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I   L 


IVORY 

AND 

THE   ELEPHANT 


IW^^IPUI^^ 


LXJ3LR-Y 

A  N  D_T  HEEL  E  P  H.AJSI  T 

IN  ART,  IN   ARCHAEOLOGY,  AND 
IN   SCIENCE 

BY 
GEORGE  FREDERICK  KUJJ2,  Phd.,  Sc.D.,  A.M. 


GARDEN   CITT  NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  AND 
COMPANY  .  .  .MCMXVI 


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ALFRED  LACBOIX,  PH.D.,  LL.D.,  Etc. 

MKMBRW  DB  l'iNSTITUT  DB  FRANCE 
8ECR&TAIBE    PERPETUEL    DE    L*ACADEMIE 

DES  SCIENCES 

CURATOR  OF  THE  lONERALOOICAL  DEPARTBiENT   IN 
THE  MUSEUM  D'HISTOIRE  NATURELLE,  PARIS 

THIS   BOOK   IS   DEDICATED    BY    THE    AUTHOR 

AS  A  TRIBUTE  OF  ADMIRATION 

AND    REGARD 


304755 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

The  publication  of  a  new  book  on  ivory  may  seem  not  only 
uncalled  for,  but  even  in  some  degree  presimiptuous,  when 
so  many  excellent  works  are  already  at  the  disposal  of  those 
who  wish  to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  this  interesting  sub- 
ject. 

To  mention  only  a  few  of  the  leading  writers  on  this 
theme,  we  have  the  attractive  and  comprehensive  book  en- 
titled "Ivories"  by  Alfred  Maskell,*  and  the  masterly  vol- 
ume by  Emile  Molinier,  "Les  Ivoires,"  forming  part  of  his 
work  "Histoire  generale  des  arts  appliques  a  Tindustrie/'t 
Another  work,  one  that  is  perhaps  less  widely  known  to  the 
general  reader,  is  J.  O.  Westwood's  "Descriptive  catalogue 
of  the  fictile  ivories  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. "J 
This  scholarly  treatise  is  in  many  ways  a  fit  companion  to  the 
studies  of  Maskell  and  Molinier,  for  as  Westwood  includes 
in  his  survey  the  large  collection  of  castings  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  his  book  is  exceedingly  comprehensive. 
Another  writer  who  has  done  splendid  work  in  this  field  is 
the  German,  Hans  Graeven,  whose  choice  selection  of  pho- 
tographs of  the  most  representative  ivory  carvings  in  various 
countries,  as  well  as  his  numerous  special  articles  on  the 

^Alfred  Maskell,  "Ivories,"  London,  Methuen  &  Co.  [1905],  xii,  444  pp.,  88  pi.,  4to 
(Connoisseur's  Library). 

tEmile  Molinier  "Les  Ivoires,"  Paris  [1896],  245  pp.,  ill.,  pi.,  folio;  Vol.  I  of  his  '*Histoire 
gfnfrale  des  arts  appliques  k  Tindustrie.*' 

tJ.  O.  Westwood,  "Descriptive  catalogue  of  the  fictile  ivories  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  with  an  account  of  the  Continental  collections  of  classical  and  medieval  ivories," 
London,  1876, 24  photos,  9  woodcuts,  imp.  octavo. 


vi  AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

subject,  have  done  so  much  to  enlist  public  attention  and 
interest.* 

In  citing  these  few  names  from  among  those  of  the  many 
able  writers  who  have  treated  of  the  artistic  use  of  ivory,  we 
have  merely  aimed  to  indicate  some  of  the  more  exhaustive 
or  better  known  literature,  and  must  refer  those  seeking  for 
detailed  information  to  the  catalogues  of  the  principal  libra- 
ries. The  splendid  lecture  by  Sir  Richard  Owen,  delivered 
before  the  London  Society  of  Arts  in  1856,  contained  much 
of  value  and  interest. 

While  admitting  the  unquestionable  excellence  and  au- 
thority of  these  and  similar  works,  the  writer  of  the  present 
book  has  long  felt  that  it  would  be  possible  to  accomplish 
something  in  this  field  upon  combined  and  yet  different 
lines.  The  art  of  ivory  carving  and  the  beautiful  produc- 
tions of  this  art  have  been  most  satisfactorily  presented,  but 
it  remains  possible  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  our  investigations 
so  as  to  combine  with  the  purely  esthetic  side  of  the  subject 
a  study  of  the  sources  of  this  fascinating  material  as  well 
as  of  its  physical  characteristics.  In  this  connection  data 
regarding  the  history  of  man's  knowledge  of  the  elephant, 
and  of  the  methods  followed  by  the  elephant  hunters  of 
various  times  and  lands,  will  better  enable  us  to  realize  the 
fact  that  we  owe  our  pleasure  in  viewing  some  masterpiece 
of  ivory  carving  not  only  to  the  artist's  skill,  but  also  to  the 
arduous  and  often  perilous  task  of  the  elephant  hunter  whose 
activities  have  supplied  the  beautiful  pearl  of  the  forest. 

If  we  are  able  to  add  to  this  some  information  regarding 
the  evolution,  distribution,  and  habits  of  the  elephant,  we 
shall  have  made  a  distinct  gain,  for  our  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  the  final  results  of  any  exercise  of  human  endeavour 
is  always  broadened  and  deepened  by  an  adequate  knowledge 

*Haiii  Graeven  "FVUhchristliche  iind  mittelalterliche  Elfenbeinwerke  in  photogrmi>h- 
ifldier  Nachbildung:  Aus  Sammlungen  in  England,"  1898,  "Aus  Samndungen  in  ItalieOv*' 
1900,  and  a  large  number  of  papers  in  varioua  periodical  publicaticuu. 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE  vii 

of  the  many  stages  leading  up  to  such  a  final  result.  Indeed 
it  is  only  those  who  have  trained  themselves  to  comprehend 
and  appreciate  all  the  manifold  factors  that  go  to  make  up 
any  finished  product  of  human  skill  or  genius  who  can  really 
enjoy  it  and  profit  by  it. 

If  in  the  present  book  the  writer  has  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree attained  the  aim  he  set  for  himself  in  its  composition 
he  will  feel  himself  amply  repaid  for  the  time  and  pains  be- 
stowed upon  it. 

As  this  volume  is  more  extensive  in  its  scope  than  a 
work  devoted  exclusively  to  Ivory,  it  was  necessary  to  con- 
sult authorities  covering  a  wide  field.  In  this  connection  it 
gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  my  obligation  to  those 
whose  courtesies  have  enabled  me  to  add  so  much  that 
would  otherwise  be  diflScuIt  of  access  or  imp>ossible  to 
obtain  and  would  never  have  been  printed. 

Carl  Akeley,  Naturalist,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

E.  A.  Blared,  of  the  Department  of  Commerce, 

Harris  R.  Childs,  Hunter  and  Explorer, 

Dr.  J.  Wyman  Drummond,  New  York  City, 

H.  W.  ICent,  Secretary  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 

Caroline  E.  Ransom,  Assistant  Curator  in  the  Department  of 

Egyptian  Art,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
J.  Martini,  Palseographer, 

E.  Hubert  Litchfield, 

Prof.  Waldemar  Kaempffert, 

F.  R.  EIaldenberg, 

Dr.  William  T.  Hornaday,  Director  New  York  Zoological  Park, 

Prof.  Henry  Fairfield  Osborn,  President  of  the  American  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History, 

Miss  Christina  D.  Matthew,  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History, 

John  Getz,  Art  Expert, 

James  Barnes,  Sportsman  and  Traveller, 

James  L.  Clark, 

William  Fitz  Hugh  Whitehouse, 


viii  AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

HowLAND  Wood,  Curator,  and  Bannock  L.  Belden,  Secretaiy  o 

the  American  Numismatic  Society, 
e.  r.  holden, 
Henrt  Walters, 
Gardner  C.  Teall, 
Dr.  Louis  Livingston  Seaman, 

William  S.  Page,  for  many  data  on  Congo  and  Belgian  ivoiy, 
E.  T.  Newell,  President  of  the  American  Numismatic  Society, 
Prof.  James  S.  Macgreqor,  Department  of  Physics,  Columbi 

University, 
Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co., 
Albert  A.  Southwick,  and  Arthur  L.  Barney,  for  much  aid  i 

obtaining  photographs, 
Charles  Byron  Blake, 
Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr., 
George  E.  Ashby, 
Ramon  Guiteras,  M.D., 
Thobias  W.  Ashwell, 
Miss  Mary  A.  Dickerson,  Editor  of  the  Journal  of  the  America 

Museum  of  Natural  History,  to  whom  is  due  the  suggestio 

that  led  to  the  preparation  of  this  volume;  all  of  New  Yor 

City. 
Dr.  Stewart  W.  Culin,  Oriental  Archaeologist  of  the  Brookly 

Institute  Museum,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Dr.  James  B.  Nies,  Assyriologist,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Dr.  John  D.  Clark,  State  Geologist,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Dr.  Henry  Lee  Sbqth,  President,  and  Henry  R.  Howlani 

Superintendent,  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  History, 
Mrs.  Elsie  W.  Southwick  Clark,  Miniaturist,  Orange,  N.  J., 
J.  W.  Baer,  Miniaturist,  East  Orange,  N.  J., 
Lieut.  G.  T.  Emmons,  Greenholm,  Princeton,  N.  J., 
Prof.  Edward  C.  Kirk,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
H.  J.  Heinz,  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 

Prof.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  Columbia  University, 
Dr.  W.  D.  Matthew,  Curator,  American  Museum  of  Natun 

History, 
Herbert  Lang,  Leader  of  Congo  Expeditions,  American  Museui 

of  Natural  History, 
Miss  Ethel  Quinton  Mason, 
W.  Sewall, 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE  ix 

Dr.  Arthur  Fairbanks,  Curator  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 
Mass., 

Garrit  Forbes,  Boston,  Mass., 

Hon.  John  D.  Barrett,  Director,  and  F.  J.  Yanes,  Assistant 
Director,  Pan-American  Union,  Washington,  D.  C, 

Dr.  O.  p.  Hay,  Palseontologist,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C, 

Prof.  R.  Rathbun,  Acting  Secretary,  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
Washington,  D.  C, 

Dr.  Arthur  M.  Brooks,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

VisuDDHi  Donavanik,  Siamese  Legation,  Washington,  D.  C, 

Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka,  Curator  in  Physical  Anthropology,  National 
Museum,  Washington,  D.  C, 

Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull,  Professor  of  Vertebrate  Palaeontology, 
Yale  University,  Peabody  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
Haven,  Conn., 

Miss  C.  M.  Le  Verre,  Peabody  Museum,  Yale  University, 

Prof.  G.  R.  Wieland,  Yale  Museum,  New  Haven,  Conn., 

George  A.  Wormwood,  Deep  River,  Conn.,  formerly  of  New  York, 

Rev.  Dr.  W.  S.  Rainsford,  Ridgefield,  Conn., 

Amasa  Stone  Mather,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 

Prof.  S.  W.  Williston,  and  Prof.  James  Henry  Breasted, 
Egyptologist,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111., 

Dr.  Berthold  Laufer,  Curator  of  Archaeology  Department,  Field 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago,  111., 

Frank  S.  Daggett,  Director  of  the  Museum  of  History,  Science 
and  Art,  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 

Dr.  Hector  Alliott,  Director,  Southwestern  Museum,  Los  An- 
geles, Cal., 

Prof.  H.  R.  Fairclough,  Leland  Stanford  University,  Cal., 

Arthur  Hutchinson,  Palo  Alto,  Cal., 

George  H.  Barron,  Curator  of  the  Memorial  Museum,  Golden 
Gate  Park,  San  Francisco,  Cal., 

Mrs.  D.  W.  De  Vere,  Acting  Curator  of  the  Oakland  Public 
Museum,  Oakland,  Cal., 

Dr.  Erwin  H.  Barbour,  State  Geologist  of  Nebraska, Lincoln,  Neb., 

Charles  L.  Frear,  Detroit,  Mich., 

J.  Allan,  British  Museum,  London,  Eng., 

J.  B.  BuRLACE,  Managing  Director  of  Rowland  Ward,  Ltd.,  Lon- 
don, Fng., 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

L.  LnoB  FancQB,  London,  Eng^ 

A.  W.  FcAVEABTEABt  LondoD*  Eng., 

LiKUT.  F.  W.  Feaveabteab,  oI  the  Britidi  Annj,  liidnw,  Eng., 

8iH  Charlbs  IIebcules  Read,  Curmior  of  AnJuBokigy,  and  Dn. 

K.  A.  Waluh  Budge,  Curator  of  Asyrian  and  Egrpdan  Depart- 
ment, British  Museum,  London*  Eng., 
Tho  lute  I)ii.  Richard  Ltdekker,  Curator,  Department  of  ZoSlogy, 

Hritiiih  Museum  (recently  deceased), 
Dii.  (!k<:il  Smith,  British  Museum  London,  Eng^ 
Dii.   II.   Smith   Woodward,  Natural  History  Diyision,  British 

MuNTum,  I^mdon,  Eng., 
LiKtTT.  Alexander  H.  Wheeler  of  the  West  Somerset  Yeomanry, 
Mkmmuh.  Hale  &  Son,  Ivory  Dealers,  London,  Eng., 
riioK.  A.  Imchoix,  Director  of  the  Department  of  Mineralogy, 

MuN^uni  dllistoire  Naturelle,  Paris,  France;  Perpetual  Secre- 

lury  Ac*iul/*niic  des  Sciences, 
I)u.  Stanihlah  Mkunier,  Professeur-Administrateur  au  Mus6um 

Niiliotiiil  trilistoire  Natiu^lie,  President  de  la  Soci^ti  Gtelogique 

dr  FriUMT,  Paris, 
MoNM.  (ticomiKH  PELUaaiER,  Paris,  France, 
M.  Sam>mon  Rkinach,  Director  of  the  Mus^  de  St.  Germain-en- 

l^iyn,  FrancT, 
llii:icitN  ( t  mil  iciM  HATH  Dr.  Karl  Furgold,  Director  of  the  Kunst 

MuNrutn,  (tothii,  Gennany, 
Dm.  Pii;Ticii  Jkhhkn,  Director  of  the  Bibliothek  des  K5niglichen 

KiinMlK«*wfrl>c-Muscums,  Berlin,  Germany, 
Pii(»r.  Mamc  lloHKNiiKiua,  Karlsruhe,  Baden,  Germany, 
i  'akl  llAciENiiK(*K,  Ini|M)rtcr  and  exporter  of  wild  animals,  Stellin- 

^rii.  iifMir  Iliiinhurg,  (icrmany, 
Mmmmm.  VoKiT  &  IIocH(2K8ANu,  G5ttingen,  Germany, 
Ahtiium  von  Hhikhkn,  New  York, 
Die.  Lami'MUT  of  Stuttgart,  Germany, 
IImku  L.  Weininoku,  Artist-artisan,  Vienna,  Austria, 
WiLLAUD  K.  SiiALKH,  Secretary  of  the  London  Conmiission  for 

IMivt  in  Uelgiuin, 
IIuN.  lIucjH  S.  Gibbon,  American  Legation,  Brussels,  Belgium, 
Dr.  R.  Scharff,  National  Museum  of  beland,  Dublin,  Lneland, 
Hon.  Henry  D.  Baker,  American  Consul,  Bombay,  Lidia, 
J.  Kelball  Sloter,  Geological  Survey  of  Mysore,  Bengalore,  Lidif*"^ 
F.  D.  Cheshire,  American  Consul  General,  Canton,  China, 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE  xi 

F.  Loewinson-Lessing,  Institut  Polytechnique  de  St.  Petersbourg, 

Laboratoire  de  Mineralogie  et  de  Geologie, 
Dr.  G.  O.  Clerc,  President  of  the  Uralian  Society,  Ekaterinburg, 

Russia, 
Prof.  W.  F.  Hume,  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Egypt, 

Cairo,  Egypt, 
Capt.  Gilbert  Clayton,  Sudan  Agent,  War  Office,  Cairo,  Egypt, 
Dr.  K.  Inouye,  Director  of  the  Imperial  Geological  Survey  of 

Japan,  Tokyo,  Japan, 
Yashuhisa  Mogi,  ivory  carver,  son  of  Mitsutoshi  Otoni,  wood 

carver,  formerly  of  Tokyo, 
M.  A.  Lamme,  Director  of  the  Instituto  de  Geologia  y  Perforaciones, 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  S.  A. 
Dr.  E.  T.  Mellor,  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  South 

Africa,  Pretoria,  Africa, 
Elmer  R.  Morey,  former  U.  S.  Consul,  Colombo,  Ceylon, 
P.  E.  PiERis,  Colombo,  Ceylon, 
W.  J.  Yerby,  U.  S.  Consul,  Dakar,  Senegal, 
Dr.    E.   Venadsky,   Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,   Petrograd, 

Russia, 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  Dr.  Edward  H.  Barbour, 
Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull,  and  Dr.  William  D.  Matthew  for 
their  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  chapter 
on  elephant  evolution,  and  to  Thomas  F.  Ryan,  Esq.,  for 
much  important  material  regarding  the  ivory  commerce  of 
the  Congo  and  the  carving  of  ivory  in  Belgium. 


CONTENTS 

PAOI 

Author's  Preface , v 

Contents xiii 

List  of  Illustrations xv 

CHAPTEB 

I     Prehistoric  and  Ancient  Carved  Ivories  3 
II     Medieval  and  Modern  Ivory  Carvings    .  '    38 

III  Oriental  Ivory  Carvings 99 

IV  Elephants,  Historical 136 

V    Elephant  Hunting,  Etc 192 

VI    Sources,    Composition,    and   Qualities   of 

Ivory 219 

VII    Working  of  Ivory 241 

VIII     Vegetable  and  Imitation  Ivory    ....  279 

IX    Narwhal  Horns,  Walrus  Tusks,  Etc.        .  292 
X    Elephants,  Evolution  of;  Also  Mastodon, 

Mammoth,  Etc 323 

XI     Elephant  Tusks        387 

XII     The  Commerce  of  Ivory        432 

Addenda 474 

Proboscidea  Genera       487 

Ivory  Carvers  of  All  Lands  and  Times    .     .     .  495 

List  of  Chinese  Ivory  Carvers 509 

List  of  Japanese  Ivory  Carvers 510 

Index 513 


zm 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACXMO 
PAOX 

Triptych  :  The  Virgin  Enthroned,  Scenes  from  the  Gospels   TiUe 

Italian  Workmanship;  XV  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Slab  of  Ivory  Etched  with   a   Figure   of  a  Hairy 
Mammoth 4 

Prehistoric.    From  La  Madeleine*  Valley  of  the  Vte^,  Dordogne»  France. 

Museum  D'Histoire  Naturelle,  Paris 

Votive  Head  Rest  AND  Chair-Foot 8 

Ancient  Egyptian  Art,  III  to  II  Century,  B.  C.  Musfe  du  Louvre 

Votive  Castagnets 9 

Art  of  First  Theban  Empire.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Egyptian  Ivory  Wand 9 

Published  by  the  Courtesy  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 

Ivory  Statuettes 9 

Greco-Ionic  Art  of  the  VII  or  VI  Century,  B.  C.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Assyrian  Ivories:  Head  of  a  Bull  and  Panels  ....       12 

About  900  B.  C.  British  Museum 

Ivory  Combs  and  Assyrian  or  Phoenician  Statuettes  .       IS 

Assyrian  or  Phoenician  IX  to  VII  Century,  B.  C.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Ivory  Statuette 14 

Elamite  Art  of  2000  to  1500  B.  C.     Mus^  du  Louvre,  Mme.  Dieulafoy  Rooms 

Ancient  Greek  Ivory  Carving 15 

From  the  Island  of  Crete.  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 

Antique  Ivory  Spindles  and  Charms 20 

m  Century,  A.  D.    From  Syrian  Tombs. 

Head  of  Olympian  Zeus 24 

After  the  Chryselephantine  Statue  by  Phidias  at  Olympia.    Reverse  of  a  coin 
of  Hadrian  (117-138  A.  D.).  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

XV 


xvi  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

1 
PAGE 

Medal  of  Emperor  Hadrian 24 

Struck  in  Elb  and  Bearing  on  the  Reverse  a  Representatioa  of  the  Great 
Chryselephantine  Zeus  of  Olympia  by  Phidias. 

In  the  Museum  at  Florence,  Italy 

Leaf  of  a  Diptych  of  Justinianus 25 

Consul  in  521  A.  D.    From  Autun.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Leaf  of  a  Diptych  of  Magnus 25 

Consul  in  518  A.  D.    From  Holland.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Wing  of  a  Triptych  Depicting  St.  Theodorus  28 

Byzantine  Art  of  X  or  XI  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Consular  Diptych 28 

Leaf  of  a  Diptych  of  Felix,  Consul  in  428  A.  D.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Leaf  of  a  Consular  Diptych 29 

Roman  Art  of  the  V  or  VI  Century.  Mus6e  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Ivory  Plaque  Depicting  St  Paul 29 

Latin  Art  of  the  VI  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Consular  Diptych  of  Anastasius SO 

Consul  in  517  A.  D.  From  Bourges,  now  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Consular  Diptych  of  Philoxenus 31 

Consul  in  525  A.  D.    From  St.  Comeille  de  Compi^gne. 

Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Two  Leaves  of  a  Roman  Diptych 32 

Left  Hand  Leaf  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

Right  Hand  Leaf  in  the  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Pteris 

Pyx  for  Containing  the  Host 33 

Latin  Art  oi\  orVl  Century.    Both  Sides.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Pkris 

Ivory  Casket 36 

Carolingian,  X  Century.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  Collection 

Pyxis  of  Carved  Ivory 36 

Byzantine  X  or  XI  Century.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  Collection 

St.  Paul  Preaching 37 

An  Italian  Ivory  of  the  VI  or  VII  Century.  Mus6e  du  Louvre 

Ivory  Plaque  Depicting  the  Crucifixion    ....       38 

Carlovingian  Art  at  the  X  Century.  British  Museum 

Ivory  Plaques:  Figuring  Four  of  the  Zodiacal  Signs  .  39 

Byiantine  Art  at  the  IX  Century.  Musfe  de  Cluny,  Taaia 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 


PACING 
PAGE 


Ivory   Panel:  Adorning  the  Cover  of  an  Evangelium  .  40 

Probably  a  Work  of  the  IX  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Coronation  of  Romanus  IV  and  of  Eudoxia    ...       40 

Book  Cover  of  a  Copy  of  the  Works  of  St.  Jean  de  Besangon. 

Bibliotheque  Nationale 

Triptych  :  Central  Panel  Depicting  the  Crucifixion       .      .       40 

Byzantine  Art  of  the  XII  Century.  Bibliotheque  Nationale 

Book  Cover  of  an  Evangelium 41 

Carlovingian  Art.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Ivory  Casket  42 

Roman  Art  of  the  X  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Carved  Book  Cover 4S 

Italian  Art  of  the  XIII  Century. 

Reale  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  Carrand  Collection 

Relief-Carving:  Representing  the  Christ  of  the  ApK)ca- 

lypse 43 

German  Art  of  the  XI  Century. 

Reale  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  Carrand  Collection 

Cover  of  an  Evangelium  :  Showing  Ivory-Carved  Figures 

and  with  Borderings  of  Pearls  and  Precious  Stones  .      .       44 

Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Side  and  Lid  of  an  Ivory  Coffer 45 

Moorish  Art  of  the  XV  Century.  Reale  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence 

Ivory  Carved  Cover  of  an  Evangelium 48 

Byzantine  Art.  Biblioth^ue  de  T Arsenal,  Paris 

One  of  the  Arms  of  a  Cross 49 

Spanish  Art  of  the  XII  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Coronation  of  the  Virgin 50 

French  Art,  end  of  XIII  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Mirror  Cases 51 

French  Art  of  the  XIII  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Ivory  Triptych:  Carved  with  Scenes  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment   62 

French  Art  of  the  XIV  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Triptych:  Scenes  from  the  New  Testament     ....       53 

Italian  Art  of  the  XIV  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 


xviii        LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 
Ivory  Bas-Relief:  Coloured  and  Gilded 

lUlian  Art  at  the  XTV  Century.  Muafe  de  Cluny, 

Episcopal  Crozier  (Front  and  back  view)  .... 

French  Art  ci  the  XIV  Century.  MuB^e  de  Cluny, 

VraoiN  AND  Child 

French  Art  of  the  XTV  Century.  Mus^  du  Louvre 

Lower  Side  of  a  Casket 

Byzantine  Art  of  the  IX  Century.  MuB^e  de  Cluny»  Parii 

Portable  Altar 

German  Art  of  the  XII  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Parii 

Diptych  with  Relief  Carvings  of  Scenes  from  the 
Passion 

French  Art  of  the  XIV  Centiury.  Muafe  de  Cluny,  Parii 

Ivory  Casket 

French*  End  of  the  XVI  Century.  Collection  of  George  Salting,  Esq. 

Virgin  and  Child 

Franco-Flemish  Art,  End  of  the  XIV  Century  or  Beginning  of  the  XV 
Century.  Mu^  du  Louvre 

Ivory  Saddle-Piece 

Spanish  or  Sicilian  Art;  End  of  the  XIII  Century  or  Beginning  of  the  XTV 
Century.  Musle  du  Louvre 

Ivory  Harp,  France 

Flemish  Art»  End  of  the  XTV  Century  or  Beginning  of  the  XV  Century. 

Mus^  du  Louvre 

The  Deposition  from  the  Cross 

Sculpture  in  Ivory  Attributed  to  Michelangelo  (?). 

Reale  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence 

Ivory  "Oliphant":  Decorated  with  Hunting  Designs. 

French  Art  of  the  XVII  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Ivory  "Olipiiant":  Decorated  wdth  Animals  and  Birds 

Soltykoff  Collection 

Ivory  "Oliph ant":  with  Religious  Decoration 

German  Art  of  the  XI  Centiury.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Half  of  the  Handle  of  a  Flabellum 

Carolingian  (Southern  FVance),  XII  Centiury. 

Draughtsmen.  

French  (?)  and  North  European.  Xm  and  XIV  Centuries. 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FACING 
PAOB 

Carved  Ivory  Box  with  Screw  Lid 68 

German,  XVII  Century  Museo  del  Collegio  Romano 

Snuff  Grater 68 

Dutch,  Early  XVIII  Century. 

Tankard  and  Cover 69 

Augsburg,  Late  XVII  Century.  British  Museum 

The  Virgin  and  Child 72 

Byzantine,  X  or  XI  Century.  Collection  of  J.  Pierpont  Morgan 

Statuette  of  a  Saint 72 

Spanish  Art  of  the  XV  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Six  Ivory  Chessmen 73 

Medieval  Art.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Reliefs  in  Ivory 74 

XV  Century  Work.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Leaf  of  a  Diptych  Showing  the  Crucifixion  ...       74 

XV  Century.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Leaf  of  a  Diptych  Depicting  the  Crucifixion  and 

Entombment  of  Christ 74 

Examples  of  XV  Century  French  Art.  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris 

Contemporaneous  Russian  Ivory  Carvings.      ...       75 

Empress  Catherine  II;  Prince  Paul  Petrovitch;  Princess  Maria  Feodorovna 

*'The  Florentine  Boy" 76 

By  the  Late  A.  Moreau-Vauthier. 

Three  Ivory  Statuettes 77 

Belgian  Sculptors,  XX  Century. 

Ivory  Relief 92 

XVII  Century  Work.  Dr.  Henry  Lee  Smith  Collection 

Liturgical  Box 92 

Carved  Ivory  of  XII  Century.  From  the  Museum  Czartoryski 

Two  Ivory  Triptychs 93 

French  Art  of  the  XVI  Century.  George  A.  Ream  Collection 

Charlemagne's  Ivory  Chessman:  Front  View  .     100 

Indian  Art.  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Charlemagne's  Ivory  Chessman:  Rear  View  ....     101 

Indian  Art.  BiUioth^ue  Nationale 


XX  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACINC 
PAGE 


Ganesa:  The  Elephant  God  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon  108 

XVII  Century.  Collection  of  Charles  L.  Freer,  Esq.,  Detroit 

Carved  Ivory  Casket  :  The  ReHef s  Depicting  Scenes  from 

the  Ramayana 109 

Given  by  the  Municipality  of  Delhi  to  King  George  and  Queen  Mary. 

Medieval  Ivory-Carved  Chessmen 114 

Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

Ivory  Group  "Dourga  Victorious" 115 

Indian  Carving.  Mus6e  Guimet,  Paris 

Ivory  Statuette  of  Dairuma lift 

Japanese  Art:  Carved  by  Sosai.  Collection  of  A.  N.  Beadleston,  Esq. 

Ivory  Cabinet  with  Silver  Mounts 117 

Cinghalese,  XVII  Century.  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 

Ivory  Vases 118 

Chinese  Art  of  the  XVII  Century.  Reale  Mumk>  Nazionale,  Florence 

Ivory  Snuff  Bottles 119 

Chinese,  XVIII  Century. 

Drinking  Vessel  of  Carved  Ivory 120 

French  Art  of  the  XVI  Century. 

From  the  Museum  Czartoryski,  Cracow,  Austrian  Poland 

Grotesque  Chinese  Statuette 120 

Probably  of  the  XVIII  Century. 

From  the  Museum  Czartoryski,  Cracow,  Austrian  Poland 

Japanese  Figure 120 

Beginning  of  the  XIX  Century.  Mus^  Guimet,  Paris 

Carved  Ivory  Fan 121 

Chinese,  XVIII  Century. 

Ivory  Pagoda 122 

Chinese,  Latter  Part  of  the  XVIII  Century.  Mus^  Guimet,  Paris 

Mandarins*  Sceptres 123 

Chinese  Art,  XVIII  Century.  Mus6e  Guimet,  Paris 

Carved  Ivory  Vase 124 

Chinese  Work.  From  Catalogue  of  Collection  of  Prince  Kung  of  China 

Ivory  Model  of  a  Chinese  Woman 125 

Used  by  Chinese  Physician.  Courtesy  of  Dr.  Berthold  Laufer 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 


PACING 
PAGE 


Carvings  in  Mammoth  Ivory  by  Siberian  Native.      .     126 
Relief-Carving  by  Siberian  Eskimo 127 

Carved  on  Mammoth  Ivory.  Collection  of  Henry  Walters,  lisq. 

Elaborately  Carved  Ivory  Vase:  (Open  Work)     .  134 

Modem  Chinese  Art. 

Virgin  and  Child 185 

Spanish  Art  from  Philippine  Islands,  XVII  Century. 

Wild  Elephants — Just  Captured 138 

Ceylon.  Courtesy  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 

Combat  Between  Two  Composite  Elephants  Guided 

by  Demons 170 

Drawn  by  Hindu  Artist.  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Industry 

Types  of  Elephant  Coins 171 

Greek,  Roman,  and  Modem. 

Famous  Indian  Elephant  "Gunda"  (Killed  in  1916)    .     188 

Height  9  feet  3  inches.     Aged  20  years.  New  York  Zoological  Society 

Scene  from  a  Fairy  Folklore  Tale  of  the  White 

Elephant 198 

Ceylon.     From  a  Water-colour.     Courtesy  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 

A  Freshly  Dug  Elephant  Pit 199 

A  Small  Herd  of  Elephants  Resting  in  a  Bit  of  Brush- 
wood     202 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akcley. 

Journal  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Head  of  Bull  Elephant  Killed  by  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeley    203 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

Grove  of  Plantain  Trees 206 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

Tw^o  Elephants 206 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

View  into  the  Depths  of  a  Bamboo  Jungle  on  Mount 
Kenia 207 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

Journal  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 

The  Wounded  Comrade 212 

Sculptor,  Carl  E.  Akeley. 


xxii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


fACOIQ 
PAGE 


Covered  Elephant  Pit 21S 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  £.  Akeley. 

Journal  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Breaking  Wild  Elephants 214 

Ban^ok,  Siam.    Courtesy  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 

Captured   Elephants   Inside  the   Corral   After  an 

Elephant  Hunt 214 

Bangkok,  Siam.    Courtesy  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 

Elephant  Herd  Crossing  a  River 215 

Near  Bangkok,  Siam. 

Elephants    That    Carried    the    Vaccination    Train 
Through  the  Jungle 215 

Courtesy  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr.,  Chief  Inspector  of  the  King  of  Siam 

The  Structure  of  Ivory 220 

Transverse  Section  of  Elephant  Tusk;  Transverse  Fracture  of  Mastodon 
Tusk;  Section  Showing  Interior.  Courtesy  of  Prof.  G.  R.  Wieland 

An  Ivory  Caravan 2S2 

At  Anakubi,  Belgian  Congo,  in  October,  1900.  Taken  by  Mr.  Herbert  Lang, 
Leader  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Congo  Expedition 

A  Recently  Carved  Ivory  Toilet  Set 252 

Japanese  Ivory  Carvers*  Workshop 276 

In  Tokio.  From  the  Illustrated  London  News. 

A  Group  of  Land  Snails,  by  Ryo  Kusan     ....     277 

Designed  for  Use  as  a  Crystal-ball  Stand. 

A  Banana 277 

Realistic  Japanese  Ivory  Carving,  Early  XX  Centiury. 

The  Danish  Coronation  Chair 292 

In  the  Rosenborg  Castle,  Copenhagen,  Denmark 

God  Giving  Adam  Dominion  Over  All  Creation  29S 

From  a  Flemish  Tapestry.  Galleria  Antica  e  Modema,  Florence 

Whalebone  Plaque 804 

English  (Winchester  School);  About  1000  A.  D.  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 

Crucifix  of  Princess  Gunhilde;  Walrus  Ivory.  806 

Scandinavian-Byzantine  Art  of  XI  Century.       Royal  Museum,  Copenhagen 

Walrus  Ivory  Tau-Head 805 

North  European  XII  Century.  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxiii 


PACING 
PAGE 


Walrus  Ivory 306 

Seward  Peninsula,  Alaska.       Collection  of  Commander  G.  T.  Emmons 

Sections  of  Walrus  Tusk 308 

From  Behring  Sea  Coast  of  Alaska.  Collection  of  Commander  G.  T.  Emmons 

Fish-line  Complete;  Work  of  Eskimo 308 

From  Behring  Sea  Coast  of  Alaska,  Collection  of  Commander  G.  T.  Emmons 

Eskimo  Ivory  Carvings 309 

From  Behring  Sea  Coast  of  Alaska.    Collection  of  Commander  G.  T.  Emmons 

Expert  Chinese  Ivory  Carver 310 

Canton. 

Temple  at  Kandy,  Ceylon 314 

Where  the  Sacred  Tooth-relic  of  Buddha  Is  Kept. 

"The  Tooth  of  Buddha" 315 

The  Great  Sacred  Relic  of  Ceylon. 

Scrimshaw  Work  Done  by  American  Sailors  About  1864    320 

Etchings  on  Walrus  Tusk.    Decoration  on  Bone  of  a  Whale. 

Collection  of  the  Author 

Scrimshaw  Work  of  American  Sailor 321 

A  Pair  of  Walrus  Tusks.  Collection  of  A.  N.  Beadleston,  Esq. 

The  GrIxVding  Teeth  of  Mastodons,  Mammoths,  and 
Modern  Elephants 332 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Proboscidian  Hall 

The  Beresovka  Mammoth  (Elephas  Primigenius)      .      .     333 

From  Northwestern  Siberia. 

In  the  Imperial  Museum  of  Natival  History,  Petrograd 

Arrangement  of  Four  Skeletons 340 

Asiatic  Elephant;  African  Elephant;  Columbian  Mammoth;  Warren  Mastodon. 

American  Museum  Natural  History,  Proboscidian  Hall ' 

Mammut  Americanum 341 

From  the  Rancho  la  Brea  Fossil  Beds,  Los  Angeles,  California. 

,  Published  by  Courtesy  of  Director  Frank  S.  Daggett 

Remains  of  Mammoth,  Mastodon,  and  Other  Extinct 

Species 358 

From  the  Deposits  at  Rancho  la  Brea,  Los  Angeles  County,  California. 

In  the  Los  Angeles  County  Museimi  of  History,  Science,  and  Art 

Rancho  la  Brea 369 

Showing  Location  of  Fossil  Pits  in  the  Background,  Los  Angeles,  California 


xxiv         LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Rancho  la  Brea,  Section  of  "Elephant  Pit"  (Pit  No. 
9)  .••.-. 

Showing  Teeth  of  Elephant  and  Various  Bones  in  niu,  Los  Angeles,  California 

Embryo  of  an  Elephant 

At  One  Third  of  the  Two  Years  of  GesUtion.    Courtesy  of  Mr.  Carl  E.  Akeky 

Snake  River  and  Canyon  Walls 

Cherry  County*  Nebraska.  From  Nebraska  Geological  Survey 

Mandible  of  Tetrabelodon  Lulli 

Found  in  Deposits  at  Snake  River,  Cherry  County,  Nebraska,  in  1914. 

Courtesy  of  Dr.  Erwin  H.  Barbour,  State  Geologist  of  Nebraska 

Mounted    Skeleton    of    the    Columbian    Mammoth 
{Elephas  Columbi) 

Found  near  Jonesboro,  Grant  County,  Indiana,  in  1903. 

Now  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York 

Pigmy  Elephant  "Congo**  {Elephas  Pumilis), 

Aged  11  Years.    Height  4  Feet.  New  York  Zodbgical  Society 

Imperial  Mammoth  (Elephas  Imperator) 

From  Victoria,  Southern  Texas.    Courtesy  of  Dr.  Erwin  H.  Barbour. 

Great  Tusk  of  Elephas  Columbi 

"Cinched**  with  Bandages  of  Burlap,  Plaster,  and  Lath.  Ready  for  Crating. 

Collection  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrul 

Skull  and  Tusks  of  Elephas  Columbi 

In  Position  in  Loess  Bank,  Campbell,  Franklin  County,  Nebraska. 

The  Two  Largest  Tusks  in  the  World 

One,  Weighing  226  Pounds,  Is  Now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Tusks  of  a  Soudanese  Elephant 

a  Record  Pair  of  Tusks  Presented  to  the  New  York  Zoological  Garden  by 
the  Late  Charles  T.  Barney. 

Huge  Elephant 

Brought  Down  by  a  Well-aimed  Shot  by  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

Acacia  Tree  of  Fifteen  Inches  Diameter  .... 

Broken  Down  by  an  Elephant.  Courtesy  of  Carl  E.  Akeley. 

Fossil  Elephant  Tusks 

From  the  Lena  River,  Siberia. 

A  Fortune  in  Ivory 

Each  Tusk  Worth  $50  to  $100:  Zanzibar. 

Jagging  Wheels 

Made  l^  Sailors  from  Whale  Teeth  or  Walrus  Tusks. 

Old  Dartmoutii  Historical  Society,  New  Bedford,  Mass. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxv 


FOLDING  PLATES 


FACDfG 
PAGl 


The  Elephant  and  His  Ancestors 324 

Map  Showing  the  Distribution  of  Various  Pleistocene 
Mammal  Deposits  in  Alaska  and  the  Adjacent 
Canadian  Territory 350 

Prom  Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

Importation  of  Ivory,  1909-1914 474 

Published  by  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Hall  &  Son,  London,  England. 

Map  Showing  the  Distribution  of  the  Elephant  in 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 472 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 


PAGE 


Prehistoric  Ivory  Carving 6 

An  Inlaid  Writing  Desk 107 

I.  Indian  Chessmen  of  Solid  Ivory 113 

n.  Indian  Chessmen  of  Hollow  Ivory 113 

III.  Kurdish  Chessmen 113 

Ivory  Images  Used  as  Dice 129 

The  Elephant.    Drawing  from  a  Late  XII  Century  MS  152 
The  Elephant — Illustration  to  a  XII  Century  Copy  of 

AN  Alexander  Romance 153 

Ivory  Decoration  of  a  Howdah 161 

Here  the  Elephant  Is  Termed  the  Mildest  and  Most 

Easily  Domesticated  of  All  Animals      ....  164 
Elephant  Figures  Formed  by  a  Combination  of  Arabic 

Letters 167 

Specimen  of  Hindu  "Tugra"  Design 168 

Elephant  with  Mahout  on  Triumphal  Arch    .  172 
Figure  of  Ganesa  the  Elephant-headed  Hindu  Divin- 
ity         173 

Medal  of  Maxentius 174 

1.  Coin  of  Antiochus  Epiphanbs  Dionysus  ....  178 

2.  Coin  of  the  Same  King;  Different  Type  178 


xxvi         LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


rAcofO 

PAGE 


Coin  Representing  Nero  and  His  Mother  ....  179 

Medal  Showing  Chariot  Drawn  by  Four  Elephants  180 

Woodcut  Illustration  of  an  Elephant 185 

Heads  of  Socrates  and  Zanthippe,  and  of  Anytus  and 

Melitus 193 

Tension  and  Compression  Tests 229 

The  Cutting  of  a  Billiard  Ball 245 

Tools  Used  by  Hindu  Ivory  Carvers      ....  257,  259 

Title-page  of  Japanese  Work  on  Ivory  Carving  267 
Tools  Used  by  Japanese  Ivory  Carvers,  and  Methods 

OF  Handling  Them 268,  269 

An  Ivory  Statuette  by  a  Japanese  Artist,  Illustrat- 
ing THE  Various  Stages  of  Its  Carving            .  270,  271 
Outline  of  a  Statuette  Traced  on  a  Section  of  an  Ele- 
phant Tusk,  and  the  Completed  Work  ....  273 
Netsukes  Designed  in  Accordance  with  the  Shape 

OF  THE  Ivory  Material 275 

Fine  Saws  Used  by  Japanese  Ivory  Carvers   .  277 
Restoration  of  Moeritherium^  the  Earliest  Fossil  Form 

Leading  Up  to  the  Elephant 324 

Restoration  of  PcdcBomastodorij  One  of  the  Stages  in 

the  Development  of  the  Elephant 324 

Restoration  of  Tetrabelodon  angustidens 325 

Conies 326 

The  Manatee 327 

Evolutionary  Changes  of  Proboscidea        ....  335 
Proboscideans,  Approximately  to  Scale       ....  336 
The  Last  Lower  Molars  of  Proboscideans            .  336,  337 
Ancestry  of  Elephants.    Progressive  Stages  of  De- 
velopment       338 

Mammoth  Etched  on  the  Rock  of  the  "Grotte  des 

CoBiBARELLES" 367 

The  Triumph  of  Cjbsar 486 


IVORY 

AND 

THE    ELEPHANT 


CHAPTER  I 

PREHISTORIC    AND    ANCIENT 
CARVED    IVORIES 

The  employment  of  ivory  in  the  production  of  ornamental 
objects  dates  back  to  the  very  earliest  times.  In  the  cave 
dwellings  of  Le  Moustier  and  La  Madeleine  in  the  Dordogne, 
France,  and  in  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland,  some  ivory 
objects  and  many  of  reindeer  horn,  carved  and  incised  with 
a  remarkable  degree  of  artistic  skill,  have  been  discovered. 
The  ivory  used  ornamentally  at  this  remote  period  almost 
certainly  came  from  dead  animals,  as  does  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  African  ivory  imported  to-day.  This  easier 
means  of  obtaining  it  was  undoubtedly  then  as  now  a  great 
factor,  and  while  the  specimens  preserved  for  us  do  not  oflFer 
any  special  indications  as  to  the  reasons  governing  the  choice 
of  this  material,  we  may  well  suppose  that  not  only  its  rich- 
toned,  smooth  surface,  but  also  the  graceful  curve  of  the 
tusks  were  determining  considerations.  More  especially  the 
latter  must  have  appealed  to  the  instinctive  appreciation  of 
primitive  man  for  what  Hogarth  has  called  the  "line  of 
beauty,"  and  this  is  manifest  in  the  fondness  of  most  primi- 
tive peoples  for  curved  horns  of  various  kinds  as  objects 
upon  which  to  bestow  their  skill,  much  or  little,  in  ornamen- 
tal design.  We  must  always  bear  in  mind,  however,  that 
what  we  are  pleased  to  call  "primitive  man/*  when  he  had 
reached  the  rudimentary  civilization  of  the  cave  and  lake 
dwellers  of  France  and  Switzerland,  had  advanced,  qualita- 


4  IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

lively,  as  far  above  the  earliest  stage  of  the  human  race 
as  the  member  of  the  most  highly  civUized  race  of  to-day 
stands  above  him. 

Of  all  relics  of  the  past,  none  can  be  said  to  vie  in  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  ivory  with  the  rude  outline  of  a 
mammoth  sketched  upon  an  ivory  plaque,  over  nine  inches 
long,  by  the  hand  of  a  prehistoric  inhabitant  of  the  cave 
dwellings  of  La  Madeleine,  in  the  valley  of  the  V6z^re,  com- 
mune of  Tursac  (Depart.  Dordogne) ,  France.  This  unique 
piece  was  discovered  in  May,  1864,  by  Falconer  and  Lartet, 
and  is  now  in  the  Museum  National  d'Histoire  Naturelle 
(Jardin  des  Plantes),  Paris.  It  was  described  and  figured  in 
the  ReliquicB  Aquitaniccs^  published  by  Lartet  and  Christy, 
and  also  in  the  Revue  Archeologiquef  Vol.  II,  p.  245. 

Some  very  interesting  details  have  been  communicated 
to  the  writer  by  M.  Stanislas  Meunier,  Director  of  the 
Museum.  He  states  that  the  plaque  was  handed  to  him 
personally  in  1869,  by  M.  Lartet,  and  that  he  well  remem- 
bers the  words  in  which  the  fortunate  discoverer  expressed 
the  surprise  and  joy  he  had  experienced  in  finding  that  some 
ivory  fragments  scattered  on  the  floor  of  the  cave  fitted  into 
one  another,  and  when  properly  adjusted,  o£Fered  the  por- 
trait of  an  elephant  with  long  hairy  fur.  From  an  archaeo- 
logical point  of  view  the  reproduction  of  the  photograph  sent 
by  M.  Meunier  is  of  considerable  importance,  as  the  illus- 
trations heretofore  given  were  derived  from  a  sketch  made 
on  the  spot  by  M.  Lartet  at  the  time  of  his  discovery,  and 
which  was  intended  to  bring  out  and  emphasize  the  rude 
scratchings  of  the  primitive  artist,  as  an  aid  to  those  who 
might  not  have  the  requisite  time  to  study  the  original  care- 
fully enough  to  see  the  design  distinctly. 

At  the  Congr^  International  d* Anthropologic  et  d'Arch^ol- 
ogie  Fr6historiques,  held  at  Monaco  in  1906,  Doctor  Capitan 
showed  a  most  interesting  ivory  relic  of  the  age  of  the  cave 


.•• 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES  5 

dwellers.  This  was  a  large  segment  of  a  mammoth  tusk 
bearing  two  deep  and  broad  grooves.  The  piece  of  ivory 
measured  40  cm.  in  length  and  from  15  cm.  to  20  cm.  in 
width,  and  the  grooves,  evidently  made  by  a  graving  tool, 
marked  out  a  part  of  it  35  cm.  long  and  from  3  to  4  cm. 
wide,  running  to  a  point  at  the  end.  The  grooves  were  so 
deep,  that  only  a  slight  shock  would  have  been  needed  to 
detach  the  piece  within  them  and  thus  secure  a  fine  ivory 
poignard.  This  precious  relic  of  ivory  working  in  the  far 
distant  past  was  found  by  M.  Galou  under  a  loosened  rock 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Gorge  d'Enfer,  and  Doctor  Capitan 
conjectures  that  the  carver  may  have  been  surprised  by  the 
avalanche  that  brought  down  the  rock,  and  in  his  haste  to 
escape,  have  cast  away  his  nearly  completed  work.*  It  is 
assigned  to  the  so-called  Magdalenian  period,  that  of  the 
cave  dwellers  of  La  Madeleine. 

Doctor  Capitan  believes  that  all  this  prehistoric  ivory  work 
was  done  either  in  the  manner  above  indicated,  or  by  thin- 
ning  the  piece  of  ivory  by  means  of  repeated  percussion. 
He  states  that  the  saw  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  at 
this  early  date,  appearing  only  in  the  later  reindeer  period. 

A  prehistoric  ivory  carving  of  surpassing  interest  and  im- 
portance is  the  headless  and  imperfect  figure  of  a  woman 
carved  out  of  mammoth  ivory,  and  found  in  the  Grotto  du 
Pape,  Brassempouy  (Dept.  Landes),  France;  this  has  been 
called  t he  "  Venus  of  Brassempouy. ' '  It  accentuated  rudely, 
and  even  coarsely,  the  female  torso,  and  may  have  had  some 
connection  with  a  worship  of  the  reproductive  powers  of 
nature.f  Another  female  figure,  with  a  similarly  exagger- 
ated outline,  lying  on  the  ground  beneath  a  reindeer,   is 

^Congrte  International  d*Anthropologie  et  d'Arch^ologie  Pr^historiques;  Compte  Rendu 
de  la  treinteie  session,  Monaco,  1906,  Vol.  I,  pp.  404,  405,  Monaco,  1007.  This  ivory 
has  never  been  published. 

fGeorge  Grant  McCurdy,  **  Recent  discoveries  bearing  on  the  antiquity  of  man  in 
Europe,'*  in  Smithsonian  Institution,  Annual  Report  for  1009,  pp.  531-683;  see  pp.  530-540. 


6         IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

carved  in  a  piece  <^  that  animal's  antler,  and  was  unearthe<K 
at  Laugerie-Basse.  On  the  wall  of  the  cave  of  Les  Com — 
barelles.  Dordogne,  are  engraved  as  many  as  fourteen  rep- 
resentations of  the  mammoth,  much  more  realisticaUy 
portrayed  than  in  the  rude  etching  of  this  animal  noted  above. 
The  effect  of  many  of  these  cave  incisings  was  emphasized 
by  darkening  the  outlines  with  oxide  of  manganese.* 

The  "Grotto  du  Pape"  furnished,  in  1897,  another  even 
more  important  specimen  of  the  plastic  art  in  ivory  of  primi- 


Pbxbutobic  Ivoht  Cabtthq,  c»Ued  tbc  Veniu  at  Brauempouy.  Found  kt  Bm- 
winpouy-eD-Cb«loMe,  id  tbe  "Grotto  du  Pftpe."  Front  sad  tide  viewi;  lutunl  aue. 
From  M.  Hoeniei,  "  UrgcKhkhtc  der  bildenden  Kuust  id  Eunqw,"  Wieu,  180S. 

tive  man.  This  is  also  the  figure  of  a  woman,  of  which  only 
the  torso  and  one  of  the  thighs  remain.  The  modelling  here 
is  superior  to  that  of  the  so-called  "Venus  de  Brassempouy," 
the  ungraceful  exaggeration  of  this  figure  not  appearing  in. 
the  more  recently  discovered  sculpture.f    Perhaps   even. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  HO;  652,  Figaxea. 

tHoeniM^ "  UrgewJikhte  der  InldendeB  Ku&rt  m  Enrap*,'' Wicn.  1806.  H>.  nO>  ttf.  FU 
ILFi^U-U- 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES  7 

more  interesting  and  significant  is  a  curious  sculpture  in 
ivory  unearthed  near  Briinn,  in  Moravia.  This  was 
found  at  a  depth  of  over  four  metres  in  the  loess,  together 
with  the  bones  of  a  rhinoceros,  a  mammoth  tusk  a  metre 
long,  and  a  human  skull.  The  ivory  sculpture,  which  must 
when  complete  have  measured  22  or  23  cm.  in  length,  rep- 
resents the  naked  figure  of  a  man;  the  legs  had  disappeared, 
but  the  head,  with  its  pronounced  orbital  arch,  broad,  nasal 
orifice,  and  long  chin,  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
features  of  the  human  skull  found  in  the  same  place.* 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  discoveries 
in  prehistoric  art,  for  which  the  mammoth  furnished  the  ma- 
terial, was  made  on  October  3, 1913,  at  La  Colombiere,  near 
Poncin  (Dept.  Ain),  France,  by  M.  Jean  Pissot.f  In  ex- 
cavating an  "upper  Aurignac"  deposit  there  was  brought  to 
light  what  the  finder  terms  "a  veritable  atelier ^^  embracing 
engraver's  tools  of  various  types  and  numerous  specimens  of 
the  material  on  which  he  worked.  The  object  of  prime 
importance  was  a  plaque,  either  from  the  shoulder  plate  or 
the  thigh  of  a  mammoth,  on  which  are  engraved  two  human 
figures,  a  man  and  a  woman.  This  is  asserted  to  be  the 
only  example  so  far  discovered  of  an  engraved  representation 
of  Quaternary  man.  The  head  of  the  man,  figured  in  profile, 
is  the  more  clearly  defined,  and  is  described  by  M.  Pissot  as 
differing  absolutely  from  the  so-called  "Neanderthal  type.'* 
The  head  is  large,  with  a  bulging  forehead;  the  face  is  long 
and  markedly  prognathous.  The  chin  is  prominent  and 
bears  a  short  beard,  indicated  by  a  number  of  fine  scratches; 
the  eye  is  figured  by  two  curved  lines.  The  hairiness  of  the 
body  is  strongly  indicated.    The  female  form  has  not  the 

♦Md.  p.  60,  Figs.  14. 15  (p.  59). 

fMM.  Lucien  Mayet  and  Jean  Pissot,  "D^couverte  d*un  os  de  Mammouth  gray6  avec 
6gurations  humaines,  dans  le  gisement  aurignaden  sup^eur  de  La  Colombiere,  pr^ 
Poncin  (Ain),"  in  Comptes  Rendus  de  FAcad^mie  des  Sciences,  Vol.  157,  pp.  655-658. 
No.  16,  October  20.  1913. 


8         IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

peculiarly  exaggerated  outline  shown  in  the  ivory  sculptures 
of  Brassempouy  and  in  some  similar  prehistoric  sculptures, 
but  still  the  figure  is  to  a  certain  extent  steatopygous.  The 
dimensions  of  this  unique  plaque  are  15  by  17  cm. 

There  are  in  the  Petrie  Collection  several  specimens  of 
prehistoric  Egyptian  ivory  carving.  In  the  earliest  work 
here,  the  form  of  the  tusk  was  modified  but  little,  or  not  at 
all.  Exceedingly  curious  are  some  rude  reproductions  of 
the  human  form,  where  the  head  alone  is  more  or  less  clearly 
figured.  Two  of  them  show  bearded  heads  bearing  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  those  engraved  on  the  most  archaic  of 
the  Babylonian  cylinders,  a  fact  which  might  be  taken  to 
indicate  that  the  same  or  a  closely  related  race  evolved  the 
first  important  elements  of  civilization,  both  in  Mesopo- 
tamia and  in  the  Nile  Valley.  These  early  Egyptian  carv- 
ings are  assigned  by  Mr.  Petrie  to  some  time  during  the 
long  prehistoric  period  from  8000  to  5500  B.  C,  and  he 
believes  that  they  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  this 
period. 

Of  the  ivory  work  of  historic  times  in  Egypt,  no  single 
specimen  is  more  valuable  than  the  tiny  head  of  the  great 
pyramid  builder,  Khuf u,  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  now  in  the 
Boulaq  Museum,  Cairo.  Although  measuring  but  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  height,  the  features  are  strongly  and  firmly 
marked,  and  we  have  good  reason  to  think  that  the  old-time 
carver  has  successfully  executed  his  task  as  portraitist. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  pre-dynastic  period  in  Egypt  ivory 
carving  of  marked  excellence  appears,  revealing  a  decided 
advance  upon  earlier  work.  A  large  mass  of  specimens  of 
this  work  was  imearthed  at  Hierakonopolis  in  a  trench  six 
feet  long;  these  comprised  statuettes  of  men  and  women,  as 
well  as  carved  tusks,  wands,  and  cylinders.  Although  the 
ivories  of  this  period  and  of  the  early  dynasties  are  decidedly 
artistic  in  execution,  it  has  been  remarked  that  Egypt  never 


VOTIVE  HEAD  REST 
CHAIR-FOOT 


I.    AOTIVK  (-ASTAeJXKTS 


II.    ECiVHTIAX   IVOUV  WAND 
III.    IVORV  STATIKTTKS 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES  9 

seems  to.  have  produced  a  school  of  ivory  carving,  properly 
so-called,  as  China  did.  The  Egyptians  appear  to  have 
treated  this  material  as  they  would  and  did  any  other,  with- 
out particular  consideration  of  its  peculiar  qualities.  A  still 
further  advance  in  technical  and  artistic  skill  characterizes 
the  ivory  work  of  the  First  Dynasty,  and  a  quaint  but 
thoroughly  representative  specimen  of  the  ivory  carver's  art 
at  this  period  is  the  figure  of  an  old  king  found  at  Abydos, 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  senile  droop  of  the 
head  and  neck,  the  intelligence,  one  might  perhaps  better 
say  the  shrewdness,  marking  the  face  of  the  aged  sovereign, 
make  this  a  really  fine  portrait  study  in  spite  of  its  restricted 
dimensions.* 

The  head  of  an  Egyptian  king,  carved  in  ivory,  was  exhib- 
ited at  the  Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club  in  1879.  It  had  been 
bought  of  an  Arab  at  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  Thebes,  and 
from  its  close  resemblance  to  the  celebrated  carved  wooden 
statue  from  Sakkarah,  now  in  the  Boulaq  Museum,  and  to 
which  a  date  of  circa  4000  B.  C.  has  been  assigned,  there  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  this  may  be  one  of  the  very  early 
specimens  of  Egyptian  work  in  ivory.  The  beard  is  formed 
of  ebony  wood,  and  a  small  piece  of  this  wood  has  been  in- 
serted at  the  top  of  the  skull,  to  represent  the  opening  made 
for  the  extraction  of  the  brain  in  the  embalming  process.f 
This  work  was,  when  exhibited,  in  the  possession  of  Mrs. 
Blood. 

Two  fine  specimens  of  the  so-called  "magical  wands" 
were  recently  offered  for  sale  in  London  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Hilton  Price  Collection  there  in  July,  1911.  The  larger  of 
these  measured  14^  in.  from  end  to  end  and  was  about  2  in. 

*W.  M.  Flindera  Peine,  "The  Arts  and  CrafU  (A  Ancient  Egypt/'  London,  1909,  pp. 
SI,  38, 184  (see  Fig.  21,  opp.  p.  32). 

fBurlington  Fine  Arts  Club,  Catalogue  of  Bronzes  and  Ivories  of  European  Origin,  ex- 
hibited in  1879,  London,  1879,  p.  48;  Cabinet  VII.  No.  290. 


10       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

wide.  On  its  upper  rounded  surface  were  somewhat  roughly 
incised  figures  of  a  crocodile,  of  a  toad  sitting  on  a  basket,  of 
the  divinity  Ta-urt,  of  a  winged  man,  of  a  sphinx,  etc. 
This  wand  or  staflF  came  from  Thebes,  and  had  been  broken 
and  repaired  in  ancient  times.  The  other  smaller  specimen, 
9|  in.  long,  had  its  point  roughly  cut  to  represent  a  bearded 
head.  It  came  from  Naqada  and  is  attributed  to  the  pre- 
historic period  of  Egyptian  civilization.* 

Another  interesting  ivory  in  the  Hilton  Price  Collection 
was  a  scribe's  palette  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  an  inscrip- 
tion stating  that  it  had  been  made  for  Tehuti-mes,  Chief  of 
the  Royal  Scribes  [of  Amenophis  I].  Two  deep  holes  at  one 
end  of  the  palette  evidently  served  to  contain  the  red  and 
black  paints  used  in  forming  the  Egyptian  characters,  for 
traces  of  these  paints  were  still  visible.  In  a  groove  hol- 
lowed in  the  centre  must  have  rested  the  reed  pens  which 
were  employed  by  scribes  of  this  age.  This  object  is  13|  in. 
long  and  If  in.  wide;  it  is  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation  and 
is  said  to  be  a  unique  specimen  of  its  kind.f 

Some  curious  ivory  rods  were  unearthed  by  Prof.  Flinders 
Petrie  in  1895,  between  Ballas  and  Naqada,  about  thirty 
miles  distant  from  Thebes.  These  and  other  objects  found 
here  are  conjectured  by  Professor  Petrie  to  have  been  the 
work  of  a  primitive  Lybian  tribe  and  to  date  from  about 
3000  B.  C.  There  were  also  five  small  figures  in  ivory,  four 
of  lions  and  one  of  a  hare.  The  rods,  several  of  which  are  now 
in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  may  possi- 
bly have  been  used  as  divining  rods,  or  perhaps  were  pieces 
for  some  game;  they  came  from  a  single  tomb.  They  meas- 
ure 5f  in.  in  length,  some  of  them  being  incised  with  diagonal 

^Catalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Egyptian  Antiquities,  the  property  of  the  late  F.  G. 
Hilton  Price,  Esq.,  London,  1911,  p.  113. 

fCatalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Egyptian  Antiquities,  the  property  of  the  late  F.  G. 
Hilton  Price,  Esq.,  London,  1011,  p.  112. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         11 

lines,  but  most  of  them  cut  to  represent  jointed  canes  or 
straws.* 

In  the  Cairo  Museum  are  a  few  ivory  amulets,  three  of 
them  figurmg  serpents'  heads,  the  carving  being  very  rudely 
executed.  These  are  small  objects  measuring  respectively 
55  nmi.,  59  mm.,  and  49  mm.,  or  from  If  to  2J  in.f 

Early  Egyptian  ivory  carving  is  represented  in  the 
MetropoUtan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  by  several  char- 
acteristic examples.  The  finest  and  the  best  preserved  are 
two  pieces  which  probably  formed  the  feet  of  a  state  chair, 
a  throne,  or  a  couch.  They  are  shaped  into  the  form  of 
the  hoof  and  ankle  of  bulls '  legs.  The  ivory  is  in  appearance 
as  fresh  as  though  only  recently  worked,  although  these 
specimens,  found  at  Abydos,  are  attributed  to  the  period  of 
the  First  or  the  Second  Dynasty  (about  3400  B.  C.  or  3000 
B.  C).  Much  less  well  preserved,  but  even  in  its  present 
deteriorated  condition  showing  the  work  of  an  artist's  hand, 
is  the  small  figure  of  a  lion,  considered  to  be  a  carving  of  the 
First  Dynasty  (about  3400  B.  C);  this  came  from  the  old 
Osiris  Temple  at  Abydos  (Thebes) .  Another  ivory,  from  the 
same  early  period,  and  equally  deteriorated  by  long  exposure 
to  injury  either  by  soil  or  weather,  is  a  female  figure,  the 
lower  part  of  which  has  been  broken  away;  this  was  also 
brought  from  the  ruins  of  the  Osiris  Temple  at  Abydos. 
With  this  minute  figure  as  well  as  with  that  of  the  seated  lion, 
time  has  dealt  so  unkindly  that  the  ivory  has  lost  all  its 
beauty  of  hue  and  smoothness,  and  at  the  first  glance  one 
would  suppose  that  wood  was  the  material  employed. 

While  the  old  Assyro-Babylonian  civilization  goes  back 
as  far  as  that  of  Egypt,  the  facilities  for  securing  ivory  were 

^Stewart  Culin,  "Chess  and  Playmg  Cards."  Washington.  1896.  pp.  8H.  814.  Figs.  132. 
188^  184;  pp.  665-942  of  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1896. 

tG.  A.  Reisner  "Catalogue  g^^rale  des  antiquity  egyptiennes  du  Mus£e  du  Caire,** 
"AmuletB."  Le  Caire,  1907.  pp.  38.  39;  Nos.  5481.  5482. 5492. 


12       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

dependent  upon  the  gradual  development  of  active  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  latter  country,  and  even  the  oldest 
ivories  of  Sumerian  origin  belong  to  a  later  period  than 
that  to  which  the  earliest  Egyptian  works  have  been 
assigned.  The  style  of  art  in  the  Assyrian  ivories 
clearly  shows  that  its  inspiration  came  from  Egypt,  as 
is  apparent  to  any  one  who  views  the  exceptionally  fine 
collection  of  them  in  the  British  Museum;  quite  possibly 
Phoenician  artists  served  as  intermediaries  in  this  branch  di 
art  as  in  so  many  others.  One  of  the  most  carefully  executed 
is  a  small  panel,  on  which  is  carved  the  representation  of  an 
Egyptian  king  holding  in  one  hand  a  lotus.  Another  is 
very  finely  carved  with  sphinxes  in  relief.  Then  we  have, 
on  still  others,  the  face  of  a  woman  looking  out  of  a  window, 
the  representation  of  a  sacred  tree,  etc.  Some  of  these 
works  may  have  been  done  by  Assyrian  artists,  and  others 
by  Egyptians  or  Phoenicians. 

These  Assyrian  ivories  were  found  by  Layard  in  1845,  in 
what  he  conjectured  to  be  the  treasury  of  the  North  West 
Palace  at  Nimroud.*  The  thirty-three  objects  figured  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. f  All  of  them  were  in  poor 
condition  when  found,  owing  to  the  drying  out  of  the  gelati- 
nous part  of  the  ivory  in  the  lapse  of  twenty-eight  centuries. 
They  were  also  so  firmly  embedded  in  the  earth  that  great 
precautions  had  to  be  taken  in  detaching  them.  However, 
on  their  removal  to  the  British  Museum  their  oily  content 
was  so  skilfully  restored  by  means  of  an  ingenious  process 
that  they  are  now  in  quite  satisfactory  condition.  Layard 
was  uncertain  whether  the  objects  originally  formed  the 
decorations  of  a  chest,  a  throne,  or  of  the  walls  of  the  cham- 

*Sir  Austen  Henry  Layard,  "Nineveh  and  Its  Remains,"  2d.  ed,  London,  1849,  VoL  I,  p. 
29;  Vol.  II,  pp.  9  sqq. 

fLayard,  "The  Monuments  of  Nineveh,"  London,  1849  (1st  Series),  pp.  19,  80,  and 
Plates  88-90. 


ASSYRIAN   [VORIES,   900  H.  C. 


I.    IVORY    COMBS 

ASBVRIAN  l>R  PHtENlCIAS  WORE;  IX  TO  VII 


II.    ASSYRIAN    OR    PHffiNICIAS    STATLETTES 

IX  TO  VII  CENTCHV  B.  C. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         13 

ber  in  which  they  were  discovered.  A  date  of  about  980  B. 
C.  was  proposed  by  him  for  these  remains.* 

A  most  interesting  piece  is  a  complete  panel  9  in.  long  and 
6  in.  wide,  carved  with  two  seated  divinities  adoring  a 
cartouche  with  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  supposed  to  signify 
the  name  of  an  Assyrian  deity  or  king;  above  is  a  disk  with 
plumes.  The  dress  and  general  appearance  of  the  figures 
and  the  whole  style  of  composition  point  to  Egypt,  although 
certain  details  are  believed  to  indicate  that  this  may  have 
been  the  work  of  an  Assyrian,  or  more  probably  of  a  Phoeni- 
cian artist,  t 

In  the  annals  of  Tukulti  Ninip,  King  of  Assyria  (889-884 
B.  C),  this  monarch  records  the  receipt  of  rich  tribute  at 
the  city  of  Anat,  in  the  Euphrates,  from  Ilu-ibni,  prefect  of 
the  land  of  Suhi.  Besides  three  talents  of  silver  and  twenty 
minas  of  gold,  the  prefect  sent  him  an  ivory  throne  and 
three  other  objects  made  of  ivory.  { 

Even  more  ancient  than  any  of  the  Assyrian  ivories  in 
the  Louvre  or  in  the  British  Museum,  and  rivalling  in  age  the 
early  dynastic  objects  of  Egyptian  workmanship,  are  some 
carvings  found  at  Bismaya,  in  the  very  heart  of  Mesopota- 
mia, by  Dr.  Edgar  James  Banks  in  the  course  of  his  excava- 
tions there  during  the  early  part  of  the  year  1904.  These 
objects,  discovered  on  or  near  the  site  of  an  ancient  palace 
temple  of  the  Sumerian  or  pre-Semitic  period,  may  have 
been  executed  as  far  back  as  4000  B.  C,  and  belong  in  any 
case  to  the  fourth  millennium  before  the  commencement  of 
our  era.  The  workmanship  is  somewhat  rude,  various  ani- 
mal figures  being  represented,  for  example  a  cat,  and  fishes, 
both  black  and  white,  over  4  in.  in  length.     Although  the 

^Liysrd,  "Nineveh  and  Its  Remains,"  2d  ed.,  London,  1849,  Vol.  II,  pp.  205  sqq. 

fLayard,  "The  Monuments  of  Nineveh,*'  London,  1849  (1st  Series),  p.  20,  PI.  89. 

XV.  Scheil.  "  Annates  de  TukulU  Ninip,  roi  d* Assyrie,"  Paris,  1909,  p.  19.    Biblioth^ue 
de  I'£cole  des  Hautes  titudes,  Fasc.  168. 


14       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

carver  has  given  these  latter  a  curved  shape,  as  though 
they  were  swimming  through  water,  they  were  pierced  from 
end  to  end  for  suspension  as  charms  or  amulets.  A  stag 
browsing  oflf  the  foliage  of  a  tree  was  the  best  specimen  dis- 
covered of  the  ancient  Sumerian  work.*  An  example  of 
ivory  inlaying  was  offered  by  the  fragments  of  a  vase  on 
which  the  artist  had  depicted  a  royal  procession,  in  which 
were  musicians  bearing  seven-stringed  harps.  Here  the 
skirts  of  the  figures  had  consisted  of  ivory  inlays,  one  of 
which  was  still  in  place,  the  hollowed  surfaces  indicating 
where  the  other  similar  inlays  had  been  set.f 

The  sovereigns  of  Israel  from  Solomon's  time  indulged  in 
the  luxury  of  ivory  ornaments  for  their  palaces,  and  to  Solo- 
mon himself  is  attributed  the  possession  of  a  splendid  ivoiy 
and  gold  throne  with  six  steps,  each  step  flanked  on  eithw 
side  by  the  figure  of  a  lion,  while  two  lions  were  placed  <»ie 
at  the  right  and  the  other  at  the  left  of  the  seat.  The  work 
was  probably  executed  by  Phoenician  artists,  and  with  ma- 
terial brought  from  Egypt  by  way  of  Tyre.  About  three 
centuries  later  than  the  time  of  Solomon  we  find  recorded  in 
the  annals  of  Sennacherib,  in  the  year  701  B.  C,  that  Hese- 
kiah.  King  of  Judah,  gave  "  ivory  couches  and  ivory  thrones 
(or  seats) "  as  part  of  his  tribute  to  the  Assyrian.  J  In  the 
sixth  century  B.  C,  during  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  the 
prophet  Ezekiel  writes  of  horns  of  ivory  (lit.  ^^  horns  of 
teeth"?)  as  articles  brought  into  the  great  mart  of  T^re. 
In  one  of  the  Tel-el-Amama  letters,  dating  from  the  four- 

*Edgar  James  Banks,  "Bismaya,  or  the  Lost  City  (A  Adab/'  New  York  and  Londoiit 
1012,  p.  272. 

fOp.  cit.,  p.  268;  several  of  these  ivories  are  figured  on  p.  274,  and  one  on  p.  273. 

{Robert  William  Rogers,  ''Inscriptions  of  Sennacherib,"  in  Records  of  the  Past,  New 
Series,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  80-101;  London,  1802;  Colunm  III,  Line  36  of  inscription  known  as 
the  Taylor  Cylinder,  or  Prism.  See  also  Bezold,  "Die  Prisma  Inschrift  des  sog.  Taylor 
Cylinders";  Keilinscriftliche  Bibliothek,  Vol.  II,  Berlin,  1800,  p.  07.  The  Assyrian  name 
for  ivory  is  shinni  piri  (elephants*  teeth),  and  elephants  are  mentioned  in  Shalmaoaaaar 
II's  Nineveh  Obelisk  as  tribute  from  the  land  of  Musri. 


IVORY   STATIKTTK 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         15 

teenth  century  B.  C.  and  written  in  the  little-known  Mitanni 
language,  there  seems  to  be  noted  a  statue  or  statues  of 
ivory.* 

There  was  recently  brought  from  the  Island  of  Crete  a 
small  ivory  statuette,  evidently  belonging  to  an  early  period 
of  the  fictile  art  of  the  inhabitants  of  Crete.  In  form  and 
appearance  the  figure  vividly  suggested  a  faience  statuette 
unearthed  in  Crete  by  Sir  Arthur  Evans,  in  1903,  in  a  small 
inner  room  of  the  ancient  temple  of  Knossos,  representing  a 
female  figure  grasping  in  one  hand  the  head  of  a  snake  and 
holding  its  tail  in  the  other,  while  its  coils  are  wound  about 
her  body.  This  faience  statuette  was  found  with  a  number 
of  other  objects  of  the  same  material,  votive  oflFerings,  etc., 
the  whole  having  been  enclosed  in  two  large  stone  chests 
and  apparently  constituting  the  outfit  of  a  shrine  or  altar. 
Another  somewhat  similar  but  smaller  figure,  holding  in 
eacih  upraised  hand  a  small  snake,  was  also  found  in  the  same 
dqMsitory.  The  larger  figure  was  believed  by  Sir  Arthur 
Evans  to  be  intended  to  represent  the  great  Cretan  goddess 
in  her  earth-bom  aspect.  While  in  the  Cretan  ivory  we 
figure  the  serpents  are  lacking,  the  pose  and  drapery  so 
closely  resemble  the  faience  of  Knossos  as  to  strongly  suggest 
that  the  artist  wished  to  portray  the  Cretan  goddess.  It  is 
true  that  some  archaeologists  consider  that  the  snake-bearing 
figures  merely  signified  snake  charmers  whose  services  may 
have  been  used  in  some  of  the  entertainments  oflFered  to 
the  Minoan  lords  and  ladies  of  olden  time;  but  it  seems  rather 
unlikely  that  such  objects  should  have  been  carefully  con- 
served in  the  royal  palace. 

The  prehistoric  Greek  remains  of  Attica,  Crete,  and  Cyprus 
prove  that  ivory  was  used  at  an  extremely  early  period  in 
these  regions  for  ornamental  purposes,  the  supply  coming,  of 

*P.  Jenaen,  "Vontudien  zur  EnUifferung  des  Mitanni,**  in  Zeitschrift  f.  Assyrologie, 
VcL  V.  p.  189;  Leipng^  1800. 


16       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

course,  from  the  African  continent.  Some  of  the  finest 
specimens  have  been  afforded  by  the  tombs  of  Sparta  in 
Attica,  dating  from  the  Mycenian  period,  about  1500  B.  C. 
One  of  the  finest  examples  found  here  was  a  plaque  carved 
with  the  figures  of  a  bull  and  a  lion.  The  latter  has  sprung 
upon  the  bull's  back,  seizing  it  by  the  throat,  and  the  posi- 
tion and  protruding  tongue  of  the  victim  show  the  deadly 
character  of  the  attack.  The  bull  is  much  more  successfully 
depicted  here  than  is  the  lion.*  Another  ivory  carving  of 
exceptional  merit  from  these  tombs  is  a  very  fine-toothed 
comb,  the  first  zone  offering  the  representation  of  two 
sphinxes,  while  in  the  second  zone  are  carved  three  of  these 
enigmatical  figures;  each  side  bears  the  same  decoration. f 
A  curious  relic  from  Phsetos  in  Crete  is  an  unworked  piece 
of  ivory  from  a  large  elephant  tusk. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  palace  at  Knossos,  in  Crete, 
from  the  Minoan  period,  have  furnished  fragments  of  some 
ivory  statuettes,  one  of  which  has  been  partly  reconstructed. 
This  is  the  image  of  an  athlete,  with  every  muscle  strained 
for  the  accomplishment  of  some  arduous  feat;  the  statuette 
is  about  28  cm.  long. J  The  work  dates  from  between  1800 
and  1550  B.  C.  The  early  Greek  island  art  in  ivory  carving 
is  also  illustrated  by  some  objects  found  at  Enkomi,  Cyprus. 
The  finest  of  these  is  the  beautifully  carved  handle  of  a  mir- 
ror, showing  a  genius  and  a  griffon.  There  is  also  from  here 
a  carved  ivory  box  with  a  representation  of  hunting  scenes, 
a  production,  probably,  of  the  ninth  century  B.  C.  This  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum  collection.** 

Another  fine  example  of  carved  ivory  was  brought  to  light 

*Ren6  Dussaud*  "Lea  Civilizations  Pr^elltoiques  dana  le  Bassin  de  la  Mer  £g6e,"  2d 
ed.,  Paris,  1914,  p.  176,  Fig.  ISl. 

tOp.  cit..  Fig.  13«. 

tOp.  cit.,  pp.  72,  73;  see  Fig.  49,  p.  70. 

**0p.  cit.,  p.  814;  see  Fig.  222,  p.  Sll,  and  also  Fig.  199. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         17 

in  the  excavations  of  Knossos,  in  Crete,  during  the  season 
of  1902-1903.  This  was  a  carving  in  the  shape  of  a  knot 
with  a  fringed  border,  and  it  evidently  possessed  a  certain 
symbolic  character  connected  with  some  of  the  religious 
rites  or  beliefs  of  the  Cretans  of  about  1500  B.  C.  As  in- 
stances of  the  use  of  this  form  elsewhere  in  ancient  Greece 
there  are  noted  two  alabaster  knots  of  similar  design  from 
one  of  the  graves  at  Mycense.  This  ivory  knot  of  Knossos 
was  found  near  the  great  gypsum  pillar  in  the  centre  of  a 
room  of  the  ancient  palace,  and  on  a  gold  ring  from  Mycenae 
is  figured  a  sacred  pillar  from  the  entablature  of  which  are 
suspended  two  knots  of  this  type ;  a  seal  impression  from  the 
Palace  of  Knossos  shows  similar  knots  hung  upon  a  tree. 
This  form  also  appears  on  a  gem  from  the  Herseum  at  Argos, 
the  examples  being  figured  here  on  either  side  of  a  bull's 
head.* 

On  the  site  of  the  Spartan  temple  of  Artemis  Orthia  have 
been  found  a  considerable  number  of  very  interesting  speci- 
mens of  relief  carving  in  ivory.f  Many  of  these  are  plaques 
which  were  riveted  on  bronze  clasps  for  their  adornment. 
The  ivory  plates  are  of  rectangular  form,  and  vary  in  di- 
mensions from  11  X  8.25  cm.  (4^  x  3|  in.)  down  to  3.5  x  2.75 
cm.  (1^  x  1  in.).  The  greater  part  belong  to  the  period  be- 
tween 750  B.  C.  and  650  B.  C.  The  largest  and  finest  of 
them  depicts  the  slaying  of  the  Gorgon. J  Although  con- 
siderably damaged,  enough  remains  to  show  the  design  satis- 
factorily; the  execution  is  very  spirited,  and  this  particular 
work  indicates  an  Oriental  influence,  possibly  indirectly  an 
Assyrian  one,  and  is  believed  to  belong  to  a  somewhat  later 

*A.  J.  Evans,  "The  Palace  of  Knossos,**  in  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  of  Athens, 
No.  IX,  London,  n.  d.,  pp.  1-154;  see  pp.  7, 8,  and  Fig.  4  on  p.  8,  "Sacred  Knot  of  Ivory.** 

tR.  M.  Dawkins  "The  Sanctuary  of  Artemb  Orthia**;  "Excavations  at  Sparta,  1907**; 
ID  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  of  Athens,  No.  XIII,  Session  1906-1907;  see  pp.  77, 
aqq. 

tOp.  dU  Rg.  1».  p.  79. 


18       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

period  than  that  of  most  of  the  other  plaques,  perhaps  dating 
from  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C. 

In  addition  to  these  plaques  for  the  decoration  of  fibulcB^ 
several  examples  of  ivory  animal  carvings  have  been  un- 
earthed here.  An  especially  interesting  and  artistic  work 
of  this  kind  represents  a  lioness  throttling  a  calf,  and  the 
idea  of  a  chain  of  destruction,  or  else  of  a  speedy  vengeance 
for  the  victim,  is  illustrated  by  a  third  figure  in  this 
strange  group,  that  of  a  man  standing  alongside  the 
lioness  and  thrusting  a  sword  into  the  animal's  neck.  This 
ivory  is  also  attributed  to  the  later  period  of  from  600  B.  C. 
to  550  B.  C* 

Even  more  valuable  from  an  historic  viewpoint  is  a  relief 
carving  on  a  large  half  disk  of  ivory,  the  base  line  of  the 
semicircle  measuring  23.5  cm.  (9 J  in.),  the  extreme  width 
being  11  cm.  or  4|  in.  On  this  is  carved  a  representation 
of  a  warship  of  the  period,  not  a  very  formidable  one  it  is 
r\  true,  since  the  armed  crew  consists  of  but  three  persons,  a 
number  of  others  being  engaged  in  navigating  the  craft. 
One  of  the  warriors  wears  a  plumed  helmet.  The  artist  has 
evidently  intended  to  portray  the  departure  of  the  ship,  and 
the  captain  seems  to  be  taking  leave  of  a  woman,  supposedly 
on  land,  but  given  the  rather  unsteady  support  of  one  of  the 
ship's  paddles,  as  the  carver  lacked  space  to  figure  the  shore. 
Behind  the  woman  is  a  large  bird  and  the  prow  of  the  ves- 
sel bears  the  inscription  in  early  Greek  characters  fopdaCa^ 
proving  that  the  carving  was  a  votive  offering  to  the  temple 
of  Artemis  Orthia.  While  we  have  followed  Mr.  Dawkins' 
description  as  to  the  purely  human  quality  of  the  female 
figure,  it  is  not  easy  to  avoid  making  the  conjecture  that  this 
was  in  reality  intended  to  represent  the  figure  of  the  goddess 
of  the  temple.  Around  the  edge  of  this  semicircle  of  ivory 
runs  a  border  with  a  series  of  circular  depressions  which  Mr. 

•Op.  cit..  Fig.  «S,  p.  8fi. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         19 

Dawkins  suggests  may  possibly  have  contained  inlays  of 
amber.* 

These  products  of  the  ivory  carvers'  art  were  certainly 
executed  in  Sparta,  although  the  material  must  have  come 
from  Africa.  This  is  conclusively  demonstrated  by  the 
evidence  of  a  specimen  in  which  the  design  has  only  been 
sketched  out,  in  summary  incision,  prior  to  being  definitely 
worked  up.f 

In  the  Homeric  age  the  Iliad  relates  that  reins  and  harness 
of  ivory,  sometimes  stained  a  red  colour,  were  valued  posses- 
sions of  the  heroes,  as  appears  in  the  following  lines : 

As  when  some  Carian  or  Mseonian  maid 
With  crimson  dye  the  ivory  stains,  designed 
To  be  the  check-piece  of  a  warrior's  steed : 
By  many  a  valiant  horseman  coveted. 
As  in  a  house  it  lies,  a  monarch's  boast 
The  horse  adorning,  and  the  horseman's  pride. 

H.  IV,  141  sqq.. 
Lord  Derby's  translation. 

The  Odyssey  tells  of  palaces  resplendent  with  ivory. J 

The  tombs  of  Mycenae  yielded  to  Schliemann  a  few  ivory 

objects,  the  most  noteworthy  being  a  thick  flat  piece  which 

may  have  served  for  a  dagger  handle,  decorated  with  a 

spiral  design.**     The  elephant  itself,  however,  is  not  alluded 

to;  mdeed,  Herodotus  writing  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  is 

the  first  writer  to  employ  this  name  in  the  Greek  form 

^lejihasy  which  has  been  derived  by  some  from  the  Hebrew 

(or  Phoenician)  eleph^  an  ox. 

An  ivory  casket  found  at  Ruvo,  Italy,  and  now  in  the 

^>  <nt^  Plate  IV;  for  deacription  see  pp.  100  iqq. 

10p.cil..p.78. 

tOdyascy  IV,  78. 

**SchBeinaiiiu  "Mycciwe,"  New  York.  1878.  p.  829. 


20       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Guilhou  Collection,  is  believed  to  be  Cyprian  work  of  the 
sixth  century  B.  C.  The  sides  bear  archaic  figures  of 
women  reclining  at  a  banquet,  and  the  casket  is  surmounted 
by  the  figure  of  a  lion.  Traces  of  colouring  remain  on  the 
mouth  and  hind  legs  of  the  lion  and  also  on  the  garments  of 
one  of  the  women  and  on  the  cushion  on  which  she  leans,* 

On  the  site  of  the  famous  Phoenician  city  of  Sidon  a  small 
ivory  casket  has  been  found.  On  one  of  the  sides  is  carved 
the  representation  of  a  woman  smelling  a  lotus  flower  she 
holds  in  both  hands.  This  casket  is  believed  to  be  the  work 
of  a  Cypriote  artist,  both  because  of  its  similarity  in  design 
to  other  work  from  that  island  and  because  in  the  sixth 
century  B.  C,  the  date  assigned  conjecturally  to  the  casket, 
ivory  was  very  freely  used  for  ornamental  purposes  in  Cyprus. 
In  1889  Dr.  Ohnefalsch-Richterf  dug  up  on  this  island  a 
number  of  swords  and  knives  having  hilts  inlaid  with 
ivory. 

The  coffer  of  Kypselus,  dedicated  by  him  about  600  B.  C, 
to  the  Temple  of  Hera  at  Elis,  was  adorned  with  bas-reUefs 
in  ivory,  as  were  many  ancient  coffers.  Two  plaques  used 
in  this  way  have  come  down  to  us,  showing  the  holes  through 
which  they  were  pinned  to  the  wooden  framework.  These 
were  found  at  Isca  Silurum  and  represent,  respectively,  a 
tragic  mask  and  a  nymph  leading  a  boy  with  a  basket  of 
fruit.  J 

The  ancient  sepultures  of  Spain  have  preserved  some 
most  striking  specimens  of  Phoenician  ivory  carving,  of 
the  type  produced  for  exportation  to  the  many  lands  with 
which  the  Phoenicians  had  commercial  relations.     These 

*Pollak,  "Arcbttisches  Elfenbein,"  Mitteilungen  des  Kaiserlich-deutachen  lostituts, 
Vol.  XXI.,  Roma.  1906,  pp.  814-830;  PI.  XV. 

tMax  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  '*Kypro8,  the  Bible  and  Homer/*  Vol.  I,  Text,  London, 
1898,  p.  140;  the  side  of  the  earliest  is  figured  in  Vol.  II,  PI.  CXV,  Fig.  4. 

{King,  "Antique  Gems  and  Rings,"  London,  1878,  p.  296. 


ANTIQUE  IVOKY  SPIXDLKS  AND  tHAEtMS 


J  • 


•  • 


•  •     • 

«  • 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         21 

are  principally  ivory  tablets  and  combs,  and  although  owing 
to  the  many  centuries  that  they  have  been  buried,  the 
ivory  has  split  up  into  sections,  or  even  fragments,  the 
surface  is  usually  well  preserved  and  the  engraving  as 
clearly  defined  as  when  first  executed.  Several  of  these 
objects  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  Hispanic  Mu- 
seum, New  York  City.  The  combs  exhibit  a  number  of 
designs  in  which  human  and  animal  forms  are  combined; 
in  others,  again,  the  carver  has  only  depicted  animal  forms. 
For  example,  one  tablet  shows  a  bull  attacked  by  two  lions; 
on  the  reverse  appears  a  gazelle  between  a  lion  and  a  griflin, 
A  comb,  from  the  Celto-Punic  necropolis  of  Cruz  del  Negro, 
Carmona,  is  engraved  with  a  design  representing  a  lion 
lying  down  and  having  a  bird  between  its  paws;  a  gazelle 
is  graven  on  the  reverse  side. 

More  curious  and  interesting  than  these  purely  animal 
subjects  are  two  tablets,  from  the  tumulus  of  Bucarron, 
representing  a  combat  between  warriors  and  lions.  On  one 
of  these  plaques  the  valiant  combatant  is  withstanding  the 
attack  of  two  lions,  while  the  other  one  represents  a  single 
combat.  The  type  of  the  warrior,  with  his  long  pointed 
beard,  is  curiously  suggestive  of  the  so-called  "Hittite** 
art  of  northern  Syria  which  flourished  for  many  centuries 
before  1000  B.C.,  and  these  or  similar  types  were  probably 
copied  and  recopied  in  the  commercial  art  of  Phoenicia. 
Prom  the  necropolis  of  Cruz  del  Negro  came  also  an  Egyp- 
tian spatula  of  ivory,  and  an  ivory  comb  with  an  engraving 
of  gazelles  and  griflSns,  found  May  15,  1908. 

A  bone-incrusted  bed  of  the  second  or  first  century 
B.  C.  was  found  in  the  necropolis  of  Orvieto,  Province  of 
Perugia,  and  is  now  in  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Chicago.  This  is  an  example  of  the  Etruscan  funeral 
l)ed,  a  resting  couch  for  a  deceased  person,  and  is  of  table 
shape.     The  dimensions  are:  length,  55  in.;  width,  30  in.; 


22        IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

height,  26  in.;  the  comparative  shortness  indicating  a 
slight  flexion  of  the  dead  body.  As  restored,  the  inlays 
on  the  side  are  placed  as  follows:  a  lion  head,  a  bust,  a 
winged  head,  a  bust,  and  lastly  a  lion  head;  at  the  corners 
are  figure  groups.  The  rather  spindly  legs  are  made 
up  of  many  pieces,  incrusted  with  bone  inlays.  Another, 
but  inferior  example,  is  in  the  Papa  Giulio  Museo  in  Orvieto. 
In  one  of  his  scathing  denunciations  of  the  venality  and 
rapacity  of  the  infamous  Caius  Verres,  for  a  time  praetor  of 
Sicily,  the  great  orator  Cicero,  in  70  B.  C,  recounts  how  this 
shameless  Roman  functionary  wrenched  off  the  rich  ivory 
and  gold  adornment  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  in  Syracuse. 
The  ivory  carvings  here  were  of  the  very  highest  artistic 
excellence  and  famed  for  their  surpassing  beauty  throughout 
the  Greek  world ;  one  of  the  most  notable  offered  an  awe-in- 
spiring representation  of  the  Gorgon's  head  with  its  writhing 
serpents.  All  these  splendid  carvings,  and  also  the  massive 
gold  bosses,  elaborately  chased,  adorning  the  temple  doors, 
works  of  art  in  which  the  workmanship  was  even  more 
precious  than  the  metal,  were  ruthlessly  stripped  off  and 
borne  away  to  Rome  by  Verres  as  though  the  spoils  of  war. 
Indeed,  as  Cicero  says,  even  a  conquering  enemy  with  any 
claim  to  civilization  would  not  have  wrought  such  wanton 
havoc,  only  possible  for  barbarians.* 

The  very  large  size  of  the  pieces  of  ivory  which  must  have 
been  required  by  the  Greeks  in  the  production  of  their  co- 
lossal gold  and  ivory  statues,  some  of  which  were  forty  feet 
or  more  in  height,  the  face,  hands,  and  feet  being  of  ivory, 
and  even  the  large  size  of  some  of  the  consular  and  other 
diptychs  that  have  come  down  to  us,  have  raised  the  ques- 
tion, how  did  the  ancients  secure  pieces  of  ivory  of  suflScient 
size?  In  our  day,  with  the  processes  now  in  use,  this  would 
>v  not  be  possible.     Hence  it  has  been  conjectured  that  they 

*M.  Tullii  Ciceronb,  "In  Verrem  Lib.  IV;  De  Signis";  Oratio  nona,  cap.  56. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        23 

possessed  some  lost  art  for  welding  together  separate  pieces 
of  ivory.  In  the  late  Latin  treatise  on  the  arts  of  the  Ro- 
mans, belonging  probably  to  the  tenth  century,  and  which 
passes  under  the  name  of  Eraclius,  the  following  directions 
are  given :  "Take  sulphate  of  potash,  fossil  salt,  and  vitriol ; 
these  are  ground  with  very  sharp  vinegar  m  a  brass  mortar. 
Into  this  mixture  the  ivory  is  placed  for  three  days  and 
nights.  This  being  done,  you  will  hollow  into  a  piece  of 
wood  as  you  please.  The  ivory  being  thus  placed  in  the 
hollow,  you  direct  it  and  will  bend  it  to  your  will."  But 
this  recipe  as  well  as  others  given  by  various  ancient  writers 
do  not  give  satisfactory  experimental  results. 

Although  in  some  instances  tusks  of  quite  exceptional 
size  have  furnished  very  large  flat  pieces  of  ivory,  it  is  re- 
garded as  possible,  if  not  probable,  that  the  ancients  cut 
large  cylindrical  pieces  from  the  median  part  of  the  tusk, 
split  these  cylinders  at  a  given  point,  softened  them  by  some 
process,  and  then  flattened  them  out,  thus  securing  a  piece 
as  broad  as  the  circumference  of  the  tusk.  This  theory 
was  advanced  by  Mons.  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  Steeping 
in  vinegar  and  almond  oil  does  really  render  ivory  ductile 
to  a  certain  extent.  While  it  can  be  decomposed  by  caustic 
alkalis,  it  cannot  be  recomposed. 

Some  very  interesting,  even  if  possibly  not  quite  exact, 
information  as  to  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  ivory  material 
of  their  statues  by  the  ancient  Greeks  is  afforded  us  by 
Pausanias.  Treating  of  the  colossal  chryselephantine  statue 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  he  notes  that  around  the  black  stone 
flagging  laid  in  front  of  the  image  there  ran  a  raised  edge  of 
Parian  marble  "to  keep  in  the  olive  oil  and  water  that  is 
poured  out,"  adding,  "for  oil  is  good  for  the  image  at  Olym- 
pia," since  it  counteracted  the  effect  of  the  moist  atmosphere 
caused  by  surrounding  marsh  land.  In  spite  of  all  precau- 
tions»  we  learn  that  some  of  the  ivory  plates  did  really  crack 


24       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  that  the  aid  of  the  sculptor  Damophon  was  called  in  to 
remedy  the  evil.  He  succeeded  in  fitting  them  together 
again  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  for  which  task  he  was 
greatly  honoured  by  the  Eleans.  The  importance  accorded 
to  the  care  of  the  great  Zeus  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
cleaner  of  this  image  had  a  special  seat  reserved  for  him  in 
the  theatre  of  Athens.*  In  the  dry  air  of  the  Acropolis  at 
Athens,  however,  not  oil  but  water  was  used  to  prevent  the 
material  from  drying  out.  On  visiting  Epidaurus  and  view- 
ing the  ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Asklepios  there,  the  Greek 
traveller  was  informed  that  in  this  case  neither  oil  nor  water 
was  used  on  the  ivory,  and  when  he  inquired  the  reason  he 
was  told  that  directly  beneath  where  the  statue  rested  was 
a  deep  excavation — a  kind  of  well — and  that  the  moisture 
arising  from  this  was  just  suflScient  to  preserve  the  ivory  in 
proper  condition. f 

It  was  stated  that  the  injunction  to  pour  oil  over  this  Zeus 
image  emanated  from  the  great  Phidias  himself,  who  had 
enjoined  that  this  should  be  done  "so  as  to  keep  it  immortal 
as  far  as  possible.' 'J  The  use  of  oil  immediately  on  the 
ivory  has  been  doubted,  and  Schubart  conjectures  that  it 
was  rather  applied  to  the  wooden  framework  to  prevent 
this  from  shrinking  and  thus  cracking  the  ivory  plates  cover- 
ing it.**  A  confirmation  of  this  view  is  found  in  Pliny's 
assertion  (Nat.  Hist.  Lib.  xvi)  that  in  the  statue  of  Artemis 
at  Ephesus,  the  "Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  were  many  holes 
into  which  oil  was  poured  to  prevent  the  framework  from 
splitting. 

In  his  "Description  of  Greece'*  Pausanias  mentions  a 

*C.  I.  A.  m,  Nos.  243, 291;  in  Fraaer's  Paiuanius,  Vol.  11,  p.  182. 

fPauBanue,  Descriptio  Gnecue,  Lib.  V,  cap.  11, 10. 

{Methodius  in  Photius,  Bibliotheca,  p.  298,  b.  1,  sq.,  ed.  Bekker.    Cited  in  Fraser'a 
Pauaaniaa,  London,  1898,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  545. 

**Zeitach,  f.  d.    AltertbumswiasenBchaft.  Vol.  I.  1849,  pp.  407-413. 


HKAI>   OK  Ol.YMlM.VX   ZKIS 


MEDAL  OF  KMPKHOR   HADRIAN 


CONSCLAH  DIPTYCHS 
1.    LEAF  OF  A  UIPTVCH  OF  JlsiTlNIAXlS 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        25 

number  of  chryselephantine  statues^  busts,  and  reliefs,  giving 
in  some  cases  the  names  of  the  artists  to  whom  they  were 
attributed  in  his  time.  The  body  or  framework  of  these 
statues,  of  which  several  were  of  colossal  dimensions,  was 
frequently  of  wood,  though  sometimes  of  stone,  the  ivory 
being  used  for  the  face,  hands,  and  feet,  while  the  hair  and 
garments  and  the  beard,  in  the  case  of  bearded  gods  or 
heroes,  were  of  gold.  Sometimes  all  parts  of  the  body  not 
covered  by  drapery  were  formed  of  ivory  plates. 

The  following  are  the  principal  examples  of  statues  in 
which  ivory  was  employed,  noted  by  Pausanias: 

Statue  of  Zeus  at  Athens,  erected  by  Emperor  Hadrian. 
A  colossal  statue,  probably  a  copy  of  the  Phidian  Zeus  at 
Olympia  (Lib.  1,  cap.  18,  6).* 

The  Dionysos  Eleutherios  of  Alkamenes,  executed  some 
time  between  420  and  413  B.  C.  (Lib.  I,  cap.  20,  3). 

Athene  Parthenos  of  Phidias  in  Parthenon  of  Athens  (Lib. 
I,  cap  24, 5). 

The  head  of  the  Zeus  statue  in  Megara  (Lib.  I,  cap.  40, 4). 
By  Theokosmos,  who  is  stated  to  have  been  aided  in  the  work 
by  Phidias. 

Statue  of  Athene  in  Megara  (Lib.  I,  cap.  42,  4).  Wood, 
gilded;  face  and  extremities  of  ivory. 

Parts  of  the  Amphitrite,  Poseidon,  Palsemion,  and  Tritons, 
and  the  hoofs  of  the  horses  in  the  group  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth  (Lib.  II,  cap.  1,  8). 

Statue  of  Dionysius  at  Akrokorinthus  (Lib.  II,  cap.  7,  5). 

Statue  of  Asklepios  by  Kalamis  in  Sikyon  (Lib.  II,  cap. 
10,  3). 

Statue  of  Aphrodite  by  Kanachos  in  Sikyon  (Lib.  11,  cap. 
10,  3). 

Statue  of  Hera,  of  colossal  size,  by  Polykletus  in  the 
Herseum  at  Argos  (Lib.  II,  cap.  17,  4). 

*The  coin  we  have  reproduced  was  probably  struck  in  commemoration  of  this. 


26       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Statue  of  Hebe  by  Naukydes  in  the  Herceum  at  Argos 
(Lib.  n,  17,  5). 

Statue  of  Asklepios  by  Thrasymedes  in  Epidaurus  (Lib. 
n,  cap.  27,  2). 

Statue  of  Zeus  in  Olympia,  by  Phidias  (Lib.  IV,  cap.  31, 
6,  Lib.  V,  cap.  11, 1). 

Statue  of  Nicomedes  in  Olympia  (Lib.  V,  cap.  12,  7). 

Busts  in  the  Herseum  at  Olympia  (Lib.  V,  cap.  17,  3). 

Statue  of  Eurydice  (probably  the  wife  of  Amyntas  H  and 
mother  of  Philip  II  of  Macedon)  in  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia. 

Reliefs  on  the  casket  of  Kypselus  (Lib.  V,  cap.  17,  5). 

Table  in  Olympia,  by  Kolopes  (Lib.  V,  cap.  20,  2). 

Statue  of  Athene  in  Elis  (Lib.  VI,  cap.  26,  3).  Said  to  be 
by  Kolotes,  a  pupil  of  Phidias. 

Statue  of  Athene  in  Pellene  (Lib.  VIII,  cap.  27,  2). 
Stated  to  have  been  executed  by  Phidias. 

Ancient  ivory  image  of  Athene  in  her  temple  at  Alalko- 
mense.     Carried  off  to  Rome  by  Sylla.     (Lib.  IX,  cap.  33, 5.) 

Image  of  Dionysos,  with  face,  feet,  and  hands  of  ivory,  in 
the  treasury  of  Selinius  in  Sicily,  at  Olympia.  This  Greek 
Sicilian  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginians  in  409  B.C. 
(Lib.  VI,  cap.  19,  10).  ^r 

Statue  of  Endymion,  entirely  of  ivory  excepting  the  dra- 
pery, in  the  Olympian  treasury  of  Metapontum  (Lib.  VT, 
cap.  19,  11). 

Ancient  image  of  Athene  Alea  at  Tegea,  carried  off  by 
Augustus  with  the  tusks  of  the  Calydonian  Boar,  one  of 
which  was  half  a  fathom  long.  This  image,  entirely  of 
ivory,  was  the  work  of  Endoeus  (last  half  of  sixth  century 
B.  C.)  and  was  set  up  in  Rome  on  the  way  to  the  Forum  of 
Augustus  (Lib.  Vlll,  cap.  46,  1,  5). 

Of  the  two  ancient  reproductions  in  marble  of  the  great 
Athene  Parthenos  of  Phidias  which  have  been  discovered  in 
Greece,  that  found  in  1880  is  the  more  satisfactory,  although 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES         27 

the  rude  workmanship  shows  that  we  have  here  rather  a 
summary  indication  than  a  faithful  copy  of  the  great  and 
colossal  original.  The  outstretched  hand  of  the  goddess, 
ujjon  which  rests  a  statue  of  Nike,  has  an  external  support  in 
the  form  of  a  slender  column,  and  some  critics  are  unwilling 
to  believe  that  the  Phidian  statue  was  so  designed.  How- 
ever, when  we  consider  the  height  of  the  original  Nike  figure, 
about  six  feet,  we  must  realize  that  its  unsupported  weight 
would  have  brought  a  tremendous  strain  to  bear  upon  the 
framework  of  the  outstretched  forearm,  a  strain  quite  great 
enough  to  warrant  the  artist  in  seeking  to  provide  for  it  by 
some  such  means  as  that  shown  in  the  reproduction. 

It  is  related  that  Tarquin  had  a  sceptre  and  a  throne  of 
ivory,  and  that  after  his  downfall  these  were  given  up  by  the 
Roman  Senate  to  the  Etruscan,  Lars  Porsenna,  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  between  him  and  the  Roman  Republic.  It 
was  also  with  an  ivory  staflF  that  Marcus  Papirius  smote  the 
Gaul  who  had  dared  to  touch  his  beard  to  see  whether  he 
was  man  or  statue,  when  the  grave  and  reverend  senators 
sat  so  immovably  in  their  seats  that  the  victorious  Gauls 
who  broke  into  the  Senate  chamber  were  uncertain  whether 
they  w«re  living  men  or  only  images.* 

Among  the  gifts  bestowed  by  the  Roman  Senate  upon  the 
tributary  or  semi-tributary  sovereigns  were  the  ivory  curule 
chair  and  the  ivory  sceptre.  The  Latin  historians  make 
frequent  mention  of  this,  noting  the  ivory  sceptre  given  to 
Eumenes,  King  of  Asia.f  One  was  also  sent  to  Ptolemy,  of 
Mauritania,  according  to  Tacitus.  An  ivory  staff  was  a 
well-recognized  Roman  emblem  of  honour  in  the  case  of 
consuls  and  those  celebrating  a  triumph. J  It  was  in  many 
cases  surmounted  by  the  image  of  an  eagle;  under  the  em- 

*Jule8  Labarte,  "Histoire  des  arts  industrieU.**  Vol.  L  Paris,  1864,  p.  189. 
ffitus  livius  "Ab  urbe  oondita,"  XLII.  14. 
JJuvenal.  Set.  X,  43. 


28  IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

perors  a  bust  had  taken  the  place  of  the  eagle,  in  most  cases 
that  of  the  reigning  emperor  himself.*  The  origin  of  the  use 
of  these  and  similar  objects  has  been  traced  back  to  Etruscan 
royalty.  The  Tyrrhenian  cities,  as  a  sign  of  submission^ 
sent  to  Tarquin  with  other  gifts  an  ivory  seat,  and  one  was 
given  by  the  Roman  Senate  to  Forsenna  as  a  special  mark 
of  favour,  t 

A  strikingly  beautiful  and  artistic  specimen  of  ancient 
Roman  ivory  carving  was  unearthed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Vienne  (Dept.  Isere),  France,  the  site  of  an  old  Roman 
settlement  in  the  Gallic  province.  It  is  a  finely  executed 
female  head,  showing  all  the  calm  dignity  and  the  purity  of 
outline  characteristic  of  the  very  best  classic  sculpture. 
This  valuable  carving  is  now  in  the  Musee  de  Vienne.J 

There  are  evidences  that  ivory  was  both  known  and 
appreciated  by  the  Celts  at  a  very  early  period,  although, 
because  of  its  relative  destructability  as  compared  with 
amber  or  glass,  but  few  specimens  are  now  extant.  How- 
ever, both  in  France  and  Germany  the  tumuli  of  the  Hallstat 
Period,  extending  down  to  500  B.  C.  and  even  later,  have 
furnished  a  few  specimens,  such  as  rings  and  the  handles  of 
different  toilette  articles.  Such  examples  have  been  un- 
earthed from  the  tumuli  of  Aprimont  (Dept.  Haute  Sadne) 
and  from  those  of  Buchheim  in  Baden.  In  this  connection 
may  also  be  noted  the  use  of  human  teeth  as  part  of  the 
adornments  of  necklaces  and  of  other  objects.** 

The  most  wonderful  works  of  art  in  which  ivory  was  ever 
used  were  unquestionably  the  colossal  chryselephantine,  or 

♦H.  K.  E.  Kohler,  "Serapis,"  St.  Petersburg.  1850,  Pt.  I.  p.  198. 

tDion.  Halicar..  V.  85. 

{"L*art  k  TExposition  Universe!  de  1900**  (Exposition  Retrospective),  Paris,  December. 
1900.  p.  12,  Fig.  1. 

**  Joseph  D^helette, "  Manuel  d*  Arch^ologie  Pr^historique  Celtique  et  Gallo-Ronuune/* 
Paris,  1918,  Pt.  II,  pp.  831,  875;  see  Figs.  367,  p.  874.  handle  ornaments  No.  1  from  Buch- 
heim. Nos.  2, 8.  from  Apremont. 


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d4tiL-lAMJ:, 

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ill\^p 

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ill 

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1.     WiNf.   OK   A   TRlPTVt  H   UKE'lCTINd   ST-   THKODORIS 


II.     CONSILAR   DIPTYCH 


I,    LEAF    OF    A    CONSULAR    DIPTYCH 


II.    IVORY    PLAQIE    DEPICTING    ST.    PAUL 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        29 

gcdd  and  ivory  statues  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  and  of  Athena 
Parthenos  in  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  both  executed  by  the 
immortal  Phidias  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  The  Athena  was 
about  40  feet  high,  the  face,  hands,  and  feet  being  of  ivory,  as 
well  as  the  Medusa's  head  at  her  side.  On  her  hand  she 
bwe  an  ivory  Nike,  or  Victory,  over  6  feet  in  height.  These 
and  other  similar  though  less  stupendous  works,  such  as  the 
statue  of  Hera  at  Argos,  the  work  of  Polykletus  and  that  of 
Asklepios  at  Epidaurus,  made  by  Thrasymedes,  all  prove 
that  ivory  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  of  the  very  highest 
value  and  importance  in  art. 

In  Rome  also  the  beautiful  artistic  eflPects  to  be  attained 
by  using  this  material  made  it  a  favourite  one  with  art 
workers.  While  the  immense  statues  of  the  Greek  gods 
have  passed  away  leaving  no  trace  behind,  we  have  from 
Roman  times  a  number  of  precious  relics  of  a  characteristic 
use  of  ivory.  These  are  the  consular  diptychs  and  those  of 
certain  distinguished  private  citizens,  made  of  two  panels 
of  ivory,  hinged  on  one  of  their  sides  so  that  they  could  be 
folded  together;  these  diptychs  were  at  once  memorials  of 
events  and  art  works  of  great  beauty.  At  a  much  later 
period,  in  Christian  times,  three  panels  were  hinged  together 
forming  a  triptych,  and  sometimes  there  was  a  central  panel 
having  two  or  more  others  attached  at  either  side,  so  that 
when  set  upright,  with  the  side  panels  bent  inward  at  diflFer- 
ent  angles,  a  small  enclosed  space  was  formed  wherein  might 
be  placed  a  precious  relic  or  a  statuette  of  a  saint. 

Of  the  Roman  consular  diptychs  very  nearly  fifty  have 
been  preserved  for  us,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  these  date 
from  the  middle  of  the  third  century  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century  A.  D.;  probably  some  of  those  of  which  we 
have  no  specimens  belonged  to  the  first  or  second  century. 
One  of  the  earliest  now  extant,  that  of  Rufius  Probianus, 
DOW  in  Berlin,  constitutes  the  covers  of  a  manuscript  relating 


30       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  life  of  St.  Ludgerus.^  But  these  official  panels  are  far 
surpassed  in  beauty  by  some  executed  for  private  persons. 

In  the  leaf  of  the  diptych  of  Flavins  Felix,  consul  in  428 
A.  D.,  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the  Biblioth^ue 
Nationale  in  Paris,  the  consul  is  shown  wearing  a  richly 
embroidered  tunic,  the  undergarment,  subarmalia  profundis, 
being  entirely  plain ;  on  his  feet  are  the  gilt,  patrician  shoes, 
the  calcei  aurati.  In  his  left  hand  he  holds  a  sceptre  and  a 
globe,  added  distinguishing  marks  being  the  busts  of  the  two 
reigning  emperors  Valentinian  III  and  Theodorus  H.  The 
other  leaf  of  this  diptych  was  lost  or  stolen  during  the  French 
Revolution;  that  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  came  from 
the  Abbey  of  St.  Junieu,  at  Limoges,  France. 

The  consular  diptych  of  Flavins  Anastasius  Paulus  Probus 
Pompeius,  to  give  him  his  full  complement  of  names,  is  also 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  finest  of  those  owned  by  this  institution;  the  Berlin  Mu- 
seum and  the  South  Kensington  Museum  each  have  a  replica 
of  one  of  the  leaves.  This  fine  example  of  Roman  carving 
was  donated  by  Charles  the  Bald  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Cor- 
neille  at  some  time  during  the  ninth  century. 

The  J.  P.  Morgan  Collection,  long  shown  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  contains  among  its  ivory 
carvings  the  two  leaves  of  a  Roman  consular  diptych  of  the 
sixth  century.  This  bears  the  name  of  Flavins  Petrus 
Sabbatius  Justinianus,  and  was  probably  produced  in  516,  or 
possibly  in  521  A.  D.  On  one  of  the  leaves  is  the  somewhat 
pretentious  Latin  inscription:  Munera  parva  quidem  pretio 
sed  honoribics  cUmay  "a  gift  slight  in  value  but  conferring 
high  honour";  on  the  other  leaf  is  a  dedication  to  the  Sena- 
tors. This  diptych  was  at  one  time  in  the  Trivulzi  Collec- 
tion in  Milan. 

^Maskell,  "  Ivories  Ancient  and  Medieval,"  pp.  28,  29,  South  Kensington  Museum  Art 
Handbooks  No.  2. 


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COXSLLAR  DIPTYCH  OF  ANASTASllS 

CONSUL  IS  J17  A.  D. 
PROM  BOURGF^  .VOW  IN  THE   BIBUUTHEQl'f:  N 


(ONsri.AEl   DIPTYCH   OF   PHILOXKNCS 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        31 

Out  of  the  cx)nsiilar  diptychs  still  extant,  thirty-seven  bear 
inscriptions  giving  the  name  of  the  consul,  only  twelve 
being  anonymous.  Whether  because  this  particular  consul 
caused  an  unusually  large  number  of  his  diptychs  to  be 
made,  or  simply  owing  to  chance,  out  of  the  small  total 
that  have  been  preserved  no  less  than  eight  are  of  Areo- 
bundus,  and  the  diflFerence  in  artistic  quality  between  the 
best  of  these  and  the  least  excellent  indicates  that  more  care 
was  bestowed  upon  those  destined  as  gifts  to  people  of  es- 
pecial prominence  than  upon  those  to  be  bestowed  upon 
less  notable  persons.  The  greater  part  of  these  consular 
diptychs  were  executed  m  the  Eastern  Empire. 

The  diptych  of  Anastasius,  A.  D.  517,  has  on  either  leaf 
a  seated  figure  of  the  consul;  above  each  of  these  figures  are 
three  portrait  medallions,  the  subjects  of  which  are  uncer- 
tain, and  two  winged  figures  with  garlands.  Below,  the 
left  leaf  shows  two  Amazons,  each  leading  a  horse  by  the 
bridle,  probably  in  preparation  for  a  horse  race;  beneath 
this  is  represented  the  manumission  of  some  slaves,  one  of 
these,  a  himchback,  being  freed  by  the  consul's  wife,  Anas- 
tasia.  The  corresponding  part  of  the  right  leaf  contains 
a  representation  of  a  combat  in  the  arena  between  men  and 
wild  beasts.  This  is  one  of  the  most  eflPective  of  the  con- 
sular diptychs,  although  in  artistic  merit  it  may  be  sur- 
passed by  a  few  others. 

The  consular  and  other  diptychs  from  Roman  times  had  a 
very  practical  use  as  writing  tablets,  the  surface  being  cov- 
ered with  a  coating  of  wax  upon  which  the  writing  was  made 
with  a  metal  stylus.  They  were  thus  not  only  valuable  and 
beautiful,  but  most  useful  presents.  The  medieval  diptychs 
and  triptychs,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a  purely  religious 
significance,  and  were  generally  so  arranged  as  to  constitute 
small  shrines  or  tabernacles. 

The  Roman  diptych  bearmg  inscribed  on  one  leaf  the  name 


32       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Nicomachorum  and  on  the  other  Symmachorum  is  generally  : 
conceded  to  be  the  finest  work  of  its  kind  that  has  come  down 
to  us  from  ancient  times.     In  the  lapse  of  centuries  it  has 
passed   through   some   strange   vicissitudes.     A   plausible 
conjecture  sees  in  it  a  work  executed  toward  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  A.  D.,  to  celebrate  an  alliance  or  compact^ 
social   or  religious,   between   two  patrician  families,  the 
Nicomachi  and  the  Symmachi.     This  latter  family  was  of 
consular  rank,  Quintus  Aurelius  Symmachus,  an  author  of 
repute,  having  been  chosen  consul  in  391  A.  D.;  his  father^ 
L.  Aurelius  Symmachus,  held  the  rank  of  praetor  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century.    The  design  certainly  seems 
to  indicate  a  connection  with  some  religious  ceremonial,  as 
on  each  leaf  is  figured  a  Bacchante  standing  before  an  altar 
and  about  to  oflPer  a  sacrifice  of  incense.     In  view  of  this  we 
must  feel  it  as  an  irony  of  fate  that  less  than  three  centuries ' 
after  its  production  the  leaves  of  the  diptych  were  made; 
to  serve  as  doors  to  a  shrine  within  which  were  gathered,' 
some  of  the  most  precious  Christian  relics.     This  shrine  waa  , 
brought  from  Rome  by  St.  Berchaire  about  679  A.  D.  to/. 
the  newly  founded  abbey  church  of  Montier-en-Der,  in  the  ■  - 
diocese  of  Troyes,  France,  and  the  shrine  with  its  ivory  do<ns . 
is  described  in  detail  in  the  inventory  of  the  monastic  treas- 
ures made  in  1717.     How  long  after  this  time  it  remained 
intact  appears  uncertain;  it  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed 
by  fire,  although  the  saintly  relics  were  preserved.     Nothing 
further  is  known  of  the  ivory  doors,  the  leaves  of  the  Roman 
diptych,  until  1860,  when  one  of  them  was  fished  up  out  of  the 
depths  of  a  well  at  Montier-en-Der.     This  leaf,  inscribed 
Nicomachorum,  has  since  been  acquired  by  the  Mus^  de 
Cluny,  Paris.     On  investigation  it  turned  out  that  the  com- 
panion leaf,  bearing  the  inscription  Symmachorum,  was  in 
the  possession  of  a  collector  of  the  city  of  Montier-en-Der, 
and  from  him  indirectly  it  reached  the  Victoria  and  Albert 


R{).\  D       r        H 


i:  Rs39i       u3e4 


[VSte  DE  CLUNI.  FABia.       FROM    "LEH  11 


E  HOLINIEH,  PARISi  II 


PYX  FOR  CONTAINING  THE  HOST 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        33 

Museum,  London,  where  it  now  reposes.  It  seems  unfortu- 
Bate  that  the  two  leaves  of  this  most  interesting  and  valuable 
memento  of  the  past  cannot  be  reunited. 

These  beautiful  diptych  leaves,  while  probably  executed 
kk  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.,  have  been 
apparently  inspired  by  Greek  sculpture  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.  C,,  perhaps  that  of  some  Greek  stele  set  up  in  Rome, 
tad  which  could  be  there  seen  and  studied  by  the  carver 
of  the  diptych.^ 

Among  the  treasures  of  the  Kunsthistorische  Sammlungen 
m  Viemia  may  be  seen  a  diptych  of  the  fifth  century,  on 
either  leaf  of  which  appear  allegorical  figures  denoting 
leqiectively  Rome  and  Constantinople,  the  Western  and 
the  Eastern  Empires.  The  genius  of  Rome  is  helmeted  like 
a  Ifinerva  and  holds  in  one  hand  a  sphere  surmounted  by  a 
l^btory;  for  Constantinople  the  artist  has  chosen  a  figure 
tf  Fortune  (Tyche),  on  her  head  is  a  mural  crown  and  in 
her  hands  she  bears  palm  branch  and  cornucopia;  to  her 
dioulder  clings  the  child  Eros.f 

Id  the  very  earliest  Christian  age  there  were  ivory  diptychs 
mscribed  with  the  names  of  those  who  had  been  baptized, 
thus  constituting  a  partial  parish  register;  upon  others  again 
were  carved  the  names  of  the  bishops  of  the  churches  and 
of  great  benefactors.  Still  others  bore  the  names  of  the 
samts  and  martyrs,  and,  finally,  there  was  a  fourth  class 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  registration  of  the  dead  who  had 
passed  away  after  due  reception  of  the  last  sacraments.  Of 
hrovy  is  one  of  the  most  precious  relics  of  the  church  in  the 
rikth  century — ^namely,  the  throne  of  Maximian,  Archbishop 
of  Ravenna  (546-556).  This  cathedra  is  high-backed  and 
idomed  with  a  series  of  ivory  plaques  carved  in  relief  with 

H).  IL  Dalton,  "Bysantine  Art  and  Archsology/'  Oxford,  1911,  pp.  190,  191. 

t**U^)enicht  der  KimBthutoruchen  Sammlungen  des  AllerhOchsten  Kauerhauaes,*' 
Wica,  im.  p.  118  (HaU  XIV,  Case  XXI). 


34        IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  such  as  the  history 
of  Joseph,  the  Annunciation,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  etc. ; 
in  addition,  many  figures  of  saints  and  also  highly  ornamen- 
tal borders  combine  to  render  this  a  most  impressive  artistic 
production.  The  similarity  in  design  and  workmanship  of 
this  early  monument  of  Christian  art  to  the  ivory  work 
executed  about  this  time  in  Alexandria  renders  it  probable 
that  this  seat  or  throne  was  executed  in  Egypt  and  brought 
thence  to  Ravenna.* 

On  a  leaf  of  a  Roman  diptych,  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  carved  a  most  striking  and  impressive  figure  of 
an  angel.  This  work,  executed  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  represents  the  combination  of  classic  and 
Christian  art  at  its  very  best  and  is  almost  imique  in  ex- 
cellence in  this  respect,  for  while  the  religious  fervour  of  a 
later  time  may  not  have  abated,  the  artistic  ability  of  the 
carvers  soon  showed  a  sad  falling  oflP,  which  continued  imtil 
the  revival  in  the  Renaissance  art  of  the  French  and  Italian 
schools  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
This  angel,  clothed  in  classic  garb  of  the  most  graceful  style, 
has  the  port  and  bearing  of  a  prince  of  the  angelic  hosts, 
blending  classic  dignity  and  religious  majesty  in  an  incom- 
parable way.  The  technical  execution  is  fully  on  a  par 
with  the  artistic  conception,  and  no  work  of  Roman  art  can 
be  pronounced  superior  to  this. 

That  the  episcopal  chair  of  Ravenna  was  not  a  production 
of  the  Alexandrian  School,  but  came  from  the  great  Syrian 
art  centre,  Antioch,  is  the  contention  of  the  distinguished 
art  critic,  Mr.  O.  M.  Dalton.  The  superior  quality  of  work- 
manship displayed  in  some  of  the  panels  as  compared  with 
others  has  induced  the  belief  that  more  than  one  artist  was 

*See  Hans  Graeven,  "Fragment  eines  frilhchristlichen  Bbchofsstuhls  im  Provinsial 
Museum  zu  Trier/*  Jahrbticher  des  Vereins  von  Altertumsfreunden  im  Rheinlande,  Heft 
105,  Bonn,  1900,  pp.  147-163. 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        35 

employed  in  the  decoration  of  this  remarkable  ecclesiastical 
work,  although  Mr.  Dalton  suggests  that  a  single  artist 
might  have  taken  more  pains  with  the  more  conspicuous 
panels  and  have  treated  the  others  with  less  care.  The 
splendid  carving  of  the  archangel,  probably  St.  Michael, 
in  the  British  Museum,  has  also  been  referred  to  Antioch, 
where  the  best  traditions  of  Greek  art  long  held  sway.* 

In  this  latter  work  Strzygowski  has  seen  an  influence  of 
the  histrionic  frescos  of  Pompeii,  in  which  the  short  flight 
of  steps  by  which  the  actors  descended  to  the  stage  are 
flanked  by  pairs  of  columns.    As  such  an  influence  could 
scarcely  be  exerted,  upon  Christian  art  especially,  in  any 
place  other  than  a  great  centre  of  population,  the  conjecture 
that  Antioch  was  the  city  where  the  remarkable  carving  of 
the  archangel  was  produced  receives  additional  confirmation,  f 
A  very  interesting  carved  ivory  panel  in  the  Bargello  in 
Florence,  representing  the  figure  of  an  empress,  has  been 
variously  dated  by  different  authorities,  Molinier  referring 
it  to  the  Empress  Irene,  regent  for  her  son  Constantine  VI 
b  780  A.  D.,  but  the  work  was  probably  executed  at  an  earlier 
period,  and  may  figure  Ariadne,  who  was  successively  mar- 
tied  to  the  Emperors  Zeno  and  Anastasius  I,  her  son  by  the 
iatter  emperor  having  died  in  507  A.  D.,  to  which  date, 
approximately,  the  panel  may  be  attributed.     The  curious 
headgear  of  the  empress  was  used  at  a  later  time  in  repre- 
sentations of  the  Virgin  Mary.t 

Of  the  ivory-adorned  book  covers  in  the  Bibliothfeque 
N^ationale,  one  of  the  finest  and  most  interesting  is  formed 
from  a  Roman  diptych.     On  one  leaf  is  carved  a  repre- 

^.  M.  Dalton,  ''Byzantiiie  Art  and  Aichnology."  Oxford,  1011,  pp.  20S-806;  see  Fig. 
122,  12S. 

tOp.  dt.  pp.  801,  202. 

to.  M.  Dalton,  "Byzantine  Art  and  Archeology."  Oxford,  1911,  pp.  213,  214;  see  Fig. 


S6       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

sentation  of  Bacchus  seated  in  a  car  drawn  by  Centaurs; 
the  other  leaf  depicts  Diana  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
bulls.  The  manuscript  enclosed  by  these  covers  is  an 
example  of  the  so-called  "QflSce  of  Fools,"  a  semi-travesty 
of  a  religious  service,  tolerated  by  the  Catholic  Church  on 
the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision,  which  falls  on  New  Year's 
Day.  Doubtless  the  pagan  designs  were  expressly  chosen 
as  covers  for  this  popular  ritual,  one  of  the  concessions 
made  by  the  Church,  perhaps  not  unwisely,  to  the  fondness 
of  the  common  people  for  a  f roUc  on  the  first  day  ci  a  new 
year,  although  such  an  observance  would  be  regarded  to- 
day, when  the  religious  and  secular  aspects  of  life  are  so 
sharply  distinguished,  as  a  profanation  of  holy  things. 

The  great  Christian  church  of  Santa  Sophia,  turned  into 
a  Mohammedan  mosque  since  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in 
1453,  was  enriched  with  six  ivory  doors  especially  com- 
manded for  its  embellishment  by  its  founder.  Emperor 
Justinian.  An  old  record  says  that  the  ivory  was  elaborately 
sculptured  and  the  eflFect  enhanced  by  gold  ornaments.* 
As  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  ivory  panels  adorned 
with  figured  representations  of  religious  subjects  were 
quickly  removed  and  almost  certainly  destroyed  by  the 
Mohammedan  conquerors,  there  is  little  reason  for  surprise 
that  no  trace  of  them  remains.  Perhaps  the  present 
year  is  destined  to  be  noted  in  future  history  as  that  in 
which  this  wonderful  historic  monument,  the  peerless 
Santa  Sophia,  shall  have  been  restored  to  Christian  worship. 

There  is  evidence  that  work  in  ivory  was  extensively  ' 
done  in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  for  among  other^ 
artists  or  artisans  granted  especial  exemption  by  law^ 
from  certain  mimicipal  obligations  are  noted  "the  ivory^ 
workers  (eborarii)  who  make  seats,  beds,  etc.,  of  ivory.'*^ 

*See  RidulfuB  de  Diceto,  in  Stubbs's  "Rerum  Brittanicftrum  acriptore8»"  Vol.  71, 

In  QS 


IVORY  CASKET 


ST.  PAUL  PREACHING 


ANCIENT    CARVED    IVORIES        37 

They  shared  these  privileges  with  architects  and  painters, 
so  that  their  profession  must  have  been  regarded  as  a  very 
honourable  one.* 

A  pyx  for  containing  the  sacred  Host,  executed  in  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century  by  a  Latin  carver,  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  ivories  of  the  Cluny  collection.  The  figin^s  sculp- 
tured around  the  sides  are  copied  from  the  representations 
on  early  Christian  sarcophagi  and  depict  the  cure  of  the 
paralytic,  that  of  the  man  bom  blind,  the  Samaritan  woman, 
and  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus.  In  this  we  have  a  good 
example  of  the  decadence  of  classic  art  in  carving. 

Italian  art  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  representing 
the  rapidly  waning  classic  tradition,  furnishes  an  interest- 
ing if  not  especially  beautiful  ivory  carving  in  the  Louvre 
Museum.  The  subject  is  St.  Paul  preaching,  but  the  neces- 
sities of  the  treatment  have  forced  the  artist  to  make  the 
apostolic  preacher  turn  his  back  upon  the  congregation, 
unless  we  are  to  suppose  that  those  in  view  represent  but  a 
small  part  of  his  auditors. 


Gnido  PanciroUus,  "De  inagistratibus  municipalibus;  de  corporibus  artificum*';  in 
Giaeyiui*  "Theaaurus  Bonuuiarum  antiquiUtum/*  Vol.  Ill,  Venetiis,  1782,  col.  83. 


CHAPTER  II 

MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN    IVORY 

CARVINGS 

The  ideals  that  animated  classic  art  gradually  lost  their 
vigour  in  the  course  of  the  early  Christian  centuries,  giving 
place  to  new  artistic  aspirations  animated  by  purely  Chris- 
tian ideals.  Some  of  the  works  noted  in  the  preceding 
chapter  were  already  produced  imder  these  influences,  which 
so  dominated  medieval  plastic  art  that  only  in  comparatively 
few  instances  did  the  artist — ^painter,  sculptor,  or  carver — 
seek  his  inspiration  elsewhere. 

The  leading  schools  of  Carolingian  ivory  carving  were 
those  of  Rheims  and  Metz,  the  former  having  the  priority, 
while  the  latter  was  never  so  much  localized,  indeed,  it  may 
be  regarded  rather  as  a  type  of  the  art  owing  its  origin  to  the 
influence  of  the  Rheims  carvers  than  as  a  separate  and  de- 
flned  school.     One  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  early  work 
done  at  Rheims  is  in  the  Staatsbibliothek  in  Munich.     Thi 
is  a  book  cover  and  depicts  the  Cruciflxion.     It  is  character 
ized  by  the  very  lively  gestures  of  the  flgures,  and  by  the:' 
fluttering  garments,  this  vivacity  being  a  quality  of  tl 
school  of  Rheims.     More  sobriety  and  seriousness  is  sho^ 
in  the  carvings  grouped  under  the  designation  of  the  Mc 
School,  of  which  an  excellent  example  is  in  the  Bibliothfec 
Nationale  in  Paris.     This  carving,  from  the  time  of  Lud^ 
der  Fromme,  is  also  the  cover  of  an  evangelium.     It  is 
vided  into  three  fields,  the  upper  one  offering  a  representa^ 

88 


IVORY  PLAQUE 


^^^^■^ 


*g^' 


!^ 


i*^^'^ 

^>-^ 


Q  FOCR  OF  THE 


IVORY   PLAQUES 

.-8:   AQt-ARlUB  A-iD 


IVORY    CARVINGS  89 

of  the  betrayal  of  Christ  by  Judas  in  the  Garden  of  Gethsem- 
aiie»  the  middle  field,  the  denial  of  Peter,  while  the  lower 
field  depicts  the  Crucifixion.  Here  the  bodies  of  the  crucified 
thieves  are  entirely  undraped,  a  unique  treatment  in  these 
representations ;  moreover,  they  are  nailed  to  natural  trees, 
the  cross-pieces  being  the  limbs  of  the  trees.* 

Of  the  so-called  Metz  School  of  Carolingian  carving  a 
characteristic  specimen  may  be  seen  in  the  Kaiser  Frederich 
Museum  in  Berlin.  This  is  a  diptych,  each  leaf  measuring 
11.8  centimeters  (4|  in.)  in  height,  and  having  a  width  of 
8.2  centimeters  (3 J  in.).  There  are  on  each  leaf  six  designs 
without  dividing  lines,  comprising  the  Annunciation,  the 
Vision  of  the  Shepherds,  the  Nativity,  the  Adoration  of  the 
Magi,  Christ  in  the  Temple,  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  the  Entry 
into  Jerusalem,  the  Washing  of  Feet,  Christ  in  the  Prsetorium, 
the  Crucifixion,  the  Women  at  the  Tomb,  the  Ascension. 
In  the  crucifixion  scene  are  shown,  at  the  left  of  the  cross, 
Mary  and  Longinus,  at  the  right,  Stephanon  and  St.  John, 
above  the  cross  are  weeping  personifications  of  the  sun  and 
the  moon.f  It  has  been  noted  that  in  the  work  of  this  type 
the  Christ  figure  is  often  disproportionately  large  as  com- 
pared with  the  accompanying  figures. 

During  the  reign  of  the  orthodox  emperor  Michael  Rhan- 
gabe  (811-813  A.  D.),  when  the  iconoclastic  movement  in 
the  Eastern  Empire  was  temporarily  checked,  Charlemagne 
aent  Halitcharius,  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  as  envoy  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  on  his  return  thence  the  bishop  brought  back 
with  him,  among  the  gifts  from  the  Greek  emperor,  sculp- 
tured ivory  tablets.  These  were  used  to  form  ornamental 
covers  for  liturgical  works.    A  few  years  later,  in  845  A.  D., 

^Wilhdin  Lange,  "Die  DanteUungen  der  Kreungung  Christi  in  der  mederrheimachen 
HfcnhfiimirHnitoerei  des  XI  und  XII  JahrhunderU."  Thesia.  Erlangen,  1012,  pp.  20 
m^  Bib.  Nat  Codex  latiniui  9388. 

tibid*  pp.  SI  aqq. 


40       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Hincmar,  Bishop  of  Rheims,  had  the  works  of  St.  Jerome 
enclosed  in  covers  adorned  with  ivory  tablets  in  a  gold 
setting,  and  he  also  had  a  lectionary  provided  with  covers  of 
ivory  set  in  silver.* 

Two  ivory  plaques  in  the  Musee  de  Cluny  are  specimens 
of  the  Byzantine  art  of  the  ninth  century  and  are  especially 
noteworthy  in  that  in  each  case  while  one  side  bears  a  dis- 
tinctly religious  decoration,  the  other  side  oflfers  secular 
designs,  including  figured  symbols  of  four  of  the  zodiacal 
signs  (two  on  each  plaque)  Capricomus,  Sagittarius,  Aqua- 
rius, and  Leo.  Rich  foliage  work  and  scrollwork  combine 
to  make  a  very  harmonious  design,  indicating  the  posses- 
sion of  both  taste  and  skill  by  the  artist. 

The  hieratic  art  of  the  ninth  century  is  well  illustrated 
in  a  representation  of  the  Crucifixion  on  the  cover  of  an 
evangelium  in  the  Musee  de  Climy,  uncompromisingly 
rigid  in  composition;  the  absolute  synunetry  of  the  group- 
ing is  as  far  removed  as  possible  from  the  ease  and  grace 
characterizing  the  best  works  of  an  earlier  and  a  later  period, 
and  yet  we  may  not  deny  the  genuine  religious  spirit  in 
which  the  medieval  artist  has  wrought. 

But  few  ivory  statuettes  were  made  by  the  carvers  of 
the  Eastern  Empire,  this  being  due  in  great  part  to  the 
general  influence  of  iconoclastic  ideas  in  the  Empire,  even 
when  these  were  not  drastically  enforced  as  was  from  time 
to  time  the  case.  Intense  as  was  the  opposition  between 
Christian  and  Moslem  in  the  East,  it  appears  likely  that  the 
Christian  image-breakers  drew  their  inspiration  from  the 
rigid  ideas  regarding  images  and  the  reverencing  of  images 
that  were  so  strongly  held  by  the  Mohanunedans.  In  a 
not  dissimilar  way,  the  Protestant  image-breakers  of  the 

*Jules  Labarte,  "Histoire  des  arts  industriels  au  Moyen  Age  et  k  T^poque  de  la  Re- 
naiasapce,"  Vol.  I,  Paris,  1864,  p.  213:  Citing  Anonjrmi  Gesta  epiacop.  Cameracenaiuin. 
lib.  1,  42,  apud.  Pertz,  "Mon.  Gennaniae  hist.,'*  Vol.  IX,  p.  416,  and  Flodoaidi.  "Eod. 
Remensis  hist.,"  lib.  lU,  cap.  5,  Paris,  1611,  pp.  159, 160. 


IVORY   PANEL 


J«,t>OKMNO  Tl 


I&QIIE    NATIONALS 


ADOBATtOK  OF  TBE  M«( 
BIBUOTH£qi.'E  NATIOSA 


IVORY    CARVINGS  41 

flixteenth  century  were  fired  with  their  unartistie  zeal 
through  fervent  study  of  the  Old  Testament  writers,  and 
we  must  remember  that  all  the  leading  principles  of  Mo- 
hammed's religious  teaching  were  directly  based  upon  his 
second-hand  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

A  rhetor  named  Cyprus  is  credited  with  having  pro- 
duced an  ivory  statuette  (or  possibly  a  chryselephantine 
statue)  of  Empress  Helena,  the  pious  mother  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  and  to  have  donated  his  work  to  a  church; 
but  this  is  a  rare  instance,  the  almost  total  absence  of  ivory 
statuettes  in  the  medieval  East  being  in  marked  contrast 
with  their  abundance  in  the  West,  especially  among 
the  ivory  carvings  of  the  glorious  French  Renaissance 
period.'^ 

The  famous  Abbot  Suger  of  St.  Denis  states  that  in  his 
time  (112^-1152)  there  was  in  the  abbey  church  a  reading- 
desk  enriched  with  ivory  reliefs  of  such  striking  artistic 
quality  that  the  like  could  not  be  produced  in  his  age.  That 
these  belonged  to  the  Carolingian  Age  is  the  opinion  of  M. 
Labarte,  as  Charlemagne  completed  the  reconstruction  of 
the  church  which  had  been  begun  by  his  father  Pepin,  and 
dedicated  it  in  775  A.  D.f 

A  thoroughly  typical  example  of  Carolingian  art  is  a 
plaque  used  as  the  cover  of  an  evangelium  in  the  Biblio- 
th&que  Nationale.  This  work,  which  came  from  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Metz,  surpasses  in  conception  and  execution  almost 
all  other  productions  of  the  Metz  school  of  carvers,  so  much 
8O9  indeed,  that  some  have  seen  in  it  a  work  of  an  earlier 
period,  perhaps  the  sixth  century,  from  the  hand  of  an  Italic 
carver  who  still  retained  much  of  the  classic  spirit.  The 
vitality  and  virility  of  the  design  is  exhibited  by  the  treat- 


*See  O.  M.  DiJtoii,  "Bysuitiiie  Art  and  ArcluBology,**  Oxford,  1011,  p.  188. 

tLabttrte,  op.  dt.,  pp.  218,  810.    From  Sugerii,  Abb.  S.  Dionys.,  "De  rebus  in  admin, 
festis,"  aptid  Ducheme,  "Hist.  Franc,  acript..'*  Vol.  IV,  p.  331. 


42       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ment  of  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  where  some  of  the 
soldier  executioners  are  depicted  as  having  seized  the  chil- 
dren by  their  ankles  and  swung  them  aloft,  prior  to  dashing 
out  their  brains  on  the  pavement  before  the  bloodthirsty 
Herod. 

Although  the  Byzantine  ivories  of  the  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  twelfth  centuries  showed  an  artistic  excellence  equal  to 
the  work  of  the  French  ivory  carvers  of  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  there  is  apparent  in  the  designs  and 
execution  a  certain  monotony  and  conventionality.  As  a 
characteristic  specimen  may  be  noted  the  central  leaf  of  a 
triptych  preserved  in  the  Biblioth^que  Nationale  in  Paris, 
whereon  is  depicted  Christ  bestowing  a  blessing  upon  the 
imperial  pair,  Romanus  (1068-1071)  and  Eudocia,  as  indi- 
cated by  inscriptions  above  the  heads  of  these  figures,  the 
entire  design  showing  at  once  the  technical  ability  of  the 
carver  and  the  lack  of  originality  to  be  remarked  in  the  work 
of  this  place  and  period.* 

The  diptych  of  Rombona  in  the  Vatican  Museum  is  per- 
haps the  most  characteristic  specimen  of  early  Lombaidic 
medieval  work  executed  under  Byzantine  influence.  On  one 
of  the  leaves  is  a  representation  of  Romulus  and  Remus  with 
the  wolf,  and  above,  a  medallion  with  the  figure  of  Christy 
who  is  raising  his  hand  to  bless  the  Greek  banner;  on  the 
second  leaf  the  Virgin  is  depicted  between  two  cherubim. 
An  inscription  denotes  that  this  diptych  came  from  Agel- 
truda,  wife  of  Guy,  Duke  of  Camerino  and  Spoleto,  King  of 
Italy  and,  in  891  A.  D.,  emperor.f 

What  may  be  considered  as  the  finest  ivory  triptych  exe- 
cuted  by  a  Byzantine  carver  is  that  in  the  Louvre  Museum, 
known  as  the  Harbaville  triptych.    It  is  in  perfectly  com- 

*0.  M.  Dalton,  "Bysantine  Art  and  Archeology/'  Oxford,  1011,  pp.  227,  228;  aee  Fig. 
189. 

tA.  M.  Gust,  "The  Ivory  Workers  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  London,  1006.  p.  07. 


S     3 


IVORY    CARVINGS  43 

plete  condition  and  is  carved  on  both  the  inside  and  outside 
faces.  The  central  plaque,  divided  into  an  upper  and  a 
lower  field,  oflfers  in  the  upper  part  the  figiire  of  Christ  en- 
throned; on  either  side  of  the  elaborate  throne  stand  Saint 
John  and  the  Virgin;  on  the  lower  field  are  standing 
figures  of  St.  James,  St.  John,  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  St. 
Andrew.  The  leaves  are  similarly  divided  into  two  fields: 
that  to  the  left  shows  in  its  upper  half  St.  Theodore  Tyron 
and  St.  Theodore  the  Stratalate;  below  stand  St.  Eustrates 
and  St.  Arethas;  above  these  are  medallion  heads  of  St. 
Thomas  and  St.  Mercurius.  On  the  right  leaf,  similarly 
disposed,  are  figures  of  St.  George  and  St.  Eustache,  beneath 
which  are  those  of  St.  Demetrius  and  St.  Procopius,  the  inter- 
mediate medallions  representing  St.  Philip  and  St.  Pantaleon. 
This  constitutes  what  we  may  call  the  outside  decoration  of 
this  richly  carved  triptych.  On  the  inside,  the  central  leaf 
bears  a  large  cross,  with  the  starry  sky  above  and  plants  and 
animals  on  the  soil  beneath;  the  reverses  of  the  side  leaves 
present  images  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Nicholas,  St. 
Severin,  St.  John  Chrysostrom,  and  St.  Clement  of  Ancyra, 
and  medallions  of  St.  Phocal,  St.  Blasius,  St.  Cosmas,  and 
St.  Damien.  The  central  leaf  is  24.2  cm.  high  and  14.2  cm. 
wide;  the  side  leaves  measuring  21.7  cm.  in  height  and  7  cm. 
in  width.  This  work,  done  in  the  tenth  century,  has  both 
the  merits  and  the  defects  observable  in  all  products  of 
Byzantine  art,  the  unquestionable  excellence  and  dignity 
of  the  composition  being  marred  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 
stiffness  and  rigidity  of  the  figures.* 

A  tenth-century  book  cover  in  the  Hofbibliothek  in  Vienna 
is  adorned  with  an  ivory  plaque  offering  a  representation  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great.  The  figure,  attired  in  an  ancient 
raiment,  falling  in  stiff  folds,  is  shown  seated  on  a  throne 

*Miifl6e  Natiooftl  du  Louvre.    Catalogue  des  Ivoires,  par  Emile  Molinier,  Paris  [1895- 
96],  pp.  SI  aqq. 


44       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

having  accessories  of  columns  and  curtains.  Around  the 
design,  which  though  somewhat  rude  is  not  lacking  in  power, 
runs  a  meander  pattern  as  framework.  This  specimen  of 
early  German  art  illustrates  both  the  merits  and  defects  of 
the  time  and  country  and  is  an  excellent  example  of  its  kind. 
The  inscription  surrounding  the  figure  expresses  the  literary 
enthusiasm  of  the  time  in  monastic  circles,  as  it  declares  that 
however  precious  may  be  the  decoration  of  the  book,  the 
"  Sacramentarium  "  of  St.  Gregory,  its  contents  are  still  more 
precious.  This  copy  belonged  originally  to  the  Cathedral 
of  Trent. 

In  1674,  the  canons  of  the  Cathedral  of  Metz,  feeling 
themselves  under  some  obligation  to  Colbert,  offered  him 
the  ivory  treasures  of  their  cathedral.  He  accepted  the  gift, 
and  after  retaining  the  valuable  and  historical  objects  in 
his  own  possession  for  a  time,  he  donated  them  to  the 
Biblioth^que  Royale.  Some  further  voluntary  gifts  of 
ivories  were  made  by  the  Cathedral  chapter  of  Metz  in 
1802  to  this  institution,  then  and  now  named  the  Biblio- 
th^que  Nationale.  The  greater  number  of  these  ivory 
book  covers  had  been  provided  with  a  broad  binding  of 
elaborate  metal  work,  studded  with  precious  stones,  i>earls, 
and  enamels;  in  many  instances,  in  the  various  revolu- 
tionary disorders  and  consequent  plunderings,  certain  of 
the  more  valuable  stones  were  plucked  from  their  settings, 
these  sometimes  remaining  empty,  while  at  other  times 
the  gaps  have  been  filled  up  with  enamel  work  or  with 
glass  imitations.  A  notable  instance  of  this  wilful  mutila- 
tion of  a  precious  relic  of  medieval  art  is  the  cover  of  the 
"Missel  de  Tabbaye  de  Saint-Denis,"  written  in  the  eleventh 
century.  Of  the  three  ivory  relief  figures  that  originally 
adorned  it,  the  central  one,  that  of  the  Christ,  has  been 
wrenched  off,  doubtless  because  it  bore  attached  to  it 
some  especially  valuable  jewels;  there  remain  the  figures  of 


m^mMStSAMM: 


COVER  OF   AX   EVANGELILM 

CD   FlGllREa    OF  THE    VIRGIN    AND    HT.  JOHN,  HL'RBOIJNDED    BV    KEPItE- 
ARC'HS.     AND    SERAPBIU    IN    UETAL    WORK.     AND    WITH 

BIBLIOTntQUG  KATIONALB 


IVORY    CARVINGS  45 

the  Virgin  and  of  St.  John,  each  executed  in  the  spirit  of 
reverent  devotion  characteristic  of  this  eariy  period,  and 
showing  at  once  a  good  degree  of  technical  skill,  and  an 
unusual  power  of  expression."*" 

An  unnamed  German  carver  of  the  eleventh  centiuy 
has  chosen  as  his  theme  the  Christ  of  the  Apocalypse. 
The  inspiration  of  the  work  seems  altogether  Oriental. 
Christ  in  the  central  niche  has  on  or  in  His  right  hand  the 
seven  angel  stars,  and  bears  in  the  left  hand  the  keys  of 
hell  and  of  death;  on  either  side  are  set  the  seven  candle- 
sticks of  the  seven  churches;  in  two  niches  both  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  central  one  are  an  angel  and  a  saint,  the  saint 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  Christ  having  a  braided  beard 
almost  suggestive  of  the  figures  in  Assyrian  sculptures. 
In  spite  of  its  lack  of  artistic  finish  this  relief  has  an  origi- 
naUly  that  is  quite  impressive. 

On  a  specimen  of  Hispano-Moorish  ivory  carving  shown 
in  1879,  at  an  exhibition  of  the  Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club, 
i^peais  the  name  of  a  Moorish  ivory  carver,  IQialaf ,  and  as 
the  carving  belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century, 
this  is  one  of  the  earliest  signed  works  in  ivory  from  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  is  a  coffret  6  inches  in  height,  on  which 
18  engraved,  in  Cufic  characters,  an  Arabic  inscription  that 
has  been  rendered  as  follows:  ""It  is  more  beautiful  than  a 
cadcet  adorned  with  diamonds.  It  serves  to  contain  spices, 
musk,  camphor,  and  ambergris.  There  is  nothing  for  me  so 
admirable  as  the  sight  of  it.  It  inspires  me  with  constancy 
to  support  the  troubles  of  my  house."  Certainly  the  artist 
could  not  complain  in  this  case  of  lack  of  appreciation.  This 
coffret  was  owned  by  Mr.  John  Malcolm  of  Poltallock.t 
Of  all  the  medieval  ivories,  none  surpasses  in  importance 

^enri  Bouchot,  "Tr^son  des  Bibliotheques,  Ivoires  des  Reliures,"  p.  6. 

f Buriiiigtoii  Fine  Arts  Club,  Catalogue  of  Bronzes  and  Ivories  of  European  origin,  ex- 
hibited  in  1870,  London,  1870.  p.  45.  Cabinet  VU,  No.  270. 


4 


46       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  interest  the  "horn  of  Ulphus"  in  York  Minster.*  The 
custom  of  confirming  the  bestowal  of  a  grant  of  lands  by 
drinking  a  draught  from  such  a  horn  and  then  giving  it  duly 
inscribed  to  the  grantee  to  be  preserved  as  a  record  of  the 
donation  was  fairly  general  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  this  ivory  drinking-horn  is  a  specimen 
of  this  class.  The  circumstances  attending  the  solemn 
attestation  of  this  particular  grant  to  the  see  of  York,  which 
was  made  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  King  Canute  (1036 
A.  D.)>  are  thus  related  from  early  sources. t 

"About  this  time  also,  Ulphe,  the  son  of  Thorald,  who 
ruled  in  the  west  of  Deira,  part  of  the  present  Yorkshire,  by 
reason  of  the  differences  which  were  Uke  to  rise  between  his 
sons,  about  the  sharing  of  his  lands  and  lordships  after  his 
death,  resolved  to  make  them  all  alike,  and  thereupon,  com- 
ing to  York,  with  that  horn  wherewith  he  was  used  to  drink^ 
filled  it  with  wine  and  before  the  altar  of  God,  and  St.  Peter, 
Prince  of  the  Apostles,  kneeling  decently,  drank  the  wine  and 
by  that  ceremony  enfeoffed  the  church  with  all  his  lands  and 
revenues.  The  figure  of  which  horn,  in  memory  thereof,  is 
cut  in  stone  upon  several  parts  of  the  choir,  but  the  horn 
itself,  when  the  Reformation  in  King  Edward  VI's  time  be- 
gan, and  swept  away  many  costly  ornaments  belonging  to 
this  church,  was  sold  to  a  goldsmith,  who  took  away  from  it 
those  toppings  of  gold  wherewith  it  was  adorned  and  the 
gilt  chains  affixed  thereto;  since  when  the  horn  itself,  being 
entire  ivory  in  an  eight-square  form,  came  to  the  hands  of 
Thomas  late  Lord  Fairfax,  in  whose  possession  I  saw  it  in 
1666.'' 

On  the  death  of  this  Lord  Fairfax  in  1671  the  horn  passed 
into  the  possession  of  his  next  relative.  Lord  Henry  Fairfax, 

^ArchiBologia,  Vol.  I,  pp.  168-182,  London.  1770;  *'An  historical  dissertation  upon  the 
ancient  Danish  Horn  kept  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  York,  Anno  Domini  1718.'* 

fSir  William  Dugdale,  "Historical  Account  of  the  Church  of  York,'*  London,  1715,  p.  7. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  47 

and  was  by  him  restored  to  the  custody  of  the  cathedral. 
It  is  carved  in  bas-relief,  about  the  circumference  of  the  lower 
extremity,  with  the  figures  of  griffins,  a  Uon,  a  unicorn,  and 
dogs,  interspersed  with  trees.  The  original  plate,  bearing 
probably  the  name  of  the  donor,  and  perhaps  a  record  of  his 
munificent  endowment,  was  lost  or  removed  during  the  time 
the  horn  was  in  strangers'  hands,  but  a  new  plate  was  affixed 
by  Lord  Fairfax  engraved  with  the  following  Latin  inscrip- 
tion: 

Comu  hoc  Ulphus,  in  occidentale  parte  Dairae  Princeps, 
una  cum  onmibus  terris  et  redditibus  suis  olim  donavit. 

Amissam  vel  abreptam 
Henricus  D«  Fairfax  demum  restituit 
Anno  Domini  1675. 

Liturgical  combs  of  ivory  formed  one  of  the  more  impor- 
tant categories  of  medieval  ivory  carving,  and  an  exceed- 
ingly fine  specimen,  of  German  workmanship,  from  the 
eleventh  century,  is  now  in  the  Louvre  Collection.     It  is  of 
xectanscular  form,  carved  on  both  faces,  and  is  provided  with 
'Iwo  rows  of  teeth,  the  upper  being  fine  and  the  lower  coarse. 
The  front  carving  shows  Samson  rending  the  lion's  jaw;  on 
"•he  reverse  side  is  a  foliage  decoration  with  spirals  and  ten- 
drils.    This  comb  is  19.5  cm.  in  height  and  10.5  cm.  wide.* 
One  of  the  finest  examples  of  Byzantine  art  in  ivory  is  a 
"fciptych  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale  at  Paris.     On  the 
^i«ntral  leaf  is  depicted  the  Crucifixion,  beside  the  cross  are 
he  figures  of  Mary  and  of  John,  in  a  compartment  above 
ppear  the  archangels  Michael  and  Gabriel,  while  a  com- 
;KDartment  beneath  the  cross  shows  representations  of  Em- 
ror  Constantine  and  of  his  mother,  St.  Helena.    The  right 

^Miu6e  NatuNial  du  Louvre;  Catalogue  des  Ivoires  par  Emile  Molinier*  Fiia  [1896-6] 
.48. 


48       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  left  wings  of  the  triptych  offer  one  beneath  the  other  the 
busts  of  ten  saints,  five  on  each  wing;  on  the  left  wing,  John 
the  Baptist,  St.  Paul,  St.  Stephen,  St.  Chrysostom,  St. 
Cosmas;  on  the  right  wing,  Elias,  St.  Peter,  St.  Pantaleemon, 
St.  Nicolaus,  and  St.  Damianus.  As  will  be  observed,  the 
arrangement  is  symmetrical,  the  saints  oppK>site  each  other 
being  more  especially  connected  historically  or  otherwise. 
In  each  case  the  name  of  the  saint  in  Greek  characters  ac- 
companies and  explains  the  bust.  Indeed,  all  the  figures  are 
thus  explained.     Beneath  the  cross  is  the  iambic  inscription: 

112  2APH  IIEnON0A2  112  ©2  HAGflN  ATEIS 

*^  As  man  [in  the  flesh]  thou  hast  suffered,  as  God,  after  suffer- 
ing, thou  redeemest."*  This  triptych  is  11  in.  high  and  9 J 
in.  wide. 

A  Byzantine  carving  of  the  twelfth  century  in  the  Biblio- 
th^que  de  TArsenal,  Paris,  and  which  forms  the  centre  of 
the  cover  of  an  evangelium  exhibits  the  artist's  sense  of  the 
overpowering  majesty  of  the  Transfiguration,  that  sense  of 
the  ahnost  crushing  power  of  the  divme  that  is  manifested 
in  many  Byzantine  mosaics,  and  in  the  early  Italian  paint- 
ings produced  under  Byzantine  influence,  in  the  art  of 
Ravenna,  as  in  the  pictures  of  Cimabue.  This  overmaster- 
ing faith  in  the  divine  power  lends  a  dignity  and  force 
that  offsets  many  artistic  failings. 

One  of  the  arms  of  a  cross  carved  out  of  ivory  by  a 
Spanish  artist  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  now  in  the  Louvre, 
shows  a  curious  bordering  of  birds  and  animals  including  a 
very  lifelike  parrot  and  two  of  the  fabled  dragons  or  griffins 
so  dear  to  medieval  fantasy.  As  a  choice  bit  of  bordering 
the  work  possesses  unquestionable  merit,  and  testifies  to 
the  excellence  of  the  Spanish  carvers  of  this  period,  who 

*M.  Digby  Wyatt,  "Notices  of  sculpture  in  ivory/'  London,  1856,  Plate  opp.  p.  48. 


IVORY  CARVED  COVER  OF  AX  EVANGELIUM 

BIBLIOTHEQl'G  DE  l' ARSENAL,  PARIS 


ONE  OF  THE  ARMS  OF  A  CROSS 


lV»iB  DU  LOIIVRE 


IVORY    CARVINGS  49 

may  have  owed  much  to  instruction  or  example  of  Moorish 
artists  although  their  designs  were  of  course  very  different. 

A  special  class  of  triptychs,  of  which  a  great  number  were 
pvoduoed  by  the  medieval  and  Renaissance  ivory  carvers, 
havje  on  the  central  panel  or  leaf  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  with 
three  angels,  two  of  whom  bear  tapers,  while  the  third  is 
pbcmg  a  crown  on  the  Virgm's  head;  on  the  side  leaves  are 
depicted  scenes  from  her  life.  Sometimes,  when  the  figure  of 
the  Virgin  is  not  carved  in  relief,  but  has  the  form  of  a  statu- 
ette beneath  a  canopy,  there  are  four  leaves  instead  of  three 
on^  as  in  the  triptych  proper.  Occasionally,  in  the  more 
daborate  works  of  this  type,  the  central  leaf  bears  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  Crucifixion  or  the  Last  Judgment."*" 

Among  the  many  valuable  medieval  ivories  in  the  J.  P. 
Morgan  collection,  for  some  time  exhibited  in  the  Metro- 
poStan  Musemn  of  Art,  New  York,  may  be  noted  a  statuette 
of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  the  work  of  a  French  carver  of  the 
foiirteenth  centiuy.  The  mother,  enthroned,  while  gazing 
dovm  fondly  upon  her  son,  holds  up  in  her  extended  hand  a 
small  bunch  of  lilies,  toward  which  the  Divine  Child  stretches 
forth  its  hand.  Both  in  expression  and  execution  this  work 
mnks  among  the  very  best  products  of  this  period,  when  the 
art  of  religious  ivory  carving  stood  at  its  highest  point. 
Tbe  French  art  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  also  shown  at 
its  best  in  the  reliefs  of  a  diptych  acquired  by  Mr.  Morgan 
ftoan  the  Hoentschel  Collection.  Here  each  leaf  is  divided 
into  four  longitudinal  sections,  those  on  the  upper  half 
<iffering  representations  of  the  flagellation  of  Christ,  the 
Crucifixion,  the  Resurrection,  and  the  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin,  while  the  f  oiu*  lower  sections  figure  the  Annimciation, 
the  Nativity,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  the  Pres- 

*Daltoii»  "Catalogue  of  the  ivory  carvings  of  the  Christian  era  and  carvings  in  bone  in 
the  Department  of  British  and  Medieval  Archssology  and  Ethnology  in  the  British  Mu- 
■enm."  London.  1909,  p.  95;  see  PI.  LVIII  (No.  266);  French,  14th  cent. 


50       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

entation  in  the  Temple.  The  execution  is  lifelike  and  eflFec- 
tive,  without  any  striving  after  effect.  More  archaic  and 
perhaps  even  more  devotional,  although  artistically  less 
successful,  is  a  thirteenth  century  diptych,  also  of  the 
French  School,  where  the  six  relief  carvings,  three  <m  each 
leaf,  give  in  succession,  the  Entry  into  Jerusalem,  the  Wash- 
ing of  Feet,  the  Last  Supper,  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane,  the 
Betrayal  by  Judas,  and  the  Crucifixion.  In  marked  contrast 
to  the  sobriety  of  this  work  is  a  French  diptych  of  the  four* 
teenth  century  in  which  the  representations  are  much  more 
likelif  e  and  dramatic,  but  less  deeply  imbued  with  a  puie|!^ 
religious  spirit;  there  are  here  but  four  designs,  the  Entiy 
into  Jerusalem,  the  Last  Supper,  the  Betrayal,  and  the  Cruci- 
fixion, but  the  carver  has  been  strikingly  successful  in  the 
grouping  of  the  figures  and  in  their  individual  attitude  and 
bearing.  The  masterly  execution  and  the  dramatic  intensity 
of  these  compositions  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  this  dip- 
tych belongs  to  the  very  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  peerless  Morgan  Collection  embraces  among  its  other 
treasures  of  medieval  art  a  remarkable  ivory  polyptych,  of 
foiu*  leaves,  carved  with  a  series  of  representations  of  the 
Passion,  the  work  being  done  in  a  manner  characteristic  of 
Gothic  art  in  ivory  carving  at  its  very  best.  Each  of  the 
sad  scenes,  eight  in  number,  is  feelingly  depicted,  sometimes 
but  three  figures  entering  into  the  composition,  while  in 
others  as  many  as  eight  are  not  unskilfully  crowded  into  the 
narrow  compass  of  the  panel.  All  the  carvings  are  ftniTnufiH 
by  the  earnestly  religious  spirit  of  the  Early  Renaissance^  to 
which  period  this  valuable  and  interesting  work  belongs* 

The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  Louvre  Museum, 
has  long  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  productions  of 
the  French  carvers  of  the  thirteenth  century.  While  it  is 
impossible  to  deny  that  the  composition  is  rather  rigid  in 
outline  and  lacks  the  beauty  of  some  later  works  of  the  French 


IVORY    CARVINGS  51 

School,  the  spirit  of  reverence  and  earnestness  it  breathes 
brings  it  in  line  with  the  pre-Raphaelite  paintings  of  the 
early  Italian  masters.  The  two  angels  suggest  in  a  marked 
degree  the  type  made  so  familiar  to  us  by  the  half -inspired 
hand  of  Pra  Angelico,  who  flourished  nearly  two  centuries 
after  the  date  of  this  ivory.  Much  of  the  polychrome 
decoration  of  this  carving  still  remains;  the  flesh,  the  hair, 
and  the  beard  are  tinted,  the  lining  of  the  garments  is 
painted  sky-blue.  For  some  time  only  the  principal  figures 
of  this  group  were  in  the  Louvre,  for  which  they  were  ac- 
quired at  the  sale  of  the  splendid  Soltykoff  Collection. 
In  1878,  however,  the  city  of  Chambery  sent  to  the  Exposi- 
tion d'Art  Retrospective  in  the  Trocadero  two  angel- 
figures,  which  were  quickly  recognized  by  connoisseurs  as 
having  formed  part  of  the  original  group,  and  the  munici- 
pality of  Chambery  consented  to  cede  them  by  exchange  to 
the  Louvre.  That  this  carving  may  have  been  that  listed 
in  the  inventory  of  Charles  V  of  France,  in  1380,  is  conjec- 
tured by  M.  £mile  Molinier*  who  cites  the  following  item: 
"Ung  couronnement  de  Nostre-Seigneur  a  Nostre-Dame, 
d'yvire,  et  trois  angelotz  de  mesmes,  assiz  en  ung  si^ge  de 
cedre."  That  three  angels  are  here  noted  whereas  but  two 
are  now  to  be  seen  is  not  considered  by  Molinier  as  an  ab- 
solute bar  to  the  identification  in  view  of  the  occasional 
inexactness  of  these  early  lists.  Perhaps,  however,  as  the 
two  angek  now  in  place  were  only  recovered  by  a  happy 
chance,  a  third  stray  angel  may  be  hidden  away  in  some  of 
the  many  collections  of  medieval  ivories. 

French  ivory  carving  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  chiefly 
distinguished  for  the  chaste  beauty  of  its  productions  in  the 
field  of  religious  art,  but  it  also  offers  a  few  notable  examples 
of  works  designed  to  illustrate  episodes  of  secular  poetry. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  works  is  a  casket  of 

^Mntfe  Natioiud  du  Louvre;  "Catalogue  des  Ivoires*'*  Paria,  1896,  p.  115. 


62       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

elongated  form  and  with  a  flat  cover,  now  in  the  Louvre 
Museum.  On  each  of  its  faces  appear  bas-reliefs  depicting 
scenes  from  the  thirteenth  centiuy  poem:  '^La  Chastdbune 
de  Vergi."'*'  A  brief  description  of  the  figures  carved  on  the 
cover  will  indicate  how  well  the  medieval  carver  has  undeiw 
stood  his  task  of  illustrator.  Of  the  eight  compartments 
into  which  the  cover  is  divided  by  moulding,  a  fret-work  of 
silver,  the  first  (from  the  left)  shows  us  a  lady  with  a  dog,  in 
conversation  with  a  friend;  in  the  next  compartment  ^'la 
dame  de  Vergi"  is  seated  on  a  bench  and  training  her  pet 
by  means  of  a  threatening  whip;  next  we  see  the  lady  direct- 
ing her  faithful  dog  to  go  in  search  of  her  friend,  who  receives 
him  and  pats  him  on  the  head;  the  fourth  compartment 
depicts  the  chatelaine  seated  on  a  bench  beneath  some  trees, 
and  discussing  with  her  friend  the  part  that  is  to  be  played 
by  the  dog  in  favoring  their  loves;  for,  according  to  the  poem, 
if  the  friend  sees  the  little  animal  trotting  along  through  the 
orchard  this  is  to  be  a  sign  for  him  that  his  lady-love  is  alone 
in  her  chamber;  in  the  fifth  compartment  are  figured  the 
lady  and  her  friend  at  their  rendezvous;  in  the  three  remain- 
ing compartments  of  the  cover,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  casket, 
the  bas-reliefs  illustrate  the  progress  of  the  tale,  which  is 
complicated  by  an  unlawful  passion  for  the  chatelaine's 
friend  on  the  part  of  the  "  Duchess  of  Burgundy,"  who,  when 
her  advances  are  spumed,  seeks  to  spur  on  her  husband,  the 
duke,  to  kill  the  unresponsive  object  of  her  lawless  regard. 
However,  the  true  state  of  the  case  is  revealed  to  the  jealous 
duke  by  the  lover,  and  his  life  is  spared;  but  the  vengeance 
of  the  duchess  is  not  to  be  appeased,  and  by  publicly  taunt- 
ing the  poor  chatelaine  with  her  amorous  adventure,  she 
drives  her  to  despair  and  death,  and  when  the  lover,  uneasy 
at  not  seeing  her,  seeks  her  and  finds  her  dead,  he  kills  him- 

*Mua6e  Natioiud  du  Louvre;  "Catalogue  des  Ivoirea."  par  timile  Molmier,  Paris  [ISM- 
961  PP*  141-154. 


