block IV on 9 October 1969
and Block V on 5 October 1973. Yala Strict Natural Reserve was created on 1 March 1938.
Further details concerning the early establishment of Ruhuna are given by Hoffmann (1969).
Salm (1975) has recommended that the national park be extended offshore to include Great and
Little Basses, considered to be among the finest reefs in Sri Lanka. Further details of these sites
are given in UNEP/IUCN (1988).
Area Ruhuna National Park: 97,878ha
Yala Strict Natural Reserve: 28,904ha
The total area of the complex is 126,782ha. The national park consists of 14,102ha in Block I
(originally 13,680ha but enlarged by 207ha on 3 March 1968 and 215ha on 7 December 1973),
9,927ha in Block II, 40,774ha in Block III, 26,418ha in Block IV, and 6,656ha in Block V.
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 90m-high inselbergs.
Physical Features Comprises coastal plain with a number of scattered inselbergs, associated
with which are a number of caves and kema (pools). There are also several freshwater lakes and
brackish lagoons, described elsewhere (Scott, 1989). Most of the park is underlain by the
Vijayan series, a variety of Lower Palaeozoic gneissic rocks formed about 600 million years
ago. It is the more resistant parts of these rocks that form the inselbergs. Principal rock types
are migmatites and granite-gneisses, biotite-gneiss and hornblende-gneiss. Fossiliferous lime-
stones, sandstones and marls of Miocene age, lying almost horizontally on the Vijayan, outcrop
as thin beds along the coast. Pleistocene alluvial and aeolian deposits cover the Vijayan near
main rivers and over much of the coastline. The eastern boundary, formed by the sea, is marked
by sand dunes of up to 30m high and broad sandy beaches. Red-brown earths and non-calcic
brown soils predominate but patches of loose, sandy soil are common along the eastern border
and the northern region consists mainly of clay.
Climate The park lies in a transition zone between the single wet season experienced on the
east coast and the double peak of precipitation found along the south coast of the island. Mean
annual rainfall varies between approximately 900mm in the south to 1300mm in the north, with
an extensive period of drought from May to September. Mean annual temperature is 27°C
(Mueller-Dombois, 1972a).
Vegetation Comprises secondary forest, possibly a few hundred years old at the most (S.K.R.,
1970). It is predominantly semi-arid thorn-scrub, interspersed with pockets of fairly dense
forest, and characterised by species such as palu Manilkara hexandra, satin Chloroxylon
Sweitenia, weera Drypetes sepieria, mayila Bauhinia racemosa and malithan Salvadora persica
and less frequently chala Cassia fistula, kohomba Azadirachta indica and divul Feronia limonia.
Shrub vegetation consists of andara Dichrostachys cinerea, kukuruman Randia dumetorum,
eraminiya Ziziphus sp., Gymnosporia emarginata and karamba Carissa spinarum. Islands of
forest scrub are scattered among littoral vegetation in the sand dune zone. The forest scrub
comprises mayila, andara, palu, malithan, eraminiya, kukuruman, Diospyros ferrea, panaka
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Pleurostylia opposita, Gymnosporia emarginata and lolu Cordia sp. This vegetation is of low
stature and is stunted or prostrate nearer the coast. Crinum zeylanicum colonizes the bare sand.
Small patches of mangrove vegetation occur along the coastal lagoons at Buttawa, Yala and
Pilinawa. Common species are kirilla Sonneratia caseolaris, ikili Acanthus ilicifolius, kadol
Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina, hin kadol Aegiceras corniculatum, tala-kiriya
Excoecaria agallocha and beriya Lumnitzera racemosa.
Fauna A total of 32 species of mammals has been recorded (Santiapillai, n.d.) but this list does
not include Insectivora and is incomplete for Chiroptera and Rodentia. Threatened species are
sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), leopard Panthera pardus (T), elephant Elephas maximus (E)
and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E). Although the water buffalo is indigenous to Sri Lanka,
itis likely that most populations contain some genetic input from domestic stock or are descended
from feral stock (Burge, 1986). In Block I, there were an estimated 18 elephant, 248 wild boar
Sus scrofa, 1,362 spotted deer Cervus axis, 384 sambar C. unicolor and 513 water buffalo in
1983-1985, as well as 40 or more sloth bear, at least 15 pairs of golden jackal Canis aureus and
23-30 leopard (Burge, 1986). The number of elephants varies seasonally, however, with up to
65 recorded in the dry season of 1979 (Santiapillai et al., 1984). Somewhat different estimates
of mean densities of large herbivores in Block I were obtained from skull collections and
calculation of survival curves from cementum layering of molar teeth, as follows: water
buffalo - 280 per sq.km, sambar - 4.0 per sq.km, spotted deer - 12.0 per sq.km, and wild boar -
0.6 per sq.km (Ashby and Santiapillai, 1986).
The avifauna comprised some 120-130 species (Banks and Banks, 1985). Raptors include
crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela and white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster. Many
waterbirds are attracted to the lagoons, including lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, pelican
Pelecanus sp., spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, painted stork Ibis leucocephalus, black-necked
stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, of which there are perhaps only a dozen in the country, grey
heron Ardea cinerea, purple heron A. purpurea, night heron Nycticorax sp., egret Egretta sp.,
purple gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio and darter Anhinga melanogaster. During the north-east
monsoon the lagoons are visited by thousands of migrating waterfowl, including pintail Anas
acuta, garganey A. querquedula, white-winged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus, curlew
Numenius arquata, whimbrelN. phaeopus, godwit Limosa sp., and turnstone Arenaria interpres,
which mix with the residents such as whistling duck Dendrocygna sp., yellow-wattled lapwing
Vanellus malabaricus, red-wattled lapwing V. indicus and great stone curlew Esacus recurvi-
rostris. The forests contain orange-breasted green pigeon Treron bicincta, hornbills (Buceroti-
dae), flycatchers (Muscicapidae), including paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi
ceylonensis, barbets (Capitonidae) and orioles (Oriolidae), while many peafowl Pavo cristata
occur on the plains. Further details of the waterfowl are given by Scott (1989).
Notable reptiles are mugger Crocodylus palustris (V), which is abundant in abandoned tanks,
estuarine crocodile C. porosus (E), found in the main rivers, and common monitor Varanus
bengalensis. Other reptiles include cobra Naja naja and Russell’s viper Viper russelli
(T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986). A variety of sea turtles breed along the coast, including
green turtle Chelonia mydas (E), olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea and leatherback Dermoche-
lys coriacea (E), for which the Yala coastline is a major nesting ground (Hewavisenthi, 1990).
The lagoon fauna includes various species of prawns, crabs and fishes, details of which are given
by the Joint Aberdeen and Colombo Universities Expedition (1978) and summarised by Scott
(1989).
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Sri Lanka
Cultural Heritage Yala is steeped in legend and history, having been the centre of bygone
civilisations. Here was the Kingdom of the great King Ravana, with its boundary Ravana Kotte
now buried in the sea. Lying in the path of seafaring merchants who brought with them the
Indo-Aryan civilisation, Yala was the twin cradle of Sinhalese culture. Here was Situlpahuwa,
the now-restored abode of twelve thousand arahats which attracts large numbers of pilgrims,
Magul Maha Vihare, built in 87 BC, and Akasa Chaithya, constructed in the 2nd century BC.
Agriculture flourished during the era of the Maha Ruhuna Kingdom, a civilisation second only
to Anuradhapura (S.K.R., 1970). Further details about the history of Yala are given by
Samaraweera (1970).
Local Human Population §Patanangala, in Block I, is used by fishermen from late September
until early April. Originally used by no more than a dozen migrant fishermen from Tangalla,
who marketed dried fish for the population on the south coast (Burge, 1986), their numbers have
increased to a thousand persons in recent times (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Some 100,000 visitors were recorded in 1981, 30% of which
were foreigners. In Block I, the main area for visitors, there are bungalows at Mahasilawa,
Buttawa, Patanangala, Yala, Heenwewa and Talgasmankada, which can be booked in Colombo.
The two campsites at Yala and Kosgasmankada are not generally used. There is a small but
poorly maintained museum.
Scientific Research and Facilities An extensive vegetation survey was conducted in 1967-
1968 (Mueller-Dombois and Fernando, 1969). Various studies of the vegetation, lagoons,
avifauna and mammals were undertaken by the Joint Aberdeen and Colombo Universities
Expedition (1978) and Aberdeen/Colombo University Ecological Expedition (1979). Mammal
species studied include leopard (Santiapillai et al., 1982; Chambers et al., 1984), elephant (Kurt,
1974; Santiapillai et al., 1984), wild boar (Santiapillai and Chambers, 1980), spotted deer
(Balasubramaniam et al., 1980), sambar (Santiapillai et al., 1981) and water buffalo (Santiapillai
and Chambers, 1982; Ashby and Santiapillai, 1983; Burge, 1986). Work on the elephant was
initiated in 1967 as a Smithsonian project, and also involved the University of Peradeniya. Maps
of the geomorphology, soils and vegetation of the park, prepared by the Smithsonian Institution,
were published by the Ceylon Survey Department in the late-1960s.
Conservation Value Yala is renowned for the variety of its wildlife, largely characteristic of
dry zone tropical thorn forest, and its fine coastline and associated coral reefs. A large number
of important cultural ruins bear testimony to earlier civilisations and indicate that much of the
area was populated and well-developed, with an irrigation system supplying water to the
surrounding paddy fields, including those of Yala Plain.
Conservation Management Priorities have yet to be formally identified and outlined in a
management plan. Access to the strict natural reserve is strictly limited to research, but Blocks
I-V are open to the public although some are not readily accessible and lack facilities. Block I
is most frequented by the public, while Block II has a track for four-wheel drive vehicles
throughout its length. The latter is a pilgrimage route, used during the Kataragama Festival in
July.
Management Constraints The main threats are: entry for poaching, gemming and tree-felling;
encroachment by cultivation; and entry by free-ranging domestic livestock (Burge, 1986). Three
wardens have already been killed during clashes with poachers (Prestt, 1985). Gems are mined
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
along the Menik Ganga and, in particular, along the Kumbukkan Oya, where numerous holes
dug along the bank extend for up to 30m into the park. The problem of encroachment is
particularly acute in Blocks III and IV where chena (shifting cultivation) and burning, to provide
grazing in the dry season, impinges on the park boundary. Here, ganja (Indian hemp) is also
cultivated in clearings hidden well inside the forest (J.D.N. Banks, pers. comm., 1986). The
fishermen at Patanangala poach and disturb wildlife. Moreover, beaches are littered with their
debris and turtles in the vicinity are caught in their nets. They have also set up traps inland and
they dig up turtle nests (Burge, 1986). The fishing village was closed down by the Department
of Wildlife Conservation at one time, but the fishermen were subsequently allowed to return
until completion of a new fisheries harbour. This has been finished but is fast silting up and the
fishermen remain inside the park (J.D.N. Banks, pers. comm., 1986). Contrary to popular belief
(Jonklaas, 1985), water buffalo are considered not to have a deleterious effect on the environ-
ment. The species is an important vector of the seeds of certain forbs. However, the gradual
change of inland plains from grassland into scrub jungle is inevitable in the absence of
hand-weeding, which was practised until the mid-1950s (Burge, 1986). Although visitor
numbers have been low due to the recent political unrest, tourism has created problems in the
past with, for example, vehicles harassing animals (J.D.N. Banks, pers. comm., 1986). The
biggest problem is posed by Situlpahuwa, which has been commercialised and attracts thousands
of pilgrims (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1989).
Staff One warden, one additional warden, one deputy warden, four rangers, five or six range
assistants, about 30 game guards, clerks (1985)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Warden, Park Office, Ruhuna National Park, Palatupana
References
Aberdeen/Colombo University Ecological Expedition (1979). Aberdeen University/Colombo
University Ecological Expedition 1979. Unpublished report. 208 pp.
Ashby, K.R. and Santiapillai, C (1983). The ecology of free-living water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis
L.) with particular reference to Ruhuna National Park. Tigerpaper 10(1): 20-26.
Ashby, K.R. and Santiapillai, C. (1984). Deterioration of grazing associated with high densities
of herbivores in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Acta Zoologica Fennica 172: 257-258.
Ashby, K.R. and Santiapillai, C. (1986). The life expectancy of wild artiodactyl herbivores, water
buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), spotted deer (Axis axis), and wild pig (Sus
Scrofa) in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, and the consequences for management. Tigerpaper
13(2): 1-7.
Balasubramanian, S., Santiapillai, C. and Chambers, M.R. (1980). Seasonal shifts in the pattem
of habitat utilization by the spotted deer (Axis axis Erxleben, 1777) in the Ruhuna National Park,
Sri Lanka. Spixiana 3: 157-166.
Banks, J. and Banks J. (1985). Ruhuna (Yala) National Park. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo.
Unpublished fact sheet. 2 pp.
Burge, R. (1985). Commoners of the wilds. Sri Lanka Wildlife 1: 6-7.
Burge, R. (1986). Yala National Park: a biological and educational resource. Department of
Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. Unpublished report. 31 pp.
Chambers, M.R., Santiapillai, C. and Ishwaran, N. (1984). Tourist activity and behaviour of the
leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Journal
of the Bombay Natural History Society 81: 42-48.
Hewavisenthi, S. (1990). Exploitation of marine turtles in Sri Lanka: historic background and the
present status. Marine Turtle Newsletter 48. 14-19.
246
Sri Lanka
Hoffman, T.W. (1969). The Wildlife Protection Society of Ceylon: some historical reflections on
the occasion of its 75th anniversary. Loris 11: 1-13.
Joint Aberdeen and Colombo Universities Expedition (1978). Joint Aberdeen and Colombo
Universities Expedition in Sri Lanka 1978. Unpublished report. 193 pp.
Jonklaas, R. (1985). Feral fauna: a growing menace. Sri Lanka Wildlife 1: 13.
Kurt, F. (1974). Remarks on the social structure and ecology of the Ceylon elephant in the Yala
National Park. In: Geist, V. and Walther, F. (Eds), The behavior of ungulates and its relation
to management. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. Pp. 618-634.
Mueller-Dombois, D. (1972a). Relationships between monsoon vegetation and elephants in Sri
Lanka. Sri Lanka Wild Life 18-20: 8-11. (Unseen)
Mueller-Dombois, D. (1972b). Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetation
of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53: 208-226. (Unseen)
Mueller-Dombois, D. and Fernando, K.S. (1969). Vegetation map of Ruhuna National Park.
Survey Department of Ceylon, Colombo. (Unseen)
Prestt, I. (1985). Naturalists favourite nature holidays. BBC Wildlife 3: 143.
Salm, R.V. (1975). A preliminary survey of existing and potential marine parks and reserve sites
in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Paper distributed at IUCN Regional Meeting on Marine Parks
and Reserves, Teheran, 1975.
Samaraweera, C.S. (1970). Yala in history. Loris 12: 18-20.
Santiapillai, C. and Chambers, M.R. (1980). Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild pig
(Sus scrofa L.) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana 3: 239-250.
Santiapillai, C. and Chambers, M.R. (1982). The social organization and calving patterns of the
water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. SAREC (Sweden)
3: 59-67.
Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M.R. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1981). A preliminary study of bark
damage by the cervids in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana 4: 247-257.
Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M.R and Ishwaran, N. (1982). The leopard (Panthera pardus fusca
Meyer, 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, and observations relevant to its
conservation. Biological Conservation 23: 5-14.
Santiapillai, C. Chambers, M.R. and Ishwaran, N. (1984). Aspects of the ecology of the Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus L.) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Biological Conserva-
tion 29: 47-61.
Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M.R. and Jayawardena, C. (1981). Observations on the sambar
(Cervus unicolor, Kerr 1792) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science
14: 193-205.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
S.K.R. (1970). The silent living of the Ruhuna National Park - Yala. Loris 12: 76-78.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. P. 327.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
SERUWILA-ALLAI SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
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Geographical Location Lies near Toppur, 25km south-east of Trincomalee, Trincomalee
District, Eastern Province. 8°20’-8°25’N, 81°20’-81°23’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 9 October 1970.
Area 15,540ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features A large, shallow, brackish coastal lagoon, known as Ullackalie, lies within
the sanctuary. There are extensive mangroves on the shores of the lagoon and at its southern
end. The lagoon is permanent and up 2m deep; it is fed by several small streams and is seasonally
tidal. During the rainy season, the lagoon is connected to Verugal River to the south by a seasonal
channel (Uppu Aru).
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
Vegetation Comprises dry zone evergreen forest and scrub, with mangroves bordering the lagoon.
Fauna The lagoon is important for waterfowl but no details are available.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Activities include subsistence fishing.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The lagoon provides habitat for large waterbirds, migratory ducks and
shorebirds. Seasonal floods along the Uppu Aru at the south end of the lagoon are particularly
important for migratory waterbirds. The lagoon supports a small fishery.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date September 1990
248
Sri Lanka
SIGIRIYA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated 144km from Colombo and 72km north of Kandy.
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 26 January 1990. The Ancient
City of Sigiriya was designated a cultural World Heritage Site in 1982.
Area 5,099ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features The topography is flat except for the massive rock outcrop of the fortress
itself, and a few adjoining hills.
Climate Conditions are dry except during the north-east monsoon thunder storms occur
between October/November and end December.
Vegetation Comprises dry zone forest around the base of the rock, with secondary scrub
following shifting cultivation.
Fauna Elephant Elephas maximus (E) periodically visits the area in dry periods. Only small
animals are present and are seldom reported, due to extensive poaching pressure. Common
langur Presbytis entellus and endemic toque macaque Macaca sinensis are present.
The avifauna comprises species characteristic of dry zone forests, such as jungle robin (shama),
paradise flycatcher, leafbird Chloropsis spp., Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, and
racquet-tailed drongo Dicurus paradiseus. Forest eagle owl has been reported and a pair of
Shahin falcons regularly nests high up on the rock.
Cultural Heritage The sanctuary surrounds the ancient rock fortress of Sigiriya and includes
the ruins.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The sanctuary is a popular tourist destination. Accommodation
is available at Sigiriya Village. There is a rest house adjacent to the rock.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Conservation Value The sanctuary surrounds the ancient rock fortress of Sigiriya, an archae-
ological site of great importance.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). Sigiriya Sanctuary. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo. Unpublished
fact sheet. 1 pp.
Date September 1990
SINHARAJA NATIONAL HERITAGE WILDERNESS AREA
IUCN Management Category IV, IX and X (Managed Nature Reserve, Biosphere Reserve,
and World Heritage Site)
Biogeographical Province 4.02.01 (Ceylonese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated in the south-west lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka, within
Sabaragamuwa and Souther provinces. It is bounded on the north by the Napola Dola and
Koskulana Ganga, on the south and south-west by the Maha Dola and Gin Ganga, on the west
by the Kalukandawa Ela and Kudawa Ganga and on the east by an ancient footpath near Beverley
Tea Estate and by the Denuwa Kanda. 6°21’-6°26’N, 80°21’-80°34’E
Date and History of Establishment Notified a national heritage wilderness area on 21 October
1988 (Gazette No. 528/14). Most of the area was originally declared a forest reserve on 3 May
1875 under the Waste Lands Ordinance and notified in the Ceylon Government Gazette No.
