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JAINISM, ^"^QgiCAL %v^
OR
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA ;
WITH
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ANCIENT RELIGIONS OF THE EAST,
FROM
THE PANTHEON OF THE INDO-SCYTHIANS.
{Bead at the Meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, Feb. 26, 1877.)
TO "WHICH IS PREFIXED A NOTICE ON BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
BY
EDWARD THOMAS, F.R.S.,
CORRESPONDANT DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE; CORRESPONDING MEMBER GERMAN
ORIENTAL SOCIETY ; HON. MEMBER ASIATIC SOCIETY BENGAL ;
VICE-PRESIDENT NUMISMATIC SOCIETY.
LONDON :
TRTJBNER & CO., 57 and 59, LTJDGATE HILL.
1877.
HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTKI'S.
PREFATORY NOTICE.
The publishers of tlie Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society — under the impression that there are many points
of unusual interest in the articles named on the title-page
— have resolved to issue a small edition, as a separate
brochure, which maj'' be available to Orientalists at large,
who do not happen to be Members of the Society, to the
pages of whose Journal these essays would otherwise be
confined.
CONTENTS.
ARTICLE I. (From J.R.A.S. Vol. IX. pp. 1-21.)
PAGE
Greek Monograms on Bactrian Coins, representing dates - 3
The rejection of the figure for hundreds by the Bactrian
Greeks, in accordance with the conceptions of the
Indian system ------- 3-5
Illustrative coin of the Bactrian King Plato, dated in
Seleucidan^^wr(?s 147= B.C. 165 - - - - 5_6
Spread of the Seleucidan method of computation in India - 7
Indo-Scythian Inscriptions in Indian-Pali and Bactrian-
Pali - - - 9-11
Historical traces of the leading Indo-Scythian Kings Hushka,
Jushka, and KanisJika ------ 12
General recapitulation of the various schemes of dates, and
their apparent relative importance - - - - 14
Contrast of optional data available under the three systems
of Seleucidae, Yikramaditya, and Saka - - - 15
Difficulties attendant upon the irregular omission of hundreds 1 5-1 6
Coin of the Saka- Scythian King Heraiis - - - - 17
Identification of the Saka-Scythian capital - - - 19-20
The relative employment of the terms TvpavvovvTO'^ and
BaaiXevovTO^; - - - - - - - 21
Practical application of the latter term, under the Su-
zerainties of Antiochus, Diodotus, and Euthydemus - 21
Obverse dies of old Mint-issues, lettered aneiv, to meet the
changed political positions of the Kings who furnished
the original portraits 22
TvpavvovvTo^;, its appearance and acceptance in Western
India - 23
vi CONTENTS.
ARTICLE II. (J.R.A.S. Yol. IX. pp. 155-234.)
PAGE
The theoretic differences of Jainism and Buddhism - - 3
Jaina discoveries at Mathura ------ 3
General spread of Jaina edifices and precedence in the
selection of sites _------4
Colebrooke's opinions regarding the priority of the Jainas - 5
Additional evidence to the same effect . _ . - 6
Documentary evidence from the Mahawanso' - - - 7
The testimony of Fali-JEian, the Chinese pilgrim - - 8
Indications furnished by the Lalita-vistara - - - 8
List of the Jaina Tirthankaras, with their several cog-
nizances, etc. - - - -- - - 9
Opinions of Colonel Low on the associate symbols of Jaiuism
and Buddhism .-_---. H
Dr. Stevenson's researches, — the Kalpa Sutra, etc. - - 12
His inferences identical with those of Colebrooke - - 13
The Ante-Brahmanical worship of the Hindus - - - 13
The original claim of the Jainas to the shrine of Jagganath 15
The Jaina Mahavira and his disciple Gautama, Sahja Muni,
from the Bhagavati - - - - - - -16
Further notices from Chinese writers and the travels of
Uiouen Thsang - - -- - - - 18
Mr. Brian Hodgson's denial of the claims of the literature of
Buddhism to any antiquity - - - - - 19
Colonel Tod's information regarding the Jainas - - 20
General Malcolm's personal observations on the sect - - 21
M. Roussclet's contributions to the general subject - - 21
Data regarding Jainism to be gathered from Brahmanical
sources - - - - - - -.- -22
The FAITH of Chandra Gupta ----- 23
The succession of the Maurya Kings ----- 24
Brahmans and Sramans ------- 25
Caste ---.--.._. 26
Aryan influence on Indian Caste - _ - . _ 27
The FAITH of Yindusara 29
CONTEXTS.
Vil
PAGE
The Early FAITH of Asoka 30
The testimony of Abul Fazl 30
Asoka mtrocluces JAII^ISM into Kashmir - - - 31
Confirmation of the fact from the E,aja Tarangini - - 32
Resume of the Edicts of Asoka - - - - - 33
Dr. Kern's new translations - - - - - -33
Professor Wilson's opinion as to the total absence of any
reference to Buddhism in the Eock and Pillar edicts - 35
The gradations of belief to be detected between the periods of
the Rock and Pillar edicts -37
Facsimile of the alphabetical characters of the Inscriptions 39
The edicts dating from the tenth and twelfth years of Asoka' s
reign 41
Mention of Antiochus, the Greek king - - - - 41
(Plate I. to face p. 42.)
The Pillar Edicts of the twenty-seventh year - - - 46
Reference to the Five Greek Kings (j^ote) - - - - 46
The aim and purpose of the Inscriptions - - - - 51
POSITIVE BUDDHISM (the Bhabra Edict) - - - 52
The disuse of the title of Devanampiya, '' the beloved of the
Gods," as incompatible with Buddhism - - - 54
The later FAITH of the Maurya Dynasty - - - - 55
Saiidsm ___-_---- 57
Saivism under the Kanerki Kings - - - - - 57
Saivism under Kadphises - - - - - - 58
The newly-discovered hoard of gold coins at Peshawar - 59
General Legends on the Kanerki coins - - - - 60
Description of the Coins inserted in Plate II. - - - 61
(Plate 11. to face p. 61.)
The large amount of Roman influence to be detected in the
types of the Peshawar /'wf? __._.- 65
Roman coins found in a Tumulus at Manikyala - - 65
The causes which may have led to the introduction of so
much Roman Art and so many Roman Gods into the
coinages of the Indo-Scythians 68
viii CONTENTS.
PAGE
Suggestion of the domestication of the prisoners of the army
of Crassus at and around Merv-ul-rud - - - 69
Mechanical Mint-processes of adaptation - - - - 7o
Introduction of Grseco-E-oman Science - - - - 70
Alphabetical influence of Latin upon later Zend - - - 71
Comparative weight of standards 71
The Gods admitted into the Indo- Scythian Pantheon - - 73
Identification of some of the Zend and other names - - 74
I. Yedic 74
II. Iranian ,- -- - - -75
III. Persian 77
lY. Eoman 78
V. Brahmanical - - -' - - -78
YI. Buddhist 79
The Mathura Archceological Remains - - - - - 79
Dated Jaina Inscriptions incised during the reign of
Yasudeva -- 81
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
BY
EDWAED THOMAS, F.R.S.
A SHORT time ago, a casual reference to the complicated
Greek monograms stamped on the earlier Bactrian coins
suggested to me an explanation of some of their less involved
combinations by the test of simple Greek letter dates, which
was followed by the curious discovery that the Bactrian
kings were in the habit of recognizing and employing
curtailed dates to the optional omission of the figure for
hundreds, which seems to have been the immemorial custom
in many parts of India. My chief authority for this con-
clusion was derived from a chance passage in Albiruni,^
whose statement, however, has since been independently
supported by the interpretation of an inscription of the
ninth century a.d. from Kashmir,^ which illustrates the
provincial use of a cycle of one hundred years, and has now
^ Albiriani, -writing in India in 1031 a.d., tells us, " Le vulgaire, dans I'lnde,
compte par siecles, et les siecles se placent I'un apres I'autre. On appelle cela
le Samvatsara du cent. Quand un cent est ecoule, on le laisse et Ton en com-
mence un autre. On appelle cela Loka-kala, c'est-a-dire comput du peuple."
— Reinaud's Translation, Fragments Arabes, Paris, 1845, p. 145.
^ This second inscription ends with the words Saka Kdlagatavdah 726 — that
is, *' Saka K&,la years elapsed 726," equivalent to a.d. 804, which is therefore the
date of the temple. This date also corresponds with the year 80 of the local
cycle, which is the Loka-kdla of Kashmir or cycle of 2,700 years, counted by
centuries named after the twenty-seven nakshatras, or lunar mansions. The
reckoning, therefore, never goes beyond 100 years, and as each century begins in
the 25th year of the Christian century, the 80th year of the local cycle is
equivalent to the 4th year of the Christian century. — General A. Cunningham,
Archceological Report, 1875, vol. v. p. 181.
4 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES,
«
been definitively confirmed by information obtained by Br.
Biihler ^ as to the origin of the Kashmiri era and the cor-
roboration of the practice of the omission of ^^ihe hundreds
in stating dates " still prevailing in that conservative
kingdom.^
Since Bayer's premature attempt to interpret the mint-
monogram hp, on a piece of Eucratides, as 108,^ Numismatists
have not lost sight of the possible discrimination of dates as
opposed to the preferential mint-marks so abundant on the
surfaces of these issues, though the general impression has
been adverse to the possibility of their fulfilling any such
functions.*
1 " Dr. Biihler tas found out the key to the Kashmirean era : it begins in the
year of the Kaliyug 25, or 3076 B.C., when the Saptarshis are said to have gone
to heaven. The Kashmir people often omit the hundreds in stating dates. Thus
the year 24 (Kashmir era) in which Kalhana wrote his Rajatarangini, and which
corresponded with Saka 1070, stands for 4,224." — Athenceum, Nov. 20, 1875,
p. 675.
2 Since this was "written, General Cunningham's letter of the 30th March,
1876, has appeared in the Athenceum (April 29th, 1876), from the text of which
I extract the following passages. These seem to establish the fact that the
optional omission of the hundi-eds was a common and well-understood rule so
early as about the age of Asoka. " The passage in which the figures occur
runs as follows in the Sahasaram text : —
iyam cha savane vivuthena dutesa
paimalati satavivuthati 252.
The corresponding passage in the Riipnath text is somewhat different: —
ahale sava vivasetavaya ati vyathena
savane katesu 52 satavivasata.
The corresponding portion of the Bairat text is lost. My reason for looking
upon these figures as expressing a date is that they are preceded in the Eiipnath
text by the word katesu, which I take to be the equivalent of the Sanskrit
Jcranteshu = {^o many years) 'having elapsed.' "
I do not stop to follow General Cunningham's arguments with regard to the
value of the figures which he interprets as 252. The sign for 50, in its horizontal
form, has hitherto been received as 80, but that the same symbol came, sooner or
later, to represent 50, when placed perpendicularly, is sufficiently shown by
Prof. Eggeling's Plate, p. 52, in Vol. YIII. of our Journal. I should, how-
ever, take great exception to the rendering of the unit as 2, which, to judge by
Mr. Bayley's letter, in the same number of the Athenceum, Gen. Cunningham
and Dr. Biihler had at first rightly concurred in reading as 6.
3 Hist. Reg. Graxorum Bactriam., St. Petersburg, 1738, p. 92: "Numus
Eucratidis, quem postea copiosius explicabo, annum 108. habet, sine dubio epochae
Bactrianae, qui annus ex nostris rationibus a.v.c. 606. Septembri mense iniit.
Igitiu' cum hoc in numo victoriae ejus Indicae celebrautur, quibus ut Justinus
ait, Indiam in potcstatem reclegit." See also pp. 38, 56, 134.
^ II. II. "Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, pp. 235, 238. General A. Cimningham,
Numismatic Chronicle, vol. viii. o.s. p. 175; and vol. viii. n.s. 1868, p. 183 ;
vol. ix. N.s. 1869, p. 230.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 5
In 1858 I puhlished, in my edition of '' Prinsep's Essays
on Indian Antiquities ^^ a notice of the detached letters OV as
occurring on a coin of Eucratides (No, 3, p. 184, vol. ii.),
and UP as found on the money of Heliocles (No. 1, p. 182),
which letters, in their simple form, would severally represent
the figures 73 and 83 ; but the difficulty obtruded itself that
these numbers were too low to afibrd any satisfactory eluci-
dation of the question involved in their application as dynastic
dates.
Among the later acquisitions of Bactrian coins in the
British Museum is a piece of Heliocles bearing the full tri-
literal date, after the manner of the Syrian mints, of PUT or
183, which, when tested by the Seleucidan era {i.e. 311 — 183),
brings his reign under the convenient date of B.C. 128,
authorizing us to use the coincident abbreviated figures, under
the same terms, as OP =73 for 173 of the Seleucidan era=
B.C. 138 for Eucratides, and the repeated TIT = 83 for 183
Seleucidan = B.C. 128, for Heliocles,^ a date which is further
supported by the appearance of the exceptionally combined
open monogram 17^ {TIA), or 81 for 181 = B.C. 130 on his other
pieces.
The last fully-dated piece, in the Bactrian series, is the unique
example of the money of Plato (bearing the figured letter date
PMZ — U7 of the Seleucida3, or B.C. 165). We have two
doubtful dates H = 60 and aE — 65, on the coins of Apollodotus ;
but if these letters were intended for dates, they will scarcely
fit-in with the Seleucidan scheme. Menander dates his coins
in regnal years. I can trace extant examples from 1 to 8.
But this practice by no means necessitates the disuse of the
Seleucidan era in ordinary reckonings, still less its abandon-
ment in State documents where more formal precision was
^ General Cunningham was cognizant of tlie date nr = 83 as found on the
coins of Heliocles, which he associated with the year b.c. 164, under the
assumption that he had detected the true initial date of the Bactrian era, which
he had settled to his own satisfaction, " as beginning in b.c. 246." — Num. Chron.
N.s. vol: viii. 1868, p. 266; n s. vol. ix. 1869, pp. 35, 230. See also Mr.
Vaux's note, N.C. 1875, vol. xv. p. 3.
6
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
required. Subjoined is a rough facsimile and technical de-
scription of the coin of Plato.^
Silver. Size 1'2. Wt. 258 grains.
Obv. Head of king to the right, with helmet ornamented with the
peculiar ear and horn of a bull, so marked on the coins
of Eucratides.
Eev. Apollo driving the horses of the Sun. Monogram ^o. 46^5^
Prinsep's Essays.
Legend, basiaehs ehi^anots nAATHNOX
Date at foot, pmz=147 Selucidae (or b.c. 165).
My first impression on noticing the near identity of the
obverse head with the standard Numismatic portraits of
Eucratides, and the coincidence of the date with that
assumed, by our latest authority,^ as the year of the decease
of that monarch, was that Plato must have succeeded him ;
but the advanced interpretation of the dates, above given,
puts any such assignment altogether out of court, and
necessitates a critical reconstruction of all previous specu-
lative epochal or serial lists of the Bactrian succession.
In the present instance the adoption of the helmet of the
Chabylians^ by Eucratides and Plato may merely imply that
^ The woodcut here given was prepared for Mr. Vaux's original article on
this unique coin of Plato, in the Numismatic Chronicle, vol. xv. p. 1.
' Gen. Cunningham, N.C.vol.viii.o.s. 1843, p. 175, and vol. ix. n s. 1869, p. 175.
' " The Chabylians had small shields made of raw hides, and each had two
javelins used for hunting wolves. Brazen helmets protected their heads, and
above these they Avore the ears and horns of an ox fashioned in brass. They
had also crests oa their helms." — Herodotus vii. 76; Rawlinson, vol. iv.
p. 72 ; Xenophon Anab. v.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 7
they both claimed kindred with that tribe, or at some time
held command in their national contingent — and Plato may,
with equal possibility, have introduced the device, in the
first instance, as have copied the more abundant obverses of
similar character from the coins of Eucratides. On the other ^^
hand, the identity of the helmet may indicate an absolute
borrowing of a ready prepared device. The singular and
eccentric combination of Bactrian Mint dies has from the
first constituted a difficulty and a danger to modern inter-
preters. I have for long past looked suspiciously upon the
too facile adaptations of otherwise conscientious mint masters,
leading them to utilize, for reasons of their own, the available
die- devices in stock for purposes foreign to the original intent
under which they were executed. However, in the present
instance, the imperfect preservation of the single coin of
Plato available does not permit of our pronouncing with any
certainty upon the identity of the features with those of the
profile of Eucratides.
To revert to our leading subject. In addition to the value
of the data quoted above as fixing definitively, though within
fairly anticipated limits, the epochs of three prominent
Bactrian kings, their conventional use of the system of
abbreviated definitions points, directly, to the assimilation of
local customs, to which the Greeks so readily lent themselves,
in adopting the method of reckoning by the Indian Loka
Kdla, which simplified the expression of dates, even as we
do now, in the civilized year of our Lord, when we write 76
for 1876.
The extension of the Seleucidan era eastwards, and its
amalgamation of Indian methods of definition within its own
mechanism, leads further to the consideration of how lonsr this
exotic era maintained its ground in Upper India, and how
much influence it exerted upon the chronological records of
succeeding dynasties. I have always been under the im-
pression that this influence was more wide-spread and abiding
than my fellow- antiquaries have been ready to admit,^ but
^ Journal Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII. p. 41 ; Journal Asiatic Society
Bengal, 1855, p. 565, and 1872, p. 175 ; Prinsep's Essays, vol. ii. p. 86; Jomnal
Asiatique, 1863, p. 388.
8 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
I am now prepared to carry my inferences into broader
channels, and to suggest that the Indo-Scythian "Kanishka"
group of kings continued to use the Seleucidan era, even as
they retained the minor sub-divisions of the Greek months,
'*which formed an essential part of its system : and under this
view to propose that we should treat the entire circle of dates
of the *' Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka " family, mentioned
in the Raja Tarangini, which their inscriptions expand from
ix. to xcviii., as pertaining to the fourth century of the
Seleucidan era, an arrangement which will bring them into'
concert with our Christian reckoning from 2 B.C. to 87 a.d.
A scheme which would, moreover, provide for their full
possession of power up to the crucial '' Saka " date of 78-79
A.D., and allow for the subsequent continuance of a con-
siderable breadth of sway outside the limited geographical
range of Indian cognizance.
There are further considerations which add weight to the
conclusion that the Kanerki Scythians adopted, for public
purposes, the Seleucidan era; they may be supposed, like the
Parthians and other Nomads, to have achieved but scant
culture till conquest made them masters of civilized sections
of the earth.
In the present instance, these new invaders are seen to have
ignored or rejected the Semitic-Bactrian writing employed by
the Kadphises horde in parallel concert with the traditional
monumental Greek, and to have relied exclusivel}'' on the
Greek language in their official records ^ till the later
domestication of some of the members of the family, at
Mathura, led to an exceptional use of the Devanagari alphabet,
in subordination to the dominant Greek, on the coins of
Vasudeva. In no case do we find them recognizing the
Semitic type of character, though the inscriptions quoted
^ Prof. "Wilson's Plates, in his Ariana Antiqiia, arranged 35 years ago, and
altogether independently of the present argument, will suffice to place this con-
trast before the reader. The Kadphises group extend from figs. 5 to 21 of plate x.
AU these coins are bilingual^ Greek and Semitic-Bactrian. The Kanerki series
commence with No. 15, plate xi., having nothing but Greek legends, either on
the obverse or on the 'reverse, and follow on continuously through plates xii.
xiii. and xiv. down to fig. 11.- After that, the Greek characters become more or
less chaotic, till we reach No. 19.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. ^
below will show how largely that alphabet had spread in
some portions of their dominion. But beyond this, their
adherence, or perhaps that of their successors, to Greek,
continues mechanically till its characters merge into utter
incoherence on the later mintages.^ All of these indications
lead to the inference that, as far as the Court influences
were concerned, the tendency to rely upon Greek speech
would have carried with it what remained in situ of the
manners and customs of their Western instructors.^
There are two groups or varieties of Indo-Scythian In-
scriptions of the Kanishka famil}^ The one in the Indian
proper or Lat alphabet, all of which are located at Mathura.
The published Mathura inscriptions of this group (exclud-
ing the two quotations placed within brackets) number 20 in
all ; as a rule they are merely records of votive offerings on the
part of " pious founders," and contain only casual references
to the ruling powers. Twelve of these make no mention of
any monarch, though they are clearly contemporaneous with
the other dedicatory inscriptions. Throughout the whole
1 Ariana Antiqua, pi. xiv. Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16, 17. •
2 The circumstances bearing upon the battle of Karor {or j)'^) are of so
much importance in the history of this epoch, that I reproduce Albiruni's account
of that event : "On emploie ordinairement les eres de Sri-Harcha, de Vikrama-
ditya, de Saka, de Ballaba, et des Gouptas. . . . L'ere de Vikrama-
ditya est employee dans les provinces me'ridionales et occideutalesdel'Inde. . .
L'ere de Saka, nommee par les Indiens ' Saka-kala,' est posterieure a celle de
Vikramaditya de 135 ans. Saka est le nom d'un prince qui a regne sm- les
contrees situees entre V hidus et la mer. Sa residence etait placee au centre de
I'empire, dans la contree nommee Aryavartha. Les Indiens le font naitre
dans une classe autre que celle des Sakya; quelques-uns pretendent qu'il etait
Soudra et origiiiaire de la ville de Mansoura ; il y en a meme qui disent qu'il
n' etait pas de race indienne, et qu'il tirait son engine des regions occidentales.
Les peuples eurent beaucoup a souffrir de son despotisme, jusqu'a ce qu'il leur
vint du secours de 1" Orient. Vikramaditya marcha contre lui, mit son arme'e en
deroute, et le tua sur le territoire de Korour, situe entre Moultan et le chateau
de Louny. Cette epoque devint celebre, a cause de la joie que les peuples
ressentirent de la mort de Saka, et on la choisit pour ere principalement chez les
astronomes." — Reinaud's translation.
General Cunningham has attempted to identify the site of Karor with a
position "50 miles S.E. of Multan and 20 miles N.E. of Bahawalpilr,"
making the " castle of Loni " into " Ludhan, an ancient to^ni situated near tlie
old bed of the Sutlej river, 44 miles E.N.E. of Kahror and 70 miles E.S.E. of
Multan." — Ayicient Geography of India (Triibner, 1871), p. 241. These assign-
ments, are, however, seriously shaken by the fact that Albiruni himself invariably
places these two sites far north of Multun, i.e. according to his latitudes and
longitudes, Multan is 91°— 29'' 30' N., while Kador, as he writes it, is 92°— 31"
N., and Loni (variant Loi) is 32" N. — Sprenger's Maps, No. 12, etc.
10 BACTEIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
series of twenty records the dates are confined to numbers
below one hundred : they approach and nearly touch the end
of a given century, in the 90 and 98 ; but do not reach or
surpass the crucial hundred discarded in the local cycle.
The two inscriptions, Nos. 22, 23, from the same locality,
dated, severalty, Samvat 135 with the Indian month of
Paushya, and Samvat 281, clearly belong to a difierent age,
and vary from their associates in dedicatory phraseology,
forms of letters, and many minor characteristics, which
General Cunningham readily discriminated.^
Indo-Scythian Inscriptions.
In the Indo-Pdli Alphabet.
Kanishka. Maharaja KanishJca. Samvat 9.
[Kanishka. Samvat 28.]
\_Kuvishka. Samvat 33.]-
HuviSHKA. Maharaja Devaputra Huvishka. Hemanta, S. 39.
Maharaja Eajatiraja Devaputra Huvishka. Grislima,
« / S. 47.3
Maharaja Huvishka. Hemanta, S. 48.
Vasudeva. Mahcir dja Edjdtirdja Dbyawtra Vdsii{deva). Yarslia, ^S. 44.
Mahdrdja Vdsudeva. Grishma, S. 83.
Ilahdrdja Rdjatirdja, Shahi, Vdsudeva. Hemanta, S. 87.
Rdja Vdsudeva. Varslia, S. 98.^
^
v.
^ Arch. Eep. vol. iii. p. 38.
2 These two dates are quoted from Gen. Cunnin,2;ham's letter to the Athenceum
of 29 April, 1876, as having been lately discovered by Mr. Growse, B.C.S.
3 The 47th year of the Monastery of Huvishka.
* I was at first disposed to infer that the use of the Indian months in their
full development indicated a period subsequent to the employment of the primitive
three seasons, but I find from the Western Inscriptions, lately published by Prof.
Bhandarkar, that they were clearly in contemporaneous acceptance. While a
passage in Hiouen Thsang suggests that the retention of the normal terms was
in a measure typical of Buddhist belief, and so that, in another sense, the months
had a confessed conventional significance.
" Suivant la sainte doctrine de Jou-lai (duTathagata), une annee se compose
de trois saisons. Depuis le 16 du premier niois, jusqu'au 15 du cinquieme mois,
c'est la saison chaude. Depuis le 16 du cinquieme mois, jusqu'au 15 du
neuvieme mois, c'est la saison pluvieuse (Yarchas). Depuis le 16 de neuvieme
mois, jusqu'au 15 du premier mois, c'est la saison froide. Quelquefois on
divise I'annce en quatre saisons, savoir: le printemps, I'ete, I'automne et
I'hiver." — Hiouen Thsang, vol. ii. p. 63. The division into three seasons is
distinctly non-Vedic. — Muir, vol. i. p. 13 ; Elliot, Glossary, vol. ii. p. 47.
" There are two summers in the year and two harvests, while the winter
intervenes between them." — Pliny vi. 21 ; Diod. Sic. I. c. i.
BACTEIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. H
The parallel series are more scattered, and crop up in less
direct consecutive association, these are indorsed in the
Bactrian or Aryan adaptation of the Ancient Phoenician
alphabet.
Indo-Scythian Inscriptions,
In the Bactrian-Pdli Alphabet.
Bali§.walpur. Maharaja Rajadiraja Deyaputra Kanishka.
Samvat 11, on the 28th of the (Greek) month of Dtesius.
Manikyala Tope. Maharaja Kaneshka, Gushana vasa samvardhaka.
" Increaser of the dominion of the Gushans " (Kushans).
Samvat 18.
Wardak Vase. Maharaja rajatiraja Ruveshka. Samvat 5 1 , 1 5th of Artemisius . ^
^ Besides these inscriptions, there is a record of the name of Kanishka
designated as Eoja Gandharya, on "a rough block of quartz," from Zeda,
near Ohind, now in the Lahore Museum. This legend is embodied in very
small Bactrian letters, and is preceded by a single line in large characters, which
reads as follows: Sa^i 10 -|- 1 ( = 11) Ashadasa masasa di 20, JJdeyana gu. 1,
Isachhu nami." I do not quote or definitively adopt this date, as the two in-
scriptions appear to me to be of different periods, and vary in a marked degree
in the forms as well as in the size of their letters. — Lowenthal, J.A.S.B. 1863,
p. 5 ; Gen. Cunningham, Arch. Eeport, vol. v. p. 57-
In addition to the above Bactrian Pali Inscriptions, we have a record from
Taxila, by the " Satrap Liako Kusuluko," in "the 78th year of the great king,
the Great Moga, on the 5th day of the month Panfemus " (J.R.A.S. xx. o.s.
p. 227; J.A.S.B. 1862, p. 40). And an inscription from Takht-i-Bahi of the Indo-
Parthian king Gondophares, well known to us from his coins (Ariana Antiqua,
p. 340, Prinsep's Essays, vol. ii. p. 214), and doubtfully associated with the
Gondofertis of the Legenda Aiu-ea, to the following tenor : " Maharayasa Gudu-
pharasa Vasha 20-)-4 + 2 ( = 26) San . . . Satimae lOO + S (=-103) Vesakhasa
masasa divase 4." (Cunningham, Arch. Eep. vol. v. p. 59.) And to complete
the series of regal quotations, I add the heading of the inscription from Panjtar
of a king of the Kushans: '■'Sam 1004-204-2 ( = 122) Sravanasa masasa di
prathame 1, Maha rayasa Gushanasa Ra ..." (Professor Dowson, J.R.A.S.
Vol. XX. o.s. p. 223 ; Cunningham, Arch. Rep. vol. v. p. 61.)
This is an inscription which, in the exceptional character of its framework,
suggests and even necessitates reconstructive interpretations. The stone upon
which it is engrossed was obviously fissured and imperfectly prepared for its pur-
pose in the first instance ; so that, in the opening line, Gondophares' name has to
be taken over a broken gap with space for two letters, which divides the d from
the ph. The surface of the stone has likewise suffered from abrasion of some
kind or other, so that material letters have in certain cases been reduced to mere
shadowy outlines. But enough remains intact to establish the name of the Indo-
Parthian King, and to exhilDit a double record of dates, giving his regnal year
and the counterpart in an era the determination of which is of the highest
possible importance. The vasha or year of the king, expressed in figures alone,
as 26, is not contested. T\\ejigured date of the leading era presents no difiiculty
whatever to those who are conversant with Phoenician notation, or who may
hereafter choose to consult the ancient coins of Aradus. The symbol for hundreds
y/\ is incontestable. The preliminary stroke i, to the right of the sign, in
12 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
The above collection of names and dates covers, in the
latter sense, a period of from An. 9 to An. 98, or eighty-nine
years in all. The names, as I interpret them, apply to two
individuals, only, out of the triple brotherhood mentioned
in the Raja Tarangim. After enumerating the reigns of (1)
Asoka, (2) Jaloka, and (3) Damodhara, Professor Wilson's
translation of that chronicle continues : —
"Damodhara was succeeded by three princes who divided
the country, and severally founded capital cities named after
themselves. These princes were called Hushka, Jushka, and
Kanishka,^ of Turushka or Tatar extraction. . . . They are
considered synchronous, but may possibly be all that are pre-
served of some series of Tatar princes who, it is very likely,
at various periods, established themselves in Kashmir."^ I
the "Western system, marks the simple number of hundreds ; in India an ad-
ditional prolongation duplicates the value of the normal symbol. Under these
terms the adoptive Bactrian figures are positive as 103. Before the figured
date there is to be found, in letters^ the word satimae "in one himdred" or
"hundredth," in the reading of which all concur. It is possible that the
exceptional use of the figure for 100, which has not previously been met
with, may have led to its definition and repetition in writing in the body of
the inscription, in order that future interpreters should feel no hesitation about
the value of the exotic symbol. There was not the same necessity for repeating
the 3, the three fingers of which must always have been obvious to the meanest
capacity. I have no difficulty about the existence and free currency of the
Yikramaditya era per se in its own proper time, which some archaeologists are
inclined to regard as of later adaptation. But I am unable to concur in the
reading of Sanwatsara, or to admit, if such should prove the correct interpreta-
tion, that the word Samvatsara involved or necessitated a preferential association
with the Yikramaditya era, any more than the Samvatsara (J.R.A.S., Vol. IV.
p. 500) and Samvatsaraye {ibid. p. 222), or the abbreviated San or xS'a;;«, which is
so constant in these Bactrian Pali Inscriptions, and so frequent on Indo-Parthian
coins (Prinsep's Essays, vol. ii. p. 205, Coins of Azas, Nos. 1, 2, 6, 7, 12; Azilisas,
Nos. 1, etc. ; Gondophares, p. 215, No. 4.
' Abulfazl says " brothers." Gladwin's Translation, vol. ii. p. 171 ; Calcutta
Text, p. 574. j,-^b ^Jy ijl!^'^ J'^'^y. ^^j^ tJJ^ A:^ _ Lli^-ij _ Ll^-^ib .
General Cunningham considers that he has succeeded in identifying all the
three capitals, the sites of which are placed within the limits of the valley of
Kashmir, i.e.,
" Kanishka-pura (Kanikhpur) hod, Kampur, is ten miles south of Sirinagar,
known as Kampur Sarai.
" HusJika-pura, the Hu-se-kia-lo of Hiuen Thsang — the Ushkar of Albiruni
— now surviving in the village of Uskara, two miles south-east of Barahmula.
" Jushka-pura is identified by the Brahmans Avith Zukru or Zukur, a consider-
able village four miles north of the capital, the Schecroh of Troyer and "Wilson."
— Ancient Geography of India (London, 1871), p. 99.
2 Prof. II. II. "NVilson, " An Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmir,"
Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 23 ; and Troyer's Histoire des Rois du Kachmir
(Paris, 1840-52), vol. i. p. 19. See also Hioucn-Thsang (Paris, 1858), vol. ii.
pp. 42, 106, etc.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 13
assume Vdsu Leva (Krishna's title) to have been the titular
designation of Kanishka/ while Devaputm was common to
both brothers, and the ShdJii"^ was perhaps optional, or de-
voted to the senior in the joint brotherhood'^ or head of the
more extensive tribal community of the Kanerki.
The Mathura inscriptions, as we have seen, distinguish the
subdivisions of the year by the old triple seasons of Grishma,
Varsha, and Hemanta, while the Bactrian Pali inscriptions
ordinarily define the months by their Macedonian designa-
tions ; ^ the question thus arises as to whether this latter
1 Coin of Vasu Deva struck in his Eastern dominions. Tresor de Numis-
matique. Gold. PL Ixxx., figs. 10, 11. ,
Obverse. — Scytliian figure, standing to the front, casting incense into the
typical small Mithraic altar. To the right, a trident with flowing pennons : to
the left, a standard with streamers.
Legend, around the main device, in obscure Greek, the vague reproduction
of the conventional titles of FAO NANO PAO KOPANO.
Below the left arm ^ ^^'' V =Vasu, in the exact style of character found in
\»
his MathurS, Inscriptions.
Reverse. — The Indian Goddess Parvati seated on an open chair or imitation
of a Greek throne, extending in her right hand the classic regal fillet ; Mithraic
monogram to the left.
Legend, APAOXPO, Ard-Ugra = " half Siva," i.e. Parvati.
Those who wish to examine nearly exact counterparts of these tj-pes in English,
publications may consult the coins engraved in plate xiv., Ariana Antiqua, figs.
19, 20. The latter seems to have an imperfect rendering of the ^ va on
the obverse, with ^ su (formed like pu) on the reverse. [For corresponding
types see also Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vol. v. pi. 36, and Prinsep's Essays, pi. 4.
General Cunningham, Numismatic Chronicle, vol. vi. o.s. pi. i. fig. 2.] The u
is not curved, but formed by a mere elongation of the downstroke of the ^ s,
which in itself constitutes the vowel. The omission of the consecutive Deva on
the coins is of no more import than the parallel rejection of the Gupta, wdiere
the king's name is written downwards, Chinese fashion, in the confined space
below the arm. See also General Cunningham's remarks on Yasudeva, J.R.A.S.
Vol. Y. pp. 193, 195. Gen. Cunningham proposes to amend Prof. "Wilson's tenta-
tive reading of Baraono on the two gold coins, Ariana Antiqua, pi. xiv. figs. 14,18
(p. 378), into PAO NANO PAO BAZOAHO KOPANO. The engraving of No. 14
certainly suggests an initial B in the name, and the AZ and O are sufficiently
clear. We have only to angidarize the succeeding O into A to complete the
identification. These coins have a reverse of Siva and the Bull.— Arch. Rep.
vol. iii. p. 42. Dr. Kern does not seem to have been aware of these identifica-
tions when he proposed, in 1873 (Revue Critique, 1874, p. 291), to associate the
Mathura Yasudeva with the Indo-Sassanian Fehlvi coin figured in Prinsep,
pi. vii. fig. 6. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Yol. XII. pi. 3 ; Arian^a Antiqua,
pi. xvii. fig. 9.