IVORY  TRIPTYCH 


T 11 1 1' T  V  C  U 


MUSfcE  DE  CLUNT.  PARIS 


IVORY    CARVINGS-  53 

adf  in  despair.  In  the  end  poetic  justice  is  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent satisfied  by  the  death  of  the  wicked  duchess  at  the 
hands  of  her  husband.  The  carvings  devoted  to  the  scenes 
of  this  tale,  and  a  few  other  works  of  this  type,  exemplify 
the  artistic  range  of  some  of  the  medieval  French  ivory 
Gsrvers,  whom  we  might  suspect  of  imdue  one-sidedness  in  an 
exclusive  devotion  to  religious  themes. 

One  erf  the  very  best  specimens  of  the  French  carver's 
art  (rf  the  fourteenth  century  is  a  triptych  in  which  the  ar- 
tist has  successfully  utilized  the  small  space  at  his  disposal 
without  unduly  crowding  it  with  figures,  and  has  known  how 
to  balance  his  composition  perfectly  and  at  the  same  time 
treat  the  separate  parts  with  thorough  freedom.  The  Cru- 
cifixion occupies  the  upper  half  of  the  central  panel,  below 
this,  in  three  Gothic  niches,  are  graven  figures  of  the  Virgin 
and  two  ministering  angels.  On  the  side  panels  are  de- 
picted the  Purification  of  the  Virgin,  the  Presentation  of  the 
Infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple,  Christ  bearing  the  Cross,  and  the 
Deposition  from  the  Cross.  Within  its  somewhat  narrow 
limits  this  work  deserves  all  praise  for  the  grace  and  dignity 
cxf  the  designs. 

The  elaborate  ivory  known  as  the  **  Oratory  of  the  Duchess 
of  Burgundy,"  now  in  the  Mus^  de  Cluny,  was  originally 
one  (rf  the  chief  treasures  of  the  Chartreuse  de  Dijon,  and 
was  sold  with  the  other  valuables  of  this  foundation  pursu- 
ant to  the  Revolutionary  decree  ordering  the  sale  of  the 
ecclesiastical  treasures.  In  the  registers  of  the  Chartreuse 
^ipears  the  following  interesting  entry  in  the  accounts  for 
180»-1S9S:^ 

''Pay6  500  liv.  k  Berthelot  H61iot,  varlet  de  chambre  du 
due  [Philippe  le  Hardi],  pour  deux  grant  tableaux  d'ivoire 
a  ymaiges,  dont  Tim  d'iceulx  est  la  passion  de  Notre-Seig- 
neur  et  Fautre  la  vie  de  monsieur  saint  Jean-Baptiste." 

•E.  de  Sommemd,  ^'Catalogue  du  Muife  de  Cliiiiy/'  Paris,  1881,  p.  84. 


54       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  500  livres  of  this  time  represented  a  weight  of  silver 
worth  at  least  $2,000  intrinsically^  and  of  course  much 
more  if  measured  by  its  purchasing  power,  fivefold  or  per- 
haps even  tenfold  that  of  our  day.  We  cannot  help  re- 
gretting that  the  treasurer,  while  noting  the  name  of  the 
seller,  the  "varlet  de  chambre"  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
quite  forgets  to  give  us  the  name  of  the  humble  artist. 
The  ^'monsieur  saint  Jean  Baptiste,"  a  form  not  unusual 
in  the  older  French,  seems  strange  enough  to-day,  when 
the  primal  sense  of  monsieur ^  "my  lord,"  has  been  quite 
forgotten.  Of  course  even  in  these  early  times  monseig' 
neur  signified  a  higher  rank  than  monsieur. 

Two  ivory  mirror  cases,  one  in  a  fragmentary  state,  are 
to  be  seen  at  the  Mus6e  de  Cluny,  and  in  time  long  past 
formed  part  of  the  rich  collection  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis. 
As  ornamental  adjuncts  of  articles  used  for  the  toilette 
the  carver  has  selected  for  his  designs  subjects  drawn  from 
the  romances  of  chivalry.  In  the  unbroken  case  chimerical 
figures  form  the  comers.  The  treatment  is  unrestrained  and 
yet  not  in  the  least  too  free,  and  there  is  a  notable  softness 
both  of  forms  and  draperies. 

Venetian  ivory  carving  is  well  exemplified  in  a  retable 
preserved  in  the  Musee  de  Cluny.  This  is  a  fourteenth- 
century  work,  the  subjects  depicted  on  the  central  leaf 
being,  the  Crucifixion,  the  Vision  of  the  Shepherds,  and  the 
Nativity.  On  the  right-hand  leaf  are  the  Betrayal  by  Judas 
and  the  Annunciation,  on  the  left-hand  leaf  the  Apparition 
to  Mary  Magdalen  and  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi.  The 
execution  is  carefully  finished,  and  although  there  may  be 
no  high  inspiration,  there  is  both  dignity  and  harmony  in 
this  production  of  North  Italian  art. 

The  free  use  of  gilding  and  colors  to  enhance  the  eflFect 
of  ivory  has  already  been  noted,  and  we  have  an  interesting 
example  of  this  in  a  bas-relief  in  the  Mus^  de  Cluny,  the 


IVOHY  BAS-RELIEF 


IVORY    CARVINGS  55 

production  of  an  Italian  carver  of  the  fourteenth  century; 
this  is  a  fragment  of  a  triptych.  In  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tral panel  are  the  Virgin  and  Child;  on  either  side  are  two 
female  saints;  and  still  farther  to  the  right  and  left,  respec- 
tively, are  figures  of  St.  Peter,  with  his  massive  key,  and 
of  another  male  saint,  bearing  a  drawn  sword;  all  the  saints 
cany  books  in  their  left  hands.  While  undoubtedly  the 
addition  of  colour  serves  to  make  the  figures  more  lifelike, 
a  finer  artistic  effect  is  attained  by  trusting  to  the  fair- 
toned  ivory  alone. 

Tbe  ivory  carving  of  the  Early  Renaissance  period,  and 
indeed  some  specimens  of  an  even  earlier  date,  show  that  the 
same  religious  inspiration  that  developed  Gothic  architecture 
VB8  working  in  this  branch  of  art  also.  Out  of  the  great 
wealth  of  examples  of  this,  which  might  well  be  termed  the 
Golden  Age  of  ivory  carving,  one  of  the  very  finest  specimens 
18  a  carving  on  a  piece  of  ivory  that  appears  to  have  formed 
part  of.  a  pastoral  staff.  The  subject  is  a  Fiet4,  or  represen- 
tation of  the  Virgin  Mary  holding  the  dead  Christ  in  her 
anus,  and  the  overpowering  love  and  pity  of  the  Virgin 
Mother  have  never  found  truer  and  more  touching  treatment 
thanhere.'^ 

The  elaborately  carved  pastoral  staffs  in  ivory  produced  in 
the  Bffiddle  Ages  often  bore  on  one  side  of  the  volute  the 
Crucifixion,  and  on  the  other  side  the  Virgin  and  angels.  A 
QOBbolic  meaning  was  attributed  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  staff,  namely,  the  crook,  the  rod  and  the  point,  thus 
expsreaaed  in  a  medieval  Latin  verse:  ^'I  draw  in  sinners, 
esdiort  the  just,  and  prick  the  erring." 

In  the  "Liber  Regalis"  containing  a  coronation  ritual 
prepared  in  1S7S  by  Nicolas  Littlington,  Abbot  of  West- 
minster, it  is  provided  that  in  case  the  king's  hair  should  fail 

^William  Biaskell,  **  Ivories  Ancient  and  Modem/'  pp.  lOS,  104,  South  Kensington 
Miiieum  Art  Handbooks,  No.  8. 


56       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

to  lie  smooth  after  the  ceremony  of  anointing  has  been  peT>- 
formed,  the  hair  should  be  combed  with  St.  Eklward's  ivoiy 
comb.  This  was  no  longer  to  be  found  among  th^  appurte- 
nances of  the  regalia  when  search  was  made  for  eveiything  of 
value  by  the  Parliamentary  Commissioners  in  1649;  they 
could  only  find  "an  old  comb  of  home."* 

The  beautiful  Sainte  Chapelle  in  Paris,  one  of  the  earliest 
monuments  of  Gothic  art,  preserved  in  1480  a  valuable  and 
striking  example  of  medieval  ivory  carving,  which  is  described 
in  the  inventory  made  at  that  date.  This  was  an  ivoiy 
statuette  figuring  the  Virgin  Mary  and  Infant  Jesus,  set  on  a 
silver-gilt  base,  on  which  were  enamelled  the  arms  of  France 
upborne  by  four  lions.  The  crown  on  the  Virgin's  head  was 
enriched  with  eight  large  round  pearls  and  four  smaller  ones, 
these  being  carefully  noted  as  ^^  Orient  pearls."  On  the 
breast  of  the  image  was  set  a  very  large  square  emerald,  and 
on  one  of  the  fingers  was  a  golden  ring  also  bearing  an  emer- 
ald. On  the  breast  of  the  child  Jesus  was  placed  a  canto- 
heyiis  (an  antique  engraved  gem).t 

A  splendid  specimen  of  early  fifteenth-century  carving  was 
the  work  donated  by  Jean,  Due  de  Berry,  in  1408,  to  the 
Abbey  of  Poissy.  This  is  now  in  the  Louvre  Museum,  hav- 
ing been  taken  from  the  abbey  by  the  Revolutionists  in  1794 
and  transported  to  the  Ch&teau  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye, 
whence  it  was  transferred  to  the  Louvre  April  IS,  1796. 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  carvings  in  ivory  that  has  ever 
been  executed,  and  consists  of  a  base,  having  fourteen  niches, 
and  supporting  a  number  of  graceful  columns  and  arches 
on  which  rest  two  belfrys.  On  these  are  twenty  angel  fig- 
ures, ten  at  the  right-hand  and  ten  at  the  left-hand  side; 

^William  Jones,  "Crowns  and  Coronations,"  London,  1902,  p.  291. 

tTi^sor  de  la  Sainte  Chapelle,  Bib.  Nat.,  MS.  lat.  9941 ;  fol.  20  of  original  and  fol.  61  of 
transcript  in  author's  library  from  the  collection  of  the  late  M.  £.  Molinier,  Director  of 
the  Louvre. 


VIRGIN    AND    INFANT   JESIS 

rn  PEARLS  AMD    PBECIOfB  STONES.       THIS  If 
E  D^KVIBED  IS   4X  INVENTOST  Of  TRE  BAI 


E  IDENTICAL  WITH 


1.    LOWER   SIDE    OF    A    CASKET 
11.    PORTABLE    ALTAR 


IVORY    CARVINGS  57 

the  arms  of  France  and  of  Berry  are  also  carved  on  the  face 
of  the  towers.  Around  the  base  are  the  figures  of  the  twelve 
apostles.  In  one  of  the  two  largest  niches  is  sculptured  the 
Due  de  Berry,  uncle  of  Charles  VI  of  France,  accompanied 
by  his  patron  and  an  angel,  and  his  wife,  Jeanne  Comtesse 
d'Auvergne  et  de  Boulogne,  similarly  accompanied.  The 
various  sides  bear  numerous  groups  of  bas-reliefs,  one  set 
illustrating  the  life  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.* 

A  considerable  number  of  guilds  were  engaged  in  ivory 
carving  in  Paris  in  the  thirteenth  century,  either  using  this 
material  exclusively,  or  in  connection  with  others.  M. 
Henry  Havardf  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  M.  Labarte, 
m  enumerating  but  three  such  guilds,  has  underestimated 
their  number  as  reported  in  the  "Registres  de  Mestiers  et 
Marchanderies  de  la  Ville  de  Paris,"  by  fetienne  Boileau, 
appointed  "garde  de  la  prevdt6  de  Paris"  in  1258,  by  Louis 
IX.  Besides  the  "ymagiers  tailleiu^,"  the  "peintres  et 
tailleurs-ymages, "  and  the  "fabricants  de  tables  k  ecrire," 
we  must  add  the  "couteliers  faiseurs  de  manches"  (knife- 
handle  makers),  the  " paternostriers  faiseurs  de  noyaux  k 
robes"  (rosary  makers  and  those  making  beads  for  dress- 
trimmings),  the  "pingniers  et  lantemiers  de  Paris,"  who 
were  permitted  to  work  in  bone  and  ivory  and,  lastly,  the 
"d6ciers,  faiseurs  de  des  k  tables  et  k  eschies"  (makers  of 
checker  pieces  and  chessmen,  as  well  as  of  dice).  Thus  no 
less  than  seven  of  the  corporations  made  use  of  ivory  in 
their  work. 

Of  the  thirteenth-century  ivory  carvers  the  "Livre  des 
Mestiers  de  Paris"  gives,  under  Title  LXI,  the  following: 
''Whosoever  wishes  to  become  an  image-maker  (ymagier) 

*See  Emile  Molinier,  Milage  National  du  Louvre;  **  Catalogue  des  Ivoires,"  Paris 
[1896L  pp.  817-238. 

tHenry  Havard,  "Dictionnaire  de  rameublement,*'  Paris,  n.  d..  Vol.  HI,  ools.  59,  60. 
Article  Ivoire, 


58       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

in  Paris,  that  is  to  say,  a  carver  of  crucifixes,  knife-handles, 
and  all  other  manner  of  carving,  whatever  it  may  be,  of 
bone,  ivory,  or  wood,  and  of  any  other  materials,  whatsoever 
they  may  be,  can  do  so  freely."  It  is  further  specified  that 
the  figures  must  be  made  of  a  single  piece  of  ivory,  except 
in  the  case  of  crucifixes,  which  are  to  be  of  three  pieces.* 
Title  XVIII  notes  the  makers  of  ivory  combs. 

In  the  "Description  de  Paris,"  composed  by  Guillebert  de 
Metz  and  dating  from  1407,  mention  is  made  of  a  Rue  de  la 
Tableterie  where  dwelt  those  who  made  combs  and  "tables" 
(plaques)  and  other  "images"  of  ivory,  and  in  the  still  earlier 
"Us  et  Mestiers  de  Paris,"  of  Boileau,  we  are  told  that  the 
imagiers  taUleurSy  the  image-carvers,  were  free  because  their 
trade  was  exclusively  at  the  service  of  Our  Lord  and  of  his 
saints,  and  pursued  to  the  honour  of  Holy  Church.f 

While  but  few  names  of  the  early  French  ivory  carvers 
have  been  preserved  for  us,  we  know  of  Jean  le  Scelleur,  who 
worked  for  Philippe  V,  surnamed  Le  Long  (c.  1293-1S22), 
and  for  Mahaut,  Comtesse  d'Artois;J  of  Jean  le  Braeillier, 
mentioned  in  the  inventory  of  Charles  V  of  France  (1337- 
1380),**  and  of  Jean  de  Coilly  and  Jean  Aubert,  whose  serv- 
ices were  employed  by  the  dukes  of  Burgundy. §  Evidently 
these  ivory  carvers,  however  artistic  may  have  been  their 
work,  were  not  put  on  a  par  with  the  painters  and  sculptors, 
and  this  comparative  lack  of  appreciation  was  not  calculated 
to  induce  them  to  sign  their  works.  A  pax  in  the  British 
Museum  was  at  one  time  believed  to  furnish  the  name  of  a 
medieval  carver,  Jean  NicoUe,  but  later  research  and  criti- 


*Boileau,  "Le  Livre  des  Mestiers  de  Paris,"  ed.  Lespinasse  and  Bonnardot,  Faris,  1S70, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  127. 128. 
tM.  Digby  Wyatt,  "Notices  of  Sculpture  in  Ivory,"  London,  1856,  p.  17. 
tRicfaard,  "Mahout  comtesse  d*Artois  et  de  Bourgogne,**  Paris,  1887,  p.  321. 
♦♦Ubarte.  "InvenUire  de  Charles  V,"  Paris,  1879,  p.  281. 
§Prost,  "Inventaires  mobiliers  des  dues  de  Bourgogne,'*  Paris,  1902-3,  Vol.  L 


IVORY    CARVINGS  59 

cism  has  dispelled  this  belief,  and  it  seems  that  we  must 
regard  this  signature  as  that  of  the  owner  rather  than  that 
of  the  carver  of  the  pax. 

There  is  record  of  an  important  school  of  ivory  carvers 
established  in  Venice  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, its  founder  being  a  certain  Baldassare  degli  Embriachi, 
a  Florentine  by  birth,  who  had  resided  for  some  time  in 
Genoa  before  finally  settling  in  Venice;  and  who  thus  en- 
joyed the  educational  influences  of  the  art  circles  of  the  three 
cities — ^Florence,  Genoa,  and  Venice.  He  was  not  only  an 
artist,  but  must  have  been  endowed  with  considerable 
practical  ability,  for  he  was  a  banker,  and  also  for  a  time, 
from  1889  to  1409,  a  political  agent  of  Duke  Giangaleazzo 
of  Milan.  Two  other  younger  members  of  the  family,  Ser 
Giovanni  (died  before  1433)  and  Ser  Antonio  (died  before 
1431)  belonged  to  this  school,  which  was  more  especially 
renowned  for  the  production  of  a  great  number  of  beautiful 
nuptial  caskets.  These  eminently  artistic  objects  were  the 
more  appreciated  that  French  ivory  carving,  which  reached 
its  highest  development  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was 
already  declining  in  excellence.  Baldassare's  practical  abili- 
ties are  believed  to  have  been  of  even  more  value  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  school  he  founded  than  his  purely  artistic 
gifts,  enabling  him  to  systematize  and  order  the  Venetian 
workshop  like  a  well-organized  industrial  factory.  As  many 
as  124  of  these  caskets  have  been  traced  in  the  various  public 
and  private  collections  of  Europe,  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens having  been  brought  to  the  Ambroser  Collection  in 
Vienna,  by  the  marriage  of  Claudia  dei  Medici  to  Archduke 
Leopold  V,  in  1627.* 

The  rather  excessive  naturalness  of  much  Flemish  art, 
even  that  of  its  great  masters,  appears  unmistakably  in 

^JttUiis  von  Schlatter.  ''Die  WeriuULtte  der  Embriachi  in  Venedig**;  JahrbUcber  der 
Inroathist  Samml.,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  220-282;  Vienna,  1890. 


60       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  Virgin  and  Child  of  a  Franco-Flemish  artist  who  worked 
in  the  fourteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. This  highly  characteristic  work,  in  the  Louvre  Mu- 
seum, shows  a  high  degree  of  technical  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  carver,  and  we  must  admit  the  effectiveness  of  the 
child  figure's  i>ose,  the  ardent  appetite  testified  to  by  the 
spasmodically  lifted  foot;  however,  this  can  hardly  help 
to  bring  out  the  religious  and  sacred  meaning  of  the  subject, 
neither  can  we  find  in  the  insignificant  though  pretty  face 
of  the  Virgin  any  trace  of  nobility  or  dignity.  The  whole 
composition  is  "of  the  earth  earthy.** 

Several  representative  examples  of  Italian  and  Flemish 
ivory  carving  were  disposed  of  in  February,  1865,  in  Paris, 
at  the  sale  of  the  collection  of  Comte  de  Pourtal6s-Gor- 
gier.*  One  of  these  was  a  statuette  of  Hercules,  20  in.  in 
height,  attributed  to  the  celebrated  Italian  sculptor,  Gio- 
vanni da  Bologna.  The  work  may  perhaps  have  been  exe- 
cuted by  the  sculptor's  father,  also  named  Giovanni,  who  is 
said  by  Benvenuto  Cellini  to  have  been  an  ivory  carver  of 
repute.f  This  statuette  brought  the  sum  of  16,400  francs. 
Two  other  fine  specimens,  believed  to  have  been  carved  by 
F.  Flamand  (Francois  Duquesnoy),  were  a  group  of  Venus 
and  Cupid,  said  to  have  been  left  in  pawn  by  the  artist  in 
the  house  in  Livorno  wherein  he  died,  and  a  bas-relief  friese 
figiu^ing  the  Triumph  of  Silenus;  they  were  sold  for  5,900 
francs  and  13,100  francs  respectively. 

Three  of  the  finest  examples  of  saddles  decorated  with 
ivory  plates  sculptured  in  relief  are  in  the  National  Museum 
at  Budapest,  Hungary.  One  of  them  came  from  the  treas- 
ury of  the  archiepiscopal  Cathedral  of  Bucharest  and  another 
belonged  to  the  Batthyany  family  in  Kis  Berum.    They  are 

*'^ataloguede8ubjetfld'art    .  .   .   qui  composent  lea  collections  de  feu  M.  le  Comte  de 
Pourta]^Gorgier/'  Paris,  1865. 

tChriBtian  Scherer,  "Elfenbeinplaatik  seit  der  Renaiasance/'  Leipsig,  1902,  p.  8. 


VIRGIN   AND   CHILD 


FRAVCO-FLeUIBH  ART,  I 


I.  IVORV  SADDLE. PIECE 


II.  IVORY  HARP.  FRANCE 


IVORY    CARVINGS  61 

afl  probably  of  fifteenth-century  Italian  workmanship,  and 
in  each  of  them  appears  the  favourite  design  of  St.  George 
and  the  Dragon,  accompanied  by  figures  of  lovers  in  gardens, 
and  similar  secular  subjects,  such  as  a  group  of  musicians,  a 
lady  playing  on  a  small  organ,  etc.* 

From  the  hand  of  an  Italian  ivory  carver  of  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  we  have 
a  coffret  of  hexagonal  form  decorated  with  classical  subjects. 
The  coffret  proper  rests  on  a  base  of  marqueterie  and  col- 
oured woods,  mouldings  of  similar  material  surmounting  it, 
tajiering  up  in  a  pyramidal  form  to  a  six-sided  button  on 
which  is  a  brass  ring.  The  six  compartments  of  the  coffret 
present  scenes  from  the  story  of  Paris.  As  an  infant,  in  the 
first,  hb  mother  Hecuba  is  about  to  put  him  to  death  to 
conjure  the  ruin  of  Troy  predicted  by  the  sybil  Herophile, 
but  Priam  prevents  her  from  doing  so;  then  we  have  Paris 
exposed  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  shepherd  Agalaus  to  whom  he 
has  been  consigned.  In  his  intentional  abandonment  here 
the  luckless  babe  is  nourished  by  a  she-bear  (third  com- 
partment) and  finally  Agalaus  takes  pity  on  him  and  adopts 
him.  The  fourth  compartment  figures  Paris  holding  in  his 
hands  a  crown  awarded  him  by  the  shepherd  for  his  courage 
and  coldness;  the  fifth  and  sixth  compartments  figure  the 
Judgment  of  Paris,  to  decide  the  dispute  of  Juno,  Minerva, 
and  Venus  as  to  their  respective  merits,  f 

What  is  in  the  opinion  of  one  of  the  best  art  critics  in  this 
department  of  art  a  work  of  superlative  excellence  is  a 
triptych  in  the  Louvre  Collection,  of  Florentine  workman- 
ship and  belonging  to  the  last  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

^Julius  von  Schlotser,  "ElfenbeuiBattel  des  auBgehenden  Blittelaltan,"  in  Jahrbuch  der 
SuDftliistorischeii  Sammhingen  des  allerhOchsten  Kaiserhaiues,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  260  sqq., 
'^iien  1894,  figured  in  pp.  208,  260.  They  are  alao  figured  in  F.  Romer  ''Mitteilungen  d. 
X.  K.  Central  Comminion/'  Vol.  X,  1865,  pp.  I  sqq.,  Figi.  5-7. 

tMnife  National  du  Louvre;  ''Catalogue  des  Ivoiies,'*  par  jSmile  Molinier,  Paris  [1885-6]» 
9p.tOO-218. 


62       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

It  bears  a  representation  of  scenes  from  the  New  Testament, 
and  also  figures  of  St.  Peter,  St.  Francis,  St.  Bernard,  and 
St.  Domenic,  and  in  composition  and  execution  is  certainly 
a  most  impressive  example  of  late  Gothic  art.  The  conjec- 
tiu^e  has  been  made  that  we  have  here  a  work  in  ivory  by 
Benedetto  da  Majano  (1442-1497),  and  there  is  a  traditkm 
to  the  effect  that  this  triptych  once  belonged  to  Matthias 
Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary,  for  whom  Benedetto  is  known  to 
have  worked  in  other  materials  than  ivory.* 

A  magnificent  horn,  or  "'oliphant,''  in  the  collection  of 
Baron  Adolphe  de  Rothschild,  is  pronounced  by  M.  Molinier 
to  be  the  most  beautiful  example  of  French  ivory  carving  at 
the  height  of  its  excellence.  It  is  also  noteworthy  as  having 
brought  not  long  ago  what  is  believed  to  be  the  hi^beat 
price  ever  paid  for  a  specimen  of  such  work  up  to  the  time 
it  was  disposed  of,  for  it  sold  at  the  Fountain  sale,  in  June, 
1884,  for  £4,452,  or  about  $22,260.t 

The  well-known  piece  of  ivory  carving  popularly,  thou|^ 
erroneously,  called  Le  Couteau  de  Diane  de  Poitiers,  one  ol 
the  gems  of  the  Spitzer  Collection,  has  often  been  ascribed 
to  Jean  Goujon,  but  there  is  little  reason  to  believe  that  it  is 
really  his  work,  although  the  design  may  have  been  directly 
inspired,  or  at  least  suggested,  by  some  of  his  sculptures.| 
In  any  case  it  is  French  work  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

A  fine  ivory  sculptiu^e  in  the  Royal  Museum  in  Florence, 
representing  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  is  an  excellent  ex- 
ample of  sixteenth-century  art.  The  treatment  is  at  once 
realistic,  natural,  and  intensely  dramatic,  but  those  who  are 
charmed  by  the  devotional  purity  of  Gothic  art  will  miss 

*Molinier,  "Histoire  g^n^rale  des  arts  appliquis  k  rindustrie,*'  Vol.  I,  "Ivoires***  Paris* 
1896.  p.  212,  PI.  xxi. 

tMolinier,  "HLstoire  g^n^rale  des  arts  appliqu^  k  rindustrie,"  Paris*  1890,  Vol.  I, 
"Ivoire8,"p.«18;Pl.xxiii. 

tMoUnier,  ^'Histoire  g6n6rale  des  arts  appliquis  k  rindustrie^'*  Paris,  1890,  VoL  I» 
"Ivoires,"  p.  «18. 


THE  DEPOSITION  FROM  THE  CROSS 

SCtlLPTL'RE  IS  IVOnr  ATTBIBl'TCl)  I(>  MICHEI^NGELO  (?) 


I.  IVOUV     ■OLIPIIAXT" 

II.  IVORY   "OLIPHA.NT"" 

III.  IVORY   "OLIPH.AXT" 


IVORY    CARVINGS  63 

soilietbing  in  this  spirited  production.  A  popular  attribu- 
tiOQ  to  Michelangelo  can  at  most  be  taken  as  a  tribute  to 
th6  superior  artistic  qualities  of  the  work. 

Besides  the  triptychs  which  were  so  much  favoured,  the 
principal  productions  of  the  medieval  artists  in  ivory  were 
boaces,  usually  for  containing  the  relics  of  saints;  panels 
fogt  the  decoration  of  chairs,  doors,  walls,  etc.;  croziers; 
tau-crosses,  having  the  form  of  the  Greek  letter  tau  (T); 
pectoral  crosses;  crucifixes — very  rare;  paxes,  for  receiving 
the  kiss  of  peace  which  was  in  earlier  times  exchanged 
between  the  communicants  directly  after  the  Mass;  fan- 
handles;  mirror  frames;  horns,  both  for  hunting  and  drinking 
(they  were  also  occasionally  used  as  reliquaries);  seals; 
chessmen;  draughtsmen;  cups  and  tankards,  and  i>ortrait 
medallions.* 

That  ivory  tablets  were  used  well  up  to  the  end  of  medie- 
val times  in  Europe  comes  out  clearly  in  one  of  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales  where  he  describes  the  friar's  assistant 
as  bearing  about  with  him 

A  pair  of  tables  all  of  ivory 
And  a  poyntal  polish'd  fetishly. 

These  were  for  the  registration  of  the  gifts  of  those 
whose  perhaps  too  sluggish  charitable  impulses  had  been 
struck  by  the  alternate  wheedling  and  bullying  of  the  friar. 
If,  however,  the  givers  had  any  hope  of  gaining  credit  for 
their  gifts,  they  were  doomed  to  disapi>ointment,  for  no 
sooner  were  they  out  of  sight  than  the  sharp  end  of  the 
"poyntal"  or  stylet  was  exchanged  for  the  blunt  end,  and 
the  names  of  the  givers  w^re  quickly  rubbed  oflF  the  surface 
of  the  tablet. 

*See  Dalton  "Catalogue  of  the  ivory  carvings  of  the  Christian  era  and  carvings  in  bone 
in  the  Dept.  of  British  and  Medieval  Archssology  and  Ethnography  in  the  British  Museum/' 
London,  1900,  pp.  81,  sqq. 


64       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  great  treasure  of  the  Luneburg  Collection  is  the  drink- 
ing-horn made  of  a  fine  elephant  tusk  in  1486.  It  has  a  rich 
setting  and  adornment  of  beautifully  chased  silver,  and  rests 
upon  two  supports  figuring  elephants  bearing  Gothic  towers 
of  relatively  prodigious  height  upon  their  backs.  The  elab- 
orately engraved  cover  of  this  drinking-horn  is  detachable 
and  could  be  screwed  on  the  point  of  the  horn  to  prevent 
it  from  injury  while  the  vessel  was  in  use.* 

The  high  prices  now  commanded  by  medieval  ivories,  and 
the  very  rapid  increase  in  values  within  recent  years,  were 
strikingly  illustrated  at  the  sale  of  the  J.  E.  Taylor  Collection 
at  Christie's  in  London  in  July,  1912.  For  example,  a  cele- 
brated Milanese  diptych  of  the  fourteenth  century,  measur- 
mg  15  in.  in  height  by  12  in.  in  width  and  carved  with 
representations  of  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ,  was  sold  for 
3,500  guineas  ($17,500),  although  less  than  twenty  years 
before,  in  1893,  it  had  only  brought  380  guineas  ($1,900), 
thus  showing  an  increase  of  over  900  per  cent,  in  the  interval. 
On  this  same  day  a  small  bit  of  French  medieval  work,  also 
belonging  to  the  fourteenth  century,  the  ivory  volute  of  a 
crozier,  only  5  J  by  4^  in.  with  the  Virgin  and  Child  carved 
on  one  side  and  the  Crucifixion  on  the  other,  realized  1,150 
guineas  ($5,750). 

The  fact  that  old  ivories  are  valued  at  very  high  figures 
has  naturally  led  to  the  perpetration  of  many  forgeries,  some 
of  which  are  in  themselves  works  of  art,  and  indicate  that 
the  makers  might  honestly  have  earned  a  sufiScient  remuner- 
ation for  their  work.  The  following  case  serves  as  an  illus- 
tration of  this.  A  well-known  Scotch  connoisseur,  while  in 
Italy  in  1904,  was  induced  to  purchase  for  £400  a  beautiful, 
ivory  shield,  which  he  was  assured  had  been  given  to 
ancestor  of  the  Duke  of  Parma  by  one  of  the  English  RoyaLK-^ 

*Handb(icher  der  KOnigUchen  Muaeen  su  Berlin,  Kuii8tgewerbe-Miueiiiii»  Gold 
Silber,  by  Juliua  Lessiiig,  Berlin,  1892,  p.  51,  figured  on  p.  60. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  65 

family.  When,  later,  expert  examination  revealed  that  the 
shield  was  a  modern  forgery,  the  collector,  Mr.  Craig- 
Brown,  had  recourse  to  legal  action  and  succeeded  in  recover- 
ing the  amount  of  the  purchase  money.  Not  long  after  this 
the  same  collector  saw  in  Brussels,  in  one  of  the  leading 
establishments  for  the  sale  of  art  objects,  an  exact  copy,  or 
replica,  of  the  work  he  had  rejected,  the  price  being  the  same, 
£400.  As  an  example  of  the  value  of  medieval  or  Renais- 
sance ivories,  the  "  Vierge  de  Boubon,"  one  of  the  rare  figures 
of  the  Virgin  of  the  type  called  by  the  French  "  Vierges  Ou- 
vertes,*'  was  sold  at  auction  in  1903,  as  part  of  the  collection 
of  Sir  Thomas  Gibson-Carmichael,  at  Christie's  in  London, 
for  the  sum  of  £3,800,  or  about  $19,000.*  This  is  by  some 
experts  believed  to  be  the  only  genuine  specimen  of  its  kind. 

One  of  these  strange  ivory  statuettes  named  "Vierges 
Ouvertes"  is  listed  in  an  inventory  of  the  church  treasure  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  made  in  1348.  It  is  there  described 
as  *'an  ivory  image  of  great  antiquity,  divided  in  the  middle, 
and  with  sculptured  images  in  the  opening;  it  is  generally 
placed  on  the  high  altar,  "f  ^^  this  peculiar  type  of  ivory 
the  figure  of  the  Virgin  is  longitudinally  divided  from  top 
to  bottom,  so  that  the  two  halves  can  be  opened  out,  forming 
two  leaves  of  a  triptych,  the  inner  parts  being  carved  with 
designs  in  harmony  with  those  oflFered  by  the  centre  leaf, 
revealed  when  the  figure  is  opened  out. 

The  remarkably  fine  collection  of  ivories  in  the  GrUne 
GewSlbe  at  Dresden  was  founded  by  Elector  Augustus  of 
Saxony  (1553-1586),  who  was  not  only  a  great  connoisseur 
but  did  some  turning  work  in  ivory  himself.    To  gratify  his 

^Alfred  Maakell  "Ivory,  in  Commerce  and  in  the  Arts,"  Cantor  Lectures;  in  Journal 
of  the  Society  of  Arts,  Vol.  LIV,  No.  2817,  p.  1178;  November  16,  1006,  and  the  same 
writer's  ''Ivories,"  London,  1005,  p.  175,  PI.  zx. 

tJules  Labarte,  "ffistoire  des  arts  industriels  au  Moyen  Age  et  k  I'^poque  de  la  Ren- 
iinanoe,"  VoL  I,  Paris,  1864,  p.  234;  from  Comptes  des  omements  et  meubles  de  TEj^ise 
ria;  MS.  Arch,  de  I'Emp.,  L.  5009,  fol.  22  recto. 


66       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ardent  love  for  this  art  he  caused  two  noted  carvers  to  come 
to  his  court  and  remain  permanently  in  his  service.  These 
were  Egidius  Lobenigk  of  Cologne  and  Georg  Weckhardt,  a 
Bavarian.  Of  the  latter,  the  Griine  Gew5lbe  Collection 
possesses  fifty  works  dated  between  1581  and  1589,  and  of 
the  former  some  forty  specimens  may  be  seen  there.  The 
sons  of  Weckhardt  worked  for  Elector  Johann  Georg  I,  as 
did  also  another  noted  carver,  Jacob  Zeller.  Hence  much  of 
the  ivory  material  in  the  Griine  Gewolbe  was,  so  to  speak, 
produced  on  the  spot,  and  undoubtedly  in  many,  if  not  in 
most,  cases,  at  the  direct  suggestion  of  the  princely  patron. 
An  interesting  exhibit  here,  from  a  historical  point  of  view, 
is  a  small  cup  said  to  have  been  made  by  an  imperial  votary 
of  the  art  of  ivory  carving.  Emperor  Leopold  I  of  Germany.* 

The  ingenuity  of  a  certain  class  of  ivory  carvers  is  exhib- 
ited effectively  in  a  work  shown  in  the  National  Museum 
of  Florence.  The  carver,  Filippo  Planzone  of  Nicosia 
(flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century,  until  1636),  called  II 
Siciliano,  has,  by  dint  of  painstaking  effort,  cut  out  from  a 
single  piece  of  ivory  the  figiu'e  of  a  horse  enclosed  in  an 
outer  network.  The  animal  carving  had  to  be  done  after 
the  execution  of  the  network  and  through  its  openings,  so 
that  the  great  diflSculty  of  the  task  may  well  excuse  any 
shortcomings  in  the  equine  figure,  which,  however,  is  better 
than  might  be  expected. f 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  art  of 
ivory  carving  followed  the  prevailing  tendencies  in  painting 
and  sculpture.  While  technical  skill  showed  no  falling  off, 
the  higher  ideals  of  art  were  generally  lost  sight  of  in  a  striv- 
ing after  originality  and  variety  of  design  at  the  expense  of 
true  harmony.     The  f oiu^  acknowledged  masters  of  the  period 

*  Julius  and  Albert  Erbetein,  "Das  K5iiigliche  Grtlne  Gew^be  zu  Dresden,"  Dresden, 
]884,pp.  11, 13. 

tChristian  Scherer,  "Die  Elfenbeinplastik  seit  der  Renaissance,*'  htipag  [1908],  p.  19. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  67 

were  FranQois  Duquesnoy  (1594-1644),  sumamed  in  Italy 
II  Fiammingo  or  "The  Fleming";  Gerhard  van  Opstal 
(1595-1668);  Lucas  Faid'herbe  (1617-1697),  a  pupil  of 
Rubens,  and  Francis  van  Bossuit  (1635-1692).  Of  Faid- 
'herbe  only  one  work  certainly  from  his  hand  is  to  be  seen 
to-day.  This  is  a  relief  in  Prado  Museum  in  Madrid  de- 
picting a  group  of  children  dancing  to  the  flute-playing  of  a 
satyr.  Here  no  one  can  fail  to  recognize  in  the  chubby  forms 
of  the  dancing  children  the  influence  of  Rubens'  taste  in 
painting.  Many  other  ivories  of  Faid'herbe  gained  the 
applause  of  his  contemporaries,  such  as  a  Christ  on  the  Cross, 
a  Venus,  a  Mercury,  a  Cupid  and  Psyche,  an  Adam  and  Eve, 
etc.,  these  being  executed  under  the  direction  of  Rubens  and 
in  part  at  least  from  designs  furnished  by  him,  but  no  trace 
of  any  of  these  works  can  now  be  found.  However,  some 
art  critics,  as  Christian  Scherer,*  for  example,  have  more  or 
less  successfully  identified  as  by  Faid'herbe  several  ivories 
in  various  museums.  One  of  the  more  eflFective,  and  one 
certainly  quite  in  the  manner  of  Rubens,  is  a  tankard  in  the 
Grossherzoglicher  Kammer  in  Carlsruhe,  showing  a  wild 
bacchanalian  dance  of  nymphs  and  satyrs  in  high  relief. 

The  carvings  of  Francois  Duquesnoy  (II  Fiammingo) ,  who 
was  also  celebrated  for  his  representation  of  young  children, 
are  much  more  chaste  in  design  and  spirit,  and  are  still 
influenced  by  the  higher  art  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  This  excellence  is  not  attained  at  any  sacrifice 
of  naturalness,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  a  Cupid  of  the  Green 
Vaults  Collection  in  Dresden,  not  certainly  by  him,  indeed, 
but  confidently  and  probably  correctly  attributed  to  him.f 
This  artist's  long  residence  in  Italy  and  his  enthusiastic  study 
of  the  masterpieces  of  ancient  art  were  undoubtedly  main 

^Christiaii  Scfaerer,  "Die  Elfenbeinplastik  seit  der  Renaissance,"  Leipzig  [1902],  pp.  40, 
aqq..  Figs.  88-96. 

fSee  Scherer's  "Elfenbeinplastik,"  p.  82.  Fig.  24. 


68       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

factors  in  the  formation  of  his  style.  In  his  own  time  he 
received  most  credit  for  his  productions  in  the  field  of  relig- 
ious art,  but  as  none  of  these  are  now  to  be  seen,  we  are  un- 
able to  judge  of  their  quality  according  to  our  standards  of 
to-day ;  the  most  noted  of  these  carvings  was  a  crucifix  given  to 
Urban  VIEI,  and  looked  upon  as  II  Fiammingo's  masterpieoe. 

As  an  ivory  carver,  Gerhard  van  Opstal,  a  native  of  Ant- 
werp, ranked  in  celebrity  second  to  none  of  his  oontempo-. 
raries.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  Paris,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Louis  XIV,  who  purchased  a 
number  of  his  works.  His  art  was  eminently  naturalistic 
in  the  best  sense,  and  while  he  was  strongly  influenced  Iqr 
Rubens,  his  compositions  are  as  a  rule  conceived  and  esse- 
cuted  in  a  much  purer  style  than  are  those  of  his  contemn 
porary  Faid  'herbe.  Several  of  his  carvings  in  relief  are  in 
the  collection  of  the  Louvre  and  of  the  Mus^  Cluny  in  Paris. 
The  essential  purity  of  his  art,  even  though  he  favoured  the 
representation  of  bacchanalian  scenes,  is  well  shown  in  a 
little  relief  in  the  Mus6e  Cluny,  depicting  a  group  of  children 
— one  a  child  satyr — ^playing  with  a  goat. 

Of  the  four  leading  Flemish  exponents  of  the  art  of  ivory 
carving  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Francis  van  Bossuit  was 
unquestionably  the  one  least  under  the  potent  spell  exercised 
by  the  great  Rubens.  In  Bossuit's  work,  much  more  than 
in  that  of  Duquesnoy  even,  we  can  trace  the  influence  of 
classic  art.  Two  fine  examples  of  his  art  may  be  seen  in  the 
Herzogliches  Museum  in  Brunswick;  these  are  two  reliefs, 
one  showing  an  Apollo  and  Daphne  and  the  other  a  Mercury 
and  Psyche.  They  exhibit  the  successful  blending  of  classic 
and  Flemish  art  characteristic  of  the  best  of  Bossuit's  carv- 
ings. The  influence  of  contemporary  French  art  has  also 
been  noticed  in  his  compositions,  lending  to  them  a  certain 
harmony  and  poise,  even  though  this  be  attained  at  the 
expense  of  a  slight  loss  of  originality  and  vigour. 


I.     HALF    OF  THE   HANDLE    OF   A   FLABELLIM 
H.Hl.    DRAUGHTSMEN 


IV.    CARVED  IVORY  BOX  WITH  SCREW  LID 


V.    SNUFF  GRATER 

P   MUSICIANS,   AND   WITH   FRUITB, 


CESTURT.      EXACT  BIZE. 


BBITISH  MUSEUM 


IVORY    CARVINGS  69 

Ivory  tankards  adorned  with  representations  in  relief 
were  much  in  favour  with  the  German  ivory  carvers  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  choice  of  this 
form  was  directly  conditioned  by  that  of  the  original  ma- 
terial, for  the  larger,  hollow  end  of  the  tusk  required  but  httle 
modification  to  shape  it  into  the  body  of  such  a  tankard.  At 
the  same  time  the  cover,  with  its  surmounting  little  statuette, 
gave  the  carver  an  opportunity  to  show  what  he  could  do  in 
the  way  of  modelling  and  executing  a  figure  in  the  round. 

A  few  ^samples  of  these  tankards  could  be  seen  in  the 
Morgan  Collection  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York.  Perhaps  the  best  of  these  is  one  made  by  J.  H. 
Mannlich  of  Augsburg,  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  body  of  this  tankard  shows  a  chain  of  child-figures  in 
bas-relief,  while  the  cover  is  surmounted  by  a  deftly  executed 
Uttle  statuette  of  the  infant  Bacchus. 

The  great  vogue  of  ivory  carving  in  the  Netherlands  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  and  following  century  has  been  attrib- 
uted in  part  to  the  facilities  enjoyed  by  this  region  in 
obtaining  a  plentiful  supply  of  ivory  because  of  the  active 
oommerce  with  the  East  of  the  Dutch  traders.  Another 
reason  that  has  been  alleged  is  that  the  influence  of  the 
School  of  Rubens,  the  "Fleshly  School"  par  excellence, 
contributed  to  the  favour  accorded  to  the  soft-toned  ivory, 
so  well  adapted  to  render  the  more  delicate  hues  of  the  hu- 
man skin.  Indeed,  Rubens  himself  yielded  to  none  in  his 
admiration  of  ivory  as  a  medium  of  artistic  expression,  and 
by  his  direct  efforts  fostered  the  special  development  of  the 
art  in  the  Low  Countries  very  powerfully. 

In  the  "Grline  GewOlbe"  in  Dresden  is  an  elaborate  speci- 
men of  ivory  carving,  more  remarkable  for  the  time  and 
patience  expended  in  its  production  than  for  its  artistic 
quality.  This  is  a  group  of  no  less  than  142  figures,  carved 
out  of  a  single  piece  of  ivory  by  a  Neapolitan  monk;  the 


70       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

subject  is  the  Fall  of  the  Angels.  This  ivory  carving  was 
donated  to  Augustus  HI,  King  of  Poland,  by  his  daughter 
Maria  Amalia,  wife  of  the  King  of  Naples.  A  similar  work, 
with  fewer  figures,  however,  is  in  the  Bavarian  National 
Museum  at  Munich.*  The  Dresden  "Green  Vaults"  Col- 
lection comprises  an  exceptionally  rich  selection  of  carved 
and  turned  ivories,  nearly  five  hundred  in  number,  oflFering 
to  the  visitor  a  great  variety  of  forms  and  illustrating  the 
manifold  formally  artistic  possibilities  of  this  material, 
although  the  standard  of  true  artistic  excellence  is  not  always 
of  the  highest  in  these  productions  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.f 

One  of  the  "Trinity  Rings"  made  by  Stephen  Zick,  of 
Nuremberg,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  among  those  com- 
prised in  the  Franks'  bequest  to  the  British  Museum.  It 
consists  of  three  interlacing  hoops  turned  from  a  single  piece 
of  ivory.  Stephen  Zick  is  said  to  have  made  but  three  of 
these  rings.]; 

In  the  church  of  St.  James,  Spanish  Place,  London,  may 
be  seen  a  very  striking  ivory  crucifix,  presumably  the  work 
of  a  Spanish  carver,  and  offering  a  singularly  realistic  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  The  most  painful  details  are  here 
mercilessly  accentuated,  so  as  to  arouse  in  the  highest  degree 
the  pity  of  the  beholder  for  the  Divine  Sufferer.  Not  only 
the  wounds  inflicted  during  the  crucifixion  itself,  but  the 
marks  of  the  scourging  which  preceded  it,  are  rendered  with 
fearful  realism.  A  singular  detail  in  the  execution  is  that 
the  blood  streams  from  the  wounds  are  formed  of  minute 
rubies  set  close  together.** 

'Christian  Scherer,  "Die  Elfenbeinplastik  seit  der  Renaissance/'  Leipsic  [1902],  p.  IS 
(Fig.  7). 
tSee  "Guide  to  the  Royal  Green  Vaults  at  Dresden,'*  Dresden.  1889,  pp.  14-22. 

XC,  M.  Dalton,  Catalogue  of  the  Finger  Rings  bequeathed  to  Sir  Augustus  WoUastoo 
Franks',  London.  1912  (No.  1727). 

**Maskell.  "Ivories,"  The  Connoisseur's  Library.  London.  1905.  p.  264. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  71 

The  ivory  carvers  of  Dieppe  in  France  long  enjoyed  an 
altogether  special  reputation.  During  the  seventeenth  and 
most  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  the  art  was  cultivated  here 
with  pronounced  success,  its  practice  being  in  many  cases 
handed  down  from  father  to  son,  but  the  prosperity  of  the 
ivory  carvers  gradually  declined  toward  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  financial  distress  immediately 
preceding  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  disturbance  of  all 
industrial  enterprises  caused  by  that  terrible  political  up- 
heaval, had  much  to  do  with  this;  added  causes  are  alleged 
to  have  been  the  production  of  so  many  beautiful  objects  in 
porcelain,  and  the  introduction  into  France  of  the  quaint 
Chinese  ivories,  which  caught  the  popular  fancy  and  were 
preferred  to  the  formal  and  traditional  art  of  the  Dieppe 
carvers.  Indeed  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  art  here  had 
become  too  mechanical,  a  mere  copying  and  reproducing  of 
the  older  models,  which  when  first  produced  could  lay  claim 
to  no  small  share  of  originality.  By  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  lowest  point  had  been  reached,  and 
the  few  ivory  carvers  who  still  exercised  their  art  in  Dieppe 
found  it  diflScult  to  dispose  of  their  product.  Now,  however, 
a  change  occurred,  English  tourists  began  to  frequent  the 
country,  and  what  had  lost  its  charm  for  the  French  appears 
to  have  appealed  to  their  taste;  they  bought  freely  and  paid 
well.  This  revival  was  quite  rapid,  so  that  by  1832  much  of 
the  lost  ground  had  been  recovered.  At  this  time  the  three 
best  ivory  carvers,  who  had  their  establishments  in  the 
Grand  'Rue  of  the  city,  were  MM.  Bland,  Flammand,  and 
Thomas.  Among  other  quaint  forms  of  carving  practised 
here  at  this  time  were  the  magic  balls,  so  favoured  by  the 
Chinese,  as  many  as  twelve,  one  within  the  other,  and  en- 
tirely separated  from  each  other,  being  carved  out  of  a  single 
sphere  of  ivory.* 

*Vitd.  "Histoire  de  Dieppe,"  Fkru.  1844,  pp.  S41-348. 


72       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  "Exposition  Retrospective,"  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive features  of  the  great  Paris  Exposition  of  1900,^ 
contained  a  number  of  choice  examples  of  ivory  carving, 
the  exhibits  being  loaned  by  various  institutions,  churdies, 
and  individual  collectors.  Among  the  examples  of  Ro- 
man-Greek carving  was  the  diptych  of  Justinianus  (sixth 
century)  later  acquired  by  Mr.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan;  several 
other  good  specimens  of  this  and  the  immediately  succeed- 
ing periods  served  to  illustrate  the  gradual  falling  off  in 
artistic  excellence.  A  curious  book  cover  from  the  tenth 
century,  known  as  the  Evang61aire  de  Morienval,  from  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame  de  Noyon,  oflFered  a  good  example  of 
the  medieval  ivory  carving  of  Western  Europe  under  Byz- 
antine influence.  Very  naturally,  the  best  ivories  in  this 
exhibition  were  of  those  worked  in  the  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth, and  fifteenth  centuries  by  the  great  ivory  carvers 
of  the  French  Renaissance  School.  Here  the  aim  was  to 
select  a  number  of  thoroughly  characteristic  specimens, 
avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  the  monotony  that  might  re- 
sult from  grouping  together  a  large  number  of  examples 
of  certain  types  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  which  became 
more  or  less  conventional  in  some  of  the  Renaissance 
workshops.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection 
that  the  best  of  the  statuettes  should  be  thirteenth-century 
work,  the  Angel  Gabriel  and  the  Virgin  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion, loaned,  respectively,  by  M.  G.  Chalandon  and  M.  P. 
Gamier.  Here  the  restrained  dignity  of  the  pose,  tlie 
classic  harmony  of  the  drapery,  the  earnestness  and  beauty 
of  the  faces,  show  us  the  pure  art  of  the  Early  Renaissance 
at  its  best.  From  the  fourteenth  century  is  one  excellent 
example,  a  seated  figure  of  the  Virgin  bearing  the  Divine 
Child  on  her  lap,  an  exceedingly  well-balanced  composition, 

*See  Exposition  Univenelle  de  1900,  Catalogue  offidel  de  rezpodition  rtoospective 
de  r  art  fran^is. 


1,    THE  VIRGIN  AND  CHILD 


II.    STATIETTE  OF  A  SAINT 


SIX    IVORY    CHESSMEN 


IVORY    CARVINGS  73 

showing  both  strength  and  beauty  of  design;  this  was  from 
the  Mus£e  des  Antiquit^s  de  la  Seine-Inferieure.  A  re- 
markable diptych  (fourteenth-century  work,  loaned  by  M. 
Boy)  shows  six  bold,  strongly  marked  reliefs  embodying 
designs  from  New  Testament  history,  the  Entry  into  Je- 
rusalem, the  Washing  of  Feet,  the  Scene  in  the  Garden  of 
Gethsemane,  the  Last  Supper,  the  Gift  of  Tongues,  and 
the  Ascension;  in  the  last-named  scene,  because  of  the  exi- 
guity of  the  available  space,  the  artist  is  able  to  show  only 
the  lower  part  of  the  garment  of  the  ascending  Christ, 
giving  somewhat  the  effect  of  a  figure  disappearing  in  the 
flks  of  a  theatre.  From  the  fifteenth  century  perhaps  the 
most  important  piece  was  an  Annunciation  from  the  Mus6e 
de  Langres,  the  two  figures  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Angel 
Grabriel  (kneeling)  being  sculptured  in  the  round  and  placed 
on  a  base.  While  the  attitudes  are  animated  and  the  com- 
position effective  in  its  way,  it  somehow  fails  to  impress 
us  as  do  the  best  of  the  Early  Renaissance  figures;  the 
straining  after  effect  is  a  little  too  apparent  in  spite  of  the 
unquestionable  technical  excellence  of  the  work. 

The  very  fact  that  the  ivory  carver's  task  is  rendered 
more  difficult  by  the  strictly  limited  size  of  the  mass  or 
surface  at  his  command  forced  him  to  intensify  the  quality 
of  his  design,  and  to  tax  his  ingenuity  to  the  utmost  in 
his  effort  to  portray  his  theme  effectively  within  such  nar- 
row limits;  indeed,  he  had  to  contend  with  much  the  same 
difficulties  as  those  confronting  the  medallist.  In  statu- 
ettes the  obligation  to  adapt  the  pose  of  the  figure  to  the 
curve  of  the  tusk  led  to  certain  peculiar  and  constrained 
attitudes,  and  it  is  an  exceedingly  curious  circumstance 
that  we  can  trace  in  some  of  the  stone  sculpture  of  the  heyday 
of  ivory  carving  a  strong  tendency  to  copy  this  slight  dis- 
tortion or  twist  of  the  figure  although  the  stone  sculptor  had 
no  excuse  for  so  doing.    This  peculiarity  can  be  accounted 


74       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

for  only  by  the  strong  influence  exerted  by  the  observation 
and  study  of  ivory  carvings  at  a  time  when  any  plastic 
artist  must  have  found  pleasure,  instruction,  and  inspiration 
in  contemplating  them.* 

The  origin  of  that  branch  of  decorative  art  known  to  the 
French  as  ebinuterie  is  to  be  sought  in  the  adornment  of 
pieces  of  furniture  or  caskets  by  the  insertion  of  plates  of 
ivory.  This  was  much  favoured  in  the  seventeenth  centiiiy» 
ebony  being  the  wood  most  prized  for  the  framework  of  the 
furniture  or  casket.  Later  on  tin  was  employed  in  this  way^ 
then  tortoise  shell,  and  finally  woods  of  various  colours  were 
given  the  preference.  The  somewhat  funereal  air  of  this 
work  in  ebony  and  ivory  is  said  to  have  led  to  its  disuse. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  costliness  of  the  material  and  the 
difficulty  experienced  in  working  it  for  this  purpose.  It 
could  not  be  chiselled  into  form,  but  had  to  be  first  sawed 
out  and  then  sculptured  by  the  aid  of  the  graver — a  long  and 
delicate  operation.f 

The  adornment  of  articles  of  furniture  with  ivory  inlays 
has  been  practised  from  the  most  ancient  times,  an  cid 
Assyrian  text  attesting  this  usage  among  the  Assyrians. 
In  modem  times  we  have  still  many  excellent  examples  of 
this  art,  one  of  the  finest  being  a  cabinet  produced  by  the 
Fratelli  Stannard,  Galleria  Colonna,  Rome,  with  an  elab- 
orate ornamentation  of  ivory  plaques,  most  beautifully  de- 
signed and  executed. 

The  German  schools  of  ivory  carving  at  Geislingen  and 
Erbach  are  of  much  more  recent  origin  than  that  of  Dieppe 
in  France;  indeed,  it  was  not  until  well  into  the  eighteenth 
century  that  ivory  was  freely  used  here,  the  earlier  work 

^Communicated  hiy  Mr.  Chailcs  de  Kay»  in  an  article  about  to  appear  in  tbe  CmUurp 
Maganns. 

tHenry  Havard.  '*Dictionnaire  de  I'ameublement,"  Vol.  m,  Paria,  n.  d..  cola.  05»  66. 
Artide  Ivoire. 


I.  II.     RELIEFS   IN   IVORY 
III.     LEAF  OF   A   DIPTYCH   SHOWING    THE   CRUCIFIXION 


CONTEMPOHANEOl :s    RUSSIAN    IVORY    CARVINGS 

RINCE  PADL  FETROTITra  111.    FBIXCBSa  MARIA  FEODOROTI 


IVORY    CARVINGS  75 

being  principally,  and  often  exclusively,  of  bone.  The  ac- 
tivity in  these  schools  has  been  mainly  industrial,  compara- 
tively little  art  work  pure  and  simple  having  been  produced, 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  workshops  has  been  dependent 
iqKm  the  temporary  vogue  enjoyed  by  small  decorative 
objectSy  such  as  brooches,  etc.  Nevertheless,  many  of  the 
carvers  could  lay  claim  to  the  possession  of  a  very  considera- 
ble share  of  technical  skill,  and  here  and  there  a  real  artist 
has  appeared  among  them.* 

As  a  specimen  of  Russian  work  we  have  three  striking 
profile  portraits,  executed  in  the  reign  of  Catherine  II  of 
Russia  (1729-1796),  one  giving  a  fine  likeness  of  the  empress 
herself 9  and  the  other  two  depicting  her  son  Paul  Petrovitch 
Oater  Paul  I)  and  the  Princess  Maria  Feodorovna.  These 
profile  busts  are  cut  out  of  ivory  plates,  a  circular  band  of 
the  material  being  left  to  serve  as  a  frame.  In  this  form 
they  oould  be  mounted  on  hard  wood,  metal,  or  velvet;  the 
velvet  serving  as  an  excellent  background  for  the  ivory 
portraits. 

The  modem  revival  of  the  art  of  ivory  carving  in  France 
and  Belgium  owes  much  to  the  initiative  of  the  great  French 
painter  and  sculptor  Gerdme,  who,  in  order  to  widen  the 
artistic  field  and  appeal  to  a  larger  class  of  art  patrons, 
founded  the  "Soci^te  de  Tart  pr^cieux,"  to  foster  the  pro- 
duction of  small  works,  which  would  have  better  chances  of 
fiiiHifig  their  way  into  a  great  number  of  private  collections 
than  could  the  large  figures  in  marble  or  bronze.f  Ivory  as  a 
material  was  peculiarly  favourable  to  subserve  these  pur- 
poses, and  lent  itself  well  to  a  combination  with  gold,  silver,  \ 
or  other  metal,  this  combination  greatly  enhancing  the 
charm  of  the  work  of  art. 

^Sombora,  "Die  Hfenbein  iind  BeimidmitiereU"  Heidelberg.  1800. 

tfimile  Docier.  "Xpropos  de  1*  ezpodtioo  du  Muafe  Gallifm  *;  in  La  Revue  de  VAH,  Vol. 
XIV.  pp.  61-74;  1008. 


76       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  ivory  carvings  of  the  late  Moreau-Vauthier,  many  of 
which  are  in  this  country,  may  be  regarded  as  representing 
the  height  of  this  art  as  practised  in  our  day.  Although  a 
number  of  artists  have  done  very  praiseworthy  work  in  this 
department  within  the  past  half-century  or  so,  Moreau- 
Vauthier  had  at  once  so  much  originality,  such  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  potentialities  of  his  material,  and  such 
an  appreciation  of  the  best  traditions  of  the  art  of  ivory 
carving,  that  his  works  may  be  said  to  stand  in  a  class  by 
themselves. 

At  an  exposition  of  art  for  children  recently  held  in  the 
Museum  of  Modem  Art,  in  the  Rue  Pierre  Charron,  Paris, 
some  very  pretty  ivory  trinkets  were  displayed.  One  of 
these  was  an  ivory  ring  bearing  a  row  of  httle  silver  bells 
with  forms  of  angels  in  repouss6  work,  most  appropriate  to 
childhood,  as  this  age  is  more  especially  that  during  which 
the  Guardian  Angel's  care  is  most  needed  and  merited. 
Some  pretty  httle  ivory  napkin  rings  with  a  pierced  silver 
band  were  also  shown  in  this  exhibition. 

A  fine  collection  of  Congo  ivory  work  is  contained  in  the 
Mus^  du  Congo,  or  Mus6e  de  Tervueren,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  situated  in  a  suburb  of  Brussels.  It  is  built  upon  the 
site  of  the  royal  Ch&teau  of  Tervueren  which  was  destroyed 
by  fire  some  years  ago.  At  the  time  of  the  Brussels  Exposi- 
tion of  1897  a  small  building  was  erected  on  this  site  to  con- 
tain exhibits  illustrating  the  Congo  region,  and  in  1904  the 
present  imposing  structure  was  begun  and  it  was  finally 
completed  and  opened  to  the  pubhc  in  1909.  During  the 
first  three  and  a  half  months  after  the  opening  it  was  visited 
by  182,500  persons,  including  16,000  school  children  under 
the  guidance  of  their  teachers.  The  revival  of  chryselephan- 
tine sculpture,  that  blending  of  gold  and  ivory  to  which  some 
of  the  grandest  works  of  Greek  art  owed  much  of  their  beauty, 
is  attributed  to  the  abundant  supply  of  ivory  derived  from 


^^^r^'^'^^^^H 

^Bb^  mr!^M 

^^^^^              .^^^1 

^^^^Pr~7av  r-  '^^'"N^^^H 

"THE  FLORENTINE  BOY" 


IVORY    STATUETTES 
.  "l'amocb"  (love),  bt  bombadd  ik.  "la  nAisE"  (hate),  bt  oeletk 

N  aCCLPTOBS TWENTIETH  CENTUBT 


IVORY    CARVINGS  77 

the  Congo  region  in  recent  years,  and  this  and  other  ivory 
work  has  received  notable  encouragement  from  the  Belgian 
Government.  Realizing  that  the  high  price  of  ivory  was  ah 
insurmountable  obstacle  for  many  poor  artists  the  Govern- 
ment agreed  to  furnish  them  the  material  at  cost  price  and 
also  to  give  them  credit  for  four  years,  so  that  they  could  be 
practically  assured  that  they  would  have  received  the  price 
of  their  art  works  before  they  would  be  called  on  to  pay  for 
the  material.* 

Among  the  products  of  Belgian  art,  one  of  the  finest  is  the 
"Sphinx"  of  Christian  van  der  Stappen,  first  exhibited  in 
the  International  Exhibition  at  Antwerp  in  1894,  where  a 
large  number  of  exceUent  ivory  carvings  were  shown,  nota- 
bly  by  Belgian  artists,  the  revival  of  the  art  in  Belgium  being 
principally  due  to  the  liberal  action  of  the  Grovemment,  under 
the  personal  influence  of  King  Leopold  II,  in  facilitating 
the  task  of  the  carvers  by  placing  at  their  disposal  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  Congo  ivory.  Van  der  Stappen's 
** Sphinx"  is  also  one  of  the  most  successful  eflForts  to  revive 
and  realize  the  ancient  Greek  chryselephantine  sculpture,  the 
effect  of  the  ivory  being  most  skilfully  and  artistically  en- 
hanced by  the  gold  and  silver  employed  in  the  helmet  and 
cuirafsus  of  the  bust.  At  the  same  time  the  mysterious  ele- 
ment is  powerfully  brought  out  in  the  intent  expression  of 
the  faee>  marked  with  that  deep-seated  melancholy  insepa- 
raUe  from  a  knowledge  of  the  enigma  of  the  universe,  the 
great  "world  riddle." 

Owing  to  the  importance  of  the  modem  Belgian  School 
of  ivory  carving,  the  following  fairly  complete  list  of  the 
more  noteworthy  works  by  Belgian  artists  is  here  given. 
It  will  be  seen  that  almost  all  the  various  forms  of  ivory 
carving  are  represented  among  the  productions. 

*Btti€ii  A.  deHauUevflle  "Le  Muste  du  Congo  Beige  k  Tervueren";  in  "La  Revue  Con- 
fokiie,"  le  Ajod^  No.  fl;  pp.  0O6-tt5;  1910. 


78       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

HUYGEL£N»  FRANS»  Bom  in  Antwerp,  August  19,  1878. 

Works :    "  Femme  aux  masques; " 
Vase:  "Jeunesse"; 
Portrait  of  Mile.  A.; 
Coupe  k  fruits  "TAbondance"; 
"lldole"; 
Vase:  "Printemps." 

MATTON,  ARSENE,  Bom  at  Harlebek,  Belgium,  December  15,  1873. 

Works :    " Le  Silence,"  seal  in  ivory  and  silver; 
Souhait  de  Roi,"  medallion; 
La  Ros6e,"  figure; 
'  Jeu  d'enfants,"  group; 
Heureux  retour,"  group; 
Mokoko,"  head  of  a  negro  child. 


« 
« 
« 
« 


VmCOTTE,  THOMAS,  Bom  January  8, 1850. 

Works:    Life-size  bust  of  H.  M.  Leopold  11; 

Bust,  three  quarters  natural  size,  of  Mme.  E.; 
"M6duse,"  bust; 
Medallion  of  Princesse  de  L. 

DE  CUYPER,  FLORIS,  Bom  at  Antwerp,  August  7,  1875. 

Works:    Annexation  of  the  Congo  to  Belgium,  ivory  medallion, 

obverse  and  reverse; 
"Le  Glaneur,"  statuette; 
"D6but  de  modele,"  statuette. 

ROUSSEAU,  VICTOR,  Professor  in  the  Academic  Royale  des  Beaux- 
Arts  de  Belgique. 

Works:    Portrait  of  Mme.  R.,  bas-relief; 
Hand  of  a  young  man; 

RAverie,"  male  figure; 

Ravi,"  figure  of  an  adolescent; 

Le  Baiser,"  group; 

T6te  de  jeune  fille"; 
Album  cover;  combination  of  bas-reliefs  in  ivory,  with 
gold  ornamentation,  and  set  with  precious  stones. 


« 

« 


IVORY    CARVINGS 

VANDEVOORDE,  G.,  Born  at  Courtrai,  April  28, 1878. 

Works:    "LaTourmente"; 

*'  TAdolescent,"  male  figure  seated. 
"  ring6nue/'  figure  of  a  young  girl. 


79 


HERAIN,  JEAN,  Bom  in  Louvain,  October  24,  1853. 

Works:     "La  Captive"; 
H6dera"; 

r Agriculture,"  ivory  and  silver; 
"La  Maternity,"  ivory  and  silvered  bronze; 
Bruxelles  port  de  mer." 


«' 


« 


« 


DEVREESE,  GODEFROID,  The  Commemorative  Medallist  of  the 

American  Numismatic  Society,  New  York,  bom  at 
Courtrai,  August  19, 1861. 

Works :    "  Desespoir,"  statuette ; 
"Chrysis,"  statuette; 
"Thais,"  statuette; 
"La  Vierge,"  statuette; 
"  Danseuse  a  la  guirlande,"  draped  statuette; 
"  Danseuse,"  nude  figure,  statuette; 
"H.  M.  Leopold  II,"  with  a  reverse,  plaquette; 
"Their  Majesties  Albert  and  Elizabeth,"  with  reverse 

plaquette; 
"Portrait  of  the  artist's  wife,"  plaquette; 
"MUe  Aline  D.  S.,"  plaquette; 
"  M.  A.  M,"  plaquette  with  reverse; 
"M.E.A.,"medal. 
"M.  F.  D.  S,"  plaquette; 
"  M.  le  D6put6  P.  T.,"  medal; 
"Salom6,"  plaquette; 
Medal  (as  pendant)  of  MUe.  B.; 
Medal  (as  pendant)  of  the  artist's  wife; 
Medal  (as  pendant)  of  Mile.  Y.  P. ; 
"Mile.  De  W.,"  pendant. 


80       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

SAMUEL,  CHARLES,  Bom  in  Brussels,  December  29,  1862. 

Works :    "  Ulenspiegel  et  Nele,"  small  group ; 

"La  Fortune,"  statuette  in  ivory  and  silver  gilt;  2  ex- 
amples; 

Les  Lis,**  statuette; 

Cr6puscule,'*  statuette  in  ivory  and  silver  gilt; 

N616,"  bust  in  ivory  and  wood  from  the  Congo; 

Candeur,"  statuette; 

Aurore,"  statuette; 

Jeune  flamande,"  bust  in  ivory  and  wood  from  the  Congo 

Coquetterie,"  statuette; 

Eve,"  vase,  ivory  and  bronze; 

Inspiration,"  statuette,  ivory  and  onyx; 

La  Coiffure,"  statuette; 

Phryn6,"  statuette; 

Joueuse  de  fltltes,"  statuette; 
"Jeune  fiUe  k  la  guirlande,"  statuette; 

La  Danse,"  small  group; 

Her  Royal  Highness  the  Countess  of  Flanders,"  medal; 

Jean  Rouffart,"  medal; 

Jean  Pierre  et  Marcel  P6rez,"  medal; 

Saby  Halot,"  medal; 

Saby  Janssen,"  medal. 


« 

« 
it 

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it 
ti 


ti 
it 
ti 
ti 
tt 
ti 


DE  BREMAECKER,  EUGENE,  Bom  July  14, 1879. 

Works:    "L'EtemelF6minin"; 
"Vers  la  Civilisation." 


VAN  HOVE,  G.,  Bom  in  1861 ;  Prix  de  Rome  of  1888. 

Works :    "  St.  Michael,"  wood  and  ivory ; 
La  veux-tu,"  ivory  and  bronze; 
Elegante,"  statuette; 
Seal,  portrait; 

Book  cover  for  livre  dUeures; 
"Confidence,"  group; 
Head  of  a  man,  pummel  of  a  cane ; 
"Saint  Barbara." 


if 
it 


82       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

DE  BEULE,  AL.,  Bom  at  Zde,  August  27, 1861. 

Works:    Saint  Michael  and  the  Dragon; 
^'Madone,"  statuette. 

WEYNS,  J.,  Bom  at  Merxem  (Antwerp),  March  17,  1849. 

Works :    Homage  to  King  Leopold  II ; 
"  Charmeuse  au  serpent  '* ; 
"Abandonn^  "; 
"rOiseleur"; 
"Joueur  deflate"; 

Mercurius,"  statuette; 

Warrior,"  bust  in  old  silver,  face  in  ivory; 

'Jeanne  d'Arc,"  statuette; 

Mme.  Van  W., "  portrait; 

M.  E.  C,"  medallion; 

Child's  head  (MUe.L.); 

Saint  Hubert; 

Saint  Cecilia;  ivory  and  silver; 

"Avantlebal,"bust; 

Various  bas-reliefs. 

WOLFEBS,  Bom  at  Brussels,  April  16, 1858. 

Works :    Iris  and  lizards,  vase; 
Poppies,  vase; 
Iris  and  fish,  vase; 
Swan  and  dragon,  vase; 

Xe  Chant  du  Cygne,"  vase; 
Swan  and  snake,  vase; 

'  L'Exposition  Coloniale  de  Tervueren,"  album; 

Xa  Parure,"  coflfret  a  bijoux; 

'Junon,"lamp; 

'Le  Premier  bijou  "  (Femme  k  la  perle) ; 

'M6duse,"  pendant; 

'  Le  Paon,"  eventail ; 

Eve,"  statuette; 

'Printemps,"  statuette; 

'Riverie,"  statuette; 

'OflFrande,"  statuette; 

Malefida,"  bust  in  marble  and  ivory; 
Various  portraits  (bas-reliefs) . 


s 

« 

*i 

« 

"I 


« 


IVORY    CARVINGS  8S 

DUFON,  JOSUf;,  Born  at  Western  Flanders  (Belgium),  May  22, 1864. 

Works :    "  Diane,"  statuette; 

La  Perle,"  statuette; 

Belluaire,"  statuette; 
"Sainte  Vierge,"  statuette; 
"Toilette,"  statuette; 
Van  Berchen,  statuette; 
"Phiyn6,"  statuette; 

Saint  John,"  bust; 

Judith,"  bust; 
Portrait  of  M.  S.,  plaquette; 
Portrait  of  M.  B.,  plaquette; 
Portrait  of  Mile.  B.,  plaquette. 

The  following  figures  show  the  quantity  of  ivory  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  artists  wishing  to  execute  chryselephantine 
work  by  the  Government  of  the  Belgian  Congo  in  1912  and 
1913: 

Number  of  tusks  delivered         9 

Weight  in  kilograms 467.9 

Quantity  returned  (kilograms) 287.3 

Quantity  used  (kilograms)  .      .  180. 

Ivory  amulets,  though  not  usual,  are  sometimes  to  be 
foimd,  even  in  our  own  day,  one  having  been  picked  up  in 
Madrid  not  long  since  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Hildburgh,  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  Spanish  amulets.  The  form  given 
the  ivory,  which  is  painted  red,  and  set  in  a  silver  locket,  is 
that  of  the  so-called  "fig-hand,"  so  common  in  Roman  times 
and  still  a  favourite  form  among  the  Italians.  Its  primal 
significance  is  rather  unsavoury,  but  in  later  use  (and  prob- 
ably to  a  great  extent  with  the  Romans  also)  its  virtue  is 
that  of  a  protection  against  the  Evil  Eye.  In  its  origin  this 
hand  is  a  female  emblem,  while  the  horn  is  a  masculine  one. 
Another  "hand-amulet"  used  against  the  Evil  Eye  and 


84       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

other  enchantments  by  the  Arabs  is  known  m  North  Africs 
as  the  Hand  of  Fatima;  this,  however » is  an  open  hand,  and 
probably  enough  has  no  connection  with  the  curious  "fig- 
hand."* 

There  is  in  the  National  Museum  of  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries of  Scotland  (No.  183  in  Section  L)  an  ivory  amulet 
which  at  one  time  enjoyed  high  repute  in  Argyleshire  as  a 
cure  for  madness.  This  was  a  plate  measuring  7^  in.  in 
length  and  about  4  in.  in  width.f 

An  ivory  amulet,  figuring  a  small  dog,  is  said  to  be  worn 
on  a  bracelet  by  Queen  Mary  of  England,  and  to  be  valued 
by  her  as  a  luck-bringing  talisman,  or  to  ward  oflf  evil.  Aa 
we  have  seen,  the  ancient  Egyptians  already  had  their  ivory 
amulets,  so  that  in  addition  to  its  value  as  a  most  delicately 
beautiful  material  for  ornamental  work,  ivory  is  not  lacking 
in  the  possession  of  more  occult  virtues,  if  ancient  tradition 
and  modem  fancy  are  to  be  trusted.  To  this  ivory  dog 
of  Queen  Mary  may  be  added,  if  gossip  is  to  be  belie vedj 
an  auto-amulet,  or  mascot,  favoured  by  King  George  V, 
This  is  a  small  bronze  figure  of  Britannia,  whose  hands  beai 
a  royal  or  imperial  crown;  a  lion  is  crouching  at  her  feet 
This  symbol  of  sovereignty  is  certainly  not  an  unworthy  type 
of  amulet  for  a  British  monarch. | 

What  may  be  regarded  as  a  work  testifying  to  the  posses- 
sion of  a  remarkable  natural  endowment  by  the  artist  is 
entitled  "The  Procession  of  Elephants"  and  was  cut  out  ol 
a  solid  piece  of  ivory  by  an  American,  a  travelling  salesman 
for  a  wholesale  shoe  manufacturer.  Suffering  from  jaded 
nerves  he  took  up  ivory  carving  as  a  relief.  He  did  nol 
enjoy  the  advantage  of  an  instructor's  teaching,  but  by 


*See.  W.  L.  Hildbtir^,  "Further  Notes  on  Spaniah  Amulets,"  in  Folk  Loie,  Vol.  XXIV 
No.  1,  March  SI,  191S,  p.  65. 

fWiUiam  Jones,  "Credulities  Ftat  and  Present,"  London,  1880,  p.  161, 

{From  the  JeweUeri  Cireular  Weekly,  February  5, 1013.  p.  153. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  85 

of  close  application  and  a  thorough  study  of  the  elephant, 
he  nevertheless  succeeded  in  producing  some  of  the  best 
and  most  lifelike  carvings  of  the  animal  that  have  ever 
been  executed.  A  striking  merit  in  his  work  is  its  high  de- 
gree of  originality,  for  no  two  elephant  figures  from  his 
hand  are  alike.  His  work  is  limited  in  quantity  as  he  has 
in  all  executed  but  six  groups,  for  while  his  ivory  carving 
proved  an  artistic  success,  it  failed  as  a  curative  agent  for 
nervous  ills,  the  close  application  causing  insomnia  and 
obliging  an  abandonment  of  the  very  promising  career.  m 

These  carvings  are  especially  interesting  as  they  are  cut 
out  of  a  full  section  of  a  perfect  tusk,  which  the  slightest 
imperfection  or  the  least  error  would  have  spoiled,  and  they 
are  more  realistic  and  unstrained  in  action  than  any  Japanese 
groups. 

The  adoption,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  of  ivory  as 
the  favourite,  indeed  almost  the  exclusive  material  for 
miniature  painting,  did  much  to  render  the  miniatures  of 
this  century  the  beautiful  works  of  art  they  are.  So  soft 
and  smooth  are  the  tones  of  the  best  material  that  as  great 
a  master  in  this  art  as  Cosway  frequently  left  parts  of  his 
figures  entirely  uncovered  by  the  brush,  depending  alto- 
gether upon  the  delicate  tones  of  the  ivory  to  represent  the 
hue  of  the  skin.* 

Indeed,  for  miniature  painting  ivory  is  preeminently 
adapted,  the  colours  applied  to  its  smooth  surface  blending 
softly  and  tenderly.  This  quality  was  fully  appreciated  by 
the  masters  of  the  art  of  miniature  painting  such  as  the  Eng- 
lishman Richard  Cosway  (1742-1821)  and  John  Smart 
(1741-1811)  and  the  Frenchmen  Augustin  (1729-1832)  and 
Isabey  (1767-1855),  as  well  as  by  our  own  Malbone  (1777- 
1807)  and  Baer,  only  to  mention  a  very  few  of  those  who 
have  cultivated  thb  art. 

*George  C.  WUlianuoii,  *'IIow  to  Identify  Portrait  Biiniatures."  London,  1905,  p.  87. 


86       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Another  use,  and  one  that  has  endured  for  many  centuries, 
is  the  employment  of  ivory  for  fan  sticks,  either  plain  or 
more  often  delicately  carved.  The  most  notable  relic  of  this 
kind  is  a  fan  of  purple  vellum  with  ivory  sticks,  the  gift  of 
Queen  Theodolinda  to  the  Cathedral  of  Monza,  and  still 
preserved  there  as  one  of  the  chief  treasures. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  the  set  of  turquoise  be- 
longing to  another  queen,  the  unhappy  Marie  Antoinette, 
and  sold  with  the  other  French  crown  jewels  in  1888,  proved 
to  be  not  true  turquoise  but  the  mineral  known  as  odontolite» 
or  fossil  ivory,  naturally  stained  by  iron  phosphate. 

The  following  practical  directions  as  to  the  protection  of 
ivory  paintings,  so  that  they  may  long  preserve  the  delicate 
beauty  they  exhibit  when  fresh  from  the  artist's  hand,  have 
been  kindly  supplied  by  one  of  our  most  gifted  miniaturists: 

The  back  of  an  ivory  miniature  painting  should  be  kept  as 
it  comes  from  the  ivory  merchant — that  is,  nothing  should 
be  fastened,  giunmed,  or  glued  to  its  back.  Any  white  or 
cream-coloured  paper,  and  free  from  arsenic,  is  then  placed 
loosely  against  it.  Whatman's  hot-pressed,  or  steinbach 
papers  are  entirely  safe.  In  setting  an  ivory  plaque  into 
its  frame  or  bezel,  it  is  advisable  to  insert  a  narrow  rim  of 
flat  metal  to  keep  it  from  being  pressed  against  the  glass. 
This  rim  or  mat  has  the  special  advantage  of  hiding  the 
outer  edge  of  the  ivory  where  it  is  cut  narrower  than  the 
frame  or  bezel  containing  it.  Ivory,  like  wood,  expands 
and  contracts  laterally,  making  it  necessary  to  cut  all  ivory 
paintings  perhaps  three  per  cent,  narrower,  laterally,  than 
the  frame  may  be;  unless  this  is  done,  a  close-fitting  ivory 
will  surely  buckle,  in  time.  The  cutting  of  ivory  less  than  the 
thickness  of  two  ordinary  visiting  cards  can  be  done  with 
any  ordinary  scissors.  This  cutting  must  be  done  with  the 
grain,  and  in  narrow  bits  which  readily  split  away  or  crum- 
ble.   Moreover,  all  cutting  must  be  from  side  centres  up- 


IVORY    CARVINGS  87 

ward,  and  inverting  the  ivory  to  cut  the  sides  of  the  lower 
half  of  any  oval.  No  cutting  across  the  grain  should  be 
attempted  by  an  inexpert  person.* 

Having  the  ivory  set  into  the  frame,  a  proper  backing 
becomes  necessary  to  hold  it  in  its  place.  For  this  a  piece 
of  aluminum  cut  to  fit  the  frame  is  the  most  serviceable  of 
light  metals.  By  laying  a  piece  of  very  thin  paper,  larger 
than  the  frame,  across  the  back,  and  pressing  the  aluminum 
back-plate  into  the  bezel,  a  firm  hold  is  assured.  Square 
or  oblong  ivories  are  best  secured  by  dispensing  with  the  mat, 
placing  a  sheet  of  good  quality  mica  behind  the  paper  back- 
ing and  sealing  the  edges  with  gold-beater's  skin  (so-called 
"skin-plaster").  The  use  of  photographer's  slide  binder  is 
also  entirely  safe.  The  sealing  should  be  perfect,  to  prevent 
the  imperceptible  moisture  of  damp  weather  finding  its  way 
under  the  glass.  Experience  has  shown  us  that  while  an 
ivory  will  not  deteriorate  on  account  of  moisture,  the  inside 
of  the  glass  covering  will  in  time  show  f ogginess,  though  not 
in  so  great  a  degree  as  do  daguerreotypes,  where  the  glass 
and  the  metal  are  more  active  in  collecting  a  chemical 
deposit  under  the  glass. 

CARE   OF   PAINTINGS   ON   IVORY 

The  above  final  remarks  remind  us  that  an  ivory  painting 
should  not  be  exposed  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
A  cold  piece  of  glass  will  immediately  attract  and  condense 
any  latent  moisture.  It  will  draw  it  in  under  the  framing 
and  will  hold  this  moisture  for  many  days.  Sunlight  would 
bleach  most  colours  more  or  less,  no  matter  what  make  and 
whether  they  be  oil  colours  or  pastels,  let  alone  water- 
colours  of  delicate,  pellucid  gradation,  with  practically  no 
body  strength.  Miniatures  kept  in  the  ordinary  light  of 
our  homes  will  last  indefinitely.    There  is  nothing  in  their 

*AU  Uuck  ivory  is  best  cut  with  a  jeweller's  saw. 


88       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

colouring  to  vitiate  or  decompose  and,  in  consequence, 
miniatures  that  have  had  good  care  are  as  fresh  in  their 
pristine  colouring  as  when  painted  two  hundred  years  ago. 
Lest  we  overlook  an  obvious  point,  miniatures  on  ivory  are 
all  painted  in  water-colours — ^they  will  wash  oflf  readily. 
Should  there  be  an  old  miniature  in  your  possession  that 
looks  soiled,  it  may  be  cleaned  with  a  soft  and  gritless  rubber. 
Most  commercial  rubbers  are  charged  with  pumice  or  other 
cutting  powder.  There  is  no  cleaner  quite  so  wonderful  for 
all  general  purposes  as  pure  rubber  that  is  some  five  or  more 
years  old;  any  expert  will  verify  this.  Biting  into  a  rub- 
ber is  the  test  for  pumice.  The  so-called  ink  erasers  are 
heavily  filled  with  grit.  A  new  rubber  called  "art  gum** 
is  now  obtainable  at  all  art  material  dealers,  and  is  an  excel- 
lent soft  eraser  and  cleaner. 

The  largest  ivory  of  longitudinal  diametrical  cut  the 
writer  has  seen  is  5^  by  13  in.  oblong.*  Larger  cuttings 
have  been  made  by  cylindrical  cutting — such  ivory  flattened 
never  loses  its  tendency  to  regain  its  original  shape,  and 
in  consequence  can  only  be  used  when  mounted  solidly  with 
moisture-proof  glue  or  cement. 

MINIATURE   PAINTING   AS   AN   ART 

There  is  no  secret  or  trick  in  the  art  of  miniature  painting. 
Most  of  our  ablest  painters  have  acquired  their  art  unaided 
apart  from  their  previous  study  of  drawing  and  painting. 
The  work  requires  good  eyesight,  and  in  advanced  years  one 
requires  both  spectacles  and  magnifying  glasses.  However, 
it  is  not  a  matter  of  art  to  paint  small  miniatures,  nor  is  it  a 
recommendation  to  paint  detail  for  its  own  sake.  A  highly 
elaborated  miniature  may  be  devoid  of  art  or  it  may  be  a 
masterpiece.  Excepting  Holbein,  there  is  no  miniature 
painter  that  has  mastered  detail  without  losing  charm  to 

*0ne  half  of  it  wu  lued  in  his  "Arcadia,**  by  W.  J.  Baer. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  89 

some  extent.  Charm  may  lie  in  the  exquisite  fitness  or 
the  balance  of  parts  to  the  whole.  In  our  own  country, 
Edward  Greene  Malbone,  not  only  excelled  his  contempo- 
raries at  eighteen,  but  in  his  short  life  painted  many  min- 
iatures that  are  superior  to  almost  all  others,  barring  a  few 
masterpieces  by  English,  German,  and  French  miniaturists. 

A  highly  gifted  modem  American  miniaturist  was  the 
late  Miss  Theodora  Thayer,  of  Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
(died  1903)  .  Her  portrait  of  "Miss  Gray"  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City,  is  distinctly  the 
work  of  a  true  artist.  The  absence  of  all  useless  detail 
would  have  earned  the  applause  of  Holbein,  who  might 
have  said  of  the  work:  "It  is  complete,  it  is  charming  with- 
out sentimentality,  it  is  true  expression." 

One  of  our  great  collectors  had  a  number  of  miniatures 
by  Malbone,  Cosway,  and  other  great  miniaturists,  all  of 
which  had  warped,  rendering  the  surface  uneven  in  parts. 
They  were  handed  to  a  skilful  repairer,  who  asked  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  in  which  to  perform  the  repairing. 
By  a  timely  and  skilful  application  of  moisture  at  the 
proper  places  he  was  able  to  restore  the  entire  collection — 
some  fifty  pieces  in  all — without  breaking  a  single  one.  It  is 
most  important  that  in  mounting  a  miniature  the  glass  that 
is  to  cover  it  should  be  placed  on  the  face  of  the  ivory. 
Pirst,  a  piece  of  thin  blotter  or  paper  must  be  placed  on  the 
back  of  the  miniature,  the  edges  being  concealed  by  swan- 
skin or  some  thin  "onion-skin."  This  being  done,  all 
moisture  is  removed,  and  the  miniature  is  placed  where  it 
^will  be  subjected  to  no  changes  of  temperature. 

"Buckles"  or  "spots,"  as  they  are  termed,  are  apt  to  de- 
velop on  imperfectly  or  imevenly  cut  pieces  of  ivory.  The 
ivory  miniaturists  find  that  by  placing  a  bit  of  damp  blotter 
imder  the  miniature,  and  laying  a  piece  of  blotter  on  the 
tipper  side,  and  upon  this  successive  plates  of  glass,  one  half 


»0       IVORY    AND    THH    ELEPHANT 

inch  or  so  apart,  until  a  pile  several  inches  in  height  has  been 
made,  and  then  upon  this  a  pile  of  books,  at  the  end  oi 
twenty-four  hours  a  spot  can  be  removed,  but  the  miniature 
must  remain  under  this  pressure  for  days,  imtil  the  moisture 
has  all  evaporated,  or  it  will  buckle. 

A  most  interesting  memorial  of  early  American  ivory 
carving  is  a  card  engraved  by  Paul  Revere  (17S5-1818),  the 
patriotic  silversmith  and  engraver,  for  a*  certain  Isaac 
Greenwood  of  Boston,  the  text  of  which  reads  as  follows*: 

f  

V  Isaac  Greenwood,  Ivory  Turner.    Next  to  Dr.  John  Clark's  at 

the  North  end,  Boston.  Turns  all  sorts  of  work  in  ivory, 
silver,  and  brass  with  fidelity  and  despatch  at  a  very  reasonable 
rate.    Makes  lunber. 

As  a  beautiful  and  artistic  decoration  for  book-covers, 
nothing  siupasses  carved  ivory,  with  its  soft  and  harmonious 
tints.  Among  such  decorations  an  exceptionally  fine  one 
adorns  the  upper  cover  of  the  famous  Golden  Book  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  provides  a  most  beautifid  addi- 
tion to  the  massive  gold  of  which  the  cover  is  formed. 
The  carved  ivory  relief  measuring  16  x  10  in.  is  affixed  to 
the  centre  of  the  cover,  the  edges  of  which  extend  about  four 
inches  beyond  the  relief.  This  represents  Emperor  Charle- 
magne, and  beneath  the  figure  is  the  inscription:  ^^Carclus 
Magnus.  Synodus  Franconofurtensis  a.  d.  DCCXCIV*^ 
On  a  frieze  above  the  emperor's  figure  is  portrayed  the 
Prussian  eagle,  over  and  beneath  which  runs  the  inscription: 
"Sub  umbra  alarum  tuarum  protege  nos"  ("Guard  us  in  the 
shadow  of  thy  wings")-  At  the  base  of  the  relief  is  carved 
the  eagle  of  Frankfort  with  the  German  words:  "Stark  im 
Recht"  ("Strong  in  the  right").  This  Golden  Book  is  de- 
signed to  record  the  names  of  the  most  distinguished  guests  of 
the  city  of  Frankfort,  and  besides  its  ivory  reUef ,  the  cover  is 

^Communicated  by  Gardner  Teall,  June  11, 1918. 


IVORY    CARVINGS  91 

richly  studded  with  sapphires,  rubies,  emeralds,  tourmalines, 
and  other  precious  stones.  The  German  dedication  is 
engraved  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  cover,  and  reads  as  follows : 
"Der  Stadt  Frankfurt  a/Main  gewidmet  zur  Erinnerungan 
ihr  MCX  Bestehen.'*  ("  Dedicated  to  the  city  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main  in  commemoration  of  the  eleven  hundred  and 
tenth  anniversary  of  its  foundation'*).  The  date  794  m 
the  inscription  beneath  Charlemagne's  figure  refers  to  this 
foimdation.  The  names  of  the  munificent  donors  of  this 
Golden  Book  are  perpetuated  by  an  inscription  on  the  side 
of  the  binding  to  the  following  eflfect: 

^' Simon  Moritz  v.  Bethmann  und  seine  Ehefrau  Helene 
Anno  Domini  MCMIV"  ("Simon  Moritz  von  Bethmann 
and  his  wife  Helene,  A.  D.  1904  ") .  Four  enanielled  coats-of- 
arms  ornament  the  strip  alongside  the  ivory  relief,  those  of 
the  bishopric  and  of  the  municipality.* 

The  leading  exponent  of  that  branch  of  ivory  carving 
in  which  wood  and  ivory  are  skilfully  combined  was  the 
Bavarian,  Simon  Troger,  bom  at  Haidhausen  near  Munich 
(died  about  1769).  Although  a  poor  shepherd  boy,  he  early 
showed  signs  of  his  ability  as  a  carver,  and  was  so  fortunate 
as  to  gain  the  patronage  of  Elector  Maximilian  III  of  Ba- 
varia. His  specialty  in  later  years  when  he  had  acquired 
a  mastery  of  his  art  was  the  production  of  small  figures  of 
beggars  and  gypsies,  presenting  types  similar  to  those  de- 
picted by  Van  Ostade  and  others  of  the  Dutch  School  of 
painting  and  etching.  While  Troger  executed,  not  unsuc- 
cessfully, a  number  of  carvings  of  a  more  ambitious  type,  he 
will  always  be  best  known  for  genre  statuettes  of  the  kind  we 
have  indicated,  where  the  draperies,  often  in  tatters,  were 
carved  out  of  wood,  usually  that  of  the  sugar-pine,  the  face 
and  the  exposed  part  of  the  bodies  being  of  ivory. 

As  an  indication  of  the  prices  paid  in  recent  years  for  some 


92       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

of  the  older  ivory  carvings,  it  may  be  noted  that,  in  1910,  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  of  London  purchased  a  Byzan- 
tine ivory  depicting  Christ  for  the  sum  of  £180,  and  the  same 
institution  acquired  two  years  later,  for  £60,  a  triptych-leaf 
carved  with  an  image  of  the  Virgin,  this  leaf  having  probably 
formed  part,  with  that  previously  mentioned,  of  a  Byzantine 
triptych.* 

An  ivory  relic  of  the  early  days  of  Mexico  City  was  re- 
cently brought  to  light  in  the  course  of  excavations  made 
during  the  building  of  a  sewer  along  a  new  street  in  that  city. 
This  necessitated  the  removal  of  an  old  church,  used  in  late 
years  as  the  chapel  of  a  nunnery  and  reUgious  school.  In 
the  foundations  of  the  old  church  the  devotees  of  long  ago 
had  buried  a  number  of  carvings  and  trinkets  as  thank- 
offerings,  objects  of  no  great  intrinsic  value  it  is  true,  but 
doubtless  highly  prized  as  relics  or  heirlooms  by  those  who 
dedicated  them  to  the  church.f 

The  unique  and  powerful  novel,  "Salammbo,"  that  strange 
and  fascinating  attempt  of  the  great  French  litterateur y  Gus- 
tave  Flaubert,  to  evoke  the  image  of  ancient  Carthage,  has 
furnished  in  the  figure  of  its  heroine  the  inspiration  for  two 
most  remarkable  and  characteristic  examples  of  modem 
French  art  in  the  domain  of  ivory  carving.  These  are  by 
the  sculptor  Theodore  Riviere,  one  being  an  entirely  nude 
figure  of  the  Carthaginian  heroine,  her  head  thrown  back 
and  her  body  rather  framed  than  draped  in  the  heavy  folds 
of  a  long  mantle.  There  is  a  feline  sensuality  in  the  face, 
rather  suggestive  of  the  tigress  than  the  woman.  This  is 
perhaps  less  apparent  in  the  other  ivory  reproduction  of 
Salammbo  by  the  same  artist,  which  offers  her  figure  and 
that  of  her  infatuated  admirer,  Matho;  here  again  the  face 

*Coiiimunicated  by  Dr.  CecU  Smith,  Cuimtor  of  the  Victoria  and  Albot  Muaeum. 

flliis  interesting  Mexican  relic  was  given  l^  Henry  Sayrea,  a  banker  of  Mezioo  City* 
to  Dr.  Lee  H.  Smith,  president  of  the  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural 


IVORV  RKLIKK 


IVORY    CARVINGS  93 

is  cruel  and  unrelenting,  but  with  something  less  of  the  ani- 
mal than  in  the  single  figure  we  have  just  described.  In 
both  the  ivory  used  for  the  exposed  flesh  gains  an  added 
beauty  from  the  overlaying  or  insertion  of  different  and 
strongly  contrasting  materials. 

French  ivory  carvings  were  well  represented  in  the 
Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  in  San  Francisco. 
Among  the  exhibits  may  be  noted  two  reliefs,  "Rfiverie" 
and  "La  Lecture,"  and  a  most  impressive  relief  of  Christ 
by  Abel  Lafleur.  Some  of  the  ivories  of  the  gifted  sculptor, 
Theodore  Riviere,  shown  at  this  Exposition  were  the  more 
interesting  from  the  fact  that  they  were  still  unfinished  at 
the  time  of  the  artist's  death  in  1912.  A  completed  work 
by  Riviere  was  an  ivory  peacock  resting  on  a  mahogany 
tree;  for  this  $1,200  was  asked.  Two  unfinished  works 
were  a  "Wood  Nymph,"  carved  out  of  a  single  block  of 
ivory,  and  a  nude  figure  in  this  material;  the  price  of  the 
former  was  $1,050.  Riviere  is  said  to  have  carved  every 
piece  through  with  his  own  hand.  There  were  also  two 
ivories  by  Mile.  O'Kin,  a  carved  ivory  box  and  an  ivory  bowl, 
and  several  small  ivories  were  contributed  by  Clement  M6re.* 

Although  ivory  carving  in  England  has  not  been  encour- 
aged to  the  same  degree  as  it  has  been  in  Belgium,  several 
works  of  exceedingly  high  merit  and  great  originality  of 
conception  and  design  have  been  executed  there,  the  artists 
favouring  the  use  of  many  other  materials  in  connection  with 
the  ivory,  in  order  to  give  greater  relief  to  its  peculiar  quali- 
ties. As  successful  examples  may  be  noted  the  St.  George 
of  the  sculptor,  George  Frampton,  the  hero-saint's  figure, 
armour,  and  accoutrements  exhibiting  the  artistic  possibilities 
offered  by  a  skilful  combination  of  bronze,  onyx,  and  mother- 
of-pearl  with  ivory.  More  in  the  style  of  Early  Renaissance 
art  is  the  Lamia  of  this  artist;  the  face  with  its  intent  down- 

^CommuDicated  by  Mrs.  Ethel  Quinton  Mason. 


94       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ward  gaze  and  impassibility  of  feature  reminds  the  beholder 
of  certain  types  of  Italian  women  of  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  whose  high  intellectual  endowment  lacked 
the  ennobling  and  purifying  influences  of  warm  emotion  or 
moral  sensibility.  In  this  bust  the  dress  and  drapery  are 
of  bronze,  and  an  opal  adornment  supplements  the  eflFect 
produced  by  the  sharp  contrast  of  the  mellow-hued  ivory  and 
the  sombre  bronze. 

A  group  that  has  received  much  praise  is  the  "  Mors  Janua 
Vit«  "  by  Harry  Bates.  Here  the  fair  and  delicate  figure  of 
a  young  girl  beautifully  carved  in  ivory  is  thrown  into  strong 
relief  by  contrast  with  the  form  of  Death,  entirely  of  bronze, 
suggesting  in  a  striking  way  the  dark  portal  through  which  all 
souls  must  pass  in  order  to  reach  the  new,  eternal  life  beyond. 

The  universal  interest  that  has  been  aroused  by  the  most 
tragic  figure  among  the  rulers  of  our  time,  the  imhappy  King 
Albert  of  Belgium,  whose  courageous  and  sturdy  defence  of 
the  little  strip  of  his  Kingdom  still  left  to  him  has  earned  the 
^  admiration  of  friends  and  foes  alike,  makes  the  ivory  repre- 

sentations of  this  sovereign  more  interesting  to  us  than 
works  of  merely  artistic  excellence. 

The  most  important  of  these  ivory  portraits  are  some  me- 
dals or  medallions  executed  within  a  year  or  two  by  Belgian 
ivory  carvers.  Both  the  King  and  the  Queen  of  the  Belgians 
have  been  depicted  in  this  by  the  sculptor  Godefroid  de 
Vreese,  these  medallions  being  created  to  commemorate  the 
foimdation  of  the  "Santoria  Populaires'*  of  La  Hulpe. 
The  originals  were  presented  to  the  King  and  replicas  are  in 
the  possession  of  Hon.  Mr.  Waroeque,  a  member  of  the  Bel- 
gian Parliament.  Another  fine  ivory  portrait-medallion  of 
King  Albert  has  been  carved  by  the  Belgian  artist,  Mr.  Josu6 
Dupon,  of  Antwerp.  Of  this  there  exists  but  a  single  ex- 
ample. A  memorial  of  King  Albert's  uncle  and  predecessor, 
Leopold  II,  is  of  more  ambitious  type,  being  a  large  ivory 


IVORY    CARVINGS  95 

bust  of  this  monarch,  made  out  of  a  number  of  separate 
pieces  of  Belgian  Congo  ivory  skilfully  put  together.  This  is 
a  work  of  the  sculptor,  Thomas  Vingotte,  and  is  preserved  in 
the  great  "Colonial  Museum*'  of  Tervueren.  A  copy  of 
this  bust  in  marble  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  in  London. 

In  the  days  when  whaling  vessels  were  absent  from  port 
from  one  to  three  years,  it  frequently  happened  that  the  men 
from  New  England  who  manned  them  had  a  great  propensity 
for  carving  or  etching.  Some  of  them  possessed  considerable 
artistic  instinct,  and  in  imoccupied  moments  they  would 
practise  their  art  upon  whale  and  walrus  teeth,  or  on  the 
bones  of  the  whale's  jaw.  Sometimes  their  subjects  would 
be  scenes  of  places  seen  on  the  voyage,  but  more  frequently 
they  carved  into  the  bone  the  faces  of  mothers,  sisters,  sweet- 
hearts, and  wives.  The  work  was  often  remarkably  well 
done,  and  was  known  in  sailor's  slang  as  "scrimshaw  wbrk." 
The  instruments  were  usually  a  sail-maker's  needle  inserted 
in  a  wooden  handle,  or  a  finely  sharpened  jackknife.  When 
the  carving  was  finished  they  rubbed  a  black  fluid  into  it, 
either  a  dark  fluid  coming  from  the  cuttlefish,  or  else  ink. 
Collections  of  these  carvings,  or  rather  etchings,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  museum  in  New  Bedford,  in  the  Historical 
Society's  museum  in  Newport,  and  in  the  collections  of 
Gouvemeur  Morris,  Mrs.  William  Rockefeller,  A.  N.  Bea- 
dleston,  and  many  others,  where  excellent  examples  are  pre- 
served. 

Although  the  art  has  never  been  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  as  it  has  been  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  we  have 
nevertheless  had  a  few  very  good  ivory  carvers  here,  among 
whom  Mr.  F.  R.  Kaldenberg  deserves  special  mention. 
The  fact  that  his  father  was  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  goods  made  of  ivory,  as  well  as  of  amber,  meerschaum, 
and  many  other  materials,  brought  him  in  contact  with 


99       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

workers  in  these  materials,  and  created  an  environment 
well  calculated  to  develop  a  taste  for  such  work  in  the  son. 
The  most  decisive  influence,  however,  was  exerted  by  a  very 
competent  ivory  carver,  George  SteflFens,  of  Nuremberg, 
who  was  expert  in  designing,  drawing,  and  engraving,  as 
well  as  in  sculpturing  ivory,  stone,  and  wood.  As  an  eight- 
year-old  boy,  Mr.  Kaldenberg  would  often  stand  behind 
this  worker's  chair  and  watch  him  giving  an  artistic  form 
to  one  of  the  diflFerent  materials  he  worked  on.  The  boy's 
first  essays  on  his  own  account  were  diffidently  submitted 
to  this  trained  artist,  who,  however,  was  so  favourably 
impressed  with  them  that  he  imdertook  to  give  the  youth- 
ful aspirant  regular  lessons.  At  this  time,  just  before  our 
Civil  War,  art  did  not  receive  the  encouragement  it  does 
to-day,  and  the  gifted  SteflFens  had  to  content  himself 
with  a  room  on  the  top  floor  of  a  Division  Street  tene- 
ment house.  Thither  the  would-be  carver  hied  himself 
every  Sunday  morning.  Although  this  impromptu  course 
of  study  lasted  but  a  few  years  under  this  master,  its  eflFects 
were  lasting,  and  when  as  a  yoimg  man  Mr.  Kaldenberg 
went  to  Europe,  he  was  able  to  make  a  very  successful  rep- 
lica in  ivory  of  the  famous  Venus  de  Milo,  as  a  proof  of 
what  a  young  American  of  that  time  could  do.  This  was 
16  in.  high,  and  therefore  on  a  large  scale  for  ivory  work. 
Later  the  artist  carved  an  ivory  bust  of  Rembrandt, 
now  in  the  collection  of  the  late  Mr.  George  W.  Vanderbilt, 
and  a  very  attractive  Mignon  bust,  16  in.  high  and  8 
in.  in  diameter,  made  from  a  solid  piece  of  ivory.  But 
the  increasing  responsibilities  of  a  business  career  were 
found  too  absorbing  by  Mr.  Kaldenberg  to  admit  of  fur- 
ther cultivating  his  art  at  the  same  time. 

The  great  Spitzer  Collection,  sold  in  Paris  in  1895,  was 
gathered  together  in  the  course  of  many  years  by  the  famous 
dealer  and  antiquarian,  Fr^^ric  Spitzer,  a  Viennese  by 


IVORY    CA,RVINGS  97 

birth.  It  was  magnificenUy  housed  in  Paris,  and  had  glad- 
dened the  eyes  of  thousands  of  invited  guests  long  before 
the  general  public  was  admitted  in  the  days  preceding  the 
sale.  Much  regret  was  felt  that  the  collection  could  not 
be  disposed  of  as  an  entirety,  since  the  objects  had  been  so 
carefully  grouped,  all  useless  or  unworthy  material  being 
weeded  out,  that  it  was  better  balanced  and  better  illus- 
trative of  the  history  and  development  of  art  than  almost 
any  other  private  collection  of  its  time. 

The  ivories  comprised  175  choice  examples,  covering  the 
various  periods  of  ivory  carving,  from  the  consular  dip- 
tych down  to  modem  work.  The  finest  specimens,  as  was 
but  natural,  were  those  due  to  the  skill  of  the  great  French 
carvers  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies. In  his  description  of  the  ivories  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  magnificent  catalogue  of  this  collection,  M.  Alfred 
Darcel  relates  that  Abb6  Didier  of  Monte  Cassini,  later 
Pope  Victor  HI,  brought  from  Constantinople  to  his  mon- 
astery skilled  workers  in  gold,  silver,  glass,  and  ivory, 
thus  founding  there  in  the  eleventh  century  a  school  of 
Byzantine  art  that  long  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon 
Italian  ivory  carvers.*  Many  of  the  fine  ivories  from  the 
Spitzer  Collection  have  found  their  way  into  the  great  art 
museums  of  the  world. 

The  splendid  collection  of  art  objects  belonging  to  the 
late  Charles  T.  Yerkes,  which  was  disposed  of  at  auction 
in  New  York  City,  April  11-13,  1910,  besides  its  wonderful 
wealth  of  rare  and  beautiful  tapestries  and  its  many  exam- 
ples of  rich  antique  furniture,  as  well  as  a  number  of  fine 
statues,  contained  some  most  excellent  specimens  of  ivory 
carving.  Of  these  perhaps  the  most  attractive  was  an  early 
example  of  the  revived  taste  for  combining  ivory  with  a 
precious  metal.    This  is  a  German  work  of  the  eighteenth 

*0p.  cit.»  p.  82. 


98       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

century,  a  group  portraying  St.  George  and  the  Dragon. 
The  horse,  the  dragon,  and  the  exposed  parts  of  the  rider's 
body  are  all  of  ivory,  while  the  saint's  armour  and  the  trap- 
pings of  his  charger  are  wrought  in  silver.  A  jewelled  base 
of  silver  repousse  supports  this  fine  and  spirited  group;  the 
earnest  intensity  of  the  conqueror's  expression,  the  impo- 
tent rage  of  the  dying  monster,  and  the  bold  attitude  of  the 
steed,  all  conspire  to  impress  the  beholder.*  Another  in- 
teresting ivory  of  this  collection,  both  on  account  of  the 
subject  and  of  the  workmanship,  is  a  bronze  and  ivory  figure 
representing  the  great  French  heroine,  Jeanne  d'Arc, 
loaded  with  chains  by  her  ruthless  captors.  The  ivory 
carving  is  by  E.  Barries  and  the  bronze  work  by  Susse 
FrSres  of  Paris.  Inscribed  are  the  inspired  words  of  the 
Maid:  "Vous  avez  pu  m'enchatner,  vous  n'enchalnerez 
pas  la  future  de  la  France" ;  an  expression  of  that  intense  spirit 
of  patriotism  which  now  animates  the  sons  and  daughters 
of  La  Belle  France.  This  statuette  is  28  in.  high.  A 
carved  ewer  and  plaque  ofiFer  good  examples  of  the  style 
of  bacchanalian  ivory  carvings  so  favoured  by  German 
artists  of  the  seventeenth  century;  whatever  may  be  the 
physical  beauty  of  the  semi-classic  figures,  all  inspiration 
is  lacking,  and  these  and  similar  works,  in  spite  of  great 
technical  excellences,  belong  to  the  decadence  of  art.t 
Of  an  earlier  period,  and  on  a  higher  plane,  is  an  octangu- 
lar memorial  plaque  with  silver-gilt  repouss6  setting;  along 
the  edge  are  eight  medallions  with  representations  of  battle 
scenes;  in  the  centre  a  larger  medallion  depicts  an  attack 
upon  a  fortified  city.  A  portrait  head  is  between  two  of 
the  bordering  medallions,  and  the  date  1506.^ 

^Catalogue  de  Luxe  of  the  Ancient  Rugs,  Sculptures,  Tapestries,  Costly  Furniture, 
and  other  Objects  belonging  to  the  Ute  Charies  T.  Yerkes,  New  York,  1910,  No.  5i8. 

tn>id..  No.  650. 

tIfaid..No.551. 


CHAPTER  m 

ORIENTAL  IVORY  CARVINGS 

In  the  time  of  Masiidt,  (b.  in  Bagdad — d.  956  A.  D.), 
the  author  of  the  encyclopedic  work  in  Arabic  entitled 
"Meadows  of  Gold/'  and  who  has  been  called  the  Herodotus 
of  the  Arabs,  the  principal  source  of  African  ivory  was  "the 
land  of  the  Zenjes/'  in  the  Upper  Nile.  This  African  ivory 
first  went  to  Oman  (probably  to  Muscat)  and  was  thence 
despatched  to  China  and  India.  That  so  much  African 
ivory  was  sent  to  those  lands  was  a  subject  of  regret  for 
Masfldt,  who  states  that  otherwise  the  Mohammedan 
countries  would  have  been  very  plentifully  supplied  with  it, 
A  special  use  of  ivory  in  China,  according  to  this  author,  was 
for  the  palanquins  of  the  great  military  and  civil  ofiScials 
of  the  empire,  as  they  regarded  it  as  a  token  of  proper  re- 
spect for  the  emperor  to  be  brought  into  his  presence  on  an 
ivory  palanquin.  For  this  reason  the  Chinese  especially 
valued  very  straight  tusks,  in  preference  to  those  which 
were  curved.  In  their  religious  ceremonies  the  Chinese 
l>umed  ivory  as  incense  before  the  sacred  images  and  on  the 
^tars.'^ 

In  India  the  ivory  was  wrought  into  hilts  for  daggers  and 
sabres,  but  the  most  frequent  use  was  in  the  carving  of 
^essmen  and  a  kind  of  checkers.  The  Arab  writer,  after 
xioting  that  several  of  the  chessmen  were  given  the  forms  of 

^MaQoudi  *'Ln  Prairies  d*Or,*'  text  and  FV.  traiul.  by  Barbter  de  Meynard  and  Favet 
CowteOle,  VoL  m,  Paris,  1804,  pp.  7. 8. 

99 


<   •  < 


100      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

men  or  of  animals,  asserts  that  as  they  were  often  a  span  or 
more  in  height,  the  chess-players  had  a  special  attendant 
whose  duty  was  to  move  the  pieces  from  one  square  to 

another.* 

The  great  Sassanian  monarch  Khusrau  H,  Parwiz,  whose 
reign  began  in  603  A.  D.,  was  the  most  luxurious  of  the 
Persian  sovereigns  of  this  dynasty.  The  famous  Persian 
poet  Firdausi,  in  his  Shah  Nameh,  writes  in  enthusiastic 
phrase  of  this  sovereign's  crown,  of  his  jewelled  bracelets,  and 
of  his  ivory  throne.  His  panoply  of  war  was  no  less  superb, 
for  he  wore,  according  to  Firdausi,  a  coat-of-mail  the  links 
of  which  were  of  gold,  while  each  and  every  button  was 
adorned  with  a  precious  stone.f 

Sets  of  chessmen  were  made  of  ivory  at  an  early  period, 
usually  for  royal  or  princely  devotees  of  this  noble  game. 
Among  the  oldest  examples  in  Europe  are  six  pieces  now  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris,  all  that  remain  of  a 
complete  set.  They  are  said  to  have  belonged  to  Charle- 
magne and  are  believed,  from  their  type  and  style,  to  have 
been  made  in  Constantinople  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth 
century.  The  figures  are  elaborately  carved  and  are  garbed 
in  the  fashion  favoured  by  the  Greeks  of  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. India,  however,  has  furnished  an  even  earlier  set  of 
chessmen,  found  in  the  ruins  of  Brahmimabad  in  Sindh. 
As  this  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the  eighth 
century,  these  pieces,  which  are  carved  into  a  severely  sim- 
ple shape  without  any  ornamentation,  must  be  assigned  to 
that  century  at  least.  These  are  now  in  the  East  India 
Museum.  J 

The  set  of  ivory  chessmen  said  to  have  been  given  by  the 

*n)id.,  p.  9. 

fMine.  Jane  Dieulafoy,  "La  Perse,  La  Chalds^e  et  La  Susiaiie,**  Paris,  1887,  p.  A55. 

IWiUiam  Maskell,  "Ivories  Andent  and  Modem,'*  South  Kenaingtoii  Art  ^tUMflMMrla 
No.  2,  pp.  77, 78. 


BICIVOHrcAavEB.     1 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     101 

Chalif  Haroiin  al-Rashid  to  Emperor  Charlemagne,  including 
an  ivory  elephant,  is  listed  in  the  inventory  made  in  1534 
of  the  treasures  accumulated  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  as 
follows:^ 

Ung  jeu  complet  de  schetz  d'yvire,  et  trente  tables 
aussi  d'yvire  qui  estoient  k  Charles  maigne  non  prisez. 

Ung  elephant  aussi  d'yvire  taill^  k  plusieurs  person- 
nages  dessus  et  alentour  luy  aussi  non  pris£. 

Ivory  playing  cards  have  been  made  in  the  Orient,  both  in 
earlier  centuries  and  at  the  present  time.  The  collection  of 
Mr.  Francis  Douce,  in  England,  is  said  to  contain  some  such 
cards  of  Hindu  workmanship  with  gilded  figures,  and  in 
Perda  also  ivory  has  been  used  for  this  purpose  occasionally. 
In  some  sets  of  these  Persian  cards  of  the  eighteenth  and 
niiieteenth  centuries  the  cards  are  not  engraved  with  figures 
but  with  groups  of  objects  constituting  numerals.  A  more 
modem  set,  from  the  nineteenth  century,  bears  elaborately 
designed  figures  of  potentates  and  knights,  similar  to  our 
court  cards;  one  of  these  cards,  however,  shows  a  tiger 
stretched  out  at  full  length  and  a  rising  sun.  A  curious  en- 
try in  an  old  accoimt  dating  from  1396  provides  that  12 
sous  parisis  shall  be  paid  to  Guiot  Groslet  as  recompense  for 
*'a  case  to  hold  the  queen's  [Isabella  of  Bavaria]  cards,  the 
little  ivory  sticks  and  the  rolls  of  parchment."  Here  we 
evidently  have  an  instance  of  the  use  of  ivory  counters  to 
mark  the  points  in  a  card  game.f 

The  pieces  used  in  playing  the  game  of  pachesi  (from 
jHickiSf  twenty-five),  a  favourite  diversion  in  India,  and 
popularized  not  long  since  in  Europe  and  America,  are 

*Bibl.  Nat.  BIS.  fr.  18766;  fol.  15  of  transcription  in  writer's  library  from  the  collection 
of  £.  Motinier. 

fHenry  Ben6  d'Allemagne,  "Lea  Cartes  k  Jouer  du  Quatorxi^me  au  Vingti^me  Sidcle/' 
Pkris,  1906,  pp.  4,  8,  16,  809. 


102     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

frequently  formed  of  ivory,  the  sixteen  pieces  employed  in 
the  Indian  game  being  divided  into  groups  of  fours,  distin- 
guished by  special  colours,  one  set  for  each  of  the  four  players. 
The  moves  on  the  board  are  determined  by  casting  six  or 
seven  cowrie  shells,  the  value  of  the  throw  depending  upon  the 
number  of  those  that  fall  with  their  appertures  uppermost.* 

An  ancient  use  for  ivory  in  India  was  for  the  legs  of  bed- 
steads. The  Brihat  Sanhita,  after  proclaiming  this  material 
to  be  the  best  suited  for  the  purpose,  and  insisting  that  the 
legs  must  be  of  solid  ivory,  proceeds  to  give  the  following 
instructions  as  to  the  portion  of  the  tusk  which  should  be 
thus  utilized:  *'In  selecting  ivory,  about  two  thicknesses 
at  the  root  of  the  tusk,  which  is  hollow,  should  be  rejected,  if 
the  animal  from  which  it  is  taken  come  from  the  plains; 
but  if  it  be  a  mountain  grazer,  somewhat  less,  "f  Of  modem 
work  on  a  large  scale,  Mr.  Kipling  notes  an  elaborately 
carved  ivory  couch,  on  the  model  of  an  English  sofa,  owned 
by  the  Maharajah  of  Benares;  this  was  executed  by  carvers 
in  his  employ,  t 

Some  ivory  chains,  armlets,  crosses,  etc.,  are  made  in 
India,  and  we  may  also  note  a  peculiar  ear-ornament  called 
Kama-ckanga^  a  favourite  adornment  of  the  Tipperas,  a 
tribe  dwelling  in  the  hill  country  toward  the  northeastern 
frontier  of  Bengal.  A  specimen  of  this  style  of  ornament 
was  sent  to  the  Calcutta  International  Exhibition,  while  at 
the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition  was  displayed  a  pair  of 
ivory  armlets  from  Seran,  in  Bengal.  Besides  this  locality 
the  following  are  mentioned  as  furnishing  ivory  ornaments 
for  personal  adornment:  Murshidabad,  Cuttack,  Amritsar, 
Sialkot,  Multan,  Pali,  Indor,  etc.** 

*Stewart  Culin,  ''Chess  and  Card  Flaying/'  Washington,  1896.     Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus^ 
1896,  pp.  665-942;  see  pp.  852, 858. 
tr.  N.  Mukharji,  "Art  Manufactures  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1888,  p.  874. 
{The  Journal  cf  Indian  Art,  Vol.  I,  No.  7,  p.  51,  July,  1885. 
**J.  L.  Kipling,  Journal  rf  Indian  AH,  Vol.  1, 1885. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     108 

The  principal  and  very  extensive  use  of  ivory  for  such 
ornaments  is  shown  in  the  production  of  the  bangles  so 
universally  popular  in  India.  In  relation  to  this  branch  of 
Indian  ivory  carving,  we  cannot  do  better  than  cite  the 
following  passage  from  the  article  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Kipling,  in 
the  Journal  of  Indian  Art^  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made: 

**The  ivory  bangle,  it  has  been  remarked,  is  usually  a 
mere  ring.  The  writer  has  never  seen  a  specimen  of  open- 
work or  other  carving,  a  mode  of  treatment  that  seems  suita- 
ble to  the  material,  and  well  within  the  powers  of  the  Indian 
artisan.  The  traditional  usages  of  caste  have  probably  a 
controlling  effect.  In  the  Panjab,  on  the  occasion  of  a 
marriage,  the  Mama,  or  maternal  uncle,  of  the  bride  is  ex- 
pected to  present  her  with  a  set  of  ivory  bangles  coloured 
red,  green,  or  black,  and  ornamented  with  tinsel  spangles, 
or  lines  with  minute  scratched  circles,  as  may  be  the  peculiar 
fashion  of  the  caste.  The  higher  castes  wear  these  only 
during  the  first  year  of  wedlock,  after  which  they  are  replaced 
by  bangles  of  silver  and  gold  or  other  materials.  The 
women  of  some  Hindu  castes,  however,  always  wear  ivory. 
In  nearly  all  cases  the  nature  of  the  material  is  so  disguised 
by  colour  it  would  appear  that  some  cheaper  substance 
might  be  made  to  serve  equally  well.  In  parts  of  the  North- 
western Provinces  ivory  is  not  used  for  bangles,  but  they 
are  common  throughout  the  Panjab,  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  Bombay  Presidency,  in  Sind,  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
in  the  Western  States  of  Rajputana,  and  in  parts  of  Bengal. 
The  ancient  town  of  Pali,  a  station  on  the  Jodhpur  branch 
of  the  Rajputana  Railway,  on  the  old  trade  route  between 
Bombay  and  Delhi  through  Ahmadabad  and  Ajmir,  main- 
tains a  specialty  in  bangle  turnery  which,  according  to  native 
report,  it  has  enjoyed  for  centuries,  and  absorbs  the  greater 
part  of  the  ivory  that  is  sent  northward  from  Bombay.    This 


104     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

is  another  instance  of  the  curious  tendency  of  Indian  en 
to  be  localized  in  out-of-the-way  places  in  a  way  that  is  not*'  ^^ 
easily  accounted  for.  There  are  at  Pali  whole  streets  of^fc« 
ivory  bangle-turners.  Their  wares  are  produced  in  sets  of  ^t:^i 
graduated  sizes,  covering  the  arm  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
wrist,  with  an  interval  for  the  elbow,  and  they  are  worn 
almost  universally  in  the  Western  Rajput  States." 

Ivory  is  a  favourite  material  for  inlays  on  wood  in  India, 
and  much  of  the  work  done  in  this  style  merits  praise.  The 
chief  centre  of  this  branch  of  art  at  the  present  time  is  the 
Panjab,  notably  at  Hushiarpur,  where  a  great  variety  of 
household  articles  are  so  decorated,  such  as  the  small  square 
wooden  seats,  called  chavtisy  almirahs  (cupboards  of  a  special 
type),  wall-brackets,  tables,  chairs,  boxes,  desks,  rulers, 
picture-frames,  cabinets,  etc.  The  production  of  each  of 
these  objects  usually  requires  the  combined  efforts  of  several 
workmen.  Sometimes  the  ivory  inlay  is  thrown  into  sharper 
relief  by  a  bordering  of  blackened  wood.  Most  of  those 
engaged  in  this  work  live  in  the  village  of  Ghulam  Husain 
Bassi,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Hushiarpur.  This 
industry,  which  is  recently  revived,  is  now  in  a  flourishing 
condition.* 

These  objects  are  comparatively  inexpensive  as  shown  by 
the  following  prices:  A  table  45  rupees  ($15),  a  wall-bracket 
15  rupees  ($3),  a  picture-frame  6  rupees  ($2),  a  wall-shelf 
35  rupees  ($12),  a  box  25  rupees  ($8  or  $9).} 

In  Rajputana,  the  town  of  Etawa,  in  the  district  of  Kota, 
is  to  some  extent  a  rival  of  Hushiarpur.  Here  sktsham-wooA 
is  that  principally  used  to  receive  the  inlays,  a  fine  specimen 
being  a  screen  shown  at  the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition. 
An  interesting  fact  is  that  the  industry  in  Kota  is  exclusively 
carried  on  by  the  members  of  two  or  three  families  of  the 

n*.  N.  MukharjL  "Art  Manufactuies  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1888,  p.  245. 
tibid.,  p.  247. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     105 

Khati  caste;  they  are  exceedingly  painstaking  in  their  work, 
which  is  slowly  and  carefully  executed. 
Of  this  special  industry  Mr.  Kipling  treats  as  follows : 
"  Of  equal  and,  indeed,  superior  importance  as  an  industry 
which  may  be  expected  to  support  skilled  workmen  is  the 
wood-inlay  of  ivory  and  brass  of  the  District.  The  exten- 
sion of  this  trade  to  articles  of  European  use  is  mainly  due 
to  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Coldstream,  C.  S.  For  many  years 
pen-cases,  walking-staves,  mirror-cases,  and  the  low  chauki^ 
or  octagonal  table  common  in  the  Panjab  and  probably  of 
Arab  introduction,  have  been  made  here  in  shisham-wood 
inlaid  with  ivory  and  brass.  The  patterns  were  very  minute 
and  covered  nearly  the  whole  of  the  surface  with  an  equal 
spottiness.  Mr.  Coldstream  procured  its  application  to 
tables,  cabinets,  and  other  objects,  and  during  recent  years 
a  trade  has  sprung  up  which  seems  likely  to  grow  to  still 
larger  proportions.  The  faults  of  the  inlay  are  a  certain 
triviality  and  insignificance  of  design  and  its  too  equal  and 
minute  distribution.  At  various  times  some  of  the  inlayers 
have  visited  Lahore,  and  have  been  shown  at  the  School  of 
Art  examples  of  good  Arabic  and  Indian  design,  and  they 
have  frequently  been  furnished  with  sketches.  When  the 
blackness  and  ugliness  of  an  Indian  village  are  considered 
it  is  really  matter  for  surprise  that  decorative  invention 
survives  in  any  form.  There  are  numbers  of  artisans,  many 
of  whom  are  in  the  hands  of  a  Hindu  dealer  who  is  naturally 
but  little  concerned  in  the  artistic  quality  of  the  wares 
he  sells.  Blackwood,  the  old  heart-wood  of  the  Kunum 
{Diospyros  tomentosa),  incorrectly  called  abnus  or  ebony  by 
the  workmen,  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  ground,  and  in 
combination  with  ivory,  as  an  inlaying  material,  especially 
in  the  familiar  herring-bone  pattern.  Brass  is  also  em- 
ployed, but  with  less  eflfect,  for  when  foliated  work  in  small 
patterns  is  worked  in  brass,  it  is  necessary  that  the  metal 


106     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

should  have  a  better  surface  than  it  generally  receives  in  the 
Hushiarpur  work."* 

Hushiarpur  inlayers  are  said  to  have  been  employed  by 
Runjit  Singh,  the  Lion  of  the  Panjab,  in  the  early  part  c^ 
the  last  century  for  the  decoration  of  some  of  the  woodwork 
in  the  Golden  Temple  at  Amritsar,  but  on  the  whole  this 
industry  did  not  flourish  under  native  rule.  Of  late,  however, 
an  active  demand  has  arisen  among  Anglo-Indians  and 
travellers,  resulting  in  a  largely  increased  production  and  in 
the  exportation  of  this  work  in  considerable  quantity  to 
England  and  other  parts  of  Eiu*ope  as  well  as  to  America, 
where  it  competes  successfully  with  the  best  Chinese  work 
of  the  sort.  These  inlayers  are  able  to  utilize  an  inferior 
quaUty  of  ivory,  and  also  the  fragments  left  over  in  the  manu- 
facture of  bangles  and  other  ornamental  or  useful  objects, 
so  that  their  ivory  costs  them  as  little  as  from  4  cents  to 
80  cents  a  pound.  If  the  supply  of  ivory  runs  short  camel- 
bone  is  occasionally  substituted,  and  this  is  not  easily  de- 
tected when  the  work  is  fresh,  but  the  bone  is  liable  to  decay 
and  does  not  retain  its  polish  as  does  ivory.  An  even  less- 
satisfactory  substitute  is  a  wood  called  chiknif  which  when 
freshly  poUshed  has  somewhat  the  tint  of  ivory. f 

Cabinetwork  and  furniture  of  ebony  inlaid  with  ivcny 
are  made  in  Mysore,  the  taste  here  being  conservative  and 
favouring  the  retention  of  the  old  models,  Cameatic  and 
Mogul.  The  prices  obtained  for  this  Mysore  work  are  fairly 
good,  a  teapoy  (table  for  the  tea  service)  selling  for  50  rupees 
($16),  a  chair  for  100  rupees  ($33).  One  piece  of  inlay  work 
produced  here  secured  a  gold  medal  at  the  Calcutta  Inter- 
national Exhibition;  this  was  a  door  6  feet  by  12  feet  made 
expressly  for  the  Bangalore  Palace  at  a  cost  of  1,500  rupees 

*J.  L.  Kipling,  Journal  of  Indian  Ari^  Vol.  I. 

fT.  P.  ElliB,  "Ivory  Carving  in  the  Punjab,"  in  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Induairp, 
Vol.  IX,  No.  75,  p.  47;  July,  1901. 


108     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

($500).  It  may  be  here  noted  that  in  the  tomb  of  Tippu 
Sultan  are  very  beautiful  doors  inlaid  with  ivory.* 

Perhaps  the  best-known  Indian  ivory  inlaying  is  the  so- 
called  Vizagapatam  work,  from  the  Madras  Presidency. 
Sandalwood  is  chiefly  used  here,  and  a  great  number  of  small 
but  attractive  articles  are  produced,  such  as  work-boxes, 
inkstands,  card-cases,  chess-boards,  etc.  As  a  rule  the  ivory 
inlay  is  decorated  with  figures  etched  in  black  and  showing 
mythological  subjects  or  floral  patterns,  usually,  however, 
from  European  and  not  from  Hindu  originals.  As  these 
objects  are  executed  with  a  very  considerable  degree  of 
technical  skill  they  command  these  relatively  good  prices: 
Sandalwood  and  ivory  inkstand  50  rupees  ($16),  watchstand 
25  rupees  ($8  to  $9),  chess-board  55  rupees  ($18),  blotting- 
book  40  rupees  ($13),  box  135  rupees  ($45),  picture-frame 
10  rupees  ($3.25).t 

The  decoration  on  the  ivory  veneer  used  by  the  ivory 
workers  of  Vizagapatam  is  obtained  by  incising  the  pattern 
on  the  surface  of  the  ivory  and  then  filling  in  the  incised 
lines  with  black  lac.  While  as  an  ornamental  addition  to 
the  boxes  in  question  this  inlay  is  freely  used,  quite  frequently 
caskets,  tables,  cabinets,  etc.,  are  entirely  composed  of  it.^ 

Inlaid  boxes  of  various  kinds,  the  ivory  being  inserted  in 
small  pieces,  are  made  in  large  quantities  in  Bombay  and  in 
Surat,  Baroda,  Ahmadabad,  and  Kach,  where  many  other 
small  inlaid  articles  are  also  produced.  Of  this  class  of  work 
that  able  critic  of  Oriental  art.  Sir  George  Birdwood,  says: 

*'A  good  deal  of  ornamental  furniture  is  also  made  in 
'Bombay  inlaid  work,'  so  familiar  now  in  the  ubiquitous 
glove-boxes,  blotting-cases,  book-stands,  workboxes,  desks, 

*T.  N.  Mukharji.  "Art  Manufactures  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1888,  p.  848. 

fr.  N.  Mukharji.  "Art  Manufactures  of  India,'*  Calcutta,  1888,  p.  247. 

{Consul  Henry  D.  Baker  of  Bombay,  India,  "Report  on  Ivory  and  Elephants  in  India,*' 
June  8,  1914. 


CARVED   IVORV   CASKET 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     109 

and  card-cases  which  go  by  the  name  of  'Bombay  Boxes.' 
They  are  made  in  the  variety  of  inlaid  woodwork,  or  mar- 
quetry or  tarsia,  caUed  pique^  and  are  not  only  pretty  and 
pleasing,  but  interesting  on  account  of  its  having  been  found 
poflflible  to  trace  the  introduction  of  the  work  into  India  from 
Fefsia  step  by  step,  from  Shiraz  into  Sind,  and  to  Bombay 
ind  Surat.  In  Bombay  the  inlay  is  made  up  of  tin  wire, 
MUEldalwood,  ebony,  sappan  (brazil)  wood,  ivory  white,  and 
ftained  green,  and  stag  horn.  Strips  of  these  materials  are 
bound  together  in  rods,  usually  three-sided,  sometimes 
round,  and  frequently  obliquely  four-sided,  or  rhombic. 
Th^  again  are  so  arranged  in  compound  rods  as,  when  cut 
aeroas,  to  present  a  definite  pattern,  and  in  the  mass  have 
the  appearance  of  rods  of  varying  diameter  and  shape,  or  of 
very  thin  boards,  the  latter  being  intended  for  borderings. 
The  patterns  commonly  found  in  Bombay,  finally  prepared 
for  use,  are  chakar-gvly  or  'round  bloom,'  katki-gvly  'hexag- 
onal bloom,'  tinkonia-gvly  'three-cornered  bloom,'  tikiy  a 
amall  round  pattern,  and  gandiricy  'plump,'  compounded  of 
all  the  materials  used;  also  ekddndy  'one  grain,'  having  the 
l^ipearance  of  a  row  of  silver  beads  set  in  ebony;  and  pori 
Ukur^  jafran  marapechy  jeriy  haelmutanay  sankru  hansioy  and 
pnhansiOy  these  eight  last  being  bordering  patterns.  The 
woA  was  introduced  into  Sind  from  Shiraz  about  a  hundred 
years  ago." 

The  best  modem  ivory  carving  is  said  to  come  from  the 
establishment  in  Delhi  conducted  by  Lala  Faqtr  Chand,  the 
art  having  been  carried  on  and  transmitted  by  four  genera- 
tions of  his  ancestors.  He  employs  about  twenty  workers, 
with  whom  the  industry  is  also  hereditary;  they  are  princi- 
pally, though  not  exclusively,  of  the  Brahmin  caste.  The 
general  conditions  are  very  simple,  the  factory  being  located 
above  the  shop  in  a  small  room  which  the  ivory  carvers  have 
to  share  with  wood  carvers  and  miniature  painters.     Space 


no     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

is  so  restricted  that  some  of  the  workers  are  glad  to  ensconce 
themselves  on  the  stairs  or  on  balconies.  Their  tools  are  of  a 
very  primitive  character  and  the  conditions  under  which 
they  have  to  work  anything  but  favourable,  but  with  the 
patience  under  difficulties  so  natural  to  the  Hindu  artisan, 
they  are  able  to  execute  their  tasks  with  considerable  success. 
An  exceptionally  fine  piece  of  work  that  issued  from  this 
Delhi  factory  as  many  as  sixty  years  ago,  an  exquisitely 
carved  Hindu  Pantheon,  has  only  quite  recently  found  a 
purchaser.  The  wages  earned  by  these  ivory  carvers  seem 
ridiculously  small,  but  possibly  compare  not  unfavourably 
with  the  very  low  average  wage  earned  by  other  Hindu 
workers.  Experienced  carvers  receive  from  $1.60  to  $16 
a  month,  according  to  their  ability  and  the  class  of  work 
they  perform.  The  apprentices  whose  course  lasts  from  five 
to  seven  years  receive  nothing  during  this  time,  and  when 
their  apprenticeship  has  closed  but  16  cents  a  month  at 
first. 

The  work  done  by  the  Hindu  ivory  carvers  of  the  present 
day  appears  to  be  of  a  routine  quality  in  the  main,  and  is 
rarely  characterized  by  much  originality.  Still  the  art  is 
practised  in  many  different  localities  in  India  and  a  wide 
range  of  objects  are  produced.  In  the  Calcutta  Interna- 
tional Exhibition  were  displayed  specimens  from  Murshida- 
bad,  Gya,  Dumraon,  Darbh&ng&,  the  Tributary  States  of 
Orissa,  Rangpur,  Bardw&n,  Tipperah,  Chittagong,  Dacca, 
and  Patna.  Of  these  the  preference  can  be  given  to  the 
productions  of  Murshidabad,  because  of  their  high  finish  and 
also  because  they  show  the  ingenuity  in  working  out  minute 
details  so  characteristic  of  Indian  ivory  carving  at  its  best. 
These  merits  are  all  the  more  praiseworthy  in  view  of  the 
primitive  tools  used  by  the  carvers.  Unfortunately,  from 
one  cause  or  another,  the  number  of  those  engaged  in  this 
work  is  continually  diminishing.    Travancore  may  also  be 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     111 

noted  as  a  locality  in  which  some  of  the  best  Indian  carving 
is  done. 

A  particular  fancy  for  such  objects  has  induced  some  of 
the  chiefs  of  Orissa  and  certain  of  the  wealthy  landlords  of 
Behar  to  give  constant  employment  to  one  or  more  ivory 
carvers  so  that  they  may  exercise  their  art  without  being 
dependent  upon  the  chance  of  selling  their  product.  Some 
of  the  objects  so  produced  are  quite  valuable,  as,  for  example, 
a  mat  made  of  strips  of  ivory  that  was  sent  to  the  Calcutta 
Exhibition  by  the  Maharajah  of  Darbhanga;  this  was  valued 
at  1,325  rupees  ($440).  At  one  time  the  production  of  such 
mats  was  a  specialty  of  Sylhet,  in  Assam,  but  few  are  now 
made  there;  indeed,  the  art  of  ivory  working  is  practically 
extinct  in  Assam  to-day.  In  1879  the  usual  prices  for  these 
mats  was  from  £iO  to  £60  apiece  ($100  to  $300)  ."^ 

Travancore  has  produced  some  good  examples  of  Indian 
work,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  ivory  throne  with  a  footstool 
sent  as  a  gift  to  Queen  Victoria  and  shown  in  the  London 
Exhibition  of  1851.  Sir  Purdon  Clarke  also  noted  a  very 
beautiful  ivory  casket  from  the  same  region  in  the  Exhibition. 
At  present  a  great  many  attractive  small  objects  are  made 
here,  among  these  paper  weights  variously  carved,  with 
the  design  of  a  boa  constrictor  entwined  about  the  body 
of  an  elk,  a  bird  and  a  snake,  an  areca  tree,  a  bird's  nest, 
etc. 

Many  fair  specimens  of  Indian  ivory  carving  are  figured 
in  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Industry. If  One  represents 
the  victory  of  Durgah  over  Mahishasura,  king  of  the  demon 
race  caUed  the  Asurs.  While  the  artistic  qualities  of  this 
composition  can  hardly  be  considered  very  remarkable,  it 

*See  Jamet  Donald,  "Ivory  Carving  in  Assam,"  the  Journal  cf  Indian  Art  and  InduHrjf, 
Vol.  IX,  No.  75,  p.  57,  July,  1901. 

tAndiewB,  "Tlie  Elephant  in  Art  and  Industry,"  in  the  Journal  cf  Indian  Art  and  In- 
diiifry.  Vol.  X,  pp.  55-64. 


112   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

shows  the  work  of  a  practiced  hand.*  An  ivory  casket  made 
in  Travancore  in  the  seventeenth  century  is  elaborately 
carved  and  has  higher  artistic  worth. f 

Indian  ivory  carving  oflfers  no  more  attractive  work 
than  a  statuette  representing  Ganesa,  the  elephant  god  of 
the  Hindu  Pantheon.  The  details  are  all  finely  wrought 
and  testify  to  a  complete  mastery  of  the  technique  of  ivory 
carving  on  the  part  of  the  artist.  Ganesa  is  seated,  in  an 
almost  erect  posture,  upon  a  small  rock  base  having  numer- 
ous niches  and  grottos  in  which  are  carved  a  number  of 
figures  including  two  archers  with  bows  and  arrows,  a 
huntsman,  two  elephants,  a  lion,  an  ox,  an  ape,  a  monkey, 
a  boar,  and  other  animal  designs  more  or  less  obscure.  In 
the  foreground  of  the  base  appears  the  emblematic  rat,  an 
almost  invariable  accompaniment  of  Ganesa  figures.  The 
god  holds  in  his  tnmk  the  leg  of  a  human  figure  which  hangs 
suspended  head  downward.  This  admirable  carving  forms 
part  of  the  collection  of  Charles  L.  Freer,  Esq.,  of  Detroit, 
Mich.,  who  has  kindly  consented  to  have  it  figured  in  the 
present  work. 

The  Northwest  Provinces  of  India  have  but  little  to  show 
in  the  way  of  ivory  carving.  Scattered  throughout  this 
region  there  are  quite  a  number  of  workers  willing  enough, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  capable  enough  to  do  good  work 
in  this  branch,  but  there  is  little  or  no  demand  to  stimulate 
their  efforts.  At  Lucknow  there  is  a  little  more  activity,  but 
not  suflScient  to  adequately  promote  the  industry;  here  are 
produced  combs,  small  toys,  utensils  for  the  application  of 
antimony  to  the  eyes  as  a  cosmetic,  chessmen,  card-cases, 
small  models  of  the  Taj,  paper-knives,  paper-weights,  han- 
dles for  sticks,  etc.,  small  boxes,  and  scissors.  The  art  has 
been  handed  down  from  father  to  son,  and  is  at  least  free 

•Rid.,  PI.  91. 
tibid.,  PI.  87. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     llS 

from  European  influences.  In  Nagina  combs  are  a  specialty 
and  some  good  inlaying  work  is  done;  Agra  produces  models 
of  the  Taj.  A  fine  set  of  chessmen  in  the  Lucknow  Museum 
is  beUeved  to  have  been  produced  in  that  locality,  and  a 
modem  carver  offered  to  execute  an  ivory  set  with  the 
kings  on  their  thrones,  and  with  camel  and  elephant  figures 


Kdbdish  Chesbuen.     Univenity  of  PeunsylvtuuB.     Height,  1  to  ll  in. 
—From  Stewart  Culm  "Chess  and  Playing  Cuds"  (Report  ol  Natioiu] 
pp.  666-042). 

for  100  rupees  ($33).  As  an  illustration  of  the  inactivity 
of  the  industry  in  these  parts  of  India,  it  is  stated  that 
when  the  Rajah  of  Kashipur  and  the  Deputy  Commissioner 
of  Almora  wanted  to  sell  their  stock  of  ivory,  they  could  not 
market  it  in  the  Northwest  Provinces,  but  were  forced  to 
send  it  to  the  Panjab.    Such  ivory  as  is  sold  offers  a  wide 


114      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

range  of  prices  according  to  the  size  of  the  pieces  and  the 
elasticity  and  tint  of  the  material,  from  2  rupees  to  20  rupees 
being  paid  for  a  seeVy  that  is  from  about  16  cents  to  $1.60  a 
pound.* 

The  art  of  miniature  painting  on  ivory  is  cultivated  to  a 
certain  extent  in  India,  principally  by  Delhi  artists  who  are 
Mohammedans  and  claim  Persian  descent.  They  usually 
take  up  their  residence  in  Bombay  or  Calcutta  and  get  from 
10  rupees  to  100  rupees  for  a  miniature  painting.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  art  in  Delhi  is  traced  to  the  fondness  of  the 
Mohammedan  rulers  for  illuminated  Persian  manuscripts, 
these  serving  as  patterns  or  inspiration  for  the  ivory  painters. 
Thus  we  have  portraits  of  emperors  and  empresses,  as  wdl 
as  of  famous  court  beauties,  and  views  of  the  Taj  Mahal 
at  Agra  and  of  the  Juma  Mosque  at  Delhi.  More  realistic 
inspiration  is  drawn  from  modem  photographs  which  are 
copied  in  colours.  Much  of  the  work  is  of  a  purely  decora- 
tive character,  the  miniatures  being  set  in  ebony  caskets,  for 
example ;  some  are  given  a  jewelled  mounting  to  be  worn  as 
ornaments.  Water  colours  are  exclusively  employed.  Mr. 
Kipling  considers  that  the  use  of  photographic  models  has 
served  to  raise  the  standard  of  these  Indian  miniaturists,  in 
that  it  has  freed  them  from  the  stiff,  conventional  lines  per- 
petuated by  tradition,  and  has  measurably  brought  them 
back  to  nature;  this  is  especially  notable  in  the  treatment  of 
landscape  themes.  The  Delhi  artists  are  reproached  with 
an  undue  attention  to  mere  delicacy  of  execution,  their 
favourite  phrase,  ek  bed  qalniy  "a  brush  of  a  single  hair," 
indicating  this.f 

A  noted  Indian  master  in  the  art  of  miniature  painting  on 
ivory  is  Ismail  Khan,  who  executed  work  for  the  late  Queen 

*L.  M.  Stubbs,  in  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Industry,  Vol.  IX,  No.  75,  pp.  41-44: 
July,  1901. 

tr.  N.  Mukharji,  "Art  Manufactures  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1888,  p.  22. 


MEDIEVAL   rVOHY   CARVED   CHESSMEN 


IVORY  GROUP  "DOURGA  VICTORIOUS" 

SABHE,  AN  AHROW.  A  BOW,  A  SHIELD,  A  LA8SO,  A  BELL,  A! 


iicb£e  quiuet,  PARia 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     115 

Victoria.  His  designs  embrace  a  considerable  variety  of 
subjects,  portraits  of  emperors,  kings,  queens,  and  princesses, 
M  well  as  Indian  temples  and  palaces.  Many  of  the  paint- 
ings are  of  the  usual  miniature  size,  but  some  of  them  are  so 
small  as  to  be  available  for  ring  settings,  while  others,  slightly 
larger,  are  adapted  for  the  adornment  of  brooches  or  other 
ornaments. 

Were  it  not  for  the  constant  and  extensive  demand  for  the 
ever-popular  '"bangles,"  and  also  for  combs,  India  would  not 
have  use  for  the  ivory  she  retains;  unfortunately,  little  or  no 
artistic  skill  is  called  for  in  the  case  of  the  bangles,  which 
are  commonly  nothing  more  than  plain  rings  of  stained  ivory, 
without  decoration  of  any  kind.  The  importance  of  the 
bangle  trade  as  a  whole  in  India  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
statement  that  by  the  1901  census  the  number  engaged  in 
making  bangles  of  other  materials  than  glass  was  83,489, 
while  there  were  68,840  persons  engaged  in  the  sale  of  such 
bangles;  for  those  of  glass  the  respective  figures  were  75,443 
and  112,821,  making  a  grand  total  of  340,593  persons  directly 
dependent  upon  this  industry.'*' 

The  preference  African  ivory  enjoys  among  Indian  carvers 
aver  that  of  India  or  Ceylon  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has 
a  finer  grain  and  is  less  apt  to  turn  yellow.  These  superior 
qualities  have  been  attributed  to  the  better  food  procurable 
by  the  African  elephants,  f 

Twenty  years  ago  Burma  could  boast  of  a  master  ivory 
carver,  Maung  Nyaing  of  Moulmein,  but  as  a  rule  Burmese 
work  does  not  rank  high.  A  curious  and  pretty  if  somewhat 
tricky  piece  of  art  work  executed  by  the  Burmese  is  an  ivory 
sword  handle  carved  in  an  openwork  pattern  of  foliage  and 

*Hendky«  '^Indian  JeweUery,"  in  the  Journal  of  Indian  AH  and  Industry,  Vol.  XII, 
No.  96,  p.  46;  ApriL  1907. 

tCcmsiil  Henry  D.  Baker  of  Bombay*  India,  "Report  on  Ivory  and  Elephants  in  India," 
June  8,  1914. 


116     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

flowers;  through  the  openmgs  the  artist  cuts  out  in  the  centre 
of  the  mass  a  little  figure,  which  is  so  entirely  separate  from 
the  enclosing  decorated  surface  that  we  would  suppose  that 
it  had  been  carved  outside  and  then  placed  within  the  orna- 
mental hilt."*" 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  home  supply  of  ivory  in  Burma 
is  ample,  the  ivory-carving  industry  languishes,  although  the 
few  carvers  still  employed  seem  to  find  more  than  they  can 
do.  It  is  suggested  that  the  opening  of  a  school  of  art  might 
serve  to  revive  the  industry,  which  is  now  essentially  con- 
fined to  Moulmein  and  Pyinmana.  The  total  amount  of 
ivory  used  in  the  course  of  a  year  by  the  carvers  of  Moulmein 
has  been  estimated  at  from  eight  to  twelve  pairs  of  tusks. 
As  a  rule  the  Burmese  carver  reproduces  the  old  patterns 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  unless  the  per- 
son giving  the  order  prefers  that  he  should  copy  some  Euro- 
pean design.  While  learning  the  art  apprentices  are  given 
cocoanut  shell  as  a  material,  thus  avoiding  the  risk  of  having 
a  valuable  piece  of  ivory  injured.  Moreover,  as  cocoanut 
shell  is  more  brittle  than  ivory,  the  apprentice  who  is  able 
to  work  it  without  breaking  it  can  be  safely  entrusted  with 
the  task  of  carving  a  piece  of  ivory.  Little  originality  is 
exhibited  by  the  Burmese  carvers,  and  their  art  is  very  con- 
ventional; the  products  include  boxes,  picture-frames,  han- 
dles for  knives  and  forks,  paper-knives,  etc.  If  ordered, 
chessmen,  mats,  chairs,  etc.,  can  be  made,  and  sometimes 
whole  tusks  are  carved  over  with  some  ornamental  design, 
one  enterprising  artist  devoting  more  than  seven  months' 
time  to  the  carving  of  twenty-eight  different  images  of  the 
Buddha  as  decoration  to  a  single  tusk.f 

*T.  N.  Mukfaaijl  *' Art  Manufactures  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1888,  pp.  140, 879. 

tH*.  S.  Pratt,  ''Ivoiy  Carving  in  Burma,'*  the  Journal  qf  Indian  Art  and  /n^iMfry,  Vol. 
IX,  No.  75,  p.  59;  July,  1901.    See  for  a  representation  of  this  or  a  similariy  deoorated 
tusk  from  Burma,  Jour,  Ind,  Art,  and  Ind,,  Vol.  I,  No.  7,  July,  1885,  Fig.  12. 


IVOItV   fiTATlKTTE   Ol''   DAIIUMA 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     117 

The  gradual  dying  out  of  the  art  of  ivory  carving  in  Assam 
since  the  cessation  of  the  nde  of  the  Ahom  rajahs  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  consequent  removal  of  the  incentives  due  to 
direct  royal  patronage,  assuring  regular  occupation  and  a 
stated  salary  or  recompense  to  the  individual  carvers. 
Moreover,  the  main  sources  of  supply  for  ivory  have  been 
cut  oflf  by  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  Elephant  Preserva- 
tion Act,  as  now  only  the  tusks  of  dead  elephants  found  in 
the  jungle  are  available,  while  in  former  days  a  plentiful 
supply  of  ivory  was  secured  from  the  elephant  herds  kept  by 
the  rajahs,  as  well  as  from  the  tusks  of  wild  elephants  slaugh- 
tered by  hunters. 

The  art  of  ivory  carving  must  have  stood  high  in  Ceylon 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  for  it  is  related  that  at  that  time 
a  native  artist  of  this  island  executed  in  ivory  a  crucifix  a 
yard  in  length,  the  work  being  done  in  such  a  masterly  style 
that  the  hair,  beard,  and  face  of  the  Christ  appeared  those  of 
a  living  being.  So  accurately  proportioned  was  the  whole 
carving,  and  so  wonderfully  were  all  the  details  worked  out, 
that  it  far  surpassed  anything  of  the  kind  executed  in  Europe. 
For  this  reason  the  Catholic  bishop  (of  Goa?)  had  the  carving 
enclosed  in  a  costly  casing  and  sent  it  to  the  King  of  Spain  as 
a  great  rarity  well  deserving  a  prominent  place  among  his 
treasures.* 

The  finest  Cinghalese  ivory  carving  is  done  at  Point  de 
Galle,  or  Galle,  as  it  is  called  in  Ceylon,  and  here  many 
highly  artistic  ivories  have  been  produced,  the  designs  being 
in  some  cases  derived  from  specimens  of  old  Buddhist  art 
and  in  others  inspired  by  scenes  of  the  life  of  to-day  in  Ceylon. 
At  the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  in  1904,  Messrs.  D.  F.  de  Silva 
&  Co.  and  Mr.  Abdul  Caffoor  exhibited  some  wonderful, 
gem-encrusted  ivory  elephants,  and  in  a  great  many  instances 

*S.  de  Vries,  '*Curieuse  Aenmerddiigeii  der  bysondente  Oost  en  West-Indiscbe  Ver- 
woQdereniwaerdige  Dingen/'  Utrecht,  1682,  Pt.  IV,  p.  8S8. 


118     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

these  carvings  are  adorned  with  rich  and  elaborate  mount- 
ings of  gold  and  gems,  thus  combining,  as  in  some  of  the 
latest  European  work  in  this  material,  the  art  of  the  ivory 
carver  with  that  of  the  goldsmith. '*' 

Chinese  ivory  carving,  of  which  many  specimens  appear 
in  collections,  is  lacking  in  originality  as  compared  with 
Japanese  work  of  this  kind,  where  the  things  of  everyday 
life  are  cleverly,  though  rather  grotesquely  than  naturally^ 
depicted,  the  details,  however,  being  rendered  with  remark- 
able fidelity  to  truth.  There  is  also  a  quaint  humour  in  the 
designs  that  has  a  value  all  its  own.  The  many  netsukSM^ 
or  buttons,  in  an  endless  variety  of  curious  forms,  are  the 
most  characteristic  productions  of  Japanese  ivory  carving, 
both  ancient  and  modem.  From  the  workshop  of  Kuneda^ 
m  Tokyo,  come  many  of  the  finest  modem  pieces.  Smne 
unusually  fine  specimens  of  Japanese  ivory  carving  made 
after  designs  by  master  artists  were  shown  in  the  Paris  £x« 
position  of  1900.  In  Chinese  ivory  work  the  most  original 
productions  are  the  so-called  ''magic  balls"  consisting  of  a 
number  of  concentric,  hollow  spheres  successively  carved  in 
openwork,  the  clever  artist  turning  and  carving  each  inner 
sphere  through  the  apertures  made  in  the  one  already  fin- 
ished; as  many  as  half  a  dozen  or  more  of  these  concentric 
balls  are  sometimes  cut  from  a  single  piece  of  ivory. 

There  are  two  remarkable  examples  of  ''magic  balls" 
in  the  Robert  L.  Stuart  Collection  on  the  third  floor  of  the 
Public  Library  Building  in  New  York.  One  of  them  is  5 
in.  in  diameter  and  is  made  up  of  fifteen  distinct  balla; 
the  other  measures  4  in.  in  diameter  and  comprises 
nine  balls.  The  balls  are  beautifully  carved  with  minute 
scenes,  landscapes,  and  figures,  each  of  the  nine  balls  being 
covered  with  a  fret-work,  very  neatly  rounded  oflF  and  so 

*"  Official  Handbook  of  Ceylon  Court,  St.  Louis,  World's  Fair,  1904/'  Colombo,  1904, 
p.  167. 


^^^p^l 

H 

^Hiil 

^^^1 

^^^^1 

^^^s^^^i 

^^9 

^^^H^-^^i^^^^l 

^^H 

^H^^^l 

Bmmh^^I 

^^^^s^^^^^^i 

E^^^^^^l 

^^^^jjj 

^fei^^l 

IVORY  VASES 


;.  FLORENCE 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     119 

minute  that  there  are  a  hundred  piercings  to  the  square 
inch. 

These  balls  are  all  cut  out  by  a  tool  provided  with  a  small 
curved  piece  of  knife  edge.  The  inner  ball  is  cut  first  and 
decorated.  Undoubtedly  many  of  the  piercings  were  made 
at  one  and  the  same  time  from  the  exterior,  the  drill  passing 
through  the  entire  five  inches  of  ivory  and  thus  making  thirty 
piercings,  one  on  either  side  of  the  fifteen  spheres,  or  of  the 
material  from  which  these  spheres  are  then  successively  cut 
out  and  decorated,  within  the  centre  of  the  group  of  balls.  To 
Tender  the  working  possible  circular  holes  are  run  from  the 
outer  side  to  the  middle  of  the  ball,  the  outer  aperture  hav- 
ing a  diameter  of  f  of  an  inch,  the  whole  then  tapering 
<iown  to  a  diameter  of  |  of  an  inch  at  the  centre.  It  is 
these  apertures  which  give  the  artists  the  opportunity  to 
Teach  the  various  surfaces  of  the  many  enclosed  spheres, 
evolving  them  out  of  the  mass,  one  by  one. 

Among  the  interesting  modern  ivory  carvings  shown  in 
the  Chinese  section  of  the  Panama-Pacific  International 
ExpKJsition  was  an  elaborately  carved  elephant  tusk,  the 
work  of  the  Chinese  ivory  carver,  Lien  Hsun-hao.  This 
tusk,  14  in.  long,  is  decorated  with  an  intricate  openwork 
pattern  in  which  appear  the  dragon  forms  so  favoured  by  the 
Chinese.  There  was  also  shown  an  ivory  relief  statuette 
of  the  Chinese  Goddess  of  Mercy. 

The  Chinese  exhibit  contained  a  remarkable  example  of 
a  magic  ball,  consisting  of  no  less  than  28  elaborately 
pierced  balls,  one  within  the  other,  the  outside  one  having 
a  diameter  of  4  in.  It  is  mounted  on  a  base  from  which 
rises  a  slender  shaft  adorned  with  a  series  of  loops  and  sur- 
mounted by  the  magic  ball.  This  intricate  work  is  valued 
at  $170,  and  is  a  production  of  the  expert  Chinese  ivory 
carver,  Li  Hsao-yu,  who  was  awarded  a  silver  medal  for 
his  work.     He  also  exhibited  a  finely  carved  tusk  30  in. 


120     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

long.  Another  expert  Chinese  carver.  Lien  YuHSuen^ 
showed  a  group  of  eight  horses  arranged  in  a  circle,  their 
poses  being  very  spirited  and  lifelike. 

The  Japanese  netsukes,  which  in  their  great  variety  of 
designs  offer  the  most  characteristic  and  interesting  examples 
of  Japanese  ivory  carving,  and  are  eagerly  sought  by  col- 
lectors, are  used  in  Japan  as  '"toggles"  or  buttons,  through 
which  pass  the  cords  serving  to  attach  to  the  belt  the  pipe 
or  the  medicine  or  sweetmeat  case.  The  really  fine  speci- 
mens of  these  products  of  the  ivory  carver's  art  belong  prin- 
cipally to  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  works  quite 
generally  bear  the  carver's  name.  Some  of  these  netsuk^s  are 
of  walrus  and  occasionally  boars'  tusks  were  used.  Many 
of  the  artists  had  certain  special  designs  in  which  they  partic- 
ularly excelled,  and  of  these  we  may  here  note  the  following 
as  examples:'*' 

AnrakoiLsai,  holy  personages 
Hogitsu,  children 
Hozan,  children 
Mune-tomo,  monkeys 
Ikkouan,  rats 
Kajitomo,  mushrooms 
Mazakadzu,  monkeys  and  rats 
Okatomo,  quails 
Giokusai,  shells 

Japanese  art  offers,  however,  ivory  carving  of  a  higher 
grade,  though  we  could  hardly  say  of  greater  originality 
than  the  inimitable  netsukes.  One  of  the  finest  of  these  more 
ambitious  carvings  is  the  decoration  in  relief  by  a  Japanese 
carver  of  a  large  tusk,  having  a  diameter  of  7  in.,  which 
was  shown  at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exhibition  ol 
1876  in  the  Egyptian  Department  and  was  acquired  by  the 
Japanese.     The  artist  selected  for  his  theme  the  embarka- 

^Alfred  Maskell,  "Ivories/'  London,  1905,  pp.  344  sqq. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     121 

tion  of  Yoshitsume,  a  heroic  figure  in  Japanese  history,  who 
left  Japan  and  went  into  voluntary  exile  rather  than  plunge 
his  country  into  the  miseries  of  a  civil  war  by  resisting  the 
oppression  of  an  ungrateful  brother  whose  throne  he  had 
assured.* 

What  is  asserted  to  be  perhaps  the  largest  ivory  carving 
ever  executed  is  a  figure  of  Buddha  by  the  Japanese  carver 
Ichikawa  Komei;  this  was  shown  in  the  Chicago  Exposition 
of  180S. 

A  most  interesting  and  valuable  Japanese  publication 
illustrates  in  a  very  thorough  and  satisfactory  manner  the 
various  processes  employed  by  the  ivory  carver  in  trans- 
figuring a  section  of  tusk  into  a  finished  statuette  or  other 
artistic  form.  Alongside  of  the  design  representing  the 
completed  work  is  given  in  outline  the  piece  of  tusk  on  which 
the  artist  is  about  to  exercise  his  skill.  Within  the  outline 
of  the  yet  unworked  ivory  is  traced  that  of  the  figure  to  be 
produced,  and  this  enables  us  to  appreciate  the  judgment 
and  ingenuity  displayed  by  the  artist  in  utilizing  the  special 
form  of  the  material  at  his  disposal.  Other  plates  show  the 
various  stages  of  working  the  block  and  some  of  the  tools 
used  in  shaping  it.  This  valuable  and  original  book  will  be 
more  fully  described  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 

The  carved  ivory  fans  made  by  the  Chinese  are  remark- 
able for  the  delicacy  of  workmanship  displayed.  The  design 
is  usually  executed  in  very  low  relief  and  then  the  uncarved 
portion  of  the  surface  is  cut  through  into  a  beautiful  open- 
work pattern.  Thus  all  heaviness  is  successfully  banished, 
the  fan  being  almost  as  light  and  airy  as  the  element  it  wafts 
over  its  owner's  face.  Chinese  tradition  teaches  that  a 
native  of  Tamba  province  invented  the  fan  in  the  reign  of 
Emperor  Ten-ji  (668-672  A.D.) ;  the  folding-fan,  however, 
was  only  introduced  much  later,  in  the  reign  of  Kungo-lo 

nirienUl  CoUectioii  of  W.  T.  Walten»  p.  M. 


122     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

(140S~1425),  such  fans  having  been  received  as  part  of  the 
tribute  of  Korea.* 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  many  most 
beautifully  painted  fans  were  executed  in  France,  Germany, 
and  Holland,  with  elaborately  carved  ivory  sticks.  Some 
exceedingly  fine  specimens  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  Berlin 
Kunstgewerbe  Museum,  the  collection  being  especially  rich» 
of  course,  in  examples  of  German  art,  but  containing  also  a 
number  of  French  fans.  Typical  specimens  are  those  in 
which  the  graceful  and  artistic  painting  is  done  on  parch- 
ment, the  ivory  sticks  being  carved  in  an  openwork  pattem.f 

An  exceptionally  fine  bit  of  Chinese  work  is  an  ivory  hand- 
rest  carved  with  representations  of  the  18  Lohan,  or  Arfaats, 
each  figure  identified  by  its  symbolic  animal,  vehicle,  (ur 
other  attribute.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  design  is  figured 
Maitreya,  the  Buddhist  Messiah,  on  a  throne  supported  by 
three  geniuses.  The  artist  has  taken  every  possible  advan- 
tage of  the  delicate  grain  and  mellow  tone  of  the  material  he 
has  chosen.  This  work  probably  belongs  to  the  school  of 
the  Imperial  Ivory  Works,  founded  about  1680  by  Emperor 
K'ang,  within  the  precincts  of  the  palace  at  Peking.  An- 
other more  modern  specimen,  illustrating  a  different  and 
thoroughly  realistic  style,  is  the  model  of  a  Buddhist  temple, 
all  the  picturesque  details  carefully  produced  in  the  pains- 
taking manner  so  characteristic  of  Chinese  art.  This  model 
is  said  to  have  been  intended  as  a  gift  from  the  Emperor  of 
China  to  Josephine,  wife  of  Napoleon,  during  the  Consulate, 
but  it  was  seized  on  the  high  sea  by  a  British  warship.  { 

Some  of  the  most  striking  specimens  of  Chinese  art 
in  the  rich  assemblage  of  Oriental  treasures  sold  at  the 

*Georg  Buss.  '*Der  Fttcher,"  Bielefeld  and  Leipng,  1904,  pp.  34, 86.     Figures  of  Cbineae 
carved  ivory  fans  on  p.  28  and  p.  25. 

fGeorg  Buss,  "Der  Fllcher/*  Bielefeld  and  Leipsig,  1904;  Sgures,  among  others,  on  pp. 
74,  75.  83. 

^Stephen  W.  Bushell,  "Chinese  Art."  London,  1904,  Vol.  I,  p.  115-118.  Figs.  78,  80. 


IVORY  PAGODA 


uva^E  ortuET,  f 


MANDARINS'   SCEPTRES 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     12S 


Art  Galleries,  New  York  City,  February  16  and 
17,  1915,*  were  some  wonderfully  elaborate  bird  cages  of 
hnry  and  black  lacquer,  the  contrasting  hues  being  skil- 
ioQjr  oombined  to  heighten  the  artistic  effect  of  the  whole 
As  decoration,  along  the  ivory  ribs  of  one  of  these 
are  attached  a  number  of  dainty  and  delicate  ivory 
Ottvings  representing  dragons,  birds,  trees,  and  flowers. 
A  circular  mirror  for  the  birds  has  an  ivory  back  carved 
witti  a  design  showing  two  persons  in  a  dug-out  boat. 
Additional  adornments  are  a  carved  white  jade  pendant, 
and  a  jade  thumb  ring  to  be  used  in  lifting  the  cage  from  a 
ImkAl;  the  lacquer  base  rests  on  ivory  feet  with  openwork 
0Wing.  The  cage  is  13§  in.  high  with  a  diameter  of 
14  in.;  at  the  top  is  a  lapis-lazuli  ball.f  This  speci- 
■Mil  of  Ch'ien  lung  work  brought  $400  at  the  sale.  Less 
elaborate  in  design  but  not  less  skilfully  executed  is  a  square 
UmI  cage  of  ivory  resting  on  low  feet.  The  outside  decora- 
tioilf  severely  restrained,  embraces  small  medallions,  the 
Isvourite  lozenge  symbol,  and  vases  holding  mei  blossoms. 
Ihe  interior  fittings  are  most  artistically  treated,  the  perch 
Iw^ring  the  form  of  an  entire  wild  plum  tree,  projecting 
botisontally  across  the  cage;  the  water  cup  is  carved  into 
llie  form  of  a  lotus  leaf  within  whose  folds  hide  a  crab  and 
a  ftog,  and  the  worm  tongs  has  been  given  the  shape  of  a 
Bliddha's  hand  fruit,  while  a  seed  chute  is  adorned  with  the 
■Mated  fungus  toward  which  turn  the  stork  and  the  spotted 
■tag  ol  Chinese  legend.  The  height  of  this  cage  is  the 
as  the  circular  one  described  above,  13^  in.,  and 
side  of  the  square  measures  7^  in.;  the  price  paid 
for  it  at  the  sale  was  $400,  as  in  the  former  case.|  In  still 
another  of  these  choice  bird  cages  ivory  is  combined  with 
1^  lacquer,  the  form  being  dome  shaped,  with  flattened 

*Sold  for  Yamanaka  &  Co.        fNo.  186  in  Catalogue;  coloured  plate. 
{No.  180  in  Catalogue;  woodcut. 