4046, dated 8 May 1875, while the rest was notified a proposed forest reserve in the early 20th
century. Sinharaja Forest Reserve, comprising the existing and proposed forest reserves, was
declared a biosphere reserve in April 1978, and inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1988.
Area According to Gazette No. 528/14, the total area of the national heritage wilderness area
is 18,899 acres and 12 perches (7,648.2ha). The area of the biosphere reserve and World
Heritage site as cited in the respective nominations is 8,864ha, of which 6,092ha is forest reserve
and 2,772ha is a proposed forest reserve.
Land Tenure State
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Sri Lanka
Altitude Ranges from 300m to 1,170m (Hinipitigala Peak).
Physical Features This narrow strip of undulating terrain consists of a series of ridges and
valleys. It is drained by an intricate network of streams, which flow into the Gin Ganga on the
southern boundary and Kalu Ganga, via the Napola Dola, Koskulana Ganga and Kudawa Ganga,
on the northern boundary. The reserve lies within the transition zone of two important rock
types characteristic of Sri Lanka. The south-western group consists of metasediments, charno-
kites and scapolite-bearing calc-granulites, while the highland group comprises khondalites of
metamorphosed sediments and charnokites (Cooray, 1978). Most significant is the presence of
the Sinharaja Basic Zone, consisting of hornblende, pyriclasts, basic charnokites, pyroxene
amphibolites and scapolite-bearing calc-granulites and blended with small amounts of quartzites,
garnet-biotite gneisses and intermediate charnokites (Hapuarachi et al., 1964). This zone
coincides with an aeromagnetic anomaly, which has probably contributed to the desilication
process responsible for the gem fields in the area (Katz, 1972; Munasinghe and Dissanayake,
1980). Soils, which largely belong to the red-yellow podzolic group, are well-drained and show
very little accumulation of organic matter. This characteristic is attributed to a combination of
favourable climatic conditions, a diverse soil microflora effecting rapid breakdown of organic
matter into constituent nutrients, and accelerated uptake and recycling of nutrients by the trees.
Clear-felling of the forest, where most of the nutrients are locked up, therefore renders the soil
impoverished of essential nutrients and incapable of supporting sustained commercial forestry
or agriculture (Forest Department, 1986). Information on soil profiles and soil microfungi are
given in Zoysa and Raheem (1987).
Climate Based on meteorological records gathered from in and around Sinharaja over the last
60 years, annual rainfall has ranged from 3614mm to 5006mm and temperatures from 19°C to
34°C (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Most precipitation emanates from the south-west monsoons
during May-July and the north-east monsoons during November-January. Conditions are dry
in February.
Vegetation Two main types of forest can be recognised. Remnants of Dipterocarpus forest
occur in valleys and on their lower slopes, with hora D. zeylanicus and bu hora D. hispidus
present in almost pure stands. Secondary forest and scrub occur where the original forest cover
has been removed by shifting cultivation and in other places the forest has been replaced by
rubber and tea plantations (Rosayro, 1954). Mesua-Doona (Shorea) forest, the climax vegeta-
tion over most of the reserve, covers the middle and upper slopes above 500m (Rosayro, 1942)
or above 335m as suggested by Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke (1985). Garcinia hermonii
followed by Xylopia championii invariably dominate the understorey tree stratum, a range of
species dominate the subcanopy and na Mesua nagassarium usually predominates in the canopy
layer (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1985). Details about the structure and composition of the
vegetation are summarised by Zoysa and Raheem (1987). Of Sri Lanka’s 830 endemic species,
217 trees and woody climbers are found in the lowland wet zone (Peeris, 1975). Of these, 139
(64%) have been recorded in Sinharaja (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1985), 16 of which are
considered to be rare (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1981). Other rare endemics are the palm
Loxococcus rupicola (R) and Atalantia rotundifolia, the latter being restricted to Sinhagala at
742m. Of 211 recorded species of trees and woody climbers, 40% have low population densities
(less than or 10 or fewer individuals per 25ha) and 43% have restricted distributions, rendering
them vulnerable to further encroachments into the reserve (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1981).
A variety of plants of known benefit to man are present, of which the palm kitul Caryota urens
(for jaggery, a sugar substitute), wewal Calamus sp. (for cane), cardamom Elattaria ensal (as
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
spice), Shorea sp. (for flour), dun Shorea sp. (for varnish and incense) and weniwal Coscinium
fenestratum (for medicinal purposes) are used intensively by villagers. A list of 202 plants,
together with their endemicity and uses is given in the draft conservation plan (Forest
Department, 1985).
Fauna An early account of the fauna is given by Baker (1937). Preliminary lists of the fauna
(viz. mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes and butterflies) have been compiled (March
for Conservation, 1985) and are included in the draft conservation plan (Forest Department,
1985). Endemism is high, particularly for birds with 19 (95%) of 20 species endemic to Sri
Lanka present. Endemism among mammals and butterflies is also greater than 50%. Threatened
mammals are leopard Panthera pardus (T) and Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E). The
endemic purple-faced langur Presbytis senex is present. Birds considered to be endangered or
rare (Hoffmann, 1984) are Sri Lanka wood pigeon Columba torringtoni, green-billed coucal
Centropus chlororhynchus, Sri Lanka white-headed starling Sturnus senex, Sri Lanka blue
magpie Cissa ornata, and ashy-headed babbler Garrulax cinereifrons, all of which are endemic,
and red-faced malkoha Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus. Of interest is the presence of Sri Lanka
broad-billed roller Eurystomus orientalis irisi (1), sightings of which have decreased markedly
in the last five years (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Of the reptiles and amphibia, python Python
molurus is vulnerable and a number of endemic species are likely to be threatened. Noteworthy
species include Calotes liolepis, the rarest of all Agamids on the island, the rare rough-nose
horned lizard Ceratophora aspera, restricted to part of Sri Lanka’s wet zone, and Ramella
palmata, a rare endemic microhylid (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Threatened freshwater fish are
combtail Belontia signata (R), smooth-breasted snakehead Channa orientalis (R), black ruby
barb Barbus nigrofasciatus (V), cherry barb Barbus titeya (V) and red-tail goby Sicydium halei
(V), the conservation status of which is considered in Evans (1981). Of the 21 species of endemic
butterfly, Sri Lanka rose Atrophaneura jophon is vulnerable (Collins and Morris, 1985). Sri
Lankan five-bar sword Graphium antiphates ceylonicus, which is considered to be very rare, is
not uncommon in Sinharaja at certain times of the year (J.N. Banks, pers. comm., 1986). Zoysa
and Raheem (1987) comprehensively summarise what is known about the fauna.
Cultural Heritage The Sinharaja region has long featured in the legends and lore of the people
of Sri Lanka. Its name, literally meaning lion (sinha) king (raja), perhaps refers to the original
“king-sized or royal forest of the Sinhalese’, a people of the legendary ‘lion-race’ of Sri Lanka
(Hoffmann, 1979), or to the home of a legendary lion of Sri Lanka.
Local Human Population There are two villages within the south-west of the reserve, namely
Warukandeniya and Kolonthotuwa, and about 52 families live in the north-western sector. At
least 20 other settlements occur on the periphery, an unknown number of which have been
illegally established on state land without approval from the relevant authorities. The total
population is in excess of 5,000 people. Some land adjacent to the reserve is under private
ownership, including small tea and rubber plantations. The extent to which local people are
economically dependent on rain forest resources is variable but about 8% of households might
be completely dependent (Silva, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Visitors are low in number and mostly naturalists. Entry is by
permit, obtainable from the Forest Department in Colombo. There are nature trails to the peaks
of Moulawella and Sinhagala. Guidebooks to the Moulawella Trail and to the secondary
vegetation have recently been prepared (Gunatilleke et al., 1987a, 1987b). Some
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Sri Lanka
accommodation is available with the Forest Department near the reserve entrance at Kudawa.
Further facilities are planned.
Scientific Research and Facilities Among the earliest studies are those of Baker (1937, 1938).
Rosayro (1954, 1959), Andrews (1961) and Merritt and Ranatunga (1959) assessed the area’s
potential for selective logging, based on aerial and ground surveys. Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke
(1980, 1981, 1985) examined the floristic composition and phytosociology of woody vegetation
and assessed its conservation value. Research on the endemic fauna has been undertaken by
WWE/UIUCN (Project 1733) and March for Conservation (Karunaratne et al., 1981). Conflicts
over the local use of forest resources have been examined by McDermott (1985, 1986) and Silva
(1985). An annotated vegetation/land-use map (1:40,000) of the reserve has been produced by
the Forest Department (n.d.). The Natural Resources Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka
has provided a field research station in the reserve. The Forest Department building at Kudawa,
outside the reserve, is used by scientists and visitors.
Conservation Value Sinharaja is the last extensive primary lowland tropical rain forest in Sri
Lanka. It holds a large number of endemic species of plants and animals, and a variety of plants
of known benefit to man.
Sinharaja Forest Reserve meets criteria (ii) and (iv) of the World Heritage Convention, based
on the fact that: it is the last viable remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rain forest; over 60%
of the trees are endemic and many of these are rare; and there are 21 endemic bird species, and
a number of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians (IUCN Technical Evaluation).
Conservation Management Sinharaja is administered by the Forest Department under the
Ministry of Lands and Land Development. Recognising the need for maximum possible
protection, it has recently been declared as a national heritage wilderness area under the National
Heritage Wilderness Areas Act. Any excision to such an area is permissible only with the
concurrence of parliament and the President of the country. The site is also partially protected
under the provisions of the Forest Ordinance.
Sinharaja was first recognised in 1936 as being "the only considerable patch of virgin tropical
rain-forest in the island" (Baker, 1937). Owing to its inaccessibility and steep, hilly terrain, the
reserve remained untouched until 1968 when a government directive was issued to extract timber
for the plywood sawmill and chipwood complex established at Kosgama. From 1971 until 1977,
when logging was banned, largely due to public pressure with the Wildlife and Nature Protection
Society playing a leading role (see Hoffmann, 1972, 1977), about 1,400ha of forest in the western
sector were selectively logged (Gunatilleke, 1978; Forest Department, 1986). Presently, the
reserve has 6,500-7,000ha of unlogged forest. Since 1977, the Forest Department has given
high priority to protecting the reserve and in 1978 began planting Pinus caribaea along the
periphery to establish a live boundary. More recently, betelnut palm Areca catechu has been
used for this purpose (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987).
A conservation plan has been officially approved (Forest Department, 1986), implementation
of which is being carried out under a cooperative agreement between IUCN and the Sri Lankan
government, with additional funding from the Norwegian government (Hails, 1989). In order
to ensure the strict protection of the reserve for scientific and aesthetic reasons, a scheme of
zonation and management is proposed for areas outside the reserve. The creation and propaga-
tion of essential forest products, for sustained utilisation, in areas outside the reserve is intended
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
to meet local needs and thereby eliminate former dependence on resources within the reserve.
Alternative strategies are either to establish a 3.2km-wide buffer zone round the reserve or to
enlarge the area protected to about 47,380ha, with the reserve forming a strictly protected core
area and surrounding areas set aside as buffers for various uses. The only resource which may
still be legally collected, under permit, is kitul (McDermott, 1988). The preferred strategy has
been to freeze resource use within the reserve at 1985 levels (when the conservation plan was
prepared) and gradually eliminate future resource dependency on the reserve by relocating
villages to areas outside the reserve (Ishwaran and Erdelen, 1990).
Management Constraints Of the many constraints to the protection of Sinharaja, socio-econ-
omic ones relating to the people and organisations in the immediate vicinity of the reserve are
perhaps among the most important. Encroaching cultivations are probably the biggest problem,
particularly along the southern boundary (McDermot, 1985). Contractors open up routes to
facilitate logging operations and, although no felling is permitted within 1.6km of the reserve
boundary, this may render the reserve more accessible to illicit timber operations. Planting of
Honduran mahogany Swietenia macrophylla along abandoned logging trails as an enrichment
species may lead to displacement of natural species, especially as it is a prolific seed producer
(Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Alleged malpractices by the State Timber Corporation are a source
of concern for the Forest Department. Private land owners along the periphery perhaps make
illegitimate use of timber resources within the reserve: having felled all merchandable timber
on their own land, they continue to request permits for timber (Hathurusinghe, 1985). The most
important forest produce is firewood, significant quantities of which are used in the production
of jaggery (McDermot, 1985; Silva, 1985). The traditional use of minor forest products, most
important of which are kitul for jaggery and wewal or cane for weaving baskets, is now restricted
to forest surrounding the reserve. Illicit gem mining was considered to be a serious problem in
eastern parts of the reserve. It is organised mostly by wealthy merchants from outside the
Sinharaja region and needs to be stopped. The lack of a uniform land-use policy and the
multiplicity of governmental and semi-governmental agencies involved in land-use planning in
Sri Lanka are the major administrative constraints in evolving a suitable protection plan for
Sinharaja. For the moment, transactions related to lands surrounding the reserve are suspended
under presidential order until such time as the conservation plan for the reserve is ready for
implementation (Forest Department, 1986).
Staff Three forest rangers, four beat forest officers (1985). One assistant conservator of forests,
three forest rangers, six beat forest officers and 12 forest watchers are proposed in the
conservation plan.
Budget The Forest Department has allocated higher than normal amounts of money for the
protection of Sinharaja. This reached a record Rs 4 million (US$ 130,000) in 1987. US$ 35,000
was made available by WWE/IUCN for a conservation awareness programme and for the
purchase of equipment in 1986.
Local Addresses Range Forest Officer, Range Forest Office, Kudawa, Weddagala (An
assistant conservator of forests will eventually be responsible for implementing the conservation
plan.)
References
Andrews, J.R.T. (1961). Forest inventory of Ceylon (A Canadian-Ceylon Colombo-Plan Project).
Ceylon Government Press, Colombo.
Baker, J.R. (1937). The Sinharaja rain forest, Ceylon. Geographical Journal 89: 539-551.
254
Sri Lanka
Baker, J.R. (1938). Rain forest in Ceylon. Kew Bulletin 1: 9-16.
Collins, N.M.C. and Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened swallowtail butterflies of the world. TUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 258-260.
Cooray, P.G. (1978). Geology of Sri Lanka. In: Nutalya, P. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third Regional
Conference on Geology and Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia, Bangkok. Pp. 701-710.
Evans, D. (1981). Threatened freshwater fish of Sri Lanka. TUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge, UK. Unpublished report. 58 pp.
Forest Department (n.d.). Sinharaja: our heritage. Forest Extension Service, Forest Department,
Colombo.
Forest Department (1985). A conservation plan for the Sinharaja Forest. Draft. Ministry of Lands
and Land Development/Forest Department, Colombo and WWF/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
109 pp.
Forest Department (1986). Conservation plan for the Sinharaja Forest. Forest Department,
Colombo. 87 pp.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1978). Sinharaja today. Sri Lanka Forester 13: 57-61.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S. and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. (1980). The floristic composition of Sinharaja - a
rain forest in Sri Lanka with special reference to endemics. Sri Lanka Forester 14: 171-179.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S. and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. (1981). The floristic composition of Sinharaja - a
rain forest in Sri Lanka with special reference to endemics. Malaysian Forester 44: 386-396.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S. and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. (1985). Phytosociology of Sinharaja - a contribu-
tion to rain forest conservation in Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation 31: 21-40.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Dodanwela, S.K. and Welagedara, D. (1987a). Guide to the secondary
vegetation of Sinharaja. Workshop on Ecology and Conservation of Tropical Humid Forests
of the Indomalayan Realm, 1-5 May 1987. 63 pp.
Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Silva W.T.P.S.K. de and Senarath, R.M.U. (1987b). Guide to the Moula-
wella Trail in Sinharaja Forest. Workshop on Ecology and Conservation of Tropical Humid
Forests of the Indomalayan Realm, 1-5 May 1987. 58 pp.
Hails, C. (1989). Conservation of the ‘lion king’ forest. WWF Reports April/May 1989: 9-11.
Hapuarachchi, D.J.A.C., Herath, J.W. and Ranasinghe, V.V.C. (1964). The geological and
geophysical investigations of the Sinharaja Forest area. Proceedings of the Ceylon Association
for the Advancement of Science 20 (1D).
Hathurusinghe, D. (1985). Constraints to the protection of the Sinharaja Forest. Paper presented
at the workshop for the preparation of a management plan for the conservation and protection
of the Sinharaja Forest. Forest Department, Colombo. Unpublished manuscript.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1972). The Sinharaja Forest. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Ceylon,
Colombo. 21 pp.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1977). Epitaph for a forest. Sinharaja - 1976. Loris 14: 31-32.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1979). The forest of the lion king. Animal Kingdom 82(S): 24-30.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1984). National red data list of endangered and rare birds of Sri Lanka. Ceyon
Bird Club and Wild Life and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 12 pp.
Ishwaran, N. and Erdelen, W. (1990). Conserving Sinharaja - an experiment in sustainable
development in Sri Lanka. Ambio 19: 237-244.
Karunaratne, P.B., Pieris, T. and Raheem, R. (1981). A research project in the Sinharaja Forest.
Loris 15: 326-327.
Katz, M.B. (1972). On the origin of the Ratnapura gem deposits of Ceylon. Economic Geology 67:
113-115.
March for Conservation (1985). Fauna of Sinharaja. Paper presented at the workshop for the
preparation of a management plan for the conservation and protection of the Sinharaja Forest.
Forest Department, Colombo. Unpublished manuscript.
McDermott, M. (1985). Socio-economics of the protection of the Sinharaja Forest: the village
factor. Paper presented at the workshop for the preparation of a management plan for the
conservation and protection of the Sinharaja Forest. Unpublished manuscript. Forest Depart-
ment, Colombo.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Merritt, V.G. and Ranatunga, M.S. (1959). Aerial photographic survey of Sinharaja Forest.
Ceylon Forester 4: 103-156.
Munasinghe, T. and Dissanayake, C.B. (1980). The origins of gemstones of Sri Lanka. Economic
Geology 70: 1216-1225.
Peeris, C.V.S. (1975). The ecology of endemic tree species in Sri Lanka in relation to their
conservation. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, U.K.
Rosayro, R.A. de (1942). The soils and ecology of the wet evergreen forests of Ceylon. Tropical
Agriculture (Ceylon) 98: 70-80, 153-175.
Rosayro, R.A. de (1954). A reconnaissance of Sinharaja rain forest. Ceylon Forester N.S. 1(3):
68-74.
Rosayro, R.A. de (1959). The application of aerial photography to stock-mapping and inventories
on an ecological basis in rain forests in Ceylon. Empire Forestry Review 38: 141-174.
Silva, W.P.T. de (1985). Socio-economics of the protection of the Sinharaja Forest: the village
factor. Paper presented at the workshop for the preparation of a management plan for the
conservation and protection of the Sinharaja Forest. Forest Department, Colombo. Unpub-
lished manuscript.