2 The full Devaputi-a Shahan Shahi occurs in the Samudra Gupta inscription
on the Allahabad Lat. It may possibly refer to some of the extra Indian suc-
cessors of these Indo-Scythians.
3 Troyer translates paragraph 171, "Pendant le long regnc de ces rois,"
vol. i. p. 19.
* " The Macedonian months, which were adopted by the SjTO-Macedonian
14 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
practice does not imply a continued use of the Seleucidan
era, in association with which the names of these months
must first have reached India ? ^ and which must have been
altogether out of place in any indigenous scheme of reckon-
ing. Tested by this system, the years 9-98 of the fourth
century of the Seleucidan era (b.c. 311-12) produce, as I
have elsewhere remarked, the singularly suitable return of
B.C. 2 to A.D. 87. And a similar process applied to the third
century of the newly-discovered Parthian era (b.c. 248) ^
would represent b.c. 39 and a.d. 50. But this last method
of computation seems to have secured a mere local and
exceptional currency, and the probabilities of its extension to
India are as zero compared with the wide-spread and endur-
ing date ^ of the Seleucidse, which the Parthians themselves
continued to use on their coinage in conjunction with the old
cities, and generally by the Greek cities of Asia, after tlie time of Alexander, were
lunar till the reformation of the Eoman calendar of Ccesar (by inserting 67+23
= 90 days in this year). After that reformation the Greek cities of Asia, which
had then become subject to the Roman Empire, gradually adopted the Julian
year. But although they foUowed the Eomans in computing by the solar Julian
year of 365d. 6h. instead of the lunar, yet they made no alteration in the season
at which their year began (AIO5 = 0ct. Nov.), or in the order of the months."
—Clinton, Fast. Hell. vol. iii. pp. 202, 347.
^ Some importance will be seen to have attached to the use of the contrasted
terms for national months in olden time, as we find Letronne observing : " Dans
tons les exemples de doubles ou triples dates que nous offrent les inscriptions
redigees en Grece, le mois qui est enonce le premier est toujours celui dont
fait usage la nation a laquelle appartient celui quiparle." — Letronne, Inscriptions
de I'Egypte (Paris, 1852), p. 263.
2 Assyrian Discoveries, by George Smith, London, 1875, p. 389. From the
time of the Parthian conquest it appears that the tablets were dated according
to the Parthian style. There has always been a doubt as to the date of this
revolt, and consequently of the Parthian monarchy, as the classical authorities
have left no evidence as to the exact date of the rise of the Parthian power. I,
however, obtained three Parthian tablets from Babylon ; two of them contained
double dates, one of which, being found perfect, supplied the required evidence,
as it was dated according to the Seleucidan era, and according also to the Parthian
era, the 144th year of the Parthians being equal to the 208th year of the
Seleucidso, thus making the Parthian era to have commenced b.c. 248. This
date is written : " Month .... 23rd day 144th year, which is called the 208th
year, Arsaces, King of kings."
Clinton, follomng Justin and Eusebius, etc., 250 b.c. Fasti Eomani, vol. ii. p.
243, and Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii. p. 311 ; Moses Chorenensis, 251 or 252 b.c. ;
Suidas, 246 b.c.
^ " Antiochus, snrnamed Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the king, . . .
reigned in the 137th year of the kingdom of the Greeks." — Maccabees I. i. 10
— ii. 70, et. seq. " In the 143rd year of the kingdom of the Seleucidee." —
Josephus, Ant. xii. 3. "It came to pass . . in the 145th year on the 25th
of that month which is by us called Chasleu, and by the Macedonians ApelUus,
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 15
Macedonian juonths,^ whose importance in their bearing
upon the leading era I have enlarged upon in the parallel
Indo-Scythic instance immediately under review. So that, as
at present advised, I hold to a preference for the Seleucidan
test, which places the Indo- Scythians in so satisfactory a
position both relatively to their predecessors and successors.
I have at the same time no reserve in acknowledging the
many difficulties surrounding the leading question; but if
we can but get a second "pied a terre," a fixed date-point,
after the classical testimony to the epoch of the great
Chandra Gupta, we may check the doubts and difficulties
surrounding many generations both before and after any
established date that we may chance to elicit from the pre-
sent and more mature inquiries.
The comparative estimates by the three methods of compu-
tation immediately available stand roughly as follows : —
Seleucidan . [1st Sept., 312 B.C.] B.C. 2 to a.d. 87.
Yikramaditya . . [57 b.c.^] . . B.C. 48 to a.d. 41.
Saka . . [14th March, 78 a.d.^] a.d. 88 to a.d. 177.
Before taking leave of the general subject of Indian
methods of defining dates, I wish to point out how much
the conventional practice of the suppression of the hundreds
must have impaired the ordinary continuity of record and
in the 153rcl Olympiad, etc." — xii. 4. " Seleucus cognominatus Nicator regnum
Babelis, totiusque Eraki, et Chorasanfe, Indiam usque, Ab initio imperii ipsius
orditur sera, quse Alexandri audit, ea nempe qua tempora computant Syri et
Hebrffii." — Bar-Hebrseus, Pococke, p. 63.
" The Jews still style it the JEra of Contracts, because they were obliged,
when subject to the Syro-Macedonian princes, to express it in all their contracts
and civil writings." — Gough's Seleucidse, p. 3.
The Syria c text of the inscription at Singanfu is dated "in 1093d year of the
Greeks" (a.d. 782). — A. Kircher, La Chine, p. 43; Yule, Marco Polo, vol. ii.
p. 22 ; see also Mure's History of Greece, vol. iv. pp. 74-79.
1 The dates begin to appear on the Syro-Macedonian coins under Seleucus IV. ,
Tresor de Numismatique, sAP= 136 ; Mionnet, vol. v. p. 30, FAZ = 137. Cleopatra
and Antiochus VIII. also date their coins in the Seleucidan era. See Mionnet,
vol. V. pp. 86, 87.
The Parthian coin dates commence with a.s. TVS, = 280 (b.c. 31), APTE,
Arteniisius, and continue to A.s. 539, Tres. de Num. Rois Grecs, pp. 143-147 ;
Lindsay, Coinage of the Parthians (Cork, 1852), pp. 175-179.
2 Limi-solar year. 3 Solar or Sidereal year. Prinsep, Useful Tables, pp. 153-7.
16 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
affected the resulting value of many of the fragmentary data
that have been preserved to our time.
The existence of such a system of disregarding or blotting-
out of centuries — persevered in for ages — must naturally have
led to endless uncertainties among subsequent home or foreign
inquirers, whose errors and misunderstandings were occasion-
ally superadded to the normal imperfections of their leading
authorities. Something of this kind may be detected in
the illustrative works both of Hiuen Thsang and Albiruni,
wherever the quotation refers to hundreds in the gross.
Apart from the improbabilities of events adapting them-
selves to even numbers in liundrech^ it is clear that, where
hundreds alone are given, the date itself must be looked
upon as more or less vague and conjectural, elicited, in short,
out of uncertain and undefined numbers, and alike incapable
of correction from minor totals ; such a test must now be
applied to Hiuen Thsang's oft- quoted open number of 400
as marking the interval between Buddha and Kanishka.^
So also one of Albiruni's less-con sistently worked-out dates
is liable to parallel objection, such, for instance, as the even
''400 before Yikramaditya, " which constitutes his era of
" Sri Harsha," and which he is frank enough to confess may
perchance pertain to the other Sri Harsha of 664 after
Yikramaditya (or 57-f 664 = 607-8 a.d.). His clear 400 of
the era of Yezdegird is, however, a veritable conjuncture, a
singular and unforced combination of independent epochs,^
1 " Daus les quatre cents ans qui suivront mon Nirvana, il y aura iin roi qui
s'illustrera dans le monde sous le nom de Kia-ni-se-kia (Kanishka)."— Memoires
surles Conti-ees < ccidentales (Paris, 1857), i. p. 106. "Dans la 400e annee apres
le Nirvana" (p. 172). This 400 is the sum given in the Lalita Yistara, but the
Mongol authorities have 300. Foe-koue Ki, chapter xxv., and Bnrnouf's lutr.
Hist. Bud., vol. i. p. 568, "trois cent ans," p. 579, " un peu plus de quatre cent
ans apres Cakya, an temps de Kanichka." Hiuen Thsang confines himself to
obscure hundi'e'ds in other places. " Dans la centieme annee apres le Nirvana
de Jou-lai, Asoka, roi de Magadha," p. 170. " La six centieme annee apres le
Nirvana," p. 179. Nagarjuna is equally dated 400 years after Buddha. "Nagar-
juna is generally supposed to have flourished 400 years after the death of Buddha."
— As. Res. vol. XX. pp. 400, 5 1 3. Csoma de Koros, Analysis of the Gyut. See also
As. Res. vol. ix. p. 83 ; xv. p. 115; and Burnouf, vol. i. p. 447, and J.A.S.B.
vol. vii. p. 143. M. Foucaux, in his Tibetan version of the Lalita Yistara, speaks of
Nagarjuna as flourishing " cent ans apres le mort de (^lakya Mouni, p. 392, note.
2 Reinaud, Joe. cit. pp. 137, 139. Albiruni here rejoices, that " cette epoque
s'exprirae par un nombrc rond et n'est embarrassee ni de dizaines ni d'unites,"
which seems to show how .rarely, in his large experience, such a phenomenon
had been met with.
BAOTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 17
approximately marked by the date of the death of Mahmiid
of Ghazni/ in an era that had not yet been superseded in
the East by the Muhammadan Hijrah.
I conclude this paper with a reproduction of the unique
coin of the Saka King Heraiis, which, on more mature ex-
amination, has been found to throw unexpected light on the
chief seat of Saka-Scythian power,^ and to supply incidentally
an approximate date, which may prove of considerable value
in elucidating the contemporaneous history of the border
lands of India.
I have recently had occasion to investigate the probable
age of this piece by a comparison of its reverse device with
the leading types of the Imperial Parthian mintages, with
which it has much in common, and the deduction I arrived
at, from the purely Numismatic aspect of the evidence, was
^ The era of Yezdegird commenced 16th June, 632 ad. The date on
Mahmud's tomb is 23rd Eabi' the second, a.h. 421 (30th April, a.d. 1030).
2 Albiruni was naturally perplexed with the identities of Viki-amaditya and
Salivahana, and unable to reconcile the similarity of the acts attributed alike to
one and the other. He concludes the passage quoted in note 2, p. 9, in the
following terms : — " D'un auti-e cote, Vikramaditya, requt le titre de Sri (gi-and)
a cause de I'honneur qu'il s'etait acquis. Du reste, I'intervalle qui s'est 6coule
entre I'ere de Vikramaditya et la mort de Saka, prouve que le vainqueiu- n'etait
pas le celebre Vikramaditya, mais un autre prince du memo nom." — Eeinaud,
p. 142.
Major "WUford, in like manner, while discussing the individualities of his *' 8
or 9 Viki-am^ityas," admitted that " the two periods of Vikramaditya and
Salivahana are intimately connected^ and the accounts we have of these two
extraordinary personages are much confused, teeming with contradictions and
absurdities to a surprising degree." — As. Res., vol. ix. p. 117; see also vol. x. p. 93.
A passage lately brought to notice by Dr. Biihler throws new light upon this
question, for, in addition to supplying chronological data of much importance in
regard to the interval of 470 years which is said to have elapsed between the
great Jaina Mahdvira (the 24th Tirthankara) and the first Vikramaditya of
B.C. 57, it teaches us that there were Saka kings holding sway in India in
B.C. 61-57, which indirectly confirms the epoch of the family of Heraiis, and
explains how both Vikraniadityas, at intervals of 135 years, came to have Saka
enemies to encounter, and consequently equal claims to titular Sakdri honours.
" 1. Palaka, the lord of Avanti, was anointed in that night in which the
Arhat and Tirthankara Mahavira entered Nirv&na. 2. 60 are (the years of
King Palaka, but 155 are (the years) of the Nandas; 108 those of the Mauryas,
and 30 those of Piisamitta (Pushyamitra) . 3. 60 (years) ruled Balamitra and
Bhanumitra, 40 Nabhovahana. 13 years likewise (lasted) the rule of Garda-
bhilla, and 4 are (the years) of Saka."— From the Prakrit Gathas of Meru-
tunga, etc.
" These verses, which are quoted in a very large number of Jaina commen-
taries and chronological works, but the origin of Avhich is not clear, give the
adjustment between the eras of Vira and Vikrama, and form the basis of the
earlier Jaina chronology."— Dr. Biihler, Indian Antiquary, vol. ii. p. 363.
2
18 BACTPJAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
tliat, recognizing tlie imitative adoption of certain details of
the main devices of the suzerain rulers, and supposing such
adoption to have been immediate and contemporaneous,
the dates B.C. 37 to a.d. 4 would "mark the age of Heraiis."^
This epoch singularly accords with the date of Isidore of
Charax,^ from whose text of the ' Stathmi Parthici ' we like-
wise gather that the recognized seat of the Saka- Scythians,
then feudatories of the Parthian Empire, was located in the
valley of the Helmund,^ and was known by the optional
^ Eecords of tlie Gupta Dynasty (Tiiibuer, 1876), p. 37.
" It is in regard to the tj-pical (letails, however, that the contrast between the
pieces of Manas and Heraiis is most apparent. Manas has no coins with his own
bnst among the infinite variety of his mint devices, nor has Azas, who imitates sa
many of his emblems. But, in the Gondophares group, we meet again with
busts and uncovered heads, the hair being simply bound by a fillet, in which
arrangement of the head-dress Pakores, with his bushy curls, follows suit. But
the crucial typical test is furnished by the small figure of victory crowning the
horseman on the reverse, which is so special a characteristic of the Parthian
die illustration.
"We have frequent examples of Angels or tj'pes of victory extending regal
fillets in the Bactrian series, but these figures constitute as a rule the main
device of the reverse, and are not subordinated into a corner, as in the Parthian
system. The first appearance of the fillet in direct connexion with the king's
head in the Imperial series, occurs on the coins of Arsaces XIV., Orodes (b.c.
54-37), where the crown is borne by an eagle (Lindsay, History of the Parthiansj
Cork, 1852, pi. iii. fig. 2, pp. 146-170; Tresor de Ntimismaiiqiie, pi. Ixviii.
fig. 17) ; but on the reverses of the copper coinage this duty is already confided
to the winged figure of Victory (Lindsay, pi. v. fig. 2, p. 181). Arsaces XV.,
Phrahates IV. (37 b.c. -4 a.d.), continues the eagles for a time, but progresses
into single {Ibid.,^\. iii. fig. 60; v. fig. 4, pp. 148, 170 ; Tresor de JSfumismatique,
pi. Ixviii. fig. 18; pi. Ixix. fig. 5), and finally into double figm-es of Victory
eager to crowm him {Ibid., pi. iii. figs. 61-63), as indicating his successes against
Antony and the annexation of the kingdom of Media (Lindsay, p. 46 ; Pawlinson,
The Sixth Monarchy, p. 182).
" Henceforth these winged adjuncts are discontinued, so that, if we are to
seek for the prototj^e of the Heraiis coin amid Imperial Arsacidan models, we
are closely limited in point of antiquity, though the possibly deferred adoption
may be less susceptible of proof "
2 The period of Isidore of Charax has been the subject of much controversy.
The writer of the notice in Smith's Dictionary contents himself with saying, "He
seems to have lived under the early Koman Emperors." C. Miiller, the special
authority for all Greek geographical questions, sums up his critical examination
of the evidence to the point : " Probant scriptorem nostrum Augusti temporibus
debere fuisse pniximum." — Geog. Grec. Mm. vol. i. p. Ixxxv.
^17. 'Ej/TeC^ev ZapayyiavT], axo'iuoi Ka. "EvOa TroAiS Udpiv koI KophK iroXis.
18. ^EvT^vOev 'S.aKacTTavr] "XaKcvu 'ZkvQcov, t] koI UapaLraKiqvri, axoivoi I7 . "EvQa
BapSa -noXis koL MXv irSXis Ka\ TlaXaKiVjl 'n-6\is Kol 2i7aA tt6\ls' euda ^ariXeia
^aKoow ical irXriaiou 'AXe^du?>peia 7r6\is {koI TrArjaiov 'AKe^avSpo-rroXis TroAt?)-
Kw/xai 56 e'|. Isidore of Charax, " Stathmi Parthici," ed. C. Miiller, Paris,
pp. 253, Ixxxv. and xciii., map No. x. The text goes on to emmierate the
stages up to AlexandropoUs ix7]Tp6noXis 'Apaxcoaias, and concludes : "Axpi tovtov
i(TTiv 7} tS>v UdpOcDU i-KiKpaTiia. I annex for the sake of comparison Ptolemy's
list of the cities of Drangia, after the century and a half Avhich is roughly esti-
mated as the interval between the two geographers. Sigal and Sakastane seem
BACTRIAX COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 19
names of Sakasfane or Pamitakene with a capital city en-
titled Sigal.
The ancient Sigal may perhaps be identified with the
modern site of Selcooha, the metropolis of a district of that
name, which, in virtue of its position, its walls, and its wells,
still claims pre-eminence among the cities of Seistan.^
And to complete the data, I now find on the surface of the
3. Ivva. 4. ApiKdba. 0. Aara. o. p,api;Lapr]. /. i\oaTav(
9. Biyis. 10. 'Apidffir-n. 11. 'Apaj/a. —Ptolemy, lib. vi. ca
vol. iii. p. 44; Journ. R A.S. Vol. X. p. 21, and Vol. XV. p
Darius' Inscription, Persian "Saka," Scytliic "Sakka." 'I
alike to tave disappeared from the local map. 1. Upo(p9aaia. 2. 'PoCSa.
3. "Ivva. 4. "ApiKada. 5. "Aara. 6. aap^Ldpr]. 7. Noa-rdva. 8. ^apaCdva.
" ' " ' lib. vi. cap. 19; Hudson,
pp. 97, 150, 206 ;
The old term of
[C^ is preserved in all the intelligent Persian and Arabian writers. Majmal
Al Taw§irikh, Journ. Asiatique, 1839 ^\j^ ^IC ; Hamza Isfahan! ^l^ ^^Lj
n 50 ■ 1" <--*^5 .\ l^ .. p. 51. And the Armenians adhere to the
Sakasdan. —Moses of Khorene, French edition, vol. ii. p. 143; Whiston,
pp. 301, 364; St. -Martin, L'Armenie, vol. ii. p. 18. ''[::,^s^, Les villes
principales sont : Zaleky KerJcouyah, Rissoum, Zaranj) et Ijosf, ou Ton voit les
mines de I'ecurie de Roustam, le iteros." — 13. de MejTiard, La Perse, p. 303.
Other references to the geography of this locality will be found in Pliny vi. 21 ;
Ouseley's Oriental Geography, p. 205; Anderson's Western Afghanistan, J.A.S.
Bengal, 1849, p. 586; Leech {Sekwa), J.A.S.B., 1844, p. 117; Khanikolf, 'Asie
Centrale,' Paris, 1861, p. 162 {Sekouhe) ; Ferrier's Travels, p. 430; Malcolm's
Persia, vol. i. p. 67; Pottinger's Beloochistan, pp. 407-9; Burnouf's Yaqna,
p. xcix.
1 " This fortress is the strongest and most important in Seistan, because, being
at 5 parasangs from the lake, water is to be obtained only in wells which have
been dug -svithin its enceinte. The intermediate and surrounding country being
an arid parched waste, devoid not only of water, but of everything else, the
besiegers could not subsist themselves, and would, even if provisioned, inevitably
die of thii-st. It contains about 1200 houses. ... I have called it the capital
of Seistan, but it is impossible to say how long it may enjoy that title." — Caravan
Journeys of J. P. Ferrier, edited by H. D. Seymour, Esq., Murray, 1857, p. 419'.
" On the 1st February, 1872, made a 30 mile march to Sekuha, the more modern
capital of Seistan . .; hnally we found Sekuha itself amid utter desolation." — SirF.
J.Goldsmid. FromR.Geog. Soc.l873,p. 70. See also Sir H.Rawlinson's elaborate
notes on Seistan, p. 282, " Si-koheh " [three hills], in the same volume. I may add
in support of this reading of the name of the capital, that it very nearly reproduces
the synonym of the obscure Greek :$cyd\, in the counterpart Pehlvi 3a.5 JS := C^^
Sf gar or gal, which stands equally for " three hills." Tabari tells us that
in the old language, '•'■ guer a le sens de montagne" (Zotenberg, vol. i p. 5),
and Hamza Isfahani equally recognizes the ger as " colles etmontes" (p. 37).
The interchange of the rs and Is did not disturb the Iranian mind any more
than the indeterminate use oi gs and ks. See Journ. R.A.S. Vol. XII. pp.
265, 268, and Vol. XIII. p. 377. We need not carry on these comparisons
fiu'ther, but those who wish to trace identities more completely may consult
Pictet, vol. i. p. 122, and follow out the Sanskrit giri. Slave gora, etc. Since the
body of this note was set up in type. Sir F. Goldsmid's ofhcial report upon
"Eastern Persia" has been published, and supplies the following additional
20
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
original coin, after the final a in 2Aka, the Greek monogram
U, which apparently represents the ancient province, or pro-
vincial capital, of Drangia}
Heeaus, Saka King.
Silver. British Museum. Unique.
Obv. "Bust of a king, right, diademed and draped; border of reels
and beads.
Rev. TTIANN0YNT02 HIAOT
2AKA
KOIIANOT.
(TvpavvovfTos 'Hpdov 2a/ca Koipavov.)
A king, right, on horseback; behind, Nike, crowning him.^''
details as to the characteristics of Sikoha : — " The town, . . , which derives its
name from three clay or mud hills in its midst, is built in an ii-regiilar circular
form around the base of the two principal hills. The southernmost of these
hills is surmounted by the arh or citadel, an ancient structure known as the
citadel of Mir Kuchak Kh&n. . . . Adjoining this, and connected with it, is the
second hill, called the Burj-i-Falaksar, on which stands the present Governor's
house; and about 150 yards to the west is the third hill, not so high as the other
two, undefended. . . . The two principal hills thus completely command the
town lying at their hase, and are connected with one another by a covered Avay."
" Sekuha is quite independent of an extra-mural water supply, as water is always
obtainable by digging a few feet below the surface anywhere inside the walls,
which are twenty-five feet in height, strongly built." — Major E. Smith, vol. i.
p. 258.
^ The progressive stages of this Monogram are curious. "We have the normal
J\. — Mionnet, pi. i. No. 12; Lindsay, Coins of the Parthians, pi. xi. No. 7.
Next we have the Bactrian varieties j<^, k^ , and K, entered in Prinsep's
Essays, pi. xi. c. No, 53 ; Num. Chron. vol. xix. o.s. Nos. 48, 52, and vol. viii.
N.s. pi. vii. Nos. 71, 72, and 76; and likewise Mionnet's varieties, Nos. 156,
299 : Ariana Antiqua, pi. xxii. No. 118.
2 I am indebted to Mr. P. Gardner for this woodcut. I retain his description
of the coin as it appeared in the Numismatic Chronicle, 1874, vol. xiv. n.s.
p. 161. It will be seen that Mr. Gardner failed to detect the worn outline of
the Monogram.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 21
Colonel Pearse, E,.A., retains a single example of an ex-
ceptionally common class of small silver coins displaying the
obverse head in identical form with the outline in the wood-
cut. The reverse type discloses an ill-defined, erect figure, to
the left, similar in disjointed treatment to some of the reverses
in the Antiochus-Kodes class,^ accompanied by two parallel
legends in obscure Grreek. The leading line, giving the title^
is altogether unintelligible ; but its central letters range
xDiAiiNx or xDiAiiKx. The second line gives a nearer ap-
proach to "Moas" in a possible initial M, followed by the
letters 1niiAHL=/xottS7;9, /xoTT/a?;?, yuQiia'r]'^^ etc. All these speci-
mens, in addition to other Kodes associations, give outward
signs of debased metal, or the Nickel, which was perchance,
in those days, estimated as of equal value with silver.^
The interest in this remarkable coin is not confined to
the approximate identifications of time and place, but ex-
tends itself to the tenor of the legend, which presents us
with the unusual titular prefix of Tvpavvovvro<;, which, as
a synonym of BaaCKevovro^f and here employed by an
obvious subordinate, may be held to set at rest the dis-
puted purport of the latter term, in opposition to the simple
Bac7t\eu9, which has such an important bearing upon the
relative positions of the earlier Bactrian Kings. The
examples of the use of the term BaaCKevovro^ in the pre-
liminary Bactrian series are as follows ^ : —
1. Agathocles in subordi- ) Obv. AIOAOTOY 2nTHP05.
nation to Diodotus j Rev. BA2IAETONT05 ArA0OKAEOY5 AIKAIOY.
2. Agathocles in subordi- \ Obv. EY0TAHMOT ©EOT.
nation to Euthydemus j Rev. BA2IAETONT02 ArA0OKAEOY5 AIKAIOT.
3. Agathocles in subordi- \ Obv. ANTIOXOY NIKATOP02.
nation to Antiochus ] Eev. BA2IAETONT02 ArA0OKAEOT5 AIKAIOY.
4. Antimacbus Theus in ) ^^^^ ^lOAOTO. SnTHPOS. "
ditus ^^^- BA2IAEYONT02 ANTIMAXOY 0EOY.
^ Num. Cbron. vol. iv. n.s. p. 209, pi. viii. fig. 7.
2 J.fl.A.S., Vol. IV. N.s. p. 504 ; Records of the Gupta Dynasty, p. 38.
'^ M. de Bartholomgei, Koehne's Zeitschrift, 1843, p. 67, pi. iii. fig. 2; Reply
to M. Droysen, Zeitschrift fiir Miinz, 1846 ; my papers in Prinsep's Essays (1858),
vol. i. p. xvi., vol. ii. pp. 178-183; in the Numismatic Chronicle, vol. ii. 1862,
p. 186; and Journ. R. A. S., Vol. XX. 1863, p. 126; M. Raoul Rochette, Journal
des Savants, 1844, p. 117; Droysen, Geschichte des Ilellenismus, Hamburg,
22 BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES.
The whole question as to the relative rank of the princes,
whose names figure conjointly in the above legends, reduces
itself concisely to this contrast, that the sub-king invariably
calls himself (Baaikev^ on his own proper coins, but on these
exceptional tributary pieces, where he prefixes the image
and superscription of a superior, he describes himself as
Baat\€vovTo<;. These alien Satraps were efi'ective kings
within their own domains, but clearly bowed to some ac-
knowledged head of the Bactro-Greek confederation, after
the manner of their Indian neighbours, or perchance included
subjects, who so especially regarded the gradational import
of the supreme Mahdrajad/urdja, in contradistinction to the
lesser degrees of regal state implied in the various stages
of rdja, mahdrdja, rdjddhirdja, etc. These binominal pieces
are rare, and, numismatically speaking, " occasional,'' i.e.
coined expressly to mark some public event or political in-
cident, like our modern medals ; coincident facts, which led
me long ago to suggest^ that they might have been struck as
nominal tribute money or fealty pieces, in limited numbers,
for submission with the annual nazardud, or presentation at
high State receptions, to the most powerful chief or general
of the Grseco-Bactrian oligarchy for the time being.
There is a curious feature in these binominal coins, which,
as far as I am aware of, has not hitherto been noticed. It is,
that the obverse head, representing the portrait of the superior
king, seems to have been adopted directly from his own
ordinary mint-dies,^ which in their normal form presented
1843; Lassen, Ind. Alt., 1847; Gen. Cunningliam, Numismatic Chronicle,
vol. viii. N.s. 1868, p. 278, et seq., ix. 1869, p. 29 ; Mr. Vaux, Numismatic
Chronicle, vol. xv. n.s. p. 15.
^ Journal Eoyal Asiatic Society, Vol. XX. p. 127; Numismatic Chronicle,
N.s. vol. ii. p. 186.
'^ I have long imagined that I could trace the likeness of Antiochus Theos on the
obverse of the early gold coins of Diodotus (Prinsep's Essays, pi. xlii. 1 ; Num.
Chron. vol. ii. n.s. pi. iv. figs. 1-3). I suppose, however, that in this case the latter
monarch used his suzerain's ready-prepared die for the one face of his precipitate
and perhaps hesitating coinage, conjoined with a new reverse device bearing his
own name, which might have afforded him a loophole of escape on his " right to
coin" being challenged. Apart from the similarity of the profile, the contrast
between the high Greek art and perfect execution of the obverse head, and the
coarse design and superficial tooling of the imitative reverse device, greatly
favom-s the conclusion of an adaptation, though the motive may have been merely
to utilize the obverses of existing mint appliances of such high merit.
BACTRIAN COINS AND INDIAN DATES. 23
the profile of the monarch without any surrounding legend,
his name and titles being properly reserved for their conven-
tional position on the reverse surface of his current coins. In
the novel application of the head of the suzerain to a place
on the obverse of a coin bearing the device and designations of •
his confessed subordinate on the reverse, it became necessary
to add to the established obverse-device a specification of
the name and titles of the superior, whose identification
would otherwise have remained dependent upon the fidelity
and the public recognition of the likeness itself. Hence,
under the new adaptation, it likewise became requisite to
engrave on the old die, around the standard Mint head,
the suzerain's superscription in the odd corners and spaces in
^the field, no provision having been made, in the first in-
stance, for any legend at all, and no room being left for the
ordinary circular or perpendicular arrangement of the words,
such as would have been spaced out under ordinary circum-
stances. In the majority of the instances we are able to cite,
the Greek letters on the adapted obverse vary materially in
their forms and outlines from those of the associated legends
on the reverse, which still further proves the independent
manipulation applied to the obverses of the compound pieces.
In addition to these indications as bearing upon the
Bactrian proper coinage, the title of TvpavvovpTo<; is highly
suggestive in its partial reappearance on the coins of the
leading Sah Kings JN^ahapana and Chastana, connecting the
Scythic element geographically to the southward with the
province of Guzerat, for a full resume of which I must refer
my readers to the Archaeological Report of Western India,^
for 1875.
' See also the short copies of my Essay on the Records of the Gupta Dynasty,
London, 1876, p. 31.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
BY
E. THOMAS, F.R.S.
In most of tlie modern discussions on ttie ancient religions
of India, the point at issue has been confined to the relative
claims to priority of Buddhism and Brahmanism, a limitation
which has led to a comparative ignoring of the existence of
the exceptionally archaic creed of the Jainas.
This third competitor for the honours of precedence has
lately been restored to a very prominent position, in its
archaeological status^ by the discovery of numerous specimens
of the sculptures and inscriptions of its votaries on the sacred
site of Mathura, the MoBovpa rj tmv Oecov of the Greeks,^
that admit of no controversy, either as to the normal date
or the typical import of the exhumed remains.
This said Mathura on the Jumna constituted, from the
earliest period, a '' high place " of the Jainas, and its memory ^
is preserved in the southern capital of the same name, the
MoSovpa, Paaikeiov Tlavhiovo^ of Ptolemy, whence the sect,
in after-times, disseminated their treasured knowledge, under
the peaceful shelter of their Matams (colleges)^ in aid of
^ Ptolemy, M^dopa, Arrian (quoting Megastlienes) , Indica viii. Methora,
Pliny, vi. 22. ,
2 F, Buchanan, Mysore, iii. 81, " Uttara Madura, on the Jumna."
3 The modern version of the name of the city on the Jumna is ^^T^T
Mathura. Babu Rajendi'alala has pointed out that the old Sanskrit form was
^T^TJ Madhurd (J.A.S. Bengal, 1874, p. 259), but both transcriptions seem to
have missed the true derivative meaning of T{Z MatJia (hodie ,^'>»),"a,
monaster)', a convent or college, a temple," etc., from the root TI'3^" to dwell,'
4 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
local learning and the reviving literature of the Penin-
sula.^
The extended geographical spread of Jaina edifices has
lately been contrasted, and compactly exhibited, in Mr.
Fergusson's Map of the architectural creeds of India ; ^ but a
more important question regarding the primary origin of their
buildings is involved in the sites chosen by their founders :
whence it would appear that the Jainas must have exercised
the first right of selection, for the purposes of their primitive
worship, of the most striking and appropriate positions, on
hill-tops and imperishable rocks,^ whose lower sections were
honey-combed with their excavated shrines — from which
vantage-ground and dependent caves they were readily
displaced, in after-days, by appropriating Buddhists on the
as a hermit miglit abide in liis cave. The southern revenue terms have preserved
many of the subordinate forms, in the shape of taxes for " Maths." Eajputana
and the N."W. Provinces exhibit extant examples in abundance of the still con-
ventional term, while the distant Himalayas retain the word in Joshi-Mat/i,
Bhairava-Jf«i!A, etc. The Vishnu Purana pretends to derive the name from
Madliu, a local demon (i. 164), while the later votaries of Krishna associate it
with the Gopi's "churn" math. — Growse, Mathura Settlement Eeport, 1874,
vol. i. p. 50.
^ " The period of the predominance of the Jainas (a predominance in intellect
and learning — rarely a predominance in political power) was the Augustan age of
Tamil literature, the period when the Madura College, a celebrated literary
association, appears to have flourished, and when the Kural, the Chintamani, and
the classical vocabularies and grammars were written." — Caldwell, p. 86. See
also p. 122. "The Jaina cycle. I might perhaps have called this instead the
cycle of the Madura Smigam or College'' — p. 128. Dr. Caldwell, Grammar of the
Dravidian Languages, London, 1875.
2 Histoi7 of Indian and Eastern Architecture; Murray, London, 1876,
Map, p. 47.
3 The late Mr. G. "W. Traill has preserved an illustration of the innate tendency
of the aboriginal mind to revert to primitive forms of worship, which almost re-
minds us of theparty-coloured Pigeons of Norfolk Island, which, when left to their
own devices, reverted to the normal tj'pe of Blue Rock. He observes : " The
sanctity of the Himalaya in Hindu mythology by no means necessarily implies the
pre-existence of the Hindu religion in this province (Kumaon), as the enormous
height and grandeur of that range, visible from the plains, would have been
sufficient to recommend it as a scene for the penances of gods and heroes
The great bulk of the population are now Hindus in prejudices and customs,
rather than in religion. Every remarkable mountain, peak, cave, forest, foimtain
and rock has its presiding demon or spirit, to which frequent sacrifices are
offered, and religious ceremonies continually performed by the surrounding in-
habitants at small temples erected on the spot. These temples are extremely
numerous throughout the country, and new ones are daily being erected ; while
the temples dedicated to Hindu deities, in the interior, are, with few exceptions,
deserted and decayed." — G. "W. Traill, As. Res., xvi. p. 161. See also J.R.A.S.