124      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

top.  For  the  fittings  and  carved  adornments  ivory  has 
been  used,  the  designs  covering  a  wide  field  of  ornamentation 
and  showing  Taoist  immortals  among  pines  and  pavilions, 
Confucian  sages  with  their  attendant  students,  pine- 
clusters,  pomegranates,  birds,  animals,  and  bats.  The  feet 
are  of  ivory  and  the  chain  for  suspension  is  of  jade  and  lapis- 
lazuli."^  Another  dome-shaped  cage  has  for  principal  adorn- 
ment a  carved  ivory  dragon,  its  coils  twmmg  around 
a  post  showing  the  sacred  fungus  and  upholding  the 
perch.  A  wealth  of  small  ivory  carvings  serves  to  embellish 
the  exterior,  embracing  double  gourds  on  their  stems,  cranes, 
legendary  figures  in  grottos,  ceremonial  functions,  and  squir- 
rels among  grapes,  the  latter  being  a  favourite  Chinese 
7ru)iif.  The  worm  tongs  and  feet  are  of  ivory.  This  was 
adjudged  for  $475.t  The  height  was  22f  in.  and  the 
diameter  14  in.  The  most  ornate  ivory  carving  is  on 
a  cage  into  the  construction  of  which  horn,  boxwood,  and 
ivory  have  entered  as  materials.  The  ivory  carving  con- 
stitutes a  lofty  portal  or  entrance,  with  a  multitude  of 
animal  and  symbolical  figures,  as  well  as  a  representation 
of  the  famous  Li  Tai  Peh,  to  whom  attendants  are  offering 
wine;  surmounting  the  portal  is  a  curious  scene  showing 
the  ablution  of  an  elephant,  one  of  the  attendants  engaged 
in  the  task  having  been  lifted  up  by  the  animal  on  trunk 
and  tusks.  The  ivory  mounting  offers  the  appropriate 
flowers  of  the  four  seasons:  lotus,  peony,  chrysanthemum, 
and  plum;  the  continuous  ivory  foot  is  carved,  among  other 
figures,  with  those  of  two  Fu-lions.  For  this  ambitious 
work  the  purchaser  paid  $400.^  The  highest-priced  bird 
cage,  one  that  sold  for  $1,125,  was  of  tortoise  shell,  but 
had  many  accessories  of  carved  ivory,  including  a  boatload 
of  pleasing  seekers  and  a  central  perch  figuring  a  boy  jug- 
gler, balancing  himself  on  his  head  upon  an  inmiense  frog, 

« 

^Catalogue  No.  182;  woodcut       fCaUlogue  No.  189;  woodcut        {CaUlogue  No.  1. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     126 

this  being  known  as  the  Gama  Sennin  motif.*  Ivory  carv- 
ings also  adorned  another  tortoise-shell  cage  that  sold  for 
$1,025  at  this  auction.f 

This  association  of  living  creatures  with  delicate  and 
artistic  work  is  one  among  many  instances  of  that  happy 
blending  of  a  love  of  both  nature  and  art,  giving  proof  of 
the  high  endowment  of  the  Chinese  in  true  esthetic  percep- 
tion, one  of  the  many  things  that  helps  us  to  forget  the 
backwardness  of  Chinese  civilization  in  much  that  makes 
for  the  comfort,  health,  and  prosperity  of  a  people. 

In  the  splendid  collection  of  Prince  Kung  which  was 
recently  sold  at  auction  in  New  York,  and  which  consisted 
principally  of  wonderful  jade  carvings,  there  were  a  few 
very  fine  specimens  of  Chinese  ivories,  the  most  striking 
being  two  miniature  representations  of  Imperial  pleasure 
barges  and  a  pair  of  richly  adorned  vases.  One  of  the  pleas- 
ure craft  has  a  dragon-head  prow,  while  the  other  is  in  the 
form  of  the  feng  or  phoenix;  all  the  details  are  carefully 
elaborated,  and  through  the  grillwork  of  the  decks  can  be 
seen  the  Imperial  chairs  set  in  each  of  the  staterooms.  Of 
the  vases,  carved  in  high  relief,  one  offers  a  representation 
of  the  Chinese  goddess  of  mercy,  Kwan-yin,  riding  on  an 
elephant;  another  of  the  immortals  is  borne  to  heaven  on  a 
dragon's  back.  The  other  vase  illustrates  a  procession  of 
Taoist  inmiortals,  while  hovering  over  them  appears  the 
fairy  Si  Wang  Mu  seated  on  a  bird  of  paradise.  { 

A  Chinese  ivory  carving,  probably  some  200  years  old, 
represents  the  reclining  figure  of  a  nude  woman  with  the 
typically  small  feet.  Its  dimensions  are  18  cm.  in  length 
and  about  4  cm.  in  greatest  height,  and  it  is  carved  out  of  a 

^Catalogue  No.  198. 

tCatalogueNo.194. 

tCatalogue  of  the  Prinoe  Kung  Conectioo,  sold  at  the  American  Art  Galleries,  Madiaon 
Square.  New  York,  February  27, 28,  and  March  1, 1013.    See  Nos.  202,  207. 


126     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

single  piece  of  ivory.  Age  has  imparted  to  it  a  fine  yellow 
tone  with  some  brownish  oval  spots,  perhaps  from  handling; 
the  shoes  are  coloured  brown  and  the  hair  has  a  coating  of 
black  lacquer.  This  figure  came,  in  1850,  into  the  possession 
of  the  oldest  German  resident  of  Yokohama,  and  was  pre- 
sented by  his  successor  to  Dr.  Berthold  Laufer.  According 
to  well-informed  Chinese — with  whose  opinion  Doctor 
Laufer  inclines  to  agree — the  women  of  the  better  class  used 
such  figures  in  former  times  to  indicate  to  a  physician  the 
seat  of  their  ailment.  As  the  doctor  was  not  permitted  to 
see  a  woman  of  this  class  she  would  thrust  her  hand  through 
a  curtain  opening  so  that  he  could  feel  her  pulse^  and  would 
then  lay  her  finger  upon  that  part  of  the  ivory  figure  which 
corresponded  with  the  part  of  her  own  body  that  was  affected. 
Similar  figures  of  wood,  and  in  former  days  of  bronze  also, 
have  been  used  in  China  in  the  study  of  acupuncture.* 

The  lot  of  the  Chinese  ivory  carver  of  Canton  does  not 
seem  to  be  a  very  enviable  one  from  a  financial  standpoint. 
During  the  term  of  his  apprenticeship,  which  lasts  four  years, 
his  master,  besides  supplying  him  with  two  meals  a  day — 
probably  rather  meagre  repasts — ogives  him  as  "shoe  monqr" 
$4  in  Canton  silver  at  the  expiration  of  the  first  year, 
$5  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  $6  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year,  and  $7  at  the  termination  of  the  fourth  and  last 
year  of  the  apprenticeship.  These  small  figures  must,  how- 
ever, be  reduced  50  per  cent,  to  get  the  equivalent  in  our 
money.  After  this,  the  ivory  carver  receives  from  his  em- 
ployer from  $7  to  $8  each  month  ($3.50  to  $4  of  our  mon^) 
in  addition  to  the  two  daily  meals.  We  need  feel  little  sur- 
prise that  expert  carvers  should  wish  to  earn  something  more, 
and  as  a  general  rule  they  prefer  to  work  for  themselves  in 
their  own  houses,  and  are  then  able  to  earn  as  much  as  $S0 
Canton  silver  ($15  of  our  money)  in  a  month. 

^Communication  of  Prof  Berthold  Laufer. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     127 

The  apprentices  and  those  employed  in  shops  are  required 
to  work  ten  hours  each  working  day.  However,  while  these 
are  long  hours,  there  is  a  very  rational  alternation  of  work 
and  rest.  Beginning  his  labours  at  7K)0  a.  m.,  the  carver 
continues  to  work  until  9:30  a.  m.,  and  then  is  given  a  full 
hour  for  his  morning  meal;  work  is  resumed  at  10:30  a.  m., 
continuing  from  this  hour  to  1.30  p.  m.,  when  there  is  a 
half  hour's  pause  for  tea  drinking;  then  follows  a  session 
lasting  from  2K)0  p.  m.  until  5:30  p.  m.,  at  which  hour  work 
is  again  suspended  and  the  worker  is  allowed  two  full  hours 
for  his  evening  meal,  after  which  he  goes  to  work  again  for 
two  hours,  his  day's  task  finally  terminating  at  9:30  p.  m. 
There  are  about  316  working  days  in  the  Chinese  year  of 
360  days.  The  44  days  remaining  are  reckoned  as  holidays 
or  vacations,  as  follows:* 

New  Year  holidays 7    days. 

Leave  of  absence  for  the  **  Ching  Ming  "  term,  the  time  when 

the  Chinese  worship  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors  10    days. 

The  5th  day  of  the  5th  Moon — Dragon  Boat  Festival    .  1     day. 

The  27th  day  of  the  8th  Moon — the  anniversary  of  the 

birthday  of  Confucius 1     day. 

The  closing  days  previous  to  the  New  Year's  Festivitiesj 

when  the  Chinese  have  a  general  cleaning,  beginning 

about  the  25th  of  the  12th  Moon 5    days. 

Home  leave,  twice  a  year,  each  time  ten  days     ....     20    days. 

44    days. 

Some  quite  effectively  carved  plaques  of  mammoth  ivory 
come  from  Tobolsk,  Siberia.  These  offer  characteristic 
representations  of  the  natives  of  the  country,  showing  their 
sledges  drawn  by  reindeer,  the  animals  being  portrayed  in 
a  lifelike  manner,  while  the  figures  of  the  natives,  bundled 
up  in  their  ample  fur  garments,  are  eminently  suggestive  of 

*AU  these  details  as  to  the  Canton  ivory  carvers  were  communicated  to  the  writer  by 
U.  S.  Consul-Genera]  F.  D.  Cheshire,  in  a  letter  dated  Canton,  China,  August  11, 1918. 


< 


128   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

the  bitter  winter  cold  of  this  region.  A  long  row  of  pines 
forms  a  not  inartistic  background.  A  splendid  example  is 
in  the  collection  of  Henry  Walters,  of  Baltimore. 

The  skill  of  the  Siberian  ivory  carvers  is  well  expressed 
in  a  number  of  small  but  lifelike  designs.  A  curious  speci- 
men shows  us  the  utilization  of  a  camel  for  ploughing;  others 
depict  white  bears,  cleverly  set  upon  rough  stone  bases 
figuring  rocks.  Then  we  have  a  number  of  artistically 
carved  knife-handles,  presenting  a  series  of  animal  heads 
rendered  with  a  high  degree  of  skill;  two  exceptional  exam- 
ples offer  respectively  the  head  of  an  Eskimo  and  the  fuU 
form  of  a  fish.  An  interesting  Uttle  bit  gives  a  design  show- 
ing a  native  who  has  unharnessed  his  reindeer  from  his  sled 
and  pitched  his  tlent;  alongside  the  sled  repose  the  skis  for 
travelling  over  the  snow-clad  fields.  A  curious  and  quaint 
piece  of  carving,  rather  suggesting  Nuremberg  than  Siberia 
in  its  workmanship,  gives  a  peasant's  hut  with  its  enclosed 
yard,  in  which  is  a  small  colt.  One  of  the  best  is  certainly 
that  showing  a  reindeer  harnessed  to  a  sled  and  driven  by  a 
native;  the  very  long  reins  are  attached  to  the  animal's 
antlers,  and  a  stick  of  portentous  dimensions  is  carried  by 
the  driver  as  a  means  of  giving  a  few  gentle  reminders  to  his 
reindeer  when  requisite.  The  painful  effort  of  the  poor 
creature  to  drag  along  the  sled  is  graphically  portrayed.* 

The  Central  Eskimo  of  North  America  have  a  game  called 
tingmiujang y  "images  of  birds,"  played  with  about  fifteen  fig- 
lu^s,  most  of  them  shaped  as  birds,  but  some  rudely  represent- 
ing men  and  women.  For  these  figures  ivory  is  sometimes 
used.  They  have  flatbottoms,so  that  when  thrown  upward  by 
one  of  the  players  some  or  all  of  them  may  stand  upright 
when  they  fall.  In  this  case  the  player  in  whose  direction  the 
figure  points  gains  the  piece,  and  the  one  who  gets  the  greater 


^Photographs  and  information  sent  by  Dr.  G.  On^sime  Gere,  Prendent  of  the  Soci6t6 
Oiualienne  des  Amis  des  Sciences  NatureHes,  Ekaterinburg,  Russia. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     129 

number  of  pieces  wins  the  game.*  Similar  figures  of  ivory 
were  secured  from  the  Eskimo  of  Plover  Bay,  Eastern 
Siberia,  t  Figures  closely  resembling  those  noted  above 
were  obtained  in  1882  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Nelson  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  Islands,  Alaska,  and  are  now  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum, 
Washington;  these, 
however,  were  per- 
forated and  were 
evidently  not  in- 
tended for  use  in  any 
game,  but  as  orna- 
mental pendants  to 
be  attached  to  the 
girdle  or  to  some  part 
of  the  clothing,  t 

The  Eskimo  of 
Point  Barrow, 
Alaska,  have  occa- 
sionally made  use  of 
fossil  ivory  for  their 

utensils,  and  three  quite  well-executed  dippers  of  this 
material  were  brought  back  by  the  American  expedition  to 
this  region  in  1881-1883.  From  the  village  of  Nuwuk  came 
a  dipper  with  a  large,  nearly  circular  bowl.  The  rim  of  the 
bowl  and  the  handle  are  neatly  ornamented  with  a  design 
of  lines  and  small  circles.  Another  of  these  dippers  was 
secured  at  the  village  of  Sidaru,  and  a  third,  obtained  at 
Utkiavwin,  was  made  of  a  single  piece  of  fine-grained  fossil 

^Stewart  Culin,  "Chess  and  Playing  Cards,"  Washington,  1898,  p.  717,  Fig.  42;  pp.  665, 
M8  of  Rep.  of  U.  8.  Nat,  Mua.  for  1896;  see  also  Dr.  Franz  Boas  in  Fifth  An,  Rep.  Bureau 
qf  Eikn.,  Washington,  1888,  p.  567. 

top.  dt.,  p.  718,  Fig.  43;  see  John  Murdoch  in  Ninth  An.  Rep.  Bureau  of  Ethnoiogy, 
1808,  p.  864. 

|0p.  dt.,  p.  718. 


IvoBT  Images  used  as  dice  in  game  of  Ting- 
miujang.  Central  Eskimo. 

— From  Stewart  Culin  "Chess  and  Flaying 
Cards,"  Washington,  1898  (Report  of  Nat.  Mus.. 
1896,  pp.  665-942) 


130     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ivory  of  a  light  yellow  hue.  These  dippers  exhibited  signs  of 
long  use  and  were  probably  made  many  years  ago.  In  one 
of  them  a  semicircular  piece  of  the  bone,  near  the  handle, 
has  been  broken  along  the  grain  of  the  tusk  and  is  mended 
by  three  stitches.* 

Many  of  the  natives  of  Guinea  wore,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  three  or  four  broad  ivory  arm-bands,  frequently 
engraved  with  a  cross  design.  These  with  the  coral  neck- 
laces brought  by  Dutch  and  other  European  traders  and  so 
highly  valued  by  the  natives  of  the  Guinea  Coast  constituted 
their  chief  and  favourite  ornaments.! 

Carved  elephant  tusks  from  the  old  Negro  monarchy  of 
Benin  are  preserved  in  the  Ethnographical  Collection  of  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Vienna.  The  conquest  of 
Benin,  West  Africa,  by  the  English  in  1897  spread  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  curious  art  of  this  native  civilization,  although 
some  early  travellers  visiting  this  region  had  already  written 
of  the  strange  customs  and  half  civilization  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

Some  surprisingly  interesting  specimens  of  ivory  carving 
by  native  African  artists  were  brought  from  the  capital  city 
of  Benin  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Hoder,  when  it  was  captured 
by  the  British  punitive  expedition,  on  February  18,  1897. 
Some  of  the  best  of  these  are  on  exhibition  in  the  Harriman 
Museum,  Forest  Hill,  England.  One  of  the  specimens  is  a 
mace  head,  or  the  head  of  an  official  staff,  such  as  was  carried 
before  the  high  executioner — a  most  important  personage  in 
old  Benin,  or  before  a  Ju  Ju  priest.  It  represents  a  king 
or  chief — ^holding  in  one  hand  a  sword  and  in  the  other  a 
bell  such  as  was  rung  to  announce  the  offering  of  a  human 

Vohn  Murdoch,  "The  Point  Barrow  Eskimo";  Ninth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology^ 
1887-1888,  Washington,  1892,  pp.  102,  103,  Figs.  40,  41. 

tS.  de  Vries,  "Curieuse  Aenmerckingen  der  bysonderate  Oost  en  West-Indische  Verwoa- 
derens-waerdige  Dingen/*  Utrecht,  1082,  Pt.  Ill,  p.  05. 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS   131 

sacrifice.  Another  interesting  object,  picked  up  in  the  pal- 
ace enclosure,  is  an  armlet  or  bracelet  worn  by  one  of  the 
women  of  the  King  of  Benin.  The  ivory  is  excessively  thin, 
and  the  decoration  executed  with  great  care  and  skill.  It 
offers  the  representation  of  six  heads,  evidently  of  European 
type,  from  the  long,  wavy  hair.  Another  bracelet  is  deco- 
rated with  eighteen  heads,  nine  of  which  appear  to  be  Euro- 
pean, while  the  remaining  half  are  of  a  negroid  cast  of 
features.* 

The  collections  of  the  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory embrace  a  number  of  most  interesting  ivory  objects 
presented  to  that  institution  by  the  West  African  Exhibi- 
tion Company  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition.  These 
ivories  are  excellent  specimens  of  the  art  of  the  native  carv- 
ers, some  of  whom  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  profi- 
ciency. 

In  Loango,  West  Africa,  the  tusks  are  frequently  decorated 
with  carvings  representing  processions,  these  "proces- 
sional tusks"  showing  spiral  columns  of  various  figures  of 
men,  children,  goats,  rhinoceroses,  elephants,  men  carriers  /^ 
with  hammocks,  basket  carriers,  etc.  They  are  often  sur- 
mounted by  figures  of  a  monkey  and  a  child.  On  some  of 
these  tusks  there  are  ten  or  eleven  rows  of  procession, 
beginning  at  the  narrow  end  and  winding  downward  to 
the  hollow  and  broader  end  of  the  tusk.  Generally  the 
boundary  of  the  spiral  has  a  plain  line  of  ivory  as  demarca- 
tion; sometimes  a  ridge  of  the  rough  brown  outer  coating 
of  the  tusk  has  been  left  for  this  purpose,  or  else  the  boun- 
dary is  marked  by  a  line  of  stained  ivory.  The  ivories  of 
this  description  owned  by  the  Buffalo  Society  were  carved 
by  Mabeala,  a  Lioango  native  artist,  in  Buffalo,  during  the 
summer  of  1901.    The  outer  "bark"  is  usually  entirely 


^chard  Quick,  "Notes  on  Benin  Carving*"  in  the  Reliquary,  New  Series,  Vol.  V,  pp. 
t48-S65;  London.  1890. 


132     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

removed,  but  in  some  instances  this  was  left  for  demarca- 
tion and  at  the  base  of  the  tusk. 

The  small  hollow  end  of  the  tusks  is  carved  by  the  Lo- 
ango  people  into  napkin  rings,  and  is  decorated  with  designs 
in  flowers,  fish,  butterflies,  and  other  forms.  In  one  m- 
stance  the  native  artist  has  rudely  scratched  on  a  ring  an 
inscription  in  broken  French. 

The  ivory  trumpets  made  by  the  natives  of  the  Congo  are 
among  the  most  interesting  objects  produced  there  and  prove 
that  these  natives  possess  a  considerable  amount  of  artistic 
skill.  Evidently  trumpets  of  this  kind  have  been  made  for 
many  centuries  as  they  are  still  made  to-day.  The  elephant 
tusk,  with  its  graceful  and  elegant  curve  and  with  its  natural 
hollow,  gradually  narrowing  and  extending  through  a  good 
part  of  its  length,  gives  an  excellent  material  for  the  purpose. 
These  ivory  trumpets  of  the  Congo  range  in  size  from  quite 
small  ones  to  specimens  of  great  length,  up  to  two  metres 
(6  ft.  7  in.),  although  in  the  case  of  the  longer  trumpets  the 
dimension  has  only  been  attained  by  means  of  a  prolongation 
of  wood  or  bark.  Naturally  the  form  cannot  offer  great 
variety,  as  it  is  rather  strictly  conditioned  by  the  natural 
ciurve  of  the  tusk;  since,  however,  the  walls  of  the  tusk,  as 
prepared  for  being  worked  into  a  trumpet,  are  much  thicker 
at  the  smaller  end  than  at  the  larger  one,  because  of  the 
gradual  narrowing  of  the  natural  hollow,  a  considerable 
amount  of  material  must  be  removed  by  the  worker,  and 
this  enables  him  to  vary  the  form  of  this  portion  to  a  certain 
extent,  making  it  sometimes  lozenge-shaped,  and  at  othejr 
times  hexagonal  or  octagonal.  This  circumstance  is  also 
utilized  for  the  decoration  of  the  surface  at  and  near  the 
mouthpiece  with  simple  patterns  in  relief.  Even  with  his 
primitive  tools  the  patient  artisan  is  able  to  accomplish  his 
task,  as  the  material  is  not  very  hard.  Of  course  the  degree 
of  skill  varies  greatly,  and  some  of  these  trumpets  still  show 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     138 

the  marks  of  the  tools,  but  usually  the  surface  has  been 
carefully  smoothed,  and  in  some  instances  even  polished.  In 
a  few  cases  a  reddish  or  blackish  tint  has  been  imparted  to 
the  ivory.  When  the  natural  opening  is  too  large  it  is  partly 
closed  with  rosin,  and  any  holes  or  cracks  that  may  have 
been  made  or  developed  in  the  course  of  manufacture  are 
closed  with  hvlungu.  In  many  cases  the  ivory  surface  of 
the  trumpet  is  protected  by  a  tightly  fitted  covering  of  the 
hide  of  the  antelope,  the  buffalo,  the  elephant,  or  the  iguana. 
While,  as  has  been  remarked,  the  decorative  motifs  are  us- 
ually confined  to  the  region  of  the  mouthpiece,  in  some  speci- 
mens from  the  northern  part  of  the  Congo  State  the  entire 
surface  is  engraved  with  bands  or  stripes,  and  also  with  a 
dot  inside  a  circle,  a  sign  much  used  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan, 
in  the  northeastern  Congo,  and  on  the  Upper  Kasal. 
This  is  the  ancient  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  symbol  of  the  sim. 
The  natives  are  always  very  ingenious  and  often  very  artistic 
in  the  order  of  arrangement  and  construction  of  the  simple 
circles  and  lines;  and  they  form  a  beautiful  decoration  to 
these  trumpets  that  were  capable  of  making  a  great  forest 
resound  with  their  blasts.  Many  ivory  flutes  are  also  made 
in  the  Congo,  small  tusks  being  used  for  this  purpose.* 

Since  the  quaint  and  curious  netsuk^s,  the  most  character- 
istic and  original  products  of  the  Japanese  ivory  carvers' 
art,  have  gone  out  of  fashion  in  Japan,  the  carvers  have 
produced  work  of  greater  beauty  and  breadth  of  design, 
showing  in  this  as  in  other  things  the  wonderful  adapta- 
bility and  cleverness  of  these  Frenchmen  of  the  East.  While 
admitting  that  this  testifies  to  a  certain  progress  in  the  ivory 
carving  of  Japan,  some  of  us  are  unable  to  recognize  these 
more  ambitious  productions  as  really  superior  to  the  old 

^Annales  du  Musfe  du  Congo.  Ethnographie  et  Anthropologie.  S^rie  UL  Notes 
anaiytiquefl  rar  lea  coUectionB  ethnographiques  du  Musfe  du  Congo,  puUi^es  par  la  direc- 
tion du  Muife.    Tome  I»  Faac  I»  BruzeUes,  November,  1902,  pp.  90-96, 100. 


1S4    ivorV  and  the  elephant 

netsuk&s.  Still  some  of  them  are  of  great  merit  and  at  the 
same  time  typically  Japanese.* 

As  examples  may  be  noted  a  spirited  composition  of  a 
hunter  slaying  an  eagle.  The  bird,  in  its  death  struggle, 
has  grasped  one  of  the  hunter's  legs  with  its  sharp  daws, 
and  defiantly  awaits  the  coup-de-grftce  to  be  inflicted  by  the 
hunter's  dagger,  f 

Other  attractive  specimens  of  the  art  are  two  elaborately 
carved  tusks,  showing  Chinese  sages  in  a  grove  of  bamboo. 
This  work  is  13  in.  high  and  is  an  exceedingly  good  pres- 
entation of  the  Oriental  scene.  {  More  humorous,  and  some- 
what in  the  older  style,  is  the  figure  of  Khensu,  a  Chinese 
Buddhist  priest,  in  the  act  of  fishing;  the  figure  is  8f  in.  high.** 
High  praise  has  also  been  bestowed  upon  a  small  cabinet  by 
the  carver  Tohekido  Yoshi-ichi.  This  measures  18|  by 
10}  in.  and  is  carved  and  undercut  with  representations  of 
quail  in  millet.    The  sides  offer  an  imitation  of  basketwork.§ 

Chinese  ivory  carving  at  its  best  is  displayed  in  the  case 
of  a  remarkable  vase.  The  elaborate  openwork  carving 
covering  the  entire  surface  of  the  vase  offers  the  character- 
istic types  of  Chinese  decoration:  sages,  trees,  and  small 
temples  or  retreats.  The  vessel  is  formed  by  the  union  of  a 
number  of  separate  plaques  of  ivory  so  carefully  adjusted  to 
one  another  that  all  trace  of  discontinuity  is  absent. 

Some  of  the  finest  and  most  artistic  work  of  the  Siamese 
carvers  has  been  shown  in  the  elaborate  decoration  of  entire 
tusks,  the  figures  being  sculptured  in  a  series  of  niches  cut 
in  the  circumference  of  the  tusk.    These  niches  are  of  highly 

***  A  Japanese  Collection,  made  by  Michael  Tonkins,"  see  Vol.  I,  pp.  160. 161,  *'  Ivories," 
by  Gleeson  White. 

tOp.  dt..  PI.  IV,  48. 

tOp.  cit.,  PI.  IV.  M. 

•♦Op.  cit..  PI.  IV,  18.5. 

iOp.  dt.,  PI.  IV.  272. 


ELAKOIIATKLV   CAUVEO    IVDIIV   VASE 


s 


ORIENTAL    IVORY    CARVINGS     135 

ornamental  design,  much  openwork  being  used,  and  rise  in 
tiers,  irregularly,  one  row  above  the  other.  Thus  the  entire 
surface  of  the  tusk  is  carved,  the  tip  above  the  niches  being 
worked  out  in  a  purely  ornamental  pattern.  In  an  illus- 
tration showing  five  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  this 
art  the  graceful  grouping  of  the  tusks  was  striking,  and  the 
element  of  asymmetry  skilfully  introduced  by  placing  one 
twisted  and  distorted  tusk  in  the  foreground. 

Among  the  Tibetans  ivory  is  but  rarely  used.  Some  of 
the  Nomads  wear  decorative  bracelets  or  rings  of  ivory  on 
their  cues,  these  ornaments,  uncarved  and  of  the  simplest 
design,  being  made  in  India  for  exportation  to  Tibet.  Ex- 
amples of  them  may  be  seen  in  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Chicago.* 

Small,  portable  altars  made  of  ivory  and  having  a  semi- 
spherical  form  are  used  by  priests  in  Mexico  in  their  cere- 
monials, on  their  journeys  through  the  country  either  to 
confer  baptism,  listen  to  confession,  or  administer  extreme 
unction.  These  portable  altars  measure  only  2^  or  3  in. 
across,  and  as  the  carvings  are  on  the  inside  of  the  hollow 
hemisphere,  their  position  eflFectively  protects  them  from  in- 
jury by  abrasion,  and  the  little  "altars"  can  be  safely  carried 
about  in  the  pocket  or  in  any  other  receptacle. 

Some  specimens  of  Mexican  ivory  carving  done  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  taken  from  a  Catholic  in  1860  by 
an  oflScer  of  Benito  Juarez,  were  later  acquired  by  Dr. 
Edward  H.  Thompson.  While  the  art  standard  of  a  great 
part  of  these  ecclesiastical  carvings  was  not  especially  high, 
there  was  among  them  a  Christ  figure  exceptionally  well 
executed.! 

^Communicated  by  Dr.  Berthold  Laufer,  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago. 
tCommunicaied  by  Dr.  Edward  H.  Thompson. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ELEPHANTS,  HISTORICAL 

Early  Egyptian  art  offers  a  few  representations  of  the 
elephant,  which  was  probably  better  known  in  pre-dynastie 
and  early  dynastic  times  than  at  a  later  date.  A  very  small 
statuette  of  black  stone  in  the  Egyptian  collection  of  the 
Berlin  Museum  unquestionably  represents  an  elephant,  and 
some  more  doubtful  instances  appear  in  certain  ivory  reliefs, 
as  on  a  comb  in  the  First  Egyptian  Room  of  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  New  York.  All  of  these,  as  well  as  the 
statuette,  date  from  before  3000  B.  C.  Of  the  various  ob- 
jects made  of  ivory,  such  as  combs,  bracelets,  pendants, 
spoons,  statuettes,  etc.,  and  found  in  tombs  dating  from  3600 
B.  C.  to  3000  B.  C,  a  certain  number  are  of  hippopotamus 
ivory.  While  the  elephant  appears  to  have  become  less 
familiar  to  the  Egyptian  of  the  third  millennium  before 
Christ,  ivory  was  still  secured  and  worked  and  an  inscription 
at  Elephantine,  on  the  tomb  of  a  noble  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty 
(c.  2475-2025  B.  C),  relates  that  on  his  return  from  an 
expedition  to  the  southward  he  sent  to  the  king  a  tusk  5  ft. 
long,  retaining  for  his  own  use  one  10  ft.  long.  Another 
noble,  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  (2000-1788  B.  C),  captured  a 
live  elephant  which  may  have  been  brought  to  Egypt.  The 
chief  source  of  supply  seems  to  have  been  the  "land  of 
Punt,"  the  Somali  Coast  and  Libya,  whence  in  the  fifteenth 
century  B.  C.  700  tusks  were  brought.  Of  the  2,500  scarabs 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  only  one  or  two  are  of  ivoiy» 

186 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         137 

hence  this  material  does  not  seem  to  have  been  favoured 
for  the  making  of  scarabs.*  In  a  mutilated  inscription  of 
Sesostris  I  (1980-1935  B.  C),  a  king  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
there  appears  to  be  mention  of  an  elephant  brought  to 

Egypt.t 

The  Nimrod  Obelisk  of  the  Assyrian  monarch  Shalmanesar 
n  (860-825  B.  C.)  figures  the  elephant  in  unmistakable  form, 
these  animals  being  noted  as  part  of  the  tribute  paid  by  the 
land  of  Musri,  while  ivory  was  received  from  the  Suhseans 
and  Pataeans.  The  tribute  of  Jehu,  King  of  Israel,  is  also 
inscribed  on  this  obelisk4 

The  elephant  is  probably  not  named  in  the  Bible,  except 
in  the  Apocryphal  Books,  as  in  various  passages  of  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Books  of  Maccabees**  when  treating 
of  the  military  forces  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria  and  of 
Ptolemy  Philopater  of  Egypt.  Ivory,  indicated  by  the 
word  sheriy "  tooth,**  is  mentioned  in  several  passages,  namely, 
Amos  iii,  15;  vi,  4;  I  Kings  x,  18;  2  Chron.  ix,  17;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  6;  Psalm  xlv,  8;  Cant,  v,  14;  vii,  5;  to  which  must  be 
added  the  qamoth  shen,  "horns  of  ivory"  in  Ezek.  xxvii,  15. 
The  New  Testament  contains  but  one  reference  to  ivory,  in 
Rev.  xviii,  12,  and  here  the  adjective  elephantinon  is  used. 
The  marginal  rendering  " elephant'*  in  the  Authorized 
Version,  for  behemoth^  is  undoubtedly  incorrect,  as  the  name 
should  certainly  be  rendered  hippopotamus. 

Both  elephants  and  ivory  are  mentioned  in  early  Chinese 
records.  In  the  Ch6u-li,  belonging  possibly  to  the  tenth 
century  B.  C,  it  is  stated  that  the  trade  of  the  province 

*Penoiial  communication  of  Miss  C.  L.  Ransom,  Assistant  Curator  in  the  Department 
of  Egyptian  Antiquities,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York. 

tBreasted,  "Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,"  Chicago.  1906.  Vol.  I.  p.  247. 

{"AltorienUtische  Texte,"  ed.  by  Grossman,  Leipzig,  1900,  Vol.  II,  pp.  184,  1S5,  Fig. 
888;  text  in  "Keilinschriftliche  Bibliothek."  ed.  Schrader.  Vol.  I.  BerUn,  1889,  p.  151. 

^^Biacc.  i.  17;  iii,  84;  vi,  80, 84, 85. 46;  viii,  6;  2  Mace,  zi,  4;  ziii.  2,  15;  8  Mace.  y,Uft, 
10, 80.  88, 48.    Communicated  by  Prof.  Francis  Brown  of  Union  Theological  Seminary. 


138      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

King-ch6u  consisted  of  vermilion  (cinnabar),  ivory,  and 
skins.  The  word  used  here  for  ivory,  ch%  literally  means 
"a  front  tooth";  the  commentaries,  however,  give  it  the 
sense  of  ''elephant's  tooth."  That  elephants  existed  in  this 
part  of  China  in  ancient  times  is  vouched  for  by  many  local 
traditions,  one  of  which  tells  of  an  elephant  seen  here  as  late 
as  the  seventh  century  A.  D.,  but  these  animals  have  long 
been  extinct  in  this  region.*  Probably  the  earliest  Chinese 
notice  of  ivory  is  in  an  ode  attributed  to  the  twelfth  century 
B.  C.  and  contained  in  the  Shi-King,  or  "Book  of  Poetry," 
considered  by  sinologists  the  most  ancient  literary  authority 
as  to  the  ancient  civilizations  of  China.  Here  ivory  is  said 
to  have  been  used  for  decorating  the  bows  of  the  chiefs. 
In  this  instance  the  word  slangs  elephant,  is  used  to  denote 
ivory;  combs  made  of  ivory  are  also  mentioned.  We  are  not 
told  whence  this  ivory  was  derived,  but  in  view  of  the  proba- 
ble existence  of  elephants  in  the  south  of  China,  it  need  not 
necessarily  have  been  brought  from  without,  although  <me 
of  the  earliest  Tonkinese  embassies  to  the  Court  of  China  is 
said  to  have  brought  an  elephant's  tusk  as  tribute  to  the 
Emperor  Ch'ong-wang  (1115-1059  B.  C.).t 

A  Buddhist  legend  states  that  seons  ago  Bodhisattva  was 
incarnated  as  the  Chhadanta,  or  six-tusked  elephant,  and  was 
once  pursued  by  a  wily  hunter,  who  had  assumed  the  dis- 
guise of  a  religious  ascetic.  Such  was  Bodhisattva's  rever- 
ence for  the  sacred  robe  that,  although  he  was  well  aware  of 
the  deception,  he  still  broke  off  his  tusks  and  gave  them  to 
the  hunter,  t  The  earliest  sculptured  figures  of  the  elephant 
in  India  are  said  to  be  in  the  cave  of  Lomas  Rishi  in  Behar, 
and  are  believed  to  date  from  250  B.  C,  the  time  of  King 

^Friedrich  Hirth.  "The  Ancient  History  of  China  to  the  end  of  the  Choa  Dynuty,*' 
New  York,  1906,  pp.  121,  214;  Hu-nan-fang-wu-chi,  Ch.  viii«  p.  0. 

fHirth,  op  dt. 

{Andrews,  "The  Elephant  in  Art  and  Industry,"  in  the  Journal  qf  Indian  Art  and  In' 
dustry.  Vol.  X,  p.  63. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         189 

Asoka.*    On  a  fragment  of  the  Buddhist  Rail  we  have  a  n^ 

decidedly  humorous  treatment,  an  elephant  being  utilized 
by  a  troupe  of  monkey  dentists  to  extract  a  particularly 
obstinate  tooth  by  means  of  a  long  rope  or  cord  attached  to 

this.f 

Another  Buddhist  legend  relates  that  in  one  of  the  trans- 
formations of  Gautama  Buddha  he  assumed  the  form  of  an 
elephant  known  by  the  name  of  Sattan  Sin  Min.  His  sudden 
disappearance  was  regarded  as  desertion  by  his  consort, 
who  prayed  that  in  the  next  transmigration  of  her  soul  a 
signal  vengeance  might  be  granted  to  her.  She  was  bom 
again  as  queen  of  the  king  of  Benares,  and  one  day,  pretend- 
ing to  be  severely  ill,  she  declared  that  nothing  could  cure 
her  of  her  malady  except  an  ivory  earring.  A  hunter  was 
immediately  sent  out  to  secure  tusks  and  got  those  of  the 
transformed  Buddha.  The  coveted  earring  was  duly  made 
and  the  queen's  thirst  for  revenge  and  her  vanity  were  grati- 
fied at  the  same  time.  This  was  the  origin  of  ivory  carving 
in  Burma.]; 

Indeed,  the  elephant  appears  quite  often  in  Buddhist 
legend.  For  instance,  we  read  in  the  *'Kullavagga"  that 
there  was  at  Rajagaha  an  elephant  named  Nalagira,  very 
fierce  and  a  manslayer.  To  compass  the  destruction  of  the 
Buddha,  Devadatta  went  to  the  elephant  stables  in  Raja- 
gaha and  said  to  the  elephant  keepers:  '^I,  my  friends,  am  a 
relative  of  the  Rajah  and  able  to  advance  a  man  occupying 
a  low  position  to  a  high  position,  and  to  order  an  increase  of 
rations  or  of  pay;  therefore,  my  friends,  when  Gautama 
Buddha  shall  have  arrived  at  this  carriage-road,  then  loose 
the  elephant  Nalagira  and  let  him  go  down  the  road."    The 

^AndrewB,  op.  cit.,  p.  08. 
tAndrews.  op.  cit.,  PI.  XCIII. 

XSL,  S.  Pratt,  "Ivory  Carving  in  Burma/*  the  Journal  of  Indian  AH  and  InduHry,  Vol. 
IX,  No.  75.  p.  50;  July,  1901. 


140     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

elephant  keepers  agreed  to  do  so,  and  when  the  Buddha, 
surrounded  by  his  disciples,  reached  the  spot,  the  elephant 
was  loosed  and  charged  toward  him  "'with  uplifted  trunk, 
and  with  its  tail  and  ears  erect."  The  disciples  were  panic- 
stricken,  but  the  Buddha  reassured  them,  and  "'he  caused 
the  sun  of  his  love  to  pervade  the  elephant  Nalagira,"  so 
that  the  animal,  lowering  its  trunk,  went  quietly  up  to  the 
Buddha,  who  stroked  its  forehead  with  his  right  hand. 
Completely  tamed,  the  once  ferocious  beast  returned  to  its 
quarters,  and  the  people,  filled  with  admiration,  cried  out: 
""They  can  be  tamed  by  sticks  and  goads  and  whips,  but  the 
great  Sage  has  tamed  an  elephant  without  weapon  or  stick."* 

The  elephant  is  vividly  figured  in  an  elaborately  carved 
bas-relief  frieze,  illustrating  a  hunting  scene,  which  adorns 
the  great  temple  of  Angkor  Wat  in  Cambodia,  the  most  re- 
cent and  also  the  most  ornate  of  the  great  Buddhist  temples 
in  this  region.  The  entire  frieze  measures  324  ft.  in  length, 
and  shows  about  one  thousand  figures.  On  the  elephant's 
neck  is  seated  a  mahout,  while  a  warrier  armed  with  bow 
and  arrows  is  standing,  one  foot  on  the  animal's  back  and 
the  other  on  a  seat  it  bears,  in  the  art  of  drawing  his  bow. 
This  war  elephant  has  its  trunk  curled  back,  and  head  erect, 
the  rather  short  tusks  projectingbut  little  beyond  the  trunk.f 

An  elephant  stylobate,  unearthed  in  1894  by  the  Archaeo- 
logical Commissioner,  on  private  land  a  mile  from  Anura- 
dhapura,  Ceylon,  has  just  been  set  up  on  a  lawn  before  the 
library  building  in  Colombo.  Beneath  a  broad  platform 
are  sculptured  as  supports  thirty-six  elephant  heads,  nine 
on  each  of  the  four  sides.  The  whole  work  is  exceedingly 
artistic  and  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Cinghalese  monarchy. 

*"Kullavaggs/'  VII.  8, 11. 12;  Sacied  Booka  of  the  East,  Vol.  XX,  Vinaya  Texts,  Pt.  m, 
trans,  by  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids  and  Hermann  Oldenberg.  Oxford,  1885,  pp.  047-850. 

t Jacob  E.  Conner,  "The  Forgotten  Ruins  of  Indo-China,"  in  the  National  Oeograpkie 
Magamne,  Vol.  XXIII.  No.  8.  pp.  800-872;  iUustntion  of  elephant  cm  p.  866  (Four- 
nereau  Collection). 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         141 

Such  elephant-bome  platforms  are  quite  usual  in  the  Buddh- 
ist dagobas  of  Ceylon,  for  the  elephant  plays  an  important 
rdle  in  Buddhist  legend,  as  it  was  this  animal  which  an- 
nounced in  a  dream  to  Maya  Devi,  mother  of  the  celestial 
Buddha,  the  coming  of  the  Bodhisattva.  This  theme  was 
used  by  many  Hindu  sculptors  whose  work  may  be  seen  in 
Amravati  and  in  Southern  India.* 

The  popular  fancy  in  some  parts  of  India  that  the  ele- 
phants of  Ceylon  were  of  a  superior  breed  found  expression 
in  the  story  that  all  other  elephants  rendered  homage  to 
them  and  would  prostrate  themselves  before  them  in  token 
of  veneration.  Another  recital  concerning  Cinghalese  ele- 
phants is  to  the  effect  that  a  couple  of  centuries  ago  the 
East  India  Company  sent  some  of  them  as  gifts  to  the  Sul- 
tan of  Sulu;  as,  however,  he  was  unable  or  unwilling  to 
maintain  them,  they  were  landed  and  let  loose  at  Cape 
Unsang,  Borneo,  and  are  believed  to  be  the  progenitors  of 
the  wild  elephants  on  that  island  to-day.  Of  the  kind  of 
obeisance  made  before  the  Cinghalese  elephant  by  those 
of  other  species,  Tavemier  declares  that  "by  a  natural  in- 
stinct they  pay  it  reverence  by  placing  the  ends  of  the 
trunk  upon  the  ground  and  then  elevating  them."  f 

The  famous  white  elephants  of  Burma  have  shared  with 
those  of  Siam  the  repute  of  being  incarnations  of  the  Buddha, 
or  at  least  of  being  living  memorials  of  the  white  elephant  of 
long  ago,  the  form  of  the  last  incarnation  of  Gautama,  before 
liis  birth  in  human  form  and  his  attainment  of  the  dignity 
of  the  Buddha.  Hence  it  is  that  one  of  these  rare  elephants 
is  selected  by  the  priesthood  and  is  accorded  religious  honour, 
just  as  in  ancient  Egypt  the  sacred  bull  Apis  was  honoured 

^Gerard  A.  Joseph,  "The  Elephant  Stylobate  in  the  Colombo  Museum,"  in  reprint 
from  "Spolia  Zeylanica,"  Vol.  Vm,  PI.  XXX.  June,  1012;  pp.  141, 142. 

tSee  "TnvelB  in  India  of  Jean  Baptiste  Tavemier,'*  trans,  by  Dr.  Valentine  Ball, 
Xoodon,  1880.  Vol.  H,  p.  S17,  text  i|i|d  Qote  citing  Frier's  "  Aocoiwt,"  Calcutta;  see  nbo 
note  pp.  818, 9)9. 


142     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  even  worshipped  at  Memphis,  the  death  of  one  of  these 
bulls  being  immediately  followed  by  the  selection  and  in- 
stallation of  another  in  its  place,  to  which  the  divine  spirit 
was  believed  to  have  transferred  its  abode. 

One  of  the  latest  members  of  this  Burmese  dynasty  of 
elephants,  perhaps  the  last  member,  was  chosen  about  1806, 
and  was  still  living  in  1856,  when  Col.  Henry  Yule  visited 
Ava,  and  was  then  seen  by  him  in  all  the  glory  of  its  gorgeous 
trappings,  of  which  we  have  the  following  description  :* 

"The  headstall  was  of  fine  red  cloth  studded  with  rubies 
and  diamonds;  the  driving  hook  was  of  crystal  tipped  with 
gold,  with  a  stem  of  pearls  banded  with  rubies;  the  harness 
was  made  of  bands  of  gold  and  crimson  set  with  large  bosses 
of  pure  gold;  a  golden  plate  inscribed  with  his  titles  was 
worn  on  his  forehead,  and  a  gold  crescent  set  with  large  gems 
between  the  eyes.  A  minister  of  state  waited  on  him  and 
shoes  were  removed  on  going  into  his  royal  presence.  A 
territory  was  assigned  for  his  support.** 

The  first  Burmese  war  necessitated  the  withdrawal  of  the 
elephant's  subsidy,  which  had  to  be  used  for  military  ex- 
penses, but  the  king  sought  to  avert  the  wrath  this  might 
have  aroused  in  the  heart  of  the  royal  beast  by  personally 
laying  before  it  a  petition  craving  pardon  for  the  unavoidable 
offence,  and  promising  full  restitution  as  soon  as  possible. 
For  better  protection  the  elephant  was  removed  to  Manda- 
lay ,  and  is  said  to  have  died  there  on  the  day  after  the  British 
forces  took  possession  of  that  city.  This  must  have  strength- 
ened the  conviction  of  the  Burmese  of  the  exceptional  char- 
acter of  this  chosen  and  consecrated  elephant,  as  it  proved 
that  the  animal  could  not  survive  the  downfall  of  the  native 
rule  in  Burma. 

The  Koran  makes  mention  of  the  elephant,  and,  indeed, 

*Mn.  Ernest  Hart,  "Picturesque  Burma,  Past  and  Present,"  London  &  Fhiladdpliia, 
1807,  p.  167. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         US 

one  of  its  surds,  or  chapters,  the  105th,  is  entitled  Sural  uU 
FiU  "The  Chapter  of  the  Elephant."  It  opens  with  the 
following  verse:  "Hast  thou  not  seen  how  thy  Lord  dealt 
with  The  masters  of  the  Elephant?"  This  alludes  to  an 
event  that  happened  in  the  year  of  Mohammed's  birth,  571 
A.  D.  Shortly  before  that  time  a  Christian  Ethiopian 
sovereign,  Abraha  Ebn,  caused  a  church  to  be  built  at 
Sanaa,  designing  that  this  should  become  a  centre  of  pil- 
grimage for  the  Arabs,  diverting  the  stream  of  pilgrims  from 
the  Kaaba  at  Mecca.  This  proved  to  be  the  case,  and  the 
Koreish  tribe,  which  had  charge  of  what  had  so  long  been 
regarded  by  the  Arabs  as  a  kind  of  national  sanctuary, 
sought  to  stem  the  tide  of  desertion  by  sending  a  man  to 
defile  the  Christian  church,  and  thus  rob  it  of  its  sacred 
character  in  the  eyes  of  the  pilgrims.  The  vile  attempt 
succeeded,  but  the  anger  of  Abraha  was  so  enkindled  thereby 
that  he  raised  an  army  and  set  forth  to  destroy  the  Kaaba. 
To  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  Arabs  by  what  to  them 
would  be  a  new  and  unaccustomed  enemy  he  took  with  him 
thirteen  war  elephants. 

However,  Allah  did  not  fail  to  protect  the  sacred  shrine, 

for  when  the  invaders  neared  the  city  of  Mecca  the  elephant 

on  which  Abraha  was  riding  refused  to  advance  farther, 

kneeling  down  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  force  him  to 

enter  the  city.     This  checked  the  attack,  and  soon  an  im- 

inense  flock  of  birds  appeared  in  the  heavens,  hovered  above 

tiie  hostile  army  and  dropped  death-dealing  stones  upon  it, 

And  a  torrential  rain  caused  a  flood  that  swept  away  most  of 

the  soldiers  who  were  not  struck  by  the  stones.     Thus  the 

Attack  failed  and  the  Kaaba  was  preserved.     As  the  same 

Xvord  is  used  in  Arabic  to  signify  "small  stones"  and  "small- 

I^ox,"  a  rationalistic  explanation  of  this  recital  has  been  that 

^n  epidemic  of  smallpox,  then  appearing  for  the  first  time 

in  Arabia,  was  the  real  cause  of  Abrahams  defeat.    The  leg- 


144     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

end,  marvellous  as  it  is  in  its  present  form,  is  thought  to 
have  some  foundation  in  fact,  as  the  sura  reciting  it  was 
composed  by  Mohammed  not  more  than  fifty-four  years 
after  the  date  of  the  supposed  happening.* 

The  curious  fancy,  often  repeated  by  medieval  writers, 
that  the  elephant's  legs  were  jointless,  so  that  the  animal 
could  not  lie  down,  is  already  found  in  Ceesar's  Commentaries 
(of  the  elk)  and  also  in  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  viii,  39).  It  also 
appears  in  the  Alexandrian  Greek  writing  called  "Physiol- 
ogus,"  which  in  the  form  now  extant  belongs  probably  to 
the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our  era,  although  this  is  doubt- 
less based  upon  a  much  earlier  original,  from  which  Pliny 
(23-79  A.  D.)  and  possibly  even  Ceesar  (100-44  B.  C.)  may 
have  derived  their  information.  An  indication  of  the  possi- 
ble source  of  this  tale  is  found  by  Dr.  Berthold  Laufer  in  a 
Chinese  work  of  the  Sung  period  which  gives  a  story  told 
by  a  seafaring  man  to  Wu  Shi-kao,  a  physician  of  the  T  'ang 
period.  Here  we  have  to  do,  not  with  the  elephant,  but 
with  the  rhinoceros,  of  which  it  is  said  that  the  front  legs 
"were  straight  without  joints,"  and  that  the  animal  there- 
fore slept  "by  leaning  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree."  Taking 
a  perfidious  advantage  of  this  interesting  peculiarity,  "the 
maritime  people"  when  seeking  to  capture  a  rhinoceros 
would  set  up  on  a  mountain  path  structures  of  decayed 
timber.  When  a  rhinoceros,  taking  one  of  them  for  a  tree 
trunk,  confidingly  selected  it  as  his  upright  bed,  the  rotten 
timber  would  give  way  under  his  weight  and  he  would  topple 
in  front  without  being  able  for  a  long  time  to  rise.  "Then," 
we  are  told,  "they  attack  and  kill  it,"  and  were  thus  able  to 
obtain  the  much-prized  hom.f 

*See  George  Sale,  "The  Koran,"  Fhiladelphia,  1855,  p.  499  (sura  105),  and  abo  J.  VL 
RodweU,  "El  Koran,"  London,  1876,  p.  20. 

fDr.  Berthold  Laufer,  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  NarwhiJ  Ivory,'* 
te^den,  1918,  pp.  49-52;  reprinted  from  the  T'oun^-Pao,  Vol.  XJY, 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         145 

The  tale  given  in  "Physiologus,"  referring  to  the  elephant, 
runs  as  follows:* 

"When  the  elephant  has  fallen  he  cannot  rise,  for  his 
knees  have  no  joints.  But  how  does  he  fall?  When  he 
wants  to  sleep  he  leans  against  a  tree,  and  thus  he  sleeps. 
The  Indians  familiar  with  this  peculiarity  of  the  elephant 
saw  the  tree  a  bit.  The  elephant  comes  to  lean  toward  it, 
and  as  he  draws  near  to  the  tree,  it  falls  to  the  ground,  taking 
him  with  it.  After  falling  he  is  not  able  to  rise.  He  begins 
to  scream.  One  elephant,  and  then  twelve  others  arrive  to 
help  him — in  vain,  until  at  last  the  small  elephant  appears, 
lays  his  trimk  around  him  and  lifts  hira." 

In  this  form  of  the  recital  Doctor  Laufer  thinks  that  the 
elephant  has  been  arbitrarily  substituted  for  the  Indian 
rhinoceros,  of  which  something  similar  is  also  told  by  the 
Arab  merchant,  Soleiman,  who  travelled  in  India  in  851  A.  D. 
As  the  "Physiologus,"  in  the  form  it  has  come  down  to  us, 
always  gives  a  symbolic  Christian  interpretation  to  its  reci- 
tals, so  here  the  fallen  elephant  represents  Adam,  the  twelve 
elephants  who  vainly  strive  to  help  him,  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  and  by  the  small  elephant  through  whose  aid  he  is 
finally  rescued  is  signified  Christ. f 

That  war  elephants  were  only  to  be  found  in  India  up  to 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  appears  to  be  fairly  well 
established,  at  least  so  far  as  Western  literary  sources  go. 
In  his  "Historia  Animalium,'*  Aristotle  states  that  the 
Xndians  employed  in  this  way  both  male  and  female  ele- 
phants. Nevertheless  it  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  the 
-African  princes  had  war  elephants  before  this  time.  From 
uArrian  (Lib.  Ill)  we  learn,  indeed,  that  some  fifteen  Indian 

*E.  Peters,  "Der  grieduAche  Physiologus  und  seine  orientalischen  Uebersetzungeiit" 
Berlin,  1898,  p.  89.    Cited  in  Doctor  Laufer*s  paper. 

fDr.  Berthold  Laufer,  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Narwhal  Ivory." 
X^deo.  1918,  p.  51.    Reprinted  from  the  Toung-Pao,  Vol.  XIV. 


146     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

elephants,  with  Indian  mahouts,  were  in  the  army  of  Darius 
when  he  was  defeated  at  Arbela  by  Alexander,  and  when  the 
latter  was  approaching  the  city  of  Susa  the  Persian  satrap 
sent  many  gifts  to  him  to  secure  his  favour,  among  which 
were  twelve  elephants  that  Darius  had  secured  from  India.* 
While  this  shows  that  to  a  very  moderate  extent  these  ani- 
mals were  beginning  to  be  utilized  for  warlike  purposes  in 
Persia,  it  essentially  confirms  the  statement  that  India  was 
still  the  home  of  the  war  elephant.  The  Greek  writer 
Arrian,  who  recounted  the  history  of  Alexander's  campaigns, 
notes  in  his  "Tactics"  that  already  at  that  period  the  tusks 
of  the  Indian  war  elephants  were  armed  with  sharp-pK)inted 
iron,  both  to  render  their  thrust  more  deadly  and  to  protect 
them  from  wear.f 

The  elephant  on  which  the  Indian  king  Porus  rode  when 
he  encountered  the  Greeks  of  Alexander  was  said  to  have 
been  so  well  trained  and  so  intelligent  that  it  drew  out  with 
its  trunk  the  javelins  which  wounded  Porus,  and  feeling  that 
its  master's  strength  was  failing  and  that  he  was  about  to 
collapse,  the  animal  knelt  down  to  prevent  him  from  falling 
to  the  groimd.  This  is  the  story  told  by  Plutarch  in  his 
"Solertia  Animalium,"  but  Quintus  Curtius  (Lib.  Vlll, 
cap.  25)  gives  a  less  romantic  version,  stating  that  the  ele- 
phant only  obeyed  the  accustomed  signal  to  kneel  down 
given  by  his  mahout,  and  adds  that  the  other  war  elephants, 
seeing  this,  did  the  same,  thus  rendering  their  capture  by 
the  Greeks  an  easy  task.  J 

According  to  a  legend  current  in  the  first  century  of  our 
era,  Alexander  dedicated  to  the  Sun  one  of  the  boldest  of  the 
elephants  he  had  captured  from  Porus  in  his  Indian  cam- 

*See  Giflberti  Cupeii,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis,"  Hagae  Comitum,  1719,  ools. 
89-44. 

t  "Arriani,  Techne  Taktike,'*  II,  4,  in  Arriani,  "Scripta  Minores,*'  ed.  Hercfaer  and 
Eberfaaid,  Lipsiae,  1885,  p.  105. 

^isbeiti  Cupeii,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis,*'  Hagte  Comitum,  1719,  col.  44. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         147 

paign,  and  had  its  tusks  adorned  with  gold  bands  on  which 
were  inscribed  the  words  in  Greek:  "Alexander,  son  of  Zeus, 
dedicates  Ajax  to  Helios,"  showing  that  he  had  named  this 
elephant  after  a  Homeric  hero  renowned  for  his  courage  and 
fortitude.  It  was  related  that  this  same  elephant  was  still 
living  in  the  time  of  Domitian,  four  himdred  or  more  years 
after  the  battle  with  Poms,  and  no  one  could  tell  how  old 
he  might  then  have  been.*  The  story  is,  of  course,  quite 
apocryphal  in  what  concerns  the  elephant's  marvellous 
longevity  at  least,  for  two  hundred  years  is  regarded  as  the 
extreme  age  limit  this  animal  very  occasionally  attains. 

The  splendid  funeral  car  in  which  the  remains  of  Alexander 
the  Great  were  borne  from  Babylon  to  Egypt  was  adorned 
with  representations  of  elephants,t  and  it  has  been  conject- 
ured, though  without  any  material  proof,  that  the  generally 
exact  description  given  by  Aristotle  of  the  elephant  resulted 
from  his  having  had  the  opportimity  to  see  a  specimen  sent 
him  by  his  former  pupil,  Alexander. 

In  a  magnificent  street  pageant  that  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
(Ptolemy  II,  309-247  B.  C.)  offered  to  the  citizens  of  Alexan- 
dria, the  most  impressive  feature  was  a  colossal  figure  of 
Bacchus,  twelve  cubits  in  height,  seated  upon  an  elephant, 
on  whose  neck  was  a  satyr  five  cubits  high;  accompanying 
and  following  this  came  Silenus,  nymphs,  satyrs,  etc.,  the 
usual  train  of  Bacchus.|  In  view  of  the  immense  propor- 
tions of  the  Bacchus  image,  it  seems  that  the  elephant 
must  have  been  an  artificial  one,  made  of  proportionate 
size. 

Plato  in  his  Critias  (written  about  400  B.  C),  reciting  the 
fable  of  the  Island  of  Atlantis,  which  some  have  conjectured 

*GiBberti  Cupeii,  **De  elephanU  in  nummifl  obviis,"  Hagse  Comitum,  1719»   ool.  44, 
dting  Fhilostrati  "De  vita  ApoUomi,"  lib.  II,  cap.  6. 

tDiodorus  Siculua,  Lib.  XVUI. 

tGiabeiti  Cuperi,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis,"  Hagte  Comitum,  1719,  ool.  56, 
dtiiig  CalUaenus  Rhodiua  apud  Athenaeus,  Lab.  V. 


148     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

to  be  a  dim  tradition  of  a  long-lost  continent  in  the  Atlantic 
Ck^ean  actually  existent  in  time  long  past,  relates  that  among 
the  animals  to  be  fomid  there  were  many  elephants,  and 
adds  that  the  elephant  was  the  "largest  and  most  voracious'* 
of  all  creatures.  There  is  a  bare  possibility  that  this  Greek 
philosopher  may  have  seen  one  or  more  of  these  animals 
during  his  sojourn  in  Egypt,  whither  he  journeyed  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  philosophical  studies.  That  elephants  were 
not  quite  unfamiliar  objects  to  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  much 
earlier  period  is  testified  to  by  the  inscriptions.  The  inde- 
fatigable traveller  and  close  observer,  Herodotus,  writing 
about  a  century  before  Plato's  time,  notes  (Lib.  IV,  cap.  191) 
the  presence  of  elephants  in  a  region  to  the  westward  of 
Egypt.  Thus  we  see  that  at  least  the  more  educated  among 
the  Greeks  could  scarcely  have  been  ignorant  of  their  exist- 
ence, although  since  the  disappearance  of  the  extinct  species 
none  of  these  animals  trod  the  soil  of  Europe  before  that 
Alexander  the  Great  perhaps  sent  as  a  gift  to  his  master 
Aristotle.  This,  at  least,  is  the  conclusion  forced  upon  us 
by  a  study  of  the  written  records. 

Wonderful  tales  are  told  of  the  immense  number  of  war 
elephants  used  in  ancient  times  in  India,  and  the  great 
Hindu  epic,  the  "Mahabharata,**  leads  the  way  by  giving  as 
the  component  parts  of  an  ideal  army,  109,500  infantry, 
65,610  cavalry,  21,870  chariots,  and  21,870  elephants;  cer- 
tainly a  very  eflicient  commissariat  would  be  required  to 
supply  nourishment  for  a  like  assemblage  of  these  huge 
pachyderms.  Apart,  however,  from  such  poetic  exaggera- 
tions, the  sober  statements  of  Greek  and  Roman  historians 
and  geographers  are  remarkable  enough.  Thus  Strabo* 
(first  century  B.  C.)  asserts  that  the  Seres  had  5,000  ele- 
phants in  their  service,  and  Plutarch  (ca.  46-120  A.  D.)t 

*Iib.  XV,  cap.  1. 

tVita  Alexandris,  cap.  62. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         149 

tells  us  that  the  Gangarides  and  Prasians  sent  6,000  elephants 
to  oppose  the  advance  of  Alexander  after  his  defeat  of  Porus 
on  the  Hydaspes,  in  327  B.  C.  The  best  authorities,  how- 
ever, believe  that  Porus  himself  had  only  about  a  hundred 
elephants  in  this  battle.* 

The  first  view  the  Romans  had  of  elephants  was  in  280 
B-  C,  when  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus  (318-272  B.  C), 
invaded  Italy,  and  for  a  time,  by  means  of  his  "Pyrrhic  vic- 
tories," carried  everything  before  him.  Then  came  Hanni- 
baPs  (247-183  B.  C.)  invasion  of  Italy,  elephants  forming 
an  important  and  much-dreaded  element  of  his  army.  He 
is  said  on  one  occasion  to  have  offered  a  Roman  prisoner  his 
freedom  if  he  would  engage  in  single  combat  with  an  elephant. 
The  Roman  accepted,  and  succeeded  in  killing  the  elephant 
— by  cutting  off  its  trunk,  as  it  appears.  But  the  wily 
Carthaginian  was  unwilling  that  the  prestige  of  his  elephants 
should  be  destroyed  by  this  news  reaching  the  Romans, 
and  therefore,  while  keeping  the  letter  of  his  promise  and 
freeing  the  prisoner,  he  sent  some  horsemen  in  pursuit  of 
him,  who  soon  overtook  him  and  effectually  silenced  this 
inconvenient  witness,  f 

A  somewhat  curious  circumstance  is  that  Roman  writers 
state  that  the  African  elephants  were  not  only  much  less 
courageous  than  those  from  Asia,  but  also  of  much  smaller 
size,  so  that  at  the  battle  of  Thyatira  in  189  B.  C,  between 
Scipio  Asiaticus  and  Antiochus  the  Great  (238-187  B.  C), 
the  Romans  did  not  dare  to  expose  their  African  elephants 
tx>  the  attack  of  the  Asiatic  elephants  of  Antiochus,  not 
inerely  because  the  former  were  fewer  in  number,  but,  as 
IPomponius  Mela  expressly  states,  because  even  if  equally 
xiimierous  the  African  elephants  could  not  withstand  the 
onset  of  Asiatic  ones,  which  greatly  surpassed  them  in  size 

^Armandi,  "Histoire  militaire  des  ^l^phants,"  Paris.  1843,  p.  S5. 
{See  Plinii,  Historia  Naturalis,  Lib.  VIII,  cap.  6. 


150     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  spirit.'^  The  possession  of  greater  courage  in  battle  on 
the  part  of  the  Asiatic  breed  may  perhaps  be  explained  by 
their  better  training  in  warlike  operations.  Pliny,  indeed, 
declares  that  African  elephants  were  terrified  at  the  very 
sight  of  their  Asiatic  cousins,  f  That,  however,  the  latter 
should  be  the  larger  is  entirely  contrary  to  modem 
experience,  and  can  only  be  explained  by  the  conjecture 
that  the  elephants  secured  by  the  Romans  in  Northern 
Africa  were  distinctly  inferior  to  those  from  the  equatorial 
regions. 

The  Romans  had  good  opportunity  to  compare  the  differ- 
ent races  as  the  war  elephants  of  Pyrrhus,  the  first  they  en- 
countered, and  later  those  of  the  Asiatic  potentates  they 
overcame  were  of  the  Asiatic  race,  while  those  led  against 
them  by  the  Numidian  kings  Jugurtha  (d.  104  B.  C.)  and 
Juba  (d.  46  B.  C.)  were  Africans.!  This  latter  type  appears 
on  almost  all  the  Roman  coins  bearing  representations  of 
the  elephant,  as,  indeed,  African  elephants  were  the  only 
ones  used — and  these  but  rarely — by  the  Romans  in  military 
operations.**  It  may  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  on 
coins  the  figures  symbolizing  the  province  of  Africa  almost 
invariably  bear  as  a  headcovering  the  scalp  and  trunk, 
though  rarely  the  tusks,  of  the  elephant.§  The  Asiatic 
coins  naturally  offer  us  the  Asiatic  type  of  the  animal. 

Pliny  tells  us,  on  the  authority  of  Mucianus,  thrice  consul, 
of  a  learned  elephant  which  had  been  taught  the  Greek 
characters,  and  wrote  (or  spelled  out)  the  following  words  in 
this  language:  "I  have  written  and  I  have  dedicated  the 

*Pompomi  Mele,  "De  choregisphioo,"  Lib.  II,  cap.  7. 

tPlmii,  "Hist.  Nat.,"  Lib.  Vm,  cap.  9.    iElian  (hist,  anm.,  cap.  8)  sUtes  that  aome 
Indian  elephants  reached  the  height  of  7  cubits,  about  18  ft. 

{Annandi,  op.  cit.,  p.  278. 

**Armandi,  op.  cit,,  p.  8. 

§Annandi,  op.  cit.,  p.  18. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         151 

Celtic  spoils/'*  We  may  conjecture  that  the  animal  picked 
out  the  letters  with  its  trunk,  and  many  of  us  have  seen 
trained  horses,  etc.,  perform  similar  tricks  under  expert 
guidance. 

Writing  about  a  century  later  than  Pliny,  iElian  also  notes 
the  performance  of  an  educated  elephant  which  could  write 
out  letters  on  a  tablet  with  its  trunk.  He  admits,  however, 
that  the  hand  of  the  trainer  was  so  placed  as  to  be  able  to  guide 
the  trunk,  but  the  animal  seemed  to  be  intent  on  its  task, 
and  appeared  to  understand  perfectly  what  it  was  doing.  In 
another  performance  a  troupe  of  elephants,  with  trappings  of 
different  colours,  first  executed  a  series  of  dances  to  the  sound 
of  musical  instruments,  and  then  took  their  places  in  proper 
order  at  immense  tables,  proceeding  to  eat  and  drink  in 
imitation  of  a  group  of  banqueters,  t 

The  Italian  traveller,  Ludovico  di  Barthema,  of  Bologna, 
who  journeyed  through  the  East  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  described  the  offensive  and  defensive 
armour  of  an  Indian  war  elephant.  The  head  and  trunk 
were  protected  by  a  covering  of  mail,  and  as  a  weapon  of 
defence,  a  long  sword,  having  a  blade  as  broad  as  a  man's 
hand,  was  firmly  attached  to  the  trunk.  The  animal  carried 
seven  men,  each  armed  with  bow,  lance,  sword,  and  shield. 
According  to  this  writer's  report,  the  female  elephant  was 
both  stronger  and  fiercer  than  the  male  of  the  species.  The 
price  paid  for  one  of  these  animals  varied  from  land  to  land, 
in  some  places  it  was  only  fifty  ducats,  while  in  others  it 
attained  the  sum  of  one  thousand  or  even  two  thousand 
ducats.  I 

The  Mogul  emperors  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 

^Pliiui,  "Historia  Naturalis,'*  Lab.  VIII,  Cap.  Ill;  Haiduin  notes  that  the  Greek  words 
would  form  a  perfect  metrical  line. 

fAeliani,  "Natmtt  animaliimi,"  lib.  II,  Cap.  XI. 

f'ltinerario  de  Lodovico  Varthema,'*  ed.  by  Alfredo  Bacchi  della  Lega,  Bologna,  1885, 
pp.  118-121;  6r8t  edition,  Rome,  1510. 


152     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

centuries  undoubtedly  maintained  great  troupes  of  elephants, 
Jehangir  stating  in  his  memoirs  that  he  had  12,000  large  ele- 
phants, and  1,000  smaller  ones  for  carrying  baggage  and 
munitions.  The  one  on  which  he  himself  rode  was  of  extraor- 
dinary size  and  courage  and  was  richly  caparisoned  with 
cloth  of  gold  embroidered  with  precious  stones;  on  it  the 
monarch  had  bestowed  the  name  Indra  Gaja,  or  "Elephant  of 

Indra."  Accord- 
ing to  Captain 
Hawkins,  how- 
ever, who  visited 
Agra  in  1609,  of 
these  elephants, 
7,000  of  which 
were  males  and 
5,000  females, 
only  2,000  were 
trained  for  war.* 
Nadir  Shah 
captured  three 
hundred  war,  or 
chain,  elephants 
as  they  were 
sometimes  called, 
at  the  taking  of 
Delhi  in  1739,  and  later  sent  two  of  these  as  a  present  to  the 
Sultan  in  Constantinople.  These  animals  not  only  had 
been  trained  to  war,  but  had  also  been  taught  to  dance 
at  the  sound  of  an  instrument.f  One  of  the  queer  ideas 
entertained  by  Indian  elephant  trainers  is  that  if  one  puts 
gold  and  silver  in  a  bowl  of  water  and  bathes  a  refractory 

*nHd.,pp.US,454. 

fJcJiD  R«nldng.  "Hiitorickl  reseMchea  on  the  wan  kod  qiarta  of  the  Hongola  «iid 
Roouuu,"  LoDdon.  1826,  p.  99. 


'   Tbe  Euu-B&irt.     Dtmwiog  from  b  kte  twelfth-century  MS. 
in  tlw  HarteUn  coUection.     (MS.  Hari.  No.  4T51,  fol.  8  verso.) 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL 


153 


elephant  with   the   water,  he  will   obey   the   goad    with 
alacrity.* 

The  first  elephant  seen  in  Germany  is  said  to  have  been 
one  sent  by  Caliph  Haroun  al  Rashid  to  Emperor  Charle- 
magne. The  animal  was  safely  landed  at  Pisa  in  801  A.  D., 
but  there  was  considerable  delay  in  conveying  it  to  Charle- 
magne's court  at  Aquisgranum  (Aachen,  Aix-la-Chapelle), 
where  it  arrived  only  in  the  ensuing  year.  Its  death  in  810 
is  duly  chronicled  in  an  old  record.  In  or  about  1254  Eng- 
land was  also  favoured 
with  the  gift  of  an 
elephant  from  Louis  IX 
of  France,  St.  Louis,  to 
Henry  IH  of  England, 
of  which  Polydore  Virgil 
says  it  was  an  animal 
most  rare  in  England 
(Tarisaime  in  Anglia).^ 

The  great  world  war 
has  brought  into  use 
many  new  and  startling 
methods  and  inventions,     Thi  Elii>haht  m 

but  it  has  also  witnessed    ''"■'  **>  '  tweUtk-century  copy  o(  ui  Alexutder 
.       ,       -  .    ■         .        Kim*iice.(MS.  B^.  IS.  E.  VI.) 

a  revival  of  certam  de- 
fensive weapons  of  earlier  centuries,  notably  of  the 
metal  shield  as  a  means  of  individual  protection.  The 
innovations  have  not,  however,  been  confined  to  inani- 
mate objects,  for  in  one  case  at  least  an  elephant  has 
been  utilized  by  the  Germans  in  the  construction  of  military 
works.  This  elephant  was  brought  to  Breslau  from  the 
Hagenbeck  zoblogical  garden  at  Hamburg.  Of  course,  in 
certain  parts  of  central  and  southern  Asia,  especially  in 

'Arnuuidi.  "tCatoire  miHUiKdMMpbMtj."  Puia,  1843,  pp.  AK,  629. 
lAogl.  Hut.  Ub.XVI. 


154   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

Burma,  elephants  are  still  in  use  as  traction  animals  and 
may  therefore  be  occasionally  employed  in  the  building 
of  fortifications,  but  this  European  instance  is  quite 
unique. 

On  March  20,  1513,  the  Portuguese  envoy  to  the  papal 
court,  Tristan  da  Cunha,  entered  Rome  conducting  an  ele- 
phant destined  as  a  gift  to  Pope  Leo  X,  who  had  a  great  taste 
for  the  collection  of  wild  animals.  This  rare  and  singular 
present  of  course  excited  unbounded  curiosity,  but  the  poor 
beast  did  not  long  survive  in  its  new  home,  for  its  death  is 
recorded  on  June  16,  1516.* 

Pope  Leo  X  is  stated  to  have  made  use  of  his  elephant  in 
a  burlesque  ceremony  at  the  expense  of  the  Abate  de  Gaeta, 
a  verse  writer  of  the  period.  He  caused  the  poor  abbe  to  be 
mounted  on  the  elephant's  back,  and  ordered  that  he  should 
be  thus  paraded  through  the  streets  wearing  a  crown  made 
of  laurel  and  cabbage  leaves.  This  shows  that  then,  as  in 
our  own  day,  in  our  Occidental  world  where  the  elephant  is  a 
rarity,  no  idea  of  dignity  or  majesty  is  associated  with  the 
act  of  riding  upon  it,  while  in  Roman  times,  when  troops  of 
elephants  were  brought  to  Italy  and  the  animal  must  have 
become,  for  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  at  least,  a  familiar  sight, 
conquerors  and  emperors  were  proud  to  have  their  chariots 
drawn  by  these  animals  at  triumphal  processions. 

The  sixteenth-century  author,  Cardano,  states  that  he 
had  seen  an  elephant,  thirteen  years  old,  which  belonged  to 
Mary,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  a  daughter  of  Emperor  Charles 
V.  This  animal  was  so  obedient  to  the  commands  of  its 
guide  that  when  led  before  the  Bishop  of  Milan  it  knelt 
down  and  saluted  him  with  its  head.  When  it  was  com- 
manded to  speak,  it  trumpeted.  Cardano  states  that  he 
had  more  than  once  seen  curved  tusks  six  cubits  long,  which^ 

*LouM  Madelin,  "Le  journal  d*un  habitant  Fran^us  de  Rome  an  XVI  n^de,*'  in  M6* 
langes  d'Arch^logie  et  d*Histoire,  XXII  kme  Ann^,  1902,  p.  277. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         155 

had  they  been  straight,  would  have  measured  fully  seven 
cubits  in  length.* 

The  first  elephant  that  trod  American  soil  since  the 
far-off  days  of  mastodon  and  mammoth  was  brought  to  the 
United  States  in  1815  and  bought  by  Hackaliah  Bailey  of 
Somers,  New  York.  The  rather  prosaic  name  of  "Bet** 
was  bestowed  upon  this  animal,  which  on  its  arrival  in 
New  York  Harbour  on  board  a  sailing  vessel  was  trans- 
shipped to  a  river  craft  and  finally  landed  on  the  shore  of 
the  Hudson  at  Sing  Sing,  the  present  Ossining.  To  avoid 
the  risk  of  causing  runaways  through  the  instinctive  terror 
felt  by  horses  at  the  first  sight  of  this  ponderous  and  formi- 
dable brute,  the  journey  by  land  from  the  shore  to  Somers  i 
was  made  at  night,  and  the  elephant  arrived  safely  at  its 
destination  and  future  home.  There,  and  in  the  surround- 
ing towns  and  villages,  it  was  long  exhibited  to  the  delec- 
tation of  the  more  or  less  unsophisticated  natives  of  that 
early  time,  and  became  the  central  attraction  of  what  may 
be  regarded  as  the  pioneer  American  circus,  organized  and 
managed  by  Mr.  Bailey,  who  doubtless  realized  many 
times  told  over  the  $1,000  he  had  expended  for  his  rare 
beast. 

So  closely  did  he  feel  that  his  fortunes  were  bound  up 
in  "Bet"  that  when,  in  1827,  he  built  a  hotel  in  the  town  of 
Somers,  with  the  proceeds  of  his  show  and  circus,  he  called 
it  the  "Elephant  Hotel"  and  set  up  near  it  a  stone  pedestal 
15  ft.  high  on  which  was  placed  an  immense,  carefully  carved 
wooden  image  of  his  elephant.  This  interesting  memorial 
is  still  to  be  seen  to-day. 

In  this  hostelry  the  cattle  dealers  and  drovers  of  the 
day  were  wont  to  assemble,  and  thousands  of  cattle  were 
sold  here  annually.    Later  on  Bailey  went  into  the  banking 

^Cardani.  "De  SubtiliUte,"  Baailefte,  1554,  p.  807,  lib.  X.     On  the  basis  of  the  Roman 
cubit  (17.4  in.)  this  would  be  8  ft.  4.4  in.,  or  10  ft.  1.8  in.  "along  the  curve." 


156  IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

business  and  established  the  Farmers'  and  Drovers'  Bank 
in  one  half  of  the  "Elephant  Hotel."  This  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  strongest  banking  institutions  in  the  State; 
it  went  into  liquidation  in  1905.  Many  distinguished  men 
found  their  way  from  time  to  time  to  Bailey's  hotel,  and  it 
was  here  that  Commodore  Vanderbilt  became  acquainted 
with  Daniel  Drew;  Washington  Irving  and  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne were  also  visitors. 

How  old  the  elephant  was  when  Mr.  Bailey  bought  it 
of  his  seafaring  brother  we  do  not  know,  but  it  survived 
until  1845,  and  the  skin  was  then  mounted  by  the  great 
showman,  Phineas  T.  Bamum,  and  shown  for  several  years 
in  his  "Museum"  in  New  York  City,  where  it  was  destroyed 
with  the  other  objects  of  the  heterogeneous  collection  gath- 
ered there  when  the  building  housing  them  was  burned 
down  in  1866.  The  man  to  whose  enterprise  our  country 
owed  its  first  example  of  one  of  these  great  pachyderms 
passed  away  at  the  ripe  age  of  seventy,  September  2,  1845, 
the  very  year  in  which  his  elephant  died,  and  his  life  seems 
to  have  illustrated  the  words  chiselled  on  his  tombstone: 
"Enterprise,  Perseverance,  Integrity." 

A  notable  case  of  self-immolation  on  the  part  of  a  military 
leader  to  secure  a  victory  is  told  of  Eleazar,  brother  of  Judas 
Maccabee.  At  the  battle  of  Bethzacharias,  in  163  B.  C, 
between  the  Jewish  forces  and  those  of  Antiochus  V.  Eupa- 
ter,  the  valiant  Eleazar  noted  that  one  of  the  war  elephants 
of  the  Syrians  was  conspicuous  for  its  size  and  especially 
richly  caparisoned.  He  therefore  concluded  that  this  animal 
bore  the  king.  Animated  by  the  desire  to  strike  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  the  Syrians  and  also  to  earn  immortal  fame 
for  himself,  he  forced  his  way  through  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy  until  he  had  reached  this  elephant.  Crouching 
down,  he  then  got  under  the  animal's  body  and  wounded 
it  mortally   with  his   sword,  but  was  crushed   to   death 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         157 

beneath  the  enormous  mass  of  the  elephant  as  it  fell  to  the 
ground.* 

The  administration  of  stimulants  to  war  elephants  in 
order  to  render  them  more  ferocious  has  not  always  redounded 
to  the  advantage  of  those  using  this  treatment.  The 
example  cited  in  the  Third  Book  of  Maccabees  is  a  good 
illustration  of  this.  In  210  B.  C.  the  Egyptian  monarch, 
Ptolemy  Philopater,  after  suppressing  an  insurrection  of 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  designed  to  have  a  number  of  his 
prisoners  trampled  to  death  by  elephants  in  the  Hippodrome 
for  the  delectation  of  the  Alexandrian  populace.  To  ensure 
effective  results  he  directed  that  the  elephants  should  be 
dosed  from  the  previous  day  with  a  mixture  of  frankincense 
and  wine.  The  keepers  carefully  carried  out  these  instruc- 
tions and  the  elephants  developed  a  due  degree  of  ferocity, 
but  unfortunately  they  were  no  respecters  of  persons,  and 
instead  of  venting  their  fury  upon  the  unhappy  Jews,  they 
trampled  down  the  Egyptian  guards. 

Another  case  of  devotion,  this  time  on  the  part  of  a  loyal 
servitor  to  save  the  life  of  his  master,  is  related  by  Ta vernier. 
On  one  occasion  when  Shah  Jehan  and  one  of  his  sons  were 
riding  on  an  elephant,  the  animal  suddenly  developed  an 
insane  fury,  so  that  the  mahout  completely  lost  control  over 
its  actions.  Quickly  realizing  that  should  the  elephant  con- 
tinue its  mad  rush  through  the  woodland  they  were  travers- 
ing his  sovereign  and  the  prince  would  inevitably  be  dashed 
to  pieces  against  the  trees,  the  faithful  servant  determined 
to  sacrifice  his  life  in  their  defence,  only  begging  that  his 
three  children  should  be  cared  for  after  his  death.  He  then 
jumped  down  to  the  ground,  whereupon  the  elephant  seized 
him  with  its  trunk,  cast  him  down  and  trampled  out  his  life 
beneath  its  ponderous  feet.  This  act  of  violence  satisfied 
the  creature's  rage,  and  it  immediately  became  quiet  and 

*I  Maccabees,  VI»  43-46;  see  also  Josephus  Ant.  of  Uie  Jews,  XII,  IX,  4. 


158     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

tractable.  Shah  Jehan  is  said  to  have  given  200,000  rupees 
in  charity  as  a  thank-offering,  and  to  have  awarded  imiK>rtant 
court  offices  to  the  sons  of  the  man  who  had  so  courageously 
saved  his  life  and  that  of  the  prince.* 

A  favourite  sport  of  Shah  Jehan  was  to  pit  two  of  his 
war  elephants  against  each  other,  and  this  led  on  one  occa- 
sion to  grave  peril  for  his  son  and  successor,  Aurengzeb. 
The  two  elephants  chosen  had  been  incited  to  action,  not 
always  an  easy  task,  for  the  animal  in  its  normal  state  is 
anything  but  ferocious.  Not  improbably  an  exciting  drink 
of  some  kind  had  been  administered,  as  was  customary  in 
bracing  up  the  courage  of  war  elephants  before  a  battle. 
The  action  had  scarcely  been  engaged  when  one  of  the  pair 
sought  temporary  safety  in  flight,  the  other  elephant  charged 
in  pursuit,  and  as  Aurengzeb,  then  a  youth  of  fourteen,  had 
urged  his  horse  quite  near  to  the  fighting  elephants,  the  beast 
singled  him  out  for  attack  in  default  of  his  fleeing  opiK>nent. 
Nothing  daunted  and  forcing  his  trembling  steed  to  stand 
still,  the  young  prince  hurled  a  spear  at  the  oncoming  ele- 
phant. Of  course  this  failed  to  check  its  onset,  and  with 
one  thrust  of  its  sharp  tusks  it  dashed  Aurengzeb's  mount  to 
the  ground.  Still  fearless,  the  prince  rose  quickly  and  drew 
his  sword,  but  fortunately  for  him  assistance  was  at  hand, 
and  he  was  rescued.  When  reproached  later  by  his  father 
for  his  f oolhardiness  he  replied : "  If  the  fight  had  ended  fatally 
for  me  it  would  not  have  been  a  matter  of  shame.  Death 
drops  the  curtain  even  over  emperors;  it  is  no  dishonour. 
The  shame  lay  in  what  my  brothers  did**t — ^meaning 
that  they  ought  not  to  have  interfered  to  save  him.  This 
incident  occurred  on  May  28,  1633.  One  of  Shah  Jehan's 
most  valued  elephants  had  been  yielded  to  him  by  the 

*"Le8  six  voyages  de  Jean  Baptiste  Tavernier/'  Fkris*  1078-0*  Vol.  IL  p.  199»  Voymgea 
des  Indes,  liv.  I,  chap,  xviii. 

tjadunath  Sarkar,  "History  of  Aurengzeb,"  Calcutta,  1912,  Vol.  I,  pp.  0-12. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         159 

Sang  of  Golconda.  As  an  indication  of  its  preeminent 
qualities  it  had  been  named  Gajmati,  or  "'The  Pearl  among 
Elephants " ;  it  was  esteemed  to  be  worth  one  lakh  of  rupees 
(100,000)  or  $50,000.* 

In  a  battle  between  the  armies  of  the  King  of  Pegu  and 
the  King  of  Ava,  the  former  gained  a  decisive  victory,  and 
killed  his  adversary  in  a  personal  encounter.  Both  sover- 
eigns were  mounted  on  elephants,  and  the  animal  that  had 
borne  the  King  of  Ava  was  captured  by  his  victorious  opjK)- 
nent  and  led  away  to  the  camp.  Its  grief  for  the  loss  of  its 
raaster  was  so  keen  that  for  fifteen  days  it  refused  all  nourish- 
raent,  and  was  only  finally  induced  to  break  its  fast  by  dint 
of  much  petting  and  coaxing.  The  King  of  Pegu's  elephant 
liad  been  killed  under  him  in  the  battle,  and  the  monarch 
ordered  that  sacred  images  should  be  made  from  the  tusks, 
ctnd  had  these  idols  set  up  in  the  temples  alongside  of  those 
of  gold  and  silver,  as  equally  valuable,  f 

That  the  i>opular  estimates  of  the  number  of  war  ele- 
phants maintained  by  Eastern  potentates  was  often  very 
much  exaggerated  is  corroborated  by  the  French  traveller 
and  gem  dealer  Tavemier.  Having  been  rei>eatedly  told 
that  the  emperor,  Aurengzeb,  had  three  or  four  thousand 
such  elephants,  Tavernier  took  pains  to  secure  exact  infor- 
mation in  the  matter,  and  finally  learned  that  while  he  kept 
some  five  hundred  as  beasts  of  burden  to  carry  his  harem 
and  the  tents  and  other  baggage  of  his  household,  the  number 
of  war  elephants  did  not  exceed  eighty  or  ninety.  Of  these 
the  fiercest  and  bravest  was  a  great  favourite  and  was  es- 
pecially entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  emperor's  eldest  son. 

Tavemier  also   describes  an  interesting  feature  of  the 
great  birthday  festival  of  the  Mogul,  in  which  his  favourite 

^Jadunath  Sarkar,  "History  of  Aurengzeb,"  CalcutU,  1912,  Vol.  I,  p.  49. 

tFrandacus  Eraanua,  "Ost-und  West  Indiacher  wie  auch  Sineaucher  Lust-und  Stats- 
Garten,"  Nuremberg,  1668,  p.  1528. 


160     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

elephants  played  a  part.  This  is  Englished  by  Phillips,  as 
follows  :* 

"About  an  hour  after  the  King  has  been  sitting  ui>on  his 
Throne,  seven  stout  Elephants  bred  up  for  War  are  brought 
out.  One  of  these  Elephants  has  his  seat  fix'd  upon  his  back, 
if  the  King  should  have  a  mind  to  ride  out.  The  others  are 
covered  with  cloaths  richly  embroidered,  with  chains  of  Grold 
and  Silver  about  their  Necks;  and  there  are  four  that  carry 
the  King's  Standard  ui>on  their  Cruppers,  fastened  to  a 
Half-Pike,  which  a  man,  seated  on  purpose  close  by,  holds 
upright  with  his  hand.  These  Elephants  are  brought  within 
fifty  paces  of  the  Throne,  and  when  they  come  before  the 
King,  they  make  their  obeysances  to  him,  laying  their 
Trunks  to  the  ground,  and  then  lifting  them  up  above  their 
Heads  three  times;  every  time  he  makes  a  great  cry,  and  then 
turning  his  back  to  the  King,  one  of  the  Leaders  turns  up 
the  cloath,  that  the  King  may  see  he  is  in  good  case.  There 
belongs  also  to  every  one  a  cord,  which  is  put  round  his 
body,  to  show  how  much  he  is  grown  since  the  last  year. 
The  first  of  these  Elephants,  which  the  King  most  esteems, 
is  a  great  furious  creature,  that  has  five  hundred  Roupies 
allowed  him  every  month.  He  is  fed  with  good  Victuals, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  Sucre,  and  they  give  him  Aqua-trvUie 
to  drink.*' 

The  gift  of  an  "elephant  of  state,"  one  worthy  by  its 
physical  perfection  and  gorgeous  trappings  of  bearing  a 
sovereign  in  royal  processions  and  progresses,  has  ever  been 
regarded  by  Oriental  potentates  as  a  most  valuable  testi- 
monial. Therefore,  in  1877,  when  the  Government  of  India 
wished  to  make  an  appropriate  and  acceptable  present  to  the 
Shah  of  Persia,  a  State  elephant  was  considered  to  be  the 
best  choice.     The  important  matter  of  suitable  equipment 

*"TheSixTravek  of  John  BaptisU  Taveniier";  made  Engtish  by  J.  P^  LondoD,  1684* 
Pt.  II,  p.  1«8. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         161 

was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Cominissary  Gleneral  of  the 
Eastern  Bengal  Circle,  who,  guided  by  his  experience  in 
such  affairs,  decided  to  have  the  trappings  made  in  Jeypore, 
where  some  of  the  most  elaborate  work  of  this  kind  had  been 
successfully  accomplished.  At  the  outset,  however,  some 
doubts  were  felt  as  to  whether  Hindu  workmen  would  consent 
to  execute  work  destined  for  and  appropriate  to  a  Mohamme- 


Itobt  Decoration  at  a  howdah  betonpng  to  bit  Highnw  the  Mabarajkb  o(  Denaroa. 
Indiaii  arti  I^ore,  India. 

— From  The  Journal  <^  IruUan  Art  and  Indtuiiy. 

dan  sovereign,  but  as  it  appeared  that  there  was  little  or  no 
difference  between  the  forms  and  designs  for  such  work 
usual  in  Jeypore  and  those  common  in  Persia,  these  doubts 
proved  unfounded.  The  substitution  of  the  figure  of  a  sun 
rising  behind  a  Hon  for  the  solar  emblem  used  in  Jeypore  to 
denote  that  the  ruler  of  the  land  belonged  to  the  Solar  Line 
of  Rajputs  was  the  only  modification  necessary.  The  work 
was  done  in  the  workshops  attached  to  the  palace  of  the 
Maharajah,  and  the  result  was  brilliant  enough  to  satisfy 
or  even  exceed  all  expectations. 

Superstitious  Hindus  believe  that  the  diseases  of  elephants 


162     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

are  the  work  of  malignant  spirits,  just  as  they  fancy  it  to  be 
the  case  with  human  diseases.  There  is  a  popular  native 
treatise  on  this  subject,  with  many  curious  illustrations,  of 
which  Colonel  Hendley  writes  as  follows:* 

^^Rheumatism  is  represented  by  four  small  animals  like 
rats  biting  the  elephant's  legs;  headache  by  a  huge  monster 
with  four  heads  gnawing  the  forehead;  and,  in  inflammatory 
affections  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  tearing  and  holding  on 
to  these  important  sections  of  the  body.  The  monster  in  a 
case  of  pleurisy  has  his  huge  scaly  tail  thrown  round  the 
chest  of  his  victim.  In  a  case  of  fever,  four  lighted  ghostly 
fires  surround  the  poor  beast.  A  deadly  cobra  is  twisted 
round  the  body  of  another  tortured  individual.  A  tiger- 
headed  creature  sprawls  along  the  back  of  another  victim. 
Lastly,  a  bad  attack  of  colic  is  caused  by  the  tight  folds  of  a 
long  serpent.'* 

Although  because  of  its  huge  proportions  an  elephant 
always  makes  a  striking  impression  upon  the  beholder,  this 
impression  is  certainly  not  one  of  beauty  or  grace,  but  rather 
of  power  and  strength.  And  yet,  when  decked  out  with  all 
the  gorgeous  caparisons  which  Hindu  luxury  has  evolved 
for  this  animal  in  the  course  of  centuries,  the  splendour  of  its 
appearance  is  such  that  one  is  fairly  overwhelmed  by  the 
sight.  This  is  more  especially  the  case  when,  as  at  the  Dur- 
bars, neither  expense  nor  pains  are  spared  by  the  Hindu 
potentates  to  unfold  before  the  wondering  eyes  of  European 
visitors  the  full  extent  of  their  wealth  in  objects  of  adorn- 
ment and  luxury.  The  effect  produced  at  such  times 
upon  qualified  judges  of  things  artistic  is  shown  in  the 
following  impassioned  words  used  by  Mortimer  Menpes  in 
chronicling  the  happenings  of  the  Durbar  of  1903,  on  the 

*Col.  T.  H.  Hendley,  "The  Elephant  in  State  Ceremonies,"  in  Journal  of  Indian  AH 
and  Industry,  Vol.  X^^  new  series,  pp.  19,  20;  No.  123,  July,  1918.  See  also  No.  ldS» 
Plate  I,  Figs.  d«  e. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         163 

occasion  of  Lord  Curzon's  assumption  of  the  dignity  of 
^ceroy  :* 

"How  shall  I  describe  the  retinue  of  elephants?  I  tear 
my  hair,  and  think,  and  think,  until  I  feel  I  must  go  mad.  I 
see  it  all  so  clearly — can  I  not  coin  words?  Can  I  not  dip 
my  pen  in  purple  and  gold?  It  was  almost  like  looking  at 
Ihe  sun.  Yellow  specks  danced  in  front  of  one's  eyes — one 
liad  to  turn  away  into  the  gray  courtyard,  and  lose  an  ele- 
phant or  two,  to  get  relief.  You  could  not  see  the  procession 
in  a  continuous  way  as  a  whole  because  of  the  blinding 
colour.  An  elephant  would  pass  covered  with  cloth  of  gold 
^nd  ropes  of  pearls.  *This  is  the  finest  of  all,'  you  would 
say;  *  colour  has  gone  as  far  as  it  can  go.'  Then  suddenly 
another  marvellous  combination  would  spring  upon  you:  a 
^oup  of  elephants  in  gold,  emerald  green,  and  jewels,  looking 
like  bubbles  ready  to  burst  with  brilliance,  and  making  the 
surrounding  colours  faded  and  paler  by  comparison.'' 

'  A  recent  traveller  in  India  and  the  contiguous  lands  has 
communicated  from  personal  experience  some  interesting 
notes  on  the  intelligence  and  peculiarities  of  elephants.  A 
striking  proof  of  their  thoughtfulness  is  the  fact  that  they 
always  take  every  possible  precaution  to  avoid  striking  the 
howdah,  or  saddle,  which  they  bear,  against  any  obstruction, 
even  stopping  to  remove  this  when  necessary.  On  one  oc- 
casion mentioned  by  the  traveller,  a  tree  eight  inches  in  diam- 
eter had  fallen  across  the  path  against  the  trees  on  the 
opposite  side,  so  as  to  leave  ample  room  for  the  elephant 
itself  to  pass  beneath  but  not  enough  for  the  passage  of  the 
howdah.  The  animal  was  quickly  conscious  of  this,  and 
checking  its  advance,  thrust  the  tree  out  of  the  way  with  its 
trunk  so  that  the  howdah  could  pass  without  impediment. 
Similar  care  was  taken  in  the  many  narrow  pathways  which 
had  to  be  traversed  through  the  jungle.    This  evinces  the 

^grtimer  Menpet,  "The  Purbar/'  Loodoii,  1903»  pp.  46.  47. 


164     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

comparatively  high  degree  of  intelligence,  of  which  ther 
are  many  well-authenticated  examples  serving  to  confut 


Tbb  Eizprant.     Hera  Uie  elephant  is  termed  the  mildeit  and  moct  eanly  dc^ 
meiUcsted  vf  all  aninuJa. 

— From  Jahuuiisde  Cuba  "OrtiuSaiutatu,"StnubuTg,  1483.  Author'iIil«aiy. 

the  opinion  expressed  by  some  authorities  that  the  elephant 
has  but  little  brain  power. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         165 

Another  instance,  in  itself  somewhat  trivial,  shows  that  this 
animal  possesses  in  a  rudimentary  form  a  faculty  for  extend- 
ing the  action  of  his  natural  powers  by  the  aid  of  external 
objects,  for  we  are  told  that  when  tormented  by  flies  an  ele- 
phant will  break  off  a  leafy  branch  with  its  trunk  and  make 
use  of  it  to  brush  away  the  importunate  flies.  We  might 
almost  be  tempted  to  see  in  this  an  indication  of  the  first 
feeble  steps  taken  by  the  hypothetical  homo  alalus  in  his 
progress  toward  the  use  of  tools. 

The  playfulness  of  a  baby  elephant  is  quite  suggestive  of 
the  somewhat  disconcerting  pranks  of  a  romping  child.  The 
traveller  was  warned  not  to  pass  it  without  being  provided 
with  a  stone  or  a  club,  for  if  this  precaution  were  not  taken 
the  little  fellow — of  an  elephantine  littleness — would  be 
sure  as  soon  as  the  victim's  back  was  turned  to  make  a  rush 
at  him  from  behind  and  knock  him  over. 

An  anecdote,  supposed  to  show  that  the  elephant  has  a 
keen  sense  of  justice,  is  told  of  one  kept  in  the  Royal  Me- 
nagerie at  Versailles  in  the  eighteenth  century.  An  animal 
painter  wished  to  make  a  particularly  lifelike  picture  of  this 
elephant,  and  hence  wanted  to  have  the  animal  pose  with 
trunk  uplifted  and  wide-open  mouth.  As  may  be  readily 
imagined  this  was  no  easy  matter,  but  as  an  expedient  the 
painter  directed  his  attendant  to  throw  apples  continuously 
to  the  elephant,  so  that  in  order  to  catch  them  the  desired 
pose  would  be  maintained.  This  the  attendant  proceeded  to 
do,  but  he  did  not  think  it  necessary  always  to  make  an  actual 
throw,  often  contenting  himself  with  simply  going  through  the 
motions.  Exasperated  at  the  repeated  disappointments,  the 
elephant  sought  revenge  for  the  trick;  not,  however,  on  the 
attendant,  but  on  the  painter  who  was  the  real  cause  of  the 
offence,  and  filling  its  trunk  with  water,  the  animal  squirted 
this  over  the  half-finished  sketch,  destroying  it  completely.* 

^Johann  August  Donndorf,  "Natur  und  Kunat,"  Leipzig,  1790,  Vol.  II,  pp.  102, 108. 


166     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  idea  that  the  life  of  each  individual  is  bound  up  with 
that  of  some  particular  animal  is  quite  prevalent  among 
certain  natives  of  the  African  continent.  Thus,  in  the  Cross 
River  valley,  a  port  of  the  German  Cameroons,  the  natives 
identify  themselves  so  absolutely  with  animals  such  as  the 
hippopotamus  or  the  elephant,  and  even  with  gazelles,  fish, 
or  serpents,  that  the  death  of  the  animal  twin  brother  or 
twin  sister  entails  the  decease  of  the  human  subject,  and 
should  the  animal  be  wounded  the  human  being  is  supposed 
to  fall  ill  in  consequence.  There  also  exists  a  belief  that  the 
animal  double  wiU  take  up  the  quarrels  of  its  human  associ- 
ate, and  will  avenge  the  latter  upon  his  enemies.  As  a 
general  rule  the  natives  are  very  chary  of  hunting  or  killing 
animals  of  a  class  with  some  of  whose  members  they  them- 
selves or  their  friends  may  stand  in  such  an  exceedingly 
intimate  relation,  but  in  the  case  of  the  elephant  hunters 
the  temptation  of  gain  overcomes  or  at  least  minimizes  the 
effects  of  this  curious  superstition,  and  they  excuse  theni- 
selves  by  the  assertion  that  they  are  able  to  distinguish  those 
elephants  whose  life  is  bound  up  with  that  of  some  human 
being  from  those  who  are  purely  and  simply  animals.  In- 
deed, according  to  some  native  tales,  the  elephant  itself  gives 
warning  to  the  hunter  of  its  special  character  by  holding  up 
one  of  its  feet  in  a  deprecatory  attitude.* 
'  The  tenacious  memory  of  elephants  for  injuries  done 
them  has  often  been  proved,  but  there  is  also  evidence  that 
they  are  not  forgetful  of  benefits  they  may  have  received. 
As  an  example  we  give  the  anecdote  of  a  happening  at  Aji- 
meer  in  1616,  related  on  the  authority  of  an  English  merchant 
of  good  repute,  who  had  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  fact. 
The  details  are  as  follows '.f 

*J.  G.  Fnaer,  "Balder  the  Beautiful/'  London,  191S,  Vol.  II,  pp.  202,  203. 

fEdward  Terry,  "Relation  of  a  Voyage  in  India  in  1616,"  in  Kerr*s  Collection  of  Voy 
ages  and  Travels,  Edinburgh,  1824,  Vol.  IX,  p.  805. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL 


167 


A  certain  elephant  used  often  to  pass  through  the  bazaar, 
or  market  place,  where  a  woman  who  there  sold  herbs  used 
to  give  him  a  handful  as  he  passed  her  stall.  This  elephant 
afterward  went  mad,  and,  having  broken  his  fetters,  took 
his  way  furiously  through  the  market  place,  whence  all  the 
people  fled  as  quickly  as  possible  to  get  out  of  his  way. 


Elbprant  P^auRE  formed  by  ft  combinatioii  of  Amine  letten. 

Example  of  the  go-exiled  "tugra"  deaigna. 
— From  The  Joumai  of  Ittdian  Art  and  Induitry,  IS14. 


Among  these  was  his  old  friend,  the  herb  womem,  who,  in 
her  haste  and  terror,  forgot  to  take  away  her  little  child. 
On  coming  to  the  place  where  this  woman  used  to  sit,  the 
elephant  stopped,  and  seeing  the  child  among  the  herbs  he 
took  it  up  gently  in  his  trunk  and  laid  it  carefully  in  a  stall 
under  the  projecting  roof  of  a  house  hard  by,  without  do- 
ing it  the  smallest  injury,  and  then  continued  his  furious 
course. 

The  same  writer  relates  as  a  proof  of  the  wonderful  con- 


168     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

trol  exercised  over  their  charges  by  the  keepers  that 
when  ordered  to  use  the  elephant  for  the  execution  of 
a  capital  sentence  upon  a  malefactor,  they  can  influence 
the  animal  to  crush  out  the  victim's  life  instantly  or  to 
break  his  limbs  successively,  as  men  were  broken  on  the 
wheel. 
The  elephant  outlines  shown  in  the  accompanying  iUus- 


Sficwen  or  HiNDO  "Tdsba"  Dkbion.  the  elephant  figure  being  tonned  of 
■  oombin&tion  at  AtsIhc  ebar»cten,  Uie  whole  conitituting  a  laudatory  inscriptioa. 

trations  are  entirely  formed  from  letters  of  the  Persian  alpha- 
bet, essentially  the  same  as  the  Arabic.  Designs  of  this 
peculiar,  monogrammatic  type  are  known  as  tugras,  the  name 
signifying  ornamental  writingmade  up  of  a  numberof  letters. 
Of  Arabic  origin,  the  tugra  (or  tughra)  was  adapted  to  Per- 
sian use  by  a  famous  Persian  calligrapher  of  Delhi,  Amir 
Funja  Kash.  A  master  in  Arabic  monograms  of  this  highly 
developed  type  was  Munshi  Zamir  Ali,  of  Jaipur.  The 
letters  are  so  curiously  entangled  and  intertwined  that. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         169 

vdthout  a  previous  knowledge  of  what  they  signify,  the 
task  of  reading  them  would  be  no  easy  one,  as  is  exem- 
plified in  the  well-known  sign  manual  of  the  sultans  of 
Purkey,  to  be  seen  on  Turkish  coins,  public  documents, 
sic.,  for  this  also  is  a  tugra,  although  it  does  not  make  a 
picture. 

Of  our  specimens,  one  offers  the  letters  of  the  sacred 
text  which  bears  the  name  **Nad-i-Ali"  and  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "Address  Ali  who  is  the  source  of  all  manifestations 
3f  wonder.  You  will  find  him  a  helper  for  yourself  in 
distress.  Anxieties  and  sorrows  will  vanish  in  the  immedi- 
ate future.  Oh,  Mohammed!  by  reason  of  your  being  a 
Sabi  [Prophet]  and  Oh,  Ali!  by  reason  of  your  Valayet 
proximity  to  God].'*  The  other  example  gives  the  name 
md  titles  of  the  Nawab  of  Juora :  "  Jahab  Mustatab  MuaUa 
Mqah  Vala  Khitab  Hazur  Faiz  Ganjur  Muhatshim  ud 
Daula  Nawab  Gaus  Mohammed  Khan  Sahib  Bahadur 
Shaukat  Jung  Firman-rabai  Darul  Riyasat  Jaora  Nahum  wa 
Maqfur."* 

A  Hindu  bazaar  picture  **with  a  moral*'  depicts  an  ele- 
phant in  the  act  of  pulling  down  a  banyan  tree;  hanging  on 
to  cords  passing  over  a  branch  of  the  tree  is  a  man,  who  is 
seeking  to  seize  with  his  mouth  a  clump  of  pendent  honey, 
typifying  the  sensual  pleasures  of  life.  Meanwhile  two  mice, 
one  white  and  one  black,  are  gnawing  at  the  supporting 
cords,  and  when  these  give  way  the  man  will  be  precipitated 
into  a  pit  wherein  four  serpents,  symbols  of  Avarice,  Sense- 
lessness, Desire,  and  Anger  are  eagerly  awaiting  an  oppor- 
tunity to  destroy  him.  The  banyan  tree  itself  represents 
Life,  the  elephant.  Death,  and  the  two  mice.  Day  and  Night. 
Of  a  slightly  different  version  of  this  picture.  Sir  Edwin 

*ChAubey  Bisvesvar  Nath,  "Calligrapliy.'*  with  an  introduction  and  notes  by  Col.  T. 
H.  Hendley,  in  the  Journal  cj  Indian  Aft  and  Industry,  Vol.  XVI,  new  Series,  No.  124, 
October,  1918;  our  illustrations  are  from  PI.  0,  No.  1.  and  PI.  12.  No.  19. 


170     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Arnold  wrote  some  verses  of  which  we  may  quote  the  four 
following  lines:* 

Shall  I  interpret?    Life's  the  banyan  tree; 

Which  Death,  the  elephant,  in  dust  would  lay; 
And  the  poor  foolish  ape  is  Man;  and  see! 

The  black  rat  is  the  Night,  the  white  the  Day. 

Fantastic  composite  animal  figures,  frequently  composed 
of  a  number  of  quite  unrelated  forms,  are  favourite  subjects 
with  Hindu  artists.  As  examples  of  the  application  of  this 
style  of  drawing  to  the  elephant  may  be  noted  two  figures  of 
compound  elephants,  composed  of  a  curious  medley  of  hu- 
man and  animal  forms.  As  mahouts  serve  two  animal- 
headed  demons,  who  are  urging  on  their  mounts  to  combaLf 
Another  of  these  curious  designs  shows  us  the  god  KriahiiR 
mounted  on  an  elephant  figure  made  up  of  an  aggregate  of 
male  and  female  musicians.  { 

A  quaintly  humorous  bit  of  Hindu  drawing  is  intended  to 
illustrate  the  tremendous  lifting  power  of  the  fabulous  bird 
known  in  the  East  as  the  '"roc,"  which  was  used  as  a  symbol 
of  strength  in  India.  The  design  shows  the  fabled  bird 
lifting  by  main  force  an  elephant  which  it  has  seized  with  its 
mighty  beak*  This  elephant  is  treated  in  a  distinctly  whim- 
sical way,  for  it  balances  on  its  trunk  a  tiny  elephant,  and 
another  on  the  tip  of  its  tail;  a  third  is  held  in  its  mouth, 
and  below  each  of  its  feet  is  a  similar  baby  elephant.  As  a 
possible  help  to  the  roc  in  case  of  need,  or  to  the  elephant 
itself  should  the  bird  be  tempted  to  drop  the  heavy  burden, 

*Col.  T.  H.  Hendley*  "Indian  Animals,  True  and  False,  in  Art,  RdigioD,*'  etc.;  tiie 
Journal  of  Indian  AH  and  Industry,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  126,  April,  1914,  PL  XII,  F|g.  b, 
■ee  p.  75. 

fT.  H.  Hendley,  "Indian  Animals,  True  and  False,  in  Art,  Relic^on,"  etc.,  tbe  Jommai 
cf  Indian  AH  and  Industry,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  126,  April,  1914,  PI.  HI,  Fig.  b. 

tibid.,  PI.  vn,  b. 


0  w% 


.^2. 


m 


•  <i9  ••• 


TVl'KS   OK   KI.KPHANT   COTXS 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         171 

the  artist  has  provided  the  elephant  with  a  small  pair  of 
wings.* 

A  work  that  is  altogether  sui  generis  is  that  written  by 
Gisbertus  Cuperus  (Gisbert  Kuypert,  1644-1716),  a  native 
of  Hemmerdenn,  in  the  Low  Countries,  on  the  coins  bearing 
representations  of  the  elephant,  f  It  was  first  published  at 
The  Hague,  in  1719,  three  years  after  the  author's  death, 
being  edited  from  manuscript  that  he  had  left.  This 
splendid  folio  is  embellished  with  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  finely  executed  cuts  of  coins  and  medals  with  elephant 
figures,  or  iUustrating  these,  and  also  with  two  large  cuts, 
one  showing  the  sculptured  elephant  surmounting  the 
Triumphal  Column  of  Emperor  Arcadius  in  Constantinople, 
and  the  other  representing  the  Egyptian  Obelisk  set  up  by 
Pope  Alexander  VH  in  the  Forum  Minerva,  Rome,  the 
obelisk  itself  resting  on  an  elephant  base.  All  these  are 
text  illustrations,  added  to  which  is  a  folding  plate  giving 
the  image  of  a  Hindu  god  with  an  elephant  head,  which 
had  been  taken  by  Christians  from  a  Hindu  temple.  This 
god  is,  of  course,  Ganesa,  an  embodiment  of  wisdom  in  the 
Hindu  pantheon.  The  text,  besides  offering  as  full  an  ac- 
count as  was  possible  of  the  coins  themselves,  communicates 
in  a  discursive  manner  a  great  deal  of  valuable  informa- 
tion as  to  the  introduction  of  elephants  into  the  Grseco- 
Roman  world,  after  Alexander's  conquests,  and  also  as 
to  their  use  in  the  combats  of  the  arena  at  Rome  and  else- 
where, in  war,  in  triumphal  processions,  etc.  The  writer, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academic  des  Inscrip- 
tions et  BeUes-Lettres,  shows  himself  in  this  work  to  have 
been  a  man  of  sound  judgment  and  of  wide  reading.     He 

*Col.  T.  H.  Hendley.  "Indian  Animals,  True  and  False*  in  Art,  Religion,"  etc., 
tht  Journal  €ff  Indian  AH  and  InduHry,  Vol.  XVI,  N.  S.,  No.  126,  April,  1914,  PI.  I,  Fig.  a. 

tGisbertl  Cuperi,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis,"  Hagae  Comitum,  1719,  [4]+14S 
pp.  (S84  cols.},  folio. 


172     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

was  for  many  years  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Deven- 
ter,  and  after  his  death  a  eulogy  on  him  was  delivered  by 
M.  Boze  at  a  meeting  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  which 
is  published  in  the  third  volume  of  its  M6moires. 


Elkphakt  with  Masoot  on  trilUI^lIul  arch  at  Arcadiiu  in  CoiutuiUDople,  after  Uw 
"AnUquiUtes  Comtsnliiupditaiies"  ol  BuiduHiu. 

— From  Kuypert')  "  De  depbMitu  in  nunuiui  obviu,"  H>^  Comitum,  171II. 

Of  the  second  period  of  Greek  coinage,  550  to  480  B.  C, 
there  is  a  silver  coin  of  the  island  of  Aegina  (Fig.  1),  the 
characteristic  tortoise  emblem  having  an  elephant's  head 
stamped  upon  the  back,  this  being  possibly  a  later  addition. 
Some  of  the  finest  representations  of  the  elephant  may  be 


Fioinai  or  GAintHA  the  Elbpsant-headbd  Bindc  Divikitt,  from  an  in 
out  ol  an  liutiui  temple  by  ChristUiu  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

— Prom  Kuypert'i "  De  dephantu  in  nummii  obviio,"  Hage  Comituni.  ITIS.* 
*In  the  CoUccttmi  of  tiw  AawricM)  Numiimatic  Soriety,  New  York. 


174      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


seen  on  Syrian  coins,  as  for  instance  on  a  drachma  of  Anti- 
ochus  HI  (Fig.  2)  where  there  appears  a  remarkably  bold 
and  well-executed  elephant,  with  fine  long  tusks.  A  rude 
production  of  North  African  silver  coinage,  from  the  time 
of  Juba  I,  King  of  Numidia  (60-46  B.  C.)»  gives  a  curiously 
archaic  portrayal  of  an  elephant  in  motion  (Fig.  7).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  elephant  in  repose  is  effectively  figured 
on  an  Etruscan  copper  coin  (Fig.  21),  and  a  specimen  of  the 
copper  coinage  of  Juba  I  (Fig.  22)  offers  an  exceedingly  life- 
like elephant  type,  in  marked  contrast 
with  the  archaic  silver  coin  noted  above, 
which  may  have  been  intended  to  re- 
produce old  Punic  models. 

A  number  of  types  of  coins  bearing 
representations  of  the  elephant  are  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  Julius  Caesar;  on 
some  of  these  Csesar's  head  is  stamped  on 
the  obverse,  while  on  others  only  the 
letters  of  his  name  appear.  The  French 
critic  Joubert  hazarded  the  conjecture 
that  certain  at  least  of  this  latter  type 
were  struck  whUe  Caesar,  still  a  private 
citizen,  could  not  have  his  image  on 
the  coins,  and  that  as  in  the  Mauritanian  tongue  the 
name  of  the  elephant  was  ccBsar^  this  animal's  figure  served 
as  a  kind  of  hieroglyph  or  rebus.  There  may  perhaps  be 
some  truth  in  this  conjecture,  and  the  frequent  appearance 
of  the  elephant  on  coins  of  the  later  Csesars  might  be  ex- 
plained as  at  once  due  to  the  free  use  of  this  form  on  Julius 
Caesar's  coins,  and  to  the  assimilation  of  the  Mauritanian 
OBsar  (elephant)  with  the  name  of  the  greatest  and  most 
ambitious  of  the  Romans,  a  name  that  since  his  time  has 
been  the  favourite  designation  of  imperial  dignity.'*' 

^iflberti  Cuperi,  "De  elephantis  in  nummia  obviifl,"  HagK  ComitUQif  1719,  oo|.  108; 
dtiD^  Joubert*8  "De  la  science  dee  mMaiUes,"  Chap.  V, 


Mbdal  op  Maxkn- 
TiUB,  depicting  the  em- 
peror standing  in  a  car 
drawn  by  four  elephants 
and  receiving  a  crown  and 
palm  branch  borne  to  him 
through  the  air  by  a 
winged  victory. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         175 

A  fine  coin  of  Seleucus  I  (312-280  B.  C;  Fig.  3)  shows  a 

chariot  drawn  by  four  elephants,  to  whose  necks  are  at- 

l^iched  upright  sceptres.     The  anchor  figured  on  this  coin 

"Was  the  chosen  emblem  of  the  Seleucidae.     There  are  also 

xnany  splendid  examples  of  elephant  coins  bearing  on  one 

side  the  name  Quintus  Csecilius  Metellus  Pius  and  frequently 

on  the  other  side  the  inscription  Scipio  Imp.     The  elephant 

lype  appears  on  many  coins  of  the  Gens  Caecilia,  and  this  is 

l>elieved  to  be  due  to  the  brilliant  victories  gained  by  Lu- 

<jius  Metellus  over  the  Carthaginians  in  the  First  Punic  War, 

"when  war  elephants  were  used  in  the  Carthaginian  armies 

in  Sicily  and  Africa.     Lucius  Metellus  is  stated  to  have 

T)rought  some  of  the  captured  elephants  from  Sicily  to 

Rome.* 

COINS   WITH   ELEPHANT  TYPES 

SUiVER 

Stater  of  Aegina,  550  to  480  B.  C;  tortoise  stamped  with  elephant's 
head. 

Antiochus  IH.     Drachma.     Reverse,  elephant. 

Seleucus  I.    Drachma.     Reverse,  quadriga  of  elephants. 

Coin  of  Trajan,  struck  in  Alexandria. 

Tarentum,  473-400  B.  C.  Reverse,  Taras  on  dolphin;  elephant  sym- 
bol. 

Egyptian  coin  of  Alexander  IV  of  Macedon  (this  is  the  reverse^  the  ele- 
phant type  occurs  as  headdress  of  head  on  obverse). 

Juba  I  of  Numidia,  60-46  B.  C. 

COPPER 

Seleucus  1, 312-280  B.  C.    Reverse. 
Etruria.    Reverse. 
Juba  I,  of  Numidia,  60-46  B.  C. 
Bactria,  HeUodes,  aft.  169  B.  C. 
Bactria,  Hoverkes,  120  A.  D. 
Parthia.     Mithridates  IH,  60-56,  B.  C. 

*Gi8berti  Cuperi,  "De  elepbantis  in  nummis  obviis,"  Hagc  Comitum,  1719,  cols.  62, 
118. 


176      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


DENARn 

Lucius  Roscius  Fabatus.    Head  of  Juno  Sospite;  below  forepart  of  ele- 
phant. 
Caecilius  Metellus  Pius  Scipio  Imperator.    Reverse. 
Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius.    Reverse. 
Julius  Csesar.     Reverse. 
Augustus.     Reverse,  biga  of  elephants. 

COPPER 

Titus.     Reverse. 

Philip  I.     Reverse,  elephant  with  rider. 

FIRST     BRONZE 

Tiberius.     Obverse,  emperor  driving  quadriga  of  elephants. 
Philip  I.     Reverse,  elephant  with  rider. 

FOREIGN   GOLD,    SILVER,    AND   COPPER 

Transylvania,  Sigismund  Bathori,  1592.     Crown.     Reverse,  shield  with 
three  elephant  tusks. 

Hesse-Hanau.     William,  1771.     Crown.    Reverse,  in  exergue,  an  ele- 
phant (Mint-mark?). 

Denmark.     Frederick  IV,  1725.     Beneath  royal  arms  is  an  elephant. 

Uncertain    German   State,    1697.     Schaupfennig.     Reverse,  elephant 
adoring  the  sun. 

England,  Charles  II.  Gold  Double  Guinea.   Obverse,  elephant  emblem  of 
newly  founded  Guinea  Company,  under  bust  of  king. 

England,  Charles  II.     Crown.     Obverse,  elephant  beneath  king's  bust. 

England,  James  II.     Gold  Guinea.    Obverse,  elephant  beneath  king's 
bust. 

England,  William  and  Mary,  1689,  Gold  Guinea.     Obverse,  elephant 
beneath  royal  busts. 

Free  Trade  to  Africa  by  Act  of  Parliament,  1750.    Obverse,  crest  of 
arms,  elephant  and  castle.     Gilt  proof. 

Afghanistan.     Coppers  with  rude  figures  of  elephants. 

Georgia.     Struck  for  Erivan.     Copper,    Elephant  and  Sun.     Two  ex- 
amples. 

Mysore  XL.     Cash.     Copper.     Elephant  carrying  banner. 

Mysore  XX  and  X.    Cash.     Copper. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         177 

FOREIGN  GOLD,  SILVER,  AND  COPPER — CouHntied 

<3eyIon,  1802.    Copper.    Obverse. 

<3eyloii,  1812.     Copper.    Obverse. 

Siam.     Three-pagoda-piece.     Gold.     Obverse. 

Siam.     One  Tical.     Silver. 

0>veiitry,  1792.    Half-penny.    Reverse,  elephant  and  castle  (arms  of 

Coventiy). 
<jod  Preserve  New  England,  1694.    By  Bolen. 
Crod  Preserve  Carolina  and  the  Lords  Proprietors,  1694.    Struck  from 

Bolen's  dies. 

A  coin  bearing  the  name  "Alexander,"  possibly  referring 
%o  Alexander  II  of  Epirus  (began  to  reign  in  272  B.  C),  son 
of  Pyirhus,  shows  a  head  bearing  the  scalp,  tusks,  and  a  part 
of  the  trunk  of  an  elephant  as  a  headcovering.*  Of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  King  of  Syria  (reigned  85  B.  C),  we  have 
a  coin  with  a  torch-bearing  elephant  (lychnophoros)  on  the 

reverse,  t 

On  the  reverse  of  several  ancient  coins  appear  represen- 
tations of  the  god  Bacchus,  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four 
elephants,  and  in  one  instance  Minerva  is  depicted  in  a 
similar  way,  but  the  only  instance  known  to  us  where  Venus 
so  appears  is  furnished  by  a  Pompeian  fresco  recently  dis- 
covered by  Professor  Spinazzola  on  the  wall  of  a  house  on 
the  "Street  of  Abundance.'*  Apart  from  the  unusual 
character  of  this  picture,  it  has  very  high  artistic  merit  and 
was  evidently  greatly  prized  by  the  owner  of  the  house  as 
it  was  provided  with  glass  covers  to  protect  it  from  in- 
jury. 

There  is  from  Egypt  a  coin  of  one  of  the  many  Cleopatras, 
in  this  case  probably  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philometor, 
by  his  sister,  who  also  bore  the  name  Cleopatra.     The  head 

•Op.  cit.,  p.  50. 
tOp.  dt.,  p.  74. 


178     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

on  the  obverse  is  decked  with  the  spoils  of  the  elephant.* 
Other  coins  appear  to  have  been  struck  to  celebrate  the 
munificence  of  certain  emperors  in  providing  elephants  for 
the  games  of  the  circus;  specimens  of  these,  each  bearing 
an  elephant's  figure  and  the  head  of  Commodus,  Cara- 
calla  (188-207  A.  D.),  or  Elagabalus  (204-222  A.  D.)  have 


1.  Coin  of  Aimocnns  Ei>ifhanb9  Diontbus,  who  reigned 
89  B.  C.      Showing   a   torch-bearing  elephant,  tifchnopkorut. 

2.  Coin  of  the  same  king;  different  type. 

— From  Kuypert's  "De  eiepliantis  in  nummis  obvitt,"  Hags 
Comitum,  1719. 

come  down  to  us.f  Another  and  especially  curious  type 
of  this  class  of  coins  shows  the  elephant  in  the  act  of  adoring 
the  heavenly  bodies.  The  fancy  that  this  animal  was  very 
pious  was  quite  common  in  ancient  times,  Pliny  writing  that 
it  had  a  "certain  religious  sentiment  and  venerated  the 

*Gisberti  Cup«ri,  "De  elephantis  in  nummia  obviis";  in  Sallengre,  "Novna  tbesaunu 
antiquitatum  romanarum,"  Venetia.  IT3S,  Vol.  Ill,  col.  5S. 
tCuperi,  op.  cit.,  col.  808. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         179 

stars,  sun,  and  moon."*  Doubtless  the  slow  and  solemn 
elevation  of  the  trunk  toward  the  heavens  was  interpreted 
as  an  act  of  worship  when  it  was  observed  at  certain  times. 
Two  relatively  modem  medals  show  this  type,  one  of  Augus- 
tus of  Saxony  and  his  brother  George  I  bears  the  legend; 
Time  Deum  et  honora  regem,  "Fear  God  and  honour  the 
King,"  while  the  other,  struck  by  order  of  Cardinal  Za- 

barella,  bears  the  head  of  that  pre-  

late  on  its  obverse,  and  on  the 
reverse  an  elephant  with  trunk  up- 
lifted toward  the  sky,  where  are  seen 
the  sun,  crescent  moon,  and  several 
stars,  thus  adequately  illustrating 
the  passage  in  Pliny's  Natural  His- 
torj-.t 

The  coin  of  Antiochus  XII  with 
the  torch-bearing  elephant  on  its  re- 
verse calls  to  mind  the  statement  of 
Suetonius  that  at  Caesar's  African 
triumph  forty  torch-bearing  ele- 
phants preceded  his  chariot.J  In- 
deed, it  has  often  been  asserted, 
although  erroneously,  that  he  him- 
self was  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  elephants.  It  appears 
that  some  elephants  were  specially  trained  to  bear  torches.** 
An  interesting  "elephant  coin"  is  the  silver  denarius 
struck  to  celebrate  Caesar's  victory  over  Scipio  and  Juba 
at  Thapsus  in  46  B.  C,  which  represents  an  African  elephant 
crushing  a  serpent.§ 

It  might  be  noted  here  that  after  Csesar's  assassination 
his  body  was  placed  upon  a  funeral  couch  of  ivory.f f 


Coin  representiDg  Nero  and 
his  mother  Agrippina  in  a  cbariol 
drawn  by  tour  elephanU.  The 
female  figure  bears  the  standard 
of  a  Roman  legion. 

— From  Kuypcrt's  "De  ele- 
phant is  in  Dumnus  obviis,"  Hag« 
Comitum.  ITIS. 


*Plinii,  Hiat.  Nat.,  Ub.  Vin.  cap.  1. 
tSuetomi,  "Vita  Julii  CKsaris,"  cap.  S7. 
{Aimaiidi,  op.  dt.,  (rontiipiece.  Fig.  B. 


fCuperi,  op.  cit.,  col.  S5. 
"Armandi.  op.  cit.>  p.  278. 
ttSenlnii  Vita  Julti  CtEsaria,  cap.  81. 


180     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

On  the  reverse  of  many  imperial  Roman  coins  appears 
a  biga  or  quadriga  drawn  by  two  or  four  elephants,  or  else 
a  kind  of  car;  in  each  case  the  figure  of  the  emperor  is  seen, 
standing  or  seated,  in  the  vehicle.  This  sometimes  refers 
to  a  triumph,  and  the  emperor  himself  is  denoted,  but  often 


MSDAL  showing  chariot  drawn  by  tour  elepbanU  and  bcMtng  statues 
<A  the  late  Emperor  Pertinax  as  well  as  a  symbolic  image  of  Eternity. 
— From  Kuypert's  "De  elepbantis  b  nummis  obviia,"  Hags  Comitum. 


it  is  only  his  statue  that  is  figured.  On  a  silver  coin  of 
Caligula  we  see  the  emperor  (or  his  statue)  on  a  car  drawn 
by  four  elephants,  on  each  of  which  sits  the  respective 
mahout ;  the  emperor's  figure  is  surrounded  by  seven  stars.  It 
is  believed  that  this  refers  to  a  golden  statue  of  Caligula  that 
was  drawn  in  triumph  to  the  Capital,  while  troops  of  noble 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         181 

youths  sang  pseans  in  honour  of  his  divinity.  The  stars  also 
signify  his  assumption  of  divine  honours  during  his  lifetime.* 

A  few  of  the  elephant  figures  stamped  on  the  Roman 
imperial  coins  appear  to  be  provided  with  a  kind  of  chain 
armour,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  a  gold  coin  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  the  peculiar  covering 
here  shown  was  rather  a  network  of  some  ornamental  kind, 
as  the  meshes  are  so  wide  that  we  can  scarcely  see  how  they 
could  afford  eflScient  protection,  and  indeed  the  thickness  of 
the  elephant's  hide  must  have  shielded  it  from  many  of  the 
weapons  used  in  old-time  warfare.f 

An  ancient  representation  of  the  elephant  in  a  precious 
material  was  unearthed  long  since  in  a  Roman  sepulchral 
urn,  and  was  preserved  in  the  collection  of  Cardinal  Far- 
nese.  This  was  a  small  elephant  figure,  skilfully  carved  out 
of  a  piece  of  amber.  The  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  the  objects 
placed  in  these  urns  were  believed  to  have  some  religious, 
symbolic,  or  talismanic  quality  or  virtue,  suggests  that  here 
some  such  significance  was  given  to  this  elephant  carving.  J 

Of  the  thirty  or  forty  elephants  brought  by  Hannibal 
from  Africa  in  his  invasion  of  Italy,  a  number  perished  in 
the  passage  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps,  but  he  still  had 
several  available  for  his  early  conflicts  with  the  Romans, 
especially  in  the  first  battle  at  Trebia  with  the  consul 
Sempronius.  However,  the  comparatively  severe  climate  of 
northern  Italy  proved  deadly  for  those  who  had  survived  the 
exposure  of  the  mountain  transit,  and  a  few  years  suflSced 
to  strip  the  Carthaginian  army  of  these  spectacular  aux- 
iliaries. At  Hannibal's  Waterloo,  the  battle  of  Zama, 
fought  against  Scipio  on  African  territory,  after  the  Car- 

*Giiberti  Cuperi,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis,"  HagK  Comitum,  1719,  col.  221. 

tibid.,  ool.  206. 

JNona  Lebour, "  Amber  and  Jet  in  Ancient  Burials/*  reprint  from  Transactions  of  the  Dum> 
lire  and  Galloway  Natural  History  and  Antiquarian  Society;  November  27,  1914,  p.  5. 


182     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

thaginian  hero's  recall  to  defend  his  native  land,  as  many  as 
eighty  elephants  are  said  to  have  been  engaged;  but  Scipio 
prudently  ordered  that  their  onslaught  on  his  centre  should 
not  be  directly  opposed,  and  by  allowing  them  to  pass 
through  and  closing  up  the  ranks  after  their  passage,  he  de- 
prived the  Carthaginians  of  any  advantage  they  might  have 
derived  from  the  overwhelming  attack  of  these  ponderous 
beasts.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace,  after  the  defeat  of 
Zama,  Carthage  was  obliged  to  surrender  all  her  war  ele- 
phants and  to  engage  that  she  would  never  use  any  of  these 
animals  in  her  army  in  the  future. 

In  Caesar's  African  campaign  during  the  Roman  Civil  War 
his  opponent  Scipio  and  the  latter's  ally.  King  Juba,  put  con- 
siderable trust  in  the  war  elephants  forming  part  of  their 
army.  As  most  of  them  had  not  yet  received  proper  train- 
ing, Scipio  endeavoured  to  supply  this  deficiency  by  some 
rather  curious  exercises.  After  placing  the  animals  in  order 
of  battle,  he  stationed  in  front  of  them  a  number  of  soldiers 
who  were  to  represent  the  enemy.  These  soldiers  proceeded 
to  throw  small  stones  at  the  elephants'  heads,  and  the  un- 
trained beasts  were  soon  put  to  flight;  however,  their  rout 
was  checked  by  a  larger  body  of  soldiers  armed  with  much 
bigger  stones,  so  that  the  bewildered  elephants  turned  about 
and  charged  in  the  original  direction.  Perhaps  the  possible 
practical  eflScacy  of  such  training  may  have  been  greater 
than  we  should  at  first  expect,  since  by  frequent  repetitions 
the  elephants  would  at  last  become  impressed  with  the  no- 
tion that  worse  effects  would  follow  a  retrograde  movement 
than  an  advance.  In  this  particular  instance,  however,  we 
have  the  definite  statement,  by  Caesar  himself  or  from  his 
information,  that  not  much  was  accomplished  thereby. 
Indeed,  he  expresses  the  opinion  that  long  years  of  training 
were  needed  to  produce  a  war  elephant,  and  that  at  best 
they  were  very  uncertain  auxiliaries,  quite  as  likely  to  do 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         183 

harm  to  the  army  of  which  they  formed  part  as  to  the 
enemy.* 

The  thoroughness  of  Caesar's  military  preparations,  sug- 
gestive of  German  eflSciency  in  the  close  attention  to  the 
smallest  details,  is  illustrated  in  the  steps  he  took  at  the 
outset  of  the  African  campaign  in  his  struggle  for  supremacy 
in  the  Roman  world.  As  above  noted  his  enemies,  Scipio 
and  King  Juba,  regarded  the  war  elephants  of  their  forces 
as  formidable  assailants.  Caesar,  however,  put  little  faith 
in  them;  but,  nevertheless,  fully  aware  of  the  fact  that  his 
soldiers  might  be  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  onset  of  such 
unfamiliar  adversaries,  he  took  measures  to  familiarize  them 
with  the  sight  of  elephants  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  best 
means  of  putting  them  to  flight.  He  therefore  had  a  number 
of  elephants  brought  to  his  camp,  so  that  the  aspect  of  the 
apparently  dangerous  beasts  should  no  longer  strike  terror 
into  the  hearts  of  his  legionaries,  and  that  the  horses  of  his 
cavalry  should  become  accustomed  to  their  appearance.  He 
also  provided  these  trial  elephants  with  the  full  panoply  of 
war  and  had  his  soldiers  instructed  as  to  the  most  vulnerable 
parts  of  their  bodies,  making  them  throw  javelins,  with 
blunted  points,  at  these  spots  so  that  they  might  know  just 
what  to  do  in  real  battle.  In  the  decisive  conflict  at  Thapsus 
one  of  the  legionaries  displayed  his  natural  courage,  perhaps 
fortified  by  these  preliminary  exercises.  The  elephants  of 
Scipio  and  Juba  attacked  boldly  enough  but  were  repulsed 
by  the  Romans  and  driven  off,  trampling  upon  the  troops 
of  their  own  army.  In  the  heat  of  the  encounter,  however, 
one  of  the  elephants  threw  down  a  member  of  Caesar's  forces 
and  crushed  the  life  out  of  him;  remarking  the  attack,  a 
brave  Roman  of  the  Fifth  Legion  hastened  to  give  help  but 
came  too  late  for  this.  Turning  from  the  body  of  its  victim 
to  this  unexpected  assailant,  the  elephant  seized  the  legion- 

*C«esaris.  "De  BeUo  CivUi."  cap.  28.  SO. 


184     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ary  with  its  trunk  and  whirled  him  aloft,  but  the  soldier 
did  not  lose  his  presence  of  mind,  and  drawing  his  short, 
sharp  sword,  struck  at  the  encircling  trunk,  inflicting  such  a 
painful  wound  that  the  animal  released  him  and  fled,  trum- 
peting wildly.* 

The  historic  city  of  Catania  in  Sicily  counts  as  one  of  its 
greatest  adornments  La  Fontana  dell '  Elefante,t  a  beautiful 
sculptural  work  placed  in  the  plaza  before  the  cathedral. 
The  splendidly  modelled  figure  of  an  elephant  supports  a 
lofty  shaft,  and  the  design  suggests  the  elephant-borne 
obeUsk  erected  in  Papal  Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  proximity  of  Sicily  to  ancient  Carthage,  and  the  Phoeni- 
cian settlements  on  the  island  in  the  era  of  Carthaginian 
prosperity,  made  the  elephant  a  familiar  though  dreaded 
figure  for  the  Sicilian  of  ancient  times,  and  the  Catanian 
sculpture  may  be  regarded  as  a  distant  echo  of  Grseco- 
Roman  tradition. 

The  rare  and  interesting  old  treatise  "De  Proprietatibus 
Rerum,"  by  the  English  ecclesiastic,  Bartolomseus  AngUcus, 
who  flourished  toward  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
and  was  for  some  years  a  professor  of  theology  in  the  famous 
University  of  Paris,  the  great  resort  of  the  scholars  of  this 
period,  has  a  chapter  on  the  elephant,  in  which  the  learned 
author  has  gathered  together  all  the  data  available  from  the 
works  of  still  older  writers.  From  them  he  repeats  the 
traditional  view  as  to  the  great  age  to  which  some  of  these 
animals  may  attain,  putting  this  at  three  centuries.  Their 
use  in  war  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  is  touched  upon,  and 
the  custom  of  placing  wooden  turrets  on  their  backs  in  which 
were  stationed  men-at-arms.  The  queer  fancy  that  the 
elephant  had  a  particular  dread  of  the  mouse  is  also  chroni- 

*Cc8ari«,  op.  cit.  8S,  84, 86. 

tThe  great  Spanish  Encyclopedia  now  being  published  in  Barcelona  figures  this  interest- 
ing elephant  monument  twice,  once  in  the  article  eUfarUe  in  Vol.  XIX,  p.  702,  and  again 
in  the  article  Catania,  Vol.  XII,  p.  479. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL        18J 

ded  and  brought  into  contrast  with  the  courage  exhibited 
by  war  elephants  in  charging  upon  the  serried  ranks  of  an 
enemy  force.  Of  the  kindly  consideration  shown  by  some 
wild  elephants  to  wandering  travellers,  it  is  gravely  stated 
that  one  of  these  animals  would  thoughtfully  step  out  of  a 
woodland  path  should  he  espy  therein  a  traveller  who  had 


WOODCDT   ILLDHTKATION  Or  AN   ELEPHANT 

—From   Edward  Topaell'a   "The  History  of  Four-footed  BeMta,"   London, 

tsss. 
lost  his  way,  lest  the  man  should  be  terrified  by  the  sudden 
appearance  of  the  monstrous  animal.  The  fancied  religious 
sentiment  of  elephants,  exhibited  by  the  raising  and  waving  of 
their  tusks  at  certain  times,  is  also  recited,  and  Bartolomeeus 
had  read  that  the  elephants  trained  at  the  courts  of  Orien- 
tal potentates  had  been  taught  to  recognize  the  sovereign 
and  do  reverence  to  him  by  bending  down  on  their  knees. 
This  at  least  proves  that  our  author  possessed  better  sources 
of  information  than  some  old  writers,  who  propagated  the 


186      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

strange  error  that  the  elephant*s  legs  were  jointless,  so  that 
they  could  not  be  bent.* 

The  old  English  treatise  on  "four-footed  beasts*'  by 
Edward  Topsell  enlarges  upon  the  curative  value  of  the 
flesh  and  blood  of  the  elephant,  gleaning  his  information 
from  various  older  authorities.  As  we  can  scarcely  venture 
any  confirmation  of  Topsell 's  assertions,  it  seems  best  to 
give  the  passage  in  his  own  words  as  follows:* 

"The  medicinal  virtues  in  this  Beast  are  by  Authors 
observed  to  be  these:  The  bloud  of  an  elephant  and  the 
ashes  of  a  Weasil  cure  the  great  Leprosie:  and  the  same 
bloud  is  profitable  against  all  Rheumatick  fluxes,  and  the 
Sciatica.  The  flesh  dryed  and  cold,  or  heavy  fat  and  cold, 
is  abominable;  for  if  it  be  sod  and  steeped  in  Vinegar  with 
Fennel-seed,  and  given  to  a  Woman  with  child,  it  maketh 
her  presently  suffer  abortion.  But  if  a  man  taste  thereof 
saltal  and  steeped  with  the  seed  aforesaid,  it  cureth  an  old 
cough.  The  fat  is  a  good  Antidote  either  by  Ointment  or 
Perfume :  it  cureth  also  the  pain  in  the  head. 

"The  Ivory  or  tooth  is  cold  and  dry  in  the  first  degree, 
and  the  whole  substance  thereof  corroborateth  the  heart 
and  helpeth  conception.  After  a  man  is  delivered  from  the 
lethargy.  Pestilence,  or  sudden  forgetfulness,  let  him  be 
purged  and  take  the  powder  of  Ivory  and  Hiera  RiLSsi, 
drunk  out  of  sweet  water.  This  powder  with  Hony-Attick 
[Attic  honey]  taketh  away  the  spots  on  the  face.  The  jjow- 
der  of  Ivory  burnt  and  drunk  with  Goats-bloud  doth  won- 
derfully cure  all  the  pains,  and  expell  the  little  stones  in  the 
veins  and  bladder.  Combs  made  of  Ivory  are  most  whole- 
some, the  touching  of  the  trunk  cureth  Headach.** 

*From  a  MS.  of  the  "De  Proprietatibus  Renim,'*  by  Bartholomieus  Aoglicus,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century;  lib.  XVIII,  fol. 
cczziv  recto  and  verso  fol.  ccxxv  recto.  This  valuable  MS.  was  originally  in  the  Carthu- 
sian monastery  of  the  Trinity,  near  Dijon,  France. 

*Edward  Topsell,  "History  of  Four-footed  Beasts.*'  London,  1658,  p.  165. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         187 

The  ancient  Danish  decoration,  the  "Order  of  the  Ele- 
phant," dates  from  the  time  of  King  Christian  I,  who  is 
believed  by  many  to  have  instituted  it  at  his  coronation 
in  1457.  His  wife,  Queen  Dorothea,  was  one  of  the  few 
women  who  have  received  this  decoration,  which  has,  in- 
deed, been  so  closely  confined  to  personages  of  royal  birth 
that,  in  1907,  out  of  eighty-seven  members  seventy-six  were 
of  royal  blood  and  only  two  were  Danes.  For  a  long  period 
after  the  institution  of  this  order,  the  number  of  members 
was  limited  to  fifty,  and  the  original  foundation  was  of  a 
pronouncedly  religious  character. 

As  first  awarded,  the  decoration  was  a  chain  formed 
of  interlinked  elephants,  this  chain  supporting  a  larger 
elephant  figure  as  pendant,  often  adorned  with  a  setting 
of  diamonds  or  other  precious  stones,  the  splendour  and  value 
of  the  insignia  differing,  of  course,  in  accordance  with  the 
rank  of  the  recipient.  At  a  later  date  the  order  assumed 
a  purely  secular  character,  and  at  present  the  decoration 
consists  of  a  white  elephant  in  enamel,  with  a  tower  on  its 
back,  and  bearing  a  royal  plaque  with  a  white  cross  in  the 
centre  on  a  red  background;  this  may  either  be  worn  sus- 
pended from  a  gold  chain  or  from  a  scarf  or  band  of  blue 
^vatered  silk.  The  choice  of  the  elephant  as  the  emblem  on 
this  decoration  was  due  to  the  traditional  belief  in  the 
docility,  sobriety,  and  even  the  piety  of  this  animal. 

Because  of  its  romantic  interest  we  must  regret  that  the 
strict  canons  of  historical  criticism  forbid  us  to  accept  the 
recital  according  to  which  this  Danish  order  owed  its  origin 
to  a  feat  of  arms  executed  during  the  crusades.  The  story 
ran  that  the  Order  of  the  Elephant*  was  founded  by  King 
Canute  IV  of  Denmark,  in  the  twelfth  century,  to  com- 

*A  representAtion  of  this  order,  showing  the  interlinked  elephants  with  the  pendant 
elephant,  is  given  in  Salmonsen*s  **  Store  IllustreredeKonversationslexikon,"  Kjobenhavn, 
1896.  Vol.  V,  p.  882. 


188     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHax.  ^ 

memorate  the  valour  of  a  Danish  Crusader,  who,  in  1189,  had 
slain  an  elephant  of  the  Saracen  hosts  with  which  the  Cru- 
saders were  fighting. 

The  Siamese  order  of  the  White  Elephant  is  of  quite 
recent  institution,  having  been  founded  in  1861.  The  insig- 
nia consists  of  a  plaque  or  medal  of  gold  enamel,  with  the 
figure  of  an  elephant  in  the  centre.  The  order  is  worn 
suspended  from  a  red  band  or  scarf,  on  either  edge  of  which 
are  three  stripes,  the  two  inner  ones  narrow  and  of  blue 
and  yellow,  respectively,  while  the  outer  ones  are  broad 
green  stripes.  This  certainly  offers  a  feast  of  colour  sufii- 
ciently  rich  to  satisfy  any  Oriental  taste. 

The  state  of  semi-insanity  through  which  many  male 
elephants  pass  during  a  period  of  the  year  has  been  directly 
connected  by  some  with  a  painful  swelling  of  the  glands  just 
above  the  eyes,  accompanied  by  a  discharge.  This,  al- 
though perhaps  a  certain  source  of  irritation  in  itself,  is  not 
the  real  cause  of  the  trouble,  but  merely  one  of  its  symptoms. 
Just  as  the  elephant  becomes  ''must'*  as  is  popularly  said, 
so  do  adult  male  elk,  or  round-homed  deer  of  many  kinds, 
develop  similar  excitement  and  viciousness  at  a  certain 
season  of  the  year.* 

One  of  the  largest  elephants  ever  brought  to  the  United 
States  from  Africa  was  received  by  the  Cincinnati  Zo- 
ological Company  in  1875,  when  the  animal  was  eighteen 
years  old.  His  height  was  9  ft.  11  in.,  and  his  weight 
4^  tons,  but  his  tusks  were  not  especially  fine  ones,  for  they 
measured  only  3  ft.  in  length  with  a  base  diameter  of 
4  in.  The  proud  name  "Conqueror"  was  bestowed 
upon  this  elephant.  Large  as  he  was  he  fell  far  short  of 
equalling  the  mighty  Jumbo  in  size,  for  the  latter  could 
boast  of  a  height  of  11  ft.  10  in.,  and  weighed  5^  tons. 
When  the  famous  showman  Bamum  bought  him  for  $10,000, 

^Communicated  by  Director  W.  T.  Homaday,  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 


•   • 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         189 

he  was  23  years  old,  and  had  for  some  time  been  a  great  pet 
in  London,  so  that,  when  too  late,  there  was  quite  a  little 
newspaper  excitement  in  that  city  over  the  loss  of  Jumbo. 
Poor  Jumbo,  who  had  wandered  over  a  good  part  of  the 
United  States  as  one  of  the  leading  attractions  of  Bamum 
and  Bailey's  circus,  met  his  death  by  being  crushed  be- 
tween two  railroad  cars  in  a  desperate  attempt  to  save  a 
baby  elephant  from  being  run  over.     The  Zoological  Com- 
pany has  owned  at  various  times  a  number  of  fine  elephants; 
one  of  these  called  "Chief"  weighed  nearly  as  much  as 
Jumbo  for  he  tipp>ed  the  beam  at  5  tons.     He  was  9  ft.  2 
in.    in    height    and    had    tusks    4    ft.    5    in.    long,    the 
diameter  being  4^  in.     Unfortunately,  this  elephant  was 
credited  with  having  caused  the  death  of  11  men  in  the 
circus  to  which  he  had  belonged,  and  became  so  vicious 
that  he  had  to  be  killed.     He  had  cost  $5,000.     As  a  speci- 
men of  the  Asiatic  elephant,  the  company  now  owns  a 
female   called   "Lill,"   who   though   but   8   ft.   8   in.  tall, 
and  60  years  old,  is  very  powerful  and  has  been  used  to 
move   water   mains   weighing   from   500   to   600   pounds. 
Should  a  heavily  loaded  wagon  become  stalled  in  entering 
the  Zoological  Garden,  "Lill*'  is  called  upon  to  relieve  the 
situation  and  will  quietly  put  her  trunk  under  the  hind 
axle,  tip  the  wagon  up  a  little,  and  then  push  it  on  with 
her  head.* 

While  Jumbo-  is  considered  to  have  been  the  tallest 
elephant  ever  brought  from  Africa,  many  elephant  hunters 
claim  to  have  seen  still  taller  ones  among  the  wild  elephants 
they  have  encountered.  This  may  be  true,  nevertheless 
the  fact  that  of  those  that  have  been  shot  and  measured 
none  so  far  seem  to  have  exceeded  Jumbo  in  height  might 

H^xiimuiiicated  by  S.  A.  Stephan,  General  Manager,  Cincinnati  Zoological  Company. 
'Dua  informant  notes  that  African  elephants  are  much  more  excitable  and  flighty  than 
those  of  Asia. 


190      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

be  considered  to  render  it  somewhat  doubtful.  Among 
others,  Mr.  James  Barnes,  of  New  York  City,  avers  that 
he  has  seen  at  least  two  bulls  4  or  5  in.  higher  at  the 
shoulder  than  Jumbo,  and  hence  over  12  ft.  high,  and 
which  probably  weighed  half  a  ton  more  than  he  did,  for 
he  was  always  very  gaunt  and  thin  compared  to  a  wild 
elephant. 

The  rival  circus  show  of  Bamum  and  Bailey,  the  Fore- 
paugh  show,  owned  a  champion  Cinghalese  elephant  named 
"Bolivar."  He  measured  9  ft.  8  in.  in  height,  and 
hence  was  considerably  shorter  than  his  great  competitor 
Jumbo,  but  he  was  more  massive  and  was  thought  to  be 
heavier  than  the  latter.  Even  when  much  reduced  in 
weight  by  illness  or  moping  he  tipped  the  scales  at  8,700 
pounds,  but  after  Adam  Forepaugh  had  presented  him  to 
the  Zoological  Society  of  Philadelphia,  feeling  that  his 
circus  career  was  about  ended,  the  change  of  scene  and 
absence  of  annoyance  improved  the  animal's  health  so 
greatly  that  he  rapidly  took  on  flesh,  and  although  he  was 
never  officially  weighed,  good  judges  placed  his  weight 
at  from  10,000  to  12,000  pounds.  "Bolivar *'  lived  twenty 
years  in  this  country,  dying  July  31,  1908.* 

It  is  claimed  by  Colonel  Roosevelt  that  the  young  of 
elephants  are  for  a  long  period  defenceless  creatures  and 
that  many  of  them  are  killed  by  lions,  but  once  an  elephant 
has  attained  its  full  growth,  its  immense  bulk  and  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  tusks  and  trimk  render  it  practically 
immune  from  attacks  of  other  animals,  even  against  the 
lion,  rhinoceros,  etc.  Moreover,  the  young  are  in  most 
cases  more  or  less  effectually  protected  by  the  older  animals. 
This  can,  therefore,  hardly  be  adduced  as  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of  these 

^Communicated  by  Mr.  Robert  D.  Carson,  Superintendent  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  Philadelphia. 


ELEPHANTS,    HISTORICAL         191 

animals  in  interior  Africa.  The  suggestion  has  been  made 
by  some,  without  however  much  proof,  that  elephants  may 
be  subject  to  some  particular  disease  that  carries  off  many 
of  them  from  time  to  time.  In  any  case,  when  we  consider 
that  under  favourable  conditions  an  age  of  one  hundred  years 
is  not  believed  to  be  at  all  unusual,  this  limit  being  not 
seldom  exceeded,  even  though  the  total  offspring  of  a  cow 
elephant  may  not  number  more  than  four  or  five  in  a  life- 
time, the  a  priovi  likelihood  of  larger  numbers  seems  ap- 
parent. An  argument  in  favour  of  some  degenerating  dis- 
ease has  been  found  in  the  fact  that  the  female  Asiatic 
elephants  are  almost  all  tuskless,  and  that  the  males  them- 
selves rarely  show  tusks  surpassing  35  to  50  pounds  in 
weight. 

The  National  Zoological  Park  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
owns,  as  a  gift  from  the  Adam  Forepaugh  show,  an  ele- 
phant of  great  size  though  not  of  exceptional  height.  This 
is  a  male  of  the  Indian  species  and  has  been  named  "Dunk.** 
The  height  taken  at  the  shoulder  is  8  ft.  8  in.,  but  the 
weight  has  been  estimated  at  11,000  pounds.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  about  fifty  years  old.  As  is  the  case  with  many 
Indian  elephants  "Dunk"  is  tuskless. 

As  to  the  longevity  of  the  elephant  we  have  the  state- 
ment in  a  memorandum  made  by  Colonel  Robertson,  who 
commanded  part  of  the  British  troops  in  Ceylon,  in  1799, 
not  long  after  the  island  had  been  captured  from  the  Dutch 
by  the  British,  that  there  was  at  that  time  in  the  elephant 
stables  at  Matura  a  decoy  elephant  which  the  records 
proved  had  been  taken  from  the  Portuguese  by  the  Dutch 
in  1656,  and  which  had  served  his  new  masters  for  140 
years;  at  the  expiration  of  this  period  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  British.* 

*Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent,  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon,  including  a 
monograph  on  the  Elephant,"  London,  1861,  p.  233. 


CHAPTER  V 

ELEPHANT   HUNTING,    ETC. 

The  record  of  a  great  elephant  hunt  of  the  Egyptian 
King  Thothmes  III  (c.  1501-1447  B.  C.)  is  inscribed  upon 
the  walls  of  the  tomb  of  his  scribe  Amen-em-heb,  in  the 
Theban  Necropolis.  The  various  translations  differ  in 
some  minor  points  but  agree  essentially.  The  following 
is  the  rendering  of  a  recent  German  version  :* 

**  Again  I  saw  another  glorious  deed  accomplished  by  the 
Lord  of  the  Two  Lands,  in  Niy.  He  hunted  one  hundred 
and  twenty  elephants  because  of  their  tusks.  I  encountered 
the  largest  of  them,  when  he  was  charging  against  His 
Majesty.  I  lopped  off  his  trunk  [lit.  "his  hand"]  while  he 
still  lived,  before  the  King,  while  I  stood  in  the  water  be- 
tween the  rocks.  Upon  this  my  Lord  rewarded  me  with 
gold     .     .     .     and  with  three  changes  of  raiment. '* 

That  Assyrian  monarchs  also  hunted  the  elephant  is 
shown  in  an  inscription  of  Tiglath  Pileser  I  (c.  1100  B.  C), 
which  was  found  at  the  ruins  of  Kalat  Sherkat,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tigris  and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
king  says:  "I  brought  down  ten  immense  bull  elephants  in 
the  region  of  Harran,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Haber.  I 
took  four  elephants  alive.  The  skins  and  tusks,  as  well  as 
the  live  elephants,  I  sent  to  my  city  Asshur.'^f 

^'Altorientaliflcfae  Tezte,"  ed.  by  Dr.  Hugo  Groasman.  Tubingen,  1900,  p.  242.  See 
alflo  W.  Max  MUller,  "Aaien  und  Europa,"  Leipsic,  189S,  p.  263,  and  James  Henry  Breasted. 
'*  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,"  Chicago.  1906.  Vol.  II.  p.  232. 

tKeilinschriftliche  Bibliothek.  ed.  by  Eberhard  Schrader.  Vol.  I.  Berlin,  1880,  p.  90. 
German  trans,  by  Hugo  Winckler. 

102 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       198 

Aristotle,  who  very  probably  secured  his  information 
~Sihrough  the  good  offices  of  his  royal  pupil  Alexander  the 
^3reat,  gives  certain  detaib  regarding  elephant  hunting, 
"^sfhich  appears  to  have  been  carried  on  in  the  India  of  three 
^centuries  before  Christ  much  in  the  same  way  as  in  our  own 
^day.  He  says  that  the  elephant  hunters  were  mounted 
^n  tamed  elephants  of  proved  courage.  When  they  came 
«jp  with  their  untamed  brothers  they  belaboured  these  lustily 


Bbadb  otSocbatdi  and  Zanthippe,  and  or  Anttub  and  Meutus,  comtnoed  with  he*d 
■nd  trunk  of  elephejit.  The  connection  with  Socrates  ia  ulncure.  but  it  has  been  con- 
iectured  that  some  analogy  was  seen  between  the  ungainly  Form  and  the  supposed  virtues 
<rf  the  elepbaut,  and  the  ugly  face  but  supreme  excellence  of  the  philosopher 

— From  Kuypert's  "  De  elephantia  in  nummis  obviis,"  HagEE  Comitum.  1T19. 

with  trunks  and  tusks  until  they  were  completely  subdued. 
WTien  this  task  had  been  accomplished,  some  of  the  hunters 
got  on  the  backs  of  the  vanquished  animals  and  were  able 
to  control  their  movements  by  the  use  of  goads.  Aristotle's 
informants  assured  him  that  as  long  as  the  mahouts  sat 
upon  the  elephants  they  were  docile  and  obedient,  but  some 
of  them  became  wild  again  when  they  were  riderless.  As  a 
punishment  these  had  their  forefeet  bound  together  so  that 
they  could  scarcely  move.* 

While  Alexander  himself,  who  is  said  to  have  been  very 
skeptical  as  to  the  warlike  qualities  of  the  elephant,  made 

'Aristotriis, "  Rigtoria  animalium,"  Lib.  IV,  cap.  S. 


194      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

at  most  a  sparing  use  of  those  he  captured  or  otherwise 
secured  from  the  Indian  rulers,  his  successors  pursued  a 
different  policy,  possibly  because  their  armies  were  in  most 
cases  largely  made  up  of  Asiatics  who  had  a  traditional 
respect  for  the  onset  of  these  ponderous  beasts.  In  Egypt, 
where  a  supply  of  African  elephants  was  to  be  had  in  regions 
not  too  far  removed  to  be  accessible,  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  regular  hunting  expeditions  were 
organized  for  their  capture;  indeed,  Agatharcides  states 
that  this  Ptolemy  was  the  first  to  institute  such  hunts.  It 
is,  however,  quite  certain  that,  as  we  have  seen,  something 
of  the  kind  had  already  been  undertaken  many  centuries 
earlier  by  the  native  Egyptian  sovereigns,  perhaps  only  to 
obtain  the  ivory  of  the  tusks.  The  same  writer  assures  us 
that  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  forbade  the  use  of  elephant  flesh 
as  a  food,  as  he  desired  that  the  lives  of  all  captured  should 
be  spared;  the  Egyptian  "elephant-eaters'*  {elephanio- 
phagoi)  vigorously  resisted  this  decree,  as  doing  violence 
to  a  long-standing  habit.  So  earnestly  did  this  Ptolemy 
carry  out  his  plans  for  obtaining  African  elephants  that 
he  is  said  to  have  founded  a  town  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  Sea  as  a  headquarters  for  his  elephant  hunters, 
where  they  could  fit  out  their  expeditions,  and  whither 
they  could  bring  in  and  care  for  the  elephants  captured  by 
them.  After  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province,  toward 
the  end  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  these  hunts  were  neglected, 
as  the  Romans  did  not  favour  the  employment  of  war 
elephants.* 

The  Lybians  had  the  custom  of  interring  with  great 
pomp  the  bodies  of  those  who  met  their  death  while  hunting 
or  combating  elephants,  and  certain  special  chants  were 
composed  for  and  sung  on  these  occasions,  for  they  held 
that  those  who  ventured  to  attack  such  powerful  animals 

^Gbberti  Cuperi,  "De  elephantis  in  nummis  obviis/*  Hagse  Comitum,  1719,  col.  51-55. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       195 

gave  proof  of  great  courage,  and  they  also  held  that 
the  recital  of  their  glorious  act  constituted  their  best 
epitaph.* 

A  Roman  polychrome  mosaic  of  the  second  century, 
found  some  time  since  in  the  course  of  excavations  made 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Etruscan  city  of  Veii,  depicts  the 
methods  employed  at  that  time  in  embarking  elephants. 
The  representation  shows  a  boat,  moored  near  the  shore, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  plank  bridge.  Along  this 
the  elephant  is  being  guided.  On  board  the  vessel  are  a 
master  and  four  men,  while  four  other  men  on  shore  assist 
in  the  somewhat  diflScult  task  of  embarkation.  The  de- 
tails of  the  oi>eration  are  very  carefully  delineated.  The 
forelegs  of  the  elephant  are  hobbled  so  as  to  prevent  it  from 
escaping;  to  the  right  foreleg  is  attached  a  cord,  on  which 
the  men  on  board  are  puUing,  one  end  having  been  passed 
around  the  mast  and  secured  to  two  staples  in  the  deck;  to 
the  left  foreleg  is  fastened  another  cord,  one  end  of  which  is 
held  by  the  shipmaster  and  the  other  end  by  one  of  the  men 
on  shore;  this  is  used  to  steady  the  elephant.  A  third  cord, 
fastened  to  the  left  hindleg,  is  not  anchored,  but  is  firmly 
held  by  three  of  the  men  on  shore,  who  have  braced  them- 
selves to  check  any  too  sudden  forward  movement  of  the 
elephant  which,  hami>ered  as  it  is,  has  been  left  just  suflS- 
cient  freedom  of  motion  to  permit  a  slow  advance  move- 
ment across  the  temporary  bridge.  This  very  interesting 
relic,  the  earliest  representation  of  the  kind  that  we  have, 
belonged  originally  to  Empress  Theresa  of  Brazil,  wife  of 
Dom  Pedro,  and  was  inherited  by  her  daughter,  the  Com- 
tesse  d'Eu;  it  is  now  in  Paris. f 

Of  elephant  hunting  in  ancient  times  we  have  the  state- 

*CUtidii  iCHiaiii,  "Varia  historiA,"  xii,  55, 

tR.  Cagnat,  "La  premie  representation  connue  du  mode  d'embarquement  de  1*^6- 
phant,"  in  UAmi  des  MonumenU  etdesArU,  Vol.  XIV,  Paris,  1900,  pp.  67-70. 


196     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ment  of  Pliny  that  the  African  natives  caught  them  in  great 
ditches  dug  out  for  this  purpose.  He  adds  as  a  proof  of  the 
animals'  devotion  to  one  another  that  when  one  of  them 
fell  into  such  a  ditch,  all  the  others  of  the  herd  came  to  his 
rescue,  heaping  up  boughs  and  rolling  down  blocks  and 
stones  and  any  other  material  at  hand  to  fill  up  the  ditch, 
and  making  the  most  strenuous  efforts  to  rescue  the  captured 
animal.'*' 

In  the  old  cosmographies  the  various  lands  and  the  main 
divisions  of  the  earth  were  often  specially  marked  by  the 
figure  of  the  animal  most  characteristic  of  the  region,  and 
for  Africa,  more  especially  for  Central  Africa,  this  was  in- 
variably the  elephant.  The  satirist  Swift  wings  one  of  his 
shafts  in  this  connection  in  the  following  lines : 

"So  geographers,  in  Afric  maps. 
With  savage  pictures  fill  their  gaps. 
And  o'er  inhabitable  downs 
Place  elephants  for  want  of  towns." 

Although  ivory  was  so  often  employed  for  ecclesiastical 
ornaments  and  for  the  adornment  of  the  covers  of  devotional 
books,  the  churchman,  Thomas  de  Cantimpr6  (bom  at 
Leuwis  near  Brussels  in  1201),  or  his  interpreter,  Konrad 
von  Megenberg  (b.  1309),  seems  to  show  a  surprising 
unfamiliar!  ty  with  the  true  source  of  this  .beautiful  material. 
Von  Megenberg,  in  his  old  German  translation  of  De 
Cantimpre's  unpublished  "De  Rerum  Natura,"  writing 
of  the  "helfant,*'  as  he  calls  it,  states  that  when  it  was 
hunted  it  would  fall  down  upon  the  ground  or  upon  the 
stones  and  would  thus  break  its  bone;  and  it  was  for  this 
the  animal  was  hunted  because  *'helfenpain*'  (elfenbein) 
or  *' elephant  bone'*  was  a  most  prized  object.    Possibly 

♦piinii.  "Naturaljs  Historia."  Lib.  VIII.  Cap.  vui, 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       197 

the  idea  may  have  been  that  by  falling  on  its  tusks  the  ele- 
phant broke  them  off,  but  this  is  not  clearly  or  definitely 
expressed.* 

When  Master  William  Towerson,  merchant  of  London, 
sailed  along  the  Guinea  Coast,  in  1556  and  1557,  he,  on  sev- 
eral occasions,  secured  elephant  tusks  from  the  natives, 
and  he  tells  us  that  for  one  weighing  thirty  pounds  he 
gave  in  exchange  six  "of  our  basons."  On  January  4, 1557, 
he  made  an  essay  of  elephant  him  ting  on  his  own  account, 
taking  with  him  thirty  men  equipped  with  arquebuses, 
pikes,  longbows,  crossbows,  partisans,  and  swords  and 
bucklers.  They  sighted  two  elephants  and  succeeded  in 
wounding  them  several  times,  but  the  hunt  was  a  failure, 
for  the  animals  escaped  after  injuring  one  of  the  hun- 
ters, f 

The  Portuguese  traveller,  Duarte  Lopez,  who  went  to  the 
Congo  in  1576  and  resided  in  Loanda  until  1587,  describes 
the  pits  dug  by  the  natives  to  capture  elephants  in  much  the 
same  terms  as  are  used  by  the  travellers  of  our  day.  They 
were  broad  at  the  top  and  gradually  narrowed  as  the  depth 
increased,  so  that  the  animal  falling  into  one  of  them  became 
so  tightly  wedged  in  that  escape,  and  even  movement,  was 
impossible.  They  were  hidden  by  a  covering  of  grasses 
and  leaves  of  a  kind  that  the  elephants  habitually  chose  for 
food.  In  this  connection,  Lopez  relates  that  on  one  occasion 
a  female  elephant  accompanied  by  her  young  came  near  one 
of  these  pits,  and  the  baby  elephant  fell  in.  The  mother 
trumpeted  wildly  and  made  frantic  efforts  to  drag  him  out; 
but  when  she  saw  that  this  was  impossible,  she  determined 
to  assure  him  a  quick  death  and  preserve  him  from  the  tender 
mercies  of  human  kind.     So  she  filled  up  the  pit  with  earth, 

*Koiirad  von  Megenberg,  **Buch  der  Natur."  ed.  by  Dr.  Franz  Pfeiffer*  Stuttgart,  1861, 
p. 184. 

tSee  "Hakluyt's  Voyages,"  Vol.  V.  Glasgow,  1904,  pp.  155.  «15. 