WWFIIUCN Project 1733. Effects of deforestation on endemic species, Sinharaja Forest, Sri
Lanka.
WWFI/IUCN Project 3307. Consolidation of the protection of the Sinharaja Forest of Sri Lanka.
Zoysa, N. de, and Raheem, R. (1987). Sinharaja - a rainforest in Sri Lanka. March for Conserva-
tion, Colombo. 92 pp. (Comprehensively reviews much of what is known about Sinharaja.)
Date August 1986, reviewed January 1987, updated September 1990
SOMAWATHIYA CHAITIYA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Spans the border between East Province and North Central Province
in the deltaic plain of the Mahaweli Ganga. 8°04’-8°19’N, 80°55’-81°17’E
Date and History of Establishment Created a national park on 2 September 1986, having
been previously designated a sanctuary on 9 August 1966, and extended through the addition
of Block II on 12 May 1987.
Area _ The 37,762ha national park (Block I: 21,056.8ha, Block II: 16,705.6ha) is contiguous
with Flood Plains National Park (17,350ha) to the south, and to Tirikonamadu Nature Reserve
(25,019ha). The western arm of the national park (Block II) provides a link with Hurulu Forest
Reserve, part of which is protected as a biosphere reserve.
Land Tenure State
Altitude No information
Physical Features The park lies in the deltaic flood plains of the Mahaweli Ganga and encloses
the junction where the river bifurcates into the Mahaweli Ganga, flowing north into Koddiyar
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Bay, and a lesser branch flowing north-east into the sea at Verugal. The central riverine flood
plain is characterised by numerous old river channels and contains scattered ‘villus’ or water-
filled basins among the grassy plains. The fertile alluvial substrate supports high quality habitat,
which is of considerable importance for the abundant wildlife.
Climate No information
Vegetation The water-filled basins in the central flood plain are characterised by the abundance
and predominance of water-tolerant grasses and aquatic plants. The distribution of vegetation
in the villus shows a characteristic pattern, which is related to the period of inundation and the
depth of flooding. On the margins, where wet conditions are brief and the depth of flooding
slight, there are creeping grasses, such as Cynodon dactylon, and various essentially terrestrial
annual plants which are capable of surviving wet conditions. Further inwards from the margin,
the period of flooding is longer and truly hydrophytic species are apparent such as Alternanthera
sessilis, Polygonum spp., berudiyanilla Jussiaea repens, kankun Ipomoea aquatica, diyahaba-
tala Monochoria hastata and Scirpus grossus. The most abundant grasses are gojabba Hygror-
hyza aristata, Brachiaria mutica, Echinochloa colonum, Paspalum vaginatum, Digitaria
longflora and Paspalidium spp. Inwards from this zone, in slightly deeper water, floating aquatic
plants, such as kekatiya Aponogeton crispum, A. natans and Nymphoides spp., occur along with
Nelumbo nucifera. Beyond this zone, in still deeper water, is an association of manel Nymphaea
stellata and the submerged aquatic plant Ceratophyllum demersum. Common floating plants
found in all zones are water lettuce Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta, diya nidikumba Neptunia
oleracea and ikiliya Trapa bispinosa. Some trees occur in wet conditions around the margins
of the flood plain villus. Among these are kumbuk Terminalia arjuna, mee Madhuca longifolia,
mudilla Barringtonia asiatica, halemba Mitragyna parvifolia, eramadu Erythrina variegata and
beli-patta Hibiscus tiliaceus. In the northern part of the sanctuary, the forest is dense with species
such as weera Drypetes sepieria, halmilla Berrya cordifolia, kunumella Diospyros ovalifolia,
weliwenna Dimorphocalyx glabellus, welang Pterospermum canescens, palu Manilkara hexan-
dra and halemba Mitragyna parvifolia (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986). The vegetation of the
Mahaweli Ganga flood plains is further described by Scott (1989).
Fauna The ecological importance of Somawathiya is due mainly to the abundance of elephants
Elephas maximus (E), estimated at about 400 within the sanctuary and its immediate environs,
and rich bird life. Noteworthy mammals include jackal Canis aureus, fishing cat Felis viverrina,
tusty-spotted cat Felis rubiginosa, leopard Panthera pardus (T), wild boar Sus scrofa, sambar
Cervus unicolor, water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E), porcupine Hystrix indica, and black-naped
hare Lepus nigricollis. Typically, the marshes of the flood plain have an interesting and abundant
avifauna. Around 75 migrant species are known to winter in the marshes. Common migrants
are garganey Anas querquedula, marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis, wood sandpiper T. glare-
ola, pintail snipe Gallinago stenura, whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus and black-tailed godwit
Limosa limosa. Resident birds include painted stork [bis leucocephalus, open-billed stork
Anastomus oscitans, little egret Egretta garzetta, cattle egret Bubulens ibis, pond heron Ardeola
grayii, eastern purple heron Ardea purpurea, pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus,
purple gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio, white ibis Threskiornis melanocephala and black-winged
stilt Himantopus himantopus. Within the forests, crimson-breasted barbet Megalaima haemace-
phala, common peafowl Pavo cristatus, Malabar pied hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus,
thick-billed flowerpecker Dicaeum agile, common iora Aegithina tiphia, endemic junglefowl
Gallus lafayettei and gold-fronted chloropsis Chloropsis aurifrons are noteworthy. Barred
buttonquail Turnix suscitator frequents open areas, while white-necked stork Ciconia episcopus,
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crested hawk eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus, grey-headed fishing eagle Jchthyophaga ichthyaetus,
pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis, crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela and painted stork are
abundant in the marshy areas in the north of the park (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986). Further
details of the avifauna are given by Scott (1989).
Cultural Heritage The ancient stupa of Somawathiya Chaitiya, built by King Valagamba in
43-17 BC, is located on the left bank of Mahaweli Ganga. It was discovered within the last few
decades and is visited annually by large numbers of pilgrims (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Local Human Population Comprises itinerant tobacco cultivators and herdsmen. There is a
large government-owned cattle farm within the park at Kandakadu.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Planned developments include visitor accommodation. There
are plans to improve and extend the existing network of 40km of dry weather roads and tracks.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value Together with the adjacent Flood Plains National Park, Somawathiya
National Park affords protection to an unique habitat, i.e. riverine villus and flood plains, as well
as to the largest concentration of elephants within the country. Although the area has been
heavily exploited, regeneration will be rapid once human activity is phased out because of the
abundance of moisture and high carrying capacity of the villus (Dharmasena, 1985). Both parks
are also extremely important for migratory and resident waterfowl (Scott, 1989).
Conservation Management In general, the park has been much neglected (C. Santiapillai,
pers. comm., 1986). There is an overall systems plan for protected areas within the Mahaweli
region (NPS, 1986) and a management plan is being prepared under the Mahaweli Environment
Project.
Management Constraints The site was largely unmanaged and unprotected until it was
incorporated into the Mahaweli Environment Project. Areas of forest have been cleared for
cultivation, following the influx of tobacco cultivators with their cattle during the last six decades
(Hoffmann, 1978; Dharmasena, 1985). Tobacco cultivators enter annually, each with several
heads of cattle. In addition, cattle from the Government farms at Tirikonamadu and Kandakadu
enter for grazing. Conflicts between wildlife, notably elephants, and livestock at villus are
discussed by Ishwaran (1985). Deforestation has become more extensive since the mid-1970s.
Illicit exploitation of timber, tobacco cultivation and grazing by cattle are due to be gradually
phased out with the establishment of the national park (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986). Pilgrims
visiting the dagoba and temple are a source of disturbance (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986),
while religious festivals held in May, June and July are a source of noise and much vehicle traffic
(Dharmasena, 1985).
Staff Two range assistants, five game guards
Budget The park budget is being planned with help from US-AID.
Local Addresses Assistant Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Mahaweli Envi-
ronment Project, Polonnaruwa
258
Sri Lanka
References
Anon. (1985). Preserving wildlife in the Mahaweli. Sri Lanka Wildlife 1: 11-12.
Dharmasena, C.D. (1985). A brief visit to the lower Mahaweli national parks. Loris 17: 15-18.
Hemapriya, B.H. Ed. (1983). Mahaweli projects and programme. Ministry of Lands and Land
Development and Ministry of Mahaweli Development, Colombo. 102 pp.
Hoffmann, T. (1978). Down the Mahaweli by boat. Loris 14: 337-343.
Hoffmann, T. (1981). The elephants of Tamankaduwa. Loris 15: 1-3.
Ishwaran, N. (1985). Ecology of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State
University, East Lansing, USA. (Unseen)
Jansen, M. (1981). Villus of the floodplains of the Mahaweli Ganga. Loris 15(6): 1-5.
Jansen, M. (1982). The lure of the Mahaweli. Loris 16(2): 84-90.
Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks for Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 12(1): 4-7.
McNeely, J.A. (1982). Bringing benefits of nature conservation to the people: a technical
analysis of the Mahaweli Environment Project. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished
report. 45 pp.
NPS (1986). Systems plan. Mahaweli national parks region. US National Park Service/De-
partment of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 44 pp.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp.
Date November 1985, updated September 1990
TIRIKONAMADU NATURE RESERVE
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies north-west of Batticaloa between the Mahaweli Ganga and the
eastern coast of Sri Lanka in North-Central and North-Eastern provinces. 8°05’-8°19’N,
81°10’-81°25’E
Date and History of Establishment Created as a nature reserve on 24 October 1986.
Area 25,019ha. The reserve is contiguous with Somawathiya National Park (37,762ha) along
its western boundary.
Land Tenure State
Altitude 2-20m
Physical Features The topography is nearly flat, with some villus. The natural drainage system
is characterised by a dendritic pattern of dense shallow drainage lines less than one metre deep.
Sandy soils overlie weathered rock materials and granite gneiss at a depth of 1-3m. Topsoil
becomes temporarily saturated following the monsoon rains (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
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Climate Mean annual rainfall in the region is 1600mm, most of which falls in the north-east
monsoon. Conditions are dry from May to September. Mean annual temperature varies between
27°C and 35°C (NPS, 1986).
Vegetation Characterised by pockets of degraded tropical dry mixed evergreen forest scattered
amongst grassland and thorny scrub. Major tree species are palu Manilkara hexandra, weera
Drypetes sepiaria, milla Vites pinnata, burutha (satin) Chloroxylon swietenia, welang Pterocar-
pus canescens and divul Feronia limonia (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Fauna Noteworthy mammals are elephant Elephas maximus (E), leopard Panthera pardus (T),
jackal Canis aureus, spotted deer Cervus axis and wild boar Sus scrofa. Estuarine crocodile
Crocodylus porosus (E) is present, particularly along the Verugal Aru (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1987).
Amongst the avifauna are common peafowl Pavo cristatus and endemic junglefowl Gallus
lafayettei. In the Upaar Lagoon near the eastern boundary, waders and other waterbirds are
present. A variety of waterbirds congregate on the villus in the western part of the reserve, for
example: garganey Anas querquedula, sandpipers Tringa spp., pheasant-tailed jacana Hydro-
phasianus chirurgus, purple coot Porphyrio porphyrio, whiskered tern Chilodonias hybrida,
egrets, godwits, storks and herons (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Cultural Heritage There are ruins of temples at Ilandamodu and Kompanachchi, and stone
pillars and statues elsewhere within the reserve (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Local Human Population Comprises itinerant tobacco cultivators, herdsmen and farmers.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities None
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The reserve has been created as an integral part of the Mahaweli
Environment Project in lieu of the Nelugala Jungle Corridor which was lost to development.
Together with Somawithya National Park, Tirikonamadu supports the largest concentration of
elephants in Sn Lanka (NPS, 1986).
Conservation Management The main objective outlined in the systems plan is to integrate
protected areas into an overall scheme of land use and development within the Mahaweli region
(NPS, 1986).
Management Constraints Cattle grazing and tobacco cultivation, particularly along the river
banks, are the main disturbances (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Staff None
Budget The reserve budget is being met under the US-AID-funded Mahaweli Environment
Project.
Local Addresses Assistant Director (Mahaweli), New Town, Polonnaruwa
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Sri Lanka
References
Jansen, M. (1986). Conservation and development in Sri Lanka’s Mahaweli River Basin Project.
Parks 11(1): 4-7.
NPS (1986). Systems plan: Mahaweli national parks region. US National Park Service/Department
of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 44 pp.
Date November 1987
UDA WALAWE NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Lies in Sabaragamuwa and Uva provinces and includes the Uda
Walawe Reservoir, together with much of its catchment area. The park is surrounded by
cultivated land. 6°24’-6°35’N, 80°44’-80°58’E
Date and History of Establishment Created a national park on 30 June 1972 (Government
Gazette No.14).
Area 30,82lha
Land Tenure Largely state-owned. Some land is believed to be traditionally owned
(Nindagam).
Altitude Ranges from about 100m on the plains to 373m at the top of Ulgala (Hoffmann, 1972).
Physical Features The park consists of the immediate catchment area of the deep Walawe
Reservoir (3,400ha), which is surrounded by open plains and foothills. The most prominent
feature is the Kalthota Escarpment and spectacular Diyawinne Fall to the north. Ulgala, in the
west of the park, is the most prominent peak.
Climate Lying in the dry zone, conditions are characterised by an annual drought coinciding
with the south-west monsoon. Mean annual rainfall is about 1524mm. Part of the western sector
lies in the intermediate zone and receives a little more rainfall. Mean day and night temperatures
are 29.4°C and 23.9°C, respectively (Hoffmann, 1972).
Vegetation Originally forested, grassland and thorn-scrub now predominate. Much of the
forest was destroyed by chena (shifting cultivation). Tree species include satin Chloroxylon
swietenia, halmilla Berrya cordifolia, ebony Diospyros ebenum, ehala Cassia fistula, kolon
Adina cordifolia, milla Vitex pinnata, kon Schleichera oleosa and kunumella Diospyros ovali-
folia. Scattered trees, constituting 20-50% of existing cover, are mainly satin, ehala and
lunumidella Melia dubia. In the riverine forest, kumbuk Terminalia arjuna and the endemic
mandorang Hopea cordifolia are dominant. Scrub is dominated by damaniya Grewia tiliaefolia.
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Savanna grasslands are dominated by mana Cymbopogon confertiflorus, illuk Imperata cylind-
rica and pogon Pennisetum olystachyon (Hoffmann, 1972).
Fauna There are herds of elephant Elephas maximus (E) (A.B. Fernando, pers. comm., 1990),
while populations of sambar Cervus unicolor, spotted deer C. axis, muntjac Muntiacus muntjak,
wild boar Sus scrofa and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E) are gradually re-establishing
themselves. Other mammals include: toque macaque Macaca sinica (endemic), common langur
Presbytis entellus, jackal Canis aureus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (I), toddy cat Paradoxurus
hermaphroditis, leopard Panthera pardus (T) and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis
(Hoffmann, 1972); and small Indian civet Viverricula indica, endemic golden palm civet
Paradoxurus zeylonensis, three species of mongoose Herpestes fuscus, H. smithi and H. vitti-
collis, an endemic shrew Suncus sp., gerbil Tatera sp., rat Rattus rattus kandianus, soft-furred
field rat Millardia meltada, Indian bush rat Golunda elliotti, mouse Mus cervicolor and the
endemic M. fernandoni (P.B. Karunaratne, pers. comm., 1990).
The avifauna includes large numbers of warblers (Prinia spp.), together with the usual low-
country birds in forested areas, and a variety of raptors. Waterbirds found on the reservoir
include rare visitors such as Indian cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscicollis and osprey Pandion
haliaetus (Banks and Banks, 1985). Notable endemic species are Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloper-
dix bicalcarata, Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, Malabar pied hornbill Anthracoceros
coronatus, Malabar grey hornbill Tockus griseus and brown-capped babbler Pellorneum fusco-
capillum (Hoffmann, 1972).
Cultural Heritage There are some ruins near Veheramankada.
Local Human Population § There were two small purana villages in the centre of the park:
Sinukgalla with four families and Nebodawewa with two families (Hoffmann, 1972). These
families have since been relocated to Indurugaswewa, outside the park. At the time of the park’s
establishment, there were an estimated 15,000 squatters (Anon., 1980), most of whom have since
been removed.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Visitors require a permit, obtainable from the Ranger’s office
at Thimbolketiya, and must be accompanied by a tracker. Accommodation is not available in
the park, but circuit bungalows belonging to the Sugar Corporation, Fisheries Corporation and
Mahaweli ASL are nearby. The Wildlife and Nature Protection Society is constructing a
bungalow near the bund just outside the park. Two camp sites, at Weheramankade and
Pansadhara, are located on the east bank of the Walawe River. There is a small hotel at
Embilipitiya, about 20 minutes by road from the park.
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value Lying in the Intermediate Zone, Uda Walawe is renowned for its
outstanding scenic beauty and wealth of faunal species, particularly mammals and birds. The
park serves the dual purpose of ensuring a perennial supply of silt-free water to the reservoir
and providing a refuge for wildlife displaced by the opening up of land in the lower reaches of
the Walawe Ganga (Hoffmann, 1972, 1973; Ariyaratna, 1980).
Conservation Management Following the park’s establishment, there was extensive en-
croachment and about 70% of the forest was destroyed, due largely to chena (shifting cultiva-
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Sri Lanka
tion). In 1979, about 6,000 squatters were evicted, since when there has been appreciable
recovery of the vegetation and wildlife populations (A.B. Fernando, pers. comm., 1990).
Staffing levels were also increased at that time, resulting in significant improvements in
management, and a programme of reafforestation initiated. It remains to be decided, however,
what should be done with the extensive teak plantations inside the park once the trees mature.
Fishing operations are permitted on the reservoir.
It has been suggested that the park should be extended to accommodate the full range of its
elephant population, which migrates as far as Samanalawewa during the wet season. Lying
between the Kalthota Escarpment and the Central Range, Samanalawewa is unique with respect
to its talawas (savannas) and forest (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990).
Management Constraints In 1977, it was reported that timber was being extracted by
contractors licensed by the Forest Department but without the consent of the Department of
Wildlife Conservation, legal custodians of the area. This practice has since been stopped. In
the same year, two irrigation schemes at Mau-Aru and Guruwela tank were planned but the
former scheme was not implemented. Land on the boundary of the park has been allocated to
colonists by the government. The land is of poor quality and, when exhausted, could lead to
encroachment into the park. Fishermen and gem miners regularly set fire to grasslands, thereby
suppressing forest regeneration. A major source of conflict is the 11,330ha sugar cane plantation
at Sevanagala, on the southern border of the park, which is raided by elephants (Hoffmann, 1972;
R-F., 1977; Ariyaratna, 1980).
Staff 40 staff (1980)
Budget No information
Local Addresses Park Warden, Uda Walawe National Park, P 74, Uda Walawe
References
Anon. (1980). Uda Walawe National Park. Loris 15: 215-216.