Vol. VIII. p. 397; Vol. XIII. "Khond Gods," pp. 233-6; "Aboriginal Gods,"
p. 285. Hunter's Rural Bengal, pp. 130, 182, etc.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 5
one part, or ousted and excluded by the more arrogant and
combative Brahmans on the other.
The introductory phase in the consecutive order of the
present inquiry involves the consideration of the conflicting
claims to priority of the Jainas and the Buddhists. Some half
a century ago, Colebrooke, echoing the opinions of previous
commentators, seems to have been fully prepared to admit
that Buddhism was virtually an emanation from anterior
Jainism. We have now to examine how far subsequent
evidence confirms this once bold deduction. Unquestionably,
by all the laws of religious development, of which we have
lately heard so much, the more simple faith, per se,^ must be
primarily accepted as the precursor of the more complicated
and philosophical system,^ confessing a common origin.
Colebrooke summarized his conclusions to the following
efiect :
"It is certainly probable, as remarked by Dr. Hamilton and
Major Delamaine,^ that the Gautama of the Jainas and of the
Bauddhas is the same personage : and this leads to the further
surmise, that both sects are branches of one stock. According to
the Jainas, only one of Mahavira's eleven disciples left spiritual
successors : that is, the entire succession of Jaina priests is derived
^ " The ritual of the Jainas is as simple as their moral code. The Yati, or
devotee, dispenses -with acts of worship at his pleasure, and the lay votary is only
bound to visit daily a temple where some of the images of the Tirthan?caras are
erected, walk round it three times, and make an obeisance to the images, with an
offering of some trifle, usually fruit or flowers, and pronounce some such Mantra
or prayer as the following : '' Namo Arihantdnam, Namo Siddhdnam,' . . 'Salu-
tation to the Arhats,' etc. A morning prayer is also repeated : . . ' I beg
forgiveness, 0 Lord, for your slave, whatever evil thoughts the night may have
produced— I bow with my head.' . . The reader in a Jaina temple is a Yati, or
religious character ; but the ministrant priest, the attendant on the images, the
receiver of offerings, and conductor of all usual ceremonies, is a BrahmdnJ' —
Wilson's Essays, vol i. p. 319. "I may remark, parenthetically, with a view to
what is still to be established — that the Khandagiri Inscription opens with the
self-same invocation, ' Namo akahantAnam, namo sava sidhanam,' ' Salutation
to the arhantas, glory to all the saints' (or those who have attained final
emancipation!)."— Prinsep, J.A.S.B. vol. vi. p. 1080.
- " Buddhism (to hazard a character in a few words) is monastic asceticism in
morals, philosophical scepticism in religion ; and whilst ecclesiastical history all
over the world affords abundant instances of such a state of things resulting
from gross abuse of the religious sanction, that ample chronicle gives us no one
instance of it as an original system of beUef. Here is a legitimate inference
from sound premises ; but that Buddhism was, in very truth, a reform or heresy,
and 7tot an original system, can be proved by the most abundant direct testimony
of friends and enemies."— B. H. Hodgson, J.R.A.S. (1835), Vol. II. p. 290,
3 Major J. Delamaine, Trans. R.A.S. Vol. I. pp. 413-438.
6 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
from one individual, Sudharma-swami. Two only out of eleven
survived Mahavira, viz. Indrabhuti and Sudharma : the first,
identified with Gautama- swami, has no spiritual successors in the
Jaina sect. The proper inference seems to be, that the followers
of this surviving disciple are not of the sect of Jina, rather than
that there have been none
"I take Parswanatha to have been the founder of the sect of
Jainas, which was confirmed and thoroughly established by Maha-
Tira and his disciple Sudharma A schism, however, seems
to have taken place, after Mahavira, whose elder disciple, Indra-
bhuti, also named Gautama- swami, was by some of his followers
raised to the rank of a deified saint, under the synonymous designa-
tion of Buddha (for Jina and Buddha bear the same meaning, accord-
ing to both Buddhists and Jainas)." — Transactions of the R.A.S.
(1826), Vol. I. p. 520; and Prof. Cowell's edition of Colebrooke's
collected Essays, vol. ii. p. 278.^
At the time when Colebrooke wrote, the knowledge of the
inner history of Buddhism was limited in the extreme. Our
later authorities contribute many curious items and suggestive
coincidences, tending more fully to establish the fact that
Buddhism was substantially an offshoot of Jainism. For ex-
ample, Ananda is found, in some passages of recognized
authority, directly addressing Gotama himself in his own
^ Professor Wilson, writing in 1832 on the " Religious Sects of the Hindus,"
objected to this inference of Colebrooke's, on the ground of the supposed con-
trast of the castes of the two families. It is, however, a question, now that we
know more of the gradual developments of caste in India, whether the divisions
and subdivisions, relied upon by Prof. "Wilson, had assumed anything like so
definite a form, as his argument would imply, at so early a period as the date of
the birth of Sakya Muni. Professor Wilson's observations are as follows : —
" When Mahavira' s fame began to be widely dilfused,it attracted the notice of the
Brahmans of Magadha, and several of their most eminent teachers undertook to
refute his doctrines. Instead of effecting their purpose, however, they became
converts, and constituted his Ganadharas, heads of schools, the disciples of
Mahavira and teachers of his doctrines, both orally and scripturally. It is of
some interest to notice them in detail, as the epithets given to them are liable to
be misunderstood, and to lead to erroneous notions respecting their character and
history. This is particularly the case with the first Indrabhuti, or Gautama,
who has been considered as the same with the Gautama of the Bauddhas, the
son of Mayadevi, and author of the Indian metaphysics. That any connexion
exists between the Jain and the Brahmana Sage is, at least, very doubtful ; but
the Gautama of the Bauddhas, the son of Suddhodana and Maya, was a Kshat-
triya, a prince of the royal or warrior caste. All the Jain traditions make their
Gautama a Brahman originally of the gotra, or tribe of Gotama Rishi, a
division of the Brahmans well known and still existing in the South of India.
These two persons therefore cannot be identified, whether they be historical or
fictitious personages." — H. H. Wilson's Essays, vol. i. p. 298 ; Asiatic Res.
vol. xvii.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 7
proper person, and speaking of the "twenty-four Buddhas,
who had immediately preceded him."^ On other occasions
the twenty-four Jaina Tirthankaras are reduced in the sacred
texts of their supplanters to the six authorized antecedent
Buddhas, or expanded at will into 120 Tathdgatas or Buddhas,
with their more deliberately fabulous multiplications.^
The Mahawanso, in like manner, has not only allowed the
reference to the ''twenty-four supreme Buddhos" to remain
in its text,^ but has given their conventional names — which
however have little in common with the Jaina list — in the
order of succession. Mahanamo's Tika * has preserved the cata-
logue, in its more complete form, specifying the parentage,
place of birth and distinctive '' Bo-trees^' ^ of each of the
"twenty-four BuddhoSy' and concluding, after a reference to
Kassapo (born at Benares), with Gotamo (a Brahman named
Jotipalo at Wappula), " the Biiddho of the present system,
and Metteyo [who] is still to appear." This amplification
and elaborate discrimination of sacred trees has also a
suspicious air of imitation about it, as we know that Ward
was only able to discover six varieties of Indian trees
nominally sacred to the gods,^ and Mr. Fergusson's exami-
1 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, pp. 88, 94, 311.
2 B. Hodgson, Asiatic Eesearches, jol. xvi. p. 444, " Sarvarthasiddha observes,
he lias given so many [120] names exempli gratia, but bis instructors were really
no less in number than 80 crores." In other places Mr. Hodgson expresses bis
doubts " as to the historical existence of Sakya's six predecessors." — Works, p.
135, and J.R. A.S. Vol. II. p. 289. See also Csoma de Koros, J.A.S.B. vol. vii.
p. 143. " Immense is the number of such Buddhas that have appeared in former
ages in several parts of the universe."
3 Cap. i. p. 1.
* Mahawanso, Tumour's Introduction, Ceylon, 1837, p. xxxii.
5 The "Bo-trees of the twenty-four Buddhos" are given in the following
order (Mahawanso, p. xxxii) :
9. Sonaka.
10. Salala.
11. Nipa.
12. Welu.
13. Kakudha.
14. Champ §1.
15. Bimbajala.
16. Kanih&,ni.
As this list is quoted merely to contrast the numbers 24 against 7, it would be
futile to follow out the botanical names of the various Bo-trees ; but it may be
remarked en passant, that No. 3 is a tree of the wet forests of Assam, Concan,
Malabar, and Ceylon, while No. 11 is a palm-like plant Avhich is entirely
maritime, and abounds in the Sundarbands, wherein we have no record of
Buddhist " sittings." 6 Vol. i. p. 263.
1. Pippala.
2. Salakalyana.
3. Naga.
4. Do.
6. Do.
6. Do.
7. Ajjuna.
8. Sonaka.
17. Assana.
18. Amalaka.
19. Patali.
20. Pundariko.
21. Sala.
22. Sirlsa.
23. Udumbara.
24. Nigrodha.
8 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
nation of all the extant Buddhist representations of their
Bo-trees does not carry the extreme total beyond the legiti-
mate " six or seven species altogether." ^
Another indication which may prove of some import in
this inquiry is to be gleaned from the Chinese text of the
Travels of the Buddhist Pilgrim Fah-Hian (400 — 415 a.d.),
which, in describing the town of Sravasti, proceeds to advert
to ''the ninety-six heretical sects of mid-India," who "build
hospices " {Punyasdlds) etc., concluding with the remark,
" Devadatta also has a body of disciples still existing ; they
pay religious reverence to the three past Buddhas, but not to
Sakya Muni." ^
Again, an instructive passage is preserved in the Tibetan
text of the Lalita-vistara, where, under the French version,
"Le jeune Sarvarthasiddha," ^ the baby Buddha, is repre-
sented as wearing in his hair the Srivatsa, the Swastika, the
Nandydvarta and the Vardliamdna, the three symbols severally
of the 10th, 7th and 18th Jaina Tirthankaras, and t\iQ fourth
constituting the alternative designation of Mahavira, and
indicating his mystic device, which differed from his ordinary
cognizance in the form of a lion.^ Further on, the merits
^ Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 116. Among the sculptures lately discovered
at Barahat, are to he found " representations of five separate Bodhi-trees of as
many different Buddhas, which are distinctly lahelled as follows : —
(1). Bhagavato Vipnsino Bodhi, that is, the Tree of Vipasyin or Yipaswi,
the first of the seven Buddhas.
(2). Bhagavato Kakumdhasa Bodhi.
(3). Bhagavato Konagama)ia Bodhi.
(4). Bhagavato Kasapasa Bodhi.
(5). Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodhi.
These last are the four well-known Buddhists named Krakuchhanda,
Kondgamani, Kdsyapa, and Sdki/amuni." It is scarcely necessary for me to add,
that I hy no means concur in the early date attributed by General Cunningham to
these sculptures.
2 Rev. S. Beal, Travels of Fah-Hian, p. 82. Foe kone ki, cap. xx. Remusat's
Note 35. Laidlay, pp. 168, 179. Spence Hardy, alluding to these sectaries,
says, " they are called in general Tirthakars." — Manual of Buddhism, p. 290.
2 " Grand roi, le jeune Sarvarthasiddha a an milieu de la chevelure un C'ri-
vatsa, un Svastika, un Nandyavarta et un Vardhamana. Grand roi, ce sent la
les quati-e-Aingts marques secondairesdu jeune Sarvarthasiddha." . . . Foucaux,
p. 110. "Pendant qu'elle le preparait ces signes precurseurs apparurent; Au
milieu de ce lait, un (^rivatsa, un Svastika, un Nandyavarta, un lotus, un Vardha-
mana (Diagrarame particulier dont la forme n'est pas indiquee), et d'autres
signes de benediction se montrerent."— Cap. viii. p. 258 (see also pp. 305, 390).
* Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. p. 188. Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 304.
J.R.A.S. Vol. I. N.s. pp. 475-481. J.A.S. Bengal, vol. vii. p. 143. Burnouf,
Lotus, pp. 624-645. Col. Low, Transactions R.A.S. Vol. III.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
9
of the young Buddha are adverted to as, "qui est apparu
par I'effet de la racine de la vertu des precedents Djinas."
The importance of these indications will be better appre-
ciated, when it is understood that the twenty-four statues of
the Jaina saints were all formed upon a single model, being
indistinguishable, the one from the other, except by the chinas
or subordinate marks on the pedestals, which constituted the
discriminating lakshanas or mudrds of each individual Tirthan-
kara. These crypto-devices were, in other cases, exhibited
as frontal marks, or delegated to convenient positions on the
breast and other parts of the nude statue. In this sense,
Jainism may be said to have been a religion of signs and
symbols, comprehending many simple objects furnished by
nature and further associated with enigmatical and Tantric
devices, the import of which is a mystery to modern in-
telligence.^
The following is a list of the twenty-four
Jaina TIrthankaras, with their Parentage and
Discriminating Symbols.^
Names.
1. Rishabha, of the race of Ikshicdku,
Prathama Jina, '^ the first Jina "
2. Ajita, son of Jitasatru .
3. Sambhava, son of Jitdri .
4. Abhinandana, son of Samhara .
5. Sumati, son of Megha . . .
6. Padmaprabha, son of Srklhara
7. Suparswa, son of Pratishtha .
8. Chandraprabha, son of Mahdsena
9. Pushpadanta, or Suvidhi, son of Supr
10. Sitala, son of Dridharatha .
lya
Symbols.
a Bull
an Elephant
a Horse
an Ape
a Curlew
a Lotus
a Swastika
the Moon
an Alligator
a Snvatsa
^ In modern times, Mr. Hodgson tells us, he was able to discriminate statues,
which passed with the vulgar for any god their priests chose to name, by the
crucial test of their " minute accompaniments " and " frontal appendages." —
J.R.A.S. Vol, XVIII. p. 395. See, also, the Chinese-Buddhist inscription from
Keu-Yung Kwan, with its mudrds, and Mr. Wylie's remarks upon dhdranis. —
J.R.A.S. Vol. V. N.s. p. 22.
* Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. p. 187 ; As. Res. vol. ix. p. 305. Mr. Burgess,
Indian Antiquary, 1873, vol. i. p. 134.
10
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
Names. Symbols.
11. Sreyan (or Sriyansa), son of Vishnu. . a Rhinoceros
12. Yasupujya, son of Vasupiijya .... a Buffalo
13. Yimala, son of Kritavarman .... a Boar
14. Ananta (Anantajit), son of Sinhasena . a Falcon
15. Dharma, son of Bhdnu a Thunderbolt
16. Santi, son of Viswasena an Antelope
17. Kunthu, son of Sura a Gfoat
18. Ara, son of Siidarsana a Namlydvarta
19. Malli, son of Kumbha a Jar
20. Munisuvrata (Suvrata), son of Smnitra . a Tortoise
21. Nimi, son of Vijaya blue Water-lily
22. Nemi (or Arishtanemi), s. of Samudrajaya a Conch
23. Parswa (Parswanatha), son of. Aswasena a hooded Snake
24. Yardhamana, also named Vtray Mahd-
i'ira, etc., surnamed Charama-Urthakrit,
or ''last of the Jinas," ''emphatically
called Sramana or the saint," son of
Siddhartha a Lion.^
In addition to these discriminating s3^mbols, the different
Tirthankaras are distinguished by the tint of their com-
plexions. No. 1 is described as of a yello\y or golden
complexion, which seems to have been the favourite colour,
1 Dr. Stevenson has tabulated some further details of the Jaina symbolic devices
in " Trisala's Dreams" :
Elephant.
Bull.
Lion -Tiger.
Lakshmi.
A Garland.
Moon.
Sun.
Standard.
Jar.
Lotus Lake.
The Sea.
Heavenly
Mansion.
Trisala.
Heap of
Pearls.
Flameless
Fire.
Lucky figures, ^ Srivatsa, ^Satvika, ^ Throne, * Flower-pot, ^ couple of Fishes,
* Mirror, '^ Nandiyavarta, ^Yardhamana. — Kalpa Sutra, page i.
Dr. Stevenson has an instructive note upon Jaina emblems, which I append to
his Table : — " In the prefixed scheme of the emblems of the different Tirthan-
karas, it may sti'ike the reader that there is no vestige of anything like this
Buddhist Chaitya in any of them. This arises from one remarkable feature of
dissimilarity between the Jains and Buddhists. The Dagoba, or Buddhist
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
11
Nos. 6 and 12 rejoice in a ''red" complexion, Nos. 8 and 9
are designated as " fair," No. 19 is described as " blue," and
No. 20 as *' black." Parswanatha is likewise '* blue," while
Mabavira reverts to the typical " golden " hue, the ^^t§ '^^
Suvarna chhavi, '' the golden form " claimed alike for Sakya
Muni.'i
In illustration of this tendency to faith in emblems among
the Jainas, I quote the independent opinion of Captain J.
Low regarding the origin of the celebrated Phrahdt, or
ornamental impress of the feet of Buddha,^ and his demon-
stration of the inconsistent and inappropriate assimilation of
the worship of symbols with the higher pretensions of the
creed of Sakya Muni : —
** As the Phrabat is an object claiming from the Indo-Chinese
nations a degree of veneration scarcely yielding to that which they
pay to Buddha himself, we are naturally led to inquire why the
emblems it exhibits are not all adored individually as well as in the
aggregate. It seems to be one of those inconsistencies which mark
the character of Buddhist schismatics ; and it may enable us more
readily to reach the real source of their religion, from which so
many superstitions have ramified to cross our path in eastern re-
search. To whatever country or people we may choose to assign
Chaitya, was a place originally appropriated to the preservation of relics, a
practice as abhorrent to the feelings of the Jainas as it is to those of the
Brahmans. The word Chaitya, when used by the Jainas, means any image or
temple dedicated to the memory of a Tirthankara." — Kalpa Sutra, p. xxvi.
From quasi- Buddhist sources we derive independent Symbols of the Four
Divisions of the Vaibhdshika School.
FOUR CLASSES,
Rahula
Sakya s.
SUBDIVISIONS.
sects, using the Sanskrit
tongue
DISTINCTIVE MARKS.
Utpala padma (water-lily) jewel,
and tree-leaf put together in
the form of a nosegay.
Kasyapa 6 sects, entitled " the great
Brahman's. community," using a cor-
rupt dialect ,
Upali 3 sects, styled " the class which
Sudra's. is honored by many," using
the language of the Fisci-
chikas
Katyayana 3 sects, entitled " the class that
Vaisya's. have a fixed habitation,"
using the vulgar dialect
Csoma de Koros, J.A.S.B. vol. vii. p. 143.
^ Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 84.
* Examples of Jaina-Buddhist Foot-prints may be seen in Vol. III. n.s. of
our Journal, p. 159.
Shell or conch.
A sortsika flower.
The figure of a wheel.
12 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
the original invention of the Phrahdt, it exhibits too many un
doubted Hindu symbols to admit of our fixing its fabrication upon
the worshippers of the latter Buddha ; of whose positive dogmas it
is rather subversive than otherwise, by encouraging polytheism. And
further, the intent with which it was originally framed — namely, to
embody in one grand symbol a complete system of theology and
theogony — should seem to have been gradually forgotten, or per-
verted by succeeding ages to the purposes of a ridiculous superstition."
— Capt. J. Low, " The Phrabat, or Divine Foot of Buddha from
Bali and Siamese Books," Transactions B.A.S. Yol. II. p. 64.^
The existing traditions of the Jainas, on the other hand,
consistently adhere to the reverence of nature's forms or the
more elaborated diagrams and curious devices of their ancient
creed,^ which is here shown to have been incompatible with
the advanced tenets of Buddhism. The Yaishnavas, equally
in their turn, had their Vishnu-pad ', but when we meet with
the symbolical impression of the feet under their adaptative
treatment, we find it decorated and adorned with a totallv
difierent series of minor emblems to those afiected by the
early Jainas.^
Dr. Stevenson, in editing the text of the leading Jaina
authority, the Kalpa Siitra, in 1848/ arrived independentli/ at
^ A pertinent inquiry is made by R. FriederictL in the last Number of our
Journal (Vol. IX. n.s. p. 65) : " Were the Buddhists of Java Jainas ? "
2 Col. "W. Franklin, in his account of the Temple of Parswauatha at Samet-
Sikhar, describes the statues as having the " head fashioned like a turban, ^dth
seven expanded heads of serpents, Coluber Naga, or hooded snake, the invariable
symbol of Parswanatha. " The summit of the hill, emphatically termed by
the Jainas Samet Sikhar, comprises a table-land flanked by " twenty small Jaina
temples. In them are to be found the Vasn-Pddikas or ' sacred feet,' similar to
■what are to be seen in the Jaina Temple at Champanagar. On. the south side of
the mountain is a very large and handsome flat-roofed temple, containing several
figures of this deity, which exhibit the never-failing attributes of Parswanatha
and the Jaina religion, viz. the crowned serpent and cross-legged figures of
Jineswara or Jina, the ruler and guardian of mankind." — Asiatic Researches,
vol. ix. pp. 528, 530. " In their temples, the Swetambaras have images of
all these persons (the twenty-four Jinas), which they w^orship ; but their de-
votions are more usually addressed to what are called representations of their
feet."— Dr. B. Hamilton, Mysore, p. 538.
3 General Cunningham has published a fac-simile of the Gaya V ishnn-pad,
■which, however, he designates in the Plate, " Buddha-pad," executed in a.d. 1308:
in this, although many symbols of Indian origin and local currency are displayed,
■we miss the leading Swadika^ and the other mystic diagrams more immediately
associated with the Jaina and secondary Buddhist systems.— Arch. Eep., 1871,
vol. i. p. 9, pi. vii.
* The extant MS. text of the Kalpa Sutra contains a record that " 900 years
after MAHAvfaA, and in the 80th year of the currency of the tenth hundred,
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 13
a similar conclusion with Colebrooke as to the relative posi-
tions of Jainism and Buddhism, in reference to their common
source and the more recent innovations and arrogant assump-
tions of the latter creed. He sums up his remarks in the
subjoined passage :
" There are, however, yet one or two other points in the
accounts the Jains give us, which seem to have a historic hearing.
The first is the relation said to have subsisted between the last
Buddha and the last Tirthankara, the Jains making Mahavira
Gautama's preceptor, and him the favourite pupil of his master.
.... In favour of the Jain theory (of priority), however, it may
be noticed, that Buddha is said to have seen 24 of his predecessors
(Mahavanso, I. c. i.), while in the present Kappo he had but four.
The Jains, consistently with their theory, make Mahavira to have
seen 23 of his predecessors, all that existed before him in the
present age. This part of Buddhism evidently implies the know-
ledge of the 24 Tirthankaras of the Jains. Gautama, however, by
the force of natural genius, threw their system entirely into the
shade, till the waning light of Buddhism permitted its fainter
radiance to re-appear on the western horizon."^ — Kalpa Sutra,
London, 1848, p. xii.
Dr. Stevenson was peculiarly competent to express an
opinion on this and collateral questions, as he had made
the "ante-Brahmanical worship of the Hindus"^ a subject
of his especial study, during his lengthened career, as a mis-
sionary in the Dekhan, in direct association with the people
of the land. Among other matters bearing upon Jainism,
he gives an instructive account of the process of making a
god, as traced in the instance of Yittal or Yithoba, com-
mencing with the "rough unhewn stone of a pyramidical or
triangular shape," ^ which formed the centre of the druidical
this Book was written and pubHcly read in the currency of the 93rd year."
Hence, taking Mahavira's period at 503 B.C., its date is fixed at "454 a.d. and
its pubUcation at 466 a.d." — Stevenson's Kalpa Sutra, p. 95. Colebrooke's
Essays, vol. ii. p. 193.
^ " After writing the above I found ray conclusion anticipated by Mr. Cole-
brooke, and I am happy that it now goes abroad with the suffrage of so learned
an Orientalist— Trans. R.A.S. Vol. I. p. 522."
■^ J.R.A.S. Vol. V. pp. 189, 264; Vol. VI. p. 239; Vol. VIII. p. 330. See
also J.A.S. Bengal, articles on cognate subjects, vol. iii. (1834), p. 495 ; vol. vi.
p. 498.
3 J.R.A.S. (1839),Vol. V. p. IdSetseq. Among other questions adverted to, Dr.
Stevenson remarks : — " Vettal is generally, in the Dekhan, said to be an Avatar of
14 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
circle of similarly- shaped blocks — proceeding, in the second
stage, to their adornment with red- ochre tipped with white,
to imitate fire, the further development of the central block
into '' a human figure," " with two arms,'* and its coincident
promotion to the shelter of a temple with more complicated
rites and ceremonies ; and, finally, in other cases, to the
transformation of " the form of a man, but without arms or
legs,*' into ''a fierce and gigantic man, perfect in all his
parts." ^
Dr. Stevenson, in a subsequent article,^ followed up his
comparison of the later images of VitJioha^ with the normal
ideals of the Jaina nude statues. One of his grounds for
these identifications is stated in the following terms : " The
want of suitable costume in the images (of Yithoba and
Rakhami), as originally carved, in this agreeing exactly
with the images the Jainas at present worship, and disagree-
ing with all others adored by the Hindus " — who, " with all
their faults, had always sense of propriety enough to carve
their images so as to represent the gods to the eye arrayed
in a way not to give ofience to modesty."
The author then goes on to relate how the Brahmanists of
Siva, and wonderful exploits performed by him are related in a book called the
Yettal Pachisi ; but which composition has not had the good fortune to gain the
voice of the Brahmans and be placed among the Mahatmyas. On the contrary,
they look upon it merely as a parcel of fables, and dispute the claims of Vettal to
any divine honours whatever." — Dr. Stevenson, J.R.A.S. Vol. V. p. 192.
i Dr. John Wilson, J.R.A.S. Vol. V. p. 197. "The temple of Vetal at
Arawali, near Sawant Wadi."
'^ J.R.A.S. Vol. VII. p. 5.
2 The legend of the creation of Jagganatha, accepted by his votaries, points
to an equally simple origin, which, in this instance, took the form of a drift log
of Nim-wood. This ddra or '* branch " having been pronounced on examination
to be adorned with the emblems of the SauJca, Gadcl, Padma and Chakra, was
afterwards, by divine intervention, split " into the four-fold image of Chatur
Murti. A little colouring was necessary to complete them, and they then became
recognized as Sri Krishna or Jagannath, distinguished by its black hue, Baldeo,
a form of Siva, of a white colour, Subhadi'a, the sister, . . of the colour of
saffron."
In this case the Brahmans seem to have surpassed themselves in their theatrical
adaptations, for they are said to have adopted a practice of dressing-up the figure
of Sri Jiu, in a costume appropriate to the occasion, to represent the principal
deities of the ruling creeds. " Thus at the Ram Navami, the great image
assumes the dress and character of Rama ; at the Janam Ashtamf, that of Krishna;
at the Kali Puja, that of Kuli," with two other alternative green-room trans-
formations, which we need not reproduce. — Stirling's Orissa, Asiatic Researches,
vol. XV. p. 318.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 15
later days appropriated the sacred sites and adapted the very
images of the local gods to their own purposes. His de-
scription is most graphic of the way in which the nude
statues of Yithoba and Makhami, at Pandarpur, were clothed
in appropriate Hindu garments and made to do duty for the
Brahmanical Krishna and Rukmini, Not less caustic is the
completion of the tale in the account of the '"image-dresser's"
appearance over night at feasts, in the borrowed habiliments
of his patron god, to be restored for the benefit of the ad-
miring multitude on the following morning.^
Among other suggestive inquiries. Dr. Stevenson has in-
stituted a comparison between the equality of all men before
their god — indicative of pre-cade periods — at the several
shrines of Yithoba and Jaggannatha,^ and the inferential
claims of the Jainas to the origination of the ever-popular
pilgrimage to the latter sanctuary. Incidentally, it may be
mentioned that the title of '* Jaggannatha is an appellation
given by the modern Jainas to their Tirthanhara Parswanatha
in particular."^ General Cunningham, in his work on the
Bhilsa Topes,* long ago pointed out the absolute identity of
the outline of the modern figures of Jagganatha with the
trisiil or curved -trident ornament so frequent in the early
Buddhist sculptures,^ and, in like manner, Burnouf had
detected the coincidence of the form of the Vardhamdncikyay
or mystic symbol of Mahavira above adverted to, with the
outKne of the Bactro-Greek Monogram so common on the
^ No less acute is Dr. Stevenson's analysis, in another volume of our Journal
(Vol. VIII. p. 330), of the position traditionally held by Siva in India — his
absence " from the original Brahmanical theogony," his imperfect assimilation
with the later forms of their ritual— and the conclusion " that the worship of
Siva is nothing more than a superstition of the aboriginal Indians, modified by
the Brahmans, and adopted into their system," for their own ends. An opinion
which has been fully confirmed by later investigations.
2 Journal R.A. S. Vol. VII. p. 7, and Vol. VIII. p. 331. See also Col. Sykes,
Vol. VI. p. 420, note 3.
3 Journ. A.S., p. 423.
* " The triple emblem, represented in fig. 22, pi. xxxii., is one of the most
valuable of the Sanchi sculptures, as it shows in the clearest and most im-
equivocal manner the absolute identity of the holy Brahmanical Jaggannath with
the ancient Buddhist triad."— Bhilsa Topes (London, 1854), p. 358. Fac-similes
of these figures may be seen at p. 450, Journ. R.A.S., Vol. VI. o.s. See also
Laidlay's translation of Fo-kwe-ki, pp. 21-26, 261.
5 The symbol forms a distinct object of worship at Amravati.— Fergusson's
"Tree and Serpent Worship," pi. Ixx, etc.
16 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
local coins. ^ This last identification opens out a very wide
field of speculation, inasmuch as this particular mark has
now been found in all its integrity, on the person of a Jaina
statue in the Indian Museum. Another coincidence which may
prove to have some bearing upon the relative claims of Jainas
and Buddhists to the Lion pillars,^ and the frequent repre-
sentations of that animal upon the sculptures on the Topes,
etc., is that the Lion proves to have been a special emblem
of Mahdvira, as the mystic trident in its turn answered to his
second title of Vardhamdna,
Before taking leave of the question of the relations once
existing between Mahavira and Buddha, it remains for me
to cite a most curious passage, furnishing a vivid outline
of the intercourse between Guru and Chela, and foreshadow-
ing the nascent doubts of the disciple — which occurs in
the Bhagavati,^ a work recently published by Prof. Weber,
of the existence of which neither Colebrooke nor "Wilson
were cognizant. I may add in further support of the
identity of Gautama and Sakya Muni — so freely admitted
1 Burnouf, in noticing the 65 names of the figures traced on the supposed
Dharma pradipikd or imprint of the foot of Buddha in Ceylon, remarks under
the sixth or Vardhamdnakya head : " C'est la encore une sorte de diagramme
mystique egalement familier aux Br&,hmanes et au Buddhistes ; son nom signifie
" le prospere."
*' Quant a la figure suivante, on trouvera peut-etre qu'elle doit etre le Yardha-
mana ; je remarquerai seulement sur la seconde, t-O, qu'elle est ancienne,
et on la remarque frequemment au revers des medailles de Kadphises et de quel-
ques autres medailles indo-scythiques au tj-pe du roi cavalier et vainqueur (A.A.
pi. X. 5, 9«), et sur le troisieme, qu'elle parait n'etre qu'une variante de la
seconde." — Lotus, p. 627. " Waddhamanah kumarikah." Mahavanso, 1.
c. xi. p. 70. Col. Sykes, J.R.A.S. YI. o.s. p. 456, No. 34, etc.
2 The Kuhaon pillar is manifestly Jaina, though there is this to he said, that it
is more fully wrought than the ordinary round monoliths, some of which Asoka
may have found ready to his hand. It bears the inscription of Skanda Gupta
(219 A.D.), but this need no more detract from its true age than the modern
inscription of Yisala deva of a.d. 1164 would disturb the prior record of
Asoka on the Dehli (Khizrabad) lat. " The bell (of the capital) itself is
reeded, after the fashion of the Asoka pillars. Above this the capital is square,
with a small niche on each side holding a naked standing figure, surmounted
by a low circular band, in which is fixed the metal spike already described,
as supporting a statue of a lion, or some other animal rampant
On the western face of the square base there is a niche holding a naked standing
figure, with very long arms reaching to his knees. Behind, there is a large snake
folded in horizontal coils, one above the other, and with its seven heads forming
a canopy over the idol." — General Cunningham, Arch. Rep. i. p. 93.
3 Fragment der Bhagavati. Ein beitrag zur kenntuiss der heiligen litteratur
und sprache der Jaina. Yon A. Weber, Berlin, 1867, p. 315. The author, a
Jaina writer named Malayagiri, flourished in the thirteenth century a.d.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 17
in previous quotations^ — that the Iranian texts equally-
designate him by the former epithet. ^ And it is to be
remembered that Buddhism very early made its way in
force over parts of Bactria — as the construction of the Nau
Bihar at Balkh, lately identified by Sir H. E,awlinson,3 suf-
fices to prove. An edifice which Hiouen Thsang commemo-
rates as " qui a ete construit par le premier roi de ce
royaume." *
*' At that time, then, at that juncture, the holy Mahavira's eldest
pupil, Indrabhuti, — houseless, of Gautama's Gotra, seven (cubits)
high, of even and regular proportions, with joints as of diamond,
bull and arrow, fair like the streak on a touchstone or like lotus
pollen, of mighty, shining, burning, powerful penance, pre-eminent,
mighty, of mighty qualities, a mighty ascetic, of mighty abstinence,
of dried-up body, of compact mighty resplendency, possessed of the
fourteen preliminary steps, endowed with the four kinds of know-
ledge, acquainted with all the ways of joining syllables, in moderate
proximity to the holy ^ramana Mahavira, with knees erect and
lowered head, endowed with a treasury of meditation, — lived edify-
ing himself by asceticism and the bridling of his senses.
" Thereupon that holy Gautama, in whom faith, doubt, and
curiosity arose, grew and increased, rose up. Having arisen he
went to the place where the sacred ^ramana Mahavira was. After
going there, he honours him by three pradakshina circumambula-
tions. After performing these, he praises him and bows to him.
After so doing, not too close, not too distant, listening to him,
bowing to him, with his face towards him, humbly waiting on him
with folded hands, he thus spoke." ....
I have already adverted to Fah-Hian's mention of a sect,
in India, who declined to accept Sakya Muni as their
^ This has not, however, always been conceded. Prof. "Wilson, in his remarks
upon " Two Tracts from Nip^l," says Dr. Buchanan " has only specified two names,
Gautama and S^kya, of which the first does not occur in the Nipal list, whilst,
in another place, he observes that S&kya is considered by the Burmese Buddhists
as an impostor. . . The omission of the name of Gautama proves that he is not
acknowledged as a distinct Buddha by the Nip&lese, and he can be identified with
no other in the list than Sakya Sinha." — Essays, vol. ii. p. 9. At p. 10 Prof.