198     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

stones,  and  branches  of  trees,  completely  burying  her  oflp- 
spring  beneath  them.* 

Elephants  figure  in  a  legend  of  St.  Thomas,  represented 
to  have  carried  the  Gosi>el  into  India.  To  his  activity  waa 
believed  to  be  due  the  name  St.  Thomas,  given  to  a  provinoe 
on  the  Coromandel  Coast.  At  the  time  the  apostle  was  in 
this  region  an  immense  tree  had  fallen  across  the  river 
Meliapur,  interrupting  river  traflSc.  To  remove  the  ol 
tion,  the  king  ordered  that  rop>es  should  be  wound  around 
and  then  attached  to  three  hundred  elephants.  This 
done,  and  the  animals  were  urged  to  exert  all  their  strengtli, 
but  they  were  imable  to  pull  off  the  enormous  tree  trunk. 
The  sovereign  then  promised  a  large  reward  to  any  one  who 
could  suggest  a  means  of  removing  it.  St.  Thomas,  hearing 
of  this,  came  before  the  king  and  offered  to  do  the  work 
unaided  if  the  king  would  allow  the  trunk  to  be  cut  up  and 
a  chapel  built  of  the  wood.  The  king  and  the  Brahmans, 
thinking  this  was  merely  a  vain  boast,  gave  their  consent; 
but  St.  Thomas,  after  attaching  to  the  trunk  the  zone,  or 
girdle,  he  wore  about  his  loins,  was  able  without  effort  to 
draw  it  out  of  the  river.  Many  of  the  Hindoos  present 
were  so  much  impressed  by  this  miracle  that  they  became 
converts  to  Christianity.  The  Brahmans,  however,  seeing 
the  danger  to  their  religion,  hired  assassins  who  put  the 
apostle  to  death.  The  legend  goes  on  to  state  that  the 
descendants  of  these  assassins  were  born  with  legs  resembling 
those  of  the  elephant.f 

A  war  between  Pegu  and  Siam,  in  1568,  was  caused  by 
the  refusal  of  the  Siamese  to  sell  a  sacred  white  elephant 
which  the  Peguans  wished  to  acquire.     They  were  willing 

*Vera  descriptio  regni  africani  quod  tarn  ab  incolis  quam  ab  Lusitania  Congas  appdatnr 
per  Philippum  Pigafattam;  Latin  trans,  by  Reinius,  Francofuiti,  1508^  p.  80;  lib.  I, 
cap.  X  (Pigafatta's  work,  pub.  in  Rome  in  1531,  was  from  notes  of  Lopei). 

fJohanms  Hugonis  Linschotii,  "India  Orientalis";  Lat.  trans,  by  Teucrides  Amuem 
Lonicerus,  Francoforti,  1599,  p.  41,  cap.  XVU. 


A  FRESHLY  DTG  ELKI'IIA.NT  PIT 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       199 

to  pay  the  price  that  might  be  set  upon  it,  but  could  not 
persuade  the  Siamese  to  part  with  it.  The  result  was  war 
and  a  disastrous  defeat  for  the  Siamese,  resulting  in  the  sub- 
jugation of  their  country.* 

Of  the  various  devices  used  in  the  Belgian  Congo  for 
maiming  and   killing   elephants,    that   employed   by   the 
Bengalas,  and  also  by  the  Waregas,  is  rather  distinctive.     A 
heavy  mass  of  wood  in  which  is  embedded  a  sharp,  trian- 
gular iron  point,  is  suspended  vertically  at  a  considerable 
height  from  two  trees  on  either  side  of  an  elephant  trail, 
and  one  end  of  the  line  which  maintains  it  in  place  is  attached 
to  a  block  of  wood  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  trail,  so  that 
a  passing  elephant  treading  upon  this  block  will  release  the 
suspended  lance.    Because  of  the  great  weight  of  the  wooden 
mass  and  the  height  from  which  the  lance  falls,  the  wound 
inflicted  upon  the  beast  is  a  terrible  and  deadly  one.     While 
the  natives  as  a  general  rule  depend  upon  such  devices,  or 
upon  their  native  weapons  in  the  hunt  for  elephants,  a  very 
few  have  been  instructed  by  the  Arabs  in  the  use  of  firearms 
for  this  purpose.! 

Elephant  hunters  in  Sangoland,  Africa,  are  not  willing  to 
trust  to  their  natural  ability  and  experience  alone,  but  are 
great  believers  in  the  efficacy  of  spells  and  conjurations. 
Before  setting  out  on  a  hunting  expedition  the  hunters 
assemble  at  a  spot  where  two  roads  cross  each  other;  here  an 
offering  of  meal  is  made  to  the  appropriate  divinity.  The 
leader  of  the  party  then  seizes  a  knife  and  makes  superficial 
cuts  on  various  parts  of  the  arms  of  each  hunter;  the  blood 

*Johanni«  Hugonis  Linschotii,  "India  Orientalis;*'  Lat.  trans,  by  Teucrides  Annoeus 
Lonicerus,  Francoforti."  1590,  p.  46;  cap.  XIX.  Plates  by  the  brothers  De  Bry.  PI. 
XVin  shows  the  King  of  Cochin-China  riding  on  an  elephant.  Both  the  king  and  his 
courtiers  are  almost  nude.  The  sovereign  was  distinguished  from  his  nobles  by  a  richly 
jewelled  bracelet,  or  amulet,  and  by  large  earrings  set  with  precious  stones. 

tCoUection  de  monographes  ethnologiques,  I,  Les  Bengala*  by  C.  van  Overbergh  and  £. 
de  Jonghe,  Bruxelles,  1907,  p.  164. 


200     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

that  flows  from  these  cuts  is  received  in  a  vessel  and  is 
poured  into  the  muzzles  of  the  guns.  At  the  same  time  a 
special  form  of  conjuration,  supposed  to  render  the  hunter 
invisible  to  his  quarry,  is  pronoimced.  Thereupon  the 
wounds  in  the  arms  are  dressed  with  a  decoction  made  from 
an  elephant's  trunk  and  upper  lip.  In  addition  to  all  this 
they  have  a  form  of  amulet  which,  when  boimd  on  a  hunter's 
wrist,  insures  the  accuracy  of  his  aim,  and  if  attached  to 
his  waist  confers  invulnerability.  This  is  a  little,  i>erfo- 
rated,  wooden  rod.* 

The  genesis  of  what  has  probably  already  become  a  bit 
of  local  African  folklore  in  regard  to  an  elephant  is  related 
by  the  famous  English  elephant  hunter,  James  Sutherland. 
In  the  course  of  one  of  his  expeditions  into  equatorial  Africa 
he  came  across  a  fine  herd  of  elephants,  but  as  they  got  wind 
of  his  approach  he  was  only  able  to  bring  down  one  of  them, 
a  large  bull  elephant,  with  a  well-aimed  head  shot.  The 
animal  fell  prone  upon  the  ground,  apparently  mortally 
wounded.  To  make  sure  of  his  quarry,  Sutherland  came 
close  up  to  the  elephant  and  placing  the  muzzle  of  his  rifle 
within  a  foot  of  its  head  fired  a  shot  at  the  correct  angle  to 
carry  the  bullet  to  the  brain.  A  convulsive  tremor  passed 
over  the  animal's  body,  the  tail  stiffened,  and  the  hunter 
was  confident  that  death  had  already  ensued,  or  would 
shortly  follow.  Therefore,  with  his  native  attendants,  he 
took  up  the  trail  of  the  other  elephants,  but  found  that  he 
could  not  hope  to  overtake  them.  After  an  interval  of  about 
two  hours  he  sent  one  of  his  men  back  to  locate  the  place 
of  the  elephant  he  had  shot;  however,  in  a  short  time  the 
native  returned  and  announced,  with  an  astonished  and 
mystified  air,  that  the  animal  was  nowhere  to  be  seen. 
Sutherland  then  accompanied  him  to  the  spot  and  soon 

^Report  of  missionary  Reese,  in  Arckvf  fOr  Anthrapologie,  New  Senear  VoL  XII»  Pt  8^ 
pp.  134-146;  Braunschweig,  1913. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       201 

found  unmistakable  traces  on  the  tree  trunks  and  the 
ground  showing  that  the  animal  had  staggered  to  its  feet 
and  laboriously  made  its  way  through  the  forest.  As  they 
followed  the  trail,  they  could  note  that,  little  by  little,  the 
elephant's  tread  had  grown  firmer  and  its  pace  had  evi- 
dently accelerated.  Vainly  they  followed  the  trail  for 
several  hours,  and  were  at  last  forced  to  give  up  the  pur- 
suit and  allow  the  "  dead  "  elephant  to  escape.  The  natives, 
however,  immediately  explained  the  strange  happening 
in  the  light  of  their  superstitions,  declaring  that  it  was 
no  real  elephant  the  hunter  had  shot,  but  a  majaviey  or 
wizard,  who  had  taken  up  his  abode  in  an  elephant  form."*" 
Doubtless  this  tale  spread  about  among  the  tribesmen  and 
has  by  this  time  developed  into  a  wild  and  wondrous  legend. 

Among  the  Kukus  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  possessions, 
the  native  elephant  himters  climb  trees  near  the  elephant 
trail,  and  when  the  animals  pass,  cast  their  lances  at  them, 
aiming  to  hit  the  shoulder.  The  shaft  and  head  of  the  lance 
used  for  this  purpose  are  exceptionally  long,  the  head  meas- 
uring 36  cm.  (about  14  in.)  and  the  bamboo  shaft  1.65  m. 
(5  ft.  5  in.),  the  end  of  the  shaft  being  enrolled  with  ele- 
phant hide  firmly  bound  by  thongs. f 

An  example  of  unscrupulous  business  methods  in  inte- 
rior Africa  is  afiPorded  by  the  conduct  of  the  Asande  chiefs 
toward  the  Ababuas.  They  cleverly  circulated  among  the 
whites  the  report  that  the  latter  were  a  race  of  savages  and 
that  no  white  man  could  enter  their  country  except  at  the 
peril  of  his  life.  Not  content  with  this  they  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  Ababuas  that  the  white  men  were  very 
bloodthirsty  and  cruel,  and  that  should  any  Ababuas  ap- 

^James  Sutherlaiid,  "The  Adventures  of  an  Elephant  Hunter,"  London,  1912,  pp. 
112.  iqq. 

^Collection  de  monographes  ethnologiques,  VI,  Les  Kuku,  by  Joseph  Van  der  Plas. 
Bnixdk%  p.  164. 


202     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

proach  a  settlement  of  white  men  they  would  be  either 
hanged  forthwith  or  else  sold  into  slavery.  By  these  meanB 
the  sly  Asandes  were  able  to  buy  up  all  the  ivory  collected 
by  the  Ababuas  at  a  very  low  figure,  and  then  sell  it  to  the 
traders  at  a  great  advance  in  price.* 

It  is  a  common  practice  among  the  poachers  in  the  Bel- 
gian Congo  to  take  the  spoil  to  Uganda  where  th^  are 
compelled  to  pay  an  import  tax  of  24  per  cent,  and  also  an 
export  tax  of  25  per  cent.  A  single  poacher  has  been  known 
to  have  3  tons  of  ivory  in  his  possession.  In  one  instance  a 
poacher  was  overtaken  by  the  Belgian  Congo  officials  and  the 
ivory  taken  from  him,  as  well  as  his  money  and  his  guns. 
By  some  peculiar  means  it  was  only  a  matter  of  a  few  weeks 
before  he  returned  to  Mombasa  with  3  more  tons  of  ivory, 
which  must  have  been  stolen  from  the  natives. 

The  romantic  career  of  a  great  elephant  poacher  has  just 
had  a  tragic  termination  in  the  death  of  the  American, 
James  Ward  Rogers,  who  for  years  carried  on  an  extensive 
and  exceedingly  profitable  illicit  trade  in  ivory  in  the  out-of- 
the  way  regions  on  the  limits  of  the  Congo  State  and  along 
the  Lado  Enclave.  He  had  succeeded  in  organizing  here  a 
species  of  rude  but  very  eflfective  government,  of  which  he 
was  the  uncrowned  king.  Many  ineffectual  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Soudanese  officials  to  put  an  end  to  his  career. 
Finally,  a  small  expeditionary  force  was  sent  out  under 
Captain  Fox,  who  had  instructions  to  take  the  poacher  dead 
or  alive.  The  almost  impassable  jungle  rendered  the  task 
of  the  pursuers  extremely  difficult  and  arduous;  frequently 
they  came  in  sight  of  Rogers  and  his  party,  but  were  unable 
to  overtake  them.  At  last,  after  following  him  into  the  Bel- 
gian Congo,  the  expedition  came,  almost  unexpectedly, 
upon  the  camp  of  the  outlaw.  '  One  of  Rogers's  native  guards 
informed  Captain  Fox  that  the  poacher  had  taken  refuge 

*HiiiTows,  "The  Land  of  the  Pygmies,*'  London,  1898,  p.  201. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       203 

in  a  hut,  which  he  pointed  out.  The  captain  immediately 
entered  it  and  saw  one  white  man  stretched  out  on  a  couch 
and  another  seated  at  his  side.  "Which  is  Mr.  Rogers?" 
he  asked.  "Mr.  Rogers  has  been  shot,"  answered  the  man 
seated  by  the  couch.  The  one  who  was  lying  on  it  drew 
a  revolver,  and  pointing  it  at  Captain  Fox,  said:  "Yes,  and 
by  your  men.  I  did  not  think  they  could  kill  old  Rogers, 
but  they  have  got  him  this  time.  Still  you  are  on  Belgian 
territory  and  you  stand  more  chance  for  arrest  than  I  do." 
The  captain's  position  was  a  rather  ticklish  one,  but  he 
stood  his  groimd  bravely,  and  ere  many  minutes  had  passed 
Rogers  was  in  his  death  agony,  and  he  expired,  defiant  to  the 
last. 

The  wholesale  destruction  of  human  life  and  of  property 
entailed  by  the  ruthless  search  for  ivory  by  Arab  traders  in 
the  Congo  region,  before  the  establishment  of  more  orderly 
conditions  in  that  territory,  is  eloquently  stated  in  the  fol- 
lowing words  by  the  great  African  traveller,  Henry  M.  Stan- 
ley, in  his  account  of  his  expedition  to  this  part  of  Africa 
m  1887-88.* 

"Every  tusk,  piece,  and  scrap  of  ivory  in  the  possession 
of  an  Arab  trader  has  been  steeped  in  human  blood.  Every 
pound  weight  has  cost  the  life  of  a  man,  woman,  or  child; 
for  every  five  pounds  a  hut  has  been  burned;  for  every  two 
tusks  a  whole  village  has  been  destroyed;  every  twenty 
tusks  have  been  obtained  at  the  price  of  a  district  with  all 
its  people,  villages,  and  plantations.  It  is  simply  incredible 
that,  because  ivory  is  required  for  ornaments  or  billiard 
games,  the  rich  heart  of  Africa  should  be  laid  waste  at  this 
late  year  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  that  native  popu- 
lations, tribes,  and  nations  should  be  utterly  destroyed. 
Whom  does  all  this  bloody  seizure  enrich?  Only  a  few 
dozens  oi  half-castes,  Arab  and  Negro,  who,  if  due  justice 

Stanley,  "In  Darkest  Africa,"  London,  1807,  p.  158. 


\ 


204      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

were  dealt  to  them,  would  be  made  to  sweat  out  the  re- 
mainder of  their  piratical  lives  in  the  severest  penal  servi- 
tude/' 

In  the  distribution  of  the  loot,  the  large  pieces  of  ivory, 
weighing  more  than  35  pounds  each,  became  the  property 
of  the  proprietor  of  the  caravan ;  those  weighing  from  20  to 
35  pounds  belonged  to  the  headmen,  and  the  smaller  pieces 
were  left  in  the  hands  of  those  who  had  been  lucky  enough 
to  secure  them.  Thus  all  the  members  of  the  caravan  were 
directly  interested  in  obtaining  as  much  of  the  precious 
material  as  they  could  lay  hands  upon,  at  any  cost. 

At  this  time  Emin  Pasha,  for  whose  reUef  Stanley's  ex- 
pedition had  been  organized,  is  said  to  have  accumulated 
75  tons  of  ivory,  which  Stanley  estimates  to  be  worth 
£60,000,  putting  the  poimd  of  ivory  at  8  shillings.  He  made 
a  bargain  with  the  Arab  chief,  Tippu  Tib,  who  agreed  to 
furnish  native  bearers  for  this  ivory  at  the  rate  of  £6  per 
"loaded  head'*  for  the  trip  from  Stanley  Falls  to  Lake 
Albert  and  return,  and  he  calculated  that  if  each  bearer 
carried  a  weight  of  70  poimds,  the  total  profit  would  amoimt 
to  £13,200,  which  could  be  turned  over  to  the  fund  at 
Stanley  Falls.  He  later  states  that  1,355  loads  (some 
100,000  pounds)  were  so  conveyed,  but  some  large  tusks 
weighing  150  pounds  each  had  to  be  left  behind,  as  they 
were  too  heavy  to  be  transported  in  this  way.* 

One  of  our  Nimrods,  the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  S.  Rainsford,  in 
relating  certain  of  his  numerous  explorations  in  the  haunts 
of  wild  animals,  remarks  that  for  crossing  treeless  stretches 
in  British  East  Africa  elephants  cautiously  select  the  night- 
time, rarely  venturing  out  into  the  open  in  daylight  in  re- 
gions frequently  disturbed  by  hunters,  f 

By  British  supervision  of  elephant  hunting  in  their  African 

*0p.  cit.,  pp.  81,  82. 

tDr.  W.  S.  Rainaford,  "The  Land  of  the  Lion,*'  World:*  Work,  June.  1909,  p.  11707. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.        205 

territory  one  excellent  result  has  been  accomplished  through 
stringent  regulations  prescribing  heavy  fines,  namely,  the 
protection  of  cow  elephants  from  slaughter.  Ivory  from  this 
source  is  contraband.  The  laws  also  forbid  the  shooting  of 
elephants  bearing  tusks  the  pair  of  which  weighs  less  than 
60  pounds.  That  some  innocent  mistakes  are  almost  if 
not  quite  unavoidable  may  be  admitted,  but  as  a  general 
rule  the  experienced  hunter  has  no  excuse;  in  the  case  of 
cow  elephants  the  marked  diflference  in  size  as  compared  with 
bull  elephants,  and  the  smallness  of  the  tusks,  combine  to 
serve  as  warning  indications.* 

A  circumstance  often  noted  by  elephant  hunters  and  that 
aids  them  materially  in  their  chase  is  the  poor  sight  of  ele- 
phants ;  they  scarcely  appear  able  to  recognize  the  form  of  a 
man  at  fifty  yards'  distance,  and  if  the  hunter  keeps  still  he 
frequently  remains  unnoticed  when  even  but  twenty  yards 
away,  if  he  be  in  the  shade.  But  as  a  necessary  compensa- 
tion the  sense  of  smell  in  these  animals  is  very  keen,  and 
once  they  catch  the  hunter's  wind  their  movements  in  attack 
or  flight  are  exceedingly  rapid.  Doctor  Rainsford  notes  one 
instance  of  a  hunter's  extremely  narrow  escape  from  being 
crushed  to  death  by  a  charging  herd  which  had  suddenly 
scented  his  approach.  The  thick  brush  rendering  even  an 
attempt  at  flight  impossible,  the  only  thing  the  man  could  do 
was  to  cast  himself  down  prone  on  the  ground  and  let  the 
herd  pass  over  him.  The  danger  of  being  trodden  upon  was 
inmiinent,  and  the  foot  of  one  of  the  elephants  struck  the 
ground  so  near  to  the  prostrate  form  that  part  of  the  hunter's 
coat  was  torn  away,  but  he  suffered  no  bodily  injury.f 

The  most  effective  shot  the  hunter  can  fire  is  one  aimed 
between  the  eye  and  the  ear  of  the  elephant.  The  African 
elephant  does  not  offer  as  good  a  mark  for  a  shot  at  the 

•Ibid.,  p.  IITTT. 
flbid.,p.lirn, 


206     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

brain  as  does  his  Indian  brother,  the  brain  of  the  former 
being  very  small  and  protected  by  a  bony  framework  of 
superior  thickness;  but  a  ball  entering  between  the  eyes,  at 
the  root  of  the  trunk,  will  pass  through  the  cellular  structure 
of  the  skull  directly  to  the  animal's  brain.  This  frontal  shot, 
however,  is  more  difficult  to  make  than  that  between  ear 
and  eye,  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  mark  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  having  the  animal  directly  in  front  of  you.* 

It  is  stated  that  Sir  Samuel  Baker  was  the  first  hunter  who 
tested  the  virtues  of  a  small-bore  rifle  (.450,  black  powder) 
on  elephants.  He  was  led  to  do  so  because  his  favourite  gun 
chanced  not  to  be  at  hand  at  the  moment,  but  he  was  so  well 
satisfied  with  the  result  that  he  continued  to  make  use  of 
this  calibre  instead  of  a  greater  one.  Later,  the  still  smaller 
.303  English  gun  came  into  vogue,  and  was  found  to  be  effec- 
tive against  both  elephants  and  rhinoceroses.  Nowadays, 
with  a  powerful  charge,  excellent  work  can  be  done  with  a 
.256  Mannlicher  or  a  .276  Mauser,  and  Doctor  Rainsford 
writes  that  on  one  occasion  a  bullet  fired  from  a  Mannlicher 
at  200  yards'  distance,  and  entering  an  elephant's  body 
from  behind,  passed  right  through  it  and  lodged  in  the 

heart,  t 

The  supremacy  of  the  Congo  as  an  elephant  field  is  un- 
questioned to-day.  Of  many  remarkable  successes  made 
here  by  individual  hunters,  one  is  noted  in  which  a  four 
months'  hunt  brought  in  two  tons  of  ivory. 

The  sport  here  is  also  said  to  entail  less  danger  than  in 
the  British  territory,  the  Congo  elephants  being  less  fero- 
cious than  those  of  Uganda  or  the  British  Protectomfce. 
Though  as  a  sport  elephant  hunting  seems  to  exercise  a  great 
fascination,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  even  the  enthusiaatie 
sportsman  is  sometimes  moved  to  regard  the  matter  with  a 

tibid.,  p.  11779. 
•Ibid.,  p.  11781. 


GROVE  OF  PLANTAIN'  TREES 


TWO  ELEPHANTS 


N  EQUATORIAL  AFBICA  B 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       207 

little  sentiment,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  words  of  Doctor 
Hainsford:* 

"I  should  not  greatly  care  to  kill  any  more  elephants. 
They  are  too  big,  too  old,  and  too  wise  to  be  classed  as  mere 
game.  As  I  stood  by  the  side  of  that  vast  fallen  bulk  I 
realized  I  had  extinguished  a  life  perhaps  three  times  as  old 
as  my  own.  What  had  not  that  great  beast  seen  and  sur- 
vived? WTiat  comings  and  goings  of  the  tribes?  What 
changes  among  the  petty  bands  of  men?  It  was  probably 
a  full-grown  elephant  when  Livingstone  first  resolutely  set 
his  face  toward  Africa's  unknown  interior.  I  felt  small  and  a 
little  guilty." 

In  the  National  Museum  at  Washington  are  the  three 
large  elephants  shot  by  Colonel  Roosevelt  in  Equatorial 
Africa  in  1909.  The  tallest  of  these  was  a  rogue  bull, 
shot  in  Uganda,  and  measuring  10  ft.  9  in.  in  height 
at  the  withers.  A  more  bulky  though  somewhat  shorter 
example  of  a  bull  elephant  had  a  height  of  10  ft.  6  in., 
with  tusks  weighing  65  pounds  each;  this  was  the  first  ele- 
phant to  fall  before  the  redoubtable  Colonel's  rifle,  and  was 
shot  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Kenia.  The  third  of  these 
Roosevelt  bull  elephants,  shot  somewhat  later  near  Mem, 
had  attained  a  height  of  10  ft.  4  in.  To  these  may 
be  added  a  cow  elephant  which  fell  before  the  rifle  of  Paul 
J.  Rainey,  near  Moimt  Marsabit,  on  the  same  expedition. 
The  right  tusk  of  this  animal  measured  5  ft.  7  in.  in  length 
and  the  left  tusk  5  ft.  10  in.,  each  having  a  diameter  of 
10  in.;  the  heavier  one  weighs  28  pounds. f 

Although  in  many  parts  of  Africa  the  wholesale  slaughter 
of  elephants  has  greatly  reduced  their  numbers,  they  are 
still  fairly  plentiful  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  especially 

♦n)id.,p.  11782. 

tCommunicated  by  Dr.  R.  Rathbun,  Director  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington. 
D.C. 


208     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

in  the  part  south  of  10®  N.  lat.,  a  careful  estimate  placing 
the  number  at  30,000.  The  rainy  season  commonly  in- 
duces a  considerable  migration  to  the  northward  into  Kordo- 
fan,  the  Dar  Homar  country  here  being  favoured,  as  the  rest 
of  the  territory  is  too  sandy  to  be  a  suitable  habitat  for 
elephants.  Small  herds  can  be  foimd  farther  north  than 
10°  N.  lat.,  as  on  the  White  Nile  up  to  12°  N.  lat.,  whence 
the  range  slants  northeastward  across  the  Blue  Nile.  In 
this  latter  region  there  has  been  a  notable  increase  of  ele- 
phants during  the  past  ten  years.  In  smaller  numbers 
they  are  present  along  the  Dinder,  Rahad,  and  Setit,  and 
some  may  even  be  found  as  far  to  the  north  as  the  Gash, 
14°  30'  N.  lat.* 

To  regulate  elephant  himting  in  the  Belgian  Congo,  a 
decree  of  November  17,  1910,  interdicted  the  killing  of 
animals  bearing  tusks  which  weigh  less  than  10  kilograms 
(22  pounds)  each,  and  of  female  elephants  in  general,  more 
especially  of  those  accompanied  by  their  yoimg.  Permis- 
sion may  be  secured  from  the  proper  authorities  to  kill 
two  elephants  having  tusks  of  at  least  10  kilograms'  weight, 
and  by  special  arrangement  the  right  to  kill  a  greater  num- 
ber may  be  obtained. 

In  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  while  the  natives  are  stiU 
permitted  to  kill  elephants  without  any  particular  restric- 
tion, provided  they  confine  themselves  to  the  old  native 
methods  of  hunting,  the  use  of  firearms  for  this  purpose  is 
strictly  regulated,  the  holder  of  what  is  known  as  an  "A" 
Game  License  only  having  the  right  to  shoot  two  elephants 
in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  fact  that  the  possession  of 
**cow  ivory'*  or  of  bull  tusks  weighing  less  than  10  pounds 
is  illegal,  and  that  ivory  of  this  description  is  subject  to 
confiscation,  operates  as  a  practical  restriction  on  native 
hunting  as  well  as  on  that  of  Europeans.     The  native 

%k>inmunicatecl  by  Capt.  Gilbert  Clayton,  Sudan  A^nt,  War  Office^  Cairo*  E^ypt, 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       209 

methods  are  similar  to  those  practised  in  other  parts  of 
Africa,  and  include  pitfalls,  the  dropping  of  heavily  weighted 
spears  from  trees  upon  the  animals  passing  beneath,  etc. 
Another  system  involves  the  manoeuvring  of  a  herd  of 
elephants  into  the  dry  grass;  a  girdling  ring  of  fire  is  then 
started  and  the  entrapped  and  bewildered  elephants  fall 
victims  to  the  natives'  spears.  However,  the  employment 
of  any  especially  destructive  methods  may  be  forbidden  by 
the  governor  of  a  province.* 

The  Governor-General  of  the  Belgian  Congo  issued  on 
April  27,  1912,  an  ordinance  reducing  considerably  the  sum 
of  money  to  be  paid  by  native  elephant  hunters  to  the  State, 
if  they  wish  to  keep  the  ivory  they  have  secured.  Hereto- 
fore, the  charge  exacted  by  the  Government  on  all  such 
ivory  was  18  francs  ($3.47)  per  kilo,  but  the  new  ordinance 
substitutes  the  following  graded  charges  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tusks:  for  points  exceeding  10  kilos  in  weight 
15  francs  ($2.90)  per  kilo;  for  points  weighing  from  6  to 
10  kilos,  10  francs  ($1.93)  per  kilo;  on  points  running  from 
2  to  6  kilos,  7  francs  ($1.35)  per  kilo.  It  will,  however, 
be  noted  that  in  view  of  the  price  likely  to  be  obtainable 
by  the  natives  from  traders  for  their  ivory  these  charges 
are  still  very  heavy,  and  are  calculated  to  discourage  to  a 
great  extent  any  speculative  venture  on  the  part  of  the 
Congo  hunters.t 

The  following  provisions  relating  to  elephant  hunting 
are  embodied  in  an  ordinance  of  the  Governor-General 
of  the  Belgian  Congo,  dated  December  6,  1912,  still  further 
reducing  the  price  on  ivory  secured  by  native  hunters. 

Elephants  may  be  hunted  by  natives  when  provided 
with  an  authorization,  which  is  gratuitously  accorded  to 

*Vioe-Coii8ul  Ross  J.  Haxeltine  of  Boma,  in  DaUy  Coruular  and  Trade  ReporU,  August  10, 
1912,  p.  750. 

f  Communicated  by  Capt.  Gilbert  Clayton,  Sudan  Agent,  War  OflSce,  Cairo,  Egypt 


«10     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

them.  On  any  ivory  they  may  secure,  a  tax  of  from  2.50 
francs  to  5.50  francs  per  kilogram,  according  to  the  weight 
of  the  tusks,  is  to  be  collected  at  the  time  the  ivory  is  regis- 
tered. No  elephants  having  tusks  of  less  than  2  kilograms' 
weight  may  be  hunted. 

Non-hunters  may  obtain  for  1,000  francs  the  authoriza- 
tion to  kill  two  adult  male  elephants.  The  ivory  secured  in 
this  way  must  be  registered,  but  no  tax  is  levied  on  it,  the 
cost  of  the  permit  being  regarded  as  sufficient. 

Any  elephant  may  be  killed  when  this  is  necessary  for 
the  defence  of  person  or  property.  All  ivory  so  obtained 
must  be  given  over  to  the  State,  which  will  pay  for  it  an 
indemnity  equivalent  to  a  quarter  of  its  value.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  the  ivory  of  elephants  found  dead. 

No  special  tax  is  to  be  levied  on  the  commerce  in  ivory. 
The  merchant  who  buys  ivory  still  unregistered  must,  on 
registering  it,  prove  that  it  has  come  from  a  proper  source; 
otherwise,  the  ivory  is  to  be  confiscated. 

An  export  duty  is  to  be  levied  on  ivory  at  the  time  of 
its  exportation. 

The  natives  of  the  Belgian  Congo  are  permitted  by  the 
State  to  retain  as  their  own  property  half  of  the  ivory  they 
may  secure  by  elephant  hunting,  the  price  for  the  other 
half  being  put  at  such  a  reasonable  figure  as  to  assure  a 
good  profit  should  the  native  choose,  or  be  able,  to  buy  it. 
The  fact  that  ivory  is  a  peculiarly  valuable  commodity  is 
fully  realized  by  the  natives  of  the  Congo,  for  it  has  served  to 
a  certain  extent  as  a  medium  of  exchange  ever  since  Arab 
traders  first  penetrated  into  this  region.* 

That  elephants  are  growing  scarce  in  the  Belgian  Congo 
is  denied  by  traders  who  are  familiar  with  the  territory,  the 
statement  being  made  that  along  the  course  of  the  Kasai 

*Vice-Con8ul  General  Ross  J.  Haxeltine  of  Boma,  Daily  Consuiar  and  Trade  Reporit, 
Febniary  5, 1913.  p.  627. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       211 

River  large  herds  remain  practically  untouched.  The 
fact  that  514,085  pounds  of  ivory*  was  exported  in  1912, 
valued  at  $1,172,581,  as  against  497,656  pounds  in  1911, 
with  a  value  of  $1,096,597,  shows  how  large  must  be  the 
nimiber  of  elephants  in  this  valuable  Belgian  colony.* 

The  elephants  of  Togoland  (German  West  Africa)  are 
threatened  with  extermination,  there  being  no  protective 
laws  to  control  indiscriminate  slaughter;  indeed,  so  reck- 
less and  improvident  are  the  native  hunters  that  they  do 
not  even  spare  the  young  elephants,  and  now  and  then  tiny 
tusks  from  a  baby  elephant  are  brought  to  the  merchants. 
Hence  the  ivory  exports  are  dwindling  down,  and  were  it 
not  for  the  fact  that  the  good  price  the  material  commands 
in  Lome  attracts  some  ivory  from  the  Gold  Coast,  the 
amount  exported  would  be  still  smaller.  The  figures  for 
1912  show  exports  of  but  2,400  kilos,  and  in  1911  the  returns 
were  2,150  kilos.f 

In  each  of  the  West  African  colonies,  including  Nigeria, 
elephants  are  protected  by  special  laws  which  prohibit  the 
killing  of  young  animals  and  of  female  elephants.  A  $50 
license  only  serves  to  permit  the  killing  of  one  or  at  most 
of  two  elephants  during  the  year  for  which  it  is  issued. | 

The  strict  regulations  in  regard  to  the  hunting  of  "big 
game"  in  the  Transvaal**  would,  of  course,  serve  to  protect 
elephants  from  unlawful  hunting,  should  any  still  be  left 
in  that  region,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  That 
they  formerly  ranged  through  the  country  is  of  course  a 
well-known  fact  that  finds  confirmation  in  the  names  given 

^Vke-Consul  General  Harry  A.  McBride  of  Boma,  "Development  of  Belgian  Kongo,'* 
DaUy  Consular  and  TratU  Reports,  April  16, 1914,  p.  280. 

f Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports  No.  5226,  Annual  Series:  Germany,  Report  on  the 
Trade  and  Agriculture  of  Togoland  (German  West  Africa),  London,  1913,  p.  9. 

^Communicated  by  U.  S.  Consul  N.  J.  Yerby,  of  Sierra  Leone,  Africa. 

**Sce  Handbook  of  the  Game  and  Fish  Preservation  Laws  of  the  Transvaal  Province, 
19I8»  Pretoria,  1912, 50  pp.,  map  and  two  "Addenda**  of  15  pp.  and  8  pp.  respectively. 


212     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

to  many  farm  settlements,  such  as  Olifantfontein,  Olifants- 
vlei,  etc.  There  is  said  to  be  a  herd  of  elephants  in  a  semi- 
wild  state  somewhere  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cape  Colony. 

In  Rhodesia,  however,  where  the  European  settlements 
are  of  so  much  more  recent  date,  a  certain  number  of  ele- 
phants remain,  and  are  protected  by  legal  enactments. 
This  state  of  things,  though  pleasant  enough  for  the  ele- 
phants, has  proved  less  agreeable  for  the  farmers,  whose 
crops  were  often  badly  damaged  by  the  wandering  herds. 
Indeed,  so  earnest  were  the  complaints  made  to  the  authori- 
ties from  this  source,  that  special  permission  is  said  to  have 
been  granted  to  kill  a  number  of  the  aggressors.* 

In  this  colony  permits  for  shooting  animals  of  the  class 
denominated  "'Royal  Game,"  in  which  the  elephant  is 
comprised,  may  be  secured  from  the  administrator  if  he 
can  be  assured  that  the  animals  are  really  required  for 
scientific  purposes.  A  £5  stamp  must  be  affixed  to  the 
permit.  Applications  must  be  addressed  to  the  Director 
of  Agriculture  and  must  be  accompanied  by  documentary 
proof  of  good  faith. 

Should  crops  be  damaged  by  any  kind  of  game,  the  occu- 
pier of  the  land  is  authorized  to  kill  the  offending  animals, 
and  in  certain  "open  areas"  in  the  Hartley  district  and  the 
Sebungwe  district  permission  was  given  to  shoot  or  capture 
all  classes  of  game  except  ostriches  and  other  birds  classified 
as  game,  for  a  period  of  one  year  from  July  1, 1918,  the  same 
privilege  being  accorded  for  the  Lomagundi  district  from 
November  1, 1913.  The  shooting  or  capturing  of  elephants 
on  the  Walden  Farm  in  the  Hartley  district,  or  within  five 
miles  of  this  farm,  was  granted  for  a  period  of  one  year 
from  April  9,  1914,  no  special  license  being  required.  It 
is  expressly  decreed  that  the  holding  of  a  license  to  shoot 

^Communicated  by  Dr.  E.  T.  MeUor»  Geological  Survey,  Mines  Department*  Pketoria. 
May,  1914. 


f 


I 


CDVEKED    ELEPHANT    I'lT 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       218 

game  does  not  give  the  holder  the  right  to  shoot  on  private 
land  without  the  landowner's  permission.* 

Elephant  hmiting  is  so  severely  restricted  in  India  that 
the  protection  aflForded  the  remaining  herds  seems  to  be 
quite  eflFective.  They  are  limited  to  forest  land  in  Coorg, 
Mysore,  Travancore,  Orissa,  and  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  lower  reaches  of  the  Himalayas.  The  trumpeting  of 
the  elephant  when  in  deadly  peril  is  a  most  impressive  sound, 
and  we  are  told  that  it  had  such  a  charm  for  an  especially 
bloodthirsty  ruler,  Mihirakula,  king  of  the  White  Huns  in 
the  sixth  centiuy  A.  D.,  that  he  caused  elephants  to  be  cast 
over  a  precipice  in  order  to  enjoy  their  piercing  cry.  He 
had  first  heard  this  call  of  agony  by  chance  when  an  ele- 
phant fell  over  the  precipice  at  the  Gate  of  Kashmir,  f 

Although  a  relatively  small  amount  of  the  ivory  worked 
up  in  India  is  derived  from  Asiatic  elephants,  these  animals 
continue  to  be  highly  prized  for  their  use  in  processions, 
native  State  ceremonials,  and  for  hunting,  as  well  as  for 
the  transportation  of  timber  from  the  place  where  it  has 
been  feUed  to  a  landing  on  the  river  down  which  it  is  to  be 
floated  to  its  destination.  The  regularity  and  symmetry 
of  its  massive  proportions  are  the  leading  qualities  sought 
for  in  elephants  for  State  and  ceremonial  use,  while  mere 
physical  force  is  prized  in  an  elephant  to  be  used  for  labour 
or  transportation.  In  the  extensive  forest  tracts  of  India 
aU  the  way  from  the  foothills  of  the  Himalayas  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  elephants  may  still 
be  found  in  a  wild  state,  the  strict  protective  legislation 
having  oi>erated  to  save  them  from  slaughter.  The  terri- 
tory of  Mysore  is  said  to  afford  shelter  to  a  greater  number 

*Froin  Summaiy  of   "Game  Law  Consolidation  Ordinance,  1906,"  and  Regulations 
issued  thereunder. 

fAndrews,  "The  Elephant  in  Art  and  Industry/' in  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Industry, 
Vol.  X,  p.  54,  190S-4. 


214   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

of  these  animals  than  any  other  of  the  Indian  states.  As 
a  proof  of  the  large  number  of  elephants  still  existing  in 
this  particular  region,  it  is  related  that  when,  in  November, 
191S,  the  Viceroy  of  India  visited  the  State  of  Mysore,  he 
was  entertained  with  an  elephant  drive  on  a  large  scale, 
as  a  result  of  which  one  hundred  and  thirty  elephants  were 
captured.  Of  these  twenty-four  were  transported  to  Bom- 
bay and  were  there  duly  invoiced  at  the  American  Consu- 
late for  exportation  to  the  United  States,  where  they  were 
destined  to  be  used  by  enterprising  circus  managers  for 
the  entertainment  of  the  public.  The  prices  realized  ranged 
from  $166  for  a  baby  elephant,  only  3  ft.  high,  to  $583 
for  a  female  elephant,  5  ft.  3  in.  in  height;  the  average  price 
was  about  $500,  the  whole  of  this  consignment  bringing  in 
$11,757.* 

The  so-called  ''Kheddah  plan"  is  the  one  in  use  in  India 
when  entire  herds  of  wild  elephants  are  to  be  captured.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  keddah  or  enclosure,  from  six  to 
ten  miles  in  circumference,  into  which  the  wild  elephants 
are  driven,  and  about  which  is  a  fence  of  split  bamboo, 
put  up  after  the  animals  have  been  induced  to  enter  the 
enclosure.  Such  an  elephant  hunt  on  a  large  scale  often 
requires  the  aid  of  as  many  as  370  men,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  tame  elephants,  one  for  every  two  of  the  wild 
elephants  to  be  secured,  to  carry  the  requisite  provision 
of  fodder  for  the  latter,  and  to  lead  them  daily  to  a  place 
for  drinking  and  bathing.  The  captured  elephants  are 
allowed  to  remain  in  comparative  freedom  for  some  little 
time  in  this  improvised  enclosure,  so  that  they  may  have 
time  to  accustom  themselves  gradually  to  the  changed  con- 
ditions. When  they  are  supposed  to  have  become  at  least 
partially  reconciled  to  this  modified  loss  of  freedom  they 

^Consul  Henry  D.  Baker  of  Bombay*  India,  "Report  on  Ivory  and  Elephants  in  India.'* 
June  8,  1914. 


l(KP:AKlN(i    WILD    KJ.KI'HANTS 


ULEl'irANT   IIERU   CROSSIXC;   A   HIVEH 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       «15 

are  driven  through  a  strong  gateway,  the  gate  being  studded 
on  the  inside  with  iron  spikes.  Passing  through  this  gate- 
way and  a  passage  flanked  by  stout  palisades,  they  find 
themselves  in  a  small  enclosure,  where,  after  the  tame  ele- 
phants have  separated  them  one  by  one  from  the  rest  of 
the  herd,  each  individual  has  its  hind  legs  securely  tied 
together,  and  a  rope  attached  to  its  neck  so  that  the  animal 
can  be  led  out  to  the  forest,  where  it  is  picketed  and  kept 
until  it  is  believed  to  be  sufficiently  tamed,  so  that  it  can 
safely  be  freed  from  restraint.  It  but  rarely  happens,  how- 
ever, that  the  largest  and  boldest  male  elephants  in  the  herd 
can  be  captured  by  this  method.  These  are  generally 
secured  by  using  female  elephants  as  decoys,  several  of 
the  latter  being  ridden  out  to  graze  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
bulls;  the  hunters  riding  on  the  decoys  are  so  muffled  up 
as  to  be  eflFectually  concealed  from  the  eyes  of  the  suspicious 
males.  When  the  bulls  have  been  enticed  to  close  prox- 
imity, their  legs  are  hobbled  and  the  attaching  roi>es  wound 
around  the  trunk  of  a  tree.* 

The  Siamese  elephants  are  eflFectively  protected  from 
the  greed  of  ivory  hunters  by  stringent  restrictions,  these 
animals  being  regarded  as  too  valuable  to  be  placed  at  the 
mercy  of  the  hunter.  All  Siamese  ivory,  therefore,  is 
provided  by  the  tusks  of  elephants  which  have  died  of  old 
age  or  disease,  many  falling  victims  to  anthrax,  and  some 
to  the  deadly  poison  of  the  hamadryad,  or  "king  cobra.^f 

The  theft  of  an  elephant  would  seem  to  be  an  exploit 
requiring  unusual  opportunities  on  the  part  of  the  thief 
for  the  removal  and  subsequent  concealment  of  his  unwieldy 
prize.  However,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,  where  the  Gov- 
ernment owns  large  herds  of  trained  elephants,  there  has 

^Coofiil  Henry  D.  Baker»  of  Bombay,  India*  "Report  on  Ivory  and  Elephants  in  India/* 
Junes,  1914. 

fCommunication  of  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 


«16      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

been  in  past  years  considerable  loss  from  the  depredations 
of  elephant  stealers.  Of  course  the  way  in  which  the  thief 
could  profit  by  his  theft  was  to  smuggle  the  elephant  over 
the  frontier  to  some  neighbouring  country,  and  sell  it  there. 
For  a  time  the  Siamese  Government  found  it  exceedingly 
difficult  to  remedy  the  trouble,  few  of  the  stolen  ele- 
phants being  ever  recovered.  Recently,  however,  through 
a  more  energetic  administration  of  the  law  by  His  Excel- 
lency, Chao  Phya  Surasih,  efficiently  aided  by  the  provin- 
cial gendarmerie,  the  practice  has  been  checked,  only 
eleven  elephants  having  been  stolen  in  1913-1914  in  Sia- 
mese territory,  nine  of  these  being  subsequently  recovered.* 

Both  favourable  and  unfavourable  results  are  reported 
as  produced  by  the  stringent  governmental  protection  of 
wild  elephants  in  Siam.  While  their  immunity  from  attack 
has  operated  in  the  direction  of  a  slow  but  progressive  in- 
crease in  their  numbers,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  find  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  shielding  their  crops  from  the  inroads 
of  the  elephants;  during  the  rice  harvest  men  must  be  set 
on  watch  in  the  fields  and  have  to  keep  firing  off  their  guns 
constantly  to  scare  away  the  predatory  animals.  Many 
trained  elephants  are  owned  by  the  Government  and  by  a 
few  wealthy  noblemen,  as  well  as  by  the  great  companies 
dealing  in  teak,  such  as  the  Bombay,  Burma,  East  Asiatic, 
and  Borneo  Company,  and  the  price  of  these  trained  ele- 
phants is  constantly  advancing.  The  increased  railroad 
facilities  in  certain  districts  of  Siam  operate  to  render  the 
use  of  elephants  less  needed  for  transportation  purposes, 
but  in  the  hinterland  they  are  still  absolutely  necessary,  f 

An  amusing  adventure  with  a  rogue  elephant  formed  one 
of  the  incidents  of  an  arduous  Christmas  journey  under- 
taken by  two  Englishmen  who  were  camping  in  an  out-of- 

^rhe  Bangkok  Timet,  June  3, 1914. 
fCommunicated  by  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock,  Jr. 


ELEPHANT    HUNTING,    ETC.       217 

the-way  part  of  Siam.    To  escape  for  even  a  few  hours  from 
the  deadly  monotony  and  loneliness,  they  determined  to 
strike  out  over  the  open  country  so  as  to  reach  a  small 
town  about  twenty  miles  away  which  oflFered  some  little 
chance  of  diversion.     After  a  long  and  fatiguing  tramp 
they  came  to  a  village  where  by  the  oflFer  of  an  exorbitant 
price  they  were  able  to  hire  a  bullock  cart  to  bear  them  to 
their  destination.     One  circumstance  which  made  the  vil- 
lagers especially  loath  to  let  out  a  cart  was  the  fact  that  a 
rogue  elephant  was  known  to  be  roaming  about  that  part 
of  the  district.     The  Englishmen  started  on  their  way  and 
were  having  a  fairly  comfortable  time,  dozing  oflF  in  spite 
of  the  jolting  on  the  plank  bottom  of  the  cart,  when  sud- 
denly they  were  hurled  out  and  precipitated  into  a  ditch 
as  though  by  an  earthquake  shock.     Picking  themselves 
up,  more  startled  than  hurt,  they  were  horrified  to  see  the 
rogue  elephant  making  toward  the  spot  where  they  were. 
To  climb  a  tree  and  thus  place  themselves  temporarily  out 
of  harm's  way  was  the  work  of  a  few  minutes,  but  before 
they  had  run  down  the  road  far  enough  to  reach  this  refuge, 
on  turning  around  they  could  see  the  wild  elephant  smashing 
their  cart  to  splinters.     This  encounter  happened  in  the 
^:ught  time  and  the  poor  fellows  did  not  venture  to  come 
^own  from  their  p>erches  until  by  daylight  they  could  as- 
sure themselves  that  the  raging  elephant  had  gone  oflF.* 

The  docility  of  the  Siamese  elephants  is  not  always  to 
fce  depended  upon,  for  several  cases  of  apparently  unpro- 
^^oked  ferocity  are  reported  of  them.  During  his  long  resi- 
'^ence  as  Court  Physician  in  Siam,  Dr.  Charles  S.  Braddock, 
'^r. ,  was  on  one  occasion  called  in  to  attend  a  native  who  had 
Ibeen  fatally  injured  by  an  on-rushing  elephant  supposed  to 
^ave  been  domesticated.     The  animal,  after  throwing  the 

^Froin  Bangkok  Pioneer,  December  24,  ISQS;  item  signed  Tok  To;  kindly  communicated 
l)y  Dr.  Charles  R.  Braddock.  Jr. 


218     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

man  down  and  trampling  on  his  body,  picked  up  the  sense- 
less form  with  its  trunk  and  hurled  it  a  distance  of  fifteen 
feet  into  the  waters  of  a  canal.  That  medical  and  surgical 
aid  should  prove  of  no  avail  after  such  an  experience  was 
inevitable. 

It  is  estimated  by  one  of  the  great  ivory  dealers  that 
50,000  elephants  are  killed  every  year  for  their  ivory.  At 
the  present  rate  of  extermination,  in  ten  years  the  elephant 
will  have  become  an  extinct  mammal  and  the  ivory  ex- 
ceedingly rare.  Of  course,  a  considerable  part  of  the  ivory 
exported  comes  from  animals  that  have  died  a  natural 
death,  but  still  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  above 
estimate  is  rather  too  low  than  too  high. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SOURCES,  COMPOSITION,  AND  QUALITIES 

OF  IVORY 

What  is  ivory?  We  all  know  it  as  one  of  the  most  attrac- 
tive art  materials,  but  the  structural  qualities  to  which  its 
beauty  and  appropriateness  are  due  and  the  sources  whence 
it  is  derived  are  often  lost  sight  of  by  those  who  fully  appre- 
ciate its  rare  beauty  when  they  see  some  artistic  object 
executed  in  this  soft-toned  and  yet  rich  and  lustrous  material. 
In  its  most  restricted  sense,  the  term  "ivory"  denotes  pri- 
marily elephant  ivory,  although  as  generally  employed  the 
designation  covers  many  other  forms  of  dentine. 

The  characteristic  distinction  between  true  ivory  and 
other  forms  of  dentine  appears  on  examining  a  transverse 
section,  when  wavy  lines  of  different  shades  are  observable, 
their  decussations  enclosing  minute  approximately  lozenge- 
shaped  spaces  in  concentric  rows.  Under  the  microscope 
the  tubular  structure  is  revealed,  the  tubes  being  exceed- 
ingly minute  and  closely  set;  their  smallest  branches  are 
immeasurably  fine,  while  at  the  largest  point  they  only 
average  1-1000  of  an  inch.  Their  angular  gyrations  are 
much  more  marked  than  are  the  secondary  curvatures  of 
ordinary  dentine;  these  are  believed,  in  both  cases,  to  be 
due  to  successive  stages  of  calcification.  Through  the  tubes 
pass  from  the  central  pulp  excessively  fine  threads  of  a  pro- 
toplasmic substance.  The  disposition  and  the  peculiar 
curvature  of  the  ivory  tubes  serves  to  render  the  entire 

219 


220     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

tissue  exceptionally  tough  and  elastic*  When  ivory  de- 
composes it  disintegrates  along  the  lines  of  the  concentric 
interglobular  spaces,  and  fossil  ivory  in  this  state  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  series  of  detached  concentric  rings.f 

Occasionally  the  grinders  of  elephants  have  been  worked 
as  ivory,  but  their  triple  composition  of  enamel,  dentine, 
and  cement  renders  them  difficult  to  cut,  and  they  do  not 
yield  a  material  sufficiently  homogeneous  to  constitute  a 
satisfactory  substitute  for  true  ivory  from  the  tusk4  Wal- 
rus teeth  and  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal  have  also  been  used, 
the  former  to  a  certain  extent  by  dentists.  The  latter  were 
the  famous  unicorn's  horns  of  past  centuries,  and  are  now 
rather  kept  as  curiosities  than  turned  into  material  for  the 
useful  or  ornamental  arts. 

The  characteristic  appearance  presented  by  a  cross-section 
of  ivory,  the  series  of  curved  lines  produced  by  a  bending 
of  the  tubules  constituting  the  dentine,  is  first  observa- 
ble in  the  palseontological  series  leading  up  to  the  modem, 
in  the  case  of  the  large  upper  tusks  of  Tetrabolodon  angusti- 
dens  from  the  Lower  Miocene  of  Northern  Africa,  Europe^ 
and  probably  Asia;**  the  exceptionally  large  lower  tusks  of 
some  American  Tetrabolodonts  show  the  same  formation. 

The  dentition  of  the  elephant  is  very  characteristic  and 
peculiar.  The  first  tusks  (developed  incisors)  are  shed, 
and  are  replaced  by  a  second  growth,  which  remains,  in- 
creasing gradually  in  length  and  weight  until  the  animal's 
death.  The  molars,  however,  are  renewed  no  less  than 
five  times  in  the  course  of  the  elephant's  life.     Only  four 

*W.  B.  Carpenter,  "The  Microscope  and  Its  Revelations,**  7th  ed.,  London.  1801,  p. 
948;  see  also  Professor  Owen,  in  Journal  of  the  Society  cf  Arts,  Vol.  V,  pp.  05-70;  Decem- 
ber 19,  1850. 

tCharles  S.  Tomes, "  A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy,**  3rd  ed.,  London.  1889,  p.  878. 

{Holtsapffel.  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  p.  189. 

** Andrews,  "A  Guide  to  the  Elephants  (recent  and  fossil)  in  the  British  Museum*** 
London,  1908,  pp.  23,  24. 


THK   STKrCTIRK   OF   IVOKV 


K  FRAUUEN-Ttl.      BUT  THE  CLOTU  PATTERN'  19  ALSO    QUIT 


•  • 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  221 

of  these,  two  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw,  are 
developed  and  in  use  at  the  same  time,  but  at  more  or  less  reg- 
ular intervals  these  are  renewed,  the  new  teeth  not  growing 
beneath  the  old  ones,  but  being  developed  alongside  of  them 
in  the  jaw,  and  pushing  them  out  sideways.  There  are  thus 
six  double  pairs  of  molars  grown  in  the  course  of  a  normal 
period  of  life,  the  first  set  api>earing  at  the  age  of  two  weeks 
and  lasting  until  the  second  year,  when  the  teeth  are  re- 
placed by  the  second  set  which  is  shed  when  the  animal  is 
six  years  old;  a  third  set  follows,  lasting  until  the  ninth  year, 
and  a  fourth,  which  remains  longer,  until  the  elephant  is 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  old;  then  comes  the  fifth 
set,  only  shed  in  the  sixtieth  year;  and  lastly  the  sixth  set, 
which  may  serve  for  forty  to  sixty  years  longer,  as  the  ele- 
phant sometimes  reaches  the  age  of  one  hundred  or  even 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years  or  more.  In  structure  the 
teeth  diflFer  from  those  of  any  other  mammal,  being  com- 
posed of  vertical  plates  of  dentine  surrounded  by  enamel 
and  connected  by  a  cement.  When  worn  down  by  use  the 
surface  of  these  large  molars  shows  alternating  layers  of 
cement,  dentine,  and  enamel.* 

That  portion  of  the  animal  framework  that  is  exposed 
and  projected,  and  is  not  protected  by  covering  of  any  sort, 
is  harder  and  finer  textured  than  the  material  properly 
known  as  bone.  Exposed  as  the  former  material  is  to 
blows  and  friction,  its  hardness  and  toughness  take  the 
place  of  the  protection  that  covering  aflFords  to  bone.  This 
applies  in  a  general  way  to  tusks  and  teeth  of  all  kinds. 

Bone  is  the  framework  of  the  animal.  It  braces,  holds, 
carries,  and  binds  together  the  flesh,  blood,  and  organs  by 
which  it  is  covered  and  surrounded;  and  the  necessity  for 

^cfaard  S.  Lull,  "The  Evolution  of  the  Elephant/*  Annual  Report  (1008)  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institute,  Washington,  1909,  pp.  645,  646.  Reprinted  from  Amer,  Jour,  Sc,  Vol. 
XXV,  March,  1908. 


222      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  elasticity  by  which  the  body  is  kept  flexible  and  move- 
ment rendered  easy  is  the  reason  why  bones  are  as  a  rule 
porous  and  less  solid  than  ivory,  although  some  of  the  bones 
of  the  body  are  very  hard,  nptably  those  that  are  used  as 
substitutes  for  ivory. 

The  material  commonly  understood  imder  the  term 
"ivory"  comes  from  elephants,  whales,  and  other  animals,  in 
whose  structure  tusks  and  teeth  are  notable  features. 
Great  toughness  and  tensile  strength  must  therefore  be  its 
leading  characteristic.  In  the  case  of  the  elephant,  espe- 
cially, the  tusk  is  the  animal's  chief  offensive  and  defensive 
weapon.  Untold  thousands  of  elephants  have  been  bereft 
of  their  lives  to  secure  these  tusks,  for  they  are,  so  to  speak, 
the  animal's  jewels.  A  very  curious  circumstance  is  that 
not  uncommonly  there  is  foimd  buried  in  a  tusk  an  iron 
bullet,  which  was  intended  to  kill  the  animal,  but  which 
got  no  farther  than  a  lodgement  in  the  very  thing  the  hunter 
aimed  to  possess.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  covered  by 
the  material  with  which  the  tusk  is  built  up,  and  no  out- 
ward traces  remained  to  betray  its  presence,  it  having  be- 
come completely  encysted.  Si>earheads  may  also  become 
encysted  in  the  same  way,  as  is  shown  by  a  specimen  now 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Odontological  Society  in  London, 
where  a  spearhead,  7^  in.  long  and  1 J  in.  wide,  had  entered 
at  a  point  near  the  skull  and  was  so  completely  encysted 
that  nothing  in  the  external  appearance  of  the  tusk  revealed 
its  presence.* 

Perhaps  the  strangest  instance  of  the  finding  of  a  bullet 
embedded  in  ivory,  and  one  proving  how  completely  con- 
cealed it  may  become  in  the  course  of  years,  is  illustrated 
by  a  specimen  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons.     This  is  a  billiard  ball  within  which  a  bullet 

*Tome8,  *' A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy,*'  Sd  ed.,  London,  1889,  p.  876;  set  alao  Combe» 
Phil.  Trans.,  1801,  p.  165. 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  223 

was  found  after  the  ball  had  been  turned.*  As  a  gen- 
eral rule  the  tusks  of  cows  are  preferred  for  the  manufacture 
of  billiard  balls,  as  they  are  less  curved  than  the  larger 
tusks  from  the  bull  elephants.f 

The  appearance  presented  by  a  diseased  elephant's  tusk 
is  shown  in  sections  of  that  of  the  elephant  "Tip/*  of  the 
New  York  Zoological  Gardens.  In  his  day  a  famous  speci- 
men of  these  gigantic  pachyderms,  poor  Tip  developed,  in 
1902,  the  form  of  madness  and  "badness"  peculiarly  char- 
acteristic of  the  male  elephant  in  captivity.  Several  times 
his  sudden  and  unforeseen  attacks  upon  his  keepers  very 
nearly  resulted  in  a  fatal  accident.  Finally  it  was  decided 
that  capital  punishment  must  be  injflicted,  but  the  choice 
of  means  to  eflFect  this  end  presented  some  difficulty.  As 
the  quickest  and  most  eflfective  agent  of  execution,  cyanide 
of  potassium  was  given  the  preference,  but  the  elephant 
was  so  suspicious,  and  appeared  to  be  so  well  aware  of  what 
was  intended,  that  the  greater  part  of  a  day  passed  before 
he  could  be  persuaded  to  consume  a  mash  in  which  the  drug 
had  been  mixed.  The  result,  when  once  he  had  absorbed 
the  poison,  was  satisfactory  enough.  There  was  a  mighty 
convulsion  of  his  enormous  frame,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
broke  one  of  the  heavy  chains  binding  his  foot  to  the  side 
of  the  cage;  then  he  lurched  over  and  expired. 

That  a  decayed  elephant  tusk  can  cause  the  animal  to 
suffer  excruciating  pain  is  commonly  believed  by  the  natives 
of  Ceylon,  who  assert  that  in  a  paroxysm  of  pain  an  elephant 
has  sometimes  broken  off  the  tusk  to  escape  the  anguish. 
While  this  is  not  generally  admitted,  the  observed  fact  that 
the  pulp  of  the  tusk  is  connected  with  the  dentine  by  very 
tenuous  filaments  passing  through  the  dentinal  tubes  may 

*John  Bland-Sutton,  in  the  Lancet,  Vol.  179,  p.  15S5,  1910.    In  this  article  Fig.  I,  p.  /  f 

1534,  shows  an  iron  ball  encysted  in  the  pulp  chamber,  and  Fig.  4,  p.  1535,  a  spearhead  '   i 

similarly  encysted;  both  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  \ 

tOp.  dt.,  p.  15S6, 1910. 


r 

\ 

\ 


224     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

be  taken  to  indicate  that  cavities  in  a  tusk  might  really 
cause  an  elephant  to  suflFer  exquisite  pain.* 

One  of  the  finest  collections  of  the  abnormal  growths 
sometimes  to  be  observed  in  elephant  tusks,  as  well  as  of 
tusks  with  encysted  bullets,  was  presented  by  Mr.  Charles 
H.  Wood  to  the  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  Sciences.  There 
are  120  specimens,  thirty-four  of  these  showing  inclusions 
of  bullets  or  spear  points.  When  the  bullets  are  of  lead,  the 
metal  is  generally  scattered  more  or  less,  and  has  affected 
the  ivory  differently  than  in  the  case  of  steel  bullets.  It 
is  said  to  poison  the  dentine,  frequently  causing  large  exos- 
totic  growths,  exhibiting  strange  and  abnormal  bulbous  or 
spicular  forms,  and  hollow  spaces  often  of  large  size.  These 
tumors  are  designated  odontoma,  a  term  applied  by  Vir- 
chow  to  ivory  exostosis  of  the  teeth  of  elephants,  especially 
of  the  molars,  these  exostotic  growths  being  composed  of 
hypertrophied  dentine  and  resulting  from  morbid  conditions 
of  the  pulp  of  tusk  or  tooth.  On  the  other  hand,  in  several 
instances  where  steel  bullets  were  foimd,  the  ivory  was  only 
partly  decomposed  or  absorbed  away  from  the  bullet, 
leaving  it  loose  in  a  hollow  enclosure,  and  thus  making 
a  kind  of  ivory  rattle.  Single  examples  of  exostosis  are 
6  in.  in  length  and  3^  in.  in  diameter,  being  stalacti- 
tic  or  stalagmitic  in  character,  or  columnar  with  rounded 
protuberances.  In  one  case  50  of  these  bulbous  excres- 
censes  appear  on  a  piece  of  abnormal  growth  4  in.  high 
and  IJ  in.  wide.  In  another  example  a  hollow  second- 
ary tusk  had  formed  within  the  natural  hollow,  the  interior 
piece  measuring  7J  by  6|  in.  across  and  being  exceed- 
ingly thin.  In  a  very  peculiar  instance  a  flattened  bullet 
was  found  encysted  in  the  hollow  rim  end  of  the  tusk,  where 
it  was  only  three  eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  but  a  growth  an 

*Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent,  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon,"  London,  1861, 

pp.  227,  228. 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  225 

inch  through  had  formed  around  the  bullet.  Among  the 
numerous  interior  growths  several  cuplike  hollow  masses 
are  to  be  noted,  one  of  these  being  4J  in.  across,  4  in. 
high  and  3^  in.  wide.  In  still  another  example  a  tusk 
measuring  6  in.  across  contained  certain  roimded 
growths  of  a  whitish  or  yellowish  dentine  in  which  could 
be  observed  very  small  globular  masses  of  a  pronounced 
yellow.  These  minute  globules  were  of  an  almost  saffron 
yellow,  apparently  striated,  and  represented  a  different  or 
subsidiary  growth  to  that  of  the  main  mass.  These  speci- 
mens afford  good  evidence  that  many  elephants  are  struck 
by  shots  but  are  not  killed.  In  other  words,  judging  from 
the  number  of  tusks  showing  encysted  iron  or  lead  bullets, 
it  is  self-evident  that  these  were  not  the  bullets  that  ended 
the  animal's  life;  of  course  the  wounding  of  the  tusk  would 
at  most  give  an  elephant  a  powerful  shock,  and  unless  the 
shot  that  hit  the  tusk  were  closely  followed  by  another 
to  the  brain,  the  animal  would  escape  practically  uninjured, 
and  when  the  tusk  has  been  traversed  by  the  ball  the  direc- 
tion usually  indicates  that  it  could  not  have  inflicted  a 
mortal  wound  even  if  its  momentum  were  not  too  much 
lessened  by  the  resistance  of  the  ivory  it  had  passed  through. 
Instances  of  recent  shooting  showed  that  the  ball  had  shat- 
tered the  tusk  and  this  had  regrown,  thereby  proving  that 
the  bullet  in  question  had  not  been  that  which  had  killed 
the  elephant. 

Of  the  irregular  masses  of  exostotic  ivory,  one  was  5 
in.  long  and  weighed  3  pounds.  One  of  these  growths 
resembled  a  seahom.  In  one  instance  the  tusk  showed  a 
large  opening,  beginning  at  its  outer  edge,  running  well  into 
it  and  making  a  hollow  space;  this  was  apparently  due  to 
disease.  In  several  examples  a  growth  was  to  be  seen  ex- 
tending across  from  one  side  of  the  tusk  to  the  other,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  Siamese-twin  ligature. 


226     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

In  another  of  these  diseased  tusks  there  was  a  hollow 
space  from  a  quarter  inch  to  over  an  inch  in  diameter, 
running  through  the  entire  mass.  Only  two  thirds  of  the 
tusk  was  sound,  but  a  good  judge  of  these  abnormal  con- 
ditions would  be  able  to  make  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of 
the  extent  of  the  loss  of  good  material.  Great  loss  of  mate- 
rial may  also  result  from  the  frantic  attempts  of  an  ele- 
phant to  alleviate  the  acute  pain  caused  by  ulceration  of 
the  tusk  by  violent  rubbing  of  it,  and  some  of  these  ulcerated 
tusks  have  suffered  so  much  from  this  abrasion  that  a  great 
part  has  been  rubbed  away. 

The  following  analyses  of  bone,  dentine,  and  ivoiy  are 
given  by  Mons.  Adolphe  Camot:* 

I  Human  thigh  bone. 

II  Thigh  bone  of  an  ox. 

m  Bone  of  the  modem  manatee  or  sea  cow. 

IV  Thigh  bone  of  a  Siamese  elephant. 

V  Tooth  of  an  elephant  (dentine). 

VI  Tusk  of  an  elephant  (ivory). 

I       n      m      IV       V      VI 

Phosphate  of  lime  .      .  87.45  85.72  81.82  90.03  86.67  82.08 

Phosphate  of  magnesia  1.57  1.53  2.62  1.96  3.82  15.72 

Fluoride  of  lime  .35  .45  .63  .47  .43  .20 

Chloride  of  lime  .23  .30  .36  .20  .39  trace 

Carbonate  of  lime  .      .  10.18  11.96  14.25  7.27  8.60  2.04 

Ferrous  oxide     ...  .10  .13  .15  .15  .20  .08 

99.88  100.09    99.83  100.08  100.11  100.12 

This  shows  us  that  there  is  a  very  considerably  larger 
percentage  of  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  a  notably  smaller 
percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime  present  in  ivory  than  in. 
bones  and  dentine.     We  may  note  here  that  elephant  ivory 

*Compte8  Rendus  de  rAcad^mie  des  Sdenoes,  Vol.  CXIV,  p.  1180:  "Bedterdm  du 
6uor  d&Dfl  les  os  foosiles." 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  227 

contains  from  40  to  43  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  while 
hmHan  dentine  has  only  about  25  per  cent.* 

The  following  analyses  of  dentine  are  published  in  Tomes's 
"Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy/*  I  is  by  Von  Bibra  of  per- 
fectly dried  dentine,  II  is  another  by  Von  Bibra,  and  III 
is  by  Berzelius:t 

I  II 

Organicmatter 27.61  20.42 

Fat 40  .58 

Phosphate  and  fluoride  of  lime 66 .  72  67 .  54 

Carbonate  of  lime 3.36  7.97 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 1.18  2.49 

Other  salts 83  1.00 

100.10  100.00 

Gelatine  and  water 28.00 

Sodium  salts          1.50 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 1 .  00 

Phosphate  of  lime         62.00 

Fluoride  of  lime 2.00 

Carbonate  of  lime 5.50 

In  fossil  ivory  a  much  larger  proportion  of  fluoride  of  lime 
appears  than  in  that  taken  from  animals  of  oiu*  day.  This 
is  believed  by  Monsieiw  Carnot  to  be  due  to  metamorphosis, 
the  fluorine  having  replaced  to  a  certain  extent  the  lime 
phosphate. 

The  density  of  ivory  varies  in  specimens  from  different 
places;  the  specific  gravity  as  given  in  Landholt's  TabellenJ 
is  from  1.83  to  1.92;  the  Annuaire  of  the  French  Bureau  des 
Longitudes**  gives  a  slightly  higher  figure — ^namely,  1.93. 

*Tome8,  op.  cit.,  p.  373. 

tTomes,  Charles  S.,  "A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy/'  Sd  ed.,  London,  1889,  p.  68. 

tLandholt's  physikalisch-chemische  Tabellen,  Berlin,  1894,  p.  67. 

^Annuaire  pour  Tan  1906.    Public  par  le  Bureau  des  Lon^tudes,  Paris,  1906,  p.  489, 


228      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  tensUe  strength  is  so  great  that  thin  longitudinal  strips 
cut  from  a  whole  tusk  have  constituted  excellent  riding 
whips. 

Ivory  is  electrically  positive  and  in  the  electrostatic  series 
of  Faraday  occupies  a  place  between  cat  fur  and  bear  fur 
on  the  one  hand  and  feathers  and  quartz  on  the  other."" 
Its  relative  radiating  and  reflecting  power  as  compared 
with  some  other  substances  is  given  as  follows  rf 

RADIATING  AND  BEFLECTING 

ABSORBING  POWER  POWER 

Lampblack 100  0 

Water 100  0 

Carbonate  of  lead 100  0 

Ivory,  jet,  marble 93-98  7-2 

Glass 90  10 

Ice 85  15 

Special  tests  of  the  tensile  and  compressive  resistance, 
and  of  the  elastic  properties  of  ivory  were  made  for  this 
work  by  Dr.  James  S.  Macgregor  of  Columbia  University, 
and  he  has  kindly  furnished  the  following  explanation  of 
the  data  given  by  these  tests: 

The  specimens  tested  in  tension,  to  determine  their  re- 
sistance to  being  pulled  apart,  were  circular  in  form  and 
had  threaded  ends.  The  load  was  applied  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  grain.  An  extensometer,  which  is  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  small  changes  in  length  or  strains  occa- 
sioned by  an  applied  load,  was  attached  to  each  specimen 
during  the  test,  and  observations  of  elongations  to  one 
ten  thousandth  of  an  inch  recorded.  The  curve  plotted  in. 
Figure  No.  I  shows  the  elongation  resulting  from  the  applica- 
tion of  a  given  unit  load.     By  forming  a  ratio  between  a  load 

*"The  Standard  Handbook  for  Electrical  Engineers,"  McGrsw  Pub.  Co.,  New  York, 
1908,  Sec.  7,  par.  874,  p.  S90. 

t William  Kent,  "The  Mechanical  Engineers*  Pocket  Book,"  8th  ed.,  New  York,  1910, 
p.  522. 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  229 

in  pounds  per  inch  of  length  and  the  compression  or  elongation 
per  unit  of  length,  a  quantity  results  which  is  termed  the 
modulus  of  eldsticity — the  ratio  of  stress  to  strain.  The  ratio 
above  referred  to  is  constant  up  to  a  certain  applied  load,  after 
which  it  gradually  decreases  in  value.  The  point  on  the  curve 
at  which  this  ratio  ceases  to  remain  constant  is  called  the 
elastic  limity  the  limit  of  deformation  beyond  which  the 
body  will  fail  to  resume  its  previous  state  when  the  strain 


Kms/tm  J^r^  fr-nJ   riiiiJL  7#«^ 


y^'^rf  tffmi 


/Ito./  Hmmd  Fumy 


Tension  and  Comfresbion  Tests 

is  removed.  In  the  same  table  will  be  found  what  is  termed 
the  uUimaie  resistance,  which  is  defined  as  the  highest  load 
a  material  will  carry  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  specimen  tested  in  compression  was  a  one  and  one 
half  inch  cube.  Compressive  stress  results  from  the  appli- 
cation to  a  body  of  two  forces  acting  in  directions  toward 
each  other.  The  definitions,  as  given  above  apply  to  the  terms 
in  the  tabled  results  of  the  compression  test.  The  curve 
plotted  on  Figure  II  shows  the  unit  compressive  strains  or 
deformations  resulting  from  applied  loads  in  pounds  per 


830      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

square  inch.  A  notable  property  of  ivory  was  its  rapid 
recovery  from  a  state  of  strain  resulting  from  loads  con- 
siderably above  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material. 

TABLE  I 

ICATUBIAL  ELAOTIC  LIMIT  ^TOfA"  MODULUB  OF 

REBIBTANCS  BLASnCITT 

Tensile  TeeU 

Hard  Ivory  9.500  22,190  M10,000 

Soft  Ivory  8»000  22,010  1^6,000 

Compreeeion    Ted 
Ivory,  quality  not  stated 18,000  24,800  1,890,000 

That  a  comparison  may  be  made  between  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  above  tests  and  other  well-known  mate- 
rials, Table  II  has  been  compiled.  A  range  of  values  have 
been  given  in  some  instances,  representing  the  upper  and 
lower  limits  of  strength  which  might  be  expected  from  ma- 
terials listed. 

TABLE n 

TABLE  OF  RESISTANCES  TO  TENSILE  AND  COMPRESSIVE  STRESSES  AND 

MODULI  OF  ELASTICriY  OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS 

COMFRBBBIVE 

.^...»»,>,  BLABTIC  LIMIT    TEN8II«B    8TBENOTH    .I^r^^lT^J-  MODULUB  OF 

MATKBIAL  STRENGTH  LB8* 

^^^^  LBS.  PER  8Q.  IN.      LBS.  PER  8Q.  IN.  ^!^Z^r^  ELABTICITT 

PER  8Q.  Ufa 

Brick     ...         No  definite      3  to  10  thoiuand    0 J{  to  8  millon 

Iron  and  Steel 

Cast  Iron  No  definite  15  to  35  thousand  60  to   80  "  8  to  16  " 

Wrought  iron  SO  to  35  40  to  50         "  50  to  60  "  S8  '* 

Mild  Steel      .  40  to  45  55to60         "  50  to  60  "  90  « 
High    Carbon 

Steel   .      .  45  to  55  70  to  80         "  80  to  110  "  90  *« 

8Ume 

Granite    15  to  35  "  8  to   9  " 

Jade 5  to   6         "  41  to  05  "  3  to  47  " 

Limestone     7  to  «0  "  8  to   5  " 

Sandstone      5  to  15  "  1  to   6  " 

Wood 

LongLeafPine  50%ofTen.Str.  IS  "  8  "  lto2.5  " 

Spruce      .     .        "  8  "  6  "  1  to  W  - 

Oak    .     .     .         10  "  7  "  ItoM  - 


H 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  281 

The  resilience  of  ivory,  its  rebound  when  falling  against  or 
leing  impelled  against  a  resisting  object  that  suddenly  checks 
ts  course,  is  of  an  entirely  different  character  from  that  of 
ubber,  for  instance.  It  has  not  the  long  rebound  of  this  latter 
nd  so  much  Ughter  material,  but  its  successive  contacts  and 
eboimds  are  quite  short  and  frequently  repeated  until  it 
inally  settles  to  rest.  The  module  of  elasticity  responds  im- 
mediately to  impact,  and  this  it  is  that  makes  ivory  the  very 
»est  material  for  billiard  balls,  as  the  cue  has  no  sooner 
ouched  the  ball  than  the  latter  springs  away  from  the  impact. 

The  tendency  of  ivory  to  shrink  under  hygrometrical 
ofluence  induced  the  Tithe  Commissioners  on  the  Parlia- 
aentary  survey  to  reject  the  employment  of  ivory  scales, 
rhis  material  requires  careful  seasoning  just  as  wood  does,  I 

md  any  sudden  exposure  to  hot  dry  air  should  be  guarded  ( 

tgainst.  The  larger  the  pieces  the  greater  the  danger  of 
(uch  shrinkage.  As  a  general  rule  ivory  ornaments  should 
lot  be  placed  on  a  mantelpiece  beneath  which  there  is  a  hot 
ire.* 

Because  of  its  fine  and  close-grained  texture,  its  homo- 
j;eneousness  and  adhesive  hardness,  its  lack  of  brittleness,  its 
excellent  wearing  qualities  and  its  absence  of  any  tendency 
to  chip  easily,  ivory  is  a  most  excellent  substance  to  en- 
irave;  its  smooth,  even  grain  and  the  coherence  of  its  par- 
ticles lend  a  fine  surface  for  the  engraver^s  art,  and  the 
naterial  lasts  a  long  time.  Its  structure  has  the  concentric 
ines  that  resemble  the  growth  lines  of  a  tree. 

In  China  ivory  has  been  utilized  in  various  ways,  the 
lust  being  made  up  into  "ivory  jelly.'*  It  has  also  been 
used  for  case  hardening;  ivory  black  as  a  colouring  material 
is  another  by-product  of  ivory  working.  However,  in  re- 
%nt  times  leather  has  largely  replaced  it  both  for  case  harden- 
ing and  for  the  production  of  ivory  black. 

^olUapffeU  op.  dt..  Vol.  I,  p.  152  and  note  p.  47. 


«S2     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

In  Euroi>e  what  is  known  as  "green  ivory" — ^that  is,  un- 
seasoned, freshly  cut  material — is  preferred.  This  is  sc 
popular  that  dealers  will  take  the  greatest  care  that  it  does 
not  dry  out,  and  to  keep  it  imchanged  they  often  wrap  i1 
in  damp  linen  cloth  dipped  in  salt  and  water,  many  folds  oi 
this  being  put  around  the  ivory  and  not  removed  unless  thi 
pieces  be  shown  to  some  one,  when  they  are  brought  up 
from  the  cellars  in  which  they  have  been  stored.  The  pref- 
erence in  the  United  States,  however,  is  for  the  white  ivory: 
and  the  whiter  it  be  the  better  it  is  liked.  Its  white  tone 
is  brought  about  by  putting  the  material  in  a  drawing  over 
and  leaving  it  there  for  a  month  or  more,  to  prevent  its 
cracking  by  a  too  sudden  change  in  temperature.  It  maj 
also  be  bleached  by  the  use  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

Our  chief  source  of  supply  for  ivory  is  the  African  con- 
tinent, and  indeed  a  considerable  part  of  that  brought 
from  India  to  Europe,  known  as  Indian  ivory,  had  already; 
been  imported  to  Bombay  from  an  African  soiu*ce.  Some 
of  the  very  best  comes  from  Cameroon;  and  Loango,  tin 
Congo,  Gabun,  and  Ambriz,  as  well  as  the  Gold  Coast 
Sierra  Leone,  and  Cape  Coast  Castle  have  all  been  commer 
cial  sources  of  supply.  The  bulk  of  this  material  is  no^ 
derived  from  the  Congo,  and  this  being  a  Belgian  colony 
has  served  to  make  Antwerp  a  rival  of  London  as  a  markei 
for  ivory.  The  French  Sudan  does  not  send  a  particu 
larly  good  quality,  the  ivory  being  what  is  called  in  thi 
trade  "ringy"  (that  is,  with  marked  alternating  dark  anc 
light  rings),  and  hence  not  oflfering  the  smooth,  even-tonec 
surface  so  much  prized.  A  mellowness  of  tone  and  a  lacl 
of  surface  mottling  characterize  the  best  African  ivory.*    Th< 

*The  two  spedes  of  elephant  Burviving  to  our  day  are  the  Elephas  or  Loxodon  qfrioanm 
and  the  Elephas  indieus.  Of  these  both  the  male  and  female  of  the  African  species  an 
supplied  with  tusks*  wlule  they  are  only  procured  from  the  nude  animal  of  the  Indian  qpc 
cies;  but  little  material  ia  furnished  by  the  Cin^ialese  variety,  as  hardly  one  in  a  hundrei 
of  them  has  tusks  of  any  available  sixe. 


^•.#, 


l>  THENCE  MARCH  HIXTEEN  II 


* 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  233 

Asiatic  variety  is  denser  and  therefore  more  diflScnlt  to  polish ; 
it  also  changes  colour  more  readily,  becoming  yellower. 

A  somewhat  curious  circumstance  in  regard  to  African 
ivory  as  a  whole  is  that  "soft  ivory'*  comes  almost  exclu- 
sively from  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent,  while  "hard 
ivory  "  comes  from  the  western  part,  so  that  there  is  a  fairly 
well-marked  longitudinal  line  separating  the  regions  whence 
these  two  varieties  come.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
Indian  ivory,  while  hard,  is,  in  trade  parlance,  more  "glassy," 
that  is,  brittle,  than  the  African  varieties.  Of  the  latter 
Ambriz  ivory  is  hard;  that  of  the  west  coast  of  medium 
hardness.  East  Africa  and  Zanzibar  furnish  the  "soft" 
variety.  The  finest  translucent  ivory  comes  from  the  west 
coast,  between  10°  north  and  10°  south  of  the  equator. 

When  freshly  cut,  African  ivory,  if  of  good  quality,  has 
a  i>eculiarly  rich-toned  transparency,  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  oil,  and  it  shows  but  little 
^ain  or  fibre.  As  the  oil  dries  out  on  exposure  the  ma- 
terial whitens  somewhat.  The  whiteness  of  the  less  oily 
Asiatic  ivory  lacks  this  si>ecial  warmth  of  tone;  moreover, 
it  has  a  greater  tendency  to  discoloration  than  has  African 
ivory.*  The  rind,  or  outside  covering  of  the  tusks,  offers  a 
variety  of  colours  in  material  from  different  sources.  Thus 
we  have  in  African  tusks  light  and  deep  orange,  hazel  and 
brown,  and  even  brownish  black ;  while  the  rind  of  Asiatic  tusks 
is  lighter  hued,  rather  fawn  colour  or  stone  colour.  Some- 
times the  rind  is  only  one  tenth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  differs 
but  little  in  hue  from  true  ivory.f  In  selecting  a  tusk,  chief 
stress  is  laid  upon  its  straightness,  solidity,  and  roundness. 

The  quality  of  ivory,  its  "softness"  or  "hardness,**  has 
lyeen  found  to  bear  a  constant  relation  to  the  habitat  and 

*Charle8  Holtzapffel»  ''Turning  and  Mechanical  Manipulation,"  Vol.  I,  London,  184S, 
p.  144. 

tHoltzapffel,  op.  cit.,  pp.  142,  145. 


V 


234     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

nourishment  of  the  elephants.  This  is  so  marked  that  it 
has  been  asserted  that  the  character  of  comitry  whence  the 
material  was  derived  could  be  generally  determined  by  ex- 
amining its  qualities  in  this  respect.  Thus  the  ivory  brought 
from  the  steppes  of  Massal  is  celebrated  for  its  softness,  and 
it  has  been  noted  that  the  lower  levels  of.  the  Congo  basin 
furnish  the  soft  ivory,  while  as  the  altitude  increases  the 
grain  becomes  coarser. '^ 

That  the  elephant,  although  essentially  an  inhabitant 
of  the  plains  and  forests,  sometimes  finds  his  way  to  high 
latitudes,  is  shown  by  the  observed  existence  of  elephant 
tracks  at  a  height  of  10,000  feet  on  Mt.  Kenia,  British 
East  Africa.  The  hmit  of  the  growth  of  timber  and  bamboo 
is  well  beneath  this  level.  The  writer  who  records  these 
observations  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  credence  can  be 
accorded  to  the  reports  of  some  African  natives  that  ele- 
phants have  occasionally  wandered  almost  up  to  the  snow 
line,  which  in  Equatorial  Africa  cannot  be  placed  lower 

than  15,000  feet.t 

Another  source  of  ivory  which  has  been  actively  exploited 
is  furnished  by  the  fossil  remains  in  Siberia,  more  especially 
in  the  Liakhovian  Isles,  in  the  Polar  Sea.  Some  of  this 
fossil  ivory  also  comes  from  frozen  Alaska.  Here  are  found 
the  bones  of  mammoths  and  mastodons  which  perished 
thousands  of  years  ago,  in  the  later  geological  period,  and 
the  enormous  number  of  these  mammals  once  existing  in 
this  region  is  proved  by  the  almost  inexhaustible  character 
of  the  deposits,  which  show  no  signs  of  depletion,  although 
recoiu*se  has  been  had  to  them  during  the  past  two  centuries. 
The  quality  of  this  Siberian  ivory  is,  however,  far  from  con- 
stant, although  some  of  it  is  surprisingly  good,  as  perfect 
in  fact  as  though  the  bearer  of  the  tusks  had  recently  died. 

*"La  Belgique  Coloniale,"  Vol.  U,  p.  618  (1897),  and  Vol.  I,  p.  98  (1895-96). 
tlUchard  Tjader.  "The  Big  Game  of  Africa,"  New  York  and  Lcmdon.  1910,  p.  55. 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  285 

This  is  due  to  the  non-conducting  properties  of  the  material, 
and  also  to  its  preservation  frozen  in  ice  for  many  thousand 
years.  In  fact,  one  mammoth  was  found  with  skin  and 
flesh  so  well  preserved  that  it  was  traced  by  following  the 
dogs  who  had  eaten  of  it  for  years.  The  first  notice  of  these 
remains  was  given  by  natives  in  1799,  when  the  body  was 
probably  still  nearly  or  quite  intact,  but  when  Adams  secured 
it,  in  1806,  much  of  it  had  been  eaten,  and  the  tusks  had  been 
removed  by  a  native.  In  all  some  dozen  remains  in  this 
condition  have  been  found  in  Siberia,  the  earliest  being  dis- 
covered in  1787  in  the  Alasega  River.* 

However,  only  about  15  per  cent,  of  this  ivory  is  of 
very  good  quality;  some  17  per  cent,  is  fairly  good,  but 
the  remainder  is  worthless.f  Fossil  ivory  when  scraped 
emits  a  fetid  odour,  due  to  decomposition  and  the  presence 
of  sulphurated  hydrogen  gas.  Holtzapffel  notes  the  finding 
in  these  Siberian  fields  of  a  tusk  weighing  186  pounds,  which 
Bvas  cut  up  for  piano  keys.  J  An  interesting  circiunstance 
:x>nnected  with  the  finding  of  these  fossil  remains  is  that, 
in  1722,  Peter  the  Great  gave  orders  to  the  provincial 
Bfovemors  of  the  region  to  make  diligent  search  to  secure  a 
:K>mplete  skeleton  of  the  extinct  mammal. 

Mammoth  ivory  is  found  along  the  banks  of  the  streams 
flowing  into  Kotzebue  Sound,  Alaska,  more  esi>ecially  the 
Kowak,  Buckland,  and  Selawik,  in  Eschscholtz  Bay,  etc. 
The  deposits,  which  are  uncovered  by  freshets  and  the  re- 
cession of  ice  cliffs,  include  both  teeth  and  tusks,  some  of 
them  still  in  very  fair  condition,  though  many  are  black  and 
hard.  Decayed  mammoth  ivory  of  a  bluish  hue  is  some- 
times ground  up  by  the  Eskimo  and  used  as  a  pigment  for 

*lydekker,  "The  Royal  Natural  Hiatory/'  Vol.  II,  London,  1894,  p.  544. 

fLydekker,  op.  dt..  Vol.  II,  p.  645. 

tCharles  Holtzapffel,  "Turning  and  Mechanical  Manipulation,"  Vol.  I,  London,  1848^ 
p.  188,  note. 


236     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

decorating  masks,  beluga  hats,  finger  rattles,  etc. ;  in  other 
cases  the  material  is  worked  up  into  ladles,  spoons,  skin 
scrapers,  and  the  like.* 

The  group  known  as  the  Liakov  Islands,  the  principal 
ones  being  Liakov's  Island,  Moloi,  and  Kotelnoi,  was  named 
by  order  of  Empress  Catherine  II  of  Russia,  for  the  dis- 
coverer, a  fur  hunter,  who  landed  on  one  of  these  islands 
in  1770.  Examination  of  the  soil  revealed  the  presence  of 
enormous  deposits  of  fossil  ivory.  Subsequent  exploration 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  other  islands  of  this  group, 
all  presenting  similar  conditions.  Indeed,  to  some  of  these 
early  explorers  it  almost  appeared  as  though  the  islands  were 
built  up  out  of  these  fossil  remains.  When  the  ice-covered 
sand  cliffs  were  thawed  by  the  smnmer  sun,  the  surface 
would  slip  down,  bearing  along  great  quantities  of  mammoth 
tusks  and  bones.  In  1806  Sirovatskoi  discovered  the  island 
later  known  as  New  Siberia  and  several  others  in  its  vicin- 
ity. New  Siberia  proved  to  be  the  richest  of  all  these  islands 
of  the  Arctic  Sea  in  fossil  remains,  and  we  learn  that,  in 
1809,  10,000  pounds  of  fossil  ivory  was  taken  thence,  while 
in  1821  the  production  rose  to  20,000  pounds;  the  supply 
seemed  to  be  inexhaustible,  f  It  has  been  noted  that  the 
ivory  taken  in  New  Siberia  is  whiter  than  that  from  the 
mainland  of  Siberia. 

Various  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  pres- 
ence of  the  mammoth  remains  in  such  extraordinary  abun- 
dance. It  is  supposed  that  geological  changes,  the  sinking 
of  the  land,  gradually  forced  these  mammals  to  the  higher 
ground,  and  finally  to  the  tops  of  the  hills,  which  had  be- 
come isolated  from  the  mainland  as  islands.  There  being 
little  means  of  subsistence  left  for  the  animals,  they  per- 

*Coinmuiucatioii  of  G.  T.  Emmons,  of  Princeton*  N.  J. 

tRev.  D.  Gath  Whitley,  "The  Ivoiy  Islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean."  in  the  Journal  of 
the  TramacUoM  of  the  Victoria  Irutiluie,  Vol.  XLU,  pp.  S5-57,  London,  1910. 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  237 

ished  in  great  numbers.  However,  we  are  usually  taught 
to  regard  geological  changes  as  extremely  gradual,  so  grad- 
ual that  the  adjustment  of  living  organisms  to  the  chang- 
ing conditions  is  greatly  favoured.  Here,  however,  many 
of  the  observed  facts  would  rather  seem  to  point  to  some 
sudden  and  unexpected  cataclysm.  As  great  an  authority 
as  Darwin  confessed  that  the  problem  presented  by  the 
discovery  of  almost  perfectly  preserved  remains  of  the  mam- 
moth in  the  far  north  was  insoluble  for  him,  for  to  insure  the 
preservation  of  the  flesh  the  bodies  must  have  been  enclosed 
in  the  ice  from  a  period  closely  following  that  of  the  animal's 
death.  In  certain  cases  an  autopsy  revealed  the  presence 
of  undigested  food  in  the  stomachs,  and  also  of  twigs  and 
leaves  from  growths  that  are  now  to  be  found  only  in 
southern  Siberia,  far  to  the  south  of  the  site  of  these  de- 
posits. This  also  seems  to  point  to  some  sudden  and  violent 
catastrophe..  Another  curious  circumstance  is  that  after 
storms  tusks  and  bones  of  mammoths  are  washed  up  by 
the  waves  and  cast  upon  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  islands, 
thus  showing  that  the  deposits  extend  for  a  considerable 
distance  along  the  bed  of  the  ocean.* 

A  very  early  record  of  the  exploitation  of  the  fossil  ivory 
deposits  in  Siberia  is  given  by  the  Jesuit  priest  and  mis- 
sionary, Philippe  Avril,  who  journeyed  through  Europe  and 
parts  of  Asia  in  1685  and  subsequent  years,  his  travels 
occupying  six  years  in  all.f  The  description  of  his  experi- 
ences, published  in  1692,  recounts  that  from  an  Asiatic  re- 
gion on  the  River  Lena,  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean,  was 
brought  an  ivory  exceeding  in  beauty  that  from  India,  since 
it  was  at  once  much  smoother  and  whiter.  The  tale  ran 
that  this  Arctic  ivory  (from  the  Siberia  of  to-day)  was  not 

•Ibid.,  p.  56. 

tPhilippe  Avril,  "Voyage  en  divers  4taU  d*Euxx>pe  et  d*Asie,'*  Paris,  1602;  see  pp.  806- 
811. 


2S8     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

furnished  by  elephants,  as  the  climate  was  much  too  cold 
to  admit  of  such  animals  living  there,  but  came  from  ''other 
amphibian  animals,  to  which  the  name  behemoth  was  given." 
Possibly  the  name  mammut  was  either  mistaken  for  or  cor- 
rected to  the  Biblical  "behemoth"  by  the  Jesuit  priest,  and 
the  fact  that  the  fossil  ivory  came  from  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  or  from  the  coasts  of  certain  islands  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  may  have  given  rise  to  the  vague  rumour  that  the 
animals  whence  the  tusks  were  derived  were  actually  exist- 
ant  as  amphibia.  However,  another  explanation  appears 
to  be  more  probable.  Father  Avril  states  that  he  saw 
several  of  these  teeth  in  Moscow  and  that  they  were  "10 
in.  long  and  2  in.  in  diameter  at  the  base."  These 
were,  of  course,  walrus  teeth,  not  fossil  mammoth  ivory. 
The  animal  itself  is  described  as  being  as  large  and  formida- 
ble as  a  crocodile,  and  the  teeth  not  only  furnished  beautiful 
ornamental  material,  highly  prized  by  Turks  and  Persians 
for  sword  and  poignard  hilts,  but  also  possessed  strong  reme- 
dial virtues,  especially  for  stopping  hemorrhages.  In  any 
case  the  Jesuit  probably  heard  of  both  forms  of  ivory,  fos- 
sil mammoth  and  walrus,  and  supposed  that  both  pro- 
ceeded from  a  single  living  animal  species. 

One  of  his  informants,  the  Vaivode  of  Smolensk,  named 
Mushin  Pushkin,  had  elaborated  a  theory  that  the  peopling 
of  the  American  continent  was  due  to  the  hunting  of  these 
animals.  In  order  to  secure  them,  the  hunters,  who  fre- 
quently took  their  families  with  them,  would  often  be  forced 
to  go  out  on  the  ice,  far  away  from  the  coast.  Now  it 
frequently  happened  in  the  early  spring  that  a  sudden 
thaw  would  split  up  the  ice,  so  that  immense  pieces  would 
become  detached  and  float  off  into  the  sea,  sometimes  bear- 
ing away  a  party  of  hunters  who  had  been  caught  unawares 
by  the  thaw.  These  might  in  some  cases  be  able  to  escape; 
in  others  they  would  be  borne  away,  helpless  and  hopelesS| 


QUALITIES    OF    IVORY  839 

to  die  of  cold  and  hunger.  The  Vaivode,  however,  thought 
it  not  unlikely  that  some  of  these  ivory  hunters  with  their 
Families  might  have  lived  long  enough  to  drift  on  to  the 
northern  part  of  the  American  continent.  Possibly  he  be- 
lieved that  they  had  laid  in  as  a  preparation  for  their  hunt- 
ing a  sufficient  stock  of  provisions  to  support  life  for  a 
considerable  period. 

The  finding  of  fossil  ivory  in  parts  of  Thuringia  and 
Bohemia  was  asserted  by  some  of  the  seventeenth-century 
writers,  but  others  again  considered  these  bone  deposits  to 
be  horns  of  the  fabled  unicorn.  Daniel  Sennert,  Professor 
of  Medicine  at  Vratislav,  writing  in  1618,  attempts  to  estab- 
lish a  distinction  between  these  two  kinds  of  bone  or  bones. 
The  genuine  unicorn  horn  was  hard  and  dense  in  structure, 
so  much  so  that  it  could  scarcely  be  scratched,  much  less 
polished;  neither  did  it  adhere  to  the  tongue.  This  proved 
that  the  bone  fossils  in  question  were  quite  different,  for 
they  were  rather  soft,  as  though  calcined,  could  be  easily 
Fractured  or  polished,  and  adhered  to  the  tongue  just  as 
^rould  any  clay,  or  the  famous  "terra  sigillata."  In  any 
:rase,  Sennert  is  not  indisposed  to  credit  the  fossil  bone  with 
mportant  curative  properties.  It  would  afford  help  in 
epilepsy,  malignant  fevers,  the  plague,  cholera  infantum, 
ind  because  it  possessed  these  virtues  was  freely  sold  under 
■he  name  of  unicorn  horn.  Moreover,  if  bound  on  a  frac- 
ured  bone  it  would  reduce  the  fracture,  and  it  could  also 
>e  depended  upon  to  cure  ulcers.  As  these  bony  or  bone- 
ike  substances  were  found  only  in  certain  circumscribed 
iistricts,  Sennert  confesses  he  cannot  understand  why  the 
micom  should  have  existed  only  in  these  few  places  and  not 
Jsewhere ;  on  the  whole  he  inclines  to  believe  that  the  seem- 
ng  bones  are  really  minerals.*    Of  course  there  can  be 

^Danielifl  Sennerti,  "Epitome  naturalis  sd^ntie/'  Francofurtii  1650,  Lib.  V,  cap.  4| 
pp.422fqq. 


240     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

little  or  no  doubt  that  they  were  in  reality  fossil  remains 
of  some  animal  or  animals,  the  precise  species  being  difficult 
or  impossible  for  us  to  determine  owing  to  the  lack  of  a 
more  exact  description. 

It  appears  that  certain  rodents  have  occasionally  treated 
ivory  as  a  food  product.  This  is  because  of  the  grease  or 
fat  present  in  some  kinds  of  tusks.  Certain  African  tusks, 
found  embedded  in  the  soil  where  they  have  lain  for  many 
years,  have  been  seriously  damaged  by  the  attacks  of  one 
or  more  of  the  gnawing  breeds  of  animals.  Similar  condi- 
tions have  sometimes  been  noted  in  the  case  of  the  fossil 
ivory  of  Siberia  and  Alaska.  This  has  also  been  known  to 
happen  on  shipboard  where  rats  have  gnawed  tusks  which 
were  being  transported  to  Europe  or  America.  The  point 
of  the  tusk,  as  the  most  vulnerable  pomt,  is  generally  the 
part  that  is  found  to  have  been  damaged  in  this  way.  A 
buried  tusk  has  sometimes  been  encountered,  having  a 
passage  gnawed  quite  through  the  tusk,  a  part  of  which  is 
thus  open  at  both  ends.  As  a  tribute  to  the  good  taste  of 
these  rodents,  we  are  told  that  one  dealer  at  least  expressed 
a  preference  for  tusks  that  had  been  slightly  gnawed,  this 
fact  affording  proof  that  the  tusk  in  question  was  of  softer 
texture  than  the  others,  more  or  less  greasy  ivory  being  of 
a  softer  hue  and  possessing  greater  translucency,  and  being 
thus  better  fitted  for  certain  kinds  of  work,  such  as  flower 
work,  for  instance,  especially  for  roses;  for  the  rich,  warm 
yellow  of  this  ivory  imitates  wonderfully  well  the  hue  of  the 
finest  yellow  roses.  Hence  the  term  "rose  ivory' '  has  been 
bestowed  in  some  countries  upon  this  variety,  which  was  in 
great  demand  duringthe  period  from  1840  to  1860  when  carved 
ivory  roses  enjoyed  such  a  vogue.  With  some  German 
ivory  carvers  this  period  was  denominated  the  "  Rosenzeit."* 

^Communication  of  Mr.  F.  R.  Kaldenberg.  An  example  cited  in  illustration  is  pro- 
nounced by  Dr.  Richard  L.  Lull  to  have  been  gnawed  by  a  rodent  similar  to  the  American 
muskrat.  Fiber  zibethieus,  as  its  teeth  fit  quite  well  into  the  grooves. 


CHAPTER  VII 

WORKING   OP  IVORY 

The  operation  of  dividing  up  the  tusk  into  workable 
material  requires  much  skill  and  thought,  and  also  long 
practical  experience.  Beginning  with  the  hollow  end  of 
iJhe  tusk  the  cutter  first  removes  that  part  of  the  base 
lacking  the  requisite  thickness,  and  then  arranges  the  sec-  v 
tions  to  be  cut,  according  to  the  progressive  changes  in  \ 
its  shape  and  solidity  as  he  advances  in  his  task.  This 
refers  to  rectangular  work  of  all  kinds.  Flat  work  should 
be  cut  on  a  line  with  the  curve,  as  otherwise  the  edges 
of  the  rings  will  show.  The  only  waste  in  cutting  should 
be  along  the  passage  of  the  very  thin  blade  of  the  saw, 
which  is  commonly  from  15  to  30  in.  in  length,  1^  to  3  in. 
in  width,  and  but  1-50  in.  in  thickness;  it  usually  has  five 
or  six  teeth  to  the  inch.* 

To  avoid  waste  of  material,  blocks  should  be  centred  in 
the  lathe  as  near  to  the  convex  side  as  possible.  In  rough- 
turning  a  block  it  should  be  carefully  adjusted  in  the  lathe 
between  the  prong  chuck  and  the  poppet  head,  its  position 
being  gradually  changed  by  light  taps  on  either  end.  When 
it  is  revolving  slowly  the  most  prominent  points  are  at- 
tacked by  the  tool.  As  the  cutting  of  large  pieces  involves 
very  great  waste,  blocks  exceeding  from  4  to  6  in.  in 
length  are  rarely  made.  In  cutting  rings  from  the  hollow 
part  of  the  tusk,  the  hollow  is  often  plugged  with  a  piece  of 

*Holtsapffel,  op.  dt.  Vol.  I,  pp.  146-148. 


242     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

dry  wood  to  keep  the  piece  circular;  the  rings  are  then  cut 
from  both  ends,  the  two  cuts  meeting  in  the  middle.* 

It  but  very  rarely  happens  that  a  cross-section  of  the  tusk 
forms  a  perfect  circle,  or  is  perfectly  round,  the  form  gener- 
ally approximating  an  ellipse.  The  tusks  are  hollow  for 
about  one  half  of  their  length,  the  thickness  of  the  soHd 
part  growing  gradually  greater  until  the  tusk  becomes  a 
solid  mass.  The  degree  of  curvature  varies  much,  some 
tusks  forming  an  almost  perfect  semi-circle,  while  others 
barely  constitute  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle.  Usually  the 
curve  is  in  one  direction  only,  but  very  occasionally  it  is  in 
two  directions.f 

If  properly  executed,  tiuned-work  ought  not  to  need 
much  polishing.  For  this  emery  paper  or  fine  glass  paper 
may  be  used,  after  which  the  surface  can  be  rubbed  with  a 
mixture  of  whiting  and  water  applied  with  a  bit  of  very 
thin  wash  leather;  the  surface  should  then  be  cleaned  with 
clear  water.  Finally,  a  very  little  oil  may  be  applied.^ 
To  attach  ivory  to  ivory  or  to  wood  a  preparation  of  isin- 
glass, sometimes  called  "diamond  cement,'*  is  often  em- 
ployed. 

To  scrub  ivory  with  Trent  sand  (a  very  fine  sand)  and 
water  serves  to  rub  away  the  old  surface,  and  this  would  be 
likely  to  do  considerable  injury  to  any  finely  carved  work. 
The  best  means  of  preserving  the  original  colour  has  been 
found  to  be  exposure  to  the  light  under  a  glass  shade.** 

A  noted  ivory  worker  of  Copenhagen,  Spangler,  made  the 
discovery  that  ivory  objects  would  retain  their  whiteness 
indefinitely  if  placed  under  glass,  to  protect  them  from  the 
air,  and  freely  exposed  to  the  effects  of  light.     The  present 

♦Holtaipffel,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I.  p.  147, 149. 151. 
fHoItzapffel,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  pp.  142, 144. 
JHoltaipffel,  op.  cit..  Vol.  Ill,  p.  1067;  Vol.  I.  p.  154. 
**HoltzapflFel,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  p.  153. 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  243 

niter  believes  that  this  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  exclusion 
f  the  ultra-violet  rays  by  the  hard  flint  glass,  and  that  it 
lay  be  the  actinic  rays  that  affect  ivory  even  more  than 
oes  the  air. 

Very  thin,  pliant  veneers  have  been  cut  in  spirals  out  of 

solid  block  of  ivory  by  means  of  a  feather-edged  veneer 
Eiw,  and  some  years  ago  a  Monsieur  Page  patented  a  process 
>r  such  work.  He  produced  pieces  17  by  38  in.,  and  as- 
grted  that  he  could  make  much  larger  pieces,  up  to  30  by 
50  in.  The  excessive  thinness — 1-50  in. — and  the  trans- 
arency  of  this  veneer  renders  it  not  very  well  adapted  for 
pplication  to  wood,  etc.,  as  the  material  beneath  would 
how  through  to  a  certain  extent.  As  material  for  the 
ainter's  art,  ho\^ever,  it  might  answer  better.* 

The  buyers  for  the  billiard-ball  manufacturers  visit 
he  markets  in  London,  and  formerly  they  went  to  the 
Teat  ivory  mart  Antwerp  as  well.  The  tusks  are  sold 
1  lots,  and  out  of  fifty  constituting  such  a  lot  perhaps  a 
[ozen  will  be  considered  suitable  for  ball  cutting;  some- 
imes,  however,  only  four  or  five  or  even  but  one  or  two 
aay  answer  the  purpose.  Hence  a  careful  examination  of 
ach  tusk  as  to  its  adaptability  is  requisite,  since  the  en- 
ire  lot  must  be  purchased  and  the  unavailable  tusks  will 
lave  to  be  disposed  of  at  a  lower  price  than  the  average  cost 
}{  the  lot.  What  is  known  as  *'sand  checking"  or  sun 
Irying  are  tests  frequently  employed. 

The  depth  of  the  hollow  part  of  the  tusk  is  ascertained 
)y  means  of  a  straight  steel  rod,  16  or  18  in.  in  length, 
vith  a  transverse  handle.  This  handle  is  firmly  held, 
ind  the  steel  rod  is  introduced  into  the  hollow  and  passed 
ip  to  the  end;  it  is  then  taken  out,  the  depth  of  the  hol- 
ow  being  noted  and  the  rod  laid  along  the  outside  of  the 
:usk,  so  as  to  show  the  point  where  the  solid  part  begins. 

*HoltzapffeL  op.  dt.  Vol.  I,  p.  154,  note. 


A 


244     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  measurers  have,  however,  to  be  on  their  guard  against 
a  trick  practised  by  some  dishonest  natives  or  intermediary 
dealers,  who  fill  up  from  2  to  &  in.  of  the  hollow  with 
lead,  at  once  causing  the  solid  part  to  appear  to  be  longer 
than  it  really  is,  and  increasing  the  weight  of  the  tusk 
several  pounds.  The  lead  costs  but  a  few  cents  a  pound, 
but  the  apparent  ivory  weight  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of 
two  or  three  dollars  or  more  per  pound,  and  the  finest  ivory 
is  often  at  the  broadest  end  of  the  tusk. 

When  the  billiard  balls  are  to  be  cut  the  hollow  end 
of  the  tusk  is  sawed  off  entirely,  leaving  only  the  solid 
portion;  this  is  then  carefully  measured  into  sections,  the 
location  of  the  centre  or  nerve  part  being  duly  noted. 

The  edge  of  the  tusk  is  then  chiselled  off  at  the  end,  so  that 
the  section  can  be  held  in  a  chuck;  when  it  is  firmly  inserted 
therein  and  is  made  to  rotate,  along  tool  with  one  quarter 
circular  end  is  placed  in  a  chuck  and  held  up  against  the 
rapidly  revolving  ivory.  This  tool  cuts  a  semi-circular 
groove  on  the  block.  When  it  reaches  the  centre  it  is 
reversed,  leaving  the  core  loose  and  non-adhering.  All 
the  while  the  tool  is  cutting  the  ivory  a  jet  of  water  is 
sprayed  upon  it,  preventing  it  from  heating  or  cracking. 
After  the  cutting  of  the  ball  has  been  completed,  so  that  it 
remains  quite  loose  in  the  ivory  block,  this  is  divided  and  the 
sphere  released.  It  is  then  covered  with  shellac  and  sea- 
soned for  from  eighteen  months  to  two  years,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  dealer's  trade. 

Even  after  balls  have  been  seasoned  for  as  long  as  two 
years,  it  has  happened  that  one  would  be  tried  and  found 
perfect  at  5  p.  M.  and  yet  would  have  shrunk  out  of  true 
by  9  p.  M.  As  this  is  usually  due  to  temperature  changes, 
it  has  been  found  absolutely  necessary,  at  the  great  tourna- 
ments, to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  hall  constant  at 
72^  or  73^  Fahrenheit,  to  prevent  the  balls  from  crackin. 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  245 

and  thus  perhaps  jeopardizing  a  player's  chance  of  success. 
The  ball  is  usually  tested  by  propelling  it  down  an  incline 
to  strike  a  cushion  at  the  other  end  and  rebound  upward 
again. 


I 


The  Cutting  of  a  Billiard  Ball — Section  of  elephant  tusk  from  which  the  ball  is 
to  be  cut;  section  rounded  out  for  cutting;  the  dotted  lines  show  the  path  the  saw  follows 
in  cutting  out  the  ball;  when  the  cutting  has  been  completed  inside  the  squared  section 
this  is  divided  into  two  parts,  freeing  the  cut  ball. 


Although  extremes  of  temperature  are  not  so  serious  for 
ivory  as  a  sudden  draft,  still  at  the  docks  in  London,  where 
the  ivory  consignments  are  stored,  explosions  are  occasion- 
aUy  heard  as  loud  as  pistol  shots,  when  a  sudden  change  of 
temperature  manifests  itself. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  although  the  section 


246      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

to  be  cut  seems  absolutely  perfect,  yet  when  the  sphere  is 
turned  it  may  be  found  that  it  contains  some  cavity,  due 
either  to  imperfect  growth  or  to  disease  of  the  tusk,  or 
there  may  be  a  small  soft  area  known  as  a  ^'bean,"  and  this 
may  very  seriously  diminish  the  value  of  the  ball. 

As  first  turned  out,  billiard  balls  are  not  made  exactly 
round,  one  axis  being  made  somewhat  shorter  than  the  other, 
as  the  greatest  shrinkage  does  not  take  place  in  the  diameter, 
but  in  the  length  of  the  tusk.  Thus  a  ball  having  a  minor 
diameter  of  2^  in.  and  a  major  diameter  of  2f  in.  will, 
at  the  end  of  two  years,  have  shrunk  into  a  perfect  sphere 
with  a  diameter  of  2J  in.  The  balls  generally  sold  in 
the  American  trade  for  the  pocket-billiard  gavel  game  are 
from  2^  to  2^  in.  in  diameter;  the  standard  balls  of 
the  United  States  have  diameters  of  2|  or  2|  in.,  whereas, 
for  Cuba  and  Latin  America  they  are  2^  in.  in  diameter  or 
something  larger. 

Balls  having  brown  or  black  spots,  due  to  the  natural 
colour  of  the  outer  layer  or  "  bark  "  of  the  tusk,  are  less  valu- 
able than  those  of  homogeneous  colour.  These  discolorations 
are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  balls  in  question  have  been  cut 
from  sections  of  tusk  barely  wide  enough  to  allow  the  req- 
uisite diameter  for  the  ball,  so  that  a  little  of  the  outer  layer 
remains  on  the  sphere.  Other  deteriorating  marks  may 
result  from  the  drying  and  bleaching  processes,  the  ivory 
of  the  tusks  becoming  thereby  either  "sand  checked"  or 
"sun  checked,"  as  it  is  called.  These  "checks"  are  tiny 
markings  or  cracks  running  perpendicularly  along  the 
"grain"  of  the  ball.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  neither 
the  discolorations  nor  the  "sand  checks"  affect  the  playing 
quality  of  the  ball;  indeed,  it  has  been  claimed  by  many 
that  a  "sand-checked"  ball  is  less  subject  to  changing  cli- 
matic influence  than  an  unmarked  ball,  because  ivory  of  this 
kind  is  generally  well  seasoned. 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  247 

As  a  nerve  runs  through  the  centre  of  the  entire  length 
of  a  tusk,  it  is  imperative  that  this  be  always  in  the  centre 
of  the  billiard  ball.  The  purer,  finer  balls  are  those  in 
which  the  outer  crust  or  bark  of  the  tusk  can  be  entirely 
removed  before  the  ball  is  turned;  when  this  cannot  be 
done  and  discoloured  spots  or  stripes  are  present  the  ball  will 
be  worth  but  $9,  while  a  clear  ball  will  command  a  price  of 
$16.  Of  the  so-called  "check  balls"  there  are  three  grades, 
"A,"  "B,"  and  "C."  Grade  "A"  with  but  a  single  check 
sells  for  $10  or  $12;  Grade  "B,"  with  five  or  six  checks,  for 
$9,  and  a  ball  of  Grade  "  C, "  with  six  to  twelve  checks,  will 
not  bring  more  than  $6. 

Formerly  the  small  ends  of  the  tusks  were  sold  for  har- 
ness trimmings,  but  these  are  now  made  of  celluloid,  and 
the  "tips'*  have  been  of  late  sent  to  Hamburg,  Germany, 
for  distribution  throughout  the  Orient. 

Previous  to  January,  1914,  before  the  new  tariff  came 
into  force,  billiard-ball  manufacturers  imported  the  entire 
tusk,  but  as  the  duty  is  now  20  per  cent,  and  the  "hollow 
ends,"  as  they  are  termed,  represent  from  20  per  cent,  to 
30  per  cent,  of  a  tusk,  or  even  more,  these  are  now  cut  off 
abroad  and  only  the  compact  parts,  measuring  from  2| 
to  4  in.  in  diameter,  are  imported.  The  large  fine  cen- 
tres are  worth  $3.50  a  pound,  whereas  the  "hollow  ends" 
are  worth  little  more  than  $2  or  $3  a  pound,  and  tips  may 
sell  for  only  $1  a  pound. 

Formerly  only  tusks  of  from  2J  to  3  in.  in  diameter 
were  freely  used,  but  now,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  this 
"ball  material,"  tusks  up  to  3^  in.  and  4  in.  are  used. 
This  entails  greater  cost  as  the  two  rings  resulting  from 
the  cutting  of  each  ball  are  naturally  larger  and  much 
heavier,  and  have  to  be  returned  to  India  and  other  East- 
em  countries  to  be  worked  up  into  bangles  and  the  smaller 
ornaments    of    various    kinds.     The    difference    in    waste 


j 


248     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

material  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  large  tusk  may  furnish 
only  one  half  its  total  weight  in  balls,  while  in  the  case 
of  a  tusk,  the  diameter  of  which  but  very  slightly  exceeds 
the  standard  diameter  of  a  ball,  only  from  20  per  cent,  to 
SO  per  cent,  of  the  material  will  be  lost. 

As  we  have  noted,  the  finest  balls — first-class  material — 
are  retailed  at  about  $16  for  each  ball.  There  are  three 
of  these  in  the  modem  game,  while  in  the  older  game  four 
are  used;  in  pocket  billiards,  or  "pool,"  sixteen  balls  are 
used.  However,  the  balls  for  this  latter  game  are  fre- 
quently made  of  some  of  the  substitutes  for  ivory;  other- 
wise, since  fifty  balls  are  sold  for  pool  to  a  single  one  for 
billiards,  the  ivory  supply  would  prove  so  far  short  of  the 
demand  that  an  ivory  ball  would  soon  be  worth  $75  instead 
of  $16  as  at  present.  Soft  ivory  is  almost  exclusively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  billiard  balls  for  the  American 
and  European  markets,  if  we  except  the  case  of  some  South 
American  countries  where  the  trade  occasionally  demands 
hard  ivory,  under  the  impression  that  climatic  changes  fa- 
vour its  use  in  those  latitudes. 

As  it  is  of  supreme  importance  that  the  centre  of  each 
ball  shall  be  the  true  centre  of  the  tusk  from  which  it  is 
cut,  it  is  eminently  desirable  that  the  tusk's  diameter 
should  not  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  ball;  sometimes  a 
smaller  ball  will  be  cut  from  the  centre  of  a  larger  one.  It 
|\  was  found  by  actual  experiment  that  if  a  number  of  balls 
were  cut  from  a  large  tusk,  that  is  to  say,  two,  three,  or  four, 
from  an  exceptionally  broad  tusk,  none  of  them  having  a 
centre  corresponding  with  the  centre  of  the  tusk,  the  ivory 
material  did  not  have  an  equal  density,  and  while  possessing 
the  normal  resiliency  did  not  have  the  true  rebound.  It 
was  found  that  no  true  and  accurate  shot  could  be  made 
with  such  a  ball,  and  although  the  expert  billiard  player, 
Slosson,    greatly    admired    these    balls,    their   appearance 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  249 

being  very  good,  he  still  found  that  they  were  absolutely 
useless,  since  even  he  could  not  make  them  respond  as  was 
possible  with  a  properly  cut  ball. 

In  connection  with  the  resiliency  that  makes  ivory  such 
an  indispensable  material  for  the  billiardist,  we  may  note 
that  this  quality  has  been  recognized  recently  by  golf 
players  at  whose  request  a  circular  disk  or  thick  button  of 
ivory  is  sometimes  put  in  the  head  of  the  driver.  It  has 
been  found  experunently  that  mammoth  ivory  is  poor 
material  for  billiard  balls,  as  it  has  lost  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  resiliency  so  characteristic  of  ivory.  Some 
good  judges  have  regarded  the  bleaching  which  is  generally 
resorted  to  in  order  to  impart  a  dead-white  hue  to  the  balls 
as  detrimental  to  their  quality,  since  it  dries  out  the  gela- 
tine to  a  noticeable  extent,  and  is  apt,  in  this  way,  to  modify 
unequally  the  natural  density  of  the  ivory.*  For  billiard 
balls  of  superior  quality,  one  of  the  centres  of  manufactur- 
ing is  New  York  City. 

The  relative  structural  uniformity  of  ivory  billiard  balls 
and  those  made  of  celluloid  has  been  tested,  the  latter  having 
been  rendered  equivalent  in  specific  gravity  by  the  addition 
of  filling  materials.  The  test  was  made  by  placing  the  balls 
in  a  cup  of  mercury  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  benzol  had 
been  added;  when  placed  in  this  solution  the  celluloid  ball 
floated  without  turning,  while  the  ivory  ball  gyrated  some- 
what before  coming  to  rest,  this  showing  that  its  centre  of 
gravity  was  not  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  sphere  as  was 
the  case  with  the  celluloid  ball.  Nevertheless,  celluloid 
balls  do  not  "take  the  cue"  as  ivory  balls  do,  and  also  lack 
many  other  of  the  special  qualities  of  the  latter.  It  is 
claimed  that  balls  made  of  the  synthetic  composition  "bake- 
lite  "  are  even  superior  to  those  made  of  ivory. 

^Alfred  Maskell*  "Ivory  in  Commerce  and  in  the  ArU/*  Cantor  Lectures  (Lecture  III), 
Jounud  cfthe  Society  cf  Arts,  Vol.  LIV,  No.  2817,  November  16. 1906.  p.  11T7. 


250     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

When  we  consider  the  value  and  the  peculiar  natural 
shape  of  the  elephant  tusks,  we  can  well  understand  that 
the  manufacturer  of  piano  keys  is  obliged  to  exercise  par- 
ticular care  in  the  selection  and  the  economical  manage- 
ment of  the  ivory  he  uses,  so  that  in  dividing  the  tusk  the 
largest  part  possible  may  be  utilized,  and  the  slight  inevita- 
ble waste  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  tusk  of  the  proper 
size  and  quality  having  been  chosen,  it  is  first  cross-cut, 
commonly  either  at  the  top  or  the  hollow,  into  a  number  of 
sections,  each  4  in.  in  length,  and  in  view  of  its  curve, 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  cutting  out  a  smaller 
wedge-shaped  piece  between  the  sections,  so  that  each  4-inch 
section  shall  offer  a  straight  piece  of  ivory.  This  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  so  that  the  section  shall  run  absolutely 
parallel  with  the  nerve  of  the  tusk.  An  expert  worker 
then  marks  out  on  each  separate  section  at  what  point  it 
is  to  be  sawed  through,  so  that  the  greatest  number  of 
"heads"  and  "tails"  (the  broad  and  narrow  parts  of  the 
key)  can  be  secured.  The  sections  are  then  sawed  apart 
into  a  number  of  broader  pieces,  2  in.  in  length,  and  nar- 
rower pieces  4  in.  in  length,  as  indicated  by  the  markings, 
and  each  of  the  separate  pieces  is  divided  into  the  respective 
parts  of  the  key,  the  broader  "heads"  being  2  in.  long, 
and  the  narrower  "tails"  4  in.  long,  the  slices  being  so 
thin  that  from  sixteen  to  twenty  are  produced  from  each 
inch  thickness  of  ivory;  the  "tails"  are  thinner  at  the  end 
farther  from  the  "heads"  than  at  the  end  nearer  to  these. 
For  this  latter  delicate  operation  very  finely  tempered  and 
carefully  made  circular  saws  are  requisite,  and  they  are 
kept  constantly  moistened  by  passing  through  or  being 
fed  with  water,  to  reduce  the  heat  generated  by  friction. 
To  avoid  serious  waste  in  ivory  cutting  great  care  has  to 
be  taken  to  keep  these  saws  in  perfect  condition. 

When  the  "heads"  and  "tails"  have  been  sawed  off, 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  251 

they  are  put  in  water  to  soak,  at  various  temperatures  and 
for  various  lengths  of  time,  this  depending  upon  the  special 
condition  of  the  tusk  that  has  been  cut  up.  The  soaking 
process  having  been  completed,  the  parts  of  the  keys  are 
very  carefully  and  slowly  dried  out,  so  as  to  guard  them 
from  warping,  "checking,"  or  cracking.  To  whiten  them 
they  are  then  put  for  a  time  in  a  bath  of  peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen, in  earthen  crocks  18  in.  high  and  14  in.  across,  the 
strength  of  the  solution  and  the  duration  of  the  immersion 
(from  24  to  48  hours)  depending  upon  the  special  conditions 
of  the  ivory  to  be  treated.  The  keys  are  then  taken  out, 
dried,  and  placed  on  racks  that  are  two  rows  wide  and  S 
ft.  long.  These  racks  have  rows  of  tin  slats  to  hold  the 
keys  in  place,  and  are  set  at  an  angle  against  the  glass 
panes  of  a  building  which  resembles  a  greenhouse  in  char- 
acter. The  sunlight  penetrating  the  glass  bleaches  the 
ivory  in  from  one  day  to  a  week's  time.  The  keys  when 
they  are  dried  and  bleached  are  carefully  sorted  for  the 
various  qualities.  They  are  again  sorted  according  to  colour 
and  grain.  Some  are  compact  and  slightly  grained,  others 
are  coarse  grained.  The  sorting  is  most  expertly  done  by  ex- 
perienced young  girls  who  sort  them  into  lots  of  fifty-two. 
They  are  then  ready  to  be  placed  on  the  piano  board. 
The  board  is  cut  out  of  a  piece  of  pine  or  bass  wood  exactly 
the  size  of  the  keyboard.  A  machine  then  cuts  the  grooves 
that  will  be  ultimately  removed,  in  which  the  thirty-six  flats 
are  placed.  The  board  is  now  covered  with  glue  and  whit- 
ing and  pressed  with  an  aluminum  plate  to  which  glue  does 
not  adhere;  the  glue  while  hot  would  adhere  to  other  metals, 
but  does  not  to  aluminum  because  it  is  so  good  a  conductor 
of  heat.  When  the  excess  of  glue  has  been  scraped  off  by 
a  small  steel  tool,  the  board  is  placed  on  a  flat  machine  and 
the  104  keys  are  laid  on,  fitting  perfectly,  and  then  a  pres- 
sure secures  them  in  place  and  the  entire  surface  is  polished. 


252     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  intervening  spaces  in  the  board  are  then  sawed  through, 
the  hollow  spaces  falling  out  where  the  sharp  is  inserted. 
The  surface  is  polished  by  means  of  a  circular  felt-covered 
disk  which  is  guided  by  hand  over  the  keyboard.  Rotten 
stone  is  used  for  the  polishing.  The  small  front  part  of 
the  key  beneath  the  head  was  formerly  made  of  ivory, 
but  now  celluloid  is  used  as  a  substitute.  The  saving  may 
seem  slight,  but  because  of  the  immense  number  of  pianos 
made  and  the  keen  competition  every  small  saving  is  of 
importance.  At  manufacturer's  prices  the  keyboard  with 
keys  sells  for  from  $12  to  $28  for  fine  quality,  and  rarely  for 
over  $40  or  $50. 

In  normal  times  350,000  sets  of  ivory  piano  keys  are 
made  in  the  United  States.  The  keyboards  are  almost 
invariably  48  in.  long  and  6  in.  wide,  with  52  ^* heads" 
and  52  "tails**  intervening  between  the  36  ebony  sharps. 
Although  weighing  but  12  ounces  when  completed,  these 
"heads**  and  "tails**  require  20  ounces  of  solid  ivory  for 
their  production.  Thus  it  will  be  apparent  that  in  normal 
times,  as  for  instance  in  1913,  the  weight  of  the  ivory  used 
for  piano  keys  could  reach  437,500  pounds.  In  1886  the 
consumption  of  ivory  for  this  purpose  was  110,000  pounds. 
The  use  of  celluloid  as  a  substitute  is  very  limited,  amount- 
ing to  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  ivory  or  ivorylike  material 
used.  The  best  ivory  for  piano  keys  is  that  obtained  from 
Abyssinia  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  Many  tusks  also 
come  at  present  from  Khartoum  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Congo. 

Among  the  almost  innumerable  articles  for  which  ivory 
has  been  utilized  because  of  its  exceptional  qualities,  we 
may  enumerate  all  kinds  of  handles  for  daggers,  knives,  etc. 
These  hilts,  or  handles,  are  often  elaborately  carved,  espe- 
cially the  ivory  dagger-hilts;  we  may  also  note  the  rich  inlays 
in  firearms  so  much  in  favour  in  the  Orient.     In  short,  no 


■^ 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  253 

naterial  combines  a  greater  variety  of  excellent  qualities, 
ind  these  render  it  equally  adapted  for  articles  of  beauty  and 
Lsefulness.  Almost  from  time  immemorial  gold,  silver,  and 
very  have  been  among  the  most  appreciated  of  precious  ma- 
erials,  a  popularity  which  clearly  indicates  the  presence 
nf  some  enduring  and  peculiar  quality  in  these  substances 
rhich  has  given  them  so  great  a  value. 

Ivory  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  the  higher 
dass  of  toilet  articles,  which  are  as  much  in  favour  to-day 
IS  ever  before.  Among  the  articles  entirely  of  ivory  are 
:he  following:  trays,  hair  receivers,  glove  stretchers,  cold- 
Tcam  boxes,  tooth-powder  boxes,  shoehorns,  nail-powder 
)oxes,  hairpin  stands,  powder  boxes,  pin  boxes,  hatpin 
(tands,  glove-powder  boxes,  talcum-powder  boxes,  hair- 
pin boxes,  salve  boxes,  jewel  boxes,  pomade  boxes,  vase- 
ine  boxes.  In  a  number  of  other  toilet  articles  the  backs 
ind  handles  are  of  solid  ivory;  there  are:  mirrors,  hair 
brushes,  hat  brushes,  face-powder  brushes,  nail  files,  clothes 
brushes,  bonnet  brushes,  pincushions,  buttonhooks,  cuti- 
cle knives,  shaving  mirrors,  shaving  brushes,  military 
brushes,  whiskbrooms,  velvet  brushes  and  nailscrapers, 
as  well  as  fine  combs.  These  last-named  objects  are  often 
of  beautiful  ivory,  very  thin  and  delicate,  and  of  exquisite 
workmanship.  The  teeth  are  so  fine  that  they  measure 
29  to  49  to  the  inch,  which  means  that  they  are  cut  singly 
with  an  automatic  saw  with  a  blade  from  1-50  to  1-100  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and  they  sell  for  from  25  cents  for  the  small 
combs  to  $2  or  $2.50  for  the  large  4-in.  combs. 

The  size  of  the  pieces  of  ivory  used  in  the  larger  toilet 
articles  is  frequently  remarkable.  Thus  hand  mirrors  with 
ivory  backs  of  a  single  piece  5f  in.  wide,  and  more  than  12j 
in.  long  to  the  end  of  the  handle,  are  occasionally  met 
with,  and  there  are  also  circular  hand  mirrors  6 J  in.  across 
and  9J  in.  to  the  end  of  the  handle.     These  are  all  won- 


254   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

derful  specimens  of  clear,  unbroken  ivory.  Jewel  boxes 
are  also  to  be  seen  measuring  7  in.  across,  cut  from  the 
hollow  end  of  the  tusk,  this  representing  a  little  less  than 
the  diameter  of  the  tusk  used,  as  the  requisite  shaping  and 
polishing  have  necessarily  removed  a  little  of  the  original 
material.  Many  of  the  toilet  boxes  have  widths  of  from 
4  in.  to  6  in.  Frequently  the  ends  of  so-called  "scrivello" 
tusks  (those  weighing  less  than  from  6  to  10  pounds)  are 
flattened  out  at  the  broader  end  so  as  to  form  paper 
cutters,  and  are  found  to  be  very  effective  for  this 
purpose. 

Principal  uses  to  which  ivory  was  put,  average  for  years 
1889-93,  weight  in  kilograms:* 


FOB 

Knife-handles 
Piano  keys 
Combs 
Billiard  balls 
Miscellaneous 

ENG. 

.     143,000 

14,000 

16,000 

9,000 

6,000 

AM. 

11,000 
62,000 
21,000 
13,000 
9,000 

GER* 

13,000 
57,000 
23,000 
12,000 
8,000 

FR. 

9,000 
29,000 
31,000 
14,000 

7,000 

OTHia 
COUN. 

1,000 

•  •   •   • 

•  •   •   • 

1,000 
4,000 

TOTAL 

177,000 

162,000 

91,000 

49,000 

34,000 

Consumptioi 
«« 

188,000 

a  in  India 
"  China 

rotal 

116,000 

•  • 

•  • 

•           •           • 

113,000 

•  •           • 

•  •           • 

•            • 

90,000 

•  ■ 

•  • 

■           ■           • 

6,000 

•  • 

•  • 
• 

513,000 

121,000 
13,000 

Grand  1 

647.000 

OflScial  returns  for  1905  make  the  value  of  the  "ivory  and 
keys,  including  keyboards"  manufactured  for  pianos  during 
the  year  amount  to  $2,048,795,  representing  about  18  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  making  pianos. 
The  principal  seats  of  the  piano-key-making  industry  are  at 
Ivoryton,  Conn.,  Tonawanda,  N.  Y.,  and  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  the  order  named.  For  organs  the  item  "ivory 
and  keys,  including  stops,  knobs,  tremolos,''  etc.,  totalled 

^La  Belgique  Coloniale,"  Vol.  1,  p.  98, 1895-6. 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  255 

$185,680  during  1905.*  The  same  authority  puts  the  num- 
ber of  establishments  devoted  to  the  working  of  ivory  and 
bone  at  39,  giving  employment  to  874  men,  207  women,  and 
47  children  under  sixteen  years.f 

In  France  the  total  value  of  the  ivory  annually  used  for 
industrial  purposes  at  the  present  time  has  been  estimated 
to  be  as  follows : 

FRANCS  DOLLABS 

Ivory  combs 400,000  80,000 

Billiard  balls          800,000  160,000 

Piano  keys 400,000  80,000 

Toilet  articles,  brushes,  knife-handles,  etc.       .      .  400,000  80,000 

2,000,000         400,000 

While  the  greater  part  of  this  ivory  is  secured  at  the  sales 
in  London,  Antwerp,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  Hamburg,  a 
certain  quantity  is  brought  from  Abyssinia  and  the  Sudan 
l>y  way  of  Marseilles  and  Bordeaux. 

Of  the  French  firms  engaged  in  ivory  manufacture,  we 
may  note  for  ivory  combs,  Gasteclau  et  Fils,  of  Paris,  and 
JeuflProy,  of  Ezy  (Dept.  Eure);  Cleret,  of  Ivry-la-Bataille 
(Dept.  Eure),  and  Lesoeur,  also  of  Ivry-la-Bataille.     For 
l>illiard    balls,    the    principal    manufacturers    are    Grillet, 
pere  et  fils;  Gobin,  pere  et  fils;  Marye,  pere;  and  Henin 
alne,  all  of  Paris.     To  these  we  may  add  the  three  firms, 
Grillet,  pere  et  fils,  and  Couesnon,  of  Paris,  and  Thihe- 
zart,  pere  et  fils,  of  Ivry  (Dept.  Seine),  for  piano  keys. 
Knife-handles  are  made  by  Limousin  and  Thinet,  both  of 
Paris,  and  fancy  goods  and  minor  art  objects  by  the  Pa- 
risian firms  Lefort  Freres,  Des  Quesnes,  and  Braissart.     The 
chief  importing  houses  for  ivory  are  Grillet,  p^re  et  fils, 
Zilcot  &  Eckeinstrin,  and  Gobin,  p^re  et  fils. 
To  render  ivory  ductile  all  grease  should  first  be  removed 

*Dept.  of  Commerce  and  Labour,  Bureau  of  the  Censufl,  Manufactures,  1905;  Pt.  IV, 
Special  Reports  on  Selected  Industries,  Washington,  1908,  p.  250. 

tibid.,  p.  740. 


\ 


\ 


\ 


256     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

by  the  use  of  pure  benzine.  This  having  been  done,  the 
ivory  is  to  be  immersed  in  boiling  water  for  from  15  to  20 
minutes,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  specimens  treated, 
the  length  of  time  requisite  in  each  particular  case  being 
determined  experimentally  by  an  actual  test  of  the  degree 
of  softness  acquired.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  an  un- 
duly rapid  or  irregular  drying  out  of  the  material.  Where 
resort  has  been  had  to  the  phosphoric-acid  treatment  of 
ivory  plates,  etc.,  to  secure  flexibility,  the  separate  pieces 
must  not  be  allowed  to  come  into  contact  with  one  another 
while  they  are  being  again  hardened  in  warm  water.* 

A  most  interesting  instance  of  the  use  at  a  very  early 
period  of  a  moistening  agent  for  the  protection  of  ivory  from 
splitting  or  cracking,  as  a  result  of  undue  dryness,  is  fur- 
nished by  an  ancient  author,  who  states  that  because  of  the 
dryness  of  the  air  in  Athens,  especially  on  the  heights  of 
the  Acropolis,  it  was  customary  to  sprinkle  water  at  inter- 
vals over  the  great  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  Athene  Parthe- 
nos  by  the  immortal  Phidias,  f 

The  simple  tools  with  which  the  Delhi  ivory  carvers 
execute  their  very  excellent  work  and  of  which  the  forms 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying  plate,  are  as  follows  4 
1,  2,  3,  the  drif  or  saw,  used  for  cutting  through  the  "bark" 
of  the  tusk,  for  cutting  it  ofiF,  and  for  the  final  cutting  of  the 
ivory  into  pieces  of  requisite  size,  respectively;  4,  the  ken- 
ckiy  for  cutting  the  thin  sheets  of  ivory  into  strips;  5,  the 
chkuriy  or  paring  knife,  used  to  prepare  the  work  for  carving; 
6,  the  chhuri,  or  finishing  knife,  for  preparing  the  work  for 
the  operation  of  turning  and  rounding  off  the  edges;  7, 
the  sokariy  or  file,  used  only  for  finishing  larger  work;  8, 
the  sokariy  or  rasp,  with  which  the  rough  edges  of  holes  are 

*8eienHfie  American,  Supplement  No.  1886,  p.  128,  February  24,  1912. 

fCited  in  Rodigini,  col.  886.    See  also  pp.  28,  24  of  the  present  work. 

JT.  P.  Ellis,  "Ivory  Carving  in  the  Punjab,**  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art  and  Indudry, 
Vol.  IX.  No.  75,  July.  1901,  pp.  48,49. 


'OOLS    USED    BY    HINDU    IVORY    CARVERS    Delhi.  lodiit. 
— Prom  the  Journal  qf  Indian  Art  and  InduHry. 


258      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

smoothed  off ;  9,  a  flat  rasp  for  square  rough  work  exclusively; 
10-16,  hifkaSy  or  chisels,  for  making  small  grooves.  No.  15 
taking  the  place  of  our  gouge;  17,  18,  groovers  for  clearing 
small  grooved  work;  19-24,  specimens  of  files  and  rasps; 
25-29,  various  drills  or  barmds;  30-34,  points  and  punches 
for  removing  the  dust  after  polishing;  35-38,  randay  rabet- 
ting  plane  irons,  for  doing  ornamental  work  about  bases 
and  also  for  headings.  The  following  tools  are  for  perfora- 
tion work:  39,  rethiy  or  file;  40,  barma,  or  drill;  41,  kath-kashi; 
42,  parkaTy  or  compasses;  43,  hathouriy  or  hammer;  44,  par- 
kdvy  or  fixed  compasses;  45,  a  drill-bow.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  rethi  has  a  curved  form,  teeth  being  cut  on  either 
side  of  the  flat  surface  with  which  the  filing  is  done;  the 
edge  can  be  employed  for  cutting  or  filing. 

The  method  used  in  turning  bangles  at  Tando,  Sind,  is 
thus  described  :* 

"The  piece  of  ivory  is  first  peeled  and  made  clean  with 
a  hatchet.  It  is  then  fixed  in  a  wooden  frame  specially 
made  for  this  purpose,  the  ends  of  the  ivory  piece  being 
fastened  to  two  pointed  iron  bars  on  each  side  of  the  frame, 
which  is  called  jandi.  The  ivory  piece  is  then  turned  with  a 
wooden  shaft  attached  to  a  portion  of  the  frame,  and  is 
rounded  with  an  instrument  having  a  sharp  end,  called 
karmno.  The  piece  is  then  smoothed  with  an  instrument 
called  mathni  and  is  marked  into  lines,  round  in  shape,  with 
an  instrument  called  haraki.  The  lines  so  marked  are  then 
separated  from  the  piece  in  different  layers  with  an  instru- 
ment called  chhino.  The  first  layer  will  bring  out  the  larg- 
est bangles,  the  second  layer  smaller  ones,  and  so  on,  the 
bangle  of  each  layer  being  snatched  up  with  the  aid  of  an 
instrument  called  piUho.  Lastly,  the  sides  of  the  bangle 
are  smoothed  with  an  instrument  called  kimdho." 

*Cecil  L.  Bums,  "A  Monograph  on  Ivory  Carving/*  the  Journal  qf  Indian  Art  and  It^ 
dtuiry.  Vol.  IX.  No.  75.  July,  1901,  p.  54. 


TOOLS    USED    BY    HINDU    IVORY    CARVERS    Delhi, 
— From  the  Journal  cf  Indian  Art  and 


260     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  writer  we  have  just  quoted  draws  attention  to  the 
slowness  and  crudeness  of  the  methods  here  employed 
when  compared  with  those  used  in  Europe,  and  also  to  the 
great  apparent  loss  of  material,  as  the  chips  and  sawdust 
seem  not  to  be  utilized  as  they  might  be,  and  as  they  are 
utilized  in  European  workshops.  This  waste  of  time  and 
material  constitutes  a  heavy  handicap  on  the  Indian  work- 
man, more  than  offsetting  his  advantage  over  European 
workers  in  the  matter  of  cheap  living,  so  that  he  is  unable 
to  withstand  the  European  competition. 

The  making  of  spurious  examples  of  antique  ivory  carv- 
ing is  an  art  by  itself.  The  slight  cracks  that  develop  in 
old  ivories  are  imitated  in  the  fresh  material  by  dipping 
this  in  very  hot  water  and  then  subjecting  it  to  the  action 
of  a  hot  fire;  as  a  result  the  ivory  fibres  split  and  the  illu- 
sion is  complete.  The  antique  "tone"  is  imparted  by 
subjecting  the  new  material  to  a  fumigation  of  tobacco, 
tannin,  or  moist  hay,  or  else  resort  can  be  had  to  a  bath  in 
ochre,  wherein  the  ivory  should  remain  for  several  days 
until  the  colouring  matter  has  been  absorbed.  While,  how- 
ever, it  may  not  be  difficult  to  imitate  general  appearances 
in  these  ways  so  as  to  deceive  all  but  thoroughly  competent 
experts,  the  character  and  quality  of  the  design  itself  will 
usually  afford  good  evidence  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
supposed  antique.  Apart  from  this  the  marks  of  the  turn- 
ing-lathe, not  used  in  early  times,  are  also  signs  of  fraud; 
this  may  appear  in  the  cylindrical  form  of  a  cross  or  of  the 
base  of  a  statuette  or  group.  In  a  like  way  the  concentric 
rays  on  reliefs  made  by  the  machine  on  ivory  boxes  will 
infallibly  betray  the  modem  origin  of  the  work.  In  the 
case  of  spurious  patina,  all  that  is  requisite  to  reveal  it  is 
to  wash  the  object  lightly  with  water  or  alcohol;  this  must, 
however,  be  done  with  the  greatest  care  and  is  often  a  some- 
what risky  proceeding,  since  some  too  thorough  process  of 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  261 

deaning  will  remove  the  genuine  patina  from  a  true  an- 
ique,  leaving  it  of  an  unpleasant  modern  whiteness.  Of 
course  celluloid  imitations  are  very  easily  detected,  either 
)y  the  camphory  odour  they  emit  or  by  their  inflammability.* 
A  leading  American  miniature  painter  states  that  the 
)est  dealers  now  furnish  ivory  sheets  with  the  sm^ace  al- 
eady  prepared  for  painting  in  a  manner  much  better  than 
he  ordinary  novice  can  accomplish.  However,  if  the 
lainter  desires  to  treat  the  material  without  trusting  to  the 
id  of  the  dealer,  the  best  means  of  so  doing  is  to  tack  the 
irory  sheet  securely  to  a  board  to  prevent  it  from  warping, 
nd  then  apply  powdered  pumice  stone  to  the  sm^ace  gently 
dth  a  damp  handkerchief.  The  powder  should  be  plenti- 
ully  used,  first  damp  and  then  dry,  until  every  trace  of 
Tease,  or  roughness,  has  been  removed,  so  that  the  paint 
nil  flow  freely  and  evenly.  It  sometimes  happens  in  the 
process  of  painting  that  a  part  of  the  sm^ace  becomes 
;reasy;  in  this  case  a  little  dry  pumice  powder,  dusted,  over 
he  spot  with  the  tip  of  the  finger,  will  generally  suflSce  to 
orrect  the  defect.  The  artist  should  determine  the  required 
ize  of  his  ivory  before  beginning  to  paint,  and  draw  the 
precise  shape  on  the  ivory  sheet,  which  is  then  to  be  im- 
aersed  in  perfectly  clear,  lukewarm  water  until  the  mate- 
ial  becomes  soft,  when  it  can  be  easily  and  safely  cut  with 
I  small  pair  of  sharp  scissors ;  if  cut  while  dry  the  ivory  may 
plit  and  be  irreparably  damaged.  However,  an  oval  may 
)e  cut  out  with  comparative  safety,  even  when  the  ivory 
s  dry,  if  care  be  taken  to  cut  to  the  middle  of  the  top  and 
)ottom  of  the  oval,  respectively,  and  always  to  follow  the 
^in.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  cut  the  finished  painting, 
k  very  sharp  graver's  tool  is  the  safest  instrument  to  use, 
he  ivory  being  laid  on  some  flat,  hard  surface  and  the  part 
lot  being  cut  covered  with  a  thick  piece  of  paper  so  that 

*Emile-Bayard,  "L'Art  de  recoxmAitre  lea  fraudes,"  Paris,  1914,  pp.  189, 190. 


262     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  painting  will  not  be  marred  by  the  contact  of  the  finger- 
tips. When  mounted,  the  ivory  sheet  should  never  be 
glued  to  a  backing,  but  left  free  so  that  it  may  contract  or 
expand,  for  this  material  is  exceedingly  sensitive  to  atmos- 
pheric changes.  For  this  reason  also  the  miniature  should 
be  provided  with  a  crystal  securely  attached  to  the  backing 
of  pasteboard  or  metal  so  that  the  air  be  excluded.  Should 
the  ivory  sheet  come  up  it  may  be  flattened  by  exposure 
to  a  tiny  stream  of  steam  and  subsequent  pressure  under  a 
heavy  press,  the  steam  being  applied  to  the  back  of  the 
miniature  and  never  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
painting.  If  this  curling  up  occurs  before  painting,  im- 
mersion in  water  and  compression  in  a  press  will  be  suffi- 
cient, the  ivory  surface  being  protected  by  tissue  paper.* 

A  cheap  and  eflfective  treatment  by  which  ivory  or  bone  that 
has  become  yellow  can  be  restored  to  its  original  whiteness 
is  to  place  the  material  requiring  treatment  for  several  days 
in  a  solution  of  one  part  of  chloride  of  lime  and  four  parts 
water.  Ivory  needs  more  time  to  whiten  than  does  bone. 
At  the  expiration  of  the  required  period  the  ivory  or  bone 
is  to  be  washed  and  allowed  to  dry  o£P  in  a  current  of  air.f 

Another  bleaching  process  of  ivory  is  to  lay  one  pound 
weight  of  ivory  plates  in  a  flat  vessel  and  pour  over  them 
five  ounces  of  crystallized  salt  mixed  with  two  pounds 
weight  of  soft,  river  water.  The  ivory  should  remain  in 
the  sodium  solution  for  from  36  to  48  hours;  this  is  then  to 
be  decanted  and  the  ivory  washed  several  times  with  cold, 
soft  water.  A  solution  composed  of  f  of  a  pound  of  sodium 
sulphate  to  2  pounds  of  water  is  now  to  be  poured  over  the 
plates,  which  are  to  remain  therein  for  five  or  six  hours; 
then  an  ounce  of  sodium  acid  diluted  with  4  parts  of  water 

KJommunication  of  MLu  Elsie  W.  Southwick  Claric,  of  Orange,  N.  J. 

tH.  Angentein,  "Ueber  das  Bleichen  der  Knochen  und  des  ElfenbeinB,"  in  Mittheil.  dea 
luumov.    Gewerbavereina,  IS65,  Heft  HI, 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  263 

must  be  added  gradually,  the  mixture  stirred  well  and  the 
vessel  covered  with  a  tight-fitting  cover,  and  left  undis- 
turbed for  36  hours.  The  liquid  is  then  to  be  poured  off, 
and  the  plates  are  to  be  rinsed  in  water  and  left  to  dry  in  the 
air.  Should  the  desired  result  not  be  obtained  the  first  time, 
the  operation  can  be  once  or  twice  repeated.* 

A  process  of  rendering  ivory  semi-transparent  and  so 
modifying  its  structure  that  when  placed  in  hot  water  or 
milk  it  becomes  as  pliant  as  leather,  was  in  use  in  Paris  in 
the  forties  of  the  last  century  for  certain  manufactures  of 
ivory,  such  as  artificial  nipples,  etc.  This  same,  or  a  sim- 
ilar process  is  thus  described:  "The  articles  made  from 
ordinary  ivory  are  to  be  placed  in  a  solution  of  phosphoric 
acid,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.130,  and  kept  in  this 
solution  until  the  ivory  becomes  transparent.  They  are 
then  to  be  taken  out,  washed  with  water,  and  dried  with  a 
soft,  linen  cloth.  They  will  have  become  soft  as  leather, 
but  will  harden  on  exposure  to  the  air;  however,  when  placed 
in  warm  water  they  will  again  become  soft  and  pliant."t 

Because  of  its  greater  density  of  structure,  African  ivory 
is  more  resistant  to  the  tools  used  in  working  it  than  is 
Asiatic  ivory,  at  the  same  time  and  for  the  same  reason 
it  possesses  the  advantage  of  receiving  a  finer  polish.  A 
slight  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  softer  Asiatic 
ivory  is  that  its  density  renders  it  less  freely  absorptive 
of  oil,  or  of  the  colouring  matters  used  in  staining  ivory.  J 

Although  it  might  seem  that  the  natural  hue  of  ivory  was 
the  most  beautiful  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  more  or 
less  successful  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  past,  and 

*Pn>f.  Dr.  Artus,  "Verfahren  zum  Bleichen  des  Elfenbeins,**  in  Vierteljahnchrift  fUr 
techniflche  Chemie,  K  Jahrgang,  p.  264. 

f  Elmer,  "Mittel  um  Elfenbein  weich  und  durchsichtig  zu  machen*';  in  Berliner  Gew. — 
Indust.— u.  Handelsblatt,  Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  6, 1848. 

tFrancu  Campin  "Das  Drechseln  in  Hols,  Elfenbein,  Perlmutter,  etc.,*'  Weimar,  1862, 
p.  SOS. 


K 


264     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

still  are  made,  to  impart  various  colours  to  the  material, 
and  we  shall  here  note  a  few  of  the  processes  employed 
for  this  purpose.* 

A  yellow  hue  may  be  secured  by  using  as  a  stain  60  parts 
of  finely  ground  curcuma  root,  which  has  been  digested 
for  a  day  in  500  parts  of  80  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  then  filtered 
through  blotting  paper.  Another  yellow  stain  is  com- 
posed of  95  parts  of  aniline  yellow  dissolved  in  750  parts  of 
80  per  cent,  alcohol;  this  solution  is  also  to  be  filtered  through 
blotting  paper. 

Several  different  red  stains  are  recommended.  In  one. 
Brazil-wood  chips  are  boiled  in  alum  water  and  the  filtered 
solution  is  then  applied  to  the  ivory,  which  must  previously 
have  been  treated  with  a  diluted  solution  of  muriate  of 
tin.  A  red  stain  may  also  be  prepared  by  making  a  solu- 
tion of  4  parts  of  cochineal,  4  parts  of  cream  of  tartar,  and 
12  parts  of  tin  solution,  the  cochineal  being  first  dissolved 
in  warm  tin  solution  and  the  cream  of  tartar  added  to  the 
resultant  mixture;  as  a  final  step,  a  small  quantity  of  sal 
ammonia  is  to  be  gradually  dropped  in. 

A  violet  shade  can  be  obtained  by  first  placing  ivory  for  a 
few  minutes  in  a  much-diluted  muriate  of  tin  solution,  and 
then  letting  it  lay  for  an  hour  in  a  decoction  composed  of 
50  parts  of  Campeachy  wood  and  30  parts  of  water.  Other 
violet  stains  are  given,  one  of  them  made  by  boiling  for 
an  hour  2  parts  of  Brazil-wood  chips  in  5  parts  of  water; 
the  decoction  is  then  to  be  filtered,  and  mixed  with  a  solu- 
tion of  12  parts  of  green  vitriol  to  25  parts  of  water.  Lastly 
1  part  of  aniline  violet  dissolved  in  10  parts  of  alcohol, 
the  resulting  solution  having  been  carefully  filtered,  also 
provides  a  good  violet  staiix^ 

To  stain  ivory  black,  it  may  be  dipped  in  a  solution  made 
by  boiling  1  part  of  finely  cracked  gallnuts,  and  4  parts 

*See  Scientific  American,  Supplement  No.  1677,  p.  128,  Febniary  22, 1908. 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  265 

of  pulverized  verdigris,  in  thirty  times  their  weight  of  water; 
this  mixture  is  then  to  be  filtered  and  reboiled.  After  hav- 
mg  been  dipped  in  this  solution,  the  ivory  is  to  be  treated 
«nth  another  solution  secured  by  boiling  for  an  hour,  and 
then  straining,  1  part  Campeachy-wood  extract  (tied  in  a 
linen  bag),  0.5  part  gum  arabic,  12  parts  of  water,  and  12 
parts  of  alum. 

The  scrapings  of  ivory  were  quite  frequently  used  as 
ingredients  in  the  medicinal  preparations  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  this  rasura  ehoris  being  dissolved  in  a  liquid  and 
administered  as  a  remedy  for  fever,  for  jaundice,  and  for 
diseases  of  the  liver  and  spleen.  Pulverized  ivory,  steamed 
and  calcined,  known  as  ehur  ustum  or  ivoire  brule^  was  be- 
lieved to  ciu*e  abdominal  disorders  and  to  check  hemorrhages 
and  leucorrhea.  Calcined  in  a  covered  crucible,  it  became 
coal  black,  and  was  called  by  the  French  nair  de  velours; 
this  preparation  was  employed  as  a  hair  restorer.* 

The  use  of  ivory  in  Roman  times  to  remove  blemishes 
rom  the  skin  is  vouched  for  by  both  Pliny  and  a  Latin 
physician  named  Placitus,  sometimes  erroneously  called 
^xtus  Platonicus.  The  material  was  reduced  to  a  pow- 
ler,  mixed  with  Attic  honey,  and  when  applied  to  the 
ace   produced  excellent  results,  more  especially  if  used 

laily.t 
That  an  inferior  kind  of  ivory  was  made  from  the  bones 

>f  the  elephant  is  asserted  by  Cardano,  writing  in  the  six- 

eenth  century,  although  he  hastens  to  declare  that  **the 

inest"  came  from  the  tusk.     As  ivory  was  tough,  dense, 

ind  white,  it  was  especially  adapted  for  the  manufacture 

>f  combs.     It  was  so  highly  prized  in  his  time  that  it  was 

regarded  as  ranking  with  gold  and  gems  in  value,  although 

^Zeller's  "Grosses  VollsUndiges  Universal  Lexicon,"  1734,  Vol.  Vm,  col.  788. 

tFlinii,  "Naturalis  Historia,'*  lib.  XXVIII,  cap.  viii;  Placiti,  "De  Medicamentis  ex 
ammalibus,"  cap.  12. 


266      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

from  the  quantity  obtainable  we  might  suppose  that  it  was 
of  much  less  worth.* 

The  Japanese  ivory  carvers  rival  or  even  surpass  their 
Hindu  brothers  in  the  number  and  complexity  of  their 
tools.  In  several  cases  the  name  of  the  inventor  of  a  spe- 
cially adapted  tool  has  been  preserved.  A  recently  published 
Japanese  manual  of  the  ivory  carver's  art  figures  all  of  the 
Japanese  tools  employed  to-day.  The  manner  of  using  one 
of  the  most  important  of  these  implements  is  shown  in  our 
illustration,  and  we  have  given  the  Japanese  names  in  full 
for  purposes  of  identification,  although  they  must  be  entirely 
significant  only  to  the  few  readers  who  are  familiar  with  the 
rich  and  harmonious  language  of  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun. 

This  Japanese  manual  of  ivory  carving  is  such  a  curious 
and  unique  publication  that  it  seems  to  merit  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  its  literary  contents.  At  the  outset  an  Imperial 
Privy  Councillor,  Count  Sasaki  Takayuki,  has  contributed 
a  brief  rule  from  one  of  the  Chinese  classics  to  the  following 
effect  :t 

"Keep  leveller  and  string  on  the  left. 
Keep  compass  and  ruler  on  the  right." 

This  is  succeeded  by  a  series  of  brief  introductions  con- 
tributed by  a  number  of  distinguished  Japanese,  the  first 
of  these  being  written  by  Count  Sano  Tsunetami,  also  of 
the  Imperial  Privy  CouncU,  and  a  former  minister  of  agri- 
culture and  commerce.     He  says: 

"While  there  are  well-defined  methods  and  perfected 
technical  processes  regarding  all  branches  of  the  arts  of 
painting  and  carving  in  our  country,  yet  from  ancient 
times  we  have  had  to  depend  solely  for  our  instruction  upon 

^Cardani.  "De  subtiliUte/*  Basilee,  1554.  pp.  909,  810,  Lib.  X. 

fThe  Japanese  tranfllatioiu  have  been  contributed  by  Mr.  Yasuhisa  Mogi,  formerly 
of  Tokio,  Japan,  the  aon  of  Mitsutoahi  Otani,  a  noted  Japanese  ivory  carver. 


h^9^%^^-imMf 


inxPAOK  of  Japanese  work  on  Ivory  Carving.    The  characters  signify   literally: 
Japan  Soma  Kuninosuke  wrote  "How  to  Carve  Ivory**  (Zogecho  Kokuho);  then 
w  the  names  of  six  professors  contributing  introductions,  namely:  Takayuki  Sasaki, 
Watanabe,  Tsunetami  Sano,  Go  Kawata,  Riuchi  Kuld,  Mayori  Kurokawa. 


Toou  wed  by  JapMieie  ivory  carven,  utd  method  of 
*^ui  tool  WM  inveoted  by  the  cmrver  Gyoku  Zu. 


Toou  lued  by  Japume  ivoi;  carven. 


«70     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Am  Ivobt  Statdbtib  b; 


verbally  imparted  teaching.  There  have  been  no  books 
of  any  kind  to  guide  us  and  help  us  in  the  study  of  these 
subjects.  Now  it  often  happens,  when  one  attempts  a 
lecture,  that  the  very  point  the  hearer  is  most  interested 
in  will  be  omitted  or  forgotten  by  the  lecturer,  and  then 
again  there  are  many  little  hints  and  pointers  that  one  can- 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  271 


Sluatisting  the  various  ttegei  ot  iU  owing. 


not  carry  in  the  inind.  Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to 
the  value  of  a  carefully  composed  text-book  which  the 
artist  can  keep  at  his  elbow,  and  which  can  be  relied  upon 
from  beginning  to  end.  Quite  recently  Mr.  Soma  Sen-rei 
has  written  such  a  book,  entitled  'The  Methods  of  Ivory 
Carving,'  as  a  guide  to  beginners  in  the  art. 


«72     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

""The  latest  and  most  appreciated  of  all  the  fine  arts  is 
carving  in  ivory;  what  I  mean  to  say  is  that  ivory  carving 
was  never  so  much  admired  as  now,  never  placed  on  so  high  a 
pedestal.  And  yet  we  have  just  achieved  our  first  text-book 
for  that  art.  I  hope  there  will  soon  be  forthcoming  text-books 
for  all  branches  of  carving  in  wood,  stone,  and  metal,  and  also 
for  painting,  embroideries,  etc. ;  they  are  so  much  needed. 

"There  is  no  doubt,  at  any  rate,  that  this  new  book  of 
Mr.  Sen-rei  is  a  briUiant  achievement.  Students  will 
understand  what  I  mean,  a  treasure  house  of  valuable  in- 
formation for  those  who  have  any  wish  to  utilize  it.  The 
author  stands  absolutely  at  the  head  of  his  class. 

"To  conclude,  one  word  more  to  students  of  this  art:  if 
you  want  your  knife  to  move  freely  and  have  mastered  the 
necessary  technique  and  acquired  dexterity  in  the  use  of 
hands  and  arms,  you  ought'  to  seek  what  I  will  try  to  define 
as  a  silent  and  meditative  understanding  of  self — the  self- 
knowledge  that  no  book  can  give  you.  The  student  of 
art  should  seek  for  methods  and  rules  in  the  visible  forms 
about  him,  and  acquire  the  spirit  from  the  influence  of  the 
invisible  (the  pen  name  signed  by  the  writer,  Sessin  gio-so, 
signifies  *01d  Fisherman  of  the  Snowy  Marsh*).*' 

The  second  introduction,  by  Baron  Kuki  Riilchi,  of  the 
Imperial  Privy  Council,  at  one  time  minister  to  the  United 
States,  and  now  president  of  the  Imperial  Museum  of  Tokio, 
contributes  a  stanza  by  the  philosophical  poet,  Daigaku 
Zenshi : 

**0h,  thou  cherry-tree  of  Mount  Yoshimo! 
Thou  bloomest  beautifully  year  after  year. 
Would  I  or  any  one  break  thy  trunk  and  look  in. 
To  see  if  there  were  any  flowers  within?" 

This  is  followed  by  the  third  introduction  from  the  pen  of 
Dr.  Watanabe  Koki,  a  former  president  of  the  Imperial 


WORKING    OF    IVORY 


in  of  an  elephant  ttulc,  and  tite 
completed  work. 

TJniversity  of  Tokio  and  president  of  the  Tokio  Society 
of  Carving.     He  writes : 

"Every  art  is  subject  to  fixed  rules  and  norms,  and  after 
passing  through  its  primitive  stages,  these  rules  and  regu- 
lations are  gradually  developed  and  defined  as  a  result  of 
the  progress  due  to  centuries  and  centuries  of  studious  labour. 


274     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Besides  rules  and  regulations,  every  artist  adds  his  own  i 
to  these,  and  with  skill  and  individuality  peculiarly  ki 
own,  helps  on  a  progress  which  reveals  to  us  a  great  fielci 
for  artistic  exploitation,  considering  the  masterpieces  tha^:^ 
have  lately  been  evolved. 

**Our  works  in  ivory  carving  show  wonderful  delicacy  and      A 
artistic  finish  and  the  vital  spark,  so  to  speak,  of  talent  and 
accomplishment,  and  are  greatly  admired  not  only  at  home 
but  abroad. 

"But  the  education  in  the  art  consists  of  the  teacher's 
verbal  instructions,  directions,  etc.,  and  the  pupil's  willing 
hands;  there  never  has  been  nor  can  be  any  mere  text-books. 

**It  is  a  record  of  the  secrets  learned  by  his  own  individual 
experience  that  Mr.  Soma  Kuninosuk6,  member  of  the 
Tokio  Society  of  Carving,  has  recorded  in  the  book  which  he 
has  named  *The  Methods  of  Ivory  Carving.'  He  is  ambi- 
tious to  raise  the  standard  of  ivory  carving  and  add  somewhat 
to  the  nation's  fame  and  glory.  With  these  few  words 
I  recommend  this  book  to  the  public,  for  I  am  very  much 
pleased  to  say  that  it  will  give  great  benefit  to  future  stu- 
dents." 

The  fourth  introduction  is  furnished  by  Doctor  Kawata, 
one  of  the  foremost  students  of  the  Chinese  classics  and  Lec- 
turer-in-Ordinary  to  His  Majesty  the  Mikado.  He  gives 
some  interesting  information  as  to  the  use  of  ivory  in  an- 
cient China.  Of  this  and  other  matters  regarding  ivory 
carving,  he  says : 

"Looking  through  the  ancient  Chinese  books  we  find 
mention  of  quite  a  number  of  vessels  and  ornaments  cut 
from  ivory;  for  instance,  ivory  chopsticks  are  noted  in  the 
great  history  called  ^Shiki,'  dynastic  and  biographical 
records  reaching  back  as  far  as  the  beginning  of  the  Han  j 
\B.  C.  206,  A.  D.  220]  dynasty. 

"When  you  examine  our  old  records  you  will  find  that  all 


WORKING    OF    IVORY  275 

sorts  of  implements,  ornaments,  etc.,  made  of  ivory  were  used 
in  the  Buddhist  temples  and  m  the  royal  court;  viz.,  white 


Nranxis  dcngned  in  mcconiuice  with  the  shape  of  the  ivory  nuterik] 

ivory  rulers,  green  ivory  inlaid  rulers,  listed  in  'The  ofifering 
record  of  the  Todaiji  Temple.'      An  ivory  flat  staflf  for 


«76     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  fifth  ofiicial  rank  and  above  is  noted  in  the  ^Tat-ho 
court  dress  etiquette.'  That  third  rank  upper  nobles  may 
wear  belts  ornamented  with  ivory  work  and  that  ladies  in 
waiting  may  use  ivory  combs  is  stated  in  ^yengi  danjo 
skilci^  (court  ceremonial  regulation  issued  in  the  yengi 
period).  When  you  examine  the  ivory  combs,  ivory  flutes, 
and  ivory  brush  caps  in  'The  Shozoin  Imperial  Museum, 
and  the  ivory  rulers  and  ivory  needlecases  in  the  famous 
and  ancient  'Horiuji  Temple'  you  will  see  that  a  thousand 
years  ago  there  lived  an  artist  who  could  cut  ivory  in  a 
manner  truly  marvellous. 

*'In  modem  times  we  have  many  great  carvers  like  Issai, 
Hoshin,  Shojiki,  Insai,  Shuzan,  and  Tanzan.  These  artists 
have  dexterously  carved  figures,  animals,  birds,  insects, 
fishes,  flowers,  etc.  If  you  could  read  a  book  entitled 
*  ZS-taikif '  literally  meaning  *  Records  of  Ivory  Work,'  writ- 
ten by  the  famous  poet  Sanyo,  you  could  satisfy  yourself 
about  these  artists'  skill. 