Ariyaratna, N.T. (1980). Hopes afresh for a national park. Tigerpaper 7(1): 8.
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). The Uda Walawe National Park. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo.
Unpublished fact sheet. 1 p.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1972). The new Uda Walawe National Park: notes on a visit - 4th to 6th August
1972. Loris 12: 277-283, 325.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1973). The new Uda Walawe National Park. Loris 13: 41-43.
R.F. (1977). Udawalawe - a losing battle? Loris.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
UDAWATTEKELE SANCTUARY
TUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
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Geographical Location Lies north of Kandy Lake on the periphery of the ancient capital of
Sri Lanka, Kandy, in Central Province. 7°19’N, 80°39’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 29 July 1938. Udawattekele
Forest Reserve (102.8ha) was notified on 15 October 1897 (Notification No. 3504), but its
protection and use as a pleasure park probably goes back many centuries. The forest reserve
has been designated a national MAB reserve.
Area lilha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Approximately 500m
Physical Features State
Climate Conditions are similar to those at Kandy, with the south-west monsoon from mid-May
to July/August and the north-east from October/November to late December. Annual rainfall
is 1615mm and temperatures remain at about 24°C throughout much of the year.
Vegetation Comprises fairly dense forest, mostly plantation and secondary formations.
Fauna Mammals include the endemic toque macaque Macaca sinica, jackal Canis aureus,
mouse deer Tragulus meminna and small mammals such civets and porcupine Hysterix indica.
About 80 species of birds have been recorded from the area. Endemic species include emerald-
collared parakeet Psittacula calthorpae, yellow-fronted barbet Megalaima flavifrons and brown-
capped babbler Pellorneum fuscocapillum. The rare three-toed kingfisher Ceyx erithacus has
occasionally been seen.
Cultural Heritage Udawattakele is a Buddhist ‘sanctuary’ and there is a temple in the vicinity.
Local Human Population The surrounding land is settled.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The sanctuary is popular with the residents of Kandy, and also
receives many other visitors. There is a network of bridlepaths. Facilities are available in Kandy.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The sanctuary is important as a recreational area for the inhabitants of
Kandy, as well as protecting part of the city’s water catchment.
Conservation Management Various recommendations on zonation are made by Weerasinghe
(1980).
Management Constraints Fuelwood is illegally collected from the sanctuary (S. Wells, pers.
comm., 1986).
Staff Includes a number of forest guards
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Sri Lanka
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). Udawattakelle Forest Reserve - at Kandy. Ceylon Bird Club,
Colombo. Unpublished fact sheet. 1 pp.
Weerasinghe, A. (1980). Conservation of Udawattekelle Forest for nature lovers. Loris 15:
178-180.
Date September 1990
VICTORIA-RANDENIGALA-RANTAMBE SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Spans the Mahaweli Ganga between Kandy and the Minipe Anicut
within the administrative districts of Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and Badulla in Central Province.
The boundary follows the ridges of surrounding hill ranges. 7°06’-7°22’N, 80°43’-80°58’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 30 January 1987.
Area 42,087ha.
Land Tenure Land is largely state-owned but some holdings are under private ownership. It
was placed under the jurisdiction of the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka in 1979.
Altitude Ranges from 440m to 1,216m at the top of Wewagalatenna.
Physical Features Topography is characterised by narrow, north-south aligned valleys through
which the tributaries of the Mahaweli Ganga drain into the eastward-flowing Mahaweli Ganga.
Valleys are steep-sided, generally with a gradient in excess of 30%. Two major new hydro-
power and storage reservoirs, namely Victoria (2,400ha) and Randenigala (2,400ha), are located
on the Mahaweli Ganga in the middle of the sanctuary, and there are two smaller reservoirs,
namely Rantambe on the Mahaweli Ganga and Lower Uma Oya on a tributary of the Mahaweli
Ganga. Polgolla diversion barrage, from which waters are diverted to the north-central part of
the country, lies within the western boundary. All of these constructions are part of the
Accelerated Mahaweli Programme. Randenigala Reservoir contains a number of small islands,
together with coves and peninsulas formed as a result of the construction of both Randenigala
and Victoria reservoirs. These contribute to the diversity of habitats available to wildlife (M.
Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Climate Falls largely within the Intermediate climatic zone.
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Vegetation Represents a transition between those of wet and dry zones. Hill slopes have a
reasonably good forest cover, interspersed with patches of secondary growth where the vegeta-
tion is recovering from chena (shifting cultivation). The central part of the sanctuary contains
dry mixed evergreen forest, characterised by species such as palu Manilkara hexandra, weera
Drypetes sepiaria, milla Vitex pinnata, burutha (satin) Chloroxylon swietenia and welang
Pterocarpus canescens. Other common species are labu Gyrocarpus americanus, kiri kon
Walsura piscidia, ma-dan Syzygium cuminii and pethan Bauhinia tomentosa. In the higher hills
of the north-eastern arm of the sanctuary the vegetation is typically montane and represented by
species such as Elaeocarpus spp., Syzygium spp. and Calophyllum walkerii. On the plateau
around Madugoda in the extreme north, a distinctive windswept schlerophyllus vegetation with
low stature trees is present. South-eastern slopes support dry patana grasslands (M. Jansen, pers.
comm., 1987).
Fauna Large mammals include endemic toque macaque Macaca sinica, jackal Canis aureus,
leopard Panthera pardus (T), otter Lutra lutra, civet cat Viverricula indica, elephant Elephas
maximus (E) (with a herd of 40-50 present), wild boar Sus scrofa, spotted deer Cervus axis,
sambar C. unicolor, pangolin Manis crassicaudata and black-naped hare Lepus nigricollis (M.
Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
The avifauna is rich. Endemics include Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei, brown-capped
babbler Pellorneum fuscocapillum and Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloperdix bicalcarata. Migratory
birds also visit the area (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Among the amphibia is the endemic greater hourglass tree frog Rhacophorus cruciger. Reptiles
include endemic species such as Otocryptis wiegmanni, spotted skink Mabuya macularia,
smooth skink Sphenomorphus taprobanensis, S. fallax, great forest gecko Gymnodactylus
frenatus and G. kadniyanus. Snakes are numerous and include python Python molurus (V),
whip snakes, kraits, wolf snakes, vipers and common cobra Naja naja. Fishes include endemic
green labeo Labeo fisheri (E), which occurs in fast flowing streams (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1987).
Cultural Heritage Ancient constructions include the noteworthy anicut across the Mahaweli
Ganga at Minipe (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Local Human Population A number of small villages are located towards peripheral regions
of the sanctuary, where rice, tobacco, tea and other cash crops are cultivated. Shifting cultivation
is also practised on some hill slopes, but this is of low intensity (M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are plans to develop the sanctuary for water sports,
hiking, mountaineering, camping, picnicing, wildlife viewing and photography (M. Jansen, pers.
comm., 1987). Accommodation facilities presently available with the Mahaweli Authority are
being transferred to the Department of Wildlife Conservation.
Scientific Research and Facilities None
Conservation Value The sanctuary has been set up with the primary objective of protecting
the catchments of the reservoirs constructed under the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme. It
has great potential for visitors because of its impressive scenery (NPS, 1986).
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Conservation Management The sanctuary is being developed under the Mahaweli Environ-
ment Project. A pilot project has been initiated to introduce 25 indigenous orchid species
threatened elsewhere in their ranges to an island in Randenigala Reservoir. It is planned to
introduce other plant and animal species in need of refuge. There are plans to establish the
central core of the sanctuary as a national park, including the Victoria, Randenigala and
Rantambe reservoirs (Hoffmann, 1987; M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1987). Local residents will
retain their rights within the sanctuary but have agreed to be resettled at Andriyabadda.
Management Constraints Major disturbances include the cultivation of private land holdings
on hill slopes in peripheral areas of the sanctuary. Land use is most intensive in the narrow
western arm of the sanctuary around Victoria Reservoir. Fires regularly occur on the slopes
around Victoria Reservoir, but elsewhere they are less of a problem (M. Jansen, pers. comm.,
1987).
Staff One game ranger, one range assistant, ten game guards and five ancillary staff (1990)
Budget A very limited budget is available from the US-AID-funded Mahaweli Environment
Project.
Local Addresses Game Ranger, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Urumada, Wala-
pane
References
Hoffmann, T.W. (1987). Report on circuit of MEP areas, 20th-25th January 1987. Mahaweli
Environment Project, Colombo. Unpublished. ’7 pp.
Jansen, M. (1985). Proposal for conservation of immediate catchment of Randenigala Reservoir.
Unpublished report. (Unseen)
NPS (1986). Systems plan: Mahaweli national parks region. US National Park Service/Department
of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 44 pp.
Date September 1987, updated September 1990
WASGOMUWA NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Approximately 50km north-east of Kandy in Polonnaruwa and Matala
districts, the park spans North Central and Central provinces. The eastern boundary is defined
by the Mahaweli Ganga, the western and northern boundaries by the Amban Ganga and the
southern boundary is formed for the most part by the Duniwila Oya. The nearest large town is
Polonnaruwa, 10km from the northern boundary. The southern part of the park can be reached
along a 50km road from Hasalaka. 7°34’-7°57’N, 80°51-81°05’E
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Date and History of Establishment Formerly a strict natural reserve (Lot I) and intermediate
zone (Lot II), the Wasgomuwa area was augmented by additional lands acquired under the
Mahaweli Environment Project and declared a national park in two phases, with Lots I and II
notified on 7 August 1984 and Lot III on 25 January 1980. The strict natural reserve was
established in February 1938, having originally been designated a game sanctuary in about 1907,
and an area along its northern boundary was declared an intermediate zone (Hoffmann, 1977;
St John, 1986). Further historical details are given by St John (1986).
Area Total area is 37,063ha (Lot I: 29,152ha, Lot II: 4,612.8ha, Lot III: 3,298.2ha). The area
of the former strict natural reserve was extended by 116. 1ha to 29,152.2ha on 8 November 1940
(St John, 1986). Flood Plains National Park (17,350ha) lies immediately to the north-east,
downstream from Wasgomuwa. To the north is the 7,529ha Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve.
The park is contiguous to the proposed Riverine Nature Reserve (920.6ha) on the right bank of
the Mahaweli Ganga. i
Land Tenure State
Altitude Ranges from about 76m along the Mahaweli Ganga to 535m at the top of Himbiliy-
ande in the Sudukanda Range.
Physical Features The dominant topographic feature is the north-south-aligned Sudukanda
Range in the west of the park which forms the divide between the Amban Ganga and the
Mahaweli Ganga. An extensive peneplain stretches eastwards from the foothills of the Sudu-
kanda Range to the Mahaweli. It features erosional remnants, such as Nuganagala (142m) in
the north and Udawewalanda (109m) towards the south (St John, 1986). Rocks are predomi-
nantly pre-Cambian. Their degradation has resulted in a mature peneplain with a thin mantle
cover. Soils are reddish-brown earths in the upper catchment areas and alluvial in the floodplains
(NPS, 1986a).
Climate Conditions are fairly typical of the dry zone and largely influenced by the north-east
monsoon (Maha) in October-February. Inter-monsoonal rains occur in March-May. Annual
rainfall increases from about 1750mm in the north to 2250mm in the south. Mean annual
temperature is about 27°C, with little variation year-round (NPS, 1986a).
Vegetation Tropical dry mixed evergreen forest predominates, characterised by trees such as
weera Drypetes sepiaria, palu Manilkara hexandra, wa Cassia roxburghii, ehale C. fistula,
buruta (satin) Chloroxylon swietenia, velang Pterospermum canescens, the endemic galsiyam-
bala Dialium ovoideum, milla Vitex pinnata and kaluwara (ebony) Diospyros ebenum. Dense
forests cover the hilly ridges and there is well-developed forest along the major river courses.
The riverine forests are dominated by kumbuk Terminalia arjuna, owila Polyalthia longifolia,
mee Madhuca longifolia, kunumella Diospyros ovalifolia and timbiri D. malabarica. In the
south-eastern and eastern parts of the park are extensive open plains (clearings) dominated by
the grass illuk Jmperata cylindrica (NPS, 1986a; Jayasingham et al., 1988).
Fauna The known fauna comprises 20 species of mammals, 163 of birds (of which five are
endemic to Sri Lanka), 35 of reptiles (of which seven are endemic), 15 of amphibians and 52 of
butterflies (Kotagama and Vattala, n.d.). All seven nationally endangered species known from
the Mahaweli region are present: a population of around 150 elephant Elephas maximus (E),
leopard Panthera pardus (T), red-faced malkoha Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus, common
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monitor Varanus bengalensis, mugger Crocodylus palustris (V), estuarine crocodile Crocodylus
porosus (E) and python Python molurus (V). The park is also noted for its endemic primates
(toque macaque Macaca sinica and purple-faced langur Presbytis senex), sloth bear Melursus
ursinus (I), spotted deer Cervus axis, sambar C. unicolor and wild boar Sus scrofa. The rare and
endemic palm frond frog Hylerana gracilis is present. Noteworthy birds include Sri Lanka
trogon Harpactes fasciatus, racquet-tailed drongo Dicrurus caerulescens, endemic yellow-
fronted barbet Megalaima flavifrons, endemic Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei and
endemic Sri Lanka spurfowl Galloperdix bicalcarata. White-necked stork Ciconia episcopus
and lesser adjutant stork Leptoptilos javanicus occur in the plains (NPS, 1986; M. Jansen, pers.
comm., 1986).
Cultural Heritage The most important cultural site is Buduruwayaya in the south-west corner,
near the confluence of the Amban and Kalu rivers. These ruins, estimated to be 1800 years old,
feature a statue of Buddha reclining and stone pillars. Another reclining Buddha statue is
immediately across the Amban Ganga, outside the western park boundary (NPS, 1986a).
Remains of an ancient irrigation system provide evidence of early human occupation beside the
Mahaweli Ganga and Amban Ganga. The canal known as Kalinga Yoda Ela was constructed
by King Parakarama in the twelfth century (Hemapriya, 1981). A ruined palace with stone
pillars, located on an island in Kalinga River, is particularly important.
Local Human Population There are no residents in the park. The former strict natural reserve
was occupied in places by squatters, who were resettled in adjacent Mahaweli settlement areas
prior to the park’s establishment.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Very adequate facilities exist outside the park, with guest houses
and hotels available in Polonnaruwa, Giritale and Habarane, and less sophisticated rest houses
in Mahigangana and Pallegama. It is proposed that only limited accommodation should be
provided inside the park, with campsites and hostels at north and south entrances. Facilities at
the north entrance will include a visitor centre (NPS, 1986a).
Scientific Research and Facilities The vegetation has been surveyed by Jaysingham et al.
(1988) and the fauna by Kotagama and Vattala (n.d.). The relative density of elephants has been
examined in grassland and forest habitats (Ishwaran, 1985).
Conservation Value Wasgoma is unusual in its virtual lack of contemporary human disturb-
ance and infrastructure, and its importance as a centre of ancient Sri Lankan culture. Being
isolated by large rivers on all but its southern side is a major advantage for management. The
park probably contains more wildlife, in terms of both diversity of species and numbers of
animals, than any other part of the Mahaweli development area, with the possible exception of
the northern part of the proposed Somawathiya National Park.
Conservation Management There is an overall systems plan for protected areas within the
Mahaweli region (NPS, 1986b) and a master plan for Wasgomuwa (NPS, 1986a). The purpose
of the park is to protect indigenous natural resources and watersheds, to confer benefits to local
people in surrounding areas and to provide for limited recreational use. In view of its relatively
pristine condition and isolation, it is proposed that development of the park should be minimal
and largely confined to the periphery. A system of natural and development zones is envisaged,
together with a special use zone along the Amban Ganga, where the landscape is being restored,
and 200m-wide peripheral buffer zones to keep wildlife in and domestic animals out. The
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
southern portion of Flood Plains National Park is included in the Wasgomuwa master plan for
administrative purposes (NPS, 1986b).
Management Constraints Possibly the biggest management issue is the tendency for ele-
phants to cross the eastern and southern boundaries into adjacent agricultural areas. Various
actions are proposed to reduce conflict between elephants and settlers (St John, 1984, 1986;
NPS, 1986a). Other problems are poaching, illegal timber exploitation and gem mining, which
is prevalent around the Sudukanda Range (NPS, 1986a). Apart from the obvious disturbance
to wildlife and degradation of the habitat, the thousands of abandoned and exposed mine shafts
pose a serious hazard to both wildlife and humans. Although pits are now being filled, new ones
are still being dug (Hoffmann, 1987a).
The former strict natural reserve has been seriously degraded in recent years. Squatters practised
slash-and-burn cultivation for cash crops in large areas of the forest, and an expanding irrigation
scheme to the south encroached into the reserve. The squatters have since been resettled outside
the new park and the boundaries have been redefined, excluding the irrigation scheme while
extending them northwards towards Hurulu Forest Reserve. Part of Wasgamuwa was to be
inundated by a dam across the Mahaweli, but these plans were abandoned. Potentially, a new
threat is a Japanese-backed project to extend the left bank of Minipe Canal right through the
park (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990).
Staff One park warden, 12 game guards and 12 ancillary staff (1990)
Budget The park budget is being planned with help from US-AID.
Local Addresses Park Warden, Wasgomuwa National Park, Wilgamuwa, Hettipola
References
Hemapriya, B.H. Ed. (1981). Mahaweli Ganga. Ministry of Lands and Land Development and
Ministry of Mahaweli Development, Columbo.
Hemapriya, B.H. Ed. (1981). Mahaweli projects and programmes. Ministry of Lands and Land
Development and Ministry of Mahaweli Development, Columbo. 102 pp.
Hoffman, T.W. (1977). Report on Wasgomuwa. Loris 14: 195-197.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1987a). Report on circuit of MEP areas, 20th-25th January 1987. Mahaweli
Environment Project, Colombo. Unpublished. 7 pp.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1987b). Report on visit to Wasgomuwa National Park - 29-31.5.87. Mahaweli
Environment Project, Colombo. Unpublished. 6 pp.
Ishwaran, N. (1985). Ecology of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State
University, East Lansing, USA. (Unseen)
Jansen, M. (1982). The lure of the Mahaweli. Loris 16: 84-90.
Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks for Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 12(1): 4-7.
Jayasingham, T., Vivekanantharaja, S. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1988). Vegetation survey of
Wasgomuwa National Park. Department of Botany, Eastern University, Chenkaladi. Unpub-
lished report. (Unseen)
Kotagama, S.W. and Vattala, H.D.V.S. (n.d.). Faunal survey of Wasgomuwa. Unpublished
report. Department of Wildlife Conservation, Cclombo. 10 pp.
McNeely, J.A. (1982). Bringing the benefits of nature conservation to the people: a technical
analysis of the Mahaweli Environment Project. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished
report. 45 pp.
NPS (1986a). Master plan: Wasgomuwa National Park. US National Park Service/Department of
Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 43 pp.
270
Sri Lanka
NPS (1986b). Systems plan: Mahaweli national parks region. US National Park Service/Depart-
ment of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. 44 pp.