"Wilson contests Buchanan's assertion, and adds that in the Pali version of the
Amara Kosha Gautama and Sakya Sinha and Adityabandhu are given as
s}Tionyms of the son of Suudhodana."
2 Fravardin Yasht {circa " 350-450 B.C."), quoted by Dr. Haug, Essay on the
Sacred Language of the Parsees, Bombay, 1862, p. 188.
3 Quarterly Review, 1866, and his " Central Asia," Murray, 1875, p. 246.
* Memoires, vol. i. p. 30. *' Navn saiighdrdmo.'''' See also "S^oyages, p. 65.
2
18 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
prophet, but who avowedly confessed their faith in one or
more of his predecessors.
Some very instructive passages in this direction have
been collected by the Rev. S. Beal, in his revised edition
of the Travels of Fah-Hian.^ Among the rest, referring to
the Chinese aspects of Buddhism, shortly after a.d. 458, he
goes on to say :
*' The rapid progress of Buddhism excited much opposition from
the Literati and followers of Lao-tse u. The latter affirmed that
Sakya Buddha was but an incarnation of their own master, who had
died 517 b.c, shortly after which date (it was said) Buddha was
born. This slander was resented by the Buddhists, and they put
back the date of their founder's birth in consequence — first, to
687 B.C., and afterwards to still earlier periods." — p. xxvi.
A coincident assertion of priority of evolution seems to
have been claimed, in situ, at the period of the visit to India
of the second representative Chinese pilgrim, Hiouen Thsang
(a.i). 629-645).
His references to the Jainas, their practices, and their
supposed appropriation of the leading theory, and consequent
modification of portions of the Buddhist creed, are set forth,
at length, in the following quotation : —
In describing the town of Sinha^nira, Hiouen Thsang proceeds :
*'A cote et a une petite distance du Stoupa, on voit I'endroit ou
le fondateur de la secte heretique qui porte des vetements blancs
{Qvetavdsa ?), comprit les principes sublimes qu'il cherchait, et
commen9a a expliquer la loi. Aujourd'hui, on y voit une inscription.
A cote de cet endroit, on a construit un temple des dieux. Les
sectaires qui le frequentent se livrent a des dures austerites.
La loi qu'a exposee le fondateur de cette secte, a ete pillee en
grande partie dans les livres du Bouddha, sur lesquels il s'est guide
pour etablir ses preceptes et ses regies. . . Dans leurs observances
et leurs exercices religieux, ils suivent presque entierement la r^gle
des Qramanas, seulement, ils conservent un peu de cheveux sur leur
tete, et, de plus, ils vont nus. Si par hazard, ils portent des vete-
ments, ils se distinguent par la couleur blanche. Yoila les diffe-
rences, d'ailleurs fort legeres, qui les separent des autres. La statue
de leur maitre divin ressemble, par une sorte d' usurpation, a celle
1 Loudon, Triibner, 1869.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 19
de Jou-lai (du Tathagata) ; elle n'en differe que par le costume ;
ses signes de beaute (mahapouroucha lakchanani) sout absolument
les memes."* — Memoires sur les contrees occidentales, Paris, 1857,
vol. i. p. 163.
In this conflict of periods, the pretensions of the Northern
Buddhists may be reduced, by the internal testimony of their
own books, to severely approximate proportions ; and here
Mr. Brian Hodgson's preliminary researches present them-
selves, with an authority hitherto denied them ; perchance,
because they were so definitively in advance of the ordinary
knowledge of Buddhism, as derived from extra -national
sources. In this case Mr. Hodgson was able to appeal to
data, contributed from the very nidm of Buddhism in
Magadha — whose passage, into the ready refuge of the
Yalley of Nipal, would prima facie have secured an un-
adulterated version of the ancient formulae, and have
supplied a crucial test for the comparison of the southern
developments, as contrasted with the northern expansions
and assimilations of the Faith. Mr. Hodgson observes : —
" I can trace something very like Euddhism into far ages and
realms : but I am sure that that Buddhism which has come down
to us, in the Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan books of the sect, and
which only we do or can knoWy is neither old nor exotic." — J.A.S.B.
1837, p. 685.2
^ One of Hiouen Thsang's contributions to the place and position of the
Jainas in reference to the Buddhists proper, upon whom he has been supposed ex-
clusively to rely, is exhibited in his faith in a native magician of the former
creed, the truth of whose predictions he frankly acknowledges in the fol-
lowing terms : — " Avant I'arrivee du messager du roi Kumdra, il y eut un
heretique nu {Ni-kien-Nirgrantha) , nomm6 Fa-che-lo [Vadjra), qui entra tout k
coup dans sa chambre. Le Maitre de la loi, qui avait entendu dire, depuis long-
temps, que les Ni-kien excellaient a tirer I'horoscope, le pria aussitot de s'asseoir
et I'interrogea ainsi, afin d' eclair cir ses doutes: ' Moi Hiouen- Thsang, religieux
du royaume de Tchi-na, je suis venu dans ce pays, il y a bien des annees, pour me
livrer a I'etude et a de pieuses recherches. Maintenant, je desire m'en retourner
dans ma patrie; j'ignore si j'y parviendrai ou non.' " He then goes on to relate :
" Le Ni-kien prit un morceau de craie, tra9a des lignes sur la terre, tira les sorts
et lui repondit en ces termes." — Hiouen-Thsang, vol. i. (Voyages), p. 228. See
also vol. i. p. 224; and (Memoires) vol. i. (ii.), pp. 42, 93, 354 ; vol. ii. (iii.),
p. 406.
2 In the same sense, another distinguished writer on Buddhism remarks :
*' There is no life of Gotama Buddha, by any native author, yet discovered, that
is free from the extravagant pretensions with which his history has been so largely
invested ; from which we may infer that the records now in existence were all
prepared long after his appearance in the world."— Spence Hardy, J.R.A.S.
Vol. XX. p. 135.
20 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
Col. Tod's observations were not designed to extend to
the question of the relative age of the Jaina and Buddhist
creeds, but they serve to show the permanence and immuta-
bility of the former faith in a portion of the continent of
India, where the people, beyond all other sectional nation-
alities, have preserved their individuality and reverence for
local traditions. They explain, moreover, how the leading
tenet of Jainism — which was shared in a subdued form by
Buddhism ^ — came under its exaggerated aspect to leave
their best kings at the mercy of less humane adversaries.^
Col. Tod proceeds to speak of the Jainas in the following
terms : —
"The Yediavan (the man of secrets or knowledge, magician),
or Magi of E,ajasthan. The numbers and power of these sectarians
are little known to Europeans, who take it for granted they
* "The practical part of the Jain reHgion consists in the performance of five
duties and the avoidance of five sins.
*' The duties are — 1. Mercy to all animated beings ; 2. Almsgiving; 3. Vene-
rating the sages while living, and worshipping their images when deceased ; 4.
Confession of faults ; 5. Religious fasting.
" The sins are— 1. Killing; 2. Lying; 3. Stealing; 4. Adidtery; 6. "Worldly-
mindedness." — Kalpa Sutra, p. xxii.
The Jainas '^ believe that not to kill any sentient being is the greatest virtue."
— The Chintamani, ed. Rev. H. Bower, Madras, 1868, p. xxi.
The leading contrast between the simple duties of the Jainas and the later de-
velopments introduced by the various schools of Buddhists may be traced in the
following extracts :
" 1. From the meanest insect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal whatever ;
2. Thou shalt not steal ; 3. Thou shalt not violate the wife or concubine of
another."— Giitzlaff, " China Opened," London, 1838, p. 216.
" There are three sins of the body : 1. The taking of life, Murder (1) ; 2. The
taking that which is not given, Theft (2) ; 3. The holding of carnal intercourse
with the female that belongs to another, Adultery (3)." — Spence Hardy, Manual
of Buddhism, p. 461.
" The ten obligations" commence with " 1. Not to kill; 2. Not to steal; 3,
Not to marry; 4. Not to lie, etc." — The Rev. S. Beal, Fah-hian, p. 59. Mr. Beal
goes on to expound the four principles involved in the existence of Buddhism,
which are defined as these : — '' 1. That man may become superior to the Gods;
2. That Nirvana is the Supreme good; 3. That religion consists in a right
preparation of heart (suppression of evil desire, practice of self-denial, active
benevolence) ; 4. That men of all castes, and women, may enjoy the benefits of
a religious life." — p. i.
2 "To this leading feature in their religion (the prohibition of the shedding of
blood) they owe their political debasement : for Komarpal, the last King of An-
hulwara, of the Jain faith, would not march his armies in the rains, from the
unavoidable sacrifice of animal life that must have ensued. The strict Jain does
not even maintain a lamp during that season, lest it should attract moths to their
destruction." — i. p. 519. The oil-mill and the potter's wheel are stopped for four
months in the year, when insects most abound." — i. p. 521. At p. 520 Col. Tod
enlarges upon the mines of knowledge (of the Jaina) books by the thousand, etc.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 21
are few and dispersed. To prove the extent of their religious
and political power, it will suffice to remark, that the pontiff of the
Khartra-gatcha (true branch), one of the many branches of this
faith, has 11,000 clerical disciples scattered over India; that a
single community, the Ossi or Oswal (Ossa in Mar war), numbers
100,000 families; and that more than half the mercantile wealth
of India passes through the hands of the Jain laity." — Tod, under
Me war, vol. i. p. 518.
Col. Tod's contemporary, and superior oJ05cer, Gen. Malcolm,
gives us an equally striking insight into the active aggressive-
ness of the Brahmans and the helpless submissiveness of the
Jainas in his current narrative : —
*' Six years ago, the Jains built a handsome temple at Ujjain; a
Juttee, or priest of high character, arrived from Guzerat to con-
secrate it, and to place within the shrine the image of their favourite
deity (Parswanath) ; but on the morning of the day fixed for this
purpose, after the ceremony had commenced and the Jains had filled
the temple expecting the arrival of their idol, a Brahman appeared
conveying an oval stone from the river Seepra, which he proclaimed
as the emblem of Mahadeva, (and his following) soon drove the
unarmed bankers and shopkeepers from their temple, and proclaimed
* Mahadeva as the overthrower of Jains.' " — Malcolm, Central India,
vol. ii. p. 160. See also Edward Conolly, in J.A.S.B., 1837, p. 834.
In addition to the personal experiences and graphic narra-
tives of Col. Tod, as detailed in his " Rajasthan," a new class
of testimony, from indigenous sources, has lately reached
us, in the contributions of an independent visitor to the
courts of the Chiefs of the Rajput states, whose careful exami-
nation and reproduction of the monuments existing in situ
has been associated with the acquisition of an amount of
ancient lore, as preserved among the people themselves, which
has not always been accessible under the necessarily reserved
attitude of English officials.
I cite M. Rousselet's own words reorardinor the nature
of the documents in the possession of the Jainas, and the
reiterated charges they advance against the heretical
Buddhists :
" Les livres religieux des Jainas, dont la traduction jetterait un
grand jour sur les ages recules de I'histoire de I'Inde, ont ete de-
22 THE EARLY FAITH OF AS OKA.
laisses jusqu'a present par nos savants orientalistes. Si I'on en
croit les traditions conservees par les pretres de cette secte, I'origine
du jainisme remonterait a des centaines de siecles avant Jesus-Christ ;
il parait, en tout cas, etabli qu'il existait bien avant I'apparition de
^akya Mouni, et il est meme possible que les doctrines de ce dernier
ne soient qu'une transformation des doctrines jainas. Les Bouddhistes
reconnaissent du reste Mahavira, le dernier Tirthankar jaina, comme
le precepteur de ^akya. Les Jainas considerent, de leur cote, les
Bouddhistes comme des heretiques, et les ont poursuivis de tout
temps de leur haine." — p. 373.
AVe could scarcely have expected any contributory evidence
towards the antiquity of the Jaina creed from Brahmanical
sources, and, yet, an undesigned item of testimony to that end
is found to be embalmed in the '' Padma Purana," where, in
adverting to the deeds of Vrihaspati and his antagonism to
Indra, Jainism is freely admitted to a contemporaneous ex-
istence with the great Gods of the Brahmans, and though
duly designated as "heretic," is confessed, in the terms of the
text, to have been a potent competitor for royal and other
converts, in very early times. ^ I am by no means desirous
of claiming either high antiquity or undue authority for the
Hindu Purdnas, but their minor admissions are at times
instructive, and this may chance to prove so.^
^ *' The Asnras are described as enjoying the ascendancy over the Devatas, when
Vrihaspati, taking advantage of their leader Sukra's being enamoured of a
nymph of heaven, sent by Indra to interrupt his penance, comes among the former
as Sukro, and misleads them into irreligion by preaching heretical doctrines ; the
doctrines and practices he teaches are Jain, and in a preceding passage it is said
that the sons of Raji embraced the Jina Dharmma." — Padma Pm-ana, Wilson,
J.K.A.S. Vol. V p. 282. See also pp. 287, 310-11.
' Professor Wilson, arguing upon the supposed priority of the Buddhists, at-
tempted to account for the frequent allusions to the Jainas in the_ Brahmanical
■writings by concluding that " since the Banddhas disappeared from India, and
the Jainas only have been known, it will be found that the Hindu writers, when-
ever they speak of Bauddhas, show, by the phraseology and practices ascribed to
them, that they really mean Jainas. The older writers do not make the same
mistake, and the usages and expressions they give to Bauddha personages are not
Jaina, but Bauddha^ — Essays, vol. i. p. 329.
It is to be added, however, that Prof. Wilson, when he put this opinion on
record in 1 832, had to rely upon the limited knowledge of the day, which pre-
supposed that the Jainas had nothing definite to show prior to the ninth century
(p. 333). He was not then aware of the ver}' early indicatipns of their unobtrusive
power in Southern India in Saka 411 (a.d. 489), if not earlier, as proved by Sir W.
Elliofs Inscriptions (J.R.A.S. 1837, Vol. IV. pp. 8, 9, 10, 17, 19) : and still less
could he have foreseen the new i-evelations from Mathura, which, of course,
would have materially modified his conclusions.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 23
The Pancha Tantra — the Indian original of ^sop's Fables —
which has preserved intact so many of the ancient traditions
of the land — also retains among the network of its ordinary-
homespun tales and local stories, a very significant admission
of the position once held by the Jaina sect amid the social
relations of the people. The fable, in question, appears in the
authorized Sanskrit text, which, under some circumstances,
might have caught the eye of Brahmanical revisers ; neverthe-
less we find in its context " the chief of the (Jaina) con-
vent" expressing himself, "How now, son; what is it you
say ? Are we Brahmans, think you, to be at any one's beck
and call ? No, no ; at the hour we go forth to gather alms,
we enter the mansions of those votaries only who, we know,
are of approved faith." ^
That Chandra Gupta was a member of the Jaina commu-
nity is taken by their writers as a matter of course, and
treated as a known fact, which needed neither argument nor
demonstration.^ The documentary evidence to this efiect is
^ This is Prof. "Wilson's oivn rendering of the text. As we have seen, his leading
tendencies were altogether against the notion of the antiquity or ante-Buddhistical
development of the Jaina creed (Essays, vol. iii. p. 227) ; and yet he was forced on
many occasions, like the present, to admit that the terms were Buddhist, but the
tenor was Jaina. In a note on the Pancha Tantra (p. 20, vol. ii.) he remarks,
*' From subsequent passages, however, it appears that the usual confusion of
Bauddha and Jaina occurs in the Pancha Tantra ; and that the latter alone is
intended, whichever be named. " And "^^dth regard to the quotation given above
he goes an to say : " The chief peculiarity, however, of this story is its correct
delineation of Jain customs ; a thing very unusual in Brahmanical books. The
address of the barber, and the benediction of the Superior of the Vihdra^ are
conformable to Jain usages. The whole is indeed a faithful picture. . . .
The accuracy of the description is an argument for some antiquity ; as the
more modern any work is, the more incorrect the description of the Jainas
and Bauddhas, and the confounding of one with the other." — 1840, vol. ii.
p. 76.
2 Book No. 20. Countermark 774, Mackenzie MSS., J. A.S. Bengal, vol. vii.
p. 411.
" Section 8. Chronological tables of Hindu rajas (termed Jaina kings of the
Dravida country in the table of contents of book No. 20).
*' In the 4th age a mixture of names, one or two of them being Jaina; Chandra
Gupta is termed a Jaina. Cliola rajas. Himasila a Jaina king."
The reporter, the Kev. William Taylor, adds the remark, " These lists, though
imperfect, may have some use for occasional reference."
'' The extinction of the Brahman and Kshatriya classes was predicted by
Bhadra-Bahu Muni, in his interpretation of the 14 dreams of Chandra
Gupta, whom they, the Srawak Yati's, make out in the Buddha-vildsa, a Digam-
bar work, to have been the monarch of Ujjayani." — Trans. R A.S. Yol. I.
p. 413.
" And Chandra Gupta, the king of Pataliputra, on the night of the full moon
24 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA,
of comparatively early date, and, apparently, absolved from
all suspicion, by the omission from their lists of the name of
Asoka, a far more powerful monarch than his grandfather,
and one whom they would reasonably have claimed as a
potent upholder of their faith, had he not become a pervert.
The testimony of Megasthenes would likewise seem to
imply that Chandra Gupta submitted to the devotional
teaching of the sermdnas, as opposed to the doctrines of
the Brahmans. The passage in Strabo runs as follows : —
Tofc9 8e ^aaCkeixTi avvelvai Bt' dyjiXcov irvvOavofjievoL'^ irepl rcav
alrlcov, Kol 8t' eKeivcov depairevovcn, koI "kiTavevovcn to Oelov.
— Strabo, XV. i. 60.
We must now turn to the authoritative account of the
succession of the Mauryas, as presented by the Brahmanical
texts, which had so many chances of revision, both in time
and substance, in their antagonism to all ancient creeds, and
less-freely elaborated delusions, than their own more modern
system professed to teach the Indian world.
The most approved of their Puranas, under the chrono-
logical and genealogical aspects — the Vishnu Piirdna — intro-
duces the succession of the Mauryas in the following terms :
*' Upon the cessation of the race of Nanda, the Mauryas will pos-
sess the earth ; for Kautilya will place Chandragupta on the throne.
His son will be Bindusara ; his son will be Asokavardhana ; his
son will be Suyasas ; his son will be Dasaratha ; his son will be
Sangata ; his son will be Salisuka ; his son will be Somasarman ;
ia the month of Kartika, had 16 dreams "—Mr. Lewis Rice, Indian
Antiquary, 1874, p. 155.
Mr. Rice adds the " Chronology of the Rajavali Kathe," as given hy Deva
Chandra, to the following effect : " After the death of Yira Varddhamana
Gautama and other Kevalis, 62 years. Then Nandi Mitra and other Sruta
Kevalis, 100 years. Then Visakha and other Dasa purvis, 183. Then Nakshatra
and other Ekadas&,ngadhara, 233. Then was horn Yikramaditya in Ujjayini ;
. . . . and he estahlished his own era from the year of Rudirodgari, the
605th year after the death of Varddhamana."
" Intepretation of the 16 dreams of Chandra Gupta.
"1. All knowledge will be darkened.
"2. The Jaina religion will decline, and your successors to the throne take dikshe.
"3. The heavenly beings will not henceforth visit the Bharata Kshetra.
" 4. The Jainas will be split into sects.
"5. The clouds will not give seasonable rain, and the crops will be poor.
"6. True knowledge being lost, a few sparks will glimmer with a feeble light.
*' 7. Aryakhanda will be destitute of Jaina doctrine.
*' 8. The evil will prevail and goodness be hidden
" 16. Twelve years of dearth and famine will come upon this land."
XV.
Mahanandin.2
xvi.
Nanda, Mahdpadma?
XVll.
SuMALYA & 7 Brothers
("the Brahman Kautilya will
root out the 9 Nandas ").
xviii.
Chandra gupta.
xix.
BINDUSARA.
XX.
ASOKAVAEDHANA. ^
xxi.
SUYASAS.
xxii.
Dasaratha.
xxiii.
Sangata.
xxiv.
Salisuka.
XXV.
SOMASARMAN.
xxvi.
Satadhanwan.
xxvii.
Brihadratha.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASORA. 25
his son will be Satadhanwan ; and his successor will be Brihadratha.
These are the ten Mauryas, who will reign over the earth for 137
years." — Vishnu Purana, book iv. cap. xxiv.
The full list of the Kings of Magadha, obtained from these
sources, runs as follows :
i. Pradyotana.
ii. Palaka.
iii. YlSAKHAYUPA.
iv. Janaka.
V. Nandivardhana.^
vi. SiSUNAGA.
vii. Kakavarna.
Viii. KSHEMADHARMAN.
ix. KSHATTRAUJAS.
X. YlDMISARA (BiMBISARA).
xi. Ajatasatru.
xii. Darbhaka.
xiii. Udayaswa.
xiv. Nandivardhana.
The inquiry might here be reasonably raised, as to how
a Brahman^ like Kautilya^ came to select, for sovereignty, a
man of a supposedly adverse faith. But though our King-
maker was a Brahman^ he was not necessarily, in tbe modern
acceptation of the term, a '* Brdhmanist.'^ The fact of the
Brahmanas being bracketed in equal gradation with the
Sramanas of the Jainas and Buddhists, in the formal versions
of Asoka's edicts, clearly demonstrates that the first-named
class had not, as yet, succeeded to the exclusive charge of
kings' consciences, or attained the leading place in the hier-
archy of the land which they subsequently claimed. Moreover,
in the full development of their power, the Brahmans, as a
rule, recognized their proper metier of guiding and governing
from within the palace, and but seldom sought to become
ostensibly reigning kings. Thus, supposing Kautilya to
have been, as is affirmed in some passages, an hereditary
minister,* he might well have sought to secure a submissive
1 " 5 Pradyota kings, 138 years." 2 u iq Saisunaga kings, 362 years."
3 " He will be the annihilator of the Kshatrya race ; for, after him, the kings
of the earth will be Siidras.''
* Hindu Theatre, p. 145. "Vishnu Gupta," son of Chanaka (hence Chanakya).
He is described in the Vrihat-Kathd as a "Brahman of mean appearance, digging
in a meadow." — H.T.p. 140,and"Wilson's Works, vol. iii. p. 177; see also vol. iii.
p. 354, and the Mahawanso, p. 21, with the full list of references, pp. Ixxvi, et seq.
26 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
prince, without regard to his crude ideas of faith, and one
unlikely to trench upon the growing pretensions of the Brah-
manical class. But, among other things, it is to be kept in
view that, hitherto, there had been no overt antagonism of
creeds, regarding which, as will be seen hereafter, Asoka so
wisely counsels sufferance and consideration.
The leading question of caste, also, has a very important,
though seemingly indirect, bearing upon the subject under
discussion. It is clear that the whole theory of Indian castes
originated in a simple natural division of labour associated
with heredity of occupations, constituting, as civilization ad-
vanced, ipso fadii, a system of social class discrimination ; each
section of the community having its defined rights and being
subject to its corresponding responsibilities.^ In the initiatory
stage this simple distribution of duties clearly had no concern
with creeds or forms of religious belief.
But beyond this, we have already seen (p. 3) that it was
not incompatible with their obligations to their own faith,
that Brahmans should officiate in Jaina temples — and, as
almost a case in point, we find very early instances of Jaina
Kings entertaining Brahman TuroUits^ but it need not for a
moment be supposed that these "spiritual guides" taught their
sovereigns either theYedic or Brahmanical S3"stem of religion.^
The conception of caste itself was obviously indigenous, and
clearly an institution of home growth, which flourished and
^ In the South and Central India the term caste seems still to represent class.
*' The Hindus, as in all parts of India, are divided into four great castes ; but it
will he preferable to speak of the inhabitants of this country as nations and classes ;
for it is in this manner they divide themselves and keep alive those attachments and
prejudices which distinguish them from each other. — Malcolm's "Central India,"
vol. ii. p. 114.
2 " "While Padmapara was reigning in the city of Kotikapura. . . His Queen
being Padmasri, and \l\^ purohita Soma Somarsi, a Brahman." — Eajavali Kathe,
Ind. Antiquary, 1874, p. 154.
3 Govinda Raya makes a grant of land to a " Jaina Brahman." — Journal Royal
Asiatic Societ}', Vol. VIII. p. 2; see also Colonel Sykes, J.R.A.S., Vol. VI.
pp. 301, 305, and F. Buchanan, Mysore, vol. iii. p. 77.
It has elsewhere been remarked by other commentators: — "We see from the
history of the Buddhist patriarchs, that the distinction of castes in no way interfered
with the selection of the chiefs of religion. Sakya Muni was a Kshatrya ; Maha
Kasyapa, his successor, was a Brahman; Shang nu ho sieou, the third patriarch,
was a Vaisya', and his successor, Yeou pho Khieouto, was a Sudra." — Remusat,
note, cap xx. Foe koi ki, Laidlay's Translation, p. 178.
" Saugata books treating on the subject of caste never call in question the
antique fact of a fourfold division of the Hindu people, but only give a more
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 27
engrafted itself more deeply as the nation progressed in its
own independent self-development. In this sense we need
not seek to discover any reference to its machinery in the
authentic texts of the Yedas.^ The Aryan pastoral races,
who reached India from distant geographical centres, how-
ever intellectually endowed, were, in their very tribal com-
munities and migratory habits, unfitted and unprepared for
such matured social conditions.
The intrusion of a foreign race, in considerable numbers,
would tend to fix the local distribution, and add a new
division of its own to those already existing among people
of the land. It might be suggested that the Yedic Aryans
thus constituted, in their new home, the fifth of the " five
classes of men '* to whom they so frequently refer in the text
of the Rig Veda}
But there are decided objections to any such conclusion,
as in one instance the five classes are distinctly alluded to as
within the Aryan pale, in opposition to the local Dasyus?
liberal interpretation to it than the current Brahmanical one of their day." — B.
H. Hodgson, J.E.A.S. Vol. II. p. 289.
And to conclude these references, I may point to the fact that Sakya Muni, in
one instance, is represented as having promised a ' ' young Brahman that he shall
become a perfect i/z^(^f//i«." — Ksoma de Koros, Asiatic Researches, vol. xx. p. 453.
1 Muir, J.R.A.S. n.s. Vol. I. p. 356 ; Sanskrit Texts, vol. i. pp. 7, 15, etc. ;
vol. V. p. 371. Colebrooke, As. Res, vol. vii. p. 251 ; Essays, vol. i. pp. 161, 309.
Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 570. "Wilson, Rig Veda, vol. i. p. xliv.
2 " Over the five men, or classes of men" {pancJia kshitvidm). — Rig Veda,
Wilson's translation, vol. i. pp. 20, 230, 314; ii. p. xv., "The five classes of
beings," p. 170 ; iii. p. xxii., " The five races of men" {pdnchajanydsu krishtishu)
87 ; " The five classes of men," pp. 468, 506, etc. " The commentator explains
this term to denote the four castes. Brahman^ Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, and
the barbarian or Nishdda; but S<iyana, of course, expresses the received opinions
of his own age." — Wilson, Rig Veda, vol. i. p. xliii ; also vol. ii. p. xv. See also
Muir, vol. i. p. 176, et neq.
Pliny's detail of the castes or classes of India differs slightly from that of
Megasthenes' , and, like the Vedic tradition, estimates the number of divisions at
Jive, excluding the lowest servile class. " The people of the more civilized nations
of India are divided into several classes. One of these classes tills the earth,
another attends to military affairs, others, again, are occupied in mercantile
pursuits, while the wisest and most wealthy among them have the management
of the affairs of State, act as judges, and give counsel to the King. The fifth
class entirely devoting themselves to the pursuit of wisdom, which, in these
coimtries, is almost held in the same veneration as religion." ..." In addition to
these, there is a class in a half-savage state, and doomed to endless labour ; by
means of their exertions, all the classes previously mentioned are supported." —
Pliny, vi. 22. 19, Bohn's edition, 1855.
2 " The sage Atri, who was venerated by the five classes of men, . . . and
baffling, showerers (of benefits), the devices of the malignant Basyus." — Wilson,
vol. i. p. 314 (R.V. i. viii.).
28 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
So that these references must be supposed either to apply to
the Aryan tribes, as once distinguished from each other in
their previous dwelling-places, or to refer to the independent
waves of immigration of the clans across the Indus, which
would establish a sufficiently marked subdivision of the
parent race.
On the other hand, it is clear that if they had no birth-
caste, they had very arrogant notions of Varna ''colour,"
which, under modern interpretation, has come to have the
primary meaning of caste. We find them speaking of the
Air yam varnam^ ''the Aryan-colour;"^ and our " white-
complexioned friends " are contrasted with the black skins
and imperfect language of the indigenous races.^
These utterances appear to belong to the period of the
Aryan progress through the Punjab. Whether after their
prolonged wanderings, the surviving members of the com-
munity reached the sacred sites on the Saraswati in
diminished force, we have no means of determining ; but
they would, as far as we can judge, have here found them-
selves in more densely inhabited districts, in disproportionate
numbers to the home population, and cut off from fresh
accessions from the parent stock.
But, however few in numbers, they were able to place their
mark upon the future of the land, to introduce the worship of
their own gods, to make their hymns the ritual, and finally,
as expositors of the new religion, to elevate themselves into a
sanctity but little removed from that of the deity .^
We have now to inquire, what bearing this view of cade
^ *' He gave horses, he gave the Sun, and Indra gave also the many-nourishing
cow : he gave golden treasure, and having destroyed the Basyus, he protected
the Aryan tribe." — "Wilson, R.V. vol. iii. p. 56. Aryam varnam "the Aryan
colour." — Muir, vol. v. p. 114; and ii. 282, 360, 374. " Indra . . . divided
the fields with his white-complexioned friends." — Wilson, R.V. vol. i. p. 259.
2 (Indra) "tore off the black skin." Vol. ii. p. 35 (ii. i. 8). (Indra) " scattered
the black-sprung servile " (hosts). Vol. ii. p. 258 (ii. vi. 6). (Dasyus) " who are
babblers defective in speech." Vol. iv. p. 42. " may we conquer in battle the
ill-speaking man." Vol. iv. p. 60.
^ " viii. 381. No greater crime is known on earth than slaying a Brahman ; and
the King, therefore, must not even form in his mind an idea of killing a priest,"
" ix. 317. A Brahman, whether learned or ignorant, is a powerful divinity."
" ix. Thus, although Brahmans employ themselves in all sorts of mean occu-
pation, they must invariably be honoured ; for they are something transcendently
divine." — G. C. Haughton, "The Institutes of Manu" (1825).
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 29
has upon the pretensions of the Jainas to high antiquity. It
is clear that the elaboration and gradual development of the
subdivisions of caste must have been the work of ages ; in
early times limited to four classes of men, it has so grown
that, in our day, in a single district in Upper India, the
official statistical return gives no less than ninety-five classes
of the population, as ranged under the heading of " Caste," ^
and the full total for the entire government of the North-
Western Provinces mounts up ** to no less than 560 castes
among the Hindus " alone.^
If this be taken as the rate of increase, to what primitive
times must we assign the pre-caste period, and with it the
indigenous population represented by those, who, with the
simplest form of worship, avowedly lived a life of equality
before their Maker ; and so long resisted any recognition of
caste, till the force of example and surrounding custom led
them exceptionally, and in a clumsy way,^ to subject the
free worship of each independent votary to the control of a
ministering priesthood.
We may conclude, for all present purposes, that Yindusara
followed the faith of his father, and that, in the same belief —
whatever it may prove to have been — his childhood's lessons
were first learnt by Asoka.
The Ceylon authorities assert that Vindusara's creed was
"Brahmanical," but, under any circumstances, their testimony
would not carry much weight in the argument about other
lands and other times, and it is, moreover, a critical question as
to how much they knew about Brahmanism itself^ and whether
the use of the word Brahman does not merely imply, in their
sense, a non-Buddhistic or any religion opposed to their own.*
' Report on Saharanpur, Elliot's Glossary, vol. i. p. 296.
2 Ibid, p. 283. Census Report for 1865.
2 " Vrishabhanatha was incarnate in this world . . . at the city of Ayodhyd.
. . . He also arranged the various duties of mankind, and allotted to men the
means of subsistence, viz. Asi^ 'the sword;' Masi, 'letters' [lit. ink); Krisht,
'agriculture;' Vdnijya, 'commerce;' Fasupdla, 'attendance on cattle.' . . .
Thus Vrishabhanatha established the religion of the Jains, in its four classes or
castes, of Brdhmans, Kshatris, Vaisyas, and Hudras." — C. Mackenzie, Asiatic
Researches, vol. ix. p. 259.
* " The father (of Asoka) being of the Brahmanical faith, maintained (bestow-
ing daily alms) 6U,000 lirahmans. He himself in like manner bestowed them
for 3 years." — Mahawanso, p. 23.
30 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
I now arrive at the primary object, which, in nominal
terms, heads this paper, regarding the relative precedence of
Jainism and Buddhism, as tried and tested by the ultimate
determination of " the early faith of Asoka."
In the preliminary inquiry, I have often had to rely upon
casual and inconsecutive evidence, which my readers may
estimate after their own ideas and predilections. I have at
length to face what might previously have been regarded as
the crucial difficulty of my argument ; but all doubts and
obscurities in that direction may now be dissipated before
Asoka's own words, which he or his advisers took such in-
finite pains to perpetuate — under the triple phases of his
tardy religious progress — on rocks and big stones, and more
elaborately-prepared Indian Ldts or monoliths.
It is fully ascertained, that the knowledge of the characters
of this Ldt alphabet, together with the power of interpreting
the meaning of these edicts, had been altogether lost and ob-
scured in the land, where these very monuments stood unde-
faced, up to the fourteenth century a.d. ; when Firuz Shah, on
the occasion of the removal of two of the northern monoliths
to his new city on the Jumna, ineffectually summoned the
learned of all and every class and creed, from far and near, to
explain the writing on their surfaces.^ It is therefore satis-
factory to find that, so to say, Jaina records had preserved
intact a tradition of what the once again legible purport of
the inscriptions reveals, as coincident with the subdued and
elsewhere disregarded pretensions of the sect.
Abul Fazl, the accomplished minister of Akbar, is known
to have been largely indebted to the Jaina priests and their
carefully preserved chronicles, for much of his knowledge of
the past, or Hindu, period of the empire he had to describe
statistically, under the various aspects of its soils, its reve-
nues, its ancient legends, its conflicting creeds, etc. In his
A'in-i-Akban he has retained, in his notice of the kingdom
of Kashmir, three very important entries, exhibited in the
1 My Path^n Kings of Dehli, p. 292. General Cunningham, Arch. Rep.
vol. i. pp. 155, 161. Elliot's Historians, vol. iii. p. 352.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA, 31
original Persian version quoted below/ which establish : (1)
that Asoka himself first introduced " Jainism/' eo nomine^
into the kingdom of Kashmir ; (2) that " Buddhism '* was
dominant there during the reign of Jaloka; and (3) that
Brahmanisra superseded Buddhism under E,aja Sachinara.^
Ui^i/^ llT:?^ c;^'^ iiil^^lj^jl ^.♦.Jb J-— Dr. Bloclimann's revised text, p.
c V «i . During the reign of Jaloka Buddhism is stated to have been pre-
valent. (l^'^«1» JL J ,.\y*\ ^^ \^ ^3»J ,.t-Jl;)- Under Raja Sachinara the
Brahmans again asserted their supremacy ^JaJ « .Ay^JbJ J d-^^\ \ .,\^\ .J
L::^^^ i^jy cJld- ^UT i^U- ^-j.^:^ ^ Jkj Ji^l ci^^J ^^r^ p. 580,
'^ Kings of Kashmir after 35 Princes " whose names are forgotten."