^'Mr.  Soma  Sen-rei  from  Mutsu  province,  who  is  skilled 
in  the  art  of  carving  ivory,  has  recently  given  us  a  book 
in  which  he  describes  the  sketching  and  colouring  of  ivory, 
as  well  as  all  the  different  kinds  of  tools  he  uses,  and  how 
he  uses  them,  all  this  being  illustrated  by  himself. 

**I  think  modem  artists  are  extremely  clever  with  the 
knife,  but  not  with  the  pen;  but  Mr.  Soma  can  handle  the 
pen  as  well  as  the  knife,  and  he  makes  his  readers  compre- 
hend his  subject  thoroughly;  in  fact,  you  can  instruct  your- 
self without  a  teacher,  so  clear  are  the  directions.  I  have 
persuaded  him  to  publish  this  work,  being  much  pleased 
with  his  enterprise." 

Finally,  we  have  an  introduction  provided  by  Dr.  Kuro- 
kawa  Mayori,  another  Lecturer-in-Ordinary  to  the  Mikado, 
and  an  authority  on  the  Japanese  classics.  Of  the  Japan- 
ese manual  of  ivory  carving  he  writes : 


I.     A   (iUOir  OF   I.AXI)   SXAILS.    HY   RVO   KISAX 
II.     A   BANAXA 


WORKING    OF    IVORY 


277 


**It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  our  ancestors  from  time  im- 
memorial have  loved  to  engrave  and  limn  on  such  material 
as  stone,  impressions  received  from  glances  at  the  rolling 
clouds  or  the  rivulet  and  stream  swiftly  flowing  onward. 
From  the  time  of  the  building  of  the  Asakura  palace  (about 


1,200  years  ago),  the  art  of  carving  has  shown  a  decided 
and  steady  improvement,  generation  after  generation. 
To-day  it  has  developed  to  a  wonderful  degree;  in  ivory 
work  in  particular,  probably  no  other  country  excels  ours. 
"Mr.  Soma,  all  his  life  a  devoted  student  of  this  art,  has 
compiled  a  book  entitled  "The  Methods  of  Ivory  Carvings' 
which  he  has  brought  to  me,  with  the  request  that  I  write 


278     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

an  introduction  for  it.  After  very  careful  examination  of 
the  work  I  found  his  way  of  describing  things  to  be  very 
sincere  and  useful,  especially  his  rules  and  methods  regard- 
ing human  figures,  animals,  birds,  fishes,  and  almost  all 
living  things;  these  rules  being  imparted  in  such  a  way  as 
to  bring  the  students  to  an  easy  understanding  of  the 
matter. 

"Therefore,  I  predict  that  his  efforts  will  greatly  assist  the 
progress  of  students,  and  that  many  will  thus  achieve  fame 
who  otherwise  would  have  found  the  art  much  too  difficult 
for  them." 

English  ivory  workers  are  admitted  by  the  Worshipful 
Company  of  Turners,  an  organization  founded  in  London, 
to  the  annual  competitions  instituted  by  this  society,  under 
Class  m,  comprising  amateurs.  The  chief  prize  here  is  the 
Company's  Silver  Medal,  in  addition  to  which  special  certi- 
ficates of  merit  may  be  accorded  for  some  of  the  best  work 
displayed.  The  extent  to  which  some  apparatus  has  been 
used  to  supplement  or  modify  the  hand  work  is  taken  into 
consideration  as  well  as  beauty  and  originality  of  design  and 
appropriateness.  The  last  competition  held  in  April,  1914, 
was  the  thirty-sixth  of  those  held  under  the  auspices  of  this 
society. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

VEGETABLE  AND   IMITATION  IVORY 

The  beauties  of  genuine  ivory  are  such,  and  they  are  now 
so  highly  and  generally  appreciated,  that  even  articles  made 
of  imitation  ivory  are  sold  in  great  quantities.  This  is 
known  imder  various  trade  names,  as  "Parisian  ivory," 
"French  ivory,"  "Egyptian  ivory,"  and  "ivorloid."  A 
favourite  modern  use  is  for  clocks,  some  of  which  are  pro- 
vided with  an  electric  flashlight,  the  apparatus  being  so 
disposed  in  a  funnel  slanting  toward  the  clock  face  that 
when  a  button  is  pressed  the  dial  is  brightly  illuminated, 
enabling  any  one  to  see  immediately  the  time  when  in  an 
entirely  dark  room. 

The  tagua  palm,  as  the  natives  of  Ecuador  call  the 
Phyielepkas  macrocarpa,  was  first  brought  to  popular  notice 
about  fifty  years  ago  by  some  rubber  gatherers,  who,  in 
carrying  on  their  work  in  the  forests  of  northern  Ecuador, 
had  come  across  an  unfamiliar  species  of  palm,  having  as 
fruit  a  nut  in  whose  shape  they  saw  a  grotesque  resemblance 
to  a  negro's  head,  and  hence  called  the  nuts  negritos.  Hav- 
ing picked  up,  dried  out,  and  broken  open  some  of  them, 
they  noted  that  the  kernels  bore  a  close  resemblance  to 
ivory,  and  the  idea  quickly  suggested  itself  that  they  might 
be  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  the  costly,  genuine  ma- 
terial. To  test  the  value  of  the  nuts  some  were  shipped  to 
Europe;  and  although  at  first  they  were  not  received  with 
much  favoiu*,  their  excellent  qualities  soon  became  ap- 

879 


280     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

parent,  more  especially  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  but- 
tons and  similar  small  objects  for  which  ivory  had  been 
used.  In  this  way  a  valuable  article  of  conmierce  was 
introduced,  and  the  trade  has  increased  so  rapidly  that 
20,000  tons  of  the  nuts  are  now  exported  annually  from 
Ecuador  alone,  the  value  of  this  product  amounting  to 
$1,700,000.  In  addition  to  this  both  Panama  and  Colombia 
send  a  continually  increasing  supply  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  This  palm  flourishes  in  southern  Panama 
and  in  the  region  of  the  west  coast  of  Colombia,  Ek^uador, 
and  northern  Peru.  The  tree  is  said  to  begin  bearing 
in  its  sixth  year  and  to  live  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
years.* 

The  work  of  gathering  the  nuts  is  largely  in  the  hands  of 
the  natives,  who  secure  from  the  merchants  or  exporters,  on 
credit,  a  simple  outfit,  consisting  of  a  machete,  an  ax,  a  gun, 
some  ammunition,  and  also  supplies  of  rice,  lard,  and  beans 
or  lentils.  The  price  of  this  is  paid  at  the  end  of  the  season 
in  ivory  nuts  or  rubber.  The  parties  of  natives  paddle  up 
the  rivers  to  the  forest  lands,  to  reach  the  largest  of  which  a 
trip  of  from  three  to  six  days  is  needed.  Arrived  at  their 
destination,  each  party  encamps  on  the  banks  of  a  stream, 
building  a  rough  shelter  with  a  palm-leaf  roof.  The  nuts, 
as  they  are  gathered,  are  deposited  in  woven  baskets  two 
feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  are  transported  to  the 
encampment  either  on  mule  back  or  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  native  gatherers.  When  some  15  or  20  tons  of  nuts 
have  been  accumulated,  the  filled  baskets  are  placed  on 
rafts  made  on  the  spot  from  sections  of  peeled  trunks  of 
the  cork  tree  called  balsa,  and  floated  down  to  the  point 
of  delivery.    The  merchant  pays  for  them  at  the  rate  of  2 

*The  details  embraced  in  this  and  the  following  paragraphs  are  taken  from  Uie  valuable 
paper  of  Mr.  Edward  Abbes  of  the  Pan-American  staff,  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Pan-American  Union  for  August,  1913,  pp.  192-208,  and  entitled  "Tagua  Vegetable  Ivory." 


VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION     281 

or  3  sucres  (the  sucre  equals  48.7  cents  of  our  money)  per 
hundredweight.  This  would  bring  in  on  an  average  about 
$240  for  a  ten-ton  raft  load.  About  half  of  this  sum  has  to 
be  deducted  for  outfit  and  provisions,  leaving  $120  or  some- 
thing less  as  the  season's  profit  for  the  two  or  more  natives 
constituting  a  party. 

From  the  storehouses  of  the  merchants  the  nuts,  sewed 
up  in  sacks,  are  taken  to  the  seaport  warehouses  at  Esmer- 
aldas  or  elsewhere.  An  export  duty,  sometimes  in  Ecuador 
as  high  as  $1  on  unshelled  nuts  and  $1.40  on  shelled  nuts, 
trader's  profit,  cost  of  handling,  brokers'  commissions,  etc., 
bring  up  the  price  for  the  United  States  manufacturers  to 
about  6  cents  per  pound,  making  $120  a  ton;  as  we  have 
seen,  the  native  gatherer  gets  only  $24  a  ton,  but  half  of 
this  being  profit. 

The  great  use  to  which  this  product  is  put  in  the  United 
States  is  for  button  manufacturing.  The  ivory  nuts  usually 
come  to  the  factory  in  their  original  state  with  the  hard 
encasing  rind.  So  hard  is  this,  indeed,  that  when  the  nuts 
are  dried  a  steel  fork  will  not  cut  them,  but — like  the  diamond 
in  this — a  smart  blow  of  the  hammer  will  fracture  them. 
After  having  been  broken,  they  are  spread  out  for  further 
drying  in  a  temperature  of  100°;  by  this  means  the  inner 
part  of  the  nut  becomes  loosened  from  the  shell.  This  inner 
part  is  then  sliced  up  by  circular  saws  making  600  revolu- 
tions in  a  minute,  a  solid  piece  being  taken  from  each  side, 
the  usually  defective  core  being  rejected. 

The  solid  pieces  are  then  still  more  thoroughly  dried  out 
in  a  drying  room  until  absolutely  no  moisture  remains; 
this  causes  their  hue  to  change  from  a  bluish  white  to  an 
ivory  white  or  cream  colour.  Their  hardness  equals  that 
of  bone,  and  while  subsequent  soaking  during  the  stages  of 
manufacture  swells  them  temporarily,  they  return  to  their 
former  hardness.     The  dimensions  of  the  pieces  secured  in 


282     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

this  way  range  from  J  to  Ij  in.  in  diameter,  or  from  10 
lines  to  50  lines  according  to  the  unit  of  measurement  em- 
ployed in  button  manufacture. 

The  separate  pieces  are  sorted  according  to  size  by  being 
fed  into  a  revolving  cylinder  with  perforations  of  different 
diameters,  which  deposits  them  automatically  in  separate 
bags.  The  product  is  then  rapidly  sorted  by  hand,  all  de- 
fective material  being  rejected.  Those  fitted  for  use  are 
now  immersed  in  hot  water  so  as  to  soften  them,  and  set 
vertically  in  a  lathe,  where  two  rapidly  revolving  tools, 
cutting  simultaneously  on  the  right  and  left,  give  the  piece 
the  proper  shape ;  the  ring  is  then  cut  off  and  the  shaped  piece 
falls  into  a  case  or  compartment.  Dust  and  shavings  have 
a  value  for  polishing  purposes,  the  rings  being  sold  as  waste 
or  utilized  for  fuel. 

Drilling  requires  more  complex  machineiy,  the  holes 
bieing  drilled  and  reamed  out  at  the  same  time;  some  of 
these  machines  are  automatic,  others  are  worked  by  hand. 
Each  button  is  turned  by  the  machine  to  the  proper  angle 
for  the  drilling  and  reaming  of  the  two  or  four  holes  to 
be  made.  The  number  of  buttons  turned  out  in  a  single 
day  by  one  of  the  automatic  machines  reaches  200  gross, 
about  half  as  many  representing  the  daily  product  of  a 
hand  machine. 

As  to  their  colouring,  buttons  fall  into  two  classes,  those 
having  solid  colours  and  those  of  mottled  colour.  Those 
of  the  former  class  are  simply  dyed,  but  for  mottling  are 
used  sheets  of  metal  incised  with  stencils  of  the  requisite 
design.  A  number  of  rows  of  buttons — ^usually  ten — are 
placed  on  boards  measuring  a  foot  in  length  and  breadth, 
and  the  stencilled  sheet  having  been  laid  over  them,  accu- 
rately covering  each  button,  the  dye  is  blown  over  the  stencil 
by  a  mechanical  atomizer;  only  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
button  is  touched  by  the  dyeing  material.     As  a  variety, 


VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION     283 

shellac  may  be  blown  over  the  stencil  on  the  button,  leaving 
the  design  white  when  the  button  is  plunged  in  the  dye. 
All  these  colours  are,  however,  only  brought  out  in  the  fin- 
ished state  by  chemical  treatments. 

There  remains  the  task  of  imparting  a  proper  finish 
to  the  surface  of  the  button.  This  may  be  either  dulled, 
polished,  or  pressed.  Some  of  the  choicest  kinds  offer 
a  combination  of  several  types  of  finish,  as  a  polished 
rim  with  a  centre  of  dull  finish,  which  is  called  the 
^'sandblast  finish."  Plain  polished  buttons  of  the  finest 
quality  receive  what  is  known  as  hand  finish,  each  piece 
being  separately  handled  while  polished  on  a  buffing  ma- 
chine. 

The  great  development  of  the  trade  in  tagua  nuts  is  shown 
by  an  annual  importation  into  the  United  States  valued 
at  $1,500,000.  There  are  now  in  the  land  as  many  as  23 
factories  using  this  material,  the  capital  involved  amounting 
to  $4,000,000.  Rochester  and  Brooklyn  in  New  York, 
Newark  in  New  Jersey,  and  Springfield  in  Massachu- 
setts are  the  chief  centres  of  this  manufacture,  Rochester 
being  said  to  have  the  three  best  plants  in  the  world,  and 
to  make  the  highest  grade  material. 

The  Colombian  port  of  Esmeraldas  owes  its  present  pros- 
perity, growth,  and  importance  to  the  thriving  trade  in 
vegetable  ivory,  of  which  the  annual  exports  now  amount 
to  6,000,000  kilograms  (13,200,000  pounds),  and  which 
yields  to  the  Colombian  Government  an  annual  revenue  of 
$487,000,  the  amount  of  the  export  duty  collected  on  the 
tagua  nuts.'^ 

The  provision  in  the  tariff  of  1897,  imposing  both  a  specific 
and  an  ad  valorem  duty  on  buttons  manufactured  out  of 
vegetable  ivory,  led  to  a  notable  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  this  material  imported  into  the  United  States.     Prior  to 

^Bulletin  of  the  Pan-American  Union,  June,  1914,  p.  987. 


284     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

this  time  the  bulk  of  the  vegetable  ivory  of  Panama,  Co- 
lombia, and  Ecuador  had  gone  to  Hamburg  to  be  worked  up 
into  buttons  by  German  manufacturers,  but  the  new  duty 
on  such  buttons  served  to  divert  the  supply  of  the  raw  mate- 
rial to  our  ports,  as  the  American  button  manufacturers 
were  now  able  to  compete  successfully  with  their  German 
rivals.  Ecuador  is  said  to  furnish  the  best  quality  of  nuts 
of  the  Phytelepha8  macrocarjHiy  the  "vegetable  ivory'*  of 
conmierce.* 

The  specific  gravity  of  vegetable  ivory  from  the  tagua 
nut,  popularly  called  Cabeza  de  Negro  (Negro's  head), 
taken  at  10^  centigrade,  has  been  given  as  1.376,  and  its 
constituents  are  stated  to  be  as  follows  rf 

Gum         6.73 

Legumin,  or  vegetable  casein 3.80 

Vegetable  albumen 0.73 

Ash 0.61 

Water 9.37 

Lignin 81.34 

102.58 

The  imports  into  the  United  States  of  vegetable  ivory  nuts 
for  button  manufacture  are  constantly  increasing.  The 
chief  sources  of  supply  are,  as  we  have  noted,  Colombia 
and  Ecuador,  the  last-named  country  producing  17,000,000 
pounds  of  the  29,000,000  imported  in  1913;  in  1912  the  total 
import  was  23,000,000  pounds;  while  in  1908  it  amounted 
to  but  14,500,000  pounds,  showing  an  increase  of  100  per 
cent,  from  1908  to  1913.  The  following  are  the  principal 
producing  ports  of  Ecuador  for  unshelled  nuts :  Esmeraldas, 
Manglarato,  Bahia,  Manta,  Cayo,  Puerto  Bolivar,  Macara, 

*Seientifio  American,  Supplement  for  December  88»  1912,  p.  409. 

tArthur  Cornell  in  Phil.  Mag.,  February.  1844,  p.  104,  as  cited  in  UingUt^a  Poi^Uck' 
nuches  Journal,  Vol.  92,  p.  79,  1844. 


VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION     285 

Machalilla,  and  Guayaquil;  shelled  nuts  come  from  Manta, 
Guayaquil,  Cayo,  Machalilla,  Manta,  Esmeraldas,  Macara, 
and  Puerto  Bolivar.  The  best  quality  of  tagua  is  secured  in 
Puerto  Bolivar  and  Macara,  and  is  shipi>ed  from  Guayaquil. 
The  best  and  soundest  nuts  are  those  picked  from  the  trees; 
those  which  have  fallen  off  and  are  collected  from  the  ground 
are  frequently  wormy.  The  weight  of  unshelled  tagua 
received  in  Bahia  in  1913  was  8,000,000  pounds,  but  the 
shelled  product  finally  exported  weighed  only  4,755,100 
pounds,  showing  a  loss  in  weight  for  shells  and  defective 
nuts  of  3,244,900.  The  worm-eaten  nuts  are  usually  weeded 
out  at  the  haciendas  before  the  product  is  sent  to  Guaya- 
quil, as  exporters  refuse  to  buy  them,  not  merely  because  of 
their  defective  condition,  but  also  on  account  of  the  risk 
that  they  will  infect  the  sound  nuts  if  packed  up  with  them. 
At  present  the  first  quality  of  tagua  is  sold  in  warehouses 
in  Ecuador  for  7  sucres  ($3.41)  for  100  pounds,  ordinary 
commercial  nuts  bringing  6  sucres  ($2.92)  for  100  pounds; 
rejected  nuts  could  be  had  as  low  as  1  sucre  (48.7  cents) 
for  100  poimds.  In  each  case  the  cost  is  increased  by  $1.70 
for  export  duty  and  shipping  expenses.  One  shelling 
machine  is  at  work  in  the  Province  of  Manavi,  and  there  are 
several  others  in  operation  in  various  parts  of  Ecuador. 
An  important  recent  foundation  is  the  Ecuadorian  Indus- 
trial Company  of  New  York,  said  to  owe  its  organization 
to  a  former  United  States  minister  to  Ecuador.  This  com- 
pany will  install  a  plant  in  Manta  for  shelling  the  nuts  and 
^ving  the  kernels  the  first  rough  shaping  for  button  manu- 
facture, thus  saving  the  freight  charge  on  superfluous  ma- 
larial.* 

The  extensive  use  of  vegetable  ivory  is  shown  by  the 
arge  imports  of  this  material  into  the  United  States  from 

'H^onBid-General  Frederick  W.  Goding  of  Guayaquil,  "Vegetable  Ivory  Exports  from 
Bcuador/'  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reporti. 


286     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

1884  to  1911  inclusive,  which  are  given  here  from  official 
figures: 


TKAB 

WnaHT  IN  POCMM 

▼ALDB 

1884 

7,761,906 

$  229.630 

1885 

8,301.421 

194,046 

1886 

8,064.989 

157,362 

1887 

5.776,515 

144,663 

1888 

7.051.664 

156,533 

1889 

5.776.480 

96,605 

1890 

5.039.473 

61,477 

1891 

7.178.144 

76,837 

1892 

8.552.976 

114,753 

189S 

15.195.565 

275,282 

1894 

7.220.799 

101,397 

1895 

8.050.128 

889,437 

1896 

8.052.275 

80,642 

1897 

4.445,100 

44,618 

1898 

15.211,709 

157,275 

1899 

8.815,075 

88,479 

1900 

16.086,389 

243,548 

1901 

13,533,821 

179,735 

1902 

14,679,215 

165,489 

190S 

17,195,948 

196,246 

1904 

15,740,702 

229,944 

1905 

19,678,913 

410,883 

1906 

22,068,290 

516,435 

1907 

16,619,075 

467,100 

1908 

14,536,470 

376,021 

1909 

20,001,094 

608,684 

1910 

27,066,716 

1,104,924 

1911 

20,782,911 

771,970 

lis  .  .  . 

348,433,695 

$7,340,015 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  the  import 
vegetable  ivory  was  28,983,791  pounds,  having  a  value 
$970,978;  for  the  year  ending  Jime  30, 1914,  the  correspon 


VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION    287 

ing  figures  are  26J36,148  pounds  and  $883,055.  The 
average  for  these  years  exceeds  the  returns  for  any  previous 
year  in  weight,  although  not  equalling  in  value  the  figures 
for  the  calendar  year  1910. 

Weight  in  pounds  and  value  in  dollars  of  vegetable  ivory 
imported  into  Great  Britain,  according  to  the  countries 
whence  consigned: 


WEIGHT 

1906  1907  1908  1909  1910 

Germany         .      .        358,600     359,600     557,600  434,400     454,800 

Colombia         .      .        29£,600      281,800     276,000  18,000      143,300 

Ecuador           .      .     1,045,600  1,395,100  1,816,900  1,042,300  1,429,200 

Other  for'n  countries   341,300     224,900     226,800  370,900     223,700 

Total  from  foreign 

countries      .      2,038,100  2,261,400  2,877,300  1,865,600  2,251,000 
Total  from  British 

possessions  235,900       60,000  400         1,200       80,900 

Grand  toUl      2,274,000  2,321,400  2,877,700  1,866,800  2,331,900 


VALUE 

1906          1907          1908  1909          1910 

Germany     ....     $15,181     $22,247    $26,811  $25,361     $27,029 

Colombia    ....       10,316        7,901       10,045  655        9,598 

Ecuador      ....       41,497      61,983      75,733  65,917      99,377 

Other  foreign  countries      15,350      10,282        9,108  19,032      14,041 

Total     from     foreign 

countries       .      .     $82,344  $102,413  $121,697  $110,965  $150,045 
Total     from     British 

possessions    .      .         4,996        2,328             10  90        4,651 

Grand  total  .      .     $87,340  $104,741  $121,707  $111,055  $154,696 


288      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Total  imports  of  vegetable  ivory  into  Great  Britain  from 
1896  to  1910  inclusive: 


TBAB 

WBiaRT  IN  POniMM 

VALOB  IN  OOIXABS 

1896 

3,012.900 

1897 

1.041,200 

1898 

1.271.600 

1899 

1.718.800 

1900 

1.S97.200 

1901 

1,621.100 

1902 

709.600 

1903 

1.952.500 

1904 

2.346,700 

1905 

070.600 

1906 

2.274.000 

(87.340 

1907 

2.321.400 

104,741 

1908 

2,877,700 

121,707 

1909 

1.866.800 

111.055 

1910 

2,331.900 

154,696 

The  growing  activity  of  the  German  button-making  in- 
dustry has  led  to  the  importation  on  a  large  scale  of  the 
ivory  nut  into  Germany,  the  following  figiures  being  offici- 
ally given : 

1011 14,349  tons 

1912 16,579 

1913 20,299 


Prices  have,  of  course,  varied  according  to  the  supply 
of  the  material  and  the  prosperity  of  the  industry.  The 
highest  figures  were  reached  in  the  latter  part  of  1912  and 
the  early  part  of  1913,  a  reaction  due  to  increased  supply 
and  changes  of  fashion  having  set  in  the  latter  part  of  191S. 
For  purposes  of  comparison  we  give  here  the  quotations 
for  the  various  grades  of  material  in  December,  1912,  and 


1912 

1013 

.     $4.76-5.24 

$3.81-4.76 

5.95-6.19 

4.64-5.47 

6.19-6.90 

4.52-5.00 

4.28-5.95 

8.57-5.24 

5.24-5.71 

3.33-3.81 

6.66-6.90 

6.19-6.66 

9.04-9.28 

5.00-5.36 

VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION     289 

December,  1913,  the  prices  all  referring  to  50-kilo  lots, 
livalent  to  110.23  pounds:* 

QRAOB  OF  IVORY  NUTB 

Unshelled: 

Guayaquils  .... 

Esmeraldas  .... 

Tumacos 

Sabinallas  .... 

Cartagenas  .... 
Shelled: 

Guayaquils  ....  

Cartagenas 9.04-9.28  5.00-5.36  L 

i  process  of  making  a  substitute  for  ivory  from  rubber 
J  invented  many  years  ago,  by  Frank  Marquand,  of 
bway,  N.  J.  Two  pounds  of  pure  rubber  were  to  be 
ated  with  thirty-two  pounds  of  chloroform ;  as  soon  as  the 
►her  had  dissolved  it  was  to  be  saturated  with  ammonia- 
.  When  it  had  thus  been  thoroughly  bleached,  the 
ition  was  to  be  placed  in  a  vessel,  hot  .water  being  added, 
1  the  material  stirred  about  until  the  bleaching  agents 
I  been  entirely  removed.  The  temperature  might  be 
\ed  to  85°  C,  so  as  to  evaporate  the  chloroform.  The 
thery  material  to  which  the  rubber  had  been  reduced  was 
be  compressed  and  dried;  and  then  again  treated  with  a 
le  chloroform  until  it  became  a  thick  paste.  This  was 
n  to  be  mixed  with  a  powder  of  zinc  phosphate  or  hy- 
te,  causing  it  to  become  mealy,  when  it  was  to  be  pressed 
>  molds,  which  were  to  be  heated  so  as  to  remove  the 
erfluous  chloroform.  As  soon  as  the  mass  was  taken 
n  the  molds  it  could  be  worked  in  the  lathe,  and  closely 
ambled   ivory.     By   the   addition   of  certain   colouring 

onsul-General  Robert  P.  Skiimer  of  Berlin,  "German  Trade  in  Button-making 
trials,"  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  p.  794;  supplementing  report  published 
uy6,1914. 


i 


290     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

matter,  a  pearly  or  coralline  api>earance  could  be  imparted 
to  this  artificial  product.* 

As  a  substitute  for  ivory  a  composition  containing  milk 
as  one  of  the  ingredients  has  been  experimented  with,  the 
name  bestowed  upon  it,  '"Galalith,"  suggesting  the  half- 
mythical  galactite,  or  "milk-stone,"  of  olden  time.  The 
great  world  war  operating  to  cut  ofiF  much  of  the  usual  sup- 
ply of  ivory  and  the  fear  that,  even  under  normal  conditions, 
the  wholesale  slaughter  of  elephants  would  sooner  or  later 
render  genuine  ivory  a  very  scarce  article,  has  served  to 
draw  attention  toward  any  possibly  satisfactory  substitute, 
and  the  new  milk-containing  composition  has  been  favour- 
ably received  in  some  quarters. 

An  efiFective  method  of  distinguishing  genuine  ivory 
from  its  vegetable  substitute  has  been  recommended.  This 
is  to  treat  a  sample  piece  of  the  material  to  be  tested  for 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid.  The  whiteness  of  genuine  ivory  remains  unaffected 
by  this  treatment,  while  the  vegetable  ivory,  derived  from 
the  Phytelephus  macrocarpa,  becomes  rose-tinted.  It  can, 
however,  readily  be  restored  to  its  original  hue  if  washed 
with  water,  t 

The  substance  named  celluloid,  composed  of  cellulose  or 
vegetable  fibre  reduced  by  acids  to  gun  cotton,  camphor 
being  then  added,  is  the  most  conmionly  used  substitute 
for  ivory.  After  the  addition  of  the  camphor  and  any 
required  colouring  matter,  the  resultant  mixture  is  con- 
densed in  cylinders,  and  finally  moulded  by  heat  and  pres- 
sure into  the  various  desired  forms,  whether  useful  or 
ornamental.  Lacking  as  it  does  all  the  finish  and  delicacj^ 
of  ivory,  even  in  its  external  api>earance,  the  camphorv 
odour  pervading  celluloid  and  its  inflammabiUty  make  L 

^Chemical  News,  October,  1866,  p.  19. 

^8cieTU\fic  American,  Supplement  No.  1235,  p.  10800;  September  2,  1800. 


VEGETABLE    AND    IMITATION    291 

in  many  ways  a  very  poor  substitute.  Nevertheless,  where 
merely  a  general  superficial  effect  is  desired,  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  it  on  account  of  its  cheapness. 

A  marked  increase  in  the  imports  of  celluloid  is  indicated 
by  the  customs  returns  for  the  fiscal  years  1913  and  1914, 
as  given  below: 

lOlS  1014 

POX7NDB         VALUE         POX7NDB         TALUB 

In  blocks,  sheets,  rods,  tubes, 
or  other  forms,  not  polished, 
and  not  made  up  into  fin- 
ished or  partly  finished  ar- 
ticles      22,805  $18,838    $50,270 

Polished  wholly  or  in  part,  or 
in  finished  or  partly  finished 
articles 125,006  267,502    521,175 

Thus  the  imports  of  polished  and  finished  collodion  were 
nearly  twice  as  much  in  the  fiscal  year  1914  as  in  that  of 
1913,  and  the  unpolished  material  showed  an  increase  of 
more  than  200  per  cent.  Owing  to  the  application  for  a 
great  part  of  1913-1914  of  an  ad  valorem  instead  of  a 
specific  duty  under  the  provisions  of  the  new  tariff,  the 
total  weight  for  1913-1914  is  not  ascertainable. 


CHAPTER    IX 
NARWHAL  HORNS,  WALRUS  TUSKS.    ETC. 

The  horn  of  the  narwhal  was  regarded  as  an  object  of 
great  value  in  Viking  times,  partly  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty and  danger  experienced  in  obtaining  it,  and  i>artly 
for  its  beautiful  texture  when  carved.  The  Vikings  deco- 
rated the  prows  of  their  war  galleys  with  these  horns,  had 
them  carved  into  sword  and  dagger-hilts,  and  also  set  them 
on  staffs  and  sceptres.  Their  wives  wore  hair-pins  made  out 
of  this  material,  and  curiously  wrought  charms,  which  were 
considered  talismans  of  good  luck  both  in  love  and  war. 

The  ancient  Chinese,  apart  from  a  superstitious  belief 
in  the  potency  of  these  ''horns"  against  the  machinations 
of  evil  spirits,  placed  a  high  value  upon  them  as  medicinal 
agents.  For  this  use  they  were  reduced  to  a  powder  and 
administered  to  the  patient  in  water  or  some  other  liquid. 
The  Chinese  also  carved  them  into  amulets  or  charms  of  the 
God  of  Good  Luck,  believing  that  the  wearer  of  such  a  charm 
would  not  only  be  protected  from  danger,  but  would  be  fortu- 
nate in  all  his  undertakings  and  would  enjoy  good  health 
and  long  life.  Unfortunately  for  those  who  wish  to  have  a 
share  of  this  good  fortime,  the  narwhal  is  now  almost  ex- 
tinct, and  is  only  rarely  found  in  the  Arctic  Seas. 

The  coronation  chair  of  the  kings  of  Denmark,  preserved 
in  the  great  banqueting  hall  or  Riddersaal,  of  Rosenborg 
Castle,  is  formed  to  a  great  extent  of  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal. 
It  was  doubtless  believed  that  the  presence  of  this  material. 


)f'<fr\ 

11 .'  'Ii"'' 

.^^ 

, 
i 

ijir% 

^m 

THK    OANISH    rOilOXATlOX    CHAIR 
IX      ROSENBORG      CASTLE. 
C  O  P  K  N  H  A  <;  E  X ,     D  K  X  MARK 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  293 

to  which  great  talismanic  virtues  were  ascribed,  would  help 
to  assure  for  the  new  king  a  happy  and  glorious  reign. 
Though  now  of  comparatively  little  value,  these  narwhal's 
tusks  were,  a  few  centuries  ago,  very  costly,  and  only  the 
rich  could  afford  to  buy  them.* 

The  treasury  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis  near  Paris  guarded 
as  one  of  its  chief  ornaments  a  "unicorn's  horn,''  measuring 
6  ft.  7  in.  in  length  and  weighing  25  marcs  3  ounces,  or  about 
13  pounds.  A  valuation  of  6,090  crowns  ($13,500)  was  put 
upon  this  by  those  who  made  the  inventory  of  1534.t  The 
weight  indicates  that  this  was  a  narwhal's  tusk  and  not 
the  elephant's  tusk  said  to  have  been  bestowed  upon  Charle- 
magne by  Haroun  al  Rashid  at  the  time  the  latter  sent  an 
embassy  bearing  a  number  of  valuable  gifts  to  Charlemagne, 
among  which  was  a  live  elephant.J 

Among  Anne  de  Bretagne's  treasures  was  a  unicorn's  horn 
having  a  silver-gilt  setting  at  either  end.  It  measured  6 
ft.  in  length  and  weighed  21 J  marcs,  or  about  llf  pounds 
avoirdupois;  hence  this  was  evidently  one  of  the  narwhal 
tusks  so  greatly  prized  in  the  olden  time.  To  preserve  it 
from  possible  injury  the  "horn"  was  enclosed  in  a  leather 
case  provided  with  lock  and  key,  and  this  case  in  turn  was 
securely  locked  up  in  a  wooden  coffer.** 

We  have  a  detailed  description  of  a  very  fine  "unicorn's 
bom*'  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  Strassburg  Cathedral  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  This  description  was  given  to  the 
celebrated  naturalist  Conrad  Gesner  by  his  friend  Nicholas 

^Murray,  "A  Handbook  for  Travellers; **  Denmark,  4th  ed.,  London,  1875»  p.  58. 

tBibL  Nat.  MS.  fr.  18766;  Fol.  27  of  transcript  in  writer's  library. 

JiLydekker  thinks  this  was  an  elephant  tusk;  but  the  light  weight  is  against  this  view. 
He  is  mistaken  in  stating  that  Eginhard  relates  the  gift  of  an  elephant's  tusk  to  Charle- 
magne by  Haroun  al  Rashid;  it  was  a  live  elephant  that  was  sent.  However,  as  this  ani- 
nial  died  a  few  years  later,  we  may  suppose  that  the  tusks  were  preserved  somewhere. 
R.  Lydekker,  "Manunoth  Ivory,"  Report  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  1899,  p.  S64. 

^Inventaire  d'Anne  de  Bretagne,  1406,  Bibl.  Nat.  MS.  fransais  22dS5.  Fol.  53.  Trans- 
script  in  author's  library  from  collection  of  M.  E.  Molinier. 


294     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Grerbel.  The  "horn**  when  placed  upright  would  have  at- 
tained the  height  of  a  tall  man,  had  the  point  not  been  broken 
off.  This  act  of  vandalism  was  chargeable  to  one  of  the  cus- 
todians, who  had  learned  that  this  part  was  especially  valua- 
ble as  an  antidote  for  poisons  and  as  a  remedial  agent  against 
the  plague.  When  the  mutilation  was  discovered  the  cus- 
todian was  of  course  discharged,  and  it  was  expressly  decreed 
that  no  one  of  his  family  should  ever  be  entrusted  with  a  share 
in  the  custody  of  the  cathedral  treasures.  Otherwise,  this 
"'  horn ''  was  in  perfect  condition  and  displayed  the  spiral  lines 
characteristic  of  the  narwhal  tusk;  similar  to  those  in  ^^St. 
Blaise's  Candles,"  says  Gerbel.  Of  the  weight  he  simply 
remarks  that  it  was  "  greater  than  one  would  dare  believe  " — 
a  rather  vague  statement;  its  circumference  is  indicated  by 
the  declaration  that  he  could  just  span  it  with  his  right  hand. 
The  colour  was  that  of  old  ivory,  a  yellowish  white.  To 
whom  the  cathedral  was  indebted  for  this  gift  the  informant 
could  not  tell.* 

Gesner  also  mentions  two  of  these  "horns"  of  the  type 
used  at  royal  banquets  to  test  the  viands  for  the  presence  of 
poison.  According  to  his  version  they  were  laid  upon  the 
table  and  were  believed  to  reveal  the  poison  by  immediately 
becoming  covered  with  abimdant  moisture.  He  notes  two 
of  these  horns,  each  measuring  two  cubits  in  length,  and 
having  a  circumference  equal  to  that  of  an  arm.  One  of 
them  was  given  to  Sultan  Solyman  the  Magnificent  by  the 
Venetian  Senate,  and  the  other  was  presented  to  the  King  of 
France  by  Poi>e  Clement  VII,  this  latter  had  the  point  taken 
off  and  was  inserted  in  a  silver  base.  Gresner  neither  ven- 
tures to  affirm  nor  deny  the  miraculous  qualities  of  the  horns, 
merely  giving  the  popular  belief  as  it  was  commonly  ac- 
cepted.!   He  adds  that  when  the  French  spoiled  Vercellse,  in 

*Conradi  GresDeri*  "Historia  animalium,"  Francoforti,  1602,  Lib.  I,  de  quadruped, 
viviparu,  p.  693.      flbid. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  296 

1553,  they  were  said  to  have  carried  off  a  unicorn's  horn  valued 
at  80,000  ducats  as  a  gift  to  their  sovereign,  Henri  II.     In  all, 
this  writer  knew  of  about  a  score  of  these  rarities  in  Europe. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  four  of  these  narwhal  tusks  were 
preserved  in  Plessenburg,  in  Bavaria,  as  great  rarities.     One 
of  these  had  been  accepted  by  a  Markgrave  of  Bavaria  as  a 
settlement  of  a  heavy  debt  due  from  Charles  VI  of  Germany, 
and  for  the  largest  si>ecimen  the  Venetians  had  vainly  ofiFered, 
in  1559,  the  immense  sum  of  30,000  sequins.     Another  was 
used  as  a  remedial  agent,  but  only  for  members  of  the  reign- 
ing family;  a  small  section  being  cut  off  to  serve  as  an  amulet. 
A  narwhal's  tusk  in  the  collection  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
at  Dresden,  was  valued  at  100,000  thalers.* 

The  extraordinary  virtues  supposed  to  be  possessed  by 
** unicorn's  horns"  as  detectors  of  poisons  rendered  them  of 
exceptional  value  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
xvhen  poisoning  was  so  often  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  ridding 
tJie  world  of  inconvenient  rivals.     Charles  VI  of  France 
owned  a  piece  3  ft.  long  in  1399,  and  in  1420  among  the 
"treasures   of   the   Dukes   of   Burgundy    was    a    horn    7j 
:ft.   in   length,   and   as   we  have  seen,   in   1498,  Anne  de 
Bretagne   had   one  6  ft.  long.     A   unicorn's   horn   stolen 
:from  the  house  of  Pietro  de'  Medici  in  Florence,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  valued  at  from  6,000  to 
7,000  ducats.     As  it  was  so  inimical  to  poison,  a  drinking- 
vessel  made  of  this  material  was  of  course  considered  a  great 
treasufe.     A  specimen  is  noted  in  the  Londesborough  Col- 
lection, and  bears  inscribed  beneath  it  the  name  of  the 
Hungarian  hero-king  Hunyadi  Janos,  and  the  date  1444.t 

^Havorka  and  Kronfeld,  "  Vergleichende  VoUumediziii/*  Stuttgart,  1908.  Vol.  I.  p.  823. 

fMiflcellanea  graphica:  representations  of  ancient,  medieval,  and  Renaissance  remains  in 
the  possession  of  Lord  Ix>nde8borough,  introd.  by  Thomas  Wright,  London,  1857,  pp.  20, 
27  (woodcut  of  goblet  on  p.  27).  On  PI.  IV  is  figured  (}  nat.  size)  an  ivory  "Main  de 
Justice"  of  Louis  XII  of  France.  On  the  third  finger  of  the  hand  proper  is  a  ring  set 
with  a  small  pearl. 


296      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Windsor  Castle  could  boast,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
possession  of  an  exceptionally  fine  unicorn's  horn,  of  which 
more  than  one  description  has  been  preserved  for  us.  That 
of  Hentzner,  the  tutor  of  a  young  German  nobleman  who 
made  the  English  tour  in  1598,  is  brief  but  significant: 
"  We  were  shown  here  at  Windsor  Castle  among  other  Things 
the  Horn  of  a  Unicom,  of  above  eight  Spans  and  an  Half  in 
Length,  valued  at  above  £10,000/'*  An  English  authority 
gives  a  fuller  description,  noting  the  special  conformation 
of  this  horn,  and  likening  it  in  this  respect  to  that  said  to 
have  been  given  by  Haroun  al  Rashid  to  Charlemagne  and 
preserved  in  the  treasury  of  St.  Denis.  It  was  "  seven  great 
feet  in  length,'*  and  was  said  to  weigh  thirteen  pounds, 
although  when  taken  in  the  hands  it  seemed  to  be  heavier. 
In  form  and  appearance  it  suggested  an  immense  wax 
candle.  Of  the  spiral  twists  this  writer  says:  "The  splents 
of  the  spire  are  smooth  and  not  deep,  being  for  the  most  part 
like  unto  the  wreathing  turnings  of  snailes,  or  the  revolutions 
or  windings  of  woodbine  ....  but  they  proceed  from 
the  right  hande  toward  the  left,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
horn,  even  unto  the  very  ende."t 

That  the  virtues  of  these  substances  were  often  regularly 
tested  appears  from  this  passage  in  De  Boot's  treatise : 

"I  saw  a  horn  in  the  possession  of  Philibert  de  Bois,  a 
merchant  of  Prague,  who  had  received  it  from  the  envoy  of 
the  Duke  of  Moscow  at  Prague  as  security  for  a  loan  of 
one  thousand  ducats.  However,  as  this  horn  was  not  found 
to  have  any  virtue  against  poison,  the  gem-dealers  declared 
it  was  not  a  unicorn's  horn,  although  it  bore  all  the  marks 
of  being  one.  "J 

**'A  journey  into  England,  by  Paul  Hentmer,  in  the  year  MDXCVm*';  trans,  in 
Dodaley's  "Fugitive  Pieces/'  London,  1765,  Vol.  II,  p.  293. 

fTopsell,  "History  of  foure-footed  beastes,"  London,  1607,  dted  in  Phipaon  "The  Animal 
lore  of  Shakespeare's  Time,"  London,  1888,  pp.  456,  457. 

tLapidum  et  gemmanun  lustoria.  Lug.  Bat.,  1636,  p.  435. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  297 

We  are  told  that  in  1593  the  physicians  of  Augsburg 
tested  the  virtues  of  one  of  the  horns  as  an  antidote  for 
poisons  in  the  ease  of  a  child,  and  they  also  experimented 
with  kittens  and  pigeons.  A  memorial  relating  to  these 
experiments  was  drawn  up  and  signed  by  the  physicians 
present,  the  results  not  being  very  conclusive.  Valentinus 
relates  this,  and  adds  that  he,  himself,  would  hesitate  to 
make  any  such  experiments  on  a  human  being,  trusting 
blindly  to  the  powers  of  the  horn.* 

Teeth  or  horns  that  were  found  buried  in  the  earth  were 

sometimes  called  buried  unicorn,  or  fossil  unicorn.     They 

appeared  like  the  bones  of  men  or  animals,  or  like  teeth 

or  horns,  being  brittle,  light,  and  porous,  with  an  earthy 

flavour,  yellowish  gray  or  brown  in  colour,  and  of  various 

dimensions.      Frequently  they  were  hollow  within,  or  else 

filled  with  a  soft  greasy  earth ;  they  were  found  in  the  Hartz 

Alountains,  in  Silesia,  in  the  Palatinate,  and  in  Wurtemberg. 

The  popular  belief  was  that  this  material  represented  the 

l>ones  of  animals  or  giants,  which  in  the  time  of  the  Deluge 

floated  away  and  became  petrified  in  the  earth.f 

The  great  demand  for  these  precious  "horns'*  appears  to 
liave  been  satisfied  by  quite  an  abundant  supply,  for  a  writer 
of  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  treating  of  this 
%ype,  asks: 

''If  it  be  so  rare,  whence  come  so  many  hundreds  of  horns 

"^srhich  are  found  here  and  there,  and  are  in  daily  use.'^     Not  to 

speak  of  unicorn's  horns  such  as  appear  in  the  Royal  Treas- 

xiry  at  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  in  Copenhagen,  in  the  Castle 

<;hurch  at  Dresden,  in  the  Museum  there,  and  in  other  places, 

"where  they  are  preserved  in  costly  cases  and  susi>ended  by 

golden  chains;  almost  every  druggist  and  apothecary  can 

*Valeiitini,  "Museum  museonim,  oder  Vollstllndige  Schau-BUhne/*  Franckfurt  am 
Mayn.  1714,  Bk.  m,  cap.  SO,  $4.  p.  488. 

fValentiiu,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  Ill,  cap.  SO,  Jff,  p.  488. 


298      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

show  us  one  or  more.  They  have  now  become  so  common 
that  specimens  which  were  formerly  valued  at  many  thou- 
sand thalers  can  now  be  bought  for  a  few  dozen  thalers. 
Wherefore  it  is  entirely  false  to  suppose  that  they  can  come 
from  so  rare  a  creature,  which  is  simply  a  product  of  the 
imagination  and  is  therefore  so  variously  described  by 
learned  and  unlearned  alike." 

The  tusk  of  the  narwhal  {Monodon  monoceros)  is  only 
found  in  the  male  of  the  species.  While  in  general  there  is 
but  a  single  tusk,  on  the  left  side,  it  happens  occasionally, 
though  rarely,  that  there  are  two,  one  on  the  left  and  the 
other  on  the  right  side.  Their  length  is  sometimes  more 
than  half  that  of  the  body  of  the  animal  itself,  and  a  pecu- 
liarity distinguishing  these  tusks  from  those  of  the  elephant 
is  the  fact  that  the  central  cavity  is  prolonged  up  to  the  end, 
so  that  one  can  look  through  them  as  through  a  funnel. 
The  sides  show  the  wonderfully  beautiful  spiral  structure 
that  makes  up  the  tusk  when  viewed  from  within  or  without. 

The  earliest  known  mention  of  the  unicorn  appears  in  the 
Indika  of  Ctesias  of  Knidos,  who  was  for  seventeen  years, 
from  416  to  398  B.  C,  the  court  physician  of  the  Persian 
monarchs,  Darius  H  and  his  successor,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon. 
The  Indian  unicorn  which  he  describes,  or  attempts  to  de- 
scribe, is  most  probably  the  rhinoceros,  although  so  many 
heterogeneous  elements  are  grouped  together  that  the  attri- 
bution cannot  well  be  certain.  One  thing,  however,  is 
interesting  to  note,  namely,  that  even  at  this  early  time  the 
horns  were  believed  to  possess  powers  analogous  to  those 
they  were  credited  with  in  medieval  times.  Of  this  Ctesias 
writes:*  "These  horns  are  made  into  drinking-cups,  and 
such  as  drink  from  them  are  attacked  neither  by  convulsions 
nor  by  the  sacred  disease  [epilepsy].  Nay,  they  are  not  even 
afifected  by  poisons,  if  either  before  or  after  taking  them  they 

^McCrindie,  "  Andent  India  as  Described  by  Ktesias  the  Knidian,*'  London,  1882»  p.  08. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  «99 

drink  from  these  cups  wine,  water,  or  anything  else/'  The 
animals  themselves  are  described  by  Ctesias  as  "'wild  asses 
as  large  as  horses."  The  head  was  of  a  dark  red  colour,  the 
eyes  blue,  and  the  rest  of  the  body  white.  The  single  horn 
projected  from  the  forehead  and  was  about  one  cubit  in 
Length;  it  was  pure  white  until  toward  the  middle,  where  it 
became  black,  and  finally  tapered  off  to  a  sharp  point  which 
viras  of  a  flaming  crimson.  Whether  this  account  is  purely 
Fantastic  or  may  have  been  based  upon  the  observation  of 
some  artificially  coloured  horns  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
Et  has  been  conjectured  by  some  that  Ctesias  was  influenced 
in  his  account  of  the  unicorn  by  the  appearance  of  certain 
Persian'  sculptures  where  an  ibex  is  shown  with  apparently  a 
single  horn,  although  this  merely  signifies  that  the  artist 
figured  the  animal  in  profile,  where  one  horn  was  directly 
l>ehind  the  other,  and  hence  not  visible. 

However,  the  details  given  by  this  writer  as  to  the  method 
of  hunting  the  unicorns  and  the  definite  character  of  his 
statements,  in  spite  of  certain  obvious  errors  and  exaggera- 
tions, make  it  more  probable  that  the  animal  in  question 
"was  really  the  rhinoceros.     Of  the  hunting  he  says:  "These 
animals  can  only  be  caught     .     .     •    when  they  lead  their 
little  foals  to  the  pastures  in  which  they  roam.     They  are 
then  hounded  in  on  all  sides  by  a  vast  number  of  hunters 
mounted  on  horseback,  and  being  unwilling  to  escape  while 
leaving  their  young  to  perish,  stand  their  ground  and  fight, 
and  by  butting  with  their  horns  and  knocking  and  biting, 
kill  many  horses  and  men.     But  they  are  in  the  end  taken 
pierced  to  death  with  arrows  and  spears,  for  to  take  them 
alive  is  in  no  way  possible.*'* 

Marco  Polo's  unicorns  were  unquestionably  rhinoceroses. 
He  saw,  or  heard  of  them,  in  Burma  and  Sumatra,  and  says 
they  were  really  as  big  as  elephants,  with  a  black  and  very 

♦IWd^  p.  «7. 


300     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

thick  horn  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  he  continues: 
""  'Tis  a  passing  ugly  beast  to  look  upon,  and  is  not  in  the 
least  like  that  which  our  stories  tell  of  as  being  caught  in  the 
lap  of  a  virgin,  in  fact,  it  is  altogether  different  from  what  we 
fancied."*  The  learned  editor  of  Marco  Polo,  CoL  Henry 
Yule,  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  rhinoceros  horn 
and  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal  were  confused  at  a  very  early 
date,  for  iElian,  while  giving  for  the  unicorns  a  native  name 
which  appears  to  designate  the  rhinoceros,  describes  the  horn 
as  not  straight  but  twisted,  as  is  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal.f 

A  Latin  work  written  between  1230  and  1244  by  Thomas 
de  Cantimpr^  (bom  1201  at  Leuwis  near  Brussels),  a  pupil 
of  the  famous  Albertus  Magnus,  gives  some  curious  par- 
ticulars illustrating  the  ideas  prevailing  at  that  period 
regarding  the  whale,  which  was  evidently  confused  to  a 
certain  extent  with  the  narwhal.  The  Latin  original  of 
the  book  has  never  been  printed,  but  there  is  an  old  Ger- 
man version  by  Konrad  von  Megenberg  (bom  1309)  which 
faithfully  renders  the  text;  this  runs  in  part  as  follows: J 

"  Cete  [cetis]  is  a  whale.  This  is  the  largest  of  all  fishes, 
as  Isidorus  says.  When  young  it  has  black  teeth,  which 
become  white  with  age,  and  it  has  a  bone  or  horn  on  the 
forehead.  Some  whales  are  so  big  that  when  seen  from 
afar  they  seem  like  islands  or  groves,  or  resemble  great 
hills.  The  whale  heaps  a  thick  coating  of  earth  upon  its 
back,  so  that  when  seamen  are  driven  by  stress  of  weather 
upon  this  earth,  they  imagine  it  to  be  an  island  and  that 
they  have  come  to  land.  Rejoiced  at  this  they  let  down  the 
sails,  drop  their  anchor  in  the  water,  build  a  fire  upon  the 
earth  and  seek  to  enjoy  a  little  rest.     As  soon,  however, 

**'The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,'*  trans,  and  ed.  by  Col.  Henry  Yuk,  8d  ed.  London,  1875. 
Vol.  II.  pp.  89.  «d5.  266. 

tibid..  p.  273. 

{"Das  buch  der  Natur  von  Konrad  von  Megenberg."  ed.  by  Dr.  Frans  PfeifiFer,  Stutt- 
gart, 1861.  p.  247. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  301 

as  the  whale  feels  the  heat  of  the  fire,  it  becomes  enraged 
and  dives  beneath  the  water,  bearing  down  to  the  depths 
both  ship  and  sailors.  Although  it  is  the  biggest  of  all 
fishes,  the  whale  has  a  small  gullet,  and  hence  only  devours 
the  little  fish.  These  he  entices  to  him  by  the  sweet  odour 
of  the  breath  which  comes  from  his  mouth,  and  then  swal- 
lows them  down.'* 

The  Italian  traveller,  Ludovico  Barthema,  claims  to  have 
seen  two  live  unicorns  in  Mecca,  when  he  visited  that  city 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  gives  a  most 
conscientious  description  of  their  appearance.  The  body 
of  the  elder  of  the  two  animals  resembled  that  of  a  colt 
thirty  months  old  and  had  a  horn  "three  braccia'*  in  length 
(about  6  ft.)  projecting  from  its  forehead;  the  horn  of  the 
younger  animal,  about  the  size  of  a  yearling  colt,  was  about 
16  in.  long.  Both  animals  were  of  dark-bay  colour,  and 
their  heads  were  like  those  of  stags;  the  neck  was  not  very 
long  and  some  short  hair  hung  down  on  one  side.  The  legs 
and  the  slightly  cloven  feet  were  like  those  of  the  goat. 
These  "very  remarkable  objects,"  as  Barthema  truly  char- 
acterizes them,  had  been  given  to  the  Sultan  of  Mecca  by 
'"a  King  of  Ethiopia,  that  is  by  a  Moorish  King,  as  the  finest 
things  that  could  be  found  in  the  world  at  the  present  day.  *'* 

The  two  forms  of  ivory  derived  respectively  from  the 
walrus  and  the  narwhal  appear  to  have  been  well  known  to 
the  Chinese  at  an  early  period.f  The  first  direct  evidence  of 
this  is  to  be  found  in  the  Sung  mo  lei  toeriy  "Historical  Mem- 
oranda Regarding  the  Kin  Dynasty,"  the  work  of  Hung 
Hao  (1090-1155  A.  D.),  where  this  ivory  is  designated  by 

♦"The  Travels  of  Ludovico  di  Varthema,"  tr.  by  G.  P.  Badger,  London,  1863,  p.  46; 
Hakluyt  Soc.  pub..  Vol.  XXXU. 

fFor  the  details  in  this  and  the  succeeding  paragraphs  we  are  indebted  to  the  valuable 
paper  by  Dr.  Berthold  Laufer,  entitled:  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Nar- 
whal Ivory,"  Oriental  Printing  Office,  Leyden,  1913,  fiS  pp.  A  reprint  from  the  T*oung 
Pao,  Vol.  XIV. 


302     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  Khitan  name  ku-tu-si.  It  is  said  to  be  veined  like 
(elephant)  ivory,  and  to  be  of  a  yellow  colour;  its  chief  use 
was  for  sword-hilts  or  knife-handles;  and  Hung  Hao  denom- 
inates it  "a  priceless  jewel."  In  an  ancient  glossary  of 
Khitan  words  composed  in  the  Liao  period  (907-1125  A.  D,) 
this  ku'tu-si  is  defined  as  ""the  horn  of  a  thousand  years*  old 
snake/'  and  this  definition  is  supplemented  by  a  statement 
of  T'ao  Tsung-i  in  his  **Cho  keng-lu,"  published  in  1366,  that 
it  is  ''the  horn  of  a  large  snake,  and  as  it  is  poisonous  by 
nature,  it  can  counteract  all  poisons,  for  poison  is  treated 
with  poison."  This  fancy  indicates  a  transference  to  the 
ku'tU'si  of  the  old  belief  touching  the  qualities  of  the  rhinoc- 
eros horn  as  an  antidote  to  poisons.  That  narwhal  ivory 
should  be  represented  as  derived  from  ''snakes'  horns"  is 
explained  as  a  fanciful,  half-poetic  notion  of  the  inland 
natives  who  worked  this  material  and  traded  it  with  the 
Chinese,  but  to  whom  it  had  been  brought  from  the  far- 
distant  north  and  who  had  no  clear  idea  of  what  a  narwhal 
really  was;  very  possibly  these  supposed  narwhal  tusks 
were  really  fossil  ivory  from  Siberia.  Ko  Hung,  a  Taoist 
writer  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.,  represents  the  special 
virtue  of  rhinoceros  horn  as  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  indis- 
criminate vegetable  diet  of  this  animal  some  poisonous  herbs 
were  included.  The  poison  was  attracted  to  the  horn, 
and  made  it  an  antidote  on  the  principle  that  like  cures 
like.* 

Two  important  passages  in  a  mineralogical  treatise  by  the 
Arabic  writer  Al-B6r(lnl  (973-1048  A.  D.)t  describmg  a 
product  called  in  Arabic  al-ckiUvrWy  are  referred  by  Doctor 
Laufer  to  this  ku'tu-si  (walrus  ivory).     Al-B6r(lnl  writes: 

^^It  originates  from  an  animal;  it  is  much  in  demand,  and 

*0p  cit.,  p.  11. 

tCited  by  E.  Wiedemaim  in  "Der  laUnu'*  Vol.  II,  pp.  845-858;  "Ueber  den  Wert  voQ 
EdeUteinen  bei  den  MiiBliinen." 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  303 

preserved  in  the  treasuries  among  the  Chinese,  who  assert 
that  it  is  a  desirable  article  because  the  approach  of  poison 
causes  it  to  exude.  It  is  said  to  be  the  bone  from  the  fore- 
head of  a  bull.  Its  best  quality  is  the  one  passing  from 
yellow  into  green;  next  comes  one  like  camphor,  then  the 
white  one,  then  one  coloured  like  the  sun,  then  one  passing 
into  dark  gray.  If  it  is  curved,  its  value  is  a  hundred  dtn&r 
at  a  weight  of  one  hundred  drams;  then  it  sinks  as  low  as 
one  dtn&r,  regardless  of  weight." 

In  another  passage  this  writer  states  that  the  ""bull" 
furnishing  this  horn  was  said  to  have  its  habitat  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Kirgiz,  northern  Turks.  The  "Bulgar"  brought 
from  the  northern  sea  teeth  of  a  fish  over  a  cubit  in  length, 
from  which  knife-handles  were  sawed  out.  If  a  whole  tooth 
were  not  available,  separate  pieces  were  joined  together 
to  form  the  handle.  That  the  material  used  was  not 
elephant  ivory  was  quite  evident,  as  in  most  cases  the  tooth 
constituting  the  handle  had  been  left  essentially  in  its  original 
form.  Some  of  the  knife-handles  even  found  their  way  to 
far-ofif  Mecca,  where  the  material  was  known  as  "white" 
ckiUvno,  and  so  prized  was  it  among  the  Egyptians  that  they 
were  willing  to  pay  "two  hundred  times  its  value"  for  it. 
Finally  the  writer  casts  doubt  on  the  assertion  that  the 
chiUvrWy  properly  so  called,  was  really  found  among  the 
Kirgiz,  and  thinks  that  it  also  was  the  main  portion  of  a 
tooth  or  horn.* 

The  first  definite  and  accurate  knowledge  of  walrus  ivory 
was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  bold  Norse  navigator,  Othere 
of  Helgeland,  Norway,  on  his  return  from  a  voyage  made  by 
him,  at  a  date  between  870  and  880  A.  D.,  around  North 
Cape  and  to  Perm.  The  Norse  captain  reported  the  results 
of  this  trip  to  King  Alfred  the  Great,  his  chief  object  being 

*Dr.  Berthold  Laufer,  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Narwhal  Ivory."  pp. 
1,  2.    Reprinted  from  the  T  oung  Pao,  Vol.  XIV. 


304      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

to  secure  horsevael  ("horsewhales**)  "which  have  m  their 
teeth  bones  of  great  price  and  excellence."* 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Scandinavian  saga  of 
Kroka,  the  crafty,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century,  makes  the 
statement  that  the  three  most  precious  things  that  Gunner, 
prefect  of  Greenland,  could  obtain  in  the  island,  when  he 
sought  to  propitiate  King  Harald  Hardraad  of  Norway,  in 
1050  A.  D.  by  the  bestowal  of  the  most  valuable  gifts  at 
his  disposal,  were  a  white  bear,  a  set  of  chessmen  carved  out 
of  walrus  ivory,  and  a  gold-inlaid  skull  of  a  walrus  with  the 
teeth  still  in  place,  f  A  curious  specimen  of  such  a  chessman 
in  the  British  Museum,  carved  from  this  kind  of  ivory, 
closely  resembles  the  pieces  of  a  nearly  complete  set  found 
in  1831  in  the  Scotch  Island  of  Lewis. 

Touching  the  use  of  walrus  ivory  in  the  Middle  Ages  it 
has  been  noted  that  in  northern  Europe,  in  Germany,  and 
in  the  Netherlands,  for  example,  while  elephant  ivory  was 
freely  and  principally  used  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies, a  large  proportion  of  the  carvings  executed  there 
during  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  were  of  walrus 

ivory.J 

In  "Hakluyt's  Voyages"  we  read  that  when  Jacques  Cartier 
discovered  the  Isle  of  Romea,  in  1534,  he  reported  the  finding 
there  of  "very  great  beasts"  as  large  as  men,  and  having 
"  two  great  teeth  in  their  mouths  like  unto  Elephant's  teeth." 
Hakluy t,  after  giving  the  Latin  names  haves  marini  and  vacc(B 
marincBy  says  they  were  called,  in  the  Russian  tongue, 
*'  morsses."  These  teeth  were  sold  in  England  "  to  the  combe 
and  knife-makers  at  8  groats  and  3  shillings  the  pound 
weight,"  while  elephant  ivory  only  brought  half  as  much; 

*Iii  the  first  chapter  of  King  Alfred*8  editioo  of  the  "De  Miseria  Mundi'*  of  Faulus 
Orofiius.    See  Laufer,  op.  cit.,  p.  25. 

tWilliam  Maakell,  "Ivories  Ancient  and  Medieval/*  London,  1875,  p.  80,  citing  a 
paper  read  before  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1832  by  Sir  Frederick  Madden. 

JM.  Digby  Wyatt,  **  Notices  on  Sculpture  in  Ivory,"  London,  1856,  pp.  10, 11. 


WHALEBONE  PLAQIK 

H.L):  ABHIT  1000  a.  U. 


CRUCIFIX  OF  PRIXCKSS  GUNHILDE 


WALRUS   IVORY  TAU-HEAD 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  305 

the  grain  of  tiiis  "  walrus  bone  "  was  in  his  estunation  "  some- 
what more  yellow  than  the  Ivorie."  A  Mr.  Alexander 
Woodson,  of  Bristol,  ^'my  old  friend,  an  excellent  mathema- 
tician and  a  skilful  Phisitian,"  showed  him  a  walrus  tooth  a 
half-yard  long,  and  assured  him  that  he  had  found  this 
material  to  be  ^^  as  soveraigne  against  poyson  as  any  Uni- 
come's  home/** 

The  name  walrus,  Dutch  waUruSy  has  the  same  significance 
as  the  chronological  prototype  in  Skandinavian,  rosmhvalr 
("horsewhale"),  only  the  order  of  the  two  elements  is  reversed. 
The  Latinized  form  rosmarus  is  from  the  same  source,  for  the 
early  French  settlers  in  Canada  it  was  "'la  b^te  k  grande 
dent,"  the  ''animal  with  the  great  tooth."  The  Russian 
name  morzh  furnishes  the  form  ^^ morse"  used  quite  often  in 
English  a  hundred  or  more  years  ago,  and  its  likeness  in  sound 
to  the  Latin  mors,  "death,"  induced  some  sixteenth-century 
writers  to  connect  it  with  this,  supposing  that  the  creature's 
dangerous  character  had  caused  the  bestowal  of  this  name.f 

As  far  back  as  the  third  century,  Solinus  (Polyhistor,  Chap. 
XXXV)  makes  mention  of  sword-hilts  made  by  the  Irish 
from  the  teeth  of  a  marine  animal,  perhaps  the  narwhal, 
which,  although  commonly  confining  itself  to  the  far  north, 
has  been  occasionally,  though  rarely,  met  with  to  the  south- 
ward, one  having  even  been  found  stranded  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Elbe,  in  German  waters. 

Of  walrus  ivory,  the  largest  supply  in  comparatively  re- 
cent years  seems  to  have  come  from  Bering  Sea.  For  several 
years  prior  to  1870  as  much  as  100,000  pounds  of  walrus 
ivory  is  said  to  have  been  annually  collected  here,  this 
representing  an  annual  slaughter  of  6,000  walruses.  In 
later  years  still  larger  numbers  were  killed,  as  many  as  from 

^''Hakluyt's  Travels,"  Glasgow,  1904,  Vol.  Vm,  pp.  156,  157,  "A  brief  note  of  the 
Monse  and  the  use  thereof." 

tDr.  Berthold  Laufer,  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Narwhal  Ivory," 
Leyden,  1918,  p.  43,  note. 


306      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

10,000  to  12,000  each  year.  This  could  not  long  be  kept  up, 
and  finally  the  walrus  herds  became  so  thinned  out  that 
their  pursuit  ceased  to  be  profitable.  Protective  legislation 
is  strongly  urged  to  forestall  the  threatened  extermination 
of  the  animals,  as  not  only  the  quite  practicable  legitimate 
pursuit  of  them  is  checked,  but  the  many  natives  of  the 
region  who  depend  on  the  walrus  catch  for  subsistence  have 
been  reduced  to  serious  straits.* 

Narwhal  and  walrus  ivory  seem  to  have  come  in  limited 
quantity  to  the  Japanese,  even  before  Dutch  and  Portuguese 
traders  brought  it  in.  A  description,  and  even  a  sketch  of 
the  animal,  were  given  to  their  countrymen  by  some  Japa- 
nese sailors  who  had  been  shipwrecked  on  the  Aleutian  Is* 
lands.f  Now  and  then,  once  in  a  great  while,  some  chance 
or  mishap  has  caused  the  appearance  of  a  stray  specimen  of 
the  species  in  Japanese  waters.  Both  walrus  and  narwhal 
ivory  have  been  used  by  Japanese  carvers  for  their  famous 
netsukes.  Of  the  narwhal  "horn"  similar  tales  were  told  in 
Japan  as  in  medieval  Europe — namely,  that  it  was  a  "uni- 
corn's horn"  and  an  infallible  antidote  to  poison;  as  such  it 
was  valued  at  more  than  its  weight  in  gold.  All  these  fancies 
were  undoubtedly  brought  to  Japan  by  the  Dutch  and  Portu- 
guese traders,  who  were  clever  enough  to  turn  to  profitable 
account  any  "fairy  tales"  which  they  heard. 

Walrus  ivory  {sir  mahi)  was  the  material  of  an  elaborately 
ornamented  sword-hilt  made  in  Ulwar,  India,  in  1861.  At 
the  top  and  ends  of  the  cross-bar  are  placed  golden  tigers' 
and  lions'  heads,  forming  a  very  bold  and  effective  decora- 
tion. J 

These  forms  of  ivory  have  been  utilized  by  the  Eskimos 

*J.  A.  Allen,  in  Amer.  Mus.  Jour.,  1913,  p.  42. 

fGiven  in  A.  E.  V.  NordenskjOld's  "Die  Umsegelung  Asiens  und  Europu,"  Vol.  !• 
p.  140,  as  noted  by  Laufer,  op.  cit.,  p.  38,  note. 

tCol.  T.  H.  Hendley,  '* Indian  Animals,  True  and  False,  in  Art,  Religioii,"  etc.;  the 
Journal  of  Indian  AH  and  Industry,  Vol.  XVI.  No.  126.  April.  1914,  PI.  XIII,  Fig.  b. 


w 

Sgi 

P  =  B 

Ui 

M 


i 


•  * 


•   • 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  307 

with  a  surprising  amount  of  skill  for  the  production  of  artistic 
objects.  The  clever  Korjak  use  for  their  purpose  both  wal- 
rus and  mammoth  ivory,  mainly  the  first-named  variety, 
and  also  sometimes  take  their  material  from  the  narwhal 
tusk,  or  "horn."  This  preserves  its  whiteness  better  than 
walrus  ivory,  which  is  apt  to  turn  quite  yellow  after  a  certain 
length  of  eitposure  to  air  and  moisture.  The  ivory  carvings 
executed  by  the  maritime  Korjaks  have  received  high  praise 
for  their  lifelike  character,  notably  the  figures  of  wrestlers 
and  drummers  produced  by  them.  Their  work  in  this  re- 
spect is  pronounced  to  be  superior  to  that  of  any  other  of  the 
Eskimo  tribes.  Thimbles  and  rings,  as  well  as  charms,  the 
latter  cut  from  a  single  piece  of  ivory,  are  also  made  by  them.* 
It  was  from  this  far-away  region  of  northeastern  Asia  that 
the  Chinese  derived  their  ku-tu-siy  not  indeed  directly  but  by 
way  of  Korea,  Khitan,  and  other  intervening  regions.  That 
walrus  ivory  was  used  by  the  far-northern  tribes  of  the 
Pacific  coasts  at  a  very  remote  period  seems  to  be  indicated 
by  a  passage  in  the  Chinese  ''Annals  of  the  Three  Kingdoms," 
where  it  is  stated  that  among  the  articles  of  tribute  sent  in 
262  A.  D.  from  the  country  of  the  Su-shen  were  suits  of 
"bone-armour."  This  use  of  bone-armour  is  only  noted  in 
the  case  of  the  tribes  of  the  northern  Pacific  region,  and  this 
type  of  bone-plate  armour  can  still  be  found  with  the 
Eskimo  and  the  Chukchi,  walrus  tusks  having  generally 
furnished  the  material.  Doctor  Laufer  draws  attention  to 
the  fact  that  this  Chinese  record  of  262  A.  D.  is,  if  correctly 
assumed  to  mean  armour  made  of  plates  of  walrus  ivory, 
the  earliest  dated  mention  of  an  object  manufactured  from 
this  substance. t 

*Dr.  Berthold  Laufer,  '*  Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Narwhal  Ivory/' 
licydcn,  1913,  p.  SS. 

tOp.  cit.,  pp.  36,  37;  see  also  Science,  Vol.  37, 1913,  p.  342,  where  there  is  an  abstract 
of  an  address  on  **  Plate  Armour  in  America,'*delivered  by  Doctor  Laufer  before  the  Amer- 
ican Anthropological  Association  at  Cleveland  on  January  2,  1913. 


308     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  Eskimos  of  Alaska  in  utiliz- 
ing fossil  and  walrus  ivory  is  shown  by  the  considerable 
variety  of  objects  produced  by  them  from  this  material. 
Some  of  the  most  useful  and  beautiful  are  the  ornamentally 
cut  and  etched  fastenings  in  walrus  ivory  for  the  *' house- 
wives," or  bags,  used  by  the  Eskimo  women  to  hold  their 
sewing  materials,  tools,  etc.  In  the  examples  figured,  the 
material  came  from  the  Bering  Sea  coast  of  Alaska,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kuskokwoni  River.  Other  Eskimo  work  in 
this  material  appears  in  a  very  delicate  and  carefully  exe- 
cuted bit  of  carving  representing  a  salmon ;  this  comes  from 
St.  Michael's,  Alaska.  We  have  also  two  buttons,  showing 
composite  animal  forms,  from  Kotzebue  Sound.  The  fine 
and  really  artistic  work  on  these  objects,  wrought  by  deft 
touches  of  the  carver's  tools,  will  excite  the  surprise  of  those 
who  consider  our  Alaskan  Eskimo  to  be  utterly  uncivilized. 

Polished  sections  of  walrus  tusks,  from  St.  Michael's, 
Alaska,  and  a  number  of  water-worn  pebbles  of  this  material, 
varying  in  size  from  1  to  6  in.  long,  from  the  Alaskan 
shores  of  Bering  Sea,  illustrate  the  form  and  condition  of  the 
walrus  ivory  used  by  the  Eskimos  and  so  skilfully  worked 
by  them.  Another  interesting  example  of  work  in  this  type 
of  ivory  is  afforded  by  a  harpoon-head  of  the  kind  used  in  the 
capture  of  whales;  this  comes  from  the  Seward  Peninsula, 
Alaska.  An  Eskimo  fish  line,  from  the  Bering  Sea  coast  of 
Alaska,  consists  of  a  line  of  twisted  sinew,  hooks  of  bone  and 
metal,  and  a  sinker  of  an  old,  beautifully  coloured  piece  of 
walrus  ivory.  A  gauntling  implement  from  the  Bering  Sea 
coast  is  another  good  example  of  Eskimo  work  in  this  ma- 
terial. The  whalers  do  a  thriving  trade  in  walrus  tusks, 
which  they  string  together  with  a  rawhide  line  traversing 
holes  bored  through  the  ends  of  the  tusks. 

In  the  collection  of  Lieutenant  Emmons  is  a  dipper  of 
mammoth  ivory  from  Kotzebue  Sound,  of  exquisite  rich 


-+- 


4^\ 


SKCTIMNS   (IF   WAl.HIS   TISK 


KISH-I.INE   (■(>MI>I.KTK 


"ir'-V  •*."'■ -■.•.';"^ 


ESKIMO   IVORY   CAUVINGS 

CARVINGS  Ol.T  OK  WALRU8  IVORY  BY  TIIK  ESKIMO  OF  THE  BEIIRING  SEA  COAST  OK  ALASKA 

I-III.  IVORY  KASTEN'ERS  OF  ESKIMO  *' HOUSEWIVES*'  OR  WORKBACiS 

IV.  TOGGLE  OR  BUTTON'  OF  WALRI'S  IVORY 

V.  CARVING  IN  WALRUS  IVORY,  REPRESENTING  A  SAI3ION 

VI.  TOGGLE  OR  BUTTON  REPRESENTING  A  SEAL  DIVING 

VII.  FASTENER  OF  WORKBAC. 

viii-xvi.     dolls'  heads,  etc. 

COLLECTION  OF  COMMANDER  G.  T.  EMMONS 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  S09 

brown  colour,  showing  the  true  ivory  structure  but  resem- 
bling the  brown  beach  pebbles  in  colour.  Ivory  has  also 
been  used  for  two  toggles  or  buttons,  one  representing  a  seal 
diving  and  the  other  a  whale,  the  first  material  from  Port 
Barrow  and  the  second  from  the  Alaskan  shores  of  Bering 
Sea.  Other  ivory  carvings  are  dolls'  heads,  also  from  the 
Bering  Sea  coast. 

The  mammoth  ivory  is  collected  by  the  natives  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers  which  flow  into  Kotzebue  Sound,  the  old 
deposits  being  gradually  uncovered  by  the  spring  freshets, 
and  also  by  the  recession  of  the  ice  cliffs.  The  very  old  tusks, 
which  have  begun  to  turn  blue,  are  sometimes  pulverized, 
and  a  blue  paint  is  then  made  from  the  powder,  with  which 
masks,  beluga  hats,  finger-rattles,  and  the  like  are  decorated. 
From  the  better  pieces  various  useful  objects,  such  as  ladles, 
spoons,  skin-scrapers  or  fat-scrapers,  etc.,  are  made. 

In  southeastern  Alaska  the  natives  secure  pieces  of  wal- 
rus tusk  in  trade,  and  of  these  they  occasionally  make  very 
striking  necklaces;  some  of  these  are  quite  artistically  carved. 
They  are  chiefly  used  for  the  adornment  of  the  Shamans,  or 
wonder-working  priests  of  this  primitive  race.  Some  of 
these  pieces  are  of  a  rich  deep  brown  tint,  while  others  re- 
semble fine  amber  in  their  colouring.* 

The  walrus  is  a  pinnipedian  of  the  family  TricheddcB^  of 
which  there  are  two  species,  Trichecus  rosmamSy  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  on  the  shores  of  Greenland,  and  Trichecus  cbesusy 
found  in  the  region  of  Bering  Strait.  The  narwhal  belongs 
to  an  entirely  distinct  order,  the  Cetacea,  of  which  it  is  the 
species  Monodon  monocerosy  of  the  sub-family  Delphinap- 
teriruB.  It  does  not  find  its  way  as  far  south  as  does  the 
walrus,  rarely  appearing  below  65°  North  latitude.  The 
tusk  (there  is  usually  but  one)  of  the  male  projects  through 

^The  collection  shown  in  the  plate  was  sent  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Emmons,  with  a  personal 
communication  embodying  the  information  given  above. 


310     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  upper  lip,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  evolved  through 
the  advantage  it  afforded  in  breaking  the  ice  so  as  to  permit 
the  creature  to  breathe,  or  perhaps  as  a  deadly  offensive 
weapon.  The  pair  of  tusks  of  the  walrus  are,  so  to  speak» 
developed  "canine  teeth,"  and  extend  directly  downward 
from  the  jaw.* 

China  affords  a  good  market  for  horns  of  the  deer»  reindeer, 
and  wild  sheep,  as  they  are  quite  an  important  element  of 
the  Chinese  pharmacopoeia.  After  having  been  reduced 
to  a  powder  this  is  mixed  with  other  ingredients  and  serves 
for  composing  pills  and  other  medicinal  preparations,  the 
pills  being  highly  prized  for  their  supposed  tonic  qualities, 
and  being  much  favoured  by  the  aged  and  those  in  a  debili- 
tated state  of  health.  In  view  of  this  use  the  Chinese  lay 
great  stress  upon  the  perfect  condition  of  the  horns;  there 
must  not  be  a  blemish  or  scar  on  them.  Reindeer  horns 
are  now  mainly  obtained  from  Siberia  whence  they  are 
brought,  by  way  of  Vladivostock,  to  Hongkong.  China 
itself  (principally  the  mountainous  part  of  the  western  re- 
gions comprised  in  the  provinces  of  Szechwan  and  Yuman) 
furnishes  stag  horns  in  abundance,  while  the  horns  of  the 
wild  sheep  are  usually  brought  from  the  mountainous  tracts 
along  the  frontiers  of  Indo-China,  Siam,  and  the  Malay 
States.  It  is  suggested  that  both  reindeer  horns  and  stag 
horns  could  profitably  be  exported  to  China  from  Alaska 
and  elsewhere  within  the  territorial  limits  of  the  United 
States.  To  be  received  in  satisfactory  state  no  salt  or  pre- 
servatives of  any  kind  should  be  used  for  the  shipments,  the 
horns  being  shipped  dry  in  sealed  cases  some  time  in  the 
course  of  the  winter  season.  Prices  in  China  vary  much, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  where  the  skull 
is  sent  with  the  horns  still  attached,  these  are  worth  some 

*Dr.  Berthold   Laufer,  "Arabic  and  Chinese  Trade  in  Walrus  and  Narwhal  Ivoiy," 
p.  18,  note.    Reprinted  from  the  T*oung-Pao,  Vol.  XIV. 


VORY    CARVER 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  311 

20  per.  cent,  more  than  they  would  be  if  separated.  Reindeer 
horns  bring  from  $4.30  to  $6.70  gold  per  pound  ($9  to  $14 
of  the  local  money);  these  horns  weigh  from  two  to  ten 
pomids  each,  from  thirty  to  forty  being  packed  in  a  single 
case.  For  stag  horns,  if  of  superior  quality,  much  higher 
prices  are  paid,  sometimes  as  high  as  $9  in  gold  i>er  ounce; 
the  weight  of  these  horns  runs  from  four  to  fifteen  pounds. 
Wild  sheep  horns  are  cheaper,  fetching  from  $3.60  to  $5.75 
gold  per  ounce.* 

Horns  of  various  kinds  find  use  as  amulets  in  Spain,  more 
especially  for  donkeys  or  mules;  one  of  these  is  a  deer's 
horn  through  which  has  been  passed  an  iron  loop  for  susi>en- 
sion.  Usually  when  several  of  these  animals  are  driven  into 
a  Spanish  town  from  the  country,  only  the  leading  donkey 
bears  such  an  amulet,  or  perhaps  two  of  the  animals.  They 
are  almost  exclusively  employed  by  the  peasants,  the  dwellers 
in  the  towns  rarely  having  recourse  to  them,  and  the  peas- 
ants are  generally  very  loath  to  sell  them,  probably  from 
the  fear  that  ill-luck  may  result  from  parting  with  one. 
Bone  amulets  fashioned  into  the  form  of  a  horn  are  worn  by 
children  in  Seville,  Granada,  and  other  Spanish  cities,  as 
charms  against  the  Evil  Eye  and  against  the  ailments  inci- 
dent to  teething.  In  parts  of  Andalusia  the  superstition 
exists  that  if  an  envious  or  otherwise  evil  glance  falls  upon  a 
child,  the  full  force  of  the  malevolence  is  spent  upon  the 
guardian  amulet,  which  will  break  under  the  strain,  but 
saves  the  infant  from  harm.  Another  child's  amulet  in  this 
country  is  a  boar's  tusk,  sometimes  mounted  in  silver,  and 
one  specimen  from  Seville  with  chains  attached  was  asserted 
to  have  been  worn  by  a  woman  as  a  lactation  amulet,  f 

^Consul  General  George  E.  Anderson,  of  Hongkong,  "Deer  and  Reindeer  Horns  in 
China/'  in  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  February  5, 1914,  p.  469. 

tW.  L.  Hildsburgh,  "Notes  on  Spanish  Amulets,"  Folk  Lore.  Vol.  XVII.  1906.  pp.  454- 
472.     See  PL  IV.  Fig.  1,  and  PI.  VII.  Pigs.  6,  7.  8,  9,  16. 


S12     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

In  Bohemian  sepulchres  of  neolithic  age  at  Lobositz, 
Melnik,  and  Gross  Zemosek  many  imitation  bone  teeth  have 
been  found  as  well  as  natural  teeth  of  the  horse»  the  hog, 
and  the  dog;  occasionally  stag's  teeth  occur.  All  these  are 
perforated  for  suspension  and  were  worn  as  amulets,  and 
perhaps  as  ornaments  also."^ 

The  Mound-builders  of  Ohio  have  left  relics  testifying  to 
the  use  of  animal  teeth  as  amulets  among  them.  In  the 
Seip  Mound  in  Point  Creek  Valley,  Ohio,  Mr.  William  C. 
Mills  found  several  such  teeth,  some  of  the  bear,  and  others  of 
the  alligator,  which  had  been  perforated  for  suspension  or 
attachment;  one  of  the  alligator's  teeth  was  2^  in.  long  and 
nearly  f  in.  in  diameter.  This  appears  to  be  the  first 
instance  of  the  finding  of  alligators'  teeth  in  Ohio.  The 
bears'  teeth  were  cut  horizontally  into  halves,  each  section 
being  carefully  polished.  The  Seip  Mound  covers  the  site  of 
a  chamel  house,  consisting  of  three  distinct  sections.  Here 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  burned  and  their  remains  laid 
in  graves  within  the  building.  After  a  time  the  edifice  itself 
was  destroyed  by  fire  and  an  immense  mound  raised  over  it 
as  a  monument  to  all  the  dead  whose  remains  rested  in  it.t 
The  use  of  bears'  teeth  for  adornment  or  as  amulets  was  very 
widespread  among  the  American  Indians,  and  human  teeth 
also,  perforated  so  as  to  be  strung  and  suspended,  have  been 
met  with  among  the  relics  of  the  Southern  Indians.  J 

With  the  Norwegian  Lapps  also,  bears'  teeth  are  valued 
for  their  supposed  curative  powers.  In  cases  of  toothache 
the  application  of  such  a  tooth  to  the  swollen  gum  is  highly 
recommended.  It  must  first  be  warmed  slightly  and  then 
wrapped  up  in  a  thin  cloth  and  pressed  firmly  against  the 

^Weinnerl,  "Neolitiache  Schmuck  und  Amulette  in  BOhmen,"    in  ZeiUschrift  fttr 
Ethnologie,  1895,  pp.  S52-857.    See  Fig.  1,  p.  S5S. 

tMillB,  "The  Seip  Mound";  in  Putnam  Anniveraary  Volume,  New  York,  1909,  pp.  121- 
122. 

tJones,  "Antiquities  of  the  Southern  Indiana/'  New  York,  1873,  p.  520. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  318 

aching  tooth.  The  same  service  is  believed  to  be  rendered 
by  a  reindeer's  jawbone  which  has  been  buried  so  long  in  the 
earth  that  it  has  assumed  an  earthy  or  greenish  hue;  this  is 
to  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as  the  bear's  tooth.  In  both 
cases  whatever  good  results  are  accomplished  are,  of  course, 
due  to  the  effect  of  heat.* 

The  Mohammedan  emblem  of  the  crescent  and  the  star  is 
believed  by  Professor  Ridgeway  to  have  been  in  part  derived 
from  the  boars'  tusks  used  as  amulets  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  in  ancient  times.  However,  as  these  amulets  were 
intended  to  figure  the  new  moon,  the  Mohammedan  emblem 
was  in  any  case,  indirectly,  an  astrological  symbol.  Even 
in  the  Swiss  Lake  Dwellings  representations  of  the  moon 
have  been  foimd,  indicating  that  already,  in  prehistoric 
times,  that  luminary  was  an  object  of  adoration.  A  curious 
circumstance  in  regard  to  the  Mohammedan  emblem  of 
crescent  and  star  is  that  the  latter  symbol  probably  refers  to 
the  Star  of  Bethlehem,  which  was  figured  in  connection 
with  the  crescent  on  certain  Byzantine  coins.  Possibly  the 
virtues  ascribed  to  various  teeth  and  horns,  notably  to  tusks 
of  the  narwhal,  long  believed  to  be  horns  of  the  fabulous  uni- 
corn, may  have  been  due  to  the  prevalent  association  of  such 
curved  forms  with  the  new  moon. 

Many  primitive  amulets  consisted  of  objects  hurtful  to 
man,  such  as  the  teeth,  the  horns,  or  the  claws  of  wild  ani- 
mals. This  arose  from  the  belief  that  what  was  feared  by 
man  would  also  be  feared  by  the  invisible  spirits  who  might 
wish  to  harm  him.  A  similar  idea  suggested  the  use  of 
thistles  and  of  the  thorns  of  plants  for  a  like  purpose.  Cer- 
tain African  tribes  even  place  poisonous  herbs  in  small 
horns  or  balls  and  wear  them  as  amulets.  It  was  a  diamet- 
rically opposite  idea  that  suggested  the  use  of  beautiful 

^Johan  Turi,  "Muittalus  samid  birra:  en  bok  om  Lappemes  liv.";  text,  and  Danish 
trans,  by  Emilie  Demant,  KjUbenhavn,  1911,  p.  192  (p.  70  of  text). 


314   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

objects  in  this  way,  such,  for  instance,  as  glittering  p>ebbles, 
coloured  stones,  pearls,  and  coral.  Here  the  spirits  were 
to  be  won  over  by  the  beauty  of  the  ornament,  so  that  they 
would  lay  aside  their  enmity  and  become  friendly  and  help- 
ful. To  still  another  class  belong  those  amulets  representing 
a  hand  raised  on  high  with  the  palm  outward,  figuring  the 
gesture  of  one  who  seeks  to  ward  oflF  approaching  danger, 
and  also  the  numerous  phallic  amulets,  especially  popular 
in  Italy  in  ancient  times,  and  still  used  there  in  a  modified 
form  as  a  protection  against  the  Evil  Eye.  This  latter  type 
is  believed  to  have  been  intended  to  express  derision  and 
contempt,  the  wearer  believing  that  witches  and  evil  spirits 
were  robbed  of  their  power  when  they  were  treated  as  despi- 
cable and  contemptible.* 

This  idea  is  not  altogether  so  foolish  as  it  may  seem  to  be, 
for  we  know  to-day  that  the  mental  attitude  of  an  individual 
is  a  very  potent  factor  in  conserving  health  or  inducing  dis- 
ease, and  if  those  who  fancied  themselves  to  be  the  victims 
of  witchcraft  or  demoniacal  possession  could  only  be  made  to 
laugh  at  their  tormentors,  they  would  probably  soon  be  cured 
of  their  imaginary,  and  perhaps  even  of  their  real,  ailments. 

Pliny  frequently  mentions  the  medicinal  uses  of  teeth, 
both  human  and  animal.  Quite  naturally,  according  to 
primitive  ideas,  a  tooth  was  thought  to  be  a  sovereign  remedy 
for  toothache.  The  best  effect  was  attained  by  burning  a 
tooth  taken  from  some  one  of  the  same  sex  as  the  sufferer, 
and  fumigating  the  painful  tooth  with  the  smoke.  For 
uterine  diseases  an  effective  cure  was  promised  if  the  first 
tooth  lost  by  a  child  was  set  in  an  arm-band  and  continually 
worn  on  the  arm.  It  was,  however,  requisite  that  this 
tooth  should  not  have  been  i>ermitted  to  fall  to  the  ground.f 

*Schurtz,  "Urgeschichte  der  Kultur/'  Leipzig  und  Wien,  1900,  p.  599. 

fC.  Plinii  Secundi,  Naturalis  historia.  Lib.  XXVIII,  cap.  4,  Venetia,  1507,  FoL  206 
verso. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  315 

If  we  are  willing  to  accept  the  statement  of  the  Portuguese, 
Captain  Joao  Ribeyro  in  his  "History  of  Ceylon"  written 
in  1685»  and  presented  to  the  King  of  Portugal,*  the  vene- 
rated tooth  of  Buddha,  so  jealously  preserved  m  the  Island  of 
Ceylon,  was  the  tooth  of  an  ape.  Constantine  of  Braganza 
seized  it  in  1560  and  in  his  religious  zeal  preferred  rather  to 
have  it  burned  and  the  ashes  scattered  over  the  sea  than  to 
accept  the  800,000  francs  oflFered  as  redemption  by  the  King 
of  Pegu.  However,  the  Cinghalese  priests  proved  equal  to 
the  emergency,  and  spread  the  report  that  the  sacred  tooth 
had,  by  its  own  miraculous  virtue,  escaped  from  the  hands 
of  the  Portuguese,  and  had  passed  through  the  air  until  it 
finaUy  found  a  resting  place  on  a  rose;  here  it  was  duly  foimd 
by  faithful  Buddhists  and  replaced  in  its  shrine.  What 
purports  to  be  a  tooth  of  Buddha  is  to  be  seen  here  at  the 
present  day,  although  irreverent  unbelievers  insist  that  this 
tooth,  which  is  3  in.  long,  is  in  reality  a  shaped  piece  of 

ivory.f 

The  veneration  of  the  supposed  tooth  of  the  Buddha  in 
India  finds  a  kind  of  parallel  in  the  honour  bestowed  upon 
the  teeth  of  the  reigning  sovereigns  of  Cassange,  in  Angola, 
Africa.  When  one  of  these  kings  or  jagas  dies,  one  of  his 
teeth  is  drawn  from  his  jaw  and  reverently  placed  in  a  box 
which  contains  a  tooth  of  each  of  his  predecessors.  This 
tooth-shrine  is  considered  the  most  precious  of  the  crown 
treasures,  and  its  ownership  serves  to  legitimize  each  of  the 
successive  kings  of  Cassange.| 

Many  superstitions  exist  as  to  the  teeth  and  teething,  one 
of  them  being  that  when  the  teeth  are  slow  in  cutting 

V.  Bibeyro,  "Histoire  de  Tkle  de  Ceylon,**  French  transl.  by  Abb^  le  Grand,  Amster- 
dam, 1701,  pp.  118, 119;  note  of  Abb^  le  Grand. 

fBliia  Rtthamah  Sddmore,  "  Adam*8  Second  Eden,*'  in  National  Oeographie  Magazine, 
Vol.  XXni.  No.  2.  p.  «06;  February  1.  1912. 

tF.  C.  Valdes,  "Six  Years  of  a  Traveller's  life  in  Western  Africa,**  Vol.  II,  pp.  161 
iqq.  cited  in  J.  S.  Frazer*s  "The  Dying  God,*'  London,  1912,  p.  203. 


316   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

through  the  gums  this  is  a  sign  that  the  baby  when  grown  up 
to  manhood  will  be  successful  in  all  imdertakings.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  teeth  appear  soon  and  without  difficulty, 
the  child  is  doomed  to  an  early  death,  according  to  the  old 
English  proverb  "  Soon  toothed,  soon  turfed."  Some  savage 
African  tribes  go  so  far  as  to.  kill  those  infants  whose  upper 
teeth  appear  before  the  lower  ones,  or  else  these  children  are 
sold  to  slavery,  in  order  to  save  the  tribe  from  the  misfor- 
tunes which  are  sure  to  overtake  them  in  after  life.* 

When  one  of  the  children  of  a  Lapplander  loses  a  first 
tooth,  this  is  to  be  cast  into  the  fire,  while  a  petition  is  recited 
that  a  new  tooth  be  given  in  place  of  the  one  that  has  been 
committed  to  the  flames.  Another  version  of  this  old  su- 
perstitious rite  prescribes  that  on  throwing  the  tooth  into  the 
fire  the  following  words  should  be  pronoimced :  * '  Fire !  Fire ! 
here  you  have  a  worthless  tooth,  give  me  a  silver  tooth."t 

A  ghastly  tooth-amulet  is  reported  to  be  worn  by  natives 
of  the  Island  of  Kiriwini,  one  of  the  Trobriand  group  in  the 
South  Pacific.  Here  the  widow  is  said  to  wear,  suspended 
from  her  neck  by  a  string,  the  lower  jaw  of  her  late  husband 
with  its  full  complement  of  teeth  or  as  many  as  he  was 
blessed  with  when  he  died.  J  Whether  this  is  designed  to 
frighten  away  possible  suitors  and  thus  better  enable  the 
widow  to  guard  sacredly  her  husband's  memory,  or  whether 
it  is  supposed  to  ensure  her  the  protection  of  the  departed 
spirit,  is  not  easy  to  determine;  possibly  the  teeth  may  serve 
both  ways. 

Although  the  strange  preference  for  black  teeth  tiiat  exists 
in  some  Oriental  lands  may  not  be  due  to  any  superstition, 
but  rather  to  what  we  must  regard  as  a  perverted  taste,  one 

*Pannele,  "Tothe-lore/*  Iniemational  Denial  Journal,  January,  1899,  p.  2. 

fTorsen  Kalmodin,  "  Lapparae  och  derea  Land;  Skildringar  och  Studier»"  Stockholin, 
1914,  Pt.  Ill,  p.  8. 

{Brown,  "Melanesians  and  Polynesians,*'  New  York,  1910,  p.  238. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  317 

phase  of  the  custom  is  so  singular  that  it  deserves  mention 
here.  When  a  Siamese  seeks  to  repair  the  ravages  of  time 
by  ordering  a  set  of  artificial  teeth,  he  usually  requires  that 
they  shall  be  black;  sometimes,  however,  in  the  case  of  func- 
tionaries who  often  receive  Europeans,  a  set  of  black  teeth 
is  ordered  for  general  use,  and  a  set  of  white  teeth  to  be  sub- 
stituted when  European  visitors  are  to  be  entertained. 
When  asked  to  give  a  reason  for  this  strange  custom  of  black- 
ening the  teeth,  or  wearing  black  teeth,  a  Siamese  replied: 
"We  do  not  wish  to  have  teeth  like  those  of  a  dog." 

The  teeth  of  various  animals  were  also  regarded  as  possess- 
ing curative  powers.  For  instance,  if  the  tooth  of  a  mole 
were  taken  out  while  the  creature  was  alive,  it  was  a  specific 
for  toothache  when  attached  to  the  body.*  Violent  pains 
in  the  gastric  region  were  removed  by  binding  on,  with  a 
piece  of  sheep's  or  goat's  skin,  a  tooth  drawn  from  the  left 
side  of  a  hyena's  jaw.  A  wolf's  tooth  preserved  an  infant 
from  fear,  if  attached  to  its  body,  and  also  cured  toothache. 
The  larger  teeth  of  the  wolf  were  supposed  to  have  the  power 
to  make  horses  tireless  runners.f  It  is  interesting  to  note 
in  this  connection  that  there  were  found  in  the  Crimea,  in 
1865,  beneath  a  tumulus,  the  remains  of  five  horses,  the 
heads  being  adorned  with  perforated  boars'  tusks  set  in  gold 
and  silver.  J 

That  this  superstition,  once  so  deeply  rooted,  has  not  yet 
passed  away,  is  illustrated  by  the  specimens  figured  by 
Bellucci.  One  of  these,  taken  from  a  prehistoric  necropolis 
of  the  first  Iron  Age,  is  the  tusk  of  a  boar  and  has  been  partly 
metamorphosed  into  odontolite — bone  turquoise  coloured 
by  coming  into  contact  with  some  iron  or  iron  salt.  It  has 
a  bronze  mounting  at  the  base  to  facilitate  its  suspension 

*C.  Plinii  Seciindi,  Naturalb  historia,  lib.  XXVIII,  cap.  8,  Venetia,  1507,  fol.  211  verso. 

tibid..  Lib.  XXVIII.  cap.  19,  Venetia.  1507.  fol.  218  recto. 

JStephani,  Compte  rendu  de  la  Comm.  arch,  de  St.  Petersb.,  1865,  p.  19. 


318     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

from  the  body  of  the  owner.  The  other  sp>ecimen,  also  a 
boar's  tusk,  is  a  modem  amulet  from  Perugia,  and  represents 
a  type  in  common  use  in  Italy  against  the  Evil  Eye  or  similar 
spells.  Such  amulets  are  also  given  children  to  wear  as  an 
aid  to  their  dentition.* 

Boars'  tusks  were  regarded  as  valuable  remedies  for 
bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and  other  internal  inflammations,  result- 
ing from  a  congestion  of  the  blood  vessels,  or  from  coagula- 
tion of  the  blood.f  The  fact  that  very  severe  and  painful 
wounds  were  often  inflicted  by  wild  boars  doubtless  led  to  the 
belief  in  their  virtue  to  cure  blood  diseases  and  inflammations. 

The  hoof  of  the  "Great  Beast,"  highly  prized  by  many 
Italians  as  an  amulet  against  poison,  witches,  and  the  Evil 
Eye,  was  in  former  times  a  piece  of  the  hoof  of  a  rhinoceros; 
but  in  view  of  the  diflSculty  in  obtaining  such  fragments,  the 
hoof  of  the  elk  has  been  substituted.  The  amulets  formed 
of  this  material  are  generally  shaped  into  small  tablets;  they 
are  often  bordered  with  silver  and  provided  with  two  rings 
on  either  side,  by  means  of  which  the  object  is  attached 
either  to  a  ribbon,  or  to  the  two  extremities  of  a  coral  neck- 
lace. Sometimes  the  amulet  consists  of  a  silver  heart  marked 
with  the  monogram  of  Christ  and  the  three  sacred  nails,  a 
piece  of  the  elk's  hoof  being  set  in  the  reverse  side.  Here,  as 
in  so  many  other  Italian  amulets,  the  sanction  of  the  Church 
has  given  added  virtue  to  the  pagan  amulet.  | 

The  superstition  in  regard  to  the  good  fortune  brought  by 
wearing  elk  teeth,  and  the  use  of  them  to  adorn  the  insignia 
of  the  widespread  Order  of  Elks,  has  led  to  a  very  great  de- 
mand for  these  teeth,  a  demand  far  exceeding  the  normaL 
supply.     Those  having  a  number  of  circles  and  of  a  light:. 

^Bellucci,  "D  feticismo  primitivo  in  Italia,"  Perugia,  1007,  p.  S5  (2  figures). 

tValentini,   "Museum  museorum,  oder  VoUsULndige  Schau-Btthne,"  Frandduii  am 
Mayn,  1714,  Bk.  III.  cap.  17,  S.  pp.  454. 

tBellucci,  "II  feticismo  in  Italia,"  Perugia,  1007,  pp.  111-118.     (Figures.) 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  319 

brown  colouring,  both  indications  of  age,  are  the  most  highly 
valued,  and  the  Indians,  who  are  chiefly  depended  upon  to 
supply  the  market  with  these  teeth,  have  succeeded  in  imitat- 
ing the  old  ones  by  burning  circles  into  teeth  from  young 
elks  with  a  hot  iron  or  stone.  Attempts  are  said  to  have 
already  been  made  to  comer  the  market  in  this  commodity, 
one  dealer  having  collected  an  enormous  number  of  elk 
teeth  which  he  is  holding  in  the  hope  of  realizing  a  great 
profit  on  them  at  the  high  prices  likely  to  prevail  later  on, 
when  the  difiFerence  between  the  supply  and  the  demand  shall 
have  become  even  more  accentuated  than  at  present. 

Elks'  teeth  having  become  highly  prized  charms,  as  in 
most  other  similar  cases,  the  demand  for  the  genuine  arti- 
cle has  developed  a  trade  in  spurious  teeth.  Quite  recently 
a  man  was  prosecuted  by  the  Federal  authorities  for  hav- 
ing offered  to  sell  elks'  teeth  in  large  quantities  for  $2 
each,  filling  the  orders  he  received  with  imitations  of  walrus 
ivory.  The  work  was  cleverly  done  and  the  deception 
might  not  have  been  soon  discovered  had  not  the  low  price 
caused  suspicion  and  examination,  as  others  offered  the  teeth 
for  $1 .50  and  even  for  $1  each.  A  genuine  tooth  is  worth  from 
$5  to  $25,  according  to  quality,  as  the  supply  is  decreasing 
while  the  demand  mcreases.  The  writer  has  seen  a  twinned 
pair  of  elk  teeth  valued  at  $150. 

The  Eskimo  women  of  Alaska  regard  the  canine-tooth 
of  the  polar  bear  as  a  most  precious  amulet.  To  secure  the 
full  effect  of  its  virtues  it  must  be  strung  on  a  seal-skin  string 
which  is  then  bound  about  the  body  beneath  the  breasts. 
Worn  in  this  way  such  an  amulet  assures  an  abundant  supply 
of  milk,  and  hence  may  be  considered  as  protecting  and 
favouring  the  Eskimo  babe  to  an  even  greater  degree  than 
it  does  the  mother.* 

*Murdock,  "The  Port  Borrow  Eskimo."  Ninth  Rep.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn..  1887.  88;  Wash- 
ington. 1898»  p.  437. 


320   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

During  the  Revolutionary  period  ivory  busks  were  worn 
in  ladies '  bodices.  A  century  ago  whales'  teeth  were  en- 
graved by  whalers  on  the  New  England  coast,  usually  with 
a  pocket-knife,  an  operation  often  requiring  many  days  for 
its  execution.  The  carved  teeth  were  then  exhibited  in  the 
bric-a-brac,  drygoods,  and  whiskey  shops  in  New  Bedfoid, 
where  they  were  frequently  exchanged  for  a  mere  trifle.'  TWs 
lasted  until  the  whaling  industry  was  destroyed  by  the  intro- 
duction of  petroleum.  If  the  latter  had  not  been  diacoveredt 
whales  would  have  become  extinct.  Ivory  is  not  well 
adapted  for  use  in  making  artificial  teeth  and  has  been  but 
very  rarely  employed  in  tliis  way,  although  an  ivory  tooth 
has  been  unearthed  on  a  spot  on  Manhatten  Island  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  190th  Street. 

The  Bayerischer  Landesgewerbeanstalt  in  Nuremberg  pos- 
sesses many  of  the  smaller  ivory  carvings,  some  of  these  being 
modem  while  others  are  the  work  of  the  seventeenth  and  ei^- 
teenth  centuries.  Although  by  far  the  greater  part  of  these 
objects  are  of  elephant  ivory,  there  is  one  interesting  bit  carved 
of  walrus  ivory.  This  is  a  miniature  reproduction  of  the 
monument  of  Peter  the  Great  on  the  Neva  at  Petrograd. 

A  weird  and  unpleasant  rumour  is  reported  on  the  autho^ 
ity  of  a  Hamburg  importer  of  bone  and  ivory.  This  is  that 
human  bones  are  imported  from  the  Levant  for  industrial 
use.  These  were  said  to  be  more  desirable  than  others  for 
artistic  work,  because  they  contained  less  phosphoric  add. 
The  writer  who  records  this  report  declares  that  he  could 
not  find  any  confirmatory  evidence,  although  he  made  dili- 
gent efforts  to  secure  it.* 

A  long  string  of  fifteen  interesting  objects,  rather  ghastly 
in  their  associations,  but  with  a  history,  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  Oakland  Public  Museum,  Oakland,  California.  These 
are  idols  carved  out  of  human  bones  with  great  skill  and 

^Sombom,  **Die  Elfenbein-und  ]U;iiiM*hnitzcrci,**  Heidelberg,  1899,  p.  81;  note. 


HORNS    AND    TUSKS  321 

wonderful  ingenuity  by  natives  of  St.  Christian  Island,  one 
of  the  Marquesas  group.  They  were  used  as  adornments 
of  a  native  drum,  and  had  the  repute  of  being  sacred,  so 
that  only  privileged  persons  were  permitted  to  touch  them. 
These  particular  sp>ecimens  were  secured  from  the  native 
chief  Mateo  Annatatea.  This  museum  also  has  a  drill- 
bow  made  of  walrus  ivory  which  had  been  used  to  twirl 
the  drill  of  a  primitive  fire-making  outfit.  A  leather  strap 
was  wrapped  once  around  the  shaft  and  the  ends  of  the  leather 
were  then  fastened  in  the  holes  at  the  extremities  of  the  bow. 
Its  movement  caused  the  shaft  to  revolve  rapidly  in  the  socket 
of  the  bed  piece.  This  was  made  by  Alaskan  Indians.  An 
ivory  fan-handle  in  the  Museum,  from  the  Marquesas  Islands, 
once  belonged  to  the  collection  of  Dr.  John  Rabe,  as  did  also 
the  idol  ornaments  made  from  human  bone."^ 

The  scrimshaw  work  was  frequently  accomplished  by 
obtaining  a  picture  from  a  print,  or  otherwise  from  a  photo- 
graph, pasting  it  on  the  walrus  tooth,  walrus  tusk,  or  walrus 
bone,  and  with  a  sharp  point  piercing  the  paper,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  principal  outlines  of  the  subject,  then  the  paper 
was  soaked  off  and  the  final  details  were  finished  with  the 
same  knife  or  pointed  tool  used  in  fixing  the  outlines. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  objects  of  scrimshaw  work 
is  a  mammoth  tusk,  12  ft.  along  the  curve  and  weighing 
75  lbs.,  obtained  in  Alaska  by  an  American  sailor,  who 
had  resided  there  for  some  years,  and  who  carefully  removed 
the  bark  of  the  tusk  and  then  produced  57  views  of  Alaskan 
scenery  with  remarkable  fidelity,  decorating  the  entire 
tusk  from  the  tip  to  within  six  inches  of  the  lower  end.  As 
this  was  work  executed  some  fifty  or  more  years  ago,  the  tusk 
has  a  great  value  as  picturing  scenes  in  many  places  in  Alaska 
at  that  time.  It  is  now  in  the  collection  of  the  Golden 
Gate  Park  Museum,  San  Francisco,  California. 

^Commuiiicated  by  Mrs.  D.  W.  de  Vere,  Acting  Curator  of  the  Muaeum. 


1 


322     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

More  recently  the  Japanese  have  taken  up  the  ivory 
bead  industry,  have  introduced  the  use  of  machinery,  and 
are  therefore  enabled  to  make  beads  for  a  very  small  part 
of  what  the  cost  would  be  when  manufactured  by  the  Eski- 
mos. These  machine-made  beads  are  more  regular,  but 
less  artistic,  than  those  made  by  hand,  nevertheless  they 
find  a  ready  sale  among  the  tourists.  The  Eskimos  of  the 
Alaskan  Coast  have  worked  the  modem  walrus  ivory,  as 
well  as  the  water-worn  walrus  ivory  cast  up  on  beaches, 
into  beads  that  are  fairly  round  and  only  slightly  irregular; 
occasionally  they  have  a  long,  oval-shaped  bead  for  the 
centre  of  a  necklace.  These  beads  are  sold  from  Juneau 
to  Nome,  a  distance  of  1 ,500  miles.  Their  colour  ranges  from 
a  dull  bronze  almost  into  an  olive  green. 

The  Jonathan  Bourne  Memorial  Whaling  Museum, 
situated  adjacent  to  and  connected  with  the  Historical  So- 
ciety of  New  Bedford,  was  founded  by  Miss  E.  H.  Bourne  of 
New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  and  New  York,  daughter  of  the 
late  Jonathan  Bourne.  Of  this  museum  it  can  be  said  that 
it  contains  everything  relating  to  whaling,  including  a  half- 
size  whaler  ship  with  its  full  complement  of  men.  Here  may 
be  seen  as  well  carved  teeth,  carved  whalebone,  and  other 
objects  of  corresponding  nature. 

The  "Tuskers  of  the  Deep"  are  principally  represented 
by  the  narwhal  and  the  walrus.  A  typical  example  of  the 
double-tusked  narwhal  is  in  the  British  Museum  Nat- 
ural History  collections.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  this 
specimen,  acquired  in  1885,  the  spiral  twist  has  the  same  di- 
rection in  both  tusks,  in  marked  contrast  to  those  of  spiral- 
horned  animals,  where  there  is  a  right-hand  spiral  on  on 
horn  and  a  left-hand  spiral  on  the  other  one.* 

*  **  Guide  to  the  Whales,  Porpoises,  and  Dolphins  (order  Cetacea),  exhibited  in  tl^< 
Department  of  Zodlogy,  British  Museum  (Natun^l  History)",  London,  1909,  pp.  8S» 
ured  on  plate  opp.  p.  28. 


CHAPTER  X 

ELEPHANTS,   EVOLUTION  OF;  ALSO 
MASTODON,   MAMMOTH,   ETC. 

The  first  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  elephant  is  recorded 
in  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Moeritheriumy  which  have  been 
found  in  the  Eocene  and  early  Oligocene  beds  of  the  Fayftm, 
Egypt,  and  have  quite  recently  been  reported  from  the 
Oligocene  of  India.*  The  remains  of  this  tapir-like  animal 
clearly  show  an  early  stage  of  the  development  of  the  trunk, 
in  the  unmistakable  indication  of  a  prehensile  upper  lip, 
and  also  the  beginnings  of  the  tusks  denoted  by  the  sharply 
projecting  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  Mceritherium 
was  only  about  three  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  the  original 
type  is  still  found  in  the  Lower  Oligocene,  along  with  the 
Palseomastodons,  representing  the  gradual  evolution  of 
certain  Moeritheria  into  a  type  more  closely  resembling  the 
elephant.  The  Oligocene  strata  have  not  as  yet  offered  any 
remains  illustrating  the  further  development  of  the  ele- 
phant, except  in  India,  where  fragmentary  remains  of  a 
more  advanced  stage,  Hemimastodon,  have  lately  been 
found. t  Its  earliest  migration  into  Europe  must  have 
been  in  the  early  Miocene  age,  and  in  the  Middle  Miocene 
the  elephant  had  already  penetrated  into  North  America. 

*Dr.  W.  D.  Matthew,  Curator  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York 
City,  kindly  offered  many  suggestions  and  added  materially  to  this  chapter. 

tGuy  E.  Pilgrim.  1012,  "The  Vertebrate  Fauna  of  the  Gaj  Series  in  the  Bugti  Hills  and 
the  Punjab,**  Palsetmtologia  Indica,  New  Series,  Vol.  IV,  Memoir  No  2,  pp.  1-83,  plates 
i-xzx. 

328 


RfaroRATiON  cf  Umillttrimm,  the  eftriiest  toanl  toaa  lead- 
ing up  to  the  rlephuit. 

— From  "A  Guide  to  the  Elephants  (recent  sod  fosdl) 
in  the  Britiab  Miucum  (Natural  Hutory  Divinon)." 


ReOTOBATiON  of  Palaomattodon,  one  of  the  Btsgei  in  the  devel- 
opment  ot  the  elephant. 

— Prom  "A  Guide  to  the  Elephanti  (recent  and  fouil)  in 
the  British  Museum  (Natural  History  EKvision]." 


I 

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I 

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t 
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I  ^ 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      325 

It  was,  however,  in  the  Pleistocene  age  that  the  elephant 
was  most  widely  distributed  over  the  earth's  surface,  and 
the  largest  number  of  species  are  shown  in  this  period. 
With  the  exception  of  Australia,  elephants  existed  in  every 
part  of  the  world  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Pleistocene 
age;  its  close,  however,  was  marked  by  a  notable  decrease 
in  their  number,  culminating  in  the  reduction  of  the  many 
types  to  the  Indian  and  African  elephants  as  we  now  have 
them.* 


Bbstobation  of  rdraidodoR  aitguttidena 
— Prum  "A  CuiileU)  the  Kkptunta  {rcccat  and  fouO) 
Id  th«  Brilinh  Miueum  (N'utunil  HisUiry  Divuioo)." 

A  close  morphological  relationship  with  the  elephant,  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  its  development,  has  been  claimed 
for  the  Sirenia,  or  sea-cows,  the  American  representa- 
tive being  the  Florida  manatee  {Manaius  americanus),  in 
spite  of  their  apparent  unlikeness  to  any  of  the  Probosci- 
dea.     In  the  Eocene  of  the  Fayiim  in  Egypt,  where  remains 

*Riclur(!  S.  Lull.  •'The  Evolution  of  thf  Etpphaat,"  Feabody  Museum  of  Natural 
Hiitory.  Guide  No.  2.  Reprinted  from  Aner.  Jour.  Sc,  Vol.  XXV,  March,  190B.  The 
Proboacideans  of  South  Ameri(»  occur  in  the  Pampcan  furmation  which  ii  regarded  ■■ 
Pteiitoceoe  by  Pnifeasor  Scott  and  other  authorities.  See  W.  B.Scott,  IBIS,  "History  of 
the  L*Dd  Mammals  of  the  Western  Ilemupbere,"  p.  139.  W.  D.  Matthew,  IVIS,  Tiiuu. 
N.  y.  Acad.  Sd..  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  ISff-MO. 


326     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

of  McerUkerium  have  been  dug  up,  Sirenta  with  true  hind 
limbs  have  been  found,  the  rudimentary  hip  bones  of  the 
present  manatee,  without  possible  function,  being  evidently 
vestigial.  Structural  similarities  have  also  been  noted  by 
anatomists  between  the  elephants  and  the  Hyrax,  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  the  family  Hyracidac,  our  conies  or  damans, 
small  rabbit-like  animals  not  exceeding  18  in.  in  length, 


CoKiBB  [Hyrax  abguinieu^);  after  Brehm. 
—From  Richftrd  S.  Lull,  "The  Evolution  of  the  ElephMil." 

tailless,  with  short  ears  and  hoof-like  nails  in  place  of  the 
claws  which  would  be  expected  from  the  general  conforma- 
tion. Excepting  the  Syrian  conies,  of  which  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  (xxx.  26)  says  that  though  "a  feeble  folk,  yet  make 
they  their  houses  in  the  rock,"  these  animals  are  confined 
to  Africa,  and  Egyptian  deposits,  in  which  remains  of  the 
earlier  ancestors  of  the  elephant  occur,  contain  also  bones 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      327 

of  a  Hyrax,  much  larger  than  the  conies  of  our  day  and  more 
nearly  related  to  the  early  forms  of  Proboscidea.* 

The  chain  of  development  of  the  prehistoric-elephant 
species  of  the  Old  World  has  long  been  the  subject  of  dis- 
cussion among  palaeontologists.!  One  point,  however,  seems 
to  be  regarded  as  fairly  well  established,  namely,  that  the 
living  African  species  does  not  appear  to  be  directly  related 


Tbi  Makatxe,  Manatu*  auttraiU,  after  Brehm. 

—From  Richard  S.  Lull,  "  Evolutiuo  of  the  Elepluuit" 

to  any  of  those  of  which  fossil  remains  have  been  found,  and 
that  the  question  regarding  its  origin  is  as  yet  unsolved. 

With  the  Indian  elephant  and  the  extinct  species  of 
European  elephants,  the  case  is  different,  and  it  is  possible 
to  gain  a  general  idea  at  least  of  the  different  links  in  the 

*Bichard  S.  Lull,  op.  cit..  pp.  1,  2.  9.  Figt.  1  aod  2. 

fPor  a  ntiafactory  atatement  of  the  tvaulta  and  theories  connected  with  the  anbject,  see 
W.  SooscL  "Die  Stammeageichichte  dei  Elephanten,"  in  CeDtmlblatt  tUr  Minenilogie, 
Geolo^  und  PalHoatologie.  Nos.  6,  7,  6,  and  9,  March  \S,  April  1.  April  IS,  and  May  I. 
1915. 


S28  IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

chain  of  development  from  the  earliest  elephant  species 
clearly  defined  in  the  remains,  the  Elephas  planifrons^  a 
type  prevailing  in  the  Upper  Pliocene.  From  this  earliest 
variety — the  existence  of  a  still  earlier  Elephas  priscus  has 
not  been  clearly  established — there  were  evolved,  during  the 
Upper  Pliocene,  two  Indian  forms,  the  Elephas  hysudricus 
in  the  east  and  the  Elephas  meridionalis  in  the  west.  It  is 
from  this  latter  species,  or  from  some  of  the  intermediate 
forms  between  it  and  E.  pUmifrons  that,  in  the  Pleistocen 
period,  the  European  si>ecies  are  derived.     As  a  result  o 


the  long-continued  migrations  and  of  the  consequent  changes^ 
brought  about  in  a  long  lapse  of  time  by  varied  climati< 
and  geographic  conditions,  two  main  types  were  evolved  i 
Europe,  one  inhabiting  principally  the  woods  and  forests, 
the  Elephas  antiquus,  and  the  other  the  plains  and  opeix. 
valleys,  the  Elephas  primtgenius. 

The  origin  of  the  dwarf-elephant  species,  of  which  fossLT 
remains  have  been  found  in  some  Mediterranean  islands,  is 
believed  by  Soergel  to  have  resulted  from  a  progressive 
degeneration  of  the  full-grown  type,  owing  to  the  imperfect 
environment  provided  by  the  restricted  island  territory. 
This,  however,  scarcely  seems  to  account  for  the  living 
dwarf  elephants  of  the  Congo  region  in  Africa.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  the  extinct  Elephas  melitensis^  we  would  have  a 
degenerated  E.  antiquus,  while  the  Elephas  cypriotisy  of  the 
Island  of  Cyprus,  presents  certain  features  indicating  that 
it  was  derived  from  an  earlier  form  of  the  European  elephant, 
one  more  closely  allied  to  E.  meridionalis. 

In  the  Pleistocene  age  the  species  E.  hysudricus  gave 
rise  in  process  of  time  to  the  later  species  Elephas  indicus^ 
the  immediate  ancestor  of  the  Indian  elephant  of  our  day. 

That  Elephas  planifrons  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  the  si>ecies  Elephas  meridionalis 
and  Elephas  antiquum  is  held  to  be  clearly  shown  by  the 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      S29 

comparative  homogeneity  of  the  skull  type  of  the  first- 
named  species  and  especially  by  the  lack  of  variation  in 
the  molars,  this  homogeneity  precluding  the  idea  that  two 
differentiated  types,  such  as  E.  meridionalis  and  E.  antiquita, 
could  be  evolved  without  one  or  more  intermediate  stages 
of  development.  This  confirms  the  view  that  the  antiqutis 
type  and  the  Elepkas  primigeniTis  are  derivable  from  E. 
meridionalis  as  a  common  ancestor.*  Of  the  period  in 
which  the  progressive  differentiation  of  Elephcis  meridionalis, 
or  rather  at  least  of  some  form  of  this  species,  into  the  two 
species  E.  antiqutLS  and  E.  primigeniiis  took  place,  Soergel 

writes  :t 

"However  far  back  in  the  Upper  Pliocene  we  may  place 
the  differentiation  of  the  two  main  diluvial  species,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  the  divergence  of  both 
lines  of  descent  first  appears  strongly  marked  at  the  end 
of  the  Pliocene  age,  and  that  it  is  only  with  the  beginning 
of  the  Glacial  Period  that  these  two  types,  long  closely 
associated  through  all  their  variations,  become  sharply  de- 
fined one  from  the  other." 

Each  of  the  elephant's  molars  displays  a  number  of  trans- 
verse ridges  of  dentine.  These  are  bounded  by  enamel 
and  are  united  by  cement.  The  number  of  these  trans- 
verse plates  varies  markedly  in  different  specimens  and 
different  species  and  varieties,  ranging  all  the  way  from 
four  to  twenty-seven,  t  The  marked  difference  apparent 
in  the  ridges  on  the  molars  of  the  African  and  Indian  ele- 
phants, respectively,  has  been  explained  as  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  food  of  the  former  is  usually  of  a  softer  kind  and 

*\V.  SoergeK  "Die  Stammesgeschichte  der  Elephanten";  Centralblatt  fUr  Mineralogie, 
Geologie,  und  Palttontologie»  No.  8,  April  15,  Stuttgart,  1915. 

fLoc.  cit.,  p.  248. 

tArthur  Hopewell-Smith,  "An  Introduction  to  Dental  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
Descriptive  and  Applied,'*  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  1913,  pp.  332,  333;  see  p.  91,  Fig. 
01«  for  coronal  aspects  of  molars  from  the  African  and  Indian  elephant. 


330     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

more  easily  masticated  than  that  on  which  the  Indian  ele- 
phants nourish  themselves.  This  has  resulted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  molars  on  the  surface  of  which  the  plates  appear 
in  perhaps  only  six  or  seven  lozenge-shaped  ridges. 

The  development  of  elephants  and  mastodons  and  the 
area  over  which  the  animals  roamed  in  the  later  geological 
periods  can  be  presented  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 
by  utilizing  the  evidence  provided  by  fossil  remains  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  following  views  are  oflFered 
by  one  of  the  most  competent  investigators  in  this  field.* 
The  geological  data  from  the  later  Tertiary  and  the  Qua- 
ternary periods  clearly  indicate  Asia  as  the  region  whence 
the  various  species  spread  themselves  over  the  world.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  the  northern  species  are  their 
smaller  size,  a  more  marked  specialization  of  the  teeth, 
length  of  tusks,  and  a  shortening  of  the  skull  accompanied 
by  a  proportionate  lengthening  of  the  trunk.  Primitive 
types  of  the  mastodon  have  been  found  in  the  Oligocene  of  In- 
dia, the  Lower  Miocene  of  Europe,  and  the  Middle  Miocene 
of  North  America,  the  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  of  India 
oflFering  the  best  view  of  the  intermediate  stages  of  the  pro- 
gressive developments  of  mammoth  and  elephant  from  the 
earlier  forms,  the  palseontological  material  from  North 
America  not  giving  as  exact  a  series.  While  mammoths 
and  elephants  were  very  widely  distributed  in  Pleistocene 
times,  there  is  but  scant  evidence  that  they  ever  extended 
to  South  America,  although  a  certain  quantity  of  mas- 
todon remains  have  been  found  there.  That  the  earli- 
est forms  of  Proboscidea  have  been  found  in  Egypt  is  not 
regarded  by  Doctor  Matthew  as  proof  of  the  Ethiopic  origin 
of  these  primal  forms,  as  the  Oligocene  of  northern  Egypt, 
whence  this  palseontological  material  has  been  derived, 

*W.  D.  Matthew,  "Climate  and  Evolution,"  Annals  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  171-818;  New  York,  February  18, 1915.    See  pp.  254,  855. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      331 

l>elongs  to  the  Mediterranean  sub-region  of  Holarctica,  not  to 
iiie  region  of  Ethiopia.  The  centre  of  dispersion  may  have 
1>een  southern  Asiatic  in  the  later  Tertiary,  this  centre 
xnoving  northward  after  the  spread  of  the  elephant  into 
Tiortheast  Africa.  The  following  table  is  given  by  Dr. 
HVIatthew  to  illustrate  the  distribution  of  the  Proboscidea.* 


FEBIOD        NETROPICAL        NECABTIC  PALJKABCTIC  ETHIOPIAN  ORIENTAL 

None  Nooe  None  Loxodon  Elephas 


DibekMloo       Elephas  Elephas 

Mastodoa       Mastodon 


Elephas 
Trilophodon 


Pliocene       None 


Miocene      None 


Oligocene     None 


None 


Dibelodon       Elephas  (No  record)        Stegodon 

Mastodon 
Tetralophodon 

Trilophodon    Trilophodon       Dinotherium      Tetralqihodon 
Dinotherium  Trilophodon 

Dinotherium 

None  None  FalsDomastodon  Hemimastodon 

Moeritherium     Dinotherium 
?  Bloeritherium 

None  None  Moeritherium     (No  record) 


The  duration  of  the  "Age  of  Mammals"  has  been  esti- 
mated by  various  geologists  as  being  from  3,000,000  to 
6,380,000  years  and  even  longer.  Wallace's  estimate  of 
1881  was  4,200,000  years.  This  covers  the  Tertiary  (Eocene, 
Oligocene,  Miocene,  Pliocene)  and  the  Quaternary  (Pleis- 
tocene, Recent)  periods;  4,000,000  years  are  assigned  to  the 
former  and  200,000  years  to  the  Quaternary.  This  last 
period,  however,  is  estimated  by  Penck  to  cover  from 
600,000  to  1,000,000  years.  Of  the  prehistoric  Magdalenian 
period,  to  which  is  assigned  the  remarkable  etching  of  a 
mammoth  on  a  piece  of  ivory,  Penck  estimates  that  it  lasted 
approxunately  from  22,000  to  14,000  B.C.f 

*W.  D.  Matthew,  "Climate  and  Evolution,"  Annals  of  the  New  Yoric  Academy  o< 
Sciences,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  171-818;  New  York,  Febniaiy  18,  1015.    See  p.  855. 

tHenry  FairBeld  Osbom,  "The  Age  of  Mammals  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America." 
New  York.  1010,  pp.  63,  385. 


S82     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  three  types  which  existed  at  the  same  time  with 
man  were  the  mastodon,  Mammvt  americanum^  in  North 
America,*  also  found  in  Russia,  the  straight-tusked  ele- 
phant, Elephas  antiquus^  in  Europe  and  southern  Asia, 
and  the  hairy  mammoth,  Elephas  primigenius,  in  Europe 
and  in  northern  Asia  and  North  America.  As  is  well  known, 
some  remarkably  well-preserved  specimens  of  the  last- 
named  type  have  been  found  in  Siberia,  one  of  the  most  im- 
pressive being  that  found  in  1900,  on  the  Beresovka,  Siberia, 
eight  himdred  miles  west  of  Bering  Strait,  and  sixty  miles 
north  of  the  boundary  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  remains 
show  unmistakable  evidences  of  a  violent  death,  probably 
resulting  from  a  fall  into  a  hidden  ice  crevasse.  In  the 
a,nimal's  mouth  could  still  be  seen  pieces  of  grass  partly 
masticated  and  unswallowed,  and  a  fractured  hip  Indicated 
a  disabling  injury  from  the  fall.  The  frantic  efforts  the 
mammoth  must  have  made  to  extricate  itself  from  its  icy 
prison  are  testified  to  by  a  mass  of  clotted  blood  in  its  chest 
resulting  from  the  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel.  This  mam- 
moth's hide  was  covered  with  an  under  coat  of  woolly, 
yellowish-brown  hair  and  an  outer  bristly  coat,  shading 
from  fawn  colour  to  a  dark  brown  or  black.  On  the  chin 
and  the  breast  this  hair  reached  a  length  of  at  least  half  a 
yard.  The  remains  have  been  set  up  in  the  Petrograd 
Museum  of  Natural  History  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
same  position  in  which  they  were  found,  the  skeleton  being 
placed  alongside  in  a  walking  posture.f 

This  Beresovka  mammoth,  as  it  is  now  commonly  called, 
was  first  reported  by  a  Lamut  named  Tarabykni,  who  was  out 

^Mastodons  of  peculiar  type  alao  existed  in  South  America,  probably  contemporary 
with  primitive  man;  the  true  elephants  did  not  reach  that  continent.  See  W.  B.  Scott, 
191S,  "History  of  the  Land  Mammals  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,"  p.  4S6. 

tRichaid  S.  Lull,  Ph.  D.,  "The  Evolution  of  the  Elephant,"  Annual  Report  (1008)  <^ 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  pp.  65i,  65S.  The  plate  in  the  present  work  ia  from  a 
photograph  sent  by  F.  Loewinson-Lessing,  of  the  Imperial  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Petrograd. 


I 


S    Jill  I 


ruji 

i     1.  '  1 


THE  BERESOVKA 


RIMIGESIUSj 


THE  lUPtBCAI.  HUBElll  OF  KATVRAL  H 


:1 

It 

r 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      333 

on  a  hunting  expedition  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Siberia, 
in  August,  1900.  On  the  steep  banks  of  the  Beresovka  River, 
an  affluent  of  the  Kolyma,  he  came  across  a  large  mammoth 
tusk  weighing  166  pounds,  and  soon  after  observed  in  the 
same  neighbourhood  the  well-preserved  head  of  a  mammoth 
still  retaining  one  of  the  tusks ;  the  large  tusk  first  found  did 
not,  however,  belong  to  these  remains.  Some  other  natives 
declared  that  they  had  already  seen  this  head  exposed  a 
year  earlier,  and  that  the  skin  was  even  then  partly  de- 
stroyed, the  tnmk  being  completely  absent.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Beresovka,  where  this  find  was  made,  the  upper- 
most layer,  from  30  cm.  to  52  cm.  thick,  consists  of  moss- 
covered  earth,  then  comes  an  earth  mass  from  2  to  4 
metres  in  thickness,  and  containing  fragments  of  stone 
and  wood  as  well  as  clumps  of  ice.  Beneath  this  is  a  hori- 
zontal, perpendicular  ice  wall.  The  mammoth  remains 
were  embedded  in  the  earthy  layer  directly  above  the  ice. 
An  expedition  imder  the  direction  of  the  late  Prof.  O. 
F.  Herz  was  sent  out  in  1901  to  unearth  the  remains  and 
to  transport  them  to  Petrograd.  This  task  was  success- 
fully accomplished,  the  fleshy  parts  being  packed  in  sacks 
filled  with  water  which  quickly  froze,  thus  preserving  the 
flesh  from  decomposition  during  the  transportion  on  sledges. 
Between  the  teeth  were  remains  of  grasses,  and  the  stomach 
still  contained  a  considerable  mass  of  food.  This  mam- 
moth was  of  the  male  sex  and  had  not  yet  attained  its  full 
growth;  its  length  was  about  3  metres  and  its  height  about 
2  metres,  or  6 J  ft.  The  single  tusk  remaining  was  1.75 
metres  long  and  weighed  about  63  pounds.  An  exceptionally 
interesting  circumstance  is  that  the  results  of  an  analysis 
of  clotted  blood  found  between  the  diaphragm  and  the 
stomach  established  the  relationship  of  this  Siberian  mam- 
moth with  the  Indian  elephant  species.  Nevertheless  the 
woolly  hairy  covering,  20  to  30  centimetres  long,  clearly 


334      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

showed  that  in  its  present  form  it  was  emphatically  a  north- 
em  animal.  This  was  also  apparent  from  the  thick  layer  of 
fat  beneath  the  skin.  Among  the  grasses  found  in  the  ele- 
phant's mouth  were  the  following  species :  Thymus  serpyllum^ 
Ranunculus  acer  borealis,  and  Papaver  alpium^  the  Alpine 
poppy,  a  relic  of  the  Glacial  Epoch.  All  the  indications 
point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  mammoth  inhabited  north- 
em  Siberia  at  a  time  when  the  conditions  diflFered  but  little 
from  those  of  the  present  day.* 

The  range  of  the  various  species  of  mammoth  has  been 
approximately  determined  by  the  ancient  remains  dis- 
covered. The  Siberian  mammoth  was  present  in  central 
Europe,  Alaska,  and  Canada,  as  well  as  in  Siberia,  the 
southern  limit  of  its  range  extending  into  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States;  the  Coliunbian  mammoth  roamed 
over  the  territory  now  constituting  the  United  States,  and 
beyond  its  southern  border,  while  the  Imperial  mammoth 
was  an  inhabitant  of  the  southwestern  part  of  this  territory 
and  also  of  Mexico. 

The  evolution  of  the  elephant,  though  there  are  some 
gaps  in  the  line  of  descent,  may  be  said  to  begin  as  has 
been  noted,  with  the  Eocene  and  Oligocene  Mceritheriumy 
then  comes  the  PcdcBomcLstodon  of  the  Oligocene  period, 
with  a  very  short  trunk,  longer  tusks,  and  an  anatomical 
structure  approaching  that  characteristic  of  the  mammoth 
and  the  elephant.  The  next  links  in  the  chain  are  the 
Miocene  Trilophodon  and  Tetrcdophodon,  a  specimen  of  the 
former  from  Texas  shows  well-developed  functional  lower 
tusks,  the  upper  tusks  being  relatively  short;  with  a  longi- 
tudinal strip  of  enamel  on  the  outer  side.f   In  size  the  Tri- 

*Dr.  Hugo  Obennaier,  "Der  Menacfa  der  Voneit,"  Allgemeine  VerUigs-Gesellschaft 
Berlin,  MUnchen,  Wien  [1012],  p.  70  sqq. 

fThe  tusks  are  sometimes  much  longer,  as  in  a  fine  skeleton  in  the  Paris  Museum*  but 
they  ar^  straight  instead  of  curving  upward. 


EroLUTtONART  Cbahokb  OF  Proboscidsa.       a.    Elephiu  eolumbi.         b.    Mammut 
\    Tttrahdodon  angtuHdent.       d.   Paiaonuulodon.       e.    ManthcriuM, 
CouTte*y  ol  Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull— From  hii  "The  Evolution  of  the  Elephant." 


336  IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 


Pbobobcideanb*  approximately  to  fcale.     a.     MtBrUherium,  Eocene,  Egypt. 
6.    PaUBonuutodon,    Miocene,    Egypt.        c.      Tetrabelodon    luUi,    Pliocene,    Nebraska. 
d,    Eubelodon  marrilU,  Pliocene,  Nebraska,    a  and  h  modified  after  Osbom. 

lophodon  might  be  compared  with  the  rhinoceros,  although 
its  head  was  larger.  This  brings  us  to  the  Stegomastodon 
of  the  Pliocene  or  Pleistocene  age,  which  shows  a  still 
nearer  approach  to  mastodon  and  mammoth.  In  a  Pliocene 
specimen  from  Texas  the  upper  tusks,  although  not  long, 
have  an  upward  curve  as  in  the  mammoth,  and  have  lost 
the  enamel  band  characteristic  of  the  older  proboscideans.* 
In  India  the  Pleistocene  river  deposits,  as  well  as  the 
Siwalik  formation  (Lower  Pliocene)  preserve  fossil  elephant 
remains,  mostly  of  a  type  nearly  allied  to  the  Indian  ele- 
phant of  our  own  day.  Some  varieties,  however,  appear  to 
be  representative  of  intermediate  stages  of  development 
between  the  Indian  and  the  African  elephants;  these  are 
Elephas  planifrons  and  Elephas  hysudricus.  In  these  latter, 
indeed,  we  are  said  to  have  the  earliest  examples  of  the  true 
elephant  that  have  been  anywhere  found.  These  Indian 
remains  cover  many  other  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the 
elephant,  and  exhibit  in  a  very  clear  manner  the  develop- 

*Communication  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Matthew,  Curator  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  Ifistory, 
New  Yoric.  See  also  O.  P.  Hay,  "Pleistocene  Mammals  of  Iowa,"  in  Ann.  Report  Iowa 
Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  zziii,  p.  878,  1915. 


The    Last  Lower   Molars   op    Proboscideans,    showing    progressive  changes. 
a.    Mcmiherium,      b,    PalaomaHodon,      c.     Tetrabdodon,      d.    Mtulodon  amerieamiM, 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      337 


Continu«tiotL  ».  MiuUidoti  anunemuM,  FInatocene,  Nebraska.  /.  BUpluu  hagi 
Fleutocene,  Nebnuka.  g.  Elepiiu  eolumbi,  Pleiatoceoe,  Nebraska.  eand;  modi 
fied  after  OabonL 

ment  of  the  molar  as  shown  in  living  elephants.  This, 
proceeding  from  the  nipple  tooth  of  the  mastodon,  its  thick 
cross-ridges  traversed  by  wide  depressions,  has  passed 
through  the  stage  exhibited  by  the  teeth  of  Stegodon,  having 
an  increased  number  of  ridges,  while  a  good  part  of  the 
intervening  spaces  is  now  partly  filled  up  with  dental  ce- 
ment. This  change  is  accentuated  in  the  true  elephant 
molar  with  still  deeper  ridges,  between  which  the  much 
greater  amount  of  cement  almost  serves  to  obliterate  the 
intervals.* 

The  German  zoologist,  Dr.  W.  Soergel,  finds  that  the 
form  of  the  skull  and  tusks  of  the  American  Elephas  im- 
■perator  correspond  fully  with  those  of  the  Old  World  species, 
meridionalis,  irogontherii,  and  primigenijis,  the  great  size 
of  the  imperator  also  indicating  its  formal  relationship  to 
these.  The  molars  of  imperator  represent  essentially  the 
stage  of  development  shown  in  Elephas  trogoniherii  meri- 

*See  A.  Smitb  Woodward,  "A  Guide  to  the  Fosail  Mammala  and  Birds  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Geoloey  and  Patcontolc^  in  the  Britiih  Museum,"  Londan,  ftth  ed.,  1909,  pp. 


SttgoAm.        i.    £M<)**<Wi- 


Recent 
Pleutoeene 
Upper  Pliocene 


CLtPHAS 
(afiertchin) 


Lover  Ptioeene     TETRABELODON 

(LONcmosTKis  stage] 
upper  Miocene        iahorteniiyehin) 


Middle  Miocene     TETRABELODON 

[ANCUSTIDENS  5TA&E) 
LowerMioeene  (limgdun) 


UpperOligaeene 


Higrattonfivm  Africa 
imp  Eun^  -Asia 


1 
}    PALAEO 


PALAEO  MASTOOOTJ 
ing  chin) 


MOERITHERIUM 
(^uirt  chin) 


Dmer  Oligocent'' 
VpperEocene 
MutdteEacene 
Lowier  Eocene 


Kst:rKT«i  or  Eixpbaitis.     Pragreuive  itages  of  devrlopmait. 
— From  "A  Guide  to  the  Elephants  (recent  mnd  fossil)  in  the  Bi 
MuMum  (Natural  History  Division),"  Dr.  A.  Smith  Woodward. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      339 

dionalis.  The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  American 
elephant,  especially  of  the  imperator  type^  according  to  Dr. 
Soergel,  is  its  race  purity  as  compared  with  the  more  vari- 
able forms  of  the  European  species.  He  considers  Elepkas 
columbi  to  be  the  direct  descendant  of  Elephas  imperator: 
whether  the  primigenius  form  in  America  was  an  autoch- 
thonous development  from  earlier  forms,  or  was  directly 
derived,  through  migration  from  Asia,  remains  doubtful.* 

The  early  discoverers  of  mammoth  bones  in  Europe 
were  confident  that  these  were  the  remains  of  men  of  gi- 
gantic stature.  They  were,  perhaps,  mindful  of  the  Scrip- 
tural saying  that  *' there  were  giants  in  those  days." 

The  choice  of  the  "Wild  Man"  or  the  "Giant  of  Reyden" 
as  bearer  of  the  city  coat-of-arms  of  Lucerne,  Switzerland, 
is  said  to  have  been  due  to  the  reconstruction — or  rather 
construction — of  a  putative  giant  figure  out  of  mammoth 
bones  found  near  the  monastery  of  Reyden,  Canton  Lu- 
cerne, in  1577.  Even  the  famous  physician  of  Basel,  Felix 
Plater,  gave  his  judgment  in  favour  of  the  theory  that  they 
were  the  bones  of  a  giant  when  he  was  shown  them  in  1584, 
and  in  pursuance  of  this  view  he  induced  the  painter,  H. 
Bock,  of  Basel,  to  make  a  sketch  of  a  gigantic  human  skele- 
ton built  up  out  of  these  mammoth  remains  and  which 
must  have  measured  over  16  ft.  in  height.  It  has  been 
stated  that  this  sketch  still  exists  in  the  Jesuit  monastery 

of  Lucerne,  t 

About  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  quan- 
tity of  bones  of  enormous  size  were  dug  up  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Is^re,  at  a  spot  where  Hannibal  halted  for  a  while 
on  his  expedition  from  Spain  to  Italy.  Many  of  the  learned 
of  the  time  asserted  that  these  bones  must  be  those  of  the 

*W.  Soergel,  "Die  Stammmesgeschichte  der  Elephanten,"  in  Centralblatt  fUr  Mineral- 
ogie,  Geologie,  und  Paliiontologie,  1915,  No.  9,  May  1,  pp.  278-284. 

t Johannes  Felix,  "Das  Mammuth  von  Boma,"  Leipsig,  1912,  p.  4. 


840     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Cimbrian  chief,  Teutobocchus,  whose  extraordinary  height 
is  recorded  by  Latin  authors,  although  they  seem  to  have 
failed  to  note  the  slight  objection  that  Teutobocchus, 
though  defeated  at  this  place,  survived  his  defeat  and  was 
forced  to  walk  in  the  triumphal  procession  of  the  victor. 
It  has  been  conjectured,  not  without  probability,  that  these 
were  the  bones  of  one  of  Hannibal's  elephants,  many  of 
which  died  on  the  way  to  Italy.* 

Many  important  facts  of  the  primitive  history  of  peoples 
have  been  learned  through  philology,  the  original  mean- 
ing of  the  roots  whence  names  of  animal  or  plant  species 
have  been  derived  usually  showing  the  impression  made 
by  the  plant  or  animal  form  upon  those  who  first  became 
acquainted  with  it.  More  especially  is  this  true  in  a  lan- 
guage of  such  peculiar  and  almost  transparent  structure  as 
Chinese.  Here  the  character  used  for  elephant  signifies 
also  form  and  image,  and  this  is  explained  by  the  tradition 
that  in  ancient  days  the  bones  of  a  dead  elephant  were 
found  and  were  put  together  to  look  like  the  living  animal. 
The  character  itself  in  its  earliest  form  represented  schemat- 
ically the  four  legs,  the  ears,  the  trunk,  and  the  tusks  of 
an  elephant.  The  name  given  to  a  large  district  in  the 
northern  part  of  Kwangsi  province  p>erpetuates  the  mem- 
ory of  the  finding  of  elephants  there  in  the  p>eriod  of  the 
Han  Dynasty,  founded  in  206  B.  C.f  A  Chinese  proverb 
expressive  of  inordinate  greed  is  "A  snake  would  fain  swal- 
low an  elephant."  The  use  of  ivory  adornment  for  the 
gates  of  the  Imperial  Palace  is  testified  to  by  the  fact  that 
"  ivory  gate  "  is  a  synonym  of  palace. 

"Buried  ivory,"  or  fossil  ivory,  appears  to  have  been 
known  at  an  early  p>eriod  to  the  Chinese.    They  accounted 


*John  Witaker,  "The  course  of  Hannibal  over  the  Alps  ascertained/'  London.  1704, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  35, 86. 

tS.  Wells  Williams.  "Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language,**  Shanghai,  190S,  p.  7M. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      341 

for  it  as  being  the  remains  of  a  fabulous  creature  denomi- 
nated ihien-shuy  or  "  the  mouse  that  hides."  This  "mouse," 
however,  is  said  to  have  been  as  large  as  an  elephant,  with 
bones  as  white  as  ivory,  and  coldy  but  pure  and  wholesome 
flesh;  an  allusion,  it  is  believed,  to  the  frozen  remains  of 
mammoths.  The  "claw  of  a  griflfin,"  said  to  have  been 
given  by  the  IGialif  Haroun  al  Rashid  to  Charlemagne,  was 
probably  a  horn  of  the  woolly  Siberian  rhinoceros.  This 
was,  however,  an  isolated  instance,  although  possibly  some 
of  the  unicorn's  horns  listed  in  old  inventories  may  have 
been  of  a  similar  kind,  but  the  first  certain  notice  we  have 
of  the  importation  of  Siberian  fossil  ivory  into  Western 
Europe  refers  to  some  brought  to  London  in  1611,  by  Josias 
Logan,  who  bought  it  from  the  Samoyedes  of  the  Pechora 
district.* 

Certain  data  regarding  the  reported  discovery  of  giants' 
bones  were  published  in  the  "Memoires"  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1727  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  whose  coUec- 
tionf  ormed  the  foundation  of  the  British  Museum. f  An  early 
instance  is  given  by  Pliny,  J  who  tells  of  an  immense  skeleton, 
46  cubits  high,  which  was  found  in  a  cavern  of  a  Cretan 
mountain  that  had  been  rent  asunder  by  an  earthquake.  An 
even  more  marvellous  tale,  told  in  late  medieval  times, 
recounted  the  finding  in  Rome  of  the  skeleton  of  Pallas, 
which  was  higher  than  the  city  walls.  A  still  stranger  in- 
stance is  given  by  Simon  Majolus**  who  quotes  from  Ful- 
gosus,  an  earlier  writer,  that  the  bones  of  one  of  the  olden 
giants  were  in  England,  in  1171,  still  lying  in  their  proper 
order  in  the  alluvium  of  a  river;  this  skeleton  measured 

*R.  Lydekker,  "Mammoth  Ivory/'  see  Smithsonian  Annual  Report  for  1890»  pp.  361- 
8M,  and  Sc.  Amer.  SuppL.  1228»  July  11»  1890. 

f'Mtooire  sur  les  dents  et  autre*  oasements  de  I'^^hant  trouv^s  dans  la  terre'*;  in 
M6moires  de  TAcaddmie  Royale  des  Sciences,  1727;  Paris,  1729,  pp.  S05  sqq. 

TNaturalis  Historia,"  Lib.  VII,  cap.  16. 

**Dienim  concuUrium,  colloq .  4,  p.  36. 


342     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

50  ft.  in  length.  These  and  many  other  such  instances 
are  thought  by  Sloane  to  have  referred  to  the  finding  of 
bones  of  extinct  Europ>ean  elephants.  Of  course  no  single 
elephant  skeleton  could  have  been  of  such  immense  size, 
but  the  dimensions  given  by  report  may  either  have  been 
the  result  of  pure  exaggeration,  or  may  have  arisen  from  the 
finding  together  of  the  bones  of  several  elephants  in  an  in- 
distinguishable mass,  which  might  suggest  the  idea  of  a 
single  skeleton  of  colossal  size. 

In  the  ancient  Greek  world  healing  virtues  were  sometimes 
attributed  to  the  bones  of  dead  heroes,  just  as,  in  a  somewhat 
similar  way,  virtues  were  and  still  are  believed  to  exist  in 
the  relics  of  Christian  saints.  Thus  a  supposititious  rib 
of  the  mythical  hero  Pelops  was  greatly  honoured  for  its 
remedial  power,  and  the  fact  that  the  supposed  bone  was 
really  a  piece  of  ivory  only  enhanced  its  value  instead  of 
causing  any  doubt  of  its  authenticity.  A  similar  curative 
power  was  accredited  to  the  great  toe  of  King  Pyrrhus  of 
Epirus,  if  we  are  to  credit  Pliny's  report.*  When  the 
King's  body  was  cremated  this  toe  would  not  burn,  and 
it  was  preserved  as  a  temple  treasure.  Virgil,  indeed, 
writes  of  the  "wonderful  ivory  shoulder-blade  of  Pelops." 
A  "gold  and  ivory"  thigh  bone  of  the  philosopher  Pythag- 
oras was  another  object  of  reverence;  this  probably  refers 
to  a  gold  setting  of  the  ivory,  just  as  some  of  the  more 
famous  medieval  relics  were  provided  with  a  rich  golden 
setting.  That  the  bone  should  be  of  ivory  was  p>erliaps 
thought  to  indicate  the  supreme  and  almost  miraculous 
beauty  of  the  hero's  or  philosopher's  physical  form. 

The  Konigliches  Naturaliencabinett  in  Stuttgart  can 
boast  of  having  some  of  the  finest  remains  of  extinct  ele- 
phant sp>ecies,  for  the  deposits  of  WUrttemberg  are  excep- 

*Pliiiii»  "Historia  naturalis,'*  Lib.  VU,  cap.  2;  cited  in  Petri  Friderici  Arpe,  "De  prodigiij 
naturse,'*  Hamburgi»  1717,  pp.  19,  20. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      343 

tionally  rich  in  this  respect.  A  mammoth  tusk  found  here 
in  1605  is  suspended  in  the  choir  of  the  Michaeliskirche  at 
Hall;  this  is  the  earliest  Suabian  find  certainly  known, 
although  Cuvier  had  heard  or  read  of  a  tusk  found  in  1494. 
By  far  the  most  important  of  these  discoveries  was  that  of 
the  nearly  complete  skeleton  of  a  mammoth  found  August 
6,  1910,  in  the  rubble  of  Steinheim-on-the-Murr,  of  middle 
Pleistocene  age.  A  careful  study  of  the  position  of  the 
separate  parts  of  the  skeleton  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
mammoth  had  not  died  on  the  spot,  but  that  its  dead  body 
had  been  borne  down  by  the  river,  and  had  stranded  on  a 
gravel  bank,  where  it  was  gradually  buried  beneath  the 
sand  deposits.  The  bones  were  yellowish  in  colour  and  had 
lost  nothing  of  their  form;  the  tusks  were  also  quite  per- 
fect as  to  form,  but  in  structure  they  had  suflfered  more  than 
many  others  from  the  deposits  of  this  region.  The  chief 
dimensions  of  the  mammoth  are  given  as  follows : 

Height  to  top  of  scapula 12  ft.  1  in. 

Length  from  tip  of  tusk  to  first  caudal  vertebra  16  ft.  7  in. 

Length  to  end  of  tail  17  ft.  3  in. 

Doctor  Dietrich  of  Berlin  has  bestowed  the  name 
Elephas  primigenius  Fraasiy  Dietr.,  upon  this  species  of 
mammoth  as  characteristic  of  the  WUrttemberg  type,  and 
in  honour  of  palaeontologist  Prof.  Dr.  E.  Fraas  of  Stuttgart, 
who  died  in  1915.* 

The  curious  superstition  that  illness  would  befall  any  one 
who  unearthed  the  complete  body  of  a  dead  mammoth  is 
prevalent  among  the  Lamuts  of  northeastern  Siberia,  al- 
though they  do  not  hesitate  to  take  oflf  and  utilize  the  tusks 
wherever  these  may  be  found.  This  probably  goes  to  prove 
the  rarity  of  such  remains  in  a  relatively  perfect  state  and  it 


*0.  W.  Dietrich.  **Elephaa  pritnigenius  Fraasi,  eine  schw&biBche  Mammutraue, 
Stuttgart.  1912. 


»» 


844      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

may  be  due  to  this  superstitious  dread  that  neither  the  orig- 
inal native  discoverer  of  the  Beresovka  mammoth  in  1900, 
nor  those  of  his  tribe  to  whom  he  shortly  afterward  commu- 
nicated his  discovery,  dared  to  make  any  eflfort  to  remove  the 
body.* 

The  finding  of  the  remains  of  a  mammoth  in  northern 
Siberia  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  reported  by  the  Dutch  traveller,  Is- 
brand  Ides,  his  informant  being  a  native,  who  made  yearly 
trips  in  search  of  fossil  ivory.  This  man  stated  that  he  and 
a  companion  once  found  the  head  of  a  mammoth  or  elephant 
which  had  become  freed  from  the  enveloping  ice.  The  tusks 
were  still  attached  to  the  head  and  were  only  broken  off  with 
considerable  difficulty;  some  flesh  in  an  advanced  state  of 
decomposition  still  clung  to  the  skull.  Working  down 
through  the  ice  they  came  upon  one  of  the  forelegs,  a  piece 
of  which  they  cut  off  and  took  to  the  city  of  Trugan.  On  the 
neck  of  the  animal  they  saw  something  red  that  looked  like 
blood.  Ides  was  told  by  the  natives  of  this  region  that  the 
subterranean  wanderings  of  these  mammoths  were  sometimes 
betrayed  by  a  sudden  upheaval  of  the  soil,  which  would 
then  fall  in,  forming  a  deep  pit.  He  was  also  told  by  one 
of  the  natives  that  the  latter  had  found  a  pair  of  tusks  weigh- 
ing the  equivalent  of  400  Dutch  pounds.  Even  at  this  early 
p>eriod  considerable  fossil  ivory  was  taken  to  Russia  and 
worked  up  into  combs  and  other  objects,  t 

The  growth  of  popular  legend  that  often  results  from  an 
effort  to  find  an  explanation  for  some  strange  and  apparently 
mysterious  fact  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  natives  of  the 
Liakhov  Islands  in  northern  Siberia.  They  explain  the 
existence  of  the  immense  deposits  of  the  bones  and  tusks  of 

*See  O.  F.  Hera»  in  Bulletin  de  L*Acad4mie  des  Sdences  de  St.  P^tenbouig,  Ser.  V,  Vol. 
XVI,  pp.  147,  148  (text  in  Russian). 

fides,  "Driejarige  Reize  naar  China,*'  Amsterdam,  1704,  p.  SI. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      345 

extinct  elephants  by  the  theory  that  these  animals  existed 
beneath  the  soil,  and  were  destined  by  nature  to  pass  their 
lives  in  p>erpetual  darkness,  but  in  the  course  of  their  sub- 
terranean burrowings  they  would  ever  and  anon  work  their 
way  up  to  the  surface,  and  when  they  emerged  were  in- 
stantly killed  by  the  light.*  Similar  notions  as  to  the  origin 
of  deposits  of  fossil  ivory  have  been  reported  from  points 
near  the  Chinese  frontier  where  fossil  ivory  has  been  found,  t 

The  Scotchman,  John  Bell,  who  accompanied  the  Russian 
envoy  Ismailov  to  Pekin  in  1719-1722,  also  gathered  up 
some  strange  stories  regarding  the  Siberian  elephants, 
which  were  represented  to  be  amphibious  creatures,  never 
to  be  seen  except  on  the  banks  of  rivers  or  in  marshy  land, 
and  that  only  in  the  night  time  or  at  break  of  day.  If  they 
became  aware  that  they  were  watched  they  would  imme- 
diately plunge  into  the  water  to  hide  themselves. J  About 
this  time  a  pud  (36  pounds)  of  fossil  ivory  cost  but  from 
from  three  to  four  rubles.**  The  report  of  this  journey  is  be- 
lieved to  have  induced  Peter  the  Great  to  issue,  in  1722, 
his  orders  to  seek  for  fossil  ivory. 

By  many  the  "fossil  ivory'*  of  Theophrastus  has  been 
not  improbably  identified  with  the  so-called  bone  turquoise 
or  odontolite.  The  description  of  the  appearance  of  this 
"fossil  ivory"  given  by  the  Greek  author,  "dark  blue 
marked  with  white,"  is  not  inappropriate  to  the  fossil  bone 
or  ivory  tinged  by  iron  phosphate  that  goes  by  the  name  of 
"bone  turquoise. "§ 

Some  idea  of  the  quantity  of  Siberian  mammoth  ivory 
supplied  to  the  London  market  in  1872  and  1873  may  be  de- 

^'Archaic,  in  Rtvue  de*  Coura  Scientifiquea,  Vol.  I,  p.  457. 

tPicteU  "TraiU  de  Palfentologie."  Vol.  I,  p.  «81. 

JBcll  "Traveb,"  Glasgow,  1763,  Vol.  II,  p.  147. 

**Muller,  "Sammlungen  zur  russischen  Geflchichte,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  561 

§See  King,  ''Natural  History  of  Gems,"  London,  1867,  p.  60. 


846      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

rived  from  the  statement  of  Mr.  Westendaip  that  1,165 
mammoth  tusks  were  received  there  from  Siberia  in  1872, 
and  1,140  tusks  in  the  following  year,  each  of  these  weighing 
from  140  to  150  pounds.  However,  only  about  14  per  cent, 
of  this  material  was  of  the  first  quality,  17  per  cent,  being 
still  useful  though  of  inferior  quaUty.  More  than  half  was 
very  poor  and  15  per  cent,  entirely  worthless.* 

The  French  zoologist.  Doctor  Trouessart,  holds  out  the 
hope  that  in  case  the  African  source  of  supply  for  ivory 
should  show  signs  of  exhaustion,  through  the  killing  off  of 
the  elephants,  Siberian  mammoth  ivory  might  suffice  to 
provide  the  requisite  material.  He  believes  that  what  has 
already  been  taken  from  this  source  is  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  deposits,  and  that  if  deep  excavations  were  made, 
perhaps  using  dynamite  to  blast  out  the  ground,  very  rich 
deposits  would  be  encountered,  and  he  declares  that  "there 
is  every  hop>e  of  finding  a  precious  reserve  in  the  fossil  ivory 

of  Siberia."! 

The  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  in  Paris  is  now  in  pos- 
session of  the  remains  of  a  Siberian  mammoth  with  its  soft 
parts  partially  preserved.  The  only  other  specimens  of 
this  kind  are  in  the  Imp>erial  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  Petrograd.  That  now  in  Paris  was  extracted  by  the 
orders  and  at  the  expense  of  Count  Stenbok-Fermor  from 
one  of  the  islands  of  the  New  Siberia  group,  and  there  is 
little  likelihood  of  another  such  mammoth  being  seen  in 
Central  Europe,  as  the  exportation  of  mammoth  remains 
has  recently  been  prohibited  by  imperial  ukase.  { 

The  remarkable  preservation  of  certain  mammoth  re- 
mains embedded  for  tens  of  thousands  of  years  in  Siberian 

*SmithflOQian  Institution  Annual  Report  for  1899,  R.  Lydekker,  "Mammoth  Ivory," 
p.  806. 

tSee  Smithsonian  Report  for  1899,  R.  Lydekker,  "Manmioth  Ivory/*  p.  S66,  Wash- 
ington, 1901: 

tChemical  Newn,  July  25,  1913,  p.  46. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      347 

ice  blocks  has  been  proven  to  extend  even  to  the  blood  of 
these  extinct  mammals.  In  preparing  the  fine  specimen 
recently  acquired  by  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  of 
Paris,  some  brownish  drops  were  found  in  one  of  the 
veins,  and  analysis  revealed  the  fact  that  they  were  blood 
drops,  which  still  retained  their  liquid  state,  although 
the  pulsating  heart  had  ceased  to  beat  perhaps  40,000 
years  ago.*  As  we  have  already  noted  clotted  blood 
was  also  found  in .  the  chest  of  the  great  mammoth  from 
Beresovka,  recently  set  up  in  the  Petrograd  Museum  of 
Natural  History. 

A  law  at  present  in  force  in  Russia  provides  that  all  mam- 
moth tusks  taken  from  the  Siberian  region  shall  be  sent  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Petrograd,  but  the  provi- 
sions of  this  law  are  evaded  or  at  least  not  fulfilled  by  the 
natives,  Ostiaks,  and  others,  who  are  probably  quite  ignorant 
of  its  existence.  Such  tusks  as  are  still  found — the  quan- 
tity is  constantly  diminishing — show  a  maximum  diameter 
of  about  20  cm.  (nearly  8  in.),  a  maximum  length  of  2 
metres,  a  little  over  6 J  ft.,  and  a  maximum  weight  of  150 
kilograms,  or  about  330  pounds.  The  natives  are  ready 
to  exchange  any  they  may  find  for  powder  or  flour,  but  more 
especially  for  liquor.  *  The  finding  of  any  extraordinary 
specimen  is,  however,  generally  reported  to  the  Academy. 
The  price  of  this  mammoth  ivory  as  used  in  the  arts  iiJ  from 
50  kopecks  to  2  rubles  for  a  Russian  pound  (420  grams). 
Billiard  balls  are  produced  to  a  certain  extent  in  Moscow 
and  St.  Petersburg,  and  ateliers  in  Tobolsk  and  Chelia- 
binsk  furnish  a  considerable  variety  of  objects,  such  as  cru- 
cifixes, small  statues,  groups  of  Ostiaks,  figures  of  reindeer, 
bears,  and  other  animals.  Where  the  tusk  is  of  suflScient 
size  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  artist  decorates 
it  with  such  figures  carved  in  relief.     While  this  work  may 

*Conmiumcatioii  of  Prof.  G.  On^aime  Clerc  of  Ekaterinburg,  Russia. 


348      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

not  claim  the  highest  artistic  merit,  its  fidelity  to  nature  lends 
it  a  particular  charm.* 

The  molar  of  an  elephant  has  been  found  in  the  island 
of  Luzon,  Philippines.  This  was  probably  brought  thither 
from  India.  On  the  island  of  Mindanao  a  tooth  of  Stegodon. 
trigonocephalus  mindanojoensis  was  discovered.  This  genus 
stands  between  the  mastodon  and  the  modem  elephant, 
although  more  nearly  resembling  the  latter.  This  is  the 
only  instance  on  record  of  the  finding  of  such  remains  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  The  tooth  was  found  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  island,  and  is  at  present  in  the  Ethno- 
logical Museum  at  Dresden  (No.  2679).  The  discovery 
was  made  by  Semp>er,  who  described  it  as  ^' a  tooth  of  the 
war  god  Tagbusu  of  the  Manobos,  only  to  be  worn  by  a 
Bagani  (a  priest  or  a  prince);  it  was  used  as  a  taUsman." 
The  tooth  is  bound  with  varicoloured  strings,  so  attached 
that  it  could  be  worn  suspended.! 

The  fact  that  the  mammoth  remains  so  far  found  in 
Alaska  are  in  a  much  inferior  state  of  preservation  than  those 
discovered  in  Siberia  has  been  very  reasonably  adduced 
as  a  proof  that  these  animals  became  extinct  at  a  much 
earlier  date  in  Alaska  than  in  Siberia.  There  seems  also 
to  be  little  doubt  that  most  of  the  Alaskan  manmioth  re- 
mains are  not  in  their  original  place,  but  have  been  carried 
by  water  or  ice  drift  for  a  long  distance  from  the  spot  where 
the  animals  perished.  All  these  Alaskan  remains  of  the 
Pleistocene  age  have  been  determined  to  be  those  of  £fe- 
phaa  primigenius.  These  remains  are  not  confined  to  the 
mainland,  as  a  few  have  been  found  on  islands  of  the  Pri- 
bilov  group  in  Bering  Sea.     Whether  their  existence  can  be 

^Communicated  by  Prof.  G.  On^ime  Clerc  of  Ekaterinburg.  For  further  detaOi  re- 
garding nuunmoth  tuslu  see  pp.  234-240,  387  aqq. 

tDr.  Edmund  Naumann»  "Foasile  Elephantenreste  von  Mindanao,  Sumatra,  und  Malak- 
ka,*'  in  Abhandl.  u.  Berichte  d.  KOnig.  Zo(ilog.  u.  Anthrop.-Ethnolog.  Museum  zu  Dres- 
den. 1886-7;  No.  6,  pp.  5-8,  Berlin,  1887. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      349 

safely  taken  as  a  proof  that  these  islands  were  connected 
with  the  mainland  during  the  period  in  which  the  mammoth 
wandered  through  Alaska,  or  whether  the  bones  and  tusks 
that  have  been  found  were  washed  up  by  the  ocean  after 
having  been  borne  to  the  sea  by  the  mainland  rivers,  is  a 
question  not  easily  to  be  decided.  Indeed,  it  has  been  re- 
garded as  probable  that  the  Pribilov  Islands  are  of  very 
recent  geologic  formation  and  did  not  exist  in  the  time  of 
the  Alaskan  mammoth.* 

As  regards  the  Alaskan  mammoth,  Maddem  states  that 
the  lowest  horizon  in  which  remains  are  found  here  are  the 
lacustrine  facies  of  the  "Yukon  silts*'  or  the  **Kowak 
clays,"  and  he  considers  the  peculiar  ice  phenomena  of 
Eschscholtz  Bay,  the  ancient  ice  beds  beneath  a  covering 
of  soil,  to  be  an  example  of  "former  lake-shore  conditions, 
as  is  also  the  locality  in  the  Beresovka  River  in  north- 
eastern Siberia  described  by  Tolmatschow."t 

There  appears  to  be  a  general  agreement  among  all  those 
who  have  described  the  finding  of  mammoth  remains  at 
or  near  Elephant  Point  that  they  are  never  met  with  in  the 
ice  bed  or  in  the  earthy  layers  above  this,  but,  whatever 
their  actual  location  at  the  time  of  discovery,  have  come 
from  the  clay  stratum  below  the  ice  layer.  Indeed,  the 
most  probable  explanation  of  the  greater  part  of  these  oc- 
currences is  that  the  bones  or  tusks  were  drifted  down  the 
Buckland  River  on  floating  ice,J  as  were  also  blocks  of 
sandstone  and  basalt  found  on  the  beach. 

In  the  report  of  the  voyage  of  the  British  ship  Herald 

*A.  G.  Maddern,  "Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  Search  of  Mammoth  and  Other 
Fossil  Remains/'  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  Part  of  Vol.  XLIX,  Washington, 
1907,  p.  7,  and  21.22. 

fMaddem,  "Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  1904,  in  Search  of  Mammoth  and 
Other  Fossil  Remains,*'  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  part  of  Vol.  XLIX*  pp. 
25.  S8. 

^Maddem,  op.  Ht.,  pp.  f)1.  62. 