St John, R.B.L. (1984). Wasgomuwa comes of age. Loris 16: 290-293.
St John, R.B.L. (1986). From an unknown jungle to a national park: Wasgomuwa. Sri Lanka
Wildlife 2: 18-20.
WWFI/IUCN Project 1783. Elephant management, Sri Lanka.
Date November 1985, updated September 1990
WILPATTU NATIONAL PARK AND WILPATTU NORTH SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category
Wilpattu National Park: II (National Park)
Wilpattu North Sanctuary: | IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location The park lies on the north-west coast, 30km due west of Anuradha-
pura, and spans the border between North West Province and North Central provinces. It is
bounded in the north by the Moderagam Aru, in the south by the Kala Oya, and in the west by
Portugal and Dutch bays and the open sea. 8°12’-8°32’N, 79°52’-80°10’E
The sanctuary lies inland from the coast and is entirely within Northern Province. It is
contiguous with the park, the intervening boundary being marked by the Moderagam Aru.
8°32’-8°35’N, 79°56’-80°01’E
Date and History of Establishment The national park was declared on 25 February 1938,
having been created a sanctuary in 1905. Further details of its early history are given by
Hoffmann (1969). Wilpattu North Sanctuary was declared on 7 November 1947.
Area Wilpattu National Park: 131,693ha
Wilpattu North Sanctuary: 624ha
The park extends is divided into five blocks declared at various times: Block I (54,954ha) on 25
February 1938; Block II (7,021ha) on 28 April 1967; Block III (22,792ha) on 27 June 1969 and
enlarged by 189ha on 5 October 1973; Block IV (25,252ha) on 5 December 1969 and Block V
(21,484ha) on 7 December 1973. The adjacent areas of Dutch and Portugal bays have been
proposed as a marine extension to the park, largely to protect dugong Dugong dugong (V)
(Bertram and Bertram, 1970; Santiapillai, 1981).
Land Tenure State, except in the case of some cultivated land in the sanctuary (as indicated
in the 1969 revision of the 1 inch: 1 mile topographic map)
Altitude Wilpattu National Park: ranges from sea level to 152m.
Wilpattu North Sanctuary: ranges from 16m to 28m.
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IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Physical Features The western margin of this flat lowland is characterised by littoral sands,
overlying sedimentarry rocks. Sandstone and red-earth cliffs between Palugaturai and Kudri-
malai are a coastal feature not commonly found elsewhere in Sri Lanka. The central portion is
dominated by a series of natural waterholes or villus, some of which are permanent. These are
formed in shallow depressions over an impervious layer and fill up by surface flow during the
monsoons. Approximately 24km from the coast, the underlying rocks change in character from
Jaffna limestones to the Vijayan series, a complex conglomerate of supercrustal rocks, including
crystalline limestone and granitic gneiss. Soils in the west are generally very poor and
intermittently characterised by red-yellow latosols, which are slightly acidic, low in organic
matter and low in minerals. In the east, soils are more frequently characterised by fertile reddish
brown earths, high in minerals. Other soil types include clays, in areas of former cultivation and
tanks, and alluvial deposits along the banks of the major river systems and their tributaries
(Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972).
Climate Characterised by inter-monsoonal rains in March and April, an extensive drought from
May until early September and a major rainy season (north-east monsoon) from September until
December. Mean annual temperature is 27.2°C and total annual precipitation is approximately
1000mm, based on long-term records at Pomparippu (Mueller-Dombois, 1968).
Vegetation Three types of vegetation can be distinguished: littoral vegetation, including salt
grass and low scrub immediately adjacent to the beach; a 5-10 km coastal belt of monsoon scrub
of very low stature; and, further inland, monsoon forest with tall emergents, such as pala
Manikara hexandra and satin Choroxylon swietenia. Some 73% of the park is dense forest or
scrub and the rest is more open habitat (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972). The vegetation has been
mapped by Mueller-Dombois and Fernando (1970). Dominant species within various physiog-
nomic classes of vegetation are listed by Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972).
Fauna Mammalian diversity and ecological densities are highest in such ecotones as the
interfaces between forest, scrub and grassland in the west and the villus and drainage systems
in the centre of the park. A total of 31 species of mammal have been recorded but additional
species of Rodentia and Chiroptera are undoubtedly present (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972).
Threatened mammals are elephant Elephas maximus (E), with an estimated 70 residents (1969),
sloth bear Melursus ursinus (I), leopard Panthera pardus (T), the dominant carnivore with a
population size estimated at less than 20 residents (1969), and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis
(V), numbering about 160 residents (1969). Of the herbivores, elephant exhibits the lowest
numerical density but accounts for the second highest biomass, exceeded only by spotted deer
Cervus axis which, at an estimated 3,500 (1969), is the most numerically abundant species. The
elephant population is currently estimated at 200-300 (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990).
Dugong Dugong dugong (V) occurred in Dutch and Portugal bays, adjacent to the park (Bertram
and Bertram, 1970), but its present status is uncertain.
The villus support a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, including large breeding
populations of painted stork Mycteria leucocephala and open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans
(Scott, 1989). Other wetland species include garganey Anas querquedula, pintail A. acuta,
whistling teal Dendrocygna javanica, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, white ibis Threskiornis
melanocephala, large white egret Egretta alba, cattle egret Bubulens ibis and purple heron Ardea
pupurea. Indian darter Anhinga melanogaster is abundant in the vicinity of those villus which
support a fish fauna. Common in the vicinity of villus are white-shafted little tern Sterna
albifrons, gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica, whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus, great
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Sri Lanka
stone-curlew Esacus recurvirostris, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus and red-wattled
lapwing Lobivanellus indicus. Among the more noticeable forest or scrub birds are greater
raquet-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus, paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi, crimson-
breasted barbet Megalaima haemacephala, green barbet M. zeylanica, Malabar hornbill Anthra-
coceros coronatus, little green bee-eater Merops orientalis, kingfisher Alcedo atthis, nightjar
Caprimulgus macrurus, and brown fish owl Ketupa zeylonensis. Galliformes are well repre-
sented by peafowl Pavo cristatus and Sri Lanka junglefowl Gallus lafayettei. Common raptors
include crested serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela, white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
and crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus. Among the most conspicuous reptiles are common
monitor Varanus bengalensis, mugger Crocodylus palustris (V), common cobra Naja naja, rat
snake Ptyas mucosus and Indian python Python molurus (V). Pond turtle Melanochelys trijuga
and soft-shelled turtle Lissemys punctata are resident in most of the larger permanent villus.
Star tortoise Testudo elegans is common in grasslands. Termites of the genus Trinervitermes
probably account for the most significant proportion of the invertebrate biomass. Termite
activity is highest in scrub and scrub-forest, and minimal in grassland (Eisenberg and Lockhart,
1972).
Cultural Heritage Much legend and history is associated with the park and its immediate
surroundings. Vijaya landed at Kudrimalai in about 500 BC and founded the Sinhalese race.
According to legend, Vijaya married Kuveni, the jungle princess, whose palace lies in ruins at
Kali Villu. North-east of Maradanmaduwa are Wirandagoda and Galbendi Niraya where Prince
Saliya, son of King Dutugemunu, is reputed to have lived with his ‘forest’ bride of lowly caste,
Asokamala, some 2,000 years ago. Kudrimalai, or Horse Point, was visited by a subject of
Emperor Claudius in 47 AD, who was blown off course by the monsoon. The local king later
sent his own envoys to Rome during the time of Pliny. The palace of Queen Alirani, or Aliserani,
is reputed to lie buried at Kudrimalai. Pomparipau is an archaeological site where sealed urns
containing human remains have been found. These burials were probably in pre-Vijayan times.
There are engraved stone boundary posts from ancient Sinhalese times at Konwetiya and
elsewhere. Between Palagaturai and Kollankanatte are the remains of an old harbour (Sama-
raweera, 1970). The ruins of an ancient Hindu temple sit on the top of Kudrimalai Point. Nearby,
on the beach lies the grave of a Muslim saint. The old catholic church at Pallakandal is visited
by several thousand pilgrims for the annual festival (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986). In
the eastern part are remnants of breached tanks left over from the agricultural systems of ancient
Sinhalese civilizations.
Local Human Population There are seasonal fishing camps near Kudrimalai (Tammannawa)
and at Palugaturai, Kollankanatte and Wellamundel. The fishing village of Pookulam, south of
the mouth of Moderagam Aru, has been excised from the park, together with some surrounding
land and a tank (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is presently closed because of security problems. In
the early 1980s, prior to its closure, the park received some 25,000-30,000 visitors per year.
There are seven lodges: Maradamaduwa, Pannikar Villu, Kalli Villu, Mana Wila, Thala Wila,
Manikapola Uttu and Kokmottai. All overlook villus except the last which is by the Modaragam
Aru. Most of these are closed towards the end of the dry season in August-September. Another
lodge at Makalanmaduwa has never been used since its construction in the late 1970s. A lodge
belonging to the Wild Life and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka lies just outside the park,
and The Wilpattu Hotel is some 24km distant. There is a good network of gravel roads,
particularly between waterholes. A museum is situated at Hunuwilagama.
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Scientific Research and Facilities The park was surveyed over a period of 14 months in
1968-1969, as part of an elephant study program undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution
(Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972). A botanical reconnaissance was carried out at the same time
(Mueller-Dombois and Fernando, 1970). Muntjac Muntiacus muntjac was the subject of a
behavioural study in 1972-73 (Barrette, 1975, 1977). There are no research facilities.
Conservation Value Wilpattu National Park is among the oldest and most important of
protected areas in Sri Lanka. Its flora and fauna are representative of the dry lowland zone. It
also contains a number of important cultural sites. Extension of the park to include the adjacent
waters is identified as a priority in the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985). The sanctuary is
important as a buffer to the park.
Conservation Management Management of the sanctuary comes under the remit of the
warden of the national park. Law enforcment activities came to a standstill in 1985 following
the massacre of park employees by terrorists. Several attempts have been made to drive
elephants from System ‘H’ of the Mahaweli Development Area into the park, beginning in
1978/1979. Most attempts have been unsuccessful, with elephants returning to their former
range (Jayewardene, 1984, 1986). Recently, attempts have been made to enrich the habitat for
elephant by planting grass.
Management Constraints The protected areas complex lies in a conflict zone between Tamil
and government forces. On 14 May 1985, 24 park employees were killed by terrorists escaping
to the coast, following which the park and sanctuary were closed to visitors. Subsequent
improvement and construction of two roads for military purposes resulted in considerable
damage to the habitat (Hoffmann, 1987); the roads have since been abandoned (T.W. Hoffmann,
pers. comm., 1989). Well-organised illegal extraction of timber and poaching have always been
a major problem facing the insufficiently numerous and ill-equipped guard force (Alwis, 1984).
More recently, this has been exacerbated by the activities of army personnel stationed within
the park (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990).
Some animals migrate from the park in times of drought, exposing them to dangers from hunting.
Expanding villages in areas adjacent to the park threaten its integrity. Restoration of two tanks
(Maha Andaragollewa and Mahawewa) to full irrigation capacity by the Mahaweli Authority
has not benefitted wildlife because they have become overgrown with Salvinia and secondary
vegetation (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1986). Monks are being settled by the Chief Priest
near Tantirimalai, an ancient Buddhist site that was formerly a hermitage for 2-3 monks. A 30
sq.km enclave on the park boundary has been allocated for this purpose (Department of Wildlife
Conservation, pers. comm., 1990).
Encroachment and settlement within the sanctuary is extensive due to the absence of law
enforcement during the recent political unrest (Department of Wildlife Conservation, pers.
comm., 1990).
Staff The park was administered by 80 staff, under a warden, up until 1985. Staff are
temporarily stationed outside the park.
Budget No information
Local Addresses Warden, Park Office, Wilpattu National Park, Hunuwilagama,
Nochchiyagama
274
Sri Lanka
References
Alwis, W. de (1984). Poachers problem in Sri Lankas biggest national park. Sri Lanka News.
Barrette, C. (1975). The social behaviour of muntjacs. Ph.D. thesis, University of Calgary, Canada.
(Unseen)
Barrette, C. (1977). Some aspects of the behaviour of muntjacs in Wilpattu National Park.
Mammalia 41: 1-29.
Bertram, C. and Bertram, K.R. (1970). Dugongs in Ceylon. Oryx 10: 362-364.
Eisenberg, J.F.and Lockhart, M. (1972). An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park,
Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 101: 1-118.
Hladik, C.M. and Dubost, G. (1971). Les gros mammiféres de la reserve de Wilpattu 4 Ceylan.
Science et Nature 103: 7-17. (Unseen)
Hoffmann, T.W. (1969). The Wildlife Protection Society of Ceylon: some historical reflections on
the occasion of its 75th anniversary. Loris 11: 1-13.
Hoffmann, T. (1987). Wilpattu National Park - report on visit 22-29.3.87. Unpublished. 5 pp.
IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan realm. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp.
Jayewardene, J. (1984). Elephant conservation amidst development (Part I). Tigerpaper 11(4).
Jayewardene, J. (1986). Elephant conservation amidst development (Part II). Tigerpaper 13(3):
4-8.
Mueller-Dombois, D. (1968). Ecogeographic analysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular
reference to vegetation. The Ceylon Forester 8: 39-58.
Mueller-Dombois, D. and Fernando, K.S. (1970). Vegetation map of Wilpattu National Park.
Survey Department of Ceylon, Colombo.
Samaraweera, C.S. (1970). Wilpattu in history and legend. Loris 12: 73-75.
Santiapillai, C. (1981). On the ecology and conservation of the dugong Dugong dugong (Muller,
1776) in Sri Lanka. Tigerpaper 8(1): 2-6.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK. 1,181 pp.
Date April 1986, updated September 1990
WIRAWILA-TISSA SANCTUARY
IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Situated near the townships of Wirawila and Tissamaharama, Ham-
bantota District, Southern Province. 6°16’-6°17’N, 81°14’-81°19’E
Date and History of Establishment Declared a sanctuary on 27 May 1938.
Area 4,164ha
Land Tenure State
Altitude Approximately 900m
275
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Physical Features The wetland comprises three tanks (water storage reservoirs): Wirawila
Wewa (300ha), Tissa Wewa (150ha) and Debara Wewa. Wirawila is a shallow tank with
scattered dead trees and grassy shoreline; it is surrounded by scrub jungle and cultivation. At
low water levels, large areas of bare mud are exposed.
Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal.
Vegetation No information
Fauna Wirawila used to be frequented by large waterbirds, notably grey pelican Pelecanus
philippensis (e.g. 400 in September 1972), cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, ibises and
spoonbills, and is still an important wintering area for ducks and shorebirds in some years. Water
levels were very high in January 1986 when few birds were present. In January 1987, however,
large numbers of garganey Anas querquedula, pintail A. acuta, Indian whistling duck Dendro-
cygna javanica, and gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica were present. In January 1988,
conditions were again poor and the only birds present were 1,000 Indian whistling duck and
small numbers of black cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, herons, and egrets (five species),
black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus and a few other shorebirds. The other tanks are
known to be important for waterfowl, but few details are available.
Fishes recorded from Wirawila include Puntius sarana, Puntitius dorsalis, Ompok bimaculatus,
Heteropneustes fossilis, Macrones vittatus, Tilapia mossambica and Glossogobius giuris.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Value The sanctuary is an important wetland, although Wirawila is less used
by waterfowl than formerly.
Conservation Management No information
Management Constraints No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Addresses No information
References Information is taken directly from:
hi ae pallaahad A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
Date September 1990
276
Sri Lanka
YALA EAST NATIONAL PARK
IUCN Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 4.13.04 (Ceylonese monsoon forest)
Geographical Location Lies on the south-east coast in Eastern Province, 12km south of
Arugam Bay, and is accessible from the Wellawaya-Pottuvil Road. Contiguous to the south
with Ruhuna (Yala) National Park/Yala Strict Nature Reserve (126,786ha), along the Kum-
bukkan Oya. 6°30’-6°42’N, 81°04’-81°15’E
Date and History of Establishment Block II was established on 26 December 1969, followed
by Block I on 2 January 1970, having originally been reserved for shooting as an intermediate
zone many years beforehand.
Area Total area is 18,149ha, with 285.3ha in Block II and 17,863.4ha in Block I.
Land Tenure Land is state-owned, but the people of Kumana Village, located within the park,
enjoy certain rights.
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 90m-high rocky outcrops.
Physical Features The main feature is the world famous Kumana mangrove swamp (c. 200ha),
which is surrounded by plains and jungle. The flat terrain of the coast is broken by numerous,
rocky outcrops. There are large saline lagoons along the coast, often surrounded by extensive
plains.
Climate Conditions are similar to those experienced in the north of Ruhuna National Park.
Vegetation Comprises semi-arid thorn-scrub with fairly large areas of dense forest. Important
species of tree are palu Manilkara hexandra, weera Hemicyclia sepiaria, mayila Bauhinia
racemosa, ehala Cassia fistula, satin Chloroxylon sweitenia and malithan Salvadora persica.
Around the marshy swamps are kirala Sonneratia caseolaris and hambu Mitragyna parvifolia
(M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Fauna _In general, the fauna is similar to that found in Ruhuna National Park. Kumana is
reputed for its avifauna. Large numbers of certain species congregate to nest in the mangroves
in May-June (Banks and Banks, 1985). Common birds include pelican Pelecanus sp., painted
stork Ibis leucocephalus, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, white ibis Threskiornis melancocepha-
lus, open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans, purple heron Ardea purpurea, grey heron A. cinerea,
egrets Egretta spp., pond heron Ardeola grayii, night heron Nycticorax nycticorax, Indian darter
Anhinga melanogaster and cormorant Phalacrocorax niger. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus,
water cock Gallicrex cinerea, purple moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio, pheasant-tailed jacana
Hydrophasiamus chirurgus, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus, whistling teal
277
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Dendrocygna javanica and little grebe Podiceps ruficollis are also present, as is black-necked
stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus, one of Sri Lanka’s rarest birds.
Cultural Heritage At the base of most rock outcrops are caves, some with rock inscriptions
of the first and second centuries BC. A nine-metre statue of the reclining Buddha, now ruined,
was discovered in a large cave at Bambaragastalawa. Bowattagala is another ancient monastic
site. Kudumbigala, just outside the park, is inhabited by a Buddhist monk. Both Kudumbigala
and Lenama, also peripheral to the park, were once the hunting grounds of the Nittaewo, the
legendary pygmies of Sri Lanka who were sworn enemies of the Veddas (Jayawickreme, 1970;
M. Jansen, pers. comm., 1986).
Local Human Population The village of Kumana is inhabited by 14-15 families (M. Jansen,
pers. comm., 1986), of which most male members work for the park authorities.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is rarely visited now that it is under Tamil occupation.
There are two park bungalows, one at Okanda, near the park entrance, and the other by the
waterhole at Thunmulla. A campsite is situated on the banks of the Kumbukkan Oya at Kumana.