Persian Names. Sanskrit Names (As. Res. xv.).
iTj! {Lava).
^ j^ jd.L^ (variant^i^^j) Khagendra.
-xjj aJ ;1 -&J»r Godhara.
^\ fjMj ^jy^ Suvarna.
•1 ~uuJ CS^^ JanaTca.
jl ^.uuj J <yf'**' Sachinara.
CJo^ f^^j^i C^y^\ ^soX-a, descended from the pa-
ternal great-uncle of Khagendra,)
j1 .juuj cJ J.:?- JaloTca.
CSJ^\ 3^\ j\ jdy*\i^ Bdmodara.
CSJ!^ (var. lL^A-j), CS>^j, cli^AJb j MishJca, JushJca, Kanish'
j^^iU^ Ahhimanyu.
Calcutta Text, p. cvf , Gladwin, vol. ii. p. 171. Prinsep's Essays, Use-
ful Tables, p. 243.
32 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
In brief, this extraneous evidence, from possibly secondary
Jaina sources, is fully consistent with what Asoka has still to
disclose in the texts of his own inscriptions ; but it conveys,
indirectly, even more than those formal and largely-dis-
tributed official documents — which merely allow us to infer
that Asoka's conversion to Buddhism occurred late in his life
or reign. But the annals of Kashmir, on the other hand, more
emphatically imply that either he did not seek to spread, or
had not the chance or opportunity of propagating his new
faith in the outlying sections of his dominions ; and that, in
this valley of Kashmir, at least, Buddhism came after him, as
a consequence of his southern surrender rather than as a
deliberate promulgation of a well-matured belief on his part.
The leading fact of Asoka's introduction or recognition of
the Jaina creed in Kashmir, above stated, does not, however,
rest upon the sole testimony of the Muhammadan author,
but is freely acknowledged in the Brahmanical pages of the
Raja Tarangini — a work which, though finally compiled and
put together onl}^ in 1148 a.d., relies, in this section of its
history, upon the more archaic writings of Padma Mihlra and
Sri Clihavilldkdra. Professor Wilson's recapitulation of the
context of this passage is somewhat obscure, as, while hesitat-
in<> to admit that Asoka *' introduced " into Kashmir " the
Jina Sdsana," he, inconsistently, affirms that " he invented
or originated " it. If so, we must suppose that Jainisni had
its germ and infantile birth in an outlying valley of the
Himalaj^a in 250 B.C. — a conclusion which is beyond measure
improbable.^
^ Professor "Wilson's paraphrase runs : " The last of these princes being child-
less, the crown of Kashmir reverted to the family of its former rulers, and
devolved on Asoka, who was descended from the paternal great uncle of Kha-
GENDRA. This prince, it is said in the Ain i-Akbari, abolished the Brahmanical
rites, and substituted those of Jiim: from the original (text of the Raja Taran-
gini), however, it appears that he by no means attempted the fonner of these
heinous acts, and that, on the contrary, he was a pious worshipper of Siva,
an ancient temple of whom in the character of Vijayesa he repaired. With
respect to the second charge, there is better foundation for it, although it appears
that this prince did not introduce, but invented or originated the Jina Sdsana." —
As. Res. vol. XV. p. 19.
The text and purport of the original are subjoined ; the latter runs: " Then the
prince Asoka, the lover of truth, obtained the earth; who sinning in subdued
afifections produced the Jina Sdsana. Jaloka, the son and successor of Asoka,
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 33
I had outlined and transcribed tlie subjoined sketcb of tlie
contrasted stages of Asoka's edicts, before the Indian Anti-
quary containing Dr. Kern's revision of the translations of
his predecessors came under my notice.
As I understand the position of the inquiry at this moment,
Dr. Kern is aided by no novel data or materials beyond
the reach of those who came to the front before him, and it
may chance to prove that he has been precipitate in closing
his case, while a new and very perfect version of the same
series of inscriptions, at Khalsi, is still awaiting General
Cunningham's final imprimatur — a counterpart engrossed in
more fully-defined characters, which Dr. Kern does not
appear to have heard of. Dr. Kern's method of dealing
with his materials might not commend itself to some inter-
preters. He confesses that the original, or Palace copy,
forming the basis of all other variants, was cast in the
dialect of Magadha, and he then goes through the curious
process of reducing the Girnar text — which he takes as his
representative test — into classical or Brahmanic Sanskrit,
on which he relies for his competitive translation. At the
same time he admits, without reserve, that the geographi-
cally distributed versions of the guiding scripture were
systematically adapted to the various dialects of " Gujarat!
was a prince of great prowess; he overcame the assertors of the ^a?^i(f/ia heresies,
and quickly expelled the Mlechhas from the country
"The conquest of Kanauj by this prince is connected with an event not improb-
able in itself, and which possibly marks the introduction of the Brahmauical
creed, in its more perfect form, into this kingdom, and Jaloka is said to have
adopted thence the distinction of castes, and the practices which were at that
time established in the neighbouring kingdoms. ... He forbore in the latter
part of his reign from molesting the followers of the Bauddha schism, and even
bestowed on them some endowments." — As. Res. vol. xv. p. 21.
Troyer's translation of 102 runs :
" Ce monarque (Asoka) ayant eteint en lui tout pencbant vicieux, embrassa la
religion de Djina, et etendit sa domination par des enclos d'elevations sacrees de
terre dans le pays de Cuchkala, ou est situee la montagne de Vitasta.
103. La Vitasta passait dans la ville au milieu des bois sacres et des Viharas;
c'etait la ou s'elevait, bati par lui, un sanctuaire de Buddha, d'une hauteur dont
I'oeil ne pouvait atteindre les limites." — vol. ii. p. 12.
A notice which may have some bearing upon these events is to be found in the
Dulva. It purports to declare : "100 years after the disappearance of Sakya, his
religion is carried into Kashmir. 110 years after the same event, in the reign of
Asoka, King of Pataliputra, a new compilation of the laws . . . was prepared
at' Allahabad."— J. A. S. Bengal, vol. i. p. 6.
34 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
or Marathi — Magadhi, and Gandhari " [the Semitic version
of Kapurdigiri].
I should have had more confidence in this rectification of
the translations of all previous masters of the craft, if the
modern critic had proceeded upon diametrically opposite
principles, and had recognized the confessed necessity of the
variation and distribution of dialects, site by site, as a fact
making against the pretended supremacy of classical Sanskrit
at this early date.^
Singular to say, with all these reservations, I am fully
pre^Dared to accept so much of Dr. Kern's general conclu-
sions as, without concert, chances opportunely to support
and confirm my leading argument, with regard to the
predominance of Jainism in the first and second series
of Asoka's Inscriptions. Dr. Kern, elsewhere, relies on
a short indorsement of, or supplementary addition to,
the framework of the Girnar Inscription, as satisfactorily
proving, to his perception, the Buddhistical import of
the whole set of Edicts which precede it on the same
rock.^
I am under the impression that this incised scroll is of
later date than the body of the epigraph. It is larger in
size, does not range with the rest of the writing, and does
not, in terms, fit-in with the previous context. Of course
should it prove to be authentic and synchronous in execution
with the other chiselled letters, and, at the same time, of
exclusively Buddhist tendency, I might regard its tenor as
* The pretence of the universality of the Sanskrit language in India at this
period has often been contested in respect to the method of reconstruction of
these ancient monuments. Mr. Turnour was the first to protest against James
Prinsep's submission to th'e Sanskritic tendencies of his Pandits. Mr. B. Hodgson,
in like manner, consistently upheld the local claims and prior currency of the
various forms of the vernaculars, and, most unquestionably. Professor "Wilson's
own perception and faculty of interpreting this class of inter-provincial records
was damaged and obscured by his obstinate demands for good dictionary
Sanskrit.
^ " In one place only — I mean the signature of the Girnar inscription — the
following words have reference to Buddha. Of this signature there remains,
. . . va sveto hasti savalolcasiikhuharo ndma.
"What has to be supplied at the beginning I leave to the ingenuity of others to
determine, but what is left means ' the white elephant' whose name is * Bringer of
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 35
of more importance ; but, even accepting all Dr. Kern's
arguments in favour of '* White Elephants," which I distrust
altogether, how are we to reconcile the repeated arrays of
elephants, (the special symbol of the second Jina), upon ac-
knowledged Jaina sculptures, with anything but the general
identity of symbols of both sects, and a possible derivation
on the part of the Buddhists ?
Dr. Kern thus concludes his final resume : —
*' The Edicts give an idea of what the King did for his subjects in
his wide empire, which extended from Behar to Gandhara, from the
Himalaya to the coast of Cororaandel and Pandya. They are not
unimportant for the criticism of the Buddhistic traditions, though
they give us exceedingly little concerning the condition of the
doctrine and its adherents. . . .
"At fitting time and place, [Asoka] makes mention, in a modest
and becoming manner, of the doctrine he had embraced; but nothing
of a Buddhist spirit can be discovered in his State policy. From the
very beginning of his reign he was a good prince. His ordinances
concerning the sparing of animal life agree much more closely with
the ideas of the heretical Jainas than those of the Buddhists."
(p. 275.)
The Edicts of Asoka.
Prof. Wilson, when revising the scattered texts of
Asoka's Edicts within the reach of the commentators of
1849, declared, and, as we may now see, rightly maintained,
that there was nothing demonstrahly " Buddhist " in any
of the preliminary or Hock Inscriptions of that monarch,
though, then and since, he has been so prominently put
happiness to the whole world.' That by this term Sakya is implied, there can
be no doubt (he entered his mother's womb as a white elephant, — Lalita Vistara,
p. 63) Even if the signature is not to be attributed to the scribe, the
custom evidently even then prevalent, and still in use at the present day, of
naming at the end of the inscription the divinity worshipped by the writer or
scribe, can offer no serious difficulty." — I. A. p. 2o8. [If Sakya Muni was the
seed of the white elephant, how came he to be so disrespectful to his deceased
relatives as to speak of his dead friend '■'• the lohite elephant '" Devadatta killed,
as " cet etre qui a un grand corps, en se decomposant, remplirait toute la ville
d'une mauvaise odeur" ?]
36 TEE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
forward as the special patron and promoter of the Creed of
Sakya Muni.^
In the single-handed contest between Buddhism and Brah-
manism, Prof. Wilson made no pretence to discover any status
— throughout the whole range of these formal records — for
the latter religion ; except in the vague way of a notice of
the Brahmans and Sramans mentioned in the corresponding
palaeographic texts, which were, in a measure, associated with
the coeval references of the Greek authors to these identical
designations. But no suggestion seems to have presented
itself to him, as an alternative, of old-world Jainism progress-
ing into a facile introduction to philosophic Buddhism.
We have now to compare the divergencies exhibited
between the incidental records of the tenth, twelfth, and pos-
sibly following years, with the advanced declarations of the
twenty-seventh year of Asoka's reign. We find the earlier
proclamations advocating Dharma,^ which certainly does not
come up to our ideal of "religion," represented in its simplest
phase of duty to others, which, among these untutored peoples,
^ " In the first place, then, with respect to the supposed main purport of the
inscription, proselytisni to the Buddhist religion, it may not unreasonably he
doubted if they were made public with any such design, and whether they have
any connexion with Buddhism at all."— J.E.A.S. Vol. XII. p. 236. " There is
nothing in the injunctions promulgated or sentiments expressed in the inscrip-
tions, in the sense in which I have suggested their interpretation, that is
decidedly and exclusively characteristic of Buddhism. The main object of the
first appears, it is true, to be a prohibition of destroying animal life, but it is a
mistake to ascribe the doctrine to the Buddhists alone." p. 238. " From these
considerations, I have been compelled to withhold my unqualified assent to the
confident opinions that have been entertained respecting the object and origin of
the inscriptions. Without denying the possibility of their being intended to
disseminate Buddhism, . . . there are difficulties in the way, . . . which, to
say the least, render any such an attribution extremely uncertain." p. 250.
- The four Bharmas, in their simplicity, are defined by the Northern Jainas as
*' merits," as consequent upon the five Mahdvratas or " great duties.'" — Wilson's
Essays, vol. i. p. 317. This idea progressed, in aftertimes, into a classification
of the separate duties of each rank in life, or the " prescribed course of duty."
Thus " giving alms," etc., is the dharma of the householder, " administering jus-
tice" of a king, "piety " of a Brahman, " courage" of a Kshatriya. — M. Williams,
sub voce. "Later Jaina interpretations of the term Dharmam Southern India ex-
tend to * vii-tue, duty, justice, righteousness, rectitude, religion.' It is said to
be the quality of the individual self which arises from action, and leads to happi-
ness and final beatitude. It also means Law, and has for its object Bharma,
things to be done, and Adharma, things ' to be avoided. ' This Bharma is
said by the Jainas to be eternal. Bharma, as well as Veda, if they are true Virtue
and Law, are attributes or perfections of the Divine Being, and as such are
eternal." — Chintamani, Rev. II. Bower, p. xl. See also Max Mtiller's "Sanskrit
Literature," p. 101 : "In our Sutra Bharma means Law," etc. The intuitive
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 37
assumed the leading form of futile mercy to tlie lower animals,
extending into the devices of " Hospitals '' for the suffering
members of the brute creation, and ultimately, in after-times,
progressing into the absurdity of the wearing of respirators
and the perpetual waving of fans, to avoid the destruction of
minute insect life. An infatuation, which eventually led to
the surrendering thrones and kingdoms, to avoid a chance
step which should crush a worm, or anything that crept upon,
the face of the earth ; and more detrimental stilly a regal
interference with the every- day life of the people at large,,
and the subjecting of human labour to an enforced three
months' cessation in the year, in order that a moth should
not approach a lighted lamp, and the revolving wheel should
not crush a living atom in the mill.
I have arranged, in the subjoined full remm6 of the three
phases or gradations " of Asoka's faith," as much of a con-
trast as the original texts, under their modern reproductions,
admit of; exhibiting, in the first period, his feelings and
inspirations from the tenth to the twelfth year after his in-
auguration ; following on to the second, or advanced phase of
thought, which pervades the manifestos of his twenty-seventh
year; and exhibiting, as a climax of the whole series of
utterances, his free and outspoken profession of faith in the-
hitherto unrecognized *^ Buddha.'*
The difference between the first and second series of decla-
rations or definitions of Dharma is not so striking as the
interval in point of time, and the opportunities of fifteen
years of quasi- religious meditation, might have led us to ex-
pect ; but still, there is palpable change in the scope of
thought — " a marked advance in faith " ; only the faith is
indefinite, and the morals still continue supreme. Happily,
for the present inquiry, there is nothing in these authentic
documents which has any pretence to be either Yedic or
feeling that " laborare est orare " seems to have preyailecl largely in the land, and
would undoubtedly have been fostered and encouraged under the gi-adual develop-
ment of caste. The great Akbar appears to have participated in the impressions
of his Hindu subjects ; for we find him, in the words of his modern biographer,
described as one "who looks upon the performance of his duties as an act of
divine worship." — Dr. Blochmann's translation of the Ain-i-Akbari, p. iii.
38 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
Bralimamcal, and therefore we can pass by, for the moment,
all needless comparisons between the terms "Brabmans and
Sramans " — the latter of whom equally represented Jainas
and Buddhists — a controversy to which undue emphasis and
importance has been hitherto assigned, and confine ourselves
to Asoka's aims in departing from the silence of the past,
and covering the continent of India with his written procla-
mations. His ideas and aspirations, as exhibited in his early
declarations, are tentative and modest in the extreme : in
fact, he confesses, in his later summaries, that these inscribed
edicts represent occasional thoughts and suggestive inspira-
tions ; indeed, that they were put forth, from time to time,
and often, we must conclude, ostentatiously dated, without re-
ference to their period of acceptance or their ultimate place
on the very stones on which we find them.
When closel}^ examined, the two sets of edicts, contrasted
by their positions as Rock and Pillar Inscriptions, covering,
more or less, a national movement of fifteen years, resolve
themselves into a change in the Dharma or religious law
advocated by the ruling power of very limited and natural
extent. The second series of manifestos are marked, on the
one hand, by a deliberate rejection of some of the minor
delusions of the earlier documents, and show an advance to a
distinction and discrimination between good and evil animals,
a more definite scale of apportionment of crimes and their
appropriate punishments, completed by an outline of the
ruling moral polity, reading like a passage from Megas-
thenes,^ in regard to the duties of inspectors, and forming a
consistent advance upon Chandra Gupta's moral code.
^ Arrian xii. ; Strabo xv. 48 ; Diod. Sic. ii. 3. There are several points in
the Greek accounts of Indian creeds which have hitherto been misunderstood,
and which have tended to complicate and involve the triie state of things existing
in the land at the periods referred to. Among the rest is the grand question, in
the present inquii-y, of Jaina versus Buddhist, of which the follo-\\ing is an
illustration : — Fah Hian, chap. xxx. " The honottrahle of the age (Buddha) has
established a law that no one should destroy his own life."
Mr. Laidlay adds, as a commentary upon this passage : — " The law here alluded
to is mentioned in tlie Dulva (p. 162 to 239); where, in consequence of several
instances of suicide among the monks, . . . Sakya prohibits discourses upon that
subject. So that the practice of self-immolation ascribed by the Greek historians
to the Buddliists was, like that of going naked, a departure from orthodox
principles."— p. 278.
The Ecv. S. Beal, in his revised translation of Fah Hian, in confirming this
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 39
All these indications, and many more significant items,
may, percliance, be traced by those, who care to follow the
divergencies presented in the subjoined extracts ; but no
ingenuity can shake the import of the fact, that, up to the
twenty-seventh year of his reign, Asoka had no definite
idea of or leaning towards Buddhism, as represented in its
after-development. His final confession and free and frank
recognition of the name and teaching of Buddha in the
Babhra proclamation, form a crucial contrast to all he had
so elaborately advocated and indorsed upon stone, through-
out his dominions, during the nearly full generation of his
fellow-men, amid whom he had occupied the supreme throne
of India.
As my readers may be curious to see the absolute form in
which this remarkable series of Palseographic monuments
were presented to the intelligent public of India, or to their
authorized interpreters, in the third century B.C., I have, at
at the last moment,^ taken advantage of Mr. Burgess's very
successful paper-impressions, or squeezes, of the counterpart
inscription on the Girnar rock, to secure an autotype re-
production of the opening tablets of that version of the
closely parallel texts of Asoka' s Edicts. Those who are not
conversant with ancient palaeographies may also be glad of
conclusion of Mr. Laidlay, emphatically declares, " I doubt very much whether
there is any reference to Buddhists in the Greek accounts." — pp. xlii, 119. See
also J.E.A.S. Vol. XIX. p. 420, and Vol. VIII. n.s. p. 100.
" A long series of the rock inscriptions at Sravana Belgola, in the same old
characters, consist of what may he termed epitaphs to Jaina saints and ascetics,
both male and female, or memorials of their emancipation from the body. ... It
is painful to imagine the pangs of slow starvation, by which these pitiable beings
gave themselves up to death and put an end to their own existence, that by virtue
of such extreme penance they might acquire merit for the life to come. . . . The
irony is complete when we remember that avoidance of the destruction of life in
whatever form is a fundamental doctrine of the sect." . . . The inscriptions
before us are in the oldest dialect of the Kanarese. The expression mud/ppidar,
with which most of them terminate, is one which seems peculiar to the Jainas."
— Mr. Lewis Eice, Indian Antiquary, 1873, p. 322.
The passages regarding suicidal philosophers will be found in Megasthenes
(Strabo xv. i. 64, 73) ; Q. Curtius viii. ix. sec. 33; Pliny, vi. c. 22, sec. 19;
Arrian xi.
The naked saints figure in Megasthenes (Strabo xv. 60), Cleitarchus
(Strabo xv. 70), Q. Curtius, viii. ix. 33.
^ Mr. Burgess's Report for 1874-5 reached me on the 15th February, 1877,
a few days only before the Meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society at which this
paper was read. These paper-impressions are now deposited in the Library of
the India Office.
40 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
the opportunity of examining the nature of the alphabetical
system here in force — which constituted, in effect, the
Alphabet Mere of India at large. These inscriptions, of
about 250 b.c, contribute the earliest specimens of indi-
genous writing we are able to cite, their preservation and
multiplication being apparently due to a newly-awakened
royal inspiration of engraving edicts and moral admonitions
on stone. This alphabetical system must clearly have passed
through long ages of minority before it could have attained
the full maturity in which it, so to say, suddenly presents
itself over the whole face of the land. And which from that
moment, unimproved to this day, asserts its claim to the
title of the most perfect alphabet extant.
The Sanskrit- speaking Aryans discarded, in its favour,
the old Phoenician character they had learnt, laboriously
transformed, and finally adapted to the requirements of
their own tongue, during their passage through the narrow
valleys of the Himalaya, and their subsequent residence
on the southern slopes of the range, in the Sapta Sindhu
or Punjab, which scheme of writing would appear to have
answered to the term of the Yavandn'i lij^i of Panini and
the earlier Indian grammarians.
In this second process of adaptation, the Aryans had to
repudiate the normal ethnographic sequence of the short and
long vowels, to add two consonants of their own (^, "q) utterly
foreign to the local alphabet, and to accept from that alpha-
bet a class of letters, unneeded for the definition of Arj^an
tongues ; an inference which is tested and proved by the fact
that accomplished linguists of our age and nationality are
seldom competent to pronounce or orally define the current
Indian cerebrals.^
1 Prinsep's Essays (Murray, 1858), pp. ii. 43, 144, 151, etc. Burnoiif, Yasna,
p. cxlv. Bopp's Grammar (Eastwick), i. 14. Lassen, " Essai sur le Pali,"
p. 15. J.R.A.S., o.s. X. 63; XII. 236; XIII. 108; XV. 19; n.s. L 467;
V.423. J.A.S. Beng., 1863, p. 158; 1867, p. 33. Journ. Bom. Branch R.A.S.,
1858, p. 41. Ancient Indian Weights (Xumismata Orientalia, Part i. Triibner,
1874), pp. 3, 6, 21, 48. Numismatic Chronicle, 1863, p. 226. Caldwell,
Dravidian Grammar (edit. 1875), pp. 13, 45, 64, 69, 82, 92, etc. Muir, Sanskrit
Texts, ii. xxiv, and 34?^, 440», 468, 488, etc. \Yeber, "Greek and Indian
Letters," lud. Ant. 1873, p. 143. " On the Dravidian Element in Sanskrit
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 41
Plate I. exhibits a facsimile of Tablets 1, 2, of the Girnar
rock. Of the former I have merely transliterated the first
sentence. But as I have had occasion to extract the full
translation of Tablet 2, I have now added the type-text, in
the old character, together with an interlineation in E-oman
letters,^ which will admit alike of preliminary readings,
and suggest further crucial comparisons by more advanced
students.
The contrasted tenor of the Three Periods of Asoka's
Edicts. — Period I., 10th and 12th Years after his
ahhishek or anointment.
The first sentence of the E,ock-cut Edicts, of the twelfth
year of Asoka's reign, commences textually : ^
:-jL- DB-j'b't'ir bJLi djLf>^i r"h ;jbA'
lyam datmnaUpi Devdnam piyena piyaclasind rdfid lepitd.
"■ This is the edict of the beloved of the gods. Raja Priya-.
dasi — the putting to death of animals is to be entirely dis-
continued."
The second tablet, after referring to the subject races of
India and to "Antiochus by name, the Yona (or Yavana)
E-aja," goes on to say: "(two designs have been cherished
Dictionaries," by the Rev. F. Kittel, Mercara, Indian Antiquary, 1872, p. 235.
F. Miiller, '* Academy," 1872, p. 319.
^ This type was originally cut under James Prinsep's own supervision. I am
indebted to the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 'C^q font now employed, which is in
the possession of Messrs. Austin. Some slight modifications of the original will
be noticed, especially in regard to the attachment of the vowels ; but otherwise
the type reproduces the normal letters in close facsimile. The most marked
departure from the old model is to be seen in the vowel o, which in the original
scheme was formed out of the a" and "e, thus ~\^ ; whereas, in the tj-pe, for sim-
plicity of junction, the e and the a have been ranged on one level, in this form X-
It will be seen that the Sanskrit ^.s has not yet put in an appearance, the local
^» having to do duty for its coming associate. A full table of the alphabet
itself will be found in Vol. V. n.s. of our Journal, p. 422.
2 I quote as my leading authority Professor Wilson's revised translation of
the combined texts embodied in the Journ. R.A.S. Vol. XII. p. 164, et seq., as
his materials were necessarily more ample and exact than Prinsep's original
transcripts, which were unaided by the highly important counterpart and most
efficient corrective in Semitic letters from Kapurdigiri, the decipherment of which
was only achieved by Mr, Norris in 1845.
42 THE EAELY FAITH OF ASOKA.
by Priyadasi : one design) regarding men, and one relating
to animals."
^iA i S'^A 8 !■ i r U JL rb bJl!>All fT
LT
Savata vijitamhi Devdiianipiyasci Piyadasino rano
>iBb \j d-Arb J.0 dybt'"rbA''l,bA"+A-JbA'H"A-D
I I I
evamapi pd chaihtesu yathd Chodd Pddd Satiyaputo Ketaleputo d Tamba-
b-l'"H-AJL+ II TE iAb Afb M-A''jL + rb rbH'b-
parhni, Antiyako Yonardja yevdpi taaa Antiyakasd sdmipam
m rb i A' > i 1- b J. rb b J. > rb I I'T '> dVdT + A"
O
rdjdno savntd Bevdnampiyasa Fiyadasitio rdno dvs chikichhd katd
8irb d'^+cbd brbd''+cbd Lfb<rid Xl blaJbAld
I II I
manusa chikichhdcha pasuchikichhdcha osudhdnieha ydni manusopagdnioha
\}J>[jhL <i JLAJLA I'rb rbiA L-FbAldTlib A'ld
A
pasopagdni cha yata-yata ndsti savata Kdrdpitdnicha ropupitdnioha
8 -J'l d b Jl diAJLAlrbrbiAb fb A"l d Tb b A'l d
II '^
mlddnicha phaldnicha yata-yata ndsti savata kdrdpitdnicha ropdpitdnicha
b-0rb-kbd TibA'iidTbbA'bfS'AJL brbBirbi"
tl I I
pamthesu kupaeha khandpitd vachhdcha ropdpitd paribhogdya pasumanusdnam,
I give Dr. Kern's later translation of this passage entire,
on account of its historical interest ; there does not seem to
be any material conflict in his rendering of the religious
sense :
** In the whole dominion of King Devanampriya Priyadarsin, as
also in the adjacent countries, as Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra,
Keralaputra, as far as Tamraparni, the kingdom of Antiochus the
Grecian king and of his neighbour kings, the system of caring for
the sick, both of men and of cattle, followed by King Devanama-
priya Priyadarsin, has been everywhere brought into practice ; and
at all places where useful healing herbs for men and cattle were
wanting he has caused them to be brought and pUinted ; and at all
pi.i. J.R.A.S. rx.
i /£:
r
-v^ ,- ^
ITT'- r J
/' 'U
/!^;>^'~
-r.\
- ■ ^1^^^ '
y " ^ , --^
-'
-^ - - ' I ^.
— . - ■ . - -
' ^ '' ^
~ , - ' '■ ■
- ~",. ■■ ■' ^ -^ " -
_ J. -- ■ ' ^
— ■■
- - - -
— c, *' "
J ' '
s
/■
ASOKAS INSCRIPTION at Cirnar,
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 43
places where roots and fruits were wanting he has caused them to
be brought and planted; also he has caused wells to be dug and trees
to be planted, on the roads for the benefit of cattle." — Indian Anti-
quary, p. 272 ; Arch. Rep. 1874-5, p. 99.
The 3rd section adverts to *' expiation," and the 4th con-
tinues : " During a past period of many centuries, there have
prevailed, destruction of life, injury to living beings, dis-
respect towards kindred, and irreverence towards Sramans
and Brahmans." ^
The 5th edict, after a suitable preamble, proceeds :
*' Therefore in the tenth year of the inauguration have ministers
of morality been made,^ who are appointed for the purpose of pre-
siding over morals among persons of all the religions, for the sake
of the augmentation of virtue and for the happiness of the virtuous
among the people of Kamboja, Gandhara, ISTaristaka and Pitenika.
They shall also be spread among the warriors, the Brahmans, the
mendicants, the destitute and others." ...
The 6th edict declares : — " An unprecedently long time
has passed since it has been the custom at all times and in all
affairs, to submit representations. Now it is established by me
that . . the officers appointed to make reports shall convey to
me the objects of the people " — and goes on to define the
duties of supervisors of morals, and explain their duties as
*' informers," etc., continuing : — .
'* There is nothing more essential to the good of the world,
for which I am always labouring. On the many beings over whom
^ Dr. Kei-n's elaborate criticism of Burnouf's revision of Prof. "Wilson's trans-
lation of this passage (Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 731) scarcely alters the material
sense quoted above. His version runs :
" In past times, during many centuries, attacking animal life and inflicting
suffering on the creatures, want of respect for Brahmans and monks."
Dr. Kern, in the course of his remarks upon his new rendering, observes,
** Apart from the style, there is so little exclusively Buddhistic in this document,
that we might equally well conclude from it that the King, satiated with war,
had become the president of a peace society and an association for the protection
of the lower animals, as that he had embraced the doctrine of Sakya Muni." —
I. A., p. 262.
2 The Cuttack version of the Edicts differs from the associate texts, saying,
" who shall be intermingled with all the hundred grades of unbelievers for the
establishment among them of the faith, for the increase of religion ... in
Kambocha and Gandhara, in Surastrika and Pitenika, . . . and even to the
furthest (limits) of the barbarian (countries). Who shall mix with the Brah-
mans and Bhi/cshtis, with the poor and with the rich." — p. 190; Prinsep,
J.A S. Bengal.
44 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
I rule I confer happiness in this world, — in the next they may-
obtain Swarga (heaven)."^
Tablet 7 does not seem to call for any remark. Tablet 8
refers to some change that came over the royal mind in the
tenth year of his reign. " Piyadasi, the beloved of the gods,
having been ten years inaugurated, by him easily awakened,
that moral festival is adopted (which consists) in seeing and
bestowing gifts on Brahmanas and Sramanas, . . . overseeing
the country and the people; the institution of moral laws,"
etc.
Burnouf *s amended translation differs from this materially.
He writes :
** \_Mais] Piyadasi, le roi cheri des Devas, parvenu ^ la dixieme
annee depuis son sacre, obtient la science parfaite que donne la
Buddha. C'est pourquoi la promenade de la roi est cette qu'il
faut faire, ce sont la visite et I'aumone faites aux Brahmanes et aux
Samanas." . . .
I see that Dr. Kern now proposes to interpret this con-
tested passage as,
*'But King Devanampriya Priyadarsin, ten years after his in-
auguration, came to the true insight. Therefore he began a walk
of righteousness, which consists in this, that he sees at his house
and bestows gifts upon Brahmans and monks. . . . Since then^this
is the greatest pleasure of King Devanampriya Priyadarsin in the
period after his conversion" [to what?]. — I. A. p. 263.
In his remarks upon the tenor of this brief tablet Dr. Kern
continues,
"It is distinguished by a certain simplicity and sentiment of
tone, which makes it touch a chord in the human breast. There is
a tenderness in it, so vividly different from the insensibility of the
later monkish literature of Buddhism, of which Th. Pavie observes,
with 80 much justice, * Tout reste done glace dans ce monde
bouddhique.'"
Tablet 9, speaking of festivities in general, declares :
**Such festivities are fruitless and vain, but the festivity that
bears great fruit is the festival of duty, such as the respect of the
servant to his master ; reverence for holy teachers is good, tender-
1 Lassen renders this, "my whole endeavour is to be blameless towards all
creatures, to make them happy here below and enable them hereafter to obtain
Svarga." — Indian Antiquary, p. 270.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 45
ness for living creatures is good, liberality to Brahmans and Sra-
manas is good. These and other such acts constitute verily the
festival of duty. . . With these means let a man seek BwargaP^
Tablet 10 contrasts the emptiness of earthly fame as
compared with the '^ observance of moral duty," and section
11 equally discourses on " virtue," which is defined as '' the
cherishing of slaves and dependents, pious devotion to mother
and father, generous gifts to friends and kinsmen, Brahmanas
and Sramanas, and the non-injury of living beings."
Tablet 12 commences : *' The beloved of the gods, King
Priyadasi, honours all forms of religious faith," ^ . . . and
enjoins ''reverence for one's own faith, and no reviling nor
injury of that of others. Let the reverence be shown in
such and such a manner, as is suited to the difference of
belief,"^ . . "for he who in some way honours his own re-
ligion and reviles that of others, saying, having extended to
all our own belief, let us make it famous, he, who does this,
throws difficulties in the way of his own religion : this, his
conduct cannot be right." .... The Edict goes on to say,
" And as this is the object of all religions, with a view to
its dissemination, superintendents of moral duty, as well as
over women, and officers of compassion, as well as other
officers" (are appointed).'^
The 13th Tablet, which Professor Wilson declined to
translate, as the Kapur di Giri text afforded no trustworthy
corrective, seems, from Mr. Prinsep's version, to recapitulate
much that has been said before, with a reiterated " injunction
for the non-injury of animals and content of living creatures,"
sentiments in which he appears to seek the sympathy of the
"Greek King Antiochus," together (as we now know^) with
that of the ^'four kings Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas and
^ Dr. Kern's conclusion of Tablet 9 runs as follows, ** By doing all this, a man
can merit heaven ; therefore let him who wishes to gain heaven for himself fulfil,
above all things, these his duties." — I. A., p. 271.
2 Dr. Kern's rendering says "honour all sects and orders of monks."
' " so that no man may praise his own sect or contemn another sect."
* " For this end, shenflfs over legal proceedings, magistrates entrusted with the
superintendence of the women, hospice-masters (?) and other bodies have been
appointed." — I. A., p. 268.
* Gen. Cunningham, Arch. Report, vol. i. p. 247, and vol. v. p. 20. See
also my " Dynasty of the Guptas in India," p. 34. I append the tentative trans-
46 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
Alexander." The postscript in. larger letters outside the
square of this tablet adds, according to Prinsep, " And this
place is named the White Elephant, conferring pleasure
on all the world."
Prof. Wilson, in conclusion of his review of the purport
of these palseographic documents, adverts to the Tablet
numbered 14 in the original list, but he does not seem to
have had sufficient confidence in his materials to have
ventured upon a continuous translation.^
Period II. The Advanced Stage.