350     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

during  the  years  1845-1851,  it  is  noted  that  in  1848  there 
were  gathered  from  the  stratum  of  alluvium  covering  the 
hidden  glacial  layer  at  Eschscholtz  Bay  eight  mammoth 
tusks  "'the  largest  of  which,  though  broken  at  the  point, 
was  11  ft.  6  in.  long,"  21  in.  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and 
weighed  243  pounds;  besides  this  fine  tusk,  molar  teeth,  thigh 
bones,  and  ribs  of  the  mammoth  were  discovered.* 

The  results  arrived  at  by  Maddem  were  confirmed  in 
1907  by  Charles  W.  Gilmore  in  the  course  of  another  Smith- 
sonian Expedition  to  Alaska.  While  mammoth  remains  of 
Pleistocene  age  were  found  in  the  black  mud  accumulated 
in  the  stream  valleys  and  in  the  Yukon  silt  and  Kowak 
clays,  almost  all  seem  to  be  far  removed  from  their  original 
locality.  Among  the  few  cases  in  which  there  appears  to 
be  an  approach  to  a  primary  disposition  is  the  deposit 
at  Fox  Gulch,  Bonanza  Creek,  Yukon  Territory,  Canada, 
at  a  distance  of  twelve  miles  from  Dawson.  At  this  point, 
in  a  short  deep  gulch  cut  through  the  quartz  drift, 
covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  auriferous  gravel,  on  which  has 
been  deposited  a  thick  layer  of  muck,  were  found  many 
beautifully  preserved  fossils,  including  a  complete  skull 
of  a  mammoth  and  a  large  tusk,  which  protruded  from 
the  face  of  the  undisturbed  muck.f  An  exceptionally 
fine  relic  of  Elephas  primigenius  was  a  skull  with  both  tusks, 
found  in  March,  1904,  forty- two  feet  down  in  the  muck  of 
Quartz  Creek,  near  Dawson,  Yukon  Territory,  Canada,  t 

That  the  date  to  be  fixed  for  the  extermination  of  the 
fauna  whose  remains  are  found  in  certain  deposits  cannot 
safely  be  deduced  from  the  depth  at  which  they  are  found 

*Berthold  Seemann*  "Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  the  H.  M.  S.  Herald.  During  the 
Yeara  1845-51,  under  CapUin  Henry  Kellert,  R.  N.,"  Vol.  II.  pp.  84,  S5. 

tCharles  W.  Gilmore,  "Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  1007  in  Search  of  Plei- 
stocene Fossil  Vertebrates,"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collectioas,  part  of  Vol.  LI* 
Washington,  1908,  pp.  14,  15;  see  plate  IV,  Figs.  1  and  8. 

tf  lilmore,  op.  oit.,  p.  25,  PI.  VII. 


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EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      351 

is  asserted  by  Charles  W.  Gilmore,  because  the  greater 
weight  of  certain  bones  or  tusks  may  have  caused  them  to 
work  deeper  into  the  soft  soil  in  which  they  are  dep)osited 
in  the  course  of  a  long  lapse  of  time.  As  to  this  Mr.  Gil- 
more  writes:* 

"Their  presence  here  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  animals  became  mired  in  the  bogs  before 
they  became  solidly  frozen  as  they  are  now.  This  naturally 
raises  the  question:  If  mired  down  in  such  a  place,  why 
is  it  that  the  remains  should  be  so  universally  scattered?" 
The  writer  suggests  that  they  may  have  been  separated  by 
the  creeping  of  the  muck  or  peat — a  phenomenon  familiar 
to  all  students  of  deposits  of  this  nature.  By  such  creeping 
the  muck  may  have  moved  considerable  distances,  particu- 
larly where  the  flow  is  inclined,  as  in  many  of  the  gulches. 
From  the  fact  that  most  of  the  bones  occur  in  the  lower  layers 
of  the  muck,  no  matter  what  the  depth  of  the  deposits  may 
be,  it  is  apparent  that  their  specific  gravity  has  caused  them 
to  sink  to  their  present  resting-places.  Thus  it  would  not 
be  necessary  for  the  extermination  of  the  fauna  to  have 
taken  place  at  one  time,  as  might  be  inferred  by  their  occur- 
rence at  one  level. 

The  mammoth  tusks  found  in  Alaska  are  not  in  a  suf- 
ficiently good  state  of  preservation  to  compete  with  the 
Siberian  fossil  ivory,  for  they  are  usually  badly  discoloured 
and  exfoliated.  Still  parts  of  them  have  been  successfully 
worked  up  as  curios  into  the  form  of  paper-weights  on  which 
were  engraved  representations  of  Alaskan  scenes.  Often 
the  hairy  mammoth  is  depicted,  many  of  these  carvings  or 
etchings  being  the  work  of  native  Eskimo  carvers.  The 
dealers  in  Skagway  draw  their  material  principally  from  the 

*ChArIcs  W.  Gilmore,  "Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  1907  in  Search  of  Piei- 
■tocene  Fossil  Vertebrates/'  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  part  of  Vol.  LI, 
Washington,  I(K)8,  p.  25. 


352   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

Klondyke  region,  while  that  brought  to  Nome  usually  comes 
from  Eschscholtz  Bay  or  from  the  Buckland  or  Kobuk 
rivers.  Pieces  of  tusks  shaped  into  sled  runners  were 
seen  by  Gilmore,  and  he  also  saw  some  sections  formed  into 
weights  for  working  salmon  nets.  A  notable  by-product 
of  this  Alaskan  ivory  is  a  blue  dye  derived  by  the  Eskimo 
from  the  blue  phosphate  of  lime  (vivianite)  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  some  of  the  tusks.* 

The  eflFect  of  an  endless  chain  of  newspaper  items,  lead- 
ing on  to  the  production  of  a  cleverly  written  hoax  retailing 
the  killing  of  a  Uving  mammoth  in  Alaska,  is  related  by 
Dr.  F.  A.  Lucas  in  his  ''Animals  of  the  Past."  It  appears 
that  when,  twenty  or  more  years  ago,  the  United  States 
revenue  cutter  Corwin  was  anchored  at  Kotzebue  Sound 
in  Alaska,  the  natives  of  this  region,  which  is  rich  in  re- 
mains of  the  extinct  mammoth,  brought  many  fine  speci- 
mens on  board  to  sell  to  the  visitors.  When  questioned  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  remains  these  native  Innuits  replied 
without  hesitation  that  no  living  mammoth  had  ever  been 
seen,  and  then  asked  their  white  questioners  whether  the 
latter  had  ever  seen  these  animals.  As  chance  would  have 
it,  there  was  on  board  a  copy  of  one  of  the  rep)orts  of  the 
Petrograd  Geographical  Society,  containing  a  represen- 
tation of  the  great  mammoth  skeleton  set  up  in  the 
Petrograd  Museum  of  Natural  History.  This  was  shown 
to  the  natives,  and  they  were  delighted  to  be  able  to  rec- 
ognize the  long  curving  tusks  with  which  they  had  grown 
familiar.  As  the  skeleton,  however,  did  not  quite  satisfy 
them  and  they  begged  to  have  a  picture  of  a  living  animal. 
Dr.  C.  H.  Townsend  took  pity  on  them,  and  having  passed 
some  time  in  Ward's  establishment  in  Rochester  when  a 
replica  of  the  Stuttgart  restoration  of  a  mammoth  was  being 
made,  he  sketched  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper  the  animal  figure 

*Charle8  A.  Gilmore,  op.  cit.,  pp.  28,  id. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       353 

as  he  remembered  it.  This  sketch  was  taken  oflF  to  shore 
as  a  great  treasure  by  the  natives,  and  as  they  are  clever 
copyists,  it  was  multiplied  many  times  over  and  the  copies 
widely  circulated  from  hand  to  hand  throughout  the  region. 
Thus  it  came  about  that  when  questioned  by  travelling 
newspai>er  men,  the  natives  were  generally  able  to  give 
what  seemed  to  be  a  very  plausible  account  of  the  api>earance 
and  habits  of  manmioths,  so  much  so  that  these  enterprising 
knights  of  the  pen  felt  little  hesitation  in  reporting  the 
actual  existence  of  living  individuals  of  this  long-extinct 
species  in  out-of-the-way  parts  of  our  immense  Alaskan 
territory.  As  usual,  these  news  items  were  copied  from 
pai>er  to  paper,  gaining  a  certain  strength  by  repetition, 
and  at  last  forming  the  framework  for  a  very  well-written 
tale  of  the  "Killing  of  a  Mammoth,"  by  Mr.  H.  Tukeman, 
which  was  published  in  McClure's  Magazine  in  1899,  and 
was  so  circumstantially  narrated  that  questions  came  pour- 
ing into  the  museums  for  further  details  on  the  subject.  As 
the  narrator  at  the  close  of  his  tale  had  given  the  informa- 
tion that  the  skin  of  the  recently  slain  mammoth  was  to  be 
set  up  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington,  the 
director  was  of  course  overwhelmed  with  inquiries  from 
those  who  were  eager  to  view  it,  and  it  was  some  time  before 
the  fact  could  be  made  generally  known  that  the  whole 
affair  was  only  a  literary  mystification.* 

The  care  that  should  be  exercised  in  determining  the 
true  source  of  ivory  material  used  industrially  is  rendered 
apparent  by  the  following  account  rf 

"In  1904  the  writer  saw  sections  of  mammoth  tusks  in 
the  curio  shops  at  Nome  that  had  been  polished  and  carved 
by  the  Eskimo  of  King  Island  in  Bering  Sea.     The  fact  that 

^Frederic  A.  Lucas,  "  Animab  of  the  Past/*  New  York,  1901,  pp.  190  sqq. 

tThe  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  Vol.  XLIX,  Washington,  1905,  p.  82, 
A.  G.  Maddem,  "Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  1904." 


S54      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

natives  from  that  place  sold  these  to  dealers  in  Nome  is 
the  basis  for  the  statement,  by  the  dealers,  that  the  ivory 
comes  from  King  Island,  but  it  appears  most  likely  that  the 
tusks  were  obtained  from  the  Alaskan  mainland,  which  is 
visited  each  smnmer  by  these  islanders,  and  carried  to  their 
settlement  for  the  purposes  of  manufacture  and  thence  to 
Nome  for  sale." 

It  is  not  only  in  the  frozen  north,  in  Alaska  and  Siberia, 
that  the  ivory  of  the  extinct  mammoth  is  well  enough 
preserved  to  render  it  available  as  an  industrial  material 
to-day,  but  even  in  England  an  elephant  tusk  found  on  the 
coast  of  Yorkshire  near  Bridlington  was  in  such  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation  that  a  good  part  of  it  was  utilized 
by  an  ivory  turner  for  the  making  of  boxes.  A  fragment 
of  this  Yorkshire  tusk  was  found  on  comparison  to  differ 
but  little  in  appearance  or  condition  from  those  obtained  in 
or  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  at  Eschscholtz  Bay,  Alaska.* 

The  persistent,  circumstantial,  and  apparently  trustworthy 
reports  that  the  body  of  a  mammoth  still  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation  had  been  discovered  in  Alaska  induced  the 
sending  of  an  expedition  in  1907,  by  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History;  in  1908  a  second  attempt  was  made  in 
the  same  field.  These  expeditions,  planned  by  Prof.  Henry 
Fairfield  Osborn  and  Director  H.  C.  Bumpus,  were  carried 
out  by  Dr.  L.  S.  Quackenbush,  who  has  supplied  a  very  full 
account  of  the  results  attained.f  As  it  was  soon  demon- 
strated that  the  newspaper  reports  of  the  finding  of  an  entire 
mammoth  were  devoid  of  foimdation,  the  efforts  of  the 
explorer  were  more  especially  directed  to  the  historic  Esch- 

^mithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  Vol.  XLIX«  Washington,  1905,  A.  G.  Maddem, 
"Smithsonian  Exploration  in  Alaska  in  1004,*'  p.  82,  citing  Doctor  Buckland's  notes  of  an 
expedition  of  1828. 

t  "Notes  on  Alaskan  Mammoth  Expeditions  of  1007  and  1008,'*  by  L.  S.  Quackenbush; 
Bulletin  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  87-180;  New  York, 
March  24, 1909. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      355 

scholtz  Bay  district,  and  especially  to  that  part  comprising 
Elephant  Point  and  the  neighbouring  cliffs  and  ridges. 
The  early  explorers  of  a  century  ago  had  already  found 
mammoth  remains  in  or  near  the  strange  glacial  formations 
here,  and  many  theories  were  propoimded  to  account  for  their 
presence  therein  and  for  the  origin  of  the  glaciers  themselves. 

The  channel  of  Eschscholtz  Bay  runs  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Buckland  River,  at  the  bay's  southeastern  end.  Its  waters 
are  quite  shallow,  and  the  depth  of  the  channel  at  Elephant 
Point  has  been  found  to  be  only  from  fifteen  US  twenty  feet. 
The  tides  here  vary  much  from  time  to  time,  with  an  average 
rise  of  about  three  feet  from  low  water.  Owing  to  the 
shallowness  of  the  water  these  tides  exercise  a  marked  effect. 

The  fossil-bearing  bluff,  some  three  miles  and  a  half  in 
length,  first  noted  by  Kotzebue  in  1815,  is  situated  between 
the  base  of  Elephant  Point  and  a  vertical  rocky  cliff,  at  the 
southern  entrance  of  the  bay,  and  at  the  western  margin 
of  a  Pleistocene  deposit  of  fine  micaceous  silt  or  clay.  The 
fossil-bearing  bluff  does  not  cease  at  Elephant  Point,  but 
is  prolonged  behind  it  and  parallel  with  the  shore  of  Goose 
Bay  to  the  southward  and  eastward.* 

Of  all  the  fossil  mammoth  remains  found  on  this  historic 
bluff  the  most  interesting  was  the  distal  end  of  a  fractured 
thigh  bone,  to  which  adhered  pieces  of  soft  flesh  and  tendon. 
Subsequent  investigation  indicated  that  part  of  a  mammoth 
skeleton  was  embedded  here  in  its  primary  entombment. 
Of  this  incomplete  skeleton  the  following  parts  were  found : 
the  right  innominate  bone,  femur,  tibia,  and  fibula,  four  of 
the  small  foot  bones,  the  lower  jaw  with  the  teeth,  two  tusks, 
a  number  of  small  fragments  of  the  skull,  six  thoracic  verte- 
brae, several  caudal  vertebrae,  and  the  end  of  the  tail  encased 


*L.  S.  Quackenbush,  "Notes  on  Alaska  Mammoth  Expeditions  of  1907  and  1908/' 
Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History»  Vol.  XXVI,  Art.  IX,  pp.  89-180, 
New  York,  March  24,  1909;  see  pp.  94  sqq. 


856      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

in  skin  and  hair;  there  were  also  several  broken  ribs,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  flesh,  skin,  hair,  and  wool.  All  these  re- 
mains were  comprised  within  a  small  area,  10  by  7  ft.,  on  the 
exposed  face  of  the  knoll,  and  the  missing  parts  are  assumed 
to  have  been  carried  away  by  the  slide  which  bore  oflf  a 
portion  of  the  face  of  the  knoll.* 

The  Alaskan  region  in  which  most  of  the  Eskimo  ivory 
carving  is  done  lies  between  the  Yukon  delta  and  the  lower 
Kuskokwin,  much  work  of  superior  excellence  being  pro- 
duced in  the  villages  of  Askinuk,  Kushimuk,  Agiukchu- 
gumut,  and  other  neighbouring  settlements.  The  attractive 
carvings  made  by  the  Eskimo  people  of  Ukagamut  were  in 
strongly  marked  contrast  with  the  squalid  conditions  of 
their  life.  It  was  also  noted  that  these  Alaskan  Eskimos 
had  no  high  opinion  of  the  value  of  their  work,  for  they  were 
usually  very  eager  to  trade  oflF  a  pretty  carving  for  one  or 
two  needles,  a  brass  button,  or  some  such  objects  of  trifling 
value,  t  Still  the  needles,  at  least,  may  have  had  a  much 
greater  value  for  the  Eskimo  than  the  visitors  supposed. 

Either  because  of  a  superstitious  fancy,  or  because  of 
some  ascertained  practical  advantage,  the  Eskimos  of 
Alaska  utilize  human  fluids  to  a  great  extent  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  ornamentation  of  their  fossil  or  walrus  ivory,  for 
it  is  said  to  be  customary  with  them  to  soak  the  material 
thoroughly  in  urine  in  order  to  soften  it  before  cutting  and 
carving.  It  is  also  frequently  moistened  with  this  liquid 
as  the  work  progresses.  Blood  mixed  with  gun-powder  is 
used  to  make  a  black  dye,  which  is  rubbed  into  the  freshly 
cut  incisions  forming  the  design,  to  stain  them  permanently 
and  thus  bring  them  into  greater  reUef.J 

*QiiAckenbuflh,  op.  cit.,  pp.  107  sqq. 

tEdward  William  Nelson,  *'The  Eskimo  About  Bering  Strait,"  18th  Annual  Report 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  1896-97,  Washington,  1899,  Pt  I,  p.  196. 

tEdward  William  Nelson,  '*  The  Eskimo  About  Bering  Strait,"  18th  Annual  Report 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  1896-97,  Washington,  1899,  Pt.  I,  p.  196. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       357 

Remains  of  the  extinct  mastodon  have  been  found  in 
many  diflFerent  localities  in  the  State  of  California,  and 
indeed  in  the  Pleistocene  period  these  animals  existed  all 
over  North  America,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
northeastern  comer  along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  farther 
northward.  In  California  the  prevalence  of  the  mastodon 
remains  in  the  Coast  Ranges  and  along  the  foothills  of  the 
Sierra  up  to  an  elevation  of  some  two  thousand  feet  indi- 
cate that  region  as  the  habitat  of  the  mastodon.  At  a 
higher  elevation  than  two  thousand  feet  the  bones  are  occa- 
sionally met  with,  but  there  are  none  or  scarcely  any  to  be 
found  past  the  three  thousand  foot  mark.  It  is  along  the 
limestone  bed  in  the  vicinity  of  Sonora  and  Colombia  that 
the  most  numerous  mastodon  remains  have  been  unearthed, 
and  cartloads  of  these  bones  have  been  taken  from  lime- 
stone crevices  at  various  points  between  Sonora  and  the 
Stanislaus  River.  However,  most  of  this  material  has  been 
lost  through  fires  in  the  mining  camps  or  has  crumbled  away 
on  long  exposure  to  the  outer  air.  In  the  later  seventies 
some  fine  mastodon  skulls  were  still  to  be  seen  in  a  mining 
camp  at  Sonora,  and  about  this  time  occasional  specimens 
were  taken  to  San  Francisco  for  exhibition,  but  they  failed 
to  elicit  proper  attention,  and  the  exhibitions,  as  speculative 
ventures,  were  not  successfid.*  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  remains  belong  to  the  American  mastodon  {Mam- 
mut  americanum) . 

The  remarkable  skeleton  of  Elephas  imperator  set  up  in 
the  Los  Angeles  County  Museum  of  History,  Science,  and 
Art,  at  Los  Angeles,  California,  is  one  of  the  largest  known. 
It  has  been  assembled  from  the  deposits  found  in  an  asphalt 
pit  at  Rancho  La  Brea,  near  Wilshire  Boulevard  in  the  out- 
skirts of  Los  Angeles.     The  height  of  this  skeleton  at  the 

*J.  D.  Whitney,  "The  Auriferous  Graveb  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California**;  Mem. 
of  the  Mu8.  of  Comp.  Zottl.  at  Harvard  College,  Vol.  \1,  No.  1  (1st  Pt.)>  Cambridge,  1879, 
pp.  251,  252. 


358   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

shoulder  is  13  ft.  6  in.  and  the  length  from  tip  of  tusk  to 
pelvic  bone  is  25  ft.     Out  of  98  pits  opened  the  bulk  of  the  J 
elephant  remains  came  from  a  single  pit,  No.  9,  which  has 
been  designated  the  Elephant  Pit,  and  this  furnished  sev- 
eral single  tusks  of  considerably  greater  length  than  those 
mounted  in  the  skull  of  the  Imperial  elephant  specimen. 
One  of  these  fossil  tusks  is  15  ft.  long,  while  another  has 
the  altogether  exceptional  length  of  16  ft.,  almost,  if  not 
quite,  equalling  the  remarkable  example  in  the  Instituto 
Geologico  of  Mexico  City.     The  enormous  mass  of  fossil 
remains  of  extinct  animals  gathered  from  these  asphalt 
pits  may  be  better  understood  when  we  state  that  there  are 
in  the  Los  Angeles  County  Museum  3,500  boxes  of  these  J 
remains  of  which  the  Sabre-tooth  furnished  630;  the  Giantl 
Wolf,  700;  fossil  elephants,  17;  mastodons,  7;  Giant  Sloth,  J 
40;  camels,  7;  and  lions,  16.     These  relics  were  gathered  to-1 
gether  under  the  care  and  direction  of  Director  Frank  Sf  J 
Daggett  of  the  Museum. 

The   asphalt   pits  at   Rancho  La  Brea,  containing  de 
phant  and  mastodon  remains,  are  believed  to  have  beeul 
formed  in  geological  times  after  the  occurrence  of  a  fauj 
in  the  shale  strata.    Along  the  course  of  this  fault  it  i^ 
supposed  that  imprisoned  gases  violently  forced  their  wa; 
to  the  surface,   producing  a  series  of  blowholes  or  pitsu  ] 
Gradually  these  became  filled  up  with  water  and  tar  seep^J 
age,  some  of  the  animal  remains  being  drawn  into  them'! 
with  the  liquid  substances,  while  others  again  may  rep- f 
resent  animals  that  were  actually  trapped  into  the  tar-pits 
by  sinking  therein,  after  the  tar  had  formed  an  adhesive  mass 
reaching  up  to  the  surface  of  the  pit.    The  progress  of  in\'es- 
tigation  of  these  deposits  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  all  \ 
the  Pleistocene  animal  remains  are  confined  to  these  blow- 
out holes  along  the  line  of  the  fault.* 

*Coiiiniunicated  by  DirectoT  Frank  5.  Daggett  of  the  Uiueum  of  WHory,  Sdaicc^  and 
Art,  Loa  Angeles,  Cal. 


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8  ANOELES,  CAUPORKtA 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      359 

In  connection  with  the  catastrophe  which  seems  to  have 
overtaken  the  luckless  animals  whose  fossil  remains  have 
been  dug  out  of  the  asphalt  beds  at  Rancho  La  Brea,  it  is 
not  uninteresting  to  learn  from  a  Californian  who  lived 
many  years  ago  on  a  ranch  directly  opposite  La  Brea,  that 
cattle  and  even  squirrels  sometimes  came  to  grief  on  his 
ranch,  being  swallowed  up  by  the  earth  in  a  similar  way, 
especially  in  wet  weather.  So  swampy  was  the  soil  that 
no  bottom  could  be  touched  when  a  long  pole  was  driven 
down  through  it.  Although  he  states  that  there  was  no 
asphaltum  on  his  ranch,  still  his  exp>erience  illustrates  the 
possibility  of  animals  sinking  to  their  death  in  traversing 
a  treacherous  soil  along,  or  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood, 
of  the  great  fault  nmning  through  this  region.* 

A  tract  of  32  acres,  covering  these  fossil  beds,  has  recently 
been  donated  to  Los  Angeles  County,  by  Mr.  Hancock,  for 
park  purposes.  The  more  or  less  restored  pits  will  thus 
have  beautiful  surroundings  and  will  become  a  point  of 
pilgrimage  for  scientists. 

The  La  Brea  mastodon  and  mammoth  are  undoubtedly 
Pleistocene,  but  the  numerous  fragmentary  remains  found 
in  the  gold-bearing  gravels  and  elsewhere  in  California 
are  many  of  them  older,  Pliocene  or  perhaps  Miocene.  To 
these  older  species  probably  belong  the  various  teeth  and 
fragmentary  specimens  which  have  been  referred  to:  M. 
obscunis,  mirificiiSy  and  other  Eastern  species,  and  also  the 
South  American  M.  andium.  None  of  these  species  are 
true  mastodon;  they  are  related  to  the  more  primitive  TrUo- 
phodoUy  TetralophodoUy  and  Stegomastodon  (or  Dibelodon)  of 
the  Miocene  and  Pliocene. 

Not  long  since  the  skull  of  a  mastodon,  with  eight-foot 
tusks  still  intact,  was  washed  up  on  the  Pacific  Coast  a  little 
south  of  Santa  Barbara,  California. 

^Communicated  by  Mr.  Arthur  Hutchinson. 


860   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

Bones  of  the  extinct  American  elephant  have  also  been 
brought  to  light  in  many  diflFerent  parts  of  the  State  of 
California.  Probably  the  most  valuable  discovery  of  this 
kind  was  that  of  a  complete  fossil  skeleton  found  near 
Fresno  River,  in  a  soUd  bed  of  yellow  clay,  at  a  locality 
twenty  miles  distant  from  Millerton,  the  county  seat  of 
Fresno  County.  This  was  carefully  examined  and  studied 
by  Dr.  E.  C.  Winchell  in  1866.  The  skull,  vertebrae,  and 
tail  bones  lay  in  the  relative  natural  order  over  a  space  20 
ft.  in  length;  the  skull  itself  measured  4  ft.  in  length  and  2 
ft.  in  width.  The  jaw  bore  two  massive  black  tusks,  6  ft. 
4  in.  long,  having  a  pronoimced  outward  curve  so  that  the 
tips  were  from  four  to  five  feet  apart.  The  diameters  at 
the  base,  and  for  4  ft.  6  in.  of  the  length,  were  6  in. ;  from  this 
spot  the  tusk  tapered  to  a  point.  The  black  surface  colora- 
tion was  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  the  interior  of  the  tusk 
being  white,  and  did  not  appear  to  have  been  caused  by  any 
ingredient  in  the  soil.  Every  eflFort  was  made  to  remove  the 
tusks  uninjured  from  the  enclosing  clay,  but  unsuccessfully, 
as  they  crumbled  away  when  the  slightest  pressure  was 
exerted.* 

Of  the  final  disappearance  of  both  mastodon  and  elephant 
from  North  America,  which  Professor  Winchell  regards  as  due 
to  "those  subtle  and  little  imderstood  influences  that  bring 
about  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  organic  life  of  various 
regions  of  the  earth,"  he  says'.f 

"It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  striking  example  of 
the  working  of  this  mysterious  cause  than  is  presented  in 
the  entire  disappearance  of  the  mastodon  and  elephant,  al- 
most during  the  historic  period,  and  very  nearly  at  the 

*J.  D.  Whitney,  "The  Auriferous  Graveb  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California'*;  Mem.  of 
the  Mufl.  of  Comp.  Zo5l.  at  Harvard  College,  Vol.  VI,  No.  1  (Ut  Pt),  Cambridge,  1879. 
pp.  254,  255. 

fJ.  D.  Whitney,  "The  Auriferous  Gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California";  Mem.  off 
Como.  Zo5L  at  Harvard  College,  Vol.  VI,  No.  1  (Ist  Pt.),  Cambridge,  1879,  pp.  8dl>,  S21 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      361 

same  time,  from  over  an  area  of  some  millions  of  square 

miles/* 

Many  and  various  causes  may  occasion  the  death  of 
great  numbers  of  animals  in  a  short  space  of  time.  For 
example,  climatic  changes,  absence  of  water,  great  depth  of 
snow,  or  certain  extreme  changes  of  temperature.  Dr. 
Bailey  Willis  mentions  that,  in  parts  of  the  Argentine, 
animals  are  dei>endent  for  water  upon  ponds  in  water-holes, 
around  which  frequently  hundreds  of  cattle  will  congregate, 
and  in  dry  years  these  water-holes  contain  less  and  less  oi 
water  until  they  finally  dry  out  completely,  thus  causing  hun- 
dreds of  animals  to  die  of  thirst. 

We  know  that  in  our  Western  country  for  many  suc- 
cessive years  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  can  safely  depend 
upon  the  forage  on  the  plains  for  their  sustenance,  but  there 
come  years  when  the  snow  is  too  deep  and  when  a  large 
percentage  perish.  It  is  quite  possible  that  some  such  cli- 
matic change  as  an  unusually  deep  snow  or  a  very  intense 
cold  caused  the  death  and  extermination  of  the  mammoth. 
In  Alaska  and  in  Siberia,  when  an  animal  dies  in  a  great 
mass  of  snow  and  ice,  the  remains  will  probably  be  preserved, 
as  were  those  of  the  two  great  mammoths  that  have  been 
found  in  Siberia.  Though  it  is  quite  possible  that  an  animal 
may  die  and  be  thus  preserved,  as  were  the  mammoths  that 
have  been  found ;  still  the  extermination  of  the  great  probo- 
scidians that  existed  from  the  most  northerly  clime  to  the 
end  of  Patagonia  remains  a  mystery. 

The  structure  of  mastodon  teeth  suggests  that  the  animal 
consumed  soft  herbage  and  could  not  exist  in  an  era  of 
great  cold,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  as  mastodon  skele- 
tons are  frequently  found  in  swamps,  the  animals  had  met 
their  death  there  while  in  search  of  food.  The  fact  that 
manmioth  teeth  are  made  up  of  cellular  rings,  Siberian  (E. 
primigenius)  mammoth  teeth  being  more  highly  specialized 


S62      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

than  even  those  of  the  modern  elephant,  suggests  that 
they  ate  hard  food,  such  as  pine  needles,  and  that  the 
teeth  might  be  called  "needle  grinders."  It  is  an  open 
question  whether  the  mammoth  could  live  in  Siberia  at 
the  present  time — whether  there  are  enough  conifers  and 
other  similar  trees  at  the  present  time  to  supply  them  with 
the  requisite  food,  although  as  we  have  stated  the  tangible 
evidence  supplied  by  the  more  complete  remains  shows  that 
these  particular  animals  had  subsisted  on  other  vegetable 
growths.  Possibly  this  may  have  involved  a  change  of  diet 
that  acted  unfavourably  upon  the  species. 

At  birth  elephants  are  generally  covered  with  what  is 
known  as  laguno,  or  prenatal  hair,  just  as  the  human  embryo 
at  the  seventh  month  of  the  foetal  period  is  covered  with 
hair,  and  the  head  sometimes  with  a  growth  of  hair  at  birth, 
this  falling  out  and  longer  hair  taking  its  place.  This  la- 
guno is  found  on  both  the  Asiatic  and  African  elephant 
As  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  hair,  the  animal  requiring 
no  warm  covering,  a  new  growth  of  hair  does  not  come  in, 
but  it  is  surmised  that  the  laguno  was  retained  by  the 
mammoth,  and  that  the  coldness  of  the  climate  caused 
thicker  hair  to  grow,  possibly  in  the  autunm  or  early  winter. 
This  would  suggest  that  the  climate  must  have  been  a  se- 
vere one,  and  it  is  claimed  by  Lull  and  others  that  the  mam- 
moth, in  some  regions  at  least,  fed  upon  small  leaves  of  the 
Conifer  (pine)  Family.  However,  it  must  be  noted  that  the 
very  considerable  food  remains  (some  22  pounds  in  weight) 
that  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  Berezovka  mammoth 
from  Siberia  did  not  include  any  material  from  conifers, 
and  the  same  appears  to  be  true  of  the  plant  forms  associated 
with  the  Borna  mammoth  from  Saxony.  As  to  the  hairy 
growth,  it  certainly  appears  most  probable  that  this  took 
place  in  the  autumn.  As  there  is  so  little  seasonal  change 
in  the  regions  now  forming  the  habitat  of  the  African  and 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      363 

Indian  elephants,  nature  did  not  find  it  necessary  to  produce 
any  such  protection. 

There  is  no  reason  to  conclude  from  the  immense  mass 
of  manmioth  remains  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  the 
world  that  many  more  animals  of  this  kind  than  of  the 
various  other  large  animal  species  existed  in  prehistoric 
times  in  these  regions.  The  great  abundance  of  mammoth 
tusks  and  teeth  is  rather  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that 
they  were  larger,  harder,  and  hence  less  subject  to  decay 
than  the  smaller  ones  of  other  animals.  Hence  while  in 
many  instances  they  have  become  fossilized,  the  bones  of 
smaller  animals,  birds,  etc.,  would  pass  away  in  a  few  years. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  slow  disintegration  of  the  surface  of 
the  large  tusks  and  teeth  not  seldom  acted  as  a  preserva- 
tive for  the  interior  masses. 

Nevertheless,  we  are  justified  in  assuming  that  the 
number  of  great  mammoths  living  at  one  time  must  have 
exceeded  that  of  the  elephants  existing  to-day  in  Africa. 
Judging  from  the  large  quantity  of  remains  found  in  Alaska, 
the  thirty  separate  examples  discovered  in  the  State  of 
Indiana,  the  numbers  found  in  New  York,  Nebraska,  Texas, 
California,  and  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  it  is  evident 
that  even  on  this  continent  mammoths  existed  in  great 
numbers,  and  yet,  through  some  strange  law  of  nature,  they 
have  entirely  passed  away  almost  with  the  advent  of  civil- 
ized man. 

A  brief  mention  will  later  on  be  made  of  the  mammoth 
bones  discovered  at  Borna,  Saxony.*  An  interesting  cir- 
cumstance in  this  connection  was  the  finding  of  fragmen- 
tary plant  remains  almost  certainly  of  the  Glacial  Period. 
The  bones  of  the  nearly  complete  skeleton  found  here  were 
scattered  over  an  area  about  45  ft.  wide  and  50  ft.  long, 
and  although  the  relative  position  of  the  bones  was  not  in 

m 

*See  p.  894. 


364      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

the  main  broken  up,  they  were  somewhat  widely  separated. 
This  may  have  been  due,  in  the  opinion  of  Professor  Felix, 
to  the  action  of  some  stream  which  may  have  traversed 
the  pool  or  body  of  standing  water  in  which  the  mammoth 
is  supposed  to  have  come  to  grief.* 

The  finding  of  the  skeleton  of  an  American  mastodon  in 
Connecticut  is  not  only  highly  important  in  itself,  but  the 
position  and  surroundings  of  the  remains  have  suggested 
some  very  interesting  conjectures  as  to  the  possible  co- 
existence of  man  and  mastodon  in  this  part  of  North 
America  in  post-glacial  times.f  This  find  was  made  in 
August,  1913,  on  the  estate  of  the  late  A.  A.  Pope,  at  Farm- 
ington,  in  the  course  of  excavations  made  for  the  draining 
of  a  bit  of  swamp  land.  The  Italian  workman  who  first 
came  across  the  skeleton  announced  his  discovery  to  the 
superintendent  with  the  words  that  he  had  found  "a  black 
devil"  in  the  bog.  The  remains  were  removed  with  the 
greatest  possible  care,  although  unfortunately  the  skull 
had  been  somewhat  damaged  by  the  workman  before  he 
became  aware  of  what  it  was.  Almost  all  the  essential 
parts  of  the  skeleton  were  present,  and  one  of  the  tusks  was 
recovered  at  some  distance  from  the  other  remains.  The 
bones  were  somewhat  scattered,  and  lay  on  light-blue  boul- 
der clay,  a  glacial  ground  moraine  deposited  during  Wis- 
consin time.  It  is  not  believed  that  the  animal  lost  its 
life  from  having  become  entangled  in  the  bog,  but  that  it 
died  a  natural  death ;  the  appearance  of  the  bones  indicates 
that  the  skeleton  must  have  soon  become  buried  by  the 
enveloping  clay.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  few  hundred 
years  would  cover  the  time  required  for  the  clay  to  be  washed 
into  the  depression,  and  the  fact  that  the  skeleton  must 

*  Johannes  Felix,  "Das  mammuth  von  Boma,"  Leipzig,  1912. 

tSee  Charles  Schuchert,  "  Mammut  Americanum  in  Connecticut,"  with  note  by  Richard 
S.  Lull.  Am.  Jour.  Sc.  4  Ser..  Vol.  XXXVII.  pp.  3«l-330.  No.  ««0,  April,  1914. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      365 

have  been  entombed  shortly  after  the  disappearance  of  the 
Wisconsin  ice  sheet  seems  to  indicate  that  this  period  was 
not  so  very  remote  and  has  suggested  the  query:  "Can  it  be 
that  Mammvt  americanum  vanished  from  Connecticut 
within  a  thousand,  or  at  most  a  few  thousand  years,  and 
yet  was  unknown  to  the  North  American  Indians?"  The 
total  absence  of  any  ivory  implements  from  prehistoric 
Indian  graves  appears,  however,  to  be  a  fairly  strong  argu- 
ment against  the  late  existence  of  the  mastodon  in  the  region 
inhabited  by  the  Indians. 

This  skeleton  is  that  of  a  fully  developed  adult  individual, 
and  the  teeth,  showing  but  slight  signs  of  wear,  indicate 
that  the  animal,  probably  a  male,  was  in  the  prime  of  life 
at  the  time  of  its  death.  In  size  this  Connecticut  skeleton 
occupies  a  place  midway  between  that  of  the  Warren  masto- 
don, which  is  larger,  and  that  of  the  Otisville  specimen, 
mounted  at  Yale.  The  single  tusk  that  was  recovered  has 
a  greatest  circumference  of  23  in.,  and  is  8  ft.  10  in.  long, 
measured  at  the  curve,  the  length  between  perpendiculars 
being  6  ft.  3  in.* 

Remains  of  a  mastodon  found  in  1705  on  the  Hudson 
River  thirty  miles  south  of  Albany  were  supposed  by 
Governor  Dudley  and  the  learned  Cotton  Mather  to  be  the 
remains  of  the  giants  or  Nephelim  of  the  antediluvian  world. f 
Subsequently,  in  1740,  the  French  explorers  in  makmg  their 
way  down  the  Ohio  River  discovered  numerous  bones  and 
teeth  of  the  mastodon  and  other  animals  at  the  Great  Salt 
Lick  near  Louisville.  Some  of  these  were  sent  to  Paris  and 
so  brought  to  the  notice  of  European  scientists.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  many  skeletons  were  disinterred,  chiefly 
from  the  peat  bogs  of  Orange  County,  New  York;  the  most 
notable  of  these  is  the  Warren  mastodon  described  in  a 

*Note  by  Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull  to  article  previously  dted. 
fThia  paragraph  has  been  contributed  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Matthew. 


366     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

long  memoir  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren  of  Boston,*  and  now  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Another  noted 
locality  is  near  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  whence  came  a  fine 
skeleton  now  in  the  British  Museum;  and  in  more  recent 
years  numerous  skeletons,  skulls,  and  teeth  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  draining  of  swamps  and  peat  bogs  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  other  States.  Prac- 
tically all  these  finds  are  in  post-glacial  deposits,  and  the 
absence  of  mastodon  remains  in  the  northern  New  England 
States  and  eastern  Canada  is  perhaps  explained  on  the  sup- 
position that  these  regions  were  still  buried  in  glacial  ice 
at  the  time  of  the  final  extinction  of  the  mastodon  and  mam- 
moth. 

Recently  the  fossil  deposits  of  Nebraska  have  supplied 
a  great  wealth  of  specimens  illustrating  the  development 
of  mastodon  and  mammoth  in  North  America.  It  is  said 
that  this  State  can  boast  of  nearly  two  hundred  miles  of 
mastodon  beds,  extending  from  Knox  County  to  Sioux 
County.  The  great  variety  of  forms  represented  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  six  species  of  mastodons  and  four  species 
of  mammoths  are  represented.  One  exceptionally  fine 
mastodon  skeleton  was  discovered  in  Cherry  County,  and 
this  is  perhaps  the  finest  fossil  mastodon  in  the  world.f 

In  the  development  of  the  elephant  from  its  ancestral 
types,  the  evolution  of  the  proboscis  has  followed  the  length- 
ening of  the  tusks.  In  the  very  earliest  forms,  such  as 
the  Moeritherium  for  instance,  tusks  and  proboscis  are 
only  beginning  to  exhibit  the  characteristics  peculiar  to  the 
Proboscidea,  but  in  later  forms,  when  the  tusks — in  this 
stage  four  in  number,  two  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower 

*J.  C.  Warren,  1885,  "  Description  of  a  Skeleton  of  the  Mastodon  Giganteus  of  North 
America.'* 

t£r\v'in  H.  Barbour,  "Prehistoric  Elephants  in  the  Morrill  Collections,  the  Nebraska 
State  Museum  and  the  University  of  Nebraska,"  Sunday  State  Journal,  Omaha,  January  8, 
1916. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       367 

jaw — became  more  prominent,  they  progressively  inter- 
fered more  and  more  with  the  animals'  feeding,  rendering 
it  necessary  to  depend  increasingly  upon  the  prehensile 
power  of  the  trunk.  Thus  in  the  lapse  of  generations  and 
through  the  successive  form-modifications,  as  the  tusks  grow 
longer  and  more  ponderous,  so  does  the  trunk  lengthen  and 


Hahmoth  etched   oa   the  rock  ot    the  "  Grotte  des    Combuellea."   dept, 

DordogDe,  PMoce,  the  outliiKa  being  coloured  with  oxide  ot  Dungaueae. 

—From  R.  S.  Lull.  "Evolution  of  the  Elephant." 


gain  in  vigour.  An  anatomical  change  dependent  upon  the 
excessive  growth  of  the  tusks  is  a  lengthening  of  the  jaw- 
bone, very  noticeable  in  the  Trilophodons  and  still  present 
in  the  immediate  predecessors  of  the  Dibelodons,  where  the 
tusks  of  the  lower  jaw,  with  few  exceptions,  have  already 
ceased  to  assume  a  tusk  form.  The  teeth  of  the  earliest 
ancestors  of  the  mastodon  were  exceedingly  simple  in  form, 
having  but  two  transverse  ridges;  in  later  forms  the  nimiber 


368      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

of  these  ridges  increased  to  three  and  then  to  four,  until  in 
those  of  the  Mammvi  americanum  we  have  five  such  ridges. 
Later  still  in  the  chain  of  development,  the  teeth  of  the 
Stegodons  ofiPer  from  six  to  eight  ridges.  Li  the  suc- 
cessive elephant  forms  the  multiplication  of  these  ridges 
becomes  more  and  more  noticeable.  While  in  manunoth 
remains  recently  discovered  in  Crete,  Saline  County,  Ne- 
braska (named  Elephas  hayi)  there  are  ten  ridges,  the 
teeth  of  Elephas  imperator  show  eighteen,  those  of  Elephas 
columbi  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six,  and  those  of  the 
so-called  "Hairy  Mammoth"  as  many  as  twenty-eight 
ridges.  The  peculiar  growth  of  the  teeth  in  the  elephant 
to  which  we  allude  elsewhere  is  not  characteristic  of  the 
very  early  ancestral  forms.  In  the  ancestral  proboscidians 
the  teeth  come  up  much  as  they  do  in  other  ungulates. 
The  milk  premolars  appear  first,  and  then  the  molars  come 
up  in  succession  behind  them,  permanent  premolars  pushing 
up  beneath  the  milk  premolars  as  these  wear  down  and 
drop  out.  In  the  later  typ>es,  with  the  shortening  of  the 
jaw  the  premolars  disappear,  true  molars  pressing  forward 
as  they  come  up,  and  successively  replacing  the  teeth  in 
front  of  them  as  these  wear  down  and  fall  out.  Another  in- 
teresting change  wais  in  progress.  The  earUer  teeth  lacked 
cement,  but  in  the  later  mastodons  a  little  began  to  appear. 
In  all  of  the  mammoths  the  teeth  are  encased  in  and  rein- 
forced by  a  heavy  outer  layer  of  cement. 

Some  mammoth  bones  of  quite  exceptional  size  have 
been  unearthed  at  Reynolds,  Jeflferson  County,  Nebraska. 
The  great  thigh  bone  measures  5^  ft.  in  length,  indicating 
that  this  mammoth  was  perhaps  the  largest  one  so  far  dis- 
covered.* 

*Erwin  H.  Barbour,  "Prehistoric  Elephants  in  the  Morrill  Collection8»  the  Nebraski 
State  Museum  and  the  University  of  Nebraska,"  in  Sundaif  Stale  Joumalt  Omaha,  Jan- 
uary 8,  1915. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       369 

NEBRASKA   PROBOSCIDEANS* 

Irrespective  of  the  merits  in  the  case,  gigantic  animals 
make  a  far  stronger  popular  appeal  than  small  ones.  It 
is  believed  that  no  fossil  mammals  are  as  universally  known 
as  the  huge  Proboscidea.  They  were  the  most  ponderous 
of  all  land  animals  and  they  possessed  that  unique  and  highly 
specialized  organ,  the  proboscis.  They  fire  the  imagination 
and  attract  universal  attention  until  the  names  Mastodon 
and  Mammoth  are  used  in  common  parlance. 

Though  considered  rare,  they  are  common  and  widely 
distributed,  and  in  Nebraska  are  found  everywhere.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  early  mastodons,  for  their  remains 
occur  in  the  Pliocene  along  the  northern  border  of  the  State 
from  Knox  County  to  Sioux,  a  distance  of  250  to  300  miles. 
Could  this  broad  area  be  divested  of  sod  and  soil,  and  sub- 
jected to  excessive  erosion  like  the  bad  lands,  mastodon 
remains  would  be  exposed  in  numbers  passing  comprehen- 
sion. It  is  doubtful  if  any  similar  area  could  show  so  many 
or  such  varied  kinds.  The  rocks  of  the  State  are  deeply 
covered  by  soil,  accordingly  the  collecting  grounds  are 
restricted  chiefly  to  ravines,  blufiPs,  valleys,  and  canyon 
walls.  Mastodon  teeth  and  bones  are  often  struck  in  dig- 
ging post  holes  and  in  drilling  wells.  Although  their  bones 
and  teeth  are  common  objects  and  very  abundant,  they 
are  but  the  scattered  remnants  of  former  hosts. 

Scarcely  thirty  years  ago  writers  declared  that  the  inter- 
mediate proboscideans  were  lost,  and  the  phylogeny  of  the 
order  absolutely  unknown,  but  now  the  genealogy  of  the 
elephant  promises  to  be  as  definitely  determined  as  that 
of  the  horse.     It  is  a  safe  prediction  that  when  the  mastodon 

^These  interesting  and  valuable  details  regarding  the  fossil  remains  of  Proboscideans 
in  Nebraska  have  been  contributed  by  Erwin  Hinckley  Barbour,  State  Geologist  of  Ne- 
braska and  Director  of  the  State  Museum  of  Natural  History. 


370     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

beds  of  Nebraska  are  fully  explored  and  studied,  they  are 
destined  to  furnish  satisfactory  solutions  to  many  of  the 
problems  relating  to  the  Proboscidea,  and  it  is  certain  that 
many  new  forms  will  be  added  to  the  list. 

Of  all  the  creatures  which  have  lived,  but  a  moiety  has 
been  preserved.  After  a  few  years  not  a  vestige  remains  of 
those  skeletons  which  bleach  in  the  open,  while  the  few 
dropped  in  mud  and  water  may  become  buried  and  min- 
eralized. Associated  with  the  elephant  bones  are  the  re- 
mains of  such  contemporaneous  creatures  as  the  rhinoceros, 
camel,  early  horse,  giant  hogs,  deer,  and  countless  smaller 
forms.  Great  predatory  beasts,  such  as  the  sabre-toothed 
cats  and  huge  dogs,  were  their  natural  enemies.  The  cli- 
mate was  favourable,  and  vegetation  must  have  been  luxuri^ 
ant.  Quantities  of  petrified  wood  bear  evidence  of  the 
forest  vegetation  of  the  time. 

ENTOMBMENT 

During  the  mastodon  age  in  Nebraska,  deep  river  and 
lake  conditions  prevailed.  The  rivers  which  flowed  in 
ever-varying  channels  deposited  gravels  over  broad  areas. 
There  were  wide  meanders,  lagoons,  and  marshes,  and  large 
lakes  and  ponds.  At  flood  time  enormous  amounts  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  mud  were  spread  over  the  country.  In 
periods  of  drought  this  could  be  assorted  more  or  less  by 
wind.  For  this  reason  we  often  find  aqueous  and  aeolian 
deposits  alternating. 

Herds  of  tropical  animals  frequented  the  water  courses 
and  the  rich  vegetation  bordering  the  lakes  and  lagoons. 
Many  of  them  perished  in  the  water  or  were  subsequently 
swept  in  by  freshets.  Buoyed  by  gases  of  decay,  their 
carcasses  floated  until  deflected  into  some  cove  by  wind  or 
water  currents.  They  became  stranded  here,  and  their 
skeletons  were  finally  deeply  buried  in  sand  and  mud. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      371 

Some  of  these  four-tuskers,  impelled  by  hunger  or  thirst, 
probably  ventured  too  far  on  quicksands  and  became  en- 
gulfed, while  others  in  traversing  boggy  ground  became 
mired.  In  these  cases,  the  skeletons  are  apt  to  be  complete 
and  the  bones  without  scars  or  blemishes.  A  few  perished 
on  dry  ground  and  became  buried  by  wind-borne  dust  and 
sand,  but  the  great  majority  died  on  the  uplands  where 
their  skeletons  weathered  to  pieces  and  are  lost  forever. 

Beds  containing  the  remains  of  these  animals  are  found 
from  Wyoming  to  northeastern  Nebraska.  After  a  long 
period  of  time  a  series  of  beds,  several  hundred  feet  in 
thickness,  were  deposited,  and  through  out  these  occur  the 
scattered  remains  of  elephants  and  associated  animals.  Oc- 
casionally there  are  actual  bone  heaps  and  bone  beds.  It 
is  apparent  then  that  wherever  the  overlying  material  is 
swept  away  by  wind  or  water,  bones  are  apt  to  be  laid  bare 
on  the  surface.  Nebraska  has  been  the  favourite  collecting 
ground  for  all  of  the  educational  institutions  of  America 
and  even  of  Europe. 

The  degree  of  preservation  varies  widely,  but  in  general 
elephant  bones  found  in  the  older  beds  tend  to  be  hard  and 
enduring,  while  those  of  the  later  beds  are  apt  to  be  weak 
and  perishable.  .  In  the  older  beds  sufficient  time  has  lapsed 
for  the  infiltration  of  mineral  salts  to  give  stoniness  to  the 
bone,  while  in  the  more  recent  beds  there  has  not  been  time 
for  this  process. 

METHODS   OF   COLLECTING 

In  hunting  for  the  ancient  tuskers,  the  pick  and  shovel 
are  substituted  for  the  gun,  and  the  sport  is  not  as  dry  as 
fossil  bones  may  indicate.  Scattered  fragments  of  bone 
on  a  talus  slope  constitute  a  "lead"  which  is  carefully  fol- 
lowed to  its  source,  and  here  the  work  of  excavation  begins. 
As  soon  as  the  rocky  matrix  is  removed  from  a  few  square 


372     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

inches  of  bone,  the  surface  is  soaked  with  thin  shellac. 
When  dry  this  imparts  surprising  hardness.  The  surface 
is  then  covered  with  strips  of  shellacked  rice  paper,  or  with 
strong  paper  or  cloth  dipped  in  plaster  of  Paris.  This  sets 
at  once  and  a  fresh  surface  is  exposed  and  treated  in  a  like 
manner.  The  whole  is  then  "cinched"  or  bound  with 
strips  of  gunny  sack  dipped  in  plaster  of  Paris.  This  stony 
covering  is  so  protective  that  bones  may  be  shipped  in  en- 
tire safety  to  the  laboratory. 

The  tusks  of  early  mastodons  are  instantly  recognized 
by  a  longitudinal  band  of  enamel.  This  band,  about  1  to 
2  in.  broad  in  the  earlier  Nebraska  mastodons,  began  to 
decrease  in  width  until  it  was  scarcely  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
wide  in  Tetrahelodon  vrUliatoni.  In  Eubelodon  morrilli  and 
MammiU  americanvm  it  had  disappeared  altogether.  It 
is  said,  however,  that  a  bit  of  enamel  still  persists  as  an  in- 
teresting vestige  on  the,  tips  of  the  young  of  living  elephants, 
but  this  is  soon  worn  oflf. 

In  all  fossil  tusks  the  structure  and  decussations  are 
like  that  of  modem  ivory.  Sometimes  the  tusks  are  as 
pure  and  white  as  ivory  itself,  but  do  not  possess  its  strength. 
Due  to  mineralization,  they  may  be  hard,  and  occasionally 
dark  in  colour,  though  generally  gray.  In  rare  instances 
tusks  are  silicified.  In  one  instance  a  portion  of  a  mammoth 
tusk  from  Brown  County  was  converted  into  that  variety  of 
mineral  known  as  odontolite,  or  "bone  turquoise."  Three 
beautiful  gems  were  cut  from  this  material. 

As  compared  with  living  elephants,  the  early  Nebraska 
mastodons  had  proportionally  longer  bodies  and  necks, 
but  noticeably  shorter  limbs.  Their  successors,  the  mam* 
moths,  had  compact,  short  bodies  and  necks,  and  long  pillar- 
like limbs.  The  most  striking  diflference  between  our  early 
and  late  Nebraska  elephants  lies  in  the  long  skulls  and  jaws 
of  the  former  and  the  short  skulls  and  jaws  of  the  latter. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       373 

Exclusive  of  a  number  of  forms  supposedly  new,  the  better- 
known,  described  representatives  of  the  Proboscidea  in 
Nebraska  are  Tetrahelodon  vriUistoni,  T.  productuSy  T.  luUi, 
T.  campesteTy  T.  euhypodoriy  Eubelodon  morriUiy  Mammvt 
americanumy  M.  mirificumy  EUphas  hayiy  E.  imperatoTy  E. 
columbiy  and  E.  primigenius. 

The  material  in  the  State  Museum  at  the  University  of 
Nebraska,  on  which  these  data  are  based,  belong  to  the 
palaeontological  collections  of  the  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill. 

The  famous  mastodon  skeleton,  known  as  the  "Warren 
Mastodon,"  was  discovered  in  the  smnmer  of  1845  in  a 
small  valley  near  Newburg,  New  York.  The  remains  were 
found  buried  in  a  shellmarl  layer,  and  a  noteworthy  cir- 
cumstance was  that  the  bones,  instead  of  being  black,  had 
the  brown  hue  of  a  recent  human  skeleton  that  has  been 
constantly  handled.  After  having  been  exhibited  for  a 
short  time  in  New  York  City  and  also  in  several  New  Eng- 
land towns,  the  skeleton  was  bought  by  John  Collins  War- 
ren, M.  D.,  who  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  Harvard 
University  from  1815  to  1847.  It  was  mounted  in  Boston, 
in  1846,  by  Mr.  N.  B.  Shurtleff,  under  Professor  Warren's 
direction;  in  1849  it  was  remounted  and  was  placed  in  a 
fireproof  building  in  Chestnut  Street,  Boston,  later  known  as 
**The  Warren  Museum."  Here  the  skeleton  remained  un- 
til 1906,  when  it  as  well  as  the  other  objects  constituting 
the  Warren  Collection  were  acquired  by  the  late  Mr.  J. 
Pierpont  Morgan,  and  donated  by  him  to  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City.  Professor 
Warren  published,  in  1855,  a  monograph  treating  of  this 
remarkable  specimen  under  the  title:  "The  Mastodon  Gi- 
ganteus  of  North  America." 

After  it9  reception  in  the  Museum  the  skeleton  was  re- 
mounted and  renewed,  being  completely  disarticulated  in 
the  course  of  this  work,  the  separate  bones  being  immersed 


374      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

in  alcohol  to  remove  the  coating  of  dark  varnish  with  which 
they  had  been  covered,  thus  restoring  the  hue  they  had  when 
unearthed. 

The  following  are  the  detailed  measurements  of  the  re- 
markable specimen  of  the  American  mastodon: 

Length,  base  of  tusks  to  drop  of  tail 14  ft.  11  in. 

Height  to  top  of  spine  at  back  at  the  shoulders  9  ft.    2  in. 

Tusks:  length  of  right  tusk  in  outside  curve           .  8  ft.    6  in. 

length  of  tusk  exposed 7  ft. 

Thigh  bones:  length  of  right 3  ft.    5  in. 

length  of  left 3  ft.  6^  in. 

Pelvis,  or  innominate  bones,  width  of 6  ft. 

Within  the  territorial  limits  of  New  York  State  a  very 
considerable  number  of  mastodon  remains  have  been  dis- 
covered at  various  times.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
these  finds  was  made  at  Cohoes,  New  York,  in  September, 
1866,  in  the  course  of  excavations  for  the  foundations  of 
a  mill.*  At  a  depth  of  twenty-five  feet  below  the  surface 
the  workmen  came  upon  the  lower  jaw  of  a  mastodon  and  a 
single  bone  of  the  animal's  foot;  these  rested  upon  a  rock 
projection  between  two  depressions  or  concave  walls  of 
small  pot-holes  at  the  margin  of  a  larger  pot-hole.  The 
excavation  resulted  in  the  removal  of  a  mass  of  earth  and 
clay  which  had  been  filled  in  at  some  former  time  to  cover 
a  swampy  depression  of  considerable  extent.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  jawbone  and  the  other  single  bone  suggested 
the  probability  that  further  digging  would  reveal  the  pres- 
ence of  an  entire  skeleton,  and  the  peaty  earth  and  frag- 
ments of  trees  were  removed  from  the  deepest  part  of  the 
pot-hole,  where  the  remains  would  most  likely  be  found. 
This  conjecture  proved  to  be  correct,  for  at  the  bottom, 

*  James  Hall,  "Notes  and  Observations  on  the  Cohoes  Mastodon**;  Twenty-first  Annual 
Report  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  New  York;  appendix,  pp.  99-14S. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       375 

upon  a  bed  of  clay,  broken  slate,  gravel,  and  water-worn 
pebbles,  reposed  a  nearly  complete  mastodon  skeleton  to 
which  the  bones  already  found  had  belonged.  Some  other 
missing  bones  were  later  on  unearthed  in  another  neigh- 
bouring pot-hole. 

In  this  case,  as  in  others  where  mastodon  remains  have 
been  found  in  or  at  the  bottom  of  peat  bogs  or  swamps, 
Professor  Hall  rejected  the  idea  that  they  had  been  en- 
trapped there  by  wandering  over  the  surface  in  search  of 
food,  as  in  many  cases  extensive  swamps  are  more  treach- 
erous at  the  edges  than  farther  in,  and  large  and  heavy  ani- 
mals are  usually  extremely  cautious  about  the  sustaining 
power  of  the  ground  on  which  they  tread.  Hence  he  was 
disposed  to  reject  a  comparatively  late  date  for  the  Ameri- 
can mastodon,  and  believed  that  the  remains  had  been 
drifted  into  their  present  location  during  the  Glacial  Period. 
Of  this  he  wrote  :* 

"At  the  close  of  the  Glacial  Period  or  at  any  time  during 
its  continuance,  the  thawing  of  the  ice  would  release  any 
objects  frozen  into  the  mass,  and  these  would  be  dropped 
upon  the  surface,  or  promiscuously  distributed.  If,  by 
some  means,  the  body  of  a  mastodon  had  become  imbedded 
in  the  accumulating  glacier,  the  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  ice,  the  cracking  and  filling  of  these  cracks  with  water 
and  its  subsequent  freezing,  all  these  combined  together 
might  dismember  the  bones  in  the  remarkable  manner 
before  indicated,  causing  a  separation  of  attached  or  adja- 
cent portions  in  a  way  that  no  other  means  could  accomplish. 
Thus,  while  the  bones  constituting  the  greater  part  of  the 
skeleton  remained  in  close  proximity,  and  were  deposited 
in  the  deep  pot-hole  as  found,  other  portions  which  had  been 
abruptly  separated  by  the  expansion  due  to  freezing  and 
thawing  were  deposited  in  other  places  more  or  less  distant." 

•Op.  dt.,  p.  106. 


S76     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  principal  dimensions  of  the  Cohoes  Mastodon  as 
mounted  are  given  as  follows  :* 

Length  in  a  direct  line ^     .  14  ft.    3  in. 

Length  following  curve  of  spinal  column 20  ft.    6  in. 

Elevation  of  the  crest  of  the  scapula 8  ft.    4  in. 

Elevation  of  the  crest  of  the  pelvis 8  ft.    4  in. 

Elevation  of  the  head        8  ft.  11  in. 

In  height  the  Cohoes  specimen  is  10  per  cent,  less  than 
the  Warren  mastodon,  and  hence  when  living  the  heights 
would  have  been  about  9^  and  10^  ft.  at  the  shoulders, 
respectively. 

The  mastodon  {MammtU  amercanum  Kerr)  found  in  a 
swamp  at  Otisville,  New  York,  in  1871,  and  now  in  the 
Peabody  Museiun,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  specimens  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States.  It  ' 
has  a  height  of  8  ft.  3  in.  at  the  shoulder;  from  socket  of  tusk 
to  end  of  tail  is  13  ft.  2  in.    There  are,  however,  no  tusks. 

The  magnificent  skeleton  of  the  true  mammoth,  Elephas 
primigenius,  now  to  be  seen  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York  City,  is  a  typical  example  of 
this  species  of  extinct  elephant,  the  habitat  of  which  in  pre- 
glacial  and  glacial  times  extended  over  the  greater  part  6i 
North  America.  These  remains  were  found  in  1904  on  the 
Gift  farm,  near  Jonesboro,  Indiana,  embedded  in  a  peaty 
deposit,  believed  to  be  of  the  Middle  Pleistocene  Age;  tluqr 
lay  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  When  first  uncovered 
the  tusks  were  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  but  wen 
slightly  damaged  in  the  work  of  removal.  The  skdetoil 
lacked  the  tail  bones  as  well  as  those  of  the  feet  and  ctf  the 
lower  limbs,  excepting  the  left  tibia.  Restoration  ctf  fhli 
and  of  some  parts  of  the  skull,  of  the  bony  surfaces,  and  of 
the  tusks  had  to  be  made. 

♦Op.  dt.,  p.  122. 


MOUNTED    SKELETON'    OF    THE    MAMMOTH     (ELBPUAS 
PRUflOEXirs) 

aiT  OF  tATE  PLEISTOCENE  AGE,  PIFTECN-  FEETT  BE- 
lANT  rOV.VTY,  INDIANA,  IN  1903.  LIN'OTH  FBOll 
\E  IIF  TAIL,  17  FEET  »)  tVOHESi  FBIIM  BASE  OF 
LiniEBS  (to  top  of  BCAPITLa).  10  FEET  6  JSCUBt. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS      S77 

The  pose  of  the  skeleton  suggests  that  of  an  animal  with 
uplifted  head  on  the  point  of  walking  forward.  The  form 
of  the  tusks  is  of  great  interest  as  they  are  completely  in- 
curved and  crossed,  and  thus  appear  to  have  been  of  little 
or  no  use  either  as  tools  or  as  weapons.  The  back  and 
body  seem  relatively  short  when  compared  with  the  height. 
The  measurements  are  as  follows : 

Base  of  tusks  to  drop  of  tail 13  ft.    8}  in. 

Length  of  right  tusk,  outside  curve 11  ft.    4}  in. 

Height  at  the  shoulders 10  ft.    6    in. 

Length  of  thigh  bone  or  femur 4  ft.    1^  in. 

Width  across  pelvis 4  ft.  10   in. 

One  of  the  finest  mammoth  skeletons  in  the  United 
States  is  in  the  collection  of  the  Field  Museiun  of  Natural 
History  in  Chicago,  having  belonged  formerly  to  the  Chi- 
cago Academy  of  Sciences.  This  skeleton  was  found  in 
1878  in  Spokane  County,  Washington,  and  is  remarkable 
both  for  its  excellent  state  of  preservation  and  for  its  great 
dimensions.  The  species  is  the  characteristic  American 
type  Elephas  columbi* 

Several  remains  of  the  Irish  mammoth  are  preserved  in 
the  National  Museum  at  Dublin.  The  more  important 
of  these  are  a  tusk  dredged  out  of  Waterford  Harbour;  a 
molar  from  marine  gravels,  County  Antrim;  portions  of  a 
skeleton  from  Shandon  Cave,  County  Waterford;  and  a 
number  of  parts  of  skeletons  from  Doneraile  Cave,  County 
Cork.  There  is  also  the  molar  of  an  Irish  mastodon,  be- 
lieved to  have  been  dredged  off  the  coast  of  Antrim.  Sev- 
eral molars  of  the  English  mammoth  may  be  viewed  in 
this  Museiun,  one  from  Aylesford,  Kent,  another  from 

*Field  Museum  of  Natuml  HiBtory,  Publication  ISl.  Report  Series  Vol.  FV,  No.  r. 
AnnuAl  Report  of  the  Director  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  the  year  1914»  Chicago,  1015, 
p.  S82,  PL  IX. 


378      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Kents  Hole  Cave,  Devonshire,  and  a  third  from  Robin 
Hood  Cave,  Cresswell  Crags.* 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  show  here  one  of  the  fourteen 
representations  of  the  mammoth  scratched  or  engraved 
on  the  walls  of  the  "Grotte  des  Combarelles"  (Dept.  Dor- 
dogne),  France,  all  of  which,  as  has  been  noted  in  the  first 
chapter  of  this  work,  had  the  effect  of  their  outlines  height- 
ened by  the  use  of  oxide  of  manganese.f 

It  is  not  only  in  the  prehistoric  cave  dwellings  of  France 
that  graphic  representations  of  the  extinct  European  ele- 
phants have  been  found,  but  in  Spain  also  examples  of  at 
least  equal  interest  and  value  have  been  discovered.  One 
of  the  best  of  these  is  a  tracing,  in  a  reddish  colour,  on  the 
right  wall  of  the  cavern  of  Pindal,  in  the  Asturias,  discovered 
by  Alcalde  del  Rio  in  April,  1908.  This  outline  drawing 
is  singularly  successful  in  presenting  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  great  pachyderm.  The  animal  is  depicted  in  repose, 
the  trunk  hanging  down  vertically,  with  a  slight  curve  at 
the  tip;  only  one  tusk  is  indicated,  by  a  single  stroke.  A 
heart-shaped  red  mark  toward  the  middle  of  the  body  is 
supposed  to  indicate  an  immense  ear  flap.  An  especially 
notable  circumstance  in  connection  with  this  effective 
drawing  by  prehistoric  man  is  that  the  shortness  of  the 
tusk  in  comparison  with  the  length  of  the  trunk,  the  lack 
of  any  indication  of  a  hairy  covering,  and  several  other 
signs  point  to  a  type  differing  greatly  from  that  figured  in 
the  French  cave  dwellings  of  the  Dordogne,  a  type  more 
closely  approaching  that  of  living  elephant  species  than 
did  the  Elephds  primigenius.  Another  red  tracing  of  a 
mammoth  was  found  on  the  wall  of  the  Castillo  cavern,  at 
Puento  Viesgo,  Soain,  discovered  by  Alcalde  del  Rio,  Novem- 

*Commumcated  by  Dr.  R.  Scharff,  National  Museum,  Dublin,  Ireland. 

tRichard  S.  LuU,  "The  Evolution  of  the  Elephant,**  pp.  15,  17.    Peabody  Museum 
of  Natural  History.    Guide  No.  2.    See  figure  on  p.  367  of  present  work. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       379 

ber  8,  1903.  The  figure  is  only  traced  in  silhouette,  eye  and 
ear  are  lacking  and  only  a  single  foreleg  and  hindleg  are 
drawn.*  The  tusk  indicated  by  a  short  stroke  and  the  ab- 
sence of  any  mane,  there  being  only  markings  indicating 
a  few  stiff  hairs  along  the  spine,  combine  to  prove  that  we 
have  here  essentially  the  same  type  as  that  figured  on  the 
cave  wall  of  Pindal.  This  confirms  the  conjecture  that  the 
mammoths  both  draughtsmen  were  striving  to  figure  were 
very  different  in  appearance  from  those  which  served  as 
models  for  the  prehistoric  artists  of  the  Dordogne  cavems.t 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  department  of  Oran,  Algeria, 
there  have  been  found  engraved  on  the  face  of  rocks  by 
natives  of  the  land  a  certain  number  of  elephant  figures. 
These  representations  are  believed  to  be  of  great  antiquity, 
and  some  of  them  may  possibly  date  back  to  the  early  period 
of  the  cave  dwellers  of  the  Dordogne.  A  curious  example 
of  the  North  African  rock  sculptures  shows  five  somewhat 
grotesque  elephant  figures,  engraved  and  polished,  two  bulls 
and  two  cows,  accompanied  by  some  human  figures,  these 
being  placed  as  though  to  give,  by  contrast,  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  immense  size  of  the  quadrupeds.  This  sculpture 
is  on  a  rock  between  Ouedj  and  Tathania  in  Southern  Oran.J 
Here  the  cows  appear  to  be  without  tusks,  those  of  the  bulls 
being  very  short.  The  same  holds  good  of  another  similar 
rock  sculpture  from  the  same  region.**  Whether  it  would  be 
safe  to  draw  any  morphological  conclusions  from  the  rude 
figures  of  these  primitive  artists  appears  very  doubtful. 

*H.  Alcalde  del  Rio,  Abb^  Henri  Breuil,  and  Rev.  Father  Lorenzo  Sierra,  "Lea  Cav- 
eraes  de  la  R^on  Cantabrique  (Espagne), "  "Peintures  et  Gravures  Murales  des  Caveroes 
Pal^litiques/'  Monaco,  1911;  published  under  the  auspices  of  H.  S.  H.  Prince  Albert  I 
of  Monaco.    See  pp.  61, 66,  and  PI.  XLIV  and  XLV. 

tOp.  cit.,  p.  129;  see  Fig.  117,  p.  131,  and  PL  LXVUI. 

t"Les  Cavemes  de  la  R^on  Cantabrique  (Espagne),**  by  H.  Alcalde  del  Rio,  Abb^ 
Henri  Breuil  and  the  Rev.  Father  Lorenzo  Sierra.  Monaco,  1911;  published  under  the 
auspices  of  H.  S.  H.    Prince  Albert  of  Monaco.    See  p.  2S9,  Fig.  246. 

♦•Op.  cit..  Fig.  247.  p.  240. 


880     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Remains  of  Mastodon  andium  have  been  found  in  a 
sediment  of  argillaceous  schist  at  the  foot  of  the  higher 
of  the  two  limestone  elevations  called  Los  Morros  de  San 
Juan,  near  Villa  de  Cura,  Venezuela.  The  discovery  was 
made  in  the  course  of  excavations  undertaken  to  enlarge  the 
hydro-sulphuric  springs  here,  known  and  used  from  the 
time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest,  and  still  annually  visited  by 
many  bathers.  The  mastodon  relics  are  now  preserved  in 
the  Museo  Nacional  of  Caracas,  and  are  as  follows:  one 
molar  tooth,  one  calcaneum,  a  femur,  a  fragment  of  a  tibia, 
one  hopelessly  fractured  tusk,  fragments  of  an  omoplate,  a 
few  ribs,  and  some  smaller  bones.  The  crown  of  the  molar 
is  13  cm.  long  and  8  cm.  broad;  it  measures  35  cm.  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base  and  has  roots  9  cm.  long;  it  may  be  re- 
ferred to  the  genus  TriUyphodoriy  Falconer.  Most  of  the 
bones  have  a  greenish-gray  hue  like  that  of  the  gravel 
wherein  they  were  deposited;  only  the  larger  bones,  the  tibia 
and  femur,  are  of  darker  shade,  almost  brown,  and  the 
interior  presents  the  whiteness  of  a  new  bone.  The  femur, 
65  cm.  long,  and  the  tibia,  are  fairly  well  preserved,  and  are 
solid  as  are  those  of  the  elephant.  The  tusk,  originally 
more  than  a  metre  long,  has  a  circumference  of  39  cm.; 
unfortunately  it  is  so  extensively  fractured  that  restoration 
is  impossible.  As  with  elephant  tusks,  it  is  made  up  of 
several  concentric  layers  of  ivory;  but  from  having  lain 
buried  for  so  many  centuries  in  a  deposit  not  containing 
petrifying  constituents,  it  has  suffered  from  dry  rot.  The 
general  characteristics  of  the  remains  indicate  that  the 
mastodon  of  San  Juan  was  an  adult  animal  some  3  metres 
(nearly  10  ft.)  in  extreme  length  and  having  a  height  of 
about  2 J  metres  (8.2  ft.).* 

Fossil  remains  of  proboscideans  have  been  found  in  many 

^Communicated  by  Sefior  Francisco  de  P.  Alamo,  naturalist,  of  Caracas,  Venesuela,  in 
January,  1914. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       381 

parts  of  South  America,  especially  along  the  western  side, 
from  Colombia  to  Argentina.*  So  far  as  is  known  they  are 
all  of  Pleistocene  or  late  Pliocene  age,  and  more  or  less  nearly 
related  to  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  genera  of  North  America. 
Manmioths  and  elephants  appear  rarely,  if  ever,  to  have 
penetrated  into  South  America;  nor  apparently  did  M.  ameri- 
canus  ever  reach  that  country.  Early  discoveries  sent  to 
Europe  were  described  under  the  names  of  Mastodon  hum- 
boldti  and  M.  andium^  and  thought  to  be  related  to  Masto- 
doriy  now  Trilophodon,  angustidens  of  Europe.  Later  dis- 
coveriesf  show  that  there  were  several  different  types  in 
South  America,  but  probably  all  of  them  may  be  referred 
to  the  genus  Dibelodon  ( =  Stegomastodon) . 

The  only  species  of  Elephantidae,  remains  of  which  have 
been  found  in  Uruguay,  South  America,  is  the  Mastodon 
Humboldti  (Cuvier),  bones  of  which  have  been  discovered 
at  Mercedes  in  Uruguay,  situated  on  the  Rio  Negro,  about 
fifteen  mUes  from  its  entrance  into  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
The  mammoth  is  unknown  in  South  America,  but  of  the 
species  Elephas  columbi  (Falconer)  remains  are  said  to  have 
been  found  in  Colombia,  and  they  also  appear  in  Mexico. J 

There  appears  to  be  some  evidence  that  the  ivory  capping 
of  a  mastodon  molar  was  found  in  1880  in  Mexico,  as  in 
that  year  the  Jefe  Politico  of  Progreso,  Yucatan,  Mexico, 
showed  such  an  object  to  Dr.  Edward  H.  Thompson  as 
having  been  given  to  him  during  a  recent  visit  to  Vera  Cruz. 
However,  no  definite  information  was  obtainable  as  to  the 
exact  locality  from  which  the  tooth  fragment  had  been 
brought,  so  that  it  was  not  possible  to  make  a  search  for 


^Communicated  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Matthew. 

tFlorentino  Ameghino,  1889»  "  Mamiferos  FosOes  de  la  Republica  Argentina,"  Actas 
Acad.  Nadonal  "Ciendas**  Cordoba,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  632-052. 

^Communicated  by  M.  A.  Lamme,  Director  of  the  Instituto  de  Geologia  y  Perfora- 
ciones,  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  S  A. 


882      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

further  remains.  An  exceptionally  large  number  of  remains 
of  extinct  Proboscidea  were  found  in  Mexico  at  the  time  of 
the  digging  of  the  canal  to  drain  Lake  Tezcoco  near  Mexico 
City,  and  are  preserved  in  the  Instituto  Geologico  in  that  city. 

During  his  travels  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Minas 
Geraes  in  1817,  the  French  botanist,  Auguste  de  St.  Hilaire, 
was  shown,  at  Villa  do  Fanado,  the  tooth  of  a  mastodon, 
now  in  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  in  Paris,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  found  in  a  saltpetre  tract  of  the  desert 
region  of  the  province.  He  recalls  somewhat  indistinctly 
a  statement  that  bones  of  unusual  size  had  been  unearthed 
in  this  region.* 

That  the  peculiar  form  of  the  elephant's  skull  is  due  to  an 
evolutionary  process  connected  with  and  conditioned  by  the 
development  of  the  trunk  and  the  tusks,  has  already  been 
quite  fully  explained  and  illustrated  in  the  present  chapter. 
To  sustain  the  weight  of  this  strange  appendage  and  afford 
the  requisite  leverage,  the  skull  has  gradually  become  short- 
ened and  its  height  increased.  This  characteristic  form 
lends  to  the  elephant  a  certain  appearance  of  dignity,  and  is 
suggestive  of  a  high  degree  of  intelligence.  However,  the 
animal's  brain,  though  highly  convoluted,  is  of  relatively 
small  size,  the  thickness  of  the  roof  of  the  skull  exceeding  the 
height  of  the  brain  case.  The  delicate  prehensile  j>ower  of 
the  trunk,  so  striking  in  view  of  its  enormous  strength,  is  due 
to  the  fingerlike  projections  with  which  it  terminates,  these 
constituting  a  notable  element  of  distinction  between  the 
Indian  and  the  African  types,  but  one  such  projection  being 
present  in  the  case  of  the  former,  while  the  trunk  of  the 
African  elephant  is  provided  with  two  of  them.f 

The  possible  influence  exerted  by  the  elephant's  pre- 

*Auguste  de  St.  Hilaire,  "Voyage  dans  les  Provinces  de  Rio  de  Janeiro  et  de  Bfinas 
Geraes/*  Paris.  18S0.  Vol.  II.  p.  314. 

fRichard  S.  Lull.  Ph.  D.,  "The  Evolution  of  the  Elephant."  p.  SI.  Peabody  Muaeum 
of  Natural  History.  Guide  No.  2.    Reprinted  from  Am.  Jour,  Se,  Vol.  XXV.  March,  1906. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       388 

hensile  trunk  upon  the  development  of  this  animal's  in- 
telligence, which  is  of  a  high  order  in  some  directions,  has 
been  adduced  by  Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull,  who  notes  that  the 
elephant  shares  to  a  limited  extent  with  man  in  the  ability 
to  handle  objects  easily  and  delicately,  and  to  bring  them 
before  the  face  for  examination.* 

Fossil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  elephants  have  been 
found  in  various  parts  of  Japan,  in  deposits  of  Miocene  age, 
and  all  the  way  up  to  those  of  Pleistocene  age.  So  far  four 
or  five  distinct  species  have  been  determined. f 

It  was  not  until  1900  that  a  systematic  attempt  was 
made  to  distinguish  and  describe  the  different  varieties  of 
the  Elephas  africanus.  In  that  year  Dr.  Matschie,  Curator 
of  the  Zoological  Museiun  in  BerUn,  indicated  four  of  these 
varieties,  namely: 

Elephas  a,  capensis,  cuv. 
EL  a  cyclotiSf  biatschie. 
El.  a.  Knochenhaueri,  matschie. 
EL  a.  oxyotis,  matschie. 

In  1906  Noack  described  a  new  sub-species  of  dwarf 
elephant,  EL  a.  pumilio.  Finally,  in  1908,  Lydekker,  bas- 
ing his  distinctions  chiefly  upon  the  form  and  relative 
dimensions  of  the  ear,  named  the  following  thirteen  sub- 
species of  the  Elephas  africanus  blum.iJ 

E.  a,  capensis  cuv.  Eastern    part    of    South    Africa. 

(Port  Elizabeth,  where  it  is  pro- 
tected). 

E,  a.  oxyotis  lyd.  Western    part   of   South   Africa. 

(Near  Mossel  Bay,  where  it  is 
protected). 

♦n)id..  p.  8. 

tCommunicated  by  Kinosuke  Inouye,  Director  of  the  Imperial  Geological  Survey  of 
Japan. 

tSchouteden,  "L*^lcphant  nain  du  Congo'*;   in  Revtte  Zoologique  Africaine,  Vol.   I» 
Fasc.  ft,  pp.  222-229,  PI.  XII,  XIII;  BruzeUes,  August  31, 1911. 


384   IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 


£.  a,  Selousi  lyd. 

E,  a.  cyclotis  matbchie. 

E.  a.  Coitoni  lyd. 

E.  a.  Knochenhaueri  biatschie 

E,  a.  Peeli  ltd. 

E.  a,  Cavendishi  ltd. 

£.  a,  oxyotis  matschie. 
E.  a.  Orleansi  ltd. 
E,  a.  RoUchildi  lyd. 
£.  a.  albertensis  lyd. 
£.  a.  pumilio  noack. 


Mashonaland  and  Matabeleland. 

Cameroons. 

Congo. 

German  East  Africa,  Northeastern 

Rhodesia. 
English  East  Africa. 
Lake  Rudolf  (Northeaatem  Africa) 

GaUaIand»  Lado  (?). 
Abyssinia*  Sudan*  Blue  Nik. 
Northern  Somaliland. 
Western  Sudan. 
Uganda. 
French  Congo. 


Although  but  two  of  these  types  have  so  far  been  def- 
initely noted  in  the  Congo  basin  (EL  a.  Cottoni  and  El.  a. 
pumilio),  Dr.  Schouteden  considers  it  highly  probable 
that  some  other  of  these  varieties  exist  there.  The  unique 
specimen  of  the  dwarf  elephant,  EL  a.  pumilio^  was  acquired 
in  1905  by  the  New  York  Zoological  Society.  While  Noack, 
who  examined  the  animal  in  Europe  in  1905,  believed  it  was 
about  six  years  old  at  that  time,  the  New  York  experts 
placed  its  age  at  from  two  to  three  years.  The  following 
data  given  by  Dr.  Homaday,  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
show  the  slow  growth  and  development  of  this  most  inter- 
esting specimen,  which  is  known  to  visitors  as  "Congo": 


DATE 

HEIGHT 

WEMBT 

July            28,  1905        .      .      .      . 

.     .     .     3  ft,    8    in. 

eoopoui 

March        23,  1907        .      .      .      , 

.     .     .     3  ft.  lOi  in. 

November    1,  1908        .      .      . 

.     .     .     4  ft.    6}  in. 

1,170      « 

January        4,  1910        .      .      .      . 

.     .     .4  ft.    9iin. 

June             7,  1911              .      .      . 

.     .     .6  ft. 

1,650      " 

July            11,  1911        .     .      .     . 

.     .     .5  ft. 

1,700      " 

ds 


The  tusks  are  now  reported  22  and  23  in.  in  length,  while 
they  were  little  over  4  in.  long  in  1905. 


EVOLUTION    OF    ELEPHANTS       885 

In  his  book  "Ins  innerste  Afrika/'  which  appeared  in 
1909,  Duke  Adolph  of  Mecklenberg  describes  the  finding  of 
the  skeleton  of  a  dwarf  elephant  in  the  territory  of  the 
Wambutti,  near  Beni,  Belgian  Congo;*  the  specimen  in 
New  York  is  said  to  have  come  from  the  French  Congo. 
The  dwarf  elephant  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  possibly 
representing  the  fossil  pygmy  elephants  of  Cyprus  and 

Malta.t 

The  dense  jungles  near  the  shores  of  an  inland  sea  stretch- 
ing from  Nakawa  to  Singora,  in  Siam,  constitute  the  habitat 
of  a  species  of  small  "red  elephant,"  so  named  because  of 
the  reddish-brown  hue  of  the  sparse  hair  covering  their 
bodies.  They  are  tuskless,  and  as  no  attempt  has  been 
made  until  quite  recently  to  tame  them,  they  are  the  only 
elephants  in  Siam  unprotected  by  the  stringent  regulations 
of  that  country  against  shooting  these  animals. 


NAIMKS  OF 

THE  ELEPHANT  AND  OF  IVORY 

VARIOUS  LANGUAGES 

LANGUAGE 

ELEPHANT 

nroBT 

English 

Elephant 

Ivory 

Anglo-Saxon 

Elpend 

Elpenbaenen 

German 

Elephant 

Elfenbein 

Dutch 

Olifant 

Ivoor,  elpenbeen 

Danish 

Elefant 

Elfenben 

Swedish 

Elefant 

Elfenben 

Lettish 

Elefants»  silons 

Elefanta  sohbs 

Lithuanian 

Slanas 

Slanio  kaulas 

French 

£l6phant 

Ivoire 

Italian 

Elefante 

Avorio 

Spanish 

Elefante 

Marfil 

Portuguese 

Elephante 

Marfim 

Rumanian 

Elefant 

FUdes 

*I>r.  Schouteden  in  Rev,  ZM,  Afr„  Vol.  Faac.  %  p.  887. 

tRichard  Lydekker,  in  "Encyclopedia  Britannicm"  11th  ed.,  Cambridge,  1010;  artidet 
eUphanU 


386     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


NAMES  OF  THE  ELEPHANT  AND  OF  IVORY  IN 
VARIOUS  LANGUAGES— Conrintwjd. 


LANOUAGS 

ELBFHAMT 

rVOBT 

Russian 

Slon 

Slonovaya  kost 

Polish 

Slon 

Sloniova  kosc 

Bohemian 

Slon 

Slonovina,  slonovd  kost 

Bulgarian 

Fil 

Slonova  kost 

Servian 

Slon 

PhUdish 

Ruthenian 

Slon 

Sloneva  kist 

Hungarian 

Eleph&nt 

Elefantesont 

Irish 

Trod 

lomhog 

Welsh 

Elifant 

Asgwm  eliffent 

Lapp 

Elefanta 

Japanese 

Zo,  Kisa 

Zoge 

Chmese 

Siang 

Siang 

Siamese 

Chang 

Nga  Chang 

Burmese 

Htsin 

Htsin-tsive 

Sanskrit* 

Gaja,  ihha 

Gajadanta;  hastidanta 

Greek 

•EXi(pa<; 

'EXi^a<;;iXt9ivTtvo<;  (adj.) 

Modem  Greek 

'EXi(p(Z(; 

'EXe9avT6$oy7oy 

Latin 

Elephas 

Ebur 

Arabic 

Fil 

'Ajadhan 

Persian 

Pil 

Turkish 

Fil 

Fil-dishi 

Sumerian 

AM-SI(?) 

KAAM-SI 

Assyrian 

Piru 

Shinni  piri 

*The  elephant  is 

also  called  luuHn,  literally  the  animal  "  having  a  hand." 

CHAPTER  XI 

ELEPHANT  TUSKS 

The  story  of  the  slow  and  gradual  evolution  of  mammoth 
and  elephant  from  the  earliest  stages  naturally  leads  up  to 
a  more  special  presentment  of  the  facts  regarding  their 
wonderful  tusks,  at  once  the  pride  and  the  bane  of  these 
last  survivors  of  the  monsters  of  far-off  times.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  importance  of  the  elephant  in  our 
day  results  almost  exclusively  from  the  utilization  of  ivory 
in  the  arts  and  industries.  Still,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
these  marvellously  developed  teeth  have  been  evolved  in 
harmony  with  the  general  structural  development  of  the 
elephant.  The  progressive  change  in  the  length  of  the 
tusks  conditioned  a  reciprocal  change  in  the  form  of  the 
skull.  Each  stage  of  the  individual  development  repre- 
sents the  results  of  an  effort  to  establish  an  equilibrium 
between  skull  and  tusks,  this  equilibrium  being  progressively 
disturbed  by  a  lengthening  of  the  tusks  and  again  reestab- 
lished by  a  corresponding  change  in  the  skull.  This  recip- 
rocal process  of  growth  continues  at  least  up  to  the  full 
maturity  of  the  individual  elephant.  What  is  true  of  the 
individual  must  also  have  been  true  of  the  successive  stages 
in  the  development  of  the  various  elephant  species,  the 
changes  here  taking  place,  however,  with  less  regularity 
and  with  occasional  periods  of  interruption,  although  the 
principle  and  cause  are  the  same.* 

*W.  Soergel,  "Die  Stammesgeachichte  der  Elephanten,"  Centralblatt  fttr  Mineralogie» 
Geologic  and  Palttontolgie,"  1015,  No.  7»  April  Ist;  Stuttgart,  1015,  pp.  208,  200. 

887 


388     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  great  development  of  the  tusks  m  the  unmediate 
predecessors  of  the  Indian  elephant,  strictly  so-called,  is 
shown  in  the  skull  and  mandible  of  Elephas  (Stegodon) 
Ganesa  (Gaut  and  Falconer),  now  in  the  British  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  This  came  from  the  Lower  Pliocene 
formation  of  the  Siwalik  Hills,  India,  and  the  tusks  project 
9  ft.  9  in.  beyond  the  sockets. 

The  lessons  in  elephant  morphology  to  be  learned  from  a 
study  of  the  exceptionally  well-preserved  remains  of  the 
Beresovka  mammoth,  an  examination  of  which  has  greatly 
enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  probable  appearance  of  the 
Elephas  primigeniits  of  the  north,  have  been  of  great  value 
in  the  branch  of  palaeontology.  No  one  was  in  a  better 
position  to  pursue  this  study  than  was  one  of  the  zoological 
preparators  of  the  Petrograd  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences, 
E.  V.  Pfizenmayer,  who  was  chosen  as  one  of  the  members 
of  the  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Academy  to  examine 
and  secure  the  valuable  find.*  Unfortunately,  owing  to  the 
carelessness  shown  by  the  original  finders  of  this  mammoth 
in  failing  to  protect  the  flesh  from  decomposition,  the  hairy 
covering  at  first  to  be  observed  had  to  a  great  extent  disap- 
peared when  Doctor  Pfizenmayer  first  saw  the  remains. 
Enough  hair  was  left,  however,  either  attached  to  the  skin, 
or  scattered  over  the  earth  about  the  remains,  to  enable 
him  to  come  to  the  conviction  that  nothing  pointed  to  the 
existence  of  a  true  mane,  although  about  the  neck  the  hair 
may  have  been  a  trifle  longer  than  on  the  other  parts  of  the 
body ;  its  colour  must  have  been  a  rusty  brown.  The  most  in- 
teresting results  of  the  investigations  of  Doctor  Pfizenmayer 
regard  the  form  and  setting  of  the  tusks  of  the  northern 
mammoths.     In  the  case  of  this  specimen  from  the  Bere- 

*E.  Pfizenmayer,  "A  contribution  to  the  morphology  of  the  mammoth,  Elephoi  pruRt- 
genius  Blumenbach;  with  an  explanation  of  my  attempt  at  a  restoration,**  trans,  from 
the  Transactions  of  the  Petrograd  Academy  of  Sciences,  Smithsonian  Report  for  1906* 
pp.  S21-S3d;  with  one  pUte. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  389 

sovka,  evidently  a  young  animal,  one  of  the  tusks  was,  as 
we  have  noted,  attached  to  the  skull  at  the  time  the  remains 
were  discovered,  but  it  was  hacked  out  by  one  of  the  natives 
not  long  afterward.  However,  by  careful  readjustment, 
guided  by  the  marks  left  on  skull  and  tusk  by  the  hatchet 
used  in  cutting  the  latter  out,  some  interesting  indications 
as  to  the  progressive  growth  and  change  of  direction  in  the 
manunoth  tusks  were  secured,  and  Doctor  Pfizenmayer  has 
come  to  the  conviction  that  in  the  full-grown  animals  the 
direction  of  curve  was  not  upward  nor  outward,  nor  defi- 
nitely inward,  but  after  first  describing  a  short  inward  curve 
the  further  growth  developed  a  downward  curve.  In  a 
young  mammoth,  such  as  that  found  on  the  Beresovka, 
this  final  curve  is  not  yet  apparent  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
tusk  bending  inward.  The  abraded  surfaces  to  be  noted 
on  many  mammoth  tusks  have  been  explained  as  due  to 
their  use  by  these  animals  in  digging  up  their  food,  grasses, 
plants,  shrubs,  etc.,  out  of  the  snow  or  ice  which  covered 
it  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year  in  this  far  northern 
land. 

The  downward  curve,  a  prolongation  of  an  inward  curve, 
is  most  characteristically  shown  in  a  mammoth  tusk  of  the 
Petrograd  Zoological  Museum.  This  tusk,  which  is  a  left 
one,  measures  but  98  cm.  (3  ft.  2^  in.)  on  a  straight  line  and 
yet  has  a  length  of  1.59  m.  (5  ft.  2 J  in.)  if  measured  along 
the  curve.  It  has  the  peculiar  spiral  curvature  to  a  very 
marked  extent.  This  is  also  observable  in  a  most  interesting 
mammoth  cranium,  with  left  tusk  attached,  now  in  the 
museum  of  Cracow  University  and  found  in  1851  at  Bzianka, 
near  Rzeszov,  in  West  Galicia  under  the  loess.  Here  the 
tusk,  while  measuring  almost  exactly  two  meters  (6  ft.  6f 
in.)  along  its  curve,  has  a  direct  length  of  only  1.57  cm. 
(about  5  ft.  If  in.);  the  circumference  at  the  upper  end  is 
SO  cm.  (llf  in.).    The  spiral  twisting  of  this  tusk,  although 


890  IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

much  less  than  in  the  tusk  at  Petrograd  abeady  described, 
is  sufficiently  marked  to  confirm  the  conclusions  above 
detailed.  The  ^'restored"  tusks  of  the  Adams  mammoth  in 
the  Petrograd  Museum  have  been  made  up  out  of  separate 
pieces  and  are  unquestionably  not  identical  with,  or  even 
similar  to,  those  really  borne  by  this  mammoth. 

Whatever  may  be  the  final  opinion  in  regard  to  the  per- 
manent value  of  these  conjectures,  they  certainly  have  much 
to  support  them,  although  further  and  fuller  evidence  is 
needed  to  establish  them  satisfactorily. 

The  largest  tusks  of  the  existing  species  of  elephants  in 
Asia  and  Africa  are  inferior  in  length  to  some  of  those 
which  have  been  found  with  other  remains  of  extinct  elephant 
species.  Exceptionally  fine  examples  of  these  tusks  are 
now  to  be  seen  in  New  York;  Lincoln,  Nebraska;  Brtinn,  Mo- 
ravia; Los  Angeles,  California;  Mexico  City,  and  also  in  Paris, 
Petrograd,  and  several  other  European  cities,  some  of  the 
American  examples  coming  from  our  Alaskan  territory. 

The  tusks  of  the  WUrttemberg  manunoth  in  the  Stutt- 
gart  Naturaliencabinett  are  typical  specimens  of  those 
borne  by  Elephas  primigenius.  The  curve  is  remarkable 
and  yet  by  no  means  ungraceful.  While  the  left  tusk  meas- 
ures 8  ft.  10 J  in.  along  the  outside  curve,  the  direct  line  from 
base  to  tip  is  only  4  ft.  5|  in.,  less  than  half  the  actual  length; 
the  right  tusk  is  8  ft.  8 J  in.  long,  the  "chord"  being  4  ft. 
3J  in.  The  circumferences  are  26  in.  for  the  right  tusk  and 
25|  in.  for  the  left  one.  Besides  these  tusks,  forming  part 
of  the  splendid  skeleton  set  up  in  this  institution,  there  are 
two  remarkable  tusks,  also  from  Steinheim-on-the-Murr, 
WUrttemberg,  found  in  1912.  One  of  these,  a  left  tusk  of 
the  Elephas  antiquitSy  is  almost  straight,  after  an  initial 
downward  curve,  and  measures  12  ft.  3  in.  in  length;  the 
other,  a  right  tusk  of  Elephas  primigenius ^  has  a  length  along 
the  outside  curve  of  12  ft.  1|  in.,  but  is  so  sharply  curved 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  391 

that  a  direct  line  from  tip  to  base  would  be  less  than  4  ft. 
To  emphasize  the  characteristic  diflFerence  these  tusks  have 
been  placed  one  above  the  other;  the  curved  tusk  describes 
three  quarters  of  a  circle.* 

A  tusk  rivalling  in  length  those  of  the  Instituto  Geologico 
of  Mexico  City  is  preserved  in  the  Franzens-Museum  at 
Briinn,  Austria.  It  is  stated  to  measure  more  than  5  meters 
in  length  or  approximately  16  ft.  6  in.;  this  was  found  in 
1845,  in  the  loess  of  the  Sanct  Thomas  Ziegelei  near  Brilnn, 
and  belonged  to  an  example  of  Elephas  j>rimigeniu3.'\  As 
the  same  slightly  indefinite  statement  as  to  length  is  made 
in  regard  to  the  Brilnn  tusk  and  to  those  of  Mexico  City, 
it  is  not  possible,  in  the  absence  of  absolutely  accurate  data, 
to  determine  which  is  the  longest  of  these  extraordinary 
tusks. 

One  of  the  largest  mammoth  tusks  ever  discovered  in 
Siberia  is  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York.  It  was  obtained,  by  the  Jesup  Expedition,  from  the  Li- 
akhov  Islands.  This  tusk  of  Elephas  primigenius  has  an  out- 
side curve  of  12  ft.  11  in.,  and  a  basal  circumference  of  21  in., 
and  weighs  200  pounds.  It  is  almost  perfect,  excepting  a 
small  piece  of  the  tip  which  has  been  broken  oflF.  From  an 
Alaskan  mammoth  of  the  same  species  the  Museum  has  a 
pair  of  round  tusks  56  in.  in  length  and  10  in.  in  circumfer- 
ence. There  are  also  the  jaws  and  teeth  and  some  portions 
of  the  skeleton,  as  well  as  even  pieces  of  the  hide  and  hair. 
This  si>ecimen  came  from  Elephant  Point,  Eschscholtz  Bay, 
Alaska. 

From  the  territory  of  the  United  States  the  Museum 

^O.  W.  Dietrich,  "Elephas  primigenius  Fraasi,  eine  schwiibische  Mammutrasse," 
Stuttgart,  1012,  pp.  67,  68,  and  E.  Frasse,  **  Elefantenz&hne  von  Steinheim  a.  d.  Murr,*' 
Reprint  from  **  Jahresehafte  d,  Vereins  fur  vaterL  NcUurkunde  in  WurUemberg,**  70th 
Jahrg.»  1914.,  pp.  34-36. 

fAlezander  Biakowsky,  "Der  Loess  von  Briinn  und  seine  Einschlttsse  an  diluvialen 
Tliieren  und  Menschen,**  Verfiarullungen  d.  naturf.  Vereines  in  BrUnn,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  210. 


892     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

possesses  a  skeleton  of  Elephas  primigenius,  the  American 
mammoth.  This  was  fomid  near  Jonesboro,  Tndiana,  ia 
1903,  and  one  of  its  most  striking  features  is  the  complete 
incurvature  and  crossing  of  the  tusks,  the  longer  of  whidi 
measures  12  ft.  4^  in.  along  the  outside  curve,  and  has  a 
greatest  circumference  of  22  in.  They  are  considerably  in* 
filtrated  but  still  retain  much  of  their  resiliency. 

The  largest  mammoth  tusks  in  the  collection,  and  among 
the  largest  ever  found,  are  from  a  specimen  of  ElephoB  imr 
perator,  the  Imperial  mammoth,  from  Victoria,  Texas*  be- 
longing to  the  late  Pleistocene  Age.  The  more  nearly  com- 
plete of  the  pair  measures  13  ft.  6  in.  along  the  outside  curr^ 
thus  considerably  exceeding  in  length  the  longest  of  tbe 
elephant  tusks  of  to-day ;  the  greatest  circumference  is  Jl*  ■"  • 
These  tusks  have  completely  lost  their  elasticity.  This 
moth  has  a  height  of  10  ft.  6  in.,  while  the  gigantic 
of  Elephas  meridionalis  now  in  the  Paris  Museum  attaint  a 
height  of  12  ft.  6J^  in.f  The  tusks  of  the  Warren  mastodoBb 
found  near  Newburg,  New  York,  are  badly  damaged  but j|^ 
pear  to  have  measured  8  ft.  6  in.  in  length. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  no  ivory  objects  have  been  faoaA 
in  the  tombs  or  other  deposits  of  the  American  aboriginB^ 
and  this  may  be  explained  by  the  probability  that,  in  tlw 
territory  of  the  United  States  at  least,  the  mammoth  liad 
passed  away  before  the  appearance  of  man.  A  number^ 
American  archaeologists,  among  them  Dr.  J.  Walter  FeiAMb 
have  never  observed  carved  ivory  or  any  kind  of  mastodflU 
bones  among  the  deposits  left  by  the  ancient  American  fiir 
dians. 

A  famous  pair  of  fossil  tusks  may  be  seen  in  the  Pebo- 
grad  Zoological  Museum,  one  of  them  measuring  12  ft.  9M 

^Penonal  communication  of  W.  D.  Matthew,  Curator  of  the  Natural  Hiitoty  MmeoHi 

fHenry  Fairfield  Osbom,  "A  Mounted  Skeleton  of  the  Columbian  Manunotfa,**  BdL 
Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol  XXm,  Art.  XII,  pp.  255-257;  Mardi  SO,  1007. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  398 

in.  along  the  curve,  and  having  a  girth  of  35.43  in.,  while  the 
other  and  longer  one  attains  an  extreme  length  along  the 
curve  of  13  ft.  7.78  in.,  with  the  same  extreme  circumference 
as  the  shorter  one.  The  weights  are  respectively  167  and 
186  pounds.  They  were  found  on  the  Kolyma  River,  north- 
eastern Siberia,  by  the  Russian  merchant  Gromoff ,  and  at 
the  time  of  their  discovery  were  still  attached  to  the  skull  of 
the  mammoth.  The  great  curve  described  by  these  tusks 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  on  a  straight  line  they  measure 
resi>ectively  7  ft.  4.58  in.  and  6  ft.  11.46  in.,  the  shorter  meas- 
urement on  a  straight  line  being  that  of  the  longer  of  the 
tusks.  They  are  in  perfect  condition,  showing  both  the  pulp 
and  the  tip  intact.* 

A  fossil  mammoth  tusk  of  extraordinary  size  comes  from 
a  creek  near  Kotzebue  Sound.  It  was  found  by  some  Eski- 
mos, buried  in  the  frozen  tundra,  which  never  thaws.  It 
is  said  to  be  14  ft.  long,  9  in,  in  diameter  at  the  largest  end, 
weighs  165  pounds,  and  is  in  perfectly  sound  condition 
throughout.  It  has  been  pronounced  the  very  best  specimen 
ever  discovered.  If  the  reported  length  be  correct  this 
would  be  probably  the  longest  tusk  so  far  recovered,  except- 
ing the  imperfect  tusks  from  Rancho  La  Brea,  California, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  originally  exceeded  15  ft.  in 
length,  and  the  extraordinary  specimens  in  the  Instituto  Geo- 
logio  of  Mexico  City,  as  well  as  that  in  Brtinn. 

When  during  the  cruise  of  the  revenue  marine  steamer 
Canviriy  in  the  Arctic  Sea  in  1885,  anchor  was  cast  for  a 
short  time  at  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  Alaska,  the  natives 
oflFered  for  barter  several  large  tusks  and  bones  of  the  mam- 
moth. We  need  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  native 
ideas  of  the  appearance  of  the  extinct  mammal  were  rather 
wide  of  the  mark.     They  supposed  that  it  must  have  re- 

^.  Pfixenniayer  in  Annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1906»  p.  S28; 
translation;  Washington,  1907. 


894      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

sembled  the  reindeer,  although  of  much  greater  size.  A 
somewhat  remarkable  find  was  made  at  Schismareff  Inlet, 
when  the  anterior  part  of  a  mammoth  skull  was  discovered 
in  which  there  was  no  sign  of  petrifaction,  the  bone  remaining 
dry,  firm,  and  light,  in  spite  of  the  great  period  of  time  which 
must  have  elapsed  since  the  quadruped's  death.* 

A  few  years  ago,  during  the  winter  of  1908-9,  there  was 
discovered  at  Boma,  near  Leipzig,  the  nearly  complete 
skeleton  of  a  manmioth.  The  remains  lay  in  the  lower 
part  of  a  stratum  of  quaternary  clay,  and  with  them  was 
found  a  fragment  of  a  reindeer  antler.  The  character  of  the 
formation  in  which  the  mammoth  bones  appeared  indicated 
that  the  animal  had  met  its  death  by  sinking  into  a  marsh 
or  species  of  quicksand,  which  it  was  endeavouring  to  trav- 
erse. The  longest  of  the  tusks  measured  3.26  meters 
(10  ft.  6  in.)  and  has  a  circumference  of  50  cm.  (nearly  20 
in.)  at  the  base.  The  height  of  the  manmioth  is  estimated 
to  have  been  3  meters  90  centimeters  or  nearly  10  ft.  6  in.f 

In  the  alluvial  deposits  of  Tilloux,  near  Gensac-la-Pallue 
(dept.  Charente),  many  remains  of  the  extinct  European 
elephant  were  found  in  1894,  associated  with  a  number  of 
products  of  the  industry  of  prehistoric  man.];  Among  the 
elephant  relics  were  two  enormous  tusks,  found  almost 
twenty  feet  apart  from  each  other.  They  are  but  little 
curved.  The  line  between  the  two  extremities  (the  "  chord") 
of  the  better  preserved  of  these  tusks  measures  2  m.  85  cm., 
or  9|  ft.,  while  similar  measurements  of  the  large  Indian 
tusk  in  the  Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History  gives  but  1 
m.  87  cm.  (6|  ft.),  and  a  like  measurement  on  a  straight 
line  of  the  Durfort  tusk  of  the  extinct  Elephds  meridionalis 

*  Charres  H.  Townaend,  "  Notes  on  the  Natural  ffistory  and  Ethnology  of  Northern 
Alaska/*  in  ''  Report  of  the  cruise  of  the  revenue  marine  steamer  Corwin,  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  the  year  1885/'  pp.  81  sqq.;  see  p.  89. 

t  J.  Felix  "  Das  Mammuth  von  Boma,*'  Leipog,  1012,  Sec.  also  p.  of  the  present  work. 

tMarcellin  Boule,  "  La  Ballast^re  de  Tllloul,"  in  L* Anthropologic,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  497-506. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  395 

shows  1  m.  70  cm.  (a  trifle  over  5 J  ft.).  The  tusks  found 
at  Tilloux  also  appear  to  indicate  that  they  belonged  to  an 
animal  even  larger  than  the  mammoth  of  the  Petrograd 
Museum  of  Natural  History.*  Two  molars  found  in  these 
same  Tilloux  deposits  presented  in  their  general  aspect 
and  the  number  and  form  of  the  ridges  the  well-known 
features  of  Elephas  Toeridionalis.  The  fact,  however,  that 
these  elephant  remains  had  been  found  in  association  with 
prehistoric  artefacts  and  that  molars  both  of  EL  primi- 
genius  (the  mammoth)  and  of  El.  antiquus  should  also  be 
met  with  here  under  quite  similar  conditions  was  very  note- 
worthy, as  while  remains  of  two  of  these  species  are  occa- 
sionally found  together,  the  association  of  all  three  in  a 
single  deposit  is  extremely  rare. 

The  British  Museum  of  Natural  History  contains  the 
finest  mammoth  skull  that  has  been  found  in  England. 
It  comes  from  the  brick  earth  at  Ilford,  Essex.  The  tusks 
project  10  ft.  6  in.  beyond  the  sockets.  Unfortunately  the 
skull  is  the  only  part  of  the  skeleton  that  has  been  preserved, 
although  when  it  was  found  the  entire  skeleton  appears  to 
have  been  present.f 

Mammoth  remains  from  the  State  of  Illinois  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago. 
With  a  skull  of  Mastodon  americanus  from  Yorkville,  Illi- 
nois, was  preserved  a  single  tusk  the  circumference  of  which 
was  23  in.,  the  length  along  the  curve  being  6  ft.  3  in.,  while 
a  direct  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  (the  chord) 
measures  only  3  ft.  7  in.,  these  dimensions  showing  the  great 

*The  characterifltic  differences  of  four  of  these  tusks  are  brought  out  in  Fig.  4,  p.  508, 
ci  M.  Boule*s  paper;  all  being  given  on  a  scale  of  1  :S0.  The  6gures  indicate  the  following 
approximate  measurements  of  the  Petrograd  mammoth  tusk:  length  between  extremities 
(the  chord)  1.65  m.,  length  along  the  outer  curve  2.80  m.  compared  with  2.85  m.  and  (ap- 
prox.)  S  m.,  or  0.84  ft.  for  the  tusk  of  TiUoux. 

tA  Guide  to  the  Elephants  (Recent  and  Fossil)  in  the  British  Museum  (Natural  His- 
tory), London,  1008,  p.  41. 


% 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  397 

The  tusks  of  Elephas  imperator  found  with  three  or  four 
other  remains,  in  association  with  Equus  Scottiy  in  a  sand 
pit  at  Dallas,  Texas,  are  fine  examples  of  the  ivory  growth 
in  the  mammoths  of  olden  time.  The  joint  weight  of  the  pair 
is  no  less  than  498  pounds,  and  the  longest  tusk  has  a  length 
of  13  ft.  9  in.;  the  basal  circumference  of  the  right  tusk  is 
23.7  in.  or  60.2  cm.;  that  of  the  left  tusk  22  in.  or  55.9  cm. 
They  are  now  in  the  Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass- 
achusetts. 

The  tusks  in  the  skull  of  Elephas  imperator  found  in  the 
valley  of  Mexico  and  now  in  the  Instituto  Geologico,  Mexico 
City,  are  pronounced  to  be  the  longest  found  in  America, 
and  are  perhaps  the  longest  in  the  world.  A  careful  meas- 
urement made  by  Prof.  G.  R.  Wieland,  of  Yale  Museum, 
determined  the  exact  length  to  be  a  few  centimeters  over 
five  meters,  equivalent  to  about  16|  ft.  Indeed,  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  this  figure  may  fall  a  little  short  of  the 
true  one,  as  there  may  have  been  a  loss  of  several  inches 
in  length  through  the  placing  of  the  tusks  in  their  socket  at 
the  Institute.*  The  observer  would  hardly  suspect  the  al- 
together unusual  length  of  these  tusks  on  account  of  the 
graceful  double  curve. 

The  molar  of  Elephas  meridionalis  Nesti  has  been  found 
at  Mino,  Japan,  and  teeth  of  Stegodon  clifti  Falconer,  Cope, 
and  of  the  mastodon  have  been  unearthed  at  Shodoshuna, 
Saunki,  Japan. 

The  extent  of  the  exports  of  mammoth  ivory  from  Siberia 
is  shown  by  the  arrival  in  the  United  States,  in  1914,  of 
90,000  pounds  of  this  ivory  all  from  the  region  of  the  Lena 
River.  In  a  single  shipment  received  during  the  year  by  an 
American  firm  there  were  an  unusual  number  of  tusks  weigh- 
ing upward  of  100  pounds,  while  one  exceptionally  fine  speci- 
men weighed  225  pounds.     Taking  the  whole  range  of  these 

•Communicated  by  Prof.  G.  R.  WieUnd. 


898     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Siberian  mammoth  tusks  as  shipped  to-day,  they  are  found 
to  average  more  than  five  times  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
tusks  from  living  elephants.  The  superior  weight  and  the 
immense  number  of  these  mammoth  tusks  are  clear  indi- 
cations at  once  of  the  extent  of  territory  over  which  the 
primeval  elephant  wandered,  and  of  the  great  age  to  which 
many  or  most  of  these  animals  must  have  attained. 

In  this  great  collection  of  mammoth  tusks  many  were 
brown  or  yellow  brown  on  the  exterior.  These  are  usually 
the  most  compact  in  structure,  and  the  ivory  in  the  best 
state  of  preservation;  when  the  tusks  are  gray,  or  quite 
white,  they  are  more  likely  to  be  fractured,  and  broken, 
and  rough  on  the  surface,  with  a  superficial  stringlike  de- 
composition. Occasionally  they  are  indented  with  pits 
from  one  to  ten  millimeters  across  and  from  one  to  four 
or  five  millimeters  in  depth.  These  may  be  due  to  the 
action  of  some  vegetable  acids. 

Part  of  the  mastodon  tusks  had  a  coating  of  a  dull  blue 
colour,  due  to  the  action  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  seams  of 
the  ivory,  on  coming  in  contact  with  some  iron  while  the 
tusks  were  buried.  This  material  resembled  odontolite, 
or  "bone  turquoise*'  as  it  is  called,  more  correctly  "ivory 
turquoise, ''  used  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly vivianite,  a  phosphate  of  iron,  occasionally  met  with 
on  battlefields,  where  horses'  hoofs  with  iron  shoes  have  been 
buried  with  human  and  animal  bones. 

Nearly  all  the  mammoth  tusks  show  more  or  less  wear — 
in  some  cases  considerable  wear — on  the  sides  and  at  the 
ends.  This  is  evidently  due  to  extreme  use  of  the  tusks  in 
digging  up  the  soil  in  search  of  food.  Mammoth  ivory  is 
also  occasionally  stained  a  bright  red,  almost  a  blood  red, 
a  stain  produced  by  iron  salts.  Some  of  the  ivory  is  very 
fine  and  compact  and  will  make  piano  keys  of  the  fijrst 
quality,  the  colour  being  pure  ivory  white  after  treatment. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  399 

The  cores  taken  out  of  mammoth  ivory  are  more  acute 
and  pointed  than  in  the  case  of  elephant  ivory,  where  the 
structure  is  more  gradually  tapering.  The  ivory  scraps 
are  sent  to  Japan  and  India  in  large  quantities  to  be  used 
for  inlays  in  wood  and  for  other  ornamental  purposes,  as  is 
done  with  the  scraps  of  elephant  ivory. 

Many  mammoth  tusks  received  here  have  two,  three, 
and  up  to  five  circular  indentations;  these  are  test  marks 
of  the  finder  or  buyer,  who  tries  the  surface  or  bark  of  the 
tusk  to  ascertain  whether  the  ivory  beneath  is  in  good  con- 
dition or  otherwise.  If  the  bark  or  outer  surface  has  disap- 
peared or  is  unsound,  this  is  a  sign  that  the  interior  ivory 
is  also  unsound,  and  if  the  bark  is  spongy,  or  "dozy"  in 
commercial  parlance,  this  is  a  clear  indication  that  the 
ivory  is  similarly  soft  and  spongy.  The  hollow  end  of  the 
tusk  is  called  the  *'pulp  end." 

In  many  of  the  mammoth  tusks  the  ring  growths  men- 
tioned by  Henry  Fairfield  Osborn  as  appearing  on  the  War- 
ren Mastodon  are  visible.  On  one  tusk  forty  thin  rings 
were  to  be  seen ;  these  were  apparent  if  the  hand  were  lightly 
passed  over  them.  Just  how  these  ring  growths  are  formed, 
whether  they  are  strictly  seasonal  and  give  precise  or  ap- 
proximate indications  of  age,  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
definitely,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  as  the  body  develops 
the  tusk  is  gradually  pushed  out  and  the  ringlike  markings 
become  visible. 

The  shippers  of  tusks  generally  find  that  they  are  de- 
livered in  better  condition  if  they  are  shipped  unwrapped, 
as  in  this  case  more  care  is  taken  in  handling  them.  How- 
ever, tusks  are  sometimes  wrapped  in  gunny  bags.  Mam- 
moth tusks  from  Alaska  are  sewed  with  thongs  in  rawhide, 
the  skin  side  within;  these  skins  appear  to  be  those  of  the 
dog,  the  yak,  or  some  such  animal.  Frequently  more  than 
one  tusk  is  wrapped  in  a  single  skin.     The  great  mass  of 


400     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

mammoth  and  mastodon  ivory  we  have  described  was 
accumulated  by  a  special  collector,  who  obtained  the  mate- 
rial from  various  sources. 

It  is  the  even,  constant  temperature  due  to  being  buried 
in  ice  or  frozen  ground  that  has  aided  to  preserve  mammoth 
ivory.  A  temperature  with  but  slight  variations  tends  to 
preserve  ivory;  it  is  variation  from  extreme  cold  to  extreme 
heat  that  injures  all  varieties  of  this  material,  and  not  the 
action  of  a  constant  temperature,  either  hot  or  cold.  The 
tusk,  lower  jaws,  vertebral  bones,  and  the  shafts  of  the  limb 
bones  of  the  mammoth  and  mastodon  are  generally  pre- 
served in  remarkable  perfection,  but  the  skulls  are  usually 
decayed,  being  made  up  of  diploic  or  cancellous  bone  tissue. 
As  this  tissue  is  filled  with  air  spaces,  the  skulls  often  break 
soon  after  discovery,  although  found  in  perfect  condition. 

Fragments  of  fossil  ivory  thoroughly  siUcified  and  im- 
pregnated with  manganese,  so  as  to  have  acquired  a  **moss 
agate"  effect,  have  been  found  in  western  Kansas,  in  the 
divide  between  the  Smoky  Hill  River  and  the  Republican 
River,  north  of  Trego  and  Buffalo  Park.  The  character- 
istic ivory  structure  was  clearly  apparent  in  these  fossil 
pieces.* 

Although  it  is  doubtful  that  any  records  exist  of  the  length 
of  the  elephant  tusks  secured  by  the  hunters  of  Egyptian 
or  Assyrian  times,  two  tusks,  the  longer  measuring  about 
2  ft.  5  in.  in  length,  were  found  by  Layard  in  the  North 
West  Palace  at  Nimroud.     Only  parts  of  these  tusks  have 

been  preserved.! 

At  an  early  period  the  conquering  Romans  gained  access 
to  some  of  the  accumulated  ivory  treasures  of  the  East. 
The  historian  Livy  relates  that  at  the  triumph  celebrated 

^Communicated  by  Prof.  S.  W.  Williston,  Dqit.  of  Paleontology,  University  of  Chicago. 

tLayard,  "Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  London,  1853,  Pt  I* 
p.  105. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  401 

in  188  B.  C.  by  Lucius  Scipio  Asiaticus,  brother  of  Hanni- 
bal's great  adversary,  1,231  elephant  tusks  were  borne  through 
the  streets  of  Rome,  and  they  were  undoubtedly  looked 
upon  as  constituting  a  notable  part  of  the  spoils  of  war.* 

During  the  reign  of  Masinissa,  King  of  Numidia  (238-c. 
148  B.  C.)>  one  of  his  oflScers  landed  on  the  island  of  Malta, 
and  took  from  an  ancient  temple  of  Juno  elephant  tusks  of 
altogether  exceptional  size,  the  most  valued  of  the  votive 
offerings  in  the  temple.  When  these  were  first  brought  to 
the  Numidian  king  he  was  greatly  delighted  with  their 
rarity  and  size,  but  as  soon  as  he  learned  whence  they  had 
come  he  ordered  that  they  should  be  restored  to  the  temple, 
no  doubt  in  fear  of  the  vengeance  of  the  outraged  divinity.f 
Indeed,  Cicero  states  that  they  had  been  inscribed,  in  Punic 
characters,  with  the  following  words:  "King  Masinissa  im- 
prudently accepted  these  tusks;  but  learning  the  truth  about 
them,  he  took  care  to  have  them  replaced  and  restored."  A 
century  or  so  later  the  Roman  Verres,  the  arch-plunderer  of 
temple  treasures,  secured  possession  of  them  without  feeling 
any  scruples.  This  temple  treasury  also  contained  many 
ornaments  of  ivory  and  a  statue  of  Victory  of  the  same 
material. 

In  a  temple  of  Diana  at  Capua  there  was  preserved  a  com- 
plete skull  of  an  elephant  with  the  tusks.  J  This  curiosity 
was  undoubtedly  a  temple-offering  of  great  value.  Indeed, 
Pliny  tells  us  that  the  great  size  of  elephant  tusks  could  best 
be  appreciated  by  visiting  the  temples.** 

*Livy,  lib.  XXXVII,  cap.  59,  "tulit  in  triumpho  .  .  .  eburaeos  denies  millia  du- 
centos  triginta  unum.** 

tCicero,  In  C.  Verrem,  U,  Lib.  FV.  §  108. 

{Pausaniufl,  Lib.  V.  cap.  12,  par.  3. 

**Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  Lib.  VIII,  cap.  10.  In  a  note  to  this  passage  Hardouin,  writing  about 
1740,  states  that  he  saw  in  the  workshop  of  one  of  the  Dieppe  ivory  carvers  a  tusk  weigh- 
ing over  100  pounds  and  about  7  ft.  long.  See  his  edition  of  Pliny,  Paris,  1741,  Vol.  I,  p. 
411,  note  25. 


402     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Fossil  ivory  appears  to  have  been  known  as  early  as  the 
third  century  B.  C,  as  Theophrastus  writes  that  the  colour 
of  ivory  that  had  been  dug  up  was  a  mixture  of  white  and 
black.*  In  their  ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  these  de- 
posits the  ancients  took  refuge  in  the  explanation  that  ele- 
phants sometimes  buried  the  tusks  they  had  lost  through 
old  age,  accident,  or  violence,  f 

When  Firmus  of  Seleucia,  the  friend  and  associate  of 
Queen  Zenobia  of  Palmyra  (fl.  270  A.  D.)>  was  overcome  by 
Aurelian  (c.  212-275  A.  D.),  the  latter  secured  among  other 
valuables  two  enormous  elephant  tusks,  each  10  ft.  in 
length.  Of  these,  with  the  addition  of  two  others,  Aurelian 
proposed  to  have  executed  a  seat  or  throne  upon  which 
should  be  placed  a  golden  and  jewelled  image  of  Jupiter. 
This  design  was  probably  frustrated  by  the  emperor's  death, 
and  we  are  told  that  the  tusks  were  eventually  given  to  "a 
certain  lady,"  who  had  them  worked  up  into  a  couch  for 
herself,  t 

One  of  the  ninth-century  relics  in  the  treasury  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Aachen  is  an  entire  elephant  tusk,  rounded  of!  at 
either  end  and  having  a  series  of  longitudinally  cut  and 
smoothed  surfaces.  These  are  in  part  adorned  with  designs 
of  animal  forms  in  low  relief.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  provided  with  a  gold  mountmg  and  ornamented  with 
gems  cut  en  cabochon.  Possibly  in  its  original  state,  before 
carving,  the  tusk  may  have  been  among  the  gifts  sent  by 
Khalif  Haroun-al-Rashid  to  Emperor  Charlemagne.  As  has 
been  noted,  a  live  elephant  was  one  of  the  most  important 
and  interesting  of  these  gifts.  There  is  also,  however,  a 
possibility  that  the  tusk  in  question  may  have  come  from 

^Theophrastus,  "De  lapidibus,"  cap.  37. 

fPauly's  "Real  Encyclopttdie  des  class.    Altertumswissenschaft,"  Vol.  V,  Stuttgart, 
1905,  p.  2358;  art.     Eifenbein. 

{Flavii  Vopisci,  "Firmus,"  in  Scriptores  Hiatorise  RomAiue^  Heidelbergise,  1743,  VoL 
IT,  p.  421. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  403 

this  elephant,  which  died  so  soon  after  it  was  brought  to 
Europe.* 

A  Chinese  writer  of  the  thirteenth  century  who  treats 
of  the  various  articles  of  commerce  in  his  day  says  that 
from  the  Somali  Coast  were  obtained  elephant  tusks  of 
large  size,  sometimes  weighing  more  than  100  catties  (about 
133  pounds). t  A  still  earlier  Chinese  authority,  the  Yu- 
ang-tsa-tsu,  dating  from  the  ninth  century,  affirms  that 
the  natives  of  this  coast  used  the  tusks  of  elephants  as 
offensive  weapons  in  their  fighting.  I 

In  an  old  English  version  of  one  of  the  Alexander  ro- 
mances, so  popular  in  medieval  times,  occurs  a  passage 
showing  the  exaggerated  ideas  prevailing  among  very  early 
writers  as  to  the  number  of  elephants  used  for  warlike  opera- 
tions. Describing  the  elephants  in  the  battle  array  of  the 
Persian  king  Darius,  Alexander's  opponent,  the  romancer 
says  :** 

Fourty  thousand,  alle  astore 
Olifauntes  let  go  to-fore 
Apon  everiche  olifaimt  a  castel, 
Theryn  XII  knyghtis  y-armed  wel. 
They  3cholle  holde  the  skirmyng§ 
Ageyns  Alisaundre  the  kyng. 

De  Vries,  writing  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, probably  greatly  exaggerated  the  number  of  elephant 
tusks  brought  to  India,  which  he  puts  at  six  hundred  thou- 
sand ;  part  of  this  import  went  to  China.  He  reports  elephant 
tusks  weighing  as  much  as  two  hundred  pounds  "apothe- 

*Dictionnaire  d'Arch^logie  Chr^tieoDe,  ed.  by  Dom  Femand  Cabral  and  Dom  IT. 
Leclercq,  Paris,  1911,  Fasc.  xxv,  col.  693,  Art.  Charlemagne. 

tChau  Ju-Kua,  " Chu-fan-chi  (A  Description  of  Barbarous  Peoples),**  trans,  by  Frie- 
drich  Hirth,  and  W.  W.  Rockhill,  St.  Petersburg,  1911,  p.  129. 

tibid.,  p.  129. 

**Thonias  Wright,  "The  Archeological  Album,**  London,  n.  d.,  p.  177. 

JSkirmiflh  line. 


404      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

• 

caries'  weight,  twelve  ounces  to  the  pound,  or  twenty-four 
loth.''  A  curious  circumstance  related  by  this  author  is  that 
when  a  Hindu  woman  lost  a  blood-relation  she  broke  up  aU 
her  ivory  ornaments,  replacing  them  with  others  when  the 
period  of  mourning  had  expired.  The  women  wore,  as  a 
rule,  no  less  than  twenty  ivory  or  shell  arm-rings  (bangles) 
on  their  arms.* 

That  large  tusks  were  occasionally  secured  from  the  wild 
elephants  of  Sumatra  is  attested  by  the  Bolognese  traveller, 
Ludovico  Barthema,  who  visited  that  island  in  the  first 
decade  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  asserts  that  he  saw 
there  two  tusks  having  a  united  weight  of  336  pounds,  f 

Although  the  Cinghalese  elephants  so  rarely  have  tusks 
that  a  qualified  informant  states  that  but  one  in  a  hundred 
is  so  provided,  a  small  amount  of  ivory  is  collected  in 
Ceylon  and  exported  thence,  largely  to  China.  The  Chinese 
are  credited  with  the  opinion  that  Cinghalese  ivory  is  the 
best  adapted  for  their  dainty  carvings,  as  in  their  opinion 
it  excels  all  other  in  density  of  texture  and  delicacy  of  tone.J 

The  seventeenth-century  French  traveller  Ta vernier  states 
that  in  his  time  it  was  found  that  the  ivory  from  the 
Island  of  Ceylon  and  from  Achen  did  not  turn  yellow,  as 
did  much  of  that  derived  from  the  mainland  and  from  the 
"West  Indies,*'  which  must  mean  African  ivory;  hence  the 
Cinghalese  ivory  was  the  most  highly  esteemed  in  Taver- 
nier's  time.**  The  Abyssinians  when  they  wished  to  make  a 
feast  asked  the  consent  of  their  overlord  to  kill  an  elephant. 
To  him  they  surrendered  one  of  the  tusks,  retaining  the 
other  for  themselves  and  banqueting  on  the  flesh  of  the 

*S.  de  Vries,  "Curieiifle  Anmerckiiigen  der  Oost  en  West-Indiache  Verwonderens-waer- 
dige  Dingen,*'  Utrecht,  1682,  Pt.  IV,  p.  1206. 
tJohn  Ogilby.  "Africa,"  London,  1670,  p.  IS. 

JTennant,  "Sketch  of  the  Natural  Histoiy  of  Ceylon,**  London,  1861,  p.  78. 
**Le8  six  voyages  de  Jean  Baptiste  Ta  vernier,  Paris,  1678-9,  Vol.  II,  i^.  200-201;  "Voy- 
ages des  Indes,**  Liv.  I,  xviii. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  405 

animal,  which  they  regarded  as  a  great  privilege.  They 
had  dealings  in  ivory  with  the  Portuguese,  and  tusks  were 
so  plentiful  along  the  coast  that  they  were  used  as  palisades 
to  enclose  gardens,  so  that  they  may  be  said  to  have  had 
ivory  fences.* 

In  his  exploration  of  the  region  of  the  Lower  Ubanja,  M. 
Gerard  gained  the  impression  that  the  natives  of  this  terri- 
tory were  ignorant  of  the  value  of  ivory.  That  the  material 
was  present  in  considerable  quantity,  however,  was  shown 
by  the  view  of  a  number  of  large  tusks  planted  upright  and 
looked  upon  as  attributes  of  the  power  of  the  chief. t  The 
principal  units  of  value  in  the  Upper  Congo  are  slaves  and 
elephant's  tusks,  a  slave  being  generally  regarded  as  equal- 
ling a  tusk  in  value,  t 

Two  very  fine  tusks  were  received  in  Antwerp  from  the 
Congo  region  in  1896,  the  finest  in  all  respects  that  had  as 
yet  been  brought  thither.  One  of  them  measured  2  m.  60 
cm.  in  length,  while  the  other  was  slightly  longer — namely, 
2  m.  75  cm.,  or  8  ft.  6  in.  and  9  ft.  respectively.  The  weight 
of  each  is  given  as  78  kilograms,  or  about  171 1  pounds.** 
These  considerably  exceed  in  size  the  finest  pair  preserved 
in  the  Musee  du  Congo,  which  measure  respectively  2.43 
and  2.45  cm.,  or  a  small  fraction  over  and  under  8  ft.§ 

A  pair  of  tusks  of  exceptional  size  and  weight,  each  9  ft. 
long  and  weighing  together  330  pounds,  were  secured  by 
Sir  Ralph  Moore  from  the  French  Territory  of  the  Gold 
Coast,  West  Africa,  where  he  occupied  the  place  of  High 
Commissioner  of  the  British  Government.     He  exhibited 

*  Tavemier,  "Receuil  de  plusleures  relations,"  Paris,  1702,  p.  312. 

t"La  Belgique  Coloniale,"  Vol.  I,  p.  435;  1895-6. 

{Ridgeway,  "The  Origin  of  Metallic  Currency  and  Wei^t  Standards,"  Cambridge, 
1892,  p.  42. 

**"La  Belgique  Colomale,"  2d  Ann^  (1890),  p.  35. 

(Dr.  H.  Schouteden,  "L*61ephant  nain  du  Congo,"  in  Revue  Zoologique  Africaine,  Vol. 
L  Faac.  2,  p.  222,  August  31,  1911. 


406     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

them  in  1905  in  the  Indian  Colonial  Exhibition  at  the  Crys- 
tal Palace,  London.  They  are  now  owned  by  Mr.  H.  J. 
Heinz  of  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

The  elephants  of  Bamba,  a  province  of  Congo,  were  re- 
puted to  attain  a  very  great  size,  so  that,  in  the  words  of 
John  Ogilby:  "Some  of  their  teeth  weighed  about  two  hun- 
dredweight: in  Congoish  Language  such  a  tooth  they  call 
*Mene-Manzo.'"  This  writer  says  that  many  tusks, 
"scurfed  or  hollow,"  were  found  in  the  wilderness,  having 
become  so  by  exposure  to  rain  and  wind,  and  he  also  states 
that  such  a  great  abundance  of  ivory  had  been  brought  from 
this  region  since  the  early  part  of  the  century,  that  when  he 
wrote,  in  1670,  the  supply  had  begun  to  diminish,  as  the  na- 
tives were  obliged  to  go  farther  into  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
try to  secure  the  material.*  This  may  seem  strange  in  view 
of  the  enormous  quantity  of  ivory  brought  from  the  Congo 
region  later,  and  down  to  our  day,  but  three  hundred  years 
ago  only  a  small  part  of  this  inmiense  country  was  in  any 
way  accessible  to  travellers. 

The  Nyami,  or  chief  ruler  of  the  Bushongo  in  the  Congo 
region,  always  establishes  his  permanent  abode  in  a  place 
chosen,  at  his  accession,  as  the  royal  capital.  On  very  rare 
occasions,  however,  he  travels  through  the  territory  occupied 
by  the  tribes  which  acknowledge  his  authority.  On  such 
occasions,  it  is,  and  has  been,  customary  to  set  up  a  fine 
elephant's  tusk  that  serves  as  the  back  of  the  royal  seat,  on 
his  arrival  at  any  considerable  settlement  where  he  is  to 
break  his  journey.  When  this  tusk  has  been  so  honoured, 
it  is  left  in  its  place  after  the  Nyami's  departure,  and  becomes 
a  memento  of  the  royal  favour.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  Bushango  chiefs  was  Shamba  Balongongo,  who 
reigned  about  1600  A.  D.  A  Belgian  scientific  expedition 
was  recently  permitted  to  take  away  an  exceptionally  fine, 

♦John  Ogilby,  "Africa."  London.  1670,  p.  699, 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  407 

sculptured  tusk,  which  had  long  marked  one  of  the  stages 
in  a  royal  progress  of  the  renowned  Shamba.  Centuries 
ago  these  Nyamis  are  said  to  have  borne  the  title  Chembe 
Kunji,  or  "God  upon  earth."* 

The  half-legendary  tales  of  elephant  burial  grounds,  with 
their  long  accumulated  stock  of  valuable  tusks,  have  little 
or  no  foundation  in  fact.  A  story  told,  however,  in  regard 
to  an  episode  of  the  suppression  of  the  Arab  slave  trade  by 
the  Powers,  a  movement  largely  due  to  Livingstone's  pas- 
sionate denunciations  of  this  iniquitous  practice,  may  perhaps 
point  to  the  existence  of  a  hidden  ivory  treasure.  It  is 
stated  that  a  party  of  Arab  slave  raiders,  who  in  their  pre- 
cipitate retreat  to  avoid  attack  and  capture  were  obliged 
to  get  rid  of  all  unnecessary  impedimenta,  buried  a  large 
nimiber  of  elephant  tusks  of  which  they  had  secured  posses- 
sion on  the  borders  of  a  small  lake  in  the  Eastern  Congo,  or, 
possibly,  in  the  bed  of  the  lake,  beneath  shallow  water.f 

We  read  so  often  of  successful  elephant  hunts  that  some 
may  be  almost  inclined  to  fancy  that,  for  the  well-armed  ajid 
equipped  European  at  least,  this  sport  can  scarcely  be  looked 
upon  as  a  hazardous  one.  But  it  is  stated  that  the  saying 
goes  among  professional  elephant  hunters  that  sooner  or 
later  the  hunter  is  sure  to  lose  his  life  from  the  attack  of  a 
bull-elephant.  The  names  of  several  who  have  thus  met 
their  death  in  the  Congo  and  Rhodesia  have  been  recently 
recorded.  One  had  his  head  torn  from  his  body  by  an  in- 
furiated bull  he  was  hunting  in  the  Loango;  another  was 
trampled  to  death  in  the  Congo  region.  Goddard,  considered 
to  be  one  of  the  most  experienced  elephant  hunters,  was 
killed  in  northeastern  Rhodesia;  another  met  his  death 
while  hunting  in  the  Lower  Loango,  and,  not  more  than  a 

*"AiiiiaIes  du  Mus^  du  Congo  Beige,"  Ethnographie  et  Anthropologie  Sec.  Ill,  Vol. 
II,  Faac.  I.  "Lea  Bushongo,"  by  E.  Toudy  and  J.  A.  Joyce,  Brussels,  1910,  p.  64,  Fig. 
50  (on  p.  73). 

^Sunday  Times,  Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  February  28,  1914. 


408     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

few  months  ago,  a  young  hunter  named  Parr  was  killed  in 
Rhodesia.  "*" 

The  following  recital  by  the  elephant  hunter,  James 
Sutherland,  of  a  combat  between  two  bull-elephants  in 
equatorial  Africa,  illustrates  the  immense  power  of  the 
thrust  of  these  animals.  .  He  says  if 

*'The  larger  bull  staggering  perceptibly  under  the  furious 
onslaught  appeared  for  some  moments  as  if  he  were  going 
to  fall,  but,  recovering  his  equilibrium,  and  as  if  fully  intent 
on  avenging  the  injury,  returned  the  charge  and  dealt  his 
foe  a  crushing  blow  on  the  shoulder,  sideways,  with  his  tusk. 
The  punishment  must  have  been  severe,  for  the  younger 
elephant  at  once  backed  out  of  the  fray,  but,  regaining  his 
courage,  pluckily  resumed  the  contest  by  rushing  forward 
and  giving  the  big  fellow  a  tremendous  prod  in  the  shoulder, 
the  force  of  the  thrust  snapping  off  a  piece  of  his  tusk.  This 
broken  portion  I  afterward  found  and  kept  as  a  memento 
of  the  only  elephant  fight  I  ever  saw.  .  .  .  The  tusk  of 
the  smaller  animal  was  broken  in  two  places,  but  the  first 
piece  forming  the  tip  was  never  found." 

The  combatants  soon  found  a  more  deadly  enemy  in  the 
European  hunter  who  brought  both  of  them  to  the  ground 
with  two  well-aimed  shots.  The  enormous  strength  of  this 
animal  was  here  strikingly  exhibited  in  the  fracturing  of  so 
tough  a  material  as  ivory  in  the  body  of  its  antagonist. 

One  of  the  heaviest  tusks  from  East  Africa  was  brought 
to  Europe  by  a  Hamburg  firm  of  ivory  dealers  and  was  sold 
to  the  late  King  of  Bavaria,  the  eccentric  and  gifted  Ludwig 
n,  who  destined  it  to  be  used  as  a  chandelier.  This  tusk 
weighed  94  kilograms  (207  pounds)  and  measured  2.6  meters 
(8  ft.  4  in.)  in  length.^ 

*Sunday  Times,  Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  February  28,  1914. 

fJames  Sutherland,  "  The  Adventures  of  an  Elephant  Hunter,"  London,  1912,  pp.  95- 
98. 

tSombom,  "Die  Elfenbein-und  Beinschnitzerei,"  Heidelberg,  1899,  p.  18. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  409 

The  British  Nimrod,  Gordon  Cumming,  states  that  he  had 
in  his  possession  a  tusk  10  ft.  9  in.  in  length  and  weighing 
173  pounds.  This  was  from  an  African  elephant.  If  the 
measurement  is  correct,  it  would  be  the  longest  tusk  recorded 
from  the  existing  species  of  elephants,  if  we  except  the  two 
remarkable  examples  in  the  Bronx  Zoological  Collection  of 
Horns.* 

A  curiosity  recently  exhibited  in  Siam  at  the  housewarm- 
ing  of  one  of  the  provincial  governors  is  a  black  elephant 
tusk,  3  ft.  in  length,  the  diameter  being  above  6  in.  Because 
of  its  rarity  and  possibly  also  on  account  of  a  belief  that  so 
unusual  an  object  must  possess  talismanic  virtue,  this  black 
tusk  had  been  carefully  preserved  for  generations  in  the 
governor's  family  as  a  greatly  prized  heirloom.  Some  of  the 
wealthy  merchants  in  Siam  decorate  the  walls  of  their 
houses  with  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  large  tusks. 
The  Siamese  elephant  has  furnished  some  of  very  considera- 
ble dimensions,  one  in  the  National  Museum  at  Bangkok 
having  a  length  of  9  ft. 

At  an  important  State  function  in  Siam  one  of  the  nobles 
wore  a  splendid  jewel  set  with  diamonds,  rubies,  and  sap- 
phires. A  European,  who  was  much  struck  by  its  richness 
and  beauty,  asked  of  the  Siamese  grandee  if  he  might  exam- 
ine it  more  closely,  but,  on  being  accorded  the  privilege,  he 
was  surprised  to  note  the  presence  of  an  insignificant  little 
piece  of  old  ivory  as  a  pendant,  and  spoke  of  this  to  the 
Siamese.  "Oh,"  replied  the  latter,  ''that  I  consider  to  be 
the  most  valuable  part  of  my  jewel.  It  is  the  tip  of  an  ele- 
phant's tusk  found  embedded  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree  to  which 
the  animal  must  have  given  such  a  violent  thrust  that  he 
could  not  free  the  tusk  again  without  breaking  off  its  point. 

^Ronalsyn  Gordon  Cumming,  "Five  Yeftra  of  a  Hunter's  Life,"  New  York,  1850,  Vol. 
I,  p.  263.  In  Lydekker*s  "Royal  Natural  History,'*  Vol.  H,  p.  546,  this  tusk  is  sUted. 
through  an  evident  misprint,  to  have  measured  80  ft.  9  in.  in  length. 


410      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

This  I  would  have  ground  if  I  were  ill,  and  if  I  took  some  of 
the  powder  it  would  surely  cure  me.  In  Siam  we  look  upon 
such  an  object  as  a  priceless  amulet,  one  that  protects  its 
owner  from  disease  and  misfortune." 

As  ecclesiastical  decorations  elephants'  tusks  have  occa- 
sionally been  employed,  and  we  are  told  that  in  1848,  when 
General  De  Lima  was  about  to  return  from  the  Portuguese 
settlements  in  Mozambique,  where  he  had  held  the  office  of 
governor,  to  Goa,  in  Portuguese  India,  he  was  commissioned 
to  select  and  bring  over  with  him  to  India  the  finest,  and 
above  all  the  straightest,  pair  of  tusks  he  could  find  that  they 
might  be  used  in  forming  a  cross  for  the  adornment  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Goa.  He  was  able  to  carry  out  this  commission 
successfully  and  brought  with  him  two  tusks,  one  of  which 
weighed  180  pounds  and  the  other  170  pounds,  the  curve  in 
both  being  very  slight.* 

While  the  weight  of  African  bull-elephant  tusks  averages 
less  than  50  pounds,  exceptionally  large  animals  have 
furnished  tusks  weighing  many  times  as  much.  For  ex- 
ample, one  given  to  George  V,  then  Duke  of  York,  in  1893, 
weighed  165  pounds  and  measured  8  ft.  7^  In.  in  length. 
The  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  is  responsible  for  the  state- 
ment that  in  or  just  before  1864  an  American  house  owned 
a  tusk  9  ft.  8  in.  in  length. f  Professor  Owen  notes  the 
existence  of  an  Indian  tusk  9  ft.  in  length,  with  a  basal  diam- 
eter of  8  in.,  and  weighing  150  pounds.| 

The  effect  of  our  dry  climate  upon  the  weight  of  a  tusk 
is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  two  splendid  speci- 
mens from  an  African  elephant.  After  they  had  been  brought 
to  New  York  they  were  kept  here  for  two  years  and  then  sent 
back  to  London.     On  reweighing  them  it  was  found  that  the 

^Tennant,  "Sketch  of  the  Natural  Histoiy  of  Ceylon/'  London*  1861,  i^.  79,  80l  note. 

\ Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  Vol.  XII,  p.  100;  1864. 

tSee  Jour,  of  the  Son.  of  Arts,  Vol.  V,  pp.  65-70,  December  10, 1856. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  411 

weight  had  diminished  to  226  pounds  and  216  pounds  respec- 
tively, a  loss  of  about  10  pounds  on  each  tusk,  over  4  per 
cent,  of  loss.  The  price  paid  by  the  British  Museum  for  the  one 
purchased  for  that  institution  was  £350  ($1,750) ;  for  the  smal- 
ler tusk  Messrs.  Joseph  Rodgers  &  Sons  paid  £325  ($1,625). 
These  wonderful  examples  of  elephant  ivory  far  exceed  in 
weight,  though  not  in  length,  any  others  that  have  been  se- 
cured. The  next  in  weight  among  those  owned  in  England  is 
one  weighing  198  pounds,  in  the  possession  of  Major  H.  B. 
Powell  Cotton.  Even  tusks  ranging  from  100  pounds  to  110 
pounds  in  weight  have  been  but  rarely  found  during  the  past 
five  years. 

These  famous  tusks,  the  heaviest  ever  brought  from 
either  Africa  or  India,  came  from  Kilimanjaro,  East  Africa. 
Their  original  weight  was  236  pounds  and  225  pounds, 
respectively,  the  exact  dimensions  of  the  larger  one  being 
given  as  follows:* 

Length  of  outside  curve 10  ft.     1    in. 

Length  of  inside  curve 8  ft.  10    in. 

Base  to  tip  in  straight  line 8  ft.    1    in. 

Circumference  at  commencement  of  solid  ivory    .  23^  in. 

Circumference  at  hollow  end 23}  in. 

Diameter  at  commencement  of  solid  ivory     ....  7}  in. 

The  remarkable  pair  of  tusks  noted  above  were  bought  in 
Zanzibar  in  1900  for  $5,000,  and  were  exhibited  for  some 
time  by  Tiffany  &  Co.,  of  New  York.  The  Arab  who  killed 
the  elephant  declared  that  the  aged  animal  was  hardly  able 
to  drag  himself  along,  borne  down  as  he  was  with  the  im- 
mense weight  of  his  tusks.  Zanzibar  ivory  is  of  the  variety 
known  as  "  soft  ivory,"  the  best  material  for  working.  Some 
of  the  "soft  ivory"  from  the  West  Coast  is  exceedingly 
brittle,  and  it  is  related  that  a  tusk  of  this  type,  while  stand- 

*Coinmuiiicated  by  Hugo  Landaberger  &  Co.,  of  London. 


412     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

ing  in  the  London  Ivory  Docks,  cracked  with  a  report  as 
loud  as  a  pistol  shot,  owing  to  the  contraction  consequent 
upon  exposure  to  the  cool  air.* 

The  two  magnificent  tusks  now  in  the  Bronx  Zoological 
Park,  National  Collection  of  Horns,  were  donated  to  the  New 
York  Zoological  Society  by  the  late  Charles  T.  Barney,  at  an 
expense  of  $2,500;  they  are  believed  to  be  the  longest,  though 
not  the  heaviest,  in  any  collection  from  living  species  of 
elephants.  The  respective  lengths  are  11  ft.  5^  in.  and  11 
ft.,  one  having  a  circumference  of  18  in.,  that  of  the  other 
being  18}  in.;  the  combined  weight  is  293  pounds.  These 
tusks  are  said  to  have  been  originally  bestowed  upon  an 
official  of  the  French  Government  by  Emperor  Menelik 
of  Abyssinia.f  The  elephant  from  which  they  were  taken 
was  a  Soudanese  example  of  the  African  species,  Elephas 
oxyotis. 

The  Elephas  imperator^  which  existed  in  the  western  part 
of  the  North  American  Continent,  appears  to  have  been 
the  largest  of  all  the  species  of  elephants  of  prehistoric  or 
historic  times.  This  receives  confirmation  from  the  size 
of  two  somewhat  imperfect  tusks  from  one  of  this  species 
found  in  the  tar-pits  at  Rancho  la  Brea,  near  Los  Angeles, 
California.  These  tusks  have  a  diameter  of  eight  inches, 
and  though  incomplete,  the  length  when  perfect  seems 
to  have  been  from  15  to  16  ft.,  considerably  longer  than 
has  been  observed  in  the  case  of  elephant  remains  of 
other  species.  A  curious  circumstance  in  regard  to  the  ele- 
phant remains  in  the  Rancho  la  Brea  deposits  is  that  while 
not  widely  distributed  therein,  the  bones  of  seventeen  Im- 
perial Elephants  were  found  buried  in  pit  nine,  measuring 
only  35  ft.  in  depth  and  about  30  ft.  in  diameter.     To  what 

*Mra.  Harris  R.  Childa  "The  Tnde  and  Trail  of  Tuakers.**  in  McClure'9  Ma/BOOMM^ 
Vol.  XXXII,  p.  053,  April,  1908. 

fSee  Harper' »  Weekly,  Vol.  LI,  p.  475,  March  SO,  1907. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  413 

particular  causes  this  heaping  up  of  elephant  remains  in  so 
small  an  area  can  be  due  is  not  easily  explicable.* 

The  ivory  cellar  of  the  great  cutlery  firm  of  Joseph  Rodgers 
&  Sons,  Ltd.,  at  Sheffield,  England,  is  always  kept  stored 
with  an  immense  mass  of  the  finest  ivory,  destined  to  be 
worked  up  into  knife-handles  and  scales.  In  1878  these 
accumulations  amounted  to  26  tons  in  weight,  and  consisted 
of  2,561  tusks,  averaging  22|  pounds  each.  The  value  of 
the  ivory  stored  here  at  present — some  fifteen  tons — is  put 
at  $110,000.  Some  of  the  finest  tusks  acquired  by  the  firm 
are  set  up  in  the  entrance  hall  leading  to  the  showrooms. 
The  largest  of  these,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded, 
measures  10  ft.  in  length  and  weighs  216  pounds,  and  along- 
side stand  a  pair  having  the  aggregate  weight  of  315  pounds, 
and  measuring  8  ft.  7  in.  in  length;  three  others,  again,  have 
an  average  weight  of  130  pounds. 

An  expedition  to  secure  specimens  for  a  group  of  African 
elephants  to  be  set  up  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  New  York  was  organized  in  August,  1009.  The 
best  single  example  secured  was  a  yoimg,  adult  bull,  measur- 
ing 11  ft.  3  in.  in  height  and  having  tusks  weighing  100 
pounds  and  102  pounds  respectively.  A  curious  circum- 
stance is  that  the  oldest  bulls  are  those  which  have  enjoyed 
the  protection  of  a  large  herd  of  aggressive  cows.  In  one 
instance  when  an  exceedingly  large  bull-elephant  had  just 
been  kiUed,  some  of  the  females  made  desperate  efforts  to 
lift  him  with  their  tusks  and  trunks,  while  others  charged 
about  in  every  direction  in  search  of  the  assailants.  This 
fine  buU-elephant  measured  11  ft.  4  in.  in  height,  and  one  of 
his  tusks  weighed  110  poimds.  It  is  suggested  that  every 
effort  should  now  be  made  to  obtain  the  finest  living  speci- 
men of  the  African  race  before  it  is  too  late,  as  even  at  present 

*H.  S.  Swarthy  "Guide  to  the  Fossil  Animals  from  Rancho  la  Brea»'*  in  the  Museum 
of  Histoiy*  Science,  and  Art,  Los  Angeles,  1915.  p.  7.   See  p.  358  of  present  work. 


414      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

old  bulls  have  become  exceedingly  rare,  for  when  a  bull- 
elephant  has  developed  tusks  weighing,  say,  50  pounds, 
he  does  not  usually  long  escape  the  zeal  of  the  hunters  for 
ivory,  either  natives  or  foreigners.* 

The  National  Museum  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  possesses  an 
exceptionally  fine  elephant  tusk  weighing  176  lbs.  It  was 
brought  from  the  Uganda  region  in  equatorial  Africa  and 
measures  about  6  ft.  3  in.  in  length.  The  circiunference 
taken  at  the  middle  of  the  tusk  is  23  in.,  at  the  socket  a  trifle 
less ;  owing  to  slight  irregularity  of  the  oval  the  diameter  at 
the  socket  varies  at  different  points  from  6J  to  7J  in.  This 
fine  tusk   was   originally   the   property   of   Mr.    Graham 

Pownall.f 

A  beautiful  and  symmetrical  pair  of  tusks  belong  to  the 
Brunswick-Balke-CoUender  Company.  The  longer  meas- 
ures 8  ft.  3  in.,  the  other  one  being  but  IJ  in.  shorter.  In 
circumference  also  there  is  very  little  difference,  the  longer 
tusk  having  a  girth  of  18  in.  and  the  shorter  one  of  17f  in. 
This  comparative  evenness  of  size  coupled  »with  an  exceed- 
ingly graceful  curve  combine  to  render  the  tusks  real  orna- 
ments. The  comparatively  slight  difference  between  the 
measurements  along  the  curve  and  that  between  perpendic- 
ulars, in  one  case  8  in.,  in  the  other  case  7^  in.,  shows  the 
gracefulness  of  the  curve  in  these  tusks. 

Two  heavy  tusks  were  secured  by  the  elephant  hunter, 
James  Sutherland,  when  he  brought  down  a  big  buU-ele- 
phant  with  a  single  well-aimed  shot  through  the  forehead 
to  the  brain.    The  heavier  of  the  tusks  weighed  152  pounds 

*Carl  E.  Akdey,  "Elephant  Hunting  in  Equatorial  Africa,*'  in  the  Museum  Jtmmd, 
Vol.  Xn,  No.  2,  pp.  43-62;  February,  1912.  (Illustration  of  large  bull  with  110-pound 
tusk,  on  p.  49,  copyright  by  Carl  E.  Akeley). 

fCommunicated  by  Dr.  R.  S.  Scharff  of  the  National  Museum,  Dublin,  Ireland.  The 
tusk  weighing  175  pounds  and  having  a  circumference  of  23)  noted  in  Rowland  Ward's 
"Records  of  Big  Game,"  was  owned  by  Graham  Pownall,  and  may  be  the  other  one  of  a 
pair,  although  the  great  difference  in  length  makes  this  improbable. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  415 

and  the  lighter  137J  lbs.,  making  289^  lbs.  for  the  pair. 
A  queer  incident  immediately  succeeded  the  fall  of  this 
ponderous  animal.  The  himter  had  been  in  pursuit  of 
three  elephants,  and  one  of  them  turned  back  quickly  on 
seeing  his  companion  fall,  rushed  toward  him  and  gave 
him  a  violent  thrust,  wounding  him  and  injuring  the 
body  very  seriously,  one  of  the  tusks  deeply  penetrating 
the  abdomen.  Whether  this  was  done  in  anger  or  to  induce 
the  fallen  animal  to  get  up  and  continue  its  flight  is  imcer- 
tain,  but  seeing  that  these  energetic  measures  were  in- 
effectual, the  still  unharmed  elephant  quickly  resumed  its 
mad  career.* 

A  fine  pair  of  tusks  belongs  to  Lieut.  Alexander  H. 
Wheeler,  having  been  secured  from  an  elephant  he  shot  at 
Mohoroni,  British  East  Africa.  One  of  the  tusks  measured 
7  ft.  J  in.  in  length  and  weighed  81  lbs.,  the  other  one  being 
exactly  7  ft.  long  and  weighing  79  lbs.;  in  each  case  the 
circumference  is  18 J  in.  Lieut.  Wheeler  is  at  the  front  in 
the  Dardanelles  with  the  British  expeditionary  force  as 
this  book  goes  to  press,  and  with  the  French  Army  is  another 
noted  elephant  hunter,  Mr.  W.  Sewall.  The  latter  has 
hunted  over  the  greater  part  of  equatorial  Africa  since 
1905,  with  his  headquarters  in  British  East  Africa.  In  all 
he  has  shot  between  30  and  40  elephants.  The  Harvard 
Club  in  New  York  City  has  as  a  trophy  the  head  of  one  of 
the  elephants  brought  down  by  Mr.  Sewall,  the  slender, 
gracefully  curved  tusks  being  of  singular  beauty,  although 
they  weigh  not  more  than  80  lbs  apiece.  The  best  pair 
secured  by  this  hunter  weighed  124  lbs.  and  129  lbs.  re- 
spectively, a  joint  weight  of  253  lbs.  They  were  the 
spoils  of  an  elephant  shot  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  Mr. 
Gerrit  Forbes,  of  Boston,  can  claim  an  even  larger  elephant 
bag,  for  he  has  killed  48  elephants  in  the  years  between  1907 

*  James  Sutherland,  "The  Adventures  of  an  Elephant  Hunter/'  London,  1912.  p.  104. 


416      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

and  1913,  in  British  East  India,  Uganda,  the  Congo,  and 
the  Sudan.  The  heaviest  pair  of  tusks  he  obtained  weighed, 
respectively,  88  lbs.  and  103  lbs. 

In  Africa  the  deposits  of  buried  elephant  tusks  are  often 
discovered  by  the  merest  chance.  For  example,  elephant 
hunters  while  travelling  through  a  swamp  will  sometimes 
feel  beneath  their  feet  what  they  think  to  be  roots  in  the 
swampland,  but  upon  investigation  these  may  prove  to  be 
not  roots  but  elephant  bones,  the  swamp  being  filled  with 
skeletons  of  these  animals.  From  such  masses  of  bones 
many  valuable  tusks  have  been  obtained  and  have  ulti- 
mately found  their  way  to  the  ivory  workers.  This  and 
similar  experiences  serve  to  explain  the  occurrence  of  mas- 
todon and  mammoth  remains  in  such  quantities  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Evidently  the  elephant,  when  ill  or 
injured,  will  do  what  the  horse  does  under  similar  circum- 
stances, namely,  select  a  damp  or  cool  place  to  bathe  in; 
and  perhaps  to  obtain  more  succulent  food  may  be  attracted 
to  a  piece  of  swampland,  and  being  so  heavy  the  animal 
will  naturally  sink  into  the  soft  bottom.  Then  again,  if 
driven  or  hunted  by  man  or  lion,  in  attempting  to  make  its 
escape  through  a  swamp,  such  as  those  so  often  to  be  found 
in  the  Congo  district,  the  elephant  may  sink  down  into  the 
wet  earth  until  it  becomes  completely  buried. 

Of  the  elephant  burying  grounds  described  by  Paul 
Carpentier  and  others,  there  exists  among  the  African 
natives  a  belief  that  when  an  old  bull  is  decrepit  or  extremely 
ill  he  will  travel  to  the  northward  and  in  thus  instinctively 
following  a  straight  line  in  his  course,  he  may  run  into  a 
swamp  and  become  buried  there,  although  under  normal 
conditions  he  might  have  been  inclined  to  turn  aside  and 
avoid  it;  or  else,  being  very  ill,  he  may  die  in  the  place  where 
he  sought  relief. 

During  two  hunting  expeditions  to  equatorial  Africa,  in 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  417 

1899-1900  and  1902-1903,  Mr.  William  Fitz  Hugh  White- 
house  killed  twelve  elephants.  For  part  of  the  time  Mr. 
Whitehouse  was  elephant  hunting  for  the  Emperor  Mene- 
lik  of  Abyssinia;  he  only  kept  a  single  pair  of  tusks  for 
himself,  and  states  that  the  largest  tusk  in  any  of  the  bull- 
elephants  he  killed  weighed  98  lbs.;  the  heaviest  one  of  a 
female  elephant  had  a  weight  of  but  45  lbs.  Mr.  White- 
house  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  there  is  considerable 
loss  of  weight  through  drying  out,  and  as  his  heaviest  tusk 
was  only  weighed  a  year  after  the  elephant  was  killed,  its 
original  weight  may  have  been  at  least  100  lbs. 

In  the  National  Collection  of  Heads  and  Horns  shown  at 
the  New  York  Zoological  Park  is  a  monster  elephant  head 
complete  with  trunk  and  tusks.  This  was  one  of  the  tro- 
phies brought  back  by  Mr.  Richard  Tjader  from  a  hunting 
trip  to  equatorial  Africa  in  1906,  the  elephant  having  been 
brought  down  near  the  Gojito  Mountains,  British  East 
Africa,  by  a  single  front  head  shot  to  the  brain.  Accurate 
measurements  were  made,  and  these  showed  a  height  of 
11  ft.  4  in.  The  tusks  were  7  ft.  2  in.  long  and  weighed 
together  168  lbs.  The  weight  of  the  mounted  head  is  1,750 
lbs.  and  the  spread  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  enormous  ears  is 
more  than  10  ft.;  the  trunk  is  8  ft.  6  in.  long.  As  to  the 
ability  of  some  of  the  large  African  elephants  to  break  down 
good-sized  trees,  Mr.  Tjader  relates  that  he  once  came  across 
a  perfectly  sound  tree,  measuring  33^  in.  in  circumference, 
that  had  been  broken  off  by  an  elephant  about  7  ft.  from  the 
base.  Another  somewhat  interesting  circumstance  is  the 
confirmation  by  a  European  of  the  story  told  by  native 
hunters  that  the  elephants  of  a  certain  district  in  German 
East  Africa  are  exceedingly  fond  of  a  species  of  root  which 
acts  upon  them  as  a  powerful  intoxicant,  sometimes  over- 
coming them  so  thoroughly  that  they  will  lie  down,  an 
unusual  thing  for  an  elephant,  and  fall  into  such  a  sound 


i 


418     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

sleep  that  native  hunters  can  despatch  them  with  swords 
or  spears.* 

A  weighty  pair  of  tusks  from  an  African  elephant  may  be 
seen  in  the  W.  S.  Cherry  Collection  of  the  Los  Angeles 
County  Museum.  The  donor  was  a  renowned  elephant 
hunter,  who  had  travelled  over  40,000  miles  in  Africa.  One 
of  the  tusks  weighs  167  lbs.,  the  other  165  lbs.,  making  a 
joint  weight  of  332  lbs.  for  the  pair.  The  length  of  the 
heavier  one  is  8  ft.  5J  in.  with  a  circumference  of  20j  in., 
the  lighter  one  measuring  8  ft.  3  in.  in  length  and  20  in.  in 
circumference. 

A  very  fine  and  well-matched  pair  of  tusks  were  secured 
by  Mr.  James  Barnes  of  New  York  City  during  a  hunting 
trip  in  Africa  extending  from  April,  1913,  to  May,  1914. 
He  traversed  the  elephant  regions  in  Uganda,  British  Africa, 
and  also  the  Ituri  and  Aruwimi  forests  of  the  Belgian  Congo. 
Here  there  are  stiU  vast  herds  of  elephants,  and  on  one  • 
occasion  the  hunter  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  herd 
numbering,  he  believes,  fully  one  hundred  and  fifty  elephants. 
One  of  his  adventures  was  the  shooting,  on  a  bright  moon- 
light night,  of  a  rogue  elephant  that  had  long  raided  the 
plantations  of  the  villagers  on  the  Loya,  a  tributary  of  the 
Ituri.  From  this  bull-elephant  came  the  tusks  above  men- 
tioned, one  of  which  measured  9  ft.  4  in.  in  length,  with  a 
circumference  of  17f  in.,  the  other  being  4^  in.  shorter  and 
the  circumference  17  in.  The  weight  was  only  approxi- 
mately ascertained  and  was  in  each  case  a  little  under  100 
lbs.,  so  that  the  tusks  were  not  as  massive  as  some  others, 
although  the  length  of  the  longer  one  places  it  in  the  front 
rank  of  those  from  the  African  elephant. 

Another  of  our  elepha.nt  hunters,  John  H.  Prentice,  Esq., 
visited  Africa  in  February  and  March,  1914,  and  killed 
two  elephants  at  the  headwaters  of  the  White  Nile,  in  the 

^Richard  Tjader,  "The  Big  Game  of  Africa/*  New  York  and  London,  1910,  pp.  M-m^74. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  419 

Sudan.     Their  tusks  have  been  carefully  measured,  and 
show  the  following  dimensions  and  weights: 

Length  along  outside 

curve  7  ft.  8  in.    7  ft.  2    in.    6  ft.  8    in.    6  ft.  1    in. 

Length    along   inside 

curve  .    6  ft.  5  in.    6  ft.  1    in.    5  ft.  5    in.    5  ft.  2    in. 

Greatest      circumfer- 
ence      ....  18^  in.  18^  in.  19    in.  19    in. 

Circumference  at  base         18    in.  18     in.  18^  in.  18^  in. 

Weight    ....         70  lbs.  68}  lbs.  64  lbs.  58}  lbs. 

There  appears  to  be  considerable  difference  in  the  average 
size  of  tusks  from  the  various  African  regions.  For  example, 
while  those  from  Abyssinia  and  Taka  show  an  average  of 
about  25  lbs.,  the  average  for  tusks  from  Central  Africa  is 
about  40  lbs.,  the  usual  limit  of  size  being  40  lbs.  from  the 
former  region  and  as  high  as  140  lbs.  from  the  latter;  this, 
of  course,  leaves  out  of  account  the  occasional  tusks  of  al- 
together exceptional  weight.  The  diflSculty  experienced 
in  securing  a  really  symmetrical  pair  of  tusks  is  principally 
caused  by  the  fact  that  an  elephant  wiU  use  one  of  them, 
either  the  right  or  the  left,  as  the  case  may  be,  more  fre- 
quently than  the  other,  just  as  most  men  employ  the  right 
hand  more  usually  than  the  left  one.  This  "working  tusk" 
called  by  the  Arabs  the  Hadam,  or  "Servant,'*  will  therefore 
exhibit  great  signs  of  wear.  Although  its  trunk  is  of  vastly 
more  use  to  an  elephant  than  its  tusks,  still  the  African 
elephant,  a  much  more  decided  tree  feeder  than  the  Indian, 
utilizes  them  in  the  wholesale  destruction  of  mimosa  trees, 
a  favorite  article  of  diet.  By  thrusting  the  tusks  like  crow- 
bars under  the  roots  of  such  trees,  which  while  generally 
from  16  ft.  to  20  ft.  high,  have  no  tap  roots,  the  elephants 
can  easily  bring  them  to  the  ground.* 

•  ThU  and  the  following  paragraph  communicated  by  Lieut.  F.  W.  Feavearyear  of  the 
Britiah  Army. 


420     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

In  the  Sudanese  province  of  Bahr  el  Ghazel  elephants 
abound,  and  there  is  a  good  supply  of  ivory.  Broken  tusks 
and  those  of  poor  quality  come  to  Omdurman  to  be  worked 
up  by  the  native  carvers  into  serviette  rings,  cigarette 
holders,  mounts  for  sticks,  and  large  bangles  worn  on  their 
arms  by  the  natives.  The  better  tusks  are  cut  into  three 
pieces,  the  hollow  end  with  thin  sides  going  to  Japan  for 
inlaying  work;  the  solid  middle  is  sent  to  England,  the 
tips  usually  go  to  the  United  States  for  billiard  ball  manu- 
facture. The  weight  used  at  Omdurman  is  the  karUar 
(99.05  lbs.);  in  other  parts  of  the  Sudan  the  weight  unit 
is  the  farasula  (29.7  lbs.  or  13.478  kilo.),  equivalent  to  the 
weight  of  480  dollars  or  4,320  dirhems.  Exceptionally  fine 
ivory  has  recently,  during  the  war  period,  commanded  as  much 
as  £40  a  kantar  at  Omdurman,  a  trifle  less  than  $2  a  pound. 
Most  of  the  ivory  trade  in  the  Sudan  is  by  barter,  mainly, 
if  not  exclusively  for  cattle,  preferably  cows  and  calves,  but 
on  occasion  bulls  may  be  included  to  make  up  a  reckoning. 