A boat is available for hire at Kumana Villu.
Scientific Research and Facilities Limited to a few avifaunal studies.
Conservation Value Together with Ruhuna National Park, Yala East National Park is
renowned for the variety of its wildlife, largely characteristic of dry zone tropical thorn forest.
In addition, the mangroves of Kumana provide particularly important habitat for birds.
Conservation Management None at present. Some years ago initiatives were taken to relocate
the inhabitants of Kumana Village. Construction of a new village of concrete huts was begun
outside the park, but the plan was abandoned when it was discovered that there was no water in
the area.
Management Constraints Following several terrorist incursions to the park in 1985, staff were
withdrawn. In the absence of the park authorities, villagers (mostly Muslim) from Panama and
Arugum Bay have been poaching deer and water buffalo and removing many valuable trees
(J.N.D. Banks, pers. comm., 1986).
Staff Temporarily removed, except for those stationed at Kumana Village.
Budget None
Local Addresses Warden, Yala East National Park, Okanda
References
Anon (1974). Handbook for the Ceylon traveller. Studio Times, Colombo.
Banks, J. and Banks, J. (1985). Ruhuna (Yala) National Park. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo.
Unpublished fact sheet. 2 pp.
Jayawickreme, E.A. (1970). Yala East National Park - where time stands still. Loris 12: 95-98.
Perera, S. (n.d.). Yala East (Kumana) Bird Paradise. Pamphlet issued by the Department of
Wildlife Conservation, Colombo.
Date April 1986, updated December 1988
278
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX
Ambalangoda Sanctuary, 214
Askor Nallah Game Reserve, 86
Astore Wildlife Sanctuary, 87
Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary, 88
Bangladesh, 1
Bellanwila-Attidiya Marshes Proposed
Sanctuary, 196
Bhawal National Park, 9
Bund Khush Dil Khan Game Reserve, 90
Bundala Sanctuary, 198
Char Kukri-Mukri Wildlife Sanctuary, 10
Chashma Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 91
Chassi/Baushdar Game Reserve, 94
Chitral Gol National Park, 95
Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, 12
Chundikulam Sanctuary, 201
Danyor Nallah Game Reserve, 97
Drigh Lake Wildlife Santuary Wildlife
Sanctuary, 99
Flood Plains National Park, 202
Gal Oya National Park, 206
Gal Oya Valley North-East Sanctuary, 206
Gal Oya Valley South-West Sanctuary, 206
Giant’s Tank Sanctuary, 210
Hab Dam Wildlife Sanctuary, 101
Hadero Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 103
Hail Haor Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary, 14
Hakgala Strict Natural Reserve, 211
Haleji Lake Wildlife Santuary Wildlife
Sanctuary, 105
Hawkes Bay/Sandspit Beaches, 108
Hazar Ganji-Chiltan National Park, 110
Hazarikhil Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary, 17
Head Islam/Chak Kotora Game Reserve, 113
Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary, 214
Himchari National Park, 18
Horton Plains National Park, 216
Hurulu Forest Reserve, 220
India, 43
Indus River Game Reserve, 115
Kala Chitta Game Reserve, 117
Kalabagh Game Reserve, 119
Kalametiya Kalapuwa Sanctuary, 222
Kandar Dam, 121
Kargah Wildlife Sanctuary, 122
Keti Bunder North Wildlife Sanctuary, 123
Khabbeke Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 126
Kharar Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 128
Kheshki Reservoir, 130
Khunjerab National Park, 130
Kilik/Mintaka Game Reserve, 135
Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 136
Kirthar National Park, 139
Kokilai Sanctuary, 224
Lahugala Kitulana National Park, 226
Lal Suhanra National Park, 144
Langh (Lungh) Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 148
Machiara Game Reserve, 150
Madhupur National Park, 20
Maduru Oya National Park, 228
Malugul Dhand, 152
Manshi Wildlife Sanctuary, 154
Margalla Hills National Park, 156
Minneriya-Giritale Sanctuary, 232
Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary, 159
Nar/Ghoro Nallah Game Reserve, 160
Nazbar Nallah Game Reserve, 162
Nemal Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, 163
Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, 23
Pakistan, 69
Pakora Game Reserve, 165
Peak Wildemess Sanctuary, 234
Polonnaruwa Sanctuary, 237
Rampahar-Sitapahar Proposed Wildlife
Sanctuary, 26
Ramsagar National Park, 27
Rasool Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, 166
Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary, 29
Ritigala Strict Natural Reserve, 239
Rocky Islets Sanctuary, 214
Ruhuna (Yala) National Park, 242
Satpara Wildlife Sanctuary, 168
Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary, 206
Seruwila-Allai Sanctuary, 247
Sher Qillah Game Reserve, 169
Sigiriya Sanctuary, 249
Sinharaja Forest Reserve, 250
Somawathiya Chaitiya National Park, 256
Sri Lanka, 183
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, 31
Tanda Dam, 171
Tangir Game Reserve, 173
Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, 174
Teknaf Game Reserve, 38
Thanadarwala Game Reserve, 176
Tirikonamadu Nature Reserve, 259
Uda Walawe National Park, 261
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Udawattekele Sanctuary, 263
Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, 265
Wasgomuwa National Park, 267
Wilpattu National Park, 271
Wilpattu North Sanctuary, 271
280
Wirawila-Tissa Sanctuary, 275
Yala East National Park, 277
Yala Strict Nature Reserve, 242
Zangi Nawar Game Reserve, 178
Ziarat Juniper Wildlife Sanctuary, 180
TAXONOMIC INDEX
Abelia triflora, 150
Abeo rohita, 92
Abies alba, 154
Abies pindrow, 150
Ablepharus pannonicus, 141
Acacia, 109, 120, 198-9
Acacia arabica, 140, 145
Acacia jacquemontii, 101
Acacia modesta, 92, 118, 120, 126, 156, 163,
167, 171
Acacia mollissima, 219
Acacia nilotica, 92, 103, 106, 113, 128, 137,
144, 163, 167, 167, 175
Acacia senegal, 101, 103, 106, 137, 140
Acampe rigida, 240
Acanthodactylus cantoris, 141
Acantholimon, 181
Acanthus illicifolius, 11,244
Accipiter badius, 238
Acer caesium, 150, 154
Achyranthes aspera, 145
Acrocephalus, 148
Actinodaphne, 235
Actinodaphne speciosa, 212, 217
Adhatoda vasica, 92, 126, 163, 171
Adina cordifolia, 21, 261
Aegiceras comiculatum, 124, 244
Aegiceras maius, 11
Aegithalos caucasia, 181
Aegithalos leucogenys, 181
Aegithina tiphia, 257
Aegypius monachus, 141
Aetua javanica, 128, 177
Aesculus indica, 150
Agama agilis, 141
Agama nupta, 141
Agama rubigularis, 141
Albizia, 12, 21, 24, 24
Albizia chinensis, 39
Albizia procera, 17, 19, 26, 39
Alcedo atthis, 227, 273
Alcedo hercules, 15
Alchemilla, 217
Alectoris chukar, 86, 88-9, 94, 98, 118, 122,
132, 135, 161-2, 165, 168, 170, 173
Alectoris graeca, 96, 111
Alhagi, 106
Allium, 181
Alstonia scholaris, 237
281
Alternanthera sessilis, 203, 257
Ambassis nama, 93, 107, 114, 138, 175
Ambassis ranga, 93, 107, 114, 175
Ammoperdix griseogularis, 118, 141
Ammophila, 124
Amoora, 19, 24
Amoora cucullata, 32
Amoora wallichi, 39
Anabas testudineus, 16, 204
Anas, 226
Anas acuta, 15, 92, 102, 104, 106, 109, 128,
137, 149, 153, 167, 171, 175, 202, 244,
272, 276
Anas angustirostris, 149
Anas clypeata, 15, 92, 102, 104, 106, 128, 137,
149, 177
Anas crecca, 15, 92, 100, 104, 106, 128, 137,
149, 153, 167, 171, 175, 177
Anas falcata, 15
Anas penelope, 92, 101, 104, 106, 128, 137,
153, 167, 175, 210
Anas platyrhynchos, 15, 90, 92, 101, 106, 145,
148, 153, 171, 177
Anas poecilorhyncha, 15, 90, 106
Anas querquedula, 15, 149, 202, 204, 210, 223,
244, 257, 260, 272, 276
Anas strepera, 15, 92, 106, 128, 137, 149
Anastomus oscitans, 15, 24, 196, 223, 257, 272,
277
Aneuretus simoni, 235
Anhinga anhinga, 149
Anhinga melanogaster, 244, 272, 277
Anhinga rufa, 204
Anodendron rhinosporum, 240
Anodontosoma chacuada, 124
Anser anser, 15, 92, 164
Anser indicus, 15, 92, 175
Anthracoceros coronatus, 208, 221, 241, 257,
262, 273
Anthropoides virgo, 92, 175
Anthus similis, 111, 141
Antiaris toxicaria, 239
Antilope cervicapra, 143, 145
Aonyx cinerea, 11
Aplocheilus dayi, 197
Aponogeton crispum, 203, 257
Aponogeton natans, 203, 257
Aquila chrysaetos, 141
Aquila clanga, 100, 106, 145, 149
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Aquila heliaca, 100, 107, 141, 145, 149 Barringtonia asiatica, 203, 257
Aquila rapax, 100, 107, 141, 145, 149 Batagur, 37
Arceuthobium oxycednri, 182 Batagur baska, 34
Arctonyx collaris, 19, 39 Bauhinia racemosa, 199, 243, 277
Ardea cinerea, 124, 149, 171, 204, 244, 277 Bauhinia tomentosa, 266
Ardea goliath, 15 Bauhinia variegata, 21
Ardea purpurea, 149, 226, 244, 257, 272, 277 Belontia signata, 252
Ardeola grayii, 15, 149, 204, 257, 277 Berberis, 150
Ardeotis nigriceps, 145 Berberis baluchistani, 181
Ardisia missionis, 240, 240 Berberis lycium, 157
Areca catechu, 253 Berrya cordifolia, 207, 221, 226, 240, 257, 261
Arenaria interpres, 244 Betula, 86, 94, 98, 122, 159, 161, 168, 170, 173
Aristida depressa, 120 Betula utilis, 131, 150
Aristida mutabilis, 114 Boiga, 145, 199, 227
Artemisia, 86-7, 89, 94, 98, 122, 132, 135, 159, Boiga forsteni, 241
161-2, 165, 170, 173 Bombax ceiba, 39
Artemisia maritima, 111 Bombax insigne, 39
Artocarpus, 12, 24, 207 Bos gaurus, 24, 33
Artocarpus chaplasha, 17, 19, 26, 39 Bos javanicus, 24
Arundinaria, 217 Boselaphus tragocamelus, 145
Arundo donax, 115 Bothrichloa pertusa, 156
Asparagus racemosus, 21 Brachiaria, 207
Asphodelus tenuifolius, 177 Brachiaria mutica, 203, 257
Aspidura brachyorrhos, 212, 218 Bradypterus palliseri, 212, 218
Aspidura trachyprocta, 212 Bruguiera, 32
Astragalus, 181 Bruguiera gymnorthiza, 32
Atalantia rotundifolia, 251 Bubalus bubalis, 21, 33, 204, 207, 221, 229,
Atrophaneura jophon, 252 244, 257, 262, 272
Avicennia marina, 109, 124, 244 Bubo bubo, 141
Axis porcinus, 33, 92, 114, 167, 175 Bubulcus ibis, 15, 204, 223
Aythya baeri, 15 Bubulens ibis, 257, 272
Aythya ferina, 15, 90, 92, 92, 100, 102, 104, Buddleia crispa, 181
106, 128, 138, 145, 149, 167, 171, 175, Bufo andersoni, 141
177 Bufo athukoralei, 199, 227
Aythya fuligula, 15, 92, 100, 102, 104, 106, Bufo fergusonii, 241
138, 149, 171 Bufo kelaarti, 212
Aythya nyroca, 15, 149, 177, 179 Bufo melanostictis, 208
Azadirachta indica, 199, 237, 243 Bulbophyllum crassifolium, 240
Azaradicta indica, 222 Bungarus, 145, 229
Azolla, 15 Bungarus caerulens, 141
Badis, 138 Burhinus oedicnemus, 141
Badis badis, 107 Burmannia coelestis, 235
Bagarius bagarius, 92, 114, 167, 175 Butastur teesa, 157
Bambusa, 15 Butea frondosa, 21
Bambusa tulda, 39 Buteo rufinus, 141, 149, 155
Bandicota, 221 Cairina scutulata, 24
Barbus, 15, 107, 138, 229 Calamus, 235, 251
Barbus nigrofasciatus, 252 Calamus rotang, 203
Barbus titeya, 252 Calamus thwaitesii, 242
Barilius chilwa, 167 Calidris alba, 109, 124
Barilius vagra, 92, 167, 175 Calidris alpina, 109, 124
Barringtonia acutangula, 21 Calidris canutus, 199
282
Calidris ferruginea, 124
Calidris minuta, 109, 124
Callicarpa arborea, 39
Calligonum polygonoides, 177, 179
Callistemon viminalis, 157
Callosciurus pygerythrus, 21
Calophyllum trapezifolium, 235
Calophyllum walkeri, 212, 217, 235, 266
Calophylum polyanthum, 39
Calotes, 145, 208
Calotes liolepis, 252
Calotes nigrilabris, 212, 218
Calotes versicolor, 141, 241
Calotropis, 106
Calotropis procera, 167
Canis aureus, 9, 21, 29, 92, 106, 114, 118, 120,
124, 127-8, 137, 145, 164, 167, 171, 175,
179, 196, 199, 204, 221, 226, 229, 240,
244, 257, 260, 262, 264, 266
Canis lupus, 88-9, 96, 132, 135, 140, 145, 151,
159, 165, 171, 173
Capparis aphylla, 114
Capparis decidua, 140, 167
Capparis zeylanica, 199
Capra falconeri, 86, 88-9, 96, 98, 111, 122, 159,
170, 173, 181
Capra hircus, 141
Capra ibex, 86, 88-9, 94, 96, 98, 122, 132, 135,
151, 159, 161-2, 165, 168, 170
Capricomis sumatraensis, 13
Caprimulgus europaeus unwini, 111
Caprimulgus indicus, 157, 212
Caprimulgus macrurus, 157, 273
Caretta caretta, 34
Carex, 235
Carex fedia, 126, 128, 163, 167, 174
Caridina singhalensis, 218
Carissa spinarum, 156-7, 199, 243
Caryota urens, 251
Cassia, 199
Cassia auriculata, 229
Cassia fistula, 226, 229, 237, 243, 261, 268, 277
Cassia glauca, 157
Cassia obovata, 177
Cassia roxburghii, 237, 268
Cassia siamea, 21
Castanopsis, 19, 23, 39
Casuarina, 106
Catla buchanani, 116
Catla catla, 15, 92, 107, 114, 127, 129, 138,
145, 164, 167, 172, 175
Catreus wallichii, 151, 157
Index
Caulerpa, 214
Cedrela, 12
Cedrela toona, 17, 26
Cedrus deodara, 96, 150, 154
Celtis cinnamomea, 207
Cenchrus ciliaris, 137, 177
Cenchrus pennisetiformis, 120
Centropus chlororhynchus, 235, 252
Ceratophora aspera, 252
Ceratophora stoddarti, 212
Ceratophyllum, 15
Ceratophyllum demersum, 106, 203, 257
Ceriops, 32, 32
Ceriops decandra, 32
Ceriops tagal, 124
Certhia himalayana, 181
Cervus axis, 33, 199, 204, 221, 226, 229, 238,
240, 244, 260, 262, 266, 269, 272
Cervus cervicapra, 120
Cervus duvauceli, 33
Cervus porcinus, 145
Cervus unicolor, 13, 17, 24, 27, 29, 40, 199,
204, 212, 218, 221, 226, 229, 240, 244,
257, 262, 266, 269
Ceryle rudis, 258
Ceymnosporia emarginata, 199
Ceyx erithacus, 264
Channa, 16, 138, 229
Channa marulius, 107, 114, 164, 167, 172, 175
Channa orientalis, 252
Channa punctatus, 93, 107, 114, 175
Channa striatus, 107
Chara, 128, 153, 177
Charadrius alexandrinus, 109, 124
Charadrius asiaticus, 199
Charadrius dubius, 124
Charadrius hiaticula, 199
Charadrius mongolus, 109, 124, 223
Cheirostylis parvifolia, 240
Chelonia mydas, 34, 109, 244
Chenopodium, 153
Chenopodium album, 177
Chettusia leucurus, 149
Chilodonias hybrida, 260
Chimonobambusa, 217 ‘
Chlamydotis undulata, 104, 145
Chlidonias hybridus, 15, 106, 257, 272
Chlidonias leucopterus, 244
Chloropsis, 249
Chloropsis aurifrons, 257
Chloropsis cochinchinensis, 238
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Chloroxylon swietenia, 199, 221, 226, 229, 243,
260-1, 266, 268, 272, 277
Chrysopelea, 227
Chrysopelea omata, 241
Chrysopelea taprobana, 199
Chrysophyllum roxburghii, 240
Chrysopogon aucheri, 92, 164
Chrysopogon serrulatus, 156
Chrysopogon zeylanicus, 217
Ciconia ciconia, 153, 177
Ciconia episcopus, 257, 269
Ciconia nigra, 90
Cinnamomum, 24, 217, 235
Circus aeruginosus, 15, 100, 106, 138, 145,
149, 179
Circus macrourus, 106, 149
Circus melanoleucos, 15
Cirthinus mrigala, 15, 92, 114, 127, 129, 138,
145, 164, 167, 172, 175
Cirthinus reba, 92, 114, 175
Cissa omata, 252
Clarius batrachus, 16