The contrasted Lat or Monolithic Inscriptions,^ as opposed
literation of the several versions of tliis tablet, whicli I had prepared for the
latter work.
My learned friends are unwilling as yet to compromise themselves by a transla-
tion of the still imperfect text.
Transliterations of Tablet XIII. of the Asoka Inscriptions at (1)
Kapur-di-Giri, (2) Khalsi, and (3) Girnar.
1 , Ka. Antiyoka nam&. Yona raja paran cha tenan Antiyokena chatura | { 1 1 rajano
2. i'/i. AntiyoganamaYona . . lanchatena Antiyo . na chatali -\- lajane
Z. Gir Yona raj a paran cha tena .... chaptena[«eV] rajano
\. Ka. Traramaye nama Antikina nama Maka nama Alikasandaro nam&
2. Kh. Tulamaye n&ma Antekina nama Maka nama Alikyasadale nama
3. Gir. Turamayo cha Antakana cha Maga cha ....
\. Ka. nicham Choda, Panda, Avam Tambupanniya hevammevarahena raja
2. Kh. nicham Choda, Pandiya, Avam Tambapaniya hevamevahevameva . . laj^
Z. Gir. . . '
1. Ka. Yishatidi Yonam Kamboyeshu Xibha Kanabhatina Bhojam Piti
2. Kh. Yishmavasi Yona Kambojasu Xubha Kanabha Pantisa Bhoja Piti
3. Gir
1 . Ka. Nikeshii, Andrapiilideshu savatam ....
2. Kh. Nikesa Adhapiladesa savata ....
3. Gir. . . ndhepirandesu savata . . . .
Under the Elephant at Khalsi, Gajatemre ? At Girnar, Sveto hasti, as above,
p. 34.
^ The 14th Edict at Girnar is more curious, in respect to the preparation of
the Edicts, than instructive in the religious sense. Dr. Kern's revision produces,
*' King Devanampriya Priyadarsin has caused this righteousness edict to be
written, here concisely, there in a moderate compass, and in a third place again
at full length, so that it is not found altogether everywhere worked out ; (P) for
the kingdom is great, and what I have caused to be written much. Repetitions
occur also, in a certain measure, on account of the sweetness of certain points, in
order that the people should in that way (the more willingly) receive it. If
sometimes the one or other is written incompletely or not in order, it is because
care has not been taken to make a good transcript [chhdtjd) or by the fault of the
copyist {i.e. the stone-cutter)." — I. A., p. 275.
•-' J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. vi. 1837, p. 566. The text on the Dehli lat has
been taken as the standard; these edicts are repeated verbatim on the three other
lats of Allahabad, Betiah and Radhia.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 47
to the E/OCK edicts already examined, open, in the text of the
Tablet on the northern face of the Dehli pillar, with these
words :
** lu the 27th year of my anointment, I have caused this religious
edict to be published in writing.^ I acknowledge and confess the
faults that have been cherished in my heart. Erom the love of
virtue, by the side of which all other things are as sins — from
the strict scrutiny of sin, etc., ... by these may my eyes be
strengthened and confirmed (in rectitude)." . . .
In the 10th line the King continues :
'' In religion {dhammd) is the chief excellence : but religion con-
sists in good works : — in the non-omission of many acts : mercy and
charity, purity and chastity; — (these are) to me the anointment of
consecration. Towards the poor and the afflicted, towards bipeds
and quadrupeds, towards the fowls of the air and things that move
on the waters, manifold have been the benevolent acts performed by
me." ....
The concluding section of this tablet is devoted to a
definition of the '' nine minor transgressions,'* of which the
following five alone are specified : " mischief, hard-hear ted-
ness, anger, pride, envy."
B
• The text of the western compartment of the Dehli lat
begins :
*'In the 27th year of my anointment, I have caused to be
promulgated the following religious edict. My devotees in very
many hundred thousand souls, having (now) attained unto know-
ledge ;- I have ordained (the following) fines and punishments for
their transgressions.
Prinsep's half- admitted impression, that these inscriptions
^ Burnouf renders this opening, "La 26^^^^ annee depuis mon sacre j'ai fait
ecrire cet edit de la loi. Le bonheur dans ce monde et dans 1' autre est difficile
a obtenir sans un amour extreme pour la loi, sans une extreme attention, sans una
extreme obeissance," etc.— Lotus, p. 655.
* Dr. Kern's translation departs from this meaning in a striking manner, and
substitutes : " I have appointed sheriffs over many hundred thousands of souls in
the land, I have granted them free power of instituting legal prosecution and
inflicting punishment."
48 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
were necessarily of a Buddhist tendency, led him into the
awkward mistake of interpreting VT'^ dhdtri as " the mj^ro-
balan tree," instead of ^' a nurse," and the associate aswaUha
as '' the holy fig-tree," in which, he was followed by Lassen
(Ind. Alt. vol. ii. p. 256), instead of the asvatha ahhitd
"consoles et sans crainte" of Burnouf, who corrected the
translation in the following words: "De meme qu'un homme,
ayant confie son enfant a une nourrice experimentee, est
sans inquietude [et se dit :] une nourrice experimentee
garde mon enfant, ainsi ai-je institue des ofiiciers royaux
pour le bien et le bonheur du pays." — Lotus de la bonne
Loi, p. 741.
Prinsep's text here resumes the subject of transgressions,
and "according to the measure of the oflfence shall be the
measure of punishment, but (the ofi*ender) shall not be put
to death by me." ^ "Banishment (shall be) the punishment
of those malefactors deserving of imprisonment and execu-
tion."
The text proceeds with a very remarkable passage : " Of
those who commit murder on the high road, even none,
whether of the poor or of the rich, shall be injured on my
three especial days." ^
If we could rely upon the finality of this translation, we
might cite, in favour of the Jaina tendency of the edict, the
curious parallel of the Jainas under Akbar, who obtained
a Firman to a somewhat similar tenor in favour of the life
^ It is curious to trace the extent to which these Jaina ideas developed them-
selves in after-times, and to learn from official sources how the simple tenets of
mercy, in the ahstract, progressed into the demands and rights of m)LCtuary
claimed by and conceded to the sect.
" Maharana Sri Eaj Sing, commanding. To the Xobles, Ministers, Patels,
etc., of Mewar. From remote times, the temples and dwellings of the Jainas
have been authorized ; let none therefore within their boundaries carry animals
to slaughter. This is their ancient privilege.
" 2. Whatever life, whether man or animal, passes their abode for the purpose
of being killed, is saved [anira).
" 3. Traitors to the state, robbers, felons escaped confinement, who may fly for
sanctuary {sirnd) to the dwellings {upasrci) of the Yatis, shall not be seized by the
se;:vants of the court. . . By command, Sah Dyal, Minister. Samvat 1749 (a.d.
1693)."— Tod. vol i. p. 553.
2 Singular to say, with all this excellent mercy to animals, there is a reference
to injuring {torturing?), and later even to '■'"mutilation" of the human offender !
— J.A.S.B. vol. vi. p. 588. See also Foe-koue-ki, cap. xvi.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 49
of animals, and their exemption from slaughter on certain
days peculiarly sacred in their Rubric}
C
The tablet, on the southern compartment, gives a list of the
"animals which shall not be put to death," enumerating
many species of birds, the specific object of whose immunity
it is difficult to comprehend — and especially exempting the
females of the goat, sheep, and pig, . . . concluding with
the declaration that " animals that prey on life shall not be
cherished."
The Edict goes on to specify the days of fasts and cere-
monies, closing with the words,
"Furthermore, in the twenty -seventh year of my reign, at
this present time, twenty-five prisoners are set at Kberty."
D
The Monolithic Inscriptions are continued in the eastern
compartment, the text of which Prinsep translated in the
following terms :
"Thus spake King DevIistampiya Pitadasi: In the twelfth year
of my anointment, a religious edict (was) published for the pleasure
and profit of the world; having destroyed that (document) and
regarding my former religion as sin, I now for the benefit of the
world proclaim the fact. And this ... I therefore cause to be
destroyed ; and I proclaim the same in all the congregations ;
while I pray with every variety of prayer for those who difi'er
from me in creed, that they following after my proper example
may with me attain unto eternal salvation : wherefore the present
^ Firman of Akbar. " Be it known to the Muttasuddies of Malwa, that the
whole of our desires consists in the performance of good actions, and our virtuous
intentions are constantly du-ected to one object, that of delighting and gaining
the hearts of our subjects.
"We, on hearing mention made of persons of any religious faith whatever,
who pass their lives in sanctity, etc., . . . shut our eyes on the external forms of
their worship, and considering only the intention of their hearts, we feel a power-
ful inclination to admit them to our association, from a wish to do what may be
acceptable to the Deity."
The prayer of the petitioners was: " That the Padishah should issue orders that
during the twelve days of the month of Bhadra called Putchoossur (which are
held by the Jainas to be particularly holy), no cattle should be slaughtered in
the cities where their tribe reside." — Ordered accordingly, 7th Jumad-us-Sani,
992 Hij. Era.— Malcolm, Central India.
50 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
edict of religion is promulgated in this twenty-seventh year of my
anointment."
''Thus spake King Devanampiya Piyadasi. Kings of the olden
time have gone to heaven under these very desires. How then
among mankind may religion (or growth in grace) be increased, yea
through the conversion of the humbly-born shall religion increase.
. . . Through the conversion of the lowly-born if religion thus
increaseth, by how much (more) through the conviction of the
high-born and their conversion shall religion increase."
Prinsep concludes his version of this division of the In-
scription : —
"Thus spake King Devanampiya Piyadasi: — Wherefore from this
very hour I have caused religious discourses to be preached, I have
appointed religious observances — that mankind having listened
thereto shall be brought to follow in the right path and give glory
unto God."
If Dr Kern's amended reading of the opening paragraphs
of this tablet is to be accepted as final, we must abandon any
arguments based upon a supposed cancelment of previous
manifestos.^ But the reconstruction in question — whether
right or wrong — will not in the least degree affect my main
argument of the pervading Jaina tendencies of the Monolithic
edicts.
Dr. Kern's translation runs as follows :
** King Devanampiya Priyadarsin speaks thus: — 12 years after
my coronation, I caused a righteousness-edict to be written for the
benefit and happiness of the public. Every one who leaves that
unassailed shall obtain increase of merit in more than one respect.
I direct attention to what is useful and pleasant for the public, and
take such measures as I think will further happiness, while I pro-
vide satisfaction to my nearest relatives and to (my subjects) who
are near as well as to them who dwell far off."
^ Prof. Wilson, -wliile criticizing and coi-recting nmcli of Prinsep's work upon
these documents, remarked, " If the translation (of the text of the eastern com-
partment) is correct, and in substance it seems to he so, there are two sets _ of
opposing doctrines in the inscriptions, and of course both cannot he Buddhist.
Mr. Prinsep comes to the conclusion that the Buddhist account of the date of
Asoka's conversion, the fourth year of his reign, is erroneous, and that he could not
have changed his creed until after his twelfth year. Then it follows that most, if
not all the Sock inscriptions are not Buddhist, for the only dates specified are the
tenth and twelfth years. Those on the Lats appear to be all of the twenty-
seventh year. If, however, those of the earlier dates are not Buddhist, neither are
those of the later, for there is no essential difference in their purport. They all en-
force the preference of moral to ceremonial observances" (J.K..A.S. vol. xii. p. 250).
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 51
II. a. The Aim and Purpose of the Inscriptions.
The DeUi pillar, in addition to the four edicts inclosed
within square tablets, has a supplementary inscription en-
circling the base of the column. In this proclamation Asoka,
after enumerating his own efforts for the good of his people
after the truly Indian ideal of planting trees and excavating
wells along the high roads, goes on to arrange for the mis-
sionary spread of his religion, in these terms :
**Let the priests deeply versed in the faith (or let my doctrines?)
penetrate among the multitudes of the rich capable of granting
favours, and let them penetrate alike among all the unbelievers
whether of ascetics or of householders. . . . Moreover let them for
my sake find their way among the brahmans (Idhhaneshu) and the
most destitute." ...
The text proceeds :
"Let these (priests) and others most skilful in the sacred offices
penetrate among" . . . "my Queens, and among all my secluded
women," ..." acting on the heart and on the eyes of the children,
... for the purpose (of imparting) religious enthusiasm and
thorough religious instruction."
After much more of similar import, the Edict concludes :
"Let stone pillars be prepared, and let this edict of religion be
engraven thereon, that it may endure unto the remotest ages."
The separate Edicts of the Aswastama Inscription at Bhauli ^
continue these exhortations in the subjoined terms :
" My desire is that in this very manner, these (ordinances) shall
be pronounced aloud by the person appointed to the stupa; and
adverting to nothing else but precisely according to the command-
ment of DEvi-NAMPivA, let him (further) declare and explain
them."^ .... "And this edict is to be read at (the time of) the
» " The Aswastama is situated on a rocky eminence forming one of a cluster
of hills, three in number, on the south bank of the Dyah river near to the
village of Dhauli. The hills alluded to rise abruptly from the plains, . . . and
have a singular appearance, no other hills being nearer than eight or ten miles."
— Major Kittoe, J.A.S.B. vol. vii. p. 435.
2 Burnouf revised this translation, with his usual critical acumen, in 1852.
The following quotation gives his varied version : — " Aussi est-ce la ce qui doit
etre proclame par le gardien du stupa qui ne regardera rien autre chose, (ou bien,
aussi cet edit a du etre exprime au moyen du Prdkrita et iion dans un autre
idiome). Et ainsi veut ici le commandement du roi Cheri des Devas. J'eu
confie I'execution au grand ministre. . . .
" Et cet edit doit etre entendu au Nakhata Tisa (Nakchatra Tichya) et a la fin
52 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
lunar mansion Tisa, at the end of the month of Bhdtun : it is to be
made heard (even if) by a single listener. And thus (has been
founded) the Kalanta stupa for the spiritual instruction of the con-
gregation.^ For this reason is this edict here inscribed, whereby the
inhabitants of the town may be guided in their devotions for ages
to come."— J.A.S. Bengal, May, 1837, pp. 444-5.
Period III. Positive IBuddhism.
The Bhabra Edict.^
Professor Wilson's translation of the Bhabra Edict — unlike
liis previous renderings of Asoka's rock inscriptions, where
he was at the mercy of succeeding commentators — was under-
taken at a time when he, in his turn, had the advantage of
the revised interpretations of Lassen and Burnouf. It may
be taken, therefore, as a crucial trial of strength on his part.
But the most curious coincidence in connexion with the
present inquir}?" is that, in default of critical Sanskrit aids,
he was obliged to have recourse to the vulgar tongue of the
Jaina Scriptures for an explanation of the obscure opening
terms, in the word hhante " I declare, confess," etc., etc.,
which proved, to his surprise, to constitute the ordinary
Jaina preliminary form of prayer or conventional declaration
of faith. ^
I prefix Burnouf 's translation, as exhibiting the inevitable
divergences in the individual treatment of these obscure
writings :
dii mois Tisa (4 letters) au NaJchata, meme par im seule personne il doit etre
entendu. Et c'est ainsi que ce stupa doit etre honore jusqu'a la fin des temps,
pour le bien de I'assemblee." — Burnouf, B. L. 673.
See also my article in tlie J.H.A.S. Vol. I. n.s. p. 466 ; and tke Kalpa Sutra,
pp. 16, 17.
^ As a possible commentary upon this, the avowedly Buddhist Lalita- Vistara
says : " Tlie reliearsal of religious discourse satiateth not the godly." — Preface,
p. 24, Sanskrit Version, Rajeiidralala.
2 At Bairath, three marches N.E. of Jaipur.
^ "But in turning over the leaves of a Jaina work (the Parikramanavidhi) ,
■which, according to Dr. Stevenson, means the Rules of Confession to a Guru, I
found the word Bhante . . . repeated fourteen times, and in every instance with
the pronoun ahnm — ahmn hhante — preceding apparently some promise or ad-
mission; 'I declare, I promise, or acknowledge.' The book is written in the
Magadhi of the Jainas, mixed with provincial Hindi, and is full of technicalities,
which it would require a learned Yati to expound." — J.R.A.S., Vol. XVI. p. 361.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 53
**Le roi Pij-adasa, d I'Asseniblee du Magadha qu'il fait saluer, a
souhaite et peu de peines et une existence agreable. II est bien
connii, seigneurs, jusqu'ou vont et mon respect et ma foi pour le
Buddha, pour la Loi, pour I'Assemblee. Tout ce qui, seigneurs, a
ete dit par le bienheureux Buddha, tout cela seulement est bien dit.
II faut done montrer, seigneurs, quelles [en] sont les autorites;
de cette maniere, la bonne loi sera de longue duree : voila ce que
moi je crois necessaire. En attendant, voici, seigneurs, les sujets
qu'embrasse la loi : les bornes marquees par la Vinaya (ou la disci-
pline), les facultes surnaturelles des Ariyas, les dangers de I'avenir,
les stances du solitaire, le Suta {sutra) du solitaire, la speculation
d'TJpatisa (Cariputtra) seulement, I'instruction de Lagula (Rahula),
en rejetant les doctrines fausses: [voila] ce qui a ete dit par le bien-
heureux (Buddha). Ces sujets qu'embrasse la loi, seigneurs, je desire,
et o'est la gloire d laquelle je tiens le plus, que les Beligieux et les
Heligieuses les ecoutent et les meditent constamment, aussi bien que
les fideles des deux sexes. C'est pour cela, seigneurs, que je [vous]
fais ecrire ceci ; telle est ma volunte et ma declaration." — Lotus,
p. 725.
Prof. Wilson^s translation is as follows :
^'Piyadasi, the King, to the general Assembly of Magadha,
commands the infliction of little pain and indulgence to animals.
"It is verily known, I proclaim, to what extent my respect and
favour (are placed) in Buddha, and in the Law, and in the Assembly.
''Whatsoever (words) have been spoken by the divine Buddha,
they have all been well said, and in them, verily I declare that
capability of proof is to be discerned : so that the pure law (which
they teach) will be of long duration, as far as I am worthy (of
being obeyed). For these, I declare, are the principal discipline
(Vinaya), having overcome the oppressions of the Aryas, and future
perils, (and refuted) the songs of the Munis, the sutras of the Munis,
(the practices) of inferior ascetics, the censure of a light world, and
(all) false doctrines. These things, as declared by the divine Buddha,
I proclaim, and I desire them to be regarded as the precepts of the
Law. . . . These things I affirm, and have caused to be written (to
make known to you) that such will be my intention." — Journ.
B.A.S. Yol. XVI. (1851), p. 357. See also Translation, Journ.
A.S. Bengal, vol. ix.
I subjoin Dr. Kern's newly-published translation, for the
double purpose of comparison with the redactions of his pre-
decessors, and to satisfy the modern world, that whatever
64 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
diversities may have existed in the spirit or method of inter-
pretation of the difficult passages of the 1st and 2iid series
of Asoka's Edicts, our international savants are fully in
accord as to the first appearance in monumental tcHting of the
name of Buddha^ that is, some time in or after the 27tli year
of Asoka.
*' King Priyadarsin (that is, the Humane) of Magadha greets the
Assembly (of Clerics) aud wishes them welfare and happiness. Ye
know, sirs, how great is our reverence and affection for the triad
which is called Buddha (the master), Faith, and Assembly. All
that our Lord Buddha has spoken, my Lords, is well spoken:
wherefore, Sirs, it must indeed be regarded as having indisputable
authority; so the true Faith shall last long. Thus, my Lords, I
honour (?) in the first place these religious works . . . [seven in
number] uttered by our Lord Buddha . . . For this end, my Lords,
I cause this to be written, and have made my wish evident." —
Indian Antiquary, Sept. 1876, p. 257.
In concluding this section of the inquiry, I am anxious to
advert to a point of considerable importance, the true bearing
of which has, hitherto, scarcely been recognized. Under the
old view of the necessary Buddhistic aim and tendency of both
the Kock and Pillar Edicts, a subdued anomaly might have
been detected in Asoka's designating himself as Devdnampiya,
*'the beloved of the gods." We have seen at page 41 in
what terms the rock inscriptions are phrased ; the pillar
edicts, in like manner, commence with the same title of Devd-
nampiye Piyadasi laja,^ while the Bhabra Inscription uncon-
ditionally rejects the Devdnampiya^ which we may infer would
have been inconsistent with Asoka's sudden profession of
Buddhism, and opens with the restricted entry of jj JL, 1^ rb -J £
Piyadasa laja.
Now, it involves a more than remarkable coincidence, that this
same term of Devdnampiya, or " Beloved of the gods," should
prove to have been an established and conventional title
among the Jainas,^ equally, as, in a less important sense, was
' J.A.S. Bengal, vol. vi. p. 577.
2 In Stevenson's translation of the Kalpa Sutra Eishahha datta is thus ad-
dressed by Bevanandi, the mother of Mahavira (pp. 26, 30), and he, in return,
salutes her as " 0 beloved of the gods " (pp. 27, 29, etc.). At p. 54 King Sidd-
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 55
tlie associate Piyadasane^ " lovely to behold." " Siddliartha "
is represented in the text of the Kalpa Sutra, as "issued
forth the king and lord of men, the bull and lion among
men, lovely to behold," etc. Dr. Stevenson adds, in a note :
" This is the famous epithet fq"?T^^% Piyadasane that occurs
so frequently in the ancient inscriptions, and which we have
met with several times before." Piyadassi is further given
as the name of one of the 24 {Jaina ?) Buddhos in the
opening passage of the Mahavanso. ^ Mr. Turnour con-
tributes the following additional quotation from the Pali
annals: "Hereafter the prince Piyadaso, having raised the
clihatta, will assume the title of Asoko the Dhanma Paja, or
righteous monarch." ^
Thus, while we can comprehend that the retention of the
simple title of "Pyadasi," by an avowed Buddhist, was harm-
less enough, the rejection of the designation of "Beloved of
the gods " became a clear necessity for any convert to a
religion which ipso facto repudiated all gods.
The title of Devanampiya does not seem to have been ad-
mitted into the scriptures of the Northern Buddhists,^ who
were deferred converts ; but it was carried down with the
earliest spread of the faith to Ceylon, in B.C. 246, by " Deva-
nampiya Tissa,"* together with, as we have seen, many of
the other elements and symbols of the Jaina creed.
Amid the varied indirect sources of information bearing
upon the " faith of the Mauryas," now available, we should
scarcely have looked for any contributions from the formal
hartha, in explaining Trisala's dream, commences, " 0 beloved of the gods." At
pp. 56, 61, speaking to the royal messengers, he addresses them as "0 beloved of
the gods," and at p. 64 the "interpreters of dreams" are received with the same
complimentary greeting.
^ Mahavanso, vol. i. p. 75.
2 J.A.S. Bengal, vol. vi. p. 1056. See also Wilson, J.R.A.S. Vol. XII.
p. 244.
' The objection to the term Devanampiya of conrse does not extend to the
inevitable Bevaputra of the Lalita-vistara — the " heaven -born " need not have
been compromised by his later apostacy. — See Eajendi-a Lala's (Sanski-it text),
Freface, pp. 14, 15, 21, etc.
* Mahawanso, pp. 4, 68, 62, etc. Indian Antiquary, 1872, p. 139. Rhys
Davids, Inscription of Gamini Tissa, son of Devanampiya Tissa, at Dambula,
Ceylon.
56 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
pages of dictionaries or grammars. Nevertlieless, amid the
odd words cited, for other purposes, we discover, in Patan-
jali's commentary on the Sidras of Panini, a most suggestive
record by the annotator, who is supposed to date somewhere
about B.C. 160-60, ^ regarding the gods of the Mauryas.
Prof. Goldstiicker's translation of Panini's leading text, with
the illustration added by Patanjali, is subjoined:
** 'If a thing,' says Pdnini, ' serves for a livelihood, but is not for
sale' (it has the affix ha). This rule Fatanjali illustrates with the
words * Siva, Skanda, Yisakha,' meaning the idols that represent
these divinities, and at the same time give a living to the men who
possess them — while they are not for sale. And ' why ? ' he asks.
* The Mauryas wanted gold, and therefore established religious
festivities.' Good; (Panini's rule) may apply to such (idols as they
sold) ; but as to idols, which are hawked about (by common people)
for the sake of such worship as brings an immediate profit, their
names will have the affix Z;^." ^
That there are many difficulties in the translation, and still
more in the practical interpretation of this passage, need not
be reiterated.^ The first impression the context conveys
^ This is Prof. "Weber's date; Prof. Goldstiicker assigned Patanjali to 140-120
B.C. ; and Prof. Bliaudarkar fixes the date of his chapter iii. at 144-142 b.c. —
lud. Ant. 1872, p. 302.
2 Goldstiicker' s Panini, p. 228. Prof. Goldstiicker goes on to add: ""Wliether
or not this interesting bit of history was given by Patanjali ironically, to show
that even affixes are the obedient servants of kings, and must vanish before the
idols which they sell, because they do not take the money at the same time that
the bargain is made — as poor people do — I know not. ... I believe, too, if we
are to give a natural interpretation to his (Patanjali' s) words, . . . that he lived
after the last king of this (Maurya) dpiasty." — p. 229.
Prof. Weber's critical commentary upon Goldstiicker' s rendering of this passage,
amid other argumentative questions as to the period of Panini himself, proceeds :
" Patanjali, in commenting on rule v. 3, 99, of Panini, ... in the case of a
life sustenance-serving (object, which is an image, the affix ka is not used), except
when the object is valuable In the case of a saleable, e.g. Siva, Skanda,
Vis^ikha, the rule does not apply." . . .
*' The gold-coveting Maurya had caused images of the gods to be prepared.
To these the rule does not apply, but only to such as serve for immediate worship
{i.e. with which theu' possessors go about from house to house) [in order to exhibit
them for immediate worship, and thereby to earn money]." — Indian Antiquary,
1873, p. 61.
^ Prof. AVeber's opinion on the bearing of this passage is to the following effect:
*' In the passage about the Mauryas I must leave it to others to decide if Patahj all's
words do really imply it as his opinion that Panini himself , in referring to images that
were saleable, had in his eye such as those that had come down from the Mauryas.
I never said more than this. And Bhandarkar goes too far when he says : ' Prof.
Weber wfers that Panini in making his rule had in his eye,' etc. My words
are: 'According to the view of Patafijali;' 'Patanjali is undoubtedly of
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 57
seems to refer to tlie m-altitudinous images of the Jaina
Mauryas, which were so easily reproduced in their absolute
repetitive identity, and so largely distributed as part and
parcel of the creed itself, of which we have had so many
practical exemplifications in the preceding pages.^ But
Patanjali's direct reference to the Maurya gods of his day —
that is to say, during the reign of that staunch adherent of
the Brahmans, the Suhga Fmlipamitra ^ — under the definite
names of Siva, Skanda, Visdkha, opens out a new line of
inquiry as to the concurrent state and progress of Brah-
manism, and his evidence undoubtedly indicates that their
branch of the local religion was in a very crude and inchoate
stage at the period referred to — an inference which is more
fully confirmed by the testimony of numismatic remains.^
Among the extant examples of the mintages of Hushka,
Jushka, and Kanishka, we meet with the self-same designa-
tions of the three Brahmanical gods, under the counterpart
Greek transcription of okpo, :skanao, and bizafo. The only
opinion;' 'Be this as it may, the notice is in itself an exceedingly curious one.'
Now with regard to this very curious and odd statement itself, I venture to throw
it out as a mere suggestion, whether it may not perhaps refer to Kjirst attempt
at gold coinage made by the Mauryas (in imitation of the Greek coins). It is
true no Maurya coin has been discovered as yet, so far as I know, but this may
be mere chance: the real difficulty is how to bring Patanjali's words into har-
mony with such an interpretation, the more so as in his time no doubt gold coins
were already rather common," — Indian Antiquary, July, 1873, pp. 208, 209.
^ " As these twenty-four Tirthankaras are incarnations of wisdom, and are
divine personages who appeared in the world and attained the enjoyment of
heavenly bliss, the Jainas consider them to be Stvdnns, equal to the divine-
natured Arugan. . . . And accordingly they build temples in honour of these
Tirthankaras, and make images like them, of stone, wood, gold, and precious
gems, and considering these idols as the god Arugan himself, they perform daily
and special pujas, and observe fasts and celebrate festivals in their honour." —
p. xix. Notice on Jainism, by Sastram Aiyar, from " The Chintamani," edited
by the Rev. H. Bower, Madras, 1868.
2 Pushpamitra is the king who ofPered 100 dhtdrs for the head of every
Sramana, and hence obtained the title of Mtoiihaia, " Muni-killer." — Burnouf,
vol. i. p. 431.
2 I must add that in otner portions of the " Mahabhashya" reference is made to
" the Brahmanical deities of the Epic period, Siva, Vishnu, etc. ; to Vasudeva or
Krishna as a god or demi-god, and to his having slain Kansa and bound Bali."
Mr. Muir, from whose analysis of Prof. Weber's Indische Studien (1873) I take
this information, adds: "The genuineness of the whole of Patanjali's work
itself, as we now have it, is not. Prof. Weber considers, beyond the reach of
doubt, as some grounds exist for supposing that the Avork, after having been
mutilated or corrupted, was subsequently reconstructed, and at the same time
perhaps received various additions from the pen of the compiler." See also
Academy, 8th August, 1874:, p. 156.
58 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
other Bralimanical gods tliat apparently attained any pro-
minence, at the epocli of these three Indo-Scythian kings,
which, for the moment, we may accept as at or about the
commencement of our era, would seem to have been Siva's
supposed consort, APAOXPO, smdMa/idsend, which latter embodi-
ment is elsewhere understood as a mere counterpart of Siva.^
In the same manner, Skanda constitutes the title of a "son of
Siva," and Visdkha is the conventional name of Kdrttikeya or
Skanda, " the god of war," and finally, Kimidra is simply a
synonym of Skanda, In fact we have here nothing but the
multiform Sica personally, or the various members of his
family. So that the combined testimony of the grammarian
and the material proofs exhibited by the coins would almost
necessitate the conclusion that, at the commencement of our
era, Brahmanism had not yet emerged from Saivism, whose
Indian origin is now freely admitted by the leading
authorities.
In testing the position of Saivism, at approximate periods,
we are able to appeal to the independent testimony of the
coins of a collateral division of the Indo-Scythic race, whose
leading designation follows the term of oohmo kaa*ichc.
It has hitherto been usual to place this branch of the
Scythic intruders considerably earlier, in point of time, than
their fellow and more permanently-domiciled brotherhood;
but the question as it is presented, under later lights, seems
to resolve itself into a geographical rather than an epochal
severance. The Kadphises horde settled themselves in
lands where the Bactrian Pali alphabet and quasi- Aryan
speech were still current. The Kanerki group, wherever
their first Indian location may have been, clearly followed
Iranian traditions in the classification and designations
of their adopted gods, in the regions of their abundant
mintages.
The Kadphises forms of Saivism may be followed in
detail in Plate X. of Prof. Wilson's Ariana Antiqua. The
1 Mahd-send, "a great army," an epithet of Kdrttikeya or Skajida; of Siva.
So also Sendpati, " army chief ," name of Kdrttikeya; of Siva, etc. — M. "Williams,
in vocibus.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 59
conjoint legends appertaining to wliicli are couclied in tlie
following terms :
Latin-Greek — baciaetc oohmo kaa*icic.
Bactrian-Pali —
Maharajasa Rajadhirajasa Sarva-loga-iswarasa Mahiswarasa Kapisasa.
Of the Great King, King of Kings, ruler of the whole world, the Great Lord
(of) Kapisa.^
"We have here, again, Siva very mucli under the guise of a
God of War (Nos. 9, 13), though the trident is suggestive of
Neptune and the ill-defined drooping garment, in the left
hand, is reminiscent of the lion's skin of Hercules. But the
Saivism is complete in No. 5, even to the spiral shell-shaped
hair 2 (less apparent in No. 13), with the conventional
Yahana or Bull, which now becomes constant and immut-
able ; following on in Nos. 12-21 the leading type exhibits
various gradations of the gross hermaphrodite outline of half
man, half woman, with " the necklace of skulls," possibly
disclosing the first definite introduction to caste threads, out
of which so many religious conflicts grew in later days.
Under any circumstances, the present coincidences must be
accepted as beyond measure, critical, when we find Patanjali,
a native of Oudh, speaking of things on the banks of the
Soane, at Patna, and Scythian intruders on the Kabul river,
responding in practical terms, as to the ruling Saivism which
covered, with so little change, a range of country represented
in the divergent paths of a continuous highway, starting from
the extreme geographical points here named.
, For the purposes of the illustration of the international
associations, and the accepted religions of the period, we are
beyond measure indebted to the recent numismatic contribu-
tions of the Peshawar find. These coins, comprising the large
total of 360 gold pieces, all belong to the combined Kanishka
brotherhood, or tribal communities, to which reference has
been made in my previous article in the Journal,^ and in
^ Prinsep's Essays, vol. ii. p. 213. Ariana Antiqua, p. 354. J.R.A.S. Vol. XX.
p. 239. Solinus tells us : Qiiidam libri Caphusam. In alii : Caphisam. Plinius
Capissara vocat. cap. liv. p. 827.
'^ Rudra and Pnshan are said to wear their hair wound or braided spirally
upwards into the form of a shell called " Kapardin." — Muir, vol. v. p. 462.
^ Journal Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. IX. p. S vt scq.
60 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
the earlier pages of this paper. The triple series of obverse
legends are restricted to the following repetitive Greek
transcriptions :
Greek Legends on the Kanerki Coins.
1. PAO NANO PAO KANHPKI KOPANO.
2. PAO NANO PAO OOHPKI KOPANO.
3. PAO NANO PAO BAZOAHO KOPANO.
These titles seem to have been more or less sectional and
eventually to have become hereditary, like Arsaces, Csesar,
etc., and though probably applicable in the first instance
severally to the three brothers, they appear, in process of
time, to have become dynastic as the conventional titular
designation of the head of the family or tribe, for the time
being, and to have continued in imitative use, especially in
the instance of bazoaho,^ for many centuries. Until, indeed,
as I have previously remarked, the Greek characters become
altogether unintelligible,^ though the mint types are still
mechanically reproduced.
1 have now to describe, as briefly as the subject will admit
of, the coins I have selected for insertion in the accompanying
Plate II., which were primarily arranged to illustrate the
objects of worship admitted into the Indo-Scythian Pantheon;
but, which, under subsequent discoveries, have assumed a
more important mission in the general range of inquiry.
CONTENTS OF PLATE IL
KANERKI.
No. 1. {Obverse. King standing to the front, in the conventional
form represented in Ariana Antiqua, pi. xi. fig. 16, worn die.
Legend. Constant, pao nano pao kanhpki kopano)
Reverse. Pigure as in the Plate. Legend nana pao, Nanaia.
^ The identity of Bazdeo as one of the three brothers, and as the person alluded
to in the Mathura inscriptions under the title of Vdsudeva, in conjunction with
Kanislika and Huvishka, seems to be now placed beyond doubt ; but the new
coins teach us to discriminate Bazdeo as the third king, in opposition to my sugges-
tion (Vol. IX. p. 11, supra.) that Vdsudeva might have been "the titular
designation of Kanishka."