There  has  been,  on  the  whole,  no  very  marked  change  in 
the  average  weight  of  the  tusks  imported  to  Antwerp, 
although  just  at  the  outset,  in  1889,  an  average  of  12^  kilo, 
was  reached;  in  1890  the  figure  was  lOxV  kilo.  These 
high  averages  have  not  been  since  equalled,  and  were  due 
to  the  number  of  large  tusks,  the  first  to  come  from  the 
new  ivory  of  the  Congo;  withal  the  total  weight  of  ivory, 
as  will  have  been  noted,  was  much  less  than  a  few  years 
later.  From  1892,  however,  the  average  weights  have  been 
singularly  constant,  if  we  except  a  single  year,  1896,  when 
for  some  reason  there  was  a  fall  to  6|  kilo.;  in  1913  the 
figure  was  8|  kilo.,  equivalent  to  18.46  lbs. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  given  a  brief  notice  of  the 
work  of  the  native  Congo  ivory  carvers,  but  it  may  not 
prove  uninteresting,  as  showing  the  possibilities  of  tusk 
decoration,  to  give  here  in  detail  the  figures  depicted  in 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  421 

the  carved  spiral  band  adorning  one  of  them.  Dr.  Carlos 
E.  Cummings,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  much  interest- 
ing information  regarding  the  Congo  ivories  of  the  Buffalo 
Society  of  Natural  History,  remarks  that  the  native  carvers' 
choice  of  the  serial  designs  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
guided  by  any  logical  sequence  of  thought,  and  finds  a 
possible  explanation  of  this  in  the  fact  that  the  carver, 
Mabeale,  executed  the  works  in  Buffalo  under  the  new, 
strange,  and  disturbing  mfluence  of  a  twentieth-century 
exposition.  Of  the  young  Congo  carver's  personal  appear- 
ance— he  was  apparently  not  more  than  twenty  years  old — 
Dr.  Cunmiings  says:  "He  possessed  a  mouth  conspicuous 
for  its  size  even  among  his  brethren,  a  nose  hardly  elevated 
above  his  cheeks,  and  a  face  as  absolutely  devoid  of  intelli- 
gence as  one  of  his  own  carvings."  Two  of  the  tusks  had 
already,  been  carved  before  his  arrival  in  Buffalo;  others 
were  finished  in  the  twenty  weeks  of  his  stay  there.  In  spite 
of  his  unquestionable  skill  in  making  use  of  the  simple  tools 
with  which  he  was  equipped,  Mabeale  was  quite  unable  to 
make  any  success  in  sketching  with  a  pencil.  As  an  ade- 
quate iUustration  of  the  jumble  of  images  in  these  spiral 
tusk  decorations,  we  here  give  a  full  description  of  one  of 
them  carved  in  Africa  before  the  native's  departure  for 
America,  and  exhibiting  seven  complete  turns  of  the  spiral. 

1.  The  lower  end  of  the  spiral  shows  an  alligator  7§  in. 
long  with  its  jaws  closed  on  the  thighs  of  a  native  boy.  2. 
The  house  of  Mons.  X.  P6ne,  complete  with  balcony  and 
windows,  raised  on  posts  above  the  ground;  in  front  a  flag 
is  flying  from  the  flagpole.  3.  Mons.  P^ne  standing  with 
notebook  and  pencil,  his  foot  resting  on  a  bale  of  goods 
placed  on  the  ground.  4.  Four  native  porters,  bearing 
bundles  on  their  heads.  5.  Three  natives,  chained  to- 
gether by  the  neck  and  bearing  bundles  of  goods  on  their 
heads,  are  followed  by  an  Arab  with  fez  sword  and  a  flint- 


422     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

lock  gun  carried  over  his  shoulder.  6.  A  native  with  cap, 
coat,  and  trousers,  bears  on  his  shoulders  two  baskets,  hung 
on  the  end  of  a  long  pole.  7.  A  very  well-carved  hand 
emerges  from  a  cleft  in  the  ivory  and  holds  the  body  of  a  big 
fish,  transfixed  on  the  prongs  of  a  three-tined  barbed  spear. 
8.  An  antelope.  9.  Two  natives,  accompanied  by  a  dog, 
bear  a  third  native  in  a  hammock.  10.  A  native  with  a 
staff  carries  on  his  head  a  chest  with  handles.  11.  A  big 
elephant,  perfect  in  every  detail.  12.  A  dove  perched  on 
the  lower  branch  of  a  five-branched  tree,  to  which  a  boy  is 
lashed  and  hangs  half  suspended,  fixed  by  arm  and  leg  with 
a  long  rope.  In  front  of  the  boy  stands  a  bearded  priest 
with  a  single  feather  in  his  hair,  about  to  attack  the  boy 
with  a  big  knife.  13.  A  native  sitting  in  front  of  a  thatched 
house.  He  is  making  a  fire  under  a  pot  placed  on  big  stones, 
and  in  the  background  rises  a  date  palm  in  full  fruit.  14. 
A  native  holds  a  spear  pointed  downward  over  the  back  of  a 
small  dog.  15.  A  big  rhinoceros.  16.  A  native  leading  a 
prisoner  by  a  rope  around  his  neck.  17.  An  antelope  or 
goat.  18.  A  coiled  snake.  19.  On  one  side  of  the  tip  is 
an  alligator  with  a  native  in  its  mouth,  on  the  other  side  a 
medicine  man  with  knife,  fetish,  and  plumed  hat. 

In  Loango  the  most  ingenious  method  employed  for 
carrying  elephant  tusks  consists  of  plaiting  two  rows  of 
vegetable  fibre,  about  4  in.  apart,  near  the  upper  or  hcAr 
low  end  of  the  tusk,  and  then  connecting  the  fibres  by  a 
plaited  handle  of  the  same  material,  so  that  the  tusk  can  be 
carried  in  the  hand  and  himg  up  on  a  peg  at  the  resting* 
places.  To  keep  a  hollow  tusk  from  drying  out,  and  also 
perhaps  to  facilitate  its  use  for  a  musical  instrument,  acme 
pieces  of  rawhide  are  often  shrunk  over  its  edge. 

There  is  in  the  W.  S.  Cherry  Collection,  of  the  Los  Angeles 
County  Museum,  an  ivory  trumpet  made  in  the  Congo, 
which  is  4  ft.  4  in.  long  and  has  a  circumference  of  17  in.  at 


Hi 

vIS^r^B*     If n  V  1 ' ^^/v^hmI 

eii(;k  klki'haxt 


ACACIA  TRKK  OF  15  INCHKS  DIAMETER 


I 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  423 

its  end.  The  interior  has  been  scraped  down  until  the  walls 
are  as  thin  as  those  of  a  fine  violin,  thus  making  the  trumpet 
so  resonant  that  it  must  emit  a  fearful  and  ear-piercing  sound 
if  an  energetic  blast  is  blown  through  it. 

A  queer  native  African  name,  or  we  should  perhaps  rather 
say  designation  of  ivory,  is  reported  by  an  English  officer 
in  the  Sudan.  When  a  native  comes  to  the  barracks  with 
ivory  articles  for  sale,  and  is  asked  "Is  this  ivory.'^"  he  first 
points  to  his  teeth,  then  puts  his  hands  together  at  the  side 
of  his  face  and  says  "Dead  elephant,"  this  term  being  in 
general  use  among  these  natives  for  ivory.  The  material 
is  worked  in  Omdurman  on  a  turning  lathe,  the  workman 
sitting  cross-legged  on  the  ground;  the  lathes  used  are 
quite  similar  to  those  employed  in  England.  The  Bahr-el- 
Ghazal  province,  with  an  area  of  about  five  times  that  of 
England,  is  plentifully  supplied  with  elephants.  Before  the 
great  war,  the  best  ivory  here  commanded  a  price  of  5,000 
piastres  ($220)  a  kantar  (99.05  lbs.),  but  at  present  the 
price  is  commonly  4,000  piastres  ($176)  for  this  quantity. 
The  merchants  send  it  to  Europe,  excepting  the  broken  or 
small  pieces  which  are  utilized  by  the  turners  of  Omdurman, 
the  very  best  of  the  inferior  material  bringing  but  ten  shil- 
lings a  pound.  A  native  stated  that  for  an  elephant  tusk 
weighing 2  lbs.  10  oz.  he  had  paid  but  60  piastres  ($2.64).* 

The  two  longest  tusks  preserved  of  the  present  Indian 
elephant  constitute  a  pair  in  the  Royal  Siamese  Museum  in 
Bangkok,  Siam.  Of  these  the  one  of  greater  length  meas- 
ures on  the  outside  curve  9  ft.  10 J  in.,  with  a  circumference 
of  15 J  in;  the  shorter  one  is  9  ft.  long,  its  circumference 
being  nearly  as  great,  namely,  15f  in;  the  weight  is  not 
given.  Another  fine  pair  came  from  Assam  and  was  owned 
by  the  late  Lord  Bulwer  Lytton.  The  right  tusk  had  a 
length  of  8  ft.  9  in.  and  a  circumference  of  17j  in.,  with  a 

^Communicated  by  F.  W.  Feavearyear,  of  the  British  Army. 


424      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

weight  of  81  lbs.;  the  left  tusk  was  slightly  shorter,  8  ft.  2 
in.  in  length,  the  weight  being  almost  the  same,  80.2  lbs., 
giving  a  combined  weight  of  161.2  lbs.  The  heaviest, 
though  not  the  largest  of  the  Indian  tusks  reported  in  Mr. 
Rowland  Ward's  valuable  record,  were  two  from  Burma 
acquired  by  the  Marquis  of  Waterford.  The  respective  di- 
mensions and  weights  of  the  members  of  the  pair  are  given 
as  follows:  length  7  ft.  3|  in.,  circumference  17j  in.,  weight 
102  lbs.;  length  7  ft.  3 J  in.,  circumference  17J  in.,  weight 
97^  lbs.;  combined  weight  199 J  lbs.  The  tusks  are  espe- 
cially interesting,  as  they  belonged  to  the  sacred  white  ele- 
phant of  King  Thibaw.  In  another  Burma  pair  the  tusks 
each  had  a  circumference  of  18|  in.,  but  only  measured  6 
ft.  8  in.  and  6  ft.  5  in.  in  length,  respectively;  the  joint 
weight  was  167  lbs.  These  data  show  how  much  shorter 
and  lighter  are  the  very  largest  of  the  Asiatic  tusks  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  same  class  from  Africa. 

Several  remarkable  carved  ivories  are  in  the  Memorial 
Museum  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco.  One  of  the 
finest  is  an  ivory  sword  hilt  and  sheath,  the  blade  having 
been  forged  by  Munechika,  an  armourer  of  Japan,  who 
flourished  about  986  A.  D.  The  design  carved  on  the  ivory 
hilt  shows  a  Rakan,  one  of  the  sixteen  most  learned  dis- 
ciples of  the  Buddha.  The  bushy  eyebrows  characteristic 
of  these  Rakan  figures  are  here  so  finely  wrought  that  they 
stand  out  from  the  head  like  white  thread.  The  scab- 
bard bears  an  image  of  Benten,  the  Goddess  of  Purity  and 
Love;  beneath  this  figure  is  another  Rakan  with  an  attend- 
ant. In  the  Natural  History  department  of  the  Museum 
are  twenty-five  ivory  tusks  decorated  with  "scrimshaw" 
work  by  American  sailors,  and  in  the  Indian  Room  are 
forty-five  tusks  carved  by  Eskimos.  Besides  these  Ameri- 
can curios  the  Indian  Room  contains  Oriental  ivories  col- 
lected by  the  late  John  Bardwell,  who  began  his  collection 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS  425 

in  1852.  The  Jewel  Hall  has  on  exhibition  twenty-five 
examples  of  European  ivory  carving.* 

Japanese  ivories  are  well  represented  in  the  fine  collec- 
tions illustrating  Oriental  art  formed  by  Alfred  O.  Deshong, 
and  to  be  placed  in  the  new  museum  in  course  of  erection 
in  Deshong  Park,  Chester,  Pennsylvania.  There  are  here 
from  fifty  to  sixty  large  examples  of  Japanese  ivory  carv- 
ing, comprising  groups,  single  figures,  carved  tusks,  scab- 
bards, sword  hilts,  etc.,  many  exhibiting  considerable  artistic 
power.  Notable  among  them  are  several  carved  tusks,  one 
of  which  offers  the  image  of  Amida,  the  ''Buddha  of  Endless 
Life,"  seated  on  a  lofty  throne  and  attended  by  temple  guards 
armed  with  long  spears.  Another  tusk  shows  a  figure  of 
the  Boddhisattva  Kwan-non,  the  divinity  in  greatest  favour 
in  Japan  and  China.  Both  of  these  tusks  have  seal  marks, 
and  inscriptions  signifying  **  Great  Empire  of  Japan,"  and 
also  the  carver's  name,  Sekine  Harumichi.f 

Although  elephants  have  on  occasion  made  use  of  their 
tusks  as  weapons  of  oflfence  or  defence,  the  latter  use  finding 
expression  in  the  French  word  for  a  tusk,  defense^  still  their 
downward  trend  makes  it  difficult  for  the  elephant  to  thrust 
with  them.  Neither,  in  spite  of  the  elasticity  and  relative 
strength  of  ivory,  are  the  tusks  as  strong  as  we  might  sup- 
pose. One  who  had  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
condition  of  the  Cinghalese  elephants  relates  that  when 
one  of  the  rare  tuskers  of  the  island  attacked  another  ele- 
phant, which  was  unprovided  with  these  weapons,  the  latter 
wound  its  trunk  around  one  of  its  adversaries*  tusks  and 
snapped  off  a  piece  nearly  5  in.  in  diameter,  about  2  ft. 
long,  and  weighing  from  20  to  30  lbs.]! 

^Communicated  by  George  H.  Bamxi,  Curator  of  the  Memorial  Museum,  Golden 
Gate  Park. 

f  Communicated  by  Mr.  John  Gets. 

{Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent,  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon,"  London,  1861, 
pp.  80, 81, 86. 


426     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 
TUSKS  OF  EXTINCT  ELEPHANT  SPECIES 


LENGTH    ORKATE8T 
OUTBIDS      CIRCUM- 
CUBVB       FERBNCB 


WSIOHT 


LOCALITT 


BPECISB 


ft.  in. 

16  6  ) 

16  6  { 

IS  9 

•  •   • 

IS  7} 
(chord  6 
ft.  lUin.) 

12  10 
(chord  7 
ft.  4i  in.) 

IS  6 

12  11 

12  10 

12  8 

12  7* 

12  6 

12  4) 

12  5 

12  5 

12  3 

12  2 
12  1) 

12 
11  0 


11 
11 
11 


5 

4 
S 


10  6 

10  4 

11  .. 
10  6 
10  6 
10  6 
10  6 
10  . 

0  0 

8  lOi 
(chord  4 
ft.  51  in.) 

8  8i 
(chord  4 
ft.  Si  in.) 

8  10 

8  6 

6  S 

(chord  3 

ft.  7  in.) 


in. 


mi 

22  ) 


23 
21 


23 
21 
30 
SO 


22} 


19 

35 

17i 

20i 

201 

171 

•  •  ■ 

20i 
20 

21) 
21$ 


23 


Ibt. 

•    mm 

498 
186 


201 

•  •  • 

2i7 


830 


165J 
124} 
123} 
173 


Near  Mexico  City.    El,  imp. 
DalUs,  Texas.  El.  imp. 


Instituto  Geologico,  Mex- 
ico City. 

Peabody  Museum,  Cam- 
bridge^ Maas. 


Kolyma  River,  Si-  Imp.  Mua.  Nat.  Hist.,  Pet- 

167   r      beria.  El.  prim.        rograd. 


Victoria,  Texas. 

Siberia. 

Alaska. 

Siberia. 

Alaska. 

? 


El.  imp. 
El.  prtm. 

? 
El.  prim, 
El.cU. 
? 
El.  pnm. 


Jonesboro,  Ind. 
Campbell,  Franklin 

Co.,  Neb.  El.  col. 

Steinheim,  Wtlrt- 

temberg.  El.  ant. 

Red  Willow  Co.,  Neb.  El.  prim, 
Steinheim,  WUrt- 

temberg.  El.  prim. 


Siberia.  El.  prim. 

Boma,  Saxony.         El.  prim. 
Ilf ord,  Essex,  £ng.    El.  prim. 

Gosper  Co.,  Neb.  ? 

Tilloux,  dept.  Cha- 

rente,  France.        El.  merid. 
Siwalik  Hills,  India.  El.  (Sleg.) 

ganua 


Am.  Mua.  Nat  ffisL,  N.  Y. 
Am.  Mua.  Nat.  Hist.,  N.  Y. 

? 
HoiL  WaHor  Rothschild. 
J.  D.  Beekman 
Brit.  Mua.  Nat  Hist. 
Am.  Mua.  Nat  Hist,  N.  Y. 

Univ.  of  Neb.  Museum. 
Kiinigl.  Natuimliencabinett, 

Stuttgart. 
?  Univ.  oifNdlK  Museum. 
KCnifJ.  Natnraliencabinett. 

Stuttgart. 
Hon.  Walter  Rothschfld. 
Milan  Museum. 
Hon.  Walter  Rothsdiild. 

Cut  for  piano  keys. 


Sir  Edmund  G.  Loder,Bart. 

? 
Brit.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist 


Mus.  Nat  Hist, 
Brit  Mus.  Nat  Hist 


Steinheim-on-the  KOnigl.  NaturaliencabiDett, 

Murr.WUrttem-    El.  prim.        Stuttgart, 
berg. 


Farmington,  Conn.  Mati.  am,  f 

nr.  NewDurg,  N,  Y.  M(ui.  am.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist 

Yorkville.  111.  Masi.am.  Field.  Mus.  Nat  Hist 


^Broken  in  transit. 


i 


t 

.1 

J 

>  i 

■    • 


f 

i 


f 


\ 


i; 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS 


427 


As  a  proof  of  the  great  number  of  very  large-sized  mam- 
moth tusks  brought  recently  from  the  Lena  River  district 
in  Siberia,  we  give  the  following  list  made  up  from  a  single 
shipment  to  a  New  York  house,  and  stating  the  weight  in 
avoirdupois  pounds  of  those  tusks  exceeding  100  lbs.  in 
weight : 

225  (2)    1561  122 

221  147  119} 

201}  144  116 

201  142  112} 

182  132  110 

180}  131}  107} 

174  (2)    125}  106} 

168}  125  105} 

166}  124}  105} 

165}  (2)    123}  105 

163}  123  104} 


TUSKS  OF  ASIATIC  ELEPHANTS 


LKNQTH 
OUIBIDB 
CDBVB* 

ft.    in. 

0   10} 

9     .. 


8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


0 

!! 

0 

9\ 

6 

0 

4j 

sj 

81 


6  11 
6  6 
6  10 


6 
6 


8 
5 


CIBCUM- 
FEBENCB 

in. 
15) 
15j 
17 


16i 
17 

mj 
u  ] 

18 

17 
17 

15    ) 
15    i 

m 

181 
181 


WEIQHT 


Ibt. 


LOCAUTT 


? 


81 
80.2 


00 


Aaaam. 
Burma. 

S.  India. 

Burma. 

Sumatra. 

Sumatra. 

Aaaam. 

Burma. 
Do. 


85 
102) 

m\ 

106 
65f    India. 


84J 
88( 


Burma. 


OWNEB 

Royal  Siamese  Muaeum,  Ban^ok. 

The  late  Earl  of  Lytton. 
Government  Houae,  Rangoon. 

Sir  Victor  Brooke*a  Collection. 
Royal  Palace,  Mandalay. 
G.  F.  W.  Curtia. 

T.  H.  Monteath. 
Marquia  of  Waterford.t 

R.  Gordon  Smith. 

Bethnal  Green  Muaeum   (J.   D. 
Goldingham.) 

H.  Shaw  Dunn. 


*Thia  liat  and  the  following  one  of  tusks  from  African  elephanta  are  taken  from  Rowland 
Ward's  "Recorda  of  Big  Game/'  7th  ed.,  edited  by  R.  Lydekker  and  J.  B.  Burlace.  Lon- 
don, 1014,  pp.  479-486,  aeveral  additions  having  been  made  here. 

tEzpoaed  from  the  socket. 

X^he  tusks  of  the  sacred  white  elephant  from  King  Thibaw*s  Palace,  Mandalay. 


428      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


LENGTH    GREATEST 
OUTBIDE     CIBCUM-      WEIGHT 
CUBYB       fXRENCE 


LOCAUTT 


ft 
6 
6 
S 
0 
6 

6 
6 
6 
5 
0 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
5 
6 
5 


in. 

7J 
7 

m 

0 

4 
4 
SJ 

Hi 
1 

m 
1 

10 

oj 

8 

0 
11 
10 
10 

8 


in. 

iM 

12 
12 


16 
12 
17 
17 
16 
1^ 


16 
16 

IS 


42 


Mysore. 
Yala,  S.  Provinces,  Cey- 
lon. 

Burma. 

Aflsam. 
Madura  District. 

North  Coimbatore. 

Assam. 


Burma. 

S.  India. 
Madras. 


*li   Bengd. 


Borneo. 
Ceylon. 


4  'tI    i8      w  I  ^'^y*- 


OWNBK 

Viscount  Powerscourt. 

Iieut.-Col.  R.  J.  Marker. 

A.  £.  S.  Minett. 

G.  H.  Moore. 
British  Museum. 

Rev.  H.  C.  B.  Stone. 

Noel  Williamson. 

E.  M.  Alexander. 

F.  Gomperts 
J.  Fortune. 

H.  K.  Robinson. 

C.  M.  D.  Stewart. 
W.  S.  Murray. 

J.  Scott  Mason. 


TUSKS  OF  AFRICAN  ELEPHANTS 


0 
0 


4 
1 


0  Si 
9  3 
9  2} 


22 

221 
18j 

•  •  • 

20 


293    East  Africa. 


173 
126  I 
1234  J 
226} 
159 
216 

247 

120    I 
117    J 
184 
160 
93    I 

?      \ 
110 


? 

Mongalla. 

East  Africa. 
Biarsabit. 
East  Africa. 

Do. 

Tana  Valley. 

? 
East  Africa. 

Belgian  Congo. 

Do. 


NewYork  Zoological  Society  (See 

illustration.)* 
Ronabyn  Grordon  Cummings.t 

H.  R.  H.  the  Due  de  Montpenaier. 

British  Museum. 

F.  J.  Watson  Taylor. 

Messrs.  Joseph  Rodgers  &  Sons. 

Charles  Pulley. 

Major  H.  De  Pr£e. 

^  Edmund  G.  Loder,  Bart. 
Sir  John  Kirk. 

James  Barnes. 

Duke  of  Westminster. 


151        Elgayu.  East  Africa.        Sir  F.  J.  Jackson. 


156 
168 


129 


1 1   Uganda. 

Tana  Valley. 
East  Africa. 
Tana  Valley. 


R.  Grauer. 

Sir  Robert  Harvey,  Bart. 

Sir  F.  J.  Jackson. 

Sir  Robert  Harvey,  Bart. 


^Presented  by  the  Ute  Charles  F.  Barney,  Esq. 

tRonalsyn Gordon  Cummings,  "Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's  Life,"  New  York.  1850,  Vol.  I. 
p.  263. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS 


Cq>t.  H.  S.  BuRou^ 

Cq>t.  E.  B  PUoe. 

CtA.  A.  Eric  Smith. 

Hu  Mmjeaty  King  GcMge  V.* 

H.  J.  Hriu. 

Fnnkfort  MuseuiD.    Shot  by  the 


Mt.ElgDci.B.Afriim. 
EMtAfrkm. 
TMwVaUer- 
EMt  Alrics. 


N.  C.  Cockbum. 

Lieut-Cd.  J.  D.  Fnguson. 

Lord  Delamefe. 

Bl»or  H.  De  Prie  and  C^tt  C. 


His  Majeaty  King  Gporge  V. 
MeMrs.  J(«q)h  Kodnra  ft  SoOM, 

Ltd..  Sbeffidd,  EngUiid. 
Duke  o(  PenerandA, 


Sir.  A.  SbMpe. 

Gnhun  Pownall. 

Hkj'or  R.  M.  Suidera. 

CapL  E.  C.  Hunilton. 

Capt.  W.  H.  Wilkin. 

Bou^t  by  Ludwig  11  at  Bavmrik. 

W.  NeilBOD. 

E.  S.  Grogiui. 

W.  Y.  Wyndhwo. 

Duke  Adolf  Friediidi  ol  UecUen- 


■PKBentedbyH.H.theAgsKhui. 
tPicwnted  l^  Rudolf  de  GcUadmudt 


430     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


LENGTH    OBEATBT 
OUTSIDB    CIBCUM- 
CUBVB      nCBENCB 

ft.    in. 
8    S 


WEIGHT 


LOCALITT 


8 
8 


8 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
7 


7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


2 
3 


8    U 
8    3 

7  11 

8  2 

7  8| 

8  1 


1 
2 
1 
0 


0 

8J 
7  11* 
7    81 
7  11 
7    0 
7  lOj 

7    5i 
7  10 
7    6} 
7  10 


8} 

0 

0 

8i 

0 

7 

7 

6 


i 


7    6| 

6    9 

7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


6J 

2 

6 

6  0 

7  6 

6  11} 

7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


5J 
5 

5 

5 

2 

4i 

4J 


in. 
18| 

181 
18    I 
171  J 
22 
28 
20 
20 
17 


16    ) 
16    J 
20i 
20 


20 
19| 

18 

18 

18J 

19} 

22} 

23 

20 

19} 


lbs. 

81})    East  Africa. 

80    J 

Africa. 


135} 
159} 
145 
121 
86 

129    I 
124    ) 


110 
106 


118 
106} 

98 
138 

90 

80 
113 
106 

85 

81 

63 

68| 

95} 
119    ) 
110    ( 
268 


Sudan. 
Gondokoro. 

? 
Belgian  Congo. 

East  Africa. 

Abyssinian  Sudan. 

Belgian  Congo. 

Uganda. 

Sierra  Leone. 

White  Nile. 

Upper  Nile. 

East  Africa. 

I>o. 

Do. 

N.  E.  Rhodesia. 


101 

91 

81 

79 

78} 

75} 
103 

93 

76 

81 

85 

80 

84 
114 
112 

92} 

91} 


OWNEB 

Capt.  T.  W.  Greenfield. 
Brunswick-Balke-CoUender  Co 

Sir  W.  Garstin. 

His  Majesty  the  King. 

Major  G.  G.  P.  Humphreys. 
W.  SewalL 

Capt.  C.  J.  Murray. 

W.  N.  McMiUan. 

Mus4e  du  Congo,  Tervueren,  BeL 

Ci^t.  C.  H.  Stigand. 

Major  C.  E.  Palmer. 

Ci^t.  E.  R.  Wishaw. 

Douglas  McDouall. 

C.  Bower  Ismay. 

R.  Holmes. 

P.  Niediedc. 
F.  H.  Melland. 


Lake  Rudolf. 

A.  E.  Butter. 

Lake  Naivasha. 

T.  W.  Brooke. 

S.  Abyssinia. 

J.  R.  Luchsinger. 

Brit  East  Africa. 

Lieut  A.  H.  Wheeler. 

Congo. 

R.  de  la  Huerta. 

East  Africa. 

Col.  Max  C.  Fleishmann. 

Uganda. 

H.  Leney^ 

Sudan. 

Major  A.  W.  Jennings  Bramly. 

Do. 

Major  H.  D.  Pearson. 

Lado. 

Capt.  R.  S.  Hart 

Uganda. 

J.  Jay  White. 

^In  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild's  Museum  at  Tring. 


ELEPHANT    TUSKS 


431 


LENGTH     GBEATIST 
OUTBIOE    CEBCUM-      WEIGHT 


LOCALITT 


FEBENCE 


in. 


0 


Ibt. 
70  ) 
«8J 
64 
58J 
87  ) 
85  \ 

168 

88 

77 

80| 

93 

01 

65 

59i 
118 
108 

68 


li 


73 
78i 
57 
63) 


176 


56 
52 
40 
89 
49 
47 
26 
33i 


6 


Sudan. 
Sudan. 

Abyssinian  Sudan. 

East  Africa. 

Uganda. 

Sudan. 

Uganda. 

N.  Nigeria. 

Uganda. 

East  Africa. 
Southeast  Africa. 
N.  E.  Rhodesia. 

S.  E.  Africa. 

B.  C.  Afnca. 

N.  of  Lake  Rudolf. 
Uganda. 

Lomagundi's  Country. 
East  Africa. 
Uganda. 

Abysnnia. 

Somaliland. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Port  E.  Africa 


OWNEB 


John  H.  Prentice. 
John  H.  Prentice. 

C.  Bulpett. 

N.  Y.  Zo5logical  Soc.,  Nat.  Col. 
of  Horns. 

G.  M.  Norrie. 

Countess  of  Sefton. 

G.  Blaine. 

Ci^t.  G.  C.  Kelly. 

G.  M.  Norrie. 

Amasa  Stone  Mather. 

F.  C.  Selous. 

Hon.  M.  W.  Elphinstone. 

P.  Neergard. 

R.  H.  Storey. 

The  late  A.  H.  Neunuum. 
Nat.  Museum,  Dublin.* 

Duke  of  Westminster. 
James  L.  Clark. 
Capt.  E.  B.  Place. 

A.  E.  Butter. 

A.  H.  Straker. 

Major  E.  W.  S.  Brooke. 

Sir  Edmimd  G.  Loder,  Bart. 

Lord  Delamore. 

lieut.-Col.  J.  McCall  Maxwell. 

Dr.  Louis  L.  Seaman. 


The  following  specimens  probably  belong  to  the  Dwarf 
Congo  race  (E.  africanus  pumilio): 

St  I 


5  6 
5  4 
3  8 
3  7J 
2  11 
2  11 


i3 

12 
l«l 


Semlild. 


G.  Blaine. 


Umf  umbro,  E.  Congo.     Major  J.  Webb  Bowen. 


^Presented  by  Graham  PownalL 


CHAPTER  Xn 

THE   COMMERCE   OF   IVORY 

The  Arab  traveller  Soleiman,  writing  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, notes  ivory  among  the  principal  articles  imported 
into  the  port  of  Canton  for  distribution  in  China;  the  others 
were  frankincense,  copper,  tortoise-shell,  camphor,  and 
rhinoceros  horns.  Three  tenths  of  the  merchandise  was 
kept  by  the  Chinese  Government  as  import  duty,  the  bal- 
ance being  turned  over  to  the  merchants  to  do  as  they 
pleased  with.*  The  same  writer  remarks  that  the  Chinese 
women  adorned  their  heads  with  a  number  of  small  combs 
of  ivory  and  other  materials,  as  many  as  a  score  of  these 
being  sometimes  worn  together.f 

Those  who  imported  ivory  into  China  by  way  of  Canton 
in  the  ninth  century  of  our  era  were  not  only  forced  to  yield 
the  high  import  dues  we  have  noted,  but  were  forced  to  sell 
all  tusks  weighing  30  catties  or  more  (about  40  pounds 
or  upward)  in  the  official  market,  where  there  was  commonly 
great  undervaluation.  Of  course  the  consequent  exclusion 
of  competition  must  have  been  felt  as  a  great  hardship. 
To  escape  this  restriction  but  one  way  was  open :  to  cut  up 
the  heavier  tusks  so  that  each  separate  piece  would  weigh 
less  than  the  limit  set  for  the  official  market.  Any  attempt 
to  evade  the  strict  customs  regulations  was  severely  pun- 

^Chau  Ju-Kua,  "Chu-fan-chi**  ("A  Description  of  Barbarous  Peoples'*),  trans,  by 
Friedrich  Hirth  and  W.  W.  Rockhill,  St.  Petersburg,  1011,  p.  15. 

t"  Ancient  Accounts  of  India  and  Cbina  by  Two  Mohanunedan  Travellers,"  Engl.  tnuu. 
of  Renaudot's  French  version,  London,  17S3,  p.  14. 

4S8 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       433 

ished.  Should  any  trader  remove  the  smallest  object  from 
the  ship's  cargo,  the  whole  cargo  was  confiscated  and,  over 
and  above  this,  the  guilty  trader  was  punished  in  an  ex- 
emplary manner.* 

From  Marco  Polo's  accounts,  the  ivory  market  in  Zan- 
zibar flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for,  treating 
of  Madagascar  and  Zanzibar,  he  asserts  that  there  were  more 
elephants  there  than  in  any  country  in  the  world,  and  he 
adds:  "The  amount  of  traflBc  in  elephants'  teeth  in  these 
two  islands  is  something  astonishing."  Although,  from 
certain  errors  in  his  description  of  this  region,  he  appears 
to  have  derived  his  facts  at  second  hand  and  confused  some 
of  his  data,  this  statement  in  regard  to  the  ivory  traflSc 
of  Zanzibar  is  almost  unquestionably  correct.  One  of  his 
erroneous  assertions  in  reference  to  elephants  here  is  inter- 
esting enough  in  itself  to  be  cited,  more  especially  as  it  was 
imdoubtedly  true  for  other  regions.  This  is  that  the 
natives,  when  about  to  bring  up  a  war  elephant  to  the  at- 
tack, would  "ply  him  well  with  their  wine,"  until  he  was 
half  drunk.  In  this  state  of  semi-intoxication  the  animal 
was  fiercer  and  bolder  than  when  sober,  and  his  attack  was 
more  impetuous.  This  can,  however,  scarcely  refer  to 
Zanzibar,  for  the  trustworthy  Arab  writer,  Mas'udi,  definitely 
asserts  that  elephants  were  not  tamed  or  trained  there  in 
any  way,  and  that  the  natives  only  hunted  them  to  kill 

them.f 

Although  many  of  the  ancient  trade  routes  have  been 
abandoned  for  one  reason  or  another,  still  in  a  number  of 
cases  the  old  order  of  things  has  been  maintained  with  but 
little  change.  In  the  ivory  trade,  for  instance,  the  port 
of  Aden  on  the  coast  of  Arabia,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Red 

*Chau  Ju-kua,  "Chu-fan-chi**  ("A  Description  of  Barbarous  Peoples*'),  transl.  by 
Friedrich  Hirth  and  W.  W.  Rockhill,  St.  Petersburg,  1011;  introduction,  p.  21. 

tThe  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo  the  Venetian,  transl.  and  ed.  by  Col.  Henry  Yule,  London; 
1875,  Vol.  U,  pp.  404. 416;  note  p.  418. 


434      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Sea  and  commanding  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  is  to-day, 
as  it  was  centuries  ago,  a  centre  of  distribution  for  East  Afri- 
can ivory.  Vessels  came  hither  in  medieval  times  from  all 
parts  of  the  worid,  and  among  the  innumerable  articles  of 
commerce  were  elephants*  tusks  from  Abyssinia,  which 
land  furnished  an  inmiense  supply  of  elephant  ivory.* 
Aden  is  now  strongly  fortified  and  has  been  called  the 
"Gibraltar  of  the  East." 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
European  supply  of  ivory  was  mainly,  though  perhaps  not 
exclusively,  derived  from  Africa.  It  is  true  there  appears 
to  be  good  evidence  that  in  certain  periods  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  elephant  tusks  were  brought  from  India, 
but  in  spite  of  the  express  statements  to  this  eflFect  made 
by  the  Venetian  traveller,  Marco  Polo,  and  others,  it  is  not 
imlikely  that  what  they  believed  to  be  Indian  ivory  had 
originally  come  from  Africa  and  either  been  transshipped 
from  some  Indian  port,  or  shipped  at  some  African  port,  or 
one  in  touch  with  Africa,  by  Indian  trading  vessels.  In- 
deed, the  older  writers,  beginning  with  Cosmas  Indico- 
pleustos,  insist  upon  the  large  quantity  of  African  ivory 
imported  into  India,  and  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century 
we  are  told  by  Garcias  ab  Horto  that  the  annual  importa- 
tion amounted  to  600,000  pounds,  probably  an  excessive 
estimate.  Several  considerations,  besides  the  active  native 
industry  in  ivory  working,  conspired  to  this  end.  In  the 
first  place  the  tusks  of  the  African  elephants  are,  on  the 
average,  both  larger  and  heavier  than  are  those  of  the  Indian 
elephants,  and  they  are  present  with  the  females  as  well  as 
the  males  of  the  species;  then,  in  medieval  and  later  times, 
these  animals  have  been  domesticated  and  trained  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways  in  India,  whether  as  war  elephants,  as 

^W.  Heyd,  "  Histoire  du  commerce  du  Levant  au  Moyen-Age,'*  French  editkm*  Leipii^ 
1886,  Vol.  I,  p.  35. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       435 

beasts  of  burden,  or  in  hauling  and  carrying  materials  for 
construction,  etc.  Moreover,  in  many  parts  of  India  and 
the  contiguous  countries  in  which  elephants  are  to  be  found, 
religious  superstition  has  sometimes  invested  them  with  a 
quasi-sacred  character.  Hence  elephant  hunting,  not  for 
the  puri>ose  of  capturing  and  training  the  animals,  but 
merely  to  kill  them  and  cut  out  their  tusks,  while  actively 
pursued  for  many  centuries  in  Africa,  has  been  carried  on 
but  rarely  in  India,  the  native  Indian  ivory  coming  almost 
invariably  from  animals  which  have  died  a  natural  death, 
and  as  the  elephant  is  exceptionally  long-lived,  the  supply 
from  this  source  has  been  limited.* 

The  commerce  in  ivory  m  the  interior  of  Africa  is  now 
carried  on  by  caravans  under  the  conduct  of  Negroes  or 
Arabs,  the  funds  being  furnished  by  the  European  or  Hindu 
merchants,  as  it  very  rarely  happens  that  the  leader  of  the 
caravan  operates  with  his  own  resources.  The  German 
product  is  chiefly  shipped  from  Bagawayo,  Saadani,  and 
Pangani;  the  posts  for  British  ivory  are  Mombasa,  Lamu, 
and  Kismayu.  While  Bagawayo  was  formerly  the  most 
important  of  the  posts,  Mombasa  has  recently  made  very 
rapid  headway.f 

Statistics  show  that  about  1830  the  average  imports 
of  ivory  into  Great  Britain  totalled  462,000  pounds;  of  this 
330,000  were  retained  for  home  consumption.  Even  at 
this  time  it  was  feared  the  breed  of  elephants  was  threatened 
with  extinction,  owing  to  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  these 
animals.  England's  supply  came  from  the  west  and  east 
of  Africa,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  India,  and  the 
countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  In 
1831  West  Africa  furnished   Great  Britain  with  288,400 

^W.  Heyd,  "Histoire  du  commerce  du  Levant  au  Moyen-Age,"  French  edition,  Leipzig 
1886,  Vol.  II,  pp.  629. 630. 

f'Lft  Belgique  ColoniaL"  Vol.  II,  p.  617, 1887. 


436      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

pounds  of  ivory,  the  Cape  sending  only  22,170  pounds; 
from  India  came  243,300  pounds.  At  this  time  the  Chinese 
drew  their  supply  from  Malacca,  Siam,  and  Sumatra  (prob- 
ably also  from  Ceylon).  The  work  of  Chinese  ivory 
carvers  seems  to  have  been  more  highly  appreciated  in 
Europe  about  1830  than  it  is  to-day,  as  our  authority  says: 
"The  preparation  of  this  beautiful  material  is  much  better 
understood  by  the  Chinese  than  by  any  other  people." 
The  undoubted  ingenuity  and  technical  skill  of  the  Chinese 
carvers  seems  to  have  caused  many  to  overlook  their  artistic 
shortcomings.* 

The  following  prices  of  elephants'  tusks  per  hundred- 
weight (112  pounds)  are  listed  for  the  London  market  in 
December,  1833;  they  include  a  duty  of  $5  per  hundred- 
weight rf 


RANGE  or 

PRtOB 

\ 

s 

d 

£ 

a 

d 

0 

0 

to 

81 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

28 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

26 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

24 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

21 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

85 

0 

0 

0 

0 

to 

5 

0 

0 

1st  79  to  90    lbs 29 

2d    56  to  78      "         25 

8d    88  to  55      "         23 

4th  28  to  87      "         20 

5th  18  to  27          18 

Scrivelloes 14 

Sea-horse  teeth 0 

The  size  of  the  tusks  of  course  aflFects  the  value  of  the 
material,  as  the  larger  the  pieces  of  ivory,  the  wider  the 
range  of  use.  All  tusks  weighing  less  than  18  pounds  were 
designated  "scrivelloes.'* 

As  with  other  commodities,  the  price  of  ivory  has  had 
wide  fluctuations.  In  illustration  of  this  we  may  take 
the  average  figures  per  hundredweight  for  the  quarterly 
sales  of  billiard  ball  pieces  of  all  grades  in  the  London 

•J.  R.  McCuIloch,  "A  Dictionary  of  Commerce,"  London,  1837,  pp.  787, 788. 
fMcCuIloch's  "Dictionary  of  Commerce,"  new  cd.,  London,  1887,  p.  787. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       437 

salesrooms    in    Mincing   Lane   during   certain   years,   as 
follows : 

1870  £155 

1880  90 

1890  112 

1900  68 

1905  167 

The  prices  for  less  valuable  material  followed  this  general 
trend.  Ivory  always  commands  full  value;  for  there  is  little 
or  no  material  wasted,  even  the  dust  being  available  for  polish- 
ing, for  making  India  ink,  or  for  the  making  of  "  ivory  jelly." 

The  progressive  increase  in  sales  in  the  London  market 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
centiuy  they  totalled  something  less  than  about  192,000 
pounds  annually,  on  an  average,  while  in  1837  they  had 
risen  to  364,784  pounds,  and  had  reached  1,000,000  pounds 
in  1864.  According  to  the  London  Board  of  Trade  figures, 
1,434,900  pounds  of  ivory  were  imported  in  1890;  1,091,100 
pounds  in  1895;  while  the  figures  declined  to  988,900  pounds 
in  1900  and  to  904,500  pounds  in  1904. 

Bombay  secures  the  main  part  of  its  supply  of  ivory  from 
Zanzibar,  Mozambique,  and  Aden.  The  total  imports  for 
the  year  1883-4  were  462,403  pounds,  of  which  197,866 
pounds  were  exported  again,  principally  to  London  (167,150 
poimds).  Of  the  imports  Zanzibar  furnished  178,278 
pounds,  Mozambique  109,327  pounds,  and  Aden  49,730 
pounds;  from  England  came  98,463  pounds.  A  good 
average  tusk  weighs  about  two  maunds,  something  over 
57  poimds,  and  sells  at  the  rate  of  250  rupees  ($80)  per 
maund.  Zanzibar  ivory  pays  an  import  and  export  duty 
to  the  Sultan  of  the  country  amounting  to  25  rupees  ($8) 
per  maund  (about  29  pounds).  On  every  tusk  put  through 
the  custom  house  the  Sultan's  seal  is  cut  when  the  duty  has 


438      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

been  liquidated.  The  ivory  received  in  Bombay  is  not 
exported  in  the  form  of  tusks,  but  the  latter  are  cut  up  and 
the  parts  variously  distributed.  To  Europe  go  the  solid 
tips  especially  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  billiard 
balls,  and  also  the  bases  of  the  hollow  shaft  of  the  tusks, 
known  as  "bamboo  ivory.**  For  home  consumption  the 
middle  part  of  the  tusk  is  reserved;  this  is  called  churdar^ 
from  its  use  in  the  making  of  churis,  or  bangles;  Chma  re- 
ceives a  small  amoimt  of  an  inferior  material.  A  somewhat 
curious  circumstance  is  that  those  who  cut  up  the  tusks  do 
not  receive  any  remimeration  in  money,  although  the  em- 
ployer furnishes  the  requisite  tools,  but  they  are  allowed  to 
keep  the  ivory  dust,  for  which  they  find  purchasers  among 
cattle  raisers,  who  believe  that  milch  cattle  will  secrete  milk 
more  abundantly  if  they  be  given  a  solution  of  ivory  dust 
Another  use  (in  Northern  India)  is  as  a  tonic  medicine.* 
A  recent  ordinance  provides  that  in  the  State  of  Mysore  all 
elephant  tusks  shall  be  sold  at  public  auction  by  the  dis- 
trict treasury  officer,  at  Bangalore,  once  every  year.f 

The  internal  conmierce  in  ivory  is  mainly  carried  on  by 
Marawis,  who  furnish  the  stocks  for  the  chief  markets, 
Palee  in  Jodhpur,  Surat  in  Guzerat,  and  Amritsar  in  the 
Panjab.  This  last-named  mart  supplies  in  its  turn  the 
material  for  the  Delhi  comb  makers  and  for  the  inlayers  of 
Dera  Ismail  Khan,  while  a  good  part  of  the  ivory  is  kept 
in  Amritsar  where  the  small  combs  worn  by  the  Sikhs  are 
produced  in  great  quantity.  These  combs  constitute  an 
important  article  of  masculine  dress  among  the  Sikhs, 
as  the  religious  regulations  do  not  permit  the  men  to  cut 
their  hair,  and  it  has  to  be  carefully  boimd  up  and  kept 
in  place  by  a  comb  beneath  the  turban.     Strange  to  say, 

*J.  L.  Kipling,  the  Journal  of  Indian  Art,  Vol.  I,  No.  7,  p.  49,  July,  1885. 

fConsul  Henry  D.  Baker  of  Bombay,  India,  "Report  on  Ivory  and  Elephants  in  India." 
June  8,  1914. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       439 

the  Marawi  traders,  as  they  belong  to  the  religious  sect  of 
the  Jains,  are  not  able  to  come  into  direct  contact  with  the 
elephant  tusks,  because  the  touching  of  an  animal  substance 
constitutes  a  pollution.  Hence  the  material  in  which  they 
deal  must  be  handled  and  weighed  by  Mohammedans  in 
their  employ.* 

The  striking  change  in  the  location  of  the  chief  distribut- 
ing point  in  Europe  for  ivory  is  exemplified  by  a  comparison 
of  statistics  for  1908,  and  for  a  date  twenty  years  earlier. 
While  at  the  earlier  date  the  annual  sales  of  ivory  were  373 
tons  in  London  and  but  6  tons  in  Antwerp,  in  1908  sales  on 
the  London  market  had  fallen  to  214  tons,  while  in  Antwerp 
227  tons  of  ivory  were  sold.  This  change  in  markets  is  of 
course  directly  due  to  the  large  exportation  in  recent  years 
from  the  Belgian  Congo.f 

The  German  territory  of  Cameroon  in  Central  Africa  has 
furnished  a  small,  but  recently  a  decreasing,  supply  of  ivory. 
The  figures  for  1910,  when  38  tons  of  the  material  were 
exported,  show  a  decrease  of  16  tons  from  those  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  the  value  falling  oflF  from  $219,705  to  $156,395. 
The  prohibition  to  shoot  young  elephants,  rendered  im- 
perative in  order  to  save  the  breed  from  extinction,  has 
been  often  violated  by  the  natives,  who  have  smuggled  the 
tusks  they  obtained  across  the  French  Congo.  It  appears 
that  with  the  annexation  of  what  is  called  the  "New  Cam- 
eroon" territory,  recently  ceded  by  France  to  Germany  in 
connection  with  the  Morocco  arrangement,  the  export  of 
ivory  from  Cameroon  will  increase,  for  a  German  sportsman 
came  across  many  elephants  on  a  trip  lately  made  to  this 
newly  acquired  territory,  although  he  had  failed  to  find 
any  in  the  old  Cameroon  territory. 

In  German  East  Africa  there  has  also  been  a  falling  off 

*J.  L.  Kipling,  the  Journal  of  Indian  AH,  Vol.  I,  No.  7,  p.  50,  July,  1885. 
^ScienHfie  American,  Supplement  No.  1752,  p.  79,  July  SI,  1909. 


440     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

in  ivory  exports  for  1910  and  1911  from  the  higher  figures 
for  1909.  By  some  it  has  been  stated  that  this  results  from  a 
decrease  in  the  number  of  **  large  tuskers,"  but  others  believe 
that  the  diminished  supply  is  rather  due  to  the  enforcement 
of  a  new  game  law  for  the  protection  of  elephants  toward  the 
end  of  1911.  The  chief  port  for  ivory  exports  here  is  now 
Dar-es-Salaam,  Bagawayo  having  lost  its  earlier  primacy  in 
this  respect.  As  an  intermediate  centre  for  ivory  Zanzibar 
has  not  maintained  its  rank,  the  volume  of  trade  in  ivory  here 
having  fallen  from  £45,000  in  1909  to  but  £28,900  in  1910. 

The  following  figures  present  the  statistics  of  ivory  ex- 
ports from  German  East  Africa  for  the  years  1906-1911, 
the  weight  being  given  in  avoirdupois  poimds  and  the  value 
in  pounds  sterling:* 

WDOHT  «-••«. 

«^,,w,«-  VAMTB 

FOUNDS 

1906  48,053  £24,290 

1907  42,672  21,669 

1908  56,647  83,169 

1909  62,471  30,291 

1910    114,540  51,310 

1911    79,905  87,154 

56,868  24,270 

461,151  £  222,153 

Indicating  an  average  export  value  per  pound  of  about 
$2.34  of  our  money. 

Aden,  long  so  important  as  an  ivory  market,  has  lately 
lost  much  of  its  trade  in  this  material.  The  rapid  decrease 
in  ivory  imports  is  shown  in  the  following  figures : 

1909-1910  177,225  poimds 

1910-1911  127,760       " 

1911-1912         54,942       " 

1912-1918         25,680      " 

^Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports  (British),  No.  5171  Annual  Series.  Germany, 
Report  for  the  years  1909-1912  on  the  Trade,  Commerce,  and  General  Economics  Position 
of  German  East  Africa,  London,  191S,  pp.  26, 27. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       441 

The  entire  stock  on  hand,  early  in  1914,  was  but  8,000 
poimds,  and  this  was  held  in  the  anticipation  of  obtaining 
better  prices  later  on.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  ivory  from 
the  Sudan  is  now  shipped  either  directly  overiand  or  by 
way  of  Jibati  is  cited  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
Aden's  loss  of  ivory  trade.  Another  cause  is  stated  to  be 
the  lapsing  of  a  contract  accorded  by  the  late  Negus  of 
Abyssinia,  giving  to  one  of  the  leading  ivory  dealers  of 
Aden  an  option  upon  Abyssinia's  share  of  the  ivory  secured 
in  these  regions.* 

In  the  French  Asiatic  colony  of  Laos  each  of  the  captive 
elephants,  which  are  quite  numerous,  is  provided  with  a 
duly  registered  card  of  identification,  and  if  any  owner  of 
an  elephant  decides  to  sell  the  animal  out  of  the  country, 
he  is  obliged  to  pay  half  of  the  value  into  the  local  treasury. 
The  price  is  said  to  vary,  according  to  age,  sex,  degree  of 
training,  or  length  of  tusks,  from  600  to  1,500  piastres; 
ivory  brings  in  Laos  from  15  to  20  francs  per  kilogram.f 

The  Governor-General  of  French  Equatorial  Africa 
reported  recently  that  while  at  the  time  the  French  first 
occupied  this  region  a  considerable  stock  of  ivory  existed 
there,  this  stock  has  been  exhausted,  and  the  ivory  exports 
are  now  comparatively  stationary,  amounting  to  about  160 
tons  annually.  As  to  a  prospective  increase  of  these  ex- 
ports, the  Governor-General  was  not  very  sanguine,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  herds  of  from  eighty  to  one  himdred 
elephants  are  still  occasionally  to  be  met  with  in  this  terri- 
tory, t 

Ivory,  as  well  as  hippopotamujs  teeth  and  rhinoceros 
horns,  has  for  years  been  counted  among  the  staple  products 
of  the  British  East  African  Protectorate  on  the  Indian 

*Daily  Circular  and  Trade  ReporU,  Apijl  21, 1914,  pp.  397, 398. 

fH.  Jacob  de  Cordemoy, "  Lea  produita  coloniaux  d'origine  animale,"  Paris,  1903,  p.  179. 
IConsul  John  Ball  Osborne,  of  Havre,  "French  Equatorial  Africa,"  Daily  Consular  and 
Trade  Reports,  May  23,  1913.  p.  963. 


442      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Ocean.  Some  of  the  ivory  goes  to  London  and  a  certain 
quantity  is  sent  to  the  United  States.  The  total  value  <rf 
the  ivory  exports  from  Mombasa,  the  seaport  of  the  Pro- 
tectorate, for  the  six  months  ending  June  30,  1909,  was 
$170,876,  of  which  sum  $68,178  represented  the  value  d 
the  Congo  ivory  shipped  by  way  of  this  port.* 

The  strong  competition  of  Mombasa  has  a£Fected  the 
trade  of  Zanzibar  so  unfavourably  that  even  apart  from  the 
general  demoralization  due  to  the  outbreak  of  war,  this 
trade  showed  a  falling  off  in  1914,  and  figures  for  the  entire 
year,  including  the  war  period,  are  much  lower  than  those 
for  1913.  This  is  true  of  the  ivory  imports  and  exports  as 
of  those  of  other  merchandise.  Of  course  the  imports  dF 
ivory  are  only  made  to  re-export  the  material,  Zanzibar 
being  thus  a  mere  port  of  transit.  The  value  of  these  ivoiy 
imports  and  exports  for  the  two  years  are  given  as  follows:! 


nCPOBTB  EXFOBTB 


POUNDS 

191S     .     .      . 

$166,792 

$193,962 

68.729 

1914     .      .      . 

46,767 

59,157 

18.300 

1914  (Decrease) 

$119,925 

$134,805 

50.429 

IVORY  TRADE  OF  ZANZIBAR  1910-1914 

niPORTB 

EXPOBTB 

VALUE 

WEIGHT,   FOUNDS 

TAUm 

1910    .     .     . 

$286,022 

9S10.697 

1911     .     .     . 

823,796 

156,046 

402.512 

1912    .     .     . 

195,494 

82,655 

219.802 

191S    .     .     . 

166,792 

68,792 

19S.902 

1914     .     .      . 

46,767 

18,300 

59,157 

Ivory  merchants  claim  that  the  elephants  living  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  a  lake  in  Africa,  eleven  miles  long,  although  of 

*Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  February  5, 1910,  pp.  1, 5, 6. 

fConsul  Perry  C.  Hays»  "Zanzibar/'  in  Suppl.  to  Commerce  Reports  No.  78a;  July 
16. 1915. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       443 

the  same  species,  furnish  ivory  differing  as  much  in  quality 
as  does  Egyptian  ivory  from  that  of  the  Congo.  Indeed, 
ivory  of  the  same  district  will  often  vary  greatly.  While 
some  Congo  ivory  is  hard,  brittle,  white,  and  translucent, 
other  material  from  the  same  region  will  be  opaque,  and 
soft  in  texture  as  that  from  Zanzibar;  it  may  also  be  green- 
ish tinted  at  the  nerve-centres. 

A  large  part  of  the  trade  in  ivory  imported  to  Europe  is 
in  the  hands  of  two  firms,  Messrs.  Hale  &  Sons  of  London 
and  Messrs.  Lansberger  &  Cie.  of  Antwerp,  the  latter  house 
taking  all  the  ivory  from  the  Belgian  Congo.  The  price  of 
choice  pieces  of  ivory  in  the  London  market  is  sometimes 
very  high.  For  instance,  while  in  1908,  $453  per  cwt.  repre- 
sented a  record  figure  for  whole  tusks,  $750  per  cwt.  was 
paid  for  cut  points  especially  suitable  for  billiard  balls. 

The  general  price-movement  of  ivory  in  the  New  York 
market  during  the  past  thirty-eight  years  is  shown  in  the 
following  figures,  which  note  the  weight  of  the  ivory  pur- 
chased at  a  given  date  in  the  year  and  the  price  per  poimd ; 
this  is  only  for  the  finest  selected  material,  and  not  for  an 
average  quality: 


DATE 


WEIGHT  OF  IVORT  PRICE 

IN  POUNDS  PER   POUND 


1875,  Oct.  15  128  $3.55 

1876,  Sep.  22  125  3.25 

1877,  Oct.  18  84  2.90 

1878,  June  21  83  3.15 

1879,  Aug.  8  75  1.87 

1880,  May  7  50  2.50 

1881,  June  24  70  2.65 

1882,  Nov.  13  68  2.95 

1883,  Nov.  2  70  2.95 

1884,  Nov.  20  75i  2.82i 

1885,  Oct.  12  76 J  2.75 

1886,  Oct.  5  80|  2.70 

1887,  Nov.  2  81  2.75 

1888,  Oct.  5  87  2.69 


444     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


nAIHR 

wxiaBT  or  ivosT 

nocB 

UATS 

m  voxnam 

Fm  POUXD 

1889,  Sep. 

25 

75 

$2.76 

1890,  Nov. 

14 

79 

2.92 

1891,  Oct. 

S 

73 

2.69 

1892,  Aug. 

31 

82 

2.46 

1893,  Apr. 

25 

79 

2.15 

1894,  Sep. 

19 

77 

2.06 

1895,  Oct. 

4 

83 

1.85 

1896,  Apr. 

IS 

78 

1.80 

1897,  Sep. 

9 

77 

2.06 

1898,  Mar. 

14 

78 

2.20 

1899,  June 

1 

77 

2.60 

1900,  Oct. 

25 

75 

2.63 

1901,  July 

5 

90 

2.52 

1902,  Oct. 

30 

98 

2.58 

1908,  Oct. 

14 

87 

2.69 

1904,  July 

7 

78 

2.85 

1905,  Nov. 

4 

73 

3.61 

1906,  July 

26 

55 

3.10 

1907,  Apr. 

8 

94 

4.00 

1908,  Mar. 

12 

92 

3.83 

1909,  Feb. 

19 

105 

3.65 

1910,  Feb. 

18 

96 

3.44 

1911,  Jan. 

9 

111 

3.78 

1912,  Mar. 

12 

122 

3.84 

As  we  have  already  stated,  these  relatively  high  prices 
have  been  paid  for  ivory  of  superior  quality,  such  as  is 
constantly  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  billiard  balls, 
of  the  finest  toilet  articles,  etc.  This  is  clearly  brought  out 
by  the  last  entry  in  the  list,  noting  the  purchase  of  122 
pounds'  weight  of  ivory  at  an  average  price  of  $3,84  a  pound, 
while  at  about  the  same  time  the  average  value  per  pound  of 
the  ivory  imports  was  a  trifle  over  $2.50.  On  April  8, 1907, 
as  high  as  $4  a  pound  was  paid  although  the  average  value  of 
the  imports  for  that  year  was  $3.10  a  poimd. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       445 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  price  in  1912  is  but  8  per  cent, 
higher  than  it  was  in  1875,  the  intermediate  fluctuations 
following,  in  the  main,  the  general  financial  condition  of  the 
country. 

As  London  is  still  recognized  as  a  great  ivory  mart, 
although  of  late  years  the  Antwerp  sales  of  Congo  ivory 
have  attracted  many  buyers,  English  and  Continental, 
the  German  ivory  dealers  having  their  main  oflSces  in  Ham- 
burg usually  keep  also  a  branch  house  in  London.  Of  a 
total  importation  into  Germany  of  315.7  tons  of  ivory  in 
1912,  102  tons  came  from  England.  The  various  grades 
are  specially  named,  tusks  imder  20  pounds'  weight,  for 
instance,  being  called  scri velloes ;  of  these  the  tusks  suitable 
for  billiard  balls  are  called  "ball  scri  velloes,"  the  smaller 
ones  being  designated  as  "  bagatelles,"  and  others  accord- 
ing to  their  form  or  quality  "hollows,"  "cores,"  or  "de- 
fectives." The  London  sales  of  April,  1913,  were  but 
34  tons  as  against  45  tons  in  the  same  month  of  1912.  Impor- 
tations from  January  1  to  March  31,  1913,  amoimted  to 
64  tons;  for  the  same  period  in  1912,  to  66  tons,  while  de- 
liveries, 71  tons  in  1913,  were  85  tons  in  1912.  Stock  in 
dock  warehouses  was  greater  in  1913  than  in  1912,  the  re- 
spective figures  being  72  tons  and  62  tons. 

As  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  all  varieties  of  ivory, 
and  as  the  greater  part  of  the  buyers  are  excellent  judges 
of  form  and  quality,  there  is  less  tendency  to  violent 
fluctuations  in  the  ivory  market  than  in  many  others.  It 
but  rarely  happens  that  the  supply  outnms  the  demand  to 
any  considerable  extent  or  for  any  length  of  time. 

The  prices  obtained  for  ivory  at  the  spring  sales  in  London 
April  23  and  24,  1913,  show  the  following  range  for  the 
different  grades  and  classes  of  tusks:* 

^Consul-General  Robert  P.  Skinner,  of  Hamburg,  "Ivory  and  Walrus  Tusks  in  Europe," 
Daily  Canmlar  and  Trade  Reports,  December  9, 1913.  p.  1390. 


446     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Zanzibar*  Abyssinian,  and  East  Indian  teeth  and  scrivelloes,  per  hun- 
dredweight (112  pounds). 


▲VmUOE  WKIOHT 

80  pounds  and  upward 

70  to  80  pounds 

60  to  70 

50  to  60 

40  to  50 

30  to  40 

20  to  30 

10  to  20 

5  to  10 

3to    5 


<< 


<< 


« 


« 


<< 


<< 


«< 


<< 


SOFT  80X7KD 

$403.91— $428.25 
394.18 

374.72—  399.05 
379.38—  389.05 
379.58—  394.18 
369.85—  389.32 
360.12—  369.85 


243.32—  262.79 
209.25—  233.59 


aoFT  DsracrnrK 
$355.25 
364.98 


340.65 
330.92—364.98 
316.32—330.92 
301.72—330.92 
257.92—296.85 
218.99-^248.19 
194.66—199.52 


Egyptian  and  Malta  teeth  and  scrivelloes  per  hundredweight  (112 
pounds). 


AVKBAGS  WnOHT 

80  pounds  and  upward 

70  to  80 

60  to  70 

50  to  60 

40  to  50 

30  to  40 

20  to  30 

10  to  20 

5  to  10 

3to    5 


<< 


« 


<c 


« 


« 


<< 


<« 


<< 


« 


SOFT  SOUND 

$389.32—^408.78 
379.58—  394.18 
374.72—  399.05 
369.85—  394.18 
364.98—  389.32 
360.12—  384.45 
360.12—  374.72 

296.85 
243.32—  272.52 

214.12 


HARD  SOUND 

$326.05—^330.92 
282.25—  816.32 
287.12—  291.99 
282.25—  296.85 
267.65—  306.58 
282.25—  296.85 


Gaboon,  Congo,  Niger,  and  other  West  African  and  scrivelloes,  per 
hundredweight  (112  pounds) . 


AVEBAOE  WEIGHT 

SOUND 

BUOHTLT  DEFECTITE 

70  pounds  and  upward 

$296.85— $330.92 

$316.32 

50  to  70 

287.12—  311.45 

287.12 

40  to  50 

282.25—  306.58 

262.79 

30  to  40 

282.25—  301.72 

277.39 

20  to  30 

272.52—  291.99 

243.32— «87. 12 

10  to  20 

175.19 

5  to  10 

170.32—  184.92 

3to    5 

107.06—  111.92 

THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       447 

At  the  quarterly  sale  in  Antwerp  in  May,  1913,  ivory 
weighing  92  tons  Was  disposed  of,  as  against  87  tons  at 
the  same  time  in  1912.  Of  this  total  53^  tons  was  Central 
African;  26  tons  Angola;  4^  tons  Congo;  2 J  tons  Swift- 
Congo;  4  tons  Abyssinian;  1  ton  Senegal;  |  ton  Hard 
Egyptian,  and  ^  ton  Soft  Egyptian.  Good  prices  were 
reaUzed  as  there  was  considerable  competition,  the  demand 
from  America  and  the  Continent  being  quite  active,  the 
London  and  Sheffield  trades,  however,  only  bought  mod- 
erately. The  increase  in  price  amounted  to  £2  per  cwt. 
for  large  and  medium  hard  teeth;  scrivelloes  (tusks  under 
20  pounds)  registered  an  advance  of  £2  or  £3  per 
cwt.* 

The  total  imports  of  ivory  into  the  United  States  ac- 
cording to  official  figures  are  here  given  for  the  years  1884 
to  1911  inclusive,  as  well  as  the  value  of  these  imports  and 
the  average  value  per  pound.  From  1884  to  1894  this 
covers  ' 'animal  ivory,  not  sawed,  cut,  or  otherwise  manu- 
factured." This  limitation  was  changed  in  1895  to  "ani- 
mal ivory,  sawed  or  cut  into  logs,  but  not  otherwise  manu- 
factured,'* and  still  further  modified  in  1898  to  "ivory  in  its 
natural  state:  tusks  cut  vertically  across  the  grain  only, 
with  the  bark  left  intact,  "f  The  advances  noted  above 
amoimt  to  from  about  8  cents  to  13  cents  above  the  prices 
previously  obtained.  Of  course,  the  New  York  prices  have 
been  mainly  based  upon  those  of  the  London  and  Antwerp 
markets,  no  duty  having  been  imposed  on  unmanufactured 
ivory  until  October  4,  1913.  Inunediately  after  that  date 
imports  decreased  notably,  but  would  have  risen  again  to 
the  normal  level  if  the  great  war  had  not  ensued  nine 
months  later. 

^The  Watchmaker,  Jeioder,  Silcertmiih  and  Opticiaiu  June  1, 1912. 

fBureau  of  Statistics  (Dept  of  Commerce  and  Labour;  before  1008,  Treaiury  Dept.) 
Annual  Reports  on  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States. 


448     IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


ATERAOB  VAim 

TBAB 

WEIGHT  IN  POUNDS 

TAUTK 

FEB  POVND 

1884 

220,880 

$  727,733.00 

93.30 

1885 

156.622 

498,816.00 

3.19 

1886 

185,920 

515,464.00 

3.79 

1887 

177,055 

486,368.00 

2.75 

1888 

210,224 

685.763.00 

3.26 

1889 

170,414 

591,471.00 

3.47 

1890 

225,858 

848,105.00 

3.76 

1891 

248,085 

886,282.00 

3.65 

1892 

270,422 

893,139.00 

3.80 

1893 

299,469 

1,083,539.00 

3.62 

1894 

123,848 

374,685.00 

3.03 

1895 

259,860 

769.716.00 

2.99 

1896 

179,119 

538,947.00 

3.01 

1897 

173,4791 

452,461.00 

2.61 

1898 

250.784 

523,156.00 

2.09 

1899 

322,518 

691,724.00 

2.28 

1900 

353,428 

805,486.00 

2.28 

1901 

424,295 

842,233.00 

1.99 

1902 

458.100 

986,347.10 

2.15 

190S 

537.556 

1,200,502.00 

2.23 

1904 

495,180 

1,075,592.00 

2.17 

1905 

627,819 

1,642,958.00 

2.62 

1906 

597,490 

1,479,109.00 

2.48 

1907 

646,990 

2,005,474.00 

3.10 

1908 

371,306 

1.148,632.00 

3.09 

1909 

766,725j 

2,077,500.00 

2.71 

1910 

592,446 

1,597,287.00 

2.70 

1911 

534,800 

1,343,555.00 

2.51 

FntAls 

9,824,63Si 

26,772.044.10 

$2.72 

As  will  be  seen,  the  highest  average  value  was  in  1886 
and  the  lowest  in  1901,  while  that  of  the  years  1909  and 
1910  almost  exactly  agrees  with  the  average  for  twenty- 
eight  years. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       449 

The  figures  for  the  two  fiscal  years  ending,  respectively, 
June  30,  1913,  and  June  30,  1914,  may  be  compared  with 
those  just  given  for  the  calendar  years  up  to  1912: 


FOR  FISCAL  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  80 


WEIOBT  IN 
FOUNDS 

TAurs 

ATBBAOB  TAUn 
PER  POUND 

191S     .      . 
1914    .     . 

706,706 
480,516 

$1,796,878 
1,315,325 

$2.54 
2.48 

FOR  CALENDAR  YEAR  1914 


WEIGHT  m  VALtJlJ  AVERAGE  VALTTB 

POXJND8  PER  POUND 

320,184  $876,086  $2.74 


It  will  be  noted  that  while  the  weight  of  ivory  imported 
last  year  was  much  less  than  in  either  of  the  preceding 
fiscal  years,  the  average  value  per  poimd  was  considerably 
greater  and,  indeed,  exceeds  that  of  any  calendar  year  since 
1896,  excepting  the  years  1907  and  1908.  Undoubtedly 
the  imposition  of  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  20  per  cent,  after 
October  4,  1913,  explains  in  part  the  diminished  imports, 
but  recently  the  great  war  has  been  the  most  active  cause. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  with  the  resumption  of  free 
commercial  intercourse  between  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  and  with  the  cessation  of  the  numerous  and  un- 
avoidable interruptions  to  trade  that  the  war  has  caused, 
the  ivory  market  will  rapidly  improve  in  every  way. 

The  weight  and  value  of  the  ivory  imported  into  the 
United  States  from  all  parts  of  the  world  during  the  years 
1902  to  1911,  arranged  according  to  the  sources  of  supply, 
were  as  follows: 


450 


i 


VORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


FROM  EUROPE,  POUNDS 


UNITED 

OTHER 

TOTAL 

TEAB 

BELGIUM 

GERMANY 

KINGDOM 

COUNTRIES 

FROM  EUBOn 

1902 

125,926 

48,276 

104,887 

759 

279,848 

1903 

219,745 

39,930 

121,581 

756 

382,012 

1904 

252,896 

31,343 

77,194 

234 

361,667 

1905 

821,578 

31,671 

136,211 

123 

489,588 

1906 

232,411 

13,664 

219,606 

1,380 

467,061 

1907 

239,350 

31,233 

222,497 

143 

493,128 

1908 

120,267 

14,978 

131,366 

126 

266,737 

1909 

227,468 

36,950 

314,320 

6,470 

5^5,208 

1910 

208,548 

15,574 

203,090 

176 

427,388 

1911 

207,162 

16,507 

181,266 

80 

405,015 

Totals    2,156.251         280,126  1,712,018     10,247      4,157,642 


FROM  ELSEWHERE,  POUNDS 


TSAB 

NOBTH  AMERICA 

ASIA 

AFRICA 

GRAND  TOTAL 

1002 

12,921 

27,306 

138,025 

458,100 

1903 

202 

65,822 

89,520 

537,556 

1904 

221 

45,643 

87,649 

495,180 

1905 

•      •      • 

38,503 

99,733 

627,819 

1906 

775 

40,443 

89,211 

597,490 

1907 

2,377 

40,088 

111,402 

646,990 

1908 

113 

37,216 

67,240 

371,306 

1909 

195 

39,432 

141,891 

766,726 

1910 

530 

50,114 

114,414 

592,446 

1911 

550 

31,548 

97,187 

534,300 

Totals       17,884 


416,016 


1,036,272 


5»627,918 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY      451 


VALUE  OF  IMPORTS 


UNITBO 

OTHEB  EUBO- 
PEAN  OOUN- 

TKAB 

BKUinni 

OUatANT 

KINQOOM 

TBIKB 

1902 

$   224,122 

$120,280 

$   242,916 

$1,361 

190S 

414,407 

112,181 

279,843 

1,321 

1904 

467,761 

97,003 

181,314 

808 

1905 

825,396 

104,327 

361,481 

612 

1906 

563,578 

66,891 

669,538 

4,079 

1907 

784,048 

90,175 

681,006 

920 

1908 

365,736 

55,378 

426.403 

760 

1909 

597,967 

111,277 

876,869 

13,919 

1910 

617,875 

40,073 

695,801 

993 

1911 

605,433 

40,380 

475,383 

362 

Totals 

$5,256,318 

$836,965 

$4,679,652 

$26,015 

rXAB 

NOBTH  AMBBICA 

ASIA 

ATBICA 

TOTAL  VALUE 

1902 

5,600 

68,405 

323,664 

986,347 

190S 

96 

174,248 

222,533 

1,204,628 

1904 

178 

109,669 

228,869 

1,075,592 

1905 

•      •      •      • 

91,342 

260,900 

1,642,968 

1906 

160 

43,796 

241,900 

1,478,937 

1907 

1,199 

103,987 

344,140 

2,006,474 

1908 

23 

77,971 

222,359 

1,148,620 

1909 

110 

82,739 

394,619 

2,077,500 

1910 

136 

126,783 

816.608 

1,597,268 

1911 

1,100 
$8,600 

57,364 

263,643 

1,343,565 

Totals 

$935,294 

$2,819,135 

$14,660,879 

452      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  following  figures  give  the  value  of  imported  manu- 
factures of  ivory,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  "except  as 
elsewhere  specified."  This  necessarily  excludes  many  ob- 
jects in  which  ivory  has  been  used  for  decoration,  but  where 
it  does  not  constitute  a  component  of  greatest  value: 


VALUE 

1891  $61,246.70 

1892  69,214.52 
189S  66,804.66 

1894  45,177.00 

1895  31,897.97 

1896  44,559.28 

1897  35,187.02 

1898  34,120.94 

1899  48,699.13 

1900  53,005.51 

1901  54,995.73 

1902  72,804.09 

1903  80,508.83 

1904  76,277.13 

1905  72,316.40 

1906  81,905.74 

1907  68,611.74 

1908  63,095.20 

1909  54,806.29 

1910  49,456.22 

1911  51,670.45 


Total    $1,216,360.55 

The  corresponding  figures  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1913,  were  $34,943.27,  and  for  the  year  ending  June  80, 
1914,  $51,697.69.  To  this  should  be  added,  for  dice, 
dominoes,  draughts,  chessmen,  and  for  billiard,  pool,  and 
bagatelle  balls  of  ivory,  bone,  or  other  materials,  $61,108 
in  1913,  and  $67,789  m  1914. 

The  duties  on  unmanufactured  ivory  have  varied  less  in 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY      453 

the  past  fifty  years  than  have  those  imposed  upon  some 
other  materials,  destined  to  be  worked  up  into  articles  of 
luxury.  From  1867  to  1871  the  duty  was  10  per  cent,  ad 
valoremy  this  impost  being  removed  in  the  latter  part  of 
1871.  Until  October  13,  1913,  ivory  (unmanufactured) 
remained  free  of  duty,  the  impost  since  then,  imder  the 
so-called  Underwood  Tariff,  being  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
Manufactured  articles,  whether  of  ivory  or  bone,  such  as 
chessmen,  dice,  draughtsmen,  etc.,  were  dutiable  from  1867 
to  1913  at  a  rate  of  50  per  cent,  ad  valoremy  other  manu- 
factured articles  of  vegetable  ivory,  bearing  a  duty  of  35 
per  cent,  from  1867  to  1883,  30  per  cent,  from  1884  to  1891, 
40  per  cent,  from  1891  to  1895,  and  35  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
from  August  28,  1895,  to  the  present  time.  On  unmanu- 
factured vegetable  ivory  no  duty  has  been  imposed.* 

In  an  earlier  chapter  the  principal  ivory  substitutes  have 
been  described  and  some  details  given  of  their  use.f  For 
the  cheaper  toilet  articles,  and  for  a  number  of  other  objects, 
celluloid  has  been  quite  extensively  employed,  although  it 
is  not  a  very  satisfactory  substitute.  The  value  of  the 
manufactured,  or  partly  manufactured,  material  imported 
has  varied  widely  in  the  different  years,  owing  to  the  char- 
acter and  quality  of  the  workmanship,  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture being  of  course  the  main  element  of  value.  Thus 
when  a  large  quantity  of  fully  manufactured  articles  are 
imported,  the  total  value  will  be  many  times  what  it 
would  have  been  if  a  great  share  of  the  material  had  been 
brought  in  only  partly  finished,  or  only  prepared  for  work- 
ing. The  use  of  celluloid  for  the  small  front  facing  of 
piano  keys  has  been  alluded  to  in  the  chapter  on  the  work- 
ing of  ivory. 

^These  details  have  been  courteoualy  furniahed  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Blared,  of  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce^  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 

tChapter  VIII.  pp.  279-491. 


454      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

The  imports  of  finished,  or  partiy  finished,  articles  of 
manufactured  collodion  (celluloid)  into  the  United  States 
are  here  given  (artificial  silk  being  expressly  excepted  after 
1901)  for  the  years  1885  to  1911,  inclusive: 


TBAB 

WDQET  IM  POUinW 

▼AUTSINDOLL 

IBM 

27.00 

$    122.00 

1886 

96.00 

1,111.00 

1887 

121.00 

1,110.00 

1888 

124.00 

921.00 

1889 

637.00 

1,580.00 

1890 

2,115.00 

5,366.00 

1891 

4,459.00 

9,446.31 

1892 

11,912.00 

33,165.00 

1898 

14,909.00 

48,515.05 

1894 

26,531.00 

90,491.27 

1895 

11,563.56* 

370,045.42 

1896 

830.104.47 

1897 

254,256.14 

1898 

59,348.00 

135,697.62 

1899 

109,425.15 

235,482.43 

1900 

180,895.44 

369,120.36 

1901 

104,913.46 

268,644.68 

1902 

56,760.30 

155,002.73 

190S 

77,554.68 

175,104.91 

1904 

121,848.93 

235,508.24 

1905 

59,346.55 

162,779.57 

1906 

86,461.29 

270,553.68 

1907 

116,073.24 

870,407.24 

1908 

185,205.97 

1,868,301.48 

1909 

125,782.43 

1,136,897.18 

1910 

77,917.94 

328.469.37 

1911 

55,041.34 

129,112.74 

tab  .  . 

.  .  l,489,069.28t 

$7,603,315.89 

^ThiB  weight  represents  only  $88,152  of  the  total  value  for  the  year  1895;  for  part  of 
1895,  and  for  1896  and  1897,  there  was  only  an  ad  valorem  duty. 
fThe  actual  total  weight  might  be  placed  at  about  1,800,000  pounds. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       455 


Total  imports  of  animal 
1896  to  1910  inclusive: 


ivory  into  Great  Britain  from 


AVKHAOB  VALUE 

TSAB 

WEIOHT  IN  POUNDS 

VALUE  IN   DOLLARS 

PER  POUND 

1896 

1,091,100 

$  2,226,804 

$2.04 

1897 

1,028,800 

2,048,863 

1.99 

1898 

1,000,200 

1,990,838 

1.99 

1899 

993,900 

1,959,499 

1.96 

1900 

988,900 

1,933,334 

1.95 

1901 

882,500 

1,628,160 

1.84 

1902 

1,082,100 

1,931,332 

1.78 

1903 

924,100 

1,648,438 

1.78 

1904 

904,500 

1,754,293 

1.94 

1905 

1,055,000 

2,058,469 

1.95 

1906 

985,500 

1,978,042 

2.01 

1907 

1,078,700 

2,718,693 

2.52 

1908 

934,500 

2,094,700 

2.24 

1909 

1,155,500 

2,590,215 

2.24 

1910 

1,120,000 

2,397,833 

2.14 

ToUls 

15,225,300 

$30,959,513 

$2.03 

Weight  in  pounds  and  source  of  animal  ivory  imported 
into  Great  Britain : 


1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Germany  .... 

73,300 

93,100 

125,500 

149,300 

88,200 

German  West  Africa  . 

62,000 

45,400 

34,400 

17,900 

12,800 

Netherlands  . 

800 

300 

4,600 

4,000 

Belgium 

222,900 

262,000 

195,400 

315,300 

314,200 

France       .... 

63,200 

50,400 

41,100 

36,900 

23,000 

French  West  Africa 

47,000 

41,100 

36,900 

23,000 

29,700 

Portuguese  West  Africa 

3,500 

1,000 

800 

900 

400 

Portuguese  East  Africa 

12,700 

9,200 

14,600 

25,300 

27,100 

Egypt        .... 

144,700 

187,900 

144,800 

177,600 

199,400 

Tripoli       .... 

8,700 

20,300 

17,300 

12,300 

28,300 

Congo  Free  State 

12,300 

15,000 

36,000 

9,900 

30,100 

United  States  of  Amer- 

ica      

152,800 

79.000 

68,500 

101,400 

99,800 

Other  foreign  countries 

12,700 

13,100 

27,500 

28,400 

16,500 

Total    from    foreign 

countries 

815,800 

818,300  743,200 

921,800 

888,800 

1000 

1007 

1008 

1000 

1010 

815,800 

818.800 

743.200 

921,800 

888,800 

19.700 

16.900 

9.000 

11,600 

16,900 

5,100 

1,400 

2.500 

8,500 

1.100 

8.700 

S,600 

2.700 

5,600 

2,000 

2,800 

1.100 

1,800 

2,200 

1,800 

456      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

Forward 

Maltx)  and  Gozo  . 

British  West  Africa: 
Gambia 
'Sierra  Leone 
Gold  Coast       .     . 

The  Colony  and  Pro- 
tectorate of  South- 
em  Nigeria    .      .  8,300         7,200        12,800 

Protectorate  of 
Northern  Nigeria  8,100       11,100    

British  East  Africa: 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba     26,700 
East  African  Protec- 
torate    .      .     .       31,200 

Aden  and  Dependencies  37,400 

British  India  .     .      .       24,900 

Other     British     posses- 
sions      ....       11,100 


64.700 

60,100 

91.300 

73.600 

28.100 

86,200 

26.500 

35.600 

59,200 

29,900 

37,300 

38,800 

58,100 

31.600 

43.100 

43,800 

16,200 

9.700 

5,400 

4,800 

Total     from     British 

possessions        .     169,700     260,400  191,300     233,700      231,200 

Grand  total.      .     985,500  1,078,700  934,500  1,155,500  1,120,000 

Value  in  dollars  of  animal  ivory  imported  into  Great 
Britain,  according  to  the  foreign  coimtry  or  colony  whence 
it  was  consigned : 

1906      1907      1908       1909      1910 


Germany       .     .     $157,339 

$231,389 

$236,229 

$319,276 

$159,415 

German      West 

Africa         .      .       144,574 

121.042 

80,389 

37,985 

27,102 

Netherlands  .                   815 

2,595 

888 

10,355 

7.760 

Belgimn  .                  513,475 

836,019 

558,449 

848,226 

838,434 

France     .     .            136,528 

84,240 

84.065 

121,017 

66,566 

French  West  Africa   107,112 

104,523 

93,649 

54,626 

51,221 

Portuguese   West 

Africa        .     .          7,367 

2.459 

2,071 

1,969 

1,111 

Forward      .  $1,067,210  $1,382,267  $1,055,740  $1,393,454  $1,151,609 


4,923 

6,742 

2,100 

5,209 

10,468 

4.103 

2,435 

3,953 

4,545 

THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       457 

1906      1907      1908      1909      1910 

Forward      .   $1,067,210  $1,382,267  $1,055,740  $1,393,454  $1,151,609 
Portuguese  East 

Africa         .      .         25,948  20,666  30,002  58,118  58,108 

Egypt            .      .       321,259  440,482  312,549  379,896  404,010 

Tripoli      .      .      .         19,861  50,009  35,327  26,355  53,466 

Congo  Free  State        25,181  38,330  85,384  23,474  72,284 
United  States  of 

America     .      .         49,693  24,556  25,050  28,659  32,976 
Other  foreign  coun- 
tries     .      .      .         31,865  25,768  61,794  59,141  29,726 

Total  from  for- 
eign countries  $1,541,017  $1,982,078  $1,605,841  $1,969,097  $1,802,179 

Malta  and  Gozo  37,200        39,149        19,352        23,925        35,774 

British  West  Africa: 
Gambia     .     .         10,161  2,309 

Sierra  Leone   .  4,181  7,566 

Gold  Coast     .  6,140  2,677 

The  Colony  and 
Protectorate  of 
Southern  Ni- 
geria              18,673        16,320        35,712 

Protectorate      of 
Northern      Ni- 
geria    .      .  18,546        27,466    

British  East  Africa: 
Zanzibar     and 

Pamba  64,428       187,497      147,838      241,375       181,924 

East  African  Pro- 
tectorate   .         93,149        89,318        86,582        65,684        78,444 

Aden  and  Depend- 
encies .      .      .       112,923       172,461         79,608       104,270       105,502 

British  India  68,603      171,816        99,455       139,657      141,009 

Other    British  pos- 
sessions     .      .         21,694        36,356        24,784  8,706  8,541 

Total  from  Brit- 
ish possessions   $437,025    $736,615    $488,859    $621,118    $595,654 

Grand  total  $1,978,042  $2,718,693  $2,094,700  $2,590,215  $2,397,833 


458      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


The  following  figures  give  the  trade  in  animal  ivory  to 
and  from  Great  Britain  in  1913: 


WEIGHT  IN  CWTS.  ^^^^^  ^^» 

STEBUNQ 


Imports 10,154  489,698 

Exports 7,112  414,376 

Equivalent  in  pounds  avoirdupois  and  dollars: 

POUND6  DOLLAB8 

Imports        ....                1,137,248  $2,379,931 

Exports        ....                   796,544  2,013,867 

German  ivory  imports  (free  of  duty)  for  1911,  1912: 

CLAflBinCATION  AND  SOUBCS                                  TONS,    1911  TONB,   1918 

Raw  ivory,  including  walrus  tusks: 

Total  importations 310.6  315.7 

From  Great  Britain 125.9  102.0 

From  British  India 70.3  73.8 

From  Congo 38.7  73.5 

From  Belgium 27.8  13.2 

From  Cameroon 6.8  8.2 

From  Abyssinia 1.7  6.5 

From  Austria-Hungary       ....  6.0  6.4 

Ivory  sheets  or  pieces: 

Total  importations 17.9  21.3 

From  France 2.5  4.0 

From  Great  Britain 8.9  10.3 

Ivory  in  plates  or  pieces: 

Total  importations        76.1  85.8 

From  France 13.7  11.4 

From  Great  Britain 62.6  74.2 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       459 


Exports  and  imports  of  manufactured  ivory,  etc.,  to  and 
from  Germany: 

FROM  1885  TO  1896,  inclusive* 


IMPOSTS 


KXPOBTB 


TSAB 

WBIOBT 

Kilogramt 

VALUB 

Marki 

WEIGHT 

KUogram* 

VALUE 

Mark* 

1885  . 

165,800 

3,316.000 

213.900 

4,278,000 

1886  . 

176,600 

3,532,000 

256,100 

5,122,000 

1887  .  , 

192,500 

3,850.000 

315,600 

6,312,000 

1888  .  . 

237,700 

4,754,000 

367,700 

7,354,000 

1889  .  . 

317,700 

6,354,000 

380,200 

7.604.000 

1890  .  . 

300,400 

9.012,000 

420.900 

8.418,000 

1891  . 

346,700 

10.401,000 

462,700 

9,254.000 

1892  . 

333,000 

9,990,000 

474,900 

9.498,000 

1893  . 

318,900 

9,567.000 

658,000 

13,160,000 

1894  . 

310,500 

9,315,000 

611.900 

12,238,000 

1895  .  . 

238,300 

7,149,000 

528,000 

10,560,000 

1896  . 

188,000 

4.474,000 

514,500 

15,075,000 

^Somborn,  "  Die  Elfenbeinschnitzerei,"  Heidelberg,  1800,  pp.  84-87.  See  also  note  as 
follows:  "Manufactures  of  Ivory  are  only  given  since  1885;  moreover,  these  figures  only 
offer  an  approximation,  as  they  include  manufactures  of  tortoise-shell*  mother-of-pearl* 


etc. 


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462      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


The  following  are  official  figures  of  German  exports  and 
imports  of  ivory  for  the  years  1911, 1912,  and  1913.* 


IMPOETS 


BOUBCB 

Belgium 
Belgian  Congo 
Great  Britain 
British  India 
Other  sources  . 

Totals    .     . 


1911 
WBIOHT         VALUB 

Tom         Mark* 

39 

126 

70 

48 


1912 

WBIOBT         VALUB 

Tons         Marks 


1918 

WBIGRT         TALUB 

Tons         Marks 


667,000 

029,000 

3,021,000 

1,687,000 

1,183,000 


74  1,838,000  48  1,341,000 

102  2,550,000  83  2,021,000 

74  1,845,000  67  1,870,000 

65  1,630,000  101  3,431,000 


311     7,457,000    315      7,863,000    309     8,663,000 
EXPORTS 


1911 

1918 

191S 

WBIOBT 

▼ALUB 

WBIOBT 

▼ALUB 

WBIOBT                VALUB 

Tons 

Marks 

Tons 

Marks 

Tons              Marks 

108 

1,849,000 

157 

2,230,000 

126         2,446,000 

The  ivory  trade  of  German  East  Africa  is  carried  on  both 
through  the  seaports  and  across  the  land  frontier,  the 
respective  exports  being  as  follows  from  1909  to  1913  in- 
clusive : 


CCBTOM-RODBEB  OF 

CUSTOM-HOUBBB  OF 

COABT 

FBONTIBB 

INLAND  FBONTIBB 

TOTALA 

WKIOHT 

VALUB 

WBIOBT 

VALUB 

WBIOBT 

VALUB 

KUogranu 

Marks 

Kilograms 

Marks 

KUofframs 

Marks 

1909 

87,910 

960,085 

3,224 

66,309 

41,134 

1,026,394 

1910 

84,124 

703,408 

2,121 

39,686 

36,245 

743,004 

1911 

28,566 

444,611 

2,227 

40,799 

25,793 

485,410 

1912 

14,575 

305,739 

2,384 

55,576 

16,959 

361,315 

191S 

8,918 

186,337 

1,909 

44,183 

10,827 

230,520 

Totals  119,093     2,600,180      11,865      246,553      130,958       2,846,738 

The  rapid  and  progressive  falling  off  in  these  exports  is 
very  noteworthy.  Owing  to  the  interruption  of  intercourse 
with  Germany  resulting  from  England's  control  of  the  seas, 

*From  the  "Deutaches  Kolonialblatt."  1910-1914. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       463 


later  figures  are  not  available  and  of  course  this  trade,  as 
far  as  Germany  is  concerned,  has  come  to  a  standstill. 

Exports  of  ivory  from  the  Congo  from  1888  to  1909,  with 
the  sources  whence  it  was  derived:* 

FROM  THE  CONGO  STATE  AND  FRENCH  CONGO 


CONGO 

STATE 

FRENCH 

CONGO 

TEAB 

WEIGHT 

VALUE 

WEIGHT 

VALUE 

Kilogram* 

Francs 

KUogranu 

Francs 

1888.    . 

54,812 

1,096,240 

18,658 

373,160 

1889 

113,532 

2,270,640 

3,601 

72,020 

1890 

180,605 

4,668,887 

6,305 

160,358 

1891 

141,775 

2,835,500 

16,661 

333,220 

1892   .   . 

186,521 

3,730,420 

4,815 

96,300 

1893   .   . 

185,933 

3,718,660 

3,142 

62,840 

1894   .   . 

252,083 

5,041,660 

7,238 

144,760 

1895   .   . 

292,232 

5,844,640 

24,381 

487,620 

1896   .   . 

191,316 

3,826,320 

50,738 

1,014,760 

1897 

245,824 

4,816,480 

53,908 

1,078,160 

1898   .   . 

215,963 

4,319,260 

84,402 

1,688,040 

1899   .   . 

291,731 

5,834,620 

78,800 

1,576,000 

1900   .   . 

262,665 

5,253,300 

118,434 

2,368,680 

1901   .   . 

249,307 

133,491 

1902   .   . 

4,986,140 

•  ••  •  •••  •  • 

2,669,820 

1903   .   . 

166,948 

3,839,804 

132,406 

1904   .   . 

3,045,338 

1905   .   . 

211,338 

4,837,774 

152,986 

3,518,678 

1906   .   . 

178,207 

4,455,175 

131,424 

3,285,600 

1907   .   . 

203,583 

6,414,900 

143,355 

4,517,116 

1908   .   . 

228,757 

5,936,244 

138,345 

3,590,052 

1909   .   . 

243,823 

6,583,221 

135,237 

3,651,399 

Perhaps,  in  the  interest  of  the  ivory  trade,  the  partial 
check  upon  ivory  exports  in  some  parts  of  Africa  and  their 
total  cessation  in  others,  is  no  unmixed  evil,  for  this  state  of 
things  operates  automatically  to  check  the  destruction  of 
the  elephants  even  more  effectively  than  do  the  special  laws 
and  regulations  enacted  for  this  purpose  in  the  elephant 
regions  of  Africa. 

*From  Bulletixis  officieb  de  Vtut  Indfpendant  du  Congo,  Bnizelles,  1888-1008. 


464      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


FROM  PORTUGUESE  CONGO  AND  GERMAN  CONGO 


TBAR 


1888 

1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 


POBTUOUBU 
WEIGBT 

Kilograma 

28,276 
9,284 
9,412 
7,469 
3,205 
1,287 
1,192 

101 

464 

477 

254 

103 

117 


160 


CONGO 
▼ALUB 

Franeg 

565,520 

185,680 

241,606 

149,380 

64,100 

25,740 

23,840 

2,020 

9,280 

9,540 

5,080 

2,060 

2,340 

3,200 


OEBMAN  CONGO 
WEIGHT         VALUE 

KUogranu  Franu 


54 

7,139 

15,951 

12,516 


1,080 
142,780 
319,020 

250,320 


21 

483 

13,155 

302,565 

40 

920 

5,215 

120,773 

74 

1,850 

4,314 

107,850 

S69 

11,627 

2,853 

89,898 

411 

10,665 

2,834 

60.567 

405 

10,935 

4,031 

108,837 

EXPORT  OF  IVORY  FROM  THE  BELGIAN  CONGO  ALONE. 

FOR  THE  YEARS  1910-1913 


IN    KILOGRAMS 


1910 236,822 

1911 226,433 


1912 233,675 

1913 274,495 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       465 


Imports  of  Congo  ivory  into  Great  Britain  from  1870  to 
1895,  in  tons:* 


TONS 

1870 667i 

1871 664i 

1872 586i 

1873 632J 

1874 610i 

1875 680i 

1876 568J 

1877 626i 

1878 627J 

1879 444i 

1880 456i 

1881 540 

1882 425i 


TONS 

1883 586^ 

1884 468 

1885 442 

1886 400 

1887 419 

1888 508 

1889 400 

1890 444 

1891 436 

1892 430 

1893 339^ 

1894 395i 

1895 376} 


Imports  and  sales  of  ivory  in  Antwerp  from  1888  to  1913 
(kilograms)  and  average  price  realized  per  kilogram  if 


1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 


IMPOBTATIONB 

6,400 

46,600 

77,500 

59,500 

118,000 

224,000 

264,500 

362,000 

200,000 

265,000 

231,000 

328,000 

333,000 

327,200 


**'  La  Belgique  Coloniale/*  2d  Ann^e,  p.  9, 1896. 

tRoyaume  de  Belgique.  MinisUre  des  Colonies, 
1,  January  1914,  pp.  44-47. 


SALES 

ATERAOB  PRICE 

Francs 

6,400 

24.00 

46,600 

28.24 

77,500 

25.51 

59,500 

20.02 

118,000 

18.43 

224,000 

16.00 

186,000 

15.05 

274,000 

16.40 

265,700 

15.82 

281,000 

16.95 

205,300 

18.35 

292,500 

28.24 

336,000 

17.93 

312,000 

19.41 

• 

Reaeignementa  de  TOffice  Colonial,  No 

466      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


IMPORTATIONS 

BALBB 

▲YERAOB  PBICX 
Francs 

1902        .     . 

370,000 

322,000 

20.16 

1903 

354,000 

356,000 

19.15 

1904 

293,000 

329,000 

21.54 

1905 

338,000 

339,500 

28.55 

1906        .      . 

287,000 

303,800 

27.90 

1907 

327,800 

312,400 

33.52 

1908        .      . 

347,000 

227,700 

26.40 

1909        .      . 

369,000 

337,000 

25.14 

1910        .      . 

330,000 

336,500 

24.00 

1911        .      . 

347,000 

342,413 

24.40 

1912        .      . 

341,400 

385,330 

24.26 

1913        .      . 

351,000 

454,776 

28.10 

There  has  been  a  general  decrease  in  the  average  weight 
of  the  tusks  imported  to  Antwerp.  In  1889  this  average 
was  12^  kilograms  and  in  1890  lOy^  kilograms;  but  in  1896 
the  average  had  fallen  to  6|  kilograms,  recovering  somewhat 
from  this  low  point  to  9  kilograms  in  1900  and  8|  kilograms 
in  1901.* 

Although  this  necessitates  a  repetition  of  the  figures  for 
the  Antwerp  sales,  we  give  here  the  sales  from  1886  at  the 
three  European  ivory  marts,  Antwerp,  London,  and  Liver- 
pool, so  as  to  exhibit  in  a  graphic  way  the  passage  of  the 
primacy  in  this  trade  from  London  to  Antwerp.  What 
the  further  development  may  be  when  the  port  of  Antwerp 
is  again  opened  to  the  world's  commerce  it  would  not  be 
easy  to  predict  with  any  certainty,  but  trade  routes  are  not 
often  completely  and  radically  changed  in  accord  with 
temporary  political  vicissitudes.  This  is  the  lesson  taught 
us  by  history,  both  ancient  and  modem,  many  of  the 
Asiatic  and  African  trade  routes  having  been  used  for 
commercial  intercourse  from  the  very  dawn  of  history; 
indeed,  the  use  of  some  of  them  must  considerably  ante- 
date our  oldest  historic  records. 

*H.  Jacob  de  Cordemoy,  "Lcs  products  coloniaux  d*origme  animale,**  Pkris,  lOOS,  p.  fOl. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       467 


Total  weight  in  kilograms  of  ivory  sold  at  Antwerp,  Lon- 
don, and  Liverpool  from  1886  to  1913. 


ANTWERP 


1886  . 

1887  . 

1888  . 

6,400 

1889  . 

46,600 

1890 

77^00 

1891 

59,500 

1892 

118,000 

1893  . 

224,000 

1894  . 

186,000 

1895 

274,000 

1896 

265,700 

1897  . 

281,000 

1898  . 

205.300 

1899  . 

292,500 

1900  . 

336,000 

1901  . 

312,000 

1902  . 

322,000 

1903  . 

356,000 

1904  . 

329,000 

1905  . 

339,500 

1906  . 

303,800 

1907 

312,400 

1908 

227,700 

1909  . 

377,000 

1910  . 

336,500 

1911 

342,413 

1912  . 

385,330 

1913 

454,776 

LONDON 

340,000 
330,000 
373,000 
301,000 
357,000 
421,000 
396,900 
359,000 
376,000 
344,000 
284,000 
278,000 
300,000 
267,000 
320,000 
288,000 
269,000 
224,000 
212,000 
245,500 
208,500 
241,000 
214,000 
310,000 
257,500 
276,000 
245,000 
236,250 


UVERPOOL 

75,000 
99,000 
105,000 
71,000 
73,000 
65,000 
60,000 
69,000 
60,000 
47,000 
56,000 
50,000 
55,000 
38,000 
32,000 
41,000 
39,000 
41,000 
40,000 
33,500 
37,250 
22,000 
28,500 
24,000 
19,250 
13,750 
15,250 
12,250 


468      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


The  sources  and  grades  of  the  ivory  imported  at  Antwerp 
during  1899,  1900,  and  1901,  were  as  follows:* 


1899 

1900 

1901 

SOURCES  AND  GBADB8 

Kiloframi 

Kilogntwu 

KHognm* 

Congo  (Hard 

• 

207,355 

287,607 

222,745 

(Soft 

• 

1«,571 

12,427 

15,895 

Angola  (Ambriz 

• 

8,708 

6,850i 

(Soft  Benguela 

285 

593 

Senegal 

1,786 

1,269 

4,107 

Gabon 

12,822 

11,982 

18,72U 

Abyssinia 

886 

9,727 

2,244 

Mozambique 

1,046 

8,040 

Cameroons 

2,968 

10,681 

16,459 

Zanzibar 

964 

852 

75 

Siam 

149 

32 

Egypt     .     .      . 

1,153 

The  prices  realized  for  the  various  qualities  and  denomina- 
tions of  ivory  in  the  Antwerp  market  in  1910, 1911, 1912,  and 
1913,  were  as  follows,  the  figures  signifying  francs: 


BND  or 
1910 

FRANCS 


END  or 

1911 
FRANCS 


END  OF 

1912 
FRANCS 


END  OF 

191S 
FRANGB 


Sound  tusks   .... 
Tusks  more  or  less  de- 
fective    

Defective  tusks    . 
Very  defective  tusks 

Oversizes 

"      flat       ... 

Bangles 

light 

flat    .... 
flat  and  light 
Billiard  ball  pieces  2} 

to  3  in 

Billiard  ball  pieces  2} 
to  3  in 

*H.  Jacob  de  Cordemoy,  "Les 


26f-39i      26  -40f      27^6}       26f-S9} 


(< 


<( 


<< 


25f-34| 
£4f-£9| 
10  -29i 
27  -30} 
«7  -29i 
27i-31i 
21}-26i 
25f-29| 
18f-23^ 


27  -38} 
25  -34^ 
10  -29 

28  -32} 
28  -32} 
28  -33} 
22  -27 
26}-32} 
20}-25} 


27  -34} 
26  -37} 
8}-29 
29  -31 
26}-29} 
28}-33} 
25  -28 
26}-29} 
21}-25} 


28f42} 

27}-38} 

10}-33} 

32}-35 

30}-35 

29}-36} 

23}-28} 

27}-«4} 

23}-26} 


36}-40}      35  -39}      35}-43}       38}-47} 

25}-32        22  -26}      27  -28}       3a}-35 
products  coloniaux  d*origine  animale,"  Pkris,  190S»  p.  iO^* 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY      469 


END  or 
1910 

F&ANCB 


END  OP 

1911 
FRANCa 


END  OP 

1912 
FBANCB 


END  OF 

191S 
FRANCS 


Billiard  ball  pieces  2| 

to  3  in. 
Billiard   ball    pieces   2 

to  Sin.        ... 
Scrivelloes,  solid  . 


£4i-26        22i-^i       ^^  -25        27i-30 


20i-21i 
12  -19f 


18i-20 
14  -17 


18}-21 
12  -16 


23  -26i 
15i-18i 


« 


« 


hollow,  heavy    14^-17^       12i-15j       13  -17}       16  -19} 
light  .      .      .       7i-12i       10  -12}       llJ-14         12  -15 J 


The  value  per  hundredweight  (112  lbs.)  of  sound,  fresh 
mammoth  ivory  in  the  London  market  is  stated  to  have 
ranged,  not  long  ago,  all  the  way  from  20  shillings  to  £15  or 
even  £30  for  exceptionally  fine  tusks.  For  the  past  year, 
of  course,  there  have  been  no  shipments  of  this  ivory  re- 
ceived in  England.  Even  the  highest  of  the  prices  noted 
is  very  considerably  lower  than  those  conunanded  by  ivory 
from  the  living  African  elephants. 

Since  1906  ivory  has  been  exported  from  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  in  annually  increasing  quantities,  the 
increase  in  the  six  years  from  1906  to  1912  being  very 
marked;  in  the  first-named  year  only  20,354  kilos  were  ex- 
ported, but  in  1912  the  weight  of  the  exported  ivory  was 
106,755  kilos.  This  would  indicate  the  killing  of  4,000 
elephants  in  the  latter  year  (although  of  course  part  of  the 
ivory  may  have  come  from  animals  that  died  a  natural 
death),  if  we  figure  on  the  ascertained  average  of  about  13 J 
kilos  for  each  tusk.  The  provinces  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and 
Mongalla  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  supply,  the  bal- 
ance coming  from  the  region  of  the  Sobat  and  its  tribu- 
taries and  the  Bahr-el-Arab  country.  The  centres  for 
ivory  trade  are  Khartoum  and  Omdurman,  and  most  of  the 
product  finds  its  way  to  the  London  market.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  destination  of  the  Sudan  ivory  for  1912 


470      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


and  the  quantities  exported  to  each  of  the  various  coun- 
tries :* 

Austria 
Belgium 
Egypt 
Eritrea  . 
France 
Great  Britain 
Germany 
United  States 
Other  countries 


Totals 


WnOBT 

YAixm 

Kilogratu 

Poundt  E/fptim 

965 

261 

625 

518 

857 

193 

874 

217 

63 

68 

87,200 

75,670 

182 

178 

16,249 

16,260 

1,440 

1,105 

106,755 


M,465 


The  value  of  the  ivory  exported  from  various  parts  of 
West  Africa  in  1912  is  given  as  follows: 

French  Guinea        $  S0,42S 

Togoland 8,555 

Cameroons 127,614 

Gambia        827 

Only  a  very  small  quantity  is  exported  at  present  from 
Sierra  Leone.f 

The  import  and  export  movement  in  the  Indian  ivory  trade, 
as  given  for  1904-5,  shows  that  while  the  value  of  the  ivory 
imported  was  7,439,671  rupees  ($2,478,890),  the  exports  of 
ivory  and  of  manufactures  thereof  totalled  but  585,984 
rupees  ($195,311);  the  manufactured  product  probably 
represented  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  whole  valued 

While  in  the  first  two  ivory  sales  in  the  London  market 
in  1914  prices  were  practically  imchanged,  the  financial 
distrust  due  to  expectation  of  war  made  itself  felt  at  the 
July  sales,  causing  a  general  decline,  except  in  the  case  of 

^Communicated  by  Capt.  Gilbert  Clayton,  Sudan  Agent,  War  Office,  Cairo,  Egypt 
f  Communicated  by  U.  S.  Consul  N.  J.  Yerby,  of  Sierra  Leone,  Africa. 
tTbe  Imperial  Gazeteer  of  India,  Vol.  Ill,  Oxford.  1907,  pp.  SOS.  810. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY       471 

"ball  ivory,"  which  brought  as  much  or  even  a  little  more 
than  at  the  earlier  sales.  The  regular  October  sales  were 
indefinitely  postponed,  but  many  private  transactions 
have  taken  place.  In  these,  hard  ivory  has  maintained 
its  price,  but  the  less  valuable  qualities,  such  for  instance 
as  the  grades  known  in  the  trade  as  "soft  scrivelloes"  and 
"cut  hollows,*'  have  found  little  demand.  It  is  noteworthy, 
however,  that  in  general  the  dealings  in  ivory  have  been 
less  seriously  interfered  with  than  those  in  most  other 
articles  of  luxury.  The  supplies  of  Egyptian  and  West 
Coast  African  ivory  have  been  larger  in  1914  than  in  1913. 
But  few  walrus  tusks  have  been  received,  the  demand 
being  slack  and  the  prices  lower;  a  limited  quantity  of 
boars'  tusks  was  disposed  of  at  unchanged  prices.  The 
stock  of  ivory  on  hand  in  London  at  the  close  of  1914  was 
188  tons,  against  105  tons  at  the  end  of  1913,  this  notable 
increase  being  due  to  the  transfer  from  Antwerp  of  a  large 
quantity  of  Congo  ivory.* 

IMPORTS  OF  IVORY  INTO  GREAT  BRITAIN,  1912,  1913 


1912  CWT8. 

1913  CWTB. 

1912  VALUE 

1913  VALUI 

Ivory,  Animal 

Germany 

756 

487 

£  27,131 

£  15,833 

German  West  Africa 

139 

87 

1,769 

4,183 

Netherlands    . 

13 

3 

659 

152 

Belgium    .... 

3,4£8 

3,314 

200,022 

196,128 

France       .... 

203 

279 

8,978 

11,972 

French  West  Africa 

158 

138 

7,322 

6,407 

Portuguese  East  Africa 

213 

159 

9,111 

6,969 

Egypt  .     . 

2,452 

2,456 

120,301 

124,481 

Tripoli       .... 

3 

125 

Congo  Free  State 

103 

263 

5,265 

13,349 

U.  S.  of  America 

978 

1,032 

5,361 

5,964 

Other  foreign  countries 

311 

200 

12,184 

8,938 

Total     from    foreign 

countries 

8,754 

8,421 

£398,103 

£394,501 

*Measni.  Hale  &  Sons*  Annual  Ivory  Report  for  1914. 

472      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


1918  own. 

191S  CWTB.      1912  VALUE 

1918  VALVI 

Malta  and  Grozo  . 

8 

1 

£      337 

£        60 

British  West  Africa: 

Gambia     .... 

14 

10 

347 

297 

Sierra  Leone 

46 

29 

1,283 

1,350 

Gold  Coast 

20 

25 

855 

1,126 

The  Colony  and  Pro- 

tectorate of  South- 

ern Nigeria   . 

139 

190 

6,473 

10,659 

British  East  Africa: 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba 

617 

523 

31,312 

27,767 

East  Africa  Protecto- 

rate   

289 

307 

14,647 

15,883 

Aden    and    Dependen- 

cies 

S66 

239 

17,449 

17,733 

British  India  . 

582 

237 

27,099 

11,980 

Other    British    posses- 

sions     .... 

114 

172 

6,134 

8,342 

Total    from    British 

possessions 

2,195 

1,733 

£105,936 

£  95,197 

IvoRT,  Vegetable 

Germany  .... 

7,144 

5,829 

£    8,618 

£     8,315 

Colombia  .... 

1,368 

4,441 

1,589 

6,348 

Ek;uador    .... 

7,079 

36,915 

7,868 

51,969 

Other     foreign     coun- 

tries      .... 

18,514 

24,277 

18,500 

23,624 

Total    from    foreign 

countries 

34,105 

71,462 

£  36,575 

£  90,256 

Total    from    British 

possessions    . 

3,216 

2,350 

3,088 

2,251 

Totals    .      .      .     Cwts.  37,321         73,812        £  39,663      £92,507 

FOR  THE  YEAR  1914 

IvoRT,  ANiBfAL  9,739  cwts,  value  £456,493. 

For  the  four  months  ended  April  30, 1915. 
2,866  cwts.,  value  £137,743. 


-,' 


J. 


THE    COMMERCE    OF    IVORY      473 


EXPORTS  OF  IVORY 


1912  CWTB. 

1913  CWTB. 

1912  VALUB 

1913  VALUI 

Ivory,  Animal 

Germany 

2,447 

1,956 

£134,803 

£120,100 

France      .... 

1,470 

1,449 

81,601 

96,581 

U.  S.  of  America 

1,576 

1,958 

89,961 

110,007 

Other  foreign  countries 

296 

218 

14,440 

10,227 

Total  to  foreign  coun- 
tries       .     .     .  5,789 

British  India  .     .     .  1,576 

Other     British  posses- 
sions     ....  65 


Total  to  British  pos- 
sessions   .  Cwts.  1,641 


5,581         £320,805      £336,915 
1,473        £  77,742      £  74,678 


58 


3,907 


2,783 


1,531        £  81»649      £  77,461 


Ivory,  Vegetable 

Germany              .     .  12,057 

Italy 4,278 

Other  foreign  countries  4,445 

Total  to  foreign  coun- 
tries  ....         20,780 

Total  to  British  pos- 
sessions   .  328 


Total 


41,414        £  12,516      £  54,367 
2,653  5,036  3,341 

3,348  4,656  3,147 


148 


47,415         £  22,208      £  60,855 


21,108         47,415         £  22,356      £  60,855 


IvoBYy  Animal 


FOR  THE  YEAR  1914 

4,772  cwts.,  value  £292,754. 

For  the  four  months  ended  April  30,  1915. 
1,301  cwts.,  value  £68,079. 


ADDENDA 

A  MODERN   TALISMAN 

A  CURIOUS  modem  talisman  is  a  splendid  specimen  of 
artistic  jewellery  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salon;  this  talisman 
deveriy  combines  artistic  merit  with  a  dash  of  African  magic. 
It  is  a  slender  bracelet  composed  of  interlaced  spirals  of 
oxidized  silver  and  gold;  aroimd  the  circlet  is  twined  a 
hair  taken  from  an  elephant.  Among  the  tribesmen  of  the 
Sudan  the  hairs  of  this  animal  are  believed  to  be  endowed 
with  great  talismanic  virtue;  indeed,  they  enjoyed  a  simi- 
lar repute  among  the  ancient  Romans.  Whether  this  belief 
was  due  to  the  idea  that  the  wearer  of  the  hair  was  assured 
a  mighty  protection,  typified  by  the  enormous  strength 
of  the  elephant,  or  whether  to  the  fact  that  the  elephant 
was  with  some  peoples  a  divine  symbol,  we  cannot  easily 
determine.* 

FOSSIL  TUSKS 

The  writer,  on  closely  examining  some  of  the  fossil  tusks 
from  the  Lena  River,  Siberia,  found  what  was  evidently  a  min- 
eral resulting  from  a  decomposition  of  the  mammoth  tusks 
in  the  form  of  deposits  of  a  whitish  crystalline  substance. 
When  tested  by  Prof.  William  E.  Ford,  of  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School,  Yale  University,  this  was  pronounced  to 
be  struvite,  a  hydrous  phosphate  of  ammonium  and  mag- 

*Geor^  Frederick  Kimc,  "The  Magic  of  Jewels  and  Channa."  Philadelphia  and  Lon- 
don, 1915,  p.  375. 

474 


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ADDENDA  475 

nesium.  The  material  was  easily  fusible,  with  faint  green 
flame,  and  is  readily  soluble  in  acids.  It  gives  the  charac- 
teristic reaction  for  phosphoric  acid,  and  also  gives  a  test 
for  magnesium.  In  the  closed  tube  it  secretes  abundant 
water  and  emits  a  distinct  odour  of  ammonia. 

THE    CHARACTERISTICS    OF   IVORY   ARE   AFFECTED   BY    THE 

HABITAT   OF   THE   ELEPHANT 

The  ivory  from  elephants  of  the  Northeastern  Uele  in  the 
Congo,  which  roam  over  a  region  of  dry  brush,  or  of  thinly 
wooded  valleys,  where  plenty  of  food  is  to  be  had,  is  more 
massive  and  less  hollow  than  that  from  the  elephants  of  the 
forests.  Here,  where  the  food  is  more  succulent,  the  ivory 
is,  as  a  rule,  more  hollow  and  less  dense,  and  the  nerve  only 
traverses  about  a  third  of  the  length  of  the  tusk.  Elephants 
having  tusks,  each  of  which  weighs  from  50  to  100  lbs.,  are 
fairly  common  near  Faradje,  Dungi,  Gombari,  Vankerck- 
hovenville,  and  Aba  in  the  Congo.* 

MASTODON   OR   MAMMOTH   REMAINS 

An  early  notice  of  the  finding  of  mastodon  or  mammoth 
remains  in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  appears  in  the  writings  of  Thomas  Jeflferson.  The 
following  extract  shows  that  the  Indians  of  this  time,  about 
1782,  rivalled  the  Alaskan  Indians  of  our  day  in  their  ability 
to  invent  a  description  of  living  mammoths.  Jeflferson 
writes  if 

"It  is  well  known  that  on  the  Ohio,  and  in  many  parts 
of  America  farther  North,  tusks,  grinders,  and  skeletons  of 
unparalleled  magnitude  are  found  in  great  numbers,  some 
lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  some  a  little  below  it. 

^Communicated  by  Bir.  Herbert  Lang,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Expedition  to  the  Congo. 

t"  Notes  on  the  SUte  of  Virginia/*  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  Philadelphia.  1788,  p.  41. 


476      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

A  Mr.  Stanley,  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tanissee,  relates  that  after  being  transferred 
through  several  tribes,  from  one  to  another,  he  was  at 
length  carried  over  the  mountains  west  of  the  Missouri  to  a 
river  which  runs  westwardly;  that  these  bones  aboimded 
there;  and  that  the  natives  described  to  him  the  animal  to 
which  they  belonged  as  still  existing  in  the  northern  parts  of 
their  country;  from  which  description  he  judged  it  to  be 
an  elephant.  Bones  of  the  same  kind  have  been  foimd, 
some  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  salines  on  the 
North  Holston,  a  branch  of  the  Tanissee,  about  the  latitude 
of  36j®  North.  From  the  accounts  published  in  Europe,  I 
suppose  these  are  of  the  same  kind  with  those  from  Siberia." 

PRIVATE  COLLECTIONS  OP  IVORIES 

There  are  in  the  United  States  many  privately  owned 
ivory  collections.  The  finest  of  these  belongs  to  Henry 
Walters,  of  Baltimore,  and  forms  part  of  his  splendid  mu- 
seum on  Mt.  Vernon  Square,  one  of  the  most  complete  on 
the  American  continent.  Here  are  shown  authentic  and 
characteristic  works  of  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  Byzan- 
tine, Carolingian,  Early  French,  Early  German,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  workmanship,  as  well  as  some  of  the  later  specimens 
of  French  work,  including  the  finest  examples  of  Moreau- 
Vauthier,  the  greatest  modem  ivory  carver.  There  are 
also  notable  specimens  from  Japan,  China,  Siberia,  and 
other  Asiatic  lands. 

One  who  has  principally  devoted  attention  to  collecting 
ivories  from  the  Congo,  or  made  of  Congo  ivory,  is  Thomas 
F.  Ryan,  of  New  York,  whose  efforts  were  favoured  by 
friendly  relations  with  the  late  King  Leopold  H.  A  master- 
piece of  Belgian  art  is  a  crucifix  in  which  the  cross  measures 
36  in.  in  length,  while  the  figure  of  the  Crucified  is  24  in.  high. 

In  the  collection  of  T.  S.  Van  Volkenburgh  are  wonder- 


ADDENDA  477 

fully  executed  small  ivories  by  Okawa  and  other  Japanese 
carvers,  mounted  on  specially  designed  ivory  bases.  Mal- 
colm MacMartin's  collection  offers  100  examples,  each  a 
gem  in  itself.  Kenyon  B.  Painter,  of  Cleveland,  in  his 
Trophy  Hall  has  many  choice  ivories  from  Zanzibar,  British 
East  Africa,  southern  China,  and  Hong  Kong.  Perhaps  the 
largest  collection  of  ivories  in  the  United  States  is  owned 
by  H.  J.  Heinz,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa. ;  many  of  these  are  exhib- 
ited in  the  Carnegie  Museum  in  Pittsburgh. 

The  very  extensive  collection  of  the  late  George  A.  Hearn, 
which  was  shown  in  191 1  at  the  Lotos  Club  in  New  York  City, 
comprises  nearly  700  pieces,  all  being  examples  of  European 
ivory  carving.  The  Alfred  Duane  Pell  Collection  contains 
some  of  the  most  delicately  carved  fans  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  with  the  monogram  in  the  centre  and  the  ivory 
cut  as  thin  as  the  finest  lace.  Among  other  things  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  sets  of  chessmen  on  this  continent. 

THE  ANNUAL  ELEPHANT   HUNT   IN   QIAM 

The  annual  elephant  hunt  at  Ayuthia,  Siam,  is  made  an 
official  event  of  considerable  importance,  for  the  King  is 
usually  present,  and  if  not,  a  royal  representative  is  there, 
and  the  presence  of  the  fashionable  world  of  the  capital, 
Bangkok,  makes  the  occasion  a  great  social  function.  The 
wild  elephants  are  driven,  by  a  cordon  of  tamed  ones,  from 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  Korat  and  the  meadowland  around 
Nakawn  Nayok,  into  a  corral  especially  built  outside  the 
city.  As  a  rule  the  poor  beasts  have  been  so  harried  in  the 
long  drive  that  they  are  only  anxious  to  have  rest  and  peace. 
A  little  trouble  is  experienced  in  getting  the  first  elephant 
into  the  enclosure,  but  when  this  has  been  accomplished, 
the  others  are  ready  enough  to  follow,  although  the  huge 
animals  crowd  and  push  against  each  other  in  the  confusion. 
It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  the  young  are  not  trampled 


478       IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 

on;  indeed,  the  very  small  ones  trot  along  beneath  their 
mothers'  bodies  and  so  are  out  of  harm's  way.* 

THE   SALE  OF   ELEPHANTS 

The  great  dealer  in  wild  animals,  Carl  Hagenbeck,  of 
Stellingen,  near  Hamburg,  Germany,  estimates  that  since 
the  founding  of  his  business  he  has  sold  more  than  5,000 
elephants,  both  of  the  African  types  and  of  the  Asiatic  ones.f 
An  interesting  fact  communicated  by  him  is  that,  some- 
where on  the  western  battle  front  in  France,  a  large  Bur- 
mese elephant,  widely  known  in  Germany  as  "Jenny,"  is 
employed  in  connection  with  the  military  operations,  pre- 
sumably for  traction. 

EXTINCT   ELEPHANTS 

The  tallest  of  the  extinct  elephants  appears  to  have  been 
straight-tusked  Elephas  antiquv^  of  Europe,  its  height  being 
estimated  by  Pohlig  and  Pilgrim  at  from  15  ft.  to  16  ft., 
while  the  height  of  the  tallest  specimen  of  the  North  Amer- 
ican Elephas  imperator  is  a  trifle  over  13  ft.  6  in.,  and  the 
southern  European  Elephas  meridionalis  of  the  Paris  Mu- 
seum d'Histoire  Naturelle  is  only  12  ft.  6f  in.  in  height. 
Elephas  columbi  of  North  America  seems  to  have  been  con- 
siderably shorter,  its  height  ranging  from  9  ft.  to  11  ft.,  the 
latter  measurement  being  three  or  four  inches  less  than  that 
of  the  tallest  examples  of  the  living  African  species.  As  to 
the  mounted  museum  specimens.  Prof.  Henry  Fairfield  Os- 
bom  calk  attention  to  the  fact  that,  in  most  cases,  the 
tips  of  the  dorsal  spines  have  been  unduly  raised  above  the 
superior  spine  of  the  scapula,  leading  to  an  exaggerated 
estimate  of  the  true  height  of  the  elephant.  J 

♦H.  Warington  Smith,  "Five  Years  in  Siam/*  London,  ISW,  pp.  58,  59, 

t  Personal  communication  from  Carl  Hagenbeck,  November  1,  1915. 

I  Henry  Fairfield  Osbom,  "Review  of  the  Pleistocene  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern 

Africa";  Annals  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  215-315. 1915. 

See  pp.  262,  263. 


ADDENDA  479 

EXCEPTIONALLY    FINE    EXAMPLE    OF    TETRABELODON 

FROM  NEBRASKA*^ 

In  June,  1915,  a  remarkably  well-preserved  skeleton  of 
Tetrabelodon  was  found  in  Boyd  County,  Nebraska.  The 
inferior  tusks,  with  their  backing  of  jaw,  are  longer  than 
the  upj>er  ones,  the  part  protruding  beyond  the  bone  being 
nearly  as  long.  This  development  of  lower  tusks  seems 
plainly  to  have  resulted  from  their  progressive  use,  as  a 
kind  of  scoop-shovel,  to  tear  up  roots,  bulbs,  and  aquatic 
plants,  thus  developing,  in  successive  generations,  the  lower 
jaw  at  the  expense  of  the  upper  one.  The  skeleton  is  prac- 
tically complete,  and  many  of  the  bones  are  without  a 
scratch. 

CHINESE   IVORIES   IN   SAN   FRANCISCO's   CHINATOWN 

The  technical  skill  of  Chinese  ivory  carvers  is  still  very 
notable  in  our  day.  A  great  variety  of  objects  in  carved 
ivory  are  exported  from  China  to  San  Francisco,  and  are 
to  be  had  in  the  Chinese  shops  of  the  quarter  known  as 
Chinatown.  As  many  as  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  of  such 
objects  may  be  seen  in  any  one  of  the  dozens  of  shops  in  this 
district  of  the  city.  These  ivory  carvings  comprise  round, 
oval,  and  square  frames,  the  so-called  "  magic  balls,'*  one 
within  the  other,  boxes,  combs,  paper  cutters,  engraved 
tusks,  and  an  endless  variety  of  other  small  and  dainty 
things. 

FOSSIL  DEPOSITS  AT   RANCHO   LA   BREA 
See  pages  S57-S59,  412 

The  deposits  of  La  Brea  begin  at  Wilshire  Boulevard  and 
extend  eastward  for  a  distance  of  about  1,200  feet.  The 
seam  is  not  over  from  one  to  two  acres  in  width  and  there 
are  only  occasional  patches  of  deposits  and  not  a  solid  mass 
of  animal  remains. 

Communicated  by  Dr.  Erwin  H.  Barbour. 


480        IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

Recent  investigation  serves  to  prove  that  this  region  was 
underlaid  with  deposits  of  petroleum  and  soft  asphaltum, 
and  that  these  deposits  were  liberated  through  the  natural 
opening  up  of  earth  cracks  by  earthquakes,  or  by  pres- 
sure of  the  material  below;  these  fissures  became  filled  with 
soft  asphaltum.  Especially  during  the  Pleistocene  period 
such  breaks  appear  to  have  been  frequent,  and  the  animals 
passing  over  this  ground  would  become  entangled  in  the  mass 
of  soft  material.  As  asphaltum  is  an  excellent  preservative, 
the  bones  have  been  preserved  remarkably  well  up  to  the 
present  time,  as  well  as  were  the  human  and  animal  mummies 
of  ancient  Egypt. 

ELEPHANT   HUNTING   IN   THE   SUDAN 

See  page  208 

In  the  Sudan  the  natives  are  allowed  to  kill  elephants  in 
the  district  in  which  they  have  been  bom  and  have  perma- 
nently resided.  This  is  a  kind  of  official  acknowledgment  of 
their  claim  that  the  particular  district  belongs  to  those  bom 
there.  If,  however,  a  native  hunter  goes  outside  of  his 
own  province  to  kill  elephants,  he  has  to  pay  the  usual 
price  of  £50  for  a  permit  authorizing  the  killing  of  but  two 
elephants,  and  only  in  case  the  tusks  of  the  animals  killed 
are  exceptionally  heavy  will  the  cost  of  the  permit  be  thereby 
defrayed,  leaving  perhaps  a  little  profit.  The  sporting  pro- 
clivities of  British  Government  employes  in  the  Sudan  are 
rather  discouraged  by  the  administration,  for  when  an  em- 
ploye asks  for  a  vacation  and,  in  answer  to  the  question 
where  he  wishes  to  go,  replies  that  his  destination  is  the 
South,  he  is  told  that  the  southern  climate  there  is  too  hot 
and  unhealthy  to  benefit  him,  and  that  his  holiday  would  do 
him  no  good  unless  he  went  to  the  North,  where,  however, 
there  is  little  game  to  be  found. 

One  method  of  hunting  used  by  the  natives  is  to  set  fire 


ADDENDA  481 

to  the  grass  after  having  surrounded  an  elephant.  Every 
effort  of  the  frightened  animal  to  escape  is  frustrated  by 
the  encircling  hunters  and  finally  the  elephant  is  burnt  to 
death.  This  method  of  hunting,  apart  from  its  cruelty,  is 
very  unprofitable,  for  the  flesh  of  the  animal  is  destroyed 
and  the  precious  tusks  become  discolored  by  the  fire  and 
lose  much  of  their  value. 

THE    DANISH    CORONATION    SEAT    IN    ROSENBORG   CASTLE, 

COPENHAGEN,    DENMARK 
See  iUustration  facing  page  292 

The  pillars  sustaining  the  canopy  of  this  remarkable 
work  of  art  are  narwhal  tusks  of  great  length  and  beauty ; 
other  shorter  tusks  constitute  the  supports  of  the  seat  and 
of  its  arms ;  it  is  also  covered  with  plates  cut  from  the  tusks. 
Bendix  Grodtschilling  was  the  master  under  whose  direction 
the  work  was  produced.  In  the  earliest  notices  the  Danish 
writers  always  call  the  material  "unicorn's  horn,"  rather, 
perhaps,  for  the  tradition  associated  with  the  name  than 
because  they  were  ignorant  of  its  real  character  and  source. 
An  account  published  in  1747  states  that  the  seat  was  of 
unicorn's  horn  and  ivory.  Recently  an  expert  examination 
was  made  of  the  material  at  the  instance  of  Dr.  Axel  Garboe; 
this  determined  finally  that  no  ivory  had  been  used,  nothing 
but  narwhal  tusks.  The  silver  figures,  executed  by  Fer- 
dinand Kyblish,  are  later  additions;  they  personify  certain 
of  the  virtues. 

This  royal  seat  was  first  used  at  the  coronation  of  Chris- 
tian V,  June  7,  1671.  After  the  king  had  been  crowned  and 
while  he  was  seated  on  the  chair,  or  throne.  Bishop  Johan 
Wandal  delivered  a  glowing  allocution,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  cited  King  Solomon's  gold  and  ivory  throne,  the 
like  of  which  had  never  been  made  before.  Then,  turning 
to  the  King,  he  proceeded : 


482        IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

"Your  Majesty  is  now  seated  upon  a  throne  which  in 
material  and  form  rivals  that  of  King  Solomon  and  the  like 
of  which  cannot  be  seen  in  any  other  realm." 

JAGGING   WHEELS* 

The  Old  Dartmouth  Historical  Society  in  New  Bedford, 
Mass.9  has  in  its  Museum  Section  some  150  examples  of 
"jagging  wheels"  fashioned  out  of  whale  teeth  or  walrus 
tusks  by  whalers  on  the  homeward  trip  after  their  catch  had 
been  made.  These  wheels  are  used  in  cutting  and  indenting 
pastry.  The  objects  testify  to  a  wonderful  degree  of  skill 
and  taste  on  the  part  of  these  amateur  carvers,  whose  work 
shows  in  many  cases  an  almost  mechanical  exactness  one 
would  scarcely  expect  in  view  of  the  rude  tools  employed  and 
the  often  disturbing  conditions  of  the  carvers'  floating  work- 
shop. 

The  objects  on  view  in  the  Society's  rooms  were  made  in 
the  i>eriod  between  1800  and  1860,  and  it  is  believed  that  no 
work  of  this  kind  has  been  done  for  twenty  years  or  more. 
The  handles  of  the  jaggers  show  an  astonishing  variety  of 
decorative  forms,  many  of  the  ornamental  designs  being  in 
op>enwork.  One  of  these  offers  a  trefoil,  a  diamond,  and  a 
circle  in  openwork,  while  at  the  end  is  a  five-pointed  star. 
The  solid  work,  however,  is  the  most  artistic.  In  several 
cases  graceful  snake  forms  have  been  carved;  in  one  of  these 
the  convolutions  are  partly  turned  about  the  halberd-like 
staff  of  the  handle,  the  upper  part  of  the  snake's  body 
describing  four  graceful  curves  above.  Other  forms  are:  a 
hand  as  terminal;  a  strangely  conceived  unicorn;  a  fantastic 
creature,  half  elephant,  half  dog;  a  snake  head  with  widely 
distended  jaws,  displaying  the  forked  tongue  and  deadly 
fangs.     The  excellent  photograph,  for  which  the  writer  is 

*Commiimcated  by  Mr.  Frank  Wood,  Curator  of  the  Museum  Section,  who  has  bees 
collecting  these  objects  for  the  past  twelve  years. 


t . 


I 
I 

t , 

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.'» 


ADDENDA  483 

indebted  to  Mr.  Frank  Wood  of  the  Society,  will  afford 
a  better  idea  of  the  unique  quality  of  this  work  than  any 
further  description  could  do. 

NARWHAL* 

In  general  api>earance,  the  narwhal  has  considerable  like- 
ness to  the  porpoise  or  white  whale,  but  in  spite  of  its 
greater  size  is  both  of  more  graceful  outline  and  quicker  in 
its  movements.  The  average  weight  is  from  1^  to  2  tons. 
The  length  of  the  longest  one  seen  so  far  is  stated  to  be  8  ft. 
9  in.  The  narwhal  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  waters  near 
Greenland,  and  in  Baffin's  Bay  and  the  Arctic  Bay;  that  its 
range  should  extend  to  the  Arctic  Basin  is  regarded  as  im- 
probable, since  the  requisite  supply  of  small  fish  is  lacking 
there.  This  is  the  more  significant  in  the  case  of  the  nar- 
whal because  it  needs  nourishment  several  times  a  day,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  shark,  for  instance,  which  can  live 
for  several  days  without  food.  This  also  accounts  for  the 
absence  of  the  narwhal  from  the  ocean  waters. 

The  tameness  of  these  cetaceans  is  noteworthy.  They 
travel  in  bands  and  do  not  hesitate  to  come  within  five  or 
ten  feet  of  a  boat,  displaying  no  signs  of  fear.  If  shot,  a 
narwhal  will  sink  immediately  and  cannot  be  recovered;  for 
this  reason  the  Eskimo  hunters  try  to  wound  its  respiratory 
organs  with  a  rifle-ball,  for  if  injured  in  this  way,  the  narwhal 
will  be  forced  to  keep  on  the  surface  to  breathe,  and  will  re- 
main quiet,  and  can  thus  be  easily  harpooned  and  secured. 
From  ten  to  fifteen  men  are  needed  to  haul  it  ashore,  when 
it  is  cut  up,  and  the  flesh  cached  for  use  as  human  food.  The 
first  layer  of  skin  resembles  kid-skin  but  tears  too  easily  to 
be  available.  Then  comes  from  1 J  to  2  in.  of  black  matter, 
beneath  which  is  a  layer  of  white  matter  utilized  by  the 

*These  interesting  detaib  have  been  communicated  to  the  author  by  Dr.  Henry  levers 
of  Quebec,  Canada.  The  information  was  obtained  from  a  particular  friend  of  Captain 
Bemier,  one  long  connected  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 


484        IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 

Eskimos  in  the  making  of  oil,  and  also  for  heating  and  for 
food  purposes;  it  is  said  to  have  a  very  agreeable  taste.  As 
it  has  little  consistency  it  needs  to  be  cooked  or  broiled  over 
a  very  quick  and  intense  fire  to  prevent  disintegration. 

In  recent  years  the  first  narwhal  ivory  (a  few  tusks)  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  in  1854  by  the  English  Expedition. 
The  Eskimos  state  that  on  each  of  his  ten  voyages  Admiral 
Peary  obtained  a  fairly  large  quantity  of  this  material.  In 
1908,  Captain  Bemier,  the  Canadian  North  Pole  explorer, 
took  possession  of  these  Arctic  regions  for  Canada.  He  has 
made  seven  trips  to  these  waters,  some  of  them  prior  to  1908 
and  others  subsequent  to  that  date;  he  usually  requires  a 
year  and  a  half  for  the  journey  there  and  back.  What  nar- 
whal ivory  he  has  brought  is  stated  to  have  been  disposed  of  to 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  No  narwhals  are  to  be  found 
north  of  Siberia  or  Norway,  their  principal  habitat  being  ap- 
parently confined  to  the  Canadian  Islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

In  France,  for  a  long  time,  it  was  the  custom  in  the  pro- 
vincial churches  to  place  a  narwhal  tusk  on  either  side  of  the 
altar,  running  a  gas  pii>e  through  the  hollow  part  of  the  tusk, 
so  that  the  flame  could  issue  from  the  upper  aperture,  the 
whole  giving  the  effect  of  a  gigantic  candle. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  exact  measurements  of  a  consign- 
ment of  narwhal  tusks  secured  in  the  Arctic  Circle,  north 
of  the  British  possessions: 

DIMENSIONS  OF  80  NARWHAL  IVORY  HORNS* 


"^**™                              LARGS  EKD— CEMTU                         I«»OTH  LARGE  KMD— tZNTU 

Feel        Indies  Inches             Inches  Feel  Inches        Inches                Inches 

8            5^  8^                    ei            5  S 

8          3  8                    6f           5  7 

7          8i  7i                  5|           5  6i  7i                  6i 

7          7i  7                    5J           5  « 

7          7  8                    6             5  li  5i                   4J 

7           4i  8                     5             5  6  71                   dj 

7          2  8i                  5i           5  7 

•Courtesy  of  Mr.  Henry  levers,  Quebec,  Canada. 


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485 


The  material  was  worth,  on  an  average,  $2.50  a  pound. 
The  total  weight  of  the  80  tusks  listed  was  680  pounds.  The 
heaviest  weighed  17  pounds  4  ounces  and  was  8  ft.  5J  in. 
long,  an  altogether  exceptional  length,  with  a  greatest  cir- 
cumference of  8 J  in.;  another  measured  8  ft.  3  in.  in  length, 
with  a  weight  of  14  pounds  10  ounces  and  a  greatest  circum- 
ference of  8  in.;  a  heavier  tusk,  weighing  15  pounds  14 
ounces,  or  close  to  16  pounds,  was  7  ft.  7f  in.  in  length.  A 
tusk  weighing  14|  pounds  was  but  6  ft.  long,  while  an- 


486 


IVORY  AND  THE  ELEPHANT 


other,  weighing  but  an  ounce  less,  measured  7  ft.  7  in.  in 
length.  The  average  weight  for  each  of  the  80  tusks  was 
8^  pounds  and  the  average  length  5  ft.  9  in. 

MEMORIAL  TABLETS 

As  ivory  is  such  an  enduring  material,  the  writer  sug- 
gests its  use  for  short  memorial  inscriptions,  engraved  on 
a  small,  artistically  designed  tablet,  to  be  placed  in  the  hand 
of  a  deceased  person  and  interred  with  the  body,  thus  pro- 
viding a  lasting  and  beautiful  record  of  the  identity,  birth- 
place, and  dates  of  birth  and  death. 


Th*  TsimiFfl  or  Cssab,  fbou  a  PAtHTtNO  by  Andk£  Mak- 
TiNEA.  The  Boys  Armed  with  Hammen  (InstriunenU  ol 
Sftcrifice)  Care  for  the  CandeUbu  by  Whose  Ught  the 
Roman  Heroes  Are  to  Aaceud  to  the  Capitol 

Coartay  of  Ibe  £rfuM  MhuUj 


PROBOSCIDEA  GENERA* 


DiBBLODON.    Cope,  1884. 

Fal.  Bull.    No.  90,  p.  ft;  Proc.  Am.  Phil. 

Soc.,  XXII,  pt.  1.  2-8,  Jan.,  1885. 
Type  Mastodon  ahepardi  Leidy.    Contra 

Costa  Co.,  Cal.    Last  inferior  molar. 
Two-dart-|-tooth;  enamel  bands  on  upper 

tusks. 

DiNOTHEBiUM    ( »  Deinotherium, 
preferred).    Kaup,  1829. 

Oken*s  Isis,  1829,  401-404. 

Type  Deinotherium  giparUeum,  Kaup. 

^AnioUUierium,    Falconer,     1868.      Pal. 

Mem.,  I,  416. 
Terrible+wild  beast. 

Elephab.    Linnseus,  1758. 

^stema  Naturae,  10th  ed.,  I,  83, 1758. 
lype    Elepfuu    maximus    T.inna»iii,    from 
Ceylon  [Zeylona]. 

EuBBLODON.    Barbour,  1914. 

Neb.  Univ.  Studies,  XIV.  No.  2,  p.  10. 
Tvpe  E.  morrilli,  from  Neb.  (Devil's  Gulch). 
Elongated  mandible  without  tusks;  upper 

iuSks  tcithout  enamel  bands. 
Well-tusked. 

EuELEPHAS  (Subg.  of  EUphos). 
Falconer,  1857. 

Q.  J.  G.  S.,  Lond.,  XIII,  pt.  4,  pp.  815,  817- 

818,  Nov.  1,  1857. 
W.  L.  Sdater,  Mamm.  S.  Africa,  I,  317, 

1900. 
New  name  for  EUutnodon,  Falconer,  1846, 

preoccupied.    Spp.   9:   1   living  and  8 

extinct. 
Type  Elephaa  planifroru  F.  and  C,  Siwalik. 

Well  (typical) -helephant. 

Gamphothkrixtm.    Gloger,   1841. 

Hand-u.    Hilfsbuch    Naturgesch.,    I,   pp. 
xxxii,  119,  1841.    Thonuis,  Ann.  &  Mag. 

*The9e  lists  of  genera  and  species  of  Proboscidea,  as  well  as  references  to  the  sources,  have  been  furnished 
by  Prof.  Richard  S.  Lull  of  Yale  University.  The  classification  as  here  given  is  based  on  the  literature  alone 
and  not  on  any  study  of  the  material,  and  for  that  reason  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  other  than  a  tentative 
arrangement. 

487 


Nat.  Hist.,  6th  Ser.,  XV,  191, 192,  Feb.  1, 
1805. 

Type  Mastodon  angustidens  Cuvier.  Mio- 
cene, France.  See  Gomphoiherium  Bur- 
meister,  1887. 

Bolt+wild  beast — in  allusion  to  the  conical 
tubercles  of  the  molars. 

GoMPROTHERiUM.    Burmcister,    1887. 

Handbuch  Naturgesch.,  795,  1887. 
Type    not    mentioned;    characterized    by 
tusks  in  both  jaws.    See  Oamphotherium. 

Hemimastodon.    Pilgrim,  1912. 
Pal.  Indica,  new  ser.,  IV,  Mem.  2. 

LoxoDONTA.    Cuvier,  1827. 

Zool.  Jour.,  Ill,  140,  Jan.,  1827. 

**Loxodonte,"  Cuvier,  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm, 
VI,  Livr.  LI,  pi.,  Nov.,  1825. 

^LoxodoHy  Falconer,  1857.  Q.  J.  G.  S. 
Lond.»  XIII,  pt.  4,  pp.  814-815  (pre- 
occupied). 

'^Loxo  {'disko)-don.  Pohlig,  Nova  Acta 
Acad.  Caes.  Leop.-Carol.,  LIII,  Nr.  1, 
pp.  188,  252,  1888. 

Type  Elephas  afrieanus  Blum.,  from  Africa. 

Slanting4- tooth. 

Mammut.    Blumenbach,  1799. 

Handbuch  Naturgeschichte,  6th  ed.,  p.  698. 

Type  Mammut  ohioHeum  Blumenbach 
(»  Elephas  americanus  Kerr,  1792),  based 
upon  remains  from  the  Pleistocene  of 
Ohio  River. 

Mammut:  Tartar  word  Mammantu, 
'ground  dweller"  (refers  to  Mammoth). 


«« 


Mastodon.    Cuvier,  1817. 

Ann.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.,  VIII,  270,  288,  pis. 
49-56  (1806),  1817;  R^gne  Animal,  I, 
282-283,  1817. 


488      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


*^  Magtodontum,    Blainville,    1817,    Nouv. 

Diet.  Hist.  Nat.,  IX,  «76. 
Spp.  Mastodon  giganietts  and  M.  angusUden* 

Cuvier.    Name  antedated  by  Mammut 

Blum.,  1799. 
Breast+tooth. 

Meoabelodon     (Subg.  of  Tetrabdodon), 
Barbour,  1914. 

Neb.  Geol.  Surv.,  IV,  pt.  14,  p.  «17. 
Type  Tetrabelodon  luiti  Barb. 

McERiTHERiuif.    Audrews,    1901. 

Tageblatt  des  V.  Int.  Zool.  Cong.  Berlin, 
No.  6,  4,  Aug.  16;  Geol.  Mag.,  Lond., 
Dec.  IV,  VIII.  pp.  403-406. 

IVpe  Mcmtherium  lyorm  And.,  Faydm. 

Moeris-hwild  beast. 

Palzex)mabtodon.   Andrews,  1901. 

Zoologist,  London,  4th  ser.,  V,  p.  319,  Aug. 

15,  1901. 
Type  P.  beadneili  And.,  from  Fayihn. 
Ancient+mastodon. 

Rhabdobunub.    Hay,  1914. 

Iowa  Geol.  Surv.,  XXm,  pp.  373-374. 
Type  Mastodon  mirifieus  Leidy. 

Steoodon  (Subg.  of  EUphas).  Falconer, 

1857. 

Q.  J.  G.  S.,  Lond.,  XIH,  pt.  4,  pp.  314, 318, 

Nov.  1,  1857. 
— Stego   (lopho-)don.    Pohlig,   Nova  Acta 

Acad.  Caes.  Leop.-Carol.,  LIII,  Nr.  1, 

p.  252,  1888. 
Spp.  7 :  EUphas  diftii  F.  and  C,  E.  bombi- 

jrons  F.  and  C,  E.  fganesa  F.  and  C, 

E.  insignis  F.  and  C,  from  Miocene  and 

Pliocene,  India,  etc. 
Co  ver-+- tooth. 

Tetbabelodon.    Cope,  1884. 

Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  pt.  1,  Jan., 

1885,  4-5. 
Xype  Mastodon  angustidens  Cuvier.    See 

UamphoUierium  Gloger,  1841. 
Both  upper  and  lower  tusks,  in  contrast  to 

Mastodon,  in  which  lower  incisors  are 

wanting,  or  vestigial  in  male.    Cf .  Dibdo- 

don. 
Four-hdart-h  tooth. 

Tetracaulodon.  Godman,  1830. 

Trans.  Am.  Philos.  Soc.,  n.  s..  Ill,  478-485. 
Type  Tetracaulodon  mastodontoideus,  found 

12  miles  from  Newburgh,  Orange  Co., 

N.  Y.  =  Mammut  americanum, 
FoitfH-stem+tooth  (tusk). 


Tbtralophodon.   Falconer,  1857. 

Q.  J.  G.  S.,  Lond..  XIII,  pt.  4,  pp.  312-314, 
316-317,  syn<^tic  table. 

Spp. :  15  from  Miocene  and  Pliocene:  Masto- 
don longirostris  Kaup,  M.  arvemensu  C. 
and  J.,  M.  andium  Cuvier,  M,  sitaUnsit 
Cautley,  M.  laiidens  Clift,  and  M,  peri- 
mensis  F.  and  C,  etc. 

Four+crest+tooth. 

Tbilophodon.  Falconer  and  Cautley, 

1846. 

Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalenais,  54,  1846;  Fal- 
coner, Q.  J.  G.  S.,  Lond.,  XIII,  pt.  4,  pp. 
312-314,  316-317. 

7  flpp.  from  Upper  Miocene  and  Pliocene; 
mastodon  angustidens  Cuv.,  M.  okioticut 
(Blumenbach),  M.  kumboldtii  Cuv.,  M. 
tapifoides  Cuv.,  M.  borsoni  Hayes,  M. 
nandionis  Falc,  M,  pyrenaicus  (Lartet 

Thpee-fcrest-h  tooth. 

PROBOSCIDEA  SPECIES 

M(£RITH£RIIDi£ 

McsBiTHEBnTM  GRACiLE  Andrews. 

1902  Geol.  Mag.  (4)  IX,  p.  292. 
1906  Cat.  Fayihn,  pp.  127-128. 
Middle  Eocene,  Fayiim,  Egypt. 

McEBITHEBIUlf    LTONBI    AudreWB. 

1901  TagebUtt  des  V.  Int.  Zool.  Cong. 
Berlin,  No.  6,  p.  4.  Geol.  Mag.,  Lood^ 
Dec.  IV,  Vol.  Vra,  pp.  403-406. 

1906  Cat.  FayAm,  pp.  120-126. 

Middle  and  Upper  Eocene.   Fayihn,  Egypt. 

MaaoTHEBiiTic  TBiGONODON  Aodrews. 

1904  Geol.  Mag.  (5)  I,  p.  112. 
1906  Cat.  Fayftm,  pp.  128-129. 
Upper  Eocene.    Faydm,  Egypt. 

McEBiTHEBiUM  8P.  Andrews. 

1906  Cat.  Fayilm,  p.  129. 

s?  if.  lyonsi. 

Middle  Eocene.    Fayiim,  Egypt. 

DINOTHERIIDiE 

DmOTHEBIITlf    GXGAMTEUM  Kaup. 

Oken's  Isis,  1829,  401-404,  PI.  I. 
^Dinotherium  Kaup.  Das  Thierreidi,  I, 

2^270,  1835. 
^Dinotiurium  cumeri  Kaup.  1892. 
«D.  medium  Kaup.     1833. 
sD.  ba9aricum  H.  v.  Meyer.     1883. 


PROBOSCIDEA    GENERA 


489 


aD.  proamm  Eichwald.     18S5. 

ssD.  koenigi  Kaup.     1841. 

Middle  Miocene  to  Lower  Pliocene.  Switz- 
erland, France,  Greece,  Styria,  Russia, 
Spain,  Austria-Hungary,  Germany. 

DiNOTHERIUM    GXGANTI88I1IUM 

Stefanescu. 

1892  Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  America,  m,  pp.  81-83. 
1894  Ann.  Mus.  Bucaresci,  p.  126. 
1907  Comptes  Rendus,  Intern.  Geol.  Cong. 
Mexico,  p.  417. 

DiNOTHEBniM  INDXCUM  Falconer. 

1845  Q.  J.  G.  Soc.,  Lond.,  I,  p.  361. 

Incl.    D.    peniapotamuB   Lydekker,    1876. 

Pal.  Indica  (Mem.  G.  S.  Ind.),  Ser.  10, 

Vol.  I,  p.  72. 
-—ATUoUthenum      Falconer,      1868.    Pal. 

Mem.,  I,  p.  416,  pi.  xxxiv,  figs.  1,  2. 
Pliocene;  Upper  Auocene?    India. 

DiNOTHERIUM  BiNDiENBB  Lydekker. 

1880  Pal.  Indica  (Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  India)» 
Ser.  10,  Vol.  I,  p.  196. 

Lower  Pliocene  or  Upper  Miocene.  West- 
em  India. 

ELEPHANTIDiE 

MASTODONTINiE 

(mabtodonb) 

Palasomabtodon   beadnelli  Andrews. 

1901  Tageblatt  des  V.  Int.  Zool.  Cong. 

Berlin,  No.  6,  p.  4. 
1906  Cat.  FayW,  pp.  150-156. 
Upper  Eocene.    Fayiim,  Egypt. 

Paubomabtodon  minob  Andrews. 

1904  Geol.  Mag.  (5),  I,  p.  115. 
1906  Cat.  FayAm,  pp.  168-169. 
Upper  Eocene.    Fay  Am,  Egypt, 

Paubomabtodon  parvus  Andrews. 

1905  Geol.  Mag.  (5),  II,  p.  562. 

1906  Cat.  Fayilm,  pp.  162-168. 
Upper  Eocene.    Faydm,  Egypt. 

PALiEOMABTODON  wiNTONi  Andrews. 

1905  Geol.  Mag.  (5),  II,  p.  563. 

1906  Cat.  FayOm.  pp.  156-162. 
Upper  Eocene.    Fayilm,  Egypt. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM   (MaBTODON) 
ANOUBTIDENB  Cuvicr. 

1806  Ann.  du  Museum,  VIII,  p.  412; 
"Masiodonte  d  denU  etrciies:* 


^Mastodon  cuvieri  Pomel,  1848,  Bui.  Soc. 
G6ol.  France,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  V,  p.  258. 

^Madodon  simorrenns  Lartet,  1851.  No- 
tice sur  la  coUine  de  Sansan,  p.  24. 

^  MtuiodongaujcieiLaTteU  1851.  Ibid.,p.27. 

^Madodon  pyrenaicu*  Falconer,  1857. 
Q.  J.  G.  S.  Lond.,  XIII,  table  opp.  p.  319. 

=  Tetrabdodon  anffusUderu  Cope,  1884. 
Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 

Middle  Miocene.  France,  Switzerland, 
Bavaria,  Styria,  India  (N.  W.),  Bohemia, 
Austria-Hungary. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM   (MaMMUT) 

brevidenb  (Cope). 

1889  Am.  Nat.,  XXIIL  pp.  199,  200,  201 

(Tetrabelodon), 
^Mattodon  proavus  Cope,   1884.      Ibid., 

XVIII,  p.  525. 
Miocene.    Montana. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM    (MaMMUT) 

chapmani  (Cope). 

1874  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phik.,  p.  222 

(Mcutodon). 
==M<utod(m  obscurusf 
Loc.  Unknown.  May  be  American. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM  CONODON  Cook. 

1909  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  (4)  XXVIII,  pp.  183- 

184. 
»  Tetrabelodon. 
Lower  Miocene.    Agate,  Nebraska. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM   (MaMMUT) 
EUHTPODON    (Cope). 

1884   Am.    Nat.,    XVIII,   pp.    524,    525 

(Mastodon). 
^Tetrabelodon    euhypodon    (Cope),    1889, 

Am.  Nat.,  XXIII,  pp.  195,  202. 
Miocene.     Kansas. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM    (MaBTODON) 

FAiiCONERi  Lydekker. 

1877  Rec.  Geol.  Surv.  India,  X,  p.  83. 
Pliocene.    India  (Punjab  and  Sind). 

GOMPHOTHERIUM   (MaMMUT) 

FLORiDANUM  (Lcidy). 

1886  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  11 
(Mastodon). 

=  Tetrabelodon  floridanus  (8ynonym(?)  of  T. 

terridena  Cope). 
Pliocene.    Florida. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM  (TeTRABBLODON) 

LULU  Barbour. 

915  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  (4)  XXXIX,  pp.  87-92. 
Neb.  Geol.  Surv.,  IV,  pt.  14 


490      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Subg.  name  Megabdodan  propofled. 
PUooene.    Nek>raska  (Snake  JEtiver). 

GoiIFROTHEBnTlf   (MaMICUT) 

OB8CUBUM  (Leidy). 

1869  Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sd.  Fhila.  (2)  VII, 
p.  896  (Moilodon). 

Miocene.  Maryland,  N.  Carolina,  S. 
CarG^ina,  Colorado  (Pliohippiis  bedi). 

GoMPHOTHEBimC  (MaSTODON) 

PANDiONiB  Falconer. 

1868  Palnontological  Memoirs,  I,  p.  124. 
'^TetrabdodonjMmdionit  Cope,  IBM.  Proc. 

Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 
Pliocene  (Upper  Miocene?).    India  (Perim 

Island,  Siiid?,  Punjab,  N.  W.  frontier), 

China. 

GoifPHOTHSBnjM  (Mastodon) 
PENTEUCi  Gaudry  and  Lartet. 

1856  Comptes  Rendus,  XLm,  p.  273 
(M,  perUelicwi), 

'^  Tetrabdodon  venidiei  Cope.  Proc.  Am. 
Phil.  Soc.,  XXn,  p.  6, 1884. 

Lower  Pliocene  (Pikermi).  Greece,  Hun- 
gary, N.  W.  Persia. 

GOMPHOTHERIUM  (MAMinTT) 

PBOAVUM  (Cope). 

1873  Syn.  new  Vert.  Tert.  Colo.,  p.  10 
(MaHodon), 

Biiocene.  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Colorado, 
New  Mexico. 

GOMPHOTHKBIXTM  ^MaMMUT) 

PBODUCTUM  (Cope). 

1874  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  221 
(MaHodon). 

V  Teirabdodon  productus  Matthew. 
Miocene.    New  Mexico. 

GoMPHOTHERnJM  (MaIOCUT) 
BEBRIDEN8  (Cope). 

1884    Am.    Nat.,    XVm,    pp.   524,    525 

(Maatodon). 
^  Tetrabdodon  serridena  Matthew. 
Miocene.    Texas. 

GoMPHOTHERIUlf     (MAMinTT) 

8HEPAROI  (Leidy). 

1870  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  98 
(Mastodon). 

—  Dibelodon  ahepardi  Cope. 
=  Tetrabdodon  thepardi  Matthew. 
Pliocene.    California,   Texas,    Kansas, 
Mexico. 


GoifPHOTHKSlUM     (BIaBTODOM) 

TUBiCKNBis  Schins. 

1833  Denkschr.  schw.  Ges.  Nat.,  Vol.  I, 

St.  2,  p.  59. 
(aaiodon  tapiroidet  auct. 
'^  Tetrabdodon  tuneenns,C€jpe»l88i.  Proc 

Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 
Middle     Miocene.      France,      Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  Russia. 

GoifPHOTREBIUM     (TrBABELODON) 

wiLUBTONi  Barbour. 

1914  Univ.  Nebraska  Studies,  XIV,  No.  8. 

pp.  8-10. 
Pliocene.    Nebraska. 

EuBELODON    MORBiLLi    Barbour. 

1914  Univ.  Neb.  Studies,  XIV,  No.  2,  pp. 

10-13. 
Pliocene.    Nebraska. 

Tbtralophooon    (Mastodon) 
AHVXRNKNBiB  CroiiEet  and  Jobert. 

1828  Oss.  Foss.  d.  Puy-de-D6me,  p.  138. 
^Madodan    brewirowtrii    Gervais,     1854. 

Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  (3)  V. 
■>  Maatodon  diaaimilia  Jordan,  1858.    Ann. 

Soc.  Agric.  Lyon  (3)  II. 
'^AnancuamaeropluaAymard^lS&i,    Ann. 

Soc.  Agric.  Sd.  de  Puy»P*  ^^* 
Lower  Pliocene,  Upper  Puocene.    Tnnct, 

Italy,  Germany,  Croatia,  etc.,  and  Red 

Crag  of  England. 

Tetralophodon    (Mastodon) 
ATTicus  Wagner. 

1857  Abh.  math.-phys.   CI.  k.-bay.    Ak. 

Wiss.,  viii,  pt.  1,  p.  140. 
Allied  to  M.  tonairoatria — ^more  specialized, 

symphysis  unknown.     H.  Woodward. 
Lower  Pliocene  (Pikermi).    Greece. 

Tetbalophodon   (MAiofur) 

CAMPESTEB   (C<^>e). 

1878  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XVII,  p.  225 

(Tetraloj^todon). 
^Tetrabdodon  eampeaier  Cope. 
'^Maatodon  eampeaier  Cope. 
Miocene.  Kansas,  Nebradsa. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mastodon) 
CAUTLETi  I^dekker. 

1886  PalsBontologia  Indica   (Mem.  GeoL 

Surv.  India),  ser.  10,  HI,  p.  xiv. 
Pliocene.    India  (Perim  Island). 


PROBOSCIDEA    GENERA 


491 


Tetbalophodon    (Mastodon) 
CORDILLERUM  Cuvier. 

1806  Ann.  d.  Mua^iun,  Vin,  p.  413,  "Afa«- 

iodonte  des  Cordilih^." 
=M<utodon  cordiilerarum,  Demarest,  1822. 

Mammalogie,  p.  385. 
^Mcutodon  andium,  Cuvier,   1824.    Oss. 

Foss.,  2d.  ed.,  V,  pt.  2,  p.  527. 
'^MaHodon  auHratis  Owen,   1844.    Ann. 

Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Ser  1,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  269. 
™  Tetrabdodon  andium.  Cope,  1884,  Proc. 

Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 
Pleistocene.    Chili,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Mexico, 

Texas. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mamicut) 
HUMBOLDTi  (Cuvier). 

1806  Ann.  du  Museum,  VIII,  p.  413  (Mas- 
todon humboldien). 

B  MaHodon  humboUH,  Cuvier,  loc.  cit. 

'^Dibelodon  humboldH,  Cope,  1884.  Proc. 
Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 

Pliocene.  Colombia,  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
Brazil,  Texas. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mastodon) 

LATIDENS  Clift. 

1828  Trans.  Geol.  Soc.,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  II,  pt.  3, 

p.  371. 
Pliocene.    India  (Perim  Is.,  Sind,  Punjab, 

Siwalik  Hills),  Burma,  Borneo. 

?Tetbalophodon   (Mastodon) 

L0N0IB08TBI8   Kaup. 

1835  Qss.  Foss.  d.  Darmstadt,  pt.  4,  p.  65. 

s  Tetrabelodon  lonffirostris.  Cope,  1884. 
Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 

Lower  Pliocene.  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mammut) 
MiBiFicns  (Leidy). 

1858  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  10 

(Matiddon). 
^  TelraUyphodon   mirifictu    (Leidy),    1858, 

Ibid.,  p.  28. 
^DibdodonmirificuSt  Matthew,  1899,  Bull. 

A.  M.N.  H.,  XII,  p.  69. 
*B  Bhabdobunus  mirificiu  Hay,  1914,  Iowa 

Geol.  Surv.,  XXUI,  pp.  373,  374. 
Miocene.    Nebraska,  Texas,  Iowa. 

Tetbalophodon  (Mastodon) 
PEBiMENSis  Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1847  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  4,  pi. 


>■  Tetrabelodon  perimeneis.  Cope,  1884,  Proc. 

Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXII,  p.  5. 
Pliocene.    India  (Perim  Island),  China  (?). 

Tetbalophodon    (Mammut) 
PBficuBsoB  (Cope). 

1893  4th  Ann.  Kept.  Geol.  Surv.  Texas,  p. 
M  (Dibdodon), 

s  MaHodon  prtBcureor  Cope,  1892  (no  de- 
scrip.). 

Pliocene,  Miocene.    Texas. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mastodon) 
PUNJABiENBis  Lydekkcr. 

1886  Cat.  Foss.  Mamm.  in  British  Museum. 

pt.  4,  p.  60. 
Pliocene.    India  (Punjab). 

Tetbalophodon  (Mammut) 
BUGosiDBNs  (Leidy). 

1890  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  184 

(Maetodon), 
Upper  Pliocene.    South  Carolina. 

Tetbalophodon    (Mastodon) 
SIVALENSIS  Cautley. 

1836  Journ.  As.  Soc.  Beng.,  V,  p.  294,  aa 

var.  of  If.  angustiden*. 
Lower  Pliocene.    India  (Siwalik  HiUs  and 

Punjab). 

Tetbalophodon    (Mammut) 
TBOPicuM  (Cope). 

1884  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXH,  p.  7 
(Dibelodon). 

—  Dibelodon  Matthew. 

—  Mastodon  successor  Cope,  1892. 
Pliocene.    Texas. 

Mammut  amebicanxtm  (Kerr). 

1792   Anim.    Kingdom,    p.    116    (EUj^uu 

americanus). 
^Mastodon  americanus  (Kerr). 
^Mastodon  ohioticus, 
™  Mastodon  giganteus,  Cuvier,  1817. 
=  Mastodon  maximus. 
s  Trilophodon  (^iotums.  Cope,  1868. 
3=  Tetracavlodon  ohioticus, 
^Missourium  kockii,  theristocaulodon. 
=  Tapirus  mastodonioides,  Giebel,  1847. 
Pleistocene.    North  America. 

Mammut  bobsoni  Hays. 

1834  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  ser.  2,  IV,  p. 

334. 
'^Mastodon  bu fonts,   Pomel,   1848,  Bull. 

Soc.  G6ol.  Fr.,  ser.  2,  V,  p.  258. 


492      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


s  Maatodon  virgatiderut  Meyer,  1867. 

nontographica,  XVII,  p.  61. 
Pliocene.    Europe. 


Pal- 


Mammut  prooenium  Hay. 

1914  Iowa  Geol.  Surv.,  XXIII,  pp.  868-378. 
^MammtU  amerieanum  Calvin  1909. 
^MoHodon  americanus  Calvin  1911. 
Fleiatocene,  Iowa. 

ELEPHANTINE 

(tbue  elephants  and  btbgodonb) 

Elephas  (Stbgooon)  airawana 
Martin. 

1890  Nat.  Verb.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.,  Amster- 
dam, p.  4. 
Pliocene.    Java. 

Elephas  (Stbgodon)  bombifhonb 
Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  1,  p.  46. 
Pliocene.    India  (Punjab  to  Siwalik  Hilb)? 
Cbina,  ?Java. 

Elephas  (Stbgodon)  clifti 
Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  1,  p.  47. 
» Mastodon  eUpharUoidea  Clift,  1888. 
^Stegodon  sinensis  Owen,  1870. 
^Stegodon  clifti,  Naumann,  1881. 
Lower  Pliocene  (Siwalik).    Burma,  Cbina, 
Japan,  India  (Siwalik  Hills  and  Punjab). 

Elephas  (Stbgodon)  ganeba 
Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  1,  p.  45* 
1876  Rec.  Geol.  Surv.  India,  IX,  p.  48. 
Pleistocene,     Lower     Pliocene     (Siwalik). 

India   (Punjab  and  Siwalik  Hills,  and 

Narbada  Valley). 

Elephas  (Stbgodon)  insignis 
Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  1,  p.  87. 

=  Mastodon  eUphanioides,  CUFt,  181&  (in 
part). 

=  fStegodon  orientalis  Owen,  1870. 

^Siegodon  insignis  Naumann,  1881. 

Lower  Pliocene  (Siwalik).  Burma,  Cbina, 
Java,  Japan,  India  (IHmjab  and  Siwalik?), 
Pleistocene  of  Narbada  Valley. 

Elephas  (Steoodon)  mindanenbib 
Naumann. 

1890  Zeitscb.  d.  geol.  Ges.,  Vol.  XLII,  p. 

166. 
Pliocene.     Philippines. 


Elephas  (Stbgodon)  trigono- 

CEPHALUS  Mi^tin. 

1887  Sanunl.  geol.  Reicbsmus,  Leyden,  FV, 

pt.  2,  p.  86. 
Phocene.'Java. 

Elephas  (Loxooonta)  africanub 
Blumenbacb.* 

Recent.    Africa. 

Elephas  (Loxodonta)  aibicandb 
ALBEBTENSis  Lydekker. 

Skull  unusually  sbort  and  broad. 

1907  Brit.  Mus.  Guide  Great  Game  An., 

p.  72. 
Recent.    Albert  Nyanza. 

Elephas  (Loxodonta)  afbicanub 
CAPENSis   Matacbie. 

Ears  enormous  (4  ft.  5  in.  x  4  ft.  in  9  Si  ft. 
bigb),  somewhat  square  in  sbape,  rounded 
comers,  and  small,  sbarply  pointed  angu- 
lar lappet  in  front.  Forehead  falls  aw^y 
toward  temples,  so  as  to  appear  hi^^ 
arched. 

1907  Brit.  Mus.  Guide  Great  Game  An« 
p.  72. 

Recent.    South  Africa. 

Elephas  (Loxodonta)  afbicantts 
cTCLons  Matschie. 