Cleidion nitidum, 240
Cleistanthus pallidus, 240
Cleistanthus patulus, 240, 240, 240, 240
Clerodendrum infortunatum, 40
Clupea, 16
Cnemaspis kandianus, 241
Coelomys mayori, 212
Coelosphaerium, 207
Coleus elongatus, 240
Colisa fasciata, 16
Collocalia, 218
Columba torringtoni, 212, 218, 252
Commiphora mukul, 106, 137, 140
Cophotis ceylanica, 212
Copsychus malabaricus, 229
Coracina novaehollandiae, 238
Cordia, 244
Corvus splendens, 107
Coscinium fenestratum, 252
Cotoneaster pruinosa, 181
Crataeva nurvula, 15
Cricetulus migratorius, 181
Crinum zeylanicum, 244
Crocidura miya, 212
Crocodylus palustris, 33, 102, 107, 141, 196,
199, 204, 208, 229, 244, 269, 273
Crocodylus porosus, 33, 199, 204, 229, 244,
260, 269
Crossocheilus latius, 107
Crossocheilus mrigala, 107
Crotolaria burhia, 128
Ctenopharyngodon idellus, 107, 127, 129, 138
Cuculus canorus, 111
Culicicapa ceylonensis, 212
Cullenia, 234
Culpea chapra, 124
Culpea fimbriata, 124
Culpea lile, 124
Cuon alpinus, 13, 17, 19, 24, 29, 40, 132
Cuora amboinensis, 40
Cursorius cursor, 104
Cygnus cygnus, 179
Cymbopogon, 106
Cymbopogon confertiflorus, 207, 217, 262
Cymbopogon jawarancusa, 101, 120
Cymbopogon schoenanthus, 101
Cynodon dactylon, 113-4, 128, 145, 175, 203,
207, 257
Cynometra ramiflora, 32
Cyperus, 106, 153, 171
Cyperus alternifolius, 99
Cyperus laevigatus, 177
Cyprinion, 172
Cyprinus carpio, 102, 107, 127, 129, 164, 167,
72,7233
Dactyloctaenium scindicum, 177
Dalbergia sissoo, 92, 144, 167, 175
Daphnes oleides, 122
Dendrobium maccarthiae, 221
Dendrocalamus longispathus, 39
Dendrocopos assimilis, 141
Dendrocopos nanus, 229
Dendrocygna, 244
Dendrocygna bicolor, 15
Dendrocygna javanica, 15, 175, 196, 272, 276-7
Deodar, 173
Dermochelys coriacea, 34, 244
Desmostachya bipinnata, 113, 177
Dialium ovoideum, 240, 268
Dicaeum agile, 238, 257
Dicanthium annulatum, 137
Dichrostachys cinerea, 199, 243
Dicranopteris, 235
Dicrumus caerulescens, 238, 269
Dicrurus paradiseus, 221, 241, 249, 273
Digitaria longflora, 203, 257
Dillenia pentagyna, 21, 39
Dimocarpus longan, 240
Dimorphocalyx glabellus, 221, 229, 240, 257
Dinopium benghalense, 157, 238
Diospyros, 207
Diospyros ebenum, 221, 240, 261, 268
Diospyros ferrea, 243
Diospyros malabarica, 268
Diospyros ovalifolia, 221, 257, 261, 268
Dipterocarpus, 12, 17, 23-4, 26, 234, 251
Dipterocarpus alatus, 39
Dipterocarpus hispidus, 251
Dipterocarpus scaber, 39
Dipterocarpus turbinatus, 39
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, 251
Dodonea viscosa, 92, 120, 126, 156, 164, 167,
171
Doona, 234-5, 235
Dromas ardeola, 109
Dryomys nitedula, 181
Dryophis, 199, 227
Dryophis nasutus, 241
Dryophis pulverulentus, 241
Drypetes sepiaria, 199, 226, 229, 229, 237, 240,
243, 257, 260, 266, 268
Duabanga grandiflora, 39
Ducula aena, 208
Dugong dugong, 271-2
Echinochloa colonum, 203, 257
Echis carinatus, 124, 141, 145
Egretta, 244, 277
Egretta alba, 15, 92, 124, 149, 171, 177, 204,
272
Egretta garzetta, 15, 124, 149, 204, 223, 257
Egretta gularis, 124
Egretta intermedia, 15, 149
Ehiwara fluviatilis, 197
Ehretia laevis, 157
Eichhornia crassipes, 15, 106, 196
Elaeocarpus, 39, 266
Elaeocarpus montanus, 212
Elanus caeruleus, 157, 218
Elattaria ensal, 251
Elephas maximus, 13, 19, 21, 24, 39, 199, 204,
207, 210, 212, 218, 221, 226, 229, 233,
235, 240, 244, 249, 252, 257, 260, 262,
266, 268, 272
Eleusine, 207
Eleusine compressa, 101, 106, 114, 128, 167,
175, 179
Eleusine flagellifera, 120
Emberiza striolata, 141
Emilia glabra, 235
Enhydra schistosa, 124
Enteromorpha, 124
Ephedra, 111
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, 199, 244
Equus kiang, 132
285
Index
Eragrostis, 207
Eremias acutirostris, 179
Eremurus stenophylla, 181
Eretmochelys imbricata, 34
Erianthus, 115, 167
Eriocaulon, 217, 235
Eristicophis macmahoni, 179
Erithacus brunneus, 213
Erythrina, 15
Erythrina suberosa, 157
Erythrina variegata, 257
Erythroxylum obtusifolium, 240
Eryx johni, 141, 145
Esacus recurvirostris, 244, 273
Etroplus suratensis, 204, 233
Eucalyptus, 146, 157
Eucalyptus camaludensis, 222
Eugenia, 17, 19, 26
Eugenia bracteata, 237
Eugenia rotundatata, 240
Eumeces schneideri, 141
Eupatorium, 41
Eupatorium odoratum, 17, 21, 41
Euphorbia caudicifolia, 101, 106, 137, 140
Euphorbia longana, 207
Europhiichthys vacha, 107
Eurotia, 159
Euryglossa orientalis, 124
Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, 199
Eurystomus orientalis, 229, 235
Eurystomus orientalis irisi, 252
Eutropiichthys vacha, 93, 167, 175
Exacum walken, 235
Excoecaria, 36
Excoecaria agallocha, 32, 32, 32, 244
Excoecaria crenulata, 240
Fahrenheitia, 235
Falco biarmicus, 118, 141, 157
Falco cherrug, 149
Falco chicquera, 107, 141
Falco peregrinus, 107, 118, 179, 218
Falco tinnunculus, 141
Felis, 40
Felis bengalensis, 19, 33, 159
Felis caracal, 141, 145
Felis chaus, 19, 33, 114, 128, 145, 167, 175, 204
Felis libyca, 145
Felis lynx, 88, 162, 170, 173
Felis manul, 181
Felis rubiginosa, 199, 204, 218, 221, 226, 240,
257
Felis temmincki, 29
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Felis viverrina, 11, 19, 33, 199, 204, 212, 218,
221, 226, 229, 240, 257
Feroculus feroculus, 212, 218, 235
Feronia, 260
Feronia limonia, 199, 229, 243
Ferula, 173
Ferula oopoda, 111, 181
Ficus, 17, 24, 26, 39, 106
Ficus microcarpa, 240
Francolinus, 114
Francolinus francolinus, 157, 171
Francolinus pictus, 207
Francolinus pondicerianus, 118, 141, 171
Fraxinus, 87, 89, 94, 98, 122, 150, 159, 161-2,
165, 170
Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, 111, 181
Freycinetia, 235
Fulica atra, 15, 24, 90, 92, 92, 100, 102, 104,
106, 114, 128, 138, 145, 167, 175, 179,
202
Gadusia chapra, 15, 92, 107, 138
Gagata cenia, 167
Gallicrex cinerea, 15, 196, 277
Gallinago stenura, 257
Gallinula chloropus, 15, 24, 179, 277
Galloperdix bicalcarata, 207, 218, 221, 227,
241, 262, 266, 269
Gallus gallus, 30
Gallus lafayettei, 212, 218, 221, 229, 241, 249,
257, 260, 262, 266, 269, 273
Garcinia echinocarpa, 235, 235
Garcinia hermonii, 251
Gamotia mutica, 235
Garrulax cinereifrons, 252
Garrulax lineatus, 181
Garrulus lanceolatus, 157
Gavialis gangeticus, 114, 116, 175
Gazella gazella, 118, 141, 145
Gazella gazella bennetti, 120
Gekoella yakhuna, 241
Gelochelidon nilotica, 124, 272, 276
Gentiana, 217
Gentiana livieri, 111
Geochelone elegans, 141, 229
Geoclemys hamiltonii, 175
Gleichenia, 235
Glenica unijuga, 221
Glochidion, 39
Glochidion stellatum, 240
Glossogobius, 107, 138
Glossogobius giuris, 233, 276
Gmelina arborea, 39
Golunda elliotti, 262
Gordonia, 217
Gordonia speciosa, 235
Graphium antiphates ceylonicus, 252
Grevillea robusta, 157
Grewia polygama, 237
Grewia tenax, 140
Grewia tiliaefolia, 261
Gmus grus, 90, 92, 175
Gymnodactylus frenatus, 241, 266
Gymnodactylus kachhensis, 141
Gymnodactylus kadniyanus, 266
Gymnosporia emarginata, 243-4
Gymnosporia royleana, 92, 126, 164
Gypaetus barbatus, 141, 155
Gyps fulvus, 141
Gyrocarpus americanus, 266
Haematopus ostralegus, 124, 199
Halcyon smyrnensis, 171, 227, 238
Haliaeetus albicilla, 106, 149
Haliaeetus leucogaster, 33, 199, 208, 227, 229,
238, 244, 273
Haliaeetus leucoryphus, 33, 106, 145
Haliastur indicus, 106
Haliastur indus, 149, 199, 204, 208, 238
Halimeda, 214
Haloxylon, 98, 122, 135, 159, 170
Hardella thurgi, 175
Harpactes fasciatus, 269
Hedyotis, 235
Heliotropium, 177
Hemicyclia sepiaria, 221, 277
Hemidactylus lesehenaulti, 241
Hemidactylus persicus, 141
Hemidactylus triedrus, 241
Hemiechinus auritus, 145
Heritiera, 32, 32, 32, 36
Heritiera fomes, 32, 32
Herpestes, 106, 137, 196, 199
Herpestes auropunctatus, 145
Herpestes edwardsi, 221
Herpestes fuscus, 221, 262
Herpestes smithi, 221, 262
Herpestes urva, 39
Herpestes vitticollis, 218, 240, 262
Heteropneustes fossilis, 16, 92, 114, 175,211,
233, 276
Heteropogon contortus, 92, 157, 164
Hibiscus tiliaceus, 257
Hieraaetus kienerii, 241
Himantopus himantopus, 114, 153, 171, 204,
257, 273, 276-7
Hippolais, 148
Hippophae, 98
Hippophae rhamnoides, 132
Hirudinaria, 93, 129, 167, 175
Histiopteris, 235
Hodgsonius phoenicuroides, 155
Holoxylon griffithi, 111
Hopea cordifolia, 261
Hopea odorata, 39
Hortonia floribunda, 212
Hyaena hyaena, 111, 141
Hydnocarpus venenata, 203, 240
Hydrilla, 15, 108
Hydrilla verticillata, 92, 99, 106, 113, 126, 128,
137, 163, 167, 174
Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 15, 106, 137, 149,
196, 204, 257, 260, 277
Hydrophis cyanninctus, 124
Hydroprogne caspia, 124
Hyella, 210
Hygrorhyza aristata, 15, 203, 257
Hylarana temporalis, 212, 241
Hylerana gracilis, 269
Hylobates hoolock, 13, 17, 19, 24, 39
Hypnale nepa, 212
Hypsipetes madagascariensis, 212
Hystrix indica, 21, 29, 145, 199, 221, 229, 240,
257, 264
Ibis leucocephalus, 204, 244, 257, 277
Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, 33, 208, 227, 258
Ictinaetus malayensis, 241
Impatiens, 235
Imperata cylindrica, 32, 40, 177, 207, 229, 262,
268
Indigofera oblongifolia, 140
Indocalamus, 217
Ipomea jacunda, 240
Ipomea wightii, 240
Ipomoea aquatica, 99, 106, 203, 257
Ipomoea pescaprae, 109
Ipsea speciosa, 217
Iris, 181
Ixiolirion montanum, 111
Ixobrychus flavicollis, 196
Jacaranda mimosoefolia, 157
Jaculus blandfordi, 179
Jasminium humile, 150
Jhonius belangerii, 124
Juglans nigra, 154
Juglans regia, 150
Julgoza, 87
Juncus, 113, 126, 128, 148, 148, 163
287
Index
Juncus articulatus, 99, 137
Juncus maritimus, 99, 103, 106
Juncus prismatocarpus, 235
Juniperus, 86-7, 89, 94, 98, 122, 132, 135, 159,
161, 2, 165, 168, 170, 173
Juniperus communis, 96, 151
Juniperus macropoda, 96, 111, 181
Jussiaea repens, 203, 257
Justicia adhatoda, 156
Kachuga smithi, 93, 116, 167, 175
Kaloula pulchra, 227, 241
Ketupa zeylonensis, 273
Kitta omata, 212, 218
Kochia indica, 177
Labeo, 204
Labeo calbasu, 15, 114, 175
Labeo dussumieri, 211, 233
Labeo fimbriata, 107, 138
Labeo fisheri, 266
Labeo gonius, 15, 107, 138, 167
Labeo microphthalmus, 114, 167, 175
Labeo rohita, 15, 102, 107, 114, 127, 129, 138,
145, 164, 167, 172, 175
Lagerstroemia, 19
Lagerstroemia parviflora, 21
Lagerstroemia speciosa, 21, 39
Lannea, 19
Lannea coromandelica, 237
Lannea grandis, 21
Lantana, 41
Lantana camara, 40, 229
Larus argentatus, 124
Larus brunnicephalus, 124
Larus fuscus, 124
Larus ridibundus, 109, 124
Lasianthus strigosus, 240
Lasiurus hirsutus, 92, 101, 164
Launaea, 177
Lemna, 15
Lemna minor, 106
Lepidochelys olivacea, 34, 109, 244
Leptoptilos javanicus, 226, 269
Lepus capensis, 132
Lepus nigricollis, 9,21, 29, 106, 114, 118,
127-8, 137, 145, 164, 171, 175, 199, 221,
226, 229, 257, 262, 266
Lerwa lerwa, 86, 88-9, 94, 96, 98, 122, 135,
151, 161, 2, 165, 170, 173
Leucocodon zeylanicum, 235
Limicola falcinellus, 199
Limosa, 244
Limosa lapponica, 124
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Limosa limosa, 124, 204, 257
Lissemys punctata, 93, 116, 167, 175, 208, 273
Litsea, 217, 235
Liza vaigiensis, 124
Lobivanellus indicus, 273
Lonchura kelaarti, 213
Lonicera, 87, 89, 173
Lonicera hypoleuca, 181
Lonicera webbiana, 150
Lophopetalum, 12
Lophophorus impejanus, 88, 96, 122, 151, 154,
173
Lophura leucomelana, 30, 40, 157
Loriculus beryllinus, 208
Loris tardigradus, 218, 221, 229, 237, 240
Loxococcus rupicola, 251
Lumnitzera racemosa, 244
Lutra, 196
Lutra lutra, 218, 266
Lutra microphthalamus, 92
Lutra perspicillata, 33, 92, 145, 175
Lycodon, 145
Lycopodium carolinianum, 235
Mabuya, 208
Mabuya carinata, 241
Mabuya macularia, 141, 241, 266
Macaca mulatta, 13, 17, 19, 21, 24, 29, 33, 39,
151, 157
Macaca nemestrina, 29
Macaca sinensis, 249
Macaca sinica, 199, 207, 212, 218, 221, 226,
229, 235, 237, 240, 262, 264, 266, 269
Macaranga denticulata, 39
Macrobrachium, 16
Macrobrachium rosenbergii, 197
Macrognathus aculeatus, 167
Macrones aor, 116
Macrones vittatus, 233, 276
Madhuca clavata, 240
Madhuca longifolia, 203, 237, 240, 257, 268
Mallotus repandus, 207
Mallotus rhamnifolius, 240
Mangifera, 12, 24
Mangifera indica, 15
Mangifera longipes, 39
Mangifera zeylanica, 207, 240
Manilkara hexandra, 199, 221, 226, 229, 229,
243, 257, 260, 266, 268, 272, 277
Manis, 19
Manis crassicaudata, 199, 221, 226, 229, 240,
266
Marmaronetta angustirostris, 90, 145, 175, 179
288
Marmota caudata, 132
Mantes flavigula, 118, 151
Martes foina, 159
Mastacembelus armatus, 93, 107, 114, 175, 233
Mastacembelus pancalus, 93, 167, 175
Megalaima, 208
Megalaima flavifrons, 264, 269
Megalaima haemacephala, 257, 273
Megalaima rubricapilla, 238
Megalaima zeylanica, 238, 273
Melanochelys trijuga, 208, 273
Melia dubia, 261
Meliosma pinnata, 39
Mellivora capensis, 145
Melocannia bambusoides, 39
Melosira, 207, 233
Melostoma, 41
Melursus ursinus, 17, 19, 27, 39, 207, 221, 226,
229, 240, 244, 262, 269, 272
Memecyclon, 221
Mergus albellus, 164
Meriones crassus, 111
Meriones hurrianae, 124
Meriones libycus, 111
Meriones persicus, 111
Merops apiastur, 111
Merops orientalis, 273
Mertensia tibetica, 131
Mesua, 234, 251
Mesua ferrea, 17, 26, 39, 240
Mesua nagassarium, 251
Metapenaeus, 125
Metopidius indicus, 15
Michelia champaca, 39
Microcystis, 199, 207, 210, 233
Microhyla rubra, 227
Microhyla zeylanica, 212
Microphalophus gracius, 124
Microptemus brachyurus, 221, 241
Miliusa velutina, 21
Millardia meltada, 262
Milvus migrans, 149
Mischodon zeylanicus, 240
Mitragyna parvifolia, 203, 257, 257, 277
Monochoria hastata, 203, 257
Monticola solitarius, 111
Morinda tinctoria, 237
Morus, 21
Motus alba, 145
Moschus chrysogaster, 88-9, 122, 151, 154,
161, 168
Mugil subviridis, 124
Mugil tade, 124
Muntiacus muntjak, 13, 17, 19, 24, 27, 29, 40,
157, 199, 204, 218, 221, 226, 229, 240,
262, 274
Mus cervicolor, 262
Mus fernandoni, 262
Musa, 15
Musa ramentacea, 39
Muscicapa sordida, 212, 218
Muscicapa subrubra, 213
Muscicapa tatirostris, 213
Mustela altaica, 132
Mycerobas camipes, 181
Mycteria leucocephala, 196, 202, 226, 229, 272
Myiophonus blighi, 212, 218
Myricaria germanica, 132
Myriophylium spicatum, 106
Myristica ceylanica, 240
Myristica dactyloides, 235
Myrsine africana, 156-7
Mystus aor, 15, 92, 107, 114, 175
Mystus bleekeri, 167
Mystus gulio, 107
Mystus seenghala, 92, 167, 175
Mystus tengara, 15, 107
Mystus vittatus, 107
Naja, 238
Naja naja, 34, 107, 138, 145, 208, 229, 244,
266, 273
Najas, 15
Najas minor, 99, 106
Nandus nandus, 93, 107, 114, 175
Natrix piscator, 175
Nelumbium speciosum, 92, 113, 174
Nelumbo nucifera, 15, 167, 203, 257
Nematalosa nasus, 124