2 Prinsep's Essays, pi. xxii. 4, 5, 6-11, 13. J.R.A.S. o.s. Vol. XII. PI. IV.
the same figures. Ariana Antiqua, pi. xiv. figs. 12, 13, 16, 17.
PI n .] u A s IX
:X^:x
^>K
/^7*
(2
13
l'^
IS
iy.
17
18
19
23
,<w£**rv.
16
V^! .S*"
— "^i*5 "^''a ■■^'•j '^
-•TV ,x.
20
at-
:* w *.«:,a c:5r^ *-
26
I NDO - S CYTH I AN COINS
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 61
OOERKI.
Ko. 2. {Obverse. King seated cross-legged, wearing a close-fitting
• helmet, with bossed cheek-plates and flowing fillets, ornamental
coat fastened by two brooches or link-buttons in front, flames
issue from both shoulders. He holds a small mace in the right
hand, and a spear in the left.)
Reverse. Figure as in Plate. Legend, hpakiao, Hercules.
No. 3. (Bust of the King, as in the ordinary Kadphises types (A. A.
xiv. 2). Quilted coat, flame issuing from the right shoulder,
close cap, double feather frontlet, half moon, spiked mace, etc.)
Reverse. Figures as in Plate. Legend, mao Moon^ miipo Sun.
iNo. 4. {Obverse. Ooerki, old form (A. A. xiv. 6), die much worn.)
Reverse. Figure as in Plate. Legend, piah (or piprj or ptS?;), Pallas,
This type was first introduced at Rome by Domitian, a.d. 80,
who afl'ected to be the son of Pallas Capitolina. — Tresor de
Numismatique, p. 42.
iNo. 5. ( Obverse, oohpki, (A. A. xiv. 6), worn-out die.)
Reverse. Figure as in Plate. Legend. npOH or apov. Varuna.
Ko. 6. ( Obverse. Well-executed bust of King, with close-fitting cap,
eagle feather frontlet, and flowing Sassanian flllets at the back;
silken dress, with large necklace. He holds a small mace,
and an a7ihus (elephant goad).
Reverse. Figure as in Plate. Legend, capaho, Sarapis.
!N"o. 7. {Obverse. King seated, the general outline of the device is
similar to that of jS'o. 2 ; but the crossed legs are merged in
rising clouds. The helmet has a prominent frontlet in the
form of the sun, no cheek-plates, the ear and beard are visible,
flames on shoulders, spear and mace, the coat is more than
usually open in front and displays an embroidered under-
garment.)
Reverse. Figure as in the Plate. Legend, zepo (Ceres), Liana,
Device imitated from a coin of Augustus, A.TJ.C. 744, B.C. 10.
— Tresor de JN^umismatique, vii. 12.
No. 8. (Bust of King, similar to No. 2; Sun frontlet, in this instance
the helmet has a cheek bar only, and shows the ear, traces
of Sassanian fillets, etc. Armlets, link-brooch, mace, spear,
etc. In one example of the Mars reverse, the obverse head is
similar to No. 16 iyifrct, but the King wears a pallium.)
Reverse. Figure of a Roman warrior, as in the Plate. There
are five varieties of this reverse. In one instance the figure
62 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
of Mars holds what is described, in the Tresor de Numis-
matique, as **uii bouclier rond," a type which occurs on the
money of Germanicus, A.TJ.C. 801, a.d. 47 (PI. xix. 7, 8).
Legend, pao phopo (Kao-rethro), Mars.
Ko. 9. {Ohverse. Bust of King, as in I^o. 7.)
Reverse. Figure as in the Plate.
Legend. OANINAA (Oaninda), Anandates.
Ko. 10. {Diverse. Bust as in IS'o. 3. ^o flame on shoulder, Sassan-
ian fillets.)
Reverse. As in the Plate. Legend, maa^hno (Mahasena), an
Indian form of Mars ? Siva ?
Ko. 11. {Diverse. Bust as in '^o. 3.)
Reverse. Device as in the Plate. Legends, skanao, komapo,
BiZAPO; Skanda, Kumar a^ Visdhha.
Ko. 12. {Diverse. Bust of King, with ornamental jacket, armlets,
mace, spear, flames on shoulders, etc. Peaked cap as in
A. A. xiv. 5, but with bossed cheek-plates.)
Reverse. Device as in the Plate. Legend, aopo, Zend A'tars
(the E-oman Yulcan).
No. 13. {Diverse. Bust of King as in Ko. 8.)
Reverse. Device as in the Plate ; exhibiting a three-faced Indian
form of Siva wearing short drawers fjdnghiydj, in front of
which appears, for the first time, a marked definition of the
Priapus, which however has nothing in common with the
local Linga. The left hands hold the trident and an Indian
thunderbolt. The one right hand grasps the wheel or chahra
(the symbol of universal dominion), the other is extended to
the small goat.
Legend. OKPO. Ugra the ''fierce" (a title of Siva).
]S"o. 14. Diverse. As exhibited in the Plate. The King wears a
Roman pallium ; ornamental cap with cheek-plates and well-
defined Sassanian fillets ; in the right hand the small iron-
bound mace,^ in the left a standard, surmounted by Siva's
Vdhana or the bull Nandi, in the conventional recumbent
position.
^ General Cunningliam was under tlie impression that this object was a Budd-
hist praying-wheel. I prefer to look upon it as an iron-bound mace, a counter-
part of the modern club, so effective in strong hands, known by the name of
lohd-band lathi. The gurz of Feridun was an historical weapon. The use of
which was afiected by the great Mahmud of Ghazni and his successors after him.
The Kadphises Scythians also were demonstrative about maces, but theirs took
the form of a bulky wooden cluh. See also Tabari (O.T.F.), vol. ii. p. 228.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 63
Legend, legible. pAO nano pao OrjpKt Kopavo.
Reverse. Siva, three-faced, four-armed, to the front, holding the
trident, a club, a western form of the thunderbolt and a gourd.,
water-vessel ?
Legend, okpa, Zend u'gra, ^^HT Vgra^ the "fierce," "terrible."
No. 15. {Obverse. King's bust as in jS'o. 8.)
Reverse. Roman figure, as in the plate, holding a brazier with
ascending flames. Legend. *appo, Pharos. There are several
varieties of this type : in one instance the figure holds a
simpulum, such as is seen on the coins of Antonia Augusta,
A.D. 37. — Tresor de Numismatique, pi. x. fig. 14.
N"©. 16. Ohverse. King's bust as in the Plate. Ornamental jacket,
armlets, mace and spear ; with a curious peaked helmet having
bufi'alo horns diverging upwards from below the frontlet, as is
seen in certain Indo-Sassanian coins of a later age ; ^ flowing
fillets at the back, with Sassanian fillets distributed over each
shoulder.
Reverse. A Roman type of abundance. Legend, apaoxpo. The
cornucopise and' the style of dress belong to the period of Julius
Caesar and the early days of Augustus, A.XJ.C. 711, 33 b.c. —
Tresor de Numismatique, pi. iii. fig. 1.
INo. 17. {Ohverse. Kadphises type of King's bust, with mace and
atihus, Sassanian fillets.)
Reverse. Four-armed figure, as in the Plate. Legend, manao
BAFO, the Moon-god.
No. 18. {Obverse. Kadphises bust; silken garment, mace, anJcus^
etc., flame on right shoulder, ordinary fillets.)
Reverse. Male figure, as in the Plate. Legend, mao, Mao, the
Moon.
No. 19. {Obverse. King's bust as in A.A. xiv. 3; highly ornamental
robe and collar, Sassanian fillets, etc.)
Reverse. Pigure as in the Plate, with sword and staff*, holding out
a chaplet. Legend. MAO, the Moon.
No. 20. {Obverse. King's bust, with Roman pallium, peaked cap,
and Sassanian fillets.)
Reverse. Pemale figure with Caduceus, as in the Plate.
Legend, nano, Nanaia.
^ See Prinsep, Essays, vol. ii. p. 115; Ariana Antiqua, pi. xvii. 5, etc.;
Herodotus, vii. c. Ixxvi.
64 THE EARLY FAITH OP ASOKA.
"No. 21. {Obverse. Juvenile bust of the King, with silken garment,
mace, ankus, with a close-fitting compact helmet and Sassanian
fillets.)
Reverse. Rayed figure, with fiowing garments, as in the Plate.
Legend. Miepo, Mithra.
"Eo. 22. {Ohverse. Old form of bust of the King, Kadphises style.)
Reverse. Pigure as in the Plate. Legend, miipo, Mihira.
1^0. 23. {Diverse. "Well-executed profile, but less-finished bust, of
the King; wearing the Roman pallium, with mace, spear,
peaked cap, prominent frontlet, bold halo, bossed cheek-plates
with flowing fillets of the ordinary character, associated with
the Sassanian drooping falls on the back of the left shoulder,
flame on the right shoulder.)
Reverse. Pigure, also clothed in the pallium, as seen in the Plate.
The type of the reverse follows, in a measure, the earlier ex-
amples of HAioc (A. A. xi. 16) and miipo (A. A. xii. 15), and it
has something in common with the beautiful reverse of No. 21 of
our Plate II. Legend of *' undetermined " import apaeixpo.
BAZAHO.
1^0. 24. ( Obverse. King standing to the front, in full Scythian cap-
a-pied armour, with sword, spear, high pointed cap, reduced
halo, falling fillets, with large Mithraic altar, into which the
right hand of the King seems to be casting votive incense, as
in A.A. xiv. 18.
Legend, constant, pao nano pao bazoaho kopano.)
Reverse. Figure as exhibited in the Plate. 8iva trimiikhi, to the
front, with top-knot, holding trident and noose {2^asu), clad
in the Indian dhot'i, naked above the waist.
Legend. Peversed-Greek ? okpo.
Ko. 25. {Obverse. Full-length figure of the King, in bossed and
armour fished skirt (as in A.A. xiv. 14).
Reverse. Figure as shown in the Plate. Siva, single -faced, with
top-knot, and bushy hair, clothed in the Indian dhoti, bold
muscular development of the chest, trident, noose {pasu),
well-defined Prahmani bull, monogram, etc. Legend, okpo.
No. 26. {Obverse. Standing figure of the King, the bosses of the
body-armour appear in full detail, the fish-scale skirt is also
given, as are the greaves and the rings, or serpent-like pro-
tection of the arms. The spear is here a subdued trident,
with a bold central point and reduced side spikes; but the
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 65
peculiarity of the whole device, in this instance, consists in
the tall Kuzzalbash-like cap, which is surmounted by the
head of a bird.
Reverse. Siva trhmihhi^ as reproduced in the Plate, with his bull
in a varied position. 1'he god, in addition to ordinary trident
and noose, reveals a subdued but fully defined priapus in
front of the folds of the dhoti, together with the first deter-
minate representation of a Brahmanical or caste thread, which
replaces the early necklace of skulls adverted to at p. 59.
One of the most important revelations of the Peshawar
find is the large amount of Roman influence to be detected
amid the types of these Indo- Scythian coinages.
The earliest archaeological trace of commercial or other in-
tercourse between India and Rome is represented by the
celebrated deposit in a tumulus at Manikyala, discovered by
M. A. Court in 1833.
M. Court's description of the position and condition of the
crypt is as follows :
*' At ten feet from the level of the ground, we met with a cell in
the form of a rectangular parallelogram, built in a solid manner,
with well-dressed stones, firmly united with mortar. The four
sides of the cell corresponded with the four cardinal points, and it
was covered with a single massive stone. Having turned this over,
I perceived that it was covered with inscriptions. In the centre of
the cell stood a copper urn, encircling which were placed sym-
metrically eight medals of the same metal. . . . The urn itself was
carefully enveloped in a wrapper of white linen tightly adhering to
its surface. . . . The copper urn enclosed a smaller one of silver ;
the space between them being filled in with a paste of the colour of
raw umber. . . Within the silver urn was found one much smaller
of gold, immersed in the same brown paste, in which were also con-
tained seven silver medals, with Latin characters.^ The gold vessel
^ 1. No. 19. pi. xxxiv. J.A.S. Bengal, vol. hi. A silver denarius of Mark
Antony, struck while he was a member of the celebrated triumvirate ; M.
aNTONIUS. iii. VIR. R.P.C.— Vaillant, ii. p. 9. Riccio, pi. iv. 25. J. dea
Sav. 1836, p. 72 (A.U.C. 711).
2. No. 2U. Julius Ccesar. Julia family, Eiccio, ^sxiii. 31. R. Rochette.
A.U.C. 694-704, " si connu et si commun."
3. No. 21. Cordia family. Ric. xiv. 1. R.R. A.U.C. 705.^ '* Un denier
d'Auguste, avec les tetes accouplees de Caius et de Lucius Caesars."
4. No. 22. Minucia family. Riccio, xxxiii. 7. Q- THERM. M.F. about
A.U.C. 680.
66 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
enclosed four small coins of gold of the Graeco-Scythic type^ . .;
also two precious stones and four pearls."
With a view to determine the age of the monument
itself from external evidence, M. E-aoul Rochette critically
examined the Roman coins found in the inner coating of
the main deposit. The result of his exhaustive study is
subjoined in his own words :
**Maintenant, ce qui resulte de la reunion de ces sept mon-
naies de families romaines, six desquelles sont reconnues avec
certitude, et qui furent toutes frappees dans le cours des annees
680 a 720 de Rome ; ce qui resulte, non-seulement de la pre-
sence de ces sept monnaies, appartenant toutes aux derniers temps
de la republique, et de I'absence de monnaies consulaires ou im-
periales, c'est que le monument ou on les avait deposees a dessein,
appartient lui-meme a la periode de temps qui est celle de remission
et de la circulation de ces monnaies ; car le fait qu'on n'y a trouve
mele parmi elles ni un seul denier consulaire, ni un seul denier
imperial, est certainement tres-significatif ; et ce ne pent etre, a mon
avis, une circonstance purement fortuite ou accidentelle qui ait
reuni ainsi, dans un monument considerable, sept monnaies choisies
entre toutes celles que le commerce avait portees dans I'Inde, et
toutes frappees dans la periode republicaine des guerres civiles, qui
eurent principalement I'Orient pour theatre." — Journ. des SavantSy
1836, p. 74.
At one time it was fondly hoped that this monument might
prove to have been the last resting-place of the ashes of
Kanishka himself, but the inscription on the inverted slab
effectually disposed of any such notion.^ The covering stone
of the crypt mentions Samvat 18, and the Mathura inscrip-
tions extend his reign to Samvat 33. The discover}^, however,
is of the highest importance under other aspects. It has been
usual to associate Kanishka's name with Buddhism, and in
5. No. 23. Accoleia family. LARISCOLVS, i. 1. A.U.C. 710-720.
6. No. 24. Julia family. E-ic. iiii. 4.
7. No. 25. Furia family. R. xxi. 8. R.R. A.U.C. 686. The latest authorities,
therefore, limit the date of the most recent of these coins to b.c. 34. Prinsep's
Essays, vol. i. p. 149.
1 Four " gold coins found in the gold cylinder." PI. xxxiv. vol. iii. J. A.S. Bengal.
1 and 2. Kanerki bust and peaked cap. Rev. Siva, four-armed and OKPO.
3. Kanerki standing figure. Rev. Siva, four-armed and OKPO.
4. Kanerki standing figure. Rev. Standing figure. A0PO.
» Prof. Dowson, J.R.A.S. Vol. XX. o.s. p. 250.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 67
his reign a new convocation of tlie Buddhists was convened,
once a^ain to revise and determine the authorized faith. If
Kanishka ever was a Buddhist, he, like Asoka, must have
become so late in life. His coins, as we have seen, are
eminently Saiva, and this monument, erected during his
reign, contained, within the gold cylinder in the inner-
most recess of its undisturbed chamber, no less than three
coins bearing the image of Siva, out of the four, selected
for inhumation with the ashes of the person, in whose honour
it was built. Moreover, so distinctly was the ruling Saivism
accepted in India, that we find the coins of nana pao conven-
tionally denominated Ndnakas (and elsewhere defined as
bearing the mark of Siva) in the authoritative text of Yajna-
valkya's Hindu Law.^ On the other hand, Indo-Scj^thic
Buddhism is undemonstrative in the extreme, and one of
the coins most relied upon to prove devotion to that faith ^
turns out, under the legends of the better specimens of the
Peshawar find, to bear the name of apaeixpo (No. 23, PL IL),
whereas those coins which bear the unmistakable figure of
Sakya Muni — as I shall show hereafter — clearly belong to a
later period of the Kanerki series.
Under the system in vogue, in more advanced Buddhistic
days, of the gradual enlargement of Topes and the concurrent
exhibition of relics, which for convenience sake were placed
near the summit of the mound, we find a later deposit three
feet only from the top of this smaller Manikyala tope, which
consisted of three coins bearing the form and name of Siva,
and one coin only with the image and superscription of
OAAO, the Wind.^
^ Yajnavalkya's date is uncertain. Some commentators place him before
Vikramaditya, others so late as the second century a.d. See my Ancient Indian
"Weights, p. 20. Prof. Wilson remarks that the name of (m ((H^ ndnaka occurs
in the play of the Mrichchhakati (act i. scene 1), and the commentary explains
the ndnaka as fll'^T^^^ Sivdnka-tanka, or "coin with the mark of Siva."
2 General Cunningham, J.A.S. Bengal, 1845, p. 435, pi. ii. fig. 3.
2 The four copper coins found above the stone cover of the tumulus, pi.
xxxiv. vol. iii, J.A.S. Bengal, are identified Avith—
1. Kadphises, the King, standing. Jiev. Siva and Nandi, with Bactrian-Pali
legends similar to A. A. Plate x. figs. 15, etc.
2. Coin of Kanerki, with Rev. OAAO.
3 and 4. Coin of Kanerki, with Jiev. Siva four-armed, OKPO.
fiS ' THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
We have now to seek to discover, from the numismatic
remains, — which constitute the only positive data left us, —
how it came to pass, that so many of the elements of Wes^tern
forms of worship and classic Homan devices found their way
into such a specially-dissevered section of the earth, as that
which bowed to Indo- Scythian sway at and shortly before
the commencement of our era.
The first and most obvious suggestion would point to
ordinary commercial intercourse, the superior value of Indian
produce, and the consequent import of E-oman gold for the
requisite balance of trade, about which Pliny was so eloquent.
But in this case we are forced to admit some more direct
and abiding influence. If the Roman gold had been suffered
to remain intact in the shape it was received, as mere
bullion, which sufficed for the traffic of the Western coast,
we should have gained no aid or instruction in the explana-
tion of the present difficulty.
But, fortunately, the recoinage of the original Homan aurei
in situ, at whatever exact point it may ultimately be placed,
must clearly be limited to a region, far removed from the in-
spiring centre, and separated by some natural belt of desert
or hostile territory from free intercourse with old associations,
or home relations.
In the Parthian dominions, which intervened between the
extreme points indicated, there existed precisel}^ such barriers :
and excepting the perseverance with which their kings re-
tained the eagles of Crassus, there was no notion of recog-
nition or adoption of Roman devices by the Parthian monarchs
till the Italian slave Mousa got her image placed on the
Arsacidan mintages.
Whereas, among the distant communities in the far East,
we discover consecutive imitations of Roman tj^pes, extend-
ing over a considerable space of time, and following irre-
gularly the latest novelties and innovations of the Imperial
mints ; but always appearing in independent forms, as re-
productions, with newly-engraved dies of inferior execution,
but with Latin-Greek legends embodying Zend denomina-
tions ; and, more distinctive still, uniformly accepting either
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 69
the alread3'"-prepared obverses of the Indo-Scythian kings,
or reviving their semblance from time to time in apparent
recognition of the suzerain power.
The enigma above outlined seems to me to be susceptible
of but one solution, vrhich singularly accords with the given
circumstances of time and place — that is, that the 10,000 cap-
tives of the army of Crassus,^ who were transported to Merv-
ul-rud, on the extreme border of the Parthian dominions, ^
a site intentionally most remote from their ancestral homes,
finding even that fertile valley, that pleasant Siberia, un-
prepared to accommodate so large and so sudden an influx
of population, spread and extended themselves into the
proximate dominions of the Indo-Sc^^thians,^ and freely ac-
^ Plutarch in Crassus xxxi. — Kiyovrai S' ol ivdyTss Zicrixvpioi txkv airoQaviiu.,
fivpLoi 5e aXwvai C^j'Tcs. Repeated in Appian Partli., p. 66.
2 Pliny, In. H. vi. xvi. 18. — " Sequitur regio Margiane, apricitalis iuclytre,
sola in eo tractu vitifera, undique inchisa montibiis amoenis . . . et ipsa contra
Parthiifi tractuni sita : in qua Alexander Alexandriani condiderat. Qna diruta a
barbaris, Antiochus Seleuci filius, eodem loco restituit Syriani ; nam interfluente
Margo, qui corrivatur in Zotale, is maluerat illam Antiocbiani appellari. Urbis
amplitudo circuniiti^r circuitu stadiis Ixx ; in lianc Orodes Romanos Crassiaua
clade captos deduxit."
The references in Veil. Paterculus ii. 82, and Flonis iv. 10, only go to
ehow how mercifully the captives were ti-eated, inasmuch as they were freely
allowed to serve in the Parthian ranks. Justin, xlii. cap. v. affirms that the
prisoners of both the armies of Crassus and Antony were collected and restored,
"^vith the standards, in B.C. 20, but this statement probably refers only to those
who were within easy call ; and the thirty-three years' residence in the distant
valleys of the Indian Caucasus may well have reconciled the then surviving
remnant of Crassus's force to their foreign home and new domestic ties. See
also Suetonius, in Augusto, c. xxi., in Tiherio, c. ix.
3 ' Apt iox^i-oi. V KaXov}xhT] ^'Euvdpos, or AntiocJiia irrigna, was distant 537
sch(Bni, by the Parthian royal road, from Ctesipliov^ or Maxlain, on the Tigris : in
continuation of the same higbway, it was 30 sclueni X.X.E. of 'AAelaj/Speia y] iv
*Ap€iois or Alexandria Arunia, the modern "Herat," from Avhence the route
proceeded by Farrah and the Lake of Zaranj to Sikohah, the 'ZaKaaravii
'2,aKwv 'XkvQwv or Sacastana Siicariini Sci/f/iarum, and hence to Bust and
^AKe^avdpoTToAis, ixr]Tp6iro\is 'Apaxcoaias, or the modern Kandal^ar. — C. Miiller,
Geographi Grceci Minores (Paris, pp. xci. 252, and Map Xo. x.).
Merv-uUrud POpJJ^was selected as the seat of government of Khorasan
on the Arab conquest, in preference to the more northern Merv Y^ or Mcrv
Shdhjahdn — both which names are to be found on the initial Arabico-Pahlavi
coiiH of Selim bin Ziad and Abdullah Hazim, in 63 A.n. (J.R.A.S. Vol. XII.
p. 293, and XIII. p. 404). The early Arabian geographers, who officially
mapped-out every strategic and commercial highway, tell us that important
routes conducted the merchant or traveller from Merv-ul-riid eastwards, by
Talikan, Farayab and Maimana, to Balkh, wlience roads branched-off to the
southward, to Eamian, and by other lines to Andarabah, Parwan, and Kabul.
"While Herat once reached, by the direct main line to the south, oflercd endlesf?
70 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
cepting their established supremacy, settled themselves down
as good citizens, taking in marriage the women of the
country,^ and forming new republics,^ without objecting to
the recognition of a nominal Suzerain — a political supremacy
their fellow-countrymen so soon submitted to in its closer and
more direct form of Imperator — at the same time that they
retained their old manners and customs, and with them the
religion of the Roman pantheon, with the due allowance
of Antistes and possibly a Pontifex Maximus, in partibus
infidelium.
To judge from the changes and gradations in the onward
course of these mintages, it would seem as if the new settlers
had either directly copied the obverses of the Indo-Scythians
with their normal Greek legends, or possibly they may have
been supplied with official mint-dies, which they used to
destruction, and when, in turn, they had to renew these
obverse dies, they imparted to the ideal bust of the suzerain
many of their own conventional details of dress, etc. But
in the process of imitation, they appear to have adhered as
far as possible to a mechanical reproduction of the old quasi-
Greek letters of the Indo-Scythian legend, while on their new
and independent reverses they took licence in the Latin forms
of the Greek alphabet, frequently embodying the current Zend
terms in their own hybrid characters, and in some cases
becoming converts to, or at least accepting the symbols of
the local creeds. Their influence, on the other hand, upon
local thought and Indian science, may perchance be traced
in the pages of the PauUsa-Siddhdnta and Romaka-8iddhdntaj
wherein their adopted Greek astronomy was insured a shorter
passage to the East than the hitherto-recognized devious
routes from Alexandria to the Western coast and other points
facilities for the dispersion of the new settlers in the six or seven roads which
focnssed in the centre formed by that ancient city. (See Sprenger's Post- und
Eeiserouten des Orients, maps 4, 5; M. N. Khanikof, " Asia centrals," Paris,
18G1, map ; Ferrier's Caravan Journeys, London, 1857, map.)
^ Milesne Crassi conjuge barbara, etc. — Horace, Od. iii. 5. 5.
^ - A very suggestive indication has been preserved, in later authors, about the
white-blood claimed by the ruling races of Badakhshan, Darwaz, Kulab,
Shighnan, Wakhan, Chitral, Gilgit, Sw&t, and Balti. — Eurnes, J.A.S.B. vol. ii.
p. 305; J.R.A.S. Yol. VI. p. 99; Marco Polo, cap. xxix. Yule's edit. i. p. 152.
See also, for Kanishka's power in these parts, Iliouen Thsang, Memoires, i.pp. 42,
104, 172, 199.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 71
of contact could have afforded.^ And, in another direction,
these new suggestions may lead us to re-examine, with more
authority, the later amplifications of the Zend alphabet,^ and
to expose the needless introduction of foreign vowels and
diphthongs — the assimilation of the anomalous Latin ^^ q and
the reception of the i /, which was only dubiously represented
in the Sanskrit alphabet by xjj ph.
Prof. Max Miiller has remarked that the mention of the
word dind?' is, in a measure, the test of the date of a Sanskrit
MS.,^ and so the use of the re-converted Roman aiirei may
serve to check and define the epoch of distant dynastic
changes.
Pliny has told us of the " crime," as he calls it, of him
who was the first to coin a denarius of gold,* which took
place sixty-two years after the first issue of silver money, or
in B.C. 207. Under Julius Caesar the weight of the aureus
was revised and fixed at the rate of forty to the libra, after
which period the rate gradually fell, till, under Nero, forty-
five aiirei were coined to the libra.
The average weight of extant specimens of Julius Caesar's
denarii of gold is stated to run at about 125' 66 grains, while
similar pieces of Nero fall to a rate of 115 '39 grains.
. The Persian Daric seems to have been fixed at 130 grains.^
The Greek gold pieces of Diodotus of Bactria weigh as much
as 132-3 grains.^
The Indo-Scythian gold coins reach as high as 125,''' but
this is an exceptionally heavy return. The Kadphises' group
of coins range up to 122'5, and support an average of 122*4 ;
an average which is confirmed by the double piece, no. 5,
pi. x. Ariana Antiqua, which weighs 245 grains.^ The
^ Colebrooke, Essays, vol. ii. p. 340. Wilford, Asiatic Researches, vol. x.
pp. 00, 101, etc. Keinaud, Mem. sur I'lude, pp. 332, etc. Whituey, Lunar
Zodiac, 1874, p. 371. Kern, Preface to " Brihat Sanhita," p. 40, etc.
2 J.R.A.S. Vol. XII. o.s. p. 272, and Vol. III. n.s. p. 266. Prinsep's Essays,
vol. ii. p. 171.
3 Sanskrit Literature, p. 245.
* xxxiii. 13,
5 International Numis. Orient., Mr. Head, p. 30.
^ Journ. Eoy. As. Soc. Vol. XX. p. 122.
' Gen. Cunningham, J.A.S.B., 1845, p. 435. Coin oiAraeikrof^o. 23, PI. II.).
^ Coin in British Museum.
72
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
Kanerki series present a sliglitly lower average, but sustain,
in numerous instances, a full measure of 122 grains. So
that, allowing for wear or depreciation in recoinage, the
official imitative mint-rate would not be far removed from
the fall following close upon Julius Caesar's full average,
which progressively reached the lower figures above quoted
under Nero. While the coin weights, on the one hand,
serve to determine the initial date of the serial issues, the
devices above described will suffice, on their part, to indicate
the periods of inter-communion with the Imperial history
as seen in the periodical introduction of copies of the new
Koman types of Mint reverses.
To enable my readers to judge of the state of the religious
beliefs of Upper India and the adjoining countries to the
northward and westward, I have taken advantage of the
very important discovery of the gold coins of the Scythic
period above described, to compile, or rather to enlarge a
previous Table, ^ exhibiting the names of the multitudinous
gods recognized amid the various nationalities who, at this
time, bowed to the Indo- Scythian sway.^
^ Xiimismatlc Chronicle, n.s. vol. xii. 1872, p. 113. My ** Sassanians in
Persia" (Triibuer, 1873), p. 43.
* The faith or dominant creed of the three brothers, Kanerki, Ooerki, and
Vasudeva {Hushka, Jushka, Kanishka), or that of their subjects, may be tested
by the devices of the Peshawar hoard of their coins.
KaNERKI, KoVTjpKi.
Ooerki,
OoripKi.
Bazdeo, BaCoSijo.
1. Mupo
1.
PiOTJ
10. Maj/ao ^ayo
1. Nava
2. Meipo
2.
UpaKiKo
11. A0po
2. OKpo, under nu-
3. Mao
3.
npoT)
11a. Pao pridpo
merous forms
4. KBpo
4.
'SapaiTO
12. Apa^ixpo
6. Nava pao
5.
Zepo
13. ^appo
6.
Oavivdo
14. Naz^a
7.
MiOpa {Miipo,
Miopo, Mopo,
etc.)
15. OKpo
16. ApSoxpo
17. Maacrrjuo
8.
Mao
1 ^KavSo
9.
Mao with
18. \ Kofxapo
•
Miipo
( Bi(ayo
This table is confined to the list of 93 specimens, selected from the total
Peshawar ^n<^ of 524 coins, as numismatic examples for deposit in the British
Museum. The 60 coins brought home by Sir Bartle Frere from the same trou-
vaille, for the Indian Government, do not add any varieties to these lists.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
73
«:
<
tt
C/3
s
«
M
<
s
•
«
^
<
O
pq
i-H
4
O
(71-.
o
«
o
O
o
o
X
O
<
Oh
X
<
<
<
<
1
<>3
P^
<
O
1
o
t-.
<
N
PQ
«
,
.
•
•
.
.
pq
r— I
cq
CO
-rt*
id
CO
"cT
i=i
• »-H
1—1
o
•
-H
P, ^
• r-l
o
on
'cT
O
PL,
^^ 1
w o
O
'S
Q
®
o
H
<
•5
^
•2
ex
1^
O
ft
^
ac
o..
<
O
»D
«u
o
1— 1
<
MM
<!
<
IX
<
a,
^
^
o
<
(X
i-H
ci
•
CO
^
kd
o
O
o
O
•
CU
J3
<
<I
O
®
<
<
^
1
«
<
<2
12;
'1
2
H- 1
^
<
^
<
1
<
<
O
s
F-H
(N
CO
^
id
0
-
'
O
O
(-1
o
O
O
^
<
PQ
1*
1
!25
X
nS
o
k;
1— 1
o
<
<
o
O
PL,
t— 4
<
<
o
<
C3
O
<
<
1 o
!S Ph c
•
c^
CO
-^
id
o
•
00
00
o
«
12:
o
C5
K
***
<
*«*
o
<s*
<
(X,
,«
Oi
«J»
a
k
o
-^
1— I
c^
I have reduced both the description of Plate IT., as well
as the above Table, to the narrowest possible outlines, for
two reasons: firstly, because I do not desire to anticipate or
74 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
interfere with Mr. Yaux's more compreliensive description of
Sir B. Frere's selections from the great Peshawar ^«c/ — which
we may hope shortly to see in the pages of our Journal ;
and secondly, because I wish to await General Cunningham's
mature report upon the same trouvaille^ which is designed
to form an article in the Numisraata Orientalia, a work in
which I am much interested. The only portions of the full
number of 524 coins that I have examined are confined to
the 93 specimens Sir E. C. Bayley has forwarded to me for
the purpose of study and for eventual deposit in the British
Museum, and the 60 coins from the same source brought home
by Sir Bartle Frere, now in the Library at the India Office.
Nevertheless, there are some suggestive identifications
embodied in the Table for which I may be held more im-
mediately responsible, and which I must, as far as may be,
endeavour to substantiate.
I. Yedic Gods.
The first, and most venturesome of these, is the association
of the wpoT] on the coins with the Yedic Varuna ; but the
process of reasoning involved becomes more simple, when we
have to admit that Ovpavo^ and Varuna are identical under
independent developments from one and the same Aryan
conception — and that, even if exception should be taken to
the elected transcription of flpoTj, the manifestly imperfect
rendering of the letters of the Greek legend freel}^ admits of
the alternative flpov.
Some difficulty has been felt, throughout the arrangement
of the Table, as to under which of the first four headings
certain names should be placed ; in this instance, I have
been led to put Varuna in the Yedic column, on account of
the absence of the final Zend o — which would have asso-
ciated the name more directly with the Iranian branch of
worship.^
A similar reason might properly be urged for removing
1 Muir, Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. pp. 58, 72, 76, 120, etc.; Haug, Sacred
Writings of the Parsees, pp. 226, 230.
THE EAKLY FAITH OF AS OKA. 75
OPAAFNO from column i. to column ii. ; but in this case the
"Agni" is preferentially Yedic,^ and the Iranian branch has
its own representative of ** Fire," in the technical aopo.
There is also another objection to be met, in the matter of
the prefix. It has been usual to follow Lassen's identification
of APAOXPO, as meaning '^ half-Siva," i.e. the female form of
that hermaphrodite god ; ^ but these new legends suggest, if
they do not prove, that the prefix apa corresponds to the
Sanskrit "^jTf rifa, " worshipped," great, etc., instead of to
the assumed ^^ arddhan, '* half." And as, in the present
instance, the figure to which the designation is attached is
clearly a male, with spear and crested helmet,^ there can be
no pretence of making a half-female out of this device.
II, Iranian Gods.
The opening oaao of this list might well have claimed a
place in column i., in virtue of its approximation to the Yedic
Vdi/u — a term under which *' the wind " is equally addressed
in the Zend-Avesta : Vtujus upardkairyo, " the wind whose
business is above the sky." * But the term oaao is certainly
closer in orthography to the Persian ^U bdd,^ and the class
of coins upon which it is found pertain more definitely to the
Iranian section of the Aryan race, and refer to days when
the main body of the Vedic Aryans had long since passed
on to the banks of the Jumna.