Ears  very  lar^,  oval,  lappet  in  front  a  half- 
ellipse.  Skm  mosaic-like  in  appearance — 
colour  paler  gray  than  oxifoits, 

1907  Brit.  Mus.  Guide  Great  Game  An., 
p.  72. 

Recent.  Western  Africa,  typically  from 
southern  Cameroons. 

Elephas  (Loxodonta)  afbicanub 
KNOCKENHAUEBi  Matscbie. 

SmaUer  ears  than  oxyotis,  triangular  frcot 
lappet  angulated  and  pointed  (4  ft.  2}  in. 
z  5  ft.  8  in.). 

1907  Brit.  Mus.  Guide  Great  Game  An., 
p.  72. 

Recent.    German  East  Africa. 

Elephas  (Loxodonta)  afbicanub 
oxTons  Matschie. 

Ears  considerably  smaller  than  evdatis, 
semicircular,  front  lappet  very  shaiply 
pointed  and  angular. 

*For  additioiul  vmrieties  of  tbb  spedct  see  pag« 
83, 384  of  the  present  work. 


PROBOSCIDEA    GENERA 


493 


1907  Brit.  Mu8.  Guide  Great  Game  An.» 

p.  72. 
Beoent.    Sudan. 

Elephab  (Loxodonta)  africanus 
FUMiiJO  Noack. 

1006  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  (7)  XVII,  pp. 

501-503. 
Height  not  over  7  feet. 
Reoent.    Africa,  Congo. 

Elephab  (Euelephas)  antiquub 
Falconer. 

1857  Q.  J.  G.  S.  Lond.,  XIII,  Uble  facing 

p.  819. 
1847  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pi.  sdv  B. 
^Eiephtu    {Loxodon)    priscus    Falc.    and 

Caut.,  1846,  pt.  2,  pi.  xiv. 
?Lower    Pleistocene,    Pliocene.    England, 

France,  Italy. 

Elephab  (Euelephab)  abmeniacub 
Falconer. 

1857  Q.  J.  Geol.  Soc.  Lond.,  XIII,  Uble 

facing  p.  819.    Palseontol.  Mem.,  II,  pp. 

247-248,  pi.  X,  fig.  8. 
1868  Nat.  Hist.  Rev.,  p.  75,  pi.  ii,  fig.  2. 
Intermediate    between    pnmigenius    and 

indieus,    Leith-Adams,  Mon.  Pal.  Soc., 

"Brit.  Foss.  Eleph.,"  p.  241. 
Armenia. 

Elephab  atlanticub  Pomel. 

1879  Bull.  Soc.  G^l.  France,  S^r.  8,  Vol. 

VII,  p.  51. 
Intermediate  between  E.  arUiquiis  and  E. 

africanus. 
Pleistocene.    North  Africa. 

Elephab  (Euelephab)   columbi 
Falconer. 

1857  Q.  J.  G.  S.  Lond.,  XIII,  table  facing  p. 

319. 
ȣ.  texianiu  Blake  1862. 
^  E.  primigeniiu  columbi  Cope  1874. 
s  E.  jacksoni  Mather  1888. 
Pleistocene.    North  America. 

Elephab  ctprioteb  Bate. 

Proc.  R.  Soc.  Lond.,  LXXI,  pp.  498-500, 

1908. 
Geol.  Mag.  (5)  I,  pp.  825-826, 1904. 
Phil.  Trans.  R.  Soc.  Lond.,  Vol.  CXCVII B, 

pp.  847-860,  2  pis.,  8  figs. 
Pleistocene.    Cyprus.    Cave  deposit. 


Elephab  (Euelephab)  hati 
Barbour. 

1915  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  (4)  XL,  Aug.,  1915, 

pp.  129-184,  5  text  figs. 
Pleistocene.    Nebraska. 


Elephab  (Euelephab)  htbudricub 
Falconer  and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  I,  p.  41. 

»  Euelepkas  hysudricus  auct. 

Lower  Pliocene  (Siwalik).  India  (Pliocene 
of  Siwalik  Hills  and  Punjab,  and  Pleisto- 
cene of  Narbada  Valley). 

Elephab  (Euelephab)  imperator 
Leidy. 

1858  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  p.  10. 
Pleistocene.     United  States,  Mexico. 

Elephab  (Euelephab)  indicub  Unnseus. 

'^Eilephtu  maximus  Lin. 

Recent.    India,  Indo-China,  East  Indies. 

Elephab  jolenbib  Pomel. 

1895  Pal.  Mon.,  Carte  G^l.  Alg6rie,  p.  82. 
Algeria. 

Elephab  meutenbib  Falconer. 

1862  "Parthenon,"  Oct.  18,  p.  780. 

'^^  Loxodon  mditenna  auct. 

Including  E./o/conm  Busk,  1867  (8  ft.  high). 

Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  VI,  p.  251  (1867 

read  1865). 
Pleistocene.    Malta,  PNorth  Africa. 

Elephab  (Euelephab)  meridionalib  Nesti. 

1825  Nuov.  Giom.  Letter.,  p.  195,  tcHe 
Meyer. 

Leith-Adams,  Mon.  Pal.  Soc.,  p.  208. 

Upper  Pliocene.  England,  Red  Crag  to 
Forest  Bed.  Tuscany,  Biiddle  and 
South  Europe,  and  (prob.)  North  Africa. 

Elephab  mnaidrienbib     Leith- 
Adams. 

1870  Notes  of  a  Naturalist  in  the  Nile  Valley 

and  Malta,  p.  224. 
Name    originally    E.    mnaidra,    but    was 

amended  by  its  author  in  1874.    Trans. 

Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  IX,  p.  116. 
Average  height  6-7  ft. 
Pleistocene.    Malta.    Caverns    and    rock 

fissures. 


494      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Elephab  NAMADICU8  Fftlooner  and 
Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalenais,  pt.  2,  pi. 

•  •  • 

xui. 
^Euelephtu  namadieus  auct. 
Pleistocene.    India,  Burma,  China,  Japan. 


Elephab  PLAmraoNB  Falconer 
and  Cautley. 

1846  Fauna  Antiqua  Sivalensis,  pt.  1,  p.  88. 
»  Loxodon  planifrons,  auct. 
Lower  Pliocene  (Siwalik).    India  (Siwalik 
Hills  and  Punjab). 


Elephab  (Euelephab)  PBiMiGENnTS 
Blumenbach. 

1808  Handb.  Naturg.,  Ist  French  ed.,  II, 

p.  407. 
Pleistocene.    North  Europe,  Asia,  North 

America. 

Elephab  bivalenbib 

f^Mcutodon  nvalensis,? 
Lower  Pliocene  (Siwalik). 

Elephab  TBoooNTHEEn  Pohlig. 

1884  Sits,  niederrhein.  Ges.,  Feb.  4.  1884. 
W.  Soergel,  Palseontographica,  Vol.  LX, 

1912. 
Silesia. 


IVORY  CARVERS  OF  ALL  LANDS  AND  OF 

ALL  TIMES 


Aabtb,  a.  Sculptor.  Exhibited  at  Brus- 
sels Exposition.  Head  of  Laughing 
Child. 

Adtb,  Thquab.  Sculptor.  Worked  in 
London  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  executed  small  objects  in  ivory 
there  from  1737  to  1744. 

AoNEBiTJB,  Jacobub.  Bom  in  Calw  in 
WUrtemberg.  His  name  is  signed 
with  the  date  16S8  on  a  representation 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
now  in  the  Museum  of  Albi,  Italy. 

Albert, .    Exhibited  spinning  wheel 

at  Mus6e  Galli^ra  in  1908. 

Algaroi,  Alebsandbo.  Sculptor.  Bom 
in  Bologna  in  1692;  diecl  at  Rome, 
June  10,  1654.  Was  a  pupil  of  Ludo- 
vico  Caracd  and  was  considered  Uie 
finest  sculptor  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  In  ivory  his  principal  works 
were  crucifixes,  a  splendid  example 
beinff  one  attributed  to  him  in  the 
ReiGae  Kapelle  in  Munich. 

Alkamenib, .  Executed  ivory  and  gold 

statue  of  Dionysos  Eleutherios. 

Allouaro,  Henri.  Exhibited  "Chrysis 
Victrix"  at  the  Mus^  Galli^ra  in 
1908  and-  a  group  "La  Lecture  In- 
terrompue."  In  the  Salon  of  1908 
he  had  a  statuette,  "Les  deux  amis," 
of  ivory,  marble,  and  stone,  and 
in  the  Salon  of  1909,  a  statuette 
of  bronze,  stone,  marble,  and  ivory, 
called  "Le  Gu^,*'  and  a  group  en- 
titled "Colin-Midllard"  of  marbk  and 
ivory. 

Altorp,  Johann.  Sculptor.  Bom  in  the 
Hague,  Januarpr  6,  1876.  Worked  for 
seven  years  with  the  sculptors  Alex- 
andre and  Engels.  Executed  in  ivory 
and  in  oak  figures  of  elephants,  mon- 
keys, camels,  lions,  owls,  etc.;  some- 
times combining  the  two  nuterials. 


Andersen,  Halvor,  sumamed  "Halvor 
the  Devil."  Made  sculptures  in  ivory 
at  Bragemais  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Works  by  him  m  the  royal 
Danish  collections  in  Copenhagen. 

Angebiair,  Christoph.  Bom  in  Wal- 
heim  near  Munich;  died  in  Munich  in 
1638.  Came  at  an  early  age  to  Mun- 
ich where  he  was  in  the  service  of 
Elector  Maximilian  I  until  1681,  when 
he  was  pensioned. 

Anquier,  Michel.  Sculptor.  Bom  in 
Eu,  Normandy,  September  88,  1612; 
died  July  11,  1686.  Belonged  to  the 
Dieppe  school  of  ivory  carvers.  His 
principal  work  was  a  cradfix  for  the 
nigh  altar  of  the  Sorbonne  executed  in 
1668. 

Arzt  Brothers.  Carvers  of  the  Erbach 
(Odenwald)  schpol  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

AuBERT,  Pierre.  Died  before  1408;  was 
living  in  Toulouse  in  1880. 

AuBERT,  Jean.  Employed  bv  Dukes  of 
Burgundy  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Barbetti,  Rafaello.  Italian  wood  and 
ivory  carver.  Bom  in  Siena  in  1828. 
Received  several  medals. 

Barbetti,  Rinaldo.  Italian  wood  and 
ivory  carver.  Bom  in  Siena  in  1880; 
died  in  Florence  in  1908. 

Barillot,  EuoiNE.  Bom  in  Berlin  in 
1841.  Ivory  and  bronze  work.  "The 
Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,*'  "The  Trum- 
peter of  Sakkingen,"  etc. 

Barr£,  Jean  Auoxtst.  Sculptor.  Bom 
in  Paris,  September  25,  1811;  died  in 
Paris  in  1896.  Produced  a  beautiful 
ivory  statuette  of  Rachel.  Pupil  of 
his  father,  Jean  Jacques  Barr^. 

Barriab, .    Exhibited  in  Mus^  Gal- 

li^ra,  1908.  "  Jeune  Fille  de  Boussada.'* 


495 


496 


IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Babtheu  Melchior.  Sculptor.  Bom  in 
Dreaden,  December  10,  1625;  died  in 
Dresden,  November  12, 1672.  Worked 
first  in  Ubn  and  then  for  seventeen 
years  in  Venice.  Worlcs  in  Grilne 
GewOlbe,  Dresden;  also  crudfiz  in  Na- 
tional Museum,  Florence. 

Babth£leict, .    Exhibited  in  Mua6e 

Galli^ra,  1903. 

Bates,  Habbt.    "Mors  Janua  Vit«." 

Beaudoin.  Exhibited  in  Mua6e  Gallidra. 
1903. 

Becker.  Exhibited  hat-pins  in  Mua^e 
Galli^ra,  1903. 

Beetz,  Frau  E.,  Brussels.  Combs  with 
delicate  and  sketchy  reliefs. 

Beham,  Hans.  Plaque  in  the  Muafe 
Cluny  signed  H.  S.  B.  1545;  probably  a 
copy.  Also  made  female  figure  in 
National  Museum,  Nuremberg. 

Behl,  F.G.,  of  Nuremberg. 

Belletbbte,  Jean  Antoine.  Bom  in 
1731;  died  in  1811.  The  most  cele- 
brated master  of  the  Dieppe  school  of 
ivoiy  workers.  Settled  in  Paris* 
Copied  in  ivoiy  the  sculpture  of  the 
seasons  at  Brussels,  and  executed 
while  in  Rome  a  group  of  Venus  and 
Cupid,  formerly  in  Hirth  Collection, 
Munidi. 

Belletbbte,  Louis.  Sculptor.  Bom 
1757;  died  in  1819.  Executed  in  1810 
the  model  of  a  ship  in  ivoiy  which  he 
brought  to  Napoleon  at  FontaineUeau. 

Belleteste,  Louis  Charles  Antoine. 
Bom  in  1787;  died  in  1832.  Directed 
an  atelier  of  ivory  carvers  in  Paris. 
Executed  figures  in  high  relief  and 
toilette  objects. 

Belville,  J.  Ivory  carver  of  Dieppe 
school,  beginning  of  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Made  a  Descent  mm  the  Cross 
now  at  Vire,  dept.  Calvados,  France. 

Bendel,  Joachim  Ignaz.  Died  about  1730. 
Descended  from  a  Bohemian  family 
of  artists.  Resided  in  Prague,  and  in 
Vienna  from  1699.  Reliefs  in  the 
Kunsthistorische  Sammlung  in  Vi- 
enna; mytholo^cal  subjects. 

Bendel,  Paulus.  Possibly  related  to  the 
above-named  artist.  Was  in  Rome 
in  1687;  also  resided  in  Vienna.  Made 
a  figure  of  a  wrestler  after  the  antique. 

Bendel  (Bendl),  Bernhardt.  Bom  in 
1668;  died  in  1736.  Settled  in  Augs- 
burg in  1687,  after  residing  for  some 
time  in  Rome  and  Paris.  Carved  a 
crucifix  which  is  in  the  Frauenldrche 
in  Munich. 


Benbt,  Eugene  Paul.  Bom  at  Dieppe. 
Exhibited  in  Salon  of  1901  "  J^sus  de- 
vant  les  docteurs."  statuette  of  silver 
and  ivory. 

Berg,  Magnus.  Bom  at  Hedemarken, 
Norway,  November  28,  1666;  died  at 
Copenhagen,  March  31, 1739.  Began 
as  a  painter,  then  took  up  ivory  carv- 
ing. One  ol  the  princmal  carvers  of 
the  Baroque  period.  Executed  pic- 
torial representations  of  biblical  and 
mythological  scenes  and  a  l&r;|^  slle- 
porical  composition  in  honor  of  Freder- 
ick IV  whidi  was  completed  in  1730. 

Bergman,  Johann.  Sculptor.  Bom  at 
Reichenberg,  Bohemia,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Worked  at  Brfinn, 
Moravia,  from  1763  to  1781.  Exe- 
cuted numerous  portraits  in  ivoiy  and 
in  alabaster. 

Beurden,  Alphonse  van.  Sculptor  and 
ivory  carver.  Bom  in  Antwerp,  April 
23,  1854. 

Beurden  (Beveren),  ^  Mathieu  ^  tan. 
Bom  in  Antwerp  in  1630;  died  in 
Brussels  in  1680.  Carver  of  crudfixea 
in  Antwerp  in  1670.  Pupil  of  Peter 
Vanbruggen,  the  Elder.  Admitted  to 
the  guild  of  sculptors  in  1650. 

BiCKEL.  Exhibited  medaUion,  child's  head 
in  Mus6e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

BoENATut  Faiolt.  Ivory  carvers  of  the 
Dieppe  school  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

BiONARD,  Francois  Augusts.  Bora  in 
1816;  died  in  1876.  Of  Dieppe  school. 
Head  of  a  woman  done  in  ivory  in 
Mu86e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

BiONAN,  of  Dieppe  school. 

Bigot.  Exhibited  in  Musie  Gallic 
1903. 

Blard,  the  Elder.  Of  the  Di^ipe 
school.  "Deposition  from  the  Cross*'; 
various  low  reliefs  on  mosaic  back- 
ground.   Eighteenth  century. 

Blard   (Theodore?),  The  Younger.  Pu- 


pil of  David  d* Ansers.  Of  the  Dieppe 
school;  nineteenth  century.  Exnio- 
ited  in  Salon  of  1842;  and  in  Sakm  of 
1857  a  Christ  in  ivoiy. 

Blond,  Charles.  Of  Dieppe  school; 
active  toward  1686.  The  dial  of  a 
compass  by  him  is  in  the  Dieppe  Mu- 
seum. 

Boncquet,  Henri.  Exhibited  a  "Cal- 
vaire"  in  Salon  of  1800. 

BoNZANiGO,  Giuseppe  BIaria.  Bom  at 
Bellinxona  in  1744;  died  in  Turin  in 
1890.    Left  many  pupils. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


497 


BoflSEi^,  Rudolf.  Bom  at  Perleberg, 
Brandenburg,  in  1871.  Combs  of 
original  design. 

BoflsuTT,  Francis  tan.  Bom  in  Brussels 
in  1635;  died  in  Amsterdam,  Septem- 
ber 22,  1692.  Resided  many  years  in 
Italy.  A  number  of  his  works  are 
figured  in  Beddsnyder's  Kunstkammer, 
1727.  A  French  inscription  on  his 
grave  may  be  rendered:  "Hb  chisel 
pave  life  to  marble  and  breath  to 
ivoiy.** 

BotJBCHARDON,    .    Bom   in    1698; 

died  in  1762.  Cmdfix  in  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris. 

BouBooiN,  EuGtNE.  Cmcifiz  in  Salon, 
1902. 

BouTELLiEB,  Philippe  Sambon.  Bom  in 
Dieppe  in  1767;  died  in  Rouen  in  1812. 

BouvAL.  Bom  in  Toulouse.  Pupil  of  Fal- 
ffui^.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1907, 
Reverie  d'Antomne,"  bronze  and 
ivoiy  statuette. 

BoT,  Ferdinand.  Bom  at  Russ,  Prus- 
sian Lithuania;  died  in  Beriin  in  1880. 
Sculptor.  Bust  of  6.  Schadon  in  the 
Herzogl.  Museum,  Brunswick.  Also 
executed  a  costly  casket  for  Queen 
Elizabeth  of  Prussia. 

Braecke,  Pierre.  Sculptor.  Bom  at 
Nieuport,  West  Flanders,  in  1859. 
Exhibited  in  Brussels  Exposition,  1897. 

Brasdefer,  Guillaume.  Died  in  Dieppe 
in  1676. 

Brattn,  Christian,  of  Ulm,  Germany. 
An  Ecce  Homo  in  the  Louvre. 

Brisevin.  Pupil  of  Auguste  Moreau- 
Vauthier. 

Brodbeck,  Adolphe.  Of  Dieppe  school 
end  of  seventeenth  and  beginning  of 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  Dieppe 
Museum  a  work  of  his  called  me 
"Gate  of  Nantes"  may  be  seen. 

Brou,  Frederic.  Bom  in  Mauritius. 
Pupil  of  Larroux.  "Petite  Hollan- 
daise,"  statuette  bronze  and  ivory. 

Brunel,  Louis  Raymond.  Bom  at 
Dieppe  in  1818;  died  in  1882.  Of  the 
Dieppe  school;  Christs  and  statuettes. 

BuiBSON,  of  the  Dieppe  school.  Eigh- 
teenth century.    Many  pupils. 

Burger-Hartmann,  Sophie.  Bom  in  Mu- 
nich in  1868;  wife  of  the  portrait 
painter,  Fritz  Burger.  Exhibited  in 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 

BuRRER,  Georg.  Flourished  in  Stuttgart 
in  the  first  third  of  the  seventeenth 
centiuy.  Finely  carved  pokal  in  the 
Vienna  Uofmuseum  executed  in  1616. 


Canapuillb.  Exhibited  in  MuB6e  Galli^rs* 
1903. 

Canayeri,  of  Bonzanigo*s  school. 

Capuz,  Ratbhtndo.  Sculptor  1665-1748. 
Statuettes  of  Spanish  beggars,  modelled 
after  the  life  in  Madrid.  Court  sculp- 
tor to  the  Prince  of  Asturias  of  the  time. 

Carpentier,  of  the  Dieppe  school;  nine- 
teenth century. 

Caron,  Alexandre  Augubte.  Bom  in 
Paris.  Pupil  of  Barrau  and  Scaillet. 
Exhibited  in  Salon,  1900,  "Esdave  k 
vendre,"  statuette  of  ivoiy,  gold, 
enamel,  and  precious  stones;  in  Salon  of 
1901,  "Sortie  de  bain,"  group  in  ivory, 
gold,  silver,  enamel,  and  precious 
stones;  in  Salon,  1902,  "Du  naut  de 
rOlympe,"  statuette  in  ivory,  gold, 
and  precious  stones  and  **  Charmeuse, " 
statuette  of  ivory  and  precious  mate- 
rials; in  Salon,  1908,  "Jean,"  bust  in 
ivory;  in  Salon,  1906,  "D6rillusion," 
statuette  of  ivory;  in  Salon,  1907, 
"Atalante,"  statuette  of  ivory,  and 
"Sans-gene,"  ivory  bust;  in  Salon, 
1908,  *^Frisson  d'Avril,"  ivory  stat- 
uette; in  Salon,  1909,  "Surprise," 
statuette  in  ivoiy  and  precious  stones. 

Caracci,  Agostino.  Bom  in  1557;  died 
in  1605.  Satyr  and  nymphs  in  Correr 
Museum,  Venice. 

Cavauer,  Jean.  Medallion  portraits  of 
royal  and  noble  personages.  Executed 
many  works  from  1680  to  1707  in  Ber- 
lin, Cassel,  Vienna,  Brunswick,  and 
Stockholm. 

Charlier  G.  Belgium.  Exhibited  in 
Brussels  Exposition  "Water-carriers 
of  Palermo.' 

Chavannes,  Ninette,  n^  PerdrioUet. 
Painter  on  ivory.  Bom  at  Lyons, 
September  18,  1859.  Exhibited  at 
Geneva  Exposition  of  1896.  Resides 
in  Lausanne. 

Chevaluer,  Nicolas.  Sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

CiiaiENCE.  Exhibited  in  Mus^  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Clergbt,  Alexandre.  Pupil  of  Fal- 
gui^re  and  Rambaud.  Exhibited  in 
Salon,  1907,  "La  dame  k  T^harpe," 
statuette  of  ivory  and  gilded  bronze. 

CoiNTRE,  of  Dieppe  school.  Eighteenth 
centurv.     Figures  of  mendicants. 

Colette,  Charles  Tiunquille.  Bom  in 
Dieppe  in  1824;  died  in  1895.  Pupil 
of  d*Ouvrier;  worked  in  Paris  and 
Hamburg  (with  Hampendel).  "The 
Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  in  the  Dieppe 


498      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Museum;  "Eve  plucking  the  apple," 
and  **La  Danse.** 

CoLOMBO(?),  Ambroibe.  SculptoF.  Italian 
of  the  nineteenth  centiuy.  Exhibited 
in  Milan,  Turin,  and  Venice  between 
1870  and  1887. 

CoMEiN.  Exhibited  in  Brussels  Exposi- 
tion, *' Flemish  Milkmaid.** 

Copt,  Giovanni,  sumamed  *'Il  Flam- 
MiNOO,**  "Four  Seasons,*'  signed;  also 
placque  in  Wallace  collection. 

CoRNU,  Jean.  Died  in  1710.  Of  Dieppe 
school.  No  work  of  his  is  certainly 
known. 

CoBYNs,  J.  Probably  identical  with  Henri 
Cosyns,  an  Antwerp  sculptor,  long 
active  in  London,  and  who  died  in 
1700.  Reliefs  in  Bavarian  National 
Museum;  figures  of  children. 

CouiLLT,  Jehan  de.  Ivoiy  carver  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Worked  for  Phil- 
ippe le  Hardi,  Duke  of  Burgundy 
(1S67-1387). 

Cbaco.  Belgium.  Exhibited  in  Brussels 
Exposition. 

Cboqueloi .  "Deposition  from  the  Cross*  * ; 
low  reliefs  on  mosaic  groundwork. 

Cbuppervolle  (or  Crucvolle.'),  the 
Elder.  Born  at  Dieppe  in  1680;  died 
in  1740. 

Cruppervolle,  the  Younger.  Bom  at 
Dieppe  in  1726;  died  in  1806. 

Dabeler  (DObeler),  Michael.  Bom  in 
1635;  died  in  1702.  At  the  court  of 
Elector  Frederick  William  of  Bruns- 
wick. Cane-handle,  with  artistic 
grouping  of  six  children,  in  the  Kunst- 
gewerbe  Museum,  Berlin.  This  oft- 
repeated  design  probably  originated 
with  Dllbeler. 

Dampt,  Jean.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1894, 
group  "Knight  Raymondin  and  M^l- 
usine,**  of  ivory  and  steel  and  in  Mus^ 
Galli^ra,  1908,  "Paix  au  Foyer**  in 
wood  and  ivory. 

D£an,  .    Bust  of  Christ  in  Mus^ 

Galli^ra,  1908. 

Delacour,  Clovis.  Bom  at  Ch&tillon-sur- 
Seine.  Pupil  of  G^r6me.  Statuette 
of  "Phoebe,**  Salon,  1902;  "Andro- 
mache,** Royal  Academy,  1901;  "Le 
R6veil,**  Salon,  1905;  "Elaine**  in 
Mus^Galli^ra,1903. 

Delahayes, ,     of    Dieppe    school. 

Nineteenth  century. 

Delaherche, .  Relief  after  Botti- 
celli, ivory  patin6,  in  Musee  Galli6ra, 
1903. 


Deboompb,  Jo£.  Bom  at  Germont-For- 
rand.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1904,  "  No- 
ma au  bain,**  statuette  of  ivory  and 
precious  stones;  Salon,  1907,  group 
Lygie,*'  ivory  and  marble;  "Le 
SUence,**  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra.  1903. 

Debpoillt,    ,    of    Dieppe    school. 

Nineteenth    century. 

Dbbrieux, .    Worked  in  Paris  first 

half  of  nineteenth  century.  Executed 
many  medallions. 

DsyARENNEs,  Anatole.  "  Vierge  '*  in  Mu- 
86e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Devarenneb,  Edouard.  Exhibited  in 
Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

DiEBBL,     ,     of     Munich.    Jewel 

caskets. 

DiLLENs,  J.  Exhibited  in  Brussels  Expo- 
sition "Genius  with  lily.** 

DiPCBNTTB  and  Sktllib  of  Crete.  Probably 
pupils  of  Dsdalus.  About  middle  of 
sixth  century  B.  C.  Statues  of  Castor 
and  Pollux,  of  wood  and  ivory,  in  their 
temple  at  Argos. 

DoBBERMANN,  Jacob.  Bom  in  1682;  died 
in  1745.  Was  in  the  service  of  Land- 
grave Karl  of  Hesse-Cassel  from  1716. 
At  first  only  carved  amber;  later 
exclusively  ivory.  Biblical  and  mytho- 
logical subjects.  Finest  work  medal- 
lion portraits  of  Landgrave  Karl 
and  his  wife,  in  the  Picture  Galleiy, 
Cassel. 

DoNATELLO  FioRENTiNO.  Seventeenth 
century.  Graceful  figure  of  a  nude 
woman;  mentioned  by  Jacquemart. 

DouHOULT-WiELAND.  Jeweller  of  Paris 
beginning  of  nineteenth  century.  Small 
ivory  busts. 

DouRNta,  ,  of  Toulouse.  Imita- 
tions of  the  carvings  of  earlier  epochs. 

Dubois,  F.  Exhibited  in  Brussels  Exposi- 
tion.   Fans,    caskets,   etc. 

DDrer,  Albrecht.  Bom  at  Nuremberg, 
in  1471,  died  there  April  6,  152S. 
Several  works  bearing  his  monogram 
have  been  incorrectly  attributed  to  his 
hand,  but  were  executed  at  a  later 
period  after  his  designs. 

DuPON,  J.  Exhibited  in  Brussels  Exposi- 
tion statuette,  "Diana.** 

DUQUEBNOT,    FrAN^OIB.      SculptOT.      BoTO 

in  Brussels  in  1594;  died  at  Livomo 
Julv  12, 1646.  Studied  antique  models 
and  the  Venetian  school  of  paintmg. 
Statuette  of  St.  Sebastian.  A  crucifix 
given  by  him  to  Pope  Urban  Vm  is  a 
masterpiece  in  this  style.  Also  cele- 
brated for  studies  of  child  life;  the 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


499 


famous  Manneken  Pis  of  Brussels  is 
attributed   to   him. 
DuQUEBNOY,  JtBAuE,    Made  crucifixes. 


Ebell, 


Works  exhibited  in  Kunst- 


gewerbe  Museum,  Berlin,  in  1894. 
Statuettes. 

Ebenhech  (Ebenhocr),  Georg  Franz  of 
Leipzig.  Two  reliefs  in  the  City  Li- 
brary, Leipzig;  a  flute-playing  faun, 
and  a  Venus  and  Cupid.  Settled  in 
Potsdam,  where  he  died  in  1757. 

EiCHLER,  Joseph  Ignaz.  Bom  in  Rome 
in  1714;  resided  in  Brunswick  and 
Wolfenbtittel;  died  in  1763.  Reliefs, 
"The  Seasons,*'  "St.  Jerome,"  etc. 
Works  in  Ducal  Museimi,  Bruns- 
wick. 

ElSENBERG,    JOHANN.      Of    Coburg.      TwO 

pokals  in  the  Vienna  Collection,  exe- 
cuted respectively  in  1630  and  1632. 
Sometimes  worked  with  Heiden. 

Elhafen,  Ignaz.  Bom  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  probably 
in  Nuremberg.  Studied  in  Rome; 
settled  in  Vienna  and  then  in  Dussel- 
dorf .  Largest  collection  of  his  works 
is  in  Bavarian  National  Museum, 
Munich.  Statuettes  of  Venus  and 
Bacchus,  etc. 

Enfans,  a.  de.  Exhibited  in  Bmssels 
Exposition,  "Christ  bound  to  a  Pil- 
lar," "Mary  in  Prayer." 

Erhard, ,  of  Munich. 

Ertel, ,  of  Zittau. 

Eudes,     .    Bataille    d*Arb^les    in 

Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Faid*h£Rbe  (Fatd'rerbe),  Lucas.  Bap>- 
tised  in  Mechlin,  January  12,  1617; 
died  there  December  31,  1607.  Pupil 
of  Rubens;  executed  a  number  of 
ivory  carvings  after  designs  by  his 
master.  A  tankard  in  the  Grossher- 
zogliches    Museum    in    Karlsruhe    is 

Srobably  by  him.  Relief  in  Prado 
luseum,  Madrid,  children  dancing. 

Faibtenberg,  Andreas.  Bom  in  1646  (?) 
in  the  Tyrol;  came  to  Munich  in  1674; 
died  there  as  electoral  court  sculptor 
in  1735.  Crucifixes,  especially  one 
exhibited  in  Tours  in  1887,  dated  1681, 
nearlv  30  in.  in  height  and  of  an  excep>- 
tionally  fine  piece  of  ivory;  the  eyes 
of  the  Christ  are  painted  blue,  the 
blood  drops  red,  and  there  are  traces  of 
gold  paint. 

FALGUiiiRE,  J.  A.  J.  Bom  1831;  died 
1900.    Comb  in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 


FAi;rz,  Raimund.  Bom  in  Sweden.  Came 
to  Berlin  in  1688;  died  there  in  1703. 
Medallist.  He  appears  to  have  occa- 
sionally executed  ivory  carvings. 

Fi»,  L.  DB.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1911,  three 
medallion  portraits. 

Ferbecq,  ,  of  Frankfort. 

Ferrart,    .    Exhibited    in  Salon, 

1898,  "Leda  and  Swan,"  and  a  St. 
George  in  ivory  and  bronze. 

FiAMMiNGO,  GiAcoMo.  Was  in  Rome  in 
1595. 

FiAMMiNGO,  Giovanni.  Probably  either 
a  relative  of  Frangois  Duquesnoy,  or 
identical  with  him.     A  Fleming. 

Fischer,  E.,  of  Munich.  Charming  rococo 
brooches. 

Fisher,  Alexander.    Caskets;  tankards. 

Flammand,    ,    of    Dieppe    school. 

.  Eighteenth  century. 

Fontaine,  Emmanuel.  Bom  at  Abbeville. 
Exhibited  in  Salon,  1907,  statuette, 
"  Premier  Frisson,"  ivory  and  silver  gilt. 

Foz,  Ren£.  "Japanese  Girl"  in  Salon, 
1898. 

Framert,  Hector.  Exhibited  brushes  in 
Mus^e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Frampton,  George.  A  "St.  George"  in 
bronze,  agate,  and  mother-of-pearl, 
and  a  "Lamia,"  head-dress  adorned 
with  pearls. 

Francelli,  Francesco.  In  Rome  and 
later  at  the  English  Court.  No  work 
of  his  preserved. 

FrXnzel,  Wilhelm.  Bom  in  Vienna  in 
1826.  Studied  imder  Kllhseman. 
Busts  of  Radetzky,  Francis  Joseph, 
Empress  Elizabeth,  etc. 

Fresb  (Freese,  Vrese,  Friese),  The- 
oprilus  Wilhelm.  Sculptor.  Bom  in 
Bremen,  middle  of  eighteenth  century; 
died  there  in  1763.  SUtuette  of  St. 
Jerome  in  Kunstgewerbe-Museum, 
Berlin. 

Freudenberger, ,  of  Erbach  school 

(c.  1850).  Lamps,  inkstands,  um- 
brella handles,  fans,  etc. 

Froment,  Meurice.  The  most  cele- 
brated representative  of  the  gold- 
smith's art  in  Paris  in  his  time.  Died 
in  1855.  "Toilet  of  Venus"  of  ivory 
and  silver. 


Gardbt, 


"Le  Lion  Amoureux 


»$ 


in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Geletn,  J.  Exhibited  in  Brusseb  Expo- 
sition, 1897,  a  "Fury." 

Gerber,  J.  Latter  half  of  nineteenth 
century.     Beriin. 


500      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


GtB6icx,  Jean  LtoN.  Painter  and  sculp- 
tor. Bom  May  11,  1824,  at  Veaoul 
(dept  Sadne  sup.);  died  in  Paris, 
January  9,  1004.  Life-sise  "Bel- 
lona*'  of  ivory  and  bronse  in  Royal 
Academy,  189S. 

GsuNB,  PiEBRB.  Born  in  Maeseyck,  Hol- 
land, in  1706;  died  in  1776.  Made 
snujff  boxes  and  other  small  objects. 

Getger,  Ebnbt  Moritz.  Painter  and 
sculptor.  Bom  in  Ritdorf,  November 
6,  1861.  '*The  Campagnestier"  in 
Paris  Exposition,  1900,  of  ivory  and 
marble. 

GiLLBs,  Paul.  Bom  in  Paris.  Salon, 
1905,  ''Le  R6veil,"  sUtuette.  Salon, 
1909,  two  statuettes.  Statuette  and 
pendants  in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Giovanni  di  Bologna.  Fifteenth  to 
sixteenth  century.  Statuette  of  Her- 
cules. 

GiRARDON,  FRANgoiB.  A  crucifix  is  attrib- 
uted to  him. 

Glenz,  O.  The  most  noted  of  the  Erbach 
carvers  at  the  present  day. 

G(5rino, 1  of  the  Erbach  school. 

GOrutzer, .     Middle  of  seventeenth 

century,  Nuremberg.  Cups,  spinning 
wheels,  etc. 

Gontier.  Exhibited  in  Mus^  Galli^ra, 
190S,  umbrella  handles,  etc. 

GoRNAES,  Joergen  CHRISTIANSEN.  Stat- 
uette of  a  grayhound  in  Herzogliches 
Museum  at  Brunswick. 

GouJON,  Jean.  Called  the  French  Phi- 
dias. Bom  about  1515;  died  (prob- 
ably at  Bologna)  in  1564  or  1565. 
Some  ivory  work  is  rather  doubtfully 
attributed  to  his  hand,  as,  for  instance, 
a  crucifix  and  a  powder  flask  in  the 
Louvre. 

Graillon,  the  Elder.  Groups  of  mendi- 
cants, of  sailors,  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Graillon,  C^sar.  '*Ecce  Homo*'  in 
Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Graillon,  Felix.  "Virgin  and  Child," 
"L'Enfant  et  la  Fortune"  (relief), 
"Adam  and  Eve,"  in  Mus^  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Graff,  Axel.  "Le  Chat"  in  Mus^  Gai- 
li^ra,  1903. 

Greenwood,  Isaac.  American  ivory 
turner,  end  of  eighteenth  century. 

Grissard,  Henri  D^ir£.  Bom  in 
Paris.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1907, 
bronze  and  ivory  statuette,  "P&ques 
Fleuries." 

GrOn,  G.     Nuremberg.     Died  after  1620. 


Gualterio,  Giovanni  Antonio.  Of  Ga- 
eta.  Nothing  known  of  his  work.  See 
A.  Bertoletti,  "  Artisti  belgi  ed  olandcsi 
a  Roma  nei  secoli  16  e  17,'^  p.  234. 

Guillaume,  ^mile.  Bom  in  Paris.  Ex- 
hibited statuettes  in  Mus^  Galli^ra, 
1908,  and  in  the  Salon  of  1905.  SUt- 
uette portrait  of  Mme.  Jane  Catulle 
Meiid&;  bronze  and  ivory. 

Guillbrion,  Jean  Baptiste.  Bom  in 
1643  (?);  died  in  1699.  Crucifix  by 
him  in  Mus6e  Calvet  at  Avignon, 
dated  1659.  Said  to  have  been  from 
Lyons;  lived  in  Avignon  and  Paris, 
where  he  died.  Canova  praised  this 
cnidfix  highly,  asserting  that  one 
equally  good  would  never  be  made. 

GuiLLoux,  Albert  Gaston.  Bom  in 
Rouen.  Exhibited  in  Salon  of  1904, 
casket  in  fifteenth-century  style  in 
wood,  inlaid  with  ivory. 

Habero  (Habut),  Vincenz  Gbobo.  Died 
in  1746.  Mythological  and  allegorical 
carvings  in  the  Herzogliches  Museum 
at  Brunswick;  of  little  merit. 

Haenique, ,  of  Dieppe  school. 

Hagar,  C.  Brussels,  eighteenth  century. 
Fine  diminutive  carvings;  microtech- 
nique. 

Halm,  Johann  Michael.  Regensberg, 
Bavaria.  Eighteenth  century.  Pupil 
of  Teuber. 

Haim,  Adam,  of  Schweinfurt. 

Halm,  Conrad,  of  Schweinfurt. 

Hammaux,  Emanuel.  Bom  in  Metk 
Pupil  of  Dimont.  Exhibited  in  Salon, 
1908,  a  helmeted  head  in  marble  and 
ivory. 

Hammer,  Michael.  Bom  1750;  died  be- 
ginning of  nineteenth  century.  Nu- 
remberg. Medallions  for  rings  and 
bracelets. 

Harrich,  Christoph.  Died  1790.  Nurem- 
berg. Wonderfully  executed  death*s 
heads. 

HARSDdRFrER,  .    AmateuT  carver. 

A  Ratsherr  or  Councillor  of  Nurem- 
benr. 

Hartmann,  F.  Died  in  1898.  Of  Erbach 
school.    Executed  a  Bne  hunting-cup. 

Hartmann,  M.  of  Munich.  Nineteenth 
centuiy. 

Hautscher,  of  Nurembera,  beginning  of 
eighteenth  century.  This  carver  was 
so  marvellously  skilful  in  microtech- 
nique that  he  is  said  to  have  been  aUe 
to  put  one  hundred  of  his  diminutive 
cups  into  a  peppercorn. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


501 


Heebmann,  Paul.  Sculptor.  Bom  in 
1673;  died  in  1732.  Flourished  in 
Leipzig  and  Dresden.  No  certain 
woncs. 

Heiden  (Heyde),  Mabcus.  Of  Coburg. 
Called  in  1638  to  Weimar  by  Duke 
Wilhelm  IV  (d.  1662).    Turnery  cups. 

Henke,  Peter.  Worked  for  Duke  August 
Wilhelm  of  Brunswick  (1714-1731). 
Relief  of  Assumption  of  Virgin  Mary 
in  a  private  collection. 

Hbnneout,  "L* Amour  Aveugle/'  in  Mu- 
fl6e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Hennen,  Joachim.  Seventeenth  century. 
Portrait  in  relief  of  a  man,  dated  163d» 
in  KOnigliches  Museum,  Berlin. 

Hepp,  Esais.  In  the  service  of  the  Elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg  from  1660,  as 
worker  in  tortoise-shell,  ivory,  silver, 
etc 

Hebrlingeb,  Edwabd.    Of  Dresden. 

HsBZ,  Benedict.  Died  in  Nuremberg 
in  1635.    Crucifixes  and  figures. 

Heschleb,  David.  Second  half  of  seven- 
teenth century  in  Ulm.  Group  of  Her- 
cules and  Anteeus  in  Cassel  Museum 
signed  D  H  B  1635  may  be  by  him. 

Hebin, .  Lute  dated  1886  in  Exhi- 
bition of  Musical  Instruments  in  Lon- 
don in  1885. 

Hesb,  Paul.  Of  Bamberg;  resided  long 
in  Brussels  and  then  settled  in  Vienna 
in  1780;  died  there  in  1798.  Bracelets, 
rings,  and  box  covers  with  landscape 
designs.  He  usually  worked  with  a 
magnifying  glass,  the  little  trees  and 
figures  bemg  sometimes  glued  upon 
the  background,  which  has  a  light  blue 
tint. 

Hbbb,  Sebastian,  of  Vienna.  Work  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Paul  Hess. 

Heu, ,  of  Dieppe  school,  eighteenth 

to  nineteenth  century. 

HiBBCHWALD, ,  of  Mimich.  Statu- 
ettes, amorettes,  ladies  and  gentle- 
men in  Rococo  costume. 

Hocbeckeb,  Sebvatiub,  of  Frankfort; 
eighteenth  century. 

Hookeb,  Samuel  R.  B.  1835;  d.  1896. 

Hookeb,  Geoboe  F.,  son  of  above.  B.  1879. 

Hollandeb,  Jan.  Seventeenth  century. 
Cup  with  bacchanalian  design  in  the 
Rosenborg  Collection,  Copenhagen. 

Holzbchueb,  G.  Amateur  of  Nuremberg. 
Ratsherr  (Councillor). 

Hoobemanb,  F.  Of  Brussels.  Fine  fans 
and  lamps;  two  specimens  in  the 
KOnigl.  Kunstgewerbe  Museum  in 
Berlin,  after  m^els  by  Rombaux;  of 


ivory,  combined  with  silver  gilt  and 
yellow  onyx. 

Hobnung.  Bom  in  Suabian  Hall  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Noted  for  his 
cups  carved  with  hunting  or  battle 
scenes;  there  is  also  a  gun  carved  with 
hunting  and  mythological  designs  in 
Uie  Ambraser  Collection. 

Hubeb, ,  of  Vienna. 

Huogenbug,  Sebastian.  Sculptor  and 
medallist  of  Brunswick;  end  of  seven- 
teenth century.  Crucifix  in  Johaimis- 
kirche  in  WolfenbUttel. 

Hubdteb,  Jobann  Ulbicb.  From  Switz- 
erland. Pupil  of  Heschler  in  Ulm. 
Settled  there,  where  he  was  still  living 
in  1675.  Reliefs  and  tankards.  No 
certain  work  of  his  now  known. 

Jaillot.  Hubebt.  Of  St.  Claude  (dept. 
Jura). 

Jaillot,  Simon.  Elder  brother  of  Hubert 
Jaillot.  Died  in  1681.  Crucifix  in 
the  Hdpital  de  St.  Germain  des  Pr^ 
Paris.  Was  received  into  the  Aoeui- 
emy  as  a  "sculptor  of  ivory  cruci- 
fixes,** a  proof  how  highlv  this  branch 
of  art  was  then  esteemed. 

Jahvieb.  Exhibited  group,  "Bear  and 
Rabbits,**  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Jespebs,  E.,  of  Belgium.  Exhibited  in 
Brussels  Exposition  of  1897,  "Love 
disarmed  by  Psyche.** 

JoBEL  Sb.  Eidiibited  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

JoBEL,  Alfbed.  Bom  in  Paris.  Pupil  of 
Carius.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1908. 
"Le  Retour,**  statuette  of  mahogany 
and  ivory. 

JoBBAN,  Cbbibtian,  tbe  Eldeb.  Sculptor. 
Bom  at  Griesbach  in  Lower  Bavaria 
in  1733;  died  at  Landhut,  Bavaria,  in 
1807.  Studied  at  the  Augsburg  Acad- 
emy and  with  Straub. 

JuuEN,  Paul.  A  Christ  in  Mus6e  Gal- 
li^ra,  1903. 

Kalamib.  Made  ivory  and  gold  statue  of 
Asklepios  in  Sikyon. 

Kaldenbebo,  Fbitz  J.  B.  New  York.  1 855 . 
Executed  in  1896  for  Li  Hung  Chang 
a  combination  group,  Li  Hung  Chang, 
Bismarck  and  Giadistone.  Busts  of 
Rembrandt,  and  U.  S.  Grant,  and  a 
bust  of  Mignoo. 

Kalucbates.  Sculptor,  and  ivory  and 
metal  worker  of  Lacedsemon.  Exe- 
cuted microscopically  small  objects, 
tradition  telling  of  a  quadriga  that 


502      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


could  be  covered  with  a  fly*s  wing,  and 
of  a  ship  that  could  be  placed  beneath 
the  wing  of  a  bee. 

Kanachub.  Made  ivory  and  gold  statue  in 
Sikyon. 

Kauzmann.  Brothers  of  that  name  from 
Geislingen.  Pokal  of  ivoiy  and  gold 
after  design  by  H.  Peter  is  figured  in 
Siichsiache  Oewerbezeitung,  1899»  p. 
16. 

Kbhber,  £.,  of  Erbach  school.  Eighteenth 
century. 

Kebn,  Leonhard.  Bom  in  1588;  died  in 
leeS.  Of  German  birth.  Resided  in 
July. 

Khalaf.  Moorish  ivoiy  carver  of  the 
first  half  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Executed  a  beautiful  coffret,  now 
owned  by  Mr.  John  Malcolm  of  Poltal- 
lock. 

KiBCH,  Freumund.  Worked  in  Vienna 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  made  spinning  wheels,  cups, 
etc. 

KiRCHNEB,  JoHANN  WiLHELM.  Lived  in 
Cassel  in  the  last  third  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century;  official  coin  engraver. 
Executed  in  ivory  medallion  portraits 
of  Landgrave  Frederick  II  and  his 
wife;  also  anatomical  studies  of  a  man 
and  a  woman. 

Klammxr,  Nkolaus.  Bom  in  Vienna 
in  1769;  died  in  Graz,  March  25,  18S0. 
Lived  in  Vienna  until  1797,  when  he 
settled  in  Graz.  Developed  micro- 
technique to  a  wonderful  degree. 
Landscapes  with  trees,  flowers,  etc., 
the  details  being  so  fine  as  to  be  some- 
times only  recognizable  through  a 
magnifying  glass. 

Kleinebt,  Freoebick.  Died  in  1714. 
Of  Nuremberg. 

Klesecker  (Glessckher),  Justus.  Bora 
in  Hamelin;  died  in  Frankfort  where 
he  had  worked  in  1653-54.  Trav- 
elled in  the  Netherlands  and  to  Rome. 
Executed  crucifixes,  etc. 

Knoll,  Beunoni.  Died  in  1764.  Made  a 
large  carving  in  ivory  representing  the 
Passion  of  Our  Lord. 

Knoll,  Michael,  of  Geislingen,  where  he 
was  living  about  1780.  Regarded  as 
the  most  distinguished  ivory  carver 
there.    Son  of  Beunoni  Knoll. 

KOHLER,     JoHANN     ChRISTOPH.      A     COUrt 

jeweller  of  Augustus  the  Strong.  Lived 
in  Dresden.  Statuettes  in  gold,  ivory, 
and  enamel.  In  the  Grline  G^ewOlbe 
are  figures  of  a  cobbler,  a  potter,  a 


knife  grinder,  etc.;  also  a  lace  maker, 
known  as  Barbara  Uttmann. 

KoLOPEs.    Made  ivoiy  table  at  Olympia. 

Krabenbeboer, ,  of  Nymphenberg, 

Bavaria.    Pupil  of  Troger. 

Kbsbab,  Giovanni,  of  Padua.  Lute. 
Dated  1629. 

KRtjQER,  Wilhelm,  of  Dantzig.  Active 
after  1711  in  Dresden.  Four  statu- 
ettes, the  so-called,  "Beggars  of  Coun- 
tess Ktfnigsmark,**  in  the  Griine 
Gewtflbe,  Dresden;  there  is  also  there 
a  pokal  with  relief  of  Diana  himting. 

KbUoer,  Gottlieb  Wilhelm.  Carver  of 
amber  and  ivory.  Dresden.  Son  of 
Wilhekn  KrUger. 

Lacroix,  C.  a  Burgundian;  worked  for  a 
long  time  in  Genoa.  Seventeenth 
century.  Crucifixes.  No  certain  work 
since  the  disappearance  of  the  crucifix 
on  the  high  aJtar  of  Sta.  Annunziata, 
Genoa.  Specimen  of  his  work  said  to 
have  been  shown  in  Paris  ExpositioD, 
1867;  see  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arte,  Vol. 
XIX,  p.  343. 

Lagae,  Julius.  Bom  in  Brussels  in  1865. 
Pupil  of  J.  Lambeaux  of  Brussels. 
Exhibited  in  Brussels  Exposition. 

Lafleur,  Abel.  Bom  at  Rodes,  depL 
Aveyron,  France.  Exhibited  in  Pan- 
ama-Pacific International  Exposition, 
San  Francisco,  1915. 

Lalique,  Ren£.  The  most  celebrated  of 
the  ornament  workers  in  Paris;  ivory 
used  principally  for  female  heads  or  for 
bodies. 

Lancbtti,  Lanciotto.  Bom  in  Perugia 
in  1861;  nephew  of  Federigo  Lan- 
cetti.  Studied  at  Academy  of  Perugia 
and  became  professor  there. 

Lankbobst,    .    Ivory  carver  and 

silversmith  in  Amsterdson. 

Lebobgne,  .    Exhibited  in  Mus^e 

Galli^ra,  1903. 

Lebraeluer,  Jean.  His  name  is  given 
as  that  of  an  ivory  carver  in  the  in- 
ventory of  Charles  V  of  France;  last 
half  of  fourteenth  century. 

LsFinuBE,  J.  B.,  of  Dieppe  school;  eigh- 
teenth century.  Christ  in  Miis6e 
Galli^ra,  1903. 

LefevRb  (Lefeveb),  C.  Exhibited  in 
Brussels  Exposition. 

Lbgebbt  (Lb  Gebbt),  Jean.  Sculptor. 
Bom  in  1628;  died  in  1688.  Was  in 
Paris  in  1683.    Crucifixes. 

Leorain,  C.  Three  Christs  in  Musfe 
Galli^ra,  1903. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


503 


I.EGBAiN,  H.  "L'Aurore**  in  Miia6e  Gal- 
U^ra.  1908. 

Leorand, .  Medallion  of  Shake- 
speare, in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

LsLONZ,  R.  Chessmen  in  Mus^  Galli^ra, 
190S. 

Lemasle, .  Statuettes  of  Four  Sea- 
sons in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Lenz, ,  of  Greislingen. 

LEONARD,  A.  Exhibited  "Danseuse"  in 
Miis6e  GaUi^ra,  1903,  and  in  Salon. 
1912,  "Hebe,"  statuette. 

LiX)Ni,  Antonio,  of  Venice.  Celebrated 
ivory  carver;  worked  at  court  of  Jo- 
hann  Wilhelm  of  the  Palatinate 
(1690-1716).  Three  of  his  works  in 
Bavarian  National  Museum;  two  rep- 
resenting bacchanalian  scenes. 

Lepeltier, .    Statuette   in  MuB6e 

Galli^ra,     1903. 

Levasseur,  Henri  Louis.  Bom  in  Paris. 
Pupil  of  Dumont.  Exhibited  in  Salon, 
1906,  "Phryne"  statuette,  and  in 
Salon,  1909,  **La  naissance  du  chev- 


reau. 

Lewin-Funke,  Arthur.  Sculptor.  Bom 
in  Dresden,  November  9,  1866.  Half 
nude  female  figure,  body  of  ivory, 
hair  slightly  toned,  garment  of  trans- 
parent greenish  onyx. 

Leygebe,  Gottfried.  Bom  at  Freystadt 
in  Silesia  in  1630;  died  in  1683  in  Ber- 
lin, where  he  had  lived  since  1668. 
Mirror  frames  in  Kunstgewerbe 
Museum,  Berlin,  attributed  to  him. 

Linke,  E.  Statuettes.  Ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen in  Rococo  costume,  etc. 

LoBENiGK  (Lobenick),  Eoidiub,  of  Co- 
logne. Was  at  the  court  of  Augustus 
Elector  of  Saxony  (1553-1586);  from 
1584  as  court  carver.  Cups,  pokals; 
some  in  Griine  G«wOlbe,  which, 
in  all,  has  about  forty  specimens 
of  his  art,  including  a  statuette  of 
Marcus  Curtius.  He  died  before 
1595. 

LoisEAU-RoussEAU,  Paul  Louis  Emilb. 
Bom  in  Paris.  Pupil  of  Th6ophile 
Barrau.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1907, 
"P^nitente,"  statuette  of  ivory  and 
bronze  gilt. 

Lorenzo  da  Pavia.  Plaque  with  mono- 
ffram;  probably  copy.  Worked  for 
Isabella  d*Este,  especially  in  the  in- 
laying of  musical  instruments. 

LUcke,  Carl  August,  the  Elder.  Bom 
about  1668;  died  about  1730.  Medal- 
lion of  Duke  Christian  Ludwig  (d. 
1622)    executed   in    1688,    is   in    the 


Grossherzogl.  Museum  at  Schwerin. 
A  knife  grinder  in  the  Museum  at 
Gotha.  Father  of  C.  A.  LUcke,  the 
Younger. 
LtJcKE,  Carl  August,  the  Younger. 
Bom  in  Dresden  about  1710.  Re- 
sided in  Schwerin  and  WolfenbUttel; 
went  to  Russia  in  1759;  died  after  1777, 
probably  in  Danzig.  Bust  of  a 
beardless  man  in  KOnigliches  Museum, 
Berlin;  abo  works  in  Schwerin  Mu- 
seum. 

LtJCKE,  JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  LuDWIG  (VON). 

Bom  about  1703,  probably  in  Dresden. 
For  a  time  engaged  in  porcelain  manu- 
facture at  Meissen.  In  GrUne  Ge- 
w6lbe  a  crucifix  86  cm.  high  made 
from  a  single  piece  of  ivoiy,  with  the 
exception  of  the  arms  of  the  cross 
(1737) ;  also  a  group,  "  Reawakening  of 
the  Arts  "(1736).  Son  of  Carl  August 
LUcke,  the  Elder. 

Madrassi,  Luca.  "La  Reconnaisance," 
ivory  face,  bust,  and  arms,  in  Mus6e 
Galli6ra,  1903;  abo  "Theodora.*' 

Malauze, .    "  Amphitrite,"  in  Mu- 

s6e  Galli^ra,  1903. 

ManseuJ-  Probably  a  Fleming.  Worked 
in  the  style  of  Fiammingo.  Relief, 
children's  bacchanalia,  in  Bavarian 
National  Museum;  for  furniture  inlay 
or  mural  decoration. 

Marchand,  David  le.  Died  in  1726. 
Of  the  Dieppe  school;  principally 
active  in  England.  Medallion  por- 
traits in  the  Herzogl.  Museum,  Bruns- 
wick. Busts  of  Lord  Somers  and 
Isaac  Newton. 

Marchino,  the  Younger.  Nineteenth 
century. 

Mars-Vallet.  Exhibited  "Philosophy** 
in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Mabcaux, .    Exhibited  figure  of  a 

stag  on  a  jasper  base  in  Mus6e  Gal- 
li^ra,  1903. 

Mathelin,  M.  de.  Exhibited  "Spring 
Dream**  in  Brussels  Exposition,  1897. 

BIaucher,  Christoph.  Probably  bom  in 
South  Germany  or  Austria.  Exe- 
cuted in  Danzig,  in  1700,  an  elaborate 
allegorical  group,  symbolizing  the 
victory  of  Emperor  Leopold  and  his 
son  Joseph  over  the  Turks  and  the 
Hungarian  rebels;  in  the  Kunst- 
historisches    Museum,    Vienna. 

Max,  Emanuel,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  1051. 
Chandelier  and  two  candelabra;  casts 
in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


504      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


MmBfiNKB,  Andreab  (or  Johann  Hein- 
bich).  In  Danrig  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  Wood,  ivoiy, 
and  amber  carvings. 

BlxNA  T  Medrano,  Pedbo  de.  Sculptor. 
Of  Aoflta.  Died  in  1693  in  Malaga. 
Probably  executed  a  statue  of  St. 
Francis  in  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo, 
composed  of  ivoiy  and  other  materials. 
Pupil  of  his  faUier  and  of  Cano  in 
Granada. 

Mebcieb,   .    Exhibited  in   Mua^e 

Galli^ra,  1003. 

Mi»E,  CLiiCENT,  of  Paris. 

Meugnoit,    ,    of    Dieppe   school. 

Nineteenth  century. 

Meunieb,  Conbtantin.  Bom  in  Mer- 
bach-l^Brussel.  Exhibited  in  Brus- 
sds  Exposition,  1897. 

fiisTXNBCHEiN, ,  of  Erbach  school. 

Nineteenth  century. 

Michelangelo  Buonabotti.  Bom  at 
Castel  Caprese  near  Arezzo,  March  6, 
1475;  died  in  Rome,  February  17, 
1664.  Several  pieces  of  ivory  carv- 
ing are  attributed  to  him,  probably 
erroneously;  as,  for  instance,  a  "De- 
position from  liie  Cross**  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  Florence. 

Michelet,  FuRiON  Mabcelen.  Ex- 
hibited in  Salon,  1906,  portrait  statu- 
ette 61  Mme.  J.  D.,  done  in  marble 
and  ivory. 

MiDDEGAi&LS,  exhibited  in  Mus£e  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Mid,  M.,  New  York,  1875.  Formeriy 
of  Japan. 

MiGUARA,  Italian  of  eighteenth  or  nine- 
teenth century. 

Millet,  Jean.  Flourished  last  half  of 
seventeenth  century. 

Mogi,  Y.,  1877,  New  Yorit.  Formerly  of 
Japan. 

MoLABD  (Mollard),  Michel.  Ivory  car^ 
ver  and  metal  worker  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Flourished  under 
Louis  XrV. 

Moreau-Vauthier.  Bom  in  Paris  in 
1832;  died  there  in  1893.  Exhibited 
in  the  Salon  of  1881,  a  chryselephan- 
tine sUtuette  "Fortuna";  in  1885,  a 
similar  work,  "Painting";  in  1889, 
a  bust  from  an  exceptionally  large 
elephant  tusk,  and  provided  with  a 
gilded  cuirass  and  helmet  by  Falize; 
in  1903,  at  the  Mus^  Gaili^ra, 
**Jeanne  d'Arc  au  bdcher,"  also  many 
other  works  in  the  Walters  Collection. 


Mtb.  Greek  ivory  worker,  who  executed 
the  high  reliefs  on  the  shield  of  the 
Pallas  Athena  of  Phidias,  from  de- 
signs by  Parrhesios. 

Nahau,  YuBUF  AL.  Arabian  carver.  Made 
in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century 
an  elaborately  carved  chessman,  one 
of  a  set  given  by  Haroun  al  Rashid  to 
Chariemagne. 

Nauktdeb.  Made  statue  of  Hebe  in  Her- 
aeum  at  Argos. 

Nevir,  a.,  oi  Berlin.  Genre  figures; 
ladies  and  gentlemen  in  Roodco  or 
Directoire  costume,  etc. 

NicoLLE,  Jean.  This  name  inscribed  on  a 
thirteenth-century  pax  in  the  British 
Museum  was  once  believed  to  be  that 
of  the  artist,  but  is  now  regarded  as 
that  of  the  owner. 

NicoLLE,  of  the  Dieppe  school.  Pupil 
of  Blard.  Statuettes  and  low  reliefs 
after  the  antique.  ** Bacchus"  and 
*' Minerva*'  of  NicoUe  atii6  in  Mus6e 
Galli^ra,  1903. 

NoRDMANN,  Jacob  Jansen.  Of  Copen- 
hagen; died  1680.  Ships'  models  in 
ivoiy;  some  in  RosenbOTg  CoUecUon, 
Copenhagen. 

NoREBSE,  J.  Head  of  Christ,  bas-relief,  in 
Mus6eGam^ra,1903. 

O'KiN,  Mllb.,  of  Paris. 

Oltvier,  Mme.  Th^dore  Eiole.  Bora 
in  Bordeaux.  Exhibited  in  Salon, 
1904,  portrait  bust  of  Mme.  G. 

Ofstal,  Gerhard  (van).  Bom  in  Ant- 
werp in  1595  (according  to  others,  in 
Brussels  in  1604);  died  in  1688.  in 
Paris,  where  he  had  passed  most  of  his 
life.  His  ivory  work  contributed  more 
to  his  fame  than  his  work  in  stone 
or  bronze.  Took  Rubens  as  his  model. 
Many  of  his  carvings  were  bought  by 
Louis  XIV;  crudnxes,  low  reliefs; 
five  of  the  latter  now  in  the  Louvre. 
''Education  of  Bacchus"  in  the  Mus6e 
Climy. 

OuiN, ,  of  Dieppe  school,  nineteenth 

century. 

OUVRIER,  


— ,  of  Dieppe  school,  nine- 
teenth oentuiy. 
OvEREs,  A.  G.    Exhibited  fans,   caskets^ 
brooches,  watches,   etc.,    in    Brusseli 
Exposition,  1897. 

Pachter.    Exhibited     in     Kunstgewerbe 
Museum,  Berlin,  1894. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


505 


Paulub,  Melchiob.  In  the  treasury  of 
Cologne  Cathedral  are  ten  reliefs  with 
scenes  from  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord 
dated  1703-1733;  some  other  works  in 
private  collections  in  Cologne. 

Pendu  Emanuel.  Sculptor.  Bom  at 
Meran,  February  23,  1845.  Statu- 
ettes exhibited  in  Kunstgewerbe 
Museum,    Berlin,    1894. 

Pebmobeb,  Balthasar.  Bom  at  Kam- 
mer,  Bavaria,  August  1,  1050;  died 
in  Dresden,  February  «0,  1732.  Sev- 
eral works  in  GrUne  Grewtflbe,  Dres- 
den: "Jupiter  and  Eagle,"  "Seasons," 
"Hercules  and  Omphale'*;  also  vei^ 
fine  crucifixes  in  Jakobikirche,  Frei- 
burg, and  in  the  Herzogl.  Museum, 
Brunswick. 

Pebbinka,  L^n.  Bom  in  Paris.  Exhib- 
ited in  Salon,  1900,  statuette  of  St. 
George,  bronze  and  ivory. 

Petel  Georo.  Bora  at  Welheim,  Bava- 
ria; visited  Italy;  finally  settled  in 
Augsburg  where  he  worked  for  the 
Fuggers  and  died  in  1634.  Tankard 
in  Kunsthistorisches  Museum,  Vienna. 

Pfeifhofen,    .    Living    in    1694. 

Bas-reliefs. 

Phidias.  Born  in  Athens  between  490 
and  485  b.  c.  Executed  the  colossal 
gold  and  ivory  statues  of  Zeus  at  Elis 
(451  B.  c.)  and  of  Athena  at  Athens 
(438  B.C.).  Falsely  accused  of  purloin- 
ing some  of  the  gold  for  the  latter 
statue,  he  exonerated  himself  by  having 
the  gold  adornments,  weighing  44  Attic 
talents  (about  2,500  pounds),  removed 
and  reweighed,  but  on  a  later  accusa- 
tionof  having  depicted  his  own  features 
and  those  of  Pericles  on  the  shield  of  the 
goddess,  he  was  again  cast  into  prison, 
where  he  died. 

Phjllippe,  Adbien.  Wristguard  in  Wal- 
lace Collection  dated  1608. 

Philufs,  Paul.  Bora  in  Germany.  Ex- 
hibited two  works  in  bronze  and  ivory 
in  Salon  of  1909,  "Famiente"  and 
"Grace  et  Force." 

PiCHLEB,  JoHANN.  Bom  in  the  Tyrol 
about  1700.  Figures  and  groups  of 
jugglers  and  mendicants. 

Pusano,  Giovanni.  Fifteenth  to  sixteenth 
century.  A  madonna  attributed  to 
him. 

PiSANO,  Nino.  Sculptor  of  fourteenth 
century;  died  before  1368.  Son  of 
Andrea  Pisano. 

Planzone,  Filippo.  Born  in  Nicosia; 
flourished  until   1636.    Called  II  Si- 


ciliano.  Horse  in  a  cage,  the  whole 
carved  out  of  a  single  piece  of  ivory, 
in  National  Museum,  Florence. 

Point,  Aicand.  Exhibited  a  triptych, 
"La  Musique"  in  Musfe  Galli^ra, 
1903;  ivory  and  enamel. 

PoHPE,  Johannes  Enoeisertub.  Sculp- 
tor. 'Bom  in  Antwerp  in  1744;  died 
there  November  1,  1810.  Crucifixes 
in  ivory. 

PoifpE,  Waltebius.  Father  of  Johannes 
Engelbertus  Pompe.  Bom  in  ladt. 
North  Brabant;  died  in  Antwerp  Feb- 
ruary 7,  1777.  Celebrated  for  lus 
Christs  of  ivory  and  palm-wood. 

Pozzo,  Giovanni  (Andbea).  In  Rome 
about  1700.  Medallist  and  ivory 
carver.  Copied  antique  modeb.  Me- 
dallion portrait  dated  1717  in  Kunst- 
kammer. 

Pbadieb,  James  (Jean  Jacques).  Sculp- 
tor. Bora  in  Geneva,  May  23,  1792; 
died  in  Bougival,  June  4, 1862.  Pupil 
of  Lemot,  Gerard,  £cole  des  Beaux 
Arts. 

Pbonner,  Leopold.  Bom  in  Thalhausen 
Carinthia,  in  1560;  died  in  1630. 
After  1600  in  Nuremberg.  Diminu- 
tive objects;  little  equestrian  figures  so 
small  that  they  could  be  passed 
through  the  eye  of  a  needle. 

QiTELUNUs,  Arthur.  Bora  in  Antwerp 
in  1609;  died  there  August  23,  1668. 
The  sculptor  of  the  decorations  to  the 
Rathaus  in  Amsterdam.  It  is  con- 
sidered not  unlikely  that  he  executed 
ivory  carvings. 

Rasumany,  F.  Exhibited  in  Salon,  1912, 
two  plaquettes,  "Leda**  and  "Sa- 
lom6.'^ 

RauchmUller,  Mathias.  Bom  in  the 
Tyrol  before  1660;  died  after  1720. 
Sculptor.  Was  in  Vienna,  Breslau,  and 
the  Rhine  country.  A  large  tankard 
with  bacchanalian  scenes  in  the  col- 
lection of  Prince  Liechtenstein  in  Vi- 
enna, dated  1670.  Group  of  Apollo 
and  Neptune  in  the  Kaiserliches  Hof- 
museum,  Vienna,  is  also  probably  by 
him. 

Raymond  db  Broutelleb.  Portrait  in 
Muake  Galli^ra,  1903. 

Renard.  Small  vases  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Rett,  Conrad.  Sculptor.  Of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Bom  in  Switzerland;  worked 
inBruaseb.  Made  copies  in  ivory  of  his 


506      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Sybib  which  adorn  the  grave  of  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy  (1511-1536)  in  the 
church  of  Bourg-en-Bresse. 

RivitR£-THi£oDORE.  Louis  AuGusTE.  Bom 
in  Toulouse,  July  14,  1857;  died  1912. 
"Adam  and  Eve/'  "Le  Gui."  In  the 
statuette,  "Salammbo/*  shown  in 
Dresden  Exposition,  1901,  the  figure 
is  of  ivory,  marble,  onyx,  and  enamel, 
while  the  head  ornaments  are  of  pearls 
and  precious  stones.  In  the  Mus^ 
Galli6ra,  1903,  were  shown  "Vierge 
de  Sunnam,**  "Loie  Fuller"  (silver 
and  ivory),  and  a  portrait  statuette  of 
Mme.laComtesseK^cop^.  Some  of  his 
works  shown  at  the  Pananui-Pacific  In- 
ternational Exposition,  San  Francisco, 
1915. 

RoifBAUT,  EoiDB  Gaston.  Bom  in  1865. 
"Venusberg**  in  Brusseb  Exposition, 
1897. 

RosENSTiEL,  Fr.,  of  Berlin. 

RoBSET,  Fran(70IS,  of  Saiut-CUiude  (dept. 
Jura).  Son  and  pupil  of  Joseph  Ros- 
set;  busts  of  contemporaries,  crucifixes; 
statuette  of  St.  Th6r^  in  Uie  Louvre. 

RoesBT,  Joseph.  Bora  in  Saint-Claude 
(dept.  Jura)  in  1706;  died  there  in  1786. 
Attracted  the  attention  of  Frederick  the 
Great  and  of  Voltaire;  many  crucifixes. 

BoussEi^  ,  of  Paris.    Executed  five 

angels*  heads  in  African  ivory  for  the 
seat  of  Klinger's  Beethoven  statue 
after  designs  by  that  sculptor. 

Route,  Gilbert  Gaspard.  Eighteenth 
century.  In  1751  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  Academy  because  of  a 
crucifix  he  had  made. 

Roy,  H.  le.  "Girl  with  Kid"  in  Brus- 
sels Exposition,  1897. 

Rozet  and  Fischmeister  of  Vienna.  Pen- 
dants with  ivory  figures  after  designs 
by  Frttulein  Schreder. 

Rudder,  Isidor.  Sculptor.  Bom  in  1855. 
Exhibited  in  Antwerp  Exposition  in 
1894. 

Rudolph,  B.,  of  Stuttgart. 

Sac-Epi£e,  of  Dieppe  school. 

Saillot,  of  Dieppe  school. 

St.  Gouin.  Medallion  probably  by  him 
in  the  British  Museum. 

Sanger  (Seng her),  Philipp,  of  Nurem- 
berg. Turner  to  Grand  Duke  Cosmo 
III  of  Tuscany. 

Salviati,  Giuseppe.  Gem  cutter  active 
in  Berlin  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Two  reliefs,  **  Nymphs  Bath- 
ing," in  Konigliches  Museum,  Berlin. 


Samuel,  Charles.  Bom  in  Brussels  in 
1862.  Exhibited  in  Antwerp  1894, 
Brusseb  1897. 

ScAiLLAiT, .    Pupil  of  Moreau-Vau- 

thier.  "Phryne,"  statuette  of  ivory 
and  silver,  and  relief,  "L'Enfant  et 
La  Fortune,"  coinposition  of  Dela- 
planche,  in  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 

ScELLEUR,  Jean  le.  Worked  for  the 
French  Kins  PhiUpp  V,  "Le  Long," 
beginning  of  fourteenth  century. 

ScHAUBB,  Martin.  Bom  in  Berlin,  Sep- 
tember 25,  1867.  Statuette,  **Cceur 
Dame"  in  Dresden  Exposition,  1899. 

SCHEEMACKERS,       PiXTER,      THE       ElDER. 

Bom  in  Antweip  in  1640;  died  in  Aven- 
donk,  in  1714.  ChOdren  playing,  in 
Bavarian  National  Museum. 

ScHENCK,  JoHANN  Caspar.  Died  about 
1673.  After  1665,  received  500  florins 
annuity  as  "Hof-Painstecher"  (Court 
Bone  Carver)  in  Vienna,  the  first  to 
bear  this  title.  Reliefs  in  Kunsthistor- 
isches  Museum,  Vienna;  "Christian 
Persecution,"  "Entry  of  Christ  into 
Jerusalem,"  etc. 

ScHLt^^£R,  Andreas.  Architect  and  sculp- 
tor. Bom  in  Hamburg,  May  20, 1664; 
died  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1714.  Did 
ivory  work  in  his  early  years.  Settled 
in  Berlin  in  1694  and  was  employed 
at  the  court  of  the  Elector  of  Brand- 
enburg. Statuette  of  Hercules  in 
K5ni^ches  Museum,  Berlin,  may  be 
by  him  and  also  a  Hercules  strangliiig 
the  Nenuean  Lion. 

ScHNBCK,  Johann.  Ffom  the  Tyrol. 
Bom  in  1724;  died  m  1784.  ImiUted 
Trogan.  '*St.  Michael  and  Satan" 
in  Hofmuseum,  Vienna;  the  saint  is  of 
ivory  and  Satan  of  ebony. 

SchOnauer,  a.,  of  Hamburg.  Silver 
shield  with  Minerva's  head  in  ivory. 

ScHULER, .    Statuettes  **  Adam  "  and 

"  Eve  "  in  Manchester  Exhibition.  1857. 

ScHUBO, ,  of  Offenbach. 

ScHULZ,  Leberecht  Wilheui.  Bom  in 
Meiningen  in  1774;  died  in  1864. 
Cups  with  hunting  scenes;  specimens 
in  GrUne  Gewiube,  Kunstgewerbe 
Museum,  Berlin,  etc.;  also  ecdesiastical 
vesseb.    Member  of  Berlin  Academv. 

Seibert,  ,  of  Geisslingen.    Dolls* 

furniture;  also  vases. 

Setsses,  Auoubte.  Bom  in  Toulouse. 
"El^hants  d'Afriaue"  in  Sabn,  1901; 
marble,  bronse,  and  ivory. 

Shefter,  E.  Anonymous  portrait  in 
Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS 


507 


SiEBER,  A.,  of  Freibui^. 

SiMART,  PiERRB  Charlbb.  Bom  at 
Troyes,  June  27,  1806;  died  in  Paris, 
May  27,  1867.  Celebrated  aa  the 
creator  of  a  chryselephantine  Minerva 
3  metres  in  height,  executed  for  the 
Duke  de  Luynes  and  exhibited  in  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1855;  this  aroused 
great  interest  at  the  time  as  a  revival 
of  ancient  art. 

SiNDiNO,  Stefano.  Bom  August  4,  1840, 
at  Trondhjem,  Norway.  Statue, 
"  Walklire,*'  m  bronze  and  ivory  made 
for  a  Dresden  connoisseur. 

SoBBON,  LuciEN.  Bom  in  Paris.  In 
Salon,  1905,  "Du  Guesclin."  statu- 
ette in  wood,  bronze,  and  ivory. 

SouiLLARD,  Jr.  "Ajax,**  after  the  an- 
tique, in  Mus^  GaUi^ra,  1903. 

Spano,  Antonio,  of  Naples.  "Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,**  in  collection  of 
Prince  Luden  Bonaparte,  dated  1555. 

Spengler,  Lorenz.  Bom  in  Schaffhausen 
in  1720.  Came  to  Copenhagen  in 
1743  and  died  there  as  custocuan  of 
the  art  collection  in  1807.  Turning 
woric;  pyramids  and  temples  adorned 
with  reuefs,  also  figures  with  orna- 
ments in  ivory;  portrait  medallions. 
Many  works  in  Rosenborg  Castle 
Museum,  Copenhagen. 

Stappen,  Pierre  Charles  tan  der. 
Bom  in  Brussels,  December  19,  1843. 
Pupil  of  Portaels.  "Sphinx**  in  Brus- 
sels Exposition,  1897. 

Stockamer,  Balthasar.  Died  about 
1700.  Of  Nuremberg.  Employed  by 
Grand  Duke  Cosmo  III  of  Tuscany, 
and  later  in  various  German  courts. 

Strauss,  Bernhard.  Bom  in  Mordidorf 
on  Lake  Constance.  Lived  in  Augsburg 
as  goldsmith  in  the  second  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Tankard  in 
South  Kensington   Museum,  Lcmdon. 

Strobel* >  of  Geisslingen. 

Strtmans,   .     Snake   charmers    in 

Brusseb  Exposition. 

Struber  (SrtteER), ,  of  Heidelberg. 


-.  Italian  ivory  carver.  Por- 


Tanadei, 

trait  of  Alexander  I  of  Russia  in  Paris 

Salon,  1829. 
Ternisien,  .    Exhibited  in  Mus£e 

Galli^ra,  1903. 
Teuber,  Johann  Martin,  of  Regensburg, 

Bavaria.    Eighteenth  century.   Tum- 

ing  work. 
Theokosmos.      Executed    head    of   Zeus 

statue  at  Megara 


Thomasson,  the  Elder,  of  Dieppe  school. 
"Dante**  and  Pompeian  fresco  in 
Mus^GaUi^ra,1903. 

Thomasson,  the  Younger,  Eiole.  Bom 
in  Paris.  "Le  lUveU**  and  "S^mira- 
mis**  in  Musfe  Gallidi^i,  1903;  in 
Salon,  1906,  bust  of  the  President  of 
the  French  Republic. 

Thrastmedes.  Made  ivory  and  gold 
statue  of  Asklepios  at  Epidaurus. 

TiELKE,  Joachim.  Fine  viola  da  gamba 
in  Brussels  Conservatoire,  dated  1701. 

ToMBAY,  A.  DE.  Exhibited  in  Antwerp 
Exposition,   1894. 

ToRNiER,  Jean  Conrad.  Inlaying  work 
m  Wallace  Collection  (1630.) 

Torre,  Pietro  Andrea.  Died  1668. 
Lived  in  Genoa  and  made  wonderful 
crucifixes.    Nothing  extant. 

Trautmann,   ,   of   Erbach   school. 

Amorettes  and  animal  figures. 

Triqueti,  Baron.  Large  figure  of  Bac- 
chus in  British  Museum. 

Troger,  Simon.  Bom  at  Haidhausen 
near  Munich;  died  about  1769.  Gyp- 
sies and  beggars  in  the  style  of  Van 
Ostade's  and  Callot's  etchings;  reliefs, 
biblical  and  mythological  groups,  such 
as  Sacrifice  of  Abraham  in  Grilne 
Gew5lbe,  etc.  Ivory  combs,  the  fig- 
ures being  of  ivory  and  the  garments 
or  draperies  of  the  sugar  pine. 


Vading,- 


.    In    Vienna    middle    of 

seventeenth  centuiy.  Spinning 
wheels,  cups,  etc. 

Vaton,  Charles.  In  Salon,  1904,  a  wild 
boar,  marble  and  ivory. 

Valton,  Charles.  Bom  at  Pau.  Pupil 
of  Barye  and  Fr6miet.  In  Salon, 
1903,  ••L'hippopotome"  and  "La 
qudte  d*une  bouch^  de  pain,**  bronze, 
onyx,  ivory. 

Van  der  Straetten,  Georges.  Bora  in 
Ghent.  In  Salon,  1909,  statuettes, 
"Mimi**instyleof  1830,  and"RAverie** 
in  Empire  style;  bronze  and  ivory. 

Vedille, .    In  Mus^  Galli^ra,  1903, 

bas-relief,  "Arriv6e  de  la  fianc^  du 
Tzar**  after  Markowski. 

VERHfJLST,  RoMBAUT.  Bom  in  1624;  died 
in  1696.  Executed  •a  group,  "Her- 
cules and  Cacus.**  Nothing  of  his 
extant. 

Vernier,   .    Medallions  in  Mus^ 

Galli^ra  1903. 

Verschneider,  Jean.  Bom  in  Lyons. 
In  Salon,  1908,  sUtuette,  "Diabolo** 
in  boxwood  and  ivory. 


508      IVORY    AND    THE    ELEPHANT 


Vbbcovebs,  Jacob  Franb.  Boni  in  the 
Netherlands;  died  in  England  in  1744. 
Wa3  long  active  in  Rome.  Carved  small 
figures  and  vases,  which  he  sold  so 
well  in  England  that  he  settled  there. 

Vever,  .    In  Paris  Exposition  of 

1889  "Pandora,"  of  ivory  combined 
with  gold,  enamel,  and  precious  stones. 

ViBERT,  Alexandre.  Bom  at  Epinay- 
sur-Orge.  Pupil  of  Robert  and  FH- 
miet.  In  Salon  of  1007,  bust  "Laure 
de  Nives,'*  of  bronze  and  ivory. 

ViGNE,  P.  DB.  Exhibited  in  Antwerp 
Exposition,  1894;  in  Brussels  Exposi- 
tion, 1897,  a  head  of  Psyche. 

ViLLERME,  Joseph.  Of  Saint-Claude 
(dept.  Jura).    Seventeenth  century. 

ViNCKENBRiNK,  ALBERT.  Bom  in  1600; 
died  in  1664.  Low  reliefs,  biblical 
and  mythological  figures.  No  work 
certainly  known  at  present. 

ViNCOTTE,  Thomas.  Sculptor.  Bom  in 
'Antwerp,  January  8, 1850.  Exhibited 
in  Antwerp  Exposition,  1894. 

ViNDERBRiNK,  .    Bom  at  SpcFcn- 

dam,  Holland,  in  1680.  City  sculptor 
in  Amsterdam. 

ViTAL-CoRNU,  Charles.  Bom  in  Pkris. 
Pupil  of  Jouffroy.  In  Salon,  1904, 
"V<6nus  Victorieuse,'*  statuette  of 
ivory  andpredous  stones. 

VOgtle,  a.  W.,  of  Esslingen.  Exhibited 
in  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 

VoTEz,  Jean.  Designed  for  Wedgewood 
about  1768. 

Vreux,  G.  de.  "AphroditMl^hrysis**  in 
Brusseb  Exposition  of  1897. 

VuiLLERifET.  "Hercules  struggling  with 
Nemaean  lion,"  in  Mus6e  Galli^ra, 
1903. 

Wagner,  Georges.  Bom  in  America 
(Paris?).  Pupil  of  Dumont.  In  Salon, 
1908,  "Princess  Lointaine"  and  "Poi^ 
trait  de  la  Prinoesse  L.  de  X.,*'  statu- 
ettes in  silver,  ivory,  precious  stones, 
etc.;  in  Salon,  1905,  four  statuettes  in 
bronze  patin^  and  ivory,  as  follows: 
"Vierge  k  I'enfant,"  "Danseuse  grec- 
que,"  "Salom6,"  and  "Phryn^.'^ 

Walpurger,  J.  B.,  of  Berlin.  Statuette 
of  Frederick  the  Great  with  two  grey- 
hounds, 1824;  evidently  after  group 
by  G.  Schadow. 

Watson, .  Exhibited  in  Antwerp  Ex- 
position, 1894. 

Weber,  of  Heidelberg.    Geisslingen  school. 

Weckhardt  (Weckher),  Georg,  of  Mu- 
nich.    Called    to    court    of    Elector 


Augustus  of  Saxony  from  1578  as 
court  turner.  Cups,  pokab,  etc.,  in 
Grline  Gew5lbe,  Dresden.  He  seems 
to  have  then  sone  to  Berlin,  an  artist 
of  this  name  being  mentioned  as  re- 
siding there  in  1680;  his  sons  remained 
in  Dresden  and  worked  for  Elector 
Johann  Georg  I. 

Weigerle,  Heinrich.  Bora  at  Schleer- 
bach.  Pupil  of  Franceschi.  In  Salon, 
1908,  "Ulnvitatkm,**  sUtuette  of 
bronze  and  ivory. 

Wexbsenfels,  H.,  of  Dresden.  Fauns  and 
nymphs,  "Morning**  and  "Evening." 

Werner,  ,  of  Heidelbeiig. 

Werner,  J.  H.  Designed  "Die  Sonne'*; 
court  jeweller  in  Berlin. 

Wetn,  J.  "Snake  Charmer.'*  in  Bnusels 
Eq)osition,  1897. 

Willmann,  Ph.,  of  Erbach  school. 

Winkler, ,  of  Fttrth. 

WoLFERS,  P.  H.  Exhibited  in  Antweip 
Exposition,  1894;  also  in  Turin  Expo- 
sition a  "Juno"  in  ivory,  silver, 
giH,  marble,  enamel,  and  precious 
stones. 

Xavert,  Jean  Baptzbte.  Bora  in  Ant- 
werp, March  80,  1697;  died  in  The 
Hague,  July  19, 1752,  as  court  sculptor. 
"Faun  and  Fauness**  shown  in  Retro- 
spective Exposition  at  Amsterdam, 
1883. 

Zbller,  Jakor.  Probably  of  Deutz  (ac- 
cording to  another  account  he  was  a 
Hollander).  Probably  son  of  Pkn- 
kraz  Zeller  of  Regensburg,  who  was  in 
the  service  of  the  Saxon  court  from 
1588.  In  the  Grttne  Gew5lbe  there 
is  a  frigate  of  ivory  dated  1620;  on  the 
keel  is  inscribed  Uie  genealogy  d  the 
Saxon  reigning  family;  pedestal  with 
Neptune  and  tritons;  Uie  rigging  is  of 
gold  and  the  armament  consists  of  82 
golden  cannon.  This  woik  was  valued 
at  8,000  thalers  in  1654. 

ZicK,  David.  Died  in  1777.  Trinity 
rings  cut  out  of  a  single  piece  d  ivory. 
This  type  of  ring  was  first  made  by 
Stefan  Zick. 

ZiCK,  Lorenx.  Born  in  Nuremberg  in 
1594;  died  in  1666;  son  of  Peter  Lo- 
renz.  Taught  Emperor  Ferdinand 
ni  in  1648  in  Vienna.  Made  pokals; 
then,  his  special  invention,  the  so- 
called  counterfeit  boxes  (on  principle 
of  Chinese  magic  balls)  one  within 
the  other,  from  a  single  piece  of 
ivoiy. 


LIST    OF    IVORY    CARVERS  509 

ZicK,    Peter.    Died    in    1632.    Tau^t  ears,  aeparsble  into  their  various  parts, 

Rudolph  II.  and  other  anatomical  objects. 

ZicK,  Stefan.    Son  of  Lorenz  Zick.    Died  Ziera,  Nicola.    Sixteenth  oentuiy. 

in    1715.    First   maker   of   "Trinity  Zhocebmann, ^,  of  Munich. 

rings";  also  made  artificial  eyes  and 


NAMES  OF  CHINESE  IVORY  CARVERS* 

Httno  Ching,  of  Canton.  national  Exposition  at  San  FV^ncisco^ 

1915. 

Kwan  Jub  of  Canton.  »        x,  i     .      .  ... 

Lien  Yu-suen  had  an  ivory  group  of  eight 

Li  Hbao-tu.    Exhibited  "Magic  Balls"  in  ^^rses  in  the  PanamarPacific  Intcrna- 

the  Panama-Pacific  International  Ex-  tional  ExposiUon  at  San  Pranasco, 

position  of  1915,  one  of  them  consist-  1915. 

^fuLSeX^I^^AX^  .Si  Z      MOK  Yv.  L«.o.  of  C«ton. 
awarded  him.  Poon  Hoi,  of  Canton. 

Lien    Hsun-hao.     Exhibited   an   elabo-      f  qq  Shue,  Canton, 
rately    carved   tusk   in  the   Chinese 
Section  of  the  Panama-Pacific  Inters      Yoono  Chin,  of  Canton. 

*Tbe  names  of  the  Cantonese  carvers  were  courteously  communicated  by  Conaul-General  F.  D.  Cheshire; 
of  Canton. 


OMITTED  ON  MAIN  LIST 

Mabtinbe,  Mancel  R.,  of  New  York  uid  Mexico. 


NAMES  OF  JAPANESE  IVORY  CARVERS 


* 

\^V^  Z0M7U«1 

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(J^^yg^    AaiS 

^'Z'    ArliB»« 

I    %^    »»• 

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B 

\^S}(^     IttOMl 

'•l^*^  ItnmtM 

\*^    ^Wr.- 

\  Qe(           IttM 

1$:^  i.ini*- 

to/VAT  HMkla 

\  <MV^    lPPO«Bl 

^    If* 

tfr4  B— 

0 

\  <A^     X««Ma 

>    \     en  i«hi 

^7V^^  ehiiD».Mi 

^i>[     JOfltttkB 

3/^lkf^  Cbitaklte 

1 

L 

f 

v*!^  *«i«mi 

^  ^  KlahiaoTt 

1.-*    x»t« 

^M     Mb 

0 

q*\^  ILslakB 

^i|/   KB«a 

jj^  K^    0«A« 

J^^i^d^  oiolntaiiS 

^$Mait.«£ 

^^  isf; 

A(fi<(>  airttf~i 

«^^    OUtat* 

•^5    M-rtl 

^^    liorl> 

*H^  •11—1 

M   ^?  eieiray«B 

^  4   x«tu 

^  m{       JCvegtota 

U(  \fi   Olekoa*! 

1^  «4      OlektttMi 

Hfiii^   Kvudote 

^^       taSwl 

,^^    01i*»«hla 

■ 

■ 

1> 

^  "H        ■•Igleka 

jr  ^  lakajltn 

«  >      «  ft.    ff 

1^  ilf^    «M«hld0 

?  S\?  ItolkAlMl 

<SAqy   BalrasMB 

Jt^«(%\    I«kl«4« 

«!)^    iMahlro 

^    V^        MlMl 

*^<.^  llia«7»ra 

^^  bS-i 

t^t^     llMako  Ogan  (alM) 

^  %     Klrp-lrt 

^^^   H5.1« 

J5<  ^     MammUiA 

S  ^     Bai««kl 

Vl^^     Kobon 

f^^    Stain 

.?,^^     HaM-. 

^^k*^     MlahoMl 

^^^j4    Bode 

• 

«:^\*      h»J«»l 

^^      UofclMM 

^    1     lolohl 

« 

*^  S{|i\         lUM«hl6* 

I^V^      KUkoka 

^     y 

I 

st,^      ..-i.^ 

1^^      «f«kl 

\  Y^     ZohlBla 

\  AV^   lehlrlMftl 

1^  J^|l/       Muateahl 

^»C,       MtaMM 

N^V^    X0hlrloui 

\   jj^     lehlrlo 

^1^         MldS 

V^    ^         MltOTkMS 

510 


i 


NAMES  OF  JAPANESE  IVORY   CARVERS 


^^  «»~» 

i^^     n>.hlr« 

• 

<(** 

ltaBit«M 

HA'^    Mltratoshl 

W4      M«— 

^  4p     ShlatiB 

^«^ 

Sbnk* 

^.^    MiyMoto 

<^15   — «-*• 

:2|E*  tO     ahlsoMa* 

«<^ 

■kaknlMi 

li<-)f    Moti 

v^sr  »-— •'^ 

^^^^     tbltaj»M 

15**^ 

StaxAkB 

i^W      !».««. 

tfJl^f?     ~-^ 

!j%AV^    thOdOMl 

^•^ 

BhOMl 

^si^     HBMhva 

Hjjf^  Aj      nuMriki 

s^  ^     ShOBla 

^4 

nmBaa 

1 

1 

V<C?     8taC«tra 

w**' 

80  jm 

:«  A\     Umslotai 

^? 

sSmI 

:^  tfi      teCMltn 

"^  A^    lobmaoA 

^^   Skake 

^^ 

SoBia 

•^  ¥iJ      ■«*• 

'!JI!l'iw|J^    lokojoihi 

^5"^' 

v^«f 

.-^ 

^  J^      Bum 

«^   ^     lenBitm 

^\flf    Stasia 

tn^^ 

Sarakl 

*$    ^r      lobMki 

^    h^      loriMM 

t 

fg     Sj^        lOkMllilBft 

^  W    Ta»«flM 

WV/ 

ToaetttiA 

c 

1 

4;  ^     cw 

ToBOtosbl 
Te0bl-«kl 

«%{   12^     Oala 

V  4:  0.0 

Q}  ^      T0nMhl6* 

1 

*!f3!^ 

Toslil0bik« 

f 

^Spi^fl^tH   totakld. 

T00hlkatft 

4|^^     BlBte 

-f|(^  %fl    Blenln 

^Ctt^    T0klokiikmi 
•4^Vi>    toko..! 

^    \^        TokB0«l 
^.^      TOBlhld* 

•«^^      TeM>0hlte 

TeahSaaa* 
fothialtm 
toakliaa* 
To7oyoitol 

•^  t^     Mokokv 

J^\*    aia.01 

A^     4         U07WA 

U«.tfa 

5 


^H 


fataattko 


»S^>C>  8«dflal 

^«i  S.I0. 

ir^  ••Iga 

v^^  8«lho 

*lg*  J    t«i.l0hl 
< 

■^  *1      ••IJl 
80lkn 


80lih0 


A  ^    Saakotai 
•^  4      flhlk07W» 


^  \iir  TMMdBht   >^5<'  \    Y0.hi-i0ki 


:«^  ^       T0lcldka 


'i^j^    T0thit00hi 


8hlako0ftl 


>^^     Toihl.«kl      :!^W     TWdtcM 
>l|j^<>(      TeshllitaA 


511 


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I  : 


INDEX 


Aachen,  tusk  in  Cathedral  of,  402 
^Slian,  on  elephants  taught  to  write,  151 
"Age  of  mammals,"  duration  of,  331 
Ageltruda,  ivory  diptych  given  by,  42 
Akeley,  Carl,  vii 

Al  Benmi,  of  walrus  ivory,  302,  303 
Albert,  King  of  the  Belgians,  94 
Alexander  me  Great,  171 

Indian  elephants  captured  by,  145 

elephants  represented  on  funeral  car  of, 
146 

quaint    elephant    figures    to     illustrate 
romance  of,  153 

of  war  elephants,  193 
Alexander,  £.  M.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Alfred  the  Great  hears  of  walrus  ivory,  303 
Alkamenes,  25 
Allan,  J.,  ix 
Alliott,  Hector,  ix 
Amber  figure  of  elephant,  181 
Ambraser  Collection,  Vienna,  59 
American  ivory  carvings,  84,  85,  90,  95,  96, 

320,  321,  482 
American    Museum   of   Natural    History, 
366.  373.  376.  391.  413 

expedition  sent  by,  to  Alaska,  354.  356, 
391 
Amulets  of  ivory  and  bone.  11.  14,  84 

horns  as  amulets,  311 

teeth  as  amulets,  312 

boars'  tusks  as  amulets,  313 

tooth  amulet  of  Kiriwini  islanders,  316 

hoof  amulets.  318 

elk  teeth  as  amulets,  318 

bears'  teeth  as  amulets,  319 

tip  of  elephant  tusk  as.  409,  410 
Analyses  of  ivory,  226,  227 
Antiochus  XII,  coins  of,  with  torch-bearing 

elephants,  177 
Aphrodite,  statue  of.  in  Sikyon.  25 
Aprimont,  Haute-Sa6ne,  ivories  found  in 

tumuli  of.  28 
Areobundus,  consular  diptych  of,  31 
Aristotle,  on  war  elephants.  145 

on  elephant  hunting,  193 
Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  170 


Arrian,  on  war  elephants,  145,  146 
Artemis  Orthia,  ivories  found  in  temple  of, 

at  SparU,  17,  19 
Ashby.  George  £.,  viii 
Ashwell,  Thomas  W.,  viii 
Asklepios,  ivory  and  gold  statues  of,  at 
Epidauros,  24,  26,  29 

at  Sikyon,  25 
Assamese  ivory  carving.  111,  117 
Assyro-Babylonian  ivory  carvings,  11,  IS 
Athene,  statue  of,  in  Elis,  26 

in  Pellene,  26 

at  Alalkomene,  26 

at  Tegea,  26 
Athene  of  Megara,  statue  of,  25 
Athene  Parthenos,  statue  of,  in  Parthenon, 

25,  26,  27,  29,  256 
Aubert,  Jean,  medieval  ivory  carver,  58 
Augustin,  Jean  Baptiste.  85 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  65 
Aurelian,  secured  fine  tusks  after  defeating 

Firmus,  402 
Aurengzeb,  Shah.  life  endangered  in  ele- 
phant combat,  158 

war  elephants  owned  by,  159 
AvrU,  Philippe,  on  fossil  ivory,  237,  238 

Baer.  J.  W.,  viii,  85 

Bailey,  Hakaliah.  first  to  show  elephant  in 

America,  155.  156 
Bakelite,  ivory  substitute  for  billiard  balls, 

249 
Baker,  Henry  D.,  x 
Baker,  Sir  Samuel,  first  to  use  small-bore 

rifle  in  elephant  hunting,  206 
Bangles  of  ivory,  101,  438 
Banks,  James  Edgar,  13 
Barbour,  Erwin  H.,  ix,  xi 
Bardwell,  John,  424 
Barnes,  James,  vii 

tusks  secured  by,  418 
Barney,  Arthur  L..  viii 
Bamum,  Phineas  T.,  mounted  and  exhibited 

"Bet,"    first    elephant    brought    to 

America,  156 

bought  and  exhibited  "Jumbo,**  188 


518 


5U 


INDEX 


Barrett,  John  D.,  ix 

Barries,  £.,  98 

Barron,  George  H.,  ix 

Barthema,  Ludovico  di,  on  armour  of  war 

elephants,  151 
of  unicorns  at  Mecca,  SOI 
Bartolomsus  Anglicus,  notice  of  elephant  in 

"De  ProprieUtibus  Rerum"  of,  184, 

185 
Bates,  Harry,  94 
Batthyany    family,    ivory-adorned   saddle 

owned  by,  60 
Beadleston,  A.  N.,  95 
Bears'  teeth  as  amulets  or  ornaments,  311, 

312 
Beds  of  ivory,  21,  22 
Beekman,  J.  D.,  396 

Behemoth,  probably  hippopotamus,  137,  238 
Belden,  Bannock  L.,  viii 
Belgian  ivory  carvings,  75,  82,  94,  95,  476 
Bell,  John,  345 
Belucci,  Giuseppe,  317 
Benedetto  da  Majano,  62 
Benin,  Africa,  ivory  carving  in,  130,  131 
Beresovka  mammoth,  332,  334,  362,  388, 

389 
Berlin  Museum,  30 
Bercelius,  Johann  Jacob,  analysis  of  ivory 

by,  227 
Bethmann,   Simon   Morits   von,   donated 

"Golden  Book"  to  Frankfort-on-the- 

Main,  91 
Bethnal  Green  Museum  (J.  D.  Goldingham)* 

tusk  in,  427 
Bible,  mention  of  ivory  in,  187 
Biblioth^que  de  TArsenal,  Paris,  48 
Biblioth^ue  Nationale,  Paris,  80,  35,  38, 

44,  47,  100 
Bibra,   Ernst,   Freiherr   von,   analysis   of 

ivory  by,  227 
Billiard  balls,  222,  231,  438,  445 
cutting  of,  243,  249 
classes  and  prices  of,  247,  248 
Bird  cages  of  ivory,  122,  125 
Birdwood,  Sir  Greorge,  108 
Blaine,  G.,  tusks  owned  by,  431 
Blake,  Charles  Byron,  viii 
Blared,  £.  A.,  vii 
Boars'  tusks,  120,  313,  317,  318 
Boileau,    £tienne,    "Us    et    Mestiers    de 

Paris,"  57,  58 
"Bombay  Boxes,"  109 
"Bone  armour**  of  walrus  ivory,  307 
"Bone  turquoise,**  86,  317 
Book  covers,  ivory  adorned,  35,  36,  44 
Bossuit,  Francis  van,  ivory  carver,  67,  68 
Boulaq  Museum,  Cairo,  8,  9 
Bourne,     Jonathan,     Memorial     Whaling 

Museum,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  322 


Bourne,  Miss  E.  H.,  322 

Bowen,  Major  J.  Webb,  tusks  owned  1^, 

431 
Braddock,  Charles  S.,  Jr.,  viii,  217 
Braeillier,  Jean  le,  medieval  ivory  carver,  58 
Bramly,  Major  A.  W.  Jennings,  490 
Breasted,  James  Henry,  ix 
Briesen,  Arthur  von,  x 
British  Museum,  9,  12,  13,  16,  34,  58,  198, 

366,  380,  395,  411 
Brook*s,  Sir  Victor,  Collection,  tusk  in,  427 
Brooke,  Major  E.  W.  S.,  431 
Brooke,  T.  W.,  tusks  owned  by,  490 
Brooks,  Arthur  M.,  ix 
Brunswick-Balke-Coilender    Co.,    pair   of 

tusks  owned  by,  414 
Buddha,  images  of,  carved  on  tusk,  117 
large  figure  of,  made  by  Japanese  carver, 

121 
Buddha,  tooth  relic  of,  315 
Buddhist  legends  about  elephants,  188, 140 
Budge,  E.  A.  Wallis,  x 
Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  History,  131. 

421 
Bulpett,  C,  tusks  owned  by,  431 
Bumpus,  H.  C,  354 
Burial  grounds  of  elephanta,  416 
Burlace,  J.  B.,  ix 
Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club,  Egyptian  ivoiy 

shown  at,  9 
Moorish  carving  in,  45 
Burmese  ivory  carving,  115,  116 
Burrough,  Capt.  H.  S.,  tusks  owned  hj, 

429 
Butter,  A.  E.,  tusks  owned  by,  430,  431 
Buttons  of  vegetable  ivory,  how  made,  281, 

283 
Byzantine  ivory  carvings,  39-43,  47,  48^  9C^ 

97 

Ccesar,  Julius,  funeral  couch  of,  82 
frequent    appearance    of    elephant   on 

coins  of,  174 
opinion  of,  and  tactics  for  opposing  war 

elephants,  182 
Caffour,  Abdul,  117 

CalcutU  International  Exhibition,  102, 101 
Calydonian  boar,  tusks  of  the,  26 
Cantimpr^,  Thomas  de,  of  elephants,  IM, 

300 
Cantonese  ivory  carver,  conditions  of,  UMl 

127 
Capitan,  Louis,  4,  5 
Cardano,  Girolamo,  of  trained  Hrphant, 

154 
Carnegie  Museum,  Pittsburg,  477 
Carnot,  Adolphe,  analysis  of  ivory  by, 

227 
Carolingian  ivory  carvings,  88^  90,  44 


INDEX 


515 


Carpentier,  Paul,  416 

Cartier,  Jacques,  his  report  of  walrus  in 

1534.  304 
Carvers  of  ivory,  list  of,  489^09 
Catania,  Sicily,  La  Fontana  dell'  Elefante 

in.  184 
Catherine  II  of  Russia,  ivory  medallion  of, 

75,  £36 
Cellini,  Benvenuto.  60 
CeUuloid,  252.  290 

commerce  in.  291,  453,  454 
Chalandon,  G..  72 
Charlemagne.  39.  90,  341 

chessmen  given  to.  by  Haroun  al-Rashid, 

101 
elephant  given  to,  153.  193 
horn  said  to  have  been  given  to.  196 
Charles   V,   of   France,   ivory  carving  in 

inventory  of.  51.  58 
Charles  VI  of  Germany  pays  heavy  debt 

by  narwhal  horn,  295 
Charles  the  Bald.  Emperor.  30 
"ChasteUune  de  Vergi,"  ivory  carving  in 

Louvre,  51,  53 
Chaucer,  mention  of  ivory  tablets  by,  63 
Cherry,  W.  S.,  Collection  of,  Los  Angeles 

Co.  Museum,  418 
tusks  m,  422 
Cheshire,  F.  D.,  x 

Chessmen  of  ivory,  57, 99, 100. 113, 116, 304 
Chicago  Exposition  of  1893,  121 
ChOds,  Harris  R.,  vii 
Chinese  ivory  carvings,  99,  118-120,  122- 

127,  134.  404.  436.  479 
list  of  carvers.  509 
Christian  I  of  Denmark,  probable  founder 

of  Order  of  the  Elephant,  189 
Christy,  David,  4 
Chryselephantine  sUtues,  22,  28,  29,  77, 

118 
lubricating  or  moistening  of.  23.  24 
Chutwu,  Arabic  name  for  walrus  ivory  (?), 

302,  303 
Cicero,  22 

Cincinnati  Zoological  Company.  188,  189 
Cinghalese  ivory  carving,  117,  118 
Clark,  Mrs.  Elsie  W.  Southwick,  viii 
Clark,  James  L.,  vii 

tusks  owned  by,  431 
Clark,  John  D..  viii 
Clarke,  Sir  James  Purdon,  111 
Clayton,  Capt.  Gilbert,  xi 
Clement  VII,  Pope,  narwhal  horn  given  by, 

to  Francis  I,  294 
Clerc.  George  On^ime.  xi 
Cockburn.  N.  C,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Coilly,  Jean  dc,  medieval  ivory  carver,  58 
Coins  bearing  representations  of  elephimts, 

171-181 


Colbert,  ivory  treasures  of  Metz  Cathedral 

given  to.  44 
Collodian,  453.  454 

Colombi^re.  La.  prehistoric  ivory  carver's 
tools  found  at,  6 
carving  of  male  and  female  figures  from,  6 
Combarelles,  Les,  ivory  carvings  found  in 

cave  of.  6 
Combs  of  ivory.  47.  113,  136,  186,  153,  265, 
276.  344.  438 
St.  Edwards.  55,  56 
Commerce  in  ivory,  432-472 
in  China.  432 
in  Zanzibar.  433.  442 
at  Aden,  433.  434.  440.  441 
in  India,  434.  435,  438,  439,  472 
in  Africa,  435 
in  Great  Britain,  435-437,  455,  469-471, 

473 
in  the  Cameroons,  439,  470 
in  Laos,  Asia.  441 
in  French  Africa.  441 
at  Mombasa,  442.  443 
in  United  SUtes.  447-453 
in  Germany.  458-462 
in  the  Congo.  463,  466 
at  Antwerp,  443,  465-469 
at  London,  436,  437,  445,  446,  467,  470, 

471 
at  Liverpool,  467 
in  the  Sudan,  469,  471 
Composite  elephant  figures,  170 
Congo  ivory  carving.  76.  131-133 
Conies    {Hyrax),   distantly   allied   to   ele> 

phants,  326,  327 
Constantine  the  Great,  carving  of.  47 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  ivory  carving  in 

the  Louvre.  50.  51 
Cosmas  Indicopleustos,  434 
Cosmetic  use  of  ivory.  266 
Cosway.  Richard,  85,  89 
Couches  of  ivory,  22,  102 
Crescent  and  star  emblem  perhaps  derived 

from  boars*  tusks.  313 
Crete,  ancient  ivories  from,  15,  16 
Croziers  of  ivory,  55 
Ctesias  of  Knidos,  of  rhinoceros  horns,  298, 

299 
Culin,  Stewart  W.,  viii 
Cumming,  Ronalsyn  Gordon,  tusk  secured 

by,  409 
Cummings.  Carlos  E..  421 
Cuperus,    Gisbertus     (Gisbert    Kujrpert), 
work  of.  on  elephant  effigies  on  coins, 
171 
Curtis.  G.  F.  W..  tusks  owned  by,  427 
Cuvier,  of  mammoth  bones  found  in  1494, 

342 
Cyprus,  ancient  ivories  from,  16,  20 


516 


INDEX 


Daggett,  Frank  S.,  ix,  358 

Dalton,  O.  M.,  34,  35 

Danish  Coronation  Seat.  292,  481 

Darcel,  Alfred,  97 

Dawkins,  R.  M.,  18,  19 

De  Beule,  Al.,  ivories  by,  82 

De  Boot,  BoStius,  of  narwhal  horn,  296 

De  Bremaecker,  Eu^ne,  ivories  by,  80 

De  Cuyper,  Floris,  ivories  by,  78 

Delamere,  Lord,  tusks  owned  by,  429,  431 

Delhi  ivory  carving,  109 

Dentition  of  the  elephant,  220,  221,  329, 

330,  336.  337 
Devreese,  Godefroid,  ivories  by,  79 
"Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  statue  of,  24 
Dieppe  School  of  ivory  carving,  70,  74 
Dietrich,  Professor,  343 
Dickerson,  Mary  A.,  viii 
Dionysos  Eleutherios,  statue  of,  25 
Dionysos,  statue  of,  at  Akrokorinthus,  25 
Dionysos,  statue  of,  at  Olympia,  26 
Diptychs,  Roman  consular,  29-31,  72 
Koman,  of  private  persons,  31-33 
Christian,  33-34,  42 
Donavanik,  Visuddhi,  ix 
Dordogne,   relics  of  prehistoric  times  in 

caves  of  the,  3 
Douce,  Francis,  collection  of,  101 
Drunmiond,  J.  W.,  vii 
Dudley,  Governor  Joseph,  on  mammoth 

remains,  365 
Dunn,  H.  Shaw,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Dupon,  Josu6,  ivories  by,  82,  94 
Duquesnoy,  Francois,  60,  67 
Durbar  of  1903,   gorgeously   caparisoned 

elephanU  at,  162,  163 
Dushonff,  Alfred  O.,  425 
Dwarf  elephants,  328,  384,  385,  431 

East  India  Museum,  100 

kbSniHerie,  74 

Ehorarii  (ivory  workers),  36 

Egyptian  ivory  carvings,  8-11 

Eleazar,  brother  of  Judas  Maccabee,  gallant 

exploit  of,  156,  157 
Elephaiits 

earliest  use  of  Greek  name,  19 

in  ancient  Egypt,  136,  137,  148 

Egyptian  statuette  of,  130 

figured  on  obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  U,  137 

named  in  Books  of  Maccabees,  137 

in  China,  137,  138 

of  Ceylon,  141 

of  Borneo,  141 

taught  to  spell  and  write,  150,  151 

as  workers,  153,  189,  478 

first  one  sent  to  America,  155 

diseases  of,  caused  by  evil  spirits,  162 

intelligence  of,  163-168,  185 


Elephants,  longevity  of,  147,  191 

African  superstition  about,  166 

supposed  piety  of,  178,  179,  185 

medicinal  use  of  parts  of,  186 

sise  of,  1£»-191,  292,  478 

embarkation  of,  in  Roman  times,  195 

in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  207,  206 

in  Togoland  (German  West  Africa),  211 

value  of,  214 

wholesale  slaughter  of,  218 

in  Siam,  215-218 

dentition  of,  220,  221,  329,  330,  336,  337 

evolution  of,  323-387 

name  of,  in  Chinese,  340 

dwarf  elephants,  328,  SHB4,  385,  431 

EUphas  (Urieanua,  species  of,  ^3,  384 

"red  elephant"  of  Siam,  885 

names  oi,  in  different  languages,  385,386 

flesh  of,  as  food,  404 

secured  by  exp.  of  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist., 
413 

burying  grounds  of,  in  Africa,  416 

intoxicants  administered  to,  or  sought 
by,  157.  160,  417 

trees  broken  down  by,  417 

strength  of,  423 

sale  3,  regulated  in  Laos,  Asia,  441 

hairs  of,  used  for  amulets,  474 

generaand  species  of  Proboscidea,  487-494 
Elephant  hunting,  see  hunting  of  elephants 
Elephant  hunting,  regulation  of, 

in  Belgian  Congo,  208-210 

in  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  806,  209.  480 

in  Nigeria,  211 

in  the  Transvaal,  211.  212 

in  Rhodesia,  212,  213 

in  India,  213,  214 

in  Siam,  215,  216,  477 
Elephants,  sculptures  of, 

in  India,  138,  139 

on  friese  of  temple  Angkor  Wat,  Cam- 
bodia, 140 

in  Ceylon,  140,  141 

on  Triumphal  Column  of  Arcadius,  171 

beneath  obelisk  of  Pope  Adrian  VII,  171 

in  amber,  181 

sale  of,  478 

extinct,  478 
Elephas  columbi,  334.  330,  881,  896, 478 
Elephas  impercUor,  337,  339,  857,  392,  397, 

403,  478 
Elepkaa  meridionaUs,  328,  329,  337,  90% 

394,  395,  397,  478 
Elephas  pnmigenius,  332, 334.  376. 390, 391, 

396,397 
EUdngton,  J.,  429 
Elks*  teeth  as  amulets,  318,  319 
Elphinstone,  Hon.  M.  W.,  tusks  owned  by, 
431 


INDEX 


517 


Embriachi,  Baldassare,  degli,  founder  of 

school  of  ivory  carving  in  Venice,  59 
Emin  Pasha's  ivory,  204 
Emmons,  Commander  G.  T.,  viii 
Endoeus,  Greek  sculptor  in  ivory,  26 
Endymion,  statue  of,  at  Metapontum,  26 
Engush  ivory  carving,  93,  94 
Eraclius,  23 

Erbach  School  of  ivory  carving,  74 
Eschacholtz   Bay,   Alaska,   mammoth  re- 
mains found  at,  354,  356,  891 
Eskimo  ivory  carving,  128-130,  304,  306- 

309,  322,  351,  353,  424 
Ethnological  Museum,  Dresden,  348 
Etruscan  funeral  bed  with  ivory  and  bone 

inlays,  21,  22 

Eu,  Comtesse  d ',  mosaic  owned  by,  showing 

embarkation  of  elephants  in  Roman 

times,  195 

Eumenes,  King  of  Asia,  ivory  sceptre  of,  27 

Eurydice,  statue  of,  in  Herseum  at  Olympia, 

26 
Evans,  Sir  Arthur,  15 
"Evil  Eye,"  83,  311,  314,  318 
Exposition  d*Art  Retrospective,  51,  72 
Esekiel,  ivory  brought  to  Tyre  noted  by,  14 
Evolution  of  the  elephant,  323-340 
list  of  genera  and  species  of  Proboscidea, 
487-494 

Faid*herbe,  Lucas,  ivory  carver,  67,  68 

Fairbanks,  Arthur,  ix 

Fairclough,  H.  R.,  ix 

Fairfax,  Lord  Henry,  46,  47 

Fairfax,  Lord  Thomas,  46 

Falconer,  Hugh,  4 

Fan-sticks  of  ivory  in  fan  given  by  Queen 

Theodolinda     to    the     Cathedral    of 

Monza,  86 
Faraday,  Michael.  228 
Feavearyear,  A.  W.,  x 
Feavearyear,  Lt.,  F.  W.,  x,  419 
Ferguson,  Lieut.-Col.  J.  £).,  tusks  owned  by, 

429 
Fermor,  L.  Leigh,  x 
Fewkes,  J.  Walter,  392 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago, 

21,  135.  377.  395 
Fiammingo,  U  (Francois  Duquesnoy),  67 
Flaubert,  Gustave,  **Salammbo"  bv,  92 
Flavins  Anastasius,  consular  diptych  of,  30, 

31 
Flavins  Felix,  consular  diptvch  of,  30 
Flavins  Justinianus,  consular  diptych  of, 

30.72 
Fleishmann.  Col.  Max  C,  tusks  owned  by, 

430 
Flemish  ivory  carving,  60,  67,  68,  69 
Forbes,  Garrit,  ix 


Forbes,  Garrit,  tusks  secured  by,  415 

Ford,  WaiUm  E.,  474 

Fortune,  J.,  tusk  owned  by,  428 

Fossil  ivory.  234.  240,  340,  474,  479 

Akskan.  234,  235,  240,  350,  351,  353, 

354.  399 
Siberian,  234,  240,  302,  344, 347, 897-399, 

427 
quality  of,  235 

8uppc»ed  curative  properties  of,  239 
in  Thuringia  and  Bohemia,  239 
brought  to  London  in  1611,  341 
prices  of,  in  Russia,  347 
m  Yukon  Territory,  Canada,  350 
blue  dye  from.  352 
cast  up  on  English  coast,  354 
prices  of,  in  London,  469 
mineral  formed  in  Siberian,  477 

FossU  "unicorn''  horns,  297 

Fraas,  E.,  343 

Frampton,  George,  93 

Francis  I  of  France,  294 

Freer,  Charles  L.,  collection  of,  112 

Frankfort  Museum,  tusk  shot  by  late  G.  G. 
Longden  in,  429 

Frear,  Charles  L.,  ix 

French  ivory  carvings,  49-54,  62,  65.  72, 
73,  92,  93 

Fulgosus,  of  the  finding  of  mammoth  bones, 
341 

Furgold,  Geheimrat  Karl,  x 

Furniture  with  ivory  adornment,  74,  102, 
104,  109 

"Galalith,"  an  ivory  substitute,  290 

Galou,  M.,  5 

Ganesa,  elephant  god  of  Hindus,  statue  of,l  12 

Garboe,  Axel.  481 

Garcias  ab  Horto,  434 

Gamier,  P.,  72 

Garstin,  Sir  W.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 

Geisslingen  School  of  ivory  carving,  74 

George  V  of  England,  alleged  auto-amulet 

of,  84 
tusks  nven  to,  410 
Gerard,  M.,  405 
German  ivory  carving,  44,  45,  47,  65,  66, 

69,  90,  91,  97,  98 
Ger6me,  Jean  L^n,  75 
Gesner,  Conrad,  293,  294 
Getz,  John,  vii 
Gibson,  Hugh  S.,  x 
Gibson-Carmichael,  Sir  Thomas,  Collection 

of,  65 
Gilmore,  Charles  W.,  349,  350 
Giovanni  da  Bologna,  60 
Goa,  Cathedral  of,  tusks  for  cross  in,  410 
"Golden  Book"  of  Frankfort-on-the-Maio, 

90 


518 


INDEX 


Golden  Gate  Park  Museum,  San  Francisco, 

322,  424 
Gompertz,  P.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Groujon,  Jean,  ivory  carving  falsely  attrib- 
uted to,  62 
Government    House,    Rangoon,    elephant 

tusks  in,  427 
Grauer,  R.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Greek  ivory  carvings,  17-20,  22-27,  29 
"Green  ivory,"  231,  232 
Greenfield,  Capt.  T.  W.,  tusks  owned  by, 

430 
Greenwood*  Isaac,  American  ivory  carver, 

90 
Gregory  the  Great,  St.,  figure  of,  on  ivory 

plaque,  43 
Grogan,  E.  S.,  tusk  owned  by,  429 
Grosshersogliche  Kammer,  Carlsruhe,  67 
"Grotto  du   Pape,"   Brassempouy,   ivory 

carvings  found  in,  5,  6 
Grtine  Grew5lbe  Dresden,  fine  ivories  in,  65, 

66,  67,  69,  70 
Guilds  of  ivory  carvers,  36,  57,  58 
Guilhou  Collection,  20 
Guillebert  de  Metz,  "Description  de  Paris" 

by,  58 
Guiteras,  Ramon,  M.  D.,  viii 

_  • 

Hagenbeck,  Carl,  x,  478 

Hale  &  Son,  Messrs.,  x 

Halitcharius,  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  39 

Hall,  James,  375 

Hallstatt  Period,  ivories  foimd  in  tumuli  of, 

28 
Hamilton,  Capt.  £.  C,  tusks  owned  by, 

429 
Hand  of  Fatima,  Arab  amulet,  83 
Hankey,  Capt.  C.,  tusk  owned  by,  429 
Hannibal,  war  elephants  of,  149,  181,  182, 

339,  340 
Harbaville  triptych,  42 
Harold    Hardraad    of    Norway,    receives 

walrus  ivory,  304 
Haroun  al-Rashid,  ivory  carving  given  by, 

to  Charlemagne,  101,  341,  40i2, 
elephant  given  by,  153,  193 
horn  said  to  have  been  given  by,  196 
Harriman  Museum,  Forest  Hill,  England, 

Benin  ivories  in,  130,  131 
Hart,  Capt.  R.  S.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Harvey,  Sir  Robert,  tusk  owned  by,  428 
Harvard   Club,    New  York,  fine  pair  of 

tusks  in,  415 
Havard,  Henri,  57 
Hay,  O.  P.,  ix 
Heam,    George  A.,    ivory    collection    of, 

477 
Heinz,  H.  J.,  viii,  406 
ivory  collection  of,  477 


Helena,  Empress, 

statuette  of,  41 

carving  of,  47 
Hendley,  Col.  T.  H.,  102 
Henry  III  of  England  receives  elephant  from 

Louis  IX  of  France,  153 
Hera,  statue  of,  in  the  Heneum  at  Argot, 

25,29 
H^rain,  Jean,  ivories  by,  79 
Herodotus,   first   to   use    Greek  name  of 

elephant,  19 
Hers,  O.  F.,  333 

Herzogliches  Museum,  Brunswick,  68 
Heseloah,    King    of    Judah,    gives   ivocy 
couches   and    thrones    as   tribute  to 
Assyria,  14 
Hierakonopolis,  predynastic  ivory  carving 

found  at,  8 
Hildburgh,  W.  L.,  83 
Hilton  fVice  Collection,  9,  10 
Hincnuir,  Bishop  of  Rheims,  40 
Hindu  ivory  carvers,  low  wages  of,  110 
Hindu  ivory  carving  99,  101-115,  306 
Hispanic  Museum,  New  York  City,  20,  fl 
Historical  Society's  museum  in  Newport,  96 
Hoder,  W.  J.,  130 
Hoentschel  Collection,  49 
Hofbibliothek,  Vienna,  ivory  plaque  in,  4S 
Hogarth,  William,  3 
Holden,  E.  R.,  ix 
Holmes,  R.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Horiuji  Temple,  Japan,  ivory  objects  in  the^ 

276 
Homaday,  William  T.,  vii,  384 
Horsevael,   Anglo-Saxon  name  of  walmi^ 

304 
Hoshin,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  876 
Howdah,  elephant  seat,  with  ivory  deoon- 

tion,  161 
Howland,  Henry  R.,  viii 
Hrdlicka,  Ales,  ix 

Huerta,  R.  de  la,  tusks  owned  by»  430 
Hume,  W.  F.,  xi 
Humphreys,  Major  G.  G.  P.,  tusk  owned  bjp 

430 
Hunting  of  elephants,  192-218 

by  ancient  Egyptians,  192 

by  Assyrians,  192 

honours  paid  to  dead  hunters  by  I^lnaiu^ 
184,  195 

on  Guinea  Coast  in  1556,  197 

in  the  Congo  in  1576,  197 

by  Bengalas  of  Congo,  190 

in  Sangoland,  Africa,  199 

among  the   Kukus   of   Anglo-] 
provinces,  201 

British  supervision  of,  204 

best  rifles  for,  206 

by  African  natives,  208,  209 


INDEX 


519 


Hunting  of  elephants,  in  Kheddahplan  in 
India,  214,  215 
in  the  Congo,  407,  408,  41S-418,  485 
in  the  Cameroon^,  439 
in  Siam,  477 

Hunyadi  Janos,  name  of,  inscribed  on  nar- 
whal horn,  295 

Hushiapur  work,  104-106 

Hutchinson,  Arthur,  ix 

Huygelen,  Frans,  ivories  by,  78 

Human  bones  for  artistic  use,  320,  321 

Ichikawa  Komei,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  121 
Ides,  Isbrand,  on  Siberian  mammoths,  344 
Iliad,  mention  of  ivory,  in  the,  19 
Imitation  ivory,  279 
Imitations  of  old  ivories,  64,  65 
Imperial  Ivory  Works  in  China,  122 
Imperial    Museum    of    Natural    History, 
Petrograd.  346,  352,  388,  390,  392,  395 
Indian    Colonial    Exposition    at    Crystal 

Palace,  London,  406 
Inlaying  of  ivory,  104 
Inouye,  K.,  xi 

Insai,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  276 
Instituto  (reologico,  Mexico  City,  358,  393 
Intelligence  of  the  elephant,  162-168 
Intoxicants  administered  to,  or  sought  by 

elephants,  157,  160,  417 
Irene,  Empress  of  the  East,  ivory  figure  of,  35 
Isabey,  Jean  Baptiste,  85 
Ismail  IQian,  Hindu  miniature  painter  on 

ivory,  114 
Ismay,  C.  Bower,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Issai,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  276 
Italian  ivory  carvings,  54,  55,  60,  61,  62, 

64,66 
Ivory,  passim 

large  surfaces  of,  how  obtained  by  weld- 
ing, 22,  243 

sources  of,  99 

African,  115,  475 

Cinghalese,  115 

mention  of,  in  Bible,  137 

composition  of,  219-222 

analyses  of,  226,  227 

density  of,  227,  228 

tensile  resistance  of,  228-230 

compressive  resistance  of,  228-230 

position  of,  in  electrostatic  series,  228 

resilience  of,  231,  249 

shrinkage  of,  231 

"green  ivory,"  231,  232 

treatment  of,  231,  232,  255,  256,  262 

trade  in,  232,  432-473 

African,  qualities  of,  232,  233,  263,  475 

soft,  233,  234 

hard,  233,  235 

eaten  by  rodents,  240 


Ivory,  "rose  ivory"  240 
bleaching  of,  262,  263 
Asiatic,  qualities  of,  263 
as  a  cosmetic,  266 

gates  of  Chinese  Imperial  PaUce  adorned 
with,  340 

sensitiveness  to  changes  of  temperature, 
400 

of  Bahr  el  Ghazel,  Sudan,  420,  423 

price  of,  in  Sudan,  423 

m  New  York,  443,  444 

sales  of,  in  London,  436,  437,  445,  446, 

467,  470,  471 
in  Antwerp,  443,  447,  465-469 
memorials  of  the  dead  made  of,  486 
Ivory  carvers,  list  of,  495-511 
Ivory,  carving  of,  in  various  periods,  lands, 
and  schools: 
prehistoric,  3-8 
Egyptian,  8-11 
Sumerian,  13,  14 
Assyrian,  11-14 
Hebrew,  14 
Phoenician,  14,  20,  21 
Persian,  100 
CreUn,  15,  16 
Cyprian,  16,  20 
Greek,  17-20,  22-27 
Roman,  27,  28,  29-37 
Etruscan,  21,  22 
Byzantine,  39-43,  47,  48,  92,  97 
Carolingian: 

Metz  School,  38,  39,  44 
Rheims  School,  38 
French,  49-54.  62,  65,  72,  73,  75,  92,  93 

Dieppe  School,  70,  74 
German,  44,  45,  47,  65,  66,  69,  90,  91, 
97  98 
Erbach  School,  74 
Geisslingen  School,  74 
Italian,  54,  58,  60,  61,  62,  64,  66 

Venetian  School,  54,  59 
Spanish,  48,  92 
Moorish,  45 
Flemish,  60,  67,  68,  69 
Belgian,  75-82,  94,  95,  476 
English,  93,  94 
Russian,  75 

American,  84,  88,  90,  95,  96,  320,  321 
Hindu,  99,  101-115,  306 
Assamese,  111,  117 
Burmese,  115,  116 
Siamese,  134 
Cinghalese,  117,  118 
Chinese,  99,  118-120,  122-127,  134,  404, 

436,  477,  479 
Japanese,  118,  120-122, 133-135,  266-278, 

306,  322,  353,  355,  425,  476,  477 
Siberian,  126,  127 


520 


INDEX 


Ivory,  carving  of,  Eskimo,  128-130,  804, 
306-309,  322,  351,  424 

Congoeae,  76,  131-133,  420-423,  476 
Ivory  carvings,  effect  of,  on  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, 7^  74 

collections  of,  49,  50,  65,  66,  95-96,  320- 
322,  424,  425,  476,  477 
Ivory,  working  of,  241-278 

in  prehistoric  times,  6,  7 

for  "magic  balls,"  119 

cutting  of  tusk,  241,  242 

polishing,  242 

bleaching,  242,  243,  262,  263 

cutting  veneers,  243, 

billiard  balls,  making  of,  243-249 

piano  keys,  manufacturing  of,  250-252 

by  Hindus,  121,  122,  256-260 

by  Japanese,  266-278 

to  render  semi-transparent,  263 

staining  of,  263-265 

by  Eskimos  of  Alaska,  356 

characteristics  of,  affected  by  habitat  of 
the  elephant,  475 
Ivory,  black,  231,  265,  437 
Ivory  jeUy,  231,  437 

Jackson,  A.  V.  Williams,  viii 

Jackson,  Sir  F.  J.,  tusk  owned  by,  428 

Jagging  Wheels,  482 

Japanese  ivory  carving,  118,  120-122,  133- 

135,  266-278,  306,  322,  425,  476 
Japanese  carvers,  list  of,  504,  505 
Japanese  manual  of  ivory  carving,  266-278 
Japanese  neUukS  carvers,  names  of  some 

leading,  120 
Jean,  Due  de  Berry,  ivory  carving  donated 

by,  to  Abbey  of  Poissy,  56 
Jeanne  d  'Arc,  98 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  of  mammoth  or  masto- 
don remains,  475 
Jehan,  Shah,  saved  from  death  by  mahout, 

157,  158 
elephant  combat  arranged  by,  159 
Jehangir,  Shah,  war  elephants  of,  152 
Jerome,  St.,  works  of,  bound  in  ivory,  40 
Jessen,  Peter,  x 
Johann    George    I,    Elector    of    Saxony, 

founder  of  ivory  collection  in  the  Green 

Vaults  at  Dresden,  66 
"Jumbo,"  famous  African  elephant  shown 

by  Bamum,  188,  189 
Justinian  the  Great,  36 

Kaaba  at  Mecca,  143 

Kaempffert,  Waldemar,  vii 

Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum,  ivory  diptych 

in,  39 
Kalamis,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  25 
Kaldenberg,  F.  R.,  vii,  95,  96 


Kanachus,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  85 

Kawata,  Doctor,  274 

Kent,  H.  W.,  vii 

Khalaf,  Moorish  ivory  carver,  45 

Khufu,  ivory  head  of,  8 

Khusrau  II  of  Persia,  100 

Kiplim^  J.  R.,  102,  103,  104,  114 

Kirk,  Edward  C.,  viii 

Kirk,  Sir  John,  tusk  owned  by,  428 

Knossow,  Crete,  ivories  from,  16 

Kttnigliches  Naturaliencabinett,  Stuttgart, 

342 
Koki  Watanabe,  Dr.,  272 
Kolopes,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  26 
Koran, "  Chapter  of  the  Elephant  *'  in,  143, 144 
Kotcebue,  Otto  von,  355 
Kuki  Ruichi,  Baron,  272 
Kuneda,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  118 
Kung,  Prince,  Collection  of,  125 
Kunsthistorische  Sammlungen  in  Vienna,  S3 
Kurokawa  Mayori,  Dr.,  267 
Kypselus,  coffer  dedicated  by,  20,  26 

Labarte,  Charles  Jules,  41,  57 

Lacroix,  Alfred,  x 

Lafleur,  Abel,  93 

Lagae,  J.,  ivories  by,  81 

Lala  Famr  Chand,  Delhi  ivory  carver,  109 

Lamme,  M.  A.,  xi 

Lampert,  Doctor,  x 

Lang,  Herbert,  viii 

Lansberger  &  Cie.,  443 

Lars  Porsenna,  27,  28 

Lartet,  Eduard  Armand,  4 

Laufer,  Dr.  Berthold,  ix,  126,  144,  145,  307 

Layard,  Austin,  12,  13,  400 

Leney,  H.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 

Leo  X,  Pope,  elephant  sent  as  gift  to,  154 

Leopold  I,  of  Germany,  ivory  cup  turned  by, 

66 
Leopold  n  of  Belgium,  77,  94,  476 
Leopold  V,  Archduke,  59 
Le  Verre,  Miss  Clara  M.,  ix 
li  Hsao-yu,  Chinese  ivory  carver,  119 
Liakhov  Islands,  236,  391 
Lien  Hsim-hao,  Chinese  ivory  carver,  119 
Lien  Yu-suen,  Chinese  ivory  carver,  120    ' 
Litchfield,  E.  Hubert,  vii 
Littlington,  Nicolas,  Abbot  of  Westminster, 

58 
Livingstone,  David,  407 
Livy.  400 

Lobenigk,  Ecndius,  ivo^  carver,  66 
Loder,  Sir  Edmund  G.,   mammoth  tusk 

owned  by,  426 
elephant  tuaka  owned  by,  428,  431 
Loewinson-Lessing,  F.,  xi 
Londesborough  Collection,   narwhal  horn 

m,  295 


INDEX 


521 


London  Exhibition  of  1851,  111 

Longevity  of  elephants,  147 

Lopez,    Duarte,    of    elephant   hunting   in 

Congo,  197 
Lorrain,  Mile.  J.,  ivories  by,  81 
Los  Angeles  County  Museum  of  History, 

Science,  and  Art,  357 
Louis   K   of   France   gives   elephant    to 

Henry  II  of  England,  153 
Louis  XIV,  68 
Lucas,  F.  A.,  352 

Luchsinger,  J.  R.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Ludwig  II,  of  Bavaria,  tusk  bought  by,  408 
Ludwig  der  Fromme,  38 
Lull,  Richard  S.,  ix,  xi,  383 
lists  of  genera  and  species  of  Proboacidea 

contributed  by,  487-494 
Lydekker,  Richard,  x,  383 
Lytton,  Lord  Bulwar,  tusks  owned  by,  423 

Mabeala,  Congoese  ivory  carver,  131,  421 
McDouall,  Douglas,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Macgregor,  James  S.,  viii,  228 
Mac  Martin,  Malcolm,  ivory  collection  of, 

477 
McMillan,  W.  N.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Maddem,  A.  G.,  349 
Madeleine,  La,  engraving  of  mammoth  in 

cave  of,  4 
Magdalenian  period,  5 
"Magic  Balls,*'  118,  119 

Magic  Wands,"  9,  10 

Mahabharata,'*  on  war  elephants,  14 
Malbone,  Edward  Greene,  85,  89 
Malcolm,  John,  45 
Mammoth,  339,  341,  344,  345 

engraving  of,  in  cave  of  La  Madeleine,  4 

found  by  Adams  in  Siberia,  235 

cause  of  disappearance  of,  236,  237 

hunting  of,  238 

found  on  Beresovka  River,  Siberia,  332- 
334,  362,  388,  389 

bones  of,  found  in  WUrttemberg,  342, 343 

mounted  specimens  in  Paris  and  in  Petro- 
grad,  346 

found  in  Alaska,  348-350 

in  England,  354,  377 

at  Eschscholtz  Bay,  Alaska,  354,  356,  391 

in  California,  360 

teeth  of,  361,  362,  368 

food  remains  in  bodies  of,  363 

hairy  growth  on,  362 

found  at  Boma,  Saxony,  363,  394 

prehistoric  rock  etchings  and  tracings  of, 
367,  378 

found  in  Ireland,  377 

Columbian,  in  Colombia,  381 

(or    mastodon)    remains    reported    by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  475 


«« 


«« 


Manatua  americanua,  325,  327 
Mannlich,  J.  H.,  ivory  carver,  69 
Manufacturers  of  ivory,  statistics  of,  254, 
255 
leading  French  firms  for,  255 
Marco  Polo,  of  unicorn  (prob.  rhinoceros), 
299,300 
of  Zanzibar  ivory,  433,  434 
Marie  Antoinette,  86 
Marker,  lieut.-Col.  R.  J.,  tusks  owned  by, 

428 
Marquand,  Frank,  process  of,  for  making 

ivory  substitute  from  rubber,  289 
Martini,  J.,  vii 
Mary,  Queen,  of  England,  ivory  amulet  of, 

84 
Mason,  Mrs.  Ethel  Quinton,  viii 
Mason,  J.  Scott,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Massinissa,   King   of   Numidia,   returned 

tusks  stolen  from  temple,  401 
Mather,  Amasa  Stone,  ix 

tusks  secured  by,  431 
Mastodon,  330,  332,  360,  395,  396 
remains  of,  in  California,  357 
skull  and  bones  of,  washc^d  up  on  coast  at 

Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  359 
teeth  of,  361,  362,  367 
found  near  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1705,  365 
near  Loubville,  Ky.,  365 
•* Warren  Mastodon'*  from  Orange  Co., 

N.  Y.,  365,  373,  374,  376,  392,  399 
from  Connecticut,  364,  365 
found  in  various  states  of  the  Union,  366 
in  Nebraska,  366,  372 
at  Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  374,  376 
date  of  disappearance  of,  365,  375 
from  Otisville,  N.  Y..  876 
in  Ireland,  377 
in  Venezuela,  380 

(or    mammoth)    remains    reported    by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  475 
Masiidt,  99,  433,  434 

Mather,  Cotton,  on  mammoth  remains,  365 
Matthew,  Miss  Christina  D.,  vii 
Matthew,  W.  D.,  viii,  xi,  330 
Mats  of  ivory.  111 
Matschie,  Paul,  383 
Matton,  Ars^ne,  ivories  by,  78 
Maung  Nyaing,  Burmese  ivory  carver,  115 
Maxentius,  medal  of,  with  elephant  image, 

174 
Maximian,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  ivory 

seat  of,  33,  34 
Maxwell,  Lieut. -Col.  J.  McCall,  tusk  owned 

bv,  431 
Mecklenberg,  Duke  Adolph  of,  385,  429 
Medicinal  use  of  ivory,  265,  410 

use  of  parts  of  the  elephant,  186 
Megenberg,  Conrad  von,  196,  300 


522 


INDEX 


Melland,  F.  H.»  tusks  owned  by,  430 

Mellor,  £.  T.,  xi 

Memorial  Tablets,  486 

Menelik,  Emperor  of  Abyssinia,  remarkable 

tusk  given  by,  412,  417 
Menpes,  Mortimer,  16£,  163 
M^re,  Clement,  93 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 

City,  11,  49,  69,  89,  186 
Mets,  Cathedral  of,  ivory  treasures  in,  44 
Metz  School  of  ivory  carving,  38,  39,  44 
Meunier,  Stanislas,  z,  4 
Michael  Rangabe,  Emperor,  39 
Michelangelo,  ivory  attributed  to,  62,  63 
Biinett,  A.  E.  S.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Miniature  painting,  on  ivory,  85-90,  114, 
261,262 

preparing  ivory  for,  86,  87,  261 

care  of,  87,  88 

Hindu,  114 
Mirror  cases  of  ivor^  in  Mus^  de  Cluny,  54 

large  surfaces  of  ivory  for,  253 
Model  in  ivory  of  a  woman,  for  medical 

lise,  125,  126 
MtBritherium,  323,  324,  326,  338 
Mogi,  Yashuhisa,  xi 
Mogul  Emperor,  birthday  festival  of,  160 

Molinier,  Emile,  35,  51 

Monodon  monoceroa  (narwhal),  298 

Montpensier,  Due  de,  tusks  owned  by,  428 

Monteath,  T.  fl.,  tusk  owned  by,  427 

Moore,  G.  H.,  tusk  owned  by,  428 

Moore,  Sir  Ralph,  405 

Moorish  ivory  carving,  45 

Moreau-Vauthier,  A.,  76 

Morey,  Elmer  R.,  xi 

Morgan,  J.  Pierpont,  373 

Morgan,  J.  P.,  Collection,  30,  49,  50,  69,  72 

Morrill,  Hon.  Charles  H.,  373 

Morris,  Gouvemeur,  95 

Munechika,  ancient  Japanese  armourer,  424 

Murray,  Capt.  C.  J.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 

Murray,  W.  S.,  tusk  owned  by,  428 

Mus^  d 'Antiquity  de  la  Seine  Inf^rieure, 

73 
Mus^  de  Cluny,  37,  40.  53.  54.  68 
Mus^  du  Congo,  Tervueren,  Belgium,  76, 

405 
Mus^  du  Louvre,  19, 47,  48, 50,  51,  52,  56, 

60.  61,  68 
Mus^  de  Vienna,  France,  female  head  of 

ivory  in,  28 
Museo  Nacional,  Caracas.  Venezuela,  380 
Museum  of  Modem  Art.  Paris,  76 
Museum    National    d 'Historic  Naturelle, 

Paris,  4,  346.  392.  394.  478 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  Vienna,  180 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 

London,  222 


"Must,**  to  become,  peculiar  insanity  of 

male  elephants,  188 
Myoene,  ivory  objects  from  tombs  of,  19 
Mysore  work,  106 

Nadir  Shah,  war  elephants  (rf,  152 
Narwhal  (**  unicorn^*}  horn,  292-298,  301, 
302,483-486 

in  Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  293,  296 

in  Strassburg  Cathedral,  293 

of  Anne  de  Bretagne,  293 

given  to  Sultan  Solyman,  294 

to  Francis  I,  294 

to  pay  debt  by  Charles  VI  of  Germany, 
294 

great  value  of,  295 

as  poison  antidotes,  295, 296,  297 

owned  by  Charles  VI  of  France,  295 

in  Londesborough  Collection,  £95 

in  Windsor  Castle,  296 

seen  by  De  Boot,  296 

in  Danish  Coronation  Seat,  292,  481 
National  Museum,  Budapest,  60 
National  Museum,  Dublm,  377,  414 
National  Museum,  Florence,  66 
National  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Scotland,  84 
National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C.,207 
National  Zoological  Park,  Washington,  D. 

C,  191 
Naukydes,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  26 
Nebraska,  State  of,  extensive  remains  of  ex- 
tinct species  of  Proboscidea  in,  367-373 
Nebraska  State  Museum,  373 
Neergard,  P.,  tusks  owned  by,  431 
Neilson,  W.,  tusk  owned  by,  429 
Nelson,  E.  W.,  129 
Nero  and  Agrippina,  coin  oC  with  elephants, 

179 
NeUukh,  118,  120,  133.  134 
Neumann,  A.  H.,  tusks  owned  by,  431 
New  York  Zoological  Garden,  223, 409, 412, 

417 
NeweU,  E.  T.,  viii 
Nicolle,  Jean,  supposed  medieval  ivory 

carver,  58 
Nicomachi  and  Symmachi,  diptych  of,  32, 

33 
Nicomedes,  statue  of.  in  Elis,  26 
Niedieck.  P.,  tusk  owned  by,  430 
Nies,  James  B.,  viii 
Noack,  Theophile,  383,  384 
Norrie,  G.  M^,  tusks  owned  by,  429,  431 

Oakland  PuUic  Museum,  Oakltnd,  Cal., 

321 
Odontolite,  86,  817 
Odyssey,  mention  of  ivory  in  the^  19 
OgUby,  John.  406 


i 


INDEX 


523 


Ohnefalsch-Richter*  Max,  20 
Okawa,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  476 
O'Kin,  Mlle..93 

"Oliphant,'*  or  drinking  horn,  46,  62,  64 
(^^stal,  Gerhard  van,  ivory  carver,  67,  68 
"Oratory  of  Dukes  of  Burgundy,"  51 
Order  of  the  Elephant,  Danish,  187,  188 
Orvieto,  Italy,  ivory-encrusted  6ouch  found 

at,  21,  22 
Osbom,    Henry    Fairfield,   vii,    354,    899, 

478 
Osiris  Temple  at  Abydus,  ivory  from,  11 
Owen,  Sir  Richard,  410 

Pachesi  pieces  of  ivory,  101,  102 

Page,  Monsieur,  process  patented  by,  for 

securing  large  sheets  of  ivory,  243 
Page,  William  H.,  viii 
Painter,  Kenyon  B,  ivories  of,  477 
PaltEonuutodon,  323,  324,  326,  338 
Palmer,  Major  C.  £.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Pan-American  Exposition,  131 
Panama-Pacific  International   Exposition, 

93,  119 
Papa  Guilio  Museo,  Orvieto,  22 
Papirius,  Marcus,  ivory  staff  of,  27 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  118 
Pausanias,  23,  24,  25 
Pax  of  ivory  in  British  Museum,  58, 59 
Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  376, 

397 
^' Pearl    among     Elephants*'     (Gajmati), 

favorite  elephant  of  Shah  Jehan,  159 
Pearls  in  crown  of  ivory  of  Virgin,  56 
Pearson,  Major  H.  D.,  tusk  owned  by,  430 
Pellissier,  Georges,  x 
Penck,  Albrecht,  331 

Peneranda,  Duke  of,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Peter  the  Great,  reproduction  of  monument 

of,  in  walrus  ivory,  320 
ordered  search  for  fossil  ivory,  345 
Petrie  Collection,  8 
Petrie,  W.  M.  Flinders,  8, 10 
Pfuenmeyer,  E.  V.,  388,  389 
Phidias,  24,  25,  26,  29,  256 
Philadelphia  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876, 

120 
Phoenician  ivory  carving,  14,  20,  21 
Phyrrhus,  toe  bone  of  lUng,  342 
"Physiologus,**  Alexandrian  treatise,  144, 

145 
Phytelephas  macrocarpa  (the  tagua  palm), 

279,  284,  290 
Piano  keys,  manufacturing  of,  out  of  ivory, 

250-252 
Picris,  P.  E.,  xi 
Pilgrim,  Guy  E.,  478 
Pi^t,  Jean,  7 
Place,  Capt.  E.  B.,  tusks  owned  by,  429, 431 


Planzone,  Filippo,  horse  in  ivory  network 

carved  by,  66 
Proboscidea,  genera  and  species  of,  487-494 
Plato,  on  elephants  of  Atlantis,  147,  148 
Playing  cards  of  ivory,  101 
Pliny,  24,  144,  150,  314,  341,  342 
Plutarch,  on  war  elephants,  146,  148 
Poachers,  elephant,  in  the  Congo,  202,  203 
Pohliff,  H.,  478 
Polydore  Virgil,  153 
Polykletus,  25,  29 
Polyptych,  50 

Pomponius  Mela  on  war  elephants,  149 
Pourtal^-Gorgier  Collection,  60 
Powell-Cotton,  Major  P.  H.  G.,  tusks  owned 

by.  411,  429 
Powerscourt,  Viscount,  tusk  owned  by,  428 
Pownall,  Graham,  tusk  ffiven  by,  to  Na- 
tional Museum,  Dublin,  414 
tusk  owned  by,  429 
Prado  Museum,  Madrid,  67 
Pr^  Major  H.  De,  tusks  owned  by,  428,429 
Prehistoric  ivory  carvings,  3-8 
Prehistoric  rock  etchings  of  mammoths,  at 

Combarelles,  France,  367,  378 
tracings  of,  at  Pindal,  Spain,  378,  379 
etchings  of,  in  Algeria,  379 
Prentice,  Jolm  H.,  viii 
tusks'owned  by,  431 
Prince  Kung  Collection,  Chinese  ivories  in, 

125 
"Procession  of  Elephants,*'  American  ivory 

carving,  84,  85 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  elephant  in  pageant 

of.  147 
elephant  himting  organized  by,  184 
Ptolemy  Philopater,  157 
Pulley,  Charles,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Pyrrhus,  war  elephants  of,  149 
Pythagorus,  "gold  and  ivory"  thigh  bone 

of,  342 
Pyxes  of  ivory,  37 

Quackenbush,  L.  S.,  354 
Quatrem^  de  Quincy,  23 

Rabe,  Dr.  John,  321 
Rainev,  Paul  J.,  elephant  shot  by,  207 
Rainsford,  Rev.  Dr.  W.  S.,  viii 
experiences  of,  as  elephant  hunter,  204- 
207 
Rambona,  diptych  of,  42 
Rancho  La  Brea,  near  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
fossil  remains  found  in  asphalt  pits  at, 
357-359,  393,  412,  479 
Ransom,  Caroline  £.,  vii 
Rasura  eboria,  ivory  scrapings,  medicinal 

use  of,  265 
Rathbun,  R.,  ix 


524 


INDEX 


Bead,  Sir  Charles  Hercules,  z 
"Red  elephant,'*  385 
Reinach,  Salomon,  z 

Revere,  Paul,  card  for  ivory  turner  en- 
graved by,  90 
Rheims  school  of  ivory  carving,  98 
Rhinoceros  horns,  drinking  cups  made  of, 

to  protect  from  epilepsy  and  poisons, 

208 
Ribejrro,  Capt.  Jofto,  of  Buddha's  tooth* 

815 
Rivi^,  Theodore,  92,  93 
Robinson,  H.  K.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Rockefeller,  Mrs.  William,  95 
Rodgers,  Messrs.,  Joseph,  &  Sons,  heavy 

tusk  owned  by,  411 
tusks  in  workshops  of,  413 
Rogers,    James    Ward,    noted    elephant 

poacher,  death  of,  202,  203 
Rogue  elephant,  adventure  with  a,  216,  217 
Roman  ivory  carving,  27,  28,  29-37 
Roman  legionary  vanquishes  an  elephant, 

183 
Romanus    and    Eudoda,    ivory    carving 

showing,  42 
Roosevelt,  Colonel,  190 
elephants  shot  by,  207 
Rosenberg,  Marc,  z 
Rothschild,  Baron  Adolphe  de,  "oliphant*' 

in  collection  of,  62 
Rothschild,  Hon.  Walter,  nuunmoth  tusks 

owned  by,  426 
Rousseau,  Victor,  ivories  by,  78 
Royal  Museum  of  Bangkok,  Siam,  409, 423, 

424 
Royal  Museum,  Florence,  62 
Royal  Palace,  Mandelay,  tusk  in,  427 
Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  influence  on    ivory 

carving  of,  67,  68,  69 
Runjit  Singh,  106 
Ryan,  Thomas  F.,  ivory  collection  owned 

by,  zi,  476 

Saddles  decorated  with  ivory,  60,  61 
St.  Denis,  Abbey  of,  ivories  in,  44,  101 
St.  Louis  Ezposition  of  1904,  117 
Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris,  ivory  statuette  in, 

56 
Samuel,  Charles,  ivories  by,  80 
Sanders,  Major  R.  M.,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Sano  Sunetami,  Count,  266 
Santa  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  ivory  doors 

of,  36 
Sasaki  Takayuki,  Count,  266 
Scarabs  of  ivory,  136 

Scelleur,  Jean  le,  medieval  ivory  carver,  58 
Scharff,  R.,  z 
Schliemann,  Heinrich,  19 
Schouteden,  Doctor,  384 


Sdpio  Asiaticus,  tusks  borne  at  triumph  of, 

401 
"Scrimshaw    work,'*    ivory    carving    by 

American  seamen,  95,  321,  424,  482 
Seaman,  Louis  Livingston,  viii 

tusk  owned  by,  431 
Selous,  F.  C,  tilde  owned  by,  431 
Sennacherib,  mention  of  ivory  in  annals  of, 

14 
Sennert,  Daniel,  on  fossil  ivory,  239 
SewaU,  W.,  viii 

tusks  secured  by,  415 
Seztus  Platonicus,  on  cosmetic  use  of  ivory, 

265 
Shaler,  Willard  K,  z 
Shamba  Balongongo,  Congo  chief,  memorial 

tusk  of,  406,  408 
Sharpe,  Sir  A.,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Shojud,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  276 
Shosoin  Imperial  Museum,  Toldo,  276 
Shurtleff,  N.  B.,  973 
Shusan,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  276 
Siang,  Chinese  word  both  for  elephant  and 

ivory,  138 
Siberian  ivory  carvings,  126,  127 
Sidon,  ancient  ivory  casket  from,  20 
Silva,  Messrs.  D.  F.  de,  &  Co.,  117 
Sireniat  distantly  allied  to  elephants,  325, 

326 
Sixe  of  elephants,  188-191,  292,  478 
Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  341,  342 
Sloter,  J.  Kelsall,  z 
Smart,  John,  85 

Smith,  Col.  A.  Eric,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Smith,  Cecil,  z 
Smith,  Henry  Lee,  viii 
Smith,  R.  Grordon,  tusks  owned  by,  427 
Smithsonian  Ldstitution,  Washington,  D. 

C.  353 
"Soci^U  de  Tart  pr^ieuz,"  75 
Soergel,  W.,  328,  337 

Soleiman,  Arab  traveller  of  DC  century,  432 
Solomon's  ivory  and  gold  throne,  14, 481 
Solyman,  Sultan,  narwhal  horn  given  to, 

by  Venetian  Senate,  294 
Soma  Kuninosuk^,  274 
Soma  Sen-rei,  Japanese  author  of  manual  on 

ivory  carving,  271,  276,  277 
Somers,  N.  Y.,  first  elephant  brought  to 

America,  taken  to,  155 
Soltykoff  Collection,  51 
South  Kensington  Museum,  30 
Southwick,  Albert  A.,  viii 
Spain,    Phoenician    ivories    from    ancient 

sepulchres  of,  20,  21 
Spanish  ivory  carving,  48,  92 
Sparta,  ancient  ivories  from,  17-19 
Spitxer  Collection,  62,  96,  97 
Spitxer  Fr6d6ric  96,  97 


INDEX 


525 


Spurious  antiques,  how  made,  and  how  to 

detect,  260,  261 
Staatsbiliothek,     Munich,    specimens    of 

Rheixns  school  of  ivory  carving  in,  88 
Staff  of  ivory  as  insignia  of  official  rank  in 

Japan,  275 
Staining  of  ivory,  263-265 
Stanley,  Henry  M.,  203 
Stannard,    Fratelli,    Rome,    inlaid    ivory 

cabinet  by,  74 
Stappan,  Christian  van  der,  77 
Star  of  Bethlehem,  313 
State  elephant  given  by  Government  of 

India  to  Shah  of  Persia,  160 
Steffens,  George,  ivory  carver,  96 
Stegodon,  837,  388 

tooth  of,  found  in  Mindanao,  Philip- 
pines, 397 
Stegomastodon  (Dibelodon),  359,  867 
Stewart,  C.  M.  D.,  tusk  owned  by,  428 
Stigand,  Capt.  C.  H.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Stimulants  administered  to  elephants,  157 
Stenbok-Fermor,  Coimt,  346 
Stone,  Rev.  H.  C.  B.,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Storey,  R.  H.,  tusk  owned  by,  431 
Strabo,  on  war  elephants,  148 
Straker,  A.  H.,  tusk  owned  by,  481 
Strange  story  of  an  Alaskan  manunoth, 

352-353 
Strzygowski,  Josef,  35 
Stuart,  Robert  L.,  Collection,  118 
Stuttgart  Naturaliencabinett,  390 
Suger,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis,  41 
Sumerian  ivorv  carvings,  18,  14 
Superstition  of  African  natives  in  regard  to 

elephants,  166 
Superstitions  about  manmioths,  343-345 
Sutherland,  James,  of  elephant  himting, 

408,  414 
strange  story  of  elephant  shot  by,  200, 

201 
Symmachi  and  Nicomachi,  diptych  of,  32, 

33 
Symmachus,  Quintus  Aurelius,  32 

Tablets  of  ivory,  31,  63 

Tacitus,  27 

Tanzan,  Japanese  ivory  carver,  276 

Tarquin,  ivory  sceptre  and  throne  of,  27» 

28 
Tavernier,  Jean  Baptiste,  141,  159,  404 
Taylor,  F.  J.  Watson,  tusk  owned  by,  428 
Taylor.  J.  E.,  Collection,  64 
Teall,  Gardner,  viii 
Teeth  as  amulets  or  ornaments: 

imitation    and    natural    in    Bohemian 
sepulchres,  312 

in  Indian  mounds,  312 

with  the  Norwegian  Lapps,  312,  313 


Teeth,  curative  use  of,  314,  817,  318 

tooth  relic  of  Buddha,  315 

of  sovereigns  of  Cassange,  Angola,  315 

black,  in  Siam,  317 

elks'  teeth  as  amulets,  318,  319 

bears'  teeth  as  amulets,  319 

artificial,  of  ivory,  320,  321 
Teeth,  human,  28,  314-317 
Temple  of  Minerva,  in.  Syracuse,  ivory  and 

gold  adornments  of,  22 
Tetrabelodon  angtutidens,  220,  825,  479 
Tetrahphodon,  334,  338 
Teutobocchus,   Cimbrian  chief,   supposed 

finding  of  bones  of,  340 
Thayer,  Miss  Theodora,  American  minia- 
ture painter,  89 
Theokosmos,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  25 
Theophrastus,  345,  402 
Thibaw,  King  of  Burma,  424 
Thomas,  St.,  legend  of,  198 
Thompson,  Edward  fl.,  185 
Thothmes  III,  hunting  of  elephants  by,  192 
Thrasjnnedes,  Greek  ivory  sculptor,  26,  29 
Thrones  of  ivory,  14,  27,  111 
Tiffanv  &  Co.,  viii 
Tiglath  Pileser  I,  hunting  of  elephants  by, 

192 
Tunmis,  Sutton,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Tingmiujang,  bird-shaped  ivories  for  Eski- 
mo 0une  of,  128,  129 
Tjader,  Richard,  tusks  secured  by,  417 
Todaiji  Temple,  Japan,  white  and  green 
ivory  rulers  listed  in  inventory  of,  275 
Tohekido  Yoshi-ichi,  Japanese  ivory  carver, 

134 
Toilet  articles  of  ivory,  list  of,  253 
Tomes,  Charles  S.,  227 
Tools  for  ivory  carvers: 

prehistoric,  7 

Hindu,  256-259 

Japanese,  122,  268,  269 
TopseU,  Edward,  on  elephants,  186 
Townsend,  C.  H.,  352 
Trilophodon,  334,  338 
"Trmitv  Rings,"  70 

Triptychs,  42,  47,  48,  49,  53,  61,  62,  65.  92 
Trivulri  Collection.  30 
Troger,  Simon,  91 
Trouessart,   Edouard   Louis,   on  utilizing 

Siberian  ivory,  346 
Trumpets  of  ivory,  182,  133,  422,  423 
Tugrcu,  figures  niaide  up  of  Arabic  charac- 
ters, 168,  169 
Tukeman,  H.,  his  "  Killing  of  a  Manmioth," 

358 
Tukulti  Ninip  of  \ssyria,  ivory  mentioned 

in  inscription  of,  13 
Turners,   Worshipful   Company   of,   prize 
offered  by,  to  English  ivory  turners,  278 


526 


INDEX 


Tusks,  of  elephants,  136,  154, 159, 207,  220, 
222,  233,  240,  333,  344,  346,  350^2, 
353,  354,  358,  359,  360,  365,  366,  376, 
380,  387,  432 

obtained  on  the  Guinea  Coast  in  1556, 
197 

bullets  embedded  in,  222,  224,  225 

suffering  of  elephants  from  decayed,  228 
224,  226 

abnormal  growths  in,  224-226 

gnawed  by  rodents,  240 

weiffhts  of  fossil,  347,  427 

evolution  of,  387,  388 

in  Imp.  Mus.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  Petrograd, 
389,  390,  392,  393 

in  Stuttgart  Naturaliencabinett,  890,  391 

in  Instituto  Geologico  of  Mexico  City, 

391,  397 

in  Franzen*s  Museum,  Brtlnn,  Austria, 

391 
in  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Paris, 

392,  395 

from  Boma,  Saxony,  manunoth,  394 

from  Tilloux  dept.  Charente,  France,  394 

in  Nebraska  State  Museum,  396 

in  Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
897 

from  North  West  Palace  at  Nimroud, 
400 

borne  in  Scipio's  triumph,  401 

in  ancient  temple  treasures,  401 

from  Somali  Coast,  408 

from  Sumatra,  404 

of  Cinghalese  elephants,  404 

from  Congo  region,  405-407 

of  H.  J.  Heinz,  406 

of  Ludwig  II  of  Bavaria,  408 

of  Gordon  Cumming,  409 

in  Royal  Museum,  Siam.  409,  428,  424 

tip  of  tusk  set  as  amulet,  409 

in  Cathedral  of  Goa,  410 

heaviest  pair  of,' 410-412 

effect  of  American  climate  on,  410,  411 

given  by  Charles  F.   Barney  to  New 
York  Zoalosical  Gardens,  412 

in  National  Iduseum,  Dublin,  414 

secured  by  James  Sutherland,  415 

by  Lt.  Alexander  H.  Wheeler,  415 

given  to  Harvard  Club  by  W.  Sewall, 
415 

buried,  in  Africa,  416 

owned  by  William  Fitz  Hugh  White- 
house,  417 

secured  by  Richard  Tjader,  418 

in  W.  S.  Cherry  Collection  of  Los  Angeles 
Co.  Museum,  418 

secured  by  James  Barnes,  418 
'working  tusk"  called  Hadam  or  "Serv- 
ant** by  Arabs,  419 


«. 


Tusks,  of  elephants,  from  Bahr-el-Ghazel, 
Sudan,  420 
average  weight  of,  imported  to  Antwerp, 

420 
method  for  carving,  422 
lists   of,   from   Rowland   Ward's   "Big 

Game,'*  427-431 
difference  between  those  of  African  and 
Asiatic  elephants,  484 
Tusks,  carved,  99,  116,  120,  180,  181,  134, 

821,  353 
Tusks,  famous,  lists  of  426-481 

Ulphus,  horn  of,  46 

"Unicom**  horns,  fee  narwhal  horns 

University  of  Pennsylvania  Museum,  10 

Van  Beurden,  Alph.,  ivories  by,  81 
Van  Hove,  G.,  ivories  by,  80 
Vanderbilt,  George  W.,  96 
Vandervoorde,  G.,  ivories  by,  79 
Vatican  Museum,  42 
VegeUble  ivory,  279-289 

sources  of,  S79 

commerce  m,  280,  288-288 

method  of  securing,  280,  281 

value  of,  281,  285,  286,  288 

use  of  for  buttons,  281-288 

specific  gravity  of,  284 

how  to  di«tingui.sh,  from  genuine  ivory, 
290 
Venetian  school  of  ivory  carving,  54,  59 
Venadsky,  £.,  xi 
"V^us    de    Brassempouy,"     prehistoric 

ivory  carving,  5,  6 
Vere,  Mrs.  D.  W.  de.  Director  of  Oakland 

Museum,  Cal.,  ix 
Vermeylen,  F.,  ivories  by,  81 
Verres,  Caius,  22 
Victor  III,  Pope,  97 

Victoria,  Queen,  Hindu  ivory  throne  given 
to.  111 

miniature  carved  for,  by  Hindu  artist,  114 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  32,  92,  95 
"  Vierge  de  Bonbon,"  rare  ivory  carving,  65 
"Vierges  Ouvertes,"  peculiar  ivory  carv- 
ings, 65 
Vingotte,  Thomas,  ivories  by,  78,  95 
Virchow,  Rudolf,  224 
Virgil,  of  ivory  shoulder  blade  of  Pelops,  842 
Visagapatam  work,  107 
Voigt  L  Hochgesang,  Messrs.,  x 
Volkenburgh,  T.  S.  Van,  ivory  collection  of, 

476 
Vries,  S.  de,  of  tusk  imports  to  India,  408 

Walrus: 
names  of,  805 
species  and  habitat  of,  808-810 


INDEX 


527 


Walrus  ivory.  95,  1«0,  301-810 
in  China,  301,  307,  320,  321 
news  of,  brought  to  Alfred  the  Great,  303 
given  to  Harold  Hardraad  of  Norway, 

304 
use  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  304 
report  of,  by  Jacques  Cartier,  304 
value  of  in  England,  304 
source  of,  305,  306 
in  Japan,  306 
in  India,  306 

among  the  Eskimos,  304,  306,  307 
Walters,  Henry,  viii 

collection  of,  128,  476 
War    elephants,    140,    145-147,    148-152» 
156-159 
in  old  Alexander  romance,  403 
Ward,  Rowland,  his  valuable  record  of  fa- 
mous tusks,  424,  427-431 
Warren,  J.  C,  366 
"Warren  Mastodon,"  365,  373,  374.  376, 

392,  399 
Waterford,  Marquis  of,  tusks  acquired  by, 

424 
Weckhardt,  Georg,  ivory  carver,  66 
Weininger,  L.,  x 
Westminster,  Duke  of,  tusks  owned  by, 

428,  431 
Weyns,  J.,  ivories  by,  82 
Whale,  description  of,  by  Thomas  de  Can- 

timpr^,  300,  301 
Wheeler,  Lieut.  Alexander  H.,  x 

tusks  secured  by,  415 
White,  J.  Jay,  tudks  owned  by,  430 


White  Elephant,  Order  of  the,  in  Siam,  188 
White  elephants  of  Burma,  141,  142 
White  elephant  of  Siam,  199 
Whitehouse,  William  Fitz  Hugh,  vii 

tusk  owned  by,  417 
Wieland,  G.  R.,  ix 
"Wild  Man  of  Reyden,"  human  skeleton 

constructed    in    Switxerland    out    of 

mammoth  bones,  339 
Wilkin,  Capt.  W.  H.,  tusks  owned  by,  429 
Williamson,  Noel,  tusks  owned  by,  428 
Williston,  S.  W.,  ix 
Winchell,  E.  C,  360 

Wi^iaw,  Capt.  E.  R.,  tusks  owned  by,  430 
Wolfers,  ivories  by,  82 
Wood,  Charles  H.,  224 
Wood,  Howland,  viii 
Woodward,  H.  Smith,  ix 
Wormwood,  George  A.,  ix 
Wyndham,  W.  Y.,  tusks  owned  by,  429 

Yan^  F.  J.,  ix 

Yashuhisa  Mogi,  ix 

Yerby,  W.  J.,  xi 

Yerkes,  Charles  T.,  Collection,  97,  98 

York  Minster,  "horn  of  Ulphus"  in,  46,  47 

Yule,  Col.  Henry.  300 

2kk,  Stephan,  ivory  carver,  70 

Zeller,  Jacob,  ivory  carver,  66 

Zeus,  statue  of,  at  Olympia,  23,  25,  26 

at  Athens,  25 
Zoological  Society  of  Philadelphia,  190 


FEB  1  7  1917 


THE  COUNTBT  LIFi:  PRS8B 
GABDBM  CITY,  N.  Y. 


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