Nemorhaedus goral, 157
Neofelis nebulosa, 21
Neolitsea cassia, 240
Neptunia oleracea, 203, 257
Neptunus pelagicus, 125
Netta rufina, 15
Nettapus coromandelianus, 15, 106, 137, 210
Nipa fruticans, 34
Nisaetus fasciatus, 141
Noemeris phocaenoides, 124
Nostoc, 199
Notopterus chitala, 92, 107, 114, 138, 175
Notopterus notopterus, 16, 92, 107, 114, 138,
167, 175
Numenius arquata, 124, 244
Numenius phaeopus, 124, 244
Index
Nycticebus coucang, 29
Nycticorax, 244
Nycticorax nycticorax, 100, 106, 137, 149, 277
Nymphaea lotus, 92, 99, 106, 137, 167, 174
Nymphaea stellata, 203, 257
Nymphoides, 15, 203, 257
Nypa fruticans, 32
Oampok pabda, 15
Ochlandra, 217
Ochotona roylei, 154, 160
Ochotona rufescens, 181
Ocypoda rotundata, 125
Oenanthe alboniger, 141
Oenanthe picata, 111
Olea, 87, 89, 98, 103, 122, 159, 165, 170, 173
Olea cuspidata, 118
Olea ferruginea, 92, 101, 126, 156, 164, 167
Ompok bimaculatus, 204, 211, 233, 276
Oncosperma fasciculatum, 235
Onobrychis, 181
Ophiocephalus marulius, 145
Ophiocephalus parulius, 204
Ophiocephalus striatus, 204, 211, 233
Ophiophagus hannah, 34
Oriolus xanthomus, 229, 238
Orthotomus sutorius, 229
Oryza coarctata, 32
Osbeckia buxifolia, 212
Osbeckia walkeri, 235
Oscillatoria, 199, 210
Osphronemus goramy, 229, 233
Ostodes, 235
Otocryptis wiegmanni, 266
Otus brucei, 111
Otus scops, 111
Ovis ammon polii, 132, 135
Ovis orientalis, 111, 141
Ovis orientalis punjabiensis, 118, 120
Ovis vignei, 89, 96, 98, 168
Oxytenanthera auriculata, 39
Oxyura leucocephala, 127-8, 164
Paeonia, 154
Palaemon dayanus, 93, 167
Palaemon lammarrei, 93, 167
Palaquium, 234
Palaquium rubiginosum, 235
Palmyra, 202
Pampus argenteus, 124
Pandion haliaetus, 15, 100, 104, 106, 145, 149,
204, 208, 262
Panicum antidotale, 92, 128, 164, 167, 175
Panicum maximum, 229
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Panthera pardus, 13, 17, 19, 21, 24, 29, 40, 118,
120, 141, 151, 154, 157, 199, 207, 212,
218, 221, 226, 229, 235, 240, 244, 252,
257, 260, 262, 266, 268, 272
Panthera tigris, 13, 13, 21, 24, 29, 33
Panthera uncia, 86, 88-9, 94, 96, 98, 122, 132,
135, 151, 159, 161-2, 165, 170, 173
Paradoxurus hermaphroditis, 262
Paradoxurus zeylonensis, 262
Parkinsonia aculeata, 171
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, 150
Parus rufonuchalis, 181
Paspalidium, 203, 257
Paspalum ditichum, 115
Paspalum vaginatum, 203, 257
Pavo, 21
Pavo cristatus, 244, 257, 260, 273
Pedicularis, 217
Pelargopsis amauroptera, 33
Pelargopsis capensis, 33, 227
Pelecanus, 244, 277
Pelecanus crispus, 124
Pelecanus onocrotalus, 101, 226
Pelecanus philippensis, 11, 196, 208, 229, 276
Pellomeum fuscocapillum, 208, 212, 262, 264,
266
Penaeus, 125
Pennisetum, 106, 229
Pennisetum divisum, 114
Pennisetum olystachyon, 262
Pennisetum orientale, 157
Pennisetum setosum, 21
Pennisetum typhoides, 128
Pentapetes phoenicea, 203
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus, 212, 238
Pericrocotus flammeus, 212
Periophthalmus, 124
Perovskia striplicifolica, 111
Petaurista, 40
Petaurista petaurista, 212
Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus, 229, 252, 268
Phalacrocorax carbo, 92, 104, 106, 124, 137,
149, 229
Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis, 204
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, 149, 196, 204, 262
Phalacrocorax niger, 15, 114, 137, 149, 204,
229, 276, 7
Phalaropus lobatus, 199
Phalus tancarrvilleae, 235
Philautus schmardanus, 212
Philautus variabilis, 241
Phoeniconaias minor, 244
290
Phoenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus, 207, 227
Phoenicopterus roseus, 199
Phoenicopterus ruber, 124, 127, 225
Phoenicurus ochruros, 181
Phoenix, 177
Phoenix paludosa, 32
Phragmites, 107
Phragmites communis, 115
Phragmites karka, 90, 92-3, 106, 113, 126, 128,
137, 153, 163, 167, 174, 177-8
Phrynocephalus luteoguttatus, 179
Phyla nodiflora, 153, 171
Phyllanthus emblica, 207
Phylloscopus, 148
Phylloscopus griseolus, 181
Phylloscopus magnirostris, 213
Phylloscopus neglectus, 181
Picea, 87, 89, 98, 122, 159, 170
Picea smithiana, 150, 154
Pinus caribaea, 253
Pinus excelsa, 150
Pinus gerardiana, 96, 173
Pinus roxburghii, 157, 157
Pinus wallichiana, 154
Piper betle, 40
Pipistrellus kuhli, 179
Pipistrellus mordax, 212
Pistacea cabulica, 111
Pistacea khinjak, 111-2
Pistacia, 98, 122, 159, 173
Pistacia cabulica, 181
Pistia, 15
Pistia stratiotes, 203, 257
Pisum arvense, 175
Pitta brachyura, 213
Platalea leucorodia, 114, 124, 196, 202, 244,
272, 277
Platanista gangetica, 33
Platanista indi, 92, 116, 175
Platycephalus scaber, 124
Plegadis falcinellus, 149, 223
Pleurostylia opposita, 244
Pluvialis dominica, 204, 223
Podiceps cristatus, 92, 171
Podiceps nigricollis, 92, 171
Podiceps ruficollis, 278
Polyalthia, 207
Polyalthia coffeoides, 240
Polyalthia korinti, 240, 240
Polyalthia longifolia, 268
Polygonum, 131, 203, 257
Polygonum barbatum, 106, 137
Polygonum glabrum, 171
Polygonum plebejum, 171
Polynemus plebeius, 124
Pomadasys argyreus, 124
Pomatorhinus horsfieldii, 212
Populus, 159, 162
Populus ciliata, 154
Populus euphratica, 175
Porgania glabra, 157
Porphyrio porphyrio, 15, 90, 106, 137, 177,
196, 204, 244, 257, 260, 277
Porzana fusca, 196
Potamogeton, 15, 113, 128, 177
Potamogeton crispus, 126, 163, 167, 174
Potamogeton lucens, 106
Potamogeton pectinatus, 92, 99, 103, 106, 137,
167, 175, 179
Potamogeton perfoliatus, 106, 137
Potentilla, 131
Potentilla desertorum, 131
Premna tomentosa, 237
Presbytis entellus, 13, 151, 154, 199, 207, 221,
226, 229, 237, 240, 249, 262
Presbytis phayrei, 17, 29
Presbytis pileata, 17, 19, 21, 24, 27, 29, 39
Presbytis senex, 212, 235, 237, 252, 269
Presbytis vetulus, 218
Primula macrophylla, 131
Prinia, 262
Prosopis cineraria, 92, 101, 106, 113, 128, 137,
153, 164, 167, 175, 177
Prosopis glandulosa, 92, 145, 164, 171
Prosopis spicigera, 140, 145
Prunus brahuica, 111
Prunus ebumea, 181
Psammophis schokari, 141
Pseudocerastes persicus, 181
Pseudois nayaur, 132
Psittacula, 208, 238
Psittacula calthorpae, 264
Psychotria nigra, 240
Pterocarpus canescens, 260, 266
Pterocarpus marsupium, 207
Pterocles coronatus, 141
Pterocles exustus, 141
Pterocles indicus, 141
Pterospermum canescens, 221, 229, 229, 240,
240, 257, 268
Pterospermum paniculata, 39
Pterospermum personatum, 39
Pterygota alata, 23
Pterygota thwaitesii, 240
Index
Ptyas mucosus, 208, 273
Pucrasia macrolopha, 151, 154
Pulicaria crispa, 171
Puntius, 107, 138
Puntius chola, 233
Puntius dorsalis, 211,233, 276
Puntius sarana, 211, 233, 276
Puntius sophore, 114, 138, 175
Puntius stigma, 92, 107
Puntius ticto, 92, 107, 114, 138, 167, 175
Pycnonotus penicillatus, 212, 218
Pyrrhocorax, 160
Pyrrhocorax pyrthocorax, 181
Pytas mucosus, 199, 227, 241
Python molurus, 17, 19, 21, 24, 27, 30, 34, 40,
141, 199, 208, 227, 229, 238, 241, 252,
266, 269, 273
Quercus, 19, 23, 39, 173
Quercus dilatata, 154
Quercus ilex, 96
Quercus semecarpifolia, 150
Rallus striatus, 196
Ramanella palmata, 212, 252
Ramanella variegata, 241
Rana cyanophlyctis, 141
Rana gracilis, 208
Rana hexadactyla, 241
Rana limnocharis, 208, 212, 227, 241
Rana tigrina, 93, 127, 129, 167, 175, 208
Randia dumetorum, 199, 243
Ranunculus, 177, 217
Ranunculus aquatilis, 175
Rasbora daniconius, 107
Rasbora rasbora, 107, 138
Rattus rattus kandianus, 262
Ratufa bicolor, 40
Ratufa macroura, 212, 218
Rauwolfia serpentina, 21
Recurvirostra avosetta, 124, 199
Reptonia buxifolia, 92, 126, 164
Rhacophorus cruciger, 208, 212, 266
Rhacophorus leucomystax, 241
Rhacophorus maculatus, 227
Rhacophorus microtympanum, 212
Rhazya stricta, 171, 177
Rhinoceros sondaicus, 33
Rhinoceros unicomis, 21, 145
Rhinophis blythi, 212
Rhizophora mucronata, 244
Rhododendron anthopogon, 151
Rhododendron arboreum, 217
Rhododendron zeylanicum, 212
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, 217
Rhodospiza obsoleta, 111
Rhopodytes viridirostris, 221, 241
Riopa punctata, 241
Rita rita, 92, 114, 145, 175
Rosa, 87, 94, 98, 122, 162, 165, 168, 173
Rosa beggeriana, 181
Rostratula benghalensis, 15, 149, 196, 204
Ruppia maritima, 178
Saccharum, 93, 100, 128, 167, 177, 177
Saccharum spontaneum, 92, 115, 126, 145, 163,
175
Sacciopelsis interrupta, 226
Sageraea thwaitesii, 240
Sageratia, 159
Sageratia thea, 156
Sageratia theezans, 171
Sagittaria, 106
Salacia reticulata, 240
Salix, 86, 94, 98, 106, 122, 131, 131, 135, 159,
161, 2, 170, 173
Salix denticulata, 151
Salmalia, 24
Salmalia malabarica, 19, 146
Salmalva, 12
Salmo faria, 164, 167, 172
Salmo gairdneri, 218
Salsola, 106
Salsola barysoma, 175
Salsola foetida, 124, 128
Salvadora oleoides, 92, 106, 114, 120, 137, 145,
164
Salvadora persica, 199, 243, 277
Salvia, 111
Salvinia, 196, 230, 274
Salvinia molesta, 203, 231, 257
Salvinia natans, 145
Sapindus emarginatus, 221
Sarkidiomis melanotos, 15, 210, 227
Saxicola caprata, 212
Saxicola torquata, 111
Saxifraga sibirica, 131
Schima wallichii, 39
Schleichera oleosa, 261
Schumacheria alnifolia, 235
Scirpus fluitans, 235
Scirpus grossus, 203, 257
Scirpus littoralis, 99, 106
Sedum, 131
Selenarctos thibetanus, 96, 151, 154, 173, 181
Semicarpus nigroviridis, 235
Semicarpus, 235
292
Semicarpus anacardium, 39
Senecio, 217
Senecio ludens, 235
Sepia, 125
Shorea, 234, 251-2
Shorea gardneri, 235
Shorea robusta, 9, 21
Sicamugil cascasia, 167
Sicydium halei, 252
Sisor rabdophorus, 167
Solisorex pearsoni, 212
Sonerila, 235
Sonneratia apetala, 11, 32
Sonneratia caseolaris, 244, 277
Sophora griffithi, 111
Sousa plumbea, 124
Spalerosophis diadema, 141
Sphenomorphus fallax, 266
Sphenomonrphus striatopunctatus, 212
Sphenomorphus taprobanensis, 266
Spilomis cheela, 218, 244, 258, 273
Spizaetus cirrhatus, 258, 273
Spizaetus nipalensis, 212, 218, 241
Spondias mangifera, 21
Srilakmys ohiensis, 212
Stemonoporus, 236
Stemonoporus rigidus, 235
Stenodactylus orientalis, 141
Sterculia alata, 19, 39
Sterculia colorata, 39
Sterculia villosa, 39
Stema albifrons, 124, 272
Stema hirundo, 124
Stipa, 94, 98, 122, 159, 162, 165, 170, 173
Streblus asper, 39, 237
Streblus taxoides, 240, 240
Strobilanthes, 212, 217, 217, 235
Strobilanthes stenodon, 240
Stumus senex, 235, 252
Suaeda fruticosa, 128
Suaeda-Salsola, 144
Suncus, 262
Suncus etruscus, 221
Sus scrofa, 9, 17, 19, 21, 24, 29, 33, 40, 92, 106,
114, 128, 145, 157, 167, 175, 199, 204,
207, 212, 218, 221, 226, 229, 238, 240,
244, 257, 260, 262, 266, 269
Swietenia macrophylla, 254
Swintonia floribunda, 23, 39
Sylvia, 148
Sylvia hortensis, 111
Synaptura orientalis, 124
Syzium, 12
Syzygium zeylanicum, 240
Syzygium, 24, 39, 235, 240, 266
Syzygium cuminii, 21, 266
Syzygium revolutum, 235
Syzygium rotundifolium, 212, 217
Syzygium sclerophyllum, 217
Taccocua leschenaultii, 157
Tachybaptus ruficollis, 15, 24, 101, 106, 114,
179
Tadoma ferruginea, 15, 171, 177
Tadoma tadorna, 90
Tamarix, 100, 100, 144, 148-9
Tamarix aphylla, 92, 101, 113, 126, 128, 153,
164, 167, 177
Tamarix articulata, 145, 178
Tamarix dioica, 92, 99, 103, 106, 113, 115, 137,
148, 148, 164, 171, 175, 177
Tatera, 262
Taxus baccata, 154
Tectona grandis, 21, 39, 222, 229
Teinostachyum dulooa, 39
Teratoscincus scincus, 179
Terminalia, 24
Terminalia arjuna, 21, 203, 257, 261, 268
Terminalia bellerica, 39, 207
Terminalia chebula, 39, 207
Terpsiphone paradisi, 273
Terpsiphone paradisi ceylonensis, 244
Testudo elegans, 199, 208, 273
Tetrameles, 24
Tetrameles nudiflora, 17, 26, 39, 240
Tetraogallus, 86, 88-9, 94, 98, 122, 135, 161-2,
165, 168, 170, 173
Tetraogallus himalayensis, 96, 132
Themeda, 207
Themeda anthera, 157
Threskiomis melanocephala, 196, 202, 257,
272, 277
Thryssa hamiltonii, 124
Thryssa malabarica, 124
Thryssa purava, 124
Thunbergia fragrans, 240
Tilapia, 104
Tilapia mossambica, 102, 107, 138, 164, 172,
204, 208, 211, 229, 233, 276
Timeresumus trigonecephalus, 241
Tockus griseus, 208, 221, 241, 262
Toona ciliata, 39
Tor tor, 167, 172
Tragopan melanocephalus, 151
Tragulus meminna, 196, 199, 218, 238, 264
Index
Trapa bispinosa, 15, 203, 257
Trema, 229
Treron, 208
Treron bicincta, 244
Treron pompadora, 238
Tribulus terrestris, 177
Trigonella monantha, 153
Trinervitermes, 273
Tringa, 260
Tringa erythropus, 199
Tringa glareola, 204, 257
Tringa nebularia, 122, 124
Tringa stagnatilis, 204, 257
Tringa totanus, 124
Trionyx gangeticus, 93, 116, 129, 175
Triticum aestivum, 128
Trogon, 30
Tryngites subruficollis, 199
Tulipa, 181
Turciops aduncus, 124
Turdoides rufescens, 212
Turdus merula, 212
Turnix suscitator, 257
Turoides rufescens, 218
Typha, 100, 100, 108, 148, 172, 177
Typha angustata, 90, 92-3, 99, 106, 113, 115,
126, 128, 137, 148, 153, 163, 167, 171,
175, 177
Typha angustifolia, 178
Typha elephantina, 11, 15, 115
Typha javanica, 199
Uca, 125
Ulva, 124
Uromastix, 177
Uromastix hardwickii, 141
Uropeltis melanogaster, 212
Ursus arctos, 88-9, 94, 132, 135, 151, 159, 170
Utricularia, 15
Vallago attu, 145
Vallisneria, 15
Vallisneria spiralis, 92, 106, 126, 137, 167, 175
Vanellus indicus, 15, 204, 244
Vanellus leucurus, 179
Vanellus malabaricus, 244
Varanus, 40, 145
Varanus bengalensis, 11, 33, 107, 141, 177,
199, 208, 229, 244, 269, 273
Varanus flavescens, 11, 34, 141
Varanus griseus, 141
Varanus griseus caspius, 179
Varanus salvator, 11, 34, 229
Vatica obscura, 229
IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas
Vernonia, 235
Vibumum cotonifolium, 96, 150
Vibumum nervosum, 150
Vipera russelli, 208, 227, 241, 244
Vites pinnata, 260
Vitex altissima, 240
Vitex glabrata, 39
Vitex pinnata, 221, 226, 237, 261, 266, 268
Viverricula indica, 9, 21, 145, 262, 266
Vormela peregusna, 181
Vulpes bengalensis, 9, 13, 21, 118, 145, 171
Vulpes vulpes, 88-9, 94, 98, 111, 120, 127, 132,
135, 137, 145, 159, 162, 164-5, 170, 173
Wallago attu, 15, 92, 114, 116, 129, 175, 233
Wallago attu valleya, 208
Walsura piscidia, 266
Withania coagulans, 126, 171
Woodfordia fruticosa, 157
294
Xenentodon cancila, 107, 138
Xenorhynchus asiaticus, 278
Xenus cinereus, 199
Xylocarpus, 32, 32
Xylocarpus moluccensis, 32
Xylopia championii, 251
Zannichellia palustris, 92, 113, 126, 128, 137,
163, 167, 175
Zizyphus, 106, 199, 207, 229, 243
Zizyphus jujuba, 156
Zizyphus mauritiana, 92, 126, 128, 164, 167,
171
Zizyphus nummularia, 92, 101, 114, 120, 126,
128, 140, 156, 164, 167, 171, 177
Zoothera dauma, 212
Zoothera spiloptera, 212, 241
Zoothera wardii, 213
Zosterops ceylonensis, 212, 218
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