The MiiPO has been committed to column ii. on simply
^ " Agni is the god of fire, the Ignis of the Latins, the Ogni of the Slavonians.
He is one of the most prominent deities of the Rig-Yeda. . . Agni is not, like
the Greek Hephaitos, or the Latin Vulcan, the artificer of the gods." — Muir,
vol. V. p. 199.
^ Journ, A.S. Bengal, 1840, p. 455; Ind, Alt. (new edition), vol. ii. p. 839;
Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, p. 366.
3 Ar. An. pi. xii. iig. 3; Journ. A.S. Bengal, 1836, pi. xxxvi. 1 ; Prinsep's
Essays, pi. xxii. fig. 1 ; Journ. R.A.S. Vol. Xli. o.s. PL VI. Fig. 1. I must add
that the best specimens of the coins extant give the orthography of OPAAFNO,
■which, however, has hitherto been universally accepted as OPAAFNO; — a rectifi-
cation which the parallel frequency of the prefix to other names largely encourages.
* Haug, p. 194; see also pp. 193-232.
5 Lassen, J.A.S.B., 1840, p. 454 ; Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, p. 369 ; Muir, S.
Texts, vol. v. p. 143, " Vayu does not occupy a very prominent place in the Kig-
Yeda."
76 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
orthograpliical grounds ; and tlie mao and miipo follow tlie
same law. Among the many outward forms of the Moon-god,
Manao Bago would almost seem to be a superfluous variant,
were it not that the word Mdonh may assign it to a more
definitely Zend-speaking locality.^ Then, there are complica-
tions about male and female Moons,^ which seem to be indicated
in the varieties of outlines given to the figures of mao, and
it is clear that the ruling religious systems fully recognized
both male and female Mithras.*^
It is with much reserve that I venture to suggest any in-
terpretation of the title of apaeixpo. The opening letters
may possibly be referred to the Sanskrit -^-^ ara " swift," ^
and, considering the mixed complications of letters and
languages to be seen in parallel transcriptions, the eixpo
might be dubiously associated with equus, Ikko^, ltttto^, lKFo<i,
the " coursier rapide," i.e. the Sun.^
A0PO, as the type of Fire, the Roman Yulcan, sufiiciently
declares itself in the artistic rendering of his personal form.
1 Hang, p. 180 ; Kliur^hid and Mali Yaslits.
" Tlie lirst yaslit is devoted to the sun, which is called in Zend hvat'e k/ishae(a =
^^-.^ j*:>-^ ' sun the King,' the second to the moon called muo)ih = ^Vs.^*
" Je celebre, j'invoque Ahura et Mithra, eleves, imniortels, purs; et les astres,
creations saiutes et celestes; et I'astre Taschter (Tistrya), luniineus, resplen-
dissant; et la lune, qui garde le germe du taureau ; et le soleil, souverain,
coursier rapide, ceil d' Ahura Mazda ; Mithra, chef des provinces." — Burnouf,
Yasna, p. 375.
* Creutzer, p. xxiv, fig. 330, etc.; Maury, Hist, des Eeligions, Paris, 1859,
vol. iii. p. 127, '^Sin ou Lune des Assyriens . . avait une caractere hermaphro-
dite. Cette premiere explication nous donne deux diviuites, placees, pour le dire
en passant, dans I'ordre hierarchique, Ahura et Mithra. Mais la separation
nieme de ces deux mots, nlmroeihya et mithraeilnja, pourrait faire soup^onner
qu'il est question en cet eudroit de deux Mithras, et que aJiura doit etre regarde
corame un titre : ' j'invoque, je celebre les deux seigneurs Mithras.' Ces deux
Mithras seraient sans doute Mithra male et Mithra femelle, dont le culte etait,
pelon les (^refs, anciennement celebre dans la Perse." — Burnouf, Ya^-ua, p. 351 ;
Zend-Ave&tu, vol. i. p. 87.
3 Muir, Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. p. 155, " The two sun gods celebrated in the
hymns of the Pig Veda," " Shriia and Savitri.'"
^ " Thou, Surya, outstrippest all in speed.'" — "Wilson, Pig-Yeda, vol. i. p. 131.
^ As in note 1, INIr. Muir also considers that some passages in the Rig- Veda
symbolize the Sun under the form of a horse.— Texts, vol. v. p. 158. Prof.
Goldstucker has further traced the derivation of the name of the Aswins from
" asiva, meaning literally the pervader, then the quick ; then the horse, which
becomes the symbol of the sun " — J.R.A.S. Vol. II. n.s. p. 14; Mrs. Manning,
Ancient India, vol. i. p. 9. I am fully aware that a coin is extant bearing the
letters APOOAcnO {ApOoaa-Ko ?), but the use of the aspa " horse " in this case is
not necessarily conclusive against the interpretation of the independent transcript
above suggested.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 77
The *APO or *appo is equally obvious in its iutention and in
the pictured outline given to the central figure. The name,
of course, is derived from the Latin fero^ as embodied in
Lucifer and Diana Lucifera. The early Greeks only knew
the designation as that of a light-house, without being able
to supply a root for the word, or, indeed, to interpret it
otherwise than as ''an island in the bay of Alexandria."
The term is constant in ancient Persian combinations, as
Ataphernes, etc., — which eventually settled into the Aturparn
or Fire Priest of the Sassanian period.^
III. Persian Gods.
I have repeated the name of miqpo in the Persian column,
more out of regard to the early Persian worship of the god,
than because I can trace the direct descent of the Mithra of
Cyrus to the same Iranian deity in his Eastern home.
The simple enumeration of the various forms of the worship
of Nanaia would fill volumes. Under its Persian aspect it may
be sufficient to refer to Artaxerxes Mnemon's inscription at
Susa, which specifies " Ormazd, Tanaitis, and Mithra," ^ as
the gods who "help" him. The thirty chapters of the Aban
Yasht are devoted to Ardvi Sura AndhUcf, ''sublime, ex-
cellent, spotless," whom " Ahuramazda himself is said to have
worshipped." ^ And, for the traditions of her worship in the
lands with which these coins are indirectly associated, we
may cite the many sacred places that still bear her name.^
The Oanindo, Anandates, is a new discovery ; but I con-
clude there will be no difficulty in admitting her identity
with the Anandates of Strabo.^
1 See J.E.A.S. Yol. XIII. o.s, p. 415, etc. "We have now new and clear
examples of the true ijMj\^Si -diurparn. See also Haug, p. 250. "Soshyantos
and Angiras = Atharvans.'"
2 J.kA.S. Yol. XY. p. 159.
3 Haug, pp. 178, 179.
* J.A.S. Bengal, vol. iii. 449; v. 266. Masson, "Travels in Balfichist&n."
London, 1844, vol. iv. p. 391. Ariana Antiqua, p. 362.
5 Strabo xi. viii. 4 : " They (the Persians) erected there a temple to Anaitis,
and the gods Omanus ('fl^aai/oG koX 'AvaSdrov) and Anandatus, Persian deities who
have a common altar." xv. iii. 15 : " The same customs are observed in the
78 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
TV. EoMAN Gods.
In the identification of the whole list of the Roman and
Grseco-Roman gods, I have been guided more by the forms
and figures stamped on the coins than by the legends which
are supposed to define the names and attributes of each
divinity, which must often be accepted as simply independent
versions of the original nomenclature. I am uncertain about
the decipherment of pi ah, but there can be little doubt for
whom the figure is intended. In the same way the type of
Mars is manifest ; his title of phopo may be referred to the
Zend Aj(3^7ju erefha ^Tf '* great," etc.,^ and though epvOpla^
might find some advocates, Anquetil's Verethre '' victorious "
seems to be conclusive as to the derivation. It will be
remembered that the nearly similar term of opahopot is
to be found on the coins of Kodes?
Y. Brahmanical Gods.
These several deities, their nomenclatures and attributes,
have already been fully adverted to, under their Saivic
aspect, in the preceding pages.
I have only to add, in addition to what has already been
said about apaoxpo, a reference to the fact which seems to
have been hitherto lost sight of, that the second portion of
this name does not coincide with the legitimate orthography
of the OKPO of Siva. Indeed, as far as direct numismatic
evidence may furnish a test, Siva is more directly associated
with Nana, the Pdrvati of later belief,^ than with the Ardokro,
or the Homan definition of '* abundance " on coin No. 16,
Plate II.
temples of Anaitis and of Oraanus. Belonging to these temples are shrines, and
a wooden statue of Omanus is carried in procession. These we have seen
ourselves."
^ Burnouf, Yasna, pp. 323, 377, 473.
3 J.R.A.S. Vol. IV. N.s. p. 518. TPKHAOT, OPAH0POY, MAKAPOY. See
also Num. Chron. n.s. vol. xiii. p. 229.
3 See coin No. 7, J.R.A.S. Vol. XII. o.s. Plate IV., and J.A.S. Bengal,
vol. iv. fig. 7, pi. xxxviii., and Prinsep's Essays, vol. ii. pi. xxii. fig. 7, wherein
OKPO Saa appears upon the reverse in company with Nana.
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 79
VI. Buddhist.
Although I have felt bound to insert the words boaa 2AMana
in my Table, on the authority of Gen. Cunningham, I have
only been induced to admit any such possible reading by the
coincident appearance of definite figures of Buddha, under
the double aspect of the conventional standing and seated
statues of the saint.
I am not myself prepared to follow the present interpre-
tation of the legends, though better examples may modify
my views.^ But the point I have now more especially to
insist upon is, that the appearance of these Buddhist figures
is confined to inferior copper pieces of very imperfect execu-
tion, whose legends are absolutely chaotic in the forms and
arrangement of the Greek letters. So that I should be
disposed to assign the limited group of these Buddha-device
coins to a comparatively late date in the general series of
imitations : which, though still bearing the name and typical
devices of Kanerki^ would seem to consist of mere reproduc-
tions of old types by later occupants of the localities in
which the earlier coins were struck.
The Mathura ArchtEOLggical Remains.
I adverted, at the commencement of this article, to the
importance of the late archaeological discoveries in and
around the ancient city of Mathura^ — which so definitely
^ The coin most relied on to prove the intention of the terms " OM BOA or
perhaps OAI BOA; either Aum Buddha or Adi Buddha,'' published by General
Cunningham in 1845 (J.A.S. Bengal, p. 435, plate 2, fig. S^i, presents a central
figure on the reverse exactly like the outline of the APAEIXPO of the present
plate. His Nos. 6 and 7, as I have remarked, though clear in the definition
of the figures of Buddha, are of coarse fabric, of far later date than the
associate OAAO of the same plate, and finally, the letters of the legends are so
badly formed and so straggling as to be utterly untrustworthy in establishing any
definite reading. The other limited examples of this class of coins will be found
in Ariana Antiqua, pi. xiii. figs. 1, 2, 3. Here, again, the figures are incontest-
able, but Prof, Wilson did not pretend to interpret the broken legends. Prinsep
figured a coin of this description in fig. 11, pi. xxv. J.A.S. Bengal, vol. iii.;
Prinsep's Essays, pi. vii. This coin was noticed, but left uninterpreted by Lassea
in his paper in the J.A.S. Bengal, 1840, p. 456.
' Amid the cities which were supposed to have claims to the honour of
becoming the birthplace of Sakya Muni, Mathura is rejected because its kinga
had hereditary ideas inconsistent with the new faith, i.e. adhered to the old,
80 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
establlsli the prominence of the Jaina religion, in the full
developments of its sacred statues and associate inscriptions,
at or about the commencement of our era.^
The Mathura sculptured monuments have preserved for
modern examination the mule images of the saints of the
Jainas,- with the devotional dedications of the votaries of the
faith appended in all contemporary formality.
Jtunism ? " D'autres dirent : La ville de Mathoura, riclie, entendue, florissante,
et animee par une population norabreuse, toute remplie d'liommes ; ce palais du
roi Soiibahou. . . D'autres dirent : Elle ne convient pas non plus ; pourquoi ?
Parce que ce roi est ne dans une famille oti les vues fausses sont hereditaires, et
qu'il regiie sur des hommes pareils aux barbares." — Lalita Yistara, Foucaux,
p. 25.
^ General Cunningham Tvas fully aware of tbe value of these discoveries,
in their bearing upon the associate creeds of Jainism and Buddhism. That
he should have ventured so far independently in the direction of the leading
argument of this paper is highly encouraging. His remarks are to the
following effect :
" This is perhaps one of the most startling and important revelations that has
been made by recent researches in Indi-". It is true i.uat, according to Jaina
books, their faith had continuously flouiished, under a succession of teachers, fi-om
the death of Mahavira in B.C. 527 down to the present time. Hitherto, however,
there was no tangible evidence to vouch for the truth of this statement. But the
Kankali mound at Mathui-&, has now given us the most complete and satisfactory
testimony that the Jaina rtl'^-ion, even before the beginning of the Christian era,
must have been in a condition almost as rich and flourishing as that of Buddha.
" The Kankali mound is a very extensive one, and the number of statues of all
sizes, from the colossal downwards, which it has yielded, has scarcely been sur-
passed by the prolific returns of Buddhist sculpture from the Jail mound. But,
as not more than one-third of the K?nkali mound has yet been thoroughly
searched, it may be confidently expected that its complete exploration -^ ill amply
repay all the cost and trouble of the experiment." — General Cmiuingham, Arch.
Eep. vol. iii. p. 46.
2 Albiruni (a.d. 1030) has furnished us with a description of the forms of many
of the Indian idols, derived from the text of Yaraha-Mihira (sixth cent. a.d.). He
defines the contrast between the statues of Buddha and those of the Arhats or
Jaina saints in the following terms : " Si tu fais la statue de Ljiua, c'est-a-dire
Bouddha, tache de lui donner ime figure ao:reable et des membres bien faits. II
doit avoir les paumes de la main et le dessous des pieds en forme de uenufar. Tu
le representeras assis, ayant des cheveux gris, et respirant un air de bonte, comme
s'il etait le pere des creatures. S"il s'agit de donner a Bouddha la figure d'un
arhanta, il faut en faire un jeune homme nu,beau de figure, et d'une physionomie
agreable. It aura les deux mains appuyees sur les genoux," etc. — Reinaud,
Memoires sur I'lnde, p. 121. Dr. Kern's translation, direct from the original
Sanskrit text, gives : " The god of the Jainas is figui-ed naked, young, handsome,
with a calm coimtenance, and arms reaching down to the knees ; his breast is
marked with the Crivatsa figure." — J.E.A.S. Yol. YI. n.s. p. 328. See also
Wilson, J.A.S. Bengal, vol. i. p. 4 ; Burnouf, vol. i. p. 312. I omitted to notice in
my previous references to nude statues (pp. 14, 18, 19, etc.), the remarkable ex-
pressions made use of by Calanus to Onesicritus ; after "bidding him to strip himself
naked, if he desired to hear any of his doctrine," he adds, " you should not hear
me on any other condition though you came from Jupiter himself." Plutarch
in Alexander. The exaction of these conditions seems to point to the tenets
of Jainism.
While on the subject of discriminating points, I add to the information, outlined
THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA. 31
These nude statues of the Jaina Tirthankaras teach us, like
so many other subordinate indications of the remote antiquit}^
of the creed, in its normal form, to look for parallels amid
other forms of worship in their initiatory stage — and here
we are inevitably reminded of the time when men made idols
after their own images,^ and while those men, in the sim-
plicity of nature, stood up, without shame, as the Creator
had fashioned them.
The value of the dedicatory inscriptions towards the
elucidation of my leading question is, however, still more
precise and irrecusable, in respect to the age of the monu-
ments themselves, in the conjoint record of the name of the
great Saint Mahdmra and that of Vdsudeva, — the bazoaho
of the Indo-Scythian coins above described, — the third
brother, or, as the case may be, the nominal head of the
third tribe of the ^'Sushka, Jiishka, and Kanishka " once
nomad community.
Of the twenty-four dated inscriptions given by General
Cunningham in his Archaeological Report for 1871-2, no
less than seven refer either directly, or indirectly, in the
forms of the pedestals and the statues to which they are
attached, to the Jaina creed.
Nos. 2 and 3, dated Sam. 5 ; 4, dated Samvat 9, bear the
name of Kanishka. No. 6, dated Sam. 20, is remarkable,
as it specifies "the gift of one statue of Vm^dhamana" or
Mahdvira.
at p. 9, a curioUvS account of tlie modern Jaina reverence for the Footprints of
their saints : " Shading the temple (of Yasinghji — one of the five snake Brethren,
at Th^n) is a large Bdyana tree — the close foliage of small dark green oval leaves,
which makes the shade so grateful, apparently having had to do with its being
consecrated as a sacred tree in Western India, where it is specially dedicated by
the Jainas to their first Tirthankara— Rishabhanatha — the patron saint of Satrufi-
jaya — no shrine to him being complete without a Rayana tree overshadowing his
charana or footprints." — Mr. Burgess, Arch. Rep. 1875, p. 5.
^ Xenophanes, colo"; tionii Carminura Reliquite, by Simon Karsten (Brussels,
1830), p. vi. His int' i-pretation of one of the leading passages of the Greek text
runs : — " v. At mortal^s opinantm- natos esse Deos, mortalique habitu et forma
et figura pra?ditos." And vi. continues : " Si vero manus haberent boves vel
leones, aut pingere mpnibus et fabricari eadem qua3 homines possent, ipsi quoque
Deorum formas pingerent figurasque formarent tales, quali ipsorum quisque
praeditus sit, equi equis, boves autem bobus similes." — p. 41. Pliny, xxxiv. p. 9,
under iconiccn, adds the Greek practice is, not to cover any part of the "body"
of their statues. Max Miiller, Sanskrit Literature, vol. ii. p. 388.
82 THE EARLY FAITH OF ASOKA.
No. 16, with the date of Sam. 83, and the name of Mahd-
raja Yasu-deva, records, on the pedestal of a naked statue,
''the gift of an image." No. 18, in like manner, preserves,
at the foot of "a naked figure," the entry of Sam. 87, and
the titles of Maharaja Rdjatirdja Shdhi Vdsu-deva.
No. 20, which is, perhaps, the most important of the whole
series of inscriptions, is appended to a *' Naked standing
figure," and commences with the following words :
" Siddham Aiim ? Namo Arahate Mahdvirasya Devandsasya
Rdjnya Vdsu Devasya Samvatsare 98, Varsha Mase^ 4 divase^
11 etasyaJ^
" Glory to the Arhat Mahavira, the destroyer of the
Devas ! (In the reign) of King Yasu-deva, in the Samvat
year 98, in Yarsha (the rainy season), the 4th month, the
11th day," etc.
Without doubt this list might be largely extended
from concurrent palaeolithic documents, which do not so
definitely declare themselves as of Jaina import; but
enough has been adduced to establish the fact of the full
and free usage of the Jaina religion in Mathura so early
as the epoch of the Indo-Scythian Kanerkis.
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Chaucer Society's Publications. Subscription, two guineas per annum.
1868. First Series,
Canteebury Tales. Part I.
I. The Prologue and Knight's Tale, in 6 parallel Texts (from the 6 MSS.
named below), together with Tables, showing the Groups of the Tales,
and their varying order in 38 MSS. of the Tales, and in the old
printed editions, and also Specimens from several MSS. of the
" Moveable Prologues" of the Canterbury Tales, — The Shipman's
Prologue, and Franklin's Prologue, — when moved from their right
places, and of the substitutes for them.
II. The Prologue and Knight's Tale from the Ellesmere MS.
III. „ „ ., „ „ „ „ Hengwrt ,, 154.
IV. „ „ „ ,, „ „ „ Cambridge „ Gg. 4. 27.
V. „ „ „ „ „ „ „ Corpus „ Oxford.
VI. ,, „ y, ,, ,, „ ,, ir^etwortn, ,,
VII. „ „ ,, „ ,, ,, „ Lansdowne ,, 851.
Nos. II. to VII. are sej)arate Texts of the 6-Text edition of the Canterbury
Tales, Part I.
1868. Second Series.
1 . On Eauly English Pronunciation, with especial reference to Shak-
spere and Chaucer, containing an investigation of the Correspondence of Writing
with Speech in England, from the Anglo-Saxon period to the present day,preceded
by a systematic notation of all spoken sounds, by means of the ordinary print-
ing types. Including a re-arrangement of Prof. F. J. Child's IMemoirs on the
Language of Chaucer and Gower, and Reprints of the Rare Tracts by Salesbury
on English, 1547, and Welsh, 1567, and by Barcley on French, 1521. By
Alexander J. Ellis, F.R.S., etc., etc. Part I. On the Pronunciation of the
xivth, xvith, xvuth, and xviiith centuries.
2. Essays on Chatjcee; His Words and Works. Part I. 1. Ebert's
Review of Sandras's E'tude sur Chaucer, considerecomme Imitateur des Trouveres,
translated by J. W. Van Rees Hoets, M.A., 1 rinity Hall, Cambridge, and revised
by the Author. — II. A Thirteenth Century Latin Treatise on the Chilindre: "For
by my chilindre it is prime of day " [Shipmannes Tale). Edited, with a Trans-
lation, by Mr. Edmund Broc-k, and illustrated by a Woodcut of the Instrument
from the Ashmole MS. 1522.
3. A Temporaey Preface to the Six-Text Edition of Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales. Part I. Attempting to show the true order of the Tales, and
the Days and Stages of the Pilgrimage, etc., etc. By F. J. Furnivall, Esq.,
M.A., Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
±JS..
X.
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XI.
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57 a?2(i 59, Ludgate Hilly London, E.C. 13
Chaucer Society's Publications — continued.
1869. i^/rs^ Series.
VIII. The Miller's, Eeeve's, Cook's, and GameljTi's Tales : Ellesraere MS.
■"■^ Hengwrt „
Cambridge „
Corpus „
Pet worth „
Lansdowne ,,
These are separate issues of the 6-Text Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Part II.
1869. Second Series.
4. English PEO]sr[jNCiATioN", with especial reference to Shakspere and
Chaucer. By Alexander J. Ellis, F.R.S. Part II.
1870. First Series.
XIY. Canterbury Tales. Part II. The Miller's, Reeve's, and Cook's
Tales, with an Appendix of the Spurious Tale of Gamelyn, in Six
parallel Texts.
1870. Second Series.
5. On Eaely English Peontjnciation, with especial reference to Shak-
spere and Chaucer. By A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., F.S.A. Part III. Illustrations
on the Pronunciation of xivth and xvith Centuries. Chaucer, Gower, WyclifFe,
Spenser, Shakespere, Salesbury, Barcley, Hart, Bullokar, Gill. Pronouncing
Vocabulary.
1871. First Series.
XV. The Man of Law's, Shipraan's, and Prioress's Tales, with Chaucer's own
Tale of Sir Thopas, in 6 parallel Texts from the MSS. above named,
and 10 coloured drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the
Ellesmere MS.
XVI. The Man of Law's Tale, &c., &c. : Ellesmere xMS.
XVII. „ „ „ „ Cambridge „
XVIII. ,, ,, ,, ,, Corpus „
XIX. The Shipraan's, Prioress's, and Man of Law's Tales, from the Petworth MS.
XX. The Man of Law's Tales, from the Lansdowne MS. (each with woodcuts
of fourteen drawings of Tellers of Tales in the Ellesmere ISIS.)
XXI. A Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I.:— 'The
Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse,' from Thynne's ed. of 1532, the
Fairfax MS. 16, and Tanner MS. 346; 'the compleynt to Pite,' 'the
Parlamentof Foules,' and 'the Compleynt of Mars,' each from six MSS.
XXII. Supplementary Parallel-Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I., con-
taining ' The Parlament of Foules,' from three MSS.
XXIII. Odd Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I,, containing 1. two MS.
fragments of ' The Parlament of Foules ; ' 2. the two differing versions
of * The Prologue to the Legende of Good Women,' arranged so as to
show their differences ; 3. an Appendix of Poems attributed to Chaucer,
I. 'The Balade of Pitee by Chauciers;' ii. 'The Cronycle made by
Chaucer,' both from 1\1 SS. written by Shirley, Chaucer's contemporary.
XXIV. A One- I ext Print of Chaucer "s Minor Poems, being the best Text from
the Parallel-Text Edition, Part I., containing: 1. The Dethe of
Blaunche the Duchesse ; 2. The Compleynt to Pite ; 3. The Parlament
of Foules; 4. The Compleynt of Mars; 5. The ABC, with its
original from De Guileville's Peler'uiuye de la Vie humaine (edited
from the best Paris MSS, by M. Paul Meyer).
1871. Second Series.
6. Teial Eohe-woeds to my Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor
14 Linguistic Publications of Trilbner ^ Co..,
Chaucer Society's Publications — continued.
Poems for the Chaucer Society (with a try to set Chaucer's "Works in their right
order of Time). By Fredk. J. Fuknivall, Parti. (This Part brings out,
for the first time, Chaucer's long early but hopeless love.)
1872. First Series.
XXV. Chaucer's Tale of Melibe, the Monk's, Nun's Priest's, Doctor's, Par-
doner's, "Wife of Bath's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, in 6 parallel
Texts from the MSS. above named, and with the remaining 13 coloured
drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the EUesmere MS.
XXV I. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the EUesmere MS., with
9 woodcuts of Tale-Tellers. (Part IV.)
XXVII. The Wife's, Friar's, Summoner's, Monk's, and Nun's Priest's Tales,
from the Hengwrt MS., with 23 woodcuts of the Tellers of the Tales.
(Part III.)
XXVIII. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the Cambridge MS.,
with 9 woodcuts of Tale-Tellers. (Part IV''.)
XXIX. A Treatise on the Astrolabe; otherwise called Bred and Mylk for
Children, addressed to his Son Lowys by Geoffrey Chaucer. Edited
by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A.
1872. Second Series.
7. Oeiginals akd Analogues of some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.
Part 1. 1. The original of the Man of Law's Tale of Constance, from the
French Chronicle of Nicholas Trivet, Arundel MS. 5Q, ab. 1340 a.d., collated
with the later copy,ab. 1400, in the National Library at Stockholm ; copied and
edited with a trnslation, by Mr. Edmund Brock. 2. The Tale of " Mercians
the Emperor," from the Early- English version of the Gesta Romanoricm in Harl.
MS. 7333; and 3 Part of Matthew Paris's Vita Offce Primi, both stories,
illustrating incidents in the Man of Law's Tale. 4. Two French Fabliaux like
the Reeve's Tale. 5. Two Latin Stories like the Friar's Tale.
1873. First Series.
XXX. The Sis-Text Canterbury Tales, Part V., containing the Clerk's and
Merchant's Tales.
1873. Second Series.
8. Albertano of Brescia's Liber Consilii et Cojisolationis, a.d. 1246
(the Latin source of the French original of Chaucer's Melibe), edited from the
MSS. bv Dr. Thor Sundby.
1874. First Series.
XXXI. The Six-Text, Part VI., containing the Squire's and Franklin's Tales.
XXXII. to XXXVI. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS.
1874. Second Series.
9. Essays on Chaucer, his Words and "Works, Part II. : 3. John of
Hoveden's Praetica Chilindri, edited from the MS. with a translation, by Mr.
E. Brock. 4. Chaucer's use of the final -<?, by Joseph Payne, Esq. 5. Mrs.
E. Barrett-Browning on Chaucer : being those parts of her review of the BooJc
of the Poets, 1842, which relate to him ; here reprinted by leave of Mr. Robert
Browning. 6. Professor Bernhard Ten-Brink's critical edition of Chaucer's
Compleynte to Pite.
1875. First Series.
XXXVII. The Six-Text, Part VII., the Second Nun's, Canon's- Yeoman's, and
iManciplo's 'lales, with the Blank- Parson Link.
XXXVIII. to XLIII. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS. bringing
all up to the Parson's Tale.
57 and 59, Ludgate Hlllf London, E.G. 15
Chaucer Society's Publications — continued.
XLIV. A detailed Comparison of the Troylns and Cryseyde with Boccaccio's
I'ilostrato, with a Translation of all Passages used by Chaucer, and
an Abstract of the Parts not used, by W. Michael Hossetti, Esq.,
and with a print of the Troylus from the Harleian MS. 3943. Part I.
XLV., XLVI. Ryme-Index to the Ellesmere MS. of the Canterbury Tales,
by Henry Cromie, Esq., M.A. Both in Royal 4to. for the Six-Text,
and in 8vo. for the separate Ellesmere MS.
1875. Second Series.
10. Originals and Analogues of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Part II.
6. Alphonsus of Lincoln, a Story like the Prioress's Tale. 7. How Reynard
caught Chanticleer, the source of the Nun\s- Priest's Tale. 8. 'J'wo Italian
Stories, and a Latin one, like the Pardover's Tale. 9. 'I'he Tale of the Priest's
Bladder, a story like the Summoner' s Tale, being ' Li dis de le Vescie a Prestre,'
par Jakes de Basiw. 10. Petrarch's Latin Tale of Griseldis (with Boccaccio's
Story from which it was re-told), the original of the Clerk's Tale. 11. Five
Versions of a Pear-tree Story like that in the Merchant's Tale. 12. Four
Versions of The Life of Saint Cecilia, the original of the Second Nun's Tale.
11. Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to Shak-
spere and Chaucer. By Alexander J. Ellis, Esq., F.R.S. Part IV.
12. Life Kecords of Chaucer. Part I., The Robberies of Chaucer by
Richard Brerelay and others at Westminster, and at Hatcham, Surrey, on
Tuesday, Sept. 6, 1390, with some account of the Robbers, from the Enrol-
ments in the Public Record Office. By Walford D. Selby, Esq., of the
Public Record Office.
13. Thtnne's Animadyersioxs (1599) on Speght's Chaucer's Worhes,
re-edited from the unique MS., by Fredk. J. Furnivall, with fresh Lives of
"William and Francis Thynne, and the only known fragment of The Pilgrim's
Tale.
Childers. — A Pali-English Dictionaet, with Sanskrit Equivalents,
and with numerous Quotations, Extracts, and References. Compiled by Robert
CiESAR Childers, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. Imperial 8vo. Double
Columns. Complete in 1 Vol., pp. xxii. and 622, cloth. 1875. £3 3s.
The first Pali Dictionary ever published.
Childers. — A Pali Grammak foe Beginners. By Eobeet C. Childees.
In 1 vol. 8vo. cloth. \_In preparation.
Childers. — Notes on the Sinhalese Language. No. 1. On the
Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns. By R. C. Childers. Demy 8vo.
sd., pp. 16. 1873. Is.
China Review; oe, Notes and Qtjeeies on the Eae East. Pub-
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Chinese and Japanese Literature (A Catalogue of), and of Oriental
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Chintamon. — A Co:M:]a:ENTAET on the Text oe the BnAGAVAD-GfTA ;
or, the Discourse between Krishna and Arjuna of Divine Matters. A Sanscrit
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Chintamon, Political Agent to H. H. the Guicowar Mulhar Rao Maharajah
of Baroda. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. 118. 6s.
Christaller. — A Dictionaey, English, Tshi, (Asante), Akea ; Tshi
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Fante ; Akra (Accra), connected with Adangme ; Gold Coast, West Africa.
Enyiresi, Twi ne' Nkran j Ehlisi, Otsiii ke Ga
nsera - asckycre - hhotna. I wiemoi - asisitSomo- ■« olo.
By the Rev. J. G. Christaller, Rev. C. W. Lochek, Rev. J. Zimmermann.
16mo. Is. 6d.
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Christaller. — A Grammar of the Asante and Faxte Language, called
Tshi (Chwee, Twi) : based on the Akuapem Dialect, with reference to the
other (Akan and Fante) Dialects. By Rev. J. G. Christaller. 8vo. pp.
xxiv. and 203. 1875. I0s.6d.
Clarke. — Ten Great Religions : an Essay in Comparative Theology.
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Clarke. — Memoir on the Comparative Grammar of Egyptian, Coptic,
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Clarke. — Hesearches in Pre-historic and Proto-historic Compara-
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Origin of Culture in America and the Accad or Sumerian Families. By Hyde
Clarke. Demy 8vo. sewed, pp. xi. and 74. 1875. 2s. 6d.
Cleasby, — An Icelandic- English Dictionary. Based on the MS.
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Colebrooke. — The Life and Miscellaneous Essays of Henry Thomas
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Contopoulos. — A Lexicon of Modern Greek-English and English
Modern Greek. By N. Contopoulos.
Parti. Modern Greek-English. Svo. cloth, pp. 460. 12s.
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Conway. — The Sacred Anthology. A Book of Ethnical Scriptures.
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pp. xvi. and 480. 12s.
Cotton. — Arabic Priaier. Consisting of 180 Short Sentences contain-
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38- 2s. 6d.
Cowell and Eggeling. — Catalogue ofBfddhist Sanskrit Manitscripts
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Cowell. — A SHORT Introduction to the Ordinary Prakrit of the
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Cunningham. — The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist
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By Alexander Cunningham, Major-General, Eoyal Engineers (Bengal Re-
tired). With thirteen Maps. Svo. pp. xx. 590, cloth. 1870. 28s.
Cunningham. — The Bhilsa Topes; or, Buddhist Monuments of Central
India : comprising a brief Historical Sketch of the Rise, Progress, and Decline
of Buddhism ; with an Account of the Opening aud Examination of the various
Groups of Topes around Bhilsa. By Brev.- Major Alexander Cunningham,
Bengal Engineers. Illustrated with thirty- three Plates. Svo. pp. xxxvi. 370,
cloth. 1854. £2 2s.
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ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Afghan (or Pushto). Czechian(or Bohemian). Hebrew (current hand). Polish.
Amharic. Danish. Hebrew (Judaso-Ger- Pushto (or Afghan).
Anglo-Saxon. Demotic. Hungarian, [man). Eomaic(Modern Greek
Arabic. Estrangelo. Illyi'ian. Russian.
Arabic Ligatures. Ethiopic. Irish. Eimes.
Aramaic. Etruscan. Italian (Old). Samaritan.
Archaic Characters. Georgian. Japanese. Sanscrit.
Armenian. German. Javanese. Sei'vian.
AssTiian Cuneiform. Glagolitic. Lettish. Slavonic (Old).
Bengali. Gothic. Mantshu. Sorbian (or Wendish).
Bohemian (Czechian). Greek. Median Cuneiform. Swedish.
Biigis. Greek Ligatures. Modern Greek (Romaic) Syriac.
Burmese. Greek (Archaic). Mongolian. Tamil.
Canarese (or Carnataca). Gujerati(orGuzzeratte). Numidian. Telugu.
Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan.
Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish.
Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. Wallachian.
Cutic. Hebrew (Archaic). Persian Cuneiform. "Wendish (or Sorbian),
Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phoenician. Zend.
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Contents.— Preface— Ayodhya—Ravan Doomed— The Birth of Rama— The Heir apparent—
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Rama's Despair— The Messenger Cloud— Khumbakarna— The Suppliant Dove— True Glory-
Feed the Poor— The Wise Scholar.
Griffith. — The EImIyai^ of Valmiki. Translated into English verse.
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Grout. — The Isizultj : a Grammar of the Zulu Language ; accompanied